Research Methodologies in Music Education [1 ed.] 9781443862905, 9781443854160

Citation preview

Research Methodologies in Music Education

Research Methodologies in Music Education

Edited by

Kay Ann Hartwig

Research Methodologies in Music Education, Edited by Kay Ann Hartwig This book first published 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2014 by Kay Ann Hartwig and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5416-6, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5416-0

CONTENTS

Contributors ............................................................................................... vii Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 Music as Research, Research as Music Kay Hartwig Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 9 Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education Jane Southcott and David Sell Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 35 Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers Helen Klieve, Wendy Hargreaves and Ron Morris Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 63 Narrative Inquiry Peter de Vries Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 77 Action Research Kay Hartwig Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 97 Ethnography and Music Education Georgina Barton Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 117 Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning Errol Moore Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 145 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Dawn Joseph

vi

Contents

Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 167 Arts-based Methods in Music Education Beth Rankin Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 183 Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community Stuart Wise Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 199 The Journey Continues … Challenges for Music Education Research Kay Hartwig

CONTRIBUTORS

Dr Georgina Barton is a lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Studies at Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. For over twenty years Dr Barton has been a classroom teacher and literacy educator in schools. She has worked with teachers, particularly in socio-disadvantaged areas, in developing literacy programs to improve students’ outcomes. She is also an Arts teacher, researcher and practitioner having performed both nationally and internationally in various music ensembles. Her doctoral studies focussed on cross-cultural learning and teaching in music. She is currently researching in the area of Arts literacy and aesthetics education. Her other work focuses on multiliteracies, modalities, arts and music education, ethnomusicology, and teacher education. Email: [email protected] Dr Peter de Vries is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. Peter’s research revolves around learning and engagement in the arts, specifically in the field of music. He has a particular interest in using narrative methodologies in his research. Peter has published his research in journals such as The Journal of Research in Music education, Research Studies in Music education, Music education Research, The International Journal of Music education, Early Childhood Education Journal, and the International Journal of Education and the Arts. Email: [email protected] Wendy Hargreaves is a music educator, singer, composer and researcher residing in Brisbane, Australia. She began her career as a contemporary vocalist, touring full-time for two years in a rock band. She then obtained a degree in jazz and popular music at Queensland University of Technology, and later a Graduate Diploma of Education. After teaching classroom music, Wendy returned to study to pursue a Master of Music. She is currently entering the final stages of her PhD candidature at the Queensland Conservatorium, Griffith University where she has been investigating how improvising jazz vocalists differ significantly from instrumentalists. Wendy’s research has been published in the British

viii

Contributors

Journal of Music education and the International Journal of Music education - Practice. She has contributed chapters to two books on singing teaching and presented papers at the Performance Studies Network International Conference at Cambridge University, the International Conference for Research in Music education and at the International Congress of Voice Teachers. Once her PhD is completed, Wendy hopes to continue working in music research. Email: [email protected] Dr Kay Hartwig is the Director of Internationalisation and Senior Lecturer in music and music education in the School of Education and Professional Studies at Griffith University. She has taught music from preschool through to tertiary levels in various settings. At the university Kay teaches both undergraduate and graduate level programs and supervises a number of doctoral students. As the Director of internationalisation Kay works closely with international students in education and is involved in collaboration and partnerships with universities globally. She is the current national President of the Australian Society for Music education and has been the Australian and New Zealand Association for research in Music education secretary for many years. She has been the conference convenor for a number of national and international conferences. Kay’s research interests include investigating quality music education programs at all levels – school and university; sustainable vocal health for music teachers; and researching the experiences of international students during their study especially during the practicum placement. She is a member of the editorial boards of international and national refereed journals. Email: [email protected] Dr Dawn Joseph is a senior lecturer in music and education studies in the Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University (Melbourne, Australia). Since joining Deakin University in 2001, Dawn has introduced African music to both primary and secondary music units as an aspect of multicultural music, a research area that has developed into multicultural music practice in teacher education. She has made considerable contribution in the areas of African music, multicultural music education, music teacher education and ageing and well-being in the arts. Dawn is on the editorial boards of national and international journals in the areas of teacher education, music education, African music, higher education research and multicultural education. She also serves as an external examiner for masters and doctoral students both locally and internationally. As a socioculturalist researcher she employs surveys, interviews, narrative inquiry

Research Methodologies in Music Education

ix

and reflective practice in her projects. In qualitative research she particularly uses interpretative phenomenological analyses. Dawn is currently on the National Council of the Australian Society for Music education and is Deputy chair of the Victorian Chapter. Email: [email protected] Dr Helen Klieve currently lectures in research methodology in the School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, teaching within the Masters and Doctoral programs. She has a multidisciplinary research background, including an Honours degree in zoology (UNSW), a Masters in quantitative economics (UNE) and a Doctorate in quantitative genetics (UNE), as well as an Education background through a Dip. Ed and BEd (UNE). She also has extensive experience in government policy through past roles as a policy analyst in strategic policy within the Queensland Government, with this adding a very practical perspective to the broad use of research, linking to her interest in the role of research findings in the decision making process. Her research applies mixed methods approaches using her extensive experience in the use of quantitative and qualitative research methods, with a particular interest in survey design and analysis, with recent work also including techniques for the analysis of open response data from surveys. Her current research focuses on research applications addressing issues of disadvantage and social inclusion, with a particular interest in the development and use of applications that contribute to the capacity to contribute to effective information for decision making. Email: [email protected] Dr Errol Moore is a senior lecturer at the University of Otago, College of Education with responsibility for music education. His teaching interests are music curriculum, studio music teaching, conducting and brass performance, as well as professional practice supervision for primary and secondary school students. Previous to university teaching, he was a teacher in primary and secondary schools in New Zealand for 9 years, and a regional adviser for music to schools until 1989. He is the current chair of Music education New Zealand Aotearoa and a community music educator and conductor. He is a specialist euphoniumist, and is a resident and guest conductor in several community ensembles in Dunedin. Errol’s research interests include gifted and talented education in music (the subject of post graduate study), community music, music education pathways and music leadership. He is the co-author of the cross-curricula resources China Stopover: Beijing and Malaysian Stopover. Current

x

Contributors

research investigations include instrumental learning pathways for primary age children, and collaboration of specialist and generalist teachers in schools. Email: [email protected] Dr Ron Morris, speech therapist, audiologist and counter tenor, initially graduated from the University of Queensland in 1985 with an honours degree in speech therapy and audiology. It was during that time that he commenced singing studies at the Queensland Conservatorium of Music and singing with St Stephen’s Cathedral Choir. Ron also sang in Quattro Voci, a vocal quartet based at the cathedral and in the Opera Queensland Chorus. He completed a Master of Music Studies (Vocal Performance) in 2001 at Queensland Conservatorium Griffith University studying with Margaret Schindler. As part of that degree Ron undertook singing lessons with Janice Chapman and studied Accent Method Breathing with Dinah Harris in London. Ron completed his PhD at the Queensland Conservatorium Griffith University, focussing on breathing for singing. He currently sings at St John’s Cathedral and continues to perform regularly both as a soloist and as a member of Opera Queensland’s Chorus. Ron has continued to work as a speech therapist and audiologist with an interest in voice disorders and in working with the deaf. Ron is also in demand as a presenter with lectures and workshops on vocal anatomy and physiology, respiration and most commonly articulation and tongue function. Email: [email protected] Beth Rankin, has a background in nursing, creative arts education and public health. She has taught at all levels from early childhood settings to higher education. Beth has extensive experience of music pedagogy in Orff Schulwerk, Kodaly, Dalcroze and Music Learning Theory and in Laban Movement Analysis. Beth has been awarded grants to work with disadvantaged, disengaged and refugee middle years youth using digital photography programs, and inclusive musical theatre programs, as a way of providing opportunities for participation or re-engagement with learning. Beth’s research interests are in the arts and health and the arts as social justice. Her masters research looked at the impact of music and movement on the health of new parents and their babies. She produced a CD of music, A New Song to Sing, which is a compilation of songs and dances designed to support family bonding and participation. Her doctoral thesis is an observational study of an arts and health art installation. Other research includes a study of university students with a diagnosed learning

Research Methodologies in Music Education

xi

disability and the impact of the disability on their learning and on their families. Email: [email protected] David Sell is Adjunct Associate Professor of Music at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, where he was for some years Head of the School of Music and Dean of the Faculty of Music and Fine Arts. He is Director of the National Centre for Research in Music Education, a life-member of Music Education New Zealand Aotearoa, having served on its board for eighteen years, and of Music Education Canterbury, which he founded in 1972. Currently he is Deputy Chairman of ANZARME, Chairman of Arts Canterbury Inc, and Vice-President of the Christchurch Community Arts Council. David has presented papers at seven ISME conferences and seminars, as well as at many in New Zealand and Australia. For twelve years prior to joining the teaching staff of the University of Canterbury he taught in secondary schools in Wellington, and was for two years Advisor on School Music in the Canterbury region. He has written or edited thirty-six books, most in the field of music education, and is a music reviewer for the Christchurch Press. Email: [email protected] Associate Professor Jane Southcott studied music and education at the University of Adelaide, Australia. After teaching and lecturing for some time she completed a Master of Arts (Music education) at the Institute of Education, London University. Her thesis was an historical overview of the inclusion of creative practices in music education from Rousseau to Satis Coleman. Returning to Australia Jane lectured and continued her historical research with a particular interest in biographical and music pedagogical history in England, Australia and the USA. She completed a doctorate on the history of music in state schooling in South Australia to 1920. Jane is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education, Monash University. She teaches at postgraduate level in music education and research methods. Jane supervises a large group of doctoral students whose research foci are varied and who primarily employ historical or phenomenological paradigms. Jane has completed a definitive biography of Sarah Anna Glover (1786-1867) who invented the Norwich Sol-fa. Jane has been a long-term member of the international executive of the Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music education, holding different positions and organizing national conferences. She is a member of the editorial boards of international and national refereed journals. Email: [email protected]

xii

Contributors

Dr Stuart Wise was born in Hamilton, NZ. He studied music at the University of Otago and pursued a teaching career in secondary schools in Auckland, Nelson, the UK and Christchurch, before joining the Christchurch College of Education (now the College of Education at the University of Canterbury) in 1997. Stuart was appointed as Head of Centre for the National Academy of Singing and Dramatic Art (NASDA) in 2000 before returning to teacher education in 2003 where he currently teaches both primary and secondary music education courses. At present he is programme coordinator for the GradDipTchLn (Secondary). He has recently completed his PhD examining the use of digital technology in music education in secondary schools. Email: [email protected]

CHAPTER ONE MUSIC AS RESEARCH, RESEARCH AS MUSIC DR KAY HARTWIG GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

Introduction This book project is an initiative of the Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music Education (ANZARME). This association is the peak body for music research across the two countries. The book will assist all those who are undertaking research in music education and especially future researchers in music education, such as postgraduate research students. The intention is to primarily assist researchers to understand the many available research methods and provide clarity in choosing the most appropriate method for their particular research.

ANZARME The Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music Education was established at the Annual General Meeting in 2007 of its precursor, the Australian Association for Research in Music Education (AARME). In turn, AARME was established at the Annual General Meeting, held in Newcastle in August 1995, from the former Association of Music Education Lecturers (AMEL). The Association of Music education Lecturers was established in 1977. The objectives of ANZARME are to: x promote communication between music education researchers and music educators; x contribute to the further development of music education research and music education;

Chapter One

2

x x x x

encourage community support for music education research and music education; bring to public attention issues vital to music education research and music education; organise an annual conference; issue an annual publication of articles drawn principally from papers presented at the annual ANZARME conference.

ANZARME promotes and supports all styles of research in all avenues of music education. The association strives to maintain collegial networks between researchers in music education to contribute to research in this field in Australia and New Zealand. An annual conference is held to provide a forum for music research whether this research is at proposal stage, work in progress, or completed. The association supports and encourages new researchers by providing student travel scholarships to attend the annual conference and financial awards for the best student presentation at the annual conference. Conferences have been held in Australia, New Zealand and Norfolk Island. A detailed thematic index of the papers published in past conference proceedings is available on the ANZAME website. Past proceedings are also available via Informit.

Summary of Chapters Chapter 2: Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education by Jane Southcott and David Sell Historical research can offer a wide philosophical and practical perspective to any topic in music education. This form of inquiry underpins all research into music education as no subject is ever considered in isolation but is positioned in the context of previous studies. An ongoing dialogue is offered by historical research between historian and subject, as well as between the interpretations of generations of historians. Exploration on an historical basis is a highly disciplined form of inquiry that examines the widest definitions of memory and attempts to generate an understanding of the past that is as accurate as possible. Historical research is undertaken for manifold reasons including satisfying an interest, providing a record of the past, and offering understandings of past and present practice. It is a form of critical thinking in which the researcher interrogates data, its creation and survival and interprets past practices within their contemporary context. Good historical researchers

Music as Research, Research as Music

3

avoid potential dangers of bias and construct and disseminate balanced, informed accounts of past principles, people and practices. There are many genres and trends within historical inquiry but virtually all Australian and New Zealand research in this field to date has used a narrative approach that organises material in a chronologically sequential or thematic order to generate a coherent story or stories. Successful data collection requires great determination, unlimited persistence and often-unexpected inventiveness. Data sources are varied and can be illusive for example, oral history interviews that offer a picture of the past in the words of the protagonists. Although potentially biased, such testimony is valuable, increasingly so with passing generations. As in all qualitative research, there are rigorous criteria for evaluating the work of historians that rely on both trustworthiness and authenticity. The latter demands fairness, balance, openness and respectful negotiation. Recently there has been a resurgence in biographical research in education, particularly in Australia and New Zealand. There are also significant discussions of curricula, music methodologies, institutions, classroom practices, and the development of policy. Chapter 3: Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers by Helen Klieve, Wendy Hargreaves and Ron Morris This chapter presents a rationale for researchers to consider in making a choice of whether to use quantitative techniques in their research in the area of music. The use of such approaches opens many options that may not have been considered, such as examining previously unexplored research questions in established areas of investigation, of communicating with previously uninvolved audiences or of gaining insights into unchartered territories in music research. These approaches have the potential to widen the profile of music as a discipline, demonstrating its known and also often unknown contributions to society. The chapter models a quantitative research analysis through a review of literature that applies quantitative and mixed methods approaches in music research. As well as presenting simple data presentation strategies, this demonstrates the diversity of applications and also associated complexity of such research, with techniques considered under low, moderate and high levels of quantitative application. This review includes papers that have a music focus as well as those where music is an application of a research study – these including studies focusing on areas ranging from autism to oncology and economic education strategies. Recognizing the concerns of potential music researchers in moving into the use of quantitative analysis the chapter then unpacks the “Big Three T’s,” (terminology, techniques and

4

Chapter One

tools). These strategies can support a new user of quantitative techniques and observe how recent work by the authors has engaged with each. It concludes with a reflection on the motivations of researchers and encourages readers to genuinely consider quantitative methodology as a viable option in music research. Chapter 4: Narrative Inquiry by Peter de Vries The chapter provides an overview of narrative inquiry, an increasingly popular approach to qualitative music education research. Stemming from the premise that people make sense of experience through telling stories, narrative inquiry allows the researcher to present holistic pictures of people’s lived experiences through story. De Vries stresses that the relationship between the researcher and the research participant in coconstructing stories as research is particularly important. Following on from an overview of narrative inquiry, he then outlines the popularity of this mode of inquiry in music education research. An example is offered from his own research using narrative inquiry, beginning with a personal story about how he came to narrative inquiry following a prior research experience where he felt his analysed data was missing the kind of depth that narrative inquiry could provide. Melinda’s story, a narrative of a “de facto” school music teacher is then examined, which focuses on Melinda’s self-efficacy in teaching music. The narrative in this story provides a portrait of one teacher’s experience teaching a school choir, and the obstacles she encountered that she ultimately overcame. The interview data with Melinda has been re-storied using the five elements of plot structure as identified by Ollerenshaw & Creswell (2002), namely the elements of character, setting, problems faced, actions taken to address these problems, and resolution. De Vries follows Melinda’s narrative with a discussion of how these five elements of plot were used to re-story the interview data. The narrative gives voice to an individual, situated story that may have resonance to other music educators and school administrators. Chapter 5: Action Research by Kay Hartwig Action Research is explored and discussed in this chapter. Although there are many models of action research, the two models presented in detail are based on Zuber-Skerritt’s work. These models are: (a) the action research spiral (Zuber-Skerritt, 1995); and (b) the critical, reflective, accountable, self-evaluation, participatory (CRASP) model (Zuber-Skerritt, 1992). These define action research and the ways in which it can be implemented through rigorous research. The CRASP model is discussed and related to

Music as Research, Research as Music

5

music education. Examples are given of where the action research methodology has been used in music education. Action research is a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. Planning includes problem analysis and strategic planning. Acting means implementing the strategic plan. Observing includes monitoring and evaluating the action and its impact on the participants and the stakeholders. Reflecting on the evaluation means drawing practical and theoretical conclusions and planning the next cycle. The example used by Hartwig (2009) for a music education project is given as a detailed example of action research and the major project cycles implemented in the study. The action research model has been used in many areas of business, industry and education however it is well suited to the classroom. It enables teachers to work directly in their classrooms with other teachers and the students – in the natural setting. Collaboration defines action research and the kind of involvement required of all parties in the research is collaborative involvement. Chapter 6: Ethnography and Music Education by Georgina Barton This chapter on ethnography explores two distinct ethnographic approaches to researching music education. The first is from an ethnomusicological perspective and investigates a participant-observation approach to researching music teaching and learning contexts. It shows distinctly, how the ways in which teachers teach music is very much influenced by the cultural context in which it is taught. The author discusses her own comparative study of South Indian and Queensland instrumental music teachers (Barton, 2004) and how in this study she found that while there were a number of differences between these two cultural contexts there were also a number of similarities. It was evident that culture influenced the teacher, the chosen methods and modes of teaching, as well as the context in which the music is taught. The second approach explored is from an ethnomethodological framework and draws on Conversation Analysis (CA). Barton provides two examples of research that utilises this approach. Firstly, Freebody, Chan, and Barton (2013) showed how ethnomethodologists highlight how people interact in order to make sense of the teaching and learning at hand. Secondly, the study by Roulston (2000) of itinerant music teachers is examined to show how a teacher’s particular biases can impact on the ways in which they teach. Each approach can reveal important information on how music education practices can be transformed.

6

Chapter One

Chapter 7: Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning by Errol Moore Case study research is surprisingly common in overt or disguised forms. While it is not held in high regard by some researchers because of issues around generalisation and its integrity as an identifiable method, case study research fulfils an important role by default. It has particular application possibilities in music education because of the many situations that exist, and this would allow multiple forms of data gathering (qualitative/quantitative), and can be identified by researchers to be a centre of interest, a unique situation, or a collection of cases. The chapter explores the flexibility of the method, potential advantages of its typically rich data gathering, to answer how and why questions, and its crossparadigm potential. In proposing greater acceptance of case study research as a methodology, the chapter highlights the importance of researcher attributes alongside more predictable credibility/validity measures, integrity of data trails and analysis toward theorisation, and explores the potential of generalisation through theoretical inference and implications, and reporting that allows readers to induce and apply theory to other cases. A tenet questioned in the chapter is the practice of little or no intervention in a case by the researcher, and a proposal is made about music in particular, that there be more honest awareness of change invoked in cases by the occurrence of almost any research process. How might the researcher and research contribute back to a case, even through forms of intervention, yet remain distinct from the realm of experiment? Chapter 8: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis by Dawn Joseph Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) has developed internationally into a growing qualitative approach to research in the areas of psychology, health sciences, social sciences, education and also specifically in music education. This chapter focuses on IPA as an experiential approach to research which explores the lived experience of the individual’s perception and how individuals make sense of it in their given context. As with other forms of phenomenological research, IPA takes account of the researcher’s own context and perceptions through a process of interpretation, while analysing the phenomena under study. IPA offers a framework to undertake research based on the traditions of phenomenology, which uncover meanings and hermeneutics which interpret the meaning; it is idiographic in nature when undertaking data analysis. This chapter provides a narrative on IPA as an appropriate methodology that can be used when undertaking research in education and in particular music education. As a tertiary researcher of music education I have employed

Music as Research, Research as Music

7

IPA in my research. This chapter attempts to address broad questions in relation to: What is IPA? Where does it come from? How is it used? How does one analyse interview data and construct themes? A brief discussion of the strengths and limitations of the method is posed, giving examples where IPA has been successfully employed in music research. By balancing the tensions between phenomenology, hermeneutics and idiographic approaches, IPA situates music and music education research within the realm of qualitative experiential research. Joseph argues that if more music educators apply IPA to their research, we can look forward to the emergence of new insights from research in music and music education that is rigorous and offers both convergent and divergent analysis, beyond description, using interpretation to explain insights. Chapter 9: Arts-based Methods in Music Education by Beth Rankin Arts-based research is almost impossible to define. It occurs like an improvised piece of music requiring an idea, willing musician(s) (self or research participants), and an agreed key and style, but beyond that there can be many surprises and unexpected delights as the research unfolds. Music education research, like all the genres and styles of music, is diverse. There are many ways of knowing and doing research that is reliable and valid and makes a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge. Arts-based research is another way of approaching research. It is suited to those who may not have a particular research question in mind, but would rather like to explore their teaching or music practice to see what emerges, either for themselves as teachers and/or learners, or for the children they teach. This chapter on arts-based methods for music education research is written especially for those teachers who are looking for another way of knowing and understanding what is happening in music education and practice. It is not intended to replace or summarise what has already been written about arts-based research, but rather explain how arts-based research can be used as a stand-alone methodology or as a complementary method to other research methods. This chapter provides some guidance to the strengths of arts-based research through more personal and subjective methods, while addressing the concerns of research for work that has integrity and rigour. Chapter 10: Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community by Stuart Wise Mixed methods has been defined (Tashakkori & Teddlie 2003) as a type of research design in which quantitative and qualitative approaches are used in types of questions, research methods, data collection and analysis

8

Chapter One

procedures, and/or inferences. Another definition (Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007) stated that mixed methods research is where the investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the findings and draws inferences using both quantitative and qualitative approaches or methods within a single study or program of inquiry. The mixed methods research tradition is less well known than the quantitative and qualitative traditions because it has only emerged as a separate orientation in the last 20 years. Researchers employing mixed methods present an alternative to the quantitative and qualitative traditions by advocating the use of whatever methodological tools are required to answer the research questions under study. Many writers discussing research approaches believe that mixed methods research is here to stay and that it should be widely recognised in education and related disciplines in the social and behavioural sciences as the third research paradigm. This chapter explores mixed approaches to research questions, briefly discusses strengths and weaknesses of all research approaches and recommends researchers adopt contingency theory for research approach selection, which accepts that quantitative, qualitative and mixed research are all superior under different circumstances and it is up to the researcher to examine the specific contingencies and make decisions about which research approach, or combination of research approaches should be used in a specific study. Chapter 11: The Journey Continues ... Challenges for Music Education Research by Kay Hartwig This presents a conclusion to the book. The journey continues for all researchers in music education as we strive for a valued and recognised place for our music in education.

Conclusion The following chapters provide in-depth discussion of a range of research methodologies, including underpinnings, philosophical stance, and strengths. The aim is to assist with informing future research in music education. This book is a valuable aid to music researchers who are striving to understand research methods, or trying to determine the most appropriate method for their particular research.

References ANZARME Website: Informit Website:

http://www.anzarme.org/ http://www.informit.com.au/

CHAPTER TWO INTRODUCTION TO HISTORICAL RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION JANE SOUTHCOTT MONASH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

AND DAVID SELL UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY, NEW ZEALAND

Historical Research: Definitions and Purposes Historical research underpins all other research into music education as even the most contemporary facts have already occurred by the time we study them; that a “description of ‘the present’ is actually a description of the past – last year or last week, it is all the same, a backward glance” (Barzun & Graff, 1985, p. 5). It is worth noting that almost any account of music education or related aspects of it will contain, in the content of the book itself or in a preface or introduction, some historical background to put it into perspective for current readers. This may be in the form of quotations from ‘authorities,’ related experiences of others, or reminiscences on the part of the author. References are historical in that they support or elucidate, by drawing on past writings, a point that the researcher is currently making. Each reference is therefore subject to scrutiny of its relevance and academic integrity. Historical research is a continuing dialogue, an endless exploration between generations of historians, between different interpretations of the significance of historical events, and between established opinions and challenges arising from new discoveries about the past (Carr, 2001). Cox (2002) defined history as “a science that discovers; it is an art that creates; historical narratives are constructions governed by the same rules and constraints as literature” (p. 73). History is created by the encounter of an historian and data (Petersen, 1992). Petersen suggested that research

10

Chapter Two

involves locating new information and forming from them an account that can illuminate the past. His meticulous attention to detail is commendable but this view engenders an image of researcher as external to the historical process. He urged the novice researcher to glean information from, for example, the lavishness of a publication, such as a magazine produced by a school. The idea that continuity and interaction, in the theme of history ebbing and flowing between the past and present, may give an impression of history being an unruly, wayward research subject. Recognition of the errant potential of historical research negates its waywardness and instead contributes to its richness and complexity. Tosh and Lang (2006) identified historical research as a disciplined inquiry that seeks to sustain the widest possible definitions of memory and make recall as accurate as possible to ensure “that our knowledge of the past is not confined to what is immediately relevant. The goal is a resource with open-ended application, instead of a set of mirror images of the present” (p. 2). Seminal and much reprinted historian E. H. Carr (2001) considered historical research to be a continuous process of interaction between historians and their data. Historians seek to interpret the surviving evidence of the past and create a narrative account that encompasses context. There will never be a definitive historical work on any subject as it is impossible to know the totality of even the recent past, and the further back we go the more difficult it becomes to locate relevant material. Another respected writer on history Marwick (1970) argued that each age must interpret its own past. There is no ultimate history and there is no time machine. Historical inquiry can offer a wider philosophical and practical perspective for any topic. It is important however, to understand the complex meanings of even the word history. History is about the past but it is not the past itself. History is far more than individual or collective memory. Historical research explores the knowable past and good historical writing can conjure past events and their contexts. It is not possible to recreate the past and it should be recognised that there is not one finite version of what happened and why, but many. Rodwell (1992) described the historian as “a person completing a complicated jigsaw puzzle with many of the parts missing. On the basis of what is often incomplete evidence, the historian must fill in the gaps by inferring what has happened and why it has happened” (p. 61). More recently Donnelly and Norton (2011) warned against the metaphor of a jigsaw puzzle as this implies that there is a single correct image of the past that is being re-constructed.

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

11

The purposes of historical research are manifold and historians offer different arguments for different purposes. Early historiographers Heller and Wilson (1992) identified four meanings for history per se: the past, the written account of the past, living memory of the past, and the discipline of history (historiography). Historical research may satisfy interest, provide a record of the past, offer understandings of present practice, and narrate deeds worthy of emulation (Heller & Wilson, 1992). This last is now contested but it is generally agreed that historical research can inform present practice. Cox (2002) explained how the reclamation of historical perspectives could inform our understandings of school curricula and the position of subjects within them. History can provide models for practical application. How many teachers have discovered Kodály, Curwen, Rousseau, Suzuki, Dalcroze and even Plato and recognized that there may be something that can be emulated in their practices? Accounts of great music educators tend to be more idealistic than their practices. It has been said, for example that Rousseau, a great musician, philosopher and educationist, was not a good practical teacher (Rainbow, 1967) although this has been refuted (Simpson, 1976). This indicates that one value of historical inquiry is in providing the means to recognize both virtues and deficiencies in the past; in people, systems and methods. Descriptions of the successes of the Suzuki approach to music education seldomly point out inadequacies of this approach when different teachers put it into practice in a different context. It is the work of historians to chronicle, interpret and provide balance to unquestioning applications of past practices. It is only partly right to suggest that we do not learn from the past. Instead, we sift from the ideas and practices of others those that are most appropriate to our own work. In order to do this, we must know what these ideas and practices are. It is to study this and convey it in a presentday context that is one of the tasks of the historian of music education. Historical research serves varied purposes. As suggested, it can inform present practice and alert current practitioners of pitfalls and barriers encountered in previous applications of ideas and approaches. History can be regarded as a safeguard that allows us to avoid what is cited as the condemnation to repeat “the most damaging excesses and wrong turnings” of the past (Donnelly & Norton, 2011, p. 4). History can offer perspectives on present practices but as each context is different the ability of historical inquiry to protect us from repeating past mistakes is perhaps overly optimistic. Historical research is a form of critical thinking in which the researcher questions data, its creation and survival, and interprets past practices within their contemporary context. Historical research can also

12

Chapter Two

support current political and ideological interests (Donnelly & Norton, 2011) that carries with it the potential for bias and selective reporting. Good historical researchers avoid these potential dangers and construct and disseminate balanced, informed accounts of past principles and practices. Whether a research study is historical or includes an historical perspective virtually all research includes an element of historical research. For example a recent study by Watson (2013) concerning professional teaching standards included a substantial amount of historical background to contextualise her subject; a subject that is in constant flux. Cox (2002) pointed out that historical context may be little more than a casual reference in an introduction but that it is almost always there. Having acknowledged the pervasive nature of historical research in most research, the remainder of this discussion will focus on research that is solely historical. In Australia and New Zealand there have to date only been two published articles that discuss the nature and processes of historical inquiry in music education in Australia: the first was by Robin Stevens (1981) and the second was by Jane Southcott (1997a). The aim of this discussion is to extend these earlier discussions. It should also be noted that this discussion does not purport to be comprehensive but refers to a large amount of published articles and chapters and unpublished research projects and theses in Australia and New Zealand. There are many trends in and genres of historical inquiry (Stone, 1987; Donnelly & Norton, 2011) but virtually all Australian and New Zealand research in the field has employed a narrative approach that organises material in a chronologically sequential or thematic order to generate a coherent story “albeit with subplots” (Stone, 1987, p. 79). This should not imply that there is a single, determinate past as historical research should be “open, heterogeneous, aware of its own contingencies and self-reflexive about the conventions that govern its construction” (Donnelly & Norton, 2011, p. 6). Healey (2002) described the process of historical research evocatively: The reader must be warned that we will make several detours and deviations along the way, for we have tangled stories to weave, intriguing digressions to pursue, idiosyncratic personages to call upon and obscure volumes to sift. But this is what history is, the dirt roads and singing byways often having more to interest us than the straight, black highway. (p. 8)

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

13

Initially, local historical overviews presented surviving data but offered little contextualisation or interpretation, for example, the celebratory South Australian histories of the Public Schools Music Society (Eckermann & Eckermann, 1991) and a stretched attempt to chronicle 150 years of state music education (Fox, 1988). Since then narrative historians have sought to explain and interpret the traces of the past that survive, although historians must be aware that there may be bias in surviving data. Tosh (2010) points out that primary sources themselves may be “inaccurate, muddled, based on hearsay or intended to mislead” (p. 92). More recently, historians have been influenced by feminisms that seek to recognise unheard voices. For example, although women have always been present in music education in the nineteenth century they were often relegated to the private sector and did not receive adequate recognition in the public record (Howe, 1998). The intentional act of selecting a topic for research is the first step in shaping understanding. Curiosity is indeed a valid purpose in itself and may initially lead the researcher to a topic, in a manner not unlike the way dreaming leads to inspiration, innovation and motivation. While the researcher seeks answers to questions such as “how did … ?,” “why did … ?” and “what if … ?,” it is important to select material not solely on the basis of being quizzical or curious (Stone, 1987). As Gould (1990) suggested, historical research is “vacuous unless rooted in some interesting particular” (p. 17). The researcher should make no assumptions and question everything (Heller & Wilson, 1992). Once a research question and possibly subsidiary questions are decided, then data must be collected.

Collecting Data In historical research successful data collection requires determination, persistence and inventiveness. Assiduous searching and meticulous attention to detail may at times be rewarded by the discovery of new materials; at other times promising endeavours may lead nowhere. Although historians use secondary sources of data to contextualise their work it is primary data that is essential. Primary data is the raw material of historians and it is through engaging with such data that historians construct meaning. Peterson (1992) stated that history is “created out of the encounter of a historian with a document” (p. 61) or primary source which may include a diary, a governmental report, a song, a map, a letter, a photograph, an artefact, an oral history interview – anything that has “been preserved from the past, or that is created to document a past

14

Chapter Two

phenomenon by someone who witnessed or participated in it” (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 1999, p. 396). To be deemed reliable and scholarly a historical work must be firmly based on primary sources (Marwick, 1970). Historians need to be alert to the possibility of bias in all forms of historical source material. Even the survival of evidence needs to be questioned. Historians need to ask why certain materials have been preserved when others appear to be lost. This is true for both published and unpublished texts. For example, have school inspectors published reports that highlight only the positive? Have well-meaning relatives culled letters and papers to present their ancestor in a better light? For historians the most important primary sources are often those that were not intended for posterity (Tosh & Lang, 2006). For example, detailed lesson plans written by Patricia L. Holmes, a demonstration music educator in South Australia in the 1950s offer a remarkable snapshot of the primary school music classes but were never intended for posterity (Southcott, 2004a). Documents may be written that reflect an author’s particular philosophical, social, political or economic point of view. It is the work of historians to recognise intentional or unintentional bias or misrepresentation and to be aware of issues such as validity, reliability and authenticity of primary sources. It is also within the purview of historians to seek out the commonplace and the unheard voice. Too often, everyday practices are not recorded or preserved because the assumption is that they are generally understood. For those historians that later come to the data this can be an ongoing source of frustration and may lead to misinterpretation. Historians often find primary data of both published and unpublished form in multiple and unlikely places. Published documents encompass a wide range of materials including governmental reports, policies and curricula, syllabi, text books, school histories compiled to celebrate centenaries, programs, and song books. Each has been produced for some particular purpose and reflects the time and place of creation. For example, song books created for school children reflect what those in authority wanted children to learn, while school centenaries and school magazines are unfailingly positive and celebratory. Unpublished documents include personal papers, correspondence, carefully compiled family scrapbooks, school exercise books, and diaries. Published and unpublished music works are primary data for music education historians. For example, in South Australia during the 1930s musically able primary school teachers were given a bound collection of songs to use in their future teaching. Known colloquially as the “blue book” or the “black book” (depending on

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

15

the colour of the cover) this collection reflected cultural and social values of that time. Published sources such as newspapers and journals are also a vital resource for researchers. Trawling through them can be tiresome but they often provide information, background, and illustrations for research (Cox, 1996; Petersen, 1992). Photographs, video recordings and images of all types are important sources of data for historians. As in all primary data sources, photographs can offer rich detail but may also contain bias. Gasparini and Vick (2006) advocated strongly for the use of photographic data in historical research, noting that there is little discussion on how images should be analysed. Despite this, photographs can offer evidence of past events and practices not elsewhere described. For example, photographs of school ensembles are often published in journals, magazines, newspapers and school histories. These images often provide far more information than that available in the written text and indicate how the commonplace can easily be overlooked. For example, many Australian and New Zealand schools had small drum and fife bands throughout the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. For many years these ensembles accompanied school assemblies and physical drill, and sometimes filled the roll of a municipal band. There was however barely a mention of the drum and fife bands in school curricula, with photographs instead offering the richest data about their practices. Although an imported tradition, drum and fife bands were adapted to suit Australian practices; for example, the original wooden Bb fifes being replaced by metallic instruments that could survive the harsher climate (Southcott, 2005a). Relics are another significant source of primary historical data. Relics are anything that is not a document. Relics may reveal much and may validate other data. Relics include plaques, medallions, foundation stones, and gravestones, as well as musical instruments, batons, wall-charts, musical games, teaching devices, toys and materials. For example, the instruments and musical equipment employed in school music has changed over the years. The introduction of the portable phonograph allowed children to listen to music that was beyond the ability of their teacher to play. The later presence of a radio in the classroom made it possible for children to listen to school music broadcasts. Now, school music programs use the internet and iPods. In the first half of the 20th century young children formed percussion bands with drums, triangles and cymbals (Southcott, 1992, 1993). From the 1960s tuned percussion instruments began to appear with the introduction of Orff Schulwerk (Southcott & Cosaitis,

16

Chapter Two

2012; Webster, 1993). As with all primary data, the object does not speak for itself (Petersen, 1992) but relies on the historian for contextualisation and interpretation.

Oral History Interviews provide an additional source of primary data for historians researching comparatively recent topics, events and practices. Oral history offers a picture of the past in people’s own words (Robertson, 1985) and has become “increasingly important for educational historians” (Rodwell, 1992, p. 96). For example, McCarthy (2003) cited the benefits of recording teachers’ accounts of classroom practices, as these may not have been described in curriculum documents. Oral history testimony is not intended as a replacement for documents but offers another way of acquiring information that encourages the dialogue between researcher and data. The use of interviews offers participants the opportunity to chronicle past events, communicate a perspective and sometimes simply explain past practices (Perks & Thomson, 1998). Historians now commonly use oral testimony and initial scepticism about its perceived benefits has largely dissipated. However, it remains essential to evaluate oral testimony in terms of intentional or unintentional bias, to remember that human memory can be unreliable (Spaull, 1998) and that researchers should be careful about accepting interviewees’ stories, opinions and interpretations of the past unquestioningly (Robertson, 1985). Given these concerns, oral history interviews do offer historians new insights and perspectives otherwise unobtainable. Interviewing participants also gives voice to those who would otherwise remain unrepresented in historical accounts. For example, the voices of private studio music teachers and those of children and students who are the recipients of music education are rarely heard.

Trustworthiness of Data Once collected, data needs to be evaluated for authenticity and bias. Pertinent to historical inquiry, Lincoln and Guba (1986) argued that in qualitative research, rigorous criteria for researchers depend on both trustworthiness and authenticity. The former relies on appropriate research techniques involving thick description. The latter demands fairness, balance, openness and respectful negotiation. In historical terms this can be understood in the dialogue between historian and data. This also speaks to the questioning that is inherent in the task of a historian who must not only read between the lines but note significant minutiae and absences.

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

17

Vick (1998) noted that as historians we understand “the residues of the past … and appreciate their fragmentary and partial (in both senses) character” (p. 1). He also pointed out the challenges of linguistic change. Over time the meanings of a word may alter and common usage may no longer have the same inferences. There is also the possibility of error – a mistyped word can change and even reverse intended meaning (Wiersma, 1995). The historian must acknowledge his or her own presence in this process of location, collection and selection of data for inclusion in construction of an historical narrative. As researchers we have motivations for pursuing particular research questions and these can influence how we undertake historical research. There is delight in pursuing data, in locating previously unknown information and making connections that create a fuller understanding of the topic being researched. Historical research can be serendipitous and reflect creative and tireless searching but it is important to remain cognisant of the risk of personal bias in our pursuits (Cox, 1996). To arrive at an acceptable interpretation, it is essential that historians weigh evidence judiciously with an understanding of the context that surrounds the research. The passage of time can allow events to be observed from different vantage points not available to contemporary writers yet time can also obscure what happened, either by intention or by accidents of survival of documents and artefacts. Ultimately interpretation of data can become a question of taking a well-informed guess.

Presentation of Historical Research The selection and organisation of data is the most basic evidence of the presence of the researcher. As data are collected, themes emerge, some unexpected and some surprising. The construction of themes is also dependent on the researcher’s understanding. Wiersma (1995) pointed out that interpretation of data invariably reflects the values and interests of the researcher. The researcher also requires an affinity with the past (Theobald, 1998). Burstyn (1990) also agreed that the presentation and interpretation of the past is “seen through the prism of the historian’s own view of the world” (p. 1). Such interpretation carries with it considerable responsibility and the danger that particular interests and biases may distort historical research. Petersen (1992) warned against attributing motives to historical protagonists when no explicit motive is documented and notes that “if you had known the whole story, you would have been alerted to this or that

18

Chapter Two

fact and noted it … but you didn’t, since that was what you were bent on discovering” (pp. 46–47). Once historians have written the first studies, subsequent historians may reinterpret what has been written. This process is known as revisionism. Each generation finds new ways to understand past events, informed by new data or framed in new cultural understandings and contexts. Historical evidence remains open to review as “our personal and cultural conditioning induce an unconscious re-envisioning of history” (Pemberton, 1984, p. 214). As historians, we are also part of history and therefore to some extent we are all revisionists.

Biographical Historical Research There has been a resurgence in biographical research in education (Roberts, 2002), that is, the “retelling of a story already lived” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1997, p. 84). Biographical research offers a window through which we may view educational practices and societal context (Cox, 2002). Such research is particularly evident in Australian music education historical inquiry. Studying people’s lives is part of the work of historians who are “trying to make whole people, whole situations, whole other ways of being out of the dusty fragments left … we have a fleeting sense of what it would have been like to have lived a different life, in a different place, at a different time” (Clendinnin, 2006, p. 56). Lives should be viewed in historical context (Tosh & Lang, 2002) and should help the reader understand the life (Mertens, 1998). Through researching and retelling a life we reveal much about “individual and collective, structural and agentic and real and fictional worlds” (Goodley & Lawthom, 2004, preface). Biographies can illuminate beyond the individual to explore and explain wider events and understandings. However it remains essential that, “we see ideas, practices and processes from the perspective of the individuals who developed them and the time and place in which they were developed” (Forrest, 2002, p. 138). In trying to capture and understand past lives, historians access a wide range of materials and in doing so often find materials in unusual places, particularly in biographical research. The search for data may stretch the boundary of generally considered sources to include church magazines, family stories, memorabilia, ephemera, and anything else that may unearth information about the subject. Such data can be in archives, personal collections, presentation displays, and cupboards or even on eBay.

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

19

Biographical research need not necessarily research only the famous – many historians seek to chronicle lives and contributions of often overlooked and thus unheard of people who nevertheless made a difference in their own community and influenced the lives of others. Biographical research has for some time been a component of Australian historical inquiries. Most of these have sought to chronicle and contextualize the lives of influential music educators who held positions of responsibility. School inspectors held positions of influence and were often pivotal in introducing and supporting the teaching of music in schools (Chaseling, 2004). Jones (1991) and Southcott (1995a, 2002a) researched the contribution of Alexander Clark in South Australia. Clark introduced music to the fledgling state-supported schools of South Australia. These music programmes were then consolidated and managed by his successor Frank Gratton (Southcott, 2000, 2003). Marilyn Chaseling also wrote about New South Wales music superintendents Theodore Stephen Tearne (Chaseling, 2007) and Victor McMahon (Chaseling, 2008). Robin Stevens extensively wrote about another New South Wales Superintendent of Music, Hugo Alpen (Stevens, 1993a), and two pioneers of tonic sol-fa in Australia, James Churchill Fisher (Stevens, 2002) and Dr Samuel McBurney (Southcott, 1994; Stevens, 1986, 1992, 2006). Reference materials also include short biographies of a number of music educators. For example, in The Oxford Companion to Australian Music (Bebbington, 1997) Stevens contributed a number of biographies of music educators such as Samuel McBurney, William Torrance, Joseph Summers, George Leavis Allan, and James Fisher. Southcott similarly provided entries for Alexander Clark, Frank Gratton, June Epstein, John Bishop, Heather Gell and Doreen Bridges. Bridges (2006) published a biographical study of Dr E. Harold Davies, Elder Professor of Music at the Conservatorium of Music in Adelaide, which makes a major contribution to biographical research in Australian music education. Additional biographical studies have been published on music education pioneers such as William Jarrott (Jarrott, 1982) and Isaac Nathan (Callaghan, 1998). A number of unpublished biographical studies have been completed but without publication the studies may become increasingly difficult to access (for example, Clarke, 2009; James, 1999; Maclellan 1990, 1995). In an effort to disseminate these researches Stevens has created an online resource that includes a Gallery of Notable Australian Music Educators (http://www.australian-music-ed.info/History/Gallery.html) and which includes links to additional material on the tonic sol-fa system. The introduction of school singing in South Australia, which involved both

20

Chapter Two

teaching approaches and advocates, has been explored (Southcott, 2004b, 2006). In New Zealand, Sell (1986) published a composite biography of five influential Englishmen, and his entry on the influential music educator, Ernest Jenner is included in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography (Sell, 2013). A detailed biographical account of another prominent New Zealand music educator, Vernon Griffiths, was based on the collected papers of the subject’s life in New Zealand, meticulously amassed in 84 scrapbooks (Hawkey, 1993). There is also a considerable amount of biographical historical research into women music educators. Such research has been influenced by feminisms that seek the unheard voices of often-marginalized women, whose contribution to music teaching and learning may have been overlooked. This is particularly the case for women studio teachers whose work is essentially unnoticed. An early and unpublished study by Elton (1967) addressed music in girls’ schools in Victoria. Another early, unpublished study, this time by Harris (1985), discussed the role of women in music education in Victoria in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. More recently Jenkins completed doctoral research (2007) that concerned three women who built careers in music education in different ways – Mona McBurney as a composer and conductor, Dr Ruby Davy as a teacher and performer (Jenkins, 2006) and Ruth Flockart as a director of music (Jenkins, 2008). It is not only the voices of women that are often overlooked. It is often hard to find the voices of recipients of music instruction, the children and students, in historical accounts. The introduction and development of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Australia and New Zealand is one of the few areas that has received concerted and meticulous attention. Joan Pope produced a series of studies on the efforts of Australian, New Zealand and English pioneers of this approach. A significant number of these studies are biographical accounts of women who were inspired to work tirelessly in this cause. These meticulous studies sought far-flung data that reflected the nature of the careers of her subjects (Pope, 2005a, 2005b, 2006a, 2006b, 2007, 2008, 2009). Nash (2011) undertook extensive biographical research on Australian Dalcroze teacher Heather Gell. These studies by Pope and Nash have been included in a compilation that celebrates Australian research into Dalcroze Eurhythmics (Southcott, 2007). No other music education approach has been researched as extensively in Australia. Biographical studies have been noted that discuss the place of tonic sol-fa in Australian music

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

21

education. Much work remains to be done about the rich and complex methodological traditions in Australian music education. Much Australian historical research in music education is biographical but there are also significant discussions of curricula, music methodologies, institutions and the development of policy. Another topic of considerable interest has been the development of the various music curricula in the different Australian States. Some of these have linked individuals to curriculum development (Southcott, 1995a, 1995b, 1996, 2005b) while others focused on curriculum reform per se (Burke, 2010a, 2010b) and the vulnerability of primary school music (Ferris, 1993b). Historians have also considered institutions such as universities (Bridges, 1970, 1972a, 1972b, 1973a, 1973b, 1974a, 1974b, 1975), schools and landmark events such as the Melbourne UNESCO seminar in 1956 (Southcott, 2009). Too much of the quite extensive amount of historical research, undertaken as part of doctoral and masters studies in Australian and New Zealand music education, remains unpublished. It is part of the responsibility of all researchers to disseminate their findings. Theses have addressed music education in Victoria (Boadle, 1977; Cameron, 1956, 1969; Comte, 1983; Ferris, 1993a, 2002b; Stevens, 1978), New South Wales (Chaseling, 2009; Dugdale, 1969), South Australia (Davis, 1987; Southcott, 1997b), Tasmania (Somssich, 1975) and Queensland (Stowasser, 1983). Further studies have addressed particular aspects of music education such as instrumental music programs in Victoria (Lierse, 2005), the University of Queensland Music Department (Wilmott, 1986), music in regional towns in Western Australia (Farrant, 1990, 1992) and the musical life of Darwin (Colgrave, 1990). Australian and New Zealand historians of music education have focused on particular issues such as creativity, music technology, and school song repertoire. Each of these tends to be the purview of one particular historian which, given the small number of scholars working in the field, is understandable. For example, Burke focused on the introduction of creativity into Australian school music education (Burke, 2005a, 2005b, 2007a, 2007c, 2010b), the introduction of integrated curricula (Burke, 2006), and the influences of innovative music educators such as John Paynter (Burke, 2005b) and R. Murray Schafer (Southcott & Burke, 2012). Crawford published several studies that looked at the use of technology in Australian school music (Crawford, 2009) and its current inclusion in school curricula (Southcott & Crawford, 2011). Chaseling (2006) explored

22

Chapter Two

the role of the radio, an earlier technology in school music, while Sell (2003) studied the origins of music broadcasts to schools in New Zealand. Other researchers have looked at the selection and provision of song repertoire for Australian schools (Southcott, 2002). The songs we teach a child reflect on how we understand ourselves. This is particularly so in a culturally diverse society like Australia. The interactions and relationships between music and cultural identity contain “fruitful possibilities for music education historians” (Cox, 2002, p. 77). To date historians have explored the inclusion in school singing collections of songs and cultural material from China (Southcott & Lee, 2013), India (Southcott & Joseph, 2007) and Africa (Joseph & Southcott, 2007). Major public events also reflect how we celebrate community and culture. Chaseling (2003, 2010) wrote about large choral performances in New South Wales and Southcott (in press) discussed the role of children in the centenary celebrations of South Australia as part of a massive Pageant of Empire. Both Ferris (2002a) and Southcott (2002b) have written about the song repertoire of Australian school children. Such major events reflect widely-held societal understandings of self and state. Internationally researchers are beginning to explore wider issues underpinning the place and role of school music (Cox, 2002) however such studies are less common in Australia. Southcott and Lee (2003) undertook a comparative study of imperialism in Australian and Taiwanese school music and Southcott has written on patriotism, nationalism and Australian school music (Southcott, 2005, 2012). There have been intermittent studies that offer overviews of Australian music education. Generally these focus on school music, which leaves large areas of music teaching and learning unconsidered. Stevens has commendably compiled an online resource concerning the history of Australian music education (http://www.australian-music-ed.info/History/). Two decades ago Weiss (1995) and Stevens (1993, 1997) provided authoritative discussions of school music that tried to chronicle our curriculum history. Although important and useful, these accounts were limited in scope, out of necessity by the allowable number of words. Two decades later Stevens and Southcott (2010) addressed the recurring challenges to school music that continue to beset the subject. The potential for music to reform children was an important factor in the inclusion of the subject in schools particularly in the late 19th and 20th centuries. School singing was seen to have the potential to civilise children (Stevens, 1981) and to modify the reviled Australian accent (Southcott, 2006).

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

23

Conclusion There is no denying the enthusiasm of historians to explore Australian and New Zealand music education but demonstrably there remains much to be done. Australia is not unique in this need to chronicle history (Heller & Wilson, 1992). One of the biggest challenges is the scattered and sporadic research that is undertaken. Australia has a thinly spread country with a comparatively small population and the practitioners of historical research in music education are proportionately rare. Cox (2002) suggested five possibilities for future research that might address contemporary policies, inform curricula reform, address the silences concerning the work of teachers, enable music teachers to build a sound basis for teaching and learning, and establish cross-cultural international connections. Cox was able to position these possibilities on a far longer and deeper base of research than is evident in Australian and New Zealand historical research in music education. Australia has not yet produced the historian(s) able to construct a composite history of any aspect of our discipline and large gaps remain. Without this first wave of historical inquiry, research will remain scattered and diffuse. This is not to disparage the quality of research that has been undertaken, but rather to suggest future researchers address the outstanding omissions and undertake the needed work to produce more comprehensive histories. Given the overview of existing historical research in music education in Australia and New Zealand included in this discussion, it is apparent that research has been scattered and driven by the idiosyncratic decisions of individual historians. Although Cox (2002) offered a critique of classic approaches to music education, this is actually what is required to capture disappearing data and to fill in the gaps in current research. In Australia and New Zealand we have much to do.

References Barzun, J. & Graff, H. F. (1985). The Modern Researcher 4th edition 5. USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Bebbington, W. (Ed.). (1997). The Oxford Companion to Australian Music. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.. Boadle, B. H. (1977). Music Teaching in Victorian State Primary Schools in Relation to Teacher Training, Med thesis, University of Melbourne. Breen Clarke, S. (2009). ‘Flamboyance, tweed and a dash of Scotch whisky’: Franklin Sievright Peterson as adjudicator at the South Street

24

Chapter Two

Competitions, 1901. (Unpublished master’s project). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Bridges, D. (1970). The Role of Universities in the Development of Music education in Australia, 1885-1970, (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Sydney, Sydney. —. (1972a). Some Historical Background to Australian Music education (1) Foundations. Australian Journal of Music education, 10, 21-24. —. (1972b). Some Historical Background to Australian Music education (2) Origins of the Music Examination System. Australian Journal of Music education, 11, 13-16. —. (1973a). Some Historical Background to Australian Music education (3) Music in the University of Melbourne (1901-1925). Australian Journal of Music education, 12, 17-19. —. (1973b). Some Historical Background to Australian Music education (4) The Development and Influence of Music education. Australian Journal of Music education, 13, 21-23. —. (1974a). Music in Australian Education: Origins and Background. Australian Journal of Music education, 15, 11-13. —. (1974b). Some Historical Background to Australian Music education (5) The Rise of the Australian Music Examinations Board, Australian Journal of Music education, 14, 9-11. —. (1975). Music in the University of Adelaide: A Retrospective View. Miscellanea Musicologica: Adelaide Studies in Musicology, 8, 1-10. —. (2006). More than a Musician: A life of E. Harold Davies. Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing. Burke, H. (2005a). Conflicts and misconceptions in the development of creative music education in Victorian state secondary schools In D. Forrest (Ed.), Australian Society for Music Education. XV National Conference Proceedings (pp. 35-40). Parkville, Victoria: Australia Australian Society for Music Education (ASME). —. (2005b). The relevance of creativity: John Paynter and Victorian music education in the twenty first century In P. de Vries (Ed.), Australian Association for Research on Music education, Proceedings of the XXVIIth Annual Conference (pp. 46-52) Melbourne: Australian Association for Research in Music Education (AARME). —. (2006). The new soundscape: the introduction of integrated arts in Victorian state secondary schools. In P. de Vries & J. Southcott (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXVIIIth Annual Conference Music education: Standards and Practices (pp. 1-7). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2007a). A systems view of creativity and its implication for classroom music education. In P. de Vries & J. Southcott (Eds.), Proceedings of

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

25

the XXIXth Annual Conference Music education Research: Values and Initiatives (pp. 1-7). Melbourne, Australia: AARME. —. (2007c). The misapplications of Gardner's Music Intelligence in Victorian state schools. In A. Stanberg, J. McIntosh & R. Faulkner (Eds.), Celebrating Musical Communities. Proceedings of the 40th Anniversary National Conference (pp. 73-76). Nedlands, Western Australia: ASME. —. (2010a). The 1960s Victorian secondary curriculum reforms and the introduction of the teacher developed music curriculum. E-Journal of Studies in Music education, 1-15. —. (2010b). The Introduction of Creative Music Education in Victorian State Secondary Schools 1957 to 1988. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Monash University, Victoria. Burke, P. (2001). History of Events and the Revival of Narrative. In G. Roberts (Ed.), The History and Narrative Reader. London: Routledge. Burstyn, J. (1990). Narrative versus Theoretical Approaches: A Dilemma for Historians of Women? History of Education Review, 2, 1-7. Callaghan, J. (1998). The Italian Vocal Tradition for the New Millenium: Isaac Nathan's Singing Pedagogy and Current Voice Science. In S.L.A.J. Williamson (Ed.), Proceedings of the XXth Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Music education (pp. 17-25). Perth, Western Australia: AARME. Cameron, A. E. (1956). The Class Teaching of Music in State-Supported Schools in Victoria, 1853-1905. (Unpublished bachelor’s thesis). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. —. (1969). The Class Teaching of Music in Secondary Schools Victoria 1905-1955. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Carr, E. H. (2001). What is History. Hampshire: Palgrave. Chaseling, M. J. (2009). Teaching music in New South Wales primary schools, 1920-1956. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Deakin University, Victoria. —. (2003). The great public school choir of ten thousand. In K. Hartwig (Ed.), Proceedings of Artistic Practice as Research: XXVth National Conference AARME (pp. 25-43). Brisbane, Queensland: Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music Education (ANZARME). —. (2004). Snapshots from the Inspectorate: Music in New South Wales State Primary Schools: 1908, 1914, 1918. In M. J. Chaseling (Ed.), Proceedings of the XXVIth National Conference AARME (pp. 75-94). Melbourne: ANZARME.

26

Chapter Two

—. (2006). Teaching with technology: the wonders of wireless. In P.de Vries & J. Southcott (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXVIIIth Annual Conference Music education: Standards andPractices (pp. 8-18). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2008). Through the eyes of Victor McMahon: The school flute band movement in NSW public schools. In J. Southcott (Ed.), Proceedings of the XXXth Annual Conference: Innovation and tradition: Music Education Research: Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music Education (pp. 45-59). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2007). Theodore Stephen Tearne: New South Wales Second Superintendent of Music. In P. De Vries & J. Southcott (Eds.), Proceedings of Music education Research: Values and Initiatives: Australian Association for Research in Music Education XVI National Conference (pp. 9-19). Melbourne: ANZARME. —. (2010). Lost and found: 10,000 voices: an inspiring 1901 choral spectacular, Music in Action, 8(3), 8-13. Clendinnen, I. (2006). The History Question: Who owns the past? Quarterly Essay, 23 (monograph). Colgrave, D. (1990). A Historical Role for Music education: the role of school and church in maintaining the musical life of Darwin, 18731980. In Proceedings of the Australian Society for Music education VII National Conference, ASME (pp. 30-33). Alice Springs: ASME. , Comte, M. (1983). Arts Education in the State School System in Victoria, Australia: 1945 to 1980, PhD dissertation, University of Michigan. Connell, W.F. (1987). Research and Writing in the History of Education. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.), Australian Education: Review of Recent Research (pp. 29-65). Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2-14. Connelly, F.M. & Clandinin, D.J. (1997). Narrative Inquiry. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.), Educational Research, Methodology, and Measurement: An International Handbook (2nd ed.) (pp. 81-86). New York: Pergamon. Cox, G. (1996). A History of Music education in England 1872-1928: A Reflexive Account of Historical Research. Research Studies in Music education, 6(1), 27-3. —. (2002). Transforming Research in Music education History. In R. Colwell (Ed.), MENC Handbook of Research Methodologies (pp. 7394). Oxford: Oxford University Press. —. (2002). Living Music in Schools 1923-1999, Studies in the History of Music education in England. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

27

Crawford, R. (2009). An Australian perspective: technology in secondary school music. Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, 30(2), 147-167. Davis, B. P. (1987). Class Singing in South Australian Elementary Schools in the Nineteenth Century, 1852-1892. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Flinder’s University, South Australia. Donnelly, M. & Norton, C. (2011). Doing history. London: Routledge. Dugdale, J. H. (1969). The Place of Music in the National and Public Schools of New South Wales, 1848-1880, MEd Long Essay, University of Sydney. Eckermann, A. H. D. & Eckermann, G. R. (1991). A Century of Children and Music 1891-1991: A History of the South Australian Public (Primary) Schools Music Society. Adelaide: South Australian Public (Primary) Schools Music Society. Elton, J. (1967). Music in Secondary Education in Girls' Schools in Victoria. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Farrant, J. (1990). Music education in Kalgoorlie/Boulder, 1893-1910: A reflection of a late Victorian bourgeois society. In Proceedings of the Australian Society for Music Education VII National Conference (pp. 33-36). Alice Springs: ASME. —. (1992). The History of Music in Coolgardie, Kalgoorlie and Boulder, 1892 to 1908. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Western Australia, Western Australia. Ferris, A. J. (1993a). The Provision of Classroom Music in State Primary Schools, Victoria: 1970 to 1980. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Monash University, Victoria. —. (1993b). Music On the Edge: A Historical Study of the Vulnerability of Music in the Primary School Curriculum. In Proceedings of the IXth Australian Society for Music Education National Conference (pp. 9196). Perth: ASME. —. (2002a). Emblems of Our Dear Austral Land: the role of the School Paper song collection in the education of Victorian state primary school children, 1943-1968. In J.E. Southcott & R. Smith (Eds.), A Community of Researchers. Australian Association for Research in Music education: Proceedings of the XXIInd Annual Conference, (pp. 54-59). Melbourne: AARME —. (2002b). Classroom Music in Victorian State Primary Schools 1934 to 1981: Curriculum Support. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Monash University, Victoria.

28

Chapter Two

Forrest, D. (2002). Biographical Research: A component of historical research in education. In P. Green (Ed.), Slices of life: Qualitative Research Snapshots (p. 138). Melbourne: RMIT University Press . Fox, M. (1988). Music education in South Australia 1836 – 1984. In A.D. McCredie (Ed.), From Colonel Light into the Footlights; The Performing Arts in South Australia from 1836 to the Present (383410). Norwood: South Australia: Pagel Books. Gall, J. P., Gall, M. D. & Borg, W. R. (1999). Applying Education Research: A practical guide. New York: Longman. Gasparini, F., & Vick, M. (2006). Picturing the history of teacher education; photographs and methodology. History of Education Review, 35(2), 16-31. Goodley, D. & Lawthom, R. & Clough, P. & Moore, M. (2004). Researching Life Stories, Method, Theory and Analyses in a Biographical Age. London: Routledge/Falmer. Gould, S. J. (1990). Urchin in a Storm. Penguin: Middlesex, UK. Harris, M. C. (1985). The Role of Women in Music education in Victoria from 1875 to 1910. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Monash University, Victoria. Healey, J. (2002). Who Invented ‘Australia’? History SA [South Australia], 163, 8-11. Heller, G. N. & Wilson, B. D. (1992). Historical Research. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and learning (pp. 102-114). New York: Schirmer Books. Howe, S.W. (1998). Reconstructing the History of Music Education From a Feminist Perspective. Philosophy of Music Education Review, 6(2), 96-106. James, S.C. (1999).,Joseph O’Malley S.J.- A Nineteenth Century Australian Music Educator. (Unpublished master’s project). Deakin University, Victoria. Jarrott, J. K. (1982). William Jarrott: a pioneer in music education. Quest, 34, 41-44. Jones, A. W. (1991). Great Australian Educators: Alexander Clark. Unicorn, 17(3), 185-186. Jenkins, L. E. (2006). The odd bod, the icon and the modest woman: the differences and similarities amongst three Australian women music teachers, performers and composers. In P. de Vries & J. Southcott (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXVIIIth Annual Conference Music education: Standards and Practices (pp. 57-65). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2008). Ruth Flockart and Dr. Wood: A crucial relationship in the development of the Melbourne Methodist Ladies' College music

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

29

program. In J. Southcott (Ed.), Proceedings of the XXXth Annual Conference, Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music education (p. 288). Melbourne: ANZARME. —. (2007). Australian women music teachers, performers and composer from 1900 to 1950. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Monash University, Victoria. Joseph, D. Y. & Southcott, J. E. (2007). Retaining a frisson of the ‘other’: Imperialism, Assimilation, Integration and Multiculturalism in Australian schools. Music Education Research, 9(1), 35-48. Lierse, S. M. (2005). The Development of Instrumental Music Programs in Victorian Government Secondary Schools 1965 to 2000, PhD thesis, RMIT University. Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. G. (1986). But Is It Rigorous? Trustworthiness and Authenticity in naturalistic Evaluation. In D. D. Williams (Ed.), Naturalistic Evaluation (pp. 73-84). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Maclellan, B. M. (1990). Walter Bonwick and the Establishment of Music Teaching in the National Schools of Victoria, 1855-1856. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. —. (1995), Walter Bonwick and the Place of Music in the Curriculum of the National, Common and State Schools, 1854-1883. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Marwick, A. (1970). The nature of history. London: Macmillan. McCarthy, M. (2003). The past in the present: Revitalizing history in music education. British Journal of Music education, 20(2), 121-134. Mertens, D. M. (1998). Research Methods in Education and Psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative and qualitative approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Nash, S. J. (2011). Heather Gell: a Dalcroze influence in Australian music education, 1924-1979. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Sydney, Sydney. Pemberton, C. (1984). Revisionist Historians: Writers reflected in their writings. Journal Research Music Education, 35(4), 213-220. Perks, R. & Thomson, A. (Eds.) (1998). The Oral History Reader. New York: Routledge. Petersen, R. C. (1992). History of Education Research, What is it and how to do it, Sydney: R. C. Petersen. Pope, J. L. (2005a). High hopes and hindsight: promoting Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Australia, 1923-24. In David Forrest (Ed.), Australian Society for Music Education XV National Conference Proceedings (pp. 197-203). Parkville, Victoria: ASME.

30

Chapter Two

—. (2005b). Wretched victims in singlets: a Jaques-Dalcroze music examination In Dr P. de Vries (Ed.), AARME Proceedings of the XXVIIth Annual Conference (pp. 117-125). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2006a). Dalcroze eurhythmics in Melbourne: 1919-1929 In P. de Vries & J. Southcott (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXVIIIth Annual Conference Music education: Standards and Practices (pp. 85-94). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2006b). Mary Whidborne. First teacher of Dalcroze eurhythmics in New South Wales? Brolga, 7-8. —. (2007). Dalcroze eurhythmics comes to New Zealand. To the ends of the earth: the Dalcroze diaspora. In J. Southcott (Ed.), Dalcroze Eurhythmics from a Distance. A miscellany of current research (pp. 34-40). Turramurra, NSW: Heather Gell Dalcroze Foundation. —. (2008). Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Australasia: The first generation, from 1918. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Monash University, Victoria. —. (2009). The Dawn of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in New Zealand: the First Decade. Proceedings of the joint conference of XXXIst ANZARME Annual Conference and the 1st Conference of the Music Educators Research Centre (MERC) (pp. 191-206). Melbourne: ANZARME/ MERC. Rainbow, B. (1967). The Land Without Music. London: Novello & Company. —. (1990). Music and the English Public School. Aberystwyth, Wales: Boethius. Roberts, I. (2002). Biographical Research. Buckingham: Open University Press. Robertson, B. (Ed.) (1985). Oral history handbook. Adelaide, South Australia: The Oral History Association of Australia. Rodwell, G. W. (1992). Historical research in education. In D. M. Cavanagh & G. W. Rodwell (Eds.), Dialogues in Educational Research (pp. 89-205). Darwin: William Michael Press. Sell, D. (1986). Five Englishmen: The British influence on music education in New Zealand between the wars. Studies in Music education: The Canterbury Series, 3-23. —. (2013). Jenner, Ernest Albert Frederick. Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/biographies/4j6/jenner-ernest-albertfrederick Somssich, B. J. Z. (1975). Music education in Tasmanian State Primary Schools, 1905-1975: An Enquiry into Trends, Developments and

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

31

Attitudes. (Unpublished honours thesis). University of Tasmania, Tasmania. Southcott, J. E. (1992). The Percussion Band – Mere Noise or Music? British Journal of Music Education, 9(2), 111-122. —. (1993). The Classroom Percussion Band-Osaurus. In Proceedings of the IXth Australian Society for Music Education National Conference (pp. 201-210). Perth: ASME. —. (1994). An American and Australian Coincidence: Tonic Sol-fa, Froebel and the Colors of the Rainbow. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education, XV(2), 79-110. —. (1995a). The Establishment of the music curriculum in South Australia: The role of Alexander Clark. Research Studies in Music Education, 5, 1-10. —. (1995b). How to Implement Curriculum Change in Classroom Music: A Nineteenth Century Precedent. Proceedings of the Australian Society for Music Education X Annual Conference (pp. 250-256). Tasmania: ASME. —. (1997a). Evaluating Music education: The role and processes of historical inquiry. Proceedings Australian Association for Research in Music education National Conference, 33-42. —. (1997b). Music in State-Supported Schooling in South Australia to 1920. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Deakin University, Victoria. —. (2000). Curriculum Stasis: Gratton in South Australia', Research Studies in Music education, 14, 50-60. —. (2002a). Now the Labourer’s Task is O’er: Alexander Clark and the foundation of school music in South Australia. Journal of the Historical Society of South Australia, 31, 24-38. —. (2002b). Songs for young Australians. In J.E. Southcott & R. Smith (Eds.), A Community of Researchers. Australian Association for Research in Music education: Proceedings of the XXIInd Annual Conference, (pp. 164-173). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2003). A Knight of Song: F.L. Gratton. In N. Jeanneret (Ed.), Australian Association for Research in Music education: Proceedings of the XXIII Annual Conference (pp. 151-158). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2004a). Essential learning in music education: Teaching music in schools in South Australia during the 1950s. In Proceedings Australian Association for Research in Music education (pp. 292-300). Melbourne: AARME. —. (2004b). The Singing By-ways: The Origins of Class Music Education in South Australia. Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, XXV(2), 116-127.

32

Chapter Two

—. (2005a). Drums, fifes and drill: patriotism and militaristic practices in 19th century Australian school music. In S. J. Morrison (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th Asia Pacific Symposium on Music education Research (CD ROM). Seattle: APSMER. —. (2005b). Six ways at once: Effective curriculum change in primary music education. An historical model. In D. Forrest (Ed.), Australian Society for Music Education XV National Conference Proceedings (pp. 235-240). Parkville, Victoria: ASME. —. (2006). Changing the voices of teachers and children: Singing and elocution in South Australia in the 19th and early 20th century’. Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, XXXVIII(1), 53-70. —. (2009). The Melbourne UNESCO seminar, 1956: A watershed in Australian music education. In M. Comte (Ed.), Musical Dimensions: A Festschrift for Doreen Bridges (pp. 80-98). North Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing. —. (2012). Nationalism and School Music in Australia. In D. Hebert and A. Kertz-Welzel (Eds.), Patriotism and Nationalism in Music Education (pp. 43-57). UK: Ashgate. —. (in press). One hundred years of “Anglo-Saxondom” in the south: The Children’s Demonstration Pageant of Empire, South Australia 1936. Australian Journal of Music Education: Special Edition “Landmarks”. Southcott, J. E. (Ed.) (2007). Dalcroze eurhythmics from a distance: a miscellany of current research.. Turramurra, NSW: Heather Gell Dalcroze Foundation. Southcott, J. E. & Burke, H. (2012). An attunement for change: The introduction of creative music teaching in Australia. Canadian Music Educator, 54(2), 19-26. Southcott, J. E. & Cosaitis, W. (2012). “It all begins with the beat of a drum”: Early Australian encounters with Orff Schulwerk. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2012(2), 20-32. Southcott, J. E. & Crawford, R. (2011). The Intersections of Curriculum Development: Music, ICT and Australian music education. Australasian Journal of Education Technology, 27(1), 122-136. Southcott, J. E. & Joseph, D. Y. (2007). From Empire to filmi: A fusion of Western and Indian cultural practices in Australian music education. International Journal of Music Education, 2007, 235-243. Southcott, J. E. & Lee, A. H-C (2013). Lanterns and drums: Changing representations of Chinese songs in Australian school music. Music Education Research, 13(3), 317-340.

Introduction to Historical Research in Music Education

33

Southcott, J. E. & Lee, A. H-C. (2003). Imperialism in school music: common experiences in two different cultures. International Journal of Music Education, 40, 28-39. Spaull, A. D. (1998). Oral History. In J.P. Keeves (Ed.), Educational Research, Methodology and Measurement: International Handbook (pp. 75-78). Oxford: Pergamon. Stevens, R. S. & Southcott, J.E. (2010). Australia: Recurring problems and unresolved issues. In G. Cox & R.. Stevens (Eds.) Origins and Foundations of Music Education (pp. 171-187). London: Continuum International. Stevens, R. S. (1974). McBurney, Samuel (1847–1909). Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Retrieved from http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mcburney-samuel-4064/text6479 —. (1978). Music in State-Supported Education in New South Wales and Victoria, 1848-1920. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Melbourne, Melbourne. —. (1981). Music: A Humanising and Civilising Influence in Education. In G. Featherstone (Ed.) The Colonial Child (pp. 63-72). Melbourne: Royal Historical Society of Victoria. —. (1981). Historical Research in the Field of Music education: Its Nature and Applications. In J. Bryce (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference of the Association of Music education Lecturers (52-63). Melbourne: AMEL. —. (1992). Great Australian educators: Samuel McBurney – The Stanley of Sol-fa. Unicorn: The Journal of the Australian College of Education, 18(3), 68-72. —. (1993a). Great Australian educators: Hugo Alpen – New South Wales Superintendent of Music,1884-1908. Unicorn: The Journal of the Australian College of Education,19(3), 93-96. —. (1993b). Music education in Australia: Reflections on the Past and Present. In E.P. Errington (Ed.) Arts Education: Beliefs, Practices and Possibilities (pp. 57-68). Geelong: Deakin University Press. —. (1997). Music education (Master article). In W. Bebbington (Ed.), The Oxford Companion to Australian Music (pp. 396-400). Oxford University Press, Melbourne. —. (2002). James Churchill Fisher: Pioneer of Tonic Sol-fa in Australia. In J. Southcott & R. Smith (Eds.), A Community of Researchers: Proceedings of the XXIInd Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Music education (2000) (pp. 172-182). Melbourne: AARME.

34

Chapter Two

—. (2006). Forward Gaily Together – The School Music Compositions of Samuel McBurney. In J.Southcott & P. de Vries (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXVIIIth Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Music Education (pp. 116-125). Melbourne: AARME. —. (1986). Samuel McBurney – Australian Advocate of Tonic Sol-fa. Journal of Research in Music education, 34(2), 77-87. Stone, L. (1987). The past and the present revisited. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stowasser, H. M. (1983). The Development of the Music Curriculum in Queensland Secondary Schools. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Queensland, Queensland. Theobald, M. (1998). Writing landscapes for a good teacher. History of Education Review, 27(2), 1-15. Tosh, J. & Lang, S. (2006). The pursuit of history. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman. —. (2010). The pursuit of history. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman. Vick, M. (1998). Narrative History: Truly Writing the Past. History of Education Review. 27(2), 1-15. Watson, A. (2013). Recent learnings on professional teaching standards: An Australian view in an international context? E-Journal of Studies in Music education, 9(2), 26-43. Webster, G. (1993). Orff Schulwerk - An Historical Perspective for Australian Society. (Unpublished master’s thesis). St Thomas University, Minnesota. Weiss, G. (1995), Fundamental or frill? Music education in Australian schools since the 1880s. Research Studies in Music Education, 5, 5565. Wiersma, W. (1995). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: A Simon and Schuster Company. Wilmott, N. (1986). A History of the Music Department, University of Queensland, 1912-1970. (Unpublished master’s thesis).

CHAPTER THREE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: A VIABLE OPTION FOR MUSIC RESEARCHERS HELEN KLIEVE, WENDY HARGREAVES AND RON MORRIS GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

Introduction to Quantitative Research This chapter presents a rationale for researchers to consider in making a choice about whether to use quantitative techniques in their research. The use of such approaches opens many options that may not have been considered, such as examining previously unexplored research questions in established areas of investigation, of communicating with previously uninvolved audiences or of gaining insights into unchartered territories in music research. These approaches have the potential to widen the profile of music as a discipline, demonstrating its known and also often unknown contributions to society. Quantitative research generally refers to using numbers in research, such as in formally measuring musical performance for assessment, or conducting controlled experiments to gauge impact. There is a perception (perhaps misconception) that quantitative methods are more complex and inaccessible than their qualitative counterpart and so social science researchers often dismiss them. Thus rather than explain how to do quantitative analysis, we decided to address what seems to be the more critical prequel – exploring what such strategies have to offer and examining the presumed constraints on their use. We begin by reviewing the use of quantitative methods in music research to date. It compares the use of these techniques in music to that in the physical sciences where statistical approaches are more the norm and

36

Chapter Three

where far fewer studies include reference to “qualitative” methods (see examples in Box 1). The contrasting level of engagement with quantitative methods of techniques provides a sense of scope for viable options in quantitative research. We then examine how quantitative methods have been employed in music research ranging from elementary applications to more complex ones. Then we unpack the “Big Three T’s,” (terminology, techniques and tools) and observe how recent work by the authors of this chapter engaged with each. Finally, we conclude with a reflection on the motivations of researchers and encourage readers to genuinely consider quantitative methodology as a viable option in music research. This chapter includes reflections on the quantitative research experience from the varied perspectives of the three authors: a Research Methodologist with extensive quantitative experience; a recently completed PhD graduate who undertook an experimental design study focused on aspects of vocal pedagogy; a currently completing PhD candidate who has undertaken a survey design study to explore differences between vocalists and instrumentalists.

The Use of Quantitative Research in Music to Date Although there are differing perceptions about the use of quantitative and qualitative methods, it does appear that those in the social sciences make less use of quantitative approaches than those in the physical sciences. Brooks (2003), in an historical analysis of articles published on music therapy, found that the predominant type were quantitative articles followed by those with a clinical/professional focus. Music therapy is an area with potentially strong links to research in medicine and psychology with a greater quantitative accent. Asmus and Radocy (2006) noted that quantitative approaches for music education commonly include “grading, student evaluation, contest and festival ratings, auditioning students for ensembles, and assigning chairs in an ensemble” (p. 96). However music education still generally lags behind in these applications. Asmus and Radocy offered one explanation: Quantification has met considerable resistance in music education. The general outlook is that music is so complex and deals with aesthetic elements that are so far beyond tangible matters that it is impossible to quantify musical behaviour, objects or events. (p. 96)

While this is an argument that is in many ways irrefutable, as there is such a degree of subjectivity in music, we argue that researchers need to adjust

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

37

their mindset away from focusing on features of music that cannot be measured, to instead looking for components of music that can. For example, people’s opinions about music can be measured and many of the physical features of music such as time, pitch, and volume almost beg for quantitative analysis. A comprehensive search of literature was undertaken to provide an objective assessment of the frequency of use of quantitative methods in music research (see Box 1).

Box 1 - Review of Literature SEARCH 1 – MUSIC RESEARCH To gain a feel of how often quantitative methods are used in music research, a comprehensive literature search was undertaken as defined below. Database – Proquest – Education journals. Scholarly journals; x x

Search 1A – “music” in title [2375 articles] Search 1B – “music” in title AND “quantitative” OR “mixed methods” in text [325 articles] or 13.7%.

This search was also repeated with limited time periods to inform the change in quantitative research over time (thus for 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, May 2013), with results presented in Figure 1. This search provides a limited snapshot of music research, including papers that included “music” in the title and were available through the Education Proquest Database. Papers that have the words “quantitative” or “mixed methods” in the text may in fact NOT use such techniques, but are using the terms in the discussion to say, for example, that they do NOT use quantitative techniques – this was noted in several papers. Thus, while search 1B represents 13.7% of the papers identified in search 1A, this is likely to be an over-representation of the proportion of papers that report on research that incorporates quantitative tools.

38

Chapter Three

SEARCH 2 – BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES This search provides a snapshot of the use of qualitative methods in one area of the biological sciences. Database: Science Direct database Search 2A (a) “animal breeding” in the abstract [202 papers] (b) “animal breeding” AND “qualitative” in the abstract [3] or (1.5%) Search 2B (a) “genetics” in the abstract [9629 papers]; (b)“genetics” AND “qualitative” in abstract [64 papers] or 0.7%. This shows a low proportion of papers that refer to qualitative methods – many of these referring to research on training aspects of the topic.

The findings from this sample of literature reveal that only 13.7% of music articles identify with quantitative or mixed methods approaches. However, this is an overrepresentation, given that some papers mention in the text that they are not adopting quantitative approaches. The results from this search are presented in Figure 1. The two lower lines refer to the overall number of papers (in thousands) from the first search (i.e., search 1A) and those that included reference to quantitative or mixed methods approaches (i.e., search 1B), with these showing 2,375 and 325 papers identified up to April 2013. The higher line represents 1B as a percentage of 1A – thus the % of papers that refer to quantitative tools, with this ranging from 0 to 13.7%. Thus while there has been an overall increase, from 1990 to 2013, in the number of publications in scholarly journals on music research, this increase has been lower for those with a quantitative focus - with the current level of 13.7% coming from a minimal base in the early 1990s.

Quaantitative Reseaarch: A Viable Option for Mussic Researcherss

39

Figure 1 Resuults of the literature search ov ver time compaaring all papers (1A) with those that include reference to t quantitative//mixed methodss.

16 14

No Pap pers ('000)

12

Constraained Papers ('000)

Level

% of to otal 10 8 6 4 2 0 Pre 1990

Pre 19995

Pre 2000 0

Pre 2005

Pre 2010

Pre P May 2013

Current A Application ns: An Exploration fr om the Liteerature Where doo People Pu ublish Quan ntitative Reesearch on Music? M Examinationn of the literaature reveals those areas iin music reseearch that have utilized quantitativee research. Th here are journnals in which h research principally ffocused on music m is publisshed (e.g., Brritish Journal of Music education, JJournal of Music M Therap py, Journal oof Research in Music education aand Australiaan Journal off Music educcation) showiing some diversity in themes coverred. There aree also journalls where reseaarch with music is a ssecondary foccus. For exam mple, researchh that uses music m was found in thhe Journal off Autism and d Developmenntal Disorderrs (Allen, Davis, & H Hill, 2013; Kim, K Wigram m, & Gold, 22008; Quintin n, Anjali, Poissant, Foombonne, & Levitin, 2011), the Journnal of Music Therapy (Wipple, 2004), the Journal Jo of Visual V Impairrment and Blindness B (McCann, 22011), Journaal of Abnorma al Child Psych chology (Pelhaam et al., 2011), Sex R Roles (Turner,, 2011), Social Forces (Schhmutz & Faupel, 2010), The Early C Childhood Edducation Jourrnal (Koops, 2012), Death h Studies (McFerran, Roberts, & O’Grady, 2010), Journaal of Econom mics and

Chapter Three

40

Economic Education Research (McClough & Heinfeldt, 2012) and Suicide and Life Threatening Behaviour (Rustad, Small, Jobes, Safer, & Peterson, 2003). These findings demonstrate the breadth of quantitative research relating to music that is currently being undertaken. The papers identified by the search were grouped, from the title, under Education, Health and Other. Only 280 of the 325 were grouped, with the remainder relating to qualitative research or review papers. From a brief consideration of the papers, a further grouping was made to identify whether the quantitative tools applied in the research used: x x x

Low-level applications: Generally the presentation was based on data as frequencies of occurrence. Moderate-level applications: Using more detailed analytic techniques and/or potentially a very large sample with structured analysis and discussion, High-level applications: Experiments (in particular randomized controlled trials) with detailed analytic and multivariate procedures.

Examination of the themes shows that approximately 20% of the papers in the sample selected clearly have music as the secondary focus of the research. Given the already overstated level of inclusion of quantitative research, this suggests that the real figure on research principally focused on music that uses quantitative techniques may be closer to 10% than the 13.7% originally stated. Overall, thematic analysis of quantitative research published on music shows that researchers with a primary background in music are making limited use of quantitative methodologies in the promotion and defence of their domain. We find, in the links between types of research and themes (see Figure 2), those with a low level of quantitative application are most strongly associated with education and training or issues in student experience or youth. The more moderate levels of application are aligned with areas of music therapy, but with a reasonable spread across all areas. Those with the highest level of application are strongly aligned with music therapy and medical issues with a very low inclusion of education and training issues.

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

41

Figure 2. Distribution of the selected papers by theme of research and level of application of quantitative techniques. 100%

80%

High 60%

Modera te Low

40%

20%

Education

Health

other (15)

computer tech (7)

death/oncology (8)

autism (7)

mental health/stress (18)

therapy/medical 59)

performance (29)

student experience (22)

children/youth (27)

education/training (105)

0%

Other

From Figure 2 it is apparent that there are differences in the application of quantitative methods with greater quantitative applications in the health areas. Research in the more educational areas has lesser quantitative applications, in line with the comments by Asmus and Radocy (2006). However, as well as research that addresses operational issues such as marking and assessment, research that covers aspects of pedagogy is also included in the Education group. These aspects might include an assessment of the teaching process in singing (for example, Morris, 2012), an aspect that lends itself to the application of quantitative approaches. A closer examination of the literature offers examples of how music researchers have utilised quantitative methods in low-level, moderate-level and high-level analysis.

42

Chapter Three

Levels of Application: Who Uses What? Considering using quantitative techniques is not solely a question of “do I or don’t I?” There is an enormous difference in the levels of application of such techniques. Papers applying low levels of quantitative technique are likely to be relatively easy to read even for those with little quantitative background. These papers discuss familiar concepts (e.g., frequency of occurrence) and generally have a very practical focus. On the other hand papers with high-level quantitative techniques are likely to be complex in presentation and method, and thus less accessible to the novice quantitative researcher. The use of quantitative approaches does not always involve the application of complex statistics. At a low level of application the inclusion of quantitative material can provide a clear focus to a more broad qualitative assessment adding richness to a study’s findings. At the other extreme, a major formal experiment, for example, a Randomized Controlled Trial (an experiment where subjects are randomly allocated to an experimental or control group to test the effect of an intervention), while providing valuable information on the effects of an intervention, might fit the stereotyped reporting style that many avoid.

Low-level Application of Quantitative Techniques Papers using low-level applications of quantitative techniques include many with a focus on the education areas including consideration of youth and student experience (Figure 3). There are, however, papers with low-level applications of quantitative techniques that look at issues categorised under Health. Hendel (1995) in a mixed methods study, sought to expand on previous research into observable characteristics of professional groups of musicians by identifying the primary factors contributing to effective elementary teaching of music. The quantitative component of this study includes an analysis of the instructional patterns of a group of 9 teachers, supporting further discussion of the frequency of such patterns, differences in teachers and potential links to other classroom factors (e.g., demographics of the group). While a detailed descriptive study of the data allowed Hendel to objectively discuss the teaching styles and strategies used by a group of recognized music specialists, the associated qualitative component supported and enriched the discussion of the findings and thus the

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

43

potential learnings for readers of this work. Figure 3. Chart of the theme areas in which the 52 papers with low-level application of quantitative technique were focused.

Note: the width of the lines indicates the strength of the relationships.

Gender differences are a focus of much music research and comparisons of the relative frequency with which males and females undertake actions can be very informative. Wallis (2011), for example, explored the question of whether the behaviours and gestures of male and female performers in music videos differed. Following a rigorous assessment procedure of such videos by trained observers, a frequency tabulation of the occurrence of identified gestures was undertaken from a broad sample of music videos popular at the time. The findings highlight areas of difference including markedly greater occurrences of “flinging hands/finger” by males (51.33% to 30.48%), significantly higher “touching hair” by females (38.35% to 1.24%), but little difference in “childish fingers to/in mouth (males 1.31% to females 3.08%). Other approaches that apply some level of quantitative techniques in the set of identified papers include literature review procedures. For example, Brooks (2003), in a history of the publication of music therapy articles, presented frequency assessments of various characteristics of journal articles within the scope of his study. He identified the proportion of quantitative papers in different areas of music therapy, and also compared the change over time – an approach similar to that adopted here to discuss an identified literature set. Among the methodologies used to undertake quantitative research, surveys are a very widely used tool for data collection. Although a wide range of

44

Chapter Three

analytical procedures can be used to assess survey data, a relatively simple descriptive presentation can provide a rich profile of the issue under consideration. Kotora (2005), in a survey of Ohio music teachers and academics, sought information on the use of assessment practices used in choral music classrooms. He tabulated, for a range of practices, not only the proportion of teachers who used each strategy (e.g., concert performances, participation or written tests) but also the reasons behind such inclusion – from institutional requirement to personal choice. Case Study One provides another example of how a music researcher used lowlevel quantitative research methods in a survey to collect and analyse data (see Box 2).

Box 2 - Case Study 1 - Application Participants for the survey were recruited via invitations transmitted in letters, emails, and flyers sent to professional jazz musicians, tertiary music institutions, jazz clubs and jazz organisations in Australia. It was also broadcast as a radio announcement on a regional station. Two hundred and nine responses were received, where 208 participants answered an online survey, and one responded via a printed version of the survey. The transformation of observations from literature into quantitative results is perhaps best illustrated by tracing one single variable. In reading, I had encountered conflicting comments on the relevance of the 12 Key Approach. The 12 Key Approach is a popular practice strategy of jazz musicians for practising songs in all twelve keys. The strategy, traditionally employed by instrumentalists (for example, Berliner, 1994), was seen as unnecessary for singers (for example, Lapin, as cited in Greennagel, 1997). The discrepancy produced a conclusion in the review that there is a perceived difference in the relevance of the 12 Key Approach for jazz vocalists and instrumentalists. The perceived difference was then converted into a question for the survey, which was designed using Survey Monkey. One question the survey asked was, “Is it helpful to your work as a jazz instrumentalist/singer to learn the same song in all 12 keys?” The response options were “yes,” “no” and “don’t know.” There were 202 participants who responded to this particular question. Data was collected online, saved as an Excel file and imported into PASW. Drawing on the data generated by the questions I could see whether the respondents were vocalists or instrumentalists and whether they had

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

45

selected “yes,” “no” or “don’t know.” The results are shown in a contingency table (see Table 1.1). Table 1.1. Jazz musicians’ perceptions of whether learning a song in all 12 keys is helpful to their work. COUNT Instrumentalists Vocalists TOTAL

Yes 84 11 95

No 48 48 96

Don’t Know 7 4 11

TOTAL 139 63 202

Using this information I directed PASW to conduct a chi square analysis to see if there was any pattern in how participants answered the question. From my background reading, I learnt to interpret the finding and write up the result as (X2 (2) = 35.111, p < .000). This analysis showed that there is a highly significant difference between the responses of vocalists and instrumentalists regarding the perceived helpfulness of the 12 Key Approach to their work. I converted the data into a chart for reporting (see Figure 1.1). Figure 1.1. Conversion of data into a chart showing jazz musicians’ perceptions of whether learning a song in all 12 keys is helpful to their work.

Response options

17.5% Yes 60.4%

76.2% No 34.5%

Vocalists

6.3% Don't know 5.0%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Percentage of survey respondents

90%

100%

46

Chapter Three

This example provides insights into the sources of support available – references and statistical analytical tools. Conducting quantitative analysis does not require becoming an expert in everything, and it also does not mean doing all the calculations by hand – the critical element is the generation of meaningful results that contribute to the research. This highlights a feature of mixed methods research (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004), the domain of those using both quantitative and qualitative approaches, where one of the challenges is having the skills for both techniques. While this is indeed a challenge, entering the water at the shallow end of the quantitative experience, and seeking support from and collaboration with others can make this possible.

Moderate-level of Application of Quantitative Techniques Papers rated as using a moderate-level of application of quantitative techniques utilized either significant planning, for example, conducting a major survey with high response numbers, and/or the use of detailed statistical analysis. Although many of this group were focused on Health there were numerous papers that explored issues with education and training, performance issues and also youth (Figure 4). Figure 4. Chart of the theme areas in which the 93 papers with moderate-level qualitative technique were focused.

Note: the width of the lines indicates the strength of the relationships.

Economics education is not normally an area linked to music. McClough and Heinfeldt (2012) looked at the effectiveness of using music in the teaching of economic concepts. They discuss the use of songs (music and lyrics) as a teaching strategy in economics lectures and from this exploration develop an econometric model to assess performance where the use of music was a factor. While a significant positive impact of music

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

47

was found, the conclusions did bring some qualitative judgments into the analysis – thus suggesting a song by Styx with lyrics pertinent to unemployment may have been more relevant than the alternative song chosen to illustrate competing visions of human behaviours. Music is also widely reported in the rehabilitation literature. Thus Lim, Miller, and Fabian (2011) reported on research which assessed the effects of music therapy of the outcomes of physical rehabilitation comparing the effects of Therapeutic Instrumental Music Performance (TIMP) with those from Traditional Occupational Therapy (TOT). Using a range of measures of patient perceptions (e.g., “patient perceived fatigue scale”) which they assessed through various statistical tests (e.g., t-tests, correlations, reliability, MANOVA) they found a strong relationship between the use of TIMP and the perception of fatigue and exertion in patients – important in their capacity to take patients through rigorous physical rehabilitation.

High-level of Application of Quantitative Techniques: The Big Scary Stuff Papers using a high-level of application of quantitative techniques are closer to the stereotype of the paradigm of positivism. Certainly in even looking at such papers, compared to those in the first group, there is a need to have a familiarity with quantitative terminology and also style. There are generally numerous tables, extensive reference to statistical techniques, such as MANOVAs, t-tests, factor analysis, and numerous technical references to statistical significance. Figure 5. Chart of the theme areas in which the 33 papers with high-level qualitative technique were focused.

Note: the width of the lines indicates the strength of the relationships.

48

Chapter Three

As can be seen from Figure 5, the papers undertaking the more complex applications of statistics, such as controlled experiments, tend to be associated more with medical themes such as mental health or autism, with the reporting also frequently in medical journals as well as the Journal of Music Therapy. Case Study 2 (Box 3) provides an example of such material undertaken with a direct music focus. Box 3 - Case Study 2 - Reflections Another area of music that is ideal for the use of moderate or high-level applications is that of music pedagogy, the art and science of teaching instruments and voice. Teachers often have strong beliefs about how they go about the process of teaching but it is actually quite simple to identify outcomes and measure them with quantitative research. This recent PhD study focused on an aspect of vocal pedagogy, namely breathing using a particular method known as Accent Method Breathing (Morris, 2013). A simple two-group design was used with experimental and control groups. Data was collected pre- and post-intervention and then a range of statistical analyses were carried out to identify change within and/or differences between the groups. In an effort to overcome the subjective nature of singing itself a judgment of preference was also used with the judgments of experienced singing teachers taken on a standard sung passage, which was recorded pre- and post-intervention. These judgments of preference were also easily converted to a numerical value to allow statistical analysis. The rest of this box provides an example of the findings and discussion from one research project, demonstrating the use of a Control and Experimental group for comparing effects and also the use of statistical analysis. In this case all analysis is based on t-tests – thus assessing if there is a difference in the mean scores of each group. All tables include details on the mean scores (M), their standard deviations (SD), the calculated test statistic (t), the degrees of freedom (df – related to the sample size) and the significance of the test – with significant differences identified – thus accepting a 5% level of type 1 error.

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

49

Table 3.1 Assessment levels for different measures for the Control and Experimental group at initiation with differences assessed using independent t-tests. Measurement

Group

M

SD

t

df

MPT /a/

Control Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental

20.33 17.94 23.34 18.93 21.56 21.61 37.57 35.73 155 159 243 265 153 171 223 220

6.01 4.30 6.86 4.37 5.90 6.32 3.48 2.55 69 55 77 117 74 54 72 104

1.240

27

Sig. (2tailed) .226

2.081 * -.020

27

0.47

27

.984

1.631

27

.115

-.170

26

.866

-.585

26

.564

-.732

26

.471

.088

26

.931

MPT /i/ Av DR Max Semi MFR /a/ MFR /a/8va MFR /i/ MFR /i/8va

Note. MPT = maximum phonation time in seconds; Av DR = average dynamic range in decibels; Max Semi = maximum number of semitones sung; MFR = mean flow rate in mls/sec; 8va = one octave above modal pitch. * p < .05.

A t-test for equality of means was then performed to identify any significant differences between the two groups regarding vocal function characteristics (Table 3.1). There was only one significant difference identified. The MPT of the /i/ vowel was longer in the control group than in the experimental group at the p < .05 level of significance. All other pairs of evaluated results showed no significant differences and the groups were felt to be appropriately randomised and equivalent prior to the experiment. This use of appropriate quantitative methods allowed the researcher to know with some degree of certainty that the two study groups were equivalent prior to the intervention. The next stage was to consider the effect of the intervention, with initial results presented in Table 3.2.

Chapter Three

50

Table 3.2 Maximum phonation times in seconds via the microphone for recordings /a/ and /i/, with results from paired t-tests assessing difference across the intervention. Group/Task Control /a/ Pre /a/ Post /i/ Pre /i/Post Experimental /a/ Pre /a/Post /i/ Pre i/ Post

Mean

SD

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

20.33 22.22 23.34 24.18

6.01 7.02 6.86 6.91

-1.561

13

.142

-.706

13

.493

17.94 18.19 18.93 19.63

4.30 3.91 4.37 4.87

-.255

14

.803

-.933

14

.366

Note. Pre = January (pre-intervention), Post = March (post-intervention). There were no significant differences observed post-intervention using the microphone within either the Control or Experimental Groups. Both groups showed a slightly longer phonation time post-intervention than at the initial assessment but these differences were not statistically significant. Analysis of the results between groups showed a longer phonation time for the /i/ vowel in the control group at the post-intervention recoding, (t = 2.058, df = 27, p = .049). This difference is very similar to that observed between the two groups pre-intervention and suggests that the difference seen on initial assessment has continued to exist.

The use of quantitative methods allowed the researcher to report with a strong level of confidence that the intervention did not lead to an increase in the maximum duration of phonation in the subjects in this study. This is actually contradictory to findings reported previously in the literature on speakers. From Table 3.3 it is clear that the Experimental group had a significantly wider dynamic range post-intervention than they did at their initial preintervention assessment. The Control group showed no statistically significant differences across the two testing points. This suggests that the intervention received by the Experimental group was responsible for bringing about change.

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

51

Table 3.3 Average dynamic range in decibels by Control and Experimental groups Group/Task

M

SD

t

df

Cont Pre Cont Post Exp Pre Exp Post

21.56 24.40 21.61 28.41

5.90 4.32 6.32 3.45

-1.843

13

Sig (2tailed) .088

-4.757 ***

14

.000

Note. Cont = control group; Exp = experimental group. *** p < .001. The use of appropriate quantitative methods makes it possible to state, with less than a one percent chance that the difference is due to other factors, and that the method under examination is effective in bringing about change in the experimental group

Reported in the literature are numerous studies that assess the effect of musical interventions. Pelham et al. (2011) looked at the capacity for music and videos to act as distractors in the classroom for boys with ADHD, while Allen et al. (2013) considered verbal and physiological responsiveness to music in those with autism. Both studies used control groups and both had relatively small sample sizes – reflecting the difficulty in recruitment, the complexity of the study and also the rigor of the instruments used. Both studies used instruments to assess responses: Pelham et al. used a wide range of tests (IQ, developmental skills and teacher rating scales) while Allen et al. used a screening instrument to check on inclusion characteristics, then sets of words to which the participants were asked to respond, and then a physiological measure of response to several sets of music stimuli. The results from both experiments were reported after very detailed methodological explanations. Both studies used detailed statistical techniques for analysis, and both also were able to report interesting conclusions. Pelham et al. concluded that: Perhaps the most robust finding is that although children with ADHD had generally worse behavior than controls in the classroom setting, the difference was exacerbated by a video distractor (see Table 3). That is, when a movie was playing in the classroom, the behaviour and productivity of all children suffered, but the amount of the decline was significantly greater for children with ADHD than for controls. (p. 1094)

With regard to the responsiveness to the stimulation, Allen et al. (2013) reported:

52

Chapter Three However, the difference in verbal responsiveness suggests that caution needs to be exercised when using a self-report format to record responses when studying musically-evoked emotions in listeners… Studies relying solely on verbal report measures may conclude that participants are impaired in emotional responsiveness when in fact the deficit is due to participants’ reduced ability to verbalise their emotions. (p. 441)

So far we have reviewed the use of quantitative techniques in existing music research and observed its application in low-, moderate- and highlevel cases. We shall now explore the constraints that may discourage readers from considering quantitative techniques as a viable research option. These are the Big Three T’s.

The Big Three T’s: Things the Researcher Needs to Know Before doing battle with quantitative research, it can be beneficial for any new researcher to arm themselves with the Big Three T’s: Terminology, Techniques, and Tools. Knowledge of these three aspects, we believe will increase the researcher’s perception of quantitative research as a viable option. First we shall introduce some of the basic terms and concepts that are essential in making a decision about which techniques to use, including references for more detailed support to assist with using the chosen techniques.

Terminology As in any field, there is an extensive language associated with quantitative research. In all areas of research we collect data. What we mean by data varies according to the source, such as interview transcripts, survey responses to video clips, test results or even the results of literature searches. Quantitative research focuses on finding measurable amounts associated with variables, which are the things one collects information on that vary in value. Thus, aspects such as gender, the age of respondents, or musical appreciation in individuals would be classed as variables. A useful tool for beginners seeking to master the terminology is a pocket glossary of research terms (for example, Holosko & Thyer, 2011). Case Study 1 (Box 4) provides an example of how the hurdle of new terminology was approached when first engaging in quantitative research.

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

53

Box 4 - Case Study 1: Terminology Having decided on quantitative inquiry, I promptly purchased the hallowed academic masterpiece Statistics for Dummies (Rumsey, 2003). The first obstacle I encountered was an overload of jargon. The amount of new vocabulary to master was overwhelming, particularly when the definition of one concept relied on understanding others. In the end, I created my own glossary to help me decipher what I was reading. Writings in books and websites seemed a reasonable starting place however one lesson I garnered was that statistics is a very large field. There are dozens of tests you may never use but as a beginner you do not know what you do not need to know. It took me six chapters of Discovering Statistics Using SPSS (Field, 2009) to realize that because I was using categorical data I only needed chi square analysis. This was a vital piece of information I missed in my earlier reading. I concluded from this that while books and website have their place; the most helpful source of information is people. People who have trodden this path before are the quickest and most direct way to obtain information and answer your specific questions. I suspect if I had spoken to someone earlier, I may not have misspent my time.

Techniques: Using Statistics When collecting data it is important to consider what to do with this data and also how to present it. In moving to a quantitative technique there is a focus on using and talking about “numbers.” It is not uncommon to deal with many numbers and potentially formulas that indicate what to do with those numbers. While many quantitative researchers have a strong background in statistics with experience in calculating the statistics they use, this does not preclude others with less experience from accessing such techniques in their research. Increasingly, researchers are able to undertake statistical analysis through software packages that do the extensive calculations required. The key issue for researchers is to be able to: (a) identify the appropriate techniques required; (b) undertake the analysis and access the results; and (c) interpret the results and also address any issues relating to satisfying appropriate assumptions. An example reflection (Box 5) is provided as a way of highlighting the differences in how people read quantitative reports.

54

Chapter Three

Box 5 - Reflections from a regular user of quantitative methods When looking at books or papers that present quantitative material (research or techniques) I will often skim over any formulae or highly technical coverage as I read the article. Because I feel comfortable about the methods, techniques and language, I know I can come back, if needed, and look at them in more detail, and I also know that I do not need to go into them in any great depth to get the message from the article. From talking with students who are not comfortable with quantitative material, it often sounds like they come to a complete halt when they see the equations – thus even the style of quantitative reports is a factor that can exclude people from this technique. From experience with doing school science reports and through University study, I am familiar with the structure of these reports. The sections are generally clearly defined as to the type of material they include. Thus, if you want to understand what the question is about, you refer to the Introduction, and the overall findings are presented in the Discussion or Conclusions. The really technical content will be in the Methods and Results sections, and these can be a really hard read. Those who feel familiar with this genre understand the structure and thus know it is not necessary to read everything to actually access the required information. For people who are not confident or familiar with this genre, even the structure can be a cause of the first sign for worry. As Locke, Spiruduso, and Silverman (2013, p. 117) commented about people making the decision to do quantitative research: “Some novice researchers, traumatized by a fourth-grade encounter with fractions, see qualitative research as a way of avoiding numbers in general and statistics in particular.”

The reader’s perception of the quantitative genre is a significant factor. Thus, the major issue in using quantitative research, such as reading quantitative reports, is not necessarily in understanding the detailed technical language, but rather in feeling the confidence to proceed. The simplest and most useful first step in any report is examine the frequencies of the variables on which data have been collected – both in total number and percentage in a group. Thus, Wallis (2011) compared the frequencies of occurrence of gestures observed in music videos to support comments about different behaviours by male and female performers.

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

55

When making decisions from the data using inferential statistics, that is, where data has been sampled from the population and thus will potentially generalise about the characteristics of that population, there are terms such as hypothesis and significance that will be used very specifically. There will also be reference to a range of statistical tests that people use. Some of these tests have names like t-tests, chi-squared tests, ANOVAs, MANOVAs and discriminant analysis that describe ways of asking questions about the data. There are many reference books targeted at both introductory and advanced levels of application. In each there will be an introductory section, which will act as a guide for issues with data preparation and quality. Similarly each book will have a glossary of common terminology that offers ready access to the work. Many works also have a form of decision tree, or table, that helps the reader to rapidly decide what the options for a chosen type of analysis might be. It is not necessary to consider in detail all the tools before selecting the appropriate one. One excellent and widely used book is Andy Field’s (2009) Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. This book provides a broad introduction to data and data management. A decision tree, or the table of contents, allows the reader to select the relevant chapter e.g., a chapter on non-parametric statistics. Within each chapter there is a detailed overview of the theoretical background to the approach, a practical guide to the use of SPSS to undertake the analysis, and a detailed demonstration of how to interpret the output.

Tools There is now a wide range of user-friendly menu-driven software packages that can be used to undertake the detailed analysis. This has greatly assisted with the challenge of including quantitative research, for those researchers wanting to do so. While consultation with the literature and expertise regarding the appropriate selection, application and interpretation of statistical analysis is essential, such packages (often with acronymbased names) remove the need for the researcher to do all the calculations. One widely used example, referred to in this chapter, is the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Other tools include STATA and SAS. One of the strengths of SPSS is that it is specifically designed for the social sciences and has a user-friendly menu-driven approach making it

56

Chapter Three

relatively accessible to those with little background in this area. While SPSS does have a module (AMOS) that supports Structural Equation Modelling, there are also other specialist software programs that support higher-level analyses such as MLWin, used for multilevel modelling. In selecting these programs the researcher is moving into the domain of more complex applications. Case Study 1 (Box 6) provides an example of how a PhD candidate used tools to make quantitative research a viable option for research.

Box 6 - Case Study 1: Techniques As a novice quantitative researcher another discovery I made, is that while you need to know how to interpret results you do not have to calculate them yourself. Computer software can perform the calculations for you, although this does demand an investment in the time required to learn a new program. I chose to use PASW (formerly known as SPSS) because it was available at my university and I could seek advice from people using it. I also found I could export results from my online survey directly into PASW. With 209 responses to a survey consisting of 54 questions, the time I lost in having to learn the program was saved in not having to manually input data.

Why Should We Consider Quantitative Research? Research methods are there to support researchers to address their research question but this also raises the issue of which research questions a researcher may like to consider and why (see Box 7 for Reflections from Case Study 1). A greater level of application of quantitative approaches may allow for the examination of unexplored research questions in established areas of investigation, communicating with previously uninvolved audiences and gaining insights into uncharted territory in music research. Music researchers should feel empowered to examine questions of interest. In evaluating their research questions, if quantitative tools are considered they will be able to address many more questions with a clear approach. Including a component of quantitative research may increase the potential

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

57

impact of the research overall – an outcome many of us want from our research. One marked benefit of undertaking research is the ability to reinforce the broader recognition of the value and contribution of a discipline – often by observers as well as practitioners. The cultural and aesthetic value of music and its contribution to society is unquestioned. Is this perception enough for music research to stand against other research disciplines set before managers, administrators and research fund providers, each of whom is essential to the support of our work? Research findings can add to the strength of proposals seeking such support. At a broader level it would seem incumbent on those training music researchers to widen the perspectives of those they are supporting in order that both the operational and strategic views of the discipline can be seen. This is something that each person engaged in music research, at some point in his or her career, has the capacity to influence.

Box 7 - Case Study 1 – Motivations and RQ When I began my PhD, the most I knew about statistics was that it produced stomach ulcers. After all, every person I had ever known who studied “stats” groaned. It was therefore with trepidation (and antacid) that I entered the world of quantitative research. A statement from a guest lecturer in methodology prompted the journey. He said simply, Methodology is implied in your research question. To me, this suggested that if I looked closely at my research question, the approach to answering it would be self-evident. The comment changed my focus from, “Do I want to do quantitative or qualitative research?” to, “Is my research question seeking a quantitative or qualitative answer?” My research question arose from observing that improvising jazz vocalists differ from instrumentalists. A literature review yielded a list of 37 cited differences yet they were neither acknowledged nor incorporated when educating singers. The purpose of my research was to formally recognize the differentiations and explore their nature. Consequently my primary research question became, “How do improvising jazz vocalists differ significantly from their instrumental counterparts?”

58

Chapter Three

The research question was initially troublesome to unpack until I realized the word how has two interpretations. How can mean “by what means,” such as “How did you travel to work today?” How can also enquire about the quality of experiences, such as “How are you feeling today?” As a result, I designed a two-phase, sequential mixed methods model with complementary arms of inquiry investigating the dual interpretations of “how.” The first interpretation of the question, (how, by what means), suggested a numerical measure for determining if an attribute was a statistically significant differentiation between singers and instrumentalists. I selected a survey as an expedient way to check which of the 37 perceived differences cited in literature were experienced by adult, Australian, currently performing jazz musicians.

Marshalling Intent We argue that not only do quantitative techniques offer valuable tools to the researcher in music, but also that even without a strong quantitative background these tools are not outside the your scope in undertaking a typical music research project. While a researcher with a background as a musician may rate their quantitative skills poorly, this does not mean these methods are inaccessible. If tools that include quantitative methods best answer a key research question, then there are various supports that can assist with undertaking the proposed research. It is important that music researchers actively examine their research questions to identify aspects of their research that are best dealt with by a quantitative approach. For many music researchers quantitative methods alone will not fully address their needs but this chapter demonstrates how these methods can form a part of the analysis of the data. In many cases a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods may be most appropriate. An example reflection from Case Study 1 (Box 8) provides insights on this learning and engagement process.

Box 8 - Case Study 1 - Reflections The challenge of quantitative research in my experience was not the math but the mastering of new concepts and terminology, knowing what I needed to learn and the investment of time. The advantages of the method were clearly apparent. First, quantitative data gave me greater permission

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

59

to generalise my findings than did my qualitative data. Second, working with numbers may begin as complex but it becomes simpler. Authors Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) illustrate that with qualitative data a 17-word question can take 2,134 words to interpret (p. 194). In contrast, I found that while I began with 202 responses to one question, interpretation produced one simple answer: yes, vocalists differ. Third, I discovered the power of numbers at a Research in Music Education Conference. As a new presenter, the renowned researchers in attendance daunted me, with their serious faces asking serious questions made with serious vocabularies. I was quite surprised at the ineloquent chorus of “wow” from these same people when one of my charts flashed up on the screen. For all the words I had struggled to find, none were needed. In a single chart, the numbers said it all. Overall, quantitative research methods were an interesting learning curve for this novice researcher. My experience was limited to one formula yet it was sufficient to develop an appreciation for the strengths of the approach. Regardless of the advantages and challenges, however, I hold the belief that the decision of whether to use quantitative research is better served not by your preference for methodologies but by whether it answers your research question.

Conclusion This chapter has highlighted many of the issues facing those who consider quantitative techniques with considerable trepidation. The questions of how to do it, whether the researcher is capable of it and whether it is a major obstacle, are juxtaposed against the desire or need for the preferred research question. This challenges the researcher regarding their desire to be able to make some definite statement about their research – thus from the case study examples, were there differences between jazz vocalists and instrumental musicians, or did the Accent Method Breathing intervention have an impact? Reflection on the papers identified in the literature reveals that some of the more methodologically complex papers are ones where music is included as a tool that is a secondary focus. Many of the less usual papers suggest present or potential collaborations. For example, the numerous papers on suicide or mental health may require expertise outside what is typically

60

Chapter Three

considered by the average suicidologist or psychologist, and would certainly be beyond the usual expertise of a music researcher. While the choice to extend the research into the area of music suggests an interest or appreciation from other technical areas, it may well lead to, or be derived from, normal collaborations. Returning to the initial question posed by this chapter – whether to utilize quantitative methods within music research – the answer should not be based on expertise in statistics but on the research question being asked. Broader collaborations may well be available that support research undertaken in more cross-disciplinary areas. Developing such collaborations may support not only the act of doing the associated research but also that of gaining a richer appreciation of the place of music, through the deeper considerations that such research will entail. Whatever design is eventually chosen in the research, be it quantitative or qualitative, the first link this selected method must have is to the research question being explored. As Phelps, Sadoff, Warburton, and Ferrara (2005) succinctly state: One axiom that any fledgling researcher needs to keep in mind is this: Selection of the topic should come first; the methodology to deal with this problem should come next. (p. 23)

A final reflection behind the intent of this chapter is that not only should the research method be derived from the research question, but more importantly the strong limitation in the use of quantitative methodology in music research may also impact on the perceived role and influence of music in society. Without research that asks the questions characteristic of quantitative inquiry, music will largely be the domain of dedicated musicians, rather than extend more broadly throughout society.

References Allen, R., Davis, R., & Hill, E. (2013). The effects of autism and alexithymia on physiological and verbal responsiveness to music. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 43(2), 432–444. Asmus, E. P. & Radocy, R. E. (2006). Quantitative analysis. In R. Colwell (Ed.). MENC handbook of research methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brooks, D. (2003). A history of music therapy. Journal of Music Therapy, 40(2), 151-168.

Quantitative Research: A Viable Option for Music Researchers

61

Berliner, P. (1994). Thinking in jazz. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. London, England: Sage Publications. Greennagel, D. (1997). Jazz vocal education: A conversation with Larry Lapin. Jazz Educators Journal, 29(5), 38-41. Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns of selected music teachers. Journal of Research in Music education, 43(3), 182-203. Holosko, M. J., & Thyer, B. A. (2011). Pocket glossary for commonly used research terms. London, England: SAGE Publications. Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Kim, J., Wigram, T., & Gold, C. (2008). The effects of improvisational music therapy on joint attention behaviors in autistic children: A randomized controlled study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 38(9), 1758-1766. Koops, L. H. (2012). Music play zone II: Deepening parental empowerment as music guides for their young children. The Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(6), 333-341. Kotora, E. J., Jr. (2005). Assessment practices in the choral music classroom: A survey of Ohio high school choral music teachers and college choral methods professors. Contributions to Music education, 32(2), 65-80. Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Lim, H., Miller, K., & Fabian, C. (2011). The effects of therapeutic instrumental music performance on endurance level, self-perceived fatigue level, and self-perceived exertion of inpatients in physical rehabilitation. Journal of Music Therapy, 48(2), 124-148. Locke, L. F., Spirduso, W. W., & Silverman, S. J. (2013). Proposals that work: A guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. McCann, W. R. (2011). Focus on music 2: Exploring the musicality of children and young people with retinopathy of prematurity. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 105(5), 306-308. McClough, D., & Heinfeldt, J. (2012). Assessing the effectiveness of music lyrics in conveying economic concepts. Journal of Economics and Economic Education Research, 13(2), 55-65.

62

Chapter Three

McFerran, K., Roberts, M., & O’Grady, L. (2010). Music therapy with bereaved teenagers: A mixed methods perspective. Death Studies, 34(6), 541-565. Morris, R. (2013). The effects of Accent Method Breathing in young classical singers. Unpublished PhD thesis. Griffith University, Australia. Pelham, W.E., Jr., Waschbusch, D. A., Hoza, B. A., Gnagy, E. M., Greiner, A. R., Sams, S. E., Vallano, G., Majumdar, A., & Carter, R. L. (2011). Music and video as distractors for boys with ADHD in the classroom: Comparison with controls, individual differences, and medication effects. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(8), 1089-1098. Phelps, R. P., Sadoff, R. H., Warburton, E. C., & Ferrara, L. (2005). A guide to research in music education (5th ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Quintin, E. M., Bhatara, A., Poissant, H., Fombonne, E., & Levitin, D. J. (2011). Emotion perception in music in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(9), 1240-1255. Rumsey, D. (2003). Statistics for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing. Rustad, R., Small, J. E., Jobes, D. A., Safer, M. A., & Peterson, R. J. (2003). The impact of rock videos and music with suicidal content on thoughts and attitudes about suicide. Suicide and Life Threatening Behaviour, 33(2), 120-131. Schmutz, V., & Faupel, A. (2010). Gender and cultural consecration in popular music. Social Forces, 89(2), 685-707. Turner, J. S. (2011). Sex and the spectacle of music videos: An examination of the portrayal of race and sexuality in music videos. Sex Roles, 64(3-4), 173-191. Wallis, C. (2011). Performing gender: A content analysis of gender display in music videos. Sex Roles, 64(3-4), 160-172. Wipple, J. (2004). Music in intervention for children and adolescents with autism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Music Therapy, 41(2), 90-106.

CHAPTER FOUR NARRATIVE INQUIRY DR PETER DE VRIES MONASH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

I’ve always been drawn to stories. I’ve always made sense of my lived experiences through thinking about these experiences and retelling them (to myself or to others) as stories. My mother tells me I did this from a very young age; I would not only tell stories of what happened throughout my day at kindergarten, but I would also write these stories down (“you did this,” my mother told me, “so you wouldn’t forget what happened, so you’d have a record of what happened from day to day”). But I’m not alone in this. As Polkinghorne (1988) wrote, people tell stories to make sense of their lived experiences. When I first started reading books and journal articles about music education research in the early 1990s I was disappointed to find that so much of what I was reading was very, well, academic. This was a particular genre of writing that I struggled with at first. The problem as I saw it was that this weighty writing was not really about stories. Where were the stories of music teachers, for example? I wanted to read these because I was a music teacher. I wanted something that I could directly relate to and learn from. But it was not there. Now it is. Music education research has embraced this focus on story through narrative inquiry. Barrett and Stauffer (2009) wrote that narrative inquiry is “viewed variously as ‘story,’ as a ‘mode of knowing’ and constructing meaning, and, more recently, as a ‘method of inquiry.’ At times it is all of these simultaneously” (p. 7). Narrative inquiry takes as its premise that people live storied lives (Connelly & Clandinin, 2006). Sinclair Bell (2002) goes further: “Narrative inquiry rests on the epistemological assumption that we as human beings make sense of random experience by the imposition of story structures” (p. 207). I did not consciously realise

64

Chapter Four

this at the time, but as a beginning teacher I would finish my teaching day alone, thinking back about my day. In doing this I would take what were often a range of different events, personal interactions and feelings I had and think about these in terms of a story or series of stories. This was a way of making sense of what were often quite chaotic working days. Over dinner I would tell my flatmate these stories and he would share his day’s teaching stories in return. Rather than looking for simple, straightforward answers to research questions, narrative inquiry focuses on the complexities in personal stories (Barone, 2009). That is, narrative inquiry allows the researcher “to present experience holistically in all its complexity and richness” (Sinclair Bell, 2002, p. 209). This is often missing in other qualitative research that focuses on people’s lived experiences, where the findings of the research are presented as a series of themes that emerged from the data set, with occasional quotations from interviews, participant journals and researcher observations. The result often reads like a series of partially told, fragmented stories. Rather, narratives recover concreteness, particularity, individuality, and situatedness. They feature people as people, and actions as actions – instead of reducing them to examples of something else: data, or behaviours, viewed from somewhere ‘out there.’ Because they are situated, particular and personal, little stories can offer alternative, often resistant or counter-hegemonic versions of things like truth and reality (Bowman, 2006, p. 9).

They do this through not only focusing on what happened, but why a person believes something happened, thus capturing “the way in which people view, understand, and make sense of their experiences” (Abril, 2007, p. 23). In doing this the researcher is not looking for an objective view of what happened and why. Rather, the focus is on the way people have interpreted what they have encountered, which means focusing not only on the thoughts of people, but also their emotions (Chase, 2005). Data sources for narrative research are varied, and may include journaling, interviews, shared experiences between researcher and research participant, letter writing and biographical or autobiographical writing (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). What is paramount is the relationship between the researcher and the research participant in drawing on the research methods used in the research. Narrative inquiry is relational work between the researcher and the research participant that results in the construction of stories that are co-constructed between the researcher and

Narrative Inquiry

65

research participant (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). For example, Conway, Micheel-Mays, and Micheel-Mays (2005) focused on the narratives of two teachers, a student teacher and a first year teacher, to answer the research question what challenges and struggles are articulated by both these teachers in their teaching lives? The relational work between the researcher and the two teachers was foregrounded in the findings of the study being presented as a “collective response” between the three to the research question. Narrative researchers recognise that they are narrators in the narratives they present. The researcher’s own stories intersect and overlap with the stories of their research participants (Connelly & Clandinin, 2006), so it is crucial that they “reflect upon their inquiry dispositions and the set of values and beliefs that are brought to the inquiry process” (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009, p. 10) and make these explicit to the reader. This means that the researcher will often write themselves into the narratives they present so that the reader is clear about their dispositions. A narrative researcher does more than merely collect stories. Barrett and Stauffer (2009) argue that narrative inquiry “requires the careful analysis of narrative data against a series of frames including those of the research participant, the researcher, and the larger cultural narratives in which individuals are situated” (p. 11). What is key, particularly when it comes to conducting participant interview data, is that “narrative researchers begin with narrators’ voices and stories, thereby extending the narratorlistener relationship … rather than locating distinct themes across interviews, narrative researchers listen first to the voice within each narrative” (Chase, 2005, p. 663). Clandinin and Connelly (2000) stress that narrative data be examined forward and backward, examining lived experience not only in the present, but as it was experienced in the past, and how it might be experienced in the future. The researcher also has an obligation to think about the way narratives are ultimately presented, or re-presented. The construction of narratives may often take on literary qualities, taking narrative data and constructing this into a story that can appeal to a reader’s imagination (Polkinghorne, 1995). In providing rich, thick narratives the researcher can write narratives that are open to multiple interpretations on the reader’s behalf. This does not mean that the researcher does not discuss the narratives that are presented and draws out implications from the narratives (for example, Abril, 2007; Barrett, 2009). Rather, it means that readers are in the unique position of

66

Chapter Four

experiencing a holistic narrative and judging for themselves what the narrative means to them.

Narrative Inquiry and Music Education Research Since the beginning of the 21st century music education research has steadily embraced narrative inquiry, with four international conferences focusing solely on narrative inquiry in music education research. These conferences have also resulted in a collection of essays and articles. Edited by Margaret Barrett and Sandra Stauffer, Narrative Inquiry in Music Education: Troubling Certainty (2009) showcases the many and varied ways that narrative has been employed in music education research, focusing on both formal and informal music learning and practices, being a music teacher and becoming a music teacher. A number of the chapters provide examples of the crucial role that relationality between researcher and research participants plays. For example, Cleaver (2009) not only has constructed a narrative of his subject Jeremiah, but also provides his own researcher narrative. The research presented in Narrative Inquiry in Music Education demonstrates what Bowman (2006) wrote about narrative inquiry, that it “attempts to understand music and music education from the bottom up and from the inside out – offering to restore some of the power and significance of which they have been deprived by off-the-rack, one-size-fits-all accounts” (p. 13). For example, Langston (2009) gave voice to one person, Henry, and his engagement within a community choir through the lens of social capital. This very individual account of engagement in a community choir counters previous research about adult involvement in choirs. The scholarship in Narrative Inquiry in Music Education also speaks beyond an academic audience due to the way in which the narratives are presented, often drawing on literary forms of writing, thus making the research presented more accessible to a wider audience, or as Jorgensen (2009) wrote of narrative inquiry, it may be “particularly accessible to music teachers, and it demonstrates ways to do scholarship that are significant and relevant to the thought and practice of music education” (p. 79). Stauffer and Barrett (2009) warned, however, that “narrative is not a panacea, but rather one way to make audible the voices, experiences, and meanings of individuals and communities engaged in music and to raise those questions that are often left unasked” (p. 19). Alongside in Narrative Inquiry in Music Education Barrett’s (2009) own

Narrative Inquiry

67

article in the Journal of Early Childhood Research, “Sounding lives in and through music: A narrative inquiry of the ‘everyday’ musical engagement of a young child,” is an excellent starting point for those new to narrative research. It sets out to explicitly demonstrate to the reader why narrative inquiry has been used, and then demonstrates how she has done this in the way a young child and his family “draw on musical engagement and use in their daily life” (p. 115). Through a series of narrative vignettes that draw on sources of data such as a video diary and interviews Barrett demonstrated how central musical engagement can be in the lives of young families, and in doing this offers key issues surrounding parenting and parenting education.

An Insider’s Perspective on Using Narrative Inquiry in Music Education Research As a music education researcher who has used narrative inquiry I will now provide an insider account of the way I used narrative inquiry in a research project. As a lecturer in music education I teach approximately 300 students each year who graduate as generalist primary school teachers. The majority of these students have minimal music backgrounds, yet are expected to teach music as generalist teachers. Over the years I have met some of my graduates who have spoken to me about the difficulties of teaching music as a beginning generalist teacher. As a result, in 2010 I decided to conduct some research that focussed on what music first year generalist primary school teachers were teaching, and in particular what impact their preservice music education training had on this teaching (de Vries, 2011). Of the first year teachers, 112 completed a written survey, and from this group 24 teachers agreed to be interviewed. The survey revealed that only 37% of the respondents were regularly teaching music. Survey and interview data revealed a range of reasons for teachers not teaching music regularly, including inadequate preservice teacher education in music, lack of time to teach music, lack of access to teaching resources, absence of teaching spaces and inadequate relevant professional development. Twelve months after I published a journal article about this study I re-read over the details of the study. I felt there was something missing, namely the individual voices of the teachers I had interviewed. In the study I had analysed the interview data for common themes and presented this through a series of interview quotes alongside the survey data. As I re-read the findings I felt that I had been true to the data in uncovering core themes,

68

Chapter Four

but in doing this I had lost some of the in-depth stories individual teachers in interview had told me. With this in mind I decided to conduct a followup study to further explore these teachers’ experiences teaching music. Following ethics approval I tried to contact the 24 teachers initially interviewed. Five indicated that they would be prepared to be part of this follow-up study. It was at this point, knowing that I had only five participants, that I began thinking about narrative inquiry as the methodology to drive the study. With only five participants there was the opportunity to employ a narrative methodology and present the kinds of holistic, in-depth narratives that I had read in other studies that tended to focus on a small number of participants. In particular Abril’s (2007) study that investigated adult singing anxieties arising within a music methods course, served as a template, as it focused on three participants’ narratives, which were each presented as narrative cases that were then discussed collectively. In revisiting the interview data from the original study it became apparent that self-efficacy was key to the teachers’ teaching (or not teaching) music. Self-efficacy is “perceived operative capability” (Bandura, 1977, p. 646) whereby an individual reaches a level of success that is desired. Central to self-efficacy is a teacher’s belief in their capability to undertake a task. Their belief is realised through teacher commitment, enthusiasm and in many cases changed teaching behaviours (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). Self-efficacy beliefs are predictors of future actions (Bandura, 1977). Therefore, high self-efficacy is desirable as being high in self-efficacy means that teachers make a judgement that they can perform a task or solve a problem and that they are confident that they have the knowledge and skills to plan and implement a course of action (Garvis & Pendergast, 2010, p. 7).

In the follow-up study I decided to explore the five teachers’ self-efficacy when it came to the teaching of music. Thus, self-efficacy was the conceptual framework of the study that allowed for the in depth exploration of understanding these primary school generalist teachers’ practices and beliefs about teaching music. The data consisted of interviews with the five participants. An initial telephone interview of 30 minutes was conducted with each participant. These interviews were transcribed, and then sent to participants for verification. Apart from being a form of member checking to ensure that

Narrative Inquiry

69

the transcripts were accurate, this also served as the foundation for subsequent face-to-face interviews. I asked the teachers to not only re-read the initial transcripts, but to think about other things that related to what they had talked about, particularly any points which they did not mention which they thought would be important to discuss. The initial telephone interview asked the participants to talk about their current music teaching practices, including their confidence in teaching music; whether they view themselves as being musical; if their preservice teacher education training had impacted on their current music teaching practices; the types of music activities they taught; any interaction they might have with a specialist music teacher in the school; access to and use of music education resources; and whether they had accessed any professional development focusing on music. The subsequent face-to-face interviews were more open-ended. They lasted 45–60 minutes, were audio recorded and then transcribed. In analysing the interview transcripts I was particularly focused on what the participants had to say about their self-efficacy in relation to teaching music. Rather than looking for common themes across the transcripts I read and re-read the telephone interview and subsequent face-to-face interview transcripts for each participant, treating them as individual cases. In focusing on self-efficacy it soon became apparent that in each case the participants’ stories had the elements of character, setting, a problem (or problems) faced, actions taken to address the problem(s), and resolution. Ollerenshaw & Creswell (2002) identified these elements as being the five elements of plot structure that can be analysed and then organised into a sequence of events that are subsequently restoried by the researcher (p. 333). Interview transcripts for each participant were colour coded for these elements of plot structure, which were then organised into a table. Each table was used as the data to restory the interview data into narratives that began with the problem(s) the teacher faced and concluded with resolution to that question or problem. Each story included details about characters (including myself as the researcher being told the story), the setting of the story, and the actions undertaken to address the problem(s). Once the narratives were written I went back to the original interview data and read this beside the narrative to ensure that I had not left out any key aspects in relation to music teaching and self-efficacy. Finally, these narratives were sent to each participant for feedback. Four of the five participants commented that they liked the strategy I had used of including myself in each narrative. This strategy of using “the researcher’s interactive voice” (Chase, 2005, p. 666) was employed so that I was up front about my own

70

Chapter Four

role in the interviews, including my own reactions to what I was being told by each participant. To demonstrate how I restoried this interview data into narratives I will now provide an example of one of the narratives, followed by a brief discussion of what was written. This is Melinda’s story.

Melinda’s Story Melinda is employed at a public school where she teaches grade 4. She has taught at this school since she began teaching. She is also what she describes as the “de facto” school music teacher. She does not teach her class after lunch; rather, for the final hour of each school day she teaches music, half an hour for each class in the school. Other teachers take her grade 4 class when she conducts these music lessons. Melinda plays the piano and sings in a community choir. Her interest in choral singing resulted in her starting a school choir 18 months ago, which in turn led to her teaching music: “The principal saw that I had that skill set and that passion for music, so now I teach music to the whole school and take two choirs.” Prior to becoming the de facto music teacher at the school Melinda taught grade 3. In interview at the end of her first year teaching she stated that she taught music to her class as part of her weekly teaching. This included a “standalone music lesson” as well as integrating music into other aspects of her teaching. School has finished for the day and we are sitting in the school “multipurpose” room. In it is an upright piano, an interactive whiteboard, and chairs stacked in one corner of the room. Rows of cupboards line two of the walls. Melinda tells me half the cupboard space “belongs to the Chinese teacher, but the rest is mine.” In it are a range of classroom percussion instruments, songbooks and CDs. “This is where I take music lessons and my two choirs,” she says, smiling. “It’s a good space, nice and light and airy, with plenty of room.” Although we talk about her classroom music teaching, it is her choirs that she is particularly interested in talking about, particularly her senior choir, with 25 members from grades 4 to 6. She explains, What happened is I used to only have one choir, but it became so big and so popular that I had to form two choirs. I mean I had 60 kids in it, from grade 1 to 6. It was too much, and finding songs that were right for all the children just wasn’t happening.

Narrative Inquiry

71

The senior choir has now been running for two school terms. “We started doing pop stuff basically – pop stuff that was for choirs, but still just pop music. The kids loved it. Recent hits. But it wasn’t enough.” She pauses “Why not?” I ask. “I guess based on what I’d been doing I was thinking I needed to stretch them [the children],” Melinda says. “What were you doing?” I ask. “Singing in my local choir,” Melinda says “Our conductor has us singing a range of repertoire – a bit of classical, some traditional songs, some older show tunes, and more contemporary music. I think that children should be exposed to a range of music too.”

Melinda also told me that she had attended a professional development day that was essentially a choral workshop for music teachers: “That was an amazing day. I got to see these excellent conductors conducting and talking about what they do. I came away thinking ‘I haven’t even really been teaching my children to sing properly.’ It got me thinking about the way I teach singing, particularly in choir.” Melinda decided to introduce some new repertoire to the choir and focus on some of the techniques she had learnt in her choral workshop. The first rehearsal was “a disaster. I told them we were going to learn some new songs and it just didn’t work.” Melinda had brought in a two-part (soprano and alto) arrangement of the spiritual Nobody Knows the Trouble I’ve Seen. She told the group this was a Negro spiritual and began teaching them the song: “This was when it all fell apart … There I was at the piano giving the sopranos a starting note, and nothing happened. Nothing.” Melinda soon realised that the choir members were unable to sight sing. As they did not know the song – even though Melinda had sung them the chorus – they were unable to sing the melody. “All the material we’d been singing they already knew from the radio and TV and online. I couldn’t believe I hadn’t realised this!” Rather than go back to “pop stuff only,” Melinda persisted. She started teaching the song phrase by phrase, “but I could see this was boring some of the girls, so I stopped this and moved on to another song the choir had already learnt.” The following week, however, she found a recording of that arrangement of the spiritual: So what I did probably isn’t what professional conductors do, but it worked … I’d play them a couple of phrases on the CD, get them to follow the contour of the melody on the score, do that a couple of times, then get

72

Chapter Four them to sing with the CD … then after that without the CD and me on the piano playing the melody while they sung (sic).

Melinda judged that this strategy worked: “The children were really getting into the song and said they liked it.” In addition to positive feedback from the children there was also positive feedback from the choir’s parent helper, Miriam, who each week helped to set up the room for rehearsal and stayed for the rehearsal. “Miriam came up to me after that rehearsal and congratulated me on getting the kids to sing the song. She said it sounded really good.” Later, she informed me that Miriam was not only a parent, “but a really good singer herself.” Melinda invited me to listen to the choir’s first performance of the song, on school assembly. Afterwards, she commented, “The alto part is barely there … they all end up singing the soprano line. Still, people seemed to like it. Lots of positive feedback from teachers and parents.” Melinda however, was not content to leave it at that: “We went back and I worked just with the altos for three weeks running for about fifteen minutes in each rehearsal … then the following week we rehearsed with the sopranos. In two weeks we’d nailed it.” She takes out a second CD: “This is it, they performed this at our music morning tea for parents.” This version of the song has a clear alto line present throughout. I congratulate Melinda, who is beaming. She has her hand on her heart and says, “I’m so proud of them; they did such a good job. Listening to it again I get goosebumps, I’m that proud of them!” I tell Melinda that I can relate to what she felt, that I had experienced similar positive sensations when, for the first time, I felt that the choir I was conducting as a novice music teacher had similarly “nailed it.” Melinda is now focused on having her choir expand their repertoire base even further: “And I’m wanting to really challenge them in terms of their part work … I’m thinking of doing a three part song soon. It’s kind of scary, but in a good way!” Melinda experienced all four influences that Bandura (1997) identified as influencing self-efficacy. She was vicariously influenced by attending a choral workshop where she observed choral conductors working with teachers like herself; verbal persuasion came in the form of positive feedback from Melinda, the parent helper in her choir whose opinion she respected; physiological arousal was encountered when she listened back to her choir performing in two parts successfully; and she encountered a mastery experience when she realised that she had achieved the goal of having the choir sing in two parts successfully. The latter did not come

Narrative Inquiry

73

without some obstacles along the way. However, Melinda identified these obstacles and trialled other strategies to achieve her goal. This tenacity suggests that even at this point in her choral teaching Melinda was highly efficacious. Her concluding comments indicate that she is not only optimistic about similar future teaching tasks, but intends to challenge herself (and her students) even further. I repeated this narrative structure for each of the participants. That is, I began with a paragraph providing background to the teacher. This established the central character. Next, the setting of the story was established, which in Melinda’s case was the multipurpose room, which was not only where I conducted the interview, but also where she taught music. Early on in the story the initial problem that Melinda faced is revealed: that she wanted to challenge her senior choir in terms of repertoire, moving beyond singing pop music. The action initially taken was Melinda attending a professional development session, which then led to her deciding to teach her choir the song Nobody Knows the Trouble I’ve Seen. However, she encountered a second problem in that the children were not adequately learning the song. This led Melinda to action in terms of modifying the way she taught the song to the choir. Finally, the resolution of the narrative came in the form of the choir successfully performing the song, as evidenced in the first recording of the song that Melinda shared with me. Thus the five elements of plot structure as identified by Ollerenshaw and Creswell (2002) were used as the backbone to restorying the interview data obtained from Melinda. The narrative case concludes with a paragraph identifying what influenced Melinda’s selfefficacy in her teaching. In presenting this narrative I endeavoured to provide a holistic portrait of Melinda’s teaching music, with a focus on self-efficacy. While I have interpreted her interview data in this restorying, I have also identified what I see as the influences on her self-efficacy. As a story, I hope that it is a self-contained piece of writing that can be experienced by the reader and interpreted by the reader in multiple ways, so that different people, depending on their backgrounds, will take away different things from the story.

Coda I have not read any music education research that presents the kind of story that is Melinda’s lived experience. Narrative inquiry allows for the telling of such stories, these individual, situated stories like Melinda’s story. Her story is not interview data that has been analysed and presented

74

Chapter Four

as a series of core themes. Her story is her story. I believe that these stories, and other research stories have the real potential to connect with an audience that moves beyond academia. These stories make us think, they make us feel, we can reflect on our own situations in relation to these stories and learn from them. With this in mind I think that the appeal of narrative inquiry in music education research will continue to grow. I know that I struggle to get my undergraduate students to read academic research articles about music education except when an article draws on narrative inquiry and tells a story. For example, when discussing the fear of singing that many students have in my classes it is the article by Abril (2007), the three narratives of singing anxiety, that students find engaging. The article opens up discussion about why so many people have this fear of singing. The article is a conversation starter, an opportunity for these students to compare how they feel with the characters in Abril’s narratives. This is a practical example of research impacting on the (future) teaching profession, and surely that is one of the key roles of music education research. Narrative research can do this.

References Abril, C. (2007). I have a voice but I just can’t sing: A narrative investigation of singing and social anxiety. Music Education Research, 9(1), 1-15. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. —. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. PsychologicalReview, 84, 191–215. Barone, T. (2009). Commonalities and variegations: Notes on the maturation of the field of narrative research. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(2), 149-153. Barrett, M.S. & Stauffer, S.L. (2009). Narrative inquiry: From story to method. In M.S. Barrett & S.L. Stauffer (Eds.) Narrative inquiry in music education (pp. 7-34). Dordrecht: Springer. Barrett, M. S., & Stauffer, S. (Eds.). (2009). Narrative inquiry in music education: Troubling certainty. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Publications. Bowman, W. (2006). Why narrative? Why now? Research Studies in Music Education, 27(1), 5-20. Barrett, M. S. (2009). Sounding lives in and through music: A narrative inquiry of the ‘everyday’ musicalengagement of a young child. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 7(2), 115–134.

Narrative Inquiry

75

Chase, S. E. (2005). Narrative inquiry: Multiple lenses, approaches, voices. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.) The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp. 651-679). Thousand oaks: Sage. Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cleaver, D. (2009). Storying the musical lifeworld: Illumination through narrative case study. In M.S. Barrett & S.L. Stauffer (Eds.) Narrative inquiry in music education (pp. 35-56). Dordrecht: Springer. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (2006). Narrative inquiry. In J. L. Green, G. Camilli, P. Elmore (Eds.), Handbook of complementary methods in education research (3rd ed.) (pp. 477 - 487). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(4), 2–14. Conway, C., Micheel-Mays, C., Micheel-Mays, L. (2005). A narrative study of student teaching and the first year of teaching: Common issues and struggles. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 165: 66-75. Garvis, S., & Pendergast, D. (2010). Supporting novice teachers of the arts. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 11(8), 1-22. Retrieved from http://www.ijea.org/v11n8/ Jorgensen, E. R. (2009). On thick description and narrative inquiry in music education. Research Studies in Music Education, 31(1), 69-81. Langston, T. (2009). The importance of being Henry. In M.S. Barrett & S.L. Stauffer (Eds.) Narrative inquiry in music education (pp. 63-80). Dordrecht: Springer. Ollerenshaw, J., & Creswell, J. (2002). Narrative research: A comparison of two restorying data analysis approached. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(3), 329-347. Polkinghorne, D. E. (1995). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. Qualitative Studies in Education, 8(1), 5-23. —. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Sinclair Bell, J. (2002). Narrative inquiry: More than just telling stories. TESOL Quarterly, 36(2), 207 213. Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2007). Dimensions of teacher selfefficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 611-625. Stauffer, S. L., & Barrett, M. S. (2009). Narrative inquiry in music education: Toward resonant work. In M.S.Barrett & S.L. Stauffer

76

Chapter Four

(Eds.) Narrative inquiry in music education (pp. 19-29). Dordrecht: Springer. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 944–956.

CHAPTER FIVE ACTION RESEARCH DR KAY HARTWIG GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

The term action research was coined by the social psychologist Kurt Lewin in the 1940s to describe a particular kind of research that united the experimental approach of social science with programs of social action to address social problems. Lewin’s research aimed to promote social action through democratic decision-making and active participation of practitioners in the research process (Kember & Kelly, 1994, p. 2). Kemmis and McTaggart (1998) defined action research as: a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out … In education, action research has been employed in school based curriculum development, professional development, school improvements programs and systems planning and policy development. (p. 5)

Dick (1999) described action research as a family of research methodologies which pursue action (or change) and research (or understanding) at the same time. In most of its forms it does this by using a cyclic or spiral process. Thus, action research is an emergent process, which takes shape as understanding increases; it is an iterative process, which converges towards a better understanding of what happens. Gay (1987) believed the purpose of action research to be concerned with a local problem and conducted in a local setting. He stated that it is not concerned with whether the results are generalised to any other setting, with the teacher very much a part of the process.

78

Chapter Five

The action research model enables teachers to work directly in their classroom with other teachers and their students – in the natural setting. As Ira Shor described, “it [research] happens everywhere else except every day in the classroom, where it is needed” (as cited in Regelski, 1994/1995, p. 65). Action research also provides the opportunity to work collaboratively with other music teachers. Often music teachers work in isolation in their school – isolation from general teachers and also other music teachers. Kemmis and DiChiro felt that collaboration defines action research (as cited in Miller, 1996) and Kemmis and McTaggart (1998) stated that the approach is only action research when it is collaborative. According to Kuzmich (1987) there is a gap between research studies and their practical application in music education. Action researchers try to close this gap between research and practice by creating a situation in which practitioners define research problems and conduct research in such a way that the outcomes are directly useful to classroom or other educational situations (Kember & Kelly, 1994). Grundy and Kemmis (1982) described action research as: research into practice by practitioners, for practitioners … In action research, all actors involved in the research process are equal participants, and must be involved in every stage of the research … Action research of any developed kind requires that the practitioners themselves control all the aspects of the research process … The kind of involvement required is collaborative involvement. It requires a special kind of communication … which has been described as ‘symmetrical communication’ … which allows all participants to be partners of communication on equal terms … Collaborative participation in theoretical, practical and political discourse is thus a hallmark of action research and the action research process. (p. 87)

Action research has been used in many settings including business, industry and education. Carr and Kemmis (1986) defined educational action research as a term used to describe a family of activities in curriculum development, professional development, school improvement programs and systems planning and policy development. These activities have in common the identification of strategies of planned action, which are implemented and then systematically submitted to observation, reflection and change. Participants in the action being considered are integrally involved in all of these activities, which makes this a collaborative process. Practitioners of action research link the practical and the analysis of practice into a productive and continuing developing sequence in collaboration with others.

Action Research

79

Action Research in Music Education Is action research then a valuable methodology to be used in music education research? Regelski (1994–1995) identified the central problem of research application and educational change in music as arising from a basic failure to take into consideration the situatedness of the teacher’s unique world of experience. He believed that music education is carried on as a craft, having no basis for practice other than the tacit theorising of teachers who are apprenticed to teach as they were taught. While a craft merely involves a repertoire of skills, a profession demands an understanding of the concepts of that field of practice, the theory that underlies it. Regelski stated that if music teachers are to be professionalised, teaching praxis must be predicated on valid and reliable educational theory and in light of a generally accepted knowledge base concerning music, teaching and education. Regelski believed that action research is concerned with asking questions or stating problems in terms that the actors involved recognise as problems and can relate to by critiquing their own praxis, as well as apply to improving future praxis. He also believed that a turning toward action research in music education will promote a democratic form of public discussion allowing for an uncoerced flow of ideas and arguments. Have there been many action research projects conducted in music classrooms? Four examples are cited in this chapter. The first such published paper included an action research project conducted by BethAnne Miller (1996, p. 100–115), a music specialist: Integrating Elementary Music Instruction with a Whole Language First-Grade Classroom. She chose to use action research because she wanted this study to inform her teaching. The collaborative and cyclical nature of the action research model seemed to best describe her life as an elementary general music teacher and best serve her in her role as teacher-researcher. She believed that the collaborative nature of action research might be particularly appealing to specialists, such as music teachers, who traditionally have found themselves set apart from the mainstream of general classroom teachers. An unexpected positive result of the study was a marked increase in collegiality between classroom teachers and her. In the action research project, she explored ways to integrate her music instruction with the core curriculum without sacrificing the integrity of the musical agenda and was curious whether integration would enhance learning and student motivation. She collaborated with a first grade classroom teacher in

80

Chapter Five

planning and implementing integrated units based on the whole language approach that were still focused on the basic music concepts of rhythm, melody, harmony, articulation, dynamics and timbre. The study changed Miller’s view of integration from one entity to varied manifestations with different purposes, contexts, and educational functions. This informed her teaching and clarified rationales and functions for curricular activities. It also helped her move from a relatively authoritarian teaching role to a more facilitative one. The study informed her teaching in both context and style, as well as changing the whole context of her teaching. Another music action research study is reported in The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning (2002), edited by Colwell and Richardson. P. O’Toole, in 1994 conducted a study of power dynamics in the choral rehearsal class and addressed the question of why anyone would be willing to participate in the typical performance ensemble, in which the individual’s opinions, thoughts and feelings are subordinated in favour of the director’s opinions, thoughts and feelings. The research questions focused on replacing the traditional power relations of the choral music classroom with a series of three 8-week projects that implemented feminist pedagogy in three choral ensemble settings. Working in collaboration with two high school choral directors and her own choir, O’Toole used their classroom concerns to design projects that would allow greater input from students with respect to both individual responses and musical decisionmaking. O’Toole attempted to involve the students’ feelings, needs and reactions in the rehearsal setting through activities ranging from large group discussion of the poetic text, journal entries about the rehearsals and student interviews about their experiences. The data included field notes, teacher interviews, student interviews, student-conducted interviews and researcher journals. The narrative is juxtaposed with tales from classroom events and with critical commentary, verbal snapshots of interesting moments from the classroom projects and montages (a series of images that play with the points of view established in the snapshots). The action research methodology was also used in a study conducted by Costley (1993). This project involved a group of secondary music teachers, schools and the local professional development centre, and focused on the development and monitoring of anti-sexist classroom strategies and teaching materials. This action research used a spiraling process whereby, after close monitoring of a classroom situation, teachers accumulated evidence about a specific issue, which subsequently led to the planning of action steps and then positive practical action for change in the

Action Research

81

school situation. The spiral process was repeated as many times as it was felt of value for the purposes of refining and focusing the specific issue. A number of strategies arising from the project were proposed to suggest possible practical ways for change including: x teach ‘music’ rather than composers; x gender issues, which only entreat a better deal for boys in music education, should be carefully considered; x adopt girl- and women-centred ways of thinking; x create our own music in the new context so that a different voice can now be heard. Music in the Year 8 Classroom is the fourth study and was conducted by Hartwig in 2009. Hartwig wanted to generate public discussion regarding the teaching of year 8 music (the curriculum content and its delivery), develop collegiality between music teachers and collect stories of classroom events as well as students’ comments. In order for the published report to obtain credibility amongst practising music teachers, she believed the research had to be practical and involve the researcher (herself) not only as an observer, but also an equal, active participant in the study. By being involved and engaged in the classroom she would more likely, to a certain extent, become an accepted part of the class. It should be noted that it is not normal to have a second teacher in the classroom on a regular basis. One aim was to be both teacher and researcher, at the same time, in the classroom. As Paton (1987) explained: Experiencing an environment as an insider is what necessitates the participant part of participant observation. At the same time, however, there is clearly an observer side to the process. The challenge is to combine participation and observation so as to become capable of understanding the experience as an insider while describing the experience for outsiders. (p. 75)

Paton, however, then stated “the ideal is to negotiate and adopt that degree of participation which will yield the most meaningful data given the characteristics of the participants.” Atkin’s view (1989, p. 204) was that “not much progress in education is likely to take place unless teachers become agents in the improvement of their own practice.” Hartwig believed she needed to reflect on her own practice in order to set an example to other music teachers. She hoped to learn about her own practice and instead of playing the role of expert or interventionist, “to model the process of engaging in dialogue about the

82

Chapter Five

‘concrete particularities’ of our own practice” (Crites, as cited in Clandinin & Connolly, 1991, p. 268). Hartwig was not only an observer but also an equal participant in the project in an attempt to capture the essence of action research. McNiff, Lomax, and Whitehead (1996) stated that: Action researchers are intent on describing, interpreting and explaining events (enquiry) while they seek to change them (action) for the better (purpose). (p. 13)

Action Research Design There are many action research design models. Future researchers are encouraged to consult some of these designs before selecting their preferred model (for example, Cherry, 1999; Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000; McNiff & Whitehead, 2006; McNiff, Lomax, & Whitehead, 1996; Mertler, 2006). The model described in this chapter was devised by Zuber-Skerritt (1995, p. 13), as shown in Figure 1. Zuber-Skerritt described action research as “collaborative, critical and self-critical enquiry by reflective practitioners who are accountable and make the results of their enquiry public.” Action research is a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. Planning includes problem analysis and strategic planning and involves constructing a plan that is flexible so that it may cope with unforseen issues. Acting means implementing the strategic plan in an action that is deliberate and controlled. This practice means putting the ideas into action. Observing includes monitoring and evaluating the action and its impact on the participants and the stakeholders with the effects of the intended and unintended action being documented. Reflecting on the evaluation results means drawing practical and theoretical conclusions and planning the next cycle of improvement or change in the action research spiral, in light of the findings. These four phases are static steps yet “dynamic moments in the action research spiral” (Cresswell, 2012, p.112) that are flexible and allow the data to guide the research findings. Originally Zuber-Skerritt had the arrows pointing downwards and then sideways. She then changed the arrows to pointing upwards. This upward spiral indicates continuous improvement of practice and extension of knowledge – personal knowledge and knowledge in the field. The four sections of planning, acting, observing and reflecting are not static steps but as Zuber-Skerritt (1992, p. 112) described, “dynamic moments in the action research spiral.”

Action Research

83

Figure 1. Action research spiral (Zuber-Skerritt, 1995)

Zuber-Skerritt (1992) developed the CRASP model (see Figure 2) as a way of describing the use of action research for professional development in higher education. Although it was developed for the university level, the model can be used in schools as it has at its heart that action research might lead to a better understanding and improvement of learning, teaching and staff development. This model defines the research model that guided the Hartwig (2009) study. Chan’s (1993) paraphrased version of the model (as cited in ZuberSkerritt, 1995) can be used as a guide when using the action research methodology. Each of the headings from the model has been used and put into the music education and music teacher context. The headings in the model have been related to music education.

Chapter Five

84

Figure 2. CRASP model (Zuber-Skerritt, 1992)

Action research is: Critical (and self-critical) collaborative inquiry by Reflective practitioners being Accountable and making the results of their inquiry public Self-evaluating their practice and engaged in Participatory problem-solving and continuing professional development

ACCOUNTABILITY Based on external values and evidence of quality

CRITICAL ATTITUDE based on professional values, aims and personal constructs of effectiveness

RESEARCH INTO PRACTICE cycles of learning through experience and action research

SELFEVALUATION reflection

PROFESSION -ALISM improved practice, organisation development, reports, papers

Action Research

85

Issues of the CRASP Model Accountability. As music teachers we need to become accountable for what is happening in our music classrooms. Action research helps to ensure continuous quality improvement. As teachers in the classroom carry out the research this model is likely to bring about more accountability to students and teachers. The published reports of the projects could form part of the ongoing responsibility for music teachers to provide accountability for the effectiveness of their teaching programs in music. Music in some schools has been considered a non-essential part of the curriculum or a ‘frill’ subject. If music teachers want to be seen as professional, and music a valued part of students’ education, we must become accountable for our subject and make public this accountability. Critical attitude. Action research helps encourage the development of critical attitudes towards personal contacts, attributes, values and aims as well as a probable relationship with students in learning. Action research projects endeavour to encourage the development of critical attitude in music teachers. This attitude encourages music teachers to become reflective practitioners and then act on that reflection as well as working in collaboration with other music teachers. It allows students to become a critical and vital part of the learning. Research into practice. Action research provides a platform for music teachers to take ownership and control of their teaching practice. Action research conducted by music teachers can be more appropriate and meaningful than educational research carried out by theorists. As well as being applicable to practitioners action research can help build a body of knowledge that contains the voices of the music teachers and their students. Self-evaluation. Action research encourages self-evaluation of teaching performance, of individual courses and of whole programs by music teachers. This selfevaluation can be done individually and collaboratively, with the process bringing about improvement in teaching practice. Teaching and research activities also need not be isolated as action research is an ideal way of linking theory and practice together in music education. It can help make music education relevant to students in the classroom today.

86

Chapter Five

Professionalism. Regelski (1994–1995) suggested that music teachers need to be “professionalised.” Action research can contribute to this professionalism by encouraging music teachers to critically look at their own practice and aim for improvement and then document this discovery. Music teachers, by their own professional actions, can improve the attitudes towards music education at their own school level, community level and then as a combined group to state and national levels.

Triangulation for Action Research Triangulation is the process of cross-checking the integrity of the information accumulated by the researcher. It involves using multiple data gathering techniques, strategies and sources to verify information about an item of interest. Triangulation is “the process of comparing and justifying data from one source against that from another … the message is simple – use more than one observation technique in order to see whether your results are consistent” (Kember & Kelly, 1994, p. 18). Multiple methods and multiple sources of data collection should be used in any action research project to authenticate the data. In relation to the Hartwig (2009) research, the methods included: personal journals from the researcher and the music teacher, observation notes, meeting notes, recorded interviews of class music teachers and students, videotapes of classes and student performances, student questionnaires and photographs. The method of checking the validity of the observations and inferences was confirmed by giving these to the music teacher for her reflective consideration; a technique referred to as “respondent validation” (Zuber-Skerritt, 1992, p. 138). Cohen and Manion (as cited in Zuber-Skerritt, 1992) offered another definition: Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some human behaviour … triangulation techniques in the social sciences attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by studying it from more than one standpoint and, in so doing, by making use of both quantitative and qualitative data. (p. 139)

Zuber-Skerritt recommended the use of this multiple method triangulation as appropriate for a more holistic view of educational outcomes. Some examples that meet the criteria of multiple method triangulation include:

Action Research

87

the methods of data collection already mentioned; obtaining data from various sources including one’s own reflections; the music teacher’s reflections; data obtained from the students; and data input from other music teachers. The use of these multiple methods and sources reflects an attempt to secure an in-depth understanding and adds richness to the inquiry. In educational research, there is also justification for the use of at least three different viewpoints in analysis. Each point of the triangle stands in a unique position with respect to access to relevant data about a teaching situation. (Burns, 1998, p. 323)

Through reflection, music teachers are able to access their own intentions and the aims of their action. Students are able to explain how the actions of the teachers and the curriculum presented influenced the way they respond.

An Action Research Plan The following plan is an example of an action research project that was conducted by Hartwig (2009). This action research project was conducted over one term (ten weeks) at the school. There were four cycles that were planned collaboratively with content and activities as the driving force. At the end of each cycle, students were expected to complete a task – sometimes individually and sometimes within a group – prior to the plan being implemented. Monitoring and evaluating the action then took place during the cycle, after which a reflection on the results was carried out where practical and theoretical conclusions were drawn, before planning for the next cycle commenced. (Note: the content titles of the cycles were predetermined, however the planning for implementation was only able to be completed when the data from the previous cycle were analysed in line with the action research design). The action research cycles are presented in Figure 3.

Chapter Five

88 Figure 3 – Music project cycles

Cycle 4

Cycle 3

Cycle 2 Cycle 1

Cycle 1: Rhythm, raps, drum kit Cycle 2: Staff notation, keyboards, singing Cycle 3: Graphic scores, soundscapes, guitars Cycle 4: Major compositions The cycles involved different time frames depending on the thematic work to be covered. Cycle one was two weeks; cycle two three weeks; cycle three two weeks and cycle four became two weeks after a change in the school timetable, but originally three weeks had been allocated for this cycle. Various assessment tasks were set at the end of each cycle, with both individual and group assessments conducted. The task for cycle one was the composing and performing of a group composition in rap style.

Action Research

89

Cycle two involved individual performance on the keyboard of pieces the students had been practising. Individual performance of chords on the guitar as well as group composition and performance of a soundscape was required in cycle three. For this soundscape, a graphic score had to be prepared and presented for the class to view. Cycle four was the culmination of the term, and a group composition using voice, keyboard, guitar and drum kit was required. Students once again had to prepare the score and perform their composition for the rest of the class. According to Oja and Smulyan (1989, p. 16), successful collaborative action research depended on a project structure that allows the characteristics of collaboration, focus on practice and professional development to emerge. They believed that a project structure conducive to effective action research consists of at least four elements: x frequent and open communication among participants; x democratic project leadership; x spiralling cycles of planning, acting, observing and reflecting; and x positive relationships with the school context, within which the project occurs. The action research project was designed with importance placed on the above elements. The music teacher from the high school involved in the study is here given the name Glenda. Glenda and the researcher met frequently and had an effective line of communication. This involved a brief discussion after each lesson, a planned meeting after each cycle and regular contact through phone and email. The specific goals of the project were articulated and mutually understood and accepted by all the stakeholders at the initial meetings. The instigator of the action research project became the official leader of the project however, as Glenda was the only other person directly involved, the situation was effectively a two-person team with shared responsibility. The project proceeded through four spiralling cycles of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. The spiralling cycles are fundamental to any action research project “to provide participants with the opportunity to work through several cycles in order to be effective … This allows practitioners to use their own reflections, understandings and developing

90

Chapter Five

theories to inform both practice and research” (Oja & Smulyan, 1989, p. 20). The administration at the project high school wholeheartedly supported the project being implemented. The deputy principal was invited to become a participant but she preferred a role of providing assistance and consultation when needed or requested and became a critical friend for the project. Whitehead and McNiff (2006) defined the role of a critical friend to be both of friend and critic. As a friend they are supportive and listen to the researcher’s account of the research. As a critic, their work is to offer thoughtful responses to the account, raising points that perhaps have not been raised by others. To get a reasonably unprejudiced view it is vital to involve others who will act as critical friends to critique any interpretations (McNiff, Lomax, & Whitehead, 1996).

Data Collection Tools for Action Research Journals, observation and meeting notes. Through the action research project the researcher and participants are encouraged to keep a journal in which the plans made and the actions that were taken are recorded. Impressions and personal opinions about the actions taken and any reactions to them can also be recorded. The result is a very personal record of what is done and what was thought that encompasses critical reflections on the project. Notes from the cycle meetings are also often included as well as observations notes from lessons. These journals offer a way of collecting data that helps create “thick description” (Guba & Lincoln, 1990) of the unique situational and transactional aspects of the experience. There are a number of complementary documents that support the journals such as the plans for each week and cycle, syllabus and curriculum documents, school plans, student handouts, and student test results in literacy and numeracy. Video. Video recordings are often made of some of the lessons however, the presence of the video recorder sometimes influences the students’ behaviour in a negative way. Instead of focussing on the task at hand the students can react to the presence of the camera. Use of video recordings needs to be carefully monitored, as they can be very useful in the recording of student presentations. Such recordings provide an accurate

Action Research

91

and detailed account of what transpired. In addition, the students are often very keen to view themselves and others after their presentations. Photographs. Photographs can be taken of both the students engaging in the process and the work produced, such as graphic scores, compositions and presentations. Recorded interviews. The recording and transcribing of all interviews is advisable. Open-ended questions allow the interviewees an opportunity to raise points that are of interest to them. Transcripts need to be analysed by searching for responses and/or themes that commonly occur, as these can provide rich accounts of other teachers’ reflections on the issues. Students can be identified as key informants (Woods 1986) since they provide rich description of their view of the classroom. Interviews can be conducted individually or in small focus groups. Student questionnaires. Questionnaires and surveys may contain both closed and open questions. These tools gather specific data from the targeted group and also give the students the opportunity to express their points of view in a confidential setting.

Analysis “They [qualitative data] are a source of well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 1). The data collected provides a rich description of the project. An enormous amount of data can be collected throughout a project and the analysis of this data should begin at the outset of the study and be ongoing. The analysis can, however, be described in five sections: 1. Analysis of the transcripts from interviews. 2. Analysis after each of the cycles of the project including the reflective phase. 3. Analysis of questionnaires/surveys. 4. Analysis of supporting documents/policies relevant to the project. 5. Merging of the data from all of the above sources.

92

Chapter Five

Each step of the analysis will identify themes and issues that are both complementary and contrasting. Through deliberation on the data collected and by making authentic and professional interpretations themes can be identified. These themes should then be shared and discussed with all the stakeholders.

Conclusion Action research is a qualitative study that has as its main aim, the improvement of practice. This chapter has defined the Action Research Methodology. It has presented examples of how this methodology has been used in music education. This methodology is a most appropriate method for use in music education in many settings including universities, schools and the wider community. Some writers (for example, Cresswell 2012; McNiff et al., 1996) have identified the key characteristics of action research, of which this is a summary: x Uses a process of inquiry, regardless of design. x Teacher or educator becomes the researcher (practitioner based). x As the researcher, the practitioner becomes self-reflective. x Others are engaged collaboratively in the process. x Embodies good professional practice (cycling back and forth between identifying a problem, trying a solution, reflection on information learner, applying new solutions). x Information is shared with others. McNiff et al. (1996, p. 14) have also summarised the commonalities and differences of action research and other research methods. Action research shares the following characteristics with other research: x it leads to knowledge; x it provides evidence to support this knowledge; x it makes explicit the process of inquiry through which knowledge emerges; x it links new knowledge with existing knowledge. Action research is different to other research because: x it requires action as an integral part of the research process itself;

Action Research

x x

93

it is focused by the researcher’s professional values rather than methodological considerations; it is necessarily insider research, in the sense of practitioners researching their own professional actions.

What makes participatory action research ‘research’ is not the machinery of research techniques but an abiding concern with the relationships between social and educational theory and practice (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000, p. 600).

References Atkin, J. (1989). Can education research keep up with the education reform? Phi Delta Kappan 71 (3), p. 200205. Burns, R. (1998). Introduction to Research Methods. Third Edition. Melbourne: Longman. Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming Critical: Knowing Through Action Research. Victoria: DeakingUniversity. Cherry, N. (1999). Action Research – A Pathway to Action, Knowledge and Learning. Melbourne: RMIT University Press. Clandinin, D.J. & Connolly, F.M. (1991). Narrative and Story. In Schon, D. The Reflective Turn. New York:Teachers College Press. Colwell, R. & Richardson, C. (editors). (2002). 2nd Edition. The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York: Oxford University Press. Costley, C. (1993). Music and Gender at Key Stage Three (11-14): An Action Research Project. In British Journal of Music Education. (1993), 10, p. 197-203. Cresswell, J. (2012). Educational Research. Fourth Edition. New York: Pearson Grundy, S. & Kemmis, S. (1992). Educational action research in Australia: The state of the Art (an overview). In S.Kemmis (ed) The Action Research Reader. Victoria: Deaking University Press, p. 83-97. Dick, B. (1999). What is action research? http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/whatisar/html Gay, L. (1987). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application. Merrill Publishing Company,, Melbourne. Grundy, S. & Kemmis, S. (1982). Educational action research in Australia: The state of the art (an overview). In S. Kemmis (ed) The Action Research Reader. Victoria: Deakin University Press, p. 83-97.

94

Chapter Five

Guba, R. & Lincoln, Y. (1990). Judging the quality of case study reports. In International Journal of qualitative studies in education. 3 (1) p. 5359. Hartwig, K. (2009). Music in the year 8 classroom: An Action Research Project. Koln, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing. Kember, D. & Kelly, M. (1994). Improving Teaching Through Action Research. Campbelltown, NSW; Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia Inc. Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (1998). The Action Research Planner. Victoria: Deakin University. Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (2000). Participatory Action Research. In Handbook of Qualitative Research, by Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S (eds), p. 567-604. Kuzmich, N. (1987). Research, problem-solving and music education in British Journal of Music Education. 4(3), p. 211-222. McNiff, J. Lomax, P, & Whitehead, J. (1996). You and Your Action Research Project. London: Routledge. McNiff, J. & Whitehead, J. (2006). All You Need to Know About Action Research. London: Sage Publications. Mertler, C. (2006). Action Research – Teachers As Researchers in the Classroom. London: Sage Publications. Miller, B. (1996). Integrating Elementary General Music: A Collaborative Action Research Study. In Bulletin Council for Research in Music Education. Fall 1996, p. 100-115. Miles, M. & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage Publications. Oja, S. & Smulyan, L. (1989). Collaborative Action Research – A Developmental Approach. London: The Falmer Press. Paton, M. (1987). How to use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. London: Sage Publications. Regelski, T. (1994–1995). Action Research and Critical Theory: Empowering Music Teachers to Professionalize Praxisin Bulletin – Council for Research in Music Education. Winter 1994/95, p. 63-89. Whitehead, J. & McNiff, J. (2006). Action Research Living Theory. London: Sage Publications. Woods, P. (1986). Inside Schools: Ethnography in Educational Research. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Zuber Skerritt, O. (1992). Action Research in higher education: Examples and reflections. London: KoganPress. —. (1992). Professional Development in Higher Education. London: Kogan Page.

Action Research

95

—. (1995). Models for Action Research. In Pinchen, S. & Passfield, R. (eds). Moving On–Creative Applications of Action Learning and Action Research. Upper Mt Gravatt: ALARPM, p. 2-29. Action Research Association: ALARPM – http://www.alarpm.org.au A wealth of Action Research Resources is also available: http://www.uq.net.au/action_research/arhome.html

CHAPTER SIX ETHNOGRAPHY AND MUSIC EDUCATION GEORGINA BARTON GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

Ethnography involves an ongoing attempt to place specific encounters, events and understandings into a fuller, more meaningful context. (Tedlock, p. 455)

Ethnographic research is about people and what they do and therefore aligns itself with both sociological and anthropological inquiry. In education, ethnography has proven itself to be an appropriate framework in which to observe practice. It is through rich descriptions, interpretations and representations of teaching and learning that is the focus of inquiry and discussion. As an ethnographic researcher I often become immersed in this process and at the same time make judgments about what the process means in relation to the context in which the learning and teaching takes place. Ethnography essentially explores cultures and communities in context. When contemplating ethnographic research in educational contexts there are a number of issues to consider. Freebody (2003) stated that there are four areas of educational research that makes it a challenging area of study: x “The importance of education is rarely denied and formal educational settings are a powerful predictor of people’s overall survival. x Educational activities are inherently complex and dynamic and are impacted on by the socio-cultural makeup of its participants. x Educational research has drawn on a number of social disciplines including sociology and anthropology. x While many see education as formal institutionalised schooling, there is much ‘education’ that goes on outside of these settings”. (p. 1–2) Ethnographic approaches to researching education, and more specifically music education, concern themselves with all of these observations. It is

98

Chapter Six

understood that education is a “practical accomplishment” (Freebody, 2003) and has the potential to exponentially improve people’s lives. What, however, is also clear is that much learning goes on outside of school and this is particularly the case with music (Dillon, 2007). In music education we can deduce that an ethnographer is concerned with the ways in which people work with, and collaborate through sound. Music and its practices are inherently social and allow opportunity for cultural and aesthetic expression and the ways in which ethnographers investigate this is through both observation and participation (Bresler, 1996, 2007, 2009). Ethnographers ultimately take on two roles through research: that of participant, and the other as observer. Silverman (1997) noted that as an observer the researcher gathers data, and as a participant they are directly involved in the context and therefore become an object of inquiry themselves (Silverman 1997, as cited in Freebody, 2003, p. 76). Participant observation is the primary source of ethnographic data and requires a high level of immersion, and is therefore a responsive method to diverse research settings and complex research problems arising from social phenomena. In this sense, this approach allows the researcher to “concentrate on in-depth description and analysis of some phenomenon or set of phenomenon” (Jorgensen, 1989, p. 23). Immersing oneself in the context of study is critical for ethnographic work as it builds trusting relationships with those in context as well as fostering opportunities to elicit meaningful data (Berg, 2001; Jorgensen, 1980). In support of deep engagement with participants involved in the research, Jorgensen (1989) notes that beginning to understand the actions and interactions between student and teacher in context requires longitudinal and intensive observational study. The methodology of participant observation requires that the researcher become directly involved as a participant in peoples’ daily lives. The participant role provides access to the world of everyday life from the standpoint of a member or insider. (p. 20)

As a participant, ethnographers are able to see first-hand, relevant aspects and meaning that impacts on the way teachers perceive their practice. When one embarks on any research endeavour, personal, social and cultural biases are brought to bear. The research process will always be laden with information that has been informed and affected by previous experiences. On this matter, Corbin and Strauss (1990) noted “there are no objective observations only observations socially situated in the worlds of the observee and the observed” (p. 14). Conducting research therefore presents challenges in separating the researcher’s perspective and experience

Ethnography and Music Education

99

from that of the research subject. Similarly, Gourlay (1978, p. 2) stated that previous experiences are “constraints” and that in the field of ethnomusicology researchers hold with them personal, situational and universal constraints. Though prior experiences may be viewed as implications rather than constraints, their recognition for the purposes of research is important. This insider/outsider dualism can be difficult to negotiate (Fontana, 1990; Harris, 1976) however a number of methodological systems have been developed to assist with these issues. Some of these systems include testing the data for reliability, as most ethnographers collect large amounts of data, and multiple sets of data, over long periods of time; triangulation, where the data is checked by members and compared with other data sets in order to support the validity of the data overall. In the area of music education much ethnographic work falls under the umbrella of both education and ethnomusicology and is typically depicted as working “out in the field,” often in exotic locations (Stauffer & Robbins, 2009). However, there has been much done on what also happens in the classroom (Marsh, 2009). Ethnomethodology is an approach that has been used extensively in the investigations of classroom practice including talk and interaction (Holmberg, 2009; Roulston, 2000, 2001). In this chapter I will focus on these two approaches to ethnographic research. In the first instance I will examine them separately before moving the discussion to future implications for how ethnomusicology and ethnomethodology can be merged in practice. I will contend that any music education context is affected by socio-cultural, political, economic, engendered expectations and practices. I intend to show that gone are the days in which we can define boundaries such as formal and informal for music education practices. Rather, the perspective I put forward is an intertwined and constantly evolving one that recognises difference and, above all, encourages continuity of music making and enjoyment. Before I present examples from both ethnomusicological and ethnomethodological research I will briefly explain what these processes entail.

Doing Ethnomusicology Research in the field of ethnomusicology offers detailed analyses that explore the interaction and unique relationship that exists between music, culture and society. Alan Merriam’s work, The Anthropology of Music

100

Chapter Six

(1964) is particularly influential in this area and is still considered a reliable source amongst researchers (Campbell, 1991; Elliott, 1995; Swanwick, 1996). Merriam’s book outlined the importance of cultural influence on music traditions and noted the significance of this when exploring teaching and learning practices (p. 145–163). More specifically, Merriam believed that “concepts and behaviours must be learned, for culture as a whole is learned behaviour, and each culture shapes the learning process to accord with its own ideals and values” (p. 145). He also described the process of enculturation and explained that learning is a lifelong process where culture persists. It is through education, enculturation, cultural learning, that culture gains its stability and is perpetuated, but it is through the same process of cultural learning that change takes place and culture derives its dynamic quality. What is true for culture as a whole is also true for music; the learning process in music is at the core of our understanding of the sounds men [sic] produce. (p. 163)

Nettl (1975) agreed that “through an enculturation process, each social order develops its institutions and artefacts for perpetuation of itself, and music’s existence is one of the few things common to all cultures” (p. 71). When one embarks upon ethnomusicological research, an immersion occurs into a musical culture that is often unfamiliar to the researcher, although research in familiar contexts is also common. Things to consider when beginning a project are: access to the music tradition under investigation, cost and length of time to spend collecting data, and selection and management of data. Data can be collected in a number of ways including: observation and taking field notes, interviews and focus groups, participation and reflective notes, and filming of music practices. Ideally this observation and participation should occur over a reasonable period of time, allowing for deep insider knowledge and experience.

Doing Ethnomethodology In a similar vein, ethnomethodology aims to discover how people interact with one another in everyday activities (Garfinkel, 1967). While most of this research has focused on analysing text and talk there have been some researchers who also investigate multimodal approaches to communication (Brice-Heath & Street, 2008; Kress, Jewitt, Ogborn, & Tsatsarelis, 2001; Mondada, 2009). Conversation Analysis (CA) is predominantly the analytical method used in ethnomethodology. The purpose of analysing

Ethnography and Music Education

101

text and interaction this way is to determine the impact of socio-cultural and organisational aspects on the ways in which teachers interact in context. Roulston (2000) for example stated: By analysing how teachers talk, I have found it possible to access the moral views and assumptions held by teachers and expressed in their descriptions of their teaching worlds. This approach to analysis, grounded in ethnomethodology and using principles of conversation analysis, is interested not in why interaction proceeds as it does, but how interaction takes place. (p. 50)

Ethnomethodological researchers consistently work with transcripts. In music education much of this research has focussed on classroom practice. Ethnomethodologists audio record classroom talk and transcribe it using the following CA conventions (Goodwin & Heritage, 1990; Heap, 1985, 1990; Psathas, 1995). T

Teacher

S

Student

Ss

Students

()

words spoken, not audible

(( ))

Transcriber’s description

=

No interval between turns

?

Interrogative intonation Rising intonation

(2.0)

Pause timed in seconds

(.)

Small untimed pause

ye::ah

Prolonged sound

Why

Emphasis

YES

Louder sound to surrounding talk; or reading text

102

Chapter Six

When classroom talk is typed with these conventions in the text it can tell the researcher many things about the work that the teacher does in context. What the researcher focuses on is the turn-taking that occurs during conversation. This is known as the Initiation, Response, Evaluation or Feedback (IRE/IRF) process and involves generic organisation practice (Gonzalez-Martinez, 2011) including turn organisation and turn-taking organisation, sequence organisation, the organisation of repair, the organisation of word selection, and overall structural organisation. Distinctive teaching and learning practices are reflected in differences in speech exchange systems (Gonzalez-Martinez, 2011; Schegloff, 2007). This enables great insight into the ways in which teachers and students interact in music teaching and learning.

Teaching and Learning Music An ethnomusicological perspective. Ethnomusicology’s main tenet is that cultural and social groups approach music performance, process and education in diverse ways (Dunbar-Hall, 2006). While much past ethnomusicological research has focused on music cultures in remote and non-Western settings (Blacking, 1973; Feld, 1984; Lomax, 1976; McPhee, 1938), research over the past few decades has also focussed on sub-cultural sets including pop to punk (Wallach, 2008), jazz (Austerlitz, 2000) and other musical practices in the West such as Celtic music in contemporary Ireland (Thornton, 1998). In 1993 I lived and worked in South India as a teacher of English. During this time I learned the traditional South Indian music called Karnatic music. I had both a vocal and a violin teacher and I documented the ways in which they taught their music. This data became the focus of my doctoral studies and as such, I investigated the ways in which culture influences the teaching practices of both Karnatic and Australian instrumental teachers (Barton, 2003). My research was a cross-cultural comparison and found that culture impacts on a number of elements in teaching contexts including: the teachers, the methods and modalities used when teaching, and the context in which they are taught. Every music teacher that I observed, interviewed, or learned from, valued his or her own lineage as a student of music. Not only did the Karnatic teachers regularly comment about their own teacher(s) and their link to past composer-saints, so too did the instrumental teachers in Australia. One of the teachers involved had a teacher who was taught by Fritz

Ethnography and Music Education

103

Kriesler. Other teachers often referred to particular approaches to learning their instrument using foreign terms such as the Russian or Suzuki method. The methods and modalities used in each context were wide and varied. While the Karnatic tradition was mainly an aural/oral tradition the music was written down using a traditional sol-fa approach. For most beginning students of Karnatic music the Mayamalavagowla rag is learnt first. Transcription 1: Mayamalavagowla Ragam

sa ri ga ma pa dha ni sa’ sa’ ni dha pa ma ga ri sa Much of the learning in the Karnatic context was done by breaking the tune down into smaller rhythmic sections and learning one piece at a time, before adding them together once memorised. These sections aligned with the tala, or rhythmic cycle. This approach was also typical in the Australian instrumental music contexts where the teacher would usually play a whole piece (or section of a piece) to the students then break it into sections. Each section was learned one at a time until the teacher felt the student had made good progress, at which point they progressed onto the next section. In many ways the teaching methods and modes used were similar across both contexts but what differed the most was the context and rituals associated with the teaching and learning practices. When doing this research I recorded each lesson as well as took field notes including drawing the layout of the room where the lessons took place. While most of my lessons in the Karnatic context were between my teacher and myself, there were a number (including some in Australia) where the teacher would teach up to 10 students, despite them being at different places in their learning journeys. In these lessons the learning was extremely cyclic where students could come and go. I enjoyed these lessons a lot as I got to listen to and perform much music including my beginner lessons as well as more advanced lessons.

104

Chapterr Six

Layout of Karnaatic group musicc lesson Diagram 1: L

Diagram 1 sshows the teaccher, Parvathi sitting on thee floor facing all of her students inccluding me (tthe dark grey y circle) and an observer who is a friend of onne of the studeents. We all have h books thhat have the trraditional songs writteen in sol-fa. In Australiaa, the Westernn teachers usu ually stood upp the front of the room when teachiing a group off students. Thee students in tthis context saat in rows with their m music stands inn front of them m. In Diagram m 2 the teacheer Tina, is standing up the front so thhat she can haave access to tthe whiteboard d to write down instrucctions for the students durin ng the lesson. Diagram 2: L Layout of Westeern group musicc lesson

Ethnography and Music Education

105

What is important to note here is that despite both teachers clearly having more knowledge about the music tradition that they taught, cultural beliefs are reflected in the physical layout and position of the teacher. In the Karnatic tradition much of the learning is cyclic and relates strongly to the spirituality and acknowledgement of the gods and goddesses in the Hindu religion. Prior to, and at the conclusion of, each lesson the students are expected to show respect to these deities by singing or playing a musical phrase. Similarly, the teachers and students all sat on the floor at the same level. Music, for Karnatic musicians, is a gift given from their favourite god or goddess and becomes a major part of their life. The teachers view themselves as being chosen by their gods to share their knowledge with others. In the Western context however, teachers are seen as more of an authority figure in control of the learning. This was particularly the case with larger groups where the teachers stood up at the front of the room while the students sat as they needed. This is done to assist the teachers with managing any behavioural issues before effective teaching and learning take place. Despite the fact that all teachers charged for their lessons, the cost of learning music in the Australian context far surpassed the cost of learning in India, and ultimately limited access for many students. The cost of lessons, music books, instruments and incidentals (such as strings etc.), particularly when students undertook individual private lessons, prevented many students from learning, as they were unable to afford it. In the Karnatic context however, as the traditional learning approach was based on the gurukula system, where the students would learn for free but be expected to live with their teacher and do domestic chores. The findings from this research showed that although the instrumental music practices between Karnatic and Australian teachers of Western tradition appeared to be diverse, there were many similarities that also existed between them. It was the balance between written and aural/oral modes of teaching and learning that differed. Generally, the research provided insight into the way culture influences how instrumental music is taught. This enabled the teachers to reflect on their instrumental music teaching practice and place it within a broader social and cultural context. It provided teachers with a basis for assessing and responding to cultural influence in instrumental teaching processes and practices. It also allowed greater opportunities for teachers to utilise traditions other than their own to teach musical concepts – that is to teach music interculturally.

106

Chapter Six

Many have noted in ethnomusicological research that teaching and learning practices in school contexts are largely Western-centric. My research confirmed this observation. The literature points to a lack of inherent meaning in formal institutionalised contexts which often results in students seeking access to meaning outside of the school’s confines (Dillon, 2001; Green, 1988; Lean, 1997; Lierse, 1997; Pollak, 1991; Small, 1996). Although an attempt has been made to be more inclusive in music education practices, largely through the teaching of music from non-Western cultures these have usually been approached from a Westerncentric perspective. Shankar (1969) and Glickman (1996) for example, believed that the predominantly aural/oral methods and resources used to teach music from non-Western cultures, and which required students to read and write music from these cultures, lose the important meaning behind such musical cultures. Smith (1998) agreed that this focus ultimately limits students’ learning experiences, especially if they are from culturally diverse backgrounds. Many music traditions are taught aurally/orally and it has also been noted by Stowasser (1995) that in the contemporary education context high-level audiation skills should be encouraged in music students. She believed that this would “provide a means towards the musical ends of enhanced performance, enriched creativity, enlightened appreciation and, above all, imaginative teaching” (p. 257). Stowasser also expressed concern that aural skills are, in the main, excluded from the music program, including both classroom and instrumental practices, due to high emphasis on assessment, but if taught well can make a great difference in the skills and understanding of the music student. Similarly, Leong (1999, p. 128) believed that any “aural education that is effective … needs to be inclusive … and integrated into the entire music curriculum.” When exploring culturally diverse situations Hughes and More (1997) compared Aboriginal (in particular Yolgnu) ways of learning with institutionalised forms, and believed that the Yolgnu learn through observation and imitation rather than through verbal instruction. More specifically, they argue that: The focus in Aboriginal learning is on mastering context-specific skills. Mastery of context-specific skills is in contrast to a school education system which seeks to teach abstract content free principles which can be applied in new previously inexperienced situation…Yolgnu learners are more person-oriented than information oriented, and there is no institutionalised officer of “teacher” in Yolgnu society. (p. 10)

Ethnography and Music Education

107

Merriam (1964, p. 146) also discussed the difference between formal and informal learning environments where more restrictive formal learning occurs in places such as schools, and informal learning situations refer to more unstructured learning spaces where socialisation takes place. Further, Ellis (1985, p. 38) was concerned with the distinction between Western, that is, more formal, and informal learning environments, as well as their style of learning, whether linear and constrained, or cyclic and more holistic in nature. Stowasser (1995) aligned this with students’ music experiences. Students come into the music class with a range of musical backgrounds but all of them have encountered a great deal of music by the time they reach adolescence. Much of their music learning may be intuitive rather than formal, in which case it will be holistic rather than analytical. (p. 261)

In her book Aboriginal Music: Education for Living (1985), Cath Ellis detailed the experiences that Western tertiary music students had when learning music from traditional elders from the Pitjantjatjara region. Ellis noted three particular aspects: (a) students recognised that Western Art music practices operate as an exclusive tradition whereas the Aboriginal processes were based more on incorporation (p. 85); (b) the students’ own music education knowledge was enhanced as a result of their experience (p. 129); (c) that a problem occurred in finding a balance between using oral and visual modes of communication, whereby the visual focus was often disadvantageous, particularly in memorisation (p. 131). Stowasser (1992) noted that: Ethnomusicology is primarily concerned with the objective study of music within cultures other than one’s own; application of the same objectivity to the study of traditional secondary school music education in Western society reveals that, in general, the theory and the practice of a small, elite subculture has been imposed upon adolescent students regardless of their heterogeneous cultural backgrounds. Thus, ethnomusicological approaches may help us to identify the cause of the problem; but we need additional data in order to find a solution. (p. 16)

An ethnomethodological perspective. While ethnomusicology has proliferated research concerning teaching and learning in music, by deeply exploring the socio-cultural considerations, ethnomethodology has extended this by focusing purely on the talk and text associated with this learning. In this way ethnomethodology is often limited to investigation of language in context, but at the same time can provide a great deal of insight into the interaction that teachers have with

108

Chapter Six

their students and vice versa. Conversation Analysis (CA) is a field of study associated with ethnomethodology and suitably aligns with the investigation of classroom talk. Through CA ethnomethodologists do not evaluate certain circumstances but rather highlight how people interact in order to make sense of the activities at hand (Freebody, Chan, & Barton, 2013). Freebody et al., for example, showed how knowledge is put to work in a senior music classroom. The teacher in Exhibit 1 is explaining to students the difference between two renaissance dance genres – a Pavane and an Estampie. Exhibit 1 1TSo we are talking// 2S1//it has a limited range (.) like it stays on the same notes for a few bars and then changes one or two notes 3TOK so what element are we talking about? (.) What are you describing? 4S1Pitch 5TMelody or pitch (1) yeah so you said something about the melody seems to have a lot of repeated notes and it’s a smaller range … Yep. Something else? 6S1Um the texture (.) the textures are different (1) there’s more in the five melodies in the Pavane and there’s only one in the Estampie 7TOK (.) good (.) Who had something like what he just said? Something about texture (.) or the amount of melodies or the amount of layers? Yeah and is there a drone, was there a drone in this? (1) No. So there’s no drone (.) now (1) texture (.) so if you said something like (.) it had a thicker texture or it had more layers of melodies you’re on the right track. Once we start to get into the realm of ((higher voice pitch)) is it homophonic? polyphonic? did anyone dare to go there? 8S2I had polyphonic 9S3Yeah, polyphonic 10TIt’s it’s difficult (.) essentially it’s a homophonic texture. You’ve got some kind of tune at the top and what are the other five parts doing? 11S2Harmonising 12TThey’re just filling out the notes from the^ (1) 13S2ChordsV 14TChordsV

Ethnography and Music Education

109

Freebody, Chan, and Barton (2013), shown in Exhibit 2 (p. 309), argue that the teacher in this excerpt is shuttling between two approaches to language; that of everyday language and more technical talk and that this is evidenced through an Initiation, Response and Feedback (IRF) cycle as illustrated below: x Ss interrupt T’s apparently vernacular Initiation and cut straight to a technical response (1–2); x as 1–2 shows, S’s response can sound like a feedback component – a technical term is elaborated in everyday language, and confirmed in T’s feedback turn (3); x T’s initiation turn can comprise straightforward questions, or questions that are: x specified or replaced (3, 7) x self-answered (7) or x unfinished sentences with upward inflections (12–14); x T’s F turn can be made up of: x a straight confirmation (3, 7) x a confirming repeat (14) x an elaboration containing a repeat (5), or x an acknowledgement with the provision of a more acceptable answer (10). What is interesting here is that the approach and ways in which this teacher engages with his students, mirrors the view that the teacher has about the class. This is further revealed in an interview (as cited in Freebody, Chan, & Barton, 2013, p. 309) with the teacher. The music extension kids are very serious then you’ve got a group of boys who drive me nuts because their approach to music is not structured (.) their brain doesn’t cope with me trying to give them structures for the learning (.) the whole idea of getting them to move beyond what they can already do (1) I think it is hard (2) I would say all these boys are passionate about guitar and they are really quite gifted on it (.) but they don’t have that cognitive understanding. (pp. 309–310)

The teacher’s belief that essentially two differing groups of students make up this class is reflected in the types of language that he used, both when talking about and interacting with them. The way in which the teacher states that the extension kids are “very” serious and that the popular stream boys are “not structured” or their “brain doesn’t cope with structure” could indicate that the teacher has conceived ideals about the types of students in

110

Chapter Six

his class. The teacher openly acknowledges that the ways in which the students learn is distinctly different and that he is therefore trying to address these learning styles and needs in their everyday practice in order for each student to achieve good results. It also indicates though, that while the boys are “passionate” and “quite gifted,” the teacher assumes that they are unable to grasp higher order concepts in learning music if this learning is presented in a more traditionally classical way. Lucy Green’s book Music, Informal Learning and the School (2008) aimed to “bring informal music learning practices into the formal environment of the school classroom” (p. 1) and provided solid evidence as to the ways in which many students of music learn and engage with sound. Green (2008) described a number of historical perspectives of various approaches to learning and argued that despite the fact children and youth in schools tend to learn music in more informal ways, these approaches are not reflected in classroom practice. Similarly, Roulston’s (2000) work on the “day in the life of itinerant music teachers” has also revealed interesting insight into music teachers’ work through CA. In the following example Roulston (2000) shows an excerpt from an interview with a music teacher in Queensland, Australia. The teacher is explaining that their class has a number of street kids (mainly boys) who are unable to sing but rather ‘drone’ yet he is able to create a ‘good class sound’. Exhibit 2 x AThere was a Grade 5 class or was it a Grade 5/6 split (.) and all the girls were beautiful singers and all the boys sounded (.) crappy x Rheh heh heh heh x AIt was terrible all droners And the teacher goes on to explain how they fixed this: x Abut at least the guys (.) you know like were not (.) a group of droners here and a group of angels over here [huh heh x R [yeah x A they were (.) it sounded like a good class sound you know The teacher then describes the class whom they are working with, similar to exhibit 2’s teacher: x and these are all street kids who would drone (.) now the point I’m trying to make is that I think (.) even with older kids (.) if you can work with them (.) that much time=

Ethnography and Music Education

111

x x

R =mm"^^^ A =you can teach them to sing too (.) so this business about ah (.) them not being able to sing= x R =yeah= x A =is hogwash I think Roulston (2000, pp. 97-98) showed through the use of CA that this teacher has all good intentions when conducting an experiment with the Year 5/6 boys who were all “droners.” The teacher offered extra rehearsals during lunch breaks and was able to teach the boys to sing. Roulston argued that this “talk” points to a moral obligation of the teacher to prove that it is possible to teach anyone to sing (p. 98). Being able to critically analyse the talk around and about music teaching and learning provides great insight into teacher’s biases, privileged approaches to presenting knowledge, and also how their own training impacts on the ways in which they work in the classroom context. In a similar way to ethnomusicological research, ethnomethodology can reveal information about approaches to teaching and learning music. This information can in turn, inform ways in which teachers can improve, change and ultimately transform their practice.

Future Considerations and Conclusion An ethnographer’s work is never complete, and that is one of the beauties of doing ethnographic work. In the dual role of musician and ethnographer strong connections are made with the people with whom we research and work. It is a reflexive relationship or at least it should be. In a way the role of observer slowly morphs into participant and then initiation into being an accepted member of the social/cultural phenomena being investigated. It is also important to note, as Brice-Heath and Street (2008) did that “groups change over time without recognising that they do so” (p. 15). It is therefore also the job of an ethnographer to observe and share such change. Ethnographic research has the potential to not only investigate the diverse practices associated with music teaching and learning but also apply these insights to improve and transform practice generally. Brice-Heath and Street (2008) suggested that ethnographers need to “disrupt dichotomies” associated with such research, that is, those that “delineate sites, styles and situations” (pp. 72–73). Within the discipline of music this is becoming more and more relevant given the exponential growth in the diverse ways

112

Chapter Six

in which people learn, perform and create music including digital means and fusions of existing styles. The concepts of formal and informal learning do not necessarily apply in contexts such as schools anymore, but rather a more fluid approach seems called for; one that consistently moves in and around multiple forms of communication, including written and aural/oral means. The Western-centric idea of formal and informal learning now has a diminishing importance as students become musically literate in diverse ways. It is critical to note that music knowledge can be demonstrated, recorded and assessed in various ways. These processes are integral to music teaching and learning practices and are grounded in the cultural genesis of music. The importance of culture on music teaching and learning practices can sometimes overlook how non-Western music is often interpreted from a Western-centric perspective. Such an approach may diminish the capacity for students to engage, interpret and understand music when their cultural and social experience rests outside the narrow boundaries of Western art music. Moreover, such approaches could also limit the potential for teachers to convey music knowledge effectively to the learner and thereby reduce their fulfilment as professionals. Part of the role of an ethnographer is to therefore investigate music teaching and learning outside of schools or in addition to school. Both ethnomusicology and ethnomethodology allow deep investigation of music teaching and learning processes via immersion and analysis of multimodal communication associated with these processes. Ethnographers are also obligated to provide professional development to teachers to assist them in keeping up-to-date and informed about a diverse range of music traditions, transmission and acquisition. The research should be aimed to: (a) record and maintain music traditions; as well as (b) apply this through professional sharing and development. It is important that ethnographers – ethnomusicologists and ethnomethodologists alike – acknowledge and value the varied ways in which people learn music. Embracing this in our teaching enables all students to feel valued and supports continuous involvement in and enjoyment of music making. As May’s (2003) thesis title suggests our students have said “Music is my life … I can’t live without it” “Music helps me live inside my head”

It would be a damn shame if ethnographers or any music education researcher disregarded such sentiment.

Ethnography and Music Education

113

References Austerlitz, P. (2000). Birch-Bark Horns and Jazz in the National Imagination: The Finnish Folk Music Vogue in Historical Perspective. Ethnomusicology, 44(2), 183-213. Barton, G.M. (2003). The influence of culture on instrumental music teaching: A participant-observation case study of Karnatic and Queensland instrumental music teachers in context. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Queensland University of Technology. Berg, B. (2001). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston, United States of America: Allyn and Bacon. Blacking, J. (1967). Venda Children’s Song: A Study in Ethnomusicological Analysis. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Bresler, L. (1996). Basic and applied qualitative research in music education. Research Studies in Music education, 6, 5-17. —. (2007). International Handbook of Research in Arts Education. The Netherlands: Springer publishers. —. (2009). Research education shaped by musical sensibilities. British Journal of Music education, 26(1), 7-25. Brice-Heath, S. & Street, B.V. (2008). Ethnography: approaches to language and literacy research. Campbell, P.S. (1991). Lessons From the World: A Cross-Cultural Guide to Music Teaching and Learning. United States of America: Schirmer Books. Corbin & Strauss (1990). Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. UK: Sage publications. Dillon, S.C. (2001). The Student as Maker: An Examination of The Meaning of Music to Students in A School and the Ways in Which We Give Access to Meaningful Music education. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Victoria, Australia: La Trobe University. —. (2007). Music, Meaning and Transformation: Meaningful Music Making for Life. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Dunbar-Hall, P. (2006). An investigation of strategies developed by music learners in a cross-cultural setting. Research Studies in Music education, 26, 63. Elliott, D.J. (1995). Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music education. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Ellis, C. (1985). Aboriginal Music: Education for Living, Cross-cultural experiences from South Australia. St Lucia, Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. Feld, S. (1984). Sound Structure as Social Structure. Journal of

114

Chapter Six

Ethnomusicology, Middletown, Wesleyan University Press, September, 383-409. Fontana, A. (1990). A review essay on authorship: to be or not to be (there): the problematics of authorship in ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 19, 226-230. Freebody, P. (2003). Qualitative research in education: interaction and practice. London: Sage Publications. Freebody, P., Chan, E. & Barton, G.M. (2013). Literacy and Curriculum: Language and Knowledge in the Classroom. In Cremin, T., Comber, B., Hall, K. & Moll, L. International Handbook of Research in Children's Literacy, Learning and Culture. 304-318. Maiden Mass: Wiley-Blackwell. Garfinkel, (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Glickman, T. (1996). Intercultural Music education: The Early Years. Journal of the Indian Musicological Society, 27, 52-58. Goodwin, C, & Heritage, J. (1990). Conversation Analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19, 283-307. Gonzalez-Martinez, E. (2011). Method Workshop 8. Swiss Methods Festival, University of Basel, September 17, 2011 Gourlay, K. (1978). Towards a Reassessment of the Ethnomusicologist’s Role in Research, Journal of Ethnomusicology, January 1978, p. 1-35. Green L. (1988). Music on deaf ears: musical meaning, ideology, education. New York: Manchester University Press. —. (2008). Music, informal learning and the school: a new classroom pedagogy. UK: Ashgate Publishing. Harris, M. (1976). History and Significance of the Emic/Etic Distinction. Annual Review of Anthropology, 5, 329-350. Heap, J. (1985). Discourse in the production of classroom knowledge: Reading lessons. Curriculum Inquiry, 15, 245-79. —. (1990). Applied ethnomethodology: looking for the local rationality of reading activities. Human Studies, 13(1), 39-72. Holmberg, K. (2009). What can discourse psychology say about teachers’ music talk and their teaching strategies? Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland. Hughes, P. and More, A.J. (1997). Aboriginal Ways of Learning and Learning Styles. A Paper presented at the Annual Conference of Australian Association for Research in Education, Brisbane: Australia. Jorgenson, D.L. (1989). Participant observation: A methodology for human studies. California, United States of America: Sage Publications.

Ethnography and Music Education

115

Kress, G., Jewitt, C., Ogborn, J. & Tsatsarelis, C. (2001) Multimodal teaching and learning: the rhetorics of the science classroom. London: Continuum. Lean, B. (1997). Strategies to Overcome the Low Status of Music in the Curriculum, New Sounds for a New Century. Brisbane, Australia, Australian Society For Music education, XI Conference Proceedings, p. 165-171. Lierse, A. (1997). Music in Schools in the 21st Century: An Endangered Species? New Sounds for a New Century. Brisbane, Australia, Australian Society For Music education, XI Conference Proceedings, p. 178-183. Lomax, A. (1976). Cantometrics: An Approach to the Anthropology of Music. Berkeley: University of California Extension Media Centre. McPhee, C. (1938). Children and Music in Bali. Djawa, 18, p. 1-14. Marsh, K. (2009). Music education ethnographic research and thick description: a response. Research Studies in Music education, 31(1), 96-100. May, B.D. (2003). Music helps me live inside my head: a longitudinal ethnographic case study of a group of senior high school music students. Unpublished PhD thesis, Queensland University of Technology. Merriam, A.P. (1964). The anthropology of music. United States of America: Northwestern University Press. Mondada, L. (2009). Emergent focused interactions in public places: A systematic analysis of the multimodal achievement of a common interactional space. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(10), 1977-1997. Nettl, B. (1975). The state of research in ethnomusicology and recent developments. Current Musicology, 20, 67-78. Pollak, L. (1991). Say ‘No’ to ‘Mime Down the Back’. In Music education in the Community: Reaching In – Reaching Out. Australian Journal of Music education, 1, p. 37-48. Psathas, G. (1995). Conversation analysis: the study of talk-in-interaction. California: Sage Publications. Roulston, K. (2000). Itinerant music teachers' work in Queensland. Unpublished PhD thesis, Brisbane: University of Queensland. —. (2001). Introducing ethnomethodological analysis to the field of music education. Music education Research, 3(2), 121-142. Schegloff, E.A. (2007). Sequence organization in interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Silverman, D. (1997). Qualitative research: theory, method and practice. London: Sage publications.

116

Chapter Six

Small, C. (1996). Music, Society, Education. Hanover, University Press of New England. Smith, R.G. (1998). Evaluating the Initiation, Application and Appropriateness of a Series of Customised Teaching and Learning Strategies Designed to Communicate Musical and Related Understandings Interculturally. Unpublished Doctor of Teaching Thesis, Northern Territory, Northern Territory University. Stauffer, S. & Robbins, J. (2009). Description, interpretation, meaning: notes on Geertz and ethnography in music education research. Research Studies in Music education,31(1), 82-89. Stowasser, H. (1995). Honing the Craft of Audiation: Music is an Aural Art. In M. Barratt & H. Lee (Eds.). Honing the Craft: Improving the Quality of Music education, Hobart, Australia: Australian Society for Music education, X Conference Proceedings, p. 257-261. Swanwick, K. (1996). Music education liberated from new praxis. International Journal of Music education, 28, 16-24. Tedlock, B. (2000). Ethnography and ethnographic representation. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln. (Eds.). Handbook of qualitative research, 2nd Ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Thornton, S.L. (1998). Fanning the Celtic Flame: Music Patronage and Practice in Contemporary Ireland. Western Folklore, 57(4), 261-274.

CHAPTER SEVEN CASE STUDY RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION: AN EXAMINATION OF MEANING ERROL MOORE UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO, NEW ZEALAND

Introduction Numerous materials and guides are readily available as to strategies and techniques for undertaking case study research. However, as for most aspects of research, there is a great deal more debate than compliant agreement concerning case study design and credibility. In scrutinising music education research practices, Pamela Burnard (2006) sought to “provoke reflection and debate about the importance of being explicit about the assumptions and theories that underpin research and of being articulate about the research process in achieving research rigour” (p. 144). In a bank of questions ranging across policy and epistemology, she asked, “how should we, as a research community, assess the methodological rigour and analytical defensibility of our work in music education research?” (p. 144). This chapter adopts two purposes. The first is to offer stimulus to the thinking of initiates to research surrounding performance1 and music education, since it is surprisingly likely that a case study pathway of development and implementation will eventuate as a first research project. The parallel intention aligns with Eisner and Peshkin’s (1990) wish to further open discussion in the research community, and to explore equally esteemed author Robert Stake’s (1995) explanation of case study as an art form. 1 Consider performance as being interpreted in the widest sense; that which involves people across genre, culture, professional and community activity.

118

Chapter Seven Because it is an exercise in such depth, the study is an opportunity to see what others have not yet seen, to reflect the uniqueness of our own lives, to engage the best of our interpretive powers, and to make, even by its integrity alone, an advocacy for those things we cherish. (p. 136)

Given these two intentions, nomenclature surrounding case study, attributes of researchers, application of the method, drawing theory, and possible directions for case study research, have all been adopted as parameters in this discussion of current practice.

The Case Study Method There is no shortage of verbal ambience as writers and researchers representing different domains and cultures seek to establish and reestablish the relevance of case study research. At the kernel, is case study research a method, a strategy, a design, or an approach to gathering information, analysing, interpreting and theorising? Australian researchers O’Toole and Beckett (2010) assured us, that case study is not strictly a methodology and placed the emphasis on the uniqueness of the case to be studied. Bryar (1999–2000) considered the work of numerous authors, including Miles and Huberman (1994) in describing case study as a “research strategy or design which makes use of multiple methods of data collection, straddling and making use of methods from the qualitative and quantitative traditions as appropriate in relation to the questions being examined” (p. 67). From the literature that I have surveyed, case study research appears to fulfil diverse functions and suggests it is appropriate to question if much of the debate is about semantics, rather than substantive demarcation. I note several contributing factors in the proposal that case study can constitute a credible research method: x Yin (1994, 2003) and Stake (1995), the two most cited authors with regard to the design, nature and implementation of case study, appropriated the method label, albeit in different guises. While Stake (1998) stressed design in case inquiry, this can be interpreted as multistranded method, or as Johansson (2003) put it, meta-method. x An early career researcher2 in music education is likely to be seeking what Yin (2003) described as a unique, or critical case. 2

Beginning of research study and practice for a researcher.

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 119

x

x

At the inception, the researcher may not have a preference for qualitative or quantitative data gathering and processing of data that is, seeking deeper interpretation, or testing propositions. However, there is likely to be a desire to seek clarity, boundaries, and matters of uniqueness in any search for musical learning/performance insight. These are case study qualities. As Stake (1995) pointed out, “a relationship among schools, the reasons for innovative teaching, or the policies of school reform are less commonly considered a case. These topics are generalities rather than case. The case is a specific, complex functioning thing” [emphasis added]. (p. 2) There is a prevalence of case study research, both historical and contemporary, being presented in texts and conferences with a performance and music education theme, for example, recent ANZARME3 conferences. While these presentations may inform that the case study is a beginning to a larger project, with potentially wider implications for the field, such projects eventuate less frequently. Hence, by default, the method is playing a valuable role in the music research community. With regard to all methods, Huff (2009) warned to “avoid sloppy observations masquerading as interpretation” where a qualitative project, if quantitative, “unacknowledged subjectivity of definitions and procedures” and where both modes are deployed, against “shallow application” (pp. 184–185). In support of early career researchers, the nature of case study investigation demands the researcher explore and declare themself completely, whatever the chosen paradigm. In case study method, the researcher is never lost (Bryar, 1999–2000). Researchers are likely to find this journey enlightening, as personal intellectual, perceptual and interpretive abilities are cultivated in the quest to understand and interpret a particular case.

There is no intention to claim, that case study method has significance greater than other methodologies, rather that it is reasonable to accept it as a useful method. As to potential importance to a field4, Johansson (2003) made a link between repertoire and method in the field of architectural design: 3

Australia and New Zealand Association of Research in Music Education Consider field as including academic standpoints, nature of expertise, accepted practices, knowing in the wider domain of music education and performance. 4

120

Chapter Seven … the case study has a special importance. The ability to act within professional practice is based on knowledge of a repertoire of cases. These cases are based on either personal experience or are model cases established within the profession. Case studies contribute to the building of a professional repertoire. (p. 4)

In the music performance and teaching professions, there are familiar parallels with Johansson’s notion of repertoire. The repertoire of case might include intense hotspots of musical activity and/or learning, inspiring environments, passionate individuals, and sadly in my experience, more prevalent, distinct situations of musical deprivation. In either crystallising or paralysing situations there will be individuals, who for whatever reason, have no apparent aspiration to inquire or publish for themselves, but who in pursuit of better practice, might support external involvement for interpreting and drawing theory from the case. Hence, given the demonstrably holistic nature of effective case study research, each researcher has an opportunity to contribute to the repertoire of cases, potentially enhancing understanding of performance, ability and music learning. In my view, assuming considered and declarative application of case study method, findings already contribute to advocacy endeavours for the benefit of the profession, global collaboration, and advancement of more encompassing educative and performance activity.

Attributes of the Case Study Researcher “Field researchers have … to takes roles, handle relationships, and enter into the commerce and conflict of everyday life.” (Bryar, as cited in Burgess, 1984, p 74) Given frequent critique of case study as a methodology (Rowley, 2002; Yin, 1994; Zucker, 2009), the purpose of this section is to interrogate the qualities and perspicacity demanded of the researcher, a key element in rebuttal. I propose, that the most influential aspects are sensitivity inherent in all research interactions and reporting, and personal qualities with regard to fairness and thoroughness through a research study. These directly impact on integrity of data gathering, interpretation and representation, the transparency of the researcher’s approach to drawing on theory from the findings, and the nature of engagement in the art of report writing. In the study of a case, the researcher is predictably brought into contact with the sensitive areas of personal behaviour and attitudes. These might include power differential amongst respective participants, jealousy, evidence of discrimination, deliberate skewing of survey or other data, or

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 121

feelings of superiority or inferiority about the part of other individuals in the case. At a fundamental level, Hennink, Hutter, and Bailey (2011) reminded us of ethical responsibilities, and described logical provision for confidentiality, cessation of involvement, guides as to informed consent and anonymity, fairness of participant selection, and consideration of benefice and minimisation of harm. Similarly, in the bag of researcher resources, strategies to negotiate the researcher and other (participants) through unpredictable data are also necessary. As distinct examples, researcher’s fitness for the research may be challenged by a confident participant; researcher knowledge of some aspect of the activities/curriculum may be found wanting; an initiative introduced over the course of the study may be criticised by one or more recipients; or, the data may be so convincing that the urge to be less than critical is overwhelming. Each of these scenarios would demand an ability to evaluate and balance significance to the research study, and potential harm/benefit to the case, desirably with the engagement of mentors/supervisor(s). A sustained research diary, chain of evidence (Yin, 2003), or natural history of the research (Silverman, 2005) can assist researcher reflection at the time of respective events, as well as in later stages of the research process when the ramifications of unpredictable data may be clearer. If case study data is to have integrity and there is intention to fully trouble the case there is a potential tension with the concept of researcher distance with regard to researching music education or performance situations. For example, music learning exemplars can sometimes reveal more about the philosophy and pedagogy of the demonstrator/teacher than curriculum intent and processes. A case in point, would be the New Zealand (Ministry of Education, 2003) learning exemplars, in which there were occasions where the skills of the teacher held the viewer’s focus rather than process. Similarly, an electronic survey would likely generate mutuality about research goals and more meaningful participant responses, where there is declared purpose(s). As a caution, goals that are not declared but are reported on in published findings can cause distrust, thereby possibly affecting the work of future researchers. This is of significance in a relatively small domain like music, in which participants may already feel over examined or vulnerable. For example, at a benign level, the researcher might have an undeclared goal to evaluate spending on musical equipment gauged from information gathered about the nature of classroom programmes. A more deceptive goal would be an un-undeclared intention to investigate drug use amongst young musicians, while declaring exploration of their music practice habits. In anticipating such

122

Chapter Seven

concerns, it is the researcher’s duty to evaluate and declare their practice, as a means toward reassuring participants and readers about the mesh of researcher and researched, in whatever manner that may transpire. In supporting the need for a deeper interactive communication with regard to nursing case study, Bryar (1999–2000) suggested, that “reflective awareness of this interaction [of actors] may therefore be seen as a fundamental aspect of any research, not least case study research in which the researcher and the site participants are in frequent interaction” (p. 74). .

Similarly, since we cannot anticipate all that might emerge from the case, potential blurring of predictable, unexpected or unrelated data and insight is likely (Adler & Adler, 2002; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2006). In addition, alertness in the setting is critical; otherwise, the researcher may miss unpredictable data, or not fully comprehend its significance. Huff (2009) noted, in a description of people engrossed in a game; that individuals may not be aware of a foreign element such as someone in gorilla garb walking across the pitch. “There is no reason to assume that scholars will be more observant when confronted with unexpected data” (p. 199). In consideration of researcher skill set, I observe silence on the matter in many texts, and Yin (2003) cautioned, that there are no gatekeepers at our shoulder with regard to researcher attributes. To assist, Huff (2009) called on us to continually update, with respect to methodology, in a bid to improve data gathering and interpretive capability. This is to be supported by deliberate communication and ongoing work with a wide cross-section of people in the researcher’s respective community. Yin (2003) listed several “commonly required skills” for case study research. In brief, we are encouraged to develop good questions and interpretative ability with regard to the responses/answers, adroit listening (without being bound by personal ideologies), and to be “adaptive and flexible” (p. 59) in gathering data. He also highlighted, that personal clarity about issues under investigation can enhance manageability, appreciation for data significance, and openness to contradictory data. Robert Stake (1995) asserted, that researchers need to adopt related roles and thereby accept their inherent demands. He also described how the researcher as teacher is to be alert to the unanticipated. As advocate, the researcher must describe effectively without sanitising or for that matter attempting to make the data value free. Whichever paradigm, the researcher as evaluator will present context, multiple perspectives and explanation of cross-data credibility (triangulation). Through the researcher as biographer, the reader meets the complexity of participant(s) rather than caricature, and as the

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 123

interpreter, new and alternative ways of seeing the obvious are explored. As Stake put it, “the artist is the agent of our knowledge. It is our knowledge, but we cannot avoid the presentation and interpretation of the artist” (p. 99). Stake identifies, that the final and most important attribute is to adopt a constructivist approach, one grounded in the premise that most knowledge is constructed, initially by the researcher, and subsequently by the reader. This has clear implications for inclusion of narrative detail in reporting a case, the interpretative skills of the writer/researcher, and ethically appropriate researcher behaviours as investigator, evaluator and scientist, all of which are imbued in theorising about the case’s meaning. Given this complexity of roles, it is apparent that theory drawn from case studies remains vulnerable to author predilection. Hence, the research reader needs sufficient narrative and data, to be able to evaluate credibility and induce (draw personal theoretical responses), relative to their knowledge, understanding and experience. To summarise, areas of agreement about researcher attributes in the writings of Yin (2003) and Stake (1995) include: sustained openness; ability to deal with contradictory data and to conceive multiple interpretations of data; informed awareness of personal bias and rigour about its influence on findings and resultant theory; and, fulfilling multiple roles in and around the case. I submit that these are simply demanding in the human qualities of fairness and empathy. They also offer mechanisms that assist case study researchers address what Bryar (1999–2000) highlighted as two central challenges: the representativeness of the case, and data rigour with regard to research biases. “The question is not whether we should take sides, since we inevitably will, but rather whose side are we on” (Becker, 1967 as cited in Silverman, 2011, p. 414). There have already been several references to the connation of art form in regard to case study research. I suggest, that there is none stronger than with regard to composition of the case study report. Predictably, the general recommendation is to begin the writing and interpretive processes early, with additions to chapters/sections based on additional reading and reflection (Hennink et al., 2011; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003), and deeper data analysis. Similarly, there is plenty of assistance to be found in the literature about report design and development, from taking notes and clarity of text, through to “combating the common urge not to compose” (Yin, 2003, p. 142), which is a reference to the potential to overstate, or for bias to dominate interpretation(s).

124

Chapter Seven

An even more challenging issue for researchers as writers/composers is the increasing immediacy of most media communication and social networking, as well as the volume of material on every topic accessible through search engines. I submit that these factors can diminish the readers’ willingness to allow an author to build a position, or fully explore its ramifications. Readers are simply more impatient for a result, or to find the citable line. To the contrary, I recommend, that researchers sustain the tradition of vigilantly but gently recording the contributions of their work, and more fully, that of others. A researcher could ask, while composing, whether the treatment of other authors has been overly brief or unduly called into question their credibility? (Huff, 2009). In the composition, consider if the reader will be able to distinguish considered reporting from fantasy, or vignette from story telling? (Stake, 1995). At the production end, in spite of impatience to complete, does the report show an understanding of the complexities associated with reporting and theorising from a case in a manner that engages the academic reader? Subsequently, is the researcher able to re-orchestrate the findings for a very different media audience, but still sustain the essential meaning of the findings? (Huff, 2009). It is important, that a researcher considers and develops a clear and interesting writing style. Most texts provide excellent support for the particular demands of different sections/chapters of a report, for example Silverman (2011) and Huff (2010). In addition to sustaining a research project’s momentum, the researcher might also consider early writing, the chain of evidence, and/or diary writing as an element of the interpretive thinking and theoretical drawing from the case. Writing is seldom completed in a continuous process; for example, there are often long interruptions as other parts of an author’s life are attended to. Returning to a section may give rise to a response far deeper than surface editing. As the text is re-comprehended, the very process can assist clarification of tentative propositions, or stimulate alternative theoretical possibilities worthy of further data exploration. Hennink et al. (2011) effectively described the move to theoretical considerations: Thus the process of data analysis moves from description to conceptualization and builds up to theory development, with each task building on the next, such that the resulting theory incorporates aspects of all earlier analytical tasks. These tasks are all inductive, hence lead to the development of inductive theory. (p. 259)

Setting up for interpretive writing requires forethought, and certainly, a

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 125

sincere intent to constantly re-evaluate data. “Good reflective writing takes creative ‘space’ and time, so think about how you will organise writing time so that you are able to reflect deeply on the data during the writing tasks” (Huff, 2009, p. 274). Stake (1995) proposed a clear difference between a case study to explore and understand its workings and functions, and research that revolves around a hypothesis, or solving a problem. In that respect, I am in accord with what Tellis (1997) suggested; that clear records of deep investigation through successive levels of analysis across multiple data sources is required for credible describing, explaining, and inferring from the case. With regard to the ability to compile and compose, given this text’s connection to music, it is likely the reader is already developing some of the aforementioned attributes as a result of being a passionate creator, an educator, and/or informed consumer/listener. At whatever level or nature of participation, the thinking musician is constantly called on to reflect on sounds, the scenarios, as well as, the vulnerabilities and achievements of the human beings involved in musical product. The reader might agree, that the care, determination and reflective qualities needed to determine why and how a particular musical performance became a uniquely human and special occasion are closely related to the holistic intent and demands of case study research. “Finishing a case study is the consummation of a work of art” (Stake, 1995, p. 136), and as Yin (2003, p. 165) put it, “a good manuscript is one that seduces the eye.”

The Application of Case Study Research There are multiple views to be found in the literature about the nature of case studies and what constitutes integrity in their findings. In this context, I have sought commonalities and reaffirm Robert Stake’s (1995) view to: x distance the case from data gathering methods/strategies in favour of the will to learn about a particular case (intrinsic case study); x appreciate/understand other phenomena/scenario through what we learn in a case (instrumental case study); and x through a considered perspective on representation undertake multiple sub-cases or case situations (collective case study). Consider the challenge to researcher attitudes and skills that are inherent in what Stake expected about researcher interest and bias. “The more the intrinsic interest in the case, the more we will restrain our curiosities and

126

Chapter Seven

special interests and the more we will try to discern and pursue issues critical to Ĭ5.” (p. 4) Writing about the field of architecture, Johannson (2003), also seeks commonalities across case study’s “different features” and reinforces the encapsulating nature of case investigation. In alignment with Yin (1994), Johannson suggests the “‘case’ should: x be a complex functioning unit; x be investigated in its natural context with a multitude of methods; and x be contemporary” (p. 2). Tellis (1997) cited the work of Stake (1995) and Yin (1994) in purporting six forms of case study, although Tellis made the point that these are not entirely distinct. O’Toole and Beckett (2010), having described multiple forms conceded that “case study seems like a catch-all type of research, useful for any topic or site” (p. 58). In search of clarity, Yin (2003, pp. 1415) offered a pathway via his explanation of possible variations in case study method. These included: parallels between multiple and single case study; rebuttal of ownership by either qualitative or quantitative researchers; encouragement to find the complexity of inter-relationships within the method; affirmation of case study’s potential to explain, describe, illustrate, and offer a framework for meta-evaluation. For the purposes of this text, particularly with the intention of achieving credible interpretive and theoretical contributions to the particular field of performance and music education, the applicability of case study method appears to be dependent on: x being able to define the nature and degree of specificity of the case; x the likelihood and nature of potential researcher interaction within the case; x accessibility to the case, and researcher readiness to engage through a diversity of data gathering and interpretive strategies; x the potential to “consider not just the voice and perspective of the actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them” (Tellis, 1997, p. 2); x being able to spend appropriate time in the setting (a day or 5

“Greek symbol Ĭ (Greek) to represent the case, thinking all the while that Ĭ has a boundary and working parts” (Stake, 1995, p. 2).

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 127

x

years) to ensure appropriate understanding of this case in relation to questions asked, and necessarily deeper cognisance about the significance of data threads, their complexity and interaction; the fact that “at a minimum, a case is a phenomenon specific to time and place” (Johansson, 2003, p. 14).

A significant but deliberate omission from this list is an accepted tenet; the researcher will have little or no control or influence over events within the case (Rowley, 2002; Yin, 1994, 2003). For consideration, it is my observation, that the picture in domain literature is less certain on this matter, for example, with respect to nursing (Bryar, 1999–2000) and architecture (Johansson, 2003). In the planning and implementation of post graduate study (Moore, 2012), I was designer and director of an intervention project intended to support the development of musically gifted and talented children. This gave rise to keenly felt intrapersonal conflict with regard to data credibility and fairness, a topic that was discussed frequently with mentors. However, early in the data gathering, it became apparent, that the advantages of the interventionist elements of my multiple roles might outweigh the disadvantages. As the constant comparative analysis (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994) continued, more cogent meaning and wider theoretical considerations were possible, in my view, because of the nature of my involvement and commentary on this involvement from participants. The Music Heartland Project for musically gifted and talented children remained as the case study, but as data was gathered its influence led to alternatives and modifications for the immediate benefice (Hennink et al., 2011) of child participants, and as I perceived it, the later credibility of the study’s theoretical inferences. Similarly, in the Dunedin community, I observe significant integration of people involved in music education, community music and the music profession, which includes diverse forms and degrees of reciprocal contribution. In parallel, if there is a period of research engagement rather than a snapshot, then I propose that there is some inevitability about a researcher identifying with a need to contribute, to support, and to share expertise with colleagues. For example, in another study exploring a gifted and talented project initiative, that focused on marimba ensemble playing (Moore, 2009), the contribution of the school and children to the research moved me to arrange a gamelan experience for them at the University of Otago. I can declare, that this intervention positively influenced the openness and engagement of the children and school in subsequent interactions, and based on their rapid adaptation and comments about a

128

Chapter Seven

new form of ensemble participation, enhancement of their shared love of playing. Support for this open recognition of contribution to case study, which I believe is likely in music research praxis, can be found in Johannson (2003), albeit in the context of the more inanimate domain of architecture. The notion of “case” is complicated in another respect. The kind of case on which a case study focuses may change over time. It may change both in the hands of the researcher and in the hands of the researcher’s audiences. (p. 14)

Necessarily, this is a tentative position, however, I propose, that it is worthy of further exploration with regard to performance and music education. How different is it from the diverse forms of reward, that I observe being offered to research participants, such as prizes and coffee vouchers for the return of surveys. At the very least, this paper’s proposition to recognise contribution serves to highlight the importance of full researcher declaration, as well as, the dynamic interaction and relationships amongst all of the actors in the case, of which the researcher is but one. Advantage and disadvantage to the study and/or case would depend on researcher attitude, skills, resources, and metacognitive attributes in planning, data gathering, maintenance of a rich chain of evidence (Yin, 1994), as well as, the reflective integrity of delineation with regard to researcher influence at all stages of the research. Consider parallels with a performance, composition or a music teaching sequence, each of which typically involves elongated processes toward their respective resolution. People are required to respond in situations that are multilayered, be alert to intrapersonal biases, and contribute to diverse interpersonal interactions. Similarly, musicians are no strangers to confusion and conflicting debate, for example, with regard to talent development, the readership is showered with diverse research findings. Yet, in music education and performance, the production of music is the common element, which comes as a result of respective collaborations, reflects more or less integrity in respect of individual and group ability, dynamism amongst the community of actors, and hopefully, the ingredients of authenticity concerning cultural and/or genre expression. In these processes, while the significance of respective actors is discernible, the contribution of other ameliorates the effect of each, and importantly, no one’s contribution can be regarded as passive. Returning to mainstream practice; by adopting a comprehensive case study method or a comprehensive approach (Yin, 2003), the researcher might

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 129

scrutinise a music learning theory or a belief about practice/pedagogy in support of learning out of personal interest that is, an intrinsic case (Stake, 1995). In exploring an entity such as a pop group, or an innovative educational practice in an early childhood centre as unique cases (Yin, 2003), complexities can be examined with a view to understanding, not only this scenario, but as an instrumental case (Stake, 1995) the possible relevance to other case(s). By choosing a multiple or collective case study approach, there is the potential to build more robust theory or principles, that could be more widely applicable to other situations (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003; Zucker, 2009). In making decisions about what kind of approach to adopt, it is important to remember that definitions and terms in the literature may assist our core understanding(s) but do not limit methodological possibilities. In that respect, one of the most important processes in considering the appropriateness of a case study approach is to define the boundaries of case. For example, it would be more difficult to define the boundaries if seeking to explore the relationships amongst a community of secondary school music teachers. However, if the boundary of case were an event such as a music festival, in which the group of teachers was involved, relatively speaking, it would be easier to discern and reflect on aspects of relationship. This serves to highlight the flexibility of case study method, in which the researcher has much scope in designing data gathering strategies, for example, when exploring a case within a case; introducing a quantitative survey within the qualitative study; or incorporating participant diaries upon realising that survey data has not produced sufficient integrity of participant voice. As a caution, seriously consider the amount of data that can be processed, given the resources6 available to complete the project. In the design stage, with advice from mentors, this can be balanced against the extent of how and why questions or propositions to be addressed through the case study. Over-optimistic data collection means there is greater risk the reader will less likely be satisfied that all data has been reasonably considered, and not put the side because it is inconsistent with included data. As Yin (1994, 2003) and Hennink et al. (2010) pointed out, the inclusion of contrary data and alternative interpretations adds to the rigour of theoretical proposals made in reporting the case. Adopting a collective case approach (Stake, 1995), such as an evaluation of the outcomes of a curriculum initiative in multiple settings, needs special consideration with 6

Resources include personal researcher attributes, experience, the time available for completion, and financial implications.

130

Chapter Seven

regard to data size. Certainly, Yin (2003) advised that two case studies can be less vulnerable under scrutiny and make the findings more generalizable, than a single case. However, a collective approach may restrict the data lens employed as a means of coping with the enormity of data caused by the inclusion of more than one case. It is also advisable to take into account the implications of data possibly not revealing the complexity and uniqueness of an individual case, as well as possibly lessgrounded theoretical drawing and inference as commonalities are sought. A final consideration is the possibility of design overlap, be the study intrinsic, instrumental or collective (Stake, 1995). For example, having begun with an intrinsic study, the researcher may decide to introduce additional data gathering tools, or change the length of time in the field in order to enhance the instrumental potential of the study. In making such decisions it is advisable to look past a supposed good idea to the effect on the eventual findings. Will the data add to the credibility of findings and how will the changed perspectives enhance this? The reader will want to be assured, that changes have come as a result of a rigorous process, thus it is advisable to include an ongoing explanation in the research diary/chain of evidence reported. For example, do the changes represent a theoretically grounded shift about the how and why of the case (Yin, 1994, 2003), or a considered response to an unproductive case (Stake, 1995)? “The point is, that the needed flexibility should not lessen the rigour with which the case study procedures are followed” (Yin, 2003, p. 55). However, I submit, that the researcher should not feel impotent when confronted with the need to alter data gathering strategies or interrogate a standard practice. For example, the researcher may find themself inside the setting before realising that it is a unique case, with greater than anticipated ramification for other cases. As Bryar (1999–2000) recommended with regard to nursing case studies, we would be better to have less sparring about methodology and more about “validity, power, and productivity” (Sackett & Wennberg as cited in Bryar, 1999-2000, p.75).

Drawing Theory from Case Study Research As implications emerge in the progression to a report, the blend of theoretical, discipline-based and exploratory reflection sustained with regard to participant interactions, as well as what has been held as significant data, and the nature of analysis toward conceptualisation, are all critical parameters. Gently put, methodology is dynamic and the devices therein that are more or less internally precise, need to be troubled,

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 131

clearly detailed, and offer the reader a reasoned explanation for findings. These factors are pivotal with regard to discussion about case study because of debate surrounding the limited nature of generalisation that is acceptable to the research field (Rowley, 2002; Stake, 1995; Tellis, 1997; Yin, 2003). By way of analogy, the label g represents powerful proofs in favour of generic measurement of human ‘intelligence’ and ability. Meanwhile, I observe that most practitioners in schools and community, work to the domain nature of peoples’ strengths, including musical intelligence (Gardner, 1993). Ironically, the G-word of research, generalisation, has similarly potentially divisive connotations with regard to case study. This may perhaps be oversimplified, but texts can lead a researcher to the stance that it is not possible to generalise from case study (O'Toole & Beckett, 2010), or at another extreme, that different modes of generalisation may emerge where theory and testing are combined in social research practice (Johansson, 2003). In short, the G-word can act as a mega-virus for readers, one that is capable of undermining cognitive clarity and credibility as researchers endeavour to explain and infer from case evidence. In more productive territory, self-as-instrument (Elliot, 1990) is a qualitative concept, that anticipates researchers assessing themselves honestly, and understanding their biases over an entire research process. In stressing its relevance to the quantitative and qualitative paradigms it is worth asking, are the answers found those that were anticipated, and if so, how selective was the researcher’s intellectual lens, and how substantive were the research questions? Stake (1995) sidesteped the relevance of generalisation from a single case by calling on the writer to empower the research reader’s capacity to generalise, to be based on knowledge of similar case and theory that is, “naturalistic generalisations” (p. 87). Both Stake (1995), and Yin (2003) made a clear distinction from the ability to predict probability of behavioural actions and attitudes through case study, because the nature and selection of participants do not function as a sample. Hence, the researcher/composer primarily works to build theoretical inference and implications from case study. This is painstaking and most effective if there is a clear theoretical position established at the beginning of the study, in particular for constructivist approaches (Hennink et al., 2010; Huff, 2010). As Yin (2003) put it, “the use of theory, in doing case studies, is not only an immense aid in defining the appropriate research design and data collection but also becomes the main vehicle for generalising the results of the case study” (p. 33).

132

Chapter Seven

In consideration of inference, implication and application of findings, because of the typical data complexity in case studies, the researcher is honour-bound to monitor and declare pathways to conceptualisation and the relationship to the initial theoretical framework, as well as convince the reader of data corroboration integrity; a form of triangulation. In this respect, the complexity of language around method and validity/credibility can be overwhelming, depending on whether the researcher began with a quantitative hypothesis or a grounded theory approach to finding out the why(s) and how(s) of a case. While there may be a strong temptation to invent new terms to explain a theoretical position, Huff (2009) recommended that researchers prioritise a few important ideas for theoretical consideration, show understanding of contextual conditions for theory and its limitations, and “express your creative urge in the way you combine constructs, not in the names you give them” (p. 340). Again from a qualitative perspective, Hennink et al. (2011) spelled out processes by which the researcher induces possibilities from the mix of data gathering strategies, thereby triggering a two-way interaction between data analysis and theory deduced from the literature in the initial design of the study. Based on experiences of mountains of data, from which it can seem impossible to precisely pull threads, I recommend, that the researcher is prepared for an amorphous rather than lineal intellectual process, but one that is nevertheless purposeful as choices of the most substantive possibilities eventually emerge as credible conceptualisation(s). As Hennink et al. put it, “theory development involves continuously moving between three tasks: developing theory, verifying theory and refining theory” (p. 258). It is similarly important to note, that theoretical application, matching to new case, and tentative theoretical transferral is typically about adding to, or enriching understanding, and that this is a more likely endpoint than new theory as a result of a single case study (Huff, 2010). A final consideration is the drawing of theory by abduction (Huff, 2009; Johansson, 2003). In this process of conceptualisation and inference, the researcher cuts through deductive and inductive analysis without the usual careful regard for coded data saturation (Hennink et al., 2011; Huff, 2009) in regard to theoretical possibilities that have emerged via inductive analysis. It is a relatively uncommon label in research texts because it represents a leap of professional faith about the researcher’s integrity, and is criticised as being language-based rather than grounded in data. “Abduction is the process of facing an unexpected fact, applying some rule (known already or created for the occasion) and, as a result, positing a case that may be” (Johansson, 2003, p. 9). For example, in music-making,

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 133

sometimes the music is too difficult but the motivational effect on the group is such that we bypass deductive logic about a more appropriate learning progression in favour of the challenge. Perhaps, a greater commitment to practice is observable amongst the musicians. Here, the logic is based on intuition, experience and informed understanding, which amount to expertise (Bereiter & Scardomalia, 1993). From having identified an issue or unexpected data, the researcher may use intuition informed by expertise and collegial referencing to understand more general possibilities from available evidence. This can be further explored and refined through deduction and induction based on additional modelling and testing (Huff, 2009). In the case study report, abduction may contribute to theoretical implications, and/or possibilities for further research. With respect to their expertise, the reader may also engage through abductive processes founded on the believability of the research’s natural history account and treatment of data in support of theorising and inference reported. As the data analysis proceeds towards theorising, the case study researcher will probably experience many doubts as to significance. However, some conviction is appropriate that carefully considered and reflective theory amounts to more than viewpoints founded on anecdotal evidence. Yes, there will be stresses and broken threads, but there are several categories of theoretical perspective, to which interpretive findings can contribute, as a result of careful analysis and reflection. For example, inferences in support, rebuttal, and more informed reiteration of existing theory, or emergent theory on a topic may be potentially extrapolated from the case (Huff, 2009). A factor in this is the choice of case, and usually researchers have reason(s) and/or intent in exploring a particular case (Stake, 1995). I ask, how many students and practised researchers choose a theme or case for study, on the instruction of another? Similarly, in research clusters and/or teams, it is worth asking whether the questions researchers put to each other reflect the advocacy perspectives that members hold about research? For example, a willingness to trust findings from a single participant probably illuminates a clear interest in the qualitative paradigm. Hence, though researchers are ill advised to overstate, even from a collective case study, “the researcher is permitted, no, obligated, to indicate how the findings might be extrapolated, how they could be interpreted in various circumstances, and how they accommodate theoretical discourse” (Stake, 1995, p. 93). I suggest, that this is the researcher acting as an informed advocate, the person bringing attention to matters of learning and practice that may enrich, and/or possibly advance the field.

134

Chapter Seven

Given the credibility factors discussed in this chapter, such as the integrity of the research’s theoretical framework and declaration of researcher bias, the implications of theory drawn from case study can be significant. The report will not be like a parent saying, “look, my child is the only one marching in time with the beat.” In this respect, be mindful that an apologetic tone in much literature concerning case study’s historical intermittency and chequered aspiration has resulted in sage advice to utilise traditional quasi-experimental strategies such as external validity, internal validity, construct validity and triangulation. It would seem fair to ask the question, do these devices match the significance of the researcher’s integrity and personal skills/attributes discussed earlier in this chapter? In evaluating reliability and credibility of theory drawn from case study, the former may be better regarded as mechanisms and devices of a holistic methodology but one that is equally underpinned by the declared attributes of the researcher. Consider parallels with performance to an audience i.e. publish. Is there sufficient evidence of the performer’s practice, deconstruction, and determinant resolve, as well as imaging and reflection about the music, to creditably perform to the audience? Furthermore, can the audience in return experience personal musical journeys through the informed accomplishment? In my view, these reflect strongly on the researcher as an individual and not only as a performer. In summary, in drawing theory and implications from the findings of case study research, much commitment is needed to ensure that these are fully interrogated; declarative with regard to why the researcher feels each is informed; and clearly convey a belief that the researcher attributes matched the complexity of the case. Given these conditions, I recommend the researcher allow tentative trust in intuition, as honed by discussions with mentors/supervisors, to aid the credibility of deductive, inductive and abductive theory building, assuming a goal of assisting the work of fellow researchers, students, colleagues and the wider readership. Furthermore, descriptors of research limitations can be presented as more than calculated statements intended to convince the reader, that claims are not too great. They can clarify what is not yet understood about the interactions, functions and product of case(s). Given the cumulative effect of such stringency in drawing theory and reporting, I submit, that it is more likely the reader will be in a better position to consider application(s), possibilities for further research and the potential advancement of domain knowledge.

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 135

A Model of Case Study Silverman (2005, 2011) and Huff (2009) retrospectively interrogated interpretive and publication aspects of research. About design, Huff advised to, “read major works by key figures in the ontological/epistemological worldview you use, and collect examples of publications in your field and subfield that make this position explicit” (p.120). She cited Susan Hanson, geographer and research professor: I think the main message here is to be tuned into surprises, to be receptive to surprises. Over the years, I’ve observed an awful lot of students who want to begin their research project with an answer, not a question. (p. 304)

In the context of performance and music education, I draw attention to a single case project with quite far reaching implications for teacher education. Dawn Bennett’s (2013), The Use of Learner-generated Drawings in the Development of Music Students’ Teachers Identities continues in the tradition of Weber and Mitchell’s (1995) work, in which student-drawn images are explored as a means to assist the clarity of selfimage and confidence for music teaching. The participants are 20 students spread across performance and music education courses, and the methodology includes data gathering and interpretation from the participants’ drawing of a teaching situation, diaries and survey information. Matters that fulfil many of the parameters and aspects explored in this chapter include: x The scenario can be interpreted as case study because it is an exploration of phenomenon that occurs in the case. x There is direct intervention by the researcher. However, the purpose is to further explore the case rather than experiment. There is no what question to focus the investigation, rather how and why. x The researcher is part of the case and the origin of the intervention. However, the researcher’s role is declared and the reader can readily glean the significance and appropriateness of both. The intervention is integral with the evaluation of the case by Dawn Bennett as the researcher, including its prime purpose of building student confidence (benefice) to teach music and their personal perceptions of that. x The researcher’s bias toward finding ways to build student confidence is apparent from the beginning of the study. x The reader comes to know the actors of the research, because the

Chapter Seven

136

x

x

voices of multiple individuals are clearly a priority in the report’s content. Furthermore, in that content, there are rich examples of contrary evidence. The generalisations from the case explore theoretical implications about training practices. These are framed by the theoretical basis established in the methodology notes, along with possibilities offered for enhancement of method theory. The generalisations are theoretical rather than behavioural and are grounded in the complexity of data threads. These are more credible because of the extended length of data gathering period and a diversity of participant types, therefore perspectives. This is an intrinsic case study as a centre of interest for the researcher. It is also an instrumental case, one in which there is willingness to explore more effective outcomes from the unique case, and informed advocacy about future work in relation to the development of teacher identity amongst students.

Directions in Case Study Research In calling on the music research community to tell the whole story, Burnard (2006) recommended, that we “reassess the utility of methods and theories used in educational research, psychology of music and other fields not in education” (p. 9). From the exploration of case study in this chapter, it could be better accepted as a flexible methodology, one that given rigorous application serves as a logical means to accomplish description of phenomena, and complexity of understanding about a case toward theoretical inference and critique. The following are possibilities that could enhance the method’s relevance to the music research community. These respond to prominent matters in the literature cited in the chapter with regard to debate about case study credibility i.e. design strategies when using the method, implications and applicability, and the place of researcher.

Design Strategies in Case Study Method x

In planning methodology, researchers are advised to critically evaluate theoretical precepts for respective case study types, their match to research situation and research goals, and risk/advantages of potential blending of study types. In reporting, it is appropriate to share with the reader how data and theory processes were treated in the study, thereby reflecting on and

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 137

x

x

x

x

possibly adding further clarity to the art of case study research. I am reminded of Csikszentmihalyi’s (2002) critique of Russian culture in which he commented on reduced exposure to music for children. “Even when children are taught music, the usual problem often arises: too much emphasis is placed on how they perform, and too little on what they experience” (p. 112). In my view, this apparently simple insight parallels the complexity of decisions about the deeper layers of method and the theoretical basis to the study. In short, the most obvious may be the least informative. The tenet that case study does not involve manipulation of events (Yin, 1994, 2003) within the case because of likely mutation to a form of experiment warrants exploration within domains such as performance and music education. I propose, that any intervention of new actors changes the nature of the case and its wider community. This should alert researchers to ethical questions about remaining at a distance, and/or not contributing. Guidelines for intervention might include deliberate clarification of interaction/contribution in all stages of the research, description of all actors’ roles, clarity of benefice/harm to participants, and honesty about the influence of intervention on the theory drawn from the findings. A Google search for case studies exploring online communities produces hundreds of millions of hits, with topics ranging from management of online customer service in the music industry to portals for collaborative research communities. Ongoing effort to build the credibility of the methodology could more effectively include the use of online mediums for exploring case and online collaboration amongst the research community. Burnard (2006) recommended that alternative forms of reporting be explored for music education research, and Yin (2003) offered six reporting structures as possibilities, ranging from linearanalytic to unsequenced (pp. 151–155) for case study. However, most of the literature cited in this chapter offers quite precise and uniform suggestions for the layout of case study reports. It begs the question, why is there reluctance, possibly fear, about alternative forms of case study reporting? At a superficial level, case studies can be relatively cost effective, and planned with a view to making data size almost manageable. However, while it is advisable to plan a clearly focused investigation, in the end result of publication, I concur with

Chapter Seven

138

x

Silverman (2011), that we “avoid the temptation to say a little about a lot. Indeed, the latter path can be something of a cop out” (p. 34). Baxter and Jack (2008) wrote how a “pitfall in the report writing that many novice researchers fall into is being distracted by the mounds of interesting data that are superfluous to the research question” (p. 555). As a means to countering this possibility, they recommended adherence to the initial research themes. However, I propose that the meaning and credibility of findings is closely linked to the complexity of data and revealed participant voice and appreciation for researcher bias, so that theory drawn from case study research can remain in the eye of beholder as much as in the propositions of the researcher. Since a deeply explored case is seldom tidy, for the reader to engage in naturalistic generalisation (Stake, 1995), a richness of themes and contradictory data is a advantage for credibility, and worthy of the space it commands in the research report.

Implications and Applicability x

x

x

Bryar (1999–2000) cited Stake (1994), when she noted that case study research is often to be found under other names/guises. She recognised a rather unflattering history and intermittent popularity of the method, even though it has current frequency of use and a history identifiable in the social sciences dating back to the early 19th century. I propose, that ongoing credibility issues rest with individual researchers, something akin to the top-level player’s ability to fulfil a team’s game plan. Honesty of reporting, integrity and rigour about both supporting and contradictory evidence, and insightful interpretive analysis are essential researcher attributes in the cause of defensibility of findings. Furthermore, they can be seen to underpin more conventional validity tools used to reassure readers of credibility. While the individual case study holds enormous appeal to this author, particularly in a specific domain such as music, the theoretical credibility and the potential application to other settings could be enhanced by deliberate interaction toward increasing the number of collaborative projects across researchers, institutions, and even international communities. A diminution of music apparent in New Zealand’s teacher training and the curricula confidence of generalist teachers

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 139

(Moore, 2012) illuminate the significance of beacon music programmes and inspirational individuals as models. While there is suspicion about the credibility of generalisation from case study research, particularly the single case, the revealed researcher, a multiplicity of data methods, and meaningful time in the field, can give rise to quite powerful insights and theoretical inference of direct and indirect application to the work of colleagues, and related community/professional arts bodies. In this respect, theorisation from a case has value as it affirms, rebuts or heightens understanding of existing theory, or contributes to emergent theory.

Place of the Researcher x

x

x

The evidence cited in this chapter signals a need for greater consideration of what the researcher and research process is returning to the case, and how this is situated in the case. At the very least, a clear picture about changes occurring for both the researcher and the case, as a result of the research (Bryar, 1999– 2000) needs to be available to the reader, as well as the substance of relationships amongst all actors in the research. The nature of the music domain is such, that it is difficult to conceive of a sustained project that would not influence the work and professional activity of all actors, of which the researcher is but one. In an affirming way, the researcher is advised to evaluate personal musical and professional knowledge as to benefit to the research role and the intellectual challenges of rich interpretive case study investigation. One belief that informs this chapter is that there are similarities in process and demands on intellectual and emotional perspicacity between case study research and musical performance and education, as teacher, composer or performer. For example, researchers necessarily make decisions about what evidence, which themes, and which viewpoints will take greatest attention for theoretical deduction, induction and abduction. The choice of case and evaluation themes is seldom by accident. Knowing that authentic research demands the best of us, researchers are most likely to explore case(s), which intrigue them and raise their intellectual passion however, this cannot be seen as a predictor of clarity, or determinant for findings. Where

140

Chapter Seven

findings are unclear, or conflicting with regard to the research questions then this can become the interest of the case, an intrinsic case. Even where there is greater clarity, for credible reporting, the case (either intrinsic and/or instrumental) needs to remain the centre of interest as the researcher fulfils the art of developing careful theoretical inference and considered implications. Given an appreciation for naturalistic generalisation (Stake, 1995) and rich reporting, wherever the findings lie on the continuum of clarity, the case may still offer readers a deeper theoretical understanding of this or another case, and lead the researcher to more refined questions and personal preparedness for a new case.

Concluding Comments The history of case study research spans more than one hundred years, with social units such as the family being their early raison d’être (Bryar, 2010). While credibility and application has been intermittent and at times disguised, case study is a consistently used methodology. The term methodology is used deliberately in this chapter to reflect the view, that much semantic debate around the method’s authenticity might be better focused on the veracity of reported findings, the detail of design, data complexity and management, and the chain of evidence recorded in support of theory drawn from case study. O’Toole and Beckett (2010) fairly described the method’s egg shell as cracking, because the researcher must grapple with many possibilities of design across intrinsic, instrumental, and collective forms. Tellis (1997) incorporated the work of significant authors, such as Stake (1995) and Yin (1994), to offer beginning researchers six potential designs. Embracing such flexibility implies, that the researcher understands the need to interrogate the diversity of approaches for advantage to an intended case including the discreteness of each, since more than one may be incorporated. Furthermore, in response to unexpected or unhelpful data, given rigour (Yin, 2003), adaptation during the course of the research can be justifiable. A case study approach is of value when we are interested in the how and why of a given situation, practice or setting, or as Yin (1994) put it, “when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon with some real-life context” (p. 1). Integral with this, using the work of Bryar (1999–2000) and Huff

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 141

(2009), this chapter places researcher attributes at the kernel of credibility of research findings and theory drawn from case study. In this respect, case study requires the researcher to constantly re-evaluate their world view (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994), particularly within those studies that involve sustained engagement. In the interests of credibility, honest scrutiny concerning the growth and practice of the researcher is needed. This can be viewed as part preparation for working with a method that may not be neat but allows us to deeply probe a case, and meaningfully theorise human interaction, behaviour and outputs. While larger qualitative or quantitative designs may tell us more about trends and give insight into predictive behaviours, a case study project can reveal much about sitebased innovation, functions and interactions, with potential application to other scenarios. Hence, I propose, that case study research parallels the intensity of performance and music education. For example, currently there is much discussion and affirmation about the significance of culture in how we perceive human abilities, such as being musical. My case study research (Moore, 2012), unexpectedly pointed to a theoretical possibility that the nature of ability appears to be somewhat independent of cultural outputs, and not necessarily in line with cultural aspirations held for individuals. My recommendation was for further consideration of the possibility, that culture can be an equally affirming and/or constraining parameter with regard to musical development. In considering and applying a research design, we are wise to be critical about personal and theoretical origins, and what genuinely motivates our choices in the investigation of a case. Western media offers many examples of choices that could be said to influence what the public is to accept as news, particularly with regard to which are informed and investigative. When these choices appear to be a desperate pursuit of person, story or event, it sometimes results in unjustifiable adoration or disgust amongst the readership. Similarly, consider a review of musical performance that may or may not align with the performers’ views about their work on stage. In the face of criticism, like the performer, the researcher is encouraged to scrutinise the applicability and wisdom of external evaluation alongside their own evaluation of credibity, and future research. Hence, this chapter has given some weight to the notion, that measures of credibility are best to be matched by the integrity and attributes of the researcher. As Bryar (1999–2000) stated, “case study research acknowledges, rather than trying to hide, the person of the researcher in the process” (p. 75).

142

Chapter Seven

Relevant to the quite closely networked music domain, in regard to choices made, a more honest recognition of the very presence of the researcher prompting even unwitting changes in the case is appropriate. To extend this, how might the ‘new actor’ make a deliberate contribution for the benefit of the case and its members? Significantly more radical with regard to mainstream case study principles, possible outcomes of deliberate intervention in case functions may outweigh the significance of the traditional tenet of little or no effect from researcher activity on case events (Yin, 1994). Given the diversity of case researcher roles as described by Stake (1995), it may not only be professional but an ethical responsibility in a resource-deprived music setting, for example, to share expertise in the interests of collegiality. It is my experience, that such intervention, if scrutinised and declared, can enhance the breadth of findings and their theoretical credibility. As the final recommendation, some confidence is justified with regard to case study methodology’s potential to include diverse data gathering strategies (qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods), and its potential to allow researchers to deeply probe the apparently insignificant, remote, or the more pressing case of the moment. The application of rigorous but holistic case study methodology can create a focused and quite manageable research tool, one that already assists the performance and music education field to be more responsive and better informed. There can be illumination, evaluation of significance and potential advocacy from research that explores the musical activity and aspirations of an early childhood group in a rural setting, as much as from a collective project that interrogates the music learning, personal growth, and equity of peripatetic music teaching in cases across the nation. This assertion of applicability is based on the assumption of fitting case study design and credible theorisation, underpinned by researchers’ perspicacity, integrity and artistic attributes. Stake (1995, p.136) referred to a cited study as a “splendid palette,” and therein rests an ongoing dilemma, one which each of us must confront in the interest of the method’s integrity. Will case study methodology continue to be utilised, but labelled as a rather imperfect default, or will refreshed pathways achieving more consistent credibility be found through more transparent attributes and confident artistry of new and experienced researchers?

Case Study Research in Music Education: An Examination of Meaning 143

References Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (2002). The reluctant respondent. Handbook of Interview Research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. Baxter, P. & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544-559. Bennett, D. (2013). The use of learner-generated drawings in the development of music students’ teachers identities. International Journal of Music education, 31(1), 53-67. Bereiter, Carl, & Scardomalia, M. (1993). Surpassing Ourselves, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Implications of Expertise. Peru, Illinois: Oen Court. Bryar, R. M. (1999–2000). An Examination of Case Study Research. Nurse Researcher, 7(2), 61-78. Burnard, Pamela. (2006). Telling half the story: making explicit the significance of methods and methodologies in music education research. Music education Research, 8(2), 143-152. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). Flow: The classic work on how to achieve happiness (2nd ed.). London: Rider. Eisner, E.W. & Peshkin, A. (1990). Closing Comments on a Continuing Debate. In E.W. Eisner & A. Peshkin (Eds.), Qualitative Inquiry in Education: The Continuing Debate (2nd ed), 365-370. New York: Teachers College Press. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books. Hennink, M., Hutter, I. & Bailey, A. (2011). Qualitative Research Methods. London: Sage. Hesse-Biber, S.H. & Leavy, P. (2006). The Practice of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. Huff, A. S. (2009). Designing Research for Publication. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Johansson, R. (2003). Case Study Methodology. Paper presented at the Methodologies in Housing Research, Stockholm. Maykut, P. & Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophical and Practical Guide. The Falmer Press, London. Miles, M.B, & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Ministry of Education. (2003). The New Zealand Curriculum Exemplars: The Arts. In Ministry of Education (Ed.). Wellington: Learning Media & The Learning Centre Trust of New Zealand.

144

Chapter Seven

Moore, E. J. (2009). Marimba Kids Are Music Kids: Tracing the effects of involvement in a music ensemble within the school setting. Paper presented at the Joint Conference of XXXIst ANZARME Annual Conference and the 1st Conference of the Music Educators Research Centre (MERC), Akaroa, New Zealand. —. (2012). Working With Musically Gifted Children: Creating Talent. (Doctor of Philosophy), University of Otago, Dunedin. O'Toole, J. & Beckett, D. (2010). Educational Research: Creative Thinking and Doing. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Rowley, J. (2002). Using Case Studies in Research. Management Research News, 25(1), 16-27. Silverman, D. (2005). Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. London: Sage. —. (2011). Doing Qualitative Research: Interpreting Qualitative Data (4th ed.). London: Sage. Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. —. (1998). Case Studies. In N.K Denzin & Y.S Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage. Tellis, W. (1997). Application of Case Study Methodology. Retrieved 14/5/13 http://www.nova.edu/sss/QR3-3tellis2.html Weber, C., & Mitchell, C. (1995). That's funny how you don't look like a teacher. London. UK: The Falmer Press. Yin, R. K. (1994). Case Study Research: Design and Methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. —. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Zucker, D. M. (2009). How to Do Case Study Research. School of Nursing Faculty Publication, Paper 2, 16.

CHAPTER EIGHT INTERPRETATIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS DAWN JOSEPH DEAKIN UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

Introduction: Setting the Scene Each novice or experienced scholar will encounter several ways to undertake research. These might include expertise in the method, the popularity of the method, the relevance to the research undertaken that is the preferred method for the study and whether the study has any scientific significance (Harper, 2011). Undertaking research in education and music education requires a design that guides the study or investigation in order for the collection and analysis of data to meet the research purpose. In educational research, design is a “systematic investigation to find answers to a problem” (Burns, 2000, p.3) or can be a “systematic, critical and self-critical enquiry, which aims to contribute to the advancement of knowledge or wisdom” (Bassey, 1999, p.38). Undertaking research is different from everyday observation because in research observations are made systematically, planned and later analysed and then reported (Durrheim, 2002). When using qualitative research the emphasis is placed on the experiential world of participants within the context of each individual. This allows for understandings of human interactions to emerge and personal meanings to be made within the context of the experience (Burns, 1991). In this way meanings and interpretations are based on a holistic view of the setting in which the research is conducted and are specific only to that setting (Wiersma, 1998). When using qualitative methodology, Shaw (2010) argued that the researcher is responsible for the data gathered and that they “make sense

146

Chapter Eight

of these stories and experiences in a meaningful way with a view of learning more about humankind” (p. 233). Studies in the health sciences, social science and education have posited themselves with the qualitative paradigm as they are grounded in the constructivist world-view where data is included as a holistic way of approaching reality with a strong emphasis on description, interpretation perceptions and perspectives (Bresler, 1995; Geertz, 1973; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This chapter focuses on Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), an experiential qualitative approach to research, which explores the lived experience of participants and how they make sense of it. IPA is phenomenological, it explores the individual’s perception and takes into account the ideas of the researcher through a process of interpretation when analysing the phenomena under study. As a music educator and researcher in the area of teacher education and music education I have used both quantitative as well as experiential qualitative research methodologies. In particular, I have focused on qualitative research methods in the areas of questionnaires, interviews, ethnography, field observations and notes, journals and content analysis (Hinds, 2000). I started to use IPA as part of my qualitative research methodology in 2005 with a colleague where we adopted this methodology for our longitudinal project, Intercultural Understandings of Pre-service Music Education Students (2005–2009) across two metropolitan Australian universities in Melbourne, namely Deakin University and Monash University (Joseph & Southcott, 2009, Southcott & Joseph, 2010a, Joseph & Southcott, 2013). I have continued to use IPA in my own projects (Joseph, 2012, 2013) where I have sought to record, explore, understand and interpret the participants’ experience in order to gain valuable insights into their lives (Smith, 2004; Smith & Osborne, 2008). IPA situates itself largely in the research of psychology and health studies. This chapter provides a narrative on IPA as a methodology that can also be used as an approach when undertaking research in education and particularly music education. As it is not prescriptive, using IPA allows the researcher to be individual and flexible (Smith & Eatough, as cited in Cope, 2011). Since 1996, when Jonathan Smith with colleagues authored and co-authored several publications to explore the health of those in the discipline of health psychology, the use of IPA has spread to clinical counselling, social and educational psychology (Roberts, 2013). As early as 1990, this approach has been used by van Manen and in 1994 by Moustakas (two American researchers) who have “applied phenomenological research traditions to investigate mental and physical health issues, studies that also impacted research in education” (Froehlich & Frierson-Campbell, 2013, p. 154).

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

147

Smith (2011) made the point that during the period 1996 to 2008 that 293 reputable papers had already been published using IPA as a suitable approach to research in health psychology. As a leading researcher in IPA, he provided a useful guide for assessing research that used IPA in papers related to illness (Smith, 2011). There continues to be more research in this area than in the domain of the social sciences. For example, Houston & Mullan-Jensen (2012) confirmed that IPA “has not secured a firm foothold in qualitative investigations of social work” (p. 268). In the same vein, Hefferon & Gil-Rodriquez (2011) noted, “there is a conspicuous absence of peer-reviewed educational articles” (p. 756). They warned that students undertaking research tend to choose a methodology for their studies ahead of developing research aims and questions, and they suggested for beginner researchers to choose one dimension in a single group in order to maintain deeper analysis because, if not, the result of the research tends to be descriptive and lacking in depth. Bainger (2011) in her research claimed “IPA is still very new to the education research field” (p. 32), Though Bresler (1995) in the United States mentioned Kay Collier-Sloane’s 1991 dissertation The Psychology of Humanistic Life Education: A Longitudinal Study, which in turn examined the lived experiences within the Suzuki talent music method which is closely aligned with IPA. Collier-Sloane collected data using video and audio recordings that documented individual experiences including that of the researcher, which according to Bresler (1995) “lent itself well to a phenomenological approach since experience and the development of character are basic goals for Suzuki” (p. 9). In Australia, McPherson, Davidson, and Faulkner (2012) made the point in the area of music research that “Davidson has pioneered the use of IPA” in her studies in music psychology since 1997 by focusing “on individual perceptions of lived experiences” (p. 92). As music education research situates itself in the social sciences and IPA focuses on the study of persons, I have used interviews and keeping a reflective journal as my main instruments when using IPA, as this approach is more philosophical than methodological in orientation. As a student wanting to undertake research or a supervisor who has not yet used this method, I attempt to address broad questions, such as: What is IPA? Where does it come from? How is it used? Why would a researcher consider using it? Through the discussions I offer some of the strengths and limitations of the method as I present a few music examples where IPA has been used. Having read this chapter, the reader is then advised to

148

Chapter Eight

consider whether it is applicable for studies in music or music education research. In this chapter, I attempt to answer some of these basic questions by providing a few examples to harness and highlight key features about IPA from numerous researches in the field.

Deliberations around Phenomenology According to Pringle, Henry, and McLafferty (2011b), the word “phenomenology” originated from a Greek expression meaning “to bring light” (p. 8). It is considered to be a division of philosophy where researchers explore experiences from the daily life of a person with the aim of understanding their lived experience. As an aspect of philosophy, phenomenology is a concept that originally began in the 1900’s through a German philosopher Edmund Husserl the founding father of phenomenology and was further developed into an interpretative way of knowing by Heiddeger and Gadamer (Jones 2001; Koch, 1999; Pringle, Drummond McLafferty, and Hendry, 2011a). When trying to understand what this means Chamberlain (2011) pointed out “there may be variations of phenomenology and phenomenological research in practice” (p. 49) which take into account an idiographic approach that places emphases on an “individuals’ cognitive, linguistic affective and physical being” (Pringle et al., 2011a, p. 21). De Visser and Smith (2006) argued that an idiographic approach is one that “reflects a concern with the details of particular cases and with understanding meanings rather than formulating general causal laws” (p. 687). Therefore it is imperative to understand what the core principals and tenets of phenomenology are (Langdridge, 2007). There continues to be debate around what is phenomenology and whether it can be considered in its purest form or whether some forms is more easily interpreted (Pringle et al., 2011a). Such conversations do little to help educators make sense of an approach when trying to apply it to music education. In the main, as a research method, phenomenology focuses on the experience and “how the world appears to people” (Langdridge, 2007, p. 5). When undertaking research with humans, the basic tenet of a phenomenological approach is to understand humans. Therefore the researcher is trying their best to capture the study of the participant’s thoughts and perceptions of their lived world. In this process, the researcher collects, interprets and analyses the data, investigating the thoughts and actions through what the participant says and does, while at the same time removing what is essential and what is not (Steward & Rae, 2012).

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

149

IPA offers a “framework for research which draws on the traditions of phenomenology and hermeneutics” (Tomkins & Eatough, 2010, p. 244). As an exciting research process, IPA is derived from phenomenological hermeneutics, which is related to interpretation in that “it explores personal perceptions of experience to discover how individuals make sense of their social world” (Nunnerley, Hay-Smith, & Dean, 2013, p. 1165). Bäckström and Sundin (as cited in Pringle et al., 2011a) suggested while “phenomenology uncovers meanings, hermeneutics interprets the meaning” (p. 10). There are generally two wide approaches to phenomenological research: descriptive and interpretative. When using the descriptive approach the goal is to avoid imposing the researcher’s categories or theories, but rather one of aiming to “capture the essence of a participant’s subjective experience in his or her own terms, delineating key elements and using the participant’s terminology” (Harper, 2011, p. 89). When using interpretative phenomenology it is common practice that researchers tend to “go beyond the text and, instead, to interpret the experience and so render it more meaningful” (p. 89). In this way the process of understanding and clarifying gives the researcher scope to interpret the participant’s account that encompasses cultural, social and theoretical perspectives. A key principle of IPA then focuses on interpretation which “foregrounds the interpretative role of the researcher” (p. 89). When using IPA, a two-stage interpretation process unfolds where the researcher attempts to interpret the data making sense of the participant’s lived world, which is often referred to by Smith (2004) as double hermeneutic, implying the twofold sense-making process (Pringle et al., 2011a). As a newcomer to IPA this may sound confusing and in order to see this more clearly, I explain in the next few sections what IPA is all about and how it is used when undertaking interviews as a data collection tool.

What is IPA? Many leading researchers (for example, Braun & Clarke, 2009; Brocki & Wearden, 2006; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003; Larkin, Watts, & Clifton, 2006; Reid, Flowers, & Larkin, 2005; Smith, 2005; Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009; Tzanidaki & Reynolds, 2011) have written widely on the question: What is IPA? They describe the participant’s lived world that is “both critical and conceptual, leading to a life that supports participants’ claims and feeling about a lived experience” (Nixon et al., 2013, p. 216). By its very nature IPA is inductive and has no pre-existing hypothesis (Hefferon & Ollis, 2006), which makes it a viable approach to be used in health sciences and the social sciences. When adopting IPA, not only does the

150

Chapter Eight

researcher try to understand what it means for the participant (Smith & Osborne, 2003), but also the researcher is trying to make sense of the participant trying to make sense of the world around them (Roberts, 2013). Therefore IPA is a double hermeneutic process whereby “the researcher is trying to understand the participant’s subjective experience as well as trying to scrutinize the underlying meaning” (Lawson & Wardle, 2013, p. 86). This at times can be challenging when trying to make sense of the phenomenon under study. As Pringle et al. (2011a), pointed out, when IPA is considered in relation to other forms of phenomenology, it “tends to interpret belief and accept participants’ stories, albeit in a questioning way” (p. 21) without having to follow a critical interpretive framework. Instead, it opens the door to personal experiences and meanings where researchers are sensitive to language and the social and cultural world of the participant (Todorova, 2011).

How can IPA be Used? For this section of the chapter I focus solely on interviews as I have employed interviews when undertaking data collection through purposeful sampling. The sample selection when small in size is still able to provide a sense of the participant’s unique lived experience (Cope, 2011; Smith & Osborne, 2008). Though Smith et al. (2009) recommended choosing a sample that is homogenous; this is not always possible. The researcher normally conducts unstructured or semi-structured interviews, which avoids a demanding or direct style of questioning where the participant is more able to converse in a non-threatening manner. Hefferon and GilRodriquez (2011) suggested keeping questions short when undertaking the interview and to start with broad general questions that “allows the participant to set the parameters of the topics and not the other way around” (p. 757). By doing this, the researcher avoids forcing their understanding of the phenomenon on the participant’s story (Hefferon & Gil-Rodriquez, 2011; Smith et al., 2009). IPA can be used for single case studies, which requires a comprehensive examination of the lived experience of the participant as well as with small groups of participants. In-depth data that is semi-structured and conversational in manner is collected through focus group interviews. Studies employing focus group interviews by leading researchers, such as Dunne and Quayle (2001), Flowers et al. (2003) and Tomkins and Eatough (2010) show that it is the group that is important and not the individual. When Tomkins and Eatough analysed focus group interviews they made the point that, “negotiating the part-whole relationship and the nature and treatment of

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

151

the hermeneutic or sense making process” is all part of phenomenological research, as it is concerned with the “interrelation nature of experience and of our reflections on it” (p. 245). When undertaking the analysis of the focus themes, it is not clear whether the themes that emerge are shared by the group or unique to individual participants (Brocki & Wearden, 2006; Tomkins & Eatough, 2010). Individual or focus group interviews are generally audio-recorded (Southcott & Joseph, 2013; Steward & Rae, 2012) and transcribed verbatim in order for the analysis to proceed. When undertaking the interviews the researcher helps “participants feel safe and comfortable in sharing intimate stories” (Nixon et al., 2013, p. 216). In 2008 an ongoing project (Well-being and Ageing: Community, Diversity and the Arts in Victoria) commenced between Deakin University and Monash University. As part of a Research Capacity Grant from Deakin University, a research assistant (RA) was employed to undertake the interviews. The RA, who is of the same age as the participants, was readily able to talk with the interviewees, who felt comfortable and confident to speak to her as they shared their stories in relation to the questions being posed (Southcott & Joseph, 2010b, 2013). This conversational style of the semi-structured interviews with the RA opened up rich and equal discussion between participants and the interviewer (Macionis & Plummer, 2005). In this way the mode of data collection allowed interviewees to discuss in detail aspects of their lives and their experiences (de Visser & Smith, 2006; Willig, 2001). Though interviews were normally conducted face-to-face, in some instances telephone interviews were considered suitable when collecting data. In reporting the data, the names and identities of interviewees were replaced with pseudonyms (de Visser & Smith, 2006) unless they wish to be identified. When undertaking face-to-face interviews the researcher is generally aware of non-verbal expressions and in some instances when undertaking sensitive research, for example in health sciences where interviewees are sensitive to scrutiny or observation, then telephone interviews can be considered and may be a better option. The benefits of using a telephone interview, said Holt (2010), is that it gives both the interviewee and interviewer a sense of anonymity, which also means that the interviewer has to engage and show empathy “by making interjections such as ‘mmm…’ and ‘yes’” (Lawson & Wardle, 2012, p. 87). However, I found in my own research on African music and my ongoing study, Attitudes and Perceptions of Arts Education Students: Preparing Culturally Responsive Teachers Project Teaching Music Across Two

152

Chapter Eight

Continents (Australia and South Africa), the face-to-face interview provided subtle nuances in the information being shared that would be hard to capture over the telephone or through a questionnaire (Joseph, 2012). Body language and facial expression are significant and all contribute to the analysis of the interviewee.

How to Construct Themes and Analyse the Interview? Once interviews have been undertaken, the initial steps of analysis, several readings of the transcript and listening to the audio recordings of the interview (Pothoulaki et al., 2012), are the responsibility of the researcher. There are five stages in constructing themes from interviews (van Kaam, as cited in Nixon et al., 2013, p. 217). Firstly, researchers have to read and re-read the interview transcripts in order to make sense of them, in a “hypothetical grouping” (p. 217). This is similar to what Lawson and Wardle (2013) referred to as “multiple readings accompanied by general note taking to summarize chunks of data” (p. 88). Secondly, the hypothetical grouping is placed into a “tentative pool of categories” (Nixon, et al., 2013, p. 217) where pertinent points of interest are highlighted (Lawson & Wardle, 2013). This allows the researcher to extract key words and notes, which are drawn up in a table containing exploratory notes on the side of the transcript as preliminary interpretations (Pothoulaki, et al., 2012). Thirdly, Nixon et al. (2013) called for eliminating information considered to be non-relevant or unrelated to the purpose of the study or lived experience. In my own experience, the interviewee can at times speak at length around a question, which demands the interviewer show empathy and try to keep the conversation in line with what is being asked. When reading and rereading the transcript this process allows the researcher to cluster themes (Steward & Rae, 2012) and discards information that is irrelevant. The fourth stage involves “reconstructing the tentative pool of themes into distinctive categories of experience that thematically is separated, but associated with and linked together in an overall expression” of those participants under study (Nixon et al., 2013, p. 217). Lastly, the final deconstruction takes place where “themes are solidified to a degree that they offer a character of language that points to an edifice of interpretation which describes, illustrates, illuminates and breaks through traditions of usual thought that cloud understanding” (Heidegger, as cited in Nixon et al., 2013, p. 217). Approaching the analysis in a holistic way gives rise to an idiographic approach that allows for themes to be refined (Lawson &

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

153

Wardle, 2013). In this way, IPA is consonant in its idiographic commitment to analyse each case (Smith, 2011). Drawing up a table of themes “captures the essence of the phenomenon for individual participants” (Broadbent, 2013, p. 3). IPA is also idiographic in nature as its prime focus is concerned with the individual’s unique experience rather than making generalisations. Therefore when undertaking data collection using IPA researchers tend to proceed through “purposive sampling” (Houston & Mullan-Jensen, 2012, p. 269). In a recent study undertaken in America, Cooper, Fleischer, and Cotton (2012) found that IPA is “inductive in nature” and “does not include a single step of data analysis” (p. 5). They drew on Smith et al. (2009) to outline the ways in which they analysed the data having read and re-read the transcripts, which is very much standard when undertaking IPA. Cooper et al., (2012, pp. 5-6) suggest in the first instance it is important and necessary to develop a set of descriptive comments on the interview transcript. In this way the researcher is able to describe the content of the data by identifying “key phrases, explanations, descriptions, and emotional responses.” Secondly, through such analysis the interview transcript is viewed intentionally, allowing the researcher to consider the how and what “of the textual data [that] contributes to understanding the meaning behind the participant’s words” and paying strict attention to the “functional aspects of the language” used in the interview, thereby trying to understand the interviewees’ point of view. The third level that Cooper et al. mentioned is where the researcher moves to a stage of interpreting the data and making “conceptual comments” where the focus is on meaningmaking. Words such as “seem” or “may”, indicate what the researcher understands from the point of view of the interviewee. The researcher now begins to start developing themes, as part of the next stage of the analysis. In the case of Cooper et al. the team met weekly with the research assistants and discussed the process of IPA in order to improve consistency between the researchers, whose focus was on the phenomenon rather than on the individual (2012, pp. 5–6). The reading of transcripts is an important aspect of the analysis when working as a team of researchers. Dunne and Quayle (2001) undertook rigorous analysis when analysing transcripts. They initially numbered each line of their transcript; each then read the transcript four times independently of each other. After thoroughly reading the transcript they then worked together to discuss key points and interpreted the data. They drew up tables to look for themes and connections “between themes and

154

Chapter Eight

the ways in which themes were embedded in and emerged from the full session transcript” (p. 682). Another reliable method when analysing transcripts is “an independent ‘auditor’ and/or the participant can be used to check that interpretations are warranted against the data” (Bramley and Eatough, 2005, p. 226). The rigor of IPA as a qualitative approach rests in the findings representing truth, whereby the transcriptions of the interview are checked for accuracy and cross-checked against the voice recordings, confirming the neutrality of the researcher and accuracy of the findings (Steward & Rae, 2012). This kind of rigor is not always evident in research in educational studies according to Hefferon and Gil-Rodriquez (2011). They strongly argued from their experience in undergraduate teaching that IPA is misunderstood even though there are systems in place for those using IPA. They supported moving beyond the descriptive to that of good-quality IPA, which lends itself to interpretation. In the qualitative social work research by Houston & Mullan-Jensen (2012) the authors pointed out how their thematic analysis moved from a descriptive to an interpretative analysis. They theorized about the phenomena that moved beyond what the participant had said by interpreting the phenomena within the terms of the text, linking verbatim extracts with identified themes. They further sought to understand each participant’s experience, meaning and perception through the “interplay between ‘depth’ and ‘width’; that is, the interchange between psychological experience on the one hand and the sociological context surrounding it, on the other” (p. 279). The next section outlines some instances where IPA has been successfully employed positioning it as an increasingly reliable and viable qualitative research methodology in the area of music research.

IPA in Music Research In this section of the chapter, I only refer to a few specific examples of IPA in the broad area of music research; the examples provided are by no means exhaustive. There continues to be a growing number of students (masters and doctoral) as well as academics using IPA as part of their research methodology for various research projects. For finer details of their research and the use of IPA refer to the reference section of this chapter. Larkin et al. (2006) argued on a methodological level that IPA involves a “highly intensive and detailed analysis of the accounts produced by a

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

155

comparatively small number of participants” (p. 103). This is evident in several research studies that range from single cases in music (for example, Joseph 2012; Southcott & Simmonds, 2007) to a small number of participants, such as in the area of music therapy studies (for example, Ghetti, 2011; Gilboa & Ben-Shetrit, 2009). In both these latter studies the researchers have used IPA to understand the lived experience of their participants. In particular, Ghetti (2011) claimed using IPA reports, “by creating a distilled essence of each participant’s experience for verification” (p. 326) and giving it to participants to verify, allowed her to capture their lived experience in a meaningful way. Such modifications she contended “are tolerated within the flexible guidelines of IPA” where she sought to describe and understand clinical practices of music therapists, which provided a deeper understanding using IPA and was “valued over the ability to generalise from sample to population that is typically made possible by random sampling” (p. 328). As a case study Pignato (2013) in his research in the United States documented one music educator’s work where he chose to use formal and informal interviews in order to comprehend complex phenomena of teacher training, teacher experiences, teaching practices, student experiences, and belief systems. He found using IPA most appropriate because of the subjective nature of his participant responses. IPA allowed Pignato to interpret the data that would “illuminate the meanings and experiences of the participant” (p. 23). It also gave him clarity on the understanding about the data as he was directly involved as an observer within the study. In a similar way de Vries (2012) in Australia used purposive sampling to undertake one-on-one interviews with three older Australians who were actively engaged in making music with children. As he was directly involved in the interview process, he analysed the data after each interview and immediately presented it to the three participants in order to verify what was said in the interview and clarify any question; in so doing, he was rigorous in his analysis. de Vries (2012) found by doing this “member checking” issues relating to reliability and validity were addressed. It made the inductive approach to the analysis more valid “than waiting until all data had been analyzed to check the validity of the analysis” (p. 342). In my joint project in Australia on Well-being and Ageing: Community, Diversity and the Arts in Victoria, the RA employed undertook the interviews with the Coro Furlan (Italian male choir) and the Bosnian Behar Choir (Bosnian & Croatian mixed choir) (Southcott & Joseph, 2010b, 2013). The interviews were transcribed and sent back to the interviewees for verification by the RA before analysis took place by both

156

Chapter Eight

researchers. My colleague and I read and re-read the transcripts before analysing the data into themes following thematic IPA analysis (Eatough & Smith, 2006; Smith 2004). The RA also met with my co-researcher to present her observation of the participants, which further clarified and confirmed any issues or questions we had as co-researchers. Employing an RA is not always possible when undertaking research. Li and Southcott (2010), in a small project with three individuals, undertook semi-structured interviews to find out how the participants reflected on the preparation processes for their cello exams through the Australian Music Examinations Board. Using interviews, a reflective journal and observation they argued it is important to consider the students thoughts in order “to understand how they perceive their development as instrumentalists” (p. 19). Using IPA gave them an understanding of the participant’s life and their social world. Bainger (2010), as researcher in her study with multiple-case studies in a rural area of New South Wales (Australia), used a qualitative phenomenological approach to gain understanding of the inner experience of three teachers who lacked music skills and confidence. She used triangulation to enrich her understanding of the phenomenon under study by “valuing their different perspectives equally” (p. 20) where her observations, reflective journal and interview data gave rise to new insights regarding early childhood teachers. Bainger (2010) confirmed it was her participant’s own words and experience that formed the foci of her study. In the United Kingdom, Taylor and Hallam (2008) used IPA to ascertain what older students learnt using a keyboard instrument. Though they also used a repertory grid for interviewing in their data collection, which called for data to be analysed quantitatively and could not be quantified meaningfully, they analysed their conversations with the eight participants using IPA. In this way “the data were categorised using simple clustering of constructs and skills and analysed thematically” (p. 290). What they found in their study was that a number of the ideas and excerpts that could be applied to more than one theme, which they referred to as “semantic tools for understanding these people and their engagement with playing an instrument” (p. 290). In a similar way, Nethsinghe’s (2012) research of Sri Lankan/Australian students using music to construct their self-identity in multicultural Australia found a “number of themes were identified” (p. 388) in his analysis. Using IPA gave him culturally specific information about his

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

157

participants, though his own background was similar to that of his interviewees. As all participants were known to Nethsinghe, to “ensure reliability and validity of data, the interviews were carried out by a colleague who was a stranger to the research participants” (p. 386). In my research on African music, I undertook the interviews, as the participants were not all known to me. Having a similar South African background to the interviewees gave me an insight into their life-world and experience, where a number of constructs and quotations could have been applied to more than one reported theme (Joseph, 2010, 2012). My research and that of Nethsinghe (2012) espoused issues of culture, identity and multiculturalism in our analysis of the interviews. We took into account the socio-cultural context as we identified social meaning with personal meaning when making sense of the phenomena under study. As not much research using IPA has been employed when examining social and cultural influences, Lavie and Willig (2005) have called for more research to be undertaken in this area.

Final Thoughts In the few examples cited, IPA aimed to reach the essential nature of the experience in the various research studies. As research studies generally all need to gain ethical clearance, participants are self-selecting and this can then be seen as a limitation when using IPA (Broadbent, 2013). As samples are generally small and not representing a suitably varied crosssection when undertaking phenomenological studies, generalisations cannot be made. From the music examples discussed above the data reported are the participant’s own words and the researcher’s response to the data. Though the researcher enters the study with their viewpoint, this adds another layer of meaning to the reporting; hence the data process has to be rigorous and transparent. There is no real proof of knowing whether the researchers in the studies cited had any relations with the participants that may influence the responses to questions or whether “the researcher may have unwittingly suppressed participant responses” (Nunnerley et al., 2013, p. 1170). Nevertheless, when using IPA, the researcher has to listen, understand and trust the participants voice when interpreting the data. How the participant understands their day-to-day awareness and perception and how the researcher makes sense of it when describing and interpreting the data therefore lies at the core of employing IPA. IPA has internationally developed into a growing qualitative approach to research in the areas of psychology, health sciences, social sciences, and

158

Chapter Eight

education including music education. This chapter has shown that there have been several publications using IPA as a reliable and viable research method even though there is a misconception that it is simple and descriptive in nature. IPA does not seek to find a single answer, explanation or truth but rather provides a space that is focused on the words of the participant, which resonates with story telling. IPA “has its roots in phenomenology where events and objects are to be understood by investigating how they are experienced and given meaning by an individual through that individual’s life world” (Bramley & Eatough, 2005, p. 225). By balancing phenomenology, hermeneutics and idiographic approaches, IPA makes it readily possible for new researchers to follow guidelines and steps for conducting research. While there is a process to follow when using IPA where the researcher’s narrative transcends from the descriptive to the interpretative, “the method does not claim objectivity through the use of a detailed formulaic procedure” (Brocki & Wearden, 2006, p. 97). Though the central aspect of the description relates to the participant and their experience as interpreted by the interviewee, researchers need to expand the interpretative and contextual position of IPA (Larkin, Watts, & Clifton, 2009) and move the beyond themes.

Where to From Here? Both newcomers and even well grounded researchers using IPA are trying to produce high quality analytical work that positions the research well. Chamberlain (2011) draws our attention to whether we “are using IPA as a methodology rather than a method” (p. 53) as IPA is phenomenological, interpretative and analytical in its application. Jonathan Smith has written copious papers on IPA (see Smith 1996, 1999, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010 & 2011) and provided criteria for analysis where he confirmed that the domain of the research rests in the area of physical and mental health. The question to ask is: can IPA be successfully used in music education research? My simple answer is, yes. In this chapter, I have outlined what the methodology is about, how it is used and applied and I have provided some music examples to show that it is becoming a popular qualitative approach in music research. Within the discussion, I have shed light on some of its limitations and strengths. As a novice using IPA for research papers, masters or doctoral studies, I suggest looking at Smith’s (2011) table where he outlines “what makes a good paper” (p. 24), which can also be applied when undertaking masters and doctoral research. Though there continues to be an abundance of papers using IPA in the area of health

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

159

psychology, there remains a growing need for more scholars in music education to choose and showcase IPA in their research, as it lends itself to the world of social sciences where music posits itself. The Australia and New Zealand Music Research (2013) thesis register spans a period 19172011 and provides a useful database to view studies that may have applied IPA to the research. Another useful website is BAMER (2013), which includes a database of music research undertaken at Australian universities and by Australians overseas. This database may prove a worthy source when seeking studies that have specifically applied IPA as a qualitative method. In addition, the Council of Australian University Libraries (2013) offers access to theses that have employed IPA as a qualitative method. In this chapter, I hope that I have encouraged the reader to embrace IPA; to bring a clear focus to research or future research; and offered a new or better understanding of IPA. Using IPA provides an opportunity to situate music and music education research within the realm of qualitative experiential research. As more researchers apply IPA in music and music education research, we can look forward to the emergence of new research in these areas that is rigorous, convergent and divergent in its analysis, going beyond description to interpretation. I fully agree with Smith (2011) who encouraged and challenged us as researchers to produce more high quality IPA articles “in non-psychology outlets” (p. 25). In this way, a place and space, in particular for music and music education research, can be created that will make a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge using IPA as a theoretical and methodological framework.

References Australia and New Zealand Music Research (2013). Innovative and Inclusive: Supporting the Australasian Music Research Community. Retrieved from http://www.musicresearchanz.com/?q=node/56 Bäckström, B. & Sundin, K. (2007). The meaning of being a middle-aged close relative of a person who has suffered a stroke, 1 month after discharge from a rehabilitation clinic. Nursing Inquiry, 14(3), 243-254. Bainger, L. (2010). A Music Collaboration with Early Childhood Teachers. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2, 17-27. —. (2011). Giving teachers a voice: Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis in Music Education Research. Music Education Research and Innovation, 14(1), 32-38. BAMER. (2013). Australian Music Education Information and Resources. Retrieved from http://australian music-ed.info/BAMER/listing.html

160

Chapter Eight

Bassey, M. (1999). Case Study Research in Educational Settings. United Kingdom: Open University Press. Bramley, N. & Eatough, V. (2005). The experience of living with Parkinson's disease: an interpretative phenomenological analysis case study. Psychology & Health, 20(2), 223-235. Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. Bresler, L. (1995). Ethnography, phenomenology and action research in music education. Visions of Research in Music Education, 6(3), 4-16. Retrieved from http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/v16n1/volume6/visions/fall2 Broadbent, J. R. (2013). 'The bereaved therapist speaks'. An interpretative phenomenological analysis of humanistic therapists' experiences of a significant personal bereavement and its impact upon their therapeutic practice: An exploratory study. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 13(4), 1-9. Doi: 10.1080/14733145.2013.768285 Brocki, J. M. & Wearden, A.J. (2006). A critical evaluation of the use of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) in health psychology. Psychology and Health, 21(1), 87-108. Burns, R. (1991). Introduction to Research Methods in Education (2nd ed.) Melbourne: Longman House. —. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods (4th ed.). Frenchs Forrest, NSW: Pearson Education. Chamberlain, K. (2011). Troubling methodology. Psychology Review, 5(1), 48-54. Cooper, R., Fleischer, A. & Cotton, F. A. (2012). Building Connections: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of Qualitative Research Students' Learning Experiences. Qualitative Report, 17(1), 1-16. Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR17/cooper.pdf Cope, J. (2011). Entrepreneurial learning from failure: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of Business Venturing, 26, 604623. Council of Australian University Libraries (2013). Finding Australian theses, Retrieved from http://www.caul.edu.au/caul-programs/australa sian-digital-theses/finding-theses de Visser, R. & Smith, J. A. (2006). Mister In-between: a case study of masculine identity and health-related behaviour. Journal of Health Psychology, 11(5), 685-695. de Vries, P. (2012). Intergenerational music making: A phenomenological study of three older Australians making music with children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(4), 339-356.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

161

Durrheim, K. (2002). Research Design. In M. Terre Blanche & K. Durrheim (Eds.). Research in Practice (Moonstats CD and User Guide ed.). Cape Town: Cape Town University Press. Dunne, E. A. & Quayle, E. (2001). The impact of latrogenically acquired hepatitis C infection on the well-being and relationships of a group of Irish women. Journal of Health Psychology, 6(6), 679-692. Eatough, V. & Smith, J. (2006). ‘I was like a wild person’: Understanding feelings of anger using interpretative phenomenological analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 97, 483-498. Flowers, P., Duncan, B. & Knussen, C. (2003). Re-appraising HIV testing: an exploration of the psychological costs and benefits associated with learning one’s HIV status in a purposive sample of Scottish gay men. British Journal of Health Psychology, 8, 179-194. Froehlich, H. & Frierson-Campbell, C. (2013). Inquiry in music education: Concepts and methods for beginning research. New York: Routledge. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Ghetti, C. M. (2011). Clinical Practice of Dual-Certified Music Therapists/Child Life Specialists: A Phenomenological Study. Journal of Music Therapy, 48(3), 317. Gilboa. A. & Ben-Shetrit, S. (2009). Sowing seeds of compassion: The case of a music therapy integration group. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 36, 251-260. Giorgi, A. & Giorgi, B. (2003). Phenomenology. In J. A. Smith (Ed.). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Method (pp. 25–50). London: SAGE Publications. Harper, D. (2011). Choosing a Qualitative Research Method, in D. Harper and A. R. Thompson (Eds.). Qualitative Research Methods in Mental Health and Psychotherapy: A Guide for Students and Practitioners (pp. 84-97). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Hefferon, K. M. & Ollis, S. (2006). ‘Just clicks’: an interpretative phenomenological analysis of professional dancers’ experience of flow. Research in Dance Education, 7(2), 141-159. Hefferon, K. & Gil-Rodriguez, E. (2011). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. Psychologist, 24(10), 756-759. Heidegger, M. (1982). The basic problems of phenomenology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Hinds, D. (2000). Research Instruments. In D. Wilkinson (Ed.). The Researcher's Toolkit: The complete guide to practitioner research (pp. 41-54). New York: Routledge.

162

Chapter Eight

Holt, A. (2010). Using telephones for narrative interviewing: A research note. Qualitative Research, 10, 113-121. Houston, S, & Mullan-Jensen, C. (2012). Towards depth and width in Qualitative Social Work: Aligning interpretative phenomenological analysis with the theory of social domains. Qualitative Social Work, 11(3), 266-281. Jones, A. (2001). A condensed history of the phenomenology: the first and second phases from Franz Brentano to Hans-Georg Gadamer. Nurse Research, 8(4), 65-75. Joseph, D. (2010). Music needs no visa: insights from South African voices on teaching African music in Melbourne, Australia. In P. Dunbar-Hall (Ed.). Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Cultural Diversity in Music Education: The cultural aesthetics of teaching (pp. 70-75). Sydney Conservatorium of Music, Sydney, N.S.W. —. (2012). Sharing ownership in multicultural music: a hands-on approach in teacher education in South Africa. Australian Journal of Music Education, 1(2), 10-19. —. (2013). Moving to the rhythm of Africa: a case study of a tertiary educator's understanding of multicultural dance in teacher education. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 1(1), 129-138. Joseph, D. & Southcott, J. (2009). Opening the doors to multiculturalism: Australian pre-service music teacher education students' understandings of cultural diversity. Music education research, 11(4), 457-472. Joseph, D. & Southcott, J. (2011). Embracing cultural diversity in Australian music teacher education. Music Education Research and Innovation, 14(1), 7-14. Joseph, D. & Southcott, J. (2013). So much more than just the music: Australian pre-service music teacher education student’s attitudes to artists-in-schools. International Journal of music Education, 31(3), 243-256. Koch, T. (1999). An interpretative research process: revisiting phenomenological and hermeneutical approaches. Nurse Researcher, 6(3), 20-34. Langdridge, D. (2007). Phenomenological psychology: Theory, research and method. Harlow, Essex: Pearson. Larkin, M., Watts, S. & Clifton, E. (2006). Giving voice and making sense in interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 102-120.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

163

Lavie, M. & Willig, C. (2005). “I don’t feel like melting butter”: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of the experience of “inorgasmia”. Psychology and Health, 20(1), 115-128. Lawson, V. & Wardle, J. (2013). A qualitative exploration of the health promotion effects of varying body size in photographs analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Body Image, 10(1), 85-94. Li, M. S. & Southcott, J. (2010). 'Getting the certificate': Student understanding of the Australian Music Examination Board 'Cello Syllabus. Victorian Journal of Music Education, 13(1), 19-28. Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York: Sage. Macionis, J. J. & Plummer¸ K. (2005). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Essex, United Kingdom: Pearson Prentice Hall. McPherson, G., Davidson, J. W. & Faulkner, R. (2012). Music in our lives: Rethinking musical ability, development and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nethsinghe, R. (2012). Finding balance in a mix of culture: Appreciation of diversity through multicultural music education. International Journal of Music Education, 30(4), 382-396. Nunnerley, J L., Hay-Smith, E. J. C. & Dean, S. G. (2013). Leaving a spinal unit and returning to the wider community: an interpretative phenomenological analysis. Disability & Rehabilitation, 35(14), 11641173. Nixon, G., Evans, K., Grant Kalischuk, R., Solowoniuk, J., McCallum, K. & Hagen, B. (2013). Female Gambling, Trauma, and the Not Good Enough Self: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 11(2), 214-231. Pignato, J. (2013). Angelica gets the spirit out: Improvisation, epiphany and transformation. Research Studies in Music Education, 35(1), 21. Pothoulaki, M., MacDonald, R. & Flowers, P. (2012). An interpretative phenomenological analysis of an improvisational music therapy program for cancer patients. Journal of Music Therapy, 49(1), 45-67. Pringle, J., Drummond, J., McLafferty, E. & Hendry, C. (2011a). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: a discussion and critique. Nurse Researcher, 18(3), 20-24. Pringle, J., Hendry, C. & McLafferty, E. (2011b). Phenomenological approaches: challenges and choices. Nurse Researcher, 18(2), 7-18. Reid, K., Flowers, P. & Larkin, M. (2005). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: An overview and methodological review. The Psychologist, 18, 20-23.

164

Chapter Eight

Roberts, T. (2013). Understanding the research methodology of interpretative phenomenological analysis. British Journal Of Midwifery, 21(3), 215-218. Shaw, R. L. (2010). Embedding reflexivity within experiential qualitative psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 7(3), 233-243. Smith, J. A. (1996). Beyond the divide between cognition and discourse: using interpretative phenomenological analysis in health psychology. Psychology & Health, 11, 261-271. —. (1999). Identity development during the transition to motherhood: an interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 17, 281-300. —. (2007). Hermeneutics, human sciences and health: linking theory and practice. International Journal Of Qualitative Studies On Health And Well-Being, 2, 3-11. —. (2008). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods. London: Sage. —. (2010). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: a reply to Amedeo Giorgi. Existential Analysis, 21, 186-192. —. (2011). Evaluating the contribution of interpretative phenomenological analysis: a reply to the commentaries and further development of criteria. Health Psychology Review, 5, 55-61. —. (2004). Reflecting on the development of interpretative phenomenological analysis and its contribution to qualitative research in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 1, 39-43. —. (2005). Jonathon A. Smith [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.psyc.bbk.ac.uk/people/academic/smith/smith_j/js.html —. (2011). Evaluating the contribution of interpretative phenomenological analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(1), 9-27. Smith, J. A. & Osborne, M. (2003). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods (pp. 51–80), London: SAGE Publications. Smith, J. & Osborne, M. (2008). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J.A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A practical guide to research methods (2nd ed.) (pp. 53-79). London: Sage. Smith, J.A., Flowers, P. & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research. London: Sage. Southcott, J. & Joseph, D. (2010a). Many layers of meaning: multicultural music education in Victoria, Australia. International Journal of the Humanities, 8(2), 189-200.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

165

Southcott, J. & Joseph, D. (2010b). Sharing community through singing: the Bosnian Behar Choir in Victoria, Australia. E-Journal of Studies in Music Education, 8(2), 17-27. Southcott, J. & Joseph, D. (2013). Community, commitment, and the ten ‘Commandments’: Singing in the Coro Furlan, Melbourne, Australia. International Journal of Community Music, 6(3), 5-21. Southcott, J. & Simmonds, J. G. (2007). Someone is Always Listening: Performance Anxiety and the Perception of Audience. Celebrating Musical Communities: Proceedings of the 40th Anniversary National Conference, Perth 6th-8th July 2007 Stewart, L. F. M. & Rae, A. M. (2013). Critical Care nurses' understanding of the NHS Knowledge and Skills Framework. An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Nursing in Critical Care, 18(1), 23-31. Taylor, A. & Hallam, S. (2008). Understanding what it means for older students to learn basic musical skills on a keyboard instrument. Music Education Research, 10(2), 285-306. Todorova, I. (2011). Explorations with interpretative phenomenological analysis in different socio-cultural contexts. Psychology Review, 5(1), 34-38. Tomkins, L. & Eatough, V. (2010). Reflecting on the use of IPA with focus groups: Pitfalls and potentials. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 7(3), 244-262. Tzanidaki, D. & Reynolds, F. (2011). Exploring the meanings of making traditional arts and crafts among older women in Crete, using interpretative phenomenological analysis. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 74(8), 375-382. Van Kaam, A. (1966). Existential foundation of psychology. Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press. Wiersma, W. (1998). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. Willig, C. (2001). Introducing qualitative research in psychology. Buckingham Open University Press.

CHAPTER NINE ARTS-BASED METHODS IN MUSIC EDUCATION BETH RANKIN

AUSTRALIAN CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA

“And those who were seen dancing were thought to be insane by those who could not hear the music” (unknown although often attributed to Nietzsche).

Over the past fifteen years, I have talked to many music teachers, whom I consider innovative and creative in their teaching practice, about the possibility of furthering their own education by doing a research masters or doctoral degree based on their work, but have always met with the same persistent answer. Music education research is considered to be too restrictive and that research in this field would not allow them the creative freedom they have enjoyed as a teacher and as a musician. Music offers many metaphors for this way of thinking. Their idea of doing music research is like having to practise scales and exercises in isolation rather than playing music they are passionate about in ensembles, with groups of other likeminded musicians, or for their own pleasure. They feel that they would not be allowed to improvise but have to conform to rigid pages of notation, following a conductor (supervisor) who has their own idea about how the music should and must be interpreted. Music education research, like all the genres and styles of music, is diverse and there are many ways of knowing and doing research that is reliable and valid and makes a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge. Arts-based research is another genre; another way of approaching research. It is a method that can suit those who do not have a particular research question in mind, but would rather like to explore their teaching practice to see what emerges, either for themselves as teachers and learners or for the children they teach.

168

Chapter Nine

This chapter on arts-based methods for music education research is written especially for those teachers who are looking for another way of knowing and understanding what is happening in music education and practice. It is not intended to replace or summarise what has already been written about arts-based research, but rather encourage exploration and promote another approach to research, showing how arts-based research is a stand-alone methodology or how it can be complementary to other research methods. The texts that specifically make mention of music as an arts-based form of research are listed at the end of this chapter. These texts are fundamental for anyone wanting to engage in an arts-based approach to music in research. This chapter provides some guidance as to the strengths of artsbased research through more personal and subjective methods, while addressing the concerns of research that it has integrity and rigour.

Terminology: Arts-based or Arts-informed, Methods and Inquiry One of the initial frustrations for researchers starting out is how much time they need to spend establishing the most suitable approach to their research. Firstly, there is the effort required to understand what each paradigm offers, and then to find what methods are needed to collect the required data. Denzin and Lincoln (2011, p. 100) listed five paradigms for research and gave an explanation for the ontology, epistemology and methodology of each one; Positivist, Post-positivist, Critical Theory (including Feminist and Race), Constructivism (including Interpretivist) and Cooperative Inquiry (Heron & Reason, 1997), (including Postmodern). Arts-based research has grown out of Cooperative Inquiry over the past twenty years. Chilton (2013) has identified at least 24 different approaches relating to the use of creative arts by the researcher or co-researchers and understanding the terminology can be problematic. She used arts-based research as an umbrella term for these. Some of the terms include, Arts Based Research (ABR), Art as Inquiry, Art Practices as Research, ArtsBased Educational Research (ABER), Arts Informed Research, A/r/tography, Critical Arts Based Inquiry, Performative Inquiry, Practice Based Research, Research Based Art (RBA), ScholARTistry and Transformative Inquiry Through Art. Most handbooks on arts-based research address these anomalies in terminology in-depth and the arts-based researcher needs to have access to these handbooks as references, as each deals with creative methods in specific ways.

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

169

An arts-based approach to research can appear chaotic or messy on occasions and be time consuming to collect, sort and interpret the data (Liamputtong & Rumbold, 2008). These methods are not for those who have a definite question in mind, or prefer meticulous planning in research design, collecting and analysing data, and writing up subsequent reports in timely ways. Arts-based research provides an environment where passion and rigor intersect (Leavy, 2009). The growing band of qualitative researchers using arts-based methods enjoy the freedom to become part of the research, and place high importance on the arts as a way of knowing by acknowledging that our emotions and feelings are integral to our professional identity. McNiff (1998) stated, “artistic knowing is different than intellectual knowing; this distinction is the basis of its creative value” (p. 36). Arts-based research allows for creative and free exploration. The researcher can be described as someone “searching for the nodes, the nexuses, the linkages, the interconnection and the fragile bonds” within and beyond disciplines, and in their knowing and understanding (Lincoln, 2001, pp. 693–694). It can take the researcher to the “borderlands,” the space Behar (1996, p. 174) believed lay “between passion and intellect, analysis and subjectivity, ethnography and autobiography, art and life” (p. 174). It is possible for research to take the researcher to places that are rich, deep and satisfying; places in which to be, to feel and to know, as well as providing research results that are complex, multifaceted and valuable. Arts-informed research is described in Cole and Knowles (2008) as “a way of redefining research form and representation” leading to other ways of knowing, including understanding “process, spirit purpose, subjectivities, emotion, responsiveness and the ethical dimensions of inquiry.” They believed that arts-informed research is an “explicit challenge to logical positivitism and technical rationality” which has been until now, the traditionally accepted ways of explaining human behaviours (p. 59). In summary, Finley (2005) described arts-based inquiry as research that is “radical, ethical and revolutionary”; it is “futuristic, socially responsible and used in addressing social inequities” (p. 71).

Background Arts-based research and creative methodologies are rapidly gaining acceptance in the field of research as researchers endeavour to reach even greater depths of understanding about human behaviours and needs,

170

Chapter Nine

offering complementary ways to enhance the distilled and generalisable answers frequently associated with research questions. There is an observable shift in the inclusion of arts-informed methods in more mainstream research methodologies, such as phenomenology and ethnography and with arts-based inquiry now accepted as a stand-alone methodology (Cole & Knowles, 2008). Arts-based research is also cooperative and collaborative (Liamputtong & Rumbold, 2008). Arts-based research allows the deep and personal to become visible; it is a “form of inquiry that is simultaneously minimal, existential, autoethnographic, vulnerable, performative and critical” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p. 1052). Arts-based research disrupts the traditional paradigms that cause a disjuncture between researcher and artist (Leavy, 2009) so that the self and soul can be made visible and present in the research. Music is abstract, intangible; it is not easily defined or explained, despite the best efforts of philosophers and academics over hundreds of years. American philosopher and psychologist John Dewey, a leader in education and social reform, suggested that the arts have become separated from ordinary life. He said all art is “a process of making the world a different and better place in which to live, and involves a phase of protest and compensatory response” (Dewey, 1958, p. 363). Storr (1992) described music as “a source of reconciliation, exhilaration, and hope which never fails” and that “it is both personal and beyond the personal” (p. 188). Music can be described in concrete terms, as organised sound over a continuum, yet it is esoteric, fleeting and evocative. Music education research has sat in a positivist/constructivist and quantitative paradigm for many years, describing practice and the practicalities of being a music educator or student of music (Kossak, 2012). In no way does this dismiss the importance of the established quantitative methods but rather it offers a complementary way of understanding the personal and internal journey of music practice and music knowing (Daykin, 2008). By using arts-based methods for research, the nuanced spaces where we hear the voices of children, or acknowledge our own feeling state as we engage in making music, as an individual or participating in an ensemble, can be bought to the surface and examined for meaning. Richardson (1999) proposed that much of the qualitative research using the arts that we are engaging with is part of a greater creative analytic practice, which she has termed creative analytical practice (CAP) ethnography. The more researchers engage in forms of CAP ethnography,

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

171

the more open others will become to thinking and knowing differently and will find that creativity and analytic thinking are well-suited as ways of exploring diversity (Richardson, 1999).

Changing Paradigms: Redefining Research with New Possibilities Bartel (2011) and Robinson (2010) called for a new paradigm in teaching that embraces the creative and cooperative. This same challenge applies to the way we approach music education research. It appears that many supervisors feel threatened by this new arts-based paradigm. They seem to hold a belief that the paradigm and method they used for their PhD study is the only way to conduct research, or at least, the best way of knowing, and are subsequently reluctant to allow students they supervise to explore other ways of knowing (Kossak, 2012). This perpetuates or even embeds the ongoing arguments about the pros and cons of qualitative versus quantitative methods and does not appear to help the advancement of research as progressive and exploratory in creating new knowledge (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, 2011). McNiff (2008) encouraged researchers to use the processes of music making, creating and performing, to explore the personal meaning in making music, rather than relying on research participants, through creative movement, vocal improvisation, recording ideas, feelings, experience and insights. This can also be done in artistic forms such as painting, poetry writing, journaling or autoethnographic notes. Barone (2008) stated that arts-based research is different from previously accepted scientific methods both in the way the research is conducted and in the ways that the research is represented. The possibilities now exist for music education research to be presented as a performative or musical work, as an exegesis, portfolio and/or a set of diaries. As a methodology, arts-based inquiry entails creating a piece of artwork and using that process to examine a research question, perhaps about the structure or processes of music making. The outcome normally consists of musical compositions, which can be (or are) accompanied by a commentary or exegesis. Our knowledge, understanding and ethical considerations in research are constantly evolving, and qualitative methods have emerged as a way of engaging with the broader issues of research that cannot be explored with traditional methods alone. It is now common to find that researchers use multiple approaches and different disciplines in

172

Chapter Nine

research. This mix of disciplines and methods is known as bricolage and is likened to the weaving together of threads into a quilt or other unified, functional item (Bazeley, 1999; Kincheloe, 2001; Lincoln, 2001). Researchers who engage in bricolage are referred to as bricoleurs. For example, various forms of ethnography, visual ethnography and autoethnography, may be used in conjunction with more traditional data collection methods such as interviews and observational field notes, or even arts-based responses such as paintings and poetry, to create rich data sets. Good reflective practice notes, video and audio recordings including those of interpretive performances also contribute to data collections. Autoethnography is beginning to emerge as part of the research literature as teachers bring the personal, intuitive and emotional aspects of professional practice into focus. Autoethnographers such as Ellis, O’Brien and McIlveen have shown in their writing, that our practice is always influenced by the person we are and what has gone before. They pointed out that there will always be bias in research and that our personal experiences and understanding contribute to a much deeper critical awareness of our needs and the needs of others (Ellis, 1999; Foster, McAllister, & O’Brien, 2005; McIlveen, 2008). Autoethnographic notes can be created in many different ways to reflect: the researcher’s understanding of their experience; participation in an event; the relationships developed with people involved. Romanyshyn (2007) and McNiff (1998) have urged researchers to reexamine the meaning of the word research. They hyphenated it “research,” to emphasize the need for commitment and willingness to search for meaning and to be open to a deeper connectedness with any work being investigated. Arts-based research resonates particularly with the observations of Romanyshyn (2007) who suggested in his book, The Wounded Researcher, that the work being researched can take on a life of its own, resisting the conscious intention and best made plans of the researcher as it twists and turns, taking them in many unexplored and unintended directions. Romanyshyn also suggested there is an important subconscious voice or soul to be heard that is present in both the researcher and the work being investigated. In order for the voice of the work to be heard the researcher sometimes needs to let go of their ego and intentions and hear what the work wants to have others know and understand. The energy generated by any project brings many unplanned and fortuitous or synchronistic encounters. Jung (1972) explained these as “meaningful co-incidences” (p. 10).

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

173

So What is It? Arts-based research is messy, time-consuming, emerging and emergent. It is impossible to define but it occurs like an improvised piece of music. It requires an idea, willing musician(s) (self or research participants) and a vague idea of a starting point, an agreed key and style, but beyond that there can be many surprises and unexpected delights. Sajani (2012) referred to arts-based research as a “living enquiry” and used the metaphor of improvisation to describe arts-based research, highlighting the ideas of “risk, responsiveness and relationship” (p. 79).

What Defines Arts-based Research and Methods for Music Education Research? Boundaries of music education are also shifting and growing. Music as therapy has a long established history and methodology, whereas it has only been in the past 30 years that music education has extended beyond the classroom. Exploration, inquiry and research into the music practices of community music, music in health, music in early years, music for the aged, music and social justice, music and spirituality have been growing as an emergent discipline within music education and arts-based research (McCarthy, 2008). The scope of arts-based research is extensive and one of its advantages is how well non-verbal ways of knowing, that are central to musical experience can be interrogated (McCarthy, 2013). Knowles and Cole’s Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research (2008) provided a definition of the elements and forms that contribute to the methodology frameworks for what arts-based and arts-informed methods cover and their growing use within research. Cole and Knowles (2008) suggested that there are six defining elements of arts-informed research. These include: a commitment to a chosen art form; how well the chosen art form supports the research; the intuitive and serendipitous nature of the research process; the presence of the researcher as an artist; the strongly reflexive nature of the research; and the nature of a wider audience than the usual academic field, which therefore has potential for engaging people on many levels (pp. 61–62). There are multiple forms that arts-informed inquiry may take. Table 1, column A shows “form as,” as defined by Cole and Knowles (2008) and column B, is my interpretation of how arts-based music research studies may appear when using their definitions.

174

Chapter Nine

Table 1 Forms of Music as Arts-Based Inquiry A: Cole and Knowles (2008) “Form As” in ArtsBased Inquiry Genre

B: Music Form in Arts-Based Music Education Research

x x x x x x x x x x

Method

x x

Structural element

x x

Technical element

x x

Music as performative. Music as performance. Music as consumer. Music as learner. Music as collaborative or cooperative. Music as play. Music as composition. Music and the process of inquiry brought together. Music as listening. Music as participatory. Provides the structure (music) for the researcher to hang ideas and questions from. Defines who we are as musician and music teacher/researcher. The use of the metaphor, such as improvisation, symphony, composition. The way the music relates to the multifaceted nature of the study. How the music was designed and used: x Composed, performed, recorded. How the music was introduced and implemented.

Communication element

x

How the music was connected to: x The listener. x The musicians. x The researcher. x The researched.

Aesthetic element

x

Relates to the sound, feel, appearance of the music.

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

175

Procedural element and emergent phenomenon

x

How we are changed over time by the music: x Playing. x Listening. x Participating. x Remembering.

Reflection

x

The combination of each of these forms in allowing us to scrutinise the data and know that the study is robust.

Daykin (2004) stated that music in arts-based research presents some challenges that need to be addressed and focused on three main areas: representation, narrative and empowerment (p. 5). Music as representation is problematic in that it cannot describe or create meaning. Only individuals and each individual experience can make meaning and interpretation will be different, either as a musician or consumer of the music. Individuals are not necessarily aware of what the initial source of inspiration was for the composer or musicians. Daykin (2004) believed that representation can be made throughout the research process by using music to “generate, explore and interpret diverse meanings and perspectives” (p. 7) or that a music work may be created as an endpoint of the research. Music as a narrative is described as both “reflecting and constructing the social world” (p. 8) and having much in common with narrative analysis such as the grand narratives that shape and inform our lives both in their structure and content. Daykin described music as empowerment as having ideological foundations (p. 10). The music we listen to, and the behaviours we observe at public events such as rock concerts, folk music festivals and classical concert halls, reflect the underlying attitudes and opinions of each group. Sometimes these groups use participation in music for social action and at other times purely for entertainment.

Ethics Ellis described three types of ethical dilemmas for arts-based researchers. The first is concerned with the formal, mandated ethics procedures and applications required by institutions. The second is situational, where the ethics are unpredictable because a person as the subject of the research may disclose information that could mean harm to themselves or to others. The third dilemma is relational, where there is a relationship that

176

Chapter Nine

“recognises and values mutual respect, dignity and connectedness between the researcher and the researched” (Ellis, 2007, p. 4). Ellis also stressed that qualitative research should lead to making a better world, and that we should be “better off at the end of the research” than at the beginning (p. 25). Richards (2005) suggested criteria for evaluating arts-based and autoethnographic forms of research and stated that such research should show five qualities: simplicity, elegance and balance, completeness, robustness, and making sense to relevant audiences (p. 139). Richardson (1999) proposed that research findings be judged on other criteria such as: whether the research makes a worthwhile contribution; whether the personal narrative is connected to a larger social frame; whether it is reflexive, ethical, self-searching, and written in a way the participants would want; whether it has impact, whether the reader is moved, learns, is prompted to action; and whether it expresses a reality and is a credible account of the reported event (pp. 665–666).

Are Arts-based Methods Right for the Research? Music in arts-based research is still very much uncharted territory and those who choose this path will need to be open to experimentation and prepared for criticism, as there are very few accounts of what has gone before. The reward for embracing arts-based music research will be a contribution to a field of research that is wide open to whatever can be brought by the researcher. For music teachers and researchers who feel that their musical self has been compartmentalised and separated from their relationship with their research work, arts-based research may resonate as a way of reconciling themselves with the academy. Arts-based research also offers those involved in grassroots music projects, where evaluation or research design was not part of their original intention, the opportunity to apply an arts-based methodology retrospectively. The advantages are that arts-based research methods are: x experiential, engaging, enabling, embodied; x research at the edge with a message; x concerned with social justice, sociology, holistic, community action and change;

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

x x x x x x

177

collaborative and cooperative; flexible; creative; complementary to most paradigms of research; interdisciplinary; able to allow the research to be performed retrospectively.

The disadvantages are that arts-based methods can be: x chaotic and messy; x time consuming; x not easy to define initially; x poorly understood by others; x relatively uncharted in music research study design and literature.

Music as Data; Music as Results Music can be used as a research tool in all phases of a research project, from design and data collection to analysis, interpretation, representation, and evaluation (Daykin, 2008; Leavy, 2009). Daykin (2008) stated that there are three practical considerations for using music in arts-based research: “eliciting rich information about phenomena; using the arts for data analysis and; enlivening representation and dissemination of results” (p. 236). Music and other arts practices have the potential to help us access information, feelings and knowledge about our deeper selves that cannot be gained through any other method. Music practices such as improvisation, using voice, instruments or movement can be used to elicit data or to help with data analysis, as music can help us capture fleeting and deep longings within ourselves that cannot be gained from interviews questionnaires or talking. There are unlimited creative possibilities in using music to represent the findings in research. As a data management system, NVivo10 (2012) offers arts-based music researchers multiple ways to collect, store and analyse data in multiple forms, such as digital materials in the form of audio files, video files, photographs, text files and websites. Other original materials such as photographs, paintings, poetry and recordings need to be converted to digital formats and files before uploading to NVivo. The software program has extremely efficient functions that allow audio and video recordings and text materials to be retrieved, encoded and stored as easily as

178

Chapter Nine

analysing document material. Encoding is done as free or tree nodes, which allows the creation of hierarchies and the software makes it easy to sort stored items into themes and topics and generate reports about each. Data collected in an arts-based study can be examined through many different lenses including: immersion, constant comparison, descriptive, narrative, thematic and content analysis. The coming together of data is a form of “crystallization” as described by Ellingson (2011) who believed that the greater the amount of time spent immersed in the data, the clearer our understandings become, allowing the researcher to interpret the same data in many different ways.

Conclusion The effect of music education has the potential to stretch way beyond the classroom. Music education is far more profound than merely learning or playing the notes or understanding the sounds. It is entertainment and edification. It becomes part of our social emotional life and is possibly the most holistic of human achievements. Music education researchers must consider arts-based research methods as another way of telling the world why music is so important. Choosing to do arts-based research in music education will help forge new ways of thinking about and understanding music and contribute significantly to performative ways of describing research results. Arts-based music education research will provide the researcher with unexpected and surprising results that are revealing, meaningful and transformational. These deeper insights contribute to the new paradigms in research that celebrate and give a face to individuals who have a specific and unique identity rather than only a statistic.

Texts Essential for Those Wanting to Conduct Arts-based Research in Music Barone, T. & Eisner, E. (2012). Arts based research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cahnmann-Taylor, M. & Siegesmund, R. (2007). Arts-based research in education: Foundations for practice: New York, NY: Routledge. Finley, S. (2005). Arts-based Inquiry: Performing Revolutionary Pedagogy (3 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Leavy, P. (2009). Method meets art: Arts-based research practice. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Liamputtong, P. & Rumbold, J. (2008). Knowing differently: arts-based and collaborative research methods: New York, NY: Nova Science

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

179

Publishers. McLean, C. (2010). Creative arts in interdisciplinary practice: Inquiries for hope and change. Calgary, Canada: Detselig Enterprises. McNiff, S. (1998). Arts-based research. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley.

References Bazeley, P. (1999). The bricoleur with a computer: Piecing together qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative Health Research, 9(2), 279-287. doi: 10.1177/104973299129121749 Behar, R. (1996). The vulnerable observer: Anthropology that breaks your heart. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Chilton, G. (2013). Arts-based research in the creative arts therapies. Paper presented at the Ninth International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry (ICQI), University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL. Cole, A. & Knowles, J. (2008). Arts-informed research. In J. G. Knowles & A. L. Cole (Eds.), Handbook of arts in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Daykin, N. (2004). The role of music in an arts-based qualitative inquiry. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(2), 1-14. Retrieved from http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/3_2/pdf/daykin.pdf —. (2008). Knowing through music: Implications for research. In P. Liamputtong & J. Rumbold (Eds.), Knowing differently: Arts-based and collaborative research methods (pp. 229-243). New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers. Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (2000). In D. Lincoln (Ed.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (2011). The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dewey, J. (1958). Art as experience. New York, NY: Capricorn Books. Ellingson, L. (2011). Analysis and representation across the continuum. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ellis, C. (1999). Heartful autoethnography. Qualitative Health Research, 9(5), 669-683. doi: 10.1177/104973299129122153 Finley, S. (2005). Arts-based inquiry: Performing revolutionary pedagogy. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Foster, K., McAllister, M., & O’Brien, L. (2005). Coming to autoethnography: A mental health nurse’s experience. International

180

Chapter Nine

Journal of Qualitative Methods, 4(4) 1-15. Heron, J. (2000). Co-operative inquiry: Research into the human condition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates Sage Publications. Heron, J. & Reason, P. (1997). Participative knowing and an extended epistemology: A participative inquiry paradigm. Qualitative Inquiry, 3(3) 274-294. Jung, C. (1955). Synchronicity - An acausal connecting principle (R. Hull, Trans. Vol. 8). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Kincheloe, J. (2001). Describing the bricolage: Conceptualizing a new rigor in qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 7(6), 679-692. doi: 10.1177/107780040100700601 Knowles, G. & Cole, A. (2008). Handbook of the arts in qualitative research: Perspectives, methodologies, examples, and issues: Sage. Kossak, M. (2012). Art-based enquiry: It is what we do! Journal of Applied Arts & Health, 3(1), 21-29. doi: 10.1386/jaah.3.1.21_1 Leavy, P. (2009). Method meets art: Arts-based research practice. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Liamputtong, P. & Rumbold, J. (2008). Knowing differently: Setting the scene. In P. Liamputtong & J. Rumbold (Eds.), Knowing differently: Arts-based and collaborative research methods. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers. Lincoln, Y. (2001). An emerging new bricoleur: Promises and possibilities (A reaction to Joe Kincheloe’s “Describing the Bricoleur”). Qualitative Inquiry, 7(6), 693-705. Lincoln, Y. & Denzin, N. (2005). Epilogue: The Eighth and Ninth Moments - Qualitative Research in/and the Fractured Future. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lincoln, Y., Lynham, S. & Guba, E. (2011). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, revisited. In Denzin & Lincoln (Ed.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks CA: Sage. McCarthy, M. (2013). Children’s spirituality and music learning: Exploring deeper resonances with arts-based research. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 14(4). Retrieved from http://www.ijea.org/v14n4/ McIlveen, P. (2008). Autoethnography as a method for reflexive research and practice in vocational psychology. Australian Journal of Career Development, 17(2), 13-20. McNiff, S. (1998). Arts-based research. London (UK): Jessica Kingsley. —. (2008). Arts-based research. In J. G. Knowles & A. L. Cole (Eds.),

Arts-based Methods in Music Education

181

Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research: Perspectives, methodologies, examples and issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. NVivo qualitative data analysis software. (2012). NVivo (Version 10). Doncaster, Australia: QSR International. Richards, L. (2005). Handling Qualitative Data. London, UK: Sage. Richardson, L. (1999). Feathers in our cap. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 28(6), 660-668. doi: 10.1177/089124199129023767 Robinson, K. (2010). Changing education paradigms: TED Ideas Worth Spreading. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/ Romanyshyn, R. (2007). The wounded researcher: Research with soul in mind. New Orleans, LA: Spring Journal Books.

CHAPTER TEN MIXED METHODS: THE THIRD RESEARCH COMMUNITY STUART WISE CANTERBURY UNIVERSITY, NEW ZEALAND

Introduction Research in music education covers a wide range of activities and can be concerned with, amongst other topics, any of: individual music development; the potential of music learning to enhance social group membership; inclusion and participation; schooling; creativity and new technologies; formal and informal learning; artist-educator partnerships; and school-university partnerships (Burnard, 2006). The goal of research in music should be a product that contributes to knowledge about music and musical behaviour (Yarbrough, 1996). Early research in music education often utilised quantitative methodologies. Much of the work undertaken in the middle of the 20th century was concerned with drill and practise activities, often to do with pitch discrimination, the ability of a subject to recognise rhythm and/or chord progressions and such like. Most research tended to focus on an examination of how it might be possible to predict levels of musical ability. Researchers in the 1940s through to the 1980s were concerned with improvements in design, the number of subjects and data analysis of large-scale projects (Roulston, 2006). However, since that time there has been a significant increase in the number of qualitative approaches emerging in music education research. Yarbrough (1996) wrote: Qualitative research methodology may be defined as that which is based on context sensitivity. Researchers using this methodology believe that the particular physical, historical, material and social environment in which people find themselves have great bearing on what they think and how they

184

Chapter Ten act. Therefore, techniques for conducting research include, for example, anecdotal accounts, interviews, perusal of materials, transcriptions of musical responses and demographic information. (p.192)

Yarbrough argued that researchers in areas of music education needed to broaden their approach and work at developing a range of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills. She suggested that researchers working in the field of music education should explore some areas of scientific methodology coupled with strong orientations in the humanities and liberal arts as this combination should provide rich data that has been collected with sufficient rigour while also including the necessary contextual location (Yarbrough, 1996). It is important that researchers in music education clearly articulate the research questions that guide the inquiry. Burnard (2006) argued that future research in this area “would be enhanced if researchers explicitly mapped out their assumptions, their theories of action and their research processes including the ‘what,’ ‘how’ and ‘why’ of methods and methodologies as distinct but interrelated dimensions” (p. 149). It is the clarity of justification, she argued, and the detailed explanation and description by the researcher that allows judgements of validity to be made by the reader.

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in Social Research Considerable debate has occurred between advocates of quantitative and qualitative research paradigms for more than a century (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Quantitative purists have maintained that social science inquiry should be objective and free from time and context generalisations. As such, educational researchers should eliminate their biases, remain emotionally detached and uninvolved with the objects of study and test or justify their stated hypothesis in some empirical manner (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Qualitative purists on the other hand rejected what is referred to as positivism. They argued for the superiority of constructivism, idealism, relativism, humanism, hermeneutics and such like (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). Purists here contended that: “multiple-constructed realities abound, that time- and context-free generalisations are neither desirable nor possible, that it is impossible to differentiate fully between causes and effects and that knower and known

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

185

cannot be separated because the subjective knower is the only source of reality” (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004 p.15).

Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, in other words, how they make sense of their world and the experiences they have in that world (Merriam, 1998). A third research paradigm in educational research combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches is described by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004). They argued that the goal of mixed methods research is not to replace either of the approaches described above but rather to “draw from the strengths and minimise the weaknesses of both” (p. 14). They believed that mixed methods research offers educational researchers a methodology closer to what researchers actually use in practice. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) recognised that mixed methods research is still in a period of development.

Basic Descriptions of the Three Methodological Movements In general, researchers in the social and behavioural sciences can be categorised into three groups: x Quantitatively orientated social and behavioural scientists working mainly within the positivist/post-positivist paradigm and principally interested in numerical data and analyses. x Qualitatively orientated social and behavioural scientists working mainly within a constructivist paradigm and principally interested in narrative data and analyses. x Mixed methodologists working mainly within the pragmatic paradigm and interested in both narrative and numeric data and their analyses (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Teddlie and Tashakkori have argued that the three methodological movements are like communities with members of each group sharing similar backgrounds, methodological orientations, and research ideas and practices. They suggested that there appear to be basic “cultural” differences between these researchers in the terms of the manner they were trained, the types of research they pursue and the types of professional organisations and special research interest groups they belong to.

186

Chapter Ten

The Quantitative Tradition The dominant and relatively unquestioned methodological orientation in the social and behavioural sciences, in much of the earliest investigation in music education research for most of the 20th century, was quantitative and conducted under the associated positivist/post-positivist paradigm. Quantitative methods may be most simply defined as the techniques associated with the gathering, analysis, interpretation and presentation of numerical information (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Quantitative researchers originally subscribed to the tenets of positivism; the view that social research should adopt scientific method as exemplified by the work of modern physicists and consisting of the rigorous testing of hypotheses by means of data that takes the form of quantitative measurements. Post-positivism is a revised form of positivism that addresses some of the more widely-known criticisms of the quantitative orientation yet maintains an emphasis on quantitative methods. In the quantitative tradition, research questions guide investigations and are concerned with unknown aspects of a phenomenon of interest. Answers to the research questions in quantitative research are presented in numerical form. Quantitative (statistical) data analysis is the analysis of numerical data using techniques that may include: x describing the phenomenon of interest; x looking for significant differences between groups or among variables.

The Qualitative Tradition Qualitatively oriented researchers and theorists (e.g. Garfinkel, 1967; Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Moustakas, 1994; Schutz, 1967) wrote a number of popular books describing the nature of qualitative research during the last 25 years of the 20th century. These authors were highly critical of the positivist orientation of previous traditions of research and proposed a wide variety of alternative qualitative methods. Their critiques of positivism helped established qualitative research as a viable alternative to quantitative research. Qualitative methods may be most simply defined as the techniques associated with the gathering, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of narrative information. Many qualitative researchers subscribe to a worldview known as constructivism. Constructivists believe that researchers individually and collectively construct the meaning of the phenomena under investigation

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

187

(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Answers to qualitative research questions are fundamentally narrative in form. Qualitative (thematic) data analysis is concerned with the examination of narrative data using a variety of techniques including inductive and iterative processes, categorical strategies and contextualising strategies. Because the results of these strategies typically indicate themes, qualitative data analysis is also referred to as thematic analysis.

The Mixed Methods Tradition The mixed methods research tradition is less well known than the quantitative and qualitative traditions because it has only emerged as a separate orientation in the last 20 years. Researchers employing mixed methods present an alternative to the quantitative and qualitative traditions by advocating the use of whatever methodological tools are required to answer the research questions under study. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) defined mixed methods as “a type of research design in which quantitative and qualitative approaches are used in types of questions, research methods, data collection and analysis procedures, and/or inferences” (p. 711). Another definition stated that mixed methods research is where the investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the findings and draws inferences using both quantitative and qualitative approaches or methods within a single study or program of inquiry (Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). The philosophical orientation associated most often with mixed methods is pragmatism (for example, Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) defined pragmatism as: A deconstructive paradigm that debunks concepts such as ‘truth’ and ‘reality’ and focuses instead on ‘what works’ as the truth regarding the research questions under investigation. Pragmatism rejects the either/or choices associated with the paradigm wars, advocates for the use of mixed methods in research, and acknowledges that the values of the researcher play a large role in interpretation of results. (p. 713)

Mixed methods data analysis involves the integration of statistical and thematic data analytical techniques with a number of other strategies unique to mixed methods for example, data conversion or transformation. In a properly conducted mixed methods study, investigators move seamlessly between statistical and thematic analysis (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).

Chapter Ten

188

Differences among Methodologies, Methods and Paradigms In working to develop an understanding of mixed methods as a research tradition it is necessary for the researcher to recognise the differences among three basic concepts: paradigms, methodologies and methods. This is a special concern for mixed methods research because the field has had a history of confusing, or contradictory, definitions of basic vocabulary such as multimethods, a term that appears to be rarely used in recent times (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Table 1 Dimensions of contrast between the Three Methodological Communities (adapted from Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009) Dimension of Contrast

Qualitative Position

Methods

Qualitative methods Constructivism (and variants)

Paradigms Form of data Typical studies or designs Data analysis

Validity/trust Worthiness issues

Typically narrative Ethnographic research designs and others (e.g. case study) Thematic strategies: categorical and contextualising Trustworthiness; credibility; transferability

Mixed Methods Position Mixed methods Pragmatism; transformative perspective Narrative plus numeric Mixed methods designs, such as parallel and sequential Integration of thematic and statistical; data conversion Inference quality; inference transferability

Quantitative Position Quantitative methods Positivism Postpositivism Typically numeric Correlational; survey; experimental; quasiexperimental Statistical analyses: descriptive and inferential Internal validity; external validity

In the simplest terms, a paradigm can be understood as a particular worldview that encompasses philosophical and socio-political issues, whereas the research methodology can best be understood as a general

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

189

approach to scientific inquiry involving broad components of the research process. Research methods can be considered as the specific strategies that are employed when conducting research. The concepts connected to the various methodological orientations that have been discussed can be compared across several important dimensions. For example, constructivism, pragmatism and post-positivism are terms that can be related to qualitative methods, mixed methods and quantitative methods, and as such they can be compared with one another across a dimension labelled paradigms. Table 1 summarises the dimensions of contrast among the three methodological communities. The rows represent the dimensions of contrast and the columns the methodological communities.

Bridging the Gap or Muddying the Waters? Proponents of mixed methods research (e.g. Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009) have claimed that it will bridge the gap between the qualitative and quantitative divide or between the singular scientific method and structuralist orientation of quantitative approaches and the more freewheeling inquiry approach adopted by naturalists. While remaining aware of the considerable animosity that once existed in the so-called paradigm wars, it is important to consider that uncritical adoption of mixed methods research will not necessarily resolve all the issues (Mutch, 2009). Yanchar and Williams (2006) considered that this is an important issue and have suggested a way forward. They asserted that methodological eclecticism – a term ascribed to Hammersley (1996) – as a reaction to paradigmatic rigidity is a fall-back position requiring little regard for theoretical commitment and one that challenges issues pertaining to the nature of reality, knowledge and so on. Yanchar and Williams went on to explain how there are two assumptions that appear to underpin methodological eclecticism: (a) methods can be disengaged from paradigms and be freely mixed without consideration of the implications, including obvious incompatibility; and (b) using pragmatism as philosophical justification that researchers can select whatever they feel will work in a particular research context. They then add: To be sure, proponents of eclectically oriented inquiry have helped initiate a useful move beyond rigid adherence to traditional paradigms and onemethod-fits-all approaches to research and evaluation. As sympathetic as we are to the animating purposes and values of this movement, however,

190

Chapter Ten we will argue that advocates of methodological eclecticism are only half correct in their attempt to foster more viable research and evaluation practices because they fail to take seriously the inescapable assumptions and values that accompany the use of a method and pursuit of practically useful results. (p. 3)

While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to explore in any depth the important debate surrounding methodological eclecticism between the incompatibility thesis and the compatibility thesis, it is important to acknowledge it exists. The incompatibility thesis holds that methods coming from different ontological and epistemological bases cannot be mixed to achieve valid results. The compatibility thesis – the name of which Yanchar and Williams (2006) attribute to Howe (1988) – holds that methods arising from quantitative or qualitative traditions can be separated from their philosophical bases and mixed in various ways to suit the needs of a particular research project or study (Mutch, 2009).

The Soft Incompatibility Thesis In order to resolve some of the tensions and issues in applying mixed methods approaches, Yanchar and Williams (2006) have proposed what they called a soft incompatibility approach. While they offered a strong critique of many aspects of mixed methods approaches Yanchar and Williams believed that appropriate use offers huge possibilities. They proposed five guidelines to assist with ensuring “flexible, critically examined, and theoretically informed inquiry practices” (p. 8) and these are: contextual sensitivity, creativity, conceptual awareness, coherence and critical reflection. x Contextual sensitivity means that the selection of any method in the mix must fit with the relevant context. Simply because a method is convenient or practical, does not automatically mean it is appropriate for a particular context. x Creativity can be used to avoid theory construction, formulation of questions and method development being bound by pragmatic rigidity. Innovation brings with it flexibility and responsibility; flexibility to push boundaries and responsibility to do this thoughtfully and critically. x Conceptual awareness ensures that a consistent and coherent philosophical or theoretical approach underpins the research. The conceptual awareness does not have to be limited to traditional paradigms but researchers should place some emphasis on the theoretical nature of their methods and their work by identifying

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

x

x

191

assumptions, values and moral commitments that have practical and theoretical consequences. Coherence means that there is an internal consistency and logic to the decisions made. The various parts link to the whole and are bound loosely together by the relevant theoretical stance. Room remains for some flexibility but any divergence or creativity can still fit within the overall purpose Critical reflection should underpin all aspects, from the research problem, question formulation, method selection, to the analysis and interpretation. Such reflection is not only focussed on the problem but also on the broader questions surrounding the purposes and practices of educational research “to better understand underlying assumptions and values that might otherwise remain unrecognised and unexamined” (p. 9).

Using the Guidelines in a Mixed Methods Model At this stage I believe it would be beneficial to illustrate how the framework and related guidelines proposed by Yanchar and Williams may play out in practice. Mutch (2009) described a report by Day, Sammons, and Gu (2008) where specific reference is made to these guidelines. Although Day et al. did not set out to use the guidelines to completely underpin their study, they claimed confirmation of the soft incompatibility thesis and made specific reference to the need for sustained, productive dialogue in which the different data ‘talk’ to each other throughout a project (Day et al. 2008). In the study by Day et al., Variations in Teachers’ Work and Lives and their Effects on Pupils (VITAE), the researchers were commissioned by the Department for Education and Skills in England to conduct a study designed to assess teacher effectiveness in relation to student outcomes using robust and reliable quantitative data and in-depth qualitative data. A similar approach might be used in an examination of a new initiative in music education in a city, regionally or nationally. Such an initiative might involve the use of an application (app) on portable digital devices such as iPads. Contextual sensitivity. An initiative could be in response to a government directive regarding information technology use in primary school music education and mandated through specific reference by a national curriculum statement. In such a situation, it is necessary to acknowledge the political context in which the research is being undertaken. In conducting the research it is

192

Chapter Ten

also important for example, to remain wary of serving a political agenda that may suggest an app on an iPad as a way of replacing a music specialist in the classroom. At a macro level contextual sensitivity is important for steering a course between a government’s need for research, that might guide policy development with resulting budgetary implications, and the commitment a researcher should have to open and ethical research practices. At a micro level the researcher needs to be sensitive to the context of the schools (both individually and collectively) in which the research into music education is taking place. This sensitivity could include a suitable code of conduct designed to assure participants of on-going anonymity and confidentiality. If part of the research design included a longitudinal study, this could also provide the researcher with an opportunity to build a greater level of rapport with the participants as emerging findings are checked with case study teachers. Creativity. Creative solutions are necessary due to the complex research methodology that can be employed in a research project. These could involve both qualitative and quantitative data from a longitudinal study that includes: individual semi-structured interviews, group interviews, questionnaires, document analysis, student assessment data, and case studies. In such a complex research environment creativity may manifest itself most strongly in the way that data can be reformulated and combined. An example of this is where teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the app being used are matched with statistical analysis of student achievement when using it. Conceptual awareness. In the study reported by Mutch (2009), the researchers derived an initial conceptual map from relevant literature and the research team’s knowledge and experiences. Following this initial concept map, a largescale survey was conducted which led to the development of a second conceptual framework. This framework emerged from the empirical data and posed hypotheses for the next phase of the research. The on-going data analysis and constant reconceptualization allowed a fluid interplay and testing of ideas within a coherent framework. Figure 1 shows a diagram developed by Mutch outlining how this process might take place. This type of diagram provides a useful conceptualisation of how a move from methodological integration to conceptual synergy might occur. Through this type of movement, some of the strengths of the mixed methods approach as highlighted by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004),

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

193

Teddlie and Tashakkori (2009) and others, are being added to the legitimation and rigour of studies by researchers. Figure 1: Conceptual diagram adapted by Mutch (after Day, Sammons & Gu, 2008)

Coherence. Maintaining coherence can be achieved by a range of strategies (e.g., conceptual maps, sampling design frameworks, data collection tables) and by the development of analytic matrices. Such matrices often record personal, professional and workplace factors from a range of data collection strategies, which can then be weighted in various ways thus converting qualitative themes into quantitative data. Multilevel statistics analyses of academic outcomes related to achievement in music for

194

Chapter Ten

particular cohorts of students taught using an app could be compared to similar statistical analysis for cohorts of students taught by a specialist music teacher. The data can be modelled to produce a value-added score, which is then compared to views of outcomes from case study teachers. By undertaking such processes coherence is maintained through conceptualisations, testing of hypothesis, reviewing emerging findings against relevant literature and having the data ‘talk’ to each other in a synergistic fashion. Critical reflection. A researcher should be constantly engaged in critical dialogue and reflection between themself and their participants. In the type of study I am suggesting, there will be a number of strengths and limitations. One limitation is the time lag between case study teacher interviews and the ability to access relevant achievement data for matching student cohorts in any particular sample area. Some kind of value-added score might well be a retrospective estimate of teacher effectiveness or effectiveness of the app because it is based on past rather than current student achievement. Creativity and critical reflection will be necessary to find ways of dealing with this and a range of other possible challenges.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Mixed Methods Research It is important to recognise the strengths and weaknesses the application of mixed methods to a particular research question may have. This section focuses on these and is based on the suggestions provided by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004). Strengths. x Words, pictures and narratives can be used to add meaning to numbers generated as part of data gathered in quantitative processes. x Numbers can be used to add precision to words, pictures and narratives. x A researcher can generate and test (with numbers) a grounded theory. x Mixed methods can answer a broader and more complete range of research questions because the researcher is not confined to only one method or approach. x A researcher can use the strengths of an additional method to overcome the weaknesses in another method by using them both in a study.

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

x x x x

195

Mixed methods can provide stronger evidence for a conclusion based on findings obtained through convergence and corroboration of data. Mixed methods can add insight and understanding that might be missed if only one method is used. Mixed methods can be used to justify an increase in the generalisability of results. Qualitative and quantitative research when used together is able to produce more complete knowledge necessary to inform theory and practice.

Weaknesses. x It can be difficult for a single researcher to carry out both qualitative and quantitative research, especially if two or more approaches are to be used concurrently; it may require a research team to do this. x A researcher needs to learn about multiple methods and approaches as well as understand how to mix two (or more) methods appropriately. x Methodological purists contend that the researcher should only ever work within either a qualitative or quantitative paradigm. x Mixed methods approaches have the potential to be more expensive. x Mixed methods approaches can be more time consuming. x Some of the details of mixed methods research remain to be worked out fully by research methodologists (e.g., problems relating to paradigm mixing; how to qualitatively analyse quantitative data and vice versa; how to interpret any conflicting results).

Summary In reality, mixed methods research as described throughout this chapter has a long history in research practice. Researchers have frequently ignored the writings of methodologists when there is a sense a mixed approach will best help the researcher answer a research question (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Proponents of mixed methods have argued it is time for all researchers and research methodologists to formally recognise this third research paradigm and begin systematically writing about it and using it. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie recommended contingency theory for research approach selection, which accepts that quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research are all superior under different circumstances and it is up to the researcher to examine the specific contingencies and make decisions about which research approach, or combination of research approaches should be used in a specific study. A number of commentators (for example, Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Tashakkori & Creswell,

196

Chapter Ten

2007; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009) have stated that mixed methods research is here to stay and that it should be widely recognised in education and related disciplines in the social and behavioural sciences as the third research paradigm. In order to make sound and reasoned choices about any method, a researcher needs to be well-schooled in the histories, underpinning assumptions, practicalities and possibilities of both qualitative and quantitative research as well as how they might be combined (Mutch, 2009). How can one method be chosen over another, or combined one with another if what they aim to do and why is unknown? If a researcher chooses to become a mixed methodologist then it must be made clear that this is a choice and a choice requiring intellectual rigour as well as practical experience. It is not enough to know what works, it is also important to know why, how, when, and in place of what else? As Burnard (2006) argued, it is vitally important that researchers make such choices apparent, as it is the clarity of justification and the subsequent detailed explanation and description by the researcher that allows judgements of validity to be made by the reader. In this chapter I began by briefly indicating some of the typical studies in music education that were conducted using quantitative methods before outlining the shift in music education research to more qualitative methods informed by context sensitivity. I then provided a description of the research environment and discussed the some of the tensions that exist between the two traditional research paradigms. Following this I provided an outline of the key features of both methods. Next I provided a brief description of the soft incompatibility thesis and then outlined a set of guidelines derived from this. Finally I provided an example showing how these guidelines may be used in practice before concluding this chapter with a short examination of the strengths and weaknesses of mixed methods research. As a result of this discussion I would like to express my hopes that in the clarification, justification and articulation of choice of methods, researchers will apply as much philosophical effort to their research as they do technical effort. Firstly, I hope that armed with a little more indepth understanding, music educators and educators in general reading research, will do so with a more critical frame of mind. Secondly, I hope that the issues raised will spark collegial conversation and academic debate as music education research producers and consumers continue to

Mixed Methods: The Third Research Community

197

examine current practice and forge new ones. Finally, I hope that teachers and mentors of beginning researchers will put in place a practical programme that is broad, inclusive, in-depth and challenging, so that a new generation of researchers in music education come to the task knowledgeable, confident and critical.

References Burnard, P. (2006). Telling half the story: making explicit the significance of methods and methodologies in music education research. Music Education Research, 8(2), 143-152. Day, C., Sammons, P., & Gu, Q. (2008). Combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies in research on teachers’ lives, work and effectiveness: from integration to synergy. Educational Researcher, 37, 330-342 Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Guba, E. & Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park CA: Sage. Johnson, R. B. & Onwuegbuzie, A. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Miles, M. & Huberman, M. (1994) Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mutch, C. (2009). Mixed method research: methodological eclecticism or muddled thinking? Journal of Educational Leadership, Policy and Practice, 24(2), 18-30. Roulston, K. (2006). Mapping the possibilities of qualitative research in music education: a primer. Music Education Research, 8(2), 153 - 173. Schutz, A. (1967). Phenomenology of the social world. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tashakkori, A. & Creswell, J. (2007). Exploring the Nature of Research Questions in Mixed Method Research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(3), 207-2. Teddlie, C. & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of Mixed Method

198

Chapter Ten

Approaches: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioural Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Yanchar, S. & Williams, D. (2006) Reconsidering the Compatibility Thesis and Eclecticism: Five Proposed Guidelines for Method Use. Educational Researcher, 35(9), 3-12. Yarbrough, C. (1996). "The Future of Scholarly Inquiry in Music education": 1996 Senior Researcher Award Acceptance Address. Journal of Research in Music education, 44(3), 190-203.

CHAPTER ELEVEN THE JOURNEY CONTINUES … CHALLENGES FOR MUSIC EDUCATION RESEARCH DR KAY HARTWIG GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY

This book provides a basic understanding of the philosophy, main techniques and concepts of research methodologies that have been used in music education. These include: x historical research; x quantitative research; x narrative inquiry; x action research; x ethnography; x case study; x interpretative phenomenological analysis; x arts-based methods; x mixed methods. The individual writers of each chapter in this book Research Methodologies in Music Education have personal experience in using each of the methodologies presented across many research projects. Writers were given the freedom to write their chapter in an individual manner. The reader is therefore taken on a journey through various methodologies written in different styles that the author/s have chosen best represents the relevant methodology and their own style of writing. Many examples have been cited that detail research projects where the various methodologies have been used. The intention of this book is to provide: a starting point for those

200

Chapter Eleven

researchers commencing a project in music education; guidance for academic educators supervising research students; and information for practitioners who would like to explore research designs and methods to investigate research problems in their own context. The list is not exhaustive and merely provided as a starting point. All methodologies have strengths and weaknesses as well as degrees of suitability for the vastly different types of research into music education. Music education is diverse and therefore many approaches are needed that suit the context depending on what phenomena are being investigated. An open mind is necessary to explore possibilities and challenges – albeit those encouraging music education practices to remain responsive and positive. The important issue for the new researcher is to choose the methodology that will best answer the research question. It is therefore the research questions that should drive the methodology (Sims, 2012, p. 683). In a time when music struggles to find its place in education circles, with demands on literacy and numeracy in addition to high stakes testing and national curriculums, more research in music education can assist to highlight the value that should be placed on music and its role in education. A collaborative approach by communities of practitioners and academic music researchers is needed to expand the available body of music research and continue the dialogue and knowledge dissemination for music education research. As Folkestad (2005) has indicated music education as a field of research must deal with all kinds of musical learning, irrespective of where it takes place (or is situated), and of how and by whom it is organised or initiated. Despite the challenges and obstacles for music education research, the journey continues …

References Folkestad, G. (2005). Here, there and everywhere: music education research in a globalised world. In Music Education Research, 7:3, p. 279-287. Sims, W. (2012). Make Research, Not War: Methodologies and Music Education Research. In The Oxford Handbook of Music Education, Volume 2, G. McPherson & G. Welch (eds), p. 682-693.

Thank you to all the writers for sharing their knowledge of different research methodologies, their ideas and experiences. A special thank you to Sylvia Gillard for typesetting the book into a presentable format from the many different versions and set outs presented to her.