Recent Developments in Yugoslav Archaeology 9780860545569, 9781407347141
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English Pages [272] Year 1988
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
List of Figures
Introduction
Part One: Neothermal Dalmatia
Chapter One: The Neothermal Dalmatia Project - Archaeological Survey Results
Chapter Two: The Extent of Change in the Agricultural Landscape of Dalmatia, Yugoslavia, as a Result of 8,000 Years of Land Management
Chapter Three: The Neolithic Animal Husbandry of Smilcic and Nin
Chapter Four: Dalmatian Pottery: Spots Before the Eyes
Chapter Five: The Potential for the Analysis of Early Medieval Pottery in Dalmatia
Chapter Six: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Pottery Production The Dalmatian Island of IZ
Chapter Seven: Ethnoarchaeology and Latinity in the Mountains of the Southern Velebit
Part Two: HVAR
Chapter Eight: The 1982-1986 Ager Pharensis Survey: Potentials and Limitations of 'Wall Survey' in Karstic Environments
Chapter Nine: The Ager Pharensis/ HVAR Project 1987
Chapter Ten: Maslinovik: A Greek Watchtower in the Chora of Pharos: A Preliminary Report
Chapter Eleven: A Modular Analysis of the Field System of Pharos
Part 3: Slovenia
Chapter Twelve: Mineralogical Research on the Neolithic Ceramic Assemblage from Moverna Vas
Chapter Thirteen: The Social Context of the Introduction of Iron in the Early Iron Age of Slovenia
Chapter Fourteen: An Interim Report of Survey Work Carried Out at Sveti Jakob, A Multi-Period Hilltop Settletop Above Dovsko (Senovo), Slovenia
Chapter Fifteen: Coming Down from the Hills: A Preliminary Report on the Intensive Surface Collection of a Lowland Early Iron Age Activity Area in Slovenia
Chapter Sixteen: Consolidated Bibliography
Citation preview
Recent Developments in Yugoslav Archaeology
edited by
· J. C. Chaptnan, J. Bintliff, V. Gaffney and B. Slapsak
BAR International Series 431
1988
B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR -S431, 1988: 'Recent Developments in Yugoslav Archaeology'
©
The Individual Auth ors, 1988
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545569 paperback ISBN 9781407347141 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545569 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
T his v olume i s d edicated t o t hose g reat i mprovers
-
l and-
t he f irst f armers w ho i ntroduced
S tone c learance a nd t he a rt o f c airn- a nd t erraceb uilding t o t he k arstiands o f Y ugoslavia.
i ii
T ABLE O F C ONTENTS
L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS
v i
L IST O F F IGURES
v ii
I NTRODUCTION P ART O NE
Xvi
-
J ohn C hapman & J ohn B intliff x vii
x ix
-
:T HE N EOTHERMAL D ALMATIA P ROJECT
C HAPTER 1 T he N eothermal D almatia P roject A rchaeological s urvey r esults J ohn C hapman & R obert S hiel 0 01 -
0 30
-
CHAPTER 2 T he e xtent o f c hange i n t he a gricultural l andscape o f D almatia, o f 7 ,000 y ears o f
Y ugoslavia,
C HAPTER 3 T he N eolithic a nimal h usbandry o f
CHAPTER 4 D almatian pottery
a s a r esult
l and m anagement R obert S hiel & J ohn C hapman 0 31
S mil5i3 a nd N m C harles S chwartz 0 45
: s pots b efore t he e yes K aren G riffiths 0 77
CHAPTER 5 The p otential f or t he a nalysis o f E arly Medieval p ottery i n D almatia H uw E vans 0 85
CHAPTER 6 An e thno-archaeological
0 44
-
0 75
-
0 84
-
-
0 99
s tudy o f p ottery
p roduction o n t he D almatian i sland o f I R ichard C arlton 1 01
C HAPTER 7 E thnoarchaeolOgy a nd L atinity i n t he m ountains o f t he s outhern V elebit J ohn N andris
i v
1 25
-
-
1 23
1 43
PART TWO
HVAR
CHAPTER 8 The 1982-1986 Ager Pharensis survey. Potentials and limitations of 'wall survey' in karstic environments ......................Bozidar Slapsak 145 - 149 CHAPTER 9 The Ager Pharensis / Hvar Project 1987 ......•.... ..............•....•.John B intliff & Vince Gaffney 151 - 175 CHAPTER 10 Maslinovik : a Greek watchtower in the Chora of Phares. A preliminary report .........•.......... ....•....•.........Branko Kirigin & Petar Popovic 177 - 189 CHAPTER 11 A modular analysis of the field system of Phares. ..................Zeran Stancic & Bozidar Slapsak 191 - 199
PART THREE
SLOVENIA
CHAPTER 12 Mineralogical research on the Neolithic ceramic assemblage from Moverna Vas .....••..Igor Klopcic 201 - 209 CHAPTER 13 The social context of the introduction of iron in the Early Iron Age of Slovenia ........Phil Mason 211 - 223 CHAPTER 14 An interim report of survey work carried out at Sveti Jakob, a multi-period hilltop settlement above Dovsko (Senovo), Slovenia ..•••..Uros Bavec 225 - 238 CHAPTER 15 Coming down from the hills. A preliminary report on the intensive surface collection of a lowland Iron Age activity area in Slovenia .•..Phil Mason 239 - 245
CONSOLIDATED BIBLIOGRAPHY .......•..•.•.......•.........•.•.. 247 - 253
V
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Uros Bavec, University of Ljubljana, Filozofski Fakultet, Odeljenje, 61000 LJUBLJANA, Askerceva 12, YUGOSLAVIA.
Arheoloski
John Bintliff, University of Bradford, Schools of Studies Archaeological Sciences, BRADFORD, West Yorkshire, BD7 lDP, BRITAIN.
in
Richard Carlton, University of Newcastle upon Archaeology, NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NEl 7RU, BRITAIN.
Department
of
Department
of
Tyne,
John Chapman, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Archaeology, NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NEl 7RU, BRITAIN. Huw Evans, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Department NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NEl 7RU, BRITAIN.
of
Archaeology,
Vince Gaffney, University of Bradford, Schools of Studies Archaeological Sciences, BRADFORD, West Yorkshire, BD7 lDP, BRITAIN.
in
Karen Griffiths, University of Newcastle upon Archaeology, NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NEl 7RU, BRITAIN.
of
Tyne,
Department
Branko Kirigin, Arheolo�ki Muzej, 58000 SPLIT, Frankopansa 25, YUGOSLAVIA. Igor Klopcic, University of Ljublja�a, Filozofski Fakultet, Arheoloski Odeljenje, 61000 LJUBLJANA, Askerceva 12, YUGOSLAVIA. Phil Mason, University of Ljubljana, Filozofski Fakultet, Arheoloski Odeljenje, 61000 LJUBLJANA, Askerceva 12, YUGOSLAVIA. John Nandris, University College London, Institute of Archaeology, 31-34, Gordon Square, LONDON WClH OPY, BRITAIN. Petar Popovic, YUGOSLAVIA.
Arheoloski
Institut,
11000
BEOGRAD, Knez Mihailova 35,
Charles Schwartz, 8227, Norton Avenue/No. 1, LOS ANGELES, CA 90046, USA. Robert Shiel, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences� NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NEl 7RU, BRITAIN. Bozidar Slapsak, University of Ljubljana, Filozofski Fakultet, Arheoloski Odeljenje, 61000 LJUBLJANA, Askerceva 12, YUGOSLAVIA. zoran Stancic, University of Ljubljana, Filozofski Fakultet, Arheoloski Odeljenje, 61000 LJUBLJANA, Askerceva 12, YUGOSLAVIA.
vi
Figure 1.1 Location map of project study area, survey transects and survey block. Figure 1.2 Distribution of Neolithic/Eneolithic remains. Figure 1.3 Distribution of Bronze Age remains. Figure 1.4 Distribution of Iron Age remains. Figure 1.5 Distribution of Roman remains. Figure 1.6 Distribution of Medieval remains. Figure 1.7 Distribution of Iska remains, survey block Figure 1.8 Distribution of modern settlement remains. Figure 1.9 Distribution of later chipped stone remains. Figure 1.10 Distribution of cairns. Figure 1.11 Distribution of linear features. Figure 1.12 Distribution of later settlement remains. Figure 2.1 Block diagram of the landscape units, study area. Figure 2.2 Changes since the Neolithic period in (a) land-use suitability.
land
type
and
(b)
Figure 2.3 Distribution of modern land classes in the survey block (key as in Figure 2.1). Figure 3.1 Variation in sheep metacarpals : Obre, Tinj, Nin reports on excavations and fieldwork which appear in 'Arheoloski Pregled' testify to the wide-ranging archaeological activities in all republics. and Smilcic. Figure 3.2 Variation in goat metacarpals : Obre, Tinj, Nin and Smilcic. Plate 3.1 1. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III; Early Neolithic, Bag 44, 40-60 cm. 2. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III: a. dorsal view b. lateral view. Early Neo. Sanda 13, 60-70 cm. 3. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III. a. medial view b. dorsal view. Early Neo. Sonda 15, 100-120 cm. Plate 3.2 1. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III, dorsal view. Early Neolithic Sonda 13, 60-70 cm. 2. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III, lateral view. Early Neolithic Bag 44, 94 cm. 3. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III, ventral-lateral view; Middle Neolithic. Sanda 12, 30-40 cm. 4. Cut marks. Cattle phalange III. a. ventral-lateral view b. medial view. Early Neolithic. Bag 44, 94 cm. Plate 3.3 1.
Gnawing.
Domestic dog radius. a. vii
dorsal
view
b.
ventral
view. Middle Neolithic Sonda 9, 160-180 cm. 2. Gnawing. Caprovine ulna, dorsal view. No location. 3. Gnawing. Goat distal humerus, ventral view. Middle Neolithic Sonda 1, 160-170 cm. 4. Cut marks. Sheep horncore; Middle Neolithic, Sonda 1, 80-130 cm. Plate 3.4 1. Premolar alignment (straight). Domestic dog mandible. a. lateral view b. dorsal view; Early Neolithic, Sonda 15, 150-160 cm. 2. Hornless sheep skull fragment. Early Neolithic, Sonda 14, 100-120 cm. 3. Premolar alignment (unaligned). Domestic dog mandible, medial view. Middle Neolithic, Sonda 9, 160-180 cm. 4. Modified. Caprovine acetabulum. Early Neolithic, Bag 44, 110-120 cm. Plate 3.5 Pathology. Healed break, left metatarsal, Red Deer. view b. dorsal-lateral view c. ventral view.
a. dorsal
Plate 3.6 1. Hornless sheep, Nin: skull fragment. a. ventral medial view b. dorsal lateral view. Early Neolithic, Unit 2. 2. Wild horse, Nin. dorsal view. Early Neolithic, Unit 2. Figure 4.1 Plan of Nadin-Gradina, with location of 1986 sondas. Figure 4.2 Cooking wares, Nadin-Gradina 1986 excavations. Figure 4.3 Distribution of cooking wares, Sondas 1 and 3, Nadin. Figure 4.4 Distribution of cooking wares, Sondas 1 and 3, Nadin. Figure 4.5 Sources of pottery imported into Nadin. Figure 5.1 Distribution of findspots of Early Croatian Dalmatia.
pottery
in
north
Figure 5.2 a. A model of economic costs and returns of pottery production. Source: Arnold 1986. b. Travel distance for potting clay (solid line) and temper (dashed line). Source: Arnold 1986. Vessel height vs. waist diameter/widest body 5.3 Figure Stankovci and Materiza. Figure 5.4 Vessel height vs. basal Stankovci and Materiza.
diameter: diameter:
Figure 5.5 Rim height vs. rim weight: all pots. Figure 5.6 Vessel height vs. widest body diameter: Materiza. Plate 6.1 Romano VLAKHOV, Potter, using a quernstone mill to grind calcite for use as temper. Veli Iz, Dalmatia. Plate 6.2 Mato GAVRAN, Potter, with his hand-wheel and a newly-thrown pot. Doboj, Bosnia. Plates 6.3 - 6.8 Stages in the manufacture of a large bread-oven, crpnja, by Marijan and Libero SUTLOVIC. Veli Iz, Dalmatia. viii
or
P late 6 .3 F orming a b ase f or t he vessel
s ides.
P late 6 .4 A dding t he l ast c oil p rior t o s moothing a nd P late
6 .5 A dding t he h andles.
s haping.
N ote t he c omplete r ange o f w ooden t ools
t o
t he r ight o f t he p otter. T he c lay u sed b y b oth p otters i n t he w orkshop i s b ehind t he w ater c ontainer. P late 6 .6 P ots b eing p ositioned r eady f or f iring, i n t he s un. P late 6 .7 C rpnje i n p lace r eady f or f iring.
a fter
b eing
N ote t he u se o f
p re-heated
l arge
s tones
a nd a b roken s herd i n s tacking t he p ots. P late 6 .8 B urning d ried g rass a nd o live c uttings o n t op o f t he p ots. Note t he r ubbish t ip ( top r ight), w hich s lightly o verlaps w ith t he f iring a rea. F igure 7 .1 M ap o f
s outhern V elebit M ountains,
Y ugoslavia.
F igure 9 .1 T he i sland o f H var F igure 9 .2 T he A ger P harensis F igure 9 .3 A rea o f
l and d ivision s ystem w ith k nown R oman
f ield s ystem s urveyed i n t he 1 987
F igure 9 .4 R esults f rom p art o f o ffsite
p ottery
t he
d istributions.
e xtensive The
R oman
s ites.
s eason.
s urvey v illa
s howing s ite
r epresented b y t he d ense pottery c oncentrations a t t he
o f
t op
s ite
a nd
C erevac i s
o f
t he
a rea
s hown. F igure 9 .5a S ite P 1 r esults
f rom
( delimited b y
e xtensive
f inds on f ield w alls;
s urvey
dashed i n
a rea)
w ithin
i ts v icinity.
t he
c ontext
o f
D arker n umbers denote
c ontinuous l ine d elimits a rea o f a rtefact
densities
over 5 . F igure 9 .5b S ite P 1,
i ntensive s urvey r esults,
c ontour a t 9 s herds;
s haded
s trip i naccessible, F igure 9 .5c
S ite
P 1,
e xtensive
s urvey
r esults
a fter
c orrection
f or
v isibility F igure 9 .6a S ite P 2
( delimited b y dashed a rea)
e xtensive s urvey r esults. F igure 9 .6b S ite P 2, F igure
9 .6c
F or k ey,
i ntensive s urvey r esults, i ntensive
w ithin t he c ontext
o f
t he
s ee f igure 5 a.
S ite
P 2,
s urvey
S ite
P 4 w ithin t he c ontext o f
r aw d ata
r esults
a fter
c orrection f or
v isibility F igure F or k ey,
9 .7a
s ee f igure 9 .5a.
i x
t he e xtensive s urvey r esults.
F igure 9 .7b S ite P 4, F igure
i ntensive s urvey r esults.
9 .8
T he
s ituation
o f
9 .9
T he
r elationship
t he
F or k ey,
s ee f igure 9 .5a.
( left)
a nd m odern V rboska
V illa J eze
( right). F igure
o f
t he s urface a nd
s ub-surface c ollection
g rids u sed a t J eze. F igure
9 .10
T he
d istribution
e xtensive s urface c ollection F igure
9 .11
T he
o f
a rtefacts
a t
J eze
a s d etermined by
a t
J eze
a s d etermined by
( hard d ata).
d istribution
o f
a rtefacts
i ntensive s urface c ollection. F igure
9 .12
A
v olumetrically
c orrected s ub-surface d istribution o f a ll
a rtefacts a t J eze. F igure 9 .13 T he d istribution o f
s ub-surface t esseräe/mOrtar a t J eze
F igure 1 0.1 E levation o f
M aslinovik
t ower,
F igure 1 0.2 P ottery f rom M aslinovik F igure 1 0.3 M ap o f t he S tarigrad p lain, T or a nd P haros,
a nd l ines o f
s howing
l ocation
o f
M aslinovik,
s ight.
P late 1 0.1 E xcavations i n p rogress a t Maslinovik.
N orth t o t op.
P late 1 0.2 E xcavations i n p rogress a t Maslinovik.
N orth t o t op.
P late 1 0.3 E xcavations i n p rogress a t Maslinovik.
N orth t o t op.
P late 1 0.4 V iew o f P late 1 0.5
I nterior o f t he t ower f rom N orth.
P late 1 0.6 T or F igure
t ower f rom S outh w est.
1 1.1
:v iew o f t he S outh E ast c orner. F requency
distribution
o f
U pper p art r econstructed.
a ll
measurements,
P haros
c enturiatiOn s ystem. F igure 1 1.2 D istribution o f m easurements by d irection s tippled b ars
=
N
-
F igure 1 1.3 S tandard d eviation o f F igure
1.4 1
r oad w idth F igure
A djusted
( key a s
( solid b ars
=
E
-
S ).
f requency
i n F ig.
r oad w idths d istributions o f
s tandard deviations o f
1.2). 1
1 3.1 C omparative c hronology i n t he S outh E ast A lpine r egion i n
e arly f irst m illennium B C
( after D obiat 1 980 a nd D ular
x
1 982).
t he
F igure 1 3.2 G eographical b ackground o f S lovenia F igure
1 3.3
P rehistoric c ommunications
s howing m ajor L ate B ronze A ge a nd
E arly I ron A ge s ites. F igure 1 4.1 S lovenia a nd t he p osition o f S veti J akob F igure 1 4.2 F inds f rom S veti J akob: 3 -4
-
F igure 1 4.3 T he l ocation o f F igure
1
-
w orked c ores 2
-
s erpentine
a xe
E neolithic p ottery t he e xtensive s urface c ollection g rid.
1 4.4 T he d istribution o f a ll f lints c ollected w ithin t he e xtensive
c ollection g rid. F igure 1 4.5 F lint i mplement a nd c ore d istribution. F igure 1 4.6 F lint a rtifact t ypes
:d ensities p er
F igure
o f
1 4.7
T he
d istribution
a ll
s quare m etre.
p rehistoric
p ottery
w ithin t he
e xtensive c ollection g rid. F igure 1 4.8 P rehistoric p ottery d ensities p er P late 1 4.1 V iew o f
s quare m etre.
s urveyed a rea b elow S veti J akob.
N orth t o t op.
F igure 1 5.1 T he l ocation o f t he s urvey a rea i n S lovenia F igure 1 5.2 S ite l ocations i n t he s urvey a rea: C ikava. S tippled a reas above 4 00 m a sl. F igure 1 5.3 S herd d ensities,
( 1)
M agdalenska
s urface s urvey o f C ikava.
x i
g ora;
( 2)
I NTRODUCTION J OHN CHAPMAN & J OHN B INTLIFF
T he h istory o f Y ugoslav a rchaeology i s t he a rchaeological
s urvey
b y
s ite
s tory
e xcavation.
o f
t he
F rom
r esearches i nto C lassical c ities s uch a s S alona a nd i nternational e xcavation p rojects a t, i nter aU -a,
domination
t he
1 9th.
P ula Obre ,
o f
c entury
t o t he m odern A nza, D ivostin,
S elevac a nd G omolava, m ajor r esources h ave b een devoted t o e fforts t o a nswer s ite-based q uestions b y i ntensive, i f d estructive, s ite-based i nvestigations. T here i s a l ong h istory o f a rchaeological r econnaissance i n Y ugoslav f ieldwork b ut t he g oals o f t his r esearch w ere r elated m ore o ften t o t he d iscovery o f i nformation w ay ,
w ith
s ites t o e xcavate r ather t han t o t he r ecovery o f
i ts own i nherent v alue
( Chapman,
i n p ress).
t his v olume i s a r ecord o f a lternative l ines o f
I n i ts own
r esearch
w hich
n ow
t he
s ame
c omple m ent t he s ite-based a pproach t o Y ugoslav a rchaeology. T his v olume i s a n e xtended c onference r eport o f a m eeting o f name,
o rganized
by
o ne
o f
u s
( J.
B .)
a t t he U niversity o f
B radford i n
D ecember 1 987. T he m eeting w as a ttended b y a l arge delegation f rom Y ugoslavia, c onsisting o f b oth s cholars a nd r esearch s tudents, a s w ell a s a r epresentative s ample E uropean a rchaeological i nevitably l aid s tress b etween Y ugoslav a nd
o f B rit i sh s c lrolarS s pecializing i n E astern s tudies. T he n ature o f t he c onference p rogramme o n t he r esults o f i nstitutional c ollaboration B ritish u niversities a nd m useums, s everal o f w hich
c urrently b ear f ruit i n f ieldwork p artnerships. T he main c hains i n t he p resent l inks between Y ugoslavia a nd B ritain a re, on t he Y ugoslav s ide, Z adar, a nd
L jubljana a nd S plit a nd,
B radford.
I t
i s
a
o n t he B ritish s ide,
r esult
o f
t hese
f ieldwork t hat t he t hree f ocus a reas o f t he v olume H var
a nd
S lovenia
-
h ave
b een
c hosen.
N ewcastle
c onnections I t
-
u pon
Neothermal
s hould
Tyne
a nd a ssociated n ot,
D almatia, however,
be
c oncluded f rom t he r ange o f r esearch p resented h ere t hat o ther i mportant a rchaeological s tudies a re n ot b eing c arried o ut i n a ll o ther parts o f t he c ountry. T he a nnual r eports o n e xcavations a nd f ieldwork which appear i n de-ranging a rchaeological a ctivities ' Arheo1o ki P regled ' t estify t o t he w i i n a ll r epublics. T he
r ange
o f
n ew
a pproaches
f ormulated
t o
t he c ommon p roblems o f
p rehistoric a nd h istoric a rchaeological r esearch c an be e ncompassed w ithin s ix i deas,
t wo t heoretical a nd f our m ethodological.
F irst,
t he i mportance
o f e xplanation o f c ultural c hange, a t w hatever s cale, p rovides a l eitmotif f or t hese i nvestigations. T he p rocessualist n otion o f c overing-law t heory a nd l aw-like , p robabilistic
p redictable c hange h as b een r ejected i n f avour o f a a ttempt t o r elate variables, w hether c ouched i n s ystemic o r
n on-systemic t erms, S hiel, M ason). o r t echnology, a nalogies
a nd
i n more c omplex c ausal c hains
( see p apers by Chapman &
The r ole o f e thno-science, whether i n s tudies o f l and u se h as b ecome c entral t o t he g eneration o f s tructured homologies
( see
p apers
C an ton).
x ii
by
S hiel
&
Chapman,
N andris,
A s econd t heoretical i nsight e ffects
o f
s tudying
i s
t he
i mportance
o f
t he
c ontrasting
s hort-term v ersus l ong-term p henomena,
B raudelian f ramework ( Bintliff s ocial p ower ( Mann 1 986).
( ed), T he
w hether
i n a
i n p ress) o r a s p art o f a nalyses c ommon a nd c ontrastive e ffects
o f o f
s ettlement a nd s ocial c hange i n k arstic l andscapes r equire a nalysis i n r elation t o s horter-term c ycles o f e conomic p rogress a nd d ecline. A spects o f t hese c yclical p rocesses a re t ouched o n a s a w ay o f r elating t he a reas
i n
t erms
q uestion
t o
( see p apers by C hapman & S hiel,
I t i s n ot
s urprising t hat
n ew m ethodologies F our
h ave
g enerated
e thno-archaeology, T he c learest Y ugoslav
b een
d eveloped t hese
i n
c oncerns
t o d ocument
a nd
d efine
t he
a
a ttempt
t o
i nvestigate
l andscape
-
a pproach
l andscape
t he
o f
t he e volution o f
t he
a rchaeology,
p ast
a nd
r ecent
l andscape a rchaeology.
t he c ountryside f rom
t he
p rincipal c onstraints a nd o pportunities
o ffered t o a ny g iven m ode o f p roduction. o f
a n
t heories
l ink b etween t he B raudelian v iew o f
t imes
s hould g enerate
i ntensive f ield s urvey a nd s cientific a rchaeology.
T his f ield a ttempts
n otion
& G affney).
s uch t heoretical p erspectives
f rom
d evelopments
e arliest
B intliff
f or a pplication b oth i n t he f ield a nd i n t he l aboratory.
a pproaches
h ypotheses
s tudy
a w ider a rena i n b oth s patial a s w ell a s t emporal
c ontext
f or
T his a pproach i s e very
b ased
s ite/non-site,
o n
t he
i n w hich t he
s ignificance o f a s ite/non-site c an b e p artially a ssessed b y i ts e ffect o n f uture l andscapes. T he s tone monuments o f t he k arst a re p articularly a menable t o s uch an a pproach, t he
dedication
c ountryside
o f
i s,
t his
s ince,
v olume.
perhaps
o nce b uilt, T his
p aradoxically ,
r etrogressive a nalysis o f
t he t errain,
r arely
c umulative b est
r emoved
h ence
-
d evelopment
a pproached
o f
t hrough
t he a
s tarting f rom t he b est-known period
o f t oday a nd w orking b ackwards i n t ime. I t
i s
p recisely
i nformation
i n
t his a spect o f m aking t he m aximum u se o f p resent-day
s upport
c haracterizes
t he
e thnoarchaeology.
o f
b uilding
s econd
models
o f
methodological
p ast
While a ccepting t he l imitations o f
about t he p resent
t o d ifferent periods i n t he past,
a rchaeological
w ork.
T he
r ange
o f
p ast
e nforces
behavioural
i dentification
a
t hat
r elationships
c haracterizes b etween modern
v ery
w ide;
t his
more r eflexive a pproach t o t he i nterpretation o f
r esidues.
o f
o f
k nowledge
t he e thnoarchaeologist
b ehaviour a nd t he g eneration o f material r emains c an b e v ariability
t hat
t hat
-
a pplying
m ay c ounter b y s tating t hat t his i s i ndeed a s trategy a ll
b ehaviour
a pproach
L ikewise,
i n
l and
u se
s tudies,
t he
modern p atterns o f a griculture a nd p astoralism p rovide
b ut a s tarting point f or
t he modelling o f past
e conomic s ystems
( see S hiel
& C hapman). P erhaps t he a pplication
f eature
o f
w hich
t echniques
m ost
o f
c haracterizes
i ntensive,
t his
s ystematic
s urvey and a nalytical f ield s urvey a t
t he
r egional
p arts
t he
t hree
o f
l owlands, y ielded
Y ugoslavia.
H var a nd S lovenia t he
basis f or
t he i nterpretation o f s urvey
I n
methodologies
e ach -
o f
major i nvestment
i n
v olume
s urvey, l evel
i n
f ocus a reas i ntensive
i s
t he
g eophysical d ifferent -
t he Z adar
s urvey
h as
s ettlement a rchaeology a nd h ence t he p otential f or
l ong-term varies
s ocial w ith
c hange.
S election
o f
s pecific
t he a ims o f d ifferent p rojects
-
m ore
i ntensive,
s ite-based g eophysical a nd s urface p ick-up s urveys o n H var a nd
i n S lovenia ( papers b y B intliff & G affney, S lap ak, B avec, M ason), more r egional i n c over w ith s elected a nalytical s urvey a nd t rial e xcavation i n t he Z adar l owlands ( see p apers b y C hapman & S hiel, G riffiths). A t a h igher l evel, t hese d ifferences r eflect t he s cale a t w hich r esearchers a re a ttempting
t o
c haracterize
i nterpretation o f
a nd
e xplain
h uman
b ehaviour
t hrough
t he
s urface r emains.
F inally, t he i njection o f s cientific t echniques a rchaeology is b eginning t o y ield i mpressive r esults.
o f a nalysis i nto T he a pplication o f
c haracterization s tudies t o c eramics ( see p aper b y K lopEi ) i s p arallelled b y r esearch o n s ourcing o f s tone a rtifacts i n Y ugoslavia ( e.(ef l>g., t he w ork o f K .
Br ).
S imilarly,
t he value o f
s ubsistence
i nformation
e arlier e xcavations i s d emonstrated in t he f aunal a nalyses o f i mportant N eolithic s ites o f s mil eic ' a nd N m ( see p aper b y S chwartz). t he
i ntegration o f
s cientific s tudies o f
l ies a t
t he h eart o f
t he r esearch s trategy
P roject
( see p aper by S hiel & C hapman).
T he development a nd r efinement o f
f rom t he And
s oil a nd s ettlement p attern data f or
t hese n ew
t he
N eothermal
t heoretical
D almatia
c oncepts
a nd
t he e xistence o f a r ange o f a ppropriate m ethodologies p rovides a n i mportant b oost f or Y ugoslav a rchaeological r esearch. I f t he d iffusion o f s uch
i deas
a nd
t his volume, t hen c oncrete r esults
t echniques i ts o f
i s
e xtended a nd e nhanced by t he a ppearance o f
p urpose w ill h ave b een w ell s erved. F urther t hese r ecent developments a re t o b e p resented a t
s ymposia t o b e h eld a t r egular
i ntervals i n f uture years.
x iv
P ART ONE
NEOTHERMAL DALMATIA
xv
C HAPTER O NE T HE N EOTHERMAL DALMATIA P ROJECT
ARCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY R ESULTS
-
J OHN C HAPMAN & R OBERT S HIEL 1 .1
I NTRODUCTION T he N eothermal D almatia P roject
c o-operative e nvironment o f
n orth
p roject
w hose
( henceforth N DP)
a im
i s
t o
d efine
‚ settlement p attern a nd s ocial D almatia
over
t he
l ast
i s
a n
a nd
Anglo-Yugoslav
e xplain c hanges
s tructure i n t he Z adar
1 2,000 y ears.
i n
l owlands
T he i nter-disciplinary
n ature o f N DP i s r eflected i n t he p apers i n t his v olume r elating
t o
s cience a nd e thno-archaeology ( see p apers b y S hiel a nd C hapman, a nd C an ton, t his volume); o ther d isciplines w ith a f ull p art t o
N andris, p lay i n
N DP
i nclude
z oology ,
b otany,
h istory a nd g eomorphology.
s ubjects h ave n ot b een f ully i ntegrated i nto n ow a nd t he r esults o f i nter-disciplinary s tudies. I n
t his
paper,
t he
N DP
i ndicate
r esults o f
Y ugoslav
s oil
Many o f t hese
a rchaeology
u ntil
t he e normous p otential f or
f ive s easons o f
i ntensive,
s uch
s ystematic
s urvey i n t he Z adar L owlands a re p resented. F rom 1 982 t o 1 986, N DP t eams c ompleted a rchaeological f ield s urvey o f c . 1 16 s q. km. o f p redominantly l imestone t errain.
I n t he p eriod 1 984
-
1 986,
s oil
s cientists
f rom
t he
U niversity o f N ewcastle u pon Tyne m ade a map o f m odern l and u se i n t he s ame a rea t o p rovide a n e nvironmental d ata b ase w ith w hich t o u nderstand p ast
g eomorphological
b ehaviour. ( Shiel
c hange and m odel p ast h uman s ubsistence a nd s ocial
The c urrent model f or
&
C hapman,
t his
l andscape e volution i s
volume).
T he
c onstant
p resented i nterplay
b elow b etween
a rchaeological d istributions a nd l and u se c hange w ill b e r eadily a pparent; t his d ialectical r elationship s ettlement s tudies. 1 .2
i s
o ne
o f t he m ost i mportant a spects o f
S URVEY METHODOLOGY T he N DP s urvey was p redicated on t he s election o f a s tudy a rea o f 2 ,400
s q. km.,
w hich e ncompassed t he f ull r ange o f e nvironmental variation f rom
s ea-level t o t he peak o f t opographical f or
e rosion
r estricted
t he V elebit M ountains,
a nd g eomorphological f actors o n
t o
t he
h igher
karst),
t he l owland p arts o f
F ieldwork w as o rganised i n t wo s tages 1 .
a n e xtensive t ransect o rder
a t
( viz.,
i ntensive
t he z one,
1 ,758
m .
B ecause
o f
t he w idespread e vidence s ystematic
s urvey
o r R avni K otari
( Fig.
w as 1 .1).
:-
s urvey a cross t he g rain o f
t he
c ountryside,
i n
t o define t he m ain e nvironmental z ones i n t he c oastal p lain a nd
r elate t he d istribution o f monuments a nd s urface f inds t o t hese z ones. 2 .
a n i ntensive b lock l owland o f
s urvey
e nvironmental
c overing
z ones,
e xamples
o f
e ach
o f
t he
main
i n o rder t o d efine a r epresentative s et
s ettlement patterns t hrough t ime f or t he l owland z one.
1
T he t ransect c overed,
s urvey w as c ompleted i n 1 982
t o
i nclude
t wo
t ransects
1 983.
-
S ome
n orth-east
o f
5 0
s q.
Z adar
k m
w ere
a nd a l onger
t ransect s outh-east o f t he c ity. T he 1 -km w idth o f t he t ransect i s a c ompromise b etween t he n ormally n arrower t ransects d esigned t o m aximise c over o f
e nvironmentally v aried a reas
a nd
w ider
s trips
p ermitting
t he
r ecovery o f s ome e lements o f s ettlement p attern d ata w hich c ould r easonably b e i nterpreted i n r elation t o t he e nvironmental z onation. O n t he
b asis
o f
t he
f inds
i n t his p hase o f
a 7 x 1 1 km b lock w as
s urvey,
d efined w hich i ncluded s egments o f t hree l owland v alleys a nd t wo i ntervening l imestone r idges. T he i nclusion o f o ne o f t he m ajor m onuments i n t he R avni K otari t he m ultiperiod s ite o f N adin n ear t he e dge o f t he s urvey b lock e nabled u s t o p ose q uestions about t he r elationships b etween -
m ajor
I ron A ge h illforts
-
/ Roman
m unicipia
a nd
t he
s urrounding
r ural
s ettlement i n t he r espective p eriods. T he f ieldwalking s trategies f or b oth t ransect a nd b lock w ere
e ssentially
s imilar e xcept f or t he c loser
t he c ountryside i n t he l atter p hase t en
w alkers
d egrees)
( Batovi
& C hapman
1 985).
w alked i n p arallel o n f ixed c ompass b earings
a cross
t he g rain o f
t he t errain.
s urvey
p hases
s pacing o f w alkers a cross T eams
o f
( 42 degrees/222
I n t he t ransect p hase,
s pacings
b etween w alkers w ere m ore f requently 5 0 m t han 2 5 m ; t he r everse i s t rue o f t he b lock s urvey. E ach f ieldwalker r ecorded a rchaeological r emains o n t heir
own
o n
i ndividual
b ilingual
r ecording
f orms,
a s w ell a s o n t he
a vailable 1 :25,000 b ase maps a nd c ollected s urface m aterial f or dating a nd f unctional a nalysis. A s a n a ssessment o f t he t otal
s oon a s a rchaeological r emains w ere d iscovered, s ize o f t he s catter o r monument w as m ade a nd
t he n umber o f c ollection u nits w as determined a ccording t o t hat
s ize.
F or
s ites o f u p t o 3 0 x 3 0 m , o ne c ollection u nit w as u sed, l ocated c entrally i n t hat d istribution; t wo u nits w ere u sed f or s ites u p t o 5 0 x 5 0 m , t hree f or s ites u p t o 1 00 x 1 00 m a nd f our f or l arger s ites. T he s tandard c ollecting p olicy w as t o r etrieve a ll v isible material w ithin a 5 -metre s quare.
T his
s tandardisation o f c ollection policy e nables t he
c omparison
o f s urface d ensities i n a reas o f d ifferent e nvironmental c onditions i n a ll a reas o f t he s urvey. A rchaeological
r emains
w ere
c lassified i nto t hree c ategories f or
t he
p urposes o f f ieldwork 1 .
s ingle f inds
l ocations w ith b etween 1 a nd 3 a rtifacts i n a
c ollection
u nit 2 .
f indspot l ocations w ith f our o r m ore a rtifacts i n a c ollection u nit
3 .
m onuments
l ocations w ith u pstanding r emains
b urial c airns o r b arrows, f eatures,
e nclosed
deserted Medieval v illages,
T he s trategy o f c overage o f t he
c ists,
c omparison o f
( e.
c hapels,
t he l andscape a t 2 5- o r s ettlement p atterns
2
a t
c learance c airns,
h ill-forts,
l inear
e tc.).
l arge-scale s patial p atterning o f
o rder t o p roduce m eaningful
g .,
s ites,
5 0-r n s pacings
e nables
t he s urvey r emains t he
r egional
i n
s cale.
T he s urvey h as n ot a ttempted t o c haracterize i ntra-site p atterning i n
a ny
d etail ( cf. c hapter b y B intliff & G affney , t his v olume). I nstead, m edium-intensity s urvey p ermits t he d efinition o f z ones o f d iscard a round a nd b etween n odes o f s ettlement i n t he l owland z one. 1 .3
P ROBLEMS I N T HE I NTERPRETATION O F A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEY D ATA
T he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological s urvey r esults f alls i nto t wo o verlapping s tages:- (1) t he v alidation o f t he a pparent p attern o f r esults, a nd ( 2) t he e stablishment o f t he b ehavioural m eaning o f w hatever p attern i s v alidated. B y e xtent t he s urvey d ata
' validation', w e a ddress t he q uestion t o w hat i s a c omplete a nd r epresentative s ample o f p ast
r esidues o f h uman a ctivities; b y ' meaning', w e a ddress t he q uestion o f t he c lasses o f a ctivity w hich h ave p roduced t hose m aterial r esidues. B ecause p ast l andscapes a re i rretrievable , b eing t ransformed c ontinuously, t he o nly
a vailable
s trategy f or u s i s t o p roceed b ackwards i n t ime,
s tarting
f rom t he p resent a nd m oving d eeper a nd d eeper i nto w hat L . P . H artley c alled " the p ast ( as) a f oreign c ountry", a p lace w here " they d o t hings d ifferently t here" ( Hartley: q uoted b y L owenthal 1 985:1). T his p rocedure o f m oving b ackwards f rom t he p artially k nown t o t he l argely u nknown i s w hat I t ake t o c haracterize e thnoarchaeology a nd a ll s ciences w hich r ely o n t he p rinciple o f u niformitarianism. 1 .3.1
S urvival
T he q uantity o f m aterial c ollected i n a t ypical M editerranean z one s urvey i s s o g reat t hat i t c an s ometimes b lind u s t o t he m aterial r emains w hich h ave n ot s urvived o r b een d iscovered. D o t hese g aps o n s urvey m aps c onstitute e vidence o f a bsence o r t he c onverse ? M any h uman a ctivities l eave n o b y-product o f m aterial r emains a t a ll. T he b asis o f a ll a pproaches t o t he s tudy o f t he m aterial c ulture t hat s urvives i s t hat t here i s s ome b ehaviour a nd t he m aterial r esidue.
s ystematic r elationship M uch a ttentiQn h as b een
b etween t he d evoted t o
i dentifying t he t ransformations o f t hese r esidues f rom t he d eposition t o t he t ime o f d iscovery ( Schiffer 1 975: B inford 1 982).
t ime o f T hree
p rocesses a re p articularly i mportant i n a ltering t he o riginal p attern o f m aterial r emains :- b urial o f r emains t hrough s oil e rosion, b urial o f s ites t hrough e arthworm a ction, e rosion.
a nd d estruction o f r emains e xposed b y s oil
G eomorphological c hange c an b e a pprehended a t t wo d ifferent s patial s cales t he r egional ( cf. V ita-Finzj . 1 969) a nd t he l ocal ( cf. v an A ndel & -
R unnels 1 986). M ajor e pisodes o f c limatically-induced s edimentation c an a ffect l andscapes i n m any p arts o f t he M editerranean; l ocal p rocesses o f s edimentation c an o ften b e r elated t o h uman l and u se o r m isuse i n s pecific l andscapes. I n t he N DP , i t h as b een p ossible t o i dentify a t l east t hree e pisodes o f l ocal e rosion a nd d eposition c onsequent u pon i nitial c ultivation, w ith a ttendant d eforestation, o f a n a rea. D ownslope o f s uch z ones o f d estabilisation, e rosion p roducts a re l ikely t o h ave m asked r emains o f p revious p eriods. C omparison o f s ettlement r emains o f a c ertain p eriod w ith t hose o f p revious p hases h as r evealed p otentially
3
i nteresting
' gaps'
i n d istributions o f e arlier p eriods
( Chapman & S hiel,
f orthcoming). T he
r elationship
o f
m icrofaunal a ctivity t o s urvey d iscovery l ies i n
t he o ften s ubstantial q uantities n on-ploughed, m ainly a cidic a reas
o f e arth m oved t o t he s urface i n ( Darwin 1 881). E arthworm a ctivity w ill
h ave o ccurred m ainly o n s lopes a nd r idges w here s oil d epth i s s ufficient t o p rovide m aterial f or t ransport. H ence d ifferential b urial o f s ome a rtifacts a nd p erhaps e ven m onuments i s p ossible a way f rom i ntensively c ultivated a reas. A f inal f actor w hich i s d ifficult t o q uantify i s t he s ignificance o f m odern l and u se d ifferences, w hich p ermit v arying d egrees o f v isibility o f p resumed f inds ( see p aper b y B intliff & G affney , t his v olume). R ecent p ractice f ocusses o n a reas w hich a re e xtensively p loughed, r ather t han m ixed a reas o f g rassland a nd a rable, w ith c onsequent v isibility b ias ( Haseigrove 1 985). 1 .3.2
M eaning
H uman b ehaviour w hich p roduces m aterial r esidues o ccurs b oth w ithin a nd o utside h abitation s ites
( Gaffney
e t
a l.
1 985).
S urvey
a rchaeologists
r ecognize t hat t he o ften g reater d ensities o f s urface r emains o n o r n ear h abitation s ites a re a r eflection o f t he s patial c oncentration o f a ctivities ( Thomas 1 975). T he c ontinuous m apping o f f inds d ensities a cross t he c ountryside h as p roduced e stimates o f d iscard r ates, c urrently d ivided i nto ' background n oise' a nd ' site' p atterning ( Gallant 1 982). T he f inds d ensity a t w hich ' background n oise' b ecomes ' site ' i s n ot o nly r egion-specific b ut a lso v aries t hrough t ime w ithin a r egion ( e. g ., t he A ger T arraconensiS s urvey: M illett, n . d .; K eay , n . d .). S uch d iachronic v ariation i n f inds d ensities h as b een i nterpreted b oth a s a r eflection o f t he s ize o f p opulation ( the ' pots = p eople ' a ssumption) a nd a s a n i ndication
o f
v arying
l evels
o f
a rtifact
p roduction
i ndependent
o f
p opulation s izes ( the ' pots = e conomy ' a ssumption)(Millett 1 985: n . d .). M illett ( 1985) p roposes a n i ndependent t est t hrough q uantifying t he d iscard o f
s herds o n e xcavated s ites t o p rovide a c alibration
f or
s urvey
f inds d ensities. H owever, t he n umber o f i ntervening v ariables b etween h uman a ctivity a nd r ecovery o f e vidence i s s o g reat t hat i t i s h ard t o p rovide c omparable u nits o f o bservation a nd l arge e nough s amples f or c omparison. T he d efinition o f m ean a nd h igher-than-average l evels o f f inds d iscard f or e ach p eriod h as b een a ttempted f or N DP; t his p rocedure e nables n ot o nly a m ore o bjective d efinition o f ' sites' a nd ' non-sites', b ut a lso i ndicates v ariations i n d iscard t hrough t ime. T here a re a w ide v ariety o f m echanisms b y w hich a rtifacts c an a ppear i n t he c ountryside s urrounding h abitation s ites. M ost o f t hese m echanisms c ontribute t o a s tochastic d iscard p attern t hrough t he p alimpsest e ffect. T he i ncorporation o f a rtifacts i nto s ettlement m iddens w hich a re t hen r ecycled a s m anure i nto n earby a reas p roduces s patial p atterning o f o ff-site f inds w hich i s h eavily-distance-dependent a nd o ften b lurred b y f requent c hanges i n l and u se d uring a nd a fter t he o ccupation. d eposition
o f
b roken
S ystematic
p ots a round r ural h uts u sed s easonally o ver a l ong
4
p eriod
i s
a nother
c ommon
m echanism
f or n on-random o ff-site d iscard i n
M editerranean s urvey a reas. 1 .3.3
G eneral
T his
s urvey o f
p roduce
t he
t he p roblems o f i nterpretation o f t he
s urface
f inds
m ultiple c alibrations
o f
a ccurate
p ast b ehaviours.
p icture
i ntroduces
o f
' raw '
s urvey
n ecessary
t o
r egression
a nalyses
t he a n
S ince e ach s uccessive c alibration
s cores o f o ver
a djustments t o i ncreasingly r egional l evel
w hich
p roduce
t here i s a d anger
1 00%.
o f
p rovide
' cooked'
a
t he
T wo s olutions t o t his
i ncreasingly d etailed s urveys o f p rogressively s maller a reas, m ultiple
2 .
d ata
i ts o wn e rror f actor i nto t he s tudy,
b uild-up o f c umulative e rror d ilemma s eem p ossible:1 .
a ctivities
d istribution f ound d uring s urvey r eveals
m athematical
i n w hich
basis
f or
s urvey d ata.
s urvey w hich a ttempts t o d eal w ith b roader q uestions o f
s ettlement p attern c hange a t a h igher a ccount t he t ransformations o f
l evel o f g enerality,
t aking i nto
t he d ata b ase a s f ar a s p ossible.
B ecause n o i ntensive, s ystematic s urvey h ad b een c ompleted i n D almatia b efore t he s tart o f t his p roject, N DP f elt t hat a b road definition o f s ettlement
c hange w as a p riority ,
l eaving t he m ore detailed a pproach t o a
s econd phase o f o perations. H ence, N DP h as s elected t he s econd s trategy, b uilding i n c hecks o n t he i nterpretation o f t he s urvey data a t e ach p ossible s tage o f 1 .4
i nterpretation.
T HE S URVEY D ATA T he NDP s urvey d ata f all i nto t wo c ategories
:t ransect
r esults o f t he b lock s urvey. I n t his r eview , p resented t hrough a s eries o f m aps, w hile data b lock
s urvey
r esults.
w ill
f orm
t he
b asis
data
q uadrats,
s urface
i t
h as
f inds
p roved
w as
T arraconensis p roject;
c f.
m apped
d ifficult
overall densities o f c lasses o f f inds p er s q.
o f
' sites'
f rom
a nd
o ctiles
e stimate o f
d iscard
b y
' non-sites'. o f
i n
t he E ast H ants
k i n.
s urvey:
w ithin
5
f inds
p eriod
a nd
( as,
e .
g .,
S hennan 1 985).
s urface d istributions,
5
m
t he
Ager
H owever, c omparable
e nables a c lear d istinction b etween
T he t echnique o f c alculating d ensity
x
t o p rovide e stimates o f
a nalysis o f f inds densities i n t he c ollection u nits p rovides a p icture
f inds
a s a p reliminary a spect o f q uantification.
B ecause t he density o f c ollection
t he
o f t he s tatistical t reatment o f t he
I nitial c onsideration w ill b e g iven t o t he density o f
c ollection u nits,
a nd
b lock s urvey data w ill b e f rom b oth t ransect and
m eans,
q uartiles
per c ollection u nit g ives a c onservative w hile a t
t he
s ame
t ime
h ighlighting
p eriod-by-period d ifferences i n s urface f inds density ( Table 1 ).
5
T able 1 D ensity o f P ERIOD
s urface f inds p er c ollection u nit
P ALAEO- N EOLITHIC!
B RONZE
I RON
R OMAN
L ITHIC
E NEOLITHIC
AGE
AGE
N
4 4
4 2
2 83
1 09
26 2
U PPER
1 2
3 0
4 7
2 0
1 1
1 6
1 7
1 1
M EDI-
IgKA
L ATER
E VAL
C s
7 0
19 1
2 07
7
5
1 5
7
5
4
8
O CT I LE U PPER
6
Q UARTILE M EDIAN
5
5
5
5
4
4
3
4
L OWER
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
Q UARTILE L OWER O CT I LE
T he r esults o f t his a nalysis i ndicate t hat, i n a ll p eriods, t here i s a l ow l evel o f a rtifact density a cross p arts o f t he l andscape w hich c orresponds p artly t o o ur c ategory o f l arger parts o f
' single f inds',
t he s urveyed a rea,
G iven t he p ragmatic n eed t o c lassify w hich
r eflect
h abitation
d efine a s r esidential
p artly t o
' findspots'.
s urface
r emains
a nd t hose w hich do n ot,
e ven
( cf.
M illett
i nto
t hose
a reas
i t i s p roposed h ere t o
s ites t hose s catters w hose v alue
v alue i n t he r elevant t ime period
I n
n o s urface f inds w ere r ecovered a t a ll.
e xceeds
t he
mean
1 985).
T he i nteresting a nd p artly c ounterfactual p attern o f f inds densities a mongst t he ' sites' i s t he g eneral t rend t o l ower densities w ith t ime. B oth B intliff ( 1985) a nd R utter ( 1983) h ave i llustrated w ith G reek data t he t endency f or c umulative destruction o f s ites a nd c eramics t he f urther b ack o ne g oes i n t ime; d iscard
i n
t he
h ere,
e arlier
t he
p attern
p rehistoric
i s
f or
p eriods,
n ucleated f ollowed
by
a rtifactual a
g reater
d ispersion o f d iscard a cross more o f t he l andscape f rom t he R oman p eriod o nwards. W hat i s i mpossible t o c alculate is t I a percentage s urvival o f i ndividual c lasses o f p ottery; n evertheless, i t s eems l ikely t hat overall l arger q uantities o f l ater material s urvive b ut i n a more d ispersed w ay. T he p eak o f c ollection u nit
densities
i n
t he
N eolithic/EneOlithic
a nd
B ronze Ages m ay a lso r eflect h igh a rtifact r ecovery/visibility i n s oils t hat h ave r ecently b een p loughed ( Neolithic/Eneolithic) o r e roded ( Bronze A ge).
N o
d ata a re y et a vailable f rom N DP e xcavations f or a m ulti-period
c omparison o f
t he q uantities o f p ottery p roduction.
T he
l ow
values
f or
e ven u pper o ctiles i n t he Medieval a nd I f lka p eriods a re p erhaps o nly o ne o f s everal r easons f or t he r elative l ack o f abundance o f s uch s catters i n t he s urvey.
6
U sing t hese r esults, i t w ill b e p ossible t o c omment b riefly o n t he d istribution m aps w hich a re p resented f or t he 1 1 x 7 k m s urvey b lock. E leven
maps
a re
p resented
N eolithic/Eneolithic
( Fig.
f ollowing
1 .4),
R oman
1 .8), 1 .11)
l ater l ithics ( Fig. 1 .9), c airns ( Fig. a nd o ther s ettlements ( Fig. 1 .12). I t
P alaeolithic
f ollowing
Medieval
A ge
( Fig.
t he
1 .5),
t he
B ronze
( Fig. ( Fig.
t races o f
( Fig.
f or
1 .2 ,
( Fig.
1 .3),
Ika
( Fig.
1 .6),
N eolithic/Eneolithic o f
t his
( =Copper
( 6000
t he
-
a rchaeological
i nterpretation o f
s ignificance
A ge).
m odern
2 000 b c)
( Fig.
( Early,
M iddle
s uggests
i n t he e ntire 4 ,000-year p eriod.
I n t he
s ection.
1 .2)
a nd
A lthough f inds w ere m ade i n 4 2 f inds
o f
t he l and u se a ssociated
period c an b e d ated w ith r elative e ase t o o ne o f t he N eolithic
t he d ensity a nd c lustering o f g roups
1 .7),
:-
A ge
1 .10), l inear f eatures s hould b e n oted t hat n o
w ith t he s ettlement p atterns i s r eserved f or a l ater
s ubdivisions o f
I ron
s ettlement a re k nown f rom t he s urvey b lock / 1/.
c ommentary,
d istributions w ill b e d iscussed;
F inds
d istributions
( Fig.
L ate)
o r
t he m ain
E neolithic
s eparate c ollection u nits, o nly
s ix
m ain
h abitation
T he m ost d ispersed g roup l ies
i n
t he n eighbourhood o f M iljovi5i, w ith 1 4 s eparate c ollection u nits y ielding L ate N eolithic a nd C opper A ge m aterial. T his a ppears t o r epresent a s eries o f o r,
s horter-term o ccupations w ith p eriodic r elocation o f
c onceivably ,
n orthern F rance N eolithic
a n
E xtended
( Howell
f inds
1 983).
t he t ype i dentified i n
A
o f
s imilar
o ccurs n ear J agodnja,
s paced t han a t M iljovi i. r emains
c overing,
i n
s ettlement
V illage p attern o f
The o ther
g roup
a lthough
f our
t he c ase o f T inj,
l ow-density
E arly
t he f inds a re m ore w idely
s ites r epresent
m ore
n ot m ore t han 1 .25 h a
n ucleated ( Chapman &
B atovi 1 985). An i mportant d iscovery c oncerns t he S ite a t K ula A tlagi , l ocated i n t he g eomorphological ' window ' o f a w ell-section b uried 1 .5 m b eneath h illwash i n t he B enkovac t rough. t he
dangers
o f
a ssuming
T his c hance r ecovery
u nderlines
n il e nvironmental c hange i n t he valleys o f
t he
R avni Kotari a nd a lso w arns a gainst over-enthusiastic a ttempts t o e stimate p opulation f rom s urvey d ata. T wo g eneral p oints c an be made about t he r emains
a re
r elatively
s canty,
c onsequent u pon t he a doption o f N eolithic
w ith
f arming a nd
t he
N eo/Eneo
d istributions:
S ign
p opulation i ncrease
( 2)
o f
t here a re f ar
m ore
( 1) E arly
s ites a nd f indspots t han f or t he M iddle o r L ate N eolithic p hases
a nd i ndeed t han f or t he C opper A ge. t han
n o
N DP s urvey ,
O n t he b asis o f w ider
n ucleation i n D almatia c an be dated t o t he l ate 5 th. ( Chapman 1 981; 1 982). B ronze Age
( 2000
-
c onsiderations
i t may b e a rgued t hat a w eak t endency t o s ettlement
8 00 b c)
( Fig.
a nd 4 th.
m illennia b c
1 .3)
T he p attern o f B ronze Age s ites a nd monuments p resents a d ramatic i ncrease i n t he q uantity o f d iscard and s ize o f a rea e xploited over p eriods. T he h ighest u pper o ctile a nd q uartile v alues s urvey define B ronze A ge d iscard a nd f ind r ecovery. T hough p artly
e xplained b y t he density o f
t he
p receding
f or t he w hole t his may b e
f inds i n e nclosures a nd h ill-forts n ot
s ince d isturbed, t here does s eem t o b e a n a rtifactual d iscard i n t his period.
7
i ncrease
i n
t he
q uantity
o f
T he
major d efining c haracteristic o f
f irst r ecorded u se o f d ry-stone f eatures, f ield s ystems, c airns,
t he B ronze A ge i n D almatia i s
o f m ajor o ccupation c an b e d etected i n t his 4 000-year p eriod o f t he N eo/Eneo). h igher-than-average densities o f f inds. w alled monuments : s ix h ill-forts, T he s ites r ange f rom a s ingle a rtifact f inds
w ithin
f eatures, S imilar
a 1 /2-km r adius
p eriod
( compare
t wenty
f or
t he
t wo f ield s ystems a nd a c airnfield. s catter w ith o ne o r t wo s ingle
t o s catters w ith p artially s urviving l inear ' territories'
o f
a re n o v isible f inds i n t he 1 /2-km r adius a round t he over
6
O f t his t otal, n ine a re d efined b y T he r emaining n ine a re d ry-stone
c airns a nd u p t o a d ozen s ingle f inds w ithin v ariation o ccurs w ithin t he
M uva a,
t he
w alls f or t he c onstruction o f l inear e nclosures a nd h ill-forts. E ighteen f oci
c airns a nd
s catters
a
1 /2-km
r adius.
t he m onuments; s mall
t here
h ill-fort
o f
i n t he a rea s urrounding K ruglas
a nd S trkova a. S i x ce t here i s c urrently n o m ethod o f a ssessing t he c ontemporaneity o r o therwise o f t hese s catters w ith t he monuments, n o a ttempt h as b een t o model l and u se o n t he b asis o f o ff-site p atterning; i nstead, . the c onservative a ssumption h as b een m ade t hat f inds w ithin a 1 /2-km r adius o f m ajor s ites a nd m onuments a re l ikely t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he a ctivities o f
r esidents a t
B etween t he a reas o f m ajor o ccupation l and,
w ith
r elatively l ow d ensities o f
s uch
s ites.
l ie l arge a reas o f o ften f inds a nd monuments.
f ertile
I t i s o ften
n ot c lear w hether i solated c airns h ave b urial a s w ell a s s tone c learance f unctions. H igher-than-average density pottery s catters may i ndicate s hort-term r esidence o r T here
i s,
h owever,
t he
n o
c umulative
q uestion
u se
o f
s hort-term
o f a f ull u se o f
r ural
h uts.
t he l andscape i n t his
period and a ny n otions o f p ressure o n l and by p opulation w ould b e e ntirely f allacious.
I nstead,
w ith c lusters o f
t here i s a moderate degree o f
s everal o ccupation s ites i n
s ettlement n ucleation,
p referred
s egments
o f
t he
l andscape. I ron Age
( 800
-
1 00 b c)
( Fig.
1 .4)
T he I ron Age i n D almatia has t raditionally b een v iewed a s t he h ill-forts', n umber
o f
a p eriod when a ll h ill-top
defended
' time o f
s ettlement was c oncentrated i nto t he s ites
( Batovi
1 977;
S ui
1 974).
t he
l arge T he N DP
s urvey p rovided a n o pportunity t o t est t his hypothesis by e xamination o f l ow-lying a reas b etween t he r idges w here t he h ill-forts a re c lustered. P erhaps u nsurprisingly, a n umber o f ' lowland' s catters w ere f ound and i nterpreted a s d ispersed f armsteads w hich w ere p resumably i ntegrated i n s ome w ay w ith t he h ill-forts. H ence, t he I ron A ge d istribution d isplays t he f irst c lear i ndications o f s ettlement h ierarchy i n Dalmatia. A t wo-level
s ystem o f h ill-forts a nd f armsteads
r eplaced a t
s ome t ime i n t he l ast
i n t he e arlier
w ith t he a ddition o f a n e xtra l evel o f major h ill-forts h ill-forts.
I ron A ge
w as
3 00 years B C b y a t hree-level h ierarchy,
T he p recise dating o f
t his
above
t he
m inor
s ocial c hange a nd i ts e xplanation
r emain a r esearch t ask f or t he f uture. T he
n umber
s imilar n ine
o f
t o t hat o f
f armsteads.
s ites
a nd
monuments dated t o t he I ron Age i s b roadly
t he B ronze A ge: The
major
a t otal o f
1 9,
w ith t en h ill-forts
c hange between t he t wo p eriods
I ron A ge o ff-site d iscard i s m uch
r educed,
8
w ith
more
t han
i s t hat 5
a nd t he
s catters
w ithin a 1 /2-km r adius a t o nly o ne S ite ( Nadin-Gradina). S imilarly, o ff-site d iscard b etween t he s ettlement ' territories' i s v ery l ow i ndeed; t his d ecline m ay r eflect a s hrinking u se o f d ifferent s ystems
S et o f d iscard p ractices d atable
t o
t he
I ron
t he
l andscape
i n t he I ron A ge.
A ge
i s
a
o r
m erely
T he a bsence o f
c urious
a nomaly,
a
f ield
g iven
t he
l abour-intensive c reation o f t erracing b y t he I ron A ge o ccupants o f N adin-Gradina ( Chapman, S hiel & B atovi5 1 987:129 & F ig. 5 ). O n
t he
b asis
o f
t he N DP s urvey,
t he m odel o f
A ge s ettlement i n h ill-forts c an b e r eplaced b y s ettlement
m odules
a re i mportant
s trongly c lustered
a nother
w here
i n t he s tructure o f a n
I ron
' lowland'
I ron A ge s ociety
i n w hich e lite r esidences a re f irmly l ocated i n t he h ill-forts. l ikely t hat a s maller p roportion o f t he p roductive p otential o f
I t s eems t he s urvey
a rea w as e xploited i n t his p eriod t han i n t he B ronze A ge. T he Roman period
( 100 B C
A D 6 00)
-
( Fig.
1 .5)
T he i ncorporation o f t he R avni K otari i nto t he p rovince o f D almatia i n t he l ate i st. c entury B C s timulated m any c hanges i n t he s ettlement p attern a nd l and u se s trategies o f t he
t he r egion.
W hile t he
R oman a uthorities a re i mportant,
i nnovations
t he
( Chapman & S hiel,
b y
t he e lements o f c ontinuity w ith w hat
w ent b efore a re p articularly s triking i n s ettlement, l and u se
i ntroduced
s ocial
s tructure
a nd
f orthcoming).
T he most s triking c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern i s t he e xpansion o f e xtensive u se o f t he l owland l andscape t hat h ad n ot p reviously b een
m atched. W hat may b e i mportant about t he R oman e conomy i s t hat s ettled a reas w ere more w idely o ccupied t han b efore, n ot t hat t he Roman e conomy w as m ore
e fficient
c ommunication,
K .
o r
more
i ntensive
G riffiths).
a chieved t hrough a h ierarchical l owlands
a t
l east,
T his
t han m ore
a nything
s ettlement p attern
l ader
( Zadar)
( personal
e xploitation
w hich,
r esembled t he t hree t iers o f
w ith t he a ddition o f
p rior
e xtensive
i n
t he
w as Z adar
t he l ate P RIA s tructure
a s a n a dministrative a nd market
c entre
o r c olonia. I n t he s urvey a rea, t he m ajor h ill-fort o f N adin-Gradina w as g ranted t he t itle o f m unicipium w ith t he n ame N edinum i n t he C laudian o r T iberian
p eriod
( Wilkes
1 969:212-214),
h ill-forts c ontinued i nto a t s ettlement
e xpansion
w as
w hile t he o ccupation o f
l east t he i st. i n
t he
c entury A D.
l ow-lying
a reas,
l owland f arms i ncreased f rom n ine i n t he P RIA t o a t I n
a ddition
t o
t hese
m ajor
f arm
o ccupations,
T he
R oman p eriod.
f arms,
O utside t he 1 /2-km r adius
t here i s abundant
l east
manuring
s tructures.
T he s izeable n umber o f
p eriod
b e
c an
p ractices
o r
1 5 i n
R IA.
l owland s ites
' territories'
f requent
t he
t here i s a rtifactual o r
e vidence o f a rtifact d iscard,
w idespread
R oman
w here t he n umber o f
s tructural e vidence f or f arming a ctivity a t a f urther 2 0 t he
f our m inor
m ajor
o f
s uggesting
p art-time
c learance c airns dated
u se t o
i n
t he l owland e ither
o f
r ural
t he
R oman
i nterpreted a s e vidence f or t he deliberate i mprovement o f
s oil r esources i n t he a rea. I n s ummary, t he R oman o ccupation o f t he Ravni K otari d isplays a c ombination o f i ncreasing n ucleation o f population a t m unicipia w ith t he h ighest
l evel
s urvey a rea.
o f
d ispersal
T he o n- a nd
o f r ural
o ff-site
9
l and u se s een a t a ny p eriod i n t he
t otals
o f
a rtifacts
i ndicate
t he
h ighest a bsolute d iscard r ates o ver t he w hole s urvey a rea i n t he l ast t en m illennia, a lthough B ronze A ge d iscard r ates w ere l ocally h igher i n c ertain h ill-forts.
T he p recise r elationship b etween
a gricultural i ntensification i s M edieval
( AD 6 00
-
1 700)
d iscard
r ates
a nd
s till u nder i nvestigation.
( Fig.
1 .6)
A m assive decline i n t he d iscovery r ate o f M edieval
s ites a nd m onuments i n
c omparison w ith t he R oman p eriod c an h ardly b e i nterpreted a s o ther t han a m ajor e conomic a nd p opulation d islocation. A r eduction i n a nd h is s taff i n t he A udio V isual C entre o f t he U niversity o f N ewcastle u pon T yne f or t heir
c onversion
o f
a ll
t he
a rticles i nto f inished a rtowrk. c ombined
d iagrams
f or N eothermal D almatia P roject
o ccupations
f rom
o ver
4 0
t o
w ith a l ow l evel o f a rtifact d iscard b etween s ite
O f t he major o ccupations, r epresent W hile i t
o ne i s t he h ill-fort a t N adin,
e ight
i s
' territories'.
a nd t hree
o thers
a rtifact c lusters c entred a round Medieval c hapels o r c hurches. m ay b e a rgued t hat s ome Medieval s ettlements h ave b een
i ncorporated i nto, o r a re m asked b y, modern r ural s ettlements ( e. g ., T inj), i t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat a l arge n umber o f v illages w as d estroyed i n t he c ourse o f t he V enetian T urkish w ars i n t he R avni K otari ( Bracewell, n . d .) and t hus m ay n ot s urvive o n t he g round. O ccasional -
r e-use
b y
p astoralists
o f
t he
o pportunity t o d iscover domestic O utside
t he
c oastal
h ill-fort s ettlement
s trip o f
t he Z adar
V enetian u rban s ettlement c ontinued p icture
p ainted
by
a nd s tagnation.
o f
V inculja p resents a r are
t races. l owlands,
t hrough
m uch
I t i s o nly i n t he 1 4th.
T he
( A.
p roduction
t his
p eriod,
t he
Medieval a rtifactual r emains i s o ne o f r ural d ecline a nd
1 5th.
e conomies b egin t o e xpand i n t his p art o f D almatia Ika pottery
w here B yzantine a nd
o f
D .
1 700
-
o f c oarse,
present)
( Fig.
c enturies ( Raukar
t hat
r ural
1 977).
1 .7)
c arbonate-tempered w ares o n t he i sland o f V eli
I i i s documented f rom t he 1 8th.
c entury u p t o t he
p resent
t his
w as
e xported f rom 1 2 t o t he
volume).
T his
m ainland a nd i t u se
p ottery
o nce
i s c onsequently o ne o f
i n t he Modern p eriod.
w idely
t he l ess a mbiguous
I ts d istribution i n t he Z adar
day
( Can ton,
s igns o f p ottery l owlands i s
l ess
c ommon t han t he c eramics f rom a ny o ther p eriod, w ith u pper o ctile values o f o nly 5 s herds p er c ollection u nit. M ost o f t he f inds w ere d iscovered w ithin a 1 /2-k i n r adius o f P ost-Medieval o r Modern v illages a nd h amlets t he a lmost t otal absence o f a ssociation w ith o ther monuments i s s triking. T he m echanisms by which I ska m anuring
o r
t he
c arrying
p ottery o f
r eaches
t he
f ields
vessels t o r ural w orkplaces
a re
u nknown;
s eem t he most
l ikely. T he Contemporary period T he d istribution o f 1 :25,000
m aps
u sed
( Fig.
e xisting f or
1 .8)
v illages
t he s urvey.
a nd
h amlets
i s
t aken
f rom
t he s urvey a rea i s c haracteristic o f t he l ast t wo c enturies, w hen Z adar p lain f ell f irmly w ithin t he p urview o f t he c ity o f Z adar. n earest
t own t o t he s urvey
a rea
i s
1 0
t he
T he absence o f a ny c entral p lace i n
B enkovac,
i tself
a n
1 8th.
t he T he
c entury
A . D .
f oundation.
T his d ispersed p attern
s ettlement p atterning
i s
r edolent
o f
m uch
L n t he p rehistoric a nd M edieval p eriod
o f
t he
i n t he s urvey
z one. L ater c hipped s tone T he d esignation n ot
( Fig.
1 .9)
' Later c hipped s tone'
r efers
t o l ithic a rtifacts w hich a re
d emonstrably P alaeolithic i n t echnology n or t ype a nd a re t herefore t o
b e d ated t o s ome phase o f c ontrast
t he
N eothermal
b etween t he d ense c lustering o f
p eriod.
T here
L CS i n t he 1 982
i s
a
a round h ills c apped w ith f lint-bearing M iocene s ands a nd g ravels &
C hapman 1 985:181-182)
b lock. r aw
T his
a nd t he l ow d ensity o f
m aterial
s ource
i n t he b lock.
I n a ny c ase,
l ithics d istribution d ocuments e ither c uration
l ithic f inds
i s perhaps r elated t o t he a bsence o f a ny
r ates
f or
s trong
s urvey t ransects ( Batovi
i n t he
s ignificant
s urvey l ithic
t he d ispersed n ature o f
l ow p roduction o r
t he c ontemporary s ettlements.
l ow
d iscard/high
A lthough
s ome l ithics
a re f ound w ith datable p ottery i n 2 8 c ollection u nits, t here i s n o p roof o f c hronological a ssociation b etween p ot a nd l ithics. B y c ontrast, l ithics o n t he Mataci-Stoji i r idge ( 1982 t ransect) w ere f ound w ith n othing b ut B ronze A ge p ottery i n over 8 0 c ollection u nits. A s may b e e xpected,
t he Mataci-Stoji i a ssemblages a re
c haracterized
by
a
p roportion o f debitage a nd c ores a nd a l ower p roportion o f p ieces t han t he l ithics f rom t he s urvey b lock. C airns
( Fig.
1 .10)
B y f ar t he most f requent s tone
c airn. t opographic a s
o f
e ither T he
n umber o f c airns
F urther e vidence
p rimarily a s ign o f The
p lacement
o f
s izes,
( ibid.
: 128).
n otwithstanding, ( Chapman,
c airns
a re
S hiel & B atoviE
s herds i n t he i nterstices,
Data f rom l ocal e xcavations i ndicate t hat
c reated t oday ,
s hapes
f ound t ogether r anges
c airns p rovides a t erminus a nte q uem f or t he c onstruction o f c airns i s B ronze Age t o R oman;
t he
l and c learance f rom a rable f ields a nd
o nly s econdarily a s b etokening a b urial monument 1 987:128-9).
i s
l imestone b oulders o r boulders w ith
c airns d isplay a n i mpressive v ariety o f
l ocations.
f rom t wo t o over 2 50 / 2/. i nterpreted
s ingle m onument c lass i n t he s urvey a reas
Constructed
e arthern i nfilling, a nd
h igher
r etouched
h owever,
o r o n t op, t he
o f
monument
t he date r ange o f
s tone c learance c airns
a re
s till
s o n o f acile a ssumptions about dating c an u sually b e made.
T he d istribution o f c airns i n t he s urvey b lock i s moderately d ispersed, w ith
o ccasional
c airnfield. A ge
o r
l arge
c lusters,
R oman
f oci
( e.
g .,
L inear f eatures t erm
a s
i n
' linear
( Fig.
K akma
-
M itrovi i
l acking B ronze Age,
I ron
l ie w ithin a 1 k m r adius o f B ronze
A ge
1 .11)
f eature'
f ield monument c lasses b oundaries', e tc. T he
t he
i n t he e astern c orner o f t he s urvey b lock).
O therwise, m ost major c airn g roups o r I ron Age o ccupation s ites.
T he
s uch
S ome g roups o f c airns o ccur i n a reas
i s p referred a s a n eutral d escriptor
f or
s uch
a s ' walls', ' field b oundaries', t erritorial main c haracteristic o f l inear f eatures i s t heir
c onstruction i n d ry-stone t echnique a nd i n a s tyle r ecognizably
1 1
d ifferent
f rom t hose o f r ecent f ield w alls. s imilar
C riteria f or dating t hese f eatures
f or t hose u sed t o d ate c airns
B ecause o f
t he d estruction o f
c onstruction
w ork,
t he
a re
( see a bove).
f ield m onuments
d istribution
o f
d uring
l inear
a griculture
f eatures
a nd
i s n ot o nly a
p alimpsest a nd h is s taff i n t he A udio V isual C entre o f t he U niversity o f N ewcastle u pon T yne f or t heir c onversion o f a ll t he d iagrams f or N eothermal D almatia P roject a rticles i nto f inished a rtowrk. b ut a p artial a nd f ragmentary p alimpsest c overing c onstruction o ver t he l ast 4 ,000 y ears. C urrent d ating e vidence f or t he e arliest l inear f eatures c omes f rom
t he
P ridraga
c airnfield,
w here
c airns w ith B ronze Age p ottery i n
t heir f ill o verlay a l inear f eature s ome 2 50 m i n l ength B atovi
1 987:128
&
F ig.
4 ).
f eatures i ndicates a n a pparent
D ating p eak
( Chapman,
S hiel &
e vidence f rom s urvey b lock l inear
i n
t heir
f requency
i n
t he
R oman
period. O ther A
s ettlements
d iverse
s et o f
M onument c lasses p latforms, c ultivation. t he
1 5th.
( Fig.
1 .12)
u sually u ndated m onuments i nclude
e nclosures,
i s i ncluded i n t his c ategory.
p ost-Medieval
s ettlements,
house
s tone h uts, t erracing, l ime-pits a nd r idge-and-furrow O f t hese , o nly t he l ime-kilns c an b e a pproximately dated t o
c entury
A .
D .
o r
l ater.
N o dated e xamples o f r idge-and-furrow
c ultivation f rom Y ugoslavia a re c urrently k nown t o t he a uthor. G eneral c omments S everal s urvey.
i nteresting l ong-term t rends e merge f rom t he r esults o f t he NDP T he f irst p oint i s t he r elative u nder-use o f t he l and u se
p otential
f or t he s urvey b lock o ver m ost o f
t he l ast 8 m illennia.
A t
n o
p eriod, e ven d uring R oman p rovincial a dministration, w as t he t errain o f t his p art o f t he R avni K otari u sed t o t he f ull. While detailed s oil s tudies may c ontradict t his v iew, t he d istributional e vidence i s c lear t hat t here w as a lways s pare a rable c apacity i n t his a rea, s o t hat a ny n otional s ettlement
model a nd
a ttempting e conomic
t o
u se
c hange
p opulation
w ould
r un
p ressure i nto
t o a ccount f or
s evere,
i f
not
i nsurmountable p roblems. T he s econd t heme l inking m uch o f p ast
s ettlement o n t he
p lain
p redominance o f s mall-scale, d ispersed s ettlement u nits. o ccasions when k inship g roups u nite t o f orm more n ucleated
i s
t he
O n t he r are r esidential
u nits, i t i s r are t o f ind s ite s izes c onsonant w ith p opulation l evels o f more t han a h undred i ndividuals. T he n ucleation e vident i n t he R oman m unicipium o f N adin-Gradif la r epresents t he l argest s ettlement k nown f rom e ight m illennia o f p lains o ccupation. T he s urviving Medieval and post-Medieval
h istorical
d ata
s uggest
t hat
s mall
p opulation
s ize
c haracterized m uch o f t he p lains s ettlement f rom t he 1 3th. c entury o nwards ( Bracewell, n . d .). H ence, s ite n ucleation s tands o ut a s a b reak f rom t he n orm ,
a p attern w hich r equires e xplanation a s m uch a s t he o verall t endency
t owards d ispersion.
1 2
A t hird l ong-term t rend i s d efined b y t he a pparent c yclicity i n t he s equence o f s ettlement e xpansion a nd c ontraction i n t he s urvey b lock. I n t hree o f
t he I ron A ge a nd t he M edieval),
l arge a reas
t he f ertile l owlands a ppear t o r emain u nder-utilized i f n ot
periods
( the N eolithic,
c ompletely
u ncultivated.
I n t he i ntervening p eriods
( Bronze A ge,
R oman a nd M odern),
g reater p roportions o f t he c ontemporary l andscape a re o ccupied
a nd
a ttempts a re m ade a t l and i mprovements a nd a grarian m anagement. p eriodicity o f c yclical f ertility) t o
t hese c ycles m ay b e t oo l ong t o r elate t o t he
p atterns
o f
c hange
( see S hiel & C hapman,
r elate
t o
t he
l ong-term
n eighbouring a reas o f l ocal, r egional i nvestigations. 1 .5
s oil
( loss
o f
f orthcoming), s ocial
f ertility
s horter-term r ecovery o f
-
t his p attern i s m ore l ikely
c hanges
a ffecting
t he Mediterranean b asin.
a nd i nter-regional
major
W hile t he
T he
t he r egion a nd
i nteraction
b etween
f actors w ill b e t he s ubject o f
f uture
L AND U SE S TRATEGIES I N T HE Z ADAR L OWLANDS
T he l and u se c lassification d eveloped f or t he s tudy a rea i s d iscussed i n t he n ext p aper ( See S hiel & C hapman, t his v olume).
f ully S hiel
d efines f ive c lasses o f l and o n t he b asis o f modern l and u se r ather p recise p edological p rinciples:- a rable, s tony, t errace, k arst b ottomland. ( see
T he m odern d istribution o f t hese c lasses
S hiel & C hapman,
F ig.
2 .3).
I n h is model o f
i s
d iscussed
t han a nd b elow
a nd u se c hanges i n t he
s urvey a rea, S hiel p roposes a s eries o f m odifications t o t he l and u se p otential o f t he a rea w hich m ake i t d angerous t o u se t he m odern l and u se m ap a s a s urrogate f or p ast s hall
c ombine
S hiel's
l and u se d istributions.
m odel
w ith
s ediments t o p ropose a s equence o f m illennia.
e xcavation
l and u se c hange
T he absence o f c losely d atable M esolithic m akes
c oncrete
d iscussion
o f
I n
t he
t his
s ection,
over
t he
l ithics i n t he
t ransition
past
e ight
s urvey
b lock
f rom f oragers t o f armers
a lmost i mpossible.
A s i n o ther p eriods o f
P alaeolithic),
i s l ikely t hat t he m ain a reas o f M esolithic
i t
w ould be t he c oastal p lains,
n ow
d iscovery
o f
m aterial
f inds
Mesolithic
o f
P alaeolithic
V ranji6an 1 982)
f lints
i n
s ubmerged t he
l ow s ea-level b eneath
( e.
t he
g .,
deer,
A driatic.
V elebit
M ountains
p ig
f oraging p opulations.
a nd
p ossibly
s heep
on
E vidence o f t he b urial o f
h inders
t he
q uest
b ottomland
s till f urther.
f uture e xploration i s t hat f oraging p opulations b ottom
s uch
t here w ould b e a
s ubstantial
d egree
& I t
h erds a s
l ithics
o f
a t l ack
d iscard
T he hypothesis f or
s elected v alley
a reas r ather t han h ill-slopes a nd k arst r idges.
c orrect,
t heir
s uggests o ne m echanism f or t he l oss o f M esolithic s ites;
s urvey
a nd
( Forenbaher
w ould h ave b een i gnored by
o f r ecognition o f M esolithic t oolkits i n t he g eneralized f ound
The
1 975)
i ndicate o ccasional e xploitation o f t he m ountain z one.
a urochs,
K ula A tlagic
t he U pper s ettlement
i n t he L ika v alley ( Malez
i s u nlikely t hat t he o pen w oodlands o f t he R avni K otari w ith o f
I
d ata o n b uried s oils a nd
e dge
a nd
I f t his n otion i s
s ettlement
c ontinuity
b etween t he l ast f oragers a nd t he e arliest f arming g roups i n t he a rea. T he e xcavated r emains o f y ield
a
r easonable
s ample
t he o nly E arly N eolithic s ite i n t he o f
p alaeo-economic
c ontrary t o c urrent o rthodoxy ( Tringham 1 971:103;
1 3
data
a rea
t o
d emonstrate t hat,
W hittle
1 985:98),
t he
f armers
i n t he p lain c ultivated a w ide r ange o f c ereals
a nd
t he f ive m ain f armyard a nimals f rom a s e arly a s t he 6 th h igh p ercentage o f d omestic a nimals, p redominantly
d omesticated
m illennium b c. A o vicaprif les, w as
r ecovered i n a s ample o f n early 4 ,000 b ones ( pers. c omm.,C. S chwartz). I n a w ide r ange o f c rop r emains, f our v arieties o f w heat ( (7) w ild e inkorn, d omestic e inkorn, e mmer a nd p ossibly s pelt), b arley a nd o ats w ere i dentified ( pers.
a long
c omm.,
J .
w ith
a
r ange
H untley).
o f
c rop
w eeds
a nd
s everal
T he m olluscan d ata f rom T inj
l egumes
i ndicate u se o f
s everal c ontrasting e co-zones:- such u se o f c oastal r esources p erhaps e xplains t he e vidence f or s hort-term o ccupation i n c oastal c aves s uch a s t he B uta J ama i n
t he
( Ilakovac 1 965).
a rea,
i t
i s
n o
I f T inj
s urprise
i s t ypical o f N eolithic
e conomies
t o f ind a s trong c orrelation b etween
N eolithic l ocations a nd t he a rable l and c lass. A lmost a ll N eolithic a nd E neolithic c lusters a re l ocated o n t he l and w hich p rovides n ot o nly t he most f ertile a rable b ut a lso e xception i n t he s urvey b lock
t he h ighest-quality p asture. T he main P rtenja a o ccupies a n arrow k arst r idge
-
-
f lanked by r ich a rable s oils o n e ach s ide. T he p alaeoeconOmic e vidence f rom t he o nly e xcavated o pen a ir E neolithic s ite i n t he R avni K otari c onfirms t he i mportance
-
B ukovi -LaStvine ( Batovi & C hapman 1 986)t o t he i nhabitants o f m ixed f arming. T he
dominance o f d omesticated a nimals i n t he f aunal T inj,
w hile
a n
i ncrease
i n
t he
s pectrum
i mportance
o f
r ivals
c attle
t hat
o f
r elative
t o
ovicaprines m ay s ignal t he i mpact o f s econdary p roducts i nnovations ( Sherratt 1 979). T he r ange o f p lant r emains r ecovered w as n arrower t han a t T inj; n evertheless, l ocal c ultivation o f w heat ( probably e inkorn a nd e mmer),
a nd p robably o ats,
m illet a nd b arley i s
s uggested.
C harcoal
f rom
j uniper, o live a nd o ak w as a lso f ound a t B ukovi . U se o f l ocal a nd marine molluscs i ndicates t he u se o f a n arrower r ange o f e cological z ones a nd s pecies
t han
p opulation
a t
T inj
l evels
a ctivities c ould b e s mall-scale
( identifications
i n
t he
N eo/Eneo
e ffected
e conomy,
o n
w ith
b y
C .
a ppear
t he
S chwartz).
a rable
s pecialized
I n
s o l ow t hat a ll s oils.
s ite
T his
l ocation
s ummary,
s ubsistence s uggests
c ombined
a
w ith
g eneralized l and u se. T he
l ocation
o f
B ronze
A ge s ites o ff a s w ell a s o n t he a rable c lass
p rompts t he q uestion o f w hy s uch a n e xpansion i n n ecessary g iven t he a bsence o f p opulation a lternative i s t he c ertain s lopes. s ites
hypothesis
o f
p roductive
r ange o f p ressure.
l ocation w as T he o bvious
s pecialization,
i n
w hich
c rops o ffered h igher y ields i f c ultivated o n t he k arst r idges a nd U nfortunately , n one o f t he t hree t est e xcavations a t B ronze A ge ( Mataci,
a u evica
a nd
G rabar)
h as
y ielded
m uch i n t he w ay o f
p alaeobotanical i nformation. P lant r emains f rom C au ge vica i ncluded j uniper p ips, o live s tones a nd s eeds o f m illet. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t here a re s evere c riteria f or a ccepting t he d omestication o f t ree c rops l ike t he o live a nd o ther f ruit, n ot t o m ention t he v ine ( Runnels & H ansen 1 986);
h ence,
d omestication N evertheless,
t here i s o ne
l ittle c hance o f determining t he q uestion o f w ay
o r
o ther
s uch
s mall
i ncreased i nterest i n e ven w ild v ines a nd
h ave p rompted t he e stablishment o f m ulti-cropping s trategies i n b enefit
f rom
s ettlements o ff
l owland
f rom t he d omestication o f
a rable
f loral o lives
t he a rable.
f ields
w ould
t ree c rops a nd t he v ine.
1 4
l ocal
s amples. m ay
w ell
T he u se o f b e
b ut
o ne
T he
l ocation o f
s everal m ajor B ronze A ge f oci o f
s ettlement o n w hat
i s
n ow k arst l and s hould b e p ut i n p erspective. O n e ach e xcavated B ronze A ge s ite, w e h ave f ound e vidence f or s oil e rosion b eginning i n, a nd c ontinuing a fter,
t he B ronze A ge o ccupation.
k arst
h ad
a d eeper
n ow b e c lassed a s m ost o f o nset
O n t his b asis,
s oil p rofile i n t he 2 nd.
' stony '.
m uch
O n t his r e-interpretation o f
t he B ronze A ge s ites w ould o ccur o n a rable o r o f
k arst
o f
c onditions
o n
f lat
w hat
m illennium b c,
l imestone
i s
n ow
s uch a s w ould
l and u se
c hange,
s tony l and,
w ith t he
r idges
r epresenting
a
degradation o f t he s oil c over p artly c aused b y B ronze A ge a griculture. I n t he I ron A ge, i ndicates
p rocess o f b eing, I ron
a s tronger p reference f or
s ettlement
Age
i n
h ill-top
degraded t hrough
h uman
i ntervention.
t hat
H owever,
r idge
s ites
o r a re i n t he
E xcavations
o f
f eatures a t N adin-Gradina r evealed e vidence o f t he c onstruction
o f t erraces a nd s ubsidiary e nclosures i n t he l ate s ign
a nd
j ust t hose a reas w hich h ave b een,
l and
m anagement
w as
s ince n o E arly I ron A ge e nclosures h ave
d ifficult
i st.
m illennium
B C,
a
b eing t aken s eriously i n t he l ate P RIA.
t o j udge w hether d egradation o f
b een
e xcavated,
i s
it
t he k arst r idges w as c ontinuing
i nto t he i st. M BC o r c onstituted a p rimarily B ronze A ge p henomenon. T he c urrent h ypothesis i s t hat, g iven t he s cale o f I rcn A ge u se o f t he l imestone r idges, i mportant f actor
v egetati on
a nd
s oil
l oss
w ould
c ontinue
t o
b e
a n
t hroughout t his p eriod.
T he o nly d irect p alaeoeconomic e vidence f rom t he I ron A ge derives f rom t he N DP e xcavations a t N adin-Gradina ( Batovic & C hapman 1 987). T he f aunal s ample f rom t he l ate
P RIA
i ndicates
c attle, p igs and h orses i n a ( identifications b y C . S chwartz).
a
p redominance
l ocal c ultivation o f e mmer a nd s pelt w heat, t he u se o f t he o live a nd t he v ine. T he p roximity
o f
b road-leaved
o f
c aprines
over
s ample d ominated b y d omestic a nimals B otanical i dentifications document t he
a ssociations
s ome Mediterranean e vergreen v egetation
s ix-row b arley a nd m illet a nd c harcoal s amples i mply t he
( oak,
h azel,
w illow)
a s w ell a s
( Quercus i lex).
I n t he R oman p eriod, m ajor a nd p roportionate u se o f a ll l and u se c lasses i s a ttested, w ith t he l ocation o f l ow-lying f arms o n a ll s oil c lasses
e xcept
b ottomland.
W ithout e xcavation o f
w ould be d ifficult t o t est t he c urrent h ypothesis l ocation
i s
t he c ounterpart o f
s everal t hat
s pecialized l and u se.
s uch f arms,
g eneralized
i t
s ite
T he p alaeoeconomic
d ata f rom N adin-Gradina i s t he o nly d irect s ubsistence e vidence f or a rea. T he c lear p redominance o f d omestic c aprines o ver a ny o ther
t he f ood
a nimal s hows c ontinuity f rom I ron A ge h usbandry. T he l ist o f l ocally c ultivated p lant s pecies i ncludes s pelt, s ix-row b arley, t wo s pecies o f m illet, a
l egumes,
s imilar
t he g rape a nd t he o live.
C harcoal
i dentifications r eveal
b alance o f b road-leaved a nd e vergreen s pecies t o t hat
t he p re-Roman I ron A ge.
T he 1 -km t erritory o f N adin i ncludes
f ound i n
l and o f
a ll
c lasses e xcept b ottomland; t he p otential f or s pecialized c ultivation i s v ery g reat. T he c onstruction o f w hat i n B ritain w ould b e c alled a ' banjo' e nclosure ( Perry 1 969) w ith i ts n eck f acing N adinsko B lato, t he l argest a rea o f
s ummer
g razing
i n
t he
p lain,
r einforces
t he
i mportance
o f
s tock-raising a t R oman N adin. T he s timulus o f c ash c rops s uch a s s heep, o lives a nd g rapes t o t he r egional e conomy i s o ne r eason f or t he e xpanded a reas
o f
a rable
a nd
n on-arable
t aken i nto c ultivation o r p asture;
1 5
t he
r eady
a vailability
o f
Z adar a s a h arbour b oth f or
G reece a nd B yzantium e nsured t hat
t ransport
I taly a nd,
f acilities
k ept
l ater, p ace
f or w ith
e conomic g rowth. T here i s n o d irect s ubsistence i nformation f or t he M edieval e conomy i n t he R avni K otari f rom a rchaeological e xcavations. S yntheses o f t he h istorical s ources ( for t he 1 2th. t o t he 1 4th. c enturies, K lai6 1 976; f or t he 1 5th. c entury , R aukar 1 977) p rovide i ndirect d ata w hich c ould b e t aken t o m ean t hat c aprine h usbandry w as p re-eminent i n s tock r aising, b ut i nformation o n c rops i s t oo g eneral t o b e o f m uch u se ( viz, c ultivation o f c ereals, o lives a nd t he v ine). W hat f ew p redictions c an b e m ade f rom t he a ttenuated
s ettlement
p attern d ata f rom t his p eriod c oncern t he p ossible
b eginnings o f a t rend f ound i n m odern v illages t o-day n amely p reference f or l ocations a t t he j unction o f s everal l and u se c lasses. -
a
I n t he m odern p eriod, t here i s a d ominance o f a nimal p roducts o ver p lant p roducts i n m ost p easant v illages i n t he s urvey a rea. T he m any v arieties o f m eat a nd d airy f oods a re t he p rincipal p roducts o f t he l arge f locks o f s heep a nd t he s maller n umbers o f p igs a nd c attle. S ince t he S econd W orld W ar, t he i ntroduction o f c ash c rops s uch a s t obacco, p eppers, t omatoes a nd m elons h as m eant a d iversification o f p lant p roducts a way f rom t he t raditional m aize, w heat, b arley, o ats, m illet a nd l egumes. V ines a nd o lives a re s till i mportant a nd p ossession o f h igh-quality g roves a nd v ineyards i s o ften c losely r elated t o t he h olding o f s tatus p ositions i n t he v illage. T he p redominant l ocational
s trategy o f t he
m odern
v illage
e cotone
p osition,
r adius. v illage
P roductive s pecialization a cross t he f ull a ltitudinal l and i s n ormal f or m ixed f arming c ommunities i n
i s
i n
a n
w ith t hree o r s ometimes f our l and u se c lasses i n a 1 -k in r ange o f t he Z adar
l owlands. T hree g eneral c onclusions c an b e d rawn f rom t hese l and u se s tudies: 1 .
I n a l andscape w ith a m osaic o f l and u se c lasses, e fficient l and u se s trategies w ould n ecessitate s ome c ombination o f m ixed f arming. I t w ould b e p ossible b ut h ardly v ery p roductive t o s pecialize i n w holly a rable f arming o r p urely p astoralism.
2 .
T here i s a l ong-term t endency t o s hift f rom s pecialized s ite l ocation t o m ore g eneralized l ocations; w hether o r n ot t his t endency i s b alanced b y a s econd, n amely a s hift f rom g eneralized t o m ore s pecialized l and u se c annot y et b e t ested b ecause o f p aucity o f d irect s ubsistence e vidence f rom t he p roto-a nd h istoric p eriods.
3 .
T he h ighly l ocalized l and c lass d istribution, w ith i ts s mall p atch s izes, w ould f avour a s ubsistence s trategy b ased o n d ispersed s ettlement p atterns, w here e ach s ettlement u nit c ontrolled a ccess t o a nd u tilized t he f ull r ange o f a vailable l and u se c lasses.
1 6
1 .6
C ONCLUSIONS
T he r esults o f t he f irst p hase o f t he N eothermal D almatia P roject i mpinge o n m any f ields o f s cientific a ctivity. I n t his p aper, t he m ain r esults o f i ntensive, l and
u se
a nd
e xcavations. p attern
o f
s ystematic f ield s urvey h ave
s ubsistence
i nformation
A l ong-term p attern e merges s ettlement
f rom o f
b een s oil
a
i ntegrated s urvey
w ith
a nd
p redominantly
t rial
d ispersed
b ased o n i ncreasingly g eneralized l ocations,
w ith
a ccess t o a p rogressively w ider r ange o f l and u se c lasses. S uperimposed o n t he b asic d ispersed p attern i s a t endency t owards p opulation n ucleation i n t he R oman a nd M odern p eriods a nd, t o a l esser e xtent, i n t he I ron Age. T he m ain p eaks i n p opulation o f t he c ity o f Z adar c oincide w ith t he d evelopment o f e conomic e xpansion a nd t he p rovision o f w ider markets. i mpact
o f
t he
i ncorporation o f
T he
t he r ural h interland o f t he R avni K otari
i nto a w ider e conomic n etwork r emains a s ubject f or f uture s tudy. 1 .7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e a cknowledge w ith t hanks t he f inancial
D almatia
P roject
p rovided
S ociety, t he S ociety o f N ewcastle u pon Tyne. f or t he p roject o f R osemary
C ramp,
b y
f or
t he
N eothermal
N ational G eographic
A ntiquaries o f L ondon a nd t he U niversity o f I t i s a p leasure t o a cknowledge t he r eady s upport
P rofessors J ohn E vans, M artin
s upport
:T he B ritish A cademy,
H arrison,
C oh n
J ames
R enfrew ,
G riffin,
P eter
F owler,
G reg J ohnson,
B ernard
Wailes, H enry W right a nd R onnie T ylecote. T hanks a re a lso d ue t o t he c o-editors o f t his v olume f or t heir u sually c reative e ncouragement. I t i s a p leasure t o a cknowledge t he h elp o f t he e ntire s taff o f
t he
A rheolo ki
Muzej Z adar a nd t he N arodni M uzej ( Etnograf s ki O djel) Z adar, e specially t he D irector o f t he A MZ, P rofessor R . J uri . We a re i ndebted T urner,
t o o ur p alaeoeconomic
s pecialists,
J ackie H untley a nd S andra N ye,
f or
D rs. t heir
C harles S chwartz, f aunal
a nd
and a lso
J udith
b otanical
r eports. I t i s a s pecial p leasure t o t hank I an M unro a nd h is s taff i n t he A udio V isual C entre o f t he U niversity o f N ewcastle u pon Tyne f or t heir c onversion
o f
a ll
t he d iagrams f or Neothermal D almatia P roject a rticles
i nto f inished a rtowrk.
O ur f inal
d ebt
o f
g ratitude
f ieldwalkers w ho c ontributed t o t he s uccess o f 1 .8
i s
t o
a ll
t hose
t he N DP s urvey.
F OOTNOTES
1 . Mataci
-
C lusters o f M iddle P alaeolithic c hipping debris w ere f ound on t he S idge i n t he c ourse o f t he 1 982 s eason ( toji i r Batovi C ' & Chapman
1 985:181-2). 2 .
T he l argest g roup i n t he s urvey a rea w as t he c airnfield
w ith s ome 2 45 c airns
( Chapman,
S hiel & B atovi
1 7
o f
1 987:127 & F ig.
P ridraga, 4 ).
VA N I N I i l i
s u rvey t r ansec t s u rvey b lock
1 , 000 r n 5 00-1 ,000 m
U..
3 00-500 m 3 00 m
0
1 0 km
F igure 1 .1
L ocation m ap o f p roject
s tudy a rea,
a nd s urvey b lock.
1 8
s urvey t ransects
o
F INDSPOTS /S INGLE F IND
•
CA IRN
0
1 -5
CAVE
0
615
L INEAR F EATURE
0 1 6-35
ENCLOSURE
0 3 6
-
0
o CHURCH/CHAPEL
(
•
V ILLA
o
DMV
0 3
H ILL FORT
V
S ETTLEMENT
V
C ISTERN
A
BU ILD ING
ART IFACTS
CA IRNS .1
• 2-3 • 4-8 •
DAT ING EV IDENCE F OR MONUMENTS BRONZE AGE -
L IME P IT _P I\
9
I RON AGE
f ROMAN
R I DGE & FURROW
— .
MED IEVAL
TERRAC ING DAT ING EV IDENCE FOR L CS
L
1 P LATFORM S ITE
I
I CROPMARK n
O ' NEO CA c 5 BA
C IST
O— I A
9 ROMAN —0
1 9
MED/ ISKA
0
0
0
00
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
0
0
F igure 1 .2
D istribution o f N eolithic/EneOlithic r emaius.
2 0
1km
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 O L
0 .
0
0
0 0
0
00
S
C
0
C '
0 0
S
0
0
0
0 S 0
L I
0
0 0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 00
0
0 0
0
o 0
0 00
o o
0 0
00
0
S
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
S
0 o 0 0
Co 0
•
a 0
a
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
S 0 0
0 S
S
S
.
0 0
0
F igure
0
1 .3
D istribution o f
B ronze Age r emains.
2 1
0
00
0 0 0
0
0
0
.
.
0
0 0
0
0 0
+
.
•
0
0
.
� x \
0
0
0
0
rigure
1 .4
Distribution
of
Iron
Age
2 2
remains.
1km
0
U 0
_
0
0
0
0
0
U
0
0
0
0 •
0
0 00 0
0
.o
0
0
0 0
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
•
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
a
) 0
I d
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
U 0 0
U
0
•
•
•
0 3
0
o l
0
0 0
0
V
0
0
0
0
00 0
0
0
0
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
000
•
•
0
o .
A
0
0
0 00
0
C p 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 &
0
6 °c3°
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 U 0
c
00 0
0
0
•
000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o Qj
0
U
S
0
0
a D S
0
9
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
.
00
0
0
0 0 0
0
0 -
0 •
0
.
0
0
U 0
o
0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0 00
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
00
•• • 0
'3 0
00
0 o 00
0
0
(
00
0
I
0
Figure
1 .5
Distribution
0
0
0
of
Roman
remains.
2 3
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
I
1k
0
D 0
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c i
c b
S
0 0
8 0
J
0
F igure 1 .6
D istribution o f M edieval r emains.
2 4
I
1 k
0
0
0 0
C i
0 0
0 0 0
0 00
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C .
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 C
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
0
0
F igure 1 .7
D istribution o f
Ika r emains.
2 5
1 k
MALBA E
0
MA JSTOROV I II
B RZOJA 0 W MAR 1 6 1
R A TEV I t
VRS A U CI
C
BE G 0VI C
O PSEN I CE Z AG R AD
0 II O ZAK0VI
MAR I IC I
G .J A600N JA
P RTENJA A 0
P 0L AC A
C )
0 R AZN IJEV IC I
P RTEN JA A
0 .J AGOON JA R AST I
L I ANE
0
U ZELC I M ILJOV II 0
Z AGRAD INA
0 S ELO
0
0 Z IL Ië I
I M ITROV II
0
P UDAR ICA
C
I J UR JEV II
S TABANJ
K AK MA
a S ER OAR I
0
F igure 1 .8
D istribution o f modern s ettlement r emains.
2 6
1km
0
+ 0
4 o
6 o
0
0
6
C 9
c r
6
6
d
6 -
9
0 0 .
0
F igure 1 .9
D istribution o f
l ater c hipped s tone r emains.
2 7
1km
S
S
• S
S
S
S S
I
S S
S
S
.
S
S.
•
I,
5S
S.
•S S
S
S
S
S
S
S
.
•
I
S
•
S .
S
•
f S
• •
S S
.
S
S
S S
•
5-
S
S
S
0
Figure
1 .10
Distribution of
cairns.
2 8
1km
S S
-
U
I
I • 1 .
0
F igure 1 .11
D istribution o f
l inear f eatures.
2 9
1km
17
A
rf\
C
C E
C
A
C
r i
V
Ti
1
C C A
0
F igure 1 .12
D istribution o f
l ater
3 0
s ettlement r emains.
1k m
C HAPTER T WO T HE E XTENT O F C HANGE I N T HE A GRICULTURAL L ANDSCAPE O F D ALMATIA, Y UGOSLAVIA ,
A S A R ESULT O F 8 ,000 Y EARS O F L AND M ANAGEMENT R OBERT S HIEL & J OHN C HAPMAN
2 .1
S UMMARY C hanges i n f ive t ypes o f
k arst
l and
a rable,
-
s tony ,
t errace,
b ottomland
o ver t he l ast 8 ,000 y ears a re d escribed f or a n a rea o f
-
T he c auses o f c hange
p redominantly e rosion,
-
t erracing a nd d rainage l and t ypes i s d iscussed. o ccurred,
w ith
-
d eposition,
1 20
a nd
s q.
km.
s tone c learance,
a re a ssessed a nd t heir i nfluence o n e ach o f I t i s s hown h ow l andscape p olarisation
t he h as
p otentially c ultivable l and b eing p rogressively i mproved,
w hile t he a rea o f g razing l and h as d eclined d ue t o e rosion a nd b ecause i mprovement f or c ultivation.
o f
T he a reas o f a ctually c ultivable l and a nd o f
s everely degraded l and h ave b oth p rogressively i ncreased w ith
t ime.
T he
i mpact o f t hese c hanges o n f arming c ommunities i s d iscussed. 2 .2
I NTRODUCTION T here
i s n o d oubt t hat
s oil p roperties h ave b een s ubstantially a ltered
d ue t o t he i ntervention o f m an.
I n t he t emperate u plands,
s oil a cidification a nd t he r apid s pread o f p eat i n t he l owlands, c onvert
a
w ide
f armers h ave a ttempted, r ange
p roductive c apacity o f o ver
t ime
s o
t hat
o f
t hrough l iming a nd
s oils i nto b rown e arths
t here
l ed t o
1 985)
w hile,
d rainage,
( Crompton 1 966).
s oils i n t hese t emperate r egions h as
b een
t o T he
s hifted
a n i ncreasing p roportion o f a n u ndoubtedly i ncreased
t otal p roduction i s o btained f rom l owland s oils. t oo,
t his h as
( Askew e t a l.
h as b een w idespread si o l c hange
I n
Mediterranean
a reas
(Ci ri ' C & F ilipovi5 1 969),
b ut
t he t endency i s t o s uggest t hat s oil deterioration t here h as b een w idespread, p redominantly a s a r esult o f e rosion ( Pope & v an A ndel 1 984), w ith f ew s uggestions o f a meliorative c hange a nd w ithout a ny a ttempt a t q uantification o f c hange. A m ajor a rchaeological s urvey o f p art o f D almatia, Y ugoslavia ( Batovi & C hapman 1 985; C hapman e t a l. 1 987) h as r ecently p rovided t he o pportunity t o e xamine s oil c hange d uring t he past 8 m illennia o ver a n a rea o f f ield-walked
b y
1 20
s q.
a rchaeologists
k m. w ho
n umbers o f d ated s ites a nd m onuments. s ites
a rea
h as
b een
i ntensively l arge
I n a ddition,
major
e xcavations
o f
a nd m onuments h ave p rovided e vidence o f c rop a nd a nimal p roduction,
a s w ell a s e vidence o f t hree
T he
h ave r ecorded t he l ocation o f
years,
t his
t he e xtent o f
w ho h ave g rouped s oils i nto t errace,
b ottomland,
s oil e rosion
a nd
deposition.
a rea h as b een i ndependently mapped b y s oil k arst
a
n umber
( Table
o f 1 )
l and-types -
a nd
i t
-
Over
s cientists
a rable,
s tony ,
h as b een p ossible t o
e stablish t he r elationship b etween h uman s ettlement a nd l and-type f or e ach o f t he major a rchaeological p eriods
3 1
( Chapman e t a l.
1 987).
T able 1 S ome p roperties o f
t he m ain l and c lasses f ound i n
t he R avni K otari,
c m
%
c lass
T exture
S toniness
D epth
S lope
D rainage
S oil
L and T ype
Y ugoslavia
3 5 t o 1 0
0
5 0
5
3 0
5 t o 2 0
A rable
S ilty c lay
I mperfect
S tony T errace
S ilty c lay
F ree
S andy l oam
F ree
S andy l oam
P oor
0
5 00
5
S ilty c lay
V ery p oor
0
1 50-250
0
C lay
F ree
1 0
C lay
F ree
1 0
0
1 00
1 0
B ottom l and C oarse T extured F ine T exture K arst S teep variant l evel v ariant
0 t o 3 0/1/ 1 0 t o 1 00
/ 1/ v aries w ithin t his r ange o ver a d istance o f / 2/ i ncludes o utcropping s olid l imestone F or a f ull d escription o f l and u se t ypes,
T his
m ajor
i nvestigation
p rovides
a
5 0/2/ 2 0 t o 5 0+
l ess t han 1 0 m
s ee C hapman e t a l.
1 987.
u nique o pportunity t o e xamine t he
c hange i n s oil o ver t ime i n a l arge b lock o f
l and,
most o f w hich h as
b een
i ntensively u sed t hroughout t he p eriod. I n t his p aper, a n a ttempt i s m ade t o r econstruct t he s oil e nvironment o f 8 ,000 y ears a go a nd demonstrate h ow s oil h as c hanged s ince t hat
2 .3
t ime.
T HE P HYSICAL E NVIRONMENT T he
s urvey
b lock
i s
s ituated n ear t he t own o f Z adar a nd e xtends
f rom
t he A driatic c oast i nland f or 2 2 k m t o K arinsko M ore ( see Chapman & S hiel, above, F igure 1 .1). C retaceous L imestone u nderlies m uch o f t he a rea t ogether w ith i nterbedded c alcareous a
s eries
o f
l ow
h og-backed
s ands a nd m an s.
T he l imestone f orms
r idges r eaching 3 00 m e levation,
w hich a re
a ligned p arallel t o t he s trike a nd t o t he A driatic c oast ( Fig. 2 .1). T hese r idges r arely e xtend f or more t han 1 0 k m a long t he s trike a nd a re s paced 3 t o 8 k m a part, f orming a c omplex n etwork. T he valleys a re 0 t o 1 00 m e levation) a nd , b ecause o utlet t o t he A driatic a nd l ow-lying ( 5 t o K arinsko More i s i nterrupted b y t he r idges, f looded
s easonally.
i n s pring a nd a utumn
s ome
o f
t he
valleys
a re
T he f looding o ccurs a t v ery d efinite r ainfall p eaks ( Table 2 ).
3 2
T able 2 M onthly r ainfall a nd p otential t ranspiration f or c oastal D almatia , M ONTH
1
R AINF ALL / 1/
2
3
4
Y ugoslavia
5
6
7
6 6
4 3
8
mm
5 3
5 6
6 9
5 3
9 4
3 0
TRANSPmi n I RATION / 2/
1 8
2 3
4 4
7 0
1 10 1 40 1 60 1 53
1 1
9
1 0
1 2
8 9
1 14 1 09 7 9
P OTENTIAL
/ 1/ S ource
:B ritish A dmiralty H andbook 1 944
/ 2/ S ource
:L ockwood 1 974
1 00
5 0
2 5
1 5
D uring s ummer, h owever, t here i s a v ery s ubstantial s oil m oisture deficit. T he l and t ypes a re c losely r elated t o t his r idge a nd v alley s tructure ( cf.
F igs.
2 .1 a nd 2 .3)
l imestone
r idges.
w ith k arst
O n t he l ower
w ith a rable l and i n l evel
o ccupying
t he
s ummits
o f
t he
main
s lopes a re t errace a nd s tony l and t ypes,
s ituations,
a nd
b ottomland
i n
t he
f lood-risk
s ections o f t he v alleys. A s t he r idges a re n ot c ontinuous, t his p attern b ecomes b lurred, w ith k arst o ccurring o ccasionally i n v alley b ottoms, a nd t errace 2 .4
s oils b eing f ound n ear r idge s ummits.
L AND D EGRADATION
A lthough e rosion i s t he m ost o bvious d egradational f orce i n t he a rea, t he d eposition o f e rosion p roducts m ay d egrade l and i f t hey c onstitute a l ess p roductive s oil t han t hat b uried.
W ater i s t he most o bvious a gent o f
e rosion,
b ut w ind e rosion may b e s ubstantial
s ummer.
A lso ,
a nd l ead t o
i n a n a rea w ith
s uch
s oil d eposition i n b asins m ay i ncrease t he r isk o f
a
deterioration
i n
s oil
d rainage;
t his
p roblem
a
d ry
f looding may
b e
c ompounded b y c hanges i n s ea l evel. 2 .4.1
E rosion
W ater
e rosion i s p otentially s evere i n a utumn,
a d ry s ummer i n w hich v egetation m ay w ithered.
S uch
h ave
e rosion w ill b e m ost
s oils w hich a re l ess w ell d rained,
o r
b een
w hen h eavy r ain f ollows d estroyed,
l ikely o n t he s teeper l ess
p ermeable.
O n
c onsumed
o r
s lopes and o n t his
b asis,
s oils o f t he k arst a nd s tony t ypes c ombine s teep s lope a nd f ine t exture, a nd s o may b e c onsidered a t r isk. T errace s oils a re m ore s teeply s loping b ut
h ave
a
m uch c oarser
o bservation o f p lants p rotect a n a rea o f
-
s oil
t exture.
E vidence o f r ecent e rosion c omes
u sually t horny t ypes
( e.
g .,Euphorbia s pp)
-
s ome 1 0 c m d eeper t han t he s urrounding l and,
f rom w hich w here
t here i s f requently n o v egetation c over a nd a s oil s urface c onsisting o f 5 0% s tones. S uch s ituations a re a lso c ommon w here c onifers s eem t o o ffer c omparable p rotection f rom r ain, a nimals.
a nd a re p resumably e qually u npalatable t o
E rosion i n t he l ast c entury i s h eld r esponsible f or degradation
o f p asture l eading t o l ocally-lamented l oss o f c arrying k arst.
S imilarly ,
s ubstantial w ell-built
3 3
c apacity
o n
t he
s heep h ousing i s k nown i n a reas
w hich c ould n ot n ow o ffer g razing p roportional
t o
t he
h ousing
c apacity
p rovided. M ore r emote i n t ime, date ,
s ituated
n ear
t here a re s ubstantial f ield s ystems m odern
s ettlements,
e nclose a reas c onsisting o f over
5 0%
s olid
o f
M ediaeval
w here s ubstantial f ield w alls l imestone,
p resumably
t hese
w alls e nclosed s oil w hen b uilt, b ut t he p ostulated e rosion o f s uch s oil p resents p roblems. T he w alls w ould p revent b oth w ind a nd s heet e rosion b ut,
a s
t he
u nderlying
r ock
i s
e ver-expanding n etwork o f g rykes. p rehistoric
r amparts
l ynchetting,
i ndicating i n s ome a reas t hat
t hat
-
do
l imestone, W alls o f
s top
s heet e rosion d oes o ccur.
s oil
R amparts
s oil
m ay b e l ost i nto a n
t he l arger
f ields
a nd
-
o f
m oving l aterally a nd h ave l ed t o s oil
w as
m ore
e xtensive
f rom t he B ronze a nd
a nd
I ron A ge h ave
b een e xcavated a nd s ubstantially t hicker s oil i s f ound u nder t hem t han i s p resent i n t he s urrounding l and. T he d ifference i n s oil t hickness i s f requently 2 0 c m , a n i mportant d ifference a s t he s urrounding l and c an o ften b e k arst w ith n o c ontinuous s oil c over. F inally, B ronze A ge c airnfields a re f ound i n e xtensive a reas w hich t oday a re k arst. T his i ndicates t hat, b y t he B ronze A ge, e rosion h ad a lready p rogressed t o t he e xtent t hat s tones w ere e xposed. T here i s d ispute over t he p urpose o f t he c airns
( Chapman e t a l.
1 987)
b ut i f
t hey c onstitute c learance,
m ust h ave b een s ubstantially m ore s oil t han t oday t o T he
e rosion
described
g ully e rosion i s c lear. s teep-sided
g ullies
l ost a ll t heir
c atastrophic e rosion
i s
b eing
s lopes o n t he valley s ides,
s oil. i s
H owever,
s mall
a s
i n v alleys,
e roded
c an b e 1 0 m deep i n s olid l imestone.
t hese g ullies i ncreases c ases,
s o f ar h as b een s heet e rosion b ut,
T he l imestone i tself
t hen t here
j ustify t he e ffort.
w hich
a nd
t he
D owncutting i n h ave,
i n
m ost
t he t otal a rea a ffected by t his more a
r esult
o f
t he
l imited
s ize
o f
c atchments. W ind e rosion
w as
l acustrine/marif le
i nvestigated
deposits.
by
e xamining
A lthough
m uch
o f
t he
t exture
o f
l ocal
t he m aterial h ad a c lay
t exture, t here w ere s ubstantial deposits o f f ine s and a nd s ilt w hich m ay i ndicate w ind-blown m aterial. Any s uch w ind e rosion i s n ot l ikely t o h ave o ccurred w ithin t he s tudy a rea,
a s t he dominant
s oil t exture i n
t he
a rea
i s c lay, a nd t here i s n o w idespread e vidence o f l ocally-derived s ilt o r f ine s and being t rapped i n v egetation o r b ehind m an-made s tructures. 2 .4.2
D eposition
M uch o f a
h igh
t he e roded material h as b een deposited i n l ow-lying a reas
f lood
r isk
a nd,
a s
s uch,
h as n ot l ed t o deterioration.
w ith Where
c oarse f luvial d eposits h ave b een deposited a t h igher l evels o n s tony o r a rable s oils t hen degradation does r esult, b ut t he a rea a ffected i s -
-
s mall l ocal
( less t han 1 %). E rosion o f t he t errace s oils a ppears t o r esult i n downhill movement, a nd t he overlain material ( most u sually s tony
l and) may h ave h ad g reater p otential t han t he t errace s oils a ffected a rea a gain i s s mall t errace o nly o ccupies 3 % i n t otal.
b ut t he E rosion
-
o f
s oil,
l ead
t o
f rom w hat i s n ow k arst,
o nto s tony l and o r a rable l and
a m arked deterioration a s a ll o f
q uality.
3 4
t he s oil
does
i nvolved i s o f
n ot
s imilar
I n g eneral, d eleterious
t herefore,
e ffect
o n
deposition o f e roded o verall
p rovide f urther e vidence o f f rom
a rchaeological
t han i t i s t oday.
H owever,
t heir n umber i s
e rosion h ave
s mall b ecause o f
l ittle
a nd
m ay
i ndicate
b een
f ound
b uried
t he e ffort r equired t o
D rainage l evel m ay h ave s ubstantially i ncreased t he a rea
b ottomland w ith a h igh f lood r isk.
p resent l oss
s ea l evel m ost
o f
l and,
s eriously ,
w hich
i s
T his c hange w ould a ffect
t he
i nland
n ow s ubmerged b y t he Adriatic.
b ottomlands
l and n ear
a nd c learly t here h as b een a s ubstantial
s ediments a nd e xamination o f f ill i n b ottomlands i n
h ad
t he l and b uried w as b etter o r w orse
a lthough s ome S ites
P ostglacial r ise i n s ea o f
h as
D atable d eposition e vents
t he c hronology o f
e vidence w hether
d eep i n d eposits, l ocate t hem. 2 .4.3
m aterial
s oil q uality.
C oring t hrough
s uqgest t hat
h ave r isen by s everal m etres,
l arge e xtent t he e ffect o f
s ea
t he d eposition w ill h ave a b eneficial e ffect b y
s ea
l evel,
r aising l and l evels b ut,
r ise.
I n
l evels
h igher
above
l evel
l and
b alancing t o a
i n p arts o f a b ottomland
b ottomlands w here
w hich
t here
h as
a re b een
l ess d eposition, c onditions m ay h ave b ecome w etter. A s t here i s u sually a n a brupt v ertical t ransition o f s everal m etres a t t he e dge o f b ottomlands, t hese c hanges a re m ost l ikely t o h ave i nfluenced o nly t he e xtent o f w aterlogging w ithin t he b ottomlands. w as c arried o ut
t his c entury ,
U ntil a rtificial
d rainage
w aterlogging w as e xtensive a nd p ersistent i n
t he b ottomlands. A rchaeological e vidence s uggests l ow i ntensity u se w ith i nfrequent a ttempts a t s ettlement. T hese s ettlements m ay h ave c oincided w ith c limatic v ariation, b ut t his i s b elieved t o h ave h ad a m inor i mpact o n t he Mediterranean e nvironment ( Barker 1 985; B intliff & van Z eist 1 982). T he r isk o f f looding w ill h ave i ncreased over t ime d ue t o s oil l oss f rom t he s urrounding r idges, w hich h as r educed t he w ater-holding c apacity o f t he p rofile a nd i ncreased r unoff r ate a nd v olume. 2 .5
L AND E NHANCEMENT T he most obvious f orm o f
l and e nhancement
h as
b een
s tone
c learance.
T he c leared s tones h ave f requently b een b uilt i nto w alls w hich, s ites,
h as
l ed t o
t erracing o f e roded f rom
l ynchet
d evelopment.
An
f orm
T he f irst e vidence o f w hen
b een
d owngraded
i s
Water t ables h ave a lso b een
s tone
w as t o
l arge-scale s tone c learance c omes
c ontinues
c ultivation, s cale
t o
k arst.
b e
O ther
r emoved
s oil movement o r
over
m uch
f rom t he B ronze
c leared i nto c airns o n l and w hich h as a reas,
a lready
o f
t he
s oil
f rom l oss.
f ields,
s ubsequently
r eferred
s ubstantial w alls f orming f ield s ystems e nclosing k arst. c learance h as h ad a more p ermanently b eneficial e ffect,
i n
s loping t his
S tone C learance
A ge,
s tone
o f
l and o n t he s teeper s lopes. I n a ddition, deposition o f s oil e lsewhere has . l ed t o w idespread s oil deepening. T his
d eepening may h ave r educed s oil w etness. l owered by m ajor a rterial d rainage s chemes. 2 .5.1
e xtreme
o n
t o,
h ave
E lsewhere, s tone a lthough c learly
possibly
F ield boundaries
d ue
t o deeper
r emain
modest
a rea a nd o nly i n r are s ituations r each t he
3 5
g igantic
p roportions t hat t hey do o n o ther
s tony a reas
( Glentworth & M uir
1 963). T hey n evertheless r epresent a s ubstantial p rogressive i nvestment o f l abour. I n a f ew a reas, n ow c lassified a s a rable, s tone r emoval h as p roceeded t o t he p oint o f c hanging t he l and c lass. l and
w hich
i t w as p ractical
A lthough m uch
t o c lear h as b een c leared,
o f
t he
i n g eographically
i solated a reas t here i s b oth u nreclaimed l and a nd l and w hich h as
r everted
t o w ilderness a fter a bandonment. 2 .5.2
T erracing a nd l ynchetting
T he
f ield
w alls
h ave
l ed
t o
s ubstantial
l ynchet d evelopment w ith
f requently m ore t han 1 m d ifference i n l evel b etween a djoining manage,
f ields.
T he
f ields
a re
t herefore
t op
a nd
b ottom
o f
m ore l evel a nd e asier t o
w hile s oil e rosion i s e ffectively c hecked.
T he
s ystem
h as
b een
e ffective i n s oil s tabilisation, a s t he density o f B ronze A ge s urface f inds ( 0.97 p er s q. k m ( Chapman e t a l. 1 987) i s h ighest i n t he s tony l and t ype.
A s
l ynchetting
w ould
c ultivation a nd c learance,
p resumably develop r elatively q uickly w ith
t he w alls w ill
l andscape f rom a n e arly d ate.
h ave
e ffectively
T erracing o n s teeper
l and,
' fixed'
t he
w hich a ppears t o
h ave o riginated i n t he l ate I ron A ge p eriod, w ould r equire more o rganisation a s t he t errace h as t o b e b uilt a s a u nit. M uch o f t he t errace l and i s a t h igh e levations i n s ome c ases i t o ccurs a t l evels -
above
t he
s urrounding
l imestone s ummits.
f ound o n t erraces b ut i n n o c ase w as b reakdown o f
t errace w alls.
t his
T here i s e rosion o f s een
L ike t he l ynchets,
t o
b e
t he s oils
a ssociated
t he t erraces
w ith
s tabilise t he
l andscape. 2 .5.3
S oil deposition
T he t erraces a nd l ynchets
h ave
t rapped
s oil
w ithin
f ields
b ut
i n
f latter a reas i n p articular o n t he a rable a nd b ottomland d eposition f rom h igher l and h as l ed t o s oil t hickening. I n s ome a reas, e roded -
t errace
s oils
-
t hose
-
w hich h ave n o a rtificial
l and b ut t he a rea a ffected i s
s mall.
E lsewhere,
t erraces t he
c over a rable
-
deposits
v ary
i n
t exture.
T he f ine t extured s ilty c lay b ottomland deposits a re f requently
t hin ( less
t han 2 m )
S m),
h ave
s tony a nd materials
b ut t he c oarser deposits w hich a re t hicker
a h igh w ater t able. h ave b een t herefore
S ome o f
( more t han
t he c oarse t extured materials a re
c leared a s w ith s tony s oils. T hese deposited h ave e ither deepened a s imilar f ine t extured
p re-existing s oil o r p rovided a n ew s oil w ith l ow available w ater c apacity b ut a g ood g round w ater 2 .5.4 I t
s ource.
D rainage h as
a lready b een i ndicated t hat
d ue t o a r ange o f p rocesses,
s ome
o f
s oil d rainage h as varied w ith t ime w hich
f ortuitously
d rainage i mprovement. The o nly e vidence o f d rainage b efore t his c entury o ccurs i n p arts o f d irect
o utlet
t o
t he A driatic,
require a rterial d rainage. l arge o f
t he
b locks o f
l evel,
b ottomlands
now
l ed
t o
a s t he o ther a reas o f b adly d rained l and
D uring t his c entury,
h omogeneous
a re
h ave
a ttempts a t a rtificial t he s tudy a rea w ith a
a t
l east
3 6
t he a ttraction
o f
t hese
s oil h as e ncouraged i mprovers a nd most p artially
d rained.
T he
m ost
e nterprising o f c utting o f 5 s q. 2 .6
t hese s chemes
t he d rainage o f N adinsko B lato
-
a 2 k m t unnel t hrough h ard l imestone, k m.
b ut
i nvolved
-
l ed t o t he r eclamation
E FFECTS O F C HANGE O N E ACH L AND T YPE
2 .6.1
A rable
T here t ime.
i s n o e vidence f or a ny s ubstantial c hange i n t his
T he N eolithic
s ettlers
p referentially
s elected
l and t ype o ver
a rable
l and
a nd
t heir a lmost c omplete a bsence f rom o ther l and t ypes s uggests t hat a rable h as n ot degraded t o a ny o f t he o ther t ypes. T he a rable l and i s f ormed o n s ofter r ocks w hich a re u nlikely t o b ecome k arstified a nd a lso i s i n l evel s ituations w here t here i s n o e vidence o f
s oil
l oss b y e rosion.
D eposition
o f e rosion p roducts o f k arst a nd s tony l and w ould deepen t he s oil a nd t his m ay h ave s ubstantially i mproved s oil d rainage. E rosion p roducts f rom g ullies a nd t errace s oils w ould, h owever, m ake t he l and e xcessively s tony a nd c oarse-textured r espectively. T here i s degradation d ue t o S tone d eposition a s
n o e vidence f or w idespread t he m ajority o f t he f luvial
m aterials h ave r eached b ottomland w ithout b eing deposited o n a rable
l and.
T he c oarse t extured d eposits d o r estrict t he r ange o f c rops b ut, a s t errace i s t he p referred s oil t ype f or v ines, a ny l and a ffected i n t his w ay t herefore r emains p roductive. C hanges i n d rainage, o r a rea, l and h ave n ot been s ignificantly a ffected by a lterations b ottomlands. 2 .6.2
K arst
T his
i s
t oday
t he
most
e xtensive
s ubstantially i n a rea w ith t ime. b egan
i n
t he
B ronze
A ge,
a rable l and a vailable b ut, deal o f
l and
t ype,
T he f irst u se o f
a nd m ay b e a r eflection o f
e ven a t t hat d ate,
s tone l oose n ear t he s oil
n ecessary
-
a nd
w hat
s urface.
t here w as
-
h as i s
i ncreased
t oday
k arst
t he s mall a rea o f c learly
T he absence o f
t he m ore s teeply s loping karst a t h igher e levations w ere
o f a rable t o t he
a
g reat
s ettlement
f rom
u ntil defended s ites
may b e b ecause t he s oil w as a lready s eriously degraded,
p ossibly w ithout h uman i ntervention,
by t he B ronze
T he m ore s eriously e roded f orm o f k arst s ubstantially o ver t ime. T here a ppears t o h ave
A ge
( Bintliff
1 977).
h as c ertainly i ncreased been a s teady l oss o f
s tony l and t o karst t hroughout t he s tudy p eriod, a s f ield s ystems f rom s everal periods w hich h ave a deeper
i s a ttested by t he s oil u nder w alls
b ut s everely e roded k arst w ithin t he f ield s ystems. T his c ontinuing degradation i s s een t oday i n t he d eeper s oil u nder b ushes. P resent-day s oil
o n
t he
k arst
o nly e xceeds 2 0 c m i n depth over
s mall a reas a nd,
i f
t his h ad been r elatively c ontinuous i n t he p ast, g ood g razing w ould h ave b een a vailable, and l ocalised c ultivation b etween t he o utcrops o f s olid l imestone w ould h ave b een possible. On a s mall Adriatic i sland U gijan, t his f orm o f k arst i s c ultivated a s t he b est available, o f t he e xtent o f e xception B ronze
o f
Age,
o utcrops. a s s tony.
l imestone o utcrop.
s teep t hough
T hat T his
r idges,
a ll
i t
h ave
may
I t o f
a ppears
l ikely
t hat,
p resent-day k arst w as
c ontained
s ome
s uch a s i n s pite w ith
t he
s tony i n t he
l ocalised
l imestone
w hich h as n ot b een s o s everely e roded w e s ee t oday s till l and h as p rogressively d eteriorated t o i ts p resent
3 7
s tate,
h aving b een s uitable i nitially f or c ultivation, a nd
f inally,
i n r ecent
t imes,
t hen f or i ntensive g razing
o ver a l arge p art o f
t he p resent-day k arst,
o nly f or e xtensive g razing. 2 .6.3
d ue
S tony
A s described above, t o e rosion a nd
l imestone. a rable
m anagement o f
i s
s imilar
p roductive
p otential
o nly s uitable f or g razing.
t o
w as
t his
l and t ype h as b een v ery s ubstantially i mproved by s tone
a nd
i nitially
i n
b ut
l ynchet d evelopment,
a rable c rop p roduction. i ncreased
l and t ype h as b een s everely r educed i n a rea i s c ontinuing w here t he s oil o verlies h ard
T he r emaining l and
l and
c learance
t his l oss
T he a rea o f
t hrough e rosion o f o ther
T he e ase o f
w hich h ave made t he l and s tony l and does n ot l and t ypes b ut
may h ave i ncreased d ue t o p rogressive s oil
l oss.
s uitable f or
a ppear
t o
t he d egree o f A t
l east
h ave
s toniness
s ome
o f
t he
s oil l oss a ppears t o h ave b een vertical l oss i nto g rykes i n t he u nderlying l imestone. T hese f requently c onstitute c . 1 0% o f t he a rea a nd c an b e i m d eep; t hey m ay t herefore c ontain a n amount e quivalent t o 1 0 c m o f s oil. H owever, t he date o f g ryke development i s n ot k nown s o t hat t his s oil, a nd g rykes,
may
h ave
o riginated b efore t he p eriod u nder c onsideration.
m ore s table a reas o f s andstone, 2 .6.4
s tony l and a ppear
t o
i n w hich g ryke development i s
o verlie
s ofter
l imestone
T he o r
l ess p ronounced.
T errace
P rior
t o
t he
e rection o f
s tone t erracing w alls,
t he t errace l and w as
s uitable merely f or g razing. T he development o f t he t erraces m ay h ave c oincided w ith t he i ntroduction o f g rape v ines, w hich a re s uccessful o n t he f reely d rained s oil. a s t hey do a ppear l imestone i n g ullies, M uch o f
t he s oil h as moved downhill,
h igher e levations. a rable c ases,
l and,
t his
h owever,
t he t errace s oils i s u nclear
e xposing a k arst
b ut,
l imestone s urface a t
W here t he e roded t errace s oils n ow r esults
i n
a
n et
o verlie
s tony
l oss o f c ultivable l and.
t he t errace s oil i s e roded onto w hat i s
p roducing n o n et 2 .6.5
T he o rigin o f
i n s ome p laces t o b e a ssociated w ith e rosion o f t he t otal a rea m ay i n f act h ave i ncreased w ith t ime.
t oday
o r
I n m ost
k arst,
s o
l oss.
B ottomland
T his p eriods, m aterial
a rea h as b een u sed f or s easonal g razing a nd, i n d rier c limatic may h ave b een u sed f or c rop p roduction. T he c oarse-textured w hich
h as
deepened
s ome b ottomland s oils a ppears
t o h ave c ome
f rom e rosion o f s olid l imestone. T he f ine-textured s ediments a re a lmost c ertainly f rom l ocal s oils b ut a re r elatively t hin a nd i ndicate a s oil l oss e quivalent t o 2 0 cm over t he s urrounding a rea.
T his
l oss o f
s oil
i s
m uch s maller t han 4 0 t o 1 00cm s uggested by V an A ndel e t a l ( 1986) f or t he S outhern A rgolid a rea i n G reece. The modern r eclamation o f b ottomland h as a rea
o f
c ultivable
c onsequent r eduction
i ncreased
t he
i n
s ummer
c onstituted a n i mportant p art o f
l and
pastures.
s ubstantially b ut h as I n
t he
t he r ural e conomy.
3 8
p ast
t his
l ed t o a g razing
2 .7
D ISCU SS ION
P rior t o t he N eolithic p eriod, m an a ppears t o h ave m ade l ittle i mpact o n t he l andscape o f t he s tudy a rea. A t t he o utset o f t he N eolithic, t he l and c an b e d ivided i nto a s mall a rea o f e asily c ultivated l and ( that w hich c ould b e c ultivated w ithout n eed f or p hysical i mprovement) b ut w hich w ould a lso p rovide g ood g razing, a l arge a rea o f g ood g razing c apable o f s upporting a c ontinuous c rop c over b ut w hich, f or o ne o r m ore r easons, c ould n ot b e u sed f or c ultivation w ithout m odification, a nd a s mall a rea o f p oorer g razing l and w hich h ad a lready b een e roded b y n atural e vents p ossibly d uring t he P leistocene ( van A ndel e t a l. 1 986) a nd w here s oil c over w as b elow 1 00% ( Figure 2 .2a). S easonally f looded l and c ould a lready h ave b een i mportant i n t erms o f p roviding s ummer g razing f or s ubstantial f locks. F rom t he N eolithic w ere a t w ork i n t he l andscape
t o t he 1 9th c entury A .D.
t hree m ain t rends
4 .
T he a rea o f c ultivable l and i ncreased s harply d ue t o " improvement" w hat h ad f ormerly b een g ood g razing l and.
5 .
T he a rea o f g ood p asture s hrank b oth i n c ompensation f or t his l oss a nd b ecause o f s oil e rosion.
6 .
T he a rea o f p oor q uality e rosion o f g ood p asture.
g razing
i ncreased
i nexorably
d ue
t o
o f
t he
A lthough t here w as a n et i ncrease o f c ultivable l and d uring t his p eriod, s ome f ormerly-stony l and w as d egraded t o k arst, b ut t his w as m ore t han c ompensated f or b y i mprovement. T he a rea o f c ultivable t errace l and a lmost c ertainly i ncreased, a t l east i n t he R oman p eriod ( Figure 2 .2b). B y t he l ate 1 9th c entury,
i t a ppears t hat,
d ue
t o-over
g razing,
t he
u nimproved s tony l and o ver h ard l imestone w as b eing r apidly d egraded t o k arst a nd, d uring t he 2 0th c entury, t his l ed t o a c ollapse i n f lock s ize. T here h ave b een e arlier, h istoric-period, f luctuations i n f lock s ize a nd l and u se i ntensity , a ll o f w hich m ay h ave b een t riggered a s m uch b y p olitical a s b y e cological c hange. T he r eduction o f g razing r esulted i n t he s pread o f f orestry o n t he k arst r idges, w hile s ummer g razing w as f urther r educed b y t he r eclamation o f b ottomlands i n t he p ost-war p eriod. T he r eclaimed b ottomlands h ave b een u sed f or i ndustrialised f arming o f a s mall n umber o f c rops s eparate f rom t he t raditional m ixed f arming v illage s ystem. T he v illager h as, t herefore, w itnessed l oss o f g razing l and o n t he k arst a nd b ottomland, w ith a c ompensatory i ncrease i n c ultivable l and ( Figure 2 .2). T here h as b een a m ove a way f rom a f arming s ystem b ased o n s heep t owards a m ore c rop-oriented e conomy. T his h as b een a ssociated w ith a d eclining r ural p opulation ( Vadnal, p ersonal c ommunication) b ut t he d ecline a ppears t o b e r elated e qually t o a n i ncreasing u nwillingness b y c hildren t o w ork o n f amily f arms. T he e ffect h as b een t o c oncentrate
3 9
l abour
o n
t he
m ore p rofitable c ash c ropping,
b een a llowed t o r evert t o w ilderness.
w hile o utlying f ields h ave
T here h as a lso b een a n i ncrease
i n
p art-time f arming. I n s ummary , t he m ain t rend h as b een t hat l and s uitable f or g rowing o ne o r m ore c rops ( other t han g rass) h as i ncreased i n a rea w ith t ime w hile t he a rea o f g ood g razing l and h as d eclined, a nd t he a rea o f p oor g razing h as i ncreased ( Figure 2 .2). s imilar t o t hat i n B ritain,
T he p olarisation w ith a n i ncrease
o f i n
l and u se i s s tartingly o utput f rom t he m ore
e asily m anaged l owland s oils c apable o f g rowing a w ide r ange o f c rops, ad ecline i n o utput f rom t he u plands. l imiting y ield a re v ery d ifferent r esponse o f a griculture t o v ariations
a nd
A lthough t he c limate a nd f actors f rom t hose i n B ritain, t he s imilar i n p roductive p otential i s v ery
e nlightening. I t a ppears t hat t he c urrent t rends i n l and u se a re n ot g eographically r estricted, a nd a re o utgrowths o f a t rend w hich o riginates, i n Y ugoslavia, i n t he N eolithic. U nless c urrent t rends a re a ltered, t he l ogical c onclusion o f t his p rocess w ill b e t hat a ll l and c apable o f c onversion t o a rable f arming w ill b e ' improved ' a nd t he r emaining l and w ill b e ' abandoned' t o s ome l ow i ntensity u se, w hich m ay n ot b e a c onventional f orm o f a griculture. I n Y ugoslavia , t his p rocess n ow a ppears t o b e n ear a c onclusion, w ith a n a lready s erious r eduction i n t he r ole o f l ivestock. I t c an b e a rgued t hat t he r ole o f l ivestock i s n ow u neconomic, a nd a s f ewer p eople b ecome w illing t o l ook a fter l ivestock, t here w ill b e a p rogressive w ithdrawal f rom u se o f t he l ess p roductive s oils.
4 0
U )
0 0
0 0 N
0 0 '
-
-
00
W u 5 E c d
0 0
0 0 C )
0 0 N
0 0 —
I
H
-
0 0 C )
I I I
I I
B O T O M L A N D
F igure 2 .1
B lock d iagram o f
t he l andscape u nits,
s tudy a rea.
( a ) N eo l i th ic
( b ) M ed iaeva l
( c ) Modern
6 0
P ercent o fs t udy a r ea i ne ach l a nd t ype
5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0
A * S
T
B
K
A
S
T
B
K
A
S
T
T ype o f l a nd *
P e rcen to fs t udy a r ea s u i tab le f o r v a r ious u se s ,a nd t he l a nd t ype i n t he N eo l ith ic P er iod f r om wh ich t he l a nd w a s d er ived
Aa r ab le , Ss t ony , Tt e r race , B bo ttom land , Kk a r s t
7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0
C
G
P
P urpose f o r wh ich l a nd i ss u i tab le c u lt iva t ion , Gg ood p a s ture , Pp oor p as ture a r ab le ,
s t ony ,
J k ar s t ,
F igure 2 .2
Changes
s ince t he Neolithic period i n
and
l and-use
( b)
s uitability.
4 2
( a)
[]ter race , b ot land t om
l and t ype
B
K
F igure 2 .3 D istribution o f modern l and c lasses i n t he s urvey b lock i n F igure 2 .1).
4 3
( key a s
C HAPTER T HREE T HE N EOLITHIC A NIMAL H USBANDRY O F S MIL ( fI E A ND N IN C HARLES S CHWARTZ 3 .1
I NTRODUCTION O ne
o f
t he
r econstruct p rehistoric
p rincipal
f ocussed o n t he c onditions
o f
p lant
H untley,
n .d.a.;
S chwartz,
a nd
a nimal
r emains
S chwartz,
n .d.a.),
n .d.b.)
a nd
a re
u nder
c ontr 1led
e xcavations a t T inj
r ecovered
( Turner a nd
B ukoviE-Lastvine
( Turner and
( Turner
S mil i
( Batovi
T he t wo m ost 1 963,1966)
a nd
i mportant
a nd
N m
a 3 -metre s tratigraphy w as f ound t o i nclude
o f t he E arly ,
M iddle a nd L ate N eolithic p eriods.
N in r epresents a o ne-phase E arly N eolithic r espective
H untley,
N ye,
s ite
t erritories
s ites
( Batovi
n .d.;
o ccupation
B y c ontrast,
s ite.
i n
B rief
c oncerns
t he
B osnian
s ites
t he s ite o f ( 1981).
o f Obre I a nd
A t
h orizons
d iscussions
c an b e f ound i n C hapman
N eolithic
t his
1 968).
m ost c ompletely p ublished f aunal r eport f or c omparison w ith t he s ites
t o
n .d.c.), i t w as c onsidered w orthwhile t o e xtract t he maximum i nformation f rom t he s urviving f aunal a ssemblages o f p revious
c ategory
t heir
i s
s trategies p ractised b y While a ttention h as b een
N adin-Gradina
N eolithic e xcavations i n t he a rea. S mil i ,
t he N eothermal D almatia P roject
i n N eothermal D almatia P roject
n .d.b.; S chwartz, p ossible
a ims
t he s equence o f s ubsistence c ommunities i n N orth D almatia.
o f T he
D almatian I I
( Bökönyi
1 974). 3 .2
S MILCIC
3 .2.1
T he S ample
T otals
f or t he vertebrate s ample r eflect t he p re-sorted
t he m useum b y M alez m issing.
( Table
M odified
1 );
m ost
o f
t he
D escriptions i ntents data o f
o f
m orphological
o r
i n i s
p urposes,
s ince p art o f
i f n ecessary.
p athological e xamples w ill a lso b e
y et b utchering a nd h unting p ractices
a nd
s ample
b ones a re i ncluded i n t he s pecies d iscussion a nd w ill
b e n oted a ccordingly w ithin t he b utchering t echniques
p resented,
s ample l eft
u nidentifiable
a re
u navailable
t he s ample i s m issing.
t o
a ll
M easurement
i ndividual e lements w ill b e s upplied t ogether w ith a ctual
e lement
c ounts. A t otal o f 3 78 b ones a re p roportion
b eing domestic.
i dentifiable
( Table
P reservation o f
w ith f ew p ostdepositional m arks o r f ractures o f m issing
p arts.
Modified
i ncluded f or a nalysis
h ere
b ones a s
1 )
w ith
t he
g reatest
t he e xtant a ssemblage i s g ood t he
b ones
r esulting
i n
w hich o ccurred d uring t his a naiysis a re w ell
a s
i n
t he
modified
bone
r eport
( Schwartz 1 987). A ll bones a re measured o n ( 1974).
t he
b asis
T he o steological m aterial i s
4 5
o f
D uerst
( 1926)
and
B ökönyi
s tored i n t he A rchaeological Museum ,
Z adar,
Y ugoslavia.
T able 1 B one D istribution T otals
S PECIES
E N
E N/MN
M N
3 4
3
1 24
2
4 5 3 9 1 00
M N/LN
L N
t otals
d omestic c attle s heep/goat s heep
6 2 1 0
g oat
2
s wine
1 -
1 1 0
d og
1 1
-
1 6 2
8
6 3 1 5
18 1
1
-
1 6
1
-
1 1
-
1 67
-
2 9 1 9
-
w ild r ed d eer
1 1
r oe d eer
2
3
c attle
-
c hamois
-
s wine
1
f ish
1
t otals
3 .2.2
1
-
-
1
-
2
-
-
-
1 2
2 73
2 6
1
1 0
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
1 1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
2
1 3 1
8
3 78
S pecies
B os t aurus L ., M uch e lements
w ild c attle
domestic c attle
o f t he b one m aterial f rom c attle
( Tables
( including t eeth a nd m andibles),
m etatarsals,
2 & 3 )
a re i nteresting c onsidering t he t ransverse c uts
w hich a ppear, T here
1
-
7 8
B os p rimigenius B oj.,
l atter
5
1
-
h are
1
-
-
f ox
1 2
appears
n ot a s a m ethod o f b utchering, t o
t ransverse n ature. p halange w hether
b e
n o
r idged
p attern
b ut f or o f
c onsists o f
a nd p halanges.
T he
( Plates 3 .1 & 3 .2)
s ome
o ther
p urpose.
t he c uts o ther t han t heir
I n m ost i nstances, t here i s more t han o ne i t i s p roximal o r d istal, d orsal o r ventral.
4 6
s kull
c ut p er T here i s
o nly
o ne
3 .1.1).
i nstance
r ecorded
M easurements o f
c omparison
w ith
o ther
B ukovi -Lastvine
w here t he b one i s
t he 3 rd p halange a re p rehistoric
( Schwartz
s ites
i n
T able
s uch a s T inj
a nd Obre I I
1 987),
s evered c ompletely
g iven ( Bökönyi
( Plate
4 .
S ize
( Schwartz
1 985),
1 974)
s how
c lose
s imilarities. A l ow f requency o f c attle b ones i s p eriods E N
-
M N a nd M N
L N;
-
i dentified
f rom
t he
n one f rom t he L ate N eolithic
t ransitional
( Table 1 ).
F rom
t he E N MN c ategory , a r ight m andible ( P2 a scending r amus), a p roximal I m etacarpal, a nd t hree p halanges II a re i dentified. F rom M N L N, a -
-
-
p roximal r adius i s A
h orncore
b ody f ragment a nd a w orked d istal
f rom w ild c attle. a nd
c ould
n ot
i dentified.
T he t ibia b e
t ibia
s haft h ad b een u sed a s
m easured.
H owever,
i ts overall
d omestic f orms a nd t he b one i s denser a nd t hicker, b e
s how
d ifferences.
m ore measurable b one e lements.
s ize i s
b urnisher l arger
s uggesting t hat
T he
c attle w ith t he c ontemporary s ite, A t t he f ormer
f ragments,
a nd
t his v ariation c ould b e d ue t o
l arger
s ample
b utchered
s ite,
i t
t han may
h igher
f requencies
s ampling
f rom S mil i .
D espite t his,
c ondition
t he
f requencies o f t he o ther
o f
b one
T inj,
a ppears
t here a re m ore modified b ones,
l atter c onsists o f h orncores a nd
S ome o f t he
p ottery
w ild'. C omparison o f S mi1 i
t o
s haft a re p ossibly
a
o f
p articular
l ower h ind l eg e lements. e rror
a nd
t he
s lightly
t here i s a r eal d ifference i n
t ogether
w ith
t he
t ypes
a nd
s pecies r ecovered.
S ize c omparison o f S mi1 i c attle i s l imited because o f f ew measurable b ones. The p roximal r adius measurements o f 7 7 mm. b readth a nd 4 2 mm. w idth f all i n t he l ower ( Bökönyi
r ange
1 974:101-02).
B ukovi -Lastvine
( Schwartz
t hose f rom S mil i , b e m ade f rom T inj.
o f
v ariation
An a stragalus 1 987)
6 5.5 mm.,
w ith
t hose
l ength measurement,
o ccurs w ithin t he r ange o f 7 1.3 mm.,
4 7
a nd 7 2.5 mm..
f rom
Obre
6 7.3 mm., variation
I I f rom o f
N o c omparison c an
T able 2 D istribution o f C attle B ones E LEMENTS h orncore
L EFT
R IGHT
-
E arly N eolithic
AXIAL
3-
R EMARKS 2 s hed b asis
s kull m andible,
w hole
M l - M3 M 3 M 2
1
1
‚ horizontal r amus
1
-
t eeth f rag. ‚ whole, l oose v ertebra, ‚ axis s capula,
p t.
o f a scend.
5-
a tlas a rticulation
1
h umerus, p rox ‚ shaft l at./vent.
1
‚ dist.
1
2
u lna, w hole ‚ articulation r adius, ‚ shaft
p rox. 1
m etacarpal,
1
p rox.
p elvis, f rag. f emur, h ead
1 1 1
1 m odified;
c ut
‚ prox. , prox / med. .
‚ dist. t ibia,
d ist.
s haft
‚ dist. c alcaneum, w hole a stragalus, w hole metatarsal,
1
r t.
b urn.
p rox.
‚ dist. p halange I II, w hole p halange I I, w hole p halange I ,
1 2 1 55-
w hole
Abbreviations
* SA_
1 1
S A S A,
1 b urn.
5s ub-adult;
b urn.= b urned
B one e lement n ames p receded by a c omma r elate t o t he l ast main b one name i n t he l ist.
4 8
r amus
T able 3 D istribution o f C attle B one E LEMENTS
L EFT
h orncore s kull m andible, I M l
R IGHT
1
-
M iddle N eolithic
A XIAL
1
R EMARKS* 2 f rags.
-
w ild?
1w hole
P 3
-
-
M 3
h orizontal r amus t eeth,
3
f rag.
w hole/loose v ertebra,
2 4-
27-
a tlas
‚ axis s capula,
a rticulation
1
h umerus,
p rox.
1
‚ shaft ‚ dist.
l at./vent.
u lna, w hole ‚ articulation r adius,
2 6
p rox.
m etacarpal,
5
4
p rox.
2
p elvis, f rag. f emur, head
2
2
‚ prox.
2
1
‚ prox./med.
1
‚ dist.
1
t ibia,
s haft/lat.
‚ dist. c alcaneum,
1 S A
2 1
5
w hole
1
a stragalus,
w hole
1
3
m etatarsal,
p rox.
2
1
1 r t.
b urned
‚ dist. p halange I II, p halange I I, p halange I ,
whole w hole
w hole
* abbreviations
8-
3
62-
s ame a s f or T able 2
T able 4 Measurements o f C attle T hird P halanges L ENGTH
B READTH
MAX. W IDTH
6 4.1 mm.
2 8.2
3 4
6 6.5
2 9
3 1.2
7 3.5
3 3.8
3 4
6 5.3
3 1.9
3 4.3
6 5
2 8
3 1.3
4 9
modified;
c ut
O vis a ries
L .,
C apra h ircus S heep
a nd
e lements. b y
s heep
L .,
t he
g oat
g oat
T heir w ork
b ones
a re
q uite f ragmented w ith e ighteen m easurable
s eparation i nto e ither
o f
B oessneck,
M uller,
s heep a nd g oat a nd T eichert
( Table 1 )
( 1964),
i s
a ided
y et d ue t o t he
f ragmentation m any m orphological f eatures a re a bsent a nd t he e lements g rouped i n t he g eneral c ategory T he paucity o f m odification o f
l ong b ones
' caprovine'
-
i n T ables
t hose p articular
5 a nd 6
e lements.
c an b e f ound i n t he b one t ools r eport
a re
( Table 1 ). i s
d ue
i n
p art
A d iscussion o f
( Schwartz,
n .
d .).
t o
t he
t hese e lements
B one d estruction
i s a lso e videnced b y b utchering a nd c onsumption b y c anines. A r ight s heep h orncore d isplays c ut m arks ( Plate 3 .3.4) c omparable t o t hose e videnced o n a n u lna
( Plate 3 .3.2)
F rom
t he
f ollowing r amus
a nd d istal r ight h umerus
t ransitional
b ones
f ragments,
a re
p eriods
i dentified:
a nd
L ate
( Plate 3 .3.3). N eolithic
S heep h orncore,
t wo g oat p roximal r adii,
l eft
p roximal
( Table
1 )
t he
& r ight h orizontal
f emur,and
t wo
d istal
t ibia. i s c orrect a l l h o rn less t hat, i n t he e arly s tages o f d omestication, t he f emales w ere S m i l i a re ( Sandor B ökbnyi, p ersonal c ommunication 1 986), t he s heep f rom N e o l i th i c i n s ome o f t he e arliest o n t he Adriatic c oast a nd f rom t he E arly T wo hornless
s heep a re i dentified
( Plate
3 .4.2).
I f
i t
Y ugoslavia. S heep
a nd
g oat
metacarpal
v ariation o f t hose f rom Obre,
m easurements
N m,
a nd T inj
f all
( Figures
w ithin
t he
3 .1
3 .2).
&
r ange o f O ther
m easurement c omparisons a re l imited. B one modification i s depicted by a r ight p elvic f ragment. T he t op e dge o f t he a cetabulum h ad been s moothed down a nd a h ole made i n i ts depression ( Plate 3 .4.4). N o pathological
s pecimens a re i dentified.
5 0
T able 5 D istribution o f C aprovine B one L EFT
E LEMENTS
R IGHT
-
E arly N eolithic
A XIAL
h orncore
R EMARKS 1 l t.,
r t.
*
h ornless
s kull m andible, ‚ 1 ‚ Ml
w hole
P 3
-
-
M 3
h orizontal r amus t eeth,
2
f rag.
w hole/loose v ertebra,
_
1 0-
a xis
1
s capula,
a rticulation
1
r t.
h umerus,
w hole
1
I n o e piphysis
1
I w hole
2
l ateral c ondyles
1
w /o e piphysis
‚ prox. ‚ shaft l at./vent. ‚ dist. u lna,
g t.
-
w hole
‚ articulation r adius,
w hole
p rox.
1
2
s haft
2
1
‚ dist.
1
m etacarpal,
w hole
‚ prox.
1 1
S A
s haft p elvis, f emur,
g t.
1
g nawing
f rag. head
p rox.
1
s haft
2
‚ dist. t ibia,
1
s haft/lat.
metatarsal,
3 1
s haft/med. ‚ di s t.
1 1
p rox.
s haft
S A
1
s h.
1
‚ dist. p halange I II, p halange I I, p halange I ,
w hole
2-
1
modified;
w hole w hole
* abbreviations:
S A=
s ub-adult,
1 = i mmature;
g t.= g oat.
5 1
s h=
s heep,
-
r t.
n o e piphysis
c ut
T able 6 D istribution o f C aprovine B one L EFT
E LEMENTS h orncore
R IGHT
3
-
M iddle N eolithic
AXIAL
R EMARKS*
4
2 1t.&
l rt.sh.;2rt.9t.
s kull maxilla, m andible,
f rag.
1
f rag.
5
5
‚ P1 - P3
1
‚ P1 - M3
1
‚ horizontal r amus t eeth, l oose w hole
1
2 12-
vertebra, a xis s capula a rticulation 4 h umerus, ‚ prox. ‚ shaft
2 J
w hole 1
l at./vent.
‚ dist. u lna,
1
1
1 1
w hole
1
‚ articulation r adius, w hole
2 2
1 3
‚ prox.
1
3
‚ prox./lat.
3
5
‚ shaft
1
r t.
1 s h.,
1 g t.
‚ dist. m etacarpal, ‚ prox.
w hole
s haft l ateral/vent. ‚ dist. p elvis, f rag. f emur, h ead ‚ prox.
1 1 1
1 2
g t.
2 2
1
r t.
S A
‚ shaft ‚ dist. t ibia,
s haft/lat.
‚ shaft/med. ‚ dist. metatarsal,
1 2 4
2 1 g t.
p rox.
‚ shaft ‚ dist. phalange I II, phalange I I, p halange I ,
w hole
s heep,
1-
w hole
* abbreviations: s h.=
2-
w hole
S A=
s ub-adult,
J =
j uvenile,
g t.= g oat.
S us s crofa L ., domestic s wine S us s crofa f er. L ., w ild s wine
5 2
1 = i mmature;
S wine
e lements
m andible f ragment i ncisor,
a re ( I
-
l imited P 1),
m andible f ragment
t o t hose l isted i n T able 7 .
i s c onsidered t o b e ( P2
M 2),
-
f rom
a
w ild
O nly o ne, f orm.
a A n
a nd a n u lna f ragment a re i dentified
f rom t he E N M N p hase ( Table 1 ), a nd a m odified d istal t ibia i s r ecorded f rom t he L ate N eolithic p hase. T here a re n o m easurable b ones, t hus l imiting s ize c omparison w ith o ther S ites. -
T here a ppears t o b e a h igher p roportion o f s ubadult e lements t o a dults t han f ound f or e ither c attle o r c aprovines. T his p attern o ccurs i n T inj ( Schwartz
1 986),
b ut n ot a t B ukovi
( Schwartz
T able 7 D istribution o f D omestic S wine B one E LEMENTS
L EFT
s kull
AXIAL
f rag.
m andible,
1
l oose
2
h orizontal r amus
2-
‚ incisor
3a tlas
1
‚ other
1
s capula a rticulation 1 h umerus,
p rox.
f emur,
1
J
1
p rox.
S A,
1
S A
3
n o e piphysis
1 S A 2
s haft/med.
‚ dist. c alcaneum,
w hole
metatarsal
I II
p halange I II, phalange I I,
2 1 1 1-
w hole S A=
C anis f amiliaris o f
2 2
1-
w hole
a bbreviations:
M ost
1 1
1
d ist.
‚ shaft t ibia,
S A
1
l at./vent.
‚ articulation r adius,
R EMARKS
2
f rag.
v ertebra,
‚ shaft ‚ dist.
E arly & M iddle N eolithic
2
m axilla, t eeth,
R IGHT
-
1 987).
t he
1s ub-adult,
L .,
J =
j uvenile.
domestic dog
c anid
s ample c onsists o f mandibles a nd t eeth
Measurements f rom t wo m andibles measurements f rom Obre I I
a re
( Bdk5nyi
l isted
i n
1 974:139-140).
5 3
T able
9
( Table 9 ).
t ogether
w ith
T able 8 C omparative L ower T ooth R ow M easurements S ITE
P 1-P4
M 1-M3
L ENGTH M
S milcic
3.5 mm. 3 3 3
3 4 3 2
1 8.5 1 8
O bre I I
3 5 3 2.5
3 2.5 3 0.5
1 9.5 1 9
3 1 3 5.5
3 5 3 2.5
2 0 1 8.5
T he m easurements f rom S milEiE f all w ithin t he v ariation o f t hose f rom O bre I I. A c omparison o f t he O bre m aterial t o t hat f rom H ungary a nd G reece
( Bökönyi
1 974:80-1)
e stablished
t hat most o f
t he mandibles c ame
f rom s mall i ndividuals o f g racile t o s trong s tature. O ne m andible h as c haracteristic c rowding o f p remolars c aused b y d omestication ( Bök nyi 1 974:82
s ee P late 3 .4.3)
-
T able 9 D istribution o f D omestic D og B ones E LEMENTS
L EFT
s kull
R IGHT
1
m axilla,
f rag.
mandible,
2
w hole
2 1
3 2-
‚ incisor
2 1
f rag
1
s haft
2
C ervus e lephas L ., T his
M l
1-
s capula a rticulation u lna, w hole f emur,
R EMARKS
1
‚ horizontal r amus t eeth, whole l ower
p elvis,
AXIAL
r ed deer
l arge c ervid i s r epresented by 2 5
e lements,
m ost
o f
a ntler t ines ( Tables 1 & 1 0). F ive e lements a s capula, a stragalus, c alcaneum, a nd a t hird p halange a re m easurable. -
-
w hich
a re
m etacarpal, T he d istal
m etacarpal measurements o f 4 7 mm. b readth 2 8.9 mm. w idth f all w ithin t he u pper r ange o f variation o f t hose f rom Obre I ( B5kbnyi 1 974:144), w hile -
t he c alcaneum l ength,
1 31.5 mm.,
o ccurs
i n t he m id-range o f variation f rom
O bre I . F ive o f t he e leven a ntler t ines r ecovered e xhibited m odifications o ther t han p olished t ips; u sually t he b ase o f t he b roken t ine h ad a depression i n i t
l arge e nough t o h old a p iece o f
O ne a ntler i s i dentified; A n
a dult
m etacarpal
f lint o r obsidian.
i t i s a n u nshed s pecimen.
( Plate 3 .5)
e xhibited a h ealed i njury;
f racture w hich o ccurred w hile t he a nimal w as e ither a n a dult o r
5 4
p ossibly a s ub-adult
s ince t he r eplaced b one c overed n early t he t otal v entral
p ortions
c ontributed
t o
o f t he
t he b one.
I t
a nimal's
l ength o f
i s d oubtful w hether
demise;
m ore
l ikely
t he l ateral a nd
t his h ealed i njury t here
w ere
o ther
c ontributing f actors. T able 1 0 D istribution o f R ed D eer E LEMENTS a ntler,
L EFT t ine
B one
R IGHT
:E arly ,
AXIAL
M iddle,
R EMARKS
1-
‚ basis
1
‚ horizontal r amus t eeth,
1
l oose
M 2
‚ incisor
1
s capula a rticulation
1 r t
h umerus, u lna,
a nd L ate N eolithic
d ist.
w hole
r adius,
1
d ist.
m etacarpal, c alcaneum,
s cap.
1 1
d ist. w hole
1
a stragalus,
w hole
1
m etatarsal,
w hole
1
p athological ; partly
m etatarsal,
p rox.
1
f ragmented
‚ shaft ‚ dist.
1
p halange I I,
w hole
1-
C apreolus c apreolus
L .,
r oe d eer
T he b one r emains f rom t his 1). 1
A ll
a re
mm.
s mall c ervid n umber o nly
f ragmented w ith t wo b ones measurable;
a nd a c alcaneum. w hich
( Plate 5 )
2
T he f ormer b one h as a 2 2.8 mm.
b readth
c ompares w ell w ith t he e xample f rom Obre I ,
w idth
( Bökönyi
1 974:149).
5 5
t en
( Tables
1
&
a d istal m etacarpal -
2 1.7 mm.
1 6.2 mm. b readth
w idth, -
1 4.8
T able 1 1 D istribution o f R oe D eer B one L EFT
E LEMENTS a ntler,
t ine
R IGHT
E arly,
AXIAL
M iddle ,
a nd L ate N eolithic
R EMARKS
2-
shed
‚ basis
1
h umerus,
d ist.
r adius,
d ist.
p elvis,
f rag.
2 1 1
a stragalus,
w hole
p halange
w hole
I ,
1 1-
R upicapra r upicapra L .,
c hamois
O ne b one, a h orncore w ith i ts b ase p artly m issing, r epresents t his s pecies. I t i s r ecovered f rom t he M iddle N eolithic p hase a t depth o f 1 20 -
1 40
c entimeters.
a pproximation. L epenski V ir
s ize
e xamples
( Bökönyi
a nd 7 7 mm.
7 1,
T he
T he
1 970),
o f
a nd a t
a lmost
b asis a t
S itagroi
a s t he c ircumference o f
T his h orncore i s d istinctive a s a n
t he
i dentified
p lus) I I
( Bökönyi
t heir b asis,
i t i s
c ircular c ross-section a t
( 65 O bre
s traight,
i ts b asis.
i s
o nly
( Bökönyi
1 987)
a n
1 974),
m easure
7 0,
r espectively. f orward
l eaning,
I t i s p ossible t hat
w ith s ome
c hamois r emains a re a mong t he f ragmented c aprovine m aterial. C hamois' d uring
h abitat
i s
p rehistoric
c haracteristically
t imes
i t
l ived
i n
t he
h igh m ountains a lthough
medium-range
m ountains.
T his
a daptation r esembles i ts P leistocene h abitat, s uggesting i n m ore r ecent t ime i t h as r etreated a s a r esult o f m an's p resence ( Bökönyi 1 987). T he m ost
i ntensive
s ite o f O dmut
u se
o f c hamois i n t he D i r iaric z one w as a t t he Mesolithic
( Srejovi
V ulpes vulpes L ., O nly o ne b one,
1 974).
f ox a r ight m andible
( Pl
-
P 3),
r epresents t his
s pecies.
I t
i s a n a dult.
L epus e uropeaus L .,
b rown h are
S ix b ones a re r epresented f rom t his a nimal; t wo m axilla f ragments, a p roximal h umerus, a p roximal a nd d istal t ibia, a nd a metatarsal I . N one a re s ite,
m easurable. T inj
P isces L .,
T his
( Schwartz
s pecies a lso o ccurs a t t he c ontemporary n eolithic
1 986).
f ish
5 6
O ne u nidentified v ertebra 3 .2.3
r ecovered f rom f ish.
S ummary a nd C onclusions
T he t he
i s
S milEi5 v ertebrate r emains r epresent a b roader a nimal b ase t han do
v ertebrate
S ignificant d ifferent
s pecies
h abitats
s ignifying
f rom
a dditions a n
f rom
e ither t he
t he
e xtension
modified b one a nalysis, f requency e qual
a re
t he
N m,
a nimals
f aunas
o f
S chwartz
t o T inj,
T inj,
w ild
o f
o r
w ith
t he
B ukovi -Lastvine. c haracteristically
l atter
t wo
r esource b ase a t S mil i
1 987).
s ites,
t hus
( see a lso t he
H ad t he m olluscan f auna b een o f a
t hen o ne c ould a ssume t hat
i t p layed a n i mportant
r ole i n t he s ubsistence b ase. T he
amount
bone a nalysis,
o f
m odified
S chwartz
b one f ound a t S mil i3
1 977)
i s
a lso
f requency a nd v ariety t han t hose f rom T inj, B oth t he a bove c haracteristics a re
( see a lso t he m odified
s ignificant,
b eing
B ukovi t -Lastvine,
e ven
m ore
l arger
i n
o r e ven N m .
s ignificant
g iven
t he
s mall amount o f b one m aterial i dentified. H owever, i n c omparison t o Obre I , w ith a l arger b one s ample a nd d ifferent e cological s etting, t he q ualitative d ifferences n oted a bove f or a re s et W hat r emains
d istinguishes i s
S mil Ei 6 f rom a ll
i ts v ariety.
A t
l east
t wo A driatic h abitations
t het t he s ubsistence b ase g athering
f rom
t hree o f
t he
s ites w ith m olluscan
s eventeen s pecies a re r ecorded,
T inj o nly t hirteen a re i dentified. o n
t he o ther
i nto p erspective.
M oreover,
s upported b y t he T inj molluscan
f auna
C onsequently, w ith b oth t hese s ites h aving l ocations ( within 1 5 k ilometers o f e ach o ther) p eriods
i s
c entered
r ocks a nd o ther h ard s ubstrata w hile t he s pecies f rom
S milcic c onstitute a n a ssemblage b ased p rincipally o n m ud a nd
o ccupation
w hile a t
p robably m ore s ignificant
( Early N eolithic),
s and.
s imilar g eographical a nd c orresponding
o ne c an i nfer t hat t he i nhabitants
o f t he t wo o ccupations u tilized d ifferent e xploitation t erritories, a t l east a s f ar a s c ollection o f w ild r esources w as c oncerned. I t c an a lso b e s tated t hat d ifferent h unting p atterns e xisted b etween t he t wo b ased o n t he d ifferences i n t heir w ild f aunas. 3 .3
THE MOLLUSCAN F AUNA F ROM S MIL I
T he
molluscan
r emains
f rom
S mi1 i
a re
m inimal y et e xhibit a w ide
v ariety o f s pecies ( Table 1 2). S ince t his s ample e xemplifies o nly a s mall portion o f t he o riginal a mount r ecovered, a s pecies p resence i s r ecorded f or t he d ifferent s pecies.
p hases
W here possible,
t ogether
w ith
N omenclature i s b ased o n t he w orks o f G arms and B orm
a
b rief
description
o f
e ach
measurement r anges a re n oted.
( 1981).
5 7
L ocard
( 1892),
R iedl
( 1963),
a nd
W ithin A ll
t he
s pecies d iscussion,
s pecies r ecovered f rom S mil i
s pecific r eference i s m ade t o h abitat. a re e ither f rom t he l and
l ittoral z one a long t he s eashore. p arts ( Sabelli 1 979): s upralittoral, l atter
t wo
a re
o f
i nterest
h ere.
T he m iddle a rea,
c overs t he z one t o t he l owest d epths a t w hich a f amily Z osteraceae c an
o r
f rom
t he m esolittoral, o f
p lants
s urvive.
T able 1 2 M olluscan S pecies O ccurring a t S mil i5 P HASE
C LASS GASTRAPODA
E N
G ibbula a driatica L .
x
G ibbula
x
s p.?
E N/MN
T uritella c ommunis R iSsO T urret
s hell
x
M urex t runcularis
L .,
E uthria c ornea L .,
x
M urex
x
x
x
H orn w elk
x
t errestrial V alvata c ristata M uller
x
S piralina v ortex L .
x
H elix a spersus
L .,
x
L and
x
s nail, c lass B ivalva M ytilius g alloprovincialis x L am.,
x
x
x
x
x
C ommon m ussel
C hiamys o percularis
L .,
x
S callop S pondylus g aederopus L .,
x
D onkies f eet P ecten J acobaeus
x
S t.
J ames'
L .,
x
s hell
A nomia e phippium L .,
x
x
x
J ingle s hell O strea e dulis
l amellosa L .,x
E dible oyster O strea e dulis adriatica L .,x E dible oyster C ardium e dule L .,
x
C ommon c ockle A cropagia b alustina L .
3 .3.1
x
S pecies
G ibbula a driatica L .,
T op s hell
G ibbula s p.?
5 8
t he
T he l atter z one i s d ivided i nto t hree mesolittoral, a nd i nfralittoral. T he
x
M N
M N/LN
L N
c alled
I ts
h abitat
s ometimes
i s
t he
t ops
t he c ircalittoral.
o f
c ould b e c onfused w ith a nother T uritella c omn iunis R isso, T his
s pecies
s pecies,
T urret
i s
f rom 3 uk0vi5
M urex t runcularis L ., L ocated
o r r ocks i n t he i nfralittoral;
F anulum L .
9 mm.
t o 3 3.5 mm.;
( see above,
p .
T his
s pecies
t he i nfralittoral.
l arger t han t he
1 2.5
mm.
M urex
u sually o n d etrital b ottoms,
s and,
o r m uds t his e dible A ll
s hells
a re
s pecies
f ragmented
t he c olumnar m issing b elow t he o perculum.
E utheria c ornea L .,
detrital
1 980:168).
x xx).
a ppears only i n t he M iddle N eolithic p hase. w ith s ections o f
( Sabelli
s hell
i s u sually f ound o n t he f ine s ands o f
H eight r ange f rom S milEi t o 3 1.5 mm.
s tones
I t i s q uite c ommmon i n t he M editerranean a nd
H orn w elk
i s
f ound
h idden
b eneath
s tones o r
s ometimes f ound o n
s ubstrate i n t he c ircalittoral.
V alvata c ristata M uller A s mall
s nail w hich
l ives
o n
p lants
i n
a rea
w here
t he
w ater
i s
s tagnant.
S piralina vortex L . A lso p lants i n
i n
t he
g eneral
c ategory
a s V alvata,
t his
s mall
s nail
l ives o n
s tagnant w ater.
H elix a spersus L . A very c ommon l and s nail f ound i n E nglish
g arden
s nail.
One
t he
A driatic
m easurable e xample,
w ell w ith o ne e xample f rom T inj
( Schwartz,
Mytilus g alloprovincialis L am.,
Common m ussel
a nd 2 5 mm.
s imilar h eight,
t o
t he
c ompared
i n p ress).
O ne o f t he f ew s pecies i dentified f rom S mil Ei C w hich i s f ound o n h ard s ubstrate. I ts h abitat i s t he mesolittoral a nd i nfralittoral z ones w hich w ould p rovide e asy a ccess f or g athering.
C hiamy opercularis L .,
S callop
5 9
This depth i s
s pecies
i s q uite c ommon t o t he M editerranean l iving a t
( Garms a nd B orm 1 981)
s maller t hat i ts c ousin,
S pondylus g aederopus S pondylus h ard
L .,
i nhabits
t en meters
o n t he s andy b ottom i n t he i nfralittoral. S t J ames'
D onkies depths
I t
S hell.
f eet b elow
s ubstrate o n t he o cean b ottom
t wo m eters a nd i s f ound a ttached t o
( Shackleton 1 968).
S everal p ieces
h ad
b een w orked i nto b racelets.
P ecten J acobaeus A
l arger
L .,
S t.
s pecies
J ames'
t han
S hell
C hlamy w hich i nhabits t he s andy b ottom o f
i nfralittoral a t a depth a round 1 5 m eters
Anomia e phippium L .,
J ingle s hell
This s pecies g ets h ole i n i ts r ight
i ts n ame b ecause o f v alve m aking i t
b racelet.
I t
i nhabits
r igid
t he
( Garms a nd B orm 1 981).
i ts f ragile n ature a nd n atural e asy t o m ake i nto a n ecklace o r
s ubstrate
s uch
a s
r ocks
f ound
i n
t he
i nfralittoral a nd c ircalittoral.
O strea e dulis a riatica L ., O strea e dulis
E dible o yster
l amellosa L .,
E dible o yster
B oth v arieties h ave s imilar h abitats a nd
m ud
t han
o n
h ard
B oth s pecies a re 3
l iving m ore c ommonly o n
s oft
s and
s ubstrate i n t he m esolittoral a nd i nfralittoral.
e dible
a nd
e asy
t o
g ather
e specially
d uring
t he
n on-summer m onths.
Cardium e dule L ., This
Common c ockle
s pecies i s c ommon t o t he A driatic a nd c an b e f ound i n t he s and o f
t he c ircalittoral a nd s ometimes t he i nfralittoral.
A cropagia b alustina L . I ts habitat a re t he s ands o f 3 .3.2
S ummary
The majority o f u sually
t he i nfralittoral.
f ound
i n
t he s pecies f rom t he S mil i t he
s and
o r
m ud.
A ll
s ample a re b ottom dwellers a re
e dible
c ontributed c onsiderably t o t he s ubsistence b ase h ad t hey f requency c omparable t o t hat o f T inj.
6 0
a nd would h ave o ccurred
i n
a
B ecause t his
o f
t he v aried
s pectrum o f m olluscs a nd n arrow e cological b ase
s ite i s v ery d ifferent
e specially
s o
o f
f rom e ither B ukovi -Lastvine o r T in].
t he c ase o f T inj
T his i s
s ince b oth s ites a re c ontemporary a nd
a re f rom t he s ame g eographical a rea. 3 .4
N EOLITHIC N IN
3 .4.1
T he S ample
F rom
t he
4 53
b ones r ecovered,
o nly 8 5
( 18 p ercent)
T here a re 3 5 m easurable b ones m ostly f rom s heep o r t heir h igh f requency i n t he s ample i s g ood,
( Table 1 3).
g oat,
a re u nidentified. w hich
P reservation o f
w ith l ittle p ostdepositional d estruction.
T here i s
r eflects t he s ample
l ittle o r
n o
b urned b one. A ll b ones a re measured o n
t he
b asis
o f
D uerst
s tored
i n
t he
( 1926)
a nd
B ökönyi
A rchaeological
M useum ,
( 1974). T he o steological m aterial Z adar,
i s
Y ugoslavia.
T able 1 3 D istribution o f
t he
I dentified S pecies E lements
D OMESTIC S PECIES S os t aurus L .,
N UMBER O F E LEMENTS
c attle
8
C aprovines
3 00
Ovis a ries L .
s heep
C apra h ircus L ., S us
s crofa dom.
domestic
3 1
g oat
1 6
3 47
L ., 1 0
s wine
Canis f amiliaris
L .,
d og
5
W ILD S PECIES Equus c aballus L .,
2
w ild h orse Cervus e lephas L .,
r ed deer
1
C apreolus c apreolus L ., 2 1
r oe d eer t otal
3 .4.2
3 94
S pecies
S os t aurus L ., D omestic I. I
c attle
c attle r emains a re l imited t o f ive l oose t eeth a nd a p halange
T hey a re a ll
f rom a dult
f orms.
6 1
Ovis a ries L ., s heep C apra h ircus L ., g oat O ver f rom
8 7 p ercent o f
t hese t wo
t he t otal b one s ample f rom
s pecies.
S eparation o f
N in
e lements
c onsists
( Tables
o f
1 2 & 1 4)
b ones
i s a ided
b y t he work o f B oessneck, M uller, a nd T eichert ( 1964); h owever, due t o f ragmentation, m any m orphological f eatures a re absent a nd t he e lements a re t hus g rouped i n t he g eneral c ategory, T hree h ornless s heep r einforces t he S mil i
' caprovine'.
a re i dentified e vidence f or
d omestication o n t he A driatic c oast
( Table E arly
1 4; P late 3 .2). T his N eolithic c aprov ine
( see a bove).
S heep a nd g oat m etacarpal m easurements f all w ithin t he l ower o f t hose f rom T inj,
S mi1 i ,
a nd Obre
B ased o n t he e lement d istribution, t he b rain c ase y et s aved t he r emoval o f t he t ongue. V ertebra e xcept f or a n i dentified a xis c omplete a dult c ould
be
t he
l ong b one ,
( Figures 3 .1
-
s ize r ange
3 .2).
b utchering a ppears t o h ave destroyed
m andibles. T his p ractice s uggests t he a nd r ibs a re v irtually n on-existent a nd l umbar e lement. E xcept f or a s ole
a ll-metapodial e lements
r esult o f b reaking t he b ones f or
a re
f ragmented.
T his
t heir m arrow a nd p ossibly
t heir u se f or t ools. T he h igh p roportion o f p elvic f ragments v ersus f emur f ragments i ndicates t hat s eparation o f t he h indleg f rom t he b ody o ccurred by s mashing t he f emur h ead. f requencies P halanges destroyed
II I b y
a lso,
p ossibly
L ower
f emur
i ndicating
a re t he o nly e xamples c arnivores, y et t here
a nd
s peciments a re i dentified.
6 2
e lements
h ave
l ow
s ources o f m arrow.
p resent; o thers m ay h ave b een i s n o e vidence s ubstantiating t his
s tatement. N o pathological
t ibia
t heir u se f or
T able 1 4 D istribution o f C aprovine B one E LEMENTS
L EFT
h orncore
R IGHT
3
m axilla,
w hole
2 h ornless;
5
7
1
3
‚ Pl-M3
7
2
‚ horizontal r amus
2
2
w hole/loose
162-
a xis
1
‚ other
1
s capula,
6
9
1 S A;
2 s h.
h umerus,dist.
8
9
2 S A,
1 J ;
u lna ,
2
1
a rticulation
4
6
3 s h.
2 g t.
3
2
4 1
6
a rticulation
r adius,
p rox.
‚ shaft ‚ dist. metacarpal, ‚ prox.
w hole
p elvis, f emur,
f rag.
3 5
3 3
3
7
head
3 s h.
1 S A; 1 S A;
2 s h. 4 s h.
1 g t. 3 g t.
1
‚ shaft
1 whole
1
‚ prox.
S A
1
‚ shaft
1
2
1 S A
‚ dist. c alcaneum , ‚ prox.
7 2 1
8 3
1 S A.
1 J ;
2
2
2 s h.
1 g t.
a stragalus,
w hole w hole
‚ frag.
8 s h.
1 g t.
1
metatarsal,
p rox.
3
‚ medial
3
3 s h.
2
i SA;
1
‚ shaft
1 .
phalange I II,
w hole
* abbreviations. s h.= s heep,
1 s h.
13-
S A= s ub-adult,
J =
j uvenile;
g t.= g oat.
s crofa dom., F ive
3 g t.
1
‚ prox. t ibia,
S A; s h.
2 g t. 1 s h.
2
‚ shaft ‚ dist.
S us
3 g t.3sh.
2
‚ M1-M3
vertebra,
R EMARKS
1
‚ I-P3
t eeth,
AXIAL
4
M 1-M2
mandible,
:E arly N eolithic
b ones
domestic
s wine
r epresented
t his
s pecies:
a mandible f ragment;
h umeri; o ne a s ubadult; a p roximal r adius; and a p halange I I. t he h umerus a re f rom a dults; n one a re m easurable.
6 3
t wo d istal A ll
e xcept
C anis
f amiliaris
L .,
d og
F our b ones a re i dentified a s domestic d og. f ragments,
a nd a c alcaneum.
E quus c aballus R eg.,
A ll a re a dults;
T hey a re a n u lna,
t wo t ibia
n one a re m easurable.
w ild h orse
remolar a re i dentified f rom a nd a t hird p i n t h e A d r i a t i c z o n e h as t his s pecie. P revious e vidence o f w ild h orse s ite o f K opaEina, o n B ra b een r estricted t o t he E arly M esolithic he t hird p halange a re a t ( personal c omment, B . e uk) Measurements o f t m., a nd g reatest w idth 3 1 maximum l ength 8 3.4 mm., m aximum b readth 5 3. 5 m A
t hird
p halange
( Plate 3 .6)
mm.. Cervus e lephas L .,
r ed deer
A d istal r adius a nd a f irst p halange a re
i dentified
f rom
N m.
B oth
s pecimens a re u nmeasurable.
C apreolus c apreolus L . T his
s pecies
i s r epresented b y 2 1
s pecimens
( Table 1 5).
O nly t wo b ones
a re measurable; a p roximal m etacarpal a nd a n a stragalus. T he l atter i s 2 6 m i n. i n l ength while t he m etacarpal h as a p roximal b readth o f 2 1.1 mm. a nd a p roximal w idth o f
1 6.1 m illimeters.
Table 1 5 D istribution o f R oe Deer B ones E LEMENTS
L EFT
mandible,
P 1-M2
r adius,
d ist.
R EMARKS*
32 2 1
p rox.
1
‚ shaft ‚ dist. metacarpaim d ist.
1 2 1
pelvis, f rag. t ibia, d ist.
1
1
metatarsal,
1
1
p rox.
1
s haft
3 .4.3
AXIAL
1
t eeth, l oose s capula, a rticulation h umerus,
R IGHT
S ummary
The o steological r emains i dentified derive f rom o nly a s mall p ortion o f t he
t otal
n eolithic
s ite
a t N m .
T he l argest g roup,
r epresents n early 9 0 p ercent o f t he t otal a nimals.
6 4
s ample,
t he
a nd m ost o f
' caprovines', t he d omestic
H ornless s heep a re p resent, s upporting t he e vidence f rom S mil i o f t heir domestication i n t he A driatic E arly N eolithic p eriod. H unting a reas i ncluded
t he
l ow m ountains a nd f oothills i nland s ome 1 0
a s e videnced b y t he p resence o f r ed a nd r oe d eer.
I t
-
1 5 k ilometers,
a ppears
t hat
t he
i nhabitants a lso h unted w ild h orse. T he p resence o f w ild h orse e xtends k nown.
t he a rea a nd t ime f or
L ittle c an b e s aid a bout t he o ther a nimals o n s ample s ize. 3 .5
a ccount
o f
t he
i t
i s
s mnall
C ONCLUSIONS
T he S mil i
r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he m ammalian f aunas f rom N eolithic a nd N in i ndicate a c lear p reference f or d omesticated a nimals a nd,
w ithin s mall
t he
f arm
a nimals,
a s trong s election o f o vicaprines.
s ample o f o vicaprine b ones f rom e ach s ite,
ovicaprine a t t he t wo t hey
p opulation. S ites,
I n t he l ight o f
i t i s i nteresting t hat
r ather d ifferent t he f aunal
s heep a t E arly p art o f t he
l and u se c lasses
s pectra a re a s
a re t o t he E arly N eolithic f auna f rom T inj.
s izeable a reas o f a rable a t T inj a nd S mil i ,
G iven t he
i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess
c ulling p atterns b y a ge a nd s ex. T he d iscovery o f h ornless N eolithic N in d emonstrates t he d omestic S tatus o f a t l east
a s
w hich
s imilar
T he a vailability o f
c ompared w ith t he
s altmarsh
p asture a t N m, o ffered h igh q uality w inter g razing. A t T inj a nd N m, t he n earby b ottomland p rovided s ummer g razing w hich i s n ot s o obviously available u se o f
n ear
S mil iE.
I t i s p ossible t hat t he S mil Ei C s hepherds made
t he m ore d istant u pland s ummer g razing o n t he V elebit Mountains.
6 5
KEY:
•
T in j
S Sm ikid
0
Ob re
N N m
2 7 mm .
2 6 S
0
2 5
0
.
2 4
D I S T A L B R E A D T I -
0
0
•
• 0
2 3
0
N
S
S
0 S N N 2 2
0
S
0
N
I 1 4
1 5
D ISTAL
F igure 3 .1
V ariation i n
I
1 6
6 6
1 8 mm .
L ENGTH
s heep m etacarpals
a nd S mi1 i .
1 7
:O bre,
T inj,
Nm
3 4
MM . 0
30 S
0
2 8
D I S T A L B R E A D T H
S
S
S
2 5
N S
I
I
1 4
1 6
D ISTAL
F igure
3 .2
I
I
1 8
2 0 mm .
L ENGTH
V ariation i n goat metacarpals and Smi1 i5.
67
Obre,
T inj,
N m
I
2
b
0 1
b
P late 3 .1 1 .
C ut m arks.
C attle p halange I II;
E arly N eolithic,
4 0-60 c m.
C ut m arks.
C attle p halange I II:
a .
v iew.
2 .
E arly N eo.
a . m edial v iew b .
S onda 1 3,
6 0-70 c m.
d orsal v iew.
3 .
E arly N eo.
6 8
dorsal v iew b .
C ut m arks. S onda 1 5,
B ag 4 4, l ateral
C attle p halange 1 00-120 c m.
I II.
P late 3 .2
1 .
C ut m arks.
N eolithic S onda 1 3, v iew.
C attle p halange I II,
6 0-70 c m.
E arly N eolithic B ag 4 4,
2 .
C ut m arks.
9 4 c m.
3 .
v entral-lateral v iew; M iddle N eolithic.
6 9
dorsal v iew.
E arly
C attle p halange I II,
C ut marks. S onda 1 2,
l ateral
C attle p halange
3 0-40 c m.
I II,
P late 3 .3 v iew.
1 .
D omestic d og r adius.
M iddle N eolithic S onda 9 ,
d orsal v iew. v iew.
G nawing.
N o l ocation.
3 .
G nawing.
M iddle N eolithic S onda 1 ,
h orncore;
M iddle N eolithic,
1 60-180 c m.
S onda
7 0
2 .
dorsal v iew b . G nawing.
4 .
8 0-130 c m.
C ut m arks.
v entral
C aprovine u lna,
G oat d istal h umerus,
1 60-170 c m. 1 ,
a .
v entral S heep
P late 3 .4
1 .
P remolar a lignment
l ateral v iew b . d orsal v iew; H ornless
s heep s kull
P remolar a lignment M iddle Neolithic, a cetabulum.
E arly N eolithic,
f ragment.
S onda 1 5,
B ag 4 4,
7 2
4 .
M odified.
1 10-120 c m.
1 50-160 c m.
S onda 1 4,
D omestic dog m andible,
1 60-180 c m.
E arly N eolithic,
D omestic d og m andible.
E arly N eolithic,
( unaligned). S onda 9 ,
( straight).
a . 2 .
1 00-120 c m.
m edial v iew.
C aprovine
3 .
7 3
U
c
a
I
P late 3 .5 P athology. v iew b .
H ealed b reak,
d orsal-lateral v iew c .
I
I
l eft m etatarsal,
v entral v iew.
7 4
R ed D eer.
a . dorsal
1
a q p q
L
2
P late 3 .6
1 .
b .
l ateral v iew.
dorsal
dorsal v iew.
H ornless
s heep,
N m :
s kull
E arly Neolithic,
E arly N eolithic,
U nit
7 5
2 .
f ragment. U nit
2 .
a . 2 .
ventral medial v iew W ild h orse,
N m .
C HAPTER F OUR D ALMATIAN P OTTERY
:S POTS B EFORE T HE E YES
K AREN G RIFFITHS
M y j ob i n t he s ummer o f
1 987
i n Z adar w as t o a ttempt t o p roduce a r eliable
d ating s equence f rom t he R oman c oarse w ares e xcavated D almatia P roject
i n 1 986 a t N adin-Gradina
b y
( see C hapman,
t he
N eothermal
t his v olume).
T he
i dea w as f or J ohn H ayes t o e stablish t he c hronology f rom t he w ell-known i mported w ares a nd f or me t o r elate t hat c hronology t o t he c oarse w ares a ssociated w ith t hem. T he S ondas t he
pottery 1 ,
r est
c ame
f rom
s ix
d ifferent
s ondas o r t renches
( Fig.
4 .1).
3 a nd 5 w ere d ug by t he Y ugoslav t eam f rom Z adar U niversity by
t he
B ritish.
T he c ondition o f
t renches w as a trocious, h eavily a braded a nd q uite i mpossible t o T his p revented my a ttempting a ny q uantitative a nalysis o f t his p ot. H ayes m erely i dentified w hat
f ine w ares w ere r ecognizable.
s ondas 1 a nd 3 w as i n m uch b etter t his m aterial.
a nd
t he p ottery f rom t he l atter
T he
w ash. J ohn
p ot
f rom
s hape a nd e fforts w ere c oncentrated o n
A n umbered t ype s eries o f t he n on-fine w ares w as e stablished u sing t he f abric a nalysis r ecommended i n t he M useum o f L ondon D epartment o f U rban A rchaeology F inds P rocessing M anual ( DUA 1 984). S ome t wenty m ajor f abric d ivisions w ere c reated i n t his m anner. A n u nexpected f eature o f t he a ssemblage
w as
t he
r ed s lip w ares a nd a mphorae
h uge percentage o f i mported w ares
I talian t erra
n ot o nly A frican
-
s igillata b ut a lso t he l arge
a nd e ven c ooking w ares w hich w ere n ot
l ocally m ade.
c ontemporary p ottery w orkshops h ave h itherto b een
f ound
i n
n umbers
o f
I n f act,
n o
t he
r egion.
T he r easons f or t his dearth a re n ot c lear. T here a re w orkable c lay deposits t o b e h ad a nd, e ven i n a n a lmost t reeless l andscape, modern l ocal p otters f ind e nough f uel f rom o live-prunings t o r un a v iable f iring p rogramme ( See C arlton, t his v olume). T he e vidence f or i ndigenous p re-Roman i n D orset
i ndustries
s uch a s f ounded t he B lack B urnished w are p roduction
i s a lso l acking.
What w e c annot t ell a s yet
b onfire c lamp f iring S ites
i s
w hether
R oman
k ilns
o r
a rea.
The pottery f rom N adin-Gradina p rovides
a
m ight
i n
t he b eginning o f t he R oman
f uture
b e
f ound
a t
s till r emain t o b e d iscovered i n t he
l east t owards
h int
t hat
s uch
s ites
o ccupation a nd p ossibly t he e nd a s w ell. Q uite a n oticeable f eature o f t he s o-called F abric 1 w ares o f r ather
r eminiscent
t he u pper
l evels f rom s ondas
t he N adin Type s eries.
o f B B w ares,
s ome h and- r ather t han w heel-made,
b eing a pparently b onfire-fired, b lack
o r
dark
g ritted w ith v arying a mounts o f w hite c alcite. j ar w ith a n e verted r im t he
c ircumference
( Fig.
1 a nd 3 w ere
T hese w ere i n f act
4 .2a).
b rown
a t
c olour
( Fig.
decorations
4 .2b).
f requent
p resence
i n
t he
u pper
7 7
l ayers
a nd r ound
S uch w ares h ave
p reviously b een dated t o t he e arly m edieval p eriod i n Y ugoslavia a nd t heir
l east
T he m ost c ommon f orm w as a
W avy l ine c ombed
w ere a lso c haracteristic
i n
f rom
t his m ay w ell b e c orrect.
H owever i t i s a pparent t hat t hey w ere a lso b eing m anufactured i n t he f ifth c entury A .D. a nd e arlier. T heir n umbers p eak , i n S onda 3 a t l east, a t t he s ame
t ime a s t hose o f
t he A frican r ed s lip w ares o n t he s ite
( Figs.
4 .3 &
4 .4). S ome o f t he F abric 1 w ares, n amely F abric 1 D, a re q uite f inely m ade a nd m ust h ave b een w heel-thrown ( Fig.4.2c). T heir f abric i s m uch l ess h eavily g ritted t han t he o ther F abric i s a nd i n f act o n e xamination b ears s ome r esemblance t o t hat o f t he s econd a nd t hird c entury A .D. s o-called A egean' c ooking w ares ( Fig. 4 .2d). T he r espects s imilar to t he A egean f lat-rimmed, ( Fig. o f
i D f orms a re a lso i n s ome h andled c asseroles. T he g raph
4 .3) d emonstrates t he a pparent r eplacement b y t he F abric
t he
A egean c ooking w ares,
1
vessels
w hich h ad t hemselves p revously r eplaced t he
u biquitous h eavily c alcite-gritted c ooking w ares
o f
t he
I ron
A ge.
N o
d oubt m any o f t he l atter c ontinued t o b e m anufactured w ell i nto t he R oman p eriod. I s hould s tress t hat t hese t hree w ares w ere r eally t he o nly o bvious
c ooking
w ares
f ound i n S ondas
1 and 3 o ther t han t he o ccasional
A frican c asserole a nd b aking l id. T here
s eems
n o d oubt t hat t he f ine Aegean c ooking w ares w ere i mported
i nto D almatia. M any t housands o f t hese vessels w ere d iscovered l ying o n t he s ea b ed a t t he a ncient p ort o f Z aton ( pers. c omm., Z . B rusi5). Thus w e c annot l ook t o t hem f or a l ocal p ottery p roduction. B ut w hat o f t he i ron a ge/early R oman c oarse w ares a nd t he m uch l ater F abric 1 c ooking p ots?
A c loser l ook a t t he g raph
c ooking
w ares
( Fig.
4 .3)
s hows t hat t hough t he
f rom t he i ron a ge l evels n ever r eally d ie o ut
h eavy,
( residuality
c an b e d iscounted a s b oth s ondas h ad s ecurely s ealed median c ontexts c onsisting o f f loor l evels), t heir n umbers d o c learly decline t hroughout t he R oman period. I t m ay b e p ostulated t hat t hey a re s uperseded t o s ome e xtent f rom t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies A .D. by t he i mported Aegean c ooking w ares a nd when t his s upply f ails t owards t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury a n ew s ource o f c ooking w ares, t he F abric i s, i s f ound a nd t his c ontinues o n i nto t he f ifth c entury a nd b eyond. T he h eavy o ften b urnished c ooking
w ares
o f
t he i ron a ge/Roman p eriod s eem s trong c andidates
l ocal p roduction s ite o r s ites. t ransported
f ar
f rom
t heir
S uch p rimitive c oarse m anufacturing
w ares
a re
s ite d ue t o t heir
f or a r arely
l ow r esale
v alue. O ne
c ould
p erhaps
c onstruct
a
model
o f
t he t own o f Nadin-Gradina
g rowing i n e conomic s tature d uring t he R oman p eriod a s
i ndicated
by
t he
a ppearance o f f ine t erra s ig idlata f rom I taly a nd t he e astern s igillatas A a nd B f rom S yria a nd A sia M inor c enturies
A .D.,
t here
i s
( Fig.
4 .4).
B y
t he
s econd
a nd
a c oincidecne i n t he availability o f
t hird
i mported
c ooking w ares a nd t he ability o f t he N adin population t o p urchase t hem. I mports o f A frican r ed-slipped w ares b egin t o r ise a t t he s ame t ime. H owever, by t he t ime i mports o f t he l atter p eak i n t he f ifth c entury, t he i mportation o f A egean c ooking w ares h as d eclined, very possibly t o b e r eplaced b y t he F abric 1 w ares.
O ne c an s peculate
t hat
t hese
t oo
w ere
l ocally m ade, p erhaps e ven c oming f rom t he s ame s ources a s t he n ever e ntirely defunct n ative b urnished w ares. T heir u niformity a nd s imilarity o f
f abric
t o
a field t hough.
s ome
o f
t he A egean w ares m ight p oint t o a s ource f urther
C learly m ore w ork i s n eeded t o r esolve t his p roblem.
7 8
T he a nalysis o f s urprises.
T he
t he
o ther
r ange
o f
i mported
d uring t he w hole o f t he R oman p eriod A .D.)
( Fig.
4 .5).
f ifth
c entury
( first
A .D.
f ine
i s
w ares
e xotics
c lear.
c entury
o f
l ike
poor
a lthough
p ercentages o f
t here t he
w as
t he
K nidian
' provincial'
t here
t he m ay
e xpected
p ine
c entury f rom i n
f rom
t he
s econd
G loss
q uality
T his i s
q uite
a n
t able w ares
s omewhat
r ange
o f
s ources,
c one T hymiaterion f ragments, w are. i s
L ate
g radually
I talian
t erra
r eplaced a s
b y t he A frican r ed
i nteresting
f all-off
l ike t he l acuna
t he s lip
i n absolute
s omewhere i n t he s econd
a nd
( ' Trajanic g ap')
G aulish
o nes
i n t he W est.
t hird between
C hanges i n f unction o n t he
h owever c annot b e d iscounted a s a n e xplanation.
b e
n o
s tatus
t he S outhern G aulish t erra s igillata i ndustries a nd t he r ise o f
C entral
i tself,
i s
' red g loss'
c enturies A .D.. t he e nd o f
B .C.-sixth
p articularly t hose
s tandard t able w are d uring t he f irst c entury A .D. w ares,
h eld
M any o f t he a mphora f abrics h owever
C orinthian l amps a nd R epublican B lack s igillata
H ayes
s o n o d efinite c onclusions c an b e r eached.
A s f or t he i ncluding
J ohn
T he d ominance o f A frican s ources
r emain t o b e i dentified a nd s ourced, c entury A .D.,
b y
T here w ere l arge a mphora i mports a t a ll p eriods
t he l ate f irst c entury A .D. o nwards. t he
w ares
s ources a gain i ndicates N adin-Gradina's
n oted
A s a n
s ite
a side,
t hat d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he t hird c entury A .D.,
s ondas p roduce s ome h eavily b urnt a rchaeological e xplanation h as T o c onclude,
i t
s herds.
N either a n
h istorical
i t b oth
n or
a n
s o f ar b een a dvanced.
s eems t o m e t hat t he most v aluable i nformation t o
c ome
f rom t he N adin-Gradina p ottery i s t he o verlapping o f p reviously r igorously c ompartmentalised i mposing
a n
c oarse
w are
h istorical
potting
t raditions.
f ramework
s hould
a rchaeologist f rom r ecognising c ontinuity a ssemblage
a s
w ell
a s
t he
c hanges
not
w ithin
Z adar
p revented
n ecessity
c eramic
i n e conomic
T he s hort t ime
W hat i s n eeded n ow i s a major p rogramme o f
a nalysis,
a
g reater
a ttempt
i nter-site
t o u nravel t he c omplexities o f
f abrics a nd a more d etailed s earch s ites i n t he r egion.
f or
c ontemporary
pottery
T able 1 N adin-Gradina 1 986: C hronology based o n i mported wares S ONDA 1
S ONDA 3 D ate
P hase
D ate
7
C 4th-C6th AD
6
C 5th A D
6
C 5th AD
5
C 5th A D
4
C 5th A D
3
e arly C 2nd-C4th AD
5
o f
Roman
I
h ad
m e f rom s eeing a ny b ut t he b roadest o f c hronological
patterns.
P hase
t he
D almatian
i mposed b y a lterations
p atterns a nd l ocal r ises i n s ocio-economic s tatus. i n
t he
T he
p revent
i st h alf C 3rd A D
4
i st h alf O rd AD
3
e arly U nd A D
2 &l
l ate C ist AD
2
C ist A D
1
C ist B C & e arlier
7 9
c eramic
t he amphora p roduction
P re. L ate 1 —
Age We ll
c
B u , ld ,ng
L ate I t,f t A ge Wel l
O .i ld ing e , lh Rattled We l l
.. . R e ..en t eeb
1 .
l Wel
1 .n H .1 itt it
. S».
.. .. ... l P. I We l
S leek.
..... T.
R eed T omb -
.- -
P lan o f N adin-Gradina,
a
C eele ,r ( all ral P I P P
F igure 4 .1
I t
l .
S a i l
1 W.1 Pl
l t___
w ith l ocation o f
8 0
Qeerig
T eik ith We ll
1 986
s ondaS.
‚
T ype 1 A
lus I t . n o . 1
T ype 1 C
lus I t . n o .V
T ype 1 D
I lus t .XV
\
0
A egean c ook ing w are ' s l iced ' h and le I t . L XXXI lus I
' V 4 07-' Aegean c ook ing w a re '
F igure 4 .2
lus t .LXX II
C ooking w ares, N adin-Gradif la 1 986 e xcavations.
8 1
0
" n a t i v e " w a r e s
I
0 -
( I )
O w
I n f o r m a t i o n s u p l i e d b y t h e T o u r i s t B u r e a u H v a r
z
F igure
9 .1
The i sland o f
Hvar. 1 57
E
0 C )
0
F igure 9 .2
T he Ager P harensis
l and d ivision s ystem w ith k nown
R oman s ites.
1 58
F igure 9 .3
A rea o f f ield s ystem s urveyed i n t he 1 987
1 59
s eason.
M i n = l s h e r d F igure 9 .4
R esults f rom p art o f t he e xtensive s urvey s howing s ite a nd o ffsite p ottery d istributions.
T he R oman v illa
s ite o f C erevac i s r epresented b y t he d ense p ottery c oncentrations a t
t he t op o f 1 60
t he a rea s hown.
0
0
00
2
2
0 0
4
1
1
5
0
1
0 01
1
2 1
3
1
2
0
6
1
0
4
0
3
0
2
6
0 1
1
2 1
4 1 0
21
2
5
2
2
3
0
0
2
0
00 0 0 0 5
0 11
1
2
2
2
2
0
0 0 0
5 6
1
1
2 7
2
1
0
1 2
0
1 4
0
2
o
0
0
0 1 2 0
00 1 0 0 1
0
0
0
1
1 0
1 0
0
1
1
0
0 00 1 0
2 0
1
0 0 0
1
— 1
0
0 10
0
0
0
0
000 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0
34 9
0
2
0 1
Q
i ll 2
0
0 4
0
0
2 4
6
3
1
0 0
J6\ 2 8 \0 0
2
1 3 4
2
0
0 3 00
21 002
9
0 0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0 0 0 0
0 01
00
2
0
4
I OM
F igure 9 .5a S ite P 1
( delimited b y d ashed a rea) w ithin t he c ontext
o f r esults f rom e xtensive s urvey i n i ts v icinity. D arker n umbers d enote f inds o n f ield w alls;
c ontinuous
l ine d elimits a rea o f a rtefact d ensities o ver 5 .
1 61
0
0
1
4
U
S a4
4
j
I f ef
4( \,5j / i
4
I I
\ . f'209 9
S a3
t 1 4 °N
1 4
4 S a5
S a9
8
7
o
2 1
F igure 9 .5b S ite P 1,
8
2
) (1 0
4
9
/'?
/3
1
3
5 \1 ) 3
4
61
2
1 62
S a6
3
6
i ntensive s urvey r esults,
s haded s trip i naccessible.
2
4
\ 22
c ontour a t
9 s herds;
' s
9 5
5
6
4
9 1 8
3 h
1 3
/ 9
1
T
) V7
F igure 9 .5c S ite P 1,
\:
1
1
1 1
1 5
2 5
6
\ 7 9
1
0
2 1 � V5
0
e xtensive s urvey r esults a fter c orrection f or
v isibility.
1 63
0 6
0
1
2
0
7
2
1 3
4
0
0 4
4
iI 1 0
4
7
13
1
7 ; 1
6 )
7
2 2
1 8
/ 27 -
3 8 ,
7 ,23
1o I7 eL 1 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
9
3 1 1 5
1
1
1
0 1
1
1 0
2 532
0 4
0
3
7 18
4
2
1 1
00 2 2 3 3 1 0 0 1 2
6
2
0
1
2
t
2
2
4 5m
4+
l Om F igure 9 .6a S ite P 2
( delimited b y d ashed a rea)
w ithin t he
c ontext o f t he e xtensive s urvey r esults. s ee f igure 5 a.
1 64
F or k ey,
a
P 2 , R aw d a ta CONTOURS 1 89+ 7 8
+
4 0+ 2 0+ 1 0+ < 10
F igure 9 .6b S ite P 2,
i ntensive s urvey r esults,
1 65
r aw data.
-
-
S ITE P 2 , V is ib i l i ty c or r ec ted CONTOURS 4 35+ 2 00+ 1 00+ 5 0+ 2 0+
F igure 9 .6c S ite P 2,
i ntensive s urvey r esults a fter c orrection f or
v isibility.
1 66
o
0
0
0
C \ J 0
o
C o
0
0
C o
0
0
LO
C o
c o
1
o
0
o
0
( 3 )
C \ j q e
( 0
C o
o
0
I
C o
0
0
0
C o
C o
C o
o
0
C o
0
C ' )
o
C ' J
-
0
L()
c )
F igure 9 .7a S ite P 4 w ithin t he c ontext o f r esults.
F or k ey,
t he e xtensive s urvey
s ee f igure 5 a.
1 67
I t
1 8 1 0 0
0 1 0
1 5
1 0
1 0
5 0
0
0
0 5
2
0 1 0
3 0
1 5
1 0
5
4 0
1 0 0
8
1 3
2 0
2 0
0 0
2 0
0
4
1 7
0
5 1 0
3
0
1 5
3
0
/ 20 ( 34
30
0
0
1 0
0
3 0 0
0
3 0
0
0
0
3
7
1 8
2 0
1 0
0 1 0
4
F igure 9 .7b S ite P 4,
c orrected e xtensive s urvey r esults. F or k ey ,
s ee F igure 9 .5a.
1 68
1 0
N r
U )
C J
0
CM
I
j.
-
C )
‚-
(3 )
¶-
N t
( 0 q e
0 )
F igure 9 .7c S ite P 4,
i ntensive s urvey r esults.
F igure 9 .5a.
1 69
F or k ey ,
s ee
F igure 9 .8
T he s ituation o f V rboska
t he V illa J e e
( right).
1 70
( left)
a nd m odern
F__
1
I L
r
L_ _ _
J
r
L_ J
E
C * ,
L
F igure 9 .9
T he r elationship o f
t he s urface a nd s ub-surface
c ollection g rids u sed a t J e e.
1 71
a r t e f a c t s 1 0 o
L o u , c ' J
i
l
E
0
0
F igure 9 .10
T he d istribution o f a rtefacts a t J e e a s d etermined b y e xtensive s urface c ollection ( hard d ata).
1 72
5 0 a r te fac ts 0
F igure 9 .11
2 0m
1 00 2 00
T he d istribution o f a rtefacts a t J e e a s d etermined b y i ntensive s urface c ollection.
1 73
5 00 a r te fac ts 2 000 0
F igure 912
2 0m
4 000
A v olumetrically c orrected s ub-surface d istribution o f a ll a rtefacts a t J e2e. 1 74
2 0 mo r ta r 5 0 f r agmen ts
•
1 -5
•
6-10
•
1 115
mosa ic t esserae
• 16 0
F igure 9 .13
2 0m
T he d istribution o f
s ub-surface t esserae/mortar a t J e e.
1 75
C HAPTER T EN M ASLINOVIK:
A G REEK WATCHTOWER I N T HE C HORA O F P HAROS. A P RELIMINARY R EPORT B RANKO K IRIGIN & P ETAR P OPOVIC
I nterest i n t he
a rchaeological
R enaissance, a nd h as b een b ibliography o n t he s ubject. o n t he i sland,
m onuments
o f
H var
dates
b ack
t o
e specially t hose a ssociated w ith t he G reek c olony o f
( modern S tarigrad),
t he
w ell documented i n P etri 's ( 1975) e xtensive T he i mportance o f t he a rchaeological r emains
a nd t he p otential o f
i nformation h eld
i n
P haros
a rchive
o n
H var, l ed t o t he a uthors i nitiating a s ystematic s tudy o f t he h eritage o f t he i sland i n 1 981. A n i mportant p art o f t his r esearch e ntailed a f ield s urvey o f I t
t he S tarigrad p lain.
s hould b e pointed o ut t hat,
( XV,134,14)
t o
t he
f ounding o f
a part f rom
t he
r eference
b y
D iodorus
t he c olony b y s ettlers f rom t he Cycladic
i sland o f P aros, very l ittle i s k nown about t he c olony 's e arly d evelopment o r a rchaeological c ontext. R ecent w ork o n t he i sland i ndicated t hat t he c enturiated f ield s ystem a ssociated w ith t he S tarigrad p lain w as G reek o rigin
( Zaninovic
1 983,
p reviously t hought
K irigin
a nd
S lap ak
( contra D ubokovi ENadalini
1 986),
1 962).
I n
i n
a nd n ot R oman a s 1 981,
f ieldwork
w as c arried o ut j ointly b y r epresentatives o f t he A rchaeological Museum a t S plit, t he D epartment o f A rchaeology a t L jubljana U niversity , a nd t he A rchaeological
I nstitute
a t
B elgrade.
T his w ork h as c ontinued w ith t he
s upport o f t he Centre f or t he P rotection o f I sland
o f
H var,
1 0-15 days e very w inter h as
b een
t he C ultural H eritage
o f
t he
a nd a n a rchaeological t eam h as o perated i n t he f ield f or
p rovided
by
s ince t hen. c olleagues
I nternational f rom G reece,
s upport f or t he p roject
I taly and B ritain,
a nd i n
1 987 t he U niversity o f B radford was a ctive i n t he f ield, a nd i n t he i mplementation o f n ew s urvey m ethodologies ( Bintliff and G affney, t his v olume).
T he r esults o f
p aper ( this v olume) C entral D almatia".
t he e arlier f ieldwork a re s ummarised i n S lap ak's
a nd i n K irigin 's f orthcoming p aper on " The G reeks i n
T he f irst documented r eference t o t he s ite a t Maslinovik o ccurs i n t he Z adar newspaper " Ii D almata", which, o n t he 2 1st o f A ugust 1 897, c arried a n
a rticle e ntitled " Frugamenti A rcheologici a C ittavecchia" o n i ts f ront
p age.
T his a rticle w as
B otteri,
a
l awyer
s igned " G.A.B.",
f rom S tarigrad,
a lmost
c ertainly
G ian
I n describing t he a rchaeological f inds f rom t he v icinity o f S t. c hurch i n S tarigrad ( a c entre o f a ncient P haros), s quare
t ower
a t
P urkin K uk.
( Maslinovik)
H e w rites s agoma,
"
.
.
. in ogni c aso,
d imensioni e destino,
a c ompagne s ua u no i n
v etta
e l 'altra s opra G elsa n el Tor..
T he t owers a t P urkin K uk a nd Tor 1 983)
N icholas'
b uilding w hich h e f elt w as s ituated i n t he v ery h e g ives a description o f a t umulus a nd a
a ltre t orri i n medesimo s tile, a ll O liveto
Antonio
w ho w as a lso k nown a s a n a ntiquarian.
a re
m entioned
by
Z aninovi
b ut n o f urther e vidence e xisted w ithin t he a rchaeological
1 77
( 1982,
l iterature
f or t he t hird t ower a t M aslinovik, o ther t han t he s tatement i n B otteri's a rticle. G iven t hat B atten 's w riting i ndicated t hat h e w as f amiliar w ith, a nd u nderstood t he i mplications o f, d istinctive b uilding s tyles, i t w as f elt t hat s ome c onfirmatory w ork s hould b e u ndertaken a t M aslinovik. T his w ork w as c arried o ut d uring t he f ield s urvey s eason o f 1 987, d uring w hich c onvincing e vidence f or t he t ower's e xistence w as d iscovered. T he s ite o f M aslinovik l ies o n t he t op o f a h ill a t 6 7.53 m etres a bove s ea l evel. I t i s s ituated o n t he n orthern e dge o f t he S tarigrad p lain a nd h as a c ommanding v iew o f t he w hole p lain o n t he s outh, t he h illy l and t o e ast a nd w est, a nd o ver t he H var c hannel t o t he i sland o f B ra , a nd t he m ainland t o t he n orth. A t t he t ime o f d iscovery , t he o nly e vidence f or t he e xistence o f t he t ower w as t he p resence o r s everal v ery l arge b locks o f s tone w hich h ad b een b uilt i nto a n umber o f l ater s tructures, i ncluding t he d rystone w alls o f a h ut, a nd a l ime k iln s ome 1 5 m etres t o t he w est o f t he s ite. A n umber o f t hese s tones, p robably t hose f rom t he c orners o f t he t ower, d isplayed t he d istinctive c hisel m arks ( anathyrosiS), o ften f ound o n s uch G reek s ites. R emoval o f v egetation i nitially r evealed t he n orth w est c orner o f t he b uilding a nd e ventually t he w hole w estern w all. T his w all w as o riented i n a n orth-south d irection w ith a d eviation o f 1 2 d egrees
t o
c orresponds
t he
n orth
v ery
e ast.
c losely
t o
I t t he
i s
i nteresting
o rientation
o f
t o
n ote
t he
t hat
o riginal
t his G reek
c adastral g rid i n t he S tarigrad p lain. L ater
i n
t he
y ear,
b etween
3 0/X/87 a nd 1 0/XI/87,
u ndertaken w ith t he a im o f d efining t he n ature
a nd
a n e xcavation w as
e xtent
o f
t he
s ite
( Plates 1 0.1-3). A fter t he r emoval o f t he v egetation, t he h umic l ayer ( c. 7 -10 c m. t hick), a nd t he w all t umble, t he e astern p art o f t he s ite w as u ncovered, e xposing a b uilding, c . 7 .5 m etres s quare. F or t he p urposes o f e xcavating t he i nterior o f t he b uilding, a 1 -metre g rid w as l aid o ver t he w hole s ite, a nd a s ection l ine w as e stablished a cross t he c entre o f t he b uilding i n a n orth-south d irection. T he s ite w as r ecorded p hotogrammetricallY u sing a 1 2 m etre h igh a luminium " A" f rame ( Plate 1 0.4). T he
d iscovery
o f
t he
M aslinovik
t ower
w as
a n
e vent
o f
s ome
s ignificance, g iven i ts a ssumed r ole w ithin t he c olony 's t erritorial d efense s ystem, t he r arity o f m odern e xcavation o n s uch s ites a nd t he h igh p robability o f w ell-presetved s tratigraphy w ithin t he t ower's i nterior. A lthough t he p resent l evel o f a nalysis o n m aterial a t M aslinovik demands t hat t his r eport c an o nly b e p reliminary a nd d escriptive, t he s ite i s o f s uch i mportance t hat i t m erits i nclusion w ithin t his v olume. T he t ower w alls w ere 1
t o
1 .1
m etres
w ide,
a nd
w ere
i tself
c omposed
o f
u nmortared s tone b locks o f v arying d imensions ( Figure 1 0.1). T hese b locks w ere p artly w orked o n t he e xterior f aces a nd s ometimes o n t he u pper a nd l ower s urfaces. O nly 3 o r 4 c ourses o f b uilding b locks s urvived u p t o t he h eight o f 1 t o 1 .5 m etres. T he c orner s tones, t he e asiest t o r ob, w ere p reserved i n t he l owest c ourse o nly , b ut a ll s urviving e xamples d isplayed t he c haracteristic G reek w orking
( anathyrosis).
1 78
T he t ower w as b uilt u pon b edrock w hich h ad b een l evelled f or c onstruction p urposes. T wo t renches e xcavated a round t he n orth w estern a nd s outh e astern c orners i ndicated t hat t he l evelled b edrock w as w orked t o a ccept t he f oundation b locks w hich w ere 1 5 t o 2 0 c m. w ider t han t he e xterior f ace o f t he u pper c ourses. T he i nterior o f t he t ower, w hich m easured 5 .45 x 5 .5 r n ., w as l evelled u sing a d eposit o f c rushed s tones. T his d eposit w as u p t o 7 0 t o 8 0 c m d eep i n t he n orthern h alf o f t he t ower. A v ery f inely w orked s quare b lock o f s tone l ay i n t he v ery c entre o f t he t ower ( dimensions, 5 0 x 5 0 c m i n w idth a nd 6 0 c m d eep). T his b lock w as s et i nto t he l evelling d eposit a nd w as p acked w ith a n umber o f s tones. O n t he w estern, e astern a nd s outhern s ide o f t he c entral b lock l ay t hree p artly w orked b roken b locks ( Plate 1 0.5). T he s tone o verlying t he s outh e ast e dge o f t he c entral b lock h ad a g utter 1 0 c m w ide a nd 2 0 c m l ong c ut i nto i t. T he n orthern p art o f t he i nterior o f t he t ower h ad b een l ater t rench w hich h ad b een b ackfilled w ith s tones,
d amaged
b y
a
l oose s oil a nd a l arge
q uantity o f G reek t iles. T his f eature c ould b e d ated t o t he 1 8th o r 1 9th c enturies A .D., f rom t he p ottery c ontained w ithin i ts l owest d eposits. A n umber o f i nteresting f eatures l ay w ithin t he e xcavated a rea t o t he s outh o f t his l ater t rench. F rom t he s outh w estern a nd s outh e astern c orners o f t he t ower u p u ntil t he c entral s tone b lock, a nd d irectly o ver t he l evelling d eposits, l ay a d eposit o f a sh a nd c harcoal. T his w as d irectly o verlain b y a d istinct c oncentration o f l umps o f b urnt c lay m ixed w ith f ragments o f t ile a nd l arge p ieces o f b urnt w ood. T he w hole o f t his a rea w as c overed b y a g reat q uantity o f f ragments o f r oof t iles o f d ifferent d imensions a nd s hapes. T he t ile d istribution c oncentrates i n t he a rea s outh o f t he c entral b lock a nd e xterior o f t he s outh w all o f t he t ower.
i s e vidently c ontinued o n t he A c ultural d eposit o f d ark b rown
s oil w ith t races o f c harcoal a nd b urnt c lay,
b etween 8 a nd 1 0 c m t hick w as
a lso d iscovered. U nfortunately , t his l ayer w as o nly w ell p reserved i n t he n orthern p art o f t he b uilding, a round t he a rea c ontaining t he m odern t rench. D atable f inds a ssociated w ith f ragments o f G reek f ine w ares,
t he t ower d eposits m ainly c omprised m ost o f w hich w ere f ound i n t he s outh
w estern a rea o f t he t ower, n ear t he w alls a nd w ithin t he l ayer o f a sh m entioned a bove. S everal s herds d eserve c omment a nd i llustration a t t his m oment. T hese i nclude s everal r ims o f s kyphoi ( Figure 1 0.2/2,3,6), t wo s kyphos b ases ( Figure 1 0.2/4,5), a s herd o f a t hin-walled v essel o f g rey c lay, c arrying a b lack g laze a nd p ainted w hite ( Figure 1 0.2/7), a nd t he b ase o f a l arger v essel ( Figure 1 0.2/1). t he 4 th o r 3 rd c enturies B .C..
A ll o f t his m aterial d ates t o
A s t he a nalysis o f t he e xcavated m aterial i s n ot y et c omplete, i t i s h ard t o d raw a ny p recise c onclusions. H owever, i t i s p robable t hat t he c entral s tone b lock s upported a n i nternal p latform a nd, g iven t he a bundant a mount o f b urnt c lay f ound d uring t he e xcavation, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he u pper f loor c arried a c lay s tructure ( a f ireplace?). T he q uantity o f t iles f ound d uring e xcavation o bviously p oints t o a r oof a lthough w e c annot b e s ure w hat f orm s uch a f eature m ight h ave t aken.
1 79
O n a nalogy w ith
o ther
s imilar
s tructures,
w e c an a ssume t hat t he t ower w as c .
1 0 m etres
h igh ( Orber 1 987). D espite t he p reliminary n ature o f t his r eport, w e c an s tate w ith s ome c onfidence t hat t he t ower's c onstruction c an b e d ated b y t he a ssociated p ottery t o t he 4 th o r A h igh
t ower o f
s imilar
3 rd c enturies B .C..
s ize a nd a rchitectural f orm i s a lso s ituated o n t he
( 250 m etres a bove s ea l evel),
a nd
b arely
a ccessible
h ill
o f
T OR ,
above J elsa ( Plate 1 0.6). T his t ower overlooks t he f ertile p lain o f J elsa a nd S tarigrad, t he H var C hannel a nd t he m ainland c oastline. T he t ower i s i ntervisible w ith t hat a t Maslinovik,
s ome 7 .5 k m. d istant.
I t w ould s eem
l ogical t o a ssume t hat b oth t owers b elong t o t he d efensive s ystem t hat p rotected t he t erritory o f t he G reek c olony o f P haros. T hese b uildings, w hich a re w ell k nown e lsewhere i n t he G reek w orld ( Adams 1 982:71) f unctioned a s w atchtowers o r p hryktoria, a nd w ould h ave c ommunicated w ith e ach o ther u sing b eacons o r s moke s ignals. I n s uch a s ituation, t he t ower a t M aslinovik w ould h ave f unctioned a s a c ommunication l ink b etween T OR a nd P haros w hich l ay a nother 3 .5 k i n,
d istant
( Figure
1 0.3).
G iven
t he
c onstant danger f rom p irates a nd t he h ostile n ative I llyrian p opulation, s uch t owers w ould h ave o ccupied a p osition o f g reat i mportance i n t he defensive s ystem g uarding t he c hora o f 1 0.1
t he P haros c olony.
NOTES
w hile a s imilar t ower i s p urported t o 1 I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat h i l l s o m e 2 k i n , t o t h e s o u th e a s t o f h ave e xisted a t P urkin K uk, a nother s ite d id n ot r eveal a nything about t he S tarigrad, r ecent e xcavation o f t he d i sc o v e re d ( Z a n in o v i 1 9 8 4 ) . f unction o f t he s tructure which was 1 0.2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I n memoriam F oxy T he
e xcavation
P rotection o f people L jubljana
t he
U niversity), U niversity),
( University o f
Maslinovik
was
t he C ultural H eritage o f
a sssisted
( Ljubljana
a t
a uthors Z oran D unja
f inanced
Geri
Z agreb).
1 80
t he
t he I sland o f H var.
during S tan i
by
e xcavation: ( Department
( Architect,
D r. o f
Centre f or t he T he
f ollowing
V inko
S ribar
A rchaeology ,
Z agreb) a nd I rena R adi
F igure 1 0.1
E levation o f
t ower,
Maslinovik
1 81
/
I
3
2
5
4
7
6 2 9 . W
o I
1
2
F igure 1 0.2
•
c r ta0
5 cm I
P ottery f rom Maslinovik.
1 82
1 988 . S .. ITM IK
F igure 1 0.3
M ap o f
t he S tarigrad p lain,
Maslinovik,
T or a nd P haros,
1 83
s howing l ocation o f a nd l ines o f
s ight.
P late 1 0.1
E xcavations i n p rogress a t Maslif lOVik.
1 84
N orth t o t op.
P late 1 0.2
E xcavations i n p rogress a t Maslinovik.
1 85
N orth t o t op.
P late 1 0.3
E xcavations i n p rogress a t Maslinovik.
1 86
N orth t o t op.
P late 1 0.4
V iew o f
t ower
f rom S outh w est.
1 87
P late 1 0.5
I nterior o f
t he t ower f rom N orth.
1 88
P late 1 0.6
T or
v iew o f
t he S outh E ast c orner.
r econstructed.
1 89
U pper p art
C HAPTER E LEVEN A M ODULAR A NALYSIS O F T HE F IELD S YSTEM O F P HAROS -
Z ORAN S TANCIC & B OZIDAR S LAPSAK
T he
r egular
l and d ivisions o n t he S tarigrad p lain,
w ere f irst i nterpreted a s b eing a l andscape f eature s patial L jubi
O rganisation i n 1 960.
o pinion
t hat
P rior t he
o f
t he t erritory o f
t o
t his
i mpressive
w ork
o n t he i sland o f H var, a ssociated
t he G reek t own o f
s everal
a uthorities
w ith
t he
P haros b y S . w ere
o f
t he
f ield s ystems o n H var w ere o f R oman o rigin
( Bradford 1 957, C hevalier 1 957, D ubokovi -Nadalini 1 962). I n 1 981, a p reliminary m etrical a nalysis o f t he f ields f rom t he 1 :5,000 m aps o f t he a rea w as u ndertaken i n a n a ttempt t o e lucidate t he m odular
s cheme and f oot
m easure u sed w ithin t he f ield l ayout. I t w as f elt t hat s uch i nformation m ay b e o f c ritical i mportance i n a ny h istorical i nterpretation o f t he f ield s ystem. 1 1.1
THE M ODULE
W ithin
t he a nalysis o f
t he H var f ield s ystem,
t he m odular u nit o f
l and
d ivision i s d efined a s t hat w hich a ppears t o b e d elimited r egularly by a ssociated r oads o r p aths, t hus f orming a c ontinuous r ectangular g rid ( for a d iscussion o f p reservation
t he c oncept o f
o f
l andscape f eatures s uch
u nits
a re
' limites',
s ee D ilke 1 974).
T he
t he P harian f ield s yste ms w ithin a n umber o f ( stone a nd t errace w alls, r eadily
d iscernible
r oads e ts,)
w ithin
t he
h as e nsured
t hat
S tarigrad p lain.
p rincipal l ines o f t he s ystem a re e asily i dentifiable f rom p hotographs ( Bradford 1 957), a nd c adastral m aps o f t he a rea. U sing t his i nformation,
e xcellent s ubstantial
b oth
T he
a erial
l and p lots o n t he c entral p art o f t he p lain c an
b e s hown t o b e r oughly 1 80 m w ide a nd 9 00 m i n l ength ,
a nd f ollow t he e ast
t o w est a xis o f t he p lain. T hese u nits c an b e i nterpreted a s f ollowing e ither t he 1 x 5 G reek s tadia module o r t he R oman 5 x 2 5 a ctus module. T he metric a nd h istorical i nterpretation o f t he
l and
d ivision
u sed on t he S tarigrad p lain m ust d epend u pon t he d efinition o f m easure u sed w ithin t he l ayout o f t he f ields. 1 1.2
module t he f oot
THE F OOT M EASURE
T he w ork c ommenced o n t he b asis t hat t he s ides o f
t he l and
p lots
w ere
i n f act u ndivided m ultiplicators o f a n e lementary u nit. T his s eemed t o b e a r easonable a ssumption s ince i nitial a nalysis i ndicated t hat t he l and d ivision m odule a pproximated t he k nown s tadion o r a ctus values o f 5 x 3 6 i n .
T he 5 0 p lethra s quare u nits w ith a
s uggested
f rom e pigraphic e vidence f or L arissa,
a 1 000 f oot d iagonal,
s uggested f or H ersonnesus
1 91
d iagonal
o f
a
1 80 m o r
1 000
f eet
a nd t he 2 10 m s quare w ith ( Salviat a nd
V atin
1 974)
c annot b e a ccepted a s t he b asis f or a nalysis o f t he H var f ield l ayout. S uch a s cheme w ould p roduce a n u nnacceptably s mall f oot m easure o f o nly 2 55 mm. U nfortunately , t he 1 981 a nalysis p roved i nconclusive. W hilst t he r esults a ppeared e mphatically t o e xclude t he R oman a nd A ttic f oot m easure o f
2 97.6
a s
t he
b asic
u nit
u sed a t P haros,
t he m ean v alue e ventually
p roduced b y t he a nalysis 3 08.2 mm , c ould n ot b e f itted i nto a ny k nown f oot measure. T he r esult a lso i ndicated t hat t here a ppeared t o b e -
i nconsistencies w ithin t he m easurements
t aken f or a nalysis,
t he s ource
o f
w hich demanded a f ar m ore s ystematic a nalysis. D uring 1 986, o ne o f t he a uthors ( Z. S tan i ) u ndertook a f urther r e-analysis o f t he f ield s ystem w ith t he i ntention o f
i solating t he b asic u nit o f m easure u sed o n H var.
T he p lan designed t o p roduce t he d esired r esult s imple. T his i nvolved t hree s tages o f a nalysis: 1 .
T he
m easurement
o f
a
s tatistically
w as
a dequate
e ssentially
n umber
very
o f d istances
b etween f ixed p oints o n s urviving a ncient f ield b oundaries. 2 .
T he o riginal f oot m easure s hould t hen
b e
l ength o f e ach measured b oundary b y 6 00, 3 .
T he
data
f rom
t his
s ample
w ould
a rithmetic m ean o f a ll m easures.
p roduced
b y
d ividing
t he
a nd i ts l ength i n s tadia.
t hen
b e
u sed
T he f inal r esult o f
t o c alculate t he t his w ork s hould
b e a f igure w hich w ould c orrespond t o a k nown G reek f oot m easure.
N aturally , s cheme.
t here w as a
P erhaps
t he m ost
t he h uman l andscape.
n umber
o f
d ifficulties
O n H var,
t he
f ield
s ystem
years o f c ontinuous development a nd m odification. m ade by t he a uthors, o riginally
h ave
i n
a pplying
s uch
a
s ignificant p roblem i s t hat o f t he dynamism o f
t hat t he
b oundary
o f
r epresents
over
2 ,000
T he o riginal a ssumption
a butting
f ield
r an down t he m iddle o f t he d ividing r oads,
u nits
would
w as obviously
c omplicated by t he f act t hat t he w idth, a nd e ven t he p osition o f r oads may h ave c hanged o ver t ime. S uch c hanges may b e t he r esult o f n atural p rocesses,
e rosion,
o r f urther h uman a ctivity ,
i ncluding t erracing,
l and d ivision o r a ggregation o f l and parcels. f rom t he o riginal l ayout a re r elatively e asy
l ater
W hilst m ajor deviations t o d etect, and e rrors
avoided, s mall s cale e rrors a re m ore d ifficlult t o i solate. T he c umulative i mpact o f s uch s mall v ariations i n t he f ield l ayout m ust b e e xpected t o a ffect t he r esults o f any a nalysis o f t he f ield s ystem. 1 1.3
T HE DATA B ASE
A t
t he b eginning o f
t he s tudy ,
i t w as d ecided t o u tilise a s tatistical
s ample o f 1 00 measurements c hosen r andomly f rom t hose u nit b oundaries which d id n ot a ppear t o d isplay m ajor deviation f rom t he o riginal modular l ayout. I nformation g athered d uring t he a nalysis i ncluded: t he position o f t he boundary w ithin t he c adastral s ystem , t he l ength o f t he b oundary i n m illimetres,
i ts o rientation ( east-west o r n orth-south),
1 92
a nd i ts
l ength i n
s tadia. s cale
A ll m easurements u sed i n t he a nalysis m aps.
T he
u pon t he g round. T his w as p urposes o f t he a nalysis. 1.4 1
w ere
m ean e rror o f m easurement w as r egarded
a s
t aken
f rom
+ /- 0.2 m i n.,
s ufficiently
o r
1 :5,000 + /- 1
a ccurate
m .
f or
t he
c arried o ut o n a n A tari c omputer.
The
T HE S TATISTICAL A NALYSIS
A ll
s tatistical
a nalysis
p rocedure f or a nalysis d istortion.
T he
w as
i nvolved
c orrected
t heir l ength i n s tadia.
t he
d ata
c orrection
w ere
o f
a ll
m ap
t hen d ivided b y ( 1)
T he a rithmetic m ean o f a ll
1 00
data
6 00,
a nd
m easurements
f or ( 2) w as
3 06.01 1.1). 1
m. T he f requency d istribution o f a ll d ata i s s hown b elow ( Figure m T his r esult w as p roblematic. O nce a gain, t he r esult d id n ot
a ppear
t o
f it a ny k nown G reek o r R oman u nit o f m ensuration.
I n o rder
t o
c onfirm t hat t his f igure w as n ot t he r esult o f t he u se o f a c ombination o f d ifferent
u nits
o f
m easurement,
a
r efined
a nalytical m ethodology w as
e mployed. T he r e-analysis o f t he m easured d ata i nvolved t he r e-definition o f t he s ample i nto g roups b ased u pon t he p osition o f t he m easurement w ithin t he c adastral u nit, a nd t he m easurement's o rientation. T his a nalysis
r evealed
n orth-south
a nd
a s ignificant d ifference b etween measurements o riented t hose
a ligned
e ast-west.
A pplication
i ndicated t hat t his d ifference w as n ot a ccidental, t he 0 .99 l evel. T his i nformation i s d isplayed s howing t wo o rientation. T his
n ew
o f
a
t -test
b ut w as s ignificant a t b elow ( Figure 1.2), 1
c lear p eaks w ithin t he f requency d istribution b roken down by
i nformation
p rompted
t he i dea t hat t he measurements o f t he
l and u nits c ontained n ot o nly t he o riginal l and u nits, b ut a lso s ome o ther q uantity w hich a ffected n orth-south a nd e ast-west measurements d ifferentially.
T he g reater f requency w ith w hich r oads c rossed t he
f ield
s ystem i n a n e ast-west d irection, a s a c onsequence o f t he r ectangularity o f t he l and p lots, r ather t han a north-south d irection s uggested t hat t he i nclusion o f t he e rror.
t he r oads w ithin t he a nalytical
C onsequently , o riginal s ubtract a nalysis. t hat
w e
i t
w as
h ypothesized
s cheme m ight b e t he s ource o f
t hat,
i n
o rder
t o
i solate t he
l and u nits u sed i n l and d ivision, i t w ould b e n ecessary t o t he w idth o f t he r oad f rom t he measurements u sed w ithin t he T he i mmediate p roblem i n p osing s uch a s olution l ay i n t he f act d id
n ot k now t he o riginal w idths o f t he r oads c ontemporary w ith
t he f ield s ystem. I n o rder t o o vercome t his p roblem, t he a verage w idth o f a ll r oads w ithin t he d atabase w as c alculated u sing a s imultaneous e quation,
p roducing a f igure o f 2 983.5 mm.
I t w as hypothesised t hat t his i n ultiplicator o f a n e lementary u nit. a n
a nalysis
w as
c arried
v alue w ould r epresent a n u ndivided T o i solate t his hypothetical u nit,
o ut u sing a s eries o f v alues r epresenting r oad
w idth, and varying b etween 6 a nd 1 5 u nits/feet. T he s tandard deviation o f t hese u nits w as measured, a nd i t w as s hown t hat t he s tandard deviation w as a t a m inimum w hen a v alue o f t his i nformation,
1 0 u nits i s u sed
( Figure
1.3). 1
B y
u sing
t he g raph o f f requency d istributions c an b e a djusted a nd
1 93
s hows 1.4). 1
a s imilar p eak i n b oth n orth-south a nd e ast-west d irections T hese d ata a llow t he m odular u nit u tilized a t
b etween
3 01.68
m m
a nd
3 02.63
m m
a t
t he
9 5%
H var
t o
f ixed
c onfidence l evel.
a rithmetic m ean o f t he w hole s ample s uggested a f oot m easure o f 1.5 1
( Figure
b e
T he
3 02.16 mm.
C ONCLUSIONS
T he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he P harian f ield s ystem a re i nteresting f or a n umber o f r easons. 1 .
T hese
r esults
p ut
t o
a n
e nd
o rigin o f t he P harian c adastral
t he l ong a nd v exed d iscussion o f s ystem .
T he f inal f igure
p roduced b y t he a bove a nalysis c annot b e o f R oman o rigin.
o f
3 02
t he m i n
T he measure
does, h owever, h ave s uitable p arallels i n o ther a reas o f t he w orld, m ost n otably t he l ater s tadia i n I sth i nia a nd E pidauros,
G reek w hich
a lso d ate r oughly t o t he p eriod o f f oundation o f t he G reek a poikia
o n
H var. 2 .
T he s tudy d emonstrates t hat, i n t he c ase o f P haros, t he a ssignation o f l and d istributed t o c itizens w as b ased u pon u ndivided l inear measures, a nd
w as
d ivisions. s ituation
e xclusive
o f
t he r oads w hich d elimit t he 1 x 5 s tadia l and
I t w ould s eem r easonable a rose f rom t he d iffering
t o h ypothesise t hat s uch a l egal s tatus o f t he p lots: t he
b asic c ommunication n etwork o f t he C hora w as p ublic p roperty, w hilst t he c ultivated l and, i ncluding t he a ccess r oads a nd t racks, w as p rivate. 3 .
T he s tudy a lso p resents a s imple p rocedure w hich c an b e u sed t o verify t he
f oot
m easure
u sed
w ithin
f uture a pplication o n o ther
a ny r ectangular f ield d ivision.
k ey
s ites
( e.g.
H ermessos)
I ts
w ould
b e
p articularly i nteresting. 4 .
F inally ,
t he
w ork
c arried
o ut
o n
H var
d emonstrates
t hat
t he
S alviat-Vatin i nterpretation o f t he G reek l and d ivision s ystem, b ased u pon t he 5 0 p lethra s quare u nits, i s b y n o m eans u niversal i n a pplication. o n
I t w ould f ollow,
S alviat-Vatin's
r esults,
t herefore ,
t hat
i ncluding
B oyd
d iscussion o f t he H alieis t own p lan m odule, t he l ight o f 1.5.1 1
s pecific a nalyses b ased a nd
J ameson's
( 1981)
s hould b e r e-evaluated
i n
t he r esults f rom H var.
F ootnotes
1 . T he
l and
d ivisions
F aros/Pharia,
a nd
p lain,
n ear
t he e astern a rea a round t he b ay o f V rboska,
o n
t he
w estern
s ide
o f
t he
whilst
f ollowing t he o rientation o f t he g rid,
a nd p reserving t he 1
a ctus
t o
n orth-south
d ivision,
a ppear
b e
a pplication o f t he 5 s tadia/25 a ctus e ast-west w ould h ave t o b e t reated s eparately.
1 94
l ess
s tadion/5
r igorous i n t heir
l imites.
S uch
a reas
ca
km
C L A S O F M E A S U R E
L r
p -3
F REQUENCY
F igure 1 1.1
F requency d istribution o f a ll measurements, P haros c enturiatiOn s ystem.
1 95
i I j q 4 i P 1 l I I I I 1
J t t l1i lJ i 1 !l iL
I i 1 l I f l h 1 l t I 11 J I 1 i I ' • t 1 I I i 1 J 1 I 1 l
r-
I PW
1 l I 1 I I 1 I t O h l I 1 l O II 1 l M l H l h 1 I 1 l Il I lI
U,
C L A S O F M E A S U R E
M I lL , - .
N
CI
—4
c O F REQUENCY
F igure 1 1.2
D istribution o f measurements by d irection ( solid b ars
=
E
-
W ;
s tippled b ars 1 96
=
N
-
S ).
R O A D W I D T H — co
7 . 1 1
. ,Z .
i
c U)
i
ua
C L tA -
cø -
/
i -
-
c -J
-
c a
- cJ c a
-
-
-
c i
S TANDARD D EV IAT ION
F igure 1 1.3
S tandard deviation o f r oad w idths
1 97
cc
I l Ml I M l h I f l M # l t 1 I I I I ' 1 1
l h t 1 ' I l
I
r1 1 m 1 1 1 i i R O A D W I D T H ( ' G R E K F E T '
I I tJ I I I I I t ' I 1
L l
M 1 I I —
I
I
p .3
F igure 1 1.4
A djusted f requency d istributions o f
s tandard
d eviations o f r oad w idth ( key a s i n F ig.
1 98
1 1.2).
P ART THREE
:S LOVENIA
1 99
C HAPTER T WELVE M INERALOGICAL R ESEARCH O N T HE N EOLITHIC C ERAMIC A SSEMBLAGE F ROM M OVERNA VAS I GOR K LOP I 1 2.1
T he
T HE D EVELOPMENT O F T HE P ETROLOGICAL R ESEARCH S TRATEGY W ITHIN T HE MOVERNA V AS P ROJECT
p etrological
a nalysis
o f
c eramics
h as
b ecome
i mportant a nalytical t ool over t he p ast 2 0 years. s ubject
h ave
b een
a vailable
f or
s ome
t ime
( Peacock 1 970).
s imilar w ork h as b een c arried o ut w ithin Y ugoslavia c an b e l ittle doubt t hat t he s ubject i s not o ther parts o f E urope.
a n i ncreasingly
S tandard t exts ( Osterc
o n
t he
A lthough
1 986),
t here
s o developed h ere a s i n many
T he w ork d escribed b elow i s b ased u pon t he c eramic a ssemblage e xcavated a t t he M overna V as N eolithic S ite. A lthough M iha B udja's w ork a t t his S ite h as b een c ontinuing e xcavated c eramics h as o nly
f or s ome t ime, petrological a nalysis o f t he b een i n p rogress f or l ess t han a year.
U ndoubtedly i t w ill b e s ome t ime b efore a n a uthorititativestatement c an be i ssued r egarding t he f inal r esults; h owever, s ome s tatement o f s tructure a nd p reliminary r esults w ould b e u seful. F rom t he v ery b eginning o f
t he p roject a s eries o f
t he
l eading
a ims,
p rinciples
w ere f ormulated t o g uide t he development o f t he r esearch p rogramme. l eading p rinciples i ncluded t he f ollowing points:1 .
A lthough m uch i mportant m ineralogical a nalysis h as u pon f elt
a rchaeological a ssemblages t hat t oo l ittle o f t his
b een
These
c arried
o ut
w ithin Y ugoslavia, t he p roject t eam w ork w as c arried o ut w ithin a
s pecifically a rchaeological f ramework and t hat, c onsequently, t oo f ew o f t he p revious p rojects p roduced r esults t hat were d irectly relevant t o c ontemporary a rchaeological q uestions. v ery f ew p ast a nalyses w ithin Y ugoslavia
I t i s a lso t rue t o s ay t hat w ere c arried o ut u pon a
s tatistically valid s ample o f c eramics. I t w as a n i nevitable result o f s uch a n u ncritical s ampling p rocedure t hat, w hatever s uch m ineralogical a nalyses c oncluded, t hey c ould r arely b e u sed e ither a s a b asis f or c omparison between s ites o r e ven a s e vidence f or i ntra-site p atterning. A f urther p roblem r elated n ature a bsence
o f o f
a rchaeological q uantitative
t o
m ineralogical
c eramic f abric
a nalyses. s tudies
s tudies T he
w ithin
l ay
a lmost Y ugoslavia
i n
t he
c omplete and
a
c ontinuing e mphasis u pon vessel f orm t ypologies h as n ot p rovided a s uitable b ase f or p etrological a nalysis. T he p etrological s tatus q uo a ppeared t o be a s ituation i n which n either a rchaeologists n or p etrologists were aware o f t he needs, a spirations o r p otential o f e ither d iscipline.
2 01
2 .
I t w as f elt t hat t he f ull-time a ssociation o f a g eologist w ith t he a rchaeological p roject t eam m ight w ell r esult i n a f ruitful a cademic p artnership.
B enefits f rom s uch p rofessional c o-operation
w ere
s een
i n t he p rovision o f a n i nter-disciplinary t heoretical f ramework i n w hich m ineralogical a nalyses m ight b e v alidly i ntegrated w ithin a n a rchaeological p lanned w ith
c ontext, t he
a ims
a nd c onversely f or a rchaeological w ork t o b e o f
p roviding
v alid
data
f or
petrological
r esearch. 3 .
G iven
t he
n ature
o f
e xcavation
a t M overna V as,
a nd t he very s mall
e xcavated a rea ( a t rench 8 m b y 4 m : p ersonal c ommunication, M iha B udja), n o p ossibility e xisted f or i ntra-site a nalysis. I t w as t herefore decided t o c oncentrate o n a nalysis o f t echnological c hange o ver
t ime.
I t
w as a lso h oped t hat
s uch a n a nalysis w ould p rovide a
u seful s tatistical data b ase o f u se s imilar s tudies o n o ther s ites. m ineralogical data r esearch i nto t he
f or c omparative p urposes w ith T he p rovision o f a r egional
b ase w ould a lso a llow f uture a rchaeological n ature o f t echnological and e conomic development
o ver t ime a nd s pace. 4 .
T he r esearch q uestions a t M overna V as a nd t he q uantity o f s herds t o be c ontained w ithin t he a nalysis made i t e ssential t hat a f ast a nd e ffective p rocessing method w as developed. i s
described
b elow,
e nsured
c lassification o f a rtefacts, r e-assessment p rocedure, s uch
n ot b ut t hat
T he f inal p rocedure, o nly
r apid
A t t his p oint i n t ime, r efinement
o f
t he r esearch p roject i s
a nalytical
a nd
a lso a llowed a c ontinuous s everal q uestions posed a t t he
b eginning o f t he a nalysis w ere d iscounted a s a l ater 5 .
which
p rocessing
t echniques
s till
s tage. w orking
on
t he
r elevant t o t he p roblems u nder
d iscussion. P resent w ork h as a llowed t he c lassification o f f abric t ypes t hrough t he p etrological a nalysis o f i nclusions a nd t he s tudy o f t heir s urface f eatures. F uture w ork w ill i nclude t he validation and e xtension o f t hese r esults t hrough t he u se o f e lectron s canning m icroscopy a nd c ritical 1 2.2
s tatistical a nalysis.
T HE D EFINITION O F R ESEARCH G OALS W ITHIN THE MOVERNA VAS M INERALOGICAL R ESEARCH P ROJECT
I t
w as f elt e ssential t hat t he r esearch p arameters o f t he work c arried
o ut a t Moverna V as w ere defined a s a c onsequence o f r elated
t o
t he
s ite.
The
i nitial
s tep
a rchaeological
n eeds
i n t his d irection l ay i n t he
c reation o f a p ottery s eries u sing m ineralogical
a nd
t raditional
f abric
a nalysis a s c riteria f or s eparation. D uring t his phase o f s tudy , a n umber o f q uestions w as p osed. A longside t he o riginal a im o f i solating t echnical c hange
o ver
t ime
w as t he p roblem o f
defined f abric t ypes t o f unctional o r petrological c hange o ver t ime r eflect f actors i ncluding f unctional
t rade,
i ntra-site
t he r elationship o f m ineralogically m orphological vessel g roups; d id s imple t echnical i nnovation o r o ther
d ifferential
p atterning?
s ocial
a ccess
t o
materials
o r
What i n f act does a f abric r epresent?
C ould s uch a c ategory b e r egarded a s a u seful v ariable, a nd h ow s hould s uch a v ariable b e u sed w ithin a rchaeological a nalysis a nd i nterpretation?
2 02
H owever, a s t he f ollowing description o f t he r esearch p rocedure w ill s how, many o f t hese q uestions e ventually b ecame i rrelevant t o t he c eramic s ample a t
M overna
V as
a nd a c ompletely n ew s et o f m ore r elevant p roblems b ased
u pon t he n ature o f
t he a vailable a rchaeological
t he m ineralogical a nalysis w ere a dopted.
s ample a nd t he r esults
o f
O f t he o riginal " archaeological"
q uestions o nly t he most g eneral h ave s urvived c ritical r eappraisal. 1 2.3
ANALYTICAL W ORK C ARRIED O UT O N T HE M OVERNA V AS P OTTERY A SSEMBLAGE
1 2.3.1
S ampling t he c eramic population
A s
n oted
a bove,
i t
i s e ssential t hat t he c eramic
m ineralogical a nalysis h as a v alid s tatistical b ase. s uch
a
s ituation,
a nalytical
w ork
w as
c arried
s ample u sed w ithin
I n o rder t o o ut
a chieve
u pon a ll p ottery
c ontained w ithin a s ingle vertical c olumn t hrough t he s tratified d eposits. T his
m icro-quadrant,
w hich
i s
1 metre s quare,
w ill e ventually c arry t he
f ull b urden o f q ualitative m ineralogical a nalysis.. c olumn
r ested
a ssemblage
u pon
t he
e xamples
o f
f act a ll
t hat
i t
defined
T he
c ontained f abric
c hoice
w ithin
t ypes.
o f
i ts
t his
p ottery
H owever,
t he
r epresentativeness o f t he a nalysed a ssemblage i s b eing c hecked t hrough t he r andom s election o f f urther m icro-quadrants f or f abric a nalysis. H owever i t
m ust
b e s tressed t hat r andomly s elected q uadrants w ill n ot b e s ubject
t o destructive m ineralogical
a nalysis
a s
i t
i s
e ssential
t hat
t hese
c ontrol c olumns r emain i ntact f or f uture s tatistical a nalysis. 1 2.3.2
A nalytical r esearch t echniques
T he
r esults
f rom
a n umber o f t he n ovel a nalytical p rocedures c arried
o ut w ithin t he r esearch p roject
l et t o a r edefinition o f
r esearch
g oals,
a nd i n s ome c ases h ave g iven t he e xpectation o f a deeper i nsight i nto t he a nalysed m aterial. T raditionally many p ottery a nalyses s tart w ith a s imple
v isual
c lassification b ased u pon t he c omparison o f t he s urface o f
f reshly b roken pottery f ragments.
H owever,
t his p ractice w as n ot f ound t o
be o f value f or o ur a nalysis. I n t he c ase o f t hick-walled vessels t he b roken s urfaces t ended t o b e t oo s mall f or o ur p urposes. T he e xposed s urfaces
o f
t he s herds w ere d ifficult t o c ompare a s a c onsequence o f t he
varying degrees o f c oarseness s howed t hat c lassifications objective
r e-appraisal.
s tandardise
t he
o f t he p ottery f abric. b ased o n t his t echnique
M uch
t ime
w as
l ost
E xperimentation r arely s urvived
t hrough
a ttempts
t o
p ottery c lassification u sing t raditional t echniques.
I t
w as d ecided t hat a method had t o b e f ound t o p rovide a n i ncreased a nd u niform s urface f or a nalysis. E ventually i t w as decided t hat s uch a n a im c ould be a chieved b y t he u se o f a n o btained
b y
t his
m ethod
e lectric
s tatistically u seful m easurements o f s ize,
s hapes,
densities
a nd
e xposed s urface w as p olished v isible.
T hese
i ncluded
d ry
g rinder.
T he
s urface
w as v ery s uitable f or t he p urpose o f p roviding i nclusions,
o rientation a
n umber
pores,
o f
c racks,
a nd
( Pettijohn o ther
determining 1 975).
f eatures
a lso
t heir
W hen t he b ecame
t races o f o rganic matter,
c lay
m ixing patterns and i ndications o f p rimary a nd s econdary m ineralisation.
2 03
G rinding t ook a pproximately 3 s econds p er p iece a nd p olishing a f urther 5 s econds. T he s urface c ould t hen b e c ompared v isually a nd o bserved q uartz d ensities f ormed t he i nitial b asis f or f abric i dentification. A t a l ater s tage q uartz d ensities w ere q uantified u sing a g rid. T his i s a t ime-consuming e xercise a nd t here a re s ome p roblems i n i ts a pplication ( see b elow); h owever, t he r esults w ill b e s till b e o f u se f or s tatistical c lassification a nd v alidation o f t he f abric s eries. S herds a re u sually t reated u pon t heir c orners a nd a re g round o n b oth m argins a nd t ransversally t o t he b reak. O ne o f t he b y-products o f g rinding w as t he r aising o f t he t emperature o f t he p ottery s urface. I nevitably s ome m aterials i n t he c lay b egan t o m elt a nd i n s ome c ases p roduced a p atchy s urface f ilm. T hese f ilms w ere c omposed o f b ruised q uartz g rains f ixed t ogether w ith, p robably, m anganese o xides. H owever, t he s urface t emperature a nd f ilm f ormation c an b e c ontrolled t hrough t he s peed o f t he g rindstone. T hese r esults a re i nteresting i n t hat t hese f ilms c an b e u sed a s a nother c lassificatory e lement, w hilst t heir f ormation c an b e c ontrolled a nd t hey n eed n ot d evelop i nto f eatures o bstructing f urther w ork. T he n ext s tage i n t he a nalysis w as d esigned t o i dentify t he r ange o f i nclusions p resent i n t he p ottery a nd t o d ecide w hich i nclusions w ere n aturally p resent i n t he r aw m aterial a nd w hich w ere a dded. T his i n t urn l ed t o s tructural a nalysis. T he c omposition o f t he s herds w as d etermined t hrough i nspection, u nder a p olarizing m icroscope, o f s mall q uantities o f m aterials s craped f rom i nclusions a nd s et w ithin i mmersion o ils. T his a gain p roved t o b e a v ery f ast a nd e fficient t echnique. H owever, i t s hould b e s tated t hat q uestions r elated t o s ome o paque c rypto-crystallic m aterials c an o nly b e f ully a nswered t hrough t he u se o f a s canning e lectron m icroscope o r t he u se o f c hemical p robes. R elevant c hemical a nalyses c an b e d ivided i nto s everal g roups: t hose w hich e tch t he s urface o f t he i nclusion a nd t hose w hich u se a n umber o f d issolving a nd h eating p robes. I n t he l atter g roup t he u se o f a b orax p earl c ould p rove a f ast a nd e fficient f orm o f a nalysis
( Nikitin n . d .).
2 04
T he
t echniques
d escribed
a bove
c ould
p rovide
i nformation
o n
t he
s tructure o f i nclusions w hich h ave p reviously b een s tudied o nly t hrough t he u se o f a s tereo-microscope. A nother a lternative m ethod o f s tructural a nalysis i s t he m icroscopic s tudy o f h ighly p olished s urfaces w here t he i nternal s tructure o f o paque m aterials c an b e s tudied i n a r eflected p olarized l ight. T he n atural s tructures e xamined u sing t hese t echniques w ill b e m ore a ccessible i f i nclusions a re t reated w ith v ibro t ools, c hisels o r n eedles w hich e xpose t he c ore o f t he i nclusion. T he
n ext
p art
o f
t he
as d irected a t t he m ost a bundant o f a nalysis w t h e s e i n c l u s i o n s g a i n i m p o r t a n c e n o t O bviously
i nclusions, q uartz g rains. s imply a s a r esult o f t heir n umerical t he q ualitative b asis f or f abric p roceded w ith t he c ounting o f q uartz v isible o n t he p olished s urfaces o f
d ensities b ut a lso b ecause t hey f orm d ifferentiation. I nitially , w ork g rains a nd t he m easurement o f g rains g round
s herds.
H owever,
a lthough
s tatistics o f t his t ype m ay p rovide s ome u seful g uidelines, t hey c annot y et p rovide r eliable e stimates o f t he t rue p opulations o f q uartz g rains, s ome o f w hich a re m acroscopically i nvisible. I mproved p olishing t echniques m ight p opulations.
h elp
t o
p rovide
a
m ore
a ccurate
e stimate
o f
s uch
I n o rder t o a ttempt t o p rovide a m ore a ccurate p icture o f t he q uartz p opulation, t hin s ections o f t he c eramic w ere m ade ( Streeten 1 980). T he p reparation o f t hin s ection s amples w as s implified b y e xcluding w ater a s a g rinding m edium. T hin s ections w ere a chieved b y d ry g rinding. T he s amples w ere a ir-cooled. T his t echnique i s d esirable a s u nlike t raditional t hin s ection p reparation n o i mpregnation o r d rying i s n eeded T he m ethod p roved m ore e fficient t han g rinding i n g asoline,
a lthough
t his
i s s till u sed i n t he f inishing s tages. T he a dvantage o f u sing t hin s ections r ather t han s ome o f t he m ethods d iscussed e arlier l ies i n t he t echnique's
a bility t o d isplay t he i nternal s tructure o f g rains a nd t heir
a rrangement. H owever, a d isadvantage o f t he t echnique i s t he f act t hat s ome v ariables, f or i nstance g rain s hape, c annot r eliably b e d etermined, w hilst a c ertain n umber i ncluding t he s mallest o f q uartz g rains m ay b e h idden w ithin a s trongly l imonitised m atrix. A l arge n umber o f t hin s ections s hould b e a nalysed i n o rder t o c ompensate f or t hese p roblems. A n a lternative t o
t he
u se
o f
t hin
s ectioning
f or
t hese
s pecific
p roblems w as d eveloped. T his i nvolved t he d isintegration o f t he c lay m atrix o f s herd s amples t hrough t he u se o f a 1 0% s olution o f h ydrochloric a cid. A s n o c arbonates h ave e ver b een i dentified w ithin t he M overna V as c eramic a ssemblage, t here s hould b e n o b ias d ue t o t he l oss o f i nclusions t hrough t he u se o f t his s olvent. M aterials i n s uspension w ere s eparated f rom t he h eavier p articles b y d ecanting. F iltration c ould h ave a lso b een u sed, b ut a t t his s tage i t w as f elt u nnecessary t o s eparate t he r esidue f urther. T he r emaining m uddy s ediment w as c omposed o f c lay m inerals, s ericite, z ircon, r utile, f eldspar a nd q uartz m icro-a nd c rypto-crystals. A ll o f t hese w ere f luvial d eposits s edimented f rom s uspension ( Pettijohn 1 975).
2 05
T he r esidue o f l arger p articles c ontained q uartz, m uscovite, h aematite a nd o ther g rains. W here n ecessary , o paque m aterials c an b e s eparated f rom d issolved c eramics t hrough t he u se o f b romoform a nd s tudied s eparately. T his g roup a lso c ontained a c ertain a mount o f u ndissolved c lay m aterial w hich m ust o f c ourse r etain o ther p articles. W e m ust t herefore r emain a ware o f t his p roblem i n c arrying o ut f urther w ork. T he u se o f a m ore c oncentrated a cid w ould p robably r educe t his p roblem. W hat t hen w as t he c hemical e ffect o f t his p rocess? F urther w ork i ndicated t hat n o g as w as b eing p roduced d uring t he r eaction a nd t hat a y ellow f ilm w hich d eveloped o n t he g lass c ontainers u sed i ndicated t hat i rregularly s haped c rypto-crystallic l imonite m inerals h ad f ormed a k ind o f s ub-structure o f m icroscopic v eins w ithin t he s herd. T his n etwork c ollapsed a fter i mmersion f or a bout a n h our w ithin t he a cid s olution. T he u tility o f t his m ethod w as t hat t he f reed g rains w ere d irectly a vailable f or a nalysis o f s hape, s ize a nd s urface f eatures; b y c ontrast, t hese v ariables c ould b e e stimated u sing o nly o ther t echniques. T he q uantity o f g rains r eleased t hrough t his m ethod i s a lso f ar l arger t han t he s ample p rovided b y t hin s ectioning a nd c onsequently t he r esults m ay v alidly b e u sed w ithin a n umber o f o f s tatistical a nalyses. T he s peed o f t he t echnique a lso o ffers a dvantages o ver t he m ore t edious a nd t ime- consuming m ethods o f t hin s ectioning. A lthough t his t echnique i s t otally d estructive o f t he s ource s herd, p roportionately l ess m aterial i s d estroyed t han t he e quivalent s ample n eeded f or t hin s ectioning. H owever, i t m ust b e s tressed t hat t hin s ectioning w ill r emain p art o f t he a nalytical p rocess a s m any f eatures w ithin t he s herd m atrix c an o nly b e s tudied t hrough t his t echnique. A t
t his
s tage
s everal
o ther a nalytical t echniques w hich c ould b e o f
v alue i n t he c larification a nd v alidation o f t he f abric s eries m ight b e m entioned. X -ray d iffraction c ould g ive i nformation o n t he c omposition o f t he s herd m atrix a nd s urface t reatments. T his t echnique w ould a lso o ffer a n i nsight i nto t hose c ases-where s everal d ifferent t ypes o f c lays h ave b een m ixed w ithin o ne s herd. I nfra r ed s pectroscopy c ould a lso a nswer s ome
q uestions
a ssociated
w ith
t he
s tudy o f a morphous o paque m aterial
c ontained w ithin c eramic s amples. 1 2.4
P RELIMINARY R ESULTS
T he m ineralogical w ork o n t he M overna V as p ottery a ssemblage i s i n m ost s enses i n a s tate o f s emi-completion. A lthough m any v aluable r esults h ave b een o btained, f ew h ave b een s ubject t o s tatistical v alidation i ncluding u ni-variate a nd b i-variate a nalysis o r c ross c hecking u sing a lternative a nalytical t echniques ( Petz 1 985). H owever, w e c an a t t his p oint d escribe t he p reliminary r esults. T wo b asic m ineralogical g roups h ave b een i solated a lthough i t i s e xpected t hat f urther w ork ( e. g ., X -ray d iffraction) m ay w ell p roduce f urther d ivisions. T he f irst o f t hese g roups w as d istinguished t hrough a l ack o f m ica. T he s econd g roup w as d efined t hrough a r elative-abundance o f t his m aterial. W ithin b oth o f t hese g roups a re a s eries o f
2 06
s ub-divisions b ased o n t he v arying d ensities o f q uartz; s everal i ndividual s herds s tand o ut a s a c onsequent o f a n a nomalous p opulation o f q uartz i nclusions. I t i s p ossible t hat s uch a nomalies m ay i ndicate t he p resence o f a n a s y et u nrecognized t hird m ineralogical g roup. A nother a nomalous g roup o f s herds c ontained w ithin t he M overna V as c eramic s ample a re t hose w hich c ontain v oids w hose s hape i ndicates t he f ormer p resence o f o rganic m atter. I t i s o f i nterest t hat t his o rganic m atter w as p robably c ontained w ithin t he o riginal r aw m aterial a nd n ot a dded. F urther w ork w ill r esolve t he s tatus o f t hese a nomalies. A s w ork h as p rogressed, i t h as b ecome a pparent t hat t he m ost s ignificant i nclusion f or s tatistical a nalysis i s q uartz. V irtually a ll o ther i nclusions s eem t o p roduce g eo-chemical r esults w hich, w hilst i nteresting, a re n ot n ecessarily r elevant t o t he a rchaeological p roblems b eing s tudied b y t he r esearch t eam. a nalytical w ork h as c entred u pon p opulation.
C onsequently t he p rincipal t hrust o f t he s tudy o f t he c eramic q uartz
T he s hape o f t he q uartz g rains h as p roved v ery i nformative ( Pettijohn 1 975). T hey s how t hat, i n s ome c ases, t he g rains w ere c rushed w hilst o thers r etained a s ub-angular p rofile. W ell-rounded e xamples a re e xtremely r are. B roken g rains t end t o d isplay s hell-like b reaks. I diomorphic q uartz m ono-crystals o ften s how s igns o f b eing b roken a lthough u nbroken t ransparent c rystal p lanes a re w ell p reserved a nd s how n o s igns o f m echanical e rosion o r p seudo-morphosis t hat c ould b e a ttributed t o t he e ffects o f f iring. T his i ndicates a f iring t emperature o f b elow 6 00 d egrees C . I t s eems l ikely, t herefore, t hat o ther g rains p resent s hould b e w ell p reserved a nd t hat t heir s urfaces w ill b e o f u se i n d etermining e rosional s urface f eatures ( Marshall 1 987). S uch i nformation w ould a llow u s t o i solate, i n s ome c ases t he s ource o f t he q uartz g rains. W e c ould, f or i nstance, a ttribute s ome g rains t o w ater-or w ind-deposited s ediments ( Marshall 1 987). D iameters o f t he c hemically f reed g rains a re n ow b eing s tudied s tatistically ( Love 1 977). A fter s tudy u nder a s tereo-microscope, t hese g rains h ave b een m easured t o a 2 f igure a ccuracy. G raphs c ompiled f rom t hese r esults s how a n ormal d istribution w ithin s ingle s herds. T his w as n ot e xpected a s o bservations m ade d uring t he g rinding p rocess h ad i nitially i ndicated p referential s orting, a s ituation o ne m ight e xpect i f w e w ere d ealing w ith a d eliberately a dded i nclusion. I t i s a n i nteresting p oint t hat g rain c ounting m ay i n s ome c ircumstances g ive a c ompletely u nrepresentative r esult b ecause a c ertain s ignificant p roportion o f g rains m ay r emain i nvisible o n t he s urface o f t he s herds a s a c onsequence o f i nadequate s ample p reparation. P erhaps t he m ost s ignificant c onsequence o f t he c reation o f a v alid s tatistical b ase r elevant t o q uartz g rains w ill b e t he a bility t o i solate p referential q uartz a ddition t o a rchaeological c eramics o r t o i ndicate w hether s uch i nclusions w ere s imply p art o f t he r aw m aterial. G iven t he f act t hat a rchaeologists a scribe s ignificance t o s uch i nclusions, i t i s e ssential t hat a ny c onclusions d rawn f rom t he a nalysis o f s uch v ariables h ave a s tatistically v alid b ase.
2 07
I n c ases w here p referential a ddition i s s uspected, i t w ould b e n ecessary t o e xamine t he s urface o f q uartz g rains f or e vidence o f o ther p rocessing a ctivities, f or e xample, c rushing a ssociated w ith t he a ddition o f t emper ( Marshall 1 987). D uring t he p resent w ork s everal g rains h ave i n f act b een i solated w hich s how e vidence f or b reakage. A t t he p resent t ime i t i s u nclear w hether t his i s t he r esult o f t hermal s hock o r s ome o ther p rocessing a ctivity ( Marshall 1 987). F uture w ork i nvolving a n e lectron m icroscope w ould p robably d iscriminate b etween t hese t wo p ossibilities. T he o bservations m ade a bove r efer o n t he w hole t o g rains w hich w ere n ot p art o f a s uspension l oad. T he s maller g rains c haracteristic o f s uspension r epresent a s eparate a nd i n s ome c ases s ignificant p opulation. I t i s e ssential t hat t hese g rain t ypes a re t reated s eparately. O f s pecific i nterest i n t his c ase a re z ircon m onocrystals w hose s urface f eatures a re p articularly u seful i n t he a nalysis o f e rosion r ates. A nalysis o f t hese c rystals c an d iscriminate b etween r elated c lay s ources w hich, w hilst b eing m ineralogically d ifferent e rosional h istory.
i ndistinguishable,
h ave s uffered a
U ntil r ecently, c olour w as n ot h eld t o b e a s ignificant m ineralogical v ariable. I t w as g enerally b elieved t hat d ifferences t hat d id o ccur w ere t he r esult o f f iring t echnology. H owever, a s olitary p iece r evealed a c lear p attern i ndicative o f t he m ixing o f t wo c lay t ypes. F uture w ork w ill h ave t o a nticipate t he p ossibility o f a m ineralogical d istinction o ccurring b etween s herds o f d ifferent c olours. 1 2.5
C ONCLUSIONS
T he p reliminary n ature o f t his p aper v itiates t he n eed f or t he p resentation o f a c omplete s et o f r esults. H owever, s everal p oints c an, a nd s hould, b e m ade. T he i nitial c ontribution o f t he w ork a t M overna V as h as b een d irected t o t he c ontinuing d evelopment o f p etrological t echniques. T he u se o f a f ast a nd e fficient g rinding t echnique i s o f p articular n ote. T he i mportance o f t his t echnique l ies i n i ts a bility t o p rocess l arge n umbers o f s herds q uickly. I t i s a lso s ignificant t hat s uch a t echnique h as a f ield a pplication. T here i s l ittle i n t he method w hich w ould n ot a llow t he p rocessing o f s amples, i ncluding t hin s ections, o n s ite.
T he
s implicity
o f t he p reparatory s tages o f t he above t echniques
m eans t hat t he e arly s teps o f a nalysis c ould b e c arried o ut b y a rchaeologists t hemselves, t hus c utting d own t he a mount o f e xpensive s pecialist t ime r equired. I n t he p ast, t he r ather s low, l aborious a nd e xpensive t echniques u sed a pplication o f s uch s tudies.
i n p etrological a nalysis T he t ime-saving n ature o f
h ave l imited t he t he above s tudy
w ill r educe t he c ost o f f uture a nalysis, t hereby w idening t he n umber o f p otential a pplications. T he p otential f or b ulk p rocessing a lso i ncreases o ur a bility t o a chieve a v alid a nalytical d ata b ase. I f s uch s chemes a re s uccessful, i n t he f uture t here w ill b e n o e xcuse f or i nadequate o r u nrepresentative s ampling. T he r esults f rom M overna V as a lso e mphasise t hat a rchaeologists s hould b e c oncerned w ith a ll a spects o f t he n ature o f c eramics. I n o rder t o d raw v alid c onclusions
r egarding
t he
s ignificance
2 08
o f
s uch
m aterial
i n
a
t echnical o r i ndeed s ocial c ontext, t here m ust b e a n a dequate k nowledge o f t he m aterial b eing s tudied. W hilst s ome o f t he r esults p resented h ere m ay s eem o vertly p etrological t o s ome a rchaeologists, s uch s tudies a re e ssential i f w e a re a ble t o i solate t hose v ariables w hich a re s ignificant t o a rchaeological i nterpretation. W e s hould b e a ble t o s ay w hether i nclusions w ithin a c eramic o bject w ere d eliberately a dded o r n aturally p resent. T he t echniques o utlined a bove a re p art o f a n a ttempt t o a nswer a t l east s ome o f t hese q uestions a nd a ll w ere d esigned t o a id a nd v alidate t he c eramic c lassifications r equired b y a rchaeologists. I t i s o nly t hrough t he r esults o f s uch s low a nd a ccurate w ork t hat a rchaeologists w ill e ventually b e a ble t o a chieve t heir m ore a mbitious a ims r elated t o c eramic s tudies. A t t he l evel o f t he s ite c eramic a ssemblage, s uch d ata w ill f orm t he b asis o f t he i nterpretation o f t echnical v ariability a nd s ocial h ierarchy. B eyond t he c onfines o f t he s ite, c eramic a nalysis w ill b e a n i ntegral p art o f a ny c omparative w ork. P etrological a nalysis h as a p art t o p lay w ithin t his s cheme a nd i t i s h oped t hat t he w ork n ow b eing c arried o ut a t M overna V as w ill p rovide a u seful c ontribution. 1 2.6
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Iw ould l ike t o t hank t he f ollowing i ndividuals f or t heir h elp a nd a ssistance i n t he d evelopment o f t his p roject. F or c ontinuing f inancial a ssistance, t he T anja K lopEi " foundation '. L aboratory s pace w as k indly p rovided b y D octor V asja M ikuz. D octor B o idar S lap ak h as p rovided m uch n eeded e ncouragement a nd a dvice. V ince G affney f or t extual h elp a nd m uch a rchaeological d iscussion. F or a ssistance w ith p etrological p roblems, I w ould l ike t o t hank D ragica S termole. M ilena H orvat a nd M iha B udja o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, L jubljana f or n eeded d iscussion a nd a rchaeological d ata. P rofessor V alerija O sterc a t t he D epartment o f G eology J a i nnik.
f or
h elp.
T he
m anuscript
w as
t yped
b y S tefanija a nd A lenka
A ll t he a bove i ndividuals s aved m e f rom m any p itfalls o f my o wn c reation; h owever t he v iews e xpressed w ithin t he f inal p ublication a re m ine s olely.
2 09
C HAPTER T HIRTEEN T HE S OCIAL C ONTEXT O F T HE
I NTRODUCTION O F
I RON I N T HE E ARLY
I RON A GE O F
S LOVENIA P HIL MASON
I t
i s
t he
i ntention
i ntroduction o f i ron, t he
e arly
f irst
o f t his p aper t o d iscuss t he s ocial c ontext o f a nd t he c hange f rom b ronze-using t o
m illennium
r eference t o t he s phere
o f
h ierarchical O rganisation.
b c
s ocieties
p restige
i n
e xchange
S lovenia, a nd
t he
t he
p roduction,
l ack
o f
development
T he d iscussion w ill b e c onfined,
p recludes
d ata
c oncerning
t he r ise o f t he h ierarchical o f
t he
p restige
o r,
e xchange n etworks.
s econdly,
i n
b ronze
a ge
a nd
t he
i nitial
phases o f
r egion,
t he H allstatt B 1-33 a nd H allstatt C 1-C2
F igure
1 3.1)
( Dular
1 973,
c ontrol
t he
o ver
f irst,
5 44-591;
1 979,
i n
m aintenance
T he c hronological p arameters o f
period u nder c onsideration e xtend f rom 1 000 b c t o 6 00bc, l ater
materials,
t he o rganization o f a gricultural
a nd t he r ole t hat t his p layed,
s ocieties,
o f
o f n ecessity,
s peculation about t he n ature o f e lite
t he a pparently n on-elite e conomy,
i n
w ith s pecific
t o p restige s ystems a nd a rchaeologically r ecognizable p restige b ecause
t he
i ron-using,
e ncompassing
t he t he
t he e arly i ron a ge i n t he i n
C entral
6 5-100;
E urope
( see
G abrovec 1 973,
3 55,
3 68-373). T he
modern
J ugoslavia, i s
t he
w est, a nd
g eographical r egion o f S lovenia,
a c onstituent r epublic o f
i s l ocated t o t he n orth o f t he h ead o f t he Adriatic
main
a nd t he n orthwestern B alkans a nd t he P annonian P lain, n orth-east,
e specially
n orthern Y ugoslavia, physical
r elief
n orthwest,
s ea,
f ocus o f t he overland r outes b etween n orthern I taly, t o
a nd
t o t he
t he
e ast
t hrough t he S ava a nd D anube r iver valleys i n
s outhern
H ungary
a nd
s outhwestern
R umania.
T he
o f S lovenia i s dominated by t he S outheastern A lps i n t he
a nd t he D inaric A lps o r
Karst
i n
t he
s outh
a nd
s outheast,
w hilst t he e astern p art o f t he r egion i s dominated b y t he h ighly d issected l imestone p lateau o f D olejensko. s outheast,
a t ributary o f l owland,
Two major r ivers d rain f rom n orthwest t o
t he r ivers D rava a nd S ava, t he S ava ,
p rovide
t he
w hich t ogether w ith t he r iver K rka, major
a reas
o f
p otential
a rable
a nd t he m ajor a rteries o f c ommunication a nd e xchange u tilised i n
t he e arly f irst m illennium b c,
a s c an b e s een i n t he c oncentration o f
l ate
b ronze a re a nd e arly i ron a ge mortuary a nd s ettlement s ites i n t hese r iver valleys ( see F igures 1 3.2 a nd 1 3.3) ( Pounds 1 969, 6 24-627, 6 37-638; a el 1 977,
1 57-160).
A rchaeologically t he l ate b ronze a ge period, 7 50bc,
w as
v alley ,
a nd t he L jubljana g roup,
valleys g roups
c haracterised
( Gabrovec w ere
t radition.
1 973,
by
t he R use g roup,
t he
p art
o f
n ame
a rises
t he
c entred on t he D rava r iver
w hich o ccupied t he S ava
3 68-371;
T his
w hich dates f rom 1 000bc t o
M üller-Karpe 1 959, w idespread
Central
a nd
K rka
r iver
15-130). 1
T hese t wo
E uropean
l J rnfield
f rom t he mortuary p racice,
a ssociated w ith
t his c omplex, o f c remating i ndividuals, a nd b urying t he i nurned a shes i n f lat c emeteries. L jubljana a nd R uge g roup m aterial i s f airly t ypical o f
2 11
t he s o-called P annonian u rnfield r egional g roup,
f ound i n e astern A ustria,
w estern H ungary , n orthern C roatia a nd n orthwestern S erbia. T he m ortuary s ites o f t hese t wo g roups c onsist o f s mall, f lat c remation c emeteries o f n o m ore t han 4 00 g raves, e .g. L jubljana ( Pug 1 971; 1 982; S tare 1 954), N ovo m esto-MeStne n jive ( Knez 1 966, 5 1-101; 1 982, 1 19-132) a nd R uge ( M i jiler-Karpe 1 959, 1 15-126), a nd o ften c emeteries w ith m uch s maller n umbers o f g raves, e .g. N ovo m esto-Brsljif l ( K r iez 1 967, 1 55-161), M olnik ( Pug 1 984, 1 34-162) a nd B rinjeva g ora ( ANS 1 975, 2 96). T his c ontrasts w ith o ther r egions w ithin t he U rnfield c omplex, m ost n otably P oland a nd E ast G ermany , w here c emeteries a ssociated w ith t he L ausitz g roup c an c ontain u p t o 3 000 g raves ( Coles a nd H arding 1 979, 3 59-370). I t s hould b e n oted t hat r elatively f ew k nown s ettlement s ites h ave a ssociated l ater b ronze m aterial. T he k nown s ites a re e ither o n u ndefended h illtop l ocations ( e. g ., B rinjeva g ora ( Pahi 1 981, 7 1-143)) o r o n t he f irst r iver t errace ( e. g ., O rmo ( ANS, 1 975, 3 20). O ther s ites m ay l ie b eneath l ater b uildings ( e. g ., K ranj-Parish C hurch ( Horvat 1 983, 1 40-218) a nd L jubljana -C astle H ill ( ANS 1 975, 1 87)). T he a rchaeological data u sed h ere i s d rawn l argely f rom m ortuary s ites, w hich s how l ittle e vidence o f d ifferential d eposition o f g rave g oods, w hich i s o ften t aken a s a n i ndicator
o f
d eposition o f b ronze. h ave b een
s ocial
s tratification.
T he
e mphasis
i s
m ore
o n
t he
o f r elatively s imple c eramic s ets w ith o nly o ccasional p ieces T his w ill b e d iscussed i n m ore d etail b elow. S ettlement s ites n eglected a rchaeologically, w ith t he e xception o f t hose s ites
n oted a bove. T he e arly i ron a ge p eriod e xtends f rom 7 50bc t o 3 00bc, b ut o nly t he e arlier p art, d ating f rom 7 50bc t o 6 00bc, i s o f c onsequence i n t his s tudy ( Dular
1 973,
5 44-591; G abrovec 1 966,
1 -48;
1 973,
3 71-373).
T here i s n ot
o nly a m ajor t echnological c hange i n t his p eriod w ith t he i ntroduction o f i ron, b ut a lso m ajor c hange i n m ortuary p racive a nd s ettlement l ocation, a lthough c ontinuity i n m aterial c ulture i s a pparent f rom t he l ater b ronze a ge. T he D olenjsko p art o f i ts t erritory,
g roup s upe rceded t he Lj u bl jana g roup i n t he e astern t he K rka a nd S ava r iver v alleys i n e ast-central
S lovenia, w hilst t he R u!e g roup w as s uperceded i n t he D rava r iver v alley b y t he W ies-Martijaf lec g roup, w hich a lso i ncluded s outhern S tyria a nd n orthwestern C roatia ( Dular, 1 979, 8 5-85; S .PahiC 1 973, 5 38-539). T he m ost n otable f eatures o f b oth t hese g roups a re t hat b urials, w hich n ow i ncluded i nhumations a s w ell a s c remations, w ere p laced i n b arrows, w hich w ere f requently c lustered i n l arge g roups a round t he n ew d efended h illtop s ettlements. ( Gu tif l 1 976, t he
c .79
E xamples o f t his c an b e s een i n t he c .70 b arrows a t L ibna 2 0), t he c .30 b arrows a t M agdalef lSka g ora ( ANS 1 975, 2 00),
b arrows
a t P odzemelj
( ANS 1 975,
2 42-243)
a nd t he c .130 b arrows
a round S ti na ( ANS 1 975, 1 97), a ll o f w hich l ie i n t he D olenjsko g roup a rea. A s imilar p attern i s e xhibited b y s ites a ssociated w ith t he W ies-Martijaf lec g roup ( e. ‚ t he c .700 b arrows s urrounding t he B urgstallkOgel h illfort a t K lein-Klein ( Dobiat 1 980) a nd t he 7 8 b arrows i n t he c emetery a t L egen n ear S lovenj G radec ( Strm nik-Guli 1 979, 1 01-150)). I solated b arrows a re a lso k nown, ( e. g ., a t B ostanj ( Gu tin 1 974, 9 9)) a s a re f lat c emeteries ( e. g ., V aEe ( Stars 1 955)). S uch m ortuary/settlement c omplexes a re u sually s ituated o n h igh g round d ominating t he m ajor r iver v alleys o r l owland b asins, s uch a s t he G rosupije p olje. T hese l ocations w ere t hus i mportant f or m aintaining a ccess t o p otential a rable l and a nd
2 12
m aintaining 1 3.3).
c ontrol
o ver
m ajor
i nter-regional
c ommunications
( Figure
T he c hange i n a rchaeological g roups, d escribed a bove, h as p reviously b een e xplained i n t erms o f o utside i ntervention, e ither t hrough i nvasion o r i mmigration. T he c ontinuity b etween t he l ater b ronze a ge a nd e arly i ron a ge g roups, w hich i s s tressed a bove a nd e mphasized b elow , m ake t hese t heories u ntenable. H owever, i t i s i nsufficient t o h ypothesize t hat t he L jubljana a nd R uge g roups h ad a m ore e galitarian s ocial o rganisation t han t he l ater g roups, o r t hat t he l atter w ere t he r esults o f p rocesses o f i ncreased h ierarchisation. T he m ortuary r ecord c an o ften m ask s ocial d ifferentiation, a s w ell a s e xpress i t. I f t his i s t he c ase w ith t his d ata s et, w hy i s t he s ocial c omplexity i n t he l ater b ronze a ge o f e astern S lovenia h idden i n t his w ay 7 I n h is s tudy o f 1 9th a nd 2 0th c entury b urial p ractice i n B ritain, P arker-Pearson ( 1982) s uggests t hat s uggests t hat m ortuary p ractice i s a w ay o f f ocussing t he a ttention o f t he l iving o n t he s tatus o f t he d ead, b ut t hat t his w ill n ot n ormally t ake p lace w hen t here i s a g ood r eason f or m aking s uch a p ublic s tatement. T hus o vert s tatus w ill u sually b e s hown i n t he m ortuary r ecort d uring t imes o f s tress o r c hange, e ither i n a n a ttempt t o r einforce t he e xisting s ystem o r t o l egitimate n ew s tructures. T he l ater b ronze a ge p eriod i n S lovenia m ay t hen r epresent a p eriod o f s ocial s tability b ut w ith a s ociety j ust a s c omplex a s i n t he e arly i ron a ge. T he n ew b urial p atterns s how c hange i n p art o f t he L jubljana a nd R uge g roups a nd a c ommensurate n eed t o l egitimate t he n ew o r r e-aligned s ocio-political s ituation. T his i ncrease i n o vert s tatus d ifferentiation i s a w idespread p he i nonenon t hroughout m uch o f C entral E urope, a ppearing a t t he s ame t ime a s t he i ntroduction o f i ron. T he p rocesses b ehind t he c hanging p attern w ere n ot, h owever, u niform.
T his c an b e b etter e xplained b y a n e xamination o f t he p restige e conomy o f t he L jubljana g roup. T he p osition o f t his g roup, i n t he S ava/Krka v alleys, m eant t hat i t d ominated t he m ain r outes b etween n orthern I taly a nd t he n orthwestern B alkan r egion, a long w hich w hich t he m ajor l ate b ronze a ge e xchange n etworks o perated. T he c hief a rticle o f e xchange w hich c an b e d etected a rchaeologically w as b ronze. T his w as a p restige m aterial, p ossession a nd e xchange o f w hich c ontributed t o s ocial s tatus. I n m any w ays b ronze i s t he u ltimate p restige s ubstance, i n t hat t he m ost m undane o f a rtefacts c an b e r ecast i nto p restige f orms, s o t hat t he m etal i tself, l ike g old, w as i ntrinsically v aluable. T he L jubljana g roup w as a djacent t o t he c opper-producing r egions o f t he E astern a nd C entral A lps ( Pittioni 1 980a, 3 3-37; 1 980b , 7 7-92), a nd w as t hus i deally p laced t o m anipulate t he s upply o f o ne e lement e ssential i n t he p roduction o f b ronze. T he o ther, t in, w as a vailable i n t he B ohemian E rzgebirge, a nd i n t he C olline M etallifere i n c entral I taly, a lthough t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t he e xploitation o f t hese o re s ources i n p rehistory ( Gregory-warden 1 984, 3 49-364; M uhly 1 973, 2 56; 1 976, 9 9-100). T he b urial d ata f rom L jubljana g roup c emeteries s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he s ocial o rganisation w as n ot a s e galitarian a s a s implistic i nterpretation w ould s uggest. T he f irst p hase o f t he c emetery a t
2 13
L jubljana, g raves t he
t he L jubljana I p hase
( Pug 1 982,
c emetery
1 96).
i n
c hronological
( 1000bc-800bC),
i s r epresented b y only 4 8
T here i s n o w ay o f k nowing t he d uration o f
t his
p hase,
g roups,
b ut
L jubljana
t he
I a
f inds
a nd
c an
b e
L jubljana
d ated
I b,
u se o f
t o
t wo
e quivalent
t o
H allstatt B i a nd B 2 r espectively. T here a re n ine dated g raves, f our i n t he f irst p hase a nd f ive i n t he s econd; t he r emainder c an b e dated only t o t he L jubljana I p hase i n g eneral ( Gabrovec 1 973). I n t his s tudy, t he b urial population i s t reated a s b eing e venly s paced over t he 2 00-year p eriod.
O n t he a ssumption o f
a
2 5-year
g eneration,
t his
g ives
u s
a
p otential l iving p opulation o f 6 in di viduals / generation h ardly a v iable s ocial u nit. H owever, t he p resence o f b ronze i n s ome o f t his s mall n umber -
o f
g raves
m ay
b e
s ignificant;
i ndicator o f h igh s ocial p laced
i n
o ther
o ther m anner,
a s
f itness
s tatus.
L ower
f or
b urial
m ay
y et u ndiscovered c emeteries,
s ites
p erhaps b y e xcarnation o r r iver b urial.
l ie o n k ey r outeways, m aterial.
e mphasized
b y
T he
t he
l arge
h ave
o r d isposed o f T hus
a t L jubljana, N ovo m esto a nd Mokronog i n D olef ljSka G orenjska c an b e d etected i n t his p hase ( Gabrovec 1 973). p restige
h ave been a n
s tatus i ndividuals m ay
b een
i n
e lites
s ome b ased
a nd a t B led i n A ll o f t hese
w hich w ould e nable t hem t o c ontrol t he f low o f p re-eminence
o f
t he
s ite
o f
L jubljana
i s
q uantities o f f ine b ronzework deposited i n t he
r iver L jubljanica a t L jubljana. T his
b egs
t he
f ollowing
q uestions:
h ow t hen w as t his
s table s ystem
t ransformed i nto t he a pparently more c omplex e arly i ron a ge s ocial s ystem, a nd w hy w as i ron a dopted , w hen b ronze s erved s o w ell a s a p restige g ood? T he c rucial p eriod, i n w hich t he m echanisms b ehind t hese c hanges c an b e d etected a rchaeologically , i s t he e ighth c entury b c, t he L jubljana h a and L jubljana l ib p hases i n S lovenia
( see F igure 1 3.1).
a rc h aeological
A
major
s ource
o f
m aterial i n t his p eriod a re h oards r iverine deposits and s ingle f inds o f b ronze o r s crap w hich w ere deliberately d eposited. -
-
R ecent
r esearch
i n
n orth-western E urope h as s uggested t hat t he h oarding
p henomenon i s m ore c omplex t han a s imple c ollection o f s crap m etal f or r ecasting, t he d eliberate c oncealment o f valuables i n t imes o f t rouble o r t he r esult o f c hance o r a ccidental l oss. T he p rocesses o f hoard deposition m ay b e l inked t o t he d estruction o f w ealth i n t he c ontext o f a s ystem o f p restige c ompetition, r ecent
e thnographic
1 08-122; t he
L evy 1 982).
N orthwest C oast
s tudies
e xamples o f o f
w hich
p re-literate
T he b est k nown e xample o f
c an
b e
s een
s ocieties t his i s
i n
t he
( Bradley 1 982,
t he
p otlatch
I ndians o f t he U nited S tates a nd Canada,
o f
i n w hich t he
d eliberate d estruction o r g iving-away o f p restige m aterial i n a c eremonial c ontext s erved t o i ncrease t he s ocial s tanding o f t he h older o f t he p otlatch v is-avis h is r ivals f or
s ocio-political
power
( Drucker
1 939,
5 5-65; 1 955; G ould 1 966, 6 7-89). A s imilar s ystem may h ave e xisted i n 1 many p arts o f l ate b ronze a ge E urope ( Bradley 1 984, 1 00-106, 14-124). H owever, t he f act r emains t hat h oarding i ntensified i n t he 8 th c entury b c. I n n orthwestern E urope, t his h as b een i nterpreted i n t he l ight o f l arge q uantities o f p oor q uality b ronze i n t he h oards o f t his p eriod.
t he The
a dvent
t he
o f
t he
r e-alignment E urope, t hat
o f
e arly
i ron
a ge
i n
C entral
E urope
r esulted
p articularly s outhern B ritain a nd n orthern F rance.
t he
m etal
i n
t he e xchange n etworks w hich s upplied b ronze t o n orthwest i n
c irculation
T he r esult was
b ecame i ncreasingly a dulterated t hrough
s uccessive r ecasting d ue t o t he s carcity o f
2 14
f resh
s upplies.
D eliberate
d eposition o r d estruction s erved t he p urpose o f m aintaining v alue o f t he m etal t hat r emained s carcity ( Rowlands 1 980, 1 5-55). H owever,
s uch
a
s carcity
i n
c irculation
t he
a nd s ubsequent d ebasement o f t he b ronze i n
c irculation s hould n ot h ave b een a p roblem i n a reas
l ike
S lovenia,
h ad a ccess t o g ood s upplies o f c opper f rom t he E astern A lps. m ay h ave b een a nother m atter,
p restige
b y m aintaining i ts
w hich
T in s upplies
i f t he i ncreasing G reek c ontact w ith E truria
a t t his t ime w as d irected a t t he t in o f t he Colline M etallifere. H owever, t he o pposite s eems t o h ave b een t he c ase; t he a mount o f b ronze i n t he s ystem
s eems t o h ave i ncreased.
T he deliberate d eposition o f b ronze t hen
h ad a t wo-fold f unction. F irst, i t s erved t o m aintain t he v alue o f b ronze b y r emoving i t f rom c irculation i n a s ystem i n w hich t he m etal w as r elatively p lentiful,
t hus denying t he n on-elite p opulation a ccess
t o
t he
m ain p restige material. S econdly, i t w as u sed i n s ocial c ompetition a nd s ymbolizes t he e xistence o f a n e lite w ho a re i nvisible i n t he m ortuary r ecord. T he o peration o f a s imilar mechanism c an b e s een i n t he c hange i n t he p otlatch s ystem a mong t he N orthwest C oast I ndians a fter E uropean c ontact.
P restige
g oods
became
m ore w idely available t o t he n on-elite
p opulation a nd s o t he p otlatch b ecame d estruction o f w ealth a s a m eans t raditional e lite a t a t ime o f
m ore overtly c oncerned w ith o f r e-affirming t he s tatus o f
s tress.
N aturally,
t his c annot b e
t reated
a s a d irect p arallel t o t he l ate b ronze a ge S ituation i n S lovenia, i t c oncerns t he i mpact o f w estern t raditional s ociety.
p olitical
a nd
e conomic
b ecause
f orces
T he l ater b ronze a ge h oards i n t he E astern A lps a nd S tyria, n orth o f S lovenia, m ay c ontain valuable e vidence
t he t he
o n
a
i mmediately
h ave h ad t he e ffect described a bove. T hey a lso o f a p restige e conomy i n t he R use g roup.
W eapons a nd b ronze v essels, c ommon e lite p araphernalia i n t he e arly i ron a ge, w ere p resent i n t he h oards f rom S eeboden i n C arinthia a nd S chonberg b ei
O berwolz
L jubljanica s pearheads,
( Pittioni
c ommunication). m ore
1 954,
5 18-521).
T he r iverine deposits f rom t he
a lso c omprise s ignificant n umbers o f a xes a nd o ccasional b ronze vessels This m aterial may b e i ndicative o f
b ronze ( Ter an,
t he
s words, p ersonal
a ctivities
o f
a
c learly defined e lite t han t hat v isible i n t he c ontemporary mortuary
d ata.
I ndeed,
H oards
t hey m ay r epresent a f orm o f
w ere
n umerous
H allstatt A p eriod
i n
t he
E astern
( c.1100-1000bc)
s urrogate e lite b urial. a nd
S outheastern A lps i n t he
b ut f ew s ettlement
o r
c emetery
s ites
a re k nown ( V.Pahic 1 983, 1 06-128). T his c ould b e e xplained p artly by t he l ack o f e xtensive f ieldwork i n t he a rea, b ut i t does c ontrast s trongly w ith t he l ater H allstatt B e vidence. a ppearance o f c lose
T his
l ong-distance
c omplex e xchange
r epresents a p eriod o f s ocio-political
l ack o f overt o f h oarding. e xtent,
s hows
v ery
p arallels w ith t he H allstatt A h oards a nd cemeteries f rom n orthwest
C roatia.
s table
T he H allstatt A r epresents t he f irst
t he U rnfield s tyle i n S lovenia a nd t he m aterial s eems n etworks
t o
b e i n
c onnected m etals.
s tatus definition,
S o
t o
t he
t he
e xpansion
o f
h oarding h orizon
w hich l ed t o t he f ormation o f
s ystem i n t he H allstatt B period,
a
i ndicated by t he
s tatus d ifferentiation i n t he mortuary data a nd t he decline The r iverine deposits o f t he L jubljanica a nd, t o a l esser
t hose o f
t he r ivers K rka a nd S ava c onstitute
2 15
e xceptions
t o
t his
l ater pattern. H owever,
t his
s trategy w as n ot f ollowed b y t he L jubljana g roup i n t he
8 th. c entury b c. i n q uantity i n H owever, phas,
I nitially , i n t he L jubljana ha phase, b ronze i ncreased t he g raves a t L jubljana a nd N ovo M esto-MeStne N jive.
i n t he s econd h alf o f
a
d ifferent
s ome q uantity,
t he e ighth c entury b c,
p icture e merges.
t he
L jubljana
F or t he f irst t ime,
i n f act r eplacing b ronze i n m any c ases.
l ib
i ron a ppears
I t i s u sed i n
i n t he
s ame way a s b ronze, i n t he f orm o f n eckrings, b racelets, a nklets a nd f ibulae, n ot f or w eapons; i t e ven f ound i ts w ay i nto r iverine d eposits ( Gabrovec
1 973,
3 69,
3 71-372).
T he i ntroduction o f
a r ecognisably l ate b ronze a ge g roup,
i ron i n t his w ay i nto
l ike t he L jubljana g roup,
m ay
w ith
g ood r eason b e described a s a n O rnament H orizon. A lthough t he A doption o f i ron a s a p restige m aterial m ay h ave r esulted f rom a b reakdown i n a t l east one
p art
i mpetus
o f
t he metal
f or c hange
a ppeared
s upply
w as
t o
a
( e.
g .,
l arge
t in), e xtent
i n D olenjska a nd B ela K rajina,
i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t he i nternal.
N ew
t he e astern p art o f
c emeteries
t he L jubljana
g roup a rea, w hich s eems t o s uggest t hat c ompetition w as i ncreasing w ithin t he L jubljana g roup. T he a pparently d ominant e lite a t L jubljana r esponded i nitially b y making m ore overt u se o f b ronze i n m ortuary r ites a nd t hen b y s eeking
a
n ew
s carce material w hich c ould b e i njected i nto t he p restige
g oods s ystem. T he c onstant q uest f or n ew p restige m ateriasls a nd t he p rogressive r edundancy o f o ld p restige materials i s a c ommon f actor i n many
p restige
a rtifacts
g oods
c onveys
e conomies,
w here
possession
o f
n ew
w hile more c ommon a nd f amiliar f orms m ay non-elite r epertoire
become
m undane
a nd
c entral
a nd
e xotic
e nter
t he
v alley
a nd
( Helms 1 979).
I ron t echnology b egan t o c ome i nto u se i n t he l ower D anube t he
a nd
s tatus a nd i mplies a ccess t o s carce e soteric k nowledge ,
s outhern
B alkans a fter
1 000bc.
I ndeed,
i ron a rtifacts
h ave b een f ound i n c ontexts i n R umania i n c ontexts w hich p re-date 1 000bc. This i ron t echnology w as u ltimately d erived f rom Anatolia a nd t he L evant ( Collis
1 984,30-36).
s outhern
I taly
H owever
i ron
w as
i n t he e ighth c entury b c,
a lso
a dopted
i n
c entral
a nd
t hrough i ncreasing c ontact w ith
G reece and t he L evant, a n e ssentially m aritime e xchange p rocess ( Collis 1 984, 5 8-61). The s trong l inks s hown between t he s ite o f L jubljana a nd n orthern I taly s uggest t hat t he s ource o f t his n ew s carce material, a t L jubljana, l ay i n t he I talian p eninsula. H owever, t he L jubljana g roup e lites i n Dolenjska a nd B ela K rajina w ere better e xchange opportunities t o t he e ast, The O rnament H orizon w as phase
( 750-700bc),
l argely a
d uring
t he L jubljana g roup.
appeared,
g reater
I ron d id n ot r etain t he p restige s ystem a fter p roperties,
t o
e xploit
n ew
p henomenon
o f
t he
L jubljana
l ib
w hich t ime t he e arly i ron a ge D olenjska g roup
developed o ut o f w ith
p laced
a s w ill b e s hown b elow.
e vidence
N ew s ettlement a nd b urial
p atterns
o f h ierarchy i n t he m ortuary m aterial.
s ame f unctions t hat b ronze p ossessed i n t he 7 00bc, a s i t d id n ot h ave t he s ame i ntrinsic
because i t c ould n ot b e r ecycled a s b ronze c ould b e.
The w idespread adoption o f
i ron a nd t he a dvent o f
t he e arly i ron a ge i n
n orthern I taly a nd t he B alkans, g ave a n a dded i mpetus t o t he d evelopment o f a n e lite i n t he D olenjska g roup f or a n umber o f r easons. F irstly
2 16
s ources
o f
i ron w ere a bundant,
n ot
only
a lso i n D olenjska a nd B ela K rajina, t he
e ast
v alleys
t o
( Knez
m anipulate s upplies,
a nd
s outheast
o f
1 04).
T his
1 972,
t he
e xchange
o f
a long t he e astern A lpine r im,
t he h eartlands o f L jubljana, m eant
i n t he K rka a nd K olpa r iver
t hat
t he
l ocal
i ron i nto n orthern I taly,
e lites
c ould
c ontrolling l ocal
a s w ell a s t hose i n t ransit f rom t he E astern A lps.
L inks
t he B osut-Bassarabi g roup i n t he Y ugoslav D anubian r egion a nd
w ith
s outhwestern
R umania,
a nd t he G lasinac g roup o f t he c entral B alkans w ere n umerous,
s uggest
t hat t hese a reas w ere t he m ain s ource o f
t he
i ron
a nd
b ronze t wo-looped b ow f ibulae,
c eramic decorative m otifs,
a nd
t he new i ron t echnology.
T hese l inks f irst a ppear i n t he L jubljana l ib p hase w ith t he o f
b ut
t he D olenjska g roup,
i ntroduction
a nd c ertain e lements o f
n amely t he M altese C ross,
t he double s piral a nd
t he r ecumbant r unning S . T hese motifs a re f ound o n vessels i n L jubljana l lb g raves a t L jubljana a nd a t M etlika-Borstek i n B ela K rajina ( Dular 1 973, 5 44-591). T he f ibulae o ccur i n D olenjska i n t his phase, a nd derive f rom t he B osut-Bassarabi a nd G lasinac a reas ( Gabrovec 1 970, 5 -65). The n ew m ortuary p ractices o f t he D olenjska g roup, i nhumation i n barrows, a lso h ave p arallels i n t he G lasinac g roup, a nd i n t he e arly i ron a ge c emetery a t V ergina, i n Macedonia ( Gabrovec 1 966, 4 7-48). I n D olenjska t he f irst b arrow c emeteries, a t s ites s uch a s P odzemelj i n B ela K rajina, w ere c ontemporary w ith N ovo mesto-Mestne H owever,
t he L jubljana l ib p hase f lat c emeteries a t L jubljana, n jive a nd Metlika-Borstek ( Dular 1 979, 6 5-100).
t here d o n ot
s eem t o b e a ny e arlier f lat g raves a t P odzemelj,
a t s imilar s ites s uch a s S ti na, w ould s eem t hat t he e lites o f
t he e lite b ased o n t he o ld c entre o f a ctual
s ources
o f
i ron,
o r
L ibna o r C rnomelj ( Dular 1 979, 8 5). I t t he D olenjska g roup w ere able t o s upplant
g iving
L jubljana, t hem
d ue t o t heir possession o f
c ontrol
over
a
major e xchange
c ommodity , a s w e w ell a s i n t he g eographical s ituation o f t he e lite m ortuary/ s ettlement c omplexes, w hich dominated t he i mportant e astern e xchange n etworks,
t he
s ource
o f
t he
n ew
a dditions
t o
t he
p restige
r epertoire. H owever i t i s c lear t hat t he D olenjska g roup developed o ut o f t he p receding L jubljana g roup f or t he s imple r eason t hat t he c ontemporary f lat g raves and b arrow g raves i dentical
i n
r ite,
o f
t he
c remation,
L jubljana
I Ib/Podzemelj
I
phase
a re
a nd c ontain very s imilar g rave g ood t ypes,
b oth i n i ron o rnaments a nd c eramics.
T he i nnovations
i n t he barrow g raves
a t s ites l ike P odzemelj a re t wofold, f irstly t he c onstruction o f a barrow m ound over t he g raves, a nd s econdly t he f irst c lear i ndications o f a s exual
d ichotomy
i n
t he
g rave
d eposition o f w eapons i n s ome o f i n
s ome o f t he g raves,
s word
( Dular
1 973,
m anifestation o f
g oods.
These
t he g raves,
o f
t he
n ormally i ron s pearheads,
b ut
n ormally i ron s pearheads,
5 47).
t he l ater,
These
w eapon
t ake
f orm
b ut i n o ne c ase a b ronze
g raves
t ypologically male,
t he
a re
t he
e arliest
e lite g raves.
T he t ypologicallly m ale e lite g raves c ontained many i ndicators n ature
o f
t he e arly a re e lite s ystem.
a s w ell a s o n a n i nter-site l evel,
o f
t he
C ompetition on a n i ntrasite l evel,
c an b e
observed
i n
t he
d ifferential
d istribution o f i mportant p restige a rtefacts, s uch a s w eapons a nd h orse-riding e quipment, w hithin c emeteries. Another i mportant p art o f t he p restige a rtefacts,
s et,
w hich
i s
o ften
f ound
i s t he t he b ronze v essel
s et.
2 17
i n
a ssociation
T hese a re o ften
w ith
t he
e laborate,
above a nd
w ere p robably u sed i n t he c eremonial c onsumption o f a n a lcoholic b everage. I ndeed f igural f riezes i n t he S itula A rt s tyle, f ound o n b ronze vessels dating t o b etween 5 25bc a nd 3 75bc ( see F igure I ), depict t he u se o f b ronze v essel
s ets
i n f easting,
a nd w arfare
( Eibner
c ompetitive s ystem , o f h iliforts,
a nd
a long w ith a thl et ic c ompetition,
1 980,
2 61-296).
Warfare
a lso
c hariot r acing
l ies
w ithin
t his
t he e vidence f or w hich c an b e s een i n t he c onstruction i n
t he
p resence
o f
w eapons
i n
m ortuary
c ontexts.
A lthough d isplay w as p artly i nvolved i n t hese p henomena, a ctual c onflict over t he c ontrol o f s carce m aterial r esource a nd a ccess t o e xchange n etworks c an b e s een a s a l egitimate p art o f 1 984,
2 09-240).
i mportant
T he l ocation
i n t his r espect,
s carce a rable l and, i n
e astern
t he
t he c ompetitive
m ortuary/settlement
( Price
w hilst
w hich f ormed t he main r outes
M agdalenska m ain
g ora
i n
r outes
f ormerly c ontrolled b y t he s ite o f
western i nto
i nto
t he
T hus L ibna
b ecoming
t he
n orthwestern
D olenjska c ontrolled t he
n orthern
I taly ,
w hich
w ere
L jubljana.
L jubljana i tself w ent i nto d ecline a fter t he L jubljana p opulation
i s
f or t hey w ere o ften b uilt t o dominate n ot o nly
b ut a lso t o c ontrol t he e xchange n etworks.
G rosuplje p olje a nd t he
b urial
s ystem
c omplexes
D olenjska d ominated t he K r ko p oije a nd t he c onfluence o f
S ava a nd K rka r ivers, B alkans,
o f
l lb
p hase,
t he
p rogressively s maller over t ime u ntil b urial
c eased a ltogether a t s ome p oint b etween 5 25bc a nd 4 50bc ( Pug 1 973, 3 96). This does n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat s ettlement w as a lso d iscontinued, b ut t hat t he l ocal e lite p opulation w as u nable t o c ompete w ith t he c entres e lites. barrow
n ew
e lite
i n D olenjska a nd s o declined a nd b ecame dependent on t hese n ew I t i s n oticeable t hat t he c lassic t raits o f t he D olenjska g roup, b urial
a nd
e vidence
o f
h ierarchy i n t he mortuary data,
d id n ot
a ppear here a t a ll. T he
D olenjska
g roup
r eached i ts f irst
f loruit i n t he S ti na
I p hase,
b etween 6 50bc a nd 6 00bc ( see F igure 1 3.1). T he e lite b urial p opulation w as c omposed o f t ypologically male g raves, w hich c ontained i ron w eapons, horse-riding e quipment, b ronze d isc helmets o r s heet b ronze h elmets, and a variety o f b ronze vessel t ypes ( Gabrovec 1 960, 2 7-80; 1 968, 1 57-188). Typologically f emale g raves w ere u sually l ess w ealthy, c ontaining b ronze o r i ron b racelets, a nklets, n eckrings a nd f ibulae o f various t ypes, a lthough
on
c onjunction
o ccasion w ith
t hese
s heet
c ould
o ccur
i n
s ome
q uantity,
g old t refoil headdresses o r d iadems
a nd
( Dular
i n 1 973,
5 72, 5 83-590). T his w ealthy " Princely H orizon" a s i t i s o ften c alled, w as b ased on t he e xpansion o f i nter-regional e xchange i n p restige and m undane materials, o ne h and,
particularly b etween t he e asterr i a nd s outheastern A lps o n a nd t he E ste g roup i n n ortheastern I taly o n t he o ther.
e xchange o f materials, b ronze
i ron
g rew
i n
s uch a s amber.
c ontinued
t o
i mportance,
a nd
w as
s upplemented
by
t he The o ther
T he e xchange n etworks c oncerned w ith c opper a nd
e xist,
b ut
w ith
s ome
e xchanged a long a r oute f rom t he B altic c oast,
modification.
Amber
w as
v ia t he e astern A lpine r im ,
t o D olenjska. T he D olenjska g roup t hen performed a m iddleman f unction i n f urther e xchanging t he amber i nto n orthern I taly a nd D almatia ( MalinowSki 1 982, w ithin
13-123). 1 t he
I t i s a pparent
t hat
t he
r ange
o f
p restige
e arly i ron a ge p restige e conomy w as m uch g reater
t he l ate b ronze a ge,
materials
t han t hat o f
w hich s eems t o h ave depended s olely o n b ronze.
r ange o f p restige g oods i n t he e arly i ron a ge p erhaps
2 18
T his
s erved t o r educe t he
r isk o f a c risis i n t he s ystem ,
l ike t hat b rought a bout
i n t he l ate b ronze
a ge b y a d ependance o n a s ingle p restige m aterial, I n
c onclusion,
i t i s p ossible t o s ee t hat t he i ntroduction o f
t he e ighth c entury b c i n S lovenia
w as
a
c ompetition w ithin t he L jubljana g roup, e xchange o pportunities a nd b y a p ossible I nitially,
i ron
w as
r esult
o f
i ncreased
i ron i n i nternal
b rought on p artially by n ew t emporary s hortage o f t in.
n ot a dopted f or i ts u tilitarian p roperties b ut a s a
p restige m aterial t o r eplace b ronze.
I t a ppears w ith a
n umber
o f
o ther
p restige e lements, w hich derived u ltimately f rom t he Y ugoslav D anubian r egion a nd t he c entral B alkans ( Gabrovec 1 981, 1 55-178). I t w as o nly l ater t hat i t t ook o n a m ore mundane r ole i n s ociety. T he u se a nd c ontrol o ver i ron s ources, a long w ith t hat o f amber, c opper a nd s alt, l ed t o t he a ggrandisement
o f
t he
l ocal
e lites
i n D olenjska a t t he e xpense o f
t raditional e lite b ased a t t he s ite o f L jubljana. t he
T he n eed t o
n ew s ocio-political c ircumstances l ed t o t he a doption o f overt
d ifferentiation i n t he m ortuary r ecord a nd t he f ormation o f g roup.
T he c ontinued e xistence o f
t he
s tatus
D olenjska
t he D olenjska g roup w as dependent
l arge e xtent o n i ts r ole a s a m iddleman i n t he l ong-distance
t he
l egitimate
e xchange
t o a o f
s carce materials i n e arly i ron a ge e ast-central a nd s outhern E urope a nd o n t he l arge-scale p roduction o f
i ron.
2 19
Centra l
L j ub l jana D o len jsko
Ru e
E urope
H a 1 3 1
l a
H a B 2
T b
L j lb
Ha
L jI Ia
K le inK le in
H a 1 3 1
S V . L uc i ja
E ste
S
9 00 BC
8 00 BC H a B 3 7 00 BC
6 00 BC
L j hi b
l Ib
P odzeme l j
H a C l
l i la
P odzeme l j 2
H aC 2
f ib i
H a D l
H a B 2
T o lm in
H a 8 3
Ha
I a
1
1 l b
S t i na 1
2
S t i na 2
3
S erpent i f orm 5 00
-
I C
h a
i l b h I c I l / Il l ha
H a D 2 D 3
BC
f ib i
C er tosa h lb
4 00 BC
-
L aT ene A
E ar ly N egau i l c
L alene B
F igure 1 3.1
S
L ate N egau
C omparative c hronology i n t he S outh E ast A lpine r egion i n t he e arly f irst m illennium B C ( after D obiat 1 980 a nd D ular 1 982).
2 20
h Ic
F igure 1 3.2
G eographical b ackground o f
2 21
S lovenia.
F igure 1 3.3 L ist o f 1 .
S ko jan
2 .
9 mihel
3 .
K ne ak
4 .
Z emon
5 .
i J iaka
6 .
L jubljana
7 .
Magdalenska g ora
8 .
S ti na
9 .
' 1 a e
s ite n ames
1 0.
D olenjske T oplice
1. 1
N ovo mesto
1 2.
9 marjeta
1 3.
V elika Malence
1 4.
L ibna
1 5.
P odze i nelj
1 6.
B o tanj
1 7.
R ifnik
1 8.
Maribor
1 9.
L egen n ear S lovenj Gradec
2 0.
K lein-Klein
2 1.
F rög b ei Rosegg
2. 2
V illach-NapoleonSwieSe
2 3.
Most n a S o i
2 22
F igure
1 3.3
P rehistoric c ommunications Age and E arly I ron Age
s howing major
s ites
2 23
L ate B ronze
( see f acing page).
C HAPTER F OURTEEN A N
I NTERIM R EPORT O F S URVEY WORK C ARRIED O UT AT S VETI J AKOB
A M ULTI-PERIOD H ILLTOP S ETTLEMENT A BOVE D OVSKO
( SENOVO),
S LOVENIA
U R09 B AVEC 1 4.1
T HE S ITE
T he e xistence o f a h illtop s ite a t S v. J akob h as o nly b een k nown f or a t ime. T he f irst r eferences t o t he s ite a s a g radisce, o r
r elatively s hort
d efended h illtop s ettlement, a re f ound w ithin t he w ork o f T renz ( 1985) a nd B avec ( 1986). H owever, o ther t han c ontaining a description o f t he s ituation o f t he s ite, j e u pon a s mall h ill overlooking a valley t o t he n orth a nd a s tream t o t he s outh, o n t he n ature a nd date o f e xisting
w ithin
t he
t hese w orks c arried n o u seful i nformation s ettlement,
i ts i mmediate e nvirons.
o r
a ny
r elated
T he p osition o f
s ettlements
t he s ite w ithin
i ts l arger g eographical c ontext c an b e s een b elow ( Figure 1 4.1). T he
f irst r eliable i nformation on t he date o f
a r esult o f m aterial s outhern
s ide
o f
f ound t he
d uring
w ork
g radisce.
D uring
s ondage i nto t he e rosion f ace o f
t he s ite.
over
and
5
k g
o f
pottery,
b one
t he s ite w as p roduced a s t he
w ithin
l ithic
v ineyards
t his w ork,
M r.
s mall
T his
material.
A .
o n
t he
S eher d ug a
t rench
p roduced
T his m aterial w as
s ubmitted t o t he Department o f A rchaeology a t L jubljana f or analysis. variety
o f m aterial w ithin t his a ssemblage w as most i nteresting.
t he p ottery w ere a n umber o f e xamples o f vessels o f E neolithic 1 4.
2 .4),
whilst
date
( Fig
s herds r elated t o t he Kosihy- aka a nd B oler z g roups a re
a lso p resent.
T he l ithic material
i ncluded
a nd,
most
a
p erhaps
T he
Amongst
i mportantly,
p resence o f a n e xotic,
w orked
s erpentine a xe
c ores
( Fig
1 4.2.1),
( Figure 1 4.2.2).
T he
i mported axe i s a n i ndication t hat t he s ite w as
o f
s ufficient i mportance t o b e i nvolved i n l ong-distance e xchange n etworks. T he p ottery a lso i ncluded a n umber o f f ragments o f B uckelkeramik and s herds
w ith
i ncised decoration dated t o H alstatt C ( not i llustrated).
A
c onsiderable amount o f p ottery o f medieval a nd modern date w as a lso f ound. A
more
c omplete
r eport by B avec
a ccount
( 1985),
o f
t his
material i s f ound i n t he u npublished
w hilst t he material
h as
been
deposited
i n
t he
P osayski M useum a t B re ice. G iven t hat t his l ongevity a nd c arried o ut. s ettlement
s mall a ssemblage i ndicated t hat t he s ite
t ype
o f
t he
r egion ( Gabrovec
1 975,
s hould
t o
a ttempt
The l ack o f t hat
w as
o f
s ome
i mportance, i t w as decided s ome f urther w ork s hould b e A though h illtop p lateau s ettlements a re t he n ormal 5 6),
e arly i t w as
I ron Age w ithin S lovenia a nd t he P osavje decided
t hat,
i nitially,
t his
w ork
p lace t he s ite w ithin i ts e xtended l andscape c ontext.
i nformation o n E neolithic s ettlement
patterns
a lso
d ictated
w e m ust a ttempt t o avoid p reconceptions about t he s ettlement p attern
a nd a ttempt t o w ork a t t he l arger g eographical c onsiderable
a mount
l evel
( Pahi
1 975).
T he
o f p loughed a nd open l and w ithin t he a djacent valley
( see t able 1 ) meant t hat a s urface s urvey designed t o p rovide t his i nformation c ould b e c arried o ut very e asily. C onsequently, d uring
25 2
D ecember 1 987, i t w as d ecided t o c arry o ut a n i nvestigative s urvey o ver a p eriod o f 5d ays i n o rder t o g auge t he p otential o f t he l and f or f urther a nd m ore e xtensive s urvey. T he r esults f rom t his w ork, w hich a re d iscussed b elow , w ere v ery e ncouraging a nd i ndicate t hat t his t ype o f l andscape
i s
c apable o f p roducing q uantitative d ata o n l and u se i n a w ay
w hich h itherto h as b een v ery r are w ithin S lovenia.
T able 1 L and u se w ithin t he S edem a rea L and U se
A rea i n H ectares
P ercentage o f t otal a rea
G rassland S tubble F orest
3 .875 0 .65 0 .725
3.7 3 5 .7 6 .3
V ineyard W heat
0 .075 6 .175
0 .7 5 3.7
1 4.2
T HE S URVEY M ETHODOLOGY
F rom t he v ery b eginning o f t he s urvey , i t w as d ecided t hat i t w as e ssential t hat a ll s urvey w ork s hould b e c arried o ut w ithin a g rid w hich w ould p rovide p recise a nd q uantifiable d ata o n t he l evels o f a rtefact d ensities a cross t he l andscape. I t w as f elt t hat s uch a n a pproach w ould n ot o nly p rovide i nformation o n t he l ocation o f e arly s ettlement w ithin t he e nvirons o f 5 v. J akob , b ut i t w ould a lso g ive i mportant i nformation o n t he d istribution o f n on-site m aterial. S uch " non-site o r " off-site" s urvey t echniques h ave b een u sed i n a v ariety o f s ituations a nd h ave d emonstrable p otential t o p roduce v ery p owerful m odels f or t he i nterpretation o f p ast l and u se. T his s ort o f i nformation c an r arely b e p roduced b y s urveys w hose t echniques a re e ither n on-quantifiable o r b ased s imply u pon s ite l ocation ( Thomas 1 975, F oley 1 981). A lthough t he d evelopment o f q uantifiable s urvey m ethodologies h as p roceeded a t a r apid r ate i n N orth A merica, a nd i n s ome p arts o f E urope, t heir a doption h as b een r elatively s low w ithin Y ugoslavia i tself ( but s ee C hapman a nd S hiel, B intliff a nd G affney,
t his v olume;
B ankoff e t a l.
1 981).
T he t echnique a dopted w as a d evelopment o f o ne w hich w as o riginally u sed t o d ocument l ithic d istributions a ssociated w ith B ronze A ge b arrows a nd p rehistoric l andscapes i n E ngland ( Woodward 1 978, R ichards 1 985). T he a rea c hosen f or s urvey w as g ridded i nto c ontinuous h ectare d ivisions u sing 1 :5,000 c adastral m aps. W ithin e ach h ectare s quare, a s eries o f t raverses w ere w alked a t 1 0-metre i ntervals, i n a s outh t o n orth d irection. F or c ollection p urposes, e ach 1 00-metre t raverse w as f urther s ubdivided i nto 4 x 2 5 m etre p arts. p inpointed t o a
A ll m aterial f ound w ithin t he g rid c ould t herefore b e 1 0 x 2 5 m etre t raverse w ithin a f ixed a nd r eplaceable
g rid. W ithin e ach 1 0 x 2 5 m etre c ollection u nit a rchaeological m aterial r elating t o a ll c hronological p eriods w as c ollected a nd p laced w ithin a p lastic b ag.
T his b ag w as g iven a u nique r eference
n umber.
I nformation
r elating t o g round v isibility w ithin e ach t raverse s ub-unit w as a lso c ollected. T he i nitial a rea c hosen f or s urvey w as a s ample t ransect, 3 h ectares w ide a nd 6 h ectares l ong, w hich w as d esigned t o r un f rom t he t op
26 2
o f
t he
S v.
J akob
g radisce,
n orth a cross L oka,
a ssociated w ith t he v illage o f
S edem,
t he a rea o f a rable f ields
a nd e ventually t o S edem i tself,
t he
m aximum a rea t o b e c overed b eing 1 8 h ectares. H owever, t he v ery poor w eather c onditions i n e arly D ecember m eant t hat a n a rea o f o nly 1 1.5 h ectares
w as
e ventually
( Figure 1 4.3,
c overed
P late 1 4.1).
c ollected material
u sing
t he
t echnique
T his i nformation w as t hen
d escribed above
u sed
t o
O ne a rea w as o mitted f rom t he a bove c ollection p rocedure. a rea
t hat
l ay t o t he s outh o f
r unning e ast t o w est. d ensities
o f
t he s urvey. s urveyed,
W hilst
i t
v ery
h ectares),
was
f ield b oundaries. o f
m aterial h ad b een f ound,
w as
d esirable
T his w as
t he
b etween t he g radisce a nd a s tream
t hat
t his
i n w hich v ery h igh a nd w hich p rompted
a rea
s hould
a lso
b e
s uch a p urpose.
C onsequently t he a rea
( a
f urther
s urveyed u sing 1 0 metre s paced t ransects w ithin t he
A lthough t he u se o f
s uch a t echnique p revented t he
u se
t his data f or d irect c omparative w ork w ith t hat c arried o ut w ithin t he
h ectare g rid,
s ome u seful c omparison c ould b e made b y e xpressing b oth
o f d ata i n t erms o f densities p er
s quare m etre
t he
h ilifort,
t op o f
t he h illfort
a Geoscan Mark 4 r esistance m eter.
i tself.
An a rea o f 2 ,000 s quare m etres
a lso
d isturbances, n umber
been
s ubject
t o
w as
s uch s urveys,
J akob
w hilst
t he
a n umber o f e xtensive p ost-prehistoric
i ncluding t he b uilding o f a c hurch and a c ess p it.
o f p rehistoric f eatures w ere n oted.
r esistance f eature,
a rea
s urveyed
H illtop s ites s uch a s 5 v.
a re n ot r egarded a s t he o ptimum e nvironment f or h as
t he
a r esistivity s urvey w as a lso c arried o ut o ver t he
u sing s ite
s ets
( see b elow).
D uring t he p eriod w hen s urface c ollection w as c arried o ut on a round
a
t he
e xtreme g radient i n t his a rea p revented t he u se o f a
s trict h ectare g rid f or 1 .05
t he s ite,
T his a rea i ncluded t he v ineyards
a rchaeological
t he
p lot
s patially.
H owever,
These i nclude a l inear
l ow
i nterpreted a s a p ossible d itched e nclosure w ithin t he
g radisce i tself. 1 4.3
THE D ISTRIBUTION O F L ITHIC MATERIAL
P erhaps t he m ost i nteresting r esults o f d istribution o f c learly t owards
l ithic m aterials.
T he
t he S v.
s hows t he e xistence o f a c oncentration, t he c entre o f t he a rea s urveyed
c oncentration
m ay
a lso
b e
s een
t o
J akob s urvey l ay i n t he
d istribution ( Figure
o r
o f
l ithic
" scatter",
1 4.4).
A
m aterial
o f m aterial
s econd
m inor
t he e xtreme n orth o f t he g rid.
I t
s hould be s aid a t t his t ime t hat t hese s catters r epresent a r elatively l ow l evel
o f
material
w ere r ecovered. b lack
a nd
d iscard.
A ll
g rey
I n t otal,
f lint.
H owever,
n aturally w ithin t he s urvey a rea, e xplained
w ith
o nly 1 78 p ieced o f
r eference
t o
s ince
c ould
b e
i dentified
Table 2 g ives a b reakdown o f
t he
material
t he p resence o f
t he
a ctivity
a ssemblage i s mainly c omposed o f v ery s mall p ieces
f lint d ebitage
t hese a rtefacts w ere manufactured f rom
a s t ools o r
v ery
p oor
n ot o ccur
t he material c an o nly b e
o f
p rehistoric
" spalls" o f f lint,
man.
The
a nd o nly 5 2
s pecific f lint r eduction f orms.
t he i dentifiable f lint
t ypes.
s hows t he s patial d istribution o f t hese a rtefact t ypes.
27 2
a
d oes
F igure
1 4.5
T able 2 F lint A rtefacts f ound d uring t he 5 v. A rtefact t ype
N umber
U nretouched f lakes
1 4
R etouched f lakes
1 0
S crapers
5
B lades
1
O ther
J akob s urvey
I mplements
1 1
C ores B roken C ores
7 4
T OTAL
5 2
Q uantitatively, t he l ithic a ssemblage a ssociated w ith t hese f oci a ppears t o d iffer f rom t hat a ssociated w ith t he g radisce i tself. T his c an b e s hown by c ontrasting t he c ollection
w here w e m ay b e l ooking s ettlement
l ithic
a ssemblage
f rom
a rea w ith t hat f rom t he s outhern s ide o f a ctivity.
a t
m aterial
F igure
d irectly
1 4.6
t he
n orthern
t he g radisce,
a ssociated
w ith
g rid
a n a rea h illtop
c ompares t hese a reas by r educing t he
data t o t he f orm o f densities o f a rtefact
per
m etre
s quare.
T he
w ide
variety o f l ithic t ypes w ithin t he valley f lint s catter i s n ot r eflected i n t he a ssemblage f rom t he g radisce. T he i nterpretation o f s uch a p attern i s
p roblematic;
t he d ifference may b e f unctional o r c hronological.
f urther a nd more e xtensive w ork w ill 1 4.4
O nly
s olve t his p roblem.
THE D ISTRIBUTION O F P REHISTORIC P OTTERY
T he d istribution o f p rehistoric pottery f ound d uring t he s urvey p rovides a r adically d ifferent p icture f rom t hat p rovided b y t he f lint ( Figure 1 4.7). O f t he 1 29 s herds o f p rehistoric pottery f ound, 6 9 w ere f ound w ithin t he most s outherly hectare u nit. T his u nit a ctually l ies o n t he t op o f t he h ill and w ithin t he g radisce
m ay
i tself.
T his
c oncentration
a lso b e a ssociated w ith t he position o f t he d itched e nclosure l ocated
by t he r esistance s urvey c arried o ut o n t he t op o f t he h illfort. 1 4.5
D ISCUSSION
A lthough t he s urvey a t S v.
J akob w as c arried o ut over a s mall a rea,
t he
r esults a re very i nteresting a nd p rovoke a n umber o f p oints o f d iscussion. I nitially, i t c an be s aid t hat t he q uantitative a pproach t o t he s urface data f oci.
was validated t hrough t he i dentification o f s everal l ithic a rtefact Whilst we cannot s tate w ith c ertainty a ny o pinions on t he s tatus o f
l ithic s catters, t he i solation o f s uch phenomena i s a very s ignificant a chievement. I n p roviding e vidence f or s uch e ntities a t S v. J akob, w e must
begin
t o q uestion t he c ontinuing b ias o f p rehistoric
s ite l ocations
w ithin c aves o r on h illtops. We m ust b egin t o c onsider t he s ituation i n w hich p rehistoric valley-based a ctivity m ay, i n s ome c ases, o nly b e r epresented by very l ow density a rtefact i s
n ot,
o f c ourse,
s catters.
T he
S v.
J akob
s urvey
t he f irst w ork w ithin S lovenia t o p rovide e vidence f or
s uch a rchaeological f eatures. A s imilar s catter w as l ocated o n t he L jubljana B arje by T urk and V uga ( 1984). H owever, t hese i solated e xamples
2 28
d o i ndicate t hat i t i s p ossible t hat l ithic s catters m ay r epresent a w idespread a nd h itherto l argely u ndiscovered i ndication o f a rchaeological a ctivity. I f t his i s t he c ase, t he c ontinuing r eliance o n n on-quantitative, s ite-based t opographic s urvey w ithin Y ugoslav a rchaeology m ay w ell r esult i n a c ontinuation o f t he p resent l andscape b ias i n f avour o f t he m ost o bvious l andscape f eatures ( e. g ., g radi e). W e
s hould
c onsider
t hat
s ome
e lements
o f t he s ettlement h ierarchy i n
c ertain p eriods m ay b e a lmost e ntirely m issing a nd t hat, i f w e w ish t o e nsure t hat o ur r egional a rchaeological d ata b ase i s r epresentative, m ore m oney a nd e ffort m ust b e i nvested i n a nalytical a nd q uantitative f ield s urvey. T he S v. J akob p ottery d ata i s e qually s ignificant, i f s omewhat m ore c omplex. T here w ould s eem t o b e n o c orresponding c oncentration o f p ottery w ith t he l ithic s catter d iscussed a bove. H owever, w e c annot b e s ure t hat t his d isparity i s a r eflection o f t he o riginal a rchaeological d istribution. I t i s p ossible t hat t his d isparity i s a r eflection o f t he i ntensity o f p loughing w ithin t he v alley. I n t hose c ases w here d ata a re a vailable ( e. g ., t he B ishops C anning D own s ite i n E ngland), i t c an b e s hown t hat s uch a p rocess c an s eriously d eplete t he t opsoil p ottery r eservoir ( Gingell a nd S chadla-Hall 1 980), a nd t herefore, p otentially, b ias t he s urface d ata. H owever, i f t he p attern p roves t o b e r eal, w e m ust b egin t o c onsider t he i mplications f or S lovenian s urvey. T he f igures i ndicate t hat a bout h alf o f t he p rehistoric p ottery c ollected w ithin t he g rid s urvey l ay o utside t he a rea o f t he g radisce. G iven t he a rea i nvolved, i t w ould s eem i llogical t o a ssociate t his m aterial d irectly w ith e xtra-mural s ettlement a ctivity. T he v ery l ow l evels o f t he r ecovered p ottery m ay a lso a rgue a gainst t his. T his c an, p erhaps, b e i llustrated b y c omparing t he d ifference b etween t he d ensity o f p ottery f rom t he s outhern g rid c ollection a rea w ith t hat f rom t he n orthern s ide o f t he g radisce, a n a rea w here w e m ay b e l ooking a t s ite d ensity p ottery l evels. F igure 1 4.8 c ompares t hese a reas b y r educing t he d ata t o t he f orm o f d ensities o f a rtefact p er m etre s quare. T he c ontrast b etween s ite a nd n on-site p ottery d ensities i s v ery g reat, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o a rgue t hat b oth a reas s hould s imply r eflect a reas o f " settlement '. I f t his m aterial e ventually p roves n ot t o b e i ndicative o f a n e xtended s ettlement a rea, h ow t hen s hould w e b egin t o i nterpret i t? A nalogy w ith s urveys i n a rea o f t he M editerranean z one s uggests t hat w e s hould c onsider t hat m any s ites s hould b e s urrounded w ith a n h alo o f m aterial a ssociated w ith a gricultural a nd o ther o ff-site a ctivities. T he p ublished m aterial p rovided b y t he B oeotia s urvey p rovides e xamples o f
s uch r ings o f d etritus
( Bintliff
1 985:figure
6 ). I t i s a lso s ignificant t hat, i n s ome c ases, s uch i nformation h as b een u sed t o d efine s ite t erritory a nd o ff s ite a gricultural a nd b ehavioural p ractices ( Gaffney e t a l. 1 985). I t i s i ntriguing t o t hink t hat w e m ay b e b eginning t o i solate e vidence f or s uch a ctivity a t S v. J akob.
29 2
1 4.6
C ONCLUSIONS
I n c onclusion,
w e m ust r estate t hat t he r esults p resented h ere a re b oth
p reliminary a nd l imited, doubt, a l arger a rea
b oth i n a rea a nd i nferential p otential. a round t he s ite s hould b e s urveyed,
c omparative w ork s hould a lso b e c arried o ut s ites f ar
( e. h ave
g .,
V eliki
p rovided
a rchaeology
a t
S v.
a
o n
K amen o r M arsive L ozice). t antalising
J akob.
I t i s
g limpse
o f
o ther
s ignificant
H owever, t he
W ithout a nd s ome
n ature
s ufficient t o s ay t hat,
l ocal
t he r esults o f
s o
s urface
a t t his p oint,
t he f irst r esults a re e xtremely e xciting a nd t hat f urther w ork m ay w ell p rovide a c learer p icture b oth o f past l and u se a ssociated w ith t he S v.
J akob s ite,
b ut a lso o f
t he b iases a nd p otential o f
f ield s urvey
w ork
w ithin S lovenia. 1 4.7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
usej B re ice f or p roviding f unding would l ike t o t hank t he P osayski M t h a n k s g o t o m y c o l le a g u e s w ho f or t he w ork a t S veti J akob. S pecial C e r c e t ra n s l a te d t h e p a p e r i n to a ctually d id t he f ieldwork. P eter or d iscussions o f t he m ethodology E nglish. M any t hanks t o V ince G affney f I
a nd t he t ext.
2 30
F igure 1 4.1
S lovenia a nd t he p osition o f
2 31
S veti J akob.
1
F inds f rom S veti J akob: 2
-
s erpentine a xe
3 -4
-
-
2 32
w orked c ores
E neolithic p ottery.
F igure 1 4.3
T he l ocation o f
t he e xtensive s urface c ollection g rid.
2 33
S S
S
.
•
S
•
• 4 -1 F igure 1 4.4
•
1 6-20
>21
0 - *
T he d istribution o f a ll f lints c ollected w ithin t he e xtensive c ollection g rid.
2 34
..
•
S
J S K
D
•
S .
P
P0 '
P
.
.
‚
D J
a .
0 0 • 0
. ' 0 ' O
.
S
•
0 '
.
*
0 ' 0' 0 0 t > 0 ' D O ' . *
•
D
0
0
.
S
J
r
J .
00DD 0
PDD
OD OD
0
P0 0 0
P
00 0 '
A LL I MPLEMENTS •1 •2 0
5 0
•3 a nd a bove
l OOm 0!
J C o re J ' B roken c o re O F l ake 0 ' R e touched f l ake K B lade P S c rape r D O the ri mp lemen t * S add le Q ue rn f r agmen t
F igure 1 4.5
F lint i mplement a nd c ore d istribution.
2 35
f l akes
I mp lemen ts / m2
A l i mp lemen ts 00045m 2 o t he r i mp lem .
00 0 1 .
-
c o res
0 •0005 N .S ide
0 •000 1 0 0000 1 S .S ide
l A li mp lemen ts 00067 / m2
00005
000 1
-
0002
F igure 1 4.6
F lint a rtifact t ypes
:d ensities p er 2 36
s quare m etre.
.
•
S
I
•
S
.
I
•
.
• '
•
.
.
S
S
.
.
5
P REH ISTOR IC POTTERY
I
.1-5 •5 -10
. I
F igure 1 4.7
•1 0-12 • 12+
T he d istribution o f a ll p rehistoric p ottery w ithin t he e xtensive c ollection g rid.
2 37
F i g .8 ,P reh is to r ic p o t te ry d ens i t ies / M2
S .S ide 1 0 .01
F igure 1 4.8
P rehistoric p ottery d ensities p er
2 38
s quare metre.
P late 1 4.1
V iew o f
s urveyed a rea b elow S veti J akob .
2 39
N orth t o t op.
C HAPTER F IFTEEN C OMING D OWN F ROM T HE H ILLS A P RELIMINARY R EPORT O N T HE
I NTENSIVE S URFACE COLLECTION O F
A L OWLAND E ARLY I RON AGE A CTIVITY A REA I N S LOVENIA P HIL MASON
A s t he t itle o f t his s hort a rticle s uggests, u ntil r ecently, e arly i ron a ge l owland s ettlement b oth w ithin S lovenia a s a w hole, a nd t he D olenjska r egion i n p articular, t his
p eriod
w as a lmost u nknown.
defended u pland s ettlement, a nd
e arly
2 0th
s tudies
r elated
The
i mportance o f t hese h illfort p laces
a nd
population
t o
c onspicuous
m uch o f w hich w as i dentified i n t he l ate
c enturies.
t heir p otential f unctions a s c entral u ndeniable,
1 9th
s ites a nd
c entres
i s
a lthough r ecent w ork h as b egun t o s hift a cademic a ttention t o
t he s tudy o f S lovenia
S ettlement
a ppear t o h ave b een t rapped w ithin a paradigm o f
e xtensive,
a nd
i f
Y ugoslavia
t hese a reas t o c ontain
s ometimes
i n g eneral,
a reas
w ithin f orms
T he r esults c ontained w ithin t his p aper a rise f rom a s mall-scale
f ield
s urvey
a nd Chapman 1 985;
a nd
l owl and
s ettlement
( Batovi
f urther
d iscrete,
a nd h as e mphasised t he p otential o f
B avec,
h itherto
u nknown
t his volume).
p roject c onducted w ithin t he G rosuplje b asin,
a r estricted l owland
a rea a pproximately 1 5 k ilometres s outh e ast o f L jubljana, t he c apital o f t he r epublic o f S lovenia ( Figure 1 5.1). This a rea l ies w ithin t he p utative t erritory o f t he h illfort and g ora,
t he
c emeteries
mortuary
c omplex
o f
Magdalenska
o f which w ere e xcavated i n t he l ate 1 9th and e arly
2 0th c enturies a nd a re r elatively w ell k nown i n t he l iterature ( Dular a nd G u tin 1 974, H encken 1 978, H vala a nd K ocuvan 1 982). T he s ite i s o ne o f t he c lassic c entres o f t he e arly i ron a ge D olenjska g roup, b ut, apart f rom a n umber o f s maller h illfort s ettlements o n t he u pland periphery o f t he basin, o f w hich n one h as b een e xcavated, t he s ite t erritory and a ssociated s ettlement h ierarchy a re a n a rchaeological l acuna. I t was t herefore decided t hat a m ore r ealistic p icture o f t he s ettlement pattern c ould best b e e stablished t hrough a f ield s urvey o f t he s urrounding a rea. I t was d uring t his
s urvey t hat t he e xample o f t he hypothesised l owland s ettlement
s ites w hich i s d iscussed b elow w as d iscovered. 1 5.1
S ITE L OCATION
T he
s ite
i s
s ituated
o n
a n
o ld g ravel t errace,
7 50 m s outh o f
t he
h illfort s ettlement o f Magdalenska g ora, a nd l ies a t a n a ltitude o f 3 40 m above s ea l evel. I t l ies n orth o f t he modern v illage o f C ikava, a nd i s s eparated f rom t he l ower s lopes o f t he h ill o f n arrow m arshy valley o f a s easonal w ater
Magdalenska g ora by c ourse ( Figure 1 5.2).
t he The
i nitial d iscovery o f t he s ite w as made d uring e xtensive s urface c ollection o f
a
4 60/2),
well-weathered
p loughed
f ield
w hich h as a s urface a rea o f
( MGE
8, 8
F ield 1 0,
4 ,000 s quare metres.
Cadastral n o.
I nitial
s urvey
w as c arried o ut u sing t raverses w ith a 2 5 m s eparation a nd 1 0 m c ollection
2 40
s ub-divisions. D uring t his e xtensive w ork, e arly i ron a ge s herd d ensities o f 0 .5 s herds p er s quare m etre w ere i dentified w ithin t wo t raverse s ub-units, a long w ith a n e xtensive d istribution o f i ron s lag a cross t he f ield s urface. F ollowing d iscovery i t w as f elt n ecessary t o c arry o ut a n i ntensive s urface c ollection o f t he f ield s urface u sing a n a rbitrary g rid, a ligned o n a n e ast-west a xis a nd u sing a 5 x 5 m c ollection u nit. T he r esulting c eramic d ensities a re p resented b elow ( Figure 1 5.3). T he p reliminary n ature o f t his r eport u nfortunately p recludes t he p resentation o f t he o n-site s lag a nd l ithic d istribution. 1 5.2
D ISCUSSION
T he s urvey a t M agdalenska g ora w as c arried o ut o ver a v ery s mall a rea, b ut c learly s hows a d iscrete d istribution o f e arly i ron a ge c eramics w hich t rends f rom s outh w est t o n orth e ast. T here i s a d istinct f all-off o f m aterial o n t he n orth w est a nd s outh e ast s ides o f t he s catter. I solated l ow-density s herd d istributions o ccur w ithin t he f all-off z one a nd p robably r esult f rom o ff-site a ctivity o r m ovement r elated t o m odern p loughing ( Figure 1 5.3). T he d ensities o f c eramics a re l ow, b ut t here a re a n umber o f r easons f or i dentifying t he s catter w ith s ettlement a ctivity , e .g. t his c an a lso b e d emonstrated t hrough c omparison w ith s urvey r esults f rom a nother r ecently d iscovered l owland e arly i ron a ge s ite s ituated a t T rebnj e -Bene i j a. T he S ite o f T rebnje-BeneEija w as l ocated d uring t he g eophysical s urvey o f a l arge R oman s ettlement. C omplementary i ntensive s urface c ollection o f t he a rea a ssociated w ith b uildings l ocated t hrough r esistivity s urvey h as r evealed s imilar l ow-level e arly i ron a ge a rtefact d ensities. Again t here i s a m arked f all-off i n c eramic d ensities a way f rom t he a reas o f t he s tructures, w hich a re a ligned n orth t o s outh, a nd i ron s lag a lso f orms a m ajor c omponent o f t he s urface a ssemblage. T he l arger p ieces o f s lag a re f ound t ogether w ith t he c oncentrations o f e arly i ron a ge c eramics, s maller p ieces f orming p art o f t he h alo ( Bre ak, K rig a nd W aters p ers. c om.). I t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he s ite a t T rebnje i s a t p resent u nexcavated; c onsequently, i t i s u nclear w hether t he s urvey r esults i ndicate i ndustrial o r s ettlement a ctivity. T he d istribution o f t he s lag a t C ikava h as n ot b een f ully q uantified, b ut d oes a ppear t o p resent a s imilar p icture. O f c ourse, a s g eophysical s urvey h as n ot y et b een c onducted a t C ikava, n o s tructures h ave b een i dentified. L ow d ensities o f l ithic m aterial h ave a lso b een r ecorded a t t he C ikava s ite. T his m aterial a ppears t o h ave a r andom d istribution a cross t he f ield a nd f orms n o c oherent o r d iscrete s catter. L ithic d ensities r ange b etween o ne a nd t wo p ieces p er 2 5 s q m a nd o nly t wo i dentifiable t ools o ccur w ithin t he a ssemblage: a n e nd-retouched b lade a nd a n otched t ool o r a rrowhead. T he r emainder o f t he a ssemblage c onsists o f w aste f lakes, c hips o r u nworked l umps. T he r aw m aterial, a p oor q uality f lint, d oes n ot o ccur n aturally w ithin t he r egion. T he i dentifiable l ithic p ieces m ay w ell b e o f L ate N eolithic o r E neolithic d ate, b ut t his d ating n eed n ot e xtend t o t he r est o f t he a ssemblage. T here i s n o r eason w hy t his m aterial s hould n ot r elate t o t he
2 41
e arly i ron a ge a ctivity o n t he s ite, t he l ight o f p ers.
c or n.;
p articularly w hen i t i s c onsidered i n
t he e xcavated l ithics f rom Cvinger a t D olenjske T oplice T er an 1 976,
T he t opographical
T .
( Kri
9 2:38).
s ituation o f t he s ite m akes i t u nlikely t hat i t i s
a
e xtra-mural s ettlement d irectly a ssociated w ith t he h illfort o f M agdalenska g ora, o r t hat t he a rtefact a ssemblage i s derived f rom t here b y p ost-depositional t he f loodplain i s e dge
o f
t he
e rosion p rocesses.
I ndeed ,
i ts l ocation o n t he e dge o f
s imilar t o t hat o f T rebnje-BeneEila,
r iver T emenica.
w hich l ies
r esearch o n s ite l ocation i n t he G rosuplje b asin a nd t he D olenjska a s
a
w hole.
T hese s ites
s uggest t hat a nother t ier o f
h illforts m ay e xist a nd t hat
o n
t he
T his h as i mportant i mplications f or f uture
t hey
m ay
b e
e xpected
r egion
s ettlement o utside t o
o ccupy
s imilar
f irst-terrace s ites. T he l ow s urface densities o f c eramics a t C ikava m ay b e e xplained b y r eference t o t he n ature o f m odern a gricultural a ctivity w ithin t he G rosuplje b asin. D eep p loughing h as o nly b egun i n t he l ast f our o r f ive y ears i n s ome a reas. A s a r esult, t he C ikava s ite c annot b e e xpected t o p roduce s urface material i n t he s ame d ensities a s p rehistoric s ites i n m any parts o f s outhern B ritain w hich may h ave b een p loughed f or s everal decades. T his observation a lso a pplies t o T rebnje-Bene ija, w hich m ay s uggest t hat t he e arly i ron a ge s ites i n q uestion a re l ess d amaged i n c omparison w ith s ites i n s outhern B ritain, ( e. g ., B ishops C anning D own:Gingell
a nd S chadla-Hall 1 980).
densities c oncerns t he n ature
o f
A f urther f actor a ffecting a rtefact
t he
c eramics
t hemselves.
T hese
a re
l argely p oorly f ired c oarse w ares w ith a n o rganic t emper. O bservations i n t he f ield, and f rom o ther s ites ( Bavec, t his volume, G ingell a nd S chadla-Hall
op.
c it.),
s uggest
t hat
s uch m aterial b reaks d own r apidly
t hrough w eathering a nd c ontinued p loughing, a nd s o w ould b e u nlikely t o r emain w ithin t he p loughsoil f or a ny g reat l ength o f t ime. T his m ay a lso s uggest t hat c eramics w hich h ave r ecently e ntered t he p loughsoil a re u nlikely t o r epresent p rehistoric a gricultural p ractices, p articularly manuring. T he c eramics f rom t he C ikava s ite d iffer f rom t hose r ecovered b y g rab s ampling f rom t he Magdalenska g ora h illfort. I t i s t rue t hat b oth t ypes s eem
t o
r epresent c oarse w ares,
a re u sually f ound i n
m ortuary
q uite d istinct f rom t he f ine w ares w hich
c ontexts
( Dular
1 982).
T he
p roduction
t echniques a re a lso s imilar f rom s ampled s ettlement s ites. T he c eramics a re c oil-built a nd s how e vidence f or d ifferential f iring, p robably a s a c onsequence o f
t he u se o f c lamp k ilns.
H owever,
t he c eramic i nclusions do
e xhibit s ignificant d ifferences. T he h illfort c eramics c rushed l imestone i nclusions, w hilst t he C ikava c eramics o rganic
t empering.
c hronological
Available
e xplanation,
d ata
i s
n ot
s ufficient
c ontain l arge l argely e xhibit t o
a ssess
a
b ut t he c omplementary s patial d istributions o f
c eramic t ypes t ends t o r efute t he derivation o f u pland o ff-site a ctivity.
2 42
t he l owland c eramics
f rom
1 5.3
C ONCLUSIONS
I n c onclusion, i t i s n ecessary t o e mphasise t he i nterim n ature o f t his r eport. A c learer p icture r egarding s ettlement p attern a nd h ierarchy c an o nly b e d rawn f rom t he f ield s urvey o f a l arger a rea w ithin t he G rosuplje b asin , a nd i n c omparable a reas o f D olenjska a nd S lovenia a s a w hole. N aturally, i t w ould b e i nadvisable t o c oncentrate o n s ampling o nly f irst-terrace a reas, a s r esearchers w ould r un t he r isk o f b eing t rapped w ithin y et a nother r estrictive p aradigm, n o b etter t han t hat r esulting f rom t he p revious c oncentration o n u pland s ettlement. T here i s c learly a n eed f or s tratified s ampling d esigns i n f urther w ork i n o rder t o s ample a ll a vailable e nvironments. T he s ignificance o f t his p reliminary w ork i s c onsiderable. F irst, i t d emonstrates t he p otential f or l owland e arly i ron a ge a ctivity a nd s ettlement s ites i n D olenjska a nd S lovenia. C omparative s tudies a re n eeded t o e xtend t his. I t i s n ot e nough t o a ssume t hat t his r esearch w ill m erely r ecover t he l ower s ocial t ier o f s ettlement. T here i s a n eed t o r e-examine t he s ocial c ontext o f h illfort s ettlement. A lthough h illforts a re c onspicuous m onuments a nd o ften h ave a ssociated b arrow c emeteries, t his d oes n ot m ean t hey a re e lite c entres. L owland e lite c entres a re k nown i n o ther a reas o f E urope w ithin r egions o f h illfort s ettlement ( Harke 1 979, B radley 1 986, 1 14-127, 1 38-144, G affney p ers. c or n .). W hile t here i s n o s uggestion t hat t he C ikava s ite w as a n e lite s ettlement, f ine w ares h ave b een f ound i n t he s urface c ollection a t T rebnje-BeneEija, a nd n ot a ll b arrows a re d irectly a ssociated w ith h illfort s ites.
T hus t here i s t he l ikelihood t hat
f urther
f ield
s urvey
w ill s upply i mportant d ata r elating t o a ll a spects o f e arly i ron a ge s ettlement, o ff-site a ctivity a nd l and u se i n S lovenia. 1 5.4
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Iw ould l ike t o t hank t he B ritish C ouncil t hat p rovided f unding w hich h as e nabled m e t o c arry o ut f ield w ork i n S lovenia. T he s taff o f t he a rchaeological d epartment o f L jubljana U niversity , e specially D r. B . T er an a nd D r. B . S lap ak, h ave b een s upportive, s upplying m e w ith f ield e quipment a nd p rocessing f acilities t hroughout t he p eriod o f f ield s urvey. C redit m ust g o t o t he s tudents f rom L jubljana U niversity a nd t o D r. D . D avidson, w ho t ook p art i n t he s urface c ollection. Iw ould l ike t o t hank t he e ditors f or a ccepting t his p aper a t s uch s hort n otice. F inally, s pecial t hanks m ust g o t o Vince G affney a nd A ndy W aters f or d iscussion t he m ethodology e mployed a nd c omments o n t he t ext.
2 43
o f
1
.
p.
-
/ '
F —
I.
0
‚.7 • _
i
0 1
% k l
)
F igure 1 5.1
•_l.
T he l ocation o f
0 . 1 0
t he s urvey a rea i n S lovenia.
2 44
F igure 1 5.2
S ite l ocations i n t he s urvey a rea: g ora;
( 2) C ikava.
( 1) M agdalenska
S tippled a reas a bove 4 00 m a si.
2 45
.
E
I C )
0
.
S
•
2 46
C HAPTER S IXTEEN C ONSOLIDATED B IBLIOGRAPHY A dams J .
P .,
A rnold D .
1 982 L 'architecture m ilitaire g recque.
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1 985 C eramic t heory a nd c ulture p rocess.
‚
C ambridge:Cambridge
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‚
B -143.
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i n
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( Centar
z a
dans
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‚
H .
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A rchaeology , U .
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1 987
I stra ivanje
G radine
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U
n a o f
U niversity o f L jubljana.
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‚
I n i n
E neolitsko n aseije.
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F .
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S lavenska Keramika i z r anosrednjovjekovf le n ekropole
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1 985
K ultura
H rvata
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7
do 9 s to1je a.
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‚‚
G affney V .
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n .d.
S .
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J e e.
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