Recent Developments in Isthmian Archaeology: Advances in the Prehistory of Lower Central America 9780860542742, 9781407336701

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
INTRODUCTION
THE "PROYECTO SANTA MARIA": A MULTIDISCIPLINARY ANALYSIS OF PREHISTORIC ADAPTATIONS TO A TROPICAL WATERSHED IN PANAMA
PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE SANTA MARIA DRAINAGE OF CENTRAL PACIFIC PANAMA: A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
THE HOLOCENE GEOLOGY OF THE WESTERN PARITA BAY COASTLINE OF CENTRAL PANAMA
Early Plant Use and Cultivation in the Santa Maria Basin, Panama:Data from Phytoliths and Pollen
Community Life in a Late Phase Agricultural Village, Southeastern Costa Rica
PREHISTORIC MICROSETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS ATLANTIC WATERSHED OF COSTA RICA
SUBSISTENCE ET EVOLUTION SOCIO-CULTURELLE AU SITE VIDOR, COSTA RICA
NEW APPROACHES TO GREATER NICOYA CERAMICS
NEW APPROACHES IN STYLISTIC ANALYSIS: The Late Polychrome Ceramics at Hacienda Tempisque
NORTHEAST HONDURAS: A PRECOLUMBIAN FRONTIER ZONE
BIRDS AND MEN IN PREHISTORIC CENTRAL PANAMA
LA CERAMICA HISTORICA EN LA CIUDAD DE PANAMA: TRES CONTEXTOS ESTRATIGRAFICOS

Citation preview

44

Proceedings International Congress of Americanists Congreso Internacional de Americanistas Manchester 1982

General Editor: Norman Hammond

Recent Developments in Isthmian Archaeology: Advances in the Prehistory of Lower Central America edited by

Frederick W. Lange BAR International Series 2·12 1984

·B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR S-212, 198/:1: : 'Re ce nt De ve lopments in Isthmian Archaeology' ©

The Individual Authors, 1984

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542742 paperback ISBN 9781407336701 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542742 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age N o I ntroduction F rederick W . L ange T he o f

" Proyecto

1

S anta M aria": A M ultidisciplinary

A nalysis

P rehistoric A daptations t o aT ropical W atershed P anama

R ichard G . C ooke & A nthony J . R anere

3

P rehistoric S ettlement P atterns i n t he S anta M aria D rainage o f C entral P acific P anama : D oris W eiland

A P reliminary A nalysis 3 1

T he H olocene G eology o f t he W estern P arita B ay C oastline o f C entral P anama J ames H . C lary, P atricia Hansell , A nthony J . R anere, 5 5

&T homas B uggey E arly P lant U se a nd C ultivation i n t he S anta M aria B asin , P anama :

D ata f rom P hytoliths a nd P ollen 8 5

D olores P . P iperno & K aren Husum C lary C ommunity L ife i n aL ate P hase A gricultural V illage, S outheastern C osta R ica

1 23

R obert P . D rolet P rehistoric M icrosettlement P atterns i n t he C entral Highlands-Atlantic W atershed o f C osta R ica

1 53

M ichael J . S narskis S ubsistence e t E volution S ocio-Culturelle A u S itio V idor, C osta R ica

1 79

J ean-Francois M oreau N ew A pproaches t o G reater N icoya C eramics F rederick W . L ange, S uzanne A bel-Vidor, C laude F . B audez, R onald L . B ishop, W inifred C reamer, J ane S . D ay, J uan V icente G uerrero M ., P aul F . H ealy , S ilvia S algado G ., R obert S troessner,

1 99

&A lice T illet N ew A pproaches i n S tylistic A nalysis:

T he C eramics

a t Hacienda T empisque J ane S . D ay N ortheast H onduras:

2 15 A P re-Columbian F rontier Z one

P aul F . H ealy

2 27

B irds a nd M en i n P rehistoric C entral P anama R ichard C . C ooke

2 43

L a C eramica H istorica e n l a C iudad d e P anama : T res C ontextos E stratigraficos B eatriz R ovira

2 83

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS M any p ersons a ssisted J FM F oundation o f D enver , t o

d efray m any o f

t he

U niversity o f C olorado.

i n t he f inal C lorado,

c osts

o f

p reparation o f

t his v olume.

t hrough J an a nd F rederick M ayer ,

r e-drawing

f igures

a nd

p roduction

F igures i n t he c hapters b y M oreau ,

T he h elped a t

t he

D ay a nd D rolet

w ere d one b y A nn M cKibbin o f t he U niversity o f C olorado ( Department o f A nthropology), a s w ell a s F igures 1 , 3 , a nd 7 i n t he c hapter b y S narskis .

I NTRODUCTION T his v olume c ontains r evised p apers o riginally p repared b y p articipants i n

t he

t he

s ymposium o n

4 4th

1 982.

I nternational A dditional

M oreau ; a nd t he v olume. C arlos t he

C ongress

p apers

b y

R ovira h ave

B alser,

I nstitute o f C osta i n

" Recent D evelopments

A mericanists

C lary,

Hansell,

c ontributed

r epresenting R ica ,

i nstitutions

p ublication.

o f

i n I sthmian A rchaeology" h eld a t i n M anchester,

R anere,

a dditional

s ignificant

t he J ade M useum o f

D rolet;

d imensions

t o

t he N ational I nsurance

g ave a p resentation o n C osta R ican j ade a rtifacts

c ollection,

b ut

c hose

n ot

t o

F or t hose i nterested i n h is w ork,

p ublication E l J ade

S eptember

a nd B uggey;

s ubmit

a p aper

f or

I w ould r ecommend h is

P recolombino d e C osta R ica ( 1980 ; S an J ose : L itogragfia

eI mprenta L il, S .A .). T he m ost

s ignificant

a pproaches t o p articular p rehistoric

e mphases

r egions,

s ubsistence

a nd

i n t his

t he

d iet,

v olume a re

m ulti-faceted a s

r enewed

t he c oordinated

i nvestigationns

i nterest

i n

o f

a rtistic

i nterpretation b ased o n e xcavated a nd n atural d ata r ather t han s peculation , i nter- a nd i ntra-regional c omparisons, a nd a g rowing a wareness o f t he i mportance c hapters,

o f

a rchaeology

o f

t he

h istoric

w hich a re o nly a s amplee o f

r epresents

e xciting d evelopments

p eriod.

T he

d iversity

o f

t he

t he w ork b eing d one i n t he i sthmus,

i n t he p ast d ecade a nd f oreshadows

f uture

d irections. I n

t he

s ymposium w e

f rom C entral A merica . r esearch p rograms:

w ere

C osta R ica .

R ican P rehistory P ittsburgh

b oth R ica .

l ack

( held

i n A pril,

t he U niversity o f

a t

1 983

t he

C arnegie

a nd w hose

o f

s trong

r epresentation

C osta R ica

a nd

t he N ational

M useum

p roceedings

o f a re

i n C osta

N atural H istory a lso

s cheduled

t o

i n b e

s eries) a nd t he S econd C onference o n G reater N icoya

( held i n D enver i n M ay,

b oth

t he

R ecent c onferences o n I nternational T ies

p ublished i n t he B .A .R , C eramics

o f

i n t he f ormer t his h as b een b ased o n t he d evelopment o f

s trong t raining p rograms a t M useum o f

a ware

C osta R ica a nd P anama a re b oth t he s cenes o f a ctive

t he U niversity

o f

1 983) h ad s ignificant r epresentation f rom

C osta

R ica

a nd

t he

N ational

M useum

o f

C osta

T he National G overnment o f R econstruction i n N icaragua i s a lso

a ttempting

t o

f oment

a s trong

p rogram

i nvestigation a nd h opefully t his w ill

o f

c ultural

p reservation

a nd

b ear f ruit a s w ell .

Ih ope t hat t he c ooperative e fforts o f t he C arnegie M useum m eeting a nd t he D enver C eramic

C onference

m eeting w ill b e

t he m odel f or

t he n ext

I nternational C ongress s ymposium o n I sthmian a rchaeology .

F rederick W . L ange B oulder, C olorado J uly,

1

1 984

T HE " PROYECTO S ANTA M ARIA":

AM ULTIDISCIPLINARY A NALYSIS O F

P REHISTORIC A DAPTATIONS T O AT ROPICAL W ATERSHED I N P ANAMA R ichard G . C ooke

[ 1] a nd A nthony J . R anere [ 2]

A bstract T he P royecto S anta Maria

i s

a m ultidisciplinary p roject d esigned t o

s tudy p rehistoric h uman

a daptations

c oast o f

( the S anta M aria B asin).

c entral P anama

t o

a s ingle

w atershed

o n

t he

P acific

G uided b y e ight m ultiple

w orking h ypotheses, i ts p rimary g oa l i s t he r econstruction o f p re-A.D. 5 00 e nvironments, s ettlement p atterns a nd s ubsistence s ystems. F ield a nd l aboratory t echniques c omprise g eological s tudies ( especially o f c oastal z ones); p ollen a nd p hytolith a nalyses; b one c hemistry; z ooarchaeology ; a n

a nthropological

s tudy

o f

c ontemporary

a rtisan

f ishing;

a nd

a n

a rchaeological s urvey w hich i ncludes b oth r andom a nd p urposive a pproaches. S ome o f t he h ypotheses c an b e a ddressed b y d ata a ccrued d uring t he f irst ( 1982) f ield s eason.

T he s tudy a rea w as o ccupied b y t he s eventh m illenium

B .C. T here w as w idespread s ettlement i n t he b asin d uring t he P receramic I IB p eriod ( 5000-2500 B .C.) b y w hich t ime m aize m ay h ave b een u nder c ultivation.

N ucleated m aize-farming v illages a re i n e vidence b y t he

b eginning o f t he f irst m illennium B .C. ( at L a M ula-Sarigua). a ctivity s ites o f m any k inds h ave b een l ocated.

S pecial

B ackground t o t he P roject P arita B ay, i n c entral P acific P anama ( fig. 1 ), h as b een k nown a s t he e arliest p roven c enter f or c oastal s ettlement i n L ower C entral A merica s ince t he

1 950s,

w hen t he p receramic C erro M angote a nd e arly c eramic M onagrillo

s hellmounds w ere e xcavated ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954, M cGimsey 1 956). S ince

t hen ,

t wo

r ockshelters

w ith

b oth

p receramic

a nd e arly

c eramic

c omponents h ave b een e xcavated ( the A guadulce S helter a nd t he C ueva d e l os L adrones) ( Bird a nd C ooke 1 978, R anere a nd H ansell 1 978), C erro M angote a nd M onagrillo

h ave

b een

r e-tested

w ith

f ine

r ecovery

t echniques

( Ranere

a nd

H ansell 1 978, R anere 1 980a , R anere, C ooke a nd H ansell, 1 980), a nd e xtensive e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut a t S itio S ierra ( Cooke 1 979), a l arge m aize-cultivating v illage which p rovides a c ultural a nd t emporal l ink b etween t he a fore-mentioned s ites a nd l arge c hiefly c enters C onte ( Lothrop 1 942) a nd E l H atillo ( Ladd 1 964).

s uch a s

S itio

T he p ast d ecade's w ork, t hough m odest i n s cope, c an j ustly b e c onsidered s ubstantively p ositive. I t h as r aised t he n umber o f c arbon - 1 4 d ates

a vailable

f or P arita B ay

f rom t hree

e ight p ertain t o p re-A.D. 5 00 p eriods)

t o

f orty-one

( Cooke i n p ress).

( of

w hich

1 .

S mithsonian T ropical R esearch I nstitute , B ox 2 072, P anama.

2 .

D epartment o f A nthropology, T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia.

3

t hirty-

P recise e vidence

h as b een r ecovered a t

t wo s ites - A guadulce a nd L adrones - f or t he i n s itu

t ransition f rom t he p receramic i nto t he c eramic. L arge a nd w ell-preserved f aunal s amples s panning t he e ntire 7 000-year s equence h ave b een p artially a nalyzed ( Cooke 1 978b, 1 979, i n p ress). B otanical r emains h ave b een s ufficiently a bundant t o w arrant r easonable g eneralizations a bout t he a ppearance a nd e volution o f a griculture ( Cooke 1 976a , L inares 1 977, P iperno 1 979, 1 980 , R anere e t a l. 1 980). An umber o f h itherto u ndescribed m ortuary a nd d omestic f eatures h ave b een r ecorded ( Cooke 1 979, 1 981).

R anere a nd G reenfield

I n s pite o f t his p rogress, h owever , t he a rchaeology h as b een u ndertaken o n as ite-by-site, p roblem-by-problem b asis a nd t he l ack o f ar egional p erspective h as l ed t o a n u ndisguisable r epetitiveness i n t he p ublished i nterpretations o f c entral P anamanian c ultural d evelopment ( Cooke 1 976a, 1 979, C ooke a nd C amargo 1 977, L inares 1 977). T he o nly i ntensive f ield s urveys t hat h ave b een a ttempted s ince t he 1 950s ( those b y C ooke i n 1 969-71 a nd T homas W inter i n 1 980), h ave b een u nsystematic r econnaisances o f t he R ecent a lluvium ( Cooke 1 972, W inter , p ersonal i nformation) a nd i t i s w elln igh i mpossible t o r elate p rehistoric s ettlements t o p arameters m ore d iverse t han t opography a nd t ypology. W ith t hese p ositive a ttributes a nd d eficiencies i n m ind ,

w e c onceived

t he " Proyecto S anta M aria", a m ulti-disciplinary s tudy o f p rehistoric h uman a daptations t o a s ingle r iver b asin i n t he s easonal t ropics. T he p roject h as b een f unded f or t wo y ears ( August 1 981-August 1 983) b y t he N ational S cience F oundation ( BNS-8112475) a nd t he S mithsonian I nstitution 's S cholarly S tudies P rogram .

T he P roject D esign A s t he p rincipal t heme o f o ur r esearch c ontinues t o b e t he e volution o f t ropical s ubsistence s ystems a nd t heir r elation t o c hanging s ocial o rganization , w e h ave f ocused o ur p roject o n t he p eriod b efore A .D. 5 00, b y w hich t ime i t i s b elieved t hat t he c ultural p attern o bserved b y t he S panish i n t he e arly s ixteenth c entury a nd d escribed ( rightly o r w rongly) b y a nthropologists a s t he " chiefdom" ( Linares 1 977, H elms 1 979), w as a lready i n e xistence. T his t emporal e mphasis i s, h owever , b y n o m eans a bsolute a nd i nformation r ecovered i n t he f ield o n l ater p eriods i s n ot i gnored. W e h ave o riented o ur f ield a nd l aboratory w ork t owards t he c areful c ollection a nd a nalysis o f t hose d ata w hich a re u seful i n i nterpreting c hanging r elationships b etween h uman p opulations a nd e nvironments. T his r eflects o ur c onviction t hat q uestions a bout s uch i nterrelationships i n P anama , i n t he A merican t ropics, o r a nywhere f or t hat m atter , a nswered b y r ecovering " appropriate d ata".

c an o nly b e

W e h ave r ejected t he a pproach t hat a dvocates o ne a lternative h ypothesis o ver a nother ,

i n f avour o f

K irsch 1 980 :

1 46), w hich w e e numerate b elow.

( 1)

A d ry e pisode d id

" multiple w orking h ypotheses"

( did n ot) m ark t he e nd o f

( Chamberlin 1 965,

t he P leistocene i n

P acific P anama , r esulting i n a n o pen o r s avanna s etting. ( 2)

P aleoindian p opulations w ere ( were n ot) a dapted t o t ropical f orest

b iomes i n c entral P acific P anama.

4

( 3)

C hanging r ates

i n s ea l evel

r ise a nd s edimentation a nd t ectonic

m ovements r esulted ( did n ot r esult) i n a n o scillating c oastline d uring t he H olocene. ( 4)

C entral P acific P anama w as

( was n ot)

i nhabited b etween 8 000 a nd

5 000 B .C. ( 5) T here w ere ( were n ot) h unting-gathering p opulations P acific P anama w hich d id n ot u tilize c oastal r esources. ( 6)

T ropical

f orest

a griculture

o f

s ome k ind d id

i n c entral

( did n ot) p recede

t he i ntroduction o f i ntensive m aize a griculture. ( 7) S edentary a gricultural v illages f irst a ppeared d uring ( a) P eriod I I, o r b efore 2 500 B .C., ( b) P eriod I II, o r b efore 3 00 B .C. o r ( c) P eriod I V , o r a fter 3 00 B .C. a nd b efore A .D. 5 00. ( 8)

P opulation i ncrease p receded ( resulted f rom ,

w as s ystematically

l inked t o) i ntensive m aize a griculture. T o t est t hese h ypotheses ,

w e a re c ollecting d ata w hich w ill p ermit t he

r econstruction o f ( 1) p rehistoric e nvironments, a nd ( 3) s ubsistence s ystems.

( 2)

s ettlement

p atterns

E nvironmental r econstruction i s b eing c arried o ut b y ( 1) g eological s tudies, p articularly t he a nalysis o f s horeline a nd n ear-shoreline z ones , ( 2) p aleobotany, e specially t he s tudy o f p ollen a nd p hytoliths f rom t he s ediment c ores a nd ( 3) z ooarchaeology , w ith s pecial e mphasis o n h abitats ensitive o rganisms. S ettlement p atterns

a re

b eing

d efined

p rimarily

b y

s tratified r andom

s ampling a nd s econdarily b y p urposive s urveys i n a reas w here s ites a nticipated o n t he b asis o f f ormer r esearch .

c an b e

S ubsistence s ystems a re b eing d etermined b y s tudying ( 1) a rchaeofaunas, a ided b y a n e thnographic a nalysis o f c ontemporary f ishing a nd s hellfishing , ( 2) b otanical r emains f rom a rchaeological d eposits ( plant m acrofossils, p ollen a nd p hytoliths), ( 3) t he f unctions o f a rtifacts a nd s ite f eatures, ( 4) s ediments, p ollen a nd p hytoliths f rom t he s ediment c ores f or e vidence o f h uman m odification o f t he e nvironment a nd ( 5) b one c hemistry , t he s table i sotope c omposition o f b one f rom h umans a nd a nimal

e specially c ommensals

s uch a s d eer ( Norr a nd C oleman i n p ress). I n t his p aper, w e p resent a g eneral s ummary o f t he " Proyecto S anta M aria 's" f irst f ield s eason ( January - M ay 1 982), a dding s ome d ata r ecovered i n 1 983 w here t hey a re c onsidered o f s pecial i mportance. D etails o f t he s urvey s trategy a re g iven i n t he p aper b y D oris W eiland. D . P iperno a nd K . C lary p resent a s ummary o f t he p hytolith a nd p ollen d ata . J . C lary, P . H ansell, A . R anere a nd T . B uggey s ummarize t he H olocene g eology o f P arita B ay. W e f ollow t he f ormat

s uggested b y o ur i ntroductory c omments,

f irst w ith t he e nvironment , s econdly w ith s ettlement p atterns d ating p roblems) a nd , t hirdly, w ith s ubsistence s ystems.

5

d ealing

( especially

E nvironmental r econstruction R ising s ea l evels, c hanging s edimentation r ates a nd t ectonic a ctivity h ave c ombined t o p roduce a c omplex h istory o f c oastline c hanges a long P arita B ay d uring t he l ast 1 0 ,000 y ears. T he p rimary r ole o f t he g eological r esearch t o d ate h as b een t o a nalyze t he s tratigraphy o f t he c oastal z one i n o rder t o p roduce a s eries o f p aleogeographic m aps. T o t his e nd , n early f orty c ores w ere t aken o n b oth s ides o f t he S anta M aria r iver. T hree-inch , 2 0 f eet a luminum p ipes w ere v ibrated i nto t he s oft s ediments. T he c ores w ere t hen s awn o pen , d escribed a nd s ampled f or l ater a nalysis p hytoliths.

o f

o rganic r emains ,

s ediments ,

p ollen a nd

P reliminary i nterpretations o f t he c oastal s equence c an b e s uggested o n t he b asis o f v isual e xamination o f t he c ores a nd o n o ur g eneral f ield o bservations. E ven a t t his e arly s tage o f t he a nalysis i t i s c lear t hat w e s hall h ave t o r evise s ubstantially t he m odel o f c oastline c hange d eveloped o n t he b asis o f as horter p eriod o f f ield r esearch i n 1 979. I n t he f irst p lace , w e h ave d iscovered t hat t he e stuarine a nd/or m arine s ediments a re i n m any p laces q uite s hallow , e specially a long t he l andward e dges o f t he a lbinas o r s alt f lats. T his s uggests t hat t he t ierra f irme/albina b order h as b een r etreating l andward f or a t l east t wo t housand y ears a nd , t herefore , t hat l arge s ections o f t he a lbina a re r ather r ecent d evelopments. S econdly, a n umber o f a rcheological s ites w hose c ultural r emains s uggest t hey w ere o nce a gricultural s ettlements h ave b een f ound r ight i n t he a lbinas, a s m uch a s 2 k ilometers f rom a rable l and , w hile t he m apping a nd t esting o f t he L a M ula-Sarigua s ite ( Pr14) h as i ndicated t hat s alt-laden a eolian s ediments b lown i n f rom t he a djacent a lbina h ave a ccumulated o ver a rchaeological d eposits t hat d ate f rom t he f irst m illennium B .C. T hese d ata a re c onsistent w ith t he a bove i nterpretation a nd i t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly c lear t hat t he l andward m argins o f s ome a lbinas w hich w e ( and o thers b efore u s) h ad b een c alling t he " old c oastline" ( e.g., W illey a nd M cGimsey 1 954, R anere e t. a l. 1 980), a re n either o ld , n or c oastline. A t t he s ame t ime, o ur r esearch c onfirms t he c onclusions o f B arber ( 1981) w hose 1 979 s tudy i ndicated t hat t he c oast h ad p rograded r apidly i n t he v icinity o f t he S anta M aria d elta - a t ar ate o f 1 km p er t housand y ears. O bviously,

t his m arked e xpansion o f

l andward d uring t he l ast t he n ature o f t he P arita D ramatic e vidence o f t his l arge b are p atches w here

t wo t housand B ay c oastal i s p rovided t he i nblown

t he a lbina b oth s eaward a nd

y ears o r m ore , h as r adically a ltered z one a nd o f h uman a daptations t o i t. t oday b y s orghum a nd m aize f ields w ith a lbina s ediments p revent p lant g rowth

a nd p ermit t he i nvasion o f s alt-resistant t errestrial s pecies. Analysis o f t he c ore s ediments c an b e e xpected t o r efine t he r econstruction o f t he c oastal z one o ver t he p ast 7 000 y ears. D ere 's ( 1981) a nalysis o f f our c ores a nd f ourteen s urface s amples c ollected i n 1 979 n ear t he M onagrillo s hellmound

( in t he P arita r iver d rainage) h as

d emonstrated

t hat a n umber o f d istinctions c an b e m ade a bout t he e nvironment o f d eposition o n t he b asis o f t he s ediment a nalysis a lone. B y a nalyzing p article s ize d istributions,

c lay m ineralogy ,

6

h eavy m inerals a nd e vaporite

m inerals, D ere w as a ble t o d istinguish t he f ollowing e nvironments: s upratidal z one , ( 2) t he b each-ridge z one , s ub-tidal z one. D uring t he

1 982

( 1)

t he

t he h igh t idal z one, ( 3) t he m id-tidal z one , ( 4) ( 5) t he l ow i nter-tidal z one a nd ( 6) t he s hallow

f ield s eason w e

c ollected a dditional

s urface s amples

f rom a w ide r ange o f d epositional c ontexts. T he a nalysis o f t hese m aterials, i n a ddition t o d ata f rom p ollen, p hytolith, f aunal a nd m acrobotanical s tudies o f t he s ediments s hould s ubstantially i mprove o ur a bility t o i dentify t he s pecific e nvironmental c ore s amples w ere d eposited.

c onditions u nder w hich t he

S ettlement p atterns: p roblems o f c hronology A d etailed d iscussion o f

t he

s urvey m ethodologies

a nd

t he s ettlement

p attern d ata w ill n ot b e p resented h ere, s ince t his i s t he s ubject o f W eiland 's p aper. W e w ould , h owever , l ike t o r efer t o t he p roblem o f d ating i n t his c ontext, b ecause s ettlement p attern a nalysis c annot p roceed o n a r igorous b asis i n t he a bsence o f t ight c hronological c ontrols. T he m ajority o f t he o ver 2 00 s ites r ecorded t hus f ar o n o ur s urvey, a re b eing a ssigned d ates o n t he b asis o f t he c eramics a nd/or l ithics r ecovered f rom t he s ite s urfaces o r f rom s mall t est e xcavations. P revious r esearch i n c entral P anama h as p rovided a s et o f e xcavated a nd r adiocarbon-dated a ssemblages w hich r ange f rom 5 000 B .C. t o t he C onquest ( Lothrop 1 942, W illey a nd M cGimsey 1 954, W illey a nd S toddard 1 954, M cGimsey 1 956 , L add 1 964, C ooke 1 972, 1 979 , R anere a nd H ansell 1 978, I chon 1 980). ( Panamanian P aleoindian a rtifacts h ave n ot y et b een d ated i n c ontext a nd C ooke 1 977].)

[ Bird

S ince B audez' ( 1963) s ummary, t hese a ssemblages h ave b een a rranged i n a n umerical s equence w hich n ow c omprises s even p eriods, s ome d ivided i nto e arly a nd l ate s ections ( Cooke 1 976b , 1 980, i n p ress, L inares 1 977). A n u pdated v ersion , w hich i ncludes s ome n ew d ata p rovided b y t he P royecto S anta M aria , i s g iven i n f ig. 2 . P eriods I , I IA a nd I IB a re p receramic. P eriod I ( Paleoindian) i s s till s peculative a s n o a rtifacts o f t his t echnological t radition h ave y et b een l ocated i n c entral P anama. T he E arly P receramic ( Period IA), f or w hich t here w as p reviously n o c ontextual i nformation f rom P anama , h as b een i dentified i n s tratified d eposits a t o ne s ite ( Ag-145, t he C ueva d e l os V ampiros).

T he L ate P receramic

( IIB) c omprises t he e xcavated r ockshelters

a nd s hellmounds w hose o ccupation b egins s hortly a fter 5 000 B .C. A guadulce S helter , t he C ueva d e l os L adrones a nd C erro M angote). W e

a re

a dopting

2 500

B .C.

a s

( the

t he p receramic/ceramic b oundary r ather

t han t he 3 000 B .C. d ate r ecently a dvocated b y C ooke ( in p ress). T his c aution i s d ue t o t he d iscrepancies t hat e xist i n t he i nternal C 14 s equences o f t he e xcavated s ites, a nd a lso b etween s ites. t hese p roblems, s ee C ooke i n p ress).

( For a d iscussion o f

T he c eramic c hronology : s ome c omments a nd c hanges N ew f ield d ata ,

c ontinuing a nalyses o f s tratified a ssemblages a nd i n-

c oming c arbon d ates, a re c onstantly o bliging u s t o c hange o ur o pinions a bout

7

t he c hronology a nd p eriodization o f t he s tudy a rea. I t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly a pparent , f or e xample, t hat s tone t ool t ypes o ften c hange m ore r apidly t han c eramics a nd t his f act w ill h ave t o b e t aken i nto a ccount i n s ubsequent r ev isions. T he f irst m illennium B .C., w hich i s a p articularly i mportant p eriod f or t he P roject, i s c onfusing a nd a r eassessment o f e xisting c eramic c lassifications i s n ecessary. B earing t he a bove i n m ind,

w e o ffer s ome c omments o n t he c eramics o f

p eriods I II a nd I V p repared i n 1 980).

w hich a mplify t he l atest s ummary

( 1)

t he M onagrillo c omplex ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954) h as

T he p ottery o f

( Cooke i n p ress,

b een f ound s tratified a bove p receramic d eposits a t t he C ueva d e l os L adrones a nd t he A guadulce S helter ( Bird a nd C ooke 1 978, R anere a nd H ansell 1 978). R adiocarbon d ates f rom t hese t wo s ites a nd t he t ype s ite i ndicate a p eriod o f m anufacture b etween 2 500 a nd 1 000 B .C. I n 1 983 M onagrillo p ottery w as l ocated a bove p receramic d eposits a t t wo r ockshelters i n c entral V eraguas ( Sf 9 a nd C l2) ( Valerio 1 983). T his c onfirms i ts p osition a s t he o ldest p ottery i n t he s tudy a rea. I t h as a lso b een l ocated a t t wo s hellmounds n orth o f t he r iver E stero S alado a nd a t A g-53, a v illage s ite i n t he S anta M aria f loodplain ( Weiland, t his v olume). ( 2)

T he

M onagrillo

c omplex

c oastal m anifestation .

c an

n o

l onger

b e

c onsidered

T he C ueva d e l os L adrones,

a n e xclusively

w here t he P eriod I IIA

o ccupation w as i ntense , i s t oday 2 5 k m f rom t he c oast, w hile t he a bovem entioned V eraguan r ockshelters a re b etween 7 0 a nd 9 0 k m f rom t he s ea , i n t he f oothill z one. ( 3)

M onagrillo c omplex p ottery i s f ired a t v ery l ow t emperatures a nd, w hen

e xposed t o c ontinual w eathering,

b ecomes f riable a nd s oft.

A t s ites

l ocated w ithin t he a lbinas, p ottery e rodes s o q uickly t hat m aterials o nly 5 00 - 1 000 y ears o ld a re l iterally e aten a way b y t he h ighly s aline e nvironment t o a w afer-thin c onsistency. I t i s l ikely t hat M onagrillo p ottery e xposed o n t he s urface i n c oastal z ones w ould c ompletely d isappear f rom t he r ecord , w hile i n o pen s ituations i n i nland a reas, i t o ften m ay n ot s urvive. T hese p roblems m ight c ause a n u nder-representation o f t he M onagrillo p ottery i n t he c ultural r ecord. ( 4)

A t t he M onagrillo t ype s ite ,

t he A guadulce S helter a nd t he C ueva d e

l os L adrones, s mall n umbers o f c ollared j ar r ims a nd s herds d ecorated w ith a v ariety o f l inear p lastic t echniques ( punctations, f illets a ppliques a nd i ncisions), r eported

a ppear i n t he u ppermost l evels.

f rom a n umber o f

s ites

i n

c entral

S imilar m aterials h ave b een P anama :

I sla

C arranza ,

L ake

M adden ( Panama) ( C14: 7 0 B .C.) ( Cooke 1 976b); C erro G uacamayo a nd E l L imon ( Coclg) ( Stirling a nd S tirling 1 964, H arte 1 966); B ücaro ( Los S antos) ( C14: 2 0 B .C.) ( Ichon 1 980); C erro L argo ( Veraguas) ( Biese 1 967); S an J uan ( Veraguas) ( Casimir 1 972); S itio S ierra ( Cocle), w here s herds a re a ssociated w ith d omestic f eatures d ated t o b etween 2 40 a nd 2 5 B .C. ( Cooke 1 979); a nd a t t he S arigua s hellmound ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954). T he c omplex n ames " Sarigua" a nd " Guacamayo" a re s till a pplied g rosso m odo t o t his p ost-Monagrillo d ecorative t radition d ue t o t he p aucity o f s ites pecific

t ypologies

M ula-Sarigua s ite

( although

( fig.

3 ),

s ee I chon 1 980). l arge q uantities o f

p resent o n t he e roded s urfaces ( fig.

A t

t he r ecently m apped L a

t his k ind o f

4 ), w hile s herds

p ottery

a re

h ave b een a ssociated

w ith t wo r adiocarbon d ates f rom s tratigraphic c ontexts: 8 70 B .C. ± 5 0 ( BETA-6016) ( Crassostrea , c orrected f or C 13/C12) a nd 2 0 B .C. ± 4 5 ( SI-5689) ( charcoal).

W e e xpect t o b e a ble t o o ffer a d etailed r e-analysis o f f irst

8

m illennium B .C. p ottery f rom t he C entral R egion . ( 5) B lack-line p ainting , e pitomized b y t he A ristide b ichromes ( Ladd 1 964, C ooke 1 972), w as c onsidered b y C ooke ( 1976b) t o b e t o t he s ina q ua n on o f P eriod I V. T he e arliest c urrent C 14 d ate f or t his d ecorative t echnique i s 2 40 B .C., a t S itio S ierra ( Cooke 1 979). N ew e vidence n ow i ndicates t hat b lack-line p ainting i s c onsiderably o lder , a ppearing a t t he b eginning o f t he f irst m illennium B .C. I n t he p ast, r ise

t o

m uch

t he M onagrillo

s peculation

a bout

a nd S arigua c eramics

c ultural

o rigins,

o f

P arita B ay g ave

d iffusion

a nd

m aritime

c ontacts ( see , f or e xample, C oe 1 960, W illey 1 966, 1 971, L undberg 1 977/78, I chon 1 980). O ur o wn r esearch f avours a utocthonous d evelopment o ver s uch c atalytic e vents a s s ea-borne m igrations f rom n orthern S outh A merica t o e xplain t he c ultural p atterns o f t he f irst m illennium B .C. R ecent p hytolith a nd p ollen e vidence ( Piperno a nd C lary, t his v olume), i ndicates t hat b oth t he M onagrillo a nd t he S arigua p ottery c omplexes w ere b eing u sed c ontemporaneously w ith m aize. S ites l ike t he C ueva d e l os L adrones a nd L a M ula-Sarigua w ere a gricultural s ettlements, a nd n ot i ntermittently o ccupied r est s tations f or m aritime t ravellers ( Coe 1 960) o r s mall f ishing v illages ( Willey 1 971). N either i s t here e vidence f or d rastic s tylistic i nterruptions i n e ither p ottery o r s tone t ool t ypes; r ather s hapes, d ecoration a nd t echnology g rade i nto o ne a nother t hrough t ime, o ver a b road g eographical z one s tretching f rom t he V eraguas f oothills t o P arita B ay.

L ithic c hronologies T he

d evelopment

o f

a s ensitive

c hronological

s equence

b ased

o n

t he

l ithics i s c rucial t o o ur i nterpretation o f s ettlement p atterns s ince 7 0% o f t he s ites r ecorded i n t he f irst s eason o f o ur p roject c ontained o nly s tone t ools a nd m anufacturing d ebris. T his a bundance o f l ithic s ites p artially r eflects t he f act t hat t here w as e xtensive o ccupation o f t he S anta M aria d rainage d uring t he p receramic. An umber o f t hese s ites, h owever , a re b est c lassified a t t he m oment a s " nonc eramic", a s t hey p robably d ate a fter 2 500 B .C. e ven t hough p ottery i s a bsent f rom t heir s urfaces. T here a re t wo r easons w hy t his a ppears t o b e s o: ( 1) t he a fore-mentioned f act t hat p ottery m ay n ot s urvive o n s ome s urfaces a nd ( 2) s ome s pecial a ctivity s ites n ever h ad c eramics b rought t o t hem i n a ny q uantity e ven t hough t he o ccupants m ay h ave m ade a nd u sed p ottery i n o ther c ontexts. T he c ommonest s pecial a ctivity s ite w here t his o ccurs i s t he q uarry/workshop s ite , l arge n umbers o f w hich w ere r ecorded d uring t he 1 982 s eason . W hat i s n eeded, t hen , i s a t ight c hronology f or t he c eramic a s w ell a s f or t he p receramic l ithic i mplements. A lthough a g reat d eal r emains t o b e d one , w e h ave a lready i dentified a n umber o f c haracteristics a bout c entral P anamanian l ithic i ndustries w hich p rovide s ome m easure o f c hronological c ontrol. M any o f t hese a re b ased u pon a nalyses o f a ssemblages f rom s tratigraphic e xcavations w ith a ssociated r adiocarbon d ates ( Cerro M angote , M onagrillo , t he A guadulce S helter , t he C ueva d e l os L adrones a nd S itio S ierra). O thers a re m ore t enuous, e ither b ecause t he t ests h ave j ust b een c ompleted o r b ecause t hey a re r ecurring a ssociations b etween l ithic t ools o r s ome t echnological a ttribute a nd o ther c hronologically s ecure m aterials ( like c eramic t ypes o r o ther s tone t ools).

9

W e w ill m ention a f ew o f

t hese c hronological m arkers ,

b eginning w ith

t he c hipped s tone i ndustries w hich d ominate t he s urvey c ollections. ( 1)

B ifacial

f laking

a s

a s trategy

f or s haping c hipped s tone t ools

( like p rojectile p oints) d isappears f rom c entral P anama b efore 5 000 B .C. T he o nly s ite i n t he r egion w ith e vidence f or b ifacial r eduction , i s t he C ueva d e l os V ampiros ( Ag145) ( located i n 1 982), w here a ssociated c harcoal y ielded a d ate o f 8 560 - 1 60 B .P. ( 6610 B .C.) ( BETA-5101) ( figs. 5 ,6). ( The e vidence c onsists o f b ifacial t hinning f lakes , o ne w ith a g round p latform a nd a " lip" w hich p reserved a f ragment o f t he o pposite s ide o f t he b iface.) C erro M angote a nd t he C ueva d e l os L adrones, b oth o f w hich h ave o ccupations r adiocarbon-dated t o n early 7 000 y ears , a nd t he A guadulce S helter , w ith a d ated o ccupation o f 6 200 y ears , c ontain n o e vidence w hatsoever f or s uch a b ifacial f laking t radition. A s imilar d isappearance o f b ifacial f laking e arly i n t he H olocene h as b een n oted a t t he T equendama r ockshelter i n t he B ogota b asin ( Correal a nd v an d er H ammen 1 977).* ( 2) B .C.,

A fter 5 000 B .C.

a nd u ntil t he b eginning o f t he

f irst m illennium

l ithic r eduction s trategies a ppear t o c onsist o f l ittle m ore t han t he

p roduction o f f lakes s uitable f or u se w ithout m uch p ost-detachment m odification a lthough, a t t he C ueva d e l os L adrones, s ome c arefully f ashioned s temmed s craping t ools a re p resent i n t he p receramic a ssemblages. ( 3) A t s ome t ime d uring p eriods I IB a nd I II ( probably t owards t he b eginning o f t he f irst m illennium B .C.), a t echnique o f c ore r eduction i s i ntroduced w hich p ermits t he p roduction o f l ong, p ointed f lakes. p recise p roduction m ethod h as y et t o b e s tudied ( though c ollections

T he f rom

a ppropriate w orkshop s ites h ave b een m ade f or t his p urpose). T he e nd p roduct , h owever - a p ointed a nd q uite s harply t anged f lake - i s m uch i n e vidence a t f irst m illennium B .C. s ites, e specially L a M ula-Sarigua ( Pr14) w hence c ome t he e xamples i llustrated i n f ig. 7 . ( 4)

S hortly a fter 3 00 B .C. - t hat i s, a t t he b eginning o f P eriod I V a s

i t i s p resently d efined - t rue p rismatic b lades b egin t o b e m anufactured o n a m assive s cale , b oth i n c halcedony a nd i n a f ine-grained v olcanic r ock ( probably g lassy b asalt o r a ndesite). S ome m ajor P eriod I V s ettlements l ike S itio S ierra h ave l iterally t housands o f b lades a nd b lade f ragments i n t heir d eposits. A t t he p resent s tage o f o ur r esearch , i t s eems a s t hough b lades b ecome n oticeably l ess c ommon a t p eriod V -VII s ites. T his m ight i ndicate t hat b lade m anufacture w as r eplaced b y an ew t echnology o r t hat t he m anufacture a nd d istribution o f b lades w as t he d omain o f a s mall n umber o f s ites. A t L a M ula-Sarigua , b lades a re v ery r are. ( 5)

S ometime a fter A .D.

5 00 ,

b ut p erhaps a s l ate a s A .D.

c hipping t echnique w e h ave c alled " trifacial f laking" a ppears,

100,

an ew

a nd i s u sed

f or t he p roduction o f t hree-sided p oints w ith s tems. I n a ddition t o t hese c haracteristic c hanges i n t echnology , t here a re s ome c hronologically s ensitive a rtifact t ypes. O f t hese t he m ost o bvious a re w hat w e w ill c all " points" e ven t hough b urial a ssociations a t S itio S ierra ( with f emale s keletons , n ot m ales) a nd o bservable e dge w ear s uggest

*

I n 1 983,

S arigua.

aw orkshop f or b ifacially f laked t ools w as l ocated a t L a M ula-

P art o f t he b ase o f at riangular , s temmed p oint , w as r ecovered.

1 0

t hat m ost w ere n ever u sed a s p rojectiles, b ut a s g eneral h ousehold t ools ( Cooke 1 978a). M icroscopic e xamination o f t ool e dges i ndicates t hat " points" w ere u sed f or a v ariety o f t asks, e .g., c utting , s craping , s awing , g ouging a nd c hiseling , u se.

w ith

s ome

e xamples

s howing i ndications

o f m ultiple

F lakes w hich a re p ointed a t t he d istal e nd a nd u nifacially r etouched a t t he p roximal e nd a re a p art o f a ll l ithic a ssemblages i n P anama f rom 7 000 B .P. o nwards. T he s hape o f t he f lake, t he d egree o f r estriction a t t he b ase f or h afting a nd t he a mount a nd p lacement o f s econdary r etouch , i n p redictable f ashion t hrough t ime.

a ll c hange

F rom t he f ifth t o t he s econd m illennia B .C., t he p oints - w hich a re n ot c ommon - t end t o b e n early a s w ide a s t hey a re l ong , h ave w ide, m inimally r etouched b ases a nd h ighly v ariable u nifacial r etouch a t t he t ip. D uring t he f irst m illennium B .C., p oints b ecome m uch c ommoner a nd s eem t o b e s truck f rom c arefully p repared c ores. T he l ength t o w idth r atio a pproaches 2 t o 1 ,

s tems a re s till r ather w ide a nd t he t ips

r etouch ,

d isplay l ittle u nifacial

o r n one a t a ll ( see f ig. 7 ).

D uring P eriod I V ( 300 B .C. - A .D. 5 00), s ome p oints a re m ade o n g enuine p rismatic b lades w ith s ub-parallel s ides a nd s hort, t hick a nd f requently n otched s tems. B etween a bout A .D. 5 00 a nd 100 t hey c ome t o b e s haped l ike i sosceles t riangles , w ith s harply a ngled s houlders a nd l ong , n arrow s tems f or h afting ( c.f. L othrop 1 937: f ig. 6 4). B y a bout A .D.100, t rifacial f laking g ives t he p oints j agged e dges a nd t riangular c ross-sections ( MacCurdy 1 911: f igs. 1 -3, L othrop 1 937: f ig. 6 0 c , 1 950 : f ig. 2 5, E inbaus 1 980: f ig. 1 5/4). T here a re c hronological m arkers f or g rinding s tones a nd p olished t ools a s w ell. E dge-ground c obbles , f or e xample ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954 : 7 2, R anere 1 980c : f ig. 8 /10 , a re f ound a t s ites d ating f rom t he f ifth i nto t he f irst m illennium B .C., b ut n ever l ater. T hirty-six e xamples h ave b een r ecently r ecovered f rom s urface c ontexts a t L a M ula-Sarigua . T hese h ad, u nfortunately, b een p iled u p b y h uman h ands a nd w e c annot y et d etermine w ith w hat p ottery t ypes t hey a re a ssociated. L egless m etates w ith " bread-board" r ims s eem t o m ake t heir a ppearance b y t he f irst m illennium B .C.,

a s d o c ylindrical m anos

( c.f.

L othrop

1 937 :

f ig. 6 2d,e). L arge l egged m etates ( c.f. L othrop 1 937: f ig. 6 2) a re p resent o n t he e arliest h ouse f loors a t S itio S ierra ( C. 1 4: 6 5 B .C. A .D. 2 35) ( Cooke 1 979) a nd c ontinue i nto t he c ontact p eriod. P olished s tone

i mplements

( i.e.

c elts,

a dzes

a nd

c hisels)

a ppear

i n

q uantity d uring t he f irst m illennium B .C., t hough a f ew f ragments o f p olished c elts h ave b een r ecovered i n c ontexts d ating t o p eriods I IB a nd I II ( e.g. B ird a nd C ooke 1 978). T here i s n o d oubt t hat p olished c elt m orphology i n c entral P anama c hanges t hough t ime, a nd w e s hould b e a ble t o p resent a t horough f unctional a nd t ypological a nalysis w hen t he c ollections h ave b een s tudied . T hough o ur c hronological c ontrol o ver l ithic m aterials c ontinues t o b e s omewhat r udimentary , w e f eel c onfident t hat t hey w ill u ltimately p rove t o b e s ensitive t ime m arkers f or c entral P anama. O ur d ata a re i ndicating , b esides , t hat t here i s c onsiderable i nter-site v ariation i n t he s tone t ool a ssemblages o f t he d ifferent p eriods ( Weiland, t his v olume).

1

A gricultural s ystems T he p ollen a nd p hytolith e vidence f or p lant a rea h as b een s ummarized b y P iperno a nd C lary

s ubsistence i n o ur s tudy

( this v olume).

T heir d ata

s how t hat s ome f orm o f m aize ( Zea m ays) w as b eing c ultivated w hen t he M onagrillo c eramics w ere b eing m anufactured i n c entral P anama ( i.e. b etween a n e arliest d ate o f 2 850 B .C. ± 1 00 a nd a l atest d ate o f 1 295 B C 11 00), a nd a lso d uring t he P receram ic I IB p eriod. T o d ate ,

n o c arbonized m acrofossils o ther t han p alm n uts,

t ree l egumes

( Hymenea c ourbaril) a nd n ances ( Byrsonima s p.) h ave b een r adiocarbon-dated e arlier t han t he t hird c entury B .C. ( Cooke 1 981). G rinding-stones o f d ifferent k inds a re , h owever , u biquitous i n p re-300 B .C. s ites, b oth n ear t he c oast a nd i n t he i nterior. A t t he C ueva d e l os L adrones, w hence c ome o ur p ollen a nd p hytolith d ata f or e arly m aize c ultivation , s mall g rinding s tones m ade o n e longated c obbles ( not e dge-ground) a nd s mall f lat g rinding b ases, a re p resent. T hey o ccur f rom t he t op t o t he b ottom o f t he d eposit, b ut a re c oncentrated i n t he l ayers w hich h ave t he l argest q uantities o f M onagrillo p ottery. I t i s i nteresting t hat w hen J unius B ird a nd R GC w rote t he o riginal r eport

o n L adrones

( Bird a nd C ooke

1 974),

t hey p assed l ightly o ver t hese

g rinding t ools a nd d evoted a l ot o f w ords t o e xplaining h aw t he r ockshelter ( situated i n a s eemingly i nhospitable e nvironment d uring t he d ry s eason) m ust h ave b een a t emporary h unting s tation , q uite u nsuited f or a griculture. T his a ssessment i s c ertainly w rong. S hort o f b eing a ble t o s pecify u nequivocally w hich p lants w ere b eing p repared w ith t hese g rinding i mplements , i t i s n ot u nreasonable t hat t hey w ere b eing u sed f or m aize n ow t hat t he p resence o f t his c ultigen h as b een d etermined a t t he s ite. I f s ome f orm o f a griculture w ere b eing p ractised d uring t he L ate P receramic ( IIB), i t i s p erhaps n ot s urprising t hat o ur s urvey d ata a re r evealing f ar m ore p receramic a nd n on-ceramic t han c eramic s ites. A ccepting t he f act t hat t he a rtifact d ensity a t m any o f t hese l ocalities i ndicates t hat t hey m ight b e t ransitory s ettlements, t hey s eem t o b e f orming ad istributional p attern n ot u nlike t hat o f l ow-density f arming p eoples l ike t he G uaymi

( Young

h ills

s treams

n ear

1 971). a nd n ot

S ites

a re l ocated ,

i n t he a lluvial

a nd o ften

c luster ,

f loodplains w here

o n

l aw

t he l argest

v illages a re s ituated a fter 3 00 B .C. I f w e r ecover m ore e vidence f or p eriod I IB a nd I II a griculture ,

a nd i f

t his p attern o f s ite d istribution i s f ound t o c ontinue, a l ikely e xplanation w ould b e t hat l ow d ensity , h ighly m obile a gricultural p opulations p referred i nitially t o c ultivate t he h illslopes , w here b urning a nd c learing w as e asier t han i n t he g allery-forested , d amper l owlands. T his i n t urn s uggests t hat t he s hift t o ap attern o f f ewer, m uch l arger a nd m ore n ucleated s ettlements l ocated i n l inear f ashion a long t he m ajor r iver v alleys d id n ot o ccur u ntil t hese p opulations h ad o utstripped t he p roductive p otential o f l ong-fallow o n t hin s oils a nd ( possibly) u ntil t echnological c hanges i n t he s tone t ool a ssemblages m ade t he r emoval o f l arge t rees a n e asier t ask. T he n ew d ata f rom t he L a M ula-Sarigua s ite a re h elping t o m itigate t he t hesis o f s udden a nd d ramatic s ettlement c hanges a t t he e nd o f t he f irst m illennium B .C., w hich h ad b een f uelled b y t he l ack o f i nformation o n t he p eriod b etween t he a bandonment o f t he M onagrillo s hellmound ( 1200 B .C.) a nd t he i nitial o ccupation o f S itio S ierra ( 300 B .C.).

1 2

O ur t ransect a nd

p urposive

s urveys h ave f ailed t o f ind a ny f irst m illennium B .C.

s ite

c omparable i n s ite a nd c omplexity t o L a M ula-Sarigua w hich , w ith a p roven e xtension o f o ver 1 00 h ectares , h as a ll t he h allmarks o f b eing a r egional c enter.

I ts i mportance m ust b e p artially d ue

t o i ts

f avorable s ituation ,

l ocated b etween w ide t racts o f a rable l and a nd t he c oast, n ear a m ajor r iver , a nd a longside a l arge d eposit o f f ine q uality c halcedony. T he s ediment a nalysis o f c ores t aken i n f ront o f t he s ite w ill e nable u s t o d etermine i ts h istorical r elationship t o t he d ifferent c oastal h abitats.

B one a nalysis O ne o f t he p rimary r easons f or c hoosing t he S anta M aria b asin a s a s tudy a rea , w as t he p rior k nowledge t hat e xcellent p reservation o f f aunal s amples c ould b e e xpected a t m any s ites ; d eposits h itherto l ocated i n t he R ecent a lluvium , a s w ell a s i n r ockshelters a nd c oastal s hellmounds , h ad p rovided h igh q uality b one a nd s hell s amples ( Cooke 1 978b ,

1 979 ,

i n p ress,

H ansell 1 979 , R anere a nd H ansell 1 978). D uring t he 1 982 f ield s eason ,

d eposits w ere s ieved t hrough t hree b asic

m esh s izes ( 1/4" , 1 /8" a nd 1 m m .), w ith a nd w ithout w ater , a nd b y u sing a f lotation d evice. C olumn s amples w ere a lways t aken w here j ustified b y s oil d epth . O ur p revious f indings h ave b een c onfirmed : s ites s ituated n ear t he c oast a nd i n t he R ecent a lluvium o f t he S anta M aria r iver , a nd t he s heltered a reas o f r ockshelters, h ave g ood b one p reservation , w hile s hallow s ites o utside t he a lluvium d o n ot. c oastal

a nd

c onsequently t heir s amples c onsist l argely a nd a t t imes w holly o f f ish .

M ost

o f

t he

s ites

w hich

w ere

t ested

i n

1 982

w ere

T he

C ueva d e l os V ampiros, f or e xample , w as u sed i ntensively a s a f isherman 's c amp f rom t he b eginning o f t he s econd t o t he e nd o f t he f irst m illennium B .C. W e m ake n o s ecret o f t he f act t hat h andling a rchaeological f ish b one s amples f rom P anama i s ah eadache. N o s cientific i nstitutions k nown t o u s h ave c omplete e nough s keletal c ollections f rom t he N eotropical P acific t o b e a ble t o i dentify a ll t he t axa p resent i n a rchaeological f aunal s amples. U nder t his s ituation , t he t axa w hich h ave t he m ost e asily r ecognizable b ones a re t hose w hich p revail i n t he l ists o f i dentifications, w hile o ther p otentially i dentifiable t axa r emain i n t he " unidentified f ish" l ots. I n P anama t his i s p articularly t rue o f f amilies w hich h ave e xotic a nd , h ence , u nmistakable s keletal p arts, s uch a s t he A riidae ( marine c atfish), B atrachoididae ( toadfish) a nd T etraodontidae ( pufferfish). C orrectly i dentifying b ones f rom a natomically l ess s pecialized a nd t axonomically m ore d iverse f amilies l ike S ciaenidae ( corvinas) a nd P omadasyidae ( grunts) i s d ependent u pon t he p rovision o f m uch m ore c omparative o steological m aterial. T o c ompensate f or t hese d ifficulties w e a re p rogressing w ith o ur o wn c omparative f ish s keletal c ollection f rom l ocal w aters ( a W enner-Gren G ranti n-Aid t o R GC i n 1 981 h elped s et u p t his p rogram ). I n t he m eantime , w e a re c oncentrating o n t wo m ethods f or t he i dentification o f f ish s pecies a nd i nter-site q uantification : ( 1) k eying o ut a natomically d istinctive b ones s uch a s o toliths ( Casteel 1 976 : C hap. 3 ) a nd ( 2) u sing t otal s keletal w eight t o e stablish g ross s imilarities a nd d ifferences b etween b one s amples c ollected a cross t he s tudy a rea . T hough r ejected b y s ome f aunal a nalysts, s keletal w eight c an b e a llometrically r elated t o m eat w eight a nd f ormulae w ith e xcellent c orrelation c oefficients a re a vailable i n b oth t he p ublished

1 3

r ecord a nd i ndividual l aboratories ( Wing a nd B rown 1 979). I n t he m any a rchaeological b one s amples w here m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals c an o nly b e e stimated w ith a c onsiderable d egree o f g uessing ( for e xample , w here t here i s a l arge s ize r ange i n s pecimens o f t he s ame t axon), o r w here t hey a re c alculated w ith u neven d egrees o f a ccuracy f or t he d ifferent c lasses , b one w eight i s t he f airest c omparative m easure. I n t ime w e h ope t o b e a b le t o p rovide s keletal w eight/live w eight c orrelations f or t he m ost i mportant t axa i n o ur s amples. T o a id u s i n t he i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological f ish s amples , J ohn B ort ( University o f E ast C arolina) h as b een c onducting a n e thnographic s tudy o f a rtisan f ishing a t t he m outh o f t he E stero S alado R iver. B y u sing i nterv iew a nd p articipant o bservation , B ort i s c ompiling d ata o n ( 1) f ishing m ethod, ( 2) t ype o f b ait, ( 3) w ater a nd d epth p references o f t he f ish s pecies, ( 4) s easonal a bundance, ( 5) h abitat p reference a nd ( 6) p alatability a nd m arketability. s hellfishing.

H e i s a lso g athering i nformation o n c ontemporary

T he v alue t o a rchaeology o f s uch a s tudy i s f ast b ecoming a pparent. B ort i s f inding t hat n ot o nly i s t here g reat v ariation i n t he a bove p arameters b etween t he d ifferent f amilies , b ut a lso b etween m orphologically s imilar s pecies o f t he s ame f amily o r g enus. T he b etter w e g et a t i dentifying s pecific d ifferences i n t he b one s amples, t he b etter w e w ill b e a ble t o d etermine s mall c hanges i n t he l ocal a quatic e nvironments , f ishing m ethods a nd t he m ovement o f f ish r esources w ithin t he b asin .

C onclusions S ince t his p aper i s ap rogress r eport o n r esearch c onducted d uring t he f irst f ield s eason o f t he " Proyecto S anta M aria", l et u s r eturn t o t he w orking h ypotheses t abulated a t t he b eginning o f t he p aper , a nd a ssess t he p rogress m ade t owards s olving e ach o ne : ( 1) A d ry e pisode a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene D ata h ave b een c ollected f rom o ne L ate P leistocene l ocality - E l H atillo - w here a f auna d ominated b y E remotherium h as b een r eported ( Gazin 1 957). T est p its, c olumn s amples a nd V ibracore d rills w ere m ade , b ut t he m aterials h ave n ot y et b een a nalyzed. ( 2) T he a daptations o f t he P aleoindians T echnologically s peaking , l os V ampiros,

i s P aleoindian,

t he o ccupation a t t he b ase o f t he C ueva d e i n s pite o f t he l atish ( 8560 B .P.) d ate.

O bviously, w e w ill h ave t o l ocate m ore s ites w ith P aleoindian c omponents ( or d etermine h ow w e a re t o i dentify t hem) b efore w e c an e valuate t his h ypothesis. T he r areness o f b ifacial f laking i n o ur n on-ceramic s ites m ight b e i ndicating t hat L ate P leistocene p opulations i n P anama , a s e lsewhere i n C entral a nd S outh A merica , u sed p redominantly u nifacial t ools. ( 3) A n o scillating c oastline d uring t he H olocene N early 4 0 V ibracores w ere t aken d uring t he 1 982 f ield s eason w ithin t he c oastal z one. A nalysis o f t he s ediments s hould p rovide a d etailed h istory o f c oastline c hanges o ver t he p ast 7 000 y ears. T he c oncept o f t he " old c oastline" w ill h ave

t o b e c arefully r econsidered.

1 4

I n s ome p arts o f

t he

P arita B ay c oast,

t here a re f ossil s trands w hich m ight r epresent t he

c oastline a t s ome p eriod o f t he P leistocene ,

w hile i n o ther a reas e xtensive

a lbinas w ould s eem t o b e a r ather r ecent p henomenon . T he p ossibility t hat u plift h as p layed a n i mportant r ole i n c oastal c onfiguration n eeds t o b e i nvestigated m ore t horoughly. ( 4) C entral P anama u ninhabited 8 000-5000 B .C. T he C .14 d ate o f 8 560 B .P. 460 f or t he o ccupation a t t he b ase o f t he C ueva d e l os V ampiros d emonstrates t hat P anama w as, i ndeed , o ccupied d uring t he p eriod i n q uestion. O bviously, w e w ill c ontinue t o s earch f or s ites o f t he s ame p eriod. A nother r ockshelter a s l arge a s A g145, f ifty m eters a way, h as y et t o b e t ested.

a nd l ocated o nly

( 5) N on-coastal h unter-gatherer p opulations T he

i nland t ransects

a nd s urveys w hich w ere

c onducted d uring t he d ry

s eason o f 1 983 a re s uggesting t hat p eriod I I a nd I IIA p opulations w ere , i ndeed, u sing i nland r esources. B earing i n m ind t he a ntiquity o f a griculture i n t he C ueva d e l os L adrones - a s ite w hich i s i tself s ituated i n t he f oothills - w e c annot y et h unter-gatherers, o r n ot.

d etermine w hether t hese p opulations w ere

( 6) A griculture b efore i ntensive m aize f arming W e h ave

a lready d iscussed t he h ypothesis

t hat

l ong-fallow

s lash-and-

b urn a griculture o n h illslopes w as p ractised a s e arly a s t he p receramic I IB p eriod , a nd t he p receramic s ettlement p attern s upports o ur a rgument. W e a re f ully a ware , n evertheless, t hat m ore c olumn s amples a re r equired f rom a l arger n umber o f s ites a nd t hat c are m ust b e t aken a ccurately t o i dentify p lant p reparation s tone t ool k its. T o j udge f rom P iperno 's r ecent a nalysis o f t he c ores f rom L ake G atun ( Bartlett a nd B arghoorn 1 973,

P iperno 1 983),

p ollen a nd p hytolith s tudies o f t he s ediment c ores w ill p rovide m ore i nformation o n t he s ubject. T he i dea s hould b e e ntertained t hat t he e arliest a griculture i n P acific C entral P anama u sed b oth m aize a nd d ry s eason-adapted r oot c rops, l ike m anioc. ( 7) T he d ate o f t he a ppearance o f s edentary v illages L a M ula-Sarigua , ap redominantly p eriod I IIB a nd I V s ite , w as o bviously a n ucleated, m aize-cultivating v illage f or m uch, i f n ot a ll o f i ts o ccupation. W ith a p roven e xtent o f 1 00 h ectares, i t i s, i n f act, t he l argest s ite y et s urveyed b y t he P roject. T hough w e c annot y et d etermine a ccurately h ow t he s ite h as g rown o r s hrunken t hrough t ime,

t he

1 982

e vidence s uggests t hat d uring t he f irst m illennium B .C. i t w as a lready o ver o ne k ilometer l ong ( Sitio S ierra , w hich w as r e-surveyed i n 1 982, s eems t o h ave b een a bout 4 5 h ectares i n s ize d uring P eriod I V).

O ur p resent e vidence

s hows, t hen , t hat s edentary a gricultural v illages w ere p resent d uring p eriod I IIB, o r b etween a bout 1 000 a nd 3 00 B .C. ( 8) T he r elation o f i ntensive m aize a griculture t o p opulation i ncrease T hese h ypotheses a re n ot m utually e xclusive. O ur s ettlement d ata i ndicate t hat p opulations w ere i ncreasing i n c entral P anama w ell b efore m aize w as c ultivated i ntensively , t hough w e d o n ot h ave e nough i nformation t o d etermine t he n ature o r t he s lope o f t he i ncrease. P opulation i ncrease i n c oastal z ones d uring P eriod I IB i s i mplied b y t he e vidence f or

1 5

n utritional

s tress

i n t he C erro M angote h uman s keletal s ample

( Norr,

p ersonal i nformation) a nd b y t he i ncidence o f n utritional c annibalism a t t he A guadulce S helter ( Ranere a nd G reenfield 1 981). O n t he o ther h and, a n a ccelerated r ate o f p opulation i ncrease f ollowing t he i ntensification o f m aize—based a griculture a nd/or t he i ntroduction o f m ore p roductive m aize v arieties, i s i ndicated b y t he g reater n umber o f P eriod I V v illages o ver t hose o f P eriod I II, i n t he a reas w e h ave s urveyed s o f ar. The r elationship b etween p opulation i ncrease and t he " intensification" o f f ood p roduction , i n c entral P anama , a s e lsewhere , i s a c omplicated i ssue. W e h ave s tressed t hat

a n umber o f t he o bservations m ade i n t his p aper

a re t he r esult o f i mpressions g ained d uring a r ecently c ompleted f ield s eason a nd o n c ontinuing l aboratory a nalysis. A s s uch t hey s hould n ot b e c onsidered d efinitive s tatements.

W e p referred t he p resentation o f m ultiple

w orking h ypotheses b ecause w e b elieve t hey a re c onducive t o m aintaining a n o pen m ind. T he s olution o f c omplex p roblems w ith m ultifarious a nd f ragmentary

s ets o f d ata ,

f rom a n umber o f d ifferent d isciplines ,

e asier i f o ld w arhorses a re f logged u ntil t hey a re m oribund, t hey a re s tone d ead.

1 6

i s m ade

a nd n ot u ntil

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1 7

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a nd M arcela C amargo.

U na B reve H istoria C ritica . L a A ntigua 9 : l a A ntigua . C orreal,

G . a nd v an d er H ammen , T .

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress . 1 977.

C oclg y s u A rqueologia :

15172.

U niversidad S anta M aria

1 977.

I nvestigaciones a rqueolbgicas

e n l os a brigos r ocosos d e T equendama : 1,000 a f ios d e p rehistoria e n l a a ltiplanicie d e B ogota . B ogota : B anco P opular. D ere ,

C hristopher E .

1 981.

T he G eologic a nd P aleogeographic S etting o f

A n A rchaeological S ite o n t he S outhwestern C oast o f P arita B ay.

M aster 's

t hesis. T emple U niversity , P hiladelphia . E inhaus , C atherine S helton .

1 980. S tone T ools f rom L a P itahaya.

R eport

N o. 1 5. I n : A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama. P eabody M useum M onographs N o. 5 . O lga F . L inares a nd A nthony J . R anere, e ditors. C ambridge : H arvard U niversity P ress. G azin,

L ewis C .

S loths i n P anama. I nstitution . H ansell,

1 957.

E xploration f or t he R emains o f G iant G round

A nnual R eport o f t he B oard o f R egents o f t he S mithsonian

P ublication N o. 4 979 , p p. 3 41-354. P atricia.

1 979.

S hell A nalysis: A C ase S tudy f rom P anama.

M aster 's T hesis , T emple U niversity , P hiladelphia . H arte , N eville A . 1 966. E l S itio G uacamayo. 3 .

B oletin d el M useo C hiricano

D avid, P anama : C olegio F elix O livares. H elms, M ary W . 1 979.

A ncient P anama .

U niversity o f T exas P ress.

I chon , A lain . 1 980. L 'Archgologie d u S ud d e l a P eninsule d 'Azuero , P anama. E tudes M esoamericaines - S erie I I. M ission a rchgologique e t e thnologique f rancaise a u M exique. N o. 3 . K irsch,

P atrick V .

1 980.

T he A rchaeological S tudy o f A daptation :

T heoretical a nd M ethodological I ssues. A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory. V olume 3 . E dited b y M ichael B . S chiffer. N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress. p p. 1 01105. L add , J ohn . 1 964. M aria

Z ones

o f

W ashington D .C.:

A rchaeological I nvestigations i n t he P arita a nd S anta

P anama.

B ureau o f American E thnology B ulletin,

S mithsonian I nstitution .

1 8

1 93.

L inares, O lga F . 1 977.

E cology a nd t he A rts i n A ncient P anama.

i n P recolumbian A rt a nd A rchaeology, N o. 1 7. L othrop, P anama , V ol. 7 .

S amuel K .

1 937. C ocl h

S tudies

D umbarton O aks.

A n A rchaeological S tudy o f C entral

P art 1 . M emoirs o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology , C ambridge : H arvard U niversity.

L othrop, P anama,

S amuel

P art

E thnology ,

V ol. 8 .

L othrop ,

K .

I I.

1 942.

C oclä :

M emoirs o f

A n A rchaeological

S tudy

S amuel K .

1 950.

T he A rchaeology o f s outhern V eraguas, P anama.

t he P eabody Museum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology,

C ambridge :

H arvard U niversity. E mily.

1 977/8.

G eorge G .

v ol.

9 (3).

S outh A merican-Middle A merican C ontacts:

E vidence f rom L ower C entral A merica. S ociety, 9 (1/2): 7 7-97. M acCurdy,

C entral

C ambridge: H arvard U niversity.

M emoirs o f

L undberg ,

o f

t he P eabody Museum o f A rchaeology a nd

1 911.

T he

J ournal o f t he S teward A nthropological

A S tudy o f C hiriquian A ntiquities.

M emoirs

o f t he C onnecticut A cademy o f A rts a nd S ciences, N o. 3 . N ew H aven. M cGimsey, P anama.

C harles R .,

I II.

1 956.

C erro M angote :

A P receramic S ite i n

A merican A ntiquity 2 2 ( 2), P art 1 : 1 51-161.

N orr ,

L ynette a nd D ennis D .

C oleman.

I n p ress.

D ietary I nterpretations

o f 1 3C/12C i n P rehistoric B one C ollagen f rom a T ropical C oastal E nvironment. I n:

C hemical Analyses o f Ancient S keletal Material,

K lepinger.

P iperno , D olores. 1 979. c entral P anama . P iperno , C entral p resented

e dited

b y

L inda

A cademic P ress. P hytolith A nalysis o f A rchaeological S oils f rom

M aster's T hesis, T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia .

D olores.

1 980.

P anama d uring t he a t

t he

P hytolith E vidence e arly

C eramic

f or M aize

( Monagrillo)

4 5th A nnual G eneral M eeting o f

C ultivation i n

p eriod.

P aper

t he S ociety f or A merican

A rchaeology, P hiladelphia. P iperno,

D olores.

1 983.

T he A pplication o f P hytolith A nalysis t o t he

R econstruction o f P lant S ubsistence a nd E nvironments i n P rehistoric P anama. D octoral t hesis, T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia. R anere , F orests:

A nthony J .

1 972.

E arly H uman A daptations t o N ew W orld T ropical

t he V iew f rom P anama.

P h.D.

d issertation.

U niversity

o f

C alifornia , D avis. R anere,

A nthony J .

1 975.

T oolmaking a nd T ool U se a mong t he P receramic

P eoples o f P anama. I n : L ithic T echnology : Making a nd U sing S tone T ools. E dited b y E arl S wanson , J r. T he H ague: M outon ( World A nthropology). R anere, S itio

d e

P anama.

A nthony J .

C erro M angote ,

1 980a. u n

N ueva E xcavaciän y R e-interpretaciän

C onchero

P recerämico

e n

l a R egiän C entral

d el d e

P aper p resented a t t he I II C ongreso N acional d e A ntropologia,

A rqueologia y E tnohistoria d e P anama.

1 9

P anama C ity, N ovember 1 980.

I n :

R anere , A nthony J . 1 980b. P receramic S helters i n t he T almancan R ange. A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama . P eabody M useum M onographs,

N o.

5 . E dited b y O lga F . L inares a nd A nthony J . R anere. C ambridge:

U niversity P ress. R anere ,

H arvard

p p. 1 6-43.

A nthony J .

1 980c.

S tone T ools f rom t he r io C hiriqui s helters.

I n : A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama. P eabody M useum M onographs N o. 5 . E dited b y O lga F . L inares a nd A nthony J . R anere. C ambridge. H arvard U niversity P ress. p p. R anere ,

A nthony J .

i mplications P anama.

3 16-353.

o f

a nd L eonard G reenfield.

n utritional

c annibalism

1 981.

d uring

t he

T he e vidence f or a nd p receramic

i n

c entral

P aper p resented a t t he 4 6th Annual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or

A merican A rchaeology, Ranere,

S an D iego.

Anthony J .

a nd P atricia Hansell.

1 978.

E arly S ubsistence

Patterns along the Pacific Coast of Panama. In: P rehistoric C oastal A daptations, e dited b y B arbara L . S tark a nd B arbara V oorhies.

N ew Y ork :

R anere,

A cademic P ress.

A nthony J .,

R ichard G .

p p.

4 3-59.

C ooke a nd P atricia H ansell.

1 980.

F ood

P rocurement i n t he P arita B ay R egion o f P anama , 5 000 B .C. - A .D. 5 00. P aper p resented a t t he 4 5th Annual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology , P hiladelphia . S tirling , M atthew W . a nd M arion S tirling. 1 964. S ite i n C oc i1 P rovince, P anama. o f

American

E thnology

E l L im6n : A n E arly T omb

A nthropological P apers, 7 1:247-254.

B ulletin

1 91.

W ashington

D .C.

B ureau

S mithsonian

I nstitution . Valerio, R ocosos

e n l a

F oundation. W illey,

W ilson.

1 983.

R egibn

C entral

G ordon.

1 966.

N orth a nd M iddle A merica.

2 :

S outh A merica. W illey,

C ulture

o f

W illey,

R eport

p rep red

f or

t he

G ordon.

1 971.

A n I ntroduction t o A merican A rchaeology, E nglewood C liffs:

E XXON

V ol.

P rentice-Hall.

A n I ntroduction t o A merican A rchaeology ,

V ol.

E nglewood C liffs: P rentice-Hall.

G ordon P anama.

a nd

C harles

P apers o f

E thnology, V ol. 4 9 ( 2) C ambridge:

P anama :

P anamA .

M anuscript.

1 :

W illey,

I nvestigaciones P reliminares e n D os A brigos d e

R .

M cGimsey

I II.

1 954.

T he M onagrillo

t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd H arvard U niversity.

G ordon a nd T heodore S toddard.

1 954.

A P reliminary R eport o n t he G iron S ite.

C ultural S tratigraphy i n A merican A ntiquity 1 9 ( 4):

3 32-343. W ing,

E lizabeth

a nd

A ntoinette

1 971.

N gawb:

B rown.

1 978.

P aleonutrition.

N ew

Y ork : S eminar P ress. Y oung,

P hilip.

G uaymi o f P anama.

T radition a nd C hange a mong t he W estern

I llinois S tudies i n A nthropology, N o. 7 .

2 0

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he " Proyecto S anta M aria" o perates i n t he f ield o ut o f A guadulce ( Cod e). W e t hank t he f ollowing l ocal r esidents f or t heir a ssistance : J uan B atista T apia a nd A na R odriguez d e T apia ( logistics); A rturo T apia , G onzalo T apia ,

I licena T apia ,

J aime T apia ,

R eynaldo T apia ,

E ric G uevara a nd C arlos

C havarria ( field a nd l aboratory a ssistants); A ugustin T apia ( vehicle m aintenance.) T he s taff o f t he E scuela " Rodolfo C hiari" h ave k indly p ermitted u s t o u se t heir c opying s ervices.

T he o ther m embers o f

t he

p roject a re : D oris W eiland ( archaeology), D olores P iperno ( phytoliths), K aren C lary ( pollen), P atricia H ansell ( sedimentology a nd a rchaeology), J ames C lary a nd T homas B uggey ( geology), A ureliano V alencia a nd G ladys M orän ( field l aboratory a ssistants), a nd J ohn B ort ( anthropology). t he f ield h as a lso b een p rovided b y : d e L eön ,

E liäs L opez,

J orge

H ector C edeho ,

I saac L oupadiere,

A ssistance i n

M artin C oloma,

R aül R amos,

I srael

J ulio R eyes

a nd

D elsa S amaniego ( University o f P anama); C arlos R odriguez ( Instituto V allecaucano d e I nvestigaciones C ientificas); F rancisco C orrales a nd M aritza

G utierrez

( Museo

N acional

d e

C osta

R ica);

W ilson

V alerio

( University o f C osta R ica); a nd C raig N eidig ( University o f I llinois). R obert D rolet a nd K atherine M ontgomery p articipated i n t he f ield i n 1 983 . L ynette N orr c onducted t he s tudies o f t he b one c hemistry o f h uman a nd a nimal b one f rom P arita B ay. A ncillary g eomorphological i nvestigations a t L a M ulaS arigua a re b eing d irected b y A ntonio T ourif lo

( University o f P anama).

O ur

p rofound g ratitude i s e xpressed t o t he I nstituto G eogräfico " Tommy G uardia", P anama C ity, f or p rinting a nd d efraying t he c osts e nlargements. T hese m ade t ransects a m uch e asier t ask . R ubinoff a nd O lga L inares t heir

c onstant

( Smithsonian T ropical R esearch

e ncouragement

S mithsonian

R adiation

B iology

r adiocarbon

s amples.

J ohn

a nd

s upport ,

L aboratory

B ort

k indly

a nd R obert f or h is

l oaned

p reparation o f t he f our P SM m anuscripts. H e o ysters, c lams a nd o ther m arine d elicacies. m anuscripts w ere

d one

b y

o f a ir p hotograph W e a lso t hank I ra

D oris W eiland.

I nstitute)

S tuckenrath

p rompt

a ttention

f or

o f

t he

t o

o ur

h is m icroprocessor f or t he a lso p rovided u s w ith f ish , L ine d rawings f or t he f our

L astly,

o ur

t hanks

a re

d ue

t o

D emetrio T oral a nd P edro P rados , d irector a nd s ub-director o f t he P atrimonio H istörico, I nstituto N acional d e C ultura, f or g iving t he P royecto S anta M ariä p ermission

t o o perate i n t he f ield u nder t he t erms o f c onvenios 1 71

a nd 1 78 .

2 1

2 3

F ig. 2 : C URRENT P ERIODIZATION F OR T HE C ENTRAL R EGION O F P ANAMA g iving t he d iagnostic a rtifacts a nd n umber o f C 14 d ates f or e ach p eriod. S implified f rom C ooke i n p ress : * : + :

T able 1 .

H ypothetical - n ot i dentified i n c entral P anama I ncludes t wo d ates f or L a i lula S arigua ( 1983)

P ERIOD

I I A

D ESCRIPTION

D IAGNOSTIC A RTFICATS

D ATES

C .14 ( NO).

P aleoindian

F luted p rojectile

T erminal

N one

p oints*

P -cene

B ifacial f laking

( 8000)-

E arly P receramic

1

5 000 B .C.

I I B

L ate P receramic

N o p ressure f laking o r b ifacially c hipped t ools E dge-ground c obbles S imple g rinding

5 000-2500 B .C.

b ases 3 0 I II A

E arly C eramic A

M onagrillo c omplex

2 5001000

p ottery E dge-ground c obbles S imple g rinding b ases

I II B

E arly C eramic B

S arigua-Guacamayo

1 000-300

5+

p ottery B .C. S temmed f lake p oints R immed l egless m etates P olished a xes ( common)

I V

B lack-painted & 3 -color p ottery

A ristide & T onosi

3 00 B .C. p o t e r y A .D. 5 00

1 3

P rismatic b lades L egged m etates S tone j ewellery

V

P olychrome p ottery

C onte P olychrome

A .D. 5 00-

G oldwork

7 00

N one

S harply t anged p oints

V I

V II A

P olychrome p ottery

P olychrome p ottery

M acaracas P olychrome

A .D. 7 00100

6

P arita P olychrome

A .D. 100-

N one

2 4

V II B

P olychrome p ottery

T rifacial p oints

1 300

E l H atillo P olychr.

A .D. 1 300-

T rifacial p oints

1 520

( 1 ) 0

e xcavation C ‚ ) 4 )

• .0 4 3

0 c n C 1 ) Z 10

c o C e

C 1 . ) 4 J

. 4 3 ) C . )

C erro T igre ,

0

4 4 •

5 t e c 2e ; 4 c S C / 1

( 1 )

•

t i 2

$ . 4 4 4

9 4 0

C f )

1 ` 4

$ . 4

• H

C i ) rt ,

4 . 1

9 4

G . )

• 4

-C 4 J

t r i

C ) ( 1 )

r 4 • r 4 4 ) C r )

" . C ) 7 f

4. )

4 f c v

• C : f 4 4

5

• r 4 •• • 1 { . 4

4 4 • 0 ( 1 ) r 4 4 0, G 1 -C p. U )4 1 0 .0 4 . 4 Z S ) 1 : 1 • r 4 0 g 4 4

D us t R ecent

H earths

S oft

U

H umus

PH .

A sh a nd C arbon D rip//ne 8

G ray- B rown S ilt w ith C arbon ( ve ry c ompac t)

H um ic L ens— G ray ish

D rip/ine

V I I

L ight

B rown

D ense

B one,

L oom

w ith

C arbon a nd

RT i d-if rown S i lt

—

S i lt w i th S he l l

S he l l

w ith R ock

C ompact c k w i th — R ed-Brown S i l t

—

— _ _ _ — -So f t

B ro V o n S i l t _ — —

D ark

B rown

S i l t

w i th R ock C . I4 8 560 BP ± 1 60

/A

D is turbances A sh

F loors ( I IX)

S ter i le PH

S oft T on S i lt

P os t

D epos its

H o les

5 0 CMS B uff S i lt a nd R ock

F igure 6 : C ueva d e l os V ampiros ( Ag-145). P rofile o f t he n orth w all o f t he 1 982 t ext e xcavation. T he 8 560 B .P. + 1 60 d ate c ame f rom b elow a s terile

z one.

A bove

t his

a re

a s eries

f ishermen 's c amps.

2 9

o f

c ompacted

f loors

b elonging t o

4 . 3

••

" ( 1 r ) n ( I ) e a 4) C . )

0

C I ) 4 )

4 ,4

0 " C f ( 1 )

C i

C O

0 4 -4

› • • •

4 )

0 S • 4 4 4

4 j 4J

w g

( 1 )

W

C g

C g

* 1-4 • C • Q

C i ) g

U

L ) c t ( •

4' )

F irst m illenni

pr ;

4 4 j i

0 4 4

C . ) r 4 C 2 4 0

r z s

r { p .

0

e c t i

• •

4 . 4 0

( j ) I

C L )

P 4 4 4

h 1

E • 4,4 4, 4 e C 1 3 0

•

( 2 4 CU

e

c o

' t 1 " . 4

0

C g

ri go

v 3

Go "4 1 4 U ) 4 + 4 4 o

4 , 0

4 4

t o z

• M r . 4 u • J

C

c u

e w

P REHISTORIC S ETTLEMENT P ATTERNS I N T HE S ANTA M ARIA D RAINAGE O F C ENTRAL P ACIFIC P ANAMA : A P RELIMINARY A NALYSIS D oris W eiland [ I]

A bstract T his

p aper d iscusses

a r egional

a rchaeological

s urvey,

c urrently

i n

p rogress, o f t he S anta M aria d rainage b asin i n C entral P acific P anama. U sing a d ual s trategy o f s tratified r andom s ampling b y u naligned t ransects, a nd p urposive s urveys o f k ey z ones, s ettlement

a nd

t he r esearch i s d esigned t o d efine

s ubsistence p atterns

i n

r elation t o t he f ull

r ange o f

e nvironments i n t he S anta M aria d rainage.

I t a lso p lans t o t est a n umber o f

h ypotheses

previous

t hat

h ave

a risen

f rom

o ur

k nowledge

o f

C entral

P anamanian a rchaeology a nd t hat a re c oncerned w ith t he r elationships b etween s pecific

m ajor

r esources

( coastal

f ood

r esources,

r aw

m aterials,

r ockshelters, a lluvial s oils, e tc.) a nd t he d istribution o f h uman p opulations i n t he a rea . T he f irst y ear's s urvey e ffort w as c oncentrated i n z ones i n o r n ear t he c oast o f P arita B ay. P reliminary i nterpretation o f t he m ore t han 2 00 s ites

l ocated a nd e valuated d uring t his i nitial f ield s eason

s uggests t he f ollowing : t he

s tudy

( 1)

l ate p receramic o ccupation ( 5000-2500 B .C.)

area w as w idespread,

( 2)

c oastal

o f

r esources w ere e xploited

c ontinually f rom a t l east 5 000 B .C. o nward, b ut f ield d ata p oint t o i ncreasing s pecialization i n a ctivities i n t he c oastal z one t hrough t ime, ( 3)

l arge,

n ucleated a gr icultural

t he f irst m illennium B .C.,

s ettlements

i nitially a ppeared e arly

i n

a nd ( 4) n ucleated s ettlements i n t he a lluvium o f

m ajor r ivers a re c haracteristic o f t he l ast t wo m illennia, b ut t he d iscovery o f a l arge P eriod V ( A.D. 5 00-700) s ite f ar r emoved f rom t his s etting r equires t hat w e c onsider f actors o ther t han r iver a lluvium a s i nfluencing l ate s ettlement.

1 . D epartment o f A nthropology, T emple U niversity

3 1

I NTRODUCTION I n a nother p aper i n

t his

v olume,

C ooke

a nd R anere

d iscuss

t he

b ackground a nd r esearch o bjectives o f t he " Proyecto S anta M arla", a m ultid isciplinary s tudy o f p rehistoric h uman a daptations i n t he S anta M aria R iver d rainage b asin i n C entral P acific P anama . T he o bjectives o f t his s tudy a re b eing m et c urrently

i n p art t hrough a n i ntensive r egional s ite s urvey w hich i s i n p rogress. T his p aper d iscusses t he s trategies a nd

m ethodologies e mployed i n t he s ite s urvey a nd p rovides a p reliminary a ssessment o f t he d ata c ollected d uring t he f irst f our m onths o f c oncentrated f ieldwork , J anuary - A pril , 1 982 . [ 2] T he d esign o f t he s urvey i s p erhaps b est u nderstood i n t erms o f p revious a rchaeological r esearch i n C entral P anama , a nd o f t he p roblems p osed b y e xisting i nformation . A rchaeological r esearch i n t his a rea h as b een p rimarily c onducted a long t he c oast a nd t he l ower r eaches o f t he m ajor r iver v alleys, a nd h as f ocused o n t hree k inds o f s ites: ( 1) c oastal s hellmounds, ( 2) r ockshelters, a nd ( 3) l arge c eramic-using v illages i n r iverine l ocations. E xcavations a t t hese s ites h ave p rovided a n u nbroken c ultural s equence f rom 5 000 B .C. t o A .D . 1 520 ( Ladd 1 964 ; C ooke 1 972 , 1 976 ; L inares 1 977). Q uite d etailed i nformation o n s ubsistence p atterns i s a vailable f or f ive s uch s ites : t he A guadulce S helter ( Ranere a nd M cCarty 1 976), C erro M angote ( McGimsey 1 956 ; M cGimsey , C ollins a nd M cKern 1 966 : R anere 1 980a ; R anere , C ooke a nd H ansell 1 980), L a C ueva d e l os L adrones ( Bird a nd C ooke 1 978), M onagrillo ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954; R anere a nd H ansell 1 978; H ansell 1 979), a nd S itio S ierra ( Cooke 1 972, 1 978, 1 979). H owever , s ettlement d ata a re s ketchy , c onsisting o f t he r esults o f t he r apid a nd d isjunct s urveys c onducted b y W illey a nd M cGimsey ( 1954) a long t he a ncient s horeline o f P arita B ay , a nd t he i ntensive, b ut s tatistically u ncontrolled s urvey o f a lluvial a reas i n w estern C oc M P rovince c onducted b y C ooke ( 1972). A lthough t hese s tudies h ave p rovided a q uantity o f s ite-specific d ata , t hey h ave l eft u nanswered a n umber o f i mportant q uestions c oncerning t he u tilization o f i nland r esources b y p rehistoric p opulations a nd t he r elationship b etween c oastal a nd i nland s ettlements. T he s urvey o f t he S anta M aria d rainage w as d esigned t o p rovide d ata o n t he f ollowing a rchaeological p roblems:

1 ) L ate P leistocene-Early H olocene E nvironments A n umber

o f

c onflicting

t heories

c oncerning

e nvironment d ur ing t he l ate P leistocene-Early H olocene,

t he

n ature

o f

t he

a nd t he s ubsistence

s trategies o f h unters a nd g atherers e ntering t he I sthmus o f P anama d uring t his p eriod , r emain u ntested ( e.g . S auer 1 944 ; L othrop 1 961; H ester 1 966 ; R anere 1 972 ,

1 976 ,

1 981;

L ynch 1 976 ,

1 978).

E nvironmental r econstructions

f or C entral P anama a re b ased l argely o n e xtrapolations f rom d ata f rom o ther a reas ( Bartlett a nd B arghoorn 1 973; V an d er H ammen 1 974), a nd n o s ites d ating e arlier t han 5 000 B .C.

2 .

S ections

o f

t his

h ave b een

r ecorded i n t he s tudy a rea .

p aper d ealing w ith s urvey d esign ,

O ne

m ethodology a nd a

r eview o f C entral P anamanian a rchaeology d raw u pon c orresponding s ections o f 1 981 a nd 1 982 N ational S cience F oundation r esearch p roposals p repared j ointly b y R anere , C ooke , H ansell a nd W eiland .

3 2

r eason f or t he l ack o f e arly s ites m ay b e o ur p resent i nability t o r ecognize t hem . s uch

A s C ooke ( in p ress) h as p ointed o ut, o bviously P aleoindian a rtifacts, a s

f luted

p oints,

a re

r elatively

s carce

i tems

i n

l ithic m aterial c ollected o ver t he y ears a t L ake M adden ,

t he q uantities

o f

a nd w e h ave l ittle

i dea w hat k inds o f t ools m ay h ave a ccompanied o r r eplaced t hem .

O ne o f t he

o bjectives

n ot

o f

t he

s urvey

i s,

t herefore,

t o

c ollect

o nly

p aleoenvironmental d ata , b ut a lso i nformation o n p opulation d istributions, s ubsistence s trategies, a nd l ithic t echnology f or t he P aleoindian ( I) a nd e arly p receramic ( I A) p eriods.

[ 3]

2 ) I nterior v s. C oastal A daptations i n t he L ate P receramic: F or t he l ate p receramic

( IIB) a nd e arly c eramic ( IIIA/IIIB) p eriods,

5 000-300 B .C., e xisting a rchaeological d ata f rom C entral P anama a re a t o dds w ith W illey's ( 1971) m odel o f aN orthwest S outh A merican L ittoral T radition , w hich g ives t emporal p riority t o a s ubsistence p attern o f c oastal c ollecting a nd f ishing. B ird a nd C ooke ( 1978) a nd R anere ( 1980b) d escribe t errestrially o riented p atterns a t s ites o ccupied b y 5 000 B .C., a nd R anere ( 1972, 1 976) h as p roposed t hat t he u se o f c oastal r esources c onstituted e xpansions o f a n e arlier t errestrial r esource b ase, m ost p robably a s p art o f as easonal r ound . T his p osition i s s upported b y r ecent e vidence f or s easonal o ccupation a t C erro M angote ( Ranere 1 980a ; R anere, C ooke a nd H ansell 1 980) a nd a t M onagrillo ( Ranere a nd H ansell 1 978 ; H ansell 1 979). F urthermore, t here i s e vidence f rom A guadulce a nd L adrones w hich s uggests t hat s ome a griculture w as c arried o n d uring p art, i f n ot a ll , o f t he l ate p receramic e arly c eramic p eriod ( Piperno a nd C lary , t his v olume). A s econd r esearch o bjective, t hen , i s t o l ocate s ites o f t his p eriod s ome d istance i nland i n o rder t o d etermine t he

r elative

r oles o f c oastal a nd t errestrial

r esources

i n t he s ubsistence s ystem .

3 ) P opulation N ucleation : Existing d ata s uggest t hat a t a bout 3 00 B .C.,

a m arked c hange i n

d emographic a nd s ettlement p atterns o ccurs, s ignaled b y t he a ppearance o f s edentary n ucleated a gricultural v illages l ike S itio S ierra i n t he f lood p lains o f m ajor r ivers, a nd b y t he a pparent a bandonment o f m any c oastal s hellmounds a nd r ockshelters . T he a bruptness o f t his c hange m ay b e r eal, o ccasioned b y as hift f rom a s ubsistence b ased p rimarily o n t he e xploitation o f c oastal r esources t o o ne b ased o n m aize a griculture. A lternatively, a griculture m ay b e a n e arly i n s itu d evelopment,

a nd t he p attern o f a brupt

c hange, a n a rtifact o f a rchaeological r esearch , a ttributable t o t he l ack o f s ystematic s urvey f or o pen i nland p receramic a nd M onagrillo p eriod a ntecedents t o t hese a gricultural v illages .

T he l ocation o f s uch a ntecedent

s ites c onstitutes a t hird r esearch o bjective.

3 .

T he

c hronological

p eriodization

s chema

f or C entral

P anama

r eferred

t o

t hroughout t his p aper i s s ummarized i n C ooke a nd R anere, t his v olume, F igure

3 3

4 ) T he A ppearance o f C omplex S ocieties: C omplex o r s tratified s ocieties m ay b e e vident a s e arly a s t he o ccupation o f S itio S ierra ( Cooke 1 979 , i n p ress) a nd a re c ertainly w ell e stablished b y t he t ime o f t he C onquest. T he t erritories c ontrolled b y p reC onquest " chieftains" c an b e f airly w ell d elimited f rom e thnohistoric s ources . E ach g enerally e xtended f rom t he c oast t o t he c entral h ighlands a nd i ncluded a r ange o f v ertically z oned m icroenvironments. W hile s ome a spects o f p rehistoric s ocial o rganization c an b e d educed f rom e thnohistoric d ata ( e.g. L inares 1 977; C ooke 1 979), e fforts a t m ore c omplete r econstruction a re h ampered b y t he l ack o f i nformation a bout s ite d istributions a nd s ize h ierarchy . C ollection o f s uch i nformation i s o ur f ourth r esearch o bjective . C learly,

t he

p roblems

o utlined

a bove

d emand

c ontrol

d istribution d ata f rom b oth c oastal a nd i nterior r egions p rovided b y p revious r esearch. p rovide t his c ontrol .

o ver

s ite

b eyond t hat

T he S anta M aria s urvey w as d esigned t o

' I HE S TUDY A REA T he S anta M aria d rainage b asin ( Figure 1 a nd C ooke a nd R anere ,

t his

v olume, F igure 1 ) i s t he l argest i n C entral P anama ( 3,315 s q k m ) ( CATAPAN 1 971: V ol .II , A ppendix 9 E). T he r iver i tself f lows f or 1 45 k m f rom i ts s ource a long t he c ontinental d ivide t o i ts m outh a t P arita B ay . I ncluded w ithin t he d rainage a re f ive m ajor p hysiographic a nd e nvironmental z ones: ( 1) t he C entral C ordillera , w hich h as a n e levation r ange o f 4 00 t o o ver 1 500 m a bove s ea l evel ; ( 2) t he F oothills, r anging f rom 1 00 t o 4 00 m eters i n e levation , w ith o ccasional h igher p eaks, b ut g enerally m ore m oderate s lopes t han t he C ordillera; ( 3) t he S antiago P lain, a n a rea o f O ligocene a nd M iocene d eposits p roviding a bundant s ources o f l ithic r aw m aterial ;

( 4) t he

O ld D elta, a w ide f an o f R ecent a lluvium ; a nd ( 5) t he C oast, w here t he r iver 's e xtensive e stuary s ystem h as c reated a n i nshore e nvironment r ich i n m arine r eources . R ainfall v aries f i lm 1 000 m m p er y ear a long t he c oast t o o ver 3 500 m m p er y ear a long t he d ivide.

W ith t he e xception o f p arts o f t he C entral

C ordillera z one, t his r ainfall i s s trongly s easonal i n n ature, a nd t he e ffects o f t he d ry s eason ( December - A pril) a re " severe" t o " extreme" t hroughout m ost o f t he f orests e xist o nly i n E lsewhere , t he d ominant t he f oothill s lopes t o

s tudy a rea ( CATAPAN 1 971). R elatively u ndisturbed t he w ettest l ocations n ear t he c ontinental d ivide . v egetation r anges f rom e xtemely d ense t horn s crub o n f ire-maintained s avannah i n t he p lains. A gricultural

f ields, p redominantly o f s ugarcane a nd r ice , o ccupy m ost o f t he O ld D elta z one a nd s ignificant p ortions o f t he S antiago P lain .

S URVEY M ETHODOLOGY T he b oth

r egional s urvey d esign f or t he S anta M arla p roject

p robability

s ampling a nd

c arried o ut u sing a s tratified

p urposive

s urvey .

P robability

s ystematic u naligned

i ncorporates s ampling

i s

d esign ( Plog 1 976)

t o

d etermine t he r elationship b etween t he r ange o f e nvironments i n t he S anta M arla d rainage a nd s uch s ite p arameters a s l ocation , a ge , s ize, f unction , a nd p roximity t o s uch n atural r esources a s r aw m aterials, f resh w ater , a nd a rable l and.

3 4

F or t he p urpose o f s ample s election, t he f ive p hysiographic z ones s hown i n F igure 1 a nd d escribed a bove w ere c ollapsed i nto t hree s urvey z ones: ( 1) t he C oast, ( 2) t he O ld D elta a nd S antiago P lain , a nd ( 3) t he F oothills a nd C entral C ordillera . A s mall a rea a t t he c entral w estern e dge o f t he d rainage, m arginal t o b oth t he F oothills a nd t he S antiago P lain , w as t reated a s as eparate z one . O ut o f t he t otal s ampling u niverse o f 1 990 s quare k ilometers, a pproximately 8 0 s quare k ilometers o r 4 .0% w as s elected f or t ransect s urvey . T he b reakdown o f a rea a nd s ampling f raction p er s urvey z one i s a s f ollows: ( 1) 7 .2 s q k m ( 6 .1%) o f t he C oastal z one ; ( 2) 4 4 .5 s q k m ( 3 .5%) o f t he O ld D elta/Santiago P lain ; ( 3) 2 5 s q k m ( 5.1%) o f t he F oothill/Central C ordillera ; a nd ( 4) 3 .3 s q k m ( 2 .8%) o f t he m arginal z one . E ach o f

t he t hree s urvey z ones w as d ivided i nto t hree u nits o f e qual

s ize. T hese u nits w ere f urther s ubdivided i nto 0 .5 k m w ide t ransects, u sing U niversal T ransverse M ercator ( UTM) c oordinates a s ag rid. O ne t ransect w as t hen r andomly s elected f or s urvey f rom e ach u nit ( Figure 1 ). T he u se o f U TM c oordinates g reatly f acilitates p recise r ecording o f s ite l ocations a nd a reas s urveyed o n t opographic m aps. T he

d ecision

t o u se

t ransects

r ather t han q uadrats

a s

t he s ampling

u nit w as m ade p rimarily o n p ragmatic g rounds. I n t erms o f s tatistical e fficiency, t he a dvantages o f t he o ne o r t he o ther s ampling s hape a re a rguable ( c.f., P log 1 976). I n p ractical t erms, h owever , t ransects a re e asier t o p lace a ccurately i n r elation t o m aps a nd a erial p hotographs, b y u sing o ne p rominent l andmark a s a n i nitial r eference p oint a nd t hen s etting ab aseline b y t ransit.

I n a ddition ,

t ransects a re m ore c ost e ffective t han

q uadrats s ince m ore t ime i s s pent i n a ctual s urveying a nd l ess i n m oving s urvey t eams f rom o ne u nit t o t he n ext. A t ransect w idth o f 0 .5 k m w as c hosen a s a c ompromise b etween m aximizing s ample n umber f or e ventual s tatistical i nference a nd m inimizing t he l ogistical p roblems a nd c osts o f m oving s urvey t eams a bout i n t he f ield. T ransect l engths w ere d etermined b y z one b oundaries i n a ll b ut t he F oothill/Central C ordillera z one, w here t ransects w ere e stablished o f s ufficient l ength t o c over t he r ange o f m icroenvironments w ithout r edundancy. T ransects v ary i n l ength f rom 6 k m i n t he C oastal z one t o a s m uch a s 3 0 k m i n t he O ld D elta/Santiago P lain . T he i ntensity o f s urvey n ecessary t o m eet o ur r esearch o bjectives w as d etermined o n t he b asis o f p revious s mall o pen-air p receramic l ocalities. m o r l ess.

T hus,

a ny

t raverse

k nowledge a bout s ite d imensions f or S uch s ites o ften h ad d iameters o f 2 5

i nterval

s ignificantly

l arger t han

2 5 m

w ould r esult i n o ur f ailure t o r ecord a l arge n umber o f t hese s mall s ites s imply b ecause t hey w ould l ie e ntirely b etween t raverse l ines. B ecause o f t he l arge a rea t o b e c overed a nd t he l imited t ime a vailable , s ystematic s ubsurface t esting w as f oregone a s a r outine s urvey p rocedure . A lthough b uried s ites w ithout s urface i ndicators d o o ccur , t heir d eposits a re f requently e xposed b y n atural a nd h uman i nterference : p aths, c attle, p loughing , d itching , e rosion , r unoff, r iver a nd w ave a ction , b ioturbation , e tc . F urthermore , s oil c over i n a ll a reas b ut f loodplain i s s hallow , a nd w e a re c onfident t hat f ew s ites a re b eing m issed b y t ransect t eams. I n t he S antiago P lain,

f or e xample,

w here O ligocene a nd M iocene

d eposits a re e xposed a t g round s urface o r h ave o nly a v ery t hin s oil c over , a rchaeological m aterials o ccur a lmost i nvar iably a s s urface d eposits w ith l ittle

or n o

d epth.

H ere

s ystematic s hovel o r a uger t esting w hile

3 5

t ransecting i s s imply n ot a f easible a pproach , ap oint w hich w as c ontinually r einforced b y r egular e xamination o f r oadcuts a nd e rosion f aces . I n t he O ld D elta z one, w here s ites a re o ften b uried i n t he R ecent a lluvium, c ultivation a nd o ther h uman d isturbances e nsure t hat a rchaeological m aterials a re r egularly b rought t o t he s urface . C anefields, w ith t heir d eeply c ut i rrigation d itches a nd c anals, a re a n e xtreme ( albeit q uite c ommon) e xample o f t his k ind o f d isturbance a nd r eworking o f d eposits. I rrigation d itches w ere r egularly e xamined f or i ndications o f s ite d epth. I n t he C oastal z one ,

w ind a nd w ater e rosion ,

a s w ell a s b ioturbation ,

t end t o e xpose r ather t han b ury s ite r emains. C onsequently, a l arge p ercentage o f t he s ites p resent i n t his z one a re i dentifiable t hrough s urface e xamination a lone . N onetheless, t his z one i s c haracterized b y a f luctuating c oastline , s hifting r iver c hannels a nd , i n c ertain c ontexts, r apid s edimentation r ates. W hile t hese f actors m ake t he e xistence o f d eeply b uried s ites a d istinct p robability , s uch s ites a re n ot l ikely t o b e r evealed b y s hovel o r h and a uger t ests. T he p otential f or d eeply b uried s ites i n t he c oastal z one c annot b e a ssessed u ntil g eological a nalyses o f t he a rea a re f urther a dvanced . S urvey w as g uided b y c ommercial s erial p hotographs o f 1 :40 ,000 o r 1 :50,000 s cale, e nlarged a erials o f 1 :10,000 , a nd t opographic m aps o f 1 :50 ,000 o r 1 :10 ,000 ( the l arger s cale m aps a re p resently a vailable f or o nly l imited p ortions o f t he s urvey a rea ). T ransects w ere t raversed o n f oot b y t eams o f u p to six p ersons, w alking 2 5 m a part, 2 50 m o ut i n e ither d irection f rom a b aseline l aid o ut b y t ransit, s earching t he g round m eter b y m eter . W here g round s urface w as o bscured b y v egetation , t he s urface w as c leared a nd e xamined a t i ntervals o f a pproximately 1 0 -1 5 m . A ll b ut v ery l arge o r c omplex s ites w ere e valuated i mmediately u pon d iscovery . S urvey t eams o f f our t o s ix m embers w ere a ble t o c over b etween 0 .4 a nd 2 .0 k m p er d ay a long t ransects,

d epending o n t errain ,

v egetation ,

a nd t he n umber a nd

c omplexity o f s ites e ncountered . C oncurrently w ith t ransecting,

w e c onducted p urposive s urveys t o

i ncrease t he l ikelihood o f d iscovering s pecific k inds o f s ites, i .e. t hose l ikely t o b e a ssociated w ith t erritorially r estricted r esources o r t opographically a dvantageous l ocations. T argets f or p urposive s urvey i ncluded t he f ollowing : 1 ) Q uarry s ources: Q uarry s ites h ave n ot p reviously b een s tudied a nywhere i n P anama. T heir l ocation i s v ital f or i nvestigating t echnological c hange, t he d ispersal a nd d istribution o f t ools, a nd t he s ocial c ontrol o f r aw m aterials ( alluded t o i n e thnohistorical d ocuments) ( Espinosa 1 913). 2 ) R ockshelters a nd c aves : T hese l ocations w ere w idely u sed b y p receramic ( II) a nd e arly c eramic ( III) p eriod p opulations i n P anama ( Ranere 1 972 , 1 980b ; R anere a nd M cCarty 1 976 ; B ird a nd C ooke 1 978). S uch s ites a re m ost l ikely t o h ave s tratified d eposits i n w hich s tone t ool e dges a nd o rganic r emains a re w ell p reserved . 3 ) I nselbergs a nd h igh s pots : S tratified

o pen

p receramic

a nd

e arly

c eramic

s ites

s uch

a s

M onagrillo

( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954) a nd C erro M angote ( McGimsey 1 956) a re s ituated i n

3 6

l ocations a bove f lood l evel i n t he C oastal a nd O ld D elta z ones. 4 )

-L inear -

r esources:

S ites have b een f ound

t o b e c oncentrated a long t he o ld c oastline

( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954) a nd a long m ajor r iver v alleys ( Cooke 1 972). A pproximately

8 0 s q k m w ere s elected f or p urposive s urvey,

a long t he

o ld c oastline, a long t he n orth b ank o f t he S anta M aria R iver i n t he O ld D elta z one , a nd i n a n a rea o f p rimary l ithic o utcrops i n t he S antiago P lain . A erial p hotographs, m aps, a nd g round r econnaisance, a s w ell a s d ata a ccrued i n t ransect s urvey, g uided t he s election o f l ocations f or e xamination. T hese a reas w ere s urveyed w ith t he t echniques, a s t he r andom t ransects.

s ame

i ntensity,

u sing

t he

s ame

f ield

S ITE D EFINITION A ND E VALUATION B ecause

o f

t he a nticipated

e phemeral n ature

o f

m uch o f t he t ime s pan i n w hich w e a re i nterested, s ites

a ll

l oci

o f

c ultural

m aterials,

w hether

c ultural

d eposits

f or

w e d ecided t o r ecord a s

" discrete

a nd

p otentially

i nterpretable" ( Plog, P log a nd W ait 1 978:389), o r d iffuse, s patially u nbounded, a nd/or l ow i n n umbers ( what P log h as t ermed " non-sites" [ Plog , P log a nd W ait 1 978:389]).

A ll s ites,

t hus d efined,

w ere r ecorded a nd

e valuated i n t erms o f a s m any p arameters a s w ere a pplicable - l ocation , s ize, a ge, f unction, e tc. T he d ata w ere r ecorded o n s tandard s ite e valuation f orms d esigned f or t he p roject. T he e valuation s trategies e mployed v aried a ccording t o s ite s ize, d ensity o f material, d egree o f p reservation, d epth, a nd t he n ature a nd e xtent o f r ecent d isturbance . a nd c omplexity , b y t echniques t able,

S ites w ere m apped, d epending o n t heir s ize r anging f rom t ransit o r a lidade a nd p lane

t o p acing a nd B runton c ompass.

S urface f inds w ere f lagged a nd

c ollected b y i ndividual p rovenience w here m aterials w ere d iffuse o r l ow i n a bsolute n umbers, F eatures

a nd

o r c ollected b y q uadrats w here d eposits w ere d ense.

i ntrasite

c oncentrations

c ollected o r s ampled a s u nits.

o f material w ere d elimited a nd

S ite d epth a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f

s tratified d eposits w ere d etermined b y e xamination o f e xisting e xposures o f t he s ubsurface, s uch a s r oad c uts, e rosional f aces, a nd i rrigation d itches, o r b y m eans o f s mall t rowel t ests. I n a n umber o f s ites w ith s ubstantial s ubsurface d eposits, l arger t est p its w ere e xcavated t o d etermine t he s tate o f p reservation o f c ultural r emains a nd t o r ecover s amples. F aunal a nd b otanical r emains w ere r ecovered b y f ine s creening o f s ediments, a nd b y c ollection o f s amples f or f lotation , a nd f or p ollen a nd p hytolith a nalyses.

S UMMARY O F S URVEY R ESULTS C oncentrated

f ieldwork w as

m id-January o f 1 982. r andom t ransects

b egun

a t

t he o nset

o f

t he d ry s eason ,

D uring t he f irst s eason o f s urvey,

i n t he C oastal z one ,

i n

w e c ompleted t hree

a n a rea o f a pproximately 7 .2 s q k m ,

a nd p urposively s urveyed a pproximately 3 4 s q k m o f t he o ld c oastline a nd t he i ntertidal z one. I n t he O ld D elta/Santiago P lain z one , w e c ompleted 4 .0 s q k m o f r andom t ransect a nd p urposively s urveyed 2 .7 s q k m o f e roded M iocene d eposits

i n t he

a lluvium a long v egetation

S antiago P lain,

t he

w as

n orth

n ot

b ank

o f

a h indrance

a s w ell a s a nother 9 s q k m o f R ecent t he a nd

3 7

S anta M aria . s ite

W ith

v isibility

f ew e xceptions, w as

g ood.

A n

u nexpectedly h igh d ensity o f s ites, o n a verage a bout 4 .5 p er l inear k m o f t ransect, a nd t he t ime r equired f or s ite e valuation, m ade o ur p rogress s lower t han w e h ad a nticipated. H owever , t he l arge n umber o f s mall , l ow v isibility s ites r ecorded i n a ll a reas s urveyed s eems a g ood i ndication t hat e ffective c overage w as a chieved. A nalyses o f t he f irst s eason's r esults h ave b arely b egun,

a nd t he

f ollowing s ummaries a re b ased o n i nitial a sessments m ade i n t he f ield a nd i n t he P anama l aboratory.

S ANTA M ARIA N ORTH B ANK P URPOSIVE S URVEY O ne p urposive s urvey o peration w as c arried o ut o n t he n orth b ank o f t he S anta M aria , c oastline.

i n t he R ecent a lluvium

a bout 1 8 .5 k m i nland f rom t he p resent

P resent d ay l and u se i n t he a rea c onsists p redominantly o f

s ugarcane

c ultivation,

w ith

o ccasional

p arcels

o f

i mproved

p asture.

V isibility i n c ut a nd b urnt c ane f ields i s e xcellent, a nd w e s ynchronized o ur s urvey w ith c ane h arvesting s chedules. T he r egularly s paced i rrigation d itches a nd f urrows o f t he c ane p arcels s erved a s c onvenient h orizontal c ontrols f or s urveying . F ifteen s ites w ere r ecorded w ithin t he a pproximately 9 s q k m s urveyed. M ost r ange i n s ize f rom 3 ,600 t o 2 35,500 s q m , s catters

o f

P eriod I V

l ithics

a nd

s herds.

( 300 B .C.- A .D.

5 00)

w ith

t hree v ery

s mall

I n d ate , t he s ites r ange f rom a t l east t hrough P eriod V I ( A.D. 7 00-1100), a nd

2500-300 B .C .) a nd P eriod V II ( A .D . p ossibly i nclude P eriod I IIA/IIIB (

1 100-

1 520) c omponents a s w ell. T he l argest o f t he s ites i s A g-46 , an early c ircular d eposit o ver 6 0 c m i n d epth,

l ocated o n a s light k noll r ising a bove t he f lood p lain o f t he

S anta M aria , i n a n a rea w hich p ristinely w ould h ave b een s easonally s wampy . T he s ite a ppears t o b e a n ucleated v illage w ith i ts major o ccupation o ccurring d uring P eriods V a nd V I.

C eramics,

c oncentrations t hat p robably r epresent p resent b ut n ot a bundant.

a ctivity

a t t imes d ense,

o ccur i n

a reas.

s tone

F laked

i s

G round s tone a nd p olished s tone o ccur i n t he f orm

o f m ano f ragments a nd b asalt c elt f lakes a nd f ragments. F ive

o ther

l arge s ites

( Ag-47,

4 8 ,

1 80 ,

1 81,

a nd 1 82) w ere p robably

o ccupied a t a s lightly e arlier d ate t han A g-46 a nd m ay b e a ssociated w ith a bandoned m eanders o f t he S anta M aria R iver . F our V ibracore d rill c ores w ere t aken f rom t wo n earby f ossil c hannels t o o btain p ossible t erminus p ost q uem d ates f or t heir a bandonments. T hese d ates a re n ot y et a vailable . T he e arliest s ite d iscovered, A g-53, p robably c ontains a l ate M onagrillo t hrough e arly P eriod I V ( 12001 B .C.) c omponent. W hile o nly a p reliminary a nalysis o f t he c eramics a nd l ithics f rom t hese f lood p lain s ites h as b een u ndertaken ,

i t a ppears

t hat

a ll b ut A g-53

p ost-date S itio S ierra , w hich w as a n i mportant v illage b y a t l east 2 40 B .C . ( Cooke 1 979). S itio S ierra a lso r emains t he o nly k nown c enter f or p rismatic b lade

4 .

t echnology.

T he

l ong

r ectangular

C halcedony w ill b e u sed t hroughout

c ryptocrystalline

s ilicates

b lades

t his p aper a s a c over t erm f or

c ommonly r eferred

e tc.

3 8

o f c halcedony a nd a ndesite

t o

a s

j asper,

c hert,

f lint,

w hich

a re

s uch

S ierra a re

a p rominent

e ither

v ery r are

f eature o r

o f

a bsent

t he a t

P eriod

t he

I V o ccupation a t

a bove-mentioned

S itio

s ites.

[ 4].

W hile w e d o n ot y et h ave s ufficient d ata t o a ssess

t he s ocial d ynamics o f

b lade

w e

m anufacture,

d istribution ,

a nd

c onsumption ,

s uspect

t hat

S itio

S ierra's e arly i mportance w as i n s ome w ay r elated t o t hese a ctivities .

S ANTIAGO P LAIN M IOCENE D EPOSITS P URPOSIVE S URVEY A nother

m ajor

p urposive

s urvey

w as

c onducted

i n

t he

a long t he I nteramerican H ighway w est o f D ivisa ( Figure 3 ). o f

w eathered M iocene

d eposits

( CATAPAN

1 971)

w here

S antiago

P lain

T his i s a n a rea a ccumulations o f

f lakeable l ithic m aterials, a lbeit o f v ariable q uality, a re f requently e xposed. T he f lat t o r olling r esistant b lock b asalt f lows.

t errain i s d otted w ith l ow h ills c apped b y U nderlying t hese h ills a re c layey r esidual

s oils f ormed b y t he i n s itu w eathering o f h ighly f ractured a ndesite i n w hich c halcedony o ccurs a s f racture f illings o r d ikes ( Clary,

H ansell,

R anere a nd

B uggey, t his v olume). F requently, t hese d ikes h ave b een e xposed b y e rosion , o r f ragments f rom d ikes h ave b een r edeposited a s s tream g ravels b y w ater e rosion .

A rchaeological s ites t end t o o ccur i n s uch l ocalities.

A n a rea 2 .7 k m l ong b y a dditional

1 k m

w ide

w as

s urveyed

l ocalities w ere o pportunistically e xamined.

i ntensively,

a nd

F ifteen s ites w ere

r ecorded ( Figure 3 ). However, l ithic m aterial i s a lmost c ontinuously d istributed, making t he d elimitation o f d iscrete s ites d ifficult. T he e ntire a rea a ppears t o h ave b een u sed i ntensively f or t he p rocurement o f r aw m aterials a nd f or v arious t echnical s tages o f s tone t ool m anufacture o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime . c oncentrations

W hat w e h ave d esignated a s s ites a re t he m ost o bvious

o f material,

many

o f w hich

a re c omprised o f multiple

l ocalities o f i ntensive a ctivity . Twelve

o f

t he

1 5

s ites

s hown

i n F igure

3 a re

a ceramic.

A t

t he

r emaining 3 s ites ( Sm1, 4 a nd 1 0) c eramic f inds a re l imited t o s mall l ocalities a nd a re o f p ost-Conquest o r m odern d ate . T he a ceramic s ites a nd l ocalities a re q uarries a nd/or w orkshops r anging i n s ize f rom s mall s catters o f l ithic d ebitage ( e .g.,

l arge f lakes,

c ores a nd f ragments,

l arge d eposits c overing u p t o 8 5,000 s q m i n a rea ( Sm5). l arger

s ites

c onsist

o f r estricted

a s a t S m3) t o G enerally,

t he

a reas o f v ery d ense l ithic d ebris

s urrounded b y m uch m ore d iffuse m aterial. L ithic r emains c over t he e ntire r ange f rom c ore r eduction f lakes t o f ine c hipping d ebris. T hey a lso f requently i nclude a s ignificantly l arge n umber o f f inished t ools a nd f lakes w ith r etouch a rtifacts

a nd/or u se w ear .

s uggests

t hat

i t

m ay

T he

p resence o f

b e

a n

t he

l atter t wo c lasses o f

o versimplification

t o

c haracterize

t hese s ites f unctionally a s m erely q uarry/workshops. T ool t ypes a nd p reliminary a nalysis o f

t echnology i ndicate t hat

t hese

s ites r ange i n a ge f rom t he l ate p receramic, P eriod I IB ( 5000-2500 B .C .) t o P eriod V II ( A .D. 1 100-1520). T wo s ites, S m1 a nd 1 0, a ppear t o b e p rimarily p receramic

( although b oth h ave

S m14,

e xclusively p receramic.

i s

m anufacture,

l oci o f l ater o ccupation), S ix s ites have

a t echnology c haracteristic o f P eriod I V .

w hile o ne s ite, o f

b lade

N onetheless,

e vidence

f lake,

r ather t han b lade i ndustries a re t he m ost c ommonly r epresented.

A t S m21,

f or e xample, s temmed f lake k nives a re f ound o f at ype c ommonly r ecovered i n f irst m illennium B .C. c ontexts a t t he l arge c oastal v illage o f L a M ulaS arigua ( Pr-14). I n a ddition , S m21 h as a r ange o f b eaked s craper/burin t ools w hich a lso a ppear a t S m1, 4 , 2 2, a nd 2 3, a nd a re a bsent f rom P eriod

3 9

I V-VII c eramic s ites . t o P eriod V II.

A t l east o ne s ite h as t riangular p oints,

w hich d ate

S oil h orizons i n t his a rea a re t hin t o n onexistent ( Clary , H ansell , R anere a nd B uggey, t his v olume), a nd s ite d epths r arely e xceed 2 0 c m . G enerally t hese s hallow d eposits h ave b een d isturbed b y c ultivation a nd c attle g razing .

C onsequently, w e h ave n ot b een a ble t o r ecover m aterial f or

C .14 d ating , a nd t he f inal i nterpretation a nd d ating o f t hese s ites w ill d epend p rimarily u pon v ery c lose a nalysis o f t he l ithic m aterials, p articularly , o f m anufacturing t echnology . F or e xample , w hile p rismatic b lades a re a p rominent f eature o f P eriod I V l ithic t echnology ( e.g . a t S itio S ierra ), i t i s n ot c ertain t hat c lassic b lade t echnology i s r epresented a t a ll o f t he s ites d iscussed a bove .

O LD D ELTA/SANTIAGO P LAIN T RANSECT T he e asternmost t ransect a cross t he S anta M aria ,

l ying a bout 1 5 k m o r

m ore i nland , w as a lso b egun d uring t he f irst f ield s eason . T he s ection s urveyed l ies n orth o f t he r iver , c overing a bout 5 .5 k m o f t he O ld D elta a nd e xtending 2 .5 k m i nto t he S antiago P lain . T he d istribution o f s ites w ill b e d iscussed i n r elation t o t hese t wo p hysiographic z ones . T he R ecent a lluvial d eposits e xtend n orth o f t he r iver f or a d istance o f a bout 1 2 k m , w ith m aximum e levations, a t t hat p oint, o f a bout 5 0 m a bove s ea l evel. T he t opography i s f lat t o g ently r olling, a nd l and u se i s p rimarily a gricultural, w ith l arge t racts o f i mproved a nd u nimproved p asture . S ugarcane i s t he d ominant c rop g rown w ithin 8 k m o f t he r iver, a nd a s w e e nded o ur f irst f ield s eason , l arge f ields i n t he t ransect a rea w ere s till u nharvested a nd c ould n ot b e w alked . N onetheless, i n t hose a reas w here

s urvey

i s

c omplete ,

s ome

p atterning

i n t he

d ata c an b e d iscerned .

W ithin t he 5 .5 k m t ransect s egment s urveyed ( 2 .75 s q k m ), f ifteen s ites w ere r ecorded, a d ensity o f a bout 5 .5 s ites p er s q k m . A p reviously k nown s ite , S itio S ierra ( Ag-3), l ies w ithin t he t ransect, b ut s ome d istance s outh o f t he a rea s urveyed t his s eason . O f t he f ifteen n ewly r ecorded s ites, e ight a re a ceramic s catters o f f ive o r f ewer a rtifacts, o ne i s a s mall s catter o f l ithics a nd u nidentifiable s herds,

w hile o ne i s as herd s catter w hich p ost-

d ates t he C onquest. F our o f t he r emaining s ites a re c onsidered t o b e l ate p receramic ( Period I IB) o n t he b asis o f t ool t ypology a nd t echnology . T hese s ites a re s mall w orkshop/habitation s ites, a rea .

n one l arger t han o ne h ectare i n

F inally, t here a re t wo l arge c eramic p eriod s ettlements l ocated w ithin t he t ransect . O ne , S itio S ierra ( Ag-3), i s aP eriod I V v illage, w ith a n a rea o f 4 5 h ectares, s ituated a bout 1 k m n orth o f t he r iver . E xcavations w ere c onducted a t t his s ite b y C ooke i n 1 972 a nd a gain i n 1 975 ( Cooke 1 979). T his s eason , s ite b oundaries a nd s urface c oncentrations w ere m apped , a nd e xtensive s urface c ollections w ere m ade.

W hile t ransect d ata a t

t his

d istance f rom t he r iver a re i ncomplete , t he p urposive s urvey o f t he n orth b ank d iscussed e arlier s uggests t hat S itio S ierra m ust h ave b een o ne o f a s mall n umber o f m ajor n ucleated s ettlements d uring P eriod I V . T he o ther l arge s ettlement i s s ite A g-73, a p eriod V ( A .D . 5 00-700) v illage w ith c emetery . S ituated a s i t i s, n early 1 2 k m f rom t he r iver , a t t he n orthern e dge o f t he a lluvium , t his s ite m ay s ignal a s ignificant c hange

4 0

i n s ettlement p atterns a fter P eriod I V . A lthough A g-73 h as n ot y et b een f ully e valuated, i nitial o bservations i ndicate t hat i t m ay e qual o r e xceed S itio S ierra i n s ize ( the a rea s hown i n F igure 3 i s a n a pproximation).

T he

l ocation o f t his l arge l ate v illage a t t he m argin o f t he a lluvium s uggests t hat p ost-Period I V s ettlement d istribution w as i nfluenced b y f actors o ther t han a ccess t o p rime a rable l and . G iven t he p roliferation o f p ost-Period I V s ites e videnced b y t he p urposive s urvey w est o f S itio S ierra , w e a re p robably a lso w itnessing a s ignificant i ncrease i n p opulation d ensity a nd/or i ncreasing c entralization o f p opulation i n l arge v illages. T he n orthernmost 2 .5 k m o f t he t ransect f alls w ithin t he S antiago P lain , e ven t hough i n w ith s mall k nolls a nd a bove s ea l evel . T he p rimarily o f s iliceous p resent, a re n ot a s

t his p articular a rea t he t errain i s r ather u neven , r idges r ising t o e levations o f b etween 5 0 a nd 8 0 m a rea i s l ittered w ith d eposits o f c obbles c onsisting t uff. S ources o f g ood q uality f lakeable s tone , w hile c ommon a s t he h igh d ensity o f l ithic s ites m ight

s uggest . T hirty-three s ites w ere r ecorded w ithin 1 .25 s q k m ,

ad ensity o f a bout

2 6 .4 s ites p er s q k m . W ith t he e xception o f t wo s ingle-sherd l ocalities, t hese s ites a re a ceramic . O n t he b asis o f s ize a nd d ensity o f m aterials, t hey c an b e r oughly g rouped i nto f ive c ategories : 1 ) 9s ingle a rtifact l ocalities 2 ) 8s ites o f l ess t han 5 0 s q m a nd/or f ewer t han f ive a rtifacts 3 ) 4s ites o f 2 00-400 s q m a nd/or f ewer t han t en a rtifacts 4 ) 5s ites o f 5 001,000 s q mw ith d ense l ithic d ebris 5 ) 5s ites o f 1 ,400-7 ,400 s q mw ith d ense l ithic d ebris S ites o f

t he s econd a nd

t hird c ategories g enerally c onsist o f f lakes

a nd c ores, w ith f ew i f a ny d iagnostic e lements.

T hey a re c onsistently

s ituated o n f lat h ill o r r idge t ops w ithin a s hort d istance o f t he E stero S alado R iver o r o ne o f s everal s maller s treams w ithin t he a rea , o ften o n p romontories b etween t wo s treams. T hese s ites p robably r epresent t emporary a nd n ot v ery i ntensively u sed c ampsites w here t ool m anufacture w as a n o ccasional a ctivity. W hile t wo o f t he s ites c ontain b lades o r b lade f ragments i ndicative o f P eriod I V o r l ater o ccupation , m ost, i f n ot a ll o f t he o thers m ay b e p receramic. A s C ooke a nd R anere p oint o ut ( this v olume) t he l ithic c hronology o f C entral P anama m ust b e c onsiderably r efined b efore w e c an d ate t hese s ites w ith m uch c onfidence . T he f ourth c ategory o f s ites i ncludes t hree s ubstantial l ithic w orkshop/campsites w hich w e p resently c onsider t o b e p receramic , b ased u pon t he a bsence o f t ool t ypes s uch a s b lades a nd t riangular

p oints

f rom t heir

a ssemblages . A g-78 i s l ocated o n a n e roded p romontory n ear a s mall s tream . I ts s urface i s d ensely l ittered w ith r aw m aterial, c ores, f laking d ebris, a nd a s mall n umber o f f inished t ools. A n o utcrop o f g ood q uality c halcedony i s p resent o n t he s ite. S ite A g-79, a n earby c luster o f s mall, f airly d iscrete, l ocalities, p robably r epresenting i ndividual c ampsites, h as s imilar m aterial a nd m ay b e r elated t o, o r a t l east r oughly c ontemporary w ith , A g-78 . T he t hird w orkshop s ite , A g-85 , h as s urface d eposits r anging f rom l arge f lakes a nd c ores t o f ine c hipping d ebris, a s w ell a s as mall n umber o f f inished t ools. H owever , d irectly a vailable o n t he s ite .

t he h igh q uality m aterial u sed i s n ot

T he f ifth c ategory o f s ites i ncludes o ne p robable P eriod I V o ccupation .

4 1

T he l argest s ite i n t his g roup , a nd o ne o f t he f ew w ith s ome d epth , i s A g1 13, a q uarry/workshop o f p robable p receramic d ate. S urface m aterials c onsist o f c oarse q uartzite a nd c halcedony c obbles, f lakes, a nd c hips o f c halcedony .

a s w ell a s c ores,

T HE C OASTAL Z ONE S URVEY A m ajor e ffort w as p ut

i nto c ompletion o f

t he s urvey i n t he c oastal

z one , a n a rea t hreatened b y t he r apid e ncroachment o f c ommercial s hrimp f arming . A n o lder c ommercial u se o f t he a lbinas i s f or t he r ecovery o f s alt. E vaporating t renches l aid o ut i n g eometric p atterns c over h undreds o f h ectares o f t hese P arita B ay s alt f lats. T he e xpanding s alt w orks i n c ombination w ith t he m ore r apidly e xpanding s hrimp f arms a re e liminating t he n atural a lbinas, a nd t he a rchaeological s ites c ontained t herein, a t a n a larming r ate .

T he c onstruction o f

s hrimp t anks

p revious

t o

o ur

a rrival

r esulted i n t he d estruction o f a n umber o f k nown a rchaeological s ites a nd t he i nundation o f a reas p otentially r ich i n a rchaeological r esources . W e w ere , i n f act , f orced t o r elocate o ne e ntire t ransect a nd p art o f a s econd b y t his r ecent c onstruction . T he c oastal z one o f P arita B ay s tretches f rom t he h igh g round o f t he o ld c oastline t o t he m angrove f ringed a ctive s horeline. B etween t hese b oundaries l ies a b arren t idal f lat , o r a lbina , m easuring , i n p laces, o ver 1 0 k m i n w idth, a nd b roken b y o ccasional s tands o f m angrove a long t idal c hannels a nd b y l ow r idges a nd d unes . T he a rea r eceives a n a verage o f 1 ,200 m m o f r ainfall p er y ear , 9 0% o f w hich f alls f rom M ay t o N ovember . D uring t he d ry s eason , s trong t rade w inds s weep t hrough f rom t he n ortheast, d isplacing s urface w aters i n P arita B ay a nd c ausing u pwelling a nd n utrient e nrichment o f t he b ay w aters ( Ranere a nd H ansell 1 978). T he b ay i s q uite s hallow a nd a t idal r ange i n e xcess o f

6 m m akes

t he e ntire

c oastal

z one

s ubject t o p eriodic i nundation . T he a rea t oday a ppears t o b e u sed o nly f or s hort p eriods o f t ime b y f ishermen , w hose c ampsites w e f ound o n o ccasion . A ll p receramic a nd e arly c eramic s ites k nown p rior t o t his s urvey h ad b een f ound a long t he o ld c oastline . H owever, a erial p hoto i nterpretations, c ombined w ith r ecent g eological i nvestigations o f t he c oastal z one ( e .g . B arber 1 981; D ere 1 981) c onvinced u s t hat t he e ntire a rea h eld g reat p otential f or t he l ocation o f p rehistoric s ites. E ffective s urvey o f t his

a rea c alled

f or m ore s ystematic c overage o f

t he o ld c oastline a s w ell a s a s ample t hat w ould a llow u s t o p redict p atterns o f s ite d istribution a nd d ensity w ithin t he i ntertidal z one . W e t herefore c ombined a s trategy o f i ntensive p urposive s urvey a long t he o ld c oastline , w ith s urvey o f t hree r andomly s elected t ransects, t wo t o t he n orth o f t he S anta M aria R iver a nd o ne t o t he s outh ( see F igure 2 ). P urposive s urvey w as i nitiated n orth o f t he E stero S alado R iver .

T he

e dge o f t he c oastal p lain h ere i s i rregular a nd d eeply c arved b y t idal c hannels, w hich have t urned s everal p romontories o r i nselbergs i nto v eritable i slands, s urrounded b y s alt f lats a nd m angroves , a nd p eriodically c ut o ff f rom t ierra f irme b y h igh t ides.

B ehind

t he a lbina ,

m uch o f

t he

l and i s i n p asture o r s econd g rowth . F orty-two s ites w ere r ecorded h ere ,

r anging i n d ate o f o ccupation f rom

t he l ate p receramic , P eriod I IB ( 5000 - 2 500 B .C.) t hrough P eriod V II ( A .D . 1 100 - 1 520). T wenty-five o f t hese s ites a re a ceramic, g enerally l ocated

4 2

w ithin t he h igh t idal - s upratidal z one .

I n s ize t hey r ange

f rom i solated

a rtifacts t o s catters o f a pproximately 5 0, a nd t heir a ssemblages o f c halcedony f lakes a nd f lake t ools c ontain f ew i f a ny d iagnostic e lements. F our s ites

a re a lmost c ertainly l ate

p receramic q uarry/workshops.

I n

a ddition , f our m ultiple l ocality s ites l ocated o n as mall i nselberg , I sla d e P aja , a ppear t o h ave b een o ccupied i ntermittently f rom t he l ate p receramic o nward . T he l atter s ites a ll h ave a ceramic l ocalities w ith d ense l ithic d ebris, a nd s mall c eramic l ocalities d ating a s l ate a s A .D. A c haracteristic

s hared

b y

a ll

o f

t he

1 520 .

a bove-mentioned

p roximity t o s ources o f g ood q uality c halcedony i n p ebble, b oulder f orm .

s ites

i s

c obble,

o r

I n a ddition t o t he r aw m aterial f ound a t o r n ear t hese s ites,

t wo s ubstantial q uarry a reas w ere f rom t he a lbina .

f ound,

t he f urthest

a bout

1 .5 k m i nland

W hile n either o f t hese q uarries h as a g reat d eal o f w orked

m aterial, h igh q uality c halcedonies a re a bundant. F ew c lear e vidences

o f

e arly c eramic,

P eriod I IIA

( 2500 - 1 000 B .C.)

o ccupation w ere f ound . I t s eems p robable t hat M onagrillo c eramics p reserve p oorly i n s aline e nvironments a nd m ay b e c ompletely d estroyed i n s ome d eposits.

I n t he a bsence o f c eramics,

M onagrillo o ccupations w ill b e

d ifficult t o r ecognize g iven t he a pparent c ontinuity i n l ithic a ssemblages f rom t he l ate p receramic i nto t he e arly c eram ic p eriod ( Ranere 1 980b :40). M onagrillo s herds w ere r ecovered f rom t wo s ites ( Ag-66 a nd A g-67) w ith s ubstantial s hell m iddens, a f eature c onspicuously a bsent f rom t he s ites d iscussed a bove. T hese s ites a re w ithin a s hort d istance o f e ach o ther, o ne o n ah igh r idge t op,

t he o ther o n at errace i mmediately b elow, a nd b oth

w ithin 1 00 m o f a s pring. T he m iddens a re o f s ome d epth a nd c onsist p rimarily o f o yster ( Crassostrea s p.). L ithic a rtifacts a re f ew i n n umber, a nd s herds, r arer s till. S ix a dditional s ites w ith s hell m iddens w ere r ecorded, s ituated o n l ow m ounds o n o r a t t he e dge o f t he a lbina . A ll h ave a bundant l ithics b ut s urface e xamination a nd s mall t rowel t ests r evealed n o c eramics.

F our o f t hese s ites r equire f urther t esting .

F inally, s ix s ites o f P eriod I V o r l ater o ccupation w ere r ecorded, s ituated i n t he s upratidal z one o f I sla d e P aja a nd a nother i nselberg, I sla d el P ozo. S urface d eposits c onsist o f s ome f laked s tone , o ccasional m anos a nd c elt f ragments, a nd s herds f rom l arge v essels o f a t ype t hat h as b een a ssociated

w ith

s alt

b oiling

( c.f.,

W illey

a nd

M cGimsey

1 954).

T he

l ow

d ensity o f m aterial o n t hese s ites s uggests n o m ore t han s hort t erm o r i ntermittent o ccupation . E vidences f rom s urvey s outh o f t he E stero S alado R iver i ndicate t hat i n t his a rea,

l ate o ccupation a nd t he e xploitation o f

q uite i ntensive. c oastline.

O n t ransects,

W ith o ne e xception,

c oastal

r esources

w ere

1 1 s ites w ere f ound o n o r n ear t he o ld t hese s ites

a re o f P eriod V o r

l ater

o ccupation . O ne s uch s ite i s A g-120, i nland

f rom t he p resent

T he s ite , o ccupied b etween A .D. s tone,

c eramics,

a nd

l ocated o n a n e stuary c hannel a bout 1 k m

a lbina e dge

a nd

a bout

2 k m f rom t he

S anta M aria .

5 00 a nd 1 520, h as l arge q uantities o f f laked

a s ubstantial

s hell

m idden

c onsisting

p rimarily

o f

o yster ( Crassostrea s p.). D irectly a long t he a lbina e dge i s as eries o f p ost-Period I V h abitation a reas p ossibly c onstituting t wo,

i f n ot o ne l arger s ettlement.

A g-128

c onsists o f t hree l inear m ounds w hich m ay h ave b een f ormed b y t he e rosion o f

4 3

ac ontinuous a nd p erhaps w ider d eposit. I t i s s imilar i n t ypes a nd d ensity o f m aterials t o A g-136 , s everal h undred m eters t o t he s outh . B oth s ites h ave u nifacially f laked p oints, p olished s tone c elts, a nd g round s tone i mplements s uch a s m anos, a s w ell a s q uantities o f s herds f rom l arge v essels. T here a re s mall s hell d eposits o n b oth s ites, c onsisting o f C rassostrea s p. a nd A nadara s p . N umerous l ate s ites w ere a lso f ound w ell b eyond t he o ld c oastline. F orty-one s ites w ere r ecorded o n t ransects n orth o f t he S anta M aria R iver, w ithin a n a rea o f 5 .5 s q k m . O ne c luster o f l ate o ccupation r emains i n t he n orthernmost t ransect, b etween 3 .5 a nd 4 .5 k m f rom t he a ctive s horeline ( Figure 2 ) i ncludes A g-146 , d ated a t P eriod I V o n t he b asis o f t he c eramics r epresented . A bundant l ithics o n t he s ite i nclude c halcedony f lakes a nd f ragments o f p olished s tone i mplements. T he s ite h as d eposits o f u p t o 9 0 c m d epth , p ossibly s tratified, w hich c ontain r emains f rom m olluscs, f ish , a nd b irds. T he o ther w ell d efined s ite i n t his c luster i s a n e lliptical d eposit o f 3 500 s q m w ith n umerous b asalt a nd c halcedony f lakes,

a b asalt

c elt, a nd e xtremely e roded a nd t herefore u nidentifiable s herds. A n a dditional n ine -s ites - a re i solated f inds o f s herds a nd c elt f lakes. A s imilar c luster o f i solated f inds w as r ecorded o n t he s econd t ransect, a lso c onsisting o f m aterials i ndicating P eriod I V o r l ater o ccupation, i .e. p olished s tone c elts, m anos , a nd f laked s tone . A erial p hotographs c learly i ndicate t han 1 k m b ehind t he p resent s horeline .

a l ine o f m ounds

a nd

r idges

l ess

A g round c heck o f t hese l ocations

r evealed p ost-Period V s ites, a t otal o f 1 8 w ithin a n a rea o f a bout 2 s q k m . F ourteen o f t hese s ites a re l ow c rescentic o r e lliptical m ounds, u p t o 1 ,000 s q m i n a rea , w ith v arying q uantities o f f laked s tone, u nifacial t agged o r t riangular p oints , p olished s tone c elts, c elt s harpening f lakes, a nd m anos . C hipping d ebris i s a bsent; a pparently n o t ool m anufacture w as c arried o n a t t hese l ocalities . S herds a re r are a nd g enerally p oorly p reserved . S hell d eposits v ary i n s ize, d epth, a nd s pecies c omposition, o ysters ( Crassostrea s p .) a re p redominant . F our o f t he 1 8 s ites ( Ag-122,

1 23,

1 24,

b ut v ery l arge

a nd 1 25) ( Figure 2 ) f orm a

l inear c luster a nd a re m uch l arger i n a rea t han t he s ites d escribed a bove, r anging f rom 1 ,500 t o 5 ,500 s q m . T he l arge s hell m ounds o n t hree o f t hese s ites a re c omposed a lmost e xclusively o f t he s ame l arge s pecies o f o yster m entioned a bove, w hich t oday c an b e c ollected i n a bundance f rom b eds a t t he m outh o f t he E stero S alado R iver a nd a t t he m outh o f t he S anta M aria R iver . O n A g-123 s hell d eposits a re s hallow , b ut s tone a nd c eramics a re p resent i n q uantity , a nd p reservation o f t he l atter i s q uite g ood . F rom t his s ite , w e r ecovered f laked s tone ( e.g. t anged t riangular a nd u nifacial p oints), p olished s tone c elts, a nd 2 6 w hole o r r econstructable p ost-AD 1 100 v essels, m any o f t hem u pturned a nd a ssociated w ith l enses o f k itchen r efuse . S urface c eramics o n t he o ther t hree s ites i n t his g roup a re r are a nd p oorly p reserved . A g-124 a nd A g-125 w ere t ested a nd f ound t o h ave s tratified d eposits o f u p t o 1 .7 m d epth ,

w ith c learly d efined l iving f loors .

F ragments o f

c lay

w ith i mpressions o f p lant f iber m atting h ave b een r ecovered f rom t hese d eposits a nd i ndicate t hat w alled s tructures w ere u sed . L arge q uantities o f f ish a nd s ea t urtle r emains h ave a lso b een r ecovered . T esting o f t he o ther t wo s hell m iddens i s l ikely t o u ncover l iving s urfaces o n t hese s ites a s w ell , a nd i n a ddition , e xcavation w ill c ertainly p rovide b etter p reserved c eramic s amples.

4 4

P reliminary a nalysis

o f

f aunal

r emains s uggests t hat t he r esources

p rocured a t t hese s ites w ere p rimarily e stuarine,

s imilar t o t hose n ow

a vailable a t t he m outh o f t he E stero S alado R iver . T he s ites m ay r epresent t he r emains o f s mall f ishing v illages much l ike t he v illage p resently l ocated a t t he m outh o f t he E stero S alado . F inally,

p urposive s urvey o f a p romontory c alled C erro T igre,

a t t he e dge o f

t he a lbina ,

f rom t he p resent s horeline, w ith

s urface

r emains

o f

a bout

l ed t o t he d iscovery o f

P eriod

l ocated

1k m n orth o f t he S anta M aria a nd 2 .5 k m

I V

a nd

l ater

f our r ockshelters,

o ccupation .

T he

a ll

l argest o f

t hese, A g-145 ( La C ueva d e l os V ampiros), w as t ested . T he f irst 1 .5 m o f d eposits c ontain p rimarily P eriod I V o ccupation r emains ( see C ooke a nd R anere,

F igure

3 ,

t his v olume),

w ith

s mall n umbers o f

s herds

a nd m assive

q uantities o f f ish b one . T hese d eposits a re s eparated b y 7 0 c m o f s terile s ediments f rom a n o ccupation w hich m ay b e l ate P aleoindian o r P eriod I IA ( a b ifacial

t hinning

f lake

w as

r ecovered).

O ne

C .14

d ate o f

8 560 B P + 1 60

( BETA-5101) h as b een o btained f rom a v ery s mall s ample w hich c ombined c harcoal r ecovered f rom 5 0 c m o f o ccupation . W hile n ot c onsistent w ith a P aleoindian o ccupation , P anama .

t he d ate

i s

t he

e arliest

y et

r ecorded

i n

C entral

C ooke a nd R anere ( this v olume) d iscuss A g-145 i n g reater d etail.

S outh o f t he S anta M aria,

t he d istribution o f s ites i s s trikingly

d ifferent f rom t he p attern o bserved n orth o f t he r iver . B eyond t he o ld c oastline, w e f ound a lmost n o e vidence o f o ccupation , w ith t he p ossible e xception o f a f ew l ow s hell s catters o n t he a lbina s urface .

A long t he o ld

c oastline, h owever, a re s everal s ites w hich a re l arger, d enser a nd a pparently m uch m ore i ntensively o ccupied o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime t han a ny t o t he n orth. W e h ave b egun t o e valuate t wo s uch s ites, f irst r ecorded b y W illey a nd M cGimsey i n t heir 1 954 s urvey, P eha B lanca a nd L a M ula-Sarigua . R ecent w ork a t L a M ula-Sarigua,

i ncluding l imited t est e xcavation,

i s

d iscussed b y C ooke a nd R anere ( this v olume). T he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een o ccupied f rom a t l east t he l ate p receramic, P eriod I IB, t hrough P eriod V II. T he m ajor o ccupation , h owever , p robably e nded l ate i n t he f irst m illennium B .C., a t w hich t ime L a Mula-Sarigua w as a l arge, s edentary, n ucleated a gricultural v illage, c overing a n a rea o f a t l east 6 5 , a nd p ossibly a s m uch a s 1 80, h ectares. E ven a t t he m inimum f igure, L a M ula-Sarigua i s t he e arliest a nd l argest n ucleated s ettlement i n P anama .

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS B y w ay o f c onclusion , have made

i n

t he

f irst

I w ould l ike

s eason o f

t o a ssess b riefly t he p rogress w e

s urvey

t oward m eeting

o bjectives o utlined a t t he b eginning o f t his p aper ,

t he

r esearch

a nd t o d iscuss s ome o f

t he i mplications o f t he d ata w hich h ave a ccrued t hus f ar. Over a ll o f t he a reas s urveyed,

a pproximately 2 00 n ew s ites w ere

r ecorded a nd a n umber o f p reviously k nown s ites, e .g . S itio S ierra , L a M ulaS arigua a nd P ena B lanca , r eevaluated.

T he d ata a vailable f rom t he s urvey a t

t his p oint p ermit t he f ollowing s tatements: 1 ) P aleoindian s ites h ave t hus f ar p roved e lusive.

A t o ne s ite ,

A g-

1 45, a c oastal r ockshelter, b ifacial t hinning f lakes w ere r ecovered f rom t he l owest l evels. A lthough t he C .14 d ate o f 8 560 B .P . + 160 o btained f rom t hese l evels i s n ot c onsistent w ith a P aleoindian o ccupation, i t i s n evertheless e arlier t han a ny d ate p reviously r ecorded f or C entral P anama .

4 5

2 ) L ate p receramic,

P eriod I IB,

s ites o ccur i n a ll a reas s urveyed,

m ost f requently i n t he S antiago P lain a nd a long t he o ld c oastline,

b ut

a nd n ear

l ithic s ources . O nly o ne s ite o f t his p eriod, A g-21, w as f ound i n t he O ld D elta . A l arge n umber o f a ceramic s ites c annot a t p resent b e c onfidently c alled p receramic,

a p oint

r aised

e arlier

l ength b y C ooke a nd R anere ( this v olume). u ntil a m ore s ensitive l ithic c hronology O ne o f

t he m ain t hrusts o f

i n t his

p aper a nd

d iscussed

a t

T his p roblem c annot b e r esolved i s d eveloped f or C entral P anama .

t he s ite e valuation s trategy

e mployed h as

b een

t he c ollection o f aw ide r ange o f l ithic m aterials i n s ufficient q uantities t o e nable u s t o d evelop s uch a c hronology . 3 )

F ew s ecurely d atable

e arly c eramic,

P eriod

I IIA ,

s ites h ave b een

d iscovered. [ 5] T he p roblem m ay b e o ne o f i dentifying t hese s ites, g iven t he l ikelihood t hat M onagrillo c eramics p reserve p oorly o r n ot a t a ll i n s ome d epositional

e nvironments.

l ithic

m ay

t echnology

p rove

A gain ,

u seful

i n

a b etter

c ontrol

d istinguishing

o ver

e arly

c hanges

c eramic

i n

f rom

p receramic s ites. A long t he o ld c oastline, n orth o f t he E stero S alado R iver , a re t wo s ites w ith f ew b ut d efinite M onagrillo c eramics. I n t he f lood p lain, w e m ay b e a ble t o e stablish t he p resence o f a M onagrillo c omponent a t o ne a gricultural v illage, A g-53 . O ne l arge P eriod I IIB v illage ( La M ula-Sarigua) h as b een l ocated i n t he c oastal z one . T his h as a ll t he h allmarks o f a r egional c enter . S ome P eriod I IIB c eramics a re p resent i n s mall q uantities a t s ites i n t he O ld D elta ( e.g . A g-53). 4 ) P eriod I V s ites have b een f ound i n a ll a reas s urveyed. n ucleated s ettlements,

f ew i n n umber,

o ccur i n t he

L arge

f lood p lain o f t he O ld

D elta . H owever , t here i s a s ignificant n umber o f P eriod I V s ettlements i n t he c oastal z one a s w ell . 5 ) P eriod V t hrough V II v illage s ites h ave b een f ound i n t he f lood p lain , a s e xpected, b ut o ne s uch s ite, A g-73, o ccurs w ell a way f rom t he r iver a t t he e dge o f t he R ecent a lluvium . S ubstantial n umbers o f s ites o f t his p eriod o ccur i n t he C oastal a reas a nd a t l east s ome o f t hese s ettlements a ppear t o have s pecialized i n t he e xploitation o f c ertain, p robably h ighly p roductive, c oastal o r e stuarine r esources. O verall, t he n ature, n umber a nd d istribution o f P eriod V a nd l ater s ites may b e i ndicative o f i ncreasing p opulation d ensity, i ncreasing c oncentration o f p opulation

i n

large

c enters,

and

p robably

i ncreasing

f unctional

s pecialization o f s ettlements. T he

r esults o f t he c oastal s urvey h ave s ignificant i mplications w ith

r espect t o t he r econstruction o f s ubsistence p atterns. T he d istribution o f P eriod I IIB a nd l ater s ites i n t his a rea s uggests t hat c oastal r esources p layed

a c ontinuing

a nd

p ossibly

q uite

i mportant

r ole

s ystem o f C entral P acific P anama u p u ntil t he C onquest.

i n

t he

s ubsistence

T he p recise n ature

o f t he r elationships b etween c oastal a nd i nland s ites r emains t o b e d etermined. I t i s c lear , h owever , t hat o ur p revious n otions a bout c oastal s ettlement p atterns a nd r esource e xploitation a re i n n eed o f s ome r evisions w hich w e a re n ow i n ap osition t o m ake.

5 .

T wo

i nland

r ockshelters

w ith

M onagrillo

l ocated i n 1 983.

4 6

p ottery,

S f9

a nd C 1-2,

w ere

W e r ecorded 1 20 s ites i n t he c oastal z one a lone , a nd o ur e xcavations a t t he m ajor s hell m ounds a nd t he r ockshelter h ave p roduced m assive q uantities o f f aunal d ata . W e h ave b egun a nd w ill c ontinue t o c ollect g eological d ata a nd o ther e nvironmental d ata f or a n a ccurate r econstruction o f c hanges i n t he c oastal e nvironment , a s w ell a s i nformation a bout p resent-day c oastal f ood r esources a nd e xploitation s trategies ( i.e. a rtisan f ishing). I n c ombination , t hese l ines o f e vidence w ill e nable u s t o p roduce a f ine-tuned m odel o f c oastal s ubsistence p atterns. T he d ual s trategy o f r andom t ransects a nd p urposive s urvey e mployed i n t his r esearch i s p roving t o b e a n e ffective m eans o f g aining c ontrol o ver s ite d istributions , a s t he c oastal d ata a lone d emonstrate . P rogress d uring t he f irst f our m onths o f s urvey w as s lower t han a nticipated . T his i s i n p art d ue t o t he l arger n umber o f s ites e ncountered,

b ut p erhaps m ore t o t he

a mount o f t ime a nd e ffort i nvested i n i ntensive s urface c ollection a nd t he r ecovery o f s ubsurface f aunal a nd b otanical r emains, f or t he v arious r easons d iscussed

a bove .

W hile

t his

s trategy h as

s et

b ack o ur

p rojected

s urvey

s chedule s omewhat , i t i s c lear t hat t he i nterpretation o f s ettlement a nd s ubsistence p atterns i n t he S anta M aria b asin w ould b e i mpossible o n t he b asis o f s ite d istributions a lone , a nd t hat t he w ide r ange o f d ata w e a re c ollecting w ill b e c rucial t o t he d evelopment o f ad etailed p icture o f c hanging s ettlement a nd s ubsistence s ystems i n C entral P anama .

4 7

R EFERENCES B arber,

J ohn

S edimentology o f T hesis, T emple

H .,

J r.

1 981.

G eomorphology,

t he S anta Maria D rainage B asin,

S tratigraphy,

C entral P anama .

a nd M .A .

U niversity, P hiiladelphia .

B artlett, A lexandra S .

a nd E .S. B arghoorn.

1 973.

P hytogeographic

h istory o f t he I sthmus o f P anama d uring t he p ast 1 2,000 y ears ( A h istory o f v egetation, c limate, a nd s ea l evel c hange). I n V egetation a nd V egetational History o f Northern Latin America, E lsevier S cientific P ublishing C o., p p . 2 03-299 . B ird ,

J unius R .

a nd R ichard G .

C ooke.

1 978a .

e dited b y A .

G raham.

L a C ueva d e l os L adrones,

d atos p reliminares s obre l a o cupaciön f ormativa . I n A ctas d el I V S imposium N acional d e A ntropologia , A rqueologia y E tnohistoria d e P anama. P anama, p p .281-304 . C ATAPAN.

1 971.

A J oint V enture,

T he F inal R eport o f

t he C atastro

R ural d e T ierras y A guas d e P anama , V ol. I , I I a nd I II. C ooke,

R ichard

G .

1 972.

P anama . P h.D. D issertation , C ooke, e ste d e L a

R ichard G .

C hiriqui.

T he A rchaeology o f W estern C o de P rovince o f

I nstitute o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f L ondon .

1 976 .

N uevos a nälisis d e c arbono-14 p ara P anama a l

L a A ntigua ,

N o.

6 ,

p p .

8 8-114.

U niversidad S anta M aria

A ntigua , P anama . C ooke,

R ichard G .

P anamä P recolombino.

1 978 .

E l h achero y e l c arpintero :

R evista P anamef ia d e Antropologia .

d os a rtesanos d el N o.

2 A sociaciön

P anameha d e A ntropologia , P anama . C ooke,

R ichard G .

1 979 .

L os i mpactos d e l as c omunidades a gricolas s obre

l os a mbientes d el t röpico e stacional:

d atos d el P anamä p rehistörico.

A ctas

d el I V S imposium I nternacional d e E cologia T ropical. P atrimonio H istoric ( ) d el I .N .A .C., U niversidad d e P anama , P anama , p p . I n p ress . a

r eview .

S ome c urrent r esearch p roblems i n C entral a nd E astern P anama :

I n S chool f or A merican R esearch S eminar o n t he A rchaeology o f

L ower C entral A merica . D ere,

9 19-973 .

C .

E .

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress.

1 981. T he G eologic a nd P aleogeographic S etting o f a n

A rchaeological S ite o n t he S outhwestern C oast o f P arita B ay , P anama .

M .A .

T hesis, T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia . E spinosa , d e

E spinosa,

G aspar d e .

1 913.

a lcalde m ayor,

R elaciön d e P roceso q uel L icenciado G aspar h izo e n e l v iaje q ue p or m andado d el m uy

m agnifico s ef lor P edrarias D ävila, C astilla d e O ro p or S us A ltezas, p rovincias

d e N atä

e P aris

t eniente g eneral d e e stos r einos d e

f ue d esde e sta c iudad d e P anama a l as

e a l as

o tras

p rovincias

c omarcanas.

E l

D escubrimiento d el O cean ( ) P acifico : V asco N ueez d e B alboa , H ernando d e Magallanes=y s us C ompaüeros, T omo I D ocumentos R elativos a N ueez d e B alboa . J . T . M edina ( ed.) S antiago d e C hile: Hansell , P atricia .

1 979 .

T hesis, T emple U niversity,

I mprenta U niversitaria .

S hell A nalysis : A C ase S tudy f rom P anama . M .A .

P hiladelphia .

4 8

Hester, J . J . S outh A merica .

1 966. L ate P leistocene e nvironments a nd e arly m an i n

T he A merican N aturalist, 1 00(914):377-388 .

L add , J ohn . 1 964 . A rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he P arita a nd S anta M aria z ones o f P anama. B ureau o f American E thnology Bulletin 1 93. S mithsonian I nstitution , W ashington , L inares,

O lga.

F .

1 977.

E cology a nd t he A rts i n Ancient P anama.

S tudies i n P recolumbian A rt a nd A rchaeology , N o. L inares,

O lga F .

a nd A nthony J .

R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama. H arvard U niversity , C ambridge. L othrop, A merica,

S amuel K .

1 961.

1 7 , D umbarton O aks.

R anere,

P eabody

e ditors.

1 980.

A daptive

M useum M onographs,

N o.

5 ,

E arly m igrations t o C entral a nd S outh

a n e arly a nthropological p roblem i n l ight o f o ther s ciences.

J ournal o f t he R oyal A nthropological I nstitutes 9 1:97-123 . L ynch,

T homas F .

1 976.

A ndean S outh America .

T he e ntry a nd p ost-glacial a daptation o f m an i n

9 e U nion I nternational d es S ciences

P rehistoriques

e t P rotohistoriques. L ynch ,

T homas F .

N ative A mericans,

1 978 .

T he

e dited b y J .

S outh A merican p aleo-indians.

D .

J ennings.

W .

H .

F reeman ,

I n A ncient

S an F rancisco,

p p . 4 55-489 . M cGimsey, p anama .

C harles

R .

I II .

1 956.

American A ntiquity 2 2(2):pt.

M cGimsey,

C harles R .

I II, M .

M angote a nd i ts p opulation.

C erro M angote :

P log ,

S tephen .

V . F lannery. P log, m odern

1 976 .

s urveys.

B . C ollins a nd T . W . M ckern .

S tephen ,

R elative e fficiencies o f

1 966 .

C erro

s ampling t echniques

I n T he E arly M esoamerican V illage.

F red P log

i n

2 9 p p .

A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, p p.

s urveys.

S ite

P aper p resented a t t he 3 7th I nternational

C ongress o f A mericanists, M ar d el P lata ,

a rchaeological

A P receramic

1 :151161.

f or

e dited b y K ent

1 36158 .

a nd W alter W ait.

1 978 .

D ecision m aking

I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory,

V ol.

i n 1 ,

e dited b y M ichael B . S chiffer . A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, p p . 3 83-421. 1 972.

E arly Human A daptations t o N ew W orld T ropical

F orests: T he V iew F rom P anama .

R anere,

A nthony J .

P h.D . D issertation , U niversity o f C alifornia

a t D avis. R anere, I nterior.

A nthony J . I n

1 976.

T he p receramic o f P anama :

P roceedings o f

t he

A rchaeology. F undaciön A rqueologia , R ico, R eport N o. 1 , p p. 1 03-137. R anere, A nthony J . d e C erro M angote,

F irst

t he v iew f rom t he

Puerto Rican

A ntropologia ,

S ymposium o n

e H istorica d e

P uerto

1 980a . N ueva e xcavaciön y r einterpretaciön d el s itio

u n c onchero p recergmico e n l a R egiön C entral

d e

P anama .

P aper p resented a t t he I II C ongreso N acional d e A ntropologia , A rqueologia

y

E tnohistoria d e P anama , P anama C ity . R anere , A nthony J . I n

1 980b .

P receramic s helters i n t he T alamancan R ange.

A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama ,

4 9

e dited

b y

O .F.

L inares

a nd

A .J.

R anere.

P eabody M useum M onographs,

N o.

5 ,

Harvard U niversity,

C ambridge, p p . 1 6-43 . R anere,

A nthony J .

a nd P atricia Hansel'.

1 978.

E arly s ubsistence

p atterns a long t he P acific c oast o f P anama. I n P rehistoric C oastal A daptations, e dited b y B . L . S tark a nd B . V oorhies. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, p p. 4 3-59 . R anere ,

A nthony J .,

R ichard G .

C ooke a nd P atricia Hansell .

1 980 .

F ood

p rocurement i n t he P arita B ay r egion o f P anama , 5 000 B .C . -A .D . 5 00 . P aper p resented a t t he 4 5th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, P hiladelphia . R anere , s obre

l a

A nthony J .

e xcavaciön d e

a nd R ichard u n

s itio

L M cCarty .

p recerämico

e n

1 976 . C o de ,

I nforme

p reliminar

P anama ,

A ctas d el

I V S imposium Nacional d e A ntropologia , A rqueologia y E tnohistoria d e P anama , P anama C ity, p p . 4 83-493. S auer, C arl.

1 944.

A g eographical s ketch o f e arly m an i n A merica.

G eographical R eview 3 4(4):529-573 . W illey,

G ordon .

1 971.

A n I ntroduction t o American A rchaeology ,

V ol.2 :

S outh A merica . P rentice-Hall , E nglewood C liffs. W illey,

G ordon a nd C harles M cGimsey .

1 954 .

T he M onagrillo C ulture o f

P anama . P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f Archaeology a nd E thnology, 4 9(2). Harvard U niversity . V an d er Hammen , T .

V ol.

1 974. T he P leistocene c hanges o f v egetation a nd

c limate i n t ropical S outh A merica . J ournal o f B iogeography .

1 :3-26 .

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS M y p articipation i n t his r esearch p roject w as f unded b y g rants f rom t he National S cience F oundation ( BNS-8112475) I nstitution's S cholarly S tudies P rogram .

a nd t he S mithsonian

I w ould l ike t o t hank R ichard

G . C ooke a nd A nthony J . R anere f or t heir c ritical a nd e ditorial c omments t hroughout m any d rafts o f t his p aper, a s w ell a s D olores P iperno a nd C atherine

S helton E inhaus

f or

t heir

c omments

e arly s tages o f m anuscript p reparation .

5 0

a nd

i nsights

d uring

t he

F igure 1 .

M ap o f t he S anta M aria R iver d rainage b asin s howing t he p hysiographic z ones a nd t he l ocations o f r andom t ransects.

5 1

m ajor

( Z .

/ e . 1

II.

CO C L E

P7 .

-\ D \ 0: 1 \ *

;

PR O VI N C E

R IO

ESTE RO

SAL A DO

PA R ITA

R IO

HE R R E R A

SANTA

BAY

MARIA

PR O VI N C E

PEN A BLANC 'Zi i› ( Pr 15)

R IO

2

4 KM Ar CGA I D l i niCal

S it .

) -LA

AUL A

1 . 4 . 9r( ) .

r, 1 \-

V—

/

(—/

F igure 2 .

M ap

o f

t he

C oastal

s urvey

z one,

w ith

l ocations

r ecorded i n r andom t ransect a nd p urposive s urveys.

5 2

P AR ITA

o f

—

P\

s ites

A g -85 9. -1 3

ZO N E

5 0m E l C r isto

.4 2 1

CO C L E

ZONE

PR O VI N C E

2 _ AGUADULCE (413 1 •

/ -

Z ONE

I

( ALB INO)

• . , A g -48 A g I80 , 8 8 A g t8 i 04 -49 . A1 -5 1

VE R A G U AS ZONE

3

A g -52•

S iT 1 0

S IERRA

( Ag -3)

%A ir " C ERRO MANGOTE C ERRO G IRON 4 , •

S m -6 S m-5. •. 3m -4

O l v IXO

S m -2 I S m -3.

S m I0.

•

-S m -8

• Sm-23

HE R R E R A

PR OVI N C E

0

2

4 K M

• Sm -2 S m- I•

• Sm -7 . W I. —

A rchoec i 1og ico I S i tes A pp rox imate P rov ince

—— S urvey

A reas

o f

V i l lage

S i tes

B ounda r ies Z one

B ounda r ies

T ronsoc t B ounda ry

F igure 3 .

M ap o f t he O ld D elta/Santiago P lain s urvey z one, w ith l ocations o f s ites r ecorded i n r andom t ransect a nd p urposive s urveys.

5 3

T HE H OLOCENE G EOLOGY O F T HE W ESTERN P ARITA B AY C OASTLINE O F C ENTRAL P ANAMA

J ames H . C lary [ 1], P atricia H ansell [ 2], A nthony J . R anere [ 2] a nd T homas B uggey [ 2]

A bstract I n

1 982,

a n i nvestigation o f

t he H olocene g eology o f

t he P arita B ay

c oastline w as i nitiated a s p art o f am ultidisciplinary s tudy o f p rehistoric h uman a daptations i n C entral P anama. s ystematic c ollection o f e nvironments i n t he c oastal s ediment

c ores w ere

m eters.

S urface

T he g eologic r esearch f ocused o n t he

d ata n ecessary f or t he r econstruction o f z one o ver t he l ast 7 000 y ears. T hirty-nine

e xtracted f rom s oft s ediments

s amples

f rom a w ide

a lso c ollected i n o rder t o p rovide i nterpretation o f t he c ore s ediments.

r ange o f

t o a m aximum d epth o f 5

c oastal

e nvironments

w ere

a s et o f c ontrols f or u se i n t he T o d ate, p article s ize a nalysis h as

b een c arried o ut f or t hree o f t he s ediment c ores a nd f or n ine s urface s amples. T he p resent d ay c oastline o f P arita B ay i s c haracterized b y a l ow g radient ( less t han 0 .5 m p er k m) a nd h igh t idal v ariation ( diurnal r ange u p t o 6 m ).

T he r esulting i ntertidal z one r eaches a m aximum w idth o f 1 4 k m ,

a nd i ncludes w ithin i ts b oundaries a h ighly p roductive c omplex o f m udflats, m angrove

s wamps,

a rchaeological

s alt

r esearch

f lats ( e.g .,

( albinas) W illey

a nd

a nd

e stuaries.

M cGimsey

1 954,

P revious

M cGimsey

1 956)

i ndicated t hat t his c oastline h ad b een c ontinuously e xploited b y human p opulations f or t he p ast 7 000 y ears. P reliminary r esults o f t he g eologic r esearch s uggest t he f ollowing: t here h as p ast

7 000

b een a n early c ontinuous y ears,

( 2)

t he

r ate

p rogradation o f

t he

o f p rogradation a nd

d istribution o f e nvironments w hich h ave

c oastline t he

e volved b ehind

( 1)

f or

t he

c haracter

a nd

t he

a dvancing

s trandline r esult f rom a c omplex s et o f i nteractions b etween t he r ate o f s ea l evel r ise, t he r ates o f s edimentation i n d ifferent d epositional e nvironments

a nd

t ectonic

u plift,

( 3)

t he

e nvironments w ere e xtant a t l east b y 7 000 B .P ., f lats) w ere m uch m ore

m angrove a nd

( 4)

s wamp/estuarine t he a lbinas

l imited i n a real e xtent b efore 3 000 B .P .

a nd m ay b e o nly 1 200 y ears o ld i n s ome a reas.

1 . A lbuquerque , N ew M exico 2 . T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia

5 5

( salt

t han t oday ,

I ntroduction O ver 3 0 y ears a go , a rchaeologists w orking a long t he P arita B ay c oast i n C entral P acific P anama n oted t he i ncongruous l ocation o f s hell m iddens

s everal k ilometers i nland f rom t he p resent c oastline ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954, M cGimsey 1 956). T hey i dentified a n o ld c oastline a t t he l andward m argins o f t he p resent d ay s alt f lats ( albinas) a nd p ostulated t hat a n a ctive s horeline o ccupied t his p osition w hen t hese s ites w ere i nhabited. S ubsequent r esearch b y g eologists a nd a rchaeologists h as c onfirmed t he s uspicions o f t hese e arly i nvestigators i n b road o utline ( Hansel] . a nd A dams 1 980,

B arber,

A dams a nd R anere

1 980,

B arber 1 981,

D ere

1 981).

T his

r esearch h as a lso u nderscored t he f act t hat t he h istory o f h uman s ettlement a nd s ubsistence i n t he a rea c ould n ot b e c learly u nderstood w ithout d etailed k nowledge o f t he e volution o f i ts p aleogeographic e nvironments. F or t his r eason , a n i nvestigation o f t he H olocene g eology o f t he P arita B ay c oastline w as i nitiated i n 1 982 a s p art o f t he " Proyecto S anta M aria", a m ulti-disciplinary s tudy o f p rehistoric a daptations i n C entral P anama ( Cooke a nd R anere, c oastline

t his v olume).

w ere

d irected

G eologic i nvestigations o f t he P arita B ay

t oward

( 1)

i dentifying

e xisting

e nvironments

a nd

g eomorphic f eatures, ( 2) c ollecting s urface a nd s ubsurface s ediments ( the l atter b y c oring) i n o rder t o e valuate d epositional s equences a nd e nvironmental c hanges t hroughout t he H olocene, a nd ( 3) i dentifying l ithic a nd o ther n atural r esource l ocations. T his p aper d iscusses t he r esults o f t he

f irst

s eason

o f

f ield

r esearch

a nd

t he

i nitial

t extural

a nalysis

o f

s urface a nd c ore s ediments.

F ield R esearch A erial

p hotographs

( 1:10 ,000 ,

1 :40 ,000 a nd

1 :50 ,000)

a nd

t opographic

m aps ( 1:10,000 a nd 1 :50,000) w ere u sed i n i dentifying v arious f eatures a nd i n l ocating f ield p ositions. I nformation s upplied b y g eologic maps, p ublications, f ield o bservations a nd l ocal i nformants g uided o ur s election o f

a reas

t o

s urvey f or

l ithic

s ources,

r ockshelters

a nd c aves,

a nd

o ther

g eologic a nd/or t opographic f eatures. U sing a t ransit a nd s tadia r od, t hree l and s urface p rofiles w ere m ade a cross t he P arita B ay c oastal z one f rom t he a lbina t o t he m angrove s wamp a nd l ow-tidal

f lat

i n t he a rea b etween t he S anta M aria R iver t o t he n orth

t he P arita R iver t o t he s outh. s urveyed

b etween t hese

e levations b etween t hem . t he

t hree

p rofile

l ines .

t hree

I n a ddition,

p rofile

l ines

a nd

a n orth-south l ine w as

t o d etermine t he r elative

V ibracore s amples w ere t aken a t i ntervals a long A n umber o f

a dditional v ibracore

s amples w ere

t aken f rom a lbinas n orth o f t he S anta M aria R iver ( Figure 1 ). S urface

g eology,

p resent

d ay

e nvironments

a nd

g eomorphic

f eatures

o f

t he P arita B ay c oastline w ere d escribed a nd s tudied i n t he f ield. S urface s ediment s amples w ere c ollected a long t he p rofile l ines a nd f rom s pecific e nvironmental a nd g eomorphic c ontexts f or l ater l aboratory a nalysis. T hese p rovide t he c ontrol s amples n eeded f or i nterpreting t he s ediment s amples e xtracted f rom v ibracores. T he u se

o f

t he v ibracore h as b een d escribed b y D ere

( 1981)

p rocedures w ere g enerally u sed f or t he p resent i nvestigation .

5 6

a nd t hese C ores w ere

t aken u sing a 6 .1 m l ong b y 0 .1 m d iameter t hin-walled a luminum i rrigation p ipe.

O nce t he p ipe w as f illed w ith s ediments,

g round

( Figure

2 ),

t he

e nds

s ealed

a nd

t he

i t w as e xtracted f rom t he

c ore

t ransported b ack

t o

t he

f ield l aboratory w here t he p ipe w as s awn o pen a nd t he c ore s plit w ith a w ire.

T he e xposed s ediments w ere v isually d escribed, l ogged, p hotographed,

a nd s ampled f or f urther l aboratory a nalysis. R egional G eology T he

I sthmus o f P anama w as

a n e mergent,

v olcanic i sland

a rc s ystem

t hroughout m ost o f t he T ertiary ( Stewart a nd S tewart 1 981).

S ometime

d uring t he P liocene e poch, a pproximately 3 .6 t o 3m illion y ears a go, c losure o f t he s eaway b etween P anama a nd S outh A merica o ccurred, w ith t he e mergence o f c oalescing v olcanic c enters g enerally p roceeding i n a n e asterly d irection ( Woodring 1 954,

W hitmore a nd S tewart

S tewart a nd S tewart 1 981).

1 965,

C ase

1 974,

P rell e t

a l .

1 980 ,

T hus t he I sthmus o f P anama c an b e c haracterized

a s a s eries o f v olcanic c enters w hich o verlap e ach o ther o r a re l inked

b y

i nterbedded a nd i nterfingered m arine a nd t errestrial v olcanics a nd s ediments. T his g eneral p attern o f e mergence a nd p rogradation o f t he c oastline h as c ontinued i nto t he H olocene, a lthough i t w as i nterrupted a t l east o nce b y am arine t ransgression a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene. T he t ectonic h istory o f t he I sthmus i s l ess w ell u nderstood.

T he

p resent p osition o f P anama w ith r espect t o m ajor c rustal p lates,

t heir

b oundary f eatures,

a nd

t he G alapagos t riple j unction c ombine t o m ake

t ectonic i nterpretations d ifficult a t b est.

An e xplanation o f p late

m otions a nd p late b oundary m igrations i s b eyond t he s cope o f t his p aper. H owever, t he f act t hat P anama h as b een a nd s till i s t ectonically a ctive i s s ignificant.

M ajor t ransisthmian f aults a nd e volving p late b oundaries h ave

s eparated P anama i nto r egions o f r elative t ectonic a ctivity o r i nactivity . F or e xample ,

e levated m arine

B urica P eninsula ,

a nd

p illow

t erraces c ut i nto t urbidite s equences o n t he b asalts

o n

t he

c oast

o f

t he

S ona P eninsula

a ttest t o t ectonic u plift i n t hese a reas. A long

t he

c oast

o f

n orthwestern

P arita

B ay,

e stuaries,

b road

t idal

f lats, a w ide c oastal p lain , a nd m eandering r ivers i ndicate a r elatively s table t ectonic a rea, i n a v ertical s ense. N onetheless, a m ajor t ransisthmian f ault w hich p arallels t he e astern c oastline o f t he A zuero P eninsula a nd w hich m ay h ave l eft l ateral d isplacement, s eems t o i ndicate h orizontal m ovement i n t he r egion o f n orthwestern P arita B ay ( Terry 1 956, C ase 1 974). B esides t he m ajor a ctive a nd i nactive t ectonic f eatures o f t he P anama r egion ,

n umerous s maller f aults, d ikes,

a nd i ntrusions h ave c ombined

t o c reate a r egion w hich i s s tructurally c omplex .

L ocal G eology a nd G eomorphology

i s

B asement G eology ( Figure 4 ). T he b asement g eology o f t he s tudy a rea c omposed o f T ertiary a ge v olcanic r ocks. I n n umerous l ocations t he

b asement c omplex i s i ntensely f ractured,

a nd t he f ractures h ave b een f illed

w ith s iliceous h ydrothermal d eposits o f q uartz, c halcedony a nd j asper. T hese d eposits, w ere i mportant

o ften e xposed a t l ithic s ources

t he g round s urface o r i n s tream c hannels,

f or p rehistoric h uman i nhabitants

( Cooke a nd

R anere, t his v olume). N umerous d ikes, v olcanic v ents a nd c ones p rotrude a bove t he c oastal p lain t o f orm p rominent f eatures. O n t he l ower r ecent c oastal p lain o f t he P arita B ay s tudy a rea , t he b asement v olcanic r ocks f orm i nselbergs c ompletely s urrounded b y r ecent s edimentary d eposits o f f luvial,

5 7

a eolian ,

a nd l agoonal o rigin .

M oreover,

p rehistoric s ettlements o ccur o n

s everal o f t hese i nselbergs a nd i nclude t he A guadulce S helter ( Ranere a nd Hansell 1 978), C erro M angote ( McGimsey 1 956) a nd t he C ueva d e l os V ampiros ( Cooke a nd R anere, t his v olume). T he

L ower

C oastal

P lain

( see F igure

1 f or a m ap o f p resent

e nvironments a nd g eomorphic f eatures a long t he c oast).

T he S anta M aria i s

t he l argest r iver i n t he l ower c oastal p lain s ystem ; i ts l ower w atershed i s t he f ocus o f t he p resent i nvestigation . T he S anta M aria , a s w ell a s t he o ther

t hree

r ivers

w hich

f low

a cross

t he

c oastal

p lain,

h ave

w ide

f loodplains t hat a re d otted w ith n umerous o xbow l akes a nd i nfilled o xbows. T he r iverbanks a re g enerally s teep , a nd p oint b ars, w hich a re i nundated a t h igh t ide o n t he l ower c ourses o f t he r ivers, a re w ell d eveloped. D rainage d ivides b etween r ivers o n t he c oastal p lain a re n ot w ell d eveloped , e .g., t he S anta M aria R iver c rosses i nto t he d rainage o f t he E stero S alado R iver e ast

o f C erro I glesia d uring f lood p eriods.

A lthough n one o f t he r ivers

w ere i nvestigated i n t he f ield a long t heir e ntire l ength a cross t he c oastal p lain , t here i s l ittle e vidence o f m eander i ncisement. R iver c hannels a re a lmost e xclusively i ncised i nto n on-lithified s ediments ( sand, s ilt a nd c lay).

O ne

k ilometres

e xception w as n oted o n t he S anta M aria R iver a pproximately 2 0

u pstream

f rom D ivisa w here

m eters i nto a n a ndesite f low. t opographic c haracteristics o f

t he

r iver

I n g eneral,

h ad

c ut

a pproximately

3

t he f luvial a s w ell a s t he

t he s tudy a rea s uggest

a m ature

t o o ld

a ge

g eomorphologic s etting . A lbinas. T he c oastal a lbinas ( salt f lats) a re t he a rea d escribed b y T hom e t a l. ( 1975) a nd D ere ( 1981) a s " supratidal," " high-tidal," a nd " midt idal" g eomorphologic z ones. a b arren p lain s urface t he d ry s eason , s urface s oil,

T ypically t he w idest e xpanse o f t he a lbina i s

( Figure 3 ) w hich s upports a n a lgal g rowth .

t he s urface i s d esiccated,

D uring

a nd h ue c olor v ariations i n t he

a s w ell a s a reas c overed w ith d ry a lgae,

i ndicate o therwise

n early i mperceptible a reas o f r unoff a nd/or t idal p onds a nd c hannels ( Figure 5 ).

D uring t he r ainy s eason ,

t idal

a nd

e phemeral r unoff

t he a lbinas q uickly b ecome a q uagmire . c hannels

t hroughout t he d ry s eason,

T he

o n t he a lbinas a re u sually m uddy

a nd t heir b anks a re c overed w ith m angroves.

F igure 7 i s a s urface p rofile s howing t he

t opographic r elationship b etween

t he c oastal g eomorphologic z ones i n t he a rea b etween t he S anta M aria R iver a nd t he P arita R iver , a n a rea k nown a s t he A lbina S arigua . I n t his a rea , t he b oundary b etween p re-Holocene d eposits a nd H olocene s upratidal d eposits i s

a brupt

E vaporite

a nd

i n m any

m inerals

a re

i nstances a n

a bundant

a n

a rea

o f

c onstituent

a ctive o f

t hese

d une d une

f ormation. s ediments.

T he s upratidal z one s upports s parse g rassy v egetation , s ome s mall t rees a nd c acti. A lso c haracteristic o f s ome o f t he s upratidal a reas a re e rect, a s w ell a s f allen , d ead t rees. P roceeding s eaward f rom t he t ransitional s upratidal z one, p rofile a bruptly f lattens B usiness

e ntrepreneurs

a nd g radually

a re

u tilizing

t his

w ide,

f lat

c onstruct e normous s hrimp f arms a nd s alt e vaporation b eds. t he a lbina i s s ometimes a ltered b y b road , b asins,

b y p rotruding i nselbergs

t he s urface

s lopes m onotonously s eaward.

s hallow ,

a lbina a rea

t o

T he f latness o f

r unoff/tidal c hannels o r

s uch a s C erro T igre,

o r b y a ncient

b each

r idges o r r iver l evees s uch a s t he o nes l ocated 1 .5 k m e ast o f C erro T igre. N ear t he s eaward e dge o f t he a lbinas i s a n arrow z one c overed w ith s crubby A vicennia m angroves ( Figure 6 ).

S urface s ediments o f t his p ortion

o f t he m id-tidal z one a re s imilar i n t exture t o t hose o f t he b are a lbina .

5 8

M angrove F orest. S eaward, s crubby m angroves a bruptly g ive w ay t o l arge R hizophora m angroves. L arge d ead t rees, b oth u pright a nd f allen , a re n umerous a long t his b oundary.

M angrove v egetation i s v ery d ense,

a nd

a erial r oots m ake t his z one d ifficult t o p ass. T he d ense v egetation a nd a erial r oots g ive w ay t o g alleries o f v ery t all R hizophora m angroves a t t he s trandline i n t he l ow t idal z one . N umerous t idal c hannels c riss-cross t he l ow t idal m angrove z one, a nd t he g round s urface i s a lways w et i f n ot i nundated . T he b oundary b etween t he m angrove-covered c oast, o r s trandline , a nd t he g ently s loping l ow-tidal f lats i s a z one w hich i s s everal m eters t o s everal t ens o f m eters i n w idth , s eedlings a nd y oung m angroves . L ow-Tidal F lats.

a nd c an b e d efined b y s parsely s cattered

T he l arge r ange o f d iurnal t ides e xposes w ide ,

l ow-

t idal f lats o r " fango" f or 3 t o 6 k ilometers s eaward o f t he s trandline a t l ow t ide. T he t idal f lats o f w estern P arita B ay a re t ypical f or a s heltered b ay w here w ave a ction i s n ot

s trong

( Reineck 1 972).

S ediments

c onsisting o f f ine s and , c lay a nd s ilt a re d erived f rom f luvial s ources a s w ell a s l ongshore c urrents. C urrent r ipples a re t he p redominant b edding t ype , a nd r idge a nd r unnel s ystems p arallel t o t he c oastline a re f airly c ommon ( Barber 1 981). N umerous l eaves a nd s hell f ragments a re c oncentrated i n t he t roughs b etween s and r ipples , a nd s hell h ash i s d ominant a t t he l ow t ide l ine . P arita B ay.

T he w estern c oast o f P arita B ay i s ar elatively l ow

e nergy c oastline w hich e xperiences a d iurnal t idal r ange o f a s m uch a s 6 m eters. B ased o n t he o rientation o f c oastal s pits, l ongshore c urrents o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he b ay a re i n a w esterly d irection , w hile l ongshore c urrents o n t he s outhwestern s ide o f t he b ay a re i n an ortherly d irection . T hus, l ongshore c urrents c onverge i n t he v icinity o f t he s tudy a rea , a dding s ediment t o t he r iver d elta s ystem .

P hysical P rocesses A ctive i n t he S tudy A rea E rosion. A lthough t he p resent c oast o f w estern P arita B ay i s p rograding , e rosion p lays a m ajor r ole i n t he f ormation o f e xisting f eatures a nd i n p roviding s ediment s ources f or n earby d epositional a reas. A eolian a ctivity o n

t he

a lbina

s urface

c arries

f ine

s and- a nd

s ilt-

s ized m aterial i nland a nd c ontributes a dditional s ediments t o t he r ivers d uring t he d ry s eason . A ctive d unes o ccur a long t he n orthern b anks n ear t he m outh o f t he S anta M aria R iver w here t he r iver c rosses t he a lbina. T hese d unes c ause t he d eath o f m angrove t rees b y c overing t heir a erial r oots ( Figure 8 ). A eolian e rosion i s a lso n oticeable a long t he l andward m argin o r h eadlands o f a lbinas i n t he h igh- t o s upra-tidal a rea w here T ertiary v olcanics a nd p re-Holocene s ediments a re e xposed. T he a ction o f f alling a nd r unning w ater o n t he t opographically h igher a reas o f t he s upratidal a nd h igh-tidal z ones h as c reated n umerous g ullies t hrough t hese z ones a nd w orks i n c onjunction w ith a eolian f orces t o e xpose t he o lder s trata . T he

l ateral m igration o f

a nd d epositional c omponents. u ndercutting b y t he r ivers.

t he r ivers i s a p rocess w ith b oth e rosional S teep b anks a re c ontinually c aving d ue t o D uring p eriods o f f looding , o verback l evees

a re b reached , s ometimes r esulting i n r iver c ourse c hanges. I n t he m id- t o l ow-tidal a rea , r eceding t idewaters,

s hallow t idal c hannels a re a reas w here

a s w ell a s r ainfall r unoff,

5 9

c oncentrate ,

t ransporting

s ediments i n a s eaward d irection. A lthough t hese c hannels a re n ot n ecessarily s trongly e rosional i n n ature, t hey d o p rovide r outes f or t he r edistribution o f s ediments e roded b y o ther m eans. F inally , w here p resent-day b each r idges e xist, w ave a ction h as a cted t o c reate a s carp r eaching a s m uch a s am eter i n h eight o n t he s eaward s ide. W ave a ction i s a lso t he p rincipal a gent o f e rosion a cting o n t he f ew r ock o utcrops a nd i nselbergs l ocated o n t he l ow-tidal f lats " offshore". D eposition.

A lthough a n u nderstanding o f t he e rosional p rocesses

a ctive i n t he s tudy a rea i s i mportant f or i nterpreting e nvironmental c hanges a nd g eomorphic f eatures, i t i s d eposition t hat h as b een t he d ominant p rocess a long t his c oastline f or a t l east t he p ast s everal t housand y ears . T he p reviously d iscussed e rosional p rocesses have t heir d epositional c orollaries . A eolian d unes a long t he r iver h ave a lready b een d iscussed.

T hese

d epositional f eatures a re f ound a long t he t opographic h igh o f r iver l evees, a nd t hey a re a n i mportant s ource o f s ediments t o t he S anta M aria R iver n ear i ts m outh . D unes a lso a ccumulate a round i nselbergs , s uch a s C erro T igre a nd o ther u nnamed i nselbergs n earby ( Figure 9 ), a nd a long t he s upra-/hight idal b oundary. R esearch b y D ere ( 1981) h as s hown t hat a s m uch a s 5 4 p ercent o f t he s ediments i n t he h igh-tidal z one , m uch o f w hich i s r eworked a eolian m aterial , i s e vaporite m inerals. I n a ddition t he b each r idges a re c omposed o f b ar a nd b each s ands t hat h ave b een r edeposited b y a eolian a ctivity . R ainwater a cting o n t he t opographically h igher a reas i n t he s upra-tidal a nd h igh-tidal

z ones

r edistributes

e roded m aterial

o nto

t he

l ower

a lbina

s urface . S heetflow , a s w ell a s c oncentrated f low i n g ullies, r edistributes s ediments i n a s eaward-pointing w edge a cross t he a lbina s urface . T his a lluvial d eposition h as c ontributed t o t he v ertical a nd l ateral g rowth o f t he a lbina s urface . Am ajor c ausal f actor i n c oastal p rogradation i n t he s tudy a rea i s f luvial d eposition. T he l ateral m igration o f r ivers a nd p oint b ar d eposition h ave i n l arge p art c reated t he w ide e xpanse o f p resent d ay a lbinas . T he p rocess o f o verbank f looding a nd d eposition i s r esponsible f or m ost o f t he v ertical g rowth o f t hese a reas. A s t he r ivers m igrate l aterally , t hose a reas f urthest f rom t he r ivers r eceive l ess s ediments, r esulting i n t he e ventual s tagnation o f v ertical g rowth o f t he a lbinas. G reater s edimentation a djacent t o t he r ivers r esults i n t opographically p ositive n atural l evees. B ecause o f s ubsequent e rosion a nd b ioturbation , t hese f eatures m ay o r m ay n ot b e p reserved i n t he s tratigraphic r ecord .

f or

T idal c hannels i n t he m id- t o l ow-tidal a reas n ot o nly p rovide c hannels t he m ovement o f f luctuating t ide w aters a nd r ainfall r unoff , b ut a re

a lso d epositional a reas o f f ine g rained ( silt a nd c lay) s ediments. I n s ome i nstances, n atural o verbank l evees a long t he l arger t idal c hannels d elineate a reas o f h igh t ide s trandline d eposition a s w ell a s c reate a reas c onducive t o s mall d une f ormation o n t he a lbinas. L ow-tidal

f lats

a nd ,

w here p resent,

b each r idges,

a re t he p rincipal

d epositional f eatures w hich a re d irectly a cted u pon b y o cean w ave a ction . T he s ediment i n t his l ittoral s ystem i s d erived f rom t he n umerous r ivers w hich f eed i nto P arita B ay a nd f rom l ongshore d rift. B each r idges a re g enerally o f s mall v ertical a nd l ateral e xtent ( 1 t o 4m eters i n h eight,

6 0

1 0

t o 3 0 m eters i n w idth,

a nd s everal hundred m eters i n l ength),

a nd t he

p resent s trandline b each r idges o ften a re p rotected o n t heir s eaward s ide b y l arge R hizophora s p. m angroves. T he l ow-tidal f lats a re e xposed f or s everal k ilometers s eaward d uring p eriods o f l ow t ide . S urface s edimentary f eatures i nclude w ave a nd t ide r ipples,

p olychaete w orm t ubes c overed w ith s mall p elecypod s hells,

d ollars"

a nd

c rab

t racks,

v arious

a nimal

b urrows,

a nd

o rganic

" sand-

d ebris

i n

r ipple t roughs. L arger s cale s and w aves d escribed b y B arber ( 1981) a nd D ere ( 1981) o ccur r oughly p arallel t o t he c oastline. A s i ndicated b y t he c ore

a nalysis

a s w ell

a s

i mplied b y t he p rogradational n ature o f

c oastline, t he c oastal m angrove s ediments ( low-tidal z one o r m angroves) a re t o al arge e xtent r eworked l ow-tidal f lat s ediments.

t he

" big"

F actors I nfluencing t he H olocene R ecord T he p resent d ay a nd p ast Holocene e nvironments a long t he c oast o f P arita B ay h ave b een p roduced b y a n umber o f i nteracting f actors, i .e., t ectonic m ovements,

s edimentation r ates,

s ea

l evel

f luctuations,

c limatic

c hange a nd h uman a ctivity . A s n oted a bove, t he s tudy a rea a ppears t o h ave b een r elativly s table t ectonically a t l east t hroughout t he Holocene. N onetheless, b ecause t his c oastal a rea h as a v ery l ow g radient, c omparatively s mall v ertical m ovements ( e.g., 1 t o 4m eters) c ould r esult i n r ather l arge h orizontal d isplacements o f t he a ctive s horeline. A long w ith

t ectonic m ovements,

t he o ther

p rincipal f actors

a ffecting

t he p lacement a nd c haracter o f c oastal e nvironments a re s ea l evel f luctuations a nd s edimentation r ates. D ata f rom P arita B ay ( Golik 1 968) a nd f rom t he C hagres B asin , n ear t he A tlantic t erminus o f t he P anama C anal ( Bartlett a nd B arghoorn 1 973), i ndicates a p ost g lacial r ise i n s ea l evel o f 6 .6 m /1000 y ears u ntil a pproximately 5 000 B .C. T hese d ata c onform t o w orld-wide s ea l evel c urves w hich s how a r apid r ise i n s ea l evel d uring t he e arly Holocene a s t he c ontinental g laciers r etreated a nd f inally d isappeared. A dams, D ere a nd Hansell ( 1982) h ave u sed d ata f rom a s eries o f s ediment c ores t aken a long t he P arita B ay c oastline t o c alculate a l ocal r ate o f s ea l evel r ise a veraging 0 .3 m /1000 y ears f or t he l ast 5 000 y ears. S edimentation r ates f or P arita B ay have a d ocumented r ange o f 0 .5 m /1000 y ears m /1000 y ears C ombining s ea

f or

t he r egion

s outh

o f

t he P arita R iver

( Dere 1 981)

t o 3 .0

a t t he m outh o f t he S anta M aria R iver ( Barber 1 981). l evel r ise a nd s edimentation r ates f or t he b ay d uring t he

H olocene y ields

a t ransgressive

e pisode

a s

t he

g laciers

w aned ,

e nding

a t

a pproximately 5 000 B .C., f ollowed b y ag radual r egression w hich c ontinues t o t he p resent ( Barber, A dams a nd R anere 1 980). S light c hanges i n t he r ates o f

s ea

l evel

f luctuations

a nd

s edimentation m ay w ell have halted o r

t emporarily r eversed t he g eneral p rogradational s equence p ostulated f or t he P arita B ay c oast o ver t he p ast 7 000 y ears. o f

c oastline

f luctuations

a long

t he

I n f act,

S anta

M aria

B arber's ( 1981) m odel

d elta

a nd

D ere's

( 1981)

s ediment d ata f rom c ores t aken s outh o f P arita R iver s uggest s uch a r eversal a round 3 000 B .C. S ediment

r ates

i n

t he

c hanging c limatic p atterns t he H olocene.

s tudy

a rea m ay w ell h ave

b een a ffected b y

( particularly c hanging r ainfall r egimes)

d uring

C hanges i n H olocene c limate h ave b een i nferred f or e astern

P anama

( Bartlett

( e.g.,

V an d er H ammen a nd G onzales 1 960 ,

a nd B arghoorn

1 973)

6 1

a s

w ell

a s

e lsewhere

i n

t he

S impson a nd Haffer 1 978,

t ropics S algado-

L abouriau 1 980). F inally,

w e m ust n ot l ose s ight o f t he f act t hat d eforestation a nd

a ccelerated e rosion a re n ot p ost-conquest p henomena . P ollen a nd p hytolith d ata f rom s ediment c ores t aken i n t he C hagres b asin i n E astern P anama d ocument d eforestation b eginning b y 3 000 B .C. ( Bartlett a nd B arghoorn 1 973, P iperno 1 983).

M oreover ,

r ecently a nalyzed p hytolith a nd p ollen d ata f rom

a rchaeological d eposits i n t he f oothills o f C entral P anama h ave p ushed t he d ate f or t he i nitial a ppearance o f a griculture i n t his r egion b ack i nto t he 5 th m illennium B .C.

( Piperno a nd C lary, t his v olume).

L aboratory M ethodology T he

f ollowing

s ection

i s

b ased

o n

t he p reliminary r esults

o f

t extural

a nalysis ( particularly g rain s ize d istributions) o f s ediments c ollected f rom t he s urface a nd f rom v ibracores i n t he s tudy a rea. F ollowing t he d etermination o f g rain s ize d istributions, r esults h ave b een p lotted o n l ogp robability p aper a nd c umulative f requency c urves e stablished f or e ach s ample. S urface c urves h ave t hen b een c ompared t o t hose o btained f or t he c ores. W here c urves a re c omparable , w e h ave i nterpreted t hem a s r eflecting s imilar d epositional e nvironments. A t otal o f 2 0 s urface s amples a nd 3 9 v ibracores w ere c ollected d uring t he 1 981-82 f ield s eason o f t he P royecto S anta Maria ( see F igure 1 f or v ibracore l ocations). p rocessed. I t i s

T o d ate, 9 s urface a nd 3 v ibracore s amples h ave b een t hese r esults t hat a re p resented i n t his p aper.

P rocessed s urface s amples w ere t aken f rom a r ange o f d epositional f eatures w hich p resently o ccur a long t he c oast o f P arita B ay. T hese f eatures i nclude a eolian d unes, b each r idges, m udflats, a lbinas l andward o f b each r idges, t idal f lats s eaward o f b each r idges a nd m angrove c overed d eposits. P rocessed c ore s amples w ere a rchaeological s ites. L aboratory P rocedures.

r etrieved

f rom a lbinas a djacent t o t hree

L aboratory p rocedures f ollow t hose d escribed b y

I ngram ( 1971) a nd a re o utlined b elow. A ll s amples w ere s plit u sing a r iffler s plitter. A d esired s ubsample o f a pproximately 5 0 g rams w as o btained. E ach s ubsample w as o ven d ried , a nd i ts d ry w eight r ecorded . D ried s ubsamples w ere t hen s oaked o vernight i n a d ilute s olution o f d istilled w ater a nd s odium h exametaphosphate

3 .

A n umber

o f

t he

s amples,

p articularly

[ 3].

T he

s amples w ere

t hose w ith h igh

t hen

c lay c ontent,

r esisted c hemical d ispersion . M icroscopic i nspection i ndicated t hat m any o f t he c lays w ere b ound w ith s alt c rystals. R epeated r insings w ith d istilled w ater e ventually r emoved a ll s alts;

t hat i s,

s alts g o i nto s olution a nd a re

r emoved t hrough d ecanting, a llowing t he s ample t o d isperse. W ith s alt r emoval, h owever, t here i s a lso t he r emoval o f ap ortion o f t he o riginal d ry w eight. T his w eight l oss m ust b e a scertained a nd t he o riginal d ry w eight c orrected i f a ccurate c urves a re t o b e e stablished. W e d etermined w eight l oss p ercent b y t aking a s mall s ubsample o f a pproximately 5 g rams, d rying i t,

w eighing

i t

a nd

s oaking

i t

w ith

a d istilled

w ater

a nd

s odium

h exametaphosphate s olution. I f t he s ample f locculated i t w as r insed r epeatedly w ith d istilled w ater u ntil i t d ispersed. T he s ample w as t hen d ried, o riginal

t hrough d ry

e vaporation ,

w eight

a nd

t he

a nd

r eweighed.

f inal

w eight l oss d ue t o s alt c ontent.

d ry

w eight

T he

d ifference

p resumably

b etween

t he

r epresented

t he

T he p ercent o f l oss w as c alculated a nd

u sed i n a djusting t he l arger s ample.

6 2

d ispersed i n am echanical d ispersing c up . 1 000 m l h ydrometer

j ar

a nd

t horoughly

S ediments w ere t ransferred t o a

s haken .

Hydrometer

r eadings

w ere

t aken o ver a 2 4 h our p eriod t o d etermine s ize d istribution f or g rains f iner t han 0 .062 m m . A t t he c onclusion o f t he r eadings, s ediments w ere r eshaken a nd a llowed t o s tand 4 t o 6h ours. T he c ontents i n t he u pper 1 7 c m o f t he j ar w ere s iphoned o ff.

T he d rawn o ff c ontents c ontain g rains

f iner

t han

0 .0002 m m o r t hose o f c lay s ize. ( The c lays h ave b een s et a side f or f uture x -ray d iffraction . D iffractograms w ill a llow u s t o d etermine c lay m ineral o rigins.) T he s uspension r emaining i n t he j ar w as p oured i nto a s et o f s ieves ( U .S. S tandard m esh 6 0, 1 20 a nd 3 25) a nd r insed w ith d istilled w ater t o r ecover g rains c oarser t han 0 .044 m m .

G rains f rom e ach s ieve w ere d ried

u nder i nfrared l amps, r ecombined a nd r eweighed . T he

s ample ,

w hich n ow c onsisted o f g rains c oarser t han 0 .044 m m ,

w as

t hen s ifted t hrough a n est o f s ieves ( U .S. S tandard m esh o penings r anging f rom 1 6 m m t o 0 .044 m m o r 4 p hi t o 4 .5 p hi a t 1 /2 p hi i ntervals). T he s ample w as s ieved 7 t o

1 0 m inutes

u sing a m echanical

f raction h eld b y e ach s ieve w as w eighed

t o

s ieve

s haker.

t he n earest 0 .1 g ram .

T he ( Each

f raction w as b agged a nd l abelled i ndividually a nd s et a side f or e ventual h eavy m ineral s eparation, i dentification a nd q uantification. T his p rocedure w ill a llow u s t o a scertain m ineral s ource, e .g., t errestrial o r m arine .) W eights w ere c alculated a s p ercent o f t he o riginal o ven d ried w eight ( or c orrected o ven d ried w eight i f t here w as a s alt l oss) a nd t hen a s c umulative w eight p ercent. C umulative w eight

p ercents w ere

p lotted o n l og p robability p aper

e ach s ample a nd f requency c urves c onstructed . p lotted o n t he o rdinate a nd g rain s ize c lass

f or

C umulative w eight p ercent i s l imits o n t he a bscissa w ith

g rain s ize d ecreasing t o t he r ight ( see F igure 1 0 f or a n e xample).

D escription o f S amples.

S urface

s amples

r ecovered a long a t ransect

e xtending f rom t he s upra-tidal t o l ow-tidal z ones h ave b een a nalyzed .

T hey

a re d escribed b elow : 1 . S upra-tidal ( G-0); a p oorly s orted b rown s ilty c lay w hich c ontains a pproximately 3 7% e vaporites b y w eight. T he s ample w as t aken f rom a n a eolian d une i n t he s upratidal z one ( Figure 1 0). 2 .

S upra-tidal ( G-1); a p oorly s orted r ed s andy s ilt.

T his s ample, t aken

f rom f ill i n a r unoff c hannel o n t he a rchaeological s ite o f L a M ula-Sarigua ( Pr-14), i s a lmost c ertainly a n a eolian d eposit o riginating f rom t he a djacent S arigua a lbina . A pproximately 1 5% o f t he s ample b y w eight w as c omposed o f e vaporites ( salt c rystals).

T he c umulative f requency c urve f or

t his s ample m imics t hat o f D ere -s ( 1981) e stablished f or t he s upratidal z one ( Figure 1 0). 3 .

S upra-tidal ( G-2);

ap oorly s orted r ed-brown s ilty c lay.

T his s ample

w as c ollected f rom a c ut b ehind a n i nselberg w here f ine s ediments b lown i n f rom a djacent a lbinas a ccumulate a nd w here w ind r ipples f alling l andward a re c ommon .

E vaporites

a re

a bundant,

c onstituting

a pproximately

2 1%

o f

t he

s ample b y w eight ( Figure 1 0). 4 . High-tidal ( G-5); a v ery p oorly s orted b rown c lay. E vaporites a ccounted f or a pproximately 1 4% o f t he s ample b y w eight. T he s ample w as c ollected f rom t he l ower r eaches o f t he h igh-tidal z one ( Figure 1 1).

6 3

5 .

M id-tidal,

l andward o f b each r idge ( G-15);

ap oorly s orted c layey s ilt

w ith a n e vaporitic c ontent o f a pproximately 2 0% b y w eight. c ollected 1 2). 6 .

i n

a m angrove-covered

M id-tidal,

a rea

l andward

l andward o f b each r idge ( G-10);

o f

t he

T he s ample w as

b each

r idge

( Figure

ap oorly s orted b rown s ilty

c lay . T hese s ediments c ontained a pproximately 3 7% e vaporites b y w eight. T he s ample w as c ollected i n aR hizophora s p . m angrove s wamp l andward o f t he b each r idge, b ut c loser t o t he r idge t han w as s ample G -15 ( Figure 1 2). 7 . M id- t o L ow-tidal ( G-16); a m oderately t o w ell s orted b rown s ilty s and . T he w eight l oss o f a pproximately 2 0% i ndicates t hat s amples f rom t his z one s till c ontain a s ignificant a mount o f e vaporites.

T he c umulative f requency

c urve f or t his s ample i s r emarkably s imilar t o t hat e stablished f or a l owt idal t rough b y D ere ( 1981). O ur s ample w as r etrieved f rom a s eaward b each r idge

p osition

i n a t all R hizophora s p.

f requently d issected b y t idal c hannels b oundary ( Figure 1 3). 8 .

g allery.

a nd o ccurs a t

T his

p osition

i s

t he m id- t o l ow-tidal

M id- t o L ow-tidal ( G-17); a m oderately t o w ell s orted b rown s ilty s and.

E vaporitic c ontent i s a pproximately 1 4% b y w eight.

S ample G -17 w as

c ollected o n t he s eaward s ide o f a b each r idge i n am angrove f ormation s eaward o f G -16, a nd l ike G -16 i t r epresents s ediments f rom t he m id- t o l owt idal b oundary ( Figure 1 3). 9 . L ow-tidal ( G-18); a n e xtremely w ell s orted d ark b rown s and. s ample w as c ollected s eaward o f t he m angrove f orests ( Figure 1 4). T o

d ate,

p article

s ize

a nalysis

T his

a nd c umulative f requency c urves h ave

b een c ompleted f or s ubsamples f rom t hree o f t he 3 9 s ediment c ores r ecovered d uring

t he

1 982

f ield

s eason .

T he

t hree

c ores

a re d iscussed b elow

( see

F igure 1 f or c ore p lacement). C ore V C-PL-1 w as r ecovered f rom t he l andward e dge o f t he S arigua a lbina i n f ront o f t he L a M ula-Sarigua s ite ( just n orth o f t he P arita R iver). T he l ower 1 02 c m o f t he c ore w as c omposed o f g reyish-green w eathered b edrock w ith r elic p henocrysts a nd b urrows. T he b edrock w as o verlain b y a m oderately s orted g rey s and w hich c ontained s ome s hell h ash. o f t he c umulative f requency c urve f or t his m odern s amples

i ndicates

t hat

i s

w as

s ample w ith

d eposited

A c omparison

t hose d erived

f rom

i n a m angrove-covered m id-

t idal, s eaward o f b each r idge z one ( Figure 1 5a). T he s ample a bove t his g rey s and c onsisted o f m oderately s orted g rey c layey s and w ith s ome s hell h ash.

T he c umulative f requency c urve

c overed m id-tidal z one s ample

o ver

t he

o ne

( Figure 1 5b).

b elow s uggests

m ore l andward p osition .

i ndicates

d eposition i n a m angrove

T he i ncrease i n c lay c ontent o f t his i ts

d eposition m ay h ave o ccurred

i n a

T he s ediments o f t he u pper 4 2 c m o f t he c ore a re

m oderately t o p oorly s orted r ed-brown c layey s ands. T he c urve f or t his s ample ( Figure 1 5c) i s v ery s imilar t o t hat o f D ere -s ( 1981) m id-tidal b are c urve, w hich r epresents t he m udflats/albina e nvironment.

I t i s t his l atter

e nvironment w hich p resently e xists o n t he s urface o f t he c ore l ocation . C ore A RC-15 w as t aken a t s ite A g-140 n ear t he l andward m argin o f T igre a lbina n orth o f s horeline.

T he d eepest

d ark g rey s ilty s ands; o f t he b each r idge,

t he

t he S anta M aria R iver a nd o ver 6 k m f rom t he a ctive c ore

s ample

c ontained m oderately

t o

w ell

i ts c umulative c urve r epresents a m angrove,

m id-tidal d epositional e nvironment

s eaward

1 6a).

T he

n ext h ighest s ample p rocessed h ad p oorly s orted d ark g rey s ilty c lays .

T he

6 4

( Figure

s orted

c urve f or

t his

s ample i s c haracteristic o f am angrove,

o f b each r idge e nvironment

m id-tidal ,

l andward

( Figure 1 6b).

O verlying t his z one i s o ne

c omposed o f p oorly s orted g rey c layey s ilts.

Ah igh- t o m id-tidal b oundary

i s t he m ost p arsimonious i nterpretation o f t he c umulative f requency c urve o f t his z one ( Figure 1 6c). T he f ourth s ubsample t o b e p rocessed f rom t his c ore c ame f rom 4 0 c m b elow t he s urface.

T he s ediments w ere p oorly s orted

r ed s ilty c lays. A c omparision o f i ts c urve w ith t hose o f m odern s amples s uggests t hat t his s ample m ost l ikely r epresents a s upra-tidal/high-tidal b oundary, a n e nvironment n ot u nlike t hat w hich p resently e xits a t t he s urface o f t he c ore ( Figure 1 6d). C ore ARC-16 w as t aken f rom b eneath t he b ase o f t he a rchaeological d eposits i n s ite A g-124, a s hell m idden i n t he T igre a lbina n orth o f t he S anta M aria R iver a nd 1 k m i nland f rom t he a ctive s horeline ( Figure 1 ). T he b asal s ample i n t he c ore w as m oderately s orted g rey c layey s ilty s and.

I ts

c urve c learly r eflects a m angrove, s eaward o f b each r idge, m id- t o l ow-tidal b oundary

( Figure

1 7a).

T he

z one

a bove

c onsisted

o f

p oorly

s orted

g rey

s ilty c lays. I t c ontained s ome s hell . I ntrepretation o f t he c umulative f requency c urve s uggests d eposition i n am angrove, l andward o f b each r idge, m id-tidal z one ( Figure 1 7b). T he c ore s ediments a bove a re a lso m oderately t o

p oorly

s orted

g rey

s ilty

c lays

a nd

r epresent

a m angrove,

l andward

o f

b each r idge, m id-tidal e nvironment ( Figure 1 7c). T he u pper s ample f rom t he c ore ( which w as c overed w ith 1 .77 m o f s hell m idden d eposits) w as c omposed o f m oderately

s orted y ellow b rown g ravelly s and .

p rincipally o yster, o ccurred h ere. c losely w ith t hat e stablished b y D ere

A g reat d eal o f s hell ,

T he c urve f or t his s ample c ompares ( 1981) f or a m angrove m id-tidal z one

( Figure 1 7d). A ll t hree c ore s equences a re p rogradational . 1 8),

am angrove,

I n c ore V C-PL-1

( Figure

m id- t o l ow-tidal s eaward o f b each r idge p osition i s

r eplaced b y am angrove, m id-tidal, l andward o f b each r idge e nvironment. I n c ore ARC-15 ( Figure 1 9), t he l owermost s ediments r epresent a m angrove, s eaward o f b each r idge, m id-tidal z one. r epresent a m id-tidal m angrove e nvironment, r idge.

T his m id-tidal

s equence

z one a t t he c ore s urface .

i s

T he o verlying s ediments b ut o ne l andward o f t he

t ransformed

s till b each

i nto a m id- t o h igh-tidal

T he e ntire A RC-16 c ore i s c omposed o f m angrove,

m id-tidal s ediments ( Figure 2 0). H owever, t hose a t t he b ottom r epresent d eposits m ade s eaward o f t he b each r idge w hile t hose a t t he t op r epresent l andward o f b each r idge.

C oncluding R emarks A t

t his w riting,

e xam ined.

o nly a s ingle C 14 d ate i s a vailable f or t he c ores

A c arbon s ample t aken f rom 6 0-90 c m b elow g round s urface ( depth

a djusted f or r odding) i n c ore V C-PL-1 y ielded a d ate o f 1 520 + 1 20 B .P. ( S15 801) ( Figure 1 8). I f w e a ssume a c onstant r ate o f s edimentation ( a q uestionable b ut u navoidable p rocedure w ithout a dditional d ates), t he V C-PL1d ate i ndicates a r ate o f a pproximately 0 .5 m /1000 y ears, r esults

r eported b y D ere

( 1981)

f or

t he

r egion

j ust

d uplicating t he

t o t he s outh.

U sing

t his s edimentation r ate, t he b ase o f t he c ore w ould d ate t o a bout 3 000 B .P ., a t w hich t ime t he c ore l ocation w ould h ave b een n ear t he a ctive s trandline. B y 2 000 B .P. t he a ctive s horeline h ad m igrated s eaward s everal h undred m eters,

l eaving

t he

c ore

l ocation

l andward

o f

t he

b each

r idge

b ut

s till

m angrove c overed. B are a lbina s urfaces w ould h ave e volved a t t his l ocation o nly a fter a bout 1 200 B .P. I t i s p robably n ot c oincidental t hat t he m ajor o ccupation o f t he l arge L a M ula-Sarigua s ite a djacent t o t he V C-PL-1 c oring

6 5

l ocality d ates f rom a pproximately 3 000 t o 2 000 B .P. A lthough n o C 14 s amples h ave b een p rocessed f or c ore A RC-15, a m inimal d ate o f 3 000 B .P . c an b e a ssigned t o t he t op o f t he c ore o n t he b asis o f t he a rchaeological

m aterials

r ecovered

f rom

t he

g round

s urface

o f

t he

c oring

l ocality . T hirteen e dge-ground c obbles a nd o ther c obble m anuports ( that i s, c obbles c arried o nto t he s ite b ut e xhibiting n o e vidence o f u se o n t heir e roded s urfaces) w ere s cattered o ver a n a rea n early 1 00 m i n d iameter.

N o

p otsherds, f laked s tone t ools, f laking d ebris o r o ther s mall o bjects w ere p resent, w hich s uggests t hat t he c obbles r epresent a l ag d eposit o n a n e roded s urface. i mplement

E dge-ground c obbles a re t he p rincipal h and g rinding

i n C entral P anama f or

t he L ate P receramic a nd E arly c eramic

p eriods ( 5000 t o 1 000 B .C.). T hey h ave n ot b een r ecovered i n d eposits d ating a ny y ounger t han t he e arly f irst m illennium B .C. ( Cooke a nd R anere , t his v olume). S ince t he s equence r epresented a t c ore A RC-15 i s a n e ntirely p rogradational o ne , t he b asa l d eposits c an n ot d ate m uch b efore 7 000 B .P., o r t o a t ime w hen t he p ost-Pleistocene s ea l evel r ise s lowed d ramatically . A d ate o f 7 000 B .P .

f or t he b ase o f t he s equence w ould f it n icely w ith t he

s uggested p rogradation r ate

f or

t he

y ears

t he

p resent

( Barber

1 981),

s ince

S anta M aria R iver s trandline

i s

d elta o f

1 k m/1000

7 k m s eaward o f

t he

c oring l ocality . A t a s ediment r ate o f 3 .0 m /1000 y ears f or t he l eading e dge o f t he r iver d elta ( Barber 1 981), t he s equence r epresented i n t he b ottom t wo m eters o f t he A RC-15 c ore, f rom m angrove, m id-tidal s eaward o f b each r idge t o ah igh-/mid-tidal b oundary , w ould h ave b een d eposited r elatively r apidly ( Figure 1 9). A s harp d ecrease i n t he s edimentation r ate, c easing a ltogether b y a t l east 3 000 B .P., i s p ostulated t o a ccount f or t he a ccumulation o f t he ( minimally)

t he u pper 1 .5 m eters o f h igh- t o s upra-tidal d eposits a nd 3 000 y ear o ld a rchaeological r emains w hich o verlie t hem .

I ndeed,

i f t he i dentification o f t he a rchaeological m aterial a s a l ag

d eposit

i s

a ccurate,

t he

l ocality h as w itnessed

s ome

e rosion.

L ow

s edimentation r ates a nd/or t he a bsence o f s edimentation i mplies t hat t ectonic u plift o f t he a rea h as b een i n n ear e quilibrium w ith s ea l evel r ise f or t he p ast 5 000 t o 6 000 y ears . T he t op o f c ore A RC-16 c an a lso b e a ssigned a d ate s ince i t w as t aken f rom t he b ase o f c ultural d eposits

i n a s hell m idden w hich o n t ypological

g rounds d ates n o e arlier t han 9 00 B .P. A pplying t he 3 .0 m /1000 y ears s edimentation r ate f or t he S anta M aria d elta , t he b ase o f t he c ore i s a bout 2 000 y ears

o ld.

A t

t hat

t ime,

t he a ctive s trandline w as q uite n ear t he

c oring l ocality ( it i s n ow 1 200 m s eaward). W hile o ur d ating o f t he c ore s equences i s a t b est t entative,

i t i s

n onetheless c lear t hat t he c oastline o f w estern P arita B ay h as u ndergone a n et p rogradation f or t he l ast 5 000 , i f n ot 7 000, y ears. V ertical t ectonic m ovement a nd/or m inor f luctuations i n s ea l evel ( or i n t he r ate o f s ea l evel r ise) d uring t his t ime p eriod h ave u ndoubtedly a dded m inor p erturbations t o t he r ate o f p rogradation . T he r elatively l ow e nergy e nvironments p resently e xisting f or t he r egion a re t he c onsequence o f t he o verall n ear-equilibrium b etween t ectonism ,

s ea l evel f luctuations

t here a re s ome s imilarities

a nd

s edimentation.

H olocene e nvironments, t here a re s ome d ifferences a s w ell. f rom c ore ARC-15 s uggest e xistence f or a t

A lthough

b etween p resent d ay e nvironments a nd p ast

t hat

B asal s ediments

t he m id-tidal m angrove z one h as b een i n

l east 7 000 y ears.

A nalysis o f

t he f auna r ecovered

f rom

t he n ear-by s ite o f C erro M angote, d ated b etween 5 000 a nd 3 000 B .C., d emonstrates q uite c learly t hat t his i s t he z one m ost h eavily e xploited b y

6 6

t he s ite's i nhabitants ( Ranere, C ooke a nd Hansell 1 980). O n t he o ther h and, e xtensive a lbinas a re m ore r ecent a dditions t o t he l andscape. T heir g rowth i s a ttributed t o f luvial o verbank d eposition , t he s eaward m ovement o f m angroves, s upratidal e rosion a nd a eolian f orces. T he a lbina i n f ront o f L a M ula-Sarigua m ay w ell h ave f ormed o nly w ithin t he p ast 1 200 y ears. A lbinas n orth o f t he S anta M aria R iver a re c ertainly o f g reater a ntiquity . N onetheless, h ere t oo t hey w ould h ave b een q uite l imited i n a real e xtent u ntil a pproximately 3 000 y ears a go. O ur r esearch h as a lso s hown t hat t here w ere m ajor d isplacements o f t hese c oastal e nvironmental z ones o ver t he p ast 7 000 y ears, e ven t hough t he d ating a nd t he m agnitude o f t hese d isplacements h ave y et t o b e w orked o ut i n d etail. C oastal p rogradation , l ateral m igration o f r iver c ourses a nd a eolian t ransport o f s alt-laden s ediments h ave w orked i n c oncert t o e ffect t hese c hanges. S ome o f t he q uestions c oncerning t he n ature o f c hanging e nvironments i n t he H olocene f or t he P arita B ay a rea w ill a lmost c ertainly b e r esolved b y t he l aboratory a nalysis o f s ediment c onjunction w ith t he c ontinued a nalysis s ediments, m inerals,

a dditional a nalyses p articulate c arbon ,

( e.g.,

p ollen ,

c ores a lready c ollected. o f p article s izes f rom t he

o f c lay m ineral c ontent,

I n c ore

h eavy/light

p hytoliths a nd o ther b iogenic s ilica)

a nd t he d ating o f t he s ediments s hould p ermit d etailed e nvironmental r econstruction f or t he e ntire z one b etween t he E stero S alado R iver t o t he n orth a nd t he P arita R iver t o t he s outh a t l east f or t he l ast 5 000 t o 7 000 y ears. I nterpretation o f e arlier Holocene e nvironments r equires t he c ollection o f s ediment c ores t o ad epth b eyond t he 6 m eter c apability o f o ur v ibracore e quipment.

G eophysical

s eismic p rofiles

a cross

t he

v arious

a lbinas a re a lso n eeded t o d etermine t he t hickness o f t he s edimentary w edge. F inally , s tudies o f t he p ossible r elationships b etween t ectonic m ovement a nd s ea l evel c hanges s hould b e c ontinued .

F ield r esearch n eeds t o b e e xtended

t o c oastal r egions b oth n orth a nd s outh o f o ur s tudy a rea, a nd s hould i nclude f ield o bservations a nd m apping a s w ell a s c oring o f c oastal s ediments. T he

i mportance

o f

c oastal

e nvironments

f or

p rehistoric p opulations

o f

C entral P anama i s r eflected b y t he l arge n umbers o f s ites r ecorded f or t he c oastal z one

( Weiland ,

t his v olume) a s w ell a s b y t he q uantities o f m arine

a nd e stuarine f auna ( e.g.,

f ish,

t urtle,

c rabs a nd m olluscs) f ound i n t hese

c oastal s ites a nd i n t hose l ocated f urther i nland. C ontinued c ollaboration b etween g eologists, a rchaeologists a nd o ther s pecialists i s e ssential i f w e a re t o u nravel t he c omplex i nterrelationships w hich e xisted b etween h uman p opulations a nd e nvironments t hroughout t he H olocence.

A cknowledgements F unds f or t his r esearch w ere p rovided b y t he N ational S cience F oundation , t he S mithsonian I nstitution a nd T emple U niversity. i nitiated u nder t he d irection o f J ohn K . b ulk o f t he f ield r esearch . b y P KH,

A dams.

T he f ield r esearch w as

J HC a nd T B c arried o ut t he

T he l aboratory a nalysis o f s ediments w as d one

w ith t he a ssistance o f L ouAnn W urst.

T he p hotographs w ere t aken b y

J aC , a nd t he i llustrations p repared b y D oris W eiland.

6 7

R EFERENCES A dams,

J ohn K .,

C hristopher E .

S edimentological f acies

J ohn

H .,

J r.

a t

t he

1 981.

1 1th

I nternational

G eomorphology,

S edimentology o f t he S anta Maria D rainage B asin. t hesis, T emple U niversity , P hiladelphia . B arber,

J ohn H .,

1 982.

a ssociated w ith a rchaeological s ites i n C entral

P acific P anama . P aper p resented S edimentology , H amilton , O ntario . B arber,

D ere a nd P atricia Hansell.

J r,

J ohn K .

C ongress

S tratigraphy a nd

C entral P anama.

A dams a nd A nthony J .

o n

R anere .

M .A.

I nfluence

o f g eological p arameters o n m an's e arly a daptation t o c oastal e nvironments i n C entral P anama . P aper p resented a t t he A nnual M eeting o f t he G eological S ociety o f A merica , A tlanta . B artlett, A lexandra S .

a nd E .S. B arghoorn.

1 973.

P hytogeographic

h istory o f t he I sthmus o f P anama d uring t he p ast 1 2,000 y ears ( A h istory o f v egetation , c limate , a nd s ea-level c hange). V egetation a nd V egetational H istory o f N orthern L atin A merica , e dited b y A . G raham . E lsevier S cientific P ublishing C o., p p . 2 03-299 . C ase , J .E. 1 974 . O ceanic c rust f orms G eol. S oc. o f America B ulletin 8 5: 6 45-652. D ere , o f

a n

C hristopher E .

A rchaeological

P anama .

1 981.

b asement

o f

e astern P anama .

T he G eologic a nd P aleogeographic S etting

S ite o n t he S outhwestern C oast o f P arita B ay ,

M .A . t hesis, T emple U niversity , P hiladelphia .

G olik ,

A braham .

o f P anama .

1 968 .

H istory o f H olocene T ransgression i n t he G ulf

J ournal o f G eology 7 6 : 4 97-507.

Hansell,

P atricia a nd J ohn K .

A dams.

1 980.

T he a pplication o f

s ediment a nalysis t o c ultural d eposits. P aper p resented a t t he 4 5th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology , P hiladelphia . I ngram , P etrology ,

R oy.

L .

1 971.

S ieve

e dited b y R obert E .

a nalysis.

C arver.

P rocedures i n S edimentary

N ew Y ork :

W iley-Interscience,

p p .

4 9-67. M cGimsey, C harles R ., 1 11. 1 956 . C erro M angote: A P receramic S ite i n P anama . A merican A ntiquity 2 2(2), P art 1 : 1 51-161. P iperno, D olores. 1 983 .

T he A pplication o f P hytolith A nalysis t o t he

R econstruction o f P lant S ubsistence a nd E nvironments i n P rehistoric P anama . P h.D . d issertation , T emple U niversity , P hiladelphia . P rell, W arren, L ., J ames V . G ardner, e t a l.

1 980. Hydraulic p iston

c oring o f l ate N eogene a nd Q uaternary s ections i n t he C aribbean a nd e quatorial P acific : P reliminary r esults o f d eep s ea d rilling p roject l eg 6 8. G eol S oc. o f A merican B ulletin 9 1, P art 1 . R anere, a long

t he

J .

a nd P atricia H ansell.

P acific

C oast

e dited b y B arbara L .

o f

P anama.

1 978 . I n

S tark a nd B arbara V oorhies.

p p . 4 3-59.

6 8

E arly S ubsistence P atterns

P rehistoric C oastal A daptations, N ew Y ork :

A cademic P ress.

R anere,

A nthony J .,

R ichard G .

C ooke a nd P atricia Hansell.

F ood P rocurement i n t he P arita B ay R egion o f P anama,

5 000 B .C.

1 980.

-A .D.

5 00.

P aper p resented a t t he 4 5th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or American A rchaeology , P hiladelphia . R eineck,

H .E.

1 972.

T idal

f lats.

S edimentary Environments, e dited b y J . H amblin .

S oc.

o f E con .

P aleont.

I n R ecognition o f A ncient

K eith R igby a nd W illiam K enneth

a nd M ineralogists.

S pec .

P ub.

N o.

1 6 ,

p p .

o f

t he

1 46-159. S algado-Labouriau,

Maria L ea.

P leistocene-Holocene b oundary o f P alaeobotany a nd P alynology 3 0 : S impson , t he

B eryl B .

A mazonian f orest

1 980.

L ake

d iagram

V enezuela.

R eview o f

2 97-312.

a nd J urgen Haffer.

b iota .

A p ollen

V alencia,

1 978 .

S peciation p atterns i n

A nnual R eview o f E cology a nd S ystematics

9 :

4 97-518 . S tewart,

R obert H .

p late m otions

i n

t he

a nd J oanne L .

a rea o f

t he

S tewart.

G alapagos

1 981.

t riple

D iscussion o f

j unction

a nd

t he

e astward.

P aper p resented a t t he T ercer C ongreso C olombiano d e G eologia , B ogota . T erry,

R obert A .

1 956.

A G eological

R econnaissance

C alifornia A cademy o f S ciences. O ccasional P apers. N o. 2 3.

o f

P anama.

9 1 p p .

T hom ., B .G ., L .D. W right a nd J .M . C oleman . 1 975 . M angrove e cology a nd d eltaic-estuarine g eomorphology. C ambridge G ulf-Ord R iver, W estern A ustralia .

J ourn . E cology 6 3:

V an d er H ammen , Holocene

C limate

2 03-232.

T homas a nd E . a nd

G onzales.

Vegetation

o f

1 960 . t he

U pper P leistocene a nd S abana

d e

B ogota.

L eidse. G eol. M eded. 2 5 : 2 61-315 . W hitmore,

F .C., J r.

a nd R .H.

C entral A merican s eaways. W illey, C ulture

o f

S tewart.

S cience 1 48:

G ordon a nd C harles P anama P apers o f

R .

1 963.

M iocene m ammals a nd

1 80-185.

M cGimsey

1 11.

1 954.

T he M onagrillo

t he P eabody Museum a nd E thnology 4 9

( 2).

C ambridge: H arvard U niversity . W oodring,

W .P.

1 954.

C aribbean l and a nd s ea t hrough

G eol. S oc. o f America B ulletin 6 5:

7 19-732.

6 9

t he a ges.

E s tero S o/ado R iver

/ se he A r j

C a iro ees io

am e c . 1 5 •

( Ai rK I D )

.

• ARC-16( 4 124 )

C or m Tem e •

Santa Mario R iver

L EGENQ 1

MANGROVE

•

T EST

o

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITE

CORE LOCAT ION

,P ubo B ianco

I NSEL B ERG

0

4

Kuo l dEr(as R or ie R iver 2j V C-PL - I ?

C e r ro A socomoye

F ig.

1 .

M ap o f t he s tudy a rea a long t he w est c oast o f P arita B ay , C entral

P anama .

7 1

F ig . 2 . A v ibracore s unk i nto t he d eposits b elow t he s urface o f a n a lbina . T he l arge a luminum t ripod p ictured i s u sed t o h oist t he a luminum p ipe h olding t he c ore f rom t he g round .

F ig. 3 . T he m id-tidal b are a lbina s urface i n f ront o f t he i nselberg C erro T igre , n orth o f t he S anta M aria R iver .

. . . .

. . .• • . . .. • • •.• • • •

.. . .. .• ' . '

.. . '....

• .

.

\

L im it o f a rea mapped

• •••• • -•• ••• . ...

'. ' .. " . " .. ' . ' .. '

..

T -IPL

" . " . " .

T m tm s

.

•

• •

.• . .. • . ••.TC PL ,PS TC 7 •••• : . • ••• ••• .TM . ie-PL ••••-••••••••

TC-PL ,PS — P l io-P le is tocene , b asa lt Tm I s -PL —L ipper M iocene- P l iocene ,L a Y eguada

f or mat ion , i g m mbr ites a nd t uff

TM I s— U ppe r M iocene, C ahazas f ormat ion, l ava a nd t uff Tm Im-s — M idd le t o U pper M iocene, S an P edr ito f o r mation, t uff a nd a gg lomerate TOL — O l igocene , c on t inen ta l t u ff,

t u ff , s ands tone, l imes tone

T - IPL — P l iocene, g ranod ior i te , monzon ite M IKS — U pper C retaceous, q uartz d ior ite, n or ite, g abbro A fter ' Ma im G eo iog ico d e l P royecto M iner° S e A zuero" , A dm in is trac iön d e R ecursos M inera les, 1 969

M?- 1— Mesozo ic ( ?), u l trabas ic , p icr ite, o l iv ine g abbro , p icr it ic F au lt L im it o f

mud 0

f l ats 5

0

5

KI L O M E T E R S

F ig. 4 .

B asement g eology o f t he s tudy a rea .

7 3

2 0

2 5

b asa lt

F ig . 5 . C lose-up o f t he a lbina s urface s howing t he d essication c racks a nd a lgae m at ( covering t he l eft s ide o f t he p hotograph).

F ig. 6 . M id-tidal a b ina s urface w ith a s parse c overing o f A vicennia m angroves.

6 00

I ii im mi

400 2 00

I M I IM I .

0 ‚f • 4 -

L C ' )

a t r i

( d i

N :

a

a ) _ c

0

-0

i s 0

C l)

0

7 5

_C

4•

0

V )

M id-t ida l, m angrove

Q )

c . ) a

a ) 4-

1 2-

F ig .

8 .

A m angrove s tand a long t he n orth b ank o f

t he S anta M arla R iver ,

w ith f allen t rees i n t he f oreground, s ucceeded b y u pright b ut d ead t rees a nd f inally b y l iving m angroves,

i llustrates t he d estruction o f m angrove f orests

b y a dvancing d unes o f a lbina s ediments.

F ig.

9 .

D une f ormation a round a s mall i nselberg n ear C erro T igre,

t he S anta M aria B asin .

n orth o f

5 1 0

CUMULAT I VE

2 0

60

7 0

8 0

9 5 9 9 2

0

2 0

F igure

4 S IZ E

1 0 : ( a) G -0 , ( 1 D ) G -1

6

8

1 0

( c) G -2

5 1 0

PERCENT

2 0

3 0

1 _

40 5 0 U i

6 0

1

7 0

8 0

9 5 9 9

I

2

0

I

t

2 0

F igure

I :

4 S I ZE

G -5

7 7

6

8

1 0

5

^

1 0

2 0 (b )

5 0 U i

• c t

6 0

1

7 0

2

8 0

a _

9 5 9 9 2

0

2

4 0

6

8

1 0

S IZE

F igure 1 2 . ( a) G10; ( b ) G-I5

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

I 1

1

5 1 0

2 0

1 3 3 0 L i i

a - 40

CU MULATIVE

50

6 0

^

7 0

8 0

9 5 9 9

2

0

2 0

4 S IZE

F igure 1 3 . ( a )GI6; ( b )G17

7 8

6

8

1

I

I

I

1

I

5 1 0

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60

7 0

80

9 5 9 9 -

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I 0 1 4 .

11 1 1 2

4 1 2 f

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0

S IZE

1 1

6

8

1 0

6

8

1 0

0 18

5 1 0

PERCENT

2 0

30

40

CU MULAT IVE

5 0

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7 0

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9 5 9 9 2

2

4

F igure 1 5 . V C-PLI ( a)159-193 cm b . s ( b)I 15-136;(c) 65- 90

7 9

5 1 0

PERCENT

2 0

3 0

4 0 5 0

1 £ . 1 6 0

2

7 0

C . )

8 0

9 5 9 9 S IZE F igure

1 6 . ARC-I5 ( 0 ) 330-342

c m b . s .;

( b)275 -2 93; ( 0 )150-165; ( d)40-60

5 1 0

PERCENT

2 0

3 0

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5 0

6 0

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95 99 2 F igure

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1 7 . ARC-16 ( 0 )175-192 c m b . s; ( b )103-130; ( c ) 63-80;(d )20-40

8 0

CMS

SURFACE P IT

1 3 RODD ING

6 3

, TOP OF CORE . .. . . .

0 c . moderate ly t o p oor ly s o rted r ed-brown c l ayey s and

. . .. • •. . .. . -. .. . .. . • •

b /

1 05

42 -

,

1 35

• •. ( )

0 .

.. ®

1 520

b . m oderate ly s o rted g ray c l ayey s and w i th s he l l h ash

1 20 B .P .

7 2-

'0 • 0

a . m oderate ly s orted g ray s and w ith s he l l h ash

•

... .

.b . • ) :. 1 57

2 29

\ / \ z e \ /y w eathered

\ / 2 68

33 1

F i gure

1 8 .

V CPL -I c ore s t ra t igraphy .

8 1

b edrock

S URFACE RODDING

1 6

46

3 0

16

1 49 1 57

d .

p oo r ly s orted

r ed

s i lty c l ay

c .

p oo r ly s or ted g ray c l ayey s i lt

b .

p oor ly s orted d ark g ray s i l ty c lay

1 00

. ..

• .• . •

•

. •

. • •

1 8 1

1 33 1 4 1

1 65

3 08

2 92

3 46

3 30

358

342

F igure 1 9 .

ARCI5

a . w e l l s o rted d ark g ray s i lty s and

c o re s t rat igraphy .

8 2

CMS 0

SURFACE

1 77

357

d ,

m odera te ly s o rted y e l low-brown g rave l ly s and

c .

m odera te ly t o p oor ly s orted g rey s i l ty c l ay

b .

p oor ly s o rted w ith s he l l

a .

m oderate ly s or ted c l ayey s i lty s and

3 95

420

460

g ray s i lty c l ay

493

549

F igure

20 .

ARC-I6

c ore

8 3

s trat igraphy .

g ray

E arly P lant U se a nd C ultivation i n t he S anta M aria B asin , P anama : D ata f rom P hytoliths a nd P ollen .

D olores R . P iperno D epartment o f A nthropology T emple U niversity P hiladelphia . P a . K aren M usum C lary D epartment o f B iology U niversity o f N ew M exico A lbuquerque , N ew M exico.

A bstract

T his

p aper

p resents

t he

r esults

o f

p hytolith a nd p ollen a nalysis o f

b oth m odern p lants a nd a rchaeological s ediments f rom t he C entral P acific C oast o f P anama . S ites s panning p receramic ( 6600 B .C . -2 800 B .C .) t hrough e arly a nd l ater c eramic p eriods ( 2800 B .C . -A .D . 5 00) a re i nvestigated . T he o bjective o f t hese s tudies i s t o p rovide i nformation a bout p rehistoric p lant s ubsistence a nd t o d ocument t he a ntiquity o f t ropical f orest a griculture i n t his a rea . C omparative p ollen a nd p hytolith c ollections h ave b een e stablished . A n umber o f t ropical c ultigens a nd e conomically i mportant t axonomic

p lants w ere t ested f or p hytolith p resence a nd a bsence a nd s pecificity. M aize ( Zea m ays L .) p hytoliths h ave b een

i ntensively s tudied b y c omparing t hem t o 4 8 s pecies o f w ild g rasses . r esults i ndicate t hat a c ombination o f m orphology a nd s ize, c an b e u sed t o

T he

c riteria, i ncluding p hytolith i dentify m aize p hytoliths i n

a rchaeological s oils. A nalysis o f d eposits f rom t he C ueva d e l os L adrones r evealed t he p resence o f m aize p ollen a nd p hytoliths i n p receramic l evels f rom t his s ite . T he i mplications o f t hese d ata a re d iscussed.

8 5

I ntroduction A rchaeologists a nd p aleobotanists h ave a lways f ound t he h istory o f p lant u tilization i n t he t ropics t o b e ad ifficult o ne t o s tudy . F inding e arly s ites i n t he s equence o f t ropical o ccupation i s o ne p roblem ; r ecovering t he r emains o f p lants o nce s ites h ave b een d iscovered i s y et a nother. I n t he h umid t ropics, e nvironmental c onditions s uch a s y ear a round h igh t emperatures, h igh r ainfall a nd l eached, a cidic s oils o ften d o n ot p ermit t he s urvival o f p lant m aterials o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime i n s oils . A s ar esult, t he a rchaeological r ecord f or a gricultural d evelopment i n t his r egion i s f ull o f t emporal a nd s patial l acunae. P anama i s n o e xception . L ittle i s k nown h ere a bout p lant s ubsistence, e specially d uring t he p receramic a nd e arly c eramic p eriods ( 8,000 B .C. t o 3 00 B .C.). A lthough m aize a nd b ean c ultivating v illages a re w ell d ocumented a long t he C entral P acific c oast ( Cooke 1 976 ; 1 979 ; i n p ress) a nd i n t he h ighlands o f W estern P anama ( Linares, e t a l . 1 975 ; L inares a nd R anere e ds ., 1 980), t hese s ites d ate n o e arlier t han t he l ast t hird o f t he f irst m illenium B .C . I n s ites f rom e arlier p eriods f rom t hese a reas m acro-botanical p lant r emains a re r epresented o nly b y c arbonized w ood, p alm k ernels ( Scheelia a nd A crocomia s p.), n ance ( Byrsonima s p.) a nd a lgarrobo ( Hymenea c ourbaril) ( Smith ,

1 980 ;

R anere a nd H ansell, 1 978).

A lthough i t s eems r easonable t o i nfer f rom t his l imited e vidence t hat a n i ntensive, m aize-dominated a griculture r eplaced a n e arlier, l ess s pecialized a nd m ore m obile p attern o f f ood c ollection a nd p roduction a s l ate a s t he e nd o f t he f irst m illenium B .C ., a nalytical t echniques w ith m ore s ensitivity t han m acro-botanical a nalysis t o t he p resence o f p lants l ike m aize ( Zea m ays L .) a nd m anioc ( Manihot e sculenta C rantz) i n t he a rchaeological r ecord h ave b ecome n ecessary t o d etermine 1 ) t he a ntiquity o f f ood p roduction i n P anama , 2 ) t he r oles t hat s eed a nd r oot c rops p layed i n e arly c ultivation s ystems h ere , a nd 3 ) t he r elationship o f e arly f ood p roduction p atterns i n P anama t o t hose e lsewhere i n t he t ropics . P ollen a nd p hytolith a nalysis h ave b een i nitiated t o a ddress t hese q uestions . T his r eport f rom f our

p resents

a p reliminary a nalysis o f p hytoliths

a nd

p ollen

a rchaeological s ites i n t he P acific w atershed o f C entral P anama .

T hey a re: t he C ueva d e l os V ampiros, a r ockshelter t wo a nd o ne-half k m . f rom t he c oast w ith p receramic ( 6610 B .C .) a nd P eriod I V c eramic c omponents ( 300 B .C. t o A .D . 5 00) ( Cooke a nd R anere, t his v olume); t he C ueva d e l os L adrones ( Bird a nd C ooke, 1 978 ; C ooke, i n p ress), a r ockshelter l ocated i n t he f oothills n ear t he C ontinental D ivide w hich s pans t he p receramic ( 4910 B .C . t o 2 850 B .C .), e arly c eramic ( 2850 B .C . t o 1 820 B .C .) a nd l ater c eramic ( 300 B .C. t o A .D. 5 00) p eriods; t he A guadulce s helter, l ocated i n t he l lanos o f C entral P anama w ith p receramic t hrough l ater c eramic d eposits ( 3890 B .C. t o A .D . 5 00) ( Ranere a nd H ansell , 1 978); a nd S itio S ierra , a f loodplain a gricultural v illage n ear t he S anta M aria r iver t hat w as o ccupied f rom a pproximately 3 00 B .C. t o A .D . 1 520 ( Cooke , 1 976 ; i n p ress). T hus, t he s ites e ncompass a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime d uring w hich s ubsistence o rientation i n P anama c hanged d rastically. e cological s ettings, w hich i n t he c ase o f

T hey a lso o ccupy d ifferent t he c ontemporary A guadulce a nd

L adrones r ockshelters, m ay h ave c ontributed t o d ifferent s ite f unctions a nd e conomic a ctivities . ( For m aps w ith l ocations o f e ach s ite , s ee W eiland , t his v olume).

8 6

P ollen a nalysis n eeds n o i ntroduction. p rocedure t hat h as b een u sed b y a rchaeologists r econstruction .

P hytolith a nalysis ,

I t i s aw ell-established f or d ecades i n e cological

o n t he o ther h and,

h as o nly r ecently

b een a pplied t o N ew W orld a rchaeological r esearch a nd i s s till n ew a nd e xperimental. S ome i ntroductory c omments a bout g eneral r esearch a pproaches a nd p roblems w ould t hus b e a ppropriate h ere. P hytoliths a re m icroscopic b odies o f s ilica t hat a re f ormed i n t he c ells o f l iving p lants a nd r eleased i nto t he s oil f ollowing d eath a nd d ecay o f t he p lant . B ecause t hey a re m ineralized, t hey a re h ighly r esistant t o d estruction i n s oils a nd a re f requently p resent i n a rchaeological s ites w here d eposits a re i nimical t o t he p reservation o f o ther p lant r emains. P hytolith a nalysis i s a t t he s tage i n i ts d evelopment a s a n a nalytical t echnique w here m uch o f t he b asic r esearch i nto t he t axonomy o f t he b odies , t heir d istribution i n s oils, a nd t heir a pplicability t o v arious r esearch m atters r emain t o b e r esolved.

C onsequently , P iperno's w ork o n p hytoliths

o ver t he l ast t hree y ears h as p laced c onsiderable e mphasis o n t hese l ast p oints. B efore p resenting t he p hytolith a nd p ollen d ata f rom t he s oils, a spects o f p hytolith p roduction a nd t he a pproaches u sed t o d evelop p hytolith i dentification s chemes f or t ropical c ultigens a nd w ild p lants w ill b e d iscussed .

P hytolith P roduction a nd M orphology A lthough o paline s ilica a ccumulates w ithin a nd a round t he c ells o f n umerous p lant t axa , p hytolith m orphology i n m ost f amilies h as n ot b een w ell s tudied. B y f ar , t he m ajority o f w ork o n p hytolith s hape h as b een d one i n t he G ramineae . T his f amily p roduces h igh a mounts o f d istinct s ilica , a s ituation t hat h as l ong b een w ell-documented ( for e xample ; M etcalfe, 1 960 ; T wiss,

e t a l ,

1 969 ;

B onnett,

1 972).

W ith t he e xception o f t he G ramineae

a nd C yperaceae , w hich h as a lso b een w ell s tudied b y M etcalfe ( 1971), n o o ther m onoctyledon f amily h as b een s tudied i n d etail. T omlinson h as p rovided s ome i nformation o n p hytoliths i n t he P almae ( 1961) a nd o ther m onocots ( 1969). D icotyledon p hytolith m orphology h as b een p articularly n eglected. O nly a f ew s tudies i nitiated d uring t he l ast 3 0 y ears c an b e r eferenced ( Wilding a nd D rees, 1 971; G eis, 1 973; S curfield, e t a l . 1 974). W hen t he P royecto p hytolith d ata w as

S anta M aria g ot u nderway,

a vailable

t hat

b asic

s o

l ittle t axonomic

a ccurate c haracterizations o f

t he

p hytolith a ssemblages i n al arge n umber o f p lants w ere n ecessary b efore t he a nalysis c ould b e e xtended t o t he c omplex m ixture o f a ssemblages p resent i n a rchaeological a nd g eological s ediments. W hen s ampling p lants , P iperno w as h elped b y t he u nfortunate f act t hat m any d o n ot p roduce p hytoliths. T herefore , s he d id n ot h ave t o d eal w ith a ll o f t he 3 500 o r s o s pecies o f p lants t hat o ccur i n C entral P anama .

I n t heir m onograph o n t he A natomy o f

D icotyledons, M etcalfe a nd C halk ( 1950) c ommonly o bserved s ilicified c ells.

l isted t he f amilies i n w hich t hey P iperno c oncentrated o n t hese

f amilies , w here i t w as k nown t hat s ilica w ould o ccur. I n a ddition , s he u sed t he i nformation o n t he v egetation o f P anama c ompiled o ver t he l ast 4 0 y ears i n t he " Annals o f t he M issouri B otanical G arden" t o s ample p articular s pecies t hat o ccur i n C entral P anama .

T o d ate, p hytoliths f rom 3 40 s pecies

c omprising 5 0 d ifferent f amilies h ave b een s tudied. M any o f t he p lants i n t he c omparative c ollection a re v ouchered s pecimens f rom h erbaria a t Harvard U niversity a nd t he A cademy o f N atural S ciences i n P hiladelphia . C ultigens s uch a s m aize ( Zea m ays L .), m anioc ( Manihot e sculenta C rantz), s quash ( Cucurbita p epo) a nd p ineapple ( Ananas c omosus) h ave b een s tudied. S ome o f

8 7

t he

m ost

i ntensive

w ork h as

m aize a nd w ild g rasses.

c oncentrated

o n

p hytolith

s ize

a nd

s hape

i n

T he r esults o f t hese s tudies a re d iscussed i n t he

f ollowing s ection . O ne o f t he f irst a pplications o f p hytolith r esearch s ubsistence r econstruction w as w hich

p rovided

a m ethod,

t he

b ased

w ork o f

D eborah

o n p hytolith

s ize,

t o a rchaeological

P earsall

( 1978 ,

1 979),

t o d ifferentiate m aize

f rom w ild g rasses. T hese s tudies f ocused o n c ross-shaped p hytoliths, w hich a re p roduced o nly b y g rasses, a nd s pecifically, o nly b y t he P anicoid ( tall g rass) s ub-family ( Metcalfe, 1 960). U sing f our s ize c ategories; s mall ( 6.87 - 1 1.40 m icrons), m edium ( 11.45 - 1 5 .98 m icrons), l arge ( 16 .03 - 2 0 .56 m icrons) a nd e xtra-large ( 20 .61 - 2 5 .19 m icrons), P earsall f ound t hat l arge a nd e xtra l arge-sized c ross-shaped p hytoliths a re v ery c haraceristic o f m aize. I n c ontrast, o ut o f o ver 7 0 s pecies o f w ild E cuadorian g rasses s tudied,

o nly 5 p roduced l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths i n p ercentages t hat

r anged f rom 3 % t o 6 % . t he 9 r aces o f m aize

T hese v alues a re s ignificantly l ower t han i n m ost o f f rom E cuador t hat P ersall s tudied,

1 2% t o 6 2% w ith a n a verage o f 3 0% . o f

s mall

c ross-shaped

c ross-shaped

p hytoliths

p hytoliths

d id

n ot

w hich r anged f rom

P urple F lint c orn a lone h ad a m ajority a nd n o l arge c ross-shapes.

o ccur

i n

t he

w ild

E xtra-large

g rasses.

M aize

h usks

w ere a lso t ested b y P earsall a nd t he c ross-shaped t ype o ccurred a lmost e xclusively i n t hem . P iperno i nitially t ested P earsall's s ize t echnique i n 1 979 b y a pplying i t t o s everal s pecies o f w ild P anicoid g rasses f rom P anama a nd h er r esults i ndicated t hat s ize c ould b e u sed t o i dentify maize p hytoliths a rchaeologically .

T hese d ata w ere u sed t o a rgue f or t he p resence o f m aize

i n d eposits f rom t he A guadulce r ock s helter t hat w ere a ssociated w ith M onagrillo c eram ics ( Piperno, 1 979 ; 1 980). T his s tudy a lso s howed t hat m orphological d ifferences e xisted i n p hytoliths f rom m aize a nd w ild g rasses. M aize o ften h ad

a m uch

d umbbells i n i ts l eaf,

h igher av alue

p roportion

o f

c ross-shaped

p hytoliths

t han

t hat w as e xpressed a s t he d umbell t o c ross-

s haped p hytolith r atio. S ubsequently , P iperno i ncreased h er s ample o f g rasses t o i nclude a lmost a ll o f t he w ild P anicoid s pecies

f rom P anama t hat

w ere

l isted

i n t he

v egetation r eviews. G rasses n ot f ound i n P anama t oday, b ut t hat g row e lsewhere i n f orests i n C entral A merica w ere a lso s tudied . T hree s amples o f m aize c ollected i n P anama a nd t hree r aces o f t eosinte ( Zea m exicana), t he p robable w ild a ncestor o f m aize ( Beadle,

1 972;

1 980) w ere a nalyzed a s w ell.

T he r esults o f t he c ross-shaped p hytolith s ize

a nalysis o f t hese

g rasses a re p resented i n T able 1 . M any o f t he w ild g rasses, i ncluding B alsas a nd C halco t eosinte, h ave c ross-shaped p hytoliths s maller t han t hose o f c orn.

Two o f t he w ild g rasses, h owever,

a n u nidentified B ambusoid

s pecies a nd O plismenus h irtellus, a m oist f orest s pecies, h ad h igh p ercentages ( 32% a nd 4 9% , r espectively) o f l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths. E xtra-large c ross-shapes a lso o ccurred i n t hem .

I f s ize a lone w ere u sed a s

t he d efining c riterion , t hese g rasses w ould b e c onfused w ith m aize i f t hey w ere p resent i n a rchaeological s oils. B ambusoid g rass # 1 a lso h as a v ery l ow d umbbell t o c ross-shaped p hytolith r atio ( second c olumn , T able 1 ), w hich w ould f urther s eem m aize-like i n s oils.

T hese r esults s howed,

c ontrary t o

P earsall's ( 1978) a nd P iperno's ( 1980) p revious s tudies, t hat p hytolith s ize c annot b e u sed a s a n u nequivocal c riterion t o s eparate a ll w ild g rasses f rom m aize.

A nother

t axonomic

c riterion

was

n eeded.

B ecause

t he

i dentification o f p ollen r elies o n t hree-dimensional c haracteristics o f t he g rains, P iperno f elt t hat t his a pproach m ight b e s uccessful i n i dentifying

8 8

p hytoliths a s w ell. E ach g rass i n T able s haped t hree-dimensional s tructure.

1 w as

t hen e xamined f or c ross-

C ross-shaped P hytolith T hree-dimensional S tructure i n M aize a nd W ild G rasses I t s oon b ecame a pparent

t hat c ross-shaped p hytoliths h ad a v ariety o f

t hree-dimensional s tructures a nd t hat m ore t han o ne s tructure c ould b e f ound i n t he s ame g rass. g rasses.

A t otal o f e ight d ifferent t ypes w ere f ound i n t he

T o s ee i f a ny p atterns e merged f rom t he g rasses i n t erms o f

t hree-dimensional c haracteristics, d imensional

t ypes

f or

a nalysis a re g iven i n T able 2 . a re v ariable, c ross-shaped

t he f requency o ccurrence o f t hree-

e ach o ne w as d etermined.

T he r esults o f t his

T he p atterns f rom t he t hree m aize s amples

b ut e ach i s c haracterized b y h igh n umbers o f " Variant 1 "

p hytoliths.

T hese

p hytoliths

h ave

t wo

s ides

t hat

a re

b oth

c ross-shaped. I n o ther w ords, b oth s ides o f t he p hytolith a re t he s ame s hape a nd a re m irror i mages o f e ach o ther. T his c an b e s een c learly i n a s canning e lectron m icroscope p hotograph o f V ariant 1 c ross-shapes f rom m aize ( Fig .1). T he l ower s ide o f t he p hytolith i s t he s ame s hape a s t he u pper s ide.

F igure

m icroscopy.

2 s hows w hat V ariant

1 c ross-shapes l ook l ike w ith o ptical

P hytoliths a re s omewhat t ransparent a nd i t i s p ossible t o l ook

t hrough t hem a nd d iscern a s tructure o n t he b ottom s ide w ithout a ctually t urning t hem . F igure 2 s hows t he a bsence o f a nother s tructure u nderneath t he c ross-shaped s ide, t hus m aking t hem V ariant 1 . I n c omparison t o m aize,

a lmost a ll o f t he w ild g rasses,

i ncluding

B alsas a nd N obogame t eosinte a nd t he t wo s pecies w hich h ad e arlier p resented p roblems

b ecause

o f

t heir

l arge

p hytolith

s ize,

O plismenus h irtellus

a nd

B ambusoid g rass # 1, have t hree-dimensional m orphologies t hat a re q uite d ifferent f rom t hose o f c orn .

M any w ild s pecies a re c haracterized b y h igh

n umbers o f V ariant 2 a nd/or V ariant 6 c ross-shaped p hytoliths a nd l ow n umbers o f V ariant 1 c ross-shapes. V ariant 2 c ross-shapes h ave o ne c rosss haped s ide, w hile t he o ther i s a rched i nto a t ent-like s hape t hat i s a ligned d own t he c enter a nd l ong a xis o f t he p hytolith ( Plate 1 , F ig . 3 i s a n

S EM

p hotograph

o f

a V ariant

2 c ross-shape

f rom

T ripsacum d actyloides

( phytolith o n t he r ight)). V ariant 6 c ross-shapes have a r oughly r ectangular/trapezoidal s tructure o n t he b ack o f t he c ross-shaped s ide o f t he

p hytolith.

F igure

3 ( left)

s hows

a V ariant

6 p hytolith

f rom

T ripsacum d actyloides a nd F igure 4 i s as ide v iew o f aV ariant 6 c ross-shape f rom O plismenus h irtellus. s tudied,

has

V ariant

B ambusoid

g rass

3 c ross-shapes,

# 1,

a lone

w hich have

a mong

f our

t he

l arge

p rojecting f rom t he b ack o f t he c ross-shaped s ide o f t he p hytolith . p roportions o f t he o ther c ross-shaped v ariants w ere f ound i n t he ( for 1 983,

f urther d etails o n p hytolith

t hree-dimensional s tructure

s ee

g rasses n odules S maller g rasses P iperno,

1 884a). F our o f t he w ild g rasses ,

B ambusoid g rass # 2,

a nd s pecies o f A ndropogan a nd P aspalum h ave h igh

Hymenache a mplexicaulis

f requencies

o f

V ariant

1

c ross-shapes a s i n m aize. H owever , i n t hese g rasses, t he r atios o f V ariant 1t o V ariant 6 w ere m uch h igher t han i n m aize ( 17 t o 1t o g reater t han 5 0 t o 1f or t he w ild g rasses v s. e xtended t o

2 t o 7 t o 1 f or m aize).

a l arge n umber o f m aize r aces

t o

s ee

T his a nalysis m ust b e i f

t he

d istinctions

p resented h ere a pply t o t hem a s w ell. I t a ppears t hat a t l east s ome v arieties o f m aize c an b e d ifferentiated b y u sing t hree-dimensional p hytolith c haracteristics. B y

using

a c ombination

o f

8 9

s ize

a nd

morphological

c riteria,

a rchaeological m aize

c an

b e

i dentified m ore

s ecurely.

N one o f

t he w ild

g rasses had a c ombination o f 1 ) l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths, d umbbell t o c ross-shaped c onfigurations l ike m aize .

2 )

l ow

p hytolith r atios a nd 3 ) t hree-dimensional P hytoliths w hich s atisfy c riteria 1 a nd 3 a lone

c an b e c onfidently i dentified a s m aize. I f p hytoliths c ombining t he a bove c haracteristics a re r ecovered f rom s oils, t he p robability i s v ery h igh t hat m aize w as t he g rass t hat c ontributed t he p hytoliths. I n a ddition t o t hese d ifferences,

n o

e xtra-large

s ized

V ariant

1 c ross-shaped

p hytoliths

w ere

o bserved i n t he w ild g rasses a nd l arge-sized V ariant 1 c ross-shapes o ccurred r arely i n t hem . I n m aize, b y c ontrast, a ll o f t he l arge a nd e xtra-large c ross-shaped p hytoliths o bserved w ere V ariant 1 . U ltimately , i t m ay e ven b e p ossible t o c onstruct t hree-dimensional r atios f or c ross-shaped p hytoliths i n a rchaeological s ediments a nd t hen s ee w hich r ace o f m aize b est f its t he p attern . T he p reliminary r esult f rom s everal r aces o f t eosinte i ndicate t hat p hytolith s ize a nd s hape m ay b e u sed t o s eparate w ild f rom d omesticated

Z ea.

T hese

d ata

m ay

have

i mportant

a rchaeological s tudies i n M exico a nd G uatemala, n aturally d istributed,

i mplications

f or

w here Z ea m exicana i s

b ut s tudies o f m ore r aces o f m aize a nd t eosinte a re

n eeded. i n a ddition t o t he g rass s tudies, a l arge n umber o f o ther f amilies w ere e xamined f or p hytolith p roduction a nd m orphology .

T he d iscussion w ill n ow

t urn t oward t he s ilicified c ells t hat w ere i solated f rom t hese p lants.

N on-Gramineae P hytolith M orphology T he

a nalysis

o f

o ther

m onocotyledons

a nd

d icotyledons

i n

t he

c omparative c ollection r evealed a l arge n umber o f d ifferent p hytolith s hapes h aving

v arying

l evels

o f

t axonomic

s ignficance.

I t

i ndicates

t hat

p hytolith m orphology c an b est b e c haracterized a s ac omplex m ixture o f f orms t hat c an b e b oth h ighly r edundant a nd h ighly d istinct . I t i s n ot u nusuAl f or a s ingle p lant t o h ave s everal d ifferent t ypes o f p hytoliths, a ny o ne o f w hich c an o ccur i n o ther n on-related s pecies. B ut m any f orms w ere i solated f rom o nly a s pecies, g enus o r a l imited n umber o f g enera w ithin a f amily . A spects o f p hytolith s hape a nd s urface d ecoration h ave b een u sed t o c onstruct

p reliminary

p hytolith

k eys

( Piperno,

1 983).

D icotyledon

p hytoliths w ere o ften c omplete s ilicified v ersions o f l iving c ells a nd i t w as p ossible t o c lassify m any o f t hem b y t heir o rigin i n l iving t issue. Among

t he m onocotyledons,

t he

P almae ,

M arantaceae ,

C yperaceae a nd

C ommelinaceae c ontributed f orms t hat a re d istinctive t o f amily. p hytolith g roups.

d ifferentiation

b elow

t he

f amily

l evel

s eems

p ossible

i n

S ome t hese

F or e xample,

p alm p hytoliths c an b e h at-shaped o r s pherical

d epending o n s ub-family,

w hile w ithin t hese g roups t here a re d ifferences i n

s urface d ecoration o f t he p hytoliths i n s ome g enera. m ember

o f

t he

S trelitzeaceae

a nd

Heliconia s p.,

a

a N ew W orld r elative o f t he b anana ,

c ontributed f orms i solated o nly f rom t his g enus. A mong

t he

d icotyledons,

t he

C ompositae ,

C ucurbitaceae,

A canthaceae,

M oraceae, U rticaceae, D illeniaceae, B oraginaceae, P iperaceae, E uphorbiaceae a nd L oranthaceae c ontributed f orms s pecific t o f amily . I n t hese p lants, p hytoliths o ccurred i n a mounts e quivalent t o t hose p resent i n m onocotyledons. F orms t hat o ccurred o nly i n a s pecies, l imited n umber o f g enera w ithin a f amily w ere c ommon . O f

t he c ultigens s tudied t hus

9 0

f ar,

g enus,

o r a

t he l eaves o f manioc ( Manihot

e sculenta

Crantz),

squash

( Cucurbita

( Lagenaria s iceraria), a rrowroot ( Gossypium b arbadense), p ineapple a mericana ) h ave s ilicified c ells.

p epo),

( Fig.5). ( Fig.

T he

h air

g ourd

F rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew ,

t he m ost p romising f orms w ere f ound i n C ucurbita p epo, p hytoliths w ith s mall,

b ottle

( Maranta a rundinaceae L .), c otton ( Ananas c omosus) a nd a vocado ( Persea w hose w ide h air c ell

r ounded t ips w ere n ot o bserved i n o ther g enera

c ell p hytoliths

t hat

w ere

i solated

f rom b ottle g ourd

6 ) w ere a lso o bserved i n s everal w ild s pecies o ut o f t wenty f our

t ested

i n

t he

C ucurbitaceae ,

b ut

d id

n ot

o ccur

o utside

o f

t his

M anioc h as p hytoliths t hat a ppear t o b e f rom s tellate h air c ells

f amily. ( Fig .

7 ).

T hey w ere a lso f ound i n o ne w ild s pecies o ut o f t wenty f ive e xamined i n t he E uphorbiaceae a nd h ence, t hey a re n ot m orphologically d istinct. T hey a lso o ccur i n e xtremely l ow n umbers i n m anioc a nd t heir c hances o f r epresentation i n a rchaeological s oils w ould b e m inimal.

T he s pherical n odular p hytoliths

f rom a rrowroot ( SEM p hotograph , F ig. 8 ) h ave n ot b een o bserved i n o ther s pecies, b ut o nly o ne o ther m ember o f t he M arantaceae h as b een t ested a nd i t i s t oo e arly f or a ny t axonomic a ssessment o f t he p hytoliths f rom t his p lant. T he p hytoliths t hat w ere i solated

f rom t he o ther c ultigens

a lso o ccur

i n n on-related s pecies, t hus, t heir t axonomic v alue i s v ery l imited. Y ams ( Dioscorea s pp.), o toe ( Xanthossoma s p.) a nd s weet p otato ( Ipomoea b atatas) d isappointingly p roduced n o p hytoliths. T hese d ata d o n ot b ode w ell f or t he i dentification o f t ropical r oot c ropping s ystems o n t he b asis o f p hytoliths. T he p hytolith t axonomic d ivisions

t hat h ave b een s ummarized h ere a re,

f or t he m ost p art, p reliminary a nd t here i s l ittle d oubt t hat f urther d ata w ill n ecessitate a r eordering o f d escriptive i nformation a nd r evisions o f i dentification s chemes. N evertheless, t he d iversity o f s hapes t hat h ave a lready b een i solated f rom t ropical p lants i s t estimony t o t he i mmense p otential o f p hytoliths i n e nvironmental r econstruction . I n t his r egard, a n a nalysis o f s ediment c ores f rom l owland E astern P anama t hat h ad p reviously b een s tudied f or p ollen b y B artlett a nd B arghoorn ( 1973) s howed t hat f orested a nd n on-forested e nvironments a re d ifferentiable i n p hytolith ( Piperno, B .C.

a ssemblages

1 984b).

a s

i s

s lash

a nd

b urn

a gricultural

L evels i n t he c ores d ating b etween 9 300 B .C .

t hat w ere s hown t o b e u nder

a ctivity a nd 8 ,000

t ropical r ain f orest c over b y t he p ollen

d ata w ere r epresented i n t he p hytolith d iagrams b y a n a bundance o f P almae, M arantaceae a nd P almae/Bromeilaceae-type s ilica, w hile p hytoliths f rom g rasses a nd s edges w ere r are d uring t his i nterval.

C hanging p roportions o f

s iliceous s keletons f rom m arine a nd f resh w ater s pecies d ocumented r ising s ea l evel a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene a nd t he d evelopment o f f resh w ater s wamp w hen s ea l evel r ise s lowed . a griculture a ppeared b y 2 900 B .C .

P hytolith e vidence f or s lash a nd b urn I t c onsisted o f l arge i ncreases i n g rass

p hytoliths, t he a ppearance o f m aize p hytoliths ( the c ross-shaped s ize a nd s hape c riteria p resented a bove w ere u sed t o i dentify m aize), t he a ppearance o f p hytoliths f rom s edges a nd Heliconia , d isturbed g round i n P anama , i nclusions. T hese l atter b urned. P ollen e vidence a ppear

i n

t he

w hich a re i mportant c omponents o f

a nd m arked i ncreases i n p hytoliths w ith c arbon f orms p resumably r epresent p lants t hat h ad b een f or m aize a nd s lash a nd b urn a ctivity d id n ot

p ollen s quence

u ntil

a bout

1 350 B .C.

T hus,

t he

p hytolith

e vidence a ppeared t o d ocument s maller-scale f orest c learance a griculture, p henomena t hat d id n ot i nfluence t he p ollen p rofiles. T he e xample,

p hytolith d ata f rom t he c ores w as l imited i n s ome r egards;

a nd

f or

t he p ollen d ata p rovided much m ore i nformation o n t he s pecies

9 1

c omposition o f t he v egetation a t a ny p articular t ime i n t he s equence. N onetheless,

i t i s a pparent t hat p hytoliths c an d ocument t he n ature o f

b road-scale v egetational f ormations i n t he l owland t ropics, s wamp a nd d isturbed, c ut-over g rowth . W e c an a nticipate, a nd p ollen a nalysis

t hen ,

t hat t he f uture a pplication o f b oth p hytolith

t o e nvironmental r econstruction i n C entral P anama w ill

b e a p otent e cological t ool. w eaknessess

o f

s ignificance o ther.

e ach o f

i s

I t

t echnique

t heir

A n a n e xample,

m orphology

s uch a s f orest,

i n

p articles

i s b oth i nteresting a nd u seful r egard a re

t o

t he

p roduction

s upplanted

b y

t he

a nd

t hat

s trengths

g rasses a re p oor p ollen p roducers a nd g rass

u niform.

I n

c ontrast,

g rasses

a re

p roflific

t he

t axonomic o f

t he

p ollen

p roducers o f

p hytoliths w ith h ighly v ariable m orphologies. T he b asis

f or t he c lassification s ystem t hat w ill b e u sed t o i dentify

s iliceous e lements i n t he s oils h as b een p resented a nd w e h ave s ome i dea o f w hat k inds o f i nformation w e c an e xpect f rom t he p hytolith d ata i n r egard t o t he p resence a nd i dentification o f c ultigens a nd w ild p lants. W e w ill n ow t urn t o t he a nalysis o f p hytoliths a nd p ollen f rom t he a rchaeological s oils. A m ajor f ocus o f t his o f

e arly

f ood

p roduction

s tudy i s i n

t o i nvestigate t he p ossible o ccurrence

C entral

P anama .

M acro-botanical

r emains o f

d omesticates ( maize a nd t he c ommon b ean, P haseolus v ulgaris) a re f irst p resent i n t he s tudy a rea i n P eriod I V c eramic c ontexts, w hich d ate f rom 3 00 B .C. t o A .D . 5 00 ( Cooke, i n p ress). M aize p ollen h as b een r eported f rom g eological s ediments i n E astern P anama b y 1 350 B .C . 1 973).

However,

( Bartlett a nd B arghoorn ,

i t i s l ogical t o b elieve t hat f ood p roduction i s o f

c onsiderably g reater a ntiquity o n t he I sthmus. W ith a griculture d ocumented i n M esoamerica ( Mac N eish, 1 967) a nd S outh American ( Kaplan, L ynch a nd S mith , 1 973) b y a t l east 5 ,000 B .C ., w e t hink i t h ighly u nlikely t hat L ower C entral A merican r emained a part f rom t hese d evelopments f or o ver t hree m illenia .

B ut

i t

i s

o ne

t hing

t o

t hink

l ogically a nd q uite

a nother

t o

d emonstrate t hat t he l ogical a ctually t ook p lace. W e a re f ortunate i n t his r egard b ecause p hytolith a nd p ollen d ata s eem e specially s ensitive t o t he p resence o f o ne o f

t he m ost

i mportant

d omesticates,

m aize .

I t h as

b een

s hown t hat p hytoliths f rom m aize a re d ifferentiable f rom w ild g rasses a nd t he l arger s ize o f m aize p ollen t han g rains f rom w ild g rasses i s ac riterion l ong u sed t o i dentify t his p lant a rchaeologically.

W ith t his i n m ind,

t he

r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he c ross-shaped p hytoliths a nd g rass p ollen f rom t he s oils w ill b e p resented.

P hytolith a nd P ollen E vidence f or M aize ( Zea m ays L .) T he

e arliest d eposits a nalyzed,

d iscussed f irst.

f rom C ueva d e l os V ampiros,

T his s ite i s l ocated o n a n i nselberg i n t he

w ill b e

a lbina n ear

t he m outh o f t he S anta M aria R iver. T he s oils a nalyzed a re f rom t wo w idely s eparated t emporal p eriods; a n e arly p receramic c omponent a t t he b ottom o f t he d eposits w ith a C 14 d ate o f 6 610 ± 1 60 B .C. ( BETA-5101) t hat w as a ssociated w ith a b ifacial t hinnning f lake, a nd a P eriod I V c eramic c omponent d ated e lsewhere i n C entral P anama f rom 3 00 B .C. t o A .D. 5 00 ( Cooke,

i n

p ress).

n early 7 0 c m .

T hese

t wo

o ccupations

o f

t he

s ite

w ere

s eparated

b y

o f s terile s ilt ( for p rofiles o f t he e xcavation s ee C ooke a nd

R anere, t his v olume). T he p resented

c ross-shaped i n T able

3 .

p hytolith r esults O ut

o f

2 0

f rom t he p receramic l evels a re

c ross-shapes

9 2

o bserved,

a ll

w ere

e ither

s mall o r m edium s ized. s tructure T hese

a nd

f igures

g rass,

t he

1 9 o ut o f 2 0 w ere V ariant

d umbbell

a re u nlike

t o

c ross-shaped

v alues

f rom m aize

e specially A ndropogan s p.,

1 i n t hree-dimensional

p hytolith

r atio

w as

7 .5

t o

1 .

a nd m ore c losely r esemble w ild

Hymenache a mplexicaulis

T he p receramic p hytolith r ecord f rom t his s ite , p resence o f m aize.

t hen ,

a nd P aspalum s p.

d oes n ot i ndicate t he

T he u pper d eposits t hat a re a ssociated w ith P eriod I V c eramics d id n ot h ave p hytoliths. T his i s p robably a r esult o f t he l arge a mounts o f s hell i n t hese s oils, w hich s aturated t hem w ith c arbonates a nd i ncreased t he p H. T he s olubility o f n on-biogenic s ilica i ncreases q uickly a t a p H o f 9 a nd a bove ( Wilding, S meck a nd D rees, 1 977). T herefore, a n e levated s oil p H m ay d issolve p hytoliths a s w ell. A ll o f

t he

s amples

a nalyzed

f rom V ampiros w ere c ompletely d evoid o f

f ossil p ollen a s w ell a s t he f resh E ucalyptus p ollen w hich h ad b een a dded a s ac ontrol .

T his r esult i ndicates t hat t he c hemicals u sed i n t he e xtraction

o f p ollen f rom t he s oils r esulted i n t heir d estruction. c ontained v ery h igh a mounts o f c harcoal,

T he

s amples

m ore s o t han t he o thers e xamined,

a nd i t i s s uspected t hat a c orrosive i nteraction i nvolving o xidation o f t he p ollen w all o ccurred b etween t he c harcoal l aden s oils a nd t he c hemicals u sed i n t he p rocessing . T his p resents a p roblem f or s eparating p ollen f rom m icroscopic c harcoal s ince b oth h ave s imilar s pecific g ravities a nd a re d ifficult t o s eparate u sing c onventional m ethods s uch a s d ensity p reparation .

C lary i s p resently w orking o n t he r esolution o f t his p roblem .

T he s oils

f rom t he C ueva d e l os L adrones,

t o b e d iscussed n ext,

p resented a f ar d ifferent p hytolith a nd p ollen p attern f rom t hose o f V ampire C ave.

T he L adrones s am2les w ere r ecovered b y R anere a nd C ooke i n N ovember,

1 981 b y d igging a 3 0 c mL c olumn o n t he n orthwest f ace o f B ird a nd C ooke's A rea 0 o f 1 974, b etween 8 .45 m . a nd 8 .75 m . f rom t he o riginal b aseline ( Fig. 9 ).

T he d otted l ine o f t he f igure w as c alculated b y C ooke t o b e t he

a pproximate b oundary b etween t he e arly c eramic l ayers . A c harcoal s ample , d ated a t 1 930 ± 8 0 B .C .

( Monagrillo)

a nd

p receramic

( TEM122), w as r ecovered i n

A rea 0 a t a bout 7 0 c m . b elow t he s urface i n ap it w here 1 0 M onagrillo s herds a lso o ccurred. T his d ate, t hen , b elongs t o t he e arly c eramic o ccupation . F urther u p t he s lope, a s ample o f C rassostrea s p. ( oyster) s hells a ssociated w ith 3 83 M onagrillo s herds g ave a d ate o f 2 850 ± 1 00 B .C . ( TEM119) a nd a w ood c arbon s ample i mmediately b elow i t, 2 570 ± 1 00 B .C. ( TEM124). A s r egards t he d ating o f t he p hytoliths a nd p ollen f rom t he c olumn , o ne c an c onservatively s ay t hat m aterials r ecovered b elow 6 5 c m . b etween 2 000 B .C. a nd 5 000 B .C.

a re l ikely t o d ate

( a d ate o f 4 910 ± 7 0 B .C.

( TEM-123) o n

c harcoal w as r ecovered l ying o n s terile c lay a nd s hould r epresent i nitial p receramic o ccupation ). M onagrillo c eramics, B .C. a nd 1 820 B .C .

w hich a re d ated h ere a t 2 850 B .C., A t t he M onagrillo s hellmidden ,

b een r adiocarbon d ated f rom 2 500 B .C. 1 978),

t hus,

t he

M aterials a bove 7 0 c m . a re a ssociated w ith

t o 1 200 B .C.

2 570 B .C., a nd 1 820 t hese c eramics h ave ( Ranere a nd Hansell

t he M onagrillo o ccupation a t L adrones e xtended n o l ater t han

1 200 B .C. ( See a lso C ooke, i n p ress a nd B ird a nd C ooke, 1 978 f or p rofiles o f t he e xcavation o f L adrones a nd a s ummary o f t he d ates). O n t he s urface a nd i n l ayers 1 a nd 2 o f A rea 0 w here t he c olumn w as t aken , s ome i ntrusive p ost-Monagrillo s herds a re p resent a nd o ne c annot c onfidently s ay t hat t hese d eposits a re e xclusively e arly c eramic i n a ge.

H owever, a l arge h orizontal

s tone s lab w as f ound l ying f lat o ver t he M onagrillo d eposits a t a bout 2 5 c m . b elow t he s urface e ffectively

s ealing o ff

9 3

t he v ertical m ovement

o f

p ollen

a nd p hytoliths i n t his a rea .

I t s hould a lso b e m entioned t hat t he 1 0 s mall

M onagrillo s herds r ecovered i n l ayers 7 a nd 8 o f A rea 0 w ere a ll t he 7 .00 m ark;

T he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f L adrones

f ound n er

t hese l ayers i n t he c olumn w ere d evoid o f s herds. t he c ross-shaped p hytoliths

a re g iven i n t ables 3 a nd 4 .

f rom

I n t he c eramic d eposits,

p ercentages o f l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths r anged f rom 0 % t o 1 5% . l arge V ariant 1 c ross-shapes, w hich h ave w ere i solated f rom t hree o f t he s amples.

t he

E xtra-

n ot b een f ound i n w ild g rasses, T wo w ere f ound a bove t he s tone

s lab a nd o ne b elow , i ndicating a s ecure M onagrillo-phase d ate f or t he l ast o ne. T he t hree-dimensional c ross-shaped p roportions v ary f rom o ne l evel t o t he n ext. A lmost a ll l evels h ave a m ajority o f V ariant 1 c ross-shapes, w ith V ariant 6 h aving t he n ext h ighest r epresentation . V ariants 2 , 7a nd 8 a t p resent i n l ow f requencies. T he d umbell t o c ross-shaped p hytolith r atios i n e very l evel a re l ow . T he w ild g rasses t hat h ave h igh p ercentages o f l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths a nd e xtra-large c ross-shapes, O plismenus h irtellus, a nd B ambusoid g rass # 1, c an b e e liminated f rom p ossible r epresentation i n t he L adrones s oils o n t he b asis o f t heir v ery d ifferent t hree-dimensional m orphologies. I n a ddition t o t he f act t hat a ll o f t he O plismenus c ross-shapes w ere V ariant 6 , t hey w ere a lso v ery t hick, w hereas s hapes i n t he d eposits w ere v ery t hin .

a lmost a ll o f t he V ariant 6 c rossN one o f t he V ariant 3 c ross-shapes

t hat w ere i solated f rom B ambusoid g rass # 1 o ccurred i n t he d eposits.

T he

p resence o f C enchrus e chinatus, A ndropogan s p., P ennisetum s etosum , C enchrus p ilosus P ennisetum p urpureum , a nd S etaria s p ., w ith 9 % , 7 % , 5 % , 4 % , 3 % , a nd 2 % l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths r espectively , c an a lso b e e liminated o n t he b asis o f t heir d ifferent t hree-dimensional p roportions. T he l arge c rosss haped p hytoliths t hat d id o ccur i n t hese g rasses w ere r arely V ariant 1 ; i n c ontrast,

i n t he s oils,

a lmost a ll o f t he l arge c ross-shapes o bserved w ere

V ariant 1 , a s i n m aize. T he c ross-shaped t hree-dimensional p roportions, e specially i n t he r atios o f V ariant 1 t o V ariant 6 , a nd t he c ross-shaped p hytolith s izes a re l ike t hose o f m aize a nd n ot o f w ild g rasses ( compare T ables 1 ,2 ,3 , a nd 4 ). T he f it i s b y n o m eans a p erfect o ne. h ad

T he m odern m aize s amples g enerally

a h igher r atio o f V ariant 2 c ross-shapes

s amples.

N evertheless,

p roportions o f V ariant 1 ,

c onsidering

t han t he a rchaeological

t he v ariability

a lready

s hown i n

t he

2 a nd 6 p hytoliths i n t he t hree s amples o f m odern

c orn a nd 6 m embers o f t he g enus Z ea,

s ome d ifferences

f rom t he m odern

s amples i n t he p roportions o f c ross-shaped v ariants i n a rchaeological s oils a re t o b e e xpected. C onsidering a ll o f t he s ize a nd m orphological c riteria t ogether,

t here

i s n o w ild g rass t hat f its t he o bserved p attern i n t he s oils o f h igh p ercentages o f l arge-sized c ross-shaped p hytoliths, t he p resence o f m any V ariant 1 l arge c ross-shapes, s hapes,

t he

c ross-shaped

t he p resence o f e xtra-large V ariant

t hree-dimensional

b ell t o c ross-shaped p hytoliths

r a tios ,

p roportions,

R ather,

a nd

t he

1 c ross l ow d umb-

t he p attern i s l ike t hat

o f Z ea m ays L . T he

p receramic

s amples

a re v ery m uch

l ike

t he

c eramic o nes.

E xtra

l arge V ariant 1 c ross-shaped p hytoliths, w hich h ave n ot b een f ound i n w ild g rasses, w ere f ound i n t wo l evels ( Fig. 9 s hows t he l ocation o f t hese p hytoliths).

High p ercentages

t hree

a nd

l evels,

s tructure.

e very

o ne

( 15-16%)

o bserved

o f l arge c ross-shapes o ccurred i n

w as

V ariant

1 i n

t hree-dimensional

T he c ross-shaped t hree d imensional p roportions d o n ot f it t he

9 4

w ild g rasses,

b ut a re v ery l ike m aize,

a nd t he d umbbell t o c ross-shape

p hytolith r atios i n e very l evel a re l ow . g rass t hat c ontributed t he c ross-shaped

I t c an b e i nferred t hat t he s ame p hytoliths t o t he c eramic l evels

a lso c ontributed t hem t o t he t hat t his g rass w as m aize. F ortunately ,

p receramic l evels,

p ollen d ata T he p ollen 1 07113 c m .

1 27-132 c m . b .s.

( Plate 3 , F igs. 1 0 a nd s hows t heir l ocation ).

i n

t his

s ite ,

e vidence i ndicates

t he

( 6 g rains),

p reserved

t he

c ompiled b y C lary c orroborates t he p hytolith e vidence f or m aize. o f Z ea m ays w as f ound i n t he f ollowing l evels; 1 7-22 c m . b .s., b .s.

p ollen w as

a nd

a nd

( 1 g rain ), a nd 1 37-142 a m . b .s.

( 5 g rains)

1 1 s how t he a rchaeological m aize p ollen ; F ig. 9 T he f irst l evel c ontains M onagrillo, a nd p ossibly

l ater c eramics, b ut t he l ast t hree l evels a re s ecurely p receramic i n a ge. C eramic-phase m aize g rains w ere a bundant. 1 0 w ere s ized, a nd t heir d iameters r anged f rom 8 0 t o 9 8 m icrons, w ith a n a verage o f 8 5 m icrons. m aize p ollen i n t he p receramic l evels w as o bviously m ore w eathered,

T he

t orn a nd

f ragmented t han m aize g rains i n t he c eramic l evels. A t otal o f 1 2 p receramic m aize g rains w ere f ound . T heir d iameters r anged f rom 6 3 ( folded g rain ) t o 1 08 m icrons, w ith a n a verage o f 8 1 m icrons. M any o f t he g rains w ere c rumpled o r f olded t o s ome e xtent. T he d iameter o f t he g rains w as m easured f rom t he l ongest , l east f olded d imension . F ully e xpanded, t hese p ollen g rains o f m aize w ould b e l arger. A mong w ild g rasses, o nly t eosinte ( Zea m exicana) h as p ollen w hose s ize o verlaps s ome o f t he a rchaeological g rains. p ollen s ize v aries f rom 6 5 t o 8 6 m icrons, m icrons

( Wilkes,

1 967 :65).

I n t his s pecies,

a verage

w ith a r ange f rom 6 5 t o a lmost 9 0

T here i s n o e vidence,

h owever,

t hat

t eosinte

e ver g rew s outh o f M esoamerica . F urthermore , o ne o f t he p receramic g rains i s l arger t han t he u pper e xtreme o f t eosinte. A lso, t he c ross-shaped t hree-dimensional p roportions a nd s izes r ule o ut t he p resence o f t hree r aces o f t eosinte;

C halco,

N obogame a nd B alsas.

M aize

i n s ize f rom a round 8 0 m icrons t o 1 20 m icrons.

p ollen g enerally r anges

T he a rchaeologiccl p ollen ,

t herefore, i s t hat o f Z ea m ays L . T hus, d uring

w e h ave f irm p ollen a nd p hytolith e vidence t hat m aize w as g rown

b oth

s helter.

t he

e arly

c eramic

T he p receramic

a nd

l evels

p receramic

o ccupation

o f

t he

L adrones

a t t his s ite d ate f rom 4 900 B .C.

t o 2 800

B .C., a nd b ecause m aize p ollen a nd p hytoliths o ccur d eep i n t he p receramic d eposits, m aize m ay w ell h ave b een g rown f rom t he e arliest o ccupation o f t he s ite. O ne

p otential

p ossibility o f m ovement

o f

p roblem w ith p hytolith

t he c ontamination o f d eep

m ore

r ecent m aterials.

i lluviation

p ollen a nalysis

l evels

G iven

t his p roblem m ust b e a ddressed h ere.

a nd t he

o f

s ites

i s

t he

b y d ownward

s ignificance o f

t he d ata ,

W hat k ind o f p attern w ould t he

o r d ownward m ovement o f p hytoliths a nd p ollen i n s oils c reate?

O ne w ould e xpect t he i ntruding e lements, c ross-shaped p hytoliths,

i n t his c ase m aize p ollen a nd

t o b e r epresented i n s uccessively l ower q uantities

t he f urther t hey g et f rom t heir s ource,

i n t his c ase t he c eramic d eposits.

T he m ovement o f b urrowing a nimals o r t ermites u p a nd d own i n s oils w ould n ot r esult i n p recisely t his k ind o f p attern , b ut o ne w ould s till e xpect t o f ind a m ore s cattered a nd h aphazard d istribution o f e lements a way f rom t heir o riginal l ocation i n t he s oil. L ooking a t t hese

T able 3 a nd F igure 9 a gain ,

e xpectations

h olds

t rue.

C ross-shaped

o ne c an s ee t hat n either o f p hytoliths

a nd m aize

p ollen

a re w ell r epresented i n m any o f t he p receramic l evels, i ncluding l evels w ell

9 5

a way f rom t he p receramic/ceramic b oundary. T he p ercentages o f c ross-shaped p hytoliths h ave t wo p eaks, o ne b etween 1 7 a nd 4 2 c m ., c orresponding w ith t he l argest n umber o f M onagrillo s herds a nd t he o ther b etween 8 7 a nd 1 13 c m ., w ell b elow t he p receramic/ceramic b oundary . F ewer c ross-shaped p hytoliths a nd p hytoliths o f a ll t ypes w ere i solated f rom l evels a round t his b oundary , i ndicating p erhaps a h iatus i n o ccupation h ere, a nd v ery f ew p hytoliths w ere r ecovered f rom t he l owermost p receramic s amples . T he a bsolute q uantities o f c ross-shaped p hytoliths i n t he s oils a ppear t o r eflect t he i ntensity o f h uman a ctivity a t t he s ite . N o p hytoliths w ere o bserved o n s cans o f t he s lide f rom t he s terile l evel, w hile t he s ample d irectly a bove y ielded 5 0 p hytoliths p er s lide t ransect. I f p hytoliths w ere m oving d own i n t he s oils, t hey w ould b e e xpected t o h ave m oved i nto t he s terile s oil a s w ell. I t s hould a lso b e r emembered t ht t he s tone s lab i n l ayer 3 p robably f ell o ff d uring t he M onagrillo p eriod, e ffectively s ealing t he l evels b elow a nd p reventing v ertical m ovement o f l ater-phase c eramic i nto e arly c eramic a nd p receramic l ayers. T he p hytolith a nd p ollen p attern i n t he s oils,

p ollen a nd p hytoliths

t hen ,

d oes n ot c onform

t o t he r andom , t rickling d own o f m aterial t hat o ne w ould e xpect a s a m anifestation o f c ontamination . R ather , t he d ata i ndicate t he i n s itu d eposition i n t he p receramic l evels o f t he s ame g rass t hat o ccurred i n t he c eramic l evels, m aize. T he o nly o ther w ay t o e xplain t he o bserved p attern w ould b e t o s uggest a r ather l arge-scale m ixture o f p receramic a nd c eramic d eposits.

S ince n ot a s ingle s herd o f a ny s ize w as f ound i n a ny l evel

d esignated p receramic, t his w ould b e d ifficult t o v isualize. T he p hytolith r esults f rom C ueve d e l os L adrones c an b e c ompared t o t he r esults f rom S ito S ierra , ap ermanent v illage w here l arge q uantities o f m aize k ernels a nd c obs w ere f ound i n h ouse f loors a nd i n r efuse p its d ating t o b etween 3 00 B .C. a nd A .D . 5 00 ( Tables 3 a nd 4 ). F our o ut o f t he t welve s amples a nalyzed f rom t his s ite c ontained c ross-shaped p hytoliths i n h igh e nough n umbers t o p ermit q uantitative e valuations. S ample # 1 i s f rom a h ouse f loor. N umbers 2 a nd 3 a re f rom r efuse d umps t hat c ontained c arbonized m aize a nd n umber 5 r epresents a l ayer b etween t wo h ouse f loors. T he c ross-shaped p hytolith c ross r atios T able 4 f or s hapes f rom L adrones a nd

t hree-dimensional p atterns a nd d umbbell t o

f rom S itio S ierra a re v ery s imilar t o t hose f rom L adrones ( see c omposite f igures f rom e ach s ite). T he s ize o f t he c rossS itio S ierra a re g enerally l arger t han t he c ross-shapes f rom w e s uspect t hat t his r elates t o t he t ype o f m aize g rown a t e ach

s ite . M aize a t S itio S ierra i s 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 0 a nd 1 2 r ow , w ith 8 a nd 1 0 r ow p redominating. T hree v arieties, a t l east, w ould s eem t o b e p resent, i ncluding a l arge-grained S outh A merican f lour c orn ( R . M ck . B ird, p ersonal c ommunication t o R . C ooke; U sing

C ooke, 1 979).

t his c omparison o f

t he

t wo

s ites ,

i t c an b e i nferred t hat t he

s ame g rass t hat c ontributed t he c ross-shaped p hytoliths t o t he S itio S ierra d eposits a lso c ontributed t hem t o L adrones a nd t he e vidence i ndicates t hat t his g rass w as m aize . P reservation o f p ollen w as v ery p oor a t S itio S ierra .

U nlike C ueva d e

l os V ampiros, E ucalyptus c ontrol p ollen w as p resent i n t he p rocessed s amples , i ndicating t hat d estruction o f p ollen o ccurred p rior t o c hemical e xtraction . T he f inal s ite t o b e c onsidered i s t he A guadulce r ock s helter . T ables 3 a nd 4 s hould b e c onsulted

A gain ,

f or t he c ross-shaped p hytolith r esults.

9 6

T he

s amples

f rom

t he M onagrillo

c eramic

a nd

l ater

c eramic

l evels

b ear

a

c lose s imilarity t o b oth L adrones a nd S itio S ierra . T he p hytolith e vidence i ndicates t hat m aize w as g rown h ere a lso d uring t hese o ccupations . T he l evels o f B lock 3 w here M onagrillo s herds o ccurred h ad a v alue o f 2 9% l arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths, i ncluding o ne V ariant 1 e xtra-large p hytolith, a nd t he c ross-shaped t hree-dimensional p roportions a nd d umbbell t o c ross r atios a lso p oint t o t he p resence o f m aize. T he p receramic s amples f rom t his s ite ,

i n c ontrast,

c ontained v ery f ew

c ross-shaped p hytoliths a nd t heir s izes w ere g enerally s maller t han i n t he c eramic l evels. B ecause o f t he d ifficulty o f l ocating c ross-shaped p hytoliths, t hree-dimensional s tructure w as n ot w ell-studied . I n a s ample f rom 2 8-33 c m . b elow d atum f rom B lock 3 , t he l owest p receramic l evel f rom t his u nit, f our c ross-shaped p hytoliths w ere o bserved o n s cans o f t he s lide. T wo w ere V ariant 1 , t wo w ere V ariant 6 a nd o ne ( Variant 1 ) w as l arge-sized. I n a s ample f rom 2 1-26 c m . b elow d atum , t he n ext l owest l evel, o ne l arge V ariant 1 c ross-shape w as o bserved o n s cans o f s everal s lide t ransects. L arge c ross-shaped p hytoliths w ith t hree-dimensional s tructures l ike c orn a re p resent i n t he p receramic l evels, b ut t hey a re f ew i n n umber c ompared t o t he

c eramic

l evels

a nd

d eposits

f rom L adrones

a nd

t hey

a re

d ifficult

t o

e valuate. B earing i n m ind t he c ompact n ature o f t he d eposits a t t he A guadulce s helter, i t w ould b e u nwise a t t his p oint t o a ttribute t he l arge V ariant 1 c ross-shaped p hytoliths f rom t he p receramic l evels t o c orn ; i n f act, t he p attern i n t he p receramic d eposits i s p recisely w hat o ne w ould e xpect i f t hey w ere c ontaminated w ith c eramic m aterial . W e c annot l ook t o t he p ollen d ata f or h elp w ith t his p roblem. A lthough p ollen p reservation i n t he c eramic l evels a t A guadulce w as g enerally g ood, n o m aize p ollen w as o bserved , e ven i n t he s ample a ssociated w ith l ater , P eriod I V s herds. P ollen p reservation i n t he p receramic l evels w as v ery p oor . A ssuming a t t his t ime t hat m aize w as n ot g rown d uring t he p receramic o ccupation o f t he A guadulce s helter, t he d ifference i n t he t emporal o ccurrence o f m aize

a t

t his

s ite

a nd L adrones

m ust

r eflect

s ome

a spect o f s ite f unction , l ocation , o r s easonality o f o ccupation t hat r emains t o b e r esolved b y f uture a nalyses o f o ther p receramic s ites . I n s ummary, p hytoliths i dentifiable a s m aize ( Zea m ays L ) w ere i solated f rom p receramic

a nd e arly c eramic o r M onagrillo d eposits

a t

C ueva d e

l os

L adrones, f rom e arly c eramic ( Monagrillo) d eposits a t t he A guadulce r ock s helter, a nd f rom d eposits a t S itio S ierra, a l ater a nd k nown m aize a gricultural s ite . M aize p ollen w as f ound i n p receramic a nd e arly c eramic d eposits a t L adrones, t hus, t he p ollen a nd p hytolith e vidence f rom t his s ite c orroborate e ach o ther w ith r espect t o t he p resence o f p receramic m aize. A t C ueva d e l os L adrones, t he p receramic l evels a re r adiocarbon d ated f rom 4 9 10 B .C . t o 2 830 B .C . a nd t he M onagrillo c eramic l evels f rom 2 830 B .C . t o 1 820 B .C. B ecause m aize p ollen a nd p hyoliths o ccurred d eep i n t he p receramic d eposits , i t c an b e i nferred t hat m aize w as g rown t hroughout m ost, i f n ot a ll, o f t he o ccupation o f t his s ite. E vidence

f or m aize

a griculture i n P anama b y

t he f ifth m illenium B .C .

m ay s eem u ncomforably e arly t o s ome, b ut i t i s i n a greement w ith p revious a ssessments b y b otanists s uch a s P ickersgill a nd H eiser ( 1978) a nd G alinat ( 1980),

w ho h ave a rgued f or a n e arly m ovement o f a p rimitive f orm o f m aize

f rom i ts a rea o f o rigin i n M esoamerica ( Beadle,

1 972;

1 980)

t o S outh

A merica . A ssuming a n i nitial o verland N orth t o S outh m ovement o f m aize, t he p hytolith a nd p ollen d ata p resented h ere i s a lso i n a ccord w ith t he p resent S outh A merican b otanical d ata . M aize p hytoliths a re p resent i n

9 7

b oth p receramic ( 6000 B .C.

t o 5 000 B .C) ( Piperno,

i n p ress) a nd e arly

c eramic ( 3 ,000 B .C. t o 2 ,000 B .C.) s ites f rom c oastal E cuador ( Pearsall, 1 978 ; 1 979). T hese a nalyses w ere b ased o n c ross-shaped p hytolith s ize a nd c ross-shaped t hree-dimensional s tudies s hould b e u ndertaken t o v erify t he r esults . I n P eru a t A yacucho, m acro-botanical e vidence f or a N al-tel-Pollo t ype o f m aize h as b een r ecovered f rom d eposits d ating t o 3 000 B .C. ( Galinat a nd M ac N eish ( 6000 B .C. t o l ong-standing o f t his p lant

n .d ., c ited i n G alinat , 1 980). M aize f rom e arlier c ontexts 4 000 B .C.) i n P anama i s t hen t o b e e xprected a nd i t f ills a g ap i n t he C entral A merican b otanical r ecord f or t he p resence d uring t his t ime.

T he d ata , o f c ourse, h ave o ther i mportant i mplications . t hat

p opulations

i n t he

l owland

t ropical

f orests o f

P anama ,

T hey i ndicate a nd

p robably

t hroughout t he r est o f t he I ntermediate A rea a s w ell , w ere e ngaging i n e arly p atterns o f c ultivation c ontemporary w ith t he e arly c ultivation i n h ighland M esoamerica

a nd

S outh

A merica

a nd

w ere

i ntimately

i nvolved

i n

t he

e arly

m ovement o f p lants b etween t hese t wo a reas. O ut i ntention h ere i s n ot t o e nter i nto t he d ebate r egarding t he p riority o f a gricultural d evelopment i n t he m oist l owland f orests o r d rier h ighland r egions o f t he N ew W orld t ropics ( for e xample , L athrap , 1 977), b ut o nly t o p oint o ut t hat p opulations i n t he f ormer e nvironments i n l ower C entral A merica w ere c ertainly n ot p eripheral t o t his d evelopment. W e w ill l eave s ome o ther t houghts o n e arly a gricultural p atterns i n P anama t o o ur c oncluding s ection . A t t his p oint, w e w ill t urn t o a d iscussion o f t he o ther p hytoliths a nd p ollen i solated f rom t he a rchaeological s oils.

O ther P hytoliths a nd P ollen i n t he A rchaeological D eposits Al arge n umber o f p lant t axa w ere r epresented b y t heir s ilicified c ells a nd p ollen i n t he d eposits . w as m ade b y r eference

t o

I dentification o f t he p hytoliths a nd p ollen

l arge m odern c omparative c ollections o f

t ropical

s pecies ( 340 f or p hytoliths a nd 1 500 f or p ollen ) h oused a t T emple U niversity a nd t he U niversity o f N ew M exico, r espectively. N o o ther r emains o f c ultivated s pecies w ere f ound, w ith o ne p ossible e xception . P ollen o f t he E uphorbiaceae w as p resent i n t he 1 7-22 c m . b .s. s ample f rom C ueva d e l os L adrones. O ne o f t hese g rains h as t he s ize a nd e xine c haracteristics d escribed b y B artlett, e t a l. ( 1969) a nd B artlett a nd B arghoorn ( 1973) f or m anioc ( Manihot e sculenta C rantz) ( Figs. 1 2 a nd 1 3). P ickersgill a nd H eiser ( 1978) h ave p ointed o ut t hat i t i s n ot c lear h ow r igorously B artlett's g roup c onsidered a nd r ejected o ther w ild E uphorbiaceae i n d efining t he c riteria f or p ollen f rom c ultivated M anihot. C lary i s p resently w orking o n t his p roblem t hrough s tudies o f m anioc a nd w ild E uphorbiaceae g rains i n h er c omparative c ollection. U nfortunately ,

t he

l evel i n w hich t he g rain o ccurred i s c lose t o t he

s urface a nd h as a m ixed a ssortment o f M onagrillo a nd f irst m illenium B .C . s herds, s o i t i s n ot p ossible t o a ssign a p recise a ge t o i t . B ut i f t he g rain i s i dentified s ecurely a s m anioc, i t w ould r epresent t he f irst a chaeological e vidence i n P anama f or t his i mportant p lant a nd w e w ould h ave r eason t o b elieve t hat i t w as g rown i n P anama b y a t l east t he P eriod I V c eramic p eriod. W e t hink t hat m anioc a lso h as c onsiderable a ntiquity i n P anama ( see b elow ) a nd w ill h ope t hat f urther w ork w ill p rovide e arlier e vidence f or t his p lant . O ther e xcelsum

p ollen ( wild

i dentified

c ashew),

f rom L adrones a re

w hich

d ominated

9 8

i n

t ypes

t he

f rom A nacardium

u pper

l evels,

t he

C ucurbitaceae,

t he

L egu r n inoseae.

P ollen

s ite ;

G ramineae

a nd

B auhinia e marginata,

p reservation

w as

p oor

i n

t he

a t ree

i n

t he

l evels

o f

t he

l ower

i n f act , C lary f ound l ittle i dentifiable p ollen b elow 2 7-32 c m . b .s. I n t he s oils f rom t he A guadulce s helter,

p ollen w as w ell p reserved

i n

t he t wo u pper c eramic l evels f rom B lock 3 a nd n on-existent i n t he p receramic l evels

f rom t his u nit.

( 1218 c m .

b .s.)

I n s oil a ssociated

w ith

b oth M onagrillo

a nd P eriod I V c eramics ( 7-12 c m .

f rom t he M alvaceae, C onvolvulaceae B auhinia e marginata . I n t he S itio S ierra s oils,

b .s.),

c eramics

p ollen w as m ainly

( perhaps M erremia),

B ombacaceae

a nd

p ollen w as s carce a nd o nly r are g rains f rom

t he G raminaeae a nd C henopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae w ere e ncountered. N o p ollen w as r ecovered f rom t he C ueva d e l os V ampiros, b ut c hanges i n e xtraction t echniques t o a ccomodate l arge a m ounts o f c harcoal i n t he s oils m ay c hange t his p icture . I n c ontrast t o t he p ollen p rservation , p hytoliths g enerally o ccurred i n a bundant n umbers i n b oth m ore r ecent a nd o lder l evels o f t he s ites. T here i s n o a dditional i nformation t o o ffer o n t he p resence o f p lant d omesticates f rom t he p hytolith d ata .

T h is w as n ot u nexpected b ecause f ew c ultigens i n

a ddition t o m aize h ave s iliceous f orms t hat c an b e u sed t o i dentify t hem . S quash ( Cucurbita p epo, a rrowroot ( Maranta a rundinaceae L .) a nd a chira ( Canna e dulis) c omparative T here

i s

( Pearsall,

w ork a n

b etween

1 979) o ffer p romise i n t his r egard, b ut m ore

w ild

u nfortunate

s pecies i rony

a nd

t hese

here.

d omesticates

P hytoliths

i s

a re

n eeded.

v irtually

i ndestructible i n s oils, b ut a re n ot u niformly p roduced b y t he p lant k ingdom a nd o ften h ave l imited t axonomic v alue w hen t hey d o o ccur i n d omesticates. I n c ontrast, p ollen f rom m any c ultigens i s d istinct, b ut i t o ften d oes n ot s urvive i n t ropical s oils. N evertheless, a rchaeological

t he p resence o f many i dentifiable p hytoliths i n t he

s oils

i ndicates

t hat

t he

s iliceous

r emains

o f

p rovide v ery u seful i nformation o n t ropical p lant s ubsistence . t he d eposits w ere s ilicified c ells f rom t he P almae, M oraceae,

C ompositae,

Heliconia,

Heliotropium a nd

a n umber o f

c ollection .

n umerical

P iperno,

( For

P iper,

f orms

d etails

n ot

w ill

P resent i n

G ramineae, M arantaceae,

F icus,

C uratella a mericana,

c urrently

o n t he

p lants

i n

p hytoliths

t he

c omparative

f rom e ach

s ite

s ee

1 983).

T here w ere s ome i nteresting c ontrasts i n t he p hytolith a ssemblages f rom t he s ites,

e specially b etween t he c ontemporary A guadulce a nd L adrones r ock

s helters .

F or

o ccurred

a bundantly

e xample, a t

p hytoliths

A guadulce

a nd

f rom

p alms

r arely

a t

a nd

s everal

L adrones,

o ther

a nd m any

p lants o ther

p hytolith t ypes, s uch a s P iper, F icus, C uratella a mericana a nd o ther d icotyledons t hat o curred a t A guadulce w ere n ot p reent i n t he L adrones d eposits.

W e

c an

p erhaps

i nfer

f rom

t his

t hat

t he

u tilization o f m any

p lants, i ncluding p alms, w as a m ore i mportant a ctivity a t t he A guadulce s helter. T he s omewhat r emote l ocation o f L adrones i n b roken t opography i n t he s ite

f oothills o f C entral P anama m ay b e f unction .

T he

o ccupants o f

t his

r esponsible s helter

f or

t his

p robably d id

d ifference n ot h ave

e asy a ccess t o t he l arge v ariety o f u seful a nd e dible w ild p lants

i n t he

t hat t he

A guadulce i nhabitants, o n t he l owland p lain , h ad a ccess t o. W e c an s uggest t hat a t L adrones, s ubsistence w as o riented t oward hunting a nd f ood p roduction , w hile p lant g athering w as o f m inor i mportance .

9 9

I n t he S itio S ierra s amples, p alm p hytoliths o ccurred r arely , e xcept i n as ample f rom o ver a h ouse f loor w here t hey a ccounted f or a lmost 7 0% o f t he p hytolith t otal. W asp n ets w ith i mpressions m onoctyledons w ere f ound i n t he s ampling a rea ( Cooke,

o f p alms a nd o ther i n p ress), t herefore,

t he p alm p hytoliths m ust r epreent d ecayed t hatch f rom t he h ouse.

T hus,

i t

m ay b e p ossible t o d elineate h ouse s tructures a nd o ther a rchaeological f eatures w ith p hytolith d ata . P hytoliths

f rom

t he

p receramic

l evels

o f

C ueva d e

m ainly f rom t he P anicoid s ub-family o f g rasses.

l os V ampiros w ere

F ew o ther s iliceous t ypes

w ere e ncountered. T he p hytolith r ecord f rom t his s ite p oints t o ar ather n arrow p attern o f p lant e xploitation . I t

i s

e vident

t hat

a large

m onocotyledons a nd d icotyledons, i n t he d eposits .

d iversity

o f

p lants,

a re r epresented b y t heir

f rom

b oth

s ilicified c ells

I t w as a lso e ncouraging t o f ind t hat p hytoliths r etained

t heir s hape a nd s urface c haracteristics i n s oils o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime. A s p hytolith t axonomy b ecomes m ore r efined a nd m ore p lants a re i dentifiable , t he t echnique p romises t o p rovide m ore i nformation o n p lant a ctivities a t a rchaeological s ites.

D iscussion I n

t he

p hytolith

b eginning

a nd

p ollen

o f

t his

p aper,

a nalysis.

W e

w e

o utlined

h oped

t hat

t hree g oals o f t hey

w ould

t he

p rovide

i nformation o n 1 ) t he a ntiquity o f f ood p roduction i n P anama , 2 ) t he r oles t hat s eed a nd r oot c rops p layed i n e arly c ultivation s ystems h ere a nd 3 ) t he r elation o f e arly f ood p roduction p atterns i n P anama t o t hose e lsewhere i n t he t ropics. W e h ave a chieved a m easure o f s uccess i n a ll t hree a reas, w ith m ost p erhaps i n t he f irst c ategory. T he e vidence f or m aize f rom t he C ueva d e l os L adrones a nd A guadulce s helter i ndicates t hat l ate p receramic a nd e arly c eramic w ere

p racticing

p opulations

i n C entral P anama

a griculture.

P anama

c an b e

( 5000 B .C .

a dded

t o

t he

t o

1 200 B .C.)

s hort

l ist

o f

r egions i n t he N ew W orld w here p lant d omesticates h ave b een e videnced b y t he f ifth m illenium B .C. a nd w e have d ata n ow f or t he e xistence o f a n e arly a gricultural p attern i n t he l owlands b etween h ighland M esoamerica a nd t he A ndes. S ubsistence-settlement p atterns i n P anama f rom 5 000 B .C .

t o 1 200 B .C .

p oint t o m uch b roader s pectrum a nd m ore m obile e conomies w ith s maller p opulation a ggregations t han d uring l ater p eriods. P ermanent v illages l ocated a long t he

f loodplains o f m ajor r ivers s upported b y i ntensive m aize

a griculture ( evidenced b y t he p resence o f m anos a nd m etates a nd l arge a mounts o f c arbonized m aize) d o n ot a ppear i n P anama u ntil t he f irst m illenium B .C. ( Cooke, i n p ress; C ooke a nd R anere , t his v olume). I t a ppears t hat i n P anama , a s i n M esoamerica ( Flannery , 1 973), t he e arliest s ites s uported b y e fficient a griculture r epresent a m ajor i ncrease i n c ommunity s ize a nd y ear-round s tability o ver p revious o ccupations. W e c an a lso

i nfer

t hat

i n P anama,

a s

a ppearance o f p ermanent v illages

i n M esoamerica a nd a f ully

( Flannery,

1 973),

a gricultural w ay o f

l ife

t he w as

d ependent o n t he d evelopment o f p roductive r aces o f c rop p lants. G iven t he l ong p eriod o f t ime t hat a gricultural e conomies w ere p resent i n C entral P anama ,

t he c ultural m anipulation o f s ome c rops l eading t o m ore

e fficient v arieties m ay h ave o ccurred o n t he I sthmus.

W e c an a lso l ook t o

S outh America f or t he s ource o f s ome o f t hese p roductive d omesticates,

1 00

e specially

m aize.

A n

e arly,

i ntensive

l arge a nd p ermanent s ettlements 2 450 B .C.

( Zevallos,

e t

a l.

h as 1 977;

n ot

P acific P anama b y t he

c aused,

t he

a griculture

P earsll 1 978,

s eeded r aces o f m aize m ay have m oved C entral

m aize

b een d ocumented

o f

s upported

1 979).

b y

T hese l arge

f rom N orthern S outh A merica i nto

f irst m illenium B .C .

i ntensification

t hat

i n c oastal E cuador

a griculture

m anifested i n v illage l ife b y 3 00 B .C .

a nd c ontributed

a nd

d emographic

I n a s imilar v ein ,

t o,

i f

e xpansion

w e c an s uggest

t hat t he e arlier a doption o f a l ess i ntensive a nd m ore g eneralized a gricult u re i n C entral P anama b y 5 ,000 B .C . p rovided a m ore s ecure w ay o f l ife a nd l ed t o t he s maller b ut s ignificant d emographic e xpansion d uring t he l ate p receramic a nd e arly c eramic p eriods. O ur t alk o f a n e arly d iversified a griculture i n P anama m ay b e s omewhat p remature, f or m aize i s t he o nly c ultigen t hat i s e videnced d uring t he p eriod f rom 5 000 B .C. t o 3 00 B .C. B ut o ur f eeling i s t hat t he m aize p hytoliths a nd p ollen r epresent o nly t he t ip o f t he i ceberg i n r egard t o t he n umber o f p lant d omesticates o f

o ther d omesticates,

p resent d uring t hat

e specially r oot

c rops,

t ime.

T he d ocumentation

i n e arly

c ontexts

f rom t he

h umid t ropics c ontinues t o b e a f rustrating p roblem . P lants s uch a s m anioc ( Manihot e sculenta C rantz), o toe ( Xanthossoma s p .) a nd y ams ( Dioscorea s pp .) a re n ot l ikely t o l eave c arbonized r emains, a re p oor p ollinators a nd p roduce e ither n o p hytoliths o r o nly s iliceous

f orms t hat a re p resent i n w ild

s pecies a s w ell. B ut i t i s l ikely t hat s ome o f t hese p lants, e specially m anioc , w ere i mportant c omponents o f e arly c ropping p atterns i n P anama . M anioc,

l ike m aize,

i s a dapted t o e nvironments w ith m arked d ry s easons,

i n C entral P acific P anama ,

a s

a nd t he p roximity o f P anama t o ap roposed h earth

a rea o f r oot c rop a griculture l ike C olumbia ( Sauer,

1 969) w ould s uggest t hat

v egeculture w as a lso e stablished a t a n e arly d ate o n t he I sthmus. W e d o n ot w ish, f ar r emoved i mportance

h owever,

t o e nter i nto a l evel o f s peculation t hat i s

f rom t he b otanical d ata i n h and. o f

s eed o r r oot

c rops

I ssues s uch a s t he r elative

i n e arly c ultivation

s ystems

i n

C entral

P anama m ust s imilarly w ait f or b etter e vidence b efore t hey c an b e r esolved, b ut w e k now n ow t hat s eed c rops p layed s ome r ole i n t hese s ystems. o nly h ope

t hat m ore e vidence

f rom d omesticated

W e c an

p lants w ill b e f orthcoming

f rom f uture b otanical a nalyses o f s ites i n C entral P anama .

A cknowledgements W e

a re g rateful

t o D r.

P eter

S tephens,

H arvard U niversity a nd K asia

F agarassi, A cademy o f N atural S ciences, P hiladelphia f or p ermission t o s ample p lants a t t he Herbaria o f t hese t wo i nstitutions. P iperno - s p hytolith s tudies w ere s upported b y g rants-in-aid f rom S igma X i, T he S cientific R esearch S ociety, t he W enner-Gren F oundation ( #4129) a nd b y a D issertation I mprovement a ward f rom t he N ational S cience F oundation ( #BNS810 9130).

1 01

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S uess

a nd

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' Morphological

S oil S cience S ociety o f America

1 09-115 .

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S oils'.

1 004-1010 .

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1 977:

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T he C losest R elative o f Maize.

C ambridge. Z evallos, K .M . 1 96 :

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W .C .

G alinat,

D .W .

L athrap ,

E .R .

L eng,

J .G .

M arcos a nd

T he S an P ablo C orn K ernel a nd I ts F riends'.

3 85-389 .

1 04

S cience

T able 1 G rass

D umbells

R atio

S addles

C ross - S haped S mall

Z ea m ays

Z ea m ays

Z eamays

Z ea m exicana

8 1

8 0

5 0

8 3

1 .2:1

0

1 .6 :1

0

1 .1

0

4 .9 :1

0

R ace B alsas Z ea-mexicana R ace B alsas

1 60

4 .0 :1

0

Z ea m exicana

4 0

2 .0 :1

0

R ace C halco Z ea m exicana R ace N obogame

1 70

5 .7 :1

0

O ryza s ativa

1 94

3 2 :1

0

S accharum o fficinarum

S orghum h alepense

2 77

1 67

1 2:1

0

4 .9 :1

0

M edium

1 2

7 1

1 0%

6 0%

9

3 5

P hytoliths L arge 3 6 3 0% ( 1 x -large) 6

1 8%

7 0%

1 3

3 0

2 6%

6 0%

1 4%

7

0

5 9%

4 1%

0 %

2 1 5 3%

1 9 4 7%

0 0 %

1 0

2

1 2% 7

1 8

0

1 0%

9 0%

0 %

8 2 7%

1 8 6 0%

4 1 3%

3

3

0

5 0%

5 0%

0 %

1 0

1 1

2

4 3%

4 8%

9 %

3 0

4

0

8 8%

1 2%

0 %

A ndropogan b revifolium

1 94

3 2 :1

0

2 3 3%

4 6 7%

0 0 %

A ndropogan b icornis

2 00

> 200 :1

0

0

0

0

A ndropogan l eucostachva

1 00

> 100 :1

0

0

0

0

A ndropogan s coparius

2 34

1 4 .6 :1

0

7 4 4%

9 5 6%

0 0 %

A ndropogan v irgatus

2 00

> 200 :1

0

0

0

0

A ndropogan s p .

3 77

2 .8 :1

0

8 7 6 5%

3 7 2 8%

9 7 %

7 0

2 .3 :1

0

2 3 7 7%

7 2 3%

0 0 %

A xonopus c ompressus

1 05

T able 1 c ontinued G rass

D umbells

R atio

S addles

C ross S haped S mall

B ambusoid G rass # 1

1

B ambusoid G rass # 2

1 40

C enchrus e chinatus

C enchrus p ilosus

. 04 :1

0

0 0 %

1 4:1

0

3

P hytoliths

M edium

L arge

1 7 6 8%

8 3 2% ( 1 x -large)

7

0

3 0%

7 0%

0 %

3 19

3 .9 :1

0

1 9 2 3%

5 5 6 8%

7 9 %

5 5

1 .2:1

0

2 6 5 8%

1 7 3 8%

2 4 %

0 0 %

0 0 %

1 2 5%

0 0 %

C enchrus s p .

4 89

4 5 :1

0

1 1 00%

D igitaria s anguinalis

4 96

1 24 :1

0

3 7 5%

5 0

> 50 :1

0

0

0

0

2 00

0

0

0

6 9

0

0

0

E chinochloa c rus-gulli E leusine s p .

0

-

E ragrostis c iliaris

3 1

> 31:1

H ymenache a mplexicaulis

6 7

2 .0 :1

0

1 7 5 3%

1 6 4 7%

0 0 %

H yparrhenia r ufa

2 92

3 7 :1

0

5 6 3%

3 3 7%

0 0 %

I mperata c ordata

1 93

2 8 :1

0

5 7 1%

2 2 9%

0 0 %

I sachne a rundinacea

1 00

> 100 :1

1 00

0

0

0

2 00

0

0

0

6 1 00

0 0 %

0 0 %

0

0

0

L eptochloa d omingensis M elinis m inutiflora

M ulhenbergia e mersleyi

0 4 94

0

8 2 :1

0

-

2 00

O plismenus b urmanii

4 8

2 4 :1

0

2 1 00%

0 0 %

0 0 %

O plismenus h irtellus

8 8

7 :1

0

2 1 7%

4 3 3%

6 4 9% ( 1 x -large)

O lyra l atifolia

4 4

. 78 :1

0

3 5 6 2%

2 1 3 8%

1 06

0 0 %

T able 1 c ontd

G rass

D umbells

R atio

S addles

P anicum f asciculatum

1 00

> 100 :1

0

P anicum m aximum

4 86

3 5 :1

0

C ross S haped S mall

M edium

L arge

0

0

0

1 2 8 6%

P aspalum p aniculatum

P aspalum p licatulum

1 9

1 00

1 0 :1

0

5 :1

0

P aspalum s p .

P ennisetum p urpureum

P ennisetum s etosum

P harus l atifolius P harus p arvifolius P hragmites s p .

4 57

1 81

4 33

4 60

1 1:1

0

1 0 :1

0

6 :1

0

1 2:1

0

0 0 %

2

2

0

5 0%

0 %

6

1

3 0%

5 %

2 6

1 7

0

6 0%

4 0%

0 %

1 9

0

0

1 00%

0 %

0 %

1 3

5 4

2 1

2

7 0%

2 7%

3 %

3 1

2

1 8%

7 7%

5 %

7

1 00

> 10 :1

0

0

0

0

9 8

> 98 :1

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

-

1 00

S etaria s cheelei

2 00

> 200 :1

0

S etaria s p .

1 74

3 :1

0

S porobolus c ryptandrus

2 1 4%

5 0%

6 5% P aspalum v irgatum

P hytoliths

0

-

7 5

8 4

4 0

2

6 7%

3 1%

2 %

0

0

0

S treptochaeta s odiroana

1 00

> 100 :1

0

0

0

0

S treptochaeta s picata

1 00

> 100 :1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

S treptogyne a mericana

0

-

1 00

T rachpogan m outiflora

1 00

> 100 :1

0

T ripsacum d actyloides

1 80

9 :1

0

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U niola s p .

0

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T able 2 T hree-Dimensional C ross-shaped T ypologies G rass 1

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F ig. 2 M aize c ross-shape p hytoliths 2 50x .

2 000x

( Left

F ig. 3 ( Variant 6 c ross-shape

f rom T ripsacum . ( Right) V ariant

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2 c ross-shape

f rom T r ipsacum . 2 100x .

F ig. 6

F ig . 5 H air c ell p hytoliths f rom C ucurbita p epo . 2 50x .

F ig. 7 P hytolith f rom M anihot e sculenta C rantz. 3 12x .

H air c ell p hytolith s iceraria . 2 00x .

f rom L agenaria

F ig . 8 P hytoliths f rom M aranta a rundinaceae L . 3 300x .

PHYTOLITHS 0 L J c i _ < I 0 x

LARGE

( I ) E o 0 i n

-

E XTRA

,MODERN S HERD

-

-o

1 20

PRECERAM

MONAGR ILLO

MONAGR ILLO

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_ 2 c e

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F ig .

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F ig . 1 2 P ossible p ollen o f M anibot e sculenta . 4 00x .

1 P ollen o f Z ea m ays L . f rom 1 37-142 c m .

F ig . 1 3 C lose u p o f p ossible M änihot p ollen s howing t riangular b aculae . 4 00x .

C ommunity L ife i n aL ate P hase A gricultural V illage, S outheastern C osta R ica R obert P . D rolet

A BSTRACT F ew a reas o f L ower C entral A merica h ave o ffered a rchaeological e vidence f or r econstruction o f a l ate p eriod ( AD 7 00 - 1 500) p olity s ystem o f s ettlement. S ystematic s urvey i n t he D iquis V alley, s outheastern C osta R ica h as r esulted i n t he i dentification o f a v ariety o f s ites a ssociated w ith d omination o f a w ide a rea o f i nterior l owland r iverine l ands. O ccupation h ere h as t erritorial

b een l inked

b oundaries

f or

t o a djacent c oastal z ones,

w hat

a ppears

t o

b e

s uggesting t he

a s ingle

p olity

t hat

c ontrolled d iverse e cological l ands. I ntensive w ork i n o ne w ell p reserved s ite, M urciglago ( P-107-MC) h as r evealed h ousehold d ivisions a nd c ommunity a ctivities o rganized o ver a t hirty h ectare a rea. T he c ommunity o rganization a ssociated w ith t his v illage a nd o ther r ecently d iscovered v alley s ites s uggest a p attern o f s ocial g roup i ntegration a ssociated w ith p olity c ontrol o f r esource p rocurement a nd A c omplete

p icture

o f

t his

l ate

r edistribution .

p eriod

s ettlement

s ystem i s n ot y et

a vailable; n evertheless, p resent e vidence p rovides t he b asis f or e stablishing a n o rganizational s tructure f or s ettlement t hat s erved t o l ink t ogether

d ifferent

c lasses

o f

s ites

o ver

t he

v alley-wide

a rea .

W ithin

L ower C entral A merica , t he D iquis V alley c learly i s o ne P acific s ector w here l ate p eriod

s ettlement d ata i s b eginning t o p rovide s pecific e vidence

r elating t o t he f ormation a nd g rowth o f r anked s ocieties.

R evised p aper d elivered a t t he I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, M anchester, E ngland , O ctober 1 982.

1 23

I ntroduction T his

p aper

w ill

f ocus

o n

t he

r elationship

b etween

o rganization a nd m aize a griculture d uring l ate p eriod,

s ettlement

C hiriqui p hase ( A .D .

1 000 - 1 500) o ccupation i n t he D iquis V alley, s outheastern C osta R ica ( Fig. 1 ). A r ecent s ystematic s urvey c onducted a long t he c entral p ortion o f t he T grraba R iver,

t he p rincipal d rainage o f t he D iquis V alley, h as r evealed n ew

s ettlement e vidence a ssociated w ith l ate p eriod s ite s ize, l ocation , c lass a nd d ensity ( Drolet n .d.a ; n .d.b .; n .d.c.; n .d.d.; D rolet y M arkens 1 981a ; 1 981b) 1 I ntensive w ork c onducted i n o ne C hiriqui p hase v illage s ite, M urciglago

( P-107-MC)

d emonstrates

t he

r esidential p atterning a nd a rtifact

i nventory a ssociated w ith c ommunity s ocial h ousehold a ctivities ( Drolet n .d.c.; n .d.d.).

g roups

a nd

m aize

r elated

C hiriqui p hase i n t he D iquis V alley p receded s ixteenth c entury c hiefdom o ccupation

o f

t he

a rea

a ssociated w ith m aize

i mplying

a l ong

a griculture .

d evelopment

o f

p olity

T he n ew a rchaeological

s ettlement

e vidence

f rom

D iquis d ocuments a n e arly s ociopolitical p attern o f a gricultural s ettlement a nd p rovides a r egional e xample o f h ow a l ate p eriod v illage n etwork w as o rganized i n o ne m ajor P acific r iverine b asin o f L ower C entral A merica .

C hiriqui P hase S ettlement: G reater C hiriqui A t hree p eriod ,

7 000 y ear c hronological s equence h as b een e stablished

i n w estern P anama r elating t o a gricultural s ettlement o f t he G reater C hiriqui r egion ( Linarea 1 968a; F ig. 2 ). T he f inal p ortion o f t his s equence, t he P re-Contact P eriod ( A .D . 7 00 - 1 500) i s a ssociated w ith t wo p hases i n t he A tlantic a nd P acific s ectors o f t he I sthmus ( Linares 1 980a:111). C hiriqui p hase ( A.D. 1 000 - 1 500) o n t he P acific s ide i n w estern

P anama

i s

c losely r elated

t o B ocas

p hase

i n

t he A tlantic

s ector.

E ach o f t hese p hases i s l inked c hronologically a nd c ulturally w ith t he B oruca-Chiriqui p hase H aberland 1 976 ; n .d.).

i n s outhern C osta R ica ( Drolet n .d.c.; n .d.d.; A lthough o nly s ecurely d ated i n w estern P anama ,

C hiriqui p hase c learly r epresents a r egional c omponent t hat d ominated a ll o f G reater C hiriqui b y t he f irst m illennium A .D. C emetery s ites s cattered o ver t he w hole r egion h ave p rovided t he b ulk o f

i nformation r elating

t o

1 963; S tone 1 963;1977).

t his

p eriod

( Haberland

1 959 ;1961;1976 ;

L othrop

A s ar esult, m uch m ore i s k nown a bout v essel f orms

a nd s tyles t han a bout s ettlement t ypes, v illage d esign o r h ousehold u nits a nd t heir d omestic m aterials. T he o nly o ccupational s ites a ssociated w ith t his

p eriod

t hat h ave

b een

i ntensively

( IS-3) a nd C erro B rujo ( CA-3), e dges

o f

w estern

P anama

s tudied

a nd d ated

a re

L a

P itahaya

e ach l ocated o n t he P acific-Atlantic c oastal

( Linares

1 980b;

1 980c).

E ach

w as

c learly

i ntegrated i nto a w ider n etwork o f f arming s ettlements ( Drolet 1 985 ; L inares 1 980b ;

1 980c; R anere 1 980 :118-138),

a lthough t he g eographical e xtent o f t his

p attern h as y et t o b e d etermined. D emographic

p ressures ,

c hiefdom

t erritories

a nd

s pecial

c eramic

a nd

l ithic i ndustries a nd i ntensive m aize f arming a re c haracteristics t hat h ave b een a ssociated w ith ( Haberland s uggested

n .d.; t hat

a t

t his

L inares l east

l ate o ccupation p eriod i n G reater C hiriqui

1 977a ; s even

1 980b : r egional

7 6

- 7 7).

d ivisions

d istinguished d uring t his l ater p eriod o ccupation .

H aberland c an

b e

( n .d.)

h as

a rchaeologically

C eram ic g roups s uch a s

B isquit W are , R ed-Line W are, A lligator W are a nd M odelled T ripod W are s eem t o h ave

h ad

d istinct

c enters

o f

m anufacture

1 24

i n

t he

r egion

( Haberland

n .d.;

L inarea 1 968a ;

L othrop

1 963)

a nd p erhaps

s ignal t he l ocation o f i ndividual

t erritorial u nits. L ithic a rtifacts, s uch a s j aspar b lades, p olished s tone t ools, g old a nd l apidary o bjects a lso a ssociated w ith t his p eriod r epresent p roducts o f s pecial i ndustries ( Lothrop 1 963; S tone 1 963) t hat w ere p robably c entered i n s pecific s ettlements, a lthough t hese a re s till n ot l ocated ( Drolet n .d.d.). T he i nterior P acific a nd A tlantic v alleys o f t he r egion a ppear

t o h ave

b een i deal

f arming a nd s ettlement

l ocations f or t hese

t erritorial g roups ( Linares 1 977b ; 1 980b), y et d espite v arious i nterpretive a ttempts ( Haberland n .d.; L inarea 1 977b ; 1 980b) t o r econstruct s ettlement o rganization d uring t his p eriod,

t he l imited a rchaeological s urvey e vidence

f rom t he r egion h as r estricted a nalysis

t o a s ite-by-site e valuation ( Bray

1 981; L ange 1 981). D iquis, a p rincipal P acific b asin i n s outhern C osta R ica w as o ne c enter f or

l ate

p eriod

r egional

o ccupation

( Dro l et

n .d.c.;

n .d.d.).

A rchaeological d ata r ecently o btained f rom t his p ortion o f t he r egion c onfirms a m ulti-village n etwork, t wo c lasses o f c emetery s ites, d ense d emographic s ettlement a nd m aize f arming c oncentrated a long t he a lluvial s ections o f t he p rincipal v alley d rainages.

T his

d ata p rovides n ew

e vidence f or d ocumenting t he s ocial a nd e conomic p atterns a ssociated w ith e arly t erritorial s ettlement i n G reater C hiriqui, a nd d efines a n ew t ype o f " chiefdom" o rganization k nown f or L ower C entral A merica .

C hiriqui P hase S ettlement: D iquis V alley I n 1 980-1981

a r andom q uadrant s urvey w as c onducted a long t he c entral

p ortion o f t he T grraba R iver ( Fig . 3 ) d esigned t o d etermine t he d istribution o f p rehistoric s ettlement i n f our e cological z ones o f e ncompassing 4 00 s quare k ilometers ( Drolet y M arkens 1 980a ;

a s tudy a rea 1 980b ; 1 981a ;

1 981b ; F indlow , S narskis, M artin a nd M arkens 1 980 ; S narskis n .d.).

T wenty-

s ix C hiriqui p hase s ites w ere l ocated i n a nd a djacent t o f ive p rimary d rainage z one ( 100-300m ) q uadrants , a ll o ccurring w ithin a t wenty k ilometer s tretch o f t he T grraba R iver

( Fig .

4 ).

N ine o ther h igher l atitude

( 300-

6 00m ) q uadrants s urveyed c ontained n o e vidence o f o ccupation d uring t his p eriod ( Drolet n .d.c.) 2 . T he p lacement o f t hese s ites e xclusively i n t he v alley b ottom o r p rimary d rainage z one i ndicated i ntensive u se o f l ow t errace l ands f or s ite l ocation, a ctivities

a nd

p rincipal

a lluvial f loodplains f or a gricultural

r iverine

w aterways

f or

t ravel

a nd

r esource

m ovements.

w ere

T he t wenty-six C hiriqui p hase s ites w ere o f t hree d istinct c lasses a nd f ound d ispersed i n c lusters, f orming a l ineal p attern o f h abitation-

c emetery

c omplexes d istributed a long t he l ower p ortion o f

t he v alley ( Fig.

4 )3. T hree s ite c lusters w ere a pproximately f ive k ilometers a part a long t he T grraba R iver a nd t wo m ore w ere l ocated f urther w est a nd n orth a long t he C eibo R iver,

a p rincipal t ributary.

E ach o f t he f ive s ite

c lusters

t ypically c ontained o ne h abitation s ite w ith a ll h abitation s ites c ontaining e xtensive s urface d eposits o f s imilar c eramic a nd l ithic m aterials. E ach s ite w as s urrounded b y m ultiple c emeteries o f t wo c lasses.

T he f irst

c lass, a nd t he m ost n umerous ( 18 e xamples) i n t he s ample, c onsisted o f c emeteries w hose o nly s urface f eature w ere p iles o f c obbles m arking t he l ocation o f g raves.

A s econd

c lass,

r epresented b y

f our c emeteries

w as

c haracterized b y c obble s tone c onstructions , a rtificial m ounds, p etroglyphs, l ong b asalt c olumns a nd i n o ne c ase a l arge s tone b all ( Drolet n .d.a .).

1 25

E ach

o f

t he

t hree c lasses o f s ites w as s eparated f rom a nother i n t he

f ive s ite c luster a reas, f unction .

i mplying s imilar r ules f or s ite p lacement a nd

T he c hain o f s ite c omplexes a long t he T grraba a nd C eibo R ivers

d emonstrates

t hat

t he

l arge

v illages

w ere

c enters

o f

d emographic

c oncentration , e ach a ssociated w ith a s imilar a rrangement o f s ite c lasses, a nd e ach l ocated n ext t o w ide a lluvial p ortions o f t he v alley b ottom. A part f rom t he f our l arge v illages l ocated, n o o ther h abitation s ites a ssociated w ith t his p eriod w ere f ound, s uggesting t he l arge c enters w ere t he p rincipal a nd p ossibly t he o nly r esidential s ites.

S itio M ueciglago ( P-107-MC), T grraba R iver A lthough a ll f our h abitational s ites e xtended o ver l arge a reas b etween f ive

a nd

t hirty h ectares,

u ndisturbed .

o nly o ne

F rom m apping,

s ite,

M urciglago

( P-107-MC)

w as

f ound

s urface c ollecting a nd h orizontal e xcavations

c onducted a t t his s ite v aluable d ata o n r esidential g roupings a nd d omestic a ctivities w as o btained ( Drolet n .d.b.). R esidential Murciglago

c onstructions

( Fig.

4 ).

w ere

p laced

o ver

a t hirty h ectare

a rea

a t

T he v illage w as d ivided i nto f ive r esidential

s ectors 4 , e ach c ontaining s imilar l arge d iameter ( fifteen t o t hirty m eter) h ousehold u nits c lustered i n g roups o f t wo o r t hree. T he a rchitectural a nd s patial d istribution o f t hese c onstructions i mplies a h ierarchical s tructure o f r esidential g roups.

F irst,

t he i ndividual h ousehold u nit w as p robably

c omposed o f a m ulti-family g roup s ince t he s ize o f t he l iving s pace w ithin t hese c ircular s tructures i ndicates t he r esidence o f t en t o f orty-five p ersons

( Drolet n .d.e.).

c ommunity ,

T his w as t he b asic r esidential u nit o f t he

a nd w as c losely i ntegrated w ith o ne o r t wo o ther

m ulti-family g roups , g roup ( Fig.

5 ).

f orming h ousehold c lusters,

s imilar

s ized

t he v ital a ctivity o riented

S ix m ulti-house c lusters i dentified i n t hree s ectors

( 1,2,4) a nd c overing o ver h alf t he v illage a rea w ere i ntensively m apped a nd c leaned ( Drolet n .d.b .; n .d .c.). u nit h ousehold c lusters

i n e ach

P ossibly t he p resence o f t he t wo t o t hree s ector

p oints

t o a p rocess

o f

g rowth

a nd

f ission w ithin t he c ommunity 5 . U sing t his h ousehold e vidence a nd t he e stimated e xtension o f r esidence i n t he v illage, M urciglago a ppears t o h ave h ad a p opulation b etween 5 00 a nd 6 00 p eople ( Drolet n .d .c.). A t

M urciglago

t he h ousehold

c lusters

f ormed

t he

p rincipal

a reas

f or

o rganized g roup a ctivities. N umerous r efuse d eposits a nd b uilt-up a ctivity a reas w ere f ound s urrounding e ach h ouse c luster, a nd c ontained d ense c oncentrations o f c ultural m aterials l ithic m aterials r ecovered s tone t ool m anufacturing a nd

( Figs.

5 -7).

A nalysis o f c eramic a nd

f rom t hese a reas i ndicates f ood p reparation , r epair, a nd w oodworking w ere m ajor d omestic

a ctivities c onducted b y a ll r esidential g roups t hroughout t he v illage ( Drolet n .d.a .; n .d.b .; n .d.c. F ig.8). M aize

p rocessing

w as

p articularly

s ignificant.

D ense q uantities

o f

m anos a nd m etates o utnumbered m ost o ther d omestic t ools a round e ach h ousehold c luster ( Figs. 7 ,8). T hese u tensils w ere b eing c onstantly r epaired

w ith

c obble

p ecking

s tones

( Fig .

8 ),

e vidence

t hat

s upports

t he

i ntensity o f d aily c orn p rocessing a round t he h ouses. B etween t he r esidential a rea o f t he v illage a nd t he r iver l ie a pproximately 1 00 h ectares o f f lat, a lluvial f loodplain ( Fig. 5 ) u ndoubtedly u sed f or c ultivation o f t his g rain . A ssociated w ith s ome h ousehold c lusters a re s mall o val a nd r ectangular s tructures ( Fig. 6 ) p ossibly u sed a s s torage b uildings f or h arvested m aize.

B ased o n t he q uantity o f p rocessing e quipment

1 26

( Table 1 ),

i t w ould a ppear m aize a nd p ossibly m aize b iproducts w ere p rincipal p roducts t hat w ere t raded o ut o f M urcielago t o o ther r iverine v illage c enters i n a n o rganized r esource e xchange s ystem . B esides c orn, c luster a reas.

o ther f ood p roducts w ere p rocessed i n t he h ousehold

R ound a nd

f lat-faced m illing

s tones

a nd

s mall

f lat-faced

m etates w ere f ound ( Fig. 8 ) p ossibly i ndicating r oot-crop p rocessing. N utting s tones ( Fig .8) w ere a lso f ound s ignalling p alm n ut ( "Coyol" S cheelia z onensis) h arvesting .

A lthough n o o rganic r emains w ere f ound i n t he r efuse

d eposits a round t he h ouse c lusters, t he v ariety o f u tensils i ndicates h arvesting a nd p rocessing a n umber o f c ultivated a nd s easonally a vailable c rops i n a ddition t o m aize. H ouse g ardens m ay h ave b een m aintained i n t he h ousehold c luster a rea , s uggested b y h oe-like, d ouble f aced a xe t ools ( Fig. 8 ). T ool m anufacture t ypical a ctivity,

i n

t he

s urrounding

a rea o f

t he h ouse c lusters w as

a t echnically s imple i ndustry u sing

m aterial c ollected f rom n earby r iverine g ravel d eposits. " cottage i ndustry" ( Sheets 1 973; i ncluding c lasses o f

i gneous

a

c obble

F unctioning a s a

1 980), a v ariety o f p ercussion f laked t ools

s crapers

a nd k nives w ere m anufactured f rom u ni-

d irectional c ores, u sing u nmodified o r s lightly m odified c obble h ammerstones ( Fig.8).

G round

s tone

t ools

w ere a lso m anufactured a nd k ept i n c onstant

r epair a round t he h ousehold c lusters ( Drolet n .d.a .; n .d.c.; F ig.8). P olished i mported

i nto

b asalt c elts, M urciglago

c hisels

a nd

w ere

a nd a xes u sed

w ith

( Fig.

8 )

o ther

h ousehold

a ppear t o h ave b een m anufactured

f lake t ools f or w oodworking t asks a s e videnced b y e dge w are a nalysis ( Drolet n .d.c.; D rolet y M arkens 1 981a ; 1 981b). S harpening o f t he p olished s tone t ools w as d one w ith l arge, w hetstone.

L ong,

m etate-shaped b oulders ( Fig.

w orn-down

g rooves

c ontinual t ool r epair a nd p oint c ommunity .

i n

t hese

8 ) u sed m uch l ike a

s harpening

s tones

i ndicate

t o t he i mportance o f w ood p roducts

i n t he

D ense a mounts o f s herds c overed t he s urface o f t he r efuse d eposits a nd a ctivity a reas a round t he h ouse c lusters. l ithic m aterials ( Fig.

7 )

a nd

h ad

T he c eram ic m aterials,

a s imilar d istribution o ver

c orrespond

t o u tilitarian

j ar,

t he

b owl

a nd

s ectors p late

l ike t he

i nvestigated v essel

f orms

o ccasionally m ade w ith h ollow l ug s upports, s mall c ircular h andles a nd p rojecting f rog, b ird o r s nake a dornos ( Fig. 9 , 1 0). T hese r ed-brown s lipped

v essels

( Ceiba R ojo-Café)

w ere

h ousehold a ctivities a round t he c ompound

c learly

l ike

h omogeneous r ange o f u tilitarian v essel f orms

u sed

f or k itchen a nd

r esidential

c lusters.

A

i n a ll o f t he h ouse c lusters

s uggests v essels w ere m anufactured f or s pecific d omestic c hores. A s mall q uantity o f

p olychrome

s herds

( Policromo B uenos A ires) w as

f ound w ith t he h ousehold c luster r efuse m aterials ( Fig . 1 1). t ype i s d iagnostic o f C hiriqui p hase i n t he D iquis r egion , l ocal v ariant L othrop 1 963;

T his c eram ic r epresenting a

o f t he r egionally d istinctive A lligator W are ( Holmes 1 888 ; M acCurdy 1 911). I n D iquis, t his f ancier p ottery h as b een

f ound i n b oth c lasses o f f unerary s ites m entioned H aberland 1 961;

L othrop 1 963;

S tone 1 963),

( Drolet y M arkens

1 981b ;

a nd i n s ome c ases w ith h istoric

a rtifacts,

c onfirming i ts m anufacture u p t o t he C ontact p eriod

1 958 :48).

A long t he l ower Urraba , s herds o f t his s tyle h ave b een f ound i n

( Stone

d eposits w ith t rade w are s herds f rom c entral P anama a nd N icoya ( Lothrop 1 963 :88-92) p roviding a m eans o f c ross-dating t he D iquis p olychromes t o b etween 1 000 a nd 1 500 A .D.

a nd p ointing t o aw ide r ange o f P acific c oastal

c ontacts e ntering t he D iquis s ubregion d uring t he m ultivillage,

1 27

l ate e riod

v alley o ccupatiuon .

T he r educed n umber o f P olicromo B uenos A ires s herds a t

S itio M urciglago i mply t hey w ere t raded i nto t he s ite,

a nd s uggest a nother

i tem o f v alley m anufacture e ntering t his v illage f rom u pper a nd l ower c enters. A s as ingle c ommunity, M urciglago d emonstrates a r esidential d esign a nd a rtifact i nventory r elated t o i ntensive a gricultural a ctivities i n t he c entral p ortion o f t he v alley. T he s ocial g rouping a t t he s ite s hows t he o rganizational s tructure f or d omestic a ctivities i ncluding m aize p rocessing a nd i ndicates h ow r esidential g roups w ere i nvolved i n t he m ovement o f p roducts b etween v illages.

S ite I ntegration a nd L eadership L imited d ata i s a vailable t o a ssess h ow t he t hree c lasses o f s ites w ere r elated t o o ne a nother o perated w ith r egard

a nd h ow a s ystem o f r ank a nd l eadership a ctually t o s ettlement o rganization d uring l ate p eriod

s ettlement i n t he D iquis v alley. i dentified,

o nly o ne h abitation

O f t he f ive l ocal s ettlement a reas s ite c ontained p reserved r esidential

e vidence d emonstrating t hat h ousehold g roups w ere i ntegrated t hrough p rimary d omestic a ctivities. l ocations

( Fig .

4 )

m aterial 7

s imilar

d omestic t asks.

T his p attern p robably a lso e xisted i n o ther v illage t hat w ere f ound d isturbed b ut w here c eram ic a nd

t o

t hose

T hus,

o f

M urciglago

s uggest

r elated

g roup

l ithic

o riented,

w ithin e ach l ocal v illage a long t he m iddle T grraba

R iver, i t w ould a ppear t hat p rincipal a ctivities, s uch a s f arming a nd d omestic i ndustries w ere a ssociated w ith i dentifiable, l arge-sized h ousehold u nits . T he p resence o f t errace c emeteries s urrounding e ach l ocal v illage s uggests t hese s ame h ousehold g roups w ere b uried i n f amily l ike c emeteries. T he s cattered b ut s ystematic p lacement o f t hese s imple t omb c emeteries a ppear t o r eflect a b urial s ystem b ased o n g roup s eparation r elated t o t he v illage m ulti-household d esign i n v illages a s M urciglago . O n

a w ider t erritorial l evel t he

e vidence s uggests t he r iverine

v illages i n t he D iquis V alley w ere i ncorporated i nto a s ingle s ociopolitical u nit. b ased

O ne t ype o f v illage w as M urciglago ( P-107-MC) r epresenting a m aizea gricultural c enter. T he o ther t hree v illages l ocated s uggest

a dditional a gricultural c enters o wing t o t heir s ize, p lacement n ear a lluvial l ands a long t he r iver a nd c ultural m aterials s imilar t o M urciglago. A nother t ype o f v illage w hich a t t his p oint c an o nly b e d educed f rom t he e xisting

e vidence ,

i s

o ne w ith

s pecial

i ndustries

i n f unerary

g oods i ncluding p olychrome p ottery, g old a nd s tone s culpture.

a nd

l uxury

T he l ocations

o f t hese v illages h owever a re s till u nknown. P roducts a s p ottery, w ooden i mplements, p olished s tone t ools a nd a gricultural i tems a ppear t o h ave b een e xchanged b etween t he t wo c lasses o f v illages t hrough a n o rganized t erritorial r edistribution s ystem. How f ar t his m ultivillage n etwork e xtended i s d ifficult t o s ay w ithout f urther i nvestigation b ut s imilar c lasses

o f

( Haberland

C hiriqui 1 961;

p hase

L othrop

s ites 1 963;

b asin-wide s ettlement n etwork.

a long S tone

t he

u pper

1 958 ;

T husfar,

a nd

1 977)

h owever,

l ower

T grraba

s uggest t he

R iver

a n i ntegrated

o nly

c ontrolled

s ample o f s ettlement d ata f rom w hich t o r econstruct t his p attern i s f rom t he m iddle T grraba . T he l eadership s tructure d ata a lthough s peculative d ue

t o t he l imited

s ettlement e vidence f or v illage c omparison s uggests t wo k inds o f l eadership,

1 28

o ne a t

t he v illage

r esidential

s ectors

a ctivities ,

t his

l evel a nd a nother a t t he t erritorial l evel. a t

M urciglago

i mplies

w ere

t he

S ince t he o f

g roup

a l eadership s tructure w ithin t he v illage.

T he

s ize o f t he h ousehold c luster g roup r esidential u nit l arger t han a n uclear

o rganizational

a reas

( 20-115 i ndividuals) s uggests a f amily, p erhaps a l ineage o r c lan

w ith o ne o r m ore i ndividuals i n l eadership p ositions.

T he f ive r esidential

s ectors t hat c omprise M urciglago p oint t o t he m aximum s ocial u nits w ith t he h ighest l evel v illage a uthorities. T he e laborately d esigned c emeteries i n f our o f

t he f ive

( Murciälago i s

t he e xception) l ocal a reas r epresent s pecial f unerary l ocations w ith a bove g round c onstructions a nd s pecial a rtifacts, s ignalling e ven h igher l evel a uthorities o r g roups t han t he v illage l eadership . T he p ublic s ymbolism a ssociated w ith t hese s ites s uggests t erritorial l eaders o r a uthorities w ho m ay h ave r esided i n t he l ocal v illages a djacent t o t he c emeteries. O wing t o

t he

e mphasis

p laced

o n

g roup

o riented

a ctivities

d uring

t he

C hiriqui

p hase, i t w ould a ppear t hat t erritorial l eadership m ay have i nvolved a s ystem o f l ineage o r c lan r anking o r b oth , s imilar t o t he p attern o f s ocial g roup r anking s till p racticed a mong t he m odern d ay B ribri o f t he T alamanca ( Bozzoli 1 975; 1 979).

E thnohistorical S ettlement: D iquis V alley T hroughout

t he

G reater

C hiriqui

u ntil s ixteenth c entury S panish L othrop o f

1 963 :5-12).

l arge

l ate

C hiriqui

( Drolet

p hase

n .d.c.;

c ontinued

L inares

T he e thnohistorical i nformation c onfirms

n ucleated v illages

p eriod

r egion ,

c ontact

o ccupation

s ixteenth

c entury

e offers

a u seful

a nd

i n

l eadership

t he D iquis

V alley

t hat

o ccupation

( Drolet

n .d.c.).

interpreting

s imilar

i ndigenous m odel

s ociopolitical

f or

t he p attern

a ssociated

a lso

u p

1 968b; w ith

c haracterized T his

e vidence

d emographic

a nd

s ociopolitical p atterns o f t erritorial s ettlement a nd c onfirms a l ong c ultural t radition o f m aize b ased p olities i n t his P acific a rea b asin o f t he r egion . D ominating t he T ärraba R iver a rea a t t he t ime o f S panish c ontact w as a s ingle c hiefdom t erritory k nown 1 964 :31-51; P eralta 1 883 :773). d elta a nd t he m iddle T erraba ,

a s C oto ( Drolet n .d.c.; F ernandez G uardia T he t erritory e xtended b etween t he P acific c ontaining s ix p rincipal

p opulation c enters

( Barrantes n .d.; F ernändez G uardia 1 964:37).

O ne o f t hese w as C octu,

l ocated t welve l eagues ( thirty-six k ilometers) R iver. T he v illage h ad a p opulation o f 8 00 ,

i nland a long t he T erraba d istributed i n e ighty-five

c ircular, l arge d iameter d wellings p laced i n c lusters o f t hree o r f our ( Drolet n .d.c.; F ernändez G uardia 1 964 :32-34). S urrounding C octu w ere e xtensive m aize f ields, i ndicating t his w as a p rincipal a gricultural v illage o f t he t erritory ( Fernändez G uardia 1 964:35). L eadership

w ithin

C oto

p rovince

c onsisted

o f

a h ierarchy

o f

i ndividuals, w ith o ne c hief o f m aximum a uthority a nd u nder h im , s econdary " caciques" a nd " Indios p rincipales" ( Barrantes 1 982; F ernändez G uardia 1 964:29-55).

S even

c aciques

r esided

i n t he v illage

o f

C octu,

e ach

r epresenting a n i ndividual k inship g roup. T his s uggests a v illage o rganization d ivided i nto s even s ocial d ivisions, p robably c orresponding t o c lans o r l ineages v illage

( Meländez 1 977:15).

a uthorities

f or

T hus,

t he l eadership i ncluded

f acilitating i nternal a ctivities a nd t erritorial

l eaders r esponsible f or t he

f low o f

t erritory.

1 29

g oods

a nd

i nformation w ithin t he

S ignificant p arallels c haracterize t he s ixteenth c entury a nd l ate p eriod p opulations i n t he D iquis V alley.

B oth w ere o rganized i n p ermanent

t erritories w ith n ucleated v illage c entrers o f s imilar p opulation d ensities ( Drolet n .d .c.). s ocial d ivisions

N ucleated v illages a ssociated w ith b oth p opulations h ad r elated t o o rganized d omestic a nd e conomic a ctivities.

E ach h ad a h ierarchy o f r anked a uthorities a nd s pecialists i n s pecific i ndustries t hat f acilitated t he s ocial a nd e conomic i ntegration o f t he t erritory . C enters s uch a s C octu a nd M urcielago ( P-107-MC) w ere n ot o nly p hysically s imilar , b ut e ach r epresented a gricultural v illages f or m aize a nd o ther p rincipal c rop c ultivation . T he i ntegration o f n ucleated v illages i n C hiriqui p hase a nd t he s ixteenth c entury C oto c hiefdom a ppears t o h ave b een b ased o n a s imilar s ystem o f a gricultural a ctivities, s ocial o rganization , v illage a lliances a nd p roduct e xchange. C learly, b oth p opulations w ere c losely r elated a nd f ormed a c ultural c ontinuum r elated t o c hiefdom d omination o f t he D iquis o r T grraba R iver b asin .

C onclusion a nd D iscussion T he d ocumentation o f C hiriqui p hase ( A .D. s uch a s d istribution,

1 000 - 1 500) s ite p arameters

s ize a nd s ettlement d ensity i n t he D iquis V alley

o ffers n ew e vidence t o e valuate t he o rganization o f m aize-based s ociopolitical s ocieties t hat o ccupied t he T erraba R iver l owlands. T he m ultivillage

n etwork

a nd

c emetery

c lasses

t hat h ave

b een a rchaeologically

m apped r eveal h ow t he v alley b ottoms w ere t he f ocus o f s ettlement a nd p olity o rganization . T his d emographic p attern a nd v illage s tructure h ave b een s hown t o b e s imilar t o s ixteenth c entury c hiefdom d omination o f t he s ame a rea , l inking t he t wo p opulations i n c ultural s equence. T he t erritorial b oundaries o f C hiriqui p hase s ettlement i n t he D iquis u nknown,

y et

t he

a rea a re

s till

l imited a rchaeological a nd e thnohistorical e vidence

s uggests t he multivillage n etwork e ncompassed d elta a nd u pper v alley p ortions o f t he Urraba d rainage, i ncorporating n umerous c ommunities i nto a s ingle s ociopolitical u nit. B eyond D iquis, c entral a nd e astern P anama w ere a lso a reas o f d ense c hiefdom s ettlement d uring s ixteenth c entury a nd l ate p eriod o ccupations ( Cooke 1 979 ; D rolet 1 980a ; 1 980b ; H elms 1 979 ; L inarea 1 977a). Y et i n t hese a reas,

t he e thnohistoric a nd a rchaeological e vidence i ndicates a p attern o f

s ettlement o rganization d ifferent f rom D iquis.

I n c entral P anama c hiefdom

t erritories, s uch a s N at , E scoria a nd P arita w ere c haracterized b y o ne o r m ore l arge n ucleated v illage c enters s urrounded b y s maller a gricultural s ettlements a nd s pecial c emetery s ites ( Cooke 1 979 ; n .d.). I n e astern P anama t here a ppears t o h ave b een n o n ucleated v illage c enters a ssociated w ith

t erritorial c hiefdoms,

d ispersed

a nd

i ntegrated

r ather

t hrough

t he

a s ector

s ettlements s ystem

h ere

w ere

a dm inistrated

b y

s mall, r anked

a uthorities u nder a s ingle c hief ( Drolet 1 980a ; n .d.e.; D rolet y D rolet 1 982: 2 3-27). A rchaeologically t his p attern h as b een t raced b ack a t l east 1 000 y ears

b efore

t he

S panish

a rrival

i n e ach r egional

a rea

( Cooke

n .d.;

D rolet y D rolet 1 982: 2 6-34; L inares 1 980d). T hese t hree t ypes o f c hiefdom t erritorial d esigns i ndicate t hat a lthough e ach w as c haracterized b y a s imilar

p olitical h ierarchy ,

m aize

d ensity a nd r iverine l ocation,

o riented a gricultural b ase ,

p opulation

t hey h ad m arkedly d ifferent s ettlement

s ystems. T he f actors w hich c ontributed t o t he f ormation o f t hese d ifferent c hiefdom t ypes i s s till p oorly u nderstood ( Linares 1 977a; 1 979). I n D iquis,

o ne

v ariable

w hich

s eems

t o

1 30

have

i nfluenced

t he

g rowth

a nd

c omplexity o f t he t erritorial v illages w as t he e mphasis o n l arge s ized h ousehold

u nits

a nd

t heir

i ntegration .

T hese

g roups,

i ndentified

w ith

f arming, s pecial i ndustries a nd p olitical a ctivities c learly f ormed t he p rincipal s ocial d ivisions i n v illages a nd w ithin t he t erritory. T heir c oncentration

i n

l arge

d emographic

c enters

r ather

t han

i n d ispersed

s ettlements i n t he m iddle p ortion o f t he b asin a ppears t o h ave b een r elated t o a v ariety o f

f actors ,

m ost i mportant ly,

t he u se o f r estricted a lluvial

l ands a long t he r iver f or m aize c ultivation . T he c hain o f n ucleated v illages a nd c emetery s ites i n t he D iquis B asin a ssociated w ith

l ate

p eriod

s ettlement

o ffers

a p articularly

u seful

o ccupational c omplex t o d ocument t he g rowth a nd v alley-wide e xpansion o f p olity

s ystem

t hat

c haracterized

f irst m illennium A .D .

m ost

o f

t o t he C onquest .

L ower

C entral

A merica

f rom

a t he

T he f irst p hase o f i nvestigationss

h as i dentified t he t emporal p lacement a nd o rganizational f eatures o f t his c omplex b ut n ot t he o ccupational s equence o f c ommunity g rowth o r a ll o f t he v aried

f actors

d efinition o f ( Cooke n .d.;

t hat L ower

l ed

t o

t erritorial

C entral A merica

1 979 ; F errero 1 975 :

i ntegration .

" chiefdoms"

A m ore

t han i s

1 89-190 ; L inares 1 977a ;

c onvincing

c urrently

i n u se

S narskis 1 981) c an

a rise o nly a fter t his e vidence a long w ith o ther r egionally c omparative d ata i s p resented u sing a ppropriate s urvey d esigns ( Flannery 1 976a ; 1 976b).

1 31

N OTES 1 .

A rchaeological s urvey o f D iquis V alley w as c onducted d uring 1 980-1981 b y t he a uthor a s f ield d irector o f t he " Boruca P roject". T he p roject w as o riginally d esigned a s a l ong-term s alvage o peration ( Cooke 1 982: 2 04-205;

D rolet

n .d.a .)

E lectricidad ( ICE) a nd N acional d e C osta R ica . i nvestigations,

f inanced

b y

t he

I nstituto

C ostarricense

d e

o rganized u nder t he d irection o f t he M useo A fter t welve m onths o f f ield a nd l aboratory

t he p roject w as s uspended o wing t o t he d ecision o f I CE

n ot t o c onstruct a h ydroelectric d am i n t he s tudy a rea . S ince t he s uspension , n o f urther f ieldwork i n t he v alley a rea h as r esumed. 2 .

A ll s ites f ound i n a ssociation w ith h ighland q uadrants ( 300-600m) w ere e xclusively P eriod I I d eposits

( Drolet n .d.c.;

D rolet y M arkens

1 981b). 3 .

T he

g eographical

e xtension

o f

t he

f ive

s ite

c lusters

a ppears

t o b e

s imilar, h owever, t he e xact a real s ize o f e ach l ocal a rea c ould n ot b e c onfirmed. O wing t o t he n ature o f t he q uadrant s urvey, e mphasis w as p laced o n l ocating a nd m apping t hose s ites w ithin t he o ne k ilometer s quare b locks s elected. S urvey w as c onducted o utside t hese s quares w hen s ite d eposits c ontinued i n a djacent a reas, o ffering a dditional e vidence o n s ite s pacing a nd d istributional p atterns.

I t w ould a ppear

f rom t he s urvey o perations c ompleted t husfar,

t hat s ites r adiated t hree

t o

c enter,

f our

k ilometers

f rom e ach

l ocal v illage

y et

t his

p attern

s till m ust b e d etermined b y m ore e xtensive i nvestigation . 4 .

H abitational d eposits a nd r esidential c onstructions w ere n ot c ontinuous o ver t he s ite.

V acant a reas,

v oid o f o ccupational d ebris o r s pecial

c onstructions a ppear t o h ave f ormed t he l imits b etween r esidential a reas ( Sectors 1 a nd 2 ). I n a nother c ase, n onresidential c onstructions s eparated t wo r esidential a reas ( Sectors 2 a nd 4 ). T hese d iscrete f eatures a ppear t o m ark p rincipal h abitational a nd n onhabitational s ections o f t he v illage, a nd t herefore e ach h as b een c alled a s ector. W ithin t he s ite f ive s ectors ( 1 ,2,4,5,6) h ave b een d esignated r esidential s ectors b ecause o f h abitational f eatures a nd o ne ( Sector 3 ) i s n on-residential ( Fig. 5 .

P resence o f

5 ).

i dentical c eramic a nd l ithic s urface m aterials c ollected

o ver t he p ortion o f t he s ite i nvestigated s uggests a s ingle c omponent o ccupation

f or M urci aago.

T est

e xcavations

w ere c onducted w ithin

a nd a djacent t o v arious r efuse d eposits i n t wo s ectors

( Sector

1 a nd

4 ) a nd w ithin o ne h ouse c ircle ( R174) i n o ne s ector ( Sector 4 ; D rolet y M arkens

1 981b).

S hallow s ubsurface d eposits

i n t hese

a reas

r evealed t he s ame r ange o f c eramic a nd l ithic t ypes a s f ound o n t he s urface. I f t here w as c hronological s eparation b etween d ifferent h ousehold s tructures, t he t ime r ange m ust b e s hort a nd i s p oorly d etectable t hrough t he c eramic a nd l ithic m aterials. 6 .

L ittle e vidence w as f ound a ssociated w ith p olished t ool m anufacture. P olishing s tones a nd m anufacturing f lakes, t ypically r ecovered f rom m anufacturing c ontexts a ssociated w ith t hese t ools ( Cooke 1 978) w ere n ot f ound.

F urthermore, a ll e xamples o f p olished t ools w ere f ound i n

1 32

v arious s tates o f u se o r r epair, s ignalling i ncomplete t ools o r b roken e xamples i n t he p rocess o f m anufacture w ere n ot p resent a t t he s ite. 7 .

N o i ntensive i nvestigations h ave b een m ade i n t he o ther t hree v illage s ites l ocated ( P-52-FR ,

P -54-SA ,

t hese s ites c over a reas n .d.c.:

F ig.

1 0),

r anging

i ndicating

P -61-CE). f rom f ive

t he

e xtent

S urface m aterials t o e ight h ectares

o f

o n

( Drolet

r esidential a reas.

N o

h abitational b ase f oundations w ere f ound p reserved a t t he t hree s ites, y et t he p resence o f d ispersed r iver c obbles a ssociated w ith d isturbed r efuse d eposits t hat

w ere

o riginally

t he

s uggests p lowed o ver h ouse c onstructions

s imilar

t o

t hose

i n M urcielago

( P-107-MC)

a nd

c learly s urrounded b y c oncentrated, s cattered r esidential r efuse a reas. S herds o f C eiba R ojo-Café c orresponding t o t he s ame r ange o f v essel

f orms

a s

t hose

f ound

a t

M urcielago

d ominate

t he

h abitation

a reas o f t he s ites a long w ith s maller p ercentages o f p olychrome w are ( Policromo-Buenos A ires) a nd a c obble s tone l ithic a ssemblage a nalogous t o t hat o f Murcielago ( Drolet n .d.a.; 1 981b).

D rolet y M arkens

A lthough t he c ontext o f d omestic a ctivities h as b een p oorly

p reserved a t t hese s ites,

t he r ange o f m aterials r elated t o t hose a t

M urcielago s trongly s uggests s imilar v illage a ctivities , s imilar h ousehold s ize g roups.

1 33

o rganized b y

R EFERENCES B arrantes,

C laudio C artin .

n .d.

E conomfas d e B oruca e n l a p rimera

m itad d el s iglo X VIII. M emoria , C ongreso E l S ureste d e C osta R ica , R egiön d e D esarollo, S an I sidro d e E l G eneral, C osta R ica ( October 1 981), I n P ress. B arrantes, C laudio C artin . 1 982 . N otas s obre l a u bicacion d e l as a ldeas t erritoriales d e l a p rovincia d e C oto, S iglo X VI, D iquis, C osta R ica . U npublished m anuscript. B ozzoli d e W ille ,

M aria E .

1 975 .

B irth a nd D eath i n t he B elief S ystem

o f t he B ribri I ndians o f C osta R ica. G eorgia , A thens , G eorgia . B ozzoli B ribris.

d e W ille ,

M aria E .

P h.D. D issertation,

1 979 .

U niversity o f

E l N acimiento y l a M uerte E ntre l os

E ditorial U niversidad d e C osta R ica , S an J ose, C osta R ica .

B ray, W arwick .

1 981. R eview : A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama .

O lga F . L inares a nd A nthony J . R anere, e ds. M an , V ol. C ooke,

R ichard G .

P anama ' p recolombino. 4 8-77 . C ooke,

1 978 .

e n

p rehistofico.

l os

1 979.

N o.

2 ,

P anamä ,

p p .

L os i mpactos d e l as c omunidades a griEolas

a mbientes

d el

t rofico

e stacional;

d atos

d el

P anama

A ctas d el I V S imposio I nternacional E cologico T ropical d e

P anama , P anamä , p p . C ooke,

E l c arpintero y e l h achero:dos a rtesanos e n e l

R evista P anamenä d e A ntropologia ,

R ichard G .

p recolombinas

1 6, n o. 3 , p p. 4 81.

9 17-973.

R ichard G .

1 981.

P roject B oruca ,

J une 1 980 t o J une

1 981,

C urrent R esearch R eport, A merican A ntiquity , V ol. 4 7:204-205. C ooke, P anama :

R ichard G .

n .d.

A rchaeological r esearch i n c entral a nd e astern

a r eview o f s ome p roblems,

I n A dvanced S eminar o n C entral A merican

A rchaeology , S chool o f A merican R esearch, S anta F e, N ew M exico ( April 1 980). I n p ress. D rolet,

P atricia L .

y R obert P . D rolet .

1 982. E l A sentamiento C ultural

e n l a C osta A rriba : C osteüos, C hocoes, C uevas y G rupos P rehistöricos. I nstituto N acional d e C ultura , P anama . D rolet, C aribbean , U rbana ,

R obert P .

1 980a .

E astern P anama .

C ultural S ettlement A long t he M oist S lopes o f

P h.D.

D issertation,

U niversity o f

I llinois,

I llinois.

D rolet,

R obert

e astern P anama .

P .

P aper

1 980b.

A c obble

d elivered

a t

s tone

l ithic

i ndustry i n A tlantic

t he A nnual M eeting o f

t he

S ociety o f

A merican A rchaeology, N ew O rleans ( April 1 980). 2 4pp . D rolet,

R obert P .

1 983.

A n ew i mage f or p rehistory i n t ropical

C entral A merica , R eview : A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama . O lga F . L inares a nd R obert J . R anere, e ds. A merican A ntiquity, V ol. 4 9, N o. 2 .

1 34

D rolet, A guas

R obert

P .

n .d.a .

R esidence

B uenas a nd C hiriqui p hases

a nd

c ommunity

i n t he D iquis

i ntegration d uring

V alley ,

s outheastern C osta

R ica. I n A dvanced S eminar o n C entral American A rchaeology, A merican R esearch, S anta F e, N ew M exico ( April 1 980). I n p ress. D rolet,

R obert P .

V alle d el D iquis, C ongreso E l

n .d.b .

U na a ldea n ucleada d e l a f ase C hiriqui e n e l

s ureste C osta R ica ,

S ureste

S chool o f

d e C osta R ica ,

S itio M urciälago

( P-107-MC), M emoria ,

R egiön d e D esarollo,

S an I sidro d e E l

G eneral, C osta R ica ( October 1 981). I n p ress. D rolet,

R obert

P .

n .d.c.

E l o tro

l ado d e C hiriqui,

e l D iquis:

n uevos p ara l a i ntegraciön c ultural e n l a r egiön G ran C hiriqui. M useo N acional d e C osta R ica , D rolet,

R obert

P .

S an J osé , C osta R ica .

n .d.d.

S ocial

w ithin a l ate p hase p olity n etwork :

G rouping

J ournal o f t he S teward A nthropological S ociety, U rbana , I llinois. I n p ress . D rolet,

R obert

P .

n .d.e.

C olön,

P anamä.

D rolet,

r esidential

s ocioeconömica d e u na

I V C ongreso Nacional d e Antropologia,

P .

a nd

R obert

I llinois,

C osta A rriba , P rovincia d e

I nstituto N acional d e C ultural, P anamä . R obert

a ctivities

s outheastern C osta R ica .

U niversity o f

L a o rganaciön

i ndustria l itica d e l a v ertiente d el A tläntico: E tnohistoria ,

I n p ress.

a nd

D iquis V alley,

d atos

V inculos,

Markens.

A rquelogia y

I n p ress.

1 980a.

I nvestigaciones

a rqueolögicas e n e l V alle d e E l G eneral, P untarenas, C osta R ica. P .H. B oruca . M useo N acional d e C osta R ica , S an J ose , C osta R ica . M anuscript, 5 1 p p . D rolet,

R obert

P .

a nd

R obert

Markens.

a rqueolögicas e n e l s itio P -107-MC y e l V alle R egiön D iquis,

C osta R ica.

P .H.

S an J osé, C osta R ica . M anuscript, D rolet,

R obert

P .

a nd

a rqueolögicas e n M urciälago, N acional d e C osta R ica , D rolet,

R obert

1 980b.

i ntermedio

5 4 p p .

R obert

Markens.

1 981a.

I nvestigaciones

S itio P -107-MC, r io T erraba . P .R. B oruca . M useo

a nd

R obert

a rqueolögicas e n e l V alle d el D iquis,

M arkens.

1 981b.

1 50 p p. I nvestigaciones

1 980-1981, I nforme F inal, P .H. B oruca .

M useo N acional d e C osta R ica , S an J osé, C osta R ica . M anuscript, F ernädez

G uardia ,

R icardo D .

1 964.

1 50 p p .

C artas d e J uan V äzquez d e C oronado.

A cademia d e G eografia e H istoria d e C osta R ica , F errero , L uis.

r io T erraba ,

B oruca , Museo Nacional d e C osta R ica,

S an J osé, C osta R ica . M anuscript, P .

I nvestigaciones d el

S an J ose, C osta R ica .

1 975 . C osta R ica P recolombina . E ditorial C osta R ica ,

S an

J ose, C osta R ica . F indlow , F rank J ., M ichael S narskis, P hyllis M artin a nd R obert M arkens. 1 980.

A s urvey d esign f or t he B oruca a rchaeological p roject.

d e C osta R ica , F lannery, s ettlement

M useo N acional

S an J ose. M anuscript K ent

r ules.

V .

1 976a.

L inear

s tream

p atterns

I n T he E arly M esoamerican V illage,

A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork p p .

1 73-180 .

1 35

e d.

a nd

K ent V .

r iverside F lannery .

F lannery,

K ent V .

1 976b .

E volution o f c omplex s ettlement s ystems.

T he E arly M esoamerican V illage, Y ork. p p . 1 62-173 . H aberland, W olfgang.

K ent V .

F lannery ,

A cademic

P ress,

H aberland, W olfgang.

S eries

1 961.

I nforme S emestral,

G eographica

e t

E thnographica.

W olfgang .

N o.1,

A rqueologfa d el v alle d el r io C eiba ,

I nstituto G eogräfico d e C osta R ica ,

n .d.

T he

a rchaeology

o f

G reater

A dvanced S eminar o n C entral American A rchaeology,

B uneos

S an J ose,

H aberland, W olfgang. 1 976 . G ran C hiriqui, V fnculos, V ol. 2 N o. N acional d e C osta R ica , S an J ose, C osta R ica , p p . 1 15-121. H aberlands,

I n N ew

1 959 . A rchaologische U ntersuchugen i n S udost-Costa

R ica. A cta Humboldiana, W iesbaden .

A ires. 3 1-62.

e d .

p p.

1 , M useo

C hiriqui,

I n

S chool o f A merican

R esearch, S anta F e, N ew M exico ( April 1 980), I n p ress. H elms, M ary .

1 979. A ncient P anama . U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin .

Holmes, W illiam H .

1 888. A ncient a rt o f t he P rovince o f C hiriqui.

B ureau o f A merican E thnology , 6 th A nnual R eport, p p . 3 1-187. L ange, R adiations e ds.

F rederick W .

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i n P rehistoric

S cience, V ol. 2 11 p p . L inares,

O lga F .

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P anama .

O lga F .

L inares

R eview :

A daptive

a nd A nthony J .

R anere,

1 412-1413 .

1 968a .

C eramic p hases f or C hiriqui,

r elationship t o n eighboring s equences.

P anama a nd t heir

A merican A ntiquity,

V ol.

3 3,

N o.

2

p p . 2 16-225 . L inares,

O lga F .

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t he G ulf

P anama . S mithsonian C ontributions i n A nthropology, V ol. 8 , p p . L inares,

O lga F .

1 977a.

o f

C hiriqui,

1 -119.

E cology a nd t he A rts i n A ncient P anama .

S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology,

N o.

1 7,

Dumbarton O aks,

W ashington ., L inares,

O lga F .

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O lga F .

1 977b.

A daptive s trategies i n w estern P anama.

8 , N o. 3 , p p . 3 04-349 . 1 979 .

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A nnual R eviews o f A nthropology, V ol. L inares,

O lga F .

1 980a .

8 , p p . 2 1-43.

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A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama , J . R anere , M ass. p p .

P eabody M useum M onographs, N o.

e ds.

O lga F .

t ime

a nd p lace.

I n

L inares a nd A nthony

5 , H arvard U niversity, C ambridge,

8 1-117.

L inares,

O lga F .

1 980b.

E cology a nd p rehistory o f

t he A guacate

P eninsula i n B ocas d el T oro. I n A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama , e ds. O lga F . L inares a nd A nthony J . R anere , P eabody M useum M onographs, N o. 5 , H arvard U niversity, C ambridge, M ass.

1 36

p p. 5 7-66 .

L inares, s ites.

O lga F .

1 980c.

E cology a nd p rehistory o f t he C hiqiqui G ulf

I n A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama ,

e ds.

O lga F .

L inares

a nd N athony J . R anere , P eabody M useum M onographs, N o. 5 , Harvard U niversity , C ambridge, M ass. p p . 6 7-77. L inares,

O lga

F .

1 980d.

C onclusions.

I n

A daptive R adiations

i n P rehistoric P anama , e ds. O lga F . L inares a nd N athony J . R anere, P eabody M useum M onographs, N o. 5 , Harvard U niversity , C ambridge, M ass. p p . 2 33-247. L athrop, S amuel K .

1 963.

A rchaeology o f t he D iquis D elta ,Costa R ica .

P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rcaheology a nd E thnolgoy , U niversity, C ambridge, M ass. M acCurdy, G eorge C .

1 911.

V ol .

5 1, H arvard

A S tudy o f C hiriquian A ntiquities.

M emoirs

o f t he C onnecticut A cademy o f S ciences, N o. 3 . M elenders, m ediados

C arlos C h.

d el s iglo X VI,

1 977.

T ipos d e p oblaciön e n C osta R ica a

e n C osta R ica : T ierra y P oblamiento e n l a C olonia ,

e d. C arlos M elendez C h. E ditorial C osta R ica , S an J osé , p p. 9 -19. P eralta , S iglo X VI.

M anuel M aria .

1 883.

C osta R ica, N icaragua y P anama e n e l

M adrid.

S heets, P ayson D .

1 973.

T he t wo c hipped s tone i ndustries o f B arilles,

W estern P anama . P aper d elivered a t t he 3 8th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology , S an F rancisco, C alifornia . S heets,

P ayson D .

1 980 .

T he V olcan B aru R egion :

A daptive R adiations i n P rehistoric P anama . J . R anere, M ass.

P eabody M useum M onographs, N o.

a s ite s urvey .

I n

e ds. O lga F . L inares a nd A nthony 5 , Harvard U niversity, C ambridge,

p p . 2 67-275 .

S narskis, M ichael J . 1 981. T he a rchaeology o f C osta R ica. B etween C ontinents/Between S eas: P re C olumbian A rt o f C osta R ica. D etroit I nstitute o f R ats, Harry N . A brams, I nc . N ew Y ork. p p . S narskis, M ichael J . r escate

a rqueolögico

n .d .

B oruca :

I n T he

1 5-84.

E l d isef lo d e p rospecciö p ara e l p royecto d e o bjectivos

y m gtodos.

M emoria .

C ongreso E l

S ureste d e C osta R ica , R egion d e D esarrollo, S an I sidro d e E l G eneral, C osta R ica ,

( October 1 981), I n p ress. S tone,

D oris.

1 958.

I ntroduction t o t he A rchaeology o f C osta R ica .

M useo N acional d e C osta R ica , S an J ose, C osta R ica . S tone ,

D oris.

1 963 .

C ult

t raits i n s outheastern C osta R ica a nd t heir

s ignificance. A merican A ntiquity, V ol . 2 8 , N o. 3 , p p . 3 39-359. S tone,

D oris.

1 977.

P re-Columbian M an i n C osta R ica .

P ress, C ambridge, M ass.

1 37

P eabody

M useum

S ECTOR 4 ( 10.9 h ec.)

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P olicromo B A

R efuse d eposits

S ECTOR 2 ( 4.3 h ec.)

c1 41 /

c a E 4

C oastal a nd

H ighland

B ocas

S avana

C hiriqui

d el T oro

D iquis

C hiriqui

C hiriqui

C hiriqui

1 500-

I II

C hiriqui B ocas A guacate

7 00-

S an L orenzo

A guas

B urica

B ugaba

C oncepcion

B arriles

B uenas

B .C./A .D.

4 00-

F ig . 2 .

2 300-

B oquete

5 000-

T alamanca

C hronological c hart, D rolet n .d.c.).

G reater C hiriqui.

( Linares 1 980a : 1 11;

*

F ig.

1

G reater C hiriqui R egion

1 40

F igs.

3 ,

4 .

F igure 3 s hows

t he l ocation o f

t hirty-nine ,

o ne k ilometer 2

s urvey q uads d istributed i n t he m iddle p ortion o f t he T grraba ( Diquis) B asin . 1 981 s eason .

B lack

s quares w ere

1 41

c ompleted d uring

t he

1 980-

F igure 4 i llustrates t he d istribution o f C hiriqui p hase s ites

w ithin

f ive

s ettlement

a reas

l ocated.

i nclude v illages d esignated w ith a c ircle, d esignated

w ith

a d ot

a nd

c emeteries

C lasses

o f

w ith

s pecial

s urface

c onstructions a nd a rtifact f eatures d esignated w ith a c ross.

1 42

s ites

s imple t omb ' c emeteries

• Res ident ia l S tructures 0 P robab le Res ident ia l S tructures o Non-res ident ia l Base S tructures **

H igh Terrace Cemetery Unsurveyed A rea

F ig. 5 .

S itio M urciglago v illage

( P-107-MC).

M ap

i ndicates

a real

p ortion m apped d uring

1 980-1981.

s ectors r unning w est t o e ast i nclude;

S ector 1 ,

3 ,

a nd

a nd S ector 4 .

e xtension

o f

F our d esignated S ector 2 ,

S ector

S ectors 5 a nd 6 a re u nmapped p ortions o f s ite.

C ontour l ines a re a t o ne m eter i ntervals.

1 43

F ig. 6 .

H ouse

c luster 2 ,

S ector 4 .

c ircular h ouse f oundations

M ap s hows ( R174,

n onresidential b uilding f oundations c auseway

( R237).

d ifferent

s ized

( R221,

S urrounding t hese r efuse

d eposits

o ccupational d ebris a nd a rtifacts

t he l ocation o f t hree

R 175, b ase

w here

w ere

C osta R ica.

1 44

t wo

s maller

R 244) a nd a s mall c onstructions c oncentrations

a re o f

s ystematically p laced.

C ontour l ines a re a t o ne m eter i ntervals. D iquis,

R 277),

S itio M urci nago,

. 1 0 = . .

i 4

1

0

5

5

1 : 1 1 1 1: 1 1 1 1= 1

2 3 0

S

t 7

i

6

2 5

0

5 1 = 1 1 1 1= 1 113

0 .

2

8 =

1 7

1 0

1 2

Ma »

1 8 0 5 r =m :z s ic i

1 9

20 0 5 c o os=

2 1

22

23

A l l s ca les i n c en t imeters .

24 0

1 = 1 1

F ig. 8 .

5

C I I C I

L ithic t ools , S itio M urciglago ( P107-MC). M anos ( 1-2); m etates ( 3) ; p ecking s tones ( 4-5); u nifacially f laked , d ouble-notched a xes ( 6-7); n utting s tone ( 8) ; g rinding p latform w ith s tub l egs ( 910) ; o val a nd f lat-faced m illing s tones ( 1112); h ammerstones ( 1314); u nidirectional c ores ( 1516) ; s crapers ( 1718) ; k n ives ( 19-20); a xe ( 21) ; c elt ( 22); c hisel ( 23) ; a nd c elt s harpening s tone ( 24). D iquis , C osta R ica . S cale : 2 5 c m . ( 3) ; a ll o thers a re 5 c m . s cales. .

4 1 4 0

‘ 2 6 . „
3 c13 ow m w wkw > -1 — a c t — I-I — pa

0 D -

4

w

w

•0

4

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▪

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4

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c ä

M

C Z

w

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w

0

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•

4

4 •

•

• • 4

•

4

4 4

4 4

4

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•

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4

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4

• cv i

•

•

C 1 Z

c v i

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c r 7 i T :

c o . ( . ; .

o o u i

9 10133A F ig.

1 3.

S tandardized C eram ic D ata

C haracteristic

V ector P lot:

V allejo P olychrome

N ORTHEAST H ONDURAS: A P RECOLUMBIAN F RONTIER Z ONE P aul F . H ealy

I ntroduction N ortheast H onduras

h as

b een

e xplored

a nd

m entioned

i n

e arly

S panish

d ocuments s ince t he b eginning o f t he 1 6th c entury , f irst b y C olumbus i n 1 502, a nd t wenty y ears l ater b y C ortes ( Columbus 1 847 ; D iaz d el C astillo 1 908;

M acNutt

i naccessible

1 908).

j ust

a s

T he

i t w as

a rea

t o

i s

r emote

e ven

t he S panish E ntradas

t oday o f

a nd

l argely

t he 1 6th a nd

1 7th

c enturies. B etweeen

1 973-1976,

a rchaeological

i nvestigations,

s ponsored

p rincipally b y t he N ational G eographic S ociety o f W ashington , w ere c onducted i n t he D epartment o f C olön , n ortheast H onduras u nder t he d irection o f t he a uthor .

T he w ork c ompleted i n t his

r ugged z one o f H onduras

i ncluded

s ite

m apping, s urface s urvey a nd c ollection, a s w ell a s 2 5 e xcavations c oncentrated a t f ive s ites ( 1-CN-4: W illiams R anch; H -CN-5: S elin F arm ; HC N-6:

G ericki S ite;

H-CN:12:

R io C laro;

a nd H-CN-21:

T rujillo F ort).

P reliminary r eports o n t he t hree p rimary p rehistoric s ites ( H-CN-4, H -CN-5, H -CN-12) h ave n ow b een p ublished a nd a f inal p roject r eport p repared ( Healy 1 975, 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 982a). T his

i nitial

w ork

has

a rchaeological i nformation ,

r evealed

t hat

t here

e xists

a w ealth

o f

s panning s everal m illennia o f h uman o ccupation

i n t his d istant r egion , a nd i t s hows a u nique b lending o f b oth M esoamerican a nd L ower C entral A merican c ultural t raits. T his r eport w ill e xam ine s ome o f t he i ndications o f c ultural l inkages w ith o ther r egions, i mplications f or t he r egion's o verall c ultural e volution .

a nd s ome

P revious A rchaeological R esearch Earlier

a rchaeological

i nvestigation o f n ortheast Honduras h as b een

q uite s poradic a nd p redominantly d escriptive i n n ature . E lsewhere w e h ave d ocumented t he p revious r esearch i n s ome d etail ( Healy 1 974a, 1 978b). S uffice i t t o s ay h ere t hat t he p rincipal e arly e fforts w ere c onducted a lmost e xclusively b y f ive r esearchers: H .J. S pinden ( 1925), J .T. B ird , w ith n o p ublication o f r esults, E pstein

( 1957).

W .D.

S trong ( 1935),

T he c ollective

e fforts

s pan

D .Z.

S tone

f rom t he

( 1941),

1 920s

t o

a nd J .F. t he m id-

1 950s. W hen

t he Harvard U niversity-Peabody M useum

p roject

b egan

i n

1 973

i n

C olön , t here h ad b een n o p rofessional f ieldwork i n t his r egion f or m ore t han t wo d ecades.

O ur r esearch f rom 1 973-1976 w as t he f irst c oncentrated,

m ulti-year r esearch e ffort i n t he r egion . t o s ubdivide t he p revious c hronology, m illennium t o c a .

1 300 B .C.

F rom t his w ork w e h ave b een a ble a nd e xtend i t b ack m ore t han a

B etween t he 2 5 t est e xcavations

a nd s urface c ollections f rom t wo d ozen s ites, c eramic

i nventory o f

m ore

t han 3 3,000

2 27

s herds,

u ndertaken ,

w e h ave a massed a c omparative p artial

a nd

w hole

v essels.

T hese have n ow b een c lassified i nto s ome 4 6 t ypes a nd v arieties.

I n

a ddition , a nalysis o f m ore t han 4 00 l ithic, c eram ic, a nd b one a rtifacts h as r esulted i n a c larification a nd r efinement o f t he r egional a rtifactual s equence a nd t his h as b een f urther c omplemented b y 1 4 r adiocarbon d ates, t he f irst s uch d eterminations f rom t his r egion o f C entral A merica ( Table 1 ). I nitial s tudies o f m olluscan a nd f aunal r emains,

p rincipally f rom t he H -CN-

5 : S elin F arm s ite, have p rovided a n u nusually d etailed p icture o f t he p rehistoric s ubsistence p atterns p revalent i n n ortheast Honduras ( Healy 1 978c, 1 982b). T hese i dentifications s uggest a r emarkable r ange o f d iversity o f h unting a nd g athering a ctivities,

i n a ddition t o f arming

p ractices, e specially b etween 3 00-1000 A .D.

G eographical a nd C ultural S etting T he g eographical a nd e cological s etting f or o ur s tudy r egion o f C olön h as a lso b een d escribed p reviously r ecapitulating ,

( Healy 1 974a ,

1 978a ,

1 978b).

B riefly

t he r egion a round T rujillo, t he p rincipal t own i n C olön , c an

b e d ivided i nto t hree v ery b asic e cological z ones: t he n arrow c oastal p lain a round T rujillo, m arked o ff b y t he m oderate h eight s ierras c alled t he C ordillera N ombre d e D ios; t he A guan R iver V alley , b ehind T rujillo a nd l ocated o n t he o ther s ide o f t he C ordillera ;

a nd t hirdly ,

t he r ich l agoon-

e stuary z one s urrounding t he e xpansive G uaimoreto L agoon , a nd c onnecting t he o ther t wo z ones ( Fig. 1 ). P rehistoric a rchaeological s ites w ere n oted f rom a ll t hree z ones.

O f

t hose l ocalities r eceiving m ore i ntensive s urvey o r e xcavations, t he C uyamel C aves

( I- M-14,

H -CN-15, H -CN-16) a nd t he R io C laro s ite

( H- M-12),

l ie i n

t he R io A guan v alley , w hile H -CN5: S elin F arm a nd H -CN-4: W illiam R anch a re i n t he l agoon-estuary z one . S everal o ther S elin a nd C ocal P eriod s ites w ere i dentified i n t he c oastal p lain z one b ut n one o f t hese w as i ntensively t ested . O n r egion

a b roader i s

c ultural a nd g eographic

l ocated

o n

t he

h ypothesized

s cale ,

f rontier

n ortheast H onduras b etween

t he

a s

a

M esoamerican

c ulture a rea ( Willey 1 966: F ig. 3 .6) a nd t he s omewhat m ore a morphous I ntermediate A rea ( Willey 1 971: F ig . 5 .1). I n p articular, t he r egion f orms t he n orthernmost e dge o f w hat n ow a ppears t o b e a w edge o f S outh A merican g roups a long A tlantic c oastal C entral A merica . S tone ( 1941) h as a rgued t hat t he P aya I ndians o ccupied t his r egion i n p re-historic t imes.

C ampbell

( 1979) h as c lassed t he P aya l anguage a s p art o f t he S outh A merican C hibchan l inguistic f amily.

N ortheast Honduras, t hen, l ies b etween t he n early

s tate-like M aya c ivilization t o

t he w est,

a nd

t he m ore

l oosely-structured

t ropical f orest t ribes t o t he s outh .

E arly C haracterizations o f t he A rchaeology o f N orthest H onduras H istorically, s ince t he f irst p ublished d escriptions o f t he a rchaeology o f n ortheast Honduras t here have b een a llusions t o b oth M esoamerican, u sually M ayan , i nfluences, a nd s imultaneously t he r ather c urious " southern" c haracter t o b oth t he c ultural r emains a nd s ites o f v ery

b eginning

r egion a nd

o f

p lace

r esearch , i t

s quarely

t hen ,

i t

i nto o ne

h as

t he r egion .

b een d ifficult

c ulture

a rea

( i.e.

F rom t he

t o c lassify M esoamerica)

t he o r

a nother ( i.e I ntermediate A rea). O ne

o f

t he

e arliest

t o

c omment

o n

2 28

t he

a rchaeology w as H .J.

S pinden .

H e a rgued t hat t he d ecorative a rt o f a boriginal g roups o f t he r egion s howed b oth

M ayan

a nd

S outh

A merican

t raits ( Spinden 1 925 :535).

( specifically

C olombia ,

E cuador

a nd

P eru)

H e w as p articularly i mpressed b y t he m onumental

m etates a nd s tone s labs o f

t he n ortheast r egion w hich h e

c onsidered

t o

b e

q uite s imilar t o t hose a t t he L as M ercedes s ite i n c oastal A tlantic C osta R ica ( see H artman 1 901) A d ecade l ater, W .D. S trong ( 1935:169), w ho c onducted i nvestigations o n b oth t he m ainland a nd a djoining B ay I slands, a greed w ith S pinden's o bservations o f s ome M esoamerican ( Mayan) i nfluences, b ut a t t he s ame t ime S trong b elieved t hat t he c loser c ultural l inks w ere b etween n ortheast Honduras a nd L ower C entral A merica , e specially N icaragua a nd C osta R ica . I n r eferring t o t he B ay I slands ( which h ave b een s hown t o h ave v irtually t he s ame c ultural s equence a s t he m ainland) S trong ( 1935 :170) s tated " ... t he p rehistoric r emains ..

f it i nto t he a rchaeological p atterns o f w estern

N icaragua a nd n orthern C osta R ica s urprisingly w ell ."

I n p articular ,

h e

s aw n umerous r esemblances a nd a " very c lose r elationship" b etween n ortheast H onduras c eramics

( what w e w ould t oday l abel C ocal P eriod c eramics) a nd t he

h ighland a pplique w ares o f C osta R ica . o f S outh A merican I ndians, a nd

s outh

t he

a pplique

S till l ater w riting i n t he Handbook

S trong ( 1948 :115) s tated t hat " In b oth t he n orth s tyle

o ccurs

i n

t erritories

o ccupied

a lmost

e xclusively b y C hibchan , o r p robably C hibchan-speaking p eoples, a nd t here i s a h igh p robability t hat t he s tyle p ertained t o t he G uetar i n t he s outh a nd P aya , J icaque, a nd r elated p eoples i n t he n orth ." D .Z.

S tone

t oo

a scribed

t o

t he

t heory

o f

s ignificant

s outherly

i nfluences o n n ortheast Honduras. S he w rote " In t he N ortheastern r egion , C osta R ican Highland ( or G uetar) t raits a re f ound i n a n a rea w hich w as l inguistically, P aya . I ndeed, t he P aya m ay w ell b e an orthwestern w edge o f s ome o f t he C osta R ican p eople ( Stone 1 941:95)."

S he g oes o n t o

n ote v arious c eramic s imilarities, w hat s he t erms a " strong s tylistic l ink" w ith h ighland C osta R ica , b ut a lso w ith P anama a nd b eyond . E pstein m atters t ies

( 1957:165),

w ho

f or t his r egion ,

w ith

t hereafter,

t he

l owland

h owever,

w as

t he

a rgued t hat Maya

f irst t here

s ubarea

t o w restle w ith c hronological w ere

b etween

E pstein ( 1957:277) s aw " ...

t hrust o f C hibchan o r

s trong n ortheast H onduras 6 00-900

A .D.

S hortly

t he f irst e vidence o f

s outh C entral A merican c ultures

t he

f rom t he s outh i nto

t he n orth." H e c ommented a lso o n t he c oincidence o f d ating f or t he a rrival o f t hese C hibchan c ultures f rom t he s outh w ith t he c ollapse o f t he C lassic M aya c ivilization t o t he w est : -T here i s a d efinite s uggestion o f a lmost m echanical r eplacement ,

t hat s outhern i nfluences f illed a v acuum c reated b y

t he a bsence o f M ayoid a nd M ayan s timuli ( lbid)." W e c an n ow , m ore t han 2 5 y ears a fter E pstein's m useum s tudy w as w ritten , r e-exam ine t he n ortheast H onduras a rchaeological i nventory w ith t he a dded b enefit o f t he 1 973-1976 d ata, a nd w ith a r apidly g rowing b ody o f i nformation a bout t he p rehistory o f L ower C entral A merica ( Lange a nd S tone i n p ress).

W ith t his m ore c urrent p erspective,

w hat c an n ow b e s aid a bout

t he p icture o f c ultural l inkages f or n ortheast H onduras ?

C urrent P erspective o n E xternal L inkages L ooking

a t

t he

n ortheast

Honduras

r egion

f rom

a c hronological

p erspective w e c an s ee s ome i nteresting c hanges o f c ultural i nfluence a cross n early t hree m illennia ( from c a.

1 300 B .C.

2 29

- 1 525 A .D.) o f p rehistory.

T hese d istinctive f luctuations r ange f rom r ather s ubtle c hanges c ultural s timulus.

t o h eavier

T hey a lmost c ertainly r eflect t he f luid n ature o f

c ulture c ontact s o p revalent i n t he " frontier" o r b uffer z one s etting w hich s eems t o c haracterize n ortheast H onduras.

C uyamel P eriod ( ca . A t

t he

1 350-400 B .C.)

t ime o f w riting ,

t here i s n o e vidence i n n ortheast H onduras o f

e ither P aleo-Indian o r A rchaic P eriod s ites. M an

s ites

k nown

f rom

a nywhere

e lse

I ndeed ,

i n Honduras,

t here a re n o E arly

a nd e xcept

f or

a p oorly

k nown s tratigraphic l ayer a t C opan , a nd t wo o ther s ites o nly t entatively d ated t o t he A rchaic P eriod, t hese t oo a re r are f rom t he b alance o f t he c ountry ( Healy 1 982c).

T he e arliest e vidence f rom t he n ortheast i s d erived

f rom t hree e xtremely i solated c ave s ites i n t he l ower A guan R iver V alley. C ollectively t ermed t he C uyamel C aves, a fter a s mall p ueblo o f t hat n ame, t hese l imestone c averns have p roduced u nquestionable F ormative P eriod c eram ics . T he p resently k nown c eramic i nventory f rom t he c aves c onsists o f s amples r emoved b y t he a uthor d uring o ur 1 973 s ite s urvey, a s w ell a s a s ubstantial c ollection o f w hole v essels a nd l ithics l ooted f rom t he c aves a nd n ow h oused i n t he I nstituto H onduref lo T egucigalpa

( Healy

t echnologically, v ery c losely

1 974a;

R eyes

a nd

d e A ntropologiä V eliz

1 974).

e

H istoria i n

S tylistically,

a nd m orphologically t he m ajority o f t he C uyamel p ieces a re

t ied w ith E arly

a nd M iddle P reclassic c eramics f rom s outhern

M esoamerica . S ome o f t he C uyamel C aves v essel's a nd a rtifacts o bviously d ate t o t he l ater S elin a nd C ocal P eriods, a nd p ost-date t he C uyamel P eriod . T hese i nclude t he S elin M anatee L ug a nd B ay I sland P olychrome p ottery t ypes a s w ell a s T -shaped a xes. T he c aves, t hen o bviously h ad a l engthy h istory o f u tilization. T he w ell-made, d ecorated p ottery i ncludes m ostly m onochromes ( red , b uff o r b lack) o r b ichromes ( particularly r ed-on-buff o r b lack-on-red). D ecorative t echniques i nclude f luting a nd g adrooning, p unctation , a nd z oned i ncisions. V essel f orms a re d ominated b y t ubes pouted b ottles, t ecomates, f igure-8 d ouble b ottles ( gourd-shaped), f latb ased , o utflaring w all b owls a nd l idded b oxes . C eramic e ffigy f orms o f a nimals ( especially r odents, a rmadillos, a nd s phinx-like c reatures) a nd s eated s tone h uman e ffigy f igures a lso o ccur. T he c losest c onnections t o C uyamel p ottery a ppear t o b e w ith t he B ajiö a nd C hicharras ( 1350-1250 B .C.) p hases o f t he S an L orenzo s ite , i n V eracruz, M exico

( Coe

a nd D iehl

1 980).

H ere

b ottle

t ecomates a re a nother i mportant f orm . g adrooning, a bundance.

s quash

f orms,

f orms

a lso

p redominate ,

B lack s lipped c eramics,

m onochromes

a nd

b ichromes,

w hile

f luting a nd

a lso

o ccur

i n

T he C uyamel a nd S an L orenzo c eramics d o n ot a ppear t o b e

i dentical c eramic t ypes, b ut a re v ery c lose o n am odal l evel. O ther s imilarities a nd l inkages a re w ith M iddle F ormative c eramics f rom L a V enta ( Drucker 1 952), a nd t he C hontalpa r egion o f T abasco ( Sisson 1 976), T lapacoya ( Coe 1 965), a nd T latilco ( Porter 1 953; P iüa C hän 1 958), t he l atter p air l ocated P laya

i n c entral M exico.

d e

l os M uertos

C loser

c eramics

t o

t he n ortheast

a nd h ollow f igurines

r egion ,

s ome o f

t he

f rom w estern H onduras

a ppear v ery s imilar t o t he C uyamel t ypes, a s d o t he b ottles r ecovered a t t he t urn o f t he c entury i n t he C opan C aves i n f ar w est H onduras ( Gordon 1 898 ; K ennedy 1 980; H ealy 1 982c). I n a ll o f t hese c ases t he s imilarities a re c onfined t o E arly-Middle P reclassic c omplexes. O f p articular i nterest f rom t he C uyamel C aves c ollections a re t wo

2 30

b lack-slipped,

i ncised ,

O lmecoid b owls.

O ne o f

t hese h as b een p ublished

p reviously a nd i s t oday i n t he I HAH c ollection ( Healy 1 974a : F ig. 4 e; 1 974b). T he o ther p iece i s i n ap rivate c ollection i n T rujillo, C ol6n , b ut r eportedly w as

d erived

f rom t he

C uyamel

r egion

a nd

b ears

t he

d istinctive

t ell t ale c alcium c arbonate e ncrustation o f t he c aves ( Healy 1 982c: F ig. 6 .) B oth c ylinder-like v essels h ave w hat

a ppear

t o

b e O lmecoid d esigns

i ncised

i n t hem a s t he p rincipal v essel d ecoration a nd b ear r esemblances t o S an L orenzo ( 1150-900 B .C.) p hase c eramics f rom t he O lmec G ulf C oast s ite o f t he s ame n ame.

S elin P eriod ( 300-1000 A .D. T here i s a s izeable b reak i n t ime b etween s ites a nd e vidence d ating t o t he C uyamel P eriod a nd t he s ubsequent S elin P eriod . o ur

d ata

i s

a lmost

c ertainly

a c onsequence o f

T his n oteable g ap i n

l imited

r egional s ampling.

I t i s d ifficult t o c onceive o f n ortheast H onduras a s l acking h abitation f or t he s even c enturies o r m ore b etween t he t wo p eriods. W e p ick u p t he a rchaeological e vidence a gain a t a bout t he t hird c entury A .D.

T he S elin P eriod ,

a s

r efined

i nto t hree u nequal p hases. 6 00 A .D.)

a nd

t he B asic

b y

o ur

r esearch ,

T he f irst t wo o f t hese,

S elin

( 600-800 A .D.),

h as

b een s ubdivided

t he E arly S elin

a ppear

d evelopments l acking i ndications o f m ajor o utside s timuli. p hase,

t he T ransitional

f oreign i nfluence S elin p hases, r egular

a s

w ill

S elin ( 800-1000 A .D.), b e

n oted

n ortheast H onduras

t rading r elations

w ith

a ny

n ot

s eem

r egions

T he t hird

s hows s omewhat g reater

m omentarily .

d oes

( 300-

t o b e l argely l ocal

B ut

f or

t o h ave

t he

f irst

t wo

b een i n c lose o r

p resently

k nown

f rom

t he

a rchaeological l iterature . I nstead, w hat w e f ind a t t his t ime a re s mall v illage c ommunities, r eliant u pon m aize a griculture,

h unting,

f ishing s hellfish g athering.

M any o f t hese v illages p robably h ad n o m ore t han 2 00 i nhabitants a t a m aximum. C ommunity l ayouts a re l argely i rregular i n d esign a nd o ften l acking a ny d iscernible f ormal a rrangement . S ome s how s igns o f m oat-like d epressions s urrounding t hem . S mall, s cattered e arthen o r e arth a nd s hell m ounds

a re

t ypical s ite

f eatures.

T echnologically t heir c eramics s how

a lmost t otally l ocal e laboration a nd s tyle, c onsiderable d iversity a nd s kill. P ainted d ecoration i s p redominant, a c haracteristic w hich h as a pparently

m isled

p revious

w riters

t o

s eek

d irect

c onnections

w ith

M esoamerican g roups. L ithic i ndustries i ncluded b oth g round s tone i mplementsd ( manos, m etates, b arkbeaters, c elts, a nd l ong t ubular s tone b eads)

a nd t he o ccasional c hipped s tone t ool

( obsidian b ladelets).

i s a lso e vidence o f s ome b one w orking ( needles, a t

t his

t ime

i ncipient,

t he

c ommunities

o f

b odkins,

n ortheast Honduras

l ow-level t ype o f c hiefdom ,

e tc.).

w ere

T here P robably

o rganized

i n

a n

t hough t he s mall s ize a nd s imilarity

o f m any S elin V illages s uggested t hat a n early e galitarian s ocial s tructure m ay h ave b een o perational a s l ate a s t he E arly S elin p hase. E vidence f or e xternal c ontact ,

a s n oted a bove,

i s q uite l imited.

F rom

a n E arly S elin c ontext, a t ripod, s lab-legged c ylinder b owl w as r ecovered a t H :CN-5 . T hough t his i s n ot i dentical t o a ny T eotihuacan o r K aminaljuyu v essel o f t his g enre , t he s imilarities i n f orm , a nd t he E arly S elin d ated c ontext, c learly s how t hat n ortheast Honduras was i n c ontact w ith i ts M esoamerican n eighbours.

O bsidian , b lades o nly, o ccurs r arely ( 2 p ieces) a t

t his t ime b ut d oes i ndicate s ome p ossible e xternal r elations, p erhaps w ith t he G uatemalan Highlands. T his a ppears t o b e t he c losest k nown m ajor

2 31

s ource , a lthough d efinitive t race e lement a nalyses h ave n ot y et b een c arried o ut.

M ore

d istinctive

e vidence

o f

c ontact

o ccurs

i n

B asic

S everal U lua P olychrome a nd B old G eometric s herds a ppear , w ith w estern H onduras b etween 6 00-800 A .D. F rom f urther s outh,

S elin

t imes.

s uggesting t rade

t here i s l ittle w e c an p ositively d etect w hich

w ould l ink n ortheast H onduras w ith L ower C entral A merica f or t his t imef rame. T here a re s ome g eneral-level s imilarities b etween C osta R ican a xeg od c elts a nd p endants a nd t hose o f n ortheast H onduras. U nfortunately, t he c ontexts o f t hese l ithic r emains a re n ot t erribly s ecure i n e ither r egion . W e a re p resently i nclined t o c lassify t hose f rom n ortheast Honduras a s p roducts o f t he S elin P eriod l argely o n t he b asis o f r elated f inds a nd s urface m aterials. However, t he d ating m ust b e t aken w ith c aution. F urthermore , t he c rudity o f m ost n ortheast H onduras e xamples c ompared w ith t he s kill a nd h igh q uality o f w orkmanship o f C osta R ican s pecimens s uggests n ot d irect t rade b etween t he f iltered s et o f c ontacts. P robably m ost T here

a re n o

t wo

r egions

i nteresting i s w hat

i dentifiable

s herds

h ighland C osta R ican w ares.

o f

i n t he S elin P eriod ,

b ut a m ore

a ppears t o b e a bsent a t t his

p ure M aya o rigin ,

A t b est,

n or

t ime.

i ndications

o f

t he c onnections w ith t he m ore

M esoamerican z ones f urther t o t he w est a nd L ower C entral A merica a re w eak a nd t enuous f or t he E arly a nd B asic S elin p hases, a nd a f ar c ry f rom t he s ituation d uring t he C uyamel P eriod . O ur p icture , t hen , c ontrasts c onsiderably w ith t hat o f E pstein's ( 1957) v iew , a nd m ost o thers w ho p receded h im . M aya c ontacts w ith t he n ortheast r egion s eem v irtually n onexistent. A t b est t here w as l imited a nd p robably s poradic t rade w ith t he U lua V alley , a r egion g enerally c haracterized a s M ayoid ( ?) b ut p robably m ade u p o f n on-Maya p eoples.

N one o f t he h allmarks

o f C lassic M aya d evelopment o ccur i n n ortheast H onduras; a rchitecture,

n o

M aya

s telae ,

h ieroglyphics,

C lass Maya p olychrome p ottery.

t here i s n o s tone

c alendrical

n otations,

n or

A bout a ll t hat c an b e i mputed t o t he

M esoamerican s ide i s t he S elin p rectice o f m aize a griculture,

a nd t he

e volution o f p ainted p ottery s tyles, b oth o f w hich h ave t heir o rigins t o t he w est . N either d oes t he s outh a ppear t o c ontribute m uch t o E arly a nd B asic S elin c ultural p atterns. B y a nd l arge, o ur p icture o f t he r egion i s o ne o f l ocal d evelopments; a r egion w hich t o a l arge e xtent w as i gnored b y i ts n eighbours. B etween 8 001000 A .D., h owever , w e b egin t o r ecognize s ome i nteresting c hanges,

i ncluding

r ecord.

s ome

C eramics,

f airly

p ronounced

f or i nstance,

a lterations

i n

t he

a rtifactual

s ee a m arked i ncrease i n m odelled,

i ncised-punctate d ecoration i n l ieu o f t he p ainted d ecoration s o c ommon b efore. T he f irst f igurines ( solid a nd h and-modelled) a nd o carinas a ppear,

a s

d o

T ransitional

d istinctive T -shaped S elin p hase,

a xes.

a ppears

( as

T his

t ime

t he n ame

p eriod,

i mplies)

c alled t o b e

t he

t ruly

t ransitional a nd t o m ark t he c hangeover f rom o lder S elin t raditions t o t he s ucceeding C ocal P eriod l ifestyle . T he p hase , t hen , b ears s ome t raits f rom t he e arlier p hases a s w ell a s p recursors o f t he l ater p hases. R egarding e xternal c onnections,

i t i s o f s ome i nterest t o n ote t hat t he

u nique T -shaped a xe t ype, w hich i s f airly i mportant i n l ater C ocal t imes b ut c ommences i n t he T ransitional S elin p hase, h as b een i dentified o nly i n n ortheast H onduras a nd L ower C entral A merica . Hartman ( 1901:Pl. 6 7 # 3) a nd L othrop ( 1926 :Pl. X lla-d) n oted e xamples f rom O rosi , N icoya a nd T alamanca ( Costa R ica), a s w ell a s B luefields ( Nicaragua).

2 32

T he g eneral

h eadgear

d epicted

s imilarities

t o

o n

t he

t he

T ransitional

b asketweave

c aps

S elin

s eem

o n

f igurines s ome

h as

f ancier

s ome

M iddle

P olychrome P eriod ( 800-1200 A .D.) f igurines f rom t he G reater N icoya S ubarea t o t he s outh ( Healy 1 980 : F ig . 1 22). E ven m ore d istant, t he b ifurcated h eaddress o n a s econd C olön f igurine i s r ather s imilar t o s ome o f t he s mall m etal f igures o f C osta R ica ,

P anama ,

a nd S outh A merica ,

e specially t hose o f

t he S inü o f C olombia . L astly,

t he w hole

t radition o f

c eramic

d ecoration w ith i ncised l ines

a nd s crolls, p unctation m arks, a nd a pplique m otifs s eems m uch m ore e stablished b y t his d ate i n L ower C entral A merica a nd n ever r eally b ecomes a s f ashionable i n M esoamerica .

P ottery w hich i s

r eminiscent,

t hough

n ot

i dentical t o w hat W illey ( in p ress)) a nd o thers h ave t ermed t he " North C oast A pplique T radition" i s n ow k nown f rom A tlantic N icaragua ( Magnus 1 974; 1 976 :69-73), a nd A tlantic C osta R ica ( Snarskis 1 976:107-112; 1 978). I n b oth c ases t he s tyle , w ith i ts c haracteristic p reoccupation w ith i ncised l ines, p unctation m arks a nd a pplique, a ppears t o p redate t he n ortheast H onduras a ppearance b y s everal h undred y ears. T here a re i ndications,

t hen ,

i nventory o f n ortheast H onduras w ith L ower C entral A merica .

t hat b etween 8 00-1000 A .D. i s

t he a rtifactual

b eginning t o r eflect h eightened c ontact

H owever ,

a t t his s tage o f s tudy a nd w ith b ut

o ne s ite ( 1.CN-5) h aving a T ransitional S elin c omponent, i t i s p remature t o s peculate t oo m uch o n t he m ode o f c ontact a nd/or i nfluence . I t i s w orth n oting,

t hough , w hether t here i s ar elative c onnection o r n ot, t hat t he M aya

s ubarea i n t he w est u ndergoes s ome r ather d ramatic e vents a t t his s ame t ime, w hich c ulminate i n t he c ollapse o f l owland M aya c ivilization a bout 9 00 A .D. T his e vent, o r p rocess, u nquestionably e ffected o ther n on-Maya g roups t o t he e ast o f t he M aya . W e k now t hat m any m ajor s ites i n t he L ake Y ojoa a nd U lua R iver r egions a lso w ere a bandoned s hortly t hereafter. t here a re,

i f a ny,

W hat l inkages

t o t he n early s imutaneous c ultural c hanges t aking p lace

f urther a way i n n ortheast Honduras i s a m ajor r esearch p roblem w hich n eeds t o b e a ddressed. A bout a ll w e c an s ay a t t he p resent i s t hat g reater c ontacts

a nd

s tylistic

i nfluences

f rom L ower

C entral A merica

c om m ence

i n

t his T ransitional S elin p hase .

C ocal P eriod ( 1000-1525 A .D.) T he

l ast p rehistoric

e ra f or n ortheast Honduras

i s t he C ocal P eriod.

I t b egins a t 1 000 A .D. a nd t erminates i n 1 525, w ith t he a rrival o f C ortes i n C olön

a nd

t he

( MacNutt 1 908).

e stablishment

o f

a p ermanent

S panish

c ommunity a t T rujillo

E lsewhere w e h ave c ommented o n t he a rrival o f

t he f amous

S panish c onquistador a nd t he w ritten o bservations m ade b y b oth C ortes a nd h is a ide-de-camp, B ernal D iaz ( Healy 1 976). O f s pecial i nterest a re t he d escription b y t he S panish s oldiers o n t he s ocial o rganization o f t he s urrounding n ative c ommunities. T he a ccounts, t hough b rief, s uggest a s tratisfied s ettlement s ystem i n C olön w ith s ome v illages, a nd C hapagua , a nd t heir r espective c hief t ans, m any a s 1 8 s maller v illages i n t heir v icinity . h ave

c ontrolled

h ave b een h ierarchy, o f

a nd

r uled o ver

t he

s urrounding

c ommunities

a nd

t o

l arger , m ore p opulous s ettlements. A ll t his s uggests a s ite a nd a m arked e volution f rom t he h ypothesized l ow-level c hiefdoms

S elin t imes.

I ndeed ,

s ites

s ite p lanning t han p reviously, r eaching

l esser

s uch a s P apayeca

o bviously d ominant o ver a s T he m ajor v illages s eem t o

2 m eters i n h eight

l ike H -CN-12:

R io C laro

s how m ore

a nd c ontain 3 0-50 c onstructions,

( Healy

1 978b).

2 33

f ormal s ome

T his i s a s ubstantial c hange

f rom p receeding S elin t imes . A lthough t he C ocal P eriod h as b een d ivided i nto t he E arly C ocal ( 10001 400 A .D.) a nd L ate C ocal ( 1400-1525 A .D.) p hases, t here i s c onsiderable c ontinuity b etween t he t wo. T he m ajor t rademark o f t his p eriod i s t he p ottery w ith i ts c haracteristic i ncised l ine-punctation m ark a nd a ppliqué d ecoration .

T he m ost c ommon c eramics a re t ripod b owls w ith l ong ,

t apered

a nd d ecorated l egs. P ainted p ottery i s r are. W hen i t d oes o ccur i t i s l argely a f ugitive p ainted d ecoration u sed a s a c omplement t o t he m ore d ominant

i ncised

l ines

a nd

a pplique

w ork

o f

t he

s ame

v essel.

T he

o nly

i dentified l ocal p ainted t ype f rom t he C ocal P eriod i s t he f inely-made B ay I sland P olychrome ( Strong 1 935 : F ronticepieve). T his d ates t o t he E arly C ocal p hase a nd i s f ound o n b oth t he B ay I slands ( commonly) a nd t he m ainland ( less f requently).

S everal r ed/black-on-white N aco P olychrome s herds h ave

a lso b een r ecovered i n n ortheast Honduras, O ther a rtifacts

t echnological ( manos,

m etates,

c ategories

o f

b arkbeaters,

t hough o nly t race a mounts . t his

e ra i nclude

s pherical a nd s hort,

g round

s tone

t ubular b eads,

a nd m aceheads). O f s pecial i nterest a re t he d ecorated , l egged m etates o f n ortheast Honduras, s ome o f w hich a re k nown t o r each h eights o f 1 .5 m eters. C hipped s tone i ncreases i n d iversity a nd q uantity . T here a re n ow a g oodly n umber o f T -shaped a xes, a nd m ore t han 2 00 C ocal o bsidian b ladelets o ccur. C eramic a rtifacts i nclude h ollow o carinas, S elin t imes,

C ylinder s eals, s pecimens, C hrist

a c ontinuation f rom T ransitional

a nd r oller-shaped c ylinder s eals. i ncluding s ome r oller t ypes s imilar t o t he C olön

s how u p i n b oth M esoamerica a nd C osta R ica f rom t he t ime o f

u ntil

1 981:201).

t he

C onquest

( Field

1 967 ;

T he n ortheast H onduras

W illey

s pecimens

1 972:94; c ould

A bel-Vidor

e t

a l .

b e r elated t o e ither

r egion . B y c ontrast, h owever, t he d istinctive l egged, d ecorated m etates o f t he n ortheast p oint m ore s trongly t o L ower C entral America f or t heir o rigins. T here a re a n umber o f i llustrations o f t hese H onduras m etates i n t he l iterature, a nd t hey n ow a ppear t o b e a ssignable t o t he C ocal P eriod ( Stone 1 941:Figs.

3 ,

2 7,

3 4).

F ancy,

d ecorated,

t ripod m etates

( or s eats

a s L ange h as a rgued) h ave c onsiderable n otariety a nd d iversity i n C osta R ica ( Lange i n p ress). S ome o f t he s pecimens, f rom t he A tlantic w atershed o f C osta R ica e specially, ( Graham 1 981:

a re r emarkable p ieces o f a rt i n t heir o wn r ight

1 12-134).

A lthough t he n ortheast Honduras

i dentical t o t he C osta R ican m etates,

e xamples

a re n ot

t he c losest s tylistic a ffinities a re

c learly w ith t he L ower C entral A merican m odels w hich a lmost c ertainly p red ate t he C ocal-Honduras t radition . O ne o f t he m ost i nteresting c onnections b etween n ortheast H onduras a nd L ower C entral A merica , p articularly C osta R ica , i s t he p resence i n b oth r egions o f s tone c lub, o r m ace, h eads. T hese u nique a rtifacts, i n t he k nobbed, I slands

" star-headed" t ype o r t he r ound " doughnut" f orm , a nd o n t he m ainland ( Strong 1 934 :Fig.

5 2;

o ccur i n t he B ay

1 935:84,

1 10,

17).

A s

b est w e c an d etermine, m aceheads a re r are i n M esoamerica a nd a ppear t o b e m ore o f a C entral America f eature. S ome o f t he n ortheast Honduras s pecimens l ook q uite

l ike

t he h ardstone

m aceheads

r eported

V ieja r egion o f e astern C osta R ica ( compare S trong 1 934:Fig.

f rom t he L inea 5 2 w ith B audez

1 970 :Figs. 1 57-8 o r S tone 1 977:Fig . 2 15). T he m aceheads a lso o ccur i n n orthwest C osta R ica ( Stone 1 972:98 ; 1 977:Fig. 3 2). T here t hey d ate t o t he Z oned B ichrome a nd p ossibly E arly P olychrome P eriods ( ca. A .D.). t entative,

T he

d ating

o f

t he

m aceheads

i n

5 00 B .C.-800

n ortheast Honduras

i s

o nly

b ut t hey h ave b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith C ocal P eriod c aches

o n R oatan I sland ( Strong 1 935:Pl.

1 9 # 1a-f, h ).

2 34

I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he

c hronological p osition o f t his c lass o f m aterial i s s o u nfixed i n b oth r egions b ecause t hey m ay b e a ctual C osta R ican t rade i tems . F rom M esoamerica,

d uring t he C ocal P eriod,

w e h ave s uggestions o f

c ontacts w ith n ortheast H onduras f rom t he p resence o f c opper b ells, p lumbate p ottery,

s ome N aco P olychrome,

a nd p robably t he i ncreased o bsidian .

T here

i s a lso t he f amous a ccount b y C olumbus o f t he d ugout c anoe e ncountered t rading i n t he B ay I slands i n 1 502. T he l arge c anoe w as r eported t o h ave c ome f rom t he w est, a nd s uggests t rading l inkages b etween M esoamerica a nd t he e astern B ay I slands. F urthermore, C ortes n oted, s ome d ecades l ater, t hat h is a rrival i n C olön w as f ully a nticipated b y t he l ocal n atives b ecause o f

t heir

f requent

c ommerce w ith g roups

t o

t he w est.

T hrough

t hese

c ontacts, w ord o f t he A ztec c onquest h ad s eemingly s pread w ell i n a dvance o f t he c onquistador's a ppearance o n t he s cene i n 1 525. C ortes a lso n oted t hat t he a borigines o f t he a rea c ould s peak N ahuatl y et a nother i ndication o f t he C ocal P eriod l inkages b etween n ortheast H onduras a nd M esoamerica .

C onclusions P rehistoric

c ultural

f rontiers

w ere

o nly

r arely,

a nd

l argely

u nsuccessfully, d emarcated b y f ixed b oundaries ( e.g. Hadrian's w all i n B ritain , t he " great w al rof C hina , e tc.). I nstead, c ultural b orderlands t ended t o m igration ,

f luctuate t hrough t ime,

a djusting t o t he e bb a nd f low o f

c onquest a nd o ther p rocesses o f h uman e vents.

n ortheast H onduras,

t rade,

I n t he c ase o f

w e h ave f ocused u pon t he a rchaeology a t t hree d ifferent

a nd w idely s paced c ultural p eriods t o d etermine w hat e vidence o f e xternal i nfluence a nd c ontacts, i f a ny , c ould b e p erceived. W hat t his p reliminary a nalysis h as r evealed i s t he q uite d istinctive c ultural e volution o f N ative g roups i n t his r egion f rom a bout 1 300 B .C. t o 1 525 A .D. I n t he e arliest e ra ,

t he C uyamel P eriod ,

t here a re a mple i ndications o f

c ontact b etween n ortheast H onduras a nd M esoamerica p roper.

T he c eram ics o f

t he C uyamel C aves w ould e asily b e l ost a mong a c ollection o f t ypical E arlyM iddle P reclassic c eramics f rom s outhern M esoamerica. E ven O lmecoid v essels

h ave

b een

d ocumented

f rom

t he

r egion .

U nfortunately ,

o ur

d ata

p ertaining t o t his p eriod a re a lmost t otally l imited t o c eramics w ith n o k nown C uyamel P eriod s ettlements, n or i nformation o n s ubsistence, e conomy, o r o ther t echnologies. t he

c ultural

o rientation

a t

B ut i f t he p ottery i s a ny i ndication a s t o

t his

t ime,

t hen n ortheast Honduras m ust h ave

b een a n a ctual p articipant i n t he F ormative M esoamerican c ultural t raditions a s a n a ctive f rontier z one . C enturies

l ater,

i n

t he

S elin

M esoamerica d iminished t o at rickle.

P eriod,

c ontacts

w ith

s outhern

B y a nd l arge, t his e ra s hows f ar m ore

s igns o f l ocalized e volution , w ith l ittle o r n o i ndications o f c ontact w ith c learly a dvanced , s tratified s ocieties t o t he w est. T here a re n o s igns o f U sulutan p ottery,

n or l ater C lassic P eriod p olychromes.

B y t he e nd o f t he

S elin P eriod, c a . 8 00-1000 A .D., h owever, w e g et t he f irst h ints o f c ultural s timulus f rom f urther t o t he s outh.

A gain,

t hough,

t he l imited d ata

p ertaining t o t his T ransitional S elin p hase m ake i t p remature t o e laborate o n t he e vents e ffecting t he r egion . I n t he s ucceeding C ocal P eriod ,

t he l ast i n t he r egional s equence p rior

t o t he S panish a rrival, t he r egion s hows c onsiderable c hanges i n v irtually a ll c ategories o f m easure ( settlement , s ubsistence , t echnology , e tc .) f rom t he S elin P eriod.

A lthough s ome c ontacts w ith M esoamerica a re o bvious, a nd

2 35

c learly i ncluded t rade w ith t he w est, g roups i n C olön a t t his t ime T he p ottery a nd l ithics, w alkways) l ook v ery m uch

t he c ultural a ssemblages o f a boriginal

a ppear f ar m ore s outhern i n o verall c haracter.

e ven s ome a spects o f t heir s ettlement ( e.g. p aved l ike e arlier t raditions o f L ower C entral A merica ,

p articularly t hose o f A tlantic N icaragua a nd C osta R ica . I t i s, t herefore , o f s ome i nterest t o l earn t hat l inguists a re m ore a nd m ore c onvinced t hat t he P aya, t he g roup m ost c ommonly a ttributed t o n ortheast Honduras a t t he t ime o f h istoric c ontact, a re m embers o f t he S outh A merican C hibchan l anguage f amily, r einforcing o ur p icture o f c ultural l inkage o f t he r egion w ith t he s outh . W hat t he f orces a nd e vents w ere w hich a re r eflected i n n ortheast H onduras a rchaeology b y t he g radual d iminution o f M esoamerican f eatures, a nd t he s teady i ncrease o f L ower C entral A merican t raits, c an o nly b e s peculated u pon. However, n ortheast Honduras, f ollowing t he c lose o f t he M iddle P reclassic P eriod, s eems t o h ave g one t hrough a n e ra o f r egional, l ocal e volution u ntil a bout t he t ime o f t he C lassic M aya c ollapse. A t t hat p oint i n t he r egional h istory t here a ppear i ncreasing s igns o f h eightened L ower C entral A merican i nfluence a nd s timulus.

I n e ffect, o ver n early 3 000 y ears

o f p rehistory,

a s teady e rosion o f M esoamerican

n ortheast H onduras r eveals

i nfluence a nd t he e xpansion o f s outhern i nfluences s uch t hat, b y 1 525 A .D., t he r egion h ad s eesawed f rom a f rontier a ffiliated w ith t he M esoamerican c ulture a rea , t o af rontier z one s timulated m ore b y L ower C entral A merica .

A cknowledgements: M y

r esearch

i n

n ortheast H onduras h as

b een s upported b y

a n umber o f

i ndividuals a nd i nstitutions. O f t he f unding a nd s upport i nstitutions, s pecial m ention i s r eserved f or t he P eabody Museum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology ( Harvard U niversity), N ational G eographic S ociety ( Washington, D .C.), R utgers University ( New J ersey) a nd T rent University ( Ontario). T his p aper w as d rafted w hile t he a uthor w as o n a n a cademic s abbatical f rom T rent U niversity a nd h olding a n S SHRC L eave F ellowship ( 1981-2). T ravel f unds f or a ttendance a nd p articipation a t t he 4 4th I CA w ere m ade a vailable f rom t he T rent R esearch C ommittee. Honduran c olleagues d eserving o f s pecial

a cknowledgement

V ito V eliz

f or

t heir

a ssistance

a nd

( IRAH) a nd t he f ormer d irector o f T HAR,

c ooperation D r.

J .

i nclude

L ic .

A dän C ueva .

I n

N orth A merican , I a m p articularly i ndebted t o D r. D oris S tone a nd D r. G ordon R . W illey f or t heir s timulus a nd e ncouragement o ver t he p ast d ecade o f s tudy.

I a lone,

h owever,

a m r esponsible f or t he

c onclusions h erein .

2 36

i nterpretations

a nd

T ABLE 1 R ADIOCARBON D ATES F ROM N ORTHEAST H ONDURAS S ite

S ample N o.

U ncorrected D ate

H -CN-12: R io C laro

U GA-1573

1 500 A .D.± 6 5

H -CN-12: R io C laro

1285

H -CN-12: R io C laro

1572

1 350 A .D.± 6 0

H -CN-12: R io C laro

1284

1 105 A .D.±•55

H -CN 12: R io C laro

1571

1 050 A .D. • -1 20

H -CN-12: R io C laro

1574

1 045 A .D. ± 6 5

C ultural P eriod L ate C ocal

6 80 A .D.±•15 5**

E arly C ocal ( 1000-1400 A .D.)

-N o R adiocarbon D ates H -CN-4: W illiams R anch

7 55 A .D. • -6 0

U GA-1286A

H -CN-5 : S elin F arm

1458

7 45 A .D. ± 6 0

H -CN-4 : W illiams R anch

1286B

6 95 A .D. ± 6 5

H -CN-5: S elin F arm

1456

6 00 A .D. ± 6 0

H -CN-5 : S elin F arm

1459

5 95 A .D. ±•65

H -CN-5 : S elin F arm

1457

4 20 A .D. ±•65

H -CN-5: S elin F arm

1455

3 75 A .D. ± 6 0

-N o R adiocarbon D ates -

B asic S elin ( 600-800 A .D.)

E arly S elin ( 300-600 A .D.)

C uyamel P eriod ( 1300-1400 B .C.)

* * c ontam inated, a berrant s ample ; d ate d iscarded

2 37

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CARIB BEAN

S ta . R osa d e Aguän

• r — I

P ta . Betu l ia

BAY OF TRUJ ILLO

P ta . Cax inas

3 0 0

c 3

C l )

C D C s 1

2 41 4 • • •

o

> o

t ux

0 C D

B IRDS A ND M EN I N P REHISTORIC C ENTRAL P ANAMA R ichard G . C ooke'

I ntroduction B irds,

b eing

c olourful,

g arrulous

a nd

d iverse,

p ossessing

a n

u nusual

m ode o f l ocomotion a nd g arced w ith e xceptional p owers o f n avigation a nd e ndurance , h ave o ccupied a s pecial p lace i n m an's c osmological, m ythical a nd o rganizational e nvironments. B irds a bundant

a re

a nd

a lso

f eathered

a nd

o viparous ;

s uicidally c onfiding ;

s ome

t hey

s pecies

c an

b e

c an b e

b reathtakingly

e asily

t amed

a nd

t aught t o u tter h uman s ounds. T hese q uirks o f b iology h ave l ed t o t he e xtinction o f G reat A uk , P assenger P igeon a nd D odo, h ave s eriously r educed p opulations

o f

m acaws,

s pecies a s K ittiwakes,

e grets

a nd

q uetzals,

a nd

h ave

t urned

s uch

m otley

D ovekies a nd S kylarks i nto b oth p rimary s ubsistence

i tems a nd e vanescent m orsels o f s umptuary e xcess. T he b ehaviour o f b irds i s n o l ess

a dmirable:

t he a erial g yrations o f

h ummingbirds, t he a ntiphonal g atherings o f w ood-quails, t he s wirling f locks o f m igrating hawks - s uch d emonstrations o f a vian s exual a nd s patial o rganization h ave b een o ften r eflected i n h uman c eremonies, r ites o f p assage a nd s ocial n omenclature . I n

t his

e ssay

I e xamine

t he

r elationship b etween b irds

s ingle T ropical z one - c entral P acific P anama ( fig. a nd t he S panish t heir s ymbiosis: c eramic

o bjects,

1 )

a nd m en i n a

-b etween 5 000 B .C.

c onquest ( 1520). I c oncentrate o n t he a bove f acets o f ( 1) t he i maginary w orld, v ia t he i conography o f m etal a nd a nd

( 2)

e conomic u tilization ,

b one s amples f rom a rchaeological s ites.

v ia t he

i dentification o f

I r efer a lso t o e thnohistoric a nd

e thnographic d ata w here t hey a re p ertinent t o t hese t hemes .

A nimals a s D ecoration i n P anamanian A rt T he

p ottery

p rehistoric P anama

a nd m etalwork o f ( fig .

1 )

s ee

t he

C ooke

c entral

1 976a ,

a nd e astern r egions o f

1 980

f or

d efinitions),

a re

c haracterized b y g eometric a nd z oomorphic d esigns w hich a re s ometimes e mployed i ndependently a nd s ometimes c ombined o n as ingle o bject. On t he c eramics,

t he m otifs a re p ainted

( in b etween o ne a nd f ive

c olours), m odelled i n t he r ound , o r m odelled a nd p ainted;

i n m etal, c ast i n

t he r ound b y t he l ost-wax ( cire p erdue) t echnique o r s haped i n b as-relief b y h ammering a nd p ressing s heets o ver p re-prepared b ases ( Lothrop 1 937).

1 :

S mithsonian T ropical R esearch I nstitute, B ox 2 072, B alboa , P anama

2 43

T hough m any o f t he a nimal f orms d epicted o n c entral P anamanian a rt m ust h ave h ad a m ythical s ignificance ( cf .

L othrop 1 942:28),

t hey t end n ot t o b e

f antastic - i n t he s ense t hat g riffins a nd p hoenixes a re f antastic - b ecause t hey c an g enerally b e r eferred t o e xtant b iological t axa , a nd ( whatever t he d egree o f s tylization) c an b e r ecognized a s s uch: i .e., a t t he l evel o f C lass ( insect, s pider, b ird, f ish, m ammal, e tc); O rder a nd F amily ( anuran , f elid, c ervid); g enus ( e.g . P rocyon, r accoon) ( Lothrop 1 942: f ig . 2 19a), a nd,

v ery o ccasionally ,

e ven s pecies

( e.g .

D asypus n ovemcintus,

t he N ine-

b anded A rmadillo a nd A eteobatus n arinari, t he S potted E agle-Ray) ( see L othrop 1 942 : f igs 2 12c , 2 21, I chon 1 980 : P late X L b a nd, f or d iscussions o f t his t heme, L inares 1 977 , H elms 1 977). T ouches o f f astidious r ealism a re s ometimes p rovided :

f emale c rabs h ave t heir

a bdomens

" pulled

o ut"

t o

e mphasize t he e gg-case; s piders c arry e ggs o n t heir b acks; s harks a nd r ays h ave a ppropriately r endered g ill s lits, o lfactory p its a nd m ale c opulatory o rgans

( Linares

1 977:

6 3 ,

I chon

1 980 :

P late X XII

a ).

I n o ther w ords,

n otwithstanding t he o bvious f igurative c ontent o f t he r epresentations, t he a rtisan i s c onveying p recise b iological i nformation t o o bservers w ho h ave a d etailed k nowledge o f t heir n atural e nvironment . F ormalism,

h owever

- e specially

r epetition,

s ymmetry

a nd

t he

j uxtaposition o f c olours - o ften p revails o ver a ccurate d rawing , a nd t he a ttributes o f d ifferent t axa, i ncluding m an , m ay b e c ombined. C laws , h ands a nd f eet, b eaks a nd m ouths, a nd, t o a l esser d egree, a nd w ings,

s cales, f eathers , t ails

a re o ften s tereotyped a nd i nterchangeable ,

s o t hat a nimals w hose

g ross m orphologies a re r ecognizable a s r eptiles, f rogs, d eer, a nd s o o n , a re g iven e xactly t he s ame k inds o f f eet a nd t eeth. T hese p arts m ay a lso b e d etached f rom t heir o riginal h osts a nd e mployed a s s eparate d esign e lements, e ither

s ingly,

o r a rranged a s f rets,

r epresentation i s a c ommon d evice :

s crolls

a nd

" filler" m otifs.

S plit

a s ingle d esign e lement w ill r epresent

t wo o r m ore o ganisms d epending u pon h ow i t i s o bserved ( i.e. f ig. 2 a , w hich i s e ither a g rebe-like b ird s itting o n i ts o wn r eflection o r ar ealistically d rawn s corpion w ith

p incers a nd s ting)

( see L inares 1 977).

N either a re t he z oomorphic d esigns c hronologically s tatic .

W hen t hree

c olour p ottery a nd m etalwork f irst a ppear i n c entral P anama - a t s ome t imne b etween 3 00 B .C. a nd A .D. 5 00 ( Cooke i n p ress) - a nimals t end t o b e n aturalistically ( if i mpressionistically) d epicted, p ossessing m ost o f t heir a natomical p arts. r ectilinear e xtreme:

T hrough t ime, h owever,

a bstraction w hich ,

b y

t he

t here i s at endency t owards

S panish C onquest,

h eads a re t otally d etached f rom b odies,

h ad

b ecome q uite

a nd o utlines b ecome

a ngular a nd r igid ( Cooke 1 976 a , b ). I n s pite o f

t his s tylistic e volution ,

have b een a m ajor r eorganization o f

h owever,

t here d oes n ot s eem t o

t he P recolumbian b elief s ystem i n

c entral P anama : r ather , t he s ame k inds o f a nimals c ontinue t o b e d epicted o n b oth c eramics a nd m etal f rom o ne c hronological p eriod t o a nother. W hen i t c omes t o p utting b iological l abels o n t he d ifferent z oomorphic m otifs,

i t

i s

i mportant

t o

b ear

t he

a bove

c omments

i n

m ind,

a nd

t o

d istinguish b etween g eneralized t raits t hat a re c ommon t o a v ariety o f t axa a nd t hose w hich a re m ore s pecialized, g enus- a nd s pecies-specific .

o ccurring i n a f ew t axa,

o r e ven

Ih ave j ust m entioned t wo s pecies - t he N ine-

b anded A rmadillo a nd S potted E agle-Ray - w hich a re s o w ell e xecuted o n s ome o bjects B oth ,

a s

t o

h owever,

b e

r eadily

i dentifiable

a s

t hese

s pecies,

a nd n one o ther.

a re q uite u nlike o ther s pecies o ccurring i n t he a rea .

W hen

t he a rtist i s d ealing w ith h ighly d iverse g roups o f a nimals - t he P asserine b irds,

f or e xample - h e h as t o b e v ery p recise i f h is s ubject i s t o b e

2 44

r ecognized a s ap articular s pecies.

G eneralized a vian m otifs I n t he c ase o f b ird i dentifications,

s ome h ave t o b e l eft,

s imply ,

" avian" ( fig. 3 ). T hough, a s L othrop n oted ( 1942: 2 8-34), r epresentations h ave c ommon f eatures - ( 1) a l ong, s wept-back c rest, l ong s quared

t ail w hich

i s

d ivided

i nto

z ones

s uggesting

s tripes,

a s

m any ( 2) a ( 3)

a n

e longated, h ooked b eak , a nd ( 4) s mall t ufts a bove t he t eak a nd a longside t he e yes - t here i s n o a vian t axon p resent

i n P anama t oday w hich p ossesses

t hese t raits.

S ome c ommon r aptors h ave l ong,

p rominent

f light

i n

M ilvago c himachima),

( like

w hile

t ail,

b ut

i ts

s wept b ackwards.

Y ellow-headed

o thers h ave l ongish c rests

C aracara , P olyborus p lancus). s triped

i mmature

a ll

s triped t ails w hich a re C aracaras,

( like t he C rested

T he f emale c urassow ( Crax r ubra), h as a l ong

c rest

i s

e rect

a nd d ouble-rowed

T he C rested B obwhite

a nd n ot

( Colinus c ristatus)

l ong ,

a nd

-a u biquitous

b ird i n c entral P anama t oday a nd t he s ingle m ost c ommonly r epresented s pecies i n t he d ietary b one s ample f rom S itio S ierra - h as a p ointed, e rect c rest j ust a bove t he b eak, w hich c ould b e t he m odel f or t he c rests i llustrated i n f ig . 3 i, j . B ut n one o f t hese s pecies i s w holly c onvincing a s

a t axonomic p rototype,

( "birds-which-look-back", A s

r egards

t he

a nd L othrop's o riginal s tylistic a ttributions

" birds-which-look-forward") c annot b e i mproved .

p ossible

s ymbolism

o f

t hese

g eneralized

f igures,

w e

c oncur w ith L inares ( 1977: 6 1-63) w ho p roposes t hat s uch c rested b irds w ith a ggressive p ostures w ere " symbolically c ondensed i nto ... b irds s trutting a bout l ike i mportant p eople, t hough a l arge,

c rested ,

m ost l ikely w arriors".

f ierce s pecies,

t he p rimeval b iological m odel, g enerated

b y

t he

I n o ther w ords,

l ike t he c urassow,

t he s ocial

e ven

m ight h ave b een

a nd b ehavioural c onundrums

f igures w ere m ore s ignificant

t o

t he

" reader"

t han t heir

i dentification a s ap articular s pecies. T hose w ho h ave o bserved t he K una s ahilas a t c ongresses, w ith t heir h ats a dorned w ith m acaw f eathers, o r N gawbe G uaymi p laying t he k run , o r b alseria ( Young 1 971, 1 976), w ith h eaddresses m ade o f f eathers o f B lue a nd Y ellow M acaws ( Ara a rarauna) a nd Q uetzals ( Pharomachrus m ocinno), w ill a ppreciate t he a ppropriateness o f L inares - c omments. C ertain m ale g old f igurines f rom c entral P anama - d ancers w ith r attles i n t heir h ands - w ear e laborate h eaddresses d ecorated w ith w hat f eathers ( fig .

a ppear t o b e l ong ( macaw o r q uetzal?)

8 d,e).

R ealistic d epictions I t

i s

b y

n o

m eans

t rue,

h owever,

t hat

a ll

P anamanian

b ird

r epresentations a re " generalized". P sittacids, f or e xample ( parrots, m acaws a nd p arakeets), a re f requently p ortrayed r ealistically, t he m ost p rominent e lement b eing t he t ypical t hick , s harply d own-curved b eak. T hey o ccur o n p ottery ( fig. 4 a , c , f , g ), g old ( fig. 8 c) a nd c arved b one ( fig. 8 a). T he p roportions o f f ig . 8 a r ecall t hose o f A ratinga p ertinax , t he B rown-Throated P arakeet. L ong-necked

b irds

w ith

s lender ,

h erons a nd ( if c ompletely w hite)

b ack-swept p lumes,

e grets,

o n M acaracas G roup p olychromes ( A .D.

7 00 - 1 100) ( fig.

D ade 1 961).

2 45

w hich c an o nly b e

a re c ommonly d epicted , 2 b,c;

e specially

C ooke 1 976a,

O ne m odelled a nd p ainted e ffigy j ar ( fig. 4 j) i s a n e xcellent r epresentation o f an ightjar ( Caprimulgidae) i n w hich t he a rtisan h as c leverly s tressed c ertain s alient f eatures o f t his f amily : ( 1) l ong h airs a t t he b ase o f t he b ill, ( 2) a v ery w ide b eak f or c atching i nsects i n f light, ( 3) " half-asleep" e yes a nd ( 4) s potted p lumage. I n f act, t he n ature a nd p lacement o f t he s pots s uggests t hat t he s pecies i n q uestion i s t he P auraque ( Nyctidromus a lbicollis), t he m ost u biquitous P anamanian c aprimulgid w hose f ar-carrying c all h as b een t he s courge ( or d elight) o f m any e ncamped a rchaeologists . A c oracoid o f a W hite-tailed N ightjar ( C. c ayennensis), a s mall s pecies o f a rid a reas, w as r ecovered o n o ne o f t he h ouse-floors a t S itio S ierra ( see p age r ef). O wls a re a lso r ealistically d epicted o n s everal g old p ieces ( e .g . f ig. 2 d ,e). T he f irst ( found i n C osta R ica) a pparently r epresents a B arn O wl ( Tyto a lba), t o j udge f rom t he s pecies-specific h eart-shaped f acial r uff . L othrop ( 1937 : f ig , 1 75a) r efers t o ac rested b ird m odelled i n s tone a s t he H orned O wl ( Bubo v irginianus).

B y w ay o f w arning ,

t his b ird i s k nown f rom

P anama o nly f rom o ne s pecimen a nd o ne s ight r eport ( Ridgely 1 976 :

1 38),

s o

i t i s d angerous t o a ttribute a ll " horned" o wl r epresentations t o t his s pecies a lone . I t i s m uch m ore l ikely t hat t hey w ould r epresent s creecho wls ( Otus s pp .), t he S triped O wl ( Rhinoptynx c lamator) o r t he C rested O wl ( Lophostrix c ristata), w hich a re m uch m ore a bundant a nd a lso h ave c rests ( very p rominent i n t he c ase o f t he l ast t wo s pecies) ( Ridgely 1 976 : P late 6 ). S ome b irds a re c learly d epicted w ith e rect ,

d ouble-rowed c rests w hich,

a s w e m entioned e arlier , a re t ypical o f t he c urassow ( e.g . f ig 2 f, L othrop 1 937: f ig. 9 3, 1 72 f ar r ight, 1 952: f ig. 1 08 a ,c,). A t S itio S ierra ( where c urassow b ones d id n ot o ccur i n t he b one s ample), o ne E scotä R ed-Buff v essel h as a s mall l ug h andle m odelled i n t he s hape o f ad ouble-crested b ird r emarkably l ike a c urassow ( fig . 1 0b). I n p arenthesis t o t he a bove c omments, a p ossible m odel f or t he s emicircular c rest w hich a dorns s everal P anamanian b irds ( e.g . f ig . 4 h), a nd i s n ow r eproduced o n l eather s eats , a shtrays , m atchboxes a nd o ther l oathsome t ouristic b ric-ä-brac , i s t he b right-red , f anned c rest w hich t he N orthern R oyal-Flycatcher ( Onychorhynchus m exicanus) e xhibits w hen s tartled ( Ridgely 1 976 : P late 2 0). T hough t his i s a n u ncommon b ird w hich s huns t he d riest a reas o f P anama, i ts d isplay i s s o i mpressive t hat i ts u se a s a n i conographic m odel , i s r easonable .

S pread-Eagled B irds: R aptors, H ummingbirds, o r B ot h? S tudents o f p rimitive a rt h ave a h abit o f d escribing a ll b irds w ith d own-curved b eaks a s b irds o f p rey o f s ome s ort: " eagles", " hawks", v ultures", " condors", e tc . L othrop ( 1950 :55), w hen r eferring t o m etal b ird f igurines f rom V eraguas t ombs,

j ustifies h is u se o f t he d esignation " eagle"

i n t hese t erms: " (these o bjects) m ay o r m ay n ot b e e agles.

T he t erm a s a pplied

t o g old o bjects, h owever , h as a ppeared i n t he l iterature f or o ver f our c enturies , a nd w e h ave r etained i t". A s o ne o f t he m ost f requent a vian m otifs o n c entral P anamanian g old a nd p ottery i s a n o pen-winged b ird w ith a l ongish ,

2 46

d owncurved b eak ,

f eet h eld

a loft, a nd o pen t ail, p ro-raptor s entiments h ave a rtistic a nalyses ( e.g. E mmerich 1 965: 1 05-108). T he

" oiseau a ux

d esignation) ( fig. 5 ,6). G roup

t richromes

( Ichon a nd

a nd M acaracas

O ne o f

d eployees"

( to u se

p revailed

i n

t he m ore p oetic F rench

( Ichon 1 980) h as a l ong i conographic h istory i n c entral P anama I t i s c learly, i f i mpressionistically d epicted o n t he T onosi

( Cooke i n p ress) 7 00)

a iles

l ogically

1 980),

i t

w hose e arliest

c ontinues

( A .D.

7 00

o n t he

-1 100)

C .14

d ate

i s

6 5

t rue p olychrome C onte

p ottery

( Ladd

1 964,

B .C.

+ 8 0

( A .D.

5 00-

C ooke

1 976a,b).

t he b est-known m otifs o f l ower C entral A merican l ost-wax m etal

p ieces,

i s t he s ame s pread-eagled b ird ( Lothrop 1 950,

1 952,

A guilar 1 972).

I n c entral P anama , t hese o bjects h ave b ut r arely b een r eported f rom s erious e xcavations ( e.g . I chon 1 980 : f ig . 9 0,n). I t i s l ikely , h owever , t hat t hey w ere b eing m anufactured a t t he t ime o f t he c onquest, g iving r ise t o t he S paniards' ( e.g.

F .

c omments

a bout

C olon 1 959).

" eagles"

h anging

t emptingly

a round

n ative

n ecks

S uch g old " eagles" w ere s till b eing u sed b y t ribal

g roups i n C aribbean C osta R ica a nd P anama i n t he s eventeenth c entury

( Leon

F ernändez 1 886: 1 59) a nd a re r emembered ( if n ot s till u sed) b y t he C hibchas peaking B ribri i n t heir t raditional s tories ( Bozzoli d e W ille 1 977a : 1 77). U ndoubtedly,

t hen ,

t he s pread-eagled b ird w as a p rimordial e lement o f

t he f igurative w orld o f t he l ower C entral A merican t ribal g roups. g old

a nd

p ottery,

t he

r epresentations

a lways h ave

l ong,

B oth o n

o utstretched a nd

p ointed w ings, o utspread t ails a nd r ather s mall t alons w hich o ccupy a m edial p osition o n t he b ird ( figs.

5 ,

6 ).

W here t here i s i conographic v ariation

( which c ould w ell r efer t o t axonomic d ifferences),

i s i n t he b eak a nd h ead :

s ome i ndividuals h ave l ong , o nly s lightly d ecurved b eaks, w hile o thers h ave s traighter b ills w ith a cute h ooks; s om e b irds a re c rested, o thers n ot; o ccasionally b eaks h ave c eres ( the p rominent b ump a t t he b ill j uncture w hich i s t ypical o f r aptors), w hile g enerally, t hey d o n ot. T here

c an b e n o

d oubt

t hat m any o f t hese r epresentations a re r aptors

( or a re i ntended t o b e u nderstood a s s uch). T he p osition a nd s hape o f t he c ere o n s ome e xamples ( e.g. f ig. 6 b) r ecalls t hat o f t he K ing V ulture ( Sarcoramphus p apa), a f act w hich h as b een n oted b y s everal c ommentators ( e.g. L othrop 1 950, E mmerich 1 965). A t t imes t hese b irds c lasp t hrashing p rey i tems i n t heir b eaks, l ike f ish a nd f rogs, w hile s ome i ndividuals c arry h apless h omunculi ( Lothrop 1 950 : f igs. I n B ribri m yths,

7 7a , 7 8 ,

7 9a).

l arge h awks a re f ended o ff b y c ulture h eroes a s

t hey

s woop d own u pon u nsuspecting m ortals a nd w hisk t hem o ff t o s ecluded s treams t o b e d evoured ( a K ing V ulture p lays a s imilar r ole). b el ieve t hat t hey w ere b rought d own t o e arth a s b irds 1 977a).

T he B ribri a lso ( Bozzoli d e W ille

T here m ay w ell b e a n u nderlying m ythical s ignificance ,

t hen ,

i n

r aptorial s pecies w hich b oth t errorize a nd c arry o ff m en , a nd b ring a ncestor f igures p eacefully t o r est u pon e arth . L othrop's u ndoubtedly

c oncern

f or

t he

B ut

o nly

j ustified.

s pread-eagled

b ird

m otif

h istorical i n p art,

s uggests

t hat

t he

p erpetuity

f or

a c loser

d iminutive

o f

r aptors

i s

s crutiny

o f

t he

a ntithesis

o f

t he

e agle - t he h umming-bird - w as a n i mportant i tem o f c entral P anamanian a rt. S ome b irds,

d esigns

o n

t han r aptors.

t richrome v essels,

p ainted

p ottery

l ook

d istinctly

m ore

l ike

h umming-

I n t he m ore a bstract e xamples p ainted o n T onosi

t he a rtist s eems t o b e a ccentuating t he r apid w ing-beats

a nd h overing a ttitude o f t railing e dge o f t he w ings

" hummers" b y t he u se o f b lobs o f p aint o n t he ( fig.

5 f).

2 47

I n t he m ore n aturalistic d esign o n

t he M acaracas P olychrome p late , t he i mpression c onveyed i s t hat o f ag roup o f t hese b irds f ussily c ompeting f or f lowers ( fig . 6 a). F rom a n o rnithological p oint o f v iew,

t his

i nterpretation g ains

v alidity f rom t he f act t hat h umming-birds, w hen f eeding , s pread t heir t ails w ide t o f orm a t riangle , w hile t heir w ings a re v ery l ong , t hin a nd p ointed ( see f ig . 6 d , f , w hich a re d rawings m ade f rom p hotographs o f f eeding b irds). T he m ajority o f P anamanian h umming-bird s pecies h ave e ither s traight o r s lightly d owncurved b eaks, a nd i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he e xamples p ainted o n t he p ottery h ave b ills t hat a re t oo h ooked ( rather t han j ust c urved). N evertheless, o ne c ommon a nd p articularly f earless g enus - P haethornis, t he h ermits - h as q uite s trongly c urved b ills, w hile o ne s pecies - E utoxeres a quila , t he W hite-tipped S icklebill - h as a b eak w hich i s b ent e nough t o h ave p rovided t he m odel f or s ome o f t he i ndividuals d epicted i n f ig. 6 , a . I n f act, t he a ttribution o f d ifferent t ypes o f b eak t o t he m otley a ssortment o f b irds o n t his p late , c ould b e c onstrued a s a cute o bservational a bility o n t he p art o f t he P recolumbian a rtist - m ixed-species g roups o f h umming-birds o ccasionally c ongregate a t b lossoms, e specially i n t he d ry s eason . H arking P anamanian

b ack

t o

L inares

s ymbolism

a nd

c omments t o

t he

a bout

h uman

t he

s ocial

p redilection

s ignificance f or

o f

c ombining

a ntithetical e lements o f n ature, i t m ight n ot b e c onceptually i mportant t hat t he b ird b e r aptor o r h umming-birds: i t c ould b e n either o r b oth t ogether ( i.e. t he s mallest a nd t he b iggest). However, b earing i n m ind t he p redominance o f h umming-birds i n P recolumbian b elief s ystems e lsewhere , i t i s n ot u nreasonable t hat t he T rochilidae s hould b e i mportant e lements o f c entral P anamanian a rt . A mong t he D esana o f C olombia , t he h umming-bird w as ( 1) t he d efender o f t he m alocas , ( 2) t he m ale o rgan , w hich p enetrates f lowers ( vaginae) t o e xtract n ectar ( semen), a nd ( 3) t he u terus , d ue t o t he s hape o f i ts

n ests .

M en w ho

t urned i nto h umming-birds D almatoff 1 971).

a nd

S ome c are s hould b e t aken ,

b ehaved a scended

t hen ,

t hemselves a s

s uch

c orrectly

i nto

i n

" paradise"

l ife

w ere

( Reichel-

n ot t o a ttribute s pread-eagled b irds

u ncritically t o t axon . T he s ame c omment a pplies, I b elieve, t o t he e xquisite s tone f igurines w ith o versized b eaks w hich L othrop i dentifies a s o wls, b ut w hich s eem t o b e h umming-birds h unched u p i n s inging p osture ( Lothrop 1 937: f ig. 1 75a, M acCurdy 1 911: f ig. 4 9). A part f rom t heir i ridescent p lumage a nd t iny s ize , h umming-birds a re n otoriously n oisy a nd a ggressive ( especially d uring t he b reeding s eason), s o t here a re s ound e thological a s w ell a s m orphological r easons f or t he i mportance o f t his f amily i n t he r ealm o f m an-bird r elationships .

M acaw- o r P arrot-Men A nother s alient f eature o f P anamanian P recolumbian i conography i s t he d ual r epresentation o f a nthropomorphic a nd a vian m otifs i n w hich a h uman f ace i s d epicted f rontally a nd b ird's h ead l aterally . S everal h umanoid f igures o n t he C onte P olychrome p lates , f or e xample , h ave e ars p rominently s haped l ike p arrot a nd/or m acaw b eaks ( fig. 7 ). O ther a nthropomorphized f igures h ave t ongue-like a ppendages w hich t erminate i n p arrot h eads ( e .g . f ig .

7 f). L othrop

( 1942:

3 4-39)

d esignates

a pparently b y s yllogistic r easoning ( A :

c urly-tailed c reatures h ave h uman f aces, C :

2 48

t hese

f igures

" turtle

t urtles h ave c urly t ails, h umans a re t urtles).

g ods",

B :

s ome

I t s eems

m uch

m ore

r easonable

r elationship

t hat

t hat

e xists

t hey

s ymbolize

b etween m an

a nd

t he

t he

m ultifarious

P sittacidae

a ll

s ymbiotic t hrough

t he

N eotropics, i n w hich t he b irds p rovide p restige ( as s umptuary i tems), f eathers, c ompany ( as p ets), p rotection, a nd, s upernaturally, b ecome e avesdroppers,

t ranslators,

a nd a lter e gos

t hat

l iaise w ith

t he

s piritual

w orld . T he

f act

t hat

c entral

P anamanian m an/parrot r epresentations c ombine

human f aces w ith a vian e ars, a ppendages,

e mphasizes

a nd p ut p arrots o n t he e nd o f t ongue-like

t he r ole o f

t he

g enerally b enign p ersonage t hat a ids t he r emarkable l inguistic a nd a ural a bilities. a re

c lear

t o

p lumage ..

t he

D esana,

t o

w hom ,

b ird-that-sees-and-hears-all,

a

w arrior a nd s haman t hrough i ts T hese a ttributes, f or e xample ,

" because

o f

i ts

y ellow

a nd

r ed

( the m acaw) i s o ften a ssociated w ith s hamanistic p ractices, b oth

a s a h elper a nd b earer o f f ertilizing c olours, a nd a lso a s a s py, a m essenger w ho m ay o verhear a n e nemy's c onversation o r w arn .. o f a pproaching d anger" ( Reichel-Dalmatoff 1 975 : T here

i s

i conographic ,

e thnohistoric

1 11). a nd

a rchaeological e vidence

f or

t he m acaw- " important p ersonage" r elationship i n c entral P anama . I n t he f irst i nstance , s ome a nthropomorphic f igures m odelled i n g old h ave w hat l ook l ike e mbalmed m acaws h anging a t t heir w aists ( Lothrop 1 937: f ig. 1 50); d ancing m en ,

w hose

a ttire

a nd

o ften

e rect

c arry b ird ( perhaps m acaw) r attles ( fig. p erched a top h uman h eads ( fig.

8 f).

p enises 8 e);

s uggest

t rance-states,

a nd m acaws a re d epicted

" Papagallos" - w hich,

i n S panish,

g enerally a re m acaws, r ather t han p arrots - w ere g iven a s p resents b y t he C olonial c aptain , G aspar d e E spinosa , t o a c hieftain ( Chirü) h e w anted t o b efriend ( Espinosa 1 913: 1 63), s uggesting t hat a p re-Spanish c ustom w as b eing ,

t actfully, a dhered t o .

A t S itio S ierra ( AG-3), t he p artial s keleton o f am acaw ( cf. A ra m acao, t he S carlet M acaw )* , w as f ound h eaped u p o ver t he t ibiae o f a n a dult h uman s keleton d ating t o t he e leventh c entury A .D. ( fig. 9 , t op, C ooke 1 972). T he i ndividual s eems t o b e p athologically s mall, a nd , t hough t here i s s ome d oubt

a bout

i ts

s ex

( Norr,

p ersonal

c ommunication),

d istinctively

" male"

t ools ( polished a xes) w ere b uried w ith t he b ody . T he c ombination o f t he m acaw , a s ericite b ead n ecklace ( in a c emetery w ere j ewelry w as o therwise a bsent), a nd t he f lute o f a B rown P elican ( Pelecanus o ccidentalis), p erhaps i ndicates t hat t he i ndividual f ulfilled a c eremonial ( shamanistic?) r öle i n l ife . M acaws w ere s till b eing b uried w ith i mportant p eople i n C osta R ica i n t he

s eventeenth

c entury .

F ernändez

G uardia ,

q uoting M anuel

d e U rcullu ,

r emarks: " si

e l

m uerto

h avia

g uacamaya p revenida;

s ido a lli

p rincipal l a m atan

o v aliente y l a

l levan u na

e ntierran....

g uacamaya e s p ara q ue e n o tra v ida l e s irvan l as p lumas".

l a

( 1968 :

1 9) T his c ustom w as r ecorded b y P ittier i n t he n ineteenth c entury a mong t he B ribri,

t he s pecies i n q uestion b eing t he M ilitary M acaw ( "lapa")

( Ara

* T his b ird w as i dentified b y A lexander W etmore i n 1 971 a s A ra c hloroptera , t he R ed-blue-and-green M acawe b ut S . O lson b elieves t he s pecimen r esembles m acao m ore c losely . E cologically, t his i dentification m akes b etter s ense.

2 49

m ilitaris, n ot p resent i n P anama) ( quoted i n S tone 1 961: I n a n e arlier

s ection ,

h uman b eings c ame i nto f ull t ext :

I b riefly r eferred

t o

t he

7 4). B ribri

t he w orld a s p arrots a nd m acaws.

" al p rincipio s ibö n os

t rajo c omo a ves.

o tro

d e

c ara n egra ,

u no e ra

T odas l as c osas l as

( loros):

l a

t hat

H ere I q uote t he

p odiamos d ecir e n c astellano s in s aberlo . E so l o p ronunciäbamos d e n atural, v inimos c omo p äjaros. v inimos v inieron c uatro c hucullos

b elief

u no

d e

o iamos y l o C uando a si c ara b lanca ,

l apa p intada k ukulg

y o tro

c hucullo q ue p odia h ablar . E ran c uatro n ada m äs q ue h ablaban , y n osotros l os o iamos y n o s abiamos l o q ue d ecian a l p rincipio. A e llos n o l os e nsegaron a h ablar, e ra n atural.

e llos y a n acieron s abigndolo,

N o e s c omo e n l a a ctualidad q ue s e e nsega a l os

n igos e n l a e scuela u sando p apeles.

N ada d e e sas c osas,

s ibö

q uiso q ue e sas a ves h ablaran c omo c ualquier g ente b ribri . D e t al m anera a pareciö e se i dioma, p or l o t anto n o s abemos s i e s o riginario d e o tro p als. C reemos q ue d e n atural l o s abemos. N os s aludamos e n e se i dioma , c reemos s u h istoria , e stos h ablaron c omo s i a lguien l os h ubiera e nseüado a h ablar , y h ablaron d el m ismo m odo q ue a hora hablamos, e scuela a u n n igo,

n o e s c omo

s e e nsef fa e n l a

a p ronunciar p alabras y e l a becedario,

s ibö l o d ejö c omo c osa n atural. c hucullos b ribris".

e sto

E sta e s l a h istoria d e l os

( Bozzoli

d e

W ille

1 977b:

8 9;

m y

u nderlining). T his k ind o f m yth - i n w hich p arrots a nd m acaws a re c learly a ssociated w ith h uman p owers o f w ith t he p arrot-like

s peech - c ould w ell b e r elated t o t he h uman f igures e ars a nd t ongues w hich o ccur o n c entral P anamanian

p ottery . T o

r ound o ff

t his

s ection ,

I s hould

l ike

t o r efer t o a nother B ribri

m yth w hich i ntroduces a t heme w hich h as n ot b een g iven e nough a ttention i n i nterpretations o f l ower C entral A merican i conography : t he r elationship b etween a nimals,

a nd h uman

s ocial n omenclature

( moieties,

c lans,

t ribes,

e tc.). R eferring t o t he " birth" o f t he c lan " duriwak", t he B ribri s tate: " el c lan d uriwak n aciö e n f orma d e p äjaro .

E n l a c abeza d e e se

p äjaro h abia u n p ico d e c hucullo ( lorito).

E ste p äjaro e ra u na

m ujer . c abeza.

A l a m ujer n o l e g ustaba q ue l e d ijeran q ug t enia e n l a E lla l e h abia p rohibido a s us h ijos m ayores q ue l e

d ijeran l o q ue t enia e n l a c abeza . U n d ia e l p ico l a p icö a e lla . a s us h ijos m enores;

S e l e o ccurriö p reguntarle

e llos i nocentemente n o s abian q ue e ra

p rohibido d ecirle a l a m ama l o q ue t enia e n s u c abeza .

C uando

l os p equef los v ieron l a c abeza d e s u m amä s e a sombraron d e v er e se p ico d e c hucullo, y l e p reguntaron : P ara q ug t iene u sted e se p ico d e c hucullo? n acido e sa s em illa ,

E lla l es c ontestö q ue p or e se p ico h abia

l a r aza d e d uriwak".

I n t he c entral P anamanian i dea : s hould

" parrot-men" w e m ay b e w itnessing a s imilar

t he b irth o f a c lan , p arrots t urning i nto m en . I n t his c ontext, I e mphasize t he u ntested p otential o f g rave g roups f or t he s tudy o f

2 50

p rehistoric I sthmian s ocial o rganization . I ntuitively, I f eel t hat c ertain f igures p ainted o n c entral P anamanian p olychromes a nd e mbossed o n g old p laques, h ave a s tatistically s ignificant d istribution , o ccurring i n v ery d ifferent p roportions i n d ifferent i ndividual g raves. T hese p atterns, o f c ourse,

c ould b e c hronological .

N evertheless,

t he f act t hat s ome o f

t he

s ame b asic a nimal m otifs a re r epeated o n a rtifacts o f a ll t he r elevant c hronological p eriods,

i mplies

t hat

f orces o ther t han t ime a re i nvolved i n

t he d istributions, a nd t hat a p atient s tudy o f a nimal d esigns f rom g raves m ight t hrow s ome l ight o n t he w ay t he a ncient P anamanians c onceived t heir r elationships w ith t he e nvironment, a nd o rganized t hemselves i nto s ocial g roups. I t m ight e ven b e p ossible t o d etermine h ow t hese g roups m ay h ave w axed o r w aned p olitically t hrough t ime. O ne a dult f emale s keleton b uried i n t he e leventh c entury A .D. a t

S itio

S ierra ,

h ad

t he

p artial

s keleton o f

a C rested B obwhite

c emetery ( Colinus

c ristatus) a longside i ts h ead . T he l eft f emur h ad b een r emoved a fter t he p lacement o f t he b ody i n t he g rave, a nd w as f ound t o o ne s ide o f a n i ncense b urner, b eneath w hich w as t he l eft t ibia o f ap aca ( Cuniculus p aca) ( fig.

9 ,

C ooke 1 972). S uch f aunal/human a ssociations i n b urials m ight r eflect k inship r elationships a s w ell a s t he m ere d esire o f t he d ead f or p aca a nd q uail m eat i n t he n etherworld.

T he K ing V ulture ( Sarcoramphus p apa) I n m y d iscussion o f t he s pread-eagled b ird m otif,

Im entioned t he K ing

V ulture a s o ne o f t he p otential c ontenders f or s pecific i dentification o n t he g old a nd c eramic o bjects, m aking t he o bservation t hat s ome f igures h ave v ery p rominent c eres w hich r ecall t hat o f t his e legant a nd s olitary s pecies w hich ,

u pon i ts a rrival a t a c arcass,

t errifies

t he o ther c arrion-feeding

s pecies w ith a f oreboding e xpansion o f i ts b icoloured w ings . O n s everal p olychrome v essels, b elonging f or t he m ost p art t o t he p ostA .D. 1 100 P arita a nd E l Hatillo s tylistic g roups, b ut a lso p resent o n e arlier C onte P olychrome p ieces ( personal o bservation b y R GC o n t he C onte f amily c ollection), t he K ing V ulture i s q uite r ealistically r epresented, w ith a b rightly c oloured c ere o utlined w ith t ypical P anamanian p olychrome t echniques ( Ladd 1 964 :

P late 4 a ,b).

O ne s uperb m odelled a nd i ncised c eramic e ffigy, o f t he t ype c alled V otive W are b y B iese u nusual

o pportunity

( 1964) - w hich w as f or

f ound o n L ake M adden - p rovides a n

r elating d ifferent

s pecies

o f

a nimal i n w hat m ust

h ave b een s ome k ind o f c osmological s ynthesis ( fig. 1 0A). H ere a K ing V ulture ( with p rominent, b ulbous c ere) f lies a loft, r epresenting t he H eavens,

w hile

a T urtle

-E arth

- f loats

a top

a C ayman

-t he

S ea

o r

t he

N etherworld.

A rchaeological B one S amples f rom c entral P anama A rchaeological d ietary b one s amples h ave b een r eported f rom s even s ites i n c entral P anama ( ranging i n a ge f rom 5 000 B .C. t o t he C onquest) 1 972, 1 978, i n p ress, R anere, C ooke a nd H ansell 1 980). B ird b ones a re p resent a t t hree o f t hese s ites:

( 1)

( Cooke

C erro M angote,

a

5 000 - 3 000 B .C. s hellmound n ow l ocated 8 k ilometers f rom t he c oast ( McGimsey 1 956, R anere e t. a l., 1 980, C ooke a nd R anere, t his v olume), ( 2)

2 51

t he A guadulce S helter, B .C.

a s mall o verhang o ccupied b etween a bout 4 500 a nd 5 00

( Ranere a nd Hansell 1 978) a nd l ocated 1 8 k ms.

f rom t he s ea ;

a nd

( 3)

S itio S ierra , a 4 5-hectare a gricultural v illage o ccupied b etween 3 00 B .C. a nd t he C onquest, w hich i s n ow 1 2 k ilometers f rom t he m outh o f t he S anta M aria r iver ( fig. 1 , C ooke 1 979). T ools m ade o f b ird b ones h ave a lso b een r eported f rom g raves a t t he S itio C onte ( Lothrop 1 937) a nd E l H atillo ( Ladd 1 964).

C erro M angote F our b ird b ones w ere r ecovered i n t he 1 955-56 e xcavations c onducted b y M cGimsey ( 1956), f or w hich s ieves w ere n ot e mployed. T hese h ave b een i dentified b y S O a s b elonging t o ( 1)

t he W hite I bis ( Eudocimus a lbus),

( 2)

t he W illet ( Catoptrophorus s emipalmatus) a nd ( 3) ah eron o r e gret ( the s ize o f E gretta c aerulea , t he L ittle B lue H eron o r E . t ricolor, t he L ouisiana H eron). 1 11 b ird b ones,

r epresenting 1 % o f t he t otal b one s ample f rom a ll

s tratigraphic c ontexts, w ere r ecovered b y R anere i n 1 979 . r ecently

b een

i dentified

b y

S O

( personal

c ommunication

T hese b ones h ave 1 984)

a nd w ill

b e

r eported o n s hortly . T he i dentification o f o f w hich ,

t hree a quatic f orms

t he W hite I bis a nd W illet,

( Ridgely 1 976 :

4 9 ,

9 8)

i n t he 1 955/56 s ample - t wo

s eldom s tray f ar f rom c oastal h abitats

-c oincides w ith B arber's ( 1981) m odel o f c oastline

c hanges a t t he m outh o f t he S anta M aria r iver , w hich p laces C erro M angote b etween 1 .5 a nd 5 .5. k ilometers f rom t he s ea a t t he t ime o f i ts P recolumbian o ccupation .

A guadulce S helter A s mall s ample o f b ird b ones w as e xcavations ( Cooke 1 978 , R anere e t.al . b een i dentified ( by R GC):

r ecovered a t t his s ite i n t he 1 975 1 980). T o d ate o nly o ne i tem h as

t he h umerus o f a n i mmature v ulture ( Cathartidae).

S itio S ierra O ver 4 00 d ietary b ird b ones w ere r ecovered b y R GC d uring e xcavations i n 1 971,

1 973

a nd

1 975,

f rom e ighteen

d ifferent

s tratigraphic

c ontexts

c omprising t hree h ouse f loors a nd 1 5 f illed-in p its a nd r efuse l enses a ssociated w ith t hese a nd o ther d omestic s tructures ( Cooke 1 979). 3 30 s pecimens w ere e xamined b y S O a t t he N ational M useum o f N atural H istory b etween M arch 1 978 a nd A ugust 1 979

( brief s ummaries o f t he s ample h ave

a ppeared i n C ooke 1 979 a nd M 6ndez 1 979). I n f ig. c alculating

1 1 t he

I h ave t abulated t he f requencies o f t he i dentified t axa b y m inimum n umber

o f

m entioned s tratigraphic c ontexts.

i ndividuals

a ggregated

f rom

t he

a bove-

T he r elative f requencies o f t he v arious

o rders a nd f amilies h ave b een a rranged a s ah istogram i n f ig .

1 2.

P recise

a natomical d etails o f t he s ample, a nd d escriptions o f t he s tratigraphy w ill b e g iven e lsewhere. I n f ig. 1 3, I have a ssessed t he b ehavioural a nd h abitat a ttributes o f t he i dentified f orms. A ll b ut 5 o f t he d ietary b ird b ones c ome f rom c ontexts d ating f rom

2 52

P eriod I V o f t he C entral R egion s equence ( 300 B .C. - A .D. 5 00). S easonality O f t he t wo t axa i dentified , m igrating

t o

t he T ropics

o nly t wo b reed w holly o utside t he I sthmus ,

d uring t he n orthern w inter:

( Porzana c arolina) a nd t he L esser S caup ( Aythya a ffinis). P anama f rom l ate S eptember t o e arly A pril ; t he l atter M arch .

t he

S ora

R ail

T he f ormer i s i n f rom N ovember t o

T he G reat B lue Heron ( Ardea h erodias) i s n ot k nown t o h ave b red i n P anama

a nd

I nnatures , t he y ear .

i s

g enerally

c onsidered

a m igrant

( September

- A pril).

h owever , a re k now t o l inger o n i n s uitable h abitats t hroughout S ome o f t he b ones i n t he S itio S ierra s ample a re f rom i mmatures.

O f t he Z enaida d oves , a siatica ( White-winged D ove) i s p robably r esident i n r estricted h abitats n ear m angroves, w hile m acroura ( Mourning D ove) i s b oth b reeder 1 968).

a nd m igrant

i n t he C entra l

P rovinces

( Ridgely

1 976,

W etmore

D omestication B ones o f t he M uscovy D uck ( Cairina m oschata), r epresenting a t l east t wo i ndividuals , w ere r ecovered i n r ubbish d umps w hose l ikely d ate i s A .D. 1 5 00 . O ne o f t he i ndividuals i s p articularly l arge. T hough d omestication o f t his s pecies c annot b e p roven , i t i s a s trong p ossibility : t he b ones o f y oung d ucks , w hich c ould b e m uscovies, w ere f ound t rodden i nto h ouse f loors . D endrocygna c hicks m ight a lso h ave b een t aken f rom t heir n ests a nd r eared i n c aptivity . G aspar d e E spinosa ,

w riting a bout N at ä( Cocl€) i n 1 517 ,

d ucks a nd " turkeys" w ere k ept i n c ages ( "muchas ä nsares, j aulas")

( 1913a :164).

I n t he S itio S ierra s ample ,

r emarks t hat e p avas e (n)

t he o nly o ther s pecies

w hich w ould b e a ppropriate f or c aging a nd f attening , i s t he C rested B obwhite ( colinus c ristatus), w hich i s s ometimes r eared i n c aptivity t oday. N o c racid b ones w ere f ound i n t he S itio S ierra s ample ;

O viedo ,

h owever ( 1944 :

V ol . I I, p . 2 19), r efers t o " pavos d e l os b ermejos e t ambien d e l os n egros" ( scarlet a nd b lack t urkeys) o n t he P earl I slands ( "Isla d e S anct F elipeG orgona") o bviuosly a r eference t o t he f emale a nd m ale c urassows. T he t hree p sittacid s pecies p resent i n t he S itio S ierra s ample - t he S carlet M acaw , R ed-b red P arrot a nd O range-chinned P arakeet - w ere p robably k ept a s p ets .

B ehaviour i n R elation t o T rapping M ethods E leven o f

t he i dentified t axa a re a quatic f orms

p elican a nd c ormorant s ometimes o ccur i n l arge

f locks

( see f ig. -t he

1 3).

l atter

T he

f ar u p

r ivers - a nd c ould h ave b een b rought d own b y p rojectiles. T he h erons a nd , e specially , t he R oseate S poonbill, a re w ary , b ut c an p robably b e a pproached t o w ithin s pear-

o r s ling-shot .

T he r ails,

o n t he o ther h and ,

a re v ery

c ryptic a nd l argely c repuscular , a nd i t i s u nlikely t hey c ould h ave b een c aught b y a ny o ther m ethod t han l eaving n ets o r s elf-activating t raps i n s uitable h abitats. D endrocygna n est i n t rees, a c haracteristic t hat m akes t hem v ulnerable i n t he b reeding s eason . d iving d uck t hat i s v ery s hy.

T he L esser S caup i s ad eep w ater

T his f act s uggests t hat s ome m ethod o f

2 53

h unting d ucks

b y

s tealth w as e mployed:

t he u se o f

l arge g ourds o ver

s wimmers - h eads s prings t o m ind. O f

t he

p artially, s imple

t errestrial s pecies, t he g rackle,

a pparatus

t he C rested B obwhite,

( boxes w ith c ords).

f or c atching d oves

t he d oves a nd,

a re g rain-eaters w hich w ould b e e asy

( "törtolas"),

T he S panish r ecord

t o t rap w ith

t he u se o f n ets

w hich w ere a pparently c ommon e nough a round

Nat äi n 1 517 t o b e b rought d own i n l arge n umbers b y c rossbow ( Espinosa 1 913a : 7 8). T he t wo t hey a re s ecretive

s pecies o f a ni a re i nsectivorous ,

b ut v ery c onfiding .

T oday

f reqeuntly k illed b y s mall b oys. T he M angrove C uckoo i s a s pecies b ut i t l urks s ilently w ithin e asy r ange o f p rojectiles.

T he W hite-tailed N ightjar h as a s imilar b ehaviour:

o ne o bserved r ecently b y

R GC n ear t he M onagrillo s hellmound ( Willey a nd M cGimsey 1 954) c ould b e a pproached t o w ithin a f ew f eet, a t w hich , i n t ypical n ightjar f ashion , i t w ould t ake o ff a nd l and a f ew y ards a way. O nce s potted, t hese b irds w ould b e e asy p rey . N ot s o t he f alcon , p erhaps t he A plomado F alcon , a f astf lying b ird-eating s pecies w hich w ould h ave t o b e b rought d own b y p rojectile o r n etted w ith

l ive b ait .

M artyr

4 09) r ecords t he u se o f d oves a s d ecoys,

( 1911:

I n t his c ontext,

i t

i s

i nteresting t hat

P eter

t hough h e d oes n ot

s pecify f or w hich s pecies . Tyto a lba, h abitation .

t he

B arn Owl,

i s

n octurnal,

b ut

d oes n ot

T he F ork-tailed F lycatcher i s a c onfiding s pecies,

s hun h uman b ut i t

i s

l argely i nsectivorous a nd w ould p robably h ave t o b e b rought d own w ith p rojectiles . T he

b ehavioural

c haracteristics

o f

t he

S itio

S ierra b ird

s ample

i ndicate t hat v arious f orms o f t rapping a nd k illing m ust h ave b een e mployed : ( 1) p rojectiles, s ome w ith a c onsiderable r ange, ( 2) n ets, ( 3) t raps, i ncluding s ophisticated s elf-activating f orms a nd ( 4) s ome m ethod o f c atching s hy d iving d ucks. T he S panish s ources r efer c onstantly t o s lings a s o ffensive w eapons i n c entral P anama ( Andagoya 1 913 : 1 97, E spinosa 1 913a : 1 79 , 1 913b : 2 84-85), a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t hey w ere w idely e mployed t o t ake b irds . N o d oubt c hildren w ere t he p rimary p redators, e mploying s uch m odern t ricks a s t he u se o f g um t o e nsnare s mall b irds f or e ncagement.

A bundance a nd R arity A ccording " abundant",

t o R idgely

( 1976),

t wo " very c ommon",

" uncommon" a nd t hree " rare" C rake)

( see f ig .

1 3).

t wo

o f

t he

S itio

S ierra t axa a re

t oday

t hirteen " common o r f airly c ommon",

( the S carlet M acaw ,

s ix

M angrove C uckoo a nd U niform

T he R ed-b red P arrot i s n ot r ecorded i n m odern t imes

f rom t he d ry s avannas o f c entral P anama.

T he W hite-faced T ree-duck i s n ow

a bsent f rom t he a rea ( Cooke a nd O lson , n .d.). I t i s, o rganisms s ample.

o f c ourse ,

v ery d ifficult t o g auge t he r elative r arity o f t hese

i n P recolumbian t imes,

o n

t he

b asis

o f

a s ingle

a rchaeological

Hunting w ith f irearms a nd t he c omnercialization o f c age b irds h ave

o bviously a ccelerated t he d ecline o f d ucks a nd p sittacids i n m odern t imes. T he S panish e ye-witness

a ccounts o f

t he e arly s ixteenth c entury w hich

r efer t o t he c onquest o f t he P acific s avannas, a nd d ucks, a nd

a nd b irds c alled " pheasants"

" turkeys"

( pavas)

w ere

t he

m ost

i ndicate t hat p igeons,

( faisanes),

c ommonly u sed

2 54

" partridges" f ood

i tems.

d oves

( perdices) ( Espinosa

a lso t alks a bout " crows" - c uervos - i n t he t erritory o f Natä) ( 1913a: 1 77). I have

a lready

d omestication . a g oose ( Latin : l ike m uscovy,

m entioned

d ucks

a nd

c urassows

i n

t he

c ontext

o f

I t i s p ossible t hat t he t erm " änsar" - w hich i s, p roperly , a nser) - w as r eserved f or t he l arge a nd n oticeably g oosew hile t he t erm " pato" w as u sed f or

s maller

g enera

l ike

D endrocygna a nd A ythya . T he w ords " pava" a nd " faisän" m ust r efer t o t he t hree l owland s pecies o f c racid w hich o ccur i n P anama : t he C urassow , C rested

G uan

( Penelope p urpurescens)

( Ortalis c inereiceps).

T oday ,

t he

e mployed a ll o ver t he I sthmus f or t he t he E uropean p heasant I n t he O ld W orld ,

a nd

w ord

t he

G rey-headed

" faisana"

l ast s pecies,

( Phasianus c olchicus)

t han

t he

( always

C hacbalaca

f eminized)

w hich l ooks m ore g uans

a nd

i s

l ike

c urassow .*

b efore t he i ntroduction o f t he A merican t urkey ,

t he w ord

" pavön" w as r eserved f or t he p eacock , w hile " pava" w as t he p ea-hen o r g uinea f owl.

T hese t erms h ave n ow c ome t o b e g enerally u sed f or t he C urassow a nd

C rested G uan .

I t i s l ikely , t hen , t hat o nly t wo d ecades a fter t he d iscovery

o f t he A merican m ainland, t he S panish w ere a lready d istinguishing b etween t he t hree m ajor g enera o f c racids b y r eference t o t hree O ld W orld f orms w ith w hich t hey w ere f amiliar . T he

C olumbidae

" törtolas" 2 80 , 2 83,

a re

( turtle d oves) 2 87).

i dentified

a s

( Andagoya 1 913 :

b oth

" palomas"

( pigeons)

1 97, E spinosa 1 913a :

1 78 ,

a nd

1 913b :

I t i s l ikely t hat t he O ld W orld f orms t he S paniards h ad i n

m ind w ere t he W ood P igeon ( Columba p alumbus), w hich i s a l arge,

c hubby

s pecies t hat f locks i n l arge n umbers t o c ultivated f ields, a nd t he T urtle D ove ( Streptopelia t urtur), a d elicate, m igratory b ird w ith a l ong , p ointed t ail ( Peterson , M ountfort a nd H ollom 1 974). T he P anamanian s pecies w hich r esembles

t he W ood P igeon m ost c losely i n s ize ,

t he B and-tailed P igeon ( Columba f asciata), t he n ape l ike i ts O ld W orld c ounterpart .

p lumage a nd b ehaviour,

i s

w hich e ven h as a w hite c ollar o n

Y ears a go, t he " torcaza", a s i t i s

k nown l ocally, u sed t o d escend b y t he t housands t o t he P acific l owlands a t t he b eginning o f t he r ainy s eason , f rom i ts n esting a reas i n t he c entral c ordillera h owever,

( Ridgely

1 976:

1 88).

O rganized

s eriously d epleted i ts n umbers.

h unting

w ith

f irearms

h as,

T he o ther l ocal s pecies o f

C olumba a re s hier, m ore s olitary b irds. L eptotila v erreauxi ( the W hitet ipped D ove), t hough s mall, r esembles E uropean p igeons ( "palomas") i n m orphology,

a nd t urtle-doves ( "törtolas") i n b ehaviour.

T he " törtolas" w hich t he S paniards c laim t o h ave s laughtered w ith e ase w ith t heir c ross b ows, i s p robably t he M ourning D ove ( Zenaida m acroura), w hich h as a l ong , t hin a nd p ointed t ail l ike t he E uropean T urtle D ove, a nd i s

a bout

t he

s ame

s ize.

T he M ourning D ove u sed t o s ettle i n v ery l arge

f locks o n r ice s tubble i n C o de a nd A zuero u ntil q uite r ecently i n F ebruary

a nd M arch w hen

t he

( especially

l ocal p opulations w ere s wollen b y n orthern

m igrants), b ut c ommercialized h unting h as r apidly r educed t he s tock . A t

t he f uneral f east i n h onour o f

E spinosa ( 1913b: t örtolas

t he r ecently d eceased c hief P arita ,

2 80) r ecords having p artaken o f:

" pavas e i guanas e

e a jes ( sweet p otatoes o r n ative y ams) e c hicha".

* " Faisana" i s u sually c orrupted i n p opular s peech t o " paisana".

2 55

T he " partridges" s een b y t he S panish i n t he P acific s avannas m ust h ave b een q uails, w hich r un i n c oveys l ike t he E uropean P artridge ( Perdix p erdix) a nd a re o therwise s imilar i n f light p attern , m orphology ( Espinosa 1 913b : 2 83).

e scape s trategies a nd o verall

G eneral E cological C onsiderations T he S itio S ierra b ird b one s ample, w hich d ates m ostly f rom P eriod I V o f t he C entral R egion s equence

( 300 B .C.

- A .D.

5 00),

i ndicates t hat

t he

i nhabitants o f t he v illage w ere t aking p rimarily b irds o f m arsh, p ond, s econd-growth w oodland a nd d ry , s emi-open a reas. T here a re n o t axa i n t he e ntire s ample w hich r equire c ontinuous s tands o f f orest f or t heir s urvival, w ith t he e xception o f t he R ed-b red A mazon a nd t he S carlet M acaw , w hich m ay h ave

b een

i mported

f rom a far

( even t his

s pecies

o f

m acaw i s f ound i n t he

d riest a reas o f t he P acific s lope w hen n ot m olested). I n f act, w ith t hese e xceptions, t he r ecorded g enera a nd s pecies a re s till t he m ost f requently e ncountered i n t he i mmediate e nvirons o f t he s ite . S itio S ierra w as a l arge, ( Cooke

1 979,

c ultivated,

i n p ress).

a nd

b eans

a nd

p robably

w ere

t heir

o f s econd g rowth i n t he g eneral v icinity. I n a ll v illagers d id n ot h ave t o s tray f ar f rom t heir h omes t o

a vian s ustenance,

a nd I h ave

u sing s lings a nd s tones a nd t raps, b irds i n t he m iddens.

s uggested

t hat

e xclusively i n t he d riest

s mall

a nd m ost

o pen a reas

o f

t he

t oday,

P acific

p resent ( or p robably r epresented) i n t he S itio S ierra s ample : t he C rested B obwhite ,

c hildren

m ay w ell h ave a ccounted f or m any o f t he

W orthy o f n ote i s t he f act t hat s ome t axa w hich,

F alcon ,

p alms

a nd t here m ust h ave b een w ide t racts o f l and u nder c rops o r i n

v arious s tages l ikelihood, t he a cquire

n ucleated v illage b y t he t ime o f C hrist

M aize

t he W hite-tailed N ightjar ,

a re f ound

s lopes,

a re

t he A plomado

t he M ourning a nd

W hite-winged D oves, a nd t he P lain-breasted G round-Dove. T he S panish e ye-witness r eports o f s imilar

i mpression

i dentifications a nd d oves,

o f

o penness:

t he e arly s ixteenth c entury g ive

t hough

f rom t heir o bservations,

d ucks ,

a nd q uail,

s uggests

i t t he

i s

d ifficult

o bvious

t o m ake

a bundance

a

s pecific

o f p igeons

t hat t hey c ould f ind p lenty t o h unt

a round c ultivated f ields, a quatic h abitats, a nd s econdary v egetation .

S ummary I n t his e ssay,

Ih ave a ttempted t o s ummarize t he r elationship b etween

m en a nd b irds i n t he P acific s avannas o f P anama f rom 5 000 B .C. C onquest. r esearchers b elief

I have - t hat

s ystems.

s tressed

b irds T hough,

w ere

t he

v ery

f act

- w ell

i mportant

i n m any c ases,

d ocumented

e lements

o f

t he

b y

t o t he e arlier

P recolumbian

a vian m otifs o n g old a nd p ottery

a rtifacts s eem t o c onvey s ocial m etaphors, m aking t he d epiction o f t axonomic n iceties u nnecessary ( Linares 1 977), I h ave i ndicated t hat a n umber o f b ird t axa - v ultures a nd h awks, e grets a nd h erons, o wls, n ightjars, p arrots a nd m acaws,

a nd h ummingbirds - a re o ften n aturalistically p ortrayed,

a s t hough

i t w ere i mportant t hat t he b irds b e i dentifiable t o t he o bservers . F or t his r eason I h ave s uggested t hat m yth a nd k inship s tructure a re i n s ome w ay r elated t o t hese t axa . I h ave i ndicated t hat b ird b ones r ecovered f rom p rehistoric m iddens a t

2 56

o ne l arge v illage a re s imilar i n t axonomic c omposition t o t he c ontemporary a vifauna ,

s uggesting t hat h ighly d isturbed a nd s emi-open e nvironments h ave

p revailed i n s ome s ectors o f c entral P acific P anama f or a t l east t housand y ears. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t he d omestication o f M uscovy D uck b y t he t ime o f C hrist, w hile i t s eems l ikely t hat t hese,

t wo t he a nd

o ther d ucks, a s w ell a s c racids a nd q uails w ere c aged u p f or s ubsequent c onsumption. C racid b ones a re n ot p resent i n t he S itio S ierra m idden s amples,

b ut c urassows a nd,

p robably,

g uans a re o ften m entioned b y t he

S panish w hen t hey e ntered i mportant v illages a long t he P acific c oast. D eforestation a nd h unting p ressure h ad p robably r educed t hese b irds t o m ountainous

h abitats,

w hence t hey w ere i mported a s e xotic a nd/or h igh

p restige i tems a long w ith s pecies l ike t he R ed-b red P arrot. I t i s i mportant t hat t he a ccumulating e vidence f or f orest c learance a t a n e arly d ate ( see C ooke a nd R anere, W eiland, v olume) b e t aken i nto c onsideration w hen

a nd P iperno a nd C lary , t his t he r elationships b etween

P recolumbian p opulations a nd t heir e nvironments a re c onsidered . T here i s a l ogical t endency t o a ssume t hat t he m ost i mportant f orms i n P recolumbian a rt a nd m yth, a re t hose o f t he r ain f orest: j aguars, t apirs a nd H arpy E agles, f or e xample.

T hough

t here

i s

g ood a rchaeological e vidence

a nd g enetically r elated h uman g roups

l ived o n b oth s ides o f

( see C ooke 1 982, L inares a nd R anere 1 980), l argest p opulation c entres a nd i ntellectual

t hat s ocially t he c ordillera

i t i s p robably t rue t hat t he h ubs o f t he t hree P anamanian

c ulture a reas, w ere a lways l ocated o n t he P acific s lopes.

O bvious j aguars,

t apirs a nd Harpy E agles a re n ot e asy t o f ind o n p olychrome p ottery i n c entral P anama ( though t hey d o o ccur s ometimes o n g oldwork) ( e.g. f ig. 8 b), w hereas W hite-tailed D eer ( Odocoileus

v irginianus),

a rmadilloes,

r accoons,

M arine T oads ( Bufo m arinus), e grets a nd h erons, B arn O wls, s harks, r ays a nd e els, c rabs a nd m arine w orms, a re o ften r epresented . T hese a re a nimals o f t he s avanna a nd t he c oast. T he P acific s ide e nvironment, t hen , m ay w ell h ave b een t he m odel f or t he m an-animal r elationships o f c entral P anama , f ar r emoved e cologically f rom t he p rimeval r ain f orest o f t he C aribbean s lopes. C are s hould a lso b e t aken t o d etermine w hich o rganisms w ere b eing c onsumed i n P recolumbian t imes,

a nd w hich w ere n ot.

L inares ( 1976,

1 977)

e mphasises t he f act t hat t he a nimals m ost c ommonly d epicted o n c entral P anamanian a rt w ere c hosen f or t heir b ehavioural ( i.e. m etaphorical) a ttributes

-a ggressiveness,

c rypsis,

d efensive

a ttitudes

e tc.

,

r ather

t han f or t heir e dibility, a nd s he c orrectly n otes t he a bsence o f s uch h ighly d esirable f ood i tems a s p acas ( Cuniculus p aca) a nd a goutis p unctata) i n a rtistic r epresentations.

However ,

( )asyprocta

a n umber o f t he o rganisms

t hat a re c ommonly r epresented o n g old a nd p ottery , a nd t hat d o e xhibit t he m etaphorical q ualities t hat L inares s tresses, o ccur i n m idden c ontexts, i mplying t hat t hey w ere b eing r egularly c onsumed s harks,

( turtles,

a rmadilloes,

s ting-rays, h erons a nd e grets).

E qually i mportant a s t he d ietary q ualities o f t hese a nimals, i s t he f act t hat s ocial t aboos e xisted i n c entral P anama a ginst t he c onsumption o f c ertain s pecies b y c ertain s ocial g roups:

E spinosa

( 1913a ,b) s tates q uite

c learly t hat t he W hite-tailed D eer c ould n ot b e e aten b y t he h igh-rank m embers o f t he t erritory o f P arita , e ven t hough d eer a bounded i n t he l and ( see C ooke 1 978). S uch t aboos m ight r eflect t he i ntimate r elationship t hat e xisted b etween h uman s ocial g roupings a nd a nimals, i .e., b elonging t o t he " clan o f t he d eer" c ould n ot c onsume t heir T his i dea r eaffirms m y c onviction t hat z oomorphic d esigns u ntapped s ource o f i nformation a bout h ow t he P aleo-Chibchans t heir s ocial r elationships a nd m ythical o rigins.

2 57

t hat p eople " relatives".

a re a l argely c onceptualized

H ence I r ecommend t hat,

i n t he f uture , ac areful e ffort b e m ade t o r ecord p recisely t he p resence a nd a bsence o f a nimal b ones a nd z oomorphic d esigns i n i ndividual t ombs a nd c emeteries, a nd t hat m ore d etailed a nalyses b e p romoted o f m an-animal r elationships i n t he o ral t raditions o f t he s urviving C hibchan-speaking g roups o f c entra l a nd w estern P anama a nd s outhern C osta R ica , u ndoubted d escendants o f t he P recolumbian t ribes o f t he a rea .

2 58

w hich a re t he

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he

i dentifications

o f

t he

b ird

b one

s amples

f rom S itio

S ierra

a nd

C erro

M angote, w ere d one b y S torrs O lson ( Division o f B irds, S mithsonian I nstitution) ( SO i n t he t ext). I a m d eeply i ndebted t o h im f or u ndertaking t his s ometimes t hankless t ask a nd f or a nswering m y m any q uestions c oncerning t he P anamanian a vifauna . H e a lso r ead a nd c ommented o n t he t ext. T he p reliminary a nalysis o f t he S itio S ierra, C erro M angote a nd A guadulce S helter b one s amples w as m ade e asier b y t he v oluntary w ork o f G ina M aduro, J ulio J a& l ,

L inda C unningham a nd N ira S oberön .

N inotchka F ranco d e S mith

t yped t he m anuscript a nd p atiently a ltered c ountless v ersions o f t he t ext. N eal S mith h as m ade m any h elpful s uggestions t o m e o ver t he y ears a bout m anb ird r elationships i n P anama ,

a nd k indly l ent m e m any c olour s lides f or t he

l ectures w hich g ave r ise t o t his p aper . s timulating a rt .

m y

i nterest

i n

t he

I o we m uch t o O lga F .

i nterpretation

o f

P anamanian

L inares f or P recolumbian

T he a nalysis o f t he C entral P anamanian f aunal s amples h as b een a ided

b y t wo S mithsonian I nstitution F luid R esearch F und a wards a nd a T emple U niversity F aculty G rant ( Anthropology) t o A .J. R anere. T he T rustees o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology k indly g ave m e p ermission t o r eproduce s everal i llustrations f rom v olumes b y S .K . L othrop.

2 59

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2 63

e dited

A PPENDIX S ources f or t he i llustrations: F IG. 2 a :

I chon

1 980:

P late

X XXI,

c ollection o f J uan C anavaggio, L othrop 1 937: f ig. 7 6b , e : f ig .

b :

M acaracas

P olychrome

v essel

P anama C ity, c : L inares 1 977: L othrop 1 952: f ig. 9 9g, f :

i n

t he

f ig. 4 0c , d : L othrop 1 952:

9 3b

F IG. 3 A ll f rom L othrop 1 942 a :

f ig.

1 94 ,

b :

f ig.

2 42b ,

c :

4 3, g : f ig . 3 80a , g : f ig. 4 3,

f ig. 4 5b ,

i : f ig . 4 7,

d :

f ig.

4 8b, e :

f ig.

4 4,

f :

f ig.

j : f ig. 4 8b

F IG. 4 A ll f rom L othrop 1 942 a :

f ig.

2 77a ,

b :

f ig.

2 94b ,

4 9, g : f ig . 4 9, h : f ig . 8 1, i :

c :

f ig.

8 6,

d : f ig. 2 26b , e : f ig. 2 26a , f : f ig.

j : f ig . 4 57 .

D rawn f rom a n o riginal c olour s lide b y N eal G . S mith

F IG. 5 a : I chon 1 980 : P late X LIIa , b : L othrop 1 942: f ig. 3 79 , c : L othrop 1 942: f ig. 2 95a,

d :

I chon 1 980:

F rontispiece,

c ollection o f J uan C anavaggio,

e :

T onosi P olychrome p late i n t he

P anama C ity ,

f :

T onosi P olychrome d ouble j ar

i n t he c ollection o f J . C anavaggio . F IG. 6 a : D rawn f rom a c olour s lide b y R GC o f aM acaracas P olychrome p edestal p late i n t he d eposit o f

t he M useo d el H ombre P anameüo,

P anama C ity,

b :

L othrop

1 950: f ig. 7 2b, c : L othrop 1 950: f ig. 7 2f, d : Amazilia v ersicolor ( Greenewalt 1 960), e : L othrop 1 950: f ig. 7 2d , f : C ampylopterus l argipennis ( Greenewalt 1 960). F IG. 7 a : L othrop 1 942:

f ig.

9 1a ,

b : L othrop 1 942:

f ig.

9 1b, c : L othrop 1 942 : f ig.

5 8b, d : L othrop 1 942: f ig. 5 8a , e : L othrop 1 942: f ig . 3 80b , f : d rawn f rom a n o riginal

c olour

s lide

b y

O lga

F .

L inares

( Conte

P olychrome

H arvard U niversity c ollection), g : L othrop 1 942: f ig.

p late

i n

t he

5 7b .

F IG . 8 a :

L othrop

f ig. 1 952:

9 9j, f ig.

d :

1 937 :

f ig.

1 93f,

L othrop 1 952:

b :

f ig .

L othrop 8 9d,

e :

1 01c.

2 65

1 952:

f ig.

L othrop 1 952:

9 9f, f ig.

c :

L othrop 1 952:

9 7g ,

f :

L othrop

F IG. 9 D rawn f rom b lack-and-white p hotographs b y R GC.

F IG. 1 0 a :

V essel i n p rivate c ollection ,

s urface-collected o n L ake A lajuela .

S itio S ierra , c ontext d ated b etween 6 5 B .C. a nd A .D. 5 00 .

2 66

b :

A bundant V ery c ommon C ommon U ncommon R are A bsent ( today) C onfiding W ary F locking S olitary N octurnal C an b e t amed C oast R ivers P onds,

l akes

M arshes, s wamps Heavy f orest L ight w oods S econd g rowth C ultivation G rasslands H uman d wellings M igratory

2 67

A

L U

0

C " Z.

n ä `

7

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F IG.

2 70

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2 71

PSI TTA CI D S

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Dis playe d L I G HT

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CA PRI M UL GID

F I G.

2 72

4

c rest

BL U E

FL Y C A T C H E R

B RA PTOR

A HU M MING-BIRO S

C HU M MING-BIRD

HU M MING-BIRDS

D

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F IG . 6

2 74

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MA CA W-

OR

PA RR O T- ME N

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G F IG . 7

2 75

HA RP Y

EA GL E

MA C A W

MA N

WITH B IRD

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DA NCIN G

F I G UR E WITH MA CA W ( ?)

F I G URE

WITH B IRD

PL U ME

HEA D DRESS

F IG . 8

2 76

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TUR TL E

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F IG .

1 0

T AXON

E NGLISH N AME

P halacrocorax o livaceus

N eotropic C ormorant

A rdea h erodias

G reat B lue H eron

E gretta a lba

G reat ( Common) E gret

M NI

B utorides s triatus s .l.

S triated ( Green) H eron

c f. N yctanassa v iolcaea

Y ellow-crowned N ight-Heron

A rdeidae A jaia a jaja

H erons/egrets ( unidentified) R oseate S poonbill

D endrocygna v iduata

W hite-faced T ree-Duck

D . c f. v iduata D endrocygna s p .

T ree-Duck

C airina m oschata A ythya a ffinis

M uscovy D uck L esser S caup

A natidae

D ucks ( unidentified)

c f. A natidae y oung A natidae

y oung d ucks

F alconiformes

Hawk o r f alcon ( unid.)

F alco, p erhaps f emoralis C olinus c ristatus

F alcon , p erhaps A plomado F . C rested B obwhite

P orzana c arolina

S ora R ail

R allidae , p ossibly A maurolimnas

R ail , p oss. U niform C rake

c f. C haradriformes ( young)

( young) w ading b ird

C olumba s p .

P igeon o r d ove

Z enaida s p .

M ourning o r W hite-w . D ove

C olumbina m inuta

P lain-breasted G round-Dove

c f. L eptotila v erreauxi

W hite-tipped D ove

C olumbidae

P igeon o r d ove ( unid.)

B rotogeris j ugularis

O range-chinned P arakeet

A mazona a utumnalis

R ed-b red A mazon

C occyzus c f. m inor

M angrove C uckoo

C rotophaga c f. a ni

S mooth-billed A ni

C . s ulcirostris

G roove-billed A ni

T yto a lba

B arn O wl

S trigiformes C aprimulgus c ayennensis

O wl ( unidentified) W hite-tailed N ightjar

c f. M elanerpes r ubricapillus

R ed-crowned W oodpecker

c f. M uscivora t yrannus c f. C assidix m exicanus

F ork-tailed F lycatcher G reat-tailed G rackle

P asseriformes

P asserine ( unidentified) S mall n on-passerine

T OTAL , M INIMUM N UMBER O F I NDIVIDUALS

F IG .

1 1:

T HE A VIAN T AXA R ECOVERED I N T HE D IETARY B ONE S AMPLE F ROM S ITIO S IERRA ( AG-3), w ith M NI c alculated f rom e ighteen s tratigraphic c ontexts.

2 79

1 0

20

30 %

COR M ORA NTS HE R O N S

t f EG RE TS

SP O O NBILL S DUC K S HA WK S & FAL C O NS QUAIL S RAIL S WA DI N G

B IRDS

P I GE O NS PA R R O TS

& D O VE S

N M I

& MA CA WS

0 3 1 1

CUCK O OS O WL S NI G H TJA R S W O O DPE C K E R S NO N-PA S S E RI NE

? sp.

•

PA S S ERI NES 10

20

30 %

MNI :90

S IT IO

S IERRA:

RELATIVE FRE QUENCY OF AV IAN ORDERS & FA M ILIES c o mputed a s %of t ota l MN I a ggregated f ro m 1 8 s trat igraph ic c ontexts

F IG .

1 2

2 80

B rown P elican

x

x

x

x

x

C ormorant

x

x

x

x

x

G reat B lue H eron

x

G reat E gret S triated H eron

x x

Y -c. N ight=Heron** R . S poonbill

x

W -f. T ree-Duck

x x

L esser S caup

x

A plomado F alcon*

x

C rested B obwhite U niform C rake**

x

C olumba d oves

v aries a cc .

Z enaida d oves

x

P 1-br. G round-Dove W hite-tipped D ove**

x

P arakeet R ed-b red A mazon

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

xx x x

x

x

xxx

x

x

x

x

t o s pecies

x

x

x x x

x x

xx x x xx x x xx x x x

x x

x xx xx x x

x

x

x xx x x xx x

xx

x x

xxx xxx

x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

M angrove C uckoo*

W hite-t. N ightjar R ed-cr . W oodpecker

x x x x

x

x

B arn O wl

x x x

x

x x x

x

x

S carlet M acaw S mooth-billed A ni* G roove-billed A ni

x x x x x x x

x

x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x

x x

x x

x

x x

xx x

x

x

S ora R ail

x

x

x

M uscovy D uck

x

x

x x

x x

x x

xx x

xx x x x x

x x xxx

F ork-t. F lycatcher** G reat-t. G rackle**

x x

*I dentified t o g enus,

p robably t his s pecies * * I dentified t o f amily ,

x

xx xx x x

t his s pecies

F IG .

1 3 :

R ELATIVE A BUNDANCE , B EHAVIOURAL C HARCTERISTICS , A ND H ABITAT R EQUIREMENTS O F T HE A VIAN T AXA A T S ITIO S IERRA ( AG-3)

2 81

p rob .

LA C ERAMICA H ISTORICA EN LA C IUDAD D E PANAMA:

TRES

CONTEXTOS E STRATIGRAFICOS Beatriz E .

1 .

R ovira*

I ntroducciön Excavaciones a rqueolögicas

Casco Antiguo d e y eron d e

r ealizadas

l a c iudad de Panamä

d esde

1 979 hasta 1 981

( el e x-intramuros)(fig.

e n e l

1 ),

p rove-

i nformaciön c ultural s abre t odo e l p eriodo d e o cupaciön h istö-

rica que c omprende d esda l a fundaciön d e l a N ueva Panamä en 1 673 h asta l as ültimas d dcadas d el s iglo X IX. R esultados parciales del a nälisis d e i nformaciön d ocumental, ( Rovira

1 981,

Rovira y D ayan e n prensa ).

c erämica que proviene d e

t res

c ontextos

c uales r epresentan l os periodos 1 903).

l os restos materiales y d e

han s ido r eunidos e n d os

En e ste e nsayo d escribo l a e stratigräficos

c olonial

( 1673-1821)

c lases d e c erämica que e staban s iendo empleadas guardan e ntre s í t orneada,

( 2)

l as d istintas

mayölica,

vajillas

d e d ispersiön d e

( 1)

( 1821-

l as

e n l a c iudad d e Panamä

t radiciones t ecnolögicas

( cerämica no

i ndustriales y porcelana ),

l as d istintas

l os

l a r elaciön c ronolögica y e spacial que

t ipolögica que e xiste e n c ada t radiciön,

2 .

s ellados,

y c olombiano

En e sta f orma e spero proporcionar i nformaciön s abre

en t ales momentos h istöricos,

l a

a rticulos previos

y ( 4)

c ategorias

( 3)

l a variedad

l as procedencias y rutas

i dentificadas.

Los Contextos E stratigräficos A f in de o frecer i nformaciön t emporal e specifica,

c ontextos e stratigräficos que e jemplifican o tros h istoria d e 1 874,

l a c iudad:

( 1)

procedentes d e d os

1 673 - Z 1678?,

s itios

( 2)

t os difiere,

( ver

e xcavados par R ichard G .

l a f igura 1 ).

en l a

1 749 - 1 767 y ( 3)

e l C onvento"de Santo Domingo ( Cooke y Rovira 1 983) C ompahla de Jesüs

s elecciond t res

t antos momentos C ooke

1 851

-

( STRI):

y l a I glesia de

l a

S i b ien l a funciön de l os depösi-

e llos s on particularmente ütiles para e l o bjetivo propues-

t o par habdrsele a signado a c ada uno,

una u bicaciön t emporal d e corta

d uraciön par s u posiciön e stratigräfica y par e l r ecurso d e l a document aciön h istörica. Unidad A ( 1673- M678?) Representa l as a ctividades mäs

a ntiguas en e l patio d el Convento d e

S anto Domingo.

L os monjes dominicos

miento en

l uego d el a bandono d e

1 673,

e xistentes c ual,

i ndican que e n

e n e l s iglo X VIII,

s e i nstalaron e n e l nuevo emplazal a

Vieja PanaMä.

1 678 ya s e habia c oncluido l a

Las r eferencias e dificaciön,

l a

s ufriria l os e mbates d e d os g randes i ncendios

que präcticamente d estruyen e l i ntramuros d e l a Nueva Panamä

( Castillero

1 981). La muestra f ue o btenida en un c arte e stratigräfico realizado en 1 979

( fig.

que yace tural d el

2 ).

La c apa pertinente e s una a rcilla d e

s abre un horizonte s olar c uando f ue

" C"

c ompactado y aparenta s er e l suelo na-

t ransformado par

documentales i ndican q ue para e l a l l°

*

Patrimonio H istörico,

t extura homogdnea

1 678,

l os monies. l a " huerta"

Instituto Nacional d e Cultura,

2 83

Las

f uentes

o patio ya e sta-

Apdo.

6 64,

Panamä

ba en u so.

E ste t iene,

e n a lgunas partes,

t ercalados c on l os huesos metapodios dudas

un p iso d e c antos r odados i n-

d e r eses.

a cerca d el f echamiento preciso d e

T odavia e xisten a lgunas

l os c antos y d e su r elaciön

c on e l pequeho muro que a parece en e l c orte.

S in e mbargo,

que e sta unidad e stratigräfica f eche d e a ntes d e i ndependientemente d e cual f uera e ste

e s v erosimil

l a c reaciön d el patio

l a c onfiguraciön a rquitectönica de

( Cooke y Rovira 1 983). U nidad B ( 1749-1767) S e

t rata d el c onjunto d e materiales

basurero e n f icio,

l a nave d e

c ulturales p rovenientes d e u n

l a I glesia d e l a Compahla d e J esüs.

j unto c on l as aulas y patio a dyacentes,

Universidad R eal d e San Javier - l a s ede d e Fue

c onstruldo a partir d e

l os

1 749 y a bandonado e n

d ecretö l a expulsion d e e sta o rden d e un i ncendio c onvirtiö e n r uinas

l as

E ste edi-

f ormaban parte d e j esuitas

1 767 c uando C arlos

c olonias e spaholas.

e l monumento

( IPAT

En

l as

f undaciones d el e dificio

anterior a l a c olocaciön d el p iso d e c arecemos d e datos d ocumentales c luye,

I II 1 781,

1 972).

E sta unidad s e u bica e stratigräficamente e ntre dos r ellenos dos a l a c onstrucciön d e

l a

e n Panamä.

( fig.

a socia-

3 ).

l adrillos e n l a nave.

E s

Aün c uando

s obre l a f echa en l a que l a o bra c on-

l a b reve o cupaciön d el s itio por l os r eligiosos c onstituye una

r eferend a t emporal bastante precisa.

U nidad C ( 1851-1874) A f ines d el

s iglo XVIII,

perizada y s u s ede e n

capilla a nexa c onstruida e n s egundo d el s iglo X VII) dos del

s iglo X IX,

l a o rden d e

l os dominicos s e hallaba pau-

r uinas y abandonada. 1 761,

S e oficiaba misa en una

l uego que e l i ncendio d e

1 756

d estruyera l a I glesia y e l C onvento.

( el

A media-

l as ruinas s on adquiridas por particulares y e n

e llas s e s ucedieron una s erie de a ctividades que nada t uvieron que ver c on l as

f unciones r eligiosas

o riginales d el s olar.

En l o que habla s ido e l patio d el C onvento, to un basurero c laramente a bierto a t raves d e

f ue e xcavado por comple-

l as c apas coloniales y

que t enla una gran c antidad d e materiales c ulturales. documentales a l as o cupaciones

c onjuntamente c on un a nälisis d e l ozas etc.)

o rigen d e

l os

a rtefactos f echables

1 851

Los u sos dados l os a rtefactos

funcionaban en l as a daptaciön d e 1 983,

han hecho

y 1 874 e l momento en e l que l a basura fue d ea l s itio e n t al periodo hacen p ensar que e l t irados

s e v incula a a ctividades

r elacionadas c on e l c onsumo d e bebidas y a limentos,

y Rovira

( monedas,

y c on l a posiciön e stratigräfica d el d epösito,

posible f ijar e ntre positada.

Las r eferencias

l uego d el a bandono por l os dominicos,

c ercanias bares,

c omerciales

ya que e ntonces

hoteles y r estaurantes,

c oyuntural

l a c iudad a l t ränsito hacia e l o ro d e C alifornia Rovira y Dayan e n prensa )

Aunque presento,

principalmente,

l lada en e stos t res c ontextos,

( ver f ig.

( Cooke

4 ).

d escripciones d e

l a c erämica ha-

l as variables s ocio-histöricas n o pueden

s er d ejadas a un l ado e n a l a nälisis de

l as muestras.

e llas d e

funciön d e d istintos a mbientes

c iertos

sociales y d e epocas

t ipos d e a rtefactos e s

l as peculiaridades d e

t ratadas.

L a presencia e n

l a a ctividad c omercial en l as

E l Casco Antiguo c orresponde a l o que habla s ido e l

i ntramuros d e la c iudad, c onfigurado en t iempos d e

donde

s e ubicö l a e lite social que ya s e habla

l a V ieja Panamä

2 84

( Castillero

1 981).

L a bur-

guesia d el i ntramuros,

permanentemente v inculada a l c omercio y a l c on-

t rabando präcticamente i nstitucionalizado, urbanas y a l as f unciones püblicas,

a l

l ucro c on l as propiedades

f ue variable en s u c omposiciön,

pero

c onstante e n cuanto a s u i nserciön e n una e structura d e dominaciön 1 978 ). E n e l ämbito i stmeho, Casco Antiguo d ifiera d e l os

e s d e e sperar que e l conjunto a rqueolögico d el l os d e

c uyas e structuras

s ociales y

En e l äMbito hispanoamericano,

l a c iudad d e P anamä p resente,

e n v irtud d e 3 .

l os barrios pobres d el extramuros y d e

c entros u rbanos d el i nterior d el pais

e conömicas e ran muy d istintas. bable que

( Jaen

tambien,

e s pro-

r asgos muy particulares

s u e special s ituaciön t ransitista.

La C erämica

En l as pröximas s ecciones a nalizo micos

l a c omposiciön d e

c orrespondientes a cada una d e

nivel g eneral, gorias:

l os materiales han s ido o rdenados

mayölica;

no-indigena;

l as unidades

peruleras y otras

porcelana;

c onjuntos c erä-

y l oza i ndustrial*

En un

e n l as s iguientes

t orneadas g ruesas;

La porcelana n o r ecibe un t ratamiento e special,

c ate-

c erämica hispa-

( ver e l Cuadro

aun queda p endiente l a i dentificaciön t otal d e 3 .A

l os

s eleccionadas.

por

1 ).

l a r azön d e que

l a muestra.

La mayölica L os t iestos d e mayölica c onstituyen materiales d e

c onsiderable va-

l or e n l a a rqueologia h istörica para e l e stablecimiento d e c ronologlas. En breve s intesis, mayölicas

e n Panamä,

l os

t rabajos que s e r efieren a l problema d e

s e han o rientado a c lasificar

paholes y mejicanos presentes

e n varios

una i ndustria d e origen l ocal.

s itios h istöricos y a d efinir

C on una e xcepciön

t ras e studiadas han s ido o btenidas

( Long

e n r ecolecciones

En e l t rabajo c läsico d e Goggin

( 1968)

d esde e l punto de v ista a rqueolögico,

Chorrera, s itios,

s ehalando

l os

l as mues-

s e t rata por primera vez, l as mayölicas de

S e d iscuten e n e l l os

Panamä L a Vieja, D e

e l que predomina n otablemente e s

Panama Policromo. t ipo,

s itios panamehos:

L ago Madden y San L orenzo.

1 967),

s uperficiales.

e l problema d e

t radiciön e spahola e h ispanoamericana e n America. hallazgos e n varios

l as

l os e specimenes e s-

Puerto E scoces,

t ipos hallados en e stos

a quel que e l a utor bautiza

Goggin propone un o rigen sureho para e l mencionado

l a posibilidad,

en t erminos mäs

i ntuitivos que empiricos,

d e una manufactura l imeha debido a l hecho d e que tambien s e l o registra c on suma f recuencia e n s itios d e America del Sur ( Goggin

1 968:

Long

( Venezuela,

( 1967)

prueba excavadas

utiliza una muestra o btenida e n t res e ntre

l as ruinas d e

miento d e una t ipologia de

l o que a sumiö s er mayölica panameha a c onsel a nomenclatura d e

diferentes grupos en l a l iteratura en castellano. u tilizadas en e ste t rabajo s on preliminares, mente precisas:

e l t 6rmino

con c ubierta e stahifera,

que representen; i ronstone,

" mayölica"

white ware,

no s iendo e llas e stricta-

2 85

l as

c erämi-

l as t radiciones

i ncluye s toneware,

e tc,

l os

Las d esignaciones

s e r efiere a t odas

independientemente de

" loza industrial"

pearlware,

t rincheras d e

l a V ieja Panamä para e l e stableci-

* Deseo r ecalcar l a necesidad d e unificaciön d e

c as

Ecuador)

4 1-49).

c reamware,

c uencia d el hallazgo d e l os r estos d e hornos y a ccesorios vinculados a l a f abricaciön d e e sta c erämica, " trivets".

t ales coma " saggers",

Los t ipos descritos s on l os s iguientes:

( 2) Panama Policromo, B lanco. Vaz y Cruxent

( 3)

( 1975)

Panama V iejo Policromo y ( 4)

Panamä P lain,

Panama Azul s obre

a nalizando l a e misiön d e t ermoluminiscencia

inducida par r ayos gamma e n muestras d e mayölica, t iestos c lasificados

" sagger pins" y

( 1)

e n e l t ipo Panama Policromo

c oncluyen q ue l os ( Goggin

1 968:

s on o riginarios d e Europa y que e xiste una g ran probabilidad da par e l anälisis macroscöpico) l ocalidad americana,

1 63)

no

( enfatiza-

d e q ue hayan s ido producidas e n a lguna

proponiendo a Panamä t entativamente coma c entro

d e producciön. C ruxent

( 1979)

hah a e strechas

mayölicas d e Panamä y l as d e T eruel

a finidades e stilisticas e ntre l as ( Espaha )

proponiendo que l a t radi-

c iön i stmeha s e i nicia c on l a l legada d e un g rupo d e a rtesanos

t urulen-

s es. No obstante c onsiderar e ste autor l a posibilidad d e una c ontinuidad en l a e laboraciön l ocal de mayölicas hasta l a primera mitad d el s iglo X IX,

l os datos

s entard,

e stratigräficos d el Casco Antiguo que a c ontinuaciön pre-

s oportan l a i dea d e una interrupciön mucho mäs

manufactura, E stos

t emprana d e t al

c oindiciendo c on l a posiciön d e L ister y L ister

a utores,

( 1974).

en un e xhaustivamente documentado t rabajo,

d efinen

un c omplejo panameho d e mayölicas c laramente d istinguible de l os c omplej os mexicano,

c aribef io,

guatemalteco y andino,

cuya homogeneidad d e e s-

t ilo hace pensar e n un l apso breve de f abricaciön d e c incuenta o s esenta a f ios)

cuyo mercado,

( posiblemente no mäs

ademäs del l ocal,

e ran l os

puertos del Pacifica s udamericano c an l os c uales Panamä t enia un perman ente c ontacto c omercial.

L os datos a rqueolögicos permiten s olamente

inferir un momenta i nicial d e producciön a proximadamente a mediados d el s iglo XVI. D atos d el Casco Antigua d e

l a Nueva Panama

La evidencia d el Casco Antigua e s muy i mportante ya que r epresenta l a c ontinuidad e n t 6rminos

temporales de l os datos o btenidos en Panamä

La V ieja expuestos par L ong p letar e l panorama d e

( 1967)

y ,

ademäs,

porque c ontribuye a c om-

l a presencia d e mayölicas

e n e l I stmo durante e l

s iglo XVIII. Long comprueba l a e xistencia en l os n iveles mäs a ntiguos d e o cupac iön d e Panamä La V ieja Columbia Plain, Azul, l os

y ( 4)

( 2)

( fundada e n 1 519),

d e t ipos t empranos c oma

Yayal Azul s abre B lanco,

I chtucknee Azul s abre B lanco

( 3)

( Goggin

( 1)

I chtucknee Azul s abre 1 968:

1 24-151),

para

cuales propane un origen e spahol. L a apariciön y c onsolidaciön d e una i ndustria l ocal s e e videncia a

partir d e

l os n iveles medios d e ocupaciön,

t ipos panamef ios que hasta e l a bandono de d e

o rigen mexicano

en l os cuales aparecen l os

s iguen prevaleciendo en l os n iveles l a c iudad e n

( ver Long

1 967:

1 671 8 3)

i

a sociados

s uperiores

c an unos pocos

t iestos

.

La s ituaciön d escrita para l os n iveles s uperiores d e Panamä La Vieja s e r efleja e n l a muestra d e o cupaciön mäs t emprana del Casco

2 86

Antiguo,

c oma e s d e e sperarse ya q ue r epresentan momentos

s ucesivos. d e

l os

En l a unidad e stratigräfica " A"

t iestos

( ver e l ( Goggin

2 ).

D e

l os r estantes,

Abö P olicromo y ,

1 968:

l a mayoria

f ueron i dentificados c oma pertenecientes a t ipos

c uadro

mexicanos:

i nmediatemente

( 1673- 1678?),

1 72,

1 54),

l ocales

f ueron i dentificados dos t ipos

posiblemente,

S an L uis A zul s obre B lanco

cuya manufactura s e

i nicia e n

l a s egunda mitad

d el s iglo XVII. Transcurrida l a s egunda mitad d el s iglo xVIII, c iön de

l a f recuencia d e

l a producciön d e d e

l os e jemplares panamef los

l os hornos

l a unidad B ( 1749-1767),

d os

( Cuadro

f rances

d ecorados c ),

2 )

( fig.

r epresentados principalemente par e specimenes d e o rigen 5 ).

Fueron i dentificados

t iestos p ertenecientes a platos

y una l inea a zul en l os bordes

c on d ecoraciön amarilla brillante,

( e)

( Noel Hume:

1 42)

E l r egistro d e t iestos f icos

L a c aracteristica s obresaliente

e s e l e levado porcentaje d e t iestos importa-

c on un motivo c entral

t iestos

marsellds

l ocales.

l a brusca d isminu-

t estifica e l f in d e

( a,

b y

posiblemente d e origen

y t iestos policromos

( d).

f ranceses e n Panama en c ontextos e stratigrä-

satisfactoriamente ubicados d esde e l punto d e vista t emporal,

c onstituye un data i mportante para l a a rqueologia h istörica americana ya que s i

d ispersion c ronolögica n o e stä a ün l o s uficientemente docu-

mentada. En l a unidad C ( 1851-1874) hecho demuestra e l dominio de dpoca en l a que

t uvo un f uerte

no,

e l a bandono d el u so d e

M exico, X IX

l as vajillas

l as relaciones

d os

n o fueron halladas mayölicas.

par e jemplo,

( Lister y L ister

i ndustriales i nglesas en una

c omerciales c an l os paises

i mpacto e n l a c iudad.

1 974:

l as mayölicas podria c onsiderarse precoz: 3 5).

E s posible,

ademäs,

a i m ndurante

Hasta l a f echa,

que l a c orta vida

l a vajilla d e mesa h ispänica en Panamä - c asi

s e deba a l a i ntensidad d e l as

c ontextos

par f aience europeo -

a ctividades c omerciales

l egales,

i lega-

l a c olonia.

n o ha s ido obtenida informaciön a rqueolögica d e

s ellados d e f ines d el s iglo X VIII o p rincipios d el X IX que

p ermitan perfeccionar e ste l as mayölicas.

i ntento d e e stablecer una s ecuencia para

Datos d e e ste periodo harian posible analizar

dencia de vajillas t ales c oma l a white s alt-glazed ware, c onstituyeron ware

e n

c ontinuo durante e l s iglo

t otalmente r eemplazada e n l a unidad B ( 1749-1767) l es o t oleradas

i ndustrializa-

E n un c ontexto hispanoamerica-

l a producciön d e d stas

y t emprana e xtinciön d e

E ste

l a i nci-

l as cuales

l a mayor amenaza para l a popularidad d e f aience y d elft-

( Noel Hume 1 970:

1 15)

y e stablecer e l momenta d e

i ntroducciön e n

P anamä de c ream ware - una utilisima herramienta c ronolögica. 3 .B

Cerämica H ispano-Indigena U lilizo l a d enominaciön C erämica H ispano-Indigena

modelo del C olono I ndian Ware d e Long e xistentes

a cerca d e s u precision

( 1967),

( Lees y L ees

( siguiendo e l

a p esar d e 1 979:

1 ),

l as discusiones para d esignar

a l a a lfareria no t orneada d e manufactura americana q ue r esultö, blemente,

de

l a i ncorporaciön a un s ustrato i ndigena,

e spaholas y/o a fricanas,

d e

proba-

i nfluencias

l as cuales no e stän hasta e l presente l o s u-

f icientemente documentadas n i

corroboradas desde e l punto d e vista a r-

queolögico. He e stablecido,

provisionalmente,

2 87

dos variedades de e sta c erämica

( 1)

s in e ngobe y ( 2)

c on e ngobe r ojo,

t en d iferentes f unciones y ,

quizäs,

l as cuales posiblemente r epresen-

d istintos

f ocos d e producciön

primero l ocal p ero c on c aracteristicas pan-caribehas, j ero, posiblemente p eruano ).

e l

( el

s egundo e xtran-

C erämica H ispano-Indigena S in Engobe En t odos

l os c ontextos del Casco Antiguo e xcavados hasta l a f echa

s e e ncuentra una c erämica s in e ngobe

c uyas

c aracteristicas c oinciden

c on l a descripciön d e E l T igre P lain d escrita e n base a una muestra d el c onchero de Monagrillo

( Herrera )

( Willey y M cGimsey

s ido r eportada e n numerosos s itios d e Panamä: y E scorromulo V ieja

( Long

1 ,

e n e l oriente del I stmo

1 967 - C olono I ndian Ware),

raguas o riental y C ocld o ccidental t a a rriba d e ( Ladd 1 964:

l a provincia d e P late

1 7),

y ( 7)

( 1)

( Cruxent ( 3)

( Cooke

1 954:

1 958),

C hame

8 0-83).

Ha

V illa d el P rincipe ( Bull

( 2)

P anamä La

1 959),

1 972 - O lä Ware), He-1

( 4)

( 5)

V e-

l a c os-

O 31 1(Drolet 1 980),

( 6)

l a c osta d e C hiriqui

( materiales e n l a U ni-

( Herrera)

versidad d e T emple). E sta c erämica n o e s t orneada y ha s ido c ocida a bajas presentando f recuentes manchas o scuras t ecnolögicos

e n l a s uperficie.

i ndican una producciön a rtesanal.

c orativos no s on f igurativos a l os bordes.

E stas,

t emperaturas E stos r asgos

Sus ünicos r ecursos d e-

c onsistiendo e n t iras d e a rcilla a plicadas

hasta donde t enao e ntendido,

n o aparecen en l a

c erämica precolombina. En Norteamdrica, por parte de ( Ferguson

1 978,

en s itios

s e ha c omprobado l a hipötesis d e

l a poblaciön e sclava d e L ees y L ees

i ndigenas.

1 979)

l a manufactura

l a l lamada C olono I ndian Ware

y ,

paralelamente,

En l a R epüblica Dominicana,

su poca f recuencia

t ipos d e c erämica no

t orneada muy s imilares a l os q ue a parecen e n Panamä han s ido e ncontrados en l os t ranspatios d e edificios mingo y La Vega Vieja,

c oloniales d e

en c ontextos de

l as c iudades de Santo D o-

l os s iglos XVI,

XVII y XVIII,

a djudicändoseles una a filiaciön con c erämica popular e spaf iola.

E ste

h echo e s

i nteresante para l a d etecciön del g rupo dtnico a l que pertene-

c lan l os

a rtesanos:

habiendo s ido diezmada l a poblaciön i ndigena d e

La E spahola l a p roducciön pudo haber quedado en manos de l os c ontingent es de e sclavos l o

1 978:

a fricanos

introducidos pero hispanizados

( Garcia Ardva-

1 6-17).

En Panamä,

s olo a lgunas p istas

s on proporcionadas por e l e studio

a ctual de e sta c erämica y e l problema de s us o rigenes y d ispersiön e n e l

I stmo ünicamente podrä s er respondido l levando a cabo e xcavaciones

e n s itios histöricos d e variada naturaleza i ndigenas, g erencia,

( asentamientos y r educciones

pueblos de c imarrones y d e f rontera etc.). s in e mbargo,

de que

O frezco

l a s u-

l a o rganizaciön e spacial e n t iempos d e

pos-conquista e n c uanto a producciones y l a t ransformaciön t otal d e a lfareria e n una mercancia, manufactura

( la Regiön C entral).

paldan e sta h ipötesis

l a

hacen pensar e n un ünico f oco r egional de

( Rovira,

Algunas r eferencias histöricas r es-

1 981).

Parece s er,

a demäs,

que l a im-

posiciön d e una n ueva i deologia europea c ondujo c on mayor o menor r apid ez a l desvanecimiento de

l a i conografia precolombina e n Panamä:

t ecnologia a lfarera s e mantuvo, r ior

( Barranco Colorado

dulce)

y La Arena

( 01ä ),

( Chitrd)

t radiciön decorativa d e

s in embargo, E l S ilencio

( Penom6 ),

E l C risto

( Agua-

han mantenido v iva hasta e l presente,

l as t iras aplicadas.

2 88

l a

y varios pueblos d el i ntel a

O bservaciones E l grado d e

s obre

l a muestra del Casco Antiguo

f ragmentaciön d e

l a muestra d e

l a Unidad A,

impide r e-

c onstruir f ormas y s olo unos bordes pequehos n o d iagnösticos e stän pres entes.

Ninguno de l os t iestos

puntuaciones f inas,

l as cuales

l lados en Panamä Viejo

( Long

t iene decoraciön mediante

1 967).

E s probable que

y e l pequeho tamaho d e l os bordes e xplique dad d e bordes

a plicados que s l

S iete d e

s on r eportados para Panamä L a V ieja.

l os d iez b ordes d e

l a Unidad B ( figs.

f )

e spahola:

6 y 7 )

p resentan l a

T res c orresponden a va-

s ijas c oncuello y e l r esto a platos s emiesfdricos. 6 ,

l a poca c antidad

l a n o a pariciön e n e sta u ni -

modalidad d el a cintado a plicado en e l borde. ( fig.

i ncisiones y

s e encuentran e n a lgunos e jemplares ha-

Uno d e

l os bordes

r eafirma l os v inculos d e e sta c erämica c on l a a lfareria c orresponde a l t fpico perfil d e

l os bacines e spaholes,

e n

una version s in t ornear. En a lgün momento a partir d e mediados d el s iglo X VIII, c iön aplicada en l os bordes va d eclinando; C ,

uno s ölo de

l os bordes p resenta t al c aracteristica

La evidencia o btenida de c ontextos

l a d ecora-

en l a muestra d e

c ontemporäneos

. 1a Mansiön Arias-Feraud i ndica e l mismo proceso

( fig.

l a U nidad 8 ,

f ).

c on l a U nidad C e n

( Rovira,

i nformaciön

s in publicar). Tentativamente,

l a e voluciön de

l as modalidades d ecorativas de l a

c erämica hispano-indigena podria s intetizarse e n: ( 1)

una c ombinaciön de aplicados puntuaciones

z onadas

c on i ncisiones y

( 2)

bordes

l isos,

p ero c on a plicados e n l os bordes,

( 3)

bordes

l isos,

y s in a plicados.

En cuanto a l as

f ormas,

e xiste una notable persistencia d e vasijas c on

c uello y de platos was o menos otros

e n l os bordes

( Panamä V iejo),

i rrestrictos

( Shepard

s emiesfdricos,

1 968).

a lgunos

r estringidos y

Puede s ehalarse que,

funcionalmente,

l a muestra d el Casco Antiguo e stä c onectada c on l a cocina, t odos

l os c ontextos,

d e mesa

a parece

ya que e n

a sociada a porcentajes e levados

d e vajilla

( sea d sta mayölica o l oza i nglesa e n l os d iferentes contextos

a nalizados). Cerämica Hispano-Indigena c on Engobe Rojo D e l os materiales c ulturales e xcavados en e l Casco Antigua,

l a

c erämica hispano-indigena c on engobe rojo c onstituye e l grupo menos d ocument a do. E l e stado a ctual d el a nälisis permite d efinir d os variedades que s e d istinguen por d e

l a pasta,

( 3)

( 1)

e l g rosor d e

l as paredes,

l a c alidad del engobe y ( 4)

mente vinculada a l a funcionalidad. s ean r epresentativas d e ambientes procedan de d istintos

( 2)

l as c aracteristicas

l a morfologla i ndudable-

E s posible que l as dos variedades

s ocio-culturales diferentes o que

f ocos d e producciön

t ranjero ).

2 89

( uno i stmeho y e l otro ex-

V ariedad f ina En s u reporte s obre l as e xcavaciones e n Panama L a V ieja, ( 1967)

describe una c erämica

( "Spanish F ine R ed")

concuerdan c on mi variedad f ina. Antiguo e xcavados Jesüs, ( T.

S e hah a e n t odos

( Convento de Santo D omingo,

Bövedas y Mansiön Arias-Feraud )

Gonzalez Ruiz,

L ong

c aracteristicas

l os

s itios d el Casco

I glesia de l a C oMpaf ila d e

y e n B ique

c omunicaciön personal).

mencionada e n o tros

c uyas

( Provincia d e Panama)

S u e xistencia no ha s ido

s itios histöricos d el pals,

por l o que s u d istri-

buciön aparenta e star r estringida a l o que f ueron s ucesivamente

l os

c entros c omerciales d e l a c osta del Pacifico:

Panamä

Panama La V ieja,

La Nueva y ä reas a ledaf ias. L os

t iestos d e e sta variedad s e c aracterizan por s u d elgadez

2 a 7 mm.),

( de

por s u pasta rojiza a naranjada que c arece d e a ntiplästicos

y por presentar un l ustroso e ngobe r ojo, f icies e xternas d e

l as vasijas.

recursos plästicos,

tales

c omo bordes ondulados y r elieves.

C on r especto a su procedencia, a lfareria c onstituia un producto d e e lementos d e

por l o g eneral e n l as s uper-

Algunos han s ido d ecorados m ediante

propongo l a hipötesis d e que e sta i mportaciön,

a pesar d e c arecer d e

j uicio s uficientes para s er c onfirmada,

basändome e n l os

s iguientes hechos: ( 1)

E n e l s iglo XVIII

s e

productos bäsicos c omo harina, ( Jaän

1 978:

2 99).

i mportaba c erämica d el P erü, menestras,

e ntre o tros

a lcohol y c ordobanes de c uero

No habiendo muchas dudas s obre l as procedencias d e

l as otras vajillas de

l as que me ocupo e n e ste t rabajo,

existe una g ran

posibilidad de que ä sta s ea l a c erämica que s e importaba d esde e l P erü. D e n o s er a si,

t enemos que c onfrontar l a " invisibilidad"

d e

l a c erämica

peruana e n P anama hasta e l momento. ( 2)

L a d istribuciön e spacial d e e lla - pröxima a l as a reas d e

mayor c ontacto c on e l c omercio e xterior - y s u aparente ausencia e n s it ios d el i nterior, ( 3)

Las

a bogarian e n f avor d e

f ormas,

s u procedencia e xtranjera.

l as t äcnicas d ecorativas y l a e xtrema d elgadez d e

l as paredes d e l as vasijas,

s on a jenas a l a t radiciön i ndigena l ocal.

Por supuesto que l a palabra f inal e staria dada por l a presencia d e e ste material e n e l P erü, C ruxent y X IX,

( 1979:

2 1)

i nformaciön q ue a ün n o he r ecabado.

c ita e l hallazgo,

de una a lfareria con a cabado

s in t orno y muy d elgada ( Falcön ),

Venezuela.

e n s itios d e

l ustroso,

( hasta 2 mm.

l os

s iglos

XVIII

e ngobe r ojo y e laborada

e n l as paredes),

e n Tara Tara

Carezco d e otras r eferencias e xtra-istmehas.

Variedad gruesa S e han hallado t iestos d e e sta variedad e xclusivamente e n e l Casco Antiguo.

T ienen un grosor que va d esde l os

5 a l os

1 2 mm.

L a pasta

d ifiere d e l a de l a variedad f ina en que e s menos homogänea y presenta d esgrasantes medianos

( c :conchilla y a rena?).

En una apreciaciön g eneral,

c arece d e l a delicadeza d e e laboraciön manifiesta e n l a variedad f ina y e l e ngobe no produce e l E s

l ustroso a cabado que e lla posee.

l a variedad d ominante en e l s iglo X IX.

2 90

Aparentemente s iguiö

utilizändose e n l os primeros ( fig.

1 1,

f )

& l ips de e ste s iglo:

e l mercado püblico j unto a e jemplares l as Provincias C entrales u na manufactura r as

una d e

l as f ormas

aparece e n l a f oto de un puesto d e y enta d e a lfareria e n

l ocal,

( Abbot

t ipicos d e

1 913).

l a a ctual

c erämica d e

E ste dato podria i ndicarnos

a firmaciön que e s n ecesario c orroborar c on f utu-

i nvestigaciones.

C UADRO 3 :

C erämica H ispano-Indigena Roja

( Distribuciön)

F INA N U nidad A

1 38

Unidad B

3 2

U nidad C

%

GRUESA N

%

8 9

-

-

6 5.4

1 1

2 2.5

-

-

4

0 .7

L isa

N

6

%

-

-

1 55

1 2.2

-

-

4 9

9 1

8 4.3

5 12

Decorada

N

1 1

%

1 7

TOTAL

1 5

6 07

D ecorada

L isa

—

Formas y t dcnicas d ecorativas

e n l as distintas unidades

Unidad A No s e hallan e n e ste c ontexto t iestos que permitan r econstruir f ormas,

n i perfiles d e bordes.

r responde a l a variedad f ina

S in embargo,

e l mayor porcentaje c o-

( ver cuadro 3 a rriba ).

En n ingün caso s e

presenta d ecoraciön plästica Unidad B Variedad f ina Corresponden a e llas una vasija c ilindrica d ecorada c on a reas e n r elieve definida por i ncisiones previas a l aplicado d el e ngobe 9 ,b y 1 0,1) ( fig.

9 ,

y un borde de un plato d ecorado c on t razos

c y 1 0,2).

( fig.

i ncisos curvos

Hay tiestos de c uerpos g lobulares t anto l isos

mo d ecorados c on incisiones y r elieves e s un a sa muy e laborada

( fig.

( fig.

1 0,3).

c o-

E l ünico apdndice

1 0,4).

Variedad g ' ruesa El c uello c orto r epresentado en l a f ig. d e una vasija g lobular d estal en l a f ig.

9 ,

9 ,

a ,

aparenta provenir

a l a que posiblemente p ertenezca l a base e n pe-

d .

Unidad C Variedad f ina Sölo 4 t iestos r ennen l as de e llos

( fig.

1 1,

han aparecido mäs t es

g )

c aracteristicas d e e sta variedad.

e s un borde ondeado d e una vasija d e l a

f ragmentos.

Los otros

a c uerpos globulares.

2 91

s on t iestos

Uno

c ual no

l isos p ertenecien-

Variedad gruesa Sobresalen f undamentalmente dos c an c uello y base d e pedestal

( fig.

f ormas: 1 1,

a ,

( 1)

b ,

vasijas g lobulares

c y f ).

( El p edestal d e

e stas vasijas s e d istingue del d escrito para l a u nidad B e n que e s ms a lto y de paredes d e menos

i nclinaciön),

res c on una a bertura pequef ia 3 C .

( fig.

1 1,

y ( 2)

vasijas g randes g lobula-

e ).

P eruleras y otras t orneadas Representan e l

2 1.9% y e l

5 .8%

definidas e n l a unidad A s on l as Bacines,

d e u n d iämetro de

engobe crema u nos,

P eruleras, mäs gruesas vasijas

L as

f ormas

2 0 cm.,

d e pasta c olor s almön y c on

y de pasta a naranjado r ojiza y v idriado v erde

s uperficie i nterna,

e n

l a

otros.

( a)

driado o s in e l.

e n l as u nidades A y B .

s iguientes:

d e pasta

" estilo media"

( Goggin 1 960)

No s e r ecuperaron t iestos d e cuello,

( 2 c m.),

t anto c on v i-

( b)

d e paredes

pasta c olor t erracota pertenecientes a l as g randes

( de h asta u n metro de a ltura)

f recuentes e n l os s itios d el s i-

g lo XVII

en Panamä,

l as

Los

t iestos d e

l a unidad B c orresponden e n s u t otalidad a peruleras

t ales c oma 3 D .

c uales poseen un c uello anular engrosado.

l as mencionadas

e n e l pärrafo a nterior

( categoria b ).

La Loza I ndustrial C onsidero e n e sta c ategoria a l os t iestos d e s toneware,

y t oda l a gama d e c erämicas

s iliceas d e c occiön a a ltas

i ronstone,

t emperaturas que

s e produjeron a partir de l as e xperiencias r ealizadas par Wedgwood e n la s egunda mitad del

s iglo XVIII.

Unidad A N inguno d e e sta c ategoria.

l os t iestos pertenecientes a e sta unidad c orresponde a S u a signaciön t emporal e s r eforzada par e ste h echo.

Unidad B D os t iestos de

s alt-glazed s toneware f ueron i dentificados c oma pro-

bablemente procedentes d e botellas d e

l icor o a lgün o tro t ipo d e e nvase.

La mäs popular d e l as v ajillas d e mesa e uropeas de mediados del s iglo XVIII

( white s alt-glazed ware)

( Noel Hume 1 978)

f aience y delftware - e stä a usente.

- l a c ual d esplazö a

E ste h echo r econfirma l a i mpresiön

que da e l c ontexto e stratigräfico de l a muestra,

de que representa una

a ctividad d e c orta duraciön relacionada can l a e xcavaciön de l as fundac iones de

l a i glesia,

un e vent° que ha debido ocurrir a lrededor d e

1 749.

U nidad C L a muestra de ( ver e l

l oza

i ndustrial

e stä constituida par 9 72 t iestos

c uadro 4 ).

P earl y White Wares He agrupado ambos wares ya que d iscernir entre e bb s e n muestras d e t iestos resulta u n t anto s ubjetivo y par r azones de i ndole t emporal,

( Miller

1 980:

2 ).

D e t odos modos

e s d e e sperarse un predominio d e white

wares par haber decaldo c asi par c ompleto l a manufactura de pearl ware

2 92

a lrededor de

1 820

( Noel Hume

1 970:

1 30).

He utilizado l as t ecnicas d ecorativas para l a d efiniciön de t ipos d entro d e e sta categoria mediante

l a t ecnica t ransfer p rinted s on

cho n os d emuestra, e jemplo,

( ver e l cuadro 5 ).

e l

quizäs,

l os

Aquellos d ecorados

l os mäs a bundantes.

E ste h e-

s u mayor a ccesibilidad c on r especto a ,

por

t ipo pintado a unque hasta e l momento n o s e han i nvestigado

documentos que d en i nformaciön e n materia d e precios. gama d e c olores utilizados a zul e s e l mäs f recuente

e n

d e

Dentro

l a

l a decoraciön mediante e sta t ecnica,

e l

( cuadro 6 ).

Creamware R epresentan e stos t iestos

s olo e l 0 ,4% d e l a muestra.

U no d e

e llos - un borde c on d ecoraciön s hell-edged d e c olor v erde - procede d e una s opera d e calidad e xcepcional L a baja f recuencia de c reamware

( Noel Hume,

i nformaciön personal).

e s c oherente c on l a ubicaciön t emporal

d el c ontexto. S altglazed s toneware T iestos p rocedentes d e vasijas que p osiblemente havan s ervido d e e nvases para a lgün p roducto a limentario, Pat Halfpenny Chesterfield

( City Museum, ( Derbyshire)

f ueron i dentificados por

S toke-on-Trent),

como p roducidos e n

y e n Nottinghamshire a mediados d el s iglo X IX.

Agataware F ragmentos d e un mug registrados Hume,

( jarro)

e n e ste contexto,

producido e n S taffordshire f ueron

s orprendentemente t ardio para e llos

( Noel

i nformaciön personal). I ronstone C on r especto a e sta c ategoria,

c on a lguna posibilidad, de l a c ategorla l isos utilizado

debo mencionar e l h echo d e que

a lgunos de l os t iestos e stgn i ncluidos d entro

( plain s herds)

y viceversa,

( el grado d e vitrificaciön ),

plares mäs t ipicos pertenecen octogonales,

ya que e l c riterio

puede s er s ubjetivo.

e xclusivamente a bandejas,

Los e jem-

posiblemente

b lancas y l isas.

Marcas d e f äbrica Las vajillas d el

s iglo X IX s on sumamente d ificiles d e ubicar t em-

poralmente a no s er por e l hallazgo de marcas d e f äbricas. l a i dentificaciön d e e llas excelencia d e penny,

E n e fecto,

s e c onstituyö e n e l r ecurso d e dataciön por

e sta muestra.

L os datos ofrecidos por l a S ra.

P .

Half-

l os s ef lalo c on un a sterisco:

F errybridge Fäbrica d e Y orshire que c omenzö a producir d iferentes t ipos d e z as aproximadamente e n 1 804, que

1 792,

l o-

c on e l n ombre d e Knottingley Pottery hasta

y c ontinüa e n e l presente

( Godden

1 978:

6 9).

E l e stilo d el plato

l leva e sta marca i mpresa f ue popular e n l a d ecada d e

1 820

a 1 830*.

B a nd T E stas

i niciales podrian s er de varias f irmas que e staban t rabajando

a mediados d el s iglo X IX.

Una de e llas,

2 93

Barker and T ill,

produjo l oza

d esde

1 843 a 1 850*.

Kerr and Co. E sta f irma opera e n Worcester durante e l breve p erfodo c omprendido entre

1 852 y 1 862 e n Burslem

( Staffordshire)*.

Thomas G oodfellow P roductor d e J ohnston,

l oza entre

? Viellard,

E sta marca

1 828 y 1 854

1 978:

no pudo s er

i dentificada p ero e l e stilo d e l a d ecoraa f ios

1 820 a 1 830*.

E . E stas

i niciales podrian c orresponder a William Emberton que t uvo

una f äbrica d esde P inder,

1 851

a 1 869*.

B ourne a nd Co.

Fäbrica de Burslem que operö bajo e sta f irma d esde ( Godden

1 978:

1 04).

1 862 a 1 882

E l tiesto que t iene e sta marca presenta tambign e l

nombre d e Kulat a cerca del J .

1 69).

Bordeaux

c iön ubica l a pieza e ntre l os W .

( Godden

c ual no t engo r eferencias.

G oodwin Fäbrica de S eacombe,

c erca de L iverpool

( 1851-1871)

( Godden

1 978:

1 17). G .

Smith a nd Co. Marca s in i dentificar n i

abundantemente r epresentadas, t eresaria s aber

s i

f echar. por

L as p iezas d e e sta f äbrica e stän

l o que urge s u i dentificaciön.

I n-

s e t rata d e piezas de p rocedencia i nglesa o n orte-

americana.

2 94

C onclusiones E l c onjunto d e l as c erämicas utilizadas e n e l Panama c olonial y c olombiano e stä c onstituldo por e lementos d e variadas procedencias: panamef la, mexicana,

peruana

( posiblemente),

f rancesa e inglesa.

S i

l a

muestra s e visualiza c oma e stando o rganizada a grosso modo e n e l par d e o posiciones f uncionales c ia e n

del t iempo d e l o

" cocina"

l as vajillas d e c ocina,

" privado"

y " mesa",

l as vajillas d e mesa. ( la c ocina),

r esalta una n otable permanen-

en c ontraste c on una variaciön a t ravds L a e stabilidad e n e l ämbito

h ispano-indigena utilizada e n l a preparaciön d e a l d inamismo e n e l ämbito

" pdblico"

l ocales y ,

por s upuesto,

l as c omidas,

s e opone

habiendo e stado l as mesas

e n s ujeciön a l as i nfluencias c omerciales, d uctos

d e

demostrada por l a persistencia d e l a c erämica s ervidas

a l a d isponibilidad de p ro-

a l as modas y s us vaivenes t ai c oma

e ran i mpuestos en l a metropolis. E l a bastecimiento de l a mesa c on vajillas panamehas momento

( quizäs en l a mayor parte del

l a vieja c iudad )

a s er präcticamente t otal,

a l as vajillas e spaholas. plejo panameho, c onstituyö xicanas

pero

s ector a ustral.

p roveer a l mercado l ocal, ( 2)

( 1)

E l f enömeno d e

hasta

Panamä s in duda l as mayölicas me-

l a producciön l ocal d e

t uvo una s uficiente capacidad c omo para

y ademäs c onvertirse e n un producto de e xpor-

s u duraciön fue breve.

S u verdadera magnitud d eberä s er

e valuada e n e l futuro t omando e n c uenta ricanos,

reemplazando por c ompleto

A lgunos t ipos mexicanos a compahan a l com-

c on una muy d dbil i ncidencia.

mayölica f ue e xplosivo:

l lega en un

hasta e l a bandono d e

l a periferia d el a rea de d istribuciön de

e n e l

t aciön y

s iglo XVII,

a cerca de l os c uales

s u hallazgo e n s itios

l a i nformaciön e s

s udame-

i nconsistente o nula

e l momenta. L os datos del C asco Antiguo de

l a Nueva Panamä,

c onsiderados c omo

una c ontinuidad d e l a informaciön d e l os ültimos momentos d e ocupaciön d el previo emplazamiento de l a c iudad,

s ostienen que l a i nterrupciön

d e l a fabricaciön d e l as mayölicas c on e l a bandono de l a v ieja c iudad, f ue definitiva:

n o s e han obtenido r eferencias h istöricas n i datos

a rqueolögicos que indiquen l a e xistencia d e hornos de a lfareria en l a n ueva c iudad y e l registro e stratigräfico demuestra e l reemplazo d e t ales vajillas por p roductos E ste,

i mportados,

bäsicamente f aience t rance 's.

a unque t ecnolögica y funcionalmente s imilar a l as mayölicas d e

t radiciön h ispano-americana,

a parece e n Panama representando un nuevo

reordenamiento d e l as relaciones c omerciales. Par vajillas

l o menos hasta mediados del i ndustriales

s ignificativa.

s iglo XVIII,

( de o rigen inglds,

l a utilizaciön d e

f undamentalmente),

El e stablecimiento d e t drminos

n o e s

t emporales p recisos

para l as primeras manifestaciones de e llas e n Panama n o ha s ido posible por falta de i nformaciön a rqueolögica: hasta l a fecha,

no h an s ido

l a l aguna t emporal que s e

e n l as e xcavaciones realizadas

l ocalizados depösitos que permitan l lenar

e xtiende entre l as muestras d e

l as unidades

B y C . E s n ecesario registrar e l proceso de c onsolidaciön del mercado i nglds que c ulmina e n s u total hegemonia a mediados del s iglo XIX. I ndudablemente,

l a i ntensificaciön de l os t rabajos a rqueolögicos e n

e l Casco Viejo permitirän l a obtenciön d e muestras representativas de e ste periodo

( 1767-18511,

t estigo d e grandes

i nnovaciones t ecnolögicas,

l as cuales posibiliten e l perfeccionamiento de una c ronologia para l a c erämica del i stmo. 2 95

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Las

e xcavaciones

e n e l Convento d e Santo Domingo y l a C ompahia d e J esüs

f ueron f inanciadas por l a c ompahia F iduciaria Administrativa S .A.

a

t ravds d e un prdstamo otorgado por e l Banco Interamericano d e D esarrollo a l I nstituto Panameho de Turismo. o riginal de T omäs Gonzälez-Ruiz y dibujö l as f igs.

7 y 1 0.

L a f igura 3 s e basa e n un d ibujo Aureliano Valencia.

nada e n t odo momento por Oscar Velarde, Panamä.

E l anälisis d e

J efe del Museo d e H istoria d e

l a c erämica ha s ido f inanciado p or becas o tor-

g adas por e l I nstituto " Smithsonian" ( EXXON Fellowship),

Francisco P ef la

Agradezco profundamente l a ayuda proporcio-

de I nvestigaciones T ropicales

e l C entro de I nvestigaciön y Pos-Grado d e l a Uni-

versidad de Panamä y por e l Wenner-Gren Foundation f or Anthropological Research

( Grant-in-Aid 4 249).

NOTAS

1 .

En e ste pärrafo refiero a Goggin

l os t ipos e spaholes mencionados por L ong,

1 968 y n o a Goggin 1 950 - c omo l o hace e l a utor c itado -

ya que l a version preliminar de pöstuma d e 2 .

1 950 e s s istematizada e n l a o bra

1 968.

Otros e jemplares d e f aience del

s iglo XVIII

f ueron obtenidos de l a

muestra e xcavada en otro s itio d el C asco Antiguo: Feraud

( ver Rovira

1 981).

d ecorada a l a Bdrain

l a Mansiön Arias-

Uno de e llos e s un t iesto d e una bandeja

( Moustiers).

2 96

B IBLIOGRAFIA

Abbot,

Willis

1 913 Bull,

Panama and the Canal

i n P icture and Prose.

New York.

Thelma H .

1 959

Preliminary Report on an Archaeological S ite District of Chame, Panama.

Castillero Calvo, 1 981

Panama Archaeologist Vol.

I I,

i n t he

Republic of No.

1 Balboa.

Alfredo El Casco Viejo de Panama y e l Convento de Santo Domingo.

Cooke,

Province of Panama,

Panamä.

Richard G .

1 972

The Archaeology of the western Cod e province of Panama. Tesis doctoral

( sin publicar).

Universidad de Londres

( Instituto de Arqueologia ). Cooke,

Richard G .

1 983

y Beatriz E .

Rovira

Historical Archaeology in Panama C ity. 3 6(2)

Cruxent,

Jose Maria

1 958

Informe s obre un reconocimiento arqueolögico en e l Darien

( Panamä ).

Tomos 1 979

I I y I II.

Boletin del Museo de C iencias Naturales, Panamä.

Elementos decorativos de

l a mayölica panamef ia:

reconstrucciön t entativa

( siglos XVI-XVIII).

Nacional del Patrimonio Histörico Drolet,

Archaeology,

5 1-58.

una Direcciön

INAC-OEA.

Robert

1 980

Cultural Settlement along the Moist Slopes of Caribbean Eastern Panama.

Tesis doctoral

s idad de I llinois, Ferguson,

( sin publicar),

Univer-

Urbana.

Leland

1 978

Looking for the

" afro"

in Colono-Indian pottery.

Conference on Historic S ites Archaeology Papers:

The 1 2

( editado por Stanley South). Garcia Arevalo, 1 978

Manuel A . Influencias de Taina.

l a Dieta Indo-Hispänica en la c erämica

Boletin del Museo del

Hombre Dominicano,

9 .

Santo Domingo. Godden,

Geoffrey

1 978

The Handbook of British Pottery and Porcelain Marks. London:

Goggin, 1 950

1 960

1 968

John M .

Barrie and Jenkins.

A Preliminary Consideration of Spanish Introduced Majol ica Pottery i n Florida and the

Southwest.

fiado.

Gainesville.

Universidad de

Florida,

The Spanish Olive Jar:

An

University Publications

in Anthropology,

Introductory Study.

Spanish Majolica in the New World: teenth to Eighteenth Centuries. pology,

Yale University,

2 97

Mimeogra-

6 2.

New Haven.

Types of the S ix-

Department of Anthro-

New Haven.

I PAT

( Instituto Panamef lo de Turismo)

1 972

Restauraciön del Casco Antiguo de ma.

Jaen Suarez,

Cooperaciön Tecnica 0EA-IPAT.

Omar

1 978

La Poblaciön del s iglo XX.

Ladd,

l a Ciudad de Pana-

I stmo de Panama del

Panama.

s iglo XV I al

I mpresora de la Naciön,

Panama..

John Archaeological

1 964

Investigations

Santa Maria Z ones of Panama. Ethnology,

i n the Parita and Bureau of American

Bulletin 1 93 Washington D .C.:

U .S.

Government Printing Office. Laidacker,

Sam

1 939 Lees,

The American Antique Collector, William B .

and Kathryn M .

1 979

1 ,

Archaeology,

• Lister,

2

Kimery-Lees

The Function of Colono-Indian Ceramics: f rom Limerick Plantation, Vol.

I nsights

South Carolina.

H istorical

1 3.

Florence and Robert Lister

1 974

Maiolica in Colonial Spanish Archaeology 8 .

Long,

Vols.

America.

H istorical

Columbia.

George A .

1 967

Archaeological de Maestria, l ogla,

Miller,

Investigations

s in publicar.

Universidad de

at Panama Vieja.

Tesis

Departamento de Antropo-

Florida,

Gainesville.

George

1 980

Classification and E conomic Ceramics.

Noel Hume,

Scaling of

Historical Archaeology,

1 9th.

Century

1 4.

I vor

1 970

A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America.

New York:

Knopf. Rovira,

Beatriz E .

1 981

La Arqueologla en l os Programas de Restauraciön: La Mansiön Arias-Feraud en l a Ciudad de Panama. Vinculos,

Rovira,

Beatriz E .

en prensa

7 (2):

3 3-52.

San Jose de Costa Rica.

y Ariela Dayan El Convento de Santo Domingo:

Aportes Arqueolögicos

y Documentales a l a Historia de Revista Nacional de Cultura. Shepard, 1 968

la C iudad de Panamä.

Panama.

Ana 0 . Ceramics for the Archaeologist. of Washington,

Publication 6 09.

2 98

Carnegie I nstitution Washington D .C.

Vaz,

J .

1 975

Eduardo y José Ma.

Cruxent

The Determination of the Provenience of Majolica Pottery f ound in the Caribbean Area using Gamma-Ray induced Thermoluminescence,

Willey, 1 954

Gordon y Charles R .

American Antiquity,

McGimsey I II

The Monagrillo Culture of Panamä.

Papers of the Peabody

Museum o f Archaeology and Ethnology, University,

4 0(1).

Cambridge.

2 99

4 9(2).

Harvard

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1 749-1767

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1 673- M678?

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TORNEADAS

d i