Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services [1 ed.] 9783842832978, 9783842882973

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Martin Masuch

Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Reason-Oriented Marketing A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services

Diplomica Verlag

Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

Martin Masuch Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services ISBN: 978-3-8428-3297-8 Herstellung: Diplomica® Verlag GmbH, Hamburg, 2012

Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Dieses Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Die dadurch begründeten Rechte, insbesondere die der Übersetzung, des Nachdrucks, des Vortrags, der Entnahme von Abbildungen und Tabellen, der Funksendung, der Mikroverfilmung oder der Vervielfältigung auf anderen Wegen und der Speicherung in Datenverarbeitungsanlagen, bleiben, auch bei nur auszugsweiser Verwertung, vorbehalten. Eine Vervielfältigung dieses Werkes oder von Teilen dieses Werkes ist auch im Einzelfall nur in den Grenzen der gesetzlichen Bestimmungen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in der jeweils geltenden Fassung zulässig. Sie ist grundsätzlich vergütungspflichtig. Zuwiderhandlungen unterliegen den Strafbestimmungen des Urheberrechtes. Die Wiedergabe von Gebrauchsnamen, Handelsnamen, Warenbezeichnungen usw. in diesem Werk berechtigt auch ohne besondere Kennzeichnung nicht zu der Annahme, dass solche Namen im Sinne der Warenzeichen- und Markenschutz-Gesetzgebung als frei zu betrachten wären und daher von jedermann benutzt werden dürften. Die Informationen in diesem Werk wurden mit Sorgfalt erarbeitet. Dennoch können Fehler nicht vollständig ausgeschlossen werden und der Verlag, die Autoren oder Übersetzer übernehmen keine juristische Verantwortung oder irgendeine Haftung für evtl. verbliebene fehlerhafte Angaben und deren Folgen. © Diplomica Verlag GmbH http://www.diplomica-verlag.de, Hamburg 2012

Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

Content

1

2

Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1

Initial Situation and Problem Definition ....................................................... 1

1.2

Objectives and Methodical Approach ........................................................... 3

1.3

Structure of the Document............................................................................. 4

Definition and Differentiation of Basic Terms and Concepts.............................. 6 2.1

2.1.1

Reason and Rationality .......................................................................... 6

2.1.2

Reason in View of Critical Rationalism................................................. 8

2.1.3

Reason in the Context of Economic Ethics.......................................... 10

2.2

The Concept of Transverse Reason ............................................................. 11

2.2.1

Reason Considering Rational Relationships ........................................ 11

2.2.2

Reason in Terms of Rational Totality .................................................. 13

2.2.3

Reason and Rational Justice................................................................. 15

2.2.4

Reason as Enabler of Transitions......................................................... 17

2.2.5

Reason in Situational and Rational Context......................................... 18

2.2.6

Reasonable Decisions........................................................................... 20

2.3

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The Idea of Reason ........................................................................................ 6

The Concept of the Open Society................................................................ 22

2.3.1

Participation and Competition.............................................................. 22

2.3.2

The Principles of Rationality and Situational Logic ............................ 24

2.3.3

Responsibility of the Individual ........................................................... 25

2.4

Conceptual Perspectives of Marketing........................................................ 26

2.4.1

Enterprise-Driven Marketing ............................................................... 26

2.4.2

Orientation toward Markets ................................................................. 27

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

2.4.3 3

A Generic Concept of Reason-Oriented Marketing........................................... 31 3.1

Prerequisites ................................................................................................ 31

3.2

Conceptual Approach .................................................................................. 31

3.2.1

General Remarks .................................................................................. 31

3.2.2

Applicable Aspects of Transverse Reason ........................................... 32

3.2.3

Applicable Aspects of the Open Society.............................................. 37

3.2.4

The Holistic and Universal View of Reason-Oriented Marketing....... 39

3.3

4

Integrated and Holistic Marketing ....................................................... 29

Design of Methodical Patterns .................................................................... 41

3.3.1

General Remarks .................................................................................. 41

3.3.2

Perception and Recognition ................................................................. 43

3.3.3

Association and Combination .............................................................. 45

3.3.4

Foresight............................................................................................... 48

3.3.5

Criticism and Discourse ....................................................................... 50

3.3.6

Change Perspective .............................................................................. 52

3.3.7

Transition ............................................................................................. 55

3.3.8

Justice................................................................................................... 57

3.3.9

Cooperation and Participation.............................................................. 60

Summary and Critical Comments ...................................................................... 63

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Bibliography ………...……………………………………………………………...67

II

Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

1 Introduction 1.1 Initial Situation and Problem Definition The modern economic world is characterized by a variety of different problems and solution possibilities, including a vast number of different customer requirements, products and variations of products, as well as ideas, meanings, opinions, and arguments. Each product and service involves a multitude of different arguments for a solution, and respectively against it. According to the different arguments, the persons involved can be divided into proponents and opponents, subject to the prevailing attitudes, opinions and preferences of people. The initial situation for developing and launching new products in the producer’s viewpoint and for making a choice in the consumer’s viewpoint is extremely complex. The complexity exists due to the fact that the different arguments are often interrelated and interdependent to each other, resulting in a complex network of relationships and connections. All this leads to a difficult decision-making process particularly in terms of the economic environment and the marketing processes of enterprises. The classic marketing concepts are based on different views of the macro and micro environment of companies. These views include the requirements of internal and external stakeholders, represented in different forms of marketing, like relationship marketing and integrated marketing. But in most cases these concepts are focused on limited parts of the business environment: For example, the four Ps (product, price, promotion, and place) represent especially the view of the producer1, whereas the SIVA concept (solution, information, value, access) covers in particular the customer point of view.2 Even the more comprehensive concept of holistic marketing, that recognizes the interdependencies of marketing programs, methods and instruments,

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does not guarantee that reasonable products are automatically successful in the market. An example is the electric car, which is a highly reasonable product in terms of ecological aspects, but nevertheless until now has not yet gained the same signifi-

1

Cf. Cannon/Perreault/McCarthy (2008), p. 35.

2

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 23.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

cance and share in the markets and in the society as the conventional petrol-driven car. In fact, marketing concepts are generally driven by varied requirements of different stakeholders. The requirements involve naturally practical and emotional needs of customers, but also the economic requirements of the enterprise, its shareholders, and its suppliers. Besides the customer-oriented alignment of marketing processes and instruments, the determining factor of marketing measures is the sales revenue and profit of a company, or more general: the economic result. Of course, these are quite valid requirements in terms of the well-being of the economy or specific businesses. However, the well-being of other aspects must be considered similarly, for example the ecological environment, the societal aspects, and the ethical and moral constraints. It is therefore a feature of modern marketing concepts to involve different viewpoints and perspectives of the diverse stakeholders. Seller- and buyer-oriented marketing concepts are the classic examples of this strategy, whereas the more holistic approaches cover the relationships to the stakeholders and to the internal staff of a company, and the effects on environmental, social, and political circumstances. Yet, all of these integrated marketing types do not prevent companies from prioritizing sales profit compared to environmental, social, and ethical aspects. Even though the classic four P marketing concept is said to be customer-oriented, the customer satisfaction is in fact only an indirect outcome of the marketing process, for the main objective of business is to sell as much products or services as possible. Thus, the relative majority of satisfied customers determine the marketing policies for product, price, distribution, and even communication, whereas a not representative minority of the customer needs is not considered at all. The satisfied majority guarantees

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comparatively the greatest sales profit, hence the main objective of business is the economic success. As a consequence, the classic marketing concepts do not consider sufficiently the environment surrounding the marketing business, including the associated stakeholders and interest groups, and not to mention the ethical, societal, political, legal, and technological interests. At least, the interests and opinions of the concerned par-

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

ties are not considered systematically enough to ensure that all different aspects are integrated in the marketing strategies and the corresponding marketing instruments. Even the existing marketing strategies considering ethical or ecological constraints are not completely integrated into a holistic concept of marketing to combine the business oriented aspects of marketing with the human aspects of society. The above-mentioned issues underline the necessity to involve aspects of reason and rationality according to Wolfgang Welsch in the marketing process in order to consider future effects and consequences of products and services. The characteristics of the open society defined by Popper enable the integration of the reason-oriented marketing approach into the society. The reason-oriented marketing design includes a conceptual approach to extract applicable aspects of transverse reason and the open society, and methodical patterns representing generic sample solutions for marketing strategies and processes.

1.2

Objectives and Methodical Approach

The overall objective of this document is to develop a generic reason-oriented marketing concept, which integrates and unifies the prevalent classic marketing concepts with the requirements and constraints of the stakeholders and interest groups of the macro environment. In general, marketing declares „the market as origin of entrepreneurial activities.”3 In contrast, the concept of reason-oriented marketing considers rather reason as originator of entrepreneurial activities. Reason is therefore starting point and target of the marketing approach at the same time; it is the invariant constant within the marketing continuum. The basic concepts of the reason-oriented marketing approach are the transverse reason and the open society. In certain respects, the concepts of transverse reason and Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

the open society complement each other, and partially they are referenced to each other. Both concepts are holistic and comprehensive in a way that they consider rather universality than individuality. It is hence a goal of the document at hand to dis-

3

Busch/Fuchs/Unger (2008), p. 14.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

tinguish between these concepts and to expose their underlying characteristics with regard to the economic environment and the marketing business processes. The target of this document is to create a generic marketing concept which is basically oriented to reason and rationality, and which acts as blueprint for designing specific marketing strategies and concepts to develop reasonable products and services. Therefore, a conceptual approach extracts the applicable aspects of transverse reason and the open society to define a general structure of the marketing concept. According to the conceptual applicable aspects, the appropriate generic patterns are constructed representing methodical sample solutions for the marketing decisionmaking process. The methodical patterns are the central components of the generic approach concerning the concept of reasonable marketing, as they provide a flexible and dynamic way to integrate reasonable thinking into the marketing process. Since there are several dependencies between the methodical patterns, each pattern defines an interface for its application in the marketing practice, including the problem definition, the problem discussion, the detailed solution of the discussed marketing problem, the dependencies on other patterns, and the consequences of the pattern in terms of advantages and disadvantages. Altogether, the pattern approach enables a consistent integration of important requirements, constraints, needs, arguments, and opinions of the stakeholders and interest groups of the business macro environment. The modular definition of methodical solution patterns leads to a building set of components which can be combined dynamically in order to design strategic marketing processes and marketing concepts.

1.3

Structure of the Document

Chapter 2 covers the definition of basic terms and concepts as well as the differentiaCopyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

tion between the central concepts of transverse reason and the open society. In a first step, the different views on the term reason are worked out by comparing the reasonable approach with similar conceptions like rationality, rationalism, and ethics. The second step deals with the relational aspects of reason and shows the interdependencies between rationalities in terms of transverse interconnections. The third step of the definition section discusses the concept of the open society, pointing out the cha-

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

racteristic similarities and references toward transverse reason. The final definition step describes the conceptual perspectives of marketing, including the definition of marketing, its different purposes and objectives, and its target groups. Additionally, the basic marketing concepts are outlined from a general point of view to understand the motivation and requirements connected with marketing processes. In preparation of the reason-oriented marketing concept, the already established ideas of holistic and comprehensive marketing approaches are defined as well. The overall objective of chapter 3 is to develop a generic and universal applicable concept of marketing which is basically oriented to reason. At first, the conceptual approach to reason-oriented marketing examines the central concepts of transverse reason and the open society to figure out the applicable aspects on a general and conceptual level of detail. This is a precondition for the following integration of the fundamental ideas of transverse reason and the open society to derive a holistic and universal draft of reason-oriented marketing. After considering the conceptual tier, the subsequent section defines methodical patterns according to the afore-mentioned conceptual aspects. These patterns represent generic solution possibilities for defined problem definitions of the marketing process. They are applicable to marketing processes and concepts in a universal manner, independent from concrete enterprises, branches, markets, and products. The generic methodical patterns can be combined in order to develop a universal methodical way of proceeding which can be integrated in marketing strategies and concepts. Especially the combination of different methodical patterns provides an important means for a systematic approach to deal with marketing processes and concepts. The structured methodical strategy represents a universal and generic guideline for the management of marketing aspects.

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Finally, chapter 4 summarizes the results with critical comments.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

2 Definition and Differentiation of Basic Terms and Concepts 2.1

The Idea of Reason

2.1.1 Reason and Rationality To understand the concept of transverse reason, which acts as one of the basic conceptual frameworks of this paper, a clear definition of the term reason has to be developed. In everyday life as well as in science a lot of different terms are applied to denote the cognitive aspects of human beings according to reason. Sometimes these terms are used synonymously, despite of their different significance and consequences to all kind of social aspects of the society. Although the terms reason and rationality are frequently used as synonyms, even the everyday use of these ideas shows the different expectations and requirements that are usually combined with them. Even though both terms have their common roots in the cognitive abilities in connection with sense and thinking4, they represent different perspectives on human behavior and reality. For instance, both terms can be differentiated according to time-related aspects:5 • A rational behavior can be judged by objective and rational criteria. It represents all activities in our daily routine and stands for the operative character of all business processes. The perspective of rationality concentrates on reality, practice, and practical experience, but it does not involve the look beyond the limited horizon of reality and rationality to which everyday activities are reduced generally. As a result, the rational course of action does not consider the consequences of rational activities and decisions. In this respect, rationality is strictly oriented to the present.

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• In contrast, a reasonable behavior widens the perspective to include a farsighted view on direct and indirect consequences or results of activities and decisions. Reason involves the long-term effects of rational actions and additionally takes their interdependencies, correlations and far-reaching repercus-

4

Cf. Schnädelbach (2007), p. 8.

5

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 614 f.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

sions into consideration. Insofar, reason is more comprehensive as rationality, as reasonable activities and decisions implicitly pay attention to the near and far consequences and results. Reason is therefore a future-oriented concept. Rationality is insofar not only the more limited view on realities and facts, but above all it is the more specialized concept which is about decisions and activities that are useful and suitable, and which focuses on the purpose of actions rather than looking for their worthiness. This kind of rationality is often called the economic rationality, which generally takes all actions to be subordinated to the economic purpose.6 In general, the afore-mentioned sensitivity of reason toward consequences of decisions and behavior represents indeed a common and universal approach: According to the theoretical social sciences, reasonable behavior does not only involve the desired consequences of rational decisions, but rather it includes additionally “unintentional repercussions of intended human behavior.”7 This viewpoint is a prerequisite for a holistic and comprehensive application of reasonable thinking in the business world, for each rational argument and decision inevitably causes unwanted effects besides the intended and desired results and objectives. By including far-sightedness and insight in terms of having an overall view, reason looks for the general perspective instead of single cases: “It is responsible for the whole.”8 Applying reason means to determine the connections and interdependencies between rational-oriented details and particularities. Rationality is therefore limited to an isolated perspective, whereas reason appears as holistic and integrative idea which represents a general and comprehensive viewpoint. This understanding of reason leads to decisions and activities that provide a balancing and harmonizing effect by integrating all kind of multilateral interests and claims of different interest groups and stakeholders.9 The harmonizing and balancing character of reason is important to

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reach consensus within the society. This type of reason is therefore one of the central aspects of the transverse reason concept which will be described in the later sections

6

Cf. Schnädelbach (2007), p. 131 f.

7

Popper (2009), p. 524.

8

Welsch (1996), p. 615.

9

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 616.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

of this document. Moreover, it is the fundamental element of the reason-oriented marketing concept developed in the document at hand.

2.1.2 Reason in View of Critical Rationalism The theory of critical rationalism according to Karl R. Popper is one of the most influential concepts within the philosophy of science. It is based on two central concepts according to the theory of understanding: empiricism and rationalism. Both ideas strive for truth and insight, but use different ways to reach it. The empirical concept considers observation and experience as the source of truth, whereas the concept of rationalism regards reason as the source of truth and insight. Indeed, Popper distinguishes between the uncritical and the critical rationalism: The uncritical rationalism is based on rational arguments and experience, whereas the critical rationalism is founded on a fundamentally critical attitude.10 In fact, it is the critical attitude that is a prerequisite to pursue a rational and reasonable perspective. To be rational requires to be critical and to include different opinions, a concept which represents the general framework of the critical rationalism.11 And the critical rationalism means to apply reasonable behavior leading to the following point of view: “It is possible that I am wrong and that you are right. But if we try hard, perhaps together we will be able to come closer to the truth.”12 According to Popper, the terms rational and reasonable express the same attitude which involves the consciousness of our ignorance and of the need for discussions to gain knowledge, as well as the principle willingness to discuss critically, to integrate different arguments and experiences, and to search for an agreement in case of different and contradictory interests.13 With this in mind, acting in a reasonable manner not only comprises criticism, but Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

rather the intention of solving problems and to keep in mind all persons involved. A

10

Cf. Popper (2003b), p. 269 ff.

11

Cf. Niemann (2004), p. 304.

12

Popper (2003b), p. 263.

13

Cf. Popper (2003b), p. 263.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

reasonable behavior requires acceptance and appreciation of different opinions in order to come to a compromise which is acceptable for all persons affected. Reason takes different views into consideration, it “takes arguments seriously.”14 In case of different arguments and alternatives, it is indeed necessary to analyze and to assess all of them in order to come to a reasonable decision. Reason in the sense of critical rationalism supports the process of decision-making by using criticism to find the best possible solution. Reason therefore must be integrated in the processes of decision-making and problem solving. Beginning with a problem and a general need for a solution, the problem solving method according to Popper contains the following course of action:15 • The first step comprises the approach to a given problem, which involves different solution possibilities as hypothetical suggestions. • The second step aims for elimination of erroneous solution suggestions by critical examination and falsification. • Finally, the valid solution possibilities remain to be applied to the problem or the decision-making process. The described procedure is applicable to all kind of rational problems, and it is therefore suitable for rational decisions in the business world. In fact, the process is repetitive and cyclic, and it leads to continuously improving decisions by replacing errors with better solutions. Given this iterative character, it represents effectively the method of trial-and-error.16 The critical rationalism is therefore an important attitude for the reason-oriented approach of a comprehensive marketing concept considering

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different rational aspects, arguments and opinions.

14

Popper (2003b), p. 281.

15

Cf. Popper (2010), p. 32 ff.

16

Cf. Popper (2010), p. 15.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

2.1.3 Reason in the Context of Economic Ethics The necessity of ethical rules often arises with regard to the economy and the economic behavior of people. Religions and moral viewpoints are generally based on the famous golden rule, which implements the concept of reciprocity in terms of moral acting and mutual consideration within human relationships.17 Even the businessoriented theories of Adam Smith are conceptually based on moral qualities of reason and rationality, like the idea of the impartial audience, which means that there is a higher concept of evaluation and assessment, a system of values which guides us and which acts equally as stimulus and conscience for all decisions and activities in life. Therefore, Smith considers reason as the moral impetus of human behavior.18 The relationship between moral or ethical rules and economic conditions leads to the theory of integrative economic ethics that combines the “ethical requirements of reason and the demands of economic rationality.”19 The integrative approach of economic and ethical reason covers especially the area of tension between efficiency and legitimacy:20 • On the one hand, the shortage of resources, one of the fundamental principles of the economy, requires an efficient and proper use of them. Therefore, a rational attitude is necessary to deal with scarcity, and to achieve success under these circumstances. In this context, reason is particularly oriented to economic aspects. • On the other hand, the consequences of economic issues are of vital significance with regard to social and existential aspects of human beings. Hence, economic interests and business decisions have to be in accordance with basic ethical and moral principles in order to guarantee the legitimacy of activities as well as to minimize negative effects on the society. Reason here is mainly Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

driven by ethical viewpoints.

17

Cf. Ulrich (2008), p. 61 ff.

18

Cf. Smith (1985), p. 203 (quoted according to Ulrich (2008), p. 65).

19

Ulrich (2008), p. 102.

20

Cf. Ulrich (2008), p. 130 f.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

As a consequence, the concept of integrative economic ethics means to act in a rational behavior and to assess on the foundation of ethical principles. Both parts of the concept complement each other insofar as ethical issues limit the infinite possibilities of the economy to a realistic and reasonable dimension that is suitable for both, the economic environment as well as the social environment. But the above-mentioned concept of reason represents in particular the ethical perspective, which is in general focused on the moral point of view and the ethical examination of decisions and activities. These moral aspects are among other things important in politics and in the business environment, particularly in view of the fact that the economy influences the living conditions of human beings as well as the political systems, and vice versa. However, the reason-oriented perspective on marketing processes and activities described in this document involves additionally practical and economic distinctness of reason and rationality rather than being limited to observing the moral and ethical requirements and repercussions. The holistic concept of reason-oriented economic behavior will be developed in the following sections. 2.2 The Concept of Transverse Reason 2.2.1 Reason Considering Rational Relationships The definition of the term rationality and its interpretation depends on the prevailing context, in which rational attitudes and behavior are embedded. Rationality is context-sensitive, as it is focused on a specific single issue of the reality. The meaning of rationality differs according to cultural, social, political, ethnographical and not least economic circumstances. Therefore, several types of rationality have been developed over time, like ethical, political, and public rationality – each of them concentrating on a specific field. Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

At the same time, the different fields of rationality show connections and interdependencies, as for example political as well as economic decisions imply ethical principles and rules. The mutual dependencies between rational aspects form a complex network of relations and structures. It is therefore the purpose of reason to ana-

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

lyze and to discover the relationships and connections between rational aspects.21 Insofar, it is the particular quality of reason to deal with rational relationships, “to reflect and to clarify the ratios of rationalities.”22 The identification and consideration of specific rational issues that have a connection with one another, requires an open-minded and tolerant attitude, the ability to listen to all kind of arguments, the analytical competence to find differences and parities between them, the willingness to make the arguments available to answer criticism23, the ambition to find out the argument which is right, and the methodical skills to abstract a generic and reasonable solution from the individual rational case. The prerequisite for the above-mentioned attitudes and behavior is a holistic and integrative concept of reason which looks for the overall view and the general idea rather than adopting a specific point of view. Reason in this context is not practical but pure reason, including different arguments and meanings, analyzing their relationships and consequences. The aim of reason is not to substantiate or justify, but rather to clear up and to produce transparency.24 To make reasonable and transparent decisions requires “to reveal the causes of decisions, and to make transparent the tangle of their preconditions and circumstances.”25 However, especially against the background of economic decisions and processes, it is important to take advantage of both, rationality as well as reason. While the first considers details in terms of content, the latter regards relations, conditions, and circumstances.26 As a consequence, both viewpoints need to be integrated to establish

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reasonable decisions and behavior and to achieve a holistic course of action.

21

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 631 f.

22

Welsch (1996), p. 632.

23

Cf. Popper (2005), p. 17.

24

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 632 ff.

25

Welsch (1996), p. 620.

26

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 632.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

2.2.2 Reason in Terms of Rational Totality As described in section 2.1.1, reason can be associated with a far-sighted, integrated view on realities and facts by integrating far-reaching repercussions into daily decisions and activities. In this respect, reason represents a far-seeing attitude in human life. Compared to rationality, reason is the more comprehensive idea and bears the connections between rational aspects in mind. Therefore, reason can be seen as a holistic concept, which integrates and combines individual and separated issues to a general and universal perspective.27 Reasonable decisions take all aspects affected into consideration, just as the underlying relationships between the different rationalities.28 In the end, such an extended viewpoint leads to the definition of reason “as lawyer of the whole.”29 However, the whole does not represent a unique, homogeneous area which can be interpreted from a uniform and standardized perspective. On the contrary, the whole comprises all kind of rational arguments and alternatives, so it represents a heterogeneous multitude of the reality. While the single rational aspects can be separated by clear boundaries in terms of rules, regulations, and characteristics, the sum total of all rational issues is rather a diverse and varied mixture of single components without following any fundamental regulations.30 To take reasonable decisions and to behave in a reasonable manner, all multiple opinions and views have to be taken into consideration in order to gain a principle understanding and to strive for a holistic solution by integrating the differences while increasing the points of parity. An extensive idea of reason requires understanding the individual before developing the common good. Insofar, the total perspective of reason comprises all different aspects of thinking by considering the individual rational aspects, and by exceeding their limits and boundaries. Reason therefore represents the cognitive overview of consciousness, and it enCopyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ables clarity as well as completeness and totality.31 It is the extraordinary claim of

27

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 615 f.

28

Cf. Niemann (2008), p. 27.

29

Welsch (1996), p. 615.

30

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 658 f.

31

Cf. Jaspers (1987), p. 47 f.

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totality which combines the diverse rationalities to an absolute and complete whole, representing the world as composition of all possible phenomena, and joining together all rational aspects to a fundamental cosmologic idea of reason.32 In this way, reason enables on the one hand an extensive overview, but on the other hand it comprises a detailed insight into rational facts. Effectively, the holistic perspective of reason is crucially characterized by the individual insight, or in other words: “the unity of reason is perceptible merely by the multiplicity of its voices.”33 Nevertheless, the encompassing perspective of reason does not dominate the particular rational aspects in a negative manner by suppressing their statements and meanings. On the contrary, reason is a kind of sounding board which amplifies the individual rational arguments, so that “the multiple can be restored to the one, and thus can be understood in the whole, as totality.”34 After all, the comprehensive cross-border quality of reason plays an important role in the concept of transverse reason, as it provides permeability and transitions between individual and separated rational aspects (see section 2.2.4). Moreover, a reasonable course of action concentrates on searching for the hidden truth, and it prevents overlooking important aspects and disregarding essential thoughts.35 Therefore, reasonable behavior requires empathy to perceive mental states, and it requires esteem toward differences and contrasts. Of course, multiple arguments and meanings could cause conflicts, so that besides open-mindedness there is a need for an attitude that is able and prepared to manage conflicts and multitude.36 On the other hand, multitude assumes a perspective “which does not only allow sober and precise insight but more freedom and justice as well.”37 Insofar, reason is an important methodical approach to generate holistic decisions by integrating

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rational issues. The concept of reason seems especially helpful in the different eco-

32

Cf. Kant (1966), p. 458 ff.

33

Habermas (2009b), p. 119.

34

Habermas (2009b), p. 120.

35

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 667.

36

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 668.

37

Welsch (1996), p. 668.

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

nomic markets, as they are ideal examples of multitude environments that are composed of many different elements and individuals.

2.2.3 Reason and Rational Justice Up to now, reason has been defined as concept which identifies and clarifies the relationships between rational aspects, and as a holistic viewpoint which integrates different rationalities. These conceptual definitions comprise the following characteristics:38 • The different types of relationships between rational arguments result in competitive relations covering the tensions between rational viewpoints. This means that in general the ratios between different rational attitudes are characterized by competition and dissent rather than cooperation and consensus. • When looking at rational relationships, the reasonable way of proceeding has to take over a comprehensive and holistic perspective on the whole, leaving the detailed view on individual and separated rational aspects aside. Reason searches for general solutions integrating all arguments, and involving the consequences and results of decisions. • Despite the comprehensive and integrating effects of reasonable behavior, the underlying rational matters can be seen as enclosed and distinguished items, as each of them involves its own reality and truth. Each rational aspect therefore often represents its own environment of arguments being valid and applicable to this special context. As a consequence, a single rational viewpoint seems to be complete within its own sphere, but it is neither well-founded in relation to other rational arguments nor from the holistic and extensive per-

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spective of reason. It is therefore essential for a holistic concept of reason to enable cooperation between the diverse parties of the society, and to produce consensus regarding the heterogeneous scenery of meanings and attitudes. The fundamental role model to reach coop-

38

Following Welsch (1996), p. 698 f.

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eration and consensus is rational justice, standing up for the rights of alternatives, and combining the multitude of rational alternatives and options into a general view of reason.39 The concept of reason establishes justice for the involved parties by realizing the following aspects:40 • A reasonable way of proceeding ensures that all kind of rational arguments are perceived and recognized, and that none of them are excluded from the decision-making process. This is necessary to get a complete picture of the whole as the sum of its parts. • Reason prevents hastily generalizations, so that one rational argument is not allowed to declare its viewpoint universally applicable to all other rational arguments. This minimizes the risk that any rational point of view could be suppressed by others, or that criticism could be hold back. • Reasonable thinking enables communication between rationalities regarding the interdependencies of arguments and meanings. As a consequence, the exchange of information leads to new ways of looking at things, it clarifies and adjusts different standpoints, and it enables improvement as well as further development of problem solutions. The afore-mentioned definition of rational justice does indeed have a balancing effect on different rational aspects, giving each alternative and option a voice, and emphasizing its arguments in order to get a complete and detailed view on the reality. The concept of rational justice aims at satisfying all parties involved in a decisionmaking process, whereas the classic idea of justice is more focusing on equality for opportunity, and striving for the overall principle of equality.41 However, a funda-

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mental and in a certain sense moral regulation of equality gains in most cases only the lowest common denominator of all arguments, leaving a large number of alterna-

39

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 701.

40

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 704 ff.

41

Cf. Niemann (2008), p. 166 f.

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tives unconsidered. In contrast, rational justice promises to remember all different aspects by integrating and merging them in a holistic way. Altogether, the central aspect of rational justice is the possible change of the perspective, as this is the foundation to generate concrete instruments for the reason-oriented marketing process. The change of perspective is possible by calling rational arguments into question, and by rejecting their general claim to be in the right. The basic attitude for this procedure is criticism, which involves also a closer examination of the downside and drawback of arguments, looking for the difficult and complicated issues of rationalities rather than accepting only the positive aspects of a solution.42

2.2.4 Reason as Enabler of Transitions The previous explanation defines rational arguments and decisions as separated and enclosed complexes, each of them representing a distinguished environment and a specific part of the reality. It is the reasonable approach which reveals the hidden relationships between rationalities as well as the overall consequences and results of rational decisions and rational behavior. Reason as conceptual way of proceeding does have an integrative effect, since reasonable thinking connects rational arguments and meanings, combines and joins them differently in order to gain new insights, and creates associations that have never been thought of before. The connecting and combining character of reason works particularly along the relations and interdependencies of rational issues, so that the reasonable process can be seen as a transition from one rational aspect to other aspects involved. The transitional quality of reason provides the ability to perceive and accept the contrasts of different rational positions, while analyzing and exploiting their common ground. Moreover, the reasonable transition combines rational relations without removing Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

them; it joins them together without making everything the same.43 At the same time, rational relationships are in general multidirectional, as the transfer of information, knowledge or experience between different rational arguments takes

42

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 711 f.

43

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 751 f.

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place in any direction. Insofar, transitional reason serves as a central platform for the exchange of information between rational arguments, a platform for communication and interaction. It is hence the transitional feature of reason which serves as a basis for the concept of transverse reason.44 In this context, the attribute transverse means that reason-oriented behavior is not restricted to a specific direction of the rational environment. In contrast, reason takes up a definite position on all kind of rational arguments, and it does this in a dialectical way, including different opinions and arguments rather than excluding any of them.45 The above-mentioned characteristics result in a concept of transverse reason being highly integrative and holistic. In fact, by applying the concept of transverse reason it is not the question to take a decision for or against one of the different alternatives and arguments in a decision-making process. Transverse reason is not a selection process, choosing the best fitting alternative and leaving all other rational aspects aside.46 In contrast, it is rather the point to accept all of the different viewpoints and to integrate them in a holistic manner, based upon the principle that complemented and integrated arguments are more than just the sum total of individual elements. The integrative idea of transverse reason includes generally all features and qualities of the rational arguments, combines them, and therefore facilitates a new point of view, representing an integral and holistic decision and solution.47

2.2.5 Reason in Situational and Rational Context As we have already seen, the multitude of rational aspects is a complex, heterogeneous network of different opinions, meanings, and alternatives within the decisionmaking process. Each rational issue represents a separated viewpoint on the reality. Moreover, each rational argument is absolutely valid within its enclosed part of the Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

reality, although it might be invalid in the perspective of other rational arguments. Rational behavior is therefore extremely dependent on the context, in which it takes

44

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 748 f.

45

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 761.

46

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 718.

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place. The rational context can be seen as frame of reference, being focused on a particular situational context.48 The context plays an important role for the practical reason in the everyday life. Practical reason represents the relationship between cause and effect; it is enabler and motivator of theoretical intention and practical activity.49 However, practical reason is constantly subject to a great variety of rational aspects in the daily decisionmaking processes, since the expectations connected with reason differ according to usefulness and justice, and they depend above all on pragmatic, ethical and moral principles.50 As a consequence, reasonable decisions vary depending on the dominating attitude of a decider in a specific context and situation. With regard to the economy, the environment of a company is in general characterized by a multitude of different contextual areas, the so called environmental spheres, e. g. society, nature, technology and economy. The environmental spheres define the conditions and circumstances in which the entrepreneurial acting takes place.51 In fact, the spheres limit the decisions and actions of enterprises according to the preferences of their members, their rational arguments and opinions, and even relating to the moral and ethical discourses in and between the different spheres. Insofar, the afore-mentioned classic environmental spheres have to be extended with aspects of moral and ethics. Therefore, the further environmental spheres involve moral, education, politics, and law.52 The integration of moral and ethics into the environmental context of business shows that rational aspects are of vital importance for all kind of decision-making processes in the business world. Ignoring rational arguments means to throw off the balance of social power. In contrast, considering different rational alternatives leads to compre-

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hensive decisions that combine differences rather than excluding them. Of course,

47

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 791 f.

48

Cf. Albert (2011), p. 80.

49

Cf. Kant (1961), p. 25.

50

Cf. Habermas (2009a), p. 361.

51

Cf. Rüegg-Stürm (2003), p. 22 ff.

52

Cf. Schwegler (2008), p. 252 ff.

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the integration of different rationalities requires to recognize and to establish the relationships between them, their interdependencies and interrelations. These interactions between the environmental spheres of business companies and their stakeholders form a complex network of resources, norms and values, as well as requests and interests.53 It is decisive to accept and integrate these interactions in order to enable reasonable decisions that represent a holistic viewpoint by understanding and merging the diverse rational arguments. Since the rational context is highly dynamic and changeable, rational decisions have to be examined and adapted over time, if required. In fact, problem solutions and decisions cannot make a claim to be universal and independent from the situational and problematic nature of rational aspects.54 However, the reasonable way of proceeding understands the motives and requirements of different rational viewpoints, and it considers them in the decision-making process in order to get the whole picture. As reasonable decisions emphasize the rational differences and their points of parity, they pay attention to the different situational contexts as well. Consequently, reason “knows how to meet the suitable, which is not the right one at all costs, but the right one in a particular situation.”55 Insofar, the reasonable approach is actually both, a constant factor within the permanently changing reality, and a dynamic factor within the situational context of rationality. The holistic and comprehensive perspective of reasonable thinking is connected with the detailed view on unique rational characteristics and peculiarities.

2.2.6 Reasonable Decisions Even though reason seems to be a theoretical concept, it must be applicable in everyday life. It has to serve its purpose to behave in a reasonable manner, and to make Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

reasonable decisions within a complex and diverse reality. As already defined, the overall objective of the reason-oriented proceeding is to make reasonable decisions

53

Cf. Rüegg-Stürm (2003), p. 33 ff.

54

Cf. Niemann (2008), p. 183.

55

Welsch (1996), p. 728.

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considering rational relationships, and representing a holistic viewpoint of rational totality. On the one hand, reason is expected to be independent from affects, emotions, and social aspects. Reason is required to be comprehensive rather than being focused on details. Reasonable thinking strives for an overall view of the whole by connecting and combining different rational aspects.56 On the other hand, reason is sometimes considered subjective, as reasonable decisions depend on experiences and emotions of the decision-maker. Making a decision in favor of a particular rational alternative depends therefore on the subjective influences that the decision-maker is exposed to within a given situational context. It does not mean, however, that all other rational alternatives are invalid at all. In fact, it is extremely difficult to find out which decision indeed is the reasonable one. All reasonable decisions seem to imply that in general they bear the risk that a different decision could have been as valid and correct.57 As reasonable decisions are expected to consider the complete collection of rational alternatives, including their relationships and consequences, the decision-making process is as complex as the underlying network of rational arguments. Therefore, reasonable decision-making in general has to reflect the set of rationalities according to the following criteria:58 • A holistic reason-oriented decision requires transparency to reach the overall perspective on the whole. Transparency can be reached by revealing the relationships and interdependencies between alternatives, and by disclosing the conditions and consequences of them appropriately. • Additionally, reasonable decisions require consistency of prerequisites, condi-

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tions, and consequences of rational arguments. The consistency of preconditions and results within the decision-making process influences the feasibility

56

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 616 f.

57

Cf. Niemann (2008), p. 25 f.

58

Following Welsch (1996), p. 717 ff.

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of rational alternatives and options insofar as consequences as well as followup decisions must be suited to each other. • Reasonable decisions particularly refer to the situational context and the rational environment that surrounds the given rational alternatives. Therefore, reasonable decisions apply to a specific situation rather than being valid in general and in every situational context.

2.3 The Concept of the Open Society 2.3.1 Participation and Competition As described in the previous definitions, the concept of transverse reason considers relationships and interactions between rational elements as a fundamental structure for decision-making processes, especially in the business environment. The relational aspects and their interdependencies are also addressed in the concept of the open society. According to Popper, an open society is based on participation and competition of individual members of the society. In contrast to a closed society, in which the collective attitude of the whole is considered more valuable than the individual, the open society grants the individual members of society all kind of personal and subjective decisions.59 As a consequence, this leads to a complex network of attitudes and opinions, similar to the quantity of different rational arguments within the afore-mentioned reason-oriented thinking. The open society insofar reflects the characteristics of the transverse reason and establishes a viewpoint on the social consequences as well as a perspective in terms of economics, since “modern open societies predominantly work with abstract relations, like the exchange of goods and the division of labor.”60

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A complex network of different rational aspects and relationships is the root pattern which forms the basic structure of both, the open society and the transverse reason. It is therefore just a matter of logical consistency that Popper defines “the open society

59

Cf. Popper (2003a), p. 207.

60

Popper (2003a), p. 209.

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as being rational and critical.”61 Being rational in this case might be considered syn.

onymously to being critical, but nevertheless both terms are connected with each other in a cyclical manner: The rational attitude represents openness and receptivity toward criticism, whereas the critical examination of theories is necessary to steadily come closer to insight and truth by eliminating incorrect or invalid arguments and letting the best theory to be left over. Insofar, the open society always strives for correction and improvement, for each disproved argument being a further step toward the truth.62 In the end, the concept of the open society is characterized by the ambivalence of two opposed consequences of behavior: participation and competition. On the one hand, the willingness to allow and accept the complete multitude of different rational theories, arguments, and opinions enables participation of the individual in any way. On the other hand, the critical approach of disproving in order to eliminate errors and mistakes leads to a competitive behavior of all members of a society in terms of their position and rank as well as their importance and significance within the society.63 Participation and competition are therefore two sides of the same coin. This has to be taken into consideration, when defining a reason-oriented concept for the marketing process: Paying attention to the heterogeneous world of rational arguments and opinions requires the appropriate methods and instruments to manage the competition which inevitably occurs within the area of rational totality. Even the idea of far-sightedness, vision, and sensible foresight is a relevant and distinguishing feature of the open society, just as the overall view and the general perspective of the reasonable approach. As described in section 2.1.1, reason considers not only the short-term advantages of a decision, but instead looks for the mediumand long-term effects as well. The comprehensive viewpoint of reason is similar to

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the concept of the open society, which involves possible consequences in terms of a rational responsibility of each individual member of the society.64 Participation and

61

Popper (2003a), p. 405.

62

Cf. Popper (2005), p. 85.

63

Cf. Popper (2003a), p. 207 f.

64

Cf. Popper (2003a), p. 207.

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competition requires the view on the whole, and especially the perspective beyond rational borders and limitations.

2.3.2 The Principles of Rationality and Situational Logic The afore-mentioned far-sightedness and foresight means in detail to look into the future in order to predict and estimate the possible consequences and results of decisions. Of course, a prediction is rather vague, and it is based on uncertainty. To predict all kinds of potential consequences and results of rational aspects, a reasonable decision has to be taken appropriately to the situational logic given by the rational foundation. Acting according to the principle of rationality means to act adequately and suitable corresponding to the rational logic of a given situation.65 In general, this type of rationality is tightly linked with particular expectations: Regarding a given situation, one expects an appropriate rational behavior and reaction to satisfy the expectations, whereas a different behavior is often considered as irrational and inadequate.66 In fact, rational behavior depends on the situational logic and the underlying anticipation: “If we are talking about rational or irrational behavior, we imply a behavior which is appropriate to the logic of a situation or not.”67 As a consequence, the concept of rationality is generally limited to the criteria that are applied to the assessment of a situational context and the rational options. In this case, the rational expectation determines the situational behavior and decision insofar as the expected model of the reality is the constant factor, and the behavior has to be adjusted appropriately. On the other hand, rational expectations can cause the opposite by crossing the borders of rational anticipation: A violation of given rational expectations could result in the desire to keep the behavior, but “to invent a new model, or rather reconstruct the Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

situational logic, to which all objectives, means, methods, and other things belong to,

65

Cf. Niemann (2004), p. 306 f.

66

Cf. Niemann (2004), p. 306 f.

67

Popper (2003b), p. 115.

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and that could be necessary to explain them.”68 In this case, the behavior is the constant factor, and the expected model of the reality has to be adapted accordingly. However, the principle of rationality is the basic conceptual way of proceeding to prove the different rational viewpoints with the intention to adapt and improve rational theories and arguments.69 Therefore, the principle of rationality is to a certain degree similar to the reasonable approach, since both concepts represent a comprehensive perspective on rational behavior.

2.3.3 Responsibility of the Individual As already described, the open society enables its members to participate in decisionmaking processes and to contribute different arguments and opinions to the whole. In fact, the participation of the individual demands also a great deal of responsibility of the individual. In most cases, members of an open society are personally involved in the decision-making process: They make a personal and partly subjective decision with regard to the comprehensive responsibility toward the mainly objective perspective of the whole.70 In fact, the change from a closed society to an open society is directly connected with a change from collectivism to individualism. The open society is therefore characterized by individual and personal responsibility in comparison to the collective structure of the closed society. As a consequence, members of an open society act independently, take responsibility for themselves as well as for the whole, and they are willing to make decisions that meet the different expectations of individuals.71 One central aspect of the open society is in general the esteem toward individual responsibility and the ability to act personally, both of which is based on “individual

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initiative and self-assertion”72, the crucial elements of an open-minded society. The

68

Niemann (2004), p. 306 f.

69

Cf. Niemann (2004), p. 306 f.

70

Cf. Popper (2003a), p. 207.

71

Cf. Popper (2003a), p. 206 ff.

72

Popper (2003a), p. 226.

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reason-oriented thinking needs the individual initiative and the willingness for responsibility as a precondition in order to take the different rational arguments into consideration, and to strive for a comprehensive and holistic perspective of reason.

2.4 Conceptual Perspectives of Marketing 2.4.1 Enterprise-Driven Marketing Since the introduction of the marketing mix and concrete marketing concepts in the middle of the 20th century a lot of different definitions and meanings of the term marketing have been formulated. Over the years, the definition of marketing has changed from the product- and production-oriented view of classic marketing processes to the market- and relationship-oriented view of modern marketing concepts. The motivation and the objectives of marketing have changed to the same extent as the economic frameworks according to the prevailing period of time.73 However, the central marketing definition, which has not changed over the years at all, regards marketing as “efficient and adequate organization of exchange processes.”74 The exchange of goods is predominantly based on a relationship between supply and demand, and this relationship is motivated by a mutual satisfaction of needs and the fundamental shortage of resources.75 Insofar, marketing is a balancing process for the exchange of goods and services. In this sense, marketing is particularly driven by products and the production process in terms of the technical manufacturing of goods, whereas the enterprise pushes the products actively into the market.76 In case of enterprise-driven marketing the manufacturers often strive for complete and accurate product specifications to ensure a maximum of functionality and at the same time a minimum of errors. The so-called product concept underlines “that con-

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sumers favor products that offer the most quality, performance, or innovative fea-

73

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 7 ff.

74

Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 3.

75

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 4 f.

76

Cf. Busch/Fuchs/Unger (2008), p. 4 f.

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tures.”77 Quality is therefore institutionalized consistently throughout all business departments of a company. Functionality and quality determine the product program as well as the features and characteristics of products, independent from the expectations of the consumers. Of course, this kind of marketing expects markets with an appropriate demand for the produced goods, and it assumes that the demand need not be generated and enhanced with the help of marketing instruments and sales promotion measures.78

2.4.2 Orientation toward Markets According to a different perspective, marketing is less intensive driven by the entrepreneurial requirements of the production process, but instead it is considerably oriented to the needs of the participating markets. This point of view assumes the involvement and participation of markets which represent different interest groups affected by economic activities. According to this philosophy, marketing is especially driven by detailed information about the market demands and the customer requirements. The main objective is to satisfy the needs of customers, whereas the markets pull the required goods and services from the enterprise corresponding to the given customer needs.79 The above-mentioned information management is a key aspect of the marketoriented idea of marketing. The profound knowledge about the diverse markets, the perception and identification of customer needs, and the ability and willingness to align the complete entrepreneurial processes to satisfy the customer requirements establishes the demander of a product or service to be the starting point of marketing concepts. However, market-oriented marketing does not only mean to recognize needs, but also to influence and manipulate requirements and behavior of consumCopyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ers.80

77

Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 18.

78

Cf. Busch/Fuchs/Unger (2008), p. 3 ff.

79

Cf. Busch/Fuchs/Unger (2008), p. 8 f.

80

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 15 f.

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Information management and communication hence becomes a marketing instrument “to find the right products for your customers.”81 By now, the marketing instruments according to the four P concept involve besides communication issues (promotion) also the creation and management of products (product), the assessment and price management (price), as well as the distribution (place) of values to the users and consumers. In fact, the mixture of different marketing instruments with regard to the four P concept already integrates the important marketing aspects in order to act in line with the market requirements. These tools are the prerequisites to satisfy market needs, and, as a consequence, to achieve the best possible sales revenues.82 Since the four P concept comprises in particular methods and instruments to influence different aspects regarding the target markets and correspondingly the consumers and end-users, it can be considered consequently as the “sellers’ view of the marketing tools available for influencing buyers.”83 The intention of being strictly driven by customer needs is therefore at least restricted, as the instruments of the marketing mix aim particularly at issues to be used by the seller, not the buyer. The necessity to strengthen the buyers’ viewpoint has lead to the SIVA concept (solution, information, value, access) with the following corresponding aspects according to the four P concept:84,85 • the solution is complementary to the product and represents the possibility to satisfy the customer need, • the information corresponds with the promotional aspects in terms of knowledge and communication, • the value for the customer is equivalent to the pricing,

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• and the access tallies with the distribution and delivery issues.

81

Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 19.

82

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 22 f.

83

Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 23.

84

Cf. Dev/Schultz (2005) (quoted accoding to Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 23).

85

Cf. Cannon/Perreault/McCarthy (2008), p. 35 ff.

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Although the SIVA concept emphasizes the customer-orientation clearly, the effect seems in practice rather doubtful, as it depends on the economic power of the customer toward the selling and producing enterprises. In fact, the customer-driven possibilities to influence and manipulate the market with regard to the sellers are not institutionalized as systematically and comprehensively as the marketing instruments of the four P concept.

2.4.3 Integrated and Holistic Marketing Up to this point, the afore-mentioned concepts of enterprise-driven and marketoriented marketing can be classified as two-dimensional, for either the dimension seller dominates the economic relation between source and consumption of goods, or the dimension buyer is the determining factor of the relationship. Therefore, the conventional understanding of marketing is limited to a small section of the economic environment, representing only the manufacturing or selling enterprise as well as the customer or user of a value. Actually, the entire business environment covers far more elements, including the internal and external stakeholders of a company, the environmental spheres surrounding the business boundaries of corporations, and the interactions constituting the relationships between the mentioned components.86 The marketing business meets these framework conditions by taking the different elements of the economic environment into consideration, and by defining a holistic marketing concept with a comprehensive perspective on the business world. The holistic perspective integrates • the traditional methods and instruments of the classic marketing concept according to the four Ps (integrated marketing),

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• the ethical, societal, legal, and environmental aspects as well as the economic value and benefit (performance marketing), • the interactions and interdependencies regarding the different external stakeholders of a company (relationship marketing),

86

Cf. Rüegg-Stürm (2003), p. 22.

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• and the interrelations concerning the internal stakeholders of a company (internal marketing).87 The economic environment is frequently categorized as the micro and respectively the macro environment: While the micro environment covers the direct activities of an enterprise related to the closely connected stakeholders, the macro environment combines all aspects that cannot be influenced and manipulated directly by a company.88 With this in mind, the relational aspects with respect to customers, suppliers, investors, competitors, employees, state, and public sphere are of high relevance for the economic success of an enterprise and must be considered in the conception of marketing activities respectively. In fact, the interrelations between the involved environmental structures form a complex network of interactions and relationships, which requires a comprehensive point of view considering the long-term consequences of business relations. Instead of the influencing and manipulating character of the classic marketing concepts, the relationship marketing is headed by the principles of an anticipatory and sustainable organization of confident business relations.89 The recognition of relational aspects and the integration of marketing methods and instruments within the economic environment is therefore a prerequisite for a holistic and comprehensive perspective on marketing. However, the holistic approaches of modern marketing represent effectively a loose collection of theories and concepts, and a joining and combining medium is missing so far. The following sections consider reason as the joining and combining medium, based on the concept of transverse reason and the principles of the open

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society.

87

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 21.

88

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 45.

89

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 41 ff.

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3 A Generic Concept of Reason-Oriented Marketing 3.1 Prerequisites The subsequent development of a generic concept concerning the reason-oriented marketing is based on the following assumptions and prerequisites: • The marketing concept at hand is generic applicable to all kind of marketing processes and situations. It is therefore not related to a specific enterprise, branch, product, or target market. The generic character of the concept is achieved by designing a set of methodical patterns that can be combined to create a strategic way of proceeding within a concrete marketing concept. • The concept of reason-oriented marketing is not a competing or rival concept to the conventional marketing concepts. It is even not an extension, enhancement, or amendment of classic marketing ideas. Rather the reasonable marketing approach integrates the classic marketing view with the requirements and constraints of the marketing macro environment to a holistic and comprehensive perspective of marketing. 3.2 Conceptual Approach 3.2.1 General Remarks The ideas of transverse reason and the open society are the basic theoretical concepts for the development of a generic reason-oriented marketing concept. As described in the previous sections, both concepts cover the overall dealing with rationalities, i. e. rational arguments, opinions, and alternatives in the decision-making process. The complex network of rational aspects plays an important role in the marketing busi-

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ness. The field of marketing business is characterized by a sophisticated mixture of different customers and their requirements, a great diversity of products and services provided by different producers, and above all the complex economic environment concerning all kind of economic, ecological, social, and ethical aspects. The following conceptual approach exposes the fundamental aspects of the basic concepts, and develops conceptual objectives and procedures which are generally

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applicable to decision-making processes of the marketing business. Furthermore, the extracted applicable conceptual aspects will be connected with suitable methodical design patterns which are described in detail in section 3.3. The methodical design patterns represent comprehensive and generic solution models that are in a general sense applicable to a variety of concrete rational problems. The overall objective of the conceptual approach is hence to consolidate the theoretical concepts of transverse reason and the open society to conceptual procedures that are applicable in the marketing business, and to make proposals for the structuring of methodical solution possibilities.

3.2.2 Applicable Aspects of Transverse Reason The following subsections expose the basic conceptual aspects of transverse reason according to the definition and differentiation of the fundamental elements of transverse reason in paragraph 2.2. The main objective is to outline the feasible procedures that are generally applicable to the decision-making process. The approaches therefore initially represent a conceptual description on an abstract level to emphasize the principle capabilities that can be used in everyday life. With regard to the more tangible orientation toward marketing processes, Table 1 recommends already methodical patterns that can be applied to the respective conceptual context. These elementary methodical patterns will be discussed explicitly in section 3.3. Rational Relationships The concept of transverse reason is focused on the connections and interrelations between the individual rational aspects. Observing rational relationships reveals the interdependencies between rational issues, and the mutual implications occurring

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when they interact with each other. At first, these relations have to be perceived and recognized by analyzing their interfaces and joints. In order to identify all different interconnections between rational arguments and opinions, the existing rational relationships have to be published to obtain transparency for all persons involved. Transparency promotes the visibility and likewise the acceptance of converse and divergent opinions.

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Hence, transparent relationships lead to a comprehensive viewpoint with an integrative effect, which is in the end a prerequisite for a reasonable decision. The integrative character of transverse reason aims at the detailed and individual viewpoints of rational aspects, as well as the widespread and broad perspective of reason in terms of rational relations. Rational Totality One very important feature of transverse reason is the anticipatory farsightedness regarding the possible impacts and effects of rational aspects. A reasonable decisionmaking process considers all potential consequences, and creates a viewpoint which embraces the prospective trends of a decision. However, the visionary characteristic of reasonable thinking involves not only the future implications, but rather the total range of rational arguments, their differences as well as their common ground. It is therefore important to analyze the individual aspects and to combine them in a holistic way in order to get the whole picture. And the whole does indeed represent all kind of aspects, the obvious ones just as much as the hidden ones. In particular the hidden aspects can only be identified in case of a distinctive willingness to understand the individual differences, the corresponding conflicts between them, and the ability to manage the multiplicity of rational aspects. Rational Justice As already mentioned in the conceptual approach of rational totality in the previous subsection, transverse reason tends to perceive and recognize all types of rational facets, disregarding their outcome, implications, disparities, and similarities. Consequently, the reasonable approach has to ensure that all different rational aspects are appreciated properly, and it has to prevent any of the individual arguments from be-

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ing excluded or hidden by other issues that seem to be dominant or more important at a first glance. The dominance of specific rational aspects is often implied by the peculiarity that one major aspect is considered to be representative to a lot of minor aspects. This is a kind of democratic approach giving the main attention to the majority of rational arguments. But the concept of transverse reason claims to take the minor rational

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aspects into consideration as well. In this context it is required to inhibit generalizations, and to avert single rational viewpoints to be universally applicable to all other aspects. Instead, reasonable thinking requires establishing cooperation insofar that the individual aspects complement each other to a new point of view which is characterized by rational justice. Rejecting the generalization of rational arguments means, of course, to examine the possible rational perspectives to the effect that their claims and ideas need to be criticized, and in general called into question. The critical attitude of transverse reason allows a permanent and consequent change of perspective, which is necessary to achieve a comprehensive decision. Enabler of Transitions Since the diverse rationalities build a complex network of relations, interconnections and interdependencies, it is the utmost purpose of transverse reason to develop transitions between the different rationalities. The conceptual idea of building transitions requires at first the perception of all rational arguments and positions. This means to incorporate all persons affected and to accept their different viewpoints. In this phase it is therefore necessary to find out the similarities, and to develop a common ground which acts as a shared foundation for the disparities to be added. To achieve a broad and lasting incorporation of persons, it is essential to enable the exchange of information, and to establish communication channels that are available to anyone. It is advisable to combine these channels in a central platform for the interconnection of affected persons to prevent the loss of single rational aspects, and to ensure that all aspects are accessible. An important criterion for the quality of information exchange and communication is the intensity of the dialog between the par-

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ticipants. An intensive and open dialog is one of the most important preconditions for a comprehensive view on rational arguments, and especially for the reason-oriented marketing. However, it is not sufficient to merely collect all kind of rational aspects in terms of a summary or centralization. Instead, it is required to merge and to combine rational issues in order to develop a new point of view which in fact includes all arguments

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but additionally represents a synthesis with an innovative and unprecedented claim for prospective solutions and decisions. Situational and Rational Context The above-mentioned transitional aspects of transverse reason indicate that rational aspects cannot be treated as enclosed and autonomous. On the contrary, they are linked among themselves, and above all they are interrelated with the context of a given rational situation. Therefore, it is important to understand the underlying motives and demands of rational arguments, and to observe them being embedded into a specific rational context of circumstances, conditions, and interests. The context of the business world is primarily determined by the economic environment, including the environmental spheres of companies, and the different stakeholders connected with rational and entrepreneurial decisions. The interrelations between these elements of business form a complex network which reflects the situational and rational context of the reasonable approach within the problem solution process. Reasonable Decisions In the end, the conceptual aspects of transverse reason have to be judged by the effects on reasonable decision-making processes. Reasonable decisions are only possible by attending and applying the ideas of transverse reason as described in the previous subsections. Beyond the sketched conceptual approaches there are general constraints for reasonable decisions to be regarded in order to prepare a favorable climate for the debate of different rational arguments. An important precondition is the independence from subjective influences given by the involved decision-makers, their personalities, attitudes, and experiences. In fact, Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

objectivity cannot be obtained completely, but deciders have to be conscious and sensitive with reference to subjective influences. Awareness is therefore important to make reasonable decisions. Awareness and consciousness is also connected with transparency, which uncovers relational interactions between individual rational aspects, as well as their implications to the rational environment. As reasonable decisions aim at a comprehensive and holistic viewpoint on the whole, all elements of the

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

decision-making process are required to be consistent, suitable, and valid at any time of the process. This guarantees also that reasonable decisions always apply to the

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given rational context and situation. Basic Concepts (cf. 2.2)

Applicable Conceptual Aspects

Methodical Patterns (cf. section 3.3)

Rational Relationships

1. Recognize and analyze relationships and connections between rational aspects. 2. Produce transparency by reflections and disclosure. 3. Integrate rational viewpoints (details in terms of content) and reasonable viewpoints (regarding relations, conditions and circumstances).

• Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination

Rational Totality

1. Consider consequences of rational aspects and establish a general and universal perspective toward the whole. 2. Merge differences and points of parity in order to generate holistic decisions. 3. Understand the individual and develop the common good. 4. Search for the hidden truth. 5. Manage multitudes of differences and the resulting conflicts.

• Foresight • Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination

Rational Justice

1. Perceive and recognize all kind of rational arguments, and ensure that none of them are excluded from the decision-making process. 2. Prevent generalizations, so that one rational aspect is not allowed to declare its viewpoint universally applicable to all other aspects. 3. Enable cooperation between rational aspects, so that they complement each other. 4. Examine all possible perspectives by calling rational aspects into question, and by rejecting their claim to be in the right.

• Justice • Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination • Foresight • Criticism and Discourse

Enabler of Transitions

1. Establish transitions between rational aspects by perceiving and accepting the contrasts of different rational positions, while analyzing and exploiting their common ground. 2. Provide a platform for the information exchange between rational aspects. 3. Establish a dialog between rational aspects by including different opinions and arguments rather than excluding any of them. 4. Develop a new and comprehensive point of view by integrating different rational aspects in a holistic perspective.

• Transition • Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination • Change Perspective

Situational and Rational Context

1. Recognize and understand the motives and requirements of varying rational attitudes that depend on specific contexts and situations. 2. Consider the environmental spheres of companies: society, nature, technology, economy, moral, education, politics, and law by understanding the underlying rational preferences, arguments and opinions. 3. Examine the interactions between environmental spheres and stakeholders of companies and regard the network of resources, norms and values, as well as requests and interests.

• Change Perspective • Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination

Reasonable Decisions

1. Strive for independence from affects, emotions, and social aspects. 2. Prevent influences like experiences of the decision-maker. 3. Connect and combine rational aspects to decide on the whole. 4. Produce transparency by revealing relations between rational aspects, and by uncovering their future consequences. 5. Account consistency of prerequisites, conditions, and consequences of rational aspects to enable feasible and suitable rational decisions 6. Apply the situational context and the rational environment, and make sure that reasonable decisions apply to the given context.

• Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination • Foresight • Criticism and Discourse • Change Perspective • Transition • Justice • Cooperation and Participation

Table 1: Applicable aspects of transverse reason and possible methodical patterns

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3.2.3 Applicable Aspects of the Open Society As illustrated in chapter 2.3, the idea of the open society complements the concept of transverse reason: It underlines the necessity of rational relationships in terms of participation and competition; it accentuates the significance of rational contexts and expectations, and it emphasizes the role of the individual within the rational and reasonable proceeding. The crucial aspects of the open society in regard to transverse reason are compiled in the following subsections in order to develop their potential application in the decision-making process. Table 1 summarizes the results, and contains a preview of possible methodical patterns to support the application of the conceptual approaches. The detailed description of methodical patterns follows in section 3.3. Participation and competition As shown in section 2.3.1, the open society is based on the ability and willingness to call rational aspects into question and to criticize them in order to reach improvement and progression. A critical attitude is on the other hand inherently a prerequisite for competition insofar as the rivalry of different rational arguments and alternatives requires a mutual verification and validation of theories. The critical approach needs the participation of individuals to enhance the quantity of rational arguments and to optimize the quality of decisions and problem solutions. Establishing participation means also to search actively for rational differences in the decision-making process. The advantage of participation and competition is not only to eliminate erroneous rational arguments and to search for the best possible solution. Rather, the critical discourse provides farsightedness, and involves a predictive view into the future. This is an equivalent approach to the transverse reason with its concept of the ra-

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tional totality, as described in section 2.2.2. Principles of rationality and situational logic According to the interdependencies between reasonable thinking and its corresponding context, as already mentioned in section 2.2.5, the open society is similarly characterized by a considerable attitude of expectation in terms of rational and logic anticipation. Certainly, the desire to act dynamically and agile subject to the respective

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situational context, is absolutely difficult in view of the complexity and correlation of the modern world. Provided that the affected rational aspects as well as their interrelations are transparent to the involved persons, there are generally two alternatives to cope with the given situation: Either adapt the rational and logic expectations in accordance with a given rational decision, or instead, adapt the rational decision to a given rational expectancy. The first alternative considers the rational model as constant, while the second regards the rational argument as invariant. Responsibility of the individual Due to the participatory character of the open society, the individual person is directly involved in the decision-making process. The individual person is both the originator of rational arguments and the decision maker favoring particular arguments. For this reason, the responsibility of the individual is enormous and has to be encouraged as effectively as possible. Likewise, it is essential to take up an objective position which is preferably independent from specific rational constraints. Independence is insofar a prerequisite for a fair and comprehensive decision, which joins the single rational aspects into a holistic viewpoint. Therefore, reasonable decisionmaking processes generally rely on individual initiatives, for they are the source of rational arguments and the sophisticated evaluator to pave the way for a holistic deci-

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sion.

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Basic Concepts (cf. 2.3)

Applicable Conceptual Aspects

Methodical Patterns (cf. section 3.3)

Participation and Competition

1. Strive for correction and improvement by developing a rational and critical attitude, which is the foundation for participation and competition. 2. Allow and accept different rational aspects to establish participation of the individual. 3. Disprove rational aspects, and eliminate errors and mistakes in order to intensify the competitive search for the best solution. 4. Provide a far-sighted and visionary viewpoint, independent from rational boundaries and limitations to support a participating and competing discourse.

• Cooperation and Participation • Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination • Change Perspective • Justice

Priciples of Rationality and Situational Logic

1. Be aware of the rational logic of a given situation and context, and act adequately and suitable. 2. Examine rational expectations and change the rational model, if necessary. 3. Assess rational behavior and adapt it according to the expected model of the reality.

• Change Perspective • Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination

Responsibility of the Individual

1. Accept and promote the personal responsibility of the individual. 2. Assume an independent viewpoint in order to judge rational aspects and to make a comprehensive decision. 3. Establish individual initiatives and institutionalize them to give all of the different rational aspects a voice.

• Perception and Recognition • Association and Combination

Table 2: Applicable aspects of the open society and possible methodical patterns

3.2.4 The Holistic and Universal View of Reason-Oriented Marketing As described in the previous sections, the reality is characterized by a multitude of different rationalities, a complex network of arguments, opinions, meanings, and attitudes. The existing marketing concepts try to handle the complicated rational aspects by applying sophisticated approaches concerning relational and integrative measures. But in fact, these concepts act isolated and separated, without being coordinated and synchronized. The conventional thinking of segregation and separation according to specific types of rationality is prevalent, and it underlines the necessity to overcome the isolation, and to strive for a comprehensive approach instead.90

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The comprehensive approach is also the structural principle for reason-oriented marketing. Reason acts as systematic medium to merge the different dimensions of holistic marketing into a joining and combining cooperation of concepts in order to achieve a comprehensive marketing concept. Reason-oriented marketing is universal

90

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 946.

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applicable, it unifies the different viewpoints, requirements, and needs of the involved stakeholders as well as the environmental spheres of enterprises. The following aspects characterize reason-oriented marketing: • Reason-oriented marketing searches actively for relationships and interconnections between stakeholders, producers, sellers, and buyers. Moreover, it analyzes dependencies concerning the environmental spheres in which enterprises are embedded. In this sense, marketing activities consider the functional chain across all areas affected. • Reason-oriented marketing establishes a comprehensive viewpoint including the long-term consequences and impacts of products and services, prices, and distribution channels. Furthermore, it selects the appropriate methods and instruments of communication, sales promotion, and information to enhance the relationships with stakeholders and customers rather than influencing and manipulating them. • Reason-oriented marketing ensures justice and fairness regarding the ethical and moral consequences of goods and services. It acts as a medium and platform for the exchange of ideas, opinions, thoughts, and views. Additionally, it guarantees an unconditional, objective, and discursive discussion of arguments and needs, without hiding any of them. • Reason-oriented marketing integrates and merges the requirements and needs of stakeholders and customers, as well as the conditions and constraints of environmental spheres, like for example society, ecological environment, and ethics. • Reason-oriented marketing knows the rational expectations connected with

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specific products and services. It analyzes them in order to develop new and different solutions according to the societal and economic circumstances and restrictions. Its overall objective is not to satisfy specific interest groups, but rather to consider all implications of products, and to act according to the current constraints.

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• Reason-oriented marketing strives for reasonable, integrative, and holistic decisions in the afore-mentioned manner rather than being focused on short-time and short-sighted advantages of economic profits. • Reason-oriented marketing enables participation of all interest groups and individuals to contribute their needs and demand. In addition, it enhances competition in order to search for the best possible solution that considers the requirements of the stakeholders and the constraints of the business environment. • Reason-oriented marketing supports the responsibility of the individual by establishing marketing activities which enable the exchange of information, feedback, ideas, and opinions. It is generally interested in the opinions and attitudes of the related external and internal stakeholders, including customers, public, and employees. Altogether, the reason-oriented approach of a generic marketing concept enables all involved parties of the economic environment to participate in the marketing process, and to develop reasonable values in terms of products and services that consider the needs of the stakeholders as well as the requirements of the environmental spheres. 3.3 Design of Methodical Patterns 3.3.1 General Remarks In the preceding section the first step has been done to develop a generic concept of marketing based on reason. The conceptual approach covered respectively the definition of a conceptual framework with comprehensive, but quite general guidelines and rules to apply reason in the everyday decision-making processes. In addition to the development of applicable aspects of transverse reason and the open society, the

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prior conceptual section already proposed several particular methodical patterns for the practical use of reason-oriented proceedings. These methodical patterns make up the generic character of the marketing concept at hand. In this sense, a pattern represents a part of the reality, defining and solving a problem at the same time. The most important characteristic of a pattern is indeed its inherent reusability: “Each pattern describes a problem which occurs over and over

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again in our environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the same way twice.”91 In the field of architecture, patterns are generally defined by shape, color, and physical properties. On the other hand, patterns in the area of marketing are primarily characterized by non-visual aspects of processes and contexts: • The processes are a manifestation of a systematic model of proceeding in regard to marketing activities. They represent the dynamic aspects of the marketing business, like relationships, dependencies, correlations, and distinctions concerning the involved parties. Processes determine inherently the sequence of events, and therefore are responsible for the patterns’ qualities of recombination and reusability. • The context is the environment and surrounding, in which the processes are integrated and embedded. It defines the static issues of the marketing processes, including at first the basic rational elements, like needs, opinions, arguments, and attitudes. Besides these core elements, the context comprises also the stakeholders as well as the environmental layers of the economy, including the economic, societal, ecological, technologic, and social issues. As a consequence, patterns are generally applicable to different types of problems, insofar as they implement solutions that are universally valid rather than being focused on isolated cases. However, the patterns’ intention is not to generalize problems, but to universalize the solution process. Each pattern is therefore referenced to a set of similar problems and problem definitions, and it represents a class of related problem solutions. Hence, the methodical patterns introduced with the following subsections can be applied in different contexts of the marketing business. Addition-

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ally, they can be combined to a universal methodical strategy in terms of a generic model of marketing processes and activities.

91

Alexander/Ishikawa/Silverstein (1977), p. x.

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The subsequent descriptions of methodical patterns are structured according to the following format:92,93 • The section Problem defines the problem of the marketing context or situation. In general, the problem definition references to problematic or complicated aspects of the basic marketing concepts, like the four P concept. • The section Problem Discussion covers the detailed description of different aspects concerning the given marketing issue. The objective is to analyze the problem considering all kind of viewpoints in order to get a complete and comprehensive perspective on the problem. • The section Solution proposes a generic solution to the given problem definition considering the analyzed and discussed viewpoints. The solution should be applicable to any marketing problems similar to the given problem definition. • The section Dependencies describes the interdependencies to other patterns, and the resulting sequence of their usage. It considers in particular the necessity that some patterns require the application of others at first. • The section Consequences explains the consequences and impacts on the economic environment, the marketing processes, and other affected methodical patterns. It underlines the advantages as well as the disadvantages of the pattern’s solution.

3.3.2 Perception and Recognition Problem Marketing concepts and activities are limited due to restrictions of market research Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

and market segmentation. Market research aims at finding representative information about markets, and the specific measures of the market segmentation are intended to hide particular market segments, customers, and interest groups. However, the con-

92

Following Alexander/Ishikawa/Silverstein (1977), p. x f.

93

Following Gamma/Helm/Johnson/Vlissides (1996), p. 3 f.

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strained view of both concepts on the totality of needs, opinions, and interests suppresses important aspects of the marketing environment. Problem Discussion The main objective of market research is to gather information about the different economic markets, like for example the sales market, and the buying market.94 Information collecting refers also to aspects of the economic macro environment which involves the economic, social-cultural, natural, technological, and political-legal environment.95 In all of these cases, the methods of market research divide the totality into representative parts to be examined and analyzed in detail. In most cases, considerable components of the reality are not taken into account. For the purpose of statistical examination and research this course of action is appropriate, but to understand the rational totality as a whole requires the attention of individual cases which are of less significance from the statistical point of view. Reasonable marketing considers the statistical exceptions just as much as the representative cases of the normal distribution, since they can influence the rational interests, meanings, and opinions significantly. The effects of the market segmentation are similar to the effects of the market research process, albeit both concepts pursue quite different goals. Market segmentation means to identify the target customers according to geographic, demographic, psychographic, and behavioral criteria, whereas a market segment is characterized by a group of customers having the same or at least similar needs and interests.96 The objective of market segmentation is to partition the total market into segments that can be delimited against each other insofar as specific marketing activities concentrate on particular segments by satisfying only the homogeneous needs prevailing in the respective segment.97 As a consequence, the marketing concept is focused on an Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

extract of the total market, hiding all other areas that do not match the criteria of the

94

Cf. Michaeli (2006), p. 36.

95

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 79 ff.

96

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 208 ff.

97

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 182 f.

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corresponding market segment. Of course, this is a valid strategy in order to align a product’s features to a specific segment of target customers. On the other hand, segmentation prevents a company from perceiving the opinions and interests of stakeholders and the environmental spheres surrounding the marketing business. Solution The analysis of rational aspects given by stakeholders, environmental interest groups, and ethical or societal constraints must happen before establishing activities of market research, and especially prior to measures of marketing segmentation. The pattern requires the consideration of the rational entirety rather than focusing on selected parts of the marketing business. Dependencies The perception and recognition of rational needs, arguments, and interests are the first methodical activities of the marketing concept prior to all other measures. Therefore, there are no dependencies to be considered for this pattern. Consequences The advantage of the pattern is to perceive and recognize the complete amount of rational aspects concerning the stakeholders, the environmental spheres, and their different needs. Only the application of this pattern enables a comprehensive perspective on the whole, and a holistic overview regarding the entire multitude of interests. The disadvantage of the pattern is the required effort to involve all affected parties, and to analyze their interests in respect of the intended solution.

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3.3.3 Association and Combination Problem The instruments of the classic marketing concepts, like the four P concept, are directly linked between the producing enterprise, its suppliers and distributors, and its customers. However, the interactions with the interest groups of the environmental spheres surrounding the enterprise are neither directly targeted by the marketing ac-

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tivities, nor are they considered in the entrepreneurial decision-making process concerning the invention, development, distribution, and promotion of products and services. Problem Discussion The choice and combination of marketing instruments according to a specific marketing strategy is in general a complex process which requires permanent coordination between the entrepreneurial objectives and the available resources. The collocation of the marketing mix is based on decisions in terms of the universal disposability of marketing instruments, their handling, the quantitative scope, and the chronological aspects.98 The interdependencies between the different marketing instruments play an important role within the decision-making process, for success of the marketing mix requires well-matched instruments to enhance their strengths, while eliminating their weaknesses. In fact, these interrelations are inherently considered by the four P marketing concept, as it generally expects an integrative attitude of marketers “to design and implement any one marketing activity with all other activities in mind.”99 It is therefore broadly confirmed that marketing instruments cannot be considered isolated from others, and that instruments must fit together to achieve positive effects. On the other hand, the interactions between the enterprise and its economic environment are not orchestrated in the same manner as the internal relations between marketing instruments. Indeed, the environmental spheres are generally considered in the macro environment of marketing, including the societal, political-legal, technological, and ecological environments.100 Nevertheless, the classic marketing concepts do not provide any instruments to support the interrelations with the macro environment, and the existing marketing instruments do not consider them implicitly. In othCopyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

er words, the macro environment is not integrated within the classic marketing; it is instead an isolated and additional approach.

98

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 486.

99

Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 23.

100

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 63 f.

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As a consequence, the orientation of marketing activities according to the requirements and needs of the macro environment is not mandatory; it depends on the goodwill of the marketers and producers. However, the norms and values of the environmental spheres are important within the normative management level of an enterprise, as they require a permanent process of “ethical reflection and legitimacy.”101 Therefore, the integration of the environmental spheres in the marketing business has to be institutionalized in order to establish it as an obligatory part of the marketing concept. Solution A comprehensive and reason-oriented marketing concept includes the economic environment into the planning of marketing activities by building associations with the concrete marketing instruments, and by combining the rational constraints to a holistic perspective on marketing. The development of products, the determination of prices, the distribution channels, and the sales promotion must be aligned to the needs and requirements of the diverse interest groups acting in the macro environment of the marketing business. Dependencies As prerequisite for the association and combination of rational interests regarding the economic environment, the pattern Perception and Recognition has to be applied at first in order to gain consciousness about the underlying rational aspects. Consequences This pattern enables a comprehensive and holistic viewpoint involving the multitude of rational aspects affected by the marketing decisions of an enterprise. As advan-

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tage, it leads to more reasonable products which comply with the ethical, societal, political, social-cultural, ecological, and technological constraints of the economic environment. The disadvantage of the pattern is the greater complexity of the decision-making processes in the field of marketing.

101

Rüegg-Stürm (2003), p. 34.

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3.3.4 Foresight Problem The main focus of marketing concepts is often concentrated on the short-time effects in terms of economic success according to big sales revenues as well as high profit margins. Although the mid-term and long-term impacts of marketing decisions affect marketers and producing enterprises as well as the interest groups of the surrounding macro environment, the concrete marketing strategies and concepts are not aligned sufficiently according to the long-dated consequences of marketing decisions. Problem Discussion The marketing activities of an enterprise are generally exposed to aspects of the micro and macro environment, both of which influence the economic decision-making processes enormously. The internal factors comprise the abilities and capabilities as well as the available resources and capacities. In contrast, the external factors represent the economic aspects lying outside of a company, influenced by the interest groups of the environmental spheres according to societal, political, social, and ethical framework conditions.102 The definition of marketing targets depends on the one hand on the external respective internal allocation, and it depends on the other hand on the time limit of the marketing consequences. As a consequence, operational and tactical targets are predominantly related to short-term periods, whereas strategic targets are especially relevant to mid-term and long-term periods of marketing planning.103 Concerning the foresight of marketing concepts, the long-term consequences of marketing activities have to be considered in the strategic targets of an enterprise, like the business mission, the policies and practices, and the corporate identity. Moreover, the long-term thinking and long-term acting is one of the most important Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

factors of marketing theory, as long-running consequences of marketing decisions indeed have the most influence on the economic development of enterprises. In case of negative consequences, the economic success of the whole company is in danger.

102

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 231.

103

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 240.

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In case of positive consequences, marketing activities can improve the entrepreneurial key figures considerably. The significance of marketing foresight is notably apparent in the field of trend analysis and trendsetting of potential marketing instruments. Far-sighted marketing requires therefore a long-term oriented research of trends and consequences.104 Solution The foresight on the long-term consequences of marketing decisions and activities must be established in the strategic targets of an enterprise according to the business mission, the policies and practices, and the corporate identity. The long-term oriented measures must involve the research of consequences to the interest groups of the business macro environment, and the analysis of trends regarding innovations of marketing instruments. Dependencies This pattern requires the application of the pattern Perception and Recognition to gain a comprehensive perspective on the marketing environment. Additionally, the relations between the environmental spheres and the marketing instruments have to be considered by applying the pattern Association and Combination. Consequences This pattern leads to a comprehensive and holistic definition of marketing strategies matching the superior business targets of an enterprise. The advantage of the pattern is the focus on the long-term possibilities and consequences of marketing activities and instruments according to the macro environment of the marketing business. The disadvantage is the necessity to align and synchronize the long-term marketing tar-

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gets permanently with the strategic planning of the enterprise.

104

Cf. Belz/Schögel/Tomczak (2007), p. 12 ff.

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3.3.5 Criticism and Discourse Problem The communication instruments of marketing provide in general channels for the exchange of information between suppliers, producing enterprises, distributors, and customers along the supply chain. However, the utilization of interactive communication channels to involve stakeholders and interest groups of the macro environment and their needs in a critical and discursive dialog is not established systematically in the classic marketing concepts. Problem Discussion The classic marketing instruments in the field of communication are advertising, sales promotion, and public relations. In the basic usage of these instruments, the communication channels are directed from the marketer or producer to the consumer. The main objective is to transmit information about the products or services to the end user, and to create and maintain a specific image connected with the performance.105 The classic marketing communication channels are therefore designed to influence and manipulate the end-user. Even those communication instruments which provide a medium for the consumer to send feedback back to the marketer or producer, are not intended to contribute the needs and interests of customers to the decision-making process of the marketing business. The classic outbound marketing therefore assumes end-users to be passive and reactive, whereas the modern concept of inbound marketing is rather based on active and acting end-users. This modern and agile type of marketing communication considers a customer as active partner in the customer relationship, and it enables the customer-response as well as the enterprise-response. The main objective is to enhance Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

the organizational learning process by using the information and experiences of customers, their suggestions, recommendations, and complaints.106 A more extensive concept of marketing communication focuses on the integration of customers and

105

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 565 ff.

106

Cf. Belz/Schagen (2008), p. 207 ff.

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end-users in the innovation process of the enterprise. In this case, the customer is integrated in the value creation process of the producer, and is able to contribute own ideas to the marketing and production process rather than just assessing a product or service.107 The afore-mentioned examples of modern marketing communication are, of course, important steps toward the participation of customers in the marketing process. However, the integration of the environmental spheres is missing so far, as the interest groups and affected persons of the macro environment are not enabled to contribute their needs, requirements, and constraints in regard to societal, political-legal, ecological, and technological aspects. Yet, the communication channels of the marketing business are concentrated on the customer relationship rather than the interaction with the environmental spheres of business. Solution The interaction of marketers and producing enterprises with the interest groups of the macro environment has to be established to be an integrated part of the marketing strategy. In general, the interaction must be structured bidirectional involving the responses of stakeholders and environmental interest groups as well as the responses of the marketers and producers. Insofar, marketing communication needs discursive dialogs between the affected persons rather than information broadcasting, and it requires the critical-rational method of problem solving to find reason-oriented solutions for marketing decisions. Dependencies The systematic integration of critical and discursive communication channels in the marketing process requires at least the application of the pattern Perception and RecCopyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ognition in order to gather the different interests and needs surrounding the marketing process. For a comprehensive viewpoint, the patterns Association and Combination as well as Foresight are recommended.

107

Cf. Kurzmann (2008), p. 475 ff.

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Consequences This pattern generates participation of all persons affected, and it creates the necessary competition to achieve reasonable decisions. As advantage, the critical and discursive approach ensures the appreciation of all underlying aspects in the sense of completeness and sufficiency. The disadvantages of this pattern include the extraordinary effort to provide sophisticated means of communication and moderation, and the inherent risk of never-ending and deadlocked discussions.

3.3.6 Change Perspective Problem Marketing strategies are generally oriented to long-term periods of planning, as they are integrated in the diverse corporate divisions, and connected with all parts of the product life cycle.108 As a consequence, marketing activities correspond statically to a certain point of time, and to a particular area of available markets, without being able to adapt dynamically to the different requirements and interests outside the conceptual marketing scope. Additionally, marketing strategies are frequently focused on particular target groups, like for example consumer goods marketing, capital goods marketing, services marketing, or marketing for non-profit organizations. When focusing on a specific target group, other target groups and their requirements are not considered to the extent necessary. This kind of marketing is therefore restricted to a limited perspective of the marketing business, and it cuts off important parts of the economic reality. Problem Discussion

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The perspective of marketing is quite strong influenced by the target structure of the underlying market: On the one hand, there is the production-oriented view of mass marketing which treats all customers as equal by applying the same mixture of marketing instruments for each of them. On the other hand, the marketing-oriented viewpoint of target marketing concentrates its activities and instruments on carefully

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selected customers by considering the individual needs and interests of each customer as something distinctive, and by composing the marketing instruments according to the properties and characteristics of each customer.109 These two paradigms represent the distinction between standardization and individualization, and it illustrates the area of tension in which marketing activities in general are located: A comprehensive view on customer needs, stakeholders and interest groups of the macro environment requires a universal consideration of all persons and opinions within the entirety of rational aspects. At the same time, the individual affectivities of the persons involved in the marketing decision-making process have to be considered appropriately by the chosen marketing methods and instruments. Only the reasonoriented marketing approach allows combining standardization and individualization by integrating the holistic perspective of reason with the specialized perspective of modern target marketing. Reason-oriented marketing enables the dynamic change of perspectives according to the given situational and rational context. Of course, the reasonable flexibility cannot be taken for granted at all. The long-term character of marketing strategies collides with the entrepreneurial necessity of acting in a flexible, dynamic, and creative manner. However, long-range strategies are often necessary to gain flexibility, as they “claim searching channels in which useful alternatives can be found for situational entrepreneurial acting.”110 In a similar way, longrunning strategies channel and control creativity by ensuring “that the found creative solutions are useful in terms of the strategic objectives, and that they are generally feasible within the corporate frame.”111 Insofar, reason-oriented marketing integrates the long-term requirements with the consequences of a dynamically changing economic world by considering the environmental spheres of enterprises as well as their interrelations and interdependencies. Reasonable marketing is therefore an important means to understand the motives and needs of different interest groups within the Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

economic environment.

108

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 144 f.

109

Cf. Cannon/Perreault/McCarthy (2008), p. 34.

110

Becker (2009), p. 145.

111

Becker (2009), p. 146.

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Solution Reason-oriented marketing establishes the systematic integration of the business macro environment by collecting the different needs and interests concerning aspects of society, nature, technology, economy, ethics, moral, education, politics, and law. The reasonable approach considers all different arguments and opinions by changing the perspective systematically, and by assessing and examining the marketing decisionmaking process from each rational viewpoint. Reasonable marketing combines the individual rational affectivities of customers, stakeholders, and interest groups to achieve a holistic and universal view on marketing processes. It takes the long-range demands into consideration, but certainly it appends the situational and context-sensitive issues into a comprehensive marketing concept including a flexible and adaptable set of marketing instruments. Dependencies Changing perspectives requires the awareness of rational needs and interests, and their relationships as well. Therefore, the patterns Perception and Recognition and Association and Combination have to be applied initially. Consequences This pattern leads to integrative and holistic marketing concepts based on a combination of static and dynamic requirements of the marketing business. The main advantage of the pattern is its integrative character, as it ensures that different interests are considered, and as it prevents any interest groups from being discriminated or excluded from the marketing decision-making process. Since the integration of longterm aspects and situational contexts requires considerable efforts, the systematic change of perspectives bears the risk of negative effects on the economic efficiency Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of an enterprise.

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3.3.7 Transition Problem In the marketing practice, the complex relationships between the needs, interests, opinions, and requirements of the affected people lead to transitions in terms of an exchange of information between the different rational channels. However, classic marketing communication takes place especially between the marketers, producers, and the end-consumers, whereas the main objective is to inform customers about products and services, and to provide a positive image of the brand. In fact, the exchange of transitional information related to other stakeholders as well as the interest groups of the macro environment is not established as systematically and serious as it is considered within the customer relationship management. Problem Discussion When discussing the transitional relations of marketing aspects, the influence of the structural combination of marketing instruments within the marketing mix must be considered at first: • The intra-instrumental marketing mix includes the marketing policies concerning offer, distribution, and communication. This approach assumes a sequential planning and proceeding of marketing activities by applying the marketing instruments of the respective policies independently of each other, and successively.112 Because of the separation of concerns, the marketing instruments of each policy level are applied without considering the instruments of the other policies. Insofar, a transition of different rational aspects is difficult. • In contrast, the inter-instrumental marketing mix considers the afore-mentioned

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marketing policies concerning offer, distribution, and communication at the same time by applying the underlying marketing instruments simultaneously, and by utilizing their interrelations and synergy effects.113 This approach en-

112

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 656.

113

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 657.

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ables an exchange of information across marketing activities by using the aspects lying in the intersection of the different marketing policies. The integrated application of marketing instruments is therefore an important prerequisite for a transitional information exchange. Nevertheless, it is not sufficient just to enhance communication between the instruments and the directly involved persons of the marketing process. Rather it is necessary to incorporate the communication and interaction with all participants of the macro environment. Modern trends in holistic marketing practices indicate an increasing relevance of non-economic aspects, such as ethical and moral constraints, or corporate social responsibility. Indeed, socially responsible marketing involves important issues of the macro environment by considering legal and ethical behavior, social responsibility, and sustainability in terms of future impacts.114 But in the marketing practice these approaches are merely intended to complement and intensify the classic marketing concepts, rather than being integrated as conceptual part of the marketing process. Solution The support of transitions between rational needs, requirements, and constraints of the macro environment must be established by a communication platform for the exchange of information among the marketing participants. Therefore, communication channels have to be provided to connect the parties affected by marketing activities, whereas a central portal must ensure that all rational requirements are recognized and considered properly. The objective must be to enable a dialog in order to exchange arguments and opinions rather than just to influence and manipulate customers. Dependencies Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

The management of transitions between marketing aspects is based on the awareness of all different needs and interests, and their relationships. Therefore the patterns Perception and Recognition as well as Association and Combination are mandatory before enabling transitions. In practice, the patterns Change Perspective and Transi-

114

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 634 ff.

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tion should be applied jointly, as they complement each other regarding the interconnections of marketing activities. Consequences The integration of a communication platform as systematic part of the marketing process institutionalizes the exchange of information, arguments, requirements, needs, and interests. The major advantage is the resulting dialog, and as a consequence the mutual appreciating and understanding of other opinions. Unfavorable aspects are the effort for coordination and moderation, as well as the complexity of the emerging communication network according to the multitude of different rational facets.

3.3.8 Justice Problem The objectives of marketing strategies are primarily oriented to economic aspects and key figures. Indeed, the conditions and constraints of the macro environment are commonly known, and they are partially considered in highly specialized marketing types. However, the strategic orientation of marketing activities is in practice always derived from the economic chances of success, namely the profit. Even though modern marketing concepts are additionally focused on the customer needs and wants, all other aspects and interest groups of the macro environment do not play a vital role in the marketing decision-making process. Overall, the economic profit and the benefit for the end-user are generally addressed, but not the ecological, demographic, and political-legal consequences.

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Problem Discussion One of the most important economic principles is in general the competitiveness of an enterprise, naturally associated with corresponding sales revenues and profit margins. The dominating marketing targets are therefore market share, market penetration, price positioning, image and publicity, range of reachable target customers, and

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customer satisfaction as well as customer loyalty.115 These key aspects show that marketing strategies are mainly determined by those aspects that influence the economic results of an enterprise. Producers and marketers therefore segment the markets according to a specific group of target customers promising economic success in terms of profit. In other words, if a target group of potential buyers is big enough to achieve a suitable profit margin, then a company will produce the demanded goods accordingly. And this principle applies regardless of violations in respect of ethical, social, and ecological interests and constraints, because in general these interests do not have a crucial influence on the profit. For example, the consumption as well the waste of ecological resources does not cause any costs, and even a violation of the sustainability principle does not have a negative impact on the sales revenues. In fact, there is no incentive for the economy to align marketing activities to the needs and requirements according to other aspects of the macro environment than the economic issues. Of course, modern marketing trends show that at least the consciousness of ethical, social, and ecological aspects has increased over the past few years. New marketing methods have been developed to support the selection process of marketing strategies. As an example, a cross-impact analysis examines and evaluates the constraints and conditions of the macro environment, including economic, political-legal, technologic, and demographic aspects. Though, the definition of the strategic direction of marketing activities considers primarily the prospects of profitability as well as the relative competitiveness in the respective market.116 Even the orientation of marketing activities according to the customer satisfaction, which is generally one of the key drivers of marketing, is based on economic considerations. Indeed, the development process of a product is evaluated in view of its

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value for the customer. This conceptual approach covers therefore several levels within a customer-value hierarchy, including the benefit of the core product as well as the basic, expected, augmented, and potential product.117 This sophisticated con-

115

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 65 ff.

116

Cf. Becker (2009), p. 411 f.

117

Cf. Kotler/Keller (2009), p. 318.

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cept examines explicitly the benefit for the end-user. On the other hand, a concept to examine the potential impacts of a product to its macro environment is not established and integrated in the classic marketing business. As a consequence, reason-oriented marketing has to ensure justice insofar as all rational aspects of the macro environment have to be considered equally with the same weighting, without excluding any of them. Justice of marketing strategies means to involve the requirements and constraints of the environmental spheres inherently in the process of design, development, and distribution of products. Reasonable marketing provides a holistic view on the rational totality of needs and interests, and it forces the market players to align their decisions according to the entirety of demands and claims rather than to singular and isolated target groups. Solution The first step to establish justice in the field of marketing is to ensure completeness and integrity of the environmental needs and interests, and to prevent any of the interest groups from being suppressed. It is therefore an essential necessity to refuse generalizations, and to reject the claim of individual voices to interfere other arguments and interests. Reason-oriented justice in marketing concepts requires attention toward the macro environment, and a critical attitude toward majorities and opinion leaders. Dependencies Justice in the field of marketing business depends entirely on the awareness of the macro environment, so that the application of the patterns Perception and Recognition as well as Association and Combination is a compulsory precondition. In addition, the pattern Foresight considers the consequences of marketing decisions, and Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

enhances therefore the willingness to gain a holistic and comprehensive perspective on the rational totality. Moreover, the pattern Criticism and Discourse enables the necessary critical point of view to prevent unfair marketing decisions.

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Consequences Reason-oriented marketing provides equality and fairness concerning the different demands and requirements of the macro environment. The resulting advantage is a reasonable dealing with environmental resources, above all ecologic, ethical, social, and moral aspects. Justice in the marketing decision-making process leads to products that are acceptable to all stakeholders and interest groups. The disadvantage is that reasonable marketing according to justice results mainly in long-term effects, whereas the benefits of the economic short-time profits and sales revenues rather decrease.

3.3.9 Cooperation and Participation Problem The cooperation of producers and marketers is actually organized concerning the communication and distribution channels, and this includes the participating companies of the supply chain, for example the suppliers, and the distributors. However, the cooperation in these cases is restricted to the trade and distribution partners. The interest groups of the macro environment and the corresponding requirements concerning ethical, social, and ecological constraints are not considered at all. Even the endusers, customers, and consumers are regarded as initiators of consumption rather than participants of the product life cycle. Problem Discussion The production and distribution processes are in general embedded into a complex network of participating companies. Based on the value chain118, the modern concept of supply chain management integrates the different activities along the supply chain, Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

including the contributing enterprises. The internal supply chain covers the valueadded functions of the internal organization inside a company, whereas the integrated supply chain involves the external partners across the corporate boundaries. The integrated supply chain comprises a complex network of suppliers, producer, distribu-

118

Cf. Porter (2000), p. 63 ff.

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tion partners, distribution channels, and customers.119 The integrated network of the supply chain management therefore plays an important role in the classic marketing concepts concerning the distribution policy. Nevertheless, the concept of supply chain management does not consider the cooperation and communication with the interest groups and stakeholders of the macro environment. At least, an integrative view on marketing management and supply chain management, and the embedding of these processes within the environmental spheres of the macro environment are missing so far. Another modern form of cooperation and communication covers the relationship between industry and trade. The concept of efficient consumer response aims at optimizing the exchange of goods between producers, distributors, and dealers in order to improve and accelerate the responses to customer demands, and to reduce costs along the elements of the supply chain.120 Similar to the concept of the supply chain management, the efficient consumer response concept builds a network of companies contributing to the distribution of goods, whereas efficient consumer response mainly covers the distribution and sales process on the demand-side toward the customer.121 And again, the stakeholders and interest groups of the macro environment are not yet considered appropriately, although the planning and control of distribution channels is an important aspect of the classic marketing concepts. The improvement of relationships within the supply and distribution channels requires a reason-oriented perspective of marketing insofar as the interactions with the macro environment have to be considered, and the cooperation and participation of the interest groups and stakeholders need to be established as part of the marketing process.

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Solution The cooperation with the interest groups of the macro environment must be integrated into the multiple communication and distribution channels of the marketing

119

Cf. Werner (2008), p. 7.

120

Cf. Becker/Uhr/Vering (2000), p. 187 f.

121

Cf. Meffert/Burmann/Kirchgeorg (2008), p. 603 f.

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business. This requires openness toward different arguments, and the willingness to allow criticism in order to gain the most reasonable solution. Like the suppliers, distributors, and merchants of the supply chain, the environmental interest groups should be considered as partners and generators of ideas rather than opponents. They must be incorporated in the marketing process by actively using their experience and knowledge to optimize processes, and to develop products that reflect the requirements, needs, and interests of the persons involved. Dependencies Cooperation and participation of diverse interest groups requires the implementation of the patterns Perception and Recognition, and Association and Combination. In addition, the ability to Change Perspective must be established to accept and integrate new and different viewpoints. A mandatory prerequisite is also the pattern Justice to prepare the fundamental attitude of fairness, and to enable collaboration in terms of teamwork. Consequences The cooperation between the participants of the marketing process, and especially between the involved companies, stakeholders, and interest groups of the distribution process, generates a holistic and far-sighted perspective which is independent from corporate boundaries and interfaces between the contributing enterprises and interest groups. The main advantage is the resulting participation and interaction concerning the environmental spheres of enterprises. The disadvantages are the higher efforts for the interrelated communication, and the danger of slowing down the marketing deci-

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sion-making process.

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4 Summary and Critical Comments The marketing activities of the business world are nowadays embedded in a complex world characterized by a multitude of interdependencies and interrelations between different concepts, ideas, interests, opinions, and requirements. The modern global world, and in particular the economic world of marketing, is a universe of plurality, and a complex network of interconnections. The dynamic character of the global world is primarily determined by transitions between systems of the reality, exceeding regional and local boundaries, and building a coherent cluster rather than isolated and separated components.122 Hitherto, economic systems, and above all marketing strategies, strive to separate concerns in order to control the whole. The development of autonomous and stand-alone marketing concepts in the past reflects this paradigm. To cope with the global and networked conditions of the presence, suitable strategies have to be designed that are able to manage the requirements of transitional relationships. The concepts of transverse reason and the open society seem to be convenient to handle the diversity of the modern marketing business. Transverse reason integrates the properties of reason and rationality to • consider relationships and interdependencies between rational arguments, • involve long-term impacts and prospective consequences of decisions, • ensure fairness and justice in order to treat all interest groups equally, • enable transitions between different viewpoints, • act dynamically according to varying situational contexts, • make reasonable decisions that are acceptable to all persons involved. The concept of transverse reason acts as integrator insofar as it combines the classic Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

marketing concepts with the requirements of the stakeholders, and the needs and constraints of the interest groups representing the business macro environment. Transversal reason “allows us to perceive and pursue different point of views, as well

122

Cf. Welsch (1996), p. 774.

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as not to perish in the diversity of options, but to recognize penultimate adjustments as more livable than ultimate establishments.”123 The concept of the open society complements the transverse reason by enhancing the core attitudes of reason and rationality to • establish participation of stakeholders and interest groups in a competitive manner, • understand and utilize the principle of rationality according to situational contexts, • claim and promote the responsibility and engagement of the individual. The combination of transverse reason and the open society, and the conceptual transfer to the field of marketing leads to the concept of reason-oriented marketing. Reason-oriented marketing unifies the conceptual aspects concerning the recognition of rational interrelations, the foresight of impacts and consequences, the prevention of generalizations, the provision of communication platforms to support transitions, the consideration of contextual situations, the competitive striving for participation of the interest groups and stakeholders, and the individual responsibility and initiative. The generic application of the afore-mentioned conceptual aspects of reasonable marketing is provided by methodical patterns representing solutions to selected aspects of the marketing process. The methodical patterns of the reason-oriented marketing concept constitute generic blueprints for sample solutions that can be combined with each other, and which can be systematically arranged in a methodical way of proceeding to design a strategic implementation of reasonable thinking within the marketing process. The patterns of reason-oriented marketing consider particularly the relationships and interactions between the marketing processes and the stake-

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holders and interest groups of the environmental spheres. The patterns cover in detail • the awareness and consciousness of rational needs, interests, and requirements of the macro environment by analyzing rational aspects and constraints,

123

Welsch (1996), p. 948.

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• the association and combination of different rational aspects to form a holistic viewpoint on the totality of arguments and opinions by building relationships according to the underlying marketing instruments, • the foresight in terms of future impacts and consequences of marketing decisions by establishing forecasts and trends in the strategic planning of marketing activities, • the principles of criticism and discourse to enable a critical dialog between the involved interest groups by providing bidirectional communication and interaction channels as inherent parts of the marketing strategy, • the ability to change perspectives within the entirety of rational aspects by evaluating the decision-making process of marketing activities from various rational viewpoints, • the management of transitions between the core marketing processes and the interest groups of the environmental spheres by providing a dialog-oriented communication portal for the exchange of information, rational arguments and opinions, • the justice of decisions and procedures within the marketing process to ensure fairness and appreciation of different interests and arguments by preventing generalizations and the risk of being excluded from the decision-making process of marketing, • the cooperation and participation between the participants of the marketing activities and the interest groups of the surrounding macro environment by incorporating the environmental interest groups as partners along the marketing process chain. Copyright © 2012. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Overall, the reason-oriented marketing approach enables the involved parties in the field of marketing to contribute their needs and interests to the marketing process, and to develop reasonable products that consider the requirements of the stakeholders as well as the constraints and conditions of the macro environment. Of course, the generic concept of reason-oriented marketing is currently based on the goodwill of the persons involved in the marketing process. The quality of its imple-

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mentation depends on the willingness and openness of the responsible persons to transform the profit-oriented viewpoint of the classic marketing to the reasonoriented perspective of the marketing concept at hand. On the other hand, there is no conflict of interests between the classic view and the modern concept, for the reasonoriented marketing is the more comprehensive and integrative concept which unifies the conventional marketing procedures with the viewpoints of the business macro environment in order to generate a holistic perspective on the marketing business. In fact, reason-oriented marketing is not designed to replace traditional marketing strategies and concepts, but rather to integrate them into a universal view of marketing. However, the reason-oriented marketing approach requires a careful shift from the isolated and separated view of classic marketing activities to the global perspective of interrelated and interdependent networks of the marketing environment. The conceptual foundation of reason-oriented marketing is the global economic world of interconnections rather than strictly segmented and limited target markets. Nevertheless, the required change of consciousness will indeed occur only if violations of the constraints and rules of the environmental spheres do have a negative impact on the economic profit. Insofar, the economic profit seems to remain the determining factor of the marketing business. The concept of reason-oriented marketing, however, widens the perspective of marketing to greater awareness and responsibility toward our

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future.

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schaftlichen Erkenntnis, Tübingen. Popper, K. R. (2010): Alles Leben ist Problemlösen. Über Erkenntnis, Geschichte und Politik, München. Porter, M. E. (2000): Wettbewerbsvorteile (Competitive Advantage). Spitzenleistungen erreichen und behaupten, Frankfurt/Main.

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Rüegg-Stürm, J. (2003): Das neue St. Galler Management-Modell. Grundkategorien einer integrierten Managementlehre. Der HSG-Ansatz, Bern. Schnädelbach, H. (2007): Vernunft, Stuttgart. Schwegler, R. (2008): Moralisches Handeln von Unternehmen. Eine Weiterentwicklung des neuen St. Galler Management-Modells und der Ökonomischen Ethik, Wiesbaden. Smith, A. (1985): Theorie der ethischen Gefühle, Hamburg (quoted according to Ulrich [2008]). Ulrich, P. (2008): Integrative Wirtschaftsethik. Grundlagen einer lebensdienlichen Ökonomie, Bern. Welsch, W. (1996): Vernunft. Die zeitgenössische Vernunftkritik und das Konzept der transversalen Vernunft, Frankfurt am Main. Werner, H. (2008): Supply Chain Management. Grundlagen, Strategien, Instrumente

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und Controlling, Wiesbaden.

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Author’s Profile

Martin Masuch, born in 1969 in Germany, completed a degree course in Computer Science at the University of Applied Sciences in Rosenheim and finished a master’s degree programme in Business Administration at the AKAD University of Applied Sciences in Stuttgart. He is working as an IT consultant at Capgemini in Munich. The current book is based on the author’s research for his master thesis, which he completed successfully in 2011 to receive the degree of Master of Arts in business administration, specialized in marketing management. The author combines the strategies, concepts, and methods of modern marketing management with philosophical aspects of economic ethics to develop a generic, pattern-based approach for the de-

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sign of reasonable marketing strategies and concepts.

Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and

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Masuch, Martin. Reason-Oriented Marketing: A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and Services : A Generic Marketing Approach for reasonable Products and