Re-Envisioning and Restructuring Blended Learning for Underprivileged Communities 2020052943, 2020052944, 9781799869405, 9781799869412, 9781799869429, 9781799869436

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Re-Envisioning and Restructuring Blended Learning for Underprivileged Communities Chantelle Bosch North-West University, South Africa Dorothy Joy Laubscher North-West University, South Africa

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Lydia Kyei-Blankson Illinois State University, USA

A volume in the Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bosch, Chantelle, 1984- editor. | Laubscher, Dorothy, 1972- editor. | Kyei-Blankson, Lydia, editor. Title: Re-envisioning and restructuring blended learning for underprivileged communities / Chantelle Bosch, Dorothy Laubscher, and Lydia Kyei-Blankson, editors. Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “With the recent outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers and educators have been made even more aware of the need for a paradigm shift in education and this book offers research to investigate blended learning as opposed to fully online learning or traditional face-to-face teaching and highlights the potential to provide better educational solutions in challenging contexts”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020052943 (print) | LCCN 2020052944 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799869405 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799869412 (paperback) | ISBN 9781799869429 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Blended learning--Africa, Southern--Case studies. | People with social disabilities--Education--Africa, Soutern--Case studies. | Web-based instruction--Africa, Southern--Case studies. | Educational equalization--Africa, Southern--Case studies. Classification: LCC LB1028.5 .R297 2021 (print) | LCC LB1028.5 (ebook) | DDC 371.39/4--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020052943 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020052944

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This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) (ISSN: 2326-8905; eISSN: 2326-8913)

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Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series Lawrence A. Tomei Robert Morris University, USA

ISSN:2326-8905 EISSN:2326-8913 Mission Education has undergone, and continues to undergo, immense changes in the way it is enacted and distributed to both child and adult learners. In modern education, the traditional classroom learning experience has evolved to include technological resources and to provide online classroom opportunities to students of all ages regardless of their geographical locations. From distance education, Massive-Open-Online-Courses (MOOCs), and electronic tablets in the classroom, technology is now an integral part of learning and is also affecting the way educators communicate information to students. The Advances in Educational Technologies & Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series explores new research and theories for facilitating learning and improving educational performance utilizing technological processes and resources. The series examines technologies that can be integrated into K-12 classrooms to improve skills and learning abilities in all subjects including STEM education and language learning. Additionally, it studies the emergence of fully online classrooms for young and adult learners alike, and the communication and accountability challenges that can arise. Trending topics that are covered include adaptive learning, game-based learning, virtual school environments, and social media effects. School administrators, educators, academicians, researchers, and students will find this series to be an excellent resource for the effective design and implementation of learning technologies in their classes.

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Coverage • Instructional Design Models • E-Learning • Curriculum Development • Digital Divide in Education • Social Media Efects on Education • Adaptive Learning • Online Media in Classrooms • Web 2.0 and Education • K-12 Educational Technologies • Classroom Response Systems

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Leading Schools With Social, Emotional, and Academic Development (SEAD) Tara Madden-Dent (Sierra Nevada University, USA) and Deborah Oliver (National University, USA & Mindful SEAD, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 336pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799867289) • US $195.00 Simulation and Game-Based Learning in Emergency and Disaster Management Nicole K. Drumhiller (American Public University System, USA) Terri L. Wilkin (American Public University System, USA) and Karen V. Srba (Saint Francis University, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 290pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799840879) • US $195.00 Applications of Work Integrated Learning Among Gen Z and Y Students Trevor Gerhardt (University of West London, UK) and Paulette J. Annon (London School of Economics, UK) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 345pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799864400) • US $215.00 Career Ready Education Through Experiential Learning Karen Rasmussen (University of West Florida, USA) Pamela Northrup (University of West Florida, USA) and Robin Colson (University of West Florida, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 305pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799819288) • US $195.00 Practical Perspectives on Educational Theory and Game Development Fabio Perez Marzullo (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 300pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799850212) • US $185.00 Advancing the Power of Learning Analytics and Big Data in Education Ana Azevedo (CEOS:PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal) José Manuel Azevedo (CEOS:PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal) James Onohuome Uhomoibhi (Ulster University, UK) and Ebba Ossiannilsson (International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), Norway & European Distance and e-Learning Network (EDEN), UK & Swedish Association for Distance Education (SADE), Sweden) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 296pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799871033) • US $195.00

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Developing Mathematical Literacy in the Context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution Edgar Oliver Cardoso Espinosa (Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ESCA Santo Tomas, Mexico) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 236pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799838685) • US $195.00

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Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators............................................................................................ 1 Chantelle Bosch, North-West University, South Africa Chapter 2 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities: The Need for Policy Implementation............................................................................. 24 Michael Casparus Laubscher, North-West University, South Africa Natasha Ravyse, North-West University, South Africa Chapter 3 ICTs Used Efectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities: Primary Schools in Ekurhuleni South District............................................................... 44 Puseletso Kekana, University of South Africa, South Africa Leila Goosen, University of South Africa, South Africa

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Chapter 4 Re-Envisioning and Restructuring E-Learning Through Engagement With Underprivileged Communities: The Impact of Efectively Using ICTs in Classrooms.................................................... 66 Nomvula J. Ndhlovu, University of South Africa, South Africa Leila Goosen, University of South Africa, South Africa Chapter 5 A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education: The Design of an Intervention Tool for Mathematics Teachers......................................................................................... 88 Dorothy Joy Laubscher, North-West University, South Africa A. Seugnet Blignaut, North-West University, South Africa Hercules D. Nieuwoudt, North-West University, South Africa Chapter 6 Supporting EFL Science Students Through a Multilingual Approach to Blended Learning.............. 109 Erasmos Charamba, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa





Chapter 7 Content Developers as Stakeholders in the Blended Learning Ecosystem: The Virtual Institute for Afrikaans Language Education Portal as a Case Study....................................................................... 124 Adri Breed, North-West University, South Africa Nadine Fouché, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa Nina Brink, North-West University, South Africa Marlie Coetzee, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa Cecilia Erasmus, St. David’s Marist Inanda, South Africa Sophia Kapp, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa Sulene Pilon, University of Pretoria, South Africa Roné Wierenga, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa & North-West University, South Africa Gerhard van Huyssteen, North-West University, South Africa Chapter 8 Exploring the Use of Universal Design for Learning to Support In-Service Teachers in the Design of Socially-Just Blended Teaching Practices....................................................................................... 143 Frederic Fovet, Royal Roads University, Canada Chapter 9 Integrating Technology to Support Learners With Barriers to Learning in the Rural Classroom...... 165 Marinda Neethling, North-West University, South Africa Susan Greyling, North-West University, South Africa Benita Taylor, North-West University, South Africa Chapter 10 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners Through the Distance Education Mode of Learning in Ghana................................................................................................ 185 Isaac Kof Biney, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana

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Chapter 11 Sinking or Swimming? The Role of Moodle in Promoting Self-Directed Learning at the University of Eswatini.......................................................................................................................... 204 Selloane Pitikoe, University of Eswatini, Eswatini Fritz Ngale Ilongo, University of Eswatini, Eswatini Happiness Mavimbela, University of Eswatini, Eswatini Chapter 12 Arrangements for Online Engagements of Distance Learners in the Wake of the COVID-19 Pandemic.............................................................................................................................................. 225 Samuel Amponsah, University of Ghana, Ghana Simon-Peter Kafui Aheto, University of Ghana, Ghana Gideon Mensah Anapey, University of Ghana, Ghana Olivia Oatf Kwapong, University of Ghana, Ghana



Chapter 13 Investigating the Readiness of a Developing Country to Adopt Blended Learning as a Pedagogical Approach During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case for the Great Zimbabwe University................. 240 Tobias Marevesa, Philosophy and Religious Studies Department, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Esther Mavengano, English and Media Studies Department, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, Culture and Heritage Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Chapter 14 Principles and Guidelines for Establishing Communities of Inquiry in Blended Learning to Broaden Student Participation............................................................................................................. 254 Jessica Pool, North-West University, South Africa Adri Du Toit, North-West University, South Africa Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 274 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 321

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Index.................................................................................................................................................... 328

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators............................................................................................ 1 Chantelle Bosch, North-West University, South Africa The focus for blended learning in education has grown immensely in the last decade. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 ignited the need to transform the traditional face-to-face classroom setting to online and blended learning environments. These transitions can be a daunting and challenging task, especially in underprivileged communities where resources are few and facilitators and institutions are not well-equipped to make the change. This chapter provides a theoretical overview of blended learning that focusses on defning blended learning, benefts and challenges of blended learning, and blended learning models. The chapter concludes by presenting “a blended learning toolbox” that can be used to assist facilitators in the design process of blended learning environments.

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Chapter 2 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities: The Need for Policy Implementation............................................................................. 24 Michael Casparus Laubscher, North-West University, South Africa Natasha Ravyse, North-West University, South Africa Blended learning enhances education and ofers efective teaching and learning. Its success is welldocumented, as well as the criticism regarding quality assurance in blended learning. Quality assurance (QA) is an invaluable aspect of teaching and learning and has a rightful position in higher education. QA strives to ensure a standard of teaching and learning which is relevant, efective, and resourceful, and it occurs within an established framework. Research suggests that the implementation of an efective QA framework is a complex matter, with great emphasis on context. Such a framework contains various elements which are often denoted by benchmarking. This chapter highlights the implementation of sustainable and efective policies at an institutional level as one such element. Meaningful collaboration between institutions will lead to greater success in the implementation of an efective QA framework. Institutions in underprivileged communities fnd this implementation challenging, but there are some encouraging examples of success and progress.

 



Chapter 3 ICTs Used Efectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities: Primary Schools in Ekurhuleni South District............................................................... 44 Puseletso Kekana, University of South Africa, South Africa Leila Goosen, University of South Africa, South Africa The purpose of this chapter was to investigate how efectively information and communication technologies (ICTs) were used at primary schools in the Ekurhuleni South district of Gauteng Province, South Africa for re-envisioning and restructuring e-schooling in underprivileged communities. Governments and schools made huge investments, integrating ICTs and providing computer-based education, to support teaching and learning. There have been numerous initiatives, which have been endorsed by national and international bodies worldwide. The main aim of all ICT-based initiatives was to enhance the quality of education and prepare learners for the emerging digital world. Numerous studies across the world have provided impressive outcomes for the use of ICTs in schools, and more evidence is also emerging regarding the sustainability of ICT transformation in schools. There has also been abundant literature, which emphasized the need for teachers to change their beliefs about and perceptions of ICTs in order to realize the full potential. Chapter 4 Re-Envisioning and Restructuring E-Learning Through Engagement With Underprivileged Communities: The Impact of Efectively Using ICTs in Classrooms.................................................... 66 Nomvula J. Ndhlovu, University of South Africa, South Africa Leila Goosen, University of South Africa, South Africa

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The purpose of this study was answering questions regarding the impact of efectively using information and communication technologies (ICTs) in classrooms on re-envisioning and restructuring e-learning through engagement with schools in underprivileged communities. Its importance is justifed regarding positioning disrupted pupils’ education towards the development agenda in South Africa. It draws on the latest fndings and is located within relevant conceptual/theoretical frameworks on ICTs for teaching and learning. In quantitative aspects of the research design, issues of reliability and validity were considered, while in qualitative aspects, issues of dependability and interpretation were important. Results presented showed that laptops, smartboards, projectors, cell phones, desktops, printers, and iPads were used efectively in classrooms. A discussion of the results suggests solutions and making recommendations that are applicable and useful. In conclusion, ICTs had a positive impact on pupils’ education, by helping them to concentrate and understand difcult concepts. Chapter 5 A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education: The Design of an Intervention Tool for Mathematics Teachers......................................................................................... 88 Dorothy Joy Laubscher, North-West University, South Africa A. Seugnet Blignaut, North-West University, South Africa Hercules D. Nieuwoudt, North-West University, South Africa Persistent poor results in mathematics can be ascribed to the content being taught so that it is removed from reality. This chapter reports on the design of a mobile application based on the realistic mathematics education approach. A purposeful stratifed sample yielded participants from a group of in-service teachers enrolled for a post-graduate degree in mathematics education. A qualitative design-based research method



was followed. The research produced a mobile application which serves as an intervention tool for practicing mathematics teachers to make the content more relevant and realistic. Various design principles were also formulated that could assist in future mobile app design projects. The mobile application can be used in a blended learning context, especially in underprivileged communities since accessibility to mobile devices is common. The availability of the app for free on Google Play store has the potential to assist mathematics teachers and learners from any context to improve their achievement in mathematics. Chapter 6 Supporting EFL Science Students Through a Multilingual Approach to Blended Learning.............. 109 Erasmos Charamba, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Throughout the history of mankind, language has been used as a tool of ascendance and colonisation to consolidate power and create governable subjects. In this way, the coloniser’s language became the colonised country’s ofcial language. Upon attaining political independence, several of these nation-states embarked on educational reforms by revising their curricula in the name of ‘decolonising education’. A closer look at these countries’ curricula shows they are still largely Eurocentric following the monolingual ideology of ‘one nation, one language’ with foreign languages being the lingua franca for these multilingual societies despite this approach being singled out as the major cause of academic underachievement in most countries. This chapter investigates the available technological approaches to support the teaching of science to English foreign language (EFL) students who are taught through a language diferent from their home language.

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Chapter 7 Content Developers as Stakeholders in the Blended Learning Ecosystem: The Virtual Institute for Afrikaans Language Education Portal as a Case Study....................................................................... 124 Adri Breed, North-West University, South Africa Nadine Fouché, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa Nina Brink, North-West University, South Africa Marlie Coetzee, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa Cecilia Erasmus, St. David’s Marist Inanda, South Africa Sophia Kapp, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa Sulene Pilon, University of Pretoria, South Africa Roné Wierenga, Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa & North-West University, South Africa Gerhard van Huyssteen, North-West University, South Africa Within the blended learning environment, it is important to consolidate expert content and pedagogy inside and outside the classroom. Subject experts who serve as content developers play a vital role by contributing quality controlled subject content covered by the curriculum, which can be made available to students on digital platforms. However, in developing countries and in communities where resources are limited, good and complementary digital content may not be accessible to all learners. Teachers are often left to their own devices to develop teaching content. When considering Afrikaans language teaching in South Africa specifcally, there is a great need within the language community for learning and teaching support. This chapter reports on the role that the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA) is playing as a content provider of quality Afrikaans linguistic material in the blended learning environment. The aim is to present VivA as a case study or prototype of an independent organisation acting as a key stakeholder in the blended learning ecosystem.



Chapter 8 Exploring the Use of Universal Design for Learning to Support In-Service Teachers in the Design of Socially-Just Blended Teaching Practices....................................................................................... 143 Frederic Fovet, Royal Roads University, Canada This chapter examines the pivot to online and bended learning which occurred during the COVID health crisis and highlights how blended learning has emerged by far as the most popular and sustainable delivery option. The COVID pivot has also demonstrated, however, that blended learning too often ignores social inequities, and as a result allows them to become exacerbated. The chapter examines ways to support K-12 teachers as they seek to support social justice objectives within blended learning environments and suggests that universal design for learning can serve as a user-friendly and hands-on framework to address learner diversity in these innovative hybrid learning environments. The chapter further explores the repercussions this refection has in relation to pre-service teacher training, in-service professional development, and leadership culture. Chapter 9 Integrating Technology to Support Learners With Barriers to Learning in the Rural Classroom...... 165 Marinda Neethling, North-West University, South Africa Susan Greyling, North-West University, South Africa Benita Taylor, North-West University, South Africa To reduce extended academic delays and disruptions, in-service teachers (hereafter teachers) enrolled for an online BEd Honours Learner Support programme had to re-think the integration of technology when supporting a learner with a barrier to learning in their classrooms. The teachers, of whom a few are educators in rural schools, had to complete a practical paper-based portfolio as a formative assessment. The portfolio expected the teacher to identify a learner with a learning barrier and develop a support plan over six months. With the schools closed, the portfolio in its original form became a challenge since the teachers could not have face-to-face interaction and interventions with their learners.

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Chapter 10 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners Through the Distance Education Mode of Learning in Ghana................................................................................................ 185 Isaac Kof Biney, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana Higher education institutions (HEIs) are witnessing increasing participation of non-traditional learners, learning by distance education (DE) mode. Blended learning (BL) strategy is adapted to create opportunities for adult learners to improve knowledge, skills, and intellectual capacities to impact, among others, productivity at workplace. This chapter explores the use of technology to conceptualize BL and selfdirected learning (SDL). It discussed blended learning as practiced in the global north and the global south. It examined SDL and focused attention on blended learning as practiced in HEIs, using University of Ghana as a case study. It identifed issues involved in blended learning and mapped up solutions in revitalizing self-directed learning culture among the young adults in Ghana. The chapter concludes that the state-of-the-art computer laboratories which power the Sakai LMS should be refurbished and retooled to deepen BL and SDL culture among adult learners in Ghana.



Chapter 11 Sinking or Swimming? The Role of Moodle in Promoting Self-Directed Learning at the University of Eswatini.......................................................................................................................... 204 Selloane Pitikoe, University of Eswatini, Eswatini Fritz Ngale Ilongo, University of Eswatini, Eswatini Happiness Mavimbela, University of Eswatini, Eswatini This chapter presents the fndings of a recent study conducted on the adult learners of the University of Eswatini (UNESWA) that explored how Moodle enhanced self-directed learning among the adult learners and how these adult learners mastered the content using the Moodle platform. It was found that while some learners excelled in using the platform, others lacked the technological skills to manoeuvre the platform. Also, participants lamented that the lecturers did not post material Moodle. Notably, Moodle enabled independent learning for those learners who were employed. The following conclusions were made: 1) lecturers need to post more material on Moodle, 2) refresher videos to keep learners abreast with Moodle should be made, and 3) periodic institutional assessment on the uptake of Moodle should be done. Chapter 12 Arrangements for Online Engagements of Distance Learners in the Wake of the COVID-19 Pandemic.............................................................................................................................................. 225 Samuel Amponsah, University of Ghana, Ghana Simon-Peter Kafui Aheto, University of Ghana, Ghana Gideon Mensah Anapey, University of Ghana, Ghana Olivia Oatf Kwapong, University of Ghana, Ghana

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The University of Ghana Distance Education Programme was not spared from the disruptions brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. Management of the Department needed to make a radical move to shift from its hybrid system of delivery to a full-fedged online delivery. In spite of the limited time for this move, a lot of creative planning had to go into this, which led to a virtual training of 340 tutors, through four modules, to prepare them adequately for the task. Aside from assessing the planning and the virtual training aforementioned, this refective paper also delves into other important issues such as the rolling out of a virtual/online academic and counselling support and architecture for monitoring of all the 228 courses that were moved onto the online space. This paper has implications for both policy and institutions that might be faced with similar circumstances, and it makes suggestions for exploration of other useful tools for delivery and monitoring that would contribute to better online engagements. Chapter 13 Investigating the Readiness of a Developing Country to Adopt Blended Learning as a Pedagogical Approach During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case for the Great Zimbabwe University................. 240 Tobias Marevesa, Philosophy and Religious Studies Department, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Esther Mavengano, English and Media Studies Department, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, Culture and Heritage Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Face-to-face as a model of instruction is most preferred by instructors in Zimbabwe and particularly those at Great Zimbabwe University. Lecturers at this institution feel more comfortable and confdent delivering their content through lectures. Therefore, the transformation from face-to-face instruction to



blended learning is a challenge that requires serious academic conversations. Knowles’ adult learning theory is utilised in this study to interrogate the preparedness and readiness of both staf and students at the Great Zimbabwe University to pave the way for a pedagogical shift from face-to-face instruction to blended learning in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. The major contention in this study is that the conception of blended learning and its didactical and pedagogical approach is still a problematic transition for instructors at the Great Zimbabwe University. It was concluded that while this may be the case, blended learning could still be a panacea to the problems of the outbreak of coronavirus disease. Chapter 14 Principles and Guidelines for Establishing Communities of Inquiry in Blended Learning to Broaden Student Participation............................................................................................................. 254 Jessica Pool, North-West University, South Africa Adri Du Toit, North-West University, South Africa Blended learning provides possibilities for redesigning courses to be more inclusive and to accommodate diverse student learning needs. Various factors, including socio-economic inequalities and the digital divide, hinder students in higher education from experiencing the full potential benefts of blended learning. Events around the COVID-19 outbreak required that educational programs be ofered online or in a blended mode, ensuring the continuation of educational programs. The community of inquiry (CoI) framework is a valid instrument to measure quality of online learning focusing on four important presences that contribute to quality learning. It can therefore be used by lecturers to (re)design and evaluate efective blended learning environments. The study focused on developing practical guidelines with applicable examples for establishing and sustaining CoI in blended learning to include more students with diverse access to resources. In addition, overarching recommendations for amelioration of the digital divide of students in blended learning were made. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 274 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 321

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Index.................................................................................................................................................... 328

xiv

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Preface

The educational arena is constantly faced with new challenges, one of which has been to ensure the realisation of continuous teaching and learning, despite the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. This publication on blended learning examines the importance of re-envisioning and restructuring existing and new blended courses for underprivileged communities. Researchers and educators have all been faced with the need to see teaching and learning from a new perspective. Aspects of education that were previously taken for granted such as face-to-face contact were suddenly no longer viable. Although blended learning has been well-researched, literature relating to blended learning in underprivileged and challenging contexts is sparse. The central theme of this publication is the implementation of blended learning in different underprivileged contexts. Some of the challenges that are a reality in the implementation of blended learning in underprivileged contexts include financial and time constraints; limited physical capacity at institutions; accessibility and connectivity issues; the lack of suitable devices; affordability and facilitators’ and learners’ technological expertise. Consequently, the chapters are grouped thematically along two lines: 1) ensuring guidance and quality assurance in blended learning design (Chapters 1 and 2); and 2) restructuring blended learning for different target audiences. Theme 1 centres around two chapters, firstly a theoretical chapter (Chapter 1) that provides a practical toolbox which can assist in the design of blended learning and secondly, a chapter (Chapter 2) that underlines the importance of quality assurance in blended learning design. Theme 2 is further sub-divided into three levels of education, namely school based learning (Chapters 3 and 4), in-service teacher training (Chapters 5, 6 7, 8, and 9) and higher education (Chapters 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14). Chapters 3 and 4 present empirical research with regard to the effective use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in e-learning and e-schooling in primary schools. The chapters that are relevant to in-service teachers are sub-divided into research that pertains to blended learning implementation in specific content areas (Chapters 5, 6, and 7) and the remaining two chapters refer to addressing social inequalities and special needs in education (Chapters 8 and 9). In the higher education arena, five chapters feature. Four chapters (Chapters10, 11, 12, and 13) pertain to implementing blended learning in higher education and also emphasise the promotion of self-directed learning in higher education. The final chapter discusses the Communities of Inquiry (CoI) framework as a guide to designing effective online learning.

 

Preface

UNIQUENESS OF THE BOOK Blended learning solutions are often designed specifically for institutions that are well-resourced. These solutions are not easily transferable to contexts where resources are limited or almost lacking. ReEnvisioning and Restructuring Blended Learning for Underprivileged Communities is an academic text based on both empirical and conceptual findings to address some of the issues raised in implementing blended learning in underprivileged contexts. The content of this academic text presents evidence-based research which has been compiled by both emerging and established researchers from higher education institutions across various institutions across different continents.

TARGET AUDIENCE The obvious target audience and potential users of this scholarly publication include researchers and professionals who work in educational environments such as universities, schools, colleges of education, and research units which are positioned in less privileged settings. However, academics and other stakeholders in more privileged settings will also benefit from this publication, since it will assist them in gaining greater insight into the educational settings and context of underprivileged communities, which is vitally important. In addition, educational technologists, and faculty support such as instructional designers and curriculum developers who work in these settings, can also benefit from this publication.

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LAYOUT OF THE CHAPTERS: THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH CHAPTER Chapter 1 sketches the context for this publication by providing a theoretical overview of blended learning. It examines various definitions of blended learning and explores the benefits and challenges of implementing blended learning in various contexts. An overview of a variety of blended learning models is discussed to serve as a theoretical backdrop for the design of blended learning environments. The author devised what is termed “a blended learning toolbox” which serves as a hands-on way to assist in: the pre-planning of a blended learning course, designing the course goals and learning outcomes, planning and implementing assessment, the informed selection of learning resources, promoting learner participation as well as considerations for the selection of technology. Chapter 2 presents a discussion on quality assurance in blended learning, with a particular focus on policy implementation at institutional level in underprivileged communities. The importance of ensuring quality in blended learning should not be underestimated. The authors place a great emphasis on contextualisation of higher education institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities as well as the complex nature of quality assurance. The chapter also highlights encouraging examples of successful implementation of quality assurance in underprivileged communities. Chapter 3 and 4 focus on the implementation of blended learning at school level in underprivileged communities. Chapter 3 investigates how Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are used at primary schools. The authors report on what is currently used in terms of ICT and also the effectiveness of these ICT tools. They explore the notion of “e-schooling” in underprivileged communities and identify barriers that hinder the realisation of effective ICT use at primary school level. Furthermore, they explore the extent to which primary schools can cascade the use of ICTs and associated learning xv

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Preface

methods that are used in secondary schools and higher education institutions to their learners. Chapter 4 also explores the effective use of ICTs in schools. In this mixed method study, empirical findings are presented where the authors conclude that various forms of technology are effectively used as educational tools, these include laptops, smartboards, projectors, cell phones, desktops, printers, and iPads. The chapter concludes that regular use and integration of ICT devices in the classroom assist in explaining and understanding difficult concepts and also make teaching and learning more meaningful. Chapters 5 to 9 all refer to the restructuring of blended learning environments for in-service teachers. Chapters 5, 6 and 7 relate to specific content areas, namely language instruction, science education and mathematics. Chapter 5 reports on an empirical study that was done in which a mobile application (app) was designed to assist in-service mathematics teacher students with the presentation of mathematical content. The chapter focusses on the development of an app which is on a theoretical level grounded in the principles of Realistic Mathematics Education. On a technical level, various design frameworks were used to inform the design team. The users’ experiences of using the app are documented and practical design principles for the design of the mobile app are presented. In Chapter 6, focusses on the content area of science education. Particular emphasis is placed on the application of blended learning to promote multilingualism in the science classroom, particularly when teaching science to English Foreign Language (EFL) students. The author discusses the use of multilingual instructional videos, multilingual narrated slideshows, the educational use of social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook, as well as Open Educational Resources (OERs). The value of the multilingual approach in the linguistically diverse science classroom is discussed. The final chapter that relates to in-service teachers is Chapter 7, which provides a discussion of the important role that content developers play as stakeholders in contributing quality controlled subject curriculum content, which can be made available to learners on digital platforms. The lack of good quality digital content in underprivileged communities drives the need for an intervention such as this one. Teachers who teach Afrikaans (one of South Africa’s eleven official languages, spoken as a first language by approximately 13,5% of the population) are often not supported in developing teaching content. This chapter reports on the role that the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA) plays in providing quality Afrikaans linguistic material in the blended learning environment. Still in the category of supporting in-service teachers, Chapters 8 and 9 focus specifically on addressing social inequalities (Chapter 8) as well as assisting teachers with learner support (Chapter 9). Chapter 8 is presented in two sections, firstly the COVID-19 context is examined and the potential of using blended learning in unexpected and complex social settings, is highlighted. The second section showcases how Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has successfully been used to guide and support teachers and school communities in dealing with social justice issues which surround blended learning initiatives. The author uses and analyses two different data sets in this chapter: phenomenological data generated by his lived experiences as a graduate instructor as well as discussions that have appeared in the educational press during the COVID-19 crisis. The author discusses the conceptualisation of how blended learning instruction can be made accessible, equitable and socially-just with the use of UDL. The findings reveal the need for proactive action in the K-12 sector to guarantee equity and inclusion for all learners within the blended learning mode of delivery. Chapter 9 presents a discussion on the practical solution that blended learning offered to a challenge that arose with the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of a paper-based formal assessment portfolio that in-service teacher-students were expected to complete. The participatory and action learning and action research (PALAR) approach was used to investigate and report on the collaboration between lecturers and in-service teachers. Together they devised new plans to support foundation phase learners in rural areas, who have barriers to learning, xvi

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Preface

through the integration of content knowledge and technology-based teaching and learning. At the same time, the challenge of completing the teacher-students’ assessment was also addressed. The section on higher education presents four chapters (Chapters 10, 11, 12 and 13) that indicate the importance of implementing self-directed learning in higher education and a final chapter (Chapter 14) that presents principles and guidelines for using the Communities of Inquiry (CoI) framework to improve online teaching and learning. Chapter 10 presents research that was done with distance education students. Blended learning, as practiced in the global north and global south, is discussed as well as the value of self-directed learning. The author reports on a case study done in Ghana with adult learners where a learning management system (LMS) is the main tool used in the blended learning approach. He argues that the effective use of ICT devices, such as mobile phones, are critical for adult distance learners to feel less isolated in their learning. Furthermore, he highlights the challenges involved in using blended learning in the Ghanian context, challenges which also deter the promotion of self-directed learning. The chapter concludes with a discussion of solutions and recommendations to address the challenges in higher education in Ghana. The author suggests that adult learners in developing countries are critical resources that can be further developed by the appropriate practice of blended learning and self-directed learning. He further suggests that governments in developing countries such as Ghana, should put appropriate policies in place with regard to adult education. In a similar vein, Chapter 11 also explores the use of an LMS to assist in the promotion of selfdirected learning with adult learners. The authors report on an empirical case study done in Eswatini with adult learners enrolled at a higher education institution. This chapter points to the flexibility and independence that an LMS offers with regard to the promotion of self-directed learning. This qualitative study examines the adult learners’ mastery and perception of the LMS in the enhancement of their self-directed learning. The chapter concludes with a practical list of recommendations that can be used by lecturers, content developers and instructional designers to improve students’ self-directedness when using an LMS platform. Also, in the field of distance education, Chapter 12 presents a reflective study on the shift from a hybrid mode of delivery to a fully-fledged online mode at a higher education institution. The chapter reflects on the planning of the online mode, which necessitated the virtual training of numerous tutors. Furthermore, the chapter also probes other important issues such as the roll-out of the online courses as well as the availability of counselling support to students. Once again, the value of an LMS is reported in that the department was able to monitor teaching and learning activities through the collection and analysis of learning analytics. This chapter concludes with suggestions for the exploration of other useful tools to deliver and monitor online engagements, all of which can contribute to better quality online learning. To follow the chapters centred on promoting self-directed learning, the author of Chapter 13 uses Knowles’ (1984) adult learning theory to interrogate the readiness of staff and students at the Great Zimbabwe University to inform the pedagogical shift from face-to-face instruction to blended learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. This reflective chapter examines blended learning and the didactics and pedagogy associated with it and concludes that blended learning remains a problematic approach in Zimbabwe due to financial constraints and lack of technological competency. The final chapter wraps up the publication by presenting principles and guidelines that can be used and implemented to establish Communities or Inquiry (CoI) in blended learning. This chapter utilizes the CoI framework to amongst other aspects, measure the quality of online learning. The authors emphasise the importance of broadening student participation in blended learning by applying the principles of the CoI. This theoretical study made use of exploratory desktop research to examine existing published xvii

Preface

information to address the research questions raised in the study. The chapter concludes with a presentation of principles, guidelines and suggestions for the practical application for establishing a social and cognitive presence using teaching presence in the online environment. These guidelines are presented in the categories of teaching presence as identified by Anderson et al. (2001), namely: instructional design, facilitation of discourse, and direct instruction.

CONCLUSION The educational landscape has been faced with immense challenges in the light of COVID-19 and how the pandemic has affected the world. Educationists, whether teachers, academics, researchers or managerial personnel, had to adapt, invent and improvise as they tried to navigate the uncertain waters of the pandemic. Underprivileged communities seem to have been the hardest hit and struggled to adjust and adapt to this “new normal” that the pandemic presented. This pushed blended learning onto centre stage as underprivileged communities across different contexts reached to blended learning as a beacon in the storm. This publication focusses on this very reality - re-envisioning and restructuring blended learning for underprivileged communities. This theme is explored across a vast array of topics and all levels of education, from early childhood up to adult education. The publication also offers a mix of theoretical and empirical research with contributions from authors from various content areas and a wide range of different educational contexts. It highlights the importance of the continuous development and enhancement of blended learning in underprivileged communities. We trust that this publication will contribute to your educational journey in supporting and assisting learners at all levels to achieve greater success. Chantelle Bosch North-West University, South Africa Dorothy Joy Laubscher North-West University, South Africa Lydia Kyei-Blankson Illinois State University, USA

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REFERENCES Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 5(2), 1–17. Knowles, M. (1984). The adult learner: A neglected species. Gulf Publishing.

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Chapter 1

A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators Chantelle Bosch https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5743-1985 North-West University, South Africa

ABSTRACT The focus for blended learning in education has grown immensely in the last decade. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 ignited the need to transform the traditional face-to-face classroom setting to online and blended learning environments. These transitions can be a daunting and challenging task, especially in underprivileged communities where resources are few and facilitators and institutions are not well-equipped to make the change. This chapter provides a theoretical overview of blended learning that focusses on defning blended learning, benefts and challenges of blended learning, and blended learning models. The chapter concludes by presenting “a blended learning toolbox” that can be used to assist facilitators in the design process of blended learning environments.

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INTRODUCTION The demand for blended learning in education has grown exponentially in the last number of years (Albiladi & Alshareef, 2019). The needs and challenges that 21st century education brings, forces facilitators to change their perspective on teaching and to accommodate learners differently than they did in the past (Bosch & Pool, 2019). Through the integration of online technologies, historically face-to-face classes are being transformed to ‘anytime, anyplace’ learning environments where students can explore and collaborate (Tang & Tien, 2020). Blended learning (BL)gives facilitators the opportunity to increase learning effectiveness because it offers the ‘best of both worlds” (Stein & Graham, 2020). In March 2020 the outbreak of the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). Most educational institutions were shut down for safety reasons and no face-to-face classes were permitted or possible (Jacob, Abigael & Lydia, 2020). This emergency situation forced facilitators and educational institutes around the globe to shift their operations to online platforms. This proved particularly challenging in underprivileged communities where technology DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch001

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 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

resources are limited, and facilitators and learners alike, do not always have the necessary technological skills to make the shift. Facilitators were not prepared for the challenges that the COVID-19 pandemic would bring to education (Toquero, 2020). At the time this chapter was written, the pandemic improved to a point that learners were able to attend some face-to-face classes in schools or at tertiary education level. This does not deter from the fact that the need for blended and online education and assessment is now greater than ever. Facilitators have to be able to create blended learning environments that are planned carefully. The integration of technology is not optional; it is an integral part of our educational environment in the 21st century. Facilitators must overcome the fear of technology and they must learn to design effective blended learning tasks.1 The purpose of this chapter is to familiarise the readers with blended learning theory. It presents definitions of blended learning and explores the benefits and challenges of implementing blended learning in various contexts. A number of BL models are discussed to serve as a theoretical backdrop for the design of blended learning environments, whereafter “a blended learning toolbox” that can be used to assist facilitators in the design process of BL environments, is presented.

DEFINITION OF BLENDED LEARNING The concept of BL is being embraced internationally; however, a generally acceptable common definition has not yet emerged. According to Graham (2009), blending can occur at many different levels (Figure 1) and the stakeholders will differ for each level. On the institutional and programme level BL has administrative stakeholders that are interested in issues such as cost effectiveness and expanding the access of learning to other audiences (López-Pérez et al., 2011). At the course and activity levels BL has instructor stakeholders who are primarily interested in issues of learning effectiveness, productivity, and teaching and learning strategies (Garrison & Vaughan, 2013). Figure 1. Different levels on which blending can occur

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(Graham, 2009, p. 376)

There are numerous definitions of BL. Most of these definitions reflect the idea that BL is the combination of two different models of teaching and learning, namely the traditional face-to-face learning and online learning, each with their own historical background, learning strategies, strengths and weaknesses (Hrastinski, 2019).). The two definitions of blended learning that are used most frequently in BL

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literature are those of Graham (2009), “Blended learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction” (p. 5). and Garrison and Kanuka (2004) “the thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face learning experiences with online learning experiences” (p. 96). We can therefore concur that the basic principle is that face‐to‐face and online learning should be optimally integrated in such a way that the strengths of each are blended into a unique learning experience congruent with the context and intended educational purpose (Sukrawan & Soemarto, 2018) However, BL is not simply the addition of online technologies in the classroom or identifying the right blend of face-to-face and online learning activities to increase student access to learning opportunities (Bosch et al., 2019). It also requires the facilitator to create a transformative environment where critical and complex learning skills could be developed (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Therefore, in a BL environment, the use of technology transitions from being a teaching tool to becoming the actual learning space where the collaboration and sharing occurs (Bosch eat al., 2019). The component of collaboration and the shift from a teacher-centred to a student-centred interaction is central to BL (McDonald, 2012). There are many reasons why a blended approach to learning might be selected. BL can increase access and flexibility for students, increase levels of active learning, and achieve better student experiences and outcomes (Saliba et al., 2013).

BENEFITS OF BLENDED LEARNING The most common benefit for BL, as can be seen from literature, is that it combines “the best of both worlds” (Garrison & Vaughan, 2013). The literature converges on several value-added components of BL. The benefits can be grouped into two categories: more effective pedagogy and improved outcomes. The benefits concerning each of these aspects will be listed in the section below:

More Effective Pedagogy • •

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• • •

Because pedagogical strategies may be drawn from both the face-to-face and online environment, BL provides the largest set of instructional methods and learning situations to meet the needs of disciplines, courses and students (Hinkelman, 2018) Interaction is one of the most frequently discussed strategies of BL and is an example of where the best of both learning environments may be exploited. Most studies indicate that both studentto-student and student-to-faculty interaction signifcantly increases in blended courses (Garrison & Vaughan, 2013). In a blended environment, students become active students because of the transformation from a teacher-centred to a student-centred focus. They are expected to engage interactively with each other and with the study material to reach the goals and outcomes (Hrastinski, 2019) Real-world activities and authentic assessment are made possible in a blended environment with the use of numerous online resources. It ensures that students see the importance and value of the work they have to learn (Bosch et al, 2019). It allows integration of formative and summative assessment mechanisms for students and facilitators, balancing independent learning with human interaction and motivating students to be disciplined in the online environment (Tempelaar, 2020).

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• • • • •

Online discussions allow students to contribute, build shared ideas, refect and establish an online community. This active engagement with course content helps students to learn and apply course content and it gives students an enhanced sense of empowerment (Hrastinski, 2019). By extending the discussion beyond the classroom, students have an opportunity to refect, produce more thoughtful responses and beneft from other responses and are more likely to participate (Tempelaar, 2020). The BL format provides a more fexible use of instructional time to achieve goals and objectives more successfully (Nerantzi, 2020). Online components ofers a way to motivate students to stay up to date with material, e.g. timed quizzes that provide immediate feedback and reminder dates (Law et al., 2019). Overwhelmingly, students report the convenience of time fexibility as the most popular feature of blended courses (Nerantzi, 2020). Improved Outcomes

• • • • •

Because students explore and practice new learning material on their own time and at their own pace and according to their own personal learning needs, they come to class better prepared (Smith, 2017). Because of more active, meaningful and student-centred learning activities, students master the content and perform better in exams (Lieser et al., 2018). Students participate in deeper and more meaningful discussions on course material (Xie, et al., 2011). Students demonstrate a better understanding and deeper exploration of concepts (Smith, 2017). Students are more confdent in their ability to participate in classroom activities (Saltan, 2017).

CHALLENGES OF BLENDED LEARNING This section briefly outlines a number of challenges that are relevant to designing BL systems. • •

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• • •

4

Before a BL scenario can be considered ready for use, the facilitator must do detailed and extensive work and research which can be very time consuming (Bonk & Khoo, 2014). In some instances, students still prefer and are more comfortable with the paper versions of the materials than to see them online (Zhang et al., 2020). Some students still prefer to attend classes and they feel afraid and fnd the online environment unfamiliar (Panigrahi, et al., 2018).). Students sometimes feel that they are given more work in blended courses (McGee & Reis, 2012). Blended courses can prove to present a steep learning curve for both facilitators and students in terms of the mastering of technologies and engaging with a new learning environment (Bonk & Khoo, 2014).

 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

CLASSIFICATION OF BLENDED LEARNING As seen above, the definition of BL offers the opportunity for a wide variety of blends. In some instances, courses may be fully online where they blend different kind of resources that range from interactive reading materials, online tutorials and podcast. These types of courses allow students to choose the resources or learning materials that best meet their learning style. Another course may have some scheduled face-to face sessions and the facilitator can also assign weekly self-paced online activities. The International Association for K-12 online learning places BL on a continuum. The BL continuum shows the many ways in which online learning can be blended with face-to-face instruction (Figure 2). Figure 2. Blended-learning continuum (Eduview, 2009:3)

Staker and Horn (2012) compiled a report which categorises four possible combinations of different models of BL (Figure 3). These models can all be positioned somewhere on the BL continuum.

Rotation Model

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The rotation model is designed for a module or programme where students rotate between face-to-face and online instruction (Staker & Horn, 2012). Different types of rotation models can be distinguished, namely: station rotation, laboratory rotation, flipped classroom and individual rotation.

Station Rotation According to Staker and Horn (2012), in the station rotation model students are expected to rotate between classroom-based learning stations. These stations consist of activities such as group projects, individual tutoring, and pencil-and-paper assignments, but the rotation has to include at least one station for online learning. The rotation occurs on a fixed schedule or at the facilitator’s discretion (Staker & Horn, 2012).

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Figure 3. Staker and Horn’s blended learning taxonomy (Staker & Horn, 2012, p. 2)

Lab Rotation In the lab rotation model, students also rotate according to a fixed schedule or at the facilitator’s discretion between learning spaces (Staker & Horn, 2012). However, according to Staker and Horn, (2012) these learning spaces are not classroom-based as with the station rotation model; they are based in different locations across the campus. At least one of these spaces is a learning laboratory for predominantly online learning, while the additional classrooms house other learning activities.

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Flipped Classroom The flipped classroom model enables students to rotate on a fixed schedule between guided face-to-face practice and projects in the classroom or on campus, while the online component can be accessed from a remote location (home) in their own time and at their own pace (Staker & Horn, 2012). The primary delivery of content and instruction in the flipped classroom is online, and it allows facilitators to spend more time interacting directly with students instead of lecturing during class time (Staker & Horn, 2012). Class time can now be allocated for students to ask questions and test their skills by applying knowledge and interact with one another in hands-on activities (Tucker, 2012).

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Individual Rotation The individual rotation model also expects students to rotate between learning environments, of which at least one is online learning (Staker & Horn, 2012). However, each student has an individually customised, fixed schedule. This rotation model differs from other rotation models because students do not necessarily rotate to each available station of modality (Staker & Horn, 2012).

Flex Model According to Staker and Horn (2012), the flex model can support a programme in which content and instruction are primarily online. Students use an individually customized, fluid schedule to move between learning stations while the facilitator remains on campus. The facilitator provides face-to-face support on a flexible, adaptive, as-needed basis through activities such as small-group instruction, group projects and individual tutoring (Staker & Horn, 2012).

Self-Blend Model Staker and Horn (2012) states that the self-blend model refers to a situation where students choose to take one or more courses entirely online to supplement their traditional courses. Thus, students self-blend between some individual online courses and follow other face-to-face courses facilitated by teachers at a campus (Staker & Horn, 2012).

Enriched Virtual Model With this model, students divide their time for a specific module between attending on-campus classes and remote learning, using online delivery of content and instruction (Staker & Horn, 2012). Thus, students do not have to attend classes on campus every day of the week.

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DEVELOPMENT OF BLENDED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS In BL environments, face‐to‐face and online learning should be optimally integrated in such a way that the strengths of each models blend together. When moving towards BL from a context where the traditional mode of delivery has always been face-to-face, facilitators should start to integrate technology in their classrooms. To inform good practice in BL, it is important to review a number of pedagogical models which focuses specifically on the integration of technology. In the following section a few models that aim to provide guides and tools for facilitators developing BL programmes will be discussed.

Mishra and Khoeler’s TPCK Model Mishra and Khoeler (2006) suggested a conceptual framework (Figure 4) for educational technology called the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) model. The TPCK model attempts to integrate three main components of learning environments namely: content (C), pedagogy (P) and technology (T). The model accentuates the connections, interactions, affordances and constraints found 7

 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

Figure 4. Mishra and Khoeler’s TPCK model

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(Mishra & Khoeler, 2006:1025)

among these concepts. In this model, knowledge about content (C), pedagogy (P) and technology (T) are all central for developing good teaching. Content knowledge (CK) is knowledge about the actual subject matter that is to be learnt or taught (Mishra & Khoeler). Facilitators must know and understand the subjects that they teach, including knowledge of central facts, concepts, theories, and procedures within a given field, knowledge of explanatory frameworks that organise and connect ideas, and knowledge of the rules of evidence and proof (De Rossi & Trevisan, 2018). Pedagogical knowledge (PK), according to Mishra and Khoeler (2006), consists of deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning and how it encompasses, among other things, overall educational purposes, values and aims. PK is a generic form of knowledge that is involved in all issues of student learning, classroom management, lesson plan development and implementation, and student evaluation. PK includes knowledge about techniques or methods to be used in the classroom, the nature of the target audience and strategies for evaluating student understanding (Curtis, 2019). PK requires an understanding of cognitive, social and developmental theories of learning and how they apply to students in their classroom because facilitators with deep pedagogical knowledge are expected to know how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind and positive dispositions toward learning (Mishra & Khoeler, 2006). Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) refers to knowledge of pedagogy that is applicable to the teaching of specific content. According to Mishra and Khoeler (2006), this knowledge includes knowing what teaching approaches fit the content and knowing how elements of the content can be arranged for better teaching. This knowledge is different from the knowledge of a subject expert and also from

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the general pedagogical knowledge shared by instructors across disciplines. PCK is concerned with the representation and formulation of concepts, pedagogical techniques, knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn, knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology (Erduran & Ince,. 2018). It further involves knowledge of teaching strategies that incorporate appropriate conceptual representations in order to address student difficulties and misconceptions, and also foster meaningful understanding (Helppolainen & Aksela, 2020). Technology knowledge (TK) is defined by Mishra and Khoeler (2006) as knowledge about standard technologies such as books, chalk and blackboard and more advanced technologies such as the Internet and digital video. TK includes knowledge of how to install and remove peripheral devices, install and remove software programmes, and create and archive documents (De Rossi & Trevisan, 2018). Since technology is continually changing, the nature of TK also needs to shift with time, and facilitators need to stay informed. The ability to learn and adapt to new technologies, irrespective of what the specific technologies are, is of the utmost importance (Mishra & Khoeler, 2006). Technological content knowledge (TCK) is knowledge about the manner in which technology and content are reciprocally related (Mishra & Khoeler, 2006). Because there is a wide variety of educational software packages available, the facilitator does not need to have the knowledge to create these programmes, but it is important to be informed about what is available and how to use that effectively (Helppolainen & Aksela, 2020). Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) is not only the knowledge of the existence, components and capabilities of various technologies, but also the knowledge of how those technologies can be used in teaching and learning settings, and conversely knowing how teaching might change as the result of using particular technologies (Mishra and Khoeler, 2006). They further believe that TPK might include an understanding that there are a variety of tools for a particular task as well as the ability to choose a tool based on its appropriateness. It also encompasses strategies for using the tool’s affordances, knowledge of pedagogical strategies and the ability to apply those strategies for technology integration. Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) is a much broader form of knowledge that goes beyond all three components mentioned above (content, pedagogy, and technology). According to Mishra and Khoeler (2006), this knowledge is different from the general pedagogical knowledge shared by instructors across disciplines and also from knowledge of a disciplinary or technology expert. TPCK is the basis of good teaching using technology and requires the following (Mishra and Khoeler, 2006): • • • • • •

an understanding of the representation of concepts using technologies pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content knowledge of what makes concepts difcult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress an understanding of some of the problems that students face knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge and to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones

As part of their model for technology integration in teaching and learning, Mishra and Khoeler (2006) argue that developing good content requires a thoughtful interweaving of all three key sources of knowledge: technology, pedagogy and content. The core of their argument is that there is no single technological solution that is generic for every facilitator, every student, every course or every teaching perspective. Developing a deeper understanding of the complex relationships between these sources of 9

 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

knowledge and using this understanding to develop appropriate, context-specific strategies and representations are all required for quality teaching.

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Picciano’s Multimodal Conceptual Model Picciano (2009) proposed a multimodal conceptual model designed to meet the needs of a variety of students. His approach focused on the fact that students represent different generations, personality types and learning styles and suggested that facilitators and instructional designers use a range of modalities to meet this wide range of needs. This model presents suitable methods for achieving six basic pedagogical objectives and activities (Figure 5). According to Picciano (2009), instructors need to consider their objectives carefully and understand how to apply the chosen technologies and approaches. The six components of this model should blend together in an integrated manner that appears as seamless as possible for students (Picciano, 2009). Picciano holds that it is not necessary to incorporate all the components of the model into every BL classroom. The pedagogical objectives of a course should drive the activities and determine which components of the model best fit which courses to cohesively serve overall programmatic goals and objectives. Content can be delivered and presented in a number of ways and, according to Picciano (2009), it is one of the primary drivers of instruction. Although most of what is taught in traditional teacher-centred classrooms is delivered by “teacher speaks – student listens” or “teacher writes – student writes”, it does not have to be the case in face-to-face or online environments. Picciano suggests that multiple technologies and media be exploited by means of multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) and course management systems (CMSs) that support a variety of media including text, video, and audio. Some instructional media may be more appropriate than others in supporting a specific goal, task or outcome, but no single medium is inherently better or worse than any other if selected carefully. Students want to discover and create new information and then reveal it to others (Zainuddin et al., 2019). The available online technologies can help balance the power in the classroom towards the students so that they no longer have to consume or browse through available content passively (Bonk & Khoo, 2014). Social and emotional support of students is just as important as the learning of content in a learning environment (Picciano, 2009). Picciano (2009) believes that although fully online courses and programmes have evolved to the point where faculty can provide some support, in blended courses and programmes this might best be provided in a face-to-face mode. However, according to Marsh (2012), the use of student blogs and the fact that student progress reporting is available with many learning management systems provides the facilitator with a good overview of who is falling behind or feeling isolated. It also offers the opportunity to provide support on these levels without drawing attention to it in class, particularly when it comes to quieter, or more withdrawn students who often get overlooked in a busy classroom. Dialectics or questioning is an important activity that allows faculty to find out what students know. When facilitators ask the right questions, it can stimulate discussion and help students to think critically about certain aspects which will help refine their knowledge (Picciano, 2009). Picciano (2009) suggests that a well-organised discussion board activity can be meaningful for students to respond to questions and to share their own perspectives, while evaluating and responding to the opinions of others. According to Holley and Oliver (2010), discussion board activities help students to reflect on their own ideas. They believe that the use of online discussion helps students to think through their own opinions, and it also appears to be less threatening to students than speaking out in class (Nerantzi, 2020).

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 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

Figure 5. Blending with purpose: the multimodal model

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(Picciano, 2009, p. 11)

Reflection is a powerful pedagogical strategy that requires students to reflect on their learning and to share reflections with their facilitators and fellow students (Picciano, 2009). Blogs, whether as group exercises or for individual journaling activities, can be appropriate tools for students to reflect on their learning and other aspects of course activities. Reflection as a group activity allows students to compare their work with the other students and think about the differences and similarities between them (Bruno, A., & Dell’Aversana, 2018). Collaborative learning has been evolving for decades and has grown in popularity, especially in face-to-face classes (Picciano, 2009). The logistics and time needed for effective collaboration in faceto-face classes are sometimes problematic and this issue can be addressed with email, wikis and other electronic communication mediums. According to Bonk and Khoo (2014), we now live in a world of collaborative knowledge building and representation, and in the online environment, students can collaborate in a virtual student lounge where notes, links and files can be shared in real time. Synthesizing, evaluating and assessing learning is, according to Picciano (2009), perhaps the most important component of this model. Picciano believes that online technologies allow more seamless opportunities for evaluation and assessment activities. CMSs and other online tools provide a number of mechanisms for assisting in this area. According to the Hanover research council (2009), while many CMSs provide tools for assessment and analysis, it is still the instructor‘s responsibility to determine if the assessment is appropriate to the subject. These tools are not only applicable for assessment activities, but also help instructors to assess and reflect on their own teaching strategies in reviewing what worked and what did not work in a class (Picciano, 2009).

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Puentedura’s SAMR Model The SAMR (Substituting; Augmentation; Modification; Redefinition) model was developed by Dr Rueben Puentedura (2010) to assist facilitators with the integration of technology into teaching and learning. With the SAMR model (figure 6), Puentedura (2010) aims to enable facilitators to design and develop learning experiences where the integration of technology utilises higher levels of student achievement. SAMR offers a guideline on how computer technology can be integrated into teaching and learning. As one moves along the continuum, computer technology becomes more important in the classroom and at the same time becomes more invisibly woven into the demands of good teaching and learning (Puentedura, 2010).

Substitution According to Puentedura (2010), technology is used as a direct substitute for existing classroom practices in the lowest level of this model. The original task does not change, but students do the same task with the introduction of technology. Examples include: • • •

Using electronic resources or eBooks instead of hardcopy resources. Using a note-taking application on a tablet to draft a document rather than handwriting with paper and pencil. Finding information online or in a digital encyclopaedia rather than in books.

Augmentation At the level of augmentation, the same tool is used with some functional improvement (Puentedura, 2010). The tasks as such have not changed but they have been enhanced slightly. Examples include: • • •

Using basic functions of eBooks such as search and dictionary defnitions. Using some built-in tools of the note-taking application such as the spell check, thesaurus, dictionary or cut-and-paste tools to enhance the classroom task. Using hyperlinks in text.

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Modification At the level of modification, the task at hand slightly alters but it does not change significantly (Puentedura, 2010). Students are given a different kind of task that are accomplished through the use of computer technology.An example is: •

12

Using spreadsheets to allow for the automatic calculation of sums and creating graphs for immediate visualisation of data. The spreadsheet can be e-mailed instead of being printed. A report, previously a fxed paper document, now has signifcant task redesign which results in substantial productivity increase.

 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

Figure 6. The SAMR model (Puentedura, 2010, p.1)

Redefinition According to Puentedura, (2010), in the redefinition level available technology is used to completely redesign tasks so that the tasks are not possible to complete without the use of technology. These tasks are unique, technology-oriented activities for which there are no pen-and-paper alternatives. Examples include: • •

Creating a video blog. Creating collaborative mind maps.

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Bath and Bourke’s Blended Learning Design Process Good preparation and decision making are essential not only for efficient time management in the construction and maintenance of resources, but also for the creation of quality learning experiences for students. Ideally, BL experiences should be interactive as well as participative so that the processes of cognition and collaboration are both enhanced. The BL design process suggested by Bath and Bourke (2010) (see Figure 7) addresses aspects to be considered in the design of a BL module.

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Planning According to Bath and Bourke (2010), planning is the first stage of the design process. At this point the facilitator should take a number of critical considerations into account before starting to design the BL components of the course. In the planning phase, the facilitator should do a situation analysis of the current status of the course, considering the following: •

•

•

•

•

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•

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Review course aims and learning objectives. The facilitator should ensure that existing outcomes, activities and assessments are aligned. According to Bath and Bourke (2010), the key elements of a blended module are: a) having clear, student-centred learning objectives, b) alignment between these objectives and course assessments, and c) meaningful, relevant use of technologies. Undertake a content inventory. It is important to evaluate the resources that are currently being used. It must be decided if the current formats (print, online, audio, video, etc.) are adequate and if the students had any issues accessing a resource in the past (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Bliuc et al. (2007) suggest that module content include multiple media and opportunities for students to be totally independent and to have a wide choice of resources that they can use. Review current teaching strategies. The facilitator must identify what is valuable and which must not be lost when moving online (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). The current use of online strategies and decisions on how to improve or modify these strategies must be evaluated (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Review course management. The elements of efective classroom management such as the preparation of the classroom as a physical environment suited to the nature of the planned academic activities, development and implementation of a workable set of house-keeping procedures and conduct rules, maintenance of student attention and participation in group lessons and activities, and monitoring of the quality of the students’ engagement in assignments and of the progress they are making toward intended outcomes are equally relevant in a BL environment (Scheerens, 2010). Bath and Bourke (2010) suggest that facilitators decide on any aspects that they would like to improve either from their own or their students’ perspective. Obtain student feedback. Feedback is a central strategy to monitor the quality and standards of teaching and learning in higher education institutions (Prakash, 2018). It is important when redesigning a course to fnd out what worked well for the students and what could be improved in the course. Consider the student profle. When redesigning a course it is important to establish if the students experienced BL in a previous module and consider providing time and resources for students to gain familiarity and the required skills to use particular technologies before they have to formally engage with it (Bath & Bourke, 2010). The accessibility of the specifc technologies, number of students in the class and their attitude towards technology should also be taken into consideration (Bath & Bourke, 2010).

 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

Figure 7. The blended learning design process (Bath & Bourke, 2010, p. 7)

Designing and Developing Once the planning phase is done, the facilitator can start designing the BL components of the course. Bath and Bourke (2010) list five basic design principles to keep in mind when developing a course or blended activities. •

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• •

• •

Constructive alignment – learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities, and assessment tasks need to be aligned and correspond with each other (Cain et al., 2018). Purposeful and authentic assessment – assessment activities should be purposeful and authentic with as much relevant, real-world activities as possible so that students can demonstrate their competency in a more true-to-life setting (García-Peñalvo et al., 2021). Alignment of activities – teaching and learning activities need to be aligned clearly with time and content. Any BL element should be clearly integrated with the content and the learning objectives of a course and should complement the face-to-face and/or individual activities (Ruge et al., 2019). Student workload – the workload for a BL course should not exceed that of a course in a traditional face-to-face mode (Marsh, 2012). Time management – according to Bath and Bourke (2010), a facilitator should keep the time, efort and resources involved in developing BL in proportion to the impact or importance these

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aspects display in the course. For example, weeks should not be spent designing and developing a small element of a course unless the pay-ofs for the facilitator and the students are worth it (Saliba et al., 2013).

Implementing According to Bath and Bourke (2010), a well-designed BL element can fail, or at least suffer significant drawbacks, if both time and consideration are not given to a range of issues associated with the implementation of BL in a course. The following aspects need to be in place before implementation: • • •

Testing of online components – the online components of the course need to be trialled and tested and the facilitator should be competent in using these components (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Support – the facilitator should identify what common problems or difculties may be experienced by students in using the chosen online tools and design an action plan for student support (Williams, 2010). Course orientation – when students are required to study online, even if it is only for part of a course, creating an opportunity for some form of course orientation remains an important frst step in building a successful learning and teaching experience (Bath & Bourke, 2010). During a course orientation it is important to explain to students the rationale for blending and what is expected of them. They need to be given some guidelines on etiquette and examples on how to use specifc tools (Linek, & Ostermaier-Grabow, 2018).

If the aspects mentioned above are in place, the facilitator can start implementing the course. The following aspects should be taken in consideration while implementing the course: • •

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•

Online presence – the facilitator should establish an online presence by participating in discussions, providing opportunities and encourage students to engage with each other and integrating topics that were discussed online in the face-to-face sessions (Gow, 2017). Motivate students – it is important to continue to promote and encourage students’ use of the BL components throughout the course (Facilitators can send students reminder via email or the chosen method of communication (Bath & Bourke, 2010). It is very helpful if a task is broken up into smaller components and feedback is given on some or all of these components (Lin et al., 2017). Monitor student participation – facilitators should give recognition of students’ engagement in the course both online and in class. It helps to validate students’ eforts and the contribution of the various course activities to their learning (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Facilitators should identify students who do not appear to be engaging and initiate some communication with them (Marsh, 2012).

Reviewing As with any course, obtaining feedback about various aspects of the course is a crucial part of the course design process (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Gaining valuable feedback helps the facilitator to review different aspects of the course and consider where improvements can be made to enhance the course for

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future iterations (Garrison & Vaughan, 2013; Bath & Bourke, 2010). The following types of evaluation can be used: • •

•

Self-evaluation – facilitator should evaluate their pedagogy by refecting on the learning activities which underpin the unit, the content and resources provided for the students and the teaching strategies used during the course (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Peer-evaluation – one or more colleagues in the faculty should be asked to evaluate the resources and study material (López-Pérez et al., 2011). It will be good if they could sit in on some of the classes and visit the online environment to get an idea of the course structure (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Student evaluation – feedback from students can be obtained by asking informal questions after an activity or class, students flling in a student evaluation questionnaire at the end of the module and from their performance on assessment, in-class, out-of-class or online activities. (LópezPérez et al., 2011).

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Improving At the improvement stage, the BL design process starts all over again to incorporate all the changes made to improve the course for the next student intake (Bath & Bourke, 2010). Simmons College (2008) identified a number of challenges that facilitators might encounter and created a checklist that can be used as a tool to evaluate a course with some suggestion to fix the problem. The checklist focuses on aspects such as student preparation, technical aspects and student understanding. If students are not prepared for class, they can be engaged by using preparation activities such as self-assessment quizzes before they come to class (McDonald, 2012). When the facilitator is unsure if the students understand the material, they should provide more opportunities for assessment and student reflection (Munir & Prem, 2014), If students are struggling with technical problems, such as not finding the material or having trouble downloading files, the facilitator should consider spending more time at the beginning of the module to familiarise the students with the relevant technicalities of the module and should make sure they understand these processes (Bonk & Khoo, 2014). The facilitator should take all of the self, student and peer evaluation in consideration and try to improve on the aspects that did not contribute to a better learning environment. All the models discussed offer valuable tools and guides in the development of a BL course. However, in most instances it remains very theoretical and it is not always easy to see how these models can be practically implemented in a classroom. Each of these models only focusses on some of the BL design aspects and these models need to be combined in some way in order to present a more comprehensive tool for designing BL courses. In the next section the researcher attempts to integrate the practical aspects of these models into a blended learning toolbox that can be used as a checklist when designing BL environments.

THE BLENDED LEARNING TOOLBOX To move from a traditional face-to -face to a BL environment can be a daunting and challenging task, especially in underprivileged communities where resources are few and facilitators and institutions are 17

 A Blended Learning Toolbox for Educators

not well-equipped to make the change. The checklist which is presented in Table 1 serves as a handy tool to assist facilitators in the design process of BL environments. Table 1. The blended learning toolbox Pre-planning Considerations Pedagogical objectives of a course should drive the learning outcomes and teaching-learning activities. Structure and organise both face-to-face and online activities carefully through clear and specific instructions. Decide if the task will be conducted in the face-to-face classroom, in the online environment or within a combination of the two. Student activity beyond the classroom should ideally involves a combination of both individual and collaborative activities, as well as both formal and supplementary activity and resources to support students in their learning and achievement of the course objectives. When designing a BL module, the workload should not exceed that of a traditional face-to-face course. Consider spending less time in class during contact sessions to allow students to spend more time in the online environment. Keep the time and effort for designing learning tasks and for students to complete tasks in proportion to their impact or importance in the course. Course Goals and Learning Outcomes Are your Course objectives, in structural strategies and assessment tasks aligned? To ensure that these three components of your course are aligned, ask yourself the following questions: Learning objectives: What do I want students to know after they have completed this course? Assessments: What kind of tasks will reveal whether students have achieved the learning objectives that has been identified? Instructional strategies: What kind of activities, both inside and outside of the class will reinforce the learning objectives and prepare students for assessments?

Yes☐ / No☐

Are the module aims, goals, outcomes and assessment criteria clearly formulated and available for students?

Yes☐ / No☐

Are learning outcomes appropriately distributed among study units?

Yes☐ / No☐ Course Information and Instructions

A clear course overview is available and easy to find.

Yes☐ / No☐

A creative online introduction activity for students and the instructor to develop an online community is presented.

Yes☐ / No☐

Instructors/facilitators contact information is available and easy to find.

Yes☐ / No☐

A clear distinction is made between online and in-classroom activities.

Yes☐ / No☐ Assessment

Assessment plan is available and easy to find.

Yes☐ / No☐

Clear instructions on how to submit assignments are available and easy to find.

Yes☐ / No☐

Do students know how to use the technologies used in the assessment task?

Yes☐ / No☐

Do students know where to find technical support and assistance?

Yes☐ / No☐

Do students know how their work will be assessed? A clear set of criteria and standards or a rubric is available.

Yes☐ / No☐ Yes☐ / No☐ Course Content and Learning Resources

Course content is presented in a sequenced and structured way.

Yes☐ / No☐

The academic quality of resources is evaluated.

Yes☐ / No☐

All the online tools and resources are valid and reliable.

Yes☐ / No☐

All course materials and learning resources are relevant and current.

Yes☐ / No☐

All course materials and resources are appropriately referenced.

Yes☐ / No☐

Synchronous activities (lectures, webinars, online Q&A sessions) will be recorded and made available to students who could not attend the live session.

Yes☐ / No☐

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Learner Participation Learners are actively engaged in meaningful and relevant learning activities throughout the course.

Yes☐ / No☐

Procedures to monitor student progress and participation are in place.

Yes☐ / No☐

Response and feedback times are clearly stated.

Yes☐ / No☐

The students are actively engaged in developing a set of rules for F2F and online activities.

Yes☐ / No☐

Technology The course uses easily accessible technologies.

Yes☐ / No☐

Hardware and Software requirements are clearly communicated to the students.

Yes☐ / No☐

Technological skills needed by students are in line with the course level.

Yes☐ / No☐

The selected learning technologies support the learning outcomes and enhance the learning process.

Yes☐ / No☐

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CONCLUSION This chapter presented a theoretical overview of various definitions of BL, the benefits, and challenges of implementing BL. Furthermore, several technology integration models were discussed which can be used to underpin the design of BL environments. These models were used to create a toolbox, which integrated various practical guidelines and design aspects. The toolbox provides a checklist for facilitators and instructional designers to use, in order to ensure that all relevant aspects of the BL design process are addressed.

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ENDNOTE This chapter is based on work done in an unpublished PhD thesis (Bosch, 2017).

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Chapter 2

Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities: The Need for Policy Implementation Michael Casparus Laubscher https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7825-5650 North-West University, South Africa Natasha Ravyse North-West University, South Africa

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ABSTRACT Blended learning enhances education and ofers efective teaching and learning. Its success is welldocumented, as well as the criticism regarding quality assurance in blended learning. Quality assurance (QA) is an invaluable aspect of teaching and learning and has a rightful position in higher education. QA strives to ensure a standard of teaching and learning which is relevant, efective, and resourceful, and it occurs within an established framework. Research suggests that the implementation of an efective QA framework is a complex matter, with great emphasis on context. Such a framework contains various elements which are often denoted by benchmarking. This chapter highlights the implementation of sustainable and efective policies at an institutional level as one such element. Meaningful collaboration between institutions will lead to greater success in the implementation of an efective QA framework. Institutions in underprivileged communities fnd this implementation challenging, but there are some encouraging examples of success and progress.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch002

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 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

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INTRODUCTION In an effort to explore the different facets of quality assurance it is important to review higher education institutions in both privileged and underprivileged communities As a result, two different contexts are explored, thereby offering insight into each context’s different aspects, factors and challenges since the Higher Education context in privileged communities differs from the higher education context in underprivileged communities. This chapter does not aim to discuss the different higher education contexts in privileged and underprivileged communities in depth, since this is a complex matter and would require an independent and in-depth discussion of its own. This chapter does, however, refer to these different contexts and highlights some aspects of these contexts, specifically related to quality assurance as it relates to a blended learning policy. Additionally, the chapter’s focus is also not to offer an instructional approach that should be followed in order to implement policy; rather, it focuses on the importance of policy -which should be initiated at institutional level - as one of the building blocks and starting points of ensuring effective quality assurance. Determining the similarities and differences, if any, in terms of perceptions related to blended learning and quality assurance within blended learning, offers insight into some of the successes and pitfalls thereof. Furthermore, comparing the perspectives related to quality assurance in blended learning of institutions in both privileged and underprivileged communities, will lend itself to promoting quality assurance in these institutions. It has been noted by Lim (1999) that institutions in underprivileged communities are not subject to all the conditions and standards with regard to quality assurance that are prevalent in privileged institutions, and therefore that contextualising quality assurance would offer more realistic parameters. Thus, an additional aim of this comparison is to determine whether or not certain pitfalls that are experienced by institutions in privileged communities are also experienced by institutions in underprivileged communities, and if there are additional challenges faced by the latter as opposed to the former. Once that applicability has been determined, a more contextualised solution for institutions in underprivileged communities could be realised. In order to evaluate and compare facets of quality assurance in blended learning, in addition to perspectives related to those facets, it is necessary to review literature that deals with particular contexts. It is of no real value to review literature in totality when the aim thereof is comparative in nature. Therefore, studies that address quality assurance in blended learning at a higher (or tertiary) institutional level within a specified context will be reviewed. The specified contexts need to be explicitly mentioned in the applicable studies as a means of avoiding generalised views. For this reason, an as-equal-as-possible number of articles addressing quality assurance in blended learning related to institutions in both privileged and underprivileged communities, respectively, form the basis of this qualitative review. The discussion is initiated by: 1) determining what the respective perspectives are concerning blended learning and accompanying quality assurance practices; 2) establish if there are any similarities or differences across perspectives between institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities; and 3) evaluate whether or not the successes and barriers in blended learning are the same for institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities so as to inform quality assurance considerations. It is important to note what is meant by institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities in the context of this discussion. Understanding the difference between a privileged and an underprivileged community is based on a number of factors such as: level of per capita income, Human Development Index, GDP, life expectancy, education and industrial or commercial successes (Lok, 2020). Basically, the distinguishing factor in differentiating between a privileged and underprivileged community is the 25

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

level at which the aforementioned factors function in a community – privileged communities experience, for example, “a high level of industrial development, bases its economy on technology and manufacturing instead of agriculture” (Lok, 2020) whereas an underprivileged community reflects lower industrialisation levels. This chapter refers to the context in which higher education institutions are found i.e. in privileged and underprivileged communities. Institutions in both privileged and underprivileged communities have established various higher education institutions with the growth of the number of higher education institutions in underprivileged communities being phenomenal. A country such as Vietnam, has four hundred higher education institutions with more than two million students enrolled (Nguyen et al., 2017). Although institutions in both privileged and underprivileged communities serve students by means of higher education institutions, there are finer parameters that need to be taken into consideration, especially where blended learning is concerned. Quite simply defined: Institutions in privileged communities are those described as having the required infrastructure and resources available to them in order to promote and achieve optimal quality assurance practices, thereby being in a position to achieve quality blended learning. Institutions in underprivileged communities are those that lack, or are limited, in the necessary infrastructure (due to geographical location i.e., rural sites) and resources, such as adequate technological influence (Tshabalala et al., 2014) in order to achieve the same goal of quality (assurance in) blended learning. The nuances where these parameters are concerned are highlighted in the discussions that follow. Finally, both sets of institutions reviewed are mainly institutions whose core business is face-to-face teaching and learning as opposed to solely distance learning institutions – a fairly important consideration to bear in mind where blended learning is used as support tool to enhance course content. In addition, it is important to note that different contexts (i.e. institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities) will experience differences in terms of infrastructure, for example, concerning their ability to implement quality assurance in blended learning. Such issues gain even more momentum in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic where intuitions in underprivileged communities question their preparedness for a more blended approach in their content delivery (Sibanda & Muyambo, 2020; Mdiniso, 2020). However, the focus of this chapter remains on comparing the success of policy, and its implementation, related to quality assurance in blended learning.

CROSSING BORDERS: PERSPECTIVES OF BLENDED LEARNING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE IN INSTITUTIONS IN PRIVILEGED AND UNDERPRIVILEGED COMMUNITIES

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Institutions in Privileged Communities The literature reviewed in this section (and all sections related to privileged and underprivileged higher (or tertiary) institutions) details studies conducted where the population and/or sample source specifies institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities. The universities included in the reviewed literature with regard to privileged communities are institutions in Europe, UK, USA, and Australia – a fair geographical spread. At the outset, perceptions of blended learning at institutions in privileged communities generally encompass a holistic view, which includes eLearning in general. Comba et al. (2010) explain that eLearning represents courses that are delivered in a fully distance learning capacity, whereas blended learning 26

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

has face-to-face teaching at its core that is coupled with components of eLearning such as the use of ICTs (Information and Communication Technology) that include web- and computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. Ginns and Ellis (2009) accept ICTs as a given in terms of eLearning with the aim thereof playing a supportive role for students in managing their learning, which according to Fitzgibbon and Jones (2004) includes providing students with greater access to materials online. Echoing an earlier statement, López-Pérez et al. (2011) note that ICTs are aimed at complimenting traditional teaching and learning, echoed by Garrison and Kanuka (2004), where face-to-face teaching and learning processes are complimented by online activities. In essence, there is a clear, long-standing consensus on the perceptions of blended learning at institutions in privileged communities. Despite an agreeability concerning perspectives of what blended learning is and what it aims to achieve, assuring the quality thereof is apparently quite cryptic. Several higher institutions’ quality assurance agencies are tasked with ensuring high standards of delivery, but there is seemingly not a single, generalizable standard on the menu for both privileged (see Comba et al., 2010) and underprivileged communities (see Tshabalala et al., 2014). Such discrepancies are predominantly the reason why the utilisation of blended learning is negotiated by the contexts of practice (Heinze, 2008). Since blended learning is governed by context, one might assume that quality assurance practices would be dictated by context as well. Once more, a comparison between institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities is necessitated.

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Institutions in Underprivileged Communities All discussions related to institutions in underprivileged communities within the context of this review are institutions who are regarded as underprivileged or are located in underprivileged communities. These institutions in underprivileged communities are spread predominantly across Eastern, Southern and Central Africa, the West-Indies, and Pakistan – connoting a fair geographical spread just as is the case with the literature reviewed for institutions in privileged communities. Perceptions of blended learning at institutions in privileged communities resonate, in general, with those of institutions in underprivileged communities. eLearning is described by Fresen (2007) as learning that, “embraces a variety of electronic delivery media” (p.351), where web-based learning (WBL) and web-supported learning (WSL) are described as sub-components of eLearning. Furthermore, Geoffrey (2014) thoroughly describes the views of what blended learning is by citing Rovai and Jordan (2004), Adams et al. (2006), Akyol and Garrison (2011), and Matheos (2012), all of which basically conclude that blended learning is a mode of teaching and learning where a variety of media across a range of learning environments is utilised in order to supplement face-to-face teaching and learning. Geoffrey (2014) in addition briefly points out that, “To date there is no consensus on a single agreed-upon definition for blended learning” but does establish that blended learning, “combines face to face classroom methods with computer-mediated activities to form an integrated instructional approach” (p.88). It is valuable to explore the aforementioned contentiousness in the understanding of blended learning because therein lies the matter of establishing quality assurance measures. The term blended learning is contentious in that it may not be truly representative of its denotative meaning because: 1) learning is a student experience but blended learning as a practice does not involve students’ perspectives of learning but rather, the perspectives of the lecturer (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005); and 2) that blending is underestimated in terms of executing a true blend of instructional techniques using a variety of mediums. Speaking to the first point, one could argue that students are not masters 27

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

of pedagogical development, and all the other skills required in order to deliver effective learning experiences, hence, it would be from a lecturer’s perspective. Furthermore, there are studies that address student perspectives on the quality of eLearning, which are subsequently discussed later in the chapter. The second point, however, addresses the eternal question of what quality in blended learning actually is thereby problematising standard quality assurance practices – as already mentioned. In sum, the perceptions of blended learning as a concept do not vastly differ between institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities where the use of ICTs in combination with traditional teaching and learning approaches in an effort to maximise the learning experience is widely accepted as being blended learning. However, the brief discussion did yield two important observations. The first observation raises the issue of whether or not quality assurance practices are governed by context, as is apparently the case with the application of blended learning. A mismatch between context and quality assurance standards could bear implications in terms of successes and failures in implementing quality assurance in institutions in underprivileged communities if standards are that generally used in privileged communities are seen as the norm. The second point builds on the first in that in order to have standards, it should be determined what quality blended learning actually is in order to determine standards in the first place – it is a chicken-egg dilemma. In light of this dilemma, the necessity for comparing perspectives of quality assurance and its accompanying practices for both institutions in privileged and underprivileged in communities is of utmost importance. By determining the similarities and differences, and possibly what governs these practices and standards, institutions in underprivileged communities could possibly make use of the findings in order to better adapt quality assurance in blended learning, and institutions in privileged communities can also learn from the process.

COMPARING PERSPECTIVES ON QUALITY ASSURANCE IN BLENDED LEARNING Table 1 offers an overview of the quality assurance standards identified by institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities. A more insightful discussion follows in subsequent sections.

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Institutions in Privileged Communities The perspectives on quality assurance standards at institutions in underprivileged communities are reviewed in selected literature in terms of both the endeavours and results thereof in pursuit of quality blended learning. Comba et al. (2010) make use of benchmarking as a quality assurance tool in enhancing blended learning. Other scholars such as van Vught et al. (2008); Moriarty and Smallman (2009); Ubachs (2009); and Ossiannilsson (2011) advocate the value of benchmarking in improving the quality of teaching and learning. Comba et al. (2010) regards benchmarking as an essential quality assurance tool and based on this initiated a project where nine European universities were subjected to the exercise. Six benchmark categories were established, each addressing an aspect of quality assurance in blended learning. It is these six benchmarking categories that become the first standards of quality assurance that become a comparable set for underprivileged institutions. The six benchmark categories are as follows: strategic management; curriculum design; course design; course delivery; staff support; and student support (Comba et al., 2010). Furthermore, collaboration with other higher (or tertiary) institutions is described as having practical value where, “knowledge exchange 28

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

Table 1. Overview of the quality assurance standards identified by institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities Institutions in Privileged Communities Study by:

Comba et al. (2010)

Kidney et al. (2007)

Region:

Quality Assurance Standards:

Italy, Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, Finland

strategic management; curriculum design; course design; course delivery; staff support; and student support

USA

instructional plan review; web design review; editing; usability and accessibility; maintainability; copyright; infrastructure impact; content and rigour

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Student perspectives

Ginns and Ellis (2009)

Australia

good teaching; clear goals and standards; appropriate assessment; appropriate workload; generic skills

López-Pérez et al. (2011)

Spain

utility; motivation; and satisfaction

Institutions in Underprivileged Communities Study by:

Region:

Quality Assurance Standards:

South Africa

institutional; technology; lecturer; student; instructional design; and pedagogical factors

Ayoo and Lubega (2008)

Uganda

questions related to: learning material development and design; quality assurance processes; accreditation; policy; maintenance of materials

Geoffrey (2014)

Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Botswana

exceptional high standards; perfection and consistency; fitness for purpose; value for money; and transformation capabilities

Fresen (2007)

between all benchmarking participants can lead to mutual inspiration and can help the individual university understand and handle topical issues within eLearning” (Comba et al., 2010). Kidney et al. (2007, p. 19) offer eight quality assurance strategies for eLearning: instructional plan review; web design review; editing; usability and accessibility; maintainability; copyright; infrastructure impact; content and rigour. In contemplation of the statement made by Oliver and Trigwell (2005) concerning their grievance with students’ perceptions being excluded, a study by Ginns and Ellis (2009) responds by evaluating the quality of eLearning from student experiences. However, this study is from the perspective of students at a privileged institution and there is potential for institutions in privileged communities to focus more on students’ perspectives thereby laying the foundation for a more balanced view. The study by Ginns and Ellis (2009) offers five factors for quality assurance in blended learning, although they do mention that their eLearning scale could be used by other institutions to determine whether or not “suitability extends past the current setting” (Ginns & Ellis, 2009). As noted by Comba et al. (2010) collaboration across institutions is valuable in determining quality assurance measures. The five factors identified by Ginns and Ellis (2009) are: good teaching; clear goals and standards; appropriate assessment; appropriate workload; generic skills. López-Pérez et al. (2011) student perceptions of blended learning in terms of utility; motivation; and satisfaction are catalysts for students having a positive perception of blended learning.

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 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

What is interesting to note is that quality assurance standards differ across the regions where the different institutions in privileged communities are located (see Table 1). There are, however, some overarching similarities concerning curriculum and course design (Comba et al., 2010) which involves the following: 1) content and rigour (Kidney et al., 2007); 2) clear goals and standards; 3) appropriate assessment; 4) and appropriate workload (Ginns & Ellis, 2009) . Another similarity is found between the standard of course delivery (Comba et al., 2010); good teaching (Ginns & Ellis, 2009); and satisfaction (López-Pérez et al., 2011). The connections between the remaining standards of quality assurance cannot be established and so discrepancies remain. More pertinent and to the point though, is to determine how different or how similar the quality assurance standards for blended learning are when compared to institutions which are in underprivileged communities– which is discussed next.

Institutions in Underprivileged Communities

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Fresen (2007) established a taxonomy comprising six success factors as standards for quality assurance in web-supported learning, which considers a wide range of literature and quality assurance principles (see Fresen, 2007, p. 352). The six factors, with sub-components, are: institutional; technology; lecturer; student; instructional design; and pedagogical factors. However, Fresen (2007) does note that future research should pursue determining which factors are rated and prioritised. This is a similar sentiment to what Ginns and Ellis (2009) note and it highlights the importance of institutional collaboration also highlighted by Comba et al. (2010). Geoffrey (2014) acknowledges the importance of eLearning, especially in Africa, with eLearning’s significance being deemed as vast. Although the implications and challenges in implementing blended learning are considered for institutions in underprivileged communities such as Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Botswana, the attitude towards blended learning remains positive for both staff (mostly) as well as students as evidenced in a more recent investigation by Mwale and Chita (2020). Quality assurance in delivering a blended mode of learning is critical and Geoffrey (2014) asks the important question: What do we mean when we talk about quality in education? Once more, the inconsistencies in what quality assurance standards should be are highlighted, especially quality assurance standards in higher education differ from quality assurance standards in trade, commerce and industry with education being, “a very complex and highly individualistic phenomenon” (Geoffrey, 2014, p. 91). For Geoffrey (2014) quality assurance benchmarks include: exceptional high standards; perfection and consistency; fitness for purpose; value for money; and transformation capabilities. In exploring the implementation of blended learning in Uganda, Ayoo and Lubega (2008) take a different approach to determining quality assurance standards by asking questions that would guide the process: i) How are learning materials currently designed and developed? ii) Which Quality Assurance (hereafter QA) processes are in place? iii) Are any formal quality procedures, such as ISO 9001 in place? (This refers to the International Organization for Standardisation which is seen as the international standard to which quality management systems (QMSs) are subjected) iv) What guidelines and methodologies are in place for designing and underprivileged learning? v) Are materials used for accreditation/certification against professional standards/qualifications? vi) What is your policy for accessibility and usability? vii) How are materials maintained and updated? (p. 141). There are no concrete answers to these questions, which leaves the interpretation of quality standards as broad and arguably, highly contextual once more. What is also clear from the questions is that two 30

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 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

of the questions specifically ask what quality assurance processes are in place and if there even are any formal quality procedures in place. Ayoo and Lubega (2008) note in particular that (underprivileged) institutions would benefit from, “a more methodological approach to underprivileged blended learning programs” (p.142). As for the other studies that form part of this review, a lack of quality assurance standards is observable, which may be attributable to the fact that the focus is on challenges faced with blended learning, and quality assurance might not be a priority, which is a challenge in-and-of-itself. The lack of a more methodological approach and the issue regarding standards of quality assurance, speak to the complexity of the situation at underprivileged communities and once again highlight the value and benefit of institutional collaboration. In Table 1 there are some similarities when it comes to quality assurance standards: pedagogical factors (Fresen, 2007) and the development of material (Ayoo & Lubega, 2008) feature prominently and the design of the learning material and the course (Fresen, 2007) and (Ayoo & Lubega, 2008). However, the majority of the aspects listed across the different institutions in different underprivileged communities do not indicate a similarity. It is apparent that institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities agree that in terms of quality assurance standards there is no single, generalisable model that suits every institution. Although not a ground-breaking finding, what is important is that institutions should establish their own benchmarks concerning what is achievable and what is feasible in delivering courses through blended learning by taking into consideration both lecturer and student perceptions in conjunction with the resources available. The similarities between the two types of institutions do illustrate importance for curriculum and content design/development; staff and student considerations; and policy/strategic management standards. Granted, these are universal, but it does show some form of integration in terms of quality assurance standards. What would be useful is for institutions to collaborate so that they may identify strengths and weaknesses in the quality of blended learning, which is why mirroring existing studies across institutions within the same region is vital because then those strengths and weaknesses that are compared can inform the development of quality assurance standards in a more precise manner, particularly in policy development. The differences between the privileged and underprivileged institutions’ perception of quality assurance is that while institutions in privileged communities take student perspectives into account, institutions in underprivileged communities do not do this as prominently (at least not according to recent literature that has been reviewed in this chapter) – why this is the case is beyond the scope of this review, however, it is an important consideration in establishing quality assurance standards for institutions in underprivileged communities, especially if the premise of quality assurance and blended learning is being contextually governed. The development and implementation of quality assurance standards should be informed by the challenges faced by different institutions and in-so-doing, policy could be tailored accordingly (Tamrat, 2020) especially through lessons learned from institutions that face similar struggles and that have overcome those struggles. The next section addresses the success and challenges of implementing blended learning in both privileged and underprivileged institutions.

CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING BLENDED LEARNING AT INSTITUTIONS IN PRIVILEGED AND UNDERPRIVILEGED COMMUNITIES In an effort to compare the challenges faced by both privileged and underprivileged institutions, the articles under review were subjected to an open-coding technique through the use of ATLAS.ti 8. The 31

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

aim of the open coding was not to determine frequencies, but rather to identify the challenges faced by institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities and what the similarities and differences actually are. It must be noted that a much broader review of literature regarding this would be useful as a future research endeavour. Table 2 illustrates the similarities and differences related to the challenges faced in implementing blended learning. Table 2. Similarities and differences in challenges for institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities Similarities in challenges for institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities Lack of management insight/support (Comba et al., 2009; Rizvi et al., 2017; Tshabalala et al., 2014; Geoffrey, 2014) Time as a challenge for staff (Comba et al., 2010; Picciano, 2009; Fitzgibbon & Jones, 2004; Kidney et al., 2007; Rizvi et al., 2017; Geoffrey, 2014., Tshabalala et al., 2014) Blended learning less attractive to staff (Picciano, 2009; Comba et al., 2010; Tshabalala et al., 2014) Challenges of staff development (Fitzgibbon & Jones, 2004; Geoffrey, 2014; Machumu & Kisanga, 2014) New teaching skill as a challenge to staff (Fitzgibbon & Jones, 2004; Rizvi et al., 2017; Ayoo & Lubega, 2008) Differences in challenges for institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities Institutions in privileged communities

Institutions in underprivileged communities

Bypassing quality assurance processes

Lack of quality assurance standards

Quality assurance not valued by staff

Culture as a barrier

Difficulty with e-assessment

English as language of delivery is a challenge

Lack in course/material design

Funding as a challenge

Need for accommodating students with disabilities

Inadequate infrastructure

Plagiarism as a challenge

Internet connectivity as a challenge Lack of necessary software Lack of policy Lack of student support Lack of understanding of the concept of blended learning Location in an underprivileged context as a challenge

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Technology as a challenge for staff (Thurab-Nkhosi, 2006)

At the outset quality assurance standards and practices remain a challenge for both institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities with some variation in the reason as to why. Both institutions face the challenge of a lack of institutional/managerial input and support as well as some reluctance from staff to fully embrace the implementation of blended learning. The list of differences in the challenges experienced by these institutions experience (privileged and underprivileged) is substantially more comprehensive than the list which highlights the similarities. It is clear from Table 2 that institutions in underprivileged communities face more challenges, especially with respect to infrastructure, resources, and a lack of policy. It is significant that institutions in privileged communities experience that quality assurance standards are sometimes being bypassed or being undervalued, while at institutions in underprivileged communities there often seems to be a lack of quality assurance standards in the first place, which obviously inhibits QA immensely. It should also be

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 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

kept in mind that if the resources to implement blended learning are lacking, establishing quality assurance standards will have to reflect this and as the infrastructure is updated, so should quality assurance standards. It will certainly be a continuous process. Some of these challenges, such as the development and implementation of a blended learning policy and then subsequently a QA policy for blended learning, could be addressed in an official capacity and at institutional level and this would be a step in the right direction.

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STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT – THE NEED FOR POLICY The review of the literature highlighted various aspects and made it clear that the concept of quality assurance in blended learning is a wide-ranging and complex topic. The rest of this chapter will focus on policy and policy implementation, and specifically policies regarding Quality Assurance (QA) in blended learning. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, institutions in privileged communities have established six benchmark categories with regard to quality assurance in blended learning. One of these categories is strategic management, which specifically includes the establishment and application of relevant policies to aim to ensure effective quality assurance. Policies create a framework; point of reference and a guide as to what the goals and objectives of the said institutions are. Additionally, policy also establishes actions, processes, and procedures with regard to the topic or aspects at hand — in this case quality assurance in blended learning (Baleka et al., 2016). The functioning of a policy, initiatives, and properly conducted and funded research go a long way in supporting and facilitating the dissemination of best practices (Roumell & Salajan, 2014). Through policy these best practices can then be integrated horizontally and vertically throughout an organisation, institution, or department (Roumell & Salajan, 2014). Graham et al. (2013) adds that policy can contribute significantly to “strengthen and encourage a greater commitment for a university to improve student learning, access, flexibility and cost-effectiveness.” (p. 4). It is therefore imperative that higher education institutions, irrespective of their context, understand the importance of policy as a building block and driver of effective quality assurance. Policies should be accepted on institutional level and not just on individual faculty level, to contribute to effectiveness. (Graham et al., 2013). The implementation of policy could also facilitate crucial changes and it could assist in influencing the practices of staff members (Basheka et al., 2016). An organisation should imbue their policy, structures, and strategies with formal status and ensure that it is accessible and widely available. Vlachopoulos (2016) remarks that a study by the ICDE (International Council for Open and Distance Education) in Asia during 2011 indicated that “positive correlation between the strength of formal policy “ (Vlachapoulos, 2016, p. 189) and a readiness by the different institutions to embrace these policies, is one of the crucial factors in achieving success when it comes to the implementation and application of quality assurance. The remark by Ayoo and Lubega (2008) that (underprivileged) institutions would benefit from, “a more methodological approach to underprivileged blended learning programs” also clearly speaks to the need for a concerted, methodological and effective approach to ensuring quality assurance at higher education institutions, and the establishment and implementation of policy would be one of the first steps in achieving this. A lack of policy, or alternatively poorly drafted policies, can be seen as a major challenge when it comes to the implementation of blended learning and the data contained in this chapter confirms this.

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 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

WHAT IS POLICY? There are various views and definitions regarding what exactly policy entails. Some definitions are more academic than others but Ogrizek (2020) supplies a very concise and simple definition of policy when he states that policy is a: “position or view taken on a particular issue or matter by an authority” (p. 1). He then goes to explain “a policy instrument is a vehicle that disseminates and implements the given policy” (Ogrizek, 2020, p.2) and he identifies three main types of policy instruments. These are: (1) Formal instruments – legislation, manuals, rules, regulations etc.; (2) Informal instruments - e.g., emails, letters, circulars and; (3) Structural instruments – “where behaviour is directed through physical, environmental, process or technological design, e.g. funding initiatives that support certain activities” (Ogrizek, 2020, p. 3). Lastly, he distinguishes between high-level policy and operational policy (Ogrizek, 2020). High-level policy comes directly from the applicable authority in the form of mostly legislation; and operational policy, and explains and outlines the actual procedures and processes that have to be followed to implement the policy (Ogrizek, 2020). What constitutes good policy? Ogrizek sees good policy as policy that: is effective, achieves the objectives and something that works. (Ogrizek, 2020). He lists the following as being characteristics of good policy:

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• • • • •

On point – it focuses on the issues and addresses the issues Informed- proper and sufcient research and consultation have gone into it Comprehensive – it covers all the necessary aspects Practical – it works and can be implemented on a practical level Clear and accessible - easy to understand and easy to fnd

Policies also ensure legality and enforceability (Demiray, 2010) and an effective policy ensures changes and improvements with regard to the actions of the institution and the individuals within the institution (Baleka & Lubega, 2016). Institutional improvement requires policy to clearly demand certain and specific policy actions and must indicate who should be responsible for these actions (Baleka & Lubega, 2016). If a policy has the aforementioned features or characteristics, it will be successful in addressing the problem or issue and the needs of the users of the policy (Ogrizek, 2020). Policy is therefore instrumental in QA because it creates a framework and offers direction and carries with it also the power of enforceability. Mohee (2018) suggests the creation of a framework for QA in ODL, which involves a great deal of blended learning of course, should include: a general philosophy; products; services and support processes as key components of a framework for QA. For him, a general philosophy entails a policy, mission, and ethos that the organisation should subscribe to, while products refer to learning materials, courses, resources etc. This entails services such as registration and tutoring, support services amongst others, and support processes include record keeping and QA procedures to name a few (Mohee, 2018). The literary review mentioned earlier in this chapter, also indicates that participants at institutions in both privileged and underprivileged communities realize the need for strategic management and guidance and leadership at institutional level when it comes to the establishment and implementation blended learning as well as the implementation of a QA policy for blended learning. (See Tables 1 and 2). The literature thus confirms the importance of strategic management and institutional guidance and support when it comes to policy development and implementation. 34

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

The establishment of a policy regarding QA in blended learning is the first step to ensure a solid framework for QA in blended learning. This is the first step toward ensuring QA in blended learning, it is therefore important to ascertain what has been done in this regard when it comes to institutions in underprivileged communities especially, since the latter seems to face a greater challenge than institutions in privileged communities.

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QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN UNDERPRIVILEGED COMMUNITIES Obviously different institutions have achieved different objectives with regard to QA in blended learning, and some have made more progress than others. It is therefore important to consider the context of each institution be it in privileged or underprivileged communities. One must be aware that even within privileged communities there could differences with regard to context, some differences between different institutions and organizations, some differences more profound than others, but this chapter does not focus on an in-depth discussion of this aspect. However, the authors are aware that a basic understanding and brief discussion of the differences in context between higher education institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities must be acknowledged and addressed, especially as far as it related to quality assurance in blended learning and the importance of policy in this regard. A brief look at higher education institutions in underprivileged communities, seems to indicate that it is still a fairly uphill battle and much still needs to be done. According to Swanzy et al. (2018) systems that deal with quality assurance is a fairly recent development in Africa. In a survey of twelve African institutions in underprivileged communities, only three of the institutions in underprivileged communities surveyed, namely Mauritius, South Africa, and Tanzania, execute quality audits (Hoosen et al., 2017). Fortunately, there have been substantial recent developments in the form of initiatives such as the Association of African Universities (AAU), the African Higher Education Harmonization Strategy, the Tuning Africa Pilot Project, and the African Quality Rating Mechanism (Swanzy et al., 2018) which have highlighted QA. Additionally, the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) has been assisting with quality assurance specifically with their Partnership for Enhanced and Blended Learning (PEBL) project, centred in East Africa (Perris & Mohee, 2020). In a country such as Kenya, a 2015 study on e-learning at three Kenyan public universities showed that institutions sometimes have a policy regarding e-learning (which is a vital component of blended learning) but this policy is not necessarily implemented effectively (Tarus et al., 2015). The one participant commented that his university has had a draft copy of a policy of e-learning for three years already, without any progress in this matter being shown. (Tarus et al., 2015). The findings of this study indicated that at Kenyan universities there are often no policies on e-learning or they are not operational. The study also points out that a policy framework is essential for successful implementation of policies (Tarus et al., 2015). Additionally, a challenge that many higher education institutions seem to face is that QA, with regard to blended learning, has not been integrated into a general QA system, or is not operational. A case study from the University of Namibia highlighted the fact that the ODL (Open Distance Learning) component of the university, which uses blended learning extensively, has not been integrated into the institutional framework that deals with QA (Mohee, 2018). There is a policy on QA but its procedures and systems

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lacked aspects and components that specifically deal with the integration of QA in ODL (Mohee, 2018). All modes are dealt with in the same manner by the institution which is problematic and short-sighted.

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS There are some institutions in underprivileged communities where QA in blended learning has made some significant strides. The Open University of Mauritius is an example of such an institution. To better understand the work that has been done by this institution, it is imperative to have a look at the context of QA in a country such as Mauritius.

Regulatory Framework In Mauritius the regulatory body which deals with higher education matters is currently the Higher Education Commission (HEC) and it has replaced the Tertiary Education Commission (hereafter TEC) which had dealt with these issues previously. The Higher Education Act No 23 of 2017 promulgated by the Mauritian government, deals with Higher Education matters and has established a Higher Education Commission (HEC) under section 4 of the Act. The overarching objective and purpose of this Commission is to “monitor and oversee the higher education sector” (Section 5(a) of the Act). It has various functions (as detailed in Section 6 of the Act) and various powers (Section 7 of the Act) when dealing with the Higher education sector. The act also deals with quality assurance matters. The Act recognizes the Quality Assurance Authority AA and its subsequent Board (Sections 28 – 40 deal with the authority, objectives and functions of the QAA and its board). Section 29 of the Act specifically states the objectives of the QAA when it says: 29. Objects of Authority The Authority shall – (a) promote, maintain and enhance – (i) quality assurance of higher education in line with international standards; (ii) high quality standards in higher education through appropriate quality assurance mechanisms;

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(b) enhance and identify good practice in higher education There is, therefore, a detailed framework offered by the Mauritian government regarding QA and the regulation and application of it by means of legislation. The higher education institutions then draft and implement policies to ensure that they adhere to this legislation. This ensures a proper framework is in place from a legislative perspective regarding QA, which is an essential part of strategic management when it comes to QA. Additionally, and very importantly, it encourages higher education institutions to maintain high standards and promote and nurture quality assurance while encouraging best practices in the operation of the different institutions (Patten & Chadee, 2018). 36

 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

Implementation of the Policy

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The Open University of Mauritius was established as recently as 2012. The Institution offers virtually all its courses through a blended mode of delivery (Patten & Chadee, 2018). In their case there is a combination of on-site learning and distance learning, featuring online classes, on-site classes, and onsite examinations (Patten & Chadee, 2018). ISO refers to the process and procedures that regulate certification, accreditation, and quality assurance at institutions. The ISO 9001 processes were introduced in 2014 and the online component of the university became ISO-compliant in 2015 and was certified as such. The university’s staff was trained in ISO 9001:2008 standards and “Processes and Quality Objectives were developed and addressed in the Quality Policy Manual for all divisions and units of the University” (Patten & Chadee, 2018, p. 10). The university also submits itself to a quality audit every 5 years, which is done by the regulatory body which is the TEC (Patten & Chadee, 2018). In March 2018 a report was prepared and published by a panel from the Tertiary Education Committee (TEC). This report was based on an audit of the Open University (hereafter OU) of Mauritius which was conducted by the TEC as part of its responsibility “to ensure, promote and monitor quality in tertiary institutions in Mauritius.” (TEC Report, 2018, p. 3). The panel applauded the OU for its efforts but pointed out that a formal quality assurance framework was lacking (TEC Report, 2018). It added that it felt the establishment of such a framework would go a long way in assisting with “the development, coordination and monitoring of academic quality.” (TEC Report, 2018, p. 29). It called for the OU to be proactive and “formalise its institutional approach to quality assurance in a way that is apt to its context and vision and, at the same time, clear with regard to criteria, responsibilities, processes, capacity and line of reporting” (TEC Report, 2018, p. 7). The university subsequently developed and drafted a Quality Assurance Policy, with a focus on blended learning, which is a very proactive move indeed given the context of QA in blended learning. This policy was approved by the different units and divisions and ultimately by the Board and was implemented in July 2018 (Patten & Chadee, 2018). The document addresses specific key elements which should be the focus of the university and its staff members (Patten & Chadee, 2018). The TEC report indicated that a QA policy should reflect the objectives of quality assurance to everyone involved and should emphasise that accountability is at the heart of any quality assurance process and framework, and that the establishment of a culture of continuous improvement is critical (TEC Report 2018). The Quality Assurance Policy of the OU implemented in July 2018 strives to do this and the next audit (which should be within 5 years after the 2018 audit) should reflect to which extent this has been achieved, but there are some promising signs.

THE UGANDA TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY (UTAMU) Further afield the Uganda Technology and Management University seems to have achieved great strides in successful implementation of a blended learning policy at their institution. The Institute has developed and implemented an E-learning policy which shows the university’s commitment: “to enhancing quality flexible learning which has to be in consistent with its strategic priorities, such as increased use of information and communication technologies in teaching and learning, flexible modes of learning and

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cost‐effectiveness of courses and leads the University towards the realization of its Vision and Mission” (UTAMU Policy, 2012, p. 3). In its policy statement it undertakes to support the goals of the national ICT policy and wishes to provide e-learning that is: “flexible, responsive and effective and meet the needs of all its learners and partners.” (UTAMU E-learning Policy, 2012, p. 4). Additionally, the policy also states that the policy aspects will be rooted in all the relevant university policies in order to guarantee a corporate approach by all stakeholders (UTAMU E-learning Policy, 2012). There are 10 guiding principles listed dealing with: curriculum matching; engagement of learners; assessment; coherence; consistency; equality and quality processes to name a few (UTAMU Policy E-learning, 2012). The policy’s main objective is to “facilitate and support e-learning through the use of information and communication technologies by guiding and coordinating all the stakeholders within and outside the university.” (UTAMU E-learning Policy, 2012, p. 6). The policy also refers to the different stakeholders and the roles they are expected to fulfil regarding e-learning and touches on the implementation of the policy as well (UTAMU E-learning Policy, 2012, p. 6). UTAMU has followed through on this by being extremely innovative in developing two different models for their blended learning teaching and learning activities (Basheka et al., 2016). They specifically use blended learning in teaching M&E (Monitoring and Evaluation) at postgraduate level. The two different models of delivery are: a block release model and a UTAMU hybrid model (Basheka et al., 2016). The block release model caters for students who do not have the time or resources to attend classes regularly, while the UTAMU hybrid model uses all sorts of different electronic means in order to improve and elevate teaching and learning (Basheka et al., 2016). The UTAMU blended-learning model has proven to be very successful and it addresses many of the different challenges of providing quality higher education within an African context (Basheka et al., 2016). The university has forged a long-term collaboration with a European university which has meant that the M & E courses can be delivered online— a rare feat (Tiravanhu et al., 2018). The collaboration offers not just a sub-Saharan reach, but also a global reach and has assisted in building capacity with regard to M& E (Basheka et al., 2016). This once again underlines the benefit of collaboration, as has been noted earlier in this chapter. The establishment and implementation of a policy dealing with blended learning, in this case elearning, laid the foundation for action, direction and eventual implementation. Establishing policy in itself, will not guarantee QA in blended learning, but it is one of the first, and very crucial steps on the road to effective QA.

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CONCLUSION Overall, perspectives of quality assurance standards between privileged and underprivileged institutions, and even within the same type of institutions, are dissimilar. It may be that contextual parameters such as location and available resources are the catalysts for this, but this is obviously a complex matter. It is therefore essential that when addressing QA in general, and even more so when addressing it in blended learning, that context should always be considered and be seen as an integral part of the discussion when it comes to this matter. A lack of consensus about what exactly blended learning is, can be problematic. However, in general, though, there does seem to be a fair amount of agreeability in what blended learning is. However, the 38

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 Quality Assurance in Blended Learning at Institutions in Privileged and Underprivileged Communities

ideas surrounding how and what to implement is not straightforward, and different perspectives of how blended learning is to be achieved with the available resources will automatically affect quality assurance standards. The issue of exactly what quality entails when it comes to blended learning is another main obstacle in the process of establishing and implementing QA standards. Institutions in privileged communities do not all agree on this matter, but there seems to be a fairly high level of consensus regarding what quality entails, which is not the case at institutions in underprivileged communities. Institutions in privileged communities tend to highlight the importance of benchmarking and focus on specific categories when it comes to QA standards - the six benchmark categories referred to earlier in the chapter serve as a good example of this. The higher the degree of consensus, the greater the chance of success, and this remains a definite challenge when it comes to QA in blended learning. The point remains (as seen in both Table 1 and 2) quality assurance standards can be elusive and in order for institutions in underprivileged communities to move towards setting and attaining such standards, there are more fundamental aspects such as resources, infrastructure and policy to consider, which again highlights the importance of context. The latter must always be considered, but meaningful collaboration between various institutions and stakeholders across all spheres, both privileged and underprivileged, is essential in establishing and attaining quality standards and should be pursued vigorously. This will ensure mutual benefit and growth for institutions in all the different contexts, which can only be advantageous for higher education in general. There is no doubt that effective quality assurance in blended learning is imperative, for both institutions in privileged and underprivileged communities, and it is also clear that collaboration and a greater understanding of various contexts will be crucial in this whole process. Strategic management is seen as one of the pillars of quality assurance and this involves, amongst other things, the drafting, establishing, and implementing of policies to govern a process such as quality assurance in higher education institutions. The implementation of policy at institutional level is essential in driving a QA process. Policies frame and guide the goals and objectives of an institution. Furthermore, policy establishes the actions, processes and procedures that must be followed in order to achieve the goals and the objectives of the institution. Therefore, policies on QA and specifically QA in blended learning, should do exactly this. Unfortunately, in some institutions in underprivileged communities, and especially in Africa, there seems to be a lack of the development of effective policies regarding QA in blended learning. Often policies are not in place or are poorly drafted and limited in their scope. Fortunately, there are also some encouraging developments in the form of various initiatives such as: the Association of African Universities (AAU), the African Higher Education Harmonization Strategy, the Tuning Africa Pilot Project, and the African Quality Rating Mechanism (Swanzy et al., 2018) which have recognised the importance of QA. Projects such as The Partnership for Enhanced and Blended Learning (PEBL) project, centred in East Africa and propelled by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) will be hugely beneficial in addressing QA issues in underprivileged communities. Then there are the local heroes, institutions in underprivileged communities such as Mauritius and Uganda, that have managed (at institutional level) to draft and establish policies regarding QA in blended learning and that are continually revising and updating these policies in a continuous attempt to enhance QA in blended learning. They have taken the first crucial steps in the QA process – establishment and implementation of relevant policies – and have achieved some significant success. Hopefully, others will follow suit.

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Moriarty, J. P., & Smallman, C. (2009). En route to a theory of benchmarking. Benchmarking, 16(4), 484–503. doi:10.1108/14635770910972423 Mwale, M., & Chita, J. (2020). Higher education and programme delivery in the context of COVID-19 and institutional closures: student responses to the adoption of e-Learning at a public university in Zambia. In N. Ndimande-Hlongwa, L. Ramrathan, N. Mkhize, & J. A. Smit (Eds.), Technology-based Teaching and Learning in Higher Education during the Time of COVID-19 (pp. 9–33). CSSALL. doi:10.29086/9780-9869936-1-9/2020/AASBS02 Nguyen, H. C., Ta, T. T. H., & Nguyen, T. T. H. (2017). Achievements and lessons from Vietnam’s Higher Education Quality Assurance system after a decade of establishment. International Journal of Higher Education, 6(2), 153–161. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n2p153

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Chapter 3

ICTs Used Effectively to ReEnvision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities: Primary Schools in Ekurhuleni South District Puseletso Kekana University of South Africa, South Africa Leila Goosen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4948-2699 University of South Africa, South Africa

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ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter was to investigate how efectively information and communication technologies (ICTs) were used at primary schools in the Ekurhuleni South district of Gauteng Province, South Africa for re-envisioning and restructuring e-schooling in underprivileged communities. Governments and schools made huge investments, integrating ICTs and providing computer-based education, to support teaching and learning. There have been numerous initiatives, which have been endorsed by national and international bodies worldwide. The main aim of all ICT-based initiatives was to enhance the quality of education and prepare learners for the emerging digital world. Numerous studies across the world have provided impressive outcomes for the use of ICTs in schools, and more evidence is also emerging regarding the sustainability of ICT transformation in schools. There has also been abundant literature, which emphasized the need for teachers to change their beliefs about and perceptions of ICTs in order to realize the full potential.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch003

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

INTRODUCTION This introductory section will describe the general perspective of the chapter and end by specifically stating the objective. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in education have a long history and it has come to be acknowledged that ICT can enhance the teaching and learning process. The education sector has seen ICT evolve from the mid-1980s, where the CD-ROM was brought into the educational environment. This is the era that saw learners learning how to store audio and video data on a compact disk. Today, the CD-ROM is less important, as flash drives are used; this means technology is changing from one century to another. The 1990s introduced learners to the internet. Education became efficient with the introduction of the internet. The internet went through its own evolution cycle, from being slow and unreliable, to today with fast, reliable technologies enabling learning, even without the help of teachers. The 21st century also brough with it “the widespread use of interactive whiteboards”, which is gradually replacing the blackboard and was labelled as a ‘miracle’ in classrooms across the world (Rodger, 2016). The latter author further commented that the latest technologies are introduced to education, from “virtual learning environments, to educational computer games and an increasing reliance on the use of cloud-based technologies”, such as email and e-learning platforms. “ICT and computing today is huge, so much so that” it had “become part of the curriculum.” These technologies had seen classroom experiences being improved, where modern devices are used to allow learners to study in 3D. With aspect similarities to the paper by Vorster and Goosen (2017), which offered a framework for university partnerships promoting continued support of e-schools, the focus of this research is on developing an improved understanding of how this evolution and the inclusion of technologies in the education environment are benefiting primary school learners in South Africa. This research will analyze whether the wider availability of ICT devices (hardware) and software, which are readily available, is being used and beneficial to a primary school learner. The research will also shed light on how primary school teachers are perceiving and incorporating ICT into their classrooms and provide insights into how ICT in primary schools can contribute to the success of teaching and learning.

Target Audience

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The target audience and potential users of this chapter will include those offering e-schooling opportunities in less-privileged settings and to under-served and marginalized populations, by providing technology-supported teaching and research methods for educators (Goosen, 2019a). The chapter would also be useful to researchers interested in the concept of e-education.

Objective The research reported on in this chapter set out to explore the current usage and effectiveness of ICT tools in primary schools and assess whether cell (mobile) phone and ICT policies in schools, particularly primary schools, are enabling e-schooling and showing the impact of ICT usage from as early in their education as when a child is attending Early Childhood Development (ECD) centers, also known as daycare centers, in South Africa (Wajszczyk, 2014). The research also allowed the authors to conduct a study into learners’ and teachers’ acceptance of ICT usage in the classroom and outside of school to enhance teaching and learning. 45

 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

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BACKGROUND This section will provide broad definitions and discussions of the topic and incorporate the views of others, in the form of a literature review, into the discussion to support, refute, or demonstrate the authors’ position on the topic. Denney and Tewksbury (2013) described a literature review as the collection of selected research previously conducted in the area of study; it also sets out the need for conducting the current study. This section of the study intends to equip the reader with the required knowledge and insights from studies previously conducted. There are currently limited studies on the impact that ICT and e-learning have on primary school learners and teachers in South Africa. The popularity of this content is impacted mainly by how ICT is perceived as to not be suitable for young children. However, there is a substantial amount of ICT in education research, which has been conducted and aimed at learners in high schools and at tertiary institutions, which the researchers were going to use to guide this study. Bolstad (2004, p. 1) defined ICT as anything, which allows one to obtain “information, to communicate with each other, or to have an effect on the environment using electronic or digital equipment.” ICT is also described as a mode of education that uses information and communication technology to enhance, support and optimize teaching and learning processes (Linways Team, 2017). e-Learning occurs when an individual learns through the usage of ICTs. Therefore, it is sufficient to say that e-learning happens simultaneously with the usage of ICT tools. The White Paper on e-Education (Department of Education (DoE), 2004, p. 14) affirmed that ICTs and e-education have been proven as a resource that can be used to “connect learners and teachers to better information, ideas and one another via an effective combination of pedagogy and technology”. Therefore, it suffices that e-learning, e-education and ICTs cannot be separated. For e-learning to begin gaining momentum in South African schools, ICT integration needs to have been designed and implemented to be at acceptable global levels and standards. The White Paper (DoE, 2004, p. 14) further asserted that e-education “is more than developing computer literacy and the skills necessary to operate various types of information and communication technologies”. Information and communication technologies are therefore viewed as resources, which can be used to enhance the country’s computer literacy skills and also, there is the view that ICT can be a subject that is offered in schools to enable learners to be taught how to operate the various ICT tools made available to them. The DoE (2004) clearly articulated in their policy document that primary schools’ ICT usage needs to be evaluated, so that it can be ascertained whether all primary schools are nurturing the abilities of learners to prepare them for the digital world. Along with a model for effectively teaching Information Technology for meaningful change in education (Goosen, 2020b, 2020c), Isaacs (2007, p. 10) highlighted that different models of implementation, “including public private-partnerships, provincial developmental models, and collaboration models” were proposed. This suggested “that the next few years” would “potentially witness a significant increase in the rollout of ICTs to schools in the form of public-private partnerships.” Audit firm KPMG had “been granted the role as the transactional advisor and they” were “engaged in a study involving a wide range of stakeholders, to ascertain the feasibility” of rolling “out a national program for all public schools and” Further Education and Training colleges. In the contexts of distance education and e-learning, Whelan (2008) discussed findings on the use of ICT in the South Pacific, and Goosen and Van Heerden (2017) showed how to go beyond the horizon of

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

learning programming with educational technologies, while Goosen and Mukasa-Lwanga (2017) added qualitative perspectives on distance education. Research shows that ICT skills will be a prerequisite for teachers to successfully transfer skills and for every school leaver to work and adapt in a world, which is shifting onto digital platforms in every sector, with the development of heuristics for the usability evaluation of m-commerce applications being but one such an example (Ajibola & Goosen, 2017). Therefore, it is imperative that school leavers be equipped with the necessary basic ICT skills and knowledge they require to survive in the information and knowledge world of today (Trucano, 2005). The statement by Trucano (2005) was positively supported by an online document, which stated that ICT stimulates collaboration and interaction amongst learners and teachers (Rodger, 2016). It is important to be aware that primary schools can help embed the basic skills needed for the future and that, if these basic skills are taught successfully, they become beneficial to the learner’s years ahead. Research by Cheok et al., (2017, p. 26) in Malaysia stated that one of the benefits of e-learning was flexibility “in learning regardless of place and time and that e-learning increases learner motivation and in the process it also increases their ICT usage and awareness of ICT’s potential as an alternative way of learning.” Noor-Ul-Amin (2013, p. 7) went on to highlight that more so than for any other type of ICTs, “networked computers with Internet connectivity” could increase learner motivation, as these combined “the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events.” To add onto the importance and benefits of ICT and e-learning, in their study, Mean, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia and Jones (2009, p. 19) found that a blend between “online and face-to-face instruction, on average, had stronger learning outcomes than did face-to-face instruction alone”. Watson (2014, p. 5) defined blended learning as the “integration of face-to-face and online learning to help enhance the classroom experience and extend learning through the innovative use of information and communications technology”. In one of the recommendations to East African schools, Tedla (2012, p. 206) indicated that the integration “of ICT into education has unquestionable importance”, as ICTs are prominent tools “to generate new information, processing, and handling of knowledge” for the enhancement of sustainable and inclusive quality education through research informed practice on (Goosen, 2018a), as well as new skills and productivity. Bolton et al., (2021) also indicated that productivity could be enhanced through the implementation of unified communication technologies at a global organization. ICT is becoming more entrenched and pervasive in the environments around children. Children are exposed to digital tools, such as smart phones, laptops and computers, from an early age in their homes and their everyday interactions with Smart TVs and programmed toys. It has been found that technology can have a positive impact on children from a young age; therefore, primary schools in South Africa should take advantage of this aspect and use it for the benefit of the learners. The document by Rodger (2016) listed reasons why technology in primary schools is so important, including it extending learning and the learning experience, enriching the curriculum, expanding learning horizons and helping with assessments. Children of today live in an era that is ICT rich and to not maximize the benefits of ICT in education would be a great dishonor to primary school learners. Research by Tinio (2003, p. 17) likewise suggested “that the use of computers, the Internet, and related technologies, given adequate teacher training and support, can indeed facilitate the transformation of the learning environment into a learner-centered one.” However, the latter researcher also acknowledged

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

critiques on such studies, as well as the fact that there was no evidence that supported that such new ways of learning improved learning outcomes. Dlamini (2015) looked at the changes that were introduced to make access and usage of ICT achievable in one specific metropolitan city in Gauteng. The findings were encouraging, noting that the “connection of citizens through Wi-Fi is expected to enhance (the) Gauteng provincial government’s initiative of having paperless classrooms. As more pupils receive tablets in the province, access to free internet is expected to improve; in particular, the youth’s access to both business and academic information”. These findings cemented the notion that municipalities were committed to supporting the objective of the DoE (2004) and the South African government to ensure that schools have free internet access; thus, improving the teaching and learning process. This can be added as an achievement in South Africa, as it continues to strive to improve access to ICT. However, network connectivity is still limited, and, where available, expensive in South Africa. According to Bolstad (2004, p. 72), some authors had “expressed the view that computer/ICT use” was not appropriate for the “cognitive, physical, social, and emotional development” of young children. There was, however, “no clear evidence to support this claim, and this view” had increasingly been replaced by a “view that, when used appropriately, ICT can be a useful tool for supporting young children’s learning and development.” ECD practitioners and researchers have agreed that children should be finding out about the uses of technology in their everyday lives from their early years. It is important that education keeps up with the pace of technological development and ensures that this process starts from primary school. Children should be exposed to using computers and be given the opportunity to explore with ICT just as they do with other forms of toys. Early exposure to ICT means that it (ICT) must form part of the ECD curriculum. When ICT is introduced and taught in primary schools, this should ensure that learners are well-prepared for future developments. Mikre (2011, p. 7) further supported the above-mentioned statement by indicating that such “use of computers at an early age helps learners learn ICT skills that help as tools in the education process.” Grimus (2000, p. 36) solidified the statement by concluding that by “teaching ICT skills in primary schools the pupils are prepared to face future developments based on proper understanding. Organization of learning must ensure the ability to use communicative, explorative and creative learning environments”. In South Africa, research to gauge how learners would respond to ICT inclusion in the curriculum was conducted by Nokwali et al., (2015, p. 568), with findings indicating that 78% of learners were motivated to learn Technology Education (TE), while 60% had a positive attitude towards the implementation of TE.

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PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE This section will present the authors’ perspective on the issues, controversies, problems, challenges, barriers, etc., as these relate to the theme and arguments supporting the authors’ position. It will also compare and contrast with what has been, or is currently being, done as it relates to the specific topic of the chapter and the main theme of the book. E-schooling, also known as e-learning, has been identified as a tool to teach and learn. School leaders, management and teachers strive and are eager to introduce e-learning into classrooms and communities, because it introduces the use and exposure to different technologies in schools and provides an alternative to the known traditional schooling system. 48

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

A move away from the notion of infrequent or non-use of ICT tools is likely, while researchers would rather start asking whether the available ICT tools are used effectively for educational purposes. A lot of research and literature published prove the benefits of using ICT tools in classrooms and the effectiveness of online or e-learning. The effectiveness of ICT is proven in one such a research study, which was conducted to measure the competency of learners using Project-Based Learning (PBL). Soparat et al., (2015) found that learners, who participated in PBL using ICT in different subjects, like Science, English, and Mathematics, developed both learning outcomes, as well as key competencies and capabilities related to communication, thinking, problem-solving, for applying life skills, and for technological application. In this problem statement, it is acknowledged that because ICT tools, such as smartphones, tablets and computers, have become prevalent in South African homes, now is the right time for the education sector to take advantage and use this fact for the benefit of enhancing teaching and learning from primary school level. Many research studies have stated reasons to use ICT in classrooms from motivating learners to how teachers can enhance the learning experiences of learners. Research has also highlighted the effectiveness of online learning and ICT usage, but mainly for secondary schools and Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). As an example, in an article on policy networks and the transformation of secondary education through ICTs in Africa, Evoh (2007, p. 77) explored the prospects and challenges of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) e-schools initiative. The latter author emphasized the true meaning of ICT and quoted the former Education Minister of South Africa, Kader Asmal, that everyone “should be reminded that ICT connectivity is not about how many computers are in schools, but how teachers and learners use various technologies to achieve educational goals and improve their teaching and learning experiences”. The statement from the former minister suggested that to a large extent, the policy goal of the DoE (2004) should guide what technologies are used in schools to enhance teaching and learning, as the potential of each technology will vary in how and when it is used. Karangwa (2012) also provided policy insights from a case study on assessment of three NEPAD e-schools in Rwanda. Little rigorous research has, however, been published to highlight the effectiveness of e-learning for learners at primary school - this is important, as children’s lives are changing outside of school through the ICT tools available to them. The DoE (2004) and policy makers were well aware and conscious of the importance of ICT and e-education for the cognitive development of learners, improving teaching and learning methodologies, as well as education standards within South African schools. Simultaneously, policy makers and the DoE (2004) are equally aware of the challenges faced by schools to access and integrate ICT into the education system as a whole. Blignaut et al., (2006, p. 6) elaborated that it was known from the Second Information and Technology in Education Study “that the level of ICT access in South Africa” was very low. It was also known “that even those teachers who have access to at least 25 computers for learner use report limited integration of ICT into teaching and learning”. The implementation of the DoE (2004) policy requires partnerships with either State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) or private ICT companies. Introducing ICT to the education system and making ICT effective is expensive; therefore, government must build and sustain partnerships with private companies and non-governmental organizations. In such a case, the organizational knowledge and administration lessons, which could be gleaned from an evaluation of students’ access to innovative technologies and learning in an Information and Communication Technology for Development (ICT4D) Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) might be applicable (Goosen, 2018e, 2019d, 2021). This is especially important, since Hodas (1995) warned

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

that in the context of computerization and controversy, the organizational culture in schools could lead to technology refusal. Whelan (2008) noted the limitation of that survey as being biased in that the participants were techsavvy, the respondents to the survey were unevenly distributed across the region, and the survey merged all South Pacific nations into one region. All the information gathered from previous research, which indicated the challenges and negatives in the efforts to integrate ICT into teaching and learning should not repress newer projects to be initiated or projects to continue aiming to achieve the policy goal of the DoE (2004), the implementation of which has begun. The implementation of ICT integration in schools needs to continue despite the challenges that are documented by different researchers. The project managers and school leadership need to always take heed of the recommendation from researchers. The authors draw from research, which concluded that the importance of ICT is far beyond measure. This was emphasized by Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015, p. 176), in their research explaining that the “need for ICT integration in education is crucial, because with the help of technology, teaching and learning is not only happening in the school environment, but also can happen even if teachers and learners are physically” apart. Buabeng-Andoh (2012, p. 138) supported the argument from Ndlovu (2016), documented in a journal article focusing on the different factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration of ICT and stating that it was “believed that if teachers perceived technology programs as neither fulfilling their needs nor their learners’ needs, it is likely that they will not integrate the technology into their teaching and learning.” The latter statement, together with the argument from Ndlovu (2016), alluded to the fact that the teachers’ beliefs and perceptions played an important role in the success of integrating ICT in education. There are researchers, however, who have considered that it is not easy for teachers to break away from the traditional way of teaching: An article by Kawade and Kulkarni (2012) stated that teachers have “to play a facilitating role in an environment where students using computers could become active learners”, instead of being mere ‘transmitters of knowledge’. Teachers have to model self-regulated learning and the mediating effect of knowledge-sharing behavior as drivers of learners’ individual innovative behavior (Ngugi & Goosen, 2018). Mukhari (2016, p. 97) conducted research, which while observing that in as much as ICT usage South African schools is gaining momentum, also conceded that the “infrequent or non-use of computers creates an educational obstacle”. The limitations of the research by Mukhari (2016) was noted as having a small sample with schools selected from the same township and being based on the findings from a research project. Mukhari (2016) noted that the next steps would be to determine to what extent the findings of that research could be extrapolated and extended to other South African urban and rural schools that have ICT infrastructure for teaching and learning. Increased teacher’s confidence in ICT has a direct impact on the learners’ interest in the usage of ICT and promotes positive adoption attitudes from the learners towards ICT. There is no denying that the history of South Africa has put the country in a compromised position in comparison to its counterparts. The uniqueness that has shaped South African education has not put it in the best position when it comes to ICT. Chigona et al., (2014) believed that motivation in ICT in South African schools is influenced by a number of factors and pointed out that historically, disadvantaged schools are most likely to lack motivation, as they are inadequately resourced. To add onto the complexity, Wilson-Strydom et al., (2005, pp. 72-73), in their research paper on understanding ICT integration in South African classrooms, pointed out that in “practice, the adoption and integration of computers is a challenging and complex process for schools, particularly where there 50

 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

is limited previous experience in the use of ICTs to support teaching and learning.” The latter authors (Wilson-Strydom, et al., 2005, p. 82), however, concluded “that the use of ICT supports new ways of teaching and learning.” Jamieson-Proctor et al., (2006, p. 513) studied reports, which were commissioned by the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA). The former authors found that the BECTA report gathered evidence from different sources on facts, as well as perceived barriers to teacher uptake of ICT. The former authors stated four key findings from the BECTA report: (1) Confidence, time and access to quality resources are major factors in determining teachers’ engagement with ICT; (2) Recurring technical faults … are likely to reduce teacher confidence and cause teachers to avoid using the technology in future lessons; (3) Resistance to change is a factor that prevents the full integration of ICT in the classroom. … ; (4) There are close relationships between many of the identified barriers to ICT use … . If there is one thing for certain, it is that South Africa is working hard towards increasing the country’s digital literacy. One of the challenges facing ICT usage and roll-out in South Africa is access to the internet. South African efforts to eradicate or minimize this challenge have been noted; there has been a massive drive to roll out Wi-Fi connections in different cities, which aims to increase ICT access and usage at schools and all public areas where it can reach learners. Balanskat et al., (2006, p. 25) stated that when considering the impact of ICT in education there tends to be a focus on whether and to what extent, ICT can raise pupil attainment. Yet, it is often difficult to establish hard evidence of improved pupil attainment as a result of using ICT. Isolating the impact of ICT from all other factors that can affect achievement can be problematic. Ogembo et al., (2012, p. 2) sadly noted that each learner, who passed “through primary levels without computer exposure” placed Kenya further behind. This note from Ogembo, et al. (2012) is true for all countries and no country should be left behind when it comes to ICT and e-learning in education. To mitigate the note from Ogembo, et al. (2012), Mukuna (2013) stated that without a shift in the practice of teaching and learning with ICT in schools, many learners may not know how to exploit the opportunities that ICT has to offer.

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Research Questions This problem statement has brought the authors to the following questions, which guided the execution of the research study:

Main Research Question To what extent are ICTs being used effectively at primary schools in the Ekurhuleni South district for re-envisioning and restructuring e-schooling in underprivileged communities?

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

Secondary Research Questions 1. What are the barriers hindering the realization of the effective use of ICTs at primary schools? 2. What are learners’ opinions regarding the effective use of ICT at primary schools? 3. To what extent are primary school teachers in the Ekurhuleni South district confident of their effective use of ICTs? 4. To what extent can primary schools effectively cascade the ICTs and learning methods used in secondary schools and HEIs to their learners? Failure to consider learners’ existing access to digital tools as an advantage and investigate how to use it effectively in primary schools can negate the progress made thus far by the education sector to integrate ICT into schools. Failure to investigate how schools can cascade e-schooling methods used in secondary schools and at HEIs can result in negatively impacting the policy goal of the DoE (2004) to transform learning and teaching through ICT.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This section will discuss solutions and recommendations towards dealing with the issues, controversies, problems and/or barriers presented in the preceding sections.

Towards Solutions Within the reviewed literature, there are different approaches and contradictory results and because there had not been one research method that could be used for all research, the researchers took into consideration the most relevant research methodology for this study (Ragab & Arisha, 2018).

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Research Philosophy A system of assumptions and beliefs, which forms data collection and the development of knowledge, is referred to as a research philosophy by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019). Interpretivism is described as an approach, which allows the researcher to view the world through the perceptions and experiences of participants (Thanh & Thanh, 2015). The characteristics of this research influenced the researcher to lean towards the interpretivist paradigm as philosophy, because it was concerned with the learners’ use of ICTs and the teachers’ perceptions of ICTs and e-learning.

Research Design Correlational research gathers data from individuals on two or more variables and then seeks to determine if the variables are related (Ary et al., 2018). A case study design conducted at the University of South Africa examined students’ perceptions of e-assessment in the context of COVID-19 (Van Heerden & Goosen, 2021).

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

Research Approach The research approach details the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation (Creswell, 2019). Trans-disciplinary approaches to action research for e-schools, community engagement, and ICT4D were also considered for this study (Goosen, 2018b).

Research Strategies Within the research strategy, questionnaires were mainly used for data collection in surveys, because the answers were standardized (Walston et al., 2017).

Data Collection Tools As documented on the web page of Clark (2019), in this mainly quantitative research, open-ended questions and/or online surveys had to be used sparingly, as these needed to be coded in an acceptable way. Open-ended questions, however, allowed the researcher to explore views, perceptions, beliefs and motivations (Dabic & Stojanov, 2014).

Sampling and Population One objective of sampling method used in this research methodology was to ensure that the researcher obtained accurate data from the selected sample (Taherdoost, 2016). The sampling technique chosen for this research study was based on convenience, because participants were readily available. The population considered was a primary school in the Ekurhuleni South district of Gauteng province with the targeted population being teachers, the school leadership (i.e. the principal and school governing body) and the community around the teachers and learners (parents).

Validity and Reliability Internal consistency reliability is defined as a way to gauge how well a survey is actually measuring what it was intended to measure (Glen, 2016). For this project, internal consistency was tested for the reliability of teachers’ and school leadership’s gauging conscientiousness and openness.

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Ethical Clearance Ethical clearance had been obtained through the appropriate committee at the university. Ethical data management and applicable principles related to research integrity in the context of Information and Communication Technologies for the development of e-schools and community engagement (Goosen, 2018d) were applied to find solutions in these and similar contexts (Goosen, 2018c).

Data Analysis As mentioned by Costa, et al. (2014), data analysis was carried out on the relationship between teachers’ academic and continuous training. 53

 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

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Discussion of Results Taking into consideration the demographics of the study, it was seen that the majority of participants were teachers, and the majority of participants (6; 50%) belonged to the age group 35-45. Only a quarter (three) of participants were above the age of 45. This shows that people, who are aspiring to be in the teaching industry, are of a young age or generation and this is the generation that is ICT-inclined. This coincides with the research reported by South African Market Insights (2020), which found that for “Millennials aged between 23-38 attending university by field of study, as obtained from the Department of Higher Education” and Training, 22% of them (the second-highest percentage) were studying Education. Similar to what Ashime (2019) reported, this study found that teachers with fewer learners in their classrooms were able to spend time with their learners individually; also noting that the more individual attention a learner received, the more learning improved and the higher the academic access that could be achieved. An experiment carried out by Bannayan, et al. (2012) concluded that children given a shared digital resource can still learn optimally and learn anything on their own - this was also the shared understanding from teachers at this primary school. While conducting this study, the researchers found that although unaware and unofficially, the school investigated was utilizing the blended learning approach to further encourage learners to use ICT outside of school hours or on school premises to complete academic or educational tasks. This is a clear indication that even if a learner attends a school with limited ICT resources, there is nothing that stops teachers and parents from encouraging the usage of ICT tools. This research study agreed with the large body of research evidence about the positive effect that blended learning has and found that using a more holistic approach for introducing ICT in the education sector of South Africa can bring further success. The study found that the blended learning approach used by the school investigated was amongst the most researched approaches on how to successfully introduce ICT to learners at primary school level. The teachers’ methods of presenting subject content using ICT are promoting a positive adoption attitude from the learners towards ICT. A document by Watson (2014) concluded that blended learning was likely to emerge as the prominent teaching model of the future, since it combines the best elements of online and face-to-face education. Like Dziuban et al., (2018), this study concluded that blended learning produced improved success rates. This research study found that teachers at the school investigated acknowledged and concurred with findings that education is moving towards not only the improvement of digital literacy, but also inclusion: an overview of research on information systems and technology-supported teaching opening new worlds for learning to children with autism spectrum disorders showed how increased inclusion could be obtained (Goosen, 2019b, 2019c, 2020a). The research study conducted at the school investigated proved that a school does not need 100% working equipment and state-of-the-art IT laboratories, but computers and facilities that are suitable to enable teaching and learning to initiate the ICT integration at any school in South Africa. In their conference paper, Ndlovu and Lawrence (2012) discussed in depth how access to ICT is misinterpreted by educators and learners to mean having access to information from the internet and using the internet for educational purposes. This research has also proven that with committed school leadership and educators, the positive influence of ICT usage for educational purposes can be easily cascaded down to learners without any resistance; instead, enthusiasm towards ICT is experienced from learners. The school investigated does not have a policy, which relies on learners having smart devices (i.e. tablets, 54

 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

cellphones or laptops) to enable the ICT teaching and learning process. Therefore, one would not be certain whether or not the inclusion of learners having digital devices as a requisite could enhance the success of ICT usage at primary schools even further. Data analysis found that the type of training received by respondents was not a limiting factor in the use of ICT in an educational context. This study thus concluded that there was an urgent need to include strategies for the development of skills and competencies for teachers.

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Recommendations This study revealed that ICT integration in primary schools in South Africa are not exempted from the barriers found by other researchers in different countries. The barriers encountered during the study are not new, or barriers, which have not been noted by other researchers in previous studies. However, the findings of this study displayed different levels of barriers, where most of these were slowly being minimized, while others remained at high levels. The first barrier, which remains the most challenging and was ranked the highest, was related to limited software, software licenses and the installation of pirated software. Stevenson (1997) reported that inadequate and limited software relevant to the curriculum was one of the barriers to raising the quality of teaching using ICT. The second barrier, which was noted in the study, but not new to research, was teacher ICT training and ICT knowledge assessment. Many studies have shown alarming results, together with a recommendation of regularly updated teacher training, as this will enable teachers to face the challenges of the digital era. This barrier was clearly noted in the research by Ndlovu and Lawrence (2012) that showed that due to a lack of sufficient training, teachers were not maximizing the use of computer functionality to enhance teaching and learning. This is a barrier that needs to be closely monitored, as a lack of ICT knowledge from teachers will lead to reluctance from teachers to use or teach new technologies, as cautioned in the study by Ndlovu and Lawrence (2012) that basic ICT skills are not sufficient to prepare teachers to integrate ICT pedagogically. Results from the conference paper by Ndlovu and Lawrence (2012) underlined the chapter by Hodas (1995), which raised concerns and projected that a traditional conception of what schools should be like can lead to technology refusal; this could result in resistance by teachers to change a practice they are familiar with. Therefore, the education ministry must ensure that ICT is a concept that teachers are familiar with at every introduction of new technologies. It is therefore the authors’ recommendation that to ensure effective teaching and learning of ICT being included as part of the curriculum and the proper usage of ICT in schools, teacher training must be viewed as a fundamental issue that should be attended to by Departments of Education and school leadership. Teachers, who have been appropriately trained in ICT should be teaching the subject and made available to schools. Such teachers should be fully supported. The authors therefore agree with the recommendations made by previous studies regarding teacher training. The third barrier found to still be prevalent was time, where teachers elaborated how time affects their idea of successful ICT incorporation in class, and how they find it time consuming to source reliable, useful and relevant information and prepare lessons using ICT. Various research, including Hennessy and London (2013), also pointed out that the availability or lack of time is a negative factor affecting ICT integration in education. For future research, the authors’ recommendation is that researchers focus on investigating whether there might be a difference between what teachers claim to use ICT for and their actual classroom prac55

 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

tice. Future research on how teachers conduct learner evaluation and assessments using ICT could be helpful to the body of educational evidence. This recommendation comes on the back of evidence that ICT is intended to improve the overall teaching and learning, including the teachers’ administration tasks and lesson preparations. Today, a variety of ICT can facilitate not only the delivery of instruction, but also the learning process itself. The authors are therefore inclined to lean towards there being a disconnect, which may be ignored by teachers when using ICT for their administration and lesson preparation. It is evident that teachers are not only referring to the impact of time when it comes to their tasks, but teachers are also noticing the time impact of becoming skillful in using a computer and its programs to incorporate the required pedagogy into the existing curriculum. The last barrier noted in this study was limited ICT resources or equipment made available to facilitate teaching and learning in schools and for teachers. Bristi (2014) revealed that teachers were aware of the advantages of using ICT equipment. The teachers at the school investigated also noted the advantages they experienced with the use of ICT equipment in and out of their classrooms. However, with the noted challenge of limited equipment or resources, the school had taken up the blended learning approach, in order to realize the benefits of the few resources made available to them. The inclusion of Computer Science and Technology education in the school curriculum from as early as primary school level can be the factor that is needed to set learners up to succeed and cope in the digital world. Zsakó and Horváth (2017, p. 47) further added by recommending that all “learners should benefit from education in digital literacy, starting from an early age and mastering the basic concepts by age 12.” ICT is considered to be one of the fastest growing industries; therefore, to function in high school and out in the adult world, ICT knowledge is vital.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This section will further discuss future and emerging trends and provide insight about the future of the theme of the book from the perspective of the chapter focus. Future research opportunities within the domain of the topic will also be suggested. The study was faced with limitations, which hindered the overall success of the research conducted. The first limitation came from the country’s declaration of a national state of disaster, which took effect from 26 March 2020 due to the global pandemic caused by COVID-19. One of the regulations imposed that came with declaration of the national state of disaster was that schools were to be in a lockdown state; this meant that there was no human interaction allowed between the researcher and the school personnel (i.e. teachers, learners, administration staff, and the school leadership). This translated into a limitation when it came to certain research methods, such as observations and interviews that the researcher intended to use for this study, as the authors could no longer proceed to utilize all the intended data collection methods. A second limitation of the study was that it was conducted using only one primary school in only one geographical area, namely the Ekurhuleni South district. This limitation implied that the results of this study do not apply to all primary schools in South Africa or East Rand as a whole. For future research, the authors would suggest that more schools and a larger geographical area be covered, with a larger population and sample size, as that will reveal a true reflection of ICT in primary schools in South Africa. The third limitation was the number of data collection methods used for the study. The data collection method was only via online surveys and included twelve participants that answered these surveys. The collection method was too narrow for the depth that is required from 56

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 ICTs Used Effectively to Re-Envision and Restructure E-Schooling for Underprivileged Communities

this study. For future research, a larger target audience and a variety of collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and focus groups should be used. The addition of these collection methods would improve the quality of data collected and validate results. There were a few consequences that were experienced during the research study. The first consequence that occurred was that not all potential participants, who were provided with the survey, responded. The second consequence that occurred was that some of the participants did not complete the surveys, although the surveys sent had an option to save and complete later. This left gaps in the data required for the study. Because of the above-mentioned limitation regarding the national lockdown, the authors could not find new participants to complete more surveys to replace the incomplete surveys or to get a larger target audience. For future research, the authors would recommend that researchers find a way that allows participants to complete surveys once started; this will ensure that the research is properly conducted and concluded. Although studies, such as Padayachee (2017, p. 48), indicated that ICTs were “being used in the classroom, more in-depth knowledge is still required towards understanding the categories of technologies used and how this” facilitated pedagogy and content knowledge. However, the study by Padayachee (2017) was restricted to only the Tshwane South district. Padayachee (2017) also noted that the outcomes of that study were likely to be of significance to researchers, teachers and policy makers and that future research could involve deriving a framework of practical guidelines based on technology-based active learning to support educators in achieving effective ICT integration into their teaching practices. According to El-Seoud et al., (2014, p. 25), “one of the crucial factors for learners’ success in (the) e-learning process is self-motivation. The integration of information and communication technologies with the learning process depends on the participants’ personal motivation.” Meanwhile, Harandi (2015) indicated that when teachers apply e-learning, more motivation is generated by learners and vice versa, but concluded that applying e-learning as a tool in education needs some attention in future research. “The teacher of the future must not only be accomplished in the use of ICT but also in pedagogical design” (Lee, 2002, p. 3). Teachers are needed, who are ready and willing to change how they teach. A study by Hennessy et al., documented what may be deemed as such a shift, stating that most “teachers perceived ICT as very useful and making teaching and learning easier.” Furthermore, the latter authors also stated reasons, which teachers indicated for using ICT: “they feel that their own use of computers benefits their learners, and secondly, teachers feel learners benefit from using computers themselves. Teachers see ICT as kindling learners’ interest and learning in the subject.” Previous research by Lee et al., (2009, p. 1326) highlighted that “playfulness positively affects the intention to use e-learning”, with one “of the recent trends in educational services” being to improve “educational outcomes by incorporating amusement”. Noting that playfulness and amusement are used as primary school teaching methods, the authors conclude that the introduction of ICT to primary schools is an achievable objective that the ministry of education can focus on. The authors can also subjectively conclude that the school investigated is due to achieve ICT transformation and obtain high results in digital literacy. To further understanding of how the country’s SOEs viewed the importance of e-learning and technology in education, in order to support the policy goal of the DoE (2004), clear alignment was shown where Telkom (2015, p. 2) declared that e-learning was “important for producing young people who are comfortable with technology as they grow up in an increasingly digital world. e-Learning can build technical skills and enrich educational experiences across the curriculum”. It is evident from Telkom

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(2015) that the SOE fully supported the DoE (2004) policy goal as part of the considerations and trends for the education sector.

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CONCLUSION This section will provide discussion of the overall coverage of the chapter and concluding remarks, especially on unexpected insights discovered during the research. Firstly, and the most important insight to be found by the researcher, was that primary school learners are enthusiastic about ICT usage and as per the findings from this study, learners were also encouraged to use ICT tools at school and outside of the school by their teachers. In general, there is a positive attitude from both the learners and teachers towards ICT. This finding is proving to be beneficial and more positive outcomes have been noticed by the teachers at the school investigated in the overall teaching and learning process. The enthusiasm noted by the teachers at the school investigated in the learners supported the outcomes from research conducted by Vaníček (2013), which also found that primary school learners grew enthusiastic when they discovered that ICT was going to be a compulsory subject at their school in the Czech Republic. This finding is contrary to research documented by Selwyn, Potter and Cranmer (2009), which found that when primary school learners engaged with ICT, it was often with no interest or effort. Therefore, the authors can conclude that there has been a great deal of improvement from when Selwyn, et al. (2009) conducted their research and that primary school learners and teachers are ready and have a positive acceptance of ICT. Secondly, the researcher found that South Africa has made progress in implementing ICT at its schools, including primary schools. The researcher found that irrespective of the minimal ICT tools made available to the school, the tools are being used effectively by teachers to facilitate the teaching and learning process. This shows that the ICT policy goal of the DoE (2004) is being implemented. ICT in education can be rolled out and positively impact any learners at any level of education it is introduced to. The progress with the implementation of ICT in schools across South Africa might be slow, but it is being realized within the education sector. Thirdly, the researcher found that the teachers’ confidence in ICT usage to enhance teaching and learning was high at the school investigated. As indicated by previous research, this is the confidence, which translates into high usage and adoption of ICT by the learners. This finding is in agreement with results from a research study by Jamieson-Proctor, et al. (2006), which found that 43.7% (which was noted as high) of teachers, who responded to the indicated survey, were reasonably confident in using ICT for teaching and learning. It can be concluded that the teachers’ confidence is closely linked to the teachers’ views on how good the quality of ICT service is at their school, how the existing ICT tools are effectively used for teaching and learning process and the support teachers receive from the school leadership. Lastly, it was found that when ICT was introduced in primary schools and included in the curriculum, it can be just as effective as it is when included and used in high schools and at HEIs. This outcome was supported by Jenkin (2009), who concluded that if ICT is used and supported appropriately within the school, improved academic achievements can be noticed. In conclusion, Jenkin (2009) also stated that with ICT, learners can improve their creative thinking and ICT can encourage the development of skills that learners can use in the real world. In other research, Henry (2015, p. 10) concluded that the

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children being taught “live in an age where ICT is a core element of how” learning, working, playing and connecting with and contributing to society is done. ICT is a powerful tool that can be used to enhance teaching and learning from an early age of a learner’s life. In a digital era, the authors believe that every school leaver must be equipped from as early as possible to navigate and cope with the basic digital demands of the world. The earlier a learner learns how to use technology for educational purposes, and not only for entertainment, and having learners, who may long to learn and use the computer and other available technological devices for educational and developmental purposes, both the child’s motivation and ICT knowledge may grow with time. This may be beneficial to ICT in education. The DoE (2004) initially focused most of their efforts for ICT in education roll-out on high schools and HEIs. Wernet et al.,(2000) and Almekhlafi (2006) had also observed that the use of technology in education was becoming an increasingly important part of higher and professional education. However, this research proved that the narrative must be changed to ensure that ICT is included for primary school learners, as well. The authors agree with the opinion expressed by Freeman et al.,(2007, pp. 755-770) that “if institutions help learners to feel connected academically, such learners are more likely to persevere with their studies.” This opinion can be easily translated to primary school learners, as their minds are at an information absorbing stage. The findings of this study indicated that teachers and administration staff at the school are assisting their learners to be academically connected, whether it was via the traditional teaching method or via ICT, and this was to ensure that learners are kept engaged in the academic activities to motivate the learners to preserve in their schooling careers.

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Trucano, M. (2005). Knowledge MAPS: ICT in Education - What Do We Know about the Effective Uses of Information and Communication Technologies in Education in Developing Countries? Washington, DC: infoDev/World Bank. Van Heerden, D., & Goosen, L. (2021). Students’ Perceptions of e-Assessment in the Context of Covid-19: The Case of UNISA. In Proceedings of the 29th Conference of the Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (SAARMSTE) (pp. 291-305). SAARMSTE. Vaníček, J. (2013). Introducing Topics from Informatics into Primary School Curricula: How do teachers take it? (pp. 47-49). Commentarii informaticae didacticae. Vorster, J., & Goosen, L. (2017). A Framework for University Partnerships Promoting Continued Support of e-Schools. In Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference of the Southern African Computer Lecturers’ Association (pp. 118-126). Magaliesburg: North-West University. Wajszczyk, R. (2014). A study of the impact of technology in early education. Uppsala University. Walston, J., Redford, J., & Bhatt, M. (2017). Workshop on Survey Methods in Education Research: Facilitator’s guide and resources. Washington, DC: Department of Education. Watson, J. (2014). Blended Learning: The Convergence of Online and Face-to-Face Education. Retrieved from https://issuu.com/acsathens/docs/nacolpp-blendedlearning-lr Wernet, S., Olliges, R., & Delicath, T. (2000). Postcourse Evaluations of WebCT (Web Course Tools) Classes by Social Work Students. Research in the Sociology of Work, 10(4), 487–504. doi:10.1177/104973150001000408 Whelan, R. (2008). Use of ICT in education in the South Pacific: Findings of the pacific eLearning Observatory. Distance Education, 29(1), 37–41. doi:10.1080/01587910802004845 Wilson-Strydom, M., Thomson, J., & Hodgkinson-Williams, C. (2005). Understanding ICT integration in South African Classrooms. Perspectives in Education, 23(4), 71–85. Zsakó, L., & Horváth, G. (2017). Quo Vadis, Informatics Education? Towards a More Up-to-Date Informatics Education. Acta Didactica Napocensia, 10(3), 45–52. doi:10.24193/adn.10.3.4

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Administration Staff: This refers to the staff members that work in the administration, financial and management offices of the school. E-Schooling: Teaching of learners entirely or partially through the internet. Learners: This refers to the children enrolled at a school. Teachers: This refers to educators at the school.

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Chapter 4

Re-Envisioning and Restructuring E-Learning Through Engagement With Underprivileged Communities: The Impact of Effectively Using ICTs in Classrooms Nomvula J. Ndhlovu University of South Africa, South Africa Leila Goosen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4948-2699 University of South Africa, South Africa

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ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was answering questions regarding the impact of efectively using information and communication technologies (ICTs) in classrooms on re-envisioning and restructuring e-learning through engagement with schools in underprivileged communities. Its importance is justifed regarding positioning disrupted pupils’ education towards the development agenda in South Africa. It draws on the latest fndings and is located within relevant conceptual/theoretical frameworks on ICTs for teaching and learning. In quantitative aspects of the research design, issues of reliability and validity were considered, while in qualitative aspects, issues of dependability and interpretation were important. Results presented showed that laptops, smartboards, projectors, cell phones, desktops, printers, and iPads were used efectively in classrooms. A discussion of the results suggests solutions and making recommendations that are applicable and useful. In conclusion, ICTs had a positive impact on pupils’ education, by helping them to concentrate and understand difcult concepts.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch004

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 Re-Envisioning and Restructuring E-Learning Through Engagement With Underprivileged Communities

INTRODUCTION This introductory section will describe the general perspective of the chapter that included empirical research from which findings were harvested, and end by specifically stating the objectives. Challenges in the educational arena are not a new phenomenon. However, with the recent outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers and educators have been made even more aware of the need for a paradigm shift in education. Fully online learning (e-learning), as opposed to traditional face-to-face teaching, has been well-researched and found to have the potential to provide educational solutions in challenging contexts. These contexts range from pandemic situations, where social distancing is the order of the day, to financial and time constraints with regard to full-time study, as well as limited physical capacity at some institutions. However, such e-learning solutions are often designed for resourceful institutions and cannot be easily implemented in developing countries and/or communities where resources are limited. Although issues, such as connectivity, accessibility, lack of suitable devices, and affordability, need to be born in mind when e-learning interventions are considered, such challenges are often neglected in e-learning research. The South African national Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the provincial Gauteng Department of Education (GDE) have embraced a framework of partnerships promoting the continued support of schools through the use of Information Communication and Technology (ICT) devices in classrooms (Vorster & Goosen, 2017). These departments have set up initiatives to encourage lifelong learning opportunities for both pupils and teachers, as the benefits of using ICTs in education are important. ICT tools have therefore been installed at different schools with the hope of improving teaching and learning. Despite the provision of these tools, there seems to be a gap in terms of the effective use and integration of these ICT tools into teaching and learning in classrooms. Teachers have different views on the usage of ICT tools. Although ICT tools on their own do not have educational value, these can be used very effectively in teaching and e-learning with regard to the contribution of ICT tools towards provoking and improving critical thinking level skills.

Target Audience The target audience and potential users of this chapter will include educators offering e-learning opportunities in less-privileged settings and/or to under-served and/or marginalized populations. The chapter could also be useful to researchers interested in concepts with regard to e-learning and ICTs in education.

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Objectives Graham (2009) suggested that blended learning can occur at four levels, namely at institutional, program, course and activity levels. This chapter aims to address e-learning solutions across these levels. In terms of the topics recommended for possible inclusion in the book, this chapter will consider: • • • • •

What e-learning is and what it is not Defning e-learning Types of e-learning in the less-developed world Implementation of e-learning at school level Integrating e-learning strategies when designing and teaching courses 67

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• • •

e-Learning activities in the classroom To promote self-directed e-learning e-Learning assessment

McCusker and Gunaydin (2015, p. 539) indicated that the objectives and research questions “of a study determines the” purpose in terms of “whether to obtain purely interactional data or data about the participants and their background”. The purpose of this chapter is to share how an institution in the developing world and less-privileged communities had re-imagined and restructured education to enhance teaching and e-learning. The aim of the research was to learn which ICT tools were installed and used in a particular public primary school, the effectiveness of use of these ICT devices in classrooms and the impact these had on especially pupils in the school. The objectives of the study reported on in this chapter included finding answers to the following research questions, which were therefore investigated: • • •

Which ICT tools were used in the school and which were not? How efective was the implementation of these ICT tools and e-learning at school level? What impact did the use of these ICT tools and e-learning activities in the classroom have on pupils?

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BACKGROUND The background section will provide broad definitions and discussions on topics related to the impact of effectively using ICTs in classrooms on re-envisioning and restructuring e-learning through engagement with schools in underprivileged communities. It will also incorporate the views of others, in the form of a literature review, into the discussion to support, refute, or demonstrate the authors’ position on these topics. One definition of ICT integration in education can be technology-based teaching and learning processes, which are closely related to utilizing learning technologies in schools (Ghavifekr & Rosdy, 2015). This definition should lead to the creation of policies to govern the use of these ICT devices in schools. Adukaite, Van Zyl and Cantoni (2016, p. 56) supported the notion that “technology-enhanced education gained momentum in national policies such as the” South African White Paper on e-Education (Department of Education, 2004). Referring to the impact that the Internet could have in the classroom (Dudeney, 2010), Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015, p. 176) maintained “that national ICT policies can serve several crucial functions.” Such policies provide principles that need to be adhered to, as well as setting out goals and a vision of how ICT is to be integrated into the teaching and learning processes to run education systems. Literature, such as Vanderlinde et al.,(2014, p. 9), indicated “that the introduction of ICT for educational purposes requires a balance between” such a vision for ICTs’ “use and other aspects of educational” activities. These policies are also beneficial to the school community, which includes students, teachers, parents and society in general. According to Albion et al., (2015, p. 656), the integration of ICTs “in education is a case of educational innovation and (is) likely to be governed by the same considerations as” when modelling coursedesign characteristics, self-regulated learning and the mediating effect of knowledge-sharing behaviour as drivers of other educational innovative behaviours (Ngugi & Goosen, 2018). 68

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Wilson-Strydom et al., (2005, p. 81) observed that technologies were being “used for presentation purposes and” needed “to be integrated into lessons to improve learning outcomes”. The implementation of these devices seem to be more aimed at presentation, instead of enhancing the learning outcomes; this shows that not enough emphasis is put on the integration of technologies into learning and more effort is put on administrative activities for presentation, as well as the technical ability to maintain these devices. The chapter by Bosch and Laubscher (2019, p. 1) agreed that such technologies serve as suitable tools for enabling Cooperative Learning (CL), which is “a strategy that can be used” for enhancing Self-Directed Learning (SDL). The latter authors further pointed out that such SDL is an essential component in “the success of distance learning students.” In terms of such e-learning, the conference paper by Goosen and Van Heerden (2013) showed how project-based assessment can be used for positively influencing the pass rates of an ICT course at an Open and Distance e-Learning (ODeL) institution. With regard to establishing a learning presence, however, according to the chapter by Bosch and Pool (2019, p. 51), “there is a lack of research regarding the role of” the SDL skills of students “in a blended learning environment.”

Information and Communication Technologies in Classrooms

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The role that ICTs play in teachers’ classrooms are related “to their conceptions of the nature of teaching and learning” (Tondeur et al., 2017, p. 556). The institutionalization “of ICT use solely pays attention to” the ways in which ICTs “are frequently used by teachers in their classrooms” (Vanderlinde, et al., 2015, p. 1061). In the digital classroom environment of today, digital skills are required that will produce digital citizens, who are at the same level as their peers in the digital world. Adegbenro et al., (2017, p. 81) remarked that the expectation is that teachers would “develop academic content that will equip pupils with” 21st century digital skills. ICTs in classrooms can be used for growing innovative e-schools in the 21st century, through, for example, a community engagement project (Goosen, 2015b). Educational technologies can also be used in the 21st century to increase pupils’ access to an ICT for Development (ICT4D) Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) (Goosen, 2015a); (Goosen, 2018b). Goosen and Van Heerden (2017), for example, used such educational technologies to take learning programming beyond the ‘normal’ horizon. The use of ICT tools in schools called for fundamental shifts, both when designing content and teaching courses, “as well as for teamwork and collaborative practices” (Ramesh & Dibaba, 2017, p. 12). Parents can become involved in the “classroom activities of the school when using educational platforms for communication”, noted Munyengabe, Yiyi, Haiyan and Hitimana (2017, p. 7195). This process promotes collaborative learning with the school community in this digital era.

Information and Communication Technologies and Teachers Connecting to ICTs in classrooms, Mthelebofu (2018, p. 3) mentioned that pupils learn from what teachers do and if “teachers use ICTs more often in classrooms”, pupils “will mirror what their teachers do”. However, Albion, et al. (2015, p. 657) noticed that most teachers were “not using technology to effect meaningful changes in student outcomes but primarily as aids to” deliver content (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2013).

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Adukaite, et al. (2016, p. 63) backed up the contention that their technology “know-how was due to some teachers’ personal decision to learn how to adapt technology for teaching purposes in their free time”. Meanwhile, Alfaki and Khamis (2014, p. 140) indicated that “teachers who are confident ICT users tend to be interested ICT users”. Teachers, who feel comfortable to use these devices, showed interest and used these to enhance their teaching methods where it was possible. Msila (2015, p. 1979) noted that “when looking into ICTs and classrooms, teachers’ perceptions”, attitudes and beliefs “are factors to be explored”. The study reported on in this chapter therefore focused on especially teachers’ perceptions. Finally, Ramesh and Dibaba (2017, p. 13) argued that “school administrators are critical if ICTs are to be used effectively”. These school administrators provide teachers with technical support when the need arises, and they could prepare critical documents for those teachers, who are not ready to embrace technology.

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Effective Information and Communication Technologies in Teaching and Learning Effective “ICT use in creating effective lessons will be required for (the) successful integration of ICT through knowledge construction instead of instructional tools” (Salam et al., 2017, p. 172). Tondeur, et al. (2017, p. 571) indicated that “the process of effective technology integration should not be facilitated as a stand-alone event, focusing solely on technical skills”. Based on the results of the latter authors’ study, “teachers’ beliefs about ‘good’ education should be a critical dimension in professional development programs”, which support teachers’ learning about meaningfully using ICTs in education. Further support to the latter statement was provided by Yapici and Karakoyun (2016, p. 460), who indicated that both “at the level of university education and with the help of” in-service training, “teachers’ competencies in smart board use should be developed”. ICT teacher development was specified by Dlamini and Mbatha (2018, p. 18) as “one of the contributing factors” to using ICTs effectively in teaching and learning. From the context of effectiveness when using ICT in teaching and learning, the behaviour of teachers towards the use of ICT devices influences their competencies in terms of using these devices, which promote lesson integration through regular use and the stability and reliability of the infrastructure in communities. This was underwritten by Blignaut and Els (2010, p. 58), when detailing that “the stability, reliability of the infrastructure and regular access to … ICT devices drives the effective use of ICTs and builds competencies” amongst teachers and students. While the article by Goosen (2019b) presented research on technology-supported teaching and learning for autism, Aziz and Rahman (2017, p. 1) delivered a paper, which argued that the effectiveness of ICT-assisted learning was “very much dependent on the ability of teachers to use” such tools appropriately. The professional “development and training of teachers is an important element to the use of ICT in education” (Dale et al., 2004, p. 462); for the effective blending of ICTs into teaching and learning, however, developmental workshops on how to teach effectively using ICTs need to be in place. Natia and Al-hassan (2015, p. 122) supported this when the latter authors noted that “the ability of teachers to effectively deliver lessons” using ICTs is limited, “because of the shortcomings of regular professional developmental training”. Teacher training institutions should invest on their teachers to develop their critical thinking, decision making and use of ICTs, as such adoption will be key to the effective use of ICT in teaching and learning. Dlamini and Mbatha (2018, p. 19) also embraced this sentiment by indicating that in “professional 70

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development, teacher learning is as important as” pupils’ learning. It was “observed that effective ICT professional development should be linked to teacher learning and” pupils’ achievements. Adu and Galloway (2015, p. 246) remarked that “modern ways are to be adapted by … teacher educators to influence the trainees on how to effectively use ICTs in their teaching methods”. Teaching styles and methods impact on pupils, as they are the recipients of the information disseminated, and therefore, effectiveness should be achieved. Teachers’ knowledge, policies and management are critical factors that need to be considered when the effective and fruitful implementation of ICT in classrooms is planned. According to Vanderlinde et al., (2015, p. 1062), schools should have the “ability to create and optimize school- and teacher-level factors and conditions to bring about effective ICT change”.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER

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Issues, Controversies, Problems, Challenges and Opportunities The main focus of the chapter will be on presenting the authors’ perspective on the issues, controversies, problems, challenges and opportunities, etc., as these relate to the theme of the book, of ‘Re-Envisioning and Restructuring Blended Learning for Underprivileged Communities’, as well as arguments supporting the authors’ position in this regard. It will also compare and contrast these with what has been, or is currently being, done as it relates to the specific topic of the chapter regarding the impact of effectively using ICTs in classrooms on re-envisioning and restructuring e-learning through engagement with schools in underprivileged communities, as well as the main theme of the book. While Ajibola and Goosen (2017) presented perspectives on issues with regard to the development of heuristics for the usability evaluation of mobile commerce (m-commerce) applications, Samarakoon et al. (2017, p. 649) provided perspectives on global development and technology, as these specifically relate to questions around equitable and quality education for all of Africa and challenges with regard to using ICTs in education. In the study reported on in this chapter, and as also designated by the latter authors, the focus therefore was not just on “how to disseminate ICTs, but” also on posing questions around “how best to support teachers to facilitate” ICT-integrated learning environments. Since both pupils and students at Basic (school) and Higher (university) Education levels want e-learning (Goosen, 2016), the purpose of this study was to answer such questions based on teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and opinions regarding the effective use of ICT tools and the impact these had on teaching and e-learning in their classrooms. The school, where the research reported on in this chapter was conducted, is situated in one of the Tshwane districts and is sixty-three years old. The area in which the school is situated consists of a complex of suburbs, which are semi‐rural and built on former agricultural holdings. It is a community composed of different races, cultures, social and economic classes. According to the article by Czerniewicz and Hodgkinson-Williams (2005, p. xi), “South Africa is a developing country with” many challenges and opportunities. As the environment of the school contributes to the use of ICTs, there is a need to explore school environment conditions to develop an improved understanding and a broader view of the challenges and opportunities South African schools are experiencing. Although teachers play an important role in these circumstances, “there is also a need for leadership to guide the process and to create the right conditions for collaboration with other professionals” (Albion, 71

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et al., 2015, p. 657). Teachers need to lead their pupils by example. Morris et al. (2017, p. 795) quoted Bandura (1997, p. 3) that the definition of self-efficacy refer to “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”. According to Neto et al., (2018, p. 47), self-efficacy is a key element in the social learning theory of Bandura (1997), encompassing an individual’s beliefs in her/his abilities with regard to successfully performing a task (Wood & Bandura, 1989). Adukaite, et al. (2016) pointed to results, which revealed that a teacher’s self-efficacy with regard to using ICT devices in the classroom is a key factor in the effective use of ICTs in teaching and learning. Self-efficacy therefore plays a major role in how ICT challenges, goals and tasks are approached. Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015, p. 189) underlined the need “for teachers to be literate and have good skills and knowledge in” terms of using ICTs for improving their teaching methods and approaches – these are desirable in order “to promote effective learning as well as to meet the” demands of 21st century teaching skills. ICT devices are used differently in schools because there are no clear guidelines on how these should be integrated into teaching and learning. Padayachee (2017) agreed that little information was provided by education departments on how teachers were to practically use and/or integrate ICTs in the South African context.

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Challenges to the Effective Use of Information and Communication Technologies Researchers, such as Sang et al., (2010, p. 105), specified that the adoption of ICTs into classrooms was “affected by multiple factors such as capacity” in terms of resources and the sustainability of infrastructure and/or teacher skills and attitudes. Albion, et al. (2015, p. 657) further mentioned that the “changing roles of teachers were a factor in teachers expressing the need for in-service training programs concerning the pedagogical use of ICT in class practice in a” Greek case study. Inadequate training towards the preparation to use technologies effectively and in an innovative manner in their teaching have been reported by some teachers. Dlamini and Mbatha (2018, p. 19) affirmed that both in-service and pre-service teachers were facing the “reality of new emerging ICT tools and devices and the daunting task of integrating” these into their classrooms. In their conclusion, Adukaite, et al. (2016, p. 63) specified that considering “environmental factors, interviewees identified various external” challenges, which “prevented them from developing their skills with ICT and consequently integrating it in teaching practices”. Obstacles, such as a lack of time, daily work demands, a lack of resources and big classes, as well as those related to infrastructure, such as electricity, Internet access and physical space, remain key challenges in disadvantaged South African schools, indicated Cantrell and Visser (2011) and Obijiofor (2009). Therefore, it is believed that the socio-economic context of teachers and pupils can influence ICT usage for teaching and learning. Against the background of policy networks and the transformation of secondary education through ICTs in Africa, as well as the prospects and challenges of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) e-schools initiative, Evoh (2007, p. 77) explained that “the number of connected ICT devices in schools does not mean that the goal” of integrating ICTs in education had been achieved. ICT devices are provided to schools to enhance and/or increase the quality of teaching and learning, even though the methods to integrate such ICTs into teaching remains a challenge. Mabila et al. (2017, p. 3) agreed that “despite the provision of these resources, effective integration of ICTs into teaching” remained a challenge. 72

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Finally, Olson (2000, p. 1) added that what teachers “find may challenge their educational philosophy and practice in unexpected ways—some good and some not so”.

Opportunities for Effectively Using Information and Communication Technologies Ramesh and Dibaba (2017) showed that opportunities with regard to the effective use of ICTs in schools can be verified in distinctive ways, such as reducing costs, improving the efficiency of administration in the school, teaching and e-learning, etc. “The infrastructure in the surrounding areas of the school also contributes to the effective use of ICT as it boasts the opportunities that the school” has, observed Ojo and Adu (2019, p. s8). The opportunities and benefits that ICTs bring to teaching and learning can increase the quality of education, the teachers’ productivity, and the interaction with, and between, students, which could promote the effectiveness of the use of ICTs. Previous research has proven that using ICTs in education could enhance students’ learning: Adukaite, et al. (2016, p. 52) favoured the notion that ICTs have “the capacity to widen access and provide more authentic learning experiences for students, and promotes student interest, engagement, and motivation”. Creative teachers can improve their skills as they continue to use ICT tools in their teaching. Yapici and Karakoyun (2016, p. 460) agreed that well-prepared “pictures, three-dimensional models, animations and interactive environments all help” pupils to understand the target information more easily. This was also confirmed by Lewin et al. (2008, p. 295), when the latter authors indicated that “new tools provide opportunities to create new kinds of” activities, “but these new kinds of” activities were created by these users as they developed “skills in using the new tools, not by the tools themselves”. Finally, Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015, p. 176) revealed that ICT integration was “not a one-step learning process, but it is a continual process of learning that” provided a proactive teaching-learning environment. It also helps teachers to design their lesson plans in an effective, creative and interesting approach that could result in students’ active learning.

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Conceptual and/or Theoretical Frameworks This subsection of the chapter, like that of Goosen (2019b, p. 91), will demonstrate the position of the authors “regarding the theoretical and conceptual frameworks that serve as a lens by which this research can be understood.” While Laxman (2010) suggested a conceptual framework mapping the application of information search strategies to well- and ill-structured problem solving, Obijiofor (2009) pointed to the importance of mapping both theoretical and practical issues in the relationship between ICTs and socio-economic development in Africa. Theoretical, epistemological and methodological differences are all important in the comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions (Yilmaz, 2013). In terms of research design, qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches could be considered (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Palinkas, et al. (2011, p. 44) showed that when implemented, a mixed methods research approach focuses on collecting, merging and analysing “both qualitative and quantitative data”. It was also necessary to consider challenges and opportunities with regard to integrating the quantitative and qualitative data

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into mixed methods research design used in this study, in order to obtain the solutions and make the recommendations reported in the next section (Almalki, 2016). Fetters et al. (2013, p. 2136) stated that in “an exploratory sequential design, the researcher first collects and analyses qualitative data, and these findings inform subsequent quantitative data collection”. The structure of the research approach was thus sequenced, due to logistical issues and the context of the study. Citing Creswell and Creswell (2017), Almalki (2016, p. 290) specified the belief that researchers should “question themselves about the knowledge claims and theoretical perspectives that they” bring to any research. Researchers also need to reflect on the research strategies they intend to use within their study, which could, in turn, inform their methods and questions related to how they will collect and analyse data. In this context, Mthelebofu (2018) indicated that mobile technology strategies should be incorporated in teaching and learning activities as support. Goosen (2019c, p. 136) referred to a paper by Odom, et al. (2015), in which the latter “authors proposed theoretical and conceptual frameworks to examine using Information Systems (IS) and technologies”. The framework by the latter authors “was then used for describing research literature on the efficacy of interventions and instruction, which utilized such IS and technologies.” According to Goosen (2019b, p. 91), “Knight et al. (2013) similarly performed a review of technologysupported interventions to teach academic skills to students.” Quoting Arriaga (2017, p. 419), the chapter by Goosen (2020, p. 93) described an “approach to target technology development for … research and beyond, introduced the role of design in Human-Computer Interface (HCI) and … research, together with theory and practice related to building” “a new bridge between psychology and HCI”. The chapter by Arriaga (2017, p. 419) also considered “the role of theory in design and how it can be used to better support technology to improve quality of life for” individual students. It further also provided a review of how theory has been used by” HCI “researchers from the beginning of the discipline to” the present day. Finally, Ecological Systems Theory was proposed as another theory, which could be used by “HCI researchers. A set of examples” was provided, which showed how this theory could be used towards aiding design.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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This section will discuss solutions and recommendations in dealing with the issues, controversies, problems, challenges and opportunities, etc. presented in the preceding section.

Towards Solutions to Increase the Impact of Effectively Using ICTs in Classrooms Methodology Wahyuni (2012, p. 72) indicated that the methodology refers to the model that is used to carry out the research within the background of a particular setting, which comprises of a set of underlying opinions that are used to direct a researcher to choose one set of research methods over others. As an example, Goosen (2019a) presented technology-supported teaching and research methods for educators, and chose to use a case study of a massive open online course. 74

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The methodology as outlined detailed “ethicality, risks and problems that might occur”, as well as the limitations of the approach taken (Dawson, cited in Almalki, 2016, p. 290), when the research was carried out practically. Methodologies can be regarded as the practice of understanding suitable methods and process as part of research. Other researchers believe that methodologies are closer to research in practice than the logical theories found in paradigms. Due to the complexity of some research, such projects may need to use multiple methods and different sources of information to understand the problem.

Research Approaches Peters et al. (2013, p. 3) specified that mixed methods research used “both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis in the same study”. Niglas (2009, p. 38) similarly showed that mixed methods combined “elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches for the purpose of breath and depth of understanding and corroboration”. Qualitative modes of inquiry did “not prevent the administration of a critical disciplined and balanced study into any educational issue” (Almalki, 2016, p. 291). Quantitative research emphasized the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between isolated variables within a framework, which is value-free, logical, reductionistic, and deterministic, based on a priority of theories. A quantitative mode of inquiry “is regarded as a deductive approach towards research” (Rovai et al., 2013, p. 4). As quantitative researchers, the authors assert that by splitting reality into small manageable pieces for a research study, it can be understood; they regard the world as being outside of themselves and that consisting of an objective “reality independent of any observations”. This approach characterizes the researcher by putting forward a theory that is considered within a set of specific hypotheses, which are then put to the test, and then conclusions can be drawn regarding this theory following a sequence of observations and an analysis of data.

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Instruments Used and Data Collection Procedures As pointed out by Nassaji (2015), observation and survey tools were used to gather data, and as Canals (2017, p. 391) stated, oral data could also be “gathered by either audio or video recordings,” and these were transcribed and analysed later. Data may be collected using the qualitative research method, but is often analysed quantitatively using frequencies, percentages and averages to determine relationships. The Oxford English Dictionary (2021) states that “reliability is the quality of being likely to be correct or true”. According to Andreou, et al. (2011, p. 3291), the Cronbach (1951) coefficient alpha assesses “the degree of inter-item correlation and a value larger than 0.70 is considered satisfactory”. The reliability statistics calculated for validity using the Cronbach coefficient alpha revealed the following (see Table 1): Table 1. Reliability statistics calculated for validity using Cronbach coefficient alpha Variables ICTs effectiveness for teachers

Cronbach Coefficient Alpha .780

Number of Items 3

ICT devices in classrooms

.848

3

The impact of ICT tools on pupils

.778

2

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In terms of the research strategies, designs, approaches, methods and data gathering tools other researchers have used and why these could (not) be appropriate to the problems discussed in this chapter, other researchers have chosen to observe teachers during teaching and learning using ICT devices, and/ or to interview teachers. These methods were not feasible, since these required more time and might have disrupted the work of teachers. The other problem might be that teachers did not have time after class to be interviewed.

Discussion of Solutions The target audience in terms of the potential participants, who contributed to the data collection, included all teachers at the school where data had been collected. Since Buabeng-Andoh (2012, p. 139) stated that “the effective use of ICT devices in” classrooms was closely related to teachers being technological comfortable in using these technologies, it is fortunate that all of the participants indicated that they had basic digital literacy. Aziz and Rahman (2017, p. 2) established that the effective use of ICTs in a school was dependent “on the infrastructure and facilities provided”. It is assumed that most classes, if not all, were fitted with ICT devices for teaching and learning, as all of the participants were shown to have more than one ICT device in each of their classrooms. The results further revealed that ICT infrastructure in the school had improved, although participants suggested that the school internet was weak. The school was shown to be well-provided with good infrastructure and ICT devices for effective teaching and learning.

Opportunities for Effectively Using Information and Communication Technologies Of the participating teachers, more than half of them agreed that ICTs supported teaching, making learning more effective (see Table 2), while half of the responding teachers (nine each) indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed respectively that they were aware of the opportunities that ICTs offered for effective teaching (see Table 3). Table 2. ICTs supported teaching, making learning more effective Number

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Strongly disagree

Percentage

0

0%

Disagree

0

0%

Neutral

1

6%

Agree

7

39%

Strongly agree

10

56%

Mean

0.50

Standard deviation

0.618

Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015, p. 175) implied that almost all subjects “can be learned more effectively through technology-based tools and equipment.” The outcomes were in line with the latter authors, as a third of the participants in this study strongly disagreed with a statement that using ICTs in some subjects

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 Re-Envisioning and Restructuring E-Learning Through Engagement With Underprivileged Communities

Table 3. I am aware of the opportunities that ICTs offer for effective teaching Number Strongly disagree

Percentage

0

0%

Disagree

0

0%

Neutral

0

0%

Agree

9

50%

Strongly agree

9

50%

was not useful, as opposed to only one strongly agreeing and another two agreeing (See Table 4) – the outcome could be different if the study only looked at a certain subject. Table 4. Using ICTs in some subjects is not useful

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Number

Percentage

Strongly disagree

6

33%

Disagree

5

28%

Neutral

3

17%

Agree

2

11% 6%

Strongly agree

1

Mean

0.22

Standard deviation

0.215

Jindal-Snape, et al. (2013, p. 29) stated that the results of their systematic review indicated evidence from eighteen studies, which suggested that the “impact from immersion in creative learning environments on” pupils’ academic achievement and attainment included the development of their “social, emotional and thinking skills” and improved school attendance, as well as increased confidence and resilience and enhanced “motivation, problem-solving, interpersonal skills and” engagement (Jindal-Snape, et al., 2013, p. 21). The outcomes show that when these ICT devices were used in the classroom, it enabled pupils to be more active and engaged during class: More than half of the teachers agreed and another third of them strongly agreed (see Table 5). Dlamini and Mbatha (2018, p. 19) supported this by pointing out that studies “from all over the world have shown that ICT tools open up exciting and innovative instructional techniques that may be used to overcome” pupils’ passivity and facilitate and enhance their critical thinking skills through online tools in discussions on a case of teacher trainees (Chiu, 2009); (Laxman, 2010); (Tan, 2012); (Yang & Chou, 2008). Beyond critical thinking skills, Yang and Chou (2008) also investigated the relationship between critical thinking skills and dispositions through different online instructional strategies. Maharaj-Sharma and Sharma (2017) reported that in classrooms where ICT devices and ICT activities were effectively used, students indicated that they were less bored and more inclined to pay attention when information was being presented.

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Table 5. The use of ICT devices enables pupils to be more active and engaged in the classroom Number Strongly disagree

Percentage

0

0%

Disagree

0

0%

Neutral

2

11%

Agree

10

56%

Strongly agree

6

33%

Mean

0.22

Standard deviation

0.647

The solutions provided by this study in answer to the research questions have now been discussed in this subsection. The next subsection will provide recommendations in terms of the research problem and context, as well as indicating the contribution of this research, while the last to sections will provide areas for future research and the conclusion.

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Recommendations There are teachers with negative attitudes towards the use of ICT devices in classrooms. Personal factors, such as a lack of confidence, fear of the unknown, a lack of ability to prepare for lessons and/or a lack of competence can contribute towards the non-usage of ICT devices. It is recommended that teachers be provided with access to professional development programs. The negative attitudes of teachers need to be corrected through regular professional teacher development programs, which should include building their self-esteem and confidence in the facilitation of activities using ICT devices. Teachers need to keep up to date with current technological devices and should continuously improve their competencies and understanding that technologies represent some of the most important devices that drive the learning of pupils in the 21st century. The recommendation is made that there be at least two teachers in each school with basic technical support skills, who can help other teachers, as some teachers sometimes find technology devices to be unreliable to teach with. An alternative power back-up is recommended, as teachers find it difficult to cope when there are power-cuts (load-shedding) during school hours. Pupils lose concentration and get distracted, and the fidelity of lesson plans is also affected. Class activities using ICT devices should be regularly completed and the effectiveness of the use of ICT devices will be improved. It is also recommended that teachers be encouraged to provide activities daily using ICT devices in all subject offerings. If teachers plan their activities well, they can draw the attention of the pupils and get them engaged; thus, the desirable results are achievable. Visuals and audio can help to command attention from pupils, as they try to listen with understanding, and listening skills are also built. There is growing concern that teachers’ educational institutions need to incorporate technology in their teaching training curricula to develop teachers, who teach with ICT devices and integrate ICTs into teaching and learning. A recommendation is that when teachers graduate from such institutions, they should be able to teach using technological tools. Teachers and pupils in the school need to be made

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aware of the ethical use of these technological devices. Awareness programs should be incorporated into the school curriculum. According to Tondeur et al. (2007), this was in line with a recommendation by Olson (2000), with the former authors stating that the successful integration and inclusion of ICT devices in teaching and learning depended on teachers’ perspectives, as well as their understanding of, and commitment to, the need to use technology in the classroom. ICTs are only physical tools, which by themselves cannot bring benefits to pupils, teachers and communities at large.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This section will discuss future research directions and emerging trends, as well as provide insight about the future of the theme of the book, of ‘Re-Envisioning and Restructuring Blended Learning for Underprivileged Communities’ from the perspective of the chapter focus regarding the impact of effectively using ICTs in classrooms on re-envisioning and restructuring e-learning through engagement with schools in underprivileged communities. The viability of a paradigm, model, implementation issues of proposed programs, etc., may also be included in this section. It is suggested that future research opportunities within the domain of the topic should investigate the use of technology in a specific grade; it is also recommended that comparable studies be conducted in order to contrast different teaching approaches on the effectiveness of ICT devices per grade. The opinions of pupils in the intermediate phase regarding the use of ICT devices in school need to be further investigated. Another area would be which devices are effective for which subjects? There should be more intervention in the specialized subjects of training, so that all subjects can be offered using ICT devices. In this context, only Mathematics, English, Afrikaans and Social Sciences appeared to be taught using ICT devices. Interventions in terms of which activities attract pupils more and which do not attract them is also needed.

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CONCLUSION This section will provide discussion of the overall coverage of the chapter and concluding remarks. In conclusion and summary of the answers to the research questions, the teachers have integrated ICT devices in this school, with the most often used ICT devices including laptops, smartboards and projectors. ICT devices were effectively used and had a positive impact on the pupils at this school. In more detail, the results presented from the study suggested that laptops, smartboards, projectors, cell (mobile) phones, desktop computers, printers and iPads were used in the classroom. The teachers were shown to be digitally literate, competent, and confident, which was reflected in their daily use of ICT devices in their classrooms. The more they used these devices, the more they gained experience and looked forward to improving their skills in terms of teaching using ICT devices. Their ability to prepare and offer lessons using ICTs showed when these ICT devices were used in the school during teaching and learning. With regard to the effectiveness of these ICT tools to serve as a bridge to the future in terms of developing teachers’ ability and confidence to deliver the National Curriculum Statement (NCS), this chapter shows some similarities to what was reported on in the Southern African Association for Research in 79

 Re-Envisioning and Restructuring E-Learning Through Engagement With Underprivileged Communities

Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (SAARMSTE) conference paper by Agamburram and Goosen (2011). The regular usage and integration of technology in classrooms made these ICT devices effective. An advantage of using ICT devices in classroom is that education can be enriched with recent information; teachers have an opportunity to search for recent information and explore more information on certain concepts and the information disseminated in the classroom brings pupils up to par with their counterparts around the world. The regular use of ICT devices and the integration of these devices improved the teaching and learning methods in the classroom, which will lead to more creative activities and effective ideas for teaching using ICT devices. Technology helped to make teaching and learning more meaningful, with lots of fun, and made it easy to explain and understand difficult concepts and/or topics. The use of technology in the classroom increased the participation and engagement of both teachers and pupils. Pupils became more interested in subjects they were initially not interested in, as technology drew the attention of pupils. When teachers effectively integrated technology into subject areas, their roles grew into those of facilitators, advisers, content experts and coaches for pupils. ICT devices were thus used effectively during teaching and learning, regardless of the subject being taught. The active engagement of pupils during class activities encouraged them to learn from each other, making the use of ICT devices more effective; therefore, the effective use of ICT devices in teaching and learning was accomplished. ICT devices had a positive impact on pupils, as these helped them to concentrate and understand difficult or challenging concepts and, at the same time, memory was improved. This study found that pupils paid more attention in class and put more effort into lessons that involved ICT devices. Class activities promoted active engagement between pupils and teachers. Teachers were able to manage their classes during the use of ICT devices, meaning that control of these classes was achieved. This chapter therefore offers an original perspective on positioning disrupted ICT education towards the development agenda in South Africa, and it does contribute towards scholarly debates in the field as a chapter, which supports sustainable and inclusive quality education through research informed practice on Information and Communication Technologies in education (Goosen, 2018a).

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Samarakoon, S., Christiansen, A., & Munro, P. G. (2017). Equitable and Quality Education for All of Africa? The Challenges of Using ICT in Education. Perspectives on Global Development and Technology, 16(6), 645–665. doi:10.1163/15691497-12341454 Sang, G., Valcke, M., van Braak, J., & Tondeur, J. (2010). Student teachers’ thinking processes and ICT integration: Predictors of prospective teaching behaviors with educational technology. Computers & Education, 54(1), 103–112. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.07.010 Tan, S. Y. (2012). Enhancing critical thinking skills through online tools: A case of teacher trainees. Ontario International Development Agency (OIDA) International Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(7), 87–98. Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2017). Understanding the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and technology use in education: A systematic review of qualitative evidence. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(3), 555–575. doi:10.100711423016-9481-2 Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., & Valcke, M. (2007). Curricula and the use of ICT in education: Two worlds apart. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(6), 962–976. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00680.x Vanderlinde, R., Aesaert, K., & van Braak, J. (2014). Institutionalised ICT use in primary education: A multilevel analysis. Computers & Education, 72, 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.10.007 Vanderlinde, R., Aesaert, K., & van Braak, J. (2015). Measuring ICT use and contributing conditions in primary schools. British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(5), 1056–1063. doi:10.1111/bjet.12282 Vorster, J., & Goosen, L. (2017). A Framework for University Partnerships Promoting Continued Support of e-Schools. In J. Liebenberg (Ed.), Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference of the Southern African Computer Lecturers’ Association (SACLA) (pp. 118 - 126). Magaliesburg: North-West University. Wahyuni, D. (2012). The research design maze: Understanding paradigms, cases, methods and methodologies. Journal of Applied Management Accounting Research, 10(1), 69-80. Wilson-Strydom, M., Thomson, J., & Hodgkinson-Williams, C. (2005). Understanding ICT integration in South African classrooms. Perspectives in Education, 23(4), 71–85.

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Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory of organizational management. Academy of Management Review, 14(3), 361–384. doi:10.5465/amr.1989.4279067 Yang, Y. T., & Chou, H. A. (2008). Beyond critical thinking skills: Investigating the relationship between critical thinking skills and dispositions through different online instructional strategies. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(4), 666–684. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00767.x Yapici, I. Ü., & Karakoyun, F. (2016). High School Students’ Attitudes towards Smart Board Use in Biology Classes. Educational Research Review, 11(7), 459–465. doi:10.5897/ERR2016.2691 Yilmaz, K. (2013). Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions: Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European Journal of Education, 48(2), 311–325. doi:10.1111/ ejed.12014

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Classroom Activities: Activities relating to teaching and learning in the classroom. Effectiveness: Having an intended or expected effect. ICT Devices/Tools: Technological devices that are used, for example: laptops, smart boards or projectors, etc. ICTs: Information and Communication Technologies. Impact: The effect or impression of one thing on another. Integration: The act or process of combining two or more things so that they work together. Pupil: Learner in a school.

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Chapter 5

A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education:

The Design of an Intervention Tool for Mathematics Teachers Dorothy Joy Laubscher https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9067-437X North-West University, South Africa A. Seugnet Blignaut North-West University, South Africa Hercules D. Nieuwoudt North-West University, South Africa

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ABSTRACT Persistent poor results in mathematics can be ascribed to the content being taught so that it is removed from reality. This chapter reports on the design of a mobile application based on the realistic mathematics education approach. A purposeful stratifed sample yielded participants from a group of in-service teachers enrolled for a post-graduate degree in mathematics education. A qualitative designbased research method was followed. The research produced a mobile application which serves as an intervention tool for practicing mathematics teachers to make the content more relevant and realistic. Various design principles were also formulated that could assist in future mobile app design projects. The mobile application can be used in a blended learning context, especially in underprivileged communities since accessibility to mobile devices is common. The availability of the app for free on Google Play store has the potential to assist mathematics teachers and learners from any context to improve their achievement in mathematics.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch005

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 A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education

INTRODUCTION The effective teaching and learning of mathematics remains a priority in South Africa (Fleisch & Schöer, 2014, p. 1). Since different approaches to the teaching of mathematics influence learner achievement, the significance of using the Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) teaching approach, rather than the traditional approach, has become evident in literature (Drijvers et al., 2013; Fauzan et al., 2013; Gravemeijer & Doorman, 1999; Kizito, 2012). Technology serves as a suitable vehicle through which this approach can be presented since it is able to promote critical thinking and can improve problem solving skills and collaboration in mathematics (Stols, 2012). Blended learning based RME has proven to be more effective than conventional teaching (Sari et al., 2019) This chapter outlines the design and development of a mobile application (app) based on the principles and characteristics of the theory of Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) which can be useful for mathematics teachers and learners especially in underprivileged contexts.

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PROBLEM STATEMENT Numerous international and local reports and articles indicate the persistent poor performance of learners in mathematics in South Africa (DBE, 2021; Fleisch & Schöer, 2014; Martin et al., 2020; Mullis et al., 2016; Spaull, 2013). A possible reason for poor performance in mathematics is that content is taught which is removed from learners’ daily lives (Fauzan, et al., 2013). If teachers were able to present mathematical content to learners in such a way that it is relevant and useful in their daily lives and connected to reality, this could have a favourable impact on learners’ achievement. A myriad of studies has been done to investigate means of improving learner achievement in mathematics. Some aspects that have been investigated and tested are: the effect of language on mathematical performance (Howie, 2003); the impact of teacher knowledge on learner performance (Ball et al., 2008; Taylor, 2019); contextual challenges, especially in developing countries (Kotzé & van der Berg, 2019); improving the professional development of teachers (Zambo & Zambo, 2008); using problem-solving (Grouws & Cebulla, 2000); encouraging self-regulation in learners (Labuhn et al., 2010) and many more. The value of the fundamentals of RME of discovering learning in a real context, where mathematics is seen as a human activity, and where students make sense through participation in mathematical representation, is also greatly treasured (André Heck, 2009). It is in view of this that the researcher deemed it necessary to design an app which might serve as an intervention tool to assist practising mathematics teacher-students in making the learning content more relevant and realistic for the learners in that it connects the content with the realities of their daily existence. Within the context of blended learning, teachers could use this app together with face to face teaching. Not only is it useful for use with the learners, but teachers with limited content knowledge will also benefit from using the app themselves. Many learners have access to mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets, despite having financial limitations (Antonia & Evgenia, 2018). The design of this app required the expertise of a team of specialists. The team consisted of three members: an experienced programmer who designed the app, a mathematics content specialist who is involved in mathematics teacher training responsible for the creation of the design documents; and an expert in the field of using technology in teaching and learning. The content area covered in the app is financial mathematics. It consists of two main sections: a content section and an activity section. In the 89

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content section, the mathematical content is presented in a systematic way. The progression of the topic in question is done methodically to assist those users who are not completely au fait with the content. The second component in the app is an activity section, where the concepts that were presented in the content section are reinforced and also extended to new and challenging situations. The design process of the app was guided by two aspects, namely theoretical and technical aspects. The following section contains the conceptual and theoretical framework on the basis of which the development of the above-mentioned app was done.

CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The design of the app was based on the principles and characteristics of RME. Furthermore, the design of the app was informed by a framework for mobile learning (mLearning) task design.

Realistic Mathematics Education The teaching and learning of mathematics is a complex undertaking that should be connected to reality in order to make sense to learners (Cahyono, 2012). Realistic Mathematics Education (RME), a teaching and learning theory in mathematics education (Zulkardi, 2000), is based on Freudenthal’s view of mathematics as a human activity (Freudenthal, 1991; Laurenset al., 2017; Widjaja & Heck, 2003; Zaranis, 2014). Courses based on the RME approach have shown to improve learner achievement (Fauzan et al., 2013; Laurens et al., 2017). The RME-based teaching and learning process promotes learner-centred learning (Fauzan et al., 2013; Putri, 2019); encourages learners to not only receive information, but also question and process information (Widjaja & Heck, 2003), actively participate in the educational process and develop mathematical tools and insights (Drijvers et al., 2013). RME is more than simply situating mathematics in a real-world situation; instead the instructional tasks should draw on realistic situations as a foundation for students’ mathematization. The activities should be designed in such a way that students can systematise their activity within a realistic context to reinvent significant mathematics (Stephan & Akyuz, 2014).

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Characteristics of RME The five tenets or characteristics of RME that are crucial in the design of activities are: the use of contextual problems; the use of models; the use of student contribution; interactivity (among pupils and between pupils and teacher); and intertwining of learning strands (Fauzan et al., 2018; Drijvers & Doorman, 1996; Laurens et al., 2017; Widjaja & Heck, 2003; Zulkardi, 2000). Real contexts that are meaningful and natural to pupils are important to use as a starting point for learners’ learning (Widjaja & Heck, 2003; Zulkardi, 2000). These contexts can be concrete or abstract and should be explored to develop intuitive notions that form the foundation of concept formation (Stols, 2012). Learners should develop and use models as a bridge between what is abstract and what is real when solving problems. Initially the model is a representation of what is familiar to learners, later by generalization and formalization, it becomes an object on its own that is used for mathematical reasoning and can assist in developing sophisticated mathematical concepts (Dolk, den Hertog, & Gravemeijer, 2002; Widjaja & Heck, 2003). 90

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Interaction in the classroom is an important aspect in RME since it encourages discussion and collaboration, both important aspects when reflecting on the work. The kind of interaction that takes place is explaining, justifying, agreeing and disagreeing, questioning alternatives, and reflecting (Widjaja & Heck, 2003). The integration of different topics in mathematics into one curriculum is imperative in the RME philosophy. Learners can develop a cohesive view of mathematics as well as the flexibility to associate content with other disciplines or domains and well as to problems in the real world (Widjaja & Heck, 2003).

The Principles of RME

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The three principles or key heuristics of RME that inform the design of instructional sequences are: guided reinvention or progressive mathematization, didactical phenomenology and emergent modelling (Drijvers et al., 2013; Ndiung, Dantes, Ardana & Marhaeni, 2019; Stephan & Akyuz, 2014). These three principles should guide the design process to ensure that meaningful problems are used to foster students’ cognitive development (Bakker et al., 2003). The principle of guided reinvention (or progressive mathematization) implies that learners should be given the opportunity to develop their own mathematics (Drijvers et al., 2013; Gravemeijer, 1999). Guided reinvention encompasses reconstructing the expected way of developing a mathematical concept from a given problem situation (Bakker et al., 2003). The process begins with the mathematizing of real life subject matter, and leads to reinvention where students mathematize their own mathematical activities (Gravemeijer, 1999; Gravemeijer & Doorman, 1999). Formal mathematics develops from students’ activities (Gravemeijer, 1999). The term emergent modelling refers to the notion that models emerge from the activity of the students, and furthermore the required formal mathematics emerges in the process (Gravemeijer, 1999; Gravemeijer & Doorman, 1999). A model is initially context-specific, which implies that the model represents a meaningful, experientially real problem situation (Doorman, Drijvers, Gravemeijer, Boon, & Reed, 2013; Drijvers et al., 2013; Kizito, 2012). As the learner works with the model, it gradually acquires a more generic character and progresses into a model for mathematical reasoning. This is possible because the model starts to refer to new mathematical objects in a more abstract framework of mathematical relations (Drijvers et al., 2013). The principle of didactic phenomenology is concerned with the relation between the thought object and the phenomenon itself (Drijvers et al., 2013). It deals with the concept of how mathematical structures can assist in organising and structuring phenomena in real life (Bakker et al., 2003; Zulkardi, 2000). Students are invited to develop mathematical concepts in this process (Bakker et al., 2003). The three RME principles can be well-utilised and are essential for digital design (Drijvers et al., 2013).

Mobile Learning (mLearning) in Mathematics as a Blended Learning Tool There are many definitions for blended learning, all of which point to some kind of blend between online learning and face-to-face instruction (Hrastinski, 2019; Graham, 2006). Blended learning makes provision for learning to be more flexible and allows for more active learning (Sugiyanta & Sukardjo, 2018). Mobile learning in education has rapidly evolved in the last few years (Sugiyanta & Sukardjo, 2018), particularly in underprivileged contexts. Statistics in 2017 indicate that in South Africa 89% of people own a mobile device (Kaliisa & Picard, 2017) which makes it an ideal form of technology to use 91

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in online instruction, in educational spheres where technological resources are limited. Blended mobile learning effectively can allow the learning process to continue beyond the classroom, where teachers and learners can start learning form home or continue learning at home (Sugiyanta & Sukardjo, 2018). Mobile Learning (mLearning) is a field that is rapidly expanding and that affords new possibilities to improve the learning of mathematics in South Africa (Kaliisa & Picard, 2017; Kizito, 2012). In the context of mathematics, technology is able to promote critical thinking, and can improve problem solving skills and collaboration (Stols, 2012). Mobile technology offers a new generation of learning to people of all ages without being bound by place and time, and has featured as a valuable contributor to the educational environment in recent years (Alzaza & Yaakub, 2010, p. 95). Its benefits in the educational arena are widely publicised as being cost effective and flexible in terms of time and location; it is a ubiquitous form of communication; is portable; and context sensitive. mLearning assists students to create social interaction; it promotes collaborative learning, interactivity and instant feedback as well as collaboration between peers; it improves their knowledge structure; their learning achievements (Domingo & Garganté, 2016, p. 22; Mouza & Barrett-Greenly, 2015, p. 3) and motivation (Mouza & Barrett-Greenly, 2015, p. 3). mLearning affords new learning opportunities in mathematics (Graven, 2011, p. 45). As with any form of technology, mobile applications also have limitations. These are often related to infrastructure, policy and perception (Kaliisa & Picard, 2017). Mobile applications are considered to be complex and are not always sustainable (Sugiyanta & Sukardjo, 2018). Practical issues such as low processing speed, short battery life, content and software challenges, and small screens are a reality in mLearning (Kaliisa & Picard, 2017). Despite these limitations and challenges, mLearning is still able to fill a gap in education, particularly in underprivileged contexts. Cayton-Hodges et al. (2015, p. 3) report on various aspects that should be considered in the design of mathematics apps. There should be a rich and accurate representation of the mathematical content; the interactions around the mathematical content should be lavish and engaging; there should be an opportunity for users to reflect on tasks they have done; and hints, scaffolds and other tools are important and are typically presented on a need to know basis (Cayton-Hodges et al., 2015, p. 16). Lee and Kautz (2015, pp. 576-577) present a framework for the design and implementation of mathematical tasks with the aid of mLearning. The framework consists of six steps, which do not have to take place chronologically. The steps are as follows: define the lesson objective; define the technological environment; define the types of investigations; design and develop the tasks; implementation; and enactment (Lee & Kautz, 2015, p. 577). The purpose of the framework is to provide structure, specify components and indicate the relationships between technology-based task design and implementation.

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THE DESIGN OF THE APP Theoretical Approach to the Design Process When designing the app, the principles and characteristics of RME played an essential role. With regard to the characteristics of RME, the context was selected so that it was meaningful and natural to the students. In the app in the section on the content, the scenario of a schoolgirl or boy who wants to buy a bicycle to attend sport practice was used as it is a common and natural phenomenon for school children. The context should allow students to develop intuitive notions that form the foundation of the concept (Stols, 2012). The authentic purchase option for the bicycle allows the students to establish and expand 92

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on the concept of financial mathematics. As Widjaja and Heck (2003) state, the context should be the anchor for the formation and development of concepts. In the app, the concepts of simple interest and compound interest develop in a natural manner. Models in the form of equations (Figure 1) are used in this task and students are also asked to model an answer when comparing the three options for the loan. They are encouraged to use any type of model and are then given information to establish if their model has the correct information in it.

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Figure 1. The use of models is encouraged

The third characteristic of RME is that student contributions are encouraged. Technology assists in creating an environment in which learners can be actively involved, where they can discover, explore and visualise (Stols, 2012). Students are regularly prompted to enter their own values in the app, do their own calculations in a systematic way and are then evaluated on whether the solutions are correct or not. Guidance is given to redirect them if their solutions are incorrect, but otherwise users have the freedom to work on their own. Since this app is designed for teacher-students who are located at various rural and urban areas in South Africa, interactivity is a challenging aspect to incorporate. During the activity in the app, teacher-students are given a task that requires of them to give advice as to the most economical option between buying a television for cash or on hire-purchase. After having an opportunity to model a solution and offer the most economical option, if their answer is incorrect, they are recommended to discuss these mathematical issues with a colleague. This could be done physically at school, or they could create a community of practice for users of the app to collaborate via WhatsApp, Facebook or email. The screenshot on the left in Figure 2 illustrates this example. The screenshot on the right of Figure 2 (in the purple speech bubble) indicates a situation where the answer was correctly calculated, however the teacher-students are prompted to discuss possible reasons as to why that answer was correct. These examples allow for communication and collaboration with peers about the content presented in the app and activity. By discussing problem areas, it forces the teacher-students to reflect on the

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 A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education

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Figure 2. Examples of opportunities for interactivity

content, also a key principle of RME discussed by Widjaja and Heck (2003). The aim of the app is to guide teacher-students on the implementation of the RME approach in their teaching. In a classroom situation, the teacher-students will more easily be able to implement interactivity between themselves and the learners and the learners with each other. The intertwining of learning strands is an essential characteristic of RME. In this app, two types of integration have taken place. Firstly the content is integrated with a problem in the real world (Widjaja & Heck, 2003). Secondly the integration of the two concepts presented in the app is done by asking the teacher-students to calculate the compound interest option using the familiar formula for simple interest. In so doing, the concepts are then presented alongside each other, and the links and similarities and differences are highlighted. A further area of connectivity is the link between the financial mathematics concepts and basic order in which operations are dealt with in mathematics. In order to do correct calculations with the formulas, operations must be performed in the correct order to achieve the correct results. If the calculations are not correct, the user is provided with more opportunities to do the calculations, and additional hints and tips are provided. The principles of RME should also guide the design of tasks within the RME approach. Teacherstudents are given the opportunity to develop their own mathematics by inventing their own strategies to solve the problem. Should their strategy be incorrect, the app is designed in such a way that there is help if they require it, as can be seen in Figure 3. If they do not need help, they have freedom to solve the problem in their own way (Figure 3). The offering of assistance is in line with the work of Drijvers et al. (2013) who suggests that the process requires guidance from the teacher to help direct the progression in a sensible manner.

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 A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education

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Figure 3. Assistance is available should students require it

Guided reinvention or progressive mathematization implies that formal mathematics develops out of the students’ activities (Gravemeijer, 1999). Students are not expected to reinvent everything themselves (Gravemeijer & Doorman, 1999) and it is essential that the teacher facilitates the teacher-students through the process. Horizontal and vertical mathematization play an essential role in RME (Freudenthal, 1991; Treffers, 1978). In horizontal mathematization, the student converts the problem situation into some form of mathematics (Freudenthal, 1991). In the app, when teacher-students think about what formula to use, and what values to substitute, this conversion takes place. Vertical mathematization involves a higher level of abstraction within mathematics, e.g. finding shortcuts and making connections between concepts (Freudenthal, 1991). Both these aspects are encouraged when teacher-students are asked to initially calculate the compound interest using repetition of the simple interest formula, and then compare that answer to the calculation done with the compound interest formula. The hints and guidance in the app act as a means for the designer to facilitate and guide the users’ progress. In Figure 4, two different hints that are available are illustrated. The first screen indicates the availability of definitions in the app. Certain bold words can be clicked to reveal a definition or explanation of what the term means. The second screen illustrates a hint that appears when an incorrect calculation is made. By providing hints and tips, teachers construct a trial and error approach which allows students to use different strategies to solve problems et al., 2008). In certain instances, users are given three opportunities to make their own attempt on a problem, and only after three attempts, will there be any intervention in the form of a hint. This allows the teacherstudents the opportunity to develop and try their own strategies first, before any intervention is offered, which is a key principle in RME. As Dolk et al. (2002) suggests, when training teachers, it is important that they experience mathematization and reinvention first handed when learning about the reinvention process. This was an important motivation for designing the app for teacher-students to use in order for them to learn about the RME approach and implement it in their classrooms. The second principle of RME is emergent modelling, which refers to the idea that models emerge from the activity of the students (Gravemeijer, 1999). The use of models is also discussed above as one

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 A Mobile Application (App) Based on Realistic Mathematics Education

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Figure 4. Hints relating to the terminology and calculations can be accessed

of the characteristics of RME. An important aspect is that activities should be designed in such a way that students can shift from reasoning with models of informal activities to modelling of formal mathematics (Bakker et al., 2003). The modelling of informal activities through the use of the simple and compound interest formulas has been incorporated. The shift takes place in the activity, when teacher-students are asked to model an answer that would be the most economical purchase of a television. This offers them the opportunity to model the formal mathematics. Models should be grounded in the context problems and not in intended mathematics (Gravemeijer, 1999). In the app, the purpose of creating the model is to solve the problem in the given context, for example to give advice on which of the three options is the most economical when buying the bicycle, and also which option is the best when buying a television. The context demands the creation of the model, not the mathematics. The third principle of RME is didactical phenomenology. Meaningful phenomena that need to be structured and organised are presented to students and should be organised by the mathematics (Drijvers, 2013). The phenomenon of a person’s personal finances is the focus of the app. The scenario of buying a bicycle, and the choices offered when buying a television need to be organised and structured with the aid of the mathematical content. The principles and characteristics of RME formed a strong basis for the design of the app, but it is also important to incorporate the theory relating to the design of mobile apps for mathematics in the design of the app. There are different aspects presented in literature regarding guidelines for the design of mathematics apps. In the design of the app, the researcher has focussed on the perspectives of two authors, who are experts in the field of design aspects. With reference to the aspects that should be considered in the design of Mathematics apps as suggested by Cayton-Hodges et al. (2015, p. 16), the researcher incorporated the following four aspects in the design process.). Firstly, it is suggested that a rich and accurate representation of the mathematical

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content should be present In the app the researcher provided users with definitions of terms such as hire-purchase, simple interest, compound interest, the meaning of p.a.; the researcher gave assistance with necessary simple and compound interest formulas and also made connections between different strands to reinforce the content. The second aspect is that the interactions around the content should be lavish and engaging. The researcher provided numerous opportunities for the user to interact with the content at various levels. The researcher ensured that the user is constantly engaged by providing cues and links between screens and activities. When calculating the compound interest using the simple interest formula, the researcher involved the users by saying the following: Correct! What about the second year? Now enter the values to calculate the loan for the second year. The third aspect discussed by Cayton-Hodges et al. (2015, p. 16) is that users should be given the opportunity to reflect on tasks. This aspect has also been incorporated in the financial mathematics app. Users are encouraged to reflect on why two answers are the same and they are recommended to discuss possibilities with a friend or colleague. The fourth aspect is that hints, scaffolds and other tools are important in the design of apps and that these should be presented on a need to know basis. The manner in which the app was structured and designed is evident of a process of scaffolding. Small portions of information and tasks are given one step at a time, as it becomes necessary, so that users can be guided through the process of learning the content and doing the activities.

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Technical Approach to the Design Process When creating the app, the design team followed nine distinct steps which link to the six steps of (Lee & Kautz, 2015). Firstly, a distinct purpose of the mobile app was defined. Details of what the app should be able to do; what its primary appeal would be; which concrete problem it would address; what aspect of life it aimed to improve, were investigated. The content specialist designed, re-evaluated and refined the design documents which sketched the standards, planning design, development and on-going evaluation of the project (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). The second step set the basis for the user interface. This entailed a visual conceptualisation of the main features as well as a rough layout and structure of the app. The designer created sketches of the proposed layout and structure of the app. Step three involved a search to establish if there were other similar apps available. This was necessary because there are over one million apps for Android and iOS already available (Rowinski, 2013). This search also assisted the designer with design inspiration for the financial mathematics app, and provided him with information on the technical requirements for the app. The designer downloaded three free analogous apps from the Google Play Store and studied their look and feel, and also indicated noted aspects could be appropriate for the financial mathematics app. In the fourth step, all the ideas and features came together as a clear picture of the prototype of the app. This process is known as wire framing (Lloyd & Dykes, 2011, p. 2501) and also entails the creation of a storyboard for the project. The storyboard provided a road map which illustrated the connections between the different screens and also how the user could navigate through the app. The fourth step resulted in the prototype and the storyboard, becoming the basis of the back-end structure for the fifth step. The fourth step also involved the sketching of the servers, app programming interface (APIs), and data diagrams and these aspects were helpful references to the designer. These sketches provided selfexplanatory diagrams that all could follow during the project. Step five also included modifications to the prototype and storyboard according to technical limitations. Because of the limited size of the app, no additional modifications to the prototype and storyboard were necessary. 97

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In the sixth step, friends, family, colleagues and experts were approached to review the prototype. They were requested to test the app and give feedback and identify flaws and dead-end links. Based on this feedback, the app was modified. This review step was done to finally specify the app concept before going into the design process. At this point the app was also tested with an expert in the field of RME and two mathematics education experts, who made certain that the design was based on sound educational principles. In step seven, individual screens were designed. The idea was to create high-resolution versions of the prototype. Here, the designer included all comments from the prototype testers, so that the optimal user interface could be designed. Upon completion and implementation of the individual screens, the actual app concept was complete. All the graphics were inserted and the content designer signed off on all text. The actual design was now implemented and made clickable. Step eight was to test the full design again and collect as much feedback from a variety of users. These new ideas and suggestions were used to refine the app. The designer effected the final changes to the layout. The final step ensured that there was a consistent look and feel to the layout, and that it would perform reliably on different devices. The financial mathematics app was installed on various android devices and was tested for functionality in a live environment. The final completed product was uploaded to Google Play Store and made available for the teacher-students to utilise and examine further. The next phase of this process was to present the completed app to the teachers in order to establish their experiences, perceptions and feedback regarding the app. The nine steps that the design team followed in designing the financial mathematics app were loosely based on the framework that Lee and Kautz (2015, p. 577) suggest for the design and implementation of mathematical tasks in mLearning environments.

Table 1. Comparison of the steps used in designing the financial mathematics app with the design framework of Lee and Kautz (2015, p. 577)

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Design and Implementation Framework as Suggested by Lee and Kautz (2015, p. 577)

          Design and Implementation Steps of the Financial Mathematics App

Define Lesson Objective

1. A clearly defined purpose for the app was designed.

Define technological environment

2. A visual conceptualisation of the main features as well as a rough layout and structure of the app was designed. 3. A search was done to establish if there were other similar apps available.

Define types of investigations

4. Wire framing and the creation of a storyboard for the project.

Design and develop task(s)

5. The servers, app programming interface (APIs), and data diagrams were sketched. Modifications to the prototype and storyboard were done. 6. The review of the prototype by various parties. 7. Individual screens were designed.

Implementation

8. Testing of the full design again. As much feedback as possible from a variety of users was collected. 9. Ensuring a consistent look and feel of the layout, and that the app would perform reliably on different devices.

Enactment

The app was presented to the teacher-students for their feedback and perceptions.

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EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION The chapter reports on the second phase of a qualitative design-based research project in which four teacher-students who were enrolled for a post-graduate degree at a university in South Africa participated in the research. Grounded in the interpretivist paradigm, this qualitative study followed a design-based research approach. Since design-based research is a systematic and flexible methodology that aims to improve educational practice through iterative cycles of analysis, design, development and implementation (Wang & Hannafin, 2005), it served as a suitable approach in the design of the app. McKenney and Reeves (2012) suggest that there are three core phases in educational design research, namely analysis and exploration; design and construction; and evaluation and reflection. These phases aim to lead to theoretical understanding and an opportunity for reflection to produce design principles (Plomp, 2007). The first phase of the project entailed a systematic literature review which grounded and validated the necessary concepts of the study. This was followed by a needs analysis investigation to determine what needs the teacher-students had with regard to making the content that they teach their learners more realistic and relevant. The second phase involved the design and development of the mobile app aimed to address the needs expressed by the teacher-students. This chapter focuses on the reporting of this phase. The third phase of the design-based research, which involves evaluation and reflection, took place throughout the design process. Various prototypes of the app were created and tested by novices, experts in the field of mathematics education and RME as well as the design team. Finally, design principles were formulated to contribute to practice by presenting ideas and suggestions for using technology to reinforce the principles of RME in teaching practice. Teacher-students were purposively selected from a group of in-service teachers enrolled for a postgraduate degree in mathematics education. During semi-structured individual interviews, the teacherstudents revealed various needs they experienced as mathematics teachers with regard to making the content realistic for their learners. They revealed the following: that financial mathematics was a problematic content area for their students; that they were excited about using mobile technology to address issues and needs that they faced in their teaching; and they acknowledged the importance of relating the content that they teach in school mathematics to real life situations. These aspects informed the design and development of the mobile app as discussed above. The final stage of the project involved an evaluation of the mobile app by means of focus-group interviews in which the participants shared their perceptions and experiences of using the app. The qualitative data were analysed with the aid of ATLAS.ti™ to assist with the production of guidelines for the effective use of technology in implementing the RME approach.

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RESULTS To determine the effectiveness of the app, the participants were asked to use and experiment with the app. Focus group interviews were conducted to establish their observations, experiences, suggestions and comments regarding the app. Although various themes came to light in the interviews, for the purposes of this chapter, the discussion will centre on two aspects: the facets of RME that were noted in the app as well as specific aspects relating to the design of the app.

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The Facets of RME One of the questions in the focus group interview schedule was: How does this app address the principles and characteristics of RME? The participants, who were all familiar with the theory of RME since they dealt with that in their degree course material, noted all the characteristics of RME present in the app. They observed that the app emphasised the notion that mathematics is a human activity: The topics are intertwined. They can bring topics together. They can see how this one is intertwined with the next topic (P62:11). And they are actively involved (P62:11). There will be collaboration, when they are together. They will ask each other: Who has done the sum first? (P65:17). I think all the characteristics of RME are there. There is collaboration; users will be actively involved for sure—they are doing it themselves. Intertwining of strands is there: like with simple and compound interest—showing that you can use simple interest to get to the compound interest formula (P65:18). When evaluating the app, the participants also noted the link to real life, a key characteristic of RME: You can do Maths with something that they know—make it real life (P65:46). The second aspect of RME that forms one of the cornerstones of the approach is that Mathematics is a human activity (Freudenthal, 1971). This is particularly valuable in underprivileged contexts, where resources and time for education are limited. Participants shared their ideas on this aspect: Anywhere, in a taxi, in a bus—wherever they are, they can do Maths (P65:10).

Aspects Relating to the App Three aspects relating to the app arose, namely the usability of the app, positive aspects about the app and suggestions to improve the app.

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Usability of the App The usability of the app refers to the usefulness and ease of use of the app. Usability is often measured in terms of three aspects, namely: effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction (Harrison et al., 2013). These three aspects were all accounted for by the participants in this study. Effectiveness is illustrated by the following comments: It will work. It is interesting (P65:30). The app helps to make the lesson more interesting (P62:51).

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Efficiency is illustrated by the comments that follow: They can play with this and still arrive at the right answer (62:4). They won’t find it difficult to use this technology—they are hands on (P65:33). Satisfaction is demonstrated by the following: Ah, it’s so easy! (P62:1). This is excellent, excellent! (P65:31). When asked if the app was easy to navigate, the participants replied: It was for the first time, but it was not so difficult. But once used, I’m telling you it will come easy to them (P62:36).

Positive Aspects About the App Concerning the design aspects, participants thought that the availability of terminology as well as the opportunity for users to attempt something three times on their own was a valuable tool in the app. Two comments that the participants made related to design aspects: The terminology helps them to differentiate between the two concepts (P65:1). It helps by giving them three chances to do sums (P65:3). The other observations were made concerning more general aspects. One participant pointed out the value of the app and recommended that it should be extended to other subjects as well. This is a new method of doing those things which are giving learners a problem. Nowadays people like this sort of things—they like using technology (P65:32).

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I think this will help in other subject too—if teachers that teach other subjects can see this, they would also want to use such apps. This will help them too (P65:47).

Suggestions to Improve the App The suggestions offered by the participants in terms of improving the app can be divided into three categories. These categories are suggestions relating to pedagogical aspects; design aspects and general additional aspects to consider. Regarding pedagogical issues, participants suggested a greater variety of questions for two reasons: firstly, to cater for slower learners and secondly to ensure the whole coverage of the curriculum.

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Maybe you consider specific topics for the slower learners, for those who are willing to learn you can give them more advanced content (P65:22). I think putting all the questions that could be available—so that you can attempt each and every question that is possible. Otherwise if the question is not there and they are applying this—there will be a challenge, even if I don’t know how to do it now. They will be a challenge; I can contact whoever to help me. So to improve it, let’s have as many questions as possible, especially those in real life. Having all the questions will give an opportunity for interaction with other learners and with the teacher. Once they are loaded it will put a challenge to the user each and every time they open the phone. I think it can be improved in that way (P62:41). Hints and scaffolds, which is encouraged by Cayton-Hodges et al. (2015) in the design of mobile Mathematics apps, were also incorporated. Participants preferred that users have plenty of opportunity to try on their own before any such scaffolding takes place: Like we already said, just to change where the learners have to choose between yes or no. They should be given more opportunity to do it on their own first. They should be forced to try the sums on their own first, and then the help can come. Twice or thrice is enough otherwise they might become demotivated (P65:36). Block it and then they can’t access it anymore. Then they know they must try themselves. They must be able to think (P62:44). Concerning the issue of design, interactivity was an essential component that was taken into account in the app for two specific reasons. Firstly, interactivity is an essential characteristic of RME (Zulkardi, 2000) and secondly it is one the main attributes of mLearning (Domingo & Garganté, 2016, p. 22). Although some interactivity was built into the app, the participants were keen to increase the levels of interactivity: Secondly, I would say how can I show this to someone else—how can this be shown to a colleague, while I am working, so that other colleagues can help me (P62:41).

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They should be able to contact fellow users, like with WhatsApp™. I can say how do you do this? I couldn’t get to the right answer, how do I tackle it? They can look into your steps and say no, you are using the wrong formula. Let’s try this formula. By a friend, the learners feel so proud when they can help a fellow learner (P62:42). The final aspect to be discussed is the additional aspects that might be considered for inclusion in the app. Apps have the potential to offer affective engagement. This type of engagement is often influenced by the visual and interactive characteristics of the app (Calder, 2015, p. 245). This is a shortcoming that the design team also identified in the design of the Financial Mathematics app. Participants pointed out the following: I think if you can make it to be audio-visual - that would be great (P65:37).

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There was also no sound. The sound can tell them what to do. Maybe make it an option for learners— those who want sound maybe have that option, those who don’t want sound can switch it off (P65:38-39). I have seen that you have put some colourful pictures in there—even in the formula—maybe add some pictures but not too much. It should also depend on the grades—maybe in the senior and FET phases you can limit the images. In the lower grade you can include more pictures (P65:42-43). What about animation? It will be good especially for the grade fours, fives and sixes—because they like cartoons—you can add it there. If you can include animations that will be good for the lower grades (P65:44).

Design Principles for the Design of a Mobile App Based on the Principles of RME Throughout the various stages of a design-based research project, researchers are encouraged to reflect and document aspects that can assist in the formulation of theories or design principles (Plomp, 2007). The design process of the app led to an awareness of design principles which could assist in future design of mobile apps based on the principles of RME. These principles include the following: 1) thorough planning of the app; 2) rigorous testing of the app throughout the design process; 3) the principles and characteristics of RME should be included and adhered to; and 4) sound pedagogical principles should form the foundation of any such design process. These design principles lead to specific implications for practice, namely: • • • • • • •

A detailed design document should be created. The purpose of the app needs to be clearly defned. The diferent prototypes need to be rigorously tested. Relevant contextual problems should be used. Users should be encouraged to interact with the app. The mathematics content should be rich and accurately presented. Users should have the opportunity to refect on the content (Laubscher, 2017).

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CONCLUSION Learner achievement in mathematics in South Africa in particular is at a particularly low level currently. The availability of the app for free on Google Play store has the potential to open doors for mathematics teachers and learners not only in South Africa, but in the rest of African and even across continents, to improve learner achievement in mathematics. An app such as this could form part of the online component of a blended learning course. Since mobile technology is so widely available and easily accessible, this app provides an appropriate solution to many teachers and learners particularly in underprivileged contexts. A general comment by one of the participants stated: It would be good if you could develop these apps for the whole curriculum — from foundation phase right through (P65:45).

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Such comments are particularly encouraging and clearly indicate that future and further development of similar technological innovations is essential. This comment provides a promising motivation to extend the project to other content areas and even other subjects.

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Chapter 6

Supporting EFL Science Students Through a Multilingual Approach to Blended Learning Erasmos Charamba https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8650-6931 University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

ABSTRACT Throughout the history of mankind, language has been used as a tool of ascendance and colonisation to consolidate power and create governable subjects. In this way, the coloniser’s language became the colonised country’s ofcial language. Upon attaining political independence, several of these nationstates embarked on educational reforms by revising their curricula in the name of ‘decolonising education’. A closer look at these countries’ curricula shows they are still largely Eurocentric following the monolingual ideology of ‘one nation, one language’ with foreign languages being the lingua franca for these multilingual societies despite this approach being singled out as the major cause of academic underachievement in most countries. This chapter investigates the available technological approaches to support the teaching of science to English foreign language (EFL) students who are taught through a language diferent from their home language.

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INTRODUCTION The educational landscape is fast changing. The technological rise and emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) era coupled with the widespread integration of those technologies into the communities have integrally changed teaching approaches in just a short time. These rapidly changing technological landscapes should be an indicator to show that instructional approaches need to be revised to keep up with the times by incorporating integrated technologies into the learning modalities while at the same time assisting students who are taught through a language different from their home language (Allo, 2020). One way to do this is through multilingual blended learning. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch006

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 Supporting EFL Science Students Through a Multilingual Approach to Blended Learning

Although defining blended learning (also called hybrid learning) can be quite problematic, in this chapter, it will be defined as an instructional approach that incorporates technology and digital media with traditional face-to-face classroom activities. This approach allows educators and students more flexibility to customize their educational experiences. Blended learning can involve a combination of synchronous and asynchronous instruction where students interact with the educator, the learning materials, and other students through both a physical classroom and an online platform (Manurung, Manurung, Mertosono, Kamaruddin, 2020). This learning model allows for the integration of traditional education and modern methodology that makes use of technology. Blended learning is consequential to the growing accessibility of e-learning, online resources, and the continued need for the traditional face-to-face instructional experience component. More than one teaching mode helps educators achieve several pedagogical goals, equips students with constructive and algorithmic thinking skills, and improves teachingqualities. It offers educators more opportunities to use several different and effective teaching methods (Rivera, 2019). A study by Wang, Chen, Tai, and Zhang (2019) of Chinese university English Foreign Language (EFL) students report better academic performance among students due to the flexibility and interactive ways realised through blended learning. A related study by Rivera (2019) also reports on increased engagement and deeper comprehension of concepts when language students are taught through blended instruction. In exploring EFL students’ perceptions in the implementation of blended learning at a University in Indonesia, Manurung et.al. (2020) report on enhanced motivation and enhanced academic achievement among students. Tawil (2018) suggests that teaching and learning are more joyful, flexible, and interactive and beneficial for students and the educator through blended learning. A huge advantage of blended learning is that learning can take place anytime and anywhere. Another researcher on blended learning, Simpson (2016), after analysing his study’s findings, posits that blended learning is an effective way in the teaching and learning of languages. However, there appears a dearth of literature on the effectiveness of using more than one language in blended learning, especially among EFL multilingual science students who are taught in a language different from their home language, hence the present study. However, the lack of technological devices such as computers and cell phones puts strain on underprivileged communities whose inhabitants already have a low academic success rate due to various reasons, chief among them being the language of instruction (Charamba, 2020a).

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MULTILINGUALISM AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCE IN EDUCATION Multilingualism is a worldwide phenomenon, a reality in most science classrooms worldwide, as factors such as the migration of labor and political instability result in a linguistic melting pot. Although the natural simultaneous use of languages by multilinguals has been in practice in most parts of the world since time immemorial, as a focus of research, this concept emerged in the 1980s when Cen Williams and his colleagues were exploring effective strategies for bilingual students to use two languages in the same lesson for efficacious instruction. They coined the term ‘trawsieithu’ (Li, 2018) to describe the process in which students would read or hear in one language and then write or discuss what they would have read or heard in another. The term ‘trawsieithu’ was then translated into English as ‘translanguaging’ by Colin Baker (see Lewis, Jones & Baker, 2012) marking a paradigm shift as linguists moved away from traditional lin110

 Supporting EFL Science Students Through a Multilingual Approach to Blended Learning

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guistic terms such as code-switching, and code-mixing, consequently calling into question the existence of ‘languages’ as identifiable, distinct systems (Makoni, 2018). A one-year ethnographic study by Poza (2019) suggests deeper comprehension of concepts among fifth-grade students in America who used their entire linguistic repertoire during lessons compared to when monolingual pedagogy was used. The study recommends that multilingual students’ languaging skills – their multilingual and multimodal communicative competencies – should be leveraged as a valuable meaning-making resource across the curriculum. A multilingual approach can disrupt prevailing linguistic hierarchies and the ideologies of race, class, and nationhood that constitute them. Another body of recent research notes that students who use all their languages as a resource in subject-related instructional situations develop deeper conceptual subject knowledge than multilingual students who are exposed to monolingual approaches (García & Otheguy, 2020; Hua, Li & Jankowicz-Pytel, 2020; Vallejo & Dooly, 2020). In exploring the benefits of multilingual pedagogy across the curriculum, Torpsten (2018) analysed classroom activities, texts, and pictures produced by eleven-year-old multilingual students in a Swedish classroom. The study suggests the simultaneous use of languages during teaching/learning leads to a broader and deeper knowledge of the language and subject-specific concepts compared to a monolingual approach. Using ethnographically informed data collection in conjunction with discourse analysis, a study by Infante and Licona (2018) shows how multilingual activities can be valuable in framing and supporting epistemic access across Mankato’s curriculum. The study also highlights better academic performance among multilingual students who could use multiple languages during academic activities. As a result, the researchers urge teachers across the curriculum to acknowledge and accept multilingualism in their classrooms. Besides enhancing concept comprehension and academic achievement, it also boosts students’ self-esteem, confidence, and sense of belonging (Iversen, 2020). The choice and use of language are central to people’s definition of themselves concerning the whole world. Hence in South Africa, language has always been at the heart of various contending social forces in educational advancement. Most of the country’s multilingual science students are taught in a language different from their home language, which has a negative impact on their academic performance. A blended learning platform available in several languages eliminates many linguistic, social, and learning barriers (Yan & Mei, 2018). Consequently, language will not be an obstacle, and students can focus on learning, which is what it is all about. In terms of blended learning and learning theories, this chapter’s main emphasis is on the social constructivism theory. As stated elsewhere in this chapter, blended learning means a mix of e-learning and face-to-face instruction. Most South African students are already doing some form of blended learning and have for years through social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook. This chapter’s central problem is how multilingualism can be accommodated and promoted through blended learning by using the school subject Physical Science as an example.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY One’s level of potential development comprises cognitive structures that are still developing and can only do so in collaboration with others. Being a variety of cognitive constructivism itself, social constructivism, developed by Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes the collaborative nature of education. The theory rejects the attempt to separate individual learning from the social context arguing that all cognitive functions originate through social interactions and should be therefore explained as products of these interactions 111

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(Vygotsky, 1978). According to the social constructivism theory, learning does not simply comprise the inculcation and adaption of new concepts; rather, it is the process by which students are integrated into a knowledge community through social interactions. The theory brings to the fore the central role language and culture play in students’ intellectual development. Knowledge is, therefore, co-constructed as learning is a collaborative process. Students’ linguistic capabilities enable them to subdue their consciousness’s natural quantifications by imposing a culturally defined sense and meaning on the universe. Therefore, language and culture are the major frameworks through which students experience, communicate, and understand the world and its reality. This requires educators to use a language or languages students have high proficiency in. The student’s level of potential development, also called the “zone of proximal development,” is the level of development that the student can reach under educators’ guidance and in collaboration with their peers (Vygotsky, 1978). It is the area of exploration for which the student is cognitively prepared for but requires scaffolding from the more knowledgeable and social interactions with their peers to develop (McKinney & Tyler 2019) fully. Collaborative learning can, however, take place when efforts are made to use languages students can fully understand. Through this, students will also develop teamwork skills, thereby viewing individual learning as essentially related to group learning success. Vygotsky focused on the interactions between students and their sociocultural context in which they interact and act in a shared experience. The interactions can be face-to-face or, in the present day of COVID-19 pandemic, technological. The use of multitudinous languages present in science classrooms has been shown to offer a smoother interface between home knowledge and school science knowledge and to support students to comprehend the scientific knowledge deeper, easier and faster (Meyerhöffer & Dreesmann, 2019). In multilingual science classrooms, language plays a critical role in students’ acquisition of scientific concepts. It is the transmitter of cultural tools, the mechanism for thinking, and the most important mental tool (Vygotsky 1978; Zhang et al. 2020). The social constructivism theory looks at what the educator brings into the science classroom and what the student brings and how the broader cultural and historical setting shapes their interaction, thus acknowledging the interdependence of language, learning, and development (Krause & Prinsloo 2016). From this perspective, this chapter argues that the use of students’ linguistic repertoire can be developed and used in the science classroom through blended learning (Siry, 2014). Considering South African science classrooms’ linguistic landscape, translanguaging as an approach to learning should be widely recommended and supported through face-to-face and blended learning.

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ENTRENCHING MULTILINGUALISM IN BLENDED LEARNING Central to this chapter is applying blended learning in a multilingual EFL science classroom to accommodate and promote multilingualism. Modern communication technology advancement facilitates multilingual education as an educational strategy in today’s increasingly linguistically diverse classrooms. A single language, especially where it is not the students’ home language, would restrict full access to facilities for certain communities (Allo, 2020). A study on blended learning by Nel (2005) reports that most respondents agreed that inter-group activities might counteract the negative effect of segregation caused by same-language groups if participants are given the option to use more than one language. Most of the respondents also indicated that the 112

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online learning environment allows them to communicate in their preferred language, thus deepening mastery of concepts. In India, Kushwah and Vijayakumar (2001:2-3) report that multilingual blended learning accommodates different Indian languages and eradicates monolingual settings’ linguistic hierarchies. Therefore, the present-day educator needs to take such factors as language competence, cultural background, and learning style into account when creating and presenting blended learning activities (Olivier, 2011).

Multilingual Technology-Based Techniques for the Science Classroom A body of research in science education suggests that low proficiency in the language of instruction is one of the major causes of low academic performance amongst students whose home language and language of instruction differ (see, for example, Charamba, 2020a; Makoni,2018; Probyn, 2019; Zhang, Osborne, Shao & Lin, 2020). Further research also demonstrates that using more than one language in the same lesson has positive academic, social, and emotional effects (see, for example, Garcia, 2019; Iversen, 2020; Li, 2018; Lin, 2019; Vallejo & Dooly, 2020).

Multilingual Instructional Videos Lessons can be delivered through videos, animations, and narrated slides in English (the language of instruction in most institutions) and have subtitles in students’ home language. This also accommodates different students who learn differently: the auditory, visual, multilingual, and language ceases to be a barrier to learning (Allo, 2020). For example, Excerpt 1 shows a transcription of a Physical sciences video lesson presented in the English language with Sesotho and isiZulu subtitles.

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Excerpt 1 English voice over: Let us begin by seeing what a force does to an object Sesotho subtitle: A re qaleng ka ho bona hore na matla a itseng a etsa eng ho ntho e itseng isiZulu subtitle: Ake siqale ngokubona lokho amandla athile akwenzayo kokuthile English voice over: Force makes an object move Sesotho subtitle: Matla a etsa hore ntho e sisinyehe isiZulu subtitle: Amandla abangela ukuba into ihambe English voice over: Force can stop a moving object Sesotho subtitle: Matla a ka emisa ntho e tsamayang isiZulu subtitle: Amandla angamisa into enyakazayo (ehambayo) English voice over: Force can make a moving object go faster Sesotho subtitle: Matla a ka etsa hore ntho e susumetsang e tsamaee ka potlako isiZulu subtitle: Amandla angenza into enyakazayo ihambe ngokushesha okukhulu English voice over: Force can change the shape of an object Sesotho subtitle: Matla a ka fetola sebopeho sa ntho isiZulu subtitle: Amandla angashintsha ukwakheka kwento In this transcript, the same scientific content is delivered to students through three languages: instruction (English) and two African languages (Sesotho and isiZulu). The use of different languages does not take 113

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away the ‘scientific correctness’ of the concepts. In cases where there is no direct translation from the language of instruction to students’ home languages, the scientific terms can be explained in the closest possible terms, for example:

Excerpt 2 English: Vector Sesotho: ke ntho e nang le tselale boholo kappa bonyane isiZulu: yinto enokuningi noma okungenani okuthile kuyo Both African languages (Sesotho and isiZulu) do not directly translate the word ‘vector.’ However, both explanations state that a vector is something with both magnitude and a direction. Scientifically this is correct. At the end of the lesson or course, students can also be given bi/multilingual assessments written in the language of instruction and students’ home language, for example:

Excerpt 3 English: Which ONE of the following formulae is a product of one of Newton’s laws? isiZulu: Yiphi kwamanye amafomula alandelayo angumkhiqizo wemithetho ka Newton? Sesotho: Ke efe ea mekhoa e latelang e hlahisitsoeng ke melao ea Newton? 2GM R 1 (b) S = v 0t + at 2 2 (c) y – y1 = m(x – x1) (d) ρ = q / v (a) V =

If the educator does not speak students’ home language, they can sort the assistance of those who can speak the language or make use of Google translator. When using the latter, one should make use of back-translation. This process cross-checks and validates the translation and translated content.

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Multilingual Narrated Slideshows To clarify some concepts for better understanding by students, some educators prefer having narrated slides. Narrated slideshows are PowerPoint presentations that include audio recordings synchronized to images, usually without hand-drawn annotations. Here, the voice-over can be in the language of instruction with subtitles in the students’ home languages. The slides can also have key concepts written in the respective languages, for example:

Excerpt 5 Again, the advantages are numerous as this is inclusive and accommodates the auditory, visual, and multilingual students. This deepens students’ scientific knowledge and enhances their knowledge of

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Table 1. ­ English

            Sesotho

                  isiZulu

Apply

           Sebedisa

                  Sebenzisa

Mass

            boima

                    isisindo

Motion

              Lebelo

                     Ukunyakaza

Speed

               Motsamao

                       Isivinini

the language of instruction, and sustains minority languages that face extinction if not used regularly. Educators can also create multilingual learning-area-specific dictionaries. The acknowledgment and inclusion of multilingual students’ entire linguistic repertoire in the classroom have been shown to have social, cognitive, and affective benefits that enhance academic achievement (Garcia, 2020; Li, 2018).

Social Media Platforms: WhatsApp and Facebook

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Educators can post activities on these platforms for students to do at home or in class. Students can discuss the activities in groups or as a class. The academic conversations on these platforms can be in more than one language. In his theory of Linguistic Interdependence, Cummins posits that linguistic or metalinguistic practices learned in one language could be transferred to another (Cummins, 2008). For example, suppose a student is familiar with finding a science text’s main idea in their home language. In that case, that student will transfer that competency to a new language (the language of instruction). Sociolinguists argue that while it takes about two years to acquire conversational skills, it takes five to seven years or more to acquire a second language to a level sufficient to cope with the full curriculum (Cummins, 2008). Researchers have reported increased participation in academic activities where translingual practices are used (Iversen, 2020; Li, 2018; Lin, 2019). In science classrooms, researchers have argued that this also allows students to bridge everyday knowledge with scientific knowledge in science books and classrooms (Gee, 2015). The UNICEF (2016) Report on East and Southern Africa also suggests that global evidence supports home language-based education as a critical part of high-quality education, unearthing positive links between using the students’ home language and learning outcomes (UNICEF, 2016). The use of a language in which students have high proficiency plays a pivotal role in concept comprehension and assimilation, especially on e-learning platforms. These social media platforms also enable students and educators to share multimodal learning resources (Allo, 2020). Facebook has also added the link ‘See Translation’ underneath a post that is not written in the respective user’s home language. This enables the user to click through to see a translation of the text powered by Microsoft Bing.

Open Educational Resources (OERs) Educators can also make use of Open Educational Resources (OERs). These are freely accessible, open licensed teaching resources in text, media, and other digital format that can be used for instruction and research purposes, thus supporting different learning styles. The resources are publicly accessible for any educator, parent, or researcher to use, re-mix, improve and redistribute under some licenses. The term Open Educational Resources, first coined at UNESCO’s 2002 Forum on Open Courseware, entails

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“teaching, learning and research materials in any medium, digital or otherwise, that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or limited restrictions” (UNESCO, 2012: 5). These resources can be accessed anywhere, anytime by anyone. The fact that they online save students a lot of money and resources such as textbooks can be put forward quicker online than publishing a hard copy. Educators can also modify the learning resources to suit their respective lessons doing away with fixity found in other resources. In education, the most used licensing system is the Creative Commons (see https://creativecommons.org). The license tells the educator that they can use and modify the original work, provided they acknowledge the original source. Wiley (2014) cited by Mays (2019) states five rights associated with OERs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reuse: the user has an option to use the resource unchanged; Revise: one can modify the resource; Remix: one can mix the resource (unchanged or modified) with other resources; Redistribute: to share the original work, the modified resource, or the mixed resource; Retain: permission to retain a copy of the resource (Mays, 2019).

These rights enable the educator to mix resources from different sources or take an existing resource and translate it into other languages (see Excerpt 6). This presents many advantages to blended learning over traditional classroom instruction, as content is accessible at any time, anywhere, and in a language the student has high proficiency. These resources and new digital media offer new opportunities for multilingual interaction, resulting in new instructional practices. An increasingly common phenomenon in present-day social media is that all students (including those who consider themselves monolinguals) can experience or do things in several languages.

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SOLUTIONS AND DISCUSSIONS Today’s multilingual technology has gone beyond the question of which language dominates the science classroom. Instead, it is now a question of how science educators and students act differently as they take up new possibilities offered by the different languages on the web. Present-day discourses call attention to the pre-established nature of language, which is deeply rooted in colonial impulses of the state, by which the language practices of the political elite in most countries became intertwined with the formation of a national identity resulting in the subjugating, devaluing, or repressing of languages of the politically-inferior (Charamba, 2020b). The acknowledgment and accommodation of heteroglossic perspectives in education rejects engraved ideologies that posit monolingualism as a norm in blended science classrooms. It further justifies acknowledging that multilingualism is not new, even if the term’s dramatic secularisation seems recent. Ideas of translingual practice have long been practiced, particularly in social life, especially in the Global South countries where societal multilingualism is more frequent and valued. Given the complexity of science education, especially to students who are being taught through a language different from their home language, it makes greater sense to incorporate multilingual pedagogies into education, particularly in blended science classrooms. Multilingualism should be positioned as a resource, both for enhancing educational outcomes and for avowing identities, as well as for questioning and supplanting hegemonic 116

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linguistic norms evident in most science classrooms worldwide (Charamba, 2020b). The homogeneous speech communities being enforced in some of these blended science classrooms are empirically inadequate for addressing an era of the present-day science classroom’s complex linguistic realities (Li, 2018). All students enter the blended science classroom with a ‘backpack’ full of experiences. They continuously and constantly relate the scientific content to learning, and one of these is their home language (Karlsson et al., 2019). A body of research shows that the written language in monolingual classroom science contexts is often characterized by high lexical density, abstraction, and technicality, making it difficult for EFL students to comprehend the scientific facts (Iversen, 2020; Probyn, 2019; Zhang et al., 2020). To mitigate the effects of such complex linguistic practices, another body of research suggests that the use of multiple languages in the same lesson, especially where one of them is the students’ home language, enhances students’ creativity, deepens concept comprehension, enhances academic performance and boosts students’ self-esteem (see Allo, 2020; García & Otheguy, 2020; Hua et.al., 2020; Mays, 2019; Vallejo & Dooly, 2020).

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Multilingual Blended Education in Underprivileged Communities Research has shown that languages other than the students’ home language for teaching and learning have many challenges and could lead to language becoming a barrier to learning. This is also true for students in underprivileged communities where instruction is different from their home language. In these communities, technological devices such as laptops, tablets, and cell phones are scarce. In families where these are found, they are normally shared among several family members or families. Drawing up and providing e-learning in students’ home language allows the underprivileged community to participate in their children’s education. Although SA has eleven official languages, there are at least 35 indigenous languages. According to Statistics SA (2019) the official languages, with the percentage of native speakers in parentheses, are English (9.6%), Afrikaans (13.5%), Ndebele (2.1%), Sepedi (9.1%), Xhosa (16%), Venda (2.4%), Tswana (8%), Southern Sotho (7.6%), Zulu (22.7%), Swazi or SiSwati (2.5%) and Tsonga (4.5%). Unofficial and marginalised languages include some of Southern Africa’s First Nation languages and are mostly found in the country’s underprivileged communities. These are, among others, Khoekhoegowab, Khoemana, Xirikobab, Njuuki, Ju, Khwedam, SiPhuthi, isiHlubi, SiBhaca, SiLala, SiNhlangwini, SiSumayela, isiMpondo, KheLobedu, SePulana, HiPai, SeKutswe, SeTokwa, SeHananwa, SiThonga, SiLaNgomane, SheKgalagari, XiRhonga, and SeKopa (Census 2011). Most speakers of these languages only encounter English (the language of instruction) in the classroom and are expected to learn through a language they have minimal proficiency (Charamba, 2019b). Students from these underprivileged communities are often labelled because of their lack of proficiency in English and their inability to bring their home languages and prior experiences into the learning space. Even though the country’s statutes cited elsewhere in this chapter advocate multilingual education, this has not been the case in most of the country’s schools, especially in underprivileged communities where educators view multilingualism as a hindrance rather than an asset to education. In such communities where the language of instruction is divorced from the community linguistic landscape, educators can support these students by accepting multilingualism for pedagogy and scaffolding in e-learning. Educators should recognise this linguistic diversity as a resource and not a challenge. In such underprivileged communities, students’ linguistic repertoire needs to be incorporated into blended teaching and learning, not just for language education but across the curriculum. Perhaps this will reduce the number of 117

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students who are labelled and drop out as ignoring their languages could lead to the entrenchment of inequalities in the education of students from underprivileged communities. Multilingualism as an approach to blended learning in multilingual settings should be widely recommended and supported, especially in underprivileged communities where instruction is different from the students’ home language. Besides facilitating cognition, language also creates one’s identity and allows for identifying a speaker’s social group. In South Africa, English has been foisted upon the underprivileged communities as the language of instruction and for research purposes, resulting in its hegemony. The use of a single dominant language in the classroom also threatens the existence of minority languages and dialects found in these underprivileged communities and the identities of the speakers. Consequently, teaching and learning pedagogies that ignore the complexities and dynamics of these multilingual underprivileged communities are merely reinforcing past worldviews, inequality, and injustice in blended education. Research suggests that the knowledge of more than one language has cognitive and economic benefits and allows students to be who they are within the social and educational context (see Gracia, 2019; Hua et al., 2020; Li, 2018). According to the country’s Language in Education Policy (LiEP) adopted in 1997, students should choose their preferred language of instruction when applying to a particular school (Department of Education, 1997). However, the enforcement of the LiEP has proved to be difficult among most black South African schools resulting in students underperforming academically due to the language barrier. In the blended classroom, educators can come up with multilingual dictionaries, glossaries, and online translations. Besides a challenge in technological devices’ availability, the other challenge arising from this pedagogical strategy is the unavailability of translations of some scientific terms, such as fire extinguishers. However, paraphrasing and transliteration can be successfully used as far as possible in trying to come up with localised translations of scientific terms/ phrases. Educators can seek assistance from the community, students, and other linguists in coming up with acceptable and working translations. Despite the challenges, multilingual pedagogy still offers great opportunities to bridge the communication and comprehension gap in students’ science education from underprivileged communities.

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CONCLUSION The thesis this chapter sought to defend is using an approach in which multilingual students’ linguistic background is foregrounded and appropriated in the blended science classroom. For multilingual students, languages are a unified system to be negotiated for contextual conversational and instructional goals in the blended science classroom. As alluded to elsewhere in this chapter, if EFL science students are encouraged and allowed to use all available language resources, this empowers them in multiple ways as both the home language and language of instruction become linguistic and cognitive resources for meaning-making in the blended science classroom. Given the fluid nature of a multilingual approach, educators can implement multilingual pedagogies in their linguistically diverse blended science classrooms for meaning-making. Multilingualism uses all languages at the science student’s disposal. In this way, it facilitates a deep understanding of meaning. It can result in enhanced epistemic access in the blended science classroom as it does not recognise hard boundaries between named languages.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.

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Nel, E. (2005). Creating meaningful blended learning experiences in a South African higher education classroom: an action inquiry (PhD thesis). Bloemfontein: University of the Free State. Olivier, J. (2011). Accommodating and promoting multilingualism through blended learning (Ph.D. thesis). North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa. Retrieved October 19, 2020 from https:// www.learntechlib.org/p/37551/ Poza, L. (2019). “Where the true power resides”: Student translanguaging and supportive teacher dispositions. Bilingual Research Journal, 42(1), 1–24. doi:10.1080/15235882.2019.1682717 Probyn, M. (2019). Pedagogical translanguaging and the construction of science knowledge in a multilingual South African classroom: Challenging monoglossic/post-colonial orthodoxies. Classroom Discourse, 10(3-4), 216–236. doi:10.1080/19463014.2019.1628792 Rivera, J. L. (2019). Blended learning-effectiveness and application in teaching and learning foreign languages. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 9(02), 129–144. doi:10.4236/ojml.2019.92013 Simpson, A. J. (2016). The successful incorporation of blended learning into the language curriculum. Advanced Education., doi:10.20535/2410-8286.68608 Siry, C. (2014). Towards multidimensional approaches to early childhood science education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 9(2), 297–304. doi:10.100711422-012-9445-8 Tawil, H. (2018). The blended learning approach and its application in language teaching. doi:10.30845/ ijll.v5n4p6 Torpsten, A. (2018). Translanguaging in a Swedish multilingual classroom. Multicultural Perspectives, 20(2), 104–110. doi:10.1080/15210960.2018.1447100 UNESCO. (2012). 2012 Paris OER Declaration. Retrieved from www.unesco.org UNICEF. (2016). Mozambique. The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa 2016. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/esaro/UNICEF(2016) LanguageandLearning-Mozambique.pdf Vallejo, C., & Dooly, M. (2020). Plurilingualism and translanguaging: Emergent approaches and shared concerns. Introduction to the special issue. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(1), 1–16. doi:10.1080/13670050.2019.1600469

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Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. Harvard University Press. Wang, N., Chen, J., Tai, M., & Zhang, J. (2019). Blended learning for Chinese university EFL learners: Learning environment and learner perceptions. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–27. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.1607881 Wiley, D. (2014). The access compromise and the 5th R, iterating toward openness. Available at: http//:opencontent.org/blog/archives/3221 Yan, S., & Mei, S. Y. (2018). Perceptions and practices of blended learning in foreign language teaching at USIM. European Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research, 12(1), 170. doi:10.26417/ ejser.v12i1.p170-176

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Zhang, Q., Osborne, C., Shao, L., & Lin, M. (2020). A translanguaging perspective on medium of instruction in the CFL classroom. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–14. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/01434632.2020.1737089

ADDITIONAL READING Blommaert, J., García, O., Kress, G., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (2019). Communicating beyond diversity: A bricolage of ideas. In A. Sherris & E. Adami (Eds.), Making signs; Translanguaging ethnographies. Exploring urban, rural and educational space (pp. 9–35). Multilingual matters. García, O. (2019). The Curvas of translanguaging. In Zhongfeng, T. and Link H. (Eds.). Positive synergies. Translanguaging and critical theories in education (pp. 86-93). John Benjamins. Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts. 5(1), 86-93. García, O. (2019). Decolonizing foreign, second, heritage and first languages: Implications for education. In D. Macedo (Ed.), Decolonizing foreign language education (pp. 152–168). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429453113-6 Johnson, S. I., García, O., & Seltzer, K. (2019). Biliteracy and translanguaging in Dual language bilingual education. In D. DeMatthews & E. Izquierdo (Eds.), Dual Language Education: Teaching and leading in two languages (pp. 119–132). Springer. Kleyn, T., & García, O. (2019). Translanguaging as an act of transformation: Restructuring teaching and learning for emergent bilingual students. In L. de Oliveira (Ed.), Handbook of TESOL in K-12 (pp. 69–82). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781119421702.ch6 Seltzer, K., & García, O. (2019). Mantenimiento del bilingüismo en estudiantes latinos de las escuelas de Nueva York. El proyecto de CUNY-NYSIEB. Informes del Observatorio / Observatorio Reports. Observatorio del español, FAS. Harvard University., doi:10.15427/OR048-02/2019SP

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Seltzer, K., & García, O. (2019). Sustaining Latinx bilingualism in New York’s Schools: The CUNYNYSIEB Project. Informes del Observatorio / Observatorio Reports. Observatorio del español, FAS. Harvard University., doi:10.15427/OR048-02/2019EN Vogel, S., Ascenzi-Moreno, L., & García, O. (2018). An expanded view of translanguaging: leveraging the dynamic interactions between a young multilingual writer and machine translation software. In J. Choi & S. Ollerhead (Eds.), Plurilingualism in Teaching and Learning: Complexities Across Contexts (pp. 89–106). Taylor & Francis Ltd. doi:10.4324/9781315392462-6 Wright, W. E., Boun, S., & Garcia, O. (Eds.). (2015). The handbook of bilingual and multilingual education. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118533406

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Asynchronous Learning: Various forms of digital and online learning in which students learn from instruction such as prerecorded video lessons that is not being delivered in person or in real time. Home Language: A language (or the variety of a language) that is most spoken by the members of a family for everyday interactions at home. Monolingualism: Understanding or having the knowledge to speak or write in only one language. Multi-Competence: The knowledge of more than one language in one person’s mind. Multilingualism: The knowledge and use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. Open Educational Resources: These are freely accessible, openly licensed text, media, and other digital assets that are useful for teaching, learning, and assessing as well as for research purposes. Synchronous Learning: All types of learning in which students and educators are in the same place, at the same time, in order for learning to take place. Translanguaging: The process whereby multilingual speakers use their languages as an integrated communication system.

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Chapter 7

Content Developers as Stakeholders in the Blended Learning Ecosystem:

The Virtual Institute for Afrikaans Language Education Portal as a Case Study Adri Breed North-West University, South Africa

Cecilia Erasmus St. David’s Marist Inanda, South Africa

Nadine Fouché Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa

Sophia Kapp Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa

Nina Brink North-West University, South Africa

Sulene Pilon University of Pretoria, South Africa

Marlie Coetzee Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa

Roné Wierenga Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans, South Africa & North-West University, South Africa

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ABSTRACT

Gerhard van Huyssteen North-West University, South Africa

Within the blended learning environment, it is important to consolidate expert content and pedagogy inside and outside the classroom. Subject experts who serve as content developers play a vital role by contributing quality controlled subject content covered by the curriculum, which can be made available to students on digital platforms. However, in developing countries and in communities where resources are limited, good and complementary digital content may not be accessible to all learners. Teachers are often left to their own devices to develop teaching content. When considering Afrikaans language teaching in South Africa specifcally, there is a great need within the language community for learning and teaching support. This chapter reports on the role that the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA) is playing as a content provider of quality Afrikaans linguistic material in the blended learning environment. The aim is to present VivA as a case study or prototype of an independent organisation acting as a key stakeholder in the blended learning ecosystem. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch007

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 Content Developers as Stakeholders in the Blended Learning Ecosystem

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INTRODUCTION Students and learners who engage in learning within the context of university and school classrooms today are considered “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001), which means that computers, the internet and other technologies form an integral part of their everyday existence and way of life. This is why blended learning, where students obtain and process new information through technology and digital media in addition to a more traditional face-to-face teaching and learning context where the physical presence of the teacher and student is required (Al Bataineh et al., 2019, p. 324; Friesen, 2012, p. 1) is such an ideal teaching approach for this generation of learners. Blended learning not only encourages flexibility in learning since students can have access to content and online assignments anywhere and anytime (Mirriahi et al., 2015; Wichadee, 2018, p. 37), but it also promotes student autonomy and self-directed learning (Gülbahar & Madran, 2009, p. 1). Furthermore, it has learning advantages such as additional learning time and access to additional learning materials, as well as additional opportunities for collaboration (Means et al., 2010; Protsiv et al., 2016). Picciano (2009, p. 16) also notes that blended learning enables the teacher to “meet the needs of a variety of learners”, meaning students with different personality types and different learning styles, and in the process encourages students to learn in a manner in which they are more comfortable, while also challenging them to learn in new ways. Nikolaidou et al. (2009) indicate that blended learning can only be successful if the interrelationships between stakeholders are effectively explored. Such interrelationships can be referred to as the blended learning ecosystem. Within the blended learning environment, it is important to “bring content and pedagogy experts into the classroom, using asynchronous delivery, not to replace the in-class teacher but to significantly enhance and multiply her teaching impact” (Larson & Murray, 2008, p. 87). Subject experts who serve as content developers play a vital role in blended learning by contributing quality controlled subject content covered by the curriculum, which can be made available to students on digital platforms. Institutions such as Open Educational Resources (OERs) provide these digital platforms where learners can access learning material with the help of technology. However, in developing countries and in communities where resources are limited, good and complementary digital content that promotes self-directed learning, may not be accessible to all learners. Teachers are often left to their own devices to develop teaching content, and not all teachers have the skill or access to infrastructure to do so effectively (see DBE, 2004, p. 9). When considering Afrikaans language teaching in South Africa specifically, the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA) receives language queries daily, indicating the great need within the language community for learning and teaching support. In 2003, Heyns and Snyman (2003) stated that “information available on the Internet for Afrikaans language teachers is, without doubt, totally inadequate.” This lack of accessibility and support did not really improve in the last or so decade. Olivier (2018) indicates that, though it is clear that there currently are a number of useful educational resources for Afrikaans, these resources do not really function as open educational resources and can therefore not really be regarded as part of a digital language movement (also compare Pretorius, 2016). This shortage of Afrikaans learning material is incomprehensible when the position of Afrikaans as a first language is considered within the broader South African linguistic landscape. Not only is Afrikaans spoken as a first language in 12.2% of South African households, but it is also one of the eleven official languages ​​of South Africa. In addition to this, Afrikaans is the language spoken by the third most speakers in the country (compare Kamer, 2018). Furthermore, there are approximately 2400 schools in South Africa where Afrikaans is used as the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) (compare Colditz, 125

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2018). The expectation would therefore be that there should be sufficient teaching material and support available for Afrikaans language teachers, but this is clearly not the case. This also raises the question about the availability of teaching material written in and for the other indigenous languages ​​in South Africa spoken far less than Afrikaans, including, but not limited to Xitsonga (2.4%), Tshivenda (2.2%), IsiNdebele (1.3%) (Kamer, 2018). Gordon and Harvey (2018) also indicate “the general lack of school resources and training required for teachers to teach in many of the country’s African languages”. The problem of good learning material is therefore not a problem specific to Afrikaans language teaching, but rather a problem that persist in the South African linguistic landscape. This insufficiency as well as the socio-economic advancement that is linked to being taught in English, motivates parents to choose English as LoLT for their children (Gordon & Harvey 2018) although South African teaching and language policies indicate that school children must receive instruction in their mother tongue for at least the first three years of their school years (Owen-Smith, 2010, p. 32). This is not only a problem in the foundation phase (grade 1-3) where more parents opt for English as LoLT. Gordon and Harvey (2018) state that “the preference for English [is] extended into later years of education too. In fact, we found that the number of people supporting English rose the higher up the education ladder went. In other words, the more advanced the phase of education the smaller the share of the public supporting options other than English.” This all points to the “symbolic power that the knowledge of English holds” (Kaiper, 2018, p. 754). This calls for the promotion of African languages and logically also Afrikaans by means of the development of quality teaching materials as well as providing adequate training to teachers on using these materials (Manyike & Lemmer, 2014, p. 256; Gordon & Harvey, 2018) in order to also give “power” to the knowledge of these languages. In addition, creating language content will contribute to the promotion and development of the use of different languages, thus complying with Act no. 108 of 1996 of the South African Constitution. The development of teaching and learning material also promotes the acknowledgment of linguistic diversity and consequently the advocate for cultural diversity, thus also adhering to the Language in Education Policy Act (Act no. 27 of 1996) and the South African Schools Act (Act no. 84 of 1996). A key area in need of development is Afrikaans digital grammar content, as will become evident in the following sections. The shortage of digital grammar content for use in the Afrikaans classroom is in stark contrast with the abundance of digital platforms for Afrikaans literature, such as LitNet, Storiewerf, Versindaba, Roekeloos, Woes, Afrikaanse Kontemporêre Drama-argief / Afrikaans Contemporary Drama Archive and the Digital Bibliography of Afrikaans Literature1. The information contained on these platforms focuses mainly on Afrikaans prose, poetry and drama, and the content ranges from informal to more scientific and peer-reviewed (Olivier, 2018, pp. 906, 918-920). These platforms do not only provide an abundance of information, but also create a digital environment where discussions of recently published works can take place, and where the writing of published as well as unpublished authors can be showcased. Some resources, such as LitNet, even contain a section aimed specifically at teachers (and in some cases also learners). These “school sections” focus on the promotion of Afrikaans across different fields, making available different types of content situated within a broader Afrikaans teaching context. This content is, however, not necessarily only Afrikaans subject-specific content and, more specifically, not inclusive of Afrikaans grammar (see Olivier, 2018, p. 919). In contrast to the numerous digital sources on Afrikaans literature, as mentioned above, Olivier (2018) points out that there are relatively few digital resources dealing with Afrikaans grammar: BeterAfrikaans, Afrikaans Wikipedia, Taalportaal and the Digitale Bibliografie van die Afrikaanse Taalkunde / Digital 126

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Bibliography of the Afrikaans Linguistics (abbreviated as DBAT)2. However, there are certain limitations to these resources, as will be discussed below. •

•

•

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•

BeterAfrikaans is a resource that could be used as an assessment tool in the Afrikaans classroom. It includes questions and information on Afrikaans spelling and other language conventions, such as anglicisms, the appropriate use of the relative pronouns wie (“who”) and wat (“what”), fxed expressions, and word classes. Unfortunately, the content of this resource is not reusable (Olivier 2018, p. 919), since the tests used to assess the previously mentioned conventions, cannot be downloaded or edited. It is also impossible to gain access to some of the information contained in BeterAfrikaans, since a user only receives information pertaining to a specifc question after the question has already been answered. Thus, certain content on this site may be considered ‘open educational resources’, but most are not. In addition, this site does not use an open license (like Creative Commons), which means that if content is reused, it is an infringement of the Copyright Act (J.A.K. Olivier, personal communication, November 10, 2020). Afrikaans Wikipedia also provides Afrikaans linguistic content. However, Van Huyssteen et al. (2016) reported that in a study carried out in 2016, only 36% of the respondents (all translators, lecturers or teachers) claimed to have known about the Afrikaans Wikipedia. In addition, Pretorius (2016) describes this resource as not “extensive enough” yet. Pretorius (2016) also points to the fact that anyone can contribute information by creating new articles or editing existing ones, which could lead to unreliable information appearing on the Afrikaans Wikipedia. Even though the nature of the resource provides an opportunity for knowledgeable collaborators to correct such unreliable information, the possibility of unsubstantiated information appearing on this site still exists. A resource which Olivier (2018) characterised as being more “academic”, is Taalportaal, which ofers a modern, scientifcally based description of the Afrikaans grammar (Van Huyssteen, 2017). However, this resource is presented in English and has international linguistic scholars as its target audience. It is therefore not suitable as a reference work for Afrikaans teachers in an Afrikaans classroom, or as a resource for Afrikaans learners in a blended learning environment or for selfdirected learning. Finally, the DBAT is a comprehensive database of Afrikaans linguistic sources (Breed et al., 2016, pp. 394, 402). Although the DBAT also catalogues resources that are relevant to Afrikaans language teaching (for example Klasgids3), it is only a database that references available Afrikaans linguistics resources and – in most cases – does not provide direct access to these resources.

Olivier (2018, p. 918) also mentions smaller resource websites or blogs that are maintained by teachers, such as My klaskamer, Afrikaanse Hulpmiddels vir die klaskamer en Mr. V’s Classroom Companion4. However, Olivier (2018, p. 906) warns that very few Afrikaans digital sources are peerreviewed, and this may very well be the case for these sources. He also refers to Taalarsenaal (2020)5, a resource supported by a provincial education department, and Afrikaans.com: Leerhulp6), supported by an organisation. Taalarsenaal contains a substantial amount of information on word classes. Some material relating to spelling, vocabulary, morphology and language variation are also available, but to a much lesser extent. It should also be noted that in the section on word classes, some words are classified incorrectly (for example, some words are classified as pronouns when they should be classified as particles), and non-theoretically sound definitions are provided (for example, the term preposition is 127

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 Content Developers as Stakeholders in the Blended Learning Ecosystem

defined as “small words that are always in front/under/behind/on top of other things”, even though the word itself can clearly not occupy these positions). Afrikaans.com is a comprehensive website about Afrikaans that provides a large range of material such as news pertaining to Afrikaans, articles about artists working in Afrikaans, information on new book releases, etc. The website, however, also has a section called Leerhulp that provides resources that can be used in the classroom or by learners. Afrikaans grammar is dealt with by means of quizzes and short extracts from study guides, and is therefore not comprehensively explained. The digital resource Wolkskool7was also initiated by an organisation (Skoleondersteuningsentrum), but was not included in the study of Olivier (2018), as it only appeared after this date. The homepage of Wolkskool contains a considerable amount of spelling errors, a characteristic Olivier (2018, p. 921) associates with “quality issues”. The content offered by Wolkskool was not peer-reviewed, and was not submitted for scrutiny by subject experts. In addition, all the content offered by Wolkskool is hidden behind a pay wall, which makes it inaccessible to the majority of Afrikaans teachers and learners. It is therefore not considered as a general language resource. The need for comprehensive, theoretically sound digital Afrikaans grammar resources aimed at teachers and learners is clearly evident from the shortcomings of existing resources, but an even bigger challenge faced by teachers is the discrepancy that exists between “School Afrikaans” (the Afrikaans grammar that is taught to learners at school) and “University Afrikaans” (the Afrikaans grammar that is taught to university students). This discrepancy has already been observed in the early 1990s (see Menkveld, 1992, p. 419), but it is still relevant in the current educational context. This discrepancy becomes evident to lecturers who have to teach Afrikaans grammar to education students. Morphological and syntactic constructions, for example, are analysed in different ways in School Afrikaans and University Afrikaans. In School Afrikaans the complexes geelkleurig (“having a yellow colour”) and boekrakkie (“little bookshelf”) are both analysed as derived compounds. In University Afrikaans geelkleurig is analysed as a derivational compound, while boekrakkie is analysed as a derived compound (see Van Huyssteen, 2017, pp. 201-202). With regards to syntax, the whole noun phrase (e.g. die beroemde man, “the famous man”) is analysed as the subject of a sentence in University Afrikaans, while only the head noun and article (e.g. die man, “the man”) is analysed as the subject of a sentence in School Afrikaans (see Lamprecht et al, 2013, p. 145). Another concerning factor relevant to the availability of digital Afrikaans grammar content is the fact that, in a number of cases, unqualified or underqualified teachers are appointed in South African schools (Savides, 2017). Teachers are therefore not always equipped to develop their own content or teaching material. This concern is exacerbated by the fact that Afrikaans teachers within the Further Education and Training Phase (FET Phase) have to adapt to teaching grammar within an integrative framework, identifying teaching and learning opportunities when other language skills (listening and speaking, reading and viewing, writing and presenting) are being taught (DBE, 2011, p. 11). In addition, grammar has to be taught using a communicative approach (DBE, 2011, pp. 42, 44), which highlights the “relationships among units, rules, classes, and structures within the grammar code itself and between them and their functions” (Moe, 2019, p. 75). Menkveld (1992, p. 427) notes in this respect that to teach communicatively, teachers have to possess extensive and relevant knowledge of Afrikaans grammar: The teacher must know exactly what knowledge of the language and the language structure the learner needs for each skill or, put another way: [H]e must know what structure, system or rule is underlying

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each type of communicative situation or skill with which the student is busy. [Translated and adapted] (Menkveld, 1992, p. 427) As can be seen from the discussion above, the development of enriching online grammar material is necessary and urgent for Afrikaans language teaching in South Africa. It will provide Afrikaans teachers with the opportunity to make use of complementary material in the classroom, enabling them to create a blended learning environment. Furthermore, online Afrikaans grammar content will aid in reaching the following goal set forward by the DBE in their White Paper on e-Education (DBE, 2004): “The introduction of ICTs to our schools is creating new ways for students and teachers to engage in information selection, gathering, sorting and analysis”. Also, by contributing to the knowledge economy of Afrikaans an effort is made to bridge the “digital divide” that is referred to in the White Paper on e-Education, a divide that is partly caused by disparities in “local content development in terms of the number and quality of local websites [and] local language content” (DBE, 2004, p. 9). Such an online grammar should also make theoretically sound, extensive and quality-assured grammar content directly accessible to learners, in order to enable them to act as self-directed and autonomous learners. Having an active and critical approach to learning rather than learning without understanding, is one of the principles on which the current National Curriculum Statement is based. In addition, the National Curriculum Statement encourages learners to use technology responsibly (see DBE, 2011, p. 5) – a goal which can be accomplished by making digital grammar content available. This chapter reports on the role that the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA) is playing in the blended learning environment, namely as a content provider of quality Afrikaans linguistic material based on research undertaken by subject specialists and language researchers, but which is made accessible to the entire language community. The aim is to present VivA as a case study of an independent organisation acting as a key stakeholder in the blended learning ecosystem. The hope is that the model developed by VivA to collaborate and participate in the education environment can serve as a prototype for other content developers to participate in the blended learning ecosystem – especially within the context of blended learning in developing countries with limited resources and infrastructure. The purpose of this chapter is not to make a theoretical contribution to the understanding of blended learning, but rather to serve as a concrete example of the vital role that content developers can play within the blending learning ecosystem in underprivileged or developing communities. This chapter should therefore be regarded as a review article, and it is structured as follows: In the first section, the motivation and establishment of VivA as a non-profit organisation will be explained. In the second part the various projects (also called portals) of VivA will be introduced and contextualised. The third part will focus on VivA’s Language Teaching Portal – an online tool for Afrikaans teachers, learners and parents who participate in the blended learning ecosystem. The concluding section illuminates what other potential or emerging content development stakeholders are gaining or can gain from the experience of VivA as a stakeholder in the blended learning ecosystem.

THE BACKGROUND OF THE VIRTUAL INSTITUTE OF AFRIKAANS The focus of this chapter is on the involvement of VivA as a stakeholder within the teaching and learning context, but more specifically the important role that VivA plays as a content contributor within the blended learning ecosystem. However, to understand this role, it is necessary to look at VivA as an 129

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organisation as a whole, as it better contextualises the nature of VivA as a content developer, and – as will be shown – illustrates how it is possible for an independent organisation like VivA (i.e. an organisation that is not formally affiliated with or launched by any national or accredited education board or body) to be playing such an important role in the education sector. It will be shown that VivA succeeds in fulfilling this role for specific reasons. Firstly, as already mentioned in the contextualisation, there is a clear need within the language and language teaching community for reliable (and digital) information on Afrikaans grammar – specifically content that is aligned with the school and university curriculum. Secondly, VivA’s content development plan has been drawn up in such a way that it succeeds in making reliable, comprehensive and useful content on Afrikaans available on a digital (and free) platform. Thirdly, VivA is maintained and supported by external stakeholders that are not necessarily affiliated with or from the education sector. This external involvement makes it feasible and affordable for an institution such as VivA to exist. This in itself naturally removes some of the pressure on the Afrikaans education infrastructure to develop this digital content from its own ranks and with its own resources. VivA’s business model stems from extensive market research conducted by the South African Academy for Science and the Arts (in Afrikaans the Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns, thus henceforth SAAWK) in September 2013 in collaboration with the Department of Business Management at the University of Pretoria. Since the establishment of the SAAWK in 1908, not only science, technology and art have been promoted, but also the use and quality of Afrikaans. The Language Commission (in Afrikaans the Taalkommissie, thus henceforth TK) of the SAAWK is the primary agent with which this goal has been pursued so far. To keep Afrikaans relevant and usable in the twenty-first century, the TK wanted to make a major effort by setting up a so-called virtual institute for Afrikaans, which would be engaged in the development of digital, online resources and services for Afrikaans. The above-mentioned market research conducted by the SAAWK made it clear that Afrikaans users in particular have a need for four electronic Afrikaans tools, namely i) an online/mobile version of the Afrikaans Word List and Spelling Rules; ii) an Afrikaans grammar checker; iii) a terminology bank; and iv) automatic translation tools (see Van Huyssteen et al., 2016). The establishment of VivA stems from the original initiative of the TK, in collaboration and consultation with the North-West University, the University of Stellenbosch and the Dutch Taalportaal (under the management of the Meertens Institute in The Netherlands), mainly to meet these formulated needs among Afrikaans users. Formally, VivA was established by four organisational founding members, namely the SAAWK, the Afrikaans Language and Culture Association (in Afrikaans the Afrikaanse Taal- en Kultuurvereniging, thus henceforth the ATKV), the Trust for Afrikaans Education (in Afrikaans the Trust vir Afrikaanse Onderwys, thus henceforth the TAO) and the North-West University (NWU). VivA is managed by an executive director that is appointed by a board of directors, and every three months, the executive director reports to the board on VivA’s activities. The board consists of eight representative members of VivA’s founding members and most prominent donors. In addition to the executive director, VivA has only one permanent staff member and further employs contract workers or consultants to work on specified projects. VivA8 (https://viva-afrikaans.org) is a research institute and service provider for Afrikaans in digital contexts. VivA is also a registered non-profit company. VivA’s main objectives are to expand the use and quality of Afrikaans locally and internationally by: i) the description and study of Afrikaans in its full scope; ii) the development of comprehensive digital and other resources, tools and platforms for 130

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spoken and written Afrikaans; and iii) the delivery of a practical Afrikaans language service by means of technology. In addition to the main objectives, VivA also strives to: i) act as a virtual institute for Afrikaans, promoting the study and development of the language, which includes autonomous, separate organisations that pursue the same goals; ii) act as an initiating, coordinating and networking virtual institute and to recognise and utilise the specialist function of interest groups and founding member organisations, without infringing on the autonomy of the individual organisations; iii) play an initiating and coordinating role in unlocking Afrikaans expertise, and utilising the infrastructure of the Afrikaans community network effectively, and also in recruiting and unlocking financial and human resources; iv) develop strategies for the use of Afrikaans in virtual contexts in different areas of life; v) give purposeful content to the development of the main objectives of the company through virtual network creation and collaboration; and iv) facilitate the use of Afrikaans in a virtual environment among non-Afrikaans speakers. A number of organisations, institutions and individuals are affiliated with VivA. In addition to the four founding members, there are at least six other institutions that act as financiers of VivA. VivA also has four national media partners that help to introduce VivA’s new products and services to the public, as well as six academic organisations or publishing houses that act as collaborators of VivA. About fifteen individuals (linguists, literati and public figures) act in their personal capacities as collaborators of VivA (for example, to create linguistic content or write opinion pieces and blogs on specific topics). An increasing number of institutions also offer language content to VivA to create corpora that can be used for linguistic research. From the way VivA came into being, as well as the manner in which VivA is organisationally structured, it is clear that it is built on the foundation of collaboration with other organisations and stakeholders. Moreover, this collaboration is not necessarily only with institutions and entities that practise language or language teaching as a core business, but also entities that recognise the importance of developing reliable language content and resources. The continued involvement of these organisations in a non-profit organisation such as VivA, enables VivA to continue to grow and perform focused activities that meet the needs of the language community (of which reliable content for language teaching is but one of many).

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VIVA’S PORTALS AND RESOURCES A number of platforms (also referred to as “portals”) and material are being developed by VivA that – although it does not have this as a primary aim – could be useful in the blended learning ecosystem. Eleven initiatives from VivA are relevant here, namely a dictionary portal, where users can search for words in a variety of dictionaries; a language portal, namely Taalportaal, a comprehensive and contrastive grammar where the phonology, morphology and syntax of Afrikaans, Dutch and Frisian are thoroughly described (see Van Huyssteen, 2020; an advice portal, where users can send queries to a language adviser who answers in real time; a corpus portal, where users can search for patterns of language use in a large collection of texts; and an information portal, where users can, among other things, participate in webinars or get information on language conferences or workshops. However, of particular interest for this chapter, is VivA’s language teaching portal, which will receive special attention in the next section. VivA is also continuously developing the following resources that may be relevant to or useful in language education: 131

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A speech atlas, where diferent speakers of Afrikaans – from all over the world – read a short paragraph. These recordings are then indicated on an online world map, so that users can listen and hear how Afrikaans sounds in diferent parts of the country and world A listen-and-read library, which is an online, free library with texts for young and adult readers. Each group of texts is presented at diferent skill levels, from very beginners where the voice recording is matched to each word, to novels that are just read aloud. The important feature of the texts in the library is that the voice recording and written representation are presented together. A user who listens to the text therefore also sees the text at the same time, and the relatedness of sound and spelling is made clear Weekly podcasts and blogs, in which language topics are discussed by experts in the felds of linguistics and education. These podcasts and blogs are shared on social media, as well as on more traditional media platforms such as on the radio or in the newspaper Social media material, such as daily memes in which Afrikaans language or spelling tips are shared on platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram A free cell phone app, which provides users with ofine or online access to more than 55 dictionaries and terminology lists. The app has a predictive text function, and enables users to search for words with Google Voice

• •

• • •

Figure 1 is a screenshot from VivA’s home page, from where the different portals can be accessed.

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Figure 1. Screenshot of VivA’s home page

Figure 2 is a screenshot of the VivA app, offering writing tips and indicating that the word taalonderrig (“language teaching”) is spelled correctly, but that the word aanlynleer (“online learning”) is not spelled correctly. The various resources, products and services that VivA provides, enable VivA to become a recognisable brand in the greater Afrikaans speaking community. VivA’s website currently has more than 26,000 registered users and, to date, the mobile app has been downloaded more than 80,000 times. VivA’s Facebook page has more than 42 000 followers, and VivA has more than 3,000 followers on Twitter.

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Figure 2. Three screenshots of VivA’s cell phone app

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VIVA’S LANGUAGE TEACHING PORTAL This chapter reports on the latest portal created by VivA to specifically serve as an online tool for Afrikaans lecturers, teachers, learners and parents who participate in the blended learning ecosystem, namely the Language Teaching Portal (TOP – in Afrikaans the Taalonderrigportaal, thus henceforth the TOP). The TOP is an open, digital space in which quality-assured, academically grounded and verified subject content on Afrikaans grammar is made available to the entire language community.Two of the primary resources in TOP are a general Afrikaans grammar (in the Afrikaans the Algemene Afrikaanse grammatika, thus henceforth AAG) and an Afrikaans school grammar (ASG – in Afrikaans the Afrikaanse skoolgrammatika). The TOP forms part of a larger approach of VivA with regard to its involvement in online language teaching, language research and language resources. During the launch of Taalportaal (‘language portal’) and the TOP on 21 May 2020, Van Huyssteen (2020) explains – with reference to Figure 3 – that “with Taalportaal and the TOP, VivA created a first linguistics pipeline for Afrikaans, which is also unique in the world.” This pipeline begins with the research undertaken by subject specialists and language researchers, and extends to every member of the language community, including language learners who come into contact with Afrikaans for the first time. The idea for this pipeline came from discussions amongst academic members of the Language Commission, and with language planners such as Proff. Wannie Carstens, Ernst Kotzé, Rufus Gouws and Dr. Theuns Eloff, who agreed that a modern, scientifically based description of the Afrikaans grammar must be made available to the language community. Taalportaal was established, where research by subject specialists with international stature is made available, setting up the source of the linguistic pipeline.

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Figure 3. VivA’s pipeline for Afrikaans language resources (translated)

Taalportaal is a digital platform (available here: www.taalportaal.org) on which comprehensive, comparative descriptions of the phonology, morphology and syntax of three West Germanic languages​​ (namely Afrikaans, Frisian and Dutch) are developed, housed and made available free of charge. This means that research by internationally renowned subject specialists is now freely accessible to any interested party. These interested parties are, however the secondary target users. The primary target users of Taalportaal are local and international linguistic researchers and stakeholders, with the aim of supporting, encouraging and continually expanding sound research on the grammar of the languages. The research in Taalportaal is made available in English, so that international researchers who are not proficient in Afrikaans can now include Afrikaans in their investigations. To compile the grammar descriptions for Dutch and Frisian, the Dutch Organisation for Scientific Research (in Dutch the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, thus henceforth the NWO) made available an amount of €1,7 million to the Taalportaal Consortium (consisting of the Meertens Institute, Fryske Akademy, Leiden University and Institute for Dutch Lexicology). It soon became clear from discussions with the Taalportaal Consortium that the project offers a significant opportunity to create a comprehensive and comparative description of Afrikaans as well, which would position Afrikaans internationally as a language of scientific importance. A collaboration agreement was concluded between the Meertens Institute (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) and the SAAWK, and funding was obtained from the Dagbreek Trust. In October 2014 work on the Afrikaans Taalportaal formally kicked off. In May 2020, the complete phonology and syntax section, and a part of the morphology section were introduced and made available; the morphology section will be completed by the end of March 2021.

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Figure 4. Screenshot from Taalportaal’s section on adpositions

From Taalportaal flows the Language Teaching Portal (which contains AAG and ASG as mentioned above), where specialist research is presented in a format that makes it accessible to the current generation of Afrikaans lecturers, students, teachers and learners. The knowledge pipeline ensures that the subject content offered to an emerging generation, and to any user who wishes to gain insight into the grammar of Afrikaans, is quality-assured content based on the latest, cutting-edge academic research. The general Afrikaans grammar (AAG) is a living source in which the grammar of Afrikaans is described comprehensively and in Afrikaans. AAG is based on the insights in Taalportaal, but also on older and well-known research published in existing grammar sources (such as, amongst others, the works of Ponelis 1979, and Van Schoor 1983), and on the insights of the AAG writers who work with examples from contemporary Afrikaans corpora. The content in AAG is moderated and quality controlled by linguistic and language education experts. AAG will be expanded and updated continuously, so that new insights on grammar can be reflected, ensuring that the information contained in AAG remains relevant and up to date. AAG is specifically aimed at lecturers and students of Afrikaans linguistics, who teach and study the subject Afrikaans at undergraduate and postgraduate level. AAG also aims to serve school teachers of Afrikaans and curious language users who need answers on grammar issues. The necessity of a resource like AAG becomes especially salient when it is noted that the most recent Afrikaans grammar written in Afrikaans dates back to 1983 (Van Schoor, 1983), while the most recent Afrikaans grammar written in English dates back to 1993 (Donaldson, 1993). From a teaching perspective, the content of these sources may therefore be outdated, and can thus not be prescribed. At the same time, Afrikaans linguistics is a very small niche market, which means that few publishers will publish new textbooks on Afrikaans grammar. In other words – Afrikaans linguistics will, from now on, only be described in a digital environment. This, of course, supports blended learning very well indeed. The Afrikaans school grammar (ASG) is a resource with education students and Afrikaans teachers in the FET phase as target users. The description of any grammar is obviously much more comprehensive than what is prescribed by a school curriculum. ASG is therefore not directed or restricted by the South African Curriculum Assessment Policy Declaration (CAPS). The aim is, however, that ASG will fully

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meet the requirements set in the CAPS regarding the teaching of language structures and conventions. The CAPS sets the requirements – ASG provides the content that is needed to meet the requirements. The Afrikaans described in AAG and ASG is the general form of Afrikaans, the form that is used by the most speakers in the most contexts, and is considered “unmarked” by mother tongue speakers themselves. It is the spoken and written Afrikaans of mother tongue speakers at the beginning of the 21st century, as can be read and heard in the mainstream media today. General Afrikaans (as opposed to Standard Afrikaans) is described in AAG and ASG to acknowledge and emphasise the existence, place, role and necessity of the varieties of Afrikaans. These varieties are the lifeblood, the living, beating heart of the language. General Afrikaans can be regarded as the form of the language which all these varieties have in common. In linguistic research, a description of this common form is a starting point for studying the language in its full complexity. One can only recognise what is unique about the Afrikaans spoken in Cape Town, Namaqualand, Windhoek, Pretoria Mossel Bay or Koekenaap if one already knows what all these varieties have in common with each other. This is exactly why the description of the general form can be useful – to show which language treasures exist in the unique forms of Afrikaans, and how general Afrikaans is constantly evolving from it. AAG and ASG are hosted together on VivA’s website as the two parts of the TOP. The content in AAG and ASG is not strictly separated, precisely because it is essential that users are able to trace the origin of the insights in ASG back to AAG. It is in fact not two sources, but one source in which information is presented in two different ways to two sets of target users. Users are informed which content was created for ASG, and which content forms part of the more intricate work covered in AAG. Figure 5 is a screenshot of the TOP’s description of the Afrikaans adposition phrase. From this, it is clear that the information presented to Afrikaans teachers, students and scholars in this grammar, are directly informed by research presented on Taalportaal (compare again Figure 4). The TOP is not a textbook or workbook, but rather an online source of reliable content from which teachers can develop textbooks, workbooks or additional blended learning material. AAG and ASG do not replace the lecturer or teacher, because no source, however comprehensive, can never replace the

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Figure 5. Screenshot from VivA’s TOP on the adposition

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teacher. AAG and ASG empower teachers to perform their task as mediators of knowledge to the best of their ability, whether in a face-to-face or blended learning context.

CONCLUSION Blended learning has many definitions, but all of these definitions have certain commonalities: “[T]hey refer to two different learning environments — face-to-face (synchronous) and online (asynchronous); and they refer to combining those two learning environments in a complementary way to deliver a programme of study so that learners can be supported both within the classroom environment and outside of it” (King, 2016). The linguistics pipeline and also the other Afrikaans resources being developed and maintained by VivA are examples of how digital tools and resources can be structured to support learning outside of the classroom. As indicated above, VivA’s Afrikaans linguistics pipeline is a first of its kind. This pipeline and its different resources have already been established to such an extent that it is well known among and frequently used by the members of the Afrikaans language community. The registered users of the VivA website are, for example, teachers, linguists, lecturers, journalists, language practitioners (e.g. translators, interpreters and copy editors), school learners, university students, parents, and other people interested in language matters. The success of VivA as an organisation, and the usefulness of VivA’s resources for the language community, are proof that the model on which VivA is based is a workable model. The model involves some key aspects: • • •

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•

• •

Role players from within the language and language teaching community have identifed and formulated specifc needs relating to their community. These same role players have also contributed to this project/product to satisfy the identifed needs. VivA is continuously supported by organisations, entities and other stakeholders who have the interests of the language and language teaching community at heart. Since a number of stakeholders (from within the community that VivA aims to serve) are formally involved in VivA’s activities and projects, there is also a liability relationship between VivA and these stakeholders, which means that VivA’s planned activities must continuously satisfy the (growing) needs of the community. The resources (with specifc reference to the linguistic content being developed) testify to quality and reliability, as experts are involved from the outset. The content is also based on existing gaps or needs in the existing infrastructure, and is therefore relevant as a resource for the language and teaching community. More concretely, TOP is an important digital grammar resource within the blended learning ecosystem. The advice portal created by VivA serves as a valuable resource to determine which needs exist within the teaching community. Direct contact with teachers, learners, tutors, writers of textbooks, and other content developers, enables VivA to create content that serves very specifc needs. The interaction between the personnel of VivA, the Language Commission, lexicographers, lecturers and researchers at universities, and members of the education establishment such as subject advisers and examiners, ensures that the content created for TOP remains integrated, relevant and

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•

•

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•

reliable. This interrelatedness also ensures trust within the language community that the products delivered by VivA set the benchmark for Afrikaans language description. Contract workers are appointed for their specifc skills, and are appointed for specifc subprojects. While the task undertaken by VivA is herculean, the small number of core personnel enables it to move very quickly on new ideas and projects. The use of contract personnel also ensures that each project is undertaken by the best possible people with vast experience in the feld, who are able to maintain their full-time employment and status at their respective institutions. While the description of the grammar of any language always has to grapple with the matter of language variety, Afrikaans has an additional burden of a very complex and politicised standardisation history. In addition, school grammars tend to be prescriptive, which can be perceived to be exclusionary and alienating by large portions of the language community. The grammar described in TOP is therefore not based on Standard Afrikaans, but on general Afrikaans, and it is descriptive rather than prescriptive. Instances where the curriculum requires of users to learn rules and conventions, are clearly indicated. VivA is an independent, non-proft organisation that is not formally afliated with or registered as a teaching institution. This enables VivA to develop content that meets the needs of the language and teaching community outside the framework of formal or national structures – and without taxing the existing structures.

Since this model creates an organisation that meets multiple needs of the community, and one that is supported by different stakeholders from within the community, it provides an opportunity to bridge the gap between what learners learn in school and what is relevant to the real world. In this way, students and scholars gain access to reliable content that aids self-directed learning. Content that is complementary or enlightening to the school curriculum is made accessible to the learners through blended learning and with the help of technology, regardless of personal circumstances or challenges. The above-mentioned model is duplicable and could be a useful model to establish other institutions or initiatives aimed at meeting specific needs in the language and teaching community. It will be particularly useful when context-specific blended learning and teaching content has to be developed in countries and communities where resources are limited. Ideally, this model can also be duplicated and used within the South African context to develop digital and reliable linguistic content for the various resource-scarce languages of South Africa, which includes all the indigenous languages of South Africa. After all, all the South African languages offered as a school subject face the same challenges: The (especially digital) available information on the grammar of these languages is not sufficient and reliable to i) fully support language teachers in blended teaching and learning situations, and ii) encourage self-directed learning and student autonomy among students with the help of electronic language resources. Creating digital language content is one way of assisting language teachers to create a blended learning classroom, but it also creates the conditions to preserve indigenous languages - especially within learning environments where language resources are scarce. The survival and development of these languages are dependent on resources, but not just any resources, digital resources (see Partnered Content, 2020). According to Partnered Content (2020), we need “to digitise our efforts and carve out a space” for these languages. This will inevitably reflect that an inclusive approach to language is followed.

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REFERENCES Al Bataineh, K., & Banikalef, A. (2019). The Effect of Blended Learning on EFL Students’ Grammar Performance and Attitudes: An Investigation of Moodle. Arab World English Journal, 10(27), 324–334. Breed, A., Olivier, J. A. K., & Carstens, W.A.M. (2016). Die DBAT: ’n onbekende digitale taalkundemuseum. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, 56(2-1), 391-409. Colditz, J. (2018). Education problems: Are Afrikaans schools to blame? News24. https://www.news24. com/news24/Columnists/GuestColumn/education-problems-are-afrikaans-schools-to-blame-20180118 Donaldson, B. C. (1993). A grammar of Afrikaans. Mouton de Gruyter. Friesen, N. (2012). Report: Defining blended learning. https://www.normfriesen.info/papers/Defining_Blended_Learning_NF.pdf Gordon, S., & Harvey, J. (2018). South Africans prefer their children to be taught in English. https:// www.power987.co.za/featured/south-africans-prefer-their-children-to-be-taught-in-english/ Gülbahar, Y., & Madran, R. (2009). Communication and collaboration, satisfaction, equity, and autonomy in blended learning environments: A case from Turkey. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(2), 117–138. Heyns, D., & Snyman, M. E. (2003). Afrikaans language teachers still use pick and shovel to mine the Information Super Reef. Tydskrif vir Taalonderrig, 37(1), 46–59. Kaiper, A. (2018). ‘If you don’t have English, you’re just as good as a dead person’’: A narrative of adult English language literacy within post-apartheid South Africa. International Review of Education, 64, 737–757. Kamer, L. (2018, November 3). Distribution of languages spoken inside and outside of households South Africa 2018. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1114302/distribution-of-languages-spokeninside-and-outside-of-households-in-south-africa/ King, A. (2016). Blended language learning: Part of the Cambridge Papers in ELT series. https://www. cambridge.org/us/files/2115/7488/8334/CambridgePapersinELT_BlendedLearing_2016_ONLINE.pdf

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Lamprecht, R., Lighthelm, A., Murray, M., Van Tonder, M., Plaatjies, S., & Cavernelis, V. (2013). Piekfyn Afrikaans Graad 7 Huistaal Leerderboek: ’n Geïntegreerde taalteks [Perfect Afrikaans Grade 7 Home Language: an integrated learning book]. Best Books. Language in Education Policy Act. (1996). South African Government. Larson, R. & Murray, M.E. (2008). Open educational resources for blended learning in high schools: overcoming impediments in developing countries. Online Learning, 12(1), 85-103. Manyike, T. V., & Lemmer, E. M. (2014). Research in Language Education in South Africa: Problems & Prospects. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(8), 251–258.

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Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2010). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies. https://cft.vanderbilt. edu/guides-sub-pages/blended-and-online-learning/ Menkveld, H. (1992). Die problematiek rondom die onderrig van Afrikaans. SPiL Plus, 21, 411–437. Mirriahi, N., Alonzo, D., & Fox, B. (2015). A blended learning framework for curriculum design and professional development. Research in Learning Technology, 23. https://journal.alt.ac.uk/index.php/rlt/ article/view/1707 Moe, M. M. (2019). Teaching grammar through communicative language teaching. International Journal of Advance Research and development, 4(8), 75-77. Nikolaidou, M., Sofianopoulou, C., Alexopoulou, N., Abeliotis, K., Detsis, V., Chalkias, C., Lasaridi, K., & Dimosthenis Anagnostopoulos, D. (2009). Exploring a blended learning ecosystem in the academic environment [Paper presentation]. IADIS International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age (CELDA 2009), Rome, Italy. Olivier, J. (2018). Die stand van aanlyn oop opvoedkundige hulpbronne in Afrikaans: Afrikaansonderrig as ’n gevallestudie. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, 58(4-2), 905-924. Owen-Smith, M. (2010). The Language Challenge in the classroom: A serious shift in thinking and action is needed. The Language Challenge. Focus (San Francisco, Calif.), 56, 31–37. Partnered Content. (2020). The survival of African languages in a digital era. IOL. https://www.iol.co.za/ news/partnered/the-survival-of-african-languages-in-a-digital-era-48407234 Picciano, A. G. (2009). Blending with purpose: The multimodal model. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 13(1), 7–18. Ponelis, F. A. (1979). Afrikaanse Sintaksis. J.L. van Schaik. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. Pretorius, L. (2016). Die rol van die Afrikaanse Wikipedia in die uitbou van Afrikaans. Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, 56(2-1), 371-390.

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Protsiv, M., Rosales-Klintz, S., Bwanga, F., Zwarenstein, M., & Atkins, S. (2016). Blended learning across universities in a South–North–South collaboration: A case study. Health Research Policy and Systems, 14(1). https://health-policy-systems.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12961-016-0136-x Savides, M. (2017). South African schools have 5‚139 teachers who are unqualified or under-qualified. Times Live. https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2017-06-06-south-african-schools-have-5139teachers-who-are-unqualified-or-under-qualified/ South Africa. Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Afrikaans Home Language: Grade 10-12 [Final draft]. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education. South Africa. Department of Basic Education. (2014). White Paper on e-Education: Transforming Learning and Teaching through Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.

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South African Government. (1996). Language in Education Policy Act: Act no. 27 of 1996. https://www. gov.za/documents/language-education-policy-0# South African Government. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 108 of 1996. https:// www.gov.za/sites/default/files/images/a108-96.pdf South African Government. (1996). National Education Policy 27 of 1996. https://www.gov.za/sites/ default/files/gcis_document/201409/act27of1996.pdf Van Huyssteen, G. B. (2017). Morfologie. In W. A. M. Carstens & N. Bosman (Eds.), Kontemporêre Afrikaanse Taalkunde (pp. 177–206). Van Schaik. Van Huyssteen, G. B. (2020). Bekendstelling van Taalportaal en Taalonderrigportaal (VivA): Prof Gerhard van Huyssteen van die NWU [Introduction of Language Portal and Language Teaching Portal (VivA): Prof Gerhard van Huyssteen of the NWU]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzfFQ2E2VZw Van Huyssteen, G. B. (Ed.). (2020). Taalportaal: Afrikaans phonology, morphology, and syntax. Version 1.0. Taalportaal Consortium. http://bit.ly/taalportaal-afr Van Huyssteen, G. B., Botha, B., & Antonites, A. (2016). Die Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans (VivA) en markbehoeftes in die Afrikaanse gemeenskap [The Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA) and market needs of the Afrikaans community]. Tydskrif Vir Geesteswetenskappe, 56(2-1), 410-437. Van Schoor, J. L. (1983). Die grammatika van standaard-Afrikaans. Lex Patria. Viv, A. (2020). Die Virtuele Instituut vir Afrikaans. https://viva-afrikaans.org Von Branden, N., & Meyer, N. (2014). ’n Gids wat begelei en die weg wys: Klasgids. Litnet. https:// www.litnet.co.za/n-gids-wat-begelei-en-die-weg-wys-klasgids/ Wichadee, S. (2018). Significant predictors for effectiveness of blended learning in a language course. The JALT CALL Journal, 14(1), 25–42.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Blended Learning Ecosystem: All parties who have an interest in or participate in blended learning in different ways. Content Developer: Individuals or organisations that create content that is useful in different contexts and applications. Digital Portal: A page, subpage on website that provides access to published content. Digital Resources: Material and content that is stored and made assessable on digital platforms and in digital formal. Non-Profit Organisation: An organisation that does not aim for profit, but rather to satisfy a need in the community or try to promote a social cause. Student Autonomy: When a student makes his or own decisions concerning his or her learning experience.

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ENDNOTES 1



2



3



4



7 8 5

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6

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These digital platforms can be found at the following web addresses: LitNet – www.litnet.co.za; Storiewerf – www.storiewerf.co.za; Versindaba – www.versindaba.co.za; Roekeloos – www.roekeloos. co.za, Woes – www.woes.co.za; Afrikaanse Kontemporêre Drama-argief / Afrikaans Contemporary Drama Archive – https://akda.co.za/; The Digital Bibliography of Afrikaans Literature – www.nwu. ac.za/dbal These digital platforms can be found at the following web addresses: BeterAfrikaans – www. beterafrikaans.co.za; Afrikaans Wikipedia – af.wikipedia.org; Taalportaal – www.taalportaal.org; Digitale Bibliografie van die Afrikaanse Taalkunde / Digital Bibliography of the Afrikaans Linguistics – nwu.ac.za/dbat Klasgids is a magazine containing contributions from seasoned teachers regarding different facets of language teaching (Von Branden and Meyer, 2014). This magazine is published by Lapa publishers – see https://klaskameraad.co.za/collections/klasgids. These digital platforms can be found at the following web addresses: My klaskamer – https:// myklaskamer.co.za; Afrikaanse Hulpmiddels vir die klaskamer – https://afrikaansehulpmiddels. wordpress.com/; Mr. V’s Classroom Companion – http://mnrvermeulen.blogspot.com. This digital platform can be found on http://taalarsenaal2.yolasite.com/ This digital platform can be found on https://afrikaans.com/leerhulp/. This digital platform can be found on www.wolkskool.co.za. All information about VivA and its products presented in this chapter was obtained from VivA’s website (www.viva-afrikaans.org.za), press releases on specific products and resources, or internal documentation, for example funding applications or annual reports to the board.

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Chapter 8

Exploring the Use of Universal Design for Learning to Support In-Service Teachers in the Design of Socially-Just Blended Teaching Practices Frederic Fovet https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1051-4163 Royal Roads University, Canada

ABSTRACT This chapter examines the pivot to online and bended learning which occurred during the COVID health crisis and highlights how blended learning has emerged by far as the most popular and sustainable delivery option. The COVID pivot has also demonstrated, however, that blended learning too often ignores social inequities, and as a result allows them to become exacerbated. The chapter examines ways to support K-12 teachers as they seek to support social justice objectives within blended learning environments and suggests that universal design for learning can serve as a user-friendly and hands-on framework to address learner diversity in these innovative hybrid learning environments. The chapter further explores the repercussions this refection has in relation to pre-service teacher training, in-service professional development, and leadership culture.

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INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT Section 1 of the chapter will examine the COVID-19 context and explore how the pandemic has been a unique opportunity for schools to appreciate and acknowledge the relevance of blended learning as a sustainable mode of delivery likely to be able to address all unexpected and complex societal changes the 21st century may bring. This section of the chapter will also identify the specific challenges which DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch008

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have appeared through the pandemic with regards to equity, social justice, and accessibility within these emergency blended learning initiatives. The COVID pandemic has brought to the forefront of preoccupations, for K-12 teachers, the need to develop sustainable blended teaching practices (Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020). Although post-disaster education has been discussed globally for many decades within the wider field of Global Education (Baytiyeh, 2019), it has become very quickly plain that schools in most jurisdictions world-wide are still currently badly equipped to deal with natural disasters, acts of god, national health emergencies, or any unforeseen global disruption. The COVID pandemic has also rapidly demonstrated both the overreliance of schools on face to face delivery, and the inappropriateness of a full pivot to online instruction (König et al., 2020). There are indeed such drastic detrimental effects on social capital gain and development for students in the K-12 sector, that the fully online option cannot be considered for anything more than the briefest of emergency periods (Garcia & Weiss, 2020); in many ways it can be argued that schools have observed an actual loss of social capital and a significantly detrimental impact on the ability of students to maintain healthy and functional networks (Elmer et al., 2020). Add to this the undeniable fact that fully online instruction has led to some students becoming at risk of hunger, increased domestic violence, and exacerbated poverty and isolation, and it becomes rapidly clear that online teaching can never, from a sociological perspective, be considered as a viable plan for emergency educational planning in schools (Hogan & Hogan, 2020). The great lesson of this global pandemic for K-12 education will, in future decades, undeniably be seen to be that blended instruction is the model that is perceived as best able to address the needs of learners within a technology rich, fast evolving, often disrupted 21st century landscape (Dans, 2020). With blended delivery now firmly in the limelight for most schools and school practitioners – and likely to remain perceived as the privileged and sustainable mode of delivery for many decades to come -, there remain many delicate dimensions to address before this mode of instruction is streamlined, fine-tuned, and delivers its optimal outcomes. One of these concerns is that blended learning should be fully accessible to all and meet the needs and expectations of diverse learners. Blended delivery is not inherently equitable, accessible, suitable to all diverse leaners, or focused on social justice; there have indeed been numerable examples through 2020 of students and populations badly served or entirely ignored by blended instruction initiatives (Wong, 2020). Blended teaching requires a very deliberate and intentional process of inclusive design, before it can reach this wider transformative capacity and a specific focus on social justice. It is one thing to acknowledge the importance of inclusive design in blended delivery, but it is quite another for teachers to readily find ways to support this reflection around accessibility and social justice. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has been documented as a model which is particularly hands-on, user-friendly and convenient for educators to rethink and redesign their teaching practices with the full spectrum of diverse learners in mind (Rao & Meo, 2016). This chapter will explore how both the scholarship and initiatives in the field have demonstrated, through 2020, the usefulness of UDL to in-service teachers in designing a blended learning that does not exclude oppressed and marginalized learners.

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EXAMINING THE LITERATURE Before the chapter proceeds with examining the challenges that have been encountered when trying to develop inclusive and accessible blended instruction during the COVID crisis, it is necessary to explore and clarify some of the key concepts on which this chapter is going to be relying.

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Online Learning Online learning is a concept which has its roots in distance education (Kim, 2020). Interestingly, while its emergence should be associated mostly with the emergence of technology and its potential for virtual interaction, the public perception around online learning remains more firmly connected in popular culture to distance learning – particularly in the K-12 sector where typically it has primarily been adopted and developed in the context of remote communities. Remote and rural communities, in Australia and Canada for example, were previously dependent on distance learning – through the use of mail-in service (Bozkurt, 2019), fly-in educational personnel (Kline et al., 2013), or even radio-in connections (Stacey, 2005), and these same communities have integrated and developed online learning as part of essential schooling. Elsewhere, despite its potential and general relevance to society, online learning in the K-12 sector has been looked at with suspicion, and mostly only genuinely considered as an option for students excluded from school – because of behaviour or medical issues (Thompson et al., 2012)-, or for students dependent on adult education because they are outside the traditional age parameters of the K-12 sector (Wang, 2009). It would be fair to state that the COVID crisis and the overnight pivot to online instruction which accompanied it, have done little to alleviate the fears of the various stakeholders of the field with regards to online education. A fully virtual experience was offered in most jurisdictions for a few months during the first wave of COVID infections mid-2020, and perceptions about the quality and viability of this format of learning were unanimously negative (Goldstein, etal., 2020). There are obviously first of all concerns from teachers about their level of competencies in a fully online environment; they have, as a professional body, pointed to the lack of training and professional development (König et al., 2020). The TPACK model has long demonstrated the sheer impossibility of easing educators into working with technology if they do not feel their technological competency is sufficient to act as an affordance for their pedagogical goals (Hartwell, 2020). Concerns, however, extend beyond this: parents have been concerned that online learning de facto turn them into default educators having to monitor, assist and structure the learning experience (Livingstone, 2020). Sociologists and scholars are also very suspicious of the ability of young learners to create, develop, and use networks and social capital within such an instructional set-up (Dietrich et al., 2020). For all these reasons, blended learning has recently begun to appear as a much more popular alternative.

Blended Learning Blended learning is a loosely defined concept, which encompasses a variety of variations around a common theme: part of the instruction is offered virtually, and part of the instruction is offered face to face. Blended learning has been shown by the literature to be highly appealing to learners because it offers the best of both worlds: it retains many of the characteristics of direct instruction (personalized interaction with the teacher, opportunities for social capital development, exposure to the full spectrum of diverse 145

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learners, and access to differentiated instruction), while also offering full flexibility to the learner who can complete classes while at a distance (Wilkes, et al., 2020). The ratio according to which instruction is offered face to face versus online can vary greatly from school to school, and initiative to initiative. Blended learning now emerges from the COVID crisis as the most popular alternative to face to face instruction (Hall, et al., 2020). It has allowed social distancing, the reduction of student numbers within the physical classroom, a significant lowering of school occupancy, and the reduction of transmission risks. There has been a striking contrast between schools that opted for fully online instruction during the pivot, and those that embraced the blended format. Though few schools have had time to set up data collection methods and scholarly studies to evidence this formally, the experience has collectively shown – almost in the form of a giant action research project – that blended learning far exceeded online instruction in the eyes of all stakeholders involved. It is important to acknowledge that the haziness of the concept does create a margin of confusion in the literature and among practitioners (Hrastinski, 2020). While many rally around the notion of blended learning, practitioners can at times be talking at cross purposes and discussing very different visions of classroom practices. The looseness of the concept can be seen as a detriment, but this chapter will argue that it leaves room for the integration of other important concepts such as accessibility, inclusion, but also constructivism, social constructivism, and critical pedagogy (Nursafitri et al., 2020). It is this overlap which is going to represent a unique set of winning conditions for pedagogical development.

The COVID Context

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COVID-19 is an illness caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus (Sauer, 2020). It started appearing at the beginning of 2020 and very quickly created a global health crisis. Due to the highly contagious nature of virus, it has become important to limit social interactions and this has had an immediate impact on the K-12 sector. During the first wave of the disease globally – mid-2020 – most schools closed in nearly all jurisdictions. During the second wave of the illness in the last quarter of 2020, most governments have attempted to keep schools open to a degree, in order to alleviate pressure on working parents (PanovskaGriffiths, et al., 2020). This has, from a sociological perspective, made blended learning a much more attractive approach than the fully online model. The COVID crisis has been instrumental in bringing, to the forefront of K-12 education, preoccupations which have been discussed by scholars for decades but never really been considered tangibly by school leaders. Education in a context of emergency has been studied and researched extensively but it has so far been seen as mostly a concern for the Global South; it has also centered so far mostly around post-conflict and post-natural disaster educational structures (Wanjiru, 2021). The COVID context will no doubt come to demonstrate the need for the K-12 sector to develop adequate sustainable emergency education practices in the Global North.

Social Justice in Schools It is striking that, in 2021, social justice issues are still rarely acknowledged in schools. It has taken the recent flare-ups of the Black Lives Movement to get the general public to realize that racialization happens in schools (Strauss, 2020). It has taken recent protests from Trans students for the general public to acknowledge that the rights of sexual and gender minorities are still largely ignored in the K-12 sector (Reilly, 2019). The K-12 sector has over-focused on pedagogy for the last few decades and ignored the social dimensions of the school context. Even disability is seen in terms of physical and cognitive impair146

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ments, but the social model of disability remains largely ignored (Rees, 2017). Teachers, indeed, receive very little pre-service training with regards to the social oppression created by hegemonic environments in relation to students with disabilities. The political dimension remains absent from the discourse of school practitioners (Van Aswegen & Shevlin, 2019). It is therefore not surprising that social justice has remained absent from the recent discussions on blended and online learning within the COVID context, until after the facts when the emerging issues became too great to ignore (Nelson, 2020).

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Critical Pedagogy Critical Pedagogy is the theoretical paradigm that allows us best to grasp the social inequities that are present within our schools. Critical Pedagogy is a term that was coined by Freire (1972); it represents a lens through which educators are able to acknowledge the power dynamics at play in the classroom and to seek transformative action (Katz, 2014). Freire, and the scholars that have followed in this tradition (Rodd & Sanders, 2019), argue that marginalized learners are traditionally further oppressed, rather than supported, by schools in what he refers to as a ‘banking model’ process which keeps them passive and treats knowledge as a commodity. This approach suggests that educators should instead seek to create an awakening of consciousness among learners as to their oppressed social status, within school as an institution; they should also seek to support the marginalized learner as they affirm their identity and find their voice. Eventually educators will thus be able to empower learners to take on transformative action as a goal within the classroom and the school itself, so that they may eradicate the social inequities which impact their experience of learning. One of the hurdles in developing Critical Pedagogy in schools is the fact that there is currently very little awareness created in relation to it within pre-service training (Kitts, 2020). Most Critical Pedagogy courses are offered, in North America, by faculties of Education within Masters programs. Most early career educators therefore have had no exposure whatsoever to Critical Pedagogy (Neumann, 2013); it is not surprising as a result that, when the COVID pivot took place, this is not a perspective which came into play – or was even considered – as school and school districts developed online and blended delivery options (CTF/ FCE 100, 2020). From a conceptual angle, it is clear, however, that since social inequities exist within schools, they will also be perpetuated in online and blended delivery environments. Experience has shown in recent months that these social inequities have in fact been exacerbated by the online pivot (NEA, 2020), and that Critical Pedagogy should have been a central consideration in the development of blended and online teaching. One of the difficulties with Critical Pedagogy is that it can seem daunting to educators and can be initially difficult for teachers to grasp. It turns upside down many of the everyday assumptions of teachers with regards to classroom dynamics, and requires that they venture well out of their zone of comfort (Wayne Ross, 2018). It is also highly political, which makes many educators uncomfortable (Katz, 2014). This is where UDL offers opportunities as a hands-on, user-friendly, and convenient framework that highlights learner diversity and the need to redesign many of the learning experiences in schools, but does so in a less threatening way than Critical Pedagogy – while allowing for similar outcomes.

Universal Design for Learning UDL is a framework which has emerged from the field of architecture. The School of Chicago in the 70s is largely seen as responsible for challenging the obsession of the world of architecture with aesthetics 147

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(Trent, 2019). Instead, these practitioners argued that design should be focused in the user experience (UX) of the individuals meant to use these spaces (Oswal, 2019); by focusing on UX, designers can avoid the need for later retrofitting to address a wide variety of diverse needs. A decade later, UDL advocates have argued that learning should be similarly designed proactively to reduce potential barriers that could be experienced by diverse learners (Meo, 2008). In this sense UDL translated into the classroom the social model of disability; this theoretical lens suggests that disability is a social construct and it is situated in the friction that can exist between individual embodiments and the specific design and expectations of environments (Oliveria et al., 2019). UDL refocuses educators’ attention away from learner exceptionality, and highlights instead the need for them to actively take on the role of designers of the learning experience. As designers they will inject as much flexibility into delivery and assessment as possible, to ensure the full spectrum of learner diversity is proactively embraced (Rao & Meo, 2016). In practice, UDL offers three principles for inclusive design, which mirror the three dimensions of learning that some neuropsychologists identify as the essential functions within learning: multiple means of representation (which corresponds to the input of information by the learner), multiples means of action and expression (which corresponds to the output of information by the learner), and multiple means of engagement (which corresponds to the affective dimension of learning) (Rose et al., 2014). UDL is going to allow teachers to fully embrace learner diversity - including disability, race, ethnicity, socio-economic status, sexual and gender identity, and cultural diversity – but also all learner preferences. In this sense, it will be extremely useful to tackle social justice issues in the classroom, and the design process it involves will be able to be seamlessly integrated into the development of blended learning (Baumann & Melle, 2019).

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Acknowledging a Complex Geo-Political Context The COVID crisis has been a global phenomenon which has taken many varied shapes in schools, depending on the country or continent considered (Harris & Jones, 2020). It would be overly ambitious for this chapter to aim to reflect the reality of this pivot, and the emergence of blended learning as a solution to this crisis, across the planet without acknowledging the crucial geo-political distinctions and local variables that affect each jurisdiction. In this sense, much of the data relied on and analyzed in this reflection relates exclusively to a Global North context. This will therefore be the explicit context of the discussion. This is not to say that the recommendations do not apply to Global South countries; it is just important to acknowledge that many other variables may come into play in Global South countries where universal access to free public education can remain an issue of its own. Beyond the social justice issues considered here, there may be others to acknowledge that predate COVID, such as challenges around gender equality in K-12 education, access to technology, caste and class structures, and the capacity of the infrastructures themselves, as well as strategic questions around resources. Equally there have been opportunities in the Global South that may not be present in a Global North context, such as a willingness to prioritize collective solutions over individual choices, a willingness to embrace radically innovative approaches, a state capacity to address needs on a much wider scale with populations far in excess of numbers considered elsewhere.

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METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS The data relied on in this chapter is of two different nature. First the author relies on phenomenological data related to his lived experience as a graduate instructor (Farrell, 2020). He has been teaching graduate courses through the COVID crisis and has had to address the needs of students who have been negotiating graduate course while also teaching in the K-12 sector. In such a context, COVID related issues have become very much part of the courses themselves and have become woven in classroom discussions. This has offered him an amplified view and feel of the challenges experienced in the field during this period. The second type of data used and analyzed in this chapter relates to the discussions that have taken place in the educational press. Popular culture has generated a significant discourse around schooling in the COVID crisis, and around bended learning and its hurdles. It will be useful to examine this data through the lens of post-modern theory (Kilicoglu & Kilicoglu, 2020), in order to examine how parents’, teachers’, and even students’ perceptions around online learning and blended learning have been framed, transformed, and impacted by the hegemonic media discourse (Campbell, 2018). This is important because stakeholders in our K-12 institutions are affected by facts and quantifiable phenomena, but also by the cultural representations generated and perpetuated by the mainstream media (Fisher et al., 2008).

CHAPTER ASSERTIONS Section 2 of the chapter will showcase how UDL has been useful to guide and support teachers and school communities as they attempted, during the COVID pandemic and the overnight pivot, to untangle the social justice issues which surround blended learning initiatives. It will then look beyond the pandemic at the way accessible, equitable and socially-just blended instruction can be conceptualized effectively with the use of UDL.

Challenges Experienced in Blended Learning During the COVID Crisis There has been great tension observed during the COVID crisis between the modus operandi adopted by K-12 schools with regards to blended learning and the reality of the lived experience of oppressed and marginalized learners. This has been identified with respect to several dimensions: race, cultural diversity, socio-economic status, and sexual/ gender orientation (Hardeman et al., 2020).

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Issues With Access to Technology It has been clear throughout the COVID crisis that the pivot to online instruction and to blended formats has created significant challenges for some families with regards to access to technology. The digital divide is a phenomenon that has not entirely disappeared in the new millennial (Warden et al., 2020), and many learners do not have access to technology at home (de Marcellis-Warin et al., 2020). These issues have been exacerbated during the public health emergency, and looking to the future, this represents an ongoing hurdle – from a social justice perspective – that makes many educators and scholars uncomfortable with blended learning (Rasheed et al., 2020).

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The concept of digital divide has become refined over the last decade. While there are arguments that very few families and learners in Global North countries in fact have no access to technology (Rideout & Katz, 2016), studies indicate that the majority of learners have access to mobile technology, in the form of a phone, while educators often assume that students all possess a computer in the home (Nikolopoulou, 2020). This discrepancy in perceptions is a significant issue which has considerable impact on any attempt at developing blended learning as a sustainable practice. It amounts to a ‘device divide’, a phenomenon by which teachers conceive instruction for large screen and learners access this material – often in very disappointing experiences – on phone screens (Rahim et al., 2020). This has been a phenomenon that has been very noticeable during the COVID crisis, but it is unlikely lessons have been learnt, even after almost a year of public health crisis (G-STIC (2020). This shift in mindset will require extensive professional development initiatives with teachers, and specific efforts at leadership level. Lastly, even in the case of families that face no economic challenges and access technology with ease, there remains the issue of access to adequate internet service (Jung et al., 2001). In many countries such as Australia and Canada, provision of internet services remain sparse both in remote areas and in rural regions (Curtin, 2001). This has been a considerable hurdle during the COVID crisis (Broom, 2020) and, beyond the health crisis, it is likely to remain a major obstacle to wider adoption of blended learning in schools. The result of this phenomenon, by the end of the COVID crisis, will undoubtedly be that certain entire regions have been adversely affected by the pivot to online and blended learning, leading to massively inequitable outcomes for all learners within these geographical regions (Thurton, 2020).

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Accessibility of Online Instruction Even when household have adequate access to technology and the Internet, there have been considerable issues observed during the COVID crisis with regards to the actual accessibility of the learning experience (Sutton, 2020). Many teachers have jumped onto online platforms and adopted a blended delivery model without having a full understanding of the possible barriers that can exist within this format. There can be basic accessibility issues with the Apps chosen or the platforms selected for blended delivery; these may not be compatible with reading software, or the assistive technology students are regularly using (Jane, 2004). Even when these products are compatible with the requirements of the industry and with the American with Disabilities Act (ADA), this accreditation only means the structure of the software itself is accessible. Once practitioners start loading material onto these platforms, these tools can often become inaccessible if the resources uploaded contain accessibility issues (Zhang, et al., 2020). A simple example of this would be the scenario where teachers upload non-accessible PDF documents to an accessible platform. Educators also eventually have ultimate control over the selection of appropriate fonts, colour contrasts, the inclusion of captioning or transcripts for audio segments, and the addition of audio descriptions of visual components for learners with impairments. The experience of the learner can therefore quickly become fraught with barriers. There have been ample examples of this during the COVID pivot (Government of Ontario, 2020). Beyond the actual accessibility of the technology used, there may be accessibility issues present in the design for the learning activity or assessment (Ferrari, 2020). Examples of this would be cases where teachers – overly focused on the virtual dimension of the experience – inadvertently create barriers for diverse learners within the learning experience itself. This could be cases where the teacher assumes, when creating interactive online components, that all learners are able to communicate and interact with 150

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others with ease; this would not be the case for some students with disabilities – students who may be non-verbal for example -, but also for second language learners and immigrant children. Vice versa, designing virtual learning experiences where there is no interaction with others could equally create barriers for learners with other disabilities – such as attention deficit disorder – for whom work in isolation is fraught with difficulties -, or simply for learners who depend on school for the crucial development of social capital because they lack such opportunities in the home. Overall there can be many design issues within blended learning when it comes to inclusion, and unfortunately the focus during the COVID crisis has been on expediency, not on accessible design (Hodges et al., 2020). It would be fair to widen this observation and to state that beyond the current public health crisis, teachers tend to underestimate the barriers that student may encounter in virtual and blended environments (Alvarado-Alcantar et al., 2018). The blended format does offer opportunities for the erosion of some of these barriers, since the face to face component may provide teachers with the space to counter the specific challenges present in the online portion. Teachers, however, are often not aware of these issues, and therefore miss out on the opportunity to reflect on design and on inclusion, or to optimize the blended recipe for social justice.

Inequity With Regards to Assumptions Around Parental Support Another area of concern during the COVID pivot to online instruction has been the overreliance on parental support, an overreliance which often has betrayed monumentally flawed preconceptions on the part of teachers as to the ability of parents to support learners with the various tasks assigned for the home (Pushor & Amendt, 2018). Educators during the COVID crisis have been seen to be systematically teacher-centric when making these assessment in relation to parental support (Mahmood, 2020). Beyond the COVID context, this can be seen as a weakness of ongoing efforts to integrate blended learning in the K-12 sector. This integration cannot presuppose that all parents are of similar socio-economic status, that they have the same availability to support their children in learning, or that they have the same abilities to address or understand what is required in terms of support. This fundamental inequity has been one of the striking trends during the COVID crisis (Czerniewicz, et al., 2020). It is one that will require very specific attention if bended learning is to succeed and be developed more widely in the public school system (Darvin, 2018).

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Emerging Solutions That Exacerbate Inequities Two vignettes will be presented here as an illustration of the tension that exists within the COVID context, among the solutions that are emerging to develop blended learning adequately. The first example is the use of the flipped classroom; the second is the emergence of the concept of the ‘learning pod’. The flipped classroom has been an important tool within the COVID pivot and has represented a go-to blended solution for many teachers in Global North countries (Williams, 2020). The flipped classroom certainly existed for a couple of decades before the COVID crisis occurred, and has been developed and promoted in the K-12 sector for some time (Brewer & Movahedazarhouligh, 2019). The flipped classroom is a concept which prioritizes interactive collaboration between student and teacher, and between peers, during class time. In order to ensure this interaction occurs, the model shifts all transfer of information to outside the class, and focuses direct face to face instruction on problem solving, deep learning, and addressing the learner’s remaining issues or need for clarifications (Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2020). The 151

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flipped classroom has first emerged in the post-secondary classroom (van Alten et al., 2019), but has rapidly become popular in the K-12 sector as well. Interest for this model of instruction seemed to have plateaued in recent years, but the COVID context has brought it back to the forefront and reenergized its advocates. In this sense, it is fair to say that it has become a sort of blueprint for blended learning during COVID times. It has been very useful to teachers during their pivot because literature on the topic was relatively already abundant, and readily available to them. While the flipped classroom has been useful to teachers in these difficult times as an example of blended learning blueprint, it also presents numerous challenges for learners, and has epitomized some of the social justice issues discussed above. In a typical flipped classroom during the COVID pivot, teachers have allocated reading resources, videos, and notes for home study, and have scheduled a few face to face sessions with students where they tackle remaining challenges and questions. The material provided for home study has often not been fully accessible. Teachers have also had difficulties gauging the amount of material students could handle alone at home, and have as a result systematically overrelied on the ability of parents to support learners for extended periods of time through the day. Lastly, the ‘hyper-interactive’ nature of the face to face components of the flipped classroom model can be extremely onerous for a variety of student who may find communication difficult. There have always been specific accessibility issues and barriers to full inclusion in the flipped model, whenever it has been used systematically and indiscriminately across all classes. It provides a welcome degree of flexibility when used sporadically and may serve to re-engage learners who fair badly in the traditional model of direct instruction, but it creates new barriers for a different but equally large body of learners when used daily (Wang, 2017). Unfortunately this is precisely what has happened in many schools where the flipped model has become the default – and only – format of blended instruction during the COVID crisis. Another worrying trend which has been observed during this public health crisis has been the emergence of the learning pod concept (PBS, 2020). Learning pods are informal, co-op style groupings of parents who take on the role of support with learners within blended instruction in turn at specific times of the week, in order to allow other parents to focus on work. The idea is prima facie appealing since it emerges from a desire of parents to collaborate with others, come together as a community, and develop self-help tools. Instead of facing the burden of supporting blended instruction as a single household, families come together and share the burden on alternate days, giving other parents the time and space to also focus on work priorities when they are not ‘on duty’ (Oster, 2020). These informal groups are normally free and function on a basis of mutual help – though versions where tutors were hired have also been observed. These groups are also relatively safe, from a health emergency perspective, as the children remain within the same small groups, which are essentially safety bubbles. Despite the community-based spirit that has driven their creation, learning pods have quickly come to symbolize some of the monumental social justice concerns that have emerged during the COVID crisis. Parents indeed tend to associate in such ventures with families of similar ethnic, cultural racial, linguistic, and socio-economic background. These pod formations have therefore reinforced feelings of affiliation and belonging among hegemonic groups, and exacerbated the isolation and marginalization of minority households who often have been unable to find families with whom to collaborate (Bascaramurty & Alphonso, 2020; Nelson, 2020). The leaning pods have exacerbated social inequities, widened existing gaps, and led to marginalized families feeling even more disenfranchised than before the public health crisis started (Wenner Moyer, 2020). This is caused for great concerns as the learning pods have

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in recent months become unavoidably associated with the blended delivery format (Tedeneke, 2020). This is issue is likely to taint public perceptions of blended instructions if it is not proactively addressed.

Tension When Integrating Critical Pedagogy Into Blended Learning The last few months have demonstrated much more than just teachers’ lack of ease in online teaching environments; this period has shown the extent to which Critical Pedagogy has never to date been genuinely integrated within efforts to move teaching to online and blended modes. Social inequities, power dynamics, marginalization of learners, oppression, and the need for emancipatory work and transformative action have all been absent from the discourse around virtual teaching in the K-12 sector (Darling-Aduana et al., 2019). Developing online and bended instruction has been seen as a technical hurdle, a technological task, almost entirely focused on the innovative nature of the virtual environment itself (Aksal & Gazi, 2015; Antwi et al., 2018). As a result, most dialogue has so far focused on specific tools, software and applications. Little attention has been directed to the social justice dimensions that are specific to these spaces (Farmer & West, 2019) and to the intricacy of digital pedagogy. There has, as a result, been a literal shock within the public media, popular culture, and perceptions of the various stakeholders, when it has become obvious during the COVID pivot that many inequities in schools were suddenly becoming much more visible, viscerally palpable, and even exacerbated (Van Lancker & Parolin, 2020).

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Usefulness of Universal Design for Learning The chapter has identified specific issues related to social justice that have arisen during the shift to blended learning in the COVID context. It is argued that UDL serves as a convenient hands-on framework to address these issues and to support teachers as they seek to develop fully inclusive blended learning environments. When it comes to the sometimes rushed presumptions of teachers that all learners have access to technology and to Internet access, UDL is a powerful lens through which educators can develop awareness. It offers strong inclusive design guidelines that avoid any risk of creating inequities by assuming access to both technology and a reliable Internet connection. UDL indeed encourages teachers to develop multiple pathways, rather than to simply replace one delivery format by another. A teacher following UDL principles will add non-technological options for instructions and assessment, and not simply assume that all students can or prefer to function online and with the use of technology. It is about integrating flexibility and creating multiple pathways; this imperative is crucial to the success of socially-just blended learning. The second concern about blended learning is generally accessibility of the content (Anderson, 2020). UDL is focused on removing barriers for students with disabilities, among others, and translates the social model of disability into classroom practices. By using UDL, and ensuring that there are always multiple pathways available, a teacher can ensure students with disabilities are able to select ways of accessing learning or demonstrating their skills that are aligned with their strengths, their preferences, or their selected assistive technology tools (Ok et al., 2017). A blended learning environment which is designed with the use of UDL principles will be able to be accessible to the greatest number of learners possible, regardless of their impairment.

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The third weakness of the blended model which has been identified during the COVID heath crisis has been the over-reliance in parental support (Brown, et al., 2020). UDL is also useful in this respect in the sense that the flexibility injected into instruction, through the use of the ‘multiple means of representation’ and ‘multiple means of action and expression’ principles, means that students are more likely to find a pathway that fits their needs and expectations, and are less likely to require parental support. One of the explicit aims of the UDL model is to turn all students into ‘expert learners’ because they understand their strengths and are able to make choices that work from this strengths perspective (CAST, 2017). Blended instruction that uses UDL as a lens will therefore always include pathways that suit the learner’s profile, reducing as a result reliance on parents as a crutch. The chapter also demonstrated that some of the innovative solutions developed within the blended instruction model, during the COVID health crisis, have exacerbated social inequities. The flipped classroom was an example given above of such ambivalent practices (Sargent & Casey, 2020). UDL will be useful as a lens when examining such practices. They are not inherently inaccessible, non-inclusive, or socially unjust but can be, depending on how they are implemented. A reflection around UDL and inclusive design will ensure that the variation of the flipped classroom selected and implemented is in fact inclusive and meets the needs of all diverse learners. UDL will, in particular, make teachers aware that while the flipped classroom model remove barriers for some students, it creates other barriers for different students – such as students who have impairments related to communication and social interaction. This reflection will in all likelihood lead teachers to adopt a variation of the flipped classroom within the blended model that is not a constant, daily implementation but rather a sporadic, episodic alternative to regular instruction. This way it offers students who enjoy the flipped model occasions to thrive, while not forcing other students constantly into practices which are not congenial. In short, a UDL practitioner is likely to see value in the flipped classroom as an attractive additional pathway, to be used sparingly, and not as a ‘one size fits all’ alternative to face-to-face instruction. Here again, UDL provides the degree of nuance and flexibility that prevents the blended model from sliding into practices that may be inequitable, non-inclusive, or socially unjust. Another example of socially inequitable practice that has emerged during the COVID crisis has been the learning pod, as discussed above. Here too, UDL would have served as a useful lens for teachers considering these pods. UDL encourages teachers to consider flexibility in instruction, and to offer multiple pathways within each of their classroom decisions and objectives. A reflection around UDL would have served as a solid foundation for teachers to identify issues with the learning pod model about lack of choice, absence of flexibility, and arbitrary streaming of students.

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OUTCOMES AND RECOMMENDATIONS While it is essential to draw lessons from the experiences schools have had with blended learning and social justice during the COVID crisis, it is also crucial to contextualize these recommendations in a landscape of teacher training, professional development and leadership.

Implications With Regards to Pre-Service Teacher Training The COVID pivot has demonstrated the current lack of awareness around blended learning among K-12 teachers (Lockee, 2020; Philipsen, et al., 2019). There is an urgent need for specific training around 154

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blended learning to be integrated into pre-service teacher qualification programs. This chapter has evidenced that this training will have to explicitly focus on social justice dimensions, and will have to consider accessibility and inclusion. UDL will be a useful tool, but teacher training in North America has until now also failed to adequately include UDL awareness and training (Lopes-Murphy, 2012). This chapter is therefore a call for action for a radical reform of pre-service teacher training, so that it may begin to adequately prepare candidates for the realities of blended learning, and the subtleties of UDL implementation.

Implications With Regards to In-Service Professional Development for Teachers Similar realities are observed when it comes to in-service professional development (PD). Very little support is present with regards to awareness of blended learning as a sustainable format for instruction. Most practitioners who venture into this area do so alone or as part of small communities of practice. They rely mostly on their own devices when it comes to PR or resources. This realization explains the huge tension that has accompanied the adaptation of schools and teachers to the COVID pivot; the blended model is not proactively integrated into professional development and most teachers have felt entirely at loss. The situation is the same with regards to UDL: there is a paucity of resources and training available to teachers in relation to UDL implementation (Scott, 2018). This state of affair needs to change rapidly if we are to see a rapid and sustainable adoption of blended learning practices that are inclusive, fully accessible, and socially just, within schools.

Repercussions on Leadership

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There have been significant issues in the K-12 sector, over the last decade, with regards to inclusive leadership. While practitioners understand the immediate relevance and value of inclusive pedagogy, the field of school leadership has yet to develop sustainable practices for inclusion and management of change in this respect (Lambrecht, et al., 2020). There is emerging literature in this area but a paucity of best practices on the ground (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010; Precey, 2011). Leadership that effectively supports blended learning has also been lacking (Jones, 2019), and this has become painfully apparent during the COVID crisis (Harris, 2020). This chapter is therefore a call for action; it argues that school leadership must develop firm practices that support both inclusion and blended learning. Scholars in the field of leadership must also urgently invest in producing a robust and abundant literature that addresses these needs. Leadership for the sustainable integration of inclusive blended learning must become a reality.

Management of Change in the K-12 Sector The COVID pivot has provided very striking examples of how difficult the process of change is within the K-12 sector. Even when one might have assumed that mindsets where shifting in relation to blended learning, and that sustainable practices were being developed in this respect, it has been clear that systems default immediately back face to face instruction at the very first signs of possible return to normal. The second wave of COVID in fall 2020 has shown to what extent schools were once again unprepared - less than six months after the emergence of the first health emergency -, had failed to learn lessons from the

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first pivot, and had sharply already moved back to old habits and away from best practices for blended learning (Sanchez et al., 2020). Management of change is complex in the field of K-12 education and systemic theory suggests that institutions return, in a pendulum-like fashion, to their fictitious perception of equilibrium – even if this equilibrium is fragile or toxic (Adelman & Taylor, 2007; Terhart, 2013). The experience of the COVID pivot hence will not be sufficient in itself for schools and school districts to learn lessons about blended learning, or for them to develop a lucid reflection around best practices in this respect. Proactive reflection and conceptualization will be required in order to formulate what the needs are for sustainable change. The chapter has argued that the COVID pivot has been a sort of large scale action research project about online and blended learning for schools. An action research process, however, requires a final phase of debriefing and conceptualization. The experience in itself is not sufficient for practitioners to draw appropriate conclusions. The coming months will determine whether K-12 educators and environments are drawing, from their 2020 experiences, appropriate lessons with regards to the processes they have tried to develop in relation to blended learning and social justice. School leadership has a huge role to play in ensuring that this period of reflection does occur and yields sustainable outcomes.

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CONCLUSION The COVID crisis has provided the K-12 sector with an exceptional opportunity to embrace and develop a model of instruction which has appeared as particularly tempting to scholars for some time but had so far met considerable resistance from educators: blended learning. The reasons why school teachers are reluctant to embrace the blended format no doubt relates to wider fears about technology and online delivery and assessment. The COVID pivot has forced teachers to meet these fears head on and to explore the richness, flexibility, and convenience of blended instruction. In this sense, there will probably be no turning back, and we are likely to see schools, school boards and governance bodies increasingly push for the adoption of blended teaching and learning. This push will be made considerably bolder by the fact that blended learning has shown its clear superiority in the context of the emergency provision of educational services – a need which will now remain much more firmly on the minds of all stakeholders for decades to come. The rise and predominance of blended learning in the sustainable development of the K-12 sector in this increasingly precarious and weary landscape will, however, come at a cost; this chapter has demonstrated the plethora of social justice and accessibility issues which are likely to plague this trend if immediate proactive action is not taken early on to guarantee equity and inclusion for all learners within this mode of delivery. The chapter has brought to the forefront a specific need for a change of mindset within the sector which itself has repercussions on pre-service training, in-service professional development, and inclusive leadership.

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Wenner Moyer, M. (2020). Pods, Microschools and Tutors: Can Parents Solve the Education Crisis on Their Own? The New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/22/parenting/ school-pods-coronavirus.html Wilkes, S., Kazakoff, E. R., Prescott, J. E., Bundschuh, K., Hook, P., Wolf, R., ... Macaruso, P. (2020). Measuring the impact of a blended learning model on early literacy growth. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 36, 595–609. Williams, S. (2020). The benefits of a flipped classroom for distance learning. Pearson International School Blogs. Retrieved from: https://blog.pearsoninternationalschools.com/the-benefits-of-a-flippedclassroom-for-distance-learning/ Wong, J. (2020). Concerns arise over inequity of families’ pandemic ‘learning pods’. CBC. https://www. cbc.ca/news/canada/learning-pods-across-canada-1.5697507

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Zhang, X., Tlili, A., Nascimbeni, F., Burgos, D., Huang, R., Chang, T., ... Khribi, M. (2020). Accessibility within open educational resources and practices for disabled learners: A systematic literature review. Smart Learning Environments, 7, 1.

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Chapter 9

Integrating Technology to Support Learners With Barriers to Learning in the Rural Classroom Marinda Neethling North-West University, South Africa Susan Greyling North-West University, South Africa Benita Taylor North-West University, South Africa

ABSTRACT

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To reduce extended academic delays and disruptions, in-service teachers (hereafter teachers) enrolled for an online BEd Honours Learner Support programme had to re-think the integration of technology when supporting a learner with a barrier to learning in their classrooms. The teachers, of whom a few are educators in rural schools, had to complete a practical paper-based portfolio as a formative assessment. The portfolio expected the teacher to identify a learner with a learning barrier and develop a support plan over six months. With the schools closed, the portfolio in its original form became a challenge since the teachers could not have face-to-face interaction and interventions with their learners.

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE When President Cyril Ramaphosa, president of South Africa, declared the national state of disaster on 15 March 2020, all education centres, amongst other institutes, went into lockdown, initially from 26 March to 16 April. On 9 April the lockdown was extended by another 14 days. This meant that the academic calendar of 2020 had to be adjusted (DoE, 2020). With the adaptation of the academic calendar in mind, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch009

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 Integrating Technology to Support Learners With Barriers to Learning in the Rural Classroom

lecturers at higher education institutions (HEIs) had to adjust projected assessments to fit the calendar. One formative assessment outcome in the online BEd Honours (BEdHons) Learner Support programme requires the in-service teachers (hereafter teachers) to identify a learner with a learning barrier in their classrooms. They then have to develop a support plan, imbedded in their lesson plan, to support the learner over six months. Because of the calendar adjustment and the closure of schools, the portfolio in its original paper-based form became a challenge. The teachers could not have face-to-face interaction and interventions with their learners. To overcome this challenge, the authors as lecturers adapted the paper-based portfolio to a blended learning (BL) portfolio. For the lecturer and the academic system to decide on changes to meet calendar, adjustments are easy. For the remote teacher to act, often in a rural and or socially disadvantaged community, is quite a challenge. This chapter focuses on how these challenges were overcome by integrating blended learning to support a learning barrier. Since the teachers are distance education students, they are spread over South Africa and Namibia and do not have face-to-face contact with one another. Therefore, on the learning platform, the lecturers, encourage teachers to use forums and chat rooms to interact and exchange ideas. Four teachers from unrelated rural areas, but all teaching in the Foundation Phase, met on one such platform and came to realise that their struggles were similar owing to a lack of technological skills, devices and stable electricity in their rural schools and at home. They voiced their frustrations and as lecturers, we decided to intervene. Through a participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) approach, therefore we have to write in the first person, (Wood, 2020) three lecturers and four teachers worked in a participatory way to develop means and skills to ensure the success of the task at hand. The reason for PALAR was that the lecturers as well as the teachers had to transform their set ways of teaching. We needed to collaborate, to make plans to support barriers to learning through technology, and integrate our content knowledge with technology-based teaching and learning (TbTL) (Kruger, 2014; E-Learning Africa Report, 2012; Mishra et al., 2011; Mdlongwa, 2011; Koehler, & Mishra, 2005; 2009). Based on the above, the chapter then reports in the contextual framework on how teachers and lecturers collaborated regarding integrating blended learning in a paper-based portfolio to support learners with barriers to learning in the rural classroom. This is followed by a methodological outline, results, discussion and the contribution to digital skills development in the BEd Honours Learner Support module.

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CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK The World Economic Forum (WEF) estimates that 65% of learners entering Foundation Phase today, will work in occupations that do not exist at this moment (Schwab, 2019). Therefore, education in the 21st century should prepare learners for the global world in which different forms of intellectual tasks are done by skilled thinking like creativity and innovation, complex communication systems and tools like Information Communication Technology (ICT) and information literacy skills. All of these then act as the core of intellectual capabilities by which people attain prosperity and economic security individually, as a region, and as a nation (Davis, 2016; Grand-Clement, 2017). For learners to successfully navigate the new world, it is imperative to possess skills aligned with 21st-century challenges like solving problems, creative thinking, collaboration, critical reflection on their own work as well as on that of their peers and technological fluency. Researchers like Taylor and van der Merwe (2019); Hannaway and Steyn (2017); Mdlongwa (2011, 2012); Laurillard et al. (2009); and Prensky (2001) affirm that technology serves as an important tool for holistic development, which 166

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includes the physical, social, emotional, mental and cognitive development of the learner, and when withheld, some abilities can be alienated. Technology on its own is not sufficient, since the use of certain devices depends on the environment along with a specific objective to pursue. Therefore, the technology needs to align with adjusted teaching practices and classroom designs (Kruger, 2014). Mdlongwa (2011) point out the benefits of TbTL in the classroom but accentuate that it needs to be implemented correctly to allow learners to connect to the global world of information, as the entire world of work depends on technology. Mdlongwa (2012) further argues that technology allows learners to create individual knowledge and cultivate a culture of personal information management, independent learning and working without supervision, communication skills, teamwork and study skills, which are highly valued in today’s global workforce. In South Africa, government, public and private sector initiatives contributed to such education adjustments but in rural schools, which are also the focus of this study, the picture is grim (Dzansi & Amedzo, 2014).

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Rural Schools Rural areas are typically remote and relatively underdeveloped areas (Hlalele, 2014b). Consequently, the community and school are poor, often illiterate and therefore disadvantaged and in need of basic infrastructure, including electricity and technology. The latter especially relate to this chapter. Good teachers may be reluctant to remain at remote rural schools for a long period because of the prevailing circumstances, limited promotion opportunities and a decrease in professional satisfaction. Some rural schools have unreasonable learner teacher ratios; in some circumstances, there are not enough classrooms, which implies that grades are combined into fewer classes (Maringe et al., 2015). Therefore, schools in rural areas are not only challenged with financial and resource poverty, but also with poverty in education because of unsatisfactory teacher qualifications, training, motivation and morale (Hlalele, 2014b). Another hindrance is that the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 requires all schools and learners to be developed on an equal basis. For that reason, the national education policy is developed at the provincial and national levels, with little attention to the relevance of the rural areas and learners who are exposed to a curriculum to which they cannot relate neither apply in their immediate context. Maringe et al. (2015. p. 364) refer to it as the ‘broad-brush’ policy approach that fails to recognise the unique challenges that rural and poor communities experience. Resnick (1987, pp. 13-19) mentions the “out-of-school and interest-driven learning” or cross-contextual learning that disconnects the formal and informal education system. This is strenuous to the learner who has to transit between the two daily for the sake of education. In line with this, Hlalele (2014b); Boix et al. (2015) posit that the rural learner, compared to urban learners, must often choose between either educational goals for example to do homework or family relations for example to look after the elderly or siblings and domestic chores which can provide for food on the table, a typical condition associated with lower educational aspirations and delay of post-secondary education. This was evident when the teachers in this study, as part of the ethical adherence of the portfolio, had to make appointments with the learners, parents, or helpers to set up a time slot that would suit the different role-players involved in the support action via technology. The teachers had to wait for household errands to be completed, only thereafter the educational activity could begin. Following from the previous, learners in rural and poor schools are the ones who suffer academically owing to socio-economic and education-related issues. 167

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We draw on work by Balfour et al. (2008) that explain amongst other aspects that a rural area along with the people living there can positively act as subjects and transformative agents of change in their environment. This means that the people in these areas depend on and support each other which aligns with the idea of Ubuntu (I am because you are) explained by. Hlalele, (2014a) Ito et al. (2013) and Barron, (2006). In this study, we experienced it were the helpers, teachers, learners, parents and people from the community formed a learning ecology to collaborate to contribute to rural education. Since the four teachers as participants are Foundation Phase teachers, the following part will focus on these learners in the context of the study.

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The 21st-Century Foundation Phase Learner Taylor and van der Merwe (2019) state that the Foundation Phase learner (age 5 – 9 years, including Grade R-3) of the 21st century is born in the digital area and cannot escape from it. From birth, they are surrounded by television, mobile phones, tablets and digital cameras. For a valid reason, Prensky (2001, p. 1) refers to them as “digital native” and Klass (2019 pp. 1) speaks of “digital dependency”. In line with this, Shaik and Ebrahim (2015) state that the most effective learning phase for acquiring digital skills is in fact in the Foundation Phase. This teaching and learning phase is the highest degree of early learning and provides the foundation on which lifelong learning is built. Since Foundation Phase learners are referred to as digital natives, they find an easy appeal with digital tools and resources. If technology is imbedded in the educational system, the learner can be exposed to a variety of technological learning options to choose from. They can perform the activity on their own time and ability level that can enhance their development. Accordingly, teaching can improve, since there are numerous teaching and support programmes to choose from. Technology can further accommodate diverse learning styles and help the teachers to manage and administrate their duties (Bialobrzeska & Cohen, 2005; Goodyear et al., 2017). The Foundation Phase Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement of South African (CAPS, 2011) mentions technology under Beginning Knowledge and draws from Social Science, Natural Science and Technology. Accordingly, technology is not a priority in the Foundation Phase and is only introduced in the intermediate Phase which means Grade 4, learners 10 years and older. Hannaway and Steyn (2017) point out that young children have specific learning styles and therefore a specific child-centred, playbased curriculum is necessary, to which technology can then provide effective support. Following from the above, Prensky (2001, p. 1) refers to a person born outside of the digital age or who received little exposure to digital equipment as a “digital immigrant” (the teacher or parent). Therefore, to narrow the generation gap, the digital immigrant needs to adopt and implement technology in the classroom and also when supporting a barrier to learning. In a rapidly changing world, where technology forms part of the centre of humanity, Prensky (2017) speculates whether teachers (and with the focus of this chapter, the Foundation Phase teachers) in South Africa are on par with the constant digital adaptions of the 21st century. He states that “it is clear that as a result in this ubiquitous environment and the sheer volume of their interaction with it, today’s students think and process information fundamentally different from their predecessors” (Prensky, 2001 pp. 1), Hannaway and Steyn (2017, p. 1748-9) support the statement when confirming that “technology needs to be integrated into learning to reinforce the learning experience for the requirements in today’s society”. The Action Plan to 2019 of the Department of Basic Education (DBE, 2015) details the priorities discussed in the National Development Plan 2030 of which the aim is to ensure and maintain a high quality of schooling in South Africa. The majority of the stated goals can be achieved when technology 168

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through TbTL is integrated into schools. One of the twenty-seven priority goals in the Action Plan deals with Grade R teacher development and states that computer literacy needs to improve throughout their teaching careers (DBE, 2015). The DBE (2015, p. 15) is aware of the “weaknesses in the system when it comes to the adaptation of new technologies to improve the administration of the schooling system and the teaching and learning process.” They continue to state that “we need to do better if we are to avoid a widening of the gap between South Africa and other countries, even other middle-income countries.” This statement aligns with the neglecting of technology in rural schools and the Foundation Phase curriculum, and points to a digital divide in the South African education system regarding TbTL. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA, 2004b) shares concerns that the digital divide underlines the disparity in acquiring skills and knowledge between learners with access to technology and those without. Kalaš (2010, p. 18) defines digital divide as the “lacuna [gap] in the skills necessary to be a digital citizen and the physical means to access such technological resources.” Language in South Africa can also act as a weakness that can widen the gap to integrate TbTL. The language of computer software and the internet is 80% English and the majority of learners and teachers use English as a second language (Tinio, 2003). In rural schools, the digital divide can widen because of a lack of exposure to English and technology jargon in those areas (Mdlongwa, 2012). In agreement with the WEF the Department of Education White Paper 7 (DoE, 2004) points out that technology in the classroom allows learners to develop higher order thinking skills like understanding, reasoning, problem-solving and creative thinking. It further encourages and promotes alternative working ways, collaboration, communication and team building and inspires a sense of responsibility which is positive to promote career development. White Paper 7, e-Education (DoE, 2004) states that to obtain the learning objectives, a learning environment conducive to achieve the mentioned needs to be created where teaching methods can be transformed and learning is seen as an ongoing and creative process with opportunities to present new knowledge. Hannaway and Steyn (2017) believe that although the DoE prescribes e-Education, there is a gap to effectively apply technology in the classroom. Berens (2019, p. 103) states that “South Africans need urgent digital skills training to keep pace with these changes...” and the PanAf Study Agenda (2008-2011) confirm this when their findings reveal that ICT in South Africa is not effectively implemented. To provide a foundation of TbTL the authors believe that the technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK) model, that will be discussed in the following part, is suited as the theoretical foundation for this chapter. TPACK points to the neglecting of TbTL in the Foundation Phase, the digital native, and we became aware of implementing blended learning in our teaching. We need to create opportunities in our teaching and learning where students can become aware of the possibilities to imbed technology in their classrooms.

TECHNOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL AND CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (TPACK) Mishra and Koehler (2006) developed the technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK) based on Shulman’s (1989) Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) but underline the importance of technology within the context of teaching. Koehler and Mishra (2009) state that the interaction of the three bodies of knowledge, i.e. content, pedagogy and technology, are not merely knowledge, but form the basis of effective teaching with ICT. 169

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TPACK for this chapter refers to the theoretical framework since it underlines TbTL integration in a learner support paper-based portfolio. Although TPACK aims to support skills development of teachers for obtaining new knowledge on how technology can be applied during teaching and learning activities (Koehler & Mishra, 2009), this research spreads the net further. Technology as a tool becomes the glue in the learning ecology to carry out different messages and relationships between the teacher as the BEd Hons student (teacher), parent, helper, learner, content and practices. As lecturers, we base our guidance on a theoretical framework as a structure for the uncertain teachers and therefore we aligned the seven knowledge areas of TPACK with the challenges they experienced. The knowledge areas refer to the knowledge and understanding of the interplay between technological knowledge (TK), content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK) when using technology in teaching and learning (Schmidt et al., 2009). Technological knowledge (TK) refers to standard and advanced technology and how to understand and use it (Koehler & Mishra, 2009; Mishra et al., 2011). Content knowledge (CK) is using knowledge to acquire ways to establish content knowledge (Mishra et al., 2011). Pedagogical knowledge (PK) points to the practice and processes of teaching and learning. This can include lesson planning, classroom management and assessment methods (Mishra et al., 2011). Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is knowledge of how to integrate pedagogy and content in practice (Schmidt et al., 2009). Technological content knowledge (TCK) points to the integration of pedagogy and subject content to better teaching practice (Schmidt et al., 2009; Shulman, 1986). Technology pedagogical knowledge (TPK) implies choosing the appropriate technological tools and resources to promote teaching methods to encourage learner’s learning (Schmidt et al., 2009; Leendertz, Blignaut, Nieuwoudt, Els, Ellis, 2013). Since the e-portfolio was the tool in this study to measure TbTL in TPACK, the following part focuses on portfolio assessment.

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PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT Portfolio assessment is primarily embedded in the teacher-based assessment paradigm (Lam, 2018). In the BEd Honours Learner Support programmes, portfolio assessment is to the benefit of the teacher since it first instructs them on how to carry out a task. Secondly, it encourages them to self-evaluate or reflect on their support plans and activities within their context of teaching that again promotes self-efficacy. A portfolio is most often assessed by the lecturers rather than by external examiners who are unfamiliar with the profile of the distance learning in-service teacher. Thus the portfolio includes assessment of learning that assesses the teacher summatively; assessment for learning that supports the teacher formatively where needed and assessment as learning to facilitate the teachers to become self-regulated learners (Lam, 2018, p. 4). The portfolio in this study is designed to wear three hats: that of progress-, showcase- and performance (Lam, 2018, p. 5). When combining all three hats, the portfolio gives a clear overview of the teacher’s knowledge and skills on screening and observing a learner, identifying a learning barrier and then planning and developing a support strategy to overcome the barrier over some time.

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Through artefacts, in the progress portfolio, the teachers display the different support activities, reflect or review their work, evaluate how they perform and reflect on the action to identify problems and decide how to deal with these, adjust them and motivate their decisions. They do self-assessment and review their learning improvements in a sustained manner (Lam, 2018, pp. 5; 43). In the formative work performance part of the portfolio, the teachers demonstrate collaboration activities during the support strategies with different role-players like parents, peers, or other teachers. The teachers make choices on various support strategies and the applicability thereof to address specific learning barriers. This denotes their autonomy to be able to select artefacts to compile their evidence. They include complete or incomplete efforts to support and reflect to motivate their choices and efforts. For example, did the support activity have a positive outcome; in other words, did it remediate the barrier? If not, what alternative measures did they take to better the outcome? This implies they can use a variety of evidence to display or showcase their performance. As part of their summative assessment, they showcase their best work to represent their academic achievements (Lam, 2018: pp. 29-30).

Assessing Portfolios According to Lam (2018, pp. 73-76), portfolio assessment aims to support the mastery of composing a portfolio within the diverse learning and contextual needs of the teacher. It displays the developed and reflective abilities of the teachers and indicates their independence. When assessing the progress portfolio which is mainly diagnostic, partly formative and minimally summative, the focus is on the growth and learning progress that happened during the portfolio journey. The process and the product, like artefacts, will be assessed. Keeping this in mind, the assessment or rubric must be flexible and open-ended since the assessed may make sizable progress in the different assessment tasks. The working portfolio, which is mainly formative and partly summative, focuses on learning efforts and displays the full collection of work-in-progress of as much as possible learning evidence. For example, different artefacts, complete and incomplete drafts, journals, lesson planning, activities, notes, etc. Since the working portfolio is a formative assessment, feedback to inform and improve teaching and learning is advised. The showcase portfolio that is mainly summative and partly formative, displays the final and best abilities and achievements of the portfolio journey.

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Rubrics as Portfolio Assessment Rubrics are well-defined assessment criteria indicating different levels of performance standards. The levels range from distinguished or outstanding at level 4 to unsatisfactory or substandard, level 1. The following are some general comments to explain the different levels (Panadero et al., 2016). Level 4 reflects: • • •

The ability to cite intra- and interdisciplinary content relationships. The ability to demonstrate an awareness of possible misconceptions and how it can be addressed. The ability to refect on developments in content-related pedagogy. Level 3 reflects:

•

The ability to identify important concepts of the disciplines and their relationship to one another. 171

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• • •

The ability to provide clear explanations of the content. The ability to answer questions accurately, and also provides feedback that furthers learning. The ability to apply instructional strategies support and lesson plans that are suitable for the content. Level 2 reflects:

• • •

A rudimentary understanding of the discipline. Inaccurate or incomplete knowledge of prerequisite relationships. Limited instructional strategies, lessons and unit plans; and some are not suitable to the content. Level 1 reflects:

• • •

Content errors. Lack of prerequisite relationships when planning. Inappropriate strategies used for the discipline.

To summarise, a portfolio is a pedagogical act that, in this study, engages the teachers in their learning and assessment process (Gottlieb, 2000). The following part will describe the research methodology, explain the applicability of PALAR as the research methodology, and addresses the findings and discussion.

PALAR AS THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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Study Design PALAR as a research methodology was used to build a relationship with the participants. Collaboratively we envisioned what we wanted to achieve and planned the study to answer the question of integrating technology to support learners with barriers to learning in the rural classroom. As participants, we generate, reflect, and analyse qualitative data between three iterative cycles (Wood, 2020). As a participatory team, we drew from the 7 Cs of PALAR namely; communication, commitment, competence, compromise, critical self-reflection, collaboration and coaching (Zuber-Skerritt, 2015, 2018) and asked critical questions on the applicability of the technological support activities for learners experiencing barriers to learning in rural areas. We could reflect on the existing social reality and the effective application of technology to support learning barriers; we identified factors that need to change and provided clear norms for criticism, as well as achievable practical goals for transformation (Šarić & Šteh, 2017). Therefore, we had to integrate theory and practice since the activity had to adhere to specific theoretical aspects in learner support. The team exchanged ideas, stimulated self-reflexivity, and discussed experiences. To achieve this goal, a transformative research paradigm (Guba & Lincoln, 1994) was used to collectively engage in discussions as technology became an important aspect when supporting barriers to learning. As participants, we accepted that each participant was equally valuable, irrespective of who the lecturer is and who the in-service teacher is; collaboratively we could contribute to change in our teaching and

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learning and ourselves. For the mentioned reasons, we followed the 7 Cs of PALAR as our philosophical principles (Zuber-Skerritt, 2015, 2018; Wood, 2020, p. 31-32). The 7 Cs comprise the following: Communication is the key to building a relationship in which learning can take place. As participants in this study, we first had to be alert to hear the said as well as the unsaid of the in-service teachers as students, since they were uncertain whether they could be straight to the point with us as lecturers. After we had clarified this, we came to realise that we all viewed this study as an opportunity to better our teaching and learning; we felt committed and willing to take responsibility and own the challenge at hand. Since there were no set rules on how to go about it, each of us needed to be competent to do selfreflection on what worked and what did not work. Each one had to decide on what we wanted to learn from the experience. For all participants, the focus was to blend paper and technology whether in the BEd Honours model or the rural classroom. We had to listen to one other participants ‘opinions and compromise where needed. If not, our study would not be successful. Critical self-reflection in PALAR is vital for transformation. After each session, we had to reflect on what we had done and decide if that was what we had aimed to; if not, how could we adjust it. PALAR cannot take place without collaboration. Consequently, we had to reflect critically throughout the research to verify if all work actively together. During the process we need to coach or mentor one another to give critical but positive critique on the process and how and where to adjust for success.

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Participants and Site of Research This BEd Hons in Learner Support is an internet-enabled online learning programme for distance learning teachers. It takes place on an asynchronous mode and asynchronous learning platform (Garrison, 2011). The asynchronous platform means that the teachers have individual access to a computer with the internet and are proficient in English because it is the language of learning and teaching, and the study material and textbooks. For this study, the teachers had to explain some of the learner support concepts to the parent or helper in a regional language, the vernacular, because of the profile of the people in rural areas. Synchronous mode means that the teachers and lecturers are geographically separated and interact online, via inter alia the interactive White Board, in a virtual classroom during scheduled time slots, specified on a timetable. For this study, the teachers did not use the White Board, but rather email, cell phone calls, WhatsApp and Zoom sessions. We were seven participants who collaborated in this research: three distance education lecturers and four in-service teachers who were from rural areas in three different provinces in South Africa. They were all teaching in the Foundation Phase and were between 26 and 34 years old.

Ethical Consideration The portfolio resonates under an umbrella ethical clearance of the BEd Hons gained from the appropriate Ethics Committee of the North-West University. Consent forms from the parents and schools were obtained. All participants gave consent and were informed that group discussions could not assure confidentiality, but that their names and details would not be reported in any circumstances or instance. It was made clear in both written and oral consensus that no participant was forced to take part in the 173

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research. The participants were allowed to withdraw at any stage. When analysing the reflective diaries, the confidentiality of the participants was strongly protected. It is worth mentioning that the teacher, learner and parent interacted before the lockdown. Thus, the parent gave permission, the school and parents signed the consent forms and the parents had a face-to-face encounter with the teacher. As lecturers, we ensured that no deception took place and that all ethical guidelines were adhered to in the study. Findings of the research were reported completely and honestly without misleading others about the nature of the findings, and data were not fabricated to support any particular conclusion.

Trustworthiness We aligned with the viewpoint of Kemmis and McTaggart (2005) on the creeds of action research and combined respect, reciprocity, relevance, and reflection, to confirm trustworthiness. This is relevant because the data developed from the participants’ “own voices” (Hammersley & Gomm, 2000, p. 3). Respect for the participants’ viewpoints of their real-life events made it impossible for us to ignore what they thought and desired. Together we needed to address reciprocated needs between the participants through mutual respect and agreement on actions regarding their views. We had to encourage relevant learning, which included professional development and positive critical reflection on actions which happened during the support. This underlined the importance that research must happen in a context so that local knowledge can help with the interpretation of results and the design of actions to understand the real-life processes. Within this research, the participants tested the knowledge by focusing on relevance, social change, and validity.

Data Collection Methods During the three months, the participants met four times via Zoom. The rest of the time was via emails, cell phone calls, or WhatsApp messages. The first Zoom meeting was to introduce participants to one another and plan the steps to activate the support plan. The following methods were used to collect data in this study.

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Purposeful Discussions During our purposeful discussions, we shared information and decisively linked our research journey to the TPACK model (Koehler & Mishra, 2009) to verify if TbTL happens in Foundation Phase. We further felt that the TPACK model would give structure and measure the applicability of TbTL in the e-portfolio as the end product. We experienced the discussions as valuable self-reflection opportunities (Wood, 2020) to better our teaching and learning. Consequently, these discussions allowed for a deeper insight into the lived learner support experiences as well as into the shortcomings of support via technology.

E-Portfolio The e-portfolio was valuable for professional- and self-development as well as for an in-depth qualitative generating data method. The development and completion of the e-portfolio confronted the participants with knowledge and the lack thereof, our attitudes, realities, and values during support interventions. Stake (2003) refers to it as endeavours within a person’s own words, meaning that these reflections can174

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not be obtained in a textbook. They only emanate from your own experience. The e-portfolio became the teacher’s voice of what strategies were effective or not. Because this portfolio revealed a lot of data, it enabled us to gain a bird’s eye view over all the support activities, before we started to systemise the data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

Data Analysis The data analysis was influenced by the researchers’ epistemological and ontological paradigm towards integrating technology to support learners with barriers to learning in the rural classroom. Since data in action research can be vast and subsequently overwhelming (Lacey & Smith, 2010), we started with data reduction when we identified, organised and categorised the data before coding. The coding proceeded from open to selective to theoretical integration of concepts. The emerging themes and their connections were integrated with existing theoretical literature to establish how it all fit together in categories (Saldaña, 2013). The following part will present the findings generated by the participants.

FINDINGS The data were purposefully arranged into three themes according to the TPACK model, technological knowledge (TK), technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK). We now discuss the themes concerning relevant literature, supported by quotations as evidence gained from emails and WhatsApp messages. The participants are identified as follows: P1; P2; P3, P4.

Determine Technological Knowledge (TK)

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Integration of TK in Teaching The first step was to investigate whether the learners for this study had access to technological devices like laptops, smartphones, or tablets in their homes. Thereafter the teachers authenticated what technological knowledge (TK) the parent or helper had. The technological challenge did not stop at the device. Some of the teachers had to take extra measures to engage community members to become partners in education so that they could provide and support TK to their e-portfolios aligns with Mapesela et al. (2012) who posit that learning cannot be left to individuals, but that involvement from the community is required. In one situation the teacher first had to convince the parent of the seriousness of her challenge and the implications of not obtaining her degree if they did not co-operate. All four teachers agreed that because they teach in the Foundation Phase in rural areas, the technological opportunities and equipment were not necessarily available. P2 said, “I know it is important to use technology in the FP [Foundation Phase] I wish I had the resources”. P3 stated that “technology can improve the curriculum, but our school cannot support us with this.”

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For the Teachers to Complete Their Portfolios, They Had to Evaluate the TK of the Parent or Helper Two of the four learners did not have access to technological devices. In both cases, members of the community helped by lending a device to the learners. P3 stated, “…..it sounds strange but if the learner had a device, I would never have known how supportive the community is. This is Ubuntu.” P1 indicated that “I was so stressed for working with lecturers and did not know what to expect, and I must complete my portfolio but this Ubuntu I experienced in the community gave me hope; I know my lecturers and the other teachers will help me.” P2 noted that as teachers we need to “reach out to the community, I am sure they will help us to support learners in need”; she elaborated and said, “learner support must not only happen in the classroom, we may open the [school] gates and invite the community in [the school premises].” This gesture points to Ubuntu in the learning ecology (Barron, 2006; Hlalele, 2014a; Ito et al., 2013). P4 experienced the other side of Ubuntu when a distraught parent saw how he had to assist his child “as an extra burden in his off time during lockdown”. The teacher had to convince the parent that the support was to the benefit of his child and of herself as a teacher who needed to complete the portfolio to obtain her degree.

Determining Content Knowledge (CK) In this research, CK points to the planning and demonstration of the support activity in this study, the specific barrier that the teachers wanted to address in the e-portfolio. It is worth noting that when addressing barriers to learning, it is advised that the teacher has alternative assessment methods in place (Mishra et al., 2011).

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For the Teachers to Complete Their Portfolios, They Had a Structure to Follow To complete the paper-based and then specify the e-portfolio in this study, the lecturers realised how uncertain the teachers were, and therefore gave clear steps to follow. The teachers had to start with pre-tasks that included a clear plan, design, development, with specific steps to follow. They had to type out the draft and we discussed it on the WhatsApp group. This gave direction to the task at hand. Consequently, the teachers had to clarify where the activity would take place. This included indoors or outdoors, depending on the type of activity; for example, a physical activity needed to be performed outside if considering the size of houses in the rural areas and the number of people sharing the house. The purpose of the activity, for example, what specific barrier would be addressed, the learners’ strengths and weaknesses; and they had to be clear on why it needed to be addressed. They had to clarify whether it was a formal or informal assessment task. Was the assessment part of a larger task and what learning outcome would be evaluated, e.g. knowledge, skills, reasoning? What cognitive levels would be assessed like basic, higher-order thinking, or metacognition? What instruction guidelines would they use in the beginning, middle and end to reach the planned outcome. They further had to point out how the learner would be involved, e.g. free choice, prescribed topics, peer- or self-assessment? Approximately how long would the activity be, and did it allow for external assistance from e.g. a peer or sibling, or a grown-up? Lastly, they had to decide on an assessment method or task to be displayed, and the validity thereof to measure on a rubric scorecard whether the intended learning or support took/had taken place. 176

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This was followed by a post-task where the teacher reflected and evaluated to appraise the usefulness of the activity (Lam, 2018). Keep in mind that the portfolio reflected a real-world task, therefore it was expected of the teachers to reflect on the effectiveness or not of the improvement tasks.

Determine Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) PK in this research was the “how” (Mishra et al., 2011) to instruct the learner to perform the task. In this study, the teachers first had to instruct the person on the other side who helped the learner to perform the support activity. Therefore, the planning of the instruction had to be thought through to make sure the planned outcome would be reached to address and support the barrier.

Determine the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) The PCK (Mishra et al., 2011) bore a heavyweight in this study as the teachers first had to educate the helper, who were often older siblings of the learner, or parents who had a low educational level. PCK might further typify pre-conceived ideas that are not necessarily practically achievable. For example, the teacher had a textbook idea on addressing and supporting a specific barrier which they would text via WhatsApp or make a voice note or send an audio-video and tell the helper how the learner had to perform the activity in a certain way because they wanted to reach a certain outcome.

Determine Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) In this research, TCK (Mishra et al., 2011) altered the original idea. For example, the teacher planned a specific support activity to address a barrier, but the helpers were unfamiliar with the concepts of the content and addressed the question from their body of knowledge. This resulted in a different outcome from that which had been planned.

The Teachers Reflect on Their Content Knowledge of the Learner Support Module

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From the data, it was evident that the teachers had a well-informed knowledge of different barriers to learning, how to identify each and how to support it. P4 noted that “I am pretty spot-on identifying general learning barriers.” However, they seemed to struggle to work out a support plan to address the barrier; also to adjust their teaching in an overcrowded classroom could be a challenge.P1 stated “I do a lot of research when I work out a support plan. I do not have that much experience.” P4 said, “to adjust my teaching in an overcrowded classroom is rof [rough].”

The Teachers Reflect on Their Technological Content Knowledge Since the teachers are teaching at rural schools, they do not have sufficient exposure to technology and there are not online devices available in the learners’ homes. Therefore, the integration of technology to support learners with barriers in the rural classroom was a challenge. P1 indicated that “luckily I know …….[learner’s name] parent and together we made a plan to borrow.” P2 summarised all four teacher’s comments “I really struggle to get or to think of support activities via technology, I am not used to it.” This affirms the statement of the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA, 2004b) 177

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who shared concerns that the digital divide underlines the disparity in acquiring skills and knowledge between learners with access to technology and those without. Kalaš (2010 pp.18) defines digital divide as the “lacuna [gap] in the skills necessary to be a digital citizen and the physical means to access such technological resources.”

The Teacher Had to Explain the Content Knowledge to the Parent or the Helper for the Learner to Perform the Activity To explain the CK to the parents or helpers presented a challenge for the four teachers. In some of the support activities, the learner needed to perform physical activities, for example when assessing body image, tactile discrimination, motor skills, etc. The teachers had to seek ways to explain and demonstrate the support activity. The reason for the difficulty was that the teachers understood the content from a teaching perspective and the parent or helper was unfamiliar with the concepts and addressed the question or assignment differently. This resulted in a different outcome than that which had been planned. Some of the participants made videos, voice-over notes, explained via WhatsApp and one had a Zoom session with the parent or helper and the learner to explain the activity. Some of the participants sent video links where a facilitator explained the activity to the parent or helper and the learner could act it out. Often the parent or helper took a video and sent it to the teacher for assessment. Besides determining and planning their content knowledge for a meaningful explanation to the learner, some of the teachers had to, according to P1 “educate the person who helped the learner too”. And, “I can explain a[n] activity to the child [learner], we do it in the class, but now I must explain to the mummy to hop skip and jump.”. The statement of P4 summarised all the comments of the participants, “……. This was rof [rough]. You gave us instructions on what we must do in the portfolio [the outlay of the portfolio]. In the beginning, I thought ag nee [no] this is too much. I must tell you, I had to think and think of what assessment methods I will use and think again if it will work, but when I start planning I knew what to do. I even know how much time to spend on a[n] activity” P3 noted that “the guidelines kept me on track and I could reflect on what worked and what did not work”. P2 confirmed the reflection of applicable activities and elaborated by saying “it is easy to do all this on paper but to plan it over technology, ….. that is high order thinking”.

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Determine Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPK) TPK implies choosing the appropriate technological tools and resources to promote teaching methods to encourage a learner’s learning (Leendertz et al., 2013; Schmidt et al., 2009). In this research, the technology choices were limited to one device that was available in the learner’s household or a family member or neighbour who was willing to assist the learner. It is worth mentioning that in most situations we experienced Ubuntu, “a person is a person because of or through others” (Hlalele, 2014a; Tutu, 2004, pp. 25-26) in the communities. Once the parent or helper asked for help, whether with the lending of a device or helping with the support activity, someone in the community reached out to help.

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The Teachers Had to Reflect on Their Pedagogical Knowledge to Explain an Activity or Assignment to a Learner All four teachers agreed that, with time in education, they begin to understand the mindset of the learner and then become aware of which parts of the work are difficult for the learners to understand and need more explaining. P3 noted that “a few years in FP [Foundation Phase] and we know the pitfalls, you learn to work around it.” They all agree that doing this activity technologically was very difficult since they do not have exposure to technology from where they come from P2 said, “I just thought I am ok to explain work, then you came with this challenge…….” All four teachers agreed that in the BEd Honours Learner Support programme we need to integrate technology in the support programme (cf, Conclusion). P1 suggested that “yes we struggled with the technology, but I learned a lot and I would suggest you give at least one support activity for the students to do via technology as we did.”

The Teacher Had to Explain the Content Knowledge to the Parent or the Helper for the Learner to Perform the Activity Pedagogical knowledge focuses on the instruction to execute an activity or assignment. The teachers experienced it as challenging since they had to instruct the parent or the helper on the other side who did not have the content knowledge and therefore did not understand certain concepts. This aligns with the ‘broad-brush’ policy approach that fails to recognise the unique challenges that rural and poor communities experience (Maringe et al., 2015 pp.364)(cf, 2.1). The parents or helpers and/or siblings are not aware of concepts distant from their context. Resnick (1987) speaks of the “out-of-school and interest-driven learning” or cross-contextual learning that disconnects the formal and informal education system (cf, 2.1). P1 said, “this was a challenge because the parents have either a phone or a phone to choose from to send the activity.” She elaborated by saying that “I saw an activity in our study material that can work well to address the barrier, oh my, when the activity came back from the sister who helped, it was totally different of [from] what I planned on.” P2 states “I Googled a lot to get ideas, at the end I send a voice note [via WhatsApp to instruct the parent]. P4 noted that “after the parent got the hang of the actions, they started to love it. They got involved in their children’s [learners] education”. P3 stated that one parent thanked her for the “extra work you put in to help my child [learner]. I did not know … [name of child] struggles.” (cf, 2.3.4).

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DISCUSSION To conclude, through the data it was clear that the relatively young teacher aged between 26 and 34 years old was uncertain although not reluctant, scared, or unwilling to integrate technology. We as their lecturers agreed that we need to adjust our way of teaching and integrate blended learning in our learner support modules. Based on the findings, we reflected on our teaching, learning and assessment and came to realise that we need to imbed blended learning in our learner support modules. This aligns with Kalaš (2010) that there is a gap in the skills necessary to be digital citizens. We further realised the importance of a well-structured rubric since it gave the teachers guidelines and steps to follow. This comment is in line with the importance of PK, the “how”, PCK, the pedagogical content, and TCK the technological content that Mishra et al. (2011) refers to. 179

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We had textbook ideas on completing the assessment and addressing and supporting a specific barrier via WhatsApp or make a voice note or send an audio-video and tell the helper how the learner had to perform the activity in a certain way because we aimed to reach a certain outcome .We soon realised that it is not that easy. The context of where the activity happens carriers a lot of weight to perform the pedagogical and technological content knowledge. Only after the helper understood the knowledge, then only can we move into the activity. The obstacle is, however, social-economic barriers in rural areas. Poverty is a big concern that points in two directions: lack of finances in schools and lack of skills, knowledge, and education. The findings concur with the literature stating that technology is neglected in South African schools, which leads to the great disadvantage of disparity in teaching. The finding also states that because of a lack of technology in the rural schools, teaching in Foundation Phase still happens to a large extent only with pencil on paper.

CONCLUSION The outbreak of COVID-19 came as a wake-up call for us as lecturers in tertiary education, as well as for the Foundation Phase teachers in rural areas. We are not sure what the measurements regarding social distance in education will entail regarding the spread of the virus but the pandemic acted as a motivating factor towards digital transformation in the BEdHons Learner Support programme. It further, as Mezirow (2000) states, transforms or disturbs our teaching to realise the need to integrate with success blended learning in all our learner support modules. The benefit of blended learning to enrich the BEd module and addressing barriers to learning lies in the ability to describe a creative process where students with little or no experience of using technology could gain skills needed to complete an e-portfolio. The challenge to complete the assignment within the given time and without prior-knowledge of blending technology with paper-based teaching started an important new way of integrating technology to support learners with barriers to learning in the rural classroom that would not have been established otherwise.

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Chapter 10

Revitalizing Blended and SelfDirected Learning Among Adult Learners Through the Distance Education Mode of Learning in Ghana Isaac Kof Biney University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana

ABSTRACT Higher education institutions (HEIs) are witnessing increasing participation of non-traditional learners, learning by distance education (DE) mode. Blended learning (BL) strategy is adapted to create opportunities for adult learners to improve knowledge, skills, and intellectual capacities to impact, among others, productivity at workplace. This chapter explores the use of technology to conceptualize BL and self-directed learning (SDL). It discussed blended learning as practiced in the global north and the global south. It examined SDL and focused attention on blended learning as practiced in HEIs, using University of Ghana as a case study. It identifed issues involved in blended learning and mapped up solutions in revitalizing self-directed learning culture among the young adults in Ghana. The chapter concludes that the state-of-the-art computer laboratories which power the Sakai LMS should be refurbished and retooled to deepen BL and SDL culture among adult learners in Ghana.

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INTRODUCTION Globally, adult learning by distance education (DE) mode is witnessing increasing participation among the non-traditional learners (Allen & Seaman, 2017), and universities are increasingly delivering distance learning programs using technology (Chambers, 2010). Hence from 2000-2009, adult learners in the United State of America (USA) higher education institutions (HEIs) witnessed a 30% increase in enrolment amongst the 25 years and over group, making up 39%-42% of the total enrolment (Snyder & DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch010

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 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

Dillow, 2012). Adult learners taking DE courses comprise 29.7% of all HEIs enrolment as of 2015 (Allen & Seaman, 2017). Blended learning (BL) is being adopted in HEIs (Graham, 2019), and information and communication technology (ICT) provides opportunities to create communities of learners that support engagement and collaboration (Vaughan, Cleveland-Innes, & Garrison, 2013). At the University of Ghana, the DE mode of learning which started as traditional face-to-face learning in 2007 went blended in 2013 supported by Sakai as a Learning Management System (LMS), thus making the University of Ghana a dual mode university. It has been seven years since the University of Ghana went blended in delivery instructions and contents to adult learners in the eleven Learning Centres. At the University of Ghana, adult learners pursuing degree and diploma programs by DE mode represented 30.2% of the overall students admitted during 2017/2018 academic year (University of Ghana Basic Statistics Unit Report, 2018). The aim of this chapter focuses on revitalizing BL to improve the young adults’ selfdirected learning (SDL) drive in Ghana. But what really is BL? According to Kim (2016), BL is the fusion of online and face-to-face contact time between teaching staff and students which provides a means to enhance quality, equity, and access to lifelong learning opportunities. Merwe et al., (2015) see BL as the thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face experiences with technology-enhanced learning experiences. BL is a student-centred, self-paced, flexible and multimodal approach to learning (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Neals, 2010). It is a kind of teaching practice that interconnects a traditional face-to-face mode of teaching and web-based teaching and learning (Embi et al., 2014). Garrison and Vaughan (2008) see BL as “the organic integration of thoughtfully selected complementary face-to-face and online approaches and technologies” (as cited in Vaughan, Cleveland-Innes & Garrison, 2013, p. 1). It is an effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching, and styles of learning (Proctor, 2003). BL is associated with models of delivery which requires students to engage with timetabled onsite learning activities across the academic year in addition to engaging with digital learning activities between these times (The Quality Assurance for Higher Education, 2020). Agreement seems widespread that BL integrates face-to face and online learning (Graham, 2019); hence Bosch et al., (2020) agree that a BL strategy to engaging adult learners in this time of COVID-19 has the potential to provide better educational solutions in challenging context. Thus, BL promises to deliver instructions which seek to address issues such as social distancing, financial difficulties, and limited physical capacity at institutions (Bosch et al., 2020). Many have predicted that BL would “emerge as the predominant model of the future” (Watson, 2008, p. 3), and become the ‘new traditional model’ (Ross & Gage, 2006, p. 167), or the ‘new normal’ in course delivery (Norberg, 2017; Norberg et al., 2011, p. 207). It is not surprising that the University of Ghana adapted the BL approach in delivering DE programs to adult learners, employing some face-to-face and hands-on technological software called Sakai (LMS). The Accra learning Centre (ALC), the biggest of the University of Ghana’s 11 Learning Centres, has nearly 9,000 adult learners pursuing degree and diploma programs by DE mode. In considering the effectiveness of BL, Dziuban et al., (2018) contend that BL coalesces around access, success, and students’ perception of their learning environments. Data from the Texas Educating Adults Management System (TEAMS), to Rosen and Stewart (n.d.) show that adult learners who engage in blended learning outperform learners who only attend a traditional classroom, and learners who receive more than 50% of their contact hours at a distance. For instance, in 2009-2010, 66% of hybrid learners completed at least one level of their program as compared to 53% each for distance and traditional classroom learners. These benefits notwithstanding, the effective delivery of BL is costly, especially where the state-of-the art computer laboratories employed have to be retooled and refurbished at least, every five years, with 186

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new computers and accessories vis-a-vis the number of students using the facilities as the situation is in Ghana. Again, it is not always the case that BL strategies leads to success in adult learners learning because there have been an increasing number of re-sit of courses by adult learners on DE programs in three successive years: 793 in 2015; 906 in 2016 and 810 in 2017 (Biney, 2020). The researcher is of the view that SDL promoted by BL among adult learners should be emphasized more during the facilitation of adult learners. After all, Morris (2019) asserts that SDL is a fundamental competence for adults living in our modern world where social contextual conditions are changing rapidly, especially in a digital age. Thus, the foundational principles of SDL which are that adults identify, plan, and implement their learning independently (King, 2017) should be stressed more during facilitation. This process also includes [adult learners] identifying their learning needs, resources, and strategies (Tough, 1979; Wang & Cranton, 2012). This path of delivering instruction is what Vaughan et al. (2013) refer to as being more than a ‘guide on the side,’ but less than a ‘sage on the stage.’ (p. 5). It is, indeed, an approach where learning is socially shared, and also a path to a meaningful, systematic, and worthwhile educational experience (Vaughan et al, 2013). When educators’ facilitation is focused on making adult learners self-directed learners, they will not see themselves as students forever, but learners in their lifelong learning journey. When this path is pursued, educators will end up creating and making citizenry in Africa, and for that matter Ghana, will become global citizens living and working in both learning and knowledge societies. This chapter elaborates on key Ghanaian contextual issues as far as the delivery of BL and fostering SDL by the young adult learners in HEIs is concerned. The chapter highlights current practice of BL and SDL in Ghana, issues as well as strategies to be adapted to revitalise BL. It provides rich perspectives to the wider readers concerning the practice of BL and SDL amongst adult learners learning by DE mode in HEIs in a developing country such as Ghana. It is hoped that readers would find this chapter worthwhile, and also take the opportunity to broadly assess the extent to which BL and SDL have been practiced in Ghana. Based on this account, the main objective underlying this chapter is to highlight issues confronting BL and SDL, and measures to revitalize them amongst adult learners in Ghana. The intention of the researcher is to use the chapter as an empowering tool to encourage and motivate adult learners in their lifelong learning drive. In so doing, adult learners would plan and manage their time properly to learn to become valuable assets to Ghana. As adult learners engage in meaningful learning, they would build their commitment up to impact productivity at the workplace and improve upon social roles played in their respective communities. A look at the background will follow.

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BACKGROUND BL and SDL are important concepts today considering the advancement and developments in technology, methods, and approaches to the delivery of instruction to students. This in itself indicates that DE is currently being taking to a higher notch, especially in this time of the COVID-19 pandemic ravaging the entire world. This approach to delivery teaching and learning in HEIs, with technology enabled, or enhanced devices; including Moodle and Sakai LMS to adult learners, is the order of the day. Thus, technology enhanced teaching and learning devices are being adapted, especially in facilitating learning in HEIs through the DE mode of learning. This, to a large extent, demonstrates that facilitation and learning in the contemporary HEIs is witnessing a massive transformation, and not strange at all. This is because Vaughan et al. (2013) opine that the transformative innovation of virtual communication and [blended 187

 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

learning] communities creates new ways for teachers and students to engage, interact, and contribute to learning. The chapter theoretically adapted Knowles (1989b, as cited in Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015) andragogy and technology-mediated learning. It centres on using technology to conceptualise BL and SDL in Ghana. It discusses BL as practiced in the global north, and the global south. It also examines SDL. It focuses attention on BL as practiced in Ghanaian HEIs, using the University of Ghana as a case study. The chapter further seeks challenges involved in BL in the Ghanaian context, which invariably is not helping to build an SDL culture amongst the young adults in Ghana. Strategies for revitalizing SDL are proffered, and suggestions for future research works and conclusion are also made.

PROCEDURE ADOPTED The chapter adopts a theoretical approach to a literature review, thus, library research that involves studies conducted on the various themes identified in the study. These include technology use in BL and SDL in HEIs by DE mode of learning, the practice of BL and SDL in the global north, and south, and BL as practiced in Ghanaian HEIs, using the University of Ghana as a case study. Challenges or issues involved in BL and SDL in Ghanaian context and solutions or measures adapted were examined. A critical literature review approach through a comprehensive search of publicly available literature on the themes identified, was followed. Electronic searches were conducted via databases such as EBSCO, ERIC, DOAJ, PsycINFO, HE documents, Emerald group publishing, among others. Web searches were also performed with Google, Edusearch, and a few others. Manually, searches were conducted from several DE journals both locally and internationally, focusing on BL and SDL. All the studies that were retrieved were read by the researcher and the key issues relevant to this study were appropriately captured and referenced. Aspects of the literature to be criticised were duly carried out.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study is framed by Knowles’ (1989b, as cited in Knowles et al., 2015) writings on andragogy and technology-mediated learning. Knowles spent a career formulating a theory of adult learning based on research and experience related to the characteristics of the adult learner (Knowles, 1990, as cited in Schlosser & Simonson, 2002). Not surprising, many people today; consider Knowles’ work to be a theory of distance education (Schlosser & Simonson, 2002); and it is relevant because most often adults are involved in DE. Again, andragogy deals with frameworks for programs designed for the adult learner (Schlosser & Simonson, 2002). As observed by Brookfield (1986, as cited in Schlosser & Simonson, 2002, p. 15), the core idea is that “the attainment of adulthood is concomitant on adults’ coming to perceive themselves as self-directing individuals.” Knowles saw technology as one of the major forces shaping adult learning in the 21st century, and a force that is consistent with andragogy- the art and science of helping adults to learn. However, technology is equally a force that presents both great opportunities for andragogical adult learning, and challenges as well. Technology provides adults with rich learning experiences in the andragogical traditions (Knowles et al., 2015) by first directly catering for adults’ desires to be self-directed in their learning. Technology is also a self-directed learning media (Knowles et al., 2015) that enables adults to access learning just-intime. It can provide adult learners with the complete self-directed experience. Indeed, a well-developed 188

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computer-based instruction enables adults to tailor the learning experience to fit their prior experiences (Knowles, et al., 2015). After all, technology-based learning allows users to select alternative paths through learning based on their prior experiences. Thus, investing appropriately in technology makes result of learning under such situations more effective for adult learners. The point really is that a welldesigned technology-based instruction easily allows learners to tailor the learning to their real-world problems (Knowles et al., 2015). It is also observed that using the internet, for instance, for SDL comes with its own challenges. For example, the internet is increasingly the first stop as a source of information for not only technologyrich countries, but low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) as well, yet the internet alone does not ensure learning. Its side-effects include learner impatience and shortened attention span (Johnson, Parker, Lunsford, & Henderson, 2009; Knowles et al., 2015). Succeeding in using the internet requires that adult learners develop SDL skills. In today’s technological and information context that we find ourselves, SDL and andragogy are no longer optional, but ‘must have’ skills. Thus, technology-based learning demands that adult learners become ready for SDL, but that also requires that they are supported to acquire metacognitive skills, motivation, and self-confidence to continuously engage in the level of SDL so as to become critical and successful in today’s digital learning environment.

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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK This chapter is underpinned by technology use in blended and self-directed learning. Thus, the chapter essentially explores the use of technology to conceptualize BL and SDL. This is because across the globe, higher education faculties have incorporated digital tools into teaching in an overwhelming variety of ways, with overwhelming results (Routledge, 2019). Similarly, technology use in education focuses on combating instructional problems and inefficiencies (Veletsianos, 2011). Thus, using technology to deliver instructional contents through the DE mode of learning tends to offer potential opportunities to even those, hitherto, excluded to have access to learning opportunities in HEIs. Veletsianos (2011) proposes that practitioners and researchers in the DE field utilise emerging technologies as a means to provide opportunities for personally relevant and meaningful transformation. Chambers (2010) has long held the belief that education and technology are the two great equalizers in life; and the use of the internet and participatory technologies for education have received increasing attention (Greenhow et al., 2009). BL or the integration of face-to-face and online instruction is widely adopted across higher education (Graham, 2019); and has been recognized as the most promising trend in higher education as it offers new capabilities, enhances interaction and communication between instructors and students (Nikolaidou et al., 2010). Thus, digital technologies have dramatically encouraged self-directed learning (Davidson & Goldberg, 2009). The Economist Intelligence Unit (2008) argues that technology will become a core differentiator in attracting students because DE is becoming increasingly global with universities in the US, and overseas, leveraging advanced technologies to put education within the reach of many more individuals around the world. The question is: What technologies are being deployed in delivering the DE mode of learning in HEIs? This question is important because developments in technology have meant a push forward for DE (Carlsen et al., 2016). Research confirms the favourable relationship between the use of technology and the quality of an interaction (Dabbagh & Bannan- Ritland, 2005). Technologies, including smartphones, and advancements in hardware and software like the world wide web, the internet, applications such as 189

 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

chat, blogs, wikis, and podcasts, SMS, MMS and communication platforms are critical tools in opening up opportunities for excellent presentations of subject matter (Carlsen et al., 2016). Mobile technologies, given their portability and low-cost features, have the potential to increase the accessibility and effectiveness of DE (UNESCO, 2015). Thus, mobile technologies “hold the key to turning today’s digital divide into digital dividends and bringing equitable and quality education to all” (UNESCO, 20215, p. 50). After all, technologies have potential to aid in implementing pedagogical theories with high relevance for quality DE and are critical today because it creates nearness through interaction and dialogue. Thus, the emergence of new technologies such as tablet computers, e-readers, portable audio players and hand-held consoles are employed in delivering DE programs (UNESCO, 2015). This is because mobile devices can link learning to knowledge management (Naeve, 2010); and have liberated learning from fixed and predetermined locations, changing the nature of knowledge in modern knowledge societies (UNESCO, 2015). Wheeler (2010) adds that multimedia brought the world into the classroom, and smart technologies have taken the classroom into the world. Today, learning has become more ubiquitous, informal, and personal (UNESCO, 2015). Mobile technology can reach a wider audience and holds the promise of transforming education to the [young adults] in isolated and [underserved communities] (UNESCO, 2015). In the case of Ghana, Moodle and Sakai LMS are learning technological software used in HEIs to power DE mode of learning to adult learners. At the University of Ghana, the BL approach is shaped by the Sakai LMS. This ICT enhanced teaching and learning device has numerous learning tools, making learning largely accessible to adult learners anytime, anywhere, regardless of their settings. It has created veritable opportunities of making people access higher education qualifications, especially through the DE mode of learning. However, there are challenges including lack of computers; low speed internet, and poor network interface; and connectivity problems to be surmounted (Biney, 2020). These challenges are to some extent not helping adult learners develop what Belanger (2016) describes as ‘critical self-directed learning skill’ to foster lifelong, life wide, and life-deep learning. BL solutions are often designed for resourceful institutions and cannot be easily implemented in developing countries and in communities where resources are limited (Bosch et al., 2020). This is a key challenge confronting HEIs in the developing countries, including Ghana, where resources, including the state-of-the art computer laboratories to engender seamless BL to adult learners in some universities, are non-existent. Even where they exist, are in dire need for refurbishment, and retooling. This brings us to ascertaining how BL is practiced in the global north as against that of the global south HEIs.

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BL Practiced in the Global North and the Global South BL can occur at four levels, namely institutional level, program level, course level and activity level (Graham & Allen, 2009). These segmentations are not surprising because the BL strategy by the DE mode started in the global north many years ago. It is therefore effectively integrated into the HEIs delivery of teaching and learning. Pappas (2015) argues that BL as an interactive and engaging learning strategy of DE course delivery, was developed by Sir Isaac Pitman in the 1840’s. It then evolved from paperbased learning to mainframe computer-based training in the 1960s and 1970s. It further transitioned to television-based technology to support live training in the 1970’s and 1980’s. As technology evolved in the 1980s to 1990s, the DE mode of delivery approach to learning moved to the CD-ROM Training and saw the use of Learning Management System (LMS). In 1998, according to Pappas (2015), the first generation of web-based instruction got deployed in delivering BL to adult learners. From 2000 until 190

 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

today, the BL integration has been in vogue. There is gradual union between face-to-face instruction and technology-based learning, which to Pappas (2015) is producing new and creative ways of enriching the educational experience and making learning exciting and beneficial. All this evolution in BL took place in the global north, and largely adapted in HEIs in delivering teaching and learning activities as compared to countries in the global south. Indeed, Ghana recently adapted the BL strategy of DE mode of learning and can be argued that the ICT devices to power BL is well developed in the global north as compared to that of the global south. The University of Ghana adapted a BL approach in delivery teaching and learning to adult learners by DE mode of learning in 2013, although paper-based or face-to-face delivery of teaching and learning has been in practice for time immemorial. The global north economies being resource-rich countries start early, and right from basic education, children are introduced to the usage of computers and mobile learning technological devices to learn. Thus, hands-on experiences are built early in the children and they grow with it. The same cannot be said to pertain in education institutions in the global south. Indeed, access to, and usage of computers to learn is a challenge to some schools today in Ghana. It is a challenge in this digital age which requires that people [including adult learners], continuously build their capacities, and become computer literate. Under such circumstances, they can transition to become self-directed learners (The Economist, 2017) in their lifelong learning endeavours. If that is the case, then what is self-directed learning?

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Self-Directed Learning Throughout the previous decades, according to Du Toit-Brits (2018) and Guiter (2014), SDL has been a dynamic area of enquiry in adult education and learning. Brookfield (1993) opines that the marriage between self-direction and adult education is long past the seven-year itch and seems to have settled into a comfortable and harmonious rut. SDL has an influence on the manner in which individuals obtain new and first-hand understanding, awareness, thoughts, skills, attitudes, and experience (Du Toit Brits, 2018; Guglielmino, 2013; Guglielmino, 2008; Knowles et al., 2015). King (2017) indicates that the characteristics of SDL were delineated by Tough (1979). The literature provides two conceptions of SDL (Candy, 1991), first seen as self-teaching, whereby learners are capable of taking control of the mechanics and techniques of teaching themselves in a particular subject. This is important because Knowles et al. (2015) is of the opinion that the most important dimension of SDL is building personal autonomy. Hence SDL is conceived second to personal autonomy, which Candy (1991) calls autodidaxy. Autonomy means taking control of the goals and purposes of learning and assuming ownership of learning which leads to a change of consciousness in which the learner sees knowledge as contextual, and then free to question what s/he has learned (Knowles et al, 2015). SDL is the single most popular model that helps learners’ master skills for the sake of competency development (Wang & Cranton, 2012). It is argued that SDL is situational, and the teacher’s job is to match styles with the student. Good teaching matches the learner’s stage of self-direction and helps the learner advance towards greater self-direction. However, based on the settings that different educators come from, the authorities involved in adult learning tend to perceive SDL with a variety of terms including self-education, andragogy, self-directed learning, independent study, autonomous learning, self-planned learning, adults’ learning projects, independent study, lifelong learning and auto-didacticism (Guiter, 2014). Hence, SDL describes how individuals hold the control and primary role in their learning. Thus, a self-directed learner is one who

191

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takes sole responsibility for his or her own learning. Knowles et al. (2015, p.184) provide a broad and an apt definition of SDL as follows:

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In its broadest meaning, SDL describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes King (2017) asserts that a deeper understanding of SDL include the many choices and actions that the learner controls such as means and time lines for identifying a topic of learning, gathering information and deciding what is relevant, analysing new information and forming new understanding by determining analyses, interpretations, and applications. In such contexts, it can be argued that the effective use of ICT learning devices, including mobile phones in adult learners’ studies, are critical because they serve as tools to save adult learners from isolation, and allows the learners to reach out to their colleagues, tutors and lecturers for clarifications in learning activities. Perhaps it is for this reason that King (2017) opines that adults in the digital age engage in learning when they have no instructor or guide. Literature abounds that there is considerable research and theory into SDL, hence Carre (As cited in Guiter, 2014) argues that SDL can be considered as learning by oneself (auto-formation) as opposed to learning through the actions of others (hetero-formation). BL therefore promotes SDL (Sze-Yeng & Hussain, 2010). They add that technology platforms such as Moodle online discussion forums, Google Docs and Wiki Spaces promote SDL among distance learners, although Biggs (2003) thinks otherwise. He argues that it is rather the responsibility of the instructors to create learning activities that align with the constructive paradigm to empower adult learners to learn and succeed in the lifelong learning drive. But whatever the intellectual arguments put up by Sze-Yeng and Hussain (2010) on one side and the counter argument by Biggs (2003) on the other, the fact still remains that, today, information communication technology (ICT) is an enabler of teaching and learning. More so, education and technology move hand in hand (Cisco, 2010). The digital revolution tells us that learning really goes on beyond school walls and continues even well after the end of compulsory schooling (Cisco, 2010; The Economist, 2017). This is important because it is ICT enhanced teaching and learning devices which provides the technical infrastructure to creating digital skills and competences for lifelong learning and networking. It is significant to state that the advancement in ICT-enabled teaching and learning devices should inform HEIs and adult learners that they get equipped technologically and start using the devices in learning endeavours. As they do so, adult learners would remain relevant and useful in today’s workplace and social life. Similarly, the design of constructive pedagogies by instructors leads to the creation of new knowledge and understanding by the learner (Bervell & Umar, 2020). This is made possible as a result of instructor collaboration with more knowledgeable peers, as well as interaction with online materials (Bervell & Umar, 2020). These constructive activities, according to Sze-Yeng and Hussain (2010) promote SDL, which is important in learning by DE mode. This is because it creates an intrinsic motivation towards personal pedagogical achievements. Bervell & Umar (2020) admit that the emergence of e-learning has brought in its wake the possibility of technology in bridging the gap between students and their fellow students; and instructors via virtual communication and resource sharing. The importance of ICT-enabled teaching and learning devices might have informed the University of Ghana to adapt a BL strategy of teaching and learning by DE mode to support adult learners’ learning. The question is: Has the goal of adapting BL by DE mode of learning by adult learners in the global south HEIs been achieved? Provid192

 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

ing an answer to this question is important because some of the adult learners on DE programs in Ghana are trailing in their programs and are compelled to repeat many courses. One would have thought that in an era of knowledge explosion, technological revolution coupled with social policy of equality of educational opportunities, the young adult learners would explore useful technological devices to learn, and make learning their own (Biney, 2020). That seems not to be the case. The chapter examines the University of Ghana’s BL strategy adapted for adult learners learning by DE mode.

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A CASE STUDY OF BL AT UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Learning Management System (LMS)-enabled BL has been adopted by HEIs for promoting accessible and effective pedagogy and andragogical practices (Bervell & Umar, 2020). It is not surprising that the University of Ghana, hitherto a single mode university, is now a dual-mode university. The University of Ghana has adapted the Sakai LMS platform to push forward the BL through the DE mode of learning. Sakai is an educational software platform purposely designed to support teaching, research and collaboration, for instance, between students and their lecturers or instructors (Biney, 2020). This is good news because Embi et al., (2014) assert that evidences signify that BL not only provides more choices but also appears to be more effective and efficient because it offers sufficient engagement, choices, relevance, social contact, and context required to facilitate effective and successful learning and performance. The University of Ghana DE commenced using paper-based learning materials called ‘modules’ in 2007 but adapted a BL strategy in 2013 to drive the DE mode of learning to adult learners. This BL strategy adapted by the University of Ghana was piloted at the back of the Sakai LMS in 8 of the 11 Learning Centres. The 8 Learning Centres include Accra, Kumasi, Takoradi, Tamale, Koforidua, Sunyani, Tsito, and Wa. The remaining 3 Learning Centres comprising Bolgatanga, Cape Coast and Tema were brought on board after the pilot study to provide DE to adult learners using the BL strategy. At that time the adult learners on the University of Ghana DE mode of learning programs were less than 4,000 students (University of Ghana Basic Statistics Unit Report, 2018). The existing state-of-the art computer laboratories could cater for the adult learners’ studies online at the time. The DE student population at University of Ghana has grown, and almost 10,000 students are currently pursuing degree and diploma programs by a DE mode of learning. The state-of-the art computer laboratories are to be expanded, refurbished, and retooled regularly to cater for the growing student population. Adult learners are to be provided ‘one laptop’ each to drive an SDL mindset that we want to foster in our students. After all, the BL strategy of delivering instructions and contents to adult learners by the DE mode of learning has created access to adult learners who otherwise could not access HEIs to learn and become useful to themselves and the society. The University of Ghana BL strategy of using Sakai LMS has made learning materials, assignments and social contact easily accessible to adult learners to learning. For instance, the Sakai LMS has numerous learning tools such as assignment, resources, email, forum, chat, text and quizzes, statistics, podcast, grading and many other tools that make learning and assessment possible. Adult learners take their interim assessments online. During the COVID-9 pandemic, the University of Ghana transitioned nearly all its programs from BL to Online learning using the Sakai LMS. The BL strategy has its own challenges, including poor interface and low speed internet facility, yet it possesses the potential of accelerating smart learning and making adult learners become lifelong learners (Biney, 2020). Currently, it is the BL strategy adapted by the University of Ghana that is powering not only the DE mode of learning, 193

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but nearly all the courses and programs run by the University of Ghana. This observation supports the early assertion by some authorities that a BL strategy of learning in HEIs would become a ‘new normal’. What matters to me as a researcher is the difference that tutors and lecturers make in adult learners’ lives by aiding them to foster lifelong and SDL mindsets. When we are successful to do that, Ghana would be put firmly on the path of developing knowledgeable and innovative thinkers, and workers, who possess profound ideas in making development, happen within their lifetime.

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ISSUES There are a number of challenges that account for the reasons why adult learners in Africa, and for that matter Ghana, are not able to foster an SDL mindset despite a BL strategy of course delivery has been adapted by University of Ghana for over seven years now. The challenges seem multi-faceted and largely emanate from HEIs, adult learners themselves, and lack of government policies on adult education. The University of Ghana, as part of their strategy to broadening the base of DE programs, adapted the Sakai LMS to power BL at the 11 Learning Centres. Accra Learning Centre, the biggest of the Learning Centres with nearly 9,000 adult learners on the DE programs, has two state-of-the art computer laboratories with the seating capacity of 75 adult learners at a time. Currently, the computer laboratories which power the BL strategy require refurbishment and retooling. Currently at Accra Learning Centre, only 25 computers are functional which should cater for nearly 9,000 adult learners on DE programs, making it difficult for adult learners to access computers at the centre. Coupled with this challenge is the low speed nature of the internet facility at the Learning Centres. Poor interface, poor connectivity and inadequate routers and WiFi at the Learning Centres are frustrating when it comes to fostering an SDL mindset among adult learners. One would have thought that, at least, every five years, the computer laboratories would have been refurbished and retooled with new computers with high speed internet facility, but this is not the case. It is also an accepted fact that the integration of ICT teaching and learning tools, including the Sakai LMS, into facilitation and learning is considered as a medium in which a variety of approaches and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented. However, the application of ICT teaching and learning tools are complicated in that they demand some specific skills from lecturers who employ them, to impact on adult learners. In the Ghanaian situation, lecturers are already faced with huge responsibilities including administrative, research and extension services making it difficult for them to focus their attention on employing ICT teaching and learning tools innovatively in delivery instructions to adult learners. Another problem faced by lecturers in HEIs in using technology to deliver content to adult learners, is the poor technical and pedagogical support they are offered by their institutions (Bates & Poole, 2003). Indeed, at the Learning Centres in Ghana, the coordinators fail, sometimes, to get technical support from the information technologist (IT) staff when they need them most. This observation is supported by Bates (2015), and Bates and Poole (2003) that there are far more students [in HEIs], knowledge has increased exponentially, and academics have research, administration, and public service to consider as well as teaching. Though technology is a possible solution to problems of quantity (Bates & Poole, 2003), the failure of HEIs to reorganize the way lecturers work, would make it difficult to employ technology in delivering BL, and fostering SDL amongst adult learners. This is because it would add to lecturers’ workload. Similarly, Merwe et al. (2015) opine that technology has the potential to improve the scale, speed, and 194

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 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

efficiency of the teaching and learning processes if the focus remains on thoughtful and appropriate pedagogy. The researcher also argues that ICT teaching and learning tools, including the Sakai LMS, could provide solutions to adult learners’ lifelong learning endeavours when properly employed, to make adult learners hold their own in SDL, and to foster a lifelong learning mindset. Such difficulties facing lecturers on DE mode of learning make it impossible to impact meaningfully on adult learners to foster an SDL mindset. The effect of such a situation, however, could be explained against the backdrop of the increased repetition of courses for adult learners for over three successive years- from 2015 to 2017 academic years at Accra Learning Centre (2020). This observation confirms Hadjerrouit’s (2008) assertion that “just blending face-to-face learning with information technologies cannot provide effective teaching and efficient solutions for learning” (p. 29). Vaughan et al. (2013) aver that going beyond capricious blending of face-to-face and online learning using well-tested principles, and also capitalizing on the potentials of ICTs, could help remedy the situation and make adult learners foster an SDL mindset. On the side of the adult learners, the issues of poor planning and management of time are two challenges that make the fostering of SDL become near impossibility to them (Biney, 2020). It can be argued that an adult learner in Ghana who engages in learning on a DE mode does. He or she does settle down to learn, and pace him- or herself at their own rate, schedules a time for his or her studies, determines what and how, and when to learn in a day. But what really happens in the Ghanaian situation is that the kind of planning and management of time for learning engaged in by an adult learner seems poor, and not thorough enough. Many adult learners fail to abide by the time-table they designed for their studies (Biney, 2020), and if adult learners invested time in their studies, perhaps, we would not have been witnessing huge numbers of them engaging in the rewriting of papers every academic year. Another observation is that some of the adult learners have full-time jobs, who come from work tired, and hardly go online to access assignments and learning materials from the Sakai LMS platform. Some hard-working adult learners have established online learning groups where they share ideas, discuss, and solve difficult academic exercises among themselves (Biney, 2020). However, many others have not taken advantage of such learning strategies and innovations, particularly using simple but powerful technological devices such as mobile phones to communicate and learn among themselves. On the side of the government, there is no clear-cut policy directive ensuring that cities, towns, and communities in Ghana have access to high speed internet facilities to make accessibility to the internet fair in the communities. Even though access to high speed internet facilities is not limited to countries in the global south only, since some European countries, according to Carlsen et al, (2016) also have these challenges to contend with. Even though such unevenness in accessing internet facilities is real in some countries in the global north, their situation may not be as dire as that of the global south countries, including Ghana. The case of Ghana is pronounced because there is an uneven distribution and accessibility of high-speed internet facilities, especially in the rural and deprived communities as compared to that of the urban centres, towns and cities. Indeed, unstable power supply and poor internet connectivity have been a bane in fostering an SDL mindset amongst the young adult learners in Ghana. Thus, the unevenness in the provision of internet facilities affects adult learners’ learning and desire to be more self-directed. Such unevenness in the distribution of internet connectivity may also frustrate the fostering of SDL in Ghana, and the resultant effect may not be limited to the individuals alone, but productivity at the workplace, and the overall development of Ghana. Another challenge confronting adult learners as far as learning by a blended approach is concerned, has to do with lack of funding, or provision of scholarships by governments to adult learners to cushion them to learn by DE mode. After all, learning by blended approach requires that adult learners have 195

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dedicated laptops and iPads to learn. They also need to have modems and regular data to learn seamlessly. However, many of the adult learners in Ghana are unemployed and poor (Biney, 2020). The Government of Ghana policy on funding adult learners is such that applicants, who are 50 years, or more do not qualify for funding (Biney, 2020). This policy is in sharp contrast with a country like Sweden (Wickberg, 1991 as cited in Biney, 2017), where adult learners who are over 70 years are supported financially and cushioned by governments to learn. This is because the Swedish Governments values adult education, and adults’ contributions to the growth of the economy. Thus, to Wickberg, (1991 as cited in Biney, 2017) in Sweden, “you are never too old to learn something new” (p. 48), and this is a clear indication that the Swedish economy values education, and will continue to build the capacity of the citizenry, particularly, the adult population to contribute to the growth of the economy. The same cannot be said in Ghana, a country categorized as a low middle-income country (LMIC). One could only expect that successive Governments in Ghana would invest appropriate resources in adult learners to learn and build their capacities to impact not only their workplaces, but their communities, and the economy of Ghana as a whole.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Considering the fact that no other fields of education is SDL promoted and implemented more than in adult education (Wang & Cranton, 2012), every effort has to be made by HEIs, especially in the developing countries, including Ghana, to invest appropriately in BL to promote SDL among adult learners. This is important because Wang and Cranton (2012) are of the view that SDL has become a powerful model in terms of maximizing learning on the part of learners. This means that HEIs endeavour to establish the state-of-the art computer laboratories in the Learning Centres, if the Centres do not have computer laboratories powered by Sakai LMSs already. Where the Learning Centres have state-of-the art computer laboratories, they should regularly be refurbished and retooled with new computers and accessories, to achieve the intended goal of fostering SDL among adult learners. It has been observed that BL is easily implemented in resourceful institutions (Bosch et al., 2020) than institutions where resources are limited. Yet, with determination and focus, HEIs in developing countries can adapt and successfully implement BL to empower adult learners to become lifelong learners. This is because lifelong learning has been found as the critical skill required in the 21st century worker (The Economist, 2017). More so, since adults have a large foundation of knowledge and skill upon which they base further growth and development (Tough, 1979), they are motivated by life situations to immediately apply new knowledge and skills. And for this reason, HEIs should endeavour to motivate adult learners extrinsically, so as to make them learn by a BL approach and bring out the best in them. It is also important that HEIs negotiate with computer assembling companies to provide adult learners on DE programs ‘one laptop’ each, thus making adult learners deepen their digital knowledge. In so doing, adult learners would become digitally literate and lifelong learners. After all, Longmore et al., (2017) are of the view that the 21st century workplace requires workers with specific learning-oriented competencies such as critical thinking, problem-solving, agility, adaptability, initiative, communication, and collaboration among others. As a researcher, I daresay that our HEIs can, to a large extent, help in developing quality human capital for our development through appropriate practice of BL and SDL. Thus, adult learners in developing countries, including Ghana, are critical human resources to drive development in their individual lives, communities and workplaces. To succeed in DE programs, adult 196

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 Revitalizing Blended and Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners

learners need to take control of their own learning endeavours, meaning that they learn to plan, manage and evaluate their time invested in learning judiciously (Biney, 2020). In addition, adult learners have to design for themselves personal timetables, and apportion time for studies and stick to them. They should come to terms to when, where and how to learn, so as to be successful in their lifelong learning drive. To make progress in their studies, however, adult learners necessarily have to abandon activities that would not add value to them and remain focused on their studies. It also means that adult learners intensify group studies and discussions, using online platforms such as the Sakai LMS, to move their learning activities forward. This process has the power to improve adult learners’ academic performance, and important, because Donaghy & Tough (2005) observe that SDL is not a lonely or isolated thing, but a very social thing. It involves a lot of interaction with others even though it sounds like it is an isolated and individual act. This observation notwithstanding, success in learning requires that adult learners build their intrinsic motivation and commitment up to engender active participation, and sustainability of group learning activities. This requires that adult learners save toward their educational endeavours to enable them to complete their academic programs on time. As they do so, they will overcome the hurdle of repeating papers. Adult learners have to negotiate with their employers to make more time toward their academic programs. When adult learners keep their focus, persevere, persist and endure (Biney, 2020) in their learning endeavours, they stand a better chance to succeed in their academic activities in HEIs by DE mode. Governments in developing countries, including Ghana, have to put in place appropriate policies toward adult education. This is important because in this digital era, nobody should be left behind as far as learning is concerned. When that is done, many adult learners will engage in lifelong learning and develop for themselves a solid self-concept, and transform not only their communities, but improve productivity at workplaces as well. It is, therefore, not surprising that Stanistreets (2020) indicates that integration of BL in content delivery makes the compartments of life, study, work and leisure become meaningless divisions, and instead makes learning, studying, caring and chatting becomes inter-mingled, almost seamlessly and effortlessly. Doing this would largely make BL impact on adult learners’ lifelong learning drive, and also create a veritable avenue of increasing access to higher education. The Government of Ghana (GoG), as a matter of policy, should provide support to HEIs to improve access to internet facilities on HEIs campuses. Thus, more WiFi should be installed on campuses of the HEIs. It also means that the GoG step up the digitalization process ongoing, to cover all the communities in Ghana, so as to improve adult learners’ access to high speed internet facility for learning. Next importantly, conditions toward adult learners’ access to loan facility from Student Loan Trust Fund (STLF), and other financial institutions to cushion their learning in HEIs by DE mode, should be made more accessible. Although, run up to the December, 2020 Presidential and Parliamentary Elections held in Ghana, prospective political parties made promises toward improving access to loan facility to students financially, to cushion them on their academic work, yet the implementation of such promises are almost always a problem. To forestall this difficulty, more focused and integrated policies are to be developed by GoG toward adult education in Ghana, to make the sector relevant to human capital development to engender accelerated national development.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This chapter suggests that further research works should be conducted on innovations currently taking place in BL strategies in some African countries HEIs, and lessons that could be learnt to improve BL in Africa in general. This chapter also suggests that a comprehensive study is conducted on the need for implementing BL in the secondary and tertiary education levels in building SDL of the citizenry in the developing countries in particular. It is the hope of the researcher that when such studies are conducted, the findings could inform policy decision making of governments in Africa in particular, to position their education sector properly to transform the African economies from being learning societies into knowledge societies.

CONCLUSION This chapter attempted exploring the revitalization of BL and SDL by adult learners learning in HEIs by DE mode in Ghana. It specifically used technology as a strategy to conceptualize BL and SDL. The chapter also discussed BL as practiced in the global north and that of the global south, pointing out the strengths and weaknesses. It examined SDL, and essentially focused attention on BL practiced in HEIs, using the University of Ghana as a case study. It further identified challenges or issues involved in BL and mapped up solutions or strategies in revitalizing an SDL culture among the young adults in Ghana. The chapter concludes that the state-of-the art computer laboratories which power the Sakai LMS to give meaning to BL should be refurbished and retooled regularly to deepen the SDL culture among adult learners in Ghana. That is to say, there should be more sustainable integration of ICTs into DE programs. Finally, one laptop each is to be provided by HEIs in Ghana to adult learners to strengthen, and deepen the digital literacy skills of adult workers, to function effectively at today’s digital spaces, and workplaces as well.

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Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital Age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. https:// opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2015/04/Scenario-A.mp3 Bates, A. W., & Poole, G. (2003). Effectively teaching with technology in higher education: Foundations for success. Jossey-Bass. Belanger, P. (2016). Self-construction and social transformation: Lifelong, lifewide and life-deep learning. UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning. Bervell, B., & Umar, I. N. (2020). Blended learning or face-to-face? Does tutor anxiety prevent the adoption of Learning Management Systems for distance education in Ghana? Open Learning, 36(2), 159–177. doi:10.1080/02680513.2018.1548964

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Biney, I. K. (2017). Exploring Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the context of adult learners: Challenges and strategies. Tertiary Education Series, 8(2), 1–20. Biney, I. K. (2020). Experiences of adult learners on using the Sakai Learning Management System for learning in Ghana. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 26(2), 262–282. doi:10.1177/1477971419864372 Bosch, C., Laubscher, D., & Kyei-Blankson, L. (2020). Re-envisioning and restructuring blended learning for underprivileged communities. IGI Global. Brookfield, S. D. (1993). Self-directed learning, political clarity and the critical practice of adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 43(4), 1–11. doi:10.1177/0741713693043004002 Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. Jossey-Bass. Carlsen, A., Holmberg, C., Neghina, C., & Owusu-Boampong, A. (2016). Closing the gap: Opportunities for distance education to benefit adult learners in higher education. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. Chambers, J. (2010). The learning society. Cisco Systems. Davidson, C. N., & Goldberg, D. T. (2009). The future of learning institutions in a digital age. The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/8517.001.0001 Donaghy, R., & Tough, A. (2005). Professor Allen Tough reflects on self-directed learning-Interview. http://allentough.com/learning/donaghy.htm Dziuban, C., Graham, R., Moskal, P. D., Norberg, A., & Sicilia, N. (2018). Blended learning:The new normal and emerging technologies. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(2), 1–16. Embi, M. A., Nordin, M., & Panah, E. (2014). Overview of blended learning. In M. A. Embi (Ed.), Blended & Flipped Learning: Case Studies in Malaysian HEIs (pp. 1–15). Centre for Teaching & Learning Technologies. Garrison, R., & Vaughan, H. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework,principles and guidelines. John Wiley & Sons.

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Graham, C. R. (2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). Routledge. Graham, C. R., & Allen, S. (2009). Designing blended learning environments. In P. L. Roger, G. A. Berg, J. V. Boettecher, C. Howard, L. Justice, & K. Schenk (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Distance Learning (Vol. 2, pp. 13–33). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-198-8.ch082 Greenhow, C., Robelia, B., & Hughes, J. (2009). Learning, teaching, and scholarship in a digital age: Web 2.0 and classroom research: What path should we take? Educational Researcher, 38(4), 233–245. doi:10.3102/0013189X09336671 Guglielmino, L. M. (2008). Why self-directed learning? International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 5(1), 1–14.

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Guglielmino, L. M. (2013). The case for promoting self-directed learning in formal educational institutions. SA-. Education Journal, 10(2), 1–18. Guiter, G. E. (2014). Self-directed learning (SDL): A brief comprehensive analysis. https://qatar-weill. cornell.edu/continuing-professional-development/topic-of-the-month/archive/self-directed-learning-sdla-brief-comprehensive-analysis Hadjerrouit, S. (2008). Towards a blended learning model for teaching and learning computer programming: A case study. Informatics in Education, 7(2), 181–210. doi:10.15388/infedu.2008.12 Johnson, B. D., Parker, D. O., Lunsford, M., & Henderson, W. (2009). Dimensions of learning: Education for life. Bent Tree Press. Kim, G. (2016). Forward. In Blended learning for quality higher education: Selected case studies on implementation from Asia-Pacific. Bangkok Office: UNESCO. King, K. P. (2017). Technology and innovation in adult learning. Wiley/Jossey-Bass. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (8th ed.). Routledge. Longmore, A., Grant, G., & Golnaraghi, G. (2017). Closing the 21st –century knowledge gap: Reconceptualizing teaching and learning to business education. Journal of Transformative Education, 1–23. doi:10.1177/1541314617738514 Merwe, A. V. D., Bozalek, V., Ivala, E., Nagel, L., Pete, M., & Vanker, C. (2015). Blended learning with technology. In W. R. Kilfoil (Ed.), Moving beyong the hype: A contextualized view of learning with technology in higher education (pp. 11–18). Universities South Africa. Morris, T. H. (2019). Self-directed learning: A fundamental competence in a rapidly changing world. International Review of Education, 65(4), 633–653. doi:10.100711159-019-09793-2 Naeve, A. (2010). Opportunistic (l)earning in the mobile knowledge society. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 2(4), 29–46. doi:10.4018/jmbl.2010100103 Neals. (2010). Blended learning: Any time, anyhow, many ways. Nsw Country Areas Program. New Delhi: The Nswdet Rural and Distance Education Unit.

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Nikolaidou, S., Sofianopoulou, C., Alexopoulou, N., Abeliotis, K., Detsis, V., Chalkias, C., & Lasaridi, K. (2010). The blended learning ecosystem of an academic institution in Greece. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 5(3), 14–135. Norberg, A. (2017). From blended learning to learning onlife- ICTs, time and access in higher education. Umea, Sweden: Department of Applied Educational Science. Norberg, A., Dziuban, C. D., & Moskal, P. D. (2011). A time-based blended learning model. On the Horizon, 19(3), 207–216. doi:10.1108/10748121111163913 Pappas, C. (2015). The history of blended learning. Retrieved on 14th October, 2020 from: https://elearningindustry.com/history-of-blended

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Proctor, C. (2003). Blended learning in practice. In C. Roberts, D. Oakey, & N. Coates (Eds.), Education in a changing environment 17th-18th September, 2003 Conference Proceedings. Academic Press. Rosen, D. J., & Stewart, C. (n.d.). Blended learning for the adult education classroom. https://www. readkong.com/page/blended-learning-for-the-adult-education-classroom-2345090 Ross, B., & Gage, K. (2006). Global perspectives on blended learning: Insight from WebCT and our customers in higher education. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 155–168). Pfeiffer. Routledge. (2019). Exploring the digital landscape in higher education: 5 steps to making the most of technology inside and outside the classroom. New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). Schlosser, L. A., & Simonson, M. (2002). Distance education: Definition and glossary of terms. Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Snyder, T. D., & Dillow, S. A. (2012). Digest of education statistics 2011. National Centre for Education Statistics. Stanistreets, P. (2020). Covid-19: Re-connecting higher education to lifelong learning. https://thelifelonglearningblog.uil.unesco.org/2020/08/03/covid-19-re-connecting-higher-education-to-lifelong-learning/ Sze-Yeng, F., & Hussain, R. M. R. (2010). Self-directed learning in a socioconstructivist learning environment. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 1913–1917. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.423 The Economist. (2017). Lifelong learning: How to survive in the age of automation (A special Report). New York, NY: The Economist. The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2008). The future of higher education: How technology will shape learning. New York, NY: The Economist. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2020). Guidance: Building a taxonomy for digital learning. http://www.qaa.ac.uk/news/qaa-publishes-building-a-taxonomy-for-digital-learning# Tough, A. (1979). The adult’s learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning (2nd ed.). Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. UNESCO. (2015). Rethinking education: Towards a global common good? UNESCO.

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University of Ghana. (2018). Number of students enrolled on distance education-2017/2018. University of Ghana. Vaughan, N. D., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Garrison, D. R. (2013). Teaching in learning environments:Creating and sustaining communities of inquiry. AU Press. Veletsianos, G. (2011). Designing opportunities for transformation with emerging technologies. Educational Technology, 51(2), 41–46. Wang, C. X., & Cranton, P. (2012). Promoting and implementing self-directed learning (SDL):An effective adult education model. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 3(3), 16–25. doi:10.4018/javet.2012070102

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Watson, J. (2008). Blended learning: The convergence of online and face-to-face education. North American Council for Online Learning report, http://www.inacol.org/cms/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/ NACOL_PP-BlendedLearning-lr.pdf Wheeler, S. (2010). The new smart devices for learning. Proceedings from Learning Technologies 2010 Conference.

ADDITIONAL READING Belanger, P. (2016). Self-construction and social transformation: Lifelong, lifewide and life-deep learning. UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning. Carlsen, A., Holmberg, C., Neghina, C., & Owusu-Boampong, A. (2016). Closing the gap: Opportunities for distance education to benefit adult learners in higher education. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. Donaghy, R., & Tough, A. (2005). Professor Allen Tough reflects on self-directed learning-Interview. Retrieved on 22nd October, 2020 from: http://allentough.com/learning/donaghy.htm Morris, T. H. (2019). Self-directed learning: A fundamental competence in a rapidly changing world. International Review of Education, 65(4), 633–653. doi:10.100711159-019-09793-2 Pappas, C. (2015). The history of blended learning. Retrieved on 14th October, 2020 from: https://elearningindustry.com/history-of-blended Routledge. (2019). Exploring the digital landscape in higher education: 5 steps to making the most of technology inside and outside the classroom. New York: Routledge.

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The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2020). Guidance: Building a taxonomyfor digital learning. Retrieved on 1st October, 2020 from: http://www.qaa.ac.uk/news/qaa-publishes-building-ataxonomy-for-digital-learning#

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Blended Learning: It describes different models of delivery which use a mix of methods, essentially face-to-face and online learning to engage students in learning. Conceptual Framework: An expose’ defining the boundary and features of a phenomenon. Distance Education: A form of institution-based formal education where the adult learner is separated, and where interactive technology enabled devices are used to connect learners, resources, and facilitators. Ghana: A country situated in the sub-Saharan Africa, with a population size of 30.0 million. It is boarded in the north by Burkina Faso, east by Togo, west by Cote d’Ivoire, and south by The Gulf of Guinea. Global North: Developed countries, including Western Europe, North American countries, Australia, South Eastern Asian Countries, China, South Africa among others who are resource rich countries which can afford state-of-the art computer laboratories to aid blended learning in all levels of education. Global South: Developing countries in Africa, in particular, which lack resources to establish state– of-the art computer laboratories among others, maintained them, refurbished and retooled with new computers and accessories every five years. Higher Education Institutions: Tertiary institutions which provide dual mode approach to teaching and learning to students to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes to make them develop critical thinking skills, empowering knowledge, and digital skills to become useful in their communities and impact productivity at workplace. Self-Directed Learning: A process of learning in which people or individuals takes primary initiative for planning, carrying out, and evaluating their own experiences.

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Chapter 11

Sinking or Swimming?

The Role of Moodle in Promoting Self-Directed Learning at the University of Eswatini Selloane Pitikoe University of Eswatini, Eswatini Fritz Ngale Ilongo University of Eswatini, Eswatini Happiness Mavimbela University of Eswatini, Eswatini

ABSTRACT

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This chapter presents the fndings of a recent study conducted on the adult learners of the University of Eswatini (UNESWA) that explored how Moodle enhanced self-directed learning among the adult learners and how these adult learners mastered the content using the Moodle platform. It was found that while some learners excelled in using the platform, others lacked the technological skills to manoeuvre the platform. Also, participants lamented that the lecturers did not post material Moodle. Notably, Moodle enabled independent learning for those learners who were employed. The following conclusions were made: 1) lecturers need to post more material on Moodle, 2) refresher videos to keep learners abreast with Moodle should be made, and 3) periodic institutional assessment on the uptake of Moodle should be done.

INTRODUCTION The world is inundated with technology advancement trends whose effects on teaching and learning cannot be overemphasised. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) comes with an introduction of computers which enhance most of the traditional human activities (Xu et al., 2018). The effects of these DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch011

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 Sinking or Swimming?

technology trends resulted in a paradigm shift in teaching and learning from the conventional offering into the novel digital and virtual era which comes with self-directed learning (Sukardjo & Salam, 2020). The self-directed learning concept is pivotal to andragogical principles (Ferreira & MacLean, 2017). The changing educational landscape came as remedy to address the changing educational needs of adult learners, in particular those whose multiple responsibilities compelled them to enrol in remote learning programmes (Bezuidenhout, van der Westhuizen & de Beer, 2005). Learning is a continuous process that forms part of human nature; hence a need for humans to be flexible and adaptable to life changes, learning, as well as how teaching and learning are offered (Turan & Koç, 2018). This chapter presents the findings of an empirical study that was conducted on the adult learners currently enrolled at the University of Eswatini (UNESWA) in Eswatini. The authors explored the perceptions of these students of Modular Object Orientated Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE); a Learning Management System (LMS) that among others; promotes learner self-directedness. There are two research questions that the chapter sought to address namely: 1. To what extent do UNESWA adult learners master Moodle as an instructional medium? 2. How effective is Moodle in enhancing the adult learners’ self-directed learning skills? In order to answer these questions, the paper is divided into the following topics: Background, main focus of the article, conclusion and references.

BACKGROUND

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Online Learning Online learning refers to technology assisted teaching and learning offered either completely remotely using the internet or through the hybrid also called blended learning - a blend of face-to-face and technologies (Nguyen, 2015). Online learning is not a new phenomenon however; it gained momentum during the COVID-19 outbreak as a global remedy for education continuity which implied independent digital learning. The independent learning approach also calls for an alignment of the technological gadgets with the current demands of the 21st century. Studies lauded online learning for its effectiveness in terms of time and money (Nguyen, 2015); and the ability to motivate independent learning among adult learners beyond the confines of space and time. For instance, Janakiraman et al. (2018) study revealed the unique engagement of adult learners in online learning. For adult learners, learning was more self-driven and self-directed rather than extrinsically motivated. The same study also revealed that the design of the instructional material also contributed in the development of learners’ self-directedness. Janakiraman et al. (2018) opine that the inclusion of learning activities that require the learners’ self-motivation; selfmonitoring and time management motivated the adult learners to continue learning.

Integration of Moodle in Teaching and Learning Distance Learning institutions of Higher Education choose different Learning Management Systems (LMSs) such as Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment, (MOODLE) (Croitoru & Dinu, 2016), to ease access and convenience of e-learning. Croitoru and Dinu (2016) opine that LMSs 205

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are enterprise-wide and internet-based systems, such as Canvas, Big Blue, Moodle, Desire2Learn (D2L) and Blackboard, that incorporate a wide range of academic and course administration tools (Bradford et al., 2007). Florian and Zimmerman (2015) argue that with the advancement of technology and delivery systems for blended learning, Moodle has become one of the virtual platforms of choice for education. If well designed, Moodle has the potential to provide technological learning tools for collaborative teaching and learning (Ridwan, 2015) such as, discussion fora, email, chats, weblogs, wikis, web pages, e-portfolios which could potentially enhance students’ independent learning. The communication tools listed above are very beneficial to the teaching and learning process. Some of the benefits for the instructors that come with Moodle include the communication platforms. Ferreira-Meyers and Nkosi (2013) identify that Moodle has Quick mail - an email feature also found in Blackboard and D2L platforms which can be used to send an email to selected groups of students or all students from within Moodle. The latter is also beneficial to learners in that it has a document repository facility that provides easy access to course materials such as lecture notes, hand-outs, past tests/ examinations and modules. These authors further identify the Moodle calendar as a feature that enables scheduling of events such as tests and assignments. Moodle provides access to a range of resources and materials which may not be accessible in a face-to-face setting. Adult learners can also gain skills while saving on travel money and time through the use of online platforms such as Moodle, while not ignoring the fact that they are losing on physical interaction with their fellow learners and instructors. Students can utilize Big Blue and Web-conferencing tools in Moodle for virtual interactions as well as Zoom and WebEx as additional resources which all integrate seamlessly with Moodle to facilitate learner-teacher interactions in real time. However, there is still a need to understand the attitude of the adult learners towards online learning as the primary beneficiaries of Moodle. Moodle as an online learning platform has its own limitations one of which is not being able to work in groups; a key feature that comes with the face-to-face learning environment. Arkorful and Abaidoo (2014) lament that e-learning does not enhance effective communication skills of the learners. This is because the older versions did not give the learners a chance to make presentations in front of their colleagues and instructors until recently where version 3.10 introduced the debate plugin; a feature that allows live group interaction (https://moodle.org/plugins/mod_debate). Another limitation of Moodle is the use of technology which could limit learners’ access to their peers and instructors due to the lack of compatible learning tools or limited computer literacy skills (Ariya et al., 2015). The next paragraph will look at who the literature list as an adult learner.

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Adult Education Literature defines Adult Education as the process that empowers working adults seeking to improve their skills and knowledge for effective management of their existential issues. Adult learners could be either traditional or non-traditional individuals or groups; the latter would be seeking an enhancement of their educational portfolios. On the other hand, the former re-enter the learning environment after a period of absence; hence a dire need for perception reframing in order to cope with the requirements of the self-directed teaching and learning environment (Rappel, 2017). Central to Adult Education is immediacy – the solutions have to be readily applicable to real life situations of the adult learner (Houle, 1996 as cited in Nikolova et al., 2014). This type of education comes in different forms such as workplace based learning; one of the most common forms offered through on 206

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the job training to improve employees’ efficiency (Nikolovaet al., 2014). Adult Education is also offered formally, through accredited institutions where learners attend classes either on full time or part-time basis. Gikas and Grant (2013) define formal learning as a provision whereby learner engagement with the teaching and learning material takes the form of “structured institutionally sponsored” (p.19) provision whereby the learners acquire a recognised certificate upon completion of their studies. In this study, the focus is on Adult Education which is offered through a part-time mode by the University of Eswatini. Research applauds inclusion of technology such as Moodle in teaching and learning for increasing the education quality by keeping the learners actively engaged in the learning process (Nikolova et al., 2014). Notably, Daley and Cervero (2018) argue from the field of health that adulthood also comes with emotional intelligence and self-care. On the contrary, adult learners could face some challenges with regards to adapting to the new environment especially so for those learners who come from the traditional provision where learners derive their learning motivation from the instructor’s presence and immediate face-to-face feedback (Rappel, 2017). Arguably, the adult learners’ perception of online learning could be based on the rewards – are they able to swim or sink in the learning process (as indicated in the title); hence a need to explore how adult learners in Eswatini perceive Moodle as a tool for enhancing their self-directed learning. The following section discusses andragogy as a theory behind adult learning.

Who Is an Adult?

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In this paper, an adult is defined based on the seven characteristics of maturity namely: a) task performance orientation; b) clear self-concept; c) self-directed; d) objectivity; e) open-minded; f) sense of responsibility and; g) adaptive to new situations (Anderson, 1950). Twenty six years later, Knowles (1980) identified the following characteristics of adult learners: a) self-concept; b) life experience; c) readiness to learn; d) orientation to learning; e) the need to know and; f) motivation to learn. Adults bring forth a wealth of existential experience which can be opportunities for their success or “deeply entrenched beliefs that hinder” (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011: 87) their academic progress. These authors classify adult learners into three main categories of a) unemployed adults who seek to upgrade their education to meet the requirements of the job market or employed adults aspiring to upgrade their collegiate entry level skills; b) veterans who could not attain higher education due to various reasons and; c) direct entry adults who want to further their education in higher institutions of learning (p. 88). A deeper understanding of the existing differences between the adult learners and traditional students informs the development of appropriate learning material and tools that would enhance self-directed learning and motivate the adults to learn (Kenner & Wenerman, 2011). This implies a need for a careful design process that upholds the andragogical principles in order to fully cater for the adult learner’s uniqueness (Syaifar, 2017).

Andragogy Andragogy refers to the art and science of helping adults to learn (Knowles, 1980). Knowles uses the concept in contrast with pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children. Central to andragogy are the adult learners’ needs and self-directed learning; the latter placing the learner at the centre of the learning process (Mitchell & Courtney, 2005). A deeper understanding of andragogy as a theory helps practitioners to understand the adult learners’ perception and assimilation of knowledge both in formal and informal settings (Clapper, 2010). 207

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The history of andragogy as a concept is traced back to 1833 from the work of the German high school teacher named Alexander Kapp in his book the Platon’s Erzienungslehre – Plato’s educational ideas (Henschke, 2010; Kurt, 2020). He argued that among the critical values of humanity were: education, self-reflection and educating the character of man (Henschke, 2010). Andragogy was rekindled in 1925 by Rosenstock-Huessy who lamented that andragogy was the only method that can rejuvenate the distraught German World War I veterans to arise from the repercussions to reflect on the experiences and failures from the war as part of the learning and healing process (Henschke, 2010). This notion resonates with Malcolm Knowles – the renowned Father of andragogy who assumes that adults bring their experience as part of the learning process (Knowles, 1980). Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy (TEAL) (2011 p.1) lists Knowles’ five assumptions of andragogy as follows: • • • • •

Moves from dependency to increasing self-directedness as he/she matures and can direct his/her own learning; Draws on his/her accumulated reservoir of life experiences to aid learning; Is ready to learn when he/she assumes new social or life roles; Is problem-centred and wants to apply new learning immediately; and Is motivated to learn by internal, rather than external, factors.

Looking back at the characteristics of adults and their motives to learn, it can be argued that these assumptions may not happen systematically (Mitchell & Courtney, 2005). This implies a need for adult education programmes to provide a conducive teaching and learning environment that guides and motivates adult learners to take full control of their teaching and learning.

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Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Different scholars define self-directed learning (SDL) differently. For instance, Knowles (1980) defines SDL as a self-initiated and self-controlled process which individuals plan, implement and evaluate the learning process. On the other hand, self-directed learning, also referred to as “self-regulative learning, independent learning and open learning” (Salleh et al., 2019, p. 169) is a process whereby the students or the learners assume independent learning responsibility by identifying their learning (needs, content, goals and the resources) while also implementing appropriate learning and evaluation strategies (Kim & Kim, 2015) for effective learning. Similar sentiments are shared by Noe et al. (2013) who argue from an informal learning perspective that self-directed learning allows for self-reflection which includes development of new self-study skills. Song and Bonk (2016) argue that self-directed learning reinforces personal choice making on the path that one wants to take; hence integration of technology in teaching and learning as a tool for people to unlearn the traditional teaching and learning and transcend to online teaching spaces. A self-directed learner is the one who takes an opportunity to integrate the teaching and learning into the daily routine of life at the time and space convenient to him/her (TEAL, 2011). These submissions indicate the important role played by motivation in enhancing self-directedness. The implication here is that accessibility of Moodle could give the adult learners the flexibility and independence to learn without the traditional space and time confines. Salleh et al. (2019) identify six competencies that self-directed learners possess namely: a) selfassessment of learning gaps, b) evaluation of self and others, c) reflection, d) information management, 208

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e) critical thinking and f) critical appraisal. These competencies imply a high level of individual responsibility and cognitive thinking skills that the learner possesses and applies beyond the teaching and learning environment into a life skill; a dire requirement for daily life encounters. On the contrary, Brooke lament that not all adult learners dance to the SDL tune. Rather, some still prefer to engage in teacher-centred formal educational offerings; the gap that remains unanswered in UNESWA’s context.

Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning as one of the teaching and learning approaches facilitates learner-centred learning methods that promote independence and learner presence. The approach develops the learner’s psychomotor skills for effective reasoning, information literacy as well as self-directed learning (Ramli et al., 2018). They opine that self-directed learning does not only develop the learners’ intellectual skills but it also creates a harmonious teaching and learning environment for the adult learners. What remains unknown to the researchers is the level of mastery of online learning and its effects on the adult learners’ self-directedness.

Perception Coon and Mitterer (2016) refer to perception as the process whereby the brain selects and organizes sensations into meaningful patterns which tends to influence decision-making processes. Cherry (2014) summarises the definition by highlighting the role played by the environment and the reactions to the received stimuli. Cherry further highlights that the five senses of touch, sight, smell, taste and hearing play an important role in the selection, organisation and interpretation of stimuli (Qiong, 2017) which differs based on personal reactions to the sensations/stimuli. The individual experiences inform the meaningful interpretation of such stimuli (Ciccarelli & White, 2015). Therefore, personal differences such as: experience, education, environment, and race could affect the way different people may react to the same stimuli. Based on these arguments, this paper argues that the adult learners’ perception of Moodle may not be identical in spite of being exposed to the same platform at the same time; hence this study.

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Blended Learning Blended learning refers to a “thoughtful, [unique] fusion” (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008: 6) of face-toface and online/digital based learning which incorporates collaborative, direct and indirect instruction (Lalima & Dangwal, 2017). For Garrison and Vaughan (2008), blended learning blends the properties and strengths of each approach to perform beyond what each approach would; if used alone. These authors highlight the class restructuring function of blended learning which alters contact hours and complements such with online teaching and learning. This means that more teaching and learning is offered independent of the brick and mortar barriers. Thorne (2003) posits that blended learning tailors teaching to the diverse needs as well as learning styles of the intended learners. Garrison and Vaughan (2008: 5) identify three assumptions of blended learning design as follows: • •

Thoughtful integration of face-to-face and online; Fundamentally rethinking the course design to maximise student engagement; 209

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•

Restructuring and replacing traditional class contact hours

Based on these assumptions, blended learning carefully fuses the strengths of face-to-face and online learning to complement each other. For instance much of the face-to-face content is transformed or replaced with e-content for ease of access online to a) enrich the current education provision and b) to allow incorporation of new learning methods that promote independence, flexibility and quality education provision. This restructuring implies a need to understand how students learn, their access to technological gadgets and internet connection. In African education, however, implementation of technology as a teaching and learning resource continues to encounter some challenges where hiccups such as poor infrastructure and power failures especially in rural areas are recurrent (Ariya et al., 2015). The kingdom of Eswatini is not immune to these challenges, what remains unknown are the issues of access, quality, equity in education as well as the perceptions of the rural-based learners on the value of technology in teaching and learning. FerreiraMeyers (2019) assets that UNESWA introduced blended learning in 2017/2018 through its Institute of Distance Education (IDE) which is responsible for distance learning. The reimage of education spiked learner enrolment rates most of which were employed and aspired to pursue education in pari-passu with employment (Ferreira-Meyers, 2019). It could be argued that these learners perceived the new shift as a Messiah that liberated them from classroom confinement into a flexible mode available anywhere and anytime at affordable costs.

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Context of the Study The Kingdom of Eswatini lies within South Africa which makes it reliant on the latter economically (Masson, 2019) with an estimated population of 1104,000 people. Masson (2019) posits that 23.8 per cent of the population are urban dwellers while 76.2 per cent resides in the rural areas. The literacy rate of Emaswati (natives of Eswatini) aged 15 and above is estimated at 87.5 per cent males and 87.4 per cent females as at 2015. According to World Bank (2019), between 2016 and 2017 there were at least 39.7 per cent of Emaswati who lived below the poverty line. Poverty undeniably limits access to basic facilities such as education and health care; henceforth online learning could come with added benefits of accessibility to flexible education beyond traditional time and space confinements. The Ministry of Education and Training through the Education Improvement Programme of 2018 pledges to continue strengthening Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in education which will include construction of more ICT laboratories, provision of ICT equipment, capacity building for teachers and implementation of ICT syllabuses for all levels of education (MoET, 2018). All these strategies aim to ensure that effective teaching and learning takes place. In order to achieve this, learning institutions need to be equipped with the basic resources for teaching and learning. The early introduction of technological skills will enable the learners to become more comfortable with information technology by the time they get to tertiary level.

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER

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Issues, Controversies and Problems The fourth industrial revolution is inundated with technology which has changed our traditional lifestyles into a digital global village (Xu et. al., 2018). UNESWA has also responded to the global demands for an education provision that befits the requirements of the 21st century. For instance, in 2008, UNESWA introduced Moodle as its preferred LMS (Ferreira-Meyers & Nkosi, 2013); hence a requirement for all the first year students to take an introduction to computer course which aims to equip them with basic ICT skills while also building their confidence in using Moodle. Within the context UNESWA which constitutes the specific local of the paper not much research has been done to explore adult learners’ mastery of the Moodle platform as well as the contribution of the latter towards self-directed learning which this paper seeks to address. In addition, there are lots of literature reviewed in this paper which emphasise the positive role of Moodle in e-learning as well as its limitations. Moodle is a free and open-source learning management system (LMS) written in PHP and distributed under the GNU General Public License (Rogers, 2009). Developed on pedagogical principles (Moodle, 2014), Moodle is used for blended learning, distance education, flipped classroom and other e-learning projects in schools, universities, workplaces and other sectors (Horvat et al., 2015). The customizable management features of Moodle facilitate the creation of private websites with online courses for educators and trainers to achieve learning goals, while extending and tailoring learning environments using community-sourced plugins (Gavin, 2013). The stated philosophy of Moodle includes a constructivist and social constructionist approach to education which emphasizes those learners can contribute to the educational experience. Moodle has become a global medium for e-learning which has been translated into over 100 different languages and is accessible in many countries worldwide. The importance of technology in teaching and learning in general including adult education escalated during the COVID-19 pandemic in order to fill in the gap generated by the social distancing concept, through which distance learning became the order of the day. The assumption therefore is that, adult learners would perceive e-learning as a remedy for continued education access. This assumption tallies with the findings by Gillett-Swan (2017) which revealed a positive perception of technology enhanced adult education program with emphasis that online teaching allows learners to learn alone at their own pace. Similarly, studies in the UK and China reflected a high percentage of learners keen to supplement the traditional face-to-face classroom method with e-learning (Ncube, 2015) and enthusiasm towards online learning (Ncube, 2015). In other words, the more experienced the learners were the more positive they were about e-learning. Back home in Africa, two studies conducted in Ghana concluded that learners saw no advantage of e-learning over face-to-face learning; they preferred using both methods of instruction for maximum results (Ncube, 2015). These studies also revealed that inadequate resources and institutional difficulties are more applicable in Ghanaian higher education (Ncube, 2015), a situation from which Eswatini is not exempted. Learners from Eswatini’s closest neighbour, South Africa, preferred e-learning to faceto-face with the notion that e-learning had a positive effect on their academic performance (Makura 2014). However, very little is known on Eswatini adult learners’ perceptions of Moodle and its effects on academic performance.

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Mastery of Moodle vs. Learners Characteristics Voogt and Tondeur (2015) lament that central to the success of Moodle, like any newly introduced technological platform/initiative are the learners; hence their failure to master Moodle implies the whole concept of online learning through the latter, is bound to fail. Notably, the learners’ log in frequency also serves as reinforcement towards skills mastery and a measurement for self-motivation and selfdirectedness. A study on the use of Moodle in Higher Education reported from Saudi Arabia revealed that most of the participants who mastered Moodle in a short space of time and found it easy to use were those who were employed on a full time basis; hence Moodle enables them to learn and study at the same time (Goyal & Tambe, 2015). In the case of UNESWA, students are assisted to master ICT skills through an introductory course on basic computer literacy skills in which all first years are bound to enrol upon registration. Nonetheless, various factors may prohibit adult learners’ effective acquisition of e-learning skills. Write et al. (2017) lament from the South African context on the challenges that adult learners encounter with regard to online learning which are perpetrated by factors such as motivation, age, time, qualification, competence, academic and technological confidence. In their view, most adult learners are resistant to change and this resistance demotivates them to further their studies. For instance, age can be demotivating for those adult learners who may find they are studying with younger learners who have more technological knowledge; the adult learner may lose confidence in the learning process. Additionally, adult learners are usually employed and have families to take care of; time is most likely to hinder the learning process. Also, regardless of the adult learner being qualified to undertake most courses they may be hindered by lack the technological know-how to enrol in technology enhanced learning. The adult learners of Eswatini are no exceptions to these challenges as well although not much research has been conducted in this area.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The Goal-Setting Theory of Edwin Locke (1968) guided this study. According to Locke and Latham (1991), The Goal-Setting Theory which is based on the assumption that conscious human behaviour is purposeful, decisive and regulated by the individual’s goals such as willingness to achieve the set achievable goals. The theory asserts that goal setting is the yard stick for satisfaction assessment whereby people with specific goals perform better than those with vague goals (Teo & Low, 2016). This theory helps in the realisation of the link between goals and performance. Using Moodle, for example, pushes the adult learner away from their comfort zone to set specific challenging goals and compete with young and tech-savvy learners. Motivation as a process accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal (Ncube & Zondo, 2018). The level of intensity is measured by the importance of the goal to that particular individual. The need to attain a certain goal describes a person’s drive to excel with respect to some established standards (Bande, Fernández-Ferrín, Varela-Neira, & Otero-Neira, 2016). Motivation plays a vital role in making the learning of adults a success. Some enrol to advance themselves in order to gain promotions at work or just for self-fulfilment. The motivating factors are the push behind self-directed learning as the learner will focus on the goal that they hope to achieve and try even harder to achieve it. Teo and Low (2016) define the term goal as a common concept that cov212

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ers other concepts like intention, task, deadline, purpose, aim, end and objective, which is deemed as a regulator of action. These authors further state that there are other concepts that have to be in place for the goal to be attained, for example, the adult learner has to have an intention, a stipulated deadline, an aim and objectives to be achieved which could lead to self-directed learning. What remains unknown is the ability of adult learners in Eswatini to set achievable goals that enhance their self-directedness.

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The conceptual framework shows the relationship between the variables of the study (figure 1).

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Figure 1. Conceptual framework shows the relationship between the variables of the study.

The conceptual framework of the study presents the researchers’ views on perceptions of adult learners on the use of Moodle as an instructional medium in enhancing self-directedness at UNESWA. The dependent variables are self-directedness and perceptions. Self-directedness is bound to be affected by independent variables which are ICT resources, learner motivation and institutional support. Mastery of Moodle is a function of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The former are related to motivational factors based on the degree of learner ability to initiate and sustain e-learning (promotion for self-actualization). Intrinsic factors will include; ICT resources (infrastructure, computer laboratories), connectivity issues, financial costs, and institutional support systems. Self-directedness will be influenced mostly by intrinsic factors like learner participation and commitment to the e-learning process with Moodle as the LMS platform. Learner mastery and self-directedness will both influence learner perceptions of Moodle as an e-learning medium.

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Methodology This interpretivist study (Creswell, 2014) used a descriptive case study design (Leedy & Ormrod 2014) because of the former’s primarily exploratory nature which facilitates understanding of the underlying reasons, opinions and motivations related to the phenomenon under study. For Creswell (2014), the qualitative approach has the advantage of putting individuals and their worldview at the centre. A purposively sampled group of forty one adult learners out of a population of two hundred and three adult learners which comprised of certificate, diploma, bachelors as well as post-graduate adult learners participated in this study using semi structured interviews. Initially, the data collection plan was that the data would be collected in the natural setting of the respondents; a commendable quality of qualitative studies. However, given the challenges that came with COVID-19 which among others restricted movement and social contact, the data were collected telephonically on a sample of ten respondents. The narrative nature of the study provided a wealth of subjective perspectives of the adult learners which correlate with the interpretivist nature of the study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2014). The data were analysed using the step by step guidance of the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis model.

Results Mastery of Moodle Platform This section presents the findings on the adult learners’ mastery of Moodle and how they perceive the platform in the enhancement of their self-directed learning. It was found that the learners mastered the features of the platform; they had the requisite skills to access teaching and learning. It was also found that Moodle enhanced independent learning because in most cases, the learners had to access material on their own outside the classroom setting. For instance, P8 had this to say: Yes I have mastered the features that are in Moodle, the secret here is to use the platform as often as possible and this enables me to understand the platform For this participant mastery of Moodle was reinforced by repetitive logging in. For some participants, mastery was aided by the manual that came in as a reference tool as stated by P1:

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The manual that we are provided with has helped me a lot as I am able to navigate the features on Moodle and this has helped me a lot On the contrary, some learners expressed the fact that they could not master the Moodle platform because of limited training and minimum exposure to interact with the platform. P10 elaborated: I don’t know whether I know everything about the features on Moodle some of our lecturers do not use the platform, hence I am unable to know what happens in the platform as I do not use it often Another barrier to mastery of the Moodle platform was inadequacy of the training offered by the university as highlighted by P5: 214

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The training is not adequate enough and therefore I am unable to know all the features that are provided on Moodle, it is still a challenge for some of us and we rely on friends to help us use the plat form Looking at these narratives, there are two sides. Firstly, mastery of Moodle comes with learner motivation to log in frequently; practice makes perfect which denotes the drive to excel which affirms the arguments by Ncube and Zondo (2018), a notion which was highlighted by P8. This assertion corroborates the findings on positive attitude and learner engagement with Moodle by Bande et al., (2016) and Makura (2017). On the contrary, Moodle on its own does not facilitate effective teaching and learning; rather there is need for an active engagement of learners and instructors. The findings further indicated that some lecturers used Moodle minimally, thereby limiting learners’ exposure to the different features of Moodle. These findings affirm the argument presented by Voogt and Tondeur (2015) that Moodle on its own cannot support teaching and learning; rather an active engagement of both the learner and the instructor in teaching and learning activities is central to the success of the platform.

Moodle and Self-directed Learning The findings under this section revealed differences in opinion. For some adult learners, Moodle was seen as a tool that enhanced their independence in learning especially those that had additional responsibilities concurrently with learning. Others opined that online learning should continue in close partnership with the face-to-face mode. For instance P1 had this to say: Moodle does reinforce self-directed learning especially for most of us who are studying and working at the same time. It becomes a challenge to fulfil the requirements of the employer and the academia at the same time. Therefore, Moodle allows us to log in at our own time and learn at our own pace. P5 echoed: Moodle also enhances personal goal setting whereby I look at the course outline. Based on the contents of the course outline then I set my goals on how much content I intend to cover per week. I also do not only rely on the posted material. Instead, I do my personal research on some of the topics in order to contribute meaningfully in the Moodle platform tasks.

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On the contrary, participants were adamant that Moodle should not replace face-to-face teaching as P2 stated: “It is a good platform that can increase participation, however it should not replace the conventional way of learning because it is also important and allows for questions to be asked when someone does not understand something.” These findings indicate that Moodle allows learners to multi-task while also learning at the same time. For instance P1 emphasised that employed learners have a challenge when it comes to attending teaching and learning on a full time basis; hence the remedial character of Moodle. This argument affirms the findings by Nikolova, Van Ruysseveldt, De Witte & Syroi, (2014). P5 raised an important 215

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point of goal setting which forms part of self-directedness in learning as an affirmation of the literature in Locke, (1996); Teo and Low (2016); Salley et al., (2019) and Ramli et al., (2018). The following are recommendations based on these findings: •

In order for Moodle to yield the desired results, there is need for more learner—instructor engagement through tasks that lecturers post on Moodle and self-motivation on the part of the learners to engage with the posted material Scepticism was also revealed amongst the learners with fear of letting go the traditional face-toface platform. Such fears could have come as a result of limited technology skills. Henceforth lecturers could develop short online videos that can be easily accessible by the students as a refresher resource to enhance their interaction with Moodle in order to facilitate learners’ engagement and mastery of the platform. The paper also recommends institutional periodic monitoring of learner-lecturer engagement with Moodle and assessment tools that will gauge the literacy levels and gaps and develop strategies to address such knowledge and skills’ gaps. The chapter also highlights a need to improve student self-directedness.

•

•

Recommendations for Improving Student Self-Directedness • • • • • • •

Develop meta-cognitive skills among learners [ability to plan, self-assessment, self-monitoring and self-evaluation] Reinforce intrinsic motivation among adult learners [avoid fear factor, self-direction not compliance, education a choice not a requirement, rethink reward systems, higher purpose orientation for engagement in education] Instructors need to assign clear and timed responsibilities to the learners Instructors should encourage the adult learners to formulate individual learning objectives Adult learners should be encouraged to identify resources and strategies for efectively utilizing them; UNESWA should create safe learning environments that motivate self-directed learning; Problem-centred approach and application oriented online learning systems should be encouraged.

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CONCLUSION This paper presents the findings of the study that was conducted on the adult learners of the University of Eswatini. The paper sought to address two research questions: 1. To what extent do UNESWA adult learners master Moodle as an instructional medium? 2. How effective is Moodle in enhancing the adult learners’ self-directed learning skills? The findings from the study revealed that while some learners were able to learn on their own using Moodle, some learners lamented that some lecturers did not use Moodle to post their teaching and learning material to encourage/motivate adult learners to fully engage in online teaching and learning. Some learners also complained that the institution did not provide them with enough training to master 216

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the Moodle platform. The conclusions drawn from the study include the following: a) lecturers to post material on Moodle in order to motivate learners to study independently at home; b) videos to be posted by lecturers to refresh adult learners’ skills on Moodle and; c) institutional periodic assessment and monitoring of activities to assess how adult learners and the lecturers interact with Moodle.

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Cigdem, C. & Tirkes, G. (2010). Open source learning management systems in e-learning and Moodle. Conference paper presented at the EDUCON Education Engineering 2010 – The future of Global Learning Education Engineering, Madrid, Spain. Clapper, T. C. (2010). Beyond Knowles: What those conducting simulation need to know about adult learning theory. Clinical Simulation in Nursing, 6(1), e7–e14. doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2009.07.003 Coon, D., & Mitterer, J. O. (2016). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to mind and behaviour. Cengage Learning. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th ed.). Sage Publications Ltd.

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Henschke, J. A. (2010). Beginnings of the History and Philosophy of andragogy, 1833-2000. Retrieved on 20 February 2020 from https://www.igi-global.com/viewtitlesample.aspx?id=41837&ptid=37251& t=beginnings+of+the+history+and+philosophy+of+andragogy+1833-2000 Horvat, A., Dobrota, M., Krsmanovic, M., & Cudanov, M. (2015). Student perception of Moodle learning management system: A satisfaction and significance analysis. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(4), 515–527. doi:10.1080/10494820.2013.788033 Janakiraman, S., Watson, S. L., & Watson, W. R. (2018). Adult learners’ use of self-directed learning strategies in a massive open online course. Journal of Ethnographic and Qualitative Research, 13, 122–133. Kenner, C., & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult learning theory: Applications to non-traditional college students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2), 87–97. doi:10.1080/10790195.2011.10850344

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Kim, J. K., & Kim, D. J. (2015). Meta-analysis on relations between e-learning research trends and effectiveness of learning. International Journal of Smart Home, 7(6), 35–48. doi:10.14257/ijsh.2013.7.6.04 Knowles, J. R. (1980). Enzyme-catalyzed phosphoryl transfer reactions. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 49(1), 877–919. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.004305 PMID:6250450 Kurt, S. (2020). Adult education, self-direction, and andragogy. Retrieved on 20 February 2021 from https://educationaltechnology.net/andragogy-theory-malcolm-knowles/ Lalima, K., & Dangwal, L. (2017). Blended learning: An innovative approach. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(1), 129–136. doi:10.13189/ujer.2017.050116 Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2014). Qualitative research. Practical research: Planning and design. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1991). A theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 212–247. MacNamara, W. (2017). Evaluating the effectiveness of the Gestalt principles of perceptual observation for virtual reality user interface design. Dissertations - School of Computing Technological University Dublin. Retrieved November 18, 2019, from. Makura, A. H. (2014). Students’ perceptions of the use of ICT in a higher education teaching and learning context: The case of a South African University. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(11), 43. doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n11p43 Mitchell, M. L., & Courtney, M. (2005). Improving transfer from the intensive care unit: The development, implementation and evaluation of a brochure based on Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 11(6), 257–268. doi:10.1111/j.1440-172X.2005.00533.x PMID:16255737 Ncube, L. S. (2015). Students’ perceptions of e-learning in the Department of Information Science at the University of South Africa. Retrieved on 20 November 2020 from: http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/ handle/10500/19900/dissertation_ncube_ls.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Ncube, T. R., & Zondo, R. W. (2018). Influence of self-motivation and intrinsic motivational factors for small and medium business growth: A South African case study. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Ekonomiese en Bestuurswetenskappe, 21(1), 1–7. doi:10.4102ajems.v21i1.1994

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Ncube, T. R., & Zondo, R. W. D. (2018). Influence of self-motivation and intrinsic motivational factors for small medium business growth: A South African case study. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Ekonomiese en Bestuurswetenskappe, 21(1), 1–7. doi:10.4102ajems.v21i1.1994 Nguyen, T. (2015). The effectiveness of online learning: Beyond no significant difference and future horizons. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 309–319. Niati, M. (2017). Gestalt as an emergence of knowledge at schools. Studies in Asian Social Science, 4(1), 32–37. doi:10.5430ass.v4n1p32 Nikolova, I., Van Ruysseveldt, J., De Witte, H., & Syroi, J. (2014). Work-based learning: Development and validation of a scale measuring the learning potential of the workplace (LPW). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 84(1), 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.09.004

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Noe, R. A., Tews, M. J., & Marand, A. D. (2013). Individual differences and informal learning in the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 327–335. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.06.009 Obiyoka, I. V., & Nnadi, E. J. (2016). Adult education and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education, 6(4), 62–65. Qiong, O. U. (2017). A brief introduction to perception. Studies in Literature and Language, 15(4), 18–28. Ramli, N., Muljono, P., & Afendi, F. M. (2018). External factors, internal factors and self-directed learning readiness. Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, 5(1), 37-42. Rappel, L. (2017). Self-direction in on-line learning. Journal of Educational System, 1(1), 6–14. Ridwan, S. M. (2015). Application of Information Communication Technology n tertiary institutions and academic Libraries: Funding policy and acquisition of electronic information resources and services. PhD Research Degree in Information Technology, Newcastle College. Retrieved on 20 October 2019 from: http://kubanni.abu.edu.ng/jspui/bitstream/123456789/7589/1/APPLICATION%20OF%20INFORMATION%20COMMUNICATION%20TECHNOLOGY%20IN%20TERTIARY%20INSTITUTIONS%20 AND%20ACADEMIC%20LIBRARIES%20%20FUNDING%20POLICY%20AND%20ACQUISITION%20OF%20ELECTRONIC%20INFORMATION%20RESOURCES%20AND%20SERVICES.pdf Rogers, P. (2009). The Encyclopedia of Distance Learning (Vol. 1). doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-198-8 Salleh, U. K. M., Zulnaidi, H., Rahim, S. S. A., Zakaria, A. R. B., & Hidayat, R. (2019). Roles of selfdirected learning and social networking sites in lifelong learning. International Journal of Instruction, 12(4), 167–182. doi:10.29333/iji.2019.12411a Sukardjo, M., & Salam, M. (2020). Effects of concept attainment models and self-directed learning (SDL) on Mathematics learning outcomes. International Journal of Instruction, 13(3), 275–292. doi:10.29333/ iji.2020.13319a Syaifar, B. (2017). Application of concept and andragogy for education and training of civil servant. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 4(12), 66–77. TEAL. (2011). Adult Learning Theories. TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11. US Department of Education: American Institutes for Research.

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Teo, T. C., & Low, K. C. P. (2016). The impact of goal setting on employee effectiveness to improve organisation effectiveness: Empirical study of a high-tech company in Singapore. Journal of Business & Economic Policy, 3(1), 1–16. The Ministry of Education and Training Improvement Programme. (2018). Ministry of Education and Training, The Government of the Kingdom of Eswatini. Retrieved on 23 October 2019 from https:// planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/planipolis/files/ressources/eswatini_netip.pdf Thorne, K. (2003). Blended Learning How to Integrate Online and Traditional Learning. Kogan Page Limited.

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Turan, M. B., & Koç, K. (2018). The impact of self-directed learning readiness on critical thinking and self-efficacy among the ttudents of the School of Physical Education and Sports. International Journal of Higher Education, 7(6), 98–105. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v7n6p98 Voogt, J., & Tondeur, J. (2015). Towards design-based approaches for ICT integration in African education. Academic Press. World Bank. (2019). Swaziland Overview. Accessed from: https://www.worldbank.org Wright, G., Cillers, L., Van Niekerk, E., & Seekoe, E. (2017). The Next Stage of Development of eLearning at UFH in South Africa. International Association for Development of the Information Society.

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Xu, M., David, J. M., & Kim, S. H. (2018). The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Opportunities and challenges. International Journal of Financial Research, 9(2), 90–95. doi:10.5430/ijfr.v9n2p90

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APPENDIX: INTERVIEW GUIDE ADULT LEARNERS’PERCEPTIONS OF MOODLE AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIUM FOR ENHANCING SELFDIRECTEDNESS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ESWATINI Introduction My name is ………………. a ………….. student conducting research on Adult Learners’ perceptions of Moodle as an Instructional Medium for Enhancing Self-Directedness at the University of Eswatini. With your permission, may I record your responses on the said topic. Please note that there is no right or wrong answer, the aim is to understand your experiences in MOODLE. If at any time you feel uncomfortable, you can stop participating. As the interview continues, I will listen, record and probe where necessary. The principle of anonymity and confidentiality will be maintained, in which case your name will not appear anywhere in the report. It is hoped that the interview will take 30 to 45 minutes.

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Demographics 1. Gender: a. Male [ ] b. Female [ ] 2. Age: a. Below 25 years [ ] b. 26-30 years [ ] c. 31-35 years [ ] d. 36-40 years [ ] e. 41 years - above [ ] 3. Programme: a. Certificate [ ] b. Diploma [ ] c. Degree [ ] d. Masters [ ] 4. Year of Study: a. Year 1 [ ] b. Year 2 [ ] c. Year 3 [ ] d. Year 4 [ ] e. Year 5 [ ] 5. Employment Status: a. Employed [ ] b. Unemployed [ ] c. Self-employed [ ]

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Theme 1 – Learners’ Awareness of Moodle Please indicate if you are aware of the existence of MOODLE as an instructional medium in enhancing self-directedness? 1.1 What is your understanding of interactive learning tools? 1.2 Which interactive learning tools have you used? 1.3 According to your understanding, what is MOODLE? 1.4 How did you become aware of MOODLE? 1.5 How does UNESWA introduce the Adult learners to MOODLE? 1.6 How effective is the training to the Adult learners? 1.7 How long have you been using MOODLE?

Theme 2 – Learners’ Self-Motivation How do you view the impact of using MOODLE as an instructional medium on learner self-motivation? 2.1 Do you have internet access at home? 2.2 Do you have internet access at work? 2.3 How often do you log on to MOODLE? 2.4 What motivates you to log on to this platform? 2.5 Please share some of your experiences on using Moodle 2.6 What have been some of the challenges that learners experience in using MOODLE as a learning platform? 2.7 What recommendations do you have on the future of MOODLE in teaching and learning activities?

Theme 3 – Mastery of Moodle How well have you mastered using MOODLE as an instructional medium? 3.1 What do you often use MOODLE for (quizzes, forums, chats, etc) 3.2 Do you think you have mastered the concept well enough? If not, why? 3.3 What do you think can be done to help you master it better?

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Theme 4 –Learners’ Participation in Moodle Sessions How does MOODLE as an instructional medium impact of learner participation? 4.1 How do you think MOODLE impacts on Adult learners’ participation in teaching and learning? 4.2 Are the interactive learning tools (forums, chats, etc) in MOODLE utilized effectively enough by both learners and instructors to increase learner participation? If no, what do you think could be the reason? 4.3 What is your opinion on using MOODLE as a learning platform?

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Theme 5 – Learners’ Self-Directedness

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5.1 What do you understand by self-directedness? 5.2 How does the concept apply in Adult Education? 5.3 How does MOODLE in particular help the Adult Learners to become self-directed? 5.4 How can MOODLE be improved to enhance adult learner self-directedness?

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Arrangements for Online Engagements of Distance Learners in the Wake of the COVID-19 Pandemic Samuel Amponsah https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4303-4863 University of Ghana, Ghana Simon-Peter Kafui Aheto University of Ghana, Ghana Gideon Mensah Anapey University of Ghana, Ghana Olivia Oatf Kwapong University of Ghana, Ghana

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ABSTRACT The University of Ghana Distance Education Programme was not spared from the disruptions brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. Management of the Department needed to make a radical move to shift from its hybrid system of delivery to a full-fedged online delivery. In spite of the limited time for this move, a lot of creative planning had to go into this, which led to a virtual training of 340 tutors, through four modules, to prepare them adequately for the task. Aside from assessing the planning and the virtual training aforementioned, this refective paper also delves into other important issues such as the rolling out of a virtual/online academic and counselling support and architecture for monitoring of all the 228 courses that were moved onto the online space. This paper has implications for both policy and institutions that might be faced with similar circumstances, and it makes suggestions for exploration of other useful tools for delivery and monitoring that would contribute to better online engagements.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch012

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 Arrangements for Online Engagements of Distance Learners in the Wake of the COVID-19 Pandemic

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INTRODUCTION Though the concept and practice of distance learning appear to be a recent emergence that is associated with higher education, it has been in existence for over six decades and pre-dates the independence of Ghana, which took place on March 6, 1957. Before the University of Gold Coast, now the University of Ghana was established in 1948 (University of Ghana, 2020a), higher education could only be accessed via Fourah Bay University in Sierra Leone or by correspondence which was the first generation of distance education known to Ghanaians. Correspondence courses were rather offered by educational institutions in Britain such as Rapid Results College, University Correspondence College and Wosley Hall. Today, we have a combination of both public and private educational institutions, offering distance learning programmes across the globe. Distance education is a term used to describe a mode of learning mostly between geographically apart individuals who essentially use technological tools such as print, audiotapes, videotapes, radio, television, internet media and all forms of multi-media systems to transmit knowledge, communications amongst and between students and teachers and the management of the education process (Anderson & Rivera-Vargas, 2020, p. 209). It is, however, worth noting that the best distance learning approach is the one that reduces the presence of the physical distance or student isolation in the teaching and learning processes. Thus, the more the interaction or engagement between the learner and the teacher, the better. But, all these must be moderated by some form of technology to reduce the human interface during the interactions. In the Ghanaian context, distance education has been embraced to the point that Lakai, AnkomahAsare and Nsowah-Nuamah (2016) recorded that nine tertiary institutions were offering distance education programmes. Out of the nine, four were public institutions while the remaining five were private. One of the highest points in Ghana’s efforts at providing learning at a distance occurred around 2013 when myjoyonline (2013) reported that Ghana was ranked number one in Africa by the International Telecoms Union Report, concerning the number of people using or connected to mobile broadband. This was necessitated by the massive strides that had been made with the adoption of mobile technologies as a conduit for distance learning. Consequently, Larry (2016) reported that by the end of 2015, Ghana’s mobile voice penetration rate had surged to 128%, a percentage that surpassed projections by telecommunication experts. From the above, distance education in Ghana has made significant gains in its mission of making quality education more accessible and relevant to meet the learning needs of Ghanaians to enhance their performance and improve the quality of their lives (Government of Ghana, 2002). However, these gains and expected progress have been hard-hit by the Coronavirus or COVID-19 Pandemic, which has been spreading rapidly across the world, since December 2019. As noted by Parker (2020), the virus has affected everyone and has left a strain on education and all other aspects of life. The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2020) estimated that over 90% of the global student population has been sent home and has been staying out of school since the pandemic assumed a global crisis status in March 2020. The UN Ghana (2020) estimates the figures of children and youth who are out of school due to the COVID-19 pandemic at 1.6 million, globally. By May 6, 2020, UNESCO (2020) estimated that as many as 177 countries had closed schools because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The closure of schools forms part of concerted efforts by world leaders and institutions to fight the spread of the virus. Based on the global efforts to curtail the spread of the pandemic, the President of the Republic of Ghana, on 15th March 2020 announced a series of measures to curb the spread of the virus in Ghana 226

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(myjoyonline, 2020). He announced the closure of all schools and an institution of social distancing as well as enhanced personal hygiene protocols. The President, however, directed the ministries of Education and Communication to ensure that they roll out distance and remote learning programmes for all students (Aciafrica, 2020). The President’s directives are in line with the proposition by the COL (2020) that there is a need for some form of technology or media to restore communication between teachers and students. It also resonates with Corbera, Anguelovski, Honey-Rosés, and Ruiz-Mallén’s (2020) advocacy for the need to learn new ways of operating within the educational landscape. Per the directives of the President of Ghana, the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the Ministry of Communications rolled out distance learning programmes across all levels of education. As a result, efforts were made by various educational institutions to leverage different technologies and learning management systems to engage students for teaching and learning purposes. The Distance Education Department of the University of Ghana, which had been using the hybrid system, hitherto the advent of the pandemic, had no option than to roll out a full-fledged online distance learning programme in its true sense of the word and practice, by the middle of April 2020. This was, indeed, a very sharp learning curve that had to happen overnight. In this reflective paper, the authors conceptualize the processes involved in the somewhat radical shift from a blended learning (BL) mode to a full-fledged online mode of distance education. The intention of this paper is not to proffer a boilerplate for other institutions but the authors believe the strategies and processes followed can be beneficial to other institutions which might be faced with similar circumstances that called for a swift shift in their operations.

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BACKGROUND TO ONLINE ENGAGEMENT IN GHANAIAN HIGHER EDUCATION The establishment of the Department of Distance Education of the University of Ghana dates back to the late 1950s when the University of Ghana had Learning Centres, which were called Workers’ Colleges, established in all the then-ten regions of Ghana, under the Institute of Adult Education, now School of Continuing and Distance Education (SCDE). In 1973, the Correspondence Unit was started to produce learning materials for the General Certificate of Education (GCE) Ordinary Level in English, Economics, General Science, Mathematics among others (University of Ghana, 2020b). The actual attention to provide distance education in its true sense at the University of Ghana happened when the University launched its programme on 23 November 2007 with 1,127 applicants, of which 907 enrolled (Amponsah, 2010). The programme started with five courses, namely: Sociology, Economics, Linguistics, Psychology, and Geography and Resource Development (University of Ghana, 2020b). The two main objects behind the establishment of the University of Ghana Distance Education Programme were: first, to broaden access to qualified applicants who, otherwise, would not have been admitted into the University due to inadequate space on the main campus. The second object was to offer an option for individuals whose work and family obligations could preclude them from being regular or resident students on the University campus. The objectives and mission of the University of Ghana’s Department of Distance Education are to: • •

widen access to the University of Ghana’s academic programmes through technology-mediated learning; mount marketable academic programmes that will be attractive to [their] clientele;

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•

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•

harness the potential of cutting-edge educational technology that will reduce the space between the lecturer and the distance learner; and provide students’ support systems that will maintain a high retention rate among distance learners of the University (University of Ghana, 2020a).

Despite the novel objective to leverage on technology to widen access to education and adopt cuttingedge technologies, the first six years (2007 to 2013) of the University of Ghana Distance Education Programme witnessed the practice of being predominantly print-based, which was supplemented with regular face-to-face tutorial meetings at the regional study centres. This practice resonates with Taylor’s (2001) first generation of distance education that is characterized by correspondence which relies mainly on print technology. Major efforts at incorporating technology into the University of Ghana distance education programme gathered steam around 2010. However, it was not, until March 2012, that the University Council approved the University’s Information and Communication Policy. Two years later, the Business and Executive Committee of the University sanctioned the Policies and Procedures on Technology-Mediated Courses and Programme in E-Learning (ICT Deployment Committee Report, 2014). With the tone set for the incorporation of technology in distance learning, Awiah (2015) asserts that ICT facilities were installed in eight out of the eleven learning centres of the University. This led to the eventual launching of the Sakai Learning Management System, which the ICT Deployment Committee Report (2014) advised should be deployed to run a bimodal or hybrid delivery of content to students. What this meant to do was to blend the traditional teaching modules that had been in existence since the programme’s inception in 2007 with the Sakai Learning Management System (University of Ghana, 2020b). With this in place, the University of Ghana Distance Education Programme has been delivering quality distance education to all its eleven learning centres, namely: Accra, Bolgatanga, Cape Coast, Koforidua, Kumasi, Ho/Tsito, Sunyani, Takoradi, Tamale, Tema, and Wa, since 2014. Inarguably, strides have been made in the University of Ghana distance education programme in terms of the shift from traditional forms of delivery to the incorporation of technology. It is obvious the second, third and fourth generations of distance education established by Taylor (2001) had been integrated into the programme. Thus, the introduction of multi-media models, video teleconferencing and flexible learning by multimedia and internet access respectively has been worthwhile. However, Taylor’s (2001) fifth generation, characterized by intelligent, flexible learning model, which leverages on the interactive nature of the internet, marked by intuitive computer-mediated communication, using automated response systems had not been attained by the University. Despite the strides made and the introduction of the Sakai Learning Management System to ensure a hybrid system was deployed, the orientation of both instructors and students was still not fully tuned to the new system. For the majority of instructors, the Sakai Learning platform was simply a space to upload study materials while students only downloaded for their consumption. There was a one-time online interim assessment, which was confronted with several challenges. The end of semester examinations were not conducted online. Rather, it was conducted at the learning centres in-person. With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated requirement for observation of social distancing protocols, that resulted in the closure of schools in Ghana and many other countries, there was no way the University could sustain the blended form of delivery. Though Koomson (2020) argued that Ghana, positioned in the Global South, has not achieved online parity to swiftly move online as witnessed in developed countries. Marshall and Moore (2020) tout the achievements of Ethiopia and India 228

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in their swift resort to moving their schools online in the face of COVID-19. In launching the Global COVID-19 Education Coalition, the Director-General of UNESCO (UNESCO, 2020, p. 2) said, ‘this effort is an opportunity to rethink education, scale-up distance learning and make education systems more resilient, open and innovative.” Thus, some radical efforts needed to be put in place to sustain engagements between faculty and students and among the two parties in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the foregoing, the managers of the University of Ghana Distance Education Programme had to swiftly work to move all courses from a hybrid to a full-fledged online mode. The sections that follow delve into the approaches that were adopted to roll out a hundred per cent distance learning programme without any face-to-face component and the lessons that emerged.

LEARNER-ENGAGEMENTS, ARRANGEMENTS AND EXPERIENCES DURING THE COVID-19 LOCKDOWN Prior to the introduction of the Free Senior High School Policy by the current government in 2017, the average distance education enrolments into four Ghanaian public universities (University of Cape Coast, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Education, Winneba, and University of Ghana) were 52,005 (± 14, 198) students annually; thus, 22% increase (Ministry of Education, 2020, p. 44). The imperatives of the new basic education reforms for Ghanaian tertiary institutions are worthy of note. Perhaps, technology integration could be part of the solution as succinctly articulated by the 2007 Education Reform, chaired by Professor Jophus-Anamuah Mensah. Accounts on innovative modes of educational delivery that help learners to actively engage with content (Parker, 2020; Corbera, et al., 2020; Taylor, 2001; Awiah, 2015), and learner-centred engagements (Conrad & Donaldson, 2004) provide context for our experience sharing on arrangements for full online instructions: the case of the University of Ghana’s Distance Education Programme.

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Planning Phase for Online Engagement During the COVID-19 Lockdown Our planning activities in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic’s disruption to education was premised on two important strategic goals of the Department of Distance Education: (a) to harness the potential of cutting-edge educational technology that will reduce the space between the lecturer and the distance learner, and (b) to provide students’ support systems that will maintain high retention rate among distance learners of the University. Leadership is critical in strategic visioning and management of information technology in higher education, a position shared by Drabier (2003). Rising costs, accountability demands, and productivity pressures have contributed to the demand for strategic leadership in Information Technology resources in institutions, Drabier observed. In the case of the University of Ghana’s Distance Programme, the Dean of the School of Continuing and Distance Education and the Head of the Department of Distance Education led faculty and staff to envision and implement protocols in the wake of the COVID-19 disruption to the educational activities, globally. Consequently, our experience-sharing account aptly used technological platforms to continue the engagement, and delivery of quality education to 8,014 registered students on the Distance Education Programme. The planning phase of the online engagement involved the identification of training, monitoring, supports, counselling, and assessment strategies.

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The planning considerations for moving teaching and learning to full-fledged online delivery for the Distance Education Programme were based on learning curves from its hybrid mode. Since 2014, the Department had implemented its online tutorials, using the Sakai-LMS with over 90% of courses migrated onto the platform. Thus, our distance education students and some tutors had some experiences of online learning but there was the need to train and upscale our newly recruited tutors’ andragogic experiences of online learning. Indeed, skills for full-fledged online learning in the twenty-first century required advanced planning and accounting for diverse learning styles (Smith, 2008). Engaging the online learner using the social constructivists’ theory was an important consideration in our online tutor-training module. Evidence suggests that learners’ appreciation of content is best influenced by their knowledge acquired from their personal and social context (Collison, Elbaum, Haavind, & Tinker, 2000). However, Conrad & Donaldson (2004) were quick to add that time was an important factor in guiding learners in the learning environment, based on the desired outcome of the constructivism model. Conrad and Donaldson recommended that engaged learning practices should focus on providing interactivity and avoid solely the instructor-centred methodology. As such, the department considered multimedia skills as an important engagement tool for a full-fledged online teaching strategy at the planning phase. We were also informed by the low technology environment observed for many Ghanaian public universities (Yidana, 2007). Monitoring and evaluation functions are sub-sets of planning as a managerial function. In the view of Brooks (2003), evaluation of new technology or methodology against best practices provides a framework for reengineering. Hence, our online tutorials were supervised to ensure that students’ learning outcomes were achieved. Prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the DE programme was monitored during face-to-face tutorial sessions; and this useful part served as a quality assurance standard for the distance programme. The final planning phase to manage instructional activities during the lockdown considered student and staff support services. Social distancing regulations meant that face-to-face services delivery was curtailed. Our planning had to apply creative means to meet academic support services involving attesting letters, recommendation, and general enquiries. Mental health and career guidance services for our distance learners were also considered on an LMS.

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Online Training for Distance Tutors Historically, technology-based training gained prominence in the 1970s under a label called Computerbased Training (CBT) that was designed to deliver performance-based instructions, that reduced skill gaps (Woodall, 2000). As part of efforts to complete the academic year, the department organised 15 hours of virtual training for tutors with 340 attendees from the 11 learning centres nationwide. In line with Woodall’s thinking, these efforts helped in bridging our tutors’ skill gaps on full-fledged online instruction and further helped to continue the delivery of the online lesson on the University’ Sakai LMS and other social media platforms in line with Management’s teaching protocols for the COVID-19 locked-down. It is worth emphasising that long-term preparatory works to digitise the University of Ghana’s Distance Programme must be lauded. Fortunately, 95% of the distance education courses were populated on the Sakai-LMS by course examiners from the various departments across the University. However, the vast majority of our newly appointed tutors were also receiving first time lessons on the University’s LMS. For effective engagement with learners, the DE tutors received CBT (Zoom) on four modules namely: • 230

theory and practice of online tutoring and learning,

 Arrangements for Online Engagements of Distance Learners in the Wake of the COVID-19 Pandemic

• • •

use of UG-Sakai LMS and other online resources, assessment in online learning, and learner and tutor support in web-based instruction.

Module 1 explored the principles and philosophy of web-based education, the dichotomies and similarities between web-based learning and traditional classroom learning, designing web-based courses for different learning styles (auditory, visual, etc.), the application of andragogic approaches to delivering content, and the creation of interactivity for the online learners, based on the social-constructivist approaches. Continuous professional development practices guided the authors’ decision to provide requisite skills for developing online content. Hence, we designed Module 2 to help tutors deliver online content using the Sakai-LMS and other open-source applications, based on subject-specific demands. These included instructional design, leveraging online learning technologies to enhance teaching and learning, design and implementation of effective tutorials using multimedia principles, and evaluation of online teaching. Module 3 (Assessment in online learning) equipped tutors with the rights and responsibilities of test-takers, writing test items for diverse learning domains, roles of validity and reliability in test items construction drawing on Bloom’s Taxonomy and table of specification, and identification of various test administration tools on the Sakai-LMS (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Screenshot of online training module 3

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Source: https://sakai.ug.edu.gh/portal/site/67634cf9-18bb-4649-a18d-c9a1c5823d9b/tool/

Learner-support is a crucial ingredient in online learning environments, as it helps to prevent student resistance. Instructional technologists fully appreciate sources of resistance with learner-centred approaches. Weimer (2002) identifies increased workload and varied skill levels for students to cope

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with online learning as sources of resistance. Hence, our Module 4 guided tutors to appreciate varied supports for both tutors and students in an online learning context, managing feedbacks, and provision of guidance services to students across the 11 learning centres. Recognising the role of guidance and counselling services for the minimisation of resistance in learner-centred teaching strategies, our next section discusses virtual support services to the students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Virtual Students’ Support and Counselling Services Professional counsellors’ roles have been extended to accommodate innovative disruptions of the 21st century. To become an academic conscious of learning environments, Dahir’s (2008) lists change agent, leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and data analytics decision-making as required competencies for academic counsellors. Therefore, the chapter was determined to create memorable learning experiences for the DE students, as part of our virtual engagement portfolio during the COVID-19. Academic support services were provided on the Sakai-LMS (Figure 2), thereby reducing the person-to-person contacts. Similarly, career guidance and counselling services (learning and emotional challenges, career decisions, developmental and mental issues) were provided on LMS. Students reached out to the resident counsellors, using Google Forms (as intake forms). We elicited personal details and presented complaints from counselees. Counsellors also reached out to the counselees through phone calls and Zoom meetings. Successfully, 8,014 students’ data was uploaded onto the University’s Sakai-LMS (https://sakai.ug.edu. gh/portal) platform and was accessible to counsellors who could send bulk emails to all students. Besides, the Careers and Counselling Centre was accessible to students through phone calls only. The added value the department shared with students was the synchronous and asynchronous support services available to students. Refreshingly, with a mean age of 23 (± 5.05), 29 distance education students accessed various online counselling services between April and July. 2020. Five main counselling issues emerged - career guidance, mental health, anxiety, and stress, which could have impacted negatively on learners’ online engagement experiences, whilst observing social distance protocols. Finally, live career guidance sessions were organised on Zoom for students on career choices, job search, portfolio design and presentations, interviewing for entry-level jobs, communication skills, and resume writing.

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Online Monitoring Model The practice of virtual monitoring of academic work is not new. Lera-López, Faulin, Juan and Cavaller (2010) monitored students’ activity and performance in an online higher education environment and found a significant relationship. Akhtar, Warburton and Xu (2017) on the other hand succeeded in predicting students’ participation against their success through a similar system. Having had records of successful courseware development on Sakai, the department decided to explore ways of integrating a virtual monitoring system into the teaching and learning activities that went fully online due to the COVID-19 lockdown. Before transitioning into a full-fledged online mode, the department practised an in-person monitoring system, which required that face-to-face teaching and learning or tutorials at the various Regional Learning Centres be supervised. The face-to-face teaching and learning or tutorial monitoring system comprised all senior members of the department across the country. Their role as quality assurance officers did not limit them to only report on class activities, commentaries and queries from tutors and students on particular courses. Their presence also helped in ensuring that the interest of students 232

 Arrangements for Online Engagements of Distance Learners in the Wake of the COVID-19 Pandemic

Figure 2. Students’ academic support and counselling services portal

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Source: https://sakai.ug.edu.gh/portal/site/67634cf9-18bb-4649-a18d-c9a1c5823d9b/tool/

was protected. For instance, they helped with course advising or processes involved in resolving some student-related problems. Upon the decision that migrating academic work into a full-fledged online mode without sacrificing the University’s academic standards and that of quality assurance principles, a virtual monitoring system (VMS) of the DE programme was put in place. The decision by the department to put in place a virtual monitoring system was in line with standard practices in the virtual delivery of education across the globe. Bates and Sangra (2011) have underscored the need to leverage on technology to include quality assurance strategies in the design of virtual or online distance education programmes. Our framework of online tutorial monitoring has been captioned in Figure 3 under the leadership of the Dean and the Head of Department, Level 1. The COVID-19 pandemic could provide opportunities for failure in the deployment of virtual learning due to the ad-hoc measures needed to complete the semester. Several virtual spaces to support students have not succeeded due to the lack of preparations (McPherson and Nunes, 2004a). The eight-level virtual monitoring model and implementation plan approved by the department as shown in Figure 3 largely a scalar chain (vertical hierarchy) of actors in the monitoring chain. The arrows show where support could be drawn from, and in this case, the superiors also contributed support services through professional and academic support. The side support mainly made up of a team of six administrative and technical assistants, which mounted surveillance and helped staff and students with administrative issues only. For instance, students were assisted with their login details and in some cases directed to the appropriate site for the department’s virtual counselling services. The staff were also supported in getting themselves linked up to courses, missing course materials and other emerging issues. Generally, their roles also included re-hashing of announcements for scheduled classes or meetings.

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Figure 3. Virtual learning monitoring model

Tait (2018) espoused that leaders for Open and Distance Education needed to be technology-minded and advanced in terms of strategic partnerships among networks; these qualities are embodied in the model. The model pivots around technology and networks of people led by the Dean. The Dean (Level 0) was the Chief monitor and ultimate officer, answerable to the Provost of the College of Education and the College Academic Board. However, at Level 0, the Dean had oversight responsibility for all activities that took place on all the course sites. The HOD at Level 1 and the Dean, both conducted programme and periodic checks on all the course sites at regular intervals on the various scheduled video-enabled classes. They made arrangements for training sessions and peer support to tutors and students who needed some collegial support of that sort. Levels 2 and 3 are also Lecturers and Assistant lecturers, numbering 30. The lecturers were not left out from the model as Dillon and Walsh (1992) described as the neglected resource in Distance Education. All the lecturers who also doubled as examiners for various courses in their fields monitored virtual teaching and learning activities among the tutors and students (Levels 4 to 6). They (Levels 2 and 3) were the liaisons between all the higher and lower ranks on the VMS. They also ran individual, smaller and large group pieces of training together with day to day technical support. The Level 2 officials submitted 3 extensive reports to the Dean (Level 0) through the HOD (Level 1). The various tools utilised by both students and staff were analysed and discussed for the performance evaluation and improvement. It was found that the Announcement, Chat, Forum and Email tools were the most utilized. Again, the

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zoom application appears to be user-friendly to students and tutors. Though it was evident that Sakai was zero-rated, students preferred to spend more on data bundle in order to use video applications such as zoom and Big Blue Button (BBB). This development appears to suggest that the corporation did not want to depart from the practices and legacies of the face-to-face learning environment. Tutors are not just intermediaries between students and the institution. McPherson and Nunes (2004b) reiterate the importance of tutors in virtual learning. Levels 4 and 5 are Lead Tutors and Tutors respectively who were made up of 351 contract staff. The least qualification for this position was a Master’s degree. Prior to the commencement of the virtual learning, they handled tutorial sessions at the various Regional Learning Centres. The tutors were then clustered from the national database according to courses they handled during the face-to-face mode. This clustering was followed up by a series of qualifying virtual training courses before they were appointed and migrated onto the virtual space. Lead tutor roles were created as a coordinating role. A Lead tutor’s role was that of a liaison between other tutors and the lecturers and if the need was, the students. Their level of monitoring also included the compilation of academic challenges that arose during the session. In consultation with the lecturers, they also had the power to arrange for back-up plans from among the list of tutors if a tutor had technological challenges with a particular tutorial session. They assisted in compiling and filing returns of weekly activities and sessions done outside the Sakai LMS. The tutor monitoring role was very simple. They served as watchdogs who did not only engage students for their tutorials but also checked to find out if all materials were duly uploaded on the course sites. They were responsible for monitoring discipline and class attendance of students. Students at Level 6 played an important and integral part of the model. More so, they were adult learners who understood their self-directed learning environment and could contribute to creating it (Knowles, Holton III & Swanson, 2014). Since they were the clientele in this virtual enterprise, their monitoring duties emanated from their feedback on how the system fared. Avenues for feedback from students included a Course site reporting system, email, telephone services and the mail or letter system. Complaints that came from students were analysed and resolved for them. Student complains largely had to do with students who missed, or could not submit their assignments. The unique part of Level 6 was that, though the model followed a scalar chain of authority, in some cases the bureaucracy was broken down. Students did not always have to go through tutors to get their issues resolved.

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CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS In conclusion, the focus of this conceptual paper is to document lessons learnt from the online engagements of Distance Education learners at the University of Ghana following the interruption of academic work by the COVID-19 global pandemic. The interruption led to the University management’s decision to fully migrate teaching and learning activities online. Sakai remained the official LMS for the online engagements which covered 228 courses sites, a training platform for tutors and Student and Staff-Support Services for UGDE students. Among other things, the support services included Academic, Career and Counselling and Informational services which were all deployed online. Online assessment strategies were also deployed to help assess students continuously. The paper traces the trajectory from the preparation stage to how quality was assured through an online monitoring model of vertical chain headed by the Dean of the School of Continuing and Distance Education and assisted by the Head, Department of

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Distance Education. Students (primary monitors) also played a validation role on the monitoring model to confirm whether, or not, instructions took place and the resource folders adequately populated. This paper has implications on a number of issues. The implications are not limited to policy direction and quality assurance in online distance education delivery, especially for Ghana, but also, institutions planning to deploy online learning during and beyond a pandemic. Implications on tutor management and training for sustainable Online Distance Education are also important. Finally, the virtual monitoring model also provides clear roles of leadership to manage online engagements, prevent leadership crises and create room for follow-ups on student progress, in order to reduce attrition rates of Distance Education students.

REFERENCES Aciafrica. (2020). Ghana rolls out E-learning platform for high school students amid closure of schools. Retrieved from https://www.aciafrica.org/news/1008/ghana-rolls-out-e-learning-platform-for-high-schoolstudents-amid-closure-of-schools Akhtar, S., Warburton, S., & Xu, W. (2017). The use of an online learning and teaching system for monitoring computer aided design student participation and predicting student success. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 27(2), 251–270. doi:10.100710798-015-9346-8 Amponsah, S. (2010). The evolution and implementation strategies of the University of Ghana Bachelor of Arts Distance Education Programme [unpublished M.Phil thesis]. Legon: University of Ghana. Anderson, T., & Rivera-Vargas, P. (2020). A critical look at educational technology from a distance education perspective. Digital Education Review, (37), 208-229. Retrieved from https://revistes.ub.edu/ index.php/der/article/view/30917/pdf Awiah, D. M. (2015). University of Ghana inaugurates ICT project. https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/ general-news/university-of-ghana-inaugurates-ict-project.html Bates, A. T., & Sangra, A. (2011). Managing technology in higher education: Strategies for transforming teaching and learning. John Wiley & Sons.

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Brooks, L. (2003). Finding the vision: Shaping technology support services in the twenty-first century institution. In C. E. Regenstein & B. I. Dewey (Eds.), Leadership, higher education, and the informatoin age (pp. 39–57). Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc. Collison, G., Elbaum, B., Haavind, S., & Tinker, R. (2000). Facilitating online learning: Effective strategies for moderators. Atwood. Commonwealth of Learning (2020). Guidelines on distance education during COVID-19. Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada: Commonwealth of Learning. Conrad, R.-M., & Donaldson, J. A. (2004). Engaging the online learner. John Wiley & sons, Inc.

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Corbera, E., Anguelovski, I., Honey-Rosés, J., & Ruiz-Mallén, I. (2020). Academia in the time of COVID-19: Our chance to develop an ethics care. Laboratory for the Analysis of Social-Ecological Systems in a Globalised world. Retrieved, May 5, 2020 from: https:// www.laseg.cat/en/news/22/academia-inthe-time-of-covid-19-our-chance-to-develop-an-ethics-of-care Dahir, C. A. (2008). School counseling: Moving toward standards and models. In H. L. Coleman & C. Yeh (Eds.), Handbook of school counseling (pp. 37–47). Taylor & Francis Group. Dillon, C. L., & Walsh, S. M. (1992). Faculty: The neglected resource in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 6(3), 5–21. doi:10.1080/08923649209526796 Drabier, R. (2003). Developing a compuswide vision for use of information technology in teaching and learning. In C. E. Regenstein & B. I. Dewey (Eds.), Leadership, higher education, and the information age (pp. 3–10). Neal-Schuman. Ghana, U. N. (2020). COVID-19: Socio-economic impact in Ghana. Retrieved July 11, 2020, from https://ghana.un.org/sites/default/files/2020-05/No3_%20UN%20Ghana%20COVID-19%20Briefing%20 Note_2020_05_11_FINAL%20v2.pdf Government of Ghana. (2002). Meeting the challenges of education in the twenty first century. Report of the President’s Committee on Review of Education Reforms in Ghana. Government of Ghana. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F. III, & Swanson, R. A. (2014). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315816951 Koomson, W. (2020). Ghana’s educational institutions operating distance learning programmes. Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/ghanas-educational-institutions-operating-distance-learning-programs Laary, D. (2016). Ghana: Mobile phone penetration soars to 128%. The Africa Report. Retrieved from: www.theafricareport.com/West-Africa/ghana-mobile-phone-penetration-soars-to-128.html Lakai, A. T., & Ankomah-Asare, E. T., & Nsowah-Nuamah. (2016). Distance education in Ghana: An overview of enrolment and programme patterns. Proceedings of INCEDI 2016 Conference, 184-190.

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Lera-López, F., Faulin, J., Juan, A. A., & Cavaller, V. (2010). Monitoring students’ activity and performance in online higher education: A European perspective. In Monitoring and Assessment in Online Collaborative Environments: Emergent Computational Technologies for E-Learning Support (pp. 131148). IGI Global. Marshall, L., & Moore, R. (2020). Access to digital learning during COVID-19 closures compounding educational inequality? Retrieved from https://www.ukfiet.org/2020/access-to-digital-learning-duringcovid-19-closures-compounding-educational-inequality/ McPherson, M., & Nunes, M. B. (2004a). The role of tutors as a integral part of online learning support. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-learning, 7(1). McPherson, M., & Nunes, M. B. (2004b). The failure of a virtual social space (VSS) designed to create a learning community: Lessons learned. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(3), 305–321. doi:10.1111/j.0007-1013.2004.00391.x

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Ministry of Education. (2020, July 19). Ghana education sector performance report 2015. Retrieved from Education sector performance report 2015: https://new-ndpc-static1.s3.amazonaws.com/CACHES/ PUBLICATIONS/2016/03/22/Education+Sector+Performance+Report+(ESPR)+2015_Final.pdf Myjoyonline, (2013). Increase use of smartphones made Ghana No-1in mobile broadband penetration. Retrieved from: business.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201301/99976.php Myjoyonline. (2020). Timeline: Ghana’s fight against Covid-19 exactly a month after recording first cases. Retrieved from: https://coronavirus.com.gh/timeline-ghanas-fight-against-covid-19-exactly-amonth-after-recording-first-cases/ Parker, A. (2020). Coronavirus (COVID-19): A new era for online education? Proceedings of SOCIOINT, 2020(7th). https://library.umsu.ac.ir/uploads/3565.pdf Report of the Committee for the Deployment of ICT in University of Ghana Academic Processes. (2014). Submitted to the Pro Vice Chancellor (ASA). University of Ghana. Smith, R. M. (2008). Conquering the content: A step-by-step guide to online course design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Tait, A. (2018). Open Universities: The next phase. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal., 13(1), 13–23. doi:10.1108/AAOUJ-12-2017-0040 Taylor, J. C. (2001). Fifth generation distance education. Instrumentation Science & Technology, 4(1), 1–14. UNESCO. (2020). UNESCO rallies international organizations, civil society, and private sector partners in a broad Coalition to ensure #LearningNeverStop. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/news/unescorallies-international-organizations-civil-society-and-private-sector-partners-broad University of Ghana. (2020a). Establishment of the University. Retrieved from https://www.ug.edu.gh/ about/university-history University of Ghana. (2020b). Brief history. Retrieved from https://www.ug.edu.gh/distance/about/ brief_history Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centred teaching: Five key changes to practice. San-Francisco. Jossey-Bass.

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Woodall, D. (2000). Selecting off-the-shelf courseware and suppliers: CD-ROM, LAN, and Web. In The ASTD handbook of training design and delivery: A comprehensive guide to creating and delivering training programs-Instructor lead, computer-based or self-directed (pp. 176–195). McGraw-Hill. Yidana, I. (2007). Faculty perceptions of technology integration in the teacher education curriculum: A survey of two Ghanaian universities. Ohio University. Retrieved December 7, 2015, from https://etd. ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=ohiou1178570000

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ADDITIONAL READING Carvalho, S., Rossiter, J., Angrist, N., Hares, S., & Silverman, R. (2020). Planning for School Reopening and Recovery after COVID-19. Center for Global Development. Harasim, L. (2017). Learning theory and online technologies. Taylor & Francis. doi:10.4324/9781315716831 Settersten, R. A., Jr., Bernardi, L., Härkönen, J., Antonucci, T. C., Dykstra, P. A., Heckhausen, J., . . . Thomson, E. (2020). Understanding the effects of Covid-19 through a life course lens. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pmc/about/covid-19/

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Assessment: The process of checking the performance of students. Counselling: Guiding individuals to help address issues that bother them. Educational Technology: Information and communications tools or gadgets that are used for the purpose of teaching and learning. Evaluation: The process of finding out the impact or outcome of an activity at the end of it. Monitoring: The process of checking the progress of an activity as it is going, in order to address or provide remedies for any anomalies. Quality Assurance: The act of ensuring that set standards are met. Support: Enabling measures for helping an individual. Training: Equipping individuals with required knowledge, skills and capabilities. Tutors: Facilitators of teaching and learning engagements. Virtual: Interactions that are done online.

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Chapter 13

Investigating the Readiness of a Developing Country to Adopt Blended Learning as a Pedagogical Approach During the COVID-19 Pandemic:

A Case for the Great Zimbabwe University Tobias Marevesa Philosophy and Religious Studies Department, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe Esther Mavengano English and Media Studies Department, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, Culture and Heritage Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe

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ABSTRACT Face-to-face as a model of instruction is most preferred by instructors in Zimbabwe and particularly those at Great Zimbabwe University. Lecturers at this institution feel more comfortable and confdent delivering their content through lectures. Therefore, the transformation from face-to-face instruction to blended learning is a challenge that requires serious academic conversations. Knowles’ adult learning theory is utilised in this study to interrogate the preparedness and readiness of both staf and students at the Great Zimbabwe University to pave the way for a pedagogical shift from face-to-face instruction to blended learning in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. The major contention in this study is that the conception of blended learning and its didactical and pedagogical approach is still a problematic transition for instructors at the Great Zimbabwe University. It was concluded that while this may be the case, blended learning could still be a panacea to the problems of the outbreak of coronavirus disease.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch013

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 Investigating the Readiness of a Developing Country to Adopt Blended Learning

INTRODUCTION Tamrat and Teferra (2020) observed that COVID-19 had a severe threat to higher education. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic affected university education globally to the point where learning had to be transitioned into other formats. Most institutions moved into online instruction or blended learning. However, the transition from face-to-face to blended learning in the context of COVID-19 pandemic was problematic (Ngubane, Blose, Mtembu, and Hlongwa, 2020). Dealing with the new challenges brought on by the pandemic was a tall order for university communities that were seriously under-resourced and underrepresented in decisions pertaining to the suggestions for education delivery made by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The realities faced by institutions in developing countries were disregarded. A recent study by Mdiniso (2020) reveals that institutions of higher learning in the developing world were not prepared for the pedagogical shift during the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter seeks to explore the challenges posed by the abrupt shift in instruction that one institution, Great Zimbabwe University, had to make in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter is guided by the following research questions: How prepared were both students and faculty at the Great Zimbabwe University to embrace the pedagogical shift to blended learning (BL) during the COVID-19 pandemic? What were the challenges experienced by Great Zimbabwe University in adopting BL as a method of instruction? Was blended learning a more effective pedagogical model of instruction compared to the traditional face-to-face approach for Great Zimbabwe University and other less developed countries such as Zimbabwe?

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BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Zimbabwe, as a developing country, was hard hit by the disruptions triggered by the outbreak of coronavirus. In particular, higher education institutions’ delivery of instruction was hit immensely by the global pandemic. In this section, the situation faced by Zimbabwean institutions is brought into perspective. Sibanda and Muyambo (2020) argue that the COVID-19 pandemic caused bewilderment concerning Zimbabwe’s university education delivery. From the time of their conception, higher education institutions used the traditional face-to-face pedagogical approach as the primary instructional delivery mode. However, the danger of the COVID-19 pandemic and the ultimate lockdown protocols set by the World Health Organisation became impediments to this delivery approach and necessitated a pedagogical shift. Consequently, despite a lack of readiness and preparedness, institutions had no choice but to shift from a traditional face-to-face to a blended learning approach even though Zimbabwe had been haunted by her political and socio-economic woes since 2000 (Mavengano, 2019 Marevesa, 2016 and Raftopoulos, 2013). The Great Zimbabwe University was faced with the same dilemma as it is informed by Zimbabwe’s challenging socio-economic environment. Mdiniso (2020) pointed out that institutions all over South Africa also faced similar issues. This point amplifies the plight of universities in Zimbabwe as South Africa’s economy is far better than that of Zimbabwe. Even more, this demonstrates the dire straits faced by Great Zimbabwe University with its underprivileged communities. The Great Zimbabwe University faced a philosophical dilemma but ultimately reluctantly embraced blended learning.

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ADULT LEARNING THEORY/ ANDRAGOGY The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact has been of interest for quite some time as this has led to the rethinking and re-imagination of course delivery modalities. Knowles’ (1980/1984) adult learning theory, which is also known as andragogy, is often used as a framework to understand this phenomenon better. This theory’s central assumptions are pertinent in interrogating the pedagogical shift prompted during the coronavirus outbreak. Knowles (1984) proposes five assumptions and four principles that define adult learners, such as university students. Knowles explains that adult learners are different from children because as people grow older and become mature, they enjoy discovery modes of learning that offer the freedom to learn autonomously. The second assumption in the adult learning conceptual framework calls attention to the significance of the learner’s real-life experience, which s/he brings into the learning of new knowledge. The adult learner has already acquired skills and knowledge from the scenarios cultivated in the learning process. Knowles’ third assumption focuses on learner’s readiness to learn, which is achieved when learning is directed towards the adult learners’ growth and development. The fourth assumption, orientation to learning, foregrounds relevance and applicability to the learners’ everyday lives. This assumption suggests that learning should be meaningful and useful. The fifth assumption looks at the fundamental role of adult learners’ motivation in the learning experience. Finally, the learner should be self-driven to learn and discover new knowledge. The four principles are drawn from these five assumptions. The adult learners need to be active participants in all learning activities. This calls for learner-centered modalities of delivery which can be offered through blended learning. The proposed principles are discussed in detail in an attempt to interrogate the preparedness of both staff and learners for the pedagogical shift to blended learning that occurred at Great Zimbabwe University. Knowles’ adult learning theory provides assumptions useful to the pedagogical shift since it privileges the departure from teacher-centered to learner-centered learning delivery modalities. Considering that the Great Zimbabwe University is located in a developing country, it is essential to examine the far-reaching socio-economic implications of the pedagogical paradigm shift for marginalised and underprivileged learners. It cannot be overstated that the realities of developed and developing nations in terms of educational delivery are not the same since the former are well-resourced and the latter are under-resourced. It is, thus, necessary to explore the problems of embracing blended learning in an underprivileged community in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

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COURSE DELIVERY APPROACHES DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC With the swift spread of coronavirus disease across the world, universities were closed down and forced to consider how to teach differently. The alternative ways adopted in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic include online and blended learning (Ndimande-Hlongwa, Ramarathan, Mkhize, and Smit, 2020). However, the shift became a daunting experience for learners from underprivileged communities. The main intention of this section is to discuss delivery alternatives for Great Zimbabwe University.

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THE SHIFT TO BLENDED LEARNING AT GREAT ZIMBABWE The COVID-19 pandemic compelled higher education institutions like the Great Zimbabwe University to explore new ways of teaching and learning other than face-to-face. In line with the World Health Organisation’s lockdown recommendations, the Great Zimbabwe University closed its doors and embraced blended learning. For most developed countries, blended learning has been an essential part of pedagogy for quite some time. Yet, developing countries like Zimbabwe and Zambia face challenges in embracing blended learning’s modalities of delivery (Mwale and Chita, 2020). Blended learning in developed countries has experienced immense growth in education over the last few decades with the sophistication of software packages and the expansion of the internet. Blended learning has brought a novel paradigm shift. Mdiniso (2020) posits that the digital divide impedes the effective change to blended learning. Similarly, Tamrat and Teferra (2020) contend that in Africa, only 24% of the population has access to the internet and poor connectivity thus, going online would pose a serious challenge to both lecturers and students. The above observations are pertinent because they draw attention to the existence of socioeconomic inequalities that impact delivery in blended learning environments. This has adversely affected the learning and teaching at the Great Zimbabwe University, which has many students who struggle to have access to web-based learning (Sibanda and Muyambo, 2020). In the same vein, Mdiniso (2020) remarks that due to socio-economic inequalities, a significant number of underprivileged students in South Africa cannot afford the constant purchase of data as some institutions do not allocate data allowances to students. This remark is critical and relevant because the scenario described by Mdiniso is the same at Great Zimbabwe University, which struggles to allocate lecturers sufficient funds for data, not to mention allocation of the internet for students, which could be almost impossible. Students are expected to learn effectively through technology with the instructor as a facilitator, blending both the traditional face-to-face and modern web-based technologies in the present context at Great Zimbabwe University. This brings to the fore the idea of blended learning. Bryan and Volchenkova (2016) claim that the origins of blended learning pre-date the advent of digital technology, and its genealogy lies in distance learning through correspondence courses. Singh and Thurman (2019) define blended learning as learning using a variety of instructional modalities. Similarly, Graham (2006) has defined blended learning as the organic integration of thoughtfully selected and complementary face-to-face in-class teaching and web-based technologies that improve and expand students’ learning opportunities. In other words, blended learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction (Ngubane et al. 2020; Reis, 2012). Atef and Medhat (2015) also acknowledge the challenge of defining the concept of blended learning. Central to the approach is the use of multiple modes of teaching and learning. This means that the notion of blended learning refers to the provision of instruction and learning experiences through the amalgamation of face-to-face and technology-mediated learning. All these definitions of blended learning presented by different scholars concur and emphasize the multimodal delivery approach as part of the new norm in the educational domain. Since blended learning is an instructional methodology that utilises technology or online resources and face-to-face to deliver a more personalised and systematic approach to learning, giving students control over the time, place, path, and pace of their learning, its adoption and implementation at the Great Zimbabwe University call for a well-laid-out plan for the support system that ensures that effective learning takes place. In a different context but related to the present discussion, Lalima and Dangwal (2017) rightly observe that blended learning requires rigorous efforts, the right attitude, a handsome 243

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budget, and highly motivated educators and students for its successful implementation. In the context of COVID-19, blended learning is adopted by the Great Zimbabwe University to address multiple challenges created by the outbreak of coronavirus disease. Yet, both instructors and students have shown reluctance to embrace blended learning because there is a need to acquire essential skills for them to perform their respective functions effectively. Lalima and Dangwal (2017, p.133) further note that adopting blended teaching requires “certain fundamental preparations in all the aspects of teaching/ learning process, teacher, student, content designing and infrastructure.” This observation foregrounds the significance of preparedness at the institutional level and for lecturers and students who are critical stakeholders in successfully adopting blended learning. If the implementation is appropriately done at the Great Zimbabwe University, blended learning could be beneficial and convenient, particularly given the coronavirus disease’s context. Scholars such as Lalima and Dangwal (2017), Brittany (2015), and McGee and Reis (2012) have pointed out some benefits of adopting blended learning. This includes its potential to engage a variety of learning styles, its ability to enrich the overall learning experience, its provision of greater consistency in the content and quality of instruction being offered. Also, Garrisson and Vaughan (2008) believe that blended learning represents the transformation of how we approach teaching and learning and should, thus, have a significant impact on the way students work and learn in and outside the classroom making courses more participated, interactive and student-centered. Learners’ active engagement and autonomy are essential principles in adult learning theory (Knowles, 1984; Kearsley, 2010). Mwale and Chita (2020) point out that the use of new web technologies and online resources has exposed students to a variety of learning materials. In a situation where students do not face challenges in accessing such resources, self-directed learning is possible and effective. However, at the Great Zimbabwe University, accessibility of web-based resources is a major task due to general poor internet connectivity, lack of funds to get internet services for the institution, and individual lecturers and learners. Furthermore, blended learning offers students a sense of great accountability in the learning context. The synthesis of face-to-face and online modes transforms learning from passive reception of knowledge from the instructor to an active mental activity (Ananga and Biney, 2017). Knowles (1984) posits that adult education or andragogy should offer self-study opportunities with minimal instructor invention. Blended learning thus, promotes an autonomous learning environment that improves learners’ metacognitive awareness, which has proved to be a significant aspect of learners’ success (Brasford, Brown and Cocking, 2000). Learners also enjoy the opportunity to further explore the topics of their interest on their own, outside the classroom environment. In the context of developed countries, blended learning is a welcomed pedagogical approach, but the Great Zimbabwe University encounters multiple challenges at the implementation stage due to its meager resources and poor financial support from the Zimbabwean government. Some disadvantaged backgrounds have no financial capacity to effectively learn the materials outside the university campus with little assistance from the lecturers. This compromises the quality of the learning process. Therefore, it is necessary to continually find ways to improve the adoption of blended learning at the Great Zimbabwe University. Blended learning is also a self-paced pedagogical approach that promotes learner innovativeness. Nevertheless, students need to be more responsible and focused for successful learning to take place. It is undeniable that the enormous amount of online resources seems to address the face-to-face learning approach’s limitations. Yet, blended learning is difficult to adopt for the Great Zimbabwe University and other educational institutions located in underprivileged communities de to this. Furthermore, socio-

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economic, digital divide problems compounded by the instructor’s absence make it very difficult for students from underprivileged communities to embrace blended learning. On the other hand, it is important to acknowledge that blended learning has transformed the traditional face-to-face approach to a more interactive and student-centered educational delivery model where the lecturers and students collectively create the learning trajectories. There is growing evidence that blended learning is inevitable at the university level due to the wide use of computers and internet accessibility. However, the latter is still problematic at the Great Zimbabwe University. The uptake of blended learning modes has recently become a topical subject that gained momentum with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (Tamrat & Teferra, 2020). In this age of COVID-19 pandemic and even in the post-COVID-19 era, an orientation towards blended learning is inevitable despite the ill-preparedness of the Great Zimbabwe University. The university should take decisive measures and make huge investments towards an effective shift to blended learning. This means that critical questions should be considered in adopting such an untried educational delivery pathway at the Great Zimbabwe University. For example, there are pedagogical concerns that are embedded in the following questions: How much content could be delivered through the traditional face-to-face instruction and technology-driven approach? How can practical modules in linguistics and biblical languages, among others, be taught effectively using a blended learning approach? Which instructional activities are enhanced by synchronous interaction and can also be executed during face-toface in-class teaching? How do lecturers ensure that the various modes in blended learning complement each other effectively? In addition, the role of the instructor/ lecturer is redefined within the blended learning paradigm. What then is the new role for the lecturer in the learning process? Educators and higher education administrators have been grappling with these seemingly simple questions for some time now. These questions speak about the complexity of the pedagogical shift at the Great Zimbabwe University in the wake of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Although the above questions seem to be simple, they point at fundamentals for adopting blended learning. These are polemic questions that demand serious academic conversations. For underprivileged communities such as Great Zimbabwe University, addressing critical aspects that affect effective educational delivery using a blended learning approach is complex and problematic because of multiple factors to do with the prevalent socio-economic environment. This also significantly implies that traditional classroom learning cannot be completely abandoned since it is still necessary for lecturing and tutoring specific practical module content such as phonetics and syntax in both linguistics and biblical languages. Most essentially, the blending process is informed by the religious, socio-economic, and political context (Bryan and Volchenkova, 2016). University education in Zimbabwe continues to be shaped by economic and political instability. It is also essential to note that the use of this technology-mediated instruction mode demands huge capital investments, and the current economic conditions in Zimbabwe impact educational practices. To alleviate the problems encountered due to the swift pedagogical shift, the government needs to provide funds and other vital resources needed by the Great Zimbabwe University and others. Thus, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is prudent to consider matching educational goals with the economic realities of the underprivileged communities in developing nations. The poor economic performance poses a persistent challenge for many Zimbabwean educational institutions, including the Great Zimbabwe University. The eroded local currency, instability of prices, and power outages have financial implications that ultimately affect the smooth transition from traditional face-toface instruction to the much-needed blended learning. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic brings into conversation the issue of socio-economic inequalities of education where there is a huge chasm 245

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between the privileged and underprivileged communities regarding the adoption and implementation of blended learning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BLENDED LEARNING Lalima and Dangwal (2017) aptly explained that there are key features that define blended learning where students have access to face-to-face and web-based learning tools. Most essentially, at the Great Zimbabwe University, traditional face-to-face classroom instruction can still be retained where personal interaction between the lecturer and students. The facilitator has the mandate to choose an appropriate mode for a specific topic that s/he is dealing with. However, it cannot be overstated that facilitators at the Great Zimbabwe University should be well-versed with multiple pedagogical modes. It is also a fundamental feature that lecturers should be “dynamic, techno-savvy and fully trained to work efficiently in both the traditional classroom and ITC supported formats.” (Lalima and Dangwal (2017, p. 132). Lecturers play a significant role as experts who determine the content and suitability of the mode of delivery in blended learning programs. Lecturers at the Great Zimbabwe University need to guide the learning context, which is a departure from being a purveyor of information in the traditional classroom. In blended learning, students are exposed to physical interaction and virtual space such as Skype, video conferencing, zoom, WhatsApp, and Google class, where they are granted the opportunity to interact with other participants undertaking the same modules. Lalima and Dangwal (2017:132) concur with Bonk and Graham (2006) that blended learning classes “become very large and have much diversity, so the student’s knowledge becomes wide.” The above characteristics of blended learning are most beneficial to both lecturers and students in an ideal situation in privileged communities where online resources and e-learning infrastructure, internet connectivity, and power are readily available.

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PARADIGM SHIFT DILEMMA IN EDUCATIONAL DELIVERY AT GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY As already stated above, the outbreak of coronavirus disease prompted both developed and developing countries to shift from a campus-centered university education model to blended learning. COVID-19 pandemic context brought about some significant shift in educational practice, which became an eyeopener for possible trajectories towards blended learning even in the post-COVID-19 era. The conditions caused by the pandemic calls for the exploration of other alternative modes of content delivery for university education to remain accessible to students. The transition from the traditional instructional mode of delivery was too swift, and the Great Zimbabwe University was caught unprepared to take the new educational directions. The move from a familiar ground of face-to-face to web-based technologies has triggered anxiety and uncertainties for the university administration, lecturers, and students. It appears that the Great Zimbabwe University administration is overwhelmed with the huge task of implementing the pedagogical transition. Blended learning has become an essential aspect of the new pedagogical norm during and COVID-19 pandemic. It is appropriate for the Great Zimbabwe University leadership to re-imagine pedagogical shift that goes beyond the pandemic era in preparations of possible future disruptions. Nevertheless, practical issues affect effective teaching and learning of areas such as linguistics and biblical languages, which need to be addressed for a successful shift from the face-to-face 246

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instructional approach. For instance, both university lecturers and students at Great Zimbabwe University face numerous challenges related to blended learning due to a lack of preparedness. At the institutional level, Great Zimbabwe University was not ready to undertake the challenges related to blended learning, particularly the budgetary implications. Sibanda and Muyambo (2020), talking about the Zimbabwean context, posit that lecturers and students have problems in implementing blended learning activities because they lack the required skills. In this regard, the Great Zimbabwe University leadership should play a pivotal role in implementing blended learning. Thus, the Great Zimbabwe University administration and the governement must take a leading role in making blended learning effective as a teaching and learning pedagogy. Lack of meaningful support from the administrators and the government undermines the intended pedagogical paradigm shift. Also, the institution requires a reliable team of technical support experts who would ensure the continued functionality of ICTs and internet connectivity through network administration, software installation, and maintenance of technical equipment (Ogbomo, 2011; Sibanda & Muyambo, 2020). It cannot be over-emphasised that for blended learning to be a success, technological infrastructure is a must. Furthermore, the Great Zimbabwe University should regularly train both lecturers and students on working with existing ICTs. Sibanda and Muyambo (2020) note that the most cited problems in blended learning are difficulties accessing the internet, use of ICTs, and ineffective feedback from both lecturers and students. A blended learning approach needs to be designed to address the requirements and dynamics of the contemporary educational landscape. The study also recommends that adoption of blended learning should be mindful of the prevailing social, political and economic context of the Great Zimbabwe University. Most significantly, it is paramount to realise that blended learning is not merely adding an online component to an existing traditional face-to-face model but rather a lot of work to be done to yield expected outcomes from this pedagogical trajectory. Regarding blended learning as just a mixture of the two or more modes of teaching is naïve and too simplistic since it ignores the amount of investment in terms of time, resources, skills and complexity of changes required for successful blended learning to be delivered. This implies a need for serious planning before implementation (Sibanda and Muyambo, 2020). This should be done properly in a well-organised and systematic way. When implemented properly, blended learning could be a noble modality of educational delivery in global health pandemics like the current coronavirus disease. Makaza and Madzima (2008) have earlier argued that although e-learning is gaining some ground in university education throughout the world, Zimbabwean universities are still lagging behind in adopting e-learning, a critical element of blended learning. Although, it can be argued that this observation was made a decade ago, and the situation has changed over the years. Nonetheless, this study maintains that blended learning has not reached its full potential at the Great Zimbabwe University due to several issues highlighted in this chapter. The institutional level’s budget implication cannot be underestimated since lecturers who are the key facilitators need hardware, software, technological skills, and internet access for effective adoption of the blended learning approach. Failure to give these aspects due attention could be a key hindrance to blended learning successfully. Another challenge is that some conservative lecturers are reluctant to accept the shift in their pedagogical practices and perceptions and probably have not previously ventured into the territory of blended learning and find it difficult to cope with the new technological demands. In this case, training becomes a requirement for such staff. The primary concerns of academics in the educational delivery process are to ensure that instruction is done effectively. The instructors resist changes suggested by the administrators at the Great Zimbabwe University if adequate training is not provided, citing that the institution 247

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cannot enforce such a huge pedagogical shift. Due to Zimbabwe’s prevailing socio-economic problems, it is a mammoth task for the Great Zimbabwe University administration to raise adequate funds for the blended learning pedagogical approach. Once again, the poor university institutions in Zimbabwe trail behind the privileged universities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although blended learning is a welcome pedagogical shift at the Great Zimbabwe University, linguistics and religious studies are still difficult. The institution at the moment cannot provide technological resources for effective delivery of topics like the alphabet, pronunciation, and graphical presentation required for phonetics and syntax modules in both linguistics and biblical languages. The use of elearning for the practical topics in linguistics and biblical modules is worrisome. It is in tandem with what Stojsic and Munien (2020) observed when they state that teaching practical modules like music and performing arts in developing countries is facing challenges. There is a need for Great Zimbabwe to avail instructional resources compatible with the blended learning approach.

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POSSIBLE PATHWAYS IN POST-COVID-19 ERA FOR GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY In this section, the main focus is to discuss possible solutions to overcome current socio-economic challenges that derail efforts to effectively implementing a pedagogical paradigm shift to blended learning at the Great Zimbabwe University. Perhaps the greatest need for lecturers is a be clear of the procedure towards transitioning from traditional face-to-face to blended learning. Atef and Medhat (2015) recommend that blended learning holds particular promise for developing countries because it unveils resources of regional and international educational institutions. This view invites serious commitment towards blended learning, especially by underprivileged academic communities grappling with the challenges of limited resources. The Great Zimbabwe University management seems to embrace the idea that blended learning is an inevitable trajectory for educational training purposes, particularly during the post-COVID-19 pandemic. It has also emerged that the Great Zimbabwe University faces problems in managing and monitoring the progress of students’ learning. Manjo (2013:616) also draws our attention to institutional challenges . He states that “[w] hen learning technologies are introduced; attention is often paid to the technology implementation, while the design of the actual appropriate content is left with too little time and budget to create a successful programme .” (p. 10). In other words, the Great Zimbabwe University’s instructional design challenge is that it concentrates on how to teach rather than what is supposed to be delivered. It is vital that both the ‘how and what to teach’ are accorded prominence. This statement is relevant when considering the teaching and learning of practical modules as stated in the discussion above. The teaching staff at the Great Zimbabwe University must be able to design, develop and deliver an effective blended programme. This study thus contends that it is indeed necessary to ensure that the pedagogical process is attuned to blended learning. Lecturers have a duty to embrace and explore such pedagogical pathways with the integration of new communication technology to bring about the desired pedagogical evolution. Another basic requirement is that the institution needs to assess students’ technological competency, willingness to embrace changes that come with blended pedagogical practices and familiarity with E- learning. Mdiniso (2020) is of the view that universities need to develop and promote abilities and skills by synchronising the curriculum with suitable web-based technologies.

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The Great Zimbabwe University has no choice but to embrace blended learning to benefit both lecturers and students in the teaching and learning process. As a way forward, the Great Zimbabwe University should be informed by an insightful proposition from Garrison et al, (2000) that universities need to explore the integration of pedagogical ideas and new communications technology that will advance the evolution of higher education as opposed to reinforcing existing practices. The administration at the Great Zimbabwe University should brace for a real sacrifice in sourcing finances that would support blended learning. Without this, the pedagogical shift would be a flop. It appears the majority of lecturers at the Great Zimbabwe University have not moved from the traditional face-to-face pedagogical approach to blended learning. Lecturers’ psychological shift is needful.

REFLECTIONS FROM THE DISCUSSION Despite the challenges in adopting and implementing the blended learning approach, it is critical for the Great Zimbabwe University to consider this environment a salient adaptive and transformative challenge. Higher education institutions need to be on guard and ready to deal with such future calamities. From the above discussion, it is clear that blended learning is a relatively safe pedagogical approach in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is a good mitigatory measure to curb the spread and control of coronavirus. It has also been recognized that serious financial commitment should be accorded for blended learning to be effective and successful at the Great Zimbabwe University. Furthermore, universities should prepare for possible unknown future pandemics that could disrupt the smooth running of learning activities (Mdiniso, 2020). Since teaching staff’s role is shifting from a merely face-to-face to blended modes, lecturers need to be granted opportunities to critically evaluate their pedagogical practices and discuss with colleagues areas that need improvement. It is apparent that blended learning is a necessary pedagogical shift in the contemporary globalised world whereby both the Great Zimbabwe University staff and students should be flexible and effective when using other pedagogical methods. The blended learning approach is an intriguing and daunting endeavor that requires enormous time and financial investments. Yet, the study maintains that blended learning remains a welcome pedagogic approach even in post-COVID-19 pandemic period.

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CONCLUSION The chapter highlighted a troubling and rapid pedagogical shift from the traditional face-to-face to blended learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. It has been noted that for blended learning to be effective and successful at the Great Zimbabwe University, it was imperative to acquire e-learning infrastructure, consider financial support, avail internet connectivity for both staff and students, and, offer rigorous training to both staff and students, among others strategies. It was also apparent that blended learning is a necessary pedagogical shift in the contemporary globalised world and therefore, the Great Zimbabwe University staff and students needed to be flexible for the implementation of this method to be effective. The Great Zimbabwe University needed to come up with committee that was tasked to work in liaison with the national disaster management office to get advice on any future disasters. This could improve the state of preparedness and readiness to deal with such disasters I future.

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In conclusion, the importance of conducting research cannot be refuted. This is a fundamental aspect if the institution aims to realise the full potential of blended learning at the Great Zimbabwe University. In other words, blended learning requires educators to rethink their role and the nature of the content they teach. The Great Zimbabwe University has enormous potential to adopt and implement this pedagogical shift with the necessary funding for change. Looking at the future, blended learning is one of the fundamental educational trajectories that require full exploration and serious investment by the Great Zimbabwe University administration.

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Ogbomo, F. E. (2011). Issues and challenges in the use of information communication technology (ICTs) in Education. Journal of Information and Knowledge Management, 2(1), 1–19. Ortega-Maldonado, A., Llorens, S., Acosta, H., & Coo, C. (2017). Face- to-face vs. On-line: An analysis of profile, learning, performance, and satisfaction among post-graduate students. Universal Journal of Education Research, 5(10), 1701–1706. doi:10.13189/ujer.2017.051005 Rachmadtullah, R. (2020). Use of blended learning with Moodle: Study effectiveness in elementary school teacher education students during The COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 29(7), 3272–3277. Raftopoulos, B. (2013). An overview of the GPA: National conflict, regional agony and international dilemma. In The hard road to reform: The politics of Zimbabwe’s global political agreement. Weaver Press. Reed, D. (2019). Benefits of E- Learning for students. Available at https://studybreaks.com/tvfilm/ elearning-benefits/.accessed Rose, G., & Cage, K. (2006). Global perspectives on blended Learning: Insight from WebCT and our customers in higher education. In C. Bonk, & C. Graham (Eds.), The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs (pp. 155-168). Pfeiffer Publishers. Sadeghi, M. (2019). A shift from Classroom to Distance learning: Advantages and imitations. International Journal of Research in English Education., 4(1), 80–88. doi:10.29252/ijree.4.1.80 Sershen, N., Stojsic, I., & Munien, S. (2020). Teaching practicals in the time of physical distancing: Advances, challenges and recommendations for higher learning. In N. Ndimande-Hlongwa, L. Ramrathan, N. Mkhize, & A. J. Smit (Eds.), Technology-based Teaching and Learning in Higher Education during the Time of COVID-19 (pp. 34–53). CSSALL Publishers. Sibanda, F., & Muyambo, T. (2020). Programme delivery and assessment in the context of the COVID-19 Crisis at one higher education institution in Zimbabwe. In N. Ndimande-Hlongwa, L. Ramrathan, N. Mkhize, & A. J. Smit (Eds.), Technology-based Teaching and Learning in Higher Education during the Time of COVID-19 (pp. 57–178). CSSALL Publishers.

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Singh, M., & Han, J. (2005). Globalizing flexible work in universities: Socio-technical dilemmas in internationalizing education. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 6(1). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/content/v6.1/singh_han.html Tamrat, W., & Teferra, D. (2020). COVID-19 poses a serious threat to higher education. University World News, Higher Education Web Publishing. Available at https://www.universityworldnews.com/ post.php?story=20200409103755715accessed Tseng, A. (2014). Child labour: A global scourge. Retrieved from www.wsws.org Turbill, J. (2015). Transformation of traditional face- to face teaching to mobile teaching and learning: Pedagogical perspective. In Y. Zhang (Ed.), Handbook of Mobile Teaching and Learning. Springer.

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Ziguras, C., & Rizvi, F. (2001). Future directions in international online education. In D. Davis & D. Meares (Eds.), Transnational Education: Australia Online (pp. 151-164). IDP Education Australia.

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Chapter 14

Principles and Guidelines for Establishing Communities of Inquiry in Blended Learning to Broaden Student Participation Jessica Pool North-West University, South Africa Adri Du Toit North-West University, South Africa

ABSTRACT

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Blended learning provides possibilities for redesigning courses to be more inclusive and to accommodate diverse student learning needs. Various factors, including socio-economic inequalities and the digital divide, hinder students in higher education from experiencing the full potential benefts of blended learning. Events around the COVID-19 outbreak required that educational programs be ofered online or in a blended mode, ensuring the continuation of educational programs. The community of inquiry (CoI) framework is a valid instrument to measure quality of online learning focusing on four important presences that contribute to quality learning. It can therefore be used by lecturers to (re)design and evaluate efective blended learning environments. The study focused on developing practical guidelines with applicable examples for establishing and sustaining CoI in blended learning to include more students with diverse access to resources. In addition, overarching recommendations for amelioration of the digital divide of students in blended learning were made.

INTRODUCTION The purposeful development of effective blended teaching and learning environments, supported by technology enhanced learning is a strategic focus in higher education. Blended learning offers a range of possibilities for redesigning courses to be more inclusive, to accommodate diverse student learning needs DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6940-5.ch014

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 Principles and Guidelines for Establishing Communities of Inquiry in Blended Learning

(Raphael, 2016). This redesign entails re-conceptualization and restructuring of teaching and learning contexts (Freeland Fisher et al., 2017), implying that lecturers should have a clear understanding of the relevant pedagogical requirements for effectively structured blended learning courses. Lecturers need capabilities and abilities to restructure teaching- learning situations effectively if an enhanced online component in a blended learning environment is to be utilized to the benefit of all students involved, irrespective of their diverse circumstances (Raphael, 2016). The objective of this chapter is to explore and report on guidelines for broadening student participation in blended learning through the application of Community of Inquiry principles.

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BACKGROUND Several factors, including socio-economic inequalities and the so-called digital divide, hinder students in higher education from experiencing the full potential benefits of blended learning. Events around the global Covid-19 outbreak affected education negatively on many levels and required that most courses had to be offered online or use a blended mode, to ensure the continuation of educational programs. However, students had different levels of access to resources – such as electricity, internet access, or technological devices – which resulted in unequal opportunities to the blended learning that was offered. About 65% of lower-middle income countries and less than 25% of low income countries have been able to set up remote learning platforms (World Economic Forum, 2020). Moreover, only 36% of residents of lower-middle income countries have access to the internet which raises further concerns regarding the reach of remote learning. Even among those who are able to access these platforms, little is known about their efficacy or ability to cater to the needs of differently-abled learners, especially in these strained times. McQuirter (2020, p. 48) argues that “the almost overnight need to move delivery of programs online at every level of schooling has exacerbated an already uneven implementation of digital technology.” A lack of access to technological devices and, therefore, access to teaching materials offered in a blended mode, is a major barrier to promoting 21st century learning, in particular on the African continent (Nthuli et al., 2016). These conditions contribute to the view that some students are vulnerable in the learning context (Luna, 2019), and that lecturers have an obligation to attempt to support students in efforts to overcome such vulnerabilities. This again underscored the importance of research into developing and refining courses that rely on blended learning to be as inclusive as possible (HWSCTL, 2021). Several emerging models of online learning effectiveness exist, however, one that has attracted much attention is the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework developed by Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000). The CoI framework provides a well-structured model and set of guidelines to create effective learning communities in online and blended learning environments (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Findings on the value of CoI for the effectiveness of online learning indicated that blended learning is dependent on the ability to develop and establish a CoI. The CoI framework is a valid and dependable instrument to measure quality of online learning focusing on three important presences that contribute to the quality of courses (Shea et al., 2003) and can therefore be used by lecturers to design and evaluate effective blended learning environments. The assumption, according to the CoI framework, is that higher-order learning is best supported in a community of learners who are engaged in building understanding and critical reflection. The philosophical foundation of the CoI indicates that certain collaborative interactions create “distance presence”, 255

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resulting in the emergence of a CoI (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes et al., 2010, p. 32). The three dynamic and interdependent presences that form the core of the CoI framework are teaching presence, social presence and cognitive presence (Garrison et al., 2001). Learning presence, a fourth type of presence, was later added to the CoI framework (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010) and elaborated on in a study by Pool (2015). The revised framework of Pool (2015) was used for the current study. Despite an escalation in research on online and blended learning effectiveness over the past decade, acceptance and verification of theoretical frameworks distinctive to these learning environments are still developing and being refined. In particular, research regarding how student populations that include diverse (and specifically limited) access to resources, or vulnerable students, can better benefit from blended learning programs is scarce and need to be explored. In order to support vulnerable or disadvantaged students, Luna (2019) recommends that – if vulnerabilities (such as limited or lack of access to resources) cannot be eradicated – efforts should be made to (at least) ameliorate the circumstances leading to the vulnerability, or to minimize the impact thereof. For these reasons, the CoI framework was considered as a starting point for exploring design principles for blended learning to include more students, especially vulnerable or disadvantaged students. Similar concerns regarding the design of blended learning environments to meet students’ needs were identified by Pool (2015) in a study that investigated blended learning in the South African higher education context. These include that students might experience a lack of teaching presence with regards to clear instructions and communication, feelings of isolation and disconnectedness, lack of immediacy and the inability to connect online feedback with lecturer expertise. Although social presence did manifest to some extent in the blended learning course in Pool’s (2015) study, she reported that this was the most difficult of the three presences to establish. The main issues arising from the manifestation and existence of social presence included lack of a sense of belonging in the online environment and students not feeling comfortable expressing themselves affectively or being uneasy about communicating, interacting and participating online with other module participants (Pool, 2015). Although cognitive presence manifested adequately in the module, findings suggest that structured triggering events to create a sense of intrigue were lacking. Another finding suggested that more activities to encourage reflection must be included, thereby improving the movement from integration to resolution. Students experienced time management and the coordination and management of group activities as challenging, as well as a lack of self-regulation skills in learning presence. Other challenges included accessibility, lack of technology skills and the newness of blended learning (Raphael, 2016). Viewing these challenges as a gap in blended learning research which needed addressing, the current study focused on developing practical guidelines with applicable examples for establishing and sustaining CoI in blended learning to include more students with diverse access to resources. The purpose of this study was therefore to analyses the CoI framework in order to identify elements through which students’ vulnerabilities regarding their experiences of blended learning could be ameliorated and to subsequently develop guidelines and practical recommendations based on design principles to sustain the CoI framework as core foundation for blended learning.

AN INCLUSIVE COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY IN BLENDED LEARNING Since the initial construction of the CoI framework, it has been modified in various ways in order to improve the online component in blended learning. The openness of blended learning redesign demands 256

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a strong theoretical framework. A useful blended learning framework must ultimately inform the integration of face-to-face and online learning. Creating and sustaining a CoI is framed by three presences: social presence, cognitive presence and teaching presence (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). Social presence reflects the ability to connect with members of a community of learners on a personal level. Cognitive presence is the process of constructing meaning through collaborative inquiry. Teaching presence is the integrating power that structures and leads the educational process in a constructive, collaborative and sustained manner. Research conducted by Shea et al. (2010) indicated that previous studies on teaching, social and cognitive presence contained data, especially with regard to student discourse, that did not fit within the established CoI framework. Shea et al. (2010) held that the CoI framework needed additional emphasis on the roles of strategic learners in online environments, resulting in a revised CoI model which include learning presence. This expanded framework was further refined by Pool (2015) (Figure 1). Thus, there is a need to re-conceptualize the manner in which self-regulatory factors may affect student’s performances in the online component of blended learning. The intersection of these elements creates the core of CoI where collaborative constructivist educational experiences can be achieved (Garrison, 2006). The framework suggests that online learning experiences unfold in the interaction of the above mentioned presences. The community of inquiry is a recursive model, in that the four presences support each other (Figure 1). Each of the presences are subsequently briefly outlined. Figure 1. Revised community of inquiry framework

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(Source: Pool, 2015)

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Social Presence Dewey (1955) reasons that learning results from experiences that is contextually based and socially situated. According to literature by Garrison and Arbaugh (2007) social presence has been studied the most extensively in both online and face-to-face settings. Social presence was defined by Garrison (2006, p. 27) as “the ability of participants to identify with the community, communicate purposefully in a trusting environment, and develop inter-personal relationships by way of protecting their individual personalities”. It is therefore important to consider how all students – including those that might be deemed ‘vulnerable’ – can be included in blended learning to feel that they belong, despite their vulnerabilities. Social presence is developed when students in a course feel free to express themselves openly in a risk-free manner and when they are able to develop the personal relationships necessary to help them to commit to, and pursue, intended academic goals (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). There are three stages align with the categories of social presence which include: meaningful communication, cohesive responses/ discourse, and affective/personal connections (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). In other words, social presence evolves from meaningful communication (interaction) to purposeful academic exchange (discourse) and finally to personal connection (camaraderie). Meaningful communication begins when students can communicate openly (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008) and according to these authors a community is established when students are encouraged to project themselves personally and academically. Ways in which cohesion and communication could be fostered among diverse students, as part of efforts to ameliorate students’ vulnerabilities regarding their experiences of blended learning, must therefore be explored.

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Cognitive Presence Cognitive presence refers to higher order levels of learning and unavoidably requires purposeful discourse in order to collaboratively construct, critically reflect on, and confirm understanding (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Likewise, Garrison et al. (2001) refer to cognitive presence as the extent to which learners are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse. Cognitive presence has its genesis in Dewey’s research (1933) and his notion of reflective thinking which provides the foundations for critical thinking that is the hallmark of higher education, and which is delineated in four phases of reflective thinking for the purposes of understanding. The four phases in the practical inquiry model begins with a triggering event in the form of and issue, problem or dilemma that needs resolution. As a result of the triggering event, there is a natural shift to exploration, the search for relevant information that can provide insight into the challenge. As ideas mature, there is a move into the third phase; integration, where connections are made and the search for a viable explanation are made. The final phase represents the resolution phase where a selection and testing of the most viable solution takes place. Although the dimensions are abstracted processes, the phases resemble the educational experience (Swan et al., 2009). Initial studies on cognitive presence suggest that most online postings in an online discussion forum focused mainly on the exploration phase where participants share information and brainstorm ideas which implies theoretical exercises (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). Research indicates that the existence of cognitive presence is the most difficult to study and develop in online courses. The difficulty lies in moving the process of inquiry beyond the exploration phase to the integration phase where connections are made and finally on the resolution phase where a selection and testing of the most viable solution can take place. Various explanations have been investigated and it is most likely that the difficulty in 258

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this transformation is impacted by the nature of the assignments and instructional direction provided ─ therefore this phase requires more time for reflection (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). It would thus be vital to carefully consider the nature of assignments, the instructional guidance provided, as well as the problems used to scaffold such learning in order to prevent some students from feeling excluded based on their experienced or perceived vulnerabilities.

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Teaching Presence In a transactional approach to education, lecturers are expected to assume certain responsibilities and fulfil important roles. Regardless of the mediated nature of the communication it is the lecturer’s responsibility to precipitate and facilitate learning that is purposeful and focused on essential concepts and worthwhile goals. Fulfilling these complex responsibilities necessitates sustained and authentic communication between and among lecturers and students. Although control must be shared, the communication must be guided toward higher levels of learning through reflective participation as well as by challenging assumptions and diagnosing misconceptions (Anderson et al., 2001). According to Swan et al. (2009) this is realized through teaching presence. In an educational context, teaching presence is critical to provide structure, facilitation, and direction for the cohesion, stability and progression of the learning process. Teaching presence is the “design, facilitation and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes” (Anderson et al., 2001, p. 5). Teaching presence has a regulatory and mediating role, which merge all the elements of a community of inquiry in a balanced and purposeful relationship that should be congruent with the intended outcomes and requirements and capabilities of students (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes et al., 2010). Anderson et al. (2001) conceptualize teaching presence in three categories, namely: instructional design, facilitation of discourse, and direct instruction. It is by means of these three categories that lecturers can measure their presence in the online environment. Anderson et al (2001) describes the instructional design and organizational aspects of teaching presence as the planning and design of the structure, process, interaction and evaluation of an online course. Activities characterizing these facets of teaching presence include: setting curriculum, designing teaching methods, establishing time parameters and establishing etiquette. In teaching presence, instructional design is most likely to be performed exclusively by the lecturer (Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). However, all of the activities mentioned as contributing to teaching presence need to be taken cognizance of when the aim is to make blended learning as inclusive as possible for as many students as possible, whatever their vulnerabilities are. Facilitating discourse during an online course is especially critical in order to maintain the interest, motivation and engagement of students during active learning. This category is also referred to as the knowledge-building community (Anderson et al., 2001). The role of lecturers in this category of teaching presence is associated with: identifying areas of agreement and disagreement; seeking to reach consensus and understanding; setting climate for learning; drawing participants and promoting discussion and assessing the efficacy of the process (Anderson et al., 2001). Identifying areas of agreement and disagreement involves the identification of agreement and disagreement for example when students are debating a topic online. Cognitive development requires that individuals encounter others who contradict their own ideas and notions, thereby creating cognitive conflicts. Ameliorating possible vulnerabilities will set a more inclusive climate for learning and draw in a more diverse group of students to participate in blended learning courses. 259

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Lecturers are active members of the community of inquiry, however their role is more demanding than that of other participants and therefore carries with it high levels of responsibility for maintaining discourse. Lecturers monitor and probe the discussion, while ensuring effective and efficient use of time. Lecturers also must support students who might have perceived vulnerabilities, these issues should also be taken into account as part of his/her roles in blended learning. Facilitating discourse requires lecturers to review and comment upon student responses, raise questions and make observations to move discussions in a desired direction. This will keep discussions flowing efficiently, while encouraging inactive students and limiting the activities of dominating posters when they become detrimental to the learning of the group (Shea et al., 2006). Students with different levels of access to (for example) technology, should be given equal opportunities to contribute to discussions through inclusive strategies that are planned as part of the intended learning experience. Direct instruction is the final category of teaching presence, when lecturers provide intellectual and scholarly leadership through sharing subject matter knowledge with students (Anderson et al. 2001). The role of lecturers includes direct instruction that utilize subject matter and pedagogical expertise. The subject matter expert is expected to provide direct instruction by interjecting comments, referring students to information resources and organizing activities that allow students to construct the content within their own minds and personal contexts. Indicators of direct instruction for the analysis of teaching presence include: presenting content and questions, focusing discussion of specific issues, summarizes discussion, confirm understanding, diagnose misconceptions, inject knowledge for diverse sources and responding to technical concerns (Anderson et al., 2001). It is clear that all of these indicators could affect different students with different needs in various ways, and lecturers should be sensitized to the diverse needs and possible vulnerabilities of their students. The presentation of content and directing questions to students is an important, traditional role of lecturers. In times of disruption lecturers must consider alternative ways for constructing students’ learning experiences and may consider including different formats which students can use to complete the same assignment (HWSCTL, 2021).

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Learning Presence Knowledge on learner self-regulation provides a strong foundation for articulating the role of online students (Shea at al, 2010). According to the same authors self-regulation refers to the degree to which students in collaborative educational environments are meta-cognitively, motivationally and behaviorally active participants in the learning process. Similarly, Zimmerman (2002) defines self-regulation as the self-directive process through which students transform their mental abilities into academic skills. Given the virtual, social and self-directed nature of online learning, it seems imperative that learners’ self-regulation in online environments should be examined. Indicators of self-regulation include: engagement in strategic efforts such as dividing up tasks, managing time, and setting goals in order to successfully complete assignments (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010). Learning presenceindicates the exercise of control rather than compliance and passivity and specifically articulates popular beliefs about the importance of self-direction in online and blended learning environments. The biggest concern with the existing CoI model is that while it contributes to constructing and defining an effective teaching model, it does not take in consideration the fact that the effectiveness of teaching is equally dependent on the learners themselves (Anderson, 2017). The relationship between the different presences in the CoI framework (Figure 1) is subsequently explained. 260

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 Principles and Guidelines for Establishing Communities of Inquiry in Blended Learning

The CoI framework outlines the processes required to enable knowledge construction in online environments through the development of teaching presence, social presence, cognitive presence and learning presence. Existing research clearly show that the different presences are interconnected and influence one another (Shea et al., 2010). Understanding the factors that influence the success of online environments has significant implications for designing productive online communities (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010). More specifically, teaching presence has a regulatory and mediating role which merges all elements of a balanced and purposeful relationship. Teaching presence is essential in establishing a sense of social presence by engendering an atmosphere of meaningful communication, cohesive discourse and personal connections. Teaching presence and social presence are each important in their own right, the extent to which students believe that they achieve significant learning and the effort they spend depends for the most part on their sense of efficacy. In addition, the relationship between teaching presence and selfregulation is stronger for students in a blended environment. Learning presence can be accomplished via expanded teaching presence, in which it is acknowledged that successful online students are metacognitively, motivationally and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process (Shea et al., 2010). This sets the stage for purposeful discourse and reflective learning processes as indicated by the perceived relationship between social and cognitive presence. Social presence thus serves as a mediating factor that provides context for the educational process. The relationship between teaching presence and cognitive presence becomes clear when students are assigned engaging tasks requiring them to move through the phases of practical inquiry (triggering event, exploration, integration and resolution) in order to find solutions for a stated problem. Once students are engaged, teaching presence has a significant influence in facilitating and directing student learning. This is crucial to reach the resolution phase and thus achieve a successful learning experience. However, the latter will only happen if lecturers actively and effectively structure modules in such a way that the direct instruction and facilitation of discourse lead to higher order learning, which then would result in practical inquiry (cognitive presence). Although Shea et al. (2010) suggest that learning presence should be associated with teaching and social presence, the authors are of the opinion that cognitive presence should also be associated with learning presence. These processes would refer to students’ monitoring, controlling, and regulating their own cognitive activities and actual behavior. This means that self-regulated learners are both active and reflective participants and assume appropriate responsibility and control in cognitive learning process. To enable the process, some scaffolding and support is however required (Nthuli et al., 2016). Support becomes even more vital in cases where students are struggling to access the online mode of blended learning. Porter et al. (2016, p. 18) include support as “a key marker” for the successful implementation of blended learning, citing issues such as technical support, pedagogical support and incentives of the institution as needing attention. Therefore, as was pointed out in the discussion for each of these presences, there cannot be a “one size fits all” approach when designing blended learning courses using this CoI. For each of these presences, and the aspects embedded therein, lecturers need to become more aware of diverse student needs and possible vulnerabilities of students. Such cognizance will support lecturers to plan and prepare strategies to ameliorate these circumstances as part of efforts to construct more effective and inclusive learning experiences for students. Though various vulnerabilities can impact students’ learning, for the purposes of the current investigation the focus was only on students’ unequal access to technological devices and technologies such as Wi-Fi, as well as their diverse levels of understanding and use of digital software. Balfour et al. (2015, p. 13) point out that “poor internet access” and “lack of computers” are notable barriers to learning in a blended mode. This is often referred to as a “digital divide” which can and often result in unequal opportunities for students to benefit from the online side 261

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of blended learning. Ways to ameliorate this particular student vulnerability to strengthen the effectiveness of blended learning using the CoI, therefore had to be explored.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Although this study was theoretical in nature it was approached from a social constructivist worldview which is often also described as interpretivistic. In a social constructivist worldview, ontology is characterized by individuals seeking to understand the world in which they live and work. Constructivist research focuses on the specific context in which people say or do things in order to understand the historical and cultural setting of the participants. Thus, researchers interpret what they find about the world to construct new knowledge based on a strong foundation of existing knowledge. Exploratory desktop research was conducted by a team of researchers to adhere to the national lockdown and Covid restrictions that were in place at the time. Dobney (2017) describes desktop research as an approach that researchers use to track down “useful existing pre-published information (also known as secondary research).” The exploratory investigation therefore pursued existing, published research that would contribute to answering the research question. The desktop research involved several internet searches to find information. To contribute to the credibility of the information found (and that of the investigation) four checks were conducted for each site, as recommended by Denscombe (2017), that is: considering the authoritativeness and trustworthiness of each site, as well as how up-to-date and popular the sites were. Following Dobney’s (2017) recommendation to add structure to such investigations, the researchers kept the following specific question in mind during the data collection: how can the digital divide that students experience as a vulnerability in blended learning, be ameliorated applying the CoI framework? Google Scholar and EBSCOhost were used primarily to identify literature published in the past decade, and accessible through the university library. The search was constructed around several combinations [including AND/OR] of the key terms ‘blended-learning, ‘communities of inquiry, ‘digital divide’, ‘student needs’ and ‘vulnerabilities’, as well as variations or alternatives of these terms, for example ‘community of inquiry’, ‘communities of inquiry’ and ‘CoI framework’. In particular, the conclusions and recommendations of studies were analyzed for their potential to contribute to addressing the current study’s research question. The analysis was conducted to align findings with the presences and their subsections presented in the CoI framework.

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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION The presences in the CoI framework as well as the relationships between the different presences have been critically discussed in the conceptual framework. Now the discussion narrows to principles and practical guidelines for the establishment of communities of inquiry. The findings from the desktop research – in which potential ways to ameliorate the digital divide as a vulnerability in blended learning for each presence was explored and is embedded in this discussion.

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Establishing Communities of Inquiry in Blended Learning Education is a learning experience structured to achieve intended outcomes in a systematic manner. It is therefore the role of lecturers to provide the environment that will structure, support and shape a meaningful learning experience. Teaching presence has a regulatory and mediating role, which brings together all the elements of a community of inquiry in a balanced and purposeful relationship in line with the intended outcomes and requirements and capabilities of students. Because of this regulatory function of teaching presence, the subsequent sections discuss principles and guidelines for creating and sustaining social, cognitive and learning presence, informed by the descriptors of teaching presence suggested by Garrison and Vaughan (2008), namely instructional design, facilitation of discourse, and direct instruction. For each of these descriptors, and informed by the explored literature, practical guidelines were developed that can contribute to ameliorate the digital divide that many students experience in blended learning. An overview of these findings are set out in Table 1.

Instructional Design Designing an online learning experience is a formidable challenge. When designing an online learning experience, the dominant mode is text-based communication and therefore lecturers must adjust to the strengths and weaknesses of this medium. When designing an online experience, it is important to take special consideration of social and cognitive issues that go well beyond deciding what content to include or exclude (Garrison, 2006). Additional aspects that should be carefully considered include designing and scaffolding effective learning activities, materials and assessments, as well as structuring the learning content and process (Martin et al., 2019). Botha-Ravyse and Reitsma (2015, p. 29) further explains that consideration must be given to “which elements will add value when animated; which elements [are] nice-to-haves” and how many references should be provided – in other words, how much self-directed learning will be expected from students.

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Instructional Design for Social Presence The goal of establishing social presence is to create a climate of trust and belonging that will support interaction (Berry, 2019). Social presence is an essential precondition for establishing a sense of community and cognitive presence (Garrison, 2006). Evidence in literature suggests that there is a link between instructional design and establishing social presence, meaning that courses that intentionally build a sense of community and collaborative activities will demonstrate increased social presence. Establishing social presence is associated with the degree of interaction among students and implies that learningsituations must be designed so that students have an opportunity to interact formally and informally with peers (Swan & Shih, 2005). Both “student to student interaction as well as instructor to student interaction” need to be fostered (Martin et al., 2019, p. 190). This in turn implies that all students must have the ability and access to interact if and when needed, however, unequal access to technological devices, electricity and data (which is costly in South Africa) will hamper this (Botha-Ravyse & Reitsma, 2015). Online social presence requires special consideration because communication in online contexts is less frequent and more deliberate and intentional, compared to a face-to-face context where physical presence stimulates the expressions of social presence in a more naturalistic manner. Any online presence, however, requires that students are able to or have access to access to technological devices and internet,

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as without it, all planning will become mute. Students will also need to be competent or proficient in using the internet and technology to access this type of learning (Balfour et al., 2015). Guidelines for instructional design with the purpose to establish social presence include activities where participants introduce themselves and share something about their personal interests or updates in their personal lives (Berry, 2019). Ideally a special forum such as a chat room or Wiki on the Learning Management System should be created for these postings, where it may even be appropriate to share a digital picture. Furthermore, students should be assigned to small groups to discuss formal expectations of the course and also to identify concerns that they might have. It could be valuable to create a chat room or even small WhatsApp groups for informal communication which will allow students opportunities to become familiar with each other. All of these applications and software require that students must have access to technological devices compatible with these applications, and that students are able to understand and effectively use the software (Balfour et al., 2015), and possibly have data to upload or download content as required. Suitable technical support should be available to students and lecturers alike (McQuirter, 2020), to prevent “wasting time to resolve technical issues” (Porter et al., 2016, p. 22). When lecturers are willing to keep online office hours, it will contribute to community of inquiry formation. Lecturers should also plan and possibly regulate that all students will have access to online content and discussions. For example, the window for responding could be extended, and they must make their expectations clear to students (regarding the level of participation required or dates of submission data) (Martin et al., 2019).

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Instructional Design for Cognitive Presence Cognitive presence is created as students inquire into course content in a systematic and meaningful manner. Designing instructional material and processes to ensure cognitive presence includes that the process of inquiry progresses from problem definition to exploration of relevant content and ideas, integrating those ideas into meaningful solutions, and then testing the validity or usefulness of the outcomes. The main goal of instructional design for cognitive presence is to establish critical reflection and discourse that will support systematic inquiry (Garrison, 2006). Berry (2019) reports that “teaching activities that encouraged deep reflection stimulated students’ engagement in the learning community”. From a design perspective the main issues to consider are the phases of inquiry and the selection of learning activities congruent with the particular phase or level at which students are expected to operate. The main challenge when designing for cognitive presence is to ensure that students continue to progress through the inquiry phases, which implies that some scaffold or structure should be provided to guide learners through the process, while at the same time allowing some leeway or space for self-directed learning to develop. Activities should be designed that encourage students to move from awareness to knowledge construction and application which represents the intended goal (Garrison, 2006).Lecturers should require regular check-ins from students and follow up immediately when students fall behind on the schedule (without excusing themselves for a valid reason). Providing “timely, actionable, and substantive” meaningful feedback for individuals and groups (Martin et al., 2019, p. 190) on assignments, but also throughout the learning process, will also contribute to keeping students focused. When feedback is provided online, students are enticed to go online to receive the feedback, possibly expanding their time spent online. In addition, guidelines associated with instructional design for cognitive presence include clear goal expectations. It is important to structure curriculum content in such a manner that a significant proportion

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of time would be devoted to discourse and reflection in order for students to progress through the phases of inquiry. In the early stages of a course it is necessary that an opportunity is provided for applicable and curriculum focused discourse. Activities should be problem based to engage students in reflective discourse and increase their engagement (learning presence) in the learning process (Graham, 2019). An important aspect of designing for cognitive presence is to create opportunities for small group discussions to set the stage for team-based collaborative projects. When groups report back it is important that lecturers support students to understand expectations and values a culture of collaboration (Garrison, 2006). Lecturers should provide students with clear expectations regarding the amount of time needed, the level of interaction required, how collaboration will take place, which type of access to technological devices and data will be needed, and so on. A simple but significant consideration would be to allow additional time for connectivity issues which students may experience when attempting to participate online, as the speed and stability of internet access is outside students’ control (Porter et al., 2016).

Facilitation of Discourse Discourse is the essence of a collaborative constructive approach to teaching and learning (Garrison, 2006). To ensure that students are engaged and the discourse is rich and relevant, care must be taken to maintain a sense of belonging to a CoI and that students are meaningfully engaged (Berry, 2019). Lecturers should include examples of and references to diverse aspects of learning which some (or even many) of their students might have experienced. In addition, using more than a single example to explain concepts or strategies opens up opportunities for more students to associate the new learning with their own prior knowledge or experiences. Facilitating discourse requires the intertwining of both social and cognitive presences (Swan & Shih, 2005). The challenge is to sustain social presence while creating cognitive presence (Garrison, 2006). As a result, strong teaching presence is required in terms of knowing when and how to challenge students to collaboratively guide discussion. This in turn requires lecturers to have detailed insights into the differing needs of their various students, which includes an understanding of students’ perceived or experienced vulnerabilities (HWSCTL, 2021).

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Facilitating Discourse for Social Presence The goal in the learning situation is to enhance and sustain social presence to provide an environment for collaborative and reflective discourse. In the online component of blended learning it is important to realize that although the student is in virtual contact with their community, they are physically alone with their technological device and this may reflect a strong sense of independence, or, on the other hand, of loneliness or distance (Berry, 2019). Therefore, students do not show the same degree of social presence as when they are in a face-to-face environment (Shea et al., 2006), emphasizing the importance to maintain and enhance a sense of group cohesion, collaboration and support in the online experience (O’Shea et al., 2015). Lecturers need to find ways to create an atmosphere conducive to supporting such learning (HWSCTL, 2021). The use of humor, irony, sarcasm and the like is also effective in this regard (Garrison, Anderson et al, 2010). Lecturer must also be content experts and employ effective facilitation skills if the community of inquiry is to be sustained and contribute value to the learning of diverse students. Guidelines to ensure and facilitate discourse in order to warrant social presence include collaborative activities which provide the best means to build and maintain group cohesion. Group cohesion goes

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beyond polite conversation and therefor the collaboration goal should be the focus of discourse. Activities must be structured in such a manner that students ought to engage and at the same time rely on each other to accomplish a goal. Balfour et al. (2015) emphasize that these activities should be participative rather than merely interactive, to foster collaboration and cognitive development. Lecturers must model appropriate facilitation skills as these will be important in collaborative activities of students (Garrison, 2006). Similarly, Berry (2019, p. 167) recommends that lecturers implement “activities that require collaboration, interaction, and reflection” as this could support students in strengthening their relationships with their peers. Such activities will contribute to fostering a feeling of belonging for all students.

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Facilitating Discourse for Cognitive Presence Facilitation is essential to keep discourse on track and for the inquiry to evolve. Facilitation of discourse for cognitive presence focuses and guides the progression of the discourse as well as providing timely input and information (Garrison, 2006). Facilitating discourse during an online course is particularly valuable to maintain the interest, motivation and engagement of students during active learning (Pool, 2015). Balfour et al. (2015) refer to the development of enabling environments – in other words, blended learning environments should be created to “pull” in students, rather than pushing them away. As a collaborative community of inquiry moves to more challenging cognitive activities, facilitation of discourse becomes increasingly important to ensure that all students’ diverse contributions are acknowledged and analyzed for their level of contribution to the constructive learning process. Actively sharing, testing and confirming ideas is a crucial phase of cognitive presence. To enable this required sharing and discourse about ideas, students must have access to technological devices and data or the internet, without which they will not be able to contribute to the discourse, no matter how well lecturers plan or facilitate the process. Other stakeholders, such as the Department of Higher Education, data suppliers and tertiary institutions, therefore need to endeavor to support students by offering various alternatives in which students will be able to obtain or access the devices and internet access that they need to effectively complete their higher education (Freeland Fisher et al., 2017). Students must feel that they are contributing members within the community and gain a sense of accomplishment whilst at the same time still feel that the lecturer is present (Garrison, 2006). Guidelines associated with the facilitation of discourse for cognitive presence include the construction of stimulating questions, to keep discussions focused, identification of issues that need to be clarified and being prepared and able to move discussions forward in a timely manner. Facilitators should have information about students’ backgrounds and levels of access to accommodate and include discussions that will resonate with diverse learners. Case studies, debating or critiquing an article are good examples of activities for facilitating discourse. The format in which these are made available, also needs to be carefully considered. For example, a ‘case study’ in the form of a picture or video will not require much reading from students (so language issues are limited), however, the size of non-text files need to be kept in mind as these impact on data usage and costs for students.

Direct Instruction Direct instruction is about academic and pedagogical leadership that provides disciplinary focus and structure for a meaningful educational experience (Garrison, 2006). Disciplinary focus requires subjectspecific training, as well as training in the ability to construct suitable pedagogical experiences. Martin

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et al. (2019, p. 202) recommend that lecturers will need “competency in interpersonal communication, planning skills, collaboration/teamwork skills, as well as knowledge of distance education, and basic technical skills”, underscoring the need for training of lecturers who offer blended and online modules. The same authors recommend that teachers must be willing to learn and become lifelong learners to enable them to stay abreast of new developments and research. Direct Instruction for Social Presence The main goal of direct instruction for social presence is the development of collaborative relationships where students are supported in assuming increased responsibility for their learning. Direct instruction can increase confidence and respect by managing conflict and ensuring that students are collaborating constructively (Garrison, 2006). In online environment students will have an increased sense of independence and direct instruction may be required to reinforce collaboration and a cohesive community of inquiry. It is specifically important to intervene in a timely manner when factors threaten the cohesiveness of the community (Garrison, 2006). In addition, the early identification of at-risk students ― that is, students not keeping up, or not submitting their contributions timeously ― is necessary to provide support as soon as possible, before those students fall too far behind their peers in the module. Guidelines associated with this principle include support from the lecturer, but also the expectation for students to be self-directed, as well as being able to work collaboratively to complete tasks. Students must be exposed to self-directed learning gradually, especially if they have limited experience thereof, and must be taught effective strategies for collaboration. Lecturers can guide students in the use of diverse tools (such as software, platforms and digital media) and provide additional support to students who might need it – or lecturers can refer struggling students to knowledgeable experts (such as the institution’s IT support) who can help them (McQuirter, 2020). In terms of group dynamics there may be stages where tensions and conflicts arise. It is important that the lecturer is prepared for various such situations and have strategies in mind for directly addressing these situations with empathy, or to manage and resolve conflicts where necessary. Activities such as team building will give students the opportunity to develop connections with and the support of the community to accomplish assigned tasks (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Carefully scaffolded group work could also support an amplified understanding of each other’s culture or background, which will make more students from diverse groups feel connected (O’Shea et al., 2015).

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Direct Instruction for Cognitive Presence Direct instruction has an important place in blended learning environments to ensure that discourse and collaboration advance in resolution and metacognitive development. It is important for the lecturer to find the right balance in the application of direct instruction. Too little direct instruction may result in students losing focus and purpose while too much direct instruction can undermine students assuming responsibility for their learning (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). Direct instruction should also be balanced with exposure to and the requirement of a measure of self-directed learning. It seems that students value direct instruction more when online discussions become fragmented and lack insight. Diagnosing misconceptions and providing explanations constitutes an essential teaching and learning responsibility for lecturers. Direct instruction is needed from the subject matter expert (or lecturer) to guide students to the essence of the discipline and to avoid students getting frustrated and as a result disengaged in the learning process. The need to ensure adequate teacher training to support these requirements is therefore

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apparent, especially since online and blended learning is expanding in the current educational climate, and will continue to do so in future (Freeland Fisher et al., 2017). Guidelines associated with direct instruction for cognitive presence are to be prepared by lecturers to enable students to contribute ideas and perspectives that will constructively shape discourse. It is important to diagnose students’ misconceptions about the learning content to prevent students from Table 1. Principles, guidelines and practical applications for establishing social and cognitive presence, using teaching presence as a regulatory function Social Presence

Cognitive Presence

Instructional design

Principle: Establish a climate that creates a community of inquiry Guidelines: • Have students introduce themselves • Assign students to small groups • Establish “chat” rooms for teaching and communication • Establish online office hours • Don’t be the center of every discussion Suggestions for practical application • Each participant introduces themselves to the rest of the community, either via a brief email message or in a synchronous meeting. • The lecturer prescribes the components of this introduction and also model expectations by going first. • Provide technical support in case anyone needs it. This is particularly important for the first synchronous meeting; being unable to join the conversation at the beginning of an event can have a lasting impact on a person’s sense of belonging in the community • Screencast-o-Matic is a free online video maker that produces quality videos. This is a simple screen capture tool that records whatever is happening on a Personal Computer screen and narrate it as its happening. Screencast-o-Matic is the perfect tool for creating training videos or tutorials for any subject, as long as it is being recorded from an onscreen monitor. This way the software supports the teaching presence.

Principle: Establish critical reflection and discourse that will support systematic inquiry. Guidelines: • Stipulate clear goal expectations • Course structure must provide time for discourse and reflection • Activities should be problem based • Create opportunities for small group discussions • Respond and model respectful discourse • Establish a friendly environment Suggestions for practical l application • The chat window in zoom is versatile tool: participants can use it to ask and answer questions and to share resources or references, including links to online resources. • The chat window in zoom can be used for private conversations; therefore, existing and easy-to-use applications can contribute to building online community. • Community members may have a private chat with each other about a shared interest without you knowing this is happening. • One advantage of the online environment is that these conversations aren’t disruptive for the lecturer or other participants. • Screencast-o-Matic as screen capture tool is supported by the ability to use multimedia in a way that supports cognitive processing.

Facilitation of discourse

Principle: Encourage and support the progression of inquiry through resolution Guidelines: • Ask stimulating questions Principle: • Keep discussions focused Sustain community through expression of group cohesion • Clarify issues Guidelines: • Move discussions forward in a timely manner • Structure collaborative activities to maintain group cohesion • Make use of activities such as case studies, debating and critiquing of • Create opportunities for students to engage and rely on each other to reach articles goals • Structure activities so students contribute to ideas of other members of the • Model appropriate facilitation skills to ensure students engagement group • Have a “class debrief” session • Lecturer must model the inquiry process • Design activities to ensure students can moderate a discussion Suggestions for practical application: Suggestions for practical application: • The lecturer could keep a class list and at regular intervals ask different • Small groups can be assigned a task to complete, in addition to or instead of students something like “Is there a question you would like to pose to the only having a discussion. group?” • For example, lecturers can require small groups to discuss a case study or • The “poll” function in zoom supports multiple-choice questions, and the scenario and to report back to the larger group about how they would respond lecturer can set it up to show the community’s responses to everyone in real to the given situation. time. • Alternatively, small groups can be tasked to produce a written document, • This can help everyone in the community to get a sense of who is “in the such as a set of recommendations. room” and also provides valuable feedback as part of the learning process. • Every student in the community (or group) is required to respond to each of • Lecturers can also pose an open-ended question and ask everyone to type the assignments in some way. their answers into the chat window. This allows everyone to answer the • Guidance from the lecturer should be provided, for example by sending question simultaneously, and allows everyone in the meeting to see all of their the group leader a list of suggested discussion questions prompted by the answers, which in turn can stimulate discussion. assignment, or for the group to reflect on how the assigned task relates to • Chats can be saved at the end of each meeting as a record of students’ students’ personal experience, or requesting that all group members share answers and the lecturer’s feedback. This could subsequently serve as a their thoughts about how they will apply what they have learned from the learning resource for students to refer back to. assignment to their own practice. Such responses are shared with the entire • Lecturers can use a Zoom conference call for individual discussions and community, often via a (private, password protected), discussion board or a office hours. private email list, prior to the next synchronous meeting. A note about equity and inclusion: If lecturers choose to have small groups • Students can use Google Docs to complete activities. report back to the larger group about their small group discussions, they should consider choosing “reporters” rather than calling for volunteers, which will ensure that the group will hear from a diverse set of voices and increases participation from diverse student members.

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Teaching Presence

continued on following page

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Table 1. Continued Teaching Presence

Direct instruction

Social Presence

Cognitive Presence

Principle: Development of collaborative relationships where students are supported in assuming responsibility for their learning. Guidelines: • Provide support but expect students to be self-directed • Directly address conflict situations when necessary • Treat students with respect even when questioned by them • Create opportunities for team building activities Suggestions for practical application: • In zoom, community members can be sent into “breakout rooms” to have discussions in smaller groups. • The lecturer can assign participants to rooms randomly or pre-select who will be in each group. Groups can be of any size, consisting of two or more students. This tool can thus support the use of discussion-based pedagogies such as think-pair-share or jigsaw, which will contribute to more interactive direct instruction. • It may also be helpful to inform students in advance how long the breakout session will last and what is expected from them when they “return” to the main meeting, similar to what would transpire in a face-to-face setting. • If the platform used for blended learning doesn’t support breakout rooms, lecturers could still assign participants to pairs and have them engage in a private chat with each other, or utilize simple and free apps, such as WhatsApp groups. • Including activities such as setting goals, planning and managing of tasks and assessing progress ensure that students become self-directed and increase awareness of metacognitive processes. Other activities that foster metacognitive awareness include student learning journals which reflect students’ learning processes and outcomes

Principle: Ensure that discourse and collaboration advance in resolution and metacognitive development. Guidelines: • Contribute ideas and perspectives that will constructively shape discourse • Diagnose misconceptions • Make connections, integrate ideas and summarizes discussions • Make expectations and guidelines clear • Plan activities in such a way that students become self-directed Suggestions for practical application: • Students (as community members) can be assigned to respond to each other’s reflections and/or suggestions for solving stated problems. These interactions are particularly important to developing a community of practice. · • In other instances, students-as-community-members could be required to complete a task after which they must report back to the larger community (or whole class) about the process, their findings and what they learned from the experience. • Screencast-o-Matic can be used by the lecturer to heighten social presence by offering the students the opportunity to discuss the recorded videos.

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Source: Developed by authors

getting side-tracked or confused. This aspect again underscores the importance of lecturers having to be informed about their students’ diverse learning needs and – circumstances, emphasizing the importance of clarified roles of administrative and support staff (Freeland Fisher et al., 2017) in this regard. Moreover, students may have individualized needs in terms of different presences; therefore, students may respond to instructional strategies differently (Lowenthal & Dunlap, 2018). Learning institutions therefore need to have structures in place to collect as much demographic information from students as possible, to provide a detailed and informative picture of diverse students’ circumstances to lecturers. It is necessary for the subject expert to make connections among ideas, to integrate ideas and summarize discussions, point out misconceptions and provide reasons for that status. Table 1 provides a summary of the principles and guidelines for establishing social, cognitive and learning presence, using teaching presence as a regulatory function, as discussed in the previous sections. These principles and guidelines are expanded with the inclusion of suggestions for practical application and implementation of these processes, while keeping the needs of diverse (and sometimes vulnerable) students in mind. All of these suggestions (Table 1) rely on a few underpinning recommendations, which were derived from the data analysis and are explained in the subsequent section. The recommendations were based on the findings from this study and contributes to answering the research question “how can the digital divide that students experience as a vulnerability in blended learning, be ameliorated through application of CoI principles?” If these overarching recommendations are not in place, an effective CoI for online and blended learning will probably not be established.

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OVERARCHING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AMELIORATION OF THE DIGITAL DIVIDE OF STUDENTS IN BLENDED LEARNING

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1. Firstly, it is recommended that students who will be involved in online and blended learning, must have a suitable technological device that will support the learning requirements for the course(s). Lecturers should compile minimum operating requirements for these devices per course. Students who do not already own suitable devices could be accommodated by including a suitable device as part of the course fees that the student or a bursary provider is responsible for paying. 2. Secondly, students intending to study online or blended courses, should have access to stable electricity supply, and if not, sentra or suitable places where they can charge their technological devices for study purposes should be available within reasonable distance from where the students live. Alternatively, students could be provided with long-lasting ‘power packs’, which can be used to sustain the devices for a significant period of use. 3. Thirdly, it has to be acknowledged that online and blended learning in South Africa requires the use of data or Wi-Fi that will enable access to online resources and connectivity. Unfortunately, data costs are quite high in this country, which can be inhibitive to online learning. During the enforced Covid-19 lockdown period in 2020 several (but not all) internet- and data service providers were willing to allow students access to learning platforms and certain websites for educational purposes at no cost. This show of support for students’ education should be acknowledged, and their continued support of this approach encouraged, perhaps through a tax incentive for companies. Lecturers must carefully plan where online learning will take place, and which platforms will be utilized for interacting and learning, to ensure that their selected platforms are covered by such “free” access to learning. Furthermore, downloadable or compacted resources must be used instead of sources that is only accessible on the internet (such as YouTube). 4. Finally, it is recommended that lecturers and students who will be involved in online and blended courses must complete compulsory training to enable full utilization of applications and software that will enable such learning. Lecturers must plan carefully to ensure that all applications and software they intend to incorporate into their blended or online learning, will be covered in such compulsory training and is supported by the institution’s learning management system. Students should achieve a minimum level of competence for this before being allowed to commence with the learning modules. Though this might seem harsh, it will ensure that students are enabled to utilize and access all learning options made available to them. In addition, this type of training will endow lecturers and students with life-relevant skills and competencies that they could use in their future careers and everyday lives too.

CONCLUSION The research contributed to the field by identifying and refining design principle’s needed for developing and sustaining CoI on module level. In addition, recommendations for the practical implementation thereof were made to support and enable its rolling out in practice. As Garrison (2018) suggests it’s time to turn to the practical aspects of a CoI, as much attention has been directed to issues of facilitation. More studies can be done of how educators can use the CoI model to integrate the best technologies into curriculum in order to empower them and help students learn. The recommendations, if implemented, will 270

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be beneficial to diverse students, including those considered to be vulnerable or disadvantaged because of unequal access to technologies that support online learning in blended learning. The recommendations made in this study require that other stakeholders – such as the Department of Higher Education and data providers – commit to becoming involved in and supporting the endeavor to extend blended and online learning. Overall, such learning prepares students for a future filled with digital technologies, as well as supporting the development of several skills and competencies for these students’ everyday lives and future careers, and its effective structuring and implementation is therefore vital. More research is required on learning presence as part of the CoI framework to enable deeper exploration of this presence that would inform guidelines and principles for its use in this framework. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or notfor-profit sectors.

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About the Contributors

Chantelle Bosch is a Lecturer at the Faculty of Education of the North-West University, and member of the Self-directed Learning research unit. She completed her PhD in Computer Science education. Her main research focus is on blended learning environments that enhance Self-Directed Learning. Her own practical experiences in the classroom guides her research with the specific focus on strategies such as cooperative learning. She has just completed a scholarship of teaching and learning project at the NorthWest University and she is a co-worker in various other projects at her institution. ***

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Simon-Peter Kafui Aheto is an Information Technology, Education and Youth Development researcher and academic. He is motivated to take up highly challenging tasks in multi-cultural and academic environment under minimal technical and professional supervision. Dr. Aheto has consulted, trained or researched widely in ICTs, Education or Youth/Volunteer Development in Ghana, Belgium, Germany, India, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles and South Africa. Some of the institutions who have benefited from Dr. Aheto’s expertise include but not limited to Ghana National Youth Authority, Youth Division of the African Union, Lagos State Government, Nigeria, Never Again, Rwanda, BMZ/Arbeitskreis “Lernen und Helfen in Übersee” e.V. (AKLHÜ), Germany and Eine Welt Netz NRW e.V., Germany. His research focus covers Internet of Things, Blockchain technologies, Learning Analytics, Basic Education, Educating the vulnerable, Distance Education, Rhizomatic Learning and Gender issues in Education. Samuel Amponsah is a Senior Lecturer with a demonstrated history of working at all levels of education in Ghana and South Africa. He is the Acting Head of University of Ghana’s Distance Education Department. He holds a Doctor of Education degree from the University of South Africa. Before joining the University of Ghana, Amponsah lectured at Esayidi TVET in South Africa and headed the Farming Management Department. Samuel’s areas of research interest are education, online learning and adult learning. He is a fellow of the Global Challenges Research Fund and currently on a departmental project investigating the learning needs of Ghanaian adult learners. Samuel is also a Co-PI for two international products on education funded by GCRF and the British Council. Gideon Mensah Anapey holds a doctorate and masters degrees in counselling psychology, M.Ed in computer education, and MBA in human resource studies. He is currently a lecturer in the School of Continuing and Distance Education, University of Ghana with publication interests in psychoeducational support for distance education, mental health, instructional design, cross-cutting issues informing 

About the Contributors

curriculum development in the global south, career counselling, pedagogical integration of computers in learning, and data analytics. His overarching goal is generating indigenous innovative knowledge informed by Africanism for societal reengineering. Isaac Kofi Biney lectures at the Department of Adult Education and Human Resource Studies, School of Continuing and Distance Education (SCDE), College of Education, University of Ghana, Legon for nearly eight (8) years. He is also the Coordinator of Accra Learning Centre (ALC). Dr. Biney’s areas of interest and research are in Adult Learning, Community Development, Entrepreneurship, Distance Education, and Human Resource Development.

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A. Seugnet Blignaut, originally from Gauteng, South Africa, has about forty years of national and international experience relating to the use of digital media in teaching and learning, and how technology-enhanced learning benefited students at all levels. After working in the Faculties of Education at the University of Pretoria, Capella University (Minnesota, USA), Tshwane University of Technology and the North-West University, as lecturer, associate professor, professor and research professor, she accepted the position of Director of the Research Unit, Technology Enhanced Technology (Telit) at the Vaal Campus of the North-West university. She acted as the South African Local Research Coordinator for Sites 2006, the Second International Technology in Education Study of the evaluation of Mathematics across 22 countries. She retired in 2018 and continues to undertake consultancy work relating to the use of digital media in teaching and learning. Adri Breed is a NRF-rated associate professor in Afrikaans descriptive linguistics at the North-West University’s Potchefstroom Campus. She specialises in syntax and semantics, with a particular focus on the grammaticalisation of tense and aspect constructions in Afrikaans and Dutch. She completed five degrees at the NWU, namely a degree in Business Communication (B.Bk. – 2005), a degree in Theology with languages (B.Th. Languages – 2005), an Honours degree in Afrikaans Linguistics (B.A. Hons. – 2007), a Master’s degree Afrikaans Literature (M.A. – 2007) and her PhD in Afrikaans Linguistics in 2012. During the course of her doctoral studies, she spent roughly ten months at the University of Antwerp, Belgium as a research member of the UA’s Center for Grammar, Cognition and Typology. She is subject head of the Subject Group: Afrikaans and Dutch Studies on the Potchefstroom Campus. She is vice-chair of the South African Association for Dutch Studies (SAVN), and also serve on the management of the Dutch Language Union’s South African Northern Knowledge Network. She is a member of PanSALB’s Afrikaans Language Body. Adri was one of the authors of Taalportaal – an international project that aims at the construction of a comprehensive and authoritative scientific grammar website for Dutch, Frisian and Afrikaans. She is an associate editor for the ISI-accredited journal, South African Language and Applied Language Studies. Currently, she is the editor-in-chief for the Virtual Institute of Afrikaans’ general Afrikaans grammar and language education portal. Nina Brink achieved a BA in Communication Studies, and BA Hons and MA in Afrikaans and Dutch at the North-West University’s Potchefstroom campus. Her specific research focus is on Afrikaans children’s first language acquisition. This is an underexplored theme in the field of Afrikaans linguistics. Nina works within the framework of functional/usage-based and cognitive linguistics, and also specialises in Afrikaans language editing.

322

About the Contributors

Erasmos Charamba holds a PhD from the University of South Africa. His writes and presents widely on issues of language education, science education, multilingualism, teacher education, multiculturalism, and transformation of education. Erasmos has taught at primary’ secondary, and university level in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Currently, he is a Lecturer in the Foundation Studies Division, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Marlie Coetzee is currently the executive director of the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA). She obtained a BA in communication science, after which she completed her postgraduate diploma in business management. After that, she worked as a project manager for VivA and at the Center for Text Technology (CTexT®) of the North-West University (NWU), which develops language technology products for South African languages. She recently obtained her Master’s degree in Business Administration (MBA) from the North-West University. Adri Du Toit specialises in teacher education and curriculum development, preparing Consumer Studies and Technology teachers at the Faculty of Education of the North-West University. She focuses on developing entrepreneurship education at school level and has published and presented numerous articles on research regarding a range of pedagogical and curriculum issues in her specialist subject fields, while maintaining a focus on entrepreneurship education. Dr Du Toit enjoys collaborating with researchers from across the globe but particularly with academics that share the challenges and delights of developing education on the African continent.

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Cecilia Erasmus obtained her PhD at the North-West University in 2019 under the guidance of prof Bertus Van Rooy. She is an Afrikaans FAL educator at St Davids’ Marist Inanda and she is a moderator and writer for VivA(Virtual Institute for Afrikaans). Nadine Fouché was a lecturer within the Faculty of Education at the North-West University where she taught undergraduate and postgraduate students regarding aspects of Afrikaans linguistics and language teaching. Since 2020 she has been a linguistic writer and researcher for the Virtual Institute of Afrikaans and she keeps herself busy with the exciting task of writing a General Afrikaans Grammar. In 2016 she obtained an MEd degree at the North-West University with a dissertation, entitled “Cohesion marker use in the writing of Afrikaans-speaking Grade 6 and Grade 9 learners” (Cum Laude). Based on the findings of this dissertation, she goes on to write about text binding in the articles “Carstens’ framework of Afrikaans conjunction markers: a more accurate and complete version” (that appeared in the Journal of Humanities in 2017) and “The realisation of lexical cohesion: A corpus linguistic investigation of Afrikaans-speaking Grade 6 and Grade 9 learners’ writing” (that appeared on LitNet Akademies in 2020). As language teaching is of great interest to her, she travelled to Bulgaria in 2018 where she presented the paper “The link between language of learning and teaching and poor reading performance” at the BCES conference (The Annual National Conference of the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society). Her interest in language teaching also lead to her participation in a research project in 2020 at the University of Stellenbosch where the communicative, task-based and inductive presentation of grammar is the research focus. Currently she is registered for a PhD with the following title: “The communicative teaching of grammar at home language level in the FET phase: The design of a teaching framework”. Her research interests include descriptive linguistics, text linguistics, grammar and grammar teaching in the language classroom. 323

About the Contributors

Frederic Fovet is an Associate Professor within the School of Education and Technology at Royal Roads University. He is Program Head for the MA in Educational Leadership and Management. His research portfolio includes projects related to disability studies in the educational landscape, inclusion, Universal Design for Learning, social justice in the classroom, the integration of Critical Pedagogy into classroom practices, and leadership for inclusion. Frederic was Director of the Office for Students with Disabilities at McGill University for four years over the period of his PhD. He was responsible there for the campus wide development of UDL practices. He acts as a consultant on UDL, both domestically and internationally, with K-12 schools and post-secondary institutions. Leila Goosen is a full professor in the Department of Science and Technology Education of the University of South Africa. Prof. Goosen was an Associate Professor in the School of Computing, and the module leader and head designer of the fully online signature module for the College for Science, Engineering and Technology, rolled out to over 92,000 registered students since the first semester of 2013. She also supervises ten Masters and Doctoral students, and has successfully completed supervision of 43 students at postgraduate level. Previously, she was a Deputy Director at the South African national Department of Education. In this capacity, she was required to develop ICT strategies for implementation. She also promoted, coordinated, managed, monitored and evaluated ICT policies and strategies, and drove the research agenda in this area. Before that, she had been a lecturer of Information Technology (IT) in the Department for Science, Mathematics and Technology Education in the Faculty of Education of the University of Pretoria. Her research interests have included cooperative work in IT, effective teaching and learning of programming and teacher professional development.

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Susan Greyling has been involved in Foundation Phase teaching for 21 years, was HOD Foundation Phase and lectured as an Early Childhood Development and Education Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the North West University (NWU, Potchefstroom Campus). She was the Programme Leader for the Diploma in Grade R Teaching as well as the Programme Leader for ECCE, mainly responsible for the design, delivery and presentation of the degree and diploma in ECCE within the teacher education programmes delivered via distance learning. Her research interests include Early Childhood Education as well as Educational Management. She is results-driven with strong problem solving, analytical and abstract reasoning skills. She maintains a high level of integrity and trustworthiness with a strong sense of determination. She is the Academic Manager for the Faculty of Education at the Unit for Open Distance Learning (UODL) at NWU. She did her PhD in Educational Management at UNISA. Theme: Management training for Foundation Phase Teachers that strive towards Principal positions: Case study in the North West Province. Fritz Ilongo received his PhD in Psychology of Education from the University of the Free State. He is currently a Psychologist and Counsellor, Senior Lecturer in UNESWA, Eswatini, and Research Fellow with IDRA, University of South Africa. He recently authored; ‘Creative Education – DDV: SEE’, Outskirts Press, USA, and ‘AfroSymbiocity as a Psychology of Conflict and Conflict Resolution in Africa’, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, UK. Sophia Kapp holds a master’s degree in Afrikaans linguistics from the UOFS. She is currently the senior language adviser, translator, text editor, copywriter, content planner and content developer for

324

About the Contributors

the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans. She is also a member of the Afrikaans Language Commission, the standardisation body for Afrikaans orthography, and she is the author of several romantic fiction novels. Olivia A. T. Frimpong Kwapong is a faculty at the Department of Adult Education and Human Resource Studies. Her areas of research are gender, technology-mediated learning and adult learning principles. Lydia Kyei-Blankson is a Professor in the Educational Administration and Foundations (EAF) Department at Illinois State University. Her expertise is in research methods, applied statistics, and psychometrics. Her teaching assignment includes graduate research methods and statistics courses. Also, she serves as Senior Research Fellow at NACADA: The Global Community for Academic Advising Center for Research at Kansas State University (KSU). Dr. Kyei-Blankson’s research agenda focuses on the scholarship of teaching and learning, online education, and the implications of effective technology integration in teaching and learning at the K-20 level. Her research has been published in various educational journals and books. She has co-edited eight books and serves on the editorial board of many journals.  Michael Laubscher is a lecturer at the Faculty of Law of the North-West University, South Africa. He has more than 15 years of experience in education both at secondary school level as well as at tertiary level. His research involves aspects of law and education as well as teaching and learning. He has published on national and international level.

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Tobias Marevesa is a New Testament Lecturer in the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, under the Joshua Nkomo School of Arts and Humanities at the Great Zimbabwe University where he teaches New Testament Studies and New Testament Greek. He holds a PhD with the University of Pretoria in South Africa. His areas of interest are New Testament studies and politics, Pentecostal expressions in Zimbabwean Christianity, culture, human rights, and gender-based violence. He has also published in the area of New Testament studies and conflict-resolution in the Zimbabwean political landscape. Has attended and presented a number of papers in both regional and international conferences and has published articles in reputable international journals. He is a member of the New Testament Society of Southern Africa (NTSSA), Reading Association of Nigeria (RAN), Association for the Study of Religion in Southern Africa (ASRSA), African Consortium for Law and Religion Studies (ACLARS), and the International Consortium for Law and Religion Studies (ICLARS). Esther Mavengano is a lecturer in areas of Linguistics and Literature in the Department of English and Media Studies at Great Zimbabwe University. She holds a PhD in Linguistics and Literary studies with the University of North West in South Africa. Her areas of interests are; Language planning, Sociolinguistics, Discourse Analysis, Zimbabwean and South African literature, Anglophone literature and English as a Second Language. She has published in these mentioned areas. Happiness Mavimbela is a Masters in Adult Education candidate enroled with the University of Eswatini (UNESWA). She is based in Luyengo; the Facuty of Agriculture of UNESWA

325

About the Contributors

(Nomvula Ndhlovu - Contributing Author) First author of “Re-Envisioning and Restructuring eLearning Through Engagement with Underprivileged Communities: The Impact of Effectively Using ICTs in Classrooms.” Hercules Nieuwoudt was appointed Extraordinary Professor of Mathematics Education at the NorthWest University (NWU), South Africa, following his retirement from the NWU. During his career, spanning four decades, he has been involved in under- and post-graduate Mathematics Education and related programmes, including supervision of numerous masters’ and doctoral studies and post-doctoral projects. His work primarily focussed on the enhancement of the teaching and learning of Mathematics at school and at university level as well as the development of Mathematics teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching through the integration of dynamic technologies. He has been involved in various national and international research and professional community engagement projects. Hercules is currently managing a number of industry-funded school-based teaching and learning support programmes aimed at preparing students for study and work in STEAM fields. He is also leading a collaborative “second-chance” programme in support of students coming from challenging school conditions who wish to, but did not obtain access to post-school STEAM-related study and training in their first sitting for end-of-school examinations in Mathematics and the Sciences. Suléne Pilon is an Afrikaans linguistics lecturer at the University of Pretoria. She also currently serves as the deputy chairperson of the Language Commission of the South African Academy for Science and Arts. Her research focuses on the development of Afrikaans resources for natural language processing, and on the description of Afrikaans morphological and syntactic constructions.

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Selloane Pitikoe completed her PhD in Adult Education from the University of Kwazulu Natal and is currently a lecturer in the Department of Adult Education of the University of Eswatini. She has published both locally and internationally in the following research areas: Non-Formal Education, Identity Construction, Social Exclusion as well as Social Media in Education. Natasha Ravyse’s research career started in 2012 when she completed her honours degree in literature and published an article concerned with the immersive and repulsive effects in A Clockwork Orange, part of which involved her first encounter with fictional sub-cultural language entitled ‘Nadsat: The oscillation between reader immersion and repulsion’ . She focus on sub-cultural languages and understanding their role and function in society by applying and reconceptualising traditional mainstream language theories. In 2014, she received her MA in English, for which she was awarded the Vice Chancellor’s Medal for the best MA dissertation at the NWU in 2014 for her work on Fanagalo as a sub-cultural language. In 2018, she graduated with a PhD in Linguistics and Literary Theory and has since published and presented at international conferences on her work in sub-cultural linguistic vitality theory. Benita Taylor is an Early Childhood Development (ECD) lecturer affiliated to the North-West University (NWU)’s Potchefstroom Campus. She completed her BEd Foundation Phase degree at the NWU and began her career during the completion of her BEd Hons in Learner Support. After completing her studies, she held a teaching position and returned to the NWU in 2011 as a quality adviser at the Unit for Open Distance Learning. In 2017, she accepted a lecturer position in ECD in the Faculty of Education, where she is currently responsible for the delivery of distance learning modules in the Gr R diploma 326

About the Contributors

program. She is also involved in the development of a new BEd degree and diploma in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) and is currently working on her PhD in the field of ECCE (0-4 years). Gerhard B. van Huyssteen (50) completed his PhD in linguistics in 2000 at the North-West University (NWU). In his research, he focuses mostly on Afrikaans linguistics (specifically construction morphology), but also on the development of human language technology resources and applications for various South African languages. He is currently appointed as professor at NWU, is a C2 NRF-rated researcher, and has published more than 70 local and international scholarly articles/papers/chapters in books. He also serves as chairperson of the “Afrikaanse Taalkommissie” (orthography commission).

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Roné van Wyk is currently a linguist and researcher for the Virtual Institute for Afrikaans (VivA). In addition to these roles, she is also an assistant at the Digital Bibliography for Afrikaans Linguistics and Literature. She is currently pursuing her Master’s studies in Linguistics at the North-West University. Her research focuses on descriptive diachronic linguistics, syntax and corpus linguistics.

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328

Index

A accessibility 14, 29-30, 67, 88, 104, 110, 125, 143-144, 146, 150, 152-153, 155-157, 160, 164, 190, 195, 208, 210, 244-245, 256 administration staf 56, 59, 65 adult education 145, 163, 191, 194, 196-197, 199201, 204, 206-208, 211, 217, 219-220, 224, 227, 237, 244 adult learners 21, 185-199, 202, 204-209, 211-218, 222-224, 235, 242 adult learning theory 217-219, 240, 242, 244 assessment 2-3, 11, 15, 17, 19-20, 22, 29-30, 38, 40-43, 49, 55, 63, 68-69, 83, 104, 127, 135, 140, 148, 150-151, 153, 156, 165-166, 168-172, 176-184, 193, 204, 212, 216-217, 225, 228-229, 231, 235, 237, 239, 252 Assessment Counselling 225 Asynchronous Learning 21, 42, 123, 140, 173, 251, 271, 273

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B benefts of blended learning 3, 254-255 blended learning 1-7, 13, 15, 17-43, 47, 54, 56, 60, 65, 67, 69, 71, 79, 81, 84, 88-89, 91, 103, 105-107, 109-113, 116, 118, 120-121, 124-125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 135-141, 143-146, 148-158, 160-162, 164-166, 169, 179-180, 185-187, 198-206, 209211, 217-220, 227, 240-252, 254-263, 265-273 blended learning checklist 1 blended learning ecosystem 124-125, 129, 131, 133, 137, 140-141, 200 blended learning toolbox 1-2, 17-18

C challenges of blended learning 1, 4, 42 classroom activities 4, 69, 87, 110-111  

community 4, 25-26, 40, 42, 53, 61, 66, 68-69, 71, 83-84, 93, 112, 117-118, 124-125, 129-133, 137138, 141, 152, 159, 166-168, 175-176, 178, 180, 184, 237, 242, 250, 254-260, 262-267, 272-273 community of inquiry 40, 250, 254-257, 259-260, 262-267, 272-273 conceptual framework 7, 73, 84, 189, 203, 213, 242, 262 Content Developer 124, 130, 141 counselling 225, 229, 232-233, 235, 239 COVID-19 pandemic 1-2, 20-22, 26, 67, 112, 119, 157, 159, 161, 187, 211, 225-226, 228-230, 232-233, 240-243, 245-246, 248-249, 251-252 critical pedagogy 143, 146-147, 153, 160-163

D DEFINITION OF BLENDED LEARNING 1-2 Digital Portal 141 digital resources 126, 138, 141 Distance Education 33, 46-47, 62, 65, 82, 145, 157, 162, 166, 173, 185, 188, 198-203, 210-211, 218, 225-230, 232-238, 250, 267, 272 diverse student needs 254, 261

E Educational Technology 7, 20-21, 40, 60, 63-64, 80, 82, 86, 104, 106-107, 157, 160-161, 182-183, 199, 201, 217, 225, 228-229, 236-237, 239 Efectively e-Schooling 44 efectiveness 1-2, 33, 45, 49, 61, 68, 70-71, 73, 78-79, 81, 83, 85, 87, 99-100, 110, 141, 177, 186, 190, 205, 218-220, 252, 255-256, 260, 262 e-learning 35, 37-38, 40-43, 45-49, 51-52, 57, 60, 62-64, 66-69, 71, 73, 79, 83, 110-111, 115, 117, 120, 160, 166, 181, 192, 204-206, 211-213, 217, 219-220, 228, 236-237, 246-249, 251 engagement 4, 14, 16, 20, 38, 51, 53, 61, 66, 68-69, 71, 73, 77, 79-80, 83, 102, 110, 148, 160, 184, 186,

Index

193, 205, 207, 209, 215-216, 226-227, 229-230, 232, 244, 259-260, 264-266, 272 English Foreign Language 109-110 e-portfolio 165, 170, 174-176, 180 e-schooling 44-45, 48, 51-52, 65 e-schools 45, 49, 53, 61, 63, 65-66, 69, 72, 82-83, 86 evaluation 8, 11, 17, 19, 22, 38, 40-41, 43, 47, 49, 56, 59, 63, 71, 81, 97, 99, 105-106, 120, 140, 157, 208, 219, 225, 230-231, 234, 239, 259 Evaluation Monitoring 225

G Ghana 42, 157, 185-188, 190-199, 201, 203, 211, 225-230, 235-238 Global North 146, 148, 150-151, 185, 188, 190-191, 195, 198, 203 Global South 105, 116, 146, 148, 185, 188, 190-192, 195, 198, 203, 228 Great Zimbabwe University 240-250

H

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higher education 14, 19-26, 30, 33, 35-36, 38-43, 49, 54, 60, 63, 83, 104, 106, 119, 121, 157, 163, 166, 182, 185-186, 189-190, 197-203, 205, 207, 211-212, 218-219, 221, 226-227, 229, 232, 236-237, 241, 243, 245, 249-252, 254-256, 258, 266, 271-273 higher education institutions 14, 21, 25-26, 33, 35-36, 39, 41, 49, 166, 185, 203, 241, 243, 249, 272 home language 84, 109-118, 123, 139-140

L Language Teaching Portal 129, 131, 133, 135, 141 learner support 165-166, 170, 172-174, 176-177, 179-180 learners 1-2, 19, 21, 23, 38, 44-59, 63-65, 84, 88-94, 99, 101-103, 105, 119-121, 124-129, 133, 135, 137-138, 144-154, 156, 158, 160, 164-170, 172, 175-181, 185-199, 202-218, 222-225, 228-232, 235, 242, 244, 255, 257-258, 260-261, 264, 266-267 Learning Management System 186, 190, 193, 199, 204-205, 211, 218, 228, 264, 270 Learning Technology 140

M marginalized populations 45, 67, 143 mathematics education 88-90, 98-99, 104-108, 158 mLearning 88, 90-92, 98, 102 mobile application 88-89 mobile devices 88-89, 190 monitoring 14, 37-38, 40, 216-217, 225, 229-230, 232-237, 239, 248, 261 Monolingualism 109, 116, 123 Multi-Competence 123 Multilingualism 109-112, 116-118, 120-121, 123

N non-proft organisation 129, 131, 138, 141

I

O

impact 15, 20, 29, 42, 45-47, 50-51, 56, 58-60, 65-66, 68, 71, 74, 77, 79-80, 84, 87, 89, 107, 111, 121, 125, 144, 146-147, 150, 161, 164, 185, 187, 194197, 203, 217, 220-221, 223, 237, 239, 242-245, 256, 261, 266 impact of efectively using ICTs in classrooms 66, 68, 71, 74, 79 inclusion 45, 48, 54-56, 67, 79, 102, 104, 115, 143, 146, 150-152, 155-156, 162, 205, 207, 269 integration 1-3, 7, 9, 12, 19-21, 31, 36, 46-47, 49-51, 54-55, 57, 60-61, 63-65, 67-70, 72-73, 79-87, 91, 94, 109-110, 146, 151, 155, 157, 165, 170, 175, 177, 186, 189, 191, 194, 197-198, 205, 208-209, 221, 229, 238, 243, 248-249, 256-258, 261

online learning 2-3, 5-7, 21, 23, 47, 49, 63, 67, 91, 113, 119, 123, 132, 139-140, 145, 147, 149, 157-159, 173, 186, 193, 195, 202-203, 205-207, 209-212, 215-216, 218-219, 230-232, 236-237, 250, 254255, 257, 260, 263, 270-273 open educational resources 115, 123, 125, 127, 139, 164

P PALAR 165-166, 172-173, 184 policy 24-26, 30-35, 37-39, 42-43, 46, 49-50, 52, 54, 57-58, 61, 63, 72, 82, 85, 92, 107, 118-121, 126, 135, 139-141, 159, 163, 167-168, 179, 181, 183, 193, 195-198, 220, 225, 228-229, 236, 253 privileged and underprivileged communities 24-29, 31-32, 34-35, 39, 246 pupil 51, 87 329

Index

Q quality assurance 24-33, 35-42, 186, 201-202, 225, 230, 232-233, 236, 239

R Realistic Mathematics Education 88-90, 105-108 re-envisioning and restructuring 44, 51, 66, 68, 71, 79, 199

S Science Education 59, 113, 116, 118-121 Self Motivation 204 self-directed learning 19, 69, 81, 125, 127, 138, 185186, 188-191, 199-205, 207-209, 211-216, 218, 220-221, 235, 244, 263-264, 267 social justice 143-144, 146-149, 151-156, 158-159, 163 student autonomy 125, 138, 141 student participation 16, 236, 254-255 support 7, 10, 16, 21, 26, 28, 32, 34, 38, 44-48, 51, 5758, 63, 65, 67-68, 70-71, 74, 78, 81, 84, 86, 104, 109, 112, 117, 124-126, 137-138, 143-144, 147, 149, 151-155, 165-168, 170-181, 186, 190, 192194, 197, 213, 215, 225, 228-237, 239, 243-244, 247, 249, 255-257, 260-261, 263-267, 269-273 Support Training 225 Synchronous Learning 123

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T Taalonderrigportaal 124, 133, 141 Taalportaal 124, 126-127, 130-131, 133-136, 141-142 teachers 7, 20-22, 44-60, 63, 65, 67-73, 76-82, 84-86, 88-89, 92, 95, 98-99, 101, 103-104, 107, 111, 120, 124-129, 133, 135-140, 142-145, 147-156, 158, 160-163, 165-173, 175-180, 182-184, 188, 210, 226-227, 267 technology 1-3, 7-9, 12-14, 19-21, 26-27, 30, 37, 40, 42-43, 45-51, 55-57, 59-65, 67, 69-71, 74, 7886, 89, 91-93, 99, 101, 103-108, 110, 112, 116, 119-120, 125, 129-131, 138, 140, 144-145, 148150, 153, 156-157, 159-163, 165-170, 172-175, 177-190, 192, 194, 198-208, 210-212, 216-218, 220, 225-230, 233-234, 236-239, 243, 248-252, 254-256, 260, 264, 273 training 46-47, 53-55, 60, 63, 70, 72, 78-79, 89, 95,

330

126, 128, 143, 145, 147, 154-156, 160, 167, 169, 190, 207, 210, 214-216, 220, 223, 225, 229-231, 234-236, 238-239, 247-250, 266-267, 270 Translanguaging 110, 112, 119-123 tutors 137, 152, 164, 192, 194, 225, 230-232, 234235, 237, 239

U underprivileged communities 1, 17, 24-32, 34-36, 39, 44, 51, 66, 68, 71, 79, 88, 110, 117-118, 199, 240-242, 244-246 Universal Design for Learning 143-144, 147, 153, 160-162 University of Ghana 185-186, 188, 190-194, 198, 201, 225-230, 235-236, 238

V virtual 7, 10-11, 27, 45, 104, 124-125, 129-131, 141, 145, 150-151, 153, 159, 173, 187, 192, 205-206, 219, 225, 230, 232-237, 239, 246, 260, 265, 271 Virtual Institute for Afrikaans 124-125, 129-131, 141 VivA 124-125, 129-134, 136-138, 141-142 Vygotsky 111-112, 121