Production and Distribution: A Ceramic Viewpoint 9780860541462, 9781407326207

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Title Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
1. IN THE WAKE OF DISTRIBUTION: TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO CERAMIC STUDIES IN PREHISTORIC BRITAIN
2. A MODEL FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LOCAL CERAMIC DISTRIBUTION: A VIEW FROM THE PRESENT
3. POTTERY AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BRITISH PREHISTORY
4. NOTES ON CERAMIC TRADE IN ANCIENT SCANDINAVIA
5. CERAMIC EXCHANGE IN WESTERN BRITAIN: A PRELIMINARY VIEW
6. CERAMIC COMPARISONS CONCERNING REDISTRIBUTION IN CHACO CANYON, NEW MEXICO
7. THE ROMAN AMPHORA TRADE WITH LATE IRON AGE BRITAIN
8. THE LATE BRONZE AGE AEGEAN AND THE ROMAN MEDITERRANEAN: A CASE FOR COMPARISON
9. POTTERY PRODUCTION-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN THE SOUTHERN MAYA LOWLANDS
10. POTTERY PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTHEAST NIGERIA
11. ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY AND CERAMIC PRODUCTION
12. ROMAN POTTERY: TOWARDS THE INVESTIGATION OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CHANGE?
13. THE VALUE OF THE STUDY OF POTTERY IN THE LATE ROMAN PERIOD
14. POTTERY, PRODUCTION AND USE; A THEORETICAL DISCUSSION
15. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CERAMIC PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION IN A CENTRAL INDIAN VILLAGE
16. INCIPIENT MARKETS FOR EARLY ANGLO-SAXON CERAMICS: VARIATIONS IN LEVELS AND MODES OF PRODUCTION
17. EARLY ANGLO-SAXON POTTERY: PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION
18. PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF POTTERY IN THE MAGHREB
19. PRODUCTION ET DISTRIBUTION DE POTERIES AU MAGHREB
20. INTERPRETATION, CLASSIFICATION, AND CERAMIC PRODUCTION: A MEDIEVAL NORTH AFRICAN CASE STUDY
21. THE MEDIEVAL POTTERY INDUSTRY IN SOUTHERN ENGLAND: 10th TO 13th CENTURIES
22. CRAFT AND INDUSTRY: MEDIEVAL AND LATER POTTERS IN SOUTH-EAST ENGLAND
23. CERAMIC PYROMETRY: TWO IBIBIO EXAMPLES
24. CERAMIC EXCHANGE AND MANUFACTURE: A 'FLOW STRUCTURE' APPROACH

Citation preview

Production and Distribution: a Ceramic Viewpoint

Hilary Howard and Elaine L. Morris

BAR International Series 1981

120

B.A.R.�

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, �I.A.

B.A.R. S120, 1981: "Production and Djstribution: a Ceramic Viewpqint" © The Individual Authors, 1981 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541462 paperback ISBN 9781407326207 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541462 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

.

•

. •. •

.

•

.

•

,

P RODUCT ION AND

a

•

'

D ISTR IBUT ION

) )

/ • •-

c e ram i c

•• , 1

-

• ‘ \ ) ,.

) ' • • •

v i ewpo in t ,

. 7 ;

. 7 :-

. 1 ,

•

• -• • •

• :

-

. ;

•

-• ' 4

2 .

_

,

• ' -

e d i ted b y H i la ry H ow a rd a nd E l a in e L . Mo r r i s

et [ 1 1 . 1 to p i e w .

Ai i m p

10 16 , 1F t s • . .se e

CO NTE NTS Page Con tributors

i i

Preface

v ii

1 .

2 .

3 . 4 .

J •

6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 . 1 2 . 1 3. 1 4 . 1 5.

1 6.

H ilary Howard . I n t he wake o f d istribu tion : t o wards a n i ntegrated a pproach t o c era mic s tudies i n p reh istoric Britain . Dean E . Arnold . A model f or t he i den tification o f n on-local c era mic d istr ibution : av ie w f ro m t he p resent .

1

3 1

Ann E llison . Pottery a nd s ocio-econo mic c hange i n Brit ish p rehistory .

4 5

B irg itta Hu'then . S candinav ia .

5 7

Notes o n c era mic t rade i n a ncien t

E la ine L . Morris. Cera mic e xchange i n western Britain : ap reli minary v ie w . H .

Wolcott Toll . Cera mic c o mparisons c oncern ing r edistribu tion i n Chaco Canyon , Ne w Mex ico.

6 7 8 3

D . F . Will ia ms. The Ro man amphorae t rade w ith l ate i ron a ge Britain .

1 23

J . A . R iley . The l ate b ronze a ge Aegean a nd t he Ro man Mediterranean : ac ase f or c o mparison .

1 33

Robert E . Fry . Pottery p roduction-distribu tion s yste ms i n t he s ou thern Maya l o wlands.

1 45

Keith N ickl in . Pottery p roduction a nd d istribu tion i n s outheast N igeria .

1 69

D . P . S . Peacock . Archaeology , c era mic p roduction .

1 87

e thnology a nd

Michael Fulford . Ro man p ottery : t o wards t he i nvestigation o f e cono mic a nd s ocial c hange?

1 95

C . J . Young . The v alue o f t he s tudy o f p ottery i n t he l ate Ro man p eriod .

2 09

I an Hodder. Pottery , p roduction a nd u se ; a t heoretical d iscussion .

2 15

Dan iel Miller. The r elationship b etween c era mic p roduction a nd d istribu tion i n a c en tral I nd ian v illage.

2 21

Mar ,k A . Brisbane. I ncipien t markets f or e arly Anglo-Saxon c era mics: v ariations i n l evels a nd modes o f p roduction .

2 29

Page 1 7.

1 8 . 1 9. 2 0.

2 1 . 2 2 .

2 3. 2 4 .

C .

J . Arnold . Early Anglo-Saxon p ottery : p roduction a nd d istribution .

2 43

F 161ene Balfet. Production a nd d istribution o f p ot tery i n t he Maghreb .

2 57

1 -61ene Balfet . Production e t d istribu tion d e p oteries a u Maghreb .

2 71

Charles L . Red man a nd J . E mlen Myers. I n terpretat ion , c lassification , a nd c era mic p roduction : a med ieval north African c ase s tudy .

2 85

A .

G . V ince. The medieval p ottery i ndustry i n s ou thern England : 1 0th t o 1 3th c enturies.

3 09

Anthony D . F . S treeten . Craft a nd i ndustry : medieval a nd l ater p ot ters i n s outh-east England .

3 23

Keith N ick lin . e xa mples.

3 47

Cera mic pyro metry :

t wo I bibio

S . E . Van d er Leeuw . Cera mic e xchange a nd manufacture: a " f low s tructure" a pproach .

1 1

3 61

CO NT RIBUTO RS C . J . Arnold , Depart ment o f Archaeology , Un iversity o f Leeds, S outh Yorkshire , Eng land . Dean E . Arnold , Depart men t o f An thropology , Wheaton College, I l linois, U . S .A . Helene Balfet , Labora toire D 'Ethnolog ie, Musee d e L ' Ho m me, Paris, France. Mark A . Brisbane, God 's House To wer Museu m , S ou tha mpton , Ha mpshire , England . Ann E ll ison , Wessex Archaeolog ical Co m mittee, S alisbury , Wiltshire, England . Robert E . Fry , Depart ment o f S ociology a nd An thropology , Purdue Un iversity , I ndiana , U . S .A . Michael Fulford , Depart ment o f Archaeology , University o f Read ing , Berkshire, England . I an Hodder, Depart ment o f Archaeology , Un iversity o f Ca mbridge , England .

1 11

H ilary Ho ward , Depart men t o f Archaeology , Un iversity o f S outha mpton , Ha mpshire , England . B irgitta Hulthen , Laboratory f or Cera m ic a nd C lay Mineral Research , Depart men t o f Quaternary Geology , Lund Un iversity , Sweden . Dan iel Miller , S t . J ohn 's College, Un iversity o f Ca mbridge, England . E laine L . Morris, Depart ment o f Archaeology , University o f S ou tha mpton , Ha mpshire , England . J . E mlen Myers, Depart men t o f Anthropology , S tate University o f New York a t B ingha mton , U . S .A . Keith N ick lin , Po well Cot ton Museu m , B irchington , Ken t , England . D . P . S . Peacock , Depart men t o f Archaeology , University o f S ou tha mpton , Ha mpshire , England . Charles L . Red man , Depart ment o f An thropology , S tate Un iversity o f New York a t B ingha mton , U . S .A . J . A . R iley , S cience Research Council Aegean Project , Depart ment o f Archaeology , Un iversity o f S ou tharrpton , Ha mpshire , England .

An thony D . F . S treeten , Depart men t o f Archaeology , Un iversity o f S ou tha mpton , Ha mpshire , England . H . Wolcott Toll , Chaco Cen ter , National Park S erv ice , Albuquerque , Ne w Mex ico, U . S . A . S . E . Van d er Leeuw , A . E . Van G iffen I nstituut v oor Prae- e n Protohistorie, A msterda m , Holland . A . G . V ince, Depart men t o f Urban Archaeology , Museu m o f London , London , England . D . F . Willia ms, Depart ment o f t he Env iron ment Cera mic Petrology Project , Depart ment o f Archaeology , University o f S outha mpton , Ha mpshire , England . C . J . Young , I nspectorate o f Ancient Monu ments a nd H istoric Bu ildings, Depart men t o f t he Env iron men t , London , Eng land .

PREFACE The c onsiderable a dvances made i n t he l ast t wo d ecades, b oth i n t he d evelop men t o f a rchaeolog ical t heory a nd i n t he a ppl ication o f a naly tical t echn iques t o material r e ma ins, h ave p art icular r elevance t o t he f ield o f c era mic s tud ies. Pottery , t he most u b iqu i tous f or m o f a rchaeolog ica l e v idence , h as a lways b een a n importan t t ool f or c onstructing t i me s equences a nd ' cultural ' p at terns, b u t i n r ecen t y ears t he p oten tial weal th o f s ocial a nd e cono mic i nfor ma t ion i t c on ta ins h as b een i ncreasingly r eal ised a nd e xploited . The r esul ts o f f abric c haracterisation a nd t echnolog ical s tud ies, q uant if ied s ty l istic a nalyses, a nd p roble m-orien tated e thnograph ic i nvestigat ion a re n ow b eing u sed c onstruct ively w ith in r esearch f ra me works d esigned t o a ddress b roader q uest ions o f s ocial o rgan isa tion . I n v iew o f t hese d evelop men ts, i t was f el t t ha t ar eal n eed e x isted f or a ll t hose c oncerned w ith a rchaeolog ical c era mics t o meet a nd d iscuss t heir i deas a nd a pproaches. The c olloqu iu m e n titled ' Technology a nd Trade' wh ich t ook p lace a t S ou tha mpton University o n October 1 0th-12th 1 980 , was d esigned t o meet t h is n eed . Th is v olu me owes i ts o rig in t o t he S ou tha mp ton c olloqu iu m , where more t han 2 00 a rchaeolog ists f ro m Brita in , Europe a nd A merica , w ith v aried i n terests, p articipated i n a l ively p rogra m me o f p resen ta t ion a nd d iscussion . I t b eca me a pparent t hroughou t t his d iscussion , t hat t he o rgan isa t ion o f p roduct ion w ith in i ts s ocial c on tex t , mechan is ms o f c era mic d istribut ion , a nd t he r elat ionsh ip b etween manufacture a nd e xchange were o f p ri mary c oncern . The e ssays c on ta ined i n t hese p ages, t herefore , r epresen t c urren t t h ink ing s urround ing t hese ma jor t he mes. Most o f t hose who d el ivered p apers a t t he c on ference e lected t o p resen t t heir v ie ws i n written f or m ; t he p apers b y Dan iel Miller , Keith N ick l in a nd o ne o f t he e d itors ( Hilary Ho ward ) were p repared s pecif ica lly f or t he v olu me. Ra ther t han a t t empt t he d aun ting t ask o f s u m marising t he v ery w ide r ange o f a pproaches a nd o pin ions o f o ur c on tributors, we h ave c hosen i nstead t o p rov ide s hort a bstract o f e ach p aper. We s hould l ike t o t ake t h is o pportun ity t o e x tend o ur war mest t hanks t o a ll t hose who c on tribu ted b oth t o t he s uccess o f t he c on ference a nd t he p roduct ion o f t h is v olu me. We h ave b enef ited t hroughou t f ro m t he c onstan t e ncourage men t a nd a dv ice o f Dav id Peacock , a nd f ro m t he u nt iring s ecretarial s erv ices o f Anke E lborn a nd S ue S tephenson , b oth o f who m h ave , o n more t han o ne o ccasion , p rov ided a dd it ional a ssistance by s ooth ing o ur f evered b rows. We a re g ra teful t o a ll t hose who p rov ided a cco m modat ion a nd c ared f or t he i nner well-being o f s peakers a nd d elegates a t t he c olloqu iu m . Household p roduct ion o f l unches

v i i

a nd mid-session r efresh ments was e specially a ppreciated ! Sue Dav ies e stablished a v irtual 'manu factory ', a nd s tacked h er k iln t o c apacity w ith v essels o f d elightful f ood t o p roduce a t ruly me morable buffet s upper. We were most a ppreciative o f t he g enerosity o f t he British Acade my f or p rov iding a c onference g rant which e nabled s o me o f o ur s peakers t o s leep i n more f or mal s urroundings. Especial t hanks a re d ue t o T i m Darv ill a nd J ane T i mby f or o perating a nd ma in ta in ing i n g ood h ealth a ll v isual a ids e qu ip ment ; t o Colin Renfre w who welco med p articipants t o t he c olloqu iu m ; t o S teve S hennan , T i m Cha mpion a nd Dav id H in ton ( the l at ter a t e xtre mely s hort n otice!) who h elped k eep t he p roceedings u nder c ontrol ; t o Chuck Red man who c haired t he f inal a n i mated d iscussion ; a nd t o Mike P itts f or a s uccinct c losing a ddress. Rob Reed d esigned t he p ubl icity p oster which a lso a ppears a s f rontispiece t o t his v olu me, a nd N ick Bradford a nd Martin Oake a ssisted w ith photograph ic a nd a rtistic work . H ilary Ho ward would l ike t o t hank J ohn a nd J udy G lass f or t olerating c ountless e ditorial e venings s pen t i n t heir e xcellen t h ostelry ; a nd E laine Morris p ays t ribute t o C live Ga mble f or e nduring , w ithou t t oo much a rgu ment , t he moans a nd f rustrations c aused b y s everal mon ths o f c oncen trated ' volu me' work . F inal ly , we s hould b oth l ike t o e xpress o ur s incere g ratitude t o Michael P itts f or a ll t he work a nd t i me h e h as c ontributed t o t he s uccess o f t his p roject , f ro m c hauffeuring c olloqu iu m s peakers ( even t o S tonehenge) t o f inal p roof-reading o f t he manuscripts.

Abstracts 1 . H ilary Ho ward . I n t he wake o f d istribution : t o wards a n i ntegrated a pproach t o c era mic s tud ies i n p reh istoric Britain . For p rehistoric Britain , t he s tudy o f c era mic p roduction h as b een n eglected i n f avour o f a n e xclusive c oncen tration o n ' t raded ' wares. The main r easons f or t he d earth o f p roduction s tudies a re ou tlined h ere. Th is paper s eeks t o d e monstrate t hat c era mic manufacture , a nd t he a ssociated f ields o f v essel f unction a nd c raf t s pecialisation , c an b e s uccessfully s tudied i n p rehistoric Brit ish c ontex ts, a nd a methodology , b ased o n a n e colog ical-technological a pproach , i s d escribed . To i l lustrate t he v iability o f s uch a n a pproach , t he r esul ts o f a c ase s tudy a re p resented . I t i s s tressed t hroughou t , h owever , t hat c era mic p roduct ion , d istribution , a nd t he r ole o f p ottery w ithin i ts s oc ial s etting s hould i deally b e i n tegrated w ith in ar esearch f ra me work d esigned t o a ddress b roader q uestions o f s ocial o rgan isation a nd c hange. ( H. H .)

2 . Dean E . Arnold . A model f or t he i den tification o f n on-local c era mic d istribu tion : av ie w f ro m t he p resen t. This p aper p rov ides a model f or t he i dentif ication o f c era mic d istribution , b ased on e thnograph ic d ata . The model c onsists o f t hree l evels o f a nalysis d esigned t o i den tify g roups p roducing

v i i i

c era mic v essels. The s tudy o f r esources p rov ides i nfor mation a bou t t he e nv iron men t s urround ing a c o m mun ity ; t he i den t if icat ion o f f or ming p at terns c an b e r ela ted t o t he e thn ic a nd l ingu istic g roup o f t he p otters ; a nd a nalysis o f d esign s tructures a nd v essel s y m metry c an h elp i den tify t he p ot ting c o m mun ity . S pecif ic mechan is ms r esponsible f or t he n on-loca l d istribu t ion o f a ncien t c era m ics c an t hus b e i nvestiga ted . ( eds.)

3 . Ann E ll ison . p reh istory .

Pottery a nd s ocio-econo mic c hange i n Brit ish

The f ull s ocial a nd e cono mic implicat ions o f c era mic e xchange s yste ms c annot b e a ssessed u nless t heir c haracteristics a re c o mpared w ith t hose o f c on te mporary e xchange n etworks r elating t o o ther , n on-cera mic , c o m mod ities. A w ide-rang ing p reli m inary s tudy o f t he s izes o f d istribu tion a reas r elating t o a rtefact t ypes o f s tone , b one , metal a nd b aked c lay f ro m p reh istoric Brita in s uggests t hat t hree d ist inct l evels o f d istribu t ion c an b e i solated . These l evels c an b e r elated c losely t o g eneral t rends i n s ocia l a nd e cono mic d evelop men t t hat h ave b een p ostula ted f ro m c onsidera tion o f t he e v idence f or c hanges i n l and u se a nd a gricultura l s yste m s d uring t he n eol ithic , b ronze a ge a nd i ron a ge p eriods. ( A . E .)

4 . B irg it ta Hu l then . S cand inav ia .

Notes o n c era mic t rade i n a ncien t

Cera mic p roduct ion a nd t rade i n S cand inav ia f ro m e arl iest t i mes u nt il t he med ieval p eriod a re r ev iewed . Importan t p roduction c en tres a re n ot e v iden t p rior t o t he i ron a ge. Imported v essels were f requen tly c opied b y n at ive p otters. There i s n o e v idence o f mass p roduct ion u n t il med ieval t i mes. ( eds.)

5 . E la ine L . Morris. ap reli minary v iew .

Cera mic e xchange i n western Brita in :

The i den tif ica t ion a nd c o mparison o f d ifferen t e xchange n etworks i n as yste m a re d iscussed a s n ecessary p rerequ isites f or t he s tudy o f p reh istoric s ocial o rgan isat ion a nd c hange . A c ase s tudy f ro m t he l ater p reh istory o f western Brita in i s p resen ted . Using t hree d ifferen t t ypes o f c era mics - u ndecora ted c oarser p ottery , d ecorated f iner p ottery , a nd s al t c on ta iners - s evera l modes o f e xchange a re i den t if ied wh ich s uggest a r elat ively c o mplex s yste m o f i n teract ion . ( E. L . M. )

6 . H . Wolcot t Toll . Cera m ic c o mparisons c oncern ing r ed istribu tion i n Chaco Canyon , New Mex ico. The p ossibil it ies o f r ecogn ising c era m ic r ed istribu t ion f ro m a rchaeologica l d ata a re d iscussed i n t he c on tex t o f t he i n tensively r esearched Chaco Canyon a rea , n orthwestern New Mex ico. Following a n o u tl ine d escription o f t he e nv iron men t a nd a rchaeolo gy o f Chaco, t he n a ture o f c era mic d ata i s r ev iewed a nd a nalyses

i x

o f p ottery f ro m t wo d ifferen tly o rgan ised s ites a re d escribed . The p aper c oncludes t hat t he i den t if icat ion o f r ed istribu t ion a nd i ts c orrelates, u sing c era mics, i s f ar f ro m s i mple , a nd t he s pec if ica t ion o f t he r ed istribu t ive mechan is m , v ery t enuous. ( eds.)

7 . Dav id F . Will ia ms. i ron a ge Brita in .

The Ro man amphorae t rade w ith l ate

A d eta iled s tudy o f amphorae c an o f ten p rov ide i nvaluable e v idence o f e cono mic a ct iv ity n ot e asily o b ta ined f ro m o ther c lasses o f p ottery v essel . These l arge , t wo-handled c on ta iner j ars were u sed p ri marily f or t ransport ing a v ariety o f merchand ise o ver l ong d istances, a nd i nfor mat ion o n t he a ncien t e cono my a nd t rade r ou tes c an f requen tly b e g a ined f ro m a n a pprec iat ion o f t he g oods c arr ied a nd t heir p oint o f o rig in . Th is p aper e xa mines t he d istribu t ion a nd o rig in o f Ro man amphorae i n l ate i ron a ge Bri tain , a nd t he s ocio-econo mic impl icat ions o f t heir p resence. ( D . F . W.)

8 . J . A . R iley . The l ate b ronze a ge Aegean a nd t he Ro man Mediterranean : ac ase f or c o mparison . Th is paper u rges t hat a c o mpara tive e xa mination o f t he f unct ion a nd d istribu tion o f Ro man Med iterranean a nd l ate b ronze a ge Aegean t otal p ottery a sse mblages i s b oth v al id a nd importan t f or u nderstanding t he r elat ionsh ip b etween d istribu tional p a tterns a nd t he p rocesses t hat t hey r eflect , p art icu larly i n c o mplex s ocieties w ith s ign if ican t mariti me c o m mun ication . Ho wever , p ottery c an o n ly b e s o u sed e ffect ively when r ecovered a nd p rocessed i n a s yste matic manner , t ak ing a dvan tage o f r ecent methodolog ica l d evelop men ts i n a nalysis o f o rig in a nd i n q uant if icat ion . ( J .A . R.)

9 . Robert E . Fry . Pot tery p roduct ion - d istribu tion s yste ms i n t he s ou thern Maya l owlands. S ince t he 1 940s when Anna S hepard f oresaw a n ew e ra i n c era mic s tud ies among t he a ncien t Maya , ma jor s et tle men t s tud ies h ave b een c o mpleted a nd i n terest i n e xchange s yste ms h as g ro wn . I n t h is p aper , p rogress i n u nderstand ing c era mic p roductiond istribu t ion among t he C lassic Maya o f t he s ou thern l o wlands i s a ssessed . ( eds.)

1 0. Keith N ick lin . s ou theast N igeria .

Pottery p roduct ion a nd d istribu tion i n

Th is p aper d escribes r ecen t f ieldwork c oncern ing t radi tional p ot tery- mak ing a nd t rade among s evera l e thnol ingu istic g roups i n s ou theast N igeria . S pecia l emphasis i s p laced u pon t he I bib io p eople. ( eds.)

1 . D . P . S . Peacock . p roduct ion .

Archaeology ,

e thnology a nd c era mic

Th is p aper s tresses t he v a lue o f modern e thnograph ic e v idence i n u nderstand ing t he p roduct ion a nd d istribu tion o f Ro man p ottery . A nu mber o f modes o f p roduction a re i l lustrated f ro m p resen t-day Europe a nd t he Med iterranean a rea a nd s o me Ro man a nalog ies a re s uggested . ( D. P.S. P.)

1 2 . Michael Fu lford . Ro man p ot tery : t o wards t he i nvestigat ion o f e cono mic a nd s ocial c hange ? Recen t a pproaches t o t he c haracterisa t ion o f e xchange s yste ms i n Ro man Brita in a re r ev iewed . Using t he e v idence o f c era mics, t he p aper s eeks t o r e-exa m ine t he impact o f t he Ro man a d min istra t ion o f Brita in o n n a tive e xchange s yste ms a nd t he d evelop men t o f a , money-using e cono my . Part icular a t ten tion i s p aid t o t he e ffect o f d iffering methods o f t axat ion o n t he p rov ince. (M. F . )

1 3. C . J . Young. The v alue o f t he s tudy o f p ottery i n t he l ate Ro man p eriod . The n a ture a nd l i mitations o f b oth a rchaeolr,g ical a nd h istorica l e v idence f or l ate Ro man p ottery p roduction a nd t rade a re d iscussed . Th is p aper s hows t hat t he s tudy o f p ottery p er mits e xa mination o f a n a rea o f t he Ro man e cono my wh ich would o therw ise b e l argely u nknown . The n eed f or c o-opera tion b etween a rchaeolog ists a nd h istorians c onducting s uch s tud ies i s s tressed . ( eds.)

1 4 . I an Hodder. d is c us s ion .

Pottery , p roduction a nd u se ; at heoretica l

I n p rocessual a rchaeology , t he v iew h as b een e ncouraged t hat ma teria l c ul ture p rov ides man w i th t ools f or a dapting t o t he s ocial a nd p hysical e nv iron men t . Thus, v ariation i n t he o rgan isa t ion o f s ocia l s yste ms must r elate t o v ariat ion i n t he f or m o f ma teria l c ul ture r esidues. Many a spects o f p ottery p roduction a nd u se , h o wever , a re n ot d eter mined b y s o me p hysical l aw , b u t i nvolve c ul tura l c hoice . General isat ions c oncern ing s uch c ul tural f ea tures s hou ld n ot b e d eter min istic , b u t s et i n t he u n ique c on tex t o f e ach h istorica l t radi tion . S uggest ions o f a l ternat ive a pproaches a re made , i n ar ev iew o f s o me r ecen t e thnoarchaeology i n S udan . ( eds.)

1 5. Daniel Miller. The r ela t ionsh ip b etween p roduction a nd d istribu tion i n ac en tral I ndian v illage. The u se o f t he writings o f Marx , Polany i a nd S ahl ins a s r eference p oin ts f or t he e xa minat ion o f t he r ela tionsh ip b etween p ot tery p roduct ion a nd i ts d istribu tion , may l ead t o a n o ver-dichoto mised v iew o f t he e cono my a s ' e mbedded ' a s a ga inst t he u se o f markets a nd monetary e xchange. I n a n e xa mination o f t he p roduc tion a nd d istribu t ion o f p ottery i n a modern I ndian v illage , t he market

x i

s yste m c an b e s een a s p rov iding a c erta in f lex ibility wh ich h elps r esolve a c on tradiction i n t he ma jor s yste m o f e xchange , r ela ted t o t he d e mographic f luctuations o f t he p otter's c aste. Where p ossible t he mechanis m o f d istribution i s b oth g enerated b y a nd c onstrained by t he p rinciples underly ing s ocial o rgan isations. ( D . M.)

1 6. Mark A . Brisbane. I ncipien t markets f or S axon c era m ics: v ariations i n modes o f p roduction a nd t heir e ffect on d istribution n etworks a nd patterns. Th is paper i nvestigates t he r elationship b etween t he mode o f p ottery p roduction , d istribut ion , a nd t he r e-e mergence o f markets i n t he p ost- Ro man p eriod . I n a n i ncipient market e cono my , p roduction a s well a s f unction may d irectly a ffect h ow a c o mmod ity i s d istributed . I n t his p aper a model i s p resented , b ased u pon p etrolog ical a nalysis o f p ottery f ro m d o mestic a nd c e metery c ontex ts, which w ill a tter rpt t o e xa mine t he d evelop ment o f markets a s ag ro wth o f ' exchange a reas' which s pecialised i n p articular t ypes o f c o m modities; i n t his c ase g rave f urn iture v essels, d o mestic c ontainers, c ookpots, p restige p ots a nd p ots which c on tained p restige g oods. The v alue o f a scerta in ing t he min i mu m nu mber o f p roduction c entres i s a lso d is c ussed . (M. A . B . )

1 7 . C . J . Arnold . d istribu t ion .

Early Anglo-Saxon p ottery : p roduction a nd

This paper ou tlines t he methodology employed i n t he s tudy o f e arly Anglo-Saxon f unerary a nd d o mestic p ottery , c onventional ly d ated A . D. 4 00-650. The r esul ts o f p etrolog ical a nd t ypolog ical s tudy a re c o mpared i n ad iscussion o f t he c urrent p roble m s o f c hronology . Consideration i s g iven t o r econciling t he v ary ing f actors g overning t he u se o f p ottery t hrough t he p eriod , a nd t heir e ffects u pon c hronology a nd d istribu tion . ( eds.)

1 8 . / 19. H6lene Balfet . Maghreb.

Pottery p roduction a nd t rade i n t he

The purpose o f t his paper i s t o s ho w h ow , i n t he p resent d ay Maghreb , v arious t ypes o f p ottery ( whose p roduction d iffers c onsiderably f ro m t echn ical a s well a s s ocial p oin ts o f v ie w ) a re i nvolved i n d iverse a nd c o mple mentary e xchange s yste m s. This, Ih ope, may c ontribu te t o t he d iscussion on t he r elationsh ip b etween p roduction a nd d istribu tion mechan is ms, e specially w ith t he a im o f f urthering model-bu ilding a nd a rchaeological i nterp retation . ( H . B . )

2 0. Charles L . Red man a nd J . E mlen Myers. I nterpretation , c lassificat ion , a nd c era mic p roduction : a medieval North African c ase s tudy . As c oun tless s tudies h ave d e monstrated , c era mics a re among t he b est r esources a rchaeolog ists h ave f or i n terpreting p ast b ehav iour.

x i i

This a rticle a ddresses s o me o f t he importan t g eneral i ssues c oncern ing t he u se o f c era mic i nfor ma tion , a nd h ow t hese i ssues h ave b een a pproached i n t he c on tex t o f a n o n-going r esearch p roject . Follo w ing a b rief i n troduction t o t h is p roject wh ich f ocusses o n t he I sla mic a nd Portuguese t own o f Qsar e s-Seghir , n orthern Morocco , t hree b road a reas o f i n terest a re d iscussed : b ehav ioural i n terpreta t ion , c lassifica tory t echn iques, a nd t he n ature o f c era mic p roduct ion . ( eds.)

2 1 . A . G . V ince . The med ieval p ot tery i ndustry i n s ou thern Eng land : 1 0th t o 1 3th c en turies. Th is p aper a nalyses d istribu tion p a tterns o f med ieval p ottery g roups. The g roups a re d ef ined by p etrolog ica l a nalysis t ogether w ith manufacturing t echn iques a nd t ypology . Despite p roble ms c aused by t he c haracterisation methods u sed a nd t he u neven s ta te o f a rchaeolog ical r esearch i n t he a reas s tudied , many med ieva l p ot tery g roups i n s outhern Eng land h ave b een mapped . Ev idence f or t he c lustering o f p roduc tion s ites i n c ertain a reas i s p resented . Pottery f ro m t hese p roduction c en tres i s e xa mined t o s how h ow t echnological c hange i s r ela ted t o c hanges i n t he e cono my . ( A . G . V .)

2 2 . An thony D . F . S treeten . Craft a nd i ndustry : med ieval a nd l a ter p ot ters i n s ou th-east England . Cera mic s tud ies a re u nl ikely t o make a s ign if ican t c on tribu tion t o g enera l t he m es o f e cono mic a nd s oc ia l h istory i n p eriods f or wh ich t he d ocu men tary s ources a re p len tiful . I nstead , t he p oten tial l ies i n u nderstand ing t he o rgan isat ion o f m inor c ra fts a nd i ndustries f or wh ich t he h istorical e v idence i s l i mited . Medieval p otteries i n s ou th-east England a re e xa mined i n r elation t o t he a va ilabil ity o f r aw materia ls a nd p oten tial c usto mers, a nd d ifferences i n t he s cale o f p roduction a re a ssessed . H istorical s ources a re u sed t o r econs truct t he a reas wh ich may h ave b een s erved by p otters s ell ing t heir wares a t p eriod ic markets. Factors which a ccoun t f or c on tinu ity o f p roduction a re c onsidered , a nd l a ter c hanges i n t he s cale a nd l ocat ion o f manu facturing c en tres a re r ef lected i n t he c ontrasting a rchaeolog ical d istribu t ion o f marketed v essels. ( A .D . F .S .

2 3.

Keith N ickl in .

Cera mic pyro metry :

t wo I bibio e xa mples.

There a re s erious i nadequacies i n e x isting e thnograph ic a ccoun ts o f p ot tery manufacture , wh ich r ender t h is ma teria l l ess u sefu l t o a rchaeolog ists t han i t s hould b e. Th is paper c onsiders ways o f i nvestiga ting f iring t echnology . Pyro metric a ppara tus u sed by t he a u thor i s d escribed , a nd i ts a ppl icat ion i n t wo I bib io v i llages i s d iscussed . ( eds.)

2 4 . S . E . Van d er Leeuw . Cera mic e xchange a nd manufacture : a" f lo w s tructure" a pproach . The paper a tte mpts t o a rgue t hat o ur p resen t u nderstanding o f

c era mics, p redica ted o n ah o meostatic s yste ms model , i s i nsuff icien t t o s tudy t he t ransit ion b etween modes o f p ottery mak ing . I t s uggests t hat t his f unction may b e f ulf illed b y a " f lo w s tructure" model . ( S . E . Van d er.L .)

x iv

1 IN THE W AKE OF D IST RIBUTIO N :

TO W ARDS AN

INTE GRATED APP RO AC H TO CERA MIC STUDIES IN PRE H ISTO RIC BR IT A IN H ilary Ho ward

S u m mary An e colog ical-technolog ical a pproach t o t he s tudy o f p ottery p roduction a nd c raf t s pecialisation h as b een s uccessfully a pplied t o a rchaeolog ical c era mics f ro m v arious s ites a nd r eg ions i n t he A mericas a nd c on tinent al Europe. Al though p ottery p roduction i n t he h istoric p eriod i n Britain h as c o m manded t he a ttention o f c era mic s pecialists, t he s tudy o f p reh istoric p ottery h as b een d irected h eav ily t o wards t he i dentification o f t rade. Th is p aper s eeks t o s tress t he importance o f i nvestigating c era mic p roduction , a nd s uggests ways i n wh ich s uch s tud ies may b e c onducted s uccessfully w ith in t he c on text o f p reh istoric Britain . I n troduction For most o f t he f irst h alf o f t his c entury , p ottery s tudies were b ased a l most e xclusively on morphology a nd d ecoration . Cera mic v essels were o ften r egarded a s l i ttle more t han c hronolog ical i nd ices o r c ultural s ign-posts s y mbolising t he e thn ic a ff il ia tion o f t heir owners. Ma jor s tyl istic v aria tion was i n terp reted impl icitly o r e xpl icitly a s t he material man ifestation o f an ew ' culture', whilst minor a d just ments i n s hape a nd d ecoration were s een a s r epresen ting a l ater phase w ithin a ' cul ture' z one. I n tricate t i me-scales a nd i nvasion p atterns were c onstructed on t he b asis o f c era mic s tyles. Whole empires f oundered a nd n ew ones a rose o n af ew a braded p ot s herds. The n ew a rchaeology wh ich r eached i ts f loru it i n t he 1 960s s h if ted t he emphasis f ro m s tatic d escription a nd s i mple i nduction t o e xplanation a nd t he s tudy o f s yste m ic s tructure a nd c hange ( Binford , 1 962 ; B inford a nd B inford , 1 968 ; C larke , 1 968 ). ' . .. ma terial c ul ture c an a nd d oes r epresen t t he s tructure o f t he t otal c ul tural s yste m , .. [ in wh ich c hange] must b e v ie wed i n a n a daptive c on text b oth s ocial a nd e nv iron men tal , n ot whi ms ically v ie wed a s t he r esult o f " influences" , " sti muli" , o r e ven "migrations" b etween a nd among g eograph ically d ef ined units' ( Binford , 1 962 , 2 17 ). Archaeolog ists p ri marily c oncerned w ith c era mics c ou ld n o l onger make l inear c orrelations b etween

1

v essel s tyle c hange a nd t he a ppearance o f a ' ne w p eople '. I n t he United S tates a t t h is t i me, c era micists b egan t o c oncen trate on d esign a nalysis t o i den tify s patial r a ther t han c hronolog ical s ty listic v ariation . These s tudies were i n tended t o s hed l ight o n t he amount o f s ocial i n teraction w ith in a nd b etween c o m mun ities ( Andersen , 1 962 ; Deetz , 1 965 ; 1 968a ; 1 968b ; H ill , 1 970 ; Longacre, 1 964 ; 1 970 ; Whallon , 1 968 ; 1 972 ). Despite e arl ier d ef init ive c haracterisation work by Anna S hepard ( Shepard , 1 942 ; 1 948 ; K idder a nd S hepard , 1 936), t he p ossibility o f e cono mic i nteraction was b u t r arely c onsidered , f or u ntil r ecently , a s P log ( 1980 , 2 0) h as d escribed , many A merican p reh istorians t acitly a ssu med t hat e xchange o r t rade c an o nly o ccur when a g roup l acks ap articular c o m modity , o r t he r aw materials t o p roduce t ha t c o m modity . C lay t o make p ottery i s a va ilable i n most a reas, c era mic e xchange was t aken t o b e u nnecessary .

s o

I n Britain , t he emphasis i n t he 1 960s o n e cono mic e xplanation f or p atterning a nd c hange i n t he a rchaeological r ecord g enerated a v ery d ifferent a pproach t o c era mic s tud ies. Techn iques o f f abric a nalysis were n ot e n tirely n ew t o British a rchaeologists (Wallis a nd Evens, 1 934 ; Phe mister , 1 942 ; Cornwall a nd Hodges, 1 964) , b ut t he b roader q uestions p osed by t he n ew a rchaeology p rov ided t he n ecessary s ti mulus f or t heir d evelop men t a nd w ides pread a ppl icat ion . The d ef in itive r eg ional s tud ies by Dav id Peacock ( 1968 ; 1 969a , 1 969b ) d re w a ttention t o t he p otential o f c era mic c haracterisation f or d e monstra ting e xchange c on tact b etween s ocial g roups. As t rade a nd e xchange were s een a t t h is t i me a s t he c ornerstones o f e cono mic o rgan isation , t heir e lucidation t hrough f abric a nd s tylistic s tud ies b eca me t he ma jor f ocus o f c era mic r esearch . Ho wever, i n t he s a me way t hat our A merican c olleagues c oncentrated on s ocial i n teraction a nd s hunned t he p ossibil ity o f c era mic e xchange, we i n Britain h ave d irected a ll our e fforts t o wards e cono m ic i n teraction , a nd f ailed t o r ecogn ise o ther c auses o f ma terial v ariabil ity . Pots were ( and s till a re) s l iced , a ctivated a nd x -rayed ; mineral s u ites a re i den tif ied , r elated t o s olid g eology , a nd t rading n etworks p ostulated . Many s uch s tud ies, h o wever , h ave d one l i ttle more t han d e monstrate al ink b etween a n a rchaeolog ical s ite a nd a g eolog ical ou tcrop. Wh ilst n ot i n a ny way d eny ing t he importance o f t rade a s af ield f or a rchaeolog ical s tudy , In evertheless f eel t hat t he mere i den tif icat ion o f t raded p ottery on t he b asis o f f oreign i nclusions c onstitutes a n e x tre mely narro w a pproach t o c era mic s tud ies. Renfre w ( 1977 ) h as s tressed t he v ersatil ity o f p ottery a s as ource o f a rchaeolog ical i nfor mation . The p otential i nfor mation which p ottery c an p rovide r ela tes n ot o nly t o t rad ing n etworks, b u t a lso t o t he s ocial , e cono mic a nd p olitical a ctivities, o rganisation a nd • r elationsh ips o f t he p eople who made a nd u sed i t . A t p resen t , t his p oten tial i s bu t r arely e xploited . I n r ecent y ears, s o me workers, p articularly i n t he Un ited S tates, d issat isf ied with t he e xclusive c oncen tration on i n teraction whether e cono mic o r s ocial , h ave b egun t o l ook a dditionally a t p roduction s yste ms a nd t heir o rgan isation . The impetus f or t his b roader , i ntegrated a pproach c a me i n t he t rain f ro m t wo r ela ted f ields o f s tudy : c era mic r esource e cology

2

(Matson , 1 966) a nd t he e thnography o f p ottery p roduction . On t he b asis t hat ' l ittle c an b e s aid a bou t l ocal e xchange u n til l ocal p roduct ion i s u nderstood ' ( Rice, 1 980 , 6 7 ) , workers a re n ow c o mbin ing e thnograph ic d ata o n p roduction o rgan isation a nd t he r esources e xploited by p resen t d ay c raf ts men , wi th i nvestigations o f p rehistoric c era mics f ro m t he s a me a reas ( for e xa mple : Matson , 1 972 ; E llen a nd G lover , 1 974 ; Arnold , 1 975 ; Crossland a nd Posnansky , 1 978 ). The ' cera mic e colog ical-technolog ical ' a pproach , s uccessfully d e monstra ted b y R ice i n h er work on Guate malan white wares a nd Peten Postclassic p ottery ( Rice , 1 977 ; 1 980), e x tended t he s tudy o f p roduction i n to t he f ield o f c raf t s pecialisation . Th is a pproach c o mbines t he p rinciples o f c era mic e cology ( see b elo w ) w ith t he i nvestigation o f t echnology-related a ttribu te s ta tes. ' The p atterning o f r esource u tilisat ion t hat c o-varies w ith a ttribute patterning i n ma terial c ul ture ( trad it ionally r ecognised a s t ypes o r f or ms) r ef lects r egularit ies i n t he s ocially o rgan ised p roduct ion a nd d istribution o f t hese o b jects' ( Rice, 1 977 , 2 25). More r ecen tly , R ice h as e xtended h er s tudies o f p roduction s till f urther by p rop osing a t rial model f or t he e volut ion o f s pecial isation a nd c era mic c o mplex ity . Th is model p roposes t hat i ncreasing s ocial c o mplex ity w ill b e paralleled by c hanges i n : t he r ange o f c era mics p roduced , w ith in-type s tandardisation , t he e x ten t o f r esource e xploitation a nd t he c o mplex ity o f d istribu tion mechanis ms. Although t he model h as b een c riticised f or i ts s i mple l inear n ature a nd t oo r igid u se o f c ross-cultural d a ta ( Kolb , 1 981 ; Hodder , 1 981 ), i t n everthel ess r epresen ts a p ositive a tte mpt t o b ridge t he g ulf a rchaeolog ists f ind s o h ard t o c ross, n a mely t hat b etween g eneral t heories o f s ocial dyna mics a nd max i mu m i nference f ro m a rtefact data . Ih ave d rawn part icular a ttention t o R ice's model b ecause i t emphasises t he n eed t o c onsider a nd r ela te a w ide r ange o f p otential i nfor mation f ro m t he c hosen a rtefact s et o r s ets. The way t hat we , a s c era mic s pecial ists, c an a pproach b roader q uestions o f s ocial o rgan isation a nd c hange i s n ot t hrough t he s i mple mapping o f v essel f or ms a nd f abric g roups, b u t r ather t hrough a n i n tegrated s tudy , e nco mpassing t he f unction o f c era mics i n s oc iety - ' the way p ottery i s v ie wed a nd i ncorporated i n to d aily a ctiv ities' ( Hodder , 1 981 , 2 31 ), t he o rgan isat ion o f p ottery p roduction , a nd t he mechan is ms t hrough which i t was d istribu ted ( see f or e xa mple : P log , 1 977 ; Renfre w , 1 975). Al though t h is p aper f ocusses o n p reh istoric c era mic p roduction , af ield o f s tudy h ereto n eglected i n Britain a nd most p arts o f Europe, i t i s important t o emphasise t hat s uch a s tudy must b e s een a s p art o f t his i ntegra ted a pproach wh ich i s u lti mately d esigned t o s hed l ight o n w ider q uestions a bout s ociety . ' Culture i s n ot a u n ivaria te p heno menon , n or i s i ts f unct ioning t o b e understood o r measured i n t er ms o f as ingle v ariable... On t he c on trary , c ulture i s multivariate, a nd i ts o pera t ion i s t o b e understood i n t er ms o f many c ausally r elevan t v ariables wh ich may f unction i ndependen tly o r i n v ary ing c o mbinations' ( Binford , 1 965, 2 05).

3

Production s tud ies i n British a nd European p rehistory : t he p roble ms: The p roduction-d istribution o f Ro man a nd l ater wares i n Britain a nd Europe h as b een t he s ub ject o f s everal t hough tful s tudies i n r ecen t y ears ( for e xa mple : Fulford , 1 975; Van d er Leeuw , 1 976 ; Peacock , 1 079 ; S treeten , t h is v olu me). Ho wever , w ith t he e xception o f s o me e xcellent work i n S cand inav ia ( Hulthen , 1 977 , a nd t his v olu me), s uch a n a pproach t o c era mics h as y et t o e xtend i n to p rehistory . Three main f actors may b e s uggested t o e xplain t he r eluctance o n t he p art o f p rehistorians i n Brita in t o s tudy p ottery p roduct ion . F irstly , t here i s n o r elated ' e thnography on t he g round ' i n t he British I sles. Unl ike o ur c olleagues a cross t he A tlantic , we a re u nable t o q uestion p resent d ay p ot ters a bou t r aw material s ources o r o bserve i ndiv idual p roduction o rgan isations a nd methods. Craf t p ottery i s r apidly d y ing o u t i n b oth Britain a nd Europe, a nd where i t p ersists i s o f ten g eared t o t he t ourist i ndustry a nd b ased on c o m mercially p repared c lays ( Ho ward , f orthco ming ; i n p reparation ). The r e ma in ing v est iges o f ao nce t hriv ing i ndustry i n t he Med iterranean r eg ion a re b eing a ctively s ough t by workers s uch a s Dav id Peacock ( in p ress, a nd t his v olu me), a nd Helene Balfet ( this v olu me) , a nd t he i nfor mation a cqu ired u sed t o f or mulate p redictive models o f p ottery p roduction i n t he p ast . Ho wever, f or t he p rehistorian work ing i n Brita in , t hese must r e ma in g eneralised models wh ich p er mit n o d irect c ross-cul tural i n ference. S econdly , t he q uality o f a rchaeolog ical d a ta f ro m Brita in i s p oor r elative t o t hat f ro m o ther r eg ions. S ites, p articularly t hose o ccupied d uring t he e arlier p reh istoric p eriod , a re r arely d ef ined by p er manen t s tructures. I ndeed , t he overall a rea o f h abitation i s f requently a n u nkno wn q uantity . Con te mporaneity o f s ites i s o ften d iff icul t t o e stablish , t hus r elegating i n ter-site c o mparison t o t he l evel o f s peculation . S ites l ack d irect e v idence o f p ottery p roduction s uch a s workshops, t ools, a nd f iring f acili t ies. Aside f ro m s tructures b el ieved t o b e n eol ith ic k ilns f ound o n t he u npubl ished d o mestic s ite o f E ilean a n T ighe , North U ist ( Piggott , 1 954 , 2 28 ), a nd wasters f ro m o ccasional i ron a ge s ites ( Hodson , 1 962 ), t he e arl iest c onf ir med p roduction e v idence o ccurs i n t he s hape o f Ro man k ilns. Many a ttribute measure men ts u sed i n t echnolog ical s tudies e lse where c an o nly b e t aken f ro m c o mplete v essels a nd n ot f ro m s herds. Co mplete v essels a re r are o n British p reh istoric s ites. Further more, v essels a re s i mple, a nd a ttribu tes s uch a s s lip a nd p ainted d ecora tion a re e ither s carce o r u n iversally a bsen t. The t hird r eason why British workers s hould b e r eluctan t t o u ndertake p roduction s tudies c entres o n g eology . I t i s g eneral ly a ssu med t hat p ottery v essels were made f ro m c lays c on ta in ing n atural i nclusions d eter mined by t he u nderly ing r ock f or mation . Ho wever , e thnographic r esearch h as s ho wn t hat c lays a s d ug a re s eldo m u sed i n t he manu facture o f c oarse- wares, a nd t hat s o me f or m o f t e mper i s u sually a dded i n o rder t o d ecrease p lasticity

4

a nd i ncrease p orosi ty ( see f or e xa mple : Gu the , 1 925 ; L inne , 1 925 ; Foster , 1 955 ; Arnold , 1 971 ; Rye a nd Evans, 1 976 ; N ick l in , 1 979 ). I f f abrics d o n ot c on tain i nclusions d iagnostic o f p articular r ock f or mat ions, b u t a ppear t o b e d erived f ro m u nd ifferen tia ted d rif t d eposi ts, f urther f abric o r r esource s tud ies a re c onsidered t o b e u nproduct ive. These p roble ms n otw ithstand ing , Ih ope t o s ho w , i n t he c ourse o f t h is p aper , t hat a n e colog ical-technolog ical a pproach c an b e s uccessfully a ppl ied t o t he s tudy o f c era m ic p roduct ion i n p reh istoric Brita in .

Cera mic p roduction ( F ig . 1 : 1 )

I n tended f unction

, p emandr,

Raw ma terial

Sk ill

Production

Artefact

F ig . 1 : 1

S i mpl if ied model o f a rtefact p roducticn

The p roduct ion o f a ny a rtefact i s b oth s t i mulated a nd l i mi ted b y t he d e mand f or t hat a rtefact . De mand , i n i ts t urn , i s a n a ctive r esponse t o f unctional n eed , e ither u til itarian , s y mbolic o r b oth . A t t he d o mestic l evel o f p roduction ( Sahl ins, 1 972 ), p ots a re p roduced b y i nd iv iduals i n a ns wer t o p eriod ic , b asic n eeds f or f ood p repara t ion a nd s torage f acil ities. S pec if ic i nstances o f d o mestic p ot tery p roduct ion a re r are i n t he e thnograph ic l i terature , b u t among t he Cape Hotten tots p ots were p roduced b y t he wo men o f e ach h ousehold a s a nd when r equ ired ( Schapera , 1 930). I n t he Maghreb , u nder t he t rad itional r ural s yste m , e ach f a mily p rov ides i ts own p ottery , r eplacing a l l b roken a nd d a maged v essels d uring a n a nnual workshop s ession ( Balfet , 1 966 , 1 62 ). I n t hese c ases, t he c onsu mer who d e mands a nd t he p roducer who s uppl ies a re o ne a nd t he s a me p erson . A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s pectru m , i n s tra tif ied s ocieties w ith s oph ist ica ted market s yste ms, d e mand i s g enerated b y ap oten tial ly l i mitless r ange o f f unctional r equ ire ments. I n r anked a nd s tra tif ied s ociet ies, p roducers a nd c onsu mers may n ever make c on tact o ther t han t hrough o ne o r as er ies o f i n ter med iaries ( Renfrew , 1 979 , 9 ). 5

Product ion i s a lso s t i mu la ted a nd l im ited b y a ccess t o s k ills a nd s u itable r aw materials. I n t he d o mest ic mode o f p rod uct ion , t h is a ccess i s l argely u nrestricted ( Sahl ins, 1 972 ). S pecial isa t ion , wh ich i s ac onco mitan t o f i ncreased s oc ieta l c o mplex ity , g enerally means d if feren t iäl a ccess t o s k il ls a nd mater ials. The b asic r aw materials f or c era mic p roduction a re moist c lay a nd t e mper a ppropriate t o t he i n tended f unction ( see b elo w ) , a nd s uff icien t f uel f or f iring . I f t hese c o m mod it ies, o r t he s k il l t o e xploit t he m , a re n ot a vailable t o t he c onsu mer , t hen h e w il l b e r equ ired t o o btain h is p ots e lsewhere. The model i s n ot s tat ic . Ne w f unctional c oncepts s uch a s t he u se o f ac on tainer f or t he i n ter men t o f c re ma ted r e ma ins, wou ld g enerate a d e mand f or s uch a v essel t o b e p roduced . This d e mand i n i ts t urn wou ld l ead t o a n a ct ive s earch f or r aw materials a nd a daptat ion o f s k il ls t o f ulf il l t he n eed ; o r , f a il ing t h is, t he s eek ing o f s uppl ies e lsewhere. The model , t herefore ,e mphasises f unct ion , c hannel led t hrough d e mand t o p roduct ion , ' t he whole s yste m s ub ject t o r aw material a va ilab il ity a nd s k ill . The u nderstand ing o f a n a rtefact 's f unction i s t hus c rucial t o t he u nderstanding o f i ts p roduc t ion , a nd i t i s f or t h is r eason t hat t he r ole o f f unction w ith in t he e colo gical-technolog ica l a pproach i s s tressed h ere.

Cera mic e cology Matson a ppl ied t he g eneral p rinciples o f c ul tural e cology ( Ste ward , 1 955, 3 6 ; Wh ite , 1 959 ) t o t he n arro wer f ield o f c era mic p roduct ion , a nd d ef ined c era mic e cology a s t he a t te mpt ' t o r ela te t he r aw materials a nd t echnolog ies t hat t he l oca l p otter h as a va ilable t o t he f unct ions i n h is c ulture o f t he p roducts h e f ash ions' (Ma tson , 1 966 , 2 03 ). The r esul ts o f s uch e colog ica l s tud ies d o n ot p rov ide a s i mple d eter min istic e xplana tion f or t he d evelop men t o f c raf t s pecial isa tion i n ap art icular l ocale , b ut r a ther a im t o s ho w t ha t s hou ld o ther s oc ial , e cono mic a nd p ol itical f actors e ncourage s uch d evelop ments, t hat t he n ecessary r esources were o r were n ot a va ilable, a s t he c ase may b e. ' Env iron men t d oes n ot d eter m ine t he o ccurrence o f c era mic p roduction , b u t p rov ides c hoices wh ich e ither f avour o r l i mit t he d evelop men t o f p ottery mak ing a nd i ts e volut ion f ro m a p art-ti me t o af u l l-ti me a ct iv ity ' ( Arnold , 1 975 , 2 01 ). The e nv iron men tal p rerequ isites f or c era mic p roduction a re a dequate s uppl ies o f c lays a nd t e mpers s u itable t o t he t ypes o f p ottery p roduced ; s u ff icient r enewable f uel r esources; a nd f avourable c l i ma t ic c ond it ions f or a t l east a p art o f t he y ear t o a llo w t horough d ry ing o f b oth f uel s tocks a nd c lay wares p rior t o f iring . Arnold h as i den tif ied t he p referred a nd max i mu m t erri to ries o f e xploitat ion o f c era mic ma terials ( Arnold , 1 976 ; 1 980 ; t his v olu me). More t han o ne t h ird o f t he p otters i n h is e x tensive s urveys o btain t heir c lays l ess t han 1 km f ro m t he p roduction s i te ( preferred t erritory ) ; 7 6% f ro m l ess t han 4 km away , a nd a l most a ll ( 96 %) f ro m w ithin a 7 km r ad ius (max i mu m t erritory ). The p referred t erritory o f t e mper e xploi ta tion i s a lso 1 km , b u t 9 7% o f Arnold 's s a mple q uarry t heir t e mper l ess t han 5 km away f ro m h o me , s uggesting a 5 km r ad ius a s t he max i mu m e xploita tion t erritory f or t h is c o m mod ity ( Arnold , 1 980 , 1 49). Al though we

6

c an n o l onger o bta in i nfor ma tion o n r aw materia ls f ro m c raf t p otters i n Brita in , i t i s n evertheless p ossible t o c onduct r esource s urveys w i th in t he p referred a nd max i mu m e xploita tion t erri tories o f p reh istoric s ites. Geolog ica l l i terature , a s ar ule , p rov ides l i t tle i nfor ma t ion o n c lay d eposi ts. Oral t rad i tion a nd l ocal h istorical d ocu men ts, h o wever , o f ten d escribe med ieva l a nd e arly i ndustrial work ings wh ich c an u sually b e l oca ted w ith t he a id o f al arge-scale Ordnance S urvey map . La ter man- made f ea tures s uch a s q uarries, r a ilway o r r oad c u ttings a nd wel ls o ften c u t t hrough c lay d eposi ts c overed b y more r ecent overburden ( Carde w , 1 969 ), Descriptions i n t he Geolog ica l S urvey maps a nd me moirs o f s ol id r ock f or ma tions i n ag iven a rea p rov ide a u seful g u ide t o t he r ange o f n atural t e mpers a va ilable. C lays c ollected w i th in t he e xploi tat ion t erritories s urround ing a p red icted p roduct ion s i te s hou ld b e t ested f or p lasticity , s hrinkage a nd f ired s treng th t o a ssess t heir s u itab il ity f or p ottery manufacture ( Ho ward , i n p ress). The mineral c ons t ituen ts a nd s ize r ange o f t e mpering ma terials u sed i n e xpected l ocal p ot tery may b e e xa mined p etrograph ically a nd c orresponding t e mpers s ough t w ith in a 5 km r ad ius o f t he ' product ion s ite '. These ma terials, s u itably p repared ( crushed , a nd i n s o me c ases b urned ) may t hen b e a dded t o workable l ocal c lays, a nd t he r es ul tant f ired p astes c o mpared , i n t h in s ec tion , w ith t he p reh istoric s herds. Petrograph ic work s h ou ld i deally b e c o mple men ted b y o ther s ensit ive t echn iques s uch a s n eu tron a ctiva tion , microc he mical o r s pectrograph ic a nalysis ( Shepard , 1 956 , 1 41-45 ; Rands a nd B ishop , 1 980 ; Fry , 1 980). Available f uels f or p reh istoric f iring must b e c onsidered i n t er ms o f b oth t he n atural e nv iron men t a nd t hose s ubsistence a ct iv it ies which t ook p lace i n t he v icin ity o f t he p roduction s ite . I n most p arts o f t he world , wood i s ah ighly v alued r esource , a nd i s r arely u sed f or o pen p ottery f iring ( N ickl in , 1 979 , 4 46 ). I nstead , aw ide r ange o f f uels a re e ither c ollected f ro m t he l ocal e nv iron ment ( fast-burn ing s t icks, b rush o r g rass, o r s lo wb urn ing p eat ) , o r f ro m t he s ite a rea i tsel f ( fast-burn ing s ubs istence b y-products s uch a s s traw , o r s low-burn ing d ried d ung ). Considera t ion o f t he e nv iron men tal d a ta ( soil t ype , p ollen , c harc oa l , f aunal a nd f lora l r e ma ins) o bta ined f ro m a n a rchaeological s i te w il l p rov ide a g u ide t o t he r ange o f f uel t ypes a va ilable t o p reh istoric p otters. The e ffect o f c l i ma te a nd t he s ubsistence b ase o n t he d evelop men t o f s pec ia lised c era mic p roduction h as r ecen tly b een e xplored ( for e xa mple: Foster , 1 967 ; Arnold , 1 975 ; S priggs a nd Miller , 1 977 ; Reina a nd H ill , 1 978 ; Peacock , i n p ress). These s tud ies h ave d e monstra ted t hat s pecial isat ion t ends t o d evelop a s an ecessary a dapta tion t o p opu la tion p ressure a nd p oor a gric u l tura l l and . The a pplicabil ity o f t h is model t o p reh istoric Brita in h as y et t o b e f ully t ested . I n s um , c era mic-ecolog ica l s urveys a nd a ccorrpany ing a nalyses c an p rov ide t he f ollo w ing d a ta r elevan t t o l ocal ised 7

p ottery manufacture : 1 .

The q uality a nd a bundance o f r aw materials a vailable.

2 .

Those r esources which were e xploited i n p rehistory .

3 .

The t echnology u sed i n p aste p reparation : t he p roperties a nd t reat men t o f n on-plastics a dded t o t he c lay b ody ; o r t he e li minat ion o f u nwanted n on-plastics f ro m a n impure c lay .

Cera mic f unction Technolog ical s tudies o f a ncient p ottery c an i nfor m n ot only o n methods o f r aw material p reparation , v essel f or ming , f inishing a nd f iring , b ut a lso on t he b roader f ields o f p roduct ion o rgan isation , c raf t s pecialisation a nd c era mic f unction . Of t hese i nterrelated f ields, f unction h as p erhaps r eceived t he l east a tten tion . I n a dd ition t o i ts r ole i n p roduction s tudi e s, f unct ional a nalysis c an h elp d eter mine t he n ature o f as ite a nd p erhaps i ndicate s easonal o ccupation , r itual f ocus a nd/or l ocalised a ctiv ity a reas ( Plog , 1 980 , 8 3). I n Britain , n eol ithic p ottery h as b een c lassified i n to f ine wares f or s erv ing f ood , everyday wares f or c ook ing a nd f ood p reparation , a nd h eavy d u ty wares f or s torage ( Clarke, 1 976 , 4 64 ). Despite t he l audable a pplication o f t h is g eneral f unctional model t o s ite a nd r eg ional a sse mblages ( for e xa mple : K innes, 1 978 ; E ll ison , 1 980 ), n o a tte mpt h as b een made t o d ef ine t he p recise physical c orrelates o f e ach c ategory . E thnograph ic r esearch h as p rov ided c onsiderable d ata on t he c orrespondence b etween p arti cular v essel f or ms, p astes, t ype a nd e x tent o f d ecoration a nd s pecif ic f unctions. Braun , f or e xa mple , work ing among t he I ndians o f t he A merican s outhwest , o bserved a c onsistent a ssociation b etween f unction a nd v essel mou th s ize. S torage v essels ( secure c on ta in ment ) h ad narrow mou ths, whereas e ating v essels ( h igh a ccess f requency ) h ad w ide , unrestricted mouths ( Braun , q uoted i n Plog , 1 980 , 8 5). S erv ing a nd e ating v essels wh ich a re f requently v isible t o o thers, a re l ikely t o b e o f f ine f abric a nd c opiously d ecorated (Wobst , 1 977 ). Cookpots a re s eldo m pa in ted a nd s parsely d ecorated , a s f requent u se would s oon o bscure a ny d esign ( Plog , 1 980 , 8 4 ). I n s o me c ategories, b oth p aste s election a nd v essel f or m a re r estricted by f unction . Cookpots a re g eneral ly r ound-based t o f acil itate t he e ven s pread o f h eat , a nd c on tain a bundan t n on-plast ics t o e nsure a n o pen p orous t ex ture f or t her mal s hock r esistance ( Carde w , 1 952 , 1 91 ; 1 969 , 7 7 ; S hepard , 1 956 , 1 26). While s o me p otters p repare a c lay b ody o f c ookpot q uality a nd u se t his f or a ll v essel t ypes, o thers s elect a p articular p aste f or c ook ing wares a lone ( Gu the , 1 925 ; Tho mpson , 1 958 ; Quarco a nd J ohnson , 1 968 ; Arnold , 1 971 ). The f requency o f v essel t ypes w ith in a n a sse mblage may p rov ide a c lue t o t heir f unction . S tud ies o f v essel l ongev ity , r eplace men t r ates a nd average nu mber o f p ots p er h ousehold i n Tz intzun tzan , Mex ico ( Foster , 1 960) a nd 8

Cookpots

Funct ional t ype

c d

, . z u ), ( 1 ) , -

, 4 1 . , , u ) —1 , . . u ) , . , • . 0 0 c )

2

4 , , ,

c s-) I I n

0

0Q ) • W . _

c r ) . , ,

, 0

P c o ,z

? D O

. . . CD a ) . 1 3

a j

•

0' n

0

0; • 4G . )

( i )

C D C I O cd 4

° C O 0 0 . . 4 > 0, . m

. I

„ ,

o • . ' r e

1 ,

2 ' ." ..

7 )4 t I C. ': 2 " ‚

r d

a i

; c c d >

e l ) > . 1 0 r c i L i-)

' '' J D

•

4 . 1

( s ) , _ _ ,

0 )

u )

C D C t O

Cj

1 . ) . 1 ( 1 ) C I ) c l . ) >

C n

I , U ) U ) , — , , . ba )

. — I.U . ) c n • .

c s )

0 ‘ 2 1

c d

• , . 4)

r 2 1 )

d isplay wares: d o mestic a nd/ o r r itual l oci b urial v essels: g raves

0

;A

( 1 )

C 0

.

c d

. 0 . 0 . , . 1 • C

d isplay wares: d isplay wares v ery l ow , b u t n one d ependen t o n b urial v essels s i te t ype s keletal o r c re ma ted r e mains a nd a ny a ss oc ia te c a rtefacts

0

( I ) 1 1

t i )

. 9

. U ) ' 3P. 1 )

c n

• 0 4t j

t i t )• , , Z . — ( 1 ) 1

.

a ) . .a c u „ , a ) •c i ,

› ,0 ( 1 4 . ,c ' , 1

u )

c d

• ,0 ‘ 2 4 >

a ) U )

W

' " , n i

' V

c r )

? D O c d

Table 1 : 1 .

C 2 0

U)

( 1 )

d isplay wares: v ery h igh b urial v essels: v ariable

. , . , . 0 ' ; _ ' , , , ci )

t O,— M 1 C

d isp lay wares: v ery h igh b urial v essels : v ariable •

>

d isplay wares: f ine b urial v essels : v ariable

0 , 4

0 • ., — f. 0 ) c d c d 4 1 . E . , ,c e

c o mplex

( I)

. f i g , . ››, . ) , . . . . . .„ ,. aj

dwell ings, r ubbish d eposi ts

te

h igh

. . , • . c

h igh - f or d isplay a nd/or t o i den tify owners

" .

U )

f ine

, 2

v ariable d epends o n d isplay v alue

c arbon is e d o rgan ic r esidues a nd/ o r e x terior p ost-f iring b lackening

, ..

W

v ariable - t o i den tify owners o r t ype o f f ood p repared , o r f or d isplay

v ery h igh

Frequency i n Con ten ts a rchaeolog ical a nd d eposits c lues

" , ' ; 0 • C I S " ) ( 1 P ) ‘ C " ' . 0 E . 4 , • P. . . , .

U ) '-

s trong ; t ends t o b e f iner t han f or c ookp ots a nd s torage v es s els; e xcept iona lly h eavy t e mper a nd/or t ritura tion g rits f or g rinding v essels

dwell ings, r ubb ish d eposi ts

Deposit ional c on tex t

g ie c u

l ess t han 1l tr. ,

v ery h igh

Degree o f c are i n manufacture a nd f iring

CO

-1 0 0 c d • . . c

o pen f or ms f or e asy a ccess a nd c lean ing ; s hapes t end t o b e s i mple ; f la t b ases a nd/or f eet , h andles c o m mon

Decoration f requency

g enerally l ow v ariable - t o r esiden t s torage : u t g overned i den tify c on ten ts b v ariable , n o b y v essel s ize r owners, o r p hysical c onstra in ts o a nd d isplay f or d isplay t ransi t s torage : v alue ( co m munal c oarse , s trong , o r t ransi t s torage ) ; p otent ial f or h ard ' must n ot l eak i f ' f iring i n tended f or l iqu ids

c oarse , p orous, t her mal s hock r esistan t

Fabric

c u • , i + a

o pen f or ms f or e asy a ccess a nd c leaning ; s i mple s hapes

c losed f or ms; s i mple s hapes f or e asy p ouring o r e x tract ion ; s pecial ly s haped r im o r s houlder , o r a ppendages f or a ttach ment o f l ever

r ound b ase f or 1 -5 l tr. f or o pen-f ire c ook ing , f a mily smal l f lat b ase ook ing when t rivet s upport c ' ava ilable , p rof iles t end t o b e g lobular

S hape

U ) N • , U )

3 0 . ,

u )

‘ 41 r — i

>

0

; t 0

.. . ,cn

c f )

4 -'

.

C O ( C I ; ' ( i ) ( " \ / > i • • + Q ) „ Z ei s , " Z i. 1 -4 . 1n C ) c

P .

b 0 0 4 1 )

0

c d

i n t he Fulan i v illage o f Be i n t he n orthern Ca meroon ( Dav id a nd Henn ig , 1 972 ) h ave s ho wn t hat v essels u sed f or t he c ook ing a nd s erv ing o f f ood a re b roken a nd r eplaced most o f ten . S torage v essels a re k ept i n af ixed p osit ion a nd a re t herefore l ess p rone t o b reakage , a nd r arely u sed r itual v essels c an l ast f or many y ears, s o meti mes f or s evera l g enerations. S herd f requencies s hould t hus r ef lect f requency o f v essel t ype r eplace men t ( Sch iffer , 1 972 , 1 62-63 ). A l though s o me c aut ion must o bv iously b e e xercised i n mak ing d irect c orrela tions b etween s ay modern e ating v essels a nd t heir a ncient c oun terparts, i t i s n evertheless p ossible t o s uggest g u idel ines a long wh ich t o s tudy c era mic f unction . These g u idel ines, s u m marised i n Tab le 1 : 1 , a re b ased u pon t he p hysical c onstra in ts l i mit ing t he p roduct ion o f c erta in v essel t ypes, a nd u pon g eneral ised p red ictions d erived f ro m e x tensive s t udy o f t he e thnograph ic l i terature.

Craf t s pecial isat ion R ice ( 1981 , 2 22 ) hypothesises t ha t t he a rchaeolog ical c orrelates o f i ncreasing c raf t s pecial isation a re i ncreasing d iversity o f t ypes o f v essels p roduced , a nd i ncreasing s tandardi sation w ith in t hose t ypes. With in-type s tandard isat ion may b e r ecogn ised a s as ign if ican tly r ecurring c luster o f a t tribu te s ta tes d eveloped w ith in a s ing le p roduct ion s yste m . These t ra its r ef lect n ot o n ly a c ul tural t radit ion , t hat i s ar ange o f i n terrelated b el iefs, c oncepts a nd i deas d eveloped o ver t i me a nd s pace ( Deetz , 1 965 ; MacNeish e t a l ., 1 970 ; Whallon , 1 972 ) , b u t a lso t he c era mic r es ources o f t he p roduction l ocus a nd t he s pecific ways i n which t he p otters u t il ise t hose r esources i n r esponse t o d e mand . I n o rder t o i nvest iga te s pecial isat ion w ith in a g iven a sse mblage , we must f irst a ssess t he n u mber o f f unctional t ypes p resent , t hen s elect a ttribu tes f or measure men t w ith in t hose t ypes t o t est f or s tandard isa t ion . A c onsiderable b ody o f l itera ture h as a ccu mula ted i n r ecen t y ears c oncern ing d esign c lassif i c a tion a nd a t tribu te s elect ion ( see P log , 1 980 , f or a c o mprehensive r ev iew o f t h is l i tera ture) . Choice o f a t tribu tes, h owever , must d epend o n b oth t he p roble m b eing i nvest iga ted ( in tersite , i n trasite, i n terr eg ional , d iachron ic v ariabil ity e tc .) a nd t he c era mics a va ilable f or s tudy . For e xa mple , a s c o mplete v essels a re c o mpara t ively r are i n British c on tex ts, a t tribu tes must g eneral ly b e s elected wh ich c an a pply t o s herds. For m a t tr ibu tes s hou ld b e c hosen f or a reas o f p otent ial v ariabil ity w ithin a s i mple s hape. The s election o f d ecora t ive a t tributes ( presence/absence , l oca tion , i nd iv idual mot ifs, c o mb inat ions o f mot ifs) a nd f abric a t tribu tes ( paste c o mposi tion , f ired c olour , t ype a nd d ensity o f t e mper , g ra in s ize ) w il l a ga in d epend u pon t he a va ilable ma terial a nd t he n ature a nd d eta il o f i nfor mat ion r equ ired .

1 0

Case s tudy I n o rder t o d e monstra te t ha t p roduct ion c an u sefully b e s tudied w ith in t he c on tex t o f p reh istoric Brita in , as ingle s i te a sse mblage i s d iscussed . The emphasis h ere i s e ssen tially methodolog ica l . The o n ly d ata c onsidered a re t hose r elevan t t o : t he f unct ional v essel c ategories r epresen ted ; t he e nv iron mental p recond itions f or p ottery manufacture a t t he s ite ; t he o rgan isat ion o f p roduct ion ; a nd t he p ossib il ity o f c raf t s pecial isation . No a t te mp t i s made , w ith in t he c on f ines o f t h is t rial i nvest iga tion , t o r elate t he e colog ical-technolog ical d ata t o ab roader c onsidera tion o f t he s ocial c ond itions w i th in wh ich p roduction t ook p lace o r s pecia lisation may h ave d eveloped . Furtherr mre , n o a t te mpt i s made t o d ef ine t he d istribut ion z one o f t he p roducts d iscussed , n or t o i den tify t rade o r e xchange mechanis ms. The s ite s elected f or s tudy was Wind m ill H il l , an eolith ic h ab itation l oca ted o n t he Chalk Uplands o f Wessex ( Fig . 1 :2 ). The f ocus i s o n t he e arl ier o ccupat ion a t t he s ite , a nd o n t he e xceptional a sse mblage o f s o me o ne h undred f u lly r estorable v essels wh ich c an b e a ssigned t o t h is p eriod . I sobel Smith 's a na lysis o f t he Wind mil l H il l p ot tery r e ma ins, p erhaps, t he b est e xa mple i n Britain t o d a te o f a n i n tegrated a pproach t o ac era mic a sse mb lage ( S mith , 1 965) , a nd i t was p artly t o d raw a tten tion t o t h is work t ha t t he s ite was c hosen f or t he p resen t s tudy . The l arge , c ause wayed e nclosure a t Wind mill H ill , p art o f wh ich was s yste ma tically e xcavated i n t he 1 920s, h as b een i nterpreted a s ' a r ally ing-point where s ca ttered t ribes o r t ribal u n its migh t f orega ther f ro m t i me t o t i me f or p urposes o f t rade a nd b arter , a s wel l a s f or c ere mon ial a nd o ther a ct iv ities e ssen tial t o t he e cono mic a nd s ocial well-being o f t he c o m mun ity ' ( S mith , 1 965 , x xv ii ). Vast q uan tities o f u t il itarian p ottery , h o wever , t ogether w ith a bundan t e v idence o f s ubsistence a ct iv ities, i nd ica te t hat a l though o ccupat ion may h ave b een s porad ic , c onsiderable t i me s pans were i nvolved . This writer c ontends t hat n otwiths tand ing a ny s y mbol ic , r i tual o r c en tral p lace f unction t he s i te may h ave s erved , t he p ossibil ity o f c on tinuous d o mestic h abi ta t ion s hou ld n ot b e r u led o u t . I t i s s uggested h ere t ha t p ot tery p roduct ion , e xploit ing l oca lly a va ilable r aw materia ls, t ook p lace a t o r n ear Wind mill H il l a s p art o f a n a nnual o r s easonal c ycle o f d o mestic a ct iv it ies. Aside f ro m t he s heer q uantity o f p ot tery , a nd t he u nusually h igh n u mber o f c o mplete v essels, t he c era mic a sse mblage a t Wind mill H ill i s t ypical o f t ha t r ecovered f ro m many British e arly n eol ithic s ites. A ll v essels a re r ound b ased , s hape v aria t ion i s l i mited , d ecora t ion i s s i mple a nd r are , a nd a ppendages a re c on f ined t o sma ll l ugs f or e asy p ortage o r s uspension . I n h er p ioneering s tudy o f t he i n terrelat ionsh ip b etween v essel f or m , f abric a nd d ecorat ion , Smith c lassified t he a sse mblage i n to c ups, b o wls a nd p ots o n t he b asis o f r im d ia meter : heigh t r a tio a nd o vera ll s ize ( S mith , 1 965 , 4 9 ). The r ange o f s izes a nd s hapes r epresen ted a t t he s ite i s i l lustrated i n F igs. 1 : 3 - 4 . A ll v essel f abrics were e xa mined i n h and s peci men ( S mith , 1 965 , 4 3 ) a nd t hree ma jor ware g roups i den tif ied . Th in s ections r epresen ta t ive o f t hese g roups were p repared b y Henry Hodges, a nd r aw material

1 1

1

• A l luv ium a nd v a l ley g r ave l s

I I I J I C lay-w i th-f l in t s

F ig . 1 :2 .

G au l t K immer idge C lay

Wind mill H ill : map s ho wing p referred a nd max i mu m e xploitation t erritories f or c lay a nd t e mper. C lay s a mpl ing p oin ts a re n u mbered .

1 2

o rig ins s uggested . Pred icted l ocal c lay s ources were s a mp led a nd c o mpared w ith t he p ottery f abrics ( Hodges, 1 965, 4 3-4 ). Further work by t he wri ter h as r ef ined t he o riginal f abric g roupings, a nd t he r esul ts a re p resen ted i n Table 1 :2 .

Funct ion Despite t he overa ll s i mpl icity o f t he a sse mblage , t he c onsiderable d iversity i n s hape a nd s ize r ange ( F igs. 1 : 3 -4 ) s uggests w ide f unct ional v ariat ion . Follo wing t he g u idel ines s et o u t i n Table 1 : 1 , f abric , Morphology a nd d ecora tion were c onsidered t ogether t o i nvest iga te t h is v ariat ion . Fabrics 2 , 4 , 5 , 7a nd 1 0 ( Table 1 :2 ) were d ef ined a s s u itable f or c ookpot p roduct ion , a nd t hese were p lotted a gainst v essel f or m a nd s ize ( Fig . 1 :5) . The r esul ts i ndica te a n e xpected t rend t o wards l arger v essels b eing p roduced i n t hese f abrics, b u t smal ler , e at ing v essels ( classif ied a ccord ing t o t he s hape a nd s ize c riteria o u t l ined i n Tab le 1 : 1 ; s ee a lso F ig . 1 :3 ) a re a lso r epresen ted . I t i s s uggested t hat h ere , a s i n many e thnograph ic c on tex ts ( see a bove , p . 8 ) , c ookpot q ual i ty f abric was s o meti mes p repared f or a n e n tire r ange o f f unct ional t ypes. Fabrics 1 , 3 , 6 , 8a nd 9 l ack p orosity , a nd would h ave a fforded l i t tle t her mal s hock r esistance. Large s ized v essels p repared f ro -n t hese f abrics were t hus u nsu itable f or u se a s c ookpots. A ll l isted f abrics, e xcept t he i l l-prepared f abric 1 , a re r epresen ted w ithin t he e at ing-vessel a sse mblage ( Fig . 1 :6). Fro m ap urely u til itarian v ie wpoin t , t here wou ld h ave b een f ew p aste c onstra in ts o n t h is c lass, a nd i t may b e s uggested , f ro m t he overa ll l ack o f f ine f abric a nd f requen t u neven f in ish , t hat i nd iv idual p ots f or e ating a nd d rink ing were s y mbol ica lly un i mportan t. These v essels a re g eneral ly o pen ( for e ase o f a ccess a nd c lean ing ) , b u t t he c lose s tandard isat ion o f s hape a s r evealed by h eigh t :d ia meter r at ios ( Fig . 1 :3) i s more l ikely t o r eflect manufacturing t echn iques t han f unct ional n ecessity ( see b elo w , p .23). With in t he e n tire a sse mblage o f r estorable e arly n eoli th ic p ots a t Wind mill H ill , l ess t han 2 5% b ear a ny s ort o f o rna men tation ( Fig . 1 :6-7 ). Decoration i s c on f ined t hroughou t t o i ncision a nd impression ( deep o r s hallo w p arallel l ines, o bl ique s tabs o r p inp ricks). Although t echn iques a re s o meti mes c o mb ined , motifs a re a lways s i mple a nd u sual ly r estricted t o s ing le l ines o r b ands. The i nfrequency o f d ecora t ion a nd i ts s i mple n ature when p resent make i n terpretat ion d iff icul t . However , f ollow ing t he f unct ional model ou t lined i n Table 1 : 1 , we wou ld e xpect t hose p ots w ith t he , h ighest p oten tial d isplay v alue ( eat ing , d rink ing , f ood p repara tion a nd r itual v essels) t o b e d ecora ted , wh ilst c ookpots ( sub ject t o c onstan t b lacken ing ) a nd i ndiv idual s torage v essels ( conf ined t o ar esidence a nd t hus n ot o n s ho w ) a re l ikely t o b e u ndecora ted . The s carcity o f o rna men t o n e at ing s ize v essels e ndorses t he s uggest ion t hat min i mu m d isplay v alue was a t tached t o t h is f unctional c a tegory . The f our smal l d ecora ted p ots a va ilable f or i nspection were u nusual ly well f in ished ( s moothed a nd l ightly b urn ished ) a nd o f r ela t ively r are p astes, s uggest ing ,

1 3

• •

•

•

•

•

0 •

c d

•

—

•

t r )

0

U 0 c d c r ) 4 ) °

— • ▪

< —t r ) •

41•

1 1

1-

1 1-

• 1 •

s parse , W ILI v ery uneven d istribution

d ense

s parse

°E

4'

0

-d

o zj

E r . 3 I

c n I

i _ n i

4 . , 4 4

c n

C I )

• , i

c o

, Z 4 -, ( 1 )

( r )

4 1 I ,

2i

( i )

G . ) c e

c d 4 1

"g r\ ) .

C > j

( 1 . )

c d

0 Z I I ( 1 )

. 4

- ( J O 7 2 4 C U N r q a ) • ) ^ d , 1 u U ) 0 0 . , c d . , 0 S : 1 4 0 c n ( I ) 0 0 • C d ( I )

C I )

.

0

U )

s hell

0 C d C d . 4 :I r I 0 (I ) G . ) U 0 c n •1 - a . ) • , I a ) T i a ) u ) c n

s hell

I nd c halk f l int

c halk

c n

.p . ,

" 1

• . C d

0 • ci c o

c d

C ) ' c u c i . 0 4 _ , 0 4> ; i c d > c r ) (L ) U 4 4 X " -I u ) C d 4 ) , . 1 0 ‹ - ( C ; ( -' U ) I ) ' 4, 24 > 0 > • • 4 ° 4 ., Q ) C d C O •

r a I

I

i

i

-4

2 .5 Y 5 /4

0 , ,

s il ty

c o , . . 7 t .,

f ine s andy

5YR 8 /4

c n U

s ilty ( ex tre mely c alciferous c lay )

7 . 5Y R 7 /2

7 . 5Y R 4 /2 s ilty ( slightly c alciferous c lay )

4 ., r l • 4 I ( 4 )

s ilty

c oarse s andy

0 r i

C l . )

4 ->

; i

> c )

7 . 5 YR 7 /2

L n

-

C d r 4

i _ r )

r 2 C , — , c . ) . . .

C O

•

> tup

r are f l in t , a nd s hell

f l in t

r

f l in t ( and r are c halk )

f l in t

f l int ( and r are c halk )

' t . . . . .

.

C I D

Q ) a ) 4 1 u U c u

1

- 8m m

7 1 ' 1

1 -8 m m ; v aries w ith v essel s ize

5mm ; r arely t o 8m m

I

1 OR 5 /2-10 R 5 /4

0 r I

In

ITT L I) 0 0

( 1 )

1 -,

_

I

r j )

( 1 . ) U ) C e C t i 0

U

c oarse s andy

s and only ( so met i mes r are c halk )

f l int

8mm ; v aries w ith v essel s ize L (

E E

t j « . ( 1 ) "I • r • I C . ) r e

0

; . ' l

( 1 . )

c oarse s andy

2 . 5YR 5 /2 s andy

2 .5 Y R 5 /2

, 1

, H

1

v ery s parse

d ense

v ery s parse -s parse

d ense

s parse

1

-H odges'

J (7 6 1 5 ) f abric nu mber

Matrix t ex ture

Ox id ised f ired c olour

a dAi uo un pui

4 . >

s andy

i

' abric umber

d ense

s parse

I nclusion d ensity GZI S

u oIsn pui

c c

( 1 )

."d

u )

( 1 )

. -I C n C d 0 . ) c d C d c d ' H r a 0 ( I ) . 4 • • • • . i ) ( n c d • , • _ , . 7 1 ( c dC d • . C ) 0 ; • 4 , , c l ) E . ( 1 0 0 • 1 . 1 C d . 4 _ , C ) ( . ) c d 4 - 0 4 . , Q ) Q . , . , i O z i , 2 2 . ,c n( J ). 5 , . 4 › . , - r • ci , ( i ) U ) • r I • 1 1 I -II C i C d ( 1 ) 0 4 -, ( • e . ' 3 T i( 1 ) 1 3 . ) r -I 0 C d C D 0 C d • • 1 C D b p. , -4s) ‘ 1 1 c o . . . . , C d C d . 4 › ,T i 0 U I I 1 . 1 • 4 , I ( . , s i ( 1 ) 4 c t j ' 4 0 C d C ) a ) .A a ; g c d

, 4d c s i .

r 0 I .

0c u r 4 C Z ) r i • r I r l C d 4 2 0

,

—

( 1 2 • 4 . ' 1 o C d , , . 1 1 0 0 ( I ) "-I 0 r 4 . . • C d C f ) .

I T1 0 7 3 QI1 C d 4 ( L ) C d C J 1 I 1 1 • , 1 ( f ) • r . C d T iC i )

( 1 3

( . ) " ' -

• r 4 • i C U Z a i

( i ) C d ; • I c d X c d , 0 4' C l )

E 0

H I s 4 t 44

' 1 ' ( 1 )

2

0

a U Q ; . 1 0 ; i , . 0 t O c d 4 1 ( . )

•, 1 F 1

( 1 ) C f )

, L ) G a i, . .4 , . 1 ,

i n ' I f p , 4: :

I

1 -4

( 1 )

1 2 ,

11 •

rl • cr l

• I ▪

0 •

( 7 t 1 1

•

_ •

p i

P l

•

e

c o f a i C )I H c o

5A 4

a )

-

; . 1

( l i t c o a s

I

( C I . r . 7 ). -

•

CO

•

•

( r )

G . )

N

• . 1 -, •I — ) U ) 4. 4 ( T S ( 1 . )

N C I )

in

b ür l i I •

•". 1 C D

•

t b9

4 )

c o

C I S 1 4

. 11

a )

i n r— I

t1 •

C d

C X )

" s . "

r * • • •

I 11 • •

0

C I . )

•• 11 •

7

4

C d I I • 1

• -f

I , 41

• • • • • .

r i D 11 C . ) •v I

0

C . )

C D

r i D 0

0

• 0

•

•

0

0 0

0

2 . 4 •

b O

C . J

•

r •L i

c m

D ep th

1 5—

6 2

81 0 1 4

0\ , \ 3\"C) 82 / 5 0 0 8 0

1 0 —

8 6 9

1

1

\ \ \ 2

85

2

1 82

6 3

3

5

4 5. 4 5—

R im 0

5

1 0

1 5

21 0

C m

F ig . 1 :6. Exa mined ' s mall ' and ' inter med ia te-sized ' v essels p lotted a ccord ing t o f or m a nd f abric ( for k ey t o f abric nu mbers, s ee Table 1 :2 ). Decorated v essels a re c ircler ' . .

7

2 5 —

7

7

7

1 0®

° 6

2

7

2 0—

4

2

1 5-

1

1 0

1 0 1 5

2 0

1 1

6

1 2 5

1 3 0

1 3 5

1 4 0 cm

F ig . 1 :7. Exa mined ' l arge' v essels p lot ted a ccording t o f or m a nd f abric ( for k ey t o f abric nu mbers, s ee Table 1 :2 ). Open v essels ( large f igures) a re d efined a s t hose w ith max i mu m d ia meter a t t he r im . Max i mu m d ia meter o f c losed v essels ( s mall f igures) o ccurs b elo w t he r i m. Decorated p ots a re c ircled .

p erhaps, t heir u se a s r i tual v essels. A g rea ter p roport ion o f d ecora ted e xa mples was f ound among t he l arge v essel a sse mb lage ( Fig . 1 :7 ), a nd i t i s p ossible t hat s o me o f t hese f or ms a lso s erved ar itual p urpose. Here a ga in , u nusual s hapes a nd q ual ity o f f in ish s uggest t h is may wel l h ave b een t he c ase. On t he b asis o f t he e v idence o utlined a bove a nd i n F igs. 1 :3-7 , a nd w ith t he p rov iso t hat u nusually f ine v essels i n a ll f or mf abric g roups may h ave b een r itual o r ' special ' p ots o f s o me d escription , t he f ollo w ing g eneral f unctional a script ions s ee m p lausible : 1 .

Small p ots ( Fig . 1 :3) may b e i n terpre ted a s i ndiv idual e a t ing o r d rink ing v essels. ( Fig . 1 :4n-p ).

2 . a .

Large o pen f or ms, w i thou t d ecoration , i n f abrics 2 , 4 , 5 , 7a nd 1 0 p robably s erved a s c ookpots. ( Fig . 1 :4 j). b . Large o pen d ecora ted f or ms i n t he a bove f abrics a re l ikely t o h ave b een u sed . a s f ood p repara tion v essels ( Fig . 1 :4d ) , b u t v ery l arge ( non-portable) e xa mples were more p robably f or r itual f east ing o r c o m munal s torage ( Fig . 1 :4b ) .

3 .

4 .

Large o pen f or ms i n f abr ics 1 , 3 , 6 , 9a nd 1 , whether d ecora ted o r n ot , were p robably f ood P repara t ion v essels. ( Fig . 1 :4h , k ). a .

Large c losed p lain p ots i n f abrics 2 , 4 , 5 , 7a nd 1 0 may b e i n terpreted a s c ookwares. ( Fig . 1 :4e). b . C losed d ecora ted p ots i n t hese f abrics a re d iff icul t t o e xpla in . As o rna men tat ion i s s o s i mple, a nd o ften c on f ined t o t he r im a rea , c ook ing u sage c annot b e e n tirely d is missed . The p resence o f d ecora tion , h o wever , impl ies d isplay v a lue , a nd h ence o ther i n terpreta t ions a re p ossible. S uch v essels may h ave b een u sed a s c arry ing c on ta iners ( perhaps f or wa ter) o r a s b ulk c o m munal s torage f acil ities. I n b oth c ases, t hey wou ld h ave b een c onstan tly o n v ie w . ( Fig . 1 :4g ).

5 . a .

C losed u ndecora ted f or ms i n f abrics 1 , 3 , 6 , 8 , 9a nd 1 were p robably s torage v essels. ( F ig . 1 :4a , c ). b . Large c losed d ecora ted v essels i n t hese f abrics may s erved e ither f or l arge-scale s torage o r t ransp ortat ion o f g oods. ( Fig . 1 :4f ).

The c on tex ts w ith in which i ndiv idual v essels were f ound a t Wind mil l H ill p roffer l i t tle f unctional i n for mation . The ma jori ty o f p ottery r epresen ts s econdary r efuse ( Sch iffer , 1 972 , 1 61 ) , a nd n o g roups s pecif ic t o f abric o r f unction were d efined ( Fig . 1 :8 ). The p resence o f s torage f acili ties s ugges ts p rolonged o ccupa tion ( Plog , 1 980, 9 6) , b u t t he c era mic e v idence d oes n ot a llo w t he r ecogn ition o f ' household ' o r l i mi ted a ctiv ity a reas ( R ice , 1 981 , 2 22 ) a t t he s ite.

1 9

-

0

5, 0m

„

.„

' 1 (_ '

5

c = c,

' . . 0 • . . , % , .1 f I , I

0 /

1 1 1

p o t tery f abr ics

u ndeco ra ted

d eco ra ted s ma l l

Q

l a rge o pen l a rge c l o sed

F ig . 1 :8 . Contexts o f e xa mined e arly n eolith ic v essels f ro m Wind mill H ill . ' Large' a nd ' inter mediate-sized ' v essels a re h ere a ll c lassed a s ' large'. P lan a fter Smith ( 1965).

Resource e cology The l ack o f a tten t ion p aid b y British p reh istorians t o p oten tial r aw materia l s ources h as a lready b een n oted i n t h is p aper . I n t he e arly 1 960s, h o wever , s a mples were c ollec ted f ro m t he C lay- with-fl in ts wh ich c aps t he c halk o f t he Marlborough Downs, a nd s uccessfully c o mpared w ith s herds o f Wind mil l H il l p ot tery ( Hodges, 1 965 ; Cornwall a nd Hodges, 1 964 ) . S uch work h as r arely b een emula ted . I n t he l igh t o f t he r ef ined Wind mil l H ill f abric i den tif ica tions ( Table 1 :2 ) , f urther s a mpl ing was u ndert aken ( Fig . 1 :2 ). C lays were t ested f or s u itabil ity f or p ottery manufacture w i th a nd w ithou t a dded t e mper , a nd f ired s arrples c o mpared w i th t he p reh istoric f abr ic r ange. W ithin Arnold 's 1km p referred e xploitation t erritory , o n ly t he a l luv iu m f ro m t he b anks o f t he Win terbourne a nd i ts t ribu tary was a va ilable t o t he Wind mill H il l p otters. Within t he max i mu m 7 km t erritory , h o wever , a c onsiderable r ange o f d ifferen t c lays o ccurs, a nd e ach was s a mpled a nd t ested ( Fig . 1 :2 ). K i m meridge C lay , wh ich o utcrops s o me 5 .5 km f ro m t he s ite, i s d escribed a s a' redd ish b ro wn o r l ead c oloured c lay which g eneral ly h as a n u nctuous f eel , a nd o ccasionally e ffervesces v iv idly w ith a cids' (Wh ite , 1 925 , 2 8 ). I n terest ingly , a bundan t c o m minu ted f ossil s hel l h as b een o bserved i n t he Wil tsh ire K i m meridge d eposi ts. On ly o ne s a mpl ing p oint was l oca ted d uring t he p resen t s urvey , a t t he Lo wer Greensand i n terface ( recen t b u ild ing h as u nfortunately o bscured a 1 9th c en tury b rickp i t ), b u t t he l ead-grey s andy c lay , a lthough s ligh tly c alcareous, l acks v isible s hell . I f K i m meridge C lay was u sed f or n eol ithic p otting ( perhaps f or f abric 1 0) , ad ifferent o u tcrop must b e s ough t. A b and o f Gaul t C lay , o f c onsiderable d epth , b orders t he d o wn land c halk a t i ts western l i mi t . A lthough p articularly s u itable f or p ottery mak ing a f ter t he a ddition o f a smal l amoun t o f a plast ics, t he micaceous Gaul t C lay was n ot e xploited b y t he Wind mill H il l p otters. Post- Eocene C lay- w ith-fl in ts c o mprises a n u mber o f a ccu mulations o n t he Marlborough Do wns a nd o n t he Chalk s ou th o f t he R iver Kennet . The u pper s trata o f t hese d eposits c onsist o f b uff , b ro wn ish o r r edd ish l oa my c lays c on ta in ing a bundan t f rag men ts o f f l in t , s arsen a nd f errug inous g rit . The l o wer , d ark-red , u nctuous c lays c on ta in 'm inu te p articles o f q uartz a nd o ther minerals .. f ossi ls, a nd wh i te p a t ina ted f l in ts o f ten s pot ted w ith b lack manganese ' (Wh i te , 1 925 , 7 9 ). Two s a mples f ro m t he C lay- w ith-fl in ts d eposits, c ollected b y Dr. Smith , a nd s ubs equently f ired a nd s ect ioned , c losely ma tched Wind mil l H ill p ot tery f abrics ( Cornwall a nd Hodges, 1 964 , P l . I I ). Two f urther s a mples, t aken b y t he writer f ro m t he n earest e xposure t o t he s ite , p roved i den tical i n f ired c olour a nd matrix t ex ture t o f abrics 1 a nd 2 . A t h ird s a mple f ro m a n e xposure s o me 1km away , f ired t D ad ifferen t h ue ( 5 YR 5 /8 ) a nd i s c onsiderably c oarser. A lthough s i milar d eposits t o t ha t r epresen ted b y s a mples Ia nd 2 ( Fig . 1 :2 ) may o ccur , i t i s l ikely t ha t p otters would e xploi t t he s ource c losest t o t he p lace o f manufacture. I t was s uggested

2 1

( Cornwall a nd Hodges, 1 964 , 3 0) t hat t he Brickearth a ssociated w ith C lay- with-flin ts p rov ided ma trix ma terial f or p ottery f abrics 3 , 4a nd 5 ( undifferentiated i n Smith , 1 965). Unfortunately , i t was n ot p ossible t o t est t his t heory , a s n o s ource o f Brickearth was l ocated d uring t his b rief s tudy . Hodges d is missed t he a l luv ial c lays o f t he Kennet v alley a s b eing ' f locculated a nd u nplastic a nd t hus u nsu itable f or p ottery mak ing ' ( Cornwall a nd Hodges, 1 964 , 3 0). A lluv ial s a mples f ro m t he b anks o f t he Kennet b elo w wa ter-line a nd f ro m t he Win terbourne c lose t o Wind mill H ill , were t ested f or p lasticity a nd f ired s treng th ( Fig . 1 :2 , s a mples 4 -7 ). The c alciferous Kennet s a mples a fforded , a s d ug , a dequate p lasticity f or h and-bu ilding a nd a n a cceptable d egree o f d ry ing a nd f iring s hrinkage. Neither c rack ing n or d istortion was o bserved d uring f iring t o 7 50° C , a nd ox idised c olour c losely matched t hat o f t he u nusual f abric 9 . The l ocal Winterbourne a lluv iu m r equ ired t he a ddition o f t e mper t o r ender i t s u itable f or p ottery mak ing ( Shepard , 1 956, 2 5). Ho wever , t he b ro wn ish , ox idised f ired c olour ( 7 .5YR 5 /4 ) , t he s ilty t ex ture i n t h in s ection a nd t he a pparent a bsence o f c halky ma terial i dentify t his c lay w ith f abrics 6 , 7a nd p erhaps 8 . No s ource was l ocated f or f abric 1 0, a nd Hodges' r easonable s uggestion ( 1965, 4 4 ) t hat s hell-f illed wares were imported t o t he s ite awaits v erif ication ( Pi tts a nd Ho ward , i n p reparation ). This e colog ical r esource s urvey h as s ho wn , t herefore, t hat t he b asic r aw materials f or p ottery p roduction were a ccessible ' i n t he v icin ity o f Wind mil l H ill , a nd t hat a t l east f ive a nd p robably n ine o f t he i den tif ied f abrics c ou ld h ave b een l ocally made. The c o m monest f iller i s f l int , a nd t h is i s a bundantly available a t many l ocations w ithin 5 km o f t he s ite ( Pitts, f orthco ming ). Residues f ro m g ra in c ultiva tion , a ttested by p ollen a nd c ereal r e mains ( Di mbleby , 1 965 ; Helbaek , 1 952 ) , waste p roducts f ro m a n i mal h usbandry ( S mith , 1 965, 4 1 ) ' and a v ariety o f h ard a nd s oft woods ( S mith , 1 965, 3 8 ) would h ave p rov ided a w ide c hoice o f f uel f or p ottery f iring . A mple wa ter s upplies a re ava ilable w ithin 8 00 m o f t he s ite.

Technology I t i s c lear f ro m t he f oregoing d iscussion o f v essel f unction a nd r aw materials t hat t he i nhabitants a t Wind mill H ill d e manded p ottery t o s erve a wide v ariety o f purposes. I t i s s uggested t hat t his d e mand was met by l ocal p roduction o f a ppropriate f or ms i n ar ange o f s u itably p repared f abrics, a nd by t he importa tion o f s pecialised v essels. Additional v ariables which may s hed l igh t o n t he o rgan isation o f p roduct ion c oncern f or ming methods, f in ishing a nd d ecorative t echn iques, a nd f iring t echnology . During h er d eta iled e xa mination o f t he a sse mblage , Smith i dentif ied v essels ( dia meters i n e xcess o f 1 9 cm ) w ith e v idence o f c oil j oins ( Fig . - 1 :9 ). S he s uggested , f ro m t h is e v idence, t hat mediu m a nd l arge-sized c on ta iners were c oilb u ilt , whilst small p ots w i th uneven walls were p robably f or med f ro m a s ingle l u mp o f c lay ( S mith , 1 965, 4 8 ). This s uggestion

2 2

i s s upported b oth b y t he a brupt l arge/s mall d iv ision d e monstrated b y s ize a nalysis ( Fig . 1 :3), a nd by t he g reater s hape r ange e xhibited by l arger s ized v essels. The p oten tial s ize o f ' pinch-pots' ( for med f ro m a s ingle c lay l u mp ) i s l i mited by t he h and s ize o f t he maker , a nd a lthough s o me v ariation i n s hape c an b e a ch ieved by t his method , i t i s much l ess f lex ible t han c oil-bu ild ing . Hodges' o bserva tions ( 1966, 15) a nd my own e xperi men tal work wi th s tudents ( pri mary s chool a ge t o un iversity l evel ) h ave s ho wn t hat f or ming by t he ' p inch-pot ' me thod r esults i n g enerally s tandardised s hapes which v ary i n as i milar manner t o t he Wind mill H ill small p ots. I t would t hus s ee m t hat a t l east t wo d istinct f or ming t echn iques were u sed b y t he manufacturers o f l ocal wares. S o me d egree o f v ariation may b e o bserved w ithin a ll f or m a nd f abric g roups ( with t he e xception o f f abric 1 0) i n b oth q uality o f manufacture a nd s tandard o f s urface f in ish . Most v essels a re n eatly made a nd c onsistently smoothed on b oth f aces, b ut a m inority d isplay l ess c are i n p roduction . Vessels i n f abrics 1 -5 a re b etter made o vera ll t han t hose i n f abrics 6 -8 , b u t f ine e xa mples o f t he l atter g roups d o o ccur. A s i milar p attern i s e v ident i n c ontrol o f f iring c onditions. Fabric 1 0 v essels a re i nvariably well made a nd f in ished , f iring c on trol i s more c onsisten t a nd d ecoration i s a lways n eatly a nd e venly e xecu ted . Although s im ilar t echniques were u sed t o d ecorate me mbers o f t he r e ma in ing f abric g roups, e xecu tion i s g enerally o f i nferior q uality , s ugg-sting t hat l ocal p otters were p erhaps imitating t heir s pecial ist c oun terparts.

Cera mic p roduction a t Wind mill H ill The r esul ts o f t his s tudy c onfor m well t o e xpectations f or al evel o f i ncipien t s pecial isation ( step 2 i n R ice 's e volu tionary model ) which r eflects a s ocial s yste m c haracterised by d eveloping s ocio-econo mic d ifferentiat ion and r ank ing ( Rice , 1 981 ). R ice s uggests t hat i ndiv idual d o mestic p roduction ( step 1 ) would b e f ollo wed by t he d evelop men t o f l o w-level , i nfor mal s pecial isation where s o me h ouseholds c annot o r c hoose n ot t o make t heir own p ot tery . ' Increasingly , i ndiv iduals o r f a mil ies who by c hance o r d esign l ive c loser t o c lay s ources o r a re b etter p ot ters f ind t he ms elves mak ing more a nd more p ottery , wi th which t hey may e n ter i n to e xchange r elationships o r g if t g iv ing . Pottery manu facture may b e a ssociated w ith a l ineage o r o ther k in g roup wh ich c la i ms s o me t erritorial a nd p robably h eritable p rerogative t o t he e xploita t ion o f t he c lay d eposits' ( Rice, 1 981 , 2 22-223). Correla tes o f t his e arly s tage o f s pecialisation i nclude i ncreasing f abric s tanda rdisation , r eflect ing i ncreased e xploitation o f particular r aw material s ources, i ncreasing s k ill i n p roduction a nd f iring c on trol a nd s tandardisat ion o f d ecora tive methods a nd motifs. Only f ourt een f abrics ( including t he imported i gneous, o olite a nd o olite a nd s hell p astes n oted i n Sm ith , 1 965) s ee m t o b e r epresented w ith in t he e xceptionally l arge c era m ic a sse mblage a t Wind mill H ill . As s o me o f t hese a re d ifferentiated by p aste p reparation a lone ( fabrics 1a nd 2 ; 3 -5 ; 6a nd 7 ) , a max i mu m o f s ix c lay s ources s ee ms t o h ave b een e xploited by l ocal p otters. The r ich , c era mic-ecological e nv iron men t s urrounding Wind mill H ill may well b e p artly r esponsi ble f or t he d iversity i n f abrics a nd f or ms o bserved a t t he s ite

2 3

F ig . 1 :9.

S herds w ith e v idence o f c oil-bu ilding ( top r ow ) , a nd methods o f a ttaching l ugs t o v essel walls ( bot to m r o ws). Drawings a fter Smith ( 1965).

2 4

( see Arnold , 1 978 , 5 8 ), but a d egree o f s tandardisation i n p aste p reparation , l ow v ariation i n s o me s hape c ategories a nd a r estricted r ange o f s i milarly e xecu ted d ecorative motifs, a ll s uggest i ncipient s pecialist p roduction . Technical c o mpetence i s f urther a ttested by ag enerally s ophisticated l evel o f c oil-bu ild ing a nd s hape c on trol , a dequate s urface f in ishing a nd f iring , a nd a n i n tricate method ( noted by Smith ) o f a ff ix ing l ugs t o v essel walls ( Fig . 1 :9)• Considering a ll t he e v idence p resented i n t his c ase s tudy , Ip ropose t he f ollowing t entative model f or c era mic p roduction a t Wind mill H ill . The ma jority o f l ocal v essels were made by t wo p otter g roups f or e xchange w ithin t he c o m mun ity a nd p erhaps wi th n earby s ettle ments. One g roup e xploited t he Marlborough Do wns C lay- with-flin ts, whilst t he o ther p referred o r h eld r ights t o a s andy Brickearth . C lays a nd t e mpers were c ollected a nd p repared i n l ate s u m mer b efore h arvest , a nd p roduction t ook p lace a t t he s ite a f ter t he c rops were c ut a nd t hreshed . The p otters c ould t hus t ake a dvantage o f f avourable c li ma tic c onditions a nd a bundan t d ry f uel ( grass, u nderbrush , t wigs, s traw , c haff , d ried d ung ) f or f iring . S eed impressions on p ots f ro m a ll p eriods, i nclud ing t he e arly n eolith ic a t Wind mill H ill ( Helbaek , 1 952 ; Dennell , 1 976) , s uggest e arly a u tu mn a s t he p referred p otting s eason t hroughou t p rehistory . The s a me t wo p otter g roups made s porad ic u se o f l ocal a lluv iu m , p erhaps during l ate s pring a ni -e arly s u m mer ( both t he Kennet a nd t he Win terbourne would h ave b een s ub ject t o e x tensive w in ter f lood ing ), t o r eplace p ots b roken a nd u rgen tly r equired b efore t he n ex t p roduction s eason . Repair h oles d rilled i n s everal v essels s upport t he t heory o f s easonal p otting , a nd i t may b e i nferred t hat t hese were b roken a nd b ound during winter when unsu itable c onditions p revailed . This o rganisational model p rov ides b u t one p ossible i n terp retative f ra me work f or n eolithic c era mic p roduction . I n t his i n itial s tudy , i t h as n ot b een p ossible t o c onsider q uestions o f i ntra-reg ional t rade which may s uggest a lternative o r a dditional hypotheses. These q uestions a re p resently b eing a ddressed , a nd d ifferent p roduction models t ested within a more d etailed s tudy o f t he Wind mil l H ill p ottery a nd t he c era mic a sse mblages a nd e xploitat ion t erritories o f o ther n eol ithic s ites i n t he Wessex r eg ion ( Pitts a nd Howard , i n p repara tion ).

Conclusion Ih ave emphasised t he n eed f or a n i n tegrated a pproach t o c era mic s tudies, a nd d escribed t he p ro mising r esul ts o btained f ro m a n e xplora tory e cological-technological i nvestigation . S i milar s uch s tud ies, c onducted w ithin a s pa tial a nd/or d iachron ic f ra me work , h ave p oten tial n ot only f or i nfor ming on p atterns o f r esource u til isation a nd p roduction c entres, b ut a lso on t he r elationship b etween t he o rgan isation o f p roduction a nd i n terg roup c ontact. Such i nfor ma tion c ould l ead t o as ignifican t a dvance i n our u nderstand ing o f c onte mporary a nd c hang ing s ocial s yste ms.

2 5

Al most f i fty y ears a go, t he f ollo wing a llegory c oncern ing t he d evelop men t o f i ron a ge p ottery i n s outhern Britain a ppeared i n av enerable a rchaeological j ournal : ' The h andso me f oreigner, Mr. Hallstat t , c a me t o Brita in i n h is o ld a ge a nd married Mrs. DeverelR i mbury , who was c oarse , f at a nd ugly . S hortly b efore t he d eath o f Mr. Hallstat t Mrs. DeverelR i mbury g ave b irth t o as on , Mr. A l , who was a b oorish y outh, p ossessing t races o f h is f ather 's h andso me f eatures, bu t much o f h is mother's c lu msiness. I n l ater l i fe h e g re w more s ober , d iscarded h is mother 's c heap o rna men ts, g re w r ather more p olished , a nd c hanged h is n a me t o Mr. A2 . F inally h e married a p retty a nd a rtistic French g irl , Mlle. B , who h ad r ecen tly s ettled i n t he s outhwest ; by h er h e h ad a s on , Mr. AB, who h ad much o f h is mother's g ood l ooks b ut n ot much o rig inality . Mr. AB married a Belg ian g irl , Mlle. C , who p resen ted h im w ith a s on , Mr . ABC, who r ese mbled b oth h is f ather a nd h is mother. F inally Mr. Ro man c a me a long , s trangled Mr. ABC, a nd s et u p ac hain-store where h e s old mass-produced wares' ( Cur wen , 1 937 , 8 6). I n t hese e nlightened d ays, a re we n ot e n titled t o d eepen our e nquiry i nto t he v eracity a nd r eal n ature o f s uch r elationsh ips?

Ackno wledge ments Is hould l ike t o t hank t he Curator o f t he A lexander Keiller Museu m , Avebury , f or p rov id ing a ccess t o t he Wind m ill H ill p ottery (much o f wh ich h ad t o b e r e moved f ro m d isplay c ases during a b usy publ ic h oliday ), t he e xcavation r ecords a nd I sobel Smith 's o riginal d raw ings ( so me u npubl ished ) o f b oth s herds a nd c o mplete v essels. I am g rateful t o Dr. Smith f or many d iscussions c oncerning Wind mill H il l a nd n eolithic c era mics i n g eneral . F inally , It hank Michael P itts, who d rew t he f igures a nd c o mmen ted on e arly d rafts o f t his p aper. All e rrors a nd omissions, h owever, r e ma in my own .

B ibliography Andersen , K . M., 1 962 . Cera mic c lues t o pueblo-puebloid r elationsh ips. A mer. Antiq . 2 8 , 3 03-307. Arnold , D . E ., 1 971 . E thno mineralogy o f T icul , Yucatan p otters: e tics a nd emics. A mer. Ant iq . 3 6 , 2 0-40. Arnold , D . E ., 1 975. Cera m ic e cology o f t he Ayacucho Basin , Peru : impl ications f or p rehistory . Curr. Anthrop. 1 6, 1 83- 2 04 . Arnold , D . E ., 1 976. Ecolog ical v ariables a nd c era mic p roduction : t o wards a g eneral model . I n Ray mond , J . S . e t a l. ( eds.), Pri mitive Art a nd Technology , 9 2-108 . ( Calgary ).

2 6

Arnold , D . E ., 1 978 . Cera mic v ariabil ity , e nv iron men t a nd c ulture h istory among t he Poko m i n t he v alley o f Guate mala . I n Hodder , I . ( ed .), The S patial Organisation o f Culture , 3 8-59. ( London ). Arnold , D . E ., 1 980. Localized e xchange: a n e thnoarchaeolog ical p erspect ive. I n Fry , R . E . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Regional Exchange, S ociety f or A merican Archaeology Papers 1 , 1 47-150. (Washington ). Balfet ,

H ., 1 966 . E thnographical o bservations i n North Africa a nd a rchaeological i n terpretation . I n Matson , F . ( ed .), Cera mics a nd Man , 1 61-177. ( London ). B in ford , L . R ., 1 962 . Archaeology a s a n thropology . A mer. Ant iq . 2 8 , 2 17-225. B inford . , L . R ., 1 965. Archaeological s yste matics a nd t he s tudy o f c ulture p rocess. A mer. An tiq . 3 1 , 2 03-210. B inford , S . R . a nd B inford , L . R . ( eds.) , 1 968. Ne w Perspectives i n Archaeology . ( Chicago). Cardew , M., 1 952 . N igerian t raditional p ottery . N igeria 3 9 , 1 89- 2 01 . Carde w , M., 1 969. P ioneer Pottery . ( London ). C larke, D .

L ., 1 968 .

Analy tical Archaeology .

( London ).

C larke, D . L ., 1 976. The b eaker n etwork - s ocial a nd e cono mic models. I n Lanting , J . N . a nd Van d er Waals, J . D . ( eds.), G lockenbecher Sy mposion : Oberreid 1 974 , 4 59-76. ( Bussu m/ Haarle m ). Cornwall , I . W. a nd Hodges, H . W. M., 1 964 . Th in s ections o f Brit ish n eolithic p ottery : Wind mill H ill - a t est-site. Bull . I nst . Archaeol . Univ . London 4 , 2 9-33. Crossland , L . B . a nd Posnansky , M., 1 978. Pottery , p eople a nd t rade a t Begho, Ghana . I n Hodder, I . ( ed .), The S patial Organ isation o f Culture , 7 7-89. ( London ). Curwen , E . C ., 1 937 . The l ighter s ide o f a rchaeology . An tiqu ity 1 , 8 0-86. Dav id , N . a nd Henn ig , H ., 1 972 . The E thnography o f Pottery : A Fulan i Case S een i n Perspective. ( Ann Arbor). Deetz , J ., 1 965. The Dyna mics o f S ty listic Change i n An kara Cera mics. ( Urbana ). Deetz , J ., 1 968a . Cultural pattern ing o f b ehav iour r eflected by a rchaeological materials. I n Chang , K . ( ed .), S ettle ment Archaeology , 3 1-42 . ( Palo A lto). Deetz , J ., 1 968b . The i nference o f r esidence a nd d escent r ules f ro m a rchaeological d ata . I n B in ford , S . R . a nd B inford , L . R . ( eds.), Ne w Perspectives i n Archaeology , 4 1-78. ( Chicago). Dennel , R . W., 1 976. Prehistoric c rop c ultivation i n s ou thern England : ar econsideration . An tiq . J . 5 6, 1-23. D i mbleby , G . W., 1 965. The b uried s oil u nder ou ter b ank V a nd p ollen a nalysis. I n Smith , I . F ., Wind mill H ill a nd Avebury , 3 4-36. ( Oxford ). E llen , R . F . a nd G lover, I . C ., 1 974 . Pottery manufacture a nd t rade i n t he Central Moluccas, I ndonesia : t he modern s ituation a nd t he h istorical implications. Man 9 , 3 53-379. E llison , A ., 1 980. The b ronze a ge. Sussex Archaeol . Collect . 18 , 3 1-42 .

2 7

Foster ,

G . M., 1 955. Con te mporary Pottery Techniques i n S ou thern a nd Cen tral Mex ico. ( New Orleans). Foster, G . M., 1 960. L ife e xpectancy o f u til itarian p ottery i n Tz intzuntzan , Michoacan , Mex ico. A mer . Antiq . 2 5, 6 06-609. Foster , G . M., 1 967. Tzintzuntzan : Mex ican Peasan ts i n a Chang ing World . ( Boston ). Fry , R . E ., 1 980. Models o f e xchange f or major s hape c lasses o f l o wland Maya p ottery . I n Fry , R . E . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Regional Exchange , S ociety f or A merican Archaeology Papers 1 , 3 -18 . (Washington ). Fulford , M. G ., 1 975. Ne w Forest Ro man Pottery : Manufacture a nd D istribu tion , w ith a Corpus o f t he Pottery Types, Brit . Archaeol . Rep. 1 7 . ( Oxford ). Guthe, G . E ., 1 925. Pueblo Pottery Mak ing : A S tudy a t t he V illage o f S an I ldefonso. ( Ne w Haven ). Helbaek , H ., 1 952 . Early c rops i n s ou thern England . Proc . Preh ist . S oc . 1 2 , 1 94-233. H ill , J . N ., 1 970. Broken K Pueblo : Preh istoric S ocial Organ ization i n t he A merican S ou thwest . ( Tucson ). Hodder, I ., 1 981 . Co m ments on R ice , P . M., Evolu tion o f s pecialized p ottery p roduction : at rial model. Curr. An throp. 2 2 , 2 31-232 . Hodges, H . W. M., 1 965. Thin s ections o f t , herds f ro m Wind mill H ill . I n Smith , I . F ., Wind mill H ill a nd Avebury , 4 3-44 . ( Oxford ). Hodges, H . W. M., 1 966. Aspects o f p ottery i n t e mpera te Europe b efore t he Ro man E mpire. I n Matson , F . R . ( ed .), Cera mics a nd Man , 14-123. ( London ). Hodson , F . R ., 1 962 . S o me p ottery f ro m Eastbourne , t he ' Marn ians' a nd t he p re- Ro man i ron a ge i n s outhern England . Proc. Prehist . S oc. 7 , 1 40-155. Ho ward , H ., i n p ress. C lay a nd t he a rchaeologist . I n Freestone, I ., J ohns, C . a nd Potter, T . ( eds.), Current Research i n Cera mics: Thin-section S tudies, Brit . Mus. Occ . Paper 3 2 . ( London ). Ho ward , H ., f orthco ming . Pots a nd p otters: t he f ading e v idence. Ho ward , H ., i n p reparation . Pots f or Tourists: A S tudy o f a Chang ing I ndustry . Hul then , B ., 1 977. On Cera mic Technology During t he S canian Neolith ic a nd Bronze Age. ( Stockhol m ). K idder, A . V . a nd S hepard , A . 0 ., 1 936. The Pottery o f Pecos, Vol . 2 . ( Andover). K innes, I ., 1 978 . The e arlier p rehistoric p ottery . I n Hedges, J . a nd Buck ley , D ., Excavations a t an eolithic c ausewayed e nclosure, Orsett , Essex , 1 975. Proc. Prehist. Kolb ,

C .

S oc. 4 4 , 2 59-268. C ., 1 981 . Co m men ts on R ice, P . M., Evolu tion o f s pecialized p ottery p roduction : at rial model . Curr.

An throp. 2 2 , 2 32-233. L inne , S ., 1 925. The Technique o f S ou th A merican Cera mics. ( Göteborg ). Longacre, W. A ., 1 964. S ociological impl ications o f t he c era mic a nalysis. I n Martin , P . S . e t a l . ( eds.), Chapters i n t he Prehistory o f Arizona 2 , 1 55-167. ( Ch icago). 2 8

Longacre, W. A ., 1 970. Reconstructing Preh istoric Pueblo S ocieties. ( Albuquerque). MacNeish , R . S ., Peterson , F . A . a nd F lannery , K . V ., 1 970. The Prehistory o f t he Tehuacan Valley . Vol. 3 : Cera mics. ( Austin ). Matson , F . R ., 1 966. Cera mic e cology : a n a pproach t o t he s tudy o f t he e arly c ultures o f t he Near East . I n Matson , F . R . ( ed .), Cera mics a nd Man , 2 02-217 . ( London ). Matson , F . R ., 1 972 . Cera mic s tudies. I n McDonald , W. A . a nd Rapp , G . R . ( eds.), The Minnesota Messenia Expedit ion , 2 00- 2 24 . (Minneapol is). N ickl in , K ., 1 979. The l ocation o f p ottery manu facture. Man 1 4 , 4 36-458 . Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 968 . A p etrolog ical s tudy o f c ertain i ron a ge p ottery f ro m western England . Proc. Preh ist. S oc . 3 4 , 4 14-427 . Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 969a . A c on tribu tion t o t he s tudy o f G lastonbury ware f ro m s outh- western Brita in . Antiq . J . 4 9 , 4 1-61 . Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 969b . Neolithic p ottery p roduction i n Cornwall . An tiquity 4 3 , 1 45-149. Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 979. An e thnoarchaeological a pproach t o t he s tudy o f Ro man b rick a nd t i le. I n Mc Whirr , A . ( ed .), Ro man Brick a nd T ile, Brit . Archaeol . Rep: 5 68 , 5 -10. ( Oxford ). Peacock , D . P . S ., i n p ress. Pottery i n t he Ro man World : An E thnoarchaeologica l Approach . ( London ). Phe mister , J ., 1 942 . Report o n s a mples o f n eolithic p ottery f ro m S cottish s ites. Proc. S oc. Antiq . S cot. 7 6 , 1 31-132 . P iggott , S ., 1 954 . Neolith ic Cultures o f t he British I sles. ( Ca mbridge). P itts, M. W., f orthco ming. Procure ment a nd u se o f s tone a t Cherhil l , Wiltshire. P itts, M. W. a nd Ho ward , H ., i n p reparat ion . Neol ithic p ottery p roduction i n Wessex . Plog , F ., 1 977 . Modeling c era mic e xchange. I n Earle, T . K . a nd Ericson , J . E . ( eds.), Exchange Syste ms i n Prehistory , 1 27-140. ( Ne w York ). P log , S ., 1 980. S ty listic Variation i n Preh istoric Cera mics. ( Ca mbridge). Quarcoo, A . K . a nd J ohnson , M., 1 968. S hai p ots. Baessler -Archaeol . 1 6, 4 7-97. Rands, R . L . a nd B ishop , R . L ., 1 980. Resource p rocure men t z ones a nd p atterns o f c era mic e xchange i n t he Palenque r egion , Mex ico. I n Fry , R . E . ( ed .) , Models a nd Methods i n Regional Exchange, S ociety f or A merican Archaeology Papers 1 , 1 9-46. Reina , R . a nd H ill , J ., 1 978 . The Traditional Pot tery o f Guate mala . ( Austin ). Renfrew , A . C ., 1 975. Trade a s a ction a t ad istance : q uestions o f i n tegration a nd c o m mun ication . I n S abloff , J . A . a nd La mberg- Karlovsky , C . C . ( eds.), Ancien t C ivil iza tion a nd Trade , 3 -59. ( Albuquerque

2 9

Renfre w , A . C ., 1 977. I n troduction : p roduction a nd e xchange i n e arly s tate s ocieties, t he e v idence o f p ottery . I n Peacock , D . P . S . ( ed .), Pottery a nd Early Co m merce, 1 -2 0. ( London ). R ice, P . M., 1 977. White ware p ottery p roduction i n t he Valley o f Guate mala : s pecializa tion a nd r esource u til iza tion . J . F ield Archaeol . 4 , 2 21-233. R ice , P . M ., 1 980. Peten Postclassic p ottery p roduction a nd e xchange : av ie w f ro m Macanche . I n Fry , R . E . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Reg ional Exchange, S ociety f or A merican Archaeology Papers 1 , 6 7-82 . R ice , P . M., 1 981 . Evolu tion o f s pecia lized p ottery p roduction : at rial model . Curr. An throp. 2 2 , 2 19-240. Rye, 0 . S . a nd Evans, C ., 1 976. Traditonal Pottery Techn iques o f Pak istan . (Washington ). S ahl ins, M., 1 972 . S tone Age Econo mics. ( Ne w York ). S chapera , I .,

1 930.

The Khoisan Peoples.

( London ).

S chiffer , M. B ., 1 972 . Archaeolog ica l c on tex t a nd s yste m ic c ontext . A mer. An tiq . 3 7 , 1 56-165. S hepard , A . 0 ., 1 942 . R io Grande G laze Paint Ware, a S tudy I l lustrating t he P lace o f Cera mic Technological Analysis i n Archaeological Research . (Washington ). S hepard , A . 0 ., 1 948 . P lu mbate, a Mesoa merican Trade Ware. (Washing ton ). S hepard , A . 0 ., 1 956. Cera mics f or t he Archaeolog ist. (Washing ton ). Smith , I . F ., 1 965. Wind mill H ill a nd Avebury . ( Oxford ). S priggs, M. a nd Miller , D ., 1 977. A mbon- Lease: a s tudy o f c onte mporary p ottery mak ing a nd i ts a rchaeolog ical r elevance. I n Millett , M. ( ed .) , Pottery a nd t he Archaeolog ist , 2 5-34 . ( London ) zS te ward , J . H ., 1 955. Theory o f Cul ture Change : The Methodology o f Multil inear Evolut ion . ( Urbana ). Tho mpson , R . H ., 1 958 . Modern Yucatecan Pottery Mak ing . ( Salt Lake C ity). Van d er Leeuw , S . E ., 1 976. S tudies i n t he Technology o f Ancien t Pottery . ( A msterda m ). Wall is, F . S . a nd Evens, E . D ., 1 934 . Report on t he h eavy minerals c onta ined i n t he c oarse Pan t-y-Saer p ottery . Archaeol . Ca mbrensis 8 9 , 2 9-32 . Whallon , R ., 1 968 . I nvestigations o f l a te p rehistoric s ocial o rganization i n New York S tate. I n B inford , S . R . a nd B inford , L . R . ( eds.), New Perspectives i n Archaeology , 2 23- 2 44 . ( Chicago). Whallon , R ., 1 972 . A n ew a pproach t o p ottery t ypology . A mer . Antiq . 3 7 , 1 3-33. White , H . J . 0 ., 1 925. The Geology o f t he Coun try Around Marlborough , Me m. Geol . S urv . 2 66. ( London ). White, L . A ., 1 959. The Evolution o f Cul ture. ( New York ). Wobst , H . M., 1 977. S tyl istic b ehav iour a nd i nfor mation e xchange. I n C leland , C . E . ( ed .) , Papers f or t he D irector : Research Essays i n Honour o f J a mes B . Griff in , 3 17-342 . ( Ann Arbor).

3 0

2 A M O DEL FO R THE I DE NTI FIC ATIO N OF NO NLOC AL CERA MIC D IST RIBUTIO N : A V IE W FRO M THE PRESE NT Dean E . Arnold The d ifficulties o f s tudy ing t he p -a st i n g eneral a nd a ncien t d istribu tion i n p articular a re h ighlighted i n c erar r ic s tudies. Resources l ike obsidian , s e mi-precious s tones o r o ther l i thics h ave s ingle , d iscrete s ources. Artefacts made f ro m t he m a re p roduced by a s ubtractive t echnology which d oes n ot a lter t he c o mposition o f t he r aw material . Both l i thic a rtefacts a nd t heir s ources a re e asily c haracter ized c he mically a nd mineralogically a nd t he s ources i dentified g eolog ically a nd a rchaeolog ically b y t he p resence o f workshop a nd q uarry s ites. I n c ontrast t o l i thics, h o wever , c era mics a re c o mpositionally a nd c ulturally c o mplex b ring ing t ogether d ifferent materials f ro m a v ariety o f d ifferent s ources. These materials c an v ary g reatly - b oth c he mically and mineralogically . Besides c la r a nd water , c era mics c on tain n on-plastics which o ccur n aturally i n t he c lay a nd a lso may b e a dded b y t he p otter . S lips a nd p ain ts may b e u sed f or d ecoration . A w ide v ariety o f b ehav iors a re r espons ible f or s electing r a w ma terials, mixing t he m t ogether t o c reate t he p aste, a nd f or ming a nd d ecorating t he v essels. I n a dd ition , t here a re i nterven ing t echnolog ical a nd c ultural v ariables t hat a ffect c era mic p roduction l ike c li mate, d egree o f s edentarin ess, a gricultural a ctivities, d e mographic g ro wth a nd t echnolog ical i nnovations ( see Arnold , 1 976 ; a nd i n preparation ) . F inally , t he p lasticity o f t he c lay p rovides t he p oten tial f or a w ide v ariety o f v essel s hapes w ith a ny g iven t echnology - a lthough a ll p ossible s hapes a re n ot p ossible w ith e very t echnology . The c o mpositional a nd c ultural c o mplexity o f c era mics p rov ides t he a rchaeolog ist w ith a n a l most e ndless n u mber o f a ttributes. He c an s elect a ny n u mber o f t he m f or a nalysis. Which a ttributes, h o wever , a re most s ign if icant f or t he s tudy o f ancient n on-local d istribution? Pots d o n ot s peak f or t he ms elves a nd t ell a rchaeolog ists unequivocally whence t hey c a me a nd h ow . To paraphrase p hilosopher o f s cience Nor wood Russel Hanson ( 1958 ), n o d ata a re t heory-free. To a pply t his n otion t o a rchaeology , t he past d oes n ot s peak f or i tself , b ut w ill t ake t he s hape o f t he c onceptual t ools u sed t o a pproach i t . The g oal i n t he s tudy o f c era mic d istribution i s a scert aining t he k ind o f s tructure a nd i n teraction i nvolved i n t he n onl ocal d istribut ion o f p ots. Follo w ing t he s yste ms d ef inition o f c ul ture, t he a ssu mption i s t hat c era mics, l ike t he o ther k inds o f material c ulture, c an t ell t he a rchaeologist s o mething a bout t he i ntangible a spects o f t he a ncient s ociety .

3 1

I n t he s tudy o f a ny e cono mic s yste m , t here a re t wo d i me nsions: p roduction a nd d istribution . Because o f t he c omposit ional a nd c ultural c o mplexity o f c era mics, h o wever , q uestions a bou t t he d istribution o f p ots a re t ied t o q uestions o f p roduction . The q uestions, f or e xa mple , o f h ow w idely p ots a re d ist r ibuted , a nd what s tructures a nd p rocesses a re r esponsible f or t h i s d istribut ion , imply t hat t he a rchaeolog ist kno ws t he d ifference b etween l ocal a nd n on-local p ottery , t he p recise o rig in o f t he p ottery a nd t he k ind o f g roup t hat p roduced t he v essels. Thus, s uccessful a ns wers t o q uestions o f d istribution d epend u pon e xa min ing c ertain q uestions o f p roduction l ike t he n ature a nd i den tif i cation o f s ource l ocations a nd t he g roup me mbersh ip o f p ot ters. What i s n eeded i s at heory r elating t he " hard" d ata o f c era mic a ttribu tes t o t he l ocationa l a nd s ocietal d ata on p otters. S uch a t heory s hould , a s p h ilosopher o f s cience S tephen Toul m in ( 1961 ) s uggested , f irst p rov ide e xplanations c oncern ing why s uch r elationships e x ist a nd t hen s ho w t heir p redictive p o wer f or t he p resent a nd t he p ast . To b eg in t o c onstruct s uch a t heory , t he a rchaeolog ist n eeds t o b eg in w ith e thnography , a nd s elect t hose c haracteristics wh ich c o-occur w ith l ocational a nd s ocial i nfor mation . I f t here i s e nough c ross-cultural v alid ity o f s uch c o-occurences i t i s p ossible t o f or mulate a n a naly t ical model wh ich c an b e u sed t o obtain g eograph ical a nd s ociolog ical i nfor mation f ro m p ot tery i n t he p ast . Once t h is k ind o f i nfor mat ion i s v a ilable, t he a rchaeolog ist c an b eg in t o c onstruct models o f a ctual c era mic d istribut ion t hat g o b eyond mere i den tif ication f t he e xistence o f d istribution . The p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o p rov ide a model f or t he i dentif ication o f c era mic d istribution b ased o n e thnographic d a ta . The model c onsists o f t hree l evels o f a nalysis - e ach p resented t o i den tify t he g roups p roducing c er amic v essels. Each l evel c onsists o f a n e xplanation o f c ertain c era m ic a ttributes which c o-occur w ith l ocational o r s ocial i nfor mation . The f irst l evel o f analysis p rov ides d ata a bout t he r esources u sed t o make t he p ottery a nd c an b e r elated t o t he e nv iron ment a round a c o m mun ity . Archaeolog ist s h ave u t ilized s everal a pproaches t o s tudy c era mic r esources. F irst , t he b ehav iora l a pproach emphasizes t he a lleged c ultural s ignif icance o f r esource s election i n t er ms o f paste c olour , t exture a nd t he p resence a nd k ind o f t e mper , s lips and p aints. There a re t wo p roble ms w ith t h is a pproach , h o wever . F irst , i t may b e d iff icult , i n many c ases, t o p roperly i dent ify t he p ot ter 's b ehav ior. When ap aste n aturally c ontains mineral i nclusions, f or e xa mple , i t may b e d iff icult t o d eter mine whether t he p aste i s b ehav iorally t e mpered o r n ot . Further more , f abric c olor c an b e a ffected b y c arbonaceous matter i n t he c lay a nd f iring a ccidents a s well a s c onsisten t f iring b ehav ior. S econd , t he p ot ter ' su se o f r esources i s n ot p ri marily g overned b y " cultural" p atterns, b ut b y t he i nteract ive f eedback o f t hese p atterns w ith t he r esources on t he one h and a nd t he t echnology u sed t o p roduce t he p ottery on t he o ther. Cera mic v essels r esult f ro m a dapting l ocal materials t o t he l ocal c era mic t echnology i n o rder t o p roduce s hapes t hat h ave s pecif ic u tilitarian o r r itual f unctions. Behav ioral t e mperi ng , f or e xa mple , i s n ecessary t o r educe p lasticity a nd i mprove

3 2

workab ility a nd d ry ing p roperties when t oo f ew n on-plast ics o ccur n aturally i n t he c lay ( Shepard , 1 956 , 2 5). I n p astes w ith undesirable , e xcessive p orosity , s lipping , g lazing o r c oating t he v essels w ith a n o rgan ic l iquid may b e n ecessary t o r educe p er meabil ity t o f luids. Cooking p ots must r esist t her mal s hock . Rye ( 1976) f ound t hat p otters c an p roduce t her mal s hock r esistance b y t e mpering w ith o rgan ic f ibers, s herds o r c alcite. F iber t e mper c reates v oids t o a rrest c racking , b ut a lso p er mits a dequate h eat t ransfer . S herd o r c alcite t e mper h as a s i milar t her mal e xpans ion r ate t o t he p ottery matrix . Calcite t e mper , h o wever , c an c ause c racking a nd s palling a fter f iring , b ut t he p otter c an r educe t hese d angers b y mix ing t he c lay w ith s ea water o r b y u sing c lay w ith n aturally o ccuring s odiu m c hloried ( Rye , 1 976). By way o f c on trast , q uartz t e mper h as a r ate o f t her mal e xpansion wh ich i s t oo d ifferent f ro m f ired p ottery t o r esist c onstan t h eating a nd c ool ing a nd w ill c ause b reakage. Thus, t he b ehav ioral a pproach t o r esource a nalysis i n p astes a ppears t o r est more on t echnologic al c riteria t han p urely c ultural c riteria . A s econd a pproach t o t he s tudy o f t he r esources u sed i n a ncient c era mics i s mineralog ical , a nd a cco mplished b y t echn iques s uch a s p etrograph ic a nalysis a nd X-ray d iffraction . Mineralog ic al a nalysis h as t he a dvantage o f p roducing d ata t hat c an e asily b e r elated t o t he g eolog ical f or mations, a nd t hus r eveal t he s ource a reas o f c era mics. A t hird a pproach t o t he s tudy o f r esources i s t race e le ment a nalysis. This k ind o f c he mical a nalysis c ar b e a cco mp lished b y s everal t echn iques o f which n eutron a ctivation a nalysis i s one o f t he b est kno wn . Although t race e le ment a nalysis h as a n u mber o f a dvantages, t here a re s everal p roble ms w ith t h is a pproach . F irst , t race e le ment d ata a re s everal l evels o f a bstraction r e moved f ro m h u man b ehav ior a nd c an n ot e asily b e r elated t o i t . S econd , t hese d ata o f ten c ontain a l ot o f amb iguity a nd i nfor mat ional n oise f ro m a b ehav ioral s tandpoint ; much o f t he t race e le ment v ariab ility h as n o b ehav ioral s ign if ic ance. F inally , t race e le ment d ata a re a t b est d iff icult , i f n ot impossible, t o r elate t o precise c lay s ources ( l ike i nd iv idual p its o r mines) b ecause o f t he c o mplex ity o f t he c era mics. The t echn ique i s u sefu l , h o wever , f or i den tify ing g eneral s ource a reas. Probably t he b est s olution t o t hese p roble ms i s t o r elate t he r esults o f t race e le men t a nalyses t o mineralog ical c o mposit ion o f t he c era mics - an a pproach f irst s uggested b y Shepard ( 1966 ). Relating t race e le ment d ata t o mineralog ical d ata i s importan t f or f our r easons. 1 . No s ingle c o mponent o f t he c era mics i s r esponsible f or t he t race e le ment c o mposition o f t he p ottery . C lays, n on-plastics a nd water a ll c ontribute t o t he t race e le ment make-up o f c era m ic p astes. Thus, p recise c lay mines c an n ot b e p in-pointed . I n t he Valley o f Guate mala , f or e xa mple, c o mparisons o f t he t race e le ment c o mposit ions o f e thnograph ic p ottery w ith i ts c lay a nd t e mper c o mponen ts r evealed t hat p ottery c an n ot b e c learly r elated t o t he c onstituen t c lay o r t e mper ob tained f ro m a s ingle d iscrete mine ( Arnold e t a l ., 1 978 ).

3 3

2 . Mineralog ical v ariability i s r elated t o c he mical v ariability . I n ar ecent p aper , B ishop ( 19 3 0 ) d e monstrated t hat c ertain t race e le ments c o-vary w ith s everal mineral i nclusions i n t he p aste. The f actors i solated i n B ishop 's a nalysis h ave g reat p oten tial a s a n i nterpretative t ool f or d ifferent iating t he t race e le ments t hat h ave v alue a s i ndicators o f s ource l ocat ions f ro m t hose t hat d o n ot . 3 . Mineralog ical f actors r ather t han c he mical o nes a re more c losely r elated t o t he p otter 's p erceptions o f t he q uality o f t he r aw materials a nd h is s ubsequent b ehav ior i n s elect ing t hose materials ( Arnold , 1 971 ; 1 972a ) . Thus, while t here a re b ehav ioral c orrelates f or s o me o f t he mineralog ical c o mponen ts i n t he p aste, p otters d o n ot s elect t heir r aw materials a ccord ing t o t heir t race e le men t c he mistry . 4 . Mineralog ical d ata f ro m p aste a nalysis a re more e asily r elated t o t he g eolog ical d ata o f s pecif ic s ource l ocat ions t han t race e le me n t d ata . By match ing t he mineralogy o f p astes t o g eological d ata , i t i s p ossible t o p in-point s ource a reas w ith more p recision , a ccuracy a nd c onf idence t han w ith c he mical d ata a lone. Rands a nd B ishop ( 1980 ), f or e xa mple, h ave s uccessfully r elated c he mical a nd mineralog ical d ata i n i den tify ing t he s ource a reas o f p ottery p roduced a round t he Maya s ite o f Palenque. Because o f t he c o mplex ity and multi-source n ature o f c era mics, a nd s ince b oth mineralog ical a nd c he mical d ata c an only i dentify g eneral s ource a reas, r anges o f r esource e xploitat ion may b e d iff icult , i n s o me c ases, t o d istinguish f ro m d istances t hat p ottery was d istribu ted . I f t he d istances t ravelled t o o btain r aw materials a re c lose t o t he a lleged d istribut ion d istances, t hen e ither n on-local d istribution may n ot o ccur a t a ll , o r d istribu tion c annot b e i dent if ied u sing p aste a nalysis. E thnography c an h elp s olve t his p roble m b y p rov id ing a c ross-cultural s a mple o f d istances t o c era mic r esources. These d ata c an p rov ide s o me emp irical g round ing f or a s et o f g eneralizat ions t hat c an h elp p redict t he mini mu m d istances o f c era mic d istribution t hat c an b e i dent if ied i n t he p ast . A s urvey o f s o me o f t he world- w ide e thnographic l i terature o f p ottery making ( see Arnold , i n p reparat ion ; a nd Arnold , 1 976 f or a p reli minary p resentation ) p roduced d ata on d istance t o c era mic r esources which c an b e i n terpreted i n t er ms o f Bro w man 's ( 1976) e xploitable t erritory t hreshold model . Bro w man i dent if ies t hree t hresholds o f d istance a nd e nergy t o s ubsistence r esources ( e. g . f ields, hunt ing r anges a nd g athering r anges). 1 . The p referred t erritory o f e xploitation where r eturns i ncrease mo r e r apidly t han c osts. 2 . The maxi mu m r ange o f e xploitation where c osts r ise s harply t o wards a max i mu m l i mit .

3 4

5 2 -1

3 8-i 3 6-1

T EMPER N =29

3 4 - I 3 2- I 3 02 8 - ; 2 62 42 22 01 8 . - 1 6 Z .

/ I I

I

g1 4-

I

c n • 1 2-

I

' 4 2. 1 0 > ,

II I

a ) 8= c r a ) 6-

L I :

A

1I 4 -

I

2 -

I i

I

i

C LAY N =85

I

I L

I \I I

i4

/

Y

' . i ) 1 611 2'

J 1 5

1 7

1 92 0 2 2 2 42 5'

i 0'

3 5

4b

.

14 . 5

1

I

D i s tance t oR esou rce ( km )

F ig .

2 :1 .

3 2-

Frequency ( in p ercen t o f s a mple) o f d istances t o s ources o f p ot tery c lay ( sol id l ine ) a nd t e mper ( dotted l ine ) i n t he e thnograph ic l i terature ( based o n Arnold , 1 976 a nd i n p repara tion ). ( Graph d rawn b y R ich N ickel )

S L IPS ,G LAZES A ND P A INTS N =34

3 02 8 2 62 4 2 22 0 - 1 8 a

g 1 6 C ' ) 7 5 1 4 ; s e 1 2 .

u 0 L I =

1 0 8"

64 2 -

' l O

4 • 0

50 61

1

, 0 7 0 9 0 9 0 I O 1 0

1 20

1 30 1 40 1 50 1 60 1 70 1

2 40

8 90

D i s tance t oR esou rces ( km )

F ig .

2 :2 .

Frequency ( in p ercent o f s a mple) o f d istances t o s l ip , g laze a nd p a in t s ources i n t he e thnograph ic l i tera ture ( based o n Arnold , 1 976 a nd i n p repara t ion ). ( Graph d rawn b y R ich

i.:_ A marginal range beyond the maximum limit "where exploitation is considered uneconomic, and which is generally not exploited, without modification of the system of exploitation, establishment of new settlements, or in periods of economic crisis" ( Browman, 1976, 467). In applying this model to the ethnographic data on distances to ceramic resources, several generalizations are possible. For clays (N = 85), distance ranges from less than one kilometre to 50 km (Fig. 2:1). The preferred territory of exploitation probably occurs at one kilometre because the largest percentage of the communities (29%) obtain their clay at one kilometre or less. '82% of the communities obtain thei r clay. from up to seven ki 1 ometres and this distance probably represents the upper limit of the maximum range of exploitation. Resul_ts are similar for temper, except that the sample is smaller (N = 29). Distance to temper resources ranges from less than one kilometre to 25 km with the majority of the sample (52%) obtaining their temper at· a distance of one kilometre or less (Fig 2:1). This one kilometre radius is probably the preferred territory of exploitation. 96% of the sample obtain t heir temper up to eight kilometres away suggesting that eight kilometres con­ stitutes the upper limit of the maximum range of temper exploitation. Distance·s to slip, paint and glaze resources ( Fig. 2:2) have a range of 1 - 880 km with the largest' percentage ( 32%) of the sample (N = 34) obtaining these materials up to 8 km. This radius of eight kilometres is probably the pref erred territory· o'f exploita­ tion. Additional thresholds are difficult to determine f rom the data, although 70% of the sample obtain their slips and paints from no more than 60 km away. In contrast to the distance to clay and temper resources, potters do not always travel to their slip and paint sources themselves, but rather often acquire them through trade. This fact accounts, in part, for the greater distances to slip and paint resources than clay and temper resources. This resource level of the model has two implications for the study of ceramic distribution in the past. First, because chemical and mineralogical data do not pin-point precise source locations, but identify general areas, generalizations about the range of exploitable raw materials can help determine the minimum distances at which ancient non-local ceramic distribution can be identified with confidence. Areas of production need to be separated from areas of distribution in order to identify non-local distribution using resources as a criteria. From the data, non-local distribution is neither possible nor identifiable at less than a 7-8 km.radius around a community. Potters in communities less than 14-16 km away are likely to have resource areas that overlap, and apparent non-local distribution may involve using raw materials within a resource area of another community. Thus, the identification of ceramic distribution, using resources, can best be accomplished when distances between communities exceed 16 km. Si nee all clays may not be suitable for use with local technology (e. g. Arnold, 1971) and clay resources may become exhausted or inac­ cessible, potters could exploit more distant resources and �ravel

36

in a radius of 25-50 km from their community to obt ain suitable clay and temper. Thus, communities as much as 50 (for temper) to 100 (for clay) km apart may be too close to identify ceramic distribution between them. Although t4is possibility may occur, it is not very probable since the low frequency of these distances in the ethnographic literature suggest that they occur in what Browman (1976) calls a marginal range and generally are not exploited except in times of crisis. Nevertheless, since times of increased non-local ceramic distribution co-occur with increased ceramic specialization which in turn results from demographic pressure on agricultural resources (see Arnold, 1975; 1978b; and in preparation), resource distances in the marginal range may prove to be important in defining minirrum distribution distances in the past. Finally, the analysis of slips may be more effective in showing distribution relationships than analysis of the fabric of the pottery. The ethnographic data indicate that 68% of the slip, paint and glaze resources occur outside the maximum range of clay and temper exploitation and may often be traded. Sli ps and paints are generally less complex, and physico- chemical analysis of them may prove more useful in defining non-local distributive relationships than the analysis of pastes. The second level of analysis involyes the identification of forming patterns and provides data relating to the ethnic and linguistic group of the potters. A number of ethnographers have noticed a co-occurrence of language groups and ceramic forming patterns. Reina and Hill (1978, 204-206), for example, recently. demonstrated that specific pottery forming techniques correspon­ ded to language groups in Guatemala. Cardew (1970, 10) identified four distinct variants of forming technique in Nigeria - one annng the Nupe and the others among the Yoruba. Key (1973) noted the correspondence of Austronesian speakers in New Guinea with the paddle and anvil technique and non-Austronesian speakers with the coiling method. Foster (1955) found that the vertical-half melding technique in Mexico corresponded to the Tarascan speaking area, and that the use of the movable base for making pottery corresponded to the Yucatec Maya speaking area in the northern Yucatan peninsula. Although not associated with any language group today, the ancient mold-made forming technique found on the north coast of Peru (Donnan, 1965) was associated with the Moche-Chirru civilizations which occurred from about A. D. 100 - 1476 . These civiliza­ tions probably spoke a distinct language which continued to be used up until late colonial times. This and other forming techniques on the north coast (Collier, 1959; Christensen, 1955) contrast with the use of a movable base to form pottery among Quechua speakers in the nearby Central Andes (Arnold, 1972c; Spahni, 1966; Ravines, 1963-64; 1966). These relationships are explained by the fact that forming patterns, in contrast to vessel shapes and design motifs, stem from largely unccnscious neuro-muscular patterns called motor habit patterns. These patterns are often learned as a child as consistent muscular patterns and are cultural just as attitudes and values are cultural. The association of languages and motor habits of forming pottery may be related to the learning of the potter's craft. While some of the patterns are learned by imitation,

37

others are learned by a combination of imitation and verbal In the latter case, and where the native l anguage instruction. is used extensively, certain linguistic forms may be associated with specific forming motions used to teach the craft , which differ from one language group to another. Some languages, for example, are extraordinarily rich in verb forms which convey precise meaning for kinds of motion (e. g. Hopi). With consi st ent use, these motions become unconscirns rnotor habits and di££ er from motor habits used by potters speaking other languages. Because they are unconscious motor habit pat terns are very persistent over time and are thus very difficult t o change. Foster (l948) noted that it was probably the incompat ibility of motor habit patterns that explained the difficul ty that potters had in accepting t he wheel in Mexico. Its acceptance was only possible among non-potters or where the extant motor habit patterns for making pottery were congruent with those necessary to operate the wheel. The persistence of these forming patterns over time is noted by several scholars. Charl ton (1976) found that acculturation to the wheel in the Valley of 1'!.:exico did not begin signifi cantly to replace pre-conquest forming patterns until 15-0 years after the conquest, after which change was gradual and continued up until the 20 th century. Tschopik (1950) noted the great persistence of the Aymara ceramic tradition (not just the forming patterns) in spite of Inca domination, the Spanish conquest and al most 500 years of massive acculturation. Adams (1979) noted the persistence of hand-made pottery in Nubia for over 1300 years despit e the co-o ccure nee of the wheel. Specific pottery forming techniques may al so correspond to language groups in areas where considerable ethnographic literature on pottery making exists, but where further study is necessary to discover whether the languages (or language groups) spoken by the potters co-varies with shaping methods. Schurig (1930), Solheim (1952b), MacLachlan (1938) and Tuckson and May (1975), for example, provide distribution charts of pott ery forming techniques in various parts of Oceania. Saraswati and Behura (1960) provide distribution data for forming patterns in India. Linne's (1925) classic study of South American ceramics also includes a distribution chart of forming techniques, and Foster Excellent data bases (1955) has done sirr_ilar work in Mexico. for pottery making also exist in the literature for South America (e. g. Litto, 1976), Nigeria (Thomas, 1910; Wahlman, 1972 and many others) and Oceania (e. g. Scheans, 1965; Solheim, 1952a, 1954; Solheim and Schuler, 1959; Specht, 1972). What are the implications of the correspondence of pottery forming techniques with language groups for the study of ancient ceramic distribution? This relationship would merit only trivial interest if there were no application of these associations to archaeology. One may quibble about the relationshi p of forming patterns and language groups in any given area, but the point is that shaping methods can provide a key to identifying ancient social groupsl larger than the local connrunity, whether

38

o r n ot t hey c orrespond t o l anguage g roups. I n multi-ethn ic a nd mult i-linguistic a reas, t he i dentif ication o f f or ming t echn iques i n a ncient p ottery may h elp i dentify i ts e thn ic a nd l inguistic s ource. There a re two d ifferent a pproaches t o t he i dentif ication o f f or ming t echn iques. F irst , v isual i nspect ion o f t he i n terior a nd e xterior o f t he v essel may b e r evealing . Wheel- made p ottery d isplays t iny r aised l ines a round t he v essel . Mold- made p ot tery s hould h ave ev idence o f t he p lace where t he p arts o f t he mold c a me t ogether o r where t hese marks were o bliterated b y t he p ot t er . I n t he p ot t ery making a rea n orth o f Guate mala C ity , f or e xa mple, mold- made t ortilla g riddles made i n t he Poko ma m-speaking c o m mun ity o f Mixco, c an e asily b e d istinguished f ro m t he h andmodelled v ariety made b y Cakchiquel-speak ing p otters f urther n orth i n t he S an Rai mundo- La C ienaga a rea ( Arnold , 1 978a ). The Poko ma m g riddles h ave a s andy , p itted underside which i s c ont inuously c urved f ro m t he mold i n which i t was f or med , while t he underside o f t he Cakch iquel g riddle h as s craping marks a nd a s harp a ngle b etween t he b ase a nd t he ou tside e dge. One c an a lso i dent ify t he u se o f a mold t o make t he b ase o f av essel b y t he e xistence o f r aised markings on t he underside o f p ots i n Andahuaylas, Peru ( Arnold , 1 972b ) a nd i n S an Cristobal Toton icapan , Guata mala ( Reina a nd H ill 1 978 , 8 6). S econd , a nd p robably more importantly , Rye ( 1977 ) f ound t hat f or ming t echn iques c ou ld b e i dentif ied u sing X-ray r ad iography . Rye p oints ou t t hat t he u sefulness o f t h is t echn ique i s b ased on t he p rinciple t hat : " the a pplication o f p ressure t o p last ic c lay c auses mineral p articles, v oids a nd o rganic f rag ments t o t ake u p ap referred o rientation . Th is o rientation i s d epend ent on t he s hape a nd s ize o f t he i nclusions, t he p lasticity o f t he c lay a nd t he amoun t and d irection o f a pplication o f t he p ressure" ( Rye, 1 977 , 2 06 ). Rye a rgues t hat : " orientation w ill o ccur t hroughou t t he p lastic working r ange o f t he c lay , s o t hat o rien tation w ill r eflect t he g ross f or ming o perations u sing p lastic c lay b ut w ill n ot b e a ffected b y l ater f or ming o perat ions s uch a s s hav ing , t urning e tc ., wh ich a re p erfor med when t he c lay i s l eather h ard o r d ry" ( Rye, 1 977 , 2 06). Further more, t he o rientation o f t he i nclusions i n t he c lay, r esult ing f ro m t he f or ming p atterns, a re s o b asic t o t he f abric o f t he p ottery t hat : "Erosion o f t he s urface o f t he s herds d ue t o r e working o r s evere b urial c ond it ions d oes n ot d estroy t he b asic o rientation o f i nclusions i n t he f abric" ( Rye, 1 977 , 2 06). Using X-ray r ad iography , Rye h as i dentif ied wheel- made p ottery , c oil- made p ottery a nd p addle a nd a nv il- made p ottery f ro m Papua Ne w Guinea . S ince s o me o f t h is p ottery i s made w ith t wo d ifferen t f or ming t echniques, t he u se o f X-ray r ad iography s hou ld i dentify

3 9

multi-technique v essels a nd t hus n arro w d o wn t he s ource g roup i n a multi-ethn ic r eg ion . Co mpu ter a ssisted X-ray t o mography a nd t he n ew t echn ique o f nuclear magnetic imagery (Marx , 1 980 ) may a lso p rove u seful i n i den tify ing c era mic f or ming p at t e rns, a lthough t he l atter i s only n ow b eing a pplied i n medicine. The t hird l evel o f a nalysis c oncerns t he d esign s tructure a nd s y m metry o f ac era mic v essel a nd p rov ides d ata t hat c an h elp i dentify t he c o m mun ity o f p otters t hat p roduced i t . S hepard ( 1948) f irst a pplied s y m metry a nalysis t o c era mic d esign , b u t i t was l argely i gnored unt il r elatively r ecently . Arnold ( 1970) u sed i t t o a nalyze Peruv ian p ottery d esign , a nd Washburn ( 1977a ; 1 977b ) u sed i t i n t he d escript ion o f p ottery d esign on two a sse mb lages f ro m t he U .S . S ou thwest . Zaslo w ( 1977) a nd Zaslo w a nd D ittert ( 1977 ) u sed a s i milar method c alled " pattern mathe matics" t o a nalyze p ottery d esign f ro m t he Hohoka m a rea . Sy m metry a nalysis i s b ased on t he a ssu mption ( c . f . Smith , 1 962 ) t hat a c o m munity o f p otters i nvolved i n a lrrost d aily f ace-to-face i nteraction w ill p roduce s i milar d esigns s ignif icantly d ifferent f ro m t hose o f n eighboring g roups o f p otters. The s i milarity o f p ottery w ithin a n i n teracting g roup , h o wever , i s n ot i n t he motifs o r t he d esign e le ments b ut r ather i n t he underly ing s tructure o f t he d esign . Hardin ( 1970 ) f ound t hat c onscious a spects o f d esign , s uch a s e le ments a nd t heir c onf iguration , c an d iffuse t hrough t he c o m munity r apid ly , even w ithout i n teraction , a nd t hat i t i s t he d esign s tructure t hat r ef lects t he f ace-to-face c ontact o f t he c o m mun ity o f p otters. This s tructure i ncludes t he s ub-div ision o f t he v essel i nto z ones, t he organizat i on o f t he d esign r elative t o t hese z ones, a nd t he way t he motions o f t he f unda mental u nits f or m t he i ndiv idual motifs a nd b and p atterns o f t he d esign . The " funda mental unit" o f ad esign r efers t o ap recise unit d ef ined r elative t o t he motion o f r epetition . ( I t may i nvolve more t han one e le ment o r p arts o f e le ments.) A d esign e lerrent i s n ot s o p recisely d ef ined r elative t o s pace a nd o rgan ization . More r ecen tly Arnold ( 1980 ) f ound t hat a p articular d esign s tructure r ef lects t he f ace-to-face i nteraction o f a c o m munity o f p otters i n Quinua , Peru . Arnold observed s everal s uch c o m munity d esign c orrelates: c onsisten t s lip a nd paint c o mb inations a nd a p articular d esign s tructure i n t er ms o f ah igh f requency o f : a ) ap articular o rgan ization o f t he d ecorative s pace on e ach v essel s hape , b ) one t ype o f motif s y m metry , c ) t wo t ypes o f b and s y m metry a nd d ) p articular d esigns a nd s y mr retry p atterns i n c ertain z ones on a v essel . Lo w f requency o rganizations o f d ecorative s pace were a ssociated w ith l ow f requency d esigns a nd s y m metry c lasses. The a dvantage o f s y m metry a nalysis i s t hat i t i s ob jecti ve a nd r epeatable, a nd c an i dent ify s pecific c o m munities o f p ot ters. Washburn ( 1977b ) u sed t his a pproach t o i dentify d iscrete p otting c o m munities i n t he u pper G ila d rainage i n t he U .S . S outhwest . The d isadvantage w ith s y m metry a nalysis f or a rchaeolog ists, h o wever, i s t hat whole v essels s hould b e t he u nit o f a nalysis. Wh ile many a rchaeolog ists d o n ot h ave whole v essels a vailable, d esign o rganization a nd s y m metry p atterns

4 0

c an u sually b e s tudied f ro m s herds u sing f ully o r partially r econstructed v essels. I n c onclusion , e thnography c an p rov ide important g eneralizations f or t he s tudy o f a ncient n on-local c era mic d istribu tion . Focus on c era mics, h o wever , makes a nalysis a nd i nterpretation d iff icu lt b ecause o f t he multiple s ources o f r aw materials u sed i n c era mics a nd t heir c o mplex c o mposit ion . Understanding c ertain a spects o f p roduction i s one importan t way t o s elect t he v ariables s ignif ican t f or t he a nalysis a nd f or t he i nterpretation o f a ncien t d istribution . The u se o f e thnography f or a rchaeolog ical i nterpretation n eed n ot j ust r est on s pecif ic o r g eneral a nalog ies, b ut c an i nstead b e b ased on p rinciples u sing c ross-cu ltural e thnograph ic g eneralizations. I n t his p aper , t hese p rinciples r elate c era mic a ttributes t o important l ocational a nd s ocial i nfor mation u seful i n t he s tudy o f d istribut ion . The c o mb ined u se o f mineralog ical a nd c he mical d ata c an h elp i dentify t he p opulation e xploiting c era mic r esources w ithin a n 8 km r ad ius. The u se o f v isual i nspection a nd X-ray r adiography c an b oth i den tify f or ming t echniques a nd e stablish whether t he s ource c o m munity was t he s a me e thn ic o r l inguistic g roup a s t he r eceiv ing c o m munity . F inally , t he a nalysis o f d esign s tructure a nd s y m metry c an l ink u p d istribu ted p ot tery w ith t he d esign s tructure a nd s y m metry o f as pecif ic s ource c o m munity o f p otters. With t hese f oundations, a rchaeology c an g o one s tep f urther a nd i nvestigate t he s pecif ic mechanis ms r esponsib le f or t he n on-local d istribu tion o f a ncien t c era mics. Note 1 . Th is a pproach i s p robably more r elevan t t o t rad itional p ottery r ather t han workshop o r s tate-controlled p ottery . B ibliography Ada ms,

Arnold ,

Arnold , Arnold ,

Arnold , Arnold , Arnold ,

Arnold ,

W. Y ., 1 979. On t he a rgu men t f ro m c era mics t o h istory : a c hallenge b ased o n e v idence f ro m Medieval Nubia . Curr. An throp . 2 0, 7 27-744 . D . E ., 1 970. The E mics o f Pottery Design f ro m Qu inua , Peru. Ph . D. d issertation i n An thropology , University o f I l linois, Urbana. D . E ., 1 971 . E thno mineralogy o f T icul , Yucatan p otters: e tics a nd emics. A mer. Antiq . 3 9 , 2 0-40. D . E ., 1 972a . Mineralog ical a nalyses o f c era mic ma terials f ro m Qu inua , Depart men t o f Ayacucho, Peru . Archaeo metry 1 4 , 9 3-101 . D . E ., 1 972b . Mold- made p otter 's marks f ro m t he Depart men t o f Apuri mac , Peru . E thnos 3 7 , 8 1-87. D . E ., 1 972c. Native p ottery making i n Qu inua , Peru . An thropos 6 7 , 8 58-872 . D . E ., 1 975. Cera m ic e cology o f t he Ayacucho Basin , Peru : impl ications f or p rehistory . Current Anthrop ology 1 6 , 1 83-205. D . E ., 1 976. Ecological v ariables a nd c era mic p roduction : t o wards a g eneral model . I n Ray mond , J . S . ( eds.) , Pri mitive Art a nd Technology , 9 2-108 . ( Calgary ). 4 1

Arnold , D . E ., 1 978a . E thnology o f p ottery making i n t he Valley o f Guate mala . I n Wethering ton , R . K . ( ed .), The Cera mics o f Ka minal juyu , Penn . S tate Un iv . Press Monograph , 3 27-400. ( Philadelphia ). Arnold , D . E ., 1 978b. Cera mic v ariability , e nv iron ment a nd c ul ture h istory among t he Poko m i n t he Valley o f Guate mala . I n Hodder , I . ( ed .) , S pa tial Organ isation o f Culture , 3 9-59. ( London ). Arnold , D . E ., 1 980. S ocial i n teraction a nd c era mic d esign : c o m mun ity- w ide c orrelates i n Quinua , Peru . Manuscript s ub mitted f or publ ication i n a Festschrift f or Frederick R . Matson . Arnold . , D . E ., i n p reparat ion . Cera mic Theory : A Syste ms Approach t o Cultural Process. Arnold , D . E ., R ice , P . R ., J ester , W. A ., Deutsch , W. N ., Lee , B . K . a nd K irsch , R . I ., 1 978 . Neu tron a ctivation a nalysis o f c on te mporary p ottery a nd p ottery i l k tter ials f ro m t he Valley o f Guate mala . I n Wethering ton , R . K . ( ed .), The Cera mics o f Ka minal juyu , Penn . S tate Univ . Press Monograph , 5 43-586. ( Ph iladelphia ). B ishop , R . L ., 1 980. Aspects o f c era mic c o mpositional modeling . I n Fry , R . E . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Reg ional Exchange , S oc . A mer. Archaeol . Papers 1 , 4 7,66 . Washing ton ). Bro w man , D . L ., 1 976. De mograph ic c orrelations o f t he Wani c onquest o f J un in . A mer. Antiq . 4 1 , 4 65-477 . Carde w , M., 1 970. I n troduction . I n Leith- Ross, S ., N igerian Pottery , 9 -13. ( Lagos). Charl ton , T . H ., 1 976. Con te mporary c en tral Mex ican c era mics: av ie w f ro m t he past . Man N . S . 1 , 5 17-525. Christensen , R . T ., 1 955. A modern c era mic i ndustry a t S i mbila n ear P iura , Peru . Chi mor, Boletin d e Museo d e Arqueolog ia d e l a Universidad Nacional d e Tru jillo, a no 3 , 1 0-12 . ( Tru jillo). Collier , D ., 1 959. Pottery s ta mping a nd molding o n t he n orth c oast o f Peru . Actas d el XXXII' Congreso I n ternacional d e A mericanistas, Vol . 2 , 4 21-341 . ( San J ose , Costa Donnan , Foster, Foster,

Hanson , Hardin ,

R ica ). C . B ., 1 965. Moche c era mic t echnology . Nawpa Pacha 3 , 15-134 . G ., 1 948 . S o me impl ications o f modern Mex ican moldmade p ottery . S . West. J . Anthrop . 4 , 3 56-370. G ., 1 955. Conte mporary p ottery t echniques i n s ou thern a nd c entral Mex ico. Middle Arnerican Research I nstitu te Publ ication 2 , 1 -48 . N . R ., 1 958. Patterns o f D iscovery : a n I nqu iry i nto t he Conceptual Foundations o f S cience. ( Ca mbridge ). F . M., 1 970. Design s tructure a nd s ocial i n teraction : a rchaeolog ical impl ica tions o f a n e thnograph ic a nalysis.

A mer. Antiq . 3 5, 3 32-343. C . A ., 1 973. Pottery manufacturing i n Papua- Ne w Gu inea. Asian Perspect ives 1 4 , 6 5-68. L inne , S ., 1 925. The Technique o f S outh A merican Cera mics.

Key ,

L it to,

( Goteborg ). G ., 1 976. S ou th A merican Folk Pottery .

4 2

( New York ).

MacLachlan , R . R . C ., 1 938 . Native p ottery f ro m c en tral a nd s outhern Melanesia a nd western Polynesia . J . Polynesian S oc . 4 7 , 6 4-89. Marx , J . L ., 1 980. N M R o pens a n ew w indo w i n to t he b ody . S cience 2 10, 3 02-305. Rands, R . L . a nd B ishop , R . L ., 1 980. Resource p rocure ment z ones a nd pa tterns o f c era mic e xchange i n t he Palenque r eg ion , Mex ico. I n Fry , R . E . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Reg ional Exchange, S ociety o f A merican Archaeology Papers 1 , 1 9-46. (Wash ing ton ). Rav ines, S . R . H ., 1 963-4 . Alfareria d o mestica d e Huay lacucho, Departa mento d e Huancavelica . Folklore A mericano, a no 1-12 , 9 2-96. ( Li ma ). Rav ines, R ., 1 966. Ccaccasiri-pi r uran i mankata . Folklore A merican° a no 1 4 , 2 10-222 . ( Li ma ). Reina , R . a nd H ill , J ., 1 978 . The Traditional Pottery o f Guate mala. ( Austin ). Rye , 0 . S ., 1 976. Keeping y our t e mper under c on trol : materials a nd t he manufacture o f Papuan p ottery . Archaeol . a nd Physical An throp . Oceania 1 , 1 06-37 . Rye, 0 . S ., 1 977. Pot tery manufacturing t echn iques: X-ray s tud ies. Archaeo metry 1 9 , 2 05- 41 . S ara ,s wati , B . a nd Behura , N . K ., 1 966. Pottery Techn iques o f Peasan t I nd ia . ( Calcu tta ). S cheans, D . J ., 1 965. The p ottery i ndustry o f S an N icolas, I locos Norte. J . E . Asiatic S tud. 9 , 1 -28 . S churig , M., 1 930. D ie S üdseetöpferei. Leipzig . Shepard , A . 0 ., 1 948 . The Sy m metry o f Abstract Design w ith S pecial Reference t o Cera mic Decoration . Con tributions t o A merican An thropology a nd H istory 4 7. (Washing ton ). Shepard , A . 0 ., 1 956. Cera mics f or t he a rchaeolog ist . (Wash ington ). Shepard , A . 0 ., 1 966. Proble ms i n p ottery a nalysis. A mer. Antiq . 3 1 , 8 70-871 . Smith , W., 1 962 . S chools, p ots and p otters. A mer. Anthrop. 6 4 , 165-78. S olhei m, W., 1 952a . Pottery manu facturing i n t he i slands o f Masbate a nd Batan , Phil ippines. J . E . Asiatic S tud . 1 , 4 9-53 . S olhei m, W., 1 952b. Ocean ian p ottery manufacture. J . E . Asiatic S tud . 1 , 1 -39. S olhei m, W., 1 954 . I banag p ottery manufacture i n I sabela , Ph il ippines. J . E . Asiatic S tud . 3 , 3 05-7. S olhei m, W. a nd Shuler, T ., 1 959. Further n otes on Philippine

S pahn i ,

p ottery manufacture : moun tain p rov ince a nd Panay . J . E . Asiatic S tud . 8 , 1 -10. J ., 1 966. La Cera mica Popular d el Peru . ( Li ma).

S pecht ,

J ., 1 972 . The p ottery i ndustry o f Buka i sland , t erritory o f Papua , Ne w Gu inea. Archaeol . a nd Physical An throp. Ocean ia 7 , 1 25-144. Tho mas, N . W., 1 910. Pottery- making o f t he Edo-speak ing p eoples, s ou thern N igeria . Man 1 0, 9 7-98 . Toul min , S . E ., 1 961 . Foresigh t a nd Understand ing : a n I nqu iry i nto t he A i ms o f S c ience. ( Bloo ming ton ).

4 3

Tschopik , H ., 1 950. An Andean c era mic t radition i n h istorical p erspective. A mer. An tiq . 1 5, 1 96-218 . Tuckson , M. a nd May , p ., 1 975. Pots, f iring a nd p otters i n Papua , Ne w Gu inea. Austral ian Natur. H ist. 1 8 ( 5), 1 68-173. Wahl man , M., 1 972 . Yoruba p ottery making t echn iques. Baessler- Archiv , Beiträge f ür Völkerkunde 2 0, 3 13-346. Washburn , D ., 1 977a. A s y m metry a nalysis o f u pper G ila a rea c era mic d esign . Papers o f t he Peabody Museu m o f Archaeology a nd E thnology , 6 8 . ( Ca mbridge, Mass.). Washburn , D ., 1 977b. A s y m metry c lassification o f Pueblo Cera mic d esigns. I n Greb inger , P . ( ed .), D iscovering Past Behav ior : Experi ments i n t he Archaeology o f t he A merican S outhwest , 1 01-121 . ( Ne w York ). Zaslo w , B ., 1 977. A g u ide t o a nalyzing p rehistoric c era m ic d ecora tions by s y m metry a nd p attern ma the mat ics. I n C lark , G . A . ( ed .), Pattern Mathe matics a nd Archaeology , Arizona S tate University An thropolog ical Research Papers 2 . ( Te mpe). Zaslow , B . a nd D ittert , A . E ., 1 977. The pattern t echnology o f t he Hohoka m . I n C lark , G . A . ( ed .), Pattern Mathe matics a nd Archaeology , Arizona S tate Un iversity An thropolog ical Research Papers 2 . ( Te mpe ).

4 4

3 POTTERY AND SO CIO- ECO NO MIC CHANGE IN BRITIS H PRE HISTORY Ann E llison

I n troduction Recen t i nterest i n p reh istoric s yste ms o f e xchange h as s te m med f ro m t he r eal isation t hat s tud ies o f e cono mic e xchange c an p rov ide c onsiderable i nsigh t i nto t he o rganisation o f s ocioe cono mic s yste ms a nd may a id t he e xplanation o f t he d evelop ment o f c ultural s yste ms t hrough t i me. Theoretical a dvances h ave b een s t i mulated by d evelop ments i n t wo main f ields: f irstly, t he c he mical c haracterisation o f a rtefacts a nd r aw materials a nd s econdly , t he d evelop men t o f q uan titative models which c an b e a ppl ied a nd t ested i n s tud ies o f e xchange ( e. g . Earle a nd Ericson , 1 977 ). I n t he l ight o f t hese d evelop men ts i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he a im o f most s tudies h as b een t o a nalyse t he d istribu tion o f a s ing le c o m modity f ro m a kno wn s ource. Ho wever , where s ources o f r aw ma terials c annot e asily b e c haracterised a nd t he l ocations o f p ri mary p roduction c entres r e main e lusive, t he p roble ms o f s tudy ing e xchange p atterns multiply a nd f ew c o mparisons o f s ynchronic , l et a lone d iachron ic , e xchange d istributions o f d ifferent c o m modities h ave y et b een a tte mpted . The a i ms o f t his p aper a re t o p resent a w ide-ranging s tudy o f e xchange s yste ms, b oth c era mic a nd n on-cera mic , within n eolithic , b ronze a ge a nd i ron a ge Britain ; a nd t o a ssess the s ocioe cono mic implications o f t he c haracteristics o f t he v ary ing s yste ms r epresented . A lthough t he r esults must b e r egarded a s b eing t entative, p rov isional a nd s tatistically unrepresentative, i t i s h oped t hat t his s i mple e xercise will d e monstrate f irstly , t hat c era mics must b e i n terpreted i n r elation t o o ther c lasses o f a rchaeolog ical ev idence , a nd s econdly , t hat i t i s p ossible t o p rogress w ith in an i ntegrated f ra mework o f a rchaeolog ical r esearch , e ven t hough d ata c ollection a nd b asic a nalysis o f many a rtefact c ategories r e main i nco mplete o r i nadequate f or s uch purposes. The a pproach a dopted was s ti mulated i nitially by d etailed r esearch i nto t he f unctional c lassification a nd d istribution o f middle b ronze a ge c era mics i n s ou thern England ( Ellison , 1 981 ) a nd b y c o mparisons made b etween t he c haracteristics o f t hese c era mic d istributions a nd t hose o f c on te mporary c lasses o f middle b ronze age metalwork ( Ellison , 1 980 ). The more g eneral a spects h ave b een pursued f ollo wing t he r eco m mendations o f Brad ley a nd Hodder ( 1979) i n t heir p aper ' British p rehistory : a n i n tegrated v ie w '. This paper p rov ided a n i nteresting a nd n ovel

4 5

a pproach t o t he a rchaeology o f p rehistoric Britain b ased l argely on a masterly c onsideration o f c hanges i n l and u se, a gricultural s yste ms a nd s ocio-cultural c haracterisitcs. The v alue o f their a pproach was t hat, ' even i f t he i nterpretations a re u nlikely o r i nelegan t , t hey c an b e t ested s ince t hey d irectly c oncern t ypes o f e cono mic a nd c ultural e vidence which t he a rchaeologist c an c ollect i n a bundance. There i s c onsiderable p oten tial f or f urther work on t he r elations b etween s ocial , e cono mic a nd c u ltural e vidence, i nclud ing more d etailed s tudies o f t he s tructure o f d istributions a nd a ssociations.' ( Bradley a nd Hodder , 1 979 , 1 02 ). The a nalysis p resented h ere i s o ffered a s af irst s tep t o wards r ealising t h is p otential. Analysis Plog ( 1977 ) a tte mpted t o a void t he p itfalls o f t he u ncriti cal b orro wing o f models f ro m a n thropology a nd t he s ocial s ciences by d efining t he k ey c haracteristics o f e xchange n etworks i n t er ms o f s i mple q uan titative p ara meters. H is d efinitive c haracteristics i ncluded c on ten t , magnitude, d iversity a nd s ize, d irectionali ty a nd s y m metry , a nd c en tralisation a nd c o mplexity . S o me o f t hese h ave b een q uan tif ied a nd d iscussed i n r elat ion t o t he e xchange o f c era mics and metalwork i n s outhern Britain ( Ellison , 1 980 , 1 36-8 ). Th is t ype o f d etailed a nalysis c annot b e e x tended i nto e arlier o r l a ter p eriods owing t o l ack o f s uitably r ecorded d ata , b u t c ertain d istribu tional c haracterist ics c an b e i sola ted , measured a nd c o mpared over s everal millennia . I f t ypes a nd s ub-types f or a nalysis a re c hosen c arefully , t he d iversity f actor c an b e mini mised , a nd t he s ize c haracteristic c an b e q uan tified a ccurately f ro m p ublished d istribution maps. This measure o f s ize p rov ides a n i ndication o f t he g ross move men t o f ac o m mod ity e ven i f t he s i te o f t he p roduction c entre i s n ot kno wn o r i f t here were s everal c en tres p roducing t he s a me a rtefact t ype. A s econd f actor wh ich c an b e d educed f airly e asily , a nd which i s o f g reat p otential i n r elation t o t he a ssess men t o f s ocio-cultural a spects o f t he n etworks, i s t he d egree o f mu tual a d just men t o f c onte mporary a rtef act d istribution a reas. S uch d istribu tion a reas may overlap t o a g rea ter o r l esser d egree, t hey may b e t otally c o mple men tary o r a l most d iscrete w i th t heir margins i n terlocking i n a more s ubtle manner. I t i s t he mutually a d justed d istribu tion a reas wh ich a re more l ikely t o i ndicate t he e xistence o f r eg ional g roups with s trong s ocial i dentities ( Bradley a nd Hodder , 1 979). Detailed a nalysis o f c era mic d istribution a reas f ro m t he n eolithic t o t he l ate i ron a ge i n Brita in , i n r elat ion t o d istribution o f c on te mporary a rtef act t ypes manufactured f ro m o ther r aw materials, c an b e u sed b oth t o r einforce many o f t he g eneral a ssertions made by Brad ley and Hodder a nd t o d etail s o me o f t he p rocesses i nvolved . I n F ig . 3 :1 t he d istribu tion s izes o f aw ide r ange o f a rtefact t ypes r elating t o t he British n eolithic , b ronze a ge a nd i ron a ge p eriods h ave b een p lotted i n c hronological o rder, t he

4 6

• •

L IA f i ne wa res

z ar ly c o ins

t n c

L

[ ar t s ty les

b r iquetage

[weapons

M IA c oa rse wa res

M IA f i ne wares

I

_EA p o t tery

I

c urrency b ars

weav ing c ombs

1 c oarse wares

f i ne wares

L U

r

c oarse wares

U o rnamen ts ,weapons

f i ne wares

L

weapons

boo ls

u _

o rnamen ts

> ' 0 0

B arre l U rns

I t o i n

B icon ica l U rns

c i ,

a xe hammers

i ? c U )

l a ter B eakers

b ronze i ndus tr ies 7

i 5 1

e ar l ier B eakers

T i .

l a te b ow ls

C —

, _ a U

G rooved Ware

s tone a xes

3 00 ,000

— 0

A A

•

C

• • .

1 00 ,000

. A A

0 A

S

•

• • •

g

AA

•

A

AA

A a

A

A

• 2

A 0

•

AA

0

B

A

a •

A

1 0 ,000 0

•

g A A •

g g

a AA

• I N

s q .m ls . :6 •

a

A

0

• •

•

1 , 000

E ARL Y N EO

L ATE N E0/ E BA

• c eram ics

F ig .

A

3 :1.

meta ls

•

L BA 0

E -M IA

d iscre te d is tr ibu t ion

S izes o f a rtefact d istribu tions i n Brit ish p reh istory .

A7

A ®

000 0 %

•

••

9

MBA • b one o r s tone

® , A g

A

•

• • • •. • e . .• • 0

• 5: • ••

•

•

•

o 0

•

g

a

g

•

A A A

L IA

d ata s ources b eing l isted i n t he Append ix . The d istribu tion s izes vary g reatly f ro m j ust b elo w 1 ,0 00 s q . mls. t o n early 3 00 , 0 00 s q . mls., a nd t he nu merical o ccurrence o f d ifferen t d istribut ions t hroughou t t h is s ize r ange i s s ho wn on t he g raph ( Fig . 3 :2 , 1 ) . F ig . 3 :2 ) a lso i ncludes a b reakdo wn o f t hese s ize d istribut ion v aria tions p lotted a ccording t o p eriod ( Fig . 3 : 2 , 2 -7 ). These g raphs d isp lay t hree main p eaks wh ich c an b e t aken t o i ndicate t he e x istence o f t hree main l evels o f d istribut ion a s f ollo ws:l evel A

0t o c .

l evel B

c .

l evel C

c . 9 0 , 000 t o c .

7 , 0 00 s q . mls.

7 , 0 00 t o c . 9 0 , 0 00 s q . mls. 3 00 , 000 s q . mls.

I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he b reak p oint b etween l evels A a nd B v aries f ro m c . 5 , 5 00 s q . mls. i n t he n eolithic a nd b ronze a ge p eriods t hrough c . 8 , 000 s q . mls. ( early a nd middle i ron a ge) t o c . 7 , 0 00 s q . mls. i n t he l ate i ron a ge ( see F ig . 3 : 2 ). The t hree ' l evel ' z ones a re a lso d el ineated on F ig . 3 : 1 , where d istributions o f p ottery , metal , s tone a nd b one a rtefact t ypes a re d ifferen tiated by t he u se o f s y mbols. The g eneral d istinction b etween c onte mpo rary overlapping a nd mu tually a d justed o r d iscrete d istribu tions i s i nd icated by t he e ncircling o f s y mbols r epresenting t he v arious n on-overlapping d istribu tions t hroughou t a ll p eriods. I n o rder t hat d iachronic t rends c an e asily b e p icked ou t , t he nu merical o ccurrence o f d istribu tion a reas w ithin e ach o f t he t hree l evels i s a lso p lotted by p eriod ( Fig . 3: 2 , 2 -7 ) a nd , i n t hese g raphs, t he nu mbers o f mu tually a d justed d istributions a re a lso i ndicated . When u sing s uch a v aried r ange o f d ata i t must b e b orne i n mind t hat t he d ef ini tion o f a rtefact t ypes d epends b oth on t he r aw material employed a nd on t he v ariety o f c lassif ica tions d educed by many d ifferent a rchaeolog ists. Also, d ata r elating t o a n e qual b alance o f d ifferent f unctional t ypes manufactured i n aw ide r ange o f r aw materials f or e ach p eriod a re n ot y et available i n p ubl ished s ources. Ho wever , t hese f actors d o n ot d etract f ro m s o ne o f t he g eneral p atterns wh ich s ee m t o emerge f ro m t h is p rel i minary s tudy and , i n f act , t h is a nalysis s erves t o d efine i nfor ma tion g aps which n eed t o b e f i lled by t he e xecu tion o f c arefully d esigned p rogra m mes o f r esearch a nd p lotting . I n terpretat ion Early n eolithic ( Fig . 3 : 1 a nd F ig . 3 : 2 , 2 ) . I n s ocio-econo mic t er ms, t he e arly n eolithic was c haracterised by l ocal l ineages l iv ing i n d ispersed u n its. I nd iv idual s ocial u n its were s y mbol ised a nd r einforced by t he e rection o f a ncestral c o m munal t o mbs ( long b arro ws) a nd p ossibly by t he v ariety o f a ctiv ities p ractised w ith in t he c ause wayed e nclosures. Artefact d istribu tion a reas f all o nly i n l evels A a nd B , t he p rincipal p ottery f abric t ypes ( as d efined by S ofranoff , 1 976) o ccurring mainly i n l evel A a nd t he w ide r ange o f s tone axe d istribut ions t hroughou t l evel B ( Fig . 3: 1 ). These d istributions may well r eflect c ere mon ial e xchange pa tterns b etween l ocal g roups, a s s uggested by Bradley a nd Hodder ( 197 . 9 , 9 5). Most s ign if icantly , t hey a ll overlap t o al arge d egree, t hus c onfir ming

4 8

3 0

A

/

2

1o 1 0

27 / /

/ v /

5 ,000

„

///// /

1 0 ,000

1 100 .000

3 00 ,000

s q .m ls . 1 0

E ARLY N EO 2 1 0

_

L ATENEO / E BA

5

3 0 1 0

MBA

5

4

0

1 0

L BA

5

5 1 0

E /M IA 6 1 0

5

L IA

7 MI d iscre te d is tr ibu t ions

Fig.

3 :2 .

The o ccurrence o f d istribu tion s ize r anges by p eriod .

t hat l arge s patial g roupings w ith c o m mon i den tities h ad n ot d eveloped a t t his s tage. Late n eolith ic/early b ronze a ge ( Fig . 3.: 1 a nd F ig . 3: 2 , 3 ). I n ternal s tress i n t he s yste m l ed t o t he d evelop ment o f as ociety c haracterised by smaller a nd l ess s table s ettle ment u n its, w ith ma jor s trains o ccurring n ot b etween a d jacent g roups b u t b etween h ierarchical l evels w ith in s ociety . The s ocial s tatus o f h ighr anking i ndividuals o r g roups w ithin t he h ierarch ies was p ossibly e nhanced t hrough t he c onstruction a nd u se o f h enges a nd monu mental megalithic s tructures, a nd was r ef lected i n t he v ariety o f s ingle bur ial r itual , b oth i n Wessex a nd b eyond . The a rtefact d istribu tion a reas o f t he l ate n eol ith ic a nd most o f t he e arly b ronze a ge f all only i n l evels B a nd C . They i nclude t he a l most u biqu itous e arly b ronze a ge metalwork ing t raditions a nd t he w idely d istribu ted a nd i nter mixed ma jor p ottery s ty les s uch a s Grooved Ware, Beakers a nd Food Vessels wh ich , a ccording t o Bradley a nd Hodder ( 1979 , 9 7 ) 'migh t s y mbolise d ifferent r ights o f a ccess t o s tatus a nd r esources' w ithin p restige n etworks. Ho wever , t he f irst c on te mporary a nd c o mple men tary c era mic d istributions a ppear during t he l ate n eolith ic a nd , i n t he e arly b ronze a ge, t he implied d evelop men t o f small l ocal ised p restige g roups i s f urther i ndicated by t he o ccurrence o f aw ide s eries o f l argely d iscrete, mediu m-sized d istribu tions o f p olished s tone a rtefacts: t he b attle-axes a nd axe-ha m mers, s tud ied b y F iona Roe a nd t he Council f or British Archaeology Imple men t Petrology Co m mittee i n s uch e legan t d etail ( Roe, 1 979 a nd r eferences t here c ited ). The h ierarchical s yste m l ed i n t urn t o f urther i ncreasing s tress a nd t o ma jor s ocio-econo m ic c hanges a t t he b eg inning o f t he middle b ronze a ge. These c hanges were a cco mpanied by t he r ene wed a ppearance o f small , a lbeit overl apping , c era mic t ype f abric a nd s tyle d istribu tions t o wards t he v ery e nd o f t he e arly b ronze a ge p eriod (Wessex B icnon ical Urns a nd Barrel Urns: Ellison , 1 975, Chs. 4 a nd 7 a nd , h ere, F ig . 3 :2 , 3 ). Middle b ronze a ge ( Fig . 3: 1 a nd F ig . 3: 2 , 4 ). Fro m t he b eg inning o f t h is p eriod , as ocio-econo m ic s yste m i nvolv ing n u merous l ocal ised t erritorial u nits, p ossessing s table h o mesteads a nd f ield s yste ms a nd p ractising i n tensive a gricul ture i n t he c on text o f ac o mplex pattern o f d eveloping ownersh ip r igh ts, c an b e d ef ined ( Ellison , 1 981 ; Bradley a nd Hodder , 1 979 ). All t he c oarse- ware c era mic d istributions f al l w ithin l evel A a nd t he f ine- ware d istribu tions a re n ot only e ven smaller i n a verage s ize , b u t a re d iscrete a nd mutually a d justed . Orna ment a nd t ool t ypes a lso d isplay small-sized d istribu tions, but , whereas t he t ool d istribu tions overlap t o al arge e x tent , o rna men t t ype a reas a re r e markably d iscrete, s ignify ing t he s y mbolic r epresen tations o f t igh t-kn it s ocial g roups. The s patial p atterning o f k no wn ma jor e nclosures i n r ela tion t o t hese v arious a rtefact d istribu tion a reas, i ndicates t hat a ctiv ities h eld w ith in t hese e nclosures may h ave s erved t o r egulate t he c o mplex p attern o f e xchange n etworks ( especially o f p restige i te ms), which i n t urn s y mbolised a nd r einforced t he i dentity o f small i n terlock ing s ocial g roups w ith in a c ro wded a gricultural l andscape ( Ellison , 1 980). Weapon t ypes were d istribu ted more w idely a nd t he d istribu tion a reas overlap t o a 5 0

l arge e x ten t . Ho wever , e ven t hese d istribu tions a re o n af ar smaller s cale t han t he l evel C metalwork ing i ndustries o f t he e arly b ronze a ge. Late b ronze a ge ( Fig . 3: 1 a nd F ig . 3: 2 , 5 ). Although l a te b ronze a ge s tud ies i n Brita in h ave b een r evolu tion ised by a s eries o f r ecen t r esearch p rojects ( especially t he u npubl ished work o f Coo mbs a nd Barrett ), l i ttle d etailed a rtefact d istribu tion d ata i s y et a va ilable i n p ubl ished f or m . A mongst t he b ronzework , l oose r eg ional ( bu t overlapping ) s ocketed a xe t ypes o ccupy f ar l arger a reas t han t he p receding middle b ronze a ge p alstave s ty les a nd t he o rna men t a nd weapon t ype d istribu tions e x tend o nce more i n to l evel C . Th is p attern l argely mirrors t hat o f t he h ierarch ical e arly b ronze a ge ( Fig . 3 : 2 , 3 ) , a l though small-scale g roup ings o f s pecif ic p restige o b jects h ave n ot y et b een c onv incing ly mapped f or t he l a te b ronze a ge p eriod . The h oard s tructure o f t he l a ter b ronze a ge f urther i nd icates t he e x istence o f c lear c lass d iv isions ( Coo mbs, 1 975 ) , a nd t he c onstruction o f h igh s tatus s ettle men ts o n h ill-tops a nd i n r iver v alleys c onf ir ms t he h ierarch ica l t rend . Ho wever , u nderly ing c on tinu ity o f s table , r ela tively smal l-scale r eg ional g roups i s n ow b eing e v idenced b y t he r ecogni tion a nd a nalysis o f t he p rev iously e lusive l a te b ronze a ge p ottery s ty les ( Barrett , 1 980a ). The f irst r esul ts i ndicate t he e x istence o f c oarse a nd f ine- ware t ra it d istribut ions s i milar i n s ize t o t hose o f t he middle b ronze a ge, a l though n o d ef in itely d iscrete s patial g roups a re y et a pparen t . Early a nd middle i ron a ge ( Fig . 3: 1 a nd F ig . 3: 2 , 6 ). The e arl ier i ron a ge emerges a s t he p eriod o f max i mu m s oc io-econo mic r eg ionality . Most d istribu tion a reas f all w ith in l evel A , w ith a h igh c oncentra t ion o f d iscrete d istribu t ions, n early a l l o f t he m c era mic t ypes, a t t he l o west e nd o f t he l evel A s ize r ange. Coarse- ware t ra its s pread f urther t han d ecora tive motif g roups o f t he f ine- ware s ty le z ones, b ut i t i s o n ly c ertain t ypes o f b one weav ing c o mb ( shape t ypes, r a ther t han d ecora tive s ty les) a nd o ne t ype o f i ron c urrency b ar t ha t e xh ibit d istribu tion a reas wh ich f all w ith in l evel B . These d evelop men ts c an b e d irectly r ela ted t o t he p rocess o f a gricul tural i n tensif ication e v idenced b y t he more w idespread u se o f s pel t , l and b oundaries a nd a w ider r ange o f l ong-lived s et tle men t t ypes. Associa ted p opula tion g ro w th a nd s ocial d evelop men t l ed t o t he r ise o f h igher o rder s ettle men t t ypes a nd t he h ill-forts wh ich i n t urn would h ave s erved t o r einforce s y mbol ically t he t igh t s oc ia l g roups whose i den tit ies c an b e d etected i n t he p attern o f d iscrete a rtefact d istribu t ions d iscussed a bove. Late i ron a ge ( Fig . 3: 1 a nd F ig . 3: 2 , 7 ). By t he l a te i ron a ge , t he d istribu tions o f weapon t ypes a nd s o me a rt o b ject g roups s pan l evel B o nce more, t hus r ef lecting t he p a ttern c haracterist ic o f t he l a te b ronze a ge. The t igh t d iscrete p ottery s ty le d istribu tions c on tinue f ro m t he e arly a nd middle i ron a ge , a l though w ith in l evel A , t he c era m ic s tyles a nd many o f t he minor r eg ional a rt o b ject g roups o ccupy r a ther l arger d istribu tion a reas t han t hose o f t he middle i ron a ge c era mic s tyle z ones. Th is s uggests a t rend o f e xpansion a nd c onsol idation o f s ocio-political g roups; a t endency a lready impl ied by t he g reater d evelop ment o f as oc ial h ierarchy

5 1

f ocussed on t he o ppida a nd ma jor h ill-forts o f t he f irst c entury B . C . ( Bradley a nd Hodder , 1 979 , 1 02 ). The e arl iest g old c oins, w ith t heir overlapping l evel B d istribu tion a reas, were 'more a s ign o f t he e x istence o f a n a u thority a ble a nd n eeding t o mint s uch o b jects, t han o f c o m mercial a ctiv ity ' ( Cha mpion , 1 979 , 4 20) , bu t t he l ater sm al l d eno mination c oins i nd icate t he o pera tion o f a n e xchange s yste m b ased on t he ma jor l ate i ron a ge e nclosures. These c oin d istributions a re f airly d iscrete a nd f all a cross t he b oundary b etween l evel A a nd l evel B d istribu tions. Th is p attern c an b est b e matched i n t he middle b ronze a ge, a nd i t i s s urely n o c oincidence t hat t h is middle b ronze a ge p a ttern a lso i nvolved t he e xchange o f p restige i te ms ( bronze o rna men ts i n t his c ase) f ro m as eries o f r elat ively f ew , w idely-spaced ma jor e nclosures. No l evel C d istributions c an b e c learly i dentif ied a nd t he s patial b lurring o f ma terial c ulture , p ostulated by Bradley a nd Hodder , d oes n ot r eally o ccur u n til t he f ull impact o f Ro man isation i s f elt . Only t hen d o nation- wide a rtefact t ype d istributions match t he l evel C c era mic d istribu tions o f t he h ierarch ical e arly b ronze a ge. Ho wever, t hese w idespread d istribu tions n ow r ef lect n ot t he c o mplex i n terd ig itation o f p restige h ierarch ies b u t t he f ull-scale f unctioning o f t he Ro man imperial e cono my .

Append ix

S ources o f a rtefact d istribution a reas p lotted i n F ig . 3 : 1

Neolithic S tone a xes: Cu m mins, 1 979 , F igs. 4 t o 8( Groups I , V I , V III , XVI , V II , XX ). Earlier n eolithic p lain a nd d ecorated b o wls: Smith , 1 974 , F ig . 1 4 ( He mbury ); S ofranoff , 1 976 ( oolite, c alcite , q uartzite, g rog a nd v ein q uartz f abric g roups). Later n eolithic b o wl s ty les: Smith , 1 974 , F ig . 1 5 ( Peterborough a nd S andh ills). Grooved Ware s ub-sty les: Wainwrigh t a nd Longworth , 1 971 , F ig . 9 7 ( Clacton , Durrington Walls, Woodlands, R inyo). Earlier B eakers: C larke , 1 970 , v ol . 2 , Maps 1 a nd 2 ( A ll Over C ord a nd European ). Early b ronze a ge Metal- working t raditions:

Britton , 1 963 ,

F ig .

5 (Migdale- Marnoch )

a nd F ig . 2 0 ( Arreton ). Battle-axes: Roe, 1 979 , F ig . 3( Groups X II , X IV, XVIII ). Axe-ha m mers: Roe, 1 979 , F ig . 6( Groups X II , X IV , XV , XVIII ). Later Beakers: C larke, 1 970 , v ol . 2 , Maps 3 (Wessex/ M iddle Rhine), 7 ( Sou thern 1 ) , 8( Sou thern 2 -3) a nd 9 ( Sou thern 4 a nd Northern 4 ). Food Vessels: S i mpson , 1 968 , F ig . 4 8 a nd 1 979 , 2 30-237 ( Yorkshire Vases a nd I rish-Scottish Bo wls).

5 2

Wessex B iconical Urns a nd Barrel Urns: E llison , 1 975 ( types Wessex B iconical Urns A t o E ; Barrel Urns o f S outh Lodge t ype, w ith f inger-i mpressed a nd p lain v ertical c ordons). Middle b ronze a ge Bronze t ypes: Ro wlands, 1 976, Maps 2 1 , 2 2 a nd v arious ( orna ments: q uoit p ins, P icardy p ins, Sussex l oops, h oard c lusters 1 a nd 2 ) ; Maps 2 -4 , 6 -8 ( tools: p alstave t ypes C lass 1 , g roups 1 a nd 2 ; C lass 2 , g roups 3 a nd 4 ; C lass 4 ; C lass 5 , g roup 2 a nd C lass 6 ) ; Maps 1 5-17 a nd 2 0 ( weapons: s ide-looped s pearheads, b asal-looped s pearheads g roups 2 a nd 3 , Ballin tober swords). Middle b ronze a ge f ine a nd everyday ware p ottery g roups: E llison , 1 975 ( Sussex J ars, Tha mes Valley J ars, G lobular Urns t ypes I , Ia , I 1 3 , II ; v arious s ub-regional a nd s upra-reg ional t ypes o f e veryday wares). Late b ronze a ge Metalwork : Burgess, 1 968 , F igs. 1 4 a nd 1 2 ( orna men ts: ' Carps Tongue ' c o mplex ; weapons: Ewart Park swords; a nd t ools: r egional s ocketed a xe t ypes: S outh Welsh , I rish , Yorkshire a nd w ing-orna mented o r p ellet ). Late b ronze a ge p ottery : Barrett , 1 980b, F ig . 3( coarse- ware j ar a nd f ine b o wl t raits within t he North Wessex s tyle z one). Early a nd middle i ron a ge I ron c urrency b ars: Allen , 1 968 a nd Cunliffe, 1 974 , F ig . 1 4 .5 ( s word , s pit a nd p lough-shaped ). Bone weaving c o mbs: Hodder a nd Hedges, 1 977 , F igs. 2 , 4 , 6 a nd 7 ( shapes A , C , F , G ) a nd F igs. 8 , 1 3 , 1 5 a nd 1 7 ( decorative motifs A , F , H . J ). Early i ron a ge p ottery s tyle-zones: Cunlif fe, 1 974 , F ig . 3 .4 ( Al l Cannings Cross/ Meon H ill , All Cannings Cross-So merset v arian t , Park Bro w/Caesar 's Ca mp , Long Wittenha m/ Allen 's P it , Chinnor/ Wandlebury ). Middle i ron a ge p ottery s tyle-zones: Cunliffe, 1 974 , F ig . 3 .5 ( Caburn/Cissbury , S t. Catherines H ill/ Worthy Do wn , Hawk 's H ill/ W. C landon , Yarnbury/ Highfield , S ou thcote/Ble wburton , G lastonbury/Blaise Castle); Peacock , 1 968 , F ig . 2 (Malvernian c oarse- ware f abric t ypes). Cera mic s alt c on tainers: Morris, t his v olu me. Middle i ron a ge c oarse- ware t raits: Hodder , 1 977 , F ig . 4 8. Late i ron a ge Metalwork : Cunliffe, 1 974 , F ig . 1 4 .13 ( weapons: La Tene swords, Groups I , I I , I V). Art s tyles-selected d ecorative t raits on b ronze : Hodder , 1 977 , F ig . 6 3 , a fter Spratl ing , 1 972 . Coins: Cun liffe, 1 974 , F igs. 5 .1 t o 5 .3 ( Gallo- Belg ic s eries) a nd F igs. 6 .9, 7 .1 , 7 .7 , 7 .9 ( Coritani , I ceni , Atrebates, Durotriges, Dobunni ). . Late i ron a ge p ottery s tyle-zones: Cunliffe , 1 974 , F ig . 7 . 2 ( Glastonbury t ypes 2 -5, Cornish c ordoned ware, Durotrigian , N.

Atrebatic ,

S . Atrebatic , E . Atrebatic ).

5 3

B ibl iography Allen , D .

F ., 1 968. I ron c urrency b ars i n Britain . Proc. Prehist. S oc . 3 3, 3 07-35. Barrett , J . C ., 1 980a. The p ottery o f t he l ater b ronze a ge i n l o wland Eng land . Proc. Preh ist. S oc . 4 6 , 2 97-319. Barrett , J . C ., 1 980b . The e volution o f l ater b ronze a ge s ettle ment . I n Barrett , J . C . a nd Bradley , R . J . ( eds.), S ettle men t a nd S ociety i n t he British Later Bronze Age, Brit . Archaeol . Rep . 8 3, 7 7-100. ( Oxford ). Barrett , J . C . a nd Bradley , R . J ., 1 980. S ettle men t a nd S ociety i n t he British Later Bronze Age, Brit . Archaeol . Rep. 8 3. ( Oxford ). Bradley , R . a nd Hodder , I ., 1 979. Bri tish p reh istory : a n i n tegrated v ie w . Man N .S. 1 4 , 9 3-104 . Britton , D ., 1 963. Traditions o f metalwork ing i n t he l ater n eolith ic a nd e arly b ronze age o f Britain : part I . Proc. Preh ist . S oc. 2 9 , 2 58-325. Burgess, C . B ., 1 968 . The l ater b ronze a ge i n t he British I sles a nd n orth- western France. Archaeol . J . 1 25, 1 -45. Cha mpion , T . C ., 1 979. The i ron age: A . S ou thern Bri tain a nd I reland . I n Megaw , J . V .S . a nd S i mpson , D .D . A . ( eds.), I ntroduction t o British Prehistory , 3 44-445. ( Leicester). C larke, D . L ., 1 970. Beaker Pottery o f Great Britain a nd ,I reland . ( Ca mbridge). C lough , T . H . Mc K . a nd Cu m mins, W. A . ( eds.), 1 979. S tone Axe S tudies, Counc. Brit . Archaeol . Res. Rep . 2 3 .( London ). Coo mbs, D ., 1 975. Bronze a ge weapon h oards i n Britain . Archaeol. Atlant. 1 , 4 9-81 . Cu m mins, W. A ., 1 979. Neolithic s tone a xes: d istribution a nd t rade i n England a nd Wales. I n C lough , T . H . McK . a nd Cu m mins, W. A . ( eds.), S tone Axe S tudies, Counc. Brit . Archael . Res. Rep. 2 3 , 5 -12 . ( London ). Cunliffe, B . W., 1 974. I ron Age Co m mun ities i n Britain . ( London ). Earle, T . a nd Ericson , J . ( eds.), 1 977 . Exchange Syste ms i n Prehistory . ( London ). E ll ison , A . B ., 1 975. Pottery a nd S ettle men t o f t he Later Bronze Age i n Southern England . Ph .D . t hesis, University o f Ca mbridge. E llison , A . B ., 1 980. S et tle men t a nd r eg ional e xchange: a c ase s tudy . I n Barrett , J . C . a nd Bradley , R . J . ( eds.), S ettle ment a nd S ociety i n t he British Later Bronze Age, Brit. Archaeol . Rep. 8 3 , 1 27-140. ( Oxford ). E ll ison , A . B ., 1 981. To wards a s ocioecono mic model f or t he middle b ronze a ge i n s outhern England. I n Hodder , I ., I saac , G . a nd Ha m mond , N . ( eds.), Pattern o f t he Past : S tudies i n Honour o f Dav id C larke, 4 13-438. ( Ca mbridge). Hodder , I ., 1 977. S o me n ew d irections i n s patial a nalysis. I n C larke, D . L . ( ed .), S patial Archaeology , 2 23-351 . ( London ).

5 4

Hodder , I . a nd Hedges, J . W. , 1 977. Weav ing c o mbs: t heir t ypology a nd d istribu tion with s o me i ntroductory r e marks on d ate a nd f unction . I n Coll is, J . ( ed .), The I ron Age i n Bri tain -A Rev ie w , 1 7-28 . ( Sheffield ). Megaw ,

J . V . S . a nd S i mpson , D . D . A., 1 979. I n troduction t o British Preh istory . ( Leicester ). Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 968. A p etrological s tudy o f c ertain i ron age p ottery f ro m western England . Proc . Prehist . S oc . 3 4 , 4 14-27. Plog , F ., 1 977. Modeling e cono mic e xchange. I n Earle, T . K . a nd Ericson , J . E . ( eds.), Exchange Syste ms i n Prehistory , 1 27-40. ( London ). Roe, F . E . S ., 1 979. Typology o f s tone imple ments w ith s haf tholes. I n C lough , T . H. McK . a nd Cu m mins, W. A . ( eds.), S tone Axe S tudies, Counc. Brit . Archaeol . Res. Rep . 2 3 , 2 3-40. Ro wlands, M. J ., 1 976. The Organ isation o f Middle Bronze Age Metalwork ing i n S ou thern Britain , Brit . Archaeol . Rep. 3 1 . ( Oxford ). S i mpson , D . D . A ., 1 968. Food Vessels: a ssociations a nd c hronology . I n Coles, J . M. a nd S i mpson , D . D . A . ( eds.), S tudies i n Ancient Europe, 1 97-212 . ( Leicester ). S i mpson , D . D . A ., 1 979. The e arly b ronze a ge. I n Megaw , J . V . S . a nd S i mpson , D . D . A . ( eds.), I n troduction t o British Prehistory , 1 78-241 . ( Leicester ). Smith , I . F ., 1 974. The n eolithic. I n Renfre w , C . ( ed .), Bri tish Prehistory : A Ne w Outl ine , 1 00-136. ( London ). S ofranoff , S . E ., 1 976. A Petrographic S tudy o f a Portion o f t he So-called 'Wind mill H ill ' a nd ' Peterborough ' T radi tions o f t he Wessex Area o f S ou thern England . M. Phil . d issertation , University o f S ou tha mpton . S pratling , M. G ., 1 972 . S ou thern British Decorated Bronzes o f t he L ate Pre- Ro man I ron Age. Ph . D. t hesis, University o f London . Wainwrigh t, G . J . a nd Longworth , I . H ., 1 971 . Durrington Walls. ( London ).

5 5

4 NOTES ON CERAMIC TRADE IN ANCIENT SCANDINAVIA 1 Birgitta Hulthen Summary Important production centres and ceramic distribution areas are not evident in Scandinavia prior to the iron age. It is shown that irrported pottery was frequently copied by native potters during the late iron age. There is, up to now, no evidence of ceramic mass production in Sweden until medieval times. Introduction Important production centres and s-ubstantial demand within a local area are necessary conditions for the development of ceramic trade. Imported goods can be identified in different ways. On the one hand, raw materials of imported pottery may differ from those locally available. On the other hand, decora­ tion and manufacturing techniques may, at certain times, differ from one area to another. In view of this, both ceramic raw materials and manufacturing techniques have been investigated. Studies of production centres and distribution patterns have also been of major importance in this research. Neolithic pottery The very first potters of Scandinavia belonged to the late mesolithic Erteb�lle people (from c. 5000 B. C.). Only two types of vessel were manufactured by these potters: a cooking pot with conical bottom, and an oval, shallow lamp vessel(Fig. 4:2), both products for domestic use made of local clay and tempe� (Hulthen, 1977, 23 ff). A specific distribution of these vessels may sometimes be observed. This is probably not a result of trade but due to settlement mobility (Andersen, 1975, 33). Seasonally dependent hunting and fishing caused a spread of both man and pottery. The cooking pot may also have been used for storage purposes and as a container for bringing products from fishing stations to dwelling places. The lamps have frequently been found with eel spears, and may have been used in connection with nocturnal fishing (Skaarup, 1980, 6ff; Hulthen 1981). The Erteb�lle ceramics from different areas are very homogeneous, and vessels of foreign shape and raw materials seern to be missing (Fig.4:3). Each group was provided with pottery by its own potters. 1

Cost unfortunately prohibited the reproduction of the author's microphotos in their original full colours. (eds.) 57

t r ) c i )

c d i •

b i )

•

-0

O c f ) ••

a

o•u • f

•

L .

I

• •

• C n a )

* 5 MI

a)

u a )

0

• r D 72+

a )

•

( 1 )

•

W 0

a )

E 0 • . )0 • C n

II *

0

• 4 1

C I )

4 > 4 )

4 • > •

I

0

c 0

34 5 c d •; 7 4 • " d

(I )

b L c r i

0

•e „

( / ' ; 1

0 U )

c i

( t $

• r I

•1 1

•

LH O

z 1 . 0 c e

•

0

0 W

•1 1 a)

t

)

a )

•

F ig .

4 :2 .

ErtebSlle c era mics: l a mp v essel ( left ), c ook ing p ot ( right ).

5 9

F ig . 4 :3.

F ig . 4 :4 .

Microphoto o f l a mp v essel ware. The c alciferous c lay i s t e mpered w ith c rushed r ock , c ha motte a nd p lan t material ( x20).

Microphoto o f middle n eolithic TRB p ottery . A f erriferous, q uaternary c lay : f ree o f c alciu m, t e mpered w i th c rushed g ran ite ( x20).

A s i milar p attern o f d istribu tion c an b e observed w ithin t he e arly n eolithic TRB ( Funnel Beaker Cul ture) g roups, f ro m c . 3 500 B . C. ( Hul then , 1 977 , 5 3 f , f ig . 5 8 ). During t he middle n eol ith ic p ottery b eca me l ess h o mogeneous. Apparently t he TRB p eople b eca me e xposed t o i nf luences f ro m d ifferen t d irect ions. These i nfluences a re r ef lected i n t he v ariety o f s hapes a nd d ecoration o f c era mic v essels. C lays a nd t e mper were, h o wever , s till o f l ocal o rig in ( Fig . 4 :4 ). Th is i nd icates a l ocal d iversif ication i n manufacture a nd e xcludes t he l ikelihood o f c era mic t rade (Hulthen, 1 977 , 1 20 ). The more un ifor m c era mics o f t he P itted Ware g roups a re a lso un l ikely t o h ave b een ob jects o f t rade. Of i n terest , h o wever , a re t he r eciprocal i nf luences o f P it ted Ware a nd Battlea xe Culture manufacturing p rocesses i n t he l ate middle n eol ithi c ( Hul then , 1 977 , 8 5 f a nd 1 43 ). Thus, c ha motte t e mper o ccurred i n t he l ate P itted Ware v essels a nd c rushed r ock was s ubst ituted f or c ha motte i n t he J and l ater v essels o f Battleaxe o rig in ( Fig .4 :6 ). This may p ossibly h ave b een d ue t o i nter marriage. The e arly Bat tleaxe p ottery i n Sweden a nd Norway r epresen ts a n ew c era mic p roduct b ased on c o mpletely n ew t echn i q ues ( Hu l th6n ,1977 , 1 44 f ; 1 975, 3 00 f ; 1 976a , 1 20 ) ( Fig . 4 :5). To s u m marise, n o t races o f c era mic t rade b etween i nd iv idual n eol ithic c ultural g roups h ave b een i dentif i ed . Furthermore, t here a re n o d ocu mented p roduct ion c en tres, n or p roven patterns o f w idely s pread p ottery d istribution i n t he S cand inav ian n eol ith ic . Bronze a ge

p ot tery

As i n t he n eolithic , t here i s n o e v idence f or c era mic t rade i n Sweden a nd Nor way d uring t he b ronze a ge. Local a reas may h ave h ad s pecialised p otters c arry ing o ut a more o r l ess c en tralised p roduct ion , b u t i t i s e qually p robable t hat e ach f ar m p roduced i ts own c era mics. Pottery o f Lusatian Culture a ppeara nce i s f requently f ound f ro m t his p eriod i n S cand inav ia . The v essels were made l ocally b y t echn iques s ho w ing fo rei g n i nf luence. Th is c onclusion i s b ased on i nvest igations o f p ottery f abrics c o mb ined w ith s tudies o f l ocal r aw materials (Hulthen , 1 975, 3 06). I ron age p ottery I t i s n ot un til t he Ro man i ron a ge t hat we h ave f ir m i nd ications o f c era mic t rade. I n s outh-eastern Norway t here h as b een f ound ev idence f or b oth a g reat p roduction c en tre a nd t he w ide d istribution o f p roducts. I nvestigation i nto t h is a rea i s s t ill i n p rogress, a nd i ncludes c lay p rospecting , a nalysis o f r aw a nd f ired c lays, a nd s tudy o f t e mper materials. D ifferen t f iring methods w ill a lso b e t ested . A well o rganized n etwork o f c era mic t rade a lready e x isted on t he European Cont inen t a t t his t i me, a nd we may r efer t o t he i ndustrially p roduced Terra S igillata which was d istributed t o most a reas ( Johns, 1 971 , 1 0 f ; Wide man e t a l ., 1 973 , 2f ) .

6 1

F ig . 4 :5 .

F ig . 4 :6.

Microphoto o f e arly Battleaxe p ottery . A c a lciferous q uaternary c lay t e mpered w ith c ha motte a nd s o me c rushed r ock ( x20).

Microphoto o f l ate Battleaxe p ottery . A f erriferous q uaternary c lay , f ree o f c alciu m , t e mpered w ith c rushed r ock ( x20).

I n t he r e mote n orthern European c oun tries, h o wever , only v ery f ew p ieces o f t his ware h ave b een f ound ( Selling , 1 933 , 10 1 , f ig . 5 ; Lund- Hansen a nd J örgensen , 1 980 , 6 ). This may i ndicate t hat t here was n o o rgan ized t rade n etwork importing c era mics t o S cand inav ia . I t was n ot un til t he l ate i ron a ge t hat s ubstan tial q uantities o f Con tinen tal c era mics were b rought i nto t he n orthern c oun tries ( Selling , 1 955, 2 15 f ). These f oreign c era m ics o riginated main ly f ro m t wo a reas: t he Rh ineland a nd t he S lav ic t erritories. F inn ish p ottery a lso o ccurred . Most o f t hese imported c era mics h ave b een f ound a t s eaport a nd t rade c en tres s uch a s B irka a nd Kaupang . I t s ee ms unlikely t hat a ll o f t hese v essels were i te ms o f t rade. The f ine, t in-foil d ecorated b eakers a nd j ugs, f or e xa mple, were i n a ll p robability b rought h ere b y missionaries ( Selling , 1 955 , 5 9 ; 1 972 ) f or r elig ious u se. The c oarse A-1 wares f ro m t he Rh ineland s ee m , j udg ing f ro m t heir s hape a nd q uality , t o h ave s erved a s c ontainers f or o ther t raded g oods ( Selling , 1 972 , 2 17 ). The c o m monest f oreign c era mics c a me f ro m t he S lav ic a reas. These d ark , t hin- walled , f inely d ecorated v essels o f h igh q uality h ave l ong b een c onsidered e xclusively a s imports. Technolog ical i nvestigations h ave p roved , h o wever , t ha t s uch c era mics were a lso s kilfully c opied by S candinav ian p otters who u sed l ocal r aw materials a nd a pplied t heir n or mal manufacturing methods ( Hul then , 1 976b ). These l ocally p roduced v essels a re h ardly d istinguishable f ro m imported S lavic ware b y macroscopic e xa mination . A long w ith c oarse, s i mple k itchen ware, t his p ottery b eca me t he d o minat ing c era mic t ype d uring t he t ransition b etween l ate i ron a ge a nd medieval t i mes. Medieval p ot tery Foreign p ottery s oon b eca me h ighly a ppreciated a nd f requently imported . Wheelthro wn , g lazed p ottery , a nd s toneware f ro m Ger many a nd t he Netherlands were i ntroduced , a nd h ave b een f ound i n g reat q uantities i n t o wns s uch a s Kal mar , Lund a nd Lödöse (Wah löö, 1 976 ; Bencard , 1 972 ). The d o mestic i ndustry s till r elied on t radit ional manufacturing methods, e xploiting l ocal r aw materials ( Selling , 1 976 , v iii ). Neither c o mplicated e quip men t n or s oph istica ted workshops were r equ ired . The p roduction c ould e asily b e c arried o ut a t h o me , l ike s laughtering , b re wing a nd o ther s easonal a cti vities. I t was p robably p art o f t he wo man 's work . This o pinion i s l argely b ased on p ottery c raft t raditions which p ersisted u ntil t he 2 0th c entury i n J utland a nd on Fyn i n Den mark ( Jensen , 1 924 ). The v essels t here were p roduced e xclusively b y wo men , a ccordi ng t o a ncient methods. During t he l ast c en turies, a t l east , h o wever , t hey were f requen tly t raded . I t i s i n teresting t o n ote t hat t he men - who were n ot a llo wed t o h andle t he unf ired p ottery -d istribu ted a nd t raded t hese c era mics o ver l ong d istances.

6 3

During med ieval t i mes t here was a g radual i ncrease i n d or restic manufacture o f s oph isticated p ottery , b u t a n a pparen t absence o f s uitable c lays must h ave b een a s erious obstacle. Th is p roble m c ould h ave b een overco me b y importing c lays f ro m overseas. S upport t o s uch a hypothesis i s p rov ided b y f inds o f t h in l ayers o f c lay - s o-called " clay b otto ms" - a t s everal s eap orts a long t he s ou thern Swed ish c oast . The " clay b otto ms" r est on s andy s oils. They a re g enerally 4 t o 5 cm t hick a nd o f i rregular s hape, a nd a rtefacts h ave n ever b een f ound i n t he m Technolog ical i nvestigations h ave c learly d istinguished t he c lays t hey c ontained f ro m l ocal q uaternary d eposits, n or mally u sed i n d o mest ic c era mic manufacture. Many o f t hese " bot to ms" c onsist o f r efractory c lay , which s int e rs a t o r a bove a t e mperature o f 1 300 ° C ( a r eport w ill s hortly b e pub lished i n Sweden ). These c lays were p ossibly t ransported b y b oat and s tored on t he s hore i n h eaps, o f which t he " botto ms" a re t he l ast r e mains. I t i s p ossible t hat a more i ndustrialised c era mic p roduction was i ni t ia ted , b ased on s uch imported c lays. This i nvolved workshops e quipped w ith t he p otters wheel a nd purpose b uilt k ilns. A c o mp letely n ew c era mic t radit ion a ppeared . Full t i me p otting c ertainly b eca me a male p rofession . As a c onsequence o f t he more i ntense p roduction , c era mic t rade must h ave b een b rought i n to o peration .

B ibl iography Andersen , S ., 1 975. R ingkloster, e n j ysk i nlandsboplads med Erteb9 511ekultur. Ku ml 1 973-74 , 1-108. Bencard , M., 1 972 . Medieval p ottery imported t o Den mark . Chateau Gaillard . ( Caen ). Hulth6n , B ., 1 975. Herstellungstechnik und For manalyse d er Kera mik a us Loderup 1 5. S tudien z u e ine m Gräberfeld i n Loderup. Acta Archaeolog ica Lundensia . S er. i n 8° . Nr. 1 0. ( Lund ). Hulth6n , B ., 1 976a . Technolog ical I nvestigation f or Ev idence o f Continu ity o r D iscon tinu ity o f Ancient Cera mic Trad itions, D issertatiiones Archaeolog icae Gandenses. Vol . XVI. ( Brügge). Hulthen , B ., 1 976b . Techn ical i nvestigation o f A ll-pottery . The Löddeköpinge I nvestigation I , 1 35-139. ( Lund ). Hul then , B ., 1 977 . On Cera mic Technology During t he S can ian Neolithic a nd Bronze Age, Theses a nd Papers i n North- European Archaeology 6 . ( Stockhol m ). J ensen , A ., 1 924 . J ydepotten . Vort Lands Aeldste Haandverk . ( Copenhagen ). J ohns, C ., 1 971 . Arretine a nd S a mian Pottery . ( London ). Lund- Hansen , U . a nd J orgensen , M. S ., 1 980. H i ml ing H$je. Skalk 6 . S elling , D ., 1 938. Terra S ig il latafynd id et f ria Ger man ien . Kulturhistoriska S tudier. S elling , D ., 1 955. Wik ingerzeitl iche u nd F rüh mittelalterl i c he Kera mik i n S chweden . ( Stockhol m ). S ell ing , D ., 1 972 . Rec. E . K . Hougen : The p ottery f ro m Kaupang. Nor weg ian Archaeol . Rev . 5( 2 ), 4 0-44 .

6 4

S ell ing , D ., 1 976. I n troduct ion . I n Wahlöö, C ., Kera mik 1 000 - 1 600 i Svenska Fynd . ( Lund ). Skaarup , J ., 1 980. Undersoisk S tenalder. Skalk . Wahlöö,

C ., 1 976. Kera mik 1 000 - 1 600 iSvenska Fynd . ( Lund ). Wide mann , M., P icon , F ., Asaro, F ., Michel , V . a nd Perl man , I ., 1 975. A Lyons b ranch o f t he p ottery- mak ing f ir m o f A teius o f Arezzo. Archaeo metry 1 7 , 4 5-59.

6 5

5 CE RA MIC EXC HANGE IN W ESTERN BRIT AIN : A PRELI MINARY V IE W E laine L . Morris

For many y ears, a rchaeologists h ave b een i nvestigating p reh istoric e xchange. They h ave t ried t o understand i ts o rgani z a tion a nd t he r ole i t p lays i n b oth p rehistoric s ocial o rganization a nd c ulture c hange. The ma jor emphasis h as b een t he i den tificat ion o f modes o f e xchange f ro m t he a rchaeological r ecord . Fall-off models h ave b een d eveloped a nd u tilized i n a n a tte mpt t o i den tify t hese mechan is ms ( Hodder , 1 974a , 1 978 ; Renfre w , 1 975 ; a nd Earle a nd Ericson , 1 977 ). The ma jority o f t hese s tud ies h ave c oncen trated on t he move men t o f as ingle g ood ( e.g . obsid ian ) over l ong d istances. This n arro w f ocus i s n ow w iden ing w i th t he t heoretical work by Renfre w ( 1977 ), t he a rchaeolog ical work o f I rwin ( 19 7 8 ), E ll ison ( 1980 ; t his v olu me) a nd Mc Guire a nd Do wnu m (manuscript ), a nd t he e thnograph ic s tudies o f Lauer ( 1971 ) a nd Hodder ( 1977a ; 1 979 ). They h ave c learly d e monstrated t hat a variety o f modes o f e xchange c an o perate w ithin a nd b etween g roups, a nd t hat t hese modes a re d ependent u pon t he t ype o f a rtefact i n c irculation a nd t he r ole t ha t a rtefact p lays w ithin t he s ociety . This a pproach , which e xa mines s everal d ifferen t t ypes o f ma terial c ul ture, w ill e nable t he a rchaeologist t o i den tify a v ariety o f l evel s o f c o mplex ity w ithin p otential ly d iverse s yste ms, r ather t han a ttaching a s tanda rdized l abel t o as yste m b ased u pon t he i n terpreta tion o f as ingle a rtefact s tudy s uch a s ar ed istribu tive s yste m o r a marketing s yste m . The i dentif ication a nd c o mparison o f e xchange n etworks s hould b e b ased u pon s everal c ritical v ariables, a s s uggested by F . P log ( 1977 ). These i nclude t he r ange a nd amount o f ma terials e xchanged , t he e x ten t o f t heir d istribu tions, t he t i me s pan o f t he n etworks i nvolved , t he d irection a nd i n tensity o f a ny t wo- way f lo w o f g oods, t he d egree o f c en tralization o f t he n etworks, a nd t he overal l c o mplex ity o f t hese s yste ms o f e xchange. S o me o f t hese c ritical c haracteristics c an b e i nvestigated f ro m t he p atterns o f a rtefacts i n t he a rchaeolog ical r ecord o f ar eg ion . The l i mitations o f t he d ata b ase, h o wever , r estrict t he l evels o f i nference p ossible f ro m t hese p atterns t o t hose o f b ehavioral v ariat ion r ather t han t he i dent if ication o f " specif ic b ehav ioral c orrela tes" ( F. P log , 1 977 , 1 38-9) . P log emphasizes t he f ruitlessness o f a tte mpting t o r elate a ny c ategory o f s ocial o rgan ization t o e cono mic c oncepts s uch a s r eciproci ty , r edistribu tion , o r marketing . These c ategories a re " insensit ive t o s ociocultural v ariation t hat i s c haracteristic o f b ehav ioral p a tterns... The 6 7

b oundaries o f t hese c ategories a re u nclear, a nd d ay-to-day e xchanges i nvolve h ighly c o mplex a d mix tures o f t he t hree.... a r elat ive minority o f c ultural s yste ms f all c onveniently w ith in ( the) p igeonholes..." ( F. P log , 1 977 , 1 39 ) o f b and ,

t ribe,

c hiefdo m , o r s tate.

This emphasis on t he n etwork c haracteristics wh ich c an b e " analyzed a s c on tinuous v ariables a nd c on tinuous p atterns o f c hange" ( F . P log , 1 977 , 1 39 ) i s a s tep t o wards u nderstanding s o me a spects o f c hange i n l ater Bri tish p rehistory . An e xplanatory f ra me work which a ccoun ts f or t he c o mplex d istributional e v idence i s n ecessary t o a rticulate t he v ariety o f d ifferen t d istribu tional p atterns o f a rtefacts a cco mpany ing more c o mplex s ocieti e s. Hodder s u m marizes t his wel l i n h is d iscussion o f t he p roble m s i nheren t when a tte mpt ing t o a pply t he Childean c oncept o f c ul ture t o t he a rchaeolog ical r ecord : "Hu man g roups f or m o pen a nd n ot c losed s yste ms a nd t he a rchaeological e v idence, w ith i ts v ariety o f d iffering d istribu tions a ccord ing t o d ifferent a rtefact t ypes, r ela tes t o d ifferent p atterns o f i n teraction a nd p articipa t ion r a ther t han t o s i mple s ocio-cultural o r t ribal g roupings" ( Hodder , 1 977b , 3 41 ). These o pen s yste ms i ncorporate t he c on t inually c hang ing a ll iances o f o pera tive p olitical a nd e cono mic u n its w ithin a t ribal s yste m ( Dalton , 1 977 ). The p attern ing o f material c ul ture c an p rov ide i nfor mation a bou t i nteractions a nd a ll iances i n t he p ast. Th is p aper a tte mpts t o a pply t he a pproach o f i den tify ing av ariety o f d ifferen t modes o f e xchange t hrough a n a nalysis o f t he s patial a nd q uan tif iable p attern ing o f a rtefacts f ound w ith in a l i mited r egion o f western Britain , d ated t o c . 4 50 B . C. - 5 0 A . D. ( 6 , 7 50 s q . miles - s ee E llison , t his v olu me ), i n o rder t o d e monstrate t he c o mplex ity o f e xchange n etworks a nd t he d egree o f c en tral ized c ontrol a nd a u thority a ssociated w ith t he m . Three d ifferent a rtef act t ypes were s elected : o ne e xa mple o f f iner , u sually d ecorated p ottery ( Group A Malvern ian f abric ; Peacock , 1 968 ); a t ype o f c oarser , u sually u ndecorated p ottery ( Clee H ills d olerite-te mpered f abric ; Gelling a nd Peacock , 1 969) ; a nd o ne t ype o f c era m ic s al t c on tainer ( Droitwich s alt c ontainers; Hunt , 1 976 a nd Morris, 1 981 ). The k no wn d istribu tions o f e ach a rtefact t ype a re p lotted i n t heir e ntirety ( Figs. 5 :1 , 3 , 5 ). The nu mbers o n e ach map i nd icate t hose s ite where : 1 ) a ll o f t he p ottery r ecovered b y t he e xcavator s till e x ists i n t he c ollection ; 2 ) over 3 00.0 g o f p ottery were r ecovered ; a nd 3 ) where a t l east t wo o f t he t hree a rtefact c lasses a re r epresented . The d etailed q uantitative i n for mation i s p rov ided i n F ig . 5 : 7. The l ocat ions o f t he s ources f or t he two p ottery c lasses h ave b een g iven a ssigned g rid r eferences s olely t o e ase t he p roble ms o f measuring d istances f ro m a n e x tensive g eolog ical o utcrop t o a n o ccupa tion s ite.

6 8

The frequency of each pottery type is represented as a proportion of that type by weight amongst the excavated pottery collection, dated to the period 450 B.C. - A.D. 50, from each find spot (Fig. 5: 7). The ceramic salt containers are represented as a ratio of those containers to pottery, by weight again (see also Sidrys, 1977, 99-104). This latter ratio is here called the Droitwich Salt Index (DSI). These indices represent an indirect measure of the flow rate of goods entering each site, throughout the period (see McGuire and Downum, manuscript). The best index measure­ ment would have been the weight of commodity against the weight of excavated soil, but the latter figures were rarely available. In addition, the type of site would have influenced this index since the collections from several of the sites are associated mainly with large blocks of often sterile, defensive rampart soil, and not necessarily by soils resulting from living surfaces, or activity areas. The index of each artefact type from each of the sixteen sites, which satisfy the above minimal requirements of reliability, is plotted against the distance of that site from the appropriate source (Fig. 5 : 2 , 4 , 6). The type of site (large or small hillfort, salt-working site, etc.) is also represented symbolically . With these three distributions anq the three fall-off curves based on the pottery indices and the DSI, is it possible that three different modes of exchange could account for them? What types of exchange could produce these patterns? At the lowest order of complexity, both Renfrew (1975) and Fry (1979) have described a direct type of exchange between producer and consumer, probably near the place of production, which would result in the very localized distribution of an artefact. One possible example of this model is the resultant spatial distrib­ ution of the undecorated pottery from the Clee Hills source. The patterning of this artefact is strongly affected by distance, with a maximum distribution of 35 km. There appears to be no correl­ ation between type of site and percentage of this pottery in the particular collections. Hodder (1974b and c) discusses this very corrrnon model with regard to Romano-British coarse pottery of the first to fourth centuries A. D., and suggests a strong correspondence between these distributional effects and simple competitive market principles or predicted market areas. These marketing models for coarse, unspecialized artefacts are limited by the 11constraints of tirre, energy and social cost, operating as a function of distance from the central place 11 (of production) as has been discussed many times with regard to site catchment analysis (Higgs and Vita-Finzi, 1972), Central Place Theory (C.A. Smith, 1976), and the territorial extent of early states (Cherry, 1978). The cost effectiveness of a day's journey to the Clee Hills, and back, to obtain pots had to be justified against both the quality of the artefact and any other social and material exchanges which accompanied the transaction (see Hodder, 1980). For example, the 32 km trip to the salt­ working site of Droitwich from the Clee Hills area (Fig. 5 : 7, Site 2) had its obvious material rewards. Renfrew (1977, 84) describes this restricted area of activity as "supply zone behavior", where single journeys by the consumer to the producer, or vice

69

v ersa , r esult i n " an e x tre me l ocalization i n t he d istribution o f t he p roduct t hat i s n ot i n g eneral h anded on i n s ubsequent t ransa ctions". Therefore, t h is t ype o f n etwork , o r mode o f e xchange, i s p robably b ased u pon s ingle e xchange t ransactions where t he p roducer a nd c onsu mer a re k no wn t o e ach o ther a nd a re l iv ing w ithin a d ay 's j ourney o f e ach o ther. I n ter med iary d ev ices, whether i n t he f or m o f middle men , o r s pecial f or ms o f i nfor mation e xchange s uch a s d ecorative s ty les (Wobst , 1 977 ; S . P log , 1 980 ) a re n ot n ecessary . These p roducts may n ever r each t he f ocus o f ac entralized s yste m , i f t he a rtefacts i nvolved a re e ither o f l ow s ocial , o r p urely u tilitarian , v alue. This mechan is m o f d irect e xchange w ill o f ten r esult i n a n i te m d o minating t he s ite c ollections w ithin i ts c ategory i f t he s ite i s l ocated n ear t he p roduction a rea . The t ype o f s ettle ment s ite w ill t end n ot t o a ffect t he p roportion o f t he i te m f ound a t i t , bu t t he d istance o f t hat s ite f ro m t he p roduction c en tre o r s ource w ill s trongly a ffect t he q uantity a nd r esult i n a s teep , f all-off c urve. The u ndecorated i ron a ge p ottery made i n t he G lee H ills a rea s ee ms t o b e a n e xa mple o f t his l ocally d istributed r eg ional c oarse ware. The n ext l evel o f e xchange c o mplex ity c an b e s ub-d iv ided a ccord ing t o d ifferen t t ypes o f material c ulture - f or e xa mple, b etween s ocially-valued a rtefacts i nvolved e ither i n h igh l evel g if t e xchange ( see E ll ison , t his v olu me ) o r i n more g eneralized r eciprocally-balanced t ransfer , a nd l o w-level c o m modities. I f t he f unction o f a n i te m r esides mainly w i th in t he s ocial s phere, i .e. i ts importance i s b ased u pon i ts s ocial v alue, t hen a t t he r eg ional s cale i ts d istribution w ill a ppear a s ar ela tively r estricted , i ntensive z one i nfluenced only marg inally by d istance o r e ase o f t ransporta tion . I n an on- market , d ecentralized s yste m , a ccess t o s uch i te ms would b e c ontrolled a nd d iffused by s ocial r elations h ips a nd o bl igations a long c hannels o f k inship a nd f riendsh ip . The l i mits o f t he d istribu tion o f s ocially-valued i te ms c an b e i dentif ied a s t he s pheres w ith in which t hose i te ms a re d ef ined a nd r ecogn ized . These l i mits o ften t end t o s ho w a b ounded a nd p lateau-like , f all-off c urve ( Hodder , 1 977c ). The u se o f c entral p laces a s l oci f or e xchange a ctivity may a lter s uch d istribu tions ( Renfre w , 1 977 , 8 5-7 ; E ll ison , 1 980 , 1 30-132 ), while g if t e xchange may r esult i n t he a ppearance o f o ccasional i te ms a t g reater d istances ( see Fry , 1 979 a nd t his v olu me). This mode o f e xchange may b e t he mechanis m b eh ind b oth t he e x tensive d istribution o f i sola ted e xa mples o f Group A Malvernian d ecorated p ot tery , u p t o 1 20 km , a nd t he i n tensive d istribution a t a more l i mited d istance , max i mu m 4 5-65 km ( see F ig . 5 : 3 a nd 4 ). D istance d oes s ee m t o have s o me e ffect o n t he p roportion o f t h is s tyl istically d istinctive, d ecora ted p ottery , b ut l ess e ffect t han t hat f or t he undecorated G lee H ills p ottery , s ince t he i n tensive z one d istribution f or t he d ecorated material i s t wice t hat f or t he u ndecorated . There i s ab ounded e ffect p resent a t t he 4 5-65 km z one, which i s s i milar t o t ha t s ho wn f or t he Dobunn ic c oins o f l ate i ron a ge d ate f ound i n t he r eg ion ( Hodder , 1 977c , F ig . 5 -A a nd C ). The t ype o f s ite d oes n ot s ee m t o a ffect t he f all-off c urve f or t his d ecorated p ottery , h o wever , i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat t his p ottery i s made v ery n ear t o t he l argest , e xcavated i ron a ge h illfort ( defended h illtop s ettle ment ) i n t he

7 0

region (Fig.

5 : 7, Site 1).

A very different mode of exchange is suggested by the fall-off curve for the salt containers (Fig. 5 :6). Here a rruch more distinctive pattern exists with two effects: 1) a generalized, bounded plateau in conjunction with 2) the concentration effect of a possible central locus for distribution and exchange, or as a centre for the consumption of salt (Fig. 5 :7, Site 1). This locus is not the closest site to the source area for the salt, but it does provide a clear peak in the distributional curve which suggests a focus of activity for the exchange or use of salt, at some distance from the production area (29 km). The degree and strength of that focus at Site 1 complements its relative importance to the distribution of the decorated pottery, but contrasts with the distribution of the undecorated pottery, none of which reaches the site. This superficial examination of the archaeological pattern­ ing of three different types of material culture within a small regional framewo.rk, has demonstrated several possible modes of exchange that indicate the existence of a loosely centralized system during the later iron age in western Britain. An overall similarity of material cultur·e has shown a· tendency towards considerable uniformity within this region suggesting a network along the lines of reciprocal exchange for some items at certain levels. But the complexity of the system emerges alongside this modifying effect, in the forms of supply zone activity and the presence of a centralizing factor. It has been possible, therefore, to identify different modes of exchange for different types of objects. In two out of three cases, the distribution patterns do not appear to be influenced by the type, or size, of site where the artefacts are found. The next stage of this research will improve and clarify these subjectively established differences through statistical analysis, and will review the applicability of the various modes of exchange outlined above.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Roberta Tomber, Jinny Allon, Clive Gamble, Hilary Howard, and Mike Pitts who all read and commented on different aspects of this paper. I am indebted to the many museums and site directors who allowed me access to their material, often prior to publication.

71

F ig . 5 :1 .

D istribu tion o f C lee H ills d olerite p ottery .

7 2

C LEE H ILLS P OTTERY 0 = H IL LFORT (unde r 6 ha . )

E L I ]= D OUBLE-D ITCH

E NCLOSURE

A=

S INGLE- D ITCH E NCLOSURE = S ALT-WORK ING S IT E

8 0

6 0 4

5 1 5

A 11

r o i 9

Ä 16

C 8

1 0

2 0

2

3 0

4 0

D ISTANCE

F ig .

5 :2 .

5 0 F ROM

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 00

S OURCE ( KM)

Percentage o f C lee H ills d olerite p ottery a t e ach s ite men tioned i n t he t ex t .

7 3

F ig . 5 :3.

D istribut ion o f Malvern ian Group A p ottery .

7 4

G ROUP " A" MALVERN 1AN

e =

P OTTERY

H ILLFORT(over

( 1 ). H ILLFORT (unde r 6 ha)

N = MULTIPLE

ENCLOSURE

=D OUBLE- D ITCH

A

E NCLOSURE

S INGLE - D ITCH E NCLOSURE

#= S ALT-WORK ING S ITE ,i fe=

8 0 1 6

U NCERTA IN

T YPE

1

6 0 3

C

4

1

A

1 7 3

2 0

1 4

4 0

6 0

8 0

D ISTANCE F ROM S OURCE (km . )

F ig .

5 :4 .

Percentage o f M alvernian Group A p ottery a t e ach s ite mentioned i n t he t ex t.

7 5

1 00

D ISTR IBUT ION

O F

D RO IT W ICH

N

S ALT C ONTA INERS S

= source

L AND

O VER

2 50 METERS i 0 0

1 0

2 0 2 0

F ig .

3 0 m i les 4 0 k ms

5 :5.

D istribution o f Droit w ich s alt c on tainers.

7 6

R AT IO O F D RO ITW ICH S ALT CONTA INERS

1 . 0

T O •

Si

C

P OTTERY

H ILLFORT(ove r =H ILLFORT ( under 6 ha )

• = MULT IPLE

0 . 8

E NCLOSURE

El =DOUBLE-D ITCH E NCLOSURE S INGLE - D iTCH E NCLOSURE * = U NCERTA IN

T YPE

0 . 6

0 0 .4

4D 4

0 . 2

Cg

9

1 C

A, •1 ' 0 3

2 0

1 4 Ä6

* 3 1 2 0 Ä5

4 0

6

6 0

8 0

1 00

D ISTANCE F ROM SOURCE ( km . )

F ig .

5 :6.

Droitwich s alt i ndex ( D.S.I.) f or e ach s ite mentioned i n t he t ex t .

7 7

.

2 8.0

3 2.0g.

N.

-I-

N -

O

a l c s . 1

C . I

s ingle d itch e nclosure;

k m.

cD

C,

t o

1 0.87 ,

L i,

p rior

7 1.0 k m.

0

L I,

e xcavated

1, CO CO

1 2.59

L I,

k m.

e s;

6 n.n

2 31.5g.

c

0 .042

0 L . r ,

k m.

—

s J 4 95095

Ul L " , .-

3 7.0

.

S DE

E ,

S HARPSTONE H ILL - S ITE A , S ALOP.

.

3 7.8%

L I,

3 6.0 k m.

8 2.0 k m.

I

-

-

. 0

1 6

S O 5 45750

2 20.0g.

N .

S H

4 6.0 k m.

3 .0%

,J D

C AYNHAM C AMP, S ALOP.

1 73208

.

G LOS.

S P

7 5.0 k m.

r n

1 5

D DE

-

I

,. 0

S ALMONSBURY,

N.

10 3 .09.

.

k m.

c

3 6.0

c

1 .4%

6 9.0g.

I

3 64.og

k m.

N .

k m.

2 5.0

C

1 4

4 2.0

0 .048

9 .2%

,—

S P 0 89250

1 0.0g

0

U

k m.

2 ,061.0g.

r . 7

G LOS.

G UITING P OWER,

1 3

4 6.0

0 .013

2 50.09.

1 0,403.0g. I

5 24364

k m.

k m. .

S O

4 3.0

2 3.0

o

S H

1 7.0%

1 5.4%

3 8.0 k m.

2 0,635.5g.

0

D INEDOR, H EREFORD

2 12.09

3 ,818.59

1 9.0%

7 73.5g.

. N .

4 3.0 k m.

k m.

2 ,875.59.

2 2.0 k m.

9 55.0g.

NJ

0 .144

2 8.0

3 1.0 k m.

3 .7%

-

r -

1 2

S O 485765

C.

S DE

i • . . . 0

B ROMFIELD,

i n

.7

S ALOP.

C T

c 4

C

1

C .,

E ,

CO

0 .057

.

S O 9 80361

4 , ,

M E

E ,

C • J N.

8 ,-,

B ECKFORD W ORCS.

.

2 6.6%

C .;

2 ,201.0g

L N I s ID

. -

1 0

s .f D — .

1 7.0 k m.

E

0 .203

.

S O 7 90750

E

D DE

C0•

B LACKSTONE, W ORCS.

0

6 ,744.5g.

0 DI 0

4 0.0 k m.

i

3 2.7%

i

4 ,189.ng

o

I ll C

k m.

c

C s i .7

4 5.0

0

OC ) L I,

0 .203

c

I i,

S O 4 45668

k m.

I

6 7.0

i

_

1 ,493.0g.

a , ( N

S H

6 20.0g.

3 2.0 k m.

—

n 9n380

4 1.5%

3 9,783.0g.

0

9

C ROFT AMBREY,

8

S P

S DE

4 .09

1 6,377.09.

1 5.59.

L I N

H EREFORD

B ROADWAY, W ORCS.

C.

7

-7 0, C I

2 10005

Z r

CO Ul 01 .

k m.

i

S P

i

M E

1 -,

K, L I,

C LAYDON P IKE L ECHLADE, G LOS.

c :

C 0, CO

k m.

c r ;

E ,

5 0.0

C

0, CO 01 L

2 1,P

k m.

I

0 .003

CO

1 .1%

.

4

E

8 ,911.59

C T

6

S O 4 48426

S DE

.

k m.

CO u-, r . .

K ENCHESTER, H EREFORD

.

2 7.0

3 2.0

B Y W EIGHT

C

0 .224

2 .0%

W EIGHT

T OTAL

C

5

S O 9 75380

E

S H

6 n4.5g.

k m.

2 4,0

7 9.3%

( SO 5 95835)

S OURCE

F ROM

D ISTANCE

.

C AMP,

E f •-,

C ONDERTON W ORCS.

.

N .

4

e .,

S O 9 58402

C N I

S H

CT .

H ILL,

.7 —

' I D

B REDON

8 98630

P ERCENTAGE

F ABRIC

0

WORCS.

S O

S WS

5 0)

H ILLS D OLERITE

-A .D.

C LEE

B .C.

I

W ORCS.

-

2 4,371.0g.

W EIGHT

k m.

7 7544 )

6 .0

( SO

FROM S OURCE

D ISTANCE

( c.450

C 71 —

7 9.27

P ERCENTAGE

F ABRIC

C )

S T.,

7 63372

W EIGHT

P OTTERY M ALVERNIAN

-7 .

F RIAR

s n

L H

S OURCE

F ROM

D ISTANCE

' A

i

D ROITWICH

H ILL,

I NDEX

G R ,U P

0 L , 1

3

M IDSUMMER

WORCS.

R EFERENCE

C ONTAINERS

D R0I TWICH

S ALT

N.

2

1

7

S ITE

G RID

N ATIONAL

c r , LJ

_ J

0 •

c r )

L L I

C U

c r ,

9

O D

_O

C U

0_

—

J ENKS

W .E.

d ouble d itch

G ELLING

P .S.

1 976

M USEUM

L ISHED

U NPUB-

1 969

P EACOCK,

G ELLING &

1 979 D UNNING,

C HELTENHAM

S AVILLE, M USEUM

C HELTENHAM

c oming

S TANFORD, f orth-

B RITNELL, 1 974

K ENYON, 1 953

S TANFORD

S .C.

f orthc oming

H EREFORD C ITY M USEUM

B RITNELL

H UNT

W .J.

A .

1 974 H UNT,

C ITY M USEUM

1 946 S TANFORD,

C ITY M USEUM H EREFORD

S MITH,

W ORCESTER

C URR. 7 5

O XFORDSHIRE U NIT

c oming

M USEUM

A RCHAEOL.

H EREFORD W ORCS. C OUNTY

A RCHAEOLOG ICAL

1 959 T OMBER, f orth-

M USEUM

T HOMAS,

1 938

B IRM INGHAM

H ENCKEN,

B IRMINGHAM M USEUM

1 976

H UNT,

A ,

H UNT

1 981

S TANFORD,

R EFERENCE

P UBLICATION

M USEUM

B IRM INGHAM

H OLDER

P RESENT

B ibl iography Britnell ,

W. J ., 1 974. 2 93-297.

Beckford .

Curr. Archaeol .

4 ,

Cherry ,

J ., 1 978. Generalization a nd t he a rchaeology o f t he s tate. I n Green , D ., Haselgrove, C ., a nd S priggs, M. ( eds.), S ocial Organ ization a nd S ettle men t , Brit . Archaeol . Rep . S 47 , 4 11-437 . ( Oxford ). £urr. Archaeol ., 1 981 . C laydon P ike. Curr. Archaeol . 7 5, 10-111 . Dalton ,

G ., 1 977. Aborig inal e cono mies i n s tateless s ocieties. I n Earle, T . a nd Ericson , J . ( eds.), Exchange Syste ms i n Prehistory , 1 91-212 . ( London ). Dunn ing , G ., 1 976. S al monsbury , Burton-on-the- Water , G loucestershire. I n Harding , D . ( ed .), H illforts Later Prehistoric Earthworks i n Brita in a nd I reland , 7 5-1 18 , ( London ). Earle ,

T .

a nd Ericson , J . ( eds.), Preh istory . ( London ).

1 977 .

Exchange Syste ms i n

E ll ison , A ., 1 980. S ettle ments a nd r eg ional e xchange: a c ase s tudy . I n Barrett , J . a nd Bradley , R . ( eds.), The British Later Bronze Age , Brit . Archaeol . Rep. 8 3, 1 27-140. ( Oxford ). Fry , R .,

1 979. The e cono mics o f p ottery a t T ikal , Guate mala : models o f e xchange f or s erv ing v essels. A mer. Antiq . 4 4 , 4 94-512 . Gelling , P . a nd Peacock , D . P.S., 1 969. The p ottery f ro m Caynha m Ca mp , n ear Ludlo w . Trans. S hropshire Archaeol . S oc. 5 8 , 9 6-100. Hencken , T ., 1 938 . The e xcavation o f t he i ron age c a mp on Bredon H ill , G loucestersh ire, 1 935-37 . Archaeol . J . 9 5, 1 -111 . H iggs, E . a nd V ita- Finzi , C ., 1 972 . Prehistoric e cono mies: at erritorial a pproach . I n H iggs, E . ( ed .) , Papers i n Econo mic Prehistory , 2 7-36. ( Ca mbridge). Hodder , I ., 1 974a . Regression a nalysis o f s o me t rade a nd market ing p atterns. World Archaeol . 6 , 1 72-189. Hodder , I ., 1 974b . S o me marketing models f or Ro mano- British c oarse p ottery . Britann ia 5 , 3 40-359. Hodder , I ., 1 974c. The d istribution o f two t ypes o f Ro manoBritish c oarse p ottery i n t he West Sussex r eg ion . Sussex Archaeol . Collect . 12 , 1 -11 . Hodder , I ., 1 977a . The d istribu tion o f material c ul ture i te ms i n t he Baringo d istrict , western Kenya. Man n . s . 1 2 , 2 39- 2 69. Hodder , I ., 1 977b . S o me n ew d irections i n t he s patial a nalysis o f a rchaeological d ata . I n C larke , D . L . ( ed .), S patial Archaeology , 2 23-351 . ( London ). Hodder , I ., 1 977c . Ho w a re we t o s tudy d istribu tions o f i ron a ge ma terials? I n Collis, J . ( ed .), The I ron Age i n Britain - a Rev ie w , 8 -16. ( Sheff ield ). Hodder , I ., 1 978 . S o me e ffects o f d istance on p atterns o f h u man i n teraction . I n Hodder , I . ( ed .), The S patial Organ ization o f Culture , 1 55-178 .

( London ).

7 9

Hodder , I ., 1 979. Econo mic a nd s ocial s tress a nd material c ulture p at terning . A mer. Antiq . 4 4 , n o. 3 , 4 46-453. Hodder, I ., 1 980. Trade a nd e xchange : d ef initions, i dentif ications a nd f unction . I n Fry , R . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Reg ional Exchange, S oc . A mer. Archael . Papers n o. 1 , 1 51-156. (Washing ton ). Hunt , A ., 1 976. Excava tions a t Friar S treet. West Midlands Ne ws S heet 1 8 , 3 9-40 a nd 6 4-65. Hun t , A ., f orthco ming . Excavations a t B lackstone , Worcestersh ire. I rwin , G ., 1 978. Pots a nd e n trepöts: a s tudy o f s ettle men t , t rade, a nd t he d evelop ment o f e cono mic s pecial ization i n Papuan p reh istory . World Archaeol . 9 , n o. 3 , 2 99- 3 19. Kenyon , K ., 1 953. Supple men tary excavat ions - 1 ) . D inedor Ca mp . I n Kenyon , K ., Excavations a t Su tton Walls, Herefordshire 1 948-51 , Archaeol . J . 10 , 1 -82 . Lauer , P ., 1 971 . Chang ing p atterns o f p ot tery t rade t o t he Trobiand I slands. World Archaeol . 3 , n o. 2 , 1 97-209. Mc Guire, R . a nd Do wnu m , C ., Manuscript. S hell , Kayen ta p ottery , a nd f all-off a nalysis. A p aper s ub mitted t o A mer. Antiq . f or publication . Copy a t Dept . o f An thropology , University o f Arizona-, Tucson . Morris, E ., 1 981 . Petrolog ical r eport o n t he Beaker a nd i ron age c era mics f ro m Midsu m mer H ill . I n S tanford , S . C ., Midsu m mer H ill , 1 51-155. ( Leo minster). Peacock , D . P.S., 1 968 . A p etrolog ica l s tudy o f c erta in i ron a ge p ottery f ro m western England . Proc. Preh ist . S oc. 3 4 , 4 14-426. Plog , F ., 1 977 . Model ing e cono mic e xchange. I n Earle, T . a nd Ericson , J . ( eds.), Exchange Syste ms i n Preh istory , 1 27-140. ( London ). Plog , S ., 1 980. V illage a utono my i n t he A merican S outhwest : a n e valuation o f t he e v idence. I n Fry , R . ( ed .), Models a nd Methods i n Reg ional Exchange, S oc. A mer. Archaeol . n o. 1 , 1 35-146. (Washington ). Renfre w , C ., 1 975. Trade a s a ction a t ad istance : q uestions o f i ntegration a nd c o m mun ication . I n S abloff , J . a nd La mberg- Karlovsky , C . ( eds.) , Ancien t C iv ilizat ion a nd Trade, 3 -39. ( Albuquerque). Renfre w , C ., 1 977. A lternative models f or e xchange a nd s patial d istribu tion . I n Earle, T . a nd Ericson , J . ( eds.), Exchange Syste ms i n Prehistory , 7 1-90. ( London ). S av ille, A ., 1 979. Excavat ions a t Gu iting Po wer I ron Age S ite, G loucestershire, 1 974 . ( Bristol ). Smith , C . A ., 1 976. Reg ional e cono m ic s yste ms: l ink ing g eographical models a nd s ocioecono mic p roble ms. I n Smith , C . A . ( ed .), Reg ional Analysis I : Econo mic Syste ms, 3 -63. ( London ). Smith , C . N . S ., 1 946. A p reh istoric a nd Ro man s ite a t Broadway . Trans. Worcestershire Archaeol . S oc . 2 6 , 5 7- 7 4. S tanford , S . C ., 1 974. Crof t A mbrey . ( Leo minster). S tanford , S .

C ., 1 981 .

Midsu m mer H ill .

8 0

( Leo minster).

S tanford , S . C ., f orthco ming . Excavations a t Bro mfield , S hropshire. Tho mas, N ., 1 959. The e xcavations a t Conderton Ca mp , Bredon H ill , 1 958-9. Proc. Cottes wold Natur. F ield C lub 3 3 , 1 00-106. To mber, R ., f orthco ming . The p ottery . I n Rahtz , S . a nd Wil mot , A . ( eds.) , Excavations a t Kenchester , Herefordshire. Wobst , H . M., 1 977 . S tyl istic b ehav ior a nd i nfor mation e xchange. Un iversity o f Michigan Anthropol .Papers 6 1 , 3 17-342 . ( Ann Arbor ).

8 1

6 CE RA MIC CO MP ARISO NS CO NC ER N I NG REDIST RIB UTIO N IN CHACO CANYO N , H .

Proble m ,

b ackground ,

NE W M EXICO

Wolcott Toll

a nd a pproach

Chaco Canyon i n n orthwestern Ne w Mex ico h as o f l ate c aught t he f ancy o f t he a rchaeologically i nclined , p ubl ic a nd p rofessional a l ike. As a l arge, well-preserved a rchaeological a rea w ith c learer t han u sual r egional a ttributes, a nd wi th a rch itectural s uggestions o f s ocial d ifferen tiation , Chaco migh t e ven b e c alled t rendy i n t er ms o f p rofessional i nterest ( Altschul , 1 978 ; Fritz , 1 978 ; Kelley a nd Kelley , 1 975 ; -Grebinger ,1978 t o c ite af ew e xa mples). While r eg ional s yste ms a nd s ocial d ifferentiation a re t opics wh ich a re h ighly a ppropriate t o a nalysis o f t he Chaco s yste m ( Judge , 1 979 ; S chelberg , 1 979), t he s taff o f t he National Park S erv ice Chaco Center i s c onsiderably more c autious a bou t mak ing g rand s tate ments a bout t he c ulture h istory a nd p rocess o f t he Chaco Anasazi. This c au tiousness a rises i n p art , n o d oubt , f ro m " kno wing t oo much" a bout e xhaustive d etails o f t he a rchaeolog ical r ecord a s t he r esult o f t en y ears o f r esearch i n Chaco. I t i s t he Chaco Cen ter 's t ask , t hen , s o meho w t o b ridge t he c onsidera ble g ap b etween t he " big p icture" a nd t he i n fin ite d eta il . Bu ilding s uch a b ridge i s e very a rchaeologist 's t ask - t he p ossible d ifference h ere i s t hat t here a re s o many a but ments, b ut s o f ew s pans d ecisively p laced . This p aper i s a n e xa mination o f b oth s ides o f t he g ap a nd o f h ow t hey might b egin t o b e b ridged u sing t he c era mic d ata we n ow h ave a t h and . Redistribution i s ap ro minent f eature o f a nu mber o f i nterpretations a nd e xplanations o f t he Chaco r ecord ( Judge, 1 979 ; S chelberg , 1 979 ; Plog , 1 974 ; Grebinger , 1 978 ; I rwin- Willia ms, 1 977 ). The a rgu men ts f or why r edistribu tion s hould h ave e x isted a re c o mpelling , b ut t he g oods i nvolved , t he d estination a nd s ources o f t hose g oods, a nd t he mode o f t hat r edistribu tion r e ma in l argely u nclear. The q uestions t o b e a ddressed h ere a re : 1 . .

G iven t he materials a t hand , b e s ho wn u sing c era mics?

h ow c ould r edistribu tion

2 .

Do t he d ata a s c ollected d e monstra te c era mic r edistribut ion?

3 .

G iven t he c ul tural c ontext a nd t he a pparent t rends, what c an b e s aid a bout t he na ture o f t he e cono mic s yste m?

8 3

Each o f t he a bove h as p oten tial f or f eature l eng th r a mif ication ; t herefore t he a pproach h ere must b e s elective a nd i n s o me c ases s pare. I t will f ollo w t h is b asic s che me : a n e clectic a ccount o f t he e nv iron ment a nd a rchaeology o f Chaco t o i l lustrate why i t i s r easonable t o l ook f or r ed istribu tion a nd e ven markets i n t he f irst p lace ; as ection on e v idence a nd impl ications i n c era mic d ata t a ilored t o t he t ype o f c ollect ion we h ave; a nd f inally a pplication t o t he Chaco c ase o f t he a ttributes a ccessible w ith our c era mic d ata a nd r elevant t o t he c ultural models t hat h ave b een p roposed . Chaco Canyon - s etting a nd a rchaeology Chaco Canyon i s l ocated i n t he c enter o f t he S an J uan Basin , ad ra inage f eature o f a bout 6 7 , 5 00 km 2 i n n orthwestern Ne w Mex ico. The c anyon d rains t o t he S an J uan R iver , which i n t urn d rains t o t he Colorado R iver. The c anyon i tself r eceives a n a verage o f only 2 1 .6 cm o f r ainfall a nnually , t hough t he moun ta ins a nd h ighlands s urround ing t he b asin r eceive c onsiderably more ( Fig . 6: 1 ). The mountains t o t he n orth o f t he S an J uan R iver p rov ide i t w ith a p er manent f lo w ; t he d ra inages t o t he s outh o f t he r iver a re i n ter mittent . The Chaco "R iver" i s a« m a jor s outhern t ributary t o t he S an J uan , a nd Chaco Canyon s its a t t he a pprox i ma te c enter o f t he Chaco Basin (Marshall e t a l ., 1 979, 2 1-22 ). The c anyon h as a l ong h istory o f hu man o ccupation , by f ar t he most i ntense p ortion o f which was t he Anasazi p eriod , d ating f ro m c a . A . D. 5 00 t o c a . A . D. 1 300 ( Hayes, 1 975). During t his p eriod , p opulat ion i ncrease i n t he Anasazi a rea i ncluding Chaco Canyon i s p robably l argely a ttribu table t o i ncreased s edent is m a nd r eliance on a griculture ( Hayes, n .d .; Swedlund a nd S essions, 1 976). A c hange f ro m p ithouse dwell ing t o multiple r oo m , s urface dwellings ( pueblos) with c ere mon ial p it s tructures ( k ivas) ( Gillespie, 1 976) t ook p lace t hroughou t t he Anasaz i a rea a t t his t i me. Beg inn ing s hortly a fter t he t ransition t o s urface s tructures ( ca . 9 00 A . D.) a nd c ontinu ing f or 2 00 y ears, s o me o f t he pueblos i n Chaco a re d istinctive f ro m o ther Anasazi s tructures. Large r oo ms, multiple s toreys ( up t o f ive), a pparently s tandardized r oo m s izes a nd f or ms, a nd s y m metrical , obv iously p lanned l ayou ts a l l c on tribute t o t he d istinctiveness o f Chacoan " to wns" ( Lekson , S .H ., i n p reparation ). I n t he c en tra l c anyon t hese t ra its a re p resent a t t hree s ites, e ach l ocated a t t he e ntrance o f a ma jor t ributary t o Chaco Canyon . The s ites a re t hus q u ite e venly s paced over a d istance o f a bou t t en km. S ites c onfor ming t o t he smaller , l ess well p lanned Anasazi " nor m" were o ccupied c oncurrently w ith t he l arger s ites i n Chaco Canyon a s wel l a s i n t he Anasazi a rea i n g eneral . The l arger s ites h ave b een c alled , among o ther t hings, " to wns" , a s d istingu ished f ro m " villages" ( Viv ian , 1 970a , 1 970b). Around A . D. 1 030-1050 t he p a ttern o f d ifferen tiated s ites was g reatly e xpanded a nd e laborated . The y ears A .D . 1 060-1090 w itnessed a n e x traord inary amount o f b u ilding a t t he Chaco t o wns i n t he f or m o f p lanned a dd itions, a nd t he p robable b eg innings o f t he t o wn f or m o f two more s ites i n t he c anyon . During t h is s pan

8 4

UTAH ARIZONA

o n J uan B a s i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • •

•• c , ö 0

0

T rot h yte D epos its

P each S pr ings

f lI D t epos its

D io r i te

Modern Wood lands 40

60 Km

6 0/1, p

S an *****

F ig . 6 :1 . The S an J uan a nd Chaco Basins, s ho wing t he e x tent o f t he Chaco s yste m. The " central c anyon c luster" i s l ocated w ithin t he National Monu ment ; only s elected o utliers ( Chi mney Rock , S al mon , Aztec , Peach S prings, K in Ya 'a ) a nd r oads a re s ho wn . Ma jor i gneous t e mper s ources a long t he S an J uan R iver ( andesite/diorite) a nd i n t he Chuska Mountains ( trachy te) a re i ndica ted . Current t ree d istribu tions a re t aken f ro m Cannon ( 1962 ); l ighter s hading i ndicates p inyonj un iper ( which c an b e q uite s parse), med iu m s hading p oderosa , a nd d ark f ir s tands; u nshaded a reas a re n ot wooded . Locator i nset i s t he western U .S. a nd s ca le i nset c o mpares t he a rea e nclosed i n t he f igure w ith modern England .

t he t o wns i n t he c entral c anyon r eached t heir max i mu m s izes o f 1 20 t o 6 95 r oo ms averag ing 1 3-25 m 2 ( site a reas o f 1 8 ,025 t o 2 3 ,395 m 2 ) . Conte mporary v illages, o n t he o ther h and , h ave o ne t o 4 5 r oo ms averag ing 5 -6 m 2 e ach ( site a reas f ro m 1 8 t o 6 80 m 2 ) b oth i n t he c anyon a nd e lse where ( Po wers e t a l ., 1 980). Also d uring t his p eriod a f lurry o f b u ilding a t s ites u p t o 1 40 km f ro m t he c anyon g roup t ook p lace. Most o f t hese a rchitecturally d ef ined Chacoan s tructures a re a ssociated wi th a nu mber o f c on te mporaneous v illage s ites, a nd t hese c lusters o f t o wn a nd a ssociated v il lages a re r eferred t o h ere a s c o m munities (Marshal l e t a l ., 1 979 ; Po wers e t a l ., 1 980). S everal o f t hese c om m inities a re c onnected t o t he c entral c anyon by l inear f eatures t er med r oads ( Obenauf , 1 980). . These " ou tliers" e xhibit many s i milarities t o t he t o wns i n c entral Chaco Canyon i ncluding k iva s ty le , masonry , a nd g rea t k ivas. The e nt ire c o mplex o f o utly ing c o m munities, r oads, a nd t he c entral c anyon s ite c luster was i n f ull swing c a . 1 080-1130 a nd w ill b e r eferred t o a s t he Chaco s yste m. Ma jor c onstruction i n t he c anyon h ad c o me t o ah al t by a round A . D. 130, t hough r educed o ccupation o f t he c anyon c on tinued u ntil s o me t i me i n t he mid-th irteenth c en tury ( Toll e t a l ., 1 980). The p eriod f ro m c a . 1 040 t o 130 i s t hat i n wh ich t he Chaco s yste m was a t i ts m ost e xpansive a nd most c o mplex , ' a nd i s t hus t hat which h as r eceived t he most a ttention . I t i s t h is p eriod o f max i mu m a ctiv ity wh ich i s e xa mined h ere f or c era mic e v idence o f r ed istribu tion a nd s pecialized p roduction . The Chaco s yste m d isplays f or mal iza tion o f a nu mber o f t raits t hat e x isted i n more c asual f or ms t hroughou t t he Anasazi a rea . A mong t hese a re: 1 . Architectural f eatures. Well-finished , masonry b uild ings a re l arge, c ontain l arge r oo ms, a nd a re c onstructed w ith r oofs mainly o f p onderosa a nd f ir b ea ms p robably b rought i n f ro m c onsiderable d istances ( 50 km o r more ; s ee F ig . 6 :1 ). 2 . Large c ere mon ia l f eatures. One t o t hree g rea t k ivas a re a ssociated with most i n-canyon a nd o utly ing t o wns. These a re e xaggera ted v ersions o f more nu merous s ubterranean s tructures ( k ivas) which a re h istorical ly c ere mon ial ( Viv ian a nd Reiter , 1 965 ; Marshall e t a l ., 1 979 ). I nterpreted a s c o m munity g athering a nd i ntegration p oin ts, g reat k ivas a lso f igure i n s o me r edistribut ion r econstructions ( Plog , 1 974 ; Grebinger , 1 978 ). 3 . For mal ized t rash d isposal . Most t o wns h ave l arge mounds o f what s o me f eel i s n ot s tandard h ousehold t rash (Windes, i n p reparation ). The v olu me o f t rash a nd t he i ndica ted d epositional s pan s uggest t hat t hese mounds may r epresent more t rash t han would h ave b een p roduced by t he nu mbers o f p eople n ow t hought t o h ave r esided i n t he t o wns. 4 . Large p lazas. The p lan o f a ll t o wns s ho ws a l arge, a t l east partially e nclosed s pace w ith in t he r oo mblock . S everal t o wns h ave walls d ef in ing a dd itional o pen s paces e x terior t o t he r oo mblocks

8 6

5 . Water c on trol s yste ms. I n Chaco Canyon a nd a t s everal ou tl iers e x tensive s yste ms o f c anals, h ead g ates a nd r eservoirs l arger t han o thers i n t he Anasazi a rea h ave b een d ocu men ted ( Viv ian , 1 970a ; 1 974 ). 6 . Roads. Approx i ma tely 1 00 km o f s tra igh t , w ide, c leared f ea tures c onnecting p arts o f t he o u tly ing s yste m t o t he c entral c anyon h ave b een c hecked ; 3 20 km o r more a re s uspected f ro m a erial p hotographs ( Obenauf , 1 980). These d evelop men ts h ave b een i n terpreted a s Mex ican t rad ing i n trusion ( Kelley a nd Kelley , 1 975 ; D iPeso, 1 974 ; L ister , 1 978 ), i n-canyon d ifferen tia tion c aused by l i mited a ccess t o p roduct ive l and ( Viv ian , 1 970a ; 1 970b ; Grebinger , 1 978 ), o r s ocial d ifferen tia tion i nvolved w ith o rgan iza tion o f ar eg ional e xchange s yste m ( Al tschul , 1 978 ; J udge , 1 979 ). The e xplana tion b eing most i n tensively i nvest igated by t he Chaco Cen ter, i s t hat i ncreasing p opulat ion , u nequal a nd u npred ictable r a in fall i n t he r eg ion , a nd d ifferen tial d istribu tion o f o ther r esources e l icited a n o rgan iza tional r esponse t o i nsure a more s ecure s upply o f s ubsistence g oods t hroughou t t he S an J uan Basin . As a c en tral , b u t marg inal ly n atural ly e ndo wed l oca tion , Chaco Canyon s ee m s t o h ave b een t he f ocus o f t ha t r esponse. Through f or mal iza t ion o f f ea tures s uch a s t hose e nu mera ted t he c anyon p rov ided a c en trally l oca ted p opula tion c oncen tra tion ( wi th a rchitecturally d ef ined e xchange l oci?) , e ase o f t ransport , a nd methods o f c a lendrically t i ming e vents ( Rey man , 1 975). I n s uch a s itua tion i t i s r easonable t o s uggest t ha t p eriodic g a therings f or p urposes o f e xchange a nd o ther s ocial f unctions t ook p lace. The a rchitectura l d ifferent ia tion a nd h ierarchy o f s ites f urther s uggest t ha t s uff icien t s ocial d ifferen tia tion may h ave b een p resent t o p rov ide p ersonnel f or o verseeing t he o rgan iza tion a nd f unct ion ing o f t he s yste m ( Judge , 1 979 ; S chelberg , 1 979 ). I n a tte mpting t o g enera te t estable models o f Chacoan e cono mics, t wo t ypes o f a nalogy h ave b een u til ized . The f irst c oncerns t he h istoric Pueblo I ndians, d escendan ts o f t he p reh istoric Anasaz i . Four p art icular e le men ts o f h istoric Pueblo e cono mics a re r elevan t : 1 . Goods i nclud ing f oodstu ffs a nd p ottery were moved b etween p ueblos i n s ubstant ial q uan tit ies ( Ford , 1 972b , 3 8-39). 2 . Though t he p ueblos were e ssen tially e gal itarian i n s ocial o rgan iza tion , r itual e ven ts s erved t o r ed istribu te g oods. The c ere mon ia l c alendar i s s uch t hat r edistribu tions o ccurred a t p eriods o f t he y ear when s hortages were most l ikely t o b e e xperienced ( Ford , 1 972a ). 3 . S o me e xchanges were made b etween g roups ( includ ing n on-Pueblos) a t p eriod ic , o ften a nnual g atherings. These " fa irs" u sua lly a lso h ad c ere mon ia l a ssociat ions a nd d re w p eople f ro m a w ide a rea ( Ford , 1 972b , 2 8-31 ; S i m mons, 1 979 , 1 89 ; Vog t , 1 955).

8 7

4 . S o me pueblos " specialized" i n p ot tery p roduction . Ex tra p ottery was p roduced f or e xchange i n c ase c rops were i nsuff icien t ( such a s Z ia Pueblo ; Ford , 1 972a , 6 -8 ; Wh ite , 1 962 ). I n v ie w o f our e v idence f or s ocial d ifferen tiation , i t i s t enable t hat t he c o mplex ity o f o rgan ization was g reater t han t hat h istorically e v ident i n t he e gal itarian modern pueblos ( Schelberg , 1 979). Therefore , a s u seful a s t he pueblos a re, i t would b e p rocrustean t o e xpect t hat a l l f or ms o f o rgan ization would f i t i n to t he pueblo a nalogue. Thus, when l ook ing f or a nalog ies w ith which t o s tructure i n terpreta tions, whether a s p redictive models o r i nterpretive d iscussions o f d ata , u se o f more h ighly o rganized s ocieties i s n ecessary . The f or mal izat ion o f many o ther a spects o f l i fe i n Chaco makes i t l og ical t hat e xchange , t oo, would h ave b een f or mal ized . On t hat b asis, i t i s ma intained t hat marketp lace e xchange a s s een i n o peration i n Mesoa merica i s ar easonable p lace t o l ook f or ma terial a nd b ehav ioral models f or t he Chaco c ase. Models - e v idence a nd impl ication Hav ing s ho wn t hat c onsidera tion o f f or mal ized r edistribu t ion i s g er mane, i t r e ma ins t o d eter mine what e v idence i s r elevant . The Chaco p roject i s i n s o meth ing o f ad iff icul t s ituat ion : i t n eeds t o a ddress r eg ional q uestions, bu t a ll e xcavation i nfor mat ion c o mes f ro m a n a rea t hat w ill f i t i nto a c ircle 1 km i n d ia meter . Surveys a nd s cattered e xcavations h ave b een c onducted within t he a rea o f t he Chaco s yste m ( recently : Hayes, 1 975 ; Reher , 1 977 ; Marshall e t a l ., 1 979 ; Po wers e t a l ., 1 980 ; Warren , 1 967 ; 1 976 ; 1 977 ; K irkpatrick , 1 980), bu t t o al arge d egree n ot only c o mpara bility b u t a lso availability o f n ecessary d ata a re l acking . Thus, i t i s n ot p ossible t o l ook f or r eg ional d istributions i n a wellc on trolled way . This i n t urn makes s tud ies i nvolv ing ma the matical models l ike t hose o f Renfre w (1975 ; 1 977) a nd Hodder ( 1974 ; 1 978 ; Hodder a nd Orton , 1 976) impossible. Further , while a nu mber o f s ites were e xcava ted by t he p roject , t hey were dug l argely w ith a n e ye t o t he e stabl ish ment o f ad evelop mental s equence , a nd f ew a re c on te mporaneous. This c ircu mstance makes mul tidi mensional s caling s tud ies l ike Fry 's ( 1979 ; 1 980) i nfeasible a s well . Nevertheless, t he c entral Chaco Canyon s ite c luster i s f ar f ro m b eing i n ar eg ional a rchaeolog ical v oid . A t l east s o me n on-local c era mics may b e c onf iden tly i dentified . S ites t hat a re a t l east p artially c on te mporaneous have b een e xcavated . Excava tion s a mples a re ava ilable f ro m t wo c entral c anyon s ites i n u se d uring t he A . D. 1 040-1130 p eriod i n wh ich t he Chaco s yste m was a pparen tly o perating a t f ull s cale. One, 2 95 . 1627 ( hereafter 6 27) i s av illage w ith a c o mplex o ccupat ional h istory b eg inning c a . A . D . 7 00 a nd e nding c a . 150. The c o mplex ity i ncludes r e modelling , f i lling o f p it s tructures, a nd o ther d isturbance ( True11 , 1 980). The o ther, Pueblo Alto ( hereafter Alto), i s at own j ust a bove t he c anyon . The f irst k no wn o ccupation a t Alto i s i n t he l ate t en th c entury a nd i n t he f irst h alf o f t he A . D . 1 000's t here was a massive b u ilding e pisode i n wh ich a round 1 00 r oo ms were bu ilt i n as hort t i me. Alto has ' t o wn ' c haracteristics b u t a pparen tly n o g reat k iva . Because o f t he s ignificances v ariously a ttribu ted t o t he d ifferences

8 8

T able

6 :1

I mplications

o f m aterial

e vidence

E vidence

f or

o rganization o f e xchange.

I mplication

R eference

A RCHAEOLOGICAL H igh d iversity o f p astes a nd t empers ( caveat: w ithin w ares).

N umerous p roduction c enters r epresented; h igher d iversity a t a s ite r elative t o o thers i ndicates e xchange n ode.

R ice 1 980:6/-68; J ohnson 1 975:326-327 ( caveat C rossman & P osnansky 1 978).

H igh s tandard d eviations f or t exture a nd t emper f requency

I ndicates g reater d iversity c entral e xchange l ocus.

F ry. 1 979:509.

R ice

( interval m easures). R educed

i n m etric

S tandardization

m easures ( expressed a s h igh k urtosis, b ut s ee t ext); a lso m ulti m odality

v ariability

s pecialization.

V ariety o f p astes

M arket

a nd

t ypes; h igh v olume; d istributions. Modal

c enter

o f

i nclusion

r are

a nd

a n a rtifact

v aluable

i tems,

G reatest

c eramic d iversity

f ound

a l arge

P oint

o f d ispersal

i n a c entralizeu

s ite

( Tikal).

Major n ode m arketing.

S weepings

o f r edistribution o r

1 979:496.

H odder

1 978:244.

f rom

t he

c entral market

" Supply

S mall

P resuming d istribution

c eramic

c omplex

a pproaches l arge s ite's t erms o f d iversity.

i n

F ry 1 979:498,509; R enfrew 1 977:85; J ohnson 1 975:326-327. F ry

1 979:509.

F ry

1 979:496-497.

. place.

S mall d istribution a rcs o f p roducts f rom i dentifiable s ource. s ite's

F ry

s ociety .

h igher q uality e xamples o f " mundane" i tems.

a t

t han r edistribution.

1 980:67-68.

l arger

d istribution. M ore

r ather

s uggesting

z one"

a cquisition

b ehavior - d irect

f rom

p roducer.

t hrough

t he

F ry a nd

C ox

1 974:210

l arge s ite, d egree o f s imilarity i ndicates d egree o f d ependence o f s mall s ite o n l arge s ite = i nward l ooking ( dependence o n s everal c enters = o utward l ooking).

( citing R ands).

S pecialists b ecoming e stablished, s timulated b y e xchange.

F ry 1 979:509; A rnold 1 975:192.

R elatively h igh v olume o f e xchange.

R egional m arket.

R eina a nd H ill 2 15-219

1 978:

V ariety o f p roduction c enters r epresented - l ong d istance s ource.

R egional m arket.

R eina a nd H ill 2 15-219.

1 978:

N early a ll c eramics f rom t he l ocal, a ffiliated p roduction v illage.

L ocal

R eina a nd H ill 2 09-215.

1 978:

" Zonal t owns p roduce o ne l ine o t w are t or t rade w hile m aking a nother o nly f or h ome u se... S ites w here e very t ype o f w are h as a d ifferent m ineral c omposition...

..were n ot b usiness."

A ssociation o f p ublic r itual s pace w ith m arket p lace s pace.

L ocal

D iversification o f s pecified v essel f orms t hrough t ime.

H igh i ncidence o f p ots f rom o ne p roduction a rea a t n eighb oring p ueblos o f s imilar s ize; l ocal p roducts a lso p resent.

m arket.

a nd

i n

t he

p ottery

r egional m arkets.

F eldman

1 971:161-162.

R eina a nd ' z 31-237.

h ill

1 978:

E galitarian p ueblos w ith o ne

F ord

k nown f or c eramics p roducing c eramics f or s ubsistence h edge - moderate s pecialization ( e.g., Z ia P ueblo).

W hite 1 962 ( both i ng S tevenson).

8 9

1 972b; c it-

b etween t o wns a nd v illages, a nd t he f unctions p ostulated f or Al to, ac o mparison o f t he s ites' c era mic a sse mblages i s p ertinent t o t he q uestions f or mulated a bove. E thnographic o r a rchaeolog ical models o f what a rtefact d istribu tions s hould l ook l ike i n as ituation s i milar t o t he Al to-627 c ase a re s carce. As c an b e s een i n Table 6: 1 , which p resents g lean ings f ro m t he r elevan t l i terature, t wo s o me what c ounterp osing t rends i nd icate t he t ypes o f p rocesses t hat have b een p roposed . On t he one h and , ar eg ional c enter s hou ld b e c haracteri zed by t he p roducts o f s everal l ocal c enters. A t ar eg ional c en ter t hen , ah igh v olu me a nd d iversity o f a rtefacts would b e a nticipated . On t he o ther hand , i f t he s yste m d eveloped s uch t hat s pecial ization i n a rtefact production was p resen t , a rtefacts s uch a s c era mics f ro m i ndiv idual c enters s hould s ho w a d egree o f u n ifor mity . Thus, i f ar eg ional c en ter d raws f ro m a nu mber o f c enters, a h igh overall s ource d iversity s hou ld b e p resen t . With in d istinct c ategories s o me h o mogeneity s hou ld b e d iscern ible, s ince v essel f or ms b eco me l ocal s pecialities, a nd s pecialization i s t hough t t o r educe v ariability ( Reina a nd H ill , 1 978 ; Arnold , 1 975 ; 1 978 ; R ice , 1 980). The t rends s ho wn i n Table 6 :1 a re p resen t i n many e xchange/ market s yste ms e lse where i n t he world . Market e xchange s yste ms s ho w g eneral s i milarit ies s uch a s: 1 .

Periodicity o f meeting ( St ine, 1 962 ; Bro mley e t a l ., 1 975).

2 .

Part icipation o f s pecialists b oth i n p roduction a nd i n marketing , i .e. e n trepreneurs ( Reina a nd H ill , 1 978 ; Bro mley e t a l ., 1 975).

3 .

Prov iding a means o f c o mple men tary e xchanges (M in tz , 1 955; D isk in , 1 976).

The c o mplex ity a nd p opulation d ensities s een i n Table 6 : 1 were n ever r eached i n Chaco. The e xa mples a nd t he g enera l t rends t hey r epresen t , were c hosen n ot a s p erfect a nalogues bu t a s s ources o f i deas f or d i mensions worthy o f e xa mination . I t i s i ncu mben t on t he u ser o f s uch models t o a ssess t he f i t o f h is d ata t o t he t rends s o e stablished ( Clarke , 1 968 , 3 6) , n ot t o f orce t he d ata t o s upport t he model . The d istribu tions d iscussed a re patterns f or c o mparison a t as upposed r edistribu tion p oint , na mely Pueblo Alto, w ith a v illage s ite, 6 27 . Of i n terest h ere i s h ow t wo s ites within t he s a me s yste m bu t with d ifferent p ositions i n t he h ierarchy c o mpare. Such a c o mparison h as t he p oten tial o f a ssessing a nu mber o f f eatures r elevant t o h ow t he s yste m f unctioned . Basically , was p articipat ion i n t he c era mic d istribu tion s yste m e qual? More s pecifically : 1 .

I s t he r ela tive q uantity o f n on-local p roducts e qual?

2 .

Are t he impl ied import d istances s im ilar?

3 .

I s t he d iversity o f s ources e qual? 9 0

4 .

I s c era mic s pecial iza tion a pparent i n t he e xchange s yste m?

5 •

Are s pecialized p roducts e qually d istribu ted?

6 .

Are s ite f unction d ifferences a pparen t i n t he c era mic a sse mblages?

The e nv iron men tal c ontext o f c era mic p roduction i s c rucial when l ook ing a t t hese q uestions.

Te mper i dentification a nd s ource l ocation Cera mic g eology The g eology o f t he S an J uan Basin i s by a nd l arge s edimen tary , w ith i gneous f or mations a round i ts p eri meter. This i s ah appy c ircu mstance i n t er ms o f i dentif ication o f s o me o f t he s herds t ha t were n ot p roduced i n Chaco. Moreover , e ven w ith t he b inocular microscope , i t i s p ossible t o d ifferentia te i gneous r ock f ro m t he n orth , t he west , a nd t he s ou theast . Of g reatest r elevance a re i gneous r ocks f ro m t he Chuska Valley a nd Moun tains, a nd f ro m t he S an J uan R iver a rea . The S an J uan R iver a nd i ts n orthern t ributaries a re c haracterized b y e x tensive Pleistocene g ravel t erraces c o mposed l argely o f a ndesite/d iorite c obbles d erived f ro m t he moun tain r anges where t he r iver h as i ts s ources. While t hese i gneous t e mpers were f requently u sed i n t he Mesa Verde a nd S al mon a reas ( Fig . 6: 1 ), s and/sandstone t e mpers were a lso u sed i n s ubstantial amounts ( Shepard , 1 939 ; Breternitz e t a l ., 1 974 ). The Chuska Mountains a re l argely s edi mentary f or mations, bu t t here a re t wo ma jor b asal t f lo ws w ithin t he r ange (Warren , 1 967 ; Dane a nd Bach man , 1 965 ; Loose, 1 977 ). These f lows a re c o mposed o f ad istinctive t ype o f b asalt , v ariously t er med s an idine b asalt ( Shepard , 1 939 ; 1 956 , 1 63 ; Windes, 1 977 ), t rachy te (Warren , 1 967 ; 1 976 ; 1 977 ), a nd t rachybasal t ( Loose , 1 977 ). Though Loose c oncludes t hat " trachy te" i s n ot t he most a ccurate t er m , i t i s g enerally a ccepted a nd i s r eta ined h ere. S tudies i n t he Chuska Valley (Warren , 1 967 ; Windes, 1 977 ) s ho w t hat t rachy te was v ery h eav ily u sed f or t e mper d uring t he b ulk o f t he Anasazi o ccupation t here, t he e xception b eing only t he e arliest c era mics. Both t rachy te a nd t he San J uan a ndesite/diorite h ave s evera l p roperties v ery u seful t o t he s tudy o f r eg ional i n teraction . Both a re n or ma lly r ead ily i den tif iable with t he b inocular microscope. Both were c o m mon t e mpers i n t heir r espective a reas. Both o ccur n aturally a t ad istance f ro m Chaco o f over 7 0 km. Arnold 's ( 1976, 9 4-96 ; 1 980, 1 49 ) s tud ies s ho w t hat max i mu m d istances t ravelled by n on-industrial p otters f or t e mper a nd o ther n on-decorative r aw materials a re un ifor mly l ess t han 3 1 km. As t he d istance f ro m Chaco t o n atural o ccurrence o f e ither o f t hese t wo t e mpers i s well over twice Arnold 's empirical maxi mu m r ange, i t i s s afe t o a ssu me t ha t c era mics t e mpered w ith t hese materials were t ransported t o

9 1

Chaco a s f inished p ieces. The a ssu mpt ion i s s upported by t he a bsence o f s tyl istic v ariation , c lay ox idation a nd r ecovery o f t he materials i n r aw f or m ( Toll e t a l ., 1 980, 1 01-105). S hepard ( 1956 , 3 37 ) made s i milar a ssu mptions wi th r egard t o t e mper. The i deal nature o f t he i gneous t e mpers i n t he r eg ion i s o ffset by d iff icul ties p osed by t he s edi mentary t e mpers. Warren ( 1976 ; 1 977 ) maintains t ha t t he q uartz s and o bserved i n Anasazi c era mics i nvariably c a me f ro m s andstones r ather t han d eposi ts o f l oose s and . A l arge n u mber o f s herds d o s ee m t o b e t e mpered w ith c rushed s andstone. Work ing w ith s herd c on tents, h o wever , i dentif ication o f s pecific s andstone a reas o r o u tcrops i s n early impossible , e specially when bulk-processing s herds. We h ave t herefore r ecorded a l arge q uantity o f s herds a s hav ing t e mper f ro m a n amorphous g roup t er med " undifferentiated s andstone". A t l east a s eg ment o f t his g roup must b e c onsidered a s p ossibly o f Chaco p roduction . S o me p robabil ity o f n on-local p roduction c an b e g iven t o c oarse-gra ined s andstone t e mpers (Warren , 1 976 ; 1 977 ),but a f ew c oarse s andstones h ave b een l ocated i n t he c anyon a nd c erta inly w ith in 3 0 km. Though Warren ( 1977 ) h as worked o n f or mation i dent ification , t he p resen t p aper makes n o e ffort t o s ubd iv ide t h is s andstone g roup . There a re a lso s o me s andstone t e mpers t hat a re d ist ingu ished w ith a b inocular microscope. S o me o f t hese a re h eav ily i ron b earing a nd o f unkno wn s ource. The most i nteresting i s as ands tone w ith a p ink t o wh ite c halcedonic c e men t t hat i s v ery d ist inctive i n s herds. While p recise l ocations o f ou tcrops a re n ot k nown , Warren ( 1977 ) h as f ound g reater a bundance o f t his t er iper i n s herds i n g rab s a mples f ro m s ites a pprox i ma tely 6 0 km s outh o f Chaco i n t he Red Mesa Valley , a nd a ttribu tes i t t o t he Morrison For mation t here. This t e mper i s o f i n terest b ecause i t o ccurs i n more t han t race p ercen tages i n Chaco, a nd b ecause i t a ppears t o c o me f ro m s ou th o f t he c anyon , p rov id ing a t l east t he p ossibil ity o f i den tifiable t e mper f ro m t hree o f t he c ardinal d irect ions. Pottery-qual ity c lays a re q u ite w idely a vailable i n t he Basin . C lay r esearch i s i n a n e ven more r udi mentary s tate t han t e mper r esearch . S o me d istinctions may b e made b ased o n ox idation c olor , s ince t he r esidual c lays i n t he Chaco a rea t end t o o x idize l igh t c olors, while s o me c lays i n t he Chuska a nd San J uan Valleys ox idize r ed ( Toll e t a l ., 1 980 ; Windes, 1 977 ). I n g eneral , i t must a t p resen t s uff ice t o s ay t ha t c lay d oes n ot s ee m l ikely t o h ave b een al i miting f actor i n p roduction . The c era mic e cology o f Chaco As c era mic s pecializa tion i s o f f ocal i n terest h ere , Arnold 's ( 1975 ; 1 976 ; 1 978 ) d ata on e nv iron men tal s ti mulan ts t o c era mic p roduction a re o f i n terest . A t f irst g lance, i f t he s carcity a rgu men t f or s ubsistence i s v al id a nd i f t he c anyon was i n f act a r edistribu tion p oin t , t he p rediction would b e t hat a t l east s o me Chacoans s hould h ave t urned t o c era mic p roduction a s as upple men t t o h orticulture. C lay i s a bundant a nd a ccessible w ithin t he 5 km r ad ius t hat s ee ms t o b e t he e thnograph ic " preferred t erritory o f e xploitation" ( Arnold , 1 980, 1 48 ). Naturally o ccurring t e mpers

9 2

a re n ot o f t he s a me a pparen t q ual ity , t hough f ine-grained s ands tones a nd r arely c oarser, r ounded g rained s andstones a re a lso l ocated w ithin t he o pti mal r adius f ound by Arnold ( 1976 ; 1 980). S herd t e mper i s c o m mon i n t ypes p ost-dating c a . A . D. 9 00 a nd t he a vailabil ity o f t his s uperior t e mper ( Shepard , 1 956 , 1 30-132 ) i ncreased s tead ily i n Chaco. Water a vailabil ity i s l ess c ertain . Precipita tion i s l ow ; s prings a re f ew a nd l ow i n v olu me ; n o p er manen t s trea ms a re n ow p resent , t hough t he washes r un i rregularly a nd d o mestic a nd a gricul tural u se would h ave r equ ired most o f t he wa ter a va ilable. V iv ian ( 1970a ; 1 974 ) s uggests s o me s torage o f water. Water , t hen , c ould h ave b een a l i miting f actor a nd might h elp t o e xplain why s uch l arge nu mbers o f v essels were b rought s o f ar. An e ven g rea ter p roble m , h o wever , s ee ms t o b e f uel (Warren , 1 976 , 5 5). Chaco and much o f t he Basin t oday a re v irtually t reeless a nd e ven b rush i s n ot a bundant ; Chacra Mesa d oes s upport s parse a nd s tunted p inon-juniper c over a nd l ies w ithin 1 0 km o f an u mber o f s ites i n Chaco. Especially when c o mbined wi th o ther f uel n eeds, p resen t v egeta tion would b e r apidly d epleted by e x tensive p ottery p roduction . Fuel , t hen , p robably a bundan t only a t d istances o f 5 0 km o r more , i s l ikely t o h ave l i mited l ocal p roduction a nd c reated a n eed ( justif iable i n t er ms o f e nergy e xpenditure ) t o import c era mics ( see F ig . 6: 1 ). Reina a nd H ill ( 1978 , 1 7 ) g ive a n e xa mple o f t he r ole p layed by f uel i n h istoric Guate mala : "Production o f p ottery i s t hreatened i n s everal c enters a t p resen t s i mply b ecause t he l ocal f orests h ave b een e xhausted . I t i s p robable t hat f uel d epletion h as, i n f act , f orced i ndiv idual p otters a nd , i n o ther c ases, e n tire c enters o ut o f p roduction i n r ecent y ears." G iven t he p rojected p opulation a nd t he min i mal v egetation , d epletion o f f uel f or a ll u ses would p resu mably h ave b een s evere i n Chaco by t he A . D. 1 000 's i f n ot b efore. The Chuska Moun ta in f ooth ills, h o wever , s ee m l ikely t o have had many o f t he r esources, t he a bsence o f wh ich would h ave d riven Chaco i n to s upple mentary s pecia liza tions. More a bundan t a nd r egularly o ccurring moisture would p resu mably have made a griculture more p roductive a nd r el iable. Natural r aw ma terials f or p ottery were p robably more r eadily available. C lay , p ossibly o f g reater s treng th with b etter paint b inding c apacity , a nd g reater p orosity f or t he p roduction o f u til ity j ars (Windes, 1 977 , 2 94-297 ); a ngular i gneous t e mper , g ood a s ab inder ( Shepard , 1 956 , 1 30-132 ) a nd e xcellen t f or r esistance t o t her mal s hock ( Rye , 1 976) ; f uel ; a nd water a re a ll p resen t t oday . This i s e ither a n e xception t o Arnold 's c ases a t s tate l evel , s o me o ther s hortage must h ave e x isted , o r ad ifferen t , more d irect method o f f in ished c era mic a cquisition p erta ined t o a ccount f or t he l arge nu mber o f v essels f ro m t his a rea f ound i n Chaco, 7 0 km away . S everal s uggestions may b e made : 1 . While t he Chuska f oothills d o s ee m t o h ave " every th ing" , t he l o wer parts o f t he Chuska Valley n ear t he Chaco R iver a re a t l east a s moisture p oor a s i s Chaco Canyon ( Reher , 1 977 ; A llan , 1 977 ). 9 3

The Chuska Valley n ear t he Chaco R iver a lso l acks s urface f uel r esources ( though t oday t he S an J uan Basin i s b eco ming a c oal b onanza t here i s n o k no wn e v idence f or t he p reh istoric u se o f c oal f or c era mic f iring ). This a rea i s, h o wever , much c loser t o t he wooded f oothills t han i s Chaco Canyon . I t r nigh t b e s uggested , t hen , t hat t he s ti mulus t o p roduce c era mics a s as ubsistence h edge was p resent i n t he Chuska Valley , e special ly d uring t he p eak p opulation o f t he a rea c a . A . D. 1 000-1125 ( Reher, 1 977 , 8 5-90). 2 . I t might a lso b e a rgued t hat wh ile t he Chuska a rea h as b oth c era mic a nd s ubsistence r esources i n g reater a bundance t han d oes Chaco, s o me o ther, l ess o bv ious i te m was l ack ing , a nd s ubs istence g oods, r aw materials ( construction t i mber , wood , l i th ic) , a nd c era mics p rov ided a ccess t o t hat missing i te m . The e v idence i s s li m , b ut t he ma in t hing t hat wou ld s ee m t o b e " exportable" f ro m t he Chaco c entral a rea i s o rgan ization a nd h ence s ecurity , a nd , p erhaps, s tatus a rtefacts ( Rath je , 1 972 ). I n o ther words, t hrough p articipation i n t he Chaco s yste m , a reas s uch a s t he Chuska f oothills s tood t o g ain a h edge a ga inst t he v agaries o f h orticul tural p roduction under a d iscontinuous moisture r eg i me ( Judge, 1 979). The material ist e xplanation c an b e buffered by t he e v idence f or a h igh d ensity o f r elig ious f eatures a nd p erhaps " publ ic a rch itecture" (Marshall e t a l ., 1 979) i n t he c entral p art o f t he c anyon . 3 . Perhaps a s ad erivat ive o f t he h igh l evel o f o rgan ization i n t he Chaco s yste m , a more d irect means o f c era mic a nd o ther r esource a cqu isition may h ave b een o perative. One p ossibil ity i s d irect , c oercive c ontrol over p roducers i n t he p eripheral h igh d iversity a reas. A s econd hypothesis c oncerning d irect a cqu isition ( and a more p opular o ne) r el ies on t he s easonal u se o f t he l arge Chaco s tructures, p erhaps l argely a s s torage un its (Marshal l e t a l ., 1 979 ; M. True11 , T . Windes, p ers. c o m m.). Under t his e xplanation , l arge s eg men ts o f t he Chaco p opulation would have s pen t p art o f e ach y ear i n more p roductive l ocations a nd b rought q uan tities o f what Chaco l acked when t hey r eturned . 4 .

F inally ,

i n t er ms o f t rends t o ward c era mic s pecial-

i zation , wh ile a s ubstantial p roportion o f c era mics r ecovered i n Chaco c an c onfidently b e i dentified a s imports, many c annot c onf iden tly b e i dentif ied a s e ither n on-local o r l ocal . Within t he l atter g roup t here a re wares which d raw a tten tion a s p ossibly s pecialized p roducts: a . Cy l inder j ars. These a re a r are , a nd a pparently h ighly s pecial ized f or m with a v ery l i mited d istribu tion ( Viv ian , 1 970a ). They h ave b een f ound only i n t o wns, mostly i n Pueblo Bonito. The t e mper o f t hese h as n ot b een e xa mined ; most a re t ypolog ically Gallup a nd Chaco B lack-on- wh ite. b . Chaco B lack-on- wh ite. A small p ercen tage ( 2 .3 % o f white wares i n our Pueblo Alto s a mple a nd . 4% o f t he t otal wh ite wares o f t he l onger t i me s pan o f t he 6 27 s a mple) f i t w ithin t h is t ype, which i s c haracterized by e x tre mely f ine e xecution o f d esign . The d esigns c orrespond i n g eneral w ith t he more c o m mon Gallup B lack-on- wh ite. Up t o 1 0% ( 9.5 % i n t he Alto s a mple) o f Chaco

9 4

B lack-on- wh ite c ontains e nough t rachy te t o b e p robably o f Chuska manufacture ( see a lso V iv ian a nd Mathe ws, 1 965, 7 1-73 ). Trachy te o f l ess c ertain d erivation o ccurs i n a nother p ortion o f t his t ype f ound i n Chaco ( 26. 2% o f t he Alto s a mple Chaco B/ w ); t he t rachy te i s s parse e nough i n t his p ort ion t hat i t c ould well h ave b een i n trod uced i n s herd t e mper ( Shepard , 1 939). S til l , much o f t he Chaco B/ w i n our s a mples ( 61 .9 % a t Alto) c on tains materials l ocally a va ilable i n Chaco : f ine t o mediu m s andstone a nd a bundan t s herd t e mper. Thus, t wo t entative c onclusions might b e d rawn : s o me c era mic s pecial ization may h ave o ccurred i n Chaco, b u t i ts f ocus, p erhaps, was o n h igh q uality s pecial ized ( cere monial?) f or ms. While we c annot h ope t o a ns wer a ll o f t hese q uestions w ith t he d ata n ow a vailable , s o me i dea o f t he d istributions o f c era mics f ro m d ifferen t s ources a t d ifferent s ite t ypes i n Chaco, a nd i nitial ob jective a tte mpts t o i den tify s pecialization i n o ne c lass o f c era mics f ound t here c an c ontribute t o a partial s olu tion .

Analyses - r esults a nd i n terpretations The b ulk p rocessing , r im s a m pl ing , match ing , a nd j ar s herd s election a pproaches o f t he Chaco Project h ave r ecently b een d escribed ( Toll e t a l ., 1 980). The s herds u sed f or t h is p aper - r egarded a s a pprox i mating v essels a fter s herd match ing were s elected b y t hese d eta iled p rocedures. P . J . Mc Kenna made a ll o f t he t ypolog ical i den tifications and I made a ll o f t he t e mper i dentif ications u sing a 3 0 -4 5 X b inocular microscope. Thus, w ithin t he l i mits o f a naly tical d rift , t he i dentif ications s hould b e c onsistent . Perhaps t he g reatest d ifference b etween t he a nalysis o f t he t wo s ites' c ollections i s t hat t he Al to t e mper a nalysis i s more r efined . The u se o f c era mic t ypes i s, a s a lways, a k notty p roble m. The p roble m b eco mes e specially a cu te i n as tudy s uch a s t h is, i n wh ich i dentified t e mper i s o ften a d eter minant o f t ype a ssign ment . Nonetheless, by a ssigning a s herd t o at ype , c o mplex v ariables s uch a s s lip t ype, p ain t t ype, motifs, d esign l ayout , r im f or m a nd s urface t reat men t h ave b een i dentified . With t h is i nfor mation a h igh p robabil ity s tate ment c an b e made a s t o t he t e mporal a nd g eographic s ources f or a particular i te m. By p rov iding a dditional d etail on d esign , c o mposition , a nd o ther a ttribu tes, i t i s p ossible t o make a ssess ments o f i ntra-reg ional v ariability . With t he a ddition o f c ontex tual i nfor mation f ro m min i mally d isturbed p roven iences, s ynchronic c o mparisons c an b e made. As d iversity a nd s tandardizat ion a re o f c ritical importance i n t he p roble m a s f or mulated , t ypes a re u seful i n c ontrolling f or t i me a nd s pace when e xa m in ing c era mic v ariability w ithin t he r eg ion . Hav ing c oncluded t hat r elative d iversity o f s ource a reas a nd p resence o f s pecialized p roduction a re r elevan t t o t he q uestion o f r edistribution i n Chaco, t he c onsiderably more d iff icul t t ask o f t esting t he d ata a ga inst t he t o wn-v illage r edistribu tion model r e mains. Both w ith in- a nd b etween-site c o mparisons a re made t o e valuate t he v arious d istribu tions g enerated . The s ta tistics u sed a re g enerally s i mple : c hi-square, Kol mogorov-S mirnov

9 5

( Siegel , 1 956, 1 27-136), Shannon- Weaver D iversity I ndex ( Lasker, 1 976), t -test , Good man- Kruskal l t au , s i mple r egressions a nd c oeff icien t o f v ariat ion ( Tho mas, 1 976). All o f t he d ata r etrieval was c o mputer p erfor med b ut with t he e xcept ion o f t he t -tests, s o me s catter p lots a nd c orrelations, a nd b asic d escriptive s tatistics, t he t ests were c o mputed w ith a c alculator. S ite d ifferences I n c o mparing Pueblo A lto a nd 2 9S3627 i t i s v ery important t o r e me mber t he t wo s ites' r elative d ates ( for c era m ic c hronology , s ee F ig . 6: 2 ). Essen tially , 6 27 was o ccupied e arl ier t han t he e arliest k no wn o ccupation a t Alto a nd u se o f A lto outlasted t hat o f 6 27 . This l a ter p eriod i s c onsidered i n d etail e lse where ( Toll e t a l ., 1 980). Within e ither a t ype o r ap rovenience g roup d ating t o t he f ocal p eriod , i t i s p robable t hat material f ro m 6 27 w il l b e weighted t o t he e arly e nd , while t hat f ro m A lto w ill more f ully c over t he p eriod . This i s d e monstrated i n ac o mparison o f t he t wo s i tes' C ibola t ypes f ro m c ontrolled p roven iences n o minally d ating f ro m A . D. 1 040-1130. The d ifference i s s ign if icant a nd t au i s h igher t han u sual ( .178 - Table 6 : 7 ). The d ifference r esul ts f ro m t he h eavy a ssociation o f Red Mesa w ith 6 27 a nd Gallup wi th Alto. A ma jority o f 6 27 's t ypologically t ransitional p rovenience 's ( Red Mesa a nd Gallup mixed - d at ing p erhaps A . D. 1 020-1040) h ave b een i ncluded i n c o mparisons w ith more purely Gallup c ollections f ro m A lto. Therefore b oth b etween-site a nd t e mpora l c o mparisons a re b eing made h ere. Type c o mparisons c on trol i n p art f or t his a nd t he s ites a re c on te mporary i n t he c rit ical p eriod . Though t he t o wnv illage c o mparison i s d ilu ted by t hese c onsiderations, i t c an s till b e s aid t hat t hrough t i me t here s ee ms t o b e a n i ncrease i n t e mper a nd v essel f or m d ifferences b etween t he s ites. To s o me i ndeter mi nate e xten t t his i s d ue t o t he t i me f actor , t o s o me e x ten t t o s yste mic d evelop men t a nd d ifferen tiation , a nd t o s o me e x ten t t o t he i ntera ction o f a ctual i ncreasing s ite d ifferences e nhanced b y t e mporal b ias i n t he v isible r ecord . F igure 6 : 2 i l lustrates t he most c onsistently s triking d ifference b etween Alto a nd 6 27 - t hat i s, t he r elat ive f requency o f t rachy te t e mper i s g reater a t Alto t hrough t i me. Though c ons istent , t he d ifference i s n ot a lways s tatistically s ignifican t ( using p< . 05). Gallup B lack-on-white ( B/ w ) a nd Pueblo I Corrugated , h o wever , a re s ignifican tly d ifferen t ( Table 6 :7 ). This i s o f s o me i nterest , b ecause t heir p roduct ion was a t l east i n part c on te mporaneous a nd b ecause Gal lup B/ w was t he d o m inan t d ecorated t ype a ssociated wi th r oads, l arge mounds a t t o wns, a nd i n ter mediate o ccupat ion f loors a t t o wns ( Fig . 6: 2 ). Such d ifferences a re n ot f ound i n Red Mesa B/ w , t he t ype most f requently a ssociated w ith t he i n itial c onstruction o f s everal t o wns i n Chaco , i ncluding Al to. Co mparisons o f wi thin-site t e mper d iversity a gain s ho w ac onsistent r elationsh ip b etween t he t wo s ites. I n e leven t ypes t ested , t he g roups f ro m A lto s ho w g reater e venness i n a ll e leven a nd g reater d iversity i n n ine. I n b oth Red Mesa B/ w a nd n arrow n eckbanded - partially c onte mporary e arly d ecorated a nd u til ity t ypes - t he d iversity i s g reater a t 6 27 . This i s p robably p artly

9 6

—

R e lat ive F requency a t A lto — R e lat ive F requency a t 627

WH ITE WARE

50

E

T rachyte C ha lcedon ic 55

0

S an J uan ( 5J)

T e mper

PERCENT

40

30

20

1 0

. •• •• •

500 850

AD.

IBM W -P I

C ibo la M/W ' C arbon/ W

•••• •

850

900

1 050

900

1 050

1 200

Ga l lup E ar ly R ed sR ed Mesa T P uerco Mesa E scavada

C haco I i /W

C huska,R M

C haco McE l mo S J C arbons

IB m t i i -P I

D es ign

O ther B /W ' 60

100 1 200

I

: Chuska 1 3 /W

I

C huska C arbons I

E xo t ic *w i th 'S an J uan

GRAY WARE

PERCENT

50 40

30 20

1 0

AD W ide \

/ 7 \

'

N arrow E ar ly P I I- I l l •J 'c k b a nd ed N eckbanded P 1 1

/ \ P PH 1

CORRUGATED F ig. 6 :2 . Non-loca l t e mper d istributions t hrough t ypological t i me. The c ulinary a nd d ecorated t ypes a re a rranged a long t he t i me ax is a pprox i mately a s t hey c orrespond , b u t n ote t hat t he t i me s lots a re n ot p recisely e qu ivalen t . Frequency p erc ents a re o f t he t otal w ith in e ach t i me s lot ; n ote a lso t hat t he t wo p ercen t s cales a re d ifferen t. The S an J uan p ercen tages i n t he white ware f igure d erive f ro m t he p rovenience , t he r est f ro m r ough s ort t ypes.

9 7

af unction o f s a mple s ize , b ut may a lso r ef lect t he d evelop men t o f t he s yste m a nd t he e stabl ish ment o f Alto a s ac en ter s ho wn a s a c hange i n i ts d rawing p o wer r elative t o 6 27 . The e xception t o g reater t e mper d iversity a nd evenness a t Al to i n a ll t ypes s ubs equen t t o Red Mesa B/ w , i s P II-III Corrugated which i s s ligh tly more d iverse a t 6 27. Both t ypes w ith s ign if ican t b etween-site d ifferences s ho w g reater d iversity a nd e venness i n t he Al to s a mple. I n a n e ffort t o e l i minate p ossible e ffects o f t e mporal v ariability w ithin a t ype , Gallup B/ w a nd P II Corrugated s herds f ro m well-con trolled p roveniences were c o mpared . The t e mper d ifference p ersists o nly i n Gallup. D iscrepancies i n t he r elat ive f requencies o f t rach y te a ccount f or n early a ll o f t he h igh c h is quare v alues t hat i ndica te a s ign ificant d ifference b etween t he t wo s ites. This d iscrepancy , h o wever , i s n ot p resent when t he t ight p rovenience g roups a re c o mpared . The most s traightfor ward e xplanation f or t his c hange i s t hat t here i s, i n f act , s o me d istortion r esul ting f ro m s ource c hanges during t he s pan o f t h is t ype. I n t er ms o f c era mic s ource , t hen , Pueblo A lto d oes e xhibit c onsistently more t rachy te-te mpered i te ms a nd a lso s ho ws ar elatively more d iverse a nd more e venly d istribu ted c era m ic a sse mblage t han d oes 6 27 during t he p eriod i n which t he s yste m was i n f ull o peration . Th is i s c onsisten t w ith t he i n terpretat ion t hat t he t o wns i n Chaco may h ave s erved a s d raw ing p oints f ro m v arious parts o f t he s yste m . The s upply a rea i ndicated l eans h eav ily t o ward t he Chuska Valley t o t he west . Ho wever, t he t rend a t Alto i s r e markable more f or c onsistency w ith , t han f or a ny g reat d ifference f ro m , 6 27. I n o ther words, while t ype o f participa tion i n t he move ment o f c era mics a ppears t o have b een s o me what d ifferent , wi th Alto p robably h av ing c onsu m ed more l ong d istance g oods, a nd 6 27 more l ocal g oods, t here i s l i ttle q uestion t hat t he c era mics a t b oth s ites r epresent p articipa tion i n t he s a me s yste m. As c entral s ites a re expected t o s ho w " f iner" e xa mples o f "mundane" i te ms ( Table 6 : 1 ), a n i ndex o f t ex ture was g enerated f ro m t he g rain s ize , t e mper d ensi ty e st i mate, a nd p ercent s herd t e mper e sti mates t o y ield a r ough o rd inal i ndex ( Shepard , 1 956, 17 , 1 20). Because t he d ensity e sti ma te a ppl ies t o t he a ggregate o f a ll t ypes o f t e mper i n as herd , i t was t hought b est t o d iv ide by t he s herd t e mper ( grog ) e sti mate b ecause g rog makes s tronger v essels ( Shepard , 1 956, 1 31-132 ), a nd b ecause my s ubjective o bservation i s t hat g rog d oes l ess t o make a s herd c oarse t han a n e qu ivalen t q uantity a nd s ize o f o ther t e mpers, a pparen tly b reak ing t hrough r ather t han a round t e mper particles. When a ppl ied t o as ite c o mparison o f Gallup s herds, a s ignificant d ifference was p resen t w ith t he Al to g roup h av ing more f inet ex tured me mbers ( Kol mogorov-Srnirnov D=.113 , s ign if icant a t . 05 i f g reater t han . 090, t otal n =961 ). Between-site c o mparisons w ithin Gallup f ro m 1 040-1130 p roven iences a lso s ho w s ignif ican t g ra in-size d ifferences b etween A lto a nd 6 27 ( Table 6 :7 ). The d ifference b etween d ensity e sti mates i n 1 040-1130 P11 Corrugated a t t he t wo s ites s ho ws a s i milar t rend . Although t he t rends a re n either p ronounced n or c onsisten t, t here i s s o me s uggestion t ha t i te ms a t Alto might b e s o mewhat f iner i n t ex ture.

9 8

D ifferences b etween A l to a nd 6 27 may a lso b e d iscerned i n t he v essel f or m a sse mblages. Both t he c o mplete s a mple a nd t he more t ight ly d ef ined p roven ience g roups g ive s ign if ican t c h is quare v alues when t he s ites a re c o mpared i n t er ms o f ma jor f or ms ( Table 6 : 2 ) . A lto h as a much h igher f requency o f j ars, while 6 27 h as a r elat ively h igher f requency o f l adles a nd b owls. As t he s a mple s izes a re l arge , s tat istica l d ifferences a re more l ikely t o o ccur . S ince a d ependen t-independen t r elat ionsh ip b etween t he v ariables v essel f or m a nd s ite , r espect ively , c an b e a ssigned f or t he p urposes o f t h is t est , i t i s p ossible t o c alcula te t au . The t au v alues o bta ined i n t he c o mparison a re u n ifor mly l ow - f ro m . 027 t o . 136 - s ho w ing p oor p redictabil ity o f v essel f or m f ro m s ite ( Table 6: 2 ) . D ifferences i n v essel f or m a sse mblages, h owever , s uggest f unct ional d ifferences o f t he s i tes. For m d ifferences may b e d escribed i n t hree ways: 1 .

The o ccurrence o f j ars a t Al to i s d isproport ionate.

2 .

I n b oth r efined a nd l u mped s a mples t he d iversity o f v essel f or m a nd t he e venness o f d istribu tion a re g rea ter a t 6 27 .

3 .

There a re more f or ms p resen t a t 6 27 .

The t rad itionally a ssigned j ar f unctions i nclude c ook ing , s torage , a nd t ransport . Bo wls a nd l adles, o n t he o ther h and , a re c o m monly a ssociated w ith f ood s erv ing a nd c onsu mpt ion . Wh ile i t wou ld b e p ossible t o r e-sort " jars" by f abric a nd p resence o f s oot ing t o e sti ma te t he p roport ion o f v essels u sed f or c ook ing , t h is h as n ot b een d one. I t c an , h o wever , b e a rgued t ha t t he a sse mblage f ound a t 6 27 i s more o rien ted t o d o mestic a ct iv it ies, a s e v idenced b y t he g reater p resence o f s erv ing v essels a nd a w ider v ariety o f f or ms i n g eneral . A lto , i n c on trast , s ee ms t o h ave p articipa ted more f ul ly i n s torage a nd t ransport a ctiv ities, s ince t he r elat ive p roport ions o f s erv ing v essels a re smaller. Certa inly , a" l iv ing" v essel a sse mblage i s p resen t a t A l to ( percen tages o f p itchers a nd water j ars("ollas" ) a re v ery s i milar a t t he s ites) ; t he d ifference i s ma inly o ne o f a ct iv ity emphasis. Once a ga in , t he t wo s ites a re most s i milar i n t he e arl iest p eriod t ested , s uggest ing i ncreasing d ifferen tiation t hrough t i me. S pecia liza t ion i n c era mic p roduction? C learly i dent if iable p roduct ion s ites a re a t b est r are i n t he s ou thwest . S hepard ( 1963 , 2 2 ) s uggested t ha t s pecia liza tion i n c ul inary ware p roduction was p resen t i n t he Chuska Valley , o n t he e v idence o f t he l arge q uant ity o f t rachy te t e mpered c era mics o bserved i n Chaco . Th is r e mains t he b est s ingle a rgu men t . A p urely s ub ject ive a ssess men t o f s pecia liza tion i s c erta inly p ossible - c ul inary j ars a re r e markable f or t heir l arge s ize , t h in wal ls, a nd n icely f in ished a ppearance , a nd s o me o f t he d ecorated wares e xh ibi t e x traord inary c on trol i n t heir d ecora tion i n a dd it ion , a ga in , t o h igh q ual ity manu facture. S uch s ub jectiv ity i s o f c ourse n ot v ery r eliable a nd h ardly p asses f or s cience -

9 9

Table

6 :2

V essel f orm a ssemblages f or e ach s ite b y c ontrolled p rovenience a nd f or t he c omplete s ample.

F orm/Group

A .D.

9 20-1040 G roup * Bowl

6 27

A lto .

1 208

5 7.2

5 6.2

1 330

5 7.1

9 0 6 22

4 .3 2 9.4

6 8 2

2 .8 3 7.8

9 6 7 04

4 .1 3 0.2

* *Pitcher * *011a * *Canteen * *Seed J ar

6 7 4 5 1 3 1 7

3 .2 2 .1 . 6 . 8

1 3 1 1

. 5 1 .4 . 5 . 5

6 8 4 8 1 4 1 8

2 .9 2 .1 . 6 . 8

* *Tecomate D uck P ot

3 7 1

1 .8 . 05

3 7 1

1 .6 . 04

9 4

. 4 . 2

* Ladle * Jar

E ffigy Miniature

1

T OTAL F orms

2 113 1

D iversity

1 .186

. 931

. 495

. 447

E venness C hi-square

. 5

2 17 8

9 5

. 4 . 2

2 330

1 3.69 d .f.=3

. 01F l ess w ilk's

o f

v ariables.

F V alue

N o e ffect o f s ite N o e ffect o f t emper

K ey:

t he

1 .62 t han

S um o f

T emper + R S W ilk 's

o f v ariance

t est

n =487

O rifice D iameter ( no P r>F l ess R im F illet

t o

i ndividual

T ype/Attribute/Index

P II

a nalysis

s ites

t han

. 0851

. 0495

. 0179

o ne;

c onditioned

. 05)

C riterion

i v o e ffect

o f

s ite

1 .53

. 2190

N o

o f

t emper

4 .29

. 0020

e ffect

P r>F--the

p robability o f o btaining

a n F value h igher

b y s ample s ize. R -square--The c oefficient o f d etermination, model

e xplained

t han

t he o bserved

a n e stimate o f

t he

a mount o f v ariability

i n

t he

b y a v ariable.

T ype I V S um o f S quares--A c omputer m ethod f or

t he e ffect

o f o rder o f

a nd

o ther MANOVA s tatistics.

o f c alculating

i nclusion; u sed

1 08

i n

s um o f

s quares

t hat

c ompensates

t he c alculation o f W ilk 's

C riterion

Table

W ithin t emper g roup v essel

6 :6

c ontrolled

F orm/Group

p roveniences

T rachyte n %

f orm a ssemblages b y

f or e ach s ite.

S andstone n %

T otal

A lto 9 20-1040 G roup * Bow l L adle * *Jar * *Pitcher * *O H, * *Canteen * *Seed J ar M iniature

2 4.4

9 2

6 3.0

6 8.9

6 4 4

4 .1 3 0 .9 . 7

E 7 5' 1

2

1 .4

3 1

1

. 7

1 1

2 .2 2 .2

1

T OTAL F orms D iversity E venness C hi-square

1 1 3 1

2 .2

1 46 7 . 931 . 478

( corrected)

1 20 1 5 1 06

p

o co 4 ) ( , . ) .: 7 ,1 ( 0 4 > 4 8) 0 ▪ g io a )

C O

( I )

, 4 J 0

' '

' -

M I

•

, .

›, •Z

44

54

C I )

r—

; • 4 4 1.

I

0 ( 1 ) 4-> ° N I 0 a ) a i 0 0 4 - ( ) , - , - • , 1 • " c i p 0 ( c ) 1 E Z 7 : j 9 0 c d I , , s 2 o a ) u ) c z -l . - 0 ' Z ' , . g . , . 1• 4 . U ) a ) C • I ) C I ) . 2 4 )

48

4 1

0

, . z i

( / )

4 >

c i g z

4 . ) •v I

U )

0

c d 0 . , - . I . J• , s I 4 )

p

a )

O

‘ II 0

4 , 4 1

u ) " ti

cd ( A 4 ° 2 - E 1; g g i i o gi . X p a ) ( 1 ) 0 o F 1 L I I ) ) , c . e i 4,. J o F a i f 4 ) 2 a ) 0 >( ' 5 X 0 IS 4 : 2,T i . . . , • g c d

4 )

‘ 2 1

7, 1 1T S > a ) a ) : _ z i % „ . ) , c d

-. C f)

c v

4 ) 4 -1 •v I C d

, .

' ' ( 1 )

u )

•0

c d , ,

a ) v • ' 4 > 4 . 4 '

C f )

a )

e r /

>

7 . -

1' «' . .

J (. ) ) c n c d a ) ; I C d

u. , . , • • , 1

G U

c )

, + 4 ) J ' V C o or e ) 4 1 • 0 P . ," . . . . • ' r d \ 1 ° a . ) c U ) 0 , . C : '-

12

c d

c r j

r u c 2 i 0 > ( , 1

u ) u ) ni

›,

a ) , 1 4 " 4 d 1 "0 1

c d

M I 3 c n 4 ' c ) 0 • 4 1 4 ) c o D : , 7 1 , 1 4 ' c e , _ >. a ) g 4 4 > i , 0 > e " ' . ` ) ( 1 ) ; " ' a ) 4 0 c o 4 u ) c d ( l 0 to

c c i f 2 d

E; 2 1 _8 1. 1 -e •

0a d )u

s u ited t o t he i dentif ication o f b roader c hronological t rends t han t o d etailed a ssess ment o f c hanges t aking p lace w ithin a s hort p eriod. 2 .4

Con tinuity a nd c hange i n p roduction

Archaeological e v idence f or s ixteenth-century p ottery manufacture i s n ot s o p lent iful a s i t i s f or t he e arlier i ndustries ( Fig . 2 2 : 1 ), a nd many o f t he f or mer medieval markets h ad c eased t o f unct ion b y t h is t i me ( Everit t , 1 967 , 4 66). Only t wo o f t he k no wn s ixteen th-century k ilns a re n earer t han 5 km ( 3 miles) t o a market , a nd a lthough p roduct ion may h ave c ont inued a t s o me p laces g ince t he t hirteenth/fourteenth c entury , s everal o f t he n e w Wealden e n terprises were e stab lished a t ac onsiderable d istance b oth f ro m c entres o f p opulation , a nd f ro m markets ( Fig . 2 2 :2 C ). S o me o f t he r e mote k ilns s uch a s Lo wer Parrock ( Freke, 1 979) a nd Hareplain ( Kelly , 1 972 ), may h ave b een u sed f or only a s hort t i me, b ut t he l arger-scale i ndustries a t Graffha m a nd Farnborough H ill ( Ho ning , 1 971 ) were a lso a l ong way f ro m r ecorded c onte mporary markets a nd n evertheless c ont inued p rod uct ion f or many d ecades. The only k nown a rchaeolog ical e v idence f or t o wn-based p ottery manufacture a t t his p eriod c o mes f ro m K ingston-upon- Tha mes where r ed- ware - wasters d ated c . 1 500 were f ound i n 1 979 ( Richardson , 1 980 , 3 87 ), b ut a Delf t p otter i s k no wn f ro m d ocu men tary s ources t o h ave s et tled a t S and w ich , Kent i n t he l ate s ixteenth c en tury ( VC H , 1 932 , 4 02 ). As i n t he middle a ges, s o me p ost- medieval p ottery was p robably s old a t week ly m arkets, b u t i t c an b e i nferred f ro m t he r e mote l ocation o f c ertain s ixteenth-century k ilns t hat s ale t hrough markets was p robably l ess s ignif icant n ow t han i t h ad b een i n t he med ieval p eriod . S upplies o f f uel a round Farnborough H ill were p robab ly a more important i nf luence on l ocat ion o f t he k ilns t han p rox i mity t o p otential c usto mers, a nd f or s o me o f t he Wealden a rtisans p ot ting may h ave s upplerrented a p redo minantly a gricultural l iv ing . I n t he c ase o f Lo wer Parrock , p ottery manufacture may even h ave b een u ndertaken by im migrants whose c hoice o f l ocation was d ictated by t heir p ri mary i nterest i n i ron p roduction (Freke, 1 979 , 8 6-7). Whether o r n ot p otting c on tinued a t ap articular c entre f ro m t he medieval i nto t he p ost- medieval p eriod would h ave d epended u pon b oth e cono mic a nd s ocial f actors. Exhaustion o f f uel s upplies may h ave a ccounted f or t he d e mise o f c ertain i nd ustries, b u t manorial r ecords i ndicate t hat a ll t he p otters a t R ing mer h ad d ied by 1 457 ( VC H , 1 907 , 2 51 ). Production s ee ms t o h ave b een r ev ived a f ew y ears l ater, b ut smaller e nterprises would h ave b een more s eriously a ffected t han t he R ing mer i ndustry i f , f or one r eason o r a nother, t he p otters ' c raf t was n ot c arried on b y as ubsequent g eneration . Mere s ize, h o wever , d id n ot n ecessar ily g uarantee c ontinu ity , b ecause t he e xtensive medieval i ndustry a t L i mpsf ield s ee ms t o h ave c eased s or re t i me b etween 1 398 a nd 1 424 ( Percy , 1 970 ), a nd e ven t hough e igh teenth a nd n ineteenth-cen tury p otters were a ctive a t Brede ( Baines, 1 980 , 5 7 ), h ere t oo, i t h as n ot y et b een p ossible t o d er mnstrate c on tinu ity f ro m t he e arlier i ndustry .

3 40

Two d istinct t ypes o f l ocation c an t herefore b e r ecognised among s ixteen th-century k ilns i n t he r eg ion : i ) I ndustries o perating a t c entres w ith a l o n g t radition o f p ottery manufacture. i ) Smaller e nterprises, o f ten c onsisting o f as ingle s hortl ived k iln , e stab lished on a n ew s ite. I rrespective o f l ocation , h o wever, t he p roducts a re q uite d ifferen t f ro m e arlier f or ms. At Lo wer Parrock , f or e xa mple, t he p resu med im migrant p otter b rought w ith h im a lien s ty listic t raits, b u t t he h igh t e mperature t o which t he e arthenwares were f ired i s a l7o c o m mon a t o ther c onte mporary k ilns i n t he a rea . Where i t i s p ossible t o c o mpare medieval a nd l ater v essels made a t t he s ane p lace, c hanges i n f or m a lso a ppear t o h ave b een a cco mpanied b y r ef ine men t o f t he f abrics. D istinctive l ate f if teenth-/ s ixteen th-century white-painted wares made a t Graf fha m h ave a much f iner t exture t han t he l ocal f ourteenth-cen tury p roducts, b u t when wasters o f b oth d ates were s ub jected t o d etailed t extural a nalysis, u sing t he methods d escribed a bove ( p .326 ), i t was c lear f ro m t he d istinctive r ange o f q uartz g rain s izes t hat t he s a me c lay s ources h ad p robably b een e xploited a t b oth p eriods ( Streeten , 1 980). A t Farnborough H ill , on t he o ther h and , t he f abric o f t he medieval wares f ro m a k iln a t S hip Lane is d ifferent f ro m t he ' Tudor Green ' wares f ired i n a nother n earby k iln . Textural a nalysis, h o wever, s ho ws t hat s o me t hin- walled f i fteenthc entury wares f ro m t his s ite h ave t he s a me r ange o f q uartz g rain s izes a s t he e arlier t ypes, while t he ' Tudor Green ' f abric i s s i milar t o t he l ater s ixteenth-century wares. A lthough c hanges o f f or m were t herefore a ccompanied b y c on trasting t echnology , t he i solated p ersistence o f e arlier f abrics among n ew f or ms implies c ontinu ity o f p roduction . 2 .5

Changes i n marketing

Textural a nalysis a lso p rov ides a means o f i dentifying t he marketed v essels o f particular i ndustries. The kno wn a rcha eolog ical d istribution o f c oarse wares f ro m s o me medieval k ilns s uch a s Graffha m b ears a c lose r ese mb lance t o t he s i mulated a rea s erved b y n earby markets; b u t e lse where, a s i n e ast Ken t , t he g eographical l i mi ts o f ar egion f avoured t he g ro wth o f a c entralised i ndustry s upplying a s o mewhat l arger a rea . I t h as b een s ho wn t hat d ecorated t able wares were s o meti mes d istributed over l onger d istances t han c ulinary v essels, a nd a rchaeological i nterpretation i s a ssisted by t he l i mited r epertoire o f t he medieval p otter wh ich p er mits e asy d ifferen tiation o f c oarse a nd f ine wares. Decorated j ugs f ro m t he Rye k ilns ( Vidler , 1 933) f or e xa mple, were e v idently d istribu ted b oth a long t he c oast ( Barton , 1 979, 2 32 ) a nd n orthwards a long a n importan t l and r oute t hrough t he Weald ( Crossley , 1 975, 4 6), i n to a reas which o btained t heir c oarse- wares f ro m a d ifferent , a nd p resu mably n earer , s ource. Both c ulinary wares a nd white-slipped j ugs f ound a t Hartf ield i n t he H igh Weald a re p roducts o f t he k iln a t Earls wood , S urrey ( Streeten , 1 979), a nd i f t hese h ad b een purchased f ro m t he p otter h i mself a t t he

3 41

n earby market i n East Grinstead , t hen h e would h ave t ravelled s o me 1 5 km ( 10 miles) f ro m t he k iln . By t he e arly s ixteen th c en tury , h owever, t he d e mand f or c era mics i n t he Hartf ield a rea c ould b e met b y t he l ocal k iln a t Lo wer Parrock , a nd c hanges i n t he l oca tion o f p ottery manufacture e lse where were a lso a cco mpanied b y c hanges i n t he p attern o f d istribu tion . I n West S ussex , f or e xa mple i t h as b een s ho wn t hat t he markets f or merly s erved f ro m medieval k ilns a t Chichester a nd B instead were c aptured b y t he Graffha m p otters whose l ate f i f teenth-/sixteenth-century whi te-pa inted wares a re f ound a t d istances o f over 3 0 km ( 18 miles) f ro m t he k iln ( Streeten , 1 980 ). The o rganisation o f p ottery p roduction i n West Sussex a t t his p eriod was t herefore d ifferen t f ro m t hat f urther e ast , where t he Wealden markets were s upplied f ro m a n u mber o f small e nterp rises r ather t han f ro m a c entral ised i ndustry . Small q uantities o f Tudor Green ware f ro m Farnborough H ill d id r each s o me s ites i n t he Weald s uch a s Bayha m -Abbey ( Streeten , f orthco ming b ) , a nd a lthough t here a re b arely e nough e xa mples f ro m which t o d raw g enera l c onclusions, t he e vidence d oes s uggest t hat , i n s outh-east England a t l east , t he p ost- med ieval p otters work ing a t c en tres w ith a l ong t radition o f p ottery manufacture s erved much l arger a reas t han t he n ewly-established e nterprises. Alternatively , t he p attern c ould b e i n terpreted i n t er ms o f d e mand f or a p articu lar t ype o f p roduct , a nd , a lthough t he r ange o f f or ms a vailable f ro m p otters a t Bareha m S treet ( Barton , 1 979, 1 56), Hareplain o r Lo wer Parrock was s i milar t o t hat f ro m Graffha m , n ational d e mand f or Tudor Green ware was u ndoub tedly due t o t he s pecia lised n ature o f t he v essels (Moorhouse, 1 979, 5 5-6). 3 .

Conclusions

Med ieval p ottery manu facture p robably owes i ts l ocation t o aw ider r ange o f f actors t han a l most a ny o ther c on te mporary c raf t . Ex tractive a nd p rocessing i ndustries were l inked w ith t heir r aw materials, while c raf ts men s uch a s t he v illage b lacksmith were d ependen t u pon p rox i mity t o t heir c usto mer 's. The p otter on t he o ther h and r equired a v ery s pecific c o mb ination o f r aw materials, b u t t he f ragility a nd l ow v alue o f h is p roducts a lso n ecessitated c heap a nd e ff icien t c o m munication f or t he s ale o f h is wares. A b rief c o mparison b etween t he o rganisation o f p ottery p roduction a nd t he Wea lden g lass- making i ndustry d uring t he medieval a nd l ater p eriods t herefore h ighlights n ot only t he f actors a ffecting t he l ocation o f a n i ndustry , b u t a lso t he e ffects o f l ocation u pon t he o rgan isation o f d istribu tion . Unlike t he l ong-establ ished a rt o f p otting , t he s kill o f g lass manu facture was n ot i ndigenous: i t h ad c ertainly b een i ntroduced b y t he mid-fourteenth c entury a nd p ossibly a s e arly a s t he t hirteen th ( Kenyon , 1 967 , 1 2 ). Co mpared w ith t he w ides pread d istribu tion o f p ot tery k ilns t he e arly g lass- making s ites were c oncen trated a round Chiddingfold i n t he western h alf o f t he Weald. Th is c ontrast p robably r ef lects t he d ifferent o rig ins o f t he two i ndustries; t heir s cale ; a nd t he r estricted a vailability o f s uitable s and f or g lass- making , c o mpared w ith more widespread

3 42

d eposits o f p otting c lay . S ixteen th-cen tury c hanges i n g lass p roduction c a me s o me what l ater t han t he i nnovation o f n ew p ottery f orrr s a nd f abrics, b u t t echnolog ical d evelop ments i n t he g lass i ndustry were more f ar-reaching . There may h ave b een im m igran t p otters, bu t t heir impact on c era mic p roduction was n ot s o g reat a s t he n ew g lass- mak ing t echniques which were i n troduced a t t he Fernfold f urnaces b y J ean Carre i n 1 567 ( Kenyon , 1 967 , 1 4 ). Fe w s ix teen th-cen tury g lass-houses, h o wever, h ave b een f ound i n t he Weald b eyond t he f or mer nucleus o f t he medieval i ndustry . G lass v essels would u ndoubtedly h ave b een o f g rea ter v aluc t han c era mic u tensils, b ut t he medieval t rad it ion , c o mb ined w ith t he s ti mu lus o f i nnovation , s ee ms t o h ave ou tweighed a ny a dvan tages i n e x tensive d iversi fication o f n ew p roduction s ites. .During b oth t he medieval a nd l ater p eriods, t herefore, g lass v esse ls a re l ikely t o h ave b een c arried over l onger d istances t han l ocally-produced c era mics, a nd i n t his r espect g lass was a k in t o t he more e xotic t ypes o f p ottery . This c o mparison s erves t o i l lustrate t he r elationship b etween p roduction a nd d istribu tion , a nd i t a lso h ighlights t he impact o f a n e ntrepreneur on t he l ocation o f manufacturing s ites. Geographical a nalysis o f t he p ottery i ndustry a t t he e xpense o f d etailed h istorical c ase s tudies i nev itably l eads t o over s i mplific a tion , a nd emphasis u pon e cono mic e xplanation i gnores t he f act t hat t he p roducer's c hoice o f a market a t which t o s ell h is wares may a lso b e d eter mined b y t he n eed t o purchase o ther c o mmodities f or h i mself ( Bro mley , e t a l ., 1 975 , 5 31 ). C lear d efinition o f t he a ssu mptions, h owever, emphasises t he c o mplexity o f t he p attern l ying b ehind t he a rchaeolog ical r ecord , a nd t heoretical a pproaches p rov ide a model a gainst wh ich t he a rchaeological r eality c an b e c o mpared . The s cope o f t he e nquiry , h o wever, i s f unda men tally d eter mined b y t he n ature o f t he e v idence , a nd i t i s as obering t hough t t hat , e ven i n well-docu mented p eriods, imprecise c hronology s till h inders d etailed i n terpretation . Ackno wledge ments I am i ndeb ted t o t he nu merous museu m s, a rchaeological o rganisations a nd i ndiv iduals who h ave w illing ly p rov ided a ccess t o t heir c ollections a nd h ave l oaned s a mples f or t hin-section a nalysis. Thanks a re a lso due t o Dr. D . P. S . Peacock a nd Mr. D . A . H inton f or t heir c o m ments on a d raft o f t his p aper ; r esponsibility f or a ny e rrors, h o wever, r e ma ins w ith t he a u thor . B ibliography A lds worth , F . G . a nd Do wn , A ., 1 976. Medieval p otteries a t East Lav ing ton . Sussex Archaeol . Collect . 14 , 3 33. A lds worth , F . G . a nd Freke, D . J ., 1 976. H istoric To wns i n Astill ,

Sus s ex : a n Archaeological Su rvey . ( London ). G . G ., 1 978 . H istoric To wns i n Berkshire: a n Archaeol ogical Appraisal . ( Reading ).

3 43

Austen , E ., 1 946. Brede: t he S täry o f a Sussex Parish . (Rye). Baines, J . M., 1 980 . S ussex Pottery . ( Brighton ). Barton , K . J . a nd Brears, P . C . D ., 1 976. A medieval p ottery k iln a t Bentley , Hants. Proc . Ha mpshire F ld . C lub Archaeol . S oc . 3 2 ( 1975), 7 1-5. Berry , B . J . L ., 1 967 . Geography o f Market Centres a nd Retail D istribution . ( Engle wood C liffs). Bro mley , R . J ., Syn l anski , R . a nd Good , C . M., 1 975. The r a tionale o f p eriodic markets. Annals Ass. A mer. Geog . 6 5 ( 3), 5 30-7 . Coates, B . E ., 1 965. The o rig in a nd d istribution o f markets a nd f airs i n medieval Derbysh ire. Derbyshire Archaeol . J . 8 5 , 9 2-111 . Cole, GT H ., 1 974 . Farnha m : Park Row . Surrey Archaeol . Collect. 7 0 , 1 53-4 . Cole man , D . C ., 1 975. I ndustry i n Tudor a nd S tuart Eng land . ( London a nd Basingstoke). Crossley , P . W ., 1 975. The Be wl Valley I ronworks, Roy . Archaeol . I nst . Monograph . ( London ). Do wn , A . a nd Ru le, M., 1 971 . Ch ichester Excavat ions 1 . ( Chichester). Dunn ing , G . C ., 1 950 . Dat ing medieval p ottery : part V . Archaeol . Ne wslet ter 2 ( 10 ), 1 53-5. Everitt , A ., 1 967. The market ing o f a gricultural p roduce. I n Th irsk , J . ( ed .), The Agrarian H istory o f Eng land a nd Wales I V ( 1550-1640 ), 4 66-589 . ( Ca mbridge). Everitt , A ., 1 970 . New Avenues i n Eng lish Local H istory . ( Leicester). Fuedal A ids 1 899. Feudal Aids: With Other Analogous Docu ments 1 . ( London ). Freke, D ., 1 978 . Medieval u rban a rchaeology i n Sussex. I n Dre wett , P . L . ( ed .) , Archaeology i n Sussex t o AD 1 500 , Counc . Brit . Archaeol . Res. Rep . 2 9., 8 7-92. ( London ). Freke, D . J ., 1 979. The e xcavat ion o f a n e arly s ixteen th-cen tury p ottery k iln a t Lo wer Parrock , Hartfield , East S ussex , 1 977 . Post- Medieval Archaeol . 1 3 , 7 9-125. e G iuseppi , M. A ., 1 937 . Medieval p ottery i n K ingston-upon Tha mes. Surrey Archaeol . Col lect . 4 5, 1 51-2 . Heighway , C . ( ed:), 1 972 . The Erosion o f H istory : Archaeology a nd P lanning i nT o wns. ( London ). H inton , M., 1 980. Medieval p ot tery f ro m a k iln s ite a t K ingstonu pon- Tha mes. London Archaeol . 3( 14 ), 3 77-83. Holling , F . W., 1 971 . A p reli minary n ote on t he p ottery i ndustry o f t he Ha mpshire-Surrey b orders . S urrey Archaeol . Collect . 6 8 , 5 7-87 . Hughes, M., 1 97« . The Sma ll To wns o f Ha mpshire: t he Archaeological a nd H istorical Implications o f Develop ment . ( Southa mpton) . J usserand , J . J ., 1 899. English Wayfaring L ife i n t he Middle Ages. ( London ). Kelly , D . B ., 1 972 . An e arly Tudor k iln a t Harepla in , B iddenden . Archaeol . Cant iana 8 7 , 1 59-76. Kenyon , G . H ., 1 967 . The G lass I ndustry o f t he Weald . ( Leicester).

3 44

Kno wles, D . a nd Hadcock , R . N ., 1 953. Medieval Relig ious Houses. ( London ). Le Patourel , H . E . J ., 1 968. Docu mentary e vidence a nd t he medieval p ottery i ndustry . Med ieval Archaeol . 1 2 , 1 012 6. Le Patourel , H . E . J ., 1 976 . Pottery a s e v idence f or s ocia l a nd e cono mic c hange. I n S awyer , P . ( ed .), Medieval S ettle ment , 1 69-179. ( London ). Lyne, M. a nd J efferies, R . S ., 1 974 . The A lice Holt medieval p ot ters. S urrey Archaeol . Collect. 7 0 , 2 5-46. Martin , W., 1 902 . A f orgotten i ndustry ; p ottery a t R ing mer. S ussex Archaeol . Collect . 4 5, 1 28-32 . Moorhouse, S ., 1 978 . Medieval p ottery s tudies: t he f uture. Bull . Welsh Medieval Pottery Res. Group 1 , 1 -9. Moorhouse, S ., 1 979. Tudor Green : s o me f urther t houghts. Medieval Cera m . 3 , 5 3-61. Norton , E . C . , 1976. The medieval p av ing t i les o f Winchester College. Proc . Ha mpshire F ld. C lub Archaeol . S oc . 3 1 ( 1974 ), 2 3-41 . O ' Connell , M., 1 977. H istoric To wns i n Surrey , Res. Vol . Surrey Archaeol . S oc . 5 . ( Guildford ). Peacock , D . P . S ., 1 971 . Petrography o f c ertain c oarse p ottery . I n Cunliffe , B ., Excavations a t F ishbourne, S oc . Antiquaries Res. Rep. 2 7 , 2 25-9. ( London ). Percy , K ., 1 970. L i mpsfield : d ocu men tary ev idence f or medieval p otters. S urrey Archaeol . Collect . 6 7 ,111-2 . Prendergast , M. D ., 1 974 . L i mpsf ield medieval c oarse ware: ad escript ive a nalysis. Surrey Archaeol . Collect . 7 0 , 5 7-77 . Reed , M., 1 978 . Markets a nd f airs i n medieval Buckingha mshire. Rec. Buck ingha mshire 2 0 ( 4 ), 5 63-85. Renfre w , C ., 1 977 . I ntroduction : p roduct ion a nd e xchange i n e arly s tate s ocieties, t he e vidence o f p ottery . I n Peacock , D . P . S . ( ed .), Pottery a nd Early Co m m erce, 1 -2 0 . ( London ). R ichardson , B ., 1 980 . Excavat ion r ound-up 1 979. London Archaeol . 3( 14 ), 1 84-9. S alz man , L . F ., 1 928 . The l egal s tatus o f markets. Ca mbridge H ist . J . 2 , 2 05-12 . S pillett , P . J ., S tebbing , W. P . D . a nd Dunning , G . C ., 1 942 . A p ottery k iln s ite a t Ty ler H ill , n ear Can terbury . Archaeol . Cantiana 5 5, 5 7-64 . S treeten , A . D . F ., 1 979. Medieval a nd p ost- medieval p ottery o f t he Hartfield a rea . I n Freke, D . J ., The e xcavation o f a n e arly s ixteenth-century p otte ry k iln a t Lo wer Parrock , Hartfield , East Sussex , 1 977. Post- Medieval Archaeol . 1 3 , 16-20 . S treeten , A . D . F ., 1 980. Potters, k ilns a nd markets i n Medieval Sussex : ap reli minary s tudy . Sussex Archaeol . Collect. 18 , 1 05-118. S treeten , A . D . F ., f orthco ming a . Tex tural a nalysis: a n a pproach t o t he c haracterisation o f s and-te mpered c era mics. I n Freestone , I . e t a l . ( eds.) , Current Research i n Cera mics: Thin S ection S tudies. ( London ). S treeten , A . D . F ., f orthco ming b . The p ottery . I n A . D . F ., Excavations a t Bayha m Abbey 1 973-76.

3 45

Turner , D . J ., 1 974. Medieval p ottery k iln a t Bushf ield S haw , Earls wood : i nteri m r eport . S urrey Archaeol . Collect . 7 0 , 4 7-55. Twiss, T . ( ed .), 1 880 . Henrici d e Bracton d e Leg ibus e t Consuetudinibus Angliae, Rolls S eries. V . C . H . ,1 907 , V ictoria County H istory : Sussex 2 . ( London ). V . C . H . ,1 932 . V ictoria County H istory : Kent 3 . ( London ). V idler , L . A ., 1 933. Medieval p ottery a nd k ilns f ound a t Rye. Sussex Archaeol . Collect . 7 4 , 4 4-64. Wade, K ., 1 976. Excavations a t Langhale , K irstead . E . Ang lian Archaeol . 2 , 1 01- 2 9. Wilson , D . M. and Hurst , D . G ., 1 967 . Medieval Britain i n 1 966. Medieva l Archaeol . 1 , 2 62-319 .

3 46

2 3 CERA MIC PYRO MET RY : T WO I BIBIO EXA MPLES Keith N ickl in " So much t o d o a nd s o l i ttle t i me t o d o i t i n ( Sylv ia Leith- Ross, o n t he s tate o f N igerian p ottery s tudies. Letter t o KN , 2 6.12 . 73).

•

•

I n a world s urvey ( N icklin , 1 971 ) u sing mostly s econdary s ources I h ave a lready d rawn a t ten tion t o s erious i nadequacies i n e xisting e thnograph ic a ccounts o f p ottery manufacture, which r ender t h is materia l l ess u sefu l t o a rchaeologists t han i t s hould b e. E mphasis was p laced u pon t he d anger o f l osing t he o pportun ity t o c ollect p ri mary d ata a s t he r ate a nd e xten t o f s ocio-econo mic d evelop ment i n h itherto r e mote g eographical r eg ions i ncreases. I n a more r ecent paper ( N icklin , 1 979 ) a ttention was d rawn t o t he p auci ty o f ob jective measure ments c oncerning t radi tional methods o f f iring p ottery , d espite t he f act t hat t he u se o f pyro metric a pparatus i n t he f ield was p ioneered i n t he 1 920's ( Shepard , 1 936, 4 52 ). As r ecently a s f ive y ears a go, i n h er s tudy o f S anta C lara p ottery o f t he A merican S ou thwest , LeFre *e a d mitted t hat "Because o f t he e xpense i nvolved I d id n ot a tte mpt t o r ecord f iring t e mperatures" ( LeFree , 1 975 , 6 2 ). Perhaps t he c ondition o f p overty which i s s upposed t o b e c haracteristic o f p ott e rs ( Foster , 1 966, 4 7 f ) e xtends t o t hose who s tudy t he m ! "A r eport o f f iring i s i nco mplete w ithout a t e mperature r ecord .. Un fortunately , e thnolog ists a re r arely equipped w ith a pyro meter , a nd c onsequen tly we h ave r elatively f ew r ecords" ( Shepard , 1 968 , 8 3). Not only a re e thnographers r arely e qu ipped w ith pyro meters, b u t t hey s eldo m p ossess s ufficien t i nterest t o s tudy t he whole p rocess o f p ottery manufacture i n s pecific f ield s i tuat ions, f ro m t he g athering o f r aw materials f or p otting t o t he p ost-f iring t reat ment o f wares. I n t he a bsence o f t he n ecessary s cien tif ic d ata we a re f aced w ith observations which r ange f ro m a r e mark b y t he Revd . Hugh Goldie a bou t t he Af ikpo p otters on N igeria 's Cross R iver t hat "They make t heir c rockery v ery n eatly , bu t t he b urning i s v ery d efective" ( Goldie, 1 885, 2 81 ), t o Mary Whittle 's more c haritable c o m ment on t he f iring t echnique u sed i n S okoto, n orthern N igeria : " So meho w t he h eat must h ave b uilt u p s uff icien tly - p robably t o a round 9 00 d egrees C" (Whit tle, 1 980 , 6 ) . S o me p ioneering s tudies o f p ottery f iring me thods h ave b een made i n N igeria b y Michael Carde w ( 1961 , 1 99-201 ; 1 969 , 1 71-4 ). He d escribes f iring a t t he Gwari t o wn o f Kwali i n n orthern N igeria , mainta ining t hat i t c an b e d e monstrated t hat t he t raditional

3 47

t echniques u sed a re b ased u pon " a p rofound i f u nconscious k no wledge o f t he s cien tif ic p rinciples i nvolved". I n p articular , Carde w d raws a ttention t o t he importance o f p reheating ware a f ter a p eriod o f d ry ing t o t he white-hard ( or b one-dry ) s ta te o f t he c lay . This p ractice d rives o ff c olloidally-held wa ter which would c ause t he p ots t o b reak during t he f ir ing p roper, due t o v apourization a nd s udden e xpansion o f t h is water. A mong t he Catawba , a n A merican I ndian g roup , a n o ptical pyro meter was u sed t o measure p ottery f iring t e mperatures ( Fe wkes, 1 944 ). This i nstru men t i s b ased u pon t he observation o f l igh t c o ming f ro m t he f ire. An e lectrical f i la ment i nside a f or m o f t elescope i s h eated w ith a b attery un t il i t s c olour matches t hat o f t he f ire a s observed b y l ooking t hrough t he " telescope". The d ial which i ndicates t e mperature i s c alibrated t o t he amount o f c urrent p assing t hrough t he f i la men t ( Rhodes, 1 968 , 1 77-78) . Ho wever, Carde w mainta ins t hat t he o ptical pyro meter i s u nsu itable f or t he t ypical N igerian f ield s ituation , where f iring i s b rief , a s f uels s uch a s g rass o r p al m f ronds a re u sed b y t he p otters. The r eadings measure t he t e mperature o f t he f la mes which s urround t he p ots r ather t han t hat o f t he p ots t he mselves, a nd i n af iring d uration o f only one o r two h ours t he f la mes may n ot h eat t he p ots t o t he t e mperature o f t he f la mes ( Cardew , 1 970 , 1 ) . Rhodes men tions o ther d isadvan tage sof t he o ptical pyro meter , i ncluding t he f act t hat i t i s more u seful f or h igh t e mperature measure men t , a nd t hat t he c loudy a t mosphere o f ar eduction f iring w ill g ive a n i naccurate r eading ( Rhodes, 1 968 , 1 77-78 ). There i s c onsiderable e v idence t hat f iring p eriods i n s ou thern N igeria a re e ven s horter t han Carde w r ecorded f or t he n orth . One a nd a q uarter h ours i s g iven a s ar elatively s hort t i me b y h im ( Carde w , 1 969, 1 71 ) , b u t a t O ja v illage i n midwestern N igeria , a n a pprox i mately f i f teen minu te f iring p eriod was n oted ( Susan P icton , p ers. c omm .) a nd s i milar p eriods h ave b een r ecorded i n t he Ekiti Yoruba v illage o f I shan i n western N igeria ( Prof . Frank Willett , p ers. c o mm .), a s well a s by t he p resent writer a t s everal l ocations i n s ou theast N igeria . For t hese r easons I h ave r egarded t he o pt ical p yro meter a s u nsui table f or my own work . Carde w ( 1970 , 1 ) f avours t he u se o f pyro metric c ones d istribu ted a t v arious p laces i n t he f iring . S uch a n e xperi ment a t S okoto g ave h im ar ange o f 6 00 t o 8 55 C . The pyro metric c one, o f which t here a re s everal t ypes ( e . g . S eger , Orton ) i s a small c one o r pyra mid o f c lay which b ends a nd melts a t ag iven t e mperat ure . Each c one h as a nu mber i nd icating t he t e mperature a t which t his t akes p lace ( Leach , 1 967 , 2 65). Cardew 's r esults a t S okoto were obtained b y p lacing S eger c ones i n o r on t he p ots t o r ecord v ariations b etween c one 0 22 a nd c one 0 212 ( Carde w , 1 969, 7 7 ). One important p oin t which h e makes c oncerning t he l ow t e mperature o f t his f iring i s t hat i t f avours t her mal s hock r esistance, which i s o f g reat p ractical a dvantage f or p ots which a re u sed f or c ook ing over a n o pen f ire ( Cardew , 1 952 , 1 91 ). The c hief d isadvantage o f pyro metric c ones i s t hat t hey p rov ide a r ecord o f " heat work d one" r a ther t han a c o mplete r ecord

3 48

of firing. Moreover, Shepard maintains that pyrometric cones are unreliable because they bloat with reducing gases and their softening point depends on rate of heating, as well as temperature. Accord­ ing to the same authority, the thermoelectric pyrometer is the most satisfactory and reliable instrument for recording ethnographic firing temperatures (Shepard 1968, 83). This.instrument comprises three main components: thermocouple, the pyrometer itself and leads connecting the two. When the thermocouple is heated, a minute electrical current is generated between the metal parts which are welded together and positioned inside a protective porcelain sheath. The amount of this current varies in direct relationship to temperature. The thermocouple is wired to the pyro�ter which consists of a sensitive galvanometer connected to the needle of a temperature dial. As Cardew points out, the thermoelectric or thermocouple pyrometer is robust, it requires no batteries because the firing itself supplies the "power" needed, and has no moving parts except the dial needle (Cardew, 1969, 308-9). Pole (1974; 1975) has employed a thermoelectric pyrometer to record ethnographic iron-smelting temperatures in Ghana. The metallic components of the type of thermocouple used by him were Platinum/Platinum 13% Rhodium, good up to 1, 400° C. After breakage of the thermocouple on two occasions as a result of con­ tact with charcoal and ore, Pole protected it whilst in use with a metal sheath, which, he was informed would melt at 1, 200° C (letter from Pole to Nicklin, 1. 3. 73). It is not surprising that laboratory or factory apparatus should get damaged or need modification under the rigours of field use. Though in my own work on pottery pyrometry it was not found necessary to protect the thermocouple in the manner described by Pole, certain other modifications, however, were essential. The chief problem in the use of the thermoelectric pyrometer for ethnographic pottery studies is that it is designed for use with a kiln (an enclosed fire like an oven), rather than an open fire of the type used in southern Nigeria for firing pots. Rudimentary kilns are found in parts of Nigeria, especially the north (Slye, 1968; Cardew, 1969; Whittle, 1980} but these do not occur in southeastern Nigeria. For the thermoelectric pyrometer to give accurate readings it ·is necessary to keep the terminal head of the therrrncouple at air temperature. In addition, if the apparatus were to be used without modification in these con­ ditions, the leads would burn and melt. Such problern, were not encountered by Pole, since the mud wall of the smelting furnace served the same function that the kiln wall would have done in the firing of pottery in a kiln. In the recording of kiln or furnace temperatures only that portion of the thermocouple which is pro­ tected by the porcelain sheath is actually exposed to the fire. It would appear that in cases where the thermoelectric pyrometer has been used in previous ethnographic pottery studies, some form of kiln was errployed by the potters.

II The pyrometric apparatus which I used in the field con­ sisted of a rectangular metal case with a needle calibrated to a 1 dial on top of the instrument which reads from zero to 1, 200° C. When in use the normal air temperature was recorded by a standard

349

glass-bulb thermometer on the side of it, and by turning a screw the reading of the instrument was adjusted to this temperature. This ensured that only the firing terr:perature itself was recorded. A base metal thermocouple was used, with Nickel-Chrome /Nickel­ Aluminium elements mounted inside an aluminous porcelain sheath. The leads inside the terminal head of the thermocouple were dis­ connected prior to fieldwork. The elements of the thermocouple were then soldered directly to a length of heat resistant (or compensating) cable. The terminal head was packed with potting clay, which provided heat and electrical insulation, and prevented undue movement of the elements while in transport or use. The leads which had been disconnected from the thermocouple were then reconnected to the compensating cable so as to facilitate easy connection of the pyrometer in the field. Before taking the pyrometer into the field the whole process of pottery manufacture in a number of specific village locations had been studied, and detailed written and photographic records compiled. w·th regard to the firing stage, an indication of the amount and type of fuel was obtained. The duration of the firing period was measured from the time that the fire was lit, until the time when the first pot was removed. The tim e at which the last pot was removed was also noted. The number of pots in the firing was counted, and also the number of breakages. The number of pots which were discarded, re cycled as grog, or patched up and sold in the usual manner was noted. (In southeast Nigeria sealing substances are employed to repair or conceal cracks.) The ·potters were consulted and the forthcoming operation discussed. They were able to inform me precisely where the hearth was to be sited before the fire was built. By this method, and by careful observation of the area where recent firings had taken place, the central point of the hearth was located on the ground, and a hole a little over twenty centimetres deep was dug (Fig. 23:1) . A narrow trench of the same depth was dug, leading from the hole. The trench ran from the centre of the hearth to about a metre beyond the edge, its length (and so that of the cable) depending upon the size of the fire. An empty tin can approxirrntely twenty centimetres in diameter was taken and a round hole some three centimetres in diameter punched at either end. The thermocouple was placed in this can so that only the porcelain sheath protruded from the hole at the top, held in place from the outside of the can by a clamp provided with the thermocouple. The can was then packed with earth, and the lid, facing downwards, closed. It was buried in the hole at the centre of the hearth so that the top of the can was level with the soil surface when sprinkled with earth. The cable leading from the bottom of the can was buried in the trench and connected to the pyrometer at a safe distance from the fire. The final procedure before the potters began to build the fire was to fill all exc?,vated areas and smooth the hearth surface so that it was as close to its undisturbed state as possible. The major object of these preparations was to ensure that the terminal head, compensating cable and pyrorr12ter were maintained at the same temperature; for the same reason the pyrometer was also protected from radiant heat from the fire.

350

c ) a >

C _ ) C 0 0_

0

c ompensa t ing

c

4 -

c . _ C D

a )

0 C > CL

E

( i e

1

Pyro metric a pparatus i nstalled i n t he f ield.

t hermocoup le

t hermocoup le

4.

t 1 . 0 •, . 1

r z i

Despi te t he f act t hat t he work d escribed a bove n ight a ppear t o b e r ather a rduous, i t was p ossible t o c o mplete t he mod if ications t o t he pyro metric a pparatus i n at echnical workshop w ith a min i mu m o f t ools i n a bout h alf a working d ay , a nd t he i nstallation o f t he a pparatus i n t he f ield i n a bout 3 0 minutes. Ho wever , at est r un i s d esirable , a s t he pyro meter s hould b e c alibrated f or a s et l eng th o f c able a nd e le ment : t he g reater t he e lectrical r esistance o f t he t her mocouple t he l ess s ensitive t he i nstru ment . I I I n o rder t o i l lustrate t he v alue o f pyro metric d ata I s hall d iscuss r esults f ro m t wo I bib io v illages: Nko N to Nkono i n t he Otoro C lan o f t he Annang I bibio s ubgroup , a nd Ndon Ebo m i n t he Uruan C lan o f t he I bib io Proper . 2 I n b oth c ases t he main f uel c onsisted o f p al mfronds, w ith s plit b ranches o f t he s a me s pecies o f t rees o rd inarily u sed f or f uel f or t he c ooking f ires. When p lacing t he f irst l ayer o f p ots, e ach v essel was p laced o n at ripod made o f b riquet tes f ash ioned f ro m d ecayed h ousewall mud , a nd s herds, e specially t hose i ncorporating t he r im a nd n eck o f a n o ld v essel . I n t he c ase o f Nko N to Nkono ( f iring A ) , t he pal mfronds were l aid over e ach o ther i n ac riss-cross manner , t hen more f ronds p iled over t his s tructure c onta ining t he p ots. There were t wen ty-four small water-carry ing p ots a nd f ood b o wls, t he l atter b eing p laced on t op o f t he f or mer i n ad o wnward f acing p osit ion . A s i milar method o f b u ilding t he f ire was u sed a t Ndon Ebo m ( f iring B ) w ith s o me h eav ier p ieces o f f ire wood p laced b etween t he p ots, b efore t he pal mfronds were p iled over a ll t o make a l arger , t aller a nd more c on ical s tructure. There was a t otal o f t hirteen p ots, n ine o f which were f or water s torage, a nd f our f or c arry ing water. A ll e xcept one o f t he f or mer were p laced on t he l o wer l ayer , w ith one o f t he water-stor a ge p ots a nd a ll o f t he water-carry ing p ots p laced on t op. At Nko N to Nkono t he wa ter-carrying p ots, a bang i di m , were o f t he s ize u sed b y c h ildren ( P 1 .23 :1 a nd 2 -) .Pyro metric r ead ings b egan a t 1 .02 h ours a t f iring A on 1 6th May 1 978 , a nd a t 0 5.32 h ours a t f iring B on t he f ol lo wing d ay . Af ter i nstalling t he a pparatus, t he pyro meter r ead ing was a d justed t o t he n or mal a ir t e mperature o f 3 0° C a t A a nd 2 50 C a t B . I n t he c ase o f A , t he f irst p ot was r e moved f ro m t he f ire a f ter 1 8 minutes, a nd t he l ast p ot a f ter 2 3 minu tes. Maxi mu m t e mperature a ttained i n t he f iring was 9 40 ° C . I n B t he f irst p ot was r e moved a f ter 2 5 minutes, a nd t he l ast p ot a f ter 2 8 minutes. Max i mu m t e mpera ture was 7 90°C. The r esults o f t he two f irings h ave b een p lotted o n a g raph ( Fig . 2 3 :2 ). This e nables t he t e mperature c urves o f t he f irings t o b e c o mpared a nd c ontrasted a t ag lance. Accord ing t o Carde w ( 1970 , 1 ) 5 50 ° C i s " the l o west t e mperature a t wh ich c lay- ware c an b e f ired i f i t i s t o b e u seful . The c lay minerals a re n ow d ehydrated a nd c annot a f ter wards b e r e-hydrated a t n or mal p ressures". By marking t h is c ritical t euperature o n t he t e mperature c urves o f t he g raph i t c an b e c alculated t ha t i n r espect o f f iring A t he t e mperature r e mained a bove 5 50°C f or 1 2 minutes a nd 3 6 s econds. I n t he c ase o f f iring B , s ince

3 52

1 0 i s t p oE

r emoved

9

8

t i me , m ins . 4 F ig.

8 2 3 :2 .

1 2

1 6

2 0

I bibio t e mperature c urves.

3 53

2 4

Pots l a id o ut f or f iring a t Nko N to • Nko mo.

Small f iring o f p ots ( the o ne r ecorded h ere ) ,

0

0 X Z 0 . ' 0 X Z

I kot Ekpene.

r ead ings were s topped when a ll t he p ots h ad b een r e moved f ro m t he h earth , i t i s n ot kno wn a t what t i me t he t e mperature f ell b elo w 5 50°C, b ut , f ro m t he a vailable d ata , i t i s c lear t hat t he t e mperature r e mained a bove 5 50 ° C f or a t l east 1 4 minutes a nd 3 0 s econds. I n f iring A t his i s a pprox i ma tely 5 0% o f t he f iring duration f or t he f irst p ot r e moved a nd a bout 7 0% o f t hat f or t he f inal p ot r e moved. The c orresponding r esu lts f or B a re 5 0% a nd 6 0 %. The importan t p oint t o emerge, t herefore, i s t hat a lthough t he f iring p eriods a re v ery s hort , f or a l arge p roportion o f t his t i me t he t e mperature i s a bove t he c ritical p oin t o f 5 50°C. Ho wever , n ot a ll t he p ots i n t he f iring may b e a t t he s arre t e mpera ture a s t hose n earest t o t he t her mocouple , a nd t his must b e r egarded a s ap ossible s ource o f e rror. One o f t he most s triking f eatures o f t he t e mperature c urves i s t he r apid r ise o f t e mperature a t t he e arly s tages o f f iring . Th is would b e i ntolerab le f or s ituations i n which t he c lay- ware was n ot l oosely t extured , which t he I bib io a chieve by t he ad mixture o f c oarse p articles during t he p reparation o f t he c lay b ody , a s d escribed a bove ( N icklin , t his v olu me). The r apid r ise o f t e mperature i s e ven more s urprising i n v ie w o f t he l ack o f p reheating p rocedures i n t he I b ibio e xa mples d iscussed h ere. Another s triking observation c oncerns t he mo men t c hosen m b y in t h u t ee p so a t t f t ee rr s t h oe rm em ax o ivm eu tm h et f e im r s p t ep r o atu .r e In (8 f i 8 r 0 i° ng C ) Awa t h s isr ea wa ch s ed , a nd i n f iring B a t p recisely when t he max i mu m t e mperature o f 7 90 ° C was a ttained . I n t he c ase o f f iring B p ostf iring t reat men t was d one im med iately a f ter t he p ots h ave b een r e moved f ro m t he h earth . This c onsisted o f r ubb ing a b unch o f g reen l eaves a round t he r im a nd n eck o f t he p ot t o g ive a p urple s tain , t hen r ubb ing t he whole ou ter s urface w ith r esin t o p roduce a b ro wn v arnish . Consequently a ll p ots were r e moved q uickly f ro m t he f ire s o t hat t hey were s till s uff iciently h ot f or t his t reat ment . I t i s p ertinen t t o c o mpare I bib io f iring d ata w ith t hose f ro m e lse where. A mong t he Hopi I ndians p ots a re f ired w ith s heep dung . T he p ots a re p rotected f ro m c on tact w ith t he d ung b y l arge s herds t o p revent b urn marks; i n e ffect t h is f or ms a r udi mentary k iln . Colton ( 1951 , 7 3-4 ) r ecorded 1 7 f irings w ith max i mu m t e mperatures r anging f ro m 7 20°C t o 8 85 ° C , w ith a n a verage o f 8 10 ° C . Th is i s i n c on trast t o t he I bib io a verage h ere o f 8 65°C. The a verage t i me f or t he t e mperature t o r each maxi mu m i n t he Hopi f irings was 5 8 minu tes, c o mpared t o a bout 2 1 minutes f or t he I bibio ones, i .e. a bou t one t hird o f t he t i me. The I bibio f iring A r eached a maxi mu m t e mperature o f 9 40 ° C , which i s t he s a me a s t he h ighest Pueblo I nd ian f iring t e mperature r ecorded by Shepard a t Z ia ( Shepard , 1 968 , 8 4 ). I t would s ee m t hat by u sing t he most s i mple methods a nd materials I b ibio p ot ters h ave a chieved a r e markably e ff icient t echn ique o f p ottery f iring . The c lay ware i s made s uch t hat i t c an w ithstand t he s tresses o f r apid f iring . I n t he t wo f irings d iscussed i n t his p aper n o p ot was d a maged t o t he e x tent where i t c ould n ot b e s old a nd u sed f or t he purpose f or which i t was made. A t

3 56

Ndön Ebo m one p ot h ad a s light c rack i n t he r i m. I n n one o f t he f irings which I h ave w itnessed i n t he Cross R iver r eg ion h as t he b reakage r ate d uring f iring b een more t han a f ew p ercen t. This e v idence c ontrad icts t he w idely h eld b elief t hat f iring p ottery i n a n o pen f ire i s ah azardous undertaking ( e. g . S cott , 1 954 , 3 82 ). I t would a ppear, a lso, t hat t he s hort f ir ing p eriod makes e ff icien t u se o f b oth f uel a nd l abour. The f uel i s a .s elf-rene wing r esource, a nd I bib io p otters n ever h ave t o t ravel f ar i n o rder t o o btain p al mf ronds. Colton ( 1951 , 7 6) d raws a tten tion t o c ertain s hortco mings o f Hopi f iring methods. He b elieves t hat " a h igher t e mperature, a bove 8 75 0 C .. would improve t he q uality o f t he p roduct". Moreover , h e ma intains t hat t here i s a n impend ing f uel s hortage f or t he Hopi , a s p ot ters h ave e xhausted t he s upply o f d ung a round t he mesa on wh ich t hey l ive, a nd a re h aving t o b uy p oor q ual ity manure f ro m t he Navaho, o r t ransport i t f or a l ong d istance f ro m e lse where. I t would b e d angerous h o wever t o p lace t oo much emphasis on variations i n " ob jective" measure ments f ro m d ifferen t f ield s tudies, w ithou t i nvestigating r espective c u ltural c ontex ts. For e xa mple, p eople 's n ot ions o f h o w well a p ot s hould b e f ired v ary c ross-culturally , a nd n ot a ll t ypes o f ware n eed b e e qually well f ired . Ecologica l a daptations o f hu man s ettle men ts t o t heir e nviron ments a re h ighly c o mplex , a nd i n a ddition t o p ottery manufacture t he whole r ange o f ways i n which t he e nviron men t i s e xploited must b e t aken i n to a ccoun t. The f ield o f c era mic e cology i s a r elatively n ew one , t hough s ignifican t work h as b een d one, e specially i n S ou th A merica ( Arnold , 1 975 ; 1 978 ). There a re many ways i n wh ich c era mic pyrorretry migh t b e e xtended a nd d eveloped . Further f irings might b e r ecorded i n t he c o m munities a lready s tudied t o a chieve a more a ccurate mean o f r eadings. Variations b etween d ifferen t i nd iv iduals a nd g roups w ithin t he c o m munity c ould b e s tudied , a nd a lso t he d ifference b etween f irings i n t he d ry s eason a nd i n t he r ains. Max i mu m t e mperatures s hould b e c ross-checked u sing a lternative methods s uch a s pyro metric c ones. I n r espect a t l east o f l arger f irings i t s hould b e p ossible t o i nstall a nu mber o f t her mocouples ( up t o t hree o r f our) s o t hat variations o f t e mperature b etween d ifferen t p ositions o f t he s a me f ire may b e d ocu mented . These would n ot n ecessarily b e c onnected t o s eparate pyro meters, p roviding a n e ff icien t switch mechanis m were t o b e i nstalled . I n due c ourse pyro metric d ata f ro m I bib ioland s hould b e c o mpared a nd c on trasted w ith t hat f ro m t he Ogo ja a rea , where , a s we h ave s een ( N icklin , t his v olu me), p roduction t echniques a re d ifferen t . This work s hould t ake i n to a ccoun t l aboratory a nalysis o f r aw materials a nd f ired p roducts f ro m r espective l ocali ties. I t i s my c on ten tion t hat f urther a nalysis o f c era mic p roduction a nd d istribution i n s ou theastern N igeria s hould c onsider t he f ull r ange o f b oth c ultural a nd t echnological ( in t he s ense t hat t his word i s u sed b y Shepard , 1 968) d ata a vailable .

3 57

Notes 1 . Manufactured b y t he I ndustrial Pyro meter Co. B ir mingha m , Model P8.

L td .,

2 . Relevan t b ackground d ata a re g iven i n my p aper on s ou theast N igerian p ottery published i n t he p resen t v olu me. Ackno wledge ments I am g rateful f or a g ran t ( 1974 ) f ro m t he Cen tral Research Fund , Un iversity o f London , f or t echn ical e quip ment which e nabled me t o c onduct t he r esearch u pon which t his p aper i s b ased. I am i ndebted t o Mr. A . G . Moon , t hen o f t he S cience Equ ip men t Centre, Cross R iver S tate Min istry o f Education , Uyo, f or modification o f my pyro metric a ppara tus f or u se i n t he f ield , a nd f or a dv ice d uring t he writing u p o f t he r esult s . Unpublished i nfor ma tion a bou t p ottery f iring i n Western N igeria Has p rov ided by Mrs. S . P icton a nd Professor Frank Willet t. The material h as b enefited f ro m a nu mber o f g roup d iscussions, l otably w ith t he Archaeolog ical S ociety o f t he University o f L eicester , February 1 980. B ibl iography 4 rnold , D . E ., 1 975. Cera mic e cology o f t he Ayacucho Basin , Peru : impl ications f or p rehistory . Curr. An throp . 1 6 , 1 83-205. Arnold , D . E ., 1 978. Cera mic v ariabil i ty , e nv iron ment a nd c ul ture h istory among t he Poko m i n t he Valley o f Guate mala . I n Hodder , I . ( ed .) , The S patia l Organisa tion o f Cul ture, 3 9-59. ( London ). Carde w , M., 1 952 . N igerian t raditional p ot tery . N igeria 3 9 , 1 88-201. Carde w , M., 1 961 . F iring t he b ig p ot a t Kwali . N igeria 7 0 , 1 99-201 . Carde w , M., 1 969. P ioneer Pottery . ( London , Harlo w ). Carde w , M., 1 970. I n troduction : p ottery t echniques i n N igeria . I n Leith- Ross, S ., N igerian Pottery , 9 -13. ( Ibadan). Colton , H . S ., 1 951 . Hopi p ottery f iring t e mperatures. Pla teau 2 4 (2 ), 7 3-6. Fe wkes, V . J ., 1 944 . Catawba p ottery- making . Proc. A mer. Ph ilos. S oc. 8 8 , 6 9-125. Foster, G . M., 1 966. The s ociology o f p ottery : q uestions a nd hypotheses a rising f ro m c on te mporary Mex ican work . I n Matson , F . R . ( ed .), Cera mics a nd Man, 4 3-61 . ( London ). Goldie, Revd . H ., 1 885. Notes on a v oyage u p t he Calabar o r Cross R iver i n Nove mber 1 884 . S cot. Geogr. Mag . 1 , 2 73-83. Leach , B ., 1 967. A Potter 's Book. ( London ). LeFree, B ., 1 976. S anta C lara Pottery Today , S ch . A mer. Res. Monograph 2 9. ( Albuquerque). N ickl in , K ., 1 971 . S tability a nd i nnovation i n p ottery manufacture. World Archaeol. 3 (1 ), 1 3-48.

3 58

N ickl in , K ., 1 973a . Abang i song : t he I bibio c ere mon ial p al m w ine p ot . N iger. F ield 3 8 ( 4 ), 1 80-89. N ickl in , K ., 1 973b . The I bibio musical p ot. A fr. Arts 7 (1), 5 0-5. N ickl in , K ., 1 979. The l ocation o f p ottery manufacture. Man 1 4 (3 ), 4 36-58. Pole, L . M., 1 974 . I ron-s mel ting p rocedures i n t he Upper Reg ion o f Ghana . Bull . H ist. Metall . Grp. 8 , 2 1-32 . Pole, L . M., 1 975. I ron- work ing a pparatus a nd t echniques: Upper Reg ion o f Ghana. West. Afr. J . Archaeol . 5 , 1-39. Rhodes, D ., 1 968 . K ilns: Design , Construction a nd Operation . ( London ). S cott, S ir L ., 1 954. Pottery . I n S inger, C ., Hol myard , E . J . a nd Hall , A . R . ( eds.), A H istory o f Technology , Vol . 1 , 3 76-412 . ( Oxford ). S hepard , A . 0 ., 1 936. The p ottery o f Pecos. Phillips Acad . Yale 2 , 3 89-636. S hepaia , -7 . . 0 ., 1 968. A s till s urv iv ing n eol ithic c raft i n n orthern N igeria . I l lus. London Ne ws, Aug . 1 8 , 2 50-2 . Whittle, J ., 1 980. The p otters o f S okoto. Cera m ic Rev ie w 6 4 , 4 -6.

3 59

2 4 CE RA MIC EXCHANGE AND M ANU FACTURE : A ' FLO W ST RUCTU RE ' APP RO AC H S . E . Van d er Leeuw

I ntroduction The l ast t en y ears, c era mic s tudies h ave b een t ransf or med v ery t horoughly . Fro m t he s tudy o f p ottery t ypes, we have moved t o t he s tudy o f r aw ma terials, manufacturing t echn iques, i nnovat ion , e tc . Recen tly , we h ave s een a r enewed i nterest i n t he mechanis ms wh ich a rticulate t he p otter w ith h is e nv iron men t : s ocial a nd e cono mic a spects o f p ottery mak ing . Through e thnoarchaeology a nd e thnography , t hese s ubjects h ave b rought u s i n c on tact w ith a n thropology , a nd we have i n troduced ways o f l ooking a t p ottery which d erive f ro m t hat d iscipline. That h as b een v ery p rofitable : t his v olu me i s ag ood e xa mple o f t he g a ins made. We r ecognize t he r ela tionship b etween manuf acture , t rade , micro- a nd macroecono mics a nd s o f orth . We c an e ven d efine s o me s tates o f t he manufacturing a nd t rade s yste m b oth t echnologically a nd e cono mically a s well a s i n r elation t o t he overall s ocial o rgan iza tion o f t he s ocieties i n which t hey b elong . Balfet and Peacock g ive g ood e xa mples i n t his v olu me. But i t i s t i me t o l ook a head a ga in , a t t he n ex t t ransf or mation . I n t his paper , Iw ill a tte mpt t o a ssess s o me o f t he d i ff icul ties i nherent i n t he a nthropological mode o f t hought which we a re p resen tly u sing , a nd t o s ee i f t here i s a way ou t. Proble ms One o f t he ma jor p roble ms we a re a lready c o ming u p a ga inst i s t hat o f s tudy ing t ransit ions b etween s yste m s tates. Thus, we d o n ot k no w why o r h ow a t ransition i s made f ro m t he u se o f at urntable t o t he u se o f t he k ick- wheel . Nor d o we h ave even t he t ools t o s tudy s uch t ransitions a s b etween r eciprocal , r edistribu tive a nd market e cono mies. That would only b e p ossible i f we were a ble t o d efine v ariables i n t er ms which t ranscend t hese k inds o f e cono mies. I n my o pinion , s uch a uthors a s Dalton , S ahlins a nd S erv ice , e tc. h ave n ot managed t o d o t hat ( Dal ton , 1 971 ; S ahlins, 1 974 ; S erv ice, 1 975). Nex t , we h ave e nv iron mental d eter minis m. Follo wing B inford 's d efin it ion o f c ul ture a s man 's e x traso ma tic means o f a daptation , a nd t he h eavy s tress on e cology wh ich i s probably due t o t he s i mple f act t hat we kno w s o much a bou t i t , we d o n ot

3 61

h ave t he o ld b rand o f e nv iron men tal d eter minis m on our h ands, bu t an ew one ( Binford , 1 965). Such e xplanations a s ' ecological d ifferen tiation ' f or t he e x istence o f r edistributive e cono mies a re ag ood c ase i n p oin t . They t end t o o bscure c ultural c auses wh ich h ave a lso c onstrained t he p heno mena s tud ied . An e xa mple f ro m manufacture a nalysis would b e t he overe mphasis on t he n earness t o r aw materia ls ( clay , f uel ) o f most p ot ters' workshops, a nd t he e nsu ing undere mphasis on c ultural p heno mena l ike t he d istance t o a market , o r t he c ul tural a ff iliation o f t he p otter . Third , we c ould mention t he l ack o f emphasis on t he dyna mic nature o f p ottery manufacture a nd t rade. Usually , we h ave b een c onsidering t he s itua tion s tud ied a s s table b etween t ransfor mat ions: we h ave n ot r ecogn ized i nflat ion i n a nu mber o f p ri mitive s ocieties. We h ave c onsidered manufacturing t echniques q u ite o f ten a s b eing s table when t here were n o a ctual i nnovations t o p oint t o, while i n a ctual f act we c an o ften s ee c hanges i n s o me a spect o f t he t echnology while o thers r e main s table. I n medieval Haarle m , f or e xa mple , wheel t echnology a nd k iln t echnology b oth c hange , bu t a t d ifferent r ates a nd a t d ifferent mo men ts ( Van d er Leeuw , 1 974 ). Fourth , we h ave n o i dea a bou t t he way i n which a ncien t man d id , a nd we c ould , c o mpare a rtefacts. I n f act , we d o n ot e ven k no w which k inds o f a rtefacts a re c o mparable f ro m wh ich p oint o f v ie w . Thus, we d o n ot e ven h ave a s ound b asis f or our a tte mpts a t s i mulating a ncien t d ecision- making . We d o n ot k no w f unctional e qu ivalents, q ual itative e quivalents, n oth ing . A t a nother l evel , we h ave n o i dea h ow d ifferent manufacturing methods c o mpare i n e ff iciency , i n e nergy e xpenditure , e tc . I n s hort , we c annot c o mpare a ny thing b ecause we d on 't k no w what i s c o mparable a nd what i sn 't . F ifth , a nd more d irectly i n t he e cono mic r eal m , t here i s t he q uestion wh ich i s p lagu ing e cono m ic a nthropology : a re a naly tical t echn iques f or t he s tudy o f market e cono mies a pplicable t o o ther k inds o f e cono mies ( substan tiv ists v s. f or malists) ? I n ad epressed mood o ne might a dd : a re e ven our q uestions r igh t? I t s ee ms t o me t hat a ll t hese p roble ms a nd a nu mber o f o thers a re d ependen t u pon t he two k inds o f c onceptualization wh ich a re i nherent i n t he p resent-day s yste mic a pproach i n trod uced by e cological a n thropology : t he ' syste ms' c oncept a nd t he ' rando m ' c oncept . Iw ill b egin wi th t he s yste ms c oncept . I t has b een i n troduced t o c o mbat t he a to mis m u nderly ing t he c ulture-historical a pproach . This a to mis m i s r esponsible f or many d ebates b etween i lu mpers' a nd ' split ters', a nd f or a v iew o f t he p ast a s as eries o f f acts s trung o n al ine ( t i me). Yet , d ef in ing a s yste m b egs t he q uestion what d oes, a nd what d oes n ot b elong t o t he s yste m u nder c onsideration . The q uestion , p articularly r elevant i n t he e arly days o f ' closed ' s yste ms, h as s ee mingly b eco me l ess r elevan t by t he i ntroduction o f t he ' open ' s yste ms model . Bu t t hat i s only a n a pparen t c hange. No w , we h ave t o d iscuss whether e nough o f t he r elevan t v ariables h ave b een i ncluded . Thus, we must c onclude

3 62

that the systems concept is as atomistic as the older type concept. Granted, the units are larger, and what goes on within a system is viewed more in terms of relation� and processes, but even systems are customarily divided into subsystems so that their operation may be viewed as the interaction between entities. Two consequences of the atomistic nature of the approach are apropos. First, assuming that the world is made up of entities, we cannot conceive of, let alone study, phenomena as continua. Thus, transitions are out of bounds to anyone using an atomistic fram ework. Hence stem our problems in _studying the transition between system states, between hunters-and­ gatherers and agriculturalists as well as between coiling and wheel manufacturing of pottery. Faced with such a transition, we attempt to reduce its magnitude by defining system states in between, so that we have many small transitions instead of one major one. But that does not really help. Second, if there is nothing to connect the two system states, if each is an entity all by itself, we have no ground to compare the system states: we do, in fact, not know whether they are comparable at all. The same is_ true of all phenomena, and has been a major. drawback to working with datasets like the archaeological, where there are few, if any, indications on how phenomena were connected in the minds of the people studied. That is why we do not know how products compared when pre­ historic man was faced with a choice, and it is an inherent weak­ ness of _all decision-making approaches to date. Similarly, it makes us question which analytical techniques are appropriate to analysis of a certain state of a system unless these techniques have been specially developed for the one under study. A second aspect of the same problem is our view of causality: because of the atomistic nature of our optics, we do not know where the causal links lie, and what the nature of these links is. Thus, it has become all too easy to associate sequent­ iality and causality to the point where phenomena observed in a temporal sequence are thought to be causally related. In many cases, this has ohscured much more complicated relationships between variables and processes. Alternatively, we have been reduced to description of the simplest kind. For example, no cogent argument exists from this point of view concerning the change from Dressel la to Dressel lb amphorae. Besides its atomistic nature, the systemic approach has other drawbacks, such as its reductionism and its functionalism. Krupp has argued in a very lucid paper that the systems approach reduces the number of variables considered relevant in the study of a set of phenomena by the introduction of the concept of 'goal range' (1968}. His argument applies primarily to 'homeostatic' systems models, but has some valid points for 'morphogenetic' models as well. He argues that one assumes a part of the variables, conceivably connected with changes observed, as essentially stable or at least stabilizing, aiming to keep the system within its 'goal range'. As the aim of studying the system is process, the stabilizing variables tend to rermin

363

subsumed under the 'goal range' concept, and to remain in the background while the variables infringing on the stability· are highlighted. In the case of morphogenetic systems models, one could argue that the same is actually happening, but not through subsumption under the goal range concept. Hence, Krupp goes on, 'mechanistic' approaches considering all the variables individually have been more successful and more satisfying wherever they could be applied, i. e. in all cases with a relatively low number of variables. Systemic approaches are advocated 'faute de mieux', for cases where the variables are too numerous. As, notwithstanding their number, it is the variables which must be responsible for transitions, this is a very dangerous approach. Fortunately, however, recent research in ceramic analysis has tended to unravel variables that have thus far been included in a 'black-box'-like systems approach: raw materials analysis, analysis of shaping techniques and the reasons behind them, etc. A consequence of this particular way of reducing the number of variables is that systemic approaches tend to account for either stability or for growth, as opposed to models unraveling all variables, which may include stable and unstable equilibria. (One of the few systemic approaches which do indeed account for both is Slobodkin and Rapoport's model of human evolution, where variables preserve the system either through stability or through change, depending upon the length of the period over which they operate (Slobodkin and Rapoport, 1974; Slobodkin, 1968).)Evidently, we need to have a model accounting for both stability and change if we are to study both (seemingly?) stable states and transitions. The way in which the goal range has been defined is responsible for a couple of other drawbacks-. Drawing from biology again, where · the ultimate goal for living systems is taken to be the survival of the system, the system's survival has also been introduced as the ultimate aim of cultural systems. Two aspects have, in my opinion, been detrimental to further development of the field: f irst the idea of oal ran e itself. That is most clearly exhi ite ... Y the su stantivist- unct10na1ist discussion on the nature of pre-market economies. This dis­ cussion hinges to a great extent on the maximization-assumption of modern (rr..arket) economics. It is essentially a goal-range assumption, and has been transformed for pre-market economies in such terms as 'optimization' (cf. Jochim, 1977 for a fuller discussion). If one, however, were to analyze the variables involved, the discussion would be superfluous, and formal techniques would be seen to be easily applicable to pre-market cases. Second, the concept seems to be tied in with the marked bent for functionalism among archaeologists using systems approaches. It is a focus, derived from the same b�ological definition of goal, upon subsistence and subsistence-related activities, on the transfer of matter and energy through the system. That brings us to the other concept held responsible for some of the limitations of the present approach: 'random'. Whereas we consider a system structured, i. e. consisting of component parts with certain connections between them, ·we

consider the commodities which flow through the system, i. e. energy, matter and information as flowing randomly through components and channels between them. Kinship relations, redistributive systems, market economies are all sets of such channels: the substances, the work exchanged, and the messages passed through these channels are considered non-structuring. Evidently, commodities which have no structure, which move randomly, cannot be held responsible for whatever structure there is in a system, or for transitions between system states. For energy and matter, this seems inevitable: they both follow the law of conservation (if the amount of energy/matter grows in one place, it has to diminish in another), and can therefore never have a structuring effect. Information channels have been studied by Wright and Johnson. Their approach has essentially the same limitations as those studying energy and matter channels: no explanation for transformations, etc. (w right, 1969; 1977, etc • ; Johnson, 1973) • Later approaches by Johnson have focused on the effects of different amounts of information flowing through the channels, and the reasons why channel sets should change. Based on experimental data, Johnson has come quite far in describing (and possibly soon predicting)· such transitions. But the reasons for change are still unclear (Johnson, 1978; 1980; 1981). In sociology, others have invoked the random approach to information exchange in explaining the genesis of srrall-scale institutions (Mayhew, Gray and Mayhew, 1971; Mayhew and Levinger, 1976). But they always come up against the fact, that in a random approach, in the end, chaos is bound to ensue (second law of thermodynamics). Thus, in their case, the larger the structure, the higher the odds against its appearance or continued existence, and the quicker it must dis appear. That same law has, finally, been the basis of a very sensible attempt to monitor decay of structures (Gorman, 1973). In conclusion: the combined use of 'systems' and 'random' approaches to archaeological phenomena seems to limit fundamentally our conceptualizations to entities, stages and the like. It does not admit the study of transformations, and does not allow for the study of structuring, only of structure. Elements of a flow-structure approach If the systemic approach is too atomistic to enable us to study certain phenomena, we · have to look for a continuum-approach. If neither the systemic nor the random approach can explain structuring, we have to introduce some kind of non-random element in our rrodel. If the systemic approach does not allow for the study of both stability and morphogenesis in one model, that is a third goal which we have to set ourselves (and, in parentheses, we should include the study of decay). The argument which is to follow has been depicted in abbreviated form on Fig. 24 :1.

365

HUMAN INSTITUTIONS as FLOW STRUCTURES All forms of human interactions may be represented as flows (a) What moves flows and

(A) How do flows make institutions?

keeps them flowing?

i

- define flow as structure in-

- existence of potential

stead of as disturbance of sta-

- perception of potential

bility

- friction may be overcome

- define institutions as flow

(b) Potentials spatially depicted as fields

(c) Information is what flows - not subject to law of conservation

structures

l

(B)

!

- channel = flow Information shared after exchange, so that information is structured element

- low energy cost of infor- (C) Nature of flows mixed: matter, energy mation flow

and information in all of them

- perception of energy/mat- (D) How can information flows be responter potential only possi­

sible for the creation and mainte­

ble through information

nance of potentials? - hierarchical nature of informa­ tion processing by humans - flow creates potential, potential creates flow

(I) Qualitative differences reduced to differences in the quantity of organization/information (II) General rules concerning behaviour of self-organizing systems (1) Size of potential relates to size of flow. Their proportion relates to stability of system (time depen­ dency).

Fig. 24:1.

Schematic of the argument binding together flows, institutions, potentials, fields, etc-. 366

Stripped of everything else, including institutions, etc., we can conceive of the human world as an endless series of flows of different nature and direction. Humans flow, so do goods, energy and information. Of necessity, we must then ask two questions: (1) what moves these flows and keeps them moving? and (2) how do these flows generate institutions? Each of the questions is the starting point for a train of thought. These �et in the end. 1. What moves flows and keeps them moving? Flows occur wherever three conditiona are met: 1. The existence of a potential, for example between the point of manufacture of a commodity and a point where this comrrodity is not made. 2. · The perception of that potential, in this case by the person trading in the pots. 3. Insufficient friction to make the flow impossible: the trader must make profit. Each of these conditions has sorrE relevant consequences to be discussed. The existence of a potential. The fact that both matter and energy follow the law of conservation implies that neither can create a potential nor maintain it against the attrition caused by flows going away from it. So developed the second law of thermo­ dynamics (growth of entropy). We must conclude that the only commodity which does not follow that law, inforrrntion, is responsible for the creation and maintenance of potentials. The perception of a potential. As long as a potential is not perceived, there is no flow. Nevertheless, we cannot deny the existence of the potential. It exists, perceived or not, be­ tween the point which has more of a commodity and all points which have less. We can thus introduce the concept field (Fig. 24 :2). Perception of a potential entails a flowcrtlnform­ ation: the trader has to be informed of the fact that no pots are available in a certain place, and of the fact that the people there do indeed want pots. A flow of information does not, on the other hand, necessarily imply a flow of energy and/or matter. Cases abound, where the friction could be overcome by information flows (low energy), but not by matter or energy flows (high energy): knowing that there is a need somewhere is quite different from being able to provide the commodities to fill it. Friction. Friction is of many different kinds: physical distance, physical barriers, cultural barriers, problems in communicating. If the potential is high enough, friction will in the long run be overcome, for instance by improving technology or people learning foreign languages. It is relative to the potential and the perception thereof. 367

Fig. 24: 2.

Schematic of the field existing between two points across which there is a certain potential. In studying Romanisation, for example, we might attribute a (+) sign to the Roman area, and a (-) sign to the Germanic regions. A flow would then occur from (+) to (-) across the field.

2 . How d o f lows g enera te i nstitu tions? That a ll d epends u pon t he way i n wh ich o ne d ef ines a n i nstitu tion . I n t he s yste ms a pproach , i nstitu tions a re d efined a s s ubsyste ms ( cf . F lannery , 1 972 ). I n ar ando m a pproach , f lo ws a re p er d ef in ition a berra tions f ro m t he n or mal ( rando m ) s itua tion We c ou ld a lso , h owever , d ef ine i nst itu tions a s f l\ows. A f low i s ak ind o f n onrando mness , i .e. a k ind o f o rgan iza tion w ithin t he c haos, a nd c ould t herefore a lso b e s een a s as tructure i n t hat c haos. I p ropose h ere t o d efine ; 's t itu tions a s f low s tructures. They a re t hus c hannels o f v ariou f or ms t hrough wh ich f lo ws p ass, b u t wh ich a re s haped b y t he\f lo ws_ the mselves, a nd a re t h ( f lo ws t he mselves ( Prigog ine , 1 978 ). That t h is s tep i s r ealistic may e asily b e u nderstood b y c onsidering a p rofessional a ssociat ion o f a rchaeologists. That i nstitu tion s erves a s a mechanis m t o t ransfer i nfor mat ion a nd , i n s o me c ases, ma t ter a nd e nergy among i ts me mbers. I n t he s a me way , k insh ip i s a n i nstitu tion c hannell ing c o m modities among me mbers. The n a ture o f t he f lo ws c hannelled ( and c hannell ing ) i s mixed : e nergy , ma t ter a nd i nfor ma tion a ll p lay t heir p art . I ndeed , o n c annot c onceive o f a n e xchange o f ma tter o r e nergy wh ich d oes n ot a lso h ave a n i n for ma tion a spect . G iv ing a n o b ject i s a n e xchange o f matter a nd o f t he e nergy t hat was n eeded t o make t he o b ject f ro m i ts c onponen t r aw ma terials a nd o f t he f or m ( i .e . i nfor ma tion ) which i t h as. As t here i s n o l aw o f c ons erva t ion o f i nfor mation , a ga in , i nfor ma t ion i s t he s tructuring e le men t i n t hese e xchanges: i t i s t he o nly c o m mod ity s hared a f ter t he e xchange. 3 . Ho w c an i nfor mat ion f lo ws b e r esponsible f or t he c rea tion a nd ma in tenance o f p oten tials? I n o ur a ns wer t o q uestions ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) we h ave h it u pon t he f act t hat t he e xchange o f i n for ma tion i s t he c ore s tructuring a spect o f a ll f low s tructures a nd a t t he s am e t i me i s r esponsible f or t he ma in tenance o f p oten tials. Can we f ind a r ea listic b ridging a rgu men t wh ich u n ites t hese t wo? The n ature o f h u man i nfor ma t ion p rocessing s ee ms t o b e h ierarch ical . Russell h as u sed t h is p rinciple i n t he f or ma tion o f h is f a mous Law o f Logica l Types ( 1938 ). H is a pproach a ssu mes t hat t he mind , a fter p roc essing a c erta in n u mber o f s i milar p ieces o f i n for ma tion , c reates a c oncept which o perates a t ad ifferen t l evel . For e xa mple, o bserva tion o f ( si milar ) p ots A , B a nd C l eads t o t he f or mu lat ion o f t he c oncept ' POT'. Once t hat h as b een a ch ieved , ( other ) i ndiv idual p ots may b e i den tif ied a s s uch b y r ecogn it ion o f t he a ttribu tes i ncluded i n t he d ef in ition o f t he c oncept o n t he p heno mena ( cf . Dunnell , 1 971 ). What i s t hus s tored i n t he mind i s t he c lass a nd i ts d efin ition , n ot t he a ttribu tes o f t he i ndiv idual e xa mples. The b asic r ule s u m marizing t he h ierarch ical n ature o f t he p rocess c ould b e s ta ted i n t he f ollow ing t er ms : " no c lass c an b e a me mber o f e ither i tself o r t he c lass o f n on- me mbers" . The c lass ' POT ' i s n either a p ot n or a n on-pot . I n at er minology more a ppropria te t o o ur f ra me o f mind , we c ould s ay t hat w i th in t he c lass ' POT ', p ot XX i s an onrando m o b ject , whereas o u tside

3 69

t hat c lass ( or f ra me o f r eference) i t i s ar ando m o b ject . Bateson 's model o f h u man l earn ing , i n p art d erived f ro m Russell 's t heory , makes t he c ase t hat t h is k ind o f h iera rchical i nfor ma t ion p rocessing wh ich o pera tes o n t wo l evels a t t he s a me t i me, i s c haracterist ic o f h u man b eings a nd t heref ore particularly a pt f or t he s tudy o f c ul tural p heno mena ( 1972 ). I t i s t h is c apacity wh ich e nables h u mans e ven tually t o s ubsu me s ets u nder more e nco mpassing s ets, a nd t hus t o d ev ise e ver more e nco mpassing f ra mes o f r eference ( such a s ' paradig ms' , Kuhn , 1 962 a nd o thers) wh ich p er m it t he m t o i den tify e ver w ider s ets o f p heno mena a nd a ccu mulate more a nd more k no wledge. The r ea l g a ins i n t h is r espect a re a ch ieved b ecause t he p rocess i s c u mula tive. Not o nly may a s et o f p heno mena b e r eta ined a s ac lass, b u t as et o f c lasses may b e r eta ined a s ac lass o f h igher o rder , e tc . Through t h is mechan is m , af low o f i nfor ma t ion g enerates a p oten tial ( i .e. a n e ver w ider f ra mework f or ' f i t ting ' i nfor mat ion ) , wh ile t he p otent ia l g enera tes a n i n for mat ion f lo w ( once t ha t f ra mework f i ts, o ne c annot h elp b u t p erceive t he t h ings which c an b e i n terpreted b y means o f i t ). The r esul t o f s uch a mu tual r ela tionsh ip b etween amoun t o f i n for ma t ion f lo w a nd t he c on tex t o f i n terpreta tion i s b est d epicted a s ag raph o f t he k ind u sed b y Prigogine ( 1978 ) ( Fig . 2 4 : 3 ). A long t he h orizon ta l a x is, we f ind t he amoun t o f i n for mation f low ing t hrough t he s yste m , a nd a long t he v ertical t he d egree o f o rgan i at ion p revalen t i n i t . The c urve i tself p resents t he t ra jectory wh ich t he s yste m ( here u sed i n t he p hysical r a ther t han i n t he e cologica l s ense ) f ollo ws. As we move f ro m l ef t t o r igh t a long t he h orizon tal , we f ind t hat t he s yste m w ill f ollo w a c urve ( behave n onrando mly ) u n til i t r eaches o ne o f t he b ifurca tions i n i t . A t t ha t p oin t , t here i s a c hoice. The s yste m may s uddenly a ch ieve a h igher d egree o f o rgan iza tion ( and move u p r a ther more r apidly ), o r i t may d evolve t o al o wer l eve l o f o rgan iza t ion . Wha tever t he c hoice , which may i n Prigog ine 's c onception b e t riggered b y a ny o scillat ion ( here , t he s yste m b ehaves r ando mly ), o ne o f t wo l ines w ill b e f ollo wed u n til a nother b ifurca t ion p oin t i s r eached . The g raph d epicts o nly t he amount o f o rgan iza t ion i n t he s ysten t , a nd n ot t he n ature o f t hat o rgan iza tion . Th is h as t wo importan t impl ica tions. F irst , d ifferences wh ich we h ave b een u sed t o c onsidering a s q ual itat ive h ave b een r educed t o d ifferences i n t he q uan t ity o f o rgan iza t ion t hey h ave , a nd i n t he q uant ity o f i n for ma t ion t hey c an h andle. By v irtue o f t his, q ual i ta tively d ifferen t p heno mena h ave b eco me c o mparable i n a t l east o ne k no wn r espect . S econd , f ro m t he g raph we may d erive c er ta in g enera l r ules c oncern ing t he b ehav iour o f a ll s elf-organ iz ing s yste ms, i rrespective o f t he q ual i ta tive n ature o f t he p heno mena a s t hey p resent t he mselves t o u s. Notably , s uch r ules a pply t o t he s ize o f o rgan iza tional g roups, r esponses t o s ca le t ransitions, e tc . J ohnson h as r ecen tly s tud ied a n u mber o f s uch p heno mena empirically , a nd c o mes u p w i th g raphs wh ich a re e ssen t ially s i milar ( 1980 ; 1 981 ).

3 70

F low s ize c p .

e D

0. - me z e c•— N ito•-•— o c

I n s u m mary , wh ich a re t he e le men ts o f t h is a pproach wh ich s ee m t o make i t more s u itable f or s olv ing s o me o f t he p roble ms ment ioned a bove t han o ur p resent s yste ms/rando m a pproach? 1 .

I t i s b ased o n a min i mu m n u mber o f a ssu mptions c onc ern ing t he p ast : t he world i s c onceived o f a s ap lane o n which f lows o f t he t hree f unda men tal c o mr rod i ties ma tter , e nergy a nd i nfor ma tion o ccur . I n terac t ion i s t hus i ts b asic c oncept , a nd t he a pproach i s e ssen tially ac on tinuu m-approach .

2 .

The a pproach a ccoun ts f or b oth c on t inuous a nd d iscont inuous q ual itative c hanges, a nd t hus e l i mina tes s uch d eba tes a s e x ist b etween ' evolu tions' a nd ' revolu tions' , b etween s udden a nd s low t ransfor mat ions.

3 .

A l though t he q ualita tive n ature o f c hanges i s n ot t o b e p redicted f ro m t he model u sed , t heir o ccurrence may b e p red icted b y measuring t he l evel o f i n TZTma tion p roc essing a nd t he l evel o f o rgan iza tion wh ich t he s yste m e xh ib its: r esponse t o s cale c hanges, e tc .

4 .

The a pproach f inds a way t o c o mpare ( quan titat ively ) o therwise ( qual i ta tively ) i nco mparable p heno mena , a nd t hus t o s tudy c on tinuous v ariables man ifesting t he ms elves i n d iscrete ( qual ita t ive ) f or ms.

5 .

The a pproach a ccoun ts f or g row th , ( see m ing ) s tab ility a nd d ecay ( ups w ing , n ear l evel a nd d owns w ing p arts o f t he c urve).

6 .

The a pproach i ncorpora tes t he i rreversibil ity o f t i me . Considering a p oin t X o n t he s yste m 's t ra jectory , s o mewhat t o t he r ight o f t he midd le , i t i s l og ica lly i r rpossible t o d iscern e xactly which o f t he n u mber o f p ossible t ra jectories t he s yste m f ollo wed i n o rder t o r each t hat p oin t .

7 .

The a pproach i ncorpora tes b oth r ando m ( at b reaking p oin ts) a nd n onrando m p hases i n s tructuring t he f lo ws.

F lo w s tructures, t rade a nd manu facture Our n ex t p roble m i s h ow t o r ela te t his f low s tructure a pproach t o t rade a nd manufacture. For t h is p urpose , we w ill t ake t wo e xa mples, o ne c oncerned w i th t rade , t he o ther w ith manufacture. For t he f irst , I am b orrowing S ahl insi ' classical ' d escription o f t rade i n h is p aper ' Exchange Value a nd t he D iplo macy o f Pri m it ive Trade' ( 1974 , 2 77 f .). I n a ll t hree o f h is e xa mples e xchange i s s een a s af lo w , o r a s an u mber o f f lows. The b asic mechan is m i nvolved i n a ll t rade, a ccord ing t o S ahl ins, i s t he d ifference i n p ercept ion o f t he s a me g oods when v ie wed f ro m t he makers' o r t he u ser 's p erspective : l abor v alue v s. u se v alue . This c learly s ee ms t o r ef lect a n i n for ma tion p oten tial : t he u sers

3 72

d on 't k no w h ow t o make t he p roducts. There i s ab arrier t o i nfor mation f lo w , b ut n o barrier t o af lo w o f matter, e ssentially i n a ll t hree e xa mples, b ecause t he u lti mate b uyers ( who c reate t he p otential ) h ave n o d irect c on tact w ith t he makers. Middle men a re i nvolved who p erceive t he p otential b ecause t hey a re i n t ouch w ith b oth p arties, a nd who main tain i t ( a mong o ther t hings by c la i ming t ha t t he p ots a re n ot man- made b ut d iscarded s hells o f a n a ni mal which o ccurs only i n af ew p laces). I n t he n ature o f t he f lo ws, a nd t heir c onsequences, t he t hree e xa mples d iffer. The i ntertribal t rade c hain o f n orthern Queensland . Here, a ll t he t ribal g roups a long s o me 1 50 miles o f c oast a re o nly i n t ouch w ith t heir im media te n eighbours. There i s n o i nfor mation t ransf er f ro m one e nd o f t he c hain (makers o f s pears) t o t he o ther (makers o f a xes). Thus, t here i s a dual p oten tial i nvolved , a long wh ich p roducts move f ro m t he manufacturing e nd o f t he c hain t o t he u sing . Exchange r atios a re d irectly r elated t o d istance. I n t he middle , e xchange i s one s pear t o one axe , a t b oth e nds many o f one a ga inst one o f t he o ther. The S iassi middle men s yste m ( Vitiaz S traits). Again , t here i s n o mu tual c on tact b etween most o f t he t ribal g roups a round t he s tra its. But h ere, t he S iassi h ave c on tact w ith e veryone a round . They have n o l and , b ut a re t he r ichest a nd d ensest p opulation i n t he a rea . Their means o f s ubsistence i s f ish ing a nd t rading . They h ave t o import a ll r aw materials. On t he o ther h and , t hey f or m t he only g roup who p erceive a ll p otentials i n t he a rea. Moreover , t hey a re h ighly i nteractive ( all l iv ing c losely t ogether) a nd a re t hus a ble t o s pread t he word v ery q uickly : t heir i nfor ma tion t ransfer i s v ery e ff icient , a nd s o i s t heir e nergy a nd matter t ransfer ( boats). They t rade a ny thing , a nd e xploit a ll p otentials. Trading i s d one by t rade-partners. Each S iassi t rader h as partners i n many s ettle ments. The r elationsh ip i s n ot a v ery s ociable one , wh ich makes f or s tandard e xchange r ates a ccording t o S ahlins ( or i n our t er ms: t he c hannels a re r ela tively s peciali zed a nd e ff icient , s o t hat e xchange r ates d o n ot f luctuate s trongly due t o n on-trade i nfor mation passing t hrough t he s a me c hannels. Where s uch a l ien i nfor mation passes t hrough t he c hannels, e xc hange r ates f luctuate h ighly ). I t i s t hus t hat one c an e xpla in t hat s tandard e xchange r ates a re b est a pprox i ma ted i n s ocially marg inal d ealings ( Sahlins, 1 974 , 2 79). H igh i ntegration among t he S iassi , a nd l ow i n tegration among t heir t rade p artners, a s well a s monopoly , a llo w t he S iassi t o s et e xchange r ates. They i n f act a ct l ike a modern-day c artel , a nd r eap huge p rofits. The r ates v ary h ighly i n t he a rea , mainly w ith d istance f ro m t he producers. The Huon Gulf t rade s yste m. I n t his c ase , t here i s c onsiderable mu tual i n teraction b etween t he t ribal g roups i nvolved , b ut t here i s ac erta in u pper l i mit t o t he a ction r adius, which l i mits t he d irect c ontact b etween t he more d istant g roups. A t b oth e x tre mes, natural r esources a re p oor,in t he c en tre t hey a re ample. The l argest a nd r ichest s ettle ment , Busa ma , e xports c onsiderable q uan tities o f f ood . At one e x tre me, p ots a re t he major e xport a rticle, a t t he o ther wooden b o wls. As a r esul t o f t he h igh i ntera ctiv ity , t here a re v irtually n o i nfor mation p otentials, a nd

3 73

e xchange r ates a re e qual a ll t hrough t he a rea b ecause e veryone k no ws t he m. This p er mits i solation o f t he a rea a s a ' syste m ' e ven t hough t here i s i nteraction with t he s urroundings. That i nteraction i s much l ess t han within t he c ore a rea . Con trary t o t he S iassi s ituation , t he r icher s ettle ment i s , o n b alance , l osing wealth t hrough t rade i f one measures wealth i n e nergy e xpenditure. Thus, we must c onclude t hat s uch measuring i s i n t his c ase i nvalid . The d ifference b etween maker a nd u ser p erception i s t oo g reat . The o nly p roduct w ith a n e xchange r ate which d iffers f ro m one p lace t o a nother i s p ottery . There i s ac lear p oten tial b etween t he mak ing c o m munity a nd t he o thers. The p otent ial i s p erceived a nd e xploited by Busa ma . That c o m mun ity , h o wever , must t ake a l oss o n a nu mber o f o ther e xchanges i f i t i s t o make ap rotit o n p ottery . We t hus s ee , h ow o ne p oten tial ( pot tery ) c an s et many more f lo ws g oing . Th is i s i n c on trast t o t he S iassi c ase, where f lo ws were n ot c onvertible, a nd e ach was d ependent u pon i ts own p oten tial . I t i s t he amount o f i n teraction i n t he s yste m wh ich i s r esponsible f or t he c onvertibil ity o f c o m mDd ities t hroughou t t he s yste m , b ecause e veryone k no ws t he s tandard e xchange r ate f or a ll c o m modities. As l ong a s e xchange r ates d epend n ot o nly on t he c o m modities, b u t a lso o n t he p lace i nvolved , s uch i nteractiv ity c ould n ever h ave b een a chieved , and t here would n ot b e a ny c onvertibility . Another importan t a spect o f t he t rade i n p ottery wh ich Busa ma u ndertakes, a nd f or which i t t akes a l oss on o ther e xc hanges, i s s u m marized i n t he f ollo w ing q uotation f ro m S ahl ins ( 1974 , 2 94 ): I t .. Co mposed i n t he b eg inn ing o f af ew c o m mun ities, at rade s yste m o f t he Huon t ype would s oon k no w a s trong i ncl ina tion t o e xpand i ts r ange i n s pace. Peripheral c o m mun ities i n p articular , t heir b argaining p osition u nder mined d uring t he i nitial s tages o f t rade, a re impelled t o s earch f urther a f ield f or n ovel i te ms-in-trade.... Bu t a n e xpansion s o o rganized must e ventually d eter mine i ts own l i mits. The i ncorporation o f ou tside c o m mun ities i s a chieved only a t ac onsiderable e xpense t o v illages a t t he f ron t iers o f t he o rig inal s yste m . The p rocess o f e xpansion t hereby d efines a n e colog ical p eri meter. I t c an c ont inue passably e nough t hrough r egions o f h igh p roductiv ity , but once h av ing b reached a marg inal e colog ical z one i ts f urther a dvance b eco mes unfeasible" . I n o ther words, t he c ost t o t he c ore o f t he s yste m i ncreases more w ith d istance t han t he p otential b etween t hat c ore a nd a marg inal a rea a llo ws f or . Friction i n t he e nd l i mits t he e xpansion . Many o ther f acets o f S ahl ins' f ascinating p aper c ould b e a dduced h ere, b ut w ill b e omitted f or b rev ity 's s ake. I h ope t he e xa mple has s hown h ow , u sing t he f lo w s tructure a pproach , a ll t hree d ifferent e thnograph ic c ases, a nd a nu mber o f a spects o f e ach o ne , may b e d iscussed i n t er ms o f t he s a me s et o f v ariables. Next , we must t urn t o manufacture. Again , t he e xa mple w ill c oncern p ottery . I t i s d rawn f ro m Balfet 's c lassical p aper o n n orth African c era mic manufacture ( 1965). S he d escribes t hree d ifferent manufacturing methods, e ach i n t heir own s ocio-cultural a nd e cono mic s etting , i .e . h ousehold p roduction , e le mentary s pecialization a nd f ull-ti me s pecialization . I t s ee ms t hat t he d ifferences a re b est understood when o ne c onsiders t he a rea i n which t he p roducts o f t he p otter a re k no wn a s d eter minant o f t he

3 74

p erceived i nfor mation p oten tial . The nu mber o f p ossible c l ients i nvolved i s t hus a c onstrain t o f t he s ize o f t hat p oten tial , o f t he s ize o f t he e nsu ing f lo w ( the nu mber o f p ots made) a nd t he o rgani zation o f t he work . The t hree s ituations s ketched a re t he f ollo wing : Household p roduction ( Kaby lians). The p ottery made i s f or u se i n t he f a mily o nly . I t i s h ighly v ariable b oth b etween f am ilies and w ithin t he p roduction o f one f a mily . The l at ter i s d ue t o t he f act t hat p ots a re o nly made o nce a y ear, s o t hat t here i s l i ttle r outine. The e ff iciency o f t he manufacturing s yste m i s l ow : v irtually n o t ools, v ery v aried c lays u sed , n o v ery g ood s hape c on trol , h ighly e nergy-in tensive p roduction methods l ike c oil ing a nd p olish ing t he s urface w ith a p ebble. Potting i s only o ne among a whole s eries o f a ctiv ities; p ots a re j udged i n av ery mixed manner ( by t he f a mily ). Both a spects p oin t t o t he s a me k ind o f d ivergence f ro m s tandards t hat we h ave s een r egarding e xchange r ate among t he p eoples d escribed by S ahl ins. E le men tary s pecialization . S o me f a mil ies d o n ot make t heir own p ots, o thers make more t han t hey n eed : i ncipien t s pecialization a nd c hannel s epara tion . Although t he p otential i s h igher , t rade i s s till w ithin t he c onf ines o f t he f ace-to-face i nteract ion s phere, s o t hat p erfor mance i s s till j udged o n a mixed b asis. There i s s o me s tandardization a s t o r aw materials u sed , a nd more r ou tine f ollo wed . S o me e le mentary t ools l ike a r otating d isc a re u sed . Less t i me i s i nvolved p er p roduct , e specially i n d ecora tion . There i s " ... a q uality o f ten a pparently a t v ariance w ith t he c ruden ess o f t he means .." ( Bal let , 1 965, 1 70). The p roduct i s l ess d iverse. Potters h ave among t he mselves l i ttle i n teraction , s o t hat t here i s n o r apid s pread o f i nnovations: e ach h as, a nd k eeps, h er own s phere. S pecialist p roduction ( urban c entres). I nteraction i s s o h igh , i n t he u rban c en tres, t hat t he c hannels b etween i ndiv idual p otters a nd t heir c lien tele h ave merged : t here i s ag eneral market , f or which a g roup ( gu ild ) o f h ighly i n teractive p otters p roduces. There i s n o more f ace-to-face i nteraction b etween p otters a nd c lients o n an on-professional b asis. Other c riteria t o j udge p ots d isappear , o nly f unctional s atisfaction r e mains. There i s ah igh d egree o f s tandardization , a nd h igh t urnover, s pecialized t ools ( wheel , k iln ), a nd r aw materials a re u sed : ownersh ip o f c layb eds a nd s pecif ic d evelop men t o f p aste p reparation t echniques a re e v iden t. Decoration t i me i s l o wer s till , a s i s t otal e nergy e xpenditure p er p ot . Producer a nd u ser a ppreciation o f t he p roduct a re c o mpletely s eparated . S pecialized c hannels a re i n troduced f or t he s ale o f p roducts. I nnovations s pread q u ickly among p otters i n ag u ild . I n c onclusion , we may s ee t hus t hat more i n teraction c reates a h igher p oten tial a nd a w ider r adius o f t he i n teraction a rea , more s pecialized c hannels, a nd c hannels w ith h igher c apacity ( specializa tion w ithin t he t rade ; g u ild o rgan iza tion ) , a l arger f lo w o f i nfor mat ion , e nergy a nd matter t hrough t he s yste m , h igher s tandard ization a nd l ess d ifferentiation , l ess t i me s pen t p er p roduct , bu t more d iverse p roduct a ssort ments, e tc.

3 75

Again , t his s hort r esu me w ill h ave t o s uff ice. The main p oin t i s, t hat manufacture c an b e s een i n f lo w s tructure t er ms, i f one c onsiders t he " steps i n p ot tery- making by wh ich t he p otter s elects a nd t ransfor ms l i ttle by l i ttle t he r aw ma terial" a s i nfor mation o f matter , g enera ted by t he e x istence o f a n i nfor ma t ion p oten tial .

I nteraction v ariables The n ex t ( and l ast ) two s ections o f t his paper w ill e xa mine s yste matically s o me o f t he ma jor v ariables i nvolved i n t he f lo ws tructure a pproach a nd t he way i n which t hey might b e t raced i n a rchaeology . Again , we w ill b egin w ith t he v ariables r esponsible f or t he f lo ws i n g eneral , i .e. e xchange v ariables. I n t he n ex t s ect ion , we w ill f ocus on manufacture. 1 . A moun t o f i nteraction C learly , t he amount o f i n teraction d eter mines t he i nfor mation f lo w a t a ny p oint i n t i me o r s pace. I t s ubsu mes t he f ollo wing v ariables: a . p opulation a ggregation . Not o nly t he nu mber o f p articipan ts i n t he i nteraction i s important , but a lso t heir s patial c onfiguration . When p eople a re c lose t ogether, much more i nfor mation i s p assed among t he m t han when t hey a re f arther a part . Thus, we n eed t o k no w t he d ifferences i n d istance b etween p eople. b . p opulation mobility . For s edentary p eople, k no wing t he a ggregation o f t he p opulation may b e s uff ic ien t . We might multip ly i t w ith s o me ( interaction ) c onstan t i f n eeded . For mobile p eople , w ithou t p er manen t l iv ing q uarters o r w ith s easonal o nes, we w ill a lso n eed t o k no w h ow o ften t hey move a nd where. Moore ( 1977) h as a ptly d e monstrated t he importance o f t his e le men t i f we want t o k no w t he amount o f i n teraction t aking p lace among hun ter-gatherers, a nd b etween t he m a nd s edentary p opulations, f or e xa mple. c . p o u lation b oundedness. Moreover , we n eed t o k no w h ow much i nteraction t akes p lace b etween t he s pace we a re s tudy ing a nd t hat a round i t . Such i nteract ion i s, s een f ro m t he p erspective o f our s tudies, ' l ost '. Thus, we n eed t o i nvestigate t he p robability t hat p eople i n t he a rea o f s tudy a re i n t ouch w ith o thers a round i t . What i s n eeded i s a measure o f t he f all-off o f t he p opula tion a round our a rea o f s tudy , a s well a s a n a ssess ment o f p ossible physical f eatures which l i mit f ree c o m mun ica tions (mountain r anges, r ivers, s eas), a nd t he d egree t o which t hese may b e overco me by means o f t he e x istent t echnology ( cf . Bu ikstra , 1 976 who d e monstrates h ow t he Lo wer I l linois Valley t urns f ro m a n o bstacle i nto a c hannel o f c o m munication). d . d egree o f i nteQration o r mutual d ependence o f t he p opulation . J ohnson ( 1980) h as a rgued t he importance o f t he d egree t o wh ich t he p articipants i n i n teractions s hare a c onceptual f ra mework

3 76

a nd/or a re d ependent u pon one a nother f or e xchanges o f matter a nd e nergy , a nd h as d e monstra ted i ts c oherence w ith t he amount o f i n teraction t ak ing p lace. e . b oundedness o f t he i nteraction s phere. Not o nly p hysical , bu t a lso c ultural f actors may l i mit t he amoun t o f i nteraction g oing on b etween t he a rea o f s tudy a nd t hat a round i t . I f , a round o ne's a rea o f s tudy , o ne f inds e qually o r more c oherent a nd/or e ff icient f ra mes o f r eferences, t here would s ee m t o b e l ess i n teraction t han i f ah ighly e ff icien t f ra me o f r eference i s c onfronted w ith a much l ess e ff icien t one. The d ifference i s c lear when one c o mpares on t he o ne h and t he Ro man a nd A merican f ront iers, wh ich c ould e xpand a t ar ate mainly c onstrained by f actors i nternal t o t he Ao man , c . q . A merican and European s pheres, w ith t he p resen t b oundary b etween e ast a nd west , which i s im mutable b ecause t he s yste ms on b oth s ides o f i t a re c lose t o o ne a nother i n e ff iciency a nd d egree o f c on trol. Cul tural b oundedness must a lso b e t aken i nto a ccoun t i n d eter mining t he amount o f i n teraction . I n a tte mpting t o a ssess t he amount o f i nteraction i n a c ertain s pace, we s ee m t o have q u ite a f ew t echniques a t o ur d isposal . Iw il l men tion s o me o f t he most e v ident o nes. F irst , c oncern ing t he a ggregation o f t he p opulation , modern s urvey t echn iques h ave s ho wn more t han once t hat we c an o bta in r easona ble a ssess men ts o f t he l oca tion a nd s ize o f s ettle ments. Ex trap ola ting f ro m t here t o p opulation nu mbers p er s et tle ment i s more d iff icu lt , bu t c an b e a ch ieved t hrough a dequate e xcava tion o f a s a mple o f p opulated a reas. Both i n t he Near East a nd Mesoa merica , s uch t echn iques a re b eing u sed ( Ada ms, 1 965 ; Ada m s a nd N issen , 1 972 ; F lannery , 1 976 ; S anders, Parsons a nd S antley , 1 979 ). Populat ion mobility s ee ms much more d iff icult t o a ssess b ecause c onsiderable mobility q u ite o f ten e ntails p oor material r e mains o f hu man a ctiv ity . E thnoarchaeological r esearch , c oupled w ith e colog ical r esearch l eading t o t he d eter minat ion o f s easonality a nd f requency o f o ccupation may o pen u p s o me p ossibilities ( e. g . Yellen , 1 977 ; J och im , 1 977 ). Boundedness o f p opulat ions i s measurable a long t he s a me l ines a s p opulation a ggregation i n t he a rea o f s tudy . I ndeed , i t i s l i ttle e lse bu t a ggregation i n t he a rea d irectly a round t hat which i s b eing s tudied . Physical b arriers a re g eographically kno wn , a lthough s o me may n o l onger e x ist . Fossil l andscapes, a nd s edi mentology/palynology a s well a s o ther e cological r esearches may p resen t as olution . Researches l ike Bu ikstra 's o n t he e pigenetic c haracteristics o f f ossil hu man p opulations may b e n eeded t o d eter mine whether t he b oundedness o f p opulations i s r eal o r n ot ( 1976 ). Cul tural b oundedness would s ee mingly b est b e t raced by s tudy ing f all-off r ates f or a l arge nu mber o f a rtefacts made i n e ither t he a rea s tud ied o r t he a rea a round i t . The p atterns which r esul t may b e i nterpreted by d raw ing i sohypses a cross t he d ensi ty g radien ts. The matter h as b een d iscussed i n a nother paper b y t his a uthor ( n . d . ) . The r esul ts o f t he e pigenetic s tudies j ust men tioned may a lso b e t aken i n to a ccoun t . Degree o f i ntegration i s a c oncept which h as r ecen tly b een a ttacked i n v arious ways. F irst , t here i s t he r ank-size

r elationsh ip which Hodder , Cru mley , J ohnson a nd o thers h ave u sed a s a measure, o n t he ( reasonable) a ssu mption t hat c oncave d istribu tions r epresen t l ess t han o pt i mal i n tegration , while c onv ex c urves r epresent e xcess i n tegration ( Hodder , 1 977 ; Cru mley , 1 976 ; J ohnson , 1 980). Another a pproach i s s uggested by Renfre w a nd Level i n t heir p aper c oncern ing t he ' t entpole model '. They men tion t hat t he s teepness o f t he l ine b etween t he t op o f t he p ole a nd t he c ircu mference o f t he t ent h as t o b e c hanged a ccording t o t he d egree o f c o mplex ity o f t he p olity measured . Th is s teepness must t herefore b e a measure o f t he d egree o f i n tegration a nd i n teraction ( Renfre w a nd Level , 1 979). Z . Duration o f i nteraction Due t o t he n atural l i mitat ions i nherent i n man t here i s a max i mu m amount o f i nfor mation wh ich may b e p rocessed p er u nit o f t i me. Thus, a s t he nu mber o f i n teractions g ro ws, t he d uration o f i ndiv idual i nteract ions must n ecessarily d ecrease. Th is migh t c hanze t he n ature o f t he i nteractions. Consider t he f ollo w ing s ituation . As l ong a s one i g— c —e — r t—a i n— t hat o ne w ill s pend much o f o ne 's l i fe w ith t he s a me g roup o f p eople , one would , f or t he s ake o f p eace , a nd b ecause r eciprocity may b e d eferred t o a much l ater p oint i n t i me, b e willing t o d o much more f or, o r g ive much more t o, o ne o f t hese o thers one l ives w ith . When t here i s a g ood c hance t hat t his p erson w ill n ot b e e ncoun tered a fter a c erta in mo ment , o ne would l ike t o h ave a ll a ccoun ts s ettled b efore t he b reak i n c ontact o ccurs. Thus, a s d ura tion o f i n teractions d ecreases, t hese i n teractions t end t o b eco me more b alanced . Th is would s ee m t o b e r esponsible, i t s ee ms t o me, f or s uch p heno mena a s t he t ransition b etween g eneralized a nd b alanced r eciprocity ( cf . S ahlins, 1 974 ). When t here a re t oo many p oten tial i n teractions, t he pattern may s hift i n y et a nother way , n ot t o wards s horter , b u t t o wards f e wer ( per manen t ) r elat ions wh ich a re t hen ma in tained t o t he d etri men t o f o ther a ctiv ities, s uch a s p rocuring one's own e nergy r equ irer x ients ( i .e. r edistribution ). Needless t o s ay , i n t his a pproach t here may b e a ny c o mbination o r mod ifi cation o f s uch p atterns a s r eciprocity o r r edistribution . An i ndiv idual may p articipate w ith c erta in o thers i n one o f t hese f or ms o f e xchange, a nd i n a nother w ith o ther p eople. Mon itoring e ither t he d uration o f i ndiv idual i nteractions o r t he e xact n ature o f t he way i n wh ich t hese i n teractions o ccur s ee ms, s o f ar , t o b e b eyond our a naly tical c apacity . 3 . S ize o f i nteracting g roup Ev iden tly , t he amount o f i n teraction i n t he c ore o f a n i n teracting whole a lso c onstrains t he s ize o f t he ' sphere o f i nfluence ' o f t hat c ore, i .e. t he s ize o f t he whole. The r ela tions hip i s e asily s een i n t he d irect c orrelation b etween t he g ro wth i n t he s ize o f t he i n teracting s phere a nd t he g ro wth o f wealth , p o wer , p opulation d ensity , e tc. i n t he c ore a rea which Wallerstein p resen ts f or t he r ise o f t he Modern World Syste m ( 1974 ). One way o f monitoring t his v ariable wou ld b e t o s tudy t he d istribu tion o f a rtefacts p roduced i n t he c ore a rea . As we a ssu me o n o ther g rounds t hat i n teraction t hrough t he e xchange o f material o b jects

3 78

p recedes a nd s preads w ider t han a ctual e xchange o f i nfor mation t hrough s y mbol ing , s uch d istribu tion s tudies s ee m t o b e ag ood i ndicator, p rov ided t hat a r elatively l arge nu mber o f a rtefact c a tegories i s u sed a nd c overage i s b etter t han t he u sual ' spotty '. 4 . Nature a nd s ize o f p otentials As we h ave s een e arlier , t he ma in tenance o f ap oten tial i s purely a n i nfor ma tion p rocessing a ffair. I t d epends o n t he r elative e ff iciencies a nd a ccuracies i n p rocessing o f t he f ra mes o f r eference o n b oth s ides o f t he p otential . ' Both s ides' may b e c onceived o f i n many d ifferent ways: b etween d ifferent p oints o r a reLs i n s pace o r t i me, o r b etween d ifferen tly p ositioned p eople o r g roups i n t he s a me i n teraction s phere, s uch a s b etween t hose a t t he t op a nd t hose a t l o wer p oin ts i n as ocial s tratification . I f t he p otential i s t o b e mainta ined , t here a re a nu mber o f c onditions t o b e f ulfilled which may b e d erived f ro m t he ' vortex ' model o f i nteraction s tructures wh ich I h ave i ntroduced i n a nother paper ( Van d er Leeuw , i n p ress). F irst , ap er manen t i nflat ion n eeds t o b e ma in ta ined , a lbeit a t av ery l ow r ate. As s oon a s t h is i nf lation i n i nfor m ation p rocessing c eases t o o ccur , t he f lo ws c ease t o b e ma intained a nd t he f lo w s tructure d isintegrates. Then , t here a re f airly r igid c onditions r elative t o t he p roportions o f p articipation i n t he i nteraction a t v arious p oin ts i n t he i n terval a cross wh ich t he p oten tial i s main tained ; p roportions which a re t he mselves d ependent u pon t he s ize o f t he p otent ial a nd wh ich a re i l lustra ted i n F ig . 2 4 : 4 . These c onditions a re man ifested by t he p rop ortions o f p eople i n v arious s ocial s trata among a p opulation ( e. g . Peebles a nd Kus, 1 977 ), by modern ( business a nd o ther) o rgan izations ( e. g . B lau , 1 970) , a nd h ave b een a rgued o n t heoretical g rounds by Mayhe w a nd Lev inger ( 1976) a nd f ro m a d ifferen t a ngle by J ohnson ( 1978 ). By d etailed a nalysis o f c e meteries, f or e xa mple, t hey c ould b e mon itored . S i milar c ondi tions a pply t o t he r elative d egree o f e ff iciency o f c oding , s y mbols and s y mboling , a nd i nfor mat ion p rocessing i n g enera l a t d ifferent p oin ts a cross a n i nfor mation p otential . All d epend u pon t he e laboration o f t he l evels o f t he h ierarchy o f c lasses which p rocesses i nfor mation , a nd u pon h o w much i s b eing p rocessed a t a ll t hese l evels. Mon itoring t hese d ifferences i n t he l evel a nd e ff iciency o f i n for mation p rocessing d irectly f ro m a rchaeological d ata s ee ms a t t he mo ment t o b e b eyond our c o mpetence , b ut t here a re t hree o pti mistic r e marks t o b e made i n t h is c ontex t: ( 1 ) t hey may b e mon itored i n l iv ing s ituations, s o t hat we may p rofit f ro m t he r esults o f e thnoarchaeological r esearch on t h is t opic i n t he ( near?) f uture , ( 2 ) t he r oad t o wards mon itoring t he m i n t he p ast i n ad irect manner may h ave b een o pened by t he r esearch o f t he ' con tex tualists' among u s ( e. g . Hodder , I ., i n p ress; Kus, 1 980 ; i n p ress), ( 3 ) t hey c an b e mon itored i n a n i ndirect manner by c o mparing t he r elative c o mplex ity o f a rtefacts made a t v arious p oin ts a cross a p otent ia l : h ouses, p ots, metal o b jects, e tc. The manner i n wh ich t his c an b e d one w ill b e t he s ub ject o f a nother paper ( Van d er Leeuw , i n p ress). 3 79

o

U .7Z ; 'go

'

F t

r ip 0

c d

•4 1

•° 4 1

c D

1

4 C -Z 1

7 1 1

5 . D ifferen tiation o f f lo ws a nd f unctions: s pecialization Whenever a n i nd iv idual c annot c ope w ith p rocessing h is i nfor ma tion l oad , h e o r s he w ill s hed part o f t hat l oad , a nd t hus s pecialize , i n o rder t o d o t he r e ma inder b etter. I n t he p rocess, f lo ws g et s epara ted , wh ich once were t rans mitted by t he s a me p erson . One o f t he r esults i s t hat f e wer t asks a re p erfor med more o f ten : r ou tinization f ollo ws. Another r esult i n many c ases i s t he a dvan tage o f work ing a t al arger s cale. I n t rade , ag ood e xa mple o f t he p rocess would s ee m t o b e Renfre w 's d escription o f d ifferent t rade mechan is ms ( 1975). A t f irst , maker a nd u ser a re one. Then t hey s pecialize, a nd one g oes t o t he o ther t o maintain t he l ink . I n t he t hird s tage , b oundary r eciprocity i s f ollo wed by d o wn t he l ine t rade , c en tral-place e xchanges, middlemen t rading , emissary t rad ing e tc. ( Renfre w , 1 975, 4 2 ). S pecialization o f ad ifferen t n ature i s t he d evelop men t f ro m s ocial s torage ( wh ich s erves a s s torage , b ank ing a nd i nsurance a t t he s a me t i me) t o s eparate b ank ing , s eparate i nsurance a nd s epara te s torage. The d etails o f t his d evelop ment n eed n ot b e s u m marized . I ts b eg inn ings h ave b een a ptly s ketched by Halstead ( 1981 ) a nd O 'Shea ( 1981 ). One l ast c ase s hould b e mentioned , i .e. t he d evelop ment f ro m t he s ituation i n which k inship i s t he ma in c hain o f t ransmission , a nd t hus t he ma in d eter minan t o f f lo ws, t o o ne where t he k inship s yste m b eco mes t oo c o mplex s o t hat o ther f lo ws b eco me s tronger a nd more d o minan t i n d eter mining t he s tructure o f s ociety . To measure s pecial ization i n t he o rganization o f e xchange d irectly i n a n a rchaeolog ical c on tex t s ee ms r ather d iff icult. Fro m t he e xa mples g iven i n a n e arlier paragraph , i t i s c lear h ow d iff icult i t i s t o r econstruct t he mechan is m o f t rade f ro m t he d istribution o f g oods. Probably , a t t his p oin t i n t i me, we c annot d o much more t han a tte mpt t o r econstruct t he overall d egree o f s pecialization i n v arious p laces, t he n ature o f t he f lo ws c onnecting t he m , a nd t he d istribut ion a nd v olu me o f g oods. Fro m t hese , we may t hen b e a ble t o r eason a long t he l ines Renfre w h as a rgued i n h is paper , bu t w ith a nu mber o f modifications, t owards t he a ctual n ature o f t rade s pecialization . A way t o mon itor t hese v ariables would b e t o l ook a t t he s pecial-function r oo ms a nd b u ildings i n s ettle ments. Kra mer h as r ecently s ho wn h ow t he o ccurrence o f s uch r oo ms a nd b u ildings i s af unction o f t he s ettle men t , a nd t hus o f t he amount o f i n tera ction g oing on among t he i nhabitants, a nd b etween t he m a nd o thers ( in p ress). The s eparation b etween t he e cono m ical , s ocial a nd p olitical s pheres wh ich i s a lso i nheren t c ould , f or e xa mple, b e d iscerned f ro m t he s patial c on figuration o f small s ettle ments. S teponaitis h as s ho wn h ow t h is c onf iguration c hanges f ro m a central t o c en tral a s t he i n teraction c hanges f ro m t ribute e x traction t o e xchange e cono my ( 1978 ). Ev iden tly , t he p erfect c onf iguration w ith wh ich c entral p lace t heory works, a nd i n wh ich t he a d mini strative ( infor mation ) n etworks a re s eparated f ro m t he t ransporta tion ( bulk g oods) a nd t he marketing ( sales) n etworks, i s the e nd r esult o f s uch a d evelop ment ( S mith , 1 976 ; Van d er Leeuw , i n p ress). Locational a nalysis i s d efinitely a s trong mon itor o f

3 81

t he k ind o f s pecialization we a re d iscussing h ere. Craft s pecialization p roper i s n ot s o e asy t o mon itor a rchaeologically , b ecause i t i s d iff icul t t o d iscern t he ma rru facturing p rocess f ro m t he e nd r esul t . Ho wever , R ice ( 1981 ), Fein man ( 1980) a nd myself ( 1980 ; i n p ress) h ave a tte mpted s o i n ar ounda bou t manner , by d esign ing 'measures o f c o mplex ity ' o f c era m ics a nd r elating t hese t hrough e thnoarchaeolog ical a nd a rchaeological d ata t o s ituat ions w ith v ary ing d egrees o f s pecia lization . S pence ( 1979) h as s uccessfully a tte mpted a s i milar a pproach f or f l ints f ro m Teotihuacan . 6 .

F lo w v elocity a nd s ize

F lo ws c an b e t rans mitted i n c on tinuous s trea ms o r i n b atches o f a c erta in s ize. I n b oth c ases, a n importan t v ariable i s t he v elocity o f f lo w . I n t he c ase o f b atches, we h ave t o a dd t wo more v ariables, s ize a nd f requency o f t he b atches, which c onstrain s yste m s tability . Patterns o f manufacture Considering manufacturing i n t er ms o f f lo w s tructures, e ach t ransfor mation o f r aw materials, by means o f labour , f ro m o ne f or m i nto another i s s een a s one k ind o f c o mbined f low o f i nfor mation ( for m a nd o rgan iza tion ), matter ( raw materia ls a nd f in ished p roducts) a nd e nergy ( labour). I t t hus o ccurs t yp ically a t ap oint where f lo ws o f a ll t hese c o m modities a re c onnected . One implication o f t h is a pproach i s t hat e xchange a nd manufacture a re i n ti mately r elated . This may e asily b e s een when we c onsider as ituation where we d iscern g ro wing f lo ws ( i .e. e xpansion ) among t he p articipants. The g ro wth i n v olu me o f f lo ws e ntails t he e ven tual p erception o f more p otentials ( separation o f s pheres, d ifferentiation o f c hannels, s ocial s tratif ication , i nteract ions over a w ider a rea ), wh ich i s a cco mpan ied by g enerating f lo ws b etween t hese p oten tials. I n manufacturing t er ms, t h is s ee ms t o imply : 1 . Heightened p roduction , when n ecessary a cco mpan ied by t echnolog ical o r o rgan izational i nnovations: i ntroduction o f s uch d ev ices a s metal o b jects, mould o r wheels t o make p ottery , a griculture o r an ew p lough a re bu t af ew e xa mples, while c en tralization o f manufacture may b e a n o rgan izational a spect o f t he s a me. 2 . Reduction o f t he t i me s pen t o n e ach f in ished p roduct , by means o f t he s a me t echnolog ical i nnovations, o r by r educing t he amount o f d ecoration , f in ishing , e tc... 3 . Market ing over w ider a reas. As t he t echnolog ical l evel o f t he p roduct g oes u p , t he s patial r ange within wh ich t he p otent ial b etween t he p roducts c oncerned a nd o ther ( alternative) p roducts overco mes t he f riction g enerated by t ransportation r equ ire men ts, a bsence o f i nfor mation f lo ws, e tc. Th is c auses t he market f or t he p roduct t o b roaden .

3 82

4 . The s a me e ffect i s c onsequen t u pon t he d ifferen t iation i n r ange o f p roducts ( and s tandard izat ion o f t he p roducts t he m s elves) wh ich i s i nheren t i n t he c on tinu ing d ifferen tiat ion o f t he i nfor ma t ion f ield . I t e n tails, a s Ih ave a rgued e lsewhere ( Van d er Leeuw , i n p ress), r educt ion o f f uzz iness e ssen tial ly by t he c reat ion o f c lassif icat ions w i th more d i mensions a nd more c ategories p er d i mension , s o t hat t he c lassif icat ions a re more h o mogeneous. 5 . The g row ing h o mogeneity o f t he c lassif icata i s n oticeable i n t he g rowing d egree o f s tandard ization a ch ieved b etween d ifferen t e xa mples o f t he s a me p roduct . 6 . I n ad ifferen t f ield , t hat o f t he o rgan iza tion o f p roduct ion , o ne f inds t he s a me d ifferen tia tion . Here , we o bserve s pecializa t ion . Those p eople who were , s o f ar , s pending o nly p art o f t heir t i me i n t he manufacturing o f t he o b jects, a re n ow s pending more a nd more t i me , a nd w ill e ven tual ly b eco me f u ll-t i me s pecial ists. Beyond t hat p oin t , we w ill s ee d ifferen t iat ion w i th in t he (mul tip erson ) u n it f unct ion ing a s a whole : d iv ision o f t asks w ithin manu facturing a nd marketing , a s well a s p rocure men t a ctiv ities. 7 . This s pec ia lization ( of t he s econd k ind a s we ll a s t he f irst ) i nheren tly e nhances f lo w e ff ic iency b ecause t he f lows a re more s pecif ic . Moreover, t he l i mits t o t he f requency w ith wh ich messages a re p assed t hrough i ndiv iduals a re r elaxed (more t i me i s s pen t o n t he a ctiv ity ) a nd t he p unctuation i s c hanged ( there a re n o more i n terruptions). 8 . The r ou tine t hus a ch ieved a llows f or t he d evelop ment o f af ra me o f r eference wh ich h andles i n for ma tion more e ff icien tly : a n a ct ion r epeated a t housand t i mes a d ay i s e xecu ted w i th nore e ff iciency a nd a ccuracy t han o ne e xecu ted o nly a f ew t i mes a y ear. For t he s a me r eason , t he amoun t o f r edundancy r equ ired i n t ransfer i s r educed . People work ing t ogether n eed o nly h al f a word , while t he n e wco mer n eeds e xpl icit i nstructions. 9 . A l together , t hese c hanges r educe t he f uzziness i n t he o rgan ization o f t he manu facture : e veryone h as h is o r h er own t ask a nd a rea o f c o mpetence. 1 0. S i mul taneously , t h is d ifferen tia tion b u ilds u p b arriers a ga inst t he t ransfer o f i n for ma tion wh ich c reates d isturbance ( or i n s yste ms t er ms, t he c oherence o f s ubsyste ms i s r elaxed a s t he s yste m g ro ws).

Conclusion We t hus s ee t hat i t i s i ndeed p ossible t o d iscuss manuf acture a nd e xchange i n t er ms o f p oten tia ls, f lows a nd f lo w s tructures. A lthough i t i s a t t h is p oin t impossible t o e sti ma te t he ' po wer ' o f t h is s et o f ( conceptual ) t ools, o ur e xa mples s ee m t o i nd icate t hat a n u mber o f p heno mena may c oheren tly b e b rough t t ogether which c ould n ot b e e xpla ined a s e legant ly i n t er ms o f t he a to mistic s yste ms a pproaches u sed t o d ate i n t he 3 83

a nalysis o f e xchange a nd manufacture. This r esult s ee ms s uff icient t o warren t e xpending more e nergy i n l ook ing f or o ther implications. S o me r esul ts o f s uch a n a t te mpt a re t o b e published s oon ( Van d er Leeuw , i n p ress).

B ibliography Ada ms, R . McC., 1 965. Land b ehind Baghdad . ( Chicago). Ada ms, R . McC. a nd N issen , H ., 1 972 . The Uruk Coun tryside. ( Chicago). Balfet , H ., 1 965. E thnographical o bservat ions i n North A frica a nd a rchaeologica l i nterpretation : t he p ottery o f t he Maghreb . I n Matson , F . R . ( ed .), Cera mics a nd Man , 1 61-177 . ( Chicago). Bateson , G ., 1 972 . S teps t o a n Ecology o f M ind . ( New York ). B inford , L . R ., 1 965. Archaeolog ical s yste mat ics a nd t he s tudy o f c ulture p rocess. A mer. Antic. 3 1 , 2 03-210. B lau , P . M., 1 970. A f or mal t heory o f d ifferentiation i n o rganizations. A mer. S ociol . Rev. 3 5, 2 01-218 . Buikstra , J ., 1 976. Hope well i n t he Lo wer I l linois Valley , Northwestern Archaeological Progra m S cientif ic Papers 2 . ( Evanston ). Cru mley , C ., 1 976. To wards a l ocational d ef inition o f s tate s yste ms o f s ettle ment . A mer. An throp. 7 8 , 5 9-73. Dalton , G ., 1 971 . Econo mic An thropology a nd Develop men t. ( New York ). Dunne11 , R . C ., 1 971 . Syste matics i n Prehistory . ( Ne w York ). Fein man , G ., 1 980. Changing a d min istrative o rganization : i ts e ffects on c era mic p roduct ion i n p reh ispan ic Oaxaca , Mex ico. I n B lan ton , R ., Ko wale wsk i , S ., Fein man G . a nd Appel , J . ( eds.), Prehispan ic S ettle men t Patterns i n t he Valley o f Oaxaca , Mexico , Vol . 2 , The Central a nd S outhern Regions. F lannery , K . V ,, 1 972 . The c ultural e volution o f c iv iliza tions. Annu . Rev . Ecol. Syste matics 3 , 3 99-426. F lannery , K . V ., 1 976. The Early Mesoa merican V illage. ( Ne w York ). Gor man , F ., 1 973. An i nvestigation o f d egradation t rends i n n atural a nd p rehistoric c ultural s yste ms. Paper p resen ted a t t he annual meetings, A merican An thropolog ical Associa tion , New Orleans. Halstead , P ., 1 981 . Fro m d eter minis m t o u ncertain ty : s ocial s torage a nd t he r ise o f t he Minoan palace. I n S heridan ,A . a nd Bailey , G . ( eds.), Econo mic Archaeology , Brit. Archaeol . Rep. S 9 6, 1 87-214 . ( Oxford ). Hodder, I ., 1 977. S o me n ew d irections i n s patial a nalysis. I n C larke , D . L . ( ed .), S patia l Archaeology , 2 33-351 . ( Ne w York ). Hodder , I ., i n p ress. Sy mbols i n Action .

3 84

J och im , M., 1 977. Hun ter- Gatherer Subsistence a nd S ettle men t : a Predictive Model . ( New York ). J ohnson , G . A ., 1 973. Local Exchange a nd Early S tate Develop ment i n S ou thwestern I ran , Anthropological Papers, Museu m o f An thropology , Un iversity o f Michigan , 5 1 . ( Ann Arbor). J ohnson , G . A ., 1 978. I nfor mation s ources a nd t he d evelop m ent o f d ecision- mak ing o rgan izations. I n Red man , C . L . e t a l. ( eds.), S ocial Archaeology , Beyond Subsistence a nd Dating , 8 7-112 . ( Ne w York ). J ohnson , G . A ., 1 980. Rank-size c onvex ity a nd s yste m i ntegration . Econo mic Geography 5 6 , 2 34-247. J ohnson , G . A ., 1 981 . Organ izational r esponse t o s calar s tress, Paper p resen ted a t t he s econd Theoretical Archaeology Group Conference, S ou tha mpton , Dece mber 1 980. Kra mer, C ., i n p ress. Variability , c o mplex ity a nd s patia l o rgan ization i n S ou thwest Asian s ettle men ts. I n Van d er Leeuw , S . E . ( ed .), Archaeolog ica l Approaches t o t he S tudy o f Co mplex ity . ( A msterda m ). Krupp , S . R ., 1 968 . Equilibriu m t heory i n e cono mics a nd i n f unctional a nalysis a s t ypes o f e xplanation . I n S chneider, H . K . a nd LeClair , E . E . ( eds.), Econo mic Anthropology , 2 43-255. ( Ne w York ). Kuhn , T . S ., 1 962 . The S tructure o f S cien tific Revolutions. ( Chicago ). Kus, S ., 1 980. Ma tters materia l a nd i deal , Paper p resen ted a t t he c on ference on S tructuralis m a nd Sy mbolis m i n Archaeology , Ca mbridge , March 1 980. Kus, S ., i n p ress. The c ontex t o f c o mplexity . I n Van d er Leeuw , S . E . ( ed .), Archaeological Approaches t o t he S tudy o f Co mplex ity . ( A msterda m ). Mayhew , B ., Gray , L . N . a nd Mayhew , M. L ., 1 971 . The b ehav iour o f i n teraction s yste ms: ma the matical models o f s tructure i n i n teract ion s equences. General Syste ms 1 6, 1 3-29 . Mayhe w , B . a nd Levinger , R . L ., 1 976. S ize a nd t he d ensity o f i n teraction i n hu man a ggregates. A mer. J . S ociol . 8 2 , 8 6-110. Moore , J . A ., 1 977 . The e ffects o f i nfor mation n etworks i n hun ter-gatherer s ocieties. Paper p resen ted a t t he annual meetings o f t he A merican An thropological Association, Ne w Orleans. O 'Shea , J ., 1 981 . Coping w ith s carcity : e xchange a nd s ocial s torage. I n Sheridan , A . a nd Bailey , G . ( eds.), Econo mic Archaeology , Brit . Archaeol . Rep. S 9 6 , 1 67-181 . ( Oxford ). Peebles, C . a nd Kus, S ., 1 977. S o me a rchaeolog ical c orrelates o f r anked s ocieties. A mer. Antiq . 4 2 , 4 21-448 . Prigogine , I ., 1 978 . T i me , s tructure a nd f luctuations. S cience 2 01 , 7 77-785. Renfre w , A . C ., 1 975. Trade a s a ct ion a t ad istance : q uestions o f i n tegra tion a nd c o m munication . I n S abloff , J . A . a nd Larnberg- Karlovsky , C . C . ( eds.), Ancient C iv iliza tion and Trade, 3 -59. ( Albuquerque

Renfre w , A . C . a nd Level , E . V ., 1 979. Exploring d o minance : p redicting p olities f ro m c enters. I n Renfrew , A . C . a nd Cooke , K . L . ( eds.), Transfor mations: Mathe matica l Approaches t o Culture Change , 1 45-167 . ( Ne w York ). R ice, P . M., 1 981 . Evolu tion o f s pecia lized p ottery p roduction : at rial model . Curr. An throp. 2 2 , 2 19-240. Russell , B ., 1 938. Principles o f Mathe matics, S econd e dition . ( Ne w York ). S ah lins, M., 1 974 . S tone Age Econo mics. ( London ). S anders, W. T ., Parsons, J . R . a nd S an tley , R . S ., 1 979 . The Basin o f Mex ico, Ecolog ical Processes i n t he Evolu tion o f aC iv ilization . ( New York ). S erv ice , E . R ., 1 975. Origins o f t he S tate a nd C iv il iza t ion . ( New York ). S lobodk in , L . B ., 1 968 . To wards a p redictive t heory o f e volution . I n Le wontin , R . ( ed .), Population B iology a nd Evolu tion , 1 87-205. ( Syracuse ). S lobodk in , L . B . a nd Rapoport , A ., 1 974. An o pti mal s trategy o f e volution . Quart . Rev . B iol . 4 9 , 1 81-200. Smith , C . A ., 1 974 . Econo mics o f marketing s yste ms: models f ro m e cono mic g eography . Annu . Rev . An throp. 3 , 1 67- 2 01 . Smith , C . A . ( ed.), 1 976. Regional Analys:s, Vol . 1 : Econo mic Syste ms. ( Ne w York ). S pence , M., 1 979. Paper p resen ted a t s y mposiu m o n Cera mic Co mplex ity , S ociety f or A merican Archaeology Meetings, Vancouver. S tepona itis, V . P ., 1 978 . Location t heory a nd c o mplex c hiefdo ms: a Mississippian e xa mple. I n Smith , B . D. ( ed .), Mississippian S ettle men t Patterns, 4 17-453. ( Ne w York ). Van d er Leeuw , S . E ., 1 974 . Medieval Pottery f ro m Haarle m : a Model . I n Renaud , J . G . N . ( ed .), Rotterda m Papers I, 6 7-87. ( Rotterda m ). Van d er Leeuw , S . E ., 1 980. A ' Field ' a pproach t o t he s tudy o f a ccul turation . Paper p resen ted a t -the s y mposiu m o n Ro man isation S tud ies, Free Un iversity , Am sterda m , Dece mber 1 980. Van d er Leeuw , S . E ., i n p ress. I nfor mation f lo ws, f lo w s tructures a nd t he e xplanation o f c hange i n a rchaeology . i n Van d er Leeuw , S . E . ( ed .), Archaeologica l Approaches t o t he S tudy o f Co mplex ity . ( A msterda m ). Wallerstein , I ., 1 974 . The Modern World Syste m : Capital ist Agriculture a nd t he Orig ins o f t he European World Econo my i n t he 1 6th Cen tury . ( New York ), Wrigh t , H . T ., 1 969. The Ad m in istration o f Rural Production i n a n Early Mesopota mian Town, An thropolog ical Papers, Un iversity o f Michigan , Museu m o f An thropology 3 8. ( Ann Arbor ). Wright , H . T ., 1 977. To ward a n e xplanation o f t he o rig in o f t he s tate. I n H il l , J . N . ( ed .) , Explanation o f Culture Change, 2 15- 2 30. ( Albuquerque). Yellen , J ., 1 977. Archaeologica l Approaches t o t he Presen t. ( Ne w York ).

3 86