Ceramic Production and Distribution in the Southeastern Maya Periphery: Late Classic Painted Serving Vessels 9780860542605, 9781407335681

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2 RESOURCE UTILIZATION: CERAMIC PASTE CHARACTERIZATION
CHAPTER 3 BACKGROUND FOR INVESTIGATION OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
CHAPTER 4 PRODUCTION DECISIONS: SHAPING AND PREPARING THE VESSEL FOR DECORATION
CHAPTER 5 PRODUCTION DECISIONS: CONTENT AND EXECUTION OF THE VESSELS' DECORATION
CHAPTER 6 DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION OF THE CERAMICS
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX A COMPLEX NAMES AND EQUIVALENCES COPAN, QUIRIGUA, CHALCHUAPA
APPENDIX B DESCRIPTIONS OF PAINTED CERAMICS
APPENDIX C DESCRIPTION OF BROOKHAVEN PROCEDURES
APPENDIX D DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING DECORATION VARIABLES
APPENDIX E Forms Used in Recording Vessels For Production-Step Decision Analysis
APPENDIX F SUMMARY OF MOTIFS BY TYPE OF DESIGN
APPENDIX G METHOD AND PROCEDURES USED FOR COMPUTING CONSTRUCTION COMPLEXITY INDEX
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

Ceramic Production and Distribution in the · Southeastern Maya . Periphery Late Classic Painted Serving Vessels

Marilyn P. Beaudry

BAR International Series 203 · 19'84

··B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S20J,

19BI±:

'Cera mic Production and Distribution in the Southeastern Maya Periphery'.

©

�ln.r il yn P. Beaudry,

198!1:

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542605 paperback ISBN 9781407335681 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542605 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xi

Chapter

1 .

2 .

3 .

page

I NTRODUCTION

1

Background and Theoretical Overview Temporal and Spatial F ocus Ceramic F ocus Summary of R esearch Goals and M ethods

1 1 6 2 4 3 4

RESOURCE UTILIZATION: CHARACTERIZATION

3 7

CERAMIC

PASTE

Background Methodology F indings, C ream Paste C eramics Conclusions, Cream P aste C eramics F indings, Arambala C eramics Conclusions, Arambala C eramics Summary

3 7 3 9 4 4 6 7 7 8 80 8 3

BACKGROUND FOR I NVESTIGATION OF PRODUCTION SYSTEM

8 7

THE

I ntroduction a nd Theoretical Considerations M ethodology Organization of The F indings 4 .

5 .

PRODUCTION DECISIONS: SHAPING AND THE VESSEL FOR DECORATION

8 7 8 9 9 7 PREPARING 9 9

I ntroduction and overview F indings: Decisions R egarding Vessel Shape F indings: D ecisions about Materials Needed For D ecorating -- S lips and Paints F indings: D ecisions About Composition Spatial Division of Exterior and I nterior D esigns F ields E valuation of Technical Competence

1 14 1 24

PRODUCTION DECISIONS: CONTENT AND OF THE VESSELS' DECORATION

1 37

I ntroduction Frequency

a nd

Overview

D istributions

9 9 1 02 1 11

EXECUTION

1 37 1 40

i ii

6 .

B ivariate Analysis Multivariate Analysis

1 51 1 76

D ISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION OF THE CERAMICS

2 03

I ntroduction S patial D istribution,

2 03 2 06

Copador

Context Analysis of Copador Painted C eramics 7 .

a nd

Other 2 21

CONCLUSIONS P roduction D istribution R elevance of Concerns

2 43

and Consumption This R esearch to C urrent i n Maya Archaeology

2 43 2 50 2 52

Appendix A .

Ceramic Complex Names and E quivalences: Copan, Quirigua, C halchuapa

2 57

B .

Description of Painted Ceramics

2 59

C .

D escription

2 65

D .

D efinition of Terms Used Decoration Variables

E .

of

Brookhaven

P rocedures I n Describing

2 67

Forms Used I n R ecording Vessels For Production-Step D ecision Analysis

2 69

F .

Summary of

2 81

G .

M ethods and Procedures f or Computing Construction Complexity I ndex

Motifs

By Type of

Design

B IBLIOGRAPHY

3 01 3 03

L IST OF TABLES T able 1 .

S erving Vessel E xchange System Typology S howing Distribution Path F rom Producer To Consumer

2 .

E xpectations

For

i zed C eramic I n Different and 3 .

Various

D istribution

P rovenience Used i n

Aspects

of

Special-

Serving Vessel Production Types of E xchange Systems Paths

By Type, Cream Paste C eramics The C hemical Composition Analysis iv

9

4 1

.

Table

page

4 .

P rovenience

5 .

Sorted, Rotated F actor P aste C eramics

L oadings

Correlation M atrix For R eference G roup

E xpanded

6 .

7 .

8 .

By Type,

R ed

P aste

C eramics

4 2

C ream 4 5 Trial 5 5

Sample M embership i n T he P reliminary Copanf ocus R eference Group Provenience of Samples i n R eference Groups a nd U ngrouped S pecimens, F inal

6 3

Allocation 9 .

S tandardized D iscriminant C oefficients

F unction

1 0.

Major Group M ean

1 1.

Allocation o f C ermic S amples, versus U nallocated

1 2.

1 3.

1 4.

1 6.

1 7.

1 8.

6 5

C oncentrations

6 6

C lustered 6 9

Copador a nd Gualpopa C eramic S amples By P rovenience, Unallocated versus Grouped

74

Cream P aste By S ite

75

S herds F rom T he Z apotitan Valley a nd R eference Group A llocation

Allocation o f R eference

1 5.

6 1

C hilanga C eramic S amples

t o

Groups

Sorted, R otated C eramics

F actor

76 L oadings,

R ed

Paste 7 9

Sample M embership i n The Arambala Group a nd U ngrouped D ata

R eference

Locus of L ate C lassic P roduction

C eramic

Cream P aste

8 1

84

P rovenience of Late C lassic C ream Paste C eramics b y L ocus of P roduction

85

1 9.

Vessel

9 0

2 0.

Locations Where Vessels W ere R ecorded P roduction-Decision Analysis

2 1.

2 2.

Shapes

By Types F or

Provenience By S hape of V essels E xamined P roduction-Decision Analysis Degree of S tandardization E valuated Variable D istribution Analysis

9 3 F or 9 4

F rom 1 00

.

2 3.

Vessel

2 4.

S lip

2 5.

P aint

Colors,

2 6.

C olor

and

Width of

E xterior

2 7.

Number of

E xterior

R egisters

2 8.

Number a nd Color of The R im a nd The A ll Vessels

2 9.

3 0.

S hapes

Colors,

By F requence Vessel

S hapes

Vessel

By Type

12

By Type

13

R im

1 17

B ands

19

P ainted B ands B etween F irst E xterior R egister, 1 20

Number a nd Color of Painted B ands B etween T he F irst a nd S econd E xterior R egister, Two-Register Vessels

1 21

Summary o f Data Trends F or E xterior D esign F ield

1 22

C olor

3 2.

Number a nd Color of B ands a nd T he I nterior Wall Vessels

3 4.

1 03

S hapes

3 1.

3 3.

of Observation

a nd

Width of

C omposition of

I nterior

R im

B ands

1 25

B etween T he R im R egister, A ll 1 27

Number a nd Color o f B ands B etween T he Wall R egister a nd The I nterior B ottom, Vessels W ith D ecorated Walls

1 28

S ummary of Data Trends F or I nterior D esign F ield

1 29

Composition of

3 5.

E valuation of

L uster

1 32

3 6.

E valuation o f

Smearing

1 33

3 7.

E valuation of

Craftsmanship

1 35

3 8.

E valuation of R educed)

C raftsmanship

3 9.

4 0.

4 1.

4 2.

( Rating

S cale 1 36

F requency D istributions, S elected Variables, Copador Vessels

D ecoration

F requency D istributions, S elected Variables, Gualpopa Vessels

D ecoration

F requency D istributions, S elected Variables, Gualpopa Vessels

D ecoration

F requency D istributions, S elected Variables, Arambala Vessels

D ecoration

vi

1 41

1 47

1 48

1 49

4 3.

4 4.

4 5.

4 6.

4 7.

Frequency D istributions, S elected Variables, C hilanga V essels Chilanga M otifs, C omplex

C lassified

a s

D ecoration 1 50

S imple

or 1 52

Shape of C hilanga Vessels According C omplexity of D esign

to 153

Provenience of C hilanga V essels According to Complexity of D esign Contingency Tables Prepared D ecoration Variables By

4 8.

Copador Open

B owls

4 9.

Copador

5 0.

Copador Vases

5 1.

Gualpopa Nonspiral Tables

R ecurved

F or S elected S hape Within

1 53

Type

Contingency Tables

Bowls

1 58

C ontingency Tables

1 61

Contingency Tables Bowls

1 66

Contingency 1 70

5 2.

Arambala

5 3.

C luster 1 , Copador Open B owls C ontingency T ables, S elected Variables

1 90

Frequency D istribution, Copador Vessels According t o S harer s M otif-Based Varieties

1 94

Frequency D istribution, C opador Open Bowls By C luster, C lassified by S harer's M otifB ased Varieties

1 96

Frequency D istribution, Copador R ecurved B owls by C luster, C lassified By S harer's M otifBased Varieties

1 96

5 7.

Correspondence B etween Varieties and C ase

1 97

5 8.

Case

5 9.

Motif Combinations, By P rovenience

5 4.

5 5.

5 6.

6 0.

6 1.

R ecurved

Open

1 55

C lusters

Bowls

C ontingency T ables

1 73

S harer's M otif-Based C lustering R esults

By Vessel

1 98

P rovenience

Copador

R ecurved

B owls 2 00

I nterior D ecoration of Copador R ecurved Bowls By R im D iameter -- C opan versus A ll Other P roveniences Late

C lassic

S ites

S hown

i n

v ii

F igures

2 9

a nd

2 01 3 0

2 12

6 2.

6 3.

6 4.

6 5.

6 6.

6 7.

L ocation of Copan

L ate

D irectional .C lassic

Location a nd D istance S ites F rom C opan

74.

75.

2 18

2 24

D istribution of Coner P hase P ainted C eramics ( Sites M apped a nd E xcavated i n T he Copan Valley, Harvard U niversity P roject Data)

2 26

D istribution of Coner P hase P ainted By S ite C lassification ( Harvard P roject Data)

2 27

Quantities During CV 2 0

73.

L ate

D istribution o f C oner P hase P ainted C eramics By Type I n T he Copan Valley ( Sampling P rogram, P royecto Arqueologico C opan D ata)

6 9.

72.

o f

2 24

Quantity of

7 1.

2 17

D istribution of Coner P hase P ainted C eramics I n T he Copan Valley ( Sampling P rogram, P royecto Arqueologico C opan Data)

6 8.

70.

C lassic S ites Vis-a-Vis

S herd

Material,

C eramics U niversity

E xcavated

S ites

of P olychrome S herds R ecovered C learing Operations of S tructures, 2 30

Quantities of Polychrome S herds R ecovered D uring C learing Operations of S tructures, CV 4 3 t hrough 4 7

2 32

Types of C eramics a t L ate Valley S urvey S ites

2 34

C lassic

Z apotitan

D istribution of L ate C lassic C eramics i n T he Z apotitan Valley By Geographic Location

2 35

D istribution of L ate C lassic Z apotitan Valley By S ite

2 35

C eramics i n T he C lassification

D istribution of Imported L ate C lassic i n The Z apotitan Valley By Type

C eramics

7 7.

2 36

D istribution o f Imported L ate C lassic C eramics i n The Z apotitan Valley By Type a nd S ite C lassification

76.

2 28

D etails of 1 9 Copan C lassification

2 36 Graves

By P reparation 2 39

D etails of 1 3 C opan Tombs Construction Activity

by

v iii

I ndex

of

2 40

L IST OF

F IGURES

F igure 1 .

page

Sub-Regions of The Southeastern P eriphery Emphasized i n T he

2 .

I llustrations o f

Copador Open

3 .

I llustrations of C opador D iagonal Grooving

B owls

R ecurved

1 9 2 5

Bowls W ith 2 6

4 .

I llustrations of

5 .

I llustration of

Gualpopa Spiral

6 .

I llustration of

Gualpopa Vase

. 7.

M aya R esearch

C opador Vases,

I llustration of Arambala

S eated B owl

2 7 3 1 3 1

R ecurved

B owl

I llustration of

9 .

Dendrogram f or Cream P aste C eramics ( Variables = 1 0 e lements; l ognormalized u nits)

4 8

D endrogram F or ( Variables

C ream P aste C eramics = 9 c haracteristic vectors)

5 6

P lot of T hree P rimary C ompositional Groups R elative t o D erived D iscriminat Axes

6 4

1 2.

Variability

92

1 3.

H istograms S hapes

1.

1 4.

i n

M otif

of Vessel

Bowl

3 3

8 .

1 0.

C hilanga Open

F igures

3 3

G lyph A D imensions,

C opador 1 05

H istogram o f S hapes

Vessel

D imensions,

G ualpopa 1 07

1 5.

H istogram of Vessel Open Bowls

D imensions,

C hilanga

1 6.

H istogram o f R ecurved

D imensions,

Arambala

1 7.

Layout

1 8.

B ird

of

Vessel Bowls

G ualpopa

1 09

1 10 Spiral

1 15

B owls

Motifs U sed on I nterior Walls, Open a nd R ecurved B owls

C opador 1 44

1 9.

D endrograms, C luster Analysis of Variables, Motif C ombinations Only

1 79

2 0.

D endrogram, R elated

1 80

C luster Analysis of D ecorationVariables, C opador Open B owls i x

2 1.

2 2.

2 3.

2 4.

2 5.

2 6.

2 7.

2 8.

2 9.

3 0a.

3 0b.

3 1.

D endrogram, R elated

C luster Analysis of D ecorationVariables, C opador R ecurved Bowls

1 81

D endrogram, C luster Analysis o f DecorationR elated Variables, Gualpopa Nonspiral Open B owls

1 82

D endrogram, R elated

1 83

C luster Analysis of D ecorationVariables, Arambaia R ecurved B owls

D endrogram, C luster Analysis of Copador Open B owls

C ases,

D endrogram, C luster Analysis of Copador R ecurved B owls

C ases,

1 86

1 87

D endrogram, C luster Analysis of C ases, Gualpopa Nonspiral Open B owls

1 88

D endrogram, C luster Analysis of Arambala R ecurved Bowls

1 89

S outhern M aya Area Analysis L ate

S tudied

i n

C ases,

D istribution 2 07

C lassic S ites W ith of Copador . Noted

P resence

or Absence 2 09

L ate C lassic S ites With C opador, b y D istance F rom Copan

Gridded 2 10

L ate C lassic S ites With I solated or No Copador Gridded By D istance F rom Copan F alloff I n Radius

P resence of U nits

3 2.

M ap of

S ite

CV 2 0

3 3.

M ap of

S ite

CV

3 4.

P rofiles,

4 3

Vessel

C opador

by

5 0

S q.

2 11

Km. 2 16 2 29

t hrough S hapes

2 31

4 7

U sed

I n The

R esearch

2 60

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My t hanks and appreciation f or c ontributions during t he course of t his work are due t o s o many p eople i n so many p laces. As I began enumerating t he k ey people I r ealized t hat i t sounds l ike a travel g uide to the s outheastern M aya periphery. So I will organize

this,

country by

country.

I n Guatemala. The I nstituto de A ntropologia e H istoria; t he Museo Nacional de Arqueologia y E tnolog ia; t he Museo de Popol Vuh; Sr. Juan M aegli, Mr. and M rs. E dwin S hook; Dr. Marion Hatch; Dr. a nd Mrs. Will iam Swezey; a nd Ms. Joan Quillen. I n Honduras. The I nstituto Hondureno de Antro. pologia e Historia; B anco Atlantida; Ms. A lice Popenoe; S r. Armando Bonilla Gastel; Sr. Mario Lopez; a nd the s taff of the P royecto Arqueologico de Copan.

S tanley

I n E l Boggs. I n

Salvador.

M exico;

Susanna

The

Museo

Nacional

a nd

Mr.

Ekholm.

I n t he United S tates. The Harvard University C opan Settlement System Project S taff; M r. Howard E arn est; Dr. Robert S harer; ' Brookhaven National L aborat ory's Archaeological Chemistry Group, i ncluding my " mentor" Dr. R .L. B ishop; Ms. I lene Swartz; Drs. F red B ove, Barbara Branstetter, Suzanne De Atley, T imothy E arle, Ernestine E lster, and Ted Gutman; t he s taff at A SI Market Research; my " production crew;" a nd, f inall y, my loyal f riends whose confidence i n my ability t o c omplete this r esearch helped sustain me numerous t imes.

xi

CHAPTER

1

I NTRODUCTION

B ACKGROUND AND THEORETICAL OVERVIEW T his s tudy i nvestigates a L ate C lassic p olyc hrome c eramic f ound t hroughout t he s outheastern r egion o f t he Maya. The work s eeks t o make e xplicit a nd t o t est a ssumptions t hat have b een made a bout t his " trade w are." The r esearch s tarts w ith t he q uestion o f w hether t he c eramic material r epresents s tylistic i nt eraction or material e xchange. T hen, p roduction c ons iderations s uch a s s tandardization a nd c entralization a re evaluated. F inally, d istributional p atterns a nd t he context o f c onsumption a re c onsidered. T hus, data o n various a spects of economic organization a re i ncorp orated i n a n a ttempt t o r econstruct t he r ole o f a s pec ific material good i n t he e conomic s ystem o f a s ociety. An e conomic s ystem has b een defined a s " the r ules which i ntegrate t he u se of n atural r esources a nd t echniques a nd a ssure continuous c o-operation i n t he p rovision o f material goods...." ( Dalton 1 968:149) An e conomic system c an b e v iewed f rom t he f ocus o f c ompone nts s uch a s s ubsistence, t echnology, a nd t rade or f rom s tages i n i ts process s uch a s procurement, production, d istribution, a nd - c onsumption. E ven t hough t he various s tages i n t he p rocess m ust b e coordinated f or a n e conomic s ystem t o f unction, t hey f requently a re not i ntegrated i nto a s ingle a rchaeological s tudy ( Earle 1 981:231). R esearch h as t ended to f ocus on one of t he processes i n t he s ystem, t reating the o thers a s i ncidental i nput or output. I n g eneral, a rchaeologists have emphasized d istribution o r e xchange ( both o f r aw materials a nd o f f inished p roducts) i n t heir c oncern w ith t he e conomics o f preh istoric s ocieties. R easons f or t he emphasis on d ist ribution probably c an b e a ttributed t o s everal f actors: I) e xchange of a ll types i s b elieved t o b e a c ritical a spect of s ocial organization, b oth i n t erms o f continuity a nd c hange, 2 ) e vidence o f material e xc hange can b e discerned i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, a nd 3 ) methods f or determining f oreign or i mported g oods h ave b ecome more precise. Many s tudies o f e xchange have c oncentrated o n l ong-distance e xchange ( Andrews 1 980; B erdan 1 982; F rankenstein a nd Rowlands 1 978; L amberg-Karlovsky 1 975; P ires-Ferreira 1 976), a lthough r ecently s horter r ange p atterns of material i nteraction have b een i nvestigated:

1

-

I ntra-site:

F ry

a nd

C ox

1 974;

F ry

1 979.

I nter-site but considered l ocal: R ice 1 976; R ands a nd B ishop 1 980; Johnson 1 973; Arnold 1 978; B ishop, R ands a nd H arbottle 1 982. I ntra-regional: S hepard L auer 1 971; F ry 1 980.

1 965;

P log

1 976;

P roduction p rocesses, o n t he o ther h and, h ave b een e xamined t o a much l esser degree. For o ne t hing, a t t ne present t ime t hey appear t o b e harder to s tudy directly f rom the archaeological r ecord. P roduction l oci may b e d ifficult to l ocate i f t he manufacturing process did not l eave r eadily r ecognizable n onperisha ble detritus. L ithic p roduction has r eceived more a ttention t han has c eramic manufacture, p ossibly b ecause debitage • has b een s uccessfully u sed to e valuate production s teps ( Pires-Ferreira 1 976; Ammerman a nd A ndrefsky 1 982). C eramic production loci would b e expected t o produce evidence o f f iring mistakes i n t he f orm of w asters e ven i f p ermanent k ilns had not b een u sed. However, s uch. direct e vidence i s i nfrequently c ited i n the l iterature a nd does not appear t o have b een i ntegrated i nto i nvest igations of production organization. I nferential methods f or i nvestigating p roduction concerns a re only b eginning to r eceive a ttention ( Rice 1 981). P roduction most often h as b een i nvestigated i n t erms of c raft s pecialization, v iewing this c haracteri stic of t he economic s ystem a s e vidence of s ocial c omp lexity a nd i nterdependence. I n t he c ase of both exchange a nd production, t he emphasis o f many s tudies has b een on diachronic r es earch where t he purpose i s t o demonstrate i ncreasing s ocial complexity t hrough i ncreasing i nterdependence a nd c ontact: " From a n e cological a nd evolutionary perspect ive, s ocial s tratification a nd economic s pec ialization r eflect t he d ifferential d istribut ion of r esources a nd t he s ocietal management o f t hese r esources." ( Rice 1 981:119; emphasis a dded) " Archaeologists have c oncentrated h eavily o n u nderstanding t he developmental mechanism o f t rade. T hey have, however, f ailed to u nderstand i n depth t he s tructure o f prehistoric t rade a t any g iven t ime." ( Lamberg-Karlovsky 1 975:346; emphasis a dded)

2

S ynchronic a nalyses have b een l ess f requent, w ith i ntegrated t reatment of more t han one part of t he e conomic system b eing very r are, i ndeed. Consequently, t he approach i n t he c urrent work i s to i ntegrate t he s tudy o f t he processes o f p roduction, distribution, a nd, t o a l esser e xtent, c onsumption of a t ype of c era mic s erving vessels during one i dentifiable time p eriod. 1 O ne a spect o f production which i s i mportant f or u nderstanding economic organization i s occupational s pecialization. D etermination o f production s pecializ ation c omes f rom both primary a nd i nferred evidence. P rimary e vidence c onsists of r emains i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord directly a ssociated w ith t he processing or production a ctivity workshops or s pecialized a ctivity a reas, t ool k its, s torage f acilities. I nf erred evidence i s gained f rom a n e valuation of t he e nd p roduct which e xhibits a degree o f c raftsmanship or ' skill b eyond t hat e xpected f rom nonspecialized p roduc ers. I n t he Maya area t here has b een c onsiderable r eliance on i nference i n d iscussions of occupational s pecialization ( Adams 1 970; Haviland 1 970). T here a re s everal r easons f or t his. F irst of a ll, m uch a rchaeol ogical activity has b een c oncentrated on public archit ecture l ocated a t t he c enter of l arge M aya s ites, not a l ikely l ocus f or direct e vidence of economic s peciali zation. S econd, C lassic M aya s ettlement was not a s u rbanized a s o ther complex s ocieties. F or e xample a t T eotihuacan i n h ighland M exico, p roduction was organi zed t o t he p oint where occupational b arrios have b een l ocated w ith evidence of obsidian working, pottery making, a nd l apidary activities ( Millon 1 976). Without a n u rban r esidential pattern, t he l ocation of s peciali zed p roduction c enters may b e more easily overlooked, d epending u pon t he s pecific s urvey a nd e xcavation s trat egies employed. However, one e xtensive f ield p roject a t T ikal, G uatemala, h as provided s ome d irect evidence of s peci alization. A t t his s ite a l arge number of r esidential b uildings a nd house groups w ere i nvestigated a nd data a bout economic specialization have emerged. F or i ns tance, B ecker ( 1973a) discusses f or t he C lassic p eriod a t Tikal a t l east s ix occupational s pecialities t hat a re a rchaeologically i dentifiable - f lint a nd obsidian k nappers, potters, woodworkers, dental workers; masons,

1T he c ategory " serving v essel"(Fry 1 979:496) i s b eing u sed b ecause i t does not presuppose a r estriction i n availability t o a c ertain s egment of t he s ociety nor does i t a ssume c haracteristics o f d istribution. O ther c lassifications of t rade goods a re g iven by R athje e t a l 1 978, R ice 1 981, and Tourtellot a nd S abloff 1 972.

3

s tucco a nd c onstruction ment c arvers.

workers;

s toneworkers

or

monu-

O ne r esidential group ( 4H-1) i n c entral T ikal p roduced l arger quantities o f c ertain t ypes o f c eramics t han w ould n ave b een e xpected f or t he s ize a nd location o f t he u nit. O ne m idden i n t his group y ielded many s pecialized c eramic products: w histles 8 f ragments a nd 2 w hole e xamples; f igurines - 3 9 f ragments and o ne w hole e xample; f igurine molds 2 f ragments a nd 2 i ntact; c ensers - 4 0 p ieces; o ther - " scores of r ec onstructable b owls, wall i nsert f ragments, candles ticks, a nd d ecorated v essels, i ncluding t hree w ith m iscellaneous t exts" ( ibid:399). T he presence o f a l arge pottery a rchitectural mask u sually a ssociated only w ith t he r elatively a ffluent or o n public b uildi ngs l ed B ecker t o c onclude t hat t his was a r eflection o f t he occupation o f t he r esidents, not t heir wealth ( ibid:400). A nother pottery w orkshop has t entatively b een i dentified i n p eripheral T ikal f rom a l arge s ample of b roken s erving v essels a nd p ottery drums, a ll s howi ng a u niform s tyle a nd paste ( Fry 1 979:495). F rom t he T ikal data, both B ecker a nd Haviland ( 1974) c onclude t hat t he d egree o f e conomic special-. i zation a t t his s ite h ad not r eached t he p oint w here c ertain l ineages c onfined t heir a ctivities t o a s ingle c raft. N evertheless, t here i s a s uggestion f rom t he s toneworker/monument carver r esidential data ( Haviland 1 974:496) t hat t here was f amily c raft specialization over s everal generations. T hus, i n t erms o f t he C lassic p eriod w ithin t he M aya a rea t here i s s ome d irect, a s w ell a s i nferential, e vidence f or specialization i n t he production o f c eramic objects. I t i s b elieved t hat t he ceramics u nder s tudy w ere made by s pecialized producers and t hat t his w ill b e c orroborated during t he course of t he a nalyses. H owever, t he primary t hrust of t he work o n p roduction i s t o go b eyond t he r ecognition o f product ion s pecialization t o draw i nferences about l evels o f o rganization

a nd

c ontrol

i n

t he

p roduction

p rocess.

F ry, i n d ealing w ith L ate C lassic M aya s erving v essel e xchange, d escribes a s eries of possible t ypes o f e xchange. T hen, f or e ach e xchange t ype h e specifies now i tems p roduced b y one c enter w ould be e xpected t o pattern i n t heir s patial d istribution ( ibid:497). I n t urn, t he type o f e xchange s ystem i n w hich t he goods c irculate a ffects t he d istribution path f rom p roducer t o c onsumer. T hat i s, t he p roducer a nd c ons umer may d eal d irectly or may b e s eparated f rom o ne a nother b y one or more i ntermediaries. Table 1 u tili zes F ry's t ypology o f e xchange s ystems organized a ccording t o t he p roducer-to-consumer path t hat w ould f unction i n e ach s ystem.

4

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T he d istribution p ath i s i mportant b ecause a s t he c omplexity o f t he economic a ctivity i ncreases s o does t he n umber o f i ntermediaries b etween t he p roducer a nd t he c onsumer. O nly t wo a re s hown i n T ypes 6 a nd 7 b ut more c an b e c onceived, d epending o n t he s pecific l evels o f h ierarchy p resent i n t he s ystem. T hus, t he d istribution p ath c an b e c onceptualized a s d irect, s ingle i ntermediary, or m ultiple i ntermediary a nd i s a r eflection o f t he e conomic o rganization p resent i n t he s ystem. S everal e xchange s ystems a re s hown i n T able 1 w ith a lternate p roducer-consumer p aths w hich r eflect t he possibility o f d iffering s ocial a nd e conomic o rgani zation. F or e xample, down-the-line e xchange c ould t ake p lace d irectly b etween p airs o f p roducers a nd c onsumers. H owever, i f i t i s a mong e lites, t he o bjects l ikely would b e p roduced b y s pecialists a ttached t o t he e lite s ocial g roup ( Trigger 1 974:100). A lternate p aths a re a lso c onsidered f or b oth s imple c entralized marketing a nd n oncentralized m arketi ng. R eina a nd H ill ( 1978) h ave d escribed h ow i n c ont emporary G uatemala t raditional p ottery c irculates i n t hree t ypes o f markets ( local, r egional, a nd i nterreg ional) t hrough t hree t ypes o f s ellers: 1 ) v endors s elling t heir own f amily's p roduction i n l ocal markets or a n earby r egional market, 2 ) m iddle t raders ( regatones) w ho maintain a p ermanent s tall i n a r egiona l or i nterregional market, a nd 3 ) t ravelling merchants ( comerciantes) who c onduct w holesale b usiness i n t he r egional a nd i nterregional markets a nd r etail b usiness i n l ocal markets t hat a re n ot p ottery p roducing c ent ers. C onsumers p urchase e ither i n t heir l ocal market o r, i f t heir municipio i s n ot a p ottery p roducing c enter, t hey m ay j ourney t o a n earby l ocal p ottery prod ucing market or t o a r egional market. S uch t rips o ccur o nly i f n eeds a re s ubstantial e nough t o o ffset t he a dditional t ime a nd t ransportation e xpense. I t i s n ot s uggested t hat t his model c an b e d ir ectly a pplied t o t he p rehistoric c ase b eing s tudied. H owever, i t d oes s eem p robable t hat i ntermediaries m erchants o r m iddlemen o f s ome t ype - c ould h ave b een a ctive i n e ither o f t hese t ypes o f marketing s ystems, a ffecting c ertain p roduction d ecisions. Variations i n p roduction f actors c an b e e xpected a ccording t o t he t ype o f e xchange a nd t he d istribution p ath f rom p roducer t o c onsumer; 1 .

T he n umber o f p roducing p acity p er u nit

2 .

T he t otal a mount o f v essels w ould b e c onsidered e quivalent p riate f or a g iven u se 7

u nits

a nd

t he

c a-

made t hat o r a ppro-

3 .

T he d egree a chieved

4 .

T he l evel a chieved.

o f

s tandardization

d esired/-

s implification

d esired/-

T hus, f or a g iven d istribution p ath, c ertain combinat ions o f t ype a nd a mount o f p roduct c an b e e xpected a s w ell a s d ifferent p roduction organization. T able 2 s hows t he e xpectations f or p roduction a spects a ccording t o t he t ype o f e xchange s ystem a nd d istribution p ath t hat m ight b e operating. E ach o f t hese p roduction c onsiderations w ill b e d iscussed. Number

o f

p roducing

u nits

a nd

t he

c apacity

p er

u nit S pecialized p ottery p roduction c an b e d ivided i nto two b road g roupings, e lementary s pecialization a nd h andicraft c orporations: 1 .

E lementary s pecialization ( Balfet 1 965) o r c raft p roduction ( Rathje 1 975) - Two d iff erent p roduction s ituations a t t his l eve r o f o rganization a re: a . » situations w here i ndividual a rtisans do a ll t he s teps i n p roducing t he f inished p ots f rom gathering t he r aw materials t hrough t he f inal f iring. O ther p eople may b e c alled u pon a s a specific n eed a rises t o h elp w ith s ome o f t he more a uxi liary a spects ( such a s t ransporting t he r aw materials o r c ollecting f uel f or f iri ng), b ut t his i s d one o n a n a d h oc b asis w ith t he potter b eing i n c ontrol o f t he e ntire operation. b . s ituations w here a s mall p roduction u nit, s uch a s a nuclear f amily, d ivides u p t he s teps i n t he p ottery-production s eq uence w ith d ifferent members h aving s pec ific r esponsibilities u nder t he s uperv ision o f o ne i ndividual, p robably t he o ne most s killed i n t he more c omplicated s teps o f s haping a nd decorating. R eina a nd H ill ( 1978:21) d escribe s everal c ontemporary p ottery making v illages i n G uatemala w here " assembly-line" t echniques a re u sed by f amily p roduction u nits.

2 .

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f rom e lementary s pecialization i s t he c orp orate s tructure b ased on s omething o ther t han a n i ndividual or f amily r elations hip. T he s pecific o rganizational p rinc iple may vary a ccording t o t he n ature o f t he s ociety i n w hich i t i s p laced. H owever, i n g eneral, n umerous s pecialists a re o rganized f or t he various s teps i n - t he p roduction process. T he q uantity o f pottery t hat c an b e p roduced by t hese d ifferent t ypes o f u nits varies n ot o nly b ecause o f t he i nvolvement o f varying numbers o f p eople b ut a lso t hrough e fficiencies possible i n l arger s cale p rod uction. P ottery making l ends i tself t o t ask s peciali zation o r " assembly-line" p rocedures, s o a workshop o rganized a long t ask-specific l ines c ould t urn o ut more v essels t han a n e quivalent n umber o f p otters working i ndependently. I t i s e xpected t hat c raft p roduction, e ither b y s ingle p otters or f amily p roduction u nits, w ould b e t he m anner o f o rganization f or s erving v essel manufacture u ntil t he e xchange s ystem r eached t he c omplex l evel w here multiple i ntermediary d istribution paths o ccurr ed. I f t he c eramics w ere b eing p roduced f or entry i nto a c omplex r edistribution or market s ystem, i t i s p robable t hat p roduction w ould b e o rganized i nto c ent ralized w orkshops c apable o f s ubstantial output u nder c ontrolled c onditions. T he n umber o f producers u nder most e xchange s ystem c onditions p robably w ould b e moderate. S erving v essel d emand w ould n ot b e a s s ubstantial a s t hat f or u tilitarian v essels w hose u se i n f ood p reparation a nd s torage l eads t o more f requent r eplacement n eeds. T he e xceptions w ould b e: 1 ) i n a s upply z one s ystem w here m any i ndividual p otters would s upply s mall quantities, each to a l imited number o f c onsumers a nd 2 ) i n a downt he-line e xchange s ystem w here e ither many i ndividual p otterns, p ossibly p art-time s pecialists, p roduced f or t heir e xchange partners or w here f ew f ull-time s peciali sts, w orking u nder d irection, p roduced f or e lite e xc hange. . T he n umber a nd t ype o f p roduction u nit c ould a lso b e i nfluenced b y t he l ocation a nd s ize o f t he r aw m aterial s ources, particularly t he c lay. N icklin ( 1979) p resents a v ery t horough d iscussion o f t he v aried s trategies u sed b y p otters u nder d ifferent c irc umstances o f c lay a vailability. O ne r esult o f t he p resence o f s poradic c lay d istribution w ith a f ew major d eposits c an b e t he e stablishment o f major s pecialized c enters a t t he c lay f ields ( ibid:443). T hus, p roduct ion u nits c an b e a ffected b y c onsiderations o f r aw m aterial procurement a s W ell a s e xchange-based r equirem ents. 1

t he p ieces moving d irectly f rom p roducer to c onsumer i n t hese s ystems, t here i s n o c entral c ontrol a nd no i nc entive f or s tandardization. I n t erms o f gift exchange i tems p roduced u nder e lite a uspices, t he o bjective w ould ' likely b e t he opposite o f s tandardization u nique, o ne-of-a-kind i tems ( Earle 1 982a:8). I ncentives f or s tandardization would c ome f rom d ifferent s ources i n t he c ase o f marketing a nd r edist ribution s ystems b ut would b e s tronger t han i n t he s impler e xchange s ystems. I n t he c ase of r edistribut ion, t he c entrally l ocated p erson or i nstitution would w ant t o h ave e asily r ecognizable, equivalently valued s erving v essels f or d istribution. I n t he case o f marketing, t he p roducers or m iddlemen i ntermediaries w ould w ant t o b e c ompetitive w ith o ther vendors i n t he market, p roviding a ccepted s hapes a nd decoration o n t heir wares. I f t he e xchange s ystem w ere c omplex, t here c ould b e d ifferent s tandards f or d ifferent marketing or r ed istributive a reas. S imilarly, p roducts i n a noncent ralized marketing s ystem c ould s how s tandardization w ithin a m arket b ut more v ariability a mong markets i f d ifferent p roduction u nits s upplied d ifferent markets w ithout much c ompetition p er market. D egree o f

s implification

As w ith s tandardization, w hen s pecialization i s organized t o p roduce s izable q uantities of a product t here i s a t endency t oward s implification. S implific ation h as a n a dvantage i n l arge-scale production o f r educing t he r eliance o n h ighly s killed craftsmen whose w ork c apacity w ould d ictate or c urtail t he possible o utput. A dditionally, i n g eneral, a s implified article w ill r equire a l ower i nvestment i n t he p roduction c ost. ( See R athje 1 975:416 c oncerning differences i n c ost c ontrol.) S implification i n p ottery production i s most l ikely t o b e v isible i n t wo a spects of t he p roduct: f orm a nd d ecoration. However t he s ame caveat a pplies a s w as m entioned f or s tandardization. There w ill b e s ituations w here t he t ype o f e xchange p recludes t he c ost e ffective measures of s implification a nd where e laboration w ill b e r equired f or " marketability." E lab oration w ould b e e xpected, f or e xample, i n b oth types o f down-the-line e xchange a nd t o a s omewhat l esser e xt ent i n s upply z one e xchange. F or other types of e xc hange, however, s implification w ould b e expected. T he f oregoing d iscussion d emonstrates t hat t he k ind o f p roduct, t he a mount made, a nd t he c ircumstances u nder w hich t he c eramics w ere p roduced c an a ll v ary w ithin t he g eneral c ategory o f s pecialized p roduction. T hese w ill c ombine i n d ifferent w ays d epending on t he t ype o f d istribution p ath a ssociated w ith a certain

1 2

Amount o f v essels made T he a mount o f v essels p roduced w ill b e a ffected b y t he n umber o f p roducing u nits a nd t heir c apacity b ut i t i s more d irectly d etermined b y t he d emand f or p roduct a nd t he s cale o f t he e xchange s ystem. A s R enf rew h as s tated " a h igh l evel o f p roduction b y a number o f c raft s pecialists i n a l imited a rea c annot e asily b e s ustained w ithout a h ighly o rganized m eans o f d istrib uting t he p roduct a nd w ithout a l arge c onstituency o f c ustomers. T his c an only b e a vailable e ither t hrough a v ery h igh p opulation d ensity, g enerally i n a n u rban s ociety, or a n e fficient e xport t rade." ( 1977b:9) T hus, t he s cale o f s erving v essel p roduction w ould p robably b e moderate u nless t he e xchange s ystem operated t hroughout a l arge r egion o n a s cale w hich p robably w ould n ecessitate h ierarchical o rganization. D egree o f

s tandardization

O ne o f t he g enerally a ccepted c orollaries of s pecialization i s s tandardization. A s v arious s teps i n t he production p rocess a re r epeated w ith r egularity a nd f requency, t he r ange o f variation n arrows a nd t he r esults b ecome more predictable. T he r esult i s a s tronger r elationship b etween p roducer a nd p roduct ( van d er L eeuw 1 980," B alfet 1 965) w ith r outinization o f s teps, i ncentives t o e fficiencies i n m ethods, e tc. S ince w ork i s done r egularly, s kill, a s w ell a s f acili ty, i s a chieved s o p roducts may b e o f b etter quality t echnically t han t hose o f g eneralized p roduction. S tandardization i n t he t echnological a spects s electing t he r aw m aterials, p reparing t he paste,. cons tructing t he v essels a nd f iring - p robably w ill occur w ith s pecialization r egardless o f t he s pecific e xchange s ystem i nto w hich t he c eramics a re c hanneled. ( Incent ives f or s tandardization may vary a ccording t o c ompet ition a nd o ther f actors, o f c ourse.) O ther a spects, s uch a s t he a ctual s hape ( with i ts s ize a nd d imension c haracteristics) a nd t he d ecoration w ill b e d irectly a ffected b y t he s pecific type o f e xchange i n w hich t he c eramics w ill b e operating a nd b y t he v alue l evel o f t he vessel group. I f t he i tems a re i ntended f or h igh v alue c onsumption, t he goal w ould l ikely b e t o p roduce h ighly d ifferentiated, d istinctive a ppearing v essels. T hus, s tandardization i n d ecoration a nd, t o a l esser e xtent, s hape w ould b e i ncongruent w ith t he marketing o bjective. O n t he o ther h and, i f t he p ottery i s more o f a " middle c lass" c ommodity, t hen t hese f eatures w ould b e s tandardized i n o rder t o p roduce a n e asily r ecognizable p roduct. F or i nstance, c eramics b eing made f or s upply z one a nd down-the-line ' exchange s ystems w ould not b e e xpected t o s how m uch s tandardization. I n t he c ase o f

1 3

t he p ieces moving d irectly f rom p roducer to c onsumer i n t hese s ystems, t here i s n o c entral c ontrol a nd no i nc entive f or s tandardization. I n t erms o f g ift e xchange i tems p roduced u nder e lite a uspices, t he o bjective w ould l ikely b e t he opposite o f s tandardization u nique, o ne-of-a-kind i tems ( Earle 1 982a:8). I ncentives f or s tandardization would c ome f rom d ifferent s ources i n t he c ase o f marketing a nd r edist ribution s ystems b ut w ould b e s tronger t han i n t he s impler e xchange s ystems. I n t he c ase of r edistribut ion, t he c entrally l ocated p erson or i nstitution would w ant t o h ave e asily r ecognizable, e quivalently valued s erving v essels f or d istribution. I n t he c ase o f m arketing, t he p roducers o r m iddlemen i ntermediaries w ould w ant t o b e c ompetitive w ith o ther vendors i n t he market, p roviding a ccepted s hapes a nd decoration o n t heir wares. I f t he e xchange s ystem w ere c omplex, t here c ould b e d ifferent s tandards f or d ifferent marketing or r ed istributive a reas. S imilarly, p roducts i n a noncent ralized marketing s ystem c ould s how s tandardization w ithin a market b ut more variability a mong m arkets i f d ifferent p roduction u nits s upplied d ifferent markets w ithout much c ompetition p er market. D egree o f ' s implification A s w ith s tandardization, w hen s pecialization i s o rganized t o p roduce s izable q uantities of a product t here i s a t endency t oward s implification. S implific ation h as a n a dvantage i n l arge-scale production o f r educing t he r eliance on h ighly s killed craftsmen whose w ork c apacity w ould d ictate o r c urtail t he possible output. A dditionally, i n g eneral, a s implified article w ill r equire a l ower i nvestment i n t he p roduction c ost. ( See R athje 1 975:416 c oncerning differences i n c ost c ontrol.) S implification i n p ottery production i s most l ikely t o b e v isible i n t wo a spects of t he p roduct: f orm a nd d ecoration. H owever t he s ame caveat a pplies a s w as m entioned f or s tandardization. T here w ill b e s ituations w here t he t ype o f e xchange p recludes t he c ost.effective measures of s implification a nd w here e laboration w ill b e r equired f or " marketability." E lab oration w ould b e e xpected, f or e xample, i n b oth t ypes o f down-the-line e xchange a nd t o a s omewhat l esser e xt ent i n s upply z one e xchange. F or o ther t ypes of e xc hange, however, s implification w ould b e expected. T he f oregoing d iscussion d emonstrates t hat t he k ind o f p roduct, t he a mount made, a nd t he c ircumstances u nder w hich t he c eramics w ere p roduced c an a ll v ary w ithin t he g eneral c ategory o f s pecialized p roduction. T hese w ill c ombine i n d ifferent ways depending on t he t ype o f d istribution p ath ' a ssociated with a c ertain

1 4

e xchange s ystem. C ombinations o f t he various p roduct ion a spects c an b e u sed t o s pecify t he d istribution p ath f or t he g oods, f rom w hich i t s hould b e p ossible t o p redict t he k ind o f e xchange s ystem t hrough w hich t hey c irculated. T he p rediction c an t hen b e e valuated t hrough a s tudy o f t he s patial d istribution o f t he c eramics. ( The p rocedure, o f c ourse, c an b e r eversed w ith t he e xchange s ystem s pecified a nd u sed t o p redict t he p roduction c onsiderations.) I n t his manner, t wo k ey processes i n t he e conomic s ystem - p roduction a nd d istribution - c an b e s tudied s ystematically w ith t he f indings f or o ne process p roducing h ypotheses a bout t he o ther p rocess. T he c hapters o n p roduction a nd d istrib ution w ill u se t his o rientation w hen d ealing w ith t he d ata r elating t o t hese p rocesses.

o f

t he

Two p oints r esearch:

s hould

b e

m ade

a bout

t he

o rientation

1 .

P roduction a nd d istribution a re b eing s tudied f rom a s ynchronic point o f v iew, w ithin a s pecific t ime p eriod, i n o rder t o u nderstand t he s ocial o rganization a nd t o g ain k nowledge a bout c ultural i ntegration d uring t he p articular e ra i n t he d elineat ed geographic a rea. F requently, e xchange i s l ooked u pon a s e vidence o f i ncreasing s ocial h ierarchy a nd i s emphasized f or i ts c ommunication r ole i n p rocesses o f s ocial c hange. E xamining or e xplaining s ocial c hange i s n ot a n o bjective of t he p resent w ork.

2 .

O nly one r estricted c ategory o f goods p ainted c eramic s erving v essels i s b eing i nvestigated. B road i nferences a bout e xchange n etworks c annot b e made w ith data f rom a s ingle c lassification o f m aterial. R esearchers h ave c ome t o r eal ize t hat d ifferent c ommodities a nd manuf actured goods moved t hrough d ifferent e xchange s ystems a nd t hat e ven w ithin a c ategory, s uch a s p ottery, varied c lasses o f v essels w ere s ubject t o d ifferent d ist ributional methods ( cf. F ry a nd C ox 1 974). I n order t o r econstruct t he operat ion o f a n e xchange n etwork c onsiderable d ata a bout a r ange o f e xchange goods a re n eeded. T he c urrent w ork s hould b e c onsid ered a s potential i nput i nto s uch a l arge-scale a nalysis; i t w ill p rovide a d etailed u nderstanding o f o ne c omponent b eing p roduced a nd d istributed w ithin t he c ontext o f a c omplex s ociety.

15

TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL FOCUS The period u nder i nvestigation i s the L ate C lass ic p eriod ( 650 - 8 50 A .D.) i n t he M aya culture. T his w as t he epoch o f s ubstantial growth and d evelopment t hroughout t he e ntire Lowland a rea. I t was a p eriod o f h igh population density, particularly around powerful c ivic c enters. I ntensified a griculture was practised u sing both t erracing a nd i rrigated r aised f ields ( Adams 1 982; H arrison a nd T urner 1 978). S ocietal organization was based on a n extended f amily u nit a nd r esidence p robably was p atrilocal ( Haviland 1 966b). Social s tratification definitely w as present a lthough t here i s disagreement on how c losed or i nflexible t he s ystem was. T here i s a greement t hat e ach c enter was governed by a h ereditary d ynasty t hat h eld both r eligious a nd s ecular power. Below the r uli ng group w ere a number of different s trata. H ammond ( 1982:189-197) h as r ecently s et f orth t he most s pecific c ategorization of L ate C lassic M aya c lass s tructure, divided i nto s even l evels: 1 .

R uling

f amily

2 .

Administrative

bureaucracy

e d t he r uler's a ctionable t asks c ific e xecutives

t ranslati nto s pe-

3 .

E xecutive b ureaucracy which c arried o ut t he directives a nd operated a t a l ocal l evel, possibly a ssociated w ith a h igh l ocal s ocial s tatus

4 .

I ntellectual specialists s uch t ects, priests, s cribes, e tc.

5 .

C raft t ors,

6«

U nskilled

7 .

P easant

specialists s uch l apidaries, e tc.

a s

a s

potters,

archi-

sculp-

l aborers

f armers.

While H ammond's division i s s cheme i s l ogical a nd r eflects a complex s ociety.

l arge

which

g eneral directives a nd a ssigned t hem to

l argely i nferred, t he t he f unctional needs o f

Spatial organization c onsisted of a s eries o f c enters w ith i mpressive p ublic a rchitecture s ur-

r ounded by s ubordinate c enters a lso w ith public buildi ngs. T hese s maller c enters must have f unctioned i n a n a dministrative c apacity -' civic, r eligious, o r economic t o i ntegrate outlying v illages, h amlets, a nd f armsteads i nto t he polity. P olitically, each of t hese 16

l arge c enter-based u nits w as i ndependent; n o overreachi ng s tate o rganization c ontrolled a ll t he M aya a rea. T he l evel o f p olitical organization p robably was e quiv alent t o w hat R enfrew ( 1975) h as c alled t he E arly S tate M odule. R ulership b y s ite f ollowed a p attern o f p atril ineal s uccession ( Haviland 1 977), a lthough i nstances o f disputed a ccession h ave b een d etermined f rom h ieroglyphic t exts. R elationships b etween d ynasties o f d iff erent s ites w ere maintained b y marriage ( Marcus 1 976; H aviland 1 977). T he s patial e xtent o f political c ontrol e xercised b y t he various c enters i s u nknown b ut c urrently " territories" a re drawn a ccording t o t he occurrence a t s maller s ites o f t he l arger c enter's emb lem g lyph ( Marcus 1 976; K elley 1 976). E conomic c ontact was w idespread t hroughout t he a rea, operating a t l ocal, r egional, a nd l ong-distance l evels. B oth p erishable a nd i mperishable c ommodities w ere c irculated. S ome o f t he c ommodities i nvolved, b ased o n a rchaeological e vidence a s w ell a s b y i nfere nce f rom p ostconquest documents i ncluded t he f ollowi ng: p erishables - h oney, c acao, f eathers ( including t hose o f t he q uetzal b ird), t obacco, c otton garments, marine p roducts a nd s hells, l ime p roducts, a nd s alt; i mperishables - pottery ( fine p aste, polychrome, i nc ensarios), s tone vases, m etal w ork, j ade, obsidian, m etates ( lava a nd granite), a nd s laves ( Hammond 1 982: 2 25). T rade r outes operated b y s ea a round t he c oasts, b etween t he c oasts a nd i nland, a nd i n t he i nterior ( both o verland a nd r iverine). T he p articipation of t he various p olitical u nits i n a w idespread c ultural t radition i s a ttested t o b y s hared p atterns o f monumental a rt, a rchitecture, a nd t he s tela c omplex, a s w ell a s b y t he h ieroglyphic w riti ng a nd c alendric s ystems ( Nicholson 1 967). T hese c haracteristics i ndicate r egular c ommunication a nd i nt eraction o ver a c onsiderable s patial a rea. T he M aya t erritory t raditionally h as b een divide d i nto s everal r egions a ccording t o b oth t opographical a nd c ultural manifestations. ( See H enderson 1 981:48-59 f or a r ecent d iscussion o f t hese d ivisions.) T he s outheastern p eriphery t opographically i s a n i ntermed iate z one b etween t he h eavy r ain f orest o f t he c entral P eten l owlands a nd t he h ighlands. C ulturally, i t c ont ains t he most s outherly e xpression of t he f ull M aya c omplex o f c orbel vaulted a rchitecture, L ong C ount c alendrics, a nd t he s tela-altar c omplex. T he L ate C lassic p eriod i n t he s outheast M aya a rea w as t he t ime o f f lourishing c enters l ike C opan a nd Q uirigua. A vaila ble data s uggest c onsiderable c ommunication a nd t rade d uring t his p eriod b oth w ithin t his g eneral r egion a nd b eyond.

1 7

T hree

different

s ubregions

of

t he

s outheastern

M aya p eriphery a re emphasized i n t he c urrent i nvestigation - t he R io Copan z one i n western Honduras, t he m iddle a nd lower M otagua Valley i n G uatemala, a nd western E l S alvador. . (See F igure 1 .) T he f ollowing s ect ions w ill provide a geographic a nd g eologic p erspect ive of t he environments f or e ach z one and w ill -desc ribe t he major a rchaeological s ites i n each s ubregion. Natural R io

E nvironment

C opan

Z one

( Western

Honduras)

T he r uins o f Copan l ie i n t he western part o f Honduras w ithin a s mall valley carved by t he Copan R iver. The Copan R iver f lows w estward i nto t he Motagua drainage t hrough t he C entral American highlands, s ome of t he most r ugged t errain of t he r egion. T he r iver f orms a s eries of s mall valleys or pockets f rom west t o east: t he Copan Valley, S anta R ita, E l Jaral, t he lower R io Amarillo, a nd t he u pper R io Amerillo. T urner e t a l. ( n.d.) h ave defined f our principal physiographic z ones of t hese valleys: 1 ) t he f loodplain, 2 ) t he r iver t erraces, 3 ) t he f oothills, a nd 4 ) t he r idge s lopes.' T he pockets of S anta R ita, E l J aral, a nd t he l ower R io Amarillo a re a ll e xtremely s mall and when combined make up a n area of l ess t han f our s q. km. of valley bottoml ands. The upper R io Amarillo f orms a much l arger pock et w ith a lmost n ine s q. km. of bottomlands ( floodplain a nd r iver t erraces). The main r uins of R io Amarillo a re l ocated a long t he s outhern e dge of t he bottomlands. T he westernmost pocket, t he C opan Valley, i s t he l argest a long t he C opan R iver s ystem. T he entire valley measures about 1 0 to 1 2 k m. e ast-west a nd avera ges a bout 2 .5 km. north-south, c reating a n a rea o f b etween 2 5 a nd 3 0 s q. k m. Approximately half of t his a rea c onsists of w ell-watered b ottomlands, e xtremely good f or a griculture. The f loodplain, o f varying w idth, i s a f airly s mall part of t he bottomlands. T erraces r anging i n h eight f rom 5 t o 1 0 meters above t he r iver, dominate t he bottomlands. F oothills gradu ally r ite upward f rom t he r iver t erraces a nd merge i nto s teep, r ugged upper r idge s lopes. M iddle

t he

a nd

L ower M otagua Valley

T he Motagua major drainage

( Guatemala)

r iver a nd i ts t ributaries provide f rom t he Guatemalan highlands east-

wards, emptying i nto t he C aribbean ( Gulf of Amatique). F or most of i ts l ength t he valley coincides w ith t he M otagua f ault, a major r ift f orming t he margin of two c ontinental p lates ( see P lafker 1 976). The mountainous margins o f t he valley a re , composed of a great variety of geological f ormations, mostly of metamorphic ( serp entine a nd s chist/gneiss w ith q uartz, mica, a nd f elds pars) a nd s edementary ( sandstones a nd, near t he Caribb ean,

l imestone)

origins

( West 1 8

1 964).

I n

t he

lower

. Ca lak mu l

P i

L i axac tt i n• T ika l

r as N eg ras .Y axch i len

L ubaantun • P us iI h a

NESTERN E L SALVADOR

Figure

1 :

Sub-Regions of The Southeastern Maya Periphery Emphasized in The Research

19

M otagua valley, defined by a n a ctive f loodplain t hat b egins j ust w est of Quirigua, t here a re n arrow b ands o f i gneous ( rhyolite) materials. Volcanic deposits overl ie many of t hese deposits, e specially i n t he M iddle portion o f t he valley. W estern

a nd

W est-Central

E l

S alvador

T he country c an b e d ivided i nto f our major topographic u nits based on s tructure, a ge, a nd origin ( Daugherty 1 969): c oastal p lain, c oastal mountains, i nterior s tructural t rough, a nd n orthern mountains. O f particular i nterest t o t his project i s the i nterior t rough which i s r inged w ith L ate P leistocene a nd Recent volcanoes a long i ts s outhern e dge a nd has o ccasional earlier volcanoes

a long

i ts

n orthern e dge.

C halchuapa i n w estern E l S alvador, s ituated i n t his t rough, i s i n a broad b asin drained by t he R io P az a nd i ts t ributaries, s ome 7 00 meters above s ea level. C limate a nd environmental c onditions are best d escribed a s transistional between lowland ( coastal) and h ighland t ypes ( Vivo E scoto 1 964). T he e ntire r egion i s domin ated by r ecent volcanic a ctivity ( West 1 964). T he S ierra L amatepeque y Apaneca, i ncluding the extinct volcano Santa Ana and t he r ecently a ctive cone o f I zalco, bounds t he valley of t he R io P az to t he s outheast. Overlooking C halchuapa t o t he northwest i s the d issected cone of C hingo volcano. T he valley f loor i s compose d o f r ecent volcanic and a lluvial deposits, r evealed b y t he downcutting of t he R io P ampe i mmediately north of t he s ite. T he Z apotitan Valley, i n t he west-central part o f E l S alvador, spreads b etween t he S anta Ana a nd S an S alvador volcanic c omplexes. I t i s drained b y t he R io S ucio a nd t he s outhern end i s f ormed by t he coastal mountains. T he basin i s a r emnant of the i nterior s tructural t rough, h emmed i n on t he east and w est b y geologically r ecent volcanic a ctivity which c reated t he i nterior mountains. T his z one, h aving b een f ormed b y t he erosion a nd deposition of mountain s ediments i n t he r estricted area, i s r ich a nd f ertile. Cultural R io

C opan

S ettings Z one

Copan Valley. The a ncient M aya s ite o f Copan h as b een t he c enter of archaeological r esearch f or t he past 9 0 y ears. E xpeditions l ed b y t he P eabody Museum, H arvard University i n t he 1 890's ( Gordon 1 896), and t he C arnegie I nstitution o f Washington i n t he 1 930s a nd 1 940s ( Morley 1 920; L ongyear 1 952) f ocused p rimarily upon t he monuments a nd major architecture within C opan's c entral z one. However, s everal projects o ver t he past e ight y ears have b egun t o e xamine t he entire C opan valley

a s

a s ingle

s ettlement 20

a rea.

.

T he main c enter o f C opan i s l ocated on a r iver t errace w ithin t he c entral a rea o f t he C opan v alley. I t c onsists o f a major a cropolis a rea, t owering u pwards o f 1 00 f eet i nto t he a ir, a nd a l arge open e xpanse o f p laza s tudded w ith various c arved monuments. E xtremely d ense s ettlement e xtends t o t he e ast i nto t he S epult uras s ection o f t he valley a nd t o t he s outh-southwest i nto t he B osque s ection. T hese a re a pparently e lite r esidential a reas. L arge, multiple p laza groups a re l ocated t hroughout t hese t wo a reas. T he n ortheast s ection of t he valley, c omprised o f mostly l ow f oothills, i s a lso f airly d ensely o ccupi ed b ut w ith a g reater number o f s maller groups t han i n t he bottomland a reas mentioned p reviously. S cattered h ousehold g roups a re f ound w ithin t he r emaining p ort ions of t he valley. I t i s c lear t hat, a lthough t here i s occupation o utside t he valley a rea i tself, t he s teep . upper s lopes w hich d emarcate t he valley p roper a lso d emarcate t he main f ocus o f a ncient s ettlement. T here i s e vidence o f s ome s ort o f occupation w ithin t he valley w hich e xtends a s f ar b ack i n t ime a s t he P reclassic. However, i t i s h ard t o p inpoint t he e xtent o f t his e arly occupation. The e arliest monum ent, r ecovered , by t he P royecto A rqueologico C opan, d ates t o a pproximately 8 .19.0.0.0 - 9 .0.0.0.0 ( 416-435 A .D.) A t t his t ime, s ettlement s eems t o have b een c onc entrated a t s everal points, p rimarily w ithin t he b ottomlands. O ne f amily, . located a t t he s ite o f t he p resent main r uins, was a ble t o s omehow c onsolidate power w ithin i ts own h ands a nd f ound t he l ineage w hich c ontrolled C opan u ntil i ts c ollapse a round 8 00 A .D. S ettlement b ecome more e xtensive d uring t he L ate A cbi a nd C ueva 2 phases. H owever, i t i s part icularly a round t he t ime o f t he e nd o f t he C ueva p hase a nd b eginning o f t he C oner p hase ( marked b y t he a ppeara nce of C opador a t C opan) w hen t here i s a p opulation e xplosion w ithin t he valley. A lmost a ll s ections o f t he valley a re o ccupied a nd t he c entral a reas a re b uilt u p w ith a c oncentrated population. R io Amarillo. 3 T his part o f t he z one h as b een l ess t horoughly i nvestigated t han t he C opan Valley. N evertheless, i t a ppears t o h ave s ustained a s izable p opulation a t l east d uring t he C ueva a nd C oner p hases. T he R io Amarillo s ite c onsists o f s everal l arge p laza

2A ppendix A presents c eramic group n ames a nd t heir e quivalences f or s equences a t C opan, Q uirigua, a nd C halchuapa. 3T his

s ite

h as

a lso

b een

L a C anteada.

2 1

r eferred

t o

by

t he

n ame

groups w ith a rchitectural s culpture a nd c arved a ltars. While t he nature of i ts r elationship w ith Copan h as not b een precisely e stablished, i t s eems probable t hat t he s ite f unctioned a s a s econdary c enter i n t he s ocial h ierarchy of t he Coner phase o f occupation. The c eramic a ssemblage, a s presently k nown, contains t he major c omponents of t he C opan valley s equence. M iddle

and

Lower Mota

u a Valle

S an Agustin Acasaguastlan. T his archaeological z one i n t he c entral part of t he M otagua Valley h as not b een s ubjected t o t horough r ecent s tudy. I n 1 943 t he C arnegie I nstitution s pent two months e xcavating mounds a t Guaytan, probably t he main s ite i n t he z one, a nd a n a dditional t en days i n a " hasty exploration o f t he area" ( Smith a nd K idder 1 943:109). F rom t his early work c omes a s ketch map of t he G uaytan s ite, d escript ions of t he e xcavations and artifacts r ecovered during t he Guaytan f ield work, and e xtremely generalized obs ervations of r uins i n t he n eighboring areas. A lso i ncluded i s a map p lotting c oncentrations of r uins i n f ive-mound u nits. E ven t hough Smith's s urvey was very l imited, h e. noted over 1 600 mounds i n t he a pproximately 6 0 k m s tretch a long t he Motagua R iver t hat was covered, with over 1 000 of t hese concentrated i n a 1 0 k m s tretch w ith Guaytan, E l T eron, a nd Magdalena a t t he c enter ( ibid: 1 13; F ig 1 ). T hus, i t would s eem t hat t he S an Agustin a rchaeological z one comprised a major population c enter f or one part o f t he M otagua Valley. Two occupational p eriods with moderate t o abundant c eramic evidence were i dentified - L ato ( corresponding t o E arly C lassic) and Magdalena ( Late C lassic). M inor amounts of o ther c eramic material suggest earlier ( possible M iddle a nd L ate P reclassic) a nd l ater ( Terminal C lassic a nd E arly Postclassic) occupations. More r ecently ( 1979-1981) a r esearch project was i nitiated at Guaytan w hich i ncluded s urvey a nd s urface collections a s well a s t est e xcavations. The 1 979 s eas on r esulted i n t he r ecovery of c eramics t hat c onfirmed t he occupation of t he area f rom a round 4 00 B .C. onward. Jade w orkshops w ere a lso l ocated and e xplored ( Walters 1 979) I t s eems probable t hat t he San A gustin z one was a c enter of a j ade w orking i ndustry, s upplying j ade objects t o various parts of M esoamerica. Quirigua. T he r ecently c ompleted archaeological r esearch a t Quirigua ( 1974 - 1 979) c omprised e xcavation i n t he s ite core ( Jones and S harer 1 980) and b oth s urvey a nd e xcavations i n t he s urrounding 9 5 sq. k m. s ite p eriphery ( Ashmore 1 980a). T hese i nvestigations i ndic ate t hat p eak occurred during

occupation i n b oth a reas of t he s ite t he L ate and T erminal C lassic p eriod.

22

T races of a s maller E arly t o M iddle C lassic occupation w ere f ound i n s everal a reas of t he s ite p eriphery ( Ashmore 1 980b). The a vailable evidence i ndicates t hat Q uirigua was f ounded i n t he 5 th c entery A .D., probably a s a >colony f rom t he c entral P eten ( Jones a nd S harer 1 980). However, s parse a nd d eeply b uried r emains data ble to t he P rotoclassic a nd L ate Preclassic eras, ben eath t he present water t able a nd t herefore e ssentially i naccessible ( Ashmore 1 980b), a rgue f or an earlier occ upation of t he a rea. L ower Motagua S ites. R econnaissance a nd s urvey w as conductea i n t he lower M otagua valley a s part of t ne Quirigua P roject i n 1 973-74 a nd a gain i n 1 977-79 ( Schortman 1 980). I n t he most i ntensively s tudied s ample area ( 180 s q. km. a long the s outhern margins of t he valley), S chortman's r esearch l ocated a nd mapped 2 0 s ites, a ll dating to t he L ate a nd T erminal C lassic. N ine of t hese a re monumental i n s ize, t hree comparable • t o ( or l arger t han) t he contemporary s ite of Quirigua ( Las Quebradas, P layitas, a nd Quebrada Grande). A lt hough n one duplicate a ll t he C lassic Maya hallmarks f ound at Quirigua ( such a s s culptured monuments a nd h ieroglyphic t exts), t hese s ites do s hare a consider-. a ble range o f material c ulture ( including c eramics) w ith Quirigua. E xcavations i ndicate a range of i ntera ctions among a ll t he L ate C lassic lower M otagua s ites, a nd suggest t hat t hese c enters r ose a nd f ell i n s ync hronization w ith Quirigua. W estern

a nd West-Central

E l

S alvador

C halchuapa. T he most comprehensive a rchaeolog ical i nvestigations a t C halchuapa w ere conducted f rom 1 967 to 1 970 ( Sharer 1 978a). T he e arliest r emains a t t he s ite are datable to t he end of t he E arly Preclassic e ra. Occcupation, which appears c ontinuous, expanded f or the n ext m illenium, p eaking i n both s ize and comp lexity during t he L ate a nd T erminal P reclassic. C ess ation o f c onstruction and drastic decline i n occupat ion accompanied t he I lopango eruption i n ca. A .D. 2 50, d etectable a t C halchuapa by a distinctive l evel of volc anic ash. Occupation a t C halchuapa gradually r ecovere d t hereafter a nd p eaked a gain i n t he Late C lassic E arly Postclassic eras. I n t he L ate P ostclassic - Conq uest period, a ccording t o e thnohistoric s ources, C halc huapa was occupied b y Pokoman M aya ( Miles 1 957). Z apotitan Valley. T his a rea has b een s ystemat ically i nvestigated t hrough a s tratified r andom s ample s urvey combined with excavation a t s everal s ites ( Sheets, 1 983). T he s urvey r evealed 5 4 s ites r anging f rom i solated r esidences t hrough villages to s econdary a nd primary r egional c enters. F rom s urface evidence t he majority of t he s ites were occupied during the Late C lassic p eriod. A l ack of E arly C lassic s ettlement s eemed t o i ndicate a bandonment due to t he i nfertile 23

l ayer o f I lopango a sh. P reclassic s ettlements i n t he r egion s eem t o b e f ew i n number b ut t hat may b e c ircums tantial s ince t hey w ould b e h idden b eneath t hick volc anic d eposits. P ostclassic occupation was l ight. S ettlement s eems t o h ave c lustered on t he h igh p lains w est a nd n orth o f t he b asin a nd a long p ermanent water s ources i n t he b asin i tself ( Black 1 978). C ERAMIC

F OCUS

S tandard t ype d escriptions o f t he major c eramics d ealt w ith i n t he r esearch, a s w ell a s o thers m entioned i n t he t ext, a re g iven i n Appendix B . T he m ain i dent ifying c haracteristics o f t he principal t ypes w ill b e p resented i n t his s ection a long w ith a s ummary o f t heir h istory i n a rchaeological r esearch. C opador

P olychrome

C haracteristics C opador i s a c ream c olored, f ine paste polyc hrome t ype. I t f eatures p ainted motifs of s tylized g lyphs, h uman, a nd a nimal f igures a long w ith s ome geometric d esigns. Bowls, both open a nd r ecurved, a re t he most c ommon f orms a nd a lmost a lways h ave i nterior a nd e xterior p ainted d ecoration. T he p ainting s tyle i s c ursive r ather t han h aving d etailed f ine-line e xecut ion. T he d esigns a re r endered i n s pecular h ematite ( deep p urple-red i n c olor), b lack a nd orange p aint, a l ight orange s lip u nderlies t he p ainted d esigns. ( See F igures 2 t hrough 4 .) A rchaeological

H istory

T he c eramic t ype t hat c ame t o b e c alled C opador i s c ited f rom e arly i nvestigations a t C opan a nd i n w estern E l S alvador. F or e xample, B oggs ( 1944:66) publ ished a d escription g iving c haracteristics f or p ieces c lassified a s " red, b lack, a nd o range o n orange Maya polychrome" f ound a t T azumal i n w estern E l S alvador. T he e asily r ecognizable c eramic t ype was characterized b y B oggs i n 1 945 a s: . 1. ...a d istinctive s tyle o f p ainted p ott ery o n w hich human f igures a nd s tylized M aya g lyphs o r g lyph e lements a re v ery c ommonly d epicted, a s w ell a s t o t he u se o f s pecular h ematite p aint i n t he decora tion. T he u sual c olor c ombination i s r ed a nd b lack o n orange s lip, but a t t imes v essels d ecorated i n t he s tyle a re u nslipped, a t o thers f ive or more colors a re employed." ( Boggs 1 945a:246) The t erm C opador w as f irst u sed b y B oggs i n t he 1 945 r eport a nd w as s aid t o h ave b een s uggested by K idder t o 2 4

F igure

2 :

Copador Open Bowls

2 5

Figure 3 :

Copador Recurved Bowl with Diagonal Grooving

26

c n

t Y ) • H r C 5 C U

0 ✓ C I ( C I 0

• z r

• H

2 7

i mply t he p rincipal a rea o f d istribution -- C opan a nd t he a rea a round i t p lus w estern a nd c entral E l S alvador. I ts p resence i n c aches b elow dated s telae a t C opan ( reviewed a nd i llustrated b y S tromsvik i n 1 941) m ade i t a u seful t ime marker w hen t he s tyle w as f ound a t o ther s ites: B oggs 1 943 r elates C ampana C opan t hrough C opador c eramics. - B oggs 1 945 a nd p hases. Boggs C opan.

1 945

r elates

T azumal

r elates

C lub

t o

S an

A ndres

Copan

t o

p ottery

I nternacional

t o

S tromsvik 1 950 r elates Asuncion M ita t o " Copador p hase" a nd t hence t o t he " Maya C lassic." Activity o f t he C arnegie I nstitution a nd t he interaction o f i ts a rchaeologists w orking i n t he s outhe astern p eriphery h elped t o i nformally c ommunicate i nf ormation a nd t o f oster i dentification of t he t ype. T he 1 946 C arnegie Y earbook r eports: " Dr. L ongyear h as a lso b een e ngaged i n s tudy o f t he d esign motifs o f C opan polychrome p ottery. H is a nalysis, a lt hough s till i n a n e arly s tage, s hows t hat t he l ocal p ainted w ares w ere r igidl y s tylized, b oth i n d ecorative motifs a nd i n t he s hapes o f t he v essels o n which given motifs c ould b e p laced. I t i s now p ossible t o i solate t hese C opan s tyles f rom t hose o f i mported w ares, a nd a lso t o i dentify t hem w henever t hey occur i n t he c eramic c ontext o f o ther s ites. T he i mportance o f t his s tudy w as f ully r ealized w hen t he p ottery f rom T azumal, E l S alvador, w as e xamined. M any o f t he polychrome wares of t he l atter s ite r esemble C opan v essels s o s trongly t hat t here c an b e no doubt t hey b oth s temmed f rom t he s ame a rtistic t ra' dition." ( Longyear 1 946:204) T hus, t he s econd major r ole f or C opador was enumerated - t o s erve a s a n i ndicator o f contact a mong s ites w here t he c eramic was e ncountered. L ongyear, writing i n T he M aya a nd T heir N eighbors ( 1940:268-271), c ites s everal C opan c eramics ( Copador a nd G ualpopa, mentioned n ot b y n ame b ut b y d ecorative modes) a s s howi ng c ontact w ith E l S alvador. I nterestingly, a t t his t ime h e d enigrated t he a rtistic q uality of C opan p olyc hromes a nd s aid t hat t he s udden a ppearance of t he d ist inctive s tyle a rgued a gainst i ts o rigin a t C opan. 28

I n a s lightly l ater paper, L ongyear ( 1951) c lass ifies C opador a s C opan's " local c eremonial pottery" w hose h ighly s tylized a nd symbolic decoration was " dict ated b y a s pecial s chool o f a rtists drawn f rom t he p riestly c lass" ( ibid: 9 1). I n t his h istorical r econs truction h e a lso s tates t hat C opador was produced not o nly f or l ocal u se b ut f or e xport t o o ther c enters i n t he s outheastern f rontier r egion. T he

f ullest

discussion

of

C opador

polychrome

i s

f ound i n C opan C eramics ( Longyear 1 952:30; 6 0-64; 9 9-100), i ncluding t he t opics of i ts production a nd d istribution. L ongyear c oncludes t hat C opador was m anufactured a t Copan a nd e xchanged i nto t he a reas w here i t h as b een f ound. H is overview of E l S alvador a rchaeology i n t he Handbook of M iddle American I ndians ( Longyear 1 966) r estates t he C opan e xport t heory of C opador c eramics when h e writes: " The M aya culture of C opan a lso e xtends t o t he s outh, w here w estern E l S alv ador, c ut off f rom Guatemala by t he M exican i nvasion t here, now i mports C opador P olychrome direct f rom C opan, a nd U lua P olychrome f rom c entral Honduras" ( ibid:155). G lass ( 1966), i n h is Handbook s urvey of Western H onduras, i mplicitly a ccepts t he t rade ware positioning o f Copador, w hen h e s tates " the most distinctive L ate C lassic ( Copan ' Full C lassic') pottery type a t C opan, C opador P olychrome, has a distribution t hat encompasses w estern a nd c entral S alvador a s w ell a s C opan b ut i t i s a lmost a bsent f rom other r egions of Honduras" ( ibid: 1 61). More r ecently, S harer ( 1978a Vol 3 :55) quest ioned t he c onclusion t hat a ll C opador was made a t C opan s ince h e h ad i dentified s everal decorative variet ies at C halchuapa t hat had not b een described a t C opan. H is t entative conclusion was t hat " Copador P olychrome was a diverse c eramic t radition, w idespread b y t rade o ver m uch of t he s outhern a nd e astern Maya a rea, and w as probably manufactured a t s everal s eparate c enters" ( ibid). S harer t hen a grees w ith Longyear t hat s tudies i nvolving t echnological a nalysis w ill b e n eeded t o r esolve t he q uestion. I n s ummary, Copador has a l ong-standing r eputat ion a s a C opan t rade good b ut o ne t hat i s b ased on r ather c ircumstantial e vidence. O ther L ate C lassic painted c eramics have not r eceived a s w idespread a ttention a s Copador b ut are k nown f rom t he l iterature t o h ave s imilar distribut ions. T hese t ypes w ill b e u sed i n t he r esearch t o p rovide a c omparative f ramework f or t he e valuation o f t he Copador data.

29

Gualpopa

Polychrome

C haracteristics G ualpopa, l ike C opador, i s a c ream colored, f ine paste polychrome t ype. I ts dominant s hape i s a n open b owl Which u sually h as painted d ecoration only o n t he e xterior. D esign motifs a re r estricted t o animals and geometric designs, i ncluding s imple g lyphic r epresentat ions. An orange-cream s lip i s u sed o ver w hich t he d esigns a re painted i n b lack a nd r ed ( not specular hema tite b ut more o f a n orange-red). O ften t he t wo paint colors a re u sed f or d ifferent motifs r ather t han b eing c ombined a s outline a nd f ill, which i s t he pattern f or Copador decoration. One variety o f t his type u ses a distinctive l ayout of t he e xterior w herein t he d esigns " spiral" f rom t he r im down t he wall a nd o nto t he c onvex bottom o f t he bowl. ( See F igure 1 7, C hapter 4 .) Gualpopa vessels a re i llustrated i n F igures 5 a nd 6 . Archaeological

H istory

T his group o f r ed a nd b lack on orange s lip c eramics was described b y B oggs ( 1944:65-66, P 1 X IVB,2) a t T azumal u nder t he h eading " Red a nd B lack on O range I ." Another p iece i s i llustrated ( ibid:Plate X I,5) a s c oming f rom t he department of L a L ibertad i n t he west ern part of E l S alvador. A lthough not i llustrated, " Tazumal G lyphic" a nd " Tazumal G eometric P olychrome Wares," mentioned b y B oggs ( 1950:272) a s having s tylist ic f eatures o f d esigns c omparable t o " Copador P hase decorative e lements," probably a re G ualpopa. L ongyear ( 1952:58-60) f ound a s izable amount of t his type a t C opan ( called P olychrome S imple B owls) which h e p laced i n t he f ull C lassic p eriod. H e d iscuss es t he glyph-like motifs a nd p arallel l ine p atterns u sed on t he b owls, s tating t he b elief t hat t hese designs had s ome meaning other t han d ecoration s ince t hey occur s o c onsistently not o nly a t C opan b ut a lso i n E l S alvador. S harer ( 1978a Vol 3 :51-51) e ncountered t he type i n b oth E arly a nd L ate C lassic c ontexts. H e d ivided i t i nto f our varieties based on painted motifs a nd c hara cterized i t a s a " diverse a nd l ong-enduring, p resuma bly l ocal c eramic t radition" ( ibid:52). However, i ts c ream paste, u se of g lyphic motifs, a nd s imilarity i n o verall c ompositional l ayout t o C opador r aise q uestions about i ts r elationship t o t he more dominant L ate C lass ic s outheastern polychrome. I ts s trong presence i n both C opan a nd E l S alvador s uggests t he possibility t hat Gualpopa was a p roduct of t he s ame t ype o f p roduct ion a nd distribution s ystem a s w as C opador.

30

Figure

5 :

Gualpopa

Figure

6 :

Spiral

Open

Bowl

Gualpopa Vase

3 1

Arambala

P olychrome

C haracteristics A rambala i s a r ed p aste t ype a lmost e xclusively c onfined t o a r ecurved bowl s hape. S eated human f igures, b ird motifs, a nd geometric d esigns a re very r eminiscent o f C opador d ecoration. P ainted m otifs e xecuted i n b lack, d ull ( not s pecular h ematite) _ red, a nd o range p aint - occur on b oth e xterior a nd i nterior s urfaces. P ainting i s o ften quite s loppy, g iving t he a ppearance o f having b een done h astily or b y p oorly s killed c raftsmen. ( See F igure 7 .) A rchaeological

H istory

T his t ype was f irst f ormally described a nd n amed b y S harer ( 1978a Vol 3 : 5 6-58) a t C halchuapa. P revious i nvestigators h ad i dentified t he t ype a s a C opador-like c eramic a nd h ad i nformally l abelled i t a s " Imitation C opador" or " False C opador" ( Longyear 1 952:64). M otifs a nd v essels f orms a re a llied w ith s ome of t he C opador varieties b ut t he r ed paste, l ack o f s pecular h ematite p aint, a nd t he e xtremely c areless r endition o f t he decoration s et i t a part. A n early d escription i s g iven a s " red a nd b lack o n orange I I" b y . B oggs ( 1944:66) f or T azumal s pecimens a nd examples f rom v arious p arts o f E l S alvador a re i llustrated i n t he l iterature ( Longyear 1 952:Fig 1 16; 1 944:Plates X 2 3, 2 5; X III 1 1). S harer ( 1978a Vol 3 :57) r ecords t hat A rambala's d istribution a rea i s s imilar t o b ut n ot a s e xtensive a s t hat of C opador. ( Arambala i s v irtually a bsent f rom t he C opan Valley.) H e outlines i ts a rea o f o ccurrence a s r anging f rom t he e astern G uatemalan h ighl ands t hrough w estern a nd c entral E l S alvador. I ts prominent o ccurrence a t C halchuapa where C opador i s a lso p resent i n l arge q uantities r aises t he q uestion o f t he n ature o f t he r elationship b etween t he t ypes. L ongyear ( 1952:64) i nterpreted " imitation Copador's" c ommon occurrence • at T azumal ( Chalchuapa) a s a n i ndication of " homemade i mitations o f t he genuine a rt icle." S harer s uggests t hat t he d ifferences b etween t he t ypes ( and G ualpopa, a s w ell) p robably reflect diff erent manufacturing c enters b ut a lso may i ndicate t emp oral o r f unctional variations. T he s imilarities a s w ell a s t he d ifferences s hould b e a ssessed when f itting t he t ypes i nto t he L ate C lassic s ocial and e conomic m ilieu. C hilanga R ed-painted

U sulutan

C haracteristics O ne a dditional p ainted c eramic t ype i s i nclude d i n t he r esearch, C hilanga. T his t ype, which i s n ot a p olychrome, a ppears b efore t he L ate C lassic p eriod. 32

Figure

7 :

Figure

Arambala

8 :

Recurved Bowl

Chilanga Open Bowl

33

However, b ecause o f i ts s oft c ream paste which i s r em iniscent of both t he C opador a nd G ualpopa t ypes, i t r epresents t he s ame ware t radition. I ts dominant s hape i s a n open bowl, l ike t hat o f Gualpopa. Very s imple geometric designs a nd monkey motifs a re e xecuted i n r ed p aint ( not specular hemat ite) over a n orange s lip. U sulutan decoration ( a n egative or r esist t echnique u sed t o produce a f ine l ine pattern t hrough t he s lip) i s a lso u sed, most o ften o n t he i nterior which i s not otherwise decorated a nd somet ime on t he e xterior a long w ith t he painted d esigns. ( See F igure 8 .) Archaeological

H istory

R ed on orange ware i s r eported a t Copan b oth i n t he s econd part of t he E arly C lassic a nd i n t he F ull C lassic ( Longyear 1 952:28;30). U sulutan ( negative o r r esist) decoration i s s aid t o b e more common i n t he E arly C lassic t han i n t he l ater p eriod. Designs on t he l ater c eramics - s ilhouettes of a nimals and h umans — ' indicated t o L ongyear a connection b etween t his type a nd S imple Polychrome Bowls ( ibid:30). C hilanga was described by S harer ( 1978a Vol 3 :47) a t C halchuapa i n t he E arly C lassic ceramic cor n-. p lex. Two varieties were i dentified on the b asis o f s imple decoration ( Chilanga Variety) or more c omplex motifs ( Osicala Variety). F rom S harer's f ield w ork t he type does not s eem t o p ersist b eyond t he E arly C lass ic. However, a t t he Tazumal s ection of C halchuapa B oggs ( 1944:65) r eports a " Later P hase" r ed o n orange d ichrome t hat equates i n ' paste a nd i n one s hape with C hilanga. T he type a lso has b een r ecorded i n a L ate C lassic context a t L a S ierra i n t he Naco valley o f Hond uras ( Henderson e t a l. 1 979). C hilanga appears, t hen, t o have a considerable t emporal a nd geographical span. I ts s haring o f paste t radition with both of t he cream polychrome t ypes a nd of design motifs w ith G ualpopa r aises questions about i ts role i n t he production a nd distribution s ystems. C onsequently, i t was u sed as a c omparative type i n t he various a nalyses. SUMMARY OF

RESEARCH GOALS AND METHODS

T he primary goal of t his r esearch was t o t est t he hypothesis t hat Copador s erving vessels w ere t he r esult of s pecialized production i n a r estricted geographic a rea f rom where t hey were distributed to t he various k nown p roveniences. P roduction

i ous

Hypothesis I T he Copador proveniences are a result 34

vessels found i n varo f material e xchange

r ather t han s tylistic e xchange or i nteraction. i s, t hey w ere produced i n a r estricted geographic u sing c lays f rom a s imilarly r estricted a rea.

T hat a rea

T est. C lays f rom t he s ame p rocurement z one o ften are quite s imilar i n t heir t race e lemental compos ition. I f C opador i s t he product o f material e xc hange, v essels s hould s how very s imilar c hemical paste c ompositional c haracteristics, r egardless of t heir prov enience. N eutron a ctivation a nalysis o f Copador s pec imens f rom various proveniences w ill b e u sed t o determ ine t he homogeneity or h etereogeneity of c hemical t race e lements.

i n

t he

Hypothesis I A. C opan Valley.

P roduction

o f

Copador

t ook

p lace

T est. I f Copador was made i n t he C opan Valley, t here s hould b e a basic correspondence b etween t he t race e lemental c omposition of C opador c lays a nd t hose u sed f or c eramics j udged t o b e i ndigenous t o t he ' Valley. A comparison of t he t race e lement c omposition of l ocal C opan Valley pastes a nd C opador p astes w ill b e made. Hypothesis I I. The conversion o f t he c lay t o f inished v essels was done by c raft s pecialists w orking w ithin a p roduction system geared t o s tandardization a nd s implification. T est. Variability i n various v essels r-- g hapes a nd decoration w ill a ssess t he l evel o f s tandardization a nd

a spects o f t he l q ) e a nalyzed t o s implification.

Hypothesis I II. T he s ize o f t he p roduction s yst em -n umber o f p roduction u nits a nd t he amount of c eramics made - r elates t o a c omplex e xchange s ystem, e ither r edistribution or marketing. T est. T he r elative number of p roduction u nits will be i nferred f rom s tandardization data. T he amount of c eramics produced w ill b e a ssessed f rom t he s ize of t he marketing a rea, t hat i s, t he n umber of s ites w ithin t he area w here t he c eramics were d iscovered. Comparative materials -- G ualpopa a nd Arambala P olychromes, C hilanga R ed-Painted U sulutan - a re i nc luded i n t he t ests of t he production r elated hypothes es to provide a b asis f or comparison a nd e valuation o f t he Copador data. T hese o ther c eramic t ypes a lso prov ide supplemental i nformation about t he c eramic i ndust ry i n t he s outheastern p eriphery d uring t he L ate C lass ic p eriod. U istribution

methods

a nd

C onsumption

Data l imitations prevent t he u se o f quantitative t o i nvestigate details of t he c eramics' s patial 3 5

d istribution. W ithout f requency i nformation f or vess els b y p rovenience r elatively l ittle c an be d one t o directly d etermine t he c haracteristics of the e xchange s ystem. C onsequently, only two a spects of distribution w ill b e dealt w ith on a descriptive b asis -- d irectiona lity a nd s ize. D irectionality i s a n i mportant a spect o f s patial distribution b ecause i t i mplies a preferential s upply o f t he e xchanged c eramics ( Renfrew 1 977:85). T his, i n t urn, p rovides c lues a bout t he n ature of the e xchange n etwork. The s ize of t he e xchange t erritory c an i ndic ate t he a mount o f energy expended t o distribute t he material. A lso, t he s cale of t he d istribution a nd t he f orm of p roduction a re i nterrelated ( Earle 1 982a:8). C onsumption w ill b e described i n t erms of t he specific l oci o f occurrence: h igh or low s tatus domest ic c ontext; b urials, e tc. These a nalyses a re undert aken i n t he b elief t hat e xchanged c ommodities carry symbolic meaning which has s ignificance both i n t erms of t he e xchange a nd t he b roader s ociety ( Earle 1 982a:9). Thus, t he s ocial c ontext w ithin w hich t he e xchanged i tems a re u sed c an r eflect s ocioeconomic s tat us, r egional p olitical a nd economic a lliance, a nd vari ations i n t he n ature o f c eramic production ( Hantman a nd P log 1 982:242-245). E xcluded

Topics

.

At t his point t opics t hat w ill not t ers. The origin or

mention s hould b e made o f s everal b e c overed i n t he f ollowing chapderivation o f t he Copador design

e lements w ill not b e i nvestigated nor w ill C opador's possible i nfluence on other c eramic s tyles. T he symbol ism or i conography of t he d esign motifs will not b e e valuated. T hese a re i mportant c onsiderations f or unders tanding t he s ocietal positioning of t he c eramics. Just a s a c lass of commodity s uch a s C opador c eramics c arries symbolic meaning, t he d esign motifs u sed i n d ecorating Copador vessels would b e e xpected t o have s ignificance i n t he i deological a nd symbolic s pheres. T he que ation of s ymbolic a ssociations o ver space, deeme d i mportant b y H odder ( 1982:208) a nd o thers, i s exami ned f or t he c ategory of t he c eramics a s a g roup. A more detailed s tudy b ased on t he design motifs thems elves was b eyond t he s cope of w hat c ould b e accomp lished i n t his w ork.

36

C HAPTER

R ESOURCE

UTILIZATION:

CERAMIC

2

P ASTE

C HARACTERIZATION

BACKGROUND Trace e lement c haracterization of r aw materials i s w idely u sed i n a rchaeology a s a means of e stabl ishing t he pattern of r esource u tilization a nd t he distribution of a rtifacts f rom t hose r esources, u sually through t rade ( Harbottle 1 982b). This type of a nalysis grows out o f t he f act t hat most naturally occurring materials contain very minor amounts of t race e lements that, i n t erms o f t heir c ombination a nd c oncentration, will vary f rom s ource t o s ource. T hus, i t i s possible t hrough c hemical " fingerprinting" t o e valuate w hether s imilar materials c ame f rom t he s ame or d ifferent s ources. The a nalytic t echnique of f ingerprinting h as been used t o s tudy a variety o f r aw materials w hich enter t he a rchaeological r ecord e ither i n t he f orm o f f inished artifacts or a s w aste f rom t he manufacturing process. H arbottle ( ibid:31-38) has r ecently given a b ibliographic s ummary of f ive c ategories o f materials t hat have b een s ubjected t o various c haracLerization procedures: s tones a nd m inerals, c eramics natural p roducts ( amber, s eashells, i vory, metals, a nd g lass.

a nd a nd

c lays, bone),

I n t hese s tudies, t he u sual procedure i s t o obt ain a t race e lement pattern f or possible s ources of r aw materials, d evelop a s imilar pattern f or a rtifacts of i nterest, a nd s tatistically compare t he a rtifact c haracterizations w ith t he s ource c haracterizations t o determine t he " fit." A lthough o ne of t he earliest u ses of t race e lemental a nalysis was i n c eramic provenience s tudies ( Sayre a nd . Dodson 1 957; Young a nd Whitmore 1 957) comp lications i n t he s tudy of f ired c eramics e xist w hich a re not a s e vident i n t he s tudy of many r aw materials. C lay undergoes a variety of a lterations a s i t i s c hanged f rom a r aw material to a f inished c eramic p roduct. S ome o f t hese c hages c an decidedly a ffect t he t race elemental c haracteristics of t he c lay versus t hat of c eramics made f rom t hat c lay. ( See R ice 1 978 f or a n e xcellent

i ng

a

discussion of

t hese

While r esearchers have correspondence b etween

37

f actors.) had some s uccess i n f inda particular c lay s ource

a nd p ottery made f rom t hat s ource ( Hammond e t a l 1 976; B ranstetter-Hardesty 1 978; R ice 1 976), a lternative met hods o f a nalysis h ave b een s ought. I n general, t he a pproach h as b een t o e stablish t he c ompositional chara cteristics o f a s ite's c eramics s o t hat " local" versus " imported" t ypes c an b e i dentified. Work w ith s usp ected t rade w ares a lso b egins w ith a n a ssessment o f t he s imilarity o f t heir c hemical c omposition: w ere t hey m ade f rom t he s ame c lay r esource? T hen t he question o f t heir p roduction l ocus i s a pproached t hrough a c omparis on w ith t race e lement " fingerprints" o f t he p ottery p resumed t o b e l ocally p roduced f rom v arious s ites. A v ariety o f s pecific p roblem orientations c an b e f ound i n t he growing b ody o f l iterature c oncerning c eramic p aste c haracterization a nalysis. Methodologic al a nd s tatistical data r eduction t echniques h ave b ec ome i ncreasingly more r efined w ithin t he l ast decade a s a rchaeological c eramics f rom b oth h emispheres have b een s ubjected t o t his t ype o f a nalysis. Most s tudies, moreover, h ave a imed a t d etermining p roduction p rovenie nce b y a nalyzing p ottery w ithout t rying t o match e xisting c lays t o t he a rchaeological c eramics. B rookhaven National L aboratory i s one o f t he major i nstitutions e ngaged i n c hemical c haracterization o f a rchaeological c eramics t hrough n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. A c ontinuing p roject o n M aya c eramics h as b een i n p rocess f or s ome t ime a nd a s ubstantial data b ase r elated t o v arious s ites h as b een e stablished. A n a ffiliation w ith t he l aboratory w as a rranged s o t hat I c ould w ork t here f or s everal p eriods i n 1 980 a nd 1 981, p articipating i n t he a nalysis o f c eramics a nd i n t he i nterpretation o f t he r esults. T he f irst objective of t his p art of t he r esearch w as t o a ssess w hether C opador w as t he p roduct o f local ized p roduction i n o ne a rea, t hus u tilizing c lays f rom a s imilarly r estricted g eographic a rea. C lays f rom t he s ame p rocurement z one u sually a re quite s imilar i n t heir t race e lemental c omposition ( cf. B rooks e t a l. 1 975; B ishop 1 980). T hus, i f C opador i s t he p roduct o f t his t ype o f r esource p rocurement a nd p roduction, speci mens s hould s how v ery s imilar c hemical paste c omposit ional c haracteristics r egardless o f t heir provenience. S econd, i f C opador does appear t o have b een made i n a r estricted p roduction a rea, w as t he C opan Valley t hat l ocation? L ocalized p roduction o f C opador i n t he C opan a rea w ould r esult i n c orresponding t race e lement al c omposition o f c lays u sed f or C opador and f or other s imilar c eramic w ares j udged t o b e i ndigenous t o t he C opan V alley. S ome v ariability m ight b e e ngendered d ue t o a t emper-clay i nteraction e ffect i f t he " local" w ares w ere h eavily t empered s ince t he " fine" C opador w are w as n ot. N evertheless, a b asic correspondence

38

w ould b e e xpected t he C opan Valley.

i f

Copador

had

b een

manufactured

i n

F inally, q uestions a bout other c eramic c ompon ents f rom t he s outheastern M aya a rea v is-a-vis C opador c ould be a ddressed. S everal c ream paste c eramics, C hil anga R ed-Painted U sulutan a nd G ualpopa P olychrome, occur i n approximately t he s ame d istribution a rea a s C opador. O ne of t hese, C hilanga, a ppears t o b e t empora lly earlier t han Copador. D o t he various c omponents o f t he s outheast M aya c ream p aste t radition a ll r epres ent products of a s imilar t ype of a n economic s ubsyst em or c an differences i n t he pattern of r esource u tili zation a nd production b e d etected among t he types? Do production r elated data a bout C hilanga give a ny i nsight i nto t he d evelopment a nd s pread o f t he more r ecent C opador ( and, s econdarily, of Gualpopa)? A polychrome type, Arambala, s tylistically r elated t o C opador a nd s eemingly c oeval w ith i t, i s a lso of i nterest b ecause o f i ts occurrence w ithin t he general C opador d istribution a rea. Arambala, however, i s n ot a part of t he c ream p aste t radition, having b een made of r ed-firing c lays. T hus, i ts c ompositional a nalysis was a s eparate i ssue f rom t hat of t he f inep aste cream w are t ypes. B ecause of i ts s tylistic s imilarity t o c ertain C opador varieties, questions a rise about i ts r ole during t he L ate C lassic p eriod i n t he s outheast a rea. Was i t p erhaps a s ubstitute f or C opador? Was i t manufactured i n a production s ystem s imilar t o t hat o f Copador or different? These questions could n ot r eceive a s f ull an e xamination a s t hose r elated t o Copador a nd t he other c ream ware t ypes. N evertheless, c ompositional a nalysis was c arried out on a s ample of Arambala s herds a long w ith domestic wares f rom s everal l ocations i n w estern a nd w est-central E l S alvador, t he a rea t hought t o b e a l ikely Arambala manufacturing l ocus. METHODOLOGY T he

Data

B ase

P ottery f or t he s tudy c ame f rom a n umber of f ield proj ects r ecently conducted i n t he s outheast M aya a rea. T he d ifferent geographic z ones d escribed i n C hapter 1 w ere t he f oci o f t hese i nvestigations. A ddit ional materials collected f rom other s ources a dded t o t he data b ase a nd w idened t he geographic s cope o f t he

39

c ompositional

a nalysis.

4

Table 3 s hows t he provenience f or t he various t ypes of c ream w are c eramics a nalyzed f or c hemical composition. Table 4 g ives t he s ame data f or t he s ample of A rambala a nd o ther r ed paste c eramics. Activation

a nd

Counting

P rocedures

S ince a rchaeological c eramics have b een a nalyzed a t Brookhaven f or over 2 5 y ears, s tandardized p rocedures have b een e stablished f or a ll t he s teps i n the a ctivation a nd determination o f t he basic e lemental c oncentrations. T hese a re s ummarized i n Appendix C f rom t he most r ecently p ublished description ( Bishop, H arbottle, and S ayre 1 982). S election of

t hrough

E lements

For Analysis

C oncentrations of many e lements c an be measured n eutron a ctivation. However, a number o f them

a re not u sed i n t he data a nalysis b ecause of l imitat ions due to t heir b ehavior d uring t he activation process, problems r elated t o t he e lement's r ole i n c eramic materials, or c omplications a rising f rom the geologic nature of t he general r egion f rom which the c eramics originate. I n general, t he goal i s t o use e lements t hat are most l ikely t o p rovide i nterpretable patterned r esults rather t han generate spurious variat ion; i n other words, t o distinguish t he " signal" from t he " noise." For e xample, preferred i sotopes are those t hat have: 1 .

A gamma p eak t hat i sotopes

i s

f ree of

i nterferring

4T he projects providing data f or t he c hemical c haracterization a nalysis i nclude i n Honduras, the Copan Valley P roject, Harvard U niversity ( Willey, L eventhal a nd F ash, 1 978; W illey a nd L eventhal, 1 977) a nd the R io Amarillo ( La Canteada) P roject, UCLA ( Beaudry, 1 977); i n E l S alvador, t he Z apotitan P rotoc lassic P roject, U niversity of Colorado ( Sheets, 1 978; S heets, 1 983) and t he C halchuapa P roject, U niversity of P ennsylvania ( Sharer, 1 978a); i n Guatemala, the Q uirig ua P roject, U niversity of P ennsylvania ( Sharer,

1 978b); a nd t he M aya Jade and C eramics P roject o f the Museum o f F ine Arts, B oston, i n collaboration with B rookhaven National L aboratory. Material f rom the T iquisate r egion of Guatemala a nd f rom t he s ites of Asuncion M ita a nd Guaytan were made a vailable t hrough t he c ourtesy of t he Museo Nacional de Guatemala. Pottery f rom San Agustin Acasguastlan was s ubmitted by G ary R . Walters. R esearch a t B rookhaven N ational L aboratory i s c onducted u nder contract w ith t he U .S. D epartment of E ngergy B asic Energy Sciences.

a nd

s upported 40

by

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of

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a ,

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( N )

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c \ I

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r H r d ( r )

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E-4 0

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c o

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C h a l c h u a n

r d

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( 1 )

0 U P

0 H

W

• -H

U W >

, > 1 r d P A

ra W 4 -) r d U ) — R I 0 U Q , U c i U r c i 0 > . W X r l i — U —

H R i , 1 r c i ( " C i H ( T

A r a m b a l a

H c n

-0 P H a ci

M I C D gi U

H r d 4 1 — r C i 0 W -- Q . , a , rz i

a ,c u

> I 0 H r d H CL , CD ( / ) P r d . . H I 0 0 r c l 0 I -) ( I > 1 4. 1 ( 1 )i- 1(1 0 W r i i W C l i -1 - )Q . : U M 0 3 W , - I r L A E H 4 . 1

E H

@ >

( c 1 H P 7 : 1 H -W c n P 0 1 I -1 G „ ) -, u ) H a , U r i d U n i -- t -) > 1 W a , r d — 0 > t D > i r C I › , c i a l Q 4 f l i r C i W r d r -1g A ' . I R , U f r i — 0 r c i ( 1 5 -- Z . >1( _ . 7 u ) U H G ) • •P r c i H P r d W r d C . ) ( I r d a ,H H I > 1 C . )( 7 5 4 I -) T S ( d 0 3 N 0 1 H C ) . 0 1 > -r -1 r c S — O b i H < 0 I -) E H

42

r d r d O ( r i > 1 n i U I r d r d . - -( 1 U >1 u ) o d r d P I

Or d W • H H W 0 C : 7 O W H r C i O W H ( f ) 4 t H G . ) n i ( t 1

I -) u ) . 1 H t 1 1

( " c i 0 U a , X W W 4 W

• U ) W W 0

u ) P Q , r d ( d a 3 0 I -) . W W O W R , rC 5 H U › , ( 1 ) ( I i -) ( 1 ) U ) H W H C I ) W (1 4 E H ( 1

( c i 4 -)

2 .

Good c ounting a vailable.

Some

e lements

w ill

s tatistics

b e

e liminated

or

s tandards

b ecause

of

c on-

s iderations r elated t o t he nature of c lays a nd c eramic p astes. For i nstance, a n e lement i s a problem i f i t s ubstitutes f or a nother e lement i n many m ineralogic s ources s ince variability would b e i nferred w ithin o therwise homogeneous material. S imilarly, s ome e lements c an b e c arried e ither i n t he c lay only or i n both t he c lay a nd t he aplastic i nclusions ( temper). I nterpretation of t he meaning o f a c ertain l evel of t hat e lement's c oncentration c an be i mprecise. F inally, i nformation about t he geologic n ature o f t he general area may j ustify t he e limination o f other e lements. Concentrations f or 1 6 e lements w ere r etrieved f rom the activation a nd c ounting procedures: Rb, C s, B a, Sc, L a, C e, E u, L u, H f, Th, Cr, F e, Co, Ca, Sm, a nd Y b. R eliable p eak values c ould have b een determined f or more e lements b ut w ith a s ubstantially greater i nvestment of t ime a nd e ffort. Drawing upon B rookh aven's e xtensive e xperience i n t he analysis of M esoa merican a nd other a rchaeological c eramics, t his proj ect l imited i ts f ocus t o a moderate number of e lements t hat had proven u seful i n earlier r esearch. The e lements s elected a fter t he basic data s et h ad been prepared w ere: Rb, C s, Ba, Sc, L a, C e, E u, L u, H f, Th, C r, F e, Co, Sm, a nd Yb. S everal of t hese were s ubsequently r emoved f rom c ertain s tages of t he a nalys is. The e lements a nd t he r easons f or t heir e liminat ion will b e s pecified a s t he a nalysis i s d escribed. T echnique

of

Data Analysis 5

Various multivariate s tatistical procedures were u sed a t different s tages o f t he a nalysis. T he r easons f or s electing t he t echniques will b e described, a s n eeded, i n t he f ollowing s ections. However, t he overa ll approach t o t he data i s outlined h ere. T he

outline

n ature

o f

t he

presentation

s hould

be

e mphasized. During t he c ourse of t he project n umerous e xperimental a nalyses w ere r un t o c heck i mpressions a bout possible r elationships a nd t o b e c ertain t hat m athematical

c onsiderations

w ere

f ully u nderstood.

5T his s ection describes t he s tages o f t he a nalysis a s c arried out f or t he c ream p aste c eramics. T he r ed paste Arambala c eramics w ill b e discussed i n a l ater s ection o f t his c hapter.

43

M any a re

of not

t hese

data

c overed

i n

e xcursions t his

t ext.

were T he

u nproductive

outline

a nd

s o

f ollows:

1 .

R eview data s et by c hecking i nterrelations hips a mong e lements a nd a ssess the a mount of variance p resent i n t he elements principal c omponents a nalysis ( BMDP4M).

2 .

Attempt p reliminary group f ormation among c ases - c luster a nalysis of c ases u sing an a verage l inkage of E uclidean distances: a .

NADIST ( Brookhaven developed program) p roduces t ransformed s tandard ized e lemental data a nd orders them i nto a s imilarity matrix.

b .

AGCLUS ( Harvard U niversity) p erforms a n a ggregative h ierarchical c lusteri ng on t he NADIST s imilarity m atrix.

3 .

E valuate t he r eference group c luster - a s pecialized f orm of discriminant a nalysis, ADCORR ( Brookhaven developed) was u sed.

4 .

T ransform data t o obtain s tandardized c haracteristic vectors ( eigenvectors).

5 .

F orm a nd e valuate u sing ADCORR a gain.

6 .

Compare r eference group w ith s everal s maller c lusters - discriminant a nalysis ( SPSS) was p erformed t o c heck t he a ccuracy of t he a llocation o f c ases to the r eference groups a nd t o determine t he s tatist ical s eparability o f t he t hree groups.

F INDINGS,

CREAM

P reparing

and

P ASTE

new

r eference

g roup

-

C ERAMICS

R eviewing

t he

Data S et

A principal c omponents a nalysis, i ncluding v an max rotation of r etained f actors, was done u sing BMDP4M. F our f actors emerged w ith t he l oadings s hown i n Table 5 . Factor 1 l oads h eavily on t he rare e arth e lements which are c arried predominantly i n t he f ine f ractions of t he c lay. F actor 2 l oadings r elate to a lkalai e lements w hile F actor 4 l oads primarily o n Hf. F actor

3 l oads

w ith

t ransistion

and

r elated metals.

T he overall pattern o f t he f actors and t heir loadings f it t he general e xpectations f or data s ets of c eramic material f rom t he M esoamerican r egion, r eflecti ng t he general a rea-wide patterns o f e lemental c ovaria tions. Various s tatistics produced a s a part o f the f actor analysis computer r un were e xamined t o be 44

TABLE

5

S orted, Rotated Factor Loadings Cream Paste Ceramics Element

Factor

1

Factor

2

Factor

3

Factor

Sm

0 .974

0

0

0

Eu

0 .941

0

0

0

Yb

0 .920

0

0

0

Lu

0 .895

0

0

0

C e

0 .891

0

0

0

La

0 .884

0

0

0

R b

0

0 .876

0

0

C s

0

0 .855

0

0

Th

0 .351

0 .646

0

0 .475

F e

0

0

0 .782

0 .302

C o

0

0

0 .771

0

C r

0

0

0 .763

0

S c

0 .324

0

0 .507

0 .374

Ba

0

0

0

0.702

H f

0 . 343

0 .429

0

0 .645

NOTE: I n this r eplaced by 0 ,

program,

c ertain t hat n o u nusual w hich m ight c ause p roblems 1 .

l oadings

l ess

than

c ircumstances i n t he r est o f

0 .2500

are

w ere p resent t he a nalysis:

C alculated f actor s cores a nd M ahalanobis d istances f or e ach c ase w ere c hecked t o d etermine i f a ny c ases w ere v ery a berrant i n t erms o f t heir p attern o f e lemental c oncentrations n ot b eing a ccounted f or b y t he i dentified f actors. S everal v ery n oticeable outliers w ere r emoved f rom t he d ata s et.

45

4

2 .

T he c orrelation matrix was e xamined t o d etermine i f t he p attern w as a cceptable f or u sing E uclidean d istance i n t he i nitial c luster a nalysis w ork. O f t he 1 05 c orrelations, 1 6 w ere 0 .600 or h igher. T his l evel o f a ssociation was n ot s o s trong a s t o p reclude u sing E uclidean d ist ance ( see R ohlf 1 967).

3 .

T he t able o f s quared m ultiple c orrelations ( SMC) s howed t hat b arium h ad a v ery l ow SMC ( 0.115). T his i nitial e stimate o f c ommunality i ndicated t hat b arium's overl ap w ith t he o ther v ariables was quite l imited. T he c orrelation matrix a lso s howed b arium a s h aving a n egative c orrel ation w ith a n umber o f o ther e lements e ven t hough a t a l ow l evel. I ts s trong n egative l oading on F actor 4 f urther s ugg ested a n i solation f rom t he o ther e lements. T he r eason f or b arium's observed b ehavior i s t hought t o r elate t o t he g eologic c haracteristics o f t he s outheast M aya r egion - a n a rea o f v olcanically d erived s oils a nd c lays. ( In f act, a lthough t he p ottery b eing s tudied c ould b e c haracter ized a s h aving a t emperless t exture, v olc anic'glass p articles i n t he p aste a re n ot u ncommon.) A c orrelation b etween b arium c oncentration a nd t he a mount o f volcanic g lass h as b een f ound i n o ther M aya p ottery ( Bishop a nd R ands 1 982), a nd s o i t w as d ecided t o e liminate t he e lement during t he s tage o f i nitial group f ormation. L ikewise, s ince r ubidium c an s ubstitute i n s imilar c rystal l oci a s b arium ( Bishop 1 980) a nd s o m ight b e r elated t o v arying a mounts o f volcanic g lass, i t s eemed p rudent t o r emove i t a lso, t hereby guardi ng a gainst " noise".

4 .

T he u nivariate s tatistics f or t he varia bles s howed t hat E u h ad a v ery l arge c oe fficient of v ariation due t o a l arge s tandard d eviation r elative t o a v ery s mall m ean. T he e lement was n ot r emoved b ut w as " flagged" t o b e w atched d uring t he a nalysis. I n t he e arly s tages of a nalysis i t i s f requently d ifficult t o a scertain w hether o r n ot observed v ariation i s a f unction o f a n a nalytical e rror, i s a ctual v ariability r elated t o t he m ulticomponent n ature o f t he p ottery, o r i s i ndicative of p rocurement or p roduction p atterns.

p riate

A t t his p oint t he data s et w as t o c ontinue w ith t he a nalysis. 46

c onsidered

appro-

P reliminary Group F ormation A E uclidean d istance matrix e xpressing t he l evel o f s imilarity o f e ach data p oint r elative t o a ll o ther data points was p roduced t hrough t he B rookhaven NADIST p rogram. T his p rogram t ransforms t he e lemental d ata i nto log-normalized u nits s ince t he c oncentrations a re i nitially r ecorded e ither a s p ercents o r a s p arts p er m illion. I n t he a bsence o f s uch a t ransformation, t he E uclidean d istance c alculation w ould b e b iased d ue t o t he a bundance o f t he major e lements ( e.g., i ron, a s a p ercent; r are e arths e xtending t o b elow p arts p er m illi on.) The s imilarity matrix t hen was u sed t o p erform a ggregative h ierarchical c lustering t hrough t he AGCLUS p rogram. S imilar s amples w ere j oined u sing a verage l inkage c luster a nalysis w ith t he r esults summarized i n a d endrogram ( Sneath a nd S okal 1 973:124, 2 28-230). T his s et o f p rocedures w as done u sing a s variables t he e lements i nitially s elected b ut e xcluding B a a nd R b f or r easons e xplained i n t he previous s ection. T hen i t was r epeated, e xcluding t he e lements C s, H f, a nd C o. A ll t hree o f t hese e lements, u pon occasion i n past a nalyses, h ave " distorted" i nitial c lusters: C s b ecause i t h as a f airly l arge c ounting e rror, H f b ec ause i t o ften r eflects u nivariate v ariability i n groups w ithin t he M aya a rea ( its g eochemical b ehavior i s p oorly u nderstood), a nd C o b ecause i t v aries i n t erms of b eing i n t he c lay m inerals o r present a s a n a ccessory, t hereby c onfusing i nterpretation. I ndeed, t he p atterning w as more p ronounced w hen t hese t hree e lements w ere n ot u sed a s v ariables. T he r esults o f t his s tep o f t he a nalysis, c onsequently, a re b ased on t he o xide c oncentrations o f t he e lements S c, L a, C e, E u, L u, T h, Cr, F e, Sm, a nd Yb. An e xamination o f t he d endrogram ( Figure 9 ) s hows s everal s mall c lusters o f c ases. T hree c losely s imilar groups w ere o f s pecial i nterest b ecause a bout h alf ( 33 o f 7 7 c ases) w ere C opador p ottery h aving a Copan provenience. T hese t hree groups w ere t hen merged to f orm a t rial r eference u nit, p resumably r epresenting a c haracteristic c hemical p rofile f or C opador p ottery u sed a t C opan. E valuation of R eference Group The c eramic s pecimens n ot i ncluded i n t he t rial r eference group w ere a ssessed t o d etermine i f t hey d id b elong i n t he g roup. T he h euristic a ssumption h ere i s t hat t he group i s a s tatistically r andom s ample drawn f rom a n i nfinite, m ultivariate p opulation. T hus t he probability o f a n i ndividual data point ( ceramic s ample or s pecimen) b elonging t o t hat group c an b e c alculated u sing t he ADCORR p rogram ( Sayre 1 973).

47

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4

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48

( C o n t i n u e d ) •

1 F4 e b e , be

Pe. be . be,

Fa .

. 1 1, 1 . 11 . 1 1 . . 4 1 6. 4

. 11 1 . . . 1

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n ,c e C P o n I fP e c r c D ei

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4. 1

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49

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4 - u n 4 P r, P C D C D C D C D C D

50

e.

c r c e r 4 N 0, 0 ' N C C CU • e. C V 0.

u n

u r c c c e 1 0 . 0 . 0 4 . C T

CU

4C 4 C D C D C C 4 r n P s M I 4 C C Z r n 4 S D P s C D t r . P s N P s u r a 0 . C D C D C Z C D - - - - - - - -

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52

e P s - • • N 0, o un e 4 3 . . e

4 . - C C e t f l ‘ . 0 N C P - C C C Y 0 N e o e r- r N N N O•• N N N

c p c r ( e l i r c c 1 ‘ . N e C P e e r- Lr e. m m e cc 0 4 C P N I f G i t 0 0 0 0 ... . . 0 0 0 . 0.... • • N • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

( C o n t i n u e d )

•

T here

a re

t wo

s teps

i n

t his

a nalysis:

1 .

F or e ach data point ( grouped o r u ngrouped s pecimen), d etermine t he M ahalanobis d ist ance w hich i s t he s quared, s tandardized E uclidean d istance f rom t he group c entroid t o t he d ata p oint d ivided b y t he group s tandard d eviation i n t hat d irection.

2 .

C alculate t he p robability o f t hat s pecim en's b elonging t o a g iven group a s e xpr essed b y H otelling's T2 , a multivariate e xtension o f S tudent's t s tatistic.

U nlike more r igorous s tatistical t ests, t he d et ermination o f a t w hat l evel o f p robability a s ample w ill b e c onsidered a g roup member i s u p t o t he i nvestig ator, noting t he i ndividual s ample p robability a nd t he e xtent o f c ovariation w ith a rchaeological data s uch a s s ite, f orm, s tyle, t ime, e tc. I t w as d ecided t o a ccept s pecimens h aving a t l east a 1 0 p ercent p robability o f b elonging t o t he s ame p opulation f rom w hich t he t rial r eference group h ad c ome. I t s hould b e emphasized t hat t his l evel o f p robability i s c alculated f or t he c ase a s a n " outsider" - i ts v ariable s tates a re n ot p art o f t he data u pon w hich t he group c entroid i s d etermined. T hus, t he c riterion i s more r igorous t han i t m ight i nit ially a ppear. U sing t his p rocedure, s pecimens w hich h ad b een f ound i n o ther c lusters o n t he d endrogram w ere a dded t o t he t rial r eference group - many w ith a v ery h igh l ikelihood o f g roup m embership. The q uestion a rises a s t o w hy t hese s pecimens d id not i nitially c luster w ith t he t rial r eference g roup. P art o f t he r eason f or t his apparent i nitial g roup f ragmentation u ndoubtedly i s d ue t o t he n ature of t he c lustering a lgorithm a nd t he r ole p layed b y e lement al i ntercorrelation. R ohlf ( 1967) w ell d ocumented t hat t he p resence o f c orrelated variables t ends t o d ist ort t he r elationships a mong c ases, e specially w hen t he d ata a re s ubjected t o c lustering o f t he E uclidean d ist ances a mong c ases ( Blackith a nd R eyment 1 971:11). W ith s trong i ntercorrelation t he d ata a re " stretched o ut" a long t he d irections o f c orrelation, f orming a n e llipsoidal d istribution. C lustering t echniques, s uch a s a verage l inkage of E uclidean d istances, f ail t o a deq uately c ope w ith s uch data. While p oints i n t he d enser areas m ay b e grouped t ogether, p oints a t t he two e nds a re f requently f orced i nto s eparate groups. I t w ill b e r ecalled i nteractions observed f rom

t hat t he

t he number o f h igh i nitial c orrelation

m atrix did not s eem t o p reclude t he u se o f E uclidean d istance. H owever, i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish w ith c ertainty t he n umber or s trength o f i nterconnections 5 3

t hat w ill a ffect t he c lustering t echnique t o w here a " degenerative" s olution w ill r esult.

t he

p oint

I nspection o f t he t rial r eference group c orrel ation matrix r evealed t he p attern s hown i n T able 6 , w ith v ery h igh c orrelations e xisting a mong t he r are e arth e lements L a, C e, E u, L u, Sm, a nd Yb. T he p attern o f e lemental c orrelations c an b e q uite c haracteristic f or a g iven c lay p rocurement r egion a nd s o s hould b e r etained i n t he data s et. H owever, i n o rder t o more r ealistically r eflect t he m ultivariate r elationships p resent i n t he data matrix d uring t he c luster a nalysis, s ome n ormalization o f t he data w as r equired. T ransformation o f Data A c onvenient t ransformation o f t he d ata i nvolved t heir n ormalization r elative t o t he variancec ovariance matrix o f t he C opan p rovenience s herds i n t he t rial r eference g roup. F rom t his matrix, s tandardi zed c haracteristic v ectors ( eigenvectors) w ere obt ained w hich c onstituted a n ew s et o f u ncorrelated a xes. S ample c oordinate positions w ere d efined b y p roj ection onto t hese a xes, m aintaining t he r elative p ositions o f t he data p oints ( Sayre 1 973; B ishop e t a l., n .d.b). Variable l oadings c omprising t he v ector a ssociated w ith t he greatest a mount o f variation i n t he data s et w ere f ound t o b e o f t he s ame s ign, s uggesting t hat t his v ector m ight b e a ttributable to " sizer elated" variability i n t he data ( Rao 1 964; S neath a nd S okal 1 973:173). S uch variation m ight r esult f rom a n ondetermined c omponent, s uch a s s ilica, i ntroduced b y v arying a mounts of v olcanic p articles. S ince a c hemic al p rofile of p ottery i s a w eighted e xpression o f a ll c omponents, t he p resence o f a material l acking t he e lements b eing u sed a s variables w ould l ower t he a bsolute c oncentration b ut w ould n ot a lter t he s ample t o s ample p roportional s imilarity. T he n egative c orrelation o f b arium w ith most o f t he o ther e lements d iscussed e arlier t ends t o s upport t he a ssumption t hat e lemental r anges w ere b eing a ffected b y n onclay c omponents o f t he p ottery. T o t he e xtent t hat t his i nterpretation i s c orrect, s ample s imilarity b ased o n a bsolute e lemental c oncentration w ould t end t o d istort t he " natural" n umber o f groups present i n t he data s et. N ew R eference G roup F ormation a nd

E valuation

A verage-linkage c luster a nalysis was c arried o ut a s b efore b ut now employing t he s ample l oadings o n t he c haracteristic v ectors a s t he v ariables. I n o rder t o r educe t he potential s ize r elated v ariation, t he v ector a ssociated w ith t he l argest e igenvalues was n ot i nc luded. T he r esulting d endrogram ( Figure 1 0) r evealed o ne l arge c luster o f s amples a nd t wo s maller c lusters ( one r ather p oorly d efined), a s w ell a s a c onsiderable n umber o f s amples w hich s howed l ittle t endency t o f orm 54

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Z apotitan Valley. H owever, t he d ata a nalysis w as n ot c arried t o t he p oint w here s uch a p rojection c an b e m ade w ith a ny s trong d egree o f c ertainty. S ome questions r emain t o b e more c onclusive d etermination o f t he A rambala p roduction c ould b e made:

a nswered b efore a l ocus ( or l oci) o f

1 .

What i s t he s ignifidance o f t he o bservat ion t hat most o f t he C halchuapa d omestic s herds t hat f it i nto t he Arambala-focus group a re f rom e arlier t ime p eriods?

2 .

Why do s ome s pecimens f rom t he C halchuapa t ypes f it i nto t he A rambala g roup a nd o thers o f t he s ame t ype s how l ess t han a 1 0 p ercent p robability o f b elonging i n t he group? Were s everal d ifferent r esources u sed f or t he n on-Arambala t ypes, o ne o f w hich a lso was u sed f or A rambala? Does t he observed p attern r eflect c ultural practices or i s i t b eing u nduly i nfluenced b y t he application o f t he s pecific q uantit ative methods?

3 .

Would overlapping group m embership b e i nd icated i f t he C halchuapa s herds t hat c lustered o n a d ifferent p art of t he dendrogram w ere u sed a s a r eference g roup a nd t he Arambala s herds o f v arious p rovenie nces w ere e valuated f or m embership? I f t he C halchuapa m aterials c onstituted a u nified r eference group a nd i f t he Aramb ala c ases r egardless o f p rovenience h ad greater t han 1 0 p ercent p robability o f membership, t he c ase f or C halchuapa a s a p roduction l ocus w ould b e s trengthened. I f t he Arambala d ivided by provenience t hen t he c ase f or C halchuapa's p roduction r ole w ould b e w eakened.

4 .

Would overlapping group membership b e i nd icated i f t he Z apotitan domestic m ateri als t hat c lustered o n a s eparate p art o f t he d endrogram w ere c onstrued a s a r efere nce g roup a nd t he A rambala s herds e valua ted f or group membership? I f t he Z apotit an s herds s howed t he c hosen probability f or m embership a nd i f t he Arambala c ases o f Z apotitan p rovenience c ould be a dded t o t he g roup, t hen t he p robability o f Chalc huapa manufacture w ould b e w eakened. S imilarly, i f Arambala c ases of b oth proveniences s howed p robable membership i n t he Z apotitan domestic group, t hen t he C halchuapa h ypothesis w ould not b e s upp orted. T he c onclusion f rom t he l atter 8 2

o utcome would probably b e t hat i n t his i nstance t he a nalytic method i s h andic apped i n i ts a bility t o e stablish distinc tive " fingerprints." I t i s e ntirely poss ible t hat s uch a s ituation c ould r esult b ecause o f t he prominent r ole o f t he i nc lusions i n t he c hemical a nalysis. Not only i s t here a n eed t o p erform a dditional a nalyses, i t i s a lso a dvisable t o e xpand t he s ample s ize before a ttempting t o r esolve t he i ssue of A rambala p roduction. F or t he present, t hen, c onclusions must b e l imited t o t hese s tatements: 1 .

T here i s e vidence f or r estricted r esource u tilization i n t he p roduction o f A rambala c eramics: a majority of e xamples o f t he t ype f rom t hree p roveniences group t og ether.

2 .

T he c hemical c ompositional c haracteristics o f t he Arambala materials do n ot match t hose o f domestic c eramics f rom e ither Z apotitan s ite, s uggesting t hat A rambala p ots w ere i mported t o t hese s ites.

3 .

T he c ompositional c haracteristics o f t he Arambala o f v arious proveniences c orrespond w ith s ome C halchuapa domestic c eramic material t hus r aising t he p ossibility o f C halchuapa a s t he l ocus o f A rambala prod uction.

S UMMARY T he majority of L ate C lassic c ream c eramics ( 65.6 percent)-- C opador a nd G ualpopa - w as p roduced i n o ne p roduction a rea f rom w hich t he v essels w ere dist ributed. T he C opan Valley i s a ssessed a s b eing t he most l ikely p roduction z one. Several e xceptions w ere n oted: 1 .

A nother production a rea, c urrently u nloc ated, p rovided a s mall a mount o f c ream p aste pottery t o Q uirigua a nd t he L ower M otagua Valley s ettlements ( 6.0 p ercent).

2 .

O ther p otters, not u sing t he s ame c lay r esources a nd probably operating o n a s mall s cale, a lso produced pots t hat s tylistically w ere equivalent t o t hose f rom t he main p roduction z one ( 28.4 p erc ent). ( See T able 1 7.)

8 3

TABLE

1 7

L ocus o f L ate C lassic C ream P aste C eramic P roduction L ocus o f

P roduction

C ream Paste C eramics N =201

M ain a rea

6 5.6%

R esource A R esource B

5 5.2% 1 0.4

S econdary production

a rea

6 .0

D ispersed potters T hese

L ate

2 8.4 C lassic

c ream

c eramics

were

p roducts

o f a m ixed t ype o f production s ystem, mainly l ocalized a nd e xploiting r estricted r esources, b ut not s o t ightly c ontrolled or a dministered t hat i ndependent p otters w ere p recluded f rom producing s imilar pots. I t s eems t hat t here w ere more of t hese s mall-scale o perators w ithin t he main p roduction a rea o f Western H onduras t han i n t he i mporting a rea of W estern E l S alvador. W ithin t he c entrally p roduced material, most o f t he e xported p ottery a nd m uch o f t hat c onsumed l ocally ( in t he C opan Valley a nd a t R io Amarillo) was m ade u si ng r aw material f rom o ne r estricted r esource a rea. H owever, a d ifferent c lay r esource i n t he s ame general a rea a lso w as u sed f or pottery m ade s trictly f or export . t o E l S alvador ( See T able 1 8). L imited data f rom two E l S alvador s ites s uggest possible c hanges i n t he p roduction a nd distribution s ystems o ver t ime: a n i ncrease i n c ompetition f rom " small t ime" p roducers a nd a s hift i n p roduction to t he l arger r aw material s ource. U nfortunately, t he s ize o f t he s amples a re t oo s mall t o draw d efinite conclusions. T he, p icture obtained f rom t he a nalysis o f C hil anga, t he c ream p aste c eramic t hat originated e arlier t han G ualpopa or C opador, i s o ne o f a n e arlier s tage o f i ncipient p roduction o rganization a nd control. O nly s lightly more t han h alf t he v essels' p aste c orresponds t o t he r estricted c lay r esource p attern. . As i n l ater t imes, w estern H onduras h ad more s mall-scale p roducers w hile C halchuapa s eems t o b e e ntirely a n i mporting a rea. T hus, t here a re s everal s uggestions t hat t hrough t ime t he p roduction o f p ainted c ream paste c eramics w as moving t oward i ncreased organization f or r egional d ist ribution b ut t hat t he s ystem h ad n ot b ecome c losed o r monopolistic d uring t he C opador-Gualpopa epoch.

84

TABLE

1 8

P rovenience o f L ate C lassic C ream P aste C eramics b y L ocus o f P roduction

P rovenience

W estern H onduras Western E l Salvador M iddle M otagua ( San A gustin Acasaguastan) Quirigua a nd L ower Motagua A suncion M ita T iquisate P usilha

a Small

s ample

M ain P roduction Area S econdary R esource A R esource B Area ( N=111)

( N=21)a

( N=12)a

5 2.3%

( N=57) 4 5.6%

2 9.7

1 00.0%

5 .4

2 .7 . 9 9 .0 1 00.0 s hould

D ispersed P otters

2 4.6

8 .3

8 .8

9 1.7

5 .3 0. •

b e

k ept

1 5.8 1 00.0

1 0 7 3 " .0

1 0 -Ö -. 0 i n

m ind

when

e valuating

p ercentages. T he r ed p aste polychrome, Arambala, was c learly p roduced f rom a d ifferent s et o f r aw materials t han t he c ream painted t ypes. E ven t hough t he amount o f c hemic al compositional a nalysis on t hese c eramics was l imited, t here i s e vidence t hat t his pottery w as made f rom r aw materials f ound i n a r estricted p rocurement z one. I t a ppears t hat t he Arambala c eramics e xcavated a t two s ites i n t he Z apotitan Valley w ere i mported s ince t he c ompositional c haracteristics o f t he polyc hrome p ieces do n ot match t he domestic t ypes f rom t he s ites. S ome d ata s uggest a d istribution f rom t he C halc huapa z one b ut t his c annot b e s tated w ith a ny c ert ainty u ntil c onsiderably more work w ith t he r ed-paste materials h as b een done.

85

.

C HAPTER

3

BACKGROUND FOR I NVESTIGATION OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

I NTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS F rom t he c hemical compositional data presented i n Chapter 2 i t was c oncluded t hat s everal c losely l ocated r esource z ones had provided c lay f or a majority o f the C opador and Gualpopa pottery s pecimens a nd t hat t hese vessels, f ound i n various proveniences, w ere a r esult of material e xchange. T he n ext hypothesis to b e t ested was t hat t he c eramics h ad b een made w ithin a system of s pecialized pottery production geared t o s tandardization a nd s implification. A qualitative a ssessment of C opador's decoration s uggested a production system i n w hich a f airly l arge q uantity of s tandardized and s implified vessels conf orming to c ertain s tylistic c anons was manufactured. T his a ssessment was based on s uch observations as: - The manner of painting on C opador v essels i s b old and f reely r endered i n a c ursive s tyle. T he i mp ression i s of a general e ffect r ather t han a precise, c arefully detailed product. F amiliarity w ith t he d esigns i s a lso s uggested. T his overall e ffect, o bserved by earlier archaeologists, had b een a ssumed t o b e a product of a s mall group of artisans ( Longyear 1 952:60). A f ew design motifs s eem t o dominate t he d ecorative s cheme, conveying t he i dea t hat a l imited r epertory of motifs was r epeatedly u sed r ather t han u nique designs having b een c reated. I n f act, t hese e asily r ecognizable designs c onstituted one o f t he b ases f or i nitially c lassifying t he c eramic type. The a esthetic quality of t he decoration a nd t he repetitive motifs do not s uggest objects w ith H oneo f-a-kind" value s uch a s would be s tressed i n g ift e xchange. T his type of s ocial f unction i s a lso quest ionable b ecause of t he quantity of C opador u ncovered i n a variety of contexts ( see C hapter 6 ). The goal of t his part of t he r esearch, t heref ore, was t o d evelop quantitative methods f or e valuat ing t he e xtent of s tandardization a nd s implification p resent i n t he c eramic types,

8 7

I t was b elieved t hat c haracteristics o f t he p roduction s ystem c ould b e quantitatively a ssessed t hrough t he r esult o f p roduction d ecisions, r eflected i n a ttributes o f t he f inished c eramic v essel. F or i nstance, s tandardization a ssumes t hat a consistency w ill b e a chieved i n t erms o f t he r esults a t v arious d ecision s tages. A l imited n umber o f p roducers, p erhaps s pecialized b y p roduction s tep, a ssumes t hat . a s tong modal t endency w ithin t he o bserved c onsistent d ecision w ill r esult. S implification a ssumes t hat a c ost e fficient a lternative w ill b e s elected a t t he d ecision p oints.

t he

P roduction d ecisions w ere grouped a ccording s tages i n t he p rocess w hen t hey a re made: 1 .

D ecisions made b efore t he vessel w as f ormed v essel c ategory, s idewall d irection, b ase, s pecial s hape c onsiderat ions, r im d iameter, h eight, t hickness

2 .

D ecisions a bout materials needed f or d ecorating - s lip c olor, p aint c olors o n t he e ntire v essel.

3 .

D ecisions a bout c omposition, t hat i s, spat ial d ivision o f t he e xterior and i nterior d esign f ields - r im, w all, e xterior wall/ b ase j uncture, a nd i nterior wall/interior b ottom .

4 .

D ecisions a bout t he c ontent a nd e xecution o f t he d ecoration o f t he s patial d ivisions - motifs a nd f requency o f r epetition b y . r egister, e xterior a nd i nterior; paint c olors b y r egister; motifs on i nterior b ottom; d ecoration of e xterior base.

T hese f our groups o f p roduction d ecisions w ere e valuated i n o rder t o make i nferences a bout c eramic s tandardization a nd s implification, a s w ell a s other p roduction c ircumstances. A dditionally, a n e valuation was made o f t echnical c ompetence f rom: L uster ( reflects t he d egree of p olishing o riginally a chieved b ut i s a ffected by d eposit ional h istory). - S mearing o f p aint ( an i ndication of w hether p olishing w as done t oo s oon a fter painting). - C raftsmanship ( appraisal o f c are i n e xecuting p ainting - e venness a nd f ineness o f l ine w idth, c arefulness i n f illing o utlined a reas, d etail i n e xecuting d esign, e tc.).

8 8

M ETHODOLOGY D ata

B ase

T he production-decision a nalysis u sed only w hole or partial v essels w here i t was possible t o d etermine t he overall c onfiguration o f t he v essel a nd i ts d ecorat ion. M ost C opador vessels a re d ecorated o n b oth i nterior a nd e xterior s urfaces. : The designs, f or t he most part, a re d iscrete or f inite r ather t han c ontinuous. Thus, i t s eemed t hat i mportant i nformation would b e contained i n t he manner i n w hich d esign motifs w ere c ombined r ather t han f rom s imple f requency o f u se of i ndividual motifs. F or t his r eason, only materials w hich c ould p rovide data a bout overall design c onfigur ation w ere a nalyzed. R ecording was done f or v essels s tylistically c lassified a s Copador, Gualpopa, C hil anga, a nd Arambala.

i ng

C omparison r easons:

groups

w ere

i ncluded

f or

t he

f ollow-

G ualpopa. C hemical c ompositional a nalysis h ad i ndicated a pattern of r esource u tilization s imilar t o t hat f or Copador. I t c ould b e expected t hat t he two t ypes w ere p roducts o f a s imilar p roduction s ystem a nd would s how s imilar l evels o f. s tandardization i n d ecoration. G ualpopa s eems t o h ave a s lightly l onger p roduct ion s pan s ince i t i s f ound i n M iddle C lassic c ontexts. C hilanga. This type appears i n t he a rchaeolog ical r ecord earlier t han C opador or G ualpopa b ut c ontinues i nto t he s ame L ate C lassic p eriod a s t he o ther two c ream ware t ypes. I ts c hemical c omposition i s more d iverse, s uggesting l ess c ontrol a nd l ess s tandardization i n i ts p roduct ion p rocess. The l onger t ime s pan c ould a lso h ave l ed t o t he u tilization o f d ifferent s ources w hich would b e r eflected i n t he h omogeneous c hemical c omposition.

c lay l ess

Arambala. T his r ed paste type s eems derivative o f C opador i n t erms o f i ts modal s hape a nd i ts d esign motifs. As a " copy" i t i s e xpected t o s how a h igh d egree o f s tandardization i n i ts d ecorative a spects. I t i s c onjectured t hat, a s a r eproduction of a b orrowed s tyle, t his c eramic w ould b e l ess open t o e xperimentation i n d esigns. T here would b e a more r igid f ollowing o f d ecorative " rules" t o e nsure t hat c onsumers w ould a ccept t he s ubstitute a s b eing a s good a s t he " real t hing."

s ample

T able 1 9 a vailable

s hows t he c omposition o f t he v essel f or t he production-decision a nalysis. 89

TABLE Vessel .-. Type .

Bowls,

t otal

Open R ecurred Markedly i ncurving walls F lared o r outcurved walls Cylindrical s hapes, t otal Vases Cups

Shapesa By Types

C opador

G ualpopa

Chilanga

Arambala

T otal

N=167

N=63

N=41

N=37

N =308

1 26

4 6

2 5

3 6

2 33

4 6b 6 7b

3 9b 7

1 6b 8

7 2 6b

1 08 1 08,

5

-

1

1

8

-

-

2

1 0

1 _

5 9

1 0

7

3 2

1 6

2 8b 4

1 2b 4

6 4

1 -

4 7 1 2

7

1

2

-

1 0

2 _

0

4

0

6

2 -

-

3 1

_

5 1

J ars Low o pen t otal

1 9

s hapes,

D ishes P lates

a See Appendix E f or d imension criteria u sed i n c lassifying v essels i nto t hese s hape c ategories. bused f or a nalysis o f e arly production d ecisions; may have b een d ropped f or s ubsequent a nalyses.

The t ypes a re s hown d ivided by v essel s hape. A s will b e explained i n more d etail s hortly, a ll t he a nalyses w ere c arried out w ithin a vessel s hape c ategory. T erminology T hroughout t his c hapter c ertain t erms w ill be u sed w hen describing t he designs, r ecording, a nd a nalys is. T he major t erms a re d efined i n Appendix D to c larify t he manner i n w hich t hey a re b eing u sed. R ecording P rocedures A r ecording f orm t o c over t he a ttributes r esulti ng f rom t hese production decisions was developed, e xperimented w ith, a nd r evised f or f ield u se. C oding

90

c ategories f or m achine p rocessing w ere u sed. ( A c opy o f t he f orm a nd t he c oding outline a re i ncluded a s Appendix E .) I t w as r ecognized t hat d esign motifs, a k ey a spect o f t he a nalysis, c ould b e h andled a t s everal l evels o f detail. F or e xample, a f requently u sed motif i s o ne t hat L ongyear ( 1952) f irst d escribed a s G lyph . A ( Figure 1 2) 9 . T his motif i s e asily r ecognizable o n b oth i nterior a nd e xterior v essel d esigns. However, G lyph A i s r endered i n a number o f d ifferent ways: 1 ) w ith t he main s ign o n t he r ight, 2 ) w ith t he main s ign o n t he l eft, 3 ) w ith o nly t he main s ign, a nd 4 ) w ith d etails t hat l ead t o i ts b eing c lassified a s a " variant." A dditionally, d ifferent c olor c ombinations a re employed: 1 ) b lack outline w ith o range f ill, 2 ) r ed o utline w ith o range f ill, a nd 3 ) b lack o utline o nly. S ince t he goal o f t he a nalysis w as t o e xamine v ariabili ty, i t w as f elt t hat t hese d etails s hould b e p reserved i n t he r ecording procedure. T hus, a d ifferent c ode was u sed f or e ach s pecific r endering o f t he motif. Append ix F c ontains t he motif c atalog w ith motifs g rouped a ccording t o t ype o f d esign. T he v erbal d escription of t he a bstract d esigns f ollows t hat u sed b y Smith ( 1955) w herever p ossible. T he p rocedure was t o r ecord a ll d ata a bout a n i ndividual v essel u sing t he c ollection o r m useum n umber a s i ts i dentification. T hen a p hotographic r ecord was m ade of t he p iece i n b oth b lack a nd w hite a nd c olor. C olor was u sed t o g ive a n overview o f t he v essel ( interior a nd e xterior), i ts s hape a nd g eneral d esign c onfiguration. B lack a nd w hite f ilm w as u sed t o p rovide a d etailed r ecord o f t he v essel's d ecoration w hich w ould b e u sable i n making r oll-out d rawings o f e ach p iece. T his e ntailed p hotographing t o t he s ame s cale t he e ntire pot, s ection b y s ection, o verlapping t he s hots s o t hat t he u ndistorted c enter o f e ach f rame c ould b e t raced i n t he r oll:out p rocess. B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior s urfaces w ere p hotographed i n t his manner. T able 2 0 l ists t he l ocations a t w hich v essels w ere r ecorded. T able 2 1 s hows t he p rovenience b y s hape o f t he v essels t hat w ere r ecorded.

r esearch

T he 1 67 C opador v essels r ecorded d uring t his r epresent a s ignificant p roportion - p robably

a majority - o f t he e xisting w hole C opador v essels. H owever, t his g roup c annot b e a ssumed t o b e a r andom s ample o f t he u niverse o f C opador p roduced. T he c overa ge of t he c omparison t ypes i s l ess t horough, a s t he t otal numbers w ould s uggest.

i n

9T he c onvention u sed f or d esignating p aint t his a nd t he r est o f t he i llustrations i s:

II I B lack

E Red

7 ', /

O range 9 1

1 1 1 G rey

c olor

A .

M ain s ign o n r ight

B . M ain s igh on l eft

C .

M ain s ign o nly

D . Variant F igure 1 2: V ariability i n Motif G lyph A

92

TABLE

2 0

L ocations Where V essels Were R ecorded For P roduction-Decision Analysis

-

Honduras Copan Archaeological Project h eadquarters, Copan Copan Museum, Copan I nstituto Hondureno de Antropologia e H istoria, Teguciagalpa Banco Atlantida, Tegucigalpa Comayagua Museum, Comayagua Private collections, San Pedro Sula Guatemala Museo Nacional, Guatemala City Museo P opol Vuh, Guatemala C ity Private collections, Guatemala City E l

Salvador Museo Nacional,

United

San Salvadora

S tates P eabody Museum, Harvard University Smithsonian I nstitütion, Washington, D .C. University Museum, University o f P ennsylvania UCLA ( collection f rom t he P rotoclassic P roject, E l Salvador)

a ) I n a ddition t o r ecording a t t he National Museum, use was made of s lides of p ieces i n t he Museum's collection w hich a re not c urrently a ccessible. The s lides had b een t aken a s p art of S harer's C halchuapa project a nd were made a vailable t o h im. S ince t hey i ncluded a s cale, i t was possible to t ake most of t he measurements n eeded for r ecording purposes.

93

r H

0

• n j ( 1 ) , C P P O 0 1

4 c i t N N

1 : 1

L f l

N

r 1 N

N

M

H

N r1 1

H

H

N

I

Ir 1

I

N

C h r - ( N J n r H

i n

I I

H 1 1 1 1

H

1C • 1

11 1 1 1

m

I I I H I

c n i n H I

1 I N

H I

I0 1

ll

I

H

( I ) r d


a4

0 3 0 g i

c . )


H g i 4 4 u )

H a i r t i

a ) U I

I H t r ) H

g i u ) L I " ) C . ) c d C D H H A 0 . 1 U u ) 3H

H

• H > 1 U ) , 1 > i r d

> 1 H

w e o > P I

o

P I

r e

r d P H

n i

P

o

E 4

0 C

u )

4 :

( i ) U )

c n

E xtensive e xamination o f s herd lots w as a lso u ndertaken i n a n a ttempt t o a ssess t he general repres entativeness o f t he w hole vessel s amples. T his work i ncluded r eviewing material a t t he P eabody M useum f rom b oth t he earlier ( Gordon 1 896) a nd r ecent Harvard Copan Valley P roject; a t the C opan P roject H eadquarters i n H onduras, f rom t he c urrently ongoing project; at t he National Museum i n G uatemala C ity f rom S an Agustin Acasaguastlan, Asuncion M ita, a nd R io Hondo; a t t he U niversity of P ennsylvania f rom t he C halchuapa p roject; a nd a t UCLA f rom t he L a Canteada, Honduras, a nd Z apotitan Valley, E l S alvador p rojects. Additionally, a f requently u sed r eference was t he published Chalc huapa c eramic s equence ( Sharer 1 978a Vol 3 ) w hich h as s ome quantified data f or t he various types b ased u pon e xtensive s tratigraphic w ork a nd augmented by t he c ollection o f w hole v essels f rom earlier work a t T azumal ( Boggs 1 950). F rom t his work i t was c oncluded that t he whole v essel s amples do i nclude t he r ange o f variability i n s haping, decoration, a nd t echnical c ompetence present i n t he much l arger s herd samples. T he s herd samples did not u ncover a ny a dditional s hapes or design motifs w hich had not b een r ecorded f rom t he whole v essels. T hus, while c onclusions r eached on t he basis of a ny n onrandom s ample •must b e c onsidered t entative, t he whole vessel s amples s eem t o b e a cceptable f or t he purposes f or w hich t hey w ill b e u sed. T echniques

of

Data

H andling

Once t he r ecording was completed a data f ile w as c reated on t he U CLA WYLBUR s ystem f or c ases i n each o f t he vessel s hapes w ithin each t ype. Various r esearchers have pointed out t he i nterrelationship o f f orm a nd decoration ( Fry a nd C ox 1 974; P log 1 978, 1 980; Shepard 1 971b; Watson 1 977). T hus i t w ould b e important t o c ontrol t he v ariable of s hape w hen e xamining decorat ion. B ecause of t he n ecessity t o hold s hape c onstant, i t w as n ot p ossible t o i nclude a number of t he s mall s ized s hape s amples i n most o f t he analyses. T he s hapes u sed f or a t l east t he e arlier parts o f t he w ork a re n oted in T able 1 9. The c omplete s et of variables, " both discrete a nd continuous, w as e ntered i nto t he data f ile f or e ach c ase. R uns w ere made o f BMDP2D t o obtain a f requency d istribution a nd d escriptive s tatistics f or e ach variable. A t otal of 1 2 variables was a ccounted f or o n t he r ecording f orm. M any of t hese, of c ourse,

1 0

T hroughout

t his

r esearch

t he

t erm

" variable"

i s

u sed to mean a c ertain a ttribute t hat c an be d etermined or measured. The t erm " variable s tate" i s u sed to mean t he a ctual value d etermined or m easured for t he varia ble i n a particular c ase. 96

w ere present o n o nly a f ew v essels. F or e xample, p rovision h ad t o b e made f or r ecording i nformation on a s many a s f our e xterior r egisters b ecause a f ew v ases u sed t hat many h orizontal d ivisions. S imilarly, c olon a nd w idth o f a s many a s t hree b ands b etween e ach r egister a nd b etween t he r im a nd t he f irst r egister h ad t o b e a ccommodated b ecause t hey w ere o bserved on a f ew v essels. However, t he i nitial c omputer t abulations s howed t hat many o f t hese v aria bles w ould n ot b e u seful i n w orking w ith t he data g rouped a s i t n eeded t o b e. T here w ere t oo f ew c ases r epresenting s ome o f t he variables o r n umerous v ariable s tates w ere s cattered o ver t he moderate number o f c ases i n a f ile. F ollowing a n e xamination o f t he f requency d istribution o f e ach variable, a s ignificantly r educed s et of variables w as s elected f or c ontinued u se i n t he a nalysis. . I n t erms o f t he motif r elated variables, t he amount o f detail preserved i n t he original c oding p roved t o b e c ounterproductive i n t hat t oo many a ttri- b ute s tates r esulted. I n i tself t his w as a n i nteresti ng p reliminary f inding, e ven t hough motifs w ere c ons istent, s pecific e xecutional d etails a nd c ombinations w ere variable. Nevertheless, i n o rder t o d erive s ubsamples o f a s ufficient s ize f or s tatistical a nalysis, motif c ombin ations w ere r educed i n n umber. F or e xample, o n C opador open bowls, a ll r enditions o f G lyph A ( facing r ight, f acing l eft, main s ign o nly, e tc) w ere grouped t ogether a s o ne variable s tate, G lyph C w as t reated s imilarly, G lyphs A a nd B u sed t ogether, e tc. T his s tep r esulted i n b etween n ine t o f ourteen v ariable s tates f or motifs i n t he various r egisters o f t he d iff erent s hapes. G iven t he number o f c ases i n e ach s hape c ategory, t he r esult s till was a v ery d ispersed distrib ution. C onsequently, a f urther r eduction w as made w hich r esulted i n more b roadly b ased variable s tates, f our or f ive p er motif v ariable. T his a spect o f t he d ata will b e d iscussed i n more d etail i n t he c hapter d ealing w ith t he c ontent o f t he p ainted d ecoration. O RGANIZATION O F T HE

F INDINGS

As m entioned, t he p roduction p rocess w as c onc eptualized a s c onsisting o f a number o f d ecisions. T hese d ecisions w ould b e i nfluenced b y t he c ircums tances w ithin w hich t he c eramics w ere b eing made a nd w ould b e r eflected i n a ttributes o f t he f inished v essels. T hus, b y r ecording a nd a nalyzing various a ttributes o f t he p ottery, i nferences c an b e made a bout f actors operating i n t he p roduction s ystem.

o f

D ecisions m ade d uring the v essel p rior t o

t he s haping d ecoration 97

a nd p repara- t ion i s t he f ocus o f

Chapter 4 . S hape c ategories, v essel d imensions, m ateri als n eeded f or d ecoration ( slips a nd paints), a nd s patial o rientation t oward t he d esign f ield w ill b e e xamined t o e valuate t he e xtent t o w hich t hese p roduct ion decisions i ndicate s tandardization a nd s implific ation. T hat c hapter a lso w ill e valuate t he t echnical c ompetence o bservable i n t he f inishing p rocess a nd t he p ainting a s a f urther a ssessment o f t he l evel o f c raftsmanship operating i n t he p roduction s ystem. D ecisions a bout t he c ontent a nd t he e xecution o f t he d ecoration a re e xamined i n C hapter 5 . T hese data a re a nalyzed f rom t wo v iewpoints: s ystem-wide s tandards i ndicating h omogeneity o f t he symbolic value o f t he d ecoration a nd p roduction u nit s tandardization i ndicating t he d egree o f p hysical c entralization o f p roduction a nd t he number o f p roducers i n t he s ystem.

98

C HAPTER 4

P RODUCTION D ECISIONS: SHAPING AND PREPARING THE VESSEL F OR DECORATION

I NTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW S tandardization a nd s implification a re t wo e xp ected manifestations o f s pecialization f or n onelite d istribution. B oth o f t hese c haracteristics c an b e a ssessed f rom d ecisions made a t various s tages i n t he p roduction p rocess. I n t his c hapter d ecisions a rea c onsidered c oncerning s hapes t o c onstruct, dimensions o f t he different s hapes, materials s elected f or decorat ion, a nd organization o f t he v essel's s pace f or decora tion. The h ypothesis i s t hat, i f p roduction goals w ere to a chieve a s tandardized, s implified product, t he c ommodity w as i ntended f or u se i n a n onelite distribut ion s ystem. T hese p roduction objectives w ould r elate t o the market r equirements f or t he c eramics, r eflecting t heir value a s a n e xchange i tem a nd t heir s ocietal r ole. S implification a nd s tandardization may a lso r ef lect p roduction o rganization. I n r ecent w ork r elated t o t racing t he d evelopment o f c eramic s pecialization t hrough s tandardization, R ice ( 1981) s et f orth t he f ollowing e xpectations f or d istributions o f t echnolog ical or s tylistic c haracteristics o f pottery whose p roduction i s l imited a nd i n t he hands o f s pecialist p roducers: 1 ) d istribution c urves w ill s kew a nd h ave a n arrow p eak, 2 ) t he c urve w ill b e m ultimodal a nd c an b e b roken i nto s maller d istributions w hich w ill s kew a nd/ o r be k urtotic, or 3 ) " both o f t he a bove may b e t rue" ( ibid:221). S he c ontinues by s aying t hat " unimodality m ay i ndicate t he d egree of c onsistency i n a chieving a d esired e ffect; multimodality may r eflect t he e xistence o f multiple p roducers...." ( ibid:221). D ata r elated t o t he various production d ecisions n ecessary i n t erms o f s haping a nd preparing t he v essel f or decoration w ere t abulated a nd t he d istributions e valuated f rom t he v iewpoint of s tandardization a nd s implification. D etailed presentation of t he f indings w ill b e g iven i n t he f ollowing s ections. T able 2 2 s umm arizes t he c onclusions r egarding s tandardization b y v essel s hape a nd t ype. S everal r esults a re noteworthy: 1 .

T he d egree o f s tandardization i s not c ons istent w ithin a c eramic t ype. Copador open bowls a re more s tandardized t han Copador r ecurved b owls. B oth of t he bowl s hapes, i n t urn, a re more s tandardized

99

1 ) W > 1

O

P r d -H

> 1

U ) 0 • ECr r 4

U ) 0 r t i

t r

A r a m b a l a

• H 0 u ) n j g l ( 1 ) a ) 1 ) > I U )

C O ( L ) > I

0

c n 1 . ) > I

c n ( I ) > I C \ 1

\

0

U W 0 W

H r e a ) Z

T S ▪ r d

U ) O

( 1 ) > I

1 : 1 ) >1

0

0 U ( l Z rd

r d 0

( Z S r ä ( I )

rd

U ) r d " . . „ . . . . .H

u ) e

> I E

C d Q

u ) w

u ) e

> I

> I

U ) Q ) > I E

C A U )

U l w

u ) e U ) )

N H

r z l

H rd J


1

U " ) a )

> 4

O H

O

P H U u ) • H

OG . ) • 2

a . ,

H Q

U ) C

( 1 3 , . 0

0 H

I — I

C ( I )

C f )

a ) U )

c n

U ) >

U " )

e

H

2

C f )

t »r 1 Crd H H P g i r d U ) › . 4P

c n a l H

O C

u )

O rd

w

10 0

, 1

u ) P C , 1 r d t i ,

t 3 )

\ 0 U ) g i U ) 4)

\ 0 U ) g 1 W P

> 1 w

0 i 1 U ) 0 H H > P

t D

t n

H r d r c i N H r — I K J

g i 0 H

a s

w

r e ; o a , u )

r . T A

H P g i

> 1 u )

X

I n t e r i o r

4

.H

U ) r d U ) U )

S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n

N N

• 0 0 H 4 )

t han C opador vases. A s imilar v ariation i s n oted b etween t he G ualpopa open bowls a nd G ualpopa v ases. T hus, s tylistic c omp arability c annot b e a ssumed t o r eflect e quivalent p roduction objectives. 2 .

C opador a nd G ualpopa v ases w ere n ot s tand ardized on t he c haracteristics e valu ated. S ince t he p aste c ompositional a nalysis h ad n ot i ndicated a ny d ifferent ial grouping b y v essel c ategory, t he r aw m aterial f or t he vases w as n ot d isting uished b y a d ifferent p rocurement p roc ess. I t i s possible t hat t his v essel c ategory r epresents " special o rders" or s ome f unctional d istinction w hich s ets i t a part f rom t he bowls i n t erms o f s tandardi zation. ( Handler [ 1963], describing p ottery making i n B arbados, r elates how a h andful of s tandardized f orms i s p roduced i n various s izes. However, s pecial orders f or o ther i tems a re a ccepted f rom c ust omers w ho c ame t o t he v illage a nd e xp lained t o t he p otter w hat t hey w anted [ ibid:323].)

3 .

C hilanga open bowls s how o nly a marginal l evel o f s tandardization. V essel d imens ions a re n ot v ery s tandardized a nd t he e xterior s patial d ivisions s how c onsidera ble v ariability. B ased o n t his s eries o f p roduction d ecisions i t a ppears u nlikely t hat C hilanga c eramics w ere made w ith t he goal o f s tandardization.

S implification was a ssessed f or t he c riteria o f v essel c ategory s hape a nd v ariety o f p aints u sed a s d ecorating materials. A ll f our p ainted t ypes emphasize s implified v essel s hape. O nly t hree s hapes dominate a cross t he various t ypes. I n t erms o f t he paints u sed, a s implified a rray o f c olors was u sed i n a ll c ases e xc ept on a s ubgroup o f C opador vases w hich s howed e lab oration i n t he v ariety o f p aints a pplied. T he d ata f rom e valuations o f t echnical c ompet ence i ndicate t hat C opador v ases r eceived t he most c are i n p olishing a nd a ttained t he h ighest l evel o f c raftsmanship. B oth open a nd r ecurved C opador bowls s how a n i ntermediate l evel o f c are i n f inishing a nd c raftsmanship w hich s eems c ompatible w ith t he hypothes is of s tandardized, s implified p roduction. I n g eneral, G ualpopa a nd A rambala bowls r ank l ower t han C opador v essels o n t hese c haracteristics.

w ould

F rom t his s eries o f p roduction d ecisions, o ne c onclude t hat s tandardization was a p roduction

1 01

goal

i n

t he

c ase

o f

b oth

b owl

s hapes

i n

t he

t hree

poly-

c hrome t ypes - C opador, G ualpopa, a nd A rambala. S tand ardization w as most c learly a chieved i n t he c ase o f t he C opador open bowls. C onversely, b oth C opador a nd G ualpopä vases d o n ot r eflect s tandardization. T he s ignificance o f t hese f indings i s d iscussed i n c onjunct ion w ith t he data f rom t he d ecoration-related p roduct ion d ecisions. F INDINGS:

D ECISIONS

R EGARDING VESSEL S HAPE

C ategory S ummary T he data o n v essel s hape f or a ll f our o f t he p ainted t ypes a re c ompatible w ith t he h ypothesis of a s tandardized p roduction process w ith a n emphasis o n s implification. O nly t hree s hapes dominate a cross t he v arious t ypes. O ne, t he open b owl, i s a n e xtremely s imple s hape w ithout e laboration o f a ny type, c apable o f b eing p roduced i n molds or b y t he l east c omplicated h and c onstruction p rocess. Vases r equire s omewhat more a ttention i n t he s haping process b ut s till c annot b e c onsidered v ery e laborate. T he r ecurved b owls s how s omewhat more e laboration. Variation i s f ound i n t he s hape of t he v essel a bove t he a ngle a nd s ome b owls have f aceted f langes or grooving b elow t he c urve. A f ew e ffigy s hapes a re modeled i n t he l ower e laboration i s n ot s o e xtensive n or s o a s

t o r efute

D etailed

t he

b asic

c onclusion,

r egister. T his f inely d etailed

however.

F indings

Vessel s hapes b y f requency o f o bservation a re s hown i n T able 2 3. A s mentioned e arlier t he whole v essel s ample i s n ot r andom. T he d istribution o f t he t ypes b y s hape p robably i s o ne o f t he l ess s ecure f eatures o f t he d ata; c onsequently o nly s ome g eneral observations w ill b e made. C opador. T hree s hapes c learly r epresent t he main manufacturing modes: r ecurved bowls ( 40.1 perc ent), open b owls ( 27.5 p ercent) a nd vases ( 16.8 p erc ent). T he o ther 1 5.6 p ercent o f t he s ample i s s pread o ver a n a dditional f ive s hape c ategories. ( Chalchuapa data s upport t he t hree modal s hapes a s b eing t he most f requently e ncountered f orms.) I t

i s

i nteresting

t o

s peculate

t hat

t he

n onmodal

s hapes w ere made b y s pecialist p otters f or t heir own domestic u se o r u nder o ther u nique c ircumstances t hat e ncouraged n onstandard s hapes. P rovenience d ata does not s trictly c onfirm t his possibility b ut d oes offer s ome i nteresting s uggestions. T en o f t he 2 6 v essels i n t hese varied s hapes w ere f ound i n t he C opan V alley. T he more s pecific Copan Valley p rovenience was c hecked 102

TABLE V essel V essel Shape

2 3

S hapes By F requency Of O bservation C opador

Gualpopa

C hilanga

Arambala

Total

N =167

N =63

N =41

N =37

N =308

4 0.1%

1 1.1%

1 9.5%

7 0.3%

3 5.1%

O pen bowls

2 7.5

6 1.9

3 9.0

1 8.9

3 5.1

Vases

1 6.8

1 9.0

1 4.6

2 .7

1 5.3

J ars

4 .2

1 .6

4 .9

-

3 .2

B owls with markedly i ncurving . walls

3 .0

2 .4

2 .7

2 .3

B owls with f lared o r o utcurving walls

4 .8

5 .4

3 .2

C ups

2 ,4

D ishes

1 .2

R ecurved

b owls

6 .3

P lates

9 .8

3 .9

7 .3

1 .6

2 .4

. 3

f or t hese s hapes. T he f ive j ars f ound ( four o f w hich h ad s hape e laboration i n t he f orm of e ffigies) w ere i n s pecial contexts t wo i n Valley-located b urials ( without t omb c onstruction), two i n s tela c aches i n t he C enter, a nd o ne i n a n u nspecified c ontext b ut w ithin t he Center a rea. T he f ive o ther n onstandard s haped v essels f rom t he C opan Valley w ere two b owls, two c ups, a nd one d ish. W ith t he e xception o f o ne c up f rom a V alley t omb, t hese vessels w ere i n c onstruction-related f ill e ither i n t he Valley or C enter r esidential c ont ext. T hus, t he n onstandard s hapes c ould r epresent p ieces made b oth f or s pecial domestic a nd s pecial r itual u se. U nfortunately, t he r emainder o f t he a typi cal s hapes h ave only v ery generalized or u nknown prov enience, s o more definitive c onclusions c an n ot b e r eached. G ualpopa. A v ery s trong modal f orm i s t he open bowl ( 61.9 p ercent) w hich most f requently h as a c onvex r ather t han a f lat base. S harer a t C halchuapa r eports o nly t hree s hapes f or t his t ype, w ith t he c onvex b ase, o pen wall bowl b eing t he most c ommon ( 1978a Vol 3 :51). I t i s mentioned i n passing t hat f our o f t he f ive nons tandard s haped v essels i n t his type h ave C opan proveni ences.

10 3

C hilanga. T he open b owl s hape w ith a c onvex b ase i s a lso t he modal s hape f or C hilanga a s w ell a s f or G ualpopa. A lthough t he mode i s n ot a s dominant i n t he w hole v essel C hilanga s ample a s t hat of G ualpopa ( Chilanga 3 9.0 p ercent; G ualpopa 6 1.9 p ercent), S harer r eports i t a t C halchuapa a s b eing t he most c ommon C hilanga s hape ( 1978a Vol 3 : 4 7). A rambala. A r ecurved bowl s hape i s b y f ar t he most f requently u sed f orm f or Arambala p ots ( 70.3 p erc ent). A nother s hape, a s mall r estricted neck j ar, i s r eported a t C halchuapa ( Sharer 1 978a Vol 3 :56) b ut w as n ot e ncountered i n t he w hole v essel s ample. D imensions S ummaIi. S everal groupings do n ot r eflect s ignificant s tandardization o f dimensions: C opador a nd G ualpopa v ases, a nd C hilanga open b owls. F or t he other s hape t ypes t here a ppear t o h ave b een multiple p roducers ( multimodality o bserved) w orking u nder varying c ondit ions o f s tandardization: 1 .

P otters s haping C opador s trong s tandardization

2 .

P otters s haping Arambala r ecurved medium/strong s tandardization

3 .

P otters s haping C opador r ecurved b owls a nd G ualpopa open bowls - m edium s tandardiz ation.

D etailed

open

b owls

b owls

F indings

H eight, r im d iameter, a nd w all t hickness ( meas ured a bout 3 c m b elow t he l ip) w ere t abulated f or t he s hapes i dentified i n T able 1 9 i n t he p receding c hapt er. M easurements w ere r ounded t o t he n earest c entim eter o r, i n t he c ase o f t hickness, m illimeter. H istog rams p repared f rom t he t abulations a re s hown a s F igu res 1 3 t h ough 1 6. R ice's e xpectations r egarding t he distribution o f a ttributes o f p ottery w hose p roduction i s l imited t o s pecialized p roducers ( see p age ) w ere u sed a s a f ramework f or e valuating t he h istograms o f t he m easurements. C opador V essels

( Figure

1 3)

O pen Bowls. V essel h eight a nd t hickness d istrib utions e ach s how a d ecided s kew w ith a f airly narrow p eak, t hus s upporting t he i dea o f s tandardization b eing r eflected i n t he " degree of c onsistency i n a chieving a d esired e ffect." T he t hickness c haracteristic w ith a 10 4

6 1 . O D.

1 / 1

0 3

V D

‚ C e

r 1

N

. 1

N

O D

e f

V)

e ' I

c o

N

r 4

'

Iaqu mN

9 qU I TI N

. r

r 4

0

r 4

VD

C V

aqumN

0

0

OD•

r i

0 / 40 1 r I

C

N C.4

C C r i

r I

-`0

V D

O D r 4

N I

c e r 1

C • I

L C )

qum N

I aqU IT IN

e QU M N.

c f ; O D O D

L I D

r ‘ l N

aqa mN

O D • I

0 1

a c ru mN

10 5

4 1 '

0

V D

iaqu mN

,

1

s trong mode o f 5 mm w ould a ppear p articularly s uscepti ble t o s uch a n o rientation. R im d iameter, on t he o ther h and, a ppears b imodal ( 18 a nd 2 2 c m) with d istrib ution s kewed b ut n ot s teeply p eaked. T his g enerally f its t he e xpectation f or m ultimodality r eflecting t he p resence o f multiple s pecialized p roducers. R ecurved B owls. T hickness a gain s howed a unimodal d istribution w ith a r elatively s trong c entral t endency ( 6 mm). H eight h as a b roader distribution t han f or t he open bowls ( recurved b owls, 5 cm t o 1 4 c m; open b owls, 4 c m t o 9 cm) a nd a l ess p ronounced kurtos is. R im d iameter h as a b road c urve w ith t hree modera tely d efined modes a t 1 2, 1 6, a nd 1 8 c m. This pattern o f d istributions s uggests t he t echnical competence c f s pecialists i n a chieving a c onsistent wall t hickn s b ut w ith various p roduction u nits u sing s lightly d iff erent s tandards f or t heir pots' h eight a nd r im d iameters. T hus, t he presence o f multiple s pecialized p roducers i s s upported b ut t he d egree o f s tandardizat ion s eems l ess m arked. Vases. R im d iameter a nd h eight h ave v ery broad a nd generally f lat c urves ( rim d iameter: 8 cm t o 2 2 c m; h eight: 1 2 c m t o 2 4 cm) a lthough a m inor p eak o ccurs i n t he r im d iameter m easurement a t 1 4 cm. T hickness, a s w ith t he o ther s hapes, i s c arefully c ontrolled ( mode 5 mm, r ange: 5 mm t o ' 7 mm). Vases a ppear definitely n ot t o h ave b een made i n p roduction f ormats t hat a imed a t a s tandardized p roduct. Gualpopa V essels

( Figure

1 4)

Open bowls. T he d istributions f or r im d iameter , and h eight s how marginally w ider r anges t han d id t he C opador bowls o f t his s hape. However, a f airly marked s ingle mode f or t he r im d iameter was p resent, w ith t he s ame value, 1 8 c m, a s t he s tronger o f t he t wo C opador modes. H eight s eems t o r eflect t wo modes, b ut s ince t hey a re only 2 c m a part ( 6 cm, 8 cm) i t i s p robable t hat t here r eally i s o nly one b roader peak i n t he c urve. T hickness i s q uite c ontrolled ( mode 5 mm, r ange: 4 mm t o 8 mm). T he c onclusion f rom t his s et o f data i s t hat production t ook p lace u nder s ome d egree o f s tandardization t hat was l ess c ontrolled t han w ith C opador. A c omplicating f actor o f t ime c ontrol m ust b e m entioned h ere. G ualpopa a ppears t o h ave been m anufact ured f or a l onger t ime t han w as C opador. T hus, t here m ay b e more b uilt-in v ariability i n t he Gualpopa due t o a s hifting t radition ( and p roduction s ystem over t ime. Vases. ( The f requency i s v ery l ow, N=12, so t he observations may b e i nfluenced more b y s ample s ize t han b y a ctual d istributional p atterns.) A ll t he d imensions h ave a n arrow r ange ( height: 1 2 t o 1 9 c m; t hickness: 5 t o 7 mm; r im d iameter: 1 0 c m t o 1 6 c m). T here i s n o s trong modality e xcept f or t hickness ( 5 mm). I f t hese

106

Open bowls

Vases

T hickness, a n

Thickness , a n

1 8 •

1 8

1 4 •

1 4

I

1 0 « 6« 2•

J r , r n 4

5

6

1 0 6

1R n 7

8

9

2

1 0

1 2

H eight , a n

S

H eight , a n

1 8

1

1 4

1 1 4

1 0

1 0

6

I

G

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

1 4:

Histograms

8

9

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

R im D iameter, a n

R im D ianeter, a n

Figure

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

of

Vessel

107

Dimensions,

Gualpopa

Shapes

p atterns w ere v erified i n a l arger s ample, w e would c onclude t hat, l ike C opador vases, G ualpopa vases w ere n ot i ntended t o b e s tandardized p roducts. C hilanga V essels

( Figure

1 5)

Open B owls. T he l imited s ize o f t his s ample, N =16, p recludes a ny d efinite c onclusions b ut g eneral observations c an b e made. E ven w ith t he s mall n umber o f c ases, t he s pread o f t hickness m easurements i s t he w idest f or a ny v essel group e xamined ( 4 t o 1 0 cm). T his w ould a rgue f or l ess c onsistency i n a chieving a d esired e ffect, l ess s pecialization. T he broad, f lat c urve f or r im d iameter s hows s everal d iscontinuities; t he d istribution o f h eights p robably would b e f airly n ormally u nimodal i f t he s ample s ize w ere i ncreased. T hus, t he o verall i mpression gained f rom t he d ata i s t hat t hese c eramics w ere made b y a v ariety of p otters, p erhaps part-time s pecialists, w ho s haped open b owls t o a g eneral p attern w ithout c onforming t o more r igid s tandards. A rambala V essels

( Figure

1 6)

R ecurved Bowls. T hickness a nd h eight h ave quite r estricted r anges, w ith w ell-defined c entral t endencies ( thickness: 5 t o 9 mm, modes: 6 a nd 7 mm; h eight: 6 t o 9 cm, mode: 7 c m). ' T he r im d iameter d istribution i s q uite discontinuous w ith t hree s eparate c lusters, e ach w ith a modest mode ( 14, 1 8, a nd 2 2 c m). The c ombinat ion o f t he r estricted r anges a nd t he multimodality o f r im d iameters c ould s ignal multiple p roduction u nits w ithin a s tandardized s ystem. A dditional

observations

T hickness. A s observed w hen d iscussing i ndivid ual v essel groups, t here generally i s a v ery h igh c ons istency i n t hickness of v essel w all, i ndicating a good l evel of t echnical c ontrol - a b y-product of s pecializ ation. C hilanga's s lightly w ider r ange s uggests more v ariability i n t echnology. A lthough n ot d irectly t abul ated, t here i s o ther e vidence o f C opador's a nd Gualp opa's c ontrolled t echnology. T hese c ream p aste v ess els r arely h ave e ither c arbon c ores or f iring c louds, t hus i ndicating c areful c ontrol o f t he f iring p rocess. H eight. T he h eight d imension ( on b oth s hapes o f bowls, n ot v ases) h as a more l imited r ange t han does t he r im d iameter ( mean r ange a cross t ypes, h eight: 5 .6 cm; mean r ange, r im d iameter: 1 2.2 c m). I t s eems l ikely t hat v essel h eight may b e r estricted b y c oncepts o f how t he v essel i s t o b e d ivided f or p ainting a nd i s c losely r elated t o d ecoration s tandards a nd motif r epertory. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he modal h eight f or a ll t he bowls i s practically i dentical: open bowls, 8 c m; C opador r ecurved bowls, 8 c m; A rambala, 7 CM.

10 8

1 8 1 4 1 0 6 2 . 4

. 5

. 6

. 7

. 8

. 9 1 .0

T hickness, c m

1 8 1 4 10

6 2 6

7

8

9

1 0

H eight, c m

1 8 1 4

1 0 z

6 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 R im D iameter , c m

F igure 1 5: H istogram o f V essel D imensions, C hilanga O pen B owls

10 9

1 8 1 4 1 0 6 2 . 5

. 6

. 7

. 8

. 9

T hickness, c m

1 8 1 4 1 0 6-

1

2 5

6

7

8

9

H eight, c m

6 2

R im D iameter, c m

F igure 1 6: H istogram o f V essel D imensions, A rambala R ecurved B owls

1 10

r ange

R im diameter. This dimension of t he t hree s haping variables

s hows t he a nalyzed.

w idest A lso,

t he s hapes of t he c urves, t he degree of c entral t end ency, a nd t he k ind of modality a re quite d isparate. A question a rises a bout t he extent to w hich f actors other t han t he nature a nd organization o f t he production u nits c ould b e i nfluencing t his variable. I f t he c eramics w ere b eing made f or t rade purposes, w ould t ransport considerations a ffect s hapes a nd s izes? S everal r esearchers dealing w ith M aya a rea t rade h ave made s tatements o n t his s ubject. F ry

( 1980:5),

r eferring

t o

s erving

v essels,

s ays

" ....the presence of a r ange of s izes i n t he u nrest ricted orifice s ubclasses a llowing f or s tacking, s uggests t hat s uch v essels were potentially v ery p ortable." I f t he g oal was t o produce s tackable v essels, t hen t he distribution pattern of r im diameters would b e a ffected by t he number of vessels u sually n ested, how t ightly t hey w ere packed, e tc. R athje e t a l. ( 1978:171) i llustrated t he variat ion i n t he potential n esting ability of C lassic P eriod t ripod bowls w hich, w ith f lat bottoms a nd outcurving r ims, w ere u nstable when s tacked versus t he Postclassic F ine Orange pots w hich, with r ound bottoms, i ncurving r ims, a nd r ounded f eet, " settled n eatly w ithin one a no ther." E xperiments i n s tacking have not b een made o n t he painted t ypes u nder i nvestigation; nor i s t he e xt ent k nown t o w hich l arge l oads of t hese types w ere t ransported, t hereby i ncreasing t he i mportance of comp act packability. Nevertheless, considerations of f act ors l ike t hese h ave t o b e a llowed f or i n i nterpreting t he data. F INDINGS: I NG,

DECISIONS

SLIPS AND

ABOUT

MATERIALS

NEEDED

FOR

DECORAT-

P AINTS

S ummary S lip

was

s tandardized

a cross

t he

various

types.

P aints w ere s tandardized a nd s implified on a ll groups e xcept Copador vases. There appeared t o b e two s ubgroups w ithin t hat c ategory - one u sing a s implified palette of b lack a nd specular h ematite r ed a nd t he o ther u sing a n e laborated s cheme with t ones b eyond t he s tandard b lack, orange, a nd r ed. D etailed

F indings

S lips A s oft, variable colored pale orange s lip i s p ractically u niversal a cross t he t ypes a nd s hapes ( 91 p ercent) ( Table 2 4). An occasional c ream or orange a nd 1 11

c ream s lip i s v isible w hich may r epresent s light variat ions i n f iring c onditions. T hese a typically s lipped vessels a re t oo f ew i n number to b e a nalyzed more t horoughly. TABLE

S lip C olors,

2 4

Vessel

S hapes

By Type

S lip C olor

Vessel

S hape

Orange

C ream/

O range

White

C ream

&

M issing Value

Total

C opador Open bowl R ecurved bowl

4 4 5 6

8

2 2

1

4 6 6 7

Gualpopa Open bowl Vase

3 9 1 2

-

-

-

3 9 1 2

C hilanga Open bowl

1 4

1

1

1 6

2 4

-

-

2 6

A rambala R ecurved

T otal

bowl

2 13 ( 91.0%)

1 1 ( 4.7%)

2

6 ( 2.6%)

4 ( 1.7%)

2 34 ( 100.0%)

P aint Variations r eviewed

separately

among ( Table

t he

c eramic

groupings

a re

2 5).

C opador Vessels Open bowls. B lack a nd s pecular h ematite r ed paint a re u sed on a ll b ut two o f t hese bowls. Orange paint i s s omewhat l ess f requently u sed - 1 6 of t he open bowls a re decorated w ithout t his c olor. Only two bowls a re painted with a nonspecular h ematite r ed paint; two o thers h ave a n e laborated paint palette o f b lack, s pecular h ematite r ed, o range, a nd one o ther s hade s uch a s p ink, grey, c ream, e tc. T hus, t here i s v ery l ittle deviation f rom or e laboration of t he basic c olor

s cheme of

b lack

a nd

s pecular h ematite 112

r ed.

N H

d P H O t f l 0

. 0 c ) P V D 0 H

C O P V D 0 N

O P V D 0 H 0

o p O D

1

Ir- f

L i i

d P C N I

A r a m b a l o p

R e c u r v e d b o w l N

L i

H 0 0 r • 1

• L i • • • ••• • • •• ••

E 00 4 u . 0 1 . 4C J D 0 0

I H

k t O . e r

1

H

C 1 ) 4 -) 0

N

V J

I N H

d t . U i • O D

H

4 -) r d

d P t 7 1 •

r O

W

W

0 ( 1 ) . 0

• e r H ( 1 r n H

O P 0 1 I c o • I ( 1 1 • e l •

o p

O P t f l C I •

r e

4 g . ) E

w 4 i

W

0

W

c o r - L n N

1 o

W H 4J

O P V D •

e U

W 4 -) 4 . 1 W t r 3 4 ) t r i c n

z

f a ,0 C O

-

0 W •I b 4 J O r d

W b O C O

' 40

0

e . 0 ( 1 H 0 W O . 0 4 W W

.. .

0

0 r d

0 r d

0 M I

-

-

0 . 0 C l ) N

r d

0 a l

0 P Z C 1 0 C O H O - . - ' --- - -

r o c ). 1N m

W . 0

.

C O

e

o p

T A B L E 2 5

C O W 0 0 4 0 > , • m l E i 4 ) f a > 4 0 C Z • r i . 0 (0

A

c omment

s hould

b e

made

a bout

t he

s pecular

h ematite r ed paint w hich i s s o s tandard, and d istinct ive, on Copador v essels. I t s eems t o b e a s pecially s elected p igment w hose distribution o n M esoamerican c eramics varies over s pace and t ime. I have r ecently a rgued ( Beaudry 1 981) t hat i t s erved a s a trade commodity t hrough w hich i nterregional c ontacts can b e t raced. D uring t he L ate C lassic p eriod i n t he s outheast Maya z one, i ts u se was r estricted t o Copador a nd to a C opan t ype r ecently c lassified a s C aterpillar which c onsists of l arge, t ripodal d ishes decorated w ith glyphic e lements a llied t o t hose o f C opador. R ecurved b owls. Orange p aint was not u sed o n half of t he r ecurved bowls. T hus, t here appears to b e two s eparate painting f ormats f or t his shape o ne w ith b lack, orange, a nd s pecular h ematite and a nother which e liminated orange, u sing only b lack and t he specu lar h ematite r ed. S imilar t o t he open bowl s ituation, a f ew r ecurved bowls ( 4) u sed a more e laborate palette a nd a f ew ( 4) employed a nonspecular h ematite r ed. Vases. The distribution of paint c ombinat ions on t hese v essels s uggests two painting a pproaches - one o f s implification where only b lack and s pecular h ematite r ed w ere u sed ( 13) a nd a nother where e laborat ion of c olor was t he goal ( 14). S ix o f t he vases u sed a dditional c olors b eyond orange, b lack, and h ematite r ed, more t han i n e ither of t he other s el s hapes w ith l arger s amples.

s pecular two ves-

G ualpopa Vessels Open bowls a nd vases. B oth o f these s hapes w ere painted mainly w ith j ust b lack a nd nonspecular h ematite r ed paints ( 39 out o f 5 1). Only a f ew specimens ( 8 out of 5 1) h ad orange p aint a dded. T hree open bowls u sed specular h ematite r ed i nstead of t he s tandard nonspecular variety. C hilanga Vessels

t ype.

By A ll . of

definition t he r ed was

t hese of t he

a re a r ed-on-orange n onspecular variety.

Arambala Vessels R ecurved

bowls.

As

w ith

t he

C opador

group o f

t his s hape, orange paint was u sed on f ewer t han h alf t he bowls. F ive o f t he 2 6 bowls u sed s pecular h ematite a s t he r ed p igment. ( Assignments t o Arambala w ere b ased on t he p aste variation. S tylistically t here c an b e a s trong s imilarity b etween Arambala and C opador, a nd when specular h ematite paint i s u sed t he d ivision r elies o n t he r ed c olor a nd c oarser t exture of t he paste.)

1 14

F INDINGS: DECISIONS ABOUT COMPOSITION - SPATIAL S IONS OF E XTERIOR AND I NTERIOR DESIGN F IELDS

D IVI-

I ntroduction As m entioned i n Appendix D when defining a d esign f ield, pottery painters e nvision t he s urfaces o f v essels a s b eing divided s patially a nd c onceive t heir d ecoration w ithin t hese divisions. T his manner o f organizing t he design f ield would be r eflected by t he number and w idth of r egisters on t he i nterior a nd e xt erior walls, b y t he u se of painted bands t o delineate t hese boundaries, e tc. T hese c ompositional f eatures o f t he decoration p rocess w ill b e r eviewed. At

t his

point

I

would

l ike

t o

mention

t he

possibility t hat different p eople were r esponsible f or t he more t echnical a spects o f t he pottery production ( shaping and l ater f iring) a nd f or t he decoration o f t he vessel. T his suggestion has b een made b efore, b y L inne ( 1965) among others, based l argely upon t he e xist ence of masterpieces of c eramic painting or modeling. W hile the types u nder discussion do not qualify on t hat b asis, a division of l abor would b e i n k eeping w ith t he goals of s tandardized production f or a n e xport market.

e xception,

I t s hould a lso b e t here was general

mentioned congruence

t hat, w ith one a cross t he var-

i ous painted types i n t erms of t he general orientation t o t he design f ields, t hat i s, t he s urfaces were systematically divided i nto r im a rea, wall r egisters, e xteri or base or i nterior bottom. The e xception was i n a s ubcategory o f Gualpopa open bowls w hich have b een d esignated " spiral bowls" by previous i nvestigators. T his layout u ses t he entire e xterior f ield, f rom t he l ip onto t he base w hich i s a lways convex, a s one cont inuous area f or decoration. Motifs are p laced on t he b ackground s lip b etween a w ide r ed painted band w hich b egins a t t he l ip a nd spirals a round t he vessel e nding o n t he base. ( See F igure 1 7.)

F igure 1 7: L ayout o f C ualpopa S piral B owl

T his s ubcategory w ill b e omitted i n t he discussion o f t he e xterior d esign f ield. I t i s i ncluded i n t he s ection on i nterior d esign f ield a nd i s d iscussed a gain i n t erms o f i ts motifs. S ummary • T he G ualpopa a nd C opador v ase groupings a gain s howed v ery l imited s tandardization. T he l ayout o f t he C opador open b owls ( exterior a nd i nterior) w as more s tandardized t han t hat o f t he r ecurved g roup. F or e xa mple, modes on a n umber o f a ttributes w ere m ore pron ounced f or C opador open bowls t han f or t he r ecurved g roups: e xterior r im b and w idth, mode o f 0 .9 c m o r l ess - open bowls 8 2.6 p ercent, r ecurved bowls 7 4.6 p ercent; n umber o f b ands b etween e xterior r im a nd f irst r egist er, mode o f n one - open bowls 8 4.8 p ercent, r ecurved b owls 5 9.7 p ercent; n umber o f b ands b etween f irst a nd s econd r egister e xterior, mode o f 2 - open bowls 6 2.2 p ercent, n o c lear-cut mode f or r ecurved b owls. G ualpopa ( nonspiral) open bowls a nd A rambala r ecurved b owls b oth d isplayed m edium s tandardization i n t he a pproach t o t heir e xterior d esign ( modes b etween 5 0 a nd 7 5 p ercent e xcept f or t he n umber o f r egisters where 9 2.3 p ercent o f t he A rambala v essels h ad t wo r egist ers). T he i nterior o f t he Arambala b owls a lso a re r elatively s tandardized ( mode 5 0 t o 5 3%). G ualpopa i nteriors vary b etween p ainted decorated a nd u npainted s lipped w alls; t hus s tandardization i s not c lear-cut. T here w ere o nly l imited b ases upon w hich t o e valuate s tandardization o f C hilanga open bowls. T he e xterior s howed a moderate a mount o f s tandardization a lthough t he s ample w as s plit b etween s ingle r egister a nd double-register v essels. I nterior r im b and width w as s trongly modal ( 75 p ercent, 1 .0 t o 1 .9 cm) a nd a ll t he i nterior walls a nd bottoms w ere u ndecorated. D etailed

F indings

E xterior d esign

f ield

R im. A r ed r im b and i s u sed practically u niversally o n a ll t he c eramic g roupings b eing s tudied ( 86.3 p ercent). B lack or b lack over r ed v ery i nfreq uently i s s ubstituted ( 6.4 p ercent) ( Table 2 6). T he

w idth

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t ion a mong v essel groups b ut i s r elatively s tandardized w ithin e ach group ( Table 2 6) T he s tandardization o f w idth b y s hape p robably c orrelates w ith t he e arlier o bservation a bout t he n arrow r ange o f m easurements o n t he h eight dimension. B oth o f t hese f actors w ould b e i nvolved i n t he g eneralized c onception o f t he d ecorated f inished p roduct.

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R emainder o f e xterior d esign f ield. T able 2 7 p resents t he d istribution o f t he number o f r egisters u sed on t he various types of c eramics b y s hapes. TABLE 2 7 N umber O f E xterior R egisters V essel C ategory

1

2

' 3

4

7

C opador O pen bowls R ecurved b owls Vases

T otal ( N )

1 7.4% -

8 0.4%

2 .1%

-

-

4 6 6 7

8 5.1

1 1.9

3 .0

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5 0.0

2 8.6

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3 3.3

6 6.7

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1 2 a.

2 8a

G ualpopa N onspiral open b owls V ases

-

2 5.0

5 8.3

1 6.7

C hilanga O pen bowls

5 7.1

4 2.9

1 4 a**

A rambala R ecurved bowls

9 2.3

7 .7

2 6a

aS mall

s ample s ize s hould b e noted when evaluating p ercentages. * 11 s piral b owls n ot d ivided i nto r egisters a re omitted. * *2 s piral b owls n ot d ivided i nto r egisters a re omitted.

T abulations w ere a lso made of t he n umber a nd c olor of t he paintea b ands u sed b etween t he r im a nd t he f irst r egister a s w ell a s b etween o ther r egisters, i f t hey w ere present. S ince t he majority of v essels o ver a ll t he c lassifications had two e xterior r egisters, data a re presented o nly f or b ands b etween t he r im a nd t he f irst r egisters ( all v essels) a nd b etween t he f irst a nd s econd e xterior r egister f or d ouble-register v essels ( Tables 2 8 a nd 2 9). I n g eneral, s patial d ivisions w ere r elatively c onsistent f or bowls b ut variable f or v ases. T he m anner o f d elineating t he d ivisions - t he n umber o f b ands a nd t he c olor(s) u sed - w as more s tandard f or t he Copador open b owls t han f or t he o ther bowl groupi ngs. T he data a re b riefly summarized i n T able 3 0. 119

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The s ame a spects o f t he s patial division o f t he v essels w ere t abulated f or t he i nterior design f ield -7 t he w idth a nd c olor o f t he r im b and, t he width a nd c olor(s) o f b and(s) b etween t he r im a nd t he wall r egister a s w ell a s b etween t he w all r egister a nd t he i nterior b ottom. O nly s ix v essels, a ll bowls, h ad t he i nterior w all d ivided i nto more t han one r egister ( one C opador open bowl, one C opador r ecurved, two A rambala r ecurved, t wo G ualpopa open). C onsequently, d ata a re p resented f or o nly t he modal l ayout o f a s ingle i nteri or w all r egister. T ables 3 1 t hrough 3 3 contain t he t abulations. T able 3 4 summarizes t he t abulated d ata. A s o n t he e xterior, a n i nterior r ed r im band i s a lmost u niversal. Only t hree groups h ad a s uffici ent number o f decorated i nteriors t o a ssess t he degree o f s tandardization o f t he l ayout. T he C opador open b owls w ere t he most s tandardized, f ollowed b y C opador r ecurved bowls, a nd t hen Arambala r ecurved. I t w as i nteresting t o n ote t hat on C opador bowls o f both s hapes t he s tandard pattern o n t he e xterior w as r ed b ands w hile o n t he i nterior ( particularly b elow t he r im) b lack w as p referred. E VALUATION OF T ECHNICAL COMPETENCE 1 1 S ummary T he t wo C opador bowl s hapes e xhibit a workmanlike l evel o f t echnical c ompetence, b eing n either outstanding nor i nferior e xamples of c raftsmanship. T he modest number o f v essels w ith s mearing s uggests t hat i n s ome c ases t he production p rocess was h urried t o t he point where polishing w as d one b efore t he paint was t horoughly dry. I n c ontrast, Copador v ases t end t o r eflect more c are i n f inishing a nd a h igher l evel o f c raftsmanship - h eightening t he i mpression of specialization b ased more on e laboration a nd u niqueness o f product r ather t han s tandardization a nd s implification. T he t echnical c ompetence e xhibited by t he G ualpopa open b owls i s s omewhat l ower t han t hat disp layed b y t he C opador p ieces. I t w ould s eem t hat Gualp opa p roducers, w hile s pecialized, w ere not a s s killful or w ere w orking on a l ess valuable p roduct w hich d id n ot warrant t he s ame l evel of c are i n i ts f inishing.

" Gualpopa v ases a re e xcluded f rom t his a nalysis s ince o nly n ine c ases c ould b e e valuated. C hilanga open b owls a re e xcluded b ecause t heir s tatus a s a p rod uct of s pecialization i s equivocal. 124

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Arambala s hows t he l owest l evel c ompetence a mong t he polychrome t ypes. D etailed F indings

o f

t echnical

1 2

L uster T he l uster c haracteristic o f t he c eramics r esults f rom p olishing t he v essel a fter i t h as b een p ainted a nd h as dried. T he d egree o f l uster r emaining a fter a particular pot h as b een a rchaeologically r ecovered, o f c ourse, i s a ffected by i ts p ostdepositional h istory a s w ell a s i ts o riginal s tate. T hus, t he a bsolute r ating i s o f l ess i mportance t han t he r ating o f t he t ypes r elative t o o ne a nother. I t i s e xpected t hat e ach t ype w ould h ave b een e qually l ikely t o b e s ubjected t o varying p ostdepositional c ond itions. T hus t his i nfluence s hould b e p resent i n a ll t he types a s a c onstant " background n oise" a nd n ot u nd uly skew t he r esults. A f ive-point s cale was u sed t o r ate t his f eature. T able 3 5 p resents t he data f rom t his e valuat ion. The v arious C opador s hapes s how a s imilar patt ern with a round 3 0 p ercent o f t he v essels b eing c lass ified a t t he t wo u pper points o f t he s cale. More C opador r ecurved bowls a re c lassified a t t he l ower p oints o f t he s cale. I t i s p ossible t hat s hape i s a n i ntervening variable i n t his i nstance. T he s urfaces o f t he r ecurved b owls h ave more p lanes t han do t hose o f t he open bowls o r v ases w hose s urfaces a re more c ontinu ous. Thus, i t i s possible t hat t he greater d ifficulty i n p olishing r ecurved bowls l ed p otters t o s ettle f or a l ower l uster. G ualpopa open b owls d efinitely s how a l ower d egree o f polish r elative t o C opador open bowls. T he s ample s ize f or Arambala r ecurved b owls i s q uite s mall, s o observations must b e p hrased t entatively. T here d oes s eem t o b e a t endency f or a s maller proportion o f A rambala t o h ave a h igh degree o f l uster t han i s t rue a mong t he s ame s hape o f C opador ( 5.9 p ercent Arambala; 2 9.7 p ercent C opador).

1 21t

s hould

b e

m entioned

t hat

t o

v arying

d egrees

t he s hape t ypes l acked data o n t hese c haracteristics. F or a n umber o f C halchuapa s pecimens ( particularly G ualpopa a nd A rambala bowls), i t w as n ecessary t o u se p hotos t o r ecord a ttributes. O ften i t was n ot p ossible t o e valuate t he t echnical c ompetence w ithout a ctually h andling t he p iece. C onsequently, t he s izes o f t he s amples a re s maller t han t he t otal r epresented i n t he r est of t he a nalyses.

1 31

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S mearing Copador vases e xhibited t he l owest f requency o f s mearing o f a ny groups e xamined ( 3.7 p ercent). T his r einforces t he c onclusion t hat t hese v essels w ere p rod uced w ith a h igh d egree o f a ttention t o detail. P aint w as t horoughly dried b efore p olishing was done. No a ttempt w as made t o h urry t he f inishing p rocess. I n c omparison w ith C opador vases, C opador o pen and r ecurved bowls both s howed a h igher t endency t oward s mearing a s d id Gualpopa open b owls ( Copador: 2 2.2 percent open bowls; 1 7.7 p ercent r ecurved bowls; G ualpopa: 3 3.3 p ercent open b owls). ( The d ifference b etween t he two C opador bowl s hapes w as n ot s ignificant a s j udged b y t he X2 s tatistic; n either was t he d iff erence b etween t he c ombined C opador bowls a nd t he G ualpopa b owls.) None o f t he Arambala b owls s howed e vidence o f s mearing. A lthough t he s mall s ample s ize r equires a c autionary n ote, t he f inding i s i nteresting s ince t he r ed paste A rambala t ype i s d efinitely n ot p art of t he s ame production s ystem a s t he c ream p aste C opador a nd G ualpopa t ypes. ( See T able 3 6.) TABLE

3 6

E valuation o f Smearing V essel

C ategory

C opador O pen b owls R ecurved bowls G ualpopa O pen b owls

Smeared

1 0 1 1

9

.

Not

s meared

Total N %

2 2.2 1 7.7

3 5 5 1

7 7.8 8 2.3

4 5 6 2

1 00.0 1 00.0

3 3.3

1 8

6 6.7

2 7

1 00.0

1 7

1 00.0

1 7

1 00.0

A rambala R ecurved b owls C raftsmanship

A n o verall a ssessment, e xpressed i n a n umer- i cal r ating, was made b y t he i nvestigator o f t he manner i n w hich t he painting h ad b een done - t he e venness o f l ines, n eatness o f f illing i n o utlined a reas,

c arefulness o f e xecuting d etail, s pacing o f motifs, e tc. An original f our point s cale f rom " finely e xec uted" t hrough " very c areless" was e xpanded d uring t he t rial r ecording p hase t o a s even point s cale t o a llow f or f iner d istinctions. After i nitial t abulation, t he 133

data w ere c ollapsed i nto a t wo-way d ivision i n o rder t o have more a dequately s ized c ells w ith w hich t o work. T ables 3 7 a nd 3 8 p resent t hese data i n both f orms. A s w ith l uster a nd l ack o f s mearing, the C opador vases e xhibited t he • best l evel o f c raftsmanship ( 79.6 p ercent = b etter). T he two C opador bowl s hapes were not a s outstanding a s t he vases ( open bowl, 6 8.2 perc ent = b etter; r ecurved bowl, 6 5.1 p ercent = b etter). H owever, b oth Copador. bowl groups w ere more c arefully c rafted t han e ither t he G ualpopa or A rambala types ( Gualpopa open b owl, 2 3.2 p ercent = b etter; A rambala r ecurved bowl, 3 5.3 p ercent = b etter).

134

r d N

I

I

c A 0 L c ,

. N H

m L I ) M

C O . H H

c

rn

c f . . 0 1 N

0 1 I I

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et . N

•

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Z

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• C

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. C > N

N • N N

N . N N

H

N • N H

N

c s , • e i

H H

0 \0

m L o I Z

c o • e t

c :, m

M

m • e . H

t . o H

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e , . 3 r d

E v a l u a t i o n

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T A B L E 3 7

4 1

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• N

p e r c e n t a g e s .

•

0 \0

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TABLE 3 8 E valuation O f Craftsmanship ( Rating S cale Reduced) Vessel Category

Bettera

worse b

T otal E valuated

Copador Open bowl

3 0

6 8.2

1 4

3 1.8

4 4

Recurved bowl

4 1

6 5.1

2 2

3 4.9

6 3

Vases

2 1.5

7 9.6

5 .5

2 0.4

2 7

6 .5

2 3.2

2 1.5

7 6.8

2 8

6

3 5.3

1 1

6 4.7

1 7

Gualpp a Open bowl

Arambala Recurved bowl

aR atings

o f bRatings o f

1 , 3 ,

1 /2, 3 /4,

2 and h alf o f t hose rated 2 /3. 4 , and half of those rated 2 /3.

13 6

C HAPTER

5

PRODUCTION DECISIONS:CONTENT AND EXECUTION O F THE VESSELS' DECORATION

I NTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW The r esults of production decisions made during t he processes o f s haping a nd preparing vessels f or dec oration l ed t o the c onclusion t hat bowls of Arambala, C opador, and G ualpopa types w ere products of a type of s pecialized p roduction c haracterized by s tandardization a nd simplification. C hilanga bowls w ere not a s c learly s tandardized w hile Gualpopa and Copador vases w ere d efinitely not s tandardized. ( S ee T able 2 2, C hapter 4 ) f or a summary o f t he s tandardization evaluation f or t he various production decisions prior t o vessel decorat ion.) The l ast s et of production decisions to b e d ealt w ith relates t o t he content a nd e xecution of t he v ess els' decoration. , These f inal a spects of c eramic prod uction prior t o f iring p ertain to an a esthetic compone nt - t he s election and u se of appropriate motif conf igurations i n a prescribed manner. D ecisions c oncerni ng t hese decoration r elated a ttributes c an b e u sed t o i nvestigate two a spects of t he production process: 1 )

T he e xtent to w hich system w ide s tandards w ere applied, t hereby i ndicating t he hämogeneity of t he a esthetic c omponent a nd probably t he symbolic c ontent of t he pott ery.

2 )

T he e xtent t o which groups of vessels s howed a consistency i n t he c ombining of d esign r elated a ttributes, t hereby i ndicat ing t he degree of quality control exerted during t he production and s uggesting t he number of production units i n t he s ystem.

Decoration r elated attributes w ere s ubjected t o s everal i ncreasingly complex l evels of a nalysis i n order to i nvestigate t heir patterning. Frequency d ist ributions of s elected 9ariables f or a ll t he t ypes by s hapes were e xamined. 't his s tep was l argely a s creeni ng device t o e liminate s hape types t hat c ould nJ c onsidered products of s tandardized production. Gualpopa vases and C hilanga open bowls w ere e liminated a t t hat point. B ivariate analysis t hrough contingency t ables i ndicated s ufficiently s trong patterning f or t he

137

r emaining s hape t ypes, e xcept C opador vases, t o w arrant a f inal s tep o f multivariate a nalysis. T hese p roced ures i ncluded b oth variable c lustering t o e xamine s ystem-wide d ecorative s tandards a nd c ase c lustering t o i ndicate t he p robability of p hysical c entralization o f p roduction t hrough a - r estriction i n t he number o f p rod uction u nits. B efore d iscussing t he c onclusions drawn f rom t he multivariate a nalysis o f t he s hape t ypes i ncluded a t t hat l evel o f s tatistical e valuation, s ome comments a re i n order a bout t he s hape t ypes n ot i ncluded. A t v ari ous s tages o f t he a nalysis, d ifferent data s ets w ere e liminated a s e vidence a ccumulated t hat t hey h ad n ot b een made i n a s pecialized p roduction s ystem geared toward s tandardization e nd s implification. T he e limina ted groups w ere Copador v ases, G ualpopa v ases, a nd C hilanga open bowls. T he v ases r epresent a n i nteresting s et o f c irc umstances. T hey c orrespond w ith t he bowl s hapes o f t he s ame s tylistic c lassifications i n t erms o f r aw material r esource p rocurement p atterns b ut t he p roduct ion objectives w ere d ifferent f or t he d ifferent s hapes. Bowls w ere made t o a chieve a s tandardized e ff ect. The v ases, p articularly t he C opador o nes, w ere made w ith t he goal . of e laboration a nd u niqueness r ather t han s tandardization. T hese c haracteristics a re i ndic ative o f d ifferent e xchange c ontexts a s well a s p rod uction c onsiderations. T he vases w ould have r eceived d ifferent h andling i n t he p roduction s ystem w here t hey would h ave r epresented a g reater i nvestment i n t ime a nd a rtistic a bility. T he C hilanga b owls c ontain more h etereogeneity i n v essel dimensions, s patial c omposition, a nd motif c ombinations t han t he o ther b owls. T his t ies i n w ith t he c hemical c ompositional data w hich i ndicated t hat m any o f t he v essels h ad n ot b een made f rom r estricted r esources. C hilanga c ould, t hus, r epresent a n i ncipie nt t ype o f s pecialization, not a s d eveloped a s t he s ystem p roducing t he p olychrome bowls. T he groups r emaining a fter b ivariate a nalysis w ere C opador open bowls, C opador r ecurved bowls, G ualp opa open b owls, a nd Arambala r ecurved bowls. T he c onc lusions drawn f rom t he v ariable c lustering a re: 1 )

T he c ontent a nd e xecution of t he A rambala d ecoration w ere v ery f ormularized, v ery s tandardized.

2 )

T he c ream p aste t ypes ( both Copador s hapes a nd G ualpopa open b owls) w ere n ot decora ted u nder t ightly c ontrolled o r e xtremely h omogeneous s ystem-wide s tandards. I ntere stingly, t he i nteriors w ere m ore s tandardized t han w ere t he e xteriors. T he 13 8

r easons f or t his a tion c an o nly b e ( See C hapter 7 .) T he

c onclusions

d rawn

i nterior-exterior s uggested a t t his

f rom

t he

c ase

v arit ime.

c lustering

a re: 1 )

C opador T here i s n o e vidence f or. a s eries o f p roduction u nits, e ach t urning o ut v ery c onsistently d ecorated v essels. W hether t here w ere m any production u nits o r a l imited number w hose w orkers w ere g iven f reedom t o i nterpret g eneral r eq uirements c annot b e s aid f or c ertain. T he n ature o f s everal o f t he c lusters ( one f or e ach b owl t ype) s uggests e ither s ome l arge s ize p roduction u nits o r more p rec ise a dherence t o c ertain d ecorative d ict ates.

2 )

G ualpopa - S tandardization o f d ecoration s eems h ighly u nlikely s ince t he c lusters a re based p rimarily on c ompositional r elat ionships.

3 )

A rambala - O ne c luster was d erived f rom v essels h aving t he s ame a ttributes a s one o f t he C opador r ecurved c lusters. T his c ould i ndicate p roduction c entralization o r merely more f aithful c opying o f t he C opador mode. S ince A rambala i s c ons idered d erivative o f C opador i t i s d iff icult t o i nterpret t his p art o f t he d ata.

I n s ummary, t hen, s tandardization i n t he p roduct ion decisions c oncerning d ecoration of t he polychrome b owls a ppears t o h ave r eached o nly a moderate l evel. I n c omparison, s tandardization w as more a pparent i n t hose a spects o f t he p roduction p rocess r elating t o s haping a nd p reparing t he c eramics f or d ecoration. I t i s p ossible t hat p roduction e fficiencies i n t he e arlier s tages o f t he m anufacturing c arried greater b enefits t o t he o verall s ystem a nd w ere e asier t o e ffect t han d ec orative s tandardization. I f, a s h as b een a ssumed, t he goal of t he c eramic p roduction w as t o h ave a vailable f or e xchange a s upply o f a r ecognizable p roduct, t hat goal was a chieved b y t he C opador d ecorators a dhering t o generalized s tylistic c anons a nd motif s election. R igid decorative s tandardization w ould n ot h ave b een r equired i n t he s ystem. G ualpopa d ecoration i s e ven l ess s tandardized t han Copador, s uggesting t hat p otent ial c onsumers a ccepted d iversified d ecoration on t his ware - p erhaps b eing more c oncerned w ith s ize, s hape, or a ttractiveness of t he c ream p aste b ody i tself. S everal g limpses i nto • considerations t ribution s ystem emerged f rom w ork o n t he r elated p roduction d ecisions: 13 9

o f t he d isd ecoration-

1 .

O ne c luster o f r ecurved C opador b owls w ith m uch v ariability h ad primarily Copan V alley p roveniences. T his s uggests t hat t he e xport p roduct p robably w as more s tandardized t han t hat p roduced f or local c onsumption. ( It i s p ossible t hat t he d ecorative variability r elates t o t he s mall p roducers w ho w ere u sing d ifferent r aw material r esources, b ut t his c annot b e d etermined a t t his t ime.)

2 .

T here

w as

r ecurved valley. 3 .

a s election C opador

b y

bowls

s ize

among

e xported

those

f rom

t he

O ne c luster o f r ecurved C opador b owls w ith e ffigy f igures w as c oncentrated i n t he C opan V alley. I n t he l ast c hapter t he t endency h ad b een o bserved f or nonstandard s hapes o f C opador t o b e more prevalent i n t he Valley, a gain s uggesting d iffering l ocal v ersus e xport s tandards.

FREQUENCY D ISTRIBUTIONS

1 3

S ummary T he f requency d istribution data s uggested varyi ng d egrees o f s tandardization i n t erms o f t he p referr ed d ecoration variable s tates w ithin t he v arious v essel groupings. F or e xample, g lyphs w ere a very dominant modal motif c ombination i n t he f irst r egister o f C opador open bowls ( 35/46), w hile b oth g eometric f igures a nd s wimming h uman f igures w ere preferred i n t he s econd r egister of t hese bowls ( 15 g eometric . d esigns/13 s wimming f igures). B imodality w as a lso f ound i n t he motif c ombinations f or t he f irst r egister o f C opador r ecurved b owls ( glyphs 2 8; s eated f igures 2 8; a ll o thers 1 1). A s s tated p reviously, t hese i ndep endent t abulations w ere u sed p rimarily t o e liminate s hape t ypes t hat d id not e xhibit e nough d ecoration s tandardization t o w arrant f urther work. G ualpopa v ases a nd C hilanga open bowls w ere d ropped a s p art o f t his s creening p rocess D etailed

F indings

C opador V essels

t ion 3 9.

T he f requency d istribution v ariables o n C opador v essels

o f s elected d ecorai s p rovided i n T able

1 3 F requencies o ften a re . shown w ithout p ercentages b ecause o f t he s mall s amples. P ercentages a re u nstable a nd c an b e m isleading u nder s uch c ircumstances.

14 0

TABLE

3 9

Frequency Distribution, S elected Decoration Variables Copador Vessels . Open Bowls

Variable

Recurved Bowls

Vases

N=46

N=67

N=28

1 4 2 1 0 2

1 1 1 7 a

1 3 9

Motif combinations, exterior register l c Glyphs ( A,B,C) + other motif Glyphs ( A,B,C) only Glyphs, not A ,B,C Swimming f igures Seated f igures, facing right Seated f igures, f acing l eft Seated f igures, alternating l eft & r ight Standing f igures Serpent Bird All others

2 2 4

2

2

9

3 3 5

2

8 9

-

Motif combinations, exterior register 2 Geometric design Swimming f igures

1 5 1 3

Monkey Human f igures Human f igures & glyphs Glyphs Effigy Solid paint Solid.paint with g rooving All others Only one register

4 5 9

4 5 1 9 1 5 7

Motif combinations, interior wall r egister

-b 7 5 4 8 4

None

Glyphs Bird Plain

2 7 1 3 6

14 1

1 2 3 0 2 5

TABLE

3 9

( continued) Open B owls

Variäble

N=46

Recurved Bowls N=67

Motif c ombinations, i nterior bottom Circle & d ot Rosette Crossbands Crossbands with dots D ot Interlaced pattern Plain Obliterated/missing value

Vases N=28 Not D ecorated

2 2 6 3 2 2 6 5

8 1 1 8 4 4 2 6 6

4

9

5 2 2 8

3 1 6 2 3

9 1 1 6

1 6 9

1 1 5

4 5

C olors, exterior, 1 st register Black, orange, s pecular hematite red Black, s pecular hematite red Black + 1 other B lack + 2 or 3 others Black Orange, s pecular hematite red S pecular hematite red Colors, interior, wall r egister

Not D ecorated

B lack, orange, s pecular hematite red Black, specular hematite red B lack + 1 other B lack»+ 2 or 3 others Orange, s pecular hematite red R ed Unpainted

142

3

3

9 1 -

2 5 3 2

2 0 7 6

7 2 2 5

T ABLE

3 9

( continued) Open B owls

Variable

Number of exterior,

Recurved B owls

N=46

N=67

2 0 1 4 9 3

4 0 2 0 6 1

V ases N=28

s eparate motifs i st r egister

1 2 3 4

1 5d 1 1 • 1 1

al onstandard

g lyphs w ere u sed 4 t imes w ith one o f t he s tandard g lyphs s o t hey a re s ubsumed i n t he other c ode. bStanding f igures = 4 . Seated f igures = 2 . Both s eated and s tanding = 1 . cSee Appendix F f or i llustrations o f t he motifs mentioned throughout t his chapter. dNot u sed f or bivariate o r multivariate a nalysis; presented f or c ompleteness. Open B owls

( N=46)

An a lmost e xclusive u se o f g lyphs a s t he main motif i n t he f irst e xterior r egister i s s triking ( 35/ 4 6). P robably r elated t o t he p reference f or g lyphic motifs i s t he r elatively f requent a bsence o f b lack paint i n t he f irst r egister; many o f t he g lyphs a re only o utlined i n r ed or o utlined i n r ed a nd f illed w ith orange ( 25/46). Two motifs a re most o ften u sed i n t he s econd e xterior r egister - geometric d esigns ( 15) a nd swimming f igures ( 13). T he i nterior w all motifs a re r estricted t o g lyphs ( 27) or b irds ( 13); t he r est o f t he o pen v essels a re u ndecorated ( 6). T he d ominant c olor c ombination i s r ed or r ed a nd o range ( 27/46). The m odal motif f or t he i nterior b ottom i s t he c ircle a nd d ot ( 22); t he r est o f t he d ecorated v essels c arry a variety of * infrequently r epresented motifs. R ecurved

Bowls

( N=67)

G lyphs ( 28) a nd s eated f igures ( 28) a re dominant i n t he f irst r egister. B lack a nd s pecular h ematite r ed a re m ost often u sed a s p aint c olors ( 31/67); o ther paint c ombinations w ith b lack a ccount f or most o f t he o ther c ases ( 20/67). A s olid painted s econd r egister, w ith o r w ithout g rooving, i s present o n h alf t he v ess els ( 34/67). The i nterior w all motif most often i s a b ird ( 30/67). I t s hould b e m entioned t hat t he s pecific b ird f rom

d esign u sed o n Copador r ecurved b owls i s d ifferent t hat o n t he open bowls. F igure 1 8 i llustrates 143

14 4

14 5

t hese d ifferent e xecutions o f t he b ird motif. A p lain i nterior i s f ound o n many r ecurved bowls ( 25/67). P aint c olors, w hen u sed, f avor t he i nclusion of b lack a s o n t he e xterior ( 33/42 d ecorated). I nterior b owl b ottoms, w hen d ecorated, most often u se t he c rossbands w ith dot motif ( 18/41 d ecorated). V ases

( N=28)

T he f irst r egister most o ften f eatures g lyphs ( 22/28). P aint c olors, i ncluding b lack, a re f avored f or t he t op r egister ( 17/28). T his c ontrasts w ith C opador open bowls w here g lyphic motifs i n t he f irst r egister t ended t o b e e xecuted i n r ed a lone or r ed a nd o range. T he s econd r egister e ither c arries f igures, w ith o r w ithout g lyphs a dded ( 12/28), or, b ecause o f t he multiregister n ature o f t he s patial d ivision, h as s olid p aint : with grooving ( 8/28). G p lpopa Vessels T he f requency d istributions o f s elected decorat ion v ariables o n G ualpopa v essels a re p rovided i n Tables 4 0 a nd 4 1. Nonspiral Open B owls

( N=27)

No c lear-cut mode was f ound f or motifs i n t he f irst e xterior r egister. T he o nly motif s hared by G ual.p opa a nd C opador open bowls i n t his r egister w as G lyph C . B lack a lone ( 10/27) or b lack a nd r ed ( 14/27) w ere u sed i n t he f irst r egister. B ase s hape was m ore o ften c onvex ( 17) t han f lat ( 10). M ost of t he i nteri ors w ere p lain ( 17/27). S piral Open B owls

( N=12)

T here i s a d efinite c oncentration o f t he monkey motif o n t his s piral open b owls ( 9/12). A lso, t he motif c alled " G f ret" i s u sed r elatively f requently ( 5/12). L ongyear ( 1952:58-59) s uggests t hat t his m otif r epresents a s tylized monkey t ail a nd s ubstitutes f or t he monkey i n t erms o f s ymbolic c ontent. T he i nteriors o f s piral bowls a re n ot d ecorated w ith p ainted motifs. I f t hey a re d ecorated w ith o ther t han a s lip ( 4/12), t he c hoice i s a n egative " batik" e ffect o f w avy l ines ( Usulutan) ( 2) o r a n i mitation o f t he U sulutan e ffect ( 2) w here t he t hick s lip i s s craped a nd p artially r emoved t o c reate t he w avy l ine d esign. V ases

( N=12)

O nly a f ew v ariables w ere a vailable f or t abulat ion. N either t he c hoice o f motifs n or t he c olors u sed i n t he f irst r egister s howed m uch o f a pattern of c onc entration o r c lear-cut p reference. T his, i n combinat ion w ith t he s mall s ample s ize, r esulted i n t he d ecisi on t o r emove t his group f rom f urther a nalysis. 14 6

TABLE

4 0

Frequency D istribution, S elected Decoration Variables Gualpopa Vessels Nonspiral Open B owls

Variable

N=27

Vases N=12

Motif combinations, exterior register 1 Complex U s hape, a lone or in c ombination Glyph C , a lone or in combination Monkey, a lone or in c ombination Bird, alone or in c ombination Other, one motif Other, more t han one motif

9

4

6

4

2 6 3

Color, exterior, i st register Black & red ( nonspecular hematite red) Black Non-specular hematite red Other Base

1 0 1 4

2 6 4

3

s hape

Convex Flat Interior wall

1 7 1 0 t reatment

Plain Decorated with painted designs of bird Decorated with painted designs o f half moon Decorated with Usulutan Obliterated/missing data

1 7 4 1 3 1

0 1 2 Not Decorated

TABLE

4 1

Frequency D istribution, S elected Decoration Variables Gualpopa Vessels Variable

S piral Open

Bowls

N=12 Motif combinations, exterior . ( vessel t reated a s one register) Monkey & G -fret Monkey & c omplex U -shape Monkey & geometric motif(s) G -fret & c omplex U-shape C omplex U -shape & geometric motifs Two geometric motifs

4 1 4 1 1 1

Number of motifs on exterior 2 3 Base

1 0 2 s hape

Convex Flat Interior wall

1 2 0 t reatment

Plain D ecorated with painted design U sulutan S craped s lip Missing data

Arambala R ecurved B owls

7 0 2 2 1

( N=2 ‘6 )

T he p redominance o f t he s eated f igure i n r egist er 1 ( 15/26) a nd t he s olid p aint i n r egister 2 ( 20/26) e cho modes o f C opador. T he dominance o f t he b ird on t he i nterior a lso a ligns w ith C opador ( 12/26). ( It i s t he s ame s pecific r endering o f t he b ird a s on t he C opad or r ecurved f orm, t oo, n ot t he v ariety o n t he C opador open bowl). I nterior d ecoration o ccurs s omewhat more f requently o n Arambala ( 20/26; 7 6.9 p ercent) t han on t his s hape o f C opador ( 42/67; 6 2.7 p ercent). T he f req uency d istribution o f s elected d ecoration variables i s g iven i n T able 4 2. C hilanga Open B owls

o n

( N=16)

I t w as v ery d ifficult t o group t he designs u sed C hilanga v essels i nto m eaningful motif c ombinations 14 8

TABLE

4 2

Frequency D istribution, S elected D ecoration Variables Arambala Vessels V ariable

R ecurved B owls N=26

M otif

combinations,

exterior r egister 1

B ird S eated f igure f acing r ight S eated f igure f acing l eft Other M otif

c ombinations,

exterior r egister

3 1 5 4 4 2

S olid paint S olid paint w ith grooving Painted d esign C olors,

exterior,

1 st r egister

Black & non-specular hematite red B lack, non-specular hematite red, orange Other M otif

c ombinations,

c ombinations,

1 2 ( with o r without 3 5 6

i nterior bottom

Crossband with d ots C ircle & d ot All other motifs P lain Obliterated/missing d ata B ase

1 7 4 5

i nterior wall r egister

B ird Crosshatch w ith d ots other motif) All o ther motifs Plain, s lipped only M otif

1 6 4 6

7 5 3 7 4

s hape 7 1 9

Convex Flat

14 9

s ince t hey w ere q uite d iverse. Most designs w ere ext remely s imple, a nd m any w ere e xecuted i n a most c urs ive o r c areless manner. I n t he f irst r egister, s imple motifs c omprise t he majority, o f t he d ecoration ( 1 3/ 1 6). O nly t wo v essels c ontain r epresentational m otifs o f s ilhouetted monkeys ( one i s on a s piral bowl r emini scent o f G ualpopa). S imple motifs, f requently c ont inuous z ig-zag p atterns, w ere u sed w hen t here w as - a s econd r egister ( 8/16). B ase s hape most o ften w as c onv ex ( 9/16). T he f requency d istribution o f s elected d ecoration variables i s s upplied i n T able 4 3.

TABLE

4 3

Frequency D istribution, S elected D ecoration Variables Chilanga Vessels Variable

Open Bowls N=16

Motif c ombinations, exterior register 1 D iscrete l inear or s olid painted area C ontinuous l inear motif S imple d iscrete s hape More complex geometric s hapes Monkey

4 4 5 1 2

Motif combinations, exterior r egister 2 S olid area of paint Continuous l inear motif S imple discrete s hape One register only Base

shape

C onvex Flat R ing base

a

1 4 3 8a

I ncludes

two

9 6 1

s piral

bowls.

15 0

The s implicity o f t he e xterior motifs a s w ell a s lack o f s trong s tandardization i n t he s haping dimens ions and i n t he s patial c omposition, l ed t o t he conclusion t hat C hilanga w as most l ikely n ot produced i n the s ame k ind o f p roduction s ituation a s t he o ther types i n t he s tudy. B efore e liminating t he data s et f rom f urther a nalysis, s ome a dditional w ork was done t o s ee i f f urther i nsights c ould b e g ained f rom t he d ecbra tive data. D esign motifs w ere e xamined a cross a ll vessel s hapes a nd w ithout r espect f or t he part o f t he design f ield i n w hich t he motif occurred. T he p ots were d ivided t hen i nto t hose t hat u sed d esign motifs r equiring s ome d egree o f s kill t o paint v ersus t hose that u sed t he s implest motif w hich a ny o ccasional pott er c ould h ave managed t o p roduce. ( See T able 4 4 f or the c lassification o f design motifs.) Table 4 5 s hows t his t abulation b y v essel s hape. The f indings s uggest v ariation o f d esign c omplexity b y s hape, with t he c omplicated d esigns occurring most often on o ther t han open bowls ( 16/19) a nd t he s imple designs more f requently o n open b owls ( 13/22). Whether these differences a re d ue t o s hape s pecialization b y potters o f d ifferent s kill l evels, f unctional v ariability of s hapes l eading t o a h igher e nergy i nvestment i n d ecorating s ome f orms, a s tatus-shape c orrelation, or o ther v ariables u nfortunately c annot b e d etermined with t he c urrently a vailable s et o f data. Another t abulation was u ndertaken t o d etermine i t t here w as a ny c orrelation b etween p rovenience a nd presence o f c omplicated d esign. M ore c omplicated designs, p referentially d istributed b y s ite, c ould suggest a d ifference i n t he production o r d istribution pattern. U nfortunately, t he d istribution by p roveni ence i s h ighly s kewed i n f avor o f C opan. ( See T able 4 6.) The s omewhat l arger t han e xpected n umber o f c omp licated d esigns i n t he R io H ondo c ollection r eflects the s hapes f rom t hat p rovenience ( two open b owls, t hree vases, one r ecurved bowl, a nd one d ish). R eturning t o t he main t hrust o f t he work, i t w as decided t hat l ittle more c ould b e l earned a bout s tandardization or s implification f rom t he C hilanga c eramic group, so i t w ill n ot b e d etailed i n t he r est o f t he analysis. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS Summary The c ontingency t able a nalysis i ndicated s ome s tandardization a mong motif c ombinations, motif c ombina tions and p aint c olor u sage, a nd v arious c ompositional e lements of C opador open bowls. I t d id n ot a ppear t o

151

TABLE

4 4

C hilanga M otifs C lassified As S imple Or Complex S imple Motifs Catalog No. 0 38 0 42 0 43 0 44 0 48 0 57 0 60 0 81 0 96 1 00 1 01 1 02 1 05 1 07 1 15 19 1 26

Description D ot(s) P anels o f c olor V ertical l ines R egister of s olid c olor Z igzag l ine U nattached S U s hape N ested c hevrons Vertical wavy l ine Continuous l inear pattern I s hape S ingle t riangle S traight a nd s quiggle l ines Continuous n otched b and Curvilinear s hape Half moon Open o vals w ith h orizontal l ines C omplex Motifs

C atalog No. 0 29 0 30 0 50 0 70

&

0 79 0 80 1 06 1 39 1 08 1 09 1 10 1 14

&

Description

Monkey I nterlaced d esign Nested c hevrons w ith Hooked

l ine p attern

& G eometric f igures & & G eometric d esigns. B ird s ilhouette

c urvilinear

s hape

TABLE

4 5

S hape Of Chilanga Vessels According To C omplexity of Design Design Format Shapes Open bowls Recurved bowls Vases Cups D ishes Jars Plates Markedly incurving bowl Total

S imple

Complicated

Total

1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

3 5 5 3 2 1 -

1 6 8 6 4 3 2 1 1

2 2

TABLE

1 9

4 1

4 6

Provenience Of Chilanga Vessels According To Complexity Of Design Design Format Provenience

S imple

Complicated

Total

1 4 1

9 3

2 3 4

2

1

3

C opan Valley ( both f rom t he center and t he outlying s ettlements) Western Honduras Western Guatemala highl ands/Guatemala ( unknown) Kaminalyuyu ( Central Guatemala highlands) R io Hondo ( Matagua Valley, Guatemala) T azumal ( Western El Salvador) Total

1 2

5

7

2

1

3

2 2

15 3

1

1 9

4 1

b e a s s trong, h owever, a s s tandardization o f t his s hape's s patial c omposition, p aint s election, or dimensions. F or t he r ecurved b owl s hape of C opador, t he two-way a ssociations w ere m uch s tronger. C opador vases s howed f ew a ssociations t hat c ould b e r elated t o production c ircumstances. M ost o f t he r elationships s eemed more mechanical, r elated t o h eight-width r atios, e tc. A nalysis w ill b e t erminated a t t his s tep f or t his vessel c ategory. G ualpopa n onspiral open b owls s howed l imited two-way a ssociations, r eflecting v ariabiaity i n t he c ontent a nd e xecution of t he d ecoration o f t hese v ess els. Arambala v essels s howed quite s tandardized p airs o f motif c ombinations b ut more v ariable c ompositional r elationships. This c ould b e i nterpreted a s s tandardi zation emanating l ess f rom p roduction c ontrol t han f rom a dherence t o design c anons. D etailed

F indings

A b ivariate a nalysis was d one t hrough c onting ency t ables prepared f or various p airs o f variables. T he p rogram BMDP4F was u sed t o generate t he data. T able 4 7 l ists t he p airs o f v ariables s tudied f or e ach s hape w ithin each t ype. T ables 4 8 t hrough 5 2 p resent t he c ontingency t ables. C opador V essels Open bowls

g iven

C ontingency i n T able 4 8. 1 .

( N=46) t ables

f or

C opador

open

bowls

a re

M otifs

E xterior: r egister 1 v ersus r egister 2 . T he motifs i n t he s econd r egister d id n ot d istribute differentially a ccording t o t he motif i n r egister 1 . I t was n oted t hat t he f ew v essels ( 9/46) w ith only one r egister w ere a berrant i n t erms o f t heir motifs: f ive w ere i n t he m iscell aneous " all other" c ategory a nd two u sed swimm ing f igures w hich u sually a re r estricted t o t he l ower r egister of a t wo-register v essel. R egister 1 e xterior v ersus i nterior wall r egist er. S everal t endencies w ere n oted: 1 ) I f t he e xterior d esign i s r estricted t o glyphs, t he i nterior d esign i s l ikely t o b e g lyphic ( 14). 2 ) I f t he e xterior d esign h as b oth glyphs a nd a nother motif, t he i nterior i s l ikely t o employ t he

b ird motif

( 7).

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V

• H

M I - C D

( 1 )

g i o H H W g i c n I D U ) I) 0 C > 9 4 4 1

U C C W O o r d , i , 1 4 4 r I i t ( t j H e H H 4 1 r -i4 1 N

e 00 a )4 10 0g i0 r e -P o ›oc )a )c )a ) 4 )g i x 4 ) . , 1 1 ) 4

a l C I ), C „ C 0 4 4 -) t 3 " ) Z 2 4 0 H g 4 4 V H ( i P 4 ) ,1 0. 1 0 g l . C OH . ... , . . . . 4. ). .. , 0 „ . . 4 u r d r o a l A •u ) ( I. 3 H R S P I r

. . • « I • H ( Z

0 C D

g i 0 . 4 C g i O W H 1 t

r d C c n a l > 4

P W R I 0 1) g i 4 w 0 r -I • H e • H ( 1 ) ( J ) CIH g i w r c i C D g i I D U ] C g i 1) a ) a i X > 4 1) 0 a ) c oH 4 1 4 1 H

( 1 ) C O r i 4 ) n i • g i H W c nA 4 ) > c n o, 4q 1

V a r i a b l e

I

Z

, . W t : 3 )„ Q •H g O P .

l C )

•

15 7

N

w 4 - U ) , I • H , 1 b4 ) t r 0 0$ 1 ) g l . . U

TABLE

4 8

Copador Open Bowls Contingency Tables

Motif, R egister 2 , E xterior Monkey Swimming f igure G eometric d esign All other motifs One r eg. only Total

Color ‚ Register 1 , E xterior B lack, orange, specular h ematite r ed Orange, s pecular hematite r ed B lack, specular h ematite r ed B lack, one other color B lack, two other colors B lack only Specular h emat ite r ed only Total

I nterior Wall Motif P lain G lyphs B ird Total

Motif R egister 1 , E xterior ABC ABC G lyphs G lyphs Swimming a ll o ther only +other f igures motifs 2 2 0 0 6 6 0 1 8 5 0 2 3 1 0 1 2 0 2 5 2 1

1 4

2

9

Motif Register 1 , E xterior ABC ABC All o ther G lyphs G lyphs Swimming only + other f igures motifs

0

4 1 3 1 5 5 9 4 6

Total

0

1

3

4

0

1

1

2

1

1

5

2

0

0

0

2

0 2

1 5

0 0

1 1

2 8

5

2

0

2

9

2

9

1 1

2 1

1 4

Motif R egister 1 , E xterior ABC ABC A ll o ther G lyphs G lyphs swimming motifs only +other f igures 4 1 4 3 2 1

Total

1 6 7 1 4

158

4 1 6

4 6

Totale

0 1 1

1 6 2

6 2 7 1 3

2

9

4 6

Table 4 8

( continued)

Motif Register 1 , E xterior ABC ABC Glyphs Glyphs Swimming All other o nly + other f igures motifs Total 1 3 0 2 5 2 0 6 6 0 2 -1 4 2 6 0 1 9 0 2 0 1 3

N o. o f motifs, R egister 1 , E xterior 1 2 3 4 Total

2 1

C ircle I nterior Wall & dot Motif r osette P lain 0 G lyphs 1 7 B ird 1 1 — Total 2 8

1 4

2

9

4 6

I nterior bottom motif Crossbands w o r w/o Missing dot Plain Dot data Total 0 6 0 0 6 3 0 2 5 2 7 2 0 0 0 1 3 _ -5 6 2 5 4 6 I nterior Wall Motif

N o. of B ands, i nterior 0 1 2 3

P lain 6 0 0 0 6

T otal

Glyphs 0 2 2 4 1 — 2 7

B ird 1. 2 1 0 0 — 1 3

T otal 7 4 3 4 1 -4 6

I nterior Wall Motif C olor, i nterior w all register B lack, o range, s pecular hematite red o range, s pecul ar hematite r ed b lack, s pecular h ematite red b lack + one o ther n on-specular h ematite red s lipped only

P lain 0 0

T otal Motifs, N o. motifs , Reigster 1 E xterior 1 2 3 4 T otal

S wimm. Monkey f igure 1 3 1 4 2 4 0 2 4

Glyphs 0 1 9

3

3

1

2 0

1 0

8 1

9 1

0 6 6

7 0

0 0 -1 3

7 6 __ 4 6

2 7 2 ,

E xterior

Geometric All design other 6 4 8 0 1 1 0 0 1 5

15 9

T otal

0 0

Register

1 3

B ird

5

One reg only Total 6 2 0 1 1 4 1 9 1 3 — 9

4 6

I nterior w all v ersus i nterior b ottom. T he motif s eems i ndependent of t he w all motif. 2 .

b ottom

Motif-color c orrelation

E xterior r egister 1 . When only g lyphs a re u sed, t here i s a s trong t endency ( 16) n ot t o u se b lack; t he mode i s f or r ed o utline a nd o range f ill ( 11). W ith t he more e laborate designs of g lyphs p lus o ther d esigns a nd " all o ther", f ewer c ases l ack b lack ( 6). I nterior w all r egister. B lack i s u sed v ery i nf requently w hen g lyphs a re t he motif ( 1/27) b ut, w hen t he b ird i s t he motif, b lack i s a lmost a lways u sed ( 1 2/13). T his r elates t o t he c onv ention o f o utlining h uman a nd a nimal f igures i n b lack. 3 .

O ther c ompositional

r elationships

Number o f b ands o n i nterior b etween r im and f irst r egister a nd i nterior wall motif. The modal number i s two. Aberrant -c ases of o ne or t hree b ands s plit b etween t he two c ategories of motifs ( glyphs [ 3] a nd b irds [ 31) I f t he i nteri or w all i s. not d ecorated t hen n o b ands a re u sed b elow t he r im b and. Number o f motifs i n e xterior p lexity o f d esign) v ersus w.----

b .

one

( com-

Motifs i n r egister 1 . T his t abulation was n ot meaningtul s ince t he number of m otifs ' i s i mplicitly r eflected i n t he c oding o f t he motif c ombinations.

M otifs i n r egister 2 . Swimming f igures t ended t o b e a ssociated w ith more n umerous motifs i n t he f irst r egister ( 10/13). T here i s a s uggestion t hat t he s ame i s t rue f or monkeys i n t he s econd r egister • ( 3/4) b ut t he number o f a vailable c ases i s t oo s mall t o b e r eliable.

R ecurved

Bowls

( N=67)

C ontingency t ables a re g iven i n T able 4 9. 1 .

r egister

f or

C opador

r ecurved

b owls

M otifs

E xterior: r egister 1 v ersus r egister 2 . T here i s a s trong t endency f or s eated f igures, s erp ents, a nd b irds t o b e a ssociated w ith a s olid painted s econd r egister ( 29/34). G lyphs, o n t he o ther h and, most o ften w ere paired w ith some 160

TABLE

4 9

C opador R ecurved Bowls Contingency Tables

M otif

M otif Register 2 , E xterior S olid paint M onkey S wimming f igure E ffigy G eometric design O ther motifs Total

ABC G lyghs w ,w/o o ther 2 4 9 2 5 6 2 8

C olor, R egister 1 E xterior B lack, orange, s pecular h ematite 2 r ed o range a nd specu1 1 l ar hematite r ed b lack and specu5 l ar hematite r ed 3 b lack + one other 2 b lack + two others 0 b lack only s pecular h ematite 5 r ed only Total

2 8

S erpent/ b ird 5 0 0 1 0 0

2 8

6

I nterior Wall M otif P lain A & /or B G lyphs C G lyph B ird N on-Standard g lyphs Total

0 2 8

R egister

S eated f igure

E xterior'

All other motifs Total 3 3 4 4 0 9 0 1 5 1 8 7 0 5

1 ,

S erpent/ b ird

7

6 7

E xterior

All

other

motifs

0

Total

9 1 1

0 2 0 1 0 0

6 0 0 0

0 2 0 3

31 -6 2 3

0

0

0

5

6

5

2 8 Motif

ABC G lyphs w ,w/o o ther 1 8 8 0 2

1 ,

S eated f igure 2 4 0 0 1 2 1

Motif TBC G lyphs w ,w/o other

R egister

R egister

1 ,

S eated S erpent/ f igure b ird 3 2 0 0 1 0 2 3 2 1 2 8

1 61

E xterior

A ll other motifs Total 2 2 5 8 0 1 0 3 3 0 3

2 6

6 7

5

6 7

Table

4 9

M otif No. of Motifs, R egister 1 , E xterior 1 2 3 4

ABC G lyphs w ,w/o other 5 1 6 6 1

No. of bands, E xterior 0 1 2

2 8

6

I nterior Wall Motif P lain Glyphs B ird

R egister

All o ther motifs 5 0 0 0

1 ,

S erpent/ b ird 1 2 3

2 8

6

9

1 8

4

4

No. of B ands, I nterior 0 1 2 3 4

P lain 2 5 0 0 0 0

All o ther motifs 2 3 0

0 3 7 1 1 1 2

2 5

16 2

T otal 4 0 . 2 2 5 6 7

m issi ng 0 1 5

2 6

G lyphs

6 7

5

I nterior Wall

T otal 4 0 2 0' 6 1

Exterior

I nterior bottom motif c ircle c ross i nter& dot/ band, l aced rosette dot dot pattern p lain 2 5 0 0 0 0 1 4 2 1 3 3 1 5 1 6 0

Total

Total

Exterior

5

S eated f igure 1 1 1 5 2

2 8

T otal

1 ,

S erpent/ b ird 4 2 0 0

M otif ABC G lyphs w ,w/o o ther 2 6 2 0

R egister

S eated f igure 2 6 2 0 0

2 8

T otal

( continued)

6

Total 2 5 1 2 3 0 6 7

Motif B ird 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 0

T otal 2 6 5 3 0 4 2 6 7

Table

4 9

( Continued)

I nterior Wall C olor, I nterior Wall Register M ack, orange, s pecular h ematite r ed orange, specular h ematite r ed b lack, s pecular h ematite r ed b lack + one other s pecular h ematite r ed b lack + 2 or more o ther s lipped only

P lain

.G lyphs

0

0

3

3 .

0

6

1

7

0 0

3 1

2 2 2

2 5 3

0

1

1

2

0 2 5

1 0 —

1 0

2 2 5 _

2 5

1 2

Total

• No. Motifs R egister 1 E xterior 1 2 3 4 Total

S olid P aint 2 9 5 0 0 3 4

M otif

M otif

B ird

3 0

Total

6 7

R egister 2 E xterior SwimG eomet- a ll ming r ic o ther M onkey f ig. E ffigy design motif Total 1 • 1 2 5 2 4 0 3 3 2 2 5 2 0 0 5 1 0 0 6 0 0 0 1 0 1 -4 9 5 8 7 6 7

16 3

p ainted motif i n t he s econd r egister ( 26/28). A s w as observed f or t he open b owls, h owever, v essels w ith g lyphs i n t he u pper r egister w ere not s tandardized i n t erms o f s econd r egister motifs. R egister 1 e xterior v ersus i nterior wall r egist er S everal t endencies w ere n oted: 1 ) s eated Tg iures i n e xterior r egister 1 associate with b ird motifs ( 23/28); 2 ) g lyphic motifs o n t he e xterior most o ften a ssociate w ith p lain i nteri or w all r egisters ( 18/28). However, a ll G lyphs A a nd B o n t he i nterior w all occur o n v essels w ith e xterior g lyphic motifs ( 8). I n t he t wo i nstances w here i nterior g lyphs a re u sed w ith s eated f igures, o ne h as g lyph C a nd t he other h as " nonstandard" g lyphs. I t w ill b e r ecalled f rom t he f requency d istributions t hat g lyphs w ere u sed m uch more f requently o n t he i nterior o f open bowls t han on r ecurved bowls. H owever, t here does a ppear t o b e a r ecurved s ubgroup o f glyphic i nterior a nd e xterior d ecoration a llied t o t he open b owl s ubset. I nterior w all v ersus i nterior b ottom. A n a ssoc iation w as f ound b etween t he b ird i nterior wall motif a nd t he c ross b ands w ith dots bottom motif ( 16/18). ( Since t he b ird w all motif a lso a ssoc iated w ith t he e xterior s eated f igure m otif, a multivariate a ssociation s eems l ikely.) 2 .

M otif-color

c ombinations

E xterior r egister 1 . T here i s a t endency, a s i n t he open bowl c ategory, f or b lack paint n ot t o b e u sed i n g lyphic motifs ( 16/28). None o f t he r epresentational motifs ( seated f igures, s erp ents, a nd b irds) l ack b lack p aint i n t heir e xecution. I nterentingly, h owever, orange paint i s p ractically n ever u sed w ith t he l atter group o f motifs. I nterior wall r egister. T he a ssociation o f g lyghs w ith o range a nd r ed a nd t he a ssociation of r epresentational motifs ( here t he b ird) w ith b lack a nd o ther c olors i s f ound h ere, t oo. I n t his i nstance, t he b ird motif i s most o ften e xe cuted i n b lack a nd s pecular h ematite r ed w itho ut orange p aint b eing u sed ( 22/30). 3 .0ther

c ompositional

N umber o f b ands o n f irst r egister a nd G lyphic motifs most painted b ands a bove

r elationships e xterior b etween r im a nd f irst r egister m otifs. o ften do n ot h ave a ny t heir r egister ( 26/28),

164

w hile r epresentational d esigns most o ften do. T he mode f or t he s eated f igure motif g roup i s o ne b and. Number o f b ands o n i nterior b etween r im a nd f irst r esister a nd i nterior w all motif. T he h ire r motif most f requentlY is a ccompanied b y t wo p ainted b ands ( 23/30), w hich w as a lso t he mode f or open b owls, r egardless o f motif. T he g lyph motif v essels a ll h ave p ainted b ands b ut t he t wo-band mode i s n ot a s d efinite ( 7/12). Number o f motifs o n

e xterior

r egister o ne v ersus

a .

M otifs i n r egister 1 : p revious d iscussion.

Not

meaningful,

s ee

b .

M otifs

D id

n ot

a ny

i n

r egister

2 :

p rovide

a dditional i nsights n ot a vailable f rom e xamining motifs i n t he s econd r egister. Vases

( N=28)

B ecause o f t he d ifferent s hape o f t he d esign f ield a nd t he h etereogeneity o f t he motif c onfigurat ions a c onsiderably d ifferent s et o f c ontingency t ables ( Table 5 0) w as r un. F ewer motif r elationships c ould b e e xamined, more c ompositional r elationships w ere examined. 1 .

Motifs

E xterior r egister 1 v ersus r egister 2 : t ern o f a ssociation c ould b e d etermined. 2 .

Compositional

No

p at-

r elationships

Number

o f b ands o n e xterior b etween r im a nd r egister a nd f irst r egister motifs. R elat ively l ittle p atterning w as n oted. T he e xcept ion w as i n t he c ases w here " standard" A , B , C glyphs h ad b een u sed i n r egister 1 . M ost o f t hese v essels ( 10/13) d id n ot u se p ainted b ands b eldw t he r im.

f irst

Number o f a .

r egisters on e xterior v ersus

M otif c ombinations i n r egister 1 . I ntere stingly, t he f ew c ases w ith f igures i n t he f irst r egister w ere a ll o ne r egister v essels ( 4). I t w ould s eem p ossible t hat t hese p ieces a re a berrant e xamples o f d ec oration a s w ere t he s everal open b owls w ith s wimming f igures i n t he s ingle r egist er. N o o ther p attern o f a ssociation w as observed.

16 5

TABLE

5 0

C opador Vases C ontingency T ables Motif ABC Motif R egister 2 , g lyphs E xterior only Human f igure only 4 Human f igures & g lyphs 2 G lyphs only 2 Other motifs 4 Solid paint 1

R egister 1 , NonH uman, s tandard f igure g lyphs

1 3

Total

ABC g lyphs only 1 0 3

0 0 0 2

3 2 0 1

4

2

9

R egister 1 , NonH uman s tandard f igure g lyphs

1 3

Total

3

1

4

2

Number of R egisters 1 2 3

R egister 1 , NonH uman s tandard l ure g lyphs

1 3

Total

0 0

1 0

4

2

M otif Number Human of F igure R egister Only 1 0 2 6 3 or more T otal

1 7

Human F igure + Gly2h 0 3 2 5

G lyphs O nly 0 2 2 4

1 66

R egister O ther M otif 0 2 2 4

Total 7— 5 • 4 4 8 2 8

E xterior A ll o ther motifs 5 4 9

Motif ABC g lyphs only 0 7 6

All o ther motifs 3

0 0 0 4

M otif 17 77 7 7 =7- -b etween r im a nd i st r egister 0 Any

E xterior

Total 1 7 1 1 2 8

E xterior All o ther motifs 0 6 3 9

Total 5 1 4 9 2 8

2 ,

E xterior One S olid Register P aint Only 0 5 1 0 2 3

0 5

T otal 5 1 4 9 2 8

Table

5 0

( Continued)

R im

N o . of bands, b etween r im and i st register = 0 Any T otal

Narrow ( 8-12 cm)

M edium ( 13-14 7 3

4

8

D iameter

c m)

Wide ( 15-22 6 4

1 0

cm)

1 0

Total 1 7 1 1 2 8

R im D iameter H eight S hort ( 12-16 cm) M edium ( 17-20 c m) T all ( 21-24.5 c m) T otal

M otif, R egister 1 E xterior A BC glyphs H uman F igures N onstandard G lyphs A ll other motifs T otal

Narrow ( 8-12 cm)

M edium ( 13-14

6 2 0

5 5 0

8

1 0

Narrow ( 8-12 cm) 3

c m)

Wide ( 15-22

cm)

1 2 7

1 2 9 7

1 0

R im D iameter M edium W ide ( 13-14 cm) ( 15-22 6 4

Total

2 8

cm)

Total 1 3

2

2

0

4

2 1 _

2 0

5 1

9 2

8

1 0

167

1 0

2 8

Table

neight S hort ( 12-16 cm) M edium ( 17-20 cm) Tall ( 21-24.5 cm) T otal

h im Diameter Narrow ( 8-12 cm) M edium ( 13-14 cm) Wide ( 15-22 cm) T otal

5 0

( Continued)

Width, E xterior R im Band Narrow ( 0-.8 c m) W ide(1.0-2.fCm) 7 5 3 6 1 6 1 1

1 7

W idth, E xterior R im Band Narrow ( 0-.8 cm) Wide(1.0-2.2cm) 2 6 7 3 2 8 1 1

1 7

W idth, E xterior R im Band Width, I nterior R im B and.... Narrow ( 0-.8 c m) Wide(1.0-2.2cm) Narrow ( 0-.5 cm) 3 1 M edium ( 1.0-1.5cm) 8 4 W ide ( 1.8-3.5 cm) 0 1 2 Total

1 1

16 8

1 7

T otal 1 2 9 7 2 8

T otal 8

1 0 1 0 2 8

T otal 4 1 2 1 2 2 8

b .

Motif c ombinations i n r egister t ern o f a ssociation w as noted.

2 .

No

pat-

R im d iameter v ersus a .

Motif combinations i n r e9ister 1 . A t end ency was noticed f or f igures t o b e r est ricted t o n arrow a nd medium w idth vess els. T his p robably i s l argely a f unction o f t he h eight-width r atio, however, ( figures are on s ingle r egister v essels), r ather t han r elating t o t he motif per s e.

b .

W idth o f e xterior r im a ssociation was noted.

C .

H eight o f vessel. T he e xpected a ssociat ion o f greater h eight w ith more w idth was f ound. T he s hort v essels w ere s kewed t o t he n arrow a nd medium h eight.

d .

Number of b ands b etween r im a nd f irst r egister ( exterior). T here was a s light t endency f or medium w idth v essels t o l ack painted b ands ( 7/10), b ut n o pattern was observed w ithin t he o ther two r im d iameter c ategories.

Width of

e xterior

b and.

Very

l ittle

r im band v ersus

a .

Width of i nterior r im b and. A w ide i nteri or r im b and a s sociates w ith a w ide e xteri or r im b and ( 12/17). A n arrow or medium i nterior r im b and i s more l ikely t o b e a ssociated w ith a n arrow e xterior r im band t han w ith a w ide one.

b .

H eight o f v essel. not d iscernible.

A

d efinite

pattern

i s

Gualpopa Vessels Nonspiral

Open Bowls

( N=27)

Contingency t ables f or bowls a re g iven i n T able 5 1. 1 .

Gualpopa

n onspiral

open

Motifs

Exterior r egister 1 versus i nterior wall r egist er d ecoration. V essels w ith painted motifs o n the i nterior wall h ave e ither G lyph C or a complex U motif on t he e xterior. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he one nonspiral b owl w ith a monkey ( the f requently u sed motif on s piral bowls) c arries U sulutan on t he i nterior a s do s everal o f t he s piral pots. 16 9

TABLE

5 1

Gualpopa Nonspiral Open Bowls Contingency Tables

Motif, C olor R egister 1 E xterior B lack & r ed B lack Other Total

R egister

Complex U s hape 4 3 2

G lyph C 0 6 0

9

6

Motif, I nterior Wall T reatment P lain P ainted w ith motif U sulutan M issing/ obliterated Total

Complex U s hape

Total

1

2

1 ,

O ther, O ther, > 1 1 motif motif T otal 2 2 1 0 3 1 1 4 1 0 3 6

3

2 7

E xterior

G lyph C Monkey B ird

O ther, Other, . > . 1 1 motif motif T otal

6

2

0

1

6

2

2 O.

4 0

0 1

0 1

0 0

0 1

6 3

1

0

0

0

0

1

9

6

1

2

6

0 3

Complex U s hape 7 1 1 9

Register

Complex U s hape

1 ,

Register

1 ,

1 9

2 7

E xterior

G lyph C Monkey B ird 6 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 6 1 2

Motif, Number ot R egisters, E xterior

E xterior

Monkey B ird 0 2 1 0 0 0

Register

Motif, Number of Bands, E xterior 1 2 None

1 ,

O ther, O ther, = ' • 1 1 motif motif T otal 3 2 2 0 0 0 1 3 1 6 6

3

2 7

E xterior

G lyph C Monkey B ird

O ther, O ther, . = 1 1 motif motif T otal

1 2

1 8

4 2

1 0

1 1

1 5

1 2

9 1 8

Total

9

6

1

2

6

3

2 7

1 70

Table

5 1

Motif,

B ase S hape C onvex F lat

C omplex U s hape 4 5

Total

9

( Continued )

Register

1 ,

E xterior Other, O ther, « = 1 1 motif motif Total 4 3 1 7 2 01 0 .

G lyph C M onkey B ird 3 1 2 3 0 0 6

1

2

6

3

2 7

B ase S hape I nterior Wall T reatment P lain P ainted w ith motif U sulutan M issing/obliterated T otal

2 .

Motif-color

C onvex 1 3 2 2 0

F lat 4 4 1 1

1 7

1 0

T otal 1 7 6 3 1 2 7

c ombinations

E xterior r egister 1 . T he f requency distribution data s howed t hat t he paint c hoice i n t his r egist er varied b etween b lack only or b lack a nd r ed. The preference f or b lack only i s a ttributable i n large part t o a dominant G ualpopa s tyle o f r endering many motifs i n s ilhouette or outline. Thus, a ll t he vessels w ith Glyph C a nd t he one w ith a monkey i n t he f irst r egister u se b lack only. O ther motifs - c omplex U a nd o ther m iscellaneous motif c ombinations - a re l ikely t o u se e ither b lack o nly or b lack a nd r ed. However, f requently w hen t he two c olors a re u sed they a re o n different e lements o f t he d esign r ather t han t ogether a s o utline a nd f ill a s done i n 3 .

C opador. Other c ompositional M otif versus

a .

r elationships

c ombinations

e xterior

r egister

1

Number of r egisters on e xterior. T he mode i s f or Gualpopa open bowls, l ike C opador, t o h ave two e xterior r egisters. T he s ubs et t hat u ses only one r egister does not

1 71

s how a ny p atterning i n t erms o f motifs for t hat s ingle r egister. ( A majority o f the b owls w ith G lyph C h ave only o ne r egister ( 4/6), b ut t he n umber o f c ases i s s o s mall t hat t he a ssociation c ould b e s purious.) b .

B ase s hape. I t w as h ypothesized t hat the d ifferent b ase s hapes c ould r elate t o a f unctional d istinction w hich w ould a lso b e r eflected i n motif u se. S uch a r elations hip d id n ot m anifest i tself, however.

c .

N umber o f b ands o n i ng w as observed.

d .

I nterior wall decoration v ersus s hape .. No p atterning w as o bserved.

e xterior.

No

p attern-

base

A rambala V essels R ecurved

a re

b owls

C ontingency f ound i n T able 1 .

( N=26)

t ables 5 2.

f or

Arambala

r ecurved

bowls

M otifs

E xterior r egister 1 v ersus r egister 2 . The c ases a re v ery l imited ( N=4) b ut t he a typical l eft-facing s eated f igure i s a lways a ssociated w ith a n e laborated . s econd r egister b earing e ither p ainted designs o r g rooving a long with s olid p aint. T he " standard" r ight-facing s eated f igure i s a lways a ssociated w ith a s olid p ainted s econd r egister, c omparable t o t he C opador subs ample w ith t he s ame f irst r egister motif. R egister 1 e xterior v ersus i nterior wall r egist er. S everal i nteresting c ombinations a re sugg ested b y t his t abulation b ut c an only b e s tated t entatively b ecause o f t he s mall s ample s ize. A gain, t he l eft-facing v ersus r ight-facing f igures s eem t o r epresent d ifferent decorative s chemes - n one o f t he l eft-facing motifs comb ined w ith a p lain i nterior a nd only one ( of 4 ) c ombined w ith a n i nterior b ird. T he r ightf acing f igures most o ften ( 11/15) a ssociate with t he i nterior b ird. M ention s hould b e m ade i n p assing of t he i nterior w all motif o f c rossh atching w ith dots. T his d esign e lement has b een r ecorded ( Beaudry 1 980) on a number o f p ieces f rom t he M iddle M otagua r egion o f G uatemala, p ieces t hat s hare s ome of t he s hape a nd d ecorative a spects o f Arambala b ut w hich e mploy s pecular h ematite p aint. I t i s p ossible t hat f uture c ontrolled e xcavations i n t his a rea o f G uatemala w ill provide s tratigraphic e vidence 17 2

TABLE

5 2

Arambala R ecurved Bowls Contingency Tables

Number of bands, e xterior ‚ between r im & r egister 1 none 1 Total

B ase S hape Convex F lat Total

Motif, R egister 2 , E xterior S olid painted P ainted w ith design S olid painted w ith grooving Total

Color, R egister 1 , E xtevior s lack a nd r ed B lack,red,orange A ll other c ombina tions Total

B ird 3 0

3

B ird 1 2 3

B ird 1

M otif R egister 1 , E xterior S eated f ig- S eated f igu re f acing u re f acing O ther r ight l eft motif Total 8 1 1 13 7 3 3 1 3 1 5

4

4

2 6

Motif R egister 1 , E xterior S eated f ig- S eated f igu re f acing u re f acing Other r ight l eft motif Total 4 2 7 0 1 1 2 4 1 9 1 5

4

4

Motif R egister 1 , E xterior S eated f ig- S eated f igu re f acing u re f acing Other r ight l eft motif 1 3 0 2

2 6

Total 1 6

1

0

3

2

6

1 _

2

1

0

4

4

4

3

B ird 2 0 1 3

1 5

2 6

Motif R egister 1 , E xterior S eated f ig- S eated f igOther u re f acing u re f acing motif Total r ight l eft 2 1 7 1 1 2 3 0 1 4 1 1 5

173

2

1

4

4

5 2 6

T able

I nterior wall M otif B ird C rosshatch w ith dots A ll o ther motifs S lipped only Total

B ird 0 1 1 1 3

5 2

( Continued)

M otif R egister 1 , E xterior S eated r ig- S eated f ig. u re f acing u re f acing O ther r ight l eft motif Total 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 1 2

1 2 0 4

1 5

I nterior Wall Number of bands, i nterior,between r im & r egister 1 0 1 2 3 4 T otal

I nterior b ottom motif C ircle a nd dot Crossbands,dot A ll o ther motifs P lain M issing/obliter. Total

B ase S hape C onvex F lat T otal

B ird 0 0 9 3 — 1 2

B ird 4 5 1 0 2 1 2

S olid P ainted 5 1 1 -1 6

C rosshatch w ith dots 1 0 0 1 1 3

0 1 3 4

M otif

A ll other motifs 0 1 4 5

S lipped only Total 7 0 . 1 0 1 3 0 4 1 _ 6 2 6

I nterior Wall Motif C rosshatch A ll o ther S lipped w ith dots motifs only 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 5 1 0 1 3 5 6

Motif, R egister 2 E xterior P ainted S olid with w ith motif grooving T otal 2 0 7 4 4 1 9 — 6 4 2 6

1 74

1 5 6 -2 6

Total 5 7 3 7 4 — 2 6

f or b roadening t he Arambala group b eyond t he motifbased v arieties e stablished by S harer ( 1978 Vol 3 :56-57). ( The t hree p ieces i n t his s ample w ith t he c rosshatching a nd dots motif a re a ll f rom u nknown p roveniences i n G uatemala.) I nterior w all v ersus i nterior b ottom. T he a ssociation o f t he i nterior wall b ird motif a nd t he c rossbands w ith dots b ottom motif f ound i n Copador r ecurved b owls w as much l ess e vident h ere ( 5/12). T he c ircle a nd dot b ottom motif was a s l ikely t o b e u sed w ith t he b ird motif ( 4/12) a s w as t he c rossbands w ith dots. T he dutiful r eplication o f t he C opador d ecorative s cheme d id n ot s eem t o a pply a s f orcefully t o t he b ottom o f t he i nside of t he v essel, possibly b ecause t his i s a l ess v isible a nd t herefore l ess i mportant p art o f t he p ot. 2 .

M otif-color c ombinations

E xterior r egister 1 . T he u se o f orange p aint i s quite l imited i n t his s et o f pots ( 4/26). T he f ew t imes i t does occur.are most f requently a ssociated w ith r ight-facing s eated f igures i n r egister 1 ( 3/14). ( A c orresponding l ack o f orange p aint w as n oted i n t he e quivalent C opador s hape which employed t he s eated f igure motif.) 3 .

O ther

c ompositional

r elationships

Number o f b ands o n e xterior b etween r im a nd f irst r egister a nd f irst r egister motif. No patterning w as e vident i n c ontrast w ith C opador. w here r epresentational motifs ( birds, s eated f igures) most o ften u sed o ne painted b and. Number o f b ands o n i nterior f irst r egister a nd i nterior patterning w as e vident. B ase

b etween r im wall motif.

a nd No

s hape v ersus

• a . M otif c ombination, e xterior r egister 1 . T here i s a s uggestion o nce a gain o f deviation or more v ariability i n t he v ess els u sing t he l eft-facing s eated f igure a s t heir r egister 1 motif. H alf ( 2/4) o f t hese h ad t he l ess f requently u sed c onvex b ase. b . 2 .

M otif c ombination, e xterior r egister T he o nly n oteworthy a spect i s t hat a ll t he vessels with grooving had f lat b ases ( 4)

17 5

M ULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS B ackground O n t he b asis o f t he b ivariate a nalysis, i t w as d ecided t o p ursue multivariate a nalysis on f our data s ets: Open b owls

R ecurVed

B owls

C opador

C opador

Gualpopa

A rambala

T hese s amples w ould e nable e xamination o f decorative v ariability w ithin type a cross s hape c ategory ( Copador) a nd b etween types w ithin s hape c ategory ( open bowls: C opador v ersus Gualpopa; r ecurved b owls: C opador v ersus A rambala) E ven t hough t he G ualpopa s eemed questionable i n t erms o f l evel o f s tandardization f rom t he b ivariate a nalysis, i t w as r etained f or c omparison purposes. T he s ame variables w ere u sed a s i n t he b ivariate a nalysis w ith t he e xception of t he number of s eparate motifs i n r egister 1 . T his variable h ad s hown s uch h igh c orrelation w ith t he motif c ombination variable t hat i t d id not appear u seful. Up t o t his p oint i n t he r esearch, t he f ocus had b een on t he decorative variables: t heir distribution a cross t he c ases a nd t heir c o-variation among t he c ases. Two types o f c luster a nalysis c an b e p erformed, however: 1 .

R -mode

a nalysis,

c lustering variables

2 .

Q-mode

a nalysis,

c lustering

c ases

These d ifferent a pproaches t o i solating s tructure i n data s ets h ave t ended t o b e p referred by various d iscip lines f or different types of c lassification purposes. Dumond ( 1974:254) h as d iscussed t he two t ypes o f a nal yses a s f ulfilling varying f unctions i n a rchaeology: 1 .

R-mode a nalysis u sed f or e xtracting " co-varying c haracteristics f rom s ets of i tems ( for e xample, a ttributes f rom a rtif acts, types f rom c ollection .)"; l eads t o f ormal definitional c ategories.

2 .

Q -mode a nalysis u sed f or " sorting of i tems ( artifacts, c ollections) o n t he basis o f t heir c haracteristics"; l eads t o grouping o f i tems.

C larke ( 1968:534) t echniques, s ince t hey

h as p ointed out t hat t hese two a re i nverted f orms o f each 17 6

o ther, " should i solate t he s ame c lusters a nd f actors . .. w ithin b road l imits, a lbeit a pproached f rom d iffere nt v iewpoints." S neath a nd S okal ( 1973:258) a lso ment ion t hat r elationships c learly e xist b etween c lusters o f c ases a nd c lusters o f variables. I t w as t hought t hat u tilized f or i nvestigating p roduction s ubsystem:

b oth v iewpoints c ould be d ifferent a spects o f t he

R -mode a nalysis c an i nvestigate s tandardizat ion f rom t he v iewpoint o f f ormularization o f decoration-related d ecisions - t he c onsistency of u se o f t he d ifferent variable s tates on v ess els o f t he s ame s hape. T he f indings c an b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f s ystem-wide s tandards f or d ecoration. Q -mode a nalysis c an i nvestigate s tandardizat ion f rom t he v iewpoint o f g roups o f v essels t hat s hare d ecoration-related variable s tates. T he f indings c an b e i nterpreted a s e vidence f or production c entralization, r elated t o t he n umber of p roduction u nits. The v ariables b eing u sed f or t he multivariate a nalysis w ere a ll m ulti-state a nd q ualitative ( nominal) r ather t han c ontinuous. T hus, i t w as n ecessary t o f ind a c omputer p rogram t hat c ould h andle t his t ype of data i n p reparing t he s imilarity matrix. ( Most a vailable s tatistical p ackages [ BMD, SAS, e tc.] a re l imited t o c ontinuous v ariables.) T he NTSYS s eries f rom NYSU a t S tony B rook, a vailable i n U CLA's OAC l ibrary, w as u sed i n t his s tage o f t he a nalysis. As a r eview o f s tatistical l iterature r eveals, c luster a nalysis i s n ot a u nitary a pproach b ut r ather i s a s eries o f n umerical p rocedures t hat e ventually w ill r esult i n v arious c lassifications a ccording t o t he options c hosen. T he t wo e ssential c omponents a re 1 ) method of e stimating s imilarity o r d istance ( coeffici ents of a ssociation) a nd 2 ) r ules a pplied f or c luster f ormation.. Similarity matrices Numerous c oefficients o f a ssociation a re a escribed i n numerical t axonomy volumes ( e.g., Sokal a nd S neath 1 963:128-141), a nd NTSYS offers 1 6 o ptions f rom w hich t o c hoose. T he s imple matching c oefficient ( Ssm) w as u sed b ecause o f i ts applica bility t o q ualitative data a nd i ts a bility t o h andle m issing values ( Doran a nd Hodson 1 975:140). C luster f ormation A number o f " options" a re available f or t his p art of t he w ork, a lso ( Sneath a nd S okal 1 973:202-214). NTSYS p erforms s equential a gglome rative h ierarchical c luster a nalysis, g iving t he u ser s even a lternatives i n t erms o f t he s pecific t ype o f 177

a verage l inkages t hat c an b e u sed. T he u nweighted p air-group method u sing a rithmetic a verages ( UPGMA) w as e mployed s ince i t i s t he most w idely u sed m ethod ( Sneath a nd Sokal 1 973:230-233) a nd t he o ne t hat i s l ess l ikely t o l ead t o possible d istortion o f t he r esults ( Aldenderfer 1 977:10). V ariable

c lustering

S ummary T he a pproach t o d ecorating t hese p ainted w ares does not s eem t o r epresent a s trong " formularization" o f t he e ntire d esign s cheme. R ather, i t a ppears t hat a s eries o f i ndependent d ecisions w as m ade r egarding d iff erent p arts o f t he v essel. A lthough t he s pecifics v ary, f or e ach g roup i nterior v ariables a re t he f irst t o c luster. T he motif c ombinations t he e xterior w hich m ight i mportant o r dominant p art o f q uite i ndependent, j oining i n a ssociation o n b oth C opador a nd

i n t he f irst r egister on b e c onsidered t he most t he d esign f ield - a re a t a v ery l ow l evel o f G ualpopa b owls.

T he A rambala data a re i nteresting b ecause, w hile t hey s upport t he i dea o f a s eries o f d ecisions a bout d ifferent a spects o f t he d ecoration, t he a ssociation l evels a re much h igher. M otifs i n r egister 1 j oin o ther v ariables m uch s ooner t han i n t he o ther g roups. T he G ualpopa v ariable c lusters h ad a s omewhat different s et o f v ariables, s o d irect c omparison c annot b e m ade t oo e asily. I t h as b een noted, h owever, t hat r egister . 1 motifs w ere q uite i ndependent h ere a s w ith C opador. Motif c ombinations f rom r egister 2 h ad b een r emoved f rom t he a nalysis e arly i n t he p roject b ecause t hey w ere s o s cattered a nd i nconclusive - a nother i ndicat ion o f no s tandardization. T he observation t hat t he motifs i n various p arts of t he d esign f ield s eemed more r elated t o o ther v aria bles r ather t han t o e ach o ther l ed m e t o e xperiment w ith r unning c luster a nalyses o f o nly t he motif c ombina tions. T his w as d one f or t he t wo C opador groups a nd f or t he A rambala r ecurved bowls. F igure 1 9 presents t he d endrograms. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat e ach group s hows a d ifferent p attern o f a ssociations, a gain r einforcing t he i dea o f v arying approaches t o t he c eramic d ecoration r ather t han a w idespread a pplication o f a s et p attern. D etailed

F indings.

F igures 2 0 t hrough 2 3 p resent t he d endrograms r esulting f rom t he NTSYS v ariable c luster a nalysis. F or d iscussion p urposes, o nly a ssociations o f 0 .400 or h igher a re r eviewed b elow. T his i s a n a rbitrary l evel 178

0 .525

. 525

. 525

. 500

. 500

. 475

. 475

. 450

. 450

. 425

. 42g

. 400

. 400

. 375

. 375

. 350

. 350

. 325

. 325

. 300

. 300

2 .75 '

. 275

. 250

. 250

. 225

. 225

. 200

. 200

. 175

. 175

. 150

. 150

0 .500 0 .475 0 .450 0 .425 0 .400 0 .375 0 .350 0 .325 0 .300 0 .275 0 .250 0 .225 0 .200 0 .175 0 .150

. 125

0 .125

. 100

4 100

0 .100 (MA WR O PE N B LS

C OPADDR R ECURV M B OWLS

F igure 1 9: D endrograms, C lustPr A nalysis o f V ariables, M otif C ombinations O nly

179

A RAMBA W . R ECURVED B OWLS

0 H 4 1

U l , 1

H U ) 4

U ) , 1

M

0 . ) H

U )

1 0

C N

0 , 1

0

0

0

0

0 .600 0 .550 0 .500 0 .450 0 .400 0 .350 0 .300 0 .250 0 .200 0 .150 0 .100

F igure 2 0: D endrogram , C luster A nalysis o f D ecorationR elated V ariables, C opador O pen B awls

180

0

I n t e r i o r W a l M o t i f

H

0 .600 0 .550 0 .500 0 .450 0 .400 0 .350 0 .300 0 .250 0 .200 0 .150 0 .100 0 .050

F igure 2 1:

D endrogram , C luster A nalysis o f D ecorationR elated V ariables C opador R ecurved B owls

1 81

I n t e r i o r W a l T r e a t m e n t

•

0 .700 0 .650 0 .600 0 .550 0 .500 0 .450 0 .400 0 .350 0 .300 0 .250 0 .200

4 11

F igure 2 2: D endrogram , C luster A nalysis o f D ecorationR elated V ariables, G ualpopa N on-Spiral O pen B owls

I n t e r i o r W a l I t k p t i f

0

0 .550 0 .500 0 .450 0 .400 0. 5 0 0 .300 0. 250

F igure 2 3: D endrogram , C luster A nalysis o f D ecorationR elated V ariables, A rambala P ecurved B owls

. 183

s elected on t he b asis o f w hat i s c onsidered a moderate y et r easonable l evel o f a ssociation, a s w ell a s o ne w hich r epresents approximately t he m id-point o f t he a ssociation l evels o bserved i n t his s et o f data. C opador Open B owls. T he c lustering o f a ttrib utes f or t his v essel s hape d id n ot s how m any h igh l evel a ssociations. O ne c luster a t t he 0 .4457 l evel o f a ssociation grouped t hree variables o f t he i nterior d ecoration - c olors, w all motif, a nd n umber o f b ands b elow i nterior r im. T he o ther i nterior motif v ariable, t he b ottom motif c ombination, d id n ot a ssociate at a ll w ith t his group a nd only j oined o ne o ther v ariable ( motif c ombinations, r egister 1 e xterior) a t a v ery l ow l evel ( 0.2683). C opador r ecurved b owls. T wo p airs o f a ssociat ions a bove t he 0 .400 l evel w ere r ecorded: 1 ) number o f b ands on i nterior a nd i nterior b ottom motif, a nd 2 ) i nterior wall motif a nd i nterior c olors. T he motifs i n b oth e xterior r egisters a ssociate w ith o ther v ariables only a t low l evels. G ualpopa open b owls. Two p airs o f a ssociations emerged a bove t he 0 .400 a ssociation l evel: 1 ) number o f b ands e xterior a nd n umber o f r egisters e xterior, a nd 2 ). i nterior wall decoration a nd b ase s hape. M otifs r egist er 1 a ssociated only a t 0 .289. Arambala r ecurved b owls. A t t he 0 .400 l evel o f a ssociation, t he e ight variables w ere c lustered i nto t hree a ssociational groups: 1 ) i nterior b ottom motif a nd i nterior wall motif, • 2 ) n umber o f e xterior b ands, c olors on e xterior r egister 1 , a nd motifs on e xterior r egister 2 , a nd 3 ) number o f i nterior b ands, b ase s hape, a nd motifs o n e xterior r egister 1 . C ase C lustering S ummary T he c ase c lustering r esults r einforced t he c onc lusions f rom t he v ariable c lustering t hat n ot o ne overriding s et o f d ecorative s tandards a pplied t o v ess els o f t he s ame s hape w ithin a t ype. T he c ase c lust ers s howed varying a mounts o f i nternal d iversity a nd varying s ize o f m embership. T he C opador r ecurved b owls w ith t he l argest n umb er o f c ases d ivided i nto t he f ewest c lusters, w ith o ne o f t he t hree s eeming t o group p rimarily b ecause o f t he bowls' p lain i nterior. N evertheless, i t i s r easonable t o c onclude t hat s tricter c ontrol was e xerted o r f ew p roduction u nits w ere i nvolved i n m aking t his p articul ar C opador s hape.

18 4

Copador open b owls s uggesting more p roduction a l arge w orkshop s etting.

d ivided i nto more c lusters, u nits or more f reedom w ithin

One o f t he Arambala c lusters c oincided w ith one o f t he C opador r ecurved c lusters i n i ts s alient d imens ions. T he o ther two r eflect c ompositional o r s haping c ongruences r ather t han motif-related s imilarities. F or G ualpopa c lusters o ther t han s piral bowls, motif communality d id n ot s eem t o b e t he d etermining f actor. S tandardization i n o ther f eatures - s patial o rganization, b ase s hape - w ere t he c riteria f or C lust ering. D etailed

F indings

F igures 2 4 t hrough 2 7 s how t he d endrograms r es ulting f rom t he c ase c luster a nalysis. O nce t he c lust ers had b een d erived, descriptive s tatistics by c lust er w ere r un t o e xamine t he a reas o f c ommunality i n t he g roupings. T his a nalysis i s d iscussed b y v essel s hape w ithin t ype. C opador Open B owls C luster 1 ( N=24). T his group i s d istinguished b y t he i nclusion o f a ll vessels w ith s wimming f igures l ocated i n t he s econd e xterior r egister ( N=13). O ther c ommunalities a re a p reponderance o f glyph only motifs o n t he i nterior ( N=23) a nd a majority of g lyphs a lone o n t he f irst e xterior r egister ( N=14). B lack i s i nfreq uently u sed o n t he f irst e xterior r egister ( N=7) or t he i nterior w all ( N=1).. T he i nterior b ottom motif most often i s t he c ircle a nd dot c ombination ( N=14). I n o rder t o e xamine i n more d etail b oth t he c ommunalit ies a nd t he v ariability w ithin t he c luster, c ontingency t ables w ere obtained. ( See Table 5 3.) One question c oncerned t he s ubgroup w ith t he s wimming f igures i n r egister 2 . W ere t hese, p erhaps, r epresentative o f o ne " design s chool" which f ollowed a s tandard approach t o p ainting t he r est o f t he v essel? When motifs i n r egister 2 w ere c ross-tabbed w ith motifs i n r egister 1 i n t he c oded f orm u sed f or t he c luster a nalysis ' no p attern c ould b e d iscerned. T he c ross-tab w as t hen r erun u sing t he more d etailed c ategory c odes. T he lack of s tandardization i n c hoice o f s pecific motif f or r egister 1 i s s till apparent. T he a bsence o f G lyph C , a s well a s g lyphs o ther t han " standard" A a nd B , i s n otable, however. T he i nterior wall motif o n t he s wimm ing.figure v essels s howed a t endency t o u se o nl y G lyph A ( 8/13), b ut o ther motif c ombinations w ere al so a llowe d. Another q uestion r elated a ssociations b etween t he u se of 18 5

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0 1 t 0• 0

T O

I 6 1 -

C D

C O

r

•

C : 1

18 8

L S D C D

T O T t I 9 1

S Z

U

C T T Z 9 Z t 7 Z C O S O f 7 0 Z T Z O T I 9 0

L O 8 0 8 1

C l u s t e r

C r )

O Z 6 0 O i 6 1

1 7 )

Q C : )

C Z )

C : )

189

r )

TABLE 5 3 Cluster 1 , Copador Open B owls C ontingency T ables, S elected Variables

Motif, Register 1 , E xterior ( Broad grouping) Motif, Register E xterior ( Broad g rouping)

2 , ABC G lyphs only

ABC G lyphs + other

All other motifs

T otal

6 6 1 1

6 1 0 0 _

1 2 0 0

1 3 9 1 1

7

3

2 4

S wimming f igure G eometric design A ll other motifs O ne r egister o nly T otal

1 4

Motif, Register 1 , E xterior ( Detailed g rouping) Motif, Register 2 , E xterior ( Detailed Glyph g rouping) A only S wimming f igure c ombination G eometric f igure G eometric d esign R ectangles o ff b and, e xterior bottom L inear design A ll other motifs . One r egister o nly Total

MB G lyph

Geometric S hell d esign a nd g lyph g lyph

A ll other motifs

Total

3 0 2

3 0 1

2 0 0

4 1 0

1 1 0

1 3 2 3

1 0 1

1 1 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 0 0

3 1 1

1

0

0

0

0

1

8

6

2

5

3

2 4

Motif, R egister 1 , E xterior ( Detailed g rouping) I nterior W all Motif ( Detailed g rouping) Glyph A G lyph A & B G lyph C B ird G lyph A & B + other G lyph B T otal

g rouping )

G lyph A G lyph A &B G lyph C B ird A ,B,other B T otal

A ll other motifs

T otal

3 0 1 1

1 0 1 0

1 6 2 2 1

1 0

0 0

0 1

2 1

2

5

3

A &B G lyph

6 1 0 0

5 1 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 0

0 0

8

6

2 4

Motif, Register 2 , E xterior ( Detailed g rouping)

I nterior W all Motif ( Detailed

G eometric S hell d esign a nd g lyph g lyph

Glyph A only

S wim. f ig. 8 1 1 1 2 0 1 3

Combo Geo. Geo. F ig. Motif

A ll One R ecti- L inear other r eg l inear d esign motif only

1 0 1 0 0 0

3 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0

2

3

3

1

1

. 1

T otal 1 6 2 2 1 2 1 .__ 2 4

glyphs on t he i nterior a nd e xterior. R egardless o f whether A i s u sed a lone o n t he e xterior or i n c ombinat ion w ith B , t he c hoice f or t he i nterior i s l ikely t o be G lyph A a lone, i n f act, G lyph A a lone i s a s trong mode ( 16/24) f or t he i nterior w all motif i n t he e ntire c luster. ( Only o ne e xample of i t on t he i nterior w alls of o pen bowls i s n ot i n t his c luster.) C luster 2 ( N=6). T his grouping r epresents a small s ubset o f v essels a ll o f .w hich h ave o nly o ne r egister, a typical f or t his v essel s hape. I nteresti ngly, t he h eight r ange i s equivalent t o t hat o f t he other c lusters, s o t he c hoice o f u sing o ne r egister d id not n ecessarily r elate t o s pace l imitations. T he e xt erior designs t end t o b e a berrant, a lso. S everal v ess els u se s eated f igures a lternating w ith g lyphs, a nd one h as e laborate b anners p ainted n ot only i n t he s tandard c olors b ut w ith a dded t ones o f p ink a nd b rown. Two h ave s wimming f igures, b ut o ne o f t hese r epeats t hree t imes, a nother d eviation f rom t he n orm. This c luster, t hen, r eally d emonstrates underlying variability w ithin t he s hape r ather s ignificant s tandardization.

t he t han

C luster 3 ( N=8). T his c luster i s c haracterized by t he u se o f a b ird a s t he i nterior wall motif ( N=8). A ll b ut o ne v essel h ave n onrepresentational motifs i n r egister 2 a nd a ll -h ave G lyph C i n t he f irst r egister, u sually i n c ombination w ith a nother e lement. Cluster 4 ( N=6). L ack o f i nterior d ecoration s ets t his c luster a part. E xterior motifs vary c onsiderably. I t w as n oted, however, t hat t hree o f t he f our monkey motifs w ere i n t his c luster, i ndicating c orrelat ion b etween t his motif a nd t he u ndecorated i nterior. ( Monkeys a re a more f requent motif o n G ualpopa open bowls w hich u sually h ave a n u ndecorated i nterior, a lso.) C luster 5 ( N=2). T hese t wo bowls h ave a " melon s tripe" t reatment o f t he s econd e xterior r egister, a b ird o n t he i nterior wall, a nd a r osette on t he i nteri or b ottom. One c arries a G -fret motif i n t he f irst e xterior r egister w hile t he o ther u ses n onstandard glyphs. Copador

R ecurved

B owls

C luster 1 ( N=8). T hese b owls a ll c arry g lyphic motifs ( A o r A a nd B ) i n t he u pper e xterior r egister a nd o n t he i nterior wall. T hey a lso s hare c omposit ional f eatures o f s eparating t he two e xterior r egister w ith t wo painted b ands b ut n ot u sing a ny b ands b etween t he r im a nd t he f irst e xterior r egister. T he e xterior r im b and i s a lso v ery c onsistent i n depth, r anging only f rom 8 to 1 0 mm. On t he i nterior two b ands a re u sed b etween t he r im a nd t he w all r egister. T he mode ( N=5) 1 91

a lso u ses two b ands b etween t he w all r egister a nd t he i nterior bottom. M otifs on t he b ottom a re varied a s a re motifs i n t he s econd e xterior r egister. C luster 2 ( N=31). A s trong a ssociation o ccurs i n t his group w ith s eated f igures i n t he u pper r egist er, a s olid p ainted l ower e xterior r egister, a nd b irds a s t he i nterior wall . motif ( N=22). Only t hree o f t he s eated f igure v essels s how t he f igure f acing l eft w hile o ne h as a lternating l eft a nd r ight-facing f igures. On a ll t he r est t he f igure f aces r ight. F igures o f s erp ents o r b irds occasionally r eplace t he s eated f igure i n t he t op r egister; a n i nfrequent u se o f continuc ius l inear p atterns i n t he u pper r egister a lso was f ound. T his c luster c ontains a h igh r epresentation of s pecial s haping - b asal a ngles, d iagonal o r v ertical grooving, a nd f aceted f langes. Orange p aint was i nfrequently u sed e ither o n t he i nterior or t he e xterior with b lack a nd s pecular h ematite r ed b eing t he n orm. A lthough most o f t he b owls h ave t he s tandard t reatment o f r ed i nterior a nd e xterior r im b ands, a f ew ( N=4) have v aria tions o f z ones o f d ifferent c olors, e tc., i n t he r im a rea. C luster 3 ( N=25). T here i s q uite a b it o f varia bility w ithin t his group w hich i s a ssociated p rimarily b ecause o f i ts p lain i nterior. G lyphic motifs p redomi nate i n t he f irst e xterior r egister b ut v ary a mong t he s pecific g lyphs. A ll t he v essels w ith f rog effigies i n t he s econd r egister a re i n t his c luster a s are s ix o f t he n ine v essels t hat h ave swimming f igures i n t he s econd r egister. T his c luster i s more v ariable t han t he o ther two f or t his s hape c ategory. C ases

n ot

c lustered:

3

G ualpopa Open B owls C luster 1 ( N=15). T his c luster a ppears t o b e f airly l oosely defined on t he b asis o f h aving m ostly m ultiple e xterior r egisters, p lain i nteriors, a nd c onvex b ases. T he motif c ombinations i n r egister 1 o n h alf o f t he v essels a re f rom t he c omplex-U s hape c ategory; t he r est o f t he motifs a re q uite h etereogeneous. C lugter 2 ( N=7). T his grouping i s made u p o f v essels w hich have e ither a c omplex U s hape ( N=5) or a s ingle g eometric motif i n r egister 1 . A ll t he v essels h ave two r egisters a nd a f lat b ase. A ll b ut o ne have o ne r ed-painted band b etween t he r im a nd t he f irst r eg ister. C luster 3 ( N=5). F irst r egister motifs d ivide b etween G lyph C a nd t he monkey. T he c luster s hares t he c haracteristics o f h aving o nly o ne r egister, u sing

19 2

b lack only i n t hat r egister, a nd p lacing o ne painted band b etween t he r im a nd t he r egister. T he i nterior wall a nd t he b ase a re v ariable. I n a ddition t o t hese t hree c lusters o f n onspiral bowls, . Gualpopa c ontains a w ell-defined c luster o f s piral bowls. A s d iscussed i n a n e arlier s ection, t his s ubgroup i s q uite h omogeneous i n t erms o f i ts motifs, base s hape, a nd i nterior w all t reatment. Arambala

r ecurved

b owls

C luster 1 ( N=10). A ll t hese bowls h ave t he s eated f igure motif i n e xterior r egister 1 ( all f acing r ight) a nd a s olid painted s econd r egister. E xcept f or one c ase t he i nterior motif i s t he b ird. B lack a nd r ed w ithout o range i s t he p aint c ombination f or t he e xteri or. The b ase s hape v aries b etween c onvex ( N=4) a nd f lat ( N=6). T he most f requently u sed i nterior bottom motif i s c rossbands w ith dots ( N=5), b ut t his v ariable i s n ot a s modal a s s ome o f t he o thers. C luster 2 ( N=6). This c luster i s n ot q uite a s homogeneous a s c luster 1 . I ts s trongest c ommunalities a re a f lat b ase ( none a re convex a s i n c luster 1 ) a nd t he u se o f grooving on t he s olid p ainted e xterior r eg ister b elow t he a ngle. Motifs i n t he f irst e xterior r egister v ary b etween s eated f igures a nd b irds; i nteri or w all motifs a re most o ften, b ut n ot e xclusively, b irds. C luster 3 ( N=7). T his s et of v essels s hows more s tandardization i n t erms o f c ompositional c onsiderat ions t han motif c ombinations. F or e xample, a ll t he bowls u se o nly b lack a nd r ed p aint i n t he f irst r egist er, do n ot h ave a ny p ainted b ands u nder t he e xterior r im, a nd r est o n f lat b ases. M otifs i n r egister I d ivide b etween s eated f igures ( N=5; 2 =left-facing, 3 = r ight f acing) a nd G lyph C . T he s econd r egister d ecorat ion v aries. F our v essels h ave u ndecorated i nteriors; t he o ther t hree v ary i n t erms o f t he p ainted motifs u sed. Cases A dditional

not

c lustered:

3

A nalyses

C omparison o f C opador c ase c lustering r esults motif-based varieties e stablished by S harer

w ith

t he

As a p art o f t he C halchuapa c eramic a nalysis, S harer ( 1978a Vol 3 :53-55) h ad d ivided C opador v essels i nto motif-based v arieties. D uring t he r ecording o f t he v essels b eing u sed i n t his w ork, each p ot w as a ssigned t o o ne o f t he S harer varieties. U sing h is s tated c riteria f or e stablishing t he v arieties, a n umb er o f t he v essels had t o b e c onsidered variations o r 19 3

v D L C ) H

IH N c r )

C O I --

i z r r I

C ) i n

IH i c " ,• )

• ; : r, L > oH

7 1 W

U ) •H U l W

• 3 O 0 W

I

N

Ir u " . )

• H

4 1

H

H

( 1 ) ( T S > >

c o ( Y )

I I I

I

H I C )

Id i

IN

Iu )

• r rJ

• c n ( T i C I C c ) O I 4 1

0 . 4 J

H .4J

i n t e r i o r

C U

g i • • t Y ) W H g in i

t 4 1

4 • ( I w 0 > 1 E l

C U

g i 0 u

, I

W Q . ,

H . U ) H •

H I ) W H

I )

r C i N I

g l H O

W 0 , . • • C 4 4 • H • H

W W g 1

t : 3 1 W -H - 4 1 0 U ) C A r C 1 4 1 . . W

H

H

C J H . Q , > 1 r I c . 5

U H . Q , > s r 4 u

w WC

U O U H H H . - . - . Q4

r d H • H

24

5

H W

i t

W O 4 1-H W g l . , i 0c CI1 -) W ( 1 ) X g i W t I ) 0 " H • H H 4 1 g l > 1 1) r C , W W W X I -) o c r i O W W

4(1 1 U 2 r z l g i P 0 ) 0 ) . iH n i g l . 0 r d U ) >

0 4 1

. 4

• a ) • H • H W W

H

0

r c s

w t . 3 )4

I C T )• H • L k H

H

4 1

I < G Q W W g i g i

Q1

> 1 > 1 > i t Y ) C ) H H H , 1 H L 5 0 ( . 5 r t , r l ,

1 94

> 1 g i W > W i t

< M O W 0 0 0 0 • H • H • H H

< M a ) W

, 1 r 1 r — i r 1 i 1 f — I • H 0 L D 0 0 U 4 1 4 U ) O

0

0

0

0

O

W

U )

W

U l

C l )

U )

( I 0 : 3 ( " c l • , 1 • H • H g i g l r ö r 5 « 1 > > >

c i z H g l ( I >

U ) C U H U

4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • H , 1 • , 1 H • H H r c l H g i c i >

( I ▪r c i , 1 H g i r c l 0 > 0

d e s c r i p t i o n s

H

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

T A B L E 5 4

H O

H I) 0 E I

c ould not b e c lassified. ( See Table 5 4.) Once t he c ase c lustering h ad b een c ompleted, t he r esulting groupings w ere a nalyzed t o s ee h ow t hey d istributed a mong t he S harer v arieties. I f t he two a pproaches w ere measuring t he s ame u nderlying s tructure i n t he materi al, t hen a h igh l evel o f c orrespondence w ould b e e xpected i n t erms o f c ases b eing a ssigned t o a S harer variety a nd t o a cluster grouping. T ables 5 5 a nd 5 6 s how t he r esults f or t his c omparison a nd T able 5 7 s ummarizes t hese f indings. G eneral c orrespondence c an b e f ound b etween the two a pproaches t o c lassifying t he v essels. S harer's s cheme s eems t o g ive most w eight t o o ne, o r occasiona lly two, distinguishing motifs, w ith t he o ther d esigns t reated i n a modal manner. T he c lustering p rocedures, on t he o ther h and, c onsider a ll t he v ariables equally i n a ssigning c ases t o c lusters. T hese d ifferences i n procedures c an l ead t o d ifferent c ase a ssignments. A lso, Sharer does not mention p lain i nteriors or s ingle r egister variants o f t he open bowls. T hese f eatures account f or s everal c lusters t hat d id n ot f it w ell i nto h is s cheme. ( See T able 5 7.) Case

c lusters

bowls)

Two h ad

e xamined

b y v essel

p rovenience.

o f t he s hapes ( Copador s ufficient c ases t o do

open a nd r ecurved a n a nalysis o f t he

distribution o f t he c lusters b y a rchaeological provenience of t he v essels. I t was n ecessary t o c ollapse provenience data i nto a two-way s plit - C opan Valley v ers us a ll o thers - s ince t he n on-Copan s pecimens c ame f rom s o many d ifferent s ites. A lso, a number of p ieces f rom t he P opol V uh m useum w hose p rovenience w as u nknown c ould not b e u sed i n t his a nalysis. T he data a vailable, t hen, a llow a n e xamination o f t he c eramic materi al a ccording t o t he c riteria o f w hether t he manufact ured p iece l eft t he Copan Valley o r was " consumed" t here. T he w orking a ssumption i s t hat t he majority o f Copador c eramics a nd a l ot o f G ualpopa c eramics w ere produced i n t he C opan Valley. C ould t here h ave b een different d ecoration s tandards f or " export" p ieces a s opposed t o v essels r etained f or l ocal ( i.e., valleywide) consumption? I f s o, t his would a ppear i n a d iff erential distribution o f c lusters b y p rovenience. Table 5 8 p resents t he r esults o f t hese t abulat ions ( unknown p rovenience . and u nclustered c ases a re s hown f or c ompleteness). The c hi-square s tatistic w as c omputed f or e ach s et o f data a nd i s s hown i n t he s ame t able, The c hi-square value f or open b owl c ategory was not s ignificant. T hat f or t he C opador r ecurved bowls, however, w as s ignificant a t t he . 05 l evel b ut n ot a t the . 01 l evel. An e xamination o f t he X2 c omputations s howed t hat t he c ells r epresenting c luster 3 c ontrib uted t he most t o t he a chieved X2 . T hat c luster c ont ained much v ariabiality w hich i s i nteresting i n l ight 19 5

TABLE

5 5

Frequency Distribution Copador Open Bowls B y C luster Classified By S harer's Motif-Based Varieties Cluster S harer Classification

Glyphic A Glyphic B Glyphic C Glyphic E Figure A Figure B Variations on Variations on Variations on Variations on Variations on Variations on

1 N=24

2 N=6

3 N=8

8

_

_

. .

-

_

_

_

*

-

-

_

_

1

1

1 _ -

2 -

2 4

1 3 _

1

3

1

2

1 3

Glyphic A Glyphic B Glyphic C Glyphic E Figure A Figure B

Not classified

TABLE

4 N=6

5 N=2

-

T otal N=46 8 1 3

4

1 _ _

4 1 2 3 4

7

5 6

Frequency Distribution Copador Recurved Bowls B y Cluster Classified By S harer's Motif-Based Varieties Cluster Sharer Classification

1 N=8

3 N=25

Not Grouped N=3

1

3 3

Glyphic A Glyphic B Glyphic C Glyphic E Figure A Figure 5 Variations on Variations on Variations on Variations on Variations on

2 N=31

1

4 3 5 1 3 2 3

4 6 1 3 1

4 6 1 4 1

5 1 -

3 2 1

Glyphic A Glyphic B Glyphic C Glyphic E Figure B

Not classified

2

1 96

2

Total N=67

MO .

8

1

1 2

TABLE

5 7

Correspondence B etween S harer Motif-Based Varieties and Case C luster S harer Variety G lyphic A

Results

Case Cluster Open bowls, C luster 1 R ecurved Bowls, C luster

1

Open bowls, C luster 1 R ecurved bowls, C luster

1

G lyphic C

R ecurved

2

G lyphic

variations present but n ot s trong correlation: ( Open bowls, C luster 4 ) ( Recurved bowls, C luster 3 )

G lyphic

B

E

bowls,

C luster

F igure

A

variations p resent, but correlation ( Open bowls, C luster 5 ) ( Open bowls, C luster 4 )

n ot

F igure

B

Recurved

2

Not

bowls,

directly

C luster

s trong

a ssignable:

Open bowls, C luster 2 -- one-register variants Open bowls, C luster 4 - p lain i nterior R ecurved bowls, C luster 3 -- p lain i nterior

1 97

TABLE

5 8

Case C lusters B y Vessel P rovenience Provenience

Copador

B owls

Copan Valley

All Other P rovenience

( Unknown P rovenience)

1 4

4

( 6)

T otal

Open Cluster

1

Cluster

2

4

1

( 1)

6

Cluster 3

4

3

( 1)

8

Cluster

4

3

2

( 1)

6

C luster

5

1

1

-

2

2 6a

l la

( 9)

2

4

( 2)

Total

2 4

4 6

Recurved Cluster

1

C luster

2

1 4

Cluster

3

1 8

Unclustered Total

a X2 b X2

= 2 .61 = 6 .21

1 4

3 3 7

b

( 4 degrees o f ( 2 degrees o f

( 3)

3 1

5

( 2)

2 5

-

-

2 3b

( 7)

f reedom ; f reedom ;

19 8

8

3 6 7

. 01 = 1 3.28, . 05 = 9 .49) . 01 = 9 .21, . 05 = 5 .99)

of t he f act t hat more of t hese vessels t han e xpected s tayed i n t he C opan Valley. I f t his f inding w ere s ubs tantiated b y f urther w ork, i t would i ndicate t hat t he " export" p roduct was more s tandardized t han t hat m ade f or l ocal consumption. Univariate tabulations w ere t hen made o f t he motif combinations f ound on e ach e xterior r egister of t he Copador r ecurved bowls a nd , on t he i nterior wall r egister f or t he two provenience s ubsamples. T able 5 9 s hows t hese data a long w ith t he obtained X2 value. B oth i nterior motifs a nd motifs i n r egister 2 w ere s ign ificantly a ssociated w ith provenience. An e xamination of t he motif d istributions s howed that t here was a t endency f or more of t he vessels w ith p lain i nteriors t o h ave a C opan provenience t han w ould have b een e xpected. I n t erms o f motif c ombinations u sed on t he s econd r egister o f t he e xterior, n either swimming f igures nor e ffigies w ere f ound on v essels with other t han C opan p rovenience. E ven t hough t he pattern of motif c ombinations f or r egister I did not s how a s ignificant c onnection with provenience, t here s eemed t o b e a t endency f or Copan provenience v essels more o ften t o u se glyphs, while " export" bowls h ad s eated f igures. This t ies together w ith two c onsiderations: 1 )

Swimming f igures a nd g lyphs h ave a s trong a ssociation on C opador open bowls.

2 )

S eated f igures ( and s olid p ainted s econd r egisters) w ere a s trong modal pattern on Arambala r ecurved bowls, a ll f ound outside t he C opan Valley a nd hypothesized t o b e derivative of C opador. I t i s t hought t hat p erhaps t he s eated f igure r epresents a symbolic s haring i n M aya t radition ( priest/ruler/general a uthority f igure) which would have b een i mportant t o h ouseh olds i n t he i mporting a rea.

The w eighting of p lain i nterior v essels t oward a C opan provenience could b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f a greater i nvestment i n decoration f or e xport vessels. However, a t abulation of r im d iameter versus i nterior decoration s howed t hat, t o a l arge e xtent, p lain i nteri ors a re c oncentrated on s maller orifice v essels - a r eflection of mechanical r ather t han s tylistic c onsiderations. ( See T able 6 0.) ( Medium w idth r im d iameter bowls do s how a greater f requency of d ecoration on n onCopan vessels b ut t he X2 value i s not s ignificant a t t he . 05 l evel.) T he t abluation d id s how, however, t hat small and medium r im diameter r ecurved v essels w ere more l ikely t o h ave a C opan p rovenience t han w ere l arge r immed vessels, s uggesting a s election by s ize f or e xport. 1 99

TABLE

5 9

Motif Combinations, Copador Recurved B owls By P rovenience Provenience Copan Valley

Motif

All Other P roveniences

I nterior wall Plain

s lipped

1 9

Any glyphs

4

B ird

1 4

Register B ,

1 ,

2 3a

exterior

C Glyphs

1 6

f igures

1 3

S eated

6 1 3

a

3 7

Total

A ,

4

8 1 2

Serpent/bird

3

3

All

5

0

3 7b

2 3b

1 7

1 4

other motifs

Total

Register

2 ,

exterior

Solid painted Monkey

2

1

7

0

5

0

design

5

3

other motifs

1

5

Swimming

f igure

E ffigy Geometric All

.

Total

3 7

c

2 3c

aX 2 = 7 .40 ( 2 degrees o f f reedom; . 01 = 9 .21, . 05 = 5 .99) bx 2 = 4 .58 ( 3 degrees o f f reedom; . 01 = 1 1.34, . 05 = 7 .82) cx 2 = 1 3.25 ( 5 degrees o f f reedom; . 01 = 1 5.09 05 = 1 1.07)

20 0

TABLE

6 0

I nterior D ecoration o f C opador R ecurved B owls B y R im D iameter - C opan P rovenience v ersus A ll O ther P roveniences

R im D iameter Small ( 8-11 cm)

M ediuma ( 12-16 cm)

L arge ( 17-24 cm)

T otal

9 7 1 6

1 1 Ti

1 9 1 8 3 7

2 6

2 1 3 1 5

4 1 9 2 3

Copan Valley P lain i nterior D ecorated i nterior T otal

1 0 )0

All o ther proven i ences P lain i nterior D ecorated i nterior T otal a X2 value provenience . 01 = 6 .64;

f or a nd . 05

0

t his r im d iameter s ubsample b etween i nterior d ecoration i s 2 .107. W ith = 3 .84.

2 01

1 d f,

C HAPTER 6

D ISTRIBUTION AND C ONSUMPTION OF T HE C ERAMICS

I NTRODUCTION Trade a nd e xchange a re w idely u sed t erms . in archaeological l iterature s ince t he e arly days o f t he d iscipline. I n r ecent t imes i nterest i n t his t opic h as e scalated p robably f or a variety o f r easons. A s R enfrew ( 1975) h as pointed o ut, t rade i s a n a ctivity t hat r elates t he material a nd t he s ocial o r " spiritual" s ystems. " It r equires organization a s w ell a s c ommodity, a nd i t i mplies c riteria o f v alue a nd measure. T he c rucial i mportance o f t he s tudy o f t rade t oday i s t hat i t o ffers a practical w ay o f i nvestigati ng t he organization of s ociety i n s ocial t erms a s w ell a s p urely i n e conomic o nes" ( ibid:4). A dded t o t his t heoretical appeal a re methodological c oncerns. C ert ainly, one o f t he c ontributing f actors h as b een t he development o f n ew t echnical a nalyses t o p rovide i nformation on t he d istribution of materials f rom d etermined s ources. A s imilar s timulus h as b een t he g eography based quantitative methods u sed t o g eneralize a bout distribution p atterns. As e xchange 14 s tudies h ave p roliferated, a general approach h as emerged. B asic t o t he s tudy o f e xchange i s determining t hat a n i tem w as e xchanged a nd describing i ts p attern of d istribution i n s pace a nd t ime. The n ext s tep h as b een t o i dentify h ow t hat distribution occurred: w hat mode o f e xchange or mechanism p roduced t he observed pattern. A f inal o bj ective

has b een

t o

r elate

t he mode o f

e xchange

t o t he

1 4 T hroughout t his c hapter I u se t he t erm e xchange to s ignify t he p eaceful t ransfer o f g oods or c ommodities. Archaeologists o ften t end t o u se t rade and e xchange a lmost i nterchangeably. However, t rade i s u sed b y many e conomic a nthropologists t o m ean market t rade " the p lay o f s upply a nd demand o utside t he s ocial and p olitical s phere" ( Hodder 1 980: 1 51). S ince I a m

not i nvestigating versus disembedded i nclusive s ense.

t he q uestion o f e mbedded e xchange t rade I u se " exchange" i n t he b road,

2 03

organization o f t he s ociety. H owever, r ecently res earchers a re r ealizing t hat d ifferent modes o f exc hange c an p roduce t he s ame s patial pattern. w ithout r estating t he m athematical b ases, l et me summarize the r ecent p ositions t aken b y t wo a rchaeologists whose work h as emphasized t he s tudy o f s patial p atterning a nd exc hange p rocesses, C olin R enfrew a nd I an Hodder. The w ork w hich h as l ed t o t hese positions i s summarized o rreferenced i n t heir c ited p ublications. R enfrew ( 1977a:88) i n c ontrast w ith a n earlier s tatement ( 1975) c oncludes t hat: 1 .

C entral p lace r edistribution a nd c entral p lace m arket e xchange a re s patially i dent ical.

2 .

T he t wo c entral p lace modes s hould b e d ist inguishable f rom s ymmetrical, homogeneous r eciprocal e xchange n etworks.

H e b elieves t hat a u seful f ield f or f urther s tudy i s t he r ange o f o rganizational d evices t hrough w hich t he l aw o f monotonic d ecrement 15 i s c ircumvented by h uman e xchange s ystems, p articularly t hose t hat are h ierarchically s tructured. H odder

( 1980)

s tates:

1 .

V ery different e xchange p rocesses c an prod uce t he s ame f all-off c urve ( the s ame a s R enfrew's f irst c onclusion).

2 .

E ven m ajor d ifferences b etween r eciprocal a nd r edistributive e xchange may n ot b e r eflected i n d istinctive f all-off c urves ( contrary t o R enfrew's s econd c onclusion).

H e b elieves, moreover, t hat t here a re s ome b asic d ist inguishable t ypes o f f all-off c urves t hat s eem r elated t o t he v alue o f e xchange i tems a nd s ocial or p olitical b oundaries ( a c urve w ith d istinct " plateaus and k inks.") H e c oncludes t hat t he s ummary o f a t otal exc hange d istribution i nto one f all-off l ine s eems i nadeq uate. H e b elieves t here i s a n eed f or a c ombination o f d etailed a nd i ntensive s urvey ( to o btain t he f ullest

1 5 D efined b y R enfrew ( 1977a:72) a s " In c ircums tances o f u niform l oss or d eposition, a nd i n t he abs ence. of h ighly o rganized d irectional ( i.e., p referent ial, n onhomogeneous) e xchange, t he c urve of f requency o r a bundance o f o ccurrence o f a n e xchanged c ommodity a gainst e ffective d istance f rom a l ocalised s ource w ill

b e a monotonic d ecreasing

one."

2 04

distributional d ata), t ypological s tudies ( to understand v ariation w ithin t he d istribution), a nd s tudy of t he c ontext o f w here t he e xchanged i tems a re found ( to e valuate s ocial a spects o f t he d istribution). Thus, b oth o f t hese a rchaeologists a re a dvocating e xamining i n m uch more d etail data r elated t o the o bserved s patial d istribution b efore c lassifying that distribution i n t erms o f a mode o f e xchange a nd r elating t hat mode t o t he s ocietal o rganization. Acknowledging t he c omplexity i nvolved i n s tudyi ng e xchange s ystems, t he q uestion a rose a s t o w hat would be f easible t o e valuate f rom t he s tandpoint o f the data base f or t he s outheastern M aya p eriphery painted c eramics. F irst o f a ll, i t w as f elt t hat C hilanga, Gualpopa, a nd Arambala s hould b e e liminated f rom this p art o f t he s tudy: C hilanga b ecause i t r epresents a m uch l onger t ime p eriod; G ualpopa a nd A rambala b ecause t heir p oor d escription i n t he l iterature p rec ludes p lotting d istribution w ith a ny d egree o f c ertainty. T hus, t he a nalysis w ould b e r estricted t o Copador. E fforts w ere c oncentrated o n t he s patial d istribution of t he c eramics i n o rder t o d etermine t he s ize of t he e xchange s ystem w ithin w hich t hey f unctioned. The b asic a nalysis w as done u sing a p resence/absence c lassification. A dditionally, a q ualitative a ssessment of f requency o f o ccurrence a t v arious p roveniences was made t o e valuate t he magnitude o f t he e xchange s ystem, one o f t he c haracteristics t hat P log ( 1977) s tates i s i mportant i n order t o u nderstand t he o rganization o f a n exchange n etwork. F ollowing o n H odder's observation a bout t he i mportance o f c ontext f or u nderstanding t he r ole o f t he e xchange i tem, s everal o ther a nalyses w ere u ndertaken f or C opador: 1 .

E valuation o f t he p attern o f d istribution w ithin t he C opan Valley s ettlement b ased o n s urvey data t o d etermine i f t here was a v ariation i n a ccess t o t he p olychrome w ithin i ts z one o f p roduction a nd, i f s o, i f t he v ariation s eems r elated t o s tatus ( inferred b y c lassification o f s ettlement t ype a nd c loseness t o t he c enter). T his w ork w as a ugmented b y a q uantitative a nal ysis o f v arious t ypes o f L ate C lassic p olychrome s herds r ecovered f rom e xcavat ions o f t hree d ifferent s ized r esidential groups l ocated i n t he c entral a rea o f t he C opan V alley n ear t he p ublic c enter.

2 .

E valuation f rom . s ite d istribution b y t ype 2 05

s urvey data o f o f s ite w ithin

t he t he

Z apotitan Valley, E l S alvador, t o determ ine i f, i n a n i mporting a rea, t here is a variation i n a ccess a ccording to s ite s ize h ierarchy. .3 .

E valuation o f C opador's r ole a s a v aluable i tem i n b urials a nd t ombs i n C opan.

SPATIAL D ISTRIBUTION,

COPADOR

M ethodology Area s tudied T he g eneral d istribution a rea f or Copador h as u sually b een d escribed a s t he C opan a rea a nd w estern E l S alvador w ith i solated occurrences i n G uatemala. T o a ssess t he a ccuracy of t hese i mpressions i t was d ecided t o s ystematically r eview i nformation a bout t he a rchaeo logy of a ll o f H onduras a nd E l S alvador as w ell as o f c ertain d epartments i n G uatemala. T he s ection o f Guat emala t hat s eems p ertinent t o t he d istribution i ssue i s t he c ulture a rea d escribed by B orhegyi ( 1965) as t he S emiarid E astern L owlands ( the d epartments of E l Progresso, J alapa, J utiapa, C hiquimula, a nd part of Z ac apa). T o t his w as a dded S anta R osa a nd the p arts o f I zabal w hich i nclude t he L ower M otagua Valley. ( Figure 2 8 s hows t hat p art of t he s outhern M aya a rea s tudied i n t his portion o f t he r esearch.) T he main ( central) p art o f t he s outhern l owlands was n ot i ncluded i n t he d istribution a nalysis. There i s a p hysical b reak b etween t he M otagua Valley a nd t he P eten a rea c aused b y t he S ierra d e l as M inas, t he Lake I zabal d epression, a nd t he N egro a nd P olochic R ivers ( Leventhal 1 981). C eramically, t he s outhern l owlands a re quite d istinct f rom t he s outheast a rea; C opador has n ever b een r eported a t s ites i n the l owland r egion. 16 While s ome s tylistic a ntecedents f or c ertain C opador motifs may b e f ound on earlier Peten p olychromes, i t s eems w ell e stablished t hat actual C opador p ieces d id n ot r each t he s outhern lowlands area. M ethods

a nd P rocedures • A ll s ites w ith L ate C lassic o ccupation were i dentified t hrough a c ombination o f l iterature s earch,

m useum s tudy, a nd c onsultation w ith c olleagues e ngaged i n r ecent or on-going p rojects i n t he a rea of i nterest.

" Two b owls C opador d esigns

f rom P iedras N egras a re painted with a nd u se s pecular h ematite p aint. A n

e xamination o f t he paste i ndicated t hat i t w as n ot c ream p aste a nd t hat t he bowls w ere c alcite t empered. T hus t hey p robably w ere l ocally m ade c opies of C opador. 2 06

• Ca lak mu l

P i

U axac tün • T ika •

r as N eg ras Y axch i lán

L ubaantun • P us iI h a

WESTERN E L SALVADOR •Cha lch

Figure

2 8:

Southern Maya Area Studied In Distribution Analysis

2 07

F rom t he l iterature, a ll s ources t hat c ould b e f ound f or each s ite w ere s tudied; i llustrations a s well a s t ext w ere c arefully r eviewed. With earlier work more r eliance was p laced on d escription a nd i llustrat ion t han on a ny c lassification t hat h ad b een made. I f t he d escription a nd i llustration f it t he t ype a s i t now i s d efined, a presence was r ecorded r egardless o f what t he o riginal i nvestigator h ad c alled t he p iece. At t he n ational museums w hole p ieces w ere exam ined, a s d escribed i n C hapter 3 . T he National M useum i n G uatemala a lso h ouses s herd c ollections f rom both s urface c ollections a nd e xcavation projects. T hese w ere e xamined f or t he p art o f t he c ountry j ust desc ribed. T he National M useum i n E l S alvador maintains a s ite r egister which c an c arry n otes a bout c ultural materials observed w hen r ecording t he l ocation. Archaeologists w orking i n t he C opan Valley, t he m iddle a nd lower M otagua Valley, t he Sula P lain ( Honduras) a nd t he C erron Grande a rea ( El S alvador) made a vailable t heir r ecords o f L ate C lassic o ccupied s ites a nd t heir c eramic i nventory. T he procedure w as t o develop a r ecord c ard f or each s ite w ith L ate C lassic occupation. Note w as made o f 1 ) t he l ocation o f t he s ite a s described i n t he s ource, 2 ) map c oordinates, 3 ) s ummary d escription o f t he s ite - s ize, public c onstruction, e tc., 4 ) s ummary d escription of c eramics, i ncluding polychrome t ypes, a nd 5 ) b ibliographic r eferences. F rom t his i ndex f ile, a ll L ate C lassic s ites w ere p lotted a nd i dentified a ccording t o the p resence or a bsence o f C opador. ( See F igure 2 9.) The a rea was t hen gridded, u sing C opan a s t he c enter point, and a p oint pattern a nalysis was done ( Hodder a nd Orton 1 976:30-43). A q uadrat o f 5 0 s q. km. w as s elected a s t he u nit f or a nalysis. ( See F igure 3 0a a nd b .) This s ize w as a rrived a t empirically. A s maller q uadrat o f 2 5 s q. k m. r esulted i n t oo many e mpty u nits; a l arger u nit d id not s eem j ustified g iven t he t otal s ize of t he d istribution a rea. ( Hodder a nd O rton 1 976:37 d iscuss t his p roblem o f t he s ize a nd t he s hape of a s elected quadrat a nd t he e ffect o n t he r esulting a nalysis.) L imitations B efore p roceeding t o r eview t he r esults of t he p oint pattern a nalysis s ome c ircumstances which limit t he f indings s hould b e m entioned: 1 .

E xtreme v ariability i n t he type o f r eport a vailable. T he r eviewed l iterature spans 7 5 y ears o f a rchaeology. S ome i nformation c ame f rom s ynthesizing a rticles i n which only g eneral s tatements w ere made a bout a 2 08

A rt

F igure 2 9: L ate C lassic S ites w ith P resence o r A bsence o f C opador n oted N OTE: T able 6 1 c ontains a k ey t o t he n umbered s ites 2 09

.

;

•. 1 1

1 1 . 10 1

.

-

i '

,

CD \ \

.

t . •

. ,• t O

I

1z

. + . •

—

1

i x

\ \

. . -

4 : › 2 • o6 7

1

. 4 '

i f

o Jc \

\

e v e

.

0

• . 1 . • \

\

l )

3 ‹

1

%

i

I

)

I

c o )

•

. •

I 2 — / I

\

1 1.

F igure

A P&

3 0A:

Late Classic S ites, with Copador, G ridded b y Distance From Copan ( 50 sq. km. Radius Units) 2 10

1 .•

0

0

O P I F igure

3 0B:

Late Classic S ites, with I solated or No Copador, Gridded by D istance From Copan ( 50 s q. km. R adius Units) 2 11

e e l

TABLE

' Late

S ite Number i n F igure

C lassic

S ites

S hown

6 1

I n

F igures

2 9

a nd

3 0

S ite Name

D epartment

C ountry

J utiapa

G uatemala

4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

E l Valle S an A gustin Acasaguastlan Guaytan ( El T eron M agdalena, Tulumaje L os C imientos L as P ilas ( Comapa) La Campana L a Vega de C oban A suncion M ita P apalguapa E l B arrital R io Hondo E l J icaro Quirigua P layitas C opan R io Amarillo S anta R ita de C opan S ensenti P araiso L a F lorida E l P uente Quesailica Naco E l R egadillo L a S ierra D escalzada M onte Grande Tres P iedras

2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3

C alpules L a L ima T ehuma L as F lores P laya de l os

1 2 3

3 4 3 5, 3 6 3 7 3 8

Muertos Travesia R ancheria Santa R ita L os Naranjos ( Jaral, E l E den, L a C ieba) Taulabe

2 12

E l

P rogresso G uatemala

E l P rogresso E l P rogresso J utiapa J alapa E l P rogresso J utiapa J utiapa J utiapa Z acapa Z acapa I zabal I zabal C opan C opan C opan O cotopeque C opan C opan C opan C opan C ortes C ortes

G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras

C ortes C ortes C ortes C ortes C ortes C ortes C ortes

H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras

C ortes

H onduras

C ortes C ortes C ortes C ortes

H onduras H onduras H onduras H onduras

S anta B arbara H onduras C omayagua H onduras

TABLE

6 1

( continued)

S ite Number i n

F igure 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7-80 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4

S ite Name

D epartment

Country

S iguat peque Y arumela T enampua L as Vegas L os H igos C ara S ucia E l C ajete Nahulingo C halchuapa Z one I zalco E scalante T ula E scula C olon P unian C osta del B alsamo Nejapa C lub I nternacional H acienda de l a P atrocinia C ampana S an Andres C ujagualo S an Jorge L os Arcos E l T amarindo L a C ienega L a C riba E l Tanque H acienda S an D iego B elen Guyat I I E l R emolino T ehuacan L os L lanitos C hinameca E stanzuelas Quelepa R io O jos de Agua C onchagua V ieja G ualjoquito U named minor c enters a round L ake I zabal L as Quebradas Quebrande Grande T iquisate a rea P usilha

Comayagua Comayagua Comayagua C omayagua C opan A huachapan Ahuachapan Ahuachapan Santa Ana Sonsonate Ahuachapan L a L ibertad L a L ibertad L a L ibertad La L ibertad L a L ibertad San S alvador San S alvador

Honduras Honduras H onduras Honduras Honduras E l Salvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l S alvador E l Salvador

2 13

S uchitoto E l S alvadör L a L ibertad E l S alvador L a L ibertad E l S alvador Coatepeque E l S alvador C halatenango E l S alvador C halatenango E l S alvador C halatenango E l S alvador C halatenango E l S alvador C halatenango E l S alvador S anta A na E l S alvador S anta Ana E l S alvador Cuscatlan E l S alvador S an Vicente E l Salvador S an M iguel E l S alvador S an M iguel E l S alvador U sulutan E l S alvador San M iguel E l Salvador San M iguel E l S alvador L a Union E l S alvador S anta B arbara Honduras I zabal I zabal I zabal E scuintla

G uatemala G uatemala G uatemala Guatemala B elize

t ime p eriod a nd c eramic i nventory. O ther data w ere r etrieved f rom d etailed s ite r eports. B ecause o f t his i nconsistency o f d etail, i t w as n ecessary t o u se o nly t he broadest, or l owest, l evel of i nput, namel y presence or a bsence. I nitially, i t h ad b een hoped t hat s ome type of a nalysis c ould b e done i n t erms of provenience w ithin a s ite or q uantity a t a s ite b oth of t hese a nalys es h ad t o be a bandoned b ecause o f l ack of data. 2 .

Variability i n c ollection m ethod o r mode o f observation. S ome e arly r eports a re b ased u pon p ieces i n p rivate collections ( often o f t he l andowners on w hose p roperty t he s ite w as l ocated). F ortunately, C opador, a s a p olychrome, p robably had a good c hance o f b eing s aved a much b etter c hance t han i f t he c eramic of i nterest w ere c oarse w are. Nevertheless, a ttributi ng p resence or a bsence on t he b asis o f s cant data l ike t his c an b e h ighly c onject ural. S imilarly, s urface c ollections may not d isclose t he f ull r ange of a s ite's c eramic i nventory. T hus, t here i s a great deal o f u ncertainty a ssociated w ith conc luding t hat l ack of a p resence e quals a n a bsence. C onsequently, a n a ttempt h as b een made t o not " over a nalyze" t he data. T he o bserved s patial d istribution w ill b e c onsidered a s a t rend or p robable patt ern. No a ttempts w ere made t o apply quantitative methods t o t he data.

3 .

Variability i n c overage o f t he g eogra?hiä a rea. C ertain p arts o f t he g eographic r egion c onsidered i n t he distribution a nalysis h ave n ot b een i nvestigated b y a ny t ype o f a rchaeological s tudy a s c an b e s een b y t he l ack o f r ecorded Late C lassic s ites i n c ertain quadrats of t he m ap. T he possibility c annot b e overlooked t hat s ettlements i n t hese a reas, when a nd i f t hey a re d iscovered, w ill c ontain C opador c eramics. F ortunately, a s w ill b e disc ussed s hortly, t he d irection of t he dist ribution s eems quite c lear, e ven w ith t hese l acunae.

At t he o ther e xtreme, a f ew s ections of t he a rea i ncluded i n t he d istribution a nalysis h ave been e xtens ively c overed b y r ecent s urvey projects - t he Z apotit an V alley i n E l S alvador, t he lower M otagua V alley i n G uatemala, a nd t he C opan Valley i n Honduras. M any o f t he s ites i dentified i n t hese r ecent projects a re v ery s mall h ouse mound groups t hat h ad n ot b een r ecorded i n 2 14

e arlier work w ithin t he r egion. I n order t o not " swamp" t he data s et with observations f rom t hese parts o f t he r egion, a ll t he i ndividual s ites have not been e ntered on t he distribution map. The pattern of C opad or distribution within two of t hese t horoughly s tudied z ones -- the Copan Valley a nd t he Z apotitan Valley -w ill be dealt w ith i n detail i n a later s ection of t his c hapter. F indings M agnitude of

D istribution

Although t he data were r ecorded only f or t he p resence or a bsence of Copador, an i ndication of the q uantity b eing d istributed c an be determined f rom t he p roportion of t he L ate C lassic s ites having t he polyc hrome. Copador was present a t a total of 4 1.0 percent o f t he Late C lassic s ites k nown i n a ll c ases, but

( Table t here

62). are

S ite ample

s ize i s not i ndications

t hat Copador was not r estricted to l arge s ites with a c onsiderable amount of public architecture nor t o e lite r esidential l oci. T hese a spects of distribution will b e c overed s hortly. Suffice f or now to s ay t hat dist ribution to a s many l ocations a s are i ndicated by t his a nalysis would n ecessitate a n e fficient system f or moving t he pottery a nd would i nfer a s izable production c apacity. D istance

of

D istribution

D isregarding t he direction of t he distribution f or a moment, t he f all-off i n t he presence of C opador i s quite s harp b eyond a 1 00 s q. k m. r adius o f Copan. ( See F igure 3 1.) I t i s i nteresting to note t hat t he p ercentage of s ites w ith Copador i s approximately equiv alent w ithin a 5 0 s q. km. r adius a nd b etween 5 0 to 1 00 s q. km. D irection of

D istribution

When t he distribution of C opador was e xamined on t he basis of general direction f rom C opan ( NE, S E, NW, SW), a pattern o f d irectionality emerged ( Table 6 2). T here i s . a decided w estern skew t o t he d istribution, w ith the s outhwest b eing t he definite preferred direct ion of movement. T he northwest quadrat does not c over a s much s pace a s t he other quadrats b ecause of t he way i n which t he s tudy a rea was d efined. T he northeast q uadrat i s a lso s omewhat t runcated i n s ize because of g eography; t he C aribbean c oast l imits t he a rea. I n s pite' of t hese i nequalities i n t he s ize o f t he quadr ats, the directional t endency i s quite d istinct and observable on a qualitative basis.

parent

The s trength of t he when d istance f rom

directionality i s more apCopan i s c onsidered a long 2 15

6 0

5 0

S i t e s W i t h

4 0

3 0

P e r c e n t a g e

2 0

1 0 5 0

Between 5 0 t o 1 00

Radius, F igure

3 1:

s q.

Beyond 1 00

km.

Falloff i n Presence of C opador by 5 0 s q. km. Radius Units

2 16

TABLE Location O f

Location

Late

C lassic

S ites With C opador

M

b

S ites Vis-A-Vis Copan a S ites Without Copador

% S outhwest

6 2

N

%

7 6.0

7

2 4.0

5

6 2.5

Total S ites N 2 5

N orthwest

3

3 7.5

S outheast

8c

3 6.4

1 2

6 0.0

2 0

Northeast

4

1 4.3

2 6

8 6.7

3 0

4 1.0

4 9

5 9.0

T otal

3 4

d

8

8 3

a Copan i s excluded f rom a ll c ounts. bOne i solated sherd o f Copador was f ound i n t he Tiquisate a rea of Guatemala. This a rea was not i ncluded i n the c ount f or s ites with Copador, rather i t i s i ncluded i n the w ithout Copador cell. c Three a dditional s ites in e ach o f t hese s ectors had e ither i solated Copador f inds or were where e arly i nvestigators h ad referred t o " Copador-like" ceramics. These s ites were n ot included i n the count f or s ites with Copador, they are i ncluded i n the ' frequency and percentage f or s ites w ithout Copador. d Four additional s ites had i solated Copador f inds; t hey are i ncluded i n t he without Copador cell.

w ith compass d irections ( Table 6 3). Within a 5 0 km r adius f rom C opan, very l ittle, i f any, d irectional p reference i s noted. I n t he 5 0 t o 1 00 k m r adius band, t he southern orientation i s b eginning t o emerge, with t he majority o f t he d istribution i n t hat direction b oth s outhwest a nd s outheast. B eyond t he 1 00 k m r adi us, a ll of t he known occurrences are c oncentrated w ithin t he s outhwest quadrat. T he s outheast area i s n ot within t he distribution z one a t t his distance. ' Thus, t he l ong distance distribution of C opador w as f irmly t ied t o s ettlements i n western a nd c entral E l Salvador, a s w ell a s t o s ome i n t he mountainous r egion n ear t he Guatemala - E l S alvador border. I t i s i nteresting t o note t hat s everal Guatemalan s ites w ith C opador are n ear t he l arge I xtepeque obsidian s ource u sed i n pre-Columbian t imes. The f ocus of t he discussion up t o t his point has b een on t he l ocation of s ites c lassified a s having a C opador presence b eyond j ust a n i solated e xample or

2 17

TABLE

Of

D irectional Location Late Classic S ites And D istance From C opana S ites With C opador

S ites Without Copador

T otal S ites

Southwest

1

-

1

Northwest

1

1

2

S outheast

2

0

2

Northeast

3

Radius, Within

5 0

6 3

t o

km

5 0

b

7

2

9

1 00

Southwest

7

Northwest

2

S outheast

6

Northeast

Beyond

4

l

b

4 6 9

1 0

5

1 5

1 00

S outhwest

1 0

Northwest

0

0

0

S outheast

Oc

1 2

1 2

Northeast

0d

1 3

1 3

a Copan i s e xcluded f rom a ll c ounts. bOne s ite with i solated Copador f inds i ncluded i n the " without Copador" cell. cT wo s ites w ith i solated Copador f inds i ncluded in the " without Copador" cell. dThree s ites w ith i solated Copador f inds included in t he " without Copador" cell.

2 18

two. Some comments on ported i solated Copador

t he location of s ites f inds are i n order:

w ith

r e-

Northeast s ites ( Quirigua, Las P layitas, a nd L a S ierra). At both Quirigua, a M iddle M otagua s ite, a nd Las P layitas, i n t he L ower Motagua area, only a f ew i solated C opador s herds w ere r ecovered. ( At Q uirigua, only 3 9 Copador s herds were u ncovered i n f ive s easons of e xcavations i n both t he s ite c ore a nd t he s ite p eriphery [ W. Ashmore, p ersonal c ommunication, 1 980].) As covered i n C hapter 2 , t he c hemical composition of c ream wares from t hese s ites did not match t hat of t he main body of materials t hought t o b e t he r esult of production i n t he Copan Valley. Consequently, t he presence of C opador-style c eramics i n t his area probably does not r epresent distribution f rom C opan. As a s idelight i t i s i nteresting to note t hat polychrome c eramics a re largely lacking b oth a t Quirigua, which has most of t he hallmarks of a L ate C lassic M aya c enter, a nd a t major c enters on t he L ower Motagua which lack many Maya f eatures

( Ashmore

a nd

S harer

1 978;

Schortman

1 980).

La S ierra, l ocated on t he b anks of a l arge branch c hannel o f t he R io C hamelecon i n t he U lua Valley, i s t he only s ite on t he more northerly c ourses of t he Chamelecon or U lua R ivers where any C opador h as been f ound. ( Gualpopa a nd C hilanga a lso a re mentioned i n t he r eported c eramic i nventory a s are " polychromes i n t he U lua Valley t radition" [ Henderson e t a l. 1 979].) I t i s possible t hat t his l arge, r egional center did occasionally r eceive i mported c eramics f rom Copan even t hough i t i s away f rom t he mainstream of distribution. Southeast s ites ( Los Naranjos, Taulabe, S iuuatepeque). Only one of t hese s ites, L os Naranjos, h as been thoroughly i nvestigated ( Baudez and B ecquelin 1 973). This a rchaeological z one a t t he northern e nd of Lake Yojoa produced only a handful of Copador s herds. The dominant L ate C lassic polychrome group f rom L os Naranjos, Babilonia P olychrome ( see Appendix B f or a description), on t he o ther h and, has b een r elatively f requently f ound i n t he Copan area. The other two s ites -- S iguatepeque a nd T aulabe -- w ere visited i n t he 1 930's a s part of a n a rchaeological reconnaisance ( Yde 1 938) a nd r eported on a gain b y Stone ( 1957). Y de describes polychromes i n t he U luaYojoa tradition a t S iguatepeque a nd f or T aulabe o nly states that " lots of pottery was f ound a nd s old." S tone emphasizes t he U lua-Yojoa t ypes a t both s ites b ut a dds " Copador" or " Copador s tyle" t o t he l ist of c eramics observed. A t t he t ime h er work was done, C opador had n ot been f ully described by L ongyear f rom t he C opan materials. I t i s possible t hat a r eexamination o f t he pieces ( they a re not i llustrated i n h er work) w ould

2 19

l ead t o t heir r eclassification or t o t heir b eing r eprov enienced a s h appened w ith s ome o f t he L os N aranjos m aterial ( Baudez a nd B ecquelin 1 973:274,279). O ther. T iquisate a rea ( coastal G uatemala) - A n i solated f ind w as r eported b y S hook ( 1965) a s c oming f rom t his a rea. O ne s herd w as l ocated i n t he Museo N acional i n G uatemala C ity a nd s ampled f or c hemical c omposition. I ts p aste f it i nto t he C opan-focus r efere nce group, a s d escribed i n C hapter 2 . T hus, w hile i t s eems t o h ave b een made i n t he C opan Valley, l ittle c an b e s aid a bout s uch a n i solated f ind i n t his r emote- an a rea. P usilha ( Belize) - E arly v isits t o t his S outhe rn B elize s ite u ncovered s telae t hat a llied t he s ettlement t o L ate C lassic M aya c enters and p ottery t hat s howed s tylistic s imilarities w ith t he s outheast ern p eriphery. T he l ocation i s s o g eographically r emoved f rom C opan, however, t hat i t i s difficult t o hypothesize t he n ature o f t he i nteraction. I t w ill b e r ecalled t hat 1 0 o f t he 1 9 P usilha C opador s amples a nalyzed f or c hemical c omposition f it w ell i nto t he C opan-focus r eference group w hile t he o thers d iverged i n v arying ways. S ince t he s herds w ere n ot e xamined i n p erson n or s ampled b y B rookhaven r esearchers, t he r easons f or t he d eviations c annot b e a ppraised. I t i s h oped t hat p lanned e xcavation a t t he s ite ( Leventhal, p ersonal c ommunication, 1 982) w ill p rovide a d ata base f or a nswering s ome o f t hese q uestions. F inally, s ome c omments c an b e made a bout t he p arts o f t he s tudy a rea t o w hich C opador was n ot dist ributed. Western H onduras i s t he o nly part o f t hat c ountry w here t he t ype i s r eported w ith a ny d egree o f r egularity. None o f t he s ites a long t he l ower c ourses o f t he U lua or C hamelecon r ivers y ielded C opador materi als. T he C omayagua Valley i s e ast o f t he distribution z one a s i s e astern E l S alvador. C onclusions T he d istance o ver w hich Copador moved f rom t he p rimary d istribution c enter o f C opan i s s ubstantial. S imilarly, * t he q uantity t hat was d istributed, a s r ef lected b y t he p roportion o f s ites w ith o ther t han i sol ated e vidence, was s izable. B oth o f t hese c haracteri stics o f t he e xchange s ystem r equire a n e fficient dist ribution s ystem w hich p rovides a r egular s upply o f t he p roduct t o c onsumers l ocated a s f ar a s 1 00 km f rom t he d istribution c enter. T he s patial d istribution of C opador s erving vess els s hows a d ecided d irectionality. T his i s not a c ase o f a s ymmetrical, h omogeneous, r eciprocal e xchange i n w hich R enfrew's l aw o f monotonic d ecrement w ould b e

220

expected to operate. t he l ack of spatial symmetry e stablishes Copador's distribution a s one described by Ericson ( 1977:110) a s b eing i nappropriate f or " two dimensional" analysis of distance-dependent t rends. I f quantitative analysis were to be tor w ould have t o be considered.

u ndertaken,

t his

f ac-

The d irectionality i s c learest beyond a 5 0 km radius f rom t he main distribution c enter of t he C opan Valley. L ong-distance distribution was concentrated to the s outhwest of the Copan Valley, i n t he w estern and c entral parts of E l Salvador. copador was not distributed i nto t he populous areas of Honduras to t he east of t he Copan Valley - neither to Quirigua and i ts a ff iliated Lower M otagua s ettlements nor t o any part of the U lua Valley system. The absence of Copador i n these two geographic areas probably r eflects different sets of economic and social c ircumstances. The U lua Valley, i ncluding t he L ake Yojoa area, seems to r epresent s uccessful competition f rom active local c eramic producers which k ept out t he Copan i mports. The U lua-Yojoa c eramic producers a lso were able to d istribute t heir polychromes t o t he north t hrough the U lua and C hamelecon valleys to t he Caribbean, a r egion where Copador did not penetrate. T he c entral Honduras c eramics a lso were distributed t o t he southeast as f ar a s t he Gulf of Fonseca i n E l S alvador ( Beaudry 1 982). I n f act, a s will be discussed i n more detail s hortly, U luaYojoa polychromes are not u ncommon i n t he Copan Valley. I nterestingly, U lua-Yojoa polychromes are e xtremely r are i n western and w est-central E l S alvador where Copador i s s o h eavily concentrated. The absence of Copador a t Quirigua and the Lower Motagua s ites does not appear to be t he r esult of competition f rom another material distribution s ystem s ince no polychrome s erving vessels are prominent i n these s ites' L ate C lassic c eramic i nventories. I t seems t hat i nhabitants i n t he area n either i mported nor produced locally t his type of c eramic vessel. F or s ome r eason, not y et u nderstood, t hese s ettlements did not favor, or nave a ccess to, polychrome c eramics which are s o t ypical of t his t ime period t hroughout Mesoamerica and

lower . C entral

CONTEXT

ANALYSIS,

D istribution

America

( Healy

1 980).

COPADOR AND OTHER PAINTED

P attern

Within

t he

Copan

CERAMICS

Valley

Methodology Data f or t his analysis came f rom two sources: 1 ) Harvard U niversity's s ettlement pattern s tudy of parts of t he Copan pocket and 2 ) T I) , e Copan Valley s ampling program of t he P royecto Arqueologico C opan.

2 21

H arvard U niversity s pent two s easons working i n t he C opan Valley j ust prior t o t he i nauguration of t he P royecto Arqueolögico C opan. The Harvard e xpedition c onducted a preliminary s urvey of t he Valley f ollowed b y detailed mapping o f i ndividual s ites or s tructure u nits. D etailed mapping was done i n s everal s ectors o f t he Valley b ut t he p rimary emphasis was i n a n area w here medium a nd s mall s ize r uin d ensity i s very great w ith a more or l ess c ontinuous distribution of a t l east 5 00 mounds w ithin a n a rea o f a pproximately 1 .25 s q. km. ( Willey a nd L eventhal 1 979:79). T hen, e xcavations were c arried out a t t hree s ites r epresenting d ifferent l evels i n a proposed s ite typology or h ierarchy. Ceramic a nalysis h as proceeded t o t he point where a ll the material h as b een s orted by c lassified type a nd det ailed p rovenience ( including l evel w ithin a n e xcavat ion; n ature of e xcavation or t renching operation, e tc.). T he data h ave b een e ntered i nto a computerized data bank f rom w hich various s ubsets of i nformation can b e r etrieved. T hrough t he k ind a uspices o f t he H arvard project s taff, l istings w ere procured which p rovided a t abulation f or e ach p ainted type a long w ith s pecified provenience i nformation. U sing t hese l istings i t was possible t o determ ine t he number of s ites ( and t heir t ypological c lassif ication) w ith e ach painted type o f c eramic, t he quant ity of each type r ecovered, a nd t he s pecific s tructure or p laza w ithin t he s ite f rom which t he material c ame. T he P royecto A rqueologico C opan has c ompleted part o f t heir r esearch w herein t he s ettlement p attern f or t he e ntire C opan Valley w as i nvestigated t hrough a s tratified s ampling p rogram. L ot c ards f rom t he c eramic a nalysis o f t he materials r ecovered during t he program ( 179 s ub-operations) w ere made available . for s tudy a t t he P roject's h eadquarters i n 1 981. There w ere 1 10 s ub-operations f or w hich materials h ad been c ollected, s herds c lassified, a nd a C oner phase temporal a ssignment made. The i ndividual l ot c ards f or each s ub-operation w ere t hen r eviewed a nd t abulations made o f t he p resence a nd quantities ( if r ecorded) o f a ny of f ive painted t ypes of c eramics a s well as t he t otal number o f c eramics i n t he l ot. T he painted t ypes t abulated w ere C opador, popa, B abilonia, C aterpillar 1 7 a nd Chilanga. many o f t he l ot c ards d id not s pecify q uantity b y

GualSince

1 7 T his l ocal Copan Valley t ype was i ncluded i n t his p art of t he r esearch s ince i t i s t he only other Coner phase p ainted ware present w ith a ny f requency i n t he Valley. A t ype d escription i s g iven i n Appendix B .

2 22

t ype, i t was n ecessary t o a nalyze b asis of o nly p resence/absence.

t hese

data

o n

t he

F indings Table 6 4 s ummarizes t he f indings f rom t he P roy ecto Arqueologico C opan data i n t erms o f t he o verall d istribution o f t he p ainted types i n t he Valley; T able 6 5 p resents t he d istribution b y s pecific t ypes. S everal p ossible s ources of e rror i n t he d ata s hould b e m entioned. D ata w ere e ntered on t he l ot c ards a s p art o f t he i nitial l aboratory p rocessing o f t he material. T horough s herd-by-sherd a nalysis w as n ot a n objective a t t his s tage o f t he w ork, t hus omission o r m isclassif ications m ight b e made. T he t ypes may vary w ith r egard t o t heir l ikelihood o f b eing o verlooked. C opador i s probably t he l east l ikely t o b e o verlooked s ince m uch o f i ts t otal s urface i s d ecorated a nd t herefore e asily r ecognizable. B abilonia's p aste a nd p aint c olors a lso r ender i t quite d istinguishable. G ualp opa's a nd C hilanga's l arger s caled d esigns a nd f reqüently u npainted i nteriors c ould l ead t o s ome u nderr epresentation. A lso, G ualpopa m ight b e m isclassified a s C hilanga i f a s herd w ith o nly t he r ed p ainted p art o f a design w ere e ncountered. C aterpillar p robably w ould not b e o verlooked v ery often b ecause o f i ts h eavy w all, d istinctive p aste c olor a nd u se o f t he e asily i dentifiable s pecular h ematite r ed p aint. Another s ource o f e rror c ould b e v ariation i n preservation a mong t he s ub-operations s ince t hey w ere l ocated i n v arious t ypes o f t errain t hroughout t he Valley. H owever, t he s usCeptibility o f t he v arious painted t ypes t o w eathering s eems f airly c onsistent. C onsequently, i f t here i s a ny u nderstatement o f t he materials' p resence i t probably w ould b e r eflected a cross t he t ypes. T he r elative f requency o f occurrence s hould r emain t he s ame.

t he

With t hese c aveats i n m ind, s ome c eramics' d istribution c an b e m ade: 1 .

observations

of

P ainted c eramics w ere w idely d istributed d uring t he C aner p hase o ccupation. F urt hermore, t his d istribution w as f ound t hroughout t he C opan V alley s ettlement; p ainted c eramics w ere p resent i n a ll p arts o f t he valley, c utting a cross t he r ange o f s ocial s tatus, s ize o f r esidential u nit, a nd o ther c ultural f actors. A f urther t abulation was made o f s ub-operations w here a ll f ive p ainted t ypes w ere p resent; t hese p roveniences w ere n ot c oncentrated i n a ny c ertain p art o f t he v alley e ither. F inally, p roveniences w ithout a ny p ainted c eramics w ere c hecked f or l ocation. T hey t ended t o b e away f rom t he a rchaeological 2 23

TABLE

O f ( Sampling P resence o f

6 4

Overall Distribution Coner Phase Painted Ceramics I n The Copan Valley

Program,

Proyecto Arqueologico

painted ceramics

1 10

Copan

Sub-Operations

S ub-operations, at least one type reported

7 9.1%

S ub-operations, all types reported

2 2.7

f ive

TABLE

( Sampling

Data)

6 5

Distribution By Type Of Coner Phase Painted Ceramics I n The Copan Valley P rogram, Proyecto Arqueologico Copan Data) 1 10 W ith Type

Type reported

S ub-Operations With Only This P ainted Type

Copador

6 5.5%

15.5%

Gualpopa

3 5.5

1 .8

Caterpillar

4 3.6

. 9

Babilonia

3 2.7

0

Chilanga

5 3.6

6 .4

park ( which contains t he l argest public s tructures i n t he valley) a nd i n t he mount ain or f oothill s trata r ather than on the bottomlands. The absence of painted wares could r elate to f unctional considerations or merely to sampling f actors. F rom the r ather l imited perspective of t his anal ysis i t does not appear to r eflect a s tatus-related differential access to painted wares s ince other sub-operations i n equivalent locations did produce painte d c eramic materials. A more thorough examination of e xcavation and surface coll ection r ecords would b e n ecessary before a ny definite conclusions could b e r eached about s ence. 2 .

t he

s ignificance

of

t he

noted

ab-

C opador was t he most f requently r epres ented of t he types r ecorded ( 65.5 p ercent 2 24

o f t he s ub-operations a lso c ould b e j udged most e asily a ccessible o ne painted c eramic most o ften i t w ould b e

h ad Copador). I t a s h aving b een t he - t hat i s, i f o nly w are w ere p resent, C opador.

3 .

C hilanga's presence a lso w as w idespread, b ut, a s j ust m entioned, may b e o vers tated. C onversely, G ualpopa's p res & ice m ay b e u nderstated. T here w ere 2 4 s ub-operations w here C hilanga w as f ound b ut G ualpopa was n ot. I f o ne a ssumes t hat h alf o f t hose h ad G ualpopa e ither a long w ith c hilanga or i nstead of C hilanga, t hen 5 1 s ub-operations ( 46.4 p ercent) h ad G ualp opa r epresentation. T his i s s till c ons iderably l ess t han C opador ( 65.5 p ercent r epresentation) a nd n ot w hat would h ave b een e xpected. C opador h as b een a ssumed t o h ave b een a h igher s tatus good t han G ualpopa b ecause o f i ts more e laborate d ecorative s cheme, u se o f t he d istinctive s pecular h ematite p aint, a ssumed a ssocat ion o f i ts g lyphic e lements w ith t he e lite, e tc. Y et, i ts w ider d istribution w ithin t he C opan Valley would s uggest greater a vailability, l ess r estriction i n i ts a ccessibility: t he r everse o f t he e xp ected p attern f or a h igher s tatus a rticle.

4 .

B abilonia i s a ssumed t o h ave b een i mported i nto t he C opan Valley f rom s omewhere i n t he U lua-Yojoa a rea. I t i s i nteresting t o f ind i t p resent i n a lmost o ne-third o f t he p roveniences s tudied. I t was n oticed t hat B abilonia a lways c o-occurred w ith C opador. I t i s p robable, of c ourse, t hat a l esser q uantity o f t he i mported p olychrome i s p resent i n t he C opan Valley. I n f act, i n s ome v ery l arge l ots f or w hich c ounts b y t ype w ere a vailable, t he a mount o f C opador w as s ignificantly greater t han t hat o f B abilonia.

T he H arvard U niversity data w ere u sed t o a mplify and f ill i n t he observations j ust made f rom t he s tratif ied random s ampling p rogram. S ome l imitations i n t he H arvard data b ase s hould b e mentioned. T horough t est e xcavations w ere done a t t hree s ites: CV-16 ( smallest, T ype 1 s ite), C V-20 ( medium, T ype 2 s ite), a nd C V-43 t hrough 4 7 ( larger, T ype 3 s ite). T he o ther s ites w ere m apped a nd t hen t est p itted w ith a 2 b y 3 m eter p it i n t he c enter o f a p laza. T hus, t he data f rom t he t est p itted s ites c an only b e c onsidered t entative a nd must b e d iscussed i n t erms o f t rends. A lso, p laza t est p it s amples c ould b e e xpected t o l ess a ccurately r eflect a s ite's i nventory a s s ite s ize a nd c omplexity i ncreased. 225

T he l isting s howed t hat 2 5 s ites i nvestigated d uring t he H arvard p roject p roduced C opador c eramics w hile o nly e ight h ad G ualpopa a nd s even had B abilonia ( Table 6 6). TABLE

6 6

D istribution o f C oner P hase P ainted C eramics . ( Sites M apped a nd E xcavated i n C opan Valley H arvard U niversity P roject)

N umber of r eporting t ype

T ype C opador

s ites t his

2 5

G ualpopa

8

B abilonia

7

When t he s ites a re d ivided a ccording t o t he s ite c lassification h ierarchy ( Table 6 7) i t c an b e s een t hat C opador prevails a t a ll f our t ypes o f s ites while Gualpopa a nd B abilonia s eem t o h ave b een r estricted to l arger s ites ( that i s, e xcluded f rom T ype 1 s ites, N =7). I t s eems p robable t hat more e xtensive e xcavations w ould t urn u p more s ites w ith G ualpopa a nd B abilonia ( the 2 5:8:7 r atio w ould b e c loser). H owever, i t s eems l ikely t hat t hese w ould b e o ther ' than T ype 1 s ites. T he l ogic b ehind t his r easoning l ies i n t he observation that a t CV-16, t he t horoughly i nvestigated T ype I s ite, only- one s herd o f e ach o f t he G ualpopa a nd B abilonia t ypes emerge d. T hus, t he l ack o f a ny G ualpopa a nd B abilonia a t t he o ther s ix Type 1 t est p itted s ites c ould be a ssumed t o r eflect " reality" a t t hose s mall s ites. When t he t hree e xcavated t rends a re s een:

q uantities s ites a re

o f s herd material f rom t he e xamined ( Table 6 8) s everal

1 . •

M uch more C opador w as r ecovered t han Gualp opa a nd e ven l ess B abilonia w as f ound.

2 .

L ess C opador w as c oncentrated at t he l arg est s ite t han w as t he c ase w ith G ualpopa a nd B abilonia. A l arger .p ercentage o f C opador c ame f rom t he T ype 2 s ite t han w as t rue o f t he o ther painted types.

T hese data, t hen, s upport a nd amplify t hose f rom t he b roader v alley s ampling p rogram. C opador w as more w idely d istributed a nd a ppeared i n l arger q uantities t han G ualpopa a nd B abilonia. F urthermore, Copador was 2 26

TABLE

6 7

Distribution o f Coner Phase P ainted Ceramics B y S ite Classification ( Harvard University Project Data) Q uantity o f Ceramics Recovered Sites grouped by c lassification

Copador,

Gualpopa

B abilonia

Type 1 1 6 4 0 9 1 9 4 8 8 1 25 1 90

2 65 1 4 1 0 2 8 1 9 1 1 0

S ubtotal by

T ype

s ite t ype

3 46 ( 6.8%)

1

1

1 ( 0.1%)

1 ( 0.2%)

1 699 3 1 4 1 4 2 3 6 9 3

1 00 1 0 5 1 -

1 25 1 1 -

1 807 ( 35.7%)

1 16 ( 12.6%)

1 27 ( 22.9%)

4 1 2 741 5 1 4

7 93 2

3 95

2 756 ( 54.5%)

7 95 ( 86.6%)

3 95 ( 71.3%)

2

2 0 4 8 8 4 1 06 1 15 1 35 1 60 2 04 2 05 S ubtotal b y s ite t ype

Type 3 1 3 2 2 4 3-47 5 6 1 24 1 86 S ubtotal b y

s ite t ype

Type 4 1 7 6 8 1.2 2 1 77 S ubtotal by

T otal

1 16 1 8 1 3 4 s ite t ype

1 51 ( 3.0%) 5 060 ( 100%)

2 27

6 -

1 3 0 —

6 ( 0.7%)

3 1 ( 5.6%)

9 18 . ( 100%)

5 54 ( 100%)

TABLE Q uantity o f

E xcavated

S ites

S herd

6 8

M aterial,

E xcavated

C opador

G ualpopa

N=4705 C V

1 6

( Type

1 )

C V

2 0

( Type

2 )

C V 4 3-47

( Type

5 .6%

3 )

N =894 0 .1%

S ites

B abilonia N =521 . 2%

3 6.1

1 1.2

2 4,0

5 8.3

8 8.7

7 5.8

1 00.0

1 00.0

1 00.0

a vailable t o o ccupants o f s maller r esidential u nits w hile G ualpopa a nd B abilonia s howed s ome r estriction t o l arger, more c omplex u nits ( at l east i n t he p arts of t he C opan Valley c overed by t he H arvard project). A n e xamination t hen w as made o f t he i ntra-site proveniences f or t he p ainted t ypes a t e ach of t he t hree e xcavated s ites. T he n ature o f t he f ield operations f rom which t hese data w ere g athered s hould b e s pecified. C learing a nd t renching was done i n both p lazas a nd s tructures a t t he t hree e xcavated s ites. S herd c ounts w ere a vailable f rom b oth o f t hese t ypes of operations. T he t renching operations, h owever, r epresented mainly c onstruction f ill w hich would be of l imited u sefulness f or t rying t o d etermine i ntra-site u se o f t he various c eramics. T hus, only t he m aterial f rom t he c learing operations w as u sed. T he e xcavator h as s aid t hat n o m iddens, p er s e, w ere e ncountered a t t he s ites a nd h is opinion i s t hat d ebris was d isposed o f b y t hrowing i t o ff t he p latform s ubstructure ( R. L eventhal, p ersonal c ommunication, 1 982). Thus, the s herds f rom s tructure c learing w ould b e a t l east s omewhat i ndicative o f b uilding u se a nd w ill b e s o employed i n t he f ollowing a nalysis. CV-20. T his T ype 2 s ite c onsists o f two p lazas, t he main one e nclosed on a ll f our s ides b y b uildings of v arious h eights a nd s izes. ( See F igure 3 2.) T able 6 9 s hows t he p ercentage o f s herds b y t ype b y s tructure. S everal

observations

a re

noteworthy:

1 .

T he q uantity o f C opador i s f ar g reater t han t hat o f t he o ther two t ypes a nd i ts d istribution i s u biquitous - no s tructure l acked C opador m aterial.

2 .

T he d istribution o f B abilonia i s quite r estricted w ith o nly a f ew p ieces occurring a t o ther t han S tructures A a nd B . 228

_--------

F igure

3 2: Map o f S ite C V 2 0

2 29

TABLE

6 9

Q uantities o f P olychrome S herds R ecovered D uring C learing Operations o f S tructures, C V

S tructure I dentification

C opador

Gualpopa

N=1180

a The

A B

3 3.6% 2 8.1

C D E F G H I

1 5.7 4 .0 1 .3 2 .5 . 4 1 .6 1 3.0

s mall

s ample ( The l end

of

s ize

N=35a

s hould

s mall i tself

b e

2 0

Babilonia N=89

2 5.7% 1 1.4

5 1.7% 3 2.6

2 .9 8 .6

9 .0

8 .6 4 2.9

3 .4 3 .4

noted.

q uantity o f Gualpopa t o much a nalysis.)

does

not

3 .

A lthough C opador's d istribution i s wides pread t here i s a c oncentration, a s with B abilonia, i n S tructures A a nd B . S truct ure A has b een i dentified a s containing a r ange o f dwelling u nits w hile S tructure B , w ith t he h ighest e levation a t the s ite, i s t hought t o h ave f unctioned a s a t emple or s hrine.

4 .

E ven t hough t he Gualpopa s ample i s very s mall, t here s eems t o have b een a h eavier r epresentation of t his type i n S tructure I , t entatively i dentified a s a k itchen a rea.

CV-43. This Type p laza u nits w hich a re

3 s ite i s made up of a n umber t hought t o have f unctioned a s

an e xtended f amily r esidential u nit ( Leventhal 1 981:203).. F igure 3 3 i s a map of t he s ite; T able 70 s hows t he p ercentage of s herds b y t ype and s tructure ( clearing operations). A number o f observations c an be made: 1 .

C opador s till dominates i n t erms o f quant ity b ut t he other two t ypes a re more w idely d istributed t han a t the s maller s ite.

2 .

A t t his s ite f ew polychromes were f ound i n S tructure A w hich h ad a r eligious/administ rative f unction. ( This c ontrasts with 2 30

c , be

L .

-

- al « Me

C r l

2 31

TABLE

7 0

Quantities Of Polychrome S herds R ecovered During C learing Operations of Structures, CV-43 S trücture Identificationa

through 4 7

Copador N=1343

a

Gualpopa N=146

Babilonia N=285

A

3 .0%

5 .5%

1 .8%

B

0 .4

3 .4

9 .8

C

1 .6

2 .7

1 .4

D

3 .8

2 .1

1 .8

E

3 5.7

2 1.9

4 0.7

F

1 1.6

1 9.9

9 .1

G

1 .7

0 .7

-

H

0 .2

6 .2

2 .1

I

2 .4

3 .4

2 .1

J

1 4.4

1 1.6

7 .4

K

1 .6

1 .4

-

L

0 .4

_

0 .7

M

1 6.1

1 6.4

1 5.1

N

1 .8

1 .4

1 .1

O

1 .0

_

0 .7

P

0 .8

1 .4

1 .1

Q

0 .1

0 .7

-

R

0 .8

0 .7

2 .8

T

1 .0

-

1 .4

✓

1 .6

0 .7

1 .1

S ee Figure

3 7

f or

structure

2 32

l ocations

CV-20 w here s ignificant amounts of Copador a nd B abilonia w ere f ound i n S tructure B , a t emple or s hrine.) I nterestingly, a l arger a mount of a ll t hree polychromes t han e xpected on t he basis of b uilding s ize was r ecovered f rom S tructure M , a djac ent t o S tructure A . The f unction of t his s tructure has not b een i dentified b ut i ts c loseness t o t he dominant public b uilding could i mply a n a dministrative u se. 3 .

A ll t hree types a re w ell r epresented. i n S tructure E , s aid t o be t he r esidence of a h ead of f amily. I nterestingly, a s ignific ant a mount of Gualpopa ( and l esser proportions of C opador a nd Babilonia) was r ecovered f rom S tructure F , a ttached to S tructure E a nd possibly r epresenting a distinct domestic f unction.

This brief r eview o f i ntra-site distributions of t he t hree polychromes i s n ot conclusive b ut i t s uggests a reas f or f urther i nvestigation. There appears t o b e a difference b etween t he two s izes of s ites i n a vailabili ty o f Gualpopa a nd B abilonia while Copador i s preval ent at b oth s ites. T he by-structure c oncentration of types s hows s ome s imilarities ( Copador a nd B abilonia s eem to co-vary i n many i nstances) a s w ell a s s ome diff erences ( Gualpopa s eems d ifferent f rom t he o ther two types but t he f requencies a re very s mall f or CV-20.) When the c eramic data a re a nalyzed i n conjunction w ith other materials f rom t he s tructures a s i s p lanned ( Leventhal, p ersonal c ommunication, 1 983) a n i nteresting p icture o f s tructure f unction a nd s ite organization s hould emerge. D istribution

P attern Within

t he

Z apotitan Valley

M ethodology F ield r ecords f rom t he s tratified r andom s ample s urvey of t he Z apotitan Valley w ere s tudied a nd a t abulation made o f t he r ecorded presence of C opador, Gualpopa, a nd Arambala, a s w ell a s a l ocal b ichrome a nd polychrome of t he L ate C lassic period. ( See Appendix B f or C hilama a nd S acayil d escriptions.) C hilanga was n ot a n

f ound E arly

I lopango

located

i n t he Z apotitan r egion, probably r eflecting C lassic occupational h iatus f ollowing t he

volcanic eruption.

The data u sed w ere f rom s urface s urveys t hrough a r andom s ampling s trategy.

of s ites Once a

s ite was l ocated i n a s elected quadrat, i t was mapped a nd collected i n a s ystematic, predetermined method. t hen surface c ollection was continued method t o e nsure t hat a ll " diagnostic"

2 33

i n a nonrandom materials w ere

s aved. S ince data f rom b oth types o f s urface c ollect ion w ere u sed i n t his a nalysis, i t s eems prudent t o d iscuss t he f indings only i n presence/absence t erms. S ites l ocated b y t he s urvey w ere c lassified i nto a s even-part t ypology a nd w ere l ocated a ccording t o s everal t opographical s trata ( Black 1 978). B oth o f t hese c onsiderations w ill b e u sed i n a nalyzing t he data. F indings S lightly more t han one-third o f t he Late C lassic s ites s urveyed i n t he Z apotitan V alley h ad one o r more o f t he r egionally d istributed p ainted types. a n a ddit ional 3 0 p ercent h ad p ainted t ypes a ssumed t o b e o f l ocal ( within t he g eneral Valley a rea) manufacture. I n c ombination, t hen, 6 7 p ercent o f t hese s ites w ere u sing s ome type o f painted c eramics ( Table 7 1).

TABLE 7 1 T ypes o f C eramics a t L ate C lassic Z apotitan Valley S urvey S ites C eramic Type

S ites

C opador, G ualpopa or A rambala, a lso p ossibly l ocal p ainted L ocal

painted

No p ainted T otal

t ypes only

f ine-ware

s ites

type

t ypes

s urveyed

Surveyed

1 6

3 7.2

1 3

2 0.2

1 4

3 2.6

3 4

1 00.0

I n t he C opan Valley, 7 9 p ercent o f t he s ub-operat ions produced p ainted w ares. C onsidering sampling e rror a nd o ther s ources o f v ariability, t hese proportions s eem q uite s imilar, i ndicating t he g eneral a vailability o f p ainted a nd d ecorated p ottery t o L ate C lassic populat ions.(This f actor h as b een c ommented o n before b y r es earchers . working i n o ther parts o f t he Maya l owlands: B elize [ Willey e t a l. 1 965:350-1,571] a nd T ikal [ Culbert 1 974:65].) F urther, t he a vailability o f e ither l ocal or i mp orted p ainted c eramics d id not a ppear , to depend on t he p hysical l ocation or s ize o f t he c ommunity i n which a h ousehold r esided. T able 7 2 s hows c eramic distribution b y t opographic a rea w ithin t he Valley. B asin s ites w ould h ave h ad s omewhat greater a ccessibility t o S an Andres, a p rimary r egional c enter l ocated i n t he B asin z one, y et t he p roportion o f s ites 2 34

w ith i mported expected.

polychromes

i s

no

Table

more

t han

would

have

b een

72

D istribution of L ate C lassic C eramics i n T he Z apotitan Valley By Geographic L ocation

G eographic L ocation B asin

L ocal No Painted P ainted C eramics C eramics

Imported P olychromes 6

W estern mountains

1 0

S outhern mountains

6

5

1 7

6

9

2 5

1

_

_1

1 3

1 6

T otal

Total

1 4

4 3

The c eramic distribution was e xamined u sing B lack's s ite c lassification s cheme. B ecause o f t he s mall number of s ites i n t he sample, i t was decided to collapse t he s even-part typology i nto t hree c lassificat ions: i solated r itual precinct, hamlet/village, and l arge village w ith r itual construction/secondary a nd primary r egional c enter. A s s hown i n T able 7 3 t here i s l ittle variation f rom t hat expected on t he basis o f t he number of s ites in each c lassification. T here appears t o b e a t endency f or painted c eramics t o b e more f requently a ssociated w ith t he l arger c enters, b ut a X2 t est of t he distribution s howed t he probability of r elationship to b e a round 0 .5. TABLE

7 3

D istribution of L ate C lassic C eramics i n T he Z apotitan Valley by S ite C lassification

S ite C lassification I solated precinct

r itual •

Hamlet/village L arge village w ith r itual construci on/secondary a nd primary centers T otal

I mported P olychrome

Local Painted C eramics

1

No P ainted C eramics

2

1 1

1 1

2

4 1 6

1 3

2 35

1 1

1 1 4

Total

3 3 3

7 4 3

F inally,

t he

distribution

o f

t he

t hree

imported painted c eramics was a ssessed S everal i nteresting r esults emerged: TABLE

types

( Table

of

74).

7 4

D istribution of Imported L ate C lassic Ceramics i n t he Z apotitan Valley By Type Imported

C eramics

S ites With

Imports

( N=16)

C opador

1 0

62.5

Gualpopa

5

3 1.1

Arambala

8

5 0.0

1 .

Copador was t he most f requently e ncount ered i mported painted t ype, r esembling t he s ituation prevailing i n t he Copan Valley. ( The s mall s ize of t he s ite s ample s hould b e considered, however.)

2 .

A lso 'similar t o t he f indings f rom t he Copan Valley, t he r egionally distributed polychromes w ere not r estricted t o l arger, more c omplex s ites. ( See Table 75.) TABLE

7 5

D istribution of Imported L ate C lassic Ceramics i n The Z apotitan Valley By T ype and S ite

S ite

C lassification

I solated precinct

C lassification

I mported C eramics Copador G ualpopa Arambala

r itual

1

1

Hamlet/village

6

3

4

L arge v illage with r itual construction/ primary and s econdary center

3

2

4

5

8

T otal

Total

1 0

2 36

1 1

4 1 6

U se

i n

F unerary C ontext

a t C opan

1 8

M ethodology L ongyear's v olume, C opan C eramics: A S tudy o f S outheastern P ottery, ( 1952) c ontains a s ection w ith d etailed d escriptions of graves and tombs. U sing h is data, t abulations w ere made o f t he c ontents, l ocation o f t he b urial, p osition a nd c haracteristics o f t he b uried p erson, a nd n ature o f t he grave or t omb. T he objective o f t his a nalysis was t o determine i f t here w as a r elationship b etween t he p resence o f C opador a nd o ther f eatures t hat c ould b e s tatus r anked. D ata w ere a vailable f or 1 9 L ate C lassic graves ( no t omb c onstruct ion) a nd 1 3 L ate C lassic t ombs w ith c onstruction. The t wo t ypes o f b urials a re t reated s eparatly i n t he f ollowing s ection. B efore p resenting t he f inds, however, i t s hould b e m entioned t hat t here p robably h ad b een s ome d egree o f s election i n t erms of t he s ubjects f or t hese b urials s ince most o f t he l ocations w ere w ithin t he c enter of t he s ite or r elatively n earby. I t i s t o b e e xpected t hat burial i n t he h eart o f t he a rea w ith t he most i mp ressive a rchitecture would b e r estricted t o h igher s tatus i ndividuals. Thus, t his i s n ot a " random" s ample o f b urials f rom t hroughout t he V alley. While t he data h ave b een o rgani zed and w ill b e r eviewed f rom t he p erspective o f s ocial r anking d ifferences, i t i s posible t hat variat ion i n a mount a nd c ontent of b urial goods r eflects different c onsiderations. F indings Graves. B urials w ere c ategorized a ccording t o whether o r n ot t he grave h ad r eceived s ome preparation b efore i nterment preparation b eing equated w ith e nergy e xpenditure w hich w ould r eflect e steem or power. T hen i t w as f ound t hat f our graves w ithout e vidence of p reparation c ontained i ndividuals w hose t eeth h ad b een f iled a nd/or i nlaid: a mark o f r ank i n L ate C lassic M aya s ociety. T hus, t hree groups of g raves w ere derived: 1 ) w ith p reparation; 2 ) w ithout p reparat ion b ut o ccupant h ad i nlaid/ f iled t eeth; 3 ) w ithout

1 8 T he s ame t ype of a nalysis h ad b een p lanned f or T azumal, t he L ate C lassic s ector o f t he C halchuapa z one. However, s ince c omplete d escriptions o f t hose graves a nd t ombs h ave n ever b een p ublished i t w as not possible t o do s o. I t would have b een i nteresting t o c ontrast t he f indings f rom t he e xporting a rea, C opan, a nd t he i mporting a rea, C halchuapa, t o d etermine i f a different s ocial v alue h ad b een a scribed t o t he c eram ics.

2 37

p reparation. Table 7 6 l ists t he g raves grouped a ccordi ng t o t he preparation c riterion. ( Longyear's n umber i s u sed f or i dentification p urposes.) I t c an b e s een t hat, w hile C opador i s present i n t he p repared graves ( assumed t o r epresent a h igher s ocial r ank t han t he graves w ithout p reparation), i t a lso i s i ncluded i n h alf t he u nprepared g raves. T hus, a t l east w ithin t hese b urial l ocations, C opador i s not r estricted t o h igher s tatus graves. T ombs. B urials w ere c ategorized a ccording t o a n i ndex o f c onstruction c omplexity w hich w as derived i n t he f ollowing way. F rom L ongyear's d escription i t was possible t o determine t he n umber o f c hambers, t he s quare f ootage e nclosed, t he u se o f a c orbel vault, t he u se o f c ut masonry, t he p resence a nd number o f n iches, a nd t he u se o f a c ut s lab f loor o r r oof. T hese c haract eristics w ere c onsidered e vidence o f t he i nvestment o f s kill a nd e ffort i n preparing t he b urial p lace. T he greater t he a bility t o c hannel r esources f or b urial i nvestments, t he h igher t he o verall s tatus s hould be. ( Chapman a nd R andsborg [ 1981:9] r eview a pproaches t hat h ave b een u sed t o a nalyze r anking i n mortuary r emains. O ne o f t hese i s t he " effort-expenditure p rinciple" w hich i ncludes a ssessment of t he l ocation a nd c onstruct ion of t he b urial c ontainer. S ee a lso T ainter 1 978.) A ppendix G g ives t he d etails u sed i n c omputing t he c ons truction c omplexity i ndex. The validity o f s uch a n i ndex h as not b een d et ermined s ince i t h as only b een a pplied t o t his s et o f data. 19 I t s hould b e a pplied t o t ombs f or w hich t he s tatus o f b uried i ndividuals h as b een i ndependently d etermined. T hen t he e xtent t o w hich t he derived i ndex p redicts t he r elative s tatus c an b e u sed t o a ssess t he c oncept's u sefulness. I n t he a bsence o f s uch v alidat ion, o ther a spects o f t he b urial c ircumstances w ere e xamined t o determine i f t hey s upported t he i ndex r anki ng. T he measure s eemed t o b e a g eneral i ndicator o f t he quantity o f g rave goods, o ne f requently u sed i ndic ator o f s tatus. With one e xception, t ombs i ndexed 5 a nd a bove c ontained more objects t han d id lower i ndexed t ombs. A lso, t ombs w ith h igher i ndices w ere more l ikel y t o h ave a variety o f materials r ather t han j ust pott ery. T hus, t he " richness" o f f urnishings s eems genera lly r elated t o c onstruction c omplexity, w hich w ould

1 9 B rown ( 1981:29) c ites a m ethodological w eakness i n e ffort-expenditure m easures s ince i t i s difficult t o a ssess d ifferences i n p rocurement c osts of d ifferent materials, e tc. G iving equal w eight t o t he p resence o f a n iche o r a c orbel v ault may i nadequately r epresent a ctual e ffort-expenditure i n my s cheme.

2 38

TABLE

7 6

D etails of 1 9 C opan Graves B y P reparation C lassification

Preparation S ome 1 9 ( 2 s keletons; one child) 1 -42 2 4 ( child)

Total pottery pieces

O ther b urial goodsa

L ocat ionb Comments

5

1 ,5

1

3 1

1 ,8 0

1 1

N one but f illing/inlay 3 -42 4 -39 3 -39 2 5 a nd 2 6

2 2 0 1

0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 1

N one 2 6-42 1 -38 1 -39 4 -46 7 -42

2 3 1 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

2 1 2 1 1

( child) ( child) ( child) ( tight f lex) ( flex r ight)

2 8 ( flex r ight) . 3 4 and 3 5 ( 34-adult f lex l eft; 3 5-child)

5 1

0

1

3 1 ( flex on b ack) 1 -43 ( Don't k now) 1 -40 ( Don't k now) 3 -38 ( Don't k now)

2 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 1 1 6

2 0

2

5

1

( Don't know)

1 ,6

1

Copador melon G ualpopa 2 Copador U lua-Yojoa

Gualpopa

U lua-Yojoa

C opador U lua-Yojoa G ualpopa

2 C hilanga, 2 G ualpopa C opador C hilanga(?), G ualpopa(?) Copador C opador Copador C opador a nd C hilanga(?)

a ) Types o f b urial goods other t han c eramic v essels: 1 ) j ade b ead(s)/ p endant/worked j ade; 2 ) m irror f ragment; 3 ) u nworked j ade/shell/obsidian/bone; 4 ) i ncised p eccary s kulls; 5 )deer bone, t urtle s hell; 6 ) p ottery whistles/ c ylinder s tamp/spindle whorl; 7 ) pearls and f ish b ones; 8 ) earplugs; 9 ) s pondylus s hell and other miscellaneous; 1 0) s ilicified c harcoal. b ) Location: 1 ) " Cemetery a rea"/Acropolis/main p laza; 2 ) L anding f ield ( slightly west o f t he main center); 3 ) f oothills ( Group 5 ); 4 ) west o f main g roup, between main g roup a nd t own ( Group 8 ); 5 ) e ast o f main g roup; 6 ) s outhwest o f main g roup.

l end s upport t o c onstruction c omplexity b eing a s tatus r elated v ariable. W ithin t his c ontext o f hypothesized s tatus-relationship, t he t ombs a re l isted i n T able 7 7 i n a scending i ndex order.

TABLE 7 7 Details o f 1 3 C opan T ombs B y I ndex O f Construction Complexity

I ndex Value

T otal p ottery p ieces

Other burial g oodsa

L ocat ion b

3 2 7-42 1 7-42 1 -38

2 0 1

0 1 1 ,2

2 5 1

j ade

3 .5 1 -46

4

0

1

3 Copador

4 1 8-42

2

1

1

2 Copador

5 1 2 -38 2 -46

1 1 1 0

3 -6 8

1 1 1

Gualpopa, p robable Chilanga; j ade i nlays a nd filing

6 1 1 1 -42 3

1 1 2 3

3 ,7 3 3 ,9

3 1 1

Ulua-Yojoa Copador j ar Gualpopa

a ) b )

7 4

4

8 2

4

S ee l egend on Table S ee l egend on Table

1 ,3,8

3

7 6. 7 6.

240

Comments

i nlays

4

1

Quetzal v ase, p ossible P eten p olychrome, t entative Copador

T he c hoice of C opador a s a grave good does n ot s eem t o vary d irectly w ith c onstruction c omplexity. T he ceramic i s p resent i n t he h ighest i ndexed t omb a s w ell a s i n one a t t he n ext t o lowest r ank. D ividing t he tombs i nto two groups - t hose w ith a n i ndex l ess t han . 5 a nd t hose i ndexed a s 5 a nd o ver - r esults i n t wo t ombs w ith C opador i n e ach s ubdivision. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he t wo t ombs w ith more t han o ne piece o f C opador a re i n t he l ower i ndexed group. I t would a lmost s eem a s i f " conspicuous c onsumption" w ere occurring i n t hese i nstances. G iven t he l imitations o f t he data a nd t he m ethod, t he main s tatement t hat c an b e made i s t hat C opador i s not c learly a ssociated w ith t he more c omp lexly c onstructed t ombs. J ust a s i t was f ound i n t he u nprepared graves a s w ell a s t he p repared o nes, i t o ccurs s poradically i n various t ypes of t ombs. I ts r ole a s a s tatus r elated f unerary good, t herefore, i s e quivocal. C onclusions I n b oth t he Z apotitan Valley a nd t he C opan V alley p ainted c eramics w ere w idely a vailable d uring t he L ate C lassic p eriod. T he p attern o f d istribution i n both a reas i ndicates t hat t he t ypes o f s erving v ess els u nder i nvestigation w ere n ot r estricted t o h igh r anked h ouseholds. F urthermore, C opador w as t he most w idely a vailable painted s erving v essel i n b oth v alleys. While data a re i ncomplete, i t s eems t hat n ot o nly d id C opador h ave t he most w idespread d istribution i n C opan Valley b ut c irculated i n t he l argest q uantit ies. B oth f indings p oint t o 1 ) t he s ize o f production c apacity a nd 2 ) a p roduct t hat i s n ot s tatus r estricted. S omewhat i n c ontrast i s t he s ituation w ith G ualp opa. I t was l ess w idely d istributed a nd s howed s ome r estrictions i n t he C opan Valley t o l arger r esidential u nits - more o f a c orrelation w ith s tatus. T hese p atterns s uggest a possible f unctional d ifference b etween t he t wo p olychromes. W ithin t his r esearch t he d ifferences c annot b e t ested b ut s peculat ion suggests t hat t he w idespread occurrence o f C opador r elates t o a r ole i t p layed i n h ousehold-level r itual. P erhaps t he c eramic was t he a ppropriate one t o u se f or o fferings a t a h ousehold s hrine or i n s ome o ther w ay f unctioned i n a r eligious c ontext t hat c ross-cut s tatus l ines. Gualpopa, o n t he o ther h and , may r epresent p urely domestic u se - h ence i ts t endency t o b e more a vailable t o h igher s tatus households. T he prevalence o f B abilonia i n t he C opan Valley w as an u nexpected f inding. I t a ppears t hat t hese c eram ics f rom c entral H onduras w ere q uite s uccessful i n

241

c ompeting w ith t he l ocally made G ualpopa. T his cont rasts w ith t he s ituation a t L os N aranjos i n t he B abiI onia p roducing a rea w here G ualpopa was n ot encountered a t a ll a nd o nly a h andful o f C opador w as r ecovered. , Copador's t enuous p lace a s a h igh s tatus p roduct i s b rought i nto greater q uestion f rom a r eview o f i ts f unerary c ontext u se a t C opan. A dmittedly, t he s cope o f t his a nalysis i s q uite l imited b ut t he i ndications a re t hat C opador w as n ot r estricted t o h igher r anked b urials; i ts u se c ross-cut t he c lassification o f g raves a nd t ombs d eveloped.

2 42

C HAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS

P RODUCTION I n Chapter 1 a number of hypotheses were s et f orth r elating t o t he production of C opador s erving v essels. The r esearch f indings w ill now b e d iscussed f rom the v iewpoint of t hese hypotheses a nd t he s pecif ied tests. H ypothesis I : P roduction occurred i n a r estricted geog raphic a rea w ith c lay f rom a s imilarly r estricted proc urement z one. This hypothesis was t ested by s tudying t he trace e lemental composition of s amples of C opador f rom various proveniences; o ther c ream paste c eramics f rom the s ame p roveniences w ere t ested f or comparison p urposes. Arambala r ed-paste c eramics were e valuated f rom the s ame hypothetical viewpoint. C hemical characterization a nalysis s upported h ypothesis. T he conclusion was t hat a majority of

t he t he

C opador vessels Were manufactured i n one z one but f rom t wo s eparate c lay r esources. T he f act t hat a ll t he C opador s erving vessels were not made of r aw materials f rom a r estricted procurement z one means t hat t he prod uction system was not a ' tightly controlled one. The v ariability i n t he paste composition of t he v essels not m ade i n t he c entralized z one i ndicates production by- a n umber of potters r elying on different c lay deposits, f urther emphasizing a l ack of r estriction on who could m anufacture vessels of t his t ype. Comparison types. Gualpopa: A s imilar pattern w as f ound a s w ith Copador . . T he bulk of t he production w as centralized i n one z one but was not t ightly r est ricted t o t hat a rea. Vessels f rom other r aw material s ources w ere f ound at t he various distribution points. C hilangav T his cream ware b egan earlier t han C opador o r Gualpopa. ( It persists i n western Honduras t hrough the Late C lassic b ut s eemingly t erminates i n t he E arly C l s ic i n 'western a nd west-central E l S alvador.) C hemical compositional data i ndicate t hat much l ess o f t his ceramic was produced i n one c entral z one; more of i t— a . p-Peärg -Ü6 b e t he product of s tylistic e xchange. •C hi1ar iga has b een associated on t he basis of motifs •w ith Guälpopa a nd Copador ( Longyear 1 952:30). F rom a p roduction s tandpoint i t could have been an a ntecedent w hose modest l evel of c entralized production a nd t rade e xpanded i nto a growing market f or t he more h ighly

2 43

d ecorated p olychromes, G ualpopa a nd C opador. Aramb ala: C hemical c haracterization o f t his r ed p aste type was l ess t horoughly i nvestigated t han t hat of t he c ream p aste t ypes. N evertheless, l imited a nalysis s uggests t he u se o f r esources f rom a r estricted z one o f w estern E l S alvador. C halchuapa i s a p ossible p roduction l ocus b ut a dditional s tudy would b e n ecessary to v erify o r n egate t his hypoth sis. Hypothesis I A: C opador was . produced i n t he Copan Valley. T his hypothesis w as t ested b y comparing t he t race e lemental c omposition o f t he C opador c lays j . udged t o h ave b een p rocured f rom a r estricted r esource z one a gainst t he c omposition o f c lays u sed i n l ocally made C opan Valley c eramics. T his h ypothesis was n ot s upported f rom t he t race e lemental c ompositional data. S tatistically s ignificant c hemical d ifferences w ere f ound b etween t he c ream p aste c eramics a nd l ocal pott ery f rom t he v arious s ites i n t he s tudy - C opan, C halchuapa, Quirigua, a nd t he Z apotitan Valley. X-ray d iffraction o f l ocal domestic pottery f rom t he C opan Valley r evealed t he p resence o f montmorilloni te a nd m ixed l ayer montmorillonite-illite m inerals. S cans o f C opador a nd G ualpopa p ottery did n ot s how equivalent m ineral p eaks. T his f inding, i n c ombination w ith l ow i ron c oncentrations i n t he c ream-paste types, s uggests t hat a d ifferent type o f c lay, probably k aol inite, was t he b asic r aw material f or C opador a nd a ssociated c eramics. E ven t hough t he hypothesis o f a C opan Valley p roduction l ocus w as not s upported by t he c hemical c omp ositional w ork, i t w as n ot d iscarded f or two r easons: 1 ) T he p ercentage of C opan p rovenience pottery i n t he C opanfocus c ompositional r eference group a rgues f or C opan V alley p roduction on t he b asis o f a " Criterion o f Abundance" ( Bishop, R ands, a nd H olley 1 982). 2 ) C lay d eposits i n t he C opan Valley a s p reliminarily d escribed ( Turner e t a l., n .d.) a ppear t o b e d iverse, r esulting f rom d ifferent g eological h istories. C onsequently, t he g eological p ossibility o f C opador c lay s ources i n t he Valley i s r ealistic. T he a ccuracy o f t his h ypothesis n eeds t o b e v erified t hrough a nalysis of w hite-firing c lays f rom t he C opan Valley; u ntil s uch a p roject c an b e c arried out, no f irm c onclusion c an b e s tated. H ypothesis I I: T he c onversion o f t he c lay t o f inished vessels w as done b y c raft s pecialists w orking w ithin a p roduction s ystem g eared t o s tandardization a nd s implif ication. T his hypothesis was t ested t hrough q uantitat ive a nalyses o f v arious a spects o f t he vessels' s hapes a nd d ecoration. T he o ther painted t ypes were e valuated t hrough t he s ame a nalyses t o p rovide a c omparative f rame of r eference.

2 44

Copador b owls - b oth open a nd r ecurved s hapes - w ere quite s tandardized a nd s implified i n t erms o f t heir dimensions, o rganization of t he d esign f ields, a nd s election o f m aterials f or d ecoration. T hese c hara cteristics s ubstantiated t he i nitial a ssumption t hat t he c eramics w ere p roduced by occupational s pecialists. The d egree o f v ariability i n t he p ainted d ecorat ion - t he c ombination o f motifs, t he u se o f s et p aint c olors i n v arious a reas o f t he v essel, e tc. - . was greater t han w ould h ave b een e xpected i f t he c eramics h ad b een m ade i n l arge w orkshops. Within l arge w orks hops, t he d ecoration s tep i n c eramic p roduction w ould l ikely b e v ery f ormularized w ith v essels p ainted t o d uplicate a model or s tandard. C opador bowls s how s ome c lustering o f d ecorative variables b ut n ot a t a s trong enough l evel o f a ssociation t o i ndicate l arge w orkshop organization. I t a ppears more l ikely t hat t hese s ervi ng v essels w ere p roduced i n s maller p roduction u nits, probably f amily l evel w orkshops, c onforming t o e stabl ished modes o f d ecoration b ut e xercising i ndividual preferences f or s pecific e xecutional a nd motif f eat ures. I n o ther w ords, t here w as n o s trong c entral c ontrol over t he d ecorative a spect o f t heir manufacturi ng. One i nteresting pattern c arries i mplications f or t he organization o f t he d ecorative p rocess, f unctional r equirements f or t he b owls, or b oth. Q uantitative a nalyses d etermined t hat t he i nterior d ecoration w as more s tandardized t han e ither t he e xterior d ecoration or t he i nterior a nd e xterior c ombined. F urthermore, t he i nteriors u sed l ess c omplicated motifs. T hese observations c an b e i nterpreted a s h aving r esulted f rom d ifferent c raftsmen p ainting t he t wo v essel s urfaces t he l ess experienced b eing a ssigned t he i nterior a nd w orking t o a p attern, t he more e xperienced doing t he e xterior a nd b eing a llowed more f reedom o f e xpression. T he same p ainter c ould h ave done b oth s urfaces, o f c ourse, j ust a llocating more t ime a nd e ffort t o t he more i mportant e xterior s urface. Another i nterpretat ion i s t hat t he v essels' f unction r equired c ertain i nterior d esigns w hile d ecorative f lexibility o f t he e xterior w as a llowed. T here i s n o w ay t o k now i f a ny o f t hese i nterpretations a re valid b ut t hey a re i ntrig uing possibilities t o c onsider. The v arious c haracteristics o f C opador vases dimensions, o rganization o f t he d esign f ield, v ariabili ty i n decoration - d id n ot f it t he hypothesis o f p rod uction g eared t o s tandardization a nd ‘ simplification. R ather, t hese p ieces s howed e vidence o f e laboration t hat would b e more c haracteristic o f s pecialized p rod uction f or e lite e xchange. I n l ine w ith t his w as t he c raftsmanship e valuation made b y t he i nvestigator. M ore of t he v ases w ere j udged t o b e o f b etter c raftsm anship t han w ere t he bowls. I t c annot b e s tated 2 45

w hether t he C opador vases w ere p ainted by t he same c raftsmen w ho d ecorated t he bowls. Whether t hey were o r n ot, t he e nd p roducts r eflect a more i ndividualized a pproach t o t he d esigns a nd greater c are i n e xecution b oth i ndicating a l arger i nvestment i n t ime a nd e nergy. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat Copador vases s eem more p revalent. w ithin t he C opan Valley t han a t o ther p roveniences. T he s hape i s r elatively i nfrequent a t C hapchuapa ( 45 c ases out o f a t otal count o f 8 05 C opador p ieces), a nd no w hole v essels f rom E l S alvador w ere l ocated. T his d istributional s ituation may f urther a ttest t o t he d ifferent r ole o f v ases a nd bowls. G ualpopa open b owls, l ike C opador bowls, were d etermined t o b e t he r esult o f o ccupational specializat ion o n t he b asis o f t heir s implification a nd s tandardi zation ( dimensions, o rganization o f d esign f ield, s election o f materials f or d ecoration). E ven l ess s tandardization o f d ecoration was observed t han among t he C opador bowls, however. T hus, i t w ould appear t hat t hese c eramics w ere made b y a number of i ndependent p roduction u nits applying v ery g eneral s tylistic c ano ns. O ne s ubgroup o f G ualpopa open bowls, decorated i n a s piral f ashion w herein t he e ntire e xterior, i ncluding t he c onvex b ase, was t reated a s a c ontinuous design f ield, may b e a n e xception t o t his c onclusion, b ut t he s mall s ize o f t he s ample p recludes a ny d efinitive s tatement. G ualpopa v ases d id n ot e xhibit c haracteristics o f s tandardization or s implification. I n contrast w ith C opador v ases, h owever, t he G ualpopa s pecimens d id n ot s how a ny e laboration o f d esign o r p aint colors. T he c hoice o f d esigns a nd t heir e xecution were m uch t he s ame a s f or open bowls. C onsequently, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he Gualpopa bowls a nd v ases w ere made by t he same c raftsmen i n s mall s cale d ecentralized p roduction units. Whether C hilanga open bowls w ere made b y f ull t ime s pecialists i s q uestionable. D imensions a nd o rganization o f t he d esign• f ield a re l ess s tandardized t han f or C opador o r G ualpopa b owls. T he b owls c ert ainly a re s implified i n t hese r espects a s well a s w ith r egard t o p aints a nd s lips. However, t his s implificat ion a lone i s n ot c onsidered s ufficient t o c lassify t he p roduct a s r esulting f rom s pecialization. I n t erms o f d ecoration, d esign motifs n ot only a re e xtremely varied b ut i n most i nstances s o s imple t hat i t i s difficult t o make a c ase f or e xpertise i n painting. T he u se of t he n egative U sulutan t echnique o n t he i nterior o f t he v ess els does a rgue f or s hared t echnological knowledge a nd s kill i n a chieving t he b atik-like e ffect. D ata f rom t he q uantitative a nalyses o f A rambala c an b e i nterpreted i n o ne o f two w ays: e ither a s e vid ence f or a p roduction s ystem b ased on s tandardization

2 46

a nd s implification or a s e vidence o f s tylistic i ng w ithout p roduction s ystem i mplication.

b orrow-

D imensions, organization o f t he d esign f ield, a nd s election o f materials f or d ecoration a ll q ualify A rambala a s a p roduct o f s implification a nd s tandardiz ation. S imilarly, t he d ecoration r elated v ariables s how e qually s trong or s tronger a ssociations a s d oes t he s et f or C opador r ecurved b owls. A ll t hese f indings a re c ompatible w ith t he hypothesis r egarding t he n ature o f t he p roduction s ystem. H owever, o ther l ess t angible data must b e c ons idered. A rambala has l ong b een t hought o f a s a d erivative o f C opador; i n f act, i t was i nformally t ermed " imitation" o r " false" C opador b y e arlier r esearchers ( Longyear 1 952; s ee a lso t he d iscussion b y S harer 1 978a Vol 3 :57-58). C luster a nalysis d uring t his p roject v erified t hat o ne main group o f Arambala b owls d uplic ated t he motif c ombinations o f o ne o f t he C opador r ecurved b owl c lusters. T hus, t he p ossibility e xists t hat c haracteristics o f A rambala r esulted f rom c opying o ne d ecorative variety o f C opador k nown f rom e xchange goods. T his s tylistic b orrowing s till c ould h ave t aken p lace w ithin t he t ype o f p roduction s ystem posited f or C opador. U nfortunately, t he l imited c hemical c omposit ional a nalysis o f Arambala p aste does n ot p rovide c lear-cut e vidence f or r estricted r esource u tilizat ion. C onsequently, n o d irect c onclusion w ill b e d rawn r egarding t he t ype o f s ystem p roducing A rambala s erving v essels. Hypothesis I II. T he s ize o f t he p roduction s ystem t he number of production u nits a nd t he a mount o f c era mics m ade r elates t o a c omplex e xchange s ystem, e ither r edistribution o r marketing. T he e xpectations s et f orth i n C hapter 1 f or a c omplex e xchange s ystem i ncluded a moderate number o f p roduction u nits b ut o f a t ype t hat c ould manufacture a l arge quantity o f c era mics, probably c entralized w orkshops. O ther e xpectat ions f or e xchange s ystems o f t his c omplexity w ere t hat t here w ould b e a h igh d egree o f s tandardization a nd s implification. . From t he s tandardization data d iscussed p reviously, C opador bowls do not s eem t o f it t hese e xpectat ions. S implification i s e vident a nd s ome e xtent o f s tandardization i s p resent b ut n ot w hat w ould b e c ons idered a ttainable i n c entralized w orkshop f acilities. R ather, i t w as c oncluded t hat t hese c eramics r epresent t he o utput o f s mall workshops, p robably organized a t a household l evel.

amics s ive.

When a ttention i s t urned t o t he amount o f c ermade, however, t he q uantity o f C opador i s e xtenI n t erms of r egional d istribution, a pproximately

247

4 0 p ercent o f t he L ate C lassic s ites r ecorded h ad C opa ldor c eramics. W ithin t he C opan V alley, a bout t wo-thirds o f t he s ampled L ate C lassic s ites s ampled i ncluded C opador i n t heir c eramic i nventory; w ithin t he Z apotit an Valley o f E l S alvador, 2 5 p ercent o f t he s ites s urv eyed h ad C opador. A t C halchuapa C opador r epresented 0 .9 ' p ercent o f t he t otal c eramic s ample f or t he entire o ccupational s equence ( Sharer 1 978a Vol 3 :111), not a n i nsignificant a mount. I ts r eplacement r ate m ust h ave b een c onsiderable s ince i t w as t aken out of c irculation t hrough u se i n c aches a nd b urials, a s w ell a s s ubjected t o b reakage f rom s tandard domestic u se. The c onclusion f rom t hese data i s t hat t he s cale o f production w as l arge. I f t his c onclusion i s a ccurate, t hen a l arge number o f h ousehold l evel w orkshops w ould h ave b een n eeded t o a mass t he quantity n ecessary f or e xchange. T his t ype o f p roduction organization s eems a t variance w ith t he e xpectations f or c omplex e xchange systems. However, two p ossible i ncentives f or d ecentralized p rod uction s hould b e c onsidered: 1 .

I f w hite-firing c lay i s a vailable i n i sol ated pockets w ithin t he valley, i t c ould h ave b een more c ost e ffective t o produce n ear t hese s maller s caled r esources r ather t han t o p ool r esources f or l arger s caled c entralized p roduction. ( It i s a lso p oss ible t hat t he w hitefiring c lay r esources w ere c onsidered h ousehold or l ineage p rop erty a nd t heir u se w as r estricted t o g roup m embers. T his w ould encourage d ec entralized production a s w ell.)

2 .

D avid F reidel ( 1981) h as postulated ' that d ecentralized p roduction a mong t he lowland M aya was p art o f a s ocio-political s truct ure o f d ispersed r esidence• w hich had a s i ts goal " the c ontrol o f movement between p laces w here a ctivities are p erformed" ( ibid:382). H e p ostulates t hat m anagement o f t he e conomy f ocused o n c ontrol of d ist ribution w hich w as a ccomplished t hrough a s ystem i nvolving e lements of f airs a nd p ilgrimages. H is model i s s et f orth i n v ery g eneral t erms b ut t he i dea i s i nt riguing a nd i f c orrect c ould h ave p rec luded t he d evelopment o f l arger, c entrali zed p roduction u nits.

S ummary T he t hree c ream p aste c eramic groups can b e v iewed a s o verlapping points i n a g radually changing p attern o f p ottery p roduction w ithin t he C opan Valley.

24 8

T he f ollowing r econstruction i s b ased u pon a c ombinat ion of data f rom t he v arious a nalyses a lready r eporte d, a s w ell a s q ualitative i mpressions r eached d uring t he course o f t his r esearch. A s s uch, i t i s s omewhat c onjectural a nd i s presented a s a g eneralized o verview. T he b ichrome, C hilanga, w as p roduced b y p artt ime s pecialists w ith a ccess t o t wo main c lay r es ources. S erving v essels made b y t hese p otters w ere d istributed w ithin t he C opan Valley a nd e xported f rom t here. O ther p otters w ho w ere n ot t ied i n t o t he C opan e xport e xchange s ystem a lso c reated C hilanga v essels f or l ocal d istribution. A s t ime w ent on, e xport f rom C opan c eased b ut p roduction i n Western H onduras c ont inued a mong b oth s ets o f p otters. T he p olychrome, G ualpopa, i s a dded t o t he C hil anga " product l ine" a s a n e xtension: t he s ame s hape i s d ominant, t he s patial orientation i s maintained, b lack p aint i s a dded a nd designs b ecome more c omplex. T here i s more emphasis o n t he c ontrol of d istribution - l ess O f t he t otal p roduction i s a ccounted f or b y t he s mall s cale p roducer. T he p otters h ave b ecome f ull-time s pecialists b y now, t ending t o more s tandardization o f s hapes, b ut s till working i n s mall p roduction u nits, e xhibiting v ariability i n t heir d ecoration o f t he c era mics. S lightly l ater i n t ime, p roduction o f C opador i s b egun. I t i s b elieved t hat C opador w as c onsciously i ntroduced a s a t ype o f c eramic t o b e made f or w ides pread d istribution, i ncluding e xport. T his b elief i s b ased o n t he f act t hat C opador b reaks w ith t he C hil anga-Gualpopa t radition i n s everal w ays: 1 .

A d ominant bowls.

n ew

s hape

was

2 .

A d ifferent r ed s pecular h ematite.

3 .

I nterior d ecoration was a dded p referred open bowl s hape.

p igment

a dded:

w as

r ecurved

e xploited:

t o

t he

o ld

T hese i nnovations a re i nterpreted a s b eing i nt entionally c reated t o e stablish t he u niqueness o f t he n ew type o f c eramics a nd t hereby c reate a m arket f or i t. ( As m entioned i n C hapter 6 , a r eligious f unction m ay a lso h ave b een d eveloped f or t he c eramics w hich h elped e nsure t heir w idespread c irculation a nd u se.) I t a ppears, h owever, t hat t he p roduction s ystem w as not r adically c hanged b ut r ather w as o verlaid o n t he e xisting o ne: t he p attern o f r esource u tilization w as comparable; p roduction u nits w ere s till d ecentrali zed; s ome s mall s cale producers n ot t ied i nto a c ent ralized d istribution s ystem s till p ersisted. 24 9

I t i s b elieved t hat c hanges may h ave t aken place w ithin t he d ispersed p roduction u nits which e nabled t hem t o a chieve a l arger output: d ifferent s pecialists r esponsible f or s haping a nd d ecorating; d ifferent p ainters r esponsible f or decorating t he i nterior a nd e xterior o f t he v essel. Nevertheless, t here d oes n ot a ppear t o have b een .a switch t o l arge c entralized works hops: p aste a nd d esign variability a re t oo evident. D istribution, t hen, would a ppear t o b e t he part o f t he process t hat was r eorganized t o a ccommodate t he movement o f greater quantities o f goods. G limpses o f e xport i nfluenced d ecisions c an b e s een i n t he decorat ion o f C opador r ecurved bowls w here t he e xport product w as more s tandardized a nd f avored d ifferent motifs t han d id t he l ocally d istributed a rticles a s well a s i n a s election b y s ize f or t he e xported v essels. D ISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION D istribution S ize a nd d irectionality w ere t he two a spects o f overall d istribution a nalyzed. A s mentioned i n t he preceding s ection, t he number o f s ites a t which Copador h as b een r ecorded a s o ther t han a n i solated f ind i s s ubstantial. T he quantity of C opador r ecovered during t he r ecent work i n t he C opan Valley a s w ell a s a t C halc huapa a nd Z apotttan Valley s ites r einforces t he c onc lusion t hat a s izable quantity o f s erving vessels moved i n t he d istribution system. I t i s i nteresting t o note t hat r ecurved bowls w hich w ould n ot " nest" a s w ell f or t ransport a s open b owls w ere n evertheless f requentl y f ound i n non-Copan p roveniences. ( See T able 2 1.) T hus, a n i mplication c ould b e t hat C opador d id not t ravel t ies.

t o i ts c onsumers i n l arge w holesale-like quantiU nfortunately w ith t he c urrent data b ase, i t i s

n ot p ossible t o i nvestigate t he m echanisms w hich might h ave b een u sed i n t he distribution o f C opador c eramics. T he d irectionality o f d istribution w as c learly t o t he s outh a nd s outhwest f rom C opan. Within a 5 0 k m r adius of C opan i t w ould appear t hat C opador w as widely a vailable. B eyond t hat distance, h owever, d istribution b ecame s harply c hanneled toward s ettlements i n western a nd c entral E l S alvador. S tanley Boggs h as s tated ( personal c ommunication, 1 981) t hat h e k nows o f no L ate C lassic s ite w est of S an S alvador w ithout Copador. T he d istributional p attern b ears out h is a ssessment. T wo o ther a reas s eem t o h ave participated in t he Copador d istribution s ystem: 1 )the M iddle M otagua n ear S an A gustin Acasguastlan a nd 2 ) t he mountainous G uatemalan Honduran b order a rea.

t hat s els

I t i s i nteresting t o s peculate a bout c ommodities c ould have b een e xchanged f or C opador s erving v esi n t he v arious distribution s ectors. While 250

p robably more t han o ne i tem was t raded obvious c andidates c an b e mentioned:

p er

a rea,

s ome

1 .

E l S alvador: c acao, b alsam, i ndigo. B rowning ( 1971) d iscusses t he a gricultural p roducts c ultivated i n E l S alvador during t he early post-Conquest p eriod a nd t heir pre-Conquest a ntecedents. B alsam, w hich i s t he s ap of t he h ardwood t ree b alsamo, i s p rized f or i ts medicinal a nd a romatic p roperties. T he c oastal a rea s outhwest o f I zalco i n w estern E l S alvador i s t he only part o f America w here t he t ree grows. E arly documents s ay t hat t he I ndians i n t he a rea had collected b alsam b efore t he a rrival of t he Spaniards ( ibid:61). C acao, w hich was a n i mportant t rade i tem i n L ate P ostclassic t imes, grew w ell o n t he s outhern s lopes o f t he volcanic h ighl ands a long t he P acific C oast o f Guatemala a nd E l S alvador. I ndigo, w hich t he S pani sh prized a s a c olorant, was c ultivated i n p ost-Conquest t imes i n t he c oastal d ist ricts of E scuintla ( Guatemala) t hrough E l S alvador t o t he l owland a reas o f w estern N icaragua. Browning s tates t hat t he p reC onquest i nhabitants p robably a lso k new o f i ts p roperties a nd c ultivated t he p lant ( ibid:66).

2 .

M iddle M otagua: j ade. A s mentioned prev iously, w ork i n t he S an Agustin Acasag uastlan z one h as u ncovered a n umber o f j ade outcroppings a s w ell a s a reas i nterpreted a s b eing j ade workshops.

3 .

G uatemalan-Honduran I xtepeque.

b order:

obsidian

f rom

The areas t hat d id not participate i n t he C opador distribution s ystem would s eem t o have o ffered a lt ernative s ources f or s ome of t hese c ommodities, s uch a s j ade f rom t he Quirigua a nd l ower M otagua a reas, b ut n ot u nique r esources u nattainable e lsewhere. A t horough i nvestigation o f t he e xchange n etwork i n t he s outheastern M aya p eriphery c annot b e a ttempted a t t his t ime. M any u nknowns r emain. F or e xample, w hile c ent ral Honduras d id n ot participate i n t he Copador dist ribution a rea, t here s eems t o have b een r egular e xc hange b etween t hat a rea a nd C opan t o judge f rom t he a mount of B abilonia p olychrome i n t he C opan Valley. C onsumption C opador w as a w idely a vailable c eramic p roduct u sed by p eople a t a ll l evels o f M aya s ociety, a s j udged b y t he c ontexts i n which i t has b een r ecovered. W ithin 251

t he C opan Valley i ts distribution was l ess r estricted t han t hat o f o ther c oeval p ainted t ypes. I t i s p oss ible t hat s ome o f t he C opador a vailable i n t he Copan Valley r epresents " seconds" t hat w ere not a cceptable f or e xchange p roducts a nd s o w ere c onsumed l ocally. S ince s herd l ots f rom a ll Valley p roveniences w ere n ot a ccessible, t his possibility c ould not b e evaluated b y a d irect e xamination of materials. Another possibility s et f orth i n the p receding c hapter i s t hat t here was a f unctional difference b etween C opador a nd Gualpopa or B abilonia. T hat . is, C opador c ould h ave f unctioned i n c onnection w ith househ old l evel r itual or r eligion w hich c ross-cut s tatus l ines, a u se t hat ensured i ts w idespread p resence i n households. Gualpopa a nd t he i mported Babilonia, o n t he o ther h and, c ould h ave f unctioned a s s traightforw ard domestic i tems, r esulting i n a more r estricted distribution t hat was more h ighly c orrelated w ith s tat us. I n k eeping w ith t he i ncreasing data w hich s eem t o p osition C opador a s a " middle c lass" i tem rather t han a " primitive valuable," a n a nalysis was made o f t he b urial c ontexts i n w hich i t was f ound a t Copan. B ased on a l oosely e stablished a ssessment o f r elative s tatus, t he c onclusion i s t hat C opador w as not r estrict ed t o h igher s tatus burials. S ummary T he amount o f C opador distributed speaks f or a w ell-organized d istribution s ystem. T he distance o ver w hich t he c eramic moved i s e vidence o f t he economic i nfluence o f t he distribution c enter. T he direction i n w hich t he d istribution was f ocused speaks of t he other l inks o r n odes i n t he t rading n etwork and provides c lues a s t o t he probable k inds o f o ther c ommodities moving i n t he e xchange s ystem. T he f act t hat Copador w as not r estricted to t he e lite i ndicates t hat t he economy was c omplex e nough t o s upport i ndependent s pecialists w ho w ere not a ttached t o a n e lite producing only l uxury i tems f or r estricted c onsumption. REVELANCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

T HIS

R ESEARCH

TO

C URRENT

CONCERNS

I N

M AYA

C urrent M aya r esearch r eflects t he o verall i nt erest o f t he profession i n t he t heme of s ocial p roc ess, o f r econstructing t he p olitical, s ocial, a nd e conomic organization o f t he s ociety i n i ts various epochs a nd over i ts geographic r ange. H enderson ( 1981:234) s tated t hat " not o ne f acet o f Maya c ivilizat ion i s f ully u nderstood... e ven basic a spects of M aya c ivilization a re puzzling." C onsequently, i t i s n ot 252

s urprising

t o

f ind

a d iverse

s et

o f

r esearch

t he f orefront o f M aya a rchaeology: s ubsistence t rade n etworks, s ettlement p atterns, symbolic p olitical s tructure.

t opics

i n

s ystems, s ystems,

. F rom t hese v arious v iewpoints, h owever, r es earchers a re a ttempting t o f it t ogether p ieces t hat w ill r esult i n t he " fullest p ossible r econstruction o f M aya c ulture h istory, r egion b y r egion, [ as] t he e ssent ial f ramework f or a n u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o f t he M aya c ultural t radition. E xplanation - i dent ifying a nd c haracterizing p rocesses o f c ulture c hange i s i nseparable f rom h istorical r econstruction. P rocess i s h istory" ( Henderson 1 981:236, e mphasis i n o riginal). T his s tudy f ocused o n p roduction, d istribution, a nd c onsumption o f p ainted c eramic s erving v essels i n t he s outheastern p eriphery o f t he M aya a rea during t he L ate C lassic p eriod. I ts i ntent w as t o e lucidate p art o f t he e conomic s trategy t hat h ad b een i n operation, t hereby c ontributing t o t he r econstruction o f t he b roader M aya c ulture h istory. T he i nvestigation d isclosed t hat production of p olychrome s erving b owls ( Copador a nd G ualpopa) h ad b een c arried o ut b y c raft s pecialists w orking i n d ec entralized c ircumstances, p robably h ousehold or s mall c ommunity w orkshops d ispersed a round t he m ain c enter. A c entral a uthority d id n ot h eavily c ontrol or i nflue nce c eramic p roduction i n t he s outheastern a rea. T his a grees w ith a s imilar c onclusion r eached b y F ry ( 1981:154) f or t he g eneral s outhern l owlands a nd b ased o n data f rom P alenque a nd T ikal. H e c ontrasts t his s ituation w ith t hat f ound b y F einman i n t he Valley. of O axaca w here t he M onte A lban s tate d id i ntervene i n t he p ottery p roduction s ystem. " High a dministrative i nv olvement i n e conomic t ransactions was c orrelated w ith a h ighly c entralized l arge s cale c eramic p roduction i ndustry" ( ibid). T he s ocial s tatus o f t he c raft s pecialists i nv olved i n t he s erving v essel p roduction w as n ot a f actor t hat c ould b e e valuated w ithin t his r esearch d esign. ' However, t here a re i ndications b oth f rom a rchaeology a nd e thnography t hat p otters o ccupy a reas o f marginal r esources a nd h old r elatively l ow s ocial p ositions a s a c lass ( Arnold 1 975, 1 978; R ands a nd B ish op 1 980:22; C oggins 1 975:429; F ry 1 981:151). D istribution o f t he p olychrome s erving b owls s howed s everal o utstanding c haracteristics: a really w idespread, d irectionally s kewed, n ot r estricted t o e lite c ontexts. T he w idespread n ature o f t he d istribut ion i ndicates t hat s ignificant m ercantile a ctivity t ook p lace i n t his p art o f M aya s ociety d uring L ate C lassic t imes. T he mechanism i s n ot k nown b ut, i f t he 253

p otters h ad g enerally l ow s ocial s tatus, i t i s l ikely t hat t heir w ares w ere h andled b y a n i ntermediary merc hant w ho h ad t he r esources t o o rganize t rading expedit ions. Whether t here w as a M aya m erchant " class" a s i n l ater T riple A lliance t imes h as b een d ebated r epeate dly. , Functionally, i t a ppears t here w ould h ave been a s imilar r ole e ven i f t he s ocial o rganization w ere l ess r igid. T he r ole o f t he e lite i n t he d istribution system i s n ot c lear. F irst of a ll i t m ust b e r ecognized t hat " elite" i s a v ery g eneral t erm c onnoting a n u nspecified t ype o f s tatus h igher t han " nonelite." T his t erm i s u sed b ecause o ne o f t he u nsettled major i ssues i n M aya a rchaeology i s t he n ature o f t he s ociety's s ocial s tructure. E ven t hough major c enters a re a ssociated w ith r uling d ynasties or l ineages, models f or t he o vera ll organization o f M aya s ettlements a re s till b eing d iscussed a nd d ebated. R ecent a ttention h as b een g iven to p ositioning M aya C lassic s ociety a s a f eudal-type s ocio-political s tructure ( Adams a nd Smith 1 981; S anders 1 981; Willey 1 981). C haracteristics o f t his t ype o f s tructure a re: d iffused political p ower; a uthority, s tatus, a nd wealth b ased u pon ownership o f a gricultural l ands; a nd a h ered itary p rinciple f or t he passing o n of p ower a nd l ands. T he d iffused a uthority a nd power i s r anked a nd b ehavior o f r anks i s d etermined b y c odes o f obligat ion. T here a re " horizontal" a s w ell a s " vertical" r elationships; e lites i ntermarry s o a s t o maintain s ocial s tratification ( Willey 1 981:409). A dams a nd Smith ( 1981:346) b elieve t hat a f eudal-type o rganizat ion w here t he e lite a re d ispersed t hroughout t he r egion i n c enters w ould h ave t he a dvantage o f enabling a s mall s ized e lite t o c ontrol a m uch l arger p opulation a s c ompared w ith more c entralized s ystems o f p olitical c ontrol. I n t his model t he f unction o f t he c enters w as p olitical; t he l owland M aya c enter i s not s een a s a n i mportant t rading o r manufacturing p lace. W illey, i n h is s ummary r eview of t he s ettlement p attern s ymposium ( 1981:385-415), acknowledges t hat m uch i n t he f eudal s ocio-political s ystem f its the l owl and M aya . e vidence. H e s ee t he l imited r ole of t rade i n t he model a s b eing i n s harp c ontrast w ith o ther v iews i n w hich " the i nstitution o f t rade was a dynamic f actor i n t he g rowth o f t he M aya s ystem" ( ibid:414). H e c ontinues b y s aying: I t hink c omplex s ociety i n t he l owlands w as a chieved w ithout m uch i h t he w ay o f t rade, a t l east o n t he e arly r ungs o f t he s ociopolitical a scent. S ome t rade u ndoubtedly t ook p lace f rom t he v ery b eginning, b ut I w ould 25 4

g uess t he i nfusion o f i deas was more i mportant t han t he goods t hat w ent a long w ith t hem a t t his t ime. L ater t rade a nd manufact uring w ere obviously i mportant," ( ibid). T he applicability of t he f eudal model t o l owland M aya society may w ell t urn out t o b e a b etter e xplanat ory tool f or e arlier p eriods o f t he c ulture t han f or t he L ate C lassic epoch. T he i mportance o f c eramic e xc hange i n t he s outheastern p eriphery during t he L ate C lassic s eems h ard t o deny f rom t he e xtensive p attern o f s erving v essel d istribution. I f i t w ere not t he c oncern of t he " royal" c entral e lite, provincial e lite most probably p articipated i n t he t rading a ctivity. T he directional s kew o f s erving v essel d istribut ion to t he a rea s outhwest of t he C opan Valley r econf irms qualitative observations made b y e arlier r es earchers. I t a lso h ighlights C opan's p eripheral l ocat ion vis a v is t he main part o f t he M aya lowlands a s w ell a s a— variation b etween i ts political a nd economic o rientations. F rom g lyphic e vidence i t a ppears t hat t here was a p eriod of p ronounced c ontact a mong major M aya c enters b etween 6 72 a nd 751 A .D. ( Marcus 1 976). B ased o n t he u sage o f emblem glyphs, M arcus proposed a f our-level h ierarchy of c enters, i ncluding r egional c apitals. C opan appears t o h ave participated i n t his political s ystem d uring t his p eriod. I ts emblem g lyph a ppears w ith t hose of T ikal, P alenque, a nd C alakmul on S tela A a t C opan, dated t o 7 31 A .D., i n a c ontext t hat s uggests r egional c apitals v iewed a s occupying t he f our q uad .r ants of t he M aya u niverse ( ibid:17). T he C opan emblem g lyph a lso s eems t o b e on c arved b ones f ound w ith B urial 1 16 b eneath T emple 1 a t T ikal ( 700 A .D.) ( ibid: 1 50). M arcus' t heory o f r egional c apitals h as b een q uestioned by o thers b ut t he pattern of occurrence of f oreign emblem g lyphs w ould i ndicate c ontact a nd p artic ipation i n s ome f orm of i nter-center a ssociation. O n t his basis, C opan a ppears t o have b een a n a ccepted member of t he t erritorial organization i nterp olated f rom t he epigraphy - t erritory t hat c enters t o t he north a nd w est o f C opan. C oncurrent w ith t his p olitical or t erritorial orientation was a n e conomic o rientation i n t he opposite d irection, away f rom t he main M aya c ulture a rea toward t he outlying a reas o f w estern E l Salvador. I nteraction b etween t hese t wo s ubregions h ad b een occurring s ince e arlier t imes b ut i t s eems p art icularly notable a nd s trong d uring t he L ate C lassic w hen, i n noneconomic w ays, C opan was oriented away f rom E l S alvador. T he e conomic i solation of C opan f rom much 255

o f t he M otagua V alley, a nd b y e xtension t he P eten, h as r ecently b een a ttributed t o a n e vent occurring i n 7 37 A .D. w hich s eems t o h ave b een a d efeat ( military?) o f C opan b y Quirigua. S ubsequent to t his t ime Q uirigua a ppears t o h ave a ssumed greater d ominance and p erhaps p recluded C opan f rom u sing w hatever t rade r outes h ad b een a vailable t o i t i n t hat d irection ( Jones a nd S harer 1 980). T he n ature o f C opan's p lace i n t he polit ical o rganization o f t he L ate C lassic M aya l owlands a nd t he i nterface o f p olitical , with e conomic s ystems n eeds t o b e b etter e stablished b efore t he observed patt ern c an b e s atisfactorily e xplained. T he c onsumption o f C opador c eramics i n a v ariety o f s ocial c ontexts r aises q uestions a bout t he c eramic's r ole i n t he s ymbolic s ystem o f t he M aya. The d ominant motif c ombinations, i ncluding t he g lyphic designs a nd t he s tandardly a ttired h uman f igures, p ossibly f unct ioned a s a m eans o f a chieving i nformation e xchange a mong d ispersed s ocial groups a s a p art o f a p rocess o f s ocial i ntegration ( Wobst 1 977:327). C eramics w ith t hese s tylistic f eatures c ould h ave b een marketed a s v isible s ymbols o f p articipation i n t he M aya t radition r eligion o r a b roader c ultural i dentity - w hich C opan w ould h ave e xemplified t o t he i mporting areas. I deological v alues l ikely operated a s a s ales t ool i n C opador's d istribution a nd c onsumption.

256

APPENDIX A COMPLEX NAMES AND EQUIVALENCES COPAN, QUIRIGUA, CHALCHUAPA P eriod

Date

Chalchuapa

Copan

Quirigua

Matzin

E jar

Morley

Payu

Coner _

Hewett

1 200 E arly P ostclassic 1 000

8 00 • L ate C lassic 6 00 M iddle C lassic

Cueva Xocco

Early C lassic 2 00 L ate P reclassic

AD 0 BC

-

( late) ( early)

I

Bijac

Vec

Maudslay

Acbi_II Maudslay Acbi

4 00

_

-

Catherwood

•••• •

Caynac ( late)

Chabij

Caynac ( late) 2 00 4

Earlier

s equences

are

not pertinent

f rom Willey et al. 1 980 , )

2 57

to

t his

study.

( Adapted

APPENDIX B

DESCRIPTIONS Main C eramic Groups

OF

P AINTED C ERAMICS

I nvestigated

T he t erminology f or t he c eramic groups i n t his i nvestigation i s t hat u sed by S harer i n t he C halchuapa c eramic r eport ( Sharer 1 978a Vol. 3 ). T his r eport was t he f irst i nstance i n w hich t he t ype-variety system was applied i n a s tandardized manner t o t hese particular c eramic materials. An a bbreviated f ormat, patterned a fter t he C halchuapa presentation, w ill b e f ollowed h ere. Each d escription l ists f or t he major s ite i n each subregion t he c eramic c omplex i n w hich t he group occurs. ( See Appendix A f or c eramic group names a nd t heir equivalences f or t he s equences a t C opan, Q uirigua, and C halchuapd.) Next i n t he d escription a re given t he main i dentifying a ttributes which distinguish t he group; t he v essel f orms i n general order o f f requency t hen f ollow. T he f inal part of each description s pecifies t he k nown d istribution o f t he c eramic group a long with a s ummary s tatement of t he approximate magn itude of i ts occurrence, w here k nown. P rofiles o f vessel f orms u sed i n t he r esearch a re s hown i n F igure 3 8. A more c omplete description of s urface f inishes a long w ith decorative f ound i n S harer 1 978a Vol 3 ; Copador

t he pastes a nd d etails c an b e

P olychrome

C eramic C omplexes:

Copan - C oner Quirigua - H ewett C halchuapa - P ayu

I dentifying a ttributes: 1 ) Specular h ematite or deep purple-red, b lack a nd u sually orange paint on a c ream or orange t inted s lipped background; 2 ) g lyphic, human and b ird, or geometric motifs; 3 ) f ine c ream t o l ight buff . paste, s oft i n t exture. Forms:

a ) b )

C onvex-wall bowls w ith d irect r im C omposite-wall bowls w ith d irect

or c )

s lightly everted r ims F aceted-flanged . composite-wall

bowls w ith direct r ims d ) Vertical wall cylinders e ) Low ( less t han 1 0 cm) v ertical wall c ups f ) Small r estricted-neck j ars w ith d irect r ims.

25 9

OPEN

BOWL,

FLAT

BASE

OPEN

BOWL,

CONVEX BASE

VASE

1

_

: RECURVED

BOWL

VASE RECURVED BOWL WITH BASAL FLANGE

Figure

3 4:

Profiles,

Vessel

2 60

Shaped

Used

in

The

Research

D istribution: Copan - predominant Late C lassic polyc hrome C halchuapa - predominant Z apotitan - dominant Quirigua - practically absent O ther observations ( frequency not known): P layitas ( lower M otagua) Guaytan ( Middle M otagua) A suncion M ita ( Guatemala-El S alvador border) T iquisate r egion ( South C oast, G uatemala) C hilanga

R ed-painted

C eramic Complexes:

U sulutan Copan - C ueva a nd C oner Quirigua - M audsley ( early a nd l ate) C halchuapa - Vec

I dentifying a ttributes: 1 ) R ed paint a long w ith U sulutan t echnique d ecoration over a n orange s lip; 2 ) s imple a nimal a nd geometric motifs; 3 ) f ine c ream t o b uff paste; 4 ) c onvex wall ( hemispherical) bowl s hape dominant; 5 ) i nterior u sually p lain. .a )

C onvex wall ( hemispherical) bowls w ith direct r ims; s ometimes w ith r ing base b ) Composite wall bowls w ith direct r ims

F orms:

D istribution:

•

C opan - f requent C halchuapa - f requent Q uirigua - f requent O ther observations ( frequency not L ower M otagua Guaytan A suncion M ita Naco Valley Not present: Z apotitan

Gualpopa C eramic

k nown):

P olychrome c omplexes:

C opan - C ueva a nd Coner Quirigua - M audsley ( early l ate) C halchuapa - Xocco and P ayu

I dentifying a ttributes: 1 ) R ed a nd b lack paint o n an orange t o orange-cream s lipped background; 2 ) s imple a nimal a nd geometric motifs ( similar to C hilanga w ith a dditional b lack p aint u sed a s a n outline or 2 61

f ill); 3 ) f ine c ream t o l ight b uff paste; w all ( hemispheri- cal) bowl a s t he dominant i nterior often p lain. Forms:

4 ) c onvex s hape; 5 )

a ) Convex wall ( hemispherical) bowls with d irect r ims; may h ave s lightly r estricted orifice b ) C omposite wall bowls with d irect r im c ) V ertical wall bowls with d irect r im, may have s lightly r ecuryed walls a nd s lightly r estricted orif ices

D istribution: Copan - f requent C halchuapa - f requent Z apotitan - f requent Other observations ( frequency not k nown): L ower Motagua Guaytan A suncion M ita Arambala C eramic

P olychrome Complexes:

Copan - C oner C halchuapa - P ayu

I dentifying a ttributes: 1 ) D ull r ed, b lack a nd orange paint on orange s lipped background; 2 ) human, b ird and geometric motifs a llied w ith t hose of C opador; 3 ) r ed paste of varying f ineness. F orms

a ) c omposite wall bowls with d irect or s lightly e verted r ims b ) f aceted-flanged c omposite wall bowls w ith d irect or s lightly e vert ed r ims c ) c onvex-wall bowls with direct r im.

D istribution: C opan - practically a bsent C halchuapa - dominant Z apotitan - dominant Quirigua - a bsent O ther

C eramic

Types

C ited

T he f ollowing c eramic types a re r eferred t o i n t he t ext f or c omparative purposes. T hey w ere not d esc ribed by Sharer a t C halchuapa n or d id t hey occur i n a ll t he t hree s ub-regions s tudied. T he descriptions a re abstracted f rom t heir v eniences are mentioned.

s ources

2 62

a nd

i nter-site

pro-

C hilama

P olychrome

S ource:

B eaudry

1 983

I dentifying a ttributes: c olor with white s lip; 2 ) r ed m etric designs

1 ) P ink or orange

paste s urface a nd back geo-

F orms: a ) Convex wall bowl w ith direct c omposite s ilhouette bowl w ith direct r im

a ssumed

c hrome

I nter-site provenience: Z apotitan to b e a l ocal development.

-

b )

Valley

only,

a ttributes: Same a s C hilama t he b lack paint i s m issing

P oly-

S acazil

B ichrome

Source:

B eaudry

I dentifying e xcept t hat

r im;

1 983

Forms: a ) Convex wall bowl w ith direct r im; b ) c omposite s ilhouette bowl w ith direct r im; c ) f lared wall bowl w ith s lightly everted r im

assumed

I nter-site provenience: Z apotitan t o b e a l ocal development B abilonia S ource:

Valley

only;

Polychrome

B audez

a nd

B ecquelin

1 973

I dentifying a ttributes: 1 ) R ed, b lack, b rown, and cream paint on a n orange s lip; 2 ) variety of geometric a nd c onventional motifs; human h eads, f alse g lyphs, a nimals, a nd h uman f ull f igures; 3 ) variety of f orms with diverse s upports ( tripods) u sually r ather low Forms: a ) Open bowls w ith direct r ims, concave base; b ) t ripod bowls with outflared or outcurved walls, various l ip t reatments; c ) cylinder vases, s omet imes barrel s haped; d ) s hort n ecked j ars; e ) bowls with i ncurved r im a nd concave base; f ) h igh n ecked j ars I nter-site provenience: L ake Yojoa z one ( Los Naranjos a nd o ther s ites); C omayagua Valley; U lua a nd C hamelecon Valleys; s outhern Honduras; E l S alvador; P acific

Coast of Guatemala Caterpillar Source:

y ear

1 952:100,

s herds);

C opan

P olychrome

V iel, F ig.

( isolated

p ersonal

communication

1 983;

Long-

7 8.

I dentifying a ttributes: 1 ) S hallow, dishes on h igh t ripod s upports; 2 ) h eavy t ion usually i n s pecular h ematite r ed and 263

t hick walled l ine decorab lack paint;

3 )

g lyphs

a nd monkeys

F orms:

s umed

a )

L arge

are

f requent motifs.

t ripod dishes

I nter-site provenience: C opan to b e a local development. Note:

Only

one

f orm

was

Valley

r eported

by

only;

Longyear

a s-

and

c ommented on b y V iel. C eramic descriptions h ave not b een p repared i n a s tandard f orm a s p art of t he o n-goi ng C opan Project. T his type may b e more e xtensive t han i ndicatd by t he f oregoing description.

26 4

APPENDIX C

D ESCRIPTION OF BROOKHAVEN

P ROCEDURES

Sampling The o uter l ayer o f t he e dge o f a s herd or a n i nconspicuous s pot on t he s urface o f a w hole v essel i s ground away, u sing a t ungsten c arbide motor-driven b urr. T he s pecimen i s t hen drilled i n t he c leaned s pot u sing a s olid t ungsten c arbide drill b it. T he p owder i s c ollected on a c lean w eighing p aper. ( Usually t he specimen i s drilled a t s everal points t o p rovide a more r epresentative, c ombined s ample.) A pproximately 1 00 2 00 m g o f p owder a re obtained a nd s tored i n a s mall g lass vial w hich i s l abelled w ith t he s ample i dentific ation. P owdered s amples a re d ried f or 1 8 h ours a t 1 10° C a nd t hen p ackaged f or b ombardment. P ackaging f or

B ombardment

About 4 0 m g o f e ach dried s ample i s w eighed t o t he n earest 0 .01 mg i nto a quartz ampoule. ( The ampoules a re p repared f rom u ltra-high p urity S uprasil T -20 mm i .d. f used q uartz t ubing b y s ealing a t o ne e nd, b oiling i n a qua r egia, r insing w ith d istilled water a nd drying.) A fter w eighing i n t he s ample, t he quartz a mp oule i s s ealed o ff i n vacuo a nd l abeled w ith I ndia i nk. Empty l abeled ampoules a re a lso i ncluded w ith e ach r un a s a c heck o n t he p urity o f t he s ilica a nd i nk. S ealed ampoules a re t ouched only w ith tweezers or c otton g loves a fter c leaning a nd b efore b ombardment. T he g roup o f ampoules t o b e a ctivated i s s ealed i nto a n e nvelope o f ordinary quartz w hich t hen e nters t he r eact or i n an i rradiation c an. U se o f

S tandards

B rookhaven i ncludes s tandards i n e ach r un a long w ith t he u nknown s amples b eing b ombarded. I f t he c onc entration of e lements i n a s tandard a re a ccurately k nown, t hen t he c oncentration o f t he s ame e lements i n t he u nknown s amples c an b e e stablished t hrough s imple r atios of t he r ecorded s ignals o f t he r adiations r epr esenting t he d ifferent r adioisotopes i n t he s tandard a nd t he u nknown. S tandards a re 6 U .S:G.S. a nalyzed r ocks, d esignated a s AGV-1, B CR-1, DTS-1, P CC-1, G SP-1, a nd G -2. S amples o f t hese r ocks h ave b een a nalyzed b y m any laboratories a nd B rookhaven r esearchers h ave p rep ared a t able o f " best v alues" u sing C hauvenet's C rit erion t o r eject e xtreme values ( Abascal e t a l 1 974). Not e very s tandard r ock i s u sed t o c alibrate e very e lem ent ( see B ieber e t a l 1 976 f or c hoice a nd r ationale). 2 65

Rock s tandards a re w eighed o ut, dried, e ncapsulated, b ombarded a nd c ounted t ogether w ith e ach group o f c eram ics. B ombardment w ith N eutrons T he many r adioisotopes a ctivated b y n eutrons i n p ottery d ecay w ith a v ariety o f h alf-lives. F or t his p roject o nly t he l onger-lived i sotopes w ere m easured d uring a l ong-duration b ombardment. T his was c arried o ut a t t he B rookhaven H igh F lux B eam R eactor. T he long a ctivation was m ade f or 3 .5 h ours i n t he c ore p osit .ion a t f luxes u p t o 5 x 1 0 14 n eutrons/cm 2 s ec t o activ ate t he l onglived e lements. T he s amples w ere t hen c ooled 9 days, l oaded i nto a s ample c hanger c onnected t o t he g ermanium c ounter, a nd c ounted f or 4 000 s econds. C ounting T he d etector u sed i s a P rinceton Gammatech 7 % G e-Li c rystal o f 1 .82 K eV r esolution o n c obalt-60. S amples a re f ed t o t he d etector b y a 4 8-position s ample-changer. T he pulses f rom t he d etector a re amp lified a nd f ed t o a Nuclear D ata 2 400 4 096-channel pulse h eight a nalyzer modified t o r ecord not o nly t he gamma s pectrum b ut e lapsed t ime, s pectrum tagword a nd date on a magnetic t ape. D ead t ime was corrected b y m eans o f a s pecial, l ocally-designed, a ll-solid-state pulser. R eliable ' peak values a re o btained f or t he 1 6 e lements: R b, C s, B a, S c, L a, C e, E u, L u, H f, T h, C r, F e, Co, C a, Sm, Yb. P reliminary D ata

P rocessing

The r aw gamma s pectra a re a nalyzed by t he program BRUTAL w hich y ields i ntensities of t he gamma r ays c orrected f or b ackground a nd s ample w eight. T he o utput c ards f rom BRUTAL f orm t he i nput t o B rookhaven-devel oped p rograms E LCALC a nd SMPCALC w hich a pply d ecay a nd d ead-time c orrections, c alculate c alibration c oeffici ents, a verage t hem, a nd u ltimately c alculate a nd punch o ut t he a nalytical data f or e ach c eramic s pecimen. T hese c eramic s ample data c ards ( two p er s pecimen) cont ain s pace f or u p t o 3 6 e lements, r eported a s e lement o xides ( Abescal e t a l 1 974).

26 6

APPENDIX D

DEFINITION OF TERMS U SED I N D ESCRIBING DECORATION VARIABLES

The most d etailed a nd most quantitatively ori ented work on c eramic design a nalysis h as b een done on m aterials t hat u sed primarily a bstract d esigns ( Shepard 1948; Washburn 1 977 - p g 1 1 f or discussion of work u sing symmetry c lases f or t he a nalysis of design; P log 1 980) The designs on Copador a nd, t o a s omewhat l esser extent, on t he o ther painted c eramics b eing s tudied a re not primarily a bstract. They a re r epresentational ( both naturalistic a nd conventionalized, i .e., s implif ied, u sing part t o r epresent t he whole) or g lyphic. Thus, some o f t he c oncepts a nd t he t erms may be u sed s lightly differently t han i n other design s tudies. Design e lement - u sually r eferred t o a s a basic geometric s hape or " the s implest r egular part" of t he design ( Shepard 1 971b:266). T his t erm w ill not b e u sed i n t his w ork b ecause of i ts i nferred a ssociation w ith simple geometric patterns. Motif -a f igure c omposed o f a number o f c omponent parts which b y r epetition on t he s ame v essel or a cross vessels appears t o have been a ssociated a s a u nit by potters. I t i s r ecognized t hat a c ertain degree of subjectivity i s i nvolved i n t his definition. However, t he motif c atalog i ncluded i n Appendix F c an b e u sed, i f d esired, t o r einterpret motifs on a more e lemental basis. Motif combinations - D escription o f t he overall decor ation on a given part of t he vessel s urface c oded s o t hat each v essel c an f it i nto only one c ategory. A glance a t t he v ariable s tates f or t he various v essel shape groups ( Tables 3 9 t hrough 4 3) a nd a t t he motif catalog ( Appendix F ) w ill c larify t he distinction between motif a nd motif combination. A t otal of 1 64 motifs w ere r egistered during t he r ecording process. However, f or much of t he a nalysis f ewer t han 1 5 motif combinations w ere u sed f or a g iven s hape w ithin a type. D iscrete t hat may j oined

or b e

f inite motif " free s tanding" designs r epeated on a vessel b ut a re not f ormally

together.

Continuous motifs - P atterns may b e organized i n two ways: 2 6 7

t hat a re r epetitive a nd a ) i n a horizontal band

c ircling t he v essel; b ) c overing a reas ( could b e w ider t han a b and p attern).

o f

t he

vessel

D esign f ield - c onceptualization o f t he s hape i n t erms 7 5 1 7- how i t c an b e d ivided f or d ecoration. S hapes vary w ith r egard t o h ow many s patial " boundaries" t he d esign f ield i s p erceived .t o h ave. H ardin ( 1979) d iscussed h ow s pecialist p ottery p ainters i n M exico u se a n a nalyt ic s ystem t o d ivide t he s urface o f t he v essel i nto a s eries o f s patial d ivisions, s ome o f w hich m ight opt ionally b e f urther s ubdivided. S hepard ( 197lb:261-63) d iscusses t he e ffects o f c urvatures a nd a ngles o n l imiting t he d ecorative f ield. R egister - A h orizontal bounded d ivision of t he design f ield w ithin w hich motifs a re o rganized. T he " boundary" u sually i s f ormed b y o ne o r more painted b ands o r b y c hanging t he c olor o f t he ground ( e.g., f rom s lipped t o s olid p ainted w ith d esigns s et o ff i n medallions). B and - A s olid-painted h orizontal l ine u sed i n a boun53E7 a rea b etween r egisters, b etween t he r im a nd t he f irst r egister, b etween t he r egister a nd t he i nterior b otton. T here w ere a f ew i nstances w here t he w idth o f a s olidpainted h orizontally o riented a rea l ed t o t he q uestion o f w hether t o c lassify i t a s a b and o r a r eg ister. A s olidpainted horizontally oriented a rea was c lassified a s a b and i f i t w as 2 .9 c m o r n arrower, a s a r egister i f i t w aS 3 .0 c m or w ider. I n s pite o f t his operational d ecision b ased on w idth, a horizontally b ounded a rea w ith a p ainted motif ( usually continuous) w as c onsidered a r egister r egardless o f i ts width. P anel - A v ertically o riented d ivision o r organization o f motifs; i s c onsidered w ithin t he h orizontal r egister o rganization o f t he d esign f ield. R im b and - A s olid b and o f p aint c overing f rom t he margin o f t he v essel o rifice down wall or s ide s ome s pecified d istance.

t he area o nto t he

R im A rea - U sed t o d esignate t he p art o f t he v essel f rom t he l ip ( edge o r t ip o f r im) down t o t he f irst s patial d ivision o r b oundary w hen a r im band i s not u sed. T his was i nfrequently observed; i t occurred more o ften o n t he i nterior o f a v essel w hen s ome s imple motif w as u sed r ather t han t he s tandardized r im band w as u sed.

268

APPENDIX E Forms Used in Recording Vessels For Production-Step Decision Analysis

PAINTED CERAMICS R ECORDING FORM

(e )

COL. _ CARD 1

COL. CARD 2

1 -6

1

I D

# :

COL.-CARD

3

# bnds blw 3 rd r eg..

1

i nt.rim i nter.rim colr

7 -8

F ield P rov

2

i st band,

color

2

9

Vesl condtn

3 -4

i st band,

w idth

3 -4

i nter.rim wdth

1 0

Est.

5

2 nd band,

color

5 -6

i nter.spec.dec.

1 1-12

t ype

Sharer v ar.

6 -7

2 nd band,

width

7

i nter.wall

Vessel cat.

8

3 rd band,

color

8

e nds r im-wall

1 4

s idewall dir.

9 -10

3 rd band,

width

9

c olor,lst bnd

1 5

base

1 1

# r eg,

1 3

1 6-17

spec.

shape

1 8-20

rim diam .

1 2-14

1 0-11 width,

exterior

i st r eg.

d epth

1 2

f nsh

i st band__

color,2nd band__

1 5-17

1 st,

main motif

1 3-14 width,2nd band

21-23 height

1 8-20

1 st,

2 nd motif

1 5

2 4-25

thickness

2 1-23

1 st,

3 rd motif

1 6-17 width, 3 rd band

s lip color

4 th motif

1 8

26

color,3rd band

2 4-26

1 st,

2 7-28 paint colors

2 7-28

i st paint colors

1 9-20 w idth,4th band _ _

2 9

l uster

2 9-30

i st r epeats

2 1

# bnds,wall-botm

3 0

smearing

3 1-33

2 nd r eg.

2 2

c olor,lst band

depth

_-

c olor,

4 th band

3 1

craftsmanship

3 4-36

2 nd main motif

2 3-24 width,lst band

3 2

ext.

r im

3 7-39

2 nd,

2 nd motif

2 5

3 3

ext.

r im color

4 0-42

2 nd,

3 rd motif

2 6-27 width,2nd band

paint colors

2 8

3 4-35

ext.rim w idth

color,2nd band

4 3-44

2 nd,

3 6-37 ext.

spec d ecor.

4 5-46

2 nd r epeats

2 9-30 width,3rd band

3 8

# bnds

r imist r eg.

4 7749

3 rd r eg,

3 1

3 9

i st band,

5 0-52

3 rd,

4 0-41 4 2 4 3-44 4 5 4 6-47

i st band, 2 nd band, 2 nd band, 3 rd band, 3 rd band,

color width color width color width

4 8

# bnds blw i st r eg.

4 9

i st band color

5 0-51 5 2 5 3-54 5 5 5 6-57

i st band, 2nd band, 2 nd band, 3 rd band, 3 i rd band,

6 2

i st band, 2 nd band,

2 nd motif 3 rd motif

3 7-39 wall,main motif _

5 9-60

3 rd,

paint colors

4 0-42 wal1,2nd motif

6 1-62

3 rd,

r epeats

4 3-44 wall

c olors

6 3

b ase/wall

4 5

r epeats

6 4-65

ext.

4 6-48 btm motif

c olor

2 nd band,

wiutn

3 rd band, 3 w4 bend,

color rtätk

comments 4 th

5 6-58

4 th,

5 9-61

4 th,2nd motif

r eg.ext.dpth m ain motif

7 i st band, color • 8-69 i st b and,width 0 2 nd b and,color 1 -72 2 nd band,width

width c olor

e 3-b4

5 1-52 5 3-55

B lank=piece n ot h ave i t 6 2-63 4 th, color 0 =can't t ell i f has i t 6 4-65 4 th, r epeats obliterated, p art miss., u sing p hoto, etc. 6 6 # bnd 1 -2 r eg,int.

width

6 5 64-67

base dec.

wall

4 9-50 btm color

c olor

i st band,

3 4-36 depth,int.reg.

3 rd, 3 rd,

width

5 9 6 0-61

3 2-33 width,4th band

5 3-55

color

e nds blw 2 nd r eg.

color,4th band

main motif

5 6-58

width

5 8

d epth

color,3rd band

-

4

26 9

•

( Tria1.3;

c ard l ayout

f or d esign e lement a nalysis)

C ard 1 C ol 1-6

-M

I D number 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

( 2)

( incorporates c urrent l ocation)

P eabody Smithsonian Guatemala National Museum I nstituto Hondureno, T egucigalpa Copan Archaeological P roject H eadquarters Copan Museum, Honduras Comayagua Museum, Honduras Bonilla G astel c ollection, S an P edro S ula, Honduras Mario Lopez s herds, S an P edro S ula, Honduras Maegli C ollection, G uatemala Museo Popul Vuh, G uatemala Banco Atlantida, T egucigalpa, H onduras Museo Nacional, S an S alvador B erlin Museum ( from Gordon a nd Mason plates) University o f P ennsylvania F enton C ollection ( from Gordon a nd Mason plates) Z apotitan V alley, S alvador

( 01 f or S ta. Barbara l ot)

Other 4 c olumns f or c ollection numbers, r ighthand j ustify. On Honduran specimens when h ave I nventory a nd Catalog number, u se c atalog number f or I D. 0 00=no number a t l ocation. At PV u sed 1 1-001,2,3,4, f or v essels w/o number; u sed 1 1-1/2-64 when d uplicate number F ield Provenience 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 19 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

Copan - c eremonial c enter; unspecified Copan - c eremonial c enter, tomb ( burial c onstruction ) Copan - c eremonial c enter, Mound 3 6 Copan Valley - unspecified Copan Valley Project, CV 2 0 Copan Valley Project, CV 4 3 Copan Valley Project, CV 1 6 Copan Valley Project, other Copan Valley, L as S epulturas Copan Valley, Monte G rueso Quezailica Other western H onduras H onduras - s pecifics unknown Guatemala - s pecifics unknown R io Hondo/Zacapa/Estanzuela A suncion Mita S an Agustin Acasaguastlan Kaminalyuju S alvador - unknown Tazumal - t ombs Western G uatemalan h ighlands Copan C enter, burial but n ot t omb c onstruction C opan C enter - Mound 3 2 P iedras Negras

2 70

2C ol ( 2)

F ield P rovenience

7 -8

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3

( cont'd)

Copan C enter - c ache/vault under s tela C opan C enter - Mound 4 1 S outh Coast, Guatemala Copan C enter - c onstruction a ssociated Copan Valley - construction a ssociated ( CAP) Copan Valley - tomb ( CAP) Copan Valley - burial, not constructed t omb ( CAP) Tazumal - c onstruction a ssociated Cambio and C eren s ite, El S alvador

Purchased S an M iguel, S alvador Unknown ( private c ollection; can not a ttribute t o c ountry o f origin)

4 1 0 0

( /)

Vessel c ondition

9

1 2 3 4 ( 1)

1 0

Whole v essel P artial v essel S herd Whole v essel, r estored

E stablished t ype 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Copador . Arambala Gualpopa t ype C hilanga U lua-Yojoa ( Babilonia) C hichipate Motagua type 1 Copador r elated or a berrant Copador Gualpopa G roup: P axte s craped s lip C aterpillar

( 2)

1 1-12

S harer variety 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

G lyphic A , Copador G lyphic B , C opador G lyphic C , Copador G lyphic D , C opador G lyphic E , Copador F igure A , Copador F igure B , Copador Unspecified by S harer Exterior F igure B but i nterior no decoration Exterior G lyphic C but i nterior not d ecorated E xterior G lyphic E , but i nterior not d ecorated Exterior G lyphic B b ut i nterior n ot d ecorated

1 3 Exterior G lyphic C b ut 1 4 Exterior G lyphic A but

2 7 1

i nterior not decorated

i nterior n ot decorated

3Col ( 2)

1 1-12

S harer v ariety,

cont'd

1 5 G lyphic A except g lyphs a re not s tandard A - C 1 6 G lyphic B except t hat t here a re not g lyphs i n i st register 1 7 G lyphic C except i t a lso h as g lyph i n r egister with s eated f igure

2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7

Arambala, Arambala, Arambala, Arambala, Arambala, Arambala, Arambala,

Arambala variety G lyphic A G lyphic B G lyphic C F igure A F igure B F igure C

3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5

Gualpopa, G ualpopa, Gualpopa, G ualpopa, G ualpopa,

G ualpopa Variety G eometric Variety Mono Variety G lyphic Variety v ariety u nspecified by S harer

4 1 C hilanga, 4 2 C hilanga,

( 1)

1 3

Vessel C ategory 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

( 1)

1 4

C hilanga Variety Osicala Variety

P late ( height l ess t han 1 /5 d iameter) D ish ( height b etween 1 /3 a nd 1 /5 d iameter) Bowl ( height no l ess t han 1 /3 nor l arger t han d iameter ) Vase ( height g reater t han d iameter) Vertical n eck j ar Outflared n eck j ar e ight g reater t han maximum diameter p lus Outcurved n eck j ar a s i ndependent r estricted orifice ( inflection I ncurved n eck j ar o int a bove e quator) Cup ( 11 cm or l ower

S ide wall direction 1 2 3 4 5

v ertical f lared outcurved r ound/incurved s lightly i ncurved markedly

6 R ecurved w ith v ertical neck 7 R ecurved w ith o utflared n eck 8 R ecurved w ith outcurved n eck 9 I ncurving n eck, r ec rved

2 72

4C ol ( 1)

1 5

.

B ase 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

( 2)16-17

Convex F lat Concave S pecial: gadrooned-rounded,dimple,interior T ripod, l ow ( 5 cm o r l ess) Tripod, h igh ( more t han 5 cm ) T etrapod R ing-based, l ow ( 3 cm o r l ess) R ing-based, h igh ( more t han 3 ' cm m issing

S pecial 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 6 2 7 3 8 7 8

" hump" e xterior f lat,et

s hape

B asal f lange Basal a ngle F aceted f lange R adial or d iagonal g roovina E ffigy ( modeled/appliqued) F luting ( close-up c hannels) G rooving - v ertical F lattened l ip R idge t hickening l ip o ne or two horizontal grooves o n s ide wall r ing b ase enclosed and p erforated r ounded, exterior t hickened r im rounded h andle t ripod with ovoid s upports b ase e laborated with deep g rooves,separating i nto 6 -petalled t ripod with s lab s upports a pplique knob/ " boss" r idge o n s ide wall

( 3) 1 8-20

r idge a nd horizontal groove r idges o n exterior ( horizontal) both 0 2 a nd 0 6 both 0 2 a nd 0 7 b oth 0 3 a nd 0 8 both f luting a nd horizontal g rooves ( Note: gadrooning = combination o f g rooving a nd modelling) r im d iameter(record i n mms)

( 3) 2 1-2 3

h eight

( 2) 2 4-25

t hickness

( 1)

s lip color

2 6

1 2 6 9

( record

i n mms;

i f p iece h as base,

( record i n mms)

o range a nd c ream o range white/cream none

273

e xclude base

f orm

f rom m easure.)

5( 2) 2 7-28

paint colors

( recorded

i n combination)

0 1 B lack o range, s .h. r ed 0 2 b lack, o range, n on-specular h ematite r ed 0 3 o range, s .h. r ed 0 4 b lack, s .h. r ed, grey 0 5 b lack, s .h. r ed 0 6 b lack, n on-specular h ematite r ed 0 7 b lack, orange, s .h. r ed, purple 0 8 o range, n on-specular h ematite r ed 0 9 b lack, orange, s .h. r ed, g rey 1 0 black, orange, s .h. r ed, g rey, p ink 1 1 b lack, s .h. r ed, grey, d eep " burnt" orange 1 2 b lack, o range, s .h. r ed, white/cream 1 3 b lack 1 4 r ed ( either s .h. or non-s.h.) 1 5 b lack a nd orange 1 6 b lack, o range, g rey 1 7 o range 1 8 b lack a nd g rey 1 9 b lack, s .h. r ed, c ream 2 0 s olid r ed, non s pecular h ematite, w ith black designs p ainted 2 1 b lack, non-s.h. r ed, grey 2 2 b lack, orange, s .h. r ed, p ink

3 3 4 4 ( 1)

2 9

s pecular h ematite r ed non-s.h. r ed

l uster 1 h igh 2 medium 3 l ow 4 1 /2 5 2 /3

( 1)

3 0

smearing 1 2

( 1)

3 1

yes n o

c raftsmanship 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

f inely executed c areful, but n ot o utstanding a l ittle s loppy v ery c areless 1 /2 2 /3 3 /4

2 74

6( 1)

3 2

Exterior r im 1 2

C l)

3 3

( decoration )

3 4

band o f c olor n o r im b and, but a rea s eparated f rom f irst r egister a nd decorated none; r egister s tarts d irectly f rom r im band o n l ip only

0

r im m issing

E xterior r im c olor 1 2 3 4 5 6

b lack orange s pecular hematite r ed n on-specular h ematite r ed grey white/cream

7 8 9 0

s pecial: pink/purple/burnt o range/black over r ed a t l ip,red contin . r ed o ver black b lack o vAr r ed missing

( 2)

3 4-35

exterior r im(band) width -

r ecord i n n uns

( 2)

3 6-37

Exterior s pecial d ecoration ( if s olid band not u sed a t r im o r i f s omething o tber t han s tandard r egister a nd s olid b ands i s o n p iece) 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4

( 1)

3 8

Motif 0 56 a bove a nd b elow i st r egister wavy l ine with dots a bove 2 nd r egister, b elow s tandard bands motif 0 49 a bove i st r egister motif 1 04 s paced a round r im ( 7 r epeats) i nto what consider r im b and 0 5 s piral b owl 0 6 b lotchy U sulutan 0 7 wavy l ine U sulutan ( or s craped s lip) 0 8 v ariation o f s piral bowl 0 9 obliterated, c an't d etermine d etails 1 1 . not s tandard r egister; applique d ecoration b etween p ainted b ands 5 6 s piral bowl with b lotchy r esist 7 1 l inear U sulutan i n p laid p attern 1 0 g lyphs i n d iagonal panels i n s olid p ainted r egister Number o f b ands b etween r im a nd f irst r egister

( 1)

3 9

Color,

i st band b etween r im a nd f irst r egister

1 2 . 3 4

b lack o range s pecular h ematite r ed non-specular h ematite r ed

5 6

grey white/cream

2 75

( 1)

4 0-41

Width o f

4 2-44

color a nd w idth o f s econd band b etween r im a nd

4 5-47

c olor a nd width o f

4 8

f irst . band

( record i n mms)

3 rd band b etween r im a nd

f irst r egister

f irst r egister

( 3) 4 9-51

number o f bands b elow 1 st r egister ( note: 9 = no bands u sed b ut p iece h as 2 s ets o f motifs a nd a re t reated a s 2 s eparate r egisters) color a nd width o f i st band below 1 st r egister

( 3) 5 2-54

color a nd width o f

2 nd band b elow 1 st r egister

( 3) 5 5-57

c olor a nd width o f

3 rd b and b elow 1 st r egister

( 1)

number o f bands below 2 nd r egister

5 8

( 3) 5 9-61

c olor a nd w idth o f

1 st band b elow 2 nd r egister

2-64 (3)6

c olor a nd w idth o f

2 nd band below 2 nd r egister

(3 ) 6 5-67

c olor a nd width o f

3 rd b and b elow 2 nd r egister

C ARD 2 ( 1)

1

number o f bands b elow 3 rd r egister

( 3) 2 -4

c olor a nd w idth o f

1 st band b elow 3 rd r egister

( 3) 5 -7

c olor a nd w idth o f

2 nd band b elow 3 rd r egister

( 3) 8 -10

c olor a nd width of

3 rd band b elow

( 1)

number o f r egisters o n e xterior

1 1

(3 ) 1 2-14

d epth o f 0 00 9 9q

f irst r egister,

exterior

3 rd r egister

( record i n mms)

i ncomplete or missing s piral bowl, n o r egisters

( 3) 1 5-17

f irst r egister,

main motif

( if c an b e d etermined)

( 3) 1 8-20

f irst r egister,

2 nd motif

( 3) 2 1-23

f irst r egister,

3 rd motif

( 3) 2 4-26

f irst r egister,

4 th motif

( 2) 2 7-28

f irst r egister, p aint c olors v essel p aint)

2 76

( record i n c ombination a s

for o verall

8C ol

( Card 2 )

( 2) 2 9-30

F irst r egister r epeats 0 - 9 6, a s i ndicated 1 1 - 8 9 r epeats o f e ach motif, motifs a lternate 99 - c ontinuous 8 8 - u nusual r epeat, s ee c omment s ection 0 0 - i ncomplete p iece, can't t ell r epeats Note: i f 2 motifs a lternate but t here i s uneven number o f e ach, u se i st c oi n f or r epeat o f i st motif a nd 2 nd c olumn f or r epeat o f 2 nd motif I f t here a re more t han 2 motifs, r epeats will r efer t o f irst two l isted

( 3)

3 1-33 D epth o f s econd r egister

( in mms)

cm i ncomplete o r missing ( 3)

3 4-36

2 nd r egister,

main motif

( 3) 3 7-39

2 nd r egister,2nd motif

( 3) 4 0-42

2 nd r egister,

3 rd motif

( 2) 4 3-44

2 nd r egister,

paint colors

( 2)

2 nd r egister,

r epeats

( 3) 47-49

3 rd r egister,

d epth

( 3) 50-52

3 rd r egister,

main motif

4 5-46

3-55 ( 3) 5 6-58 ( 3) 5 9-60 ( 2) 5 ( 2) 6 1-62 ( 1)

( 2)

6 3

i n c ombination )

( in n u ns)

3 rd r egister 2 nd motif 3 rd r egister, 3 rd motif 3 rd r egister, p aint c olors 3 rd r egister,

( record

( record i n c ombination)

r epeats

base/wall

I p aint e nds but s lip may c ontinue 2 p aint c ontinues o nto base 3 outlined with r ed band 4 design i ncorporates base 5 no s pecial d emarcation 6 outlined w ith b lack band 7 p ainting a nd f luting e nds 6 4-65 E xterior base decoration .0 1 2 0 20 3 0 4 0 5 6

8 f luting/grooving e nds 9 n ot a pplicable,ring b ase o r t ripod

unpainted, but may be s lipped s olid paint ( use 2 nd c olumn f or c olor) paint a nd f luting e nds melon s trip ( colors will be s ame a s o n e xterior wall) o range a nd r ed " cattail" motif r adial s tripes s ingle o utlining s tripe o r band, not a t b ase/wall j uncture ( use 2 nd column f or c olor)

277

9Col. ( 2)

( Card 2 ) 6 4 . -65

Exterior b ase d ecoration, 0 7 8 9-

1 0 -

1 1 1 2 9 9

con't )

paint e nds b eyond base/wall j uncture; c enter h as only s lip dot i n c enter o f c oncave b ase ( use 2 nd column f or color) s piral motif ( use 2 nd column f or c olor) 2 bands; d ifferent c olors a nd w idths base i s p art o f wall d esign b ase p art o f wall d esign p lus a dditional dot not a pplicable. r if le b ase o r t ripod

e

CARD 3 ( 1)

1

i nterior r im 1 2 3 4

( decoration)

band o f c olor no r im band b ut a rea s eparated f rom f irst register and d ecorated none;register s tarts d irectly f rom r im l ip only

( 1)

2

i nterior r im c olor 1 b lack 2 o range 3 s pecular h ematite r ed 4 non-specular h ematite r ed 5 b lack a nd r ed 6 s pecial:. w l ilte/cream/grey/pink 7 8 r ed over b ladk 9 b lack over r ed

( 2)

3 -4

i nterior r im width

( 2)

5 -6

i nterior s pecial decoration ( if s olid band not u sed or i f a rea b elow r im u sed f or o ther t han s tandard s eries o f b ands and r egister) 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0

( 1)

7

n otched l ine -,1-11 -/ I-P 1 a lternating b ] ,eck a nd r ed-painted z ones i nstead o f f ret a nd doti f:J . b lotchy r esist broad l ine r esist wavy l ine U sulutan p ainted r ed z ones a lternating w ith b lack dots dots b etween bands 4 p ainted z ones a lternating x 424 1w I I

. Interior wall 1 2 3 4 5

( in n u ns)

f inish

( if n ot d ivided

i nto r egisters)

wall s lipped n ot s lipped n eck only s lipped s lip p lus i solated e lements o n wail; s craped s lip

278

s olid b and

bottom h as n o design

10 C ol

( Card 3 ) Number o f b ands b etween r im a nd wall,

( 1)

9

C olor,

1 st band

1 0-11

w idth,

1 st band

1 2-14

c olor a nd w idth,

2 nd b and

1 5-17

c olor a nd w idth,

3 rd band

1 8-20

c olor a nd w idth,

4 th b and

2 1

( 3) 2 2-24

n umber o f b ands, i nterior wall- b ottom ( or b etween 2 nd r eg & b ottom i f more t han o ne r eg o n i nterior) c olor a nd w idth, i st b and

( 3) 2 5-27

c olor a nd w idth,

2 nd band

( 3 ) 28-30

c olor a nd w idth,

3 rd b and

( 3) 3 1-33

c olor a nd w idth,

4 th band

( 3) 3 4-36

d epth,

( 3) 37-39

i nterior w all, main motif

( 3 ) 40-42

i nterior w all,

2 nd motif

( 2) 43-44

i nterior w all,

c olors

( 1 )

i nterior

i nterior r egister

( in n uns)

( record i n c ombination a s

f or o verall p aint)

4 5

i nterior w all r epeats. 9 =something s pecial c heck c omments & c oding s heet; w hen t here i s more t han o ne m otif, a # m eans e ach a lternates ( 3 ) 46-48 i nterior b ottom motif a nd h as t his n umber o f r epeats ( 2) 49-50

i nterior b ottom c olors

( 2) 51-52

C omments 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 . 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

( record i n c ombination,

a s f or overall p aint)

( surface/design)

f iring c loud small e xtra f igures s tuccoed s pecial r epeat p attern, s ee r ecording p age r epair holes b ands o f o range painted u nder m ain d esigns l ine o f s maller motifs a bove m ain f igures d rips o f p aint s howing r egisters s eparated b y r idge s pecial g rooving p attern, s ets o ff r egisters s pecial g rooving p attern, o utlines c ircle-dot motif 1 0 a nd 1 1 i n c ombination bottom s hows l ots o f w ear; p aint o r s lip worn a way a t l east p artially r efired

1 5 r efired & l ots o f w ear 1 6 3 rd m otif i n i nterior r egister, 1 7 3 rd motif i n i nterior t egister,

279

1 49 0 52

( only o ne)

•

11Col

( Card

3 )

( 2)

5 1-52

Comments ( surface/design) ( cont'd) 1 8 s tuccoed p iece which h as 5 th band ( black, . 01) on i nterior 1 9 i st r egister i nterior=so 4d r ed; s ee r ecording f or w idth 2 0 i st r egister i nterior=motif 1 25, s ee s heet f or width 2 1 l inked s pirals a bove a nd b elow main motifs i n r egisters 2 2 c rosshatching p ainted o n o utside o f s lab s upports. 2 3 more t han 1 motif i n i nterior; s ee coding s heet 2 4 i st r egister i nterior=motif 0 48, w idth & c olor on coding s heet 2 5 r efired a nd with d rips o f p aint s howing ( 14,8) 2 6 3 rd motif i n i nterior r egister, 0 38 2 7 1 a nd 1 3 i n combination 2 8 t hird motif i n i nterior r egister, 0 04 2 9 a dditional bands a nd/or r egisters on e xterior 3 0 2 9 + 0 1

( 3)

5 3-55

4 th r eg,

e xt,

( 3)

5 6-58

4 th r eg,

main motif

( 3)

5 9-61

4 th r eg,

2 nd motif

( 2)

6 2-63

4 th r eg,

c olors

( 2)

6 4-65

4 th r eg,

r epeats

( 1)

6 6

number o f b ands,

( 1)

6 7

i st band color

( 2)

6 8-69

i st band,

w idth

( 1)

7 0

2 nd b and,

c olor

( 2)

7 1-72

2 nd band,

w idth

depth

( record i n n u ns)

1 a nd

2 r egister,

•

28 0

i nterior

APPENDIX

SUMMARY OF

MOTIFS

F

B Y TYPE OF D ESIGN

G lyphic 0 01 0 02 0 03 0 05 0 06 0 07 0 08 0 09 0 10 0 11 0 31 0 32 1 33 1 35

G lyph A , main s ign on r ight , main s G lyph A ign on l eft G lyph A , variant Glyph B , main s ign on r ight , main s G lyph B ign on l eft G lyph B , main s ign only G lyph B , variant Glyph C , f acing r ight G lyph C , f acing l eft G lyph C , variant G lyphs ( not A ,B, or C ) h orizontally a rranged G lyphs ( not A ,B, or C ) i n a vertical p anel A ffix only o f " standard" A ,B,C, g lyphs " hand" g lyph

H uman 0 12 0 13 0 14 0 15 0 16 0 17 0 23 • 024 1 30 1 58

R epresentations S wimming f igure, f acing r ight Swimming f igure, f acing l eft S eated f igure, f acing r ight S eated f igure, f acing l eft Variant o f s eated f igure, f acing Variant o f s eated f igure, f acing S tanding f igure, f acing r ight S tanding f igure, f acing l eft I ndeterminate human f igure G rotesque f ace

A nimal

r ight l eft

r epresentations

B irds 0 18 0 19 0 20 0 21 0 22 0 73 14 1 48

B ird w ithout e lement i n mouth V ariant o f b ird w ithout e lement i n mouth B ird w ith e lement i n mouth V ariant o f b ird w ith e lement i n mouth Hooked-beak b ird B ird e ffigy B ird s ilhouette S tylized b ird

2 81

0 06

0 08

( outline i s r ed )

'

( outline i s r ed )

2 82

G lyphs

( continued )

0 30

0 31

0 32

1 35

28 3

2 84

c ontinued )

Human r epresentations

m im e

l e

,

V

1 ( \

,

ff leC e eN

. N

0 14

n

a

l lb i7 lZ

0 14

0 15

0 17

0 17 ( on Arambala )

28 5

w

H uman r epresentations

( oontir lued )

0 23

0 24

0 16

1 58

( design o bliterated i n p art )

2 86

287

A nimal r epresentations - B irds

( continued )

1 14

1 48

28 8

Monkeys 0 29 0 30

Monkey S eated monkey

S erpent 0 27 1 55

Serpent f igure f acing r ight S tylized f eathered s erpent

O ther 0 72

F rog e ffigy ( subsumes various t hat may v ary). E ffigy - i ndeterminate animal " Turtle" d esign Very e longated jaguar B at w ith outstretched wings I ndeterminate animal

0 71 1 21 1 31 1 54 1 57

B ar

a nd

dot

s pecific details

numbers

0 52 0 53

Bar B ar

0 54 0 55

Bar a nd dot 8 with dots on both Bar only, dots missing ( used with complete bar and dot)

Abstract

a nd dot a nd dot

8 7

patterns

C ontinuous

( in

band

around

c ircumference

0 39 0 48

L inked s crolls Horizontal z igzag

0 51 0 56

Scalloped l ine L inked s pirals

058 0 67

Attached Dots a nd

0 69 0 77 1 00 1 07 1 25

Band w ith s uspended " commas" L inked s crolls with dots L inear pattern Nctched l ine or band Triangles w ith i nterior dots

1 13

Series o f " U" s hapes a lternating solid paint Band w ith s uspended spirals

1 17

s ides of t he b ar only i n c ontext

or

wavy

r ectangles w ith v ertical l ines

2 8 9

of v essel)

l ine(s)

exterior dots

w ith

a reas of

A nimal r epresentat ions - M onkeys

0 29

29 0

291

0 39

0 48

\

0 51

0 56

0 58

0 67

0 69

0 77

d

e f S

1 00 1 07

1 25

1 13

@ HS

C ontinuous p atterns o rganized i n h orizontal b and a round v essel

292

C ontinuous ( covering a reas o f t he v essel not n ecessarily r unning -horizontally a round t he v essel) 0 41 0 37 1 23 1 59 0 42 0 44 0 47 0 00

Crosshatched z ones C rosshatch w ith s uspended d ots C rosshatch w ith i nterior , dots C urvilinear p attern w ith d ots P anels o f s olid c olor ( usually s etting o ff glyphs or f igures i n t he s ame r egister) R egister o f s olid c olor M edallion e ffect g iven t o a nother e lement P lain, n o motif, n ot painted, o utlined w ith b ands

S imple d iscrete e lement L ines 0 43 0 45 0 68 0 78 0 96 1 05 1 18 1 11 1 47

Groups of v ertical p arallel s traight l ines Groups o f v ertical a nd horizontal l ines M elon s tripe ( alternating c olors b lack a nd r ed; w idth v aries b y c ontour) S eries o f p arallel horizontal l ines ( on a varie ty o f G ualpopa a re d iagonal) Vertical w avy or z igzag l ines C ombination o f v ertical s traight a nd s quiggle l ines S ingle v ertical or d iagonal l ine S eries o f v ertical s traight l ines s eparated b y a l ine o f dots Horizontal b ands ( in a n a rea c onsidered a " register," e .g., b elow c urve o f r ecurved bowl)

S hapes 0 38 0 57 0 60

Dot(s) U nattached " S"'s, v ertical or h orizontal, r ounded o r a ngular U s hape, v ertical o r horizontal ( Smith's b racket)

0 75 0 86 0 93 1 01 1 02 1 12 1 19 1 37 1 49 0 46 0 61 0 64 0 76 1 06 1 15 1 36 1 39

U nattached s pirals C hevrons Double t riangles Horizontal " H" S ingle t riangle, u pright G eometric f igure Half-disc Spiral i n c ircle " Doughnut" s hape " Shell" e lement Variant o f s hell C urvilinear s hape " Winged" e lement G eometric f igure Curvilinear d esign P air o f " E"'s Geometric f igure 2 93

o r

i nverted

0 37

1 23

0 41

=

3?

-

1 59 C ontinuous ( covering a reas o f t he v essel n ot n ecessarily r unning h orizontally a round t he v essel )

f l f l

0 45

I I I

0 43

0 78

1 18

0 96

CZ := > t ===>

r .i c = => c = = >

4

1

/

1

U

1 1 1 i lI

1 05

S imple d iscrete e lements,

M l ines

29 4

NG . : :

( 1 4

1 43 1 45 1 26

Half-disc w ith i nterior f ill Shell varient Geometric d esign ( open ovals w ith l ine)

Circular/curvilinear

designs

horizontal

( most

occur

vessel bottom) 0 33 034 035

C ircle a nd dot Rosette ( with c ircle Cross-bands

036 059 1 40 1 41 1 29 1 62

Cross-bands w ith dots R ectangles a ngling off band C ircular " flower" effect C ircular " flower" e ffect Ovoid design Rosette w ith c ross-bands

G-fret

and

s croll,

a nd

s tep

dot

i ncluded)

on e xterior bottom

f ret

0 49 0 63 1 16

Combination

c ircular

a nd

r ectilinear designs

0 62 1 22

Abstract,

c ould

r epresent

Abstract,

c hevrons

a n

a nimal

or

0 82 0 88 0 89

p lus

other e lements

0 70 0 81 Variations o f

S t.

George

0 99 1 28

2 95

cross

b ird

o n

0 93

0 38

x 0

1 37

0 60

0 86

0 57

1 11 :

2

4

ec °

1 45

. 1 49

1 26

1 39

1

A

0 75

1 43

0 46

Z

e

5G \ -9

1 19

0 61 1 12

1 02

1 36 1 01

5

2

0 76

0 64

1 06 (2 2 i

S imple d iscrete e lements, s hapes

C ircular/curvilinear d esigns

host o ccur o n v essel b ottoms )

296

7)

0 49

9

: 1[

7

2]

0 4 5:

: :

b 0 49

( 9 1 16

0 63

G -fret a nd s croll ,

s tep f ret

0 62

1 22

C ombination c ircular a nd r ectilinear d esigns

0 82

0 88

0 89 A bstract ,

c ould r epresent a n a nimal o r b ird

A bstract ,

c hevrons p lus o ther e lements

0 99 Variations o

1 28 S t . G eorge c ross

2 97

U Q

D U

C omplex

U s hapes o r b racket

a rrangements

0 65 0 66 0 83 0 87 0 90 0 91 0 92 1 38 1 50 1 24

P atterns l ines

i ncorporating

h ooked

or

" saw-tooth"

0 79 0 80 0 94 0 97 1 60

K notted

r ope motif;

i nterlaced

l inear designs

0 50 0 40

M iscellaneous 1 03 0 74 1 32 1 51 1 52

0 85 1 081 10

0 84 1 53 1 56

C rossed h ooked l ines " cattail" E laborate b anners o f varied c olor I ndeterminate d esign i n m edallion s hape Abstract g eometric design i n m edallion ( may be b ird h ead i n o ne r epeat) P air o f f acing g eometric e lements C omplicated g eometric d esign, may b e a llied to Smith's " sky b and s ymbol, I lhuitl s ign" [ Smith 1 955: 7 41) Abstract c urvilinear d esign P ossible s hell v ariant E laborate g uilloche p attern

29 8

0 90

0 65

0 83

0 91

2e P I ? z e Id r e , 0 6 ' 3 0 v e

( 3E D

M i l iD2 3

0 8 7e

1 38

1 24

g

0 92

13

1 50

C omplex U s hapes o r b racket a rrangements

0 77

0 94

0 80

:

0 97

/

P atterns i ncorporating h ooked o r " saw-tooth" l ines

0 40 K notted r ope m otif;

0 50 i nterlaced l inear d esigns

29 9

M 1 3

" 0 80

1 60

\\

Ø

M iscellaneous

/Le dg e 1 /

r ‚d

e e,

\ • ', -

w

1 ef l I P4 .

. • 2 2

97 7

S. 1 1 1e , 4

. " ‘

1 56

7 z ‚ f1 1 08

//// / / /

. 1 . 0" •1/. /A ; /

Z z •

• 1 10

300

/

/

9 s 4

• / , 2

/

/

APPENDIX G

METHOD AND P ROCEDURES U SED F OR COMPUTING CONSTRUCTION COMPLEXITY I NDEX D ata a bout t he c onstruction f eatures of 1 3 t ombs were r ecorded f rom L ongyear's descriptions ( 1g52: 3 5-49). ( Six o ther t ombs w ere e liminated f rom t his analysis because data w ere not complete.) The f ollowi ng c haracteristics w ere t abulated: 1 .

Number o f

c hambers

( 1

or

2 ).

2 . S quare f ootage ( computed f rom t he dimensions g iven; a n a ttempt was made t o compute c ubic a rea but t he height measurement was m issing i n t oo many i ns tances). B ased o n t he distribution o f t he measurements t he t ombs w ere c lassified a s s mall ( less t han 1 sq. f t.); medium ( 1 t o 6 s q. f t.); l arge ( 10 s q f t.). Values w ere a ssigned t o t hese c lassifications ( 1=small; 2 =small; 3 = l arge).

s ent,

3 . Corbel vault. I f a c orbel vault a value o f 1. w as g iven; no vault = 0 .

was

pre-

4 . C ut masonry. I f c ut masonry was present, a value o f 1 was a ssigned; n o c ut masonry = 0 . I n two i nstances t he i nvestigator noted t hat b oth boulders a nd c ut s tones h ad b een u sed. T hese c ases w ere g iven 0 .5 value.

n ich

5 . N iches. r eported.

6 . S lab given i f a s lab were p resent.

A

value

of

1

was

g iven

f or

each

f loor/slab roof. A value of 1 was f loor h ad b een l aid; 1 i f a s lab r oof

The p rocedure w as t o r ecord f or e ach t omb i ts value p er' characteristic. T he values w ere t hen s ummed per t omb to obtain a n umerical i ndex of e ach t omb's constructional c omplexity: t he h igher t he i ndex, t he more c omplex t he t omb w as j udged t o b e. T he d istribut ion o f t he i ndexed t ombs i s g iven b elow. I ndex Value 3 ( low) 3 .5 4 5 6 7 8 ( high)

N umber

o f

t ombs

3 1 1 3 3 1 1 301

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