Prehistoric Settlement and Subsistence in the Kaduna Valley, Nigeria 9780860546849, 9781407348360
186 27 155MB
English Pages [452] Year 1989
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Plates
Preface
Chapter 1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
Chapter 2 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
Chapter 3 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEYS
Chapter 4 THE EXCAVATIONS
Chapter 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES
Chapter 6 THE POTTERY
Chapter 7 CULTURAL MATERIAL OTHER THAN POTTERY
Chapter 8 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
Citation preview
Prehistoric Settlement and Subsistence in the Kaduna Valley, Nigeria
Kolawole David Aiyedun and Thurstan Shaw
Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 37
BAR International Series 541 1989
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR -S541, 1989: 'Prehistoric Settlement and Subsi,:;tence in the Kaduna Valley, Nigeria'
©
Kolawole David Aiyedun and Thur,::;tan Shaw,
1989
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546849 paperback ISBN 9781407348360 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546849 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age T itle P age
i
T able o f C ontents
i i
L ist o f F igures
i ii-vi
L ist o f T ables
v ii-xii
L ist o f P lates
x iii
P reface ( D.A . a nd T .S .)
1 -2
C hapters 1 .
B ackground t o t he R esearch ( D .A .)
3 -7
2 .
T he G eographical S etting ( D .A .)
3 .
T he A rchaeological S urveys ( T.S. a nd D .A .)
1 8-42
4 .
T he E xcavations ( T .S . a nd D .A .)
4 3-84
5 .
A rchaeological F eatures ( D .A .)
6 .
T he P ottery ( D .A .)
1 24-300
7 .
C ultural M aterial o ther t han P ottery ( D .A .)
3 01-371
8 .
I nterpretation a nd D iscussion ( D .A .)
3 72-378
8 -17
8 5-123
A cknowledgements
3 79-381
B ibliography
3 82-403
P lates
1 99,
A ppendix I
I I I II
2 71-278,
3 64, 4 04-409
T he a nalysis o f f aunal r emains f rom t he W ushisi A rea, b y N ancy V alente
4 10-412
W ushisi A rea P ottery S tudy, b y S .G .H . Dan iels T he j uvenile s keleton f rom K ongon M akeri,
4 13-429
b y M arjorie W edgewood
4 30-433
L IST O F F IGURES P age 1 .
M ap o f N igeria s howing r esearch a rea.
2 .
W ushishi a rea.
D istribution o f S ites.
1 9
3 .
W ushishi a rea.
D istribution o f L ocalities.
2 4
4 .
R afin N doko.
C ontour
4 4
5 .
9
P lan .
R af i n N doko a )
S ection d rawings o f
t he S f ace o f C utting I a nd S , E
a nd N f ace o f C utting I I . h ) S ection d raw ing o f t he S f ace o f C utting I V . 6 .
R afin N doko . P lan o f C utting I I a t d epth o f s howing o utlines o f P its 1 a nd 2 .
7 .
K ongon
8 .
K ongon M akeri.
9 .
K ongon M akeri. S ection d rawing o f 1 A-G . S ymbols a s f or F ig . 8 .
1 0.
1.
1 2.
1 3.
M akeri .
P lan
o f
4 6-7 2 .40m
s ite .
5 3
S ection d rawing o f E f ace o f C utting l a . S f ace
o f
5 9
K ongon M akeri . S ection d rawing o f N f ace o f I A-N . S ymbols a s f or F ig . 8 .
C uttings
6 2
K ongon M akeri. Di n L evel 1 7.
P lan o f h ut w alls i n C uttings 1 B, C a nd 6 2
K ongon M akeri .
A reas o f d ifferent c olours a nd t extures,
K ongon M akeri .
K ongon M akeri .
K ongon M akeri. I A , L evel
1 7.
6 4
C lay f loor, w ith p otsherd r epair,
A rea o f
6 5 p otsherd p avement
i n C utting
1 .
K ongon M akeri .
6 6 P aving o f c obbles i n f loor o f L evel
2 5 i n C uttings I B , Ca nd I i 1 8 .
K ongon M akeri .
6 3
P lan o f r ed g ravelled f loor i n C uttings
i n C utting I A , L evel 8 . 1 6.
6 0
K ongon M akeri. S ection d rawing o f E a nd N orth f aces o f C utting I N . S ymbols a s f or F ig . 8 .
I A a nd B , L evels 1 5/16 . 1 5.
5 6
C utting
a nd p ebbled f looring ( Feature 5 ) , i n C uttings 1 A a nd B a fter c ompletion o f L evel 4 . 1 4.
4 8
6 7
P aving o f c obbles i n t he u pper p art o f
L evel 2 7 i n C uttings 1 A , B , Ca nd D .
6 7
P age 1 9 .
K ongon M akeri .
P osition o f h uman b ones a t t he t op
o f F eature 1 3 , i n t he S E c orner ( extending i nto I B ) i n L evel 1 4 . 2 0 .
o f
C utting
I A. 6 8
K asakogi W est . P lan o f s ite, c ontoured a t h alf-metre i ntervals . C ontour f igures i ndicate h eights i n h alf-metre a bove a p oint 4 m b elow d atum p oint .
7 1
2 1.
K asakogi W est. S ection d rawing o f N f ace
7 2
2 2 .
K asakogi W est. P lan o f N W c orner i n L evel 2 .
2 3 .
K asakogi W est.
o f
c utting .
p otsherd p avement a t t he 7 4
A rea o f p otsherd
p avement i n l ayer 3 ,
a t d epth o f 4 1cm o f C utting i n a ssopciation w ith t hree s mall b owls .
7 4
2 4.
K asakogi E ast .
P lan o f s ite .
7 6
2 5.
K asakogi
S ection d rawing o f E f ace o f T rench .
2 6.
E ast.
K asakogi E ast. o f
A rea
o f
p otsherd p avement a t
d epth
2 0cm .
8 4
2 7.
K ongon M akeri.
2 8 .
K ongon M akeri . H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated P avement S herds .
2 9 .
8 2 &8 3
D aub a nd f ired c lay.
K ongon M akeri.
9 1
9 3
H istogram o f D istribution o f D ecorated
P avement S herds a s a f unction o f D epth ;
t hese d epths
c ould b e u sed a s af unction o f T ime. 3 0 .
K ongon M akeri E xcavation .
9 4
C omparative g raph o f n umber
o f D ecorative m otifs a s a f unction o f D epth o n D ecorated P avement S herds. 3 1.
3 2.
3 3 .
3 4.
3 5.
3 6.
9 5
K ongon M akeri E xcavation.
D istribution o f V essel
F orms b ased o n D iagnostic r imsherd P avement a ccording t o L evels.
10
K asakogi E ast E xcavation. H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated P avement s herds .
11
R af i n N doko .
H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated
b odysherds.
1 44
B af i n N doko E xcavation . H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated b odysherds a ccording t o C uttings .
1 45
R af i n N doko E xcavation. C omparative g raph o f n umbers o f t ypes o f D ecorative m otifs a s af unction o f C uttings ( Spatial d istribution o f D ecorated b odysherds).
1 47
R epresentations
o f
s ome
V essel
F orms
E xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea .
r ecovered
f rom 1 50
P age 3 7.
R af i n N doko E xcavation.
V essel F orms 3 a a nd 3 b.
1 55
3 8.
R afin N doko E xcavation.
V essel F orm 5 a.
1 57
3 9.
R af i n N doko E xcavation.
V essel F orm 5 b.
1 58
4 0 .
R af i n N doko E xcavation .
V essel F orms 7 a nd 8 .
1 59
4 1.
R af i n N doko E xcavation.
V essel F orms 9 , 1 0 a nd 1.
1 61
4 2.
K ongon
4 3.
Makeri
E xcavation.
G raph
s howing
F iring
T emperature a ccording t o L evel d uring t he E arly p hase ( Levels 2 1-31).
1 95
K ongon M akeri E xcavation . o n W are A D ecorated s herds .
2 00
H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs
4 4.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation.
W are A , V essel F orm 5 .
2 10
4 5.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation.
W are A , V essel F orm 8 a.
2 11
4 6.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation. H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n W are B D ecorated B odysherds.
2 23
4 7.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation . C omparative g raph o f n umber o f t ype o f D ecorative m otifs a s a f unction o f D epth/Levels o n W are B D ecorated b odysherds .
2 25
4 8.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation.
W are B , V essel F orms 1 , 2a nd 3 .
2 33
4 9.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation .
W are B , V essel F orms 4 b, 7 a nd 8 .
2 34
5 0.
K ongon M akeri E xcavation.
W are B , V essel F orms:
a ) F orm
1 0 a nd 1 4. 5 1.
5 2.
5 3.
5 4.
K ongon M akeri . b ) r estricted .
2 38 W are B , V essel F orm 1 4 :
a ) u nrestricted ; 2 41
K asakogi W est . H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated s herds .
2 47
K asakogi E ast. H istogram o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated s herds .
2 67
C omparative g raph o f r elative f requency o f t ypes o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated b odysherds E xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea .
f rom 2 88-289a
5 4a. C omparative H istogram o f f requency o f d ecorative m otifs o n b odysherds e xcavated i n t he W ushisi a rea. 5 5.
2 90
C omparative H istogram o f F requency o f V essel F orms b ased o n D iagnostic r imsherds f rom E xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea.
2 91
P age 5 6.
C omparative
H istogram
s howing
R elationship
b etween
E xcavated a nd S urface-Collected D ecorated b odysherds a t R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri . 5 7.
2 96-97
C omparative H istogram o f F requency o f V essel f orms o n S urface-Collected P ottery f rom R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri.
2 98
5 8.
K ongon M akeri.
3 16
5 9.
K ongon M akeri.
C lay N et-Sinkers. C lay N et-Sinkers a nd i rregularly
s haped R ubbing S tones .
3 17
6 0 .
K ongon M akeri.
3 20
6 1.
K ongon M akeri . S moking
6 2.
P ottery d iscs. B one p oint, Q uartz b ead a nd
p ipes .
K ongon M akeri .
3 21 I vory r ing , Q uartz b ead ,
C lay b ead
a nd G lass b ead .
3 24
6 3 .
K ongon M akeri.
P ounding S tones.
3 30
6 4 .
K ongon M akeri.
G rindstones.
3 32
6 5.
K ongon M akeri. Q uartz p ebble r ubbed f lat o n b oth s ides; P ebble u sed f or s moothing a nd B one s tone .
3 33
6 6.
K ongon M akeri.
I ron o bjects .
3 37
6 7.
K ongon M akeri.
I ron o bjects .
3 39
6 8 :
l a-d.
I llustrations
2
b owls
3 a-c
o f t he m iddle
4 a-f
a mong
o f
s ome
t raditional
c ontemporary G wari N iger ( based o n
p ots
a nd S .
a nd
N upe p eoples
L eith-Ross,
1 970) . 3 65-71
L IST O F T ABLES P age 1 .
R econnaissance S urvey . I dentified l ocalities a nd A rchaeological a ttributes o bserved o n t he m ounds .
2 7-29
2 .
S ummary o f s ites l ocated i n t he W ushishi a rea , 1 9741985
3 8-40a
3 .
R adiocarbon D ates f rom R af i n N doko E xcavation.
5 1
4 .
R adiocarbon D ates f rom K ongon M akeri E xcavation .
7 0
5 .
R afin
N doko.
D istribution
o f
D aub
a nd
F ired
C lay
a ccording t o C uttings, L evels a nd L ayers. 6 .
K ongon
M akeri.
D istribution o f
D aub,
8 6 B urnt
C lay,
U nfired C lay , B rick a nd P erforated B urnt C lay a ccording t o C uttings a nd L evels . 7 .
8 .
9 .
K ongon M akeri .
D istribution o f P avement s herds o n t he
b asis o f a ttributes.
9 6
K ongon M akeri . D istribution o f P avement s herds o n t he b asis o f B urnishing .
9 7
K ongon M akeri .
D istribution o f
D ecorative m otifs
o n
D ecorated P avement s herds . 1 0 .
K ongon M akeri .
9 8
D istribution o f
D ecorative m otifs
o n
L evel V D ecorated s herds ( Pavement) f rom C uttings 1 A/ B , 1 C , 1 D , a t d epth 2 . 30m t o 2 . 36m ( spit 1 2) . I t.
K ongon M akeri.
K ongon
M akeri .
D istribution o f
D ecorative m otifs
L evel I II D ecorated s herds ( Pavement) 1 C , 1 D , a t d epth 1 . 75m t o 1 . 98m . 1 3.
K ongon M akeri.
K ongon M akeri .
f rom C uttings
1 B , 1 00 o n 1 A , 1 01
D istribution o f D ecorative m otifs o n
L evel I I D ecorated s herds 1 E , a t d epth 1 . 68m . 1 4.
( Pavement )
D istribution o f
f rom C uttings
1 A , 1 01
D ecorative m otifs
o n
L evel I D ecorated s herds ( Pavement) f rom C utting 1 C , F eature 1 0 , a t d epth 1 . 23m t o 1 . 30m . 1 5.
K ongon
M akeri.
1 00
D istribution o f D ecorative m otifs o n
L evel I V D ecorated s herds ( Pavement ) f rom C uttings 1 C , 1 D a t d epth 2 .01m t o 2 . 17m ( spit 1) . 1 2.
8 7-88
D istribution
a nd
P ercentages
D iagnostic a nd N on-Diagnostic R ims/Necks a ccording t o C uttings .
1 02
o f
( Pavement) 1 03
P age 1 6 .
1 7.
1 8 .
1 9.
2 0 .
K ongon M akeri . s herds.
M ain
R im
F orm a ttributes
o n
P avement 1 04
K ongon M akeri . R elationship b etween V essel F orm , V essel S hape, V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n P avement s herds o n t he b asis o f D iagnostic r im s herds.
1 05
K ongon M akeri. D istribution o f V essel F orms o n t he b asis o f D iagnostic r im s herds a ccording t o L evels/Depth ( Pavement).
1 06
K asakogi W est. D istribution a ccording t o L evels .
13
K asakogi W est.
o f
P avement
s herds
D istribution o f P lain a nd D ecorated
b odysherds ( Pavement) o n t he b asis o f b urnishing a nd c olour. 2 1.
K asakogi W est.
D istribution o f D ecorative m otifs o n
D ecorated
( Pavement )
2 2.
K asakogi
E ast.
2 3 .
K asakogi E ast.
2 4.
2 5.
2 6 .
2 7.
s herds .
15
D istribution
o f
P avement
s herds.
1 18
D istribution o f P lain a nd D ecorated
b odysherds ( Pavement) o n t he b asis o f B urnishing a nd c olour.
19
K asakogi E ast. D istribution o f P lain a nd D ecorated m otifs o n D ecorated s herds ( Pavement).
1 20
K asakogi E ast .
D istribution a nd p ercentages
o f T otal
D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated s herds ( Pavement ) .
1 21
S tratigraphic D istribution o f W ares a nd t heir c haracterized T emper a nd P aste o n P ottery r ecovered f rom E xcavated s ites i n t he W ushisi a rea.
1 25
R afin
N doko
S urface
F inds.
D istribution
o f
P ottery . 2 8
2 9 .
1 30
R af i n N doko S urface F inds . m otifs o n d ecorated s herds . R af i n N doko S urface F inds .
D istribution o f
D ecorative 1 31-133
V essel
F orms o n t he b asis o f
d iagnostic r im s herds . 3 0.
3 1.
3 2.
14
1 34-135
R af i n N doko . D istribution o f P ottery a ccording t o C uttings, L evels a nd L ayers . R af i n N doko
E xcavation .
D istribution o f
P ottery
1 40 o n
t he
b asis o f a ttributes a ccording t o l evels a nd l ayers .
1 41
R af i n N doko . D istribution o f B urnishing a nd C olour o n P lain b odysherds a ccording t o l evels a nd l ayers .
1 42
P age 3 3.
R afin N doko . D istribution o f D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated s herds .
3 4.
R af i n N doko.
M ain R im F orm a nd D ecorative a ttributes.
3 5.
R af i n N doko .
R elationship b etween V essel F orm , V essel
3 6.
3 7.
1 51
R af i n N doko. V essel F orms o n t he r im s herds a ccording t o C uttings .
1 52
b asis
o f
R af i n N doko. V essel F orms o n t he b asis o f r im s herds a ccording t o L evels a nd l ayers . K ongon M akeri S urface F inds .
3 9.
K ongon M akeri S urface F inds . m otifs o n D ecorated s herds .
4 1.
D iagostic
D iagnostic 1 53
D istribution o f P ottery . D istribution o f
4 3 .
4 4.
4 5.
1 66-70
K ongon M akeri S urface F inds.
M ain R im F orm a ttributes.
K ongon M akeri S urface F inds .
R elationship b etween V essel
K ongon M akeri. D istribution o f t o C uttings a nd L evels .
1 73-74
1 75-76
K ongon M akeri. D istribution o f D ecorated S herds a ccording t o C uttings a nd L evels .
1 77-78
K ongon M akeri.
D istribution o f R ims a nd N ecks, a ccording
K ongon M akeri.
4 9.
5 0 .
1 80-81
D istribution o f P erforated s herds,
L ids a nd D iscs .
K ongon M akeri.
1 82-84
D istribution o f P ercentages o f B urnishing
o n P lain b odysherds, a ccording t o L evels . 4 8 .
1 72
K ongon M akeri. D istribution o f P lain b odysherds a ccording t o C uttings a nd L evels .
B ases, 4 7.
1 71
P ottery a ccording
t o C uttings a nd L evels . 4 6.
1 64
D ecorative
F orm , V essel S hape, V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n D iagnostic R im S herds . 4 2.
1 48-149
S hape , V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n D iagnostic R im s herds .
3 8 .
4 0 .
1 46
D ecorated s herds a nd
K ongon M akeri. D istribution o f o n W are A s herds .
R ims/Necks 1 85-88
D ecorative m otifs 1 89-92
K ongon M akeri . D istribution a nd P ercentages o f t he t otal o f D ifferent D ecorative m otifs o n W are A s herds .
1 97
K ongon M akeri . D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative m otifs o n W are A s herds .
1 98
P age 5 1.
K ongon M akeri .
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D iagnostic
and N on-Diagnostic R ims/Necks o n W are A s herds . 5 2 .
K ongon M akeri.
5 3 .
K ongon
M akert.
2 01-4
M ain R im F orm a ttributes o n W are A s herds. R elationship
b etween
V essel
2 05
F orm ,
V essel S hape , V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n W are A D iagnostic R im s herds . 5 4 .
K ongon M akeri.
V essel
2 06
F orms o n t he b asis o f W are A
D iagnostic R im s herds . 5 5 .
K ongon M akeri.
2 07
D istribution o f
D ecorative m otifs
o n W are B s herds ( Levels 1 t o 2 0) . 5 6 .
K ongon M akeri .
2 15-220
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f t he t otal
o f D ifferent D ecorative m otifs o n W are B s herds. 5 7.
K ongon M akeri .
2 21
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f T otal
D ecorative M otifs o n W are B s herds . 5 8 .
K ongon M akeri . m otifs
2 22
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative
o n W are B ,
L evel
I II D ecorated s herds ( Spits
1 2
t o 2 0) . 5 9.
2 26
K ongon M akeri .
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative
m otifs o n W ear B , L evel I I D ecorated s herds ( Spits 7 t o 1 1, i ncluding F eature 1 a nd t he 1 4 D ecorated P avement s herds). 6 0 .
K ongon M akeri .
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative
m otifs o n W are B , t o
L evel
6 ,including F eatures
1D ecorated s herds ( Spits 7 ,9 a nd
P it
1
I II) .
6 1.
K ongon M akeri.
M ain R im F orm a ttributes
6 2 .
K ongon M akeri.
R elationship b etween V essel
2 28
o n W are F orm ,
B s herds .
K ongon M akeri. D iagnostic
V essel
F orms o n t he b asis
2 31
K asakogi W est.
6 5.
K asakogi W est . D istribution o f P lain a nd D ecorated b odysherds o n t he b asis o f B urnishing a nd C olour . K asakogi W est.
D istribution o f P ottery a cording t o L evels .
D istribution o f
6 8 .
K asakogi W est .
2 43
2 45-46
D ecorative m otifs
o n D ecorated s herds. 6 7.
2 30
o f W are B
R im s herds.
6 4 .
6 6 .
2 29
V essel
S hape , V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n W are B s herds . 6 3 .
2 27
2 49-52
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f T otal
D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorative s herds a ccording t o L evels.
2 53
K asakogi W est.
2 53
M ain R im F orms a ttributes .
P age 6 9.
K asakogi W est .
R elationship b etween V essel F orm , V essel
S hape, V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n t he b asis o f D iagnostic r im s herds. 7 0 .
K asakogi W est .
2 57
D istribution o f V essel F orms o n t he
b asis o f D iagnostic R im s herds .
2 58
7 1.
K asakogi E ast.
2 59
7 2.
K asakogi E ast. D istribution o f P lain b odysherds a nd D ecorated s herds o n t he b asis o f B urnishing a nd
D istribution o f P ottery .
d istribution o f P lain b odysherds o n t he b asis o f c olour . 7 3.
7 4.
7 5.
7 6.
7 7.
7 8.
7 9.
8 0.
K asakogi E ast. D istribution D ecorated s herds.
o f
D ecorative
m otifs
2 61
o n 2 62-63
K asakogi E ast. D istribution a nd P ercentages o f T otal D ecorative m otifs o n D ecorated s herds .
2 64-66
K asakogi E ast. D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative m otifs o n L evel I II D ecorated s herds ( spits 2 1 t o 2 9) . K asakogi E ast.
D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative
m otifs o n L evel I I D ecorated s herds ( spits 1 t o 2 0) .
2 68
K asakogi E ast. D istribution a nd P ercentages o f D ecorative m otifs o n L evel I D ecorated s herds ( spits 1 t o 1 0) .
2 69
K asakogi E ast. R im s herds .
2 70
M ain R im F orm a ttributes
o n D iagnostic
K asakogi E ast. R elationship b etween V essel F orm , V essel S hape , V essel P rofile a nd L ip P rofile o n t he b asis o f D iagnostic R im s herds . K asakogi E ast .
D istribution
o f
Vessel
F orms
and
t heir
2 81 r im-neck
c haracteristics f rom e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea . 8 2.
S tratigraphic
D istribution
o f
V essel
F orms
b ased
R afin N doko
S urface
F inds.
D istribution o f
R afin N doko.
3 02
D istribution o f C ultural M aterials
o ther t han P ottery. 8 5.
2 94
C ultural
M aterials o ther t han P ottery . 8 4.
2 92-93
o n
D iagnostic r im s herds f rom E xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea. 8 3.
2 80
D istribution o f V essel F orms o n t he b asis
o f D iagnostic R im s herds a ccording t o L evels . 8 1.
2 68
D istribution o f O bjects o f S tone r ecovered f rom e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea .
3 04-5
3 07
P age 8 6.
8 7.
8 8 .
R afin N doko . D istribution o f s tone f lakes a nd c hips) .
s tone o bjects
( excluding 3 08
D istribution o f B eads r ecovered f rom e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea .
3 13
D istribution o f I ron A rtifacts s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea .
3 14
M akeri.
r ecovered
8 9.
K ongon
9 0 .
K ongon M akeri.
9 1.
K ongon M akeri .
9 2.
K ongon M akeri.
9 3.
K ongon M akeri. D istribution o f t he b asis o f R aw M aterials .
f rom e xcavated
D istribution o f C lay N et-Sinkers. D istribution o f P ottery d iscs.
3 19
D istribution o f B eads a nd I vory o bjects.
3 22-23
D istribution o f G rinding E quipment.
3 25-26
O bjects
o f
S tone
K ongon M akeri.
D istribution o f I ron A rtifacts.
9 5.
K asakogi W est.
D istribution
9 6.
K asakogi E ast. t han P ottery .
o f
D istribution o f
o n 3 28
9 4.
9 7.
3 15
3 35-36
N on-Ceramic M aterials. C ultural
M aterials
3 41
o ther 3 44
D istribution o f
F aunal
r emains
i ncluding
H uman
b ones
r ecovered f rom e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea . 9 8.
9 9.
3 47
W ushishi a rea . D istribution o f F aunal r eamains b ones) a t K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast.
( Animal
W ushishi a rea . D istribution o f m ammalian r epresented a t K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast .
f auna
3 48
3 50
1 00 . W ushishi a rea. D istribution o f b ird b one f ragments a t K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast. 1 01. Wushishi
a rea.
D istribution
o f
m ammalian
b one
m odification a t K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast. 1 02. K ongon M akeri . 1 03. W ushishi a rea.
D istribution o f T urtle s hell D istribution o f
3 52
r emains.
3 53
F ish b ones a t K ongo r i
M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast. 1 04. W ushishi A rea . K asakogi 1 05. W ushishi
W est a rea .
3 51
3 54
D istribution o f M ollusca a t K ongon M akeri, a nd
K asakogi
E ast
D istribution o f
3 56
.
s hell
M akeri, K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi s pecies.
r emains a t K ongon E ast
a ccording
t o 3 57-58
L IST O F P LATES P age 1 .
2 .
R econnaissance . S E v iew o f m ound B , L ocality 6 . S cale 2 -metre r anging r od m arked i n 5 0cm ; i m r od m arked i n 2 0cm . R econnaissance .
N E v iew o f
t he e xposed p art o f m ound
A ,
L ocality 7 . S cale 2 -metre r anging r od m arked i n 5 0cm ; r od m arked i n 2 0cm . 3 .
i m 2 71
R econnaissance . N v iew o f m ound C , L ocality 1 0 , s howing c ircular a nd r ectangular h uts a nd g ranaries, p resently b eing o ccupied . S cale 2 -meter r anging r od m arked i n 5 0cm ; I m r od m arked i n 2 0cm .
4 .
1 99
R af i n N doko .
C utting I V ,
2 72
l ooking W a t e nd o f e xcavation .
S cale 2 -metre r anging r od m arked i n 5 0cm .
2 73
5 .
K ongon M akeri.
V iew o f s ite b efore e xcavation.
2 74
6 .
K ongon M akeri .
V iew f rom t he E a t t he e nd o f e xcavation ,
s howing t he s taircase i n t he S s trip i n u nits E t o H ,
a nd
t he N s trip e xcavated t o t he n atural u ndisturbed d eposit . 7 .
K ongon M akeri.
E f ace o f C utting 1 A , f rom t he s urface
d own t o L evel 1 8 . 8 .
K ongon M akeri .
S cale r anging r od m arked i n 5 0cm .
1 0.
S cale i n 2 0cm .
2 77
K ongon M akeri. C loser v iew o f m ass o f h uman ( Feature 1 3) i n C utting 1 A , L evel 1 4 . S cale i n a n . K ongon M akeri.
D ecorated
s herds.
a )
1 2.
1 3.
W ushishi .
D ecorated s herds .
b ones 2 78
C arved w ooden
r oulette, b ) C ob r oulette, c ) C ord r oulette . S cale i n c m . 1.
2 76
P ortion o f c ircular h ut w all i n C uttings
1 B , Ca nd D , L evel 1 8 . 9 .
2 75
a ) G rooves a t R 3f i n
4 04 & 4 05 N doko ,
b ) G rooves a t K ongon M akeri .
S cale i n c m .
3 64
W ushishi . D ecorated s herds . b ) R elief a t K ongon M akeri .
a ) R elief a t R af i n N doko , S cale i n c m .
4 06
W ushishi . D ecorated s herds . a ) C ompound d ecorations a t K asakogi W est . b ) C ompound d ecorations a t K ongon H aken. S cale i n c m .
1 4.
K ongon H aken. L evel 5 .
1 5.
4 07 S trip o f p otsherds p avement i n C utting 1 B ,
S cale i n a n .
K ongon M akeri . 1 B , L evel 7 .
4 08
S uperimposed p otsherd p avements i n C utting S cale i n c m .
4 08
1 6.
K asakogi E ast.
I ron h oe b lade.
1 7.
K ongon H aken.
B ones o f f emale j uvenile .
S cale i n c m .
S cale i n c m .
4 05
4 09
P REFACE ( D .A . a nd T .S.)
D uring t he 1 960s o ne o f u s ( T .S .) h ad o bserved t hat t he r oad b etween B ida a nd Z ungeru ( Fig . 1 ) c ut t hrough t hree m ounds o f a rchaeological m aterial, a nd a rgued t hat i f a m ore o r l ess s traight r oad h ad t ransected t hree m ounds i n t he c ourse o f l ess t han 1 00 k m , t he c hances w ere t hat t here w ere o ther m ounds i n t he v icinity w hich d id n ot h appen t o l ie o n t he l ine o f t he r oad . B rief s urveys i n 1 974 c onfirmed t hat t his w as i ndeed s o . 3 1 s ites w ere l ocated , c ategorised a s m ound s ites, d eserted v illage s ites, f ron s melting s ites a nd a c emetery . I n
1 974 o ne o f u s ( T .S .) w as a sked b y t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural
S tudies o f A hmadu B ello U niversity t o c arry o ut a rchaeological f ieldwork o n i ts b ehalf . T his w as d one d uring t he d ry s easons o f 1 975-76 , 1 976-77 a nd 1 977-78 . E xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n t wo m ounds, R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri, a nd t hree i nterim r eports o f t his w ork w ere p ublished ( Shaw 1 976a, I n
1 977a a nd 1 978a ) . 1 977 t he o ther o f u s ( D .A .) w as a ppointed t o t he C entre f or N igerian
C ultural S tudies a s G raduate A ssistant i n A rchaeology , w ith t he i ntention t hat, h aving t aken a f irst d egree i n H istory , h e s hould n ow t rain a s a n a rchaeologist .
T he f irst s tep i n t his t raining w as t hat h e a ssisted i n t he
1 977-78 f ieldwork . r esearch a rea .
H e
l ater
c arried
o ut
a n e thnographic
s urvey
o f
t he
T he W ushishi a rea w as c hosen a s t he s tarting p oint f or w hat w as p lanned a s ac ontinuing f ieldwork p roject t o b e s pread o ver a n umber o f y ears. A lthough f urther a rchaeological w ork i n t he f ield w as n ecessary a fter 1 978 i n o rder t o o btain a nything l ike s atisifactory r esults, t his w as n ot t hen p ossible f or f inancial a nd l ogistic r easons . W hile o ne o f u s ( T .S .) h ad t o r eturn f or c on initments i n C ambridge , t he o ther ( DA . ) w as t o c arry o ut a n a nalysis o f t he f inds i n t he A rchaeological S tatistical U nit o f A hmadu B ello U niversity u nder t he d irection o f M r S .G .H . D aniels; t his a pplied p articularly t o t he p ottery r ecovered f rom e xcavation a nd s urface c ollecting , w hich w as a lso t o b e s crutinised f or g rain a nd s eed i mpression s . A fter
p roducing
a ' First
W orking
P aper '
o n t he
p ottery
i n
1 976
( reproduced a s A ppendix I I ) u nfortunately M r D aniels l eft A hmadu B ello U niversity i n 1 978 a nd t he A rchaeological S tatistical U nit c ame t o a n e nd . P lans f or t he f ull p ublication o f t he t hree s easons o f f ieldwork w ere f inally d isrupted w hen o ne o f u s ( T .S .) s uffered a s troke . A fter t hree s easons o f w ork e xcavating i n t he W ushishi a rea o ccupation m ounds, i t b ecame c lear t hat t he d esirable e nd o f a scertaining t he c hronological d uration o f d ifferent m ounds a nd t heir c hronological r elations t o e ach o ther b y m eans o f f urther e xcavation , w ould b e a l ong a nd c ostly p rocess. I n o rder t o g ain t his i nformation b y m eans o f a n e xamination o f m ound s lope, p otsherd s catter a nd t he s eriation o f s urface f inds o f p ottery , a g rant w as o btained t o M r . K eith R ay , t o c ome t o N igeria a nd M r . M .yedun c arried o ut t his h ealth a nd l ogistic p roblems
e nable a C ambridge a rchaeology g raduate , t o c onduct a s urvey b y t hese m ethods . H e s urvey i n M arch 1 978 . U nfortunately , p revented t he m ound s lope a nd p ottery
1
s eriation s tudies b eing c arried o ut . I n
1 983
o ne o f u s
( D .A . ) w as
r egistered a s a r esearch s tudent
i n
t he
U niversity o f C alifornia a t B erkeley a nd d id f urther f ieldwork f rom 1 983 t o 1 985 i n t he W ushishi a rea a s p art o f t he w ork f or t he P h .D . d issertation . ( The p resent p ublication i s am odification o f t hat d issertation). A r esearch a rea w as d elineated f or s urvey ,
w hich p artly c hecked o ver
t he p revious s urveys, p artly b roke n ew g round, r esulting i n t he i dentification o f a dditional s ites m aking a t otal o f 3 6 r eported u pon i n t he p resent p ublication , E xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n t wo m ounds , K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast . T he r esearch w as c arried o ut w ith f unds p redominantly s upplied b y t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies, A hamadu B ello U niversity .
2
C hapter
1
B ACKGROUND T O T HE R ESEARCH ( D.A .) R esearch A ims a nd M ethodlogy T here w ere a n umber o f r easons w hich c ombined t o r esult i n t he W ushisi a rea b eing c hosen a s t he f ocus o f a r esearch p roject . A fter t he m ounds i nitially s ignalled s ome a rchaeological p otential, a nd p osed p roblems a s t o t he e conomy a nd s ubsistence b ase w hich e nabled t heir f ormer o ccupants t o l ive o n t he s ame s pot f or s everal g enerations, t he e cology o f t he a rea s uggested t hat t here m ight b e i nteresting a nswers t o t hose q uestions . F or i t i s a n a rea o f i mpeded d rainage a nd t raditional r ice c ultivation , a nd i t w as h oped t hat f lotation m ethods m ight y ield i nformation a bout b otanical f ood r esources a t a n e arlier d ate . H ere , t hen , w as a n o pportunity t o t ry t o s tudy l and u se a nd s ettlement p atterns i n a n i mportant s tretch o f t he K aduna v alley . I t p rovides a nother g roup o f s ites i n t he n orthern p art o f N igeria w here s ettlement m ounds o f v arious s izes h ave b een f ound . O ther a reas o f n orthern N igeria w here m ound s ites h ave b een d iscovered a nd i nvestigated a re t he K ebbi v alley ( Obayemi 1 976a ; S utton 1 976), t he K ainji s tretch o f t he N iger v alley ( Priddy b asin ( Connah 1 981) .
1 970 ;
N zewunwa
1 983) a nd t he ttma r egion o f t he C had
A nother r eason f or i nvestigating t he s ites i n t he a rea w as t hat i t w as a rchaeologically v irgin t erritory l ying b etween t wo b etter k nown a reas . O n t he o ne s ide l ies t he N ok a rea p roducing c ultural m aterial d ating t o e arly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst m illennium B .C ; o n t he o ther l ie t he s ites i n t he N iger V alley b elow Y elwa e xcavated i n c onnection w ith t he K ainji R escue A rchaeological P roject,
p roducing c ultural m aterial a lso e xtending
b ack i nto t he f irst m illennium B .C . ( Priddy ,
1 970; S haw ,
1 978,
p p .
9 6-8 ;
1 986 , 2 ; F ig . 3 ) . T he c reators o f b oth t he N ok a nd t he Y elwa s ites w ere u sers o f i ron . T he o rigin o f i ron u sing a nd w orking i n W est A frica r emains a c ontroversial t opic ( Andah , 1 979), b ut r ecent w ork b y A ndah ( 1981), R ustad ( 1980) , ( 1969) a nd T ylecote ( 1975) i s n ow p ointing t o t he p ossibility o f a n i ndigenous o rigin f or i ron w orking i n W est A frica .
O n t he o ther h and ,
i f a
k nowledge o f t his t echnology w as u ltimately d erived f rom N orth A frica a s s ome b elieve ( Mauny , 1 952; S haw , 1 978, pp. 8 6-87; V an d er M erwe 1 980, 4 78) , w hen C arthaginian i nfluence r eached t he N iger I nland D elta a nd t hen s pread d own r iver , t hen t he a rea u nder i nvestigation l ies i n t he g eneral r egion w here e arly u sers o f i ron m ight b e e xpected t o h ave s ettled . I n a ddition t o t he u sual m ethods o f s urvey ,
e xcavation a nd a nalysis o f
r esults, a l arge a mount o f e thnographic m aterial w as c ollected w ith a v iew t o g enerating m odels t o b e t ested w ith t he a rchaeological m aterials . T his e thnographical m aterial i ncludes c ontemporary r esource e xploitation , i n r elation t o t he s ubsistence b ase ; a nd e xtensive s tudies o f t he p resent o r r ecent s ettlement p atterns a nd t raditional a rchitecture a nd c rafts s uch a s p ottery m aking a nd i ron s melting .
O utline o f R elevant P ast R esearch P revious a rchaeological
i nvestigation i n n orthern N igeria h as b een
3
h ighly l imited a nd r estricted r elative t o t he s ize o f t he c ountry a nd t he t otal s pan o f i ts p rehistory ( Fig . 1 ) . O ur k nowledge b ecomes b roader t han i n t he e arlier p eriods f rom t he L ater S tone A ge o nwards. R ecently i ntensifed a rchaeological r esearch h as p ut t he l ater p rehistoric s equence o n a f irmer f ooting i n N igeria t han t hat a t p resent a vailable i n n eighboring c ountries m aterials
o f W est A frica ( Phillipson , 1 982 , 4 20) . I n s ome p laces, n ow c ome f rom p rimary u ndisturbed s tratified c ontexts a nd
e xcavations, t hus p roviding a r eliable c hronological s equence a nd a m eans o f r econstructing s ubsistence a nd a ctivities, a s w ell a s understanding t ransitions a nd p opulation g rowth a nd m ovement o f i deas o r o f p rehistoric p eople ( Shaw , 1 978 , 5 9 ; C onnah , 1 981 , 1 6-19) . T his p eriod, s tarting f rom 1 2000 t o 3 000 B .C . ( Clark , 1 980a , 5 6) , i s d ominated a s i n o ther p arts o f s ub-Saharan A frica b y m icrolithic c omponents o f c omposite a rtifacts, i ncluding c rescents o r l unates, t riangular m icroliths, t ranchets, awls, s crapers a nd c hisel-like f orms ( Phillipson, 1 982, 4 21), l eading t o t he i nvention o f t he b ow a nd a rrow , e specially i n t he s avanna r egion , a nd t hus, t o t he L ater S tone A ge p eople 's e fficiency i n h unting ( Shaw , 1 978, 3 8 ; C lark , 1 980a , 5 5) . T he p icture t hat e merges a ppears t o b e t hat i n N igeria , L ater S tone A ge p eople a djusted t heir w ay o f l ife t o t he d ifferent v egetation z ones o f t he c ountry ( Shaw , 1 978 , 5 9 ; A ndah, 1 981, E vidence f or t his i n N igeria c omes f rom p laces l ike R op ( Fagg , 1 944, A .
F agg ,
1 972 ;
E yo ,
1 972 ;
R osenfeld ,
1 972 ;
D avid ,
1 976) ;
D utsen
6 10) . 1 972 ; K ongba
( York , 1 978) o n t he J os P lateau a nd t he l ower l evels o f t ëima i n t he C had b asin ( Shaw , 1 977 ; c onnah , 1 981), i n n orthern N igeria a nd M ejiro c ave, O ld O yo ( Willett, 1 962 , 1 967) a nd I wo E leru ( Shaw , 1 967 ; 1 977, 1 978 ; S haw a nd D aniels, 1 984) i n s outhern N igeria . I t c an h e i nferred t hat L ater S tone A ge p eople w ill h ave u sed s ome o f t he w oody a nd h erbaceous p lants t hat w ere g row ing i n t he g rassland-woodland a nd f orest e cotones . S ome o f t hese w ere l ater d omesticated s uch a s A frican r ice, m illets, p ulses, t ubers a nd v arious f ruit t rees ( Harris ,
1 976 ,
3 29 333 ;
C lark ,
1 980a ,
5 5) .
T he f irst m ajor t ransition i n N igerian p rehistory d uring t he l ast 6 o r 7m illennia w as t he c hange i n t echnology , w hen L ater S tone A ge i r l icrolithic i ndustries w ere e nriched b y t he a ppearance o f p ottery a nd g round s tone a rtifacts . I t h as s ometimes b een s upposed a nd g enerally b elieved t hat w ith t he c ommencement o f t hese t raits, t he i nception o f f ood p roduction b egan ( Phillipson , 1 982a , 7 74 ; S haw , 1 984 , 1 53), i n N igeria . P laces w here s uch t raits h ave b een i ncorporated i nclude I wo E leru a nd I kpa n ear A fikpo i n t he f orest f ringes i n s outhern N igeria, a nd R op, D utsen K ongba a nd D ai r na i n t he s avanna i n n orthern N igeria .
O n t he b asis o f t his i ndirect e vidence, t hese
s ites w ere b elieved t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith a n i ncrease i n t he m anipulation o r i ndigenous i ncipient c ultivation o f l ocal p lants s uch a s y am , c ocoyam a nd o il p alm i n t he s outh a nd c ereals i n t he n orth .
O ur
u nderstanding a nd k nowledge o f d omestication i n W est A frica, i ncluding N igeria, h ave b een m odified a s a r esult o f r ecent e thno-botanical f indings . I t i s n ow k nown t hat t he d ry t ropical z one o f W est A frica s aw t he i nitial e xploitation o f w ild g rasses s uch a s P anic n s pp, E chinochloa, E ragrostis , S orghum v irgatum, O ryza b arthii a nd t he w ild a ncestors o f P ennisetum a mericanun , S orghum b icolor a nd O ryza g laberri r na t ogether w ith s ome o ily ielding p lants s uch a s t he l ocust b ean t ree a nd t he s hea b utter t ree . T he w etter s ub-equatorial r egion o f W est A frica i s b elieved t o b e t he c entre o f o rigin o f c ertain d omesticates, a mong w hich t he m ost i mportant a re y am , o il p alm , k ola n itida, a nd t he a kee a pple ( Clark , 1 976 , 1 976a , 6 2 , 1 980 , 5 6 ; S haw , 1 976 , 1 30 , 1 977 , 14 ; A ndah , 1 981, 6 07 ; P orterès a nd B arrau , 1 981, 6 95 ; P osnansky , 1 981 , 5 40 ) . T he e xploitation o f t hese f orest a nd s avanna s pecies m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t he l arger p opulations r eported f ron t hese r egions f rom a n e arly d ate ( Clark ,
4
1 976 ,
1 980a ,
5 6 ;
S haw ,
1 977 ,
15 ,
1 984 ,
1 55) .
O n t he b asis o f l inguistics, e specially g lottochronology , s ome
h ave s een p eople i n s outhern N igeria a s c ultivating y ams, c otton a nd b eans a nd m aking p alm w ine a s e arly a s 6 000 y ears a go ( Shaw , 1 976 , 1 36 , q uoting A rmstrong 1 964) . E vidence f rom p ollen a nalysis f rom t he N iger D elta h as s hown t hat b y 2 900 y ears B .P ., t here w as a s harp r ise i n t he p ollen p ercentage o f o pen f orest s pecies i n t he r epresentation o f U ncaria a fricana a nd E laeis g uineensis .
N otable p resence o f w eeds o f w aste p laces o r
c ultivated l and s uch a s A spilia s pp . . C leome c iliata, B orreira v erticillata, a nd H illeria l atifolia a re a ll i ndicative o f h uman i nterference w ith n atural v egetation i n t he a djacent f orest z one a nd p erhaps p arts o f t he d eltaic p lains, t hrough a gricultural p ractices ( Sowunmi , 1 981, 2 29) . D irect a rchaeological e vidence i n N igeria
f or d omesticated a nimals
c omes f rom D aima i n t he C had b asin ( Connah, 1 981). T his c onsists o f d omestic c attle o f w hich c lay f igurines a re a ttested f rom t he l ower l evels d ated t o c a 6 00 B .C . ( Shaw , 1 984 , 1 52) a nd s mall s tock , p robably g oat, c lay f igurines o f w hich a re f ound i n t he u pper p art o f t he m ound . A ctual r emains o f s orghum , i ndicating c ereal g row ing , w ere f ound i n t he u pper p art o f t he m ound p robably d ating t o a round 8 00 A .D . ( Connah, 1 981, 1 89) . I n G hana, d omesticated c attle a nd g oats a re k nown f rom s ites a t K intampo, M umute a nd N tereso d ating t o t he m id-second m illennium B C ( Carter a nd F light 1 972) b ut o ccurrences a s e arly a s t his h ave n ot b een f ound i n N igeria . A vailable i nformation o n t he l ater S tone A ge i n N igeria a nd o ther p arts o f W est A frica h as b een l argely r estricted t o d escriptions o f t he s tone a rtifact a ggregates ( Phillipson , 1 982 , 4 21) . T here i s a m inimum e vidence c oncerning t he p eople 's e conomic a ctivities a nd e stimates o f t heir s ettlement s ize a nd p atterning ( Clark 1 980a , 5 6 ; P hillipson , 1 982 , 4 21) . B efore t he d etailed s tudy o f a l ate S tone A ge s equence e xtending f rom 9 000 B .C . t o 1 500 B .C . e xcavated a t I wo E leru i n s outhern N igeria ( Shaw a nd D aniels, 1 984), t he p rocess o f d evelopment i n N igerian a nd o ther W est A frican S tone A ge i ndustries h ad r emained l argely u nknown . T hose o f t he n ortherly S udanic r egion m ay o we t heir o rigin t o i nfluence o r d iffusion f rom t he S ahara a nd i t i s p ossible t hat s uch i ndustries, m odifed t hrough e ncounter w ith d rastically c hanged e nvironmental c onditions, i nspired t he d evelopment o f L n icrolithic t echnology i n t he s avanna a nd f orest r egion t o t he s outh ( . Shaw , 1 978 , 5 9 ; P hillipson , 1 982 , 4 22) . T here a re p roblems w ith t he m ajor t ransitions,
i ndicated a s o ccurring
i n t he l ast 6 o r 7 m illennia i n N igerian p rehistory . T he e arliest t ransition i n t echnology/ s ubsistence a nd w ay o f l ife o ccurred a bout 3 ,0004 ,000 B .C , e vidence o f w hich c omes f rom I wo E ie r n i n t he f orest i n s outhern N igeria ( Shaw , 1 978 , 4 2 ; S haw a nd D aniels, 1 984) a nd T h itsen K ongba i n t he s avanna o n t he J os P lateau ( York , 1 978 ; S haw , 1 978, 4 7-48) i n n orthern N igeria . T his s eems t o d iffer f rom r egion t o r egion . S uch e vidence o f t ransition i n t hima i n t he C had b asin i n n orthern N igeria w as a pparently l ate , o ccurring o nly i n t he l ast m illennium B .C . ( Connah , 1 981), w hile t hat d ocumented f or M ejiro c ave, O ld O yo a nd R op o n t he J 05 P lateau l acks r eliable d ating e vidence .
A part f rom t his
p roblem o f s equence , w e w ould
l ike t o k now h ow t he c hanges c ame a bout . W as i t l ocal d evelopment o r w as i t d iffusion , a nd i f s o , f rom w hich d irections o r c entres? W e n eed n ot a dopt a d iffusionist v iew b ut s hould k eep a n o pen m ind . T he s econd t ransition w as t he a doption o f i ron t echnology . T he N ok V alley a nd a s eries o f o ther s ites i n n orthern N igeria a nd o ther p arts o f W est A frica h ave p roduced e vidence o f t ransition f rom s tone u sing t o t he e arly u se o f i ron . I ndeed t he e arliest a nd b est k nown e vidence o f i ron
5
u sing a nd i ron s melting i n s ub-Saharan A frica c omes f rom t he N ok v alley , w est o f t he J os P lateau , N igeria ( Fagg , 1 969) . T he a rea p roducing N ok s tyle f igurines, w ith o ver 3 0 s ites, i s s ome 3 00 m iles l ong a nd 1 00 m iles a cross, t o t he w est a nd s outh o f t he J os P lateau , m ostly n orth o f t he N iger a nd B enue, b ut e xteding s outh o f t he l atter . E vidence f or i ron s melting c omes f rom p ieces o f w rought i ron , s melting f urnaces, i ron s lag a nd c lay d raught p ipes f rom t he f urnaces ( known a s t uyeres) ( Fagg , 1 969 , 4 6 ; S haw , 1 978 , 7 9) . I n t he N ok f igurine a rea, i ron s melting h as b een d ated t o 5 91 ± 7 5 B .C ., 5 38 ± 8 4 B .C . a nd 3 41 ± 1 33 B .C . f rom f urnaces a t T aruga ( Calvocoressi a nd D avid , 1 979 , 1 0 ), a nd t o 5 55 ± 2 10 B .C . ( Calvocoressi a nd D avid, 1 979, 1 0) a nd 6 20 + 2 30 B .C . ( Shaw , 1 981, 6 30) o n t he b asis o f t hermolununiscence d ating f rom N ok i tself . O utside t he N ok f igurine a rea , i ron s melting i s d ated t o t he 4 th c entury B .C . a t I se D ura r ock s helter ( Calvocoressi a nd D avid , 1 979 , 1), t o t he 2 nd c entury B .C . a t B aha m ound n ear s ite R S 6 3/32 i n t he N iger v alley ( Priddy ,1970 ; S haw , 1 978 , 9 7) , t o t he 5 th/6th c entury A .D . a t D aima ( Connah , 1 968 , 3 17, 1 981, 1 46) , t o 6 85 ± 8 0 A .D . a nd 7 50 ± 1 55 A .D . f rom f urnaces a t S amaru w est s ite I , Z aria ( Sutton , 1 976 , 1 8) , f rom t he 9 th t o t he 1 3th c enturies A .D . f rom n orth-east Y oruba-land n ear t he N iger a nd B enue C onfluence ( Obayemi , 1 976 , 1 985 , 2 71) a nd t o t he 9 th c entury A .D . a t I gbo U kwu ( Shaw , 1 970 , 1 978 , 1 05 ; F ig . 6 ) . W hat w as
t he
r elationship b etween t he N ok v alley I ron A ge a nd s ites
o utside t he N ok V alley?
T he k nown s equence o f i ron t echnology i n N igeria
a lso d iffered c onsiderably f rom r egion t o r egion .
T he s equence i n t he N ok
v alley s pans f rom 5 00 B .C .-200 A .D . a nd n othing s eems t o b e k nown f rom t here d uring t he r emaining f irst m illennium A .D . E vidence o f t he u se o f i ron a t D aima i n t he C had b asin h as n ot b een f ound p revious t o t he 5 th c entury A .D . T he k nowledge o f t his f ormative p eriod i s c rucial f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he l ater s tages w hich w itnessed t he d evelopment o f s ites d uring t he l ater I ron A ge ( Posnansky , 1 981 , 5 34) . T here i s a lso t he q uestion o f r elating t hese a spects o f N igerian p rehistory t o e vidence f rom N igerian h istory , p rotohistory a nd c ontemporary e thnographic p atterns . B ut i n s pite o f t hese p roblems i n N igerian p rehistory , d ue t o s cant a rchaeological w ork , a c onsiderable a mount h as b een a chieved i n s ome a spects, p articularly d uring t he l ater S tone A ge a nd t he I ron A ge . T he p rehistoric s equence o f a n umber o f s ites i n N igeria i s n ow k nown f rom s tratified u ndisturbed p rimary c ontexts, r esulting f rom e xcavations . S uch s ites
i nclude D aima ,
I X itsen K ongba, T aruga, R op , R S 6 3/32 ;
a nd U kpa, t o m ention b ut a f ew . a ppreciably g ood r econstruction o f
I fe ,
I wo E leru
A s a r esult o f t his, w e n ow h ave a n t he c hronological s equence , b ased o n
r adiocarbon a nd t her r noluminiscence d ating o f an umber o f t hese s ites d uring t hese p eriods, p articularly d uring t he I ron A ge ( Posnansky a nd M clnthosh , 1 976 , 1 68-172 ; C alvocoressi a nd D avid , 1 979) . So me a ttention h as p aid t o t he r ole o f t rade i n N igerian p rehistory , p articularly a bout d istance
t rade
b etween
l gbo-Ukwu a nd
I fe ,
I fe a nd
D aima ,
I fe a nd
b een l ong
N ok ,
a s
w ell a s f rom t he N igerian r egion t o t he S ahara a nd N orth A frica ( Shaw , 1 970 , 1 973 ; P osnansky , 1 980 ; C onnah , 1 981), a nd a l ot w ritten o n t he i mportance o f l ocal t rading n etworks i n c onnection w ith p rocesses o f c entralization a nd u rbanization ( Shaw , 1 980 , A ndah , 1 981 , 6 18-619) . S ubstantial e ffort i s a lso b eing d irected t o N igeria 's p alaeoenvironmental r econstruction ( Sowunmi, 1 981) .
6
M odels I t
i s p ossible t o p osit f or b oth t he a bove t ransitions t hat t hey w ere
t he r esult o f i nternal, a utochthonous d evelopment, o r t hat t hey w ere b asically i ntroduced f rom o utside . I t i s e asy t o s uppose t hat i nnovations i n l ithic t echnology o r c eramics c ould h ave b een l ocally d erived , l ess e asy t o s ee a s equence o f d evelopmental s teps l eading t o i ron-smelting i n a t echnology t hat h ad l acked a ny p roto-metallurgical t radition o f k nowledge o f o ther m etals . F ood p roduction b ased o n d omesticated c attle, s heep a nd g oats h as t o h e a n i mport, s ince t here a re n o l ocal w ild a ncestors. T he s ame a rg ent d oes n ot a pply t o c rops, p articularly i f t here w ere s tands o f w ild A frican r ice i n t he s wamps o f t he R iver K aduna t ributaries, a lthough t he i dea o r i ntroduction o f o ther d omesticated c ereals c ould h ave i nfluenced e xperimentation w ith l ocally a vailable g rasses . A ll t hese p ossibilities w ere h eld i n m ind i n t he d esign a nd e xecution o f t he r esearch, i n r elation t o e vidence t hat m ight t ip t he b alance o f p robability i n o ne d irection o r a nother .
7
C hapter 2 T HE G EOGRAPHICAL S ETTING ( D .A .)
A n a ttempt i s m ade i n t his c hapter t o p lace t he W ushishi a rea i n i ts g eographical p erspective . A s urvey o f g eology , g eomorphology , v egetation a nd f auna i s p resented , a s w ell a s a n o utline o f o ral h istory , s ettlement p attern a nd m ain t raditional s ubsistence m ode/economy . S ources u sed h ere i nclude p ublished a nd u npublished w orks ( A jibade , 1 971; B urke a nd D urotoye , 1 971; G rove , H arris, 1 976 ,
1 967 , 1 980 ;
U do , 1 970 ; M abojunge , 1 976 ; D elany a nd H appold , 1 979 ; H opkins, 1 979 ; S owunmi, 1 981; B ourlière , 1 963 ; D orst
a nd D endelot , P ugh, 1 966;
1 969 ; B ourlière a nd H adley , 1 970 ; M ason, 1 969; S haw , 1 976, 1 978;
F orde , 1 955 ; G reenberg,
B uchanan a nd 1 981), a n
e thnograpic s urvey o f f ifteen v illages i n t he W ushishi a rea ( A iyedun , 1 978) a nd f urther s urvey c arried o ut b y A iyedun i n N ovember 1 984 a nd D ecember 1 985.
G eology A l arge p art o f N igeria c onsists o f t he c rystalline r ocks o f t he P recambrian B asement C omplex , w ith C retaceous s ediments i n t he N iger a nd B enue V alleys, T ertiary a nd R ecent s ediments i n a z one a long t he c oast, a nd i n t he n orthwest a nd t he n ortheast ( Shaw , 1 978 , 1 8 ; F ig . 3 ) . T he W ushishi a rea l ies o n t he b oundary b etween t he B asement-crystalline r ocks o f p robable p recambrian a ge a nd t he N upe S andstone w hich i s C retaceous i n a ge ( Ologe , 1 976 ; F ig . 2 ) . T he B asement r ocks o f t he Z ungeru a rea c onsist o f g neisses, m etasediments a nd m etavolcanics a ll h aving a N NE-SSW s tructure w ith a b end s outh o f l at 9 4 5 'm t o N W-SSW . T hese a re i ntruded b y l arge b odies o f g ranite i n t he e astern h alf o f t he s heet . M ost o f t he d ated g ranite r ocks °
i n N igeria o utside t he J os P lateau g ive a ges o f 5 00±150 m .y . m etased ents h ave b een d ivided i nto t hree m ain g roups o r f ormations .
T he
1 )
T he Z ungeru P sammite F ormation w hich c onsists o f s iliceous s chist, q uartzite , q uart z o-feldspathic s chist a nd g neiss w ith i ntercalated a mphibolite.
2 )
T he K ushaka S chist F ormation w hich c onsists o f q uartz s chist, q uartztte a nd m ica s chist .
3 )
T he B irni G wari S chist F ormation w hich i s m ade u p o f p hyllites,
m ica
s chist a nd p ebbly s chists . T he Z ungeru P sammite F ormation ,
t he r elevant g roup i n t he s tudy a rea,
e xtends f rom N orth o f Z ungeru t hrough Z ungeru t o W ushishi w here i t i s c overd b y t he N upe s andstone . T he r ocks a re b est o bserved i n t he R iver K aduna a t Z ungeru w here l ight a nd d ark c oloured r ocks a re s een a lternating . T he l ight c oloured r ocks a re m ade u p o f q uartzites, q uartz s chists a nd g neissic r ocks a ll o f w hich a re c losely a ssociated . A lternating w ith t hese a re t he d ark c oloured r ocks w hich a re a t nphibolites a nd a mphibole s chist . E xposures o f t hese r ocks a re f ound a round Z ungeru a nd a ll a long t he Z ungeru B ida r oad u p t o s ome 2 -3 k m . f rom W ushishi w here t hey a re c overed b y l arge p ebble b eds
8
F ig.
1 :
N ap o f N igeria s howing r esearch a rea.
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1 1
w hich a re c onsidered t o b e t he r eworked B asal c onglomerate o f t he N upe s andstone. T he i mportance o f a
n umber o f t hese i norganic r esources t o m an i n t he
r emote p ast a nd i n r ecent t imes c annot b e o veremphasized.
T he
s tone
a rtifacts r ecovered f rom t he W ushishi a rea b elong t o r ock t ypes o f t he Z ungeru F ormation a nd t he N upe s andstone w hich a re w ithin a f ew k ilometers f rom t he p rehistoric s ettlements . T hese i nclude g neissic r ocks o f t he Z ungeru F ormation u sed a s g rinding a nd r ubbing s tones; q uarzites a nd r ounded q uartz c obbles u sed a s g rinding s tones a s w ell a s f or h ut w all c onstruction a nd r ed g ravel f or f loorings ( Shaw , 1 978a , 1 ) ; a mphibolites u sed a s g rinding a nd c utting s tones a nd s andstone . A s ample i dentified a s m edium g rained g ranitic r ock i s t he o nly s ample t hat c ould h ave b een b rought f rom s ome d istance f rom t he s ettlement ; p erhaps f rom a round Z okirogi o r K odo w ithin a r adius o f l ess t han 1 0 m iles . I ron o re w ould a lso h ave b een v ery s ignificant, e ither i n t he f orm o f m agnetite o r o f l ateritic c rust . T he a rea i s r ich i n c lay c ontaining a ppreciable a mounts o f k aolin . T races o f c opper m inerals c halcopyrites, b ornite a nd m alachite, w ere f ound i n t he r ocks o f t he Z ungeru s iliceous s chist ( A jibade , 1 971 , 8 9) . S and o ccuring i n f luvial d eposits a nd s tone p rovide b uilding m aterials i n t he a rea a nd , i n s ome p laces, g ranite r ocks h ave b een b lasted f or t his p urpose ( A jibade , 1 971 , 8 9) . T he g ravel d eposit c onsisting o f r eworked b asal c onglomerates o f t he N upe s andstone i s a lso b eing q uarried n owadays f or r oad m etal. A l arge p art o f t he B ida-Tegina r oad w as m etalled u sing t his m aterial. T he s iliceous s chists, q uartzites a nd a mphiholites a round Z ungeru a re a lso c onstantly q uarried b y t he N igerian R ailways f or b allast f or r ailway c onstruction ( A jibade , 1 971 , 8 9 , 9 0 ) .
G eomorphology T he W ushishi a rea, i ncluded i n t he N orthern P lain, i s p art o f
t he
w estern s lope f rom t he J os P lateau t o t he N iger B asin . O ne m ajor o bservation h ere i s t he v ariation i n t he g eomorphology o f t he a rea a ccording t o t he t ype o f r ock i nto w hich t he V alley i s c ut . l t i s a n a rea s ubjected t o l ong p eriods o f e rosion a nd p eneplanation . S uperficial d eposits c overing o r o bscuring t he g eology o f t he a rea a re m ostly s and a s w ell a s a lluvium, l aten tes a nd g ravels. W ind i s b elieved t o h ave p layed a p rominent r ole i n t he o rigin o f t he s oil ( A j[bade , 1 971 , 5 ) . A lluvium d eposit
i s f ound i n t he C retaceous s ediments i n t he s outhwest
a long t he K aduna v alley a nd i n s ome p laces i n l arge s wamps a nd l owlying f loodplains . L aten tes o ccur o n s carps o f r idges a nd a re c overed b y w ind b lown s oil a nd s and .
T he l aten tes a re m ainly g ravels, r ich b rown i n
c olour , o f r ounded t o a ngular f ragments a nd q uartz c emented b y i ron o xides . A l arge d eposit o f p ebble g ravel o ccurs a round W ushishi ( A jibade , 1 971 , 6 ) . T he a rea
i s
m ainly d rained b y t he R iver K aduna,
n orthern p art o f t he a rea,
f low ing e ast-west .
s ituated
O ther i nte r mittent
i n t he s treams
a re P abugi, K atchikota, K odo a nd E wedo . T he Kad una r iver i s s tructurally c ontrolled, l ithology e xerting a s trong c ontrol o n i ts c ourse . l t i s d eeply i ncised i nto t he m etasedi rnents. I n t he g ranitic a reas, i t o ccupies a b road v alley . I n a reas u nderlain b y s edimentary r ocks, m eanders a nd h as l akes i n i ts f loodplain ( A jibade , 1 971, 6 ) . T he w estern p art o f t he W ushishi a rea r oad
f or a d istance o f a bout
i s
t raversed b y
1 40 k ilometers.
1 0
i t
t he T egina-Bida
T he K ano-Lagos r ailway
c rosses
t he a rea f rom Z ungeru i n t he e ast a nd p asses t hrough W ushishi .
I n
p laces t he K aduna r iver i s p assable w ith t he u se o f d ug—out c anoes a nd l arge g ourds . T he a rea i s a lso c rossed b y p aths o f v arious w idths a nd d istances, s ome l eading t o r ivers, s ome t o f arms a nd s ome t o n eighbouring v illages .
V egetation T he W ushishi a rea
l ies
i n t he G uinea o r W oodland s avanna z one o f
N igeria, c overing p art o f w hat i s g enerally r eferred t o a s t he M iddle B elt ( Fig . 1 ) . T his v egetation i s l argely d etermined b y r ainfall, a mong o ther f actors; t hus, i n t he n orth i t i s b ounded b y t he S udan s avanna a nd S ahel s avanna, r epresenting p rogressively d rier c onditions, a nd i n t he s outh b y f orest a nd m angrove s wamps, r epresenting m oister a nd w etter c onditions ( Udo , 1 970 , 17; M abogunje , 1 976 , 3 -5 ; S haw , 1 978 , 1 7 ; D elany a nd } 4 appold , 1 979 , 1 06) . T he G uinea s avanna r eceives a n a nnual r ainfall v arying f rom 1 000 m m t o 1 750 s i n ( Hopkins, 1 965 , 6 1; B urnham , 1 980 , 4 9), d ecreasing f rom e ast t o w est w ith a s ingle p eak o f r ainfall i n S eptember ( Udo , 1 970 , 17) . V ariability o f r ainfall f rom y ear t o y ear i s c haracteristic o f a ll s avanna e nvironments, i ncluding t he G uinea s avanna, w hich i ntroduces a h igh d egree o f u npredictability w ith w hich p lant, a nimal a nd h uman p opulations h ave t o d eal ( Harris , 1 980 , 1 0 ) . T he m ean m onthly n inumum a nd m aximum t emperatures a re n ormally 5 5 ° t o 7 0° a nd 9 5° t o 1 05 ° F r espectively ( Hopkins, 1 979 , 6 1) . M arch a nd A pril a re t he h ottest m onths o f t he ye ar a nd h igh d ay t emperatures p ersist
t hroughout w ith a g eneral c ooling e ffect d uring t he m onths o f J une,
J uly a nd A ugust ( Udo , 1 970 , w et s eason w hich s everely
17) . l imits
R elative h umidity i s h igh i n t he w arm h uman w ork c apacity i n t hese m onths a s
p eople t end t o s uffer f rom h eat s tress ( Harris,
1 980 ,
1 0) .
W oodland s avanna c onsists o f p lant c ommunities w ith a c ontinuous h erbaceous l ayer d ominated b y b unch g rasses o f C 4 p hotosynthetic t ype, o ccasionally i nterrupted b y t rees a nd s hrubs ; t he s tratum i s b urnt f rom t ime t o t ime a nd t he m ain g rowth p atterns a re c losely a ssociated w ith a lternating w et a nd d ry s easons ( Bourli re a nd H adley , 1 970 , 1 26 ; H opkins, 1 965 , 6 6; H arris, 1 980, 1 3) . G rasses m ost c ommonly f ound i nclude B eckeropsis u niseta ; Monocymbium c eresiformis; A ndropogon g ayanus: A ndropogon p seudapricus; A ndropogon t ectorum ; C tenium n ubicum ; H yparrhenia s pp a nd S chizachyrium s emiberbe . A l arge n umber o f s pecies o f h erbs a lso o ccur i n t he w oodland s avanna i ncluding m embers o f t he f amilies A raceae;
C ompositae ;
C yperaceae ;
Z ingiberaceae ( Hopkins, 1 965 , 6 6) . c haracterize t he z one i nclude t he
o rchidaceae ;
P apilionareae a nd
S cattered t rees a nd s hrubs w hich s hea b utter , B utyrospermum p aradoxum ;
A frican c opaiba b alsam , D aniellia o liven; b lack p lum , V itex d oniana ; t he b aobab, A dansonia d igitata ; T erminalia g laucescens ; H ymernocardia a cida; P terocarpus e rinaceus; L ophira l anceolate; G ardinia s pp; P iliostigma t honningli ; S tereosper n ium k unthianum ; B ridelia f erruginea a nd P sorosperum f ebrifugum . P ollens o f w oodland s avanna s pecies i ncluding B ridelia f erruginea, B ridelia m icrantha a nd V itex d oniana h ave b een i dentified T he
i n t he N iger D elta c ore a nalysed b y S owu r nni ( 1981 ,
i mportance o f p lants,
2 21) .
p articularly g rasses a nd s ome o f t he t rees,
t o m an a nd a nimals c annot b e o veremphasized . S uch t rees w herever f ound w ere o wned, p rotected a nd t reasured f or t heir v alue ( Harris, 1 976 , 3 26) . T hey i nclude t he s hea b utter, B utyrospermum p aradoxum , w hich s upplies k ernels f rom w hich b utter f or c ooking o r o il f or l ighting c an b e m ade, a nd a lso h as w ood t hat i s u seful f or m aking i nto b owls, m ortars, d ug -out c anoes a nd o ther t hings ( Forde , 1 955 , 2 5 ; C onnah , 1 981, 1 4) ; t he A frican l ocust
1
b ean , P arkia c lappertonia r ia : t he s kins o f w hich a re u sed f or d ye a nd f or i nk, t he p owder i n t he p ods f or s weetening, w hile t he s eeds a re a n i ndispensable i ngredient f or f ood w herever t hey c an b e f ound ( Forde ,
1 955 ,
2 5) . I ndigo c ould b e g rown b ut a lso o ccurs w ild i n t he w oodland s avanna, a nd w herever f ound i t i s o ften p rotected f or t he d ye w hich w as e xtracted f rom t he t ree b y w omen a nd f rom t he g rass b y m en ( Forde , 1 955 , 2 5) . D otted h ere a nd t here i n t he w oodland s avanna i s t he b aobab , A dansonia d igitata . T he l eaves o f t his t ree a re d ried, p owdered a nd a dded t o s oup; t he f arinaceous f ruit p ulp c an b e d issolved i n w ater t o m ake a r efreshing d rink o r a dded t o m ilk , p orridge a nd o ther f oodstuff a s a s ouring o r f lavouring a gent ; t he s eeds, e ither f ermented o r d ried , a re n utritious; r ope c an b e m ade f rom t he b ark ;
t he t rees c an a lso s upply f odder a nd b ecause t he t runk
i s o ften h ollow , i t c an b e u sed a s a w ater s ource e specially i n t he d ry s eason ( Owen , 1 968 , 1 974; C onnah, 1 981, 1 5) . I n s everal p laces i n t he w oodland s avanna,
i ncluding t he W ushishi a rea a long t he r iver v alleys, a re
f ound g roves o f o il p alm , v alued p rincipally f or t he o il w hich i s e xtracted f rom t he p ericarp o f t he f ruit b y m aceration ; t he o il i s u sed f or i llumination a nd a v ariety o f o ther p urposes w hich i nclude c ooking . T he o il p alm a lso p rovides n uts, t he k ernels o f w hich y ield a d ifferent t ype o f o il ; s ap w hich i s t apped t o m ake a n i ntoxicating w ine , f ibre , f uel a nd t hatching m aterials f rom i ts l eaves ( Harris,
1 976 ,
3 26) .
A mong t he g rasses w ere e dible v arieties w hich i ncluded t he a ncestors o f t he c ultivated s orghums, m illets, W est A frican r ice a nd f onio; o ther p lants a re t he A frican g round n ut, c owpeas, g ourds a nd a v ariety o f l esser i tems ( Shaw , 1 976 , 1 978 ; C onnah , 1 981) . V arious s pecies o f g rasses a nd h erbs a re a nnually u sed i n t he w oodland s avanna a s t hatching m aterial f or r oofs; m ixed w ith s oil a nd c lay f or b uilding c onstruction ; f or v arious t ypes o f m at; f or z ananet u sed f or f encing c ompounds; f or f iring o f p ottery a nd a s f odder f or a nimals . B urning i s a n a nnual t he p eople
( Egunjobi,
f eature o f
1 971;
H arris ,
t he w oodland s avanna, 1 980) .
c arried o ut b y
T his h as r esulted i n v arious
a daptations b y t he t rees s uch a s t hickened b ark , r eproduction v ia s uckers a nd d ormancy o f b uds ( Hopkins, 1 979 , 5 7, 5 9 ; H arris, 1 980, 1 4) . P rimarily , m an s ees b urning a s a n a id t o c learing t he l and f or c ultivation a nd t ravel ; t o d riving g ame a nimals f rom c over , t hus f acilitating t heir c apture; t o p roviding g razing a t t he t ime o f y ear w hen t his i s a t i ts s carcest ( Harris,
1 976 ,
3 15 ,
1 980 ,
1 2) .
T he a dverse e ffect o f b urning i s
c onsiderable , h owever . A lthough f ire s timulates t he r enewed g rowth o f m any s avanna s pecies, i t s everely d amages m any o f t he w oody p lants . B y r epeated s evere b urning , e specially i f i t i s b adly t imed , s oil i s a dversely a ffected , s ince t he a mount o f o rganic m atter a t a nd j ust b elow t he s urface b ecomes g reatly r educed , t he f ire m ay a lso c ompletely d estroy t he h erbaceous c over a nd i nduce s oil e rosion ( Hopkins,
1 979 ,
7 1;
H arris,
1 980 ,
1 2) .
B ut
t he o verall e ffect o f b urning b y m an i s t hat v egetational b alance i s b eing s hifted f rom w oody t o h erbaceous p lants a nd t hus i t i ncreases t he e xtent o f g rassy s avanna a t t he e xpense o f s avanna w oodland ( Harris, 1 980 , 1 2 ) .
F auna T he s avanna o f A frica, i ncluding w oodland s avanna u nder s tudy h as b een k nown t o s upport m ulti-specific h erds o f u ngulates a nd o ther l arge m ammals ( Boulière, 1 963 , 5 0 ; D elany a nd H appold , 1 979 , 1 06 ; H opkins, 1 965 , 5 ; C lark , 1 980a, 5 6, H arris, 1 980 , 1 8) . T he s avanna p rovides a n a bundant s upply o f f ood f or u ngulates w hich i n t urn l eads t o t he a ttraction o f
1 2
p redators
( Shaw ,
1 978 ,
2 0) .
E xcessive h unting i n t he w oodland s avanna h as r educed t he n umber o f m any o f t hese a nimals a nd c ontributed t o t he e xtinction o f s ome o f t hem , a s i n o ther z ones o f t he s avanna w hich p reviously w ere r ich i n m ammalian f auna ; i ndeed t heir t races a re m ainly s een i n a reas w here h unting i s p rohibited o r c ontrolled. A nimals c ommonly f ound i n t he N igerian w oodland s avanna i nclude P rimates: b aboon, P apio anubis; t he lesser g alago, G alago s enegalensis ; t he g reen m onkey , C ercopithecus a ethiops ; t he r ed m onkey, E rythrocebus p atas; S mall H erbivores: c rawshay 's h are, L epus c rawshavi ;
g ambian s un s quirrel, H eliosciurus g ambianus ;
A telerix a lbiventris; P rocavia c apensis;
g iant p angolin, M anis G igantea; a ardvark, O rycteropus a fer;
h edgehog ,
r ock d assie, g iant r at,
C ricetomys g ambia r ius ; g ras s cut t er/ c ane r at, T hryonomys s winderianus ; L arge H erbivores: w aterbuck , K obus d efassa ; k ob, K obus k ob ; b ushbuck , T ragelaphus s criptus; h artebeest, Alcelaphus b uselaphus; o ribi, O urebia o urebi ; r oan a ntelope, H ippotragus e quinus ; b uffalo, S yncerus c affer; g ri Fnms d uiker, S vlvicapra g rimmia; w arthog, P hacochoerus a ethiopicus; e lephant, L oxodonta a fricana ; a nd C arnivores: s potted h yaena, C rocuta c rocuta; w ild d og, L ycaon p ictus; A frican w ild c at, F elis l ibyca ; l ion, P anthera l eo ; l eopard , P anthera p ardus ; s lender m ongoose, H erpestes s anguineus; c heetah, A cinonyx j ubatus a mong o thers ( Dorst a nd L hndelot, 1 969 ; D elany a nd H appold, 1 979 , 1 -50) . T he s mall c reeks a nd r ivers i n t he a rea, p articularly t he K aduna r iver , s upport v aried f orms o f f ish , c aught b oth d uring t he w et a nd d ry s easons b y t he p resent-day i nhabitants . s nakes.
T here a re a lso nu merous e dible f rogs, t ortoises,
l izards a nd
A n O utline o f O ral H istory . T he W ushishi a rea i s p resently s ettled b y t he G wari, N upe, F ulani a nd H ausa , t hough t he o riginal s ettlers w ere k nown t o b e t he G wari a nd B asa . O ral t raditions s peak o nly o f t he l atest p eoples t o s ettle i n t he a rea, t hus a ttesting t o a s eries o f m igrations i nto t he a rea f rom o utside f or f arming p urposes, s tarting f rom t he e ighteenth c entury A .D . o nwards . T he f irst s et o f m igrants, k nown t o b e b e B asa a nd G wari, t raced t heir m ovements f rom P at, G unna a nd B asa i n t he M inna, K agara a nd K uta D ivisions o f N iger S tate r espectively f or f ar ming p urposes i n t he e arly p art o f t he 1 8th c entury . T hese f irst w aves o f m igrants w ere k nown t o h ave s ettled i n p laces l ike K uteyl, B ankwogi, K asakogi a nd G worojiko . T hey w ere a llowed b y o ther B asa/Gwan s peakers c oming f rom K unchi i n M inna, G unna i n K agara a nd t he K unu D ivision o f N iger s tate, w ho s ettled i n p laces l ike M adegi, G udu g i a nd G woji .
W ushishi w as f ounded b y a F ulani m an ,
M ohammed N agwamatse , d uring
t he j ihad i n H ausa l and i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury , t hough h e a nd h is f ollowers w ere s aid t o h ave m et s ome G wari w ho h ad s ettled i n K uteyi w hich l ater b ecame W ushishi . N upe s ettlements f ounded f or f arming p urposes i n t he a rea d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury i nclude M akunsidt, K odo , t hkoga r na a nd Y elwa . T hese
v arious
g roups,
p articularly
N upe,
G wari
a nd
B asa,
w ere
c onsidered t o b e g enerally h ighly s killed , z ealous a nd e fficient, a nd t o s how w ide t echnical k nowledge i n f arming ( Forde, 1 955 , 2 4 ; G unn a nd C onant, 1 960 , 7 4 , 8 9) . A lso , s ince t he s avanna h as n o p hysical b arrier a nd w as f airly o pen , t here w as g eneral e ase o f m obility ( Connah , 1 981, 1 6) . S o i t m ay w ell h ave b een p ossible t hat t hese s ettlements w ere l argely f ounded f or f arming p urposes, p articularly p erhaps, t o g uarantee a r egular a nd a dequate
1 3
f ood s upply t o c entralized m uslim g overnments b eing e stablished i n t he e arly p art o f t he 1 9th c entury i n p laces l ike W ushishi, B ida , A buja a nd K ontongora ( Mason, 1 969, 5 53) . H owever, f rom a ll a vailable e vidence, t here w ere p eople
i n
t he W ushishi
a rea
b efore
t he
1 8th
c entury .
T he
e xistence
o f
s ettlement m ounds i n t he a rea, s ome o f t hem s panning c onsiderable p eriods o f h uman o ccupation, a s n oted i n c hapter o ne a nd t o b e d ealt w ith a gain i n c hapter t hree, c alls i n q uestion t he o ral t radition o f t he r ecent h istory o f s ettlement o f t he m odern d ay p opulation i n t he a rea . T he a rea w as p robably o riginally s ettled b y t he K wa l anguage g roup o f t he N iger-Congo s ub-family , k nown t o b e w idely d istributed i n t hose p arts ( Greenberg , 1 981 , 3 02-304) ; l inguists b elieve t hat m ost o f t hese m ajor l anguage g roups h ave d eveloped , i n a pproximately t heir p resent a rea o f d istribution , o ver a v ery l ong p eriod o f t ime ( Shaw , 1 978 , 9 3) . W hat m ay h ave h appened t o t he p rehistoric i nhabitants o f t he W ushishi a rea w ill b e d iscussed i n c hapter e ight . N onetheless, i t m ust b e b orne i n m ind t hat m an a nd a nimals h ad t o a dapt t o a n umber o f d iseases a nd p arasites i ncluding m alaria, s leeping s ickness, r iver b lindness, k nown t o a ffect t he N igerian M iddle b elt, w here W ushishi i s s ituated , m ost ( Buchanan a nd P ugh , 1 966 , 4 1-55 ; G rove, 1 967 ,36-39 ; S haw , 1 978 ,93) . S uch d iseases c ould h ave d eterred e arly s ettlement o r b een r esponsible f or t he l ow p opulation o f t he a rea ( Buchanan a nd P ugh ,
1 966 ,
5 5) ;
b eing p art o f
t he
t ypical
t setse
f ly r idden a rea, l arge s cale d omestication o f h orses, c attle a nd i ndeed m ost o ther d omestic a nimals e xcept p oultry c annot b e p ractised ( Buchanan a nd P ugh ,
1 966 ,
5 4 ,
5 6 ;
G rove 1 967,
3 7) .
S ettlement P atterns a nd M ain S ubsistence M odes/Economy S ettlements i n t he W ushishi a rea a re d ispersed a nd m any d otted i n l inear
f orm a long
t he Z ungeru-Bida
r oad .
T hey
r ange
i n
s ize f rom D abbe
w hich h as a n a rea o f s ome 1 00 m t o 1 50 m s quare w ith 4 c ompounds t o W ushishi w ith a rea o f s ome 1 1/2 k ilometers s quare a nd a bout 1 50 t o 2 00 c ompounds ( Aiyedun, 1 978) w ith a p opulation o f a bout 2 000 ( Ajibade 1 971, 1 ) . T he p opulation o f t he a rea w as 9 ,066 a ccording t o t he 1 963 p opulation c ensus ( Population c ensus o ffice , L agos, 1 964) . T his w orked o ut a t 3 4 p ersons p er s quare k ilometer a nd t hus, c ompared t o t he m ost d ensely a nd m ost s parsely p opulated p arts o f N igeria, t he W ushishi a rea i s p opulation i n t he m iddle b elt o f t he c ountry .
o ne o f a verage
T he c ompound o r h ouse c onsists o f a n umber o f h uts w hich w ere a ll c ircular u ntil t he 1 950 's i n W ushishi a nd t he 1 960 's i n o ther s ettlements, w hen
c orrugated
i ron
s heets
w ere
i ntroduced .
N ow ad ays
t here a re
a f ew
r ectangular h ouses w hile o thers a re s till c ircular . T he h igh m ud w all o r t hatched z ananet s urrounding t he c ompound o pens a p ath o r a n o pen s pace w hich i s ag ateway o r e ntrance h ail i nto t he c ompound c onsisting o f a l arger h ut k nown a s K ata i nba . T he K atamba i s u sed a s am eeting p lace f or t he m en , a s ah ouse f or v isitors o r f or c arrying o ut p art-time i ndustries s uch a s m at o r n et-making,
b lacksmithing a nd ,
i n a f ew c ases, p ot-making .
W ithin t he
c ompound a re s maller p artitions i nvisible f rom o utside , i ncluding l iving r ooms, t he k itchen , t he a nimal s ection , t he b arn o r g ranaries a nd t he m ain h all .
T he w alls o f t he h uts a re b uilt o f m ud, c lay a nd g rass .
T he f loors
a re m ade o f s tones a nd f lat-laid b roken p otsherds o r o f p ebbles a nd b lack s oil . T he r oofs a re c onstructed o f g rass t hatch , b amboo p oles a nd r opes . N owadays
s ome h ouses a re
c overed w ith
r oofs m ade
o f i ron s heets a nd h ave
w indows w hereas t here w ere n o w indows a t a ll b efore t he i ntroduction o f i ron s heets i n t he e arly 1 960 's . T he l ife s pan o f m ost o f t hese b uildings,
1 4
e specially t he t radition. I n
l iving r ooms,
i s b etween 1 5 t o 2 0 y ears, a ccording t o o ral
t he W ushishi a rea, f arms a re c leared a nd b urnt d uring t he d ry
s eason . C ultivation i s i n m ounds f or r oot c rops, p articularly y ams a nd i n r idges f or g rains, p articularly s orghum a nd m illet, a nd f or g round n uts . A l arge h eavy h oe i s u sed f or t hrow ing u p t he m ounds a nd r idges, a s mall h oe f or w eeding a nd l ighter w ork a nd a l ong b ush-knife f or c utting t he g rain s talks a nd d igging o ut t he y ams ( Forde, 1 955, 2 4) . W ithin a n a rea o f a bout 7 s quare k ilometers, t aking t he s ummit o f K ongon M akeri S outh i n t he W ushishi a rea a s ab ase p oint, s urvey c arried o ut b y R ay a nd A iyedun i n 1 978 r evealed t wo c ontrasting l and u se o r r esource z ones . T he a rea t o t he w est a nd s outh o f B ankwogi s tream , c onsisting l argely o f r eclaimed m arshland w ith r icher , h eavier t opsoil n owhere l eft u ncultivated , w as p ut t o p ermanent c ereal c rop ( sorghum a nd m illet) c ultivation ; w hile t he a rea o f h igher g round n orth a nd e ast o f B ankwogi s tream a nd i n e levated a reas b etween z ones o f s easonal i nundation w ith t hin t opsoil, w as p ut t o r oot c rop ( yam ) c ultivation ( Ray , T he
p resent
1 978 ,
2 ) .
i nhabitants
o f
t he W ushishi a rea g row a v ariety o f c rops
w hich c ould b e d ivided i nto i ndigenous a nd e xotic. I ndigenous c rops i nclude g uinea c orn, S orghum vulgare ; m illet, P ennisetu i n t yphoideum ; r ice, O ryza g laberrima; g round n ut, A rachis h ypogaea; b ambara n ut, Voandzeia s ubterranea a nd p robably y am, D iascorea s pp ., a nd a h ost o f v egetables s uch a s o kra, H ibiscus e sculentus; m elon , C olocyrithis s pp . ; s pinach , A maranthus s pp . ; E xotic c rops i nclude m ai z e, Z ea m ays ; s weet p otatoes, I mpomaea b atatas; c assava, M anihot e sculentus; b ean, V igna u nguiculata ; b anana, M usa s pp . ; s ugar c ane, S accharum off i cinarum ; g arden e gg, S olanum m elongena a nd o nion . O n l inguistic e vidence , s ome o f t hese c rops w ere i ntroduced f rom e ither t he n orth o r s outh ( Nadel, 1 942 , 2 3 ) . N ames f or h emp, H enna o r c assava w ere b orrowed f rom H ausa a nd t he p lants t hemselves p robably w ould r epresent b orrowed c ultural c rops . T he c ultivation o f o nions w as i ntroduced i nto t he a rea, i ncluding t he N upe c ountry , f rom H ausaland a nd p artly f rom B ornu i n h istorical t imes ( Nadel, 1 942 , 3 ). N adel ( 1942) w as a lso o f t he o pinion t hat t hough t he y am i s w idely g rown , i t m ight h ave b een i ntroduced . R easons a dvanced b y N adel f or t his o pinion r anged f rom t he f act t hat y ams h ave n o p lace i n t he s acrifices, r itual m eals a nd f irst c rop c eremonies o f t he p eople, w hile o nly g uinea c orn a nd m illet a re u sed f or t hese r itual o fferings a nd a lso t hat t he p eople a re f amiliar w ith o nly a f ew w ays o f p reparing y ams, u nlike t hose i n t he r eal y am c ulture a rea w ho p repare t hem i n s everal w ays ( Nadel, 1 942 , 3 ) . T he b asic s taple c rops i n p rehistoric t imes i n t he W ushishi a rea m ay h ave b een s orghum , m illet a nd r ice . A ll t hese c rops a re g rown b etween A pril a nd J uly a nd a re h arvested b etween O ctober a nd J anuary . C rops l ike y am s, s weet p otatoes a nd c assava a re s tored o n t he f arm w hile c ereals s uch a s b eans, g uinea c orn , m illet, m aize, r ice, a nd c rops s uch a s b ambara n uts a nd g round n uts a re s tored i n h omestead b arns o r g ranaries . T hese g ranaries w hich s tand a mong l iving h uts i n t he c ompound , a re e gg s haped , r aised o ff t he g round , a nd s tand 7 f t . h igh a nd 4 f t . i n d iameter w ith c lay w alls a nd a g rass r oof . T he o pening i s a bout h alf w ay u p o n o ne s ide a nd h as a c lay l id .
T here
a re a lso c ylindrical o vens ,
5f t . h igh a nd
3 f t . w ide f or d rying b ulrush m illet a nd s hea n uts, a nd f or m aking s oap . T hese a re o utside t he c ompound a nd a re c ommunal pro p e rt y o wned b y t he w omen ( Forde , 1 955 , 3 2) . W omen a ssist i n h arvesting t he c rops a s w ell a s i n s elling u nconsumed f oodstuffs . A ll t hese v illages i n t he W ushishi a rea k eep l ivestock , e specially c hickens, g uinea f owl, d ucks, s heep , c ats, d ogs, a nd p igeons w hile a f ew k eep h orses, d onkeys a nd c attle .
1 5
I n t he p ast, h unting w as a p opular o ccupation o f m any o f t he v illages i n t he W ushishi a rea, b ut i s n ow b eing p ractised d uring t he d ry s eason i n o nly a f ew v illages b y s pecial g uilds o f h unters w ho u se t raps, b ows a nd a rrows, g uns a nd k nives a s w ell a s d ogs . A nimals k illed n owadays i nclude r ed m onkey , E rythrocebus p atas ; s quirrel, H eliosciurus g ambianus ; g iant r at, C ricetomys g ambianus; g rasscutter c ane r at, T hryonomys s winderianus a nd r oan a ntelope, H ippotragus e quinus , w hile i n t he p ast l ion , P anthera l eo a nd e lephant, L oxodonta a fricana w ere a lso i ncluded . T he b igger a nd s maller r ivers a nd c reeks o f t he a rea a re r ich i n f ish a nd v illages n earby t ake f ull a dvantage o f t his a s f ishing i s n oted f rom p laces l ike W utere, K wata, D abbe, G udugi, G woji, K wakwaji, B unugi a nd M adegi, a ll a long t he K aduna r iver . F ishing i s d one a ll t he y ear r ound w hen t he p eople a re l ess b usy , b ut m ore e ffort i s d evoted t o i t i n t he d ry s eason w hen l ess w ork i s d one o n t he f arm t han i n t he r ainy s eason . T ools u sed
f or
f ishing
i nclude
n ets,
t raps,
h ooks,
s pear h arpoons
a nd
d ug-ou t
c anoes . L arge v arieties o f f ish a re k illed i n t he r ivers, i ncluding t he N ile p erch, Lates n hloticus; l ungfish, P totopterus a nnectens ; s nakefish , T ilapia a nd c atfish , C larias s pp, t o m ention b ut a f ew . a ssist i n c arrying, s moking, d rying a nd m arketing t he f ish .
W omen
M ajor C rafts M ajor c rafts i nclude b lacksmithing a nd p ot-making . O thers i n t he p ast w ere l eather-working , c loth-weaving , m at-making , b ead-making a nd d yeing . C rafts a re c arried o ut i n t he h ome o r i n w orkshops c onnected w ith t he h ome a nd t he l abour o rganization i s c omposed o f t he m embers o f o ne h ousehold o r o f a n umber o f r elated h ouseholds ( Nadel, 1 942 , 2 59) . J udging f rom b lacksmith 's p roducts u sed i n t he h ome ,
o n t he
f arm ,
i n
h unting a nd f ishing , i t i s e asy t o s ee t he r ole p layed b y b lacksmiths i n t he e conomy o f t hese p eople i n y ears p ast . T he b lacksmiths w ho e ngaged i n s mithing t hroughout t he y ear u sed h aematite , a l ocally m ined o re q uarried f ron f erruginous s andstone . P laces w here s uch o re w as s melted i n t he p ast i nclude M akera T akunpata, Y emigi a nd Y akaji i n t he W ushishi a rea; e stimates o f w hen s mithing h ad l ast b een c arried out v aried b etween 4 0 a nd 1 00 y ears a go ( Shaw , 1 986, A ppendix 1 ) . T ools m ade n owadays i nclude f arming i mplements, h unting , f ishing a nd h ousehold i tems s uch a s g elma , l arge h oe;
d oje,
s ickle;
u ka,
c utlass;
m ashi, s pear a nd m asefata,
c lipper/holder . T ools n o l onger m ade i nclude a esthetic i tems s uch a s i ron r ings, e arrings, n ecklaces a nd b angles a s w ell a s d owry c ooking s tands . T he W ushishi a rea i s a bundant i n c lay d eposits a nd a n umber o f N upe a nd G wari s ettlements e ngage i n p ottery m aking e ven t o t he p resent t ime . p laces
i nclude W ushishi,
a nd l afiagi . V essel
B ankogi ,
K utai,
P asa ,
P ai,
B usugi,
G idan
S uch
T ukunyan
P ottery m aking i n a ll t hese p laces w as i n t he h ands o f w omen . f orms m ade n owadays a re m ostly e verted ,
g lobular
p ots
o f
t wo
t ypes, e ach o ccurring i n a bout t hree s izes n amely R anda , w ater s torage p ots a nd T ukunyan T uwo , c ooking p ots . T here a re a lso b owls, T ukunyan m iya w ith e verted r ims a nd s hallow b ody , a ngular o n b oth p rofiles, o ccurring i n f our s izes, f or c ooking s oup a s w ell a s an umber o f s mall e verted , g lobular p ots a nd s mall r estricted o pen m outhed b owls , u sed f or s pecialized f unctions s uch a s f or a blution w ater a nd a rabic i nk c ontainers ; f or c ooking h erbs a nd f or s toring m edicine o n r equest .
V essels
1 6
n o
l onger m ade
n owadays b ut w hich
w ere s hown b y t he p otters t o t he p resent w riter, i nclude T ulu, a w ater c ooler ; Y azo , a n e verted g lobular p ot w ith p erforations a ll o ver t he b ody u sed f or d rying f ish a nd m eat o n t he f ire a nd f or w ashing l ocust b eans a nd m elon i n s treams a nd k asko , a l arger n eckless, o pen-mouthed v essel w ith f lattened b ase u sed a s ac ontainer f or b urning c harcoal a s ah eater f or v ery o ld p eople . P otters w ere o bserved u sing a n umber o f t ools i n t he p rocess o f p utting f inishing t ouches t o t he v essels a nd d ecoration d uring t he m anufacture o f p ottery i n t he W ushishi a rea . T hree k inds o f t ools w ere o bserved t o b e u sed f or s urface t reatment . T hese i nclude a w ooden t ool, G ongola, m ade f rom p alm t ree b ranches ( measuring 3 -4 o n b y 2 0-25 a n ), f or s traightening a nd s moothing t he o utside o f t he p ots; M ara, a b roken p iece o f c alabash , f or s moothing t he i nside, e xpanding t he i nterior, f orming t he d esired s hape o f t he b ody a nd n eck ( these a re e mployed i n a n a nticlockwise f ashion ) ; a nd w ater-worn p ebbles ( 2-6 c m ) m ade o f
v ein q uartz o r s andstone f or s moothing
t he i nner a nd o uter p art o f t he p ot t o g ive i t ag ood b urnished s urface . T hough
v arious
t ools
w ere
u sed
f or
t he d ecoration o f W ushishi
p ots,
w hat w as p articularly a pparent w as t he u se o f a s ingle t ool f or m ultiple d ecoration . T he f ollowing t ools w ere o bserved t o b e u sed : S anda , ad ouble e nded, p ointed w ooden t ool, m ade f rom p alm t ree b ranches ( measuring 2 2 c m b y 6 r a n a t m id p oint), e mployed f or c omplete a nd n on-complete p erforation a nd s ingle a nd m ultiple g rooving ; S anda n yinwa k eremi, a t ripartite p ointed w ooden t ool, a lso m ade f rom p alm t ree b ranches ( each m easuring 1 a n b y 3n m a t m id p oint) h eld t ogether w ith c lay, u sed f or s ingle a nd multiple i ncision , d raw ing a nd d ragging ; K aran g ero , m illet c ob o r s talk , ( measuring 1 2 c m b y 6m m ) u sed f or r ouletting . B aphia p alm s eed o btained f rom t he p od ( measuring a bout 2 .5 c m b y 1 .5 c m) w as u sed f or a chieving c hecker b oard s tamping b y i mpression o n t he p ot i n i ts l eather h ard s tage ; M ara, a b roken p iece
o f
c alabash
u sed
f or
r elief
i mpression .
A c ombination
o f
a ny o f
t hese d ecorative m otifs w ith t he u se o f a ny o f t hese t ools r esults i n c ompound d ecorations .
1 7
C hapter 3 T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL S URVEYS ( T .S . a nd D .A .)
T he p urpose o f t his c hapter i s t o r eport t he r esults o f a rchaeological r econnaissances c arried o ut i n t he W ushishi a rea, t o a scertain t he l ocation a nd d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites, i n a n a ttempt t o r econstruct s ettlement
p atterns
o f t he a rea d uring t he E arly I ron A ge .
a rea, a s u sed i n t his c hapter , c overs s ome 8 20 k m t o 4 6 'N a nd f rom 6 1 ' E t o 6 1 2 'E . 9
0
0
T he W ushishi
a nd e xtends f rom 9° 2 3 'N
0
F ield S urvey B efore 1 985 S urvey i n t he W ushishi a rea w as c arried o ut b y T .S . i n M ay 1 974 a nd J anuary 1 976 ; b y M essrs O kobi a nd Q nokhodion i n J une a nd J uly 1 974 a nd b y M essrs K eith R ay a nd D .A . i n M arch 1 978. T .S .
s crutinised t he r elevant a erial p hotographs a vailable i n t he c are
o f t he N igerial F ederal S urveys, b ut t hese w ere n ot s uitable f or i dentifying m ound s ites o n t he g round . S uch s ites s hould b e v isible o n a erial p hotographs t aken a t t he r ight h eight u nder s uitable c onditions o f l ight a nd s easonal v egetation , s o e fforts w ere m ade t o h ave a s pecial p hotograpic r econnaissance f lown b y ac ommercial f irm . H owever , t his w as p revented b y t he d elay o ccasioned w hen i t t ook a m onth f or a l etter f rom K ano t o b e d elivered i n Z aria. F igure
2s hows
t he d istribution o f
r econnaissance c arried o ut b y T .S .
s ites
l ocated a s
a r esult
o f t he
I t c ould b e s een t hat a s a r esult o f
t he r econnaissance o n t he g round , at otal o f n ineteen s ites w ere l ocated a nd i dentified w hile a f urther t welve s ites w ere l ocated b y M essrs O kobi a nd O mokhodion a nd v isited a nd r ecorded b y T .S . T he s ites w ere c lassified i nto f our m ain t ypes, a lthough s ome m ay b elong t o m ore t han o ne c ategory . 1 )
M ound s ites:
t hese a re ' tell ' f ormations,
c reated a s a r esult o f t he
s uccessive b uilding o f m ud w alled c ompounds,
f ull o f
p ottery ,
w ith a
s maller n umber o f o ther a rtifacts; t hey s ometimes c ontain p ot b urials . I t a ppears t hat t hey e xtend b ack in t ime a s m uch a s 1 500 y ears, b ut i n s ome c ases
t here
i s e vidence t hat t heir a bandonment
i s c omparatively
r ecent ( Shaw , 1 986 , 3 ). T hey w ere l argely c oncentrated s outh a nd s outheast o f W ushishi a nd f urther n orth o n t he o ther s ide o f t he K aduna r iver ( Figure 2 ) . 0& 0N os. 1 -5, 1 2 .
I n t his c ategory a re T S N os .
1 -9 .
I i ,
1 2 ,
1 6 ,
1 7 :
2 )
D eserted v illage s ites: u sually w ithout m uch r elief a nd w ith r emains o f m ud w alls s till s tanding : p robably o f n o g reat a ntiquity ( Shaw , 1 986, 3 ). I n t his c ategory a re T S N os. 4 , 1 0 , 1 4 : 0 & 0N os. 4 , 7 -9.
3 )
S ites i ndicative o f i ron s melting : c oncentrations o r s catters o f i ron s lag ; t uyeres o ccasionally p resent, b ut n o f urnace w alls r ecorded ; i ron o re q uarries ( Shaw , 1 986 , 3 ) . 1 5, 1 6, 1 9; 0 & 0N os. 5 , 6 , 1 0 , 1.
1 8
I n t his c ategory a re T S N os .
1 3 ,
F ig.
2 :
W ushisi A rea: d istribution o f f ollowing p age .
1 9
s ites
1 t o
1 5
( see
l ist o n
4 )
C emetery:
T S N o.
1 8 i s t he o nly e xample.
A s ar esult o f t he r econnaissance c arried o ut o n t he g round ,
t he l ists
o f s ites g iven b elow w ere c ompiled.
L ISTS O F S ITES A .
S ites v isited b y T .S . , M ay 1 974 a nd J anuary 1 976 ( see F igs
1 .
R ef. T S 7 4/1.
9°4 3'15"N , 6°0 3'55"E .
2a nd 3 ) .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
C alled K WAYAGI i n 1 974 , b ut W OS F EISHI o r B ARIKI M EJIMINA b y t he s ame i nformant i n 1 976 . R eached b y d riving c . 0 .7km 5 o ut o f t he m iddle o f W ushishi a long t he t rack l eading t o G udegi;
t hence a bout 7 m inutes w alking
i n a S W d irection . S ituated o n t he b luff a bove t he K aduna R iver b etween t wo s mall t ributary v alleys . W hat a t f irst a ppear t o b e l arge m ounds t urn o ut o n i nspection t o r un i n c ircular p atterns, w ith d eep h ollows i n t he c entre . T he m ounds a re u p t o 3 -4m h igh , f ull o f p ottery , w ith a s catter o f q uartz f lakes. 2 .
R ef. T S 7 4/2.
9°4 4'OO"N , 6°0 4'05"E .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
C alled W OSHISHI i n 1 974, b ut G UDEGI b y t he s ame i nformant i n 1 976 . A bout 3 50m W o f t he w estern l imit o f W ushishi ( in 1 976) . A s y ou a pproach f rom W ushishi t he s ite a ppears a s a h igh i rregular r idge w ith a n umber o f c rests .
I t i s d ifficult t o t ell w hich i s m ade a nd w hich u nmade g round, b ut
t he a rtifically c reated r idge c ould b e u p t o 4 m h igh . I t s its o n t he b luff o verlooking t he K aduna R iver . I n 1 976 t he r emains o f t he o ld D .O . 's R est H ouse c ould s till b e s een o n t he h ighest p oint . 3 .
R ef.
T S 7 4/3 .
9° 4 1'20"N , 6° 0 3 '30"E .
N ot i ncluded i n D A s urvey
a rea. K ONGON R AFIN N DOKO .
C ut t hrough b y t he Z ungeru
t he 1 8km m arker f rom Z ungeru .
-
B ida r oad l OOm S o f
A ppears t o b e a s ingle l arge m ound ,
c ircular i n s hape, f ull o f p ottery a nd c ontaining p ot-burials . o f t he r oad t here a re t races o f a d efensive e arthwork . 4 .
R ef.
E IO 74 /1 .
9°4 2'45"N , 6°0 3'OO"E .
r oughly
O n e ach s ide
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
K ONGOM B I JNUGI . R eached b y t urning W d own a t rack j ust S o f t he 7 1km m arker f rom B ida, a nd p roceeding f or c. 1 km . T he s ite i s o n t he b luff o verlooking t he K aduna R iver . M any w alls o f t he b uildings, b oth r ound a nd r ectangular , s till s tanding i n 1 976 ; o ne l arge r ound b uilding h ad b eautiful i nternal m ouldings . I nformant s aid t his v illage w as o ccupied u ntil t wo g enerations a go ; s aid t o b e a f ormer G wari v illage u ntil t he G wari w ere d riven r iver. 5 .
b y t he F ulani . R emains o f d efensive e arthworks p arallel t o t he F lat-laid p otsherd p avement v isible t owards n orthern e nd o f s ite.
out
R ef.
E IO 7 4/3 .
K ONGON B ANKWACI .
9°4 1'45"N , 6°0 5'50"E.
D A l ocalities
1 , 2a nd 3 .
A bout 6 00m S W o f t he v illage o f B ankwagi ( Bankogi ) .
Ac ollection o f s ome s even e normous m ounds, b iggest n early 9 m h igh. 6 . R ef . E IO 7 4/4a . l ocality 4 ) .
9° 4 1 '20"N ,
6 ' 0 6 '20"E .
2 0
K ONCON M AKER[ N ORTH .
( DA
A bout
5 00m S o f
t he b ridge o ver
K achikota a nd K anko , o n t he E s ide o f s maller o ne t o t he s outh o f L t. 7 . R ef . E IO 7 4/4b . l ocality 5 ).
9° 4 1 'OO"N ,
t he R .
B ankwagi
t he t rack .
6° 0 6 'OO"E .
O ne
o n t he t rack t o
l arge m ound ,
a nd a
K ONGON M AKERI S OUTH .
( DA
R eached f rom K ongon M akert N orth b y c ontinuing S a long t he K achikota t rack o ver a s tream c ulvert a nd t hen s triking o ut i n a S W d irection o n t he W s ide o f t he t rack .
O ne v ery l arge,
i rregularly s haped m ound, a nd o ne
s maller. 8 .
R ef. E IO 7 4/6.
9°3 9'45"N , 6°0 5'45"E .
K ONGON K ACHIKOTA .
D A l ocality 6 .
J ust t o t he W o f t he B ankwagi-Kanko t rack j ust S o f
t he c rossing o f t he R . G abuko .
4 o r 5m ounds, n one v ery h igh ;
s igns o f a
d efensive e arthwork . 9 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/7.
K ONGON K UTAI . m ounds,
9°4 0'50"N , 6°0 7'15"E .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
A bout 3 50m s outheast o f K utai v illage, a g roup o f
r ather o vergrown w ith v egetation ,
o ne l arge ;
s aid b y i nformant t o
b e t he c apital o f t he s urrounding d eserted G wa d s ettlements. 1 0 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/9.
K ONGON W UTART .
9°4 4'20"N , 6°0 3'40"W .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
O n t he W b ank o f t he K aduna R iver o pposite W ushishi .
A bout l OOm S o f t he p resent ( 1976) W utarL v illage i s a l arge a rea o f d eserted c ompounds, m ore a s pread o f p ottery a nd o ther a rtifacts a nd g round i rregularities t han d iscrete m ounds . I nformant s aid t hat K ongon W utari w as a l arge G wari t own , d eserted a fter F ulani s lave-raiding f rom K o r itagora; a r emnant r eturned t o t he p resent W utari . T he ' bumps a nd h ollows ' o f K ongon W utari a ppear t o e xtend N a s w ell a s So f t he p resent v illage , a nd a bout 1 /2 k m f urther n orth t here i s a s eries o f n ot v ery h igh m ounds i n l ine N a nd So verlooking t he r iver , e ach w ith b aobabs, w hich w as r eferred t o a s K ongon T unga . T his i s p robably O kobi a nd Q nokhodion 's N o 2 , K ongon T uga ( Ref E IO 74 /10 ). 1 1.
R ef.
T S
7 6/1.
9
a pparently n ot m entioned K ONGON K WABUGI .
-
A t
0
3 9'1 0 "N ,
60
0 3 'lO"E .
I n
D A s urvey a rea
b ut
u nless i t i s h is l ocality 7 . 2 2
1 /2
k m a long
t he
B ida r oad
f rom Z ungen i ,
a t
T ungun M aito , t urn o ff o n at rack g oing E a nd f ollow i t f or a bout 1 km t o t he h amlet o f K utukwachi; l eave t his o n t he r ight a nd p roceed n early a nother 1 km e astwards . T wo l arge m ounds, e ach w ith a b aobab , v isible o n N E s ide o f p ath o n f arming l and ( 1976) ; S W s ide o f p ath o vergrown w ith b ush b ut a t l east o ne l arge e longated m ound t here . M ounds a bout 3 m h igh . S urrounded b y e roded e arth w all a nd e xterior d itch . 1 2.
R ef.
T S 7 6/2.
K ONGON G USA J JO .
9°4 6'OO"N ,
6°0 4'45"E.
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
O n W s ide o f K aduna R iver .
C an b e r eached e ither b y
c rossing R . K aduna 3 km u pstream o f W ushishi a nd t hen w alking c . 1 km N , o r b y g oing N along t he r ailway f rom W ushishi s tat o n t o t he b ridge o ver R . K utunku a nd t hen p roceeding a bout 2 km i n a E SE d irection . I nside a d efensive e arthwork i s am ound a bout 2 m h igh , a nd a m uch b igger o ne N E o f i t
2 1
a bout 7 m h igh w ith t wo b aobabs g row ing o n l ower s lopes; o n t he t op c an b e s een t he s tone f oundations o f r ectangular a nd c ircular c onstructions, a nd a ' ? s hrine ' o f s mall s tones s et e rect . 1 3.
R ef.
T S 7 6/3.
9°4 6'20"N , 6°0 3'40"E.
K I JTUNKU I RON S LAG S ITE .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
T ake t he p ath N f rom W utari t owards K utunku ;
s hortly a fter t his c rosses t he r ailway , i t t raverses a c oncentrated p atch o r i ron s lag, o n t he N W s ide o f t he r ailway ; n o t uyeres w ere o bserved. 1 4.
R ef.
T S 7 6/4.
9°4 6'25"N , 6°0 3'SO"E .
K ONGON K UTUNKU .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
T he s ite c an b e r eached e ither b y p roceeding c .
2 50m
N W f rom a p oint o n t he r ailway c . 1 50m S W o f t he b ridge o ver t he R . K utunk i i , o r b y g oing c . 2 50m E f rom a p oint o n t he W utari K utunku p ath a bout 1 /2 k m -
o r l ess N o f t he p oint w here p ath c rosses t he r ailway . A f lat d eserted v illage s ite n ear a c ouple o f r ocky o utcrops ; a n umber o f w alls o f b ot h r ound a nd c ircular b uildings, s till s tanding i n s o me c ases t o ah eight o f 2 1 /2 k m ( 1976) .
I nformant s aid i t h ad b een t he v illage o f a H ausa
c alled A liyu , a fter w hose d eath t he p eople l eft . 1 5.
R ef.
T S 7 6/5.
M AKERA . I c ounted a t
9°3 2'30"N , 6° 1 2'15"E .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
T his i s a N upe v illage w ith a s trong i ron-working t radition . l east 7 b lacksmith 's f orges, a lthough n one w ere a ctually i n
o peration a t t he t ime o f m y v isit . L ots o f i ron s lag l ying a bout . T he n earby h ill s aid t o h ave b een q uarried f or r aw m aterial f rom w hich t o s melt i ron . Ic limbed i t; t he r ock l ooks l ike f erruginous s andstone ( ?Nupe s andstone) . E stimates o f w hen s melting h ad l ast b een c arried o ut v aried b etween 4 0 a nd 1 00 y ears; n o o ne s till a live k nows h ow t o d o i t ( 1976). 1 6.
R ef.
T S 7 4/4.
9°O 7'55'N , 6°0 1'lO"E .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
Z I JNGERU-B I IDA R OAD , 5 2 m iles f rom Z ungeru . T he r oad c uts t hrough a m ound f or a bout 1 20 p aces s outh o f t he m ilestone ( 1974) a nd f or a bout 8 5 p aces N o f i t . T he m ound r ises t o ah eight o f c . 2 . 5m o n t he W s ide j ust N o f t he m ilestone .
T here i s l ittle e levation t o t he r emains o f t he m ound o n
t he E s ide b ut t here i s a s catter o f p ottery , a nd a c ollection o f i ron s lag n ear
t he s outhern e dge o f
t he m ound;
o n t he W s ide t here i s
p ottery
t hroughout a nd i solated b its o f s lag . I t a ppears t o b e a s ingle m ound a nd t o e xtend f or a t l east 1 20 p aces W o f t he r oad . Ap iece o f s moking p ipe w as p icked u p f rom t he s urface . 1 7.
R ef. B UKI .
T S 7 4/5.
9° 2 5'25"N , 6°O 1'40"E .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
A bout I m iles N o f t he n orthern o utskirts o f L emu a long t he r oad
t o Z ungeru ; m ilestone 3 3 o f t he Z ungeru B tda r oad i s i n t he m iddle o f t he s ite . T he r oad c uts t hrough a v ery l arge m ound, e xtending a bout 1 50 p aces -
o n t he S s ide o f t he m ilestone , a nd a bout 2 00 p aces t o t he N o f i t ( 1974) ; a bout 4 m h igh i n t he m iddle . M ound e xtends a bout 1 20 p aces o n W s ide o f t he r oad a nd a bout 5 0 p aces o n t he E , w here t he l ine o f t he o ld r oad c an b e s een . Eo f t his a gain i s aw hole c omplex o f m ounds . I nformant s aid i t w as a n o ld C wari s ettlement .
2 9
1 8.
R ef.
T S 7 4/6.
9°2 3'45"N , 6°O 1'40"E .
L EMU O LD B URIAL G ROUND .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
A f ew y ards W o f L emu v illage , o n t he
s lope
l eading d own t o t he s tream c rossing . P ottery a nd b ones c ould b e s een e roding o ut o f t he p ath ( 1974) . I nformant s aid t hat t his w as t he s pot w here t he f ormer G wari i nhabitants e xecuted a nd b uried t heir c riminals . T he Garis w ere s aid t o h ave b een d riven o ut b y t he N upe , u nder E tsu E degi, s ome 2 50 y ears a go ; L emu o nly r esettled , b y N upe a nd Hau sa, a bout 5 0 y ears a go. 1 9 .
R ef.
T S 7 4/7.
9°2 3'46"N ,
6°O 1'39"E .
N ot i n D A s urvey a rea.
L EMU I RON-WORKING A REA . C ross s tream b y p ath a f ew y ards W o f L emu , a nd t he a rea l ies a bout l OOm u p t he s lope t o t he N W . T he m ost s triking f eature i s a g reat h ollow r oughly o val
i n s hape ,
7 5 p aces
l ong a long i ts
l ong a xis a nd 5 -6m d eep , s aid t o b e t he s ource o f i ron o re . T his h ollow i s s urrounded b y s lag h eaps . T his i s O kohi a nd n okhodion 's K ongon F nigi S ana ( Refs.
E IO 74 /13 a nd 74 /14 ).
B .
S ites v isited b y M essrs O kobi a nd O mokhodion, J une a nd J uly 1 974. N one t u D A s urvey a rea.
1 .
R ef.
E ID 7 4/8.
9°4 0'55"N , 6°0 7'20"E .
A nother a rea o f
n ounds n ear K utai,
' i
K ONGON L OCOPO .
] t o f T S N o 9 ( Ref.
E IO 7 4/7).
G uides w ould n ot t ake T S t o t his s ite i n 1 976 b efore t he b lister b eans h ad b een b urnt o ff b y b ush b urning. 2 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/10 .
9 '44'50"N , 6°0 3'05"E .
K ONGON T UGA .
O n W s ide o f K aduna R iver i n n eighbourhood o f W utari . c haracteristically a rranged o n a s ingle p rofile ' .
C f .
' These m ounds a re
T S N o 1 0 ( Ref .
E IO
7 4/9). 3 .
R ef. 5 0
4 .
-
R ef.
E l IO 7 4/11.
9°4 4'55"N , 6°0 3'03"E .
1 00 y ds W o f f oregoing. E IO 7 4/12.
( EIO 7 4/10).
9°4 4'58"N , 6°0 3'40"E .
K ONGON K UTUKU. M ounds. K ONGON O FA .
M ound a nd d eserted c ompound. 5 .
R ef.
74 /17 .
9°2 4'45"N , 6°0 3'SQ"E .
' Take r ound o pposite L emu m arket,
K ONGON K USOMISUN . P ass m ile 2 a nd b ranch
l eft '.
M ounds, p otsherds, c owries, i ron s lag. 6 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/18 .
9°2 4'45"N , 6° 1 O'15"E .
K ONGON P ANZURU .
' A t P anzuru v illage t urn r ight . A sk g uide t o t ake y ou t o s tone o re ' . L egend s peaks o f t his a s a n i ron-ore q uarry. 7 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/19 .
9°2 7'OO"N , 6°0 8'55"E .
K ONGON G BANDU 1 .
' A t C bandu v illage t urn l eft u ntil a p ath l eads t o a r uined w all '. S ettlement s ite, i nside a w all.
2 3
Bankog .I
I '
T o Wush ish i
I N
I .
IL 4
I
L 5
. K assakog
/
E as t
/ / ‚ I
• } KaSsakog i Wes t
/
L 7
/
S.
/ /
L 8
I I I
/ rKanko
I
/ /
I
T 9 )
/ / LIO &
I I I
/ •Mo Qoro - -I I .
‚ Dab ir
:
o
B ido
i ks lsfs 5 1
F ig.
3 :
o f
t hi
or e . 1 ,
W ushisi
t o
.s r .d.
a re
l i ii..
A rea:
°
/
.-
_
/
Gr ade A R d
f lW) V i l lages
/
L 12
/ / /
dasako
_
-
T o
tJcnkuwog I
M an made R idge s -
S me . ) . • _( —
I —
•
G rade C R ood
WZ 1 Mourds-Locu e PED R i vers 2 I
ARCHEOLOG ICAL S ITES I N THE WUSH ISH I AREA ON THE BAS IS OF R ECONNA ISSANCE SURVEY ( 1985 ) D ISTR IBUT ION OF S ITES ( LOCAL IT IES ) 1TO 1 2
d istribution
f ollowing p ages ) .
2 4
o f
l ocaiLties
( see
l ists
o n
8 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/20.
9°2 7'50"m, 6°0 8'OS"E .
K ONGON G BANDU 2 .
' Branch l eft a t G bandu v illage o n t he r oad t o J iyako '.
D eposit o f
a shes o n t he l eft s ide o f t he r oad s aid t o r epresent a s ite f or f iring p ottery . 9 .
R ef. E IO 7 4/21. ' South W est o f
9 °27'30"N , 6°0 5'50"E . S om tnajiko V illage .
K ONGON S OMMAJIKO 1 . P art o f
i t n ow a p lay g round .
P ottery a nd d efense '. 1 0 .
R ef.
E IO 7 4/22.
9°2 7'50"N , 6°0 6'OO"E .
' North W est o f S ommajiko V illage .
K ONGON S OMMAJIKO 2 .
B ack y ard '.
A rea o f i ron s lag .
L egend t ells o f p eople g oing t o d istant p laces t o c ollect o re t o s melt o n t he s ite. i.
R ef.
E IO 7 4/23 .
9°2 5'30"N , 6°0 2'30"E .
K ONGON G IWA B I JKI J ABA .
' C ross B uk i J aba v illage a nd m ove a long f oot p ath f or a bout 3 /4 m ile . T hen t urn l eft o verlooking r iver v alley ' . a n d c owries p resent . 1 2.
R ef.
E IO 7 4/2.
9°4 2'30"N , 6°0 3'OO"E .
M ound w ith i ron s lag .
T uyeres
K ONGON R AFIN Y AU-DOKO .
c . 4 00m S o f K ongon B unugi ( No 4 o n T S l ist, R ef . E IO 7 4/1) . ' About 4m ounds c ircularly a rranged '. G rinding s tones a nd p ottery i n a bundance.
F ield S urveys c arried o ut i n 1 978 T he r econnaissance, c arried o ut i n M arch 1 978 b y D A a nd K eith R ay, c overed a n a rea o f a bout 7k m2 , t aking t he sum mit o f K ongon M akeri S outh a s a b asepoint i n t he n orthern a rea . T he o bjective o f t he s urvey , r ather t han l ocating s ites, w as t o a scertain t he c hronological d uration o f a s m any o f t he o ccupation m ounds r ecorded a s p ossible; t o k now w hich w ere c ontemporary , w hich w ere o verlapping , w hich s uccessive . S uch i nformation w as t o b e g ained b y m eans o f a n e xamination o f m ound s lope, p otsherd s catter a nd s eriation o f s urface f inds o f p ottery w ithout e xcavation . W hile v aluable e nvironmental i nformation w as g ained f rom t he s urvey , l ogistic a nd h ealth d ifficulties p recluded m ound s lope s tudies b eing s eriatio r i s tudies o n t he p ottery w ere s imilarly a borted .
c arried
o ut
a nd
F ield S urvey C onducted i n 1 985 F urther i ntensive a rchaeological r econnaissance s urvey o f t he W ushishi a rea w as c arried o ut b y D A f or a p eriod o f t hree w eeks i n J anuary a nd p art o f F ebruary 1 985, t o s upplement t he p revious r econnaissance . I t w as c arried o ut i n t he a reas s hown i n F ig . 3 . S ince i t w as n oted t hat s ettlement m ounds w ere n ot f ound f rom W ushishi u p t o B ankwogi v illage , a d istance o f a bout 4 km s outhwards, t he b asepoint w as m ade t he e xisting B ankwogi v illage. T he t emporary B ench M ark ( TBM ), ( Point A ) u sed f or t he r econnaissance w as a c oncrete b ridge c onstructed o ver B ankwogt s tream a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he v illage . T he w estern b oundary ( Point B ) o f t he a rea s urveyed w as o n
2 5
a b eari ng o f 2 70
°
t o a d istance o f 5 1 /2 k m , w here i t j oins t he W ushishi
-
B ida r oad . T he w estern s tretch f ollows t he W ushishi B ida r oad, m eander ing s outhwest f or a d istance o f 1 0 1 /2 t u n u ntil i t r eaches Dab iri ( Point C ) , d irectly w est o f B ankwogi s tream . T he b earing o f D abiri ( Point -
C ) , o ur f irst s outhern b oundary f rom P oint B ( contact p oint o f t he r oad ) , w as 1 90 ° . re m D abiri ( Point C O , e ast w ards, w e s urveyed t o 1k m s outh o f M aigora ( Point D ),
o n a b earing o f 9 0
°
f or a d istance o f 6 km , m arking o ur
f irst s outhern s tretch . F rom 1 km s outh o f M aigora ( Point D ), w e s urveyed o n a b earing o f 3 2 ° t o K anko ( Point E ) , w e s urveyed t o B ankwogi o ur T emporary B ench M ark ( Point A ), o n a b earing o f 3 53 ° f or a d istance o f 7 1 /2 k m , a long B ankwogi-Kanko r oad . I n t erms o f c overage, o ur n orthern s tretch c overs a d istance o f
5 1 /2 k i n ;
t he w estern s tretch
1 0
1 /2
k i n ;
t he
s outhern s tretch 1km ; a nd t he e astern s tretch 7 1 /2 k m ; t hus t he t otal a rea c overed d uring t he r econnaissance w as a pproximately 7 7 s quare k ilometers. T his r econnaissance s urvey w as i ntended t o b e u sed a s a f urther b asepoint f or f uture l arge-scale a rchaeological s urveying o f t he w hole a rea . T he r econnaissance b y T S ( 1978) w as r estricted t o t he v isiting a nd r ecording o f s ites s outh a nd s outheast o f W ushtshi a nd f urther n orth o f W ushishi o n t he o ther s ide o f t he K aduna r iver ; t hat o f R ay a nd D A ( Ray 1 978) w as a lso c on fined t o a n a rea o f a bout 7 k m2 t aking t he s ummit o f K ongon M akeri s outh a s a b n isepoint i n t he n orthern a rea . F uture r esearch b y w ay o f r econnaissance s urvey i s h oped t o b e g eared t o t he c entral a nd e astern a reas t ill t he Z ungeru-Minna r oad i s r eached , a ll s outh o f W ushishi, a nd t hen e ffort w ill b e c oncentrated o n t he e xtreme n orthern z one a cross t he K aduna r iver n orth o f W ushishi, i n a s ystematic m anner u ntil t he w hole a rea i s c overed. T he
r econnaissance
s urvey w as
c onducted a s a s traight-forward
s earch
f or a rchaeological f eatures, n otably s ettlement m ounds . T his w as d one b y w alking w est a nd e ast a cross t he l andscape b etween W ushishi B ida r oad a nd t he T emporary B ench M ark a long t ransects a t a bout 6 0 t o 8 0m i ntervals . -
S ettlement m ound s ites a nd o ther f eatures e ncountered w ere r ecorded , t heir m easurements t aken a nd p lotted ; t hey w ere f ully d escribed a nd p hotographed a nd s urface m aterials f rom a ll t he s ites w ere n oted a nd fr o t a a n umber o f s ites w ere c ollected . T he s urvey w as c onducted a t t he t ime o f t he y ear w hen t here w as n ear i deal v isibility . C rops h ad b een h arvested, g rass b urnt, a nd w e h ad f ree m ovement a cross t he t errain .
L ocalities D uring t he r econna issance s urvey , a t otal o f t welve s ettlement m ound s ites, e ach d esignated a s a l ocality w ere i dentified . A lthough s ome o f t hese l ocalities, i e . L ocalities 1 t o 8 , i n t he n orthern s ection o f t he s tudy a rea , h ad e arlier o n b een v isited a nd r ecorded a s s ettlement m ound s ites ( Shaw 1 976a, 2 ; R ay , 1 978 , 7 -9), t hey h ad a s y et n ot b een f ully d escribed , d ocumented , p lotted a nd d rawn a s w ell a s i llustrated b y w ay o f p hotographs, w hich w ere a ccomplished d uring t he p resent r esearch . L ocalities 9 t o 1 2, i n t he s outhern s ection o f t he s tudy a rea, a ll i dentified ,
a ppeared t o h ave r esulted f rom t he p resent f ieldwork ,
a nd w ere
t hus, a lso r ecorded , d escribed , p lotted a nd d rawn a s w ell a s p hotographed . T he t welve s ites a re d ocunented a nd d escribed b elow .
2 6
D ense s c a t te r
IA t t r ibu te sO b se rved o n T he i r
x
E
-
E
e i
E
r,
E
-
--
C
r n
i • : 1 • ri
t r
I C
r
2 7 c i
r ' i c
E E E
E
c I
2 8
T able
1c ontd .
I d en t if ied I A
c a I A t tr ibu tes O hser t i e sa nd A r chaco lo i
I -
=
>
z
> ?
‚
S haw ; O koh i & O t i iokhod ion
( I D
S i te i n d ica t ive o f i r on s me l t ing
C l -
9 °2346 'N , ó "O l '39 'l
I•)
9 °23 '45"N , 6 °O l '40 "E
-
6 °O l '40 "E
-
o 252s N
C '
-
S i te i n d ica t ive o f i r on s me l t ing ; Mound s i t e Mound s i t e
C '
R ead ing n o t t a ken
-
S i te i n d ica t ive o f i r on s me l t ing
V
9 °32 '30 "N , 6'1 2 ' 15 " [ -
S haw ; A iyedun
R esea r che r
-
9 °46 '25"N , 6 °03 'SO "E
9 °4ó '20 "N , o °03 '40 'E
Mound s i t e
P er i odS ur veyed
Two l a rge mounds , a bou t 3 m h i gh , s u r rounded b ye r oded e a r thwa l l a nd e x te r io rd i tch , p a r t ly e xcava ted , ' Kg spkoE i Wes t ' . Two mounds , t h e b i gge s ta bou t 7 m h i gh w i th t wo b aobabs , o n t o pc an b e s e en s t one f o unda t ions o fr e c tangu la ra nd c i rcu lar c ons truc t ion . C oncen t r a ted p a tch o fi r on s l ag , n o t u ye r e w e r e o b served . Af l a td e se r ted v i l lage , an umbe ro fw a l ls o fr o und a nd c i r cu la rb u i ld ing s s t i l l s t and ing i ns ome c a se u p t o 21 / 2m h e igh t i n1 976 . AN upe v i l lage w i th as t rong i r on w o rk in g t r ad i t ion ; a tl e a s t 7b l ack sm i th f o rge s , l o t s o fi r ons lag l y ing a bou t . V is i ted b y A iyedun i n1 985 ,c o l lec ted o r a ld a ta o n i r on s me l t in iL As i ng le m ound , a bou t 2 . 5m i nh e igh t , s c a t te ro fp o t te ry a nd ac o l lec t ion o fi r on s l aE . Ac omp lex o f mounds , t h e b i gge s ta bou t 4m h i gh . O ld bur i a l g r ound , p o t tery a nd b one s c ou ld b e s e en e r od ing out o ft h e p a th . K nown t ob e t h e s ou r c eo fi r on &e , a l a rge h o l low f o und i nt h e a r ea w as s u r rounded b y s l ag h eap s .
R ema rks
T ab le 2 S ummary o fS i te s l o ca ted i nt h e Wush ish i A rea . 1 974 -1985 ( P ar t I )
-
C ' -
r -
S i te s ! l . o ca l i t ie s
1 974
Mound s it e Mound s i te
9 '44 '50 "N , 6 °03 '05 E
9 °44 '55 N , 6 °03 '03'E
c- J
r-4
N
0
C
' C
o l
r l � Cl
TT r-i
r-4
ri
4 0
2 7
C
' C
r
ri
0 ‚C
C
r
1 974
N -
-
-
C
H C
Mound s i t e
t
O kob i & Omokh cx J ion
O kob i & Omokhod ion
0
9 °3'3O 'N , 6( ' 06 ' 10 " 1 ,
S i te i n di c a t ive o f i r on s me l t ing S i te i n d ica t ive o f i r on s me l ti n
CEOEOE CE
9 '27 '50 "N , 6 °Oô 'OO "E
9 '27 '30 "N , 6 °05 '50 "E
O kob i & Omokhod ion
OE
9 °27(X ) "N , ó °0855"E
0 0 0
9 °24 '45 'N , 6 ° lO15"E
OE O E
9 °24 '45 'N , 6 °03 '50 "E
R e sea r che r
Mound w i t h i r on s l ag , t u ye res a nd c ow r ies p r e sen t A bou t 4r nounds ,c i r cu la r ly a rr anged r i nd in i . s t ones a nd o t ter y i na bundance . Ag roup o f mounds , s c an ty s u r f ace s c a t te r
A rea o fi r on s l ag .
C oncen t ra t ion o fa s hes n ea rby r e p r esen t i n g as i te f o r f i r ing p o t ter y . P o t tery a nd d ef en s i v e w a l l .
S i te e nc lo sed b y aw a l l .
K nown a ss ource o fi r on o re .
P o tshe rds , i r on s l ag a nd c ow r ies .
Ag roup o f mounds c ha rac te r is t ica l ly a r ranged i n as i n gl ep rof i le . Mounds .
G roup o f mounds n ea r K u ta i .
E
Mound s i te ; D eser t c omppund Mound s i te ; S i te i n d ica t ive o f i r on s me l t ing S i te i n d ica t ive o f i r on s me l t in g
1 974
Mound s i te
,6 ( 0 )T2 07 — ' E -
N - 7 -
P e r iod S urveyed
a b l e S ummary o fS i tes l o ca ted i nt h e Wush ish i A rea 1 974 -19 5 ( P ar t! l j
T ype so fS i tes
9Ö 4O 5S
T
I -
-
o ' C
i
—
rr
1 .
z
c x :
DC
' C
0
0
0
9 °36 '3 ( ) "N , 6 °04 ' (K ) "E
A iyedun
DC V DC DC
Mound s i t e
C -
A iyedun
t d
DC
Mound s i t e
C '
R ema rks C omp lex g roup o fm ounds n umb er ing a bou t 1 0 , a s so c ia ted w i th a bou t 1 3b aoba t t r ee s , s ou th f oo to f mound e nc lo sed b y w a l l , s u r f ace s c a t te ri n c lude p o t te ry a nd s mok ing p i pe s , T h r ee gr o upso f mounds ,o ne o ft h e m ounds b e ing i n hab i ted d u r ing l a s t 1 6 y ea r s . F hree g roup so fm ounds , w i th h e igh to f a bou t 3 m . C oncen t r a t ion o fp o t tery . Two mounds , t h e m a in m ound h a sa h e igh to f4 m , P o t she rd p avemen tr e vea led i nt h e w e s ter n a r ea ;e nc lo sed b y ar i dge ( man -made ) i nt h e s o u the rn p an .
DC
Mound s i t e
A iyedun
Z .
Mound s i t e
C '
P er i odS urveyed
fS i tes l o ca ted i nt h e Wush ish i A r i b le 2 S un in iar o >
I -
-
‚C
4 1
A bout l OOm f urther e ast f ron M ound C a re t wo s maller, l ow , d ome-shaped m ounds w ith a h eight o f l ess t han i m , b ut s tretching f or a bout 4 Gm a cross . T hey w ere a ssociated w ith b aobabs a nd c ontained a v ery f ew s urface f inds o f p ottery a nd g rinding s tones.
T he a rea i s p resently u nder c ultivation.
L ocality 1 2 T his
i s a s ettlement m ound
9
0
3 6 '30"N ,
60
0 4 'E ( Aiyedun,
1 985) , p robably
n ot r ecorded b y S haw ( 1976a ) b ut d efinitely n ot s urveyed n or r ecorded b y R ay a nd A iyedun i n 1 978 ( Ray , 1 978) . I t i s l ocated a bout 1 k T i e ast o f L ocality i i, a bout 3 1 /2km f urther e ast o f D abiri v illage a nd k nown t o l ocal i nhabitants a s P wabugi . I t i s a l arge d ome-shaped m ound , w ith a d epression o n i ts t op a nd t wo s tanding b aobab t rees i n i ts n orthern s ection . T he m ound 's d epressed, f lattened t op i s s till p resently used f or t he t hreshing o f s orghum d uring t he h arvest p eriod a nd i ts n orthern p art h as t hree s tanding g ranaries, r oofed w ith g rass t hatch b ut s upported b y w ooden p oles o n t he s ides ( Plate ? ) . T he w hole a rea o f t he m ound a nd i ts s urroundings i s p resently u nder
c ultivation .
T he m ound
e xtends
f or
5 2 .70m w est-east a nd
3 8 .20m n orth-south . F rom t he d epression a t t he c entral p art, t he m ound r ises f rom t he n orth a nd w est t o ah eight o f 2 . 80m ; f rom t he w est t o 2 .2m ; f rom t he s outh t o 3 .3m q r id f rom t he n ortheast t o a h eight o f 4 m . T he w estern a nd t he n orthern s ections o f the m ound r evealed s urface s catters o f p ottery a nd a p otsherd p avement . O ther s urface f inds i nclude f ragm ents o f g rinding s tones a nd a f ew r ubbing a nd p ounding s tones . A t t he s outheastern f oot o f
t he m ound w as a m an-made r idge ,
e xtending
f or a d istance o f 4 0m , r ising t o a h eight o f i n a nd r unning e astwards t owards t he s tream w hich i s f lowing i n a n orth-south d irection . A bout
8 0m s outhwest
o f
t he m ain m ound i s a s maller,
l ower m ound
a ssociated w ith a b aobab ; t he m ou nd e xtends f or a bout 2 4m a cross w ith a h eight o f a bout i m i n a ll d irections. S urface s catter i s s canty a nd c onsists o f l ocality.
p ottery b ut
n o s urface m aterials w ere c ollected f rom t he
R esults o f S urvey A t otal
o f
3 6 a rc h aeological
s ites w ere
l ocated d uring t he c ourse o f
t he s urveys ( Table 1 ) , t welve o f t hese s ites l ocated i n a n a rea o f s ane 7 7 2 s outh o f W ushishi a nd e ast o f D abiri . T he l ocation a nd i dentifi c ation o f t hese s ettlement m ounds f urther c onfirms t he area 's g eneral a rc h aeological p otential, a lready e mphasized b y S haw ( 1976a) a nd R ay ( 1978) . T he a rea i s g enerally c haracterized b y t he s ettlenent m ound f orm o f s ites, a ll u sually l ocated c lose t o b anks o f i ntermittently f lowing s treams a nd a ssociated w ith s tanding b aobab t rees, r angi ng f rom a s ingle s pecimen ( Localities 1 a nd 2 ), t o a s m any a s f ourteen ( Locality 9 ), w ith t he e xception o f L ocality 8 w hich w as d evoid o f b aobab t rees . T hese t welve l ocalities w ere f ound i n t wo d iffering e nvironments o r e cological z ones: L ocalities I t o 8 , i n t he n orthern s ection a nd L ocalities 9 t o l i n t he s outhern p art . I n t he n orthern s ection , a part f r o n L ocality 8 , w hich w ns s ituated o n r ising g round , w ith a h eavily w ooded e nvironment, L ocalities 1 t o 8 , w ere a ll l ocated o n t he m argins o f a reas o f d rained m arshland, w here t he v egetation i s o f a m ore o pen v ariety, s uitable f or t he g rowing o f
4 2
s orghum and
r ice.
T he
s ettlement
s ites
i n
t he
s outhern s ection,
j e .
L ocalities 9 t o 1 2 , w ere g enerally l ocated i n l owlands a djacent t o t he b anks o f s treams w ith a n o pen e nvironment ( Ray , 1 978) , s uitable f or s orghum a nd r ootcrop c ultivation , e specially t hat o f y ams . I n t he s outhern s ection , a ll t he f our l ocalities ( Localities 9 t o 1 2) , a re e ither p artly o r c ompletely u nder c ultivation ; w hile i n t he n orthern s ection , a part f rom L ocalities 4 , 6a nd 7 w hich a re e ither p artly o r f ully u nder c ultivation , L ocalities 1 , 2 , 3 , 5a nd 8 w ere o bserved t o b e c ompletely u ncultivated d uring t he p eriod o f t his f ieldwork . A s oil s cientist a nd a b otanist w ere i nvited t o t he a rea i n
o rder
t o
o btain m ore
d etailed
i nformation o n
t hese
e cological
z ones ;
h owever, t he n ecessary f unds c ould n ot h e o btained a nd t hus t his c ould n ot b e a ccomplished . I t i s h oped t hat t his w ill b e p art o f a f uture i nvestigation i n t he a rea . T he s ettlement m ounds c an b e c lassified i nto t wo g roups o n t he b asis o f s ize/number a nd s hape . O n t he b asis o f f orm , t he m ounds w ere c lassified i nto e ither c omplex o r s ingle. ' Complex ' i ndicates a g roup o f s ounds w ithin a p articular l ocality i n w hich a djaceat m ounds a re m ore t han t wo . E xamples a re L ocalities 3 , 4 , 6 , 9 , 1 0 a nd 1 1. T he a rea o f t he l argest c omplex m ound ( Locality i) i s a bout 3 ,80Dm 2 w hile t he n ext l argest ( Locality 6 ) h as a n a rea o f 2 ,254m2 , ( Locality 9 , o ccupying a n a rea o f a bout 1 000m b y 4 40m a nd c ontaining a bout t en m ounds w ould h ave b een t he l argest , b ut m easurements o f t he m ounds w ere n ot p roperly t aken a nd s o i t w as n ot c onsidered ) . S ingle f orms o f m ound u sually r efer t o a s ingle m ound , b ut a t m ost n ot m ore t han t wo a djacent o nes i n a p articular l ocality , e xemplified b y L ocalities
1 , 2 , 5 , 78 , a nd 1 2 t hese w ere r elatively s maller .
o f t he l argest s ingle m ound i s a bout 2 ,80 D m2 i n t hcalit
T he a rea
7a nd t he s mallest
s ingle m ound , L ocality 2 , c overs a n a rea o f ab out 1 65m ( Table 2 ) . M ounds w ithin t he s tudy a rea w ere e ither d ome-shaped , i rregular i n s hape o r w ere a c ombination o f b oth . T here i s n o p articular c orrelation b etween s ize, n umber a nd s hape o f t hese m ounds . I t c ould b e o bserved t hat w hile s ome c omplex s ounds a re d ome-shaped ( Localities 6 a nd i), t he r emainder g enerally c ontain a c ombination o f d ome a nd i rregular s haped m ounds ( Localities 3 , 4 , 9 a nd 1 0) . A mong t he s ingle m ounds, L ocalities 5 , 8 a nd 1 2 w ere d ome-shaped , w hile L ocalities 1 , 2a nd 7 a ppear m ore i rregular i n s hape . T he a ppearance o f t he m ounds s hows t hat t hose i n t he n orthern s ection h ave n ot g one t hrough m uch w eathering c ompared t o t hose s outh .
in
t he
C ultural r emains o bserved t o h e p resent o n t he s ounds , i nclude p ottery ; g rinding , f urnaces;
p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones ; d aub ; p otsherd p avement ; r emains o f s hells, a nimal a nd h uman b ones; c owries a nd t obacco s moking
p ipes . A part f rom t he f urnace r emains, p otsherd p avements a nd g rinding s tones, l eft i n s itu i n L ocality 2 ; i n L ocal f ties 6 , 7 , 1 0 a nd 1 2 a nd i n L ocalities 3 , 4 , 5a nd 1 2 r espectively , o ther a rtifacts a nd t heir a ssociated a rchaeological f eatures w ere e xposed a s a r esult o f e ither r odent a ctivities, c ultivation a nd i rrigation o r e rosion . S uch m aterials w ere f ound i n a ll t he L ocalities e xcept 1 a nd 8 . I n t erms o f c ultural r emains, p ottery ( light a nd d ense s catters ) w as m ostly found, f ollowed b y r ubbing a nd g rinding s tones a nd t hen p otsherd p av nents; t he l east c ommon w era a nimal a nd hu man r emains, f urnaces, d aub a nd c owries . L ocalities 3 a nd 6 i n t he n orthern s ection a nd L ocalities 9 , 1 a nd 1 2 , i n t he s outhern s ection o f t he a rea u nder s tudy h ad s a r i-made r idges, r unning F or a d istance r anging F rom 4 0m t o 1 50m ; a ll s eem t o h ave b een c onstructed w ith t urf, a nd t o s tretch t hrough t o a s tream a nd u sually t o e nclose a p art o f t h m ounds . T he c ircumstances b ehind t he c onstruction o f t hese m an-made
r idges i s n ot k nown a t t h m oment, b ut a t l east, t hey f orm p art o f t he s ettlement p attern s trategy a nd e xtend o ur k nowledge o f t he d istribution o f w alls i n t he a rea . A s
p reviously n oted b y S haw ( 1977a,
1 ) ,
i t
i s
v ery d ifficult t o
a scertain w hether t he e ntire h eight o f t he m ounds i s m ade u p o f c ultural d eposit o r w hether t hey w ere s itting o n t op o f an atural r idge, a nd h ad b een a dded t o a n e xisting t opographical f eature ( see C hapter 5 ) . I t s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat t wo o f t he m ounds i i i t he s outhern s ection o f a rea, L ocalities 1 0 a nd 1 2 a r p resently o ccupied . T here i s a lso o f L ocality 7 , w here i rrigation w ork h ad e xposed a l arge a rea o f a t t he n ortheastern s ection r evealing c ultural d eposits o f a bout
t he s tudy t he c ase t he m ound 2 m d eep ,
i ncluding h uman r emains . T he p it d ug b y l ocal i nhabitants a t t he e astern s ection o f M ound C i n L ocality 1 0 a lso r eveals c ultural d eposits t o a d epth o f 1 .5m ; c ultural m aterials, i ncluding g ravel f loorings, a h earth, p otsherds a nd c harcoal c an b e s een i n s ection . I t i s m ost p robably , t hen , t hat t hese c ategories o f m ounds w ere m ade u p o f c ollapsed m ud w alls w hich r epresent a c onsiderable p eriod n oted f or s ome o f t he m ounds .
o f
o ccupation a s
S haw
( 1976 ,
)r ightly
S ite S election f or E xcavation T he r econnaissance s urvey o f t he W ushish[ a rea, c arried o ut f rom B ankwoji a s b asepoint, f urther h ighlighted t he a rchaeological p otential o f t he a rea . I n t his r egard , t he m ost i mportant l ocalities f or f uther s tudy , a nd p articularly f or e xcavation , a re L ocalities 6 , 7 , 1 0 a nd 1 2 . P art o f t he m ound i n L ocality 1 0 i s p resently o ccupied , t hus e xcavation w ould r escue e vidence b efore m ore c ultural m aterials a re d estroyed . S urface f inds i n t hese f our l isted l ocalities c onsist o f d ense s catters o f p ottery , p otsherd p avement a nd f rag me nts o f g rinding s tones, t o m ention b ut a f ew . T he p it b eing d ug b y l ocal i nhabitants i n L ocality 1 0 h ad r evealed i n s ection f looring , ah earth a nd c harcoal .
P eople p resently i nhabiting t he a re a c ould
r eadily s upply o ral i nformation . T he e xposed p art o f L ocality 7 s hows a c oncentration o f p otsherds, p ounding s tones a nd t wo h uman b urials . T he e xposed p art o f M ound A , L ocality 6 , b ut b y t he B ankogi—Kanko r oad a lso , r evealed c owries a nd t obacco s moking p ipes a mong o ther c ultural M ounds i n a ll t hese F our l ocalities h ave h eights n ot e xceeding 3 m .
r emain s .
C hapter 4 T HE E XCAVATIONS ( T.S . a nd D .A .)
F our s ites w ere s elected f or e xcavation ;
R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri
e xcavated b y T .S . d uring t he 1 976/77/78 d ry s easons, K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast e xcavated b y D .A . i n N ovember a nd D ecember 1 985 .
S ection 1 T he E xcavation o f R af i n N doko ( T.S .) D etails
o f
t he
s ite
o f
K ongon R afin N doko
n ear t he N doko S tream ' ) , r eferred t o a s g iven o n p age 2 0 i n C hapter 3 . I t
w as
c hosen b ecause,
R af i n
o n t he h ighest
( ' The D eserted
N doko
p art
o f
f or
S ettlement
c onvenience ,
a re
t he m ound o n t he w est
s ide o f t he r oad c lose t o t he e dge o f t he r oad c utting , o n t he s urface w as f ound a c oncentrated s catter o f s mall q uartz f lakes w hich r esembled l ate S tone A ge h andywork, n ot j ust s palls f rom t he l ater u se o f q uartz h ammerstones; a nd a lso s ome s mall t erracotta f igurines. T he m ain e xcavation w as c arried o ut f rom 1 3 J anuary t o 1 9th F ebruary S ubsidiary e xcavation t ook p lace f rom 9 t o 2 1 D ecember, 1 976 .
1 976 .
T he C uttings F ig.
4 s hows
t he c onfiguration o f
t he m ound a nd
t he
p osition o f
c uttings e xcavated i n i t . I t w as n ot c lear f rom s urface i nspection w hether t he w hole m ound w as a ccounted f or b y o ccupation d ebris a ccumulating o n a c omparatively f lat s urface o r w hether t he m ound a ccumulation d ebris w as s itting o n t op o f a n atural e minence . S urvey a nd e xcavation s howed t hat i n f act t he l atter w as t he c ase : o ccupation d ebris h ad a ccumulated u p t o a h eight o f 2m etres o n t op o f t he w estern e nd o f a n i rregularly-shaped n atural r idge . I t w as n ot p ossible i n t he t ime a vailable t o d etermine m ore t han r oughly t he l imits o f t he o ccupation a rea, b ut s urface i ndications w ere t hat i t w as o f t he o rder o f 1h ectare . T here w ere t wo l ow b anks r u n ni ng n orth a nd s outh a cross t he r idge: t hat o n t he w est s ide o f t he o ccupation a rea w as s ome 3 )r n l ong ; t hat o n t he e ast s ide w as l onger , b orrow p it .
b ut
i ts
n orthern e nd h ad b een d ug a way b y t he r oad-side
T hree a djacent c uttings, I , I I a nd i ll, e ach 2 m2, w ere p lanned . C utting I I w as s ited i n r elation t o t he s catter o f q uartz f lakes a nd d esigned t o r each t he l ate S tone A ge/Early I ron A ge i nterface i f t here w as o ne . C utting I l ay t o t he w est o f C utting I I, a nd a part f rom a nything e lse, w as d esigned , b y b eing s tepped a s n ecessary , t o p rovide a ccess t o C utting EL C utting II l ay t o t he e ast o f C utting 1 1 a nd w as p artly ' in a ir ', a s
i t
i ncluded t he ' cliff
f ace ' o f t he r oad c utting ;
4 3
i t w as d esigned
1 0
2 0
3 9
4 0
5 0 P lan o f
METERS
RAF IN NDOKC ( IS 7 4 /3 ) 5 k ms c l WUSh !Sh C
ou r s a t r - me le r r i te rva Is , i n di c ai i ng h e;bs a bove t he o u t laf l ( on t h e W s i de o ft h e ma 1/4
C ue q i
o f
F eb 1 974
Gr ound d ug a nd i oÖ d .way
5
\
F ig. 4 :
R af i n N doko.
4 4
C ontour P lan.
a s ap otential e xtension o f C utting I T , o r a s a n a lternative a ccess t o i t i f i t b ecame n ecessary l ength . A s n ever d ug .
t hings
t o e xcavate t urned o ut,
C utting I V w as l aid o ut,
t he w hole a rea o f
C utting
I t o
i ts
f ull
t his w as n ot n ecessary a nd c utting I ll w as
I m xS m , d ivided i nto 4 e xcavation u nits o f i m
x2 m , t ransverse t o t he w estern b ank ( Fig . 4 ) . T he p urpose o f t his c utting w as t o a scertain t he m ethod o f c onstruction o f t he b ank , w hether i t h ad a d itch , a nd w hether i t o verlay e arlier c ultural d eposits, a s s eemed l ikely f rom s urface o bservations .
C uttings I a nd I T D igging b egan i n t he s outhern h alf o f C utting I I, i n 2 0cm l evels, t emporarily l eaving t he n orthern h alf u ndug . T he i ntention w as t o g ain a n o pportunity
a long
i ts
s outhern e dge a fter t he s outhern h alf o f t he c utting h ad b een d ug o ut,
t o
o bserve
t he
s tratigraphy
o f
t he
n orthern
h alf
a nd
t hen d ig t he n orthern h alf i n l ayers . T hus t he s outhern h alf w as a lways a l evel o r t wo i n a dvance o f t he n orthern h alf . I n o rder t o s ave t ime , o nly t he s outhern h alf o f C utting I w as d ug , a nd L evels 5 a nd 6 ( 80-120cm b elow d atum ) w ere n ot d ug i n t he e asternmost h alfm etre i n o rder t o l eave a n a ccess s tep ; s imilarly a fter e very 2 f urther l evels, a nother h alf-metre l ength w as l eft u ndug , t o f orm a s eries o f s teps g iving a ccess t o t he l owest l evels o f C utting I I ( Fig .
5 a ) .
S tratigraphy T he s tratigraphy r evealed b y C uttings I a nd I T c an b e s een i n F ig . 5 a . I n l ooking a t t he s ection d rawing i t s hould b e r emembered t hat t he r ighth and h alf ( the s outh f ace o f C utting I a nd I I) i s r eally a t r ight a ngles t o t he n ext 2 m etres ( the e ast f ace o f C utting I I), w hich i n t urn i s a t r ight a ngles t o t he l eft-hand s ection ( the n orth f ace o f C utting I I) ; t he ' real ' s ituation c an b e a ppreciated b y f olding t he p aper a ccordingly, o r b y p icturing i t s o f olded . T he w ay t he s ection d rawings a re j oined t ogeher o n t he p age h as t he e ffect o f ' opening o ut ', a s i t w ere , t hree a djacent s ides o f t he c uttings a nd p utting t hem i n a s ingle p lane . T his h as t he a dvantage o f h elping t o m ake c lear t he s ituation o f P its 1 a nd 2 . T he b asic s tratigraphy r evealed d ownwards, w as a s f ollows:-
i n
C uttings
I a nd
I T,
f rom
t he
t op
l ayer 1 .
R ed r ubble d ug o ut f rom t he r oad c utting a nd t hrown u p o nto t he m ound: 1 2-35 c m t hick.
I a.
R ed s and,
p robably t he f irst m aterial t hrown u p o nto t he m ound i n
m aking t he r oad c utting : 2 .
0 -15cm t hick .
T he o ld s urface s oil o n t he m ound, g reyish a t t he t op:
5 -30cm
t hick. 3 .
R eddish s oil w ith s mall c oncretions, c ontaining c ultural m aterials: 2 5-27cm t hick.
4 5
4 6
E U
s oil
R eddish
w ith
w ith
s oil,
much
small
a t
top
c harcoal
c oncretions
greyish
S ection d rawings o f t he S f ace o f C utting I a nd S , E ,
s oil
s urface
R eddish
O ld
a shy
f ull
s oil
o f c harcoal
a nd N f ace o f C utting I I .
s oil
c layey s oil
g rey,
g rey,
R eddish
L ight
D ark
S andy s oil
' J )
I I
I
• •
-
••
I
II
I I I I I
I
I
II II I I
I I I I
jI I
I
I
C
Z z
0
0
n
4 7
‚
C.
L ight
r eddish-brown
S ection d raw ing o f t he S f ace o f C utting
r eddish-brown,
l ight
P otsherd
&
c harcoal
s mall p ebbles
Y ellowish g ravel
I i
H omogenous
I II
B urnt
I
c lay
L ine o f
I
P inkish w ith p ieces o f m ud w all
s andy
I I
L oose g rey
UWIXC AVATI 0
I I I
E
N
S
W
F ig. 6 :
R af i n N doko . P lan o f C utting I I o n t he c ompletion o f L evel s howing t he o utline o f P its 1 a nd 2 .
I
i netra
4 8
1 2 ,
4 .
H ard r eddish s oil w ith m uch c harcoal, s ome c ultural m aterial:
5 0-
6 0cm t hick. I t
i s
l ikely t hat t he b ulk o f t he m aterial i n L ayers 3 a nd 4 i s f rom
c ollapsed e arth w alls, s ubsequently c ompacted . c ompact r eddish s ubsoil . T wo
p its b ecame o bservable
i n C utting I I ,
B elow L ayer 4 w as t he h ard ,
d ug i nto t he s ubsoil
( Fig .
5 a ) . T he h orizontal p lan o f t hese p its w as n ot i nitially r ecognized i n t he c ourse o f d igging, b ut w hen t heir e xistence b ecame c lear f rom a s crutiny o f t he n orth , e ast a nd s outh s ections o f C utting I I , t hey w ere d esignated P its Ia nd 2 , t reated a s s eparate s tratigraphical u nits a nd t heir l ower c ontents e xcavated a nd t reated a s s uch . T he p lan o f P it 2 w as o bserved i n t he f loor o f t he c utting a t t he b ottom o f L evel 1 2 , e xtending l ess t han 2 5cm o ut f rom t he s outh f ace a nd s uggesting t hat w e u ncovered l ess t han a t enth o f i t . T he o utlines o f P it 1 w ere a lso o bserved i n t he f loor o f L evel 1 2 i n t he s outh h alf o f C utting I I , a nd a lso a t t he s ame l evel i n t he n orth h alf . T his s uggested a r oughly c ircular p it a pproximately 1 . 5m i n d iameter, a nd t hat w e e xcavated 3 /4 o f i ts c ontents . P it 1 , i n t he n ortheast c orner o f C utting I I , e xtended t o a d epth o f 1 . 75m ; P it 2 i n t he s outheast c orner, t o a d epth o f 2 . 5m . I n D ecember
1 976 ,
a f urther 8 0cm w as d ug i n C utting I I t o a d epth o f
3 . 60m t o a scertain a nd c onfirm w hether t he n atural u ndisturbed l evel w as a ctually r eached . N o c ultural m aterial a ppeared , a nd b elow 3 .00m i t w as o bservable t hat t he s ubsoil b ecame i ncreasingly m ottled .
F inds i n C utting I I A lmost a t t he c entre o f C utting I I ,
t here w as a c oncentration o f e ight
r ubbing s tones a nd l arge p ieces o f c oarse , t hick-walled p ot e xtending f rom a d epth o f 4 5 t o 7 3cm ( Find R egister N os . 3 2 a nd 3 3) . S ome 2 0cm b elow t his t here e merged t he b roken t op o f a l arger v essel, o f w hich t he r emainder , a lthough b roken , w as a ll p resent a nd i n p osition ( Finds R egister N o . 8 2 a nd 8 3) . T here w ere f lecks o f b one i n t he m aterial f illing t he b ase b ut n o i ntact b one w as r ecovered, e xcept t he c rown o f a h uman m olar t ooth ; f lotation s amples w ere t aken f rom t his m aterial . T he b ase r ested a t a d epth o f 1 .45m . T his p ot d id n ot a ppear t o b e s et i n a p it, b ut t o b e c losely e mbedded i n t he s urrounding e arth . I t w as n ot a ssociated w ith P its 1a nd 2 , w hich w ere i n ad ifferent p osition a nd b egan a t a l ower d epth . I t w as n oticeable t hat t here w as m ore c harcoal i n t he e arth i n w hich t he p ot w as s et t han i n t he i nf i ll o f t he p ot i tself .
C utting I V T he s ection a long t he s outh f ace o f C utting I V c an b e s een i n F ig . 5 6 .
T he
t rench w as i m w ide, a nd i t w ill b e o bserved t hat i t w as d ivided i nto f our e xcavation u nits 2 m l ong , d esignated f rom t he w estern e nd A , B , C a nd D . P late 4 s hows t he c utting a t t he e nd o f t he e xcavation , a nd g ives s ome i dea o f t he c onfiguration o f t he b ank . T he c utting e stablished t hat t here w as n o d itch o n e ither s ide o f t he b ank , a nd t hat t he w estern , o r o uter h alf o f i t m erely c onsisted o f a d ump o f l oose , g rey , s andy m aterial ; t his t ype o f m aterial a lso s pread o ut o n t he w est s ide o f t he b ank , t o a d epth o f a bout 1 5cm , a s f ar a s t he w est e nd o f
4 9
t he c utting ;
i t a lso u nderlay t he m aterial o f t he e astern h alf o f t he b ank ,
w hich c ontrasted w ith t he w estern h alf i n b eing p inkish-grey i n c olour a nd i n c ontaining p ieces o f m ud w all . I t l ooks a s i f o riginally a v ertical w all w as b uilt ( which u ltimately c ollapsed i n a n e asterly d irection ), m aterial o n i ts w estern s ide w as s craped u p a nd b anked a gainst i t .
a nd T he
u nderlying l oose, g rey , s andy m aterial r ested u pon a l ine o f s mall p ebbles, p robably r epresenting a n e rosion s urface . T his s uggests t hat t he s ettlement w hose d eposits u nderlay t he l ine o f p ebbles h ad b een a bandoned s ome t ime b efore t he w all/bank w as m ade . B elow t he e rosion s urface w as a h omogeneous r eddish-brown d eposit, c omparable t o t hat e ncountered i n C utting I I, a nd p erhaps r epresenting c ollapsed e arth w alls . I t c ontained p lentiful c ultural m aterials a nd p roduced a r adiocarbon d ate o f a d 1 055± 8 0 ;
i t i ncluded a s pread o f r ubbing
s tones a nd l arge p ieces o f p ottery i n L evel 5 ( 40 - 6 0cm b elow t he s urface) i n C utting I VB ( Shaw , 1 986a , 7 ; P late 4 ) . I n C utting I VA L evel 7 ( 80-100c m b elow t he s urface ) f lat p ieces o f b urnt c lay , p ossibly f rom a h earth , w ere o bserved ; a d efinite c lay f loor e nded a t t he t op h alf o f a p ottery v essel ( Fig . 2 b ) . S ome 2 0-25cm b elow t his f loor w as a nother , e xtending o ver the w hole o f C utting I VA ; i t w as o f a n e ntirely d ifferent c omposition , c onsisting o f a l ayer o f y ellow ish-grey m aterial, a pparentify o f s ome k ind o f d ecomposed s tone, a nd i t c ontained m uch c harcoal. T here w as n o t ime t o e xtend t he c utting t o a scertain t he b oundaries o f t his f loor a rea, t o s ee w hether i ts c onfiguration s uggested t he f looring o f a h ut o r t he p aving o f a n i nter-hut a rea . T his l evel p roduced a r adio-carbon d ate o f a d 7 30+ 8 0 . C ultural m aterial c ontinued i n t he l ight r eddish b rown s andy m aterial b elow t his
f loor .
A lthough C utting I V a nswered t he q uestions a sked o f
L t
c oncerning t he b ank ,
t here w as i nsufficient t ime t o d ig C utting I VA b elow
L evel
I VC b elow L evel
1 0 ,
I VB a nd
8 ,
a nd
I VD b elow L evel
7 .
T he
u ndisturbed l evel w as n ot r eached a t a ny p oint i n C utting I V .
R adiocarbon D ates T hirteen C 14 d eterminations f rom C utting I a nd I I h ave a lready b een p ublished ( Shaw , 1 977a ; T able 3 ) . l t w as t hen p ointed o ut t hat t he t wo l aboratories c oncerned h ad b een w arned o f p ossible s ources o f c ontamination , a nd w hen t hese h ad b een s pecified, s tandard d eviations a ll f ell b etween 6 0 a nd 8 0 . T he d ates c overed a s pan f rom t he t hird t o t he s eventh c enturies
a d, w ith t he e xception o f o ne d etermination o f 7 0 b c ±7 5 . T his w as a d etermination b y o ne l aboratory o n as plit s ample f or w hich t he o ther g ave a d ate o f a d 3 25 ± 7 5 . A s t his w as a c omposite s ample , i t i s p ossible t hat t he e arlier d ate w as a ffected b y t he i nclusion o f c harcoal f rom b ush b urning s ome c enturies a ntecedent t o t he s ettlement .
I f,
t herefore,
o ne i gnores t he
7 0 b c d etermination , a pplies a c alibration c orrection t o t he o ther t welve d ates ( Switsur , 1 973), a nd t akes t heir i nterquartile r ange ( Ottaway , 1 973 ) , o ne a rrives a t t he p eriod f rom t he m id f ourth t o t he l ate s ixth c entury A D . I t i s p articularly i nteresting t o h ave a s ite s o f irmly f ixed i n t he m iddle o f N igeria 's ' silent m illenium ' . T wo d eterminations f rom C utting I V h ave a lready b een m entioned : o ne, f rom a d epth o f 1 . 20-1 .40m b elow t he s urface i n C utting I VA ( outside t he e arth b ank ) y ielded a c alibrated d ate o f A D 7 60 ± 8 0 , a nd t he o ther , f rom a d epth o f 4 0-60cm , g ave A D 1 025 ± 8 0 . I t l ooks a s i f r emains p reserved i n t he a rea o f C utting I V a re o f a l ater o ccupation t han t hose i n C utting I l, b ut i t r eally r equires m ore e xcavation t o d etermine t he r elationship o f t he s tratigraphy o f t he t wo a reas .
I t s hould h e r emembered t hat t he e xcavation
5 0
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c lassified i nto v essel f orms . T able 3 8 s hows t he d istribution o f p ottery c ollected a s s urface f inds f rom K ongon M akeri. I t c ould b e s een t hat a t otal o f 6 51 s herds w ere c ollected, d istributed a s f ollows: d ecorated s herds, 3 39 ( 52 .07%); r ims, b ases, 3 ( 0 .46%) a nd h andle, 1 ( 0 .15%) .
p lain b ody s herds, 4 1 ( 6 .29%); 1 84 ( 28 .26%); n ecks, 8 3 ( 12 .74%) ;
D ecoration T able 3 9 s hows t he d istribution o f d ecorative m otifs o n s herds c ollected a s s urface f inds a t K ongon M akeri. T he 3 39 d ecorated s herds c ontain a v ariety o f d ecorations i n t he o rder o f f requency: c ompound d ecorations, 1 06 ( 31 .26%) ; r oulette , 9 7 ( 28 .61%) ; g rooving , 4 5 ( 13 .27%) ; s tamping, 4 5 ( 13 .27%), i ncision, 2 7 ( 7.96%), p erforation, 1 8 ( 5 .39%) a nd r elief 1 ( 0 .29% ) . I t w as o bserved t hat c ompound d ecorations w ere b y s ingle/banded h orizontal g rooves, b ordering o r a lternating c ord a ccounting f or 2 5 ( 23 .58% ) , f ollowed b y s ingle/banded h orizontal b ordering o r a lternating r oulette, a ccounting f or 2 7 ( 25 .47%) . w as d ominated b y p laited c ord r oulette, a ccounting f or 2 9 ( 29 .89%) , b y c arved w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag p attern, a ccounting f or 2 5
dom inated r oulette, i ncision , R oulette f ollowed ( 25 .77%).
S tamping a nd g rooving w ere d ominated b y b anded h orizontal g rooves a nd m ultiple h orizontal c omb-stamping, s quare/rounded o r c rescentic t oothed a ccounting f or 2 6 ( 57 .77% ) a nd 2 3 ( 51 .11%), f ollowed b y m ultiple s tamping , m atting a nd s ingle h orizontal g rooves, a ccounting f or 1 5 ( 33 .33%) a nd 1 ( 24 .44%) r espectively .
V essel F orms T able
3 8 s hows t he d istribution o f p ottery c ollected a s s urface f inds
a t K ongon M akeri, i ncluding r ims a nd n ecks . I t c ould b e o bserved t hat a t otal o f 1 84 ( 28 .26%) r ims w ere c ollected , w hile n ecks n umbered 8 3 ( 12/74%) . D iagnostic r ims a cocu r ited f or 7 6 ( 11 .67%), w hile n on-diagnostic r ims n umbered 1 08 ( 16 .58%) . D iagnostic n ecks w ere 3 4 ( 5 .22%), w hile n ond iagnostic n ecks n umbered 4 9 ( 7 .52%) . T hese 7 6 d iagnostic r im s herds, s ubmitted f or
v essel
f orm a nalysis r evealed s ix m ain v essel
t ypes o ut o f
w hich n ine v essel f orms h ave b een r ecognized ( Tables 4 0 a nd 4 1) . v essel f orms a re s ummarized b elow .
T hese n ine
F orm 1 ( 1 s pecimen ) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile c urves s moothly t o j oin a g lobular b ody . T he s pecimen w as c ollected f rom C ollecting C ircle N o . 3 1 . R eddish y ellow i n c olour , i t i s f inely m ade , b urnished o n t he i nner s urface a nd h andsmoothed o n t he o uter s urface . R im t hickness m easured 9 mm , r im/neck j oint, 1 0mm ; b ody t hickness, 9 mm a nd r im d iameter, 9 cm . I t c ontained c ompound d ecoration o f b anded h orizontal g rooves, b ordering c omb-stamping b elow t he l ip a nd o n t he n eck o f t he v essel .
I t h ad a t apered l ip .
F orm 2 ( 4 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted
r im . W hile t he e xterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled , t he i nterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody . T he s pecimens w ere c ollected : 1 f rom ( 29) ; 2 f rom ( 34) a nd 1 f rom ( 40) . C olour r anges f rom y ellowish r ed ( 3) t o g rey ( 1) .
F inely m ade, a ll t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner
a nd o uter s urface.
T he h eight o f t he r im r anges
1 79
3 .1cm t o 4 .0cm ;
r im
T o ta l c ' 3
z_
—
—
—
—
= fN
—
01
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( contd .
)
K ey S how ing D eco ra t ion F r amewo rk f o r K ongon Maker i ( Wush ish i )l 'o i te ry R ou le t te I .C a rved r ou le t te 2 .F ine c a rved r ou le t te , h er r ing h one s t y le 3 .C arved r ou le t te , w avy l i ne 4 .C a rved r ou le t te , g eome tr ic 5 .C ob r ou le t te 6 .C o rd r ou le t te , p l a i ted / kno t ted 7 .C o rd r ou le t te , t w is ted f i b re s t rand 8 .O the r s
2 8 . C omb -s tamp ing , m a t i mp res s ion 2 9 . C omb -s tamp ing , Cf lSs ct055 3 0 . D o t o rP inch ing , mu l t ip le 3 0a . C omb -s tamp ing , s qua re t oo thed , c r ude ly made 3 1 . O the r s I n c is ion G roov ing 3 2 . 3 3 . 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6 .
S ing le g rooves , h or izon ta l S ing le g rooves , i regu la r B anded g rooves , h o r izon ta l B anded g rooves , i regu la r O the r s
R e l ief 3 7 . R a ised r e l ief w i th f i nge r i n den ta t ion P er fo ra t ion 3 8 . 3 9 . 4 0 . 4 1 . 4 2 .
C omp le te p er fo ra t ion , s i ng le N on -comp le te p er fo r a t ion , s i ng le C omp le te p e r fo r a t ion , m u l t ip le N on -comp le te p er fo r a t ion , mu l t ip le O the r s
9 .S ing le i n c is ion , h o r izon ta l 1 0 . S ing le i n c is ion , i r r egu la r I . S ing le i n c is ion , w avy l i ne 1 2 . B anded i n c is ion , h o r izon ta l 1 3 . B anded i n c is ion , w avy l i ne 1 4 . B anded i n c is ion ,o b l ique I S . B anded i n c is ion , i regu la r 1 6 . B anded i n c is ion , r e c tangu la r s haped 1 7 . B anded i n c is ion , t r i angu la r s haped 1 8 . B anded i n c is ion , d r agg ing /d r aw ing /meander ing , f i ne ly m ade 1 9 . S ho r t l i nea rb anded i n c is ion , o ne o r t wo r ows 2 0 . O the r s S t amp ing
2 1 . C omb -s tamp ing , s i ng le , h or izon ta l 2 2 . C omb -s tamp ing , s i ng le , w avy l i ne /ob l ique 2 3 . D o t o r P inch ing , s i ng le 2 4 . C omb -s tamp ing , r ound t o o thed , mu l t ip le h or izon ta l 2 5 . C omb, tamp ing , s qua re t o o thed , mu l t ip le , h or izon ta l C ompound D eco r a t ions 2 6 . C omb -s iamp ing , mu l t ip le , o b l ique 2 7 . C omb -s tamp ing , m u l t ip le , i regu la r 4 3 . C a rved r ou le t te o n o rb o rder ing c ob r ou le t te /co rd r ou le t te 4 4 . C a rved r ou le t te o n c ob r ou le t te /co rd r ou le t te , b o rder ing s i ng le/ handed i n c is ion , h o r izon ta l /ob l ique o rs i ng le /banded g rooves , h or izon ta l / ir r egu la r 4 5 . S ing le /Banded i n c is ion , o b l ique /wavy l i ne /hor izon tal / ir regu la r , b o rder ing o ra l te rna t ing c ob r ou le t te 4 6 . S i ng le /Banded i n c is ion ,o b l ique /wavy l i ne /ho r izon tal / ir regu la r , b o rde r ing o ra l ter na t ing c a rved r ou le t te 4 7 . S i ng le /Banded i n c is ion , o b l ique /wavy l i ne /ho r izon tal / ir regu la r , b o rder ing o ra l te rna t ing c o rd r o u le t te 4 8 C on ih -s tamp ing , r o und t o o thed / squa r e t oo thed ,o b l ique /ho r izon ta l , b o rde r ing o ra l terna t ing c ar ved r ou le t te 4 9 . C omb -s tamp ing , r ound t oo thed / squa re i oo ihed , o h l ique /honion ta l , b o rde r ing o ra l te rna t ing c ob / co rd r ou le t te 5 0 . C omb -s tamp ing , c r is s -cro ss o n o r b o rde r ing c ob / co rd r ou le t te 5 1 . C omb -s tamp ing ,c r is s -cro s s o n o r b o rder ing c a rved r ou le t te 5 2 . S i ng le /Banded g rooves , h onzon taV ir r egu la r b o rder ing o ra l terna t ing c ob / co rd r ou le t te 5 3 . S i ng le /Banded g rooves , h o r izon ta l / ir r egu la rb o rder ing o ra l te rna t ing c a rved r ou le t te 5 4 . C omb -s tamp ing , c r iss -c ro ss o n c ob r ou le t te b o rde r ing o ra l terna t ing s i ng le/ h anded i n c is ion , h o r izon tal / i r r egu la r /ob l ique 5 5 . C omb -s tamp ing , r ound t o o thed / squa r e t oo thed , o b l ique /hor izon tal / ir regu la r , b o rder ing o ra l terna t ing s i ng le/ handed i n c is ion , h or izon ta l/ ir regu la r /ob l ique 5 6 . C omb -s tamp ing , c r is s -c ro s s , b o rder ing s i ng le /banded i n c is ion , h or izon ta l /ob l ique w avy l i ne/ ir regu la ro rs i ng le/banded g rooves h o r izon t a l / ir r egu la r 5 7 . C omb -s tamp ing , r ound t o o thed / squa r e t oo thed , o b l ique /ho r izon ta l / ir r egu la r b o rder ing o ra l te rna t ing s i ng le/ handed g roove s , h o r izon ta l / i r regu la r 5 8 . S i ng le /Banded i n c is ion , d r aw ing /d ragg ing /meander ing , f i ne ly m ade o n o rb o rder ing o ra l te rna t ing c omb s tamp ing / rou le t te /g r oves 5 9 . C omp le te /Non -comp le te p er fo r at ion , s i ng le /mu lt ip le i nc omb ina t ion w i th o t he r f o rm so fd eco ra t ions 6 0 . R a ised r e l ie fw i th f i nge r i n den t a t ion i nc omb ina t ion w i th o t he rf o rms o fd eco r a t ions 6 1 . O the r s
1 92
t hickness
4 mm t o 6 mm ;
t o 9 cm . r oulette,
T wo o f t he s pecimens c ontained d ecorations o f c arved w ooden z ig-zag e xecuted b elow t he l ip a nd t he n eck a nd f rom t he l ip t o
r im/neck j oint 5 mm t o 8 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 6 cm
t he n eck r espectively , w hile t he r emaining t wo s pecimens w ere u ndecorated . T hree o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip ; t he r emaining o ne w as r ounded . F orm 3 ( 12 s pecimens ) . T his i s an ecked v essel ( pot ) w ith s lightly e verted r im , c urving s moothly o n b oth p rofiles t o j oin a g lobular b ody . T welve s pecimens w ere c ollected : If rom ( 26) ; 2f rom ( 28) ; 1f rom ( 29) ; 3 f rom ( 34) ; 2f rom ( 35) a nd 3 f rom ( 38) . C olour r anges f rom r eddish y ellow ( 4) , b rown ( 3 ) t o g rey ( 5 ) . F inely m ade , t hree o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining n ine w ere h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 6 mm t o 1 0mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 1 2mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 7 cm t o 1 2cm . T wo o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated w hile t he r emaining t en w ere l eft p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves b elow t he r im a nd b anded c urvilinear i ncision b elow t he n eck . S even o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded l ip, t wo w ere t apered , a nd t he r emaining t hree f lattened . F orm 4 ( 5 e verted
s pecimens) .
r im c urving
T his
i s a l arge n ecked v essel
s lightly
o n b oth
p rofiles
t o
( pot) w ith s lightly
j oin a g lobular
T his v essel d iffers f rom v essel f orm 3 o n t he b asis o f s ize. s pecimens w ere c ollected : If rom ( 30) ; 1f rom ( 33) ; 1f rom ( 38) ;
b ody . F ive 1f ro m
( 40) a nd 1 f rom ( 41) . L ight r eddish b rown i n c olour e xcept o ne s pecimen t hat w as g rey , t hey w ere a ll h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 1 . 2cm t o 2 .0cm a nd r im d iameter i n e xcess o f 2 0cm w ith t he e xception o f t wo s pecimens m easuring 1 8cm a nd 2 0cm . T wo o f t he s pecimens h ad d ecorations, t he r emaining t hree w ere p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f s errated g rooves o n t he u pper p art o f t he l ip a nd r aised f inger r elief b elow t he r im . O ne o f t he s pecimens h ad a b evelled l ip ; o ne w as f lattened ; o ne t apered ; o ne r ounded a nd t he r emaining s pecimen h ad s errated g rooves. F orm 5 ( 1 s pecimen ) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted
r im a nd a c onstricted n eck . W hile t he e xterior p rofile s hows a c arination b elow t he r im , t he i nterior p rofile c urves s moothly t o j oin a p resumably g lobular b ody . T he s pecimen w as c ollected f rom ( 43) . G reyish i n c olour , i t i s f inely m ade a nd b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface. R im t hickness m easured 8 mm ; u pper r im/neck j oint 8 mm ; l ower r im/neck j oint 1 0mm ; b ody t hickness 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter m easured 1 0cm . I t l acked d ecoration a nd h ad a b evelled l ip. F orm 6 ( 1 s pecimen ) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl), w ith s lightly e verted
r im , c urving s moothly o n b oth p rofiles t o j oin a g lobular b ody . I t w as c ollected f rom ( 37) . G reyish i n c olour a nd f inely m ade, i t i s h andsmoothed o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . R im t hickness m easured 5 mm ; r im /neck j oint
9 mm ;
b ody
t hickness
4 mm a nd r im d iameter m easured 6 cm .
I t
l acked
d ecoration a nd h ad a t apered l ip. F orm 7 ( 24 s pecimens) . T his i s an eckless o pen-mouthed v essel ( bowl), w ith s traight o r n early s traight r im , j oining a h emispherical b ody . T wenty-four s pecimens w ere c ollected : 3 f rom ( 26) ; 3f rom ( 28) ; 1f rom ( 29) ; 7f rom ( 34) ; 3f rom ( 35) ; 1f rom ( 37) ; 1f rom ( 38) ; 3f rom ( 40) ; 1f rom ( 41) a nd 1 f rom ( 44) . C olour r anges f rom r ed ( 4), g rey (16) t o b rown ( 4) . F inely m ade, n ineteen o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining f ive w ere h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 5 mm t o 8 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 6 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm
1 93
t o 1 0cm . p lain .
T en o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated , t he r emaining f ourteen b eing D ecorations c onsist o f c arved w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag ( 2) ;
r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 1) ; m ultiple h orizontal c omb-stamping ( 1 ) , e xecuted o n t he l ip a nd b ody o f t he v essel ; m ultiple h orizontal c ombs tamping ( 1) o n t he b ody o f t he v essel a nd c ompound d ecorations , c onsisting o f as ingle h orizontal i ncision, b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette ( 1), b anded h orizontal i ncision a lternating w ith c arved w ooden r oulette ( 1) o n t he l ip a nd b ody o f t he v essel ;
b anded h orizontal g rooves, b ordering c arved
w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal i ncision , b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette o n c ord r oulette ( 1) a nd s ingle h orizontal i ncision a lternating w ith c arved w ooden r oulette o n c ord r oulette ( 1) e xecuted b elow t he l ip a nd o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . T en o f t he s pecimens h ad a f lattened l ip ; s ix w ere r ounded ; t hree t apered a nd t he r emaining f ive s pecimens h ad ab evelled l ip . F orm 8 ( 26 s pecimens) . T his i s a n eckless o pen-mouthed v essel ( bowl) w ith r estricted r ims j oining a h emispherical b ody . T wenty-six s pecimens w ere c ollected : 1 f rom ( 25) ; 2 f rom ( 26) ; 1f rom ( 28) ; 1f rom ( 31) ; 1 f rom ( 32) ; 5f rom ( 34) ; 6f rom ( 35) ; 2f rom ( 38) ; 3f rom ( 40) ; 1f rom ( 41) ; 1f rom ( 42) ; 1f rom ( 43 ) a nd 1 f rom ( 44) . C olour r anges f rom g rey ( 7) ; b rown ( 7) t o y ellowish r ed ( 12) . F inely m ade, a ll t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface e xcept o ne t hat w as h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 4 mm t o 8 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 7 cm t o
1 2cm .
S ixteen o f
t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated ,
w hile t he r emaining t en w ere p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f c arved w ooden r oulette ( 3) ; r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 4) ; m ultiple h orizontal c omb-stamping, s quare t oothed ( 1), e xecuted o n t he l ip and b ody o f t he v essel ; b anded v ertical g rooves o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ( 1 ) ; b anded h orizontal i ncision ( 1) o n t he l ip a nd b ody o f t he v essel a nd c ompound d ecorations . T hese c onsist o f b anded h orizontal i ncision , b ordering s ingle h orizontal g rooves ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal i ncision , b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves, b ordering r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves, b ordering c omb-stamping ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves, a lternating w ith c omb-stamping , c rescentic ( 1 ) a nd s ingle h orizontal g rooves a lternating w ith c arved w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag ( 1) a ll e xecuted o n t he l ip o r b elow t he l ip a nd b ody o f t he v essel . E ight o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip; t en w ere f lattened a nd t he r emaining e ight w ere r ounded. F orm 9 ( 2 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith
i nverted r im , j oining a s hallow b ody . T he t wo s pecimens w ere c ollected : 1 f rom ( 26) a nd 1 f rom ( 41) . G reyish i n c olour, t hey w ere b oth f inely m ade a nd b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 1 0mm t o 1 . 5cm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 6 mm ; r i m /neck j oint 9 mm ; b ody t hickness 6 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 0cm t o 1 7cm . T hey c ontained c ompound d ecorations c onsisting o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves, b ordering r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord a nd b anded h orizontal g rooves b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette z ig-zag e xecuted b elow t he r im/neck j oint . T hey b oth h ad a t apered l ip.
1 94
C s ) C ) C ) ‚ I 0 4 J
I N
I
0
o ( 0
I
0 0
0 0
1 95
P ottery R ecovered f rom E xcavation W are A
( = W are I )
S ummary o f W are A P ottery W are A s herds,recovered f rom t he l ower l evels ( Levels 2 1-31) a t K ongon M akeri, a nd f urther s ub-divided i nto t wo g roups, w ere f rom p ots a nd b owls . T he p ots w ere c rudely m ade, c oarse i n t exture, l argely u nburnished a nd t hick . T he b owls w ere f inely a nd m ore t hinly m ade b ut w ere a lso p redominantly
h andsmoothed .
D ecorated
b odysherds
i n
W are
A w ere
c haracterized b y a v ariety o f d ecorative m otifs, w hich i nclude i n t he o rder o f f requency s tamping, i ncision, c ompound d ecorations, r oulette, p erforation , r elief a nd g rooving . T he p ots i nclude e verted s mall a nd l arge s ized v essels, a nd t hose w ith c onstricted n ecks, w ith r ounded , t apered , f lattened o r b evelled l ip .
T he r im/neck c urvature o f t he p ots w as e ither
g entle o n b oth p rofiles o r r anged f rom s light t o s harp o n e ither t he i nterior, e xterior o r b oth p rofiles. T hey w ere l argely u ndecorated ( decorations a ccounting f or o nly s ome 7 .5% o f t he t otal), b ut w hen f ound c onsist o f i ncision , c omb-stamping a nd c arved w ooden r oulette , e xecuted o n t he o uter s urface o f t he l ip , o n a nd b elow t he n eck a nd o n t he b ody o f t he v essels . T he b owls i nclude s mall a nd m edium s ized e verted , i nverted , r estricted v essels i ncluding s ome w ith s traight o r n early s traight r ims a nd r ounded, t apered, f lattened o r b evelled l ip . T he b owls w ere a lso r elatively u ndecorated ( decorations a ccounting f or a bout 2 2 .82% o f t he t otal), b ut w hen f ound i nclude i ncision , c omb-stamping a nd c ord r oulette , e xecuted a cross t he s houlder a nd o n t he b ody o f t he v essels . T here w as g enerally a n i ncrease i n t he u se o f p ots a nd b owls t hrough t ime . K ongon M akeri p ottery , m ostly b roken p otsherds, r ecovered b y T .S . b etween 1 976 a nd 1 978 , a mounting t o a g rand t otal o f s ome 5 7 ,987 s herds, w ere a nalysed b y D .A . A ttributes u sed w ere : 1 ) r im f orms, 2 ) d ecorated b ody s herds, 3 ) p lain b ody s herds, 4 ) b ase f orms 5 ) p erforated s herds, 6 ) l ids a nd 7 ) t he p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing . T he a nalysis o f t he p lain b odysherds d id n ot e xtend b eyond a p hysical o bservation o f p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing . T he d ecorated s herds a nd r ims w ere a nalysed f or : t he p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing ; c olour ; c ondition , i .e. w hether f resh o r w orn a nd t he e xact l ocation o f t he d ecoration ; d ecorative t echniques a nd m otifs, w hile t he d iagnostic r ims w ere c lassified i nto v essel f orms . A t otal o f 5 7 ,987 s herds w as e xcavated a t K ongon M akeri ( Tables 4 2-46) , d ivided a s f ollows: p lain b odysherds, 4 3,521 ( 75 .05%) ; d ecorated b odysherds, 6 ,920 ( 11.93%) ; b ases, 1 01 ( 0 .17%) a nd l ids, d ivided
a s
f ollows:
r ims, 4 ,322 ( 7 .45%) ; n ecks, 3 ,110 ( 5 .36%) ; 1 3 ( 0 .02%). W are A s herds n umbered 7 ,297,
p lain
b odysherds,
5 ,300
( 72 .63%) ;
d ecorated
b odysherds, 9 69 ( 13 .27%); r ims, 6 46 ( 8 .85%) ; n ecks, 3 67 ( 5 .02%) ; b ases, 1 3 ( 0 .17%) a nd l ids, 2 ( 0 .02% ) . F iring q uality , i n t erms o f t emperature o n W are A s herds r eveals t hat t here i s n ot m uch d ifference t hroughout t he l evels ( Fig . 4 2) ; t he l owest v alue h aving a n a verage o f 5 16 •C a t L evel 2 7 , w hile t he h ighest h as a n a verage o f 7 20 ° C , r eached a t L evel 2 3 . h owever , n oteworthy t hat t here i s n ot a v ery h igh v ariation o f d eviation w ithin t he v alues o btained a t v arious c uttings p er l evel a nd J olayemi, P ersonal c ommunication , 1 984) .
1 96
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t oL eve ls
T reatment a nd S urface F inish I n a s ituation w here a n a rchaeologist i s n ot a ble t o r ecover m aterials e mployed b y t he p otter f or t reatment a nd s urface f inish , e ither b ecause t hey w ere n ot p reserved o r b ecause h e w ould n ot r ecognize t hem , t he p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing i s a g ood i ndicator o f t his d uring a nalysis o f p ottery c ollection f rom a n a rchaeological e xcavation . B ased o n t he p resent e vidence, t he m ost l ikely t ool f rom K ongo r i M akeri w hich m ight h ave b een u sed f or s urface f inish o n t he p ottery m ay b e t he p ottery d iscs r ecovered . U nfortunately , o nly 6 o f t hem w ere f ound a nd t his s eems v ery f ew ( Table 4 6 ) , c onsidering t he e normous n umber o f p otsherds . I n W are A , w ith t he e xception o f b ases a nd l ids, f orming 1 3 ( 0 .17%) a nd 2 ( 0 .02%) r espectively , o nly 2 ,068 ( 28 .39%) o ut o f t he r emaining 7 ,282 s herds w ere b urnished, w hich s howed t hat s herds i n t his c ategory w ere p redominantly h andsmoothed . T he s herds c an b e d ivided a s f ollows ( Table 4 7) : b urnished p lain b odysherds, 1 ,201 ( 16 .49%); u nburnished p lain b odysherds, 4 ,099 ( 56 .28%); b urnished d ecorated b odysherds , 3 06 ( 4 .20% ) ; u nburnished d ecorated b odysherds, 6 63 ( 9 .10%) ; b urnished r ims a nd n ecks, ( decorated a nd u ndecorated), 5 61 ( 7.70%) a nd u nburnished r ims a nd n ecks ( decorated
a nd
u ndecorated ),
4 52
( 6 .20%) .
D ecoration A t otal o f 9 69 W are A s herds w ere d ecorated i ncluding t hose w ith p erforation , w hich c ould b e t aken a s a f orm o f d ecoration ,
t hough i t
c ould
a lso b e u sed t o s erve s pecialized f unctions. D etails o f d ecoration o n W are A s herds a ccording t o c uttings a nd l evels a re p resented i n T able 4 8 , 4 9 a nd 5 0 a nd F ig .
4 3 .
T he w are i s c haracterized b y a v ariety o f d ecoration
w hich i ncludes i n t he o rder o f f requency , s tamping , 3 89 ( 40 .15%) ; i ncision , 2 36 ( 24 .36%) ; r oulette, 8 5 ( 8 .78%) ; p erforation, 6 4 ( 6 .61%), r elief, 5 6 ( 5 .78%) ;
g rooving ,
3 0
( 3 .10%)
a nd
c ompound
d ecoration ,
1 09
( 11 .25%) .
A n
a ttempt w as m ade t o s ee w hich s ub-forms o f d ecorative m otifs d ominated e ach c ategory, i e . s tamping, i ncision a nd r oulette . I t c ould b e s een t hat s tamping, f orming 3 89 ( 40 .15% ) w as d ominated b y t he s quare t oothed a nd r ound t oothed m ultiple c omb-stamping , c onstituting 1 58 ( 40 .62%) a nd 1 54 ( 39 .59%) r espectively ( Table 2 5) a nd e xecuted h orizontally o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . I ncision , f orming 2 36 ( 24 .36%), w as d ominated b y b anded h orizontal a nd z igz ag b anded i ncision , c onstituting 14 ( 48 .31%) a nd 3 9 ( 16 .53%) r espectively ( Table
5 2) .
R oulette ,
t he
l ast m ajor
d ecorative
m otif
o n w are
A s herds
f ormed 8 5 ( 8 .78%) a nd w as d ominated b y c arved a nd c ob r oulettes c onstituting 3 5 ( 41 .18%) a nd 2 0 ( 23 .53%) r espectively ( Table 5 0 ) .
V essel F orms T able 5 1 s hows t he d istribution a nd p ercentages o f d iagnostic a nd n ond iagnostic r ims a nd n ecks i n w are A a ccording t o c uttings a nd l evels . I t c ould b e s een t hat o ut o f a t otal o f 1 ,013 r ims a nd n ecks, r ims n umbered 6 46 ( 63 .77% ) w hile n ecks f ormed 3 67 ( 36 .22% ) . D iagnostic r ims c onstituted 2 44 ( 37 .77%) a nd n on-diagnostic r ims 4 02 ( 62 .227 .0 . D iagnostic n ecks a mounted t o 1 47 ( 40 .05%), w hile n on-diagnostic n ecks n umbered 2 20 ( 59 .94%) . T he 2 44 d iagnostic r ims s herds b elonging t o w are A w ere t hen s ubmitted t o f orm a nalysis w hich r evealed s even m ain v essel t ypes ( Table 5 2) o ut o f w hich e leven v essel f orms h ave b een r ecognized ( Tables 5 3 a nd 5 4) . T hese e leven v essel f orms a re s u n i narized b elow .
2 08
F orm 1 ( 9 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith a s harply e verted
r im , a ngled o n b oth p rofiles o f t he r im t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6) . N ine w ere r ecovered : 3 f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 2 f rom L evel 2 5 ; 2 f rom L evel 2 6 a nd 2 f rom L evel 2 8 . F our o f t hem w ere r ed , 4 b lack a nd 1 b rown . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade ; 2w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface , t he r emaining s even w ere u nburnished . R im d iameter r anges f rom 9 cm t o 1 1cm ; t he h eight o f t he r im f rom 1 . 3cm t o 2 .2cm ; r im t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 1 1mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 9 mm a nd r im/neck j oint f rom 6 mm t o 1 2mm . T hree o f t hem h ad a f lattened l ip , 3w ere r ounded , 2 t apered a nd 1 h ad a s ingle h orizontal g roove o n a f lattened l ip. T hey a ll d ecoration e xcept f or t he o ne w ith t he g rooved f lattened l ip .
l acked
F orm 2 ( 4 s pecimens ) . T his i s a v essel ( pot ) w ith s lightly e verted r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6) . L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 a nd 2 f rom L evel 2 7 . i n c olour . s urface , t o 1 2cm ; t o 7 mm ;
T hey w ere f inely m ade ,
F our o f t hem w ere r ecovered : 2 f rom T wo a re r ed a nd t he r emaining 2 b rown
2w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter
t he r emaining 2 w ere h andsmoothed . R im d iameter r anges f rom 1 0cm t he h eight o f t he r im f rom 1 0mm t o 1 3mm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 8 mm a nd r im/neck j oint m easured 1 0mm .
T hree h ad a t apered l ip, t he r emaining 1 h ad a r ounded l ip . l acked d ecoration . F orm 3 ( 12 s pecimens).
T hey a ll
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith a s lightly
e verted r im . W hile t he e xterior p rofile i s a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6) . T he t welve r ecovered w ere: 5f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 2f rom L evel 2 5 ; 1f rom L evel 2 6 ; 2f rom L evel 2 7 a nd 2 f rom L evels 2 9 t o 3 1 . C olour r anges f rom b lack ( 3) ; b rown ( 4)
t o r ed
( 5 ) .
T hey w ere a ll
f inely m ade ,
1 0 o f t hem b urnished o n b oth
t he i nner a nd o uter s urfacess, t he r emaining 2 w ere h ands r noothed . R im d iameter r anges f rom 7 cm t o 1 0cm ; t he h eight o f t he r im f rom 7 mm t o l 0 imn , w ith t he e xception o f o ne s pecimen w hose r im h eight m easured 3 .2cm ; r im t hickness r anges f rom 5m m t o 7 mm . O ne h as d ecoration w hile t he r emaining i w ere p lain . T he d ecoration c onsists o f s ingle h orizontal s quare-toothed c omb-stamping, e xecuted o n t he n eck o f t he v essel. T en o f t hem h ad a r ounded l ip ,
t he r e m ai ning 2 a t apered l ip .
F orm 4 ( 6 1 s pecimens) . r im .
T his i s an ecked v essel ( pot ) w ith s lightly e verted
B oth p rofiles a re n ot a ngled b ut s moothly c urve i nto a g lobular b ody
( Fig . 3 6) . T he s ixty-one c ame f rom : 3 4 ( 55 .73%) f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 6 ( 9 .83% ) f rom L evel 2 5 ; 1 8 ( 29 .50%) f rom L evel 2 6 ; 2( 3 .27%) f rom L evel 2 8 a nd 1 ( 1 .63%) f rom L evels 2 9 t o 3 1 . C olour r anges f rom r ed 2 8 ( 45 .90%) , black 2 8 ( 45 .90%) t o b rown 5 ( 8 .19%) . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade, 4 4 ( 72 .13%) b eing b urnished o n b oth s urfaces , 6 ( 9 .83%) b urnished o n t he i nner s urface a nd u nburnished o n t he o uter s urface, w hile 1 ( 18 .03% ) w ere n ot b urnished. O n t he b asis o f r im a nd b ody t hickness, t wo s ets o f t his f orm c ould b e r ecognized . T he f irst s et, n umbering t hirty-eight, c onsists o f r elatively t hinly m ade r im a nd b ody . R im d iameter o f t he v essel i s r elatively s maller t oo . R im t hickness r anges f rom 5 mm t o 8 mm ; t o 1 2mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 9 mm ;
t he h eight o f t he r im f rom 6 mm r im/neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 9 mm
a nd r im d iameter f rom 6 cm t o 1 4cm . F our w ere w ith d ecoration , w hile t he r emaining 3 4 w ere p lain . T he d ecoration c onsists o f b anded h orizontal i ncision ( 1 ), e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ; m ultiple r ound-toothed c omb-stamping ( 1) , e xecuted b elow t he n eck a nd s ingle h orizontal i ncisions ( 2) e xecuted o n
t he o uter
s urface o f
2 09
t he
l ip .
T hirty-four o f
t hese
F ig. 4 4:
K ongon M akeri.
W are A , V essel F orm 5 .
KM 9 73
F o rm 5
0
1
2
3
cms
F o rm 5
2 10
4
5
I E
I
/
2 11
s pecimens h ad a r ounded l ip , 2w ere t apered , 1f lattened a nd 1 h ad a s quared l ip. T he o ther s et, t o 1 2mm ;
n umbered t wenty-three .
R im t hickness r anges
t he h eight o f t he r im f rom 1 0mm t o 1 2mm ;
f rom 7 mm
b ody t hickness f rom 7 mm
t o 1 2mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 7 mm t o 1 2mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 9 cm t o 1 9cm . N ineteen o f t hese s pecimens h ad a r ounded l ip, t he r emaining 4 w ere t apered . T wo s howed d ecoration w hile t he r emaining t wenty-one w ere p lain . T he d ecoration c onsists o f o blique m ultiple c omb-stamping ( 1) a nd s ingle h orizontal i ncision ( 1), e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel. F orm 5 ( 21 s pecimens) .
T his i s a l arge n ecked v essel
( pot ) w ith s lightly
e verted r im a nd a c onstricted n eck . B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles g ently c urve t o j oin a s pherical b ody ( Fig . 4 4) . T his v essel i s d ifferent f rom v essel f orm 4 o n t he b asis o f s ize o f v essel, t exture a nd f ineness i n m aking . T wenty-one s pecimens w ere r ecovered: 3 ( 14 .28%) f rom L ayer 2 2 ; 5 ( 23 .80%0 f rom l evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 6( 28 .57%) f rom L evel 2 7 a nd 1 ( 4 .76% ) f rom L evels 2 9 t o 3 1 . F our o f t hem w ere r ed w hile t he r emaining 1 7 w ere b rown i n c olour . T hey w ere a ll c oarse t extured, c rudely m ade a nd h andsmoothed , t hus n one o f t hem w as b urnished . T he h eight o f t he r im o f t he o nly c omplete s pecimen r ecovered m easured 1 0mm . R im d iameter r anges f rom 1 9cm t o 2 5cm ; r im t hickness f rom 1 . 5cm t o 2 cm ; b ody t hickness f rom 1 cm t o 1 . 5cm a nd r im/neck j oin m easured 1 . 3cm . T hirteen ( 61 .90%) o f t hem h ad a r ouned l ip , t he r emaining 8 ( 38 .09%) a t apered l ip . T hey a ll l acked d ecoration. F orm 6 ( 20 s pecimens) . T his i s a l arge n ecked v esel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted r im a nd a b ulging o n t he u pper p art o f t he e xterior s ide o f t he r im . T he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles g ently c urve t o j oin a g lobular b ody . T wenty o f t hem w ere r ecovered : 1 6 ( 80%) f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4; 3 ( 15%) f rom L evel 2 5 a nd 1 ( 5% ) f rom L ayer 2 2 . T his v essel i s d ifferent f rom f orm 4 o n t he b asis o f s ize o f v essel, t exture a nd f ineness i n m aking ; a nd f rom f orm 5 o n t he b asis o f s ize a nd o f t he p resence o f t he b ulging i n t he u pper p art o f t he e xterior s ide o f t he r im . C oarse i n t exture, t hey w ere c rudely m ade a nd w ere a ll u nburnished. R im d iameter r anges f rom 2 1cm t o 2 5cm . T hey a ll l acked d ecoration . F ifteen ( 75%) o f t hem h ad a r ounded l ip, t he r emaining 5 ( 25%) w ere t apered . F orm 7 ( 2
s pecimens) .
T his
i s
a n ecked
v essel
( pot)
w ith a c onstricted
s lightly e verted r im . I t h as a s lightly p ronounced c oncave p rofile a t t he i nterior a nd a c onvex p rofile a t t he e xterior, w hich s moothly c urves t o j oin a p resumably g lobular p ot.
R ecovered f rom L evels
2 1
t o 2 4,
t he t wo
s pecimens a re b lack i n c olour a nd n either w as b urnished . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 4 . 5cm ; r im d iameter 1 2cm a nd r im t hickness m n eausred 6m m . T hey b oth h ave a t apered l ip w ith d ecoration o f c arved w ooden r oulette, c onsisting o f ad ouble r ow o f w avy l ines r oughly s ub-triangular i n p attern , e xecuted o ver t he e ntire r i m. F orm 8 ( 79 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith e verted s hort r im c urving g ently o n b oth p rofiles t o j oin a g lobuar b ody ( Fig . 4 5) . T his g roup o f v essel c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo s ets . T he f irst s et c onsists o f v essels w ith a b ody t hat i s f low ing i nward f rom t he r im s o t hat t he r im d iameter i s s lightly g reater t han t he b ody d iameter t aken a t t he w idest s ection ( Fig . 4 5) . F ifty-five o f t hese w ere r ecovered : 2 1 ( 38 .18%) f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 1 ( 1 .81% ) f rom F eature 2 1 ; ( 10 .90% ) f rom L evel 2 6 ; 1 ( 20%) f rom L evel
2 12
9 ( 16 .36%) f rom L evel 2 5 ; 6 2 7 a nd 7 ( 12 .72% ) f rom L evel
2 8 .
S eventeen ( 30 .90%) o f
( 50 .90% ) w ere r ed . o n t he i nner a nd
t hem w ere b lack ;
1 0 ( 18 .18%) b rown a nd 2 8
T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade , 3 5 ( 63 .63% ) w ere b urnished o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining 2 0 ( 36 .36%) w ere
h andsmoothed . R im d iameter r anges f rom 4 cm t o 1cm ; t he h eight o f t he r im f rom 3 mm t o 7 mm ; r im t hickness f rom 3 mm t o 7m m ; b odythickness f rom 4m m t o 8 mm a nd r im/neck j oint f rom 4 mm t o 9 mm . E leven ( 20%) o f t he s pecimens s howed d ecoration , w hile t he r emaining 4 4 ( 80%) w ere p lain . F our o f t hese d ecorations c onsisted o f r ound-toothed c omb-stamping e xecuted o bliquely a nd 2 o f a c rudely m ade s ingle r ow o f r ound-toothed c omb-stamped i mpressions, e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . O ther d ecorations i nclude t wo r ows o f c omb-stamped i mpression , o ne a ligned h orizontally b elow t he r im , t he o ther o bliquely o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ( 1 ) ; t wisted f ibre s trand r oulette ( 1 ) ; s ingle h orizontal i ncision ; d rawing o r m eandering, f inely m ade ( 1) ; a c omplete s ingle h orizontal r ow o f p erforations ( 1 ) e xtending a cross t he e ntire
v essel
a nd c ompound d ecoration o f s ingle h orizontal s quare-toothed
c omb-stamping b ordering b anded h orizontal i ncisions, e xecuted b elow t he n eck o f t he v essel. F orty-one ( 74 .54%) h ad a r ounded l ip, 1 2 ( 21 .18%) a b evelled l ip a nd 2 ( 3 .63% ) w ere w ith f lattened l ip . T he s econd s et c onsists o f v essels f lowing o utward f rom t he r im s o t hat t he r im d iameter i s l ess t han t he b ody d iameter t aken a t t he w idest s ection . T wenty-four o f t hem w ere r ecovered : 8 ( 33 .33% ) f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 5 ( 20 .83% ) f rom L evel 2 6 ; 7 ( 29 .16% ) f rom L evel 2 7 a nd 4 ( 16 .16%) f rom L evel 2 8 . F ourteen ( 58 .33% ) o f t hem a re r ed , 9 ( 37 .50%) b lack a nd 1 ( 14 .16%) w as b rown i n c olour . i nner a nd o uter
T hey w ere f inely m ade ; 1 9 ( 76 .16%) w ere b urnished o n t he s urface w hile t he r emaining 5 ( 20 .83% ) w ere u nburnished .
R im d iameter r anges f rom 6 cm t o 1 2cm ;
t he h eight
o f
t he
r im f rom 3 mm t o
8 mm ; r im t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 7 mm a nd r im/neck j oint r anges f rom 4 mm t o 7 mm . T wo ( 8 .33%) e xhibited d ecoration , t he r emaining 2 2 ( 91 .66%) w ere p lain . T he d ecoration c onsisted o f s ingle h orizontal i ncisions ( 1 ) a nd b anded h orizontal i ncisions ( 1 ) , e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel. T wenty ( 83 .33% ) a re w ith r ounded lip, w hile t he r emaining 4 ( 16 .16%) a re w ith f lattened l ip. F orm 9 ( 20 s pecimens) .
T his
i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith
r estricted s hort r im j oining a h emispherical b ody .
T wenty s pecimens w ere
r ecovered : 5 ( 25%) f rom L evel 2 5 ; 6 ( 30%) f rom L evel 2 6 ; 2 ( 10%) f rom L evel 2 7; 1 ( 5% ) f rom L evel 2 8 a nd 1 ( 5%) f rom L evels 2 9 t o 3 1 . E leven w ere r ed , 8b lack a nd 1 w as b rown i n c olour . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade : 1 5 ( 75%) o f t hem w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface w hile t he r emaining 5 ( 15%) w ere u nburnished . R im d iameter r anges f rom 4 cm t o 1 0cm ; r im t hickness f rom 2 mm t o 7 mm a nd b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 8 mm . F our ( 20% ) o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated , t he r emaining 1 6 ( 80%) b eing p lain . T he d ecorations i nclude s errated i ncision o n t he l ip ( 1 ) , b anded o blique i ncision ( 1) a nd c arved w ooden r oulette, w avy l ine i n p attern ( 1) , e xecuted o n t he b ody o f
t he
v essel.
O ther f orms o f
d ecoration w ere
c ompound
d ecoration o f t wo r ows o f s quare-toothed c omb-stamping, o ne a ligned h orizontally o n ac rudely m ade b anded i ncision a nd b ordering a s ingle c omplete p erforation ( 1), e xecuted b elow t he r im a nd t he o ther a ligned o bliquely o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . N ine o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip; 4w ere r ounded ; 4f lattened ; 1s errated a nd 2 h ad a b evelled l ip . F orm 1 0 ( 2 s pecimens ) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl ) w ith i nverted r im , j oining a s hallow b ody . T he s pecimens w ere r ecovered f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 4 . T hey w ere b oth l ight b rown i n c olour , f inely m ade a nd w ell b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 9 mm t o 1 0mm ;
r im t hickness m easured 2 mm ;
2 13
r im/neck j oint r anges
f rom 5 mm t o 6 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 6 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 0cm t o Ucm . T hey b oth l acked d ecoration a nd h ad a t apered l ip . F orm 1 ( 14 s pecimens) . T his i s an eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith s traight o r n early s traight r im j oining a h emispherical b ody . F ourteen o f t hem w ere r ecovered : 7f rom l evels 2 1 t o 2 4 ; 3f rom L evel 2 5 a nd 4 f rom L evel 2 6 .
C olour r anges f rom b lack ( 1 ) ,
t hem w ere b urnished , w ere n ot b urnished .
r ed ( 5 ) t o b rown ( 9 ) .
E leven o f
w hile t he r emaining t hree w ere h andsmoothed a nd t hus R im d iameter r anges f rom 7 cm t o 1 0cm ; r im t hickness
f rom 3m t o 6 n i n a nd b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 8 mm . F our o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated , w hile t he r emaining 1 0 w ere p lain . T he d ecoration c onsists o f s ingle h orizontal s quare-toothed c omb-stamping , a ligned v ertically ( 1 ) a nd e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ; k notted r oulette o r c ord r oulette , b ordering h orizontal s ingle i ncisions ( 1), e xecuted b elow t he r im a nd e xtending a cross t he e ntire v essel . T hree o f t he s pecimens h ad a f lattened l ip ; 5ar ounded l ip a nd 6 h ad a t apered l ip . I t m ust b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he d iagnostic s amples a nalysed f or v essel f orms d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t he d egree o f u sage ; b ut r ather a n i ndication o f a c ombination o f f actors w hich r ange f rom t he s trength o f t he v essel t o t he f unctions o f t he v essel, w hich a re d irectly r elated t o l ife-span e xpectancy a nd c are t aken b y t he u sers, a mong o thers . S ummary o f V essel F orms i n W are A F rom t he a nalysis o f t he 2 44 r im s herds i n W are A , i t c ould b e s een t hat p ots f orm 1 29 ( 52 .86%) w hile b owls c onstitute 15 ( 47 .13%) . T here w as a n i ncrease i n t he u se o f p ots a nd b owls t hrough t ime , i e . t he u pper l evels, s ay f rom L evels 2 1 t o 2 7 c ontained m ore v essel f orms ; a nd t hrough t ime t oo , f eatures a nd l ayers r ecovered b etween L evels 2 4 a nd 2 5 c ontained p ots a nd b owls i n t he f orm o f f eatures . V essel f orms i n t he v ery e arly p eriod w ere s canty a nd f ew t ypes, a s c ould b e s een f rom L evels 2 8 t o 3 1 ( Table 5 4) . A mong t he p ots, v essel f orm 4 w as p redominant c onstituting 6 1 ( 47 .28%), w hile f orm 7 w as l east u sed, a ccounting f or o nly 2 ( 1 .55%) , f ollowed b y f orm 2 c onsisting o f 4 ( 3 .10%) . T he r easons f or t his m ay n ot b e d ifficult t o f ind . V essel f orm 4 h as s mooth i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles w hich m ake i t l ess r esistant t o b reakage c ompared t o v essels w ith a ngled-profile . F orms 2 a nd 7 s eem t o b e s pecialized v essels w hich c ould s erve n on-domestic f unctions a nd t heir u se i s n aturally e xpected t o b e m ore l ikely t o i ncrease t hrough t ime . A mong
t he b owls,
t he d ominant
f orm n o .
8 ,
w hich a lso h as
s mooth
i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles w hich m akes i t l ess r esistant t o b reakage , a ccounts f or 7 9 ( 68 .69%) o f t he t otal b owls ; t he l east u sed o f t he b owls w as v essel f orm 1 0 w hich m ight a lso h e i ntended f or a s pecialized f unction .
W are B
( =W are I I)
S ummary o f W are B P ottery W are B s herds , r ecovered f rom t he u pper l evels ( Levels I t o 2 0) a t K ongon M akeri, w ere f rom p ots a nd b owls. F inely a nd t hinly m ade, t he v essels c onsist o f a s ubstantial n umber t hat w ere b urnished b ut t he l arger p roportion w ere h andsmoothed . T he d ecorated b odysherds w ere c haracterized b y a v ariety o f d ecorative m otifs i n t he o rder o f f requency b y s tamping , i ncision ,
r oulette ,
c ompound d ecoration ,
2 14
p erforation ,
g rooving a nd
r elief .
C
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P a vemen t 2 . 3 1m II
2 . 30m
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P a vemen
L eve ls 1 2 1 P a vemen t 2 . 08m 1 2
-
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R e l iel Per forati on 3 71 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2
14 1
3 6
r i - -
256 ( 3 7 .9 1% )
1 0
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1 2 84 1 0 5
1 4
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S ta mpin g 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8
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P avemen t I. 90 -
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3
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Co mpound Decorations 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6
rq
1 . 9 4m
[ 4
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P avemen t 1 . 77 -
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P avemen t
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Co mpound Decorations 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6
1
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( r
2 . 36m
2 . 3 1m I P avemen t
P avemen t
2 . 30m
( I A
P avemen t
2 . 15m
P avemen t
2 0 8
P avemen t
L eve l s 1 4 3
5 9
5
1
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4 2
1 5
6 11 T o t a l
2 74 2 85
76 1 91 3
6 0
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C , 4
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T he p ots i nclude e verted s mall, m edium a nd w ith c onstricted n ecks . T hey w ere f orming a bout 2 9% o f t he t otal .
l arge s ized v essels a nd
r elatively u ndecorated,
t hose
d ecorations
A nalysis o f W are B s herds o n t he b asis o f f iring t emperatures r eveals t hat f iring t emperature w as l owest, 5 00 ° C , a t t he l owest l evel ( Level 2 0) a nd g radually i ncreased u pwards, s how ing a p eak c lose t o 8 00°C a t t he m iddle l evel ( Levels 9 t o 1 0) b ut d eclined a gain t o c lose t o 7 50 ° C i n t he u ppermost l evels ( Levels 1 t o 6 ) ( Ahuwan a nd J olayemi, P ersonal C ommunication , 1 984) . W areB c ontained a t otal o f 5 0 ,690 p otsherds d ivided a s f ollow s: p lain b odysherds, 3 8,221 ( 75 .40%) ; d ecorated b odysherds, 5 ,951 ( 11 .73%) ; r ims , 3 ,676 ( 7 .25%) ; n ecks, 2 ,743 ( 5 .41%) ; b ases, 8 8 ( 0 .17%) a nd l ids, I i ( 0.02%).
T reatment a nd S urface F inish T able
2 2 s hows t he d istribution o f b urnishing o n K or igon M akeri s herds
a ccording t o c uttings a nd l evels .
As ubstantial q uantity o f s herds i n t his
W are B g roup w ere w ell b urnished , s urface t reatment o f t he v essels . f orming
8 8 ( 0 .17%) a nd
1
( 0 .02% ),
t hus, e ffort a nd t ime w ere d evoted t o W ith t he e xception o f b ases a nd l ids , 1 6 ,
4 92
( 32 .59%) o f
t he
r emaining
5 0 ,591
s herds i n W are B w ere b urnished . T hey b urnished p lain b odysherds , 1 0 ,220 ( 20 .20% ) ;
c an b e d ivided a s f ollows: u nburnished p lain b odysherds,
2 8,001
b odysherds,
( 55 .34%);
burnished
d ecorated
2 ,105
( 4.16%);
u nburnished d ecorated b odysherds, 3 ,846 ( 7 .60%) ; b urnished r ims a nd ( decorated a nd u ndecorated ), 4 ,167 ( 8 .23%) a nd u nburnished r ims a nd ( decorated
a nd
u ndecorated ),
2 ,252
n ecks n ecks
( 4 .45%) .
D ecoration T ables 5 5, 5 6, 5 7 a nd F ig . 4 7 s how t he s ummaries o f d istribution o f d ecorative m otifs o n W are B s herds a ccording t o c uttings a nd l evels . T he t otal n umber o f d ecorated s herds w as 5 ,951, c lassified o n t he b asis o f d ecorative m otifs i n t he o rder o f f equency a s f ollows : s tamping , 2 ,256 ( 37 .91%) ; i ncision, 1 ,146 ( 19 .26%) ; r oulette, 1 ,081 ( 18 .17%) ; c ompound d ecoration , 8 24 ( 13 .85%) ; p erforation , 3 16 ( 5 .31%) ; g rooving , 1 98 ( 3 .33%) a nd r elief, 1 30 ( 2 .19%) . l t c ould b e o bserved t hat s tamping , f orming 2 ,256 ( 37 .91% ) w as dom inated b y s quare-toothed c omb-stamping 1 ,284 ( 56 .92%) a nd r ound-toothed m ultiple c omb-stamping 3 59 ( 15 .92%) ( Fig. 4 6; T able 5 7) . I ncision, f orming 1 ,146 ( 19 .26%) ( Fig . 4 6) w as d ominated b y b anded h orizontal i ncision a nd w avy l ine b anded i ncisions c onstituting 2 79 ( 24 .25%) a nd 2 61 ( 22 .78%) r espectively ( Table 5 7) , w hile r oulette, t he l ast m ajor d ecorative m otif c onsisting o f 1 ,081 ( 18 .17%) w as d ominated b y c ob a nd c arved r oulette, c onstituting 3 62 ( 33 .49%) a nd 2 82 ( 26 .09%) r espectively ( Fig . 4 7 ; T able 5 7) . R elief, w hich w as c haracteristic o f W are A , b eing f ound o n 5 6 ( 5 .78%) o ut o f 9 69 s herds b ecame l ess i mportant i n W are B , w ith o nly
1 30
( 2 .19%) o f
5 ,951
s herds .
A n a ttempt w as m ade t o s tudy c hanges a nd v ariations
i n t he d ifferent
d ecorative m otifs e mployed a t K ongon M akeri t hrough t ime . I n a n e ffort t o a chieve t his, t he s equence o f W are B s herds , f orming t he b ulk o f d ecorated s herds, w as e xamined o n t he b asis o f h orizontal l evels a t v arious d epths, w hich w as n ot e asy t o a rrange s ince s ome g rade i nto o ne a nother, w hile o thers w ere w idely s paced h orizontally a nd v ertically . T hree l evels w ere r ecognized a nd w ere d esignated L evels 1 , 1 1, I II ( Bi; 8 11 ; B Ill) a t
2 24
£ how ing C ompa ra t ive g raph o f n umber o f t y pes o f D e co ra t ive m o t if s a s af u n ct ion a D ep th/ Leve ls o n w e re B s he rds a t K ongon M ake r i F ig. 4 7:
2 25
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9
5
4
0 0
r1 0
3
Z o o
2 ( )
I
-
le
4
2
r i
1 7
1
: r q
H
v arious d epths . 1 .
L evel
a nd
P it
2 .
Ir uns f rom s pit 1 t hrough s pit 6 , i ncluding F eature 7 , F eature 9
I II .
L evel
I T s tarts f rom s pit 7 t hrough s pit
1 ,
i ncluding F eature
1 a nd
t he 1 4 r ecovered d ecorated p avement s herds ( all w ithin t hese s pits). 3 .
L evel I II r uns f rom s pit 1 2 t hrough s pit 2 0 . L evel
t otal
o f
I II ( BI l),
o ccurring f rom s pit
2 ,388 d ecorated s herds,
f ollowed b y i ncision , 4 81 ( 20 .15%) ; 1 45 ( 6 .08%) ; r elief, 7 2 ( 3 .02%) ; d ecoration , 2 39 ( 10 .01%) ( Table 5 8 ;
1 2 t hrough s pit
2 0 ,
d ominated b y s tamping,
c ontained a
1 ,110 ( 46 .49%)
r oulette , 2 72 ( 11 .39%) ; p erforation , g rooving, 6 9 ( 2 .89%) a nd c ompound F ig . 4 7) . L evel I t ( BIT) , r ecovered
f rom s pit 7 t hrough 1, i ncluding F eature 1 a nd t he 1 4 r ecovered d ecorated p avement s herds c ontained a t otal o f d ecorated 2 ,293 , c lassified o n t he b asis o f d ecorative m otifs a s f ollows ( Fig . 4 7 ; T able 5 9) : s tamping , 8 36 ( 36 .46%) ; r oulette, 4 83 ( 21.07%); i ncision , 4 24 ( 18 .50%) ; p erforation, 1 19 ( 5 .19%) ; g rooving, 9 1 ( 13 .97%) ; r elief, 4 0 ( 1 .75%) a nd c ompound d ecoration , 3 00 ( 13 .09%) . L evel I ( BI), r unning f rom s pit 1 t hrough s pit 6 i ncluding F eature 7 , F eature 9 a nd P it I II, c ontained a t otal o f 1 ,270 d ecorated s herds ( Fig . 4 7 ; T able 6 0) , c lassifed a s f ollows: r oulette , 3 26 ( 25 .67%) ; s tamping, 3 10 ( 24 .41%) ; i ncision , 2 41 ( 18 .98%) ; p erforation , 5 1 ( 4 .02%) ; g rooving , 3 8 ( 3 .00%) ; r elief, 1 8 ( 1 .42%) a nd c ompound d ecoration , 2 86 ( 22 .52%) . F rom t he a nalysis, i t c ould b e s een t hat a ttention w as f ocused p rogressively o n s tamping a nd i ncision i n L evel Il l; o n c ompound d ecoration, i ncision, r oulette a nd s tamping i n L evel I T a nd i n L evel I p rogressively o n c ompound d ecoration a nd s tamping ; r ouletting w as u sed a lmost e qually . I n L evels I , I I , I II , r elief, g rooving a nd p erforation w ere v irtually i nsignificant . O ver t ime , s tamping w as m ost d ominant e xcept i n L evel
Iw hen s lighty l ess a ttention w as p aid t o i t ( Fig . 4 7) .
V essel F orms O ut o f 6 ,419 r ims a nd n ecks r ecovered a s W are B s herds f rom K ongon M akeri e xcavation , r im s herds n umbered 3 ,676 ( 57 .26%), w hile c onstituted 2 ,743 ( 42 .73% ) . D iagnostic r ims n umbered 7 56 ( 20 .56%) ,
n ecks w hile
n on-diagnostic r ims f orm 2 ,920 ( 73 .43%). D iagnostic n ecks f orm 1 ,194 ( 43 .52%) w hile n on-diagnostic n ecks a mounted t o 1 ,549 ( 56 .47%) . O ut o f t he 7 56 d iagnostic r im s herds , 7 4 ( 9 .78%), r ecovered a s p avement, w ere a nalysed s eparately a nd r eported o n i n C hapter 5 , w hile t he r emaining 6 82 ( 90 .21%) s ubmitted f or v essel f orm a nalysis a re p resented h ere . T hese s how t he t wo b asic c lasses o f v essels w hich c haracterized W are A , e arlier o n r ecognized a t K ongon M akeri : P ots a nd B owls . l t c ould b e o bserved t hat w hile a f ewer n umber o f
v essel
f orms w ere r ecovered f rom
W are
A ( 7 p ots a nd 4 b owls ),
m ore v essel f orms w ere r ecognized f rom W are B ( 9 p ots a nd 6 h owls ) . A lso , w hile n o r imsherd p avement w as r ecovered a s a f eature i n W are A , W are B h ad a s ubstantial n umber o f p avements r ecovered a s f eatures o ut r imsherds w ere d iagnostic a nd c lassified i nto v essel f orms .
f orm
o f
w hich
7 4
S ix h undred a nd e ighty-two d iagnostic r imsherds s ubmitted f or v essel a nalysis r evealed e ight m ain v essel t ypes ( Table 6 1) O ut o f w hich
f ifteen
v essel
f orms h ave b een
r ecognized
2 32
( Tables
6 2
a nd
6 3) .
T he
2 33
2 34
d istinction b etween p ots a nd b owls w hich c haracterized t he K ongon M akeri r im s herds o f W are A s till h olds g ood .
T hese v essel f orms a re t hus s ummarized
b elow . F orm 1 ( 10 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s harply e verted
r im . B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles a re s harply a ngled t o f orm a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 1 )) . T he t en r ecovered w ere : 1f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 1f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 4f rom L evel 1 0 a nd 4 f rom L evel 1. S ix o f t hem w ere b lack i n c olour, 2 b rown , 1r ed a nd 1 g rey . E ight w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t he r emaining 2 w ere h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 7 mm t o 1 3mm , w ith t he e xception o f 2s pecimens m easuring 2 7mm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 8 mm ; r im /neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 1mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 7 cm t o 9 cm . O nly o ne s pecimen e xhibits c ompound d ecoration o f r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord , b ordering a c omplete s ingle h orizontal p erforation , t he r emaining 9 w ere p lain . T hree h ad a r ounded a nd e ven l ip ; 3w ere f lattened w ith t apered e nd ; a nd 1 a f lattened l ip ( Fig . 4 8) .
3h ad a t apered
F orm 2 ( 2 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked e verted r im v essel ( pot) w ith a v ery s harp a ngle a t t he e xterior p rofile a nd a s lightly a ngled i nterior p rofile , w hich t hen j oins a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 7) ) . T he t wo s pecimens w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 1 7 . T hey w ere b oth r eddish i n c olour a nd w ell b urnished o n t he o uter s urface b ut h andsmoothed o n t he i nner s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 3 . 0cm f rom t he l ip ; r im t hickness r anges f rom 5m m t o 6 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 6 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 6 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 3 cm t o 4 cm . B oth s pecimens c ontained d ecoration o f c rude c arved w ooden r oulette i n a w avy l ine p attern o n t he w hole r im p resumably , a cross t he v essel a nd t hey b oth h ad a r ounded l ip ( Fig . 4 8) . F orm 3 ( 38 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 6) ) . T hirty-eight w ere r ecovered : 2f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 2f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 1f rom L evel 6 ; 4 f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 1f rom L evel 1 0 ; 1f rom F eature 1; 2f rom L evel 1; 9 f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 4f rom L evel 1 6 ; 3f rom L evel 1 7 ; 6f rom L evel 1 8 a nd 3 f rom L evel 1 9 . C olour r anges f rom b lack , 2 1 ( 55 .26%) ; r ed, 1 5 ( 39 .47%) t o b rown, 2 ( 5 .26%) . T wenty-one ( 55 .26%) o f t he s herds w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining 1 7 ( 44 .73%) w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 8 mm t o 2 3mm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 1 0mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 8 mm t o t hickness f rom 7 mm t o 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 4 cm t o 1 8cm .
1 2mm ; b ody T wo ( 5 .26%)
w ere d ecorated, t he r emaining 3 6 ( 94 .73% ) b eing p lain . D ecorations o n t he t wo s pecimens c onsist o f h anded h orizontal s quare-toothed c omb-stamping . N ine ( 23 .68%) o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded l ip ; 6 ( 15 .78%) t apered ; 4 ( 10 .52%) h ad a f lattened l ip w ith t apered e nd ( Fig . F orm 4 ( 66 s pecimens) .
4 8) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot ) w ith s lightly e verted
r im . W hile t he e xterior p rofile i s a ngled , t he i nterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 4 9) . T he s pecimens c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups o n t he b asis o f t he h eight o f t he r im a nd r im d iameter . T he f irst s et c onsists o f f ifty s pecimens r ecovered a s f ollows: 1 f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 5f rom L evel 6 ; 2f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 9 f rom L evel 1 0 ; 6 f rom L evel 1;
3f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ;
4f rom L evel 1 6 ;
1 6 f rom L evel 1 7 ;
2f rom L evel 1 9 a nd 2 f rom L evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom b lack , 2 5 ( 50% ) t o r ed , 2 5 ( 50%) . T hirty-five ( 70% ) o f t hem w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface , t he r emaining 1 5 ( 30%) w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 7 mm t o 1 5mm ; r im t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 1 1mm ; r im/neck
2 35
j oint
f rom 6 mm t o um a nd r im d iameter
f rom 6 cm t o 1 2cm .
F our ( 8%) o f t he
s pecimens w ere d ecorated , t he r emaining 4 6 ( 9 2%) b eing p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f c arved w ooden r oulette i n w avy l ine p attern ( 1) ; b anded h orizontal i ncisions ( 2 ) a nd c ompound d ecorations o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves a lternat ing c arved w ooeden r oulette i n a w avy l ine p attern ( 1) , e xecuted b elow t he n eck o f t he v essel. T hirty-four ( 68%) o f t hem h ad a r ounded l ip ; 1 5 ( 30%) a t apered a nd 1 ( 2% ) af lattened l ip . T he s econd s et c onsists o f s ixteen s pecimens r ecovered ( Fig . f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 1 f rom L evels 7 t o 9a nd 2 f rom L evel 1 7 .
4 9) : 3 C olour
r anges f rom r ed, ( 9) ; b lack ( 5 ) t o g rey ( 2 ) . F ourteen w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface , t he r emaining 2 w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 2 .0cm t o 3 .2cm ; r im t hickness f rom 7 mm t o 9 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 6 mm t o 9 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 8 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 0cm t o 1 3cm . F ourteen o f t he s pecimens e xhibit s ingle h orizontal g rooves a t t he r im/neck j oint a cross t he v essel o n t he e xterior p rofile , w hile t he r emaining 2 s how o ther f orms o f d ecoration . O ne h ad m ultiple, h orizontal c omplete p erforations o n t he s houlder, p resumably a cross t he e ntire v essel, w hile t he o ther h ad c ompound d ecoration o f c arved w ooden r oulette, c urvilinear i n p attern, b ordering a s ingle c omplete h orizontal p erforation b elow t he n eck a nd a cross t he e ntire b ody o f t he v essel. S ix o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip, t he r emaining 1 0 w ere r ounded a nd e ven . F orm 5 ( 169 s pecimens) .
T his
i s a n ecked v essel
( pot ) w ith e verted s hort
r im w hich j oins t he n eck o f t he v essel b etween 6 mm a nd 1 8mm f rom t he l ip . B ecause o f t his r im/neck j oining , a f ew o f t hem w ere a ngled o n t he e xterior p rofile w hile t he m ajority h ave s mooth i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles . T he 1 69 s pecimens w ere d istributed a s f ollows: 1 3 f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 2 f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 1 2 f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 1f rom L evel 1 0 ; 6 4 f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5; 2 0 f rom L evel 1 6; 3 0 f rom L evel 1 7; 1 5 f rom L evel 1 8; 8f rom L evel 1 9 a nd 4 f rom L evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom r ed , 9 1 ( 53 .84%) ; b lack , 5 6 ( 33 .13%) t o g rey , 2 2 ( 13 .01%) . O ne h undred a nd t wenty-nine ( 76 .33% ) o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining 4 0 ( 23 .66%0 w ere h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 6 mm t o 1 8mm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 1mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 1 3mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 1 2mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1 7cm . T hirty-three ( 19 .52%) o f t he s pecimens a re d ecorated, t he r emaining 1 36 ( 80 .47%) b eing p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f m ultiple, c omplete p erforations ( 1 ), b elow t he n eck a cross t he w hole v essel; c arved w ooden r oulette i n c hevron p attern ( 3) ; c arved w ooden r oulette i n w avy l ine p attern ( 9) ; c hecker b oard
c arved w ooden r oulette w ith l ines c riss-crossing i nto a p attern ( 4) ; c ord r oulette ( 6 ) ; b anded w avy l ine i ncision
( 1) ; b anded m eandering i ncisions, f inely m ade ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves ( 1) ; m ultiple h orizontal i ncision ( 1 ) ; b anded h orizontal c ombs tamping
( 1 )
a nd
s ingle
h orizontal
c omb-stamping ,
c rudely
d one
( 1 ) ,
a ll
m ostly e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essels . O ther f orms o f d ecoration i nclude c ompound d ecorations o f b anded w avy l ine i ncision b ordering t w isted c ord r oulette ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves b ordering s quare-toothed c ombs tamping ( 1); r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord, b ordering a s ingle h orizontal c omplete p erforation ( 1) a nd b anded i ncision b ordering c ombs tamping
( 1 ) a ll
e xecuted b elow t he
n eck o r o n t he
b ody
o f
t he
v essels .
17 ( 69 .23% ) o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded l ip ; 1 0 ( 5 .91%) w ere f lattened ; 1 6 ( 9 .46%) w ere f lattened w ith t apered e nd a nd 2 6 ( 15 .35%) h ad a t apered l ip. F orm 6 ( 33 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted
2 36
r im . B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles g ently c urve t o j oin a s pherical b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 8 )) . T wo c lasses o f t his v essel w ere r ecognized o n t he b asis o f r im h eight, r im t hickness, r im d iameter a nd r im/neck j oint c urvature . T he f irst s et c onsists o f t wenty-four r ecovered a s f ollows: 4 f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 2f rom L evel 6 ; 9f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 3f rom L evel 1 0 ; 1f rom L evel 1; 4f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 a nd I f rom L evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom b lack , 4 ( 16 .16%) ; g rey, 8 ( 33 .33%) ; r ed, 1 0 ( 41.66%) t o b rown , 2 ( 8 .33%) . T wenty-two ( 91 .66%) o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t he r emaining 2 ( 8 .33%) w ere n ot b urnished. T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 2 .0cm t o 5 .0cm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 n i i i t o 8 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 6 mm t o 9 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 1mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1 2cm . T hree ( 12 .5%) o f t hem h ad d ecoration , t he r emaining 2 1 ( 87 .5%) w ere p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f b anded o blique c omb-stamping ( 1) ; h orizontal p attern r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 1), e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel a nd c ompound d ecoration o f c arved w ooden r oulette b ordering s ingle h orizontal g rooves . T wenty ( 83 .33%) h ad a r ounded l ip ; 3 ( 12 .50% ) b evelled a nd 1 ( 4 .16%) h ad a f lattened l ip w ith t apered e nd. T he o ther s et c onsists o f 9 s pecimens r ecovered a s f ollows: 1 f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 2f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 3f rom L evel 1 6 ; 2f rom L evel 1 7 a nd 1 f rom L evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom b lack ( 4) ; r ed ( 1) t o g rey ( 4) . W hile o nly o ne s pecimen w as b urnished o n b oth i nner a nd o uter s urface , t he r emaining 8 w ere h andsmoothed o nly . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 9 mm t o 2mm ; r im t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 1 5mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 1 2mm t o 1 9mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 1 .0cm t o 2 .0cm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 5cm t o 1 9cm . T hey a ll l acked d ecoration . F our h ad a r ounded l ip, t he r emaining 5 h ad a t apered l ip. F orm 7 ( 3 s pecimens) .
T his i s a v essel
( pot ) w ith a h orizontally e verted
s hort r im s quatting ( sitting ) o n a s traight o r n early s traight s houlder o f a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 4 9) . T hree s pecimens w ere r ecovered . If rom F eature 1; 1f rom L evel 1 7 a nd I f rom L evel 1 9 . T wo w ere g rey a nd o ne w as r ed i n c olour . W hile t wo o f t hem w ere b urnished, t he r emaining o ne w as h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 6 mm t o 7 mm ; r im t hickness f rom 7 mm t o 8 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 9 mm t o 1 3mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 4 cm t o 8 cm . A ll l acked d ecoration . T wo h ad a f lattened l ip w ith t apered e nd , t he r emaining o ne a r ounded a nd e ven l ip. F orm 8 ( 2 s pecimens) .
T his i s a g lobular n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith a n
e verted r im a nd a c onstricted n eck w hich , t hough n ot a ngular , q uickly c urves t o j oin t he s houlder ( Fig . 4 9) . T hey d iffer f rom f orm 6 i n h aving a m ore p ronounced r im/neck c urvature . F our o f t hem w ere r ecovered : 1f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 1f rom L evel 1 8 a nd 2 f rom L evel 1 9 . T wo w ere r ed , 1g rey a nd 1 b lack . T hree w ere b urnished o n b oth i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining o ne w as h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 1 3mm t o 1 8mm ; r im t hickness f rom 7 mm t o 9m m ; r im/neck j oint f rom 9 mm t o 1mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 6 cm t o 7 cm . T hree o f t he s pecimens e xhibited d ecoration o f c urvilinear r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c arved w ooden r oulette, e xecuted b elow t he n eck o r o n t he s houlder, t he r emaining o ne w as l eft p lain. T hey a ll h ad a f lattened l ip w ith t apered e nd. F orm 9 ( 10 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot ) w ith a c onstricted n eck a nd a n a lmost s traight l ong r im . T he r im j oins t he n eck b etween 4 .0cm a nd 5 . 0cm b elow t he l ip, t hen c urves i nto a g lobular b ody . T he s pecimens c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups. T he f irst g roup c onsists o f e ight s pecimens,
a ll w ith s lightly c oncave p rofile a t t he i nterior a nd a c onvex
2 37
2 38
p rofile a t t he e xterior a nd t hey w ere r ecovered a s f ollows: 1f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 5 fr oom L evel 1 6 a nd 2 f rom L evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom b lack ( 3) ; g rey ( 4) t o r ed ( 1) . T hey w ere a ll u nburnished b ut w ere d ecorated . D ecorations c onsist o f o blique m ultiple t wisted c ord r oulette ( 1 ), a cross t he e ntire n eck ; s ingle w avy l ine i ncision , d raw ing , f inely m ade ( 1) o n t he n eck ; c arved w ooden m ultiple s tamping i n a z ig-zag p attern ( 2 ) a nd c arved w ooden m ultiple s tamping, i rregular i n p attern , c rudely m ade ( 4) . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 4 .0cm t o 5 .0cm ; r im t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 8 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 6 mm t o 9 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 4 cm t o 6 cm . S even o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded a nd e ven f lattened.
t he
l ip ,
r emaining o ne w as
T he s econd s et c onsists o f 2s pecimens w ith a m ore c onstricted n eck a nd a l ess p ronounced c oncavity a nd c onvexity a t t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles, b ut w ere r ather w ith a s traight a nd a s horter r im , m easuring 3 .5cm a nd 4 .0cm , f rom t he l ip, b efore c urving i nto a g lobular b ody . B oth r ecovered f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 , t hey w ere g rey i n c olour a nd u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 3 .5cm a nd 4 .0cm ; r im t hickness 8 mm ; r im/neck j oint 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter 3 cm . B oth s pecimens e xhibited c ompound d ecoration o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette, i rregular i n p attern , e xecuted b elow t he r im . h ad a r ounded a nd e ven l ip. F orm 1 0 ( 6 s pecimens) .
T he t wo s pecimens
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith s hort e verted
r im , c urving s harply o n b oth p rofiles t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6(10) a nd F ig . 5 0) . S ix s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 1 f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 2 f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 1f rom L evel 1 6 a nd 2 f rom L evel 1 9 . T hey w ere a ll b lack i n c olour a nd w ere w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 7 mm t o 1 4mm ; r im t hickness f rom 2 mm t o 5 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 8m m ; b ody t hickness f rom 3m t o 8 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 8 cm . F our o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated w hile t he r emaining 2 w ere p lain .
T wo o f t he d ecorated s pecimens a lso e xhibited
s ingle h orizontal g rooves a t t he r im/neck j oint o n t he o uter s urface o f t he v essel . T he d ecorations c onsist o f b anded h orizontal i ncisions ( 1) a nd c arved w ooden r oulette a ppearing i n t he f orm o f t riangles b etween w hich w ere b osses ( 1), e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel. D ecoration o n t he r emaining t wo s pecimens, w ithout t he s ingle h orizontal g rooves, i ncludes m ultiple p inching , i rregular i n p attern ( 1) e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel a nd c arved w ooden r oulette a chieved b y s ome k ind o f m aterial, p atterned l ike t he s kin o f a s nake ( 1), e xecuted b elow t he r im o f t he v essel. F our o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip, t he r emaining 2 h ad a r ounded a nd e ven l ip . F orm 1 1 ( 27 s pecimens). T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith s lightly e verted r im ( Fig . 3 6 ( 12) a nd F ig . 5 0) . W hile t he e xterior p rofile i s a ngled, t he i nterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody f lowing o utward f rom t he r im , s o t hat d iameter t aken a t t he w idest r ecovered: 5f rom L evels 1 2 t o f rom L evel 1 8 a nd 1 f rom L evel
t he r im d iameter i s l ess t han t he b ody s ection . T wenty-seven s pecimens w ere 1 5 ; 1 3 f rom L evel 1 6 ; 6f rom L evel 1 7 ; 2 1 9 . C olour r anges f rom b lack , 1 8 ( 66 .66%) .
r ed, 7 ( 25 .92%) t o g rey 2 ( 7 .40%). T wenty-two ( 81 .48%) o f t hem w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface w hile t he r emaining 5 ( 18 .51%) w ere h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 6 mm t o 1 3mm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 1 1mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 4 mm t o 1 1mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 1mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1cm . T wenty-two o f t he s pecimens a re d ecorated, w hile t he r emaining 5 a re p lain . D ecorations
c onsist
o f
t wisted
c ord
r oulette
2 39
i n
a n
o blique
p attern
( 2 ) ,
e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ;
b anded r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y
c ord ( 6) ; s ingle h orizontal r oulette, a lso p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 2 ) ; c arved w ooden r oulette, w avy l ine, a ligned h orizontally ( 1) a nd c arved w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag i n p attern ( 6), e xecuted b elow t he r im o f t he v essel . O ther f orms o f d ecoration w ere c ompou nd d ecorations c onsisting o f c arved w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag i n p attern b ordering h orizontal r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 2) , e xecuted b elow t he n eck o r o n t he s houlder o f t he v essel. T hirteen ( 48 .14%) o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded a nd e ven l ip ; 8 ( 29 .62% ) w ere f lattened a nd 6 ( 22 .22% ) h ad a t apered l ip . F orm 1 2
( 128
s pecimens) .
T his
i s
a n ecked
v essel
( bowl),
w ith
s lightly
e verted r im ( Fig . 3 6 ( 13) ) . P rofiles w ere n ot a ngled b ut s moothly c urve i nto a g lobular b ody . T his v essel c an b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups o n t he b asis o f t he h eight o f t he r im a nd r im/neck c urvature. T he f irst s et c onsists o f 1 04 r ecovered a s f ollows : 3f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 2f rom L evels 4a nd 5 ; 1f rom L evel 6 ; 1 f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 6f rom l evel 1; 2 3 f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 1 f rom L evel 1 6 ; 1 7 f rom L evel 1 7 ; 7f rom L evel 1 8 ; 1 f rom L evel 1 9 a nd 2 2 f rom l evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom b lack , 3 7 ( 35 .57% ) ; b rown , 3 1 ( 29 .80%) t o r ed , 3 6 ( 34 .61%) . E ighty ( 76 .92%) o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining 2 4 ( 23 .07%) w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 4 mm t o 1 2mm ; r im t hickness f rom 3 mm t o 1 2mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 4mm t o 9 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 3 mm t o 1 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1 2cm . S ixteen ( 15 .38%) o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated, t he r emaining 8 8 ( 84 .61%) w ere l eft p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f s errated i ncision o n t he o uter p art o f t he l ip ( 1) ; b anded h orizontal i ncision ( 1) ; m ultiple h orizontal g rooves ( 4 ) a nd t wisted c ord r oulette o blique i n p attern ( 4 ) e xecuted b elow t he r im o r o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . O ther f orms o f d ecoration i nclude s ingle h orizontal s tamped i mpression ( 2) ; s tamped i mpression i n t he f orm o r c rescentic m otifs a ppearing w ithin t wo h orizontal i ncisions ( 2) a nd s tamped i mpressions o f c rescentic m otifs a rranged h orizontally i n a z ig-zag p attern ( 2) e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel. S ixty-one ( 58 .65%) o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded a nd e ven l ip ; 3 8 ( 36 .53% ) w ere t apered ; 4w ere f lattened a nd 1( 0 .96%) h ad a f lattened l ip w ith t apered e nd . T he s econd s et c onsists o f t wenty-four s pecimens r ecovered a s f ollows : 2f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ;
2f rom L evel 6 ;
1 3 f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ;
2f rom
L evel 1 0 ; 2f rom L evel 1; 1f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 1f r o m L evel 1 7 a nd 1 f rom l evel 1 8 . C olour r anges f rom b rown , 1 7 ( 70 .83%) ; b lack , 6 ( 25% ) t o r ed, 1 ( 4 .16%) . T wenty ( 83 .33%) o f t he s pecimens w ere burnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t he r emaining 4 ( 16 .16%) w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 1 3mm t o 2 3mm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 7 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 4 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 4mm t o 9 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 4 cm t o 1 4cm . T hree ( 12 .50%) e xhibited d ecoration, t he r emaining 2 1 ( 87 .50%) w ere p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f b anded c arved w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag i n p attern ( 2 ) , e xecuted o n t he b ody a nd b elow t he n eck o f t he v essel a s w ell a s c arved w ooden r oulette i n z ig-zag p attern h orizontally a ligned ( 1 ) , e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . T en ( 41 .66%) o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded a nd e ven l ip ; 3 ( 12 .50%) w ere f lattened a nd 1 ( 45 .83%) h ad a t apered l ip. F orm 1 3 ( 87 s pecimens) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) s traight o r n early s traight r im , j oining a h emispherical b ody ( Fig . 3 6 a nd F ig . 5 0) . E ighty-seven o f t hem w ere r ecovered a s f ollow s: 4 L evels 1 t o 3 ; 3f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 1 f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 1 9
w ith ( 16) f rom f rom
L evel 1 0 ; 2f rom F eature 1 ; 6f rom L evel 1; 2 5 f rom L evels 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 7 f rom L evel 1 6; 3f rom L evel 1 7; 1f rom L evel 1 8 a nd 6 f rom L evel 1 9 .
2 40
2 41
C olour r anges f rom b lack , 1 8 ( 20 .68%) ; b rown , 2 4 ( 27 .58%) ; d ark g rey , 8 ( 9 .19%) t o r ed, 3 7 ( 42 .52%) . S eventy-nine ( 90 .80%) o f t he s peci m ens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t he r emaining 9 ( 9 .19%) w ere h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 4 mm t o 9 mm ; r im t hickness f rom 3 n in t o 1mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1 6cm . T wenty-one ( 24 .13%) r emaining 6 6 ( 75 .86%) w ere p lain .
o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated, t he D ecorations c onsist o f s erration o n t he
u pper p art o f t he l ip ( 3); c arved w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag i n p attern , h orizontally a rranged ( 1) ; c arved w ooden r oulette, a chieved b y s ome k ind o f m aterial, p atterned l ike t he s kin o f a s nake ( 3) ; r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord i n h orizontal p attern ( 6) ; t wisted c ord r oulette i n h orizontal p attern ( 1) ; b anded h orizontal g rooves ( 1 ) a nd g rooves a rranged h orizontally ( 1) , a ll e xecuted b elow t he n eck o r o n t he s houlder o f t he v essel . O ther f orms o f d ecoration w ere c ompound d ecorations w hich i nclude o blique c ord r oulette, b ordering z ig-zag g rooves a rranged h orizontally ( 1) ; c arved w ooden r oulette i n z ig-zag p attern b ordering o blique c ord r oulette ( 1) ; o blique c ord r oulette, b ordering s ingle h orizontal g rooves u nder w hich w as a lso a c arved w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag i n p attern ( 1) ; c arved w ooden r oulette, a ppearing i n t he f orm o f t riangles b etween w hich w ere b osses ( 1) a nd b anded h orizontal c omb-stamping b elow a s errated l ip ( 1 ) e xecuted b elow t he r im a cross t he e ntire v essel. F ourteen ( 16 .19%) o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip ; 2 6 ( 29 .88%) w ere r ounded, a nd e ven ; a nd 3 2 ( 36 .78%) h ad a f lattened l ip . F orm 1 4 ( 94 s pecimens) .
1 5 ( 17 .24%) w ere b evelled
T his i s an eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith
b oth r estricted a nd u nrestricted s hort r ims j oining a h emispherical b ody ( Figs . 3 6 ( 14) ; 3 6 ( 15) ; 5 1) . S ome o f t he v essels e xhibit a b ody t hat b ends i nward f rom t he r im t o f orm a s hallow b owl s o t hat t he r im d iameter i s e qual t o o r s lightly g reater t han t he b ody d iameter t aken a t t he w idest s ection . N inety-four s pecimens w ere r ecovered a s f ollows: 1f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 5f rom L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 2 f rom L evel 6 ; 1 8 f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 5 f rom L evel 1 0 ; 4f rom L evel 1; 2 0 f rom L evel 1 2 t o 1 5 ; 1 2 f rom L evel 1 6 ; 1 4 f rom l evel 1 7 ; 3 f rom L evel 1 8 ; 7f rom L evel 1 9 a nd 3 f rom L evel 2 0 . C olour r anges f rom b lack , 3 2 ( 34 .04%) ; b rown , 1 4 ( 14 .89%) ; t o r ed , 4 8 ( 51.06%) . S eventy-three ( 7.65%) o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface , t he r emaining 2 1 ( 22 .24% ) w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 3 mm t o 6 mm ; r im t hickness f rom 3 mm t o 6 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1cm . T wentyn ine ( 30 .85%) o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated, t he r emaining 6 5 ( 69 .14%) w ere p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f b anded h orizontal i ncision ( 1 ) ; b anded h orizontal g rooves ( 1) ; b anded h orizontal g rooves i n z ig-zag p attern ( 2) ; t wisted c ord r oulette i n o blique p attern ( 1 ) ; e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ; c arved w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag i n p attern ( 1) ; s tamped i mpression i n t he f orm o f c rescentic m otifs a ppearing w ithin t wo h orzontal i ncisions ( 3) ; s tamped i mpressions o f c rescentic m otifs a rranged h orizontally i n a z ig-zag p attern ( 4 ) , e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ; b anded h orizontal c arved w ooden r oulette ( 3), e xecuted b elow t he r im o r o n t he b ody o f t he v essel ;
m ultiple h orizontal r oulette p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 5) ;
r aised
r elief w ith s hort m ultiple i ncision a ligned h orizontally ( 2 ) a nd c arved w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag i n p attern b etween w hich w ere b osses ( 3 ), e xecuted b elow t he r im . O ther f orms o f d ecoration c onsist o f c arved w ooden r oulette c onsisting o f a p air o f h orizontal a nd z ig-zag l ines w ithin w hich a ppear s mall s hort s tabs o r f urrows ( 1), e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel a nd c arved w ooden r oulette c onsisting o f a c ombination o f c rescentic m otifs a nd p arallel i ncisions w hich a re a rranged h orizontally a round t he v essel w ith a s ingle n ear c omplete p erforation , i mpressed o n t he p arallel h orizontal i ncision ( 1) , e xecuted b elow t he r im . F orty-two ( 44 .68%) w ere f lattened ;
2 42
-
r n
N-
It
V
II
1 10
N- 00 r 1 -
C r ,4
N- V
00
-
2 43
I
2 5 4 . 74%:j
N on -d iag n o s t ic N ecks
1 7 3 . 22%
D iag n o s t ic N ecks
-
T h
2 12 4 0 .22%
N on -d iag n o s t ic R im s
-
H and le ! H o lde r
4 7
2 6
I
I
N- Nr,
-
00
-
N- 00
C C N r 4
2 2
D eco r a ted s he rds
-
1 5
P l a in B ody s h erds
T able 6 4 : K asako iWes t E xcava t ion D is t r ibu t ion o fP o t te
-
j
F —
o c
\ C C ' NN
V -
' (I. -.
-
c
C
O C
C
-
o c ;
-
-
-
C N
1 7
( 18 .08%) w ere t apered a nd 4 ( 4 .25%) h ad a b evelled l ip .
F orm 1 5 ( 5 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith
i nverted r im , j oining a s hallow b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 17) ) . F ive w ere r ecovered : 1f rom L evels 1 t o 3 ; 1f ro m L evels 4 a nd 5 ; 1f rom L evels 7 t o 9 ; 1f rom L evel 1 8 a nd 1 f rom L evel 1 9 . T hree w ere r eddish i n c olour, t he r emaining 2w ere g rey . W hile o ne h ad t he i nner a nd o uter s urface b urnished, t he r emaining 4 w ere u nburnished . T he h eight o f t he i ncurved r im r anges f rom 8 mmto 1 2mm ; r im t hickness f rom 3 mm t o 5 mm ; r im /neck j oint f orm 5 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 6 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 4cm t o 2 4cm , w ith t he e xception o f o ne s pecimen m easuring 5 cm . T hey a ll h ad a t apered l ip . T hree h ad d ecoration , t he r emaining 2 b eing p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f t wisted c ord r oulette i n o blique p atterns ( 1), e xecuted b elow t he r im ; c ompound d ecorations o f h orizontal s ingle g rooves b ordering s ingle h orizontal c omb-stamping ( 1 ) a nd s ingle h orizontal g rooves b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette i n z ig-zag p attern ( 1) , e xecuted b elow t he r im a cross t he w hole v essel .
S ummary o f V essel F orms i n W are B F rom t he a nalysis,
i t c ould h e s een t hat p ots a nd b owls u sed i n W are B
w ere a bout e qual i n n umber t here b eing 3 53 ( 49 .12%), p ots a nd 3 46 ( 50 .87%) b owls . A mong t he p ots, v essel f orm 5 c onstitutes s lightly m ore t han 5 0% o f t he t otal. T his f orms p art o f t he g eneral c lass o f f orms 3 t o 6w hich a re t hought t o b e l ess r esistant t o b reakage o n t he b asis o f v essel p rofile . T he l east r epresented a re v essel f orms 2 , 7a nd 8 w hich m ay n ot h ave b een i ntended f or g eneral p urposes a nd a re t hus m ore r are . T his m ay a ccount f or t he v ery s mall n umber o f t hem r ecovered ( Table 6 2) . A mong t he b owls, t he s mallest n umber r epresented w ere f orms 1 0 a nd 1 5 , a ccounting f or 1 ( 3 .17%) o f t he t otal ; t hese w ere t hought t o h ave s erved n on-domestic p urposes . T he c ommonest f orms a mong t he b owls w ere 1 2 , 1 4 a nd 1 3 i n o rder o f f requency ; a ccounting f or m ore t han 7 5% o f t he t otal . W ithin W are B , t he l owest l evels ( Levels 1 2 t o 2 0) h ad a g reater c oncentration o f v essel f orms c ompared t o t he u pper l evels ( Levels I t o I l w hich m ight h e t he r esult o f r eplacement b y o ther t ypes o f m aterials s uch a s i ron , b asketry a nd w ooden o bjects w hich c ould a lso s erve f unctions s imilar t o t hose o f p ottery ( Table 6 3) . T o W are B a lso a re a ttributed a l arge n umber o f p otsherds u sed a s p avement f or f looring c onstruction , e specially i n t he e arly p art o f t he u pper l evels ( Levels 9 t o 1) .
K ASAKOGI W EST P ottery R ecovered f rom E xcavation K asakogi W est p ottery c onsisted l argely o f t hin a nd b urnished s herds f rom p ots a nd b owls ; 2 32 s herds w ere d ecorated ( 44 .02%) . D ecorations o n b odysherds i nclude i n t he o rder o f f requency: c ompound d ecoration, g rooving , s tamping , r oulette , i ncision a nd p erforation . T he p ots i nclude s mall t o m edium s ized g lobular v essels w ith e verted r ims w ith r ounded t apered o r b evelled l ip .
T he b owls i nclude r estricted,
u nrestricted,
e verted , i nverted a nd v essels w ith s traight o r n early s traight r ims . A ttributes u sed i n t he s tudy a nd a nalysis o f t he p ottery i nicude ( 1 ) r im f orms, ( 2) d ecorated b ody s herds, ( 3) p lain b odysherds, ( 4 ) b ase f orms ,
2 44
N o t B u r n ished B ur n ished B l ack
CO L O U R R edd ish - [ Y e l low i sh IB rown I G r ey IY e l low I R ed D e co R a ted S he rds N o t B u r n i shed B u r n i shed N -
N N
r 4
‚ '
Q
00
N
-
N
-
C '
-
r
r -
r
f l
: :
L '
P l a in B ody S he rd s -
r -
-
r
—
2 45
-
00
N -
—
N
r '
N
- . -
"
-
00
u r
1 4 ,
-
C '
-
-
N
00 o c N
C
‚
N
o c
-
"C
L° '
L l
2 46
1
-
2 1
-
1
-
2 4
I
V
i 5
B l ack
CO L O U R R edd ish - [ Y e l low ish I G rey R ed Y e l low I R ed
N N N
r ' ' rLr .
N N
V
QC
C 1 4 C 1
SPi 1 . 1S
J o
S O
2 47
P= P e r fo r a t ion
R= R ou le t te
H istogram o f D ecorative Motifs o r
t p
( 5) l ids, a nd ( 6) p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing .
T he p lain and t he
d ecorated b odysherds w ere o bserved o n t he b asis o f c olour a nd b urnishing a nd t he d ecorated s herds f urther i n t erms o f d ecorative t echniques a nd m otifs . T he r ims a nd n ecks w ere s orted o ut i nto d iagnostic a nd n on-diagnostic, w hile t he d iagnostic r ims w ere t hen c lassified i nto v essel f orms. A t otal o f
5 27 s herds w as r ecovered a t K asakogi W est ( Table 6 4),
d ivided a s f ollows: d ecorated s herds, 2 32 ( 44 .02%) ; p lain b odysherds, 2 12 ( 40 .22%) ; r ims, 5 8 ( 11 .00%) ; n ecks, 1 7 ( 3 .22%) ; d isc , 1 ( 0 .18%) ; h andle , 1( 0 .18%) ; l ids, 3 ( 0 .56%) a nd b ases, 3 ( 0 .56%). O ne m ain f eature t o b e o bserved h ere b odysherds.
i s
t he
d ominance
o f
d ecorated
b odysherds
o ver
p lain
T reatment a nd s urface f inish A s ubstantial q uantity o f s herds a t K asakogi W est w ere w ell b urnished , t hus, e ffort a nd t ime w ere d evoted t o s urface f inish o f t he p ottery ( Table 6 5) . O ut o f t he 2 12 p lain b odysherds, 1 30 ( 61 .32% ) w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, w hile t he r emaining 8 2 ( 38 .67%) w ere h andsmoothed . T he d istribution o f b urnishing o n d ecorated b odysherds w as a lmost t he s ame . O ut o f 2 32 d ecorated s herds, 1 18 ( 50 .86%) w ere h andsmoothed , w hile t he r emaining 14 ( 49 .13%) w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface ( Table 4 0 ) . C olour o n t he p lain b odysherds r anges f rom b rown, 6 1 ( 28 .77%), g rey, 7 5 ( 35 .37%), b lack , 3 3 ( 15 .56%) t o r eddish y ellow , 3 2 ( 15 .09%) a nd y ellowish r ed , 1 ( 5 .18%) , w hile o n t he d ecorated b odysherds f rom b lack , 7 2 ( 31.03%), g rey, 9 1 ( 39 .22%) t o r ed, 1 9 ( 3 .44%), r eddish y ellow , 4 3 ( 18 .53%) a nd y ellowish r ed,
1 8 ( 7.75%)
( Table 6 5).
D ecoration A t otal o f 2 32 s herds f rom K asakogi W est w ere d ecorated , c haracterized b y a v ariety o f d ecorations w hich i nclude i n t he o rder o f f requency , g rooving, 3 3 ( 14 .22%) ; s tamping, 3 2 ( 13 .79%) ; r oulette, 1 0 ( 4 .31%) ; i ncision , 9 ( 3 .87%) ; p erforation , 3 ( 1 .29%) a nd c ompound d ecoration , 1 45 ( 62 .5%) ( Tables 6 6 a nd 6 7; F ig. 5 4) . I t c ould h e s een t hat a ll t he d ecorative m otifs w ere r estricted t o t he u pper l evels ( Table 6 6) . I t c ould a lso b e s een t hat g rooving, f orming 3 3 ( 14 .22% ) , w as d ominated b y b anded h orizontal g rooves, a ccounting f or 2 0(60 .60% ) w hile s tamping ( 32 ( 13 .79%)) w as d ominated b y m ultiple d otting , a ccounting f or 2 9 ( 90 .62%) .
V essel F orms T able 6 4
s hows
the
d istribution o f s herds r ecovered f orm K asakogi W est
i ncluding d iagnostic a nd n on-diagnostic r ims a nd n eck s . I t c ould b e s een t hat o ut o f 7 5 r ims a nd n ecks, r ims n umbered 5 8 ( 77 .33%) w hile n ecks f ormed 1 7 ( 22 .66%) . D iagnostic r ims c onstituted 3 3 ( 56 .89%) a nd n on-diagnostic r ims 2 5 ( 43 .10%). D iagnostic n ecks a mounted t o 9 ( 52 .94%), w hile n ond iagnostic n ecks n umbered 8 ( 47 .05%) . T hirty-three d iagnostic r im s herds w ere t hen s ubmitted f or f orm a nalysis w hich r evealed s even m ain v essel t ypes o ut o f w hich t en v essel f orms h ave b een r ecognized ( Tables 6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0) . T hese t en v essel f orms a re s u n i narized b elow .
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F orm 1 ( 1 s pecimen ) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted r im . B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles a re s lightly a ngled t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 5)) . T he s pecimen w as r ecovered f rom L evel 1 4 . B lack i n c olour , i t i s f inely m ade a nd w as b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 3 cm ; r im t hickness 5 n i n ; r im /neck j oint 7 mm ; b ody t hickness 6 mm a nd r im d iameter 1cm . I t h as a r ounded l ip a nd l acked d ecoration . F orm 2 ( 3 s pecimens). T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith e verted r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s s harply a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig. 3 6 ( 3)). T hree s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 1f rom L evel 3 ; 1f rom L evel 5 a nd 1 f rom L evel 9 . O ne o f t he s pecimens w as b lack w hile t he r emaining t wo w ere g rey i n c olour . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade a nd w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 2 .2cm t o 2 .5cm ; r im t hickness f rom 7 mm t o 8 0 1m; r im/neck j oint f rom 7 mm t o 1 2mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 7 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 2cm t o 1 7cm . T wo o f t he s pecimens a re d ecorated , w hile t he r emaining o ne w as p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f b anded h orizontal g rooves o n t he i nner p art o f t he l ip o f t he t wo s pecimens; o ne o f t he s pecimens c ontains s ingle h orizontal g rooves, w hile t he o ther h ad b anded h orizontal g rooves b elow t he n eck .
T wo o f t he s pecimens h ad a b evelled l ip , w hile t he
r emaining o ne h ad a r ounded l ip . F orm 3 ( 3 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted
r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a h emispherical b ody t hat r ests o n a s hort n eck m easuring 1 . 5cm t hat i s c oncave o n t he e xterior p art a nd c onvex o n t he i nterior p art, w here b oth p rofiles g ently c urve t o j oin w hat a ppears t o b e a g lobular b ody . T he u pper s pecimens, e xcluding t he n eck a nd h andle , a ll f orming p art o f a s ingle v essel, w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 6 . F inely m ade a nd w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t hey w ere r eddish y ellow i n c olour . T he h eight o f t he v essel m easured 1mm ; b ody t hickness 6 mm ; r im t hickness 6 mm a nd r im d iameter 6 cm , w hile t he b ody t hickness o f t he l ower v essel m easured 4 mm . T he v essel e xhibits d ecoration c onsisting o f s erration o n t he i nner p art o f t he l ip a nd s ingle c omb-stamping , t riangular t oothed , a round t he b ase o f t he n eck , b ordering b anded g rooves, a lso e xecuted a round t he b ody o f t he v essel. T he h andle h as c ompound d ecoration c onsisting o f c arved w ooden r oulette o n t he s ides a nd a c ombination o f b anded h orizontal g rooves a nd c omb-stamping , d otting o n t he l ower a nd u pper f rontal p art o f t he h andle . T he v essel h as a r ounded l ip . F orm 4 ( 5 s pecimens ) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot ) w ith s lightly e verted
r im . B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles a re n ot a ngled b ut c urve s moothly t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 8)) . F ive s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 4 f rom L evel 1 2 a nd 1 f rom L evel 2 0 . G reyish i n c olour, t hey w ere f inely m ade , f our o f t hem w ere b urnished b oth o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urface w hile t he r emaining o ne w as h andsmoothed . W hile t he h eight o f t he r im , r im/neck j oint a nd b ody t hickness c ould n ot b e m easured f rom a ny o f t he s pecimens, r im t hickness r anges f rom 6 mm t o 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1cm t o 1 3cm . O ne s pecimen e xhibited d ecoration , w hile t he r emaining f our w ere l eft p lain . D ecoration c onsists o f b anded i ncision , d rawing , f inely m ade b elow t he l ip a nd p art o f t he n eck .
F our o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded
l ip , t he r emaining o ne h ad a t apered l ip . F orm 5 ( 4 s pecimens ) . T his i s an ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith s lightly e verted s hort r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled, t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a s hallow b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( it)) . T his v essel
2 54
i s d ifferent f rom v essel f orm 6 o n t he b asis o f s hape a nd s ize . F our s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 3 f rom L evel 6 a nd 1 f rom L evel 2 0 . T he f our s pecimens w ere y ellowish r ed i n c olour . T hree o f t he s pecimens, f orming p art o f a s ingle v essel w ere a ll h andsmoothed , w hile t he r emaining s pecimen w as b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . R im t hickness o f t he r econstructed s herds m easured 4 mm ; b ody t hickness 5 mm ; t he v essel w as 4 cm i n h eight a nd h as a r im d iameter o f 5 . 5cm . I t h as a r ounded b ase, 7m m i n t hickness . T hey a ll l acked d ecoration a nd h ad a r ounded l ip . F orm 6 ( 2 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith s lightly e verted
r im . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 11) ) . T he v essel h as a b ody t hat i s f lowing i nward f rom t he r im t o t he b ody s o t hat t he r im d iameter i s e qual t o o r s lightly g reater t han t he b ody d iameter t aken a t t he w idest s ection . T wo s pecimens, y ellowish r ed i n c olour w ere r ecoverd f rom L evel 3 . T he t wo s pecimens w ere h andsmoothed a nd s eem t o b elong t o as ingle v essel . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 1 . 8cm ; r im t hickness 8 n im ; r im/neck j oint 9 mm ; b ody t hickness 8 mm a nd r im d iameter m easured 8 cm . T he t wo s pecimens h ad d ecorations c onsisting o f d otting o n t he i nner p art o f t he l ip a nd c ompound d ecoration o f b anded h orizontal g rooves b ordering c ombs tamping, d otting, e xecuted f rom t he n eck a nd c overing t he b ody o f t he v essel . B oth h ad a r ounded l ip . F orm 7 ( 6 s pecimens) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith u nrestricted r im j oining a s hallow b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 14) ) . S ix s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 4f rom L evel 2 a nd 2 f rom L evel 9 . F our w ere y ellowish w hile t he r emaining t wo a re g rey i n c olour . F our o f t he s pecimens s eem t o b elong t o a s ingle v essel, w hile t he r emaining t wo a lso f orm p art o f a nother v essel . T hey w ere a ll h andsmoothed . T he h eight o f t he v essel r anges f ran 2 .7cm t o 2 .9cm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 6 cm ; t he t wo v essels h ad a r ounded b ase , 7 mm a nd 1 0 m i n t hickness . T hey a ll l acked d ecoration a nd h ad a r ounded l ip . F orm 8 ( 6 s pecimens) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith r estricted r im j oining a h emispherical b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 15)) . S ix s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 1f rom L evel 2 ; 1f rom L evel 4 ; 1f rom L evel 7 ; 1f rom L evel 9 a nd 2 Fr c in L evel 1 4 . F ive o f t hem w ere g rey , t he r emaining o ne w as b lack i n c olour . F our o f t he s pecimens w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t he r emaining t wo w ere h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 5m m t o 6 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 6 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 7 cm t o 1 5cm . F our o f t he s pecimens e xhibited d ecoration , w hile t he r emaining
t wo w ere p lain .
D ecorations
i nclude s ingle h orizontal g rooves
( 1) b elow t he l ip ; r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord a lternating b anded h orizontal g rooves ( 1) ; b anded h orizontal i ncision b ordering c omb-stamping , d otting ( 1 ) a nd b anded v ertical g rooves a ll e xecuted b elow t he l ip a nd t he b ody o f t he v essel . T hey a ll h ad a r ounded l ip . F orm 9 ( 1 s pecimen ) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith s traight o r n early s traight r im j oining a h emispherical b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 16) ) . T he s pecimen w as r ecovered f rom L evel 1 4 . R eddish b rown i n c olour i t w as h andsmoothed .
R im t hickness m easured 6 mm .
I t h as a d ecoration o f c arved
w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag o n t he w hole b ody f rom t he l ip w hich i s t apered . F orm 1 0 ( 2 s pecimens) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith i nverted r im j oining a s hallow b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 17)) . T wo s pecimens w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 7 . F inely m ade a nd w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface ,
o ne w as b lack w hile t he r emaining o ne w as r eddish y ellow
2 55
i n c olour .
T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 1 . 3cm t o 2 .2cm ;
r im t hickness
f rom 6 mm t o 1 0mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 7 mm t o 1 . 5cm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 9 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 2cm t o 2 2cm . T hey b oth c ontained d ecorations c onsisting o f r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord , b ordering s ingle h orizontal i ncision a t t he r im/neck j oint a nd b anded h orizontal g rooves a lternating c arved w ooden r oulette , e xecuted o n t he b ody o f t he v essel . T hey b oth h ad a t apered up . B ases T hree s pecimens o f b ases w ere r ecovered f rom K asakogi W est : 1 f rom L evel 5 ; 1f rom L evel 2 1 a nd 1 f rom L evel 2 2 ( Table 6 4) . T he b ases w ere o f t wo t ypes: a r ounded b ase a nd a r ing b ase . T he r ounded b ase, r ecovered f rom L evel 5 f orms p art o f ag lobular v essel t hat p robably b elongs t o v essel f orm 3 . Y ellowish r ed i n c olour , i t i s b urnished o n t he o uter s urface a nd h andsmoothed o n t he i nner s urface . T he b ase h as a c omplete b ody d iameter o f 1 4 .3cm a nd b ody t hickness o f 5 mm . T he r ecovered s pecimen s howed t hat t he b ase a nd t he l ower p art o f t he b ody w as m anufactured s eparately a nd w as l ater j oined t o t he u pper p art o f t he v essel; t he l ower p art o f t he v essel, i ncluding t he b ase, h as a h eight o f 3 4 .3cm . W hile t he i nner l ine o f w eakness c ould s till b e s een i n t he f orm o f a r idge o n t he i nner s urface , t he o uter s urface i s s moothed a nd w ell b urnished . T he r ounded b ase e xhibited c ompound d ecoration o f b anded h orizontal g roves a lternating w ith c arved w ooden r oulette , z ig-zag o n t op o f w hich w ere m ultiple c urvilinear a nd o blique g rooves ; i n s ome p laces t here w as m ultiple d otting e xecuted o n t he b anded o blique g rooves . T he o ther f orm o f b ase d istinguished a t K asakogi W est w as a r ing b ase . T he s pecimen, i n t wo p arts, w as r ecovered f rom L evel 2 1 a nd L evel 2 2 . R eddish b rown i n c olour, t he t wo p arts w ere h andsmoothed . T he r ing b ase m easured
1 0mm
s urrounding
i n
t hickness
a nd h as
f inely m ade
b anded
i ncision ,
d raw ing
i t .
S ummary o f V essel F orms a t K asakogi W est F rom t he a nalysis o f t he 3 3 r im s herds, i t c ould b e s een t hat p ots f orm 1 2
( 36 .36% ) w hile b owls c onstitute 2 1
( 63 .63%) ,
o f t he v essels ;
t hus m ore
b owls w ere p resent. T here w as a n i ncrease i n t he u se o f p ots a nd b owls t hrough t ime . A mong t he p ots, v essel f orm 4 w as m ost n umerous ( 5 ( 41 .66%)) w hile v essel f orm 1 w as l east ( 1 ( 8 .33%) ) . A mong t he b owls, t he d ominant s hapes w ere v essel f orms 7 a nd 8 , a ccounting f or o ver 5 0% o f t he t otal, w hile t he l east n umerous w as v essel f orm 9 , a ccounting f or 1 ( 4.76%) . V arious t ypes o f v essel w ere u sed i n L evels 1 4 , 9 , 7a nd 6 . T he s mallest n umbers o f s pecimens w ere r ecovered f rom v essel f orms 3 , 5a nd 7 .
L ids T hree l id s pecimens w ere r ecovered :
1f rom L evel 4 a nd 2 f rom L evel 6 ;
t wo o f t he s pecimens f orming p art o f a s ingle l id ( Table 6 4) . T he t wo l ids w ere c onvex o n t he i nner s urface a nd c oncave o n t he o uter s urface a nd c ontained a k nob a t t he c entre o f t he i nner s urface u sed f or h olding t hen . T wo o f t he s pecimens w ere y ellow ish r ed, t he r emaining w as g rey i n c olour . T wo w ere h andsmoothed w hile t he r emaining s pecimen w as b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . B ody t hickness o f t he l id r anges f rom 4 mm t o 6 mm ; t hickness o f t he k nob a t t he b ase f rom 1 . 5cm t o 2 . 0cm a nd t he h eight o f t he
2 56
S
V e s se l P rof i le 9 1 ( ) 1 1 2J
S amp le Si z e
:
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-
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62 6 1
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-
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D eco r a ted S he rds
iE a s t E xcava t ion . D is tr ibu t ion o fP o t te
f
—
( I-
p
r
I
P
k nob o n o ne o f
t he
s pecimen ,
m easured 1 . 7cm .
R im d iameter o f o ne o f t he
s pecimens a lso m easured 1 0 .4cm a nd h ad a r ounded l ip. O r te s pecimen c ontained b anded g rooves a round t he k nob o n t he i nner s urface, t he r emaining t wo s pecimens w ere p lain .
D isc A s ingle
s pecimen o f a p ottery d isc w as r ecovered
f rom L evel
1 .
R eddish y ellow i n c olour , i t i s h andsmoothed . S ub-roundish i n s hape, i t i s g round a nd s moothed o n t he e dges a nd h as a d iameter o f 3 .8cm a nd a t hickness o f 9 nm .
I t c ontained b anded h orizontal g rooves o n t he o uter s urface .
K ASA I KOGI E AST P ottery R ecovered f rom E xcavation K asakogi E ast e xcavated p ottery , c onsisting o f b roken p ieces, b elongs t o o ne w are , d ivisible i nto t wo g roups: s herds r ecovered f rom L evels 1 t o 2 7 a nd f rom t he n orth h alf o f L evel 2 8 , c onstitute t he m ain p ottery . T he v essels, m ade o f a f ine p aste , a re l argely w ell b urnished a nd w ere t hinly m ade . T he e arliest e ncountered s herds, n umbering t wenty-one , r ecovered f rom t he s outh h alf o f L evel 2 8 a nd f rom L evel 2 9 , c onstitute t he s ub-group . T he v essels, g enerally c oarse, w ere r elatively t hick a nd l argely u nburnished . T he s herds a re f rom p ots a nd b owls. T hey w ere l argely u ndecorated ( decorations a ccounting f or a bout 1 7.87% o f t he t otal). D ecorations o n t he d ecorated b odysherds, i nclude i n t he o rder o f f requency , c ompound d ecorations, r oulette, g rooving, i ncision, p erforation a nd s tamping . T he p ots w ere s mall t o m edium s ized g lobular v essels w ith e verted r ims .
T he b owls i nclude r estricted, i nverted , e verted, v essels w ith
h orizontal f lattened r ims a nd t hose w ith s traight o r n early s traight r ims . A ttributes u sed i n t he s tudy a nd a nalysis o f t he p ottery w ere 1 ) r im f orms, 2 ) d ecorated b ody s herds, 3 ) p lain b odysherds, 4 ) b ase f orms, 5 ) p erforated s herds, 6 ) p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing a nd 7 ) c olour . T he p lain b odysherds w ere s elected f or f iring t emperature a nalysis a ccording t o l evels; s amples w ere s elected f or e lectron s pin r esonance s pectroscopy , t hermoluminiscent d ating , p hysical a nd m icroscopic e xamination a nd X -ray d iffraction a nalysis . T hese r esults w ill b e p ublished e lsewhere . T hey w ere t hen o bserved o n t he b asis o f c olour a nd b urnishing . T he d ecorated s herds a nd r ims/necks w ere s ubjected t o c olour a nalysis, p resence o r a bsence o f b urnishing a nd c ondition , i e . w hether f resh o r w orn . T he d ecorated s herds w ere t hen o bserved m ore i n d etail a nd c lassified o n t he b asis o f d ecorative t echniques a nd m otifs, w hile t he r ims/necks w ere s orted i nto d iagnostic a nd n on-diagnostic ; t he d iagnostic r ims w ere t hen c lassified i nto v essel f orms . T able 7 1 s hows t hat p ottery w as r ecovered f rom a ll t he l evels w ith t he e xception o f L evel 2 a nd L evel 5 ; b ut l argely f rom t he u pper l evels ( Levels 1 5 t o 2 9) w ith t he e xception o f L evel 2 8 w here a s ubstantial a mount w as a lso r ecovered. T able 7 1 a lso s hows t he d istribution o f p otsherds r ecovered f rom K asakogi E ast e xcavation . At otal o f 1 ,745 s herds w ere r ecovered, d ivided a s f ollows: p lain b odysherds, 1 ,116 ( 63 .95%) ; d ecorated b odysherds, 3 12 ( 17 .87%) ; r ims, 2 10 ( 12 .0%) ; n ecks, 1 04 ( 5 .95%) a nd b ases, 3 ( 0 .17%) . T he t hree b ases, r ecovered f rom L evels 1 7 , 1 8 a nd 2 0 , w ere r ounded , 2 o f t hem p erforated ( those f rom L evels 1 7 a nd 1 8) . E ight g lazed s herds w ere a lso
2 60
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2 .
R econnaissance .
N E
v iew o f
t he e xposed p art o f m ound A ,
S cale 2 -metre r anging r od m arked i n 5 Ocm ;
2 71
L ocality 7 .
i m r od m arked i n 2 0cm .
3 .
R econnaissance .
N v iew o f m ound C , L ocality 1 0 ,
s howing c ircular a nd
r ectangular h uts a nd g ranaries , p resently b eing o ccupied . m eter r anging r od m arked i n 5 Ocm ; i m r od m arked i n 2 Ocm .
2 72
S cale 2 -
4 .
R af i n N doko .
C utting I V ,
l ooking W a t e nd o f e xcavation .
m etre r anging r od m arked i n 5 Ocn i .
2 73
S cale 2 -
5 .
K ongon M akeri.
V iew o f s ite b efore e xcavation .
2 74
6 .
K ongon M akeri .
V iew f rom t he E a t t he e nd o f e xcavation ,
s taircase i n t he S s trip i n u n its E t o H , t he n atural u ndisturbed d eposit .
2 75
s howing t he
a nd t he N s trip e xcavated t o
7 .
K ongon M akeri . E f ace o f C utting 1 A , f rom t he s urface d own t o L evel 1 8 . S cale r anging r od m arked i n 5 0cm .
2 76
8 .
K ongon M akeri . P ortion o f c ircular b ut w ail i n C uttings 1 B , L evel 1 8 . S cale i n 2 Ocm .
2 77
9 .
K ongon
M akeri .
C utting 1 A , L evel
C loser 1 4 .
v iew o f
m ass
S cale i n c m .
2 78
o f h uman h ones
( Feature
1 3) i n
r ecovered :
1f rom l evels
1 a nd 1 2 ;
1f rom L evel 2 2 a nd 6 f rom l evel 2 3 .
W ith t he e xception o f t he s ingle p lain b odysherd f rom L evels i a nd 1 2 , r emaining
7 s pecimens w ere
d ecorated g lazed
s herds,
t he
p robably o btained b y
t rade.
T reatment a nd S urface F inish T he a nalysis o f K asakogi F ast p ottery c ollection , e specially t he p lain b odysherds, s howed t hat g reat c are a nd e ffort m ust h ave b een t aken t o g ive t he v essels t he n ecessary s urface f inish . T able 7 2 s hows t he d istribution o f b urnishing o n t he d ecorated a nd p lain b odysherds . I t c ould b e s een t hat 7 39 ( 66 .21%) o ut o f 1 ,116 b odysherds w ere b urnished, w hile 3 77 ( 33 .78%) Wre h andsmoothed ; a nd 1 73 ( 55 .44%) o ut o f 3 12 d ecorated s herds w ere b urnished w hile 1 39 ( 44 .55%) w ere h andsmoothed. A part f rom a f ew q uartz f lakes r ecovered f rom t he u pper l evels w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave b een u sed f or b urnishing, n o o ther t ools w ere r ecovered f rom t he e xcavation t hat w ould p rovide a c lue a s t o wh at t ool w as e mployed f or t he t reatment a nd s urface f inish o f K asakogi F ast p ottery . C olour o f t he p lain b odysherds r anges f rom b lack , 4 49 ( 40 .23%) ; y ellowish r ed, 2 57 ( 23 .02%) ;; r eddish y ellow , 2 21 ( 19 .80%) ; g rey , 1 40 ( 12 .54%) t o b rown 4 9 ( 4 .39%) ( Table 7 2) . I t c ould b e c oncluded t hat a d eliberate a ttempt w as m ade b y t he i nhabitants o f K asakogi E ast i n f iring t heir v essels t o o btain a r educing a tmosphere, a nd t hus p roduce v essels t hat w ere b lackish o r n ear b lack ( grey b rown ) a s o xidizing a tmosphere, p roducing v essels t hat a re r eddish i n c olour .
a gainst
D ecoration K asakogi F ast p ottery d ecoration a ccording t o t he v arious t echniques a nd m otifs a re s hown i n T ables 7 3 , 7 4 a nd F ig . 5 3 . I t c an b e s een t hat t he 3 12 d ecorated s herds w ere c haracterized b y a v ariety o f d ecoration w hich i ncludes, i n t he o rder o f f requency , r oulette , 8 5 ( 27 .24%) ; g rooving , 4 7 ( 15 .06%) ; i ncision, 2 5 ( 8 .01%) ; p erforation, 1 0 ( 3 .20%) a nd s tamping, 3 ( 0 .96%) a s w ell a s
c ompound d ecoration ,
1 42
( 45 .51%) .
A n a ttempt w as m ade
t o s ee w hich m ajor s ub-forms o f d ecorative m otifs d ominated e ach m ajor c ategory, j e . r oulette, g rooving a nd i ncision . I t c ould b e s een t hat r oulette, f orming 8 5 ( 27 .24%), w as d ominated e qually b y c arved w ooden r oulette , 3 0 ( 35 .29%) a nd b y k notted c ord r oulette , 3 0 ( 35 .29%) . G rooving , f orming 4 7 ( 15 .06%), w as d ominated b y b anded h orizontal g rooving, 2 1 ( 44 .68% ) a nd s ingle h orizontal g rooving , 1 5 ( 31 .91% ) . I ncision , t he l ast m ajor d ecorative m otif, f orming 2 5 ( 8 .01%) w as d ominated b y s ingle h orizontal i ncision 1 7 ( 68%) a nd b y b anded h orizontal i ncision 6 ( 24%) . A n a ttempt w as a lso m ade t o s ee i f t here w ere c hanges a nd v ariations i n t he d ifferent d ecorative m otifs e mployed t hrough t ime a t K asakogi F ast, s ince t he p ottery r ecovered s eemed t o p rovide a f airly l ong s equence , w hich c ould b e s tudied . T he s equence w as d ivided i nto t hree l evels, L evels I , I I , I II , o n t he b asis o f h orizontal l evels a t v arious d epths ( Tables 7 5 , 7 6 , 7). 1 ) 2 )
L evel I r uns f rom s pit 1 t hrough s pit 1 0. L evel I I r uns f rom s pit i t hrough s pit 2 0.
3 )
L evel I II r uns f rom s pit 2 1 t hrough s pit 2 9.
L evel
I II d ecorated s herds,
o ccurring
f rom s pit
2 1
t hrough
c ontained . a t otal o f 3 9 d ecorated s herds d ominated b y r oulette,
2 79
s pit
2 9 ,
1 3 ( 33 .33%) ;
-
6
7
8
1 3 1 4
1 5
2
2
L ip P rof i le 1 6 1 7 I X 1 9
2 0
-
E , -
c
7
3
-
4
2
V e s se l P rof i le 1 0 1 1 2
E
2
1
9
V
S hape 4 5
r im s herds .
B e tween V es se l F o rm
r
OC
2 80
r
1 4
2 7
V
-
-
D C
— -
-
cl
-
ri DC
ri
—
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I r t DC
I'-
H
9
-
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-
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2 3
Ve s s el For m s 5 6 7
r l
1
1
T o ta l
1 7
2
r 1
2 0
4
r l
I
3
r -
r i
1 7
2
r 1
I I
1
I
n o s t ic R im S he rds A cco rd in
-
1 3 1 4 1 5
L eve ls
T able 8 0 : K a sako
c " I r i i r r - r
-
i ' C r -
-
-
1 2
-
-
-
o c
-
.
-
- E
i ncision,
3 ( 7.69%) ;
p erforation,
3 ( 7.69%) ;
g rooving,
2 ( 5 .12%) a nd
c ompound d ecoration , 1 8 ( 46 .15%) . L evel I I , r unning f rom s pit 1 t hrough s pit 2 0 c ontained 1 27 d ecorated s herds d ominated b y r oulette 4 0 ( 31 .49% ) ; g rooving, 9 ( 7 .08%) ; i ncision , 8 ( 6 .29%) ; p erforation , 5 ( 3 .93%) a nd c ompound d ecoration , 6 5 ( 51 .18%) . L evel I r unning f rom s pit 1 t hrough s pit 1 0 c ontained a t otal o f 1 46 s herds d ominated b y g rooving, 3 6 ( 24 .65%) ; r oulette, 3 2 ( 21.91%) ; i ncision, 1 4 ( 9 .58%) ; s tamping, 3 ( 2 .05%) ; p erforation, a nalysis, i t
2 ( 1 .36%) a nd c ompound d ecoration , 5 9 ( 40 .41%) . F rom t he c ould b e s een t hat a ttention w as f ocused p rogressively o n
c ompound d ecoration a nd r oulette i n L evel I ll, o n c ompound d ecoration , r oulette , g rooving a nd i ncision i n L evel I I a nd i n L evel I p rogressively o n c ompound d ecoration a nd g rooving ; r oulette w as a lmost e qually u sed . I n L evels I , I I , I II , s tamping a nd p erforation w ere v irtually i nsignificant . W ith t ime , c ompound d ecoration w as d ominant, w ith w hen s lightly l ess a ttention w as p aid t o i t .
t he e xception o f L evel I
V essel F orms T able 7 1 s hows t he d istribution o f s herds r ecovered f rom K asakogi F ast i ncluding d iagnostic a nd n on-diagnostic r ims a nd n eck s . O ut o f a t otal o f 3 14 r ecovered, r ims n umbered 2 10 ( 66 .87%) , w hile n ecks f ormed 1 04 ( 33 .12% ) . D iagnostic r ims c onstituted 8 4 ( 26 .75%) a nd n on-diagnostic r ims 1 26 ( 40 .12%) . D iagnostic n ecks a mounted t o 4 2 ( 13 .37%) , w hile n on-diagnostic n ecks w as 6 2 ( 19 .74%) . T hese e ighty-four d iagnostic r im s herds w ere t hen s ubmitted f or v essel f orm a nalysis w hich r evealed e ight m ain v essel t ypes ( Table 7 8) o ut o f w hich e leven v essel f orms h ave b een r ecognized ( Tables 7 9 a nd 8 0). T hese e leven v essel f orms a re s ummarized b elow . F orm 1 ( 1 s pecimen ) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot ) w ith s harply e verted r im , a ngled o n b oth p rofiles t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 1)) . R ecovered f rom L evel 1 , i t i s y ellowish r ed i n c olour a nd w as b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 2 .5cm ; r im t hickness 6 mm ; r im/neck j oint 9 mm ; b ody t hickness 5 mm a nd r im d iameter m easured 9 cm . I t e xhibited b anded h orizontal g rooves o n t he r im/neck j oint a nd h as a s quared l ip . F orm 2 ( 10 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted
r im ( Fig . 3 6 ( 5) ) . B oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior p rofiles w ere s lightly a ngled t o j oin a g lobular b ody . T en s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 1f rom L evel 3 ; 2f rom L evel 9 ; 6f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 a nd 1 f ron L evel 2 8 . N ine w ere b lack , t he r emaining o ne w as r eddish y ellow i n c olour . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade a nd w ere w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 3 .0cm t o 3 .2cm ; r im t hickness f rom 6mm t o 7 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 7 mm t o 8 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 7m m a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 1cm t o 1 3cm . D ecorations c onsist o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves e xecuted o n t he r im/neck j oint o f 7 o f t he s pecimens, w hile t he r emaining 3 c onsist o f b anded i rregular g rooves o n c omb-stamping ( 1 ) o n t he l ower p art o f t he r im a nd r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord , b ordering s ingle h orizontal g rooves ( 2) c overing n early t he w hole r im t o t he n eck e xcept 8 mm f rom t he l ip . E ight o f t he s pecimens h ad a f lattened l ip , w hile t he r emaining 2 h ad a t apered l ip . F orm 3 ( 9 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith s lightly e verted r im ( Fig . 3 6 ( 8)) . B oth t he i nterior a nd t he e xterior p rofiles g ently c urve t o j oin a s pherical b ody . N ine s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 2 f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 ;
1f rom L evel 1 4 ;
1f ron L evel 2 0 ;
2 82
1f rom L evel 2 6 a nd 4
f rom L evel 2 8 . F our w ere r eddish y ellow , 2w ere b lack a nd 3 w ere b rown i n c olour . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade a nd w ere w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 2 .0cm t o 3 .5cm ; r im t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 9 i r u i i ; r im /neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 5 mm t o 8 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 0cm t o 1 6cm . S even o f t he s pecimens e xhibit d ecoration , w hile t he r emaining 2 w ere p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f r oulette, p ossbily a chieved b y c ord ( 2) e xecuted o n t he r im a nd o n t he b ody o f t he v esel; s ingle h orizontal i ncision ( 2 ) , o n t he r im /neck j oint ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves a lternating w ith s quare-toothed c omb-stamping ( 1) , b elow t he n eck o r o n t he s houlder; s ingle h orizontal g rooves o n a nd b ordering c arved w ooden r oulette u nder w hich w as a lso e xecuted i rregular a nd b anded h orizontal
g rooves
( 1 ) c overing t he w hole
r im b elow t he
l ip ;
a nd
w hat a ppeared t o b e b anded h orizontal g rooves, u nder w hich w as a lso e xecuted s ingle h orizontal s quare-toothed c omb-stamping o n t op o f b anded h orizontal g rooves ( 1) c overing t he w hole r im a nd t he n eck o f t he v essel. F ive o f t he s pecimens h ad a r ounded l ip , t apered l ip .
1h ad a f lattened l ip a nd t he r emaining 3 h ad a
F orm 4 ( 1 s pecimen ) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( pot) w ith a n e verted r im a nd a c onstricted n eck , w hich t hough n ot a ngular q uickly c urves t o j oin t he s houlder o f a g lobular b ody . T he o nly s pecimen , r ecovered f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 , i t w as b lack i n c olour a nd w as w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im m easured 2 .5cm ; r im t hickness 9 mm ; r im /neck j oint 1mm ; b ody t hickness 1mm a nd r im d iameter m easured 8 cm . l acks d ecoration a nd h as a r ounded l ip. F orm 5 ( 5
s pecimens ) .
T his
i s
a n ecked
v essel
( pot )
I t
w ith a c onstricted
n eck a nd a l ong r im t hat i s c onvex o n t he o uter s urface a nd c oncave o n t he i nner s urface . W hile t he i nterior p rofile i s a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile g ently c urves t o j oin a p resumably g lobular b ody . F ive s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 2f rom L evel 3 ; 1f rom L evels i a nd 1 2 ; 1f rom L evel 2 6 a nd 1 f rom L evel 2 8 . T hree o f t hem w ere r eddish y ellow , 1b rown a nd 1 g rey i n c olour . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade a nd w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 4 .4cm t o 7 .6cm f rom t he l ip ; r im t hickness f rom 7 mm t o 8 mm ; r im /neck j oint f rom 7 mm t o 1 2mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 7 cm t o 9 cm . T he f ive s pecimens e xhibit d ecorations w hich i nclude r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 1) o n t he w hole r im a nd a c ombination o f s ingle h orizontal i ncision a lternating w ith c ord r oulette a nd b ordering v erticaly a ligned b anded g rooves u nder w hich w as a lso o bserved s ingle h orizontal g rooves a lternating w ith w hat a ppeared t o b e c arved w ooden r oulette, k notted p attern o n c arved w ooden r oulette , c hecker b oard p attern , b ordering s ingle c omb-stamping i mpression , e xecuted o n t he w hole r im a nd t he s houlder o f t he v essel. T wo o f t he s pecimens h ad a b evelled l ip, t apered , w hile t he r emaining 1 h ad a r ounded l ip .
2a
F orm 6 ( 1 s pecimen ). T his i s an ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith a h orizontal f lattened r im ; w hile t he i nterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled , t he e xterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a s pherical b ody . T he o nly c omplete s pecimen w as r ecovered f rom L evel 2 6 . Y ellowish r ed i n c olour, i t i s f inely m ade a nd w ell b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he v essel m easured 5 .5cm i n h eight a nd 6 cm i n d iameter . I t l acked d ecoration a nd h as a t apered l ip. F orm 7 ( 2 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith s lighly e verted r im ; w hile t he e xterior p rofile i s s lightly a ngled , t he i nterior p rofile s moothly c urves t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 12) ) . T wo s pecimens w ere r ecovered f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 .
B oth f inely m ade ,
2 83
t hey w ere b urnished o n
b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . t o 2 cm ; r im t hickness f rom 5 mm b ody t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 5 mm , c ontained c ompound d ecorations o f v ertical g rooves w hich a lso h ad r im/neck j oint d ownwards, h ad a r ounded l ip .
T he h eight o f
t he r im r anges f rom 1 . 6cm
t o 6 mm ; r im /neck j oint f rom 4 mm t o 5m m ; a nd r im d iameter m easured 9 cm . T hey b oth b anded h orizontal g rooves b ordering b anded w avy l ine b anded g rooves e xecuted f rom t he
c overing t he b ody o f t he v essel.
B oth s pecime ns
F orm 8 ( 3 s pecimens) . T his i s a n ecked v essel ( bowl) w ith s lightly e verted r im c urving g ently o n b oth p rofiles t o j oin a g lobular b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 13) ) . T he r im o f t he v essel f lares o utward a nd s o i s w ider i n d iameter t han t he b ody a t i ts w idest s ection . T hree s pecimens w ere r ecovered: If rom L evel 1 7 a nd 2 f rom L evel 2 6 . B lack i n c olour, t he t hree s pecimens w ere f inely m ade a nd w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 5 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 3 mm t o 4 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 7 mm ; b ody t hickness m easured 6 mm a nd r im d iameter r anges f rom 7 cm t o 1cm . T hey a ll l acked d ecoration a nd h ad a t apered l ip . F orm 9 ( 27 s pecimens) . T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith r estricted r im , j oining a s hallow h emispherical b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 15) ) . T he r im o f t he v essel f lares o utward a nd s o i s w ider i n d iameter t han t he b ody a t i ts w idest s ection . T he v essels c an b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups o n t he b asis o f s ize . G roup A v essels, s maller , c onsist o f t wenty f ive s pecimens r ecovered : 1f rom L evel 1 ; 2f rom L evel 3 ; 2f rom L evel 7 ; 2f rom L evel 8 ; 2 f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 ; 1f rom L evel 1 3 ; 2 f rom L evel 1 4 ; 1 f rom L evel 1 7 ; 1 f rom L evel 1 8 ; 5 f rom L evel 2 0 ; 2 f rom L evel 2 1 ; 3 f rom L evel 2 6 a nd 1 f rom L evel 2 7 . C olour r anges f rom y ellowish r ed ( 2) ; r eddish y ellow ( 7) ; b lack ( 4) t o g rey ( 12) . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade, 2 1 w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface , w hile t he r emaining f our w ere h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 4 mm t o 6 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 8 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 5 cm t o 1 2cm . T wenty o ne o f t he s pecimens a re d ecorated , w hile t he r emaining f our a re p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f c arved w ooden r oulette, z ig-zag ( 2 ) ; r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 7) b elow t he l ip ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves ( 1) a nd m ultiple c ombs tamping , t riangular t oothed , b elow t he l ip . C ompound d ecorations i nclude s ingle h orizontal g rooves a lternating w ith r oulette, z ig-zag ( 1 ) ; c arved w ooden r oulette , k notted p attern o n c arved w ooden r oulette, c hecker b oard p attern , b ordering s ingle h orizontal g rooves, b elow w hich a re b ands o f v ertical g rooves ( 1 ) a nd t riangular s haped i ncisions i nside w hich w ere b osses ( 1), a ll e xecuted b elow t he l ip a nd o n t he b ody o f t he v essel. T hirteen o f t he s pecimens h ad a f lattened l ip, 8 w ere r ounded a nd 4 b evelled . T he o ther g roup c onsists o f t wo, r ecovered f rom L evel 2 0 a nd L evel 2 8 . R eddish y ellow i n c olour , t he t wo s pecimens w ere f inely m ade a nd w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 6 mm t o 1mm ; r im t hickness 6 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 7 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 1 6cm t o 2 0cm . T he t wo s pecimens e xhibit d ecoration w hich i ncludes r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord a nd c ompound d ecorations o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves b ordering c ord r oulette , e xecuted b elow t he r im . O ne s pecimen h ad a f lattened l ip w hile t he o ther h ad a r ounded l ip . F orm 1 0 ( 14 s pecimens) .
T his i s an eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith
s traight o r n early s traight r im, j oining a h emispherical b ody ( Fig . 3 6 ( 16)) . F ourteen s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 3 f rom L evel 3 ; 1f rom L evel 1 3 ; 3f rom L evel 1 4 ; 1f rom L evel 1 8 ; 1f ro m L evel 2 6 a nd S f rom L evel 2 8 . F ive o f t he s pecimens c onsist o f v essels w ith a r im t hat f lared o utward a ns s o i s w ider i n d iameter t han t he b ody a t i ts w idest s ection . f rom r eddish y ellow ( 8)
t o b lack ( 6) .
2 84
F inely m ade,
C olour r anges
e leven o f
t he
s herds
w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface, t he r emaining t hree w ere h andsmoothed . R im t hickness r anges f rom 4 mm t o 9 mm ; b ody t hickness f rom 6 mm t o 7 mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 9 cm t o 1cm . T hirteen o f t he s pecimens w ere d ecorated , t he r emaining o ne w as p lain . D ecorations c onsist o f s ingle h orizontal g rooves ( 1) ; a s ingle r ow o f c omb-stamping , d otting! p inching ( 1) b elow t he l ip ; r oulette , p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 5 ) e xecuted o n t he b ody e xcept 8 mm b elow t he l ip ; r oulette, p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 1) c overing t he w hole v essel i ncluding t he l ip ; c arved w ooden r oulette , z igz ag ( 2) e xecuted b elow t he l ip a nd c ompound d ecorations w hich i nclude b anded h orizontal i ncision b ordering c omb-stamping d otting ( 1) ; s ingle h orizontal g rooves
b ordering
c arved w ooden r oulette
( 1) ;
e xecuted b elow t he
l ip a nd
w hat a ppears t o b e i rregular b anded g rooves o n r oulette p ossibly a chieved b y c ord ( 1 ), e xecuted b elow t he l ip . S ix o f t he s pecimens h ad a f lattened l ip , 6w ere r ounded , 1w as b evelled a nd 1 h ad a f lattened l ip . F orm 1 ( 11 s pecimens) .
T his i s a n eckless o pen m outhed v essel ( bowl) w ith
i nverted r im , j oining a s hallow b ody ( Fig . 3 6(17) ) . E leven s pecimens w ere r ecovered: 1f rom L evel 1 ; 2f rom L evel 3 ; 2f rom L evel 7 ; 1f rom L evel 1 0 ; 3f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 a nd 2 f rom L evel 2 2 . T hey w ere a ll f inely m ade , t en o f t hem w ere b urnished o n b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s urface , t he r emaining o ne w as h andsmoothed . S even o f t hem w ere r eddish y ellow , 2w ere g rey a nd 2 w ere b rown i n c olour . T he h eight o f t he r im r anges f rom 7 mm t o 1 5mm ; r im t hickness f rom 4 mm t o 6 mm ; r im/neck j oint f rom 5 mm t o 1 0mm a nd r im d iameter f rom 8 cm t o 1 4cm . A ll t he s pecimens a re d ecorated . S even o f t he s pecimens h ad a t apered l ip ,
3w ere r ounded a nd 1 f lattened .
S ummary o f V essel F orms a t K asakogi E ast
p ots :
F rom t he a nalysis, i t c ould h e s een t hat b owls w ere m ore n umerous t han t here w ere 5 8 ( 69 .04%) b owls a nd 2 6 ( 30 .95% ) p ots ( Table 8 0) . A mong
t he p ots, v essel f orms 2 a nd 3 c onstitute m ore t han 7 0% o f t he t otal . T hese a re a g eneral c lass t hought t o b e l ess r esistant t o b reakage o n t he b asis o f v essel p rofile . T he l east c ommon v essel f orms w ere 1 a nd 4 , w hich m ay s erve s pecialized f unctions . A mong t he b owls, t he l east n umerous w ere f orms 6 a nd 7 a ccounting f or 3 ( 5 .17%) o f t he t otal; t hese m ay h ave s erved n ond omestic p urposes . T he m ost c ommon f orm a mong t he b owls w ere f orms 9 , 1 0 a nd i i n t he o rder o f f requency , a ccounting f or m ore t han 8 0% o f t he t otal . I n t he l ower l evels, i e . L evels 2 1 t hrough 2 9 , 2 4 ( 28 .57%) v essel f orms w ere m ade a nd w ere r epresented b y 3f orms o f p ots a nd 5 f orms o f b owls . I n t he m iddle l evels, i e . L evels i t hrough 2 0 , v essel f orms c onstituted 3 6 ( 42 .85%) ,
t hus s howing a l arger n umber o f v essels b eing m ade .
H owever , t hey
w ere r epresented a mong t he p ots o nly b y v essel f orms 3 u p t o L evels 1 a nd 1 2 w hen a g reater v ariety o f f orms w ere m ade . A f airly s teady r epresentation o f t he f ive v essel f orms c ontinued a mong t he b owls i n d iffering p roportion ; f orms 9 a nd 1 0 a ccounting f or a bout 8 0% o f t he t otal . I n t he u pper l evels, j e . L evels 1 t hrough 1 0, w hile t here w as a s teady d ecline i n t he n umber a nd f orms o f p ot a nd b owls n ow b eing m ade 2 2 ( 26 .19%) , v essel f orm 1 a mong t he b owls f orming 6 o ut o f a t otal o f 1 6 s tarted t o b e m ade a gain ( having b een a bandoned f rom L evel 2 2 u p t ill L evels 1 a nd 1 2) , w hile v essel f orms 1 a mong t he p ots n ow b egan t o b e r epresented ( Table 8 0).
I nter-site C omparison o f t he P ottery M eaningful
c omparison o f t he p ottery f rom t he f our e xcavated s ites i n
2 85
t he W ushishi a rea i s d ifficult b ecause o f t he u nequal a mount o f m aterials r ecovered . W hile e normous q uantities w ere r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri , K asakogi W est y ielded f ew . A lso , w hile o nly a s ingle c utting w as e xcavated a t K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast, t hree c uttings w ere e xcavated a t R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri, a nd w e a re d ealing w ith p otsherds f rom o lder p eriods ;
t hose f rom K asakogi E ast a re
l ate , a nd K asakogi W est i s u ndated .
O ur c omparison o f t he p ottery i s t hen a n a ttempt t o g ain a n i dea o f c ontinuity , c hange a nd v ariation i n an umber o f a ttributes, s uch a s s ources o f r aw m aterial, f iring q uality , b urnishing , s tyles i n d ecoration a nd v essel f orm . I t i s c lear t hat t he t hree w ares r ecognized f rom t he e xcavated s its i n t he W ushishi a rea w ere l argely m ade f rom l ocally a vailable c lay , r eadily o btainable i n t he s wampy a nd r iverine p arts o f t he a rea . P ottery f rom a ll f our s ites w as h andsmoothed , p ossibly m ade b y t he p rocess o f m oulding a s i s d one b y p otters i n t he a rea t oday, a nd g enerally c ompleted b y c oiling, e vidence o f w hich w as n oticed o n a s ingle v essel i n t he K asakogi W est p ottery c ollection . T he m ajority o f p otsherds r ecovered f rom R afin N doko, K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast, c onsist o f p lain b odysherds, a ccounting f or a bout 7 6% , 7 5% a nd 6 4% o f t he t otal r espectively , w ith t he e xception o f K asakogi W est w here t hey c onstitute a lmost 4 0% . D ecorated b odysherds a nd r im/neck s herds c onstitute a lmost 1% a nd 1 2% a t R afin N doko; 1 2% a nd 1 3% a t K ongon M akeri a nd e ach a lmost 1 8% a t K asakogi E ast ; b ut w hile r ims/necks f orm 1 4% a t K asakogi W est, d ecorated b odysherds t here a ccount f or a lmost 4 4% . W hile a t R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri l arge p roportions o f t he p lain b odysherds w ere u nburnished ( 65% a nd 7 4%) a nd a s mall p roportion w ere b urnished ( 35% a nd 2 6% r espectively ), a t K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast, a l arge p roportion o f t he p lain b odysherds w ere b urnished ( 61% a nd 6 6%) a nd a s mall p roportion w ere u nburnished ( 39% a nd 3% r espectively ) . T he d ecorated b odysherds i n a ll t he f our s ites a re c haracterized b y a v ariety o f m otifs i n t he o rder o f f requency b y s tamping , i ncision , c ompound d ecoration , r oulette, p erforation , g rooving a nd r elief ( Figs . 5 4 , 5 5) . I n t he t erms o f f requency o f t ype o f d ecoration, c ompound m otifs p lay a p redominant r ole i n K asakogi W est, a ccounting f or 6 3% o f t hose f ound a t t he s ite, f ollowed b y 4 6% o f c ompound m otifs a t K asakogi E ast . C ompound d ecoration n onetheless p lays t he p redominant r ole i n a ll t he s ites e xcept a t K ongon M akeri w here i t c omes f ourth a fter s tamping , i ncision a nd r oulette . T he l east c ommon d ecorative m otif w as r elief, a ccounting f or a m aximun o f 6 % a t R afin N doko , w hich w as t he e arliest d ated , a nd o nly 3 % a t K ongon H aken, w hile i t w as n ot f ound a t e ither K asakogi W est o r K asakogi E ast . V irtually i n a ll t he s ites, e xcept R afin N doko , p erforation a nd r elief s eemed t o b e t he l east u sed f orm o f d ecoration ( Fig. 5 4) . T his m ay c onfirm t hat K asakogi W est o r K asakogi E ast a re r ecent s ites w here t he u se o f v essels w ith s uch d ecorative m otifs h ad b een r eplaced . W hen R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri d ecorated b odysherds w ere c ompared , i t w as o bserved t hat R afin N doko u pper l evels ( Levels 1 t o 6 ) w ere d ominated b y c ompound d ecoration, g rooving , p erforation a nd r oulette ; t he l east f requently u sed f orms o f d ecoration w ere r elief a nd s tamping, w hile K ongon M akeri u pper l evels ( Levels 1 t o 2 0 ) w ere c haracterized b y s tamping , i ncision , r oulette a nd c ompound d ecoration, t he l east c ommon d ecoration c onsisting o f r elief, f ollowed b y p erforation . I n t he l ower l evel ( Levels 7 t o 1 3) a t R afin N doko, d ecoration c onsisted o f g rooving , f ollowed b y s tamping a nd r oulette ; t he l east f requent d ecorations w ere c ompound d ecoration , r elief, p erforation a nd i ncision ; w hile a t K ongon M akeri ( Levels 2 1 t o 3 1), d ecorated b odysherds w ere d ominated b y s tamping , i ncision a nd c ompound d ecoration , t he l east f requent d ecoration c onsisted o f g rooving , f ollow ed b y r elief .
2 86
V
I
C D
G
R2
F ig.
=
Re l ie f
=
R ou le t te
S
=
S tamp ing
5 4 :
V i i
S
o =K ongon Make r i 0 aR a t in -N doko x= K asakog i-Wes t
C D = C ompound D eco ra t ion G = G roov ing I = I nc is ion P = P e rfo ra ted R2
V 1
I
z = K asakog i
-
E ast
S howing C omparative G raph o f R elative F requency o f T ypes o f D ecorative M otifs o n D ecorated S herds f rom E xcavated S ites i n t he W ushisi A rea.
2 87
R af in N doko
( Ware
I I)
2 1 .95
1 2 ,77
1 2 .77 7 . 58
C
5 0
P
G
R I
R 2
S
K ongon Maker i Wave A L owe rL eve l s( L eve ls 2 1 -31)
( Ware
I )
-
4 0 ,14
4 0
3 0
-
-
2 4 .35
2 0
-
1 .24
1 0
-
8 . 77
6 . 60
5 . 77
P
R I
3 . 09
0 C
F ig. 5 4a.
G
I
R 2
S
C omparative H istogram o f f requency o f t ype o f d ecorative m otifs o f d ecorated b odysherds f rom e xcavated s ites o f t he W ushisi a rea .
2 88
5 0— Kongon Maker i Ware B U pp e rL eve ls ( L eve ls 1 20 ) ( Ware I I)
4 0
3 0
2 0
3 7 .90
-
-
1 925
1 8 . 16
-
1 384
1 0
-
5 . 3 1
3 . 32
C
8 0
G
2 . 18
I
P
R I
R 2
S
K a sakog i We s t ( Ware I I, Ware I II) -
6 2 .5
6 0
4 0
2 0
-
-
1 4 .22
1 3 .79 3 . 87
1 . 29
I
P
4 . 3 1
0 C
F ig. 5 4a.
G
R I
R 2
S
C omparative H istogram o f f requency o f t ype o f d ecorative m otifs o f d ecorated ( contd.)
b odysherds
f rom e xcavated s ites o f t he W ushisi a rea
2 89
5 0
4 0
K a sakog i E a s t -
( Ware I )
4 5 .51 C= C ompound d eco ra t ion s
-
G= G roov ing I= I n c i s ion
3 0
2 7 .24
-
2 0
P= P e r fo ra t ion
-
1 5 .06
R I
=
R e l ief
R 2
=
R ou le t te
S= S t amp ing
1 0
8 . 0 1
-
3 . 20
0 . 96
0 C
F ig.54a.
G
I
P
R I
R 2
S
C omparative H istogram o f f requency o f t ype o f d ecorative m otifs o f d ecorated b odysherds f rom e xcavated s ites o f t he W ushisi a rea ( contd.)
2 90
0
-' -
C
=
—c .>
U E
o =
U C C)
E
u • U
S
Kongon Makc r i
-
F o rms 1 15 F o rms 1 6 -24
o
K a sakog i E a s t
•
r t u e, >
E
.
-
=
0
r
2 91
0
K a sakog i We s t
Wa re B , Uppe r L eve ls ( Leve ls 1 -20 )
R af in N doko
C )
C C 0
T able 8 1 : D is t r ibu t ion o fV es se l F o rms a nd t h e i rr im -neck c har ac lr is t ic f r om e xcava ted s i t es i nt h e Wu sh ish i A r ea V es se l F o rms F o rm I
F orm 2 F o rm 3
F o rm 4
F orm 5 F o rm 6 F orm 7
F o rm 8
F o rm 9
F or m 1 0
F o rm 1
F orm 1 2 F o rm 1 3
L oca l i t ies /S i tes a nd R ecoEn ized F o rm s/Equ iva len ts
R im -Neck C ha r ac te r is t ics
K ongon Maker i Wa r e B , F orm I .
N ecked v esse l ( po t ) , w i th s ha rp ly e vened r im ; b o th p rof i les a r e s ha rp ly a ng led . N ecked v esse l ( po t ) , w i th s harp ly e vened r im ; e x te r io rp rof i le s ha rp ly a ng led ,i n ter io rp rof i le s l igh t ly a ng led . N ecked v esse l ( po t ) , w i t h s harp ly e vened r im ,i n ter io rp rof i le s h arp ly a ng led ,e x ter io rp rof i le s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v esse l ( po t ) , w i th s harp ly e vened r im ; b o th p rof i les a r e a ng led .
K ongon Maker i Wa r e B , F or m 2 . K a sakog i Wes t , F orm 2
K ongon Maker i Wa r e A , F o rm I ; K asakog i E as t ,F orm 1 . K a sakog i We s t , F orm I ; K a sakog i E as t .F orm 2 . R af in N doko , F orm 1 ;K ongon Maker i War e A , F o rm 3 ; K asakog i We s t ,F orm 3 . R af in N doko , F orm 2 ;K ongon Maker i Wa r e A ,F orm 3 ; Kongon Maker i Wa re B .F orm 4 R af in N doko , F orms 4 , 5 ; K ongo n Make r i Wa re A , F o r m4 ;K ongo r Ma rker i War e B ,F o r m s 5 , 6 ; K a sakog i Wes t , F orm 4 ; K asakog i E as t .F orm 3 . Kongon Maker i Wa r e A , F orm 6 .
N ecked v es se l ( po t ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; b o th p rof i les a r e a ng led . N ecked v es se l ( po t ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; i n t e r io rp ro f i le a ng led , e x ter io rp rof i le s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v esse l ( po t ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; e x te r io rp rof i le a ng led , i n ter io rp ro f i le s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v esse l ( po t ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; b o th p ro f i le s s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v es se l ( po t ) ,w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im a nd ab u lg ing o n t h e u ppe r p ar to ft h e i n ter io rs i de o fr im , b o th p rof i les s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v es se l ( po t ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im a nd ac on s t r ic ted n eck ; p ronounced c oncave p ro f i le a tt h e i n te r io ra nd ac onvex p rof i le a tt h e e x ter io r . N e cked v es se l ( po t ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im a nd ac ons t r ic ted n e ck ; i n ter io rp ro f i le a ng led ,e x ter io rp ro f i le s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v es se l ( po t ) ,w i th ac ons t r ic ted n eck ; b o th p ro f i les s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v esse l ( po t ) ,w i th ac ons t r ic ted n eck a nd a lmo s t s t ra igh t l o ng r im ,
2 92
K ongon Maker i , Ware A , F o rm 7 ;K asakog i E a s t , F orm 5 .
R af in N doko , F orm 6 .
-
K ongon Make r i War e A ,F o rm 5 ;K ongon Make r i Wa r e B , F orm 8 :K asakog i E a s t F orm 4 . K ongon Maker i Wa r e B , F o rm 9 .
T able 8 1 : D is t r ibu t ion o fV es se l F o rms a nd t h e i rr im -neck c ha r ac ter is t ics
f r om e xcava ted s i t e si nt h e Wush ish i A r ea ( c on t inued )
V esse l F orms F orm 1 4 F orm 1 5 F orm 1 6
F o rm 1 7
F orm 1 8
F o r m 1 9
F o r m2 0
F orm 2 1 F o rm 2 2
R im -Neck C har ac ter is t ics N ecked v e sse l ( po t ) , w it h h o r izon ta l ly e ver ted r im ; e x ter io rp rof i le a ng led , i n ter io rp rof i le s moo th ly c urved . N eck less o pen mou thed v es se l ( po t ) , w i th s t ra igh t o rn ea r ly s t r a igh t r im . N ecked v es se l ( bow l ) , w i th s hor t e vened r im ; b o th p rof i les a r e s ha rp ly a ng led . N ecked v es se l ( bow l ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; i n ter io rp rof i le a ng led , e x te r io rp rof i le s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v es se l ( bow l ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; e x ter io rp rof i le a ng led , i n ter io rp rof i le s moo th ly c urved . N ecked v es se l ( bow l ) , w i th s l igh t ly e vened r im ; b o th p rof i le s s moo th ly c u rved .
N ecked v e sse l ( bow l ) , w i th h or izon ta l f l a t tened r im ; i n ter io rp rof i le a ng led , e x ter io rp rof i le s moo th ly c ur ved . N eck less o pen mou thed v es se l ( bow l ) , w i th u nr es t r ic ted r im . N eck less o pen mou thed v e s se l ( bow l ) , w i th r e s t r ic ted r im .
F orm 2 3
N eck les so pen mou thed v e sse l ( bow l ) , w i th s t ra igh to rn ea r ly s t ra igh tr im .
F orm 2 4
N eck les s o pen mou thed v es se l ( bow l ) , w i th i n ve r ted r im .
2 93
L o ca l i t ies /S i tes a nd R ecogn ized F orm s /Equ i va len t s . R a f in N doko , F orm 3 ;K ongon Maker i Wa re B , F o rm 7 . R af in N doko , F orm 7 . K ongon Maker i Wa re B , F orm 1 0 . K asakog i Wes t , F or m s 5 , 6 .
K ongon Make r i War e B , F or m 1 ; K asakog i E a s t , F orm 7 . R af in N doko , F o rm 8 ; Kongon Maker i Wa r e A , F orm 8 ;K ongon Maker i Wa r e B , F o rm 1 2 ; K a sakog i E a s t . F or m 8 . K asakog i E as t , F orm 6 .
K a sakog i Wes t , F orm 7 . R af in N doko , F orm 1 0 ; Kongo r Make r i War e A , F o rm 9 ; 4 ; K ongon Maker i Wa re B ,F orm I K a sakog i Wes t , F o rm 8 ; K a sako.g iE as t , F orm 9 . R af in N doko , F o rm 9 ;K ongon Maker i War e A , F o rm 1 ; Kongon Maker i Wa r e B , F o rm 1 3 ; K asakog i Wes t , F o rm 9 ;K asakog i E a s t , F o rm 1 0 . R af in N doko , F orm 1 ; K ongo r Make r i War e A ,F orm 1 0 ; K ongon Maker i War e B , F o rm 1 5 ; K asakog i Wes t , F orm 1 0 ; K asakog i E a s t , F orm 1 ,
T able 8 2 : S t r a t ig raph ic D is tr ibu t ion o fV es se l F o rms R ecove red
f r om e xcava ted s i t es i nt h e Wu sh ish i A r ea
L oca l i t ie s ! S i tes R af ln N doko
K ongon Maker i
K asakog i Wes t
K a sakog i E as t
S u-a t igr aph ic L eve ls U ppe rL eve ls ( Leve ls 1 6 ) L owe rL eve l s ( Leve ls 7 13 ) U ppe rL eve ls ( Leve l s 1 20 )
Wa r es
V esse l F o rm s -
Wa r e 1
F orms 6 ,7 ,8 , 1 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 9 ,22 2 3 ,24 F orms 6 ,8 , 1 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2
Wa r e I
F orms 1 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4
L owe rL eve l s ( Leve ls 2 1 -31) L eve ls 1 14
Wa re 1 , Wa re 1 Wa r eI
F orms 4 ,6 ,7 , 8 ,9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 9 , 2 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 . F orms 3 ,5 ,8 , 1 7 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 4 .
L eve ls 1 5 -24 L eve ls 1 27 a nd N or th h a lf o f L eve l 2 8 .
Wa re I I Wa r e 1
F orm s 5 ,1 7 . F o r m s 4 ,5 ,8 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 .
S ou th h a l fo f L eve l 2 8 a nd L eve l 2 9 .
Wa r e I
2 94
F orm s 5 ,8 , 1 0 , 2 3 .
A t otal
o f
1 , 180 d iagnostic r im s herds r ecovered f rom t he f our s ites
w ere d istributed a s f ollows: A , 2 44 ( 20 .67%) ;
1 37 ( 11 .61%) ;
K ongon M akeri W are
K ongon M akeri W are B , 6 82 ( 57 .79%) ;
K asakogi W est, 3 3
( 2 .79% ) a nd K asakogi E ast , r im s herds s ubmitted f or
R afin N doko ,
8 4 ( 7 .11%) . T hese v arying n umbers o f d iagnostic v essel f orm a nalysis r evealed t wo m ain v essel
g roups p ots a nd b owls d ivided i nto v essel t ypes a nd f urther s ub—divided i nto v essel f orms . T able 8 1 s hows t he d istribution o f v essel f orms r ecognized i n a ll t he s ites, w hile F igure 5 5 s hows t heir c omparative -
-
f requency , d istributed a s f ollows: R afin N doko, 1 0 ( 41 .66%) ; K ongon M akeri W are A , 1 ( 45 .83%) ; K ongon M akeri W are B , 1 3 ( 54 .16%) ; K asakogi W est , 9 ( 37 .5%) a nd K asakogi E ast,
1
( 45 .83%).
I t c an b e s een t hat o ut o f t he
t wenty f our v essel f orms r ecognized i n a ll t he s ites, 1 5 ( 62 .5% ) w ere p ots ( Forms 1 1 5) , t he r emaining 9 ( 37 .5%) ( Forms 1 6 2 4) w ere b owls . I t w as o bserved t hat i n K ongon M akeri W are B , K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast, b owl f orms o f v essels o utnumbered p ot f orms : b owls a ccounting f or 6 ( 66 .66%) . 5 ( 55 .55%) a nd 6 ( 66 .66%), w hile p ots n umbered 6 ( 40%), 4 ( 26 .66%) a nd 5 ( 33 .33% ) r espectively . A t R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri W are A , p ots a nd -
-
b owls w ere a lmost t he s ame: p ots a ccounting f or 6 ( 40%) a nd 7 ( 46 .66%), w hile b owls n umbered 4 ( 44 .44%) a nd 4 ( 44 .44% ) r espectively . T he d ominant f orm o f p ot f ound i n a ll t he s ites w as N o . 8 , a ccounting f or a bout 5 6% o f t he t otal d iagnostic r im s herds, d istantly f ollowed b y f orm 7 , a ccounting f or a boout 1 3% f ound i n R afin N doko , K ongon M akeri W are A a nd K ongon M akeri W are B a nd b y f orm 6 a ccounting f or a bout 1 0% a nd f ound i n a ll t he s ites e xcept K asakogi E ast, w here i t w as n ot f ound . T he l east c ommon f orms o f p ot f ound w ere N os . 4a nd 1 , a ccounting f or 0 .17% a nd 0 .34% a t K asakogi E ast a nd K ongon M akeri W are B , f ollowed b y f orm I a ccounting f or 1 . 70% , a lso i n K ongon M akeri W are B . A mong t he b owls, f orm 2 2 p layed a p redominant r ole i n a ll t he s ites, a ccounting f or a bout 2 7% o f t he t otal ; w hile f orm 1 9 w as a lso d ominant, a ccounting f or a bout 3 6% o f t he t otal, i t w as n ot f ound i n a ll t he s ites a s w as o bserved f or K asakogi W est . T he l east c ommon f orms o f b owl w ere N os . 2 0 a nd 1 6 a ccounting f or 0 .16% a nd 1 % , f ound i n K asakogi E ast a nd K ongon M akeri W are B r espectively . T able
8 2 s hows
t he s imilarities a nd d ifferences
o f
t he p ottery,
p articularly t he v essel f orms b ased o n d iagnostic r im s herds t hrough t ime a s T able 8 1 h ad b etween l ocalities e xcavated i n t he W ushishi a rea . A t R afin N doko , i t c an b e s een t hat a bout t he s ame f orm o f v essels w ere r ecovered i n b oth t he l ower ( Levels 7 1 3) a nd u pper ( Levels 1 6 ) l evels e xcept N os . 7 -
-
a nd 1 9 , r ecovered o nly i n t he u pper l evels b ut w ere a bsent f rom t he l ower l evels , t hus i ndicating a l arge a mount o f h omogeneity . A t K ongon M akeri, v essel f o r ms 6 , 7 , 8 , 1 2 , 1 9 , 2 2 , 2 3 a nd 2 4 w ere c ommonly f ound i n b oth t he l ower ( Levels 2 1 t o 3 1) a nd t he u pper ( Levels 1 2 0) l evels ; w hile f orms 4 , 9a nd 1 0 w ere r ecovered o nly f rom t he l ower l evels, f orms 1 , 1 3 , 1 6 a nd 1 8 w ere o nly f ound i n t he u pper l evels, t hus s howing s ome l evel o f -
h omogeneity w ith s ome v ariation . I f t he l ocality s equences a re t o b e c ompared a nd s hown h ow t hey i nterrelate , i t c an b e s een t hat f rom R af i n N doko l ower l evels t hrough K asakogi W est u pper l evels, t here w as a g eneral c ontinuity a nd h omogeneity i n t he s equence i n t he u se o f b owls . B ut f or t he p ots, w hile t here w as a l arge d egree o f h omogeneity f rom R afin N doko l ower l evels t hrough i ts u pper l evels, f rom K ongon M akeri l ower l evels t hrough K asakogi W est u pper l evels, t here a ppeared t o b e s ome d egree o f c ontinuity a nd h omogeneity w ith s ome v ariation, a lthough i t d oes n ot a ppear t o r epresent a ny m ajor b reak . K asakogi E ast p ot v essels c orrelate t o b oth K ongon M akeri l ower a nd u pper l evels a lthough m ore t o t he l ower l evels, w hile b owls r ecovered f rom t here c orrelate t o b oth l evels a lthough m ore t o t he u pper l evels . B owls f rom K ongon M akeri l ower l evels a ppear t o c orrelate m ore t o t hose r ecovered f rom R afin N doko u pper l evels .
2 95
I C D
I C
•
i I
C D C D
I
C
•
•
C D I
I
I
C
C •
C D
•
‚ I
2 96 I
C
— •
I
I
U
C
R af in N doko E xcava ted D eco r a ted B ody she rd s
C D
R af ln N doko S ur f ace C o l lec ted D eco r a ted B ody she r d s
U
K ongon Maken E xcava ted D eco r a t ed I 3 ody she rd s
r
1
C
q R T
C en
C
C4
0 0 c o
0
a ) 4 J
0 • 0
z
•H
0 I L )
R C i D
. 0
a )
4 J
0
a4J
U I
C
C
•
I
C
‚e
•
I
C
•
C
T C
—
2 97
K ongon Make r iS u r f ace C o l lec ted D eco r a ted B ody she rd 5
0 0
E b I D U
41
0 0
. r I
c a 0
(
0
0
b I D
0
0
c a
b I D 0 0
4
R af in N doko 2 0
%
S ur face C o l lec ted V esse l F o rm s
i I
-
L j l k
1 0-
I'
0 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 9 a 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 7a18 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 23 2 4 F orms
Kongon Make r i 4 0
S urf ace C o l lec ted V esse l F o rms
-
3 0
%
2 0-
1 0
-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 1 0 1 1a12 1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9 2 0 2 1
2 2 2 3 2 4
F orms
F ig.
5 7:
C omparative H istogram F requency o f
Vessel
F orms o n S urface—
C ollected P ottery f rom R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri .
2 98
A ll
t he s ites e xcept R afin N doko p rovided e vidence o f t he u se o f
p ottery a s p avement . W hether t his i s i ndicative o f c ontemporaneity o f s ome s ort i s n ot k nown . T he r esult o f t he a nalysis o f t hese p otsherds u sed a s p avements a re p resented i n C hapter 5 a s w ell a s h ow t hey c ompare w ith t he r est o f t he p ottery . R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri c ontained p ottery c ollected a s s urface f inds ( Tables 2 7 a nd 5 8) . D etailed a nalysis o f t he e xcavated a nd s urface c ollected d ecorated b odysherds a nd d iagnostic r im s herds f rom t he t wo s ites h as m ade i t p ossible t o c ompare t he p ottery f rom t he t wo s ites a nd g ain s ome i dea o f t he r elationship b etween t he e xcavated a nd t he s urface c ollected p ottery . F igure 5 6 s hows t he r elationship b etween t he e xcavated a nd t he s urface c ollected b odysherds a t b oth s ites . I t c an b e o bserved t hat a t b oth s ites, t he s ame t ype o f d ecorative m otifs w ere f ound o n t he s herds f rom t he e xcavated a nd s urface c ollected p ottery , i . e . t here w as a h igh l evel o f c ontinuity i n t he f orms o f d ecoration e mployed . F rom t he a nalysis, i t c an b e s een t hat c ompared w ith t he e xcavated p ottery , o n t he s urface c ollected p ottery a t R af i n N doko , a ttention c ontinued t o b e f ocused p rogressively o n g rooving a nd c ompound d ecoration w here t here w as a g eneral d ecline i n t he u se o f a ll o ther f orms o f d ecoration ; r elief b ecame v irtually i nsignificant o n t he s urface c ollected p ottery , a ccounting f or 1 . 02% o f t he t otal . A t K ongon M akeri , o n t he s urface c ollected p ottery , a ttention c ontinued t o h e f ocused p rogressively o n r oulette , c ompound d ecoration a nd g rooving , w hile t here w as a d ecline i n t he u se o f i ncision a nd s tamping ; e qual a ttention s eems t o b e p aid t o p erforation, w hile r elief a lso b ecame v irtually i nsignificant, a ccounting f or o nly 0 .29% o f t he t otal . W hen t he s urface c ollected d ecorated s herds f rom t he t wo s ites a re c ompared, t he m ost d ominant f orm o f d ecoration u sed w as c ompound d ecoration , f ollowed b y g rooving a nd r oulette ; t he l east f orms o f d ecoration u sed w ere r elief a nd p erforation. F igures 5 5 a nd 5 6 s how t he d istribution o f v essel f orms f rom e xcavated a nd s urface c ollected p ottery a t R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri . A t R af i n N doko, a lmost t he s ame n umber o f f orms o f v essels r ecognized o n t he s urface c ollected p ottery ( numbering e leven ) w ere a lso r ecovered f rom t hose e xcavated ( consisting o f t en ) . O bservations o f t he p ots i n t he f ormer r evealed a l ow l evel o f h omogeneity a nd v ariation w hen c ompared w ith t he l atter . W hile f orms 8 a nd 6 c ontinued t o h e r epresented p redominantly i n t he s urface c ollection a s w as t he c ase i n t he e xcavated p ottery , f orms 7 , i i, 1 4 a nd 1 5, r ecognized i n t he e xcavated f orms w ere n ot f ound i n t he s urface c ollections b ut t o f orms 8 a nd 6 t here w ere a dded f orms 9 a , 1 2 a nd 1 3 . T he b owls f ound i n t he s urface c ollected p ottery r eveals a h igh l evel o f h omogeneity a nd v ariation , c ompared w ith t hose e xcavated . W hile f orms 1 9 , 2, 2 3 a nd 2 4 , f ound a mong t hose e xcavated c ontinued t o b e m ade i n t he s urface c ollected p ottery , t o t he l atter w ere a dded f orms 1 7a a nd 1 8 w hich w ere n ot r epresented i n t he f ormer . A t K ongon M akeri, t here w as a g eneral d ecline i n t he f orms o f v essels r ecovered f rom t he s urface c ollection w hen c ompared w ith t hose f rom t he e xcavation . W hile a t otal o f 1 6 v essel f orms ( 11 f rom t he l ower l evels a nd 1 3 f rom t he u pper l evels),
s ome g rading i nto
o thers w as r ecognized f rom t he e xcavated p ottery , o nly 8 w ere r ecognized f rom t he s urface-collected p ottery . A mong t he p ots, w hile t he p redominant f orm i n t he e xcavated p ottery w as N o . 8 , a ccounting f or 2 5% i n t he l ower l evels a nd 2 9% i n t he u pper l evels, i n t he s urface c ollected p ottery l ess a ttention w as p aid t o i t, w here i t a ccounted f or 2 2% a lthough i t w as a lso t he p redominant f orm m ade . A mong t he b owls, i n t he e xcavated p ottery f orm 1 9 w as p redominant, f ollowed b y f orms 2 2 a nd 2 3 , w hile i n t he s urface c ollection , f orm 1 9 w as l east u sed , a ccounting f or o nly 1 . 31% ; a ttention w as
2 99
f ocused p rogressively o n f orms 2 2 a nd 2 3 a ccounting f or 3 4% a nd 3 1% o f t he t otal n umber o f r im s herds . W hen o nly s urface-collected p ottery f rom b oth s ites i s e xamined i t c an b e s een t hat t he m ost c ommon f orms o f v essel w ere N o . 8 f or t he p ots, a ccounting f or 1 8% a t Rf i n N doko a nd f or 2 2% a t K ongon M akeri, a nd f orms 2 2 a nd 2 3 a mong t he b owls a ccounting f or 1 8% a nd 1 2% a t R afin N doko a nd f or 3 4% a nd 3 1% a t K ongon M akeri r espectivel; a t R i ifin N doko, f orm 2 4 w as u sed a lmost e qually . T he l east c ommonly u sed v essels a t b oth s ites w ere f orm 1 8 a t R af i n N doko a nd f orms 6 , ha a nd 1 9 a t K ongon M akeri.
S ummary T he f oregoing i s t he r esult o f a nalysis o f t he p ottery r ecovered f rom s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea . T he g eneral p attern t hat s eems t o e merge f rom t he c omparison o f t he p ottery i s o ne o f a c ontinuing s equence . W ith s ome v ariation, t he s ame t ype o f v essel f orms s eem t o p redominate i n t he s equences a t t he f our l ocalities, i ncluding t he s urface c ollected p ottery . F rom t he a nalysis, a n i dea o f t he v arious d ecorative m otifs o n t he p ottery a nd t he t echniques o f p roducing t hem w as g ained . A mong t he e xcavated d ecorated b odysherds, w hile s tamping p redominates a t K ongon M akeri, l ess a ttention w as p aid t o i t a t o ther s ites a nd a mong t he s urface c ollected p ottery t here, w here c ompound d ecoration p redominates. T he g eneral i nterpretation o f t he c ultural m aterials i ncluding t he p ottery i s c onsidered i n C hapter 7 .
3 00
C hapter 7 C ULTURAL M ATERIAL O THER T HAN P OTTERY ( D .A .)
A w ide
r ange o f
c ultural m aterials
o ther
t han p ottery w as r ecovered
f rom t he a rchaeological e xcavations c arried o ut i n t he W ushishi a rea . T hese m aterials i nclude t hose r ecovered f rom s urface c ollection a t R af i n N doko a nd t hose f rom e xcavations a t t he f our s ites .
R AFIN N DOKO O bjects r ecovered f rom R af i n N doko i n s urface c ollections i ncluded t erracotta f igurines; s tone f lakes a nd c hips; r ubbing s tones ; a b iconically d impled s tone ;
i ron o bjects a nd s lag ;
b ottle g lass ;
b eads;
t eeth ( one w ith
p erforation ) a nd b ones . T he m aterial w as c ollected b y m eans o f a r andom s ampling p rocedure n orth a nd s outh f rom t he d atum a t 1 5m i ntervals t o a d istance o f 9 0m , u p t o S m i n f rom t he r oad c utting b y T .S . i n J anuary 1 976 .
T erracotta F igurines T hree b roken t erracotta f igurines w ere c ollected a s s urface f inds ( Table 8 3) . F ach r epresents t he a hu man h ead w ith t he n eck s till i ntact . T he t hree s pecimens w ere f ired ; t wo o f t hem w ere l ight r ed i n c olour w hile t he s mallest w as p artly r eddish y ellow a nd p artly d ark g rey i n c olour . T he t hree s pecimens e xhibit p ierced e yes, n ostrils a nd e ars, w hile t wo o f t hem h ave a c arefully r epresented h airstyle . M easurements f rom t he h ead t o t he b roken n eck r ange f rom 3 cm ,
5 . 5cm t o
6 cm .
S tone F lakes a nd C hips At otal o f s ix h undred a nd s eventy s tone f lakes a nd c hips, l argely m ade o f v ein q uartz a nd a f ew o f s andstone w ere c ollected n orth a nd s outh f rom t he d atum t o a d istance o f 9 0m , u p t o S m i n f rom t he r oad c utting ( Table 8 3) . I t c an h e s een t hat t he l argest n umber w as c ollected f rom 1 5m t o 3 0m n orth f rom t he d atum , a ccounting f or 3 97 ( 59 .25%) o f t he t otal, w hile f ewest ( 21 ( 3 .13%) w ere c ollected f rom 3 0m t o 4 5m n orth f rom t he d atum a nd 2 2 ( 3 .28%) w ere c ollected f rom 7 5m t o 9 0m n orth f rom t he d atum . T hese f lakes a nd c hips h ave b een r eserved f or a f uture s tudy a nd a re n ot i ncluded i n t he m aterials a nalysed i n t his c hapter .
B iconically D impled S tone Ab roken p iece o f ab iconically-dimpled s tone m ade o f f resh g neiss w as c ollected a s ac asual f ind o n t he E ast s ide o f t he r oad a t R afin N doko .
3 01
0 0 l
al
C
3 02
-
C
7 5m t o 9 0m N o r th 2 5cm b e low S ur f ace E a s t s i de o f r o ad
—
4 5m t o 6 0m N o r th
—
30 m
T oo th w i th P er fo r a t ion B one s
T o ta l
( 2 5 ) 1 2 .5
( 3 97 ) 6 . 5
o c
N o r th
—
-
D a tum t o1 5m N o r thi 1 5m t o
q no
L uoT
o wc t
D a t um t oI 5m S ou th
T e r r a C o t ta F i gur ine s
Q uar tz
B icon i c a l l y s t one f l ake s d imp led I r on c h ip s s t one o b jec t s
T able 8 3: R af in N doko S u r f ace F i nds . D is t r ibu t ion o fC u l tu r a l M a te r ia l so t he rt h an P o t t
q d _
-
O N
—
—
C s
—
—
r —
—
-
c t
-=
R ough a nd u nground o n b oth s urfaces i t m easured 7 .8cm b y 6 .8cm ; f ull r econstruction w ould h ave m ade i t a bout 9 . 5cm i n d iameter w ith a d imple 3 cm i n d iameter a nd 9 mm i n d epth a t a d istance o f 2 . 5cm f rom t he e dge .
R ubbing S tone A s ingle b roken n orth f rom t he d atum .
p iece o f r ubbing s tone w as c ollected a t 3 0m t o 4 5m M ade o f q uartzite , i t i s h ighly g round a nd p olished
o n o ne s ide a nd r ough o n t he o ther . R ectangular o r s ub-rectangular a nd f lattened i n s hape , i t m easured 1 0 .2cm b y 8 . 2cm b y 2 . 8cm .
B ottle G lass T wenty f ive b roken p ieces o f b ottle g lass w ere c ollected ( Table 8 3) :
4
a t 3 0m t o 4 5m , 3a t 4 5m t o 6 0m a nd 1 8 a t 6 0m t o 7 5m n orth f rom d atum , u p t o 5 m i n f rom t he r oad c utting . E leven o f t hese w ere r ed i n c olour w hile t he r emaining f ourteen w ere g reen . b ody , w hile t he r emaining t wo
T wenty-three o f t he s pecimens w ere f rom t he s eem t o r epresent p art o f t he n eck B ody
t hickness r anges f rom 3 mm t o 4 mm w hile t he t hickness o f t he n eck w as 3 nu i .
A
m eaningful r econstruction o f a ny o f t he p ieces c annot b e m ade e xcept t o s ay t hat t hey r esemble p resently u sed b eer b ottles .
B eads F our c omplete a nd t wo b roken b eads w ere c ollected ( Table 8 3) . T wo o f t hem w ere m ade o f g lass, t he r emaining t wo w ere o f q uartz , w hile t he t wo b roken p ieces w ere a lso o f q uartz . T he t wo g lass b eads r ecovered f rom t he d atum t o 1 5m n orth a nd s outh , u p t o 5 m i n f rom t he r oad c utting w ere r ed i n c olour . O ne o f t he s pecimens w as b arrel s haped a nd t he o ther w as a s hort d isc t ype ; b oth w ere p olished a nd b urnished a ll o ver . T he s hort d isc t ype m easured 3 mm i n l ength , h as a n o uter d iameter o f 7 mm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 2 mm . T he b arrel-shaped b ead m easures 2 cm i n d iameter o f 6 mm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 1 . 5mm .
l ength,
h as a n o uter
T wo c omplete a nd t wo b roken s tone b eads w ere c ollected . M ade o f v ein q uartz , t hey w ere h ighly p olished o n a ll s urfaces . T he t wo b roken p ieces w ere d iscs; t hey m easured 1 . 3cm a nd 1 . 8cm i n l ength r espectively . T he m ore c omplete o f t he t wo ( the l atter) h as a n o uter d iameter o f 1 . 3cm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 4 mm . T he t wo c omplete s tone b eads, a lso d isc s haped, w ere r ecovered f rom 1 5m t o 3 0m t o 4 5m n orth f rom t he d atum , u p t o 5 m i n f rom t he r oad c utting . Measurements r ange f rom 1 .3cm t o 1 .5cm i n l ength, o uter d iameter f rom 8 mm t o 1 0mm a nd i nner d iameter f rom 4 mm t o 5m m . A nother c omplete s tone d isc b ead o f q uartz w as c ollected a nd d esignated a c asual s urface f ind ; w ell p olished o n a ll s urfaces, i t i s 1 . 8cm l ong , h as a n o uter d iameter o f
1 0mm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 4 . 5mm .
I ron O bjects F ive i ron o bjects w ere c ollected ( Table 8 3) f rom t he d atum t o 3 0m n orth a nd s outh , u p t o S m i n f rom t he r oad . W hile t wo o f t he s pecimens m ay h ave b een o ne t hird o f a l arge i ron r ing , p erhaps a h older o r a c lip , w ith a n o riginal d iameter o f 5 cm a nd a t hickness o f 6 mm .
3 03
T he f ourth s pecimen s eems
S . b 2 ; CB I ; SD
ö
L )
3 04
a
a
C R
C,
L aye r7
1 3
S . b i ; R 4 ; P u ; W i ; D 7 9 ; 1 2
c R 2 ; D 5
R 6 ;P 6 : D g ; C .b i ; 1 1 6x
1 ' 2
R is ; P x ; G2 ;
D S ;S
G 12 ; D 13 ; W 9 ;
1 0 1 :P 40 :R 9 3
. 4
S . b 7 ; S 6 ; G .b ' ; W I ; D u; CB I ; S D I ; 1 2 ; P 5 : G I ; R 22
P 1 ; D i
R i
=
1 2
1
1 0
C L
3 05
=
gn
C A I
I .
I I I
C . )
c
I I
O
1
. M
I
i t
R i; D 2
t o b e a l ower b roken e nd o f a n i ron p oint, m easuring 2 .8cm i n l ength, 6 mm i n w idth a t m id s ection a nd h as a t hickness o f 2 mm . T he l ast s pecimen w as a f lat p iece o f i ron b ar, m easuring 6 .8cm b y 3 . 9cm b y 8 mm .
I ron S lag T hirty-four p ieces o f i ron s lag w ere c ollected a s s urface f inds. w ere l argely c oncentrated f rom t he d atum t o 6 0m n orth a nd s outh , f rom t he r oad c utting .
T hey
u p t o S m
D r . A de w ara o f t he M etallurgical E ngineering Dep artment, A .B .U .,
Z aria,
c onfirmed t hat t hey w ere i ron s lag o btained i n t he p rocess o f s mithing o r s melting.
T eeth T wo h uman m olars w ere c ollected f rom t he d atum t o 1 5m n orth a nd s outh , u p t o 5 m f rom t he r oad c utting. O ne b roken i ncisor , p robably h uman , w as c ollected f rom t he d atum t o 1 5m s outh , u p t o 5 m i n f rom t he r oad c utting . T he s pecimen m easured 1 . 6cm b y 6 mm ;
i t h as a p erforation 1 . 5mm i n d iameter a bout 5 mm f rom t he t ip .
B ones N ine b roken p ieces o f b one, p robably a nimal, a nd w arthog o r h ippo t usk w ere c ollected : 5f rom t he d atum t o 1 5m n orth a nd 4 a t 4 5m t o 6 0m n orth , u p t o 5 m i n f rom t he r oad c utting . T hey w ere a ll u ndiagnostic e xcept o ne w hich m ay b e a f ish v ertebra i dentified a s c larias .
N on-Pottery M aterials R ecovered f rom t he E xcavation T he f ollowing w ere r ecovered f rom R af i n N doko e xcavation ( Table 8 4) : C lay W ith t he e xception o f ac lay b all w hich w as r ecovered f rom C utting I I , l ayer 1 , a nd a b ead , a ll t he o ther c lay o bjects h ave b een d ealt w ith i n C hapter 6 . T he c lay b all w as r ounded i n s hape , r eddish y ellow i n c olour a nd m easures
2 . 7cm i n d iameter .
I t i s u nburnished o n t he s urface a nd i ts
f unction i s n ot k nown . A s ingle
c lay
b ead
w as
r ecovered
f rom
C utting
I VA ,
L evel
6 .
C ylindrical i n s hape, w ith p ointed e nd , i t m easured 3 . 8cm l ong , h as a n o uter d iameter o f 1 0mm a t t he w idest s ection a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 4 mm . R eddish y ellow o n t he i nner p art a nd b rownish i n c olour o n t he o uter p art, i t a ppears t o h ave b een f ired .
3 06
U ppe rL eve ls L eve ls 1 6
2 0
H o c
-;
I-
N
H —
N
V r1
-
-
-
—
U
3 07
1
P ebb le s t one
le
' —
N
P
L owe rL ev e l s L eve ls 1 5 -29
H one s t one
O C
L owe rL ev e l s L eve ls 1 -26 U ppe rL eve ls L eve ls 1 14
abu la r G rooved T s t o n e s t one
o c —
U pp e rL eve ls L eve l s 1 10
R ubb ing P ound ing G r ind ing s t one s s t ones s t ones —
L owe rL eve ls L eve l s7 13
S t r a t ig r aph ic L ev 'l s
S i te / L o ca l i t ie s C
4 45
N
N
— -
V
N
C u t t ingI L
P ound ing s t one s
R ubb ing s t one s
Whe t s t one
S t one D i sc P e r cen t age o c W %
C u t t ing I& I
C u t t ing I
G r ind ing s t one s T o ta l
P e r cen tage
s t one f l ake sa nd c h i
-
o c
" C
—
o c
C o c rQ
-
—
.
t o
C
L ) r —
C
a
r -
t o
t ko
B
B
U
U
3 08
o c
o c
" C
' C
L )
C
b o
•
r -
U
C
O bjects o f S tone S tone T able 8 6
s hows t he d istribution o f o bjects o f s tone .
T wo h undred a nd
t hirty t wo s tone o bjects ( excluding s tone f lakes a nd c hips) w ere r ecovered a nd c ould b e s ubdivided i nto t he f ollow ing f ive s ub-types: r ubbing s tones, 1 45 ( 62 .5%); p ounding s tones, 6 0 ( 25 .86%) ; g rinding s tones, 1 5 ( 6 .46%) ; w hetstones, 1 ( 4 .74% ) a nd a s tone d isc, 1 ( 0 .43% ) . T his d ivision s howed t hat s tone o bjects w ere l argely c oncentrated i n C utting I VB , a ccounting f or 1 54 ( 66 .37%) o f
t he
t otal,
f ollowed b y C utting I T,
a ccounting f or 3 1
( 13 .36%) ; w hile s tone o bjects w ere l east c oncentrated i n C utting I a nd I T a nd C utting I VD, a ccounting f or 2 ( 0 .86%) e ach, f ollowed b y C utting I a ccounting f or 6 ( 2 .58%) o f t he t otal .
R ubbing S tones T able 8 6
s hows t he d istribution o f s tone o bjects,
i ncluding 1 45
r ubbing s tones . I t c an b e s een t hat L evel 5 , w ith 6 4 ( 44 .13% ) p roduced t he l argest n umber o f r ubbing s tones, f ollowed b y L evel 6 , w ith 2 3 ( 15 .86%) a nd L evel 8 w ith 1 0 ( 6 .89% ) . W hile r ubbing s tones w ere f ew f rom L evels 7 a nd b elow , a ccounting f or 1 9 ( 13 .10%) o f t he t otal, t hey w ere m ore c oncentrated i n L evels 1 t o 4 , a ccounting f or 2 6 ( 17 .93%) ( Level 3 a nd 4 a lone a ccounting f or 2 2 ( 15 .17% ) o f t he t otal) . A l arge p roportion w as m ade o f u nrotted g neiss w hile a f ew w ere m ade o f q uartz , s andstone a nd g ranite . W hile t he m ajority w ere o f as ize c onvenient f or h olding i n t he h and , af ew w ere l arge a nd c ould h ardly h ave b een h eld i n o ne h and .
W hile s ome o f t hem w ere a lso
g round a nd p olished o n b oth s urfaces, a n umber h ad o nly b een u sed o n o ne s ide a nd w ere t hus p olished o n t he s ide f requently i n u se . T hey c ould b e c lassified i nto f ive t ypes . A .
I rregular r ubbing s tones .
T hese r ange f rom s mall t o l arge i n s ize a nd
w ere f lattish a nd h ighly b urnished o n t he s ide w hich h ad b een i n u se . T wenty-three o f t he s mall i rregular t ype w ere r ecovered . T heir m easurements r ange f rom 5 . 3cm b y 3 . 8cm b y 1 . 3cm t o 9 cm b y 5 cm b y 2 . 5cm . T he l arge i rregular o nes n umbered n ineteen . T heir m easurements r ange f rom 1 0cm b y 6 . 5cm b y 4 cm t o B .
1 4cm b y 9 . 5cm b y
S emi-rectangular r ubbing s tones .
5 . 6cm .
E ight s pecimens w ere r ecovered , a ll
s moothed o n o ne s ide i ndicating t he a rea a nd i ntensity o f u se . M easurements r ange f rom 1 3 .5cm b y 6 .5cm b y 2 . 7cm t o 1 8 .5 b y 1 4 .8cm b y 2 .0cm . C .
D iscoid r ubbing s tones. S even o f t hese w ere r ecovered, g round a nd p olished o n o ne s ide . M easurements r ange f rom 1 0 .5cm b y 8 .3cm b y 1 . 8cm t o 1 8 .8cm b y 1 4 .5cm b y 1 . 8cm .
D .
R ectangular r ubbing s tones . F ourteen c omplete s pecimens a nd s eventy b roken p ieces w ere r ecovered . T hey w ere b urnished a nd s moothed o n b oth s urfaces a nd i n s ome c ases e xhibited a c onvex s moothed s urface o n e ither o ne o r b oth s ides a s w ell . M easurements o f t he b roken p ieces r ange f rom 7 cm b y 9 . 2cm b y 2 . 5cm t o 1cm b y 9 cm b y 2 . 4cm . M easurements o f t he c omplete s pecimens r ange f rom 1 5cm b y 8 .8cm b y 1 . 7cm t o 1 9cm b y 1 0cm b y 1 . 9cm .
3 09
E .
l arge s ized r ubbing s tones . F our s pecimens b elonging t o t his g roup w ere d iscovered ; t hey w ere n ot o f as ize c onvenient f or h olding i n t he h and . W hile t wo o f t hem h ad f lattened g round a nd p olished s urfaces o n o ne o r b oth s ides, w hich m ay h ave r esulted f rom r ubbing , t he r emaining t wo s pecimens h ad u nground r ough s urfaces, a nd t hus, a lthough t hey m ay h ave b een u sed f or r ubbing, o ther f unctions c annot b e r uled o ut, e specially s ince t hey c ould a lso b e u sed a s s harpening s tones. O ne o f t he p olished s pecimens h ad m ultiple h orizontal g rooves o n o ne o f i ts s urfaces. S emi-squarish i n s hape, i t m easured 1 1cm b y 1.9cm b y 7 . 8cm . T he o ther s pecimen , p olished o n o ne s ide a nd r ectangular o r s emi-rectangular i n s hape, m easured 1 8cm b y 1 3 .5cm b y 4 cm . T he u nground s pecimens m easured 2 1cm b y 7 . 5cm b y 7 cm a nd 6 .5cm.
1 9 .5cm b y
1 0cm b y
P ounding S tones S ixty p ounding s tones,
i ncluding b roken p ieces w ere r ecovered ( Tables
8 4 a nd 8 6 . I t c an b e s een t hat t he l argest n umber o f p ounding s tones w ere r ecovered f rom C utting I VB , a ccounting f or 4 0 ( 66 .66%) , f ollowed b y C utting I VC ; a ccounting f or 8 ( 13 .33%) o f t he t otal, w hile t he f ewest w ere r ecovered f rom C utting I , a ccounting f or 1 ( 1 .66%) , f ollowed b y C utting I I , a ccounting f or 5 ( 8 .33%) o f t he t otal. I t c an a lso b e s een t hat L evel 5 p roduced t he l argest n umber o f p ounding s tones, a ccounting f or 2 3 ( 38 .33% ) , f ollowed b y L evel 6 , a ccounting f or 8 ( 13 .33%) o f t he t otal o n t he b asis o f l evels . T hey w ere a ll m ade o f q uartz a nd w ere o f as ize c onvenient t o b e h eld i n t he h and . A .
T hey w ere o f t hree p rincipal t ypes . I rregular s haped s tones i n w hich t he e dge o r a ngle h ad b een u sed f or p ounding.
B .
T en o f t hem w ere r ecovered.
F lattish i n s hape, T welve
s pecimens
t he e dges s eem t o h ave b een u sed f or p ounding .
w ere
r ecovered .
M easurements
r ange
f rom
6 . 3cm b y
5 .3cm b y 2 .8cm t o 1 0cm b y 8 .7cm b y 4 .5cm . C i.
S mall r oundish s tones,
s ixteen o f w hich w ere r ecovered .
T hey a ll h ad
r ough a nd u nburnished s urfaces . M easurements r ange f rom 6 cm b y 5 . 8cm b y 4 .8cm b y 6 .8cm t o 6 .8cm b y 5 .5cm b y 4 .5cm . C ii. M edium r oundish s tones . T en s pecimens w ere r ecovered . W hile m ost o f t hem h ad r ough e dges, a n umber o f t hem h ad 3 o r 4s ides w ell b urnished a nd s moothed w hich m ust h ave r esulted f rom a l ong p eriod o f u se . M easurements r ange f rom 6 .8cm b y 6 .5cm b y 5 .8cm t o 8 .6cm b y 7 cm b y 6 .4cm. C iii.
L arge r oundish s tones.
F our o f t hem w ere r ecovered .
M ade o f
q uartz, e xcept o ne s pecimen m ade o f u nrotted g neiss w hich h ad b een b roken . T he e dges a s w ell a s t hree o r f our s ides h ad b een u sed f or p ounding a nd p erhaps a lso f or r ubbing ; t hus, w hile s ome h ad r ough s urfaces, o thers h ad w ell g round a nd p olished s ides a nd e dges . M easurements r ange f orm 8 cm b y 7 .5cm b y 6 .2cm t o 1 1.5cm b y 1 0cm b y 6 .8cm . T he r emaining f ive s pecimens w ere b roken p arts o f t he r oundish t ype o f p ounding s tone . W hile s ome o f t hem h ave b een b roken a s a r esult o f u se , s ome m ay h ave b een d eliberately p icked u p a nd u sed a s b roken p ieces .
3 10
G rinding S tones F ifteen s pecimens, m ostly b roken p ieces, w ere r ecovered f rom t he R af i n N doko e xcavation ( Tables 8 4 a nd 8 6) : 1 f rom C utting I I , L ayer 2 ; 1 f rom C utting I VB , L evel 1 , 4f rom C utting I VB , L evel 5 ; 7f rom C utting I VB , L evel 6 a nd 1 f rom C utting I VC , L evels 1 a nd 2 a nd 1 f rom C utting I VC , L evel 5 . l t c ould b e s een t hat t he l argest n umber o f g rinding s tones w as r ecovered f rom C utting I VB , a ccounting f or 1 2 ( 80%) o f t he t otal . A lthough i nitially d esignated r ubbing s tones, t hey a ppear m ore l ike g rinding s tones, s ince s ome o f t hem e xhibit c oncave r ubbed s urfaces w hich c ould h ave r esulted f rom g rinding o f s ome s ort, a lthough p erhaps t heir u se a s r ubbing s tones a t t he i nitial s tage m ay n ot b e r uled o ut . T hey a ll a ppear t o h ave a f lattened b ottom w hich c ould h ave r ested o r b een p laced o n t he g round . M ade o f u nrotted g neiss, t hey c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups . G roup A w ere t hose w ith f lattened i nterior s urface o r a rea o f u se, w hich h ad n ot p robably b een i ntensively u sed f or g rinding . F our o f t hese w ere r ecovered ; s ome e longated w hile o thers w ere c ircular i n o utline . M easurement o f ac ircular s pecimen w as 1 7cm b y 1 5cm b y 5 . 5cm ; t he r ectangular s pecimen w as 1 4 .5cm b y 1 0 .5cm b y 4 cm a nd t he e longated s pecimen m easured 1 5 .5cm b y 1 .5cm b y 4 cm . G roup B ,
n umbering
t en
s pecimens
s howed
a c oncave
r ubbed
s urface
o n
t he
i nterior ; t hey w ere c ircular, e longated o r s quare/ r ectangular i n o utline . A c ircular s pecimen m easured 1 9 .5cm b y 1 0cm b y 3 . 2cm ; t he r ectangular o nes r ange i n m easurements f rom 1 2 .5cm b y 9 cm b y 4 .8cm t o 1 5cm b y 1 3cm b y 4 .5cm ; w hile m easurements o f s quared s pecimens r ange f rom 1cm b y 1 0cm b y 3 . 8cm t o 1 5cm b y 1 4cm b y 6 cm a nd t he e longated s pecimen m easured 2 8cm b y 1cm b y 4 cm . T he l ast s pecimen ,
t riangular i n o utline, s eems t o h ave b een u sed f or
g rinding o n b oth s urfaces .
I t m easured 1 5cm b y 8 .5cm a t m id s ection .
W hetstones E leven s pecimens o f w hat c ould b e t ermed w hetstones w ere r ecovered f rom R afin N doko e xcavation ( Table 8 4) : 1f rom C utting 1 , L evel 3 ; 1f rom C utting I I , L evel 2 , 6f rom C utting I VB , L evel 5 a nd 3 f rom C utting I VB , L evel 6 . I t c ould b e o bserved t hat C utting I VB p roduced t he l argest n umber o f w hetstones, a ccounting f or 9 ( 81 .81% ) o f t he t otal . N one o f t hem s eems t o h ave s moothed s urfaces, w hich c ould h ave r esulted f rom r ubbing .
M ade o f
u nrotted g neiss a nd q uartz, t hey c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups . G roup A w ere r ectangular i n s hape , a nd m easurements r ange f rom 1cm b y 7 cm b y 3 . 5cm t o 2 9cm b y 1cm b y 5 . 5cm . S ome o f t hem r eveal r ough l ines o f r idges o r t hin g rooves o n o ne o r b oth s ides. T hey m ay h ave b een u sed f or t he s harpening o f t ools. G roup B , n umbering t hree, w ere b roken p ieces, c ontaining r idges o n e ither o ne o r b oth s ides . M easurements r ange f rom 1 0cm b y 8 . 9cm b y 5 cm t o 1 3cm b y 9 cm b y 6 cm .
S tone D isc A s ingle
s tone d isc w as r ecovered f rom C utting I I,
L ayer
1 .
M ade o f
g ranite , i t i s c oncave o n o ne s ide a nd c onvex o n t he o ther . I t m easured 6 .7cm i n d iameter a nd w as 8 mm i n t hickness . I t h as a r ough a nd u nburnished s urface o n b oth s ides.
3 11
B eads E ight s pecimens o f s tone b eads o f q uartz w ere r ecovered ( Table 8 4) . S even o f t hem w ere d isc s haped w hile t he r emaining o ne w as b arrel s haped . M easurements o f t he d isc t ype r ange f rom 1 . 3cm t o 1 . 8cm i n l ength ; o uter d iameter f rom 9 mm t o 1 2mm a nd i nner d iameter f rom 4 mm t o 5 mm . T hey w ere a ll b urnished . T he s ingle b arrel t ype i s 1 . 7cm l ong , h as a n o uter d iameter o f 8 mm ; a n i nner d iameter o f 2 . 5mm a nd i s T able 8 4
1mm a t t he m id s ection .
s hows t he d istribution o f a ll t en b eads r ecovered f rom R afin
N doko e xcavation ,
w hile T able 8 7,
t he d istribution o f h eads r ecovered f rom
a ll e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea .
G lass A s mall b roken f ragment o f ad isc s haped g lass b ead w as r ecovered f rom C utting I T, L evel 2 . R eddish i n c olour, i t i s 6 mm l ong, h as a n o uter d iameter o f 5 mm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 2 mm .
I ron I ron o bjects, R afin N doko,
i ron o re a nd i ron s lag,
( Table 8 8
s hows
( Table 8 4) w ere r ecovered f rom
t he d istribution o f a ll
i ron a rtifacts
r ecovered f rom t he f our e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea) .
I ngots T wo o f t he i ron o bjects, r ecovered f rom C utting I , L evels 5 a nd 6 , a ppear t o h ave b een f lat i ron b ars f rom w hich o ther a rtifacts c ould b e m ade . T hey w ere s quare i n s hape a nd m esured 6 .5cm b y 6 cm b y 1 0mm a nd 7 cm b y 7 . 2cm b y 8 mm .
K nife a nd S pear F rom C utting I I ,
L ayer 3 a nd L evel 5 w ere r ecovered b roken p ieces o f a
k nife b lade a nd p ossibly a s pear b lade r espectively . T he b roken k nife b lade m easured 4 .9cm b y 3 .1cm b y 1 .5mm, w hile t he b roken s pear b lade m easured
5 . 4cm b y
1 . 2cm b y
1 . 5mm .
O re O ne s pecimen o f i ron o re w as r ecovered f rom C utting I VB , L evel 5 . l t m easured 1 2cm b y 6 .5cm b y 5 cm . D r . J .O .T . A dewara o f M etallurgical E ngineering, A .B .U ., Z aria c onfirmed t hat i t w as l ocal f erruginous s andstone.
S lag F ifteen p ieces o f i ron s lag w ere r ecovered f rom R afin N doko e xcavation : 5f rom C utting I I , L evel I ; If rom C utting I VA , L evel 9 , a nd 9 f rom C utting I VC , L evels I a nd 2 . T hey w ere a ll c onfirmed b y D r . A dew ara t o h e s lag
3 12
S i te s / L o ca l i t ie s
S t one B eads oc r ' l -
C lay B eads
G la s s B eads
D i st ri b u t ion o f B ead sr e cove r ed f r om e xcav a ted s i t e si nt h e Wu sh i sh i a r ea
C
-
Z
o C
.
ri
C
oc
I
-
-
-
C
W)
to
— 0
3 13
S i te s / L o ca l i t ie s
Q uan t i t ie s
I r on O b jec t s
D iagno s t ic
T o ta l
D is t r ibu t ion o f I r on A r t if ac t sr e cover ed f r om e xcava ted s i tes i nt h e Wu sh ish i a r ea
oe •
I -
(N
C
C
-
o c
-
C
-‚
0
z U-
0 (N
-'
«
o .- I
o
-
M
( )
5•
VE
-
: ;
l e t
r e )
u
-
3 14
-
cE
l e
-
-
rn
I -
z
(N 0 '
— c
" C
r — o c c > C D
o c
-
L i f 3 15
'
(N (N (N (N (N (N
r
-
r ,
3 16
R UBB ING
S TONES
U
3 17
r esulting f rom t he s mithing o f i ron o bjects .
K ONGON M AKERI N on-Pottery R emains R ecovered f rom t he E xcavation T hese c omprised o bjects o f c lay ; m etal, b one,
s hell,
i vory a nd s tone .
F aunal, m ollusca a nd h uman r emains w ere a lso f ound . C lay O bjects C lay N et S inkers T hirteen o bjects, c alled n et s inkers f or t he p urpose o f d escription , w ere r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri e xcavation ( Figs . 5 8 a nd 5 9 . T hey w ere a ll m ade o f c lay a nd a re o f v arious s izes a nd s hape . T heir c olour r anges f rom d ark g rey,
( 2) t o y ellowish r ed,
( 5) w ith s hades o f b rown ( 4) a nd
r eddish y ellow , ( 2) . T able 8 9 s hows t heir d istribution . T hey s eem t o b e c oncentrated i n L evels 8 t hrough 2 5 o f u nits A , B , D , F , G , H , J a nd N . F ive ( 38 .46%) o f t he t otal w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 2 3 alone, while 7 ( 53 .84%) c ame f rom L evels t ypes. A .
R ound o r c ircular,
2 3 a nd 2 5 .
m edium t o
T hey c ould b e c lassified i nto
l arge s ized,
w eighing 6 50g ,
f our
r anging f rom
4 .0 t o 5 . 0cm i n d iameter ( Fig . 5 9), w ith p erforation r anging f rom 7 mm t o 9 mm d rilled t hrough t hem . F ive s pecimens w ere r ecovered ; 2 ( medium s ize) f rom u nit A , L evel 2 3; 2 a nd 1 ( large s ize) f rom u nits B a nd A ( Feature 1 9 a nd 2 0) , L evel 2 3 . B .
S pherical
t ype , s mall t o m edium s ized , w ith t apered e nd, w eighing 3 00g ,
4 .0cm a nd 6 -7cm l ong b y 3 c m a nd 3 . 8-4 .5cm i n t hickness w ith p erforation ( Fig. 5 8) r anging f rom 8 t o 1 0mm i n d iameter . F our s pecimens w ere r ecovered o ne e ach f rom u nits A , L evel 8 ; D , L evel 1 7; F , L evels 1 2 a nd 1 4 a nd H , L evel 1 8 . C .
D iscoid t ype, s mall t o m edium , w eighing 1 50g, r anging f rom 3 .5cm t o 4 .0cm i n d iameter b y 2 .0cm t o 4 .0cm i n d iameter b y 2 .0cm t o 4 .0cm i n l ength ( height) ( Fig . 5 8) , w ith p erforation o f 1 0-11mm d rilled t hrough t hem . T wo s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 1f rom u nit F , L evel 1 2 ( medium s ize) a nd 1 f rom u nit J , L evel 2 5 ( small s ize) .
D .
C ylindrical t ype, s mall t o m edium s ize, w eighing 5 0g , m easuring 3 .8cm t o 5 .0cm i n l ength b y 2 .0cm i n d iameter ( Fig. 5 8), w ith 5 mm p erforation d rilled t hrough t hem . T wo s pecimens w ere r ecovered : 1 f rom u nit G , L evels 8 a nd 9 ; a nd 1 f rom u nit N , L evel 2 5 . T hese o bjects m ay h ave b een n et s inkers u sed i n t he p ast f or c atching
f ish . T hey w ere r ecovered i n a ssociation w ith p ottery, g rinding a nd r ubbing s tones, e specially i n F eatures 1 9 a nd 2 0 , w hich m ay p oint t o t heir b eing o f d omestic u se .
D iscs S ix c eramic d iscs w eighing 2 00g ( Fig . 6 0), r epresenting p ottery r e-use, w ere s herds g round o r c hipped o n o ne o r m ore e dges t o a c ircular s hape , b ut
3 18
T o ta l
-
-
-
-
N I
-
F
>
GIIf
H
L
M
I -
-
-
B
-
A L eve ls
T able 9 0 : K
E
-
r 4 r i c i r
-
3 19
c i r l r i r
3 20
3 21
e normous a moun t o f s he l l b eads
>
X
L
L )
r
c
C r-
-
3 22
-
— . -.
4
C1
N N
N
v N
Cr -N N N
b t= B one t o o ] V
Cc c z V
11 1 1 1
3 23
3 24
4 -
c 4 -
—
*
eq
-
r
c r -
r
—
3 25
' r
' C
r - o c
O
-
IN M L
A .
IK
A .
0 V
I '
I C
c J
L ) -
-
o c C 1 4
N
I
W I-
L eve ls
_l
*
N
A .
A N
N
N
N
N
N
N
r
C
3 26
-
-
C
o ne m ay h ave b een m ade a s ad isc .
O ne h as a d ecoration o f b anded h orizontal
c omb-stamping, w hich c onfirms t hat i t w as a s herd . T heir d istribution c an b e s een i n T able 9 0 . T his s eems t o f orm a p attern , c oncentrated i n t he u pper p art o f t he e xcavation , a s t hey a re n ot f ound b elow L evel 1 8 .
T hey r ange f rom s mall, m edium t o l arge i n s ize .
T he l arge c ircular t ype r anges f rom 5 . 8cm t o 8 . 5cm i n d iameter a nd 1 0mm i n t hickenss ( Fig .
6 0) .
T hese t wo s pecimens,
h ighest p art o f t heir a rea o f d istribution . f rom 3 .5cm t o 4 .0cm i n d iameter a nd 7 mm
w eighing
1 60g c ame f rom t he
T he m edium r ounded t ype r anges i n t hickness. O ne s pecimen
s urvived , r ecovered f rom t he l owest p art o f t he a rea o f d istribution , u nit J , L evel 1 8 . T he s mall r ounded t ype g rades i nto t he m edium s ize a nd c ould n ot r eally b e c alled a c lass . T hey r ange f rom 2 . 7cm t o 3 . 0cm i n d iameter b y 6 mm i n t hickness . S ix s pecimens w ere r ecovered . A ll e xcept o ne w ere b urnished o n t he i nner a nd o uter s urfaces . T hree o f t hem w ere g rey , w hile t he r emaining 3 w ere r ed . A t p resent w e c annot b e s ure o f t he f unction o f t hese p ottery d iscs, b ut e lsewhere i n W est A frica t hey w ere u sed a s g old w eights ( Garrard 1 980 , pp. 2 9-32) . T heir d istribution s eems t o c oincide w ith t he l argest c oncentrations o f p ottery .
B ead O ne
s pecimen o f
c lay b ead w as
r ecovered f rom t he m iddle p art o f t he
m ound , u nit A , L evel 1 5 . I t w as d isc s haped a nd m ade o f c lay . I t m easured 2 .2cm l ong w ith a n o uter d iameter o f 1 . 3cm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 3 mm . I t i s y ellowish r ed i n c olour a nd a ppeared t o h ave b een f ired .
S moking P ipes S ix
p ieces
o f
l ocally m ade c lay s moking p ipes w ere r ecovered,
2 a s
s urface f inds a nd o ne e ach f rom C uttings I E a nd I F , L evel 1 0 , a t a d epth b elow d atum o f 1 .80-2 .0m ; C utting I C, L evel 1 1, a t ad epth o f 2 .0-2 .2m ; a nd C utting I N , L evel 2 7 , a t a d epth b elow d atum o f 5 . 30-5 .40m .
B one a nd I vory A s ingle d ouble e nded h one p oint w as r ecovered f rom u nit C , L evels S a nd 9 ( Table 9 1; F ig . 6 1) . T he b roken t ip s howed c rystalline s tructure o f t he b one w hen e xamined t hrough t he m icroscope . T he a rtifact a ppears t o h ave b een m ade b y s licing a nd c hipping a s i t h ad f ive s ides w here s havings w ere r emoved. I t m easured 4 .4cm f rom t he t ip t o t he b roken e nd w ith p erhaps n o m ore t han 3 mm b eing b roken o ff f rom t he o ther t ip, t hus r econstruction w ould m ake i t 4 . 7cm l ong , 5 mm a cross a t m id-point . T he b ody i s s mooth a s w ell a s t he t ip w hich a lso r eveals a t riangular s haped c rosss ection ; p erhaps t hen, i t w as n ot u sed f or b oring o r d rilling . W ooden t ools w ith p ointed e nds o f t his n ature w ere o bserved b y D .A . t o b e u sed t oday b y p otters i n t he a rea f or i ncision , g rooving a nd c ompound d ecorations o n t heir p ottery . A c omplete i vory r ing w as r ecovered f rom C utting 1 B , L evel 1 4 ( Fig . 6 2) . B oth t he i nner a nd t he o uter s urface a re s moothed . T he o uter d iameter m easured 2 .5cm , w hile t he i nner d iameter w as 1 .8cm a nd 5 mm i n t hickness .
I ts u pper a nd l ower s urfaces w ere w ell p olished a nd g round .
3 27
I t
3 28
T abu la r S tone
-
H one s t one
S ands tone
-
T abu la r s t one
S ch is t
-
P ebb le r ubbed f l a to n b o th s i de s
P ebb le f o r s moo th ing
F r e sh G ne is s
-
Wh i t ish s t one
Whe t s t one
G rooved s t one
G r ind ing s t one s
P ound ing s t one s
S t one O b je c t s R ubb ing s t one s
-
-
-
F -
w as r eddish y ellow i n c olour .
A n i vory b racelet w as a lso r ecovered f rom
t he r ight w rist o f a j uvenile f emale b urial u nit K , L evel 1 7 .
r ecovered a s
F eature
1 6
f rom
S tone T wo s pecimens o f s tone b eads w ere r ecovered f rom C utting I F , L evels 9 a nd 1 ( Figs . 6 1 a nd 6 2) . T hey w ere m ade o f q uartz a nd w ere d isc s haped . B oth m easured 1 . 8cm l ong ; t he b igger o f t he t wo h as a n o uter d iameter o f 1 .4cm a nd an i nner d iameter o f 6 mm , w hile t he s maller o ne h as a n o uter d iameter o f
1 . 1cm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 5 u in .
G rinding, P ounding a nd R ubbing S tones T able
9 2
s hows
t he
d istribution
o f
g rinding e qipment
r ecovered
f rom
K ongon Makeri, w hile T able 8 5 s hows t he d istribution f rom t he f our e xcavated s ites . L t c an b e s een t hat a t otal o f o ne h undred a nd s ixty n ine w ere r ecovered , d ivided i nto t he 5 3(31.36%) ; r ubbing s tones, 1 06
f ollowing s ub—types : p ounding s tones, ( 62 .72%) ; g rinding s tones, 3 ( 1 .77%) ;
w hetstone, 1 ( 0 .59%); q uartz p ebble s tone, r ubbed f lat o n b oth s ides, 1 (0 .59%) ; g rooved s tone, 1 ( 0 .59%) ; p ebble u sed f or s moothing, 1 ( 0 .59%) ; w hitish c olouring m aterial, 1 ( 0 .59%) ; h one s tone u sed f or s moothing , 1 ( 0 .59%) a nd a r ectangular p iece o f t abular b lack s tone, 1 ( 0 .59%) . T his d istribution s howed t hat g rinding s tones, t hough c ommonly r ecovered a t K ongon M akeri, w ere c oncentrated i n t hree p arts o f t he m ound . T he f irst a rea i s t he l ower l evels, i .e . , L evels 1 9 t o 2 9 , p roducing 6 4 ( 37 .86%) o f t he t otal ( Table 8 5) . T heir d istribution s eems t o c over a ll a reas o f t he m ound s patially , i .e . , w ith t he e xception o f C utting I L . T he s econd i s t he m iddle p art, r estricted t o L evels 1 2 t o 1 7 o f C uttings 1 A t o 1 E , p roducing 2 5 ( 14 .79%) ( Table 8 5) . T he u pper p hase, L evels I t o 1 o f C utting 1 A t o 1 G h as a lso p roduced 8 0 ( 47 .33% ) . . D r . C .A . A jibade, f ormerly o f t he G eology D epartment, A .B .U . , Z aria , i dentified t hem a s h aving b een m ade o f l ocal r aw m aterials . T able 9 3 s hows a rtefact c lassification o n t he b asis o f t he r aw m aterials u sed . I t c an b e s een t hat u nrotted g neiss r anked h ighest w ith 8 8 ( 52 .69%) o ut o f 1 69 . T his u nrotted g neiss w as l argely e mployed f or m aking r ubbing s tones a nd g rinding s tones . V ein q uartz w as n ext w idely u sed w ith 4 1 ( 24 .55%) 3 9 p ounding s tones, 2 r ubbing s tones . Q uartz w as a lso l argely e mployed f or f looring a nd w as s een t o b e p referred t o o ther f orms o f s tone . S andstone w as n ext w idely u sed , w ith 3 7 ( 22 .15%) ( Table 9 3) . O ther r ocks u sed w ere s chist, w eathered g neiss a nd t abular s andstone .
U pper G rindstones ( Rubbing S tones) R ubbing s tones w ere b y f ar
t he m ost n umerous,
t here b eing 1 06 ( 63 .47%)
o ut o f 1 69 o bjects; T able 9 2 s hows t heir d istribution . T he l ower l evels p roduced 3 9 ( 36 .79%) ; t he m iddle l evels, 2 1 ( 19 .81%) a nd t he u pper l evels, 4 6 ( 43 .39%) . T he r ubbing s tones w ere m ade o f l ocally a vailable m aterials e specially u nweathered g neiss a nd s andstone ( Table 9 3) . T hey w ere a ll w ell g round a nd p olished o n e ither o r b oth s urfaces a nd w ere a ll o f a s ize c onvenient f or h olding i n t he h and e xcept t hose o f c lass D . T hey a re g enerally c lassified i nto t he f ollow ing f our t ypes, d esignated A , B , Ca nd D . A .
S mall
t o m edium s ize t ype ,
i rregular i n s hape ,
3 29
c onfined t o t he l ower
3 30
l evels, e specially L evels 2 2 t o 2 7 i n a ll p arts o f t he m ound . F ifty ( 47 .16%) s pecimens b elonging t o t his s mall t o m edium , i rregular s haped t ype m ade o f s andstone ( with o ne m ade o f v ein q uartz), w ere r ecovered f rom t he u pper l evels, i .e . , c uttings 1 B , 1 D a nd 1 E , L evel 3 , L evel 6 a nd 8 . S mall o nes r ange f rom 5 .5cm b y 4 .0cm b y 2 .2cm t o 8 .0cm b y 5 . 0cm b y 1 . 8cm i n m easurement w hile m edium o nes r ange i n m easurement f rom l ücm b y 7 .5cm b y 2 . 5cm t o 1 2cm b y 9 .5cm b y 4 .5cm ( Fig . 5 9) . B .
S mall t o m edium s ize , d iscoid s haped t ype . T en ( 9 .45%) s pecimens, a ll m ade o f u nweathered g neiss, w ere r ecovered . T he s maller o nes, n umbering S w ere f ound i n t he l ower p art o f t he m ound w hile t he m edium o nes, a lso n umbering 5 , w ere c oncentrated i n t he m iddle l evels .
S mall
o nes r ange f rom 7 cm b y 9 cm i n d iameter w ith t hickness o f 2 .5cm t o 3 .5cm, o ne s ide o f t heir s urfaces w ere s mooth, r esulting f rom u se . T he m edium o nes r ange f rom 1 2cm t o 1 3cm i n d iameter b y 1 . 6cm t o 2 cm i n t hickness; b oth t heir s ides w ere u sed , r esulting i n f lattened s mooth s urfaces. C .
G lobular
t ype .
T wenty-two
( 22 .7%)
s pecimens
w ere
r ecovered
i n
t he
u pper p art o f t he m ound , a ll m ade o f f resh g neiss e xcept o ne m ade o f v ein q uartz . M easurements o f a f ew o f t hem r ange f rom 1 2 .5cm b y 8 -7cm b y 3 cm t o 1 8 .5cm b y 1 1 .5cm b y 2 cm . W hile s ome o f t hem h ad s mooth s urfaces, a f ew h ad r ough s urfaces . D .
R ectangular t ype .
T wo s pecimens s eem t o b elong t o t his g roup, m ade o f
u nweathered g neiss a nd r ecovered f rom C utting 1 B , L evel 1 2 a nd C utting 1 E , L evel 9 ; a nd m easuring 1 9cm b y 1 5 .5cm b y S cm a nd 1 6 .5cm b y 1 2cm b y 7 cm r espectively . T hese t wo s pecimens a ppear i nconvenient f or h olding i n t he h and a nd h ad r ough s urfaces . W hile t hey m ay h ave b een u sed f or r ubbing, t hey m ight w ell h ave s erved o ther f unctions s uch a s s harpening o bjects . I ncluded i n t his g roup i s a t hird o ne, r ecovered f rom C utting I C , L evel 1 4 , a lso m ade o f u nweathered g neiss a nd m easuring 1 6cm b y 1 3 .2cm b y 4 cm . I t s hows a c oncave r ubbed s urface , h aving b een p art o f q uern o n w hich r ubbing s tones w ere u sed f or g rinding.
P ounding S tones T he K ongon M akeri e xcavation p roduced 5 3 ( 31 .73%) p ounding s tones c oncentrated i n t he u pper a nd l ower p art o f t he m ound ( Table 9 2) . W hile t heir o ccurrence w as w idely d istributed i n t he l ower l evels, t heir a rea o f d istribution w as c onfined t o c utting 1 A a nd 1 G i n t he u pper l evels a nd o nly 3 ( 1 .79%) w ere r ecovered f rom t he m iddle l evels, ( Level 1 t o 1 7) . I t w ould t hen a ppear t hat p ounding s tones h ad a w ider u se i n t he l ower l evels t han i n t he u pper l evels o f t he m ound . T hey w ere m ade o f v ein q uartz a nd s andstone l ocally a vailable i n t he a rea a nd w ere o f t hree p rincipal t ypes d esignated A , B , C . A
R oughly s pherical, m easurement r anges f rom a bout 8 .0cm b y 7 .5cm b y 7 .0cm t o 6 .3cm b y 5 . 3cm b y 4 .2cm ( Fig . s pecimens b elong t o t his t ype .
B .
6 3).
T wenty-four
( 14 .37%)
F lattish , o val i n s hape , t he e dges s eem t o h ave b een u sed f or p ounding . F ourteen ( 8 .38& ) s pecimens w ere r ecovered . T heir m easurements f rom 7 .6cm b y 4 .5cm b y 2 .5cm t o 8 .5cm b y 5 .5cm b y 2 .5cm .
C .
r ange
I rregular s haped s tones i n w hich t he e dge o r a ngle h ad b een u sed f or
3 31
3 32
3 33
p ounding.
S ixteen ( 9.59%) s pecimens w ere r ecovered.
L ower G rinding S tones K ongon M akeri e xcavation y ielded 3 ( 1 .79%) l ower g rind s tones a ll m ade o f u nweathered g neiss ( Table 9 3) . T able 9 2 s hows t heir d istribution a ll f rom t he l ower p arts o f t he m ound ( Figs . 6 4) . T he l argest o f t hem , e longated, m easuring 2 1cm b y 1 9 .7cmby 7 .5cm, d esignated F eature 1 9, w as r ecovered f rom t he s outh w est c orner o f L evels 2 3 a nd 2 4 o f C utting l B . I ts a rea o f u se , s howing a c oncave r ubbed s urface m easured 1 7cm b y 1 9cm a nd 1 .3cm d eep a nd c ould h ave b een u sed f or c racking n uts a nd f or g rinding . F eature 1 9 w as a lso a ssociated w ith t he i nverted b ase o f a l arge s torage j ar, a p air o f f airly m assive c lay n et s inkers, s cattered b roken p ottery a nd a s mall r ubbing s tone . T he s econd o ne , a lso e longated, r ecovered f rom L evel 2 1 o f C utting 1 E m easured 1 8 .5cm b y 1 6cm b y 5 . 5cm ; i ts a rea o f u se m easured 1 2cm b y 1 5 .5cm w ith a d impled d epth o f 1 cm , r esulting f rom u se . T he t hird s pecimen, r ather i rregular i n s hape, h as a s mooth f lattened s urface a nd w as r ecovered f rom L evel 2 3 o f C utting l B . I t m easured 1 5cm b y 1 3cm b y 7 cm ; i ts a rea o f u se 1 4cm b y 8 .5cm .
G rooved S tone A s ingle g rooved s tone w as r ecovered f rom C utting I D , L evel 1 5 . I t i s l arge a nd e longated w ith b oth s urfaces s mooth a nd w ell p olished ; b oth s urfaces a lso c ontain c oncave g rooves, i ndicating t hat i t m ust h ave s erved f unctions s uch a s g rinding o f p lant m aterials a nd g rasses a nd c racking o f n uts o r o ther s ubstances a mong o thers . T he o uter s urface m easured 3 4cm b y 2 7cm b y 7 cm , t he g rooved p art m easured 1 5cm b y 8 cm w ith a d epth o f 1 . 9cm . T he g rooved p art o f t he i nner s urface m easured 1 3cm b y 9 cm w ith a d epth o f 1 . 2cm . I t w as m ade o f s andstone .
W eathered G neiss A s ingle s pecimen w as r ecovered f rom L evel 2 1 o f C utting 1 E a nd C utting i F . I t m easured 1 8cm b y 1cm b y 6 . 5cm a nd p roved t o b e w eathered g neiss . W hile i ts f unction i s n ot p recisely k nown, i ts h aving b een u sed a s a c olouring s ubstances m ay n ot b e r uled o ut, s ince i t i s m ade o f v ery s oft r ock w hich e asily d ecomposes a nd c rumbles a t a s light t ouch ; i t a lso c ontains k aolin o f t he s ort u sed f or w hitewashing .
W hetstone A l ong r ectangular b lock w as r ecovered f rom C utting 1 D , L evel 2 1 . I t w as m ade o f u nweathered g neiss a nd m easured 2 8 .5cm b y 6 cm b y S . Scm . I t h as r ough l ines o f r idges o r t hin g rooves o n t hree s ides e xcept t he b ottom w hich a cts a s t he b ase o f t he o bject . o f t ools .
I t c ould h ave b een u sed f or t he s harpening
S moothing S tones A s andstone I t i s o val
p ebble w as
r ecovered f rom C utting 1 C ,
i n s hape a nd m easured 5 . 5cm b y 5 cm .
3 34
I t h as
L evel 7 ( Fig .
6 5) .
a v ery s mooth a nd
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3 36
L /
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I RON OBJECTS
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b urnished b ody w ith a h ighly g lossy s urface a nd c ould v ery w ell h ave b een u sed f or s moothing , e specially i n t he p rocess o f p ottery m anufacture . A p iece o f s chist w as r ecovered f rom C utting I F ,
L evel 9 ( Fig .
6 5(b )) .
I t i s n early s quare s haped, m easuring 5 . 0cm b y 4 . 7cm b y 1 cm i n t hickness a nd h as a s mooth s urface o n b oth s ides . l t m ay v ery w ell h ave b een u sed f or p ottery s moothing .
Q uartz P ebble R ubbed F lat O n B oth S ides A b roken p iece o f v ein q uartz p ebble r ubbed f lat o n b oth s ides w as r ecovered f rom C utting 1 B , L evel 6 ( Fig . 6 5 ) . I t m easured 4 cm f rom t ip t o b roken e nd a nd 4 .5cm a cross b y 1 cm i n t hickness . I ts i mmediate f unction i s n ot k nown , b ut i t m ay r epresent p art o f t he p rocess o f m aking s tone b eads . T he t wo q uartz s tone b eads r ecovered f rom C utting I F, L evels 9 a nd 1 1 , b ore ac lose r esemblance t o t his b roken q uartz p ebble .
S mall R ectangular P iece O f T abular B lack S tone O ne s pecimen o f t his t ype o f s tone w as r ecovered f rom C utting I F , L evel 1, i t h as a v ery s mooth , w ell b urnished b ody w ith c racks i ndicating l ines o f w eakness i n t he r ock . I t m easured 2 . 5cm b y 1 . 5cm b y 4 cm i n t hickness . I ts u se i s n ot k nown . T hese o bjects o f s tone r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri p oint t o t he i nhabitants ' d irect u tilization o f t heir i mmediate e nvironment . S uch s tone o bjects c ould h ave b een u sed f or g rinding o f g rains o r p igment , f or p ounding w ild g rasses a nd o ther p lant m aterials, r oot c rops a nd t ubers a nd t ough a nimal p arts, s uch a s t he s kin , a nd c ould a lso h ave b een u sed f or c racking n uts a nd b reaking b ones f or t he e xtraction o f m arrow . T he u pper l evels, L evels 1 t hrough 1 7 , a lso w itnessed t he i ncorporation o f f aunal a nd s hell r emains i n t he d iet o f t he p rehistoric i nhabitants o f K ongon M akeri .
I ron T wenty-two i ron o bjects w ere r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri a nd a s mall n umber o f p ieces o f i ron s lag ( 8 ) . T able 8 8 s hows t he d istribution o f a ll i ron a rtifacts r ecovered f rom t he f our e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea, T able 9 4 s hows t he d istribution o f i ron o bjects r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri . E ven t hough t wo p ieces o f v itrified s herds a nd o ne p iece o f i ron s lag w ere r ecovered f rom C utting 1 D , L evel 1 8 a nd C utting 1 E , L evel 2 3 r espectively , p robably i ndicating a f urnace o r f orge o n t he s ite , t he u se o f i ron s eems t o h ave b een c ommon o nly i n t he l ate l evels . N one w as f ound b elow C utting 1 A , L evel 1 4 , w hen i ron n ails w ere r ecovered a nd f rom C utting I C , L evel 1 w hen m ore i ron s lag w as e ncountered . F rom t hat t ime , i ron c ontinued t o b e u sed a nd w as p robably m ade t ill t he f inal p eriod o f o ccupation o f t he m ound . I ron o bjects i nclude n ails, b angles, c lips ( holders), a s poon o r l adle . T he e arliest w ere t wo p ieces o f i ron n ails 2 . 8cm b y 5 . 0cm b y 9 mm , c oming f rom C utting 1 A , L evel 1 4 . I nterestingly , ab roken i ron s pear b lade, 7 . 8cm f rom t ip t o t he b roken e nd b y 1 0mm ( Fig . 6 6(a)) a cross w as r ecovered f rom L evels 2 2 a nd 2 3 i n C utting I N , b ut, a s t his w as i n t he l owest p art o f t he m ound n ot m uch r eliance c ould b e p laced o n i t i n t erms o f c hronology .
3 38
KONGON MAKER I I RON OBJECTS
L owe r p a r t o f ab r oken k n i fe b l ade
U ppe r p a r t o f ab roken k n i fe b l ade
KM 6 6
0
I
2
3
cms
F ig. 6 7
39
4
5
B etween L evels 8 a nd
1 0 ,
w ere t wo m ore n ails,
3 .6cm a nd 5 . 0cm b y 9 mm
a cross, a s ingle-ended p oint, 1 1 .8cm b y 6 mm a cross ( Fig . 6 6b) ; a d oublee nded p oint, 4 .8cm b y 3 mm ( Fig. 6 6c); o ne b roken b lade, 4 .0cm f rom t ip t o t he b roken e nd b y 5 . 2cm a cross ( Fig . 6 6d) ; a nd a n early c omplete b angle o r l arge r ing , 3 . 3cm i n d iameter w ith s mooth s urfaces ( Fig . 6 6e ), a ll r ecovered f rom C utting 1 G a nd H . T wo p ieces o f s lag o ccurred i n L evels 5 a nd 8 i n C uttings 1 C a nd 1 E . F rom L evels 6 a nd 7 i n C utting I F c ame a n early c omplete i ron r ing , 2 . 3cm i n d iameter , p art o f a n i ron s poon o r l adle , 1 . 7cm b y 9 mm a nd t hree p oints/nails, 6 . 5cm , 9 .9cm a nd 1 .7cm b y 4 .5mm i n t hickness ( Figs . 6 6f; 6 6g) . F rom L evel 4 i n C utting I D c ame t wo b roken p arts o f k nife b lades, t he s maller m easuring 7 .5cm f rom t ip t o t he b roken e nd b y 2 cm a cross ( Fig . 6 7(a)) a nd t he b igger o ne 1 5cm f rom l ower t o b roken e nd ( Fig . 6 6(b)) . A p ortion o f 6 . 5cm l ong w as s een t o h ave h ad a w ooden h andle a s t wo i ron c lips o r h olders ( one c omplete , t he o ther b roken ) w ere r ecovered i n a ssociation w ith t he b igger k nife b lade ; t he c omplete o ne m easured 4 .3cm b y 1 8mm a cross ( Fig . 6 6j) . F rom t he s ame l evel w as r ecovered a r ing , 2 .5cm i n d iameter ( Fig . 6 6i ) . T he u ppermost p art o f t he m ound r evealed t wo i ron o bjects . A l arge t hick c lip ( holder ) w ith e nds d ouble f olded , 3 . 9cm i n d iameter b y 6 nn i n t hickness ( Fig . 6 6k ) c ame f rom C utting I B , L evel 2 , w hile a f ragment o f a l arge r ing o f a bout 5 cm i n d iameter w as r ecovered f rom C utting 1 D , a nd 3 .
L evels 2
T he m ajority o f t hese o bjects w ere s hapeless a nd r usted r evealing l ittle o f t heir o riginal f orm , e specially t he s poon a nd n ails, w hile t he p oints, k nife b lade a nd r ings w ere e asily r ecognized a nd t heir o riginal f orm c ould b e r econstructed w ithout much d ifficulty . O bjects t aken f rom d ifferent l evels w ere s ubmitted t o D r . J .D .T . A dewara o f t he M etallurgical E ngineering D epartment, A .B .U ., Z aria, f or a nalysis. A fter v isual a nd m icroscopic e xamination D r . A de w ara w as o f t he o pinion t hat t hey w ere a ll i mported f rom o utside t he W ushishi a rea ( A dewara, P ersonal c ommunication , 1 984). T he t ypes o f i ron o bjects r ecovered w ould h ave b rought a bout g reater e fficiency i n m any t ypes o f e xploitive a ctivities ( Connah , 1 981 , 1 61) . T he a bsence o f l ithic a rtefacts o ther t han p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones w ould i ndicate t hat t he t echnological b ase f or t he l ater p hase a t K ongon M akeri w as m etallurgical .
S hell B eads T he m ultiple n ecklaces o f t iny s hell b eads, r ecoveredf f rom t he n eck a nd b elow t he m andible o f aj uvenile f ale b urial f rom C utting 1 K , L evel 1 7 r epresent o ne t ype o f s hell b ead r ecovered a t K ongon M akeri . T he t otal n umber o f t his t ype o f b ead i s e stimated a t 5 ,000 w ith a n a verage w eight o f 0 .03gm . T he b eads w ere m ade f rom t he s hell o f a p ulmonate s nail, p robably t he l arge l and s nail A chatina M arginata, t he o nly s pecies i n W est A frica o f s uitable s ize a nd s hell t hickness f or b ead m aking ( Shaw , 1 986 , 1 2 ) .
G lass B eads T he r emaining s ix b eads w ere m ade o f g lass . T hey c ould b e d ivided i nto t hree g roups. T he f irst g roup, g reen i n c olour, c onsists o f t wo s pecimens. T hey w ere t iny r oundish g lass b eads w ith a t apering e nd,
3 40
G r ind i n g s t one
s t o n e
P ound i n g
R ub S tone b i ng l akes s t one s F P ebb le s t one
P o r ce l a in
I r on G la ss o b j e c t s b o t t le ,JL
G la ss b eads o -
-
-
-
( ' 4
( ‚ 4
I-
3 41
-
S he l l r ema ins
r ecovered
f rom C utting
1 C ,
L evel
1 5 .
O ne o f
t hem m easured 6 mm l ong ,
3 . 5mm a t t he u pper o uter d iameter a nd 1 . 5mm a t t he l ower o uter d iameter .
w as A
s ingle s pecimen , l ight b lue i n c olour , b elongs t o t he s econd t ype o f g lass b ead . L ong a nd c ylindrical, i t w as r ecovered f rom L evel 1 5 o f u nit E . l t m easured I O t i u i i l ong w ith o uter d iameter o f 5 i u i n a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 2m . T he r emaining t hree s pecimens w ere d isc s haped , o ne g reen i n c olour , t he r emaining t wo d ark b lue . T he g reen o ne, 4 mm l ong h as a n o uter d iameter o f 1 . 5mm ;
i t w as r ecovered f rom L evels 8 a nd 9 o f u nit G .
T he t wo d ark b lue
b eads w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 7 o f u nit F . T he s horter o ne m easures 5 mm l ong w ith o uter d iameter o f 5 . 5mm a nd i nner d iameter o f 1 . 5mm , w hile t he b igger o ne m easures 7 mm i n l ength a nd h as a n o uter d iameter o f 6m m a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 2 mm . T hese b eads w ere c ertainly o bjects o f a esthetic v alue a nd w hile t he s tone b eads a nd p robably t he s hell b eads m ay h ave b een m ade b y l ocal i nhabitants o f t he a rea, t he g lass b eads w ould c ertainly s eem t o r epresent i tems o btained b y t rade a nd c ontact, p erhaps a long w ith o ther o bjects s uch a s c owries a nd s moking p ipes r ecovered f rom t he u pper p art o f t he e xcavation . T able 9 1 s hows t he d istribution o f b eads r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri, w hile
T able 8 7
s hows
t he d istribution o f
b eads
r ecovered
f rom
t he
f our
e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushisi a rea . l t c an b e s een t hat b eads o ccurred s paringly a t K ongon M akeri e xcavation . A part f rom t he v ery l arge n umbers o f t iny s hell b eads r ecovered a s g rave g oods f rom F eature 1 6 , b eads w ere c onfined t o t he u pper p art o f t he m ound , f ound b etween L evels 7 a nd 1 2 o f C utting i F a nd 1 G , a nd n arrowly a lso i n L evel 1 5 o f C uttings 1 A , C a nd E r espectively . F our t ypes o f b eads, c lay , s tone, s hell a nd g lass w ere r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri e xcavation .
K ASAKOGI W EST
N on-Pottery A rtefacts R ecovered f rom E xcavation T able 9 5 s hows t he d istribution a nd p aucity o f n on-ceramic m aterials r ecovered f rom K asakogi W est . I t c an b e s een t hat, w ith t he e xception o f 2 p ounding s tones a nd 1 r ubbing s tone r ecovered f rom L evel 2 6 , c ultural m aterials o ther t han p ottery w ere g enerally c onfined t o t he u pper l evels a nd w ere n ot f ound b elow L evel 1 0 .
N on-ceramic o bjects r ecovered i nclude a c lay
n et s inker , a g rinding s tone , p ounding s tones, r ubbing s tones , p orcelain , g lass b ottles, i ron o bjects, a g lass b ead, c owries a nd s hells a nd a re d escribed i n d etail b elow .
C lay N et S inker O ne b roken p iece o f c lay n et s inker w as r ecovered f rom L evel 1 ; i t i s g rey i n c olour a nd s pherical i n s hape . T he o uter s urface w as h andsmoothed . I t m easured 3 .7cm l ong f rom t he b ase t o t he b roken e nd b y 4 .7cm i n d iameter, w ith a p erforation o f 9 mm d rilled t hrough i t .
L ower G rinding S tone A s ingle h alf s pecimen o f a l ower g rinding s tone, b roken i nto f our p ieces, w as r ecovered f rom L evel 3 . M ade o f w eathered g neiss, i t i s e longated
i n s hape .
T he r econstructed b roken h alf m easured 3 6cm l ong b y
3 42
1 2cm b y 4c m i n t hickness .
l t h as a c oncave r ubbed s urface w hich m ust h ave
r esulted f rom u se .
P ounding S tones F our p ieces
o f
p ounding s tones w ere r ecovered :
2 f rom L evel 6 a nd 2
f rom L evel 2 0 . M ade o f v ein q uartz t hey a re a ll r oundish a nd w ere o f s mall s ize w ith r ough u npolished s urfaces a nd e dges . T hey r ange i n m easurements f rom 5 cm b y 5 cm b y 4 . 3cm t o 7 cm b y 5 . 6cm b y 4 . 6cm .
U pper G rinding S tones ( Rubbing S tones) T wo b roken s pecimens o f r ubbing s tones w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 2 0 a nd L evel 2 1 . M ade o f f resh g neiss a nd s ub-rectangular i n s hape , b oth s ides w ere u sed a nd h ad f lat s moothed s urfaces . M easurement r anges f rom 5 .9cm t o 3 . 2cm b y 2 . 8cm t o 9 . 3cm b y 8 cm b y 3 cm . P ebbles P robably U sed F or S moothing E ight p ebbles m ade o f s andstone w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 6 .
S even o f
t he s pecimens w ere i rregular i n s hape a nd r ange i n m easurements f rom 8 cm b y 4 .2cm t o 8 .6cm b y 5 .5cm b y 3 . 5cm . T he o ther s pecimen w as o val i n s hape a nd m easured 4 . 2cm b y 3 . T hey a ll h ad s mooth a nd b urnished s urfaces a nd c ould v ery w ell h ave m anufacture.
b een
u sed
f or
s moothing
i n
t he
p rocess
o f
p ottery
G lass T en f ragments o f b roken g lass b ottle w ere r ecovered : 6f rom L evel 1 ; 1 f rom L evel 2 ; 1f rom L evel 3 a nd 2 f rom L evel 4 . N ine o f t he s pecimens b elong t o a p lain b ody w hile o ne w as p art o f t he n eck . E ight w ere g reen w hile t he r emaining w ere b rownish y ellow i n c olour . T he s ingle s pecimen f orming p art o f t he n eck w as 4m m i n t hickness a nd p robably w as n ot m ore t han 2 . 5cm i n d iameter . B ody t hickness o f t he r emaining e ight g reen s pecimens w as 4 mm , w hile t he t wo b rownish y ellow s pecimens m easured 1 .5mm i n t hickness .
T hey w ould h ave b een o btained b y t rade .
O ne b roken g lass b ead w as r ecovered f rom L evel
1 .
D isc s haped ,
i t i s
g reyish i n c olour a nd h as a w ell b urnished s urface . I t m easured 6 . 5n i n f rom t he t ip t o t he b roken e nd, h as a n o uter d iameter o f 8 mm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f
2 mm .
I ron T hree i ron a rtifacts w ere r ecovered f rom K asakogi W est e xcavation : 1 f rom L evel 2 a nd 2 f rom L evel 4 . T he s pecimen r ecovered f rom L evel 2 p robably f ormed p art o f a r ing-base . T he o ther t wo w ere i ron p oints; o ne o f t hem w as t wisted . T he s maller s pecimen h ad a d ouble t hickened e nd , m easured 7 .5cm b y 2 mm a cross w hile t he l onger s pecimen w as 1 2 c m b y 3 mm a cross t he t wisted p art h as a d iameter o f
1 . 9cm .
C owrie S hells T wo c owries w ere r ecovered f rom L evel 5 a nd L evel 6 a t K asakogi W est . T hey b elong t o t he s pecies C ypraea m oneta a nd w ere o btained b y t rade .
3 43
G r ind i n g t one L eve ls s
I
suos
U L
p Uf lod
T able 9 6 : K
R ub b i ng s t one s
S tone F l ake s
S ch i s t s t one
0 0
-
-
N
-
2
I
N
N
l i lt
N
3 44 N i r
N N r
N
N
N
N
N N
-
N N -
-
N
-
N
N
N N
2 7
I r on o b jec t s
-
-
00
N
L
C lay b eads
Q ua r tz b ead s
Lp i pe s
Smok in
A n im a l b one s S he l ls
-
G lazed P ottery As herd o f ag lazed p ot w as r ecovered f rom L evel 3 . T he i nner s urface w as w hitish w hile t he o uter s urface w as d uachrone , c onsisting o f b lue a nd w hite i n c olour . T he r ecovered p iece w as a n on-diagnostic p art o f t he r im , b ut p robably r epresented a v essel w ith u nrestricted r im ; r im t hickness m easures 3 mm .
I t w as p robably E uropean a nd o btained b y t rade .
K ASAKOGI E AST N on-Pottery M aterials R ecovered F rom E xcavation N on-ceramic m aterials r ecovered f rom K asakogi E ast e xcavation i nclude g rinding , p ounding a nd r ubbing a nimal b ones . T able 9 6 s hows
s tones;
i ron a rtifacts ;
b eads;
s hells
a nd
t he d istr ibution o f t he c ultural m aterials o ther t han
p ottery r ecovered f rom K asakogi E ast . I t c an b e s een t hat a nimal b ones, t hough f ragmentary , w ere f airly c onstantly e ncountered n early t hroughout t he e xcavation ( up t ill L evel 2 5, d epth 2 .40-2 .50m ) . A part f rom a s ingle p ounding s tone r ecovered f rom L evel 3 ; f ragments o f s hells f rom L evels 6 t o 8 a nd a nimal
b ones
r ecovered
f rom L evel
3 d ownwards,
c ultural m aterials
o ther t han p ottery w ere n ot r ecovered u ntil L evels 1 a nd 1 2 , b ut t hereafter w ere r ecovered d own t o L evel 2 8 . T here w as a c oncentration o f p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones i n L evels 1 t hrough 1 4 ; a c oncentration o f d aub f rom L evels 1 t hrough 1 8 ; i ron o bjects i n L evels 1 a nd 1 2 a nd L evels 1 9 a nd 2 0 a nd a c oncentration o f p ounding s tones, r ubbing s tones, d aub a nd i ron i n L evels -
2 4 a nd 2 6 .
O bjects o f w hich t here w ere f ew i n t he e xcavation i nclude c lay
b eads f rom L evel 1 3 ; q uartz b eads f rom L evel 2 2 ; i ron s lag , L evel 2 4 , l imes tone , L evel 1 7 ; g rinding s tone, L evel 2 3 .
S tone T able 8 5 s hows t he d istribution o f s tone o bjects r ecovered f rom t he f our e xcavated s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea, w hile T able 9 6 i ncludes t he d istribution o f s tone o bjects r ecovered f rom K asakogi E ast e xcavation t here w ere p ounding s tones, f ragments.
g rinding s tones,
r ubbing s tones,
l inestone a nd
s tone
P ounding S tones T wenty-four p ounding s tones w ere r ecovered ( Table 9 6) . T hey w ere m ade o f m aterials l ocally a vailable i n t he a rea f resh g neiss, v ein q uartz a nd s andstone . T hey w ere a ll r ough a nd u nburnished a t t heir e dges, i ndicating -
t he a rea t hat h ad b een i n u se a nd w ere a ll o f c onvenient s ize f or h olding i n t he h and . T hey w ere o f t wo b asic t ypes . A .
I rregular s haped s tones i n w hich t he e dges o r a ngle h ad b een u sed f or p ounding . T hirteen s pecimens w ere f ound c oncentrated i n t he l ower l evels, f rom 2 4 t o 2 8 , l argely m ade o f s andstone a nd v ein q uartz w hich m ay h ave b een c ollected f rom t he n earby s tream b ed . T heir m easurements r ange f rom 6 .5cm b y 5 cm b y 4 cm t o 9 cm b y 6 .5cm b y 6 cm .
3 45
B .
R oughly s pherical a nd r oundish s tones o f w hich t en s pecimens w ere r ecovered i n L evels 3 t o 1 9 . T hey w ere m ade o f f resh g neiss a nd v ein q uartz . M easurements r ange f rom 6 cm b y 5 . 5cm b y 4 .3cm t o 8 cm b y 7 cm b y 4 .5cm . I ncluded i n t his g roup w ere t hree s pecimens t hat h ad a r oundish o utline b ut f lattened , s moothed s urfaces o n b oth t he u pper a nd l ower s ides a nd w ere r ecovered f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 , L evel 1 9 a nd L evel 2 6 . T heir m easurements r ange f rom 6 cm b y 5 cm b y 3 . 8cm t o 8 .5cm b y 7 .5cm b y 4 .2 c m .
L ower G rindstone A b roken l ower g rindstone w as r ecovered f rom L evel 2 3 , m ade o f g neiss . I t m easured 6 .8cm b y 9 cm b y 5 .5cm ; t he u pper p art h as a c oncave g rooved s urface, p robably r esulting f rom u se .
U pper G rindstone ( Rubbing S tone) T hirteen r ubbing
s tones w ere r ecovered f rom K asakogi
E ast e xcavation
( Table 9 6) . M ade o f u nweathered g neiss a nd b iotite g ranite , s ome o f t hem m ay h ave b een p art o f ag rindstone, s ince t he f ragements h ave d imples o n t he u pper
s urface .
T hey w ere a ll
f lattened s urface o n o ne s ide . t o 1 0 .5cm b y 4 cm b y 4 cm .
s mall
a nd
i rregular i n
s hape
w ith
s mooth
M easurement r anges f rom 8 cm b y 3 . 5cm b y 5 cm
O ne b roken p iece o f r ubbing s tone h ad s triations o r g rooves i n t he p attern o f ac ross o n b oth s urfaces, i t w as r ecovered f rom L evel . 2 6 . I t w as m ade o f u nweathered g neiss a nd w as s mooth a nd p olished o n b oth s urfaces . I t m easures 1 0 .5cm b y 8 .8cm b y 2 .5cm ; t he u pper s urface h ad a v ertical g roove, m easuring 8 mm t o 1mm i n w idth, e xecuted o n a h orizontal g roove m easuring 7 mm i n w idth .
S chist F ragments T wo
p ieces
o f
s chist w ere
r ecovered f rom L evels
1
a nd
1 2 a nd
f rom
L evel 1 7 . T he t wo s pecimens m easured 8 . 7cm b y 6 . 2cm b y 3 . 7cm a nd 1 1 .5cm b y 5 .5cm b y 2 -3 .0cm . T hey m ay h ave b een u sed a s a f orm o f c osmetic s ince t hey c ontain m ica f lakes .
S andstone Q uartz F ragment S ix
s tone
f ragments
o f
q uartz a nd s andstone,
w ere
r ecovered :
1 f rom
L evel 8 ; 4f rom L evel 1 3 a nd I f rom L evel 1 4 . T hey s eem t o b e n atural f ragments s ince m an-made s cars r esulting f rom f laking o r c hipping w ere a bsent o n a ll t he s pecimens . T hree o f t hem h ave f airly s harp e dges w hich m ight r easonably h ave b een u sed f or c utting . M easurements f rom c ortex r ange f rom 3 .5cm b y 2 .5cm a cross t o 4 .5cm b y 3 .7cm a cross, w idest
t aken a t t he
s ecion .
I ron T able 9 6 i ncludes t he d istribution o f i ron o bjects; o nly f our p ieces o f i ron a nd a p iece o f s lag w ere r ecovered . T hese c onsist o f t he l ower p art
3 46
S i te s / L o ca l i t ie s
x
i
z
L n
•
0 2
3 47
F i sh B one s
xR ecov e r ed f r om e xcava t ion
-
Mamm a l ian B one s S he l l r ema in s •0
N o tr e cove r ed f r om e xcava t ion
H uman B one
E
= )
T able 9 8 :
A -J
L eve l s 1
A 5
3 4
K ongon M akeri
B 3 3
2 1 7 9
5 6 7
D istribution o f F aunal R emains.
7 9
7
C
T rench 1 K asakogi E ast
D
F
6
6
8
7 1 8
1 0 1
1 3
T r ench I
3 2 6 1 2
1 9
6
7
9 1 3
1 3
8 8
1
1 3
1 8
5
6
1
5 3 1
1 7
2
1 5 9 3
3
9
2
5
1 4
6
T o ta l
1 5
5
1 2
1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 T o ta l
J
2 8
7
9
H
1 2
9
1 5
G
6
2 0
8
E
9
5 2
1 4
2 1 5 9 9 1 5 8
4 0
5 0
5 2
5 6
8 5
3 48
7 3
7 0
1 6
3
4 45
6 4
o f a b roken k nife b lade f rom L evel 2 0 ; t he u pper p art o f a b roken k nife b lade , a n i ron h oe b lade f rom L evel 1 9 a nd a n ail/point f rom L evels 1 a nd 1 2 ; t he s ingle p iece o f i ron s lag w as r ecovered f ron L evel 2 4 . T he e arliest
o bject
r ecovered w as
t he
l ower
p art
o f
a b roken k nife
b lade . I t m easured 7 cm f rom t he b ottom t o t he b roken e nd, b y 3 . 5cm a cross a t t he b roken e nd , a bout 4 cm f rom t he b ottom ; i t w ould h ave b een h af t ed i nto a w ooden h andle . T he u pper p art o f ab roken k nife b lade m easured 4 cm f rom t ip t o t he b roken e nd b y 3 . 8cm a cross t he b roken e nd , w hile t he i ron h oe b lade m easured 1 2 .5cm l ong , t he b lade 1 0cm i n w idth ; t he h afted s ection o f t he b lade w as 7 . 3cm i n l ength , t he u pper e nd o f t he h af t ed p art w as 3 . 8m a cross, w hile t he l ower e nd w as 3 .0cm a cross. T he l ast i ron o bject r ecovered , a n i ron n ail p oint, m easured 5 . 9cm b y 8 mm . D r . J .O .T . A dewara o f t he M etallurgical E ngineering Dep artment w as o f t he o pinion t hat t hese w ere i mported
o bjects.
B eads T wo b eads w ere r ecovered : ac lay b ead f rom L evel 1 3 a nd a q uartz s tone h ead f rom L evel 2 2 . T he c lay b ead , d isc s haped , y ellowish r ed i n c olour and a ppearing t o h ave b een f ired, m easured 2 .3cm l ong a nd h ad a n o uter d iameter o f 7 mm ; t he o uter s urface w as u nburnished . T he s ingle q uartz b ead , a lso d isc s haped , m easured 1 .3cm i n l ength ; h ad a n o uter d iameter o f 7 mm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 3 mm . I t w as w ell b urnished a nd g round o n b oth t he u pper a nd l ower s urface .
C eramic S moking P ipes T wo
p ieces
o f
s moking
p ipes
w ere
r ecovered:
a f ragmentary
n on-
d iagnostic p iece f rom L evel 4 a nd a l arger f ragment f rom L evel 2 8 . T he l arger p iece, r eddish i n c olour , w as p art o f t he i nner b owl a nd s tem o f a c eramic p ipe . T he u pper e nd o f t he f ragment h as a n o uter d iameter o f 2 .2cm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 1 . 3cm , w hile t he l ower e nd h as a n o uter s emi-circle m easuring 1 .5cm a nd a n i nner d iameter o f 5 mm . T he i nterior p art o f t he b roken b owl m easures
5 . 2cm b y
3 . 3cm .
F aunal R emains Ac onsiderable q uantity o f f aunal r emain s, i ncluding m ammal, b ird , f ish a nd s nake b ones, t urtle s hells a nd m ollusca, w ere r ecovered f rom t he K ongon M akeri e xcavation , b ut o nly h uman r emains f rom K asakogi E ast a nd s hell r emains f rom K asakogi W est ( Table 9 7) . M ost o f t he s oils i n t he a rea s eem t o h e n eutral o r m oderately a lkaline w hich s hould h ave e nsured t he b etter p reservation o f b one a t t hese s ites ( Pendall, P ersonal c ommunication ,
1 987) .
A nimal B ones T able
9 8
s hows
t he d istribution o f
a nimal
b ones
r ecovered
f rom t he
K o r igon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast e xcavations . I t c an b e s een t hat a t K ongon M akeri a nimal h ones s eem t o b e c oncentrated a long a n orthwest-southeast a xis, w ith a n arrow h orizontal b ase . T he n arrow h orizontal b ase s hows t he e arly o ccurrence o f a nimal r emains t o b e L evel 1 5 t o 1 7 i n C uttings 1 A t o I X . As mall c ircular a rc i n C uttings 1 A t o 1 G , L evels 6 t o 1 4 , w hich w as
3 49
‚0
T o t a l
r -
A
o
L eve l s
I -
K a sakog i We s t C u t t ing I
>
K O N G O N M A K E R! C U T TI N G S IB IC ID I E IF G
I -
—
-
-
-
�J . -e m >
0
—
C D
I
-
h ad w hat
l ooks
l ike a r ing o f r idges o r g rooves r ound i ts d istal e nd,
s o
t hat i t m ight h ave b een t rapped o r s nared . T hus i n t he l ower l evels ( Levels 1 t o 1 7) , i f t he b ones o f s heep a nd g oat w ere f rom d omesticated a nimals, t he p eople w ere s upplementing t heir m eat s upply w ith h unted a nimals. Q uantities o f f ish b ones w ere a lso r ecovered f rom t hese l ower l evels o f K ongon M akeri ( Table 1 03) . I dentified f ish b ones n umbered 2 3 , i ncluding l ung f ish , P rotopterus s p , 1 0(43 .47%), w ith a s ize o f a bout 2 t o 3 f t l ong a nd p robably c aught t hroughout t he y ear ; c at f ish , C laris s p , 4 (17 .39%) , w ith a s ize o f a bout 1 t o 1 4 t o 2 ft , p robably c aught l argely d uring t he r ainy s eason a nd c ichlid , C ichlid s p , 2 (8 .69% ), w ith a s ize o f a bout 7 t o 1 0 i nches, m ost p robably c aught t hroughout t he y ear ( Hilde S chwartz , P ersonal c ommunication , L evels
1 987) .
1t o
1 0 c ontained m ore d omesticates o n t he b asis o f t he t otal
n umber o f d iagnostic a natomical p arts r ecovered . T hese i ncluded c attle , s heep, g oat, d og a nd h orse, w hile t he w ild g ame h unted c ontinued t o b e d ominated b y r odents, f reshwater t urtle, P elc x nedusa s p a nd t ortoise, K inixys s p , a s w ell a s b irds a nd f ish ( Ojo, P ersonal c ommunication , 1 984 ; V alente, P ersonal c ommunication , 1 987 ; H ilde S chwartz , P ersonal c ommunication , 1 987) . S ome o f t hese b ones i n t he u pper l evels c ontained e vidence o f b utchery m arks, g naw ing m arks a nd b urning ( Ojo ,
i bid . ,
V alente,
i bid . ) .
M oi lus c a Af airly l arge q uantity o f t errestrial, r iverine a nd m arine s hells w as r ecovered a t K ongon M akeri , K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast ( Table 1 04) . A t K ongon M akeri, t heir d istribution f ollowed a bout t he s ame p attern a s t hat o f t he f auna; s hells w ere n ot f ound b elow L evel 1 7 . T hey s eem t o b e d istributed a long a n orthwest-southwest a xis, r estricted t o C uttings
I A a nd
1 C i n t he u pper p art, t o C utting I F t o 1 J i n t he l ower p art, w ith a n arrow h orizontal b ase a t t he b ottom , b eing L evels 1 5 t o 1 7 . A t K asakogi W est, s hells w ere r ecovered f rom L evels 5 t o 1 0 , w hile a t K asakogi E ast, t hough t hey w ere e ncountered f rom L evels 6 t o 2 6 , t hey w ere l argely f ragmentary . A l arge p roportion o f t he s hell r emains c onsisted o f w hole s pecimens, e specially a t K ongon M akeri . w ere
r ecovered
A ltogether 2 09 w hole s hells a nd 6 70 f ragments
( Tables 1 04 , 1 05) .
T he s hells w ere i dentified a nd c lassified i n c onsultation w ith P rofessor A .A . O latunde o f t he B iological S ciences D epartment, A .B .U ., Z aria, a nd D r . R ussell B arber o f t he Dep artment o f A nthropology , C alifornia S tate U niversity , S an B ernadino , C alifornia, U .S .A . A p reliminary r eport s hows t hat t he t errestrial s pecies a re t hose f ound i n s wampy o r m arshy a reas a nd o ther s pecies i nclude t hose o btained f rom r ivers, l akes a nd t he s ea . T wo o ccurrences o f m arine s hells w ere n oted a t K ongon M akeri i n t he f orm o f c owries C ypraea a nnulus r ecovered f rom L evel 2 i n C utting 1 B ; L evels 1 a nd 2 a nd L evel 4 i n C utting I A . T hese m ight v ery w ell h ave b een o btained b y t rade a nd c ontact, e specially s ince t hey o ccurred a t t he u ppermost l evels o f t he m ound. I n a ddition, t he c owries, s ince t hey a re n ot n ative t o W est A frica, p robably r eached h ere f rom E ast A frica i n t he f orm o f c urrency ( Shaw , 1 961, 8 2) . R iverine f orms , r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast i nclude t he m ussel A nadonta c ygnea a nd a nother w hich c ould v ery w ell r epresent a s maller f orm o f t his s ame s pecies. W hile t he f ormer w ere r ecovered a t K ongon M akeri i n L evels 1 5 , 1 6 a nd 1 7 ( Table 1 05) , t he l atter w ere r ecovered i n L evels 1 t o 1 2 , b ut w ere m ore f requent i n L evels 7 t o 1 2 .
3 59
K asakogi E ast mussels, n umbering n ine, a ll b roken, w ere r ecovered f rom L evels 6 t o 1 9 . T he t errestrial s pecies, m ainly g astropods, i nclude t he o perculate s nails, P otamopyrgus j enkinsi, r ecovered f rom t he t hree s ites; t he m arsh s nails, L imnae g labra a nd t he f reshwater w inkles, V iviparus f asciatus/amnicola, r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi W est, a nd t he p ond s nails, L imnae s tagnalis, r ecovered o nly a t K ongon M akeri . A t K ongon M akeri, w hile t he m arsh s nails a nd t he p ond s nails w ere r ecovered m ostly f rom L evels 5 t o 1 4 , t he r emaining t wo s pecies, w ere e venly d istributed a cross t he l evels, o ccurring f rom L evels 1 t o 1 7 ( Table 1 05) . l t w ould a ppear t hat t he i nhabitants o f K ongon Makeri c onsiderable v ariety o f b oth t errestrial a nd r iverine s hells .
c ollected
a
H uman R emains F rom K ongon M akeri w as r ecovered a s ubstantial a mount o f h uman b ones . T he r eport o f t he a nalysis o f s ome o f t hese b ones, s ubmitted t o D r . M eador , f ormerly o f t he A natomy D epartment, A .B .U ., Z aria, w as r eceived v erbally . H uman r emains w ere r ecovered f rom t hree a reas o f
K ongon M akeri m ound ;
F eature 1 3 , i n C utting 1 A , L evel 1 4 ; F eature 1 7 , f rom L evel 1 7 o f u nit K i n t he N orth s trip a nd F eature 2 1, i n L evel 2 0 o f U nit H . F eature 1 3 c onsists o f a l arge d isarticulated m ass o f h uman b ones. E xamination o f t he b ones b y D r . M eador e stablished t hat t here w ere a t l east s ix a dults o ver t he a ge o f 1 2 y ears r epresented, w ith s ub—adult r emains i n a ddition . l t w as n ot p ossible t o d etermine s ex . N o c ut—marks o r i n juries w ere r eported , b ut a s ingle i ron p oint ( which c ould h ave b een e ither a n a rrow h ead o r a n ail) w as f ound a mong t he b ones . I nterpretation o f t his m ass m ust b e l argely s peculative ; t he p resent i nhabitants o f t he a rea d o n ot h ave a ny t raditions o f h uman b urial o f t hat n ature . A n a rticulated h uman b urial ( Feature 1 7) w as e ncountered i n L evel 1 7 o f u nit K i n t he N orth s trip ( Appendix I II) . P late 1 7 s hows t he s keleton i n t he f orm o f a m ontage o f i ndividual h ones . D r . M . W edgewood s howed t hat t he s keleton w as f emale , w ith a h eight o f a bout 1 . 10m . R adiographs o f t he l ong b ones a nd t he c lavicle s how s t hat a lthough t heir l engths w ere a bout w hat w ould b e e xpected o f a c hild o f n o m ore t han 8 , t heir s tate o f d evelopment a nd c alcification i s a dult a nd f ully d eveloped . s urgeons,
O rthopaedic
p athologists a nd r adiologists a gree t hat s he w as a g enetic d warf,
h orn t iny a nd d estined c ommunication , 1 984 , 1 986) .
a lways t o b e s mall ( Wedgewood, P ersonal C hemical a nd h istological e xamination o f b one
p owder f rom r ib a nd t ibia s hows t hat h er t otal p rotein c ontent w as s mall, a ccounting f or 6 .22 g rams % i n t he r ib a nd f or 6 .37 g rams % i n t he t ibia b one . I [ Lstomorphological s tructure o f t he s amples w as n ormal a nd t he s hape o f t he o steons w as c haracteristic o f a c hild a ged 1 4 y ears . H er b lood t yping w as f ound t o h e i n t he b lood g roup ' AB ' ( Wedgewood, P ersonal c ommunication 1 986) . T his i nvestigation a lso s howed t he t he g irl s uffered f rom a nd p robably d ied o f l eukemia a nd h ad h ad a t l east t wo o ther s erious i llnesses i n c hildhood ( Shaw , 1 978 ,3) . R ound h er n eck w ere s ome 5 ,000 t iny s hell b eads, e ach w eighing 0 .03grams; a round t he r ight w rist a n i vory b racelet a nd o n o ne p halange a n i vory r ing .
B urial w ith t hese g rave g oods
p oints t o w ealth o r s tatus i n t he s ociety . O ral t radition a ttests t o t his f orm o f b urial a mong t he N upe i n t he a rea b efore t he a dvent o f I slam i n t he 1 9th c entury .
3 60
A nother ( Feature 2 1),
f orm
o f
b urial
e ncountered
a t
K ongon
M akeri w as
J ar B urial
a lthough a v ery s mall a mount o f b one w as r ecovered f rom t he
p ot . T his m ethod o f b urial u sed t o h e p opular a mong t he G wari i n t he a rea, a lso b efore t he a dvent o f I slam .
D iscussion T he p roblem w ith c omparing c ultural m aterial f rom s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea h ave b een h ighlighted i n C hapter 6 ( pp . 2 85 e t s eq ) a nd n eed n ot b e r epeated h ere . T here w as a v aried a nd s ubstantial a mount o f n on-ceramic m aterials o n t he s urface a t R af i n N doko . A t K ongon M akeri s urface i nspection s howed a g eneral p aucity a nd r arity o f n on-ceramic m aterials . W hile t he m ain s tratigraphy o f t he o ccupation o f R af i n N doko ( Cuttings I a nd I) c overs a s pan f rom t he t hird t o t he s eventh c enturies A .D . , t he r ecovery o f o bjects f rom t he s urface s uch a s b ottle g lass a nd g lass b eads, p oints t o t he l ate o ccupation o f t he m ound p rior t o a bandonment . A g reater u se
o f
a ctivity p atterning ,
c lay ( excluding
p ottery ) ,
w hich
p robably
p oints
t o
w as o bserved a t K ongon M akeri t han a t t he o ther s ites .
T his t ook t he f orm o f c lay n et s inkers, a b rick a nd p ottery d iscs . T he
m ajority
o f
o bjects
r ecovered
f rom a ll
t he
s ites w ere p ounding ,
r ubbing a nd g rinding s tones ( Table 8 5) . W hen t hese s tone o bjects a t R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri a re c ompared, i t c an b e s een t hat a t R af i n N doko, n early h alf o f t he r ubbing s tones w ere b roken p ieces, a s w ere a lso t he g rinding
s tones .
T he r ubbing s tones f rom b oth s ites w ere f ound t o b e e ither i rregular, r ectangular o r d iscoid i n s hape w hich m ay p oint t o t he f act
t hat
t hey w ere
u sed f or t he s ame g eneral p urposes, p robably t he g rinding o f f ood . T he n umber o f p ounding s tones f rom b oth s ites w as a bout t he s ame, R af i n N doko a ccounting f or 5 3% a nd K ongon M akeri f or 4 7% a nd t he l arger p roportion w ere i rregular o r r oundish i n s hape . B ut i t c ould b e n oticed t hat w hile t he r oundish s haped p ounding s tones a t K ongon M akeri f orm o ne c ategory a nd h ave m easurements
r anging f rom 6 .3cm b y
5 .3cm b y 4 .2cm t o
8 .0cm b y
7 .5cm b y
7 .0cm , t hose a t R afin N doko n ot o nly c ontain a g roup c lassified a s m edium a nd f alling n early i nto t he K ongon M akeri g roup w ith m easurements r anging f rom 6 .8cm b y 6 .5cm b y 5 .8cm t o 8 .6cm b y 7 .0cm b y 6 .4cm , b ut a lso c ontain c ategories c lassified a s s mall, r anging f rom 6 .0cm b y 5 .8cm b y 4 .8cm t o 8 .6cm b y 5 .5cm b y 4 .5cm a nd t hose c lassified a s l arge , r anging f rom 8 .0cm b y 7 .5cm b y 6 . 3cm t o 1 .5cm b y 1 0 .0cm b y 6 . 8cm . T his m ay t hen p oint t o t he u se o f p ounding s tones a t R af i n N doko, n ot o nly f or p ounding i tems t hat w ere a lso p ounded a t K ongon M akeri, b ut t o a v ariety o f o ther u ses t he p ounding s tones a t K ongon M akeri d id n ot h ave . G rinding s tones a lso p robably h ad a w ider u se a t R af i n N doko t han a t K ongon M akeri. A t K ongon Makeri, t he g rinding s tones w ere c onfined t o t he u pper p art o f t he l ower l evels o f t he s equence ( Levels 2 1 t o 2 4) a nd w ere n ot r ecovered f rom L evels 1 t o 2 0 . A t R af i n N doko, g rinding s tones s eem t o h ave b een m ore w idely u sed , f or t hey w ere r ecovered f rom d ifferent c uttings a nd l evels a nd t he l arger p roportion o f t hem h ad a c oncave r ubbed s urface o n t heir i nterior . O n t he o ther h and , s ince t he f ewer n umber o f g rinding s tones r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri w ere c onfined t o t he l ower l evels ( Levels 2 1 t o 3 1) a nd w ere n ot f ound i n t he u pper l evies ( Levels 1 t o 2 0) , i t c ould p oint t o t he f act t hat p robably
3 61
w ooden m ortars w ere b eing u sed i n t he u pper l evels, n ot g rinding s tones, a nd t his r eflects t he f ood m aterials b eing p repared . K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast h ad e vidence f or f auna a nd s hellfish i n t he d iet . I t s eems p ossible t hat t here w as a n i ncrease i n t he p ercentage o f w ild t o d omestic a nimals t hrough t ime , a lthough t he s mall s ize a nd t he f ragmentary n ature o f t he c ollection d id n ot a llow a c oncrete a ssertion o f t his. E vidence o f b urial, o ccurring w ithin t he s ettlement w as a lso r ecovered a t K ongon M akeri, w hile t he a cid n ature o f t he s oil a t R afin N doko m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t he n on-recovery o f
i nhumations a lthough i t
m ay b e t hat R afin N doko p eople d id n ot b ury t heir s ettlement . T here w as h owever e vidence o f p ot b urial .
d ead w ithin
t heir
O bjects o f b ody a dornment, s tone a nd c lay b eads, w ere r ecovered f rom a ll t he s ites e xcept K asakogi W est, a nd g lass b eads f rom a ll s ites e xcept K asakogi E ast . S hell b eads, a s w ell a s a n i vory r ing , i ron r ings a nd a n i vory b racelet w ere r ecovered o nly a t K ongon M akeri ( Table 8 7) . I ron o bjects w ere r ecovered f rom a ll t he s ites, a lthough t he m ost d iagnostic p ieces w ere r ecovered a t R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri ( Table 8 8) . L ong d istance t rade w as r epresented a t K asakogi E ast b y g lazed w ares, b y c owries a t K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi W est, s moking p ipes a t K asakogi E ast a nd g lass b ottles f rom K asakogi W est a nd R afin N doko . W hile p ottery , d aub, r ubbing a nd p ounding s tones, r ecovered f rom a ll t he c uttings a nd a ll t he l evels ( in t he c ase o f p ottery ) a nd s ome o f t he l evels ( in t he c ase o f d aub , p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones), a t R afin N doko, p oint t o c ultural c ontinuity i n t he o ccupational s equence o f t he m ound , t heir a nalysis a nd t hat o f t he g rinding s tones; i ron o bjects ; s tone, c lay a nd g lass b eads, r ecovered f rom L evel 6 u pwards i n C uttings I I , I VB , I VC , C uttings I , I I , I VB ; a nd C uttings I , I I , I VA r espectively , s uggest t hat t wo c ultural p hases m ay h ave b een p resent : a n E arly p hase , p erhaps w ithout t he u se o f i ron , a nd a l ater p hase w ith t he u se a nd p ossibly s melting/smithing o f
i ron .
T he u se o f
s tone
s howed a s teady i ncrease
t hrough t ime
-
f ewer
o bjects a nd r estricted t o a s mall p art o f t he m ound i n t he l ower l evels ( Level 7 t o 1 3), b ut c ommoner i n t he u pper l evels ( Levels 1 t o 6 ) . T he a mount o f p ottery a t R afin N doko a lso s howed a s teady i ncrease t hrough t ime l ess i n t he l ower l evels ( Levels 7 t o 1 3) a nd m ore i n t he u pper l evels ( Levels 1 t o 6 ) . E vidence o f t his n ature, a long w ith t he e xclusive u se o f -
s tone c ould p oint t o t he E arly p hase b eing a n i ntensive c ollecting s tage o f c ulture, p articularly s ince w e h ave e vidence o f d aub a nd f ired c lay f urther i ndicating a s edentary l ife, p erhaps i n t he f orm o f s emi-permanent h abitations. T he l ater p hase ( Levels 1 t o 6 ) w as m arked b y t he u se o f i mported o bjects, i ncluding g lass b eads, a nd m ost i mportant, t he u se o f i ron o bjects o ccurring f ro m L evel 6 u pwards . T he r ecovery o f t wo f lat i ron b ar i ngots f rom C utting I , L evels 5 a nd 6 , f rom w hich i ron o bjects c ould b e f ashioned , o ne s pecimen o f i ron o re f rom C utting I VB , L evel S a nd f ifteen p ieces o f i ron s lag, f ourteen o f w hich o ccur f rom L evel 5 u pwards a re e vidence f or s melting a nd s i nithing a t R afin N doko . A nalysis o f t he c eramic a nd o ther m aterials h as a lso l ed t o t he r ecognition o f t wo c ultural p hases a t K ongon M akeri : a n E arly a nd l ater p hase . T he E arly p hase b egins a t t he b ase i n L evel 3 1 a nd c ontinues t o L evel 2 1 . I t i s c haracterized b y a d istinctive p ottery a nd o ther c ultural m aterials, i ncluding p ieces o f d aub a nd f ired c lay , an umber o f p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones a nd a f ew g rinding s tones ( Aiyedun , 1 985 , 3 3 ; 1 986 , 3 6) . T he L ater p hase a t K ongon M akeri, L evels 1 t o 2 0 , w as f ound i n a ll t he t hirteen c uttings, b ut t here w as a c oncentration o f c ultural m aterial i n t he f irst
32
n ine c uttings a nd a l ack o f m aterials i n t he r emaining f our . W hile s ome m aterials w ere a bsent f rom t he l evels ( iron o bjects i n L evels 1 4 t o 2 0 , b eads a nd i vory i n L evels 1 5 t o 2 0 , m ollusca a nd a nimal b ones i n L evels 1 7 t o 2 0), d aub, f ired a nd u nfired c lay, r ubbing a nd p ounding s tones a nd p ottery w ere r ecovered c onsistently f rom t he U pper p hase l evels, t hus p ointing t o c ontinuity i n t he o ccupational s equence o f t he m ound . W hile t he E arly p hase l acked f aunal a nd s hell r emains, t he r ecovery o f an umber o f c lay n et s inkers m ay p oint t o t he i ncorporation o f a quatic f oods i n t he d iet . T he L ater p hase r epresents a m ore a dvanced s tage .
L ife s eems t o h ave
b een m ore s edentary , w ith m ore e vidence o f s ettlement a nd b urials w ithin t he s ettlement . T he u se o f s tone o bjects w hich b ecame i ntensified , e specially f rom L evels 1 t o 1 0 , p oints p robably t o a n i ntensive c ollecting s tage o f c ulture o r t o c ereal c ultivation . F aunal r emains i nclude n ot o nly d omesticated s pecies, w ild g ame a nd b irds, b ut a lso t he r emains o f f ish a nd s hellfish . T he u pper l evels i n t he L ater p hase ( Levels 1 t o 1) c ontained e vidence o f t he u se o f i ron a nd p ossibly t he m aking o f i ron o bjects . F rom t he c ultural m aterials r ecovered a t K asakogi W est, t wo
l ate
c ultural p hases s eem t o b e r epresented . O bjects s uch a s c owries, p ieces o f g lass b ottle a nd b roken g lazed p ottery w ere r ecovered f rom t he u pper l evels ( Levels 1 t o 6 ) ; t he U pper p hase , c learly p oints t o l ong d istance t rade a s w ell a s p erhaps t o i ts b eing a 2 0th c entury o ne . A t K asakogi E ast t he o ne c ultural p hase w as d efined b y p ottery ,
d aub ,
s tone o bjects a nd i ron . F rom t he e vidence o f d aub w hich o ccurred f rom t he l owest l evels o f t he m ound, t he s ite w as p ermanently o ccupied ; t he i nhabitants ' d iet i ncluded d omestic a nd g ame a nimals t hroughout t he s equence , a nd s hellfish i n t he m iddle a nd u pper p art . l t c an b e s een t hat t he l ower l evels ( Levels 2 1 t o 3 1) a t K ongon M akeri a nd t he l ower
l evels ( Levels 7 t o 1 3) a t Rf i n N doko c orrelate t o a l arge
e xtent. A lthough t hey l acked f aunal, f ish a nd s hell r emains t he s tone o bjects r ecovered s how a s teady i ncrease t hrough t ime , p robably r eflecting c ereal
c ultivation .
I n b oth t here
i s
t he u se o f
i ron a nd
l ong d istance
t rade, w hile d aub a nd f ired c lay p oint t o s ettled h abitation . P ottery t hroughout t he s equence f rom b oth l ocalities s uggests a c ontinuing m aterial c ulture i n w hich t here w as n o m ajor b reak . T he p ottery , e specially i n t erms o f d ecorations a nd v essel f orms, ( Chapter 5 ) w ere s imilar a t b oth s ites . A lthough t he l ower l evels a t K ongon M akeri w ere n ot d ated , w hile t he m iddle l evels w ere d ated f rom t he 1th t o t he 1 4th c entury A .D . , t his l ower l evel m ay b e n ear i n d ate t o t he m iddle l evel a t R af i n N doko p resently d ated f rom t he 3 rd t o t he 7 th c entury A .D . K ongon M akeri u pper l evels ( Levels 1 t o 1 0) a nd K asakogi E ast s equence v ery m uch c orrelate w ith o ne a nother . B oth p hases h ad f ired a nd u nfired c lay a nd p otsherd p avements a s f loorings, w hich s uggest p ermanent h abitation s; t here a re f aunal, s hell a nd f ish r emains a nd a u se o f s tone o bjects,
w hich p robably p oints
t o c ereal
c ultivation .
T here w as
u se
o f
i ron a nd p robably t he m aking o f i ron o bjects a nd s ome e videnc f or l ong d istance t rade w hich b rought c ow ries a nd g lass b eads t o K ongon M akeri a nd i mported s moking p ipes t o K asakogi E ast . T he K asakogi E ast m iddle s equence h as b een d ated t o t he e ighteenth c entury A .D ., a nd t he m iddle l evels a t K ongon M akeri t o t he 1th t o 1 4th c entury A .D .
3 63
W ushishi . D ecorated s herds . a ) G rooves a t R afin N doko , a t K ongon M akeri . S cale i n c m . P late U. 3 64
h ) G rooves
I lus tra t ions o f S ome T rad i t iona l P o ts a nd B ow ls Among Con temporary Gwar i a nd N upe P eop les o f t he M idd le N iger , N iger ia .
( 1 ) C ook ing P o ts /Bow ls
a
( Gwa r i )
b
F ig .
3 65
6 8 .
3 66
3 67
3 68
3 69
3 70
3 71
C hapter 8 I NTERPRETATION A ND D ISCUSSION ( D .A .)
I n o ur
s tudy o f
c ultural
m aterial
r ecovered
f rom
t he W ushishi a rea,
c ertain t hings s hould b e b orne i n m ind , a ll o f w hich h ave a b earing o n t he i nterpretation o f t he f inds . T he t wo e xcavations c arried o ut b y D .A . w ere a reas o f 4 m2 a t K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast r espectively , w hile T . S . 's e xcavations w ere o ne o f 5 m 2a nd o ne o f 8 m2 a t R afin N doko, and 3 9m 2 a t K ongon M akeri. T hus, w e a re n ot d ealing w ith c omparable amounts o f c ultural m aterial . M aterial d ug o ut a t K asakogi W est s amounted t o 1 0 .8m 3 , a t K asakogi E ast t o 1 4 .5m 3 , a t R afin N doko t o 2 7m 3 a nd a t K ongon M akeri t o 1 35 .5m3. A lso , w hile e xcavation o f C uttings I a nd I I a t R afin N doko r eached t he n atural, u ndisturbed l and s urface , i t w as n ot r eached i n C utting I V , a nd t hus, o ur i nterpretation i s p artial . A ll t he e xcavations w ere v ertical, t hus m ilitating a gainst i nformation o n s ettlement p atterns . W e a re a ble t o r ecconstruct, a t b est, s hapes o f h ouses a nd t heir p lans, m aterials u sed f or t heir c onstruction , a nd m ake b road i nferences a bout t he d uration o f s uch b uildings a nd t he s easonality o f p eriods o f o ccupation . I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat d igging w as c arried o ut i n s pits ; w hich a t R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri o f 2 0cm , a lthough o ccasionally t he s ystem w as d eparted f rom , a nd a t K asakogi W est a nd K asakogi E ast o f
1 0cm .
C ultural S equence T hrough T ime A r econstruction o f
t he
c ultural
s equence
t hrough t ime h as b een
a ttempted i n C hapter 7 , a nd n eed n ot h e r epeated h ere . S uffice i t t o s ay t hat t he a nalysis o f t he c ultural m aterials h as l ed t o t he r ecognition o f t wo c ultural p hases i n t he o ccupational s equence o f t he m ounds: 1 ) a t R afin N doko , a n E arly p hase ( Levels 7 t o 1 3) , w ithout t he e vidence f or t he u se o f i ron , a nd a L ater p hase ( Levels 1 t o 6 ), w ith t he u se a nd p ossible s melting/smithing o f i ron ; 2 ) a t K ongon M akeri, a n E arly p hase ( Levels 2 1 t o 3 1), c haracterized b y a d istinctive p ottery, d aub a nd f ired c lay , a n umber o f p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones a nd a f ew g rinding s tones .
T he L ater
p hase ( Levels 1 t o 2 0) c ontained e vidence o f t he u se o f i ron a nd p ossibly t he m aking o f i ron o bjects, a nd w itnessed t he s urvival o f f auna a nd s hellfish r emains a s w ell a s t he u se o f p ottery, d aub a nd f ired c lay, r ubbing a nd p ounding s tones . W hile t he E arly p hase a t R afin N doko s eems t o b e p rior t o t he 4 th c entury A .D . ; t he l ater p hase i n a d ifferent p art o f t he m ound t here i s p robably b etween t he 8 th a nd 1 0th c entury A .D . A t K ongon M akeri, t he E arly p hase p robably d ates p rior t o 1 000 A .D . ; w hile t he l ater p hase s pans f rom 1 000 1 800 A .D . M aterials f rom K asakogi W est r emain -
u ndated .
T he m iddle l evel a t K asakogi E ast p laced i ts s equence i n t he 1 8th
c entury A .D . ( See C hapter 4 ) . I f t he r ecognition o f t hese t wo c ultural p hases a t b oth s ites i n t he W ushishi a rea i s v alid, a nd t he e arlier i s g enuinely n on i ron-using , o ne i s s urprised n ot t o h ave e ncountered t he s tone a rtifacts, w hich p resumably w ould h ave t aken t he p lace o f i ron , i n t he E arly p hase ; p erhaps f uture w ork a t R afin N doko w ill y ield f laked s tone a rtifacts i n s itu , s ince c ollections.
a n umber
o f
t hese
3 72
w ere
r ecovered
t here
i n
s urface
E vidence o f t he E conomies I ndirect
e vidence o f
t he
s ubsistence e conomies,
i n p articular o f
t he
u se o f p lant f oods d uring t he E arly p hase i s i ndirect, c onsisting o f v estiges o f p ermanent o r s emi-permanent s ettlements a nd a l arge n umber o f g rinding , p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones a t R af i n N doko a nd K ongon M akeri, a nd s maller n umbers
o f
s uch s tones a t K asakogi F ast .
A t K ongon M akeri c lay
' net-sinkers ' w ere p ossibly u sed f or f ishing . D uring t he L ater p hase t here i s s till n ot d irect e vidence o f p lant f oods b ut d irect e vidence o f m eat a nd s hellfish i n t he d iet c omes f rom K ongon M akeri, K asakogi E ast a nd K asakogi W est . S hells w ere r ecovered i n l arge q uantities
a t
K ongon M akeri
( Levels
1 t o
1 7) ,
i n s mall
n umbers
i n
K asakogi E ast ( Levels 7 t o 2 3, f rom a d epth o f 7 0cm t o 2 .3m ), a nd i n i nsignificant p roportions a t K asakogi W est ( Levels 5 t o 8 ) . W hile t hose o f K asakogi W est a nd p erhaps s ome a t K asakogi F ast m ay h ave r eached t he s ites f ortuitously, t hose r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri a nd p erhaps t hose a t K asakogi F ast a ppeared t o h ave b een d eliberately c ollected a s t hey i nclude v arieties o f b oth r iverir ie a nd
t errestrial
s pecies.
R iverine
s pecies
i nclude t he m ussel r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi F ast, w hile t errestrial s pecies, m ainly g astropods, i nclude t he p ond s nail a nd t he o perculate s nail r ecovered f rom K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi F ast a nd t he m arsh s nail a nd f reshwater w inkles r ecovered o nly f rom K ongon M akeri . F ish b ones i dentified a s c at f ish , l ung f ish a nd c ichlid w ere a lso r ecovered f rom b oth s ites . M an inalian r emains w ere r ecovered f rom b oth K asakogi F ast a nd K ongon M akeri a nd i ncluded d omesticated s pecies ( sheep , g oat c attle, h orse, c at a nd d og ) a nd w ild o nes ( rodent, t urtle, s nake , t ortoise, w arthog a nd a l arge b ovid). S ome o f t he b ones e xhibited b utchery m arks a nd b urning.
P ottery a nd M etallurgy P ottery M aking O ne m ajor a ctivity w as p ottery m aking . P ottery w as c onsistently r ecovered f rom t he e xcavations a t e ach o f t he s ites, p ointing t o c ultural c ontinuity i n t he o ccupational
s equence o f t hese m ounds .
T he u se o f c lay
w as n ot c onfined t o t he m aking o f p ottery a lone . I t w as a lso u sed f or m aking n et s inkers, p ottery d iscs ( recovered f rom K ongon M akeri), a nd t erracotta f igurines ( recovered a s s urface f inds f rom R if i n N doko ) . W hile p avement p otsherds f rom a ll t he s ites m ay d irectly b e r elated t o t he u se o f d iscarded b roken p ots, t he d eliberate m aking a nd m oulding o f s ome s herds f or u se a s p avement m ay n ot h e r uled o ut, a s a rea t oday .
t his i s k nown t o b e d one i n t he
P ottery m aking i n t he W ushishi a rea a t p resent i s i n t he h ands o f w omen a nd i t i s l ikely w omen w ere t he p otters i n t he p eriod w e a re d ealing w ith . T here i s c ontinuity i n s ome o f t he t ypes a nd f orms o f p ottery m ade a t a ll 4 s ites w ith t hat m ade b y t he p resent-day o ccupants i n t he W ushishi a rea .
I t
s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat n ow adays p ottery m aking i s i n d ecline a s p ots h ave b een l argely r eplaced b y o bjects m ade o f p lastics, a luminium a nd g lass o r e namel. D .A . 's i nterpretation o f t he p ottery w as b ased o n o ral i nformation a nd p resent-day o bservation . A s p ointed o ut e arlier ( chapter 6 ), i t s hould a lso b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he v essel f orms, d etermined o n t he b asis o f d iagnostic r im s herds, d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t he d egree o f u sage, b ut r ather a c ombination o f f actors; t hese m ay r ange f rom t he
3 73
s trength o f t he v essel, i ts f unction (s), w hich m ay b e d irectly r elated t o i ts l ife e xpectancy a nd t he c are t aken b y t he u sers, t o t he t echnique a nd m ethod e mployed f or r etrieving t he s herds o n t he p art o f t he e xcavators . P resent d ay v essel f orms 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , a mong t he G wari a nd t he N upe , a re u sed f or c ooking f ood, b oiling w ater, s toring/fetching w ater, a nd f or s torage o f
s oup
i ngredients
( Fig .
6 8) .
T hey m ay b e
c ompared w ith
v essel
f orms 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5f rom R afin N doko ; f orms 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 f rom K ongon M akeri l ower l evels ; f orms 3 , 5 , 6 b f rom K ongon M akeri u pper l evels ; f orms 1 , 3 , 4 f rom K asakogi W est a nd f orms 1 , 2a nd 3 f rom K asakogi E ast .
P ottery
G roup 4 e a nd f a mong p resent d ay N upe u sed f or a blution w ater a nd a s i nkc ontainers ( an I slamic i ntroduction ) r esemble f orms 1 , 2 , 4 a a nd 6 a f rom K ongon M akeri u pper l evels .
W hile f orm 7 f rom R af i n N doko m ay b e u sed f or
b athing a nd w ashing c lothes, v essel f orm 6 f rom R af i n N doko ; f orm 7 f rom K ongon M akeri l ower l evels; f orms 8 a nd 9 f rom K ongon M akeri u pper l evels a nd f orms 4 a nd 5 f rom K asakogi E ast b ear r esemblance t o w ater c oolers, k nown t o b e m ade i n t he a rea i n t he p ast a nd i n I lorin f urther s outh ; m ay v ery w ell h ave b een u sed f or s uch p urposes a s w ell a s f or s toring p alm w ine o r p alm o il. P erhaps f orms 5 a nd 6 f rom K ongon M akeri l ower l evels, u sually s tationed i n af ixed p lace , w ere u sed f or f ood s torage , p articularly f or c ereals a nd g rains, a s i s s till d one i n t he a rea t oday , a s w ell a s f or p ot b urials, a s o ral t radition a ttests, a nd t hey m ight a lso h ave b een u sed a s w ater s torage p ots a s i s d one a mong t he Y oruba . P resent d ay b owls a mong t he G wari a nd t he N upe i nclude f orm 1 :
n ecked
b owls w ith e verted r ims a nd f orms 2 a nd 3 : n eckless o pen-mouthed b owls w ith s traight o r n early s traight r ims a nd t hose w ith r estricted r ims, u sed f or c ooking s oup a nd s auce ; a nd a s a s erving p late f or s oup a nd s auce a s w ell a s f or s erving f ood a fter i ts p reparation ( Fig . 6 8) . T hey m ay b e c ompared w ith f orms 8 , 9 1 0 , 1 1 f rom R afin N doko; f orms 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 f rom K ongon M akeri l ower l evels; f orms 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 f rom K ongon M akeri U pper l evels ; f orms 8 , 9 , 1 0 f rom K asakogi W est a nd f orms 9 , 1 0 , 1 f rom K asakogi E ast . F orms 1 0 a nd 1 1 f rom K ongon M akeri u pper l evels. F orms 5 a nd 6 f rom K asakogi W est a nd f orms 7 a nd 8 f rom K asakogi E sat, a lthough t hey w ere n ecked b owls w ith e verted r ims, m ay n ot h ave b een u sed f or c ooking p urposes o n a ccount o f t heir s ize .
S melting/Smithing a nd t he U se o f I ron T he t echnological b ase f or t he l ater p hase s ocieties i n t he W ushishi a rea w as m etallurgical. T here w as a n a bsence o f l ithic m aterial o ther t han p ounding a nd r ubbing s tones a nd t here w ere i ron o bjects a nd i ron w orking d ebris . I ron s melting/smithing a nd t he u se o f i ron o bjects c ould b e t raced f rom L evel 6 u pwards a t R af i n N doko, L evel 1 4 u pwards a t K ongon M akeri, L evels 2 a nd 4 a t K asakogi W est a nd t o L evels
i a nd 1 2 a nd L evels
1 9 a nd
2 0 , a t K asakogi E ast . I ron o bjects r ecovered i nclude i ron n ails/points, a d ouble-ended p oint, a n i ron r ing , i ron k nife b lades, a s pear b lade a nd i ron b ars . A de w ara s uggests t hat t hese w ere i mported , a lthough t he p ossibility t hat t hey w ere l ocally s mithed , p erhaps f rom i mported o re, i ngots o r s crap , c annot b e r uled o ut, p articularly w ith t he r ecovery o f t wo f lat i ron b ars a t R af i n N doko .
S uch i ron o bjects w ould h ave b rought a bout g reater e fficiency
i n a ll t ypes o f e xploitive a ctivities ( Connah ,
1 981,
1 61) .
H uman o ccupation o f t he W ushishi a rea d uring t he i st a nd 2 nd m illenia A .D . m ay h ave b een c onsiderable o n t he b asis o f t he s ize o f t he m ounds a nd t he n umbers o f
t hem ;
t hey ( Chapter 3 ),
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s uggest a l ong a nd
e xtensive
h abitation o f t he a rea . S uch p opulations m ay h ave b ecome , d uring t his p eriod , o rganized i nto l arger g roupings f or c ooperative s avanna c learance f or
c ultivation o n t he b asis o f m ound a reas a nd i ncreased n umbers o f
g rinding i mplements r ecovered . T he p opulation a lso p ossessed a n umber o f d omesticates, s heep/goats p redominately b ut w ith c attle d og a nd h orse p resent . T heir a nimal p rotein a lso a ppears t o h ave b een d erived f rom f ish , s hellfish , r odents a nd w ild m ammals . l t i s p ossible t hat a t t he i nitial s tage t hese s ites w ere o ccupied o n a s easonal b asis, f or e vidence i n t he l ower l evels a t R af i n N doko i ncluded o ccasional p ieces o f d aub a nd f ired c lay b ut n o f loors ; l ater i n t he a rea ( from L evel . 1 0 a t R af i n N doko a nd t he o ther t hree s ites) s ettlements s eem t o h ave b een p ermanent w ith l arge a mounts o f p ottery a nd b uilding m aterial ( daub , f ired c lay a nd f loors o f p otsherds, m ud a nd c lay a nd q uartz) r ecovered . A part f rom e ngaging i n a griculture, h unting a nd f ishing , c rafts s uch a s p ottery m aking, m etallurgy a nd b eadmaking w ere p ractised a nd t here w as p robably a w ell d eveloped t rade a nd m arketing n etwork s ystem . B urial t raditions i ncluded s everal f orms o f i nhumation w ithin t he s ettlement .
C omparison o f t he s ocio-economic p attern w ith t hat o f t he p resent d ay S ettlement p atterns a nd t he m ain s ubsistence m odes/economy o f t he p resent d ay p opulations i n t he W ushishi a rea h ave b een d ealt w ith i n C hapter 2 . B ut p attern d ay , i t b etween
i f o ne i s t o e xamine h ow c lose o r d ifferent t he s ocio-economic o f t he p eriod c overed b y t he f our s ites w as f rom t hat o f t he p resent c an b e s een t hat a lthough t here i s ah igh d egree o f s imilarity t hem , t here a re a lso s ome v ariations . E xcavation s eems t o i ndicate
a s low r ate o f c ultural c hange o ver a p eriod o f n early t wo t housend y ears . A s H artle ( 1970 , 1 8) h ad o bserved f or s ites i n t he K ainji a rea, f ew i tems a re a dded t o t he b asic m aterial c ulture i nventory a nd o nly i n r ecent t imes c an g ross d ifferences b e n oted. T he e xcavated s ites,
p articularly R afin N doko, K ongon M akeri a nd
K asakogi E ast, s uggest a l ong a nd e xtensive h abitation o f t he a rea, w hile o ral h istory r eveals a s eries o f v illage a bandonment a nd a s hifting o f s ites d uring t he l ast t wo h undred y ears w hen t he l atest m ovements o f p eopld t o t he a rea a re k nown . R easons a dvanced f or s uch m ovement i nclude i nter-tribal w ars, d epletion o f s oil f ertility a nd , r ecently , t he m otivation t o m ove c loser t o n ewly c ontructed r oads . T he a rea h as a lso b een n oted a s l ikely t o h ave b een a multi-tribal c ross-roads i nto a nd a cross W est A frica f or h undreds o f y ears ( Mason , 1 969 ; H artle , 1 970 , 1 0) . W hile s ome s ettlements i n t he a rea s till c onsist o f c ircular mud h ouses, n owadays h ouses a re l argely r ectangular w ith t he u se o f m ud a nd b ricks, p lastered w ith c ement a nd r oofed w ith i ron s heets . A n etwork o f r oads h as b een d eveloped i n t he a rea , s ome o f w hich a re o pen a t a ll s easons, a nd t here h as b een a t endency f or s ettlements t o g ravitate t ow ards t hese r oads w ith t he p ossibility o f e asy a ccess t o d istant m arkets a s w ell a s o ther i nfrastructural f acilities, s uch a s t he e stablishment o f s chools a nd h ealth c entres . B urials, a lthough s till p resently w ithin t he s ettlements, a re n ow l argely i n c onformity w ith I slamic t radition a nd a re i n s hallow g rave-pits u naccompanied b y g rave g oods . H ousehold m aterial c ulture s till l argely c onsists o f s tone , w ooden a nd i ron o bjects ; s uch i ron o bjects a re n o days m ade f rom i mported s crap , r ather t han f rom l ocally s melted i ron o re . S melting h as c ompletely d isappeared b ut s i ntthing i s s till p ractised . P resent d ay i nhabitants p ractise a rable f arming w ith s tock r aising , b ut a c ertain p roportion , u sually o f m en , s till p ractise f ishing a nd h unting .
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C hildren n ow
l ook
f or
g ainful
e mployment
i n u rban a reas
o r i n
i rrigated
f arming p rojects e stablished b y g overnment i n t he a rea, o r a re a ttending s chools . T hese s ame r easons c aused a d ecline i n c rafts s uch a s b eadmaking , e ar , n ose a nd l ip p lug m aking , w eaving , d yeing a nd p ottery . A nother r eason a dduced f or t he d ecline o f t hese t raditional c rafts i s t he m ass i mportation o f s ubstitutes a t m ore a ffordable p rices .
C omparison w ith s urrounding a reas S ites w hich m ay b e c ompared w ith W ushishi i nclude : i n t he C had b asin , B ornu 3 8 , K ursakata a nd D aima ; i n t he N iger v alley b elow Y elwa , B aha m ound , K agoge a nd R S 6 3/32 ; a nd o n t he s ites o f t he N ok c ulture , ( Breternitz , 1 968 ,
1 975 ;
C onnah ,
1 981;
A . F agg ,
1 972 ;
H artle ,
I n t he W ushishi a rea t he s ettlement m ounds,
1 970 ;
P riddy ,
1 970 ) .
v arying f rom l ow t o h igh ,
a re m ade u p o f h orizontal s trata , p redominantly o f s and a nd g ravel, a nd a re s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he C had b asin ( Connah , 1 981, 8 5 , 9 4) , a nd i n t he K ainji s tretch o f t he N iger v alley ( Hartle , 1 970 ; P riddy , 1 970) . D irect e vidence o f b uilding i n m ud i n t he W ushishi a rea c ompares t o t he t hi i na I I s equence w here c ircular h ouses o f m ud w ere r ecovered ( Connah , 1 981, 1 47) . F lat-laid p otsherd p avements r ecovered i n t he W ushishi a rea a re a lso s imilar t o t hose f ound a t Y elwa ( Hartle , 1 970 , 1 7) a nd a t R S 6 3/32 ( Priddy , 1 970 , 2 1) i n t he M iddle N iger v alley . O ther a rchitectural s tructures s uch a s c lay f loors a nd b urnt c lay t roughs w ere s imilar t o t hose f ound a t B ahn ( Hartle, 1 970 , 1 3) a nd a t K agoge ( Priddy , 1 970 , 3 5) . l t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese c lay t roughs m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he m anufacture o f i ron ( Hartle, 1 970 , 1 3) b ut w e d o n ot s ee e vidence f or s uch a n a ssociation a nd r egard t hem a s s pecialized f orms o f h earth , w here a n umber o f p ots c an b e b oiled a t o nce p erhaps i n c onnection w ith b eer-making . E vidence o f b urial w ithin t he s ettlement h as a lso b een r ecorded i n t he K ainji a rea -
( Hartle, 1 970, 1 4; P riddy , 1 970) a nd a t D aima ( Connah, 1 981). A m ass b urial w as a lso r ecovered a t B aha i n w hich a y oung w oman w as p laced o n t op o f a bout t en i ndividuals, a ll o f w hom h ad b een i nterred a t t he s ame t ime ( Hartle , 1 970 , 1 4) . S uch b urials w ere a ssociated w ith g rave g oods . I n t erms o f e conomy , e vidence o f p ermanent o r s emi-permanent s ettlement, a nd t he n umber o f g rindstones a nd g rinder/ p ounder f ragments, m ight s uggest a p lant-based e conomy i n t he W ushishi a rea, a s w as n oted f or B ornu 3 8 i n t he C had b asin ( Connah , 1 981 , 9 0) . A g reat n umber o f s hells, a nimal b ones a nd f ish b ones f rom t he K ainji a rea ( Hartle, 1 970 , 1 7) w ere s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he W ushishi a rea . F aunal c ollections f rom D aima c ompare w ell w ith t hose o f W ushishi b ut d iffer i n t he a bsence o f d og a nd r odents
f rom D aima ( Connah ,
E xamination a nd
1 981,
1 37) .
o bservation o f
t he
p ottery a lso
t hrow
l ight o n
s imilarities b etween s ome o f t hese s ites a nd t he W ushishi a rea . T hey e xist i n t he r im s hapes o f i nverted a nd e verted r im v essels i n t he K ainji a rea ( Hartle , 1 970 , 1 6) , i n b owls w ith e verted r ims r ecovered f rom D aima I II a nd i n s mall p ots w ith e verted c urved n ecks t hroughout t he D aima s equence a nd f rom o ther s ites i n t he C had b asin ( Connah, 1 981, 1 18). I n t erms o f d ecoration, p ottery f rom t he u pper l evels i n t he K ainji a rea w ith c ord r oulette a nd g rooving ( Hartle, 1 970 , 1 5-16; P riddy , 1 970 , 2 2 , 3 8) b ear r esemblance t o t hose f ound i n t he W ushishi a rea . C omb-stamping i s c ommon a t B ornu 3 8 a nd i n t he D ai ina I s equence, r oulette i s c ommon a t D aima I I a nd I II , a nd g rooving i s c ommonly f ound t hroughout t he D aima s equence a nd o ther s ites i n t he C had b asin ( Bornu 3 8 a nd K ursakata ) .
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T here a re, h owever , c onsiderable d ifferences b etween t he W ushishi a rea a nd t he s urrounding a reas . A part f rom s ites l ike K ursakata a nd D aima i n t he C had b asin , w here a ctual r emains o f s tructures w ere r ecovered i n t he f orm o f p its, h earths, w alls a nd f loors ( Connah , 1 981 , 8 4 , 13 , 1 47), s canty r emains w ere r ecovered f rom s ites i n t he m iddle N iger v alley , w ith t he e xception o f b urnt c lay t roughs ( Hartle , 1 970 , 1 3 ; P riddy , 1 970 , 2 1, 3 5) a nd n one w as e ncountered i n t he N ok s ites ( Fagg , 1 969 ; A . F agg , 1 972a, 7) . W hile s ites i n t he N ok c ulture a rea, t he m iddle N iger v alley a nd t he C had b asin p roduced l arge n umbers o f t erracotta f igurines a nd c lay o bjects, t here w as a g eneral p aucity o f t hese f rom t he W ushishi a rea, w here , a part f rom t hree f ragments o f m iniature t erracotta f igurines r ecovered a s s urface c ollections a t R af i n N doko , n one w as e ncountered . O rnaments i n t he f orm o f l ip , e ar a nd n ose p lugs r ecovered i n d ifferent n umbers i n a ll t hese s ites w ere g enerally a bsent i n t he W ushishi a rea . W hile D aima p roduced a l arge p roportion o f b one t ools, o nly a s ingle s pecimen , ad ouble e nded b one p oint, w as r ecovered f rom t he W ushishi a rea . T he W ushishi a rea a lso c ontained f ewer n umbers a nd t ypes o r i ron o bjects t han s urrounding r egions . E ven t hough t here a re s imilarities i n t he p ottery r ecovered i n t he W ushishi a rea a nd i n s urrounding a reas o f N igeria a s o utlined e arlier, t here a re a lso g reat d ifferences . V essels w ith f lat b ases a nd l egs, l argely f ound i n D aima I ll , a s w ell a s v essels w ith e xternally t hickened r ims a nd p ot l ids ( Connah , 1 981), f ound t hroughout t he D aima s equence , a re r are i n t he W ushishi c ollection . T he p reponderance o f v essels w ith p edestal b ases c ommonly f ound i n t he K ain ji a rea ( Priddy , 1 970 , 2 2) i s a lmost a bsent f rom t he W ushishi a rea. R ounded a nd p ointed f lattened b ases f ound i n t he W ushishi a rea a re l ess o mmon o r a lmost a bsent i n o ther r egions . I n t erms o f d ecoration , p ottery f rom t he E arly p hase i n t he K ainji a rea w ith p ainting , r ocker r oulette a nd a pplied c ordon ( Hartle , 1 970 , 1 5-16 ; P riddy , 1 970 , 2 2 , 3 8) i s n ot f ound i n t he W ushishi a rea . T he o ccurrence o f i ncision , r elief a nd c ompound d ecoration f ound i n t he W ushishi c ollection i s r are i n o ther a reas.
C oncluding S ummary A lthough m an h as l ived i n a reas n ear W ushishi, s uch a s t he J 05 P lateau a nd t he C had b asin ,
s ince E arly S tone A ge t imes n othing i s k nown a bout m an 's
a ctivities i n t he W ushishi a rea b efore t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst m illennium b c . F rom t hat t ime , t he a rea i s k nown t o h ave b een o ccupied U I ) t o t he p resent . T he i nhabitants h ad s ettlements p erhaps o ccupied i nitially o n a s emi-permanent a nd l ater o n a p ermanent b asis w hich w ere , b y t he i st m illennium A .D . v illages o f s mall c ircular h ouses . T he h ouse s tructures w ere p robably i nitially m ade o f p ole a nd w attle o ver w hich p uddled c lay w as a pplied . T hese w ere l ater r eplaced w ith h ouses w ith s moothed c lay, l ateritic o r p otsherd f looring . T he e conomic b ase o f t he i nhabitants o f t he W ushishi a rea w as a gricultural. I t w as p robably i nitially b ased o n p lant c ultivation a nd l ater b roadened t o i ncorporate s tock r aising , h unting , g athering , w hile f ishing c ontinued t o f orm p art o f t he e conomic b ase . T echnologically , w hile t he e vidence i ndicates t hat o nly p ottery-making w as p ractised f rom t he h eggining , l arge s cale p ottery m aking a s w ell a s h ead r naking a nd i ron w orking w as d emonstrated d uring t he U pper p hase . O n t he b asis o f t he a nalysis o f t he p ottery , t he i nhabitants o f t he W ushishi a rea w ere c raftsmen o f a v ery h igh o rder . T he p ottery e xhibited b oth c hange a nd c ontinuity u nparalleled b y o ther c ultural m aterials r ecovered .
3 77
W hile t rade a nd c ontact w as i n i ts r udimentary s tage i n t he E arly p hase , t he U pper p hase d eveloped b oth i nternal a nd l ong d istance t rade a nd h ad a w ell d eveloped b urial t radition .
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A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS D .A . w ould l ike t o t hank P rofessor J . D esmond C lark a nd t he l ate P rofessor G lynn I saac, w ho h ave a lways b een a g reat s ource o f h elp a nd i nspiration t o m e . O utside m y d issertation c ommittee ,
T im W hite a nd E lizabeth C olsen o f
t he D epartment o f A nthropology ; R oger B yrnes o f t he D epartment o f G eography ; R aymond K ent o f t he D epartment o f H istory a nd D on S avage o f t he D epartment o f P aleontology , a ll o f t he U niversity o f C alifornia , o ffered a dvice a nd e ncouragement f or w hich I a m g rateful.
B erkeley ,
P ermission t o c arry o ut a rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he W ushishi a rea w as g ranted b y M rs . A ntonia F atosin o f t he I badan Museum o n b ehalf o f t he N ational C ommission f or M useums a nd M onuments . I n m y r esearch i n t he W ushishi a rea, I e njoyed t he c ooperation r eceived f rom t he S eriki o f W ushishi , A ihaji I brahim A bubakar , t he S eriki o f B ankwaji , A ihaji Y usufu a nd f rom l ocal i nformants i n d ifferent v illages i n t he W ushishi a rea, a s w ell a s t he a ccommodation a nd h ospitality a lways r eceived f rom M rs . E bun B ello a t Z ungeru . F ieldwork i n t he W ushisi a rea w as c arried o ut i n d ifferent s tages w ith t he a ssistance o f M r . A ugustine Y ahaya o f t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies d uring o ral d ata c ollection ; M essrs J oseph M angut, f ormerly o f t he D epartment o f H istory , Y ashim B itiyong , A ugustine Y ahaya a nd P eter I nim , a ll o f t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies a nd M r . K eith R ay o f t he U niversity o f C ambridge . M essrs . M athias O puna a lso o f t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies, A ugustine Y ahaya a nd P eter I nim , h elped d uring t he e xcavations . Iw as a lso g uided a nd a ssisted d uring v arious a spects o f t he e xcavations b y D r . B ob H yde, o f t he D epartment o f G eography ( Contour a nd M apping ) ; M r . J oseph J emkur o f t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies ( Stratigraphy d rawing) a nd M r. Y ashim B itiyong ( Logistics). Ia m a lso g rateful t o P rofessor B assey W . A ndah o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f I badan , f or h is a dvice o n d ifferent a spects o f t he f ieldwork a nd f or h is e ncouragement . I n t he a nalyses
o f
t he W ushishi m aterials,
1h ave g reatly b enefited
f rom t he a ssistance o f v arious c olleagues i n A h T ladu B ello U niversity a nd e lsewhere: D r . A . A huwan, o f t he D epartment o f F ine A rt; D r . E . T . J olayemi , o f t he D epartment o f M athematics; D r . Y usuf S hibayan , D rs . C . O kujeni a nd C .A . A jihade, o f t he D epartment o f G eology ; D r . P .J . M oberg , o f t he
D epartment
o f
S oil
S cience ,
F aculty
o f
A griculture ;
P rofessor
A .A .
O latunde, o f t he D epartment o f B iological S ciences; M r . A de S alami, o f t he U niversity F arm ; D r . S .A . O jo, o f t he D epartment o f A natomy, F aculty o f V eterinary Medicine;
D r . R obert M eador o f t he D epartment o f A natomy ,
F aculty o f H uman M edicine a nd D r . J .O .T . A dewara, o f t he D epartment o f M etallurgical E ngineering , M essrs . J . B oachi-Ansah a nd L eo O luwatomi o f t he A rchaeology U nit,
D epartment o f H istory ,
f or g uidance o n t he p ottery ;
M essrs . A ugustine Y ahaya, M athias O puna o f t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies a nd S unday B akinde o f t he A rchaeology U nit, D epartment o f H istory , f or t echnical a ssistance ; a ll o f A hmadu B ello U niversity ; D rs . D uro O duwole , o f t he U niversity o f L ondon a nd D r . M arjorie W edgewood , o f t he U niversity o f L iverpool; D r. R ussel B arber o f t he D epartment o f
3 79
A nthropology , C alifornia S tate U niversity , S an B ernardino ; N ancy V alente , o f M iles V alley , C alifornia ; D r . H ilde S chwartz o f D ixon , N ew M exico ; D r . D ianne G ifford-Gonzalez o f t he D epartment o f A nthropology , U niversity o f C alifornia, S anta C ruz a nd P rofessor R .E . T aylor, o f t he R adiocarbon L aboratory , D epartment o f A nthropology , U niversity o f C alifornia , R iverside , f or v arious a nalyses . Io we t he o riginal d raw ings o f t he p ottery a nd o f s ome o ther c ultural m aterial, a nd s ome m aps t o M r . L eo O luwatomi . T he p ainstaking t ask o f t yping t he f inal v ersion w ith i ts l engthy a nd n umerous t ables w as d one b y S usan a nd J oe B avonese f or w hich I a m g rateful . W ithout f inancial s upport, m y s hare o f t he r esearch w ould n ot b een p ossible . M y s incere t hanks a re d ue t o t he N igerian G overnment .
h ave T he
L eakey F oundation l argely b ore t he f inancial r esponsibilities o f t he f ieldwork a s w ell a s p art e xpenses o f t he c ost o f t yping t he i nitial d raft t hrough v arious f undings g ranted b y t he U niversity B oard o f R esearch a nd t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies. P art e xpenses o n m y t yping a nd d rawings w ere b orne b y t he U niversity o f C alifornia G raduate D ivision M iscellaneous S tudent A id g rant a nd t he D epartment o f A nthropology , t hrough t he L owLe F und, w hile a s mall g rant-in-aid w as a lso r eceived f rom t he A dvisors t o F oreign S tudents a nd S cholars, f or w hich I a m g rateful . M oral
s upport,
e ncouragement
a nd
c ooperation w ere
r eceived
f rom t he
t hree s ucceeding D irectors o f m y D epartment, t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural S tudies : P rofessor M andi A damu ; M alam U .B . A hmed a nd M r . S . I .O . O kita. Ia m a lso g rateful t o o ther m embers o f m y d issertation c ommittee: P rofessors B ill e ncouragement.
C lemens ;
J ohn O gbu a nd C lark H owell
f or t heir a dvice a nd
D uring t he e arly p art o f m y f ieldwork ( January
-
A ugust
1 983), m y
s ister M rs . A .F . O latunde k indly p rovided m e w ith f ree a cco modation a nd h ospitality a nd d uring t he v arious s tages o f m y f ieldwork , i nadequate u niversity f undings w ere s upplemented b y p ersonal f inancial a ssistance r eceived f rom f riends a nd r elations, i ncluding M essrs S tephen A dedayo , N athaniel T yako , A lhaji l nua A damu Y esufu , A lhaji Y usuf O yeban ji, P rofessor M andi A damu a nd M r . J oshua A iyedun , M rs . A .F . O latunde , M r . J ohn A iyedun a nd D r. P eter A iyedun, w hich a re g ratefully a cknowledged. T .S . w ould l ike t o a cknowledge w ith g ratitude t he a ssistance o f v arious k inds f rom a l arge n umber o f p eople, a ll o f w hom I c annot n ame; Ia m p articulary i ndebted t o t he f ollowing f or h elp i n m ounting , o rganising a nd c arrying o ut t he f ieldwork : t he l ate P rofessor M ichael C rowder, D r . M andi A damu ,
D r .
J ohn S utton ,
a nd t he s taff o f t he C entre f or N igerian C ultural
S tudies, A hmadu B ello U niversity , i ncluding d rivers N elson , A udu , M agaj[ , M ohammed l awal a nd S addo H ussaini ; J ohn U mulukwu w orked o n t he e xcavations o f 1 975-76, T homas A chia i n 1 977-78, a nd M atthias O puanu i n a ll t hree s easons . I a m p articularly g rateful t o t he l ate J oseph N wegbu f or h is s killed a ssistance i n 1 976-77 a nd 1 977-78 ;
a nd t o D avid
A iyedun f or h is
w ork i n 1 977-78 . A lso i n c onnection w ith t he f ieldwork I a m g rateful f or t he a ssistance t hat w as g iven b y A lhaji U sman A lkali, M oha med S aba K utigi , M allam tnjima , M allam T ukurua W ushishi, A lhaji I brahim A bubakar ( Sariki W ushishi ) , M allam R aji A liyu E gigo L apai , M allam G arba K atako L emu , M allam M uhammedu Y arima , D agadi L emu , A lhaji B ukari, M usa D eba, M allam D eudu A liyu B ankwaji, M allam U man i , A lhaji S uleiman L iman , M allam A wal
3 80
I brahim , A lhaji
Y usufo ( Sariki B ankwaji ) M allam Z ago, M allam G ara . Ia m g rateful t o t he f ollowing f or v arious k inds o f t echnical a nd o ther a ssistance : D r .
W .A .
M r .
H ope,
S .G .H . Mr .
A de
Dan iels, O bayemi,
P rofessor D r .
H arry
C hris
C aswell,
Meador,
Mr .
D r .
K .O .
W ayne
O loge , W ankie,
P rofessor M ichael M ortimore, D r . A .C .A . A jibade, D r . M arjorie W edgewood , D r . J ohn T aylor, D r . R .A . J ohnson , P rofessor N . D avid, M r . B rian H allam , D r . C oh n S hell, M r . J oseph T swanya .
3 81
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N o .
2 6 ,
p p .
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I n F ossils i n t he M aking , e ds . U niversity o f C hicago P ress,
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C hicago U niversity P ress, C hicago.
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i n p p .
t he c onstruction o f c hronological s equences s outhern G hana. 5 9-87 . I badan .
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B ishop , W .W ., a nd J .D . C lark , e ds. 1 967 B ackground t o E volution i n A frica . C hicago.
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B ohanna r i, P ., a nd L . B ohanr ian 1 968 T iv E conomy.
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B okonyi, S . 1 972 Z oological
e vidence f or s easonal o r p ermanent o ccupation o f
p rehistoric s ettlements, pp. Urbanism , e ds . P .J . U cko, D uckworth , L ondon .
1 21-126, I n M an , S ettlement a nd R . T ringham a nd G .W . D imbleby ,
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B oulière, F ., a nd M . H adley 1 970 T he
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B rain, C .K . 1 967 H ottentot f ood r emains a nd t heir b earing o n t he i nterpretation o f f ossil b one a ssemblages . S cientific P apers o f t he N amib R esearch S tation, N o. 3 2, 6 , pp. 1 -11. 1 967 S ome p rinciples
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West
Af rican
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o f
t he
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i ts E nvironmental B ackground.
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fro m
T eledyne I sotopes R adiocarbon l aboratory .
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C alvocoressi, I L, a nd N . D avid 1 979 A N ew S urvey o f R adiocarbon a nd T hermo l uminiscence D ates f or W est A frica.
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S tone
p ossible
1 01110.
A ge m icroliths
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O da,
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b ) C ob
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I ron h oe b lade .
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D ecorated
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5 .
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S cale i n c m .
A PPENDIX I T HE A NALYSIS O F F AUNAL R EMAINS F ROM T HE W USHISHI A REA N ancy V alente
T his c ollection c onsists o f a t otal o f
5 17 p ieces .
A fter t he i nital
s ort i t w as d etermined t hat t hree ( 3 ) p ieces w ere n ot b one a nd w ere d eleted . A lso e liminated w ere t hree ( 3) p remolars a nd o ne ( 1) p halanx w hich w ere d etermined t o b e h uman . T he r emaining p ieces ( 510) c onsisted o f m ammal, b ird, f ish a nd s nake b ones, t urtle s hell, a nd s nail s hell. T he i dentification o f t he m ammalian c omponent w as c arried o ut b y u sing t he c omparative c ollections a t t he M useum o f V ertebrate Z oology a t U CB a nd t he C alifornia A cademy o f S ciences i n S an F rancisco . T he f ish b one i dentification w as d one b y D r . H ilde S chwartz o f D ixon , N ew M exico . D r . D iane G ifford-Gonzalez o f U C S anta C ruz a lso a ssisted i n t he m ammal b one i dentification.
F ISH T he f ish b ones i n t his c ollection , f rom K ongon M akeri a nd K asakogi E ast, n umber 2 3 o r 4 .5% o f t he t otal. E ven t hough t his i s a s mall p ercentage o f t he w hole, i dentification w as m ade t o 6 9% o f t he t otal. T here w ere 9 P rotopterus s p. ( 39%) ; 4C larias s p. ( 17%); 3C ichlid s p . ( 13%) ;
a nd 7 u nidentified
( 31% ) .
T he d istribution o f f ish r emains w as c onsistent t hroughout t he s ites a t K ongon M akeri ; a ny l evel. N ote:
h owever , t here w ere n o f ish r emains i n c uttings A ,
B &Ja t
P rotopterus i s L ungfish C larias i s C atfish C ichlid i s C ichlid
L ungfish h ave t he a bility t o a estivate ( essentially ' burrow ') f or m onths a t a t ime i f n ecessary i n o rder t o s urvive p eriodic d esiccation o f t heir h abitats . C atfish ( ala s easonally .
C larias)
s pawn ( and t herefore c ongregate i nto s hoals)
U sually t he s pawning c oincides w ith r ainy o r f lood p eriods.
C ichlids a re n ot g enerally s easonally s ensitive .
T hey s pawn m ore o r
l ess c ontinuously a nd c an t olerate a w ide r ange o f e nvironmen tal c onditions.
M ISCELLANEOUS T here a re a bout 1 s nail s hell p ieces, 2 8 t urtle s hell p ieces a nd 1 s nake v ertebra . T hese r epresent 7 . 8% o f t h« t otal c ollection a nd w ere f ound i n a ll C uttings w ith t he e xception o f C uttings A a nd J a t K ongon M akeri a nd
4 10
T rench I a t K asakogi E ast .
N o f urther i dentification w as m ade o n t his
g roup.
B IRD ( AyES) T here a re 4 2 b ird b one f ragments r epresenting 8 .2% o f t he t otal c ollection . N o a ttempt w as m ade t o i dentify t his s egment o ther t han b y c lass A yes . H owever , t he b ird b ones o ccurred t hroughout t he s ite a nd -
i ndicates t hat t he a vian c omponent w as d istributed t hroughout t he s ite f airly c onsistently b y t rench a nd l evel . ( There w ere n o b ird b ones f ound i n C utting J a t a ny l evel) . I t
i s
c omponent
p robably c orrect w as d ue
t o
t o a ssume
s ome k ind
o f
t hat t he p resence o f t he avian
h uman
a ctivity
r elated
t o
s ubsistence
p atterns.
M ANMALIP LN C OMPONENT T he mammal
b ones
c onsisted
o f
4 05
p ieces,
r epresenting 7 9 .4% o f
t he
t otal c ollection . O f t hese 5 3 ( 13 .1%) w ere i dentifiable . T he m ammal c omponent w as i dentified t o g enus i n s ix ( 6) g enera, t o t ribe i n o ne ( 1) c ase , t o f amily i n t wo ( 2 ) c ases, a nd t o o rder i n t wo ( 2 ) c ases . T he s ix ( 6) g enera i nclude B os , C anis, C apra , E quus, F elis & O vis ; t he t ribe i s C aprini; a nd t he f amilies a re B ovidae a nd S uidae; t he t wo o rders a re R odentia a nd I r isectivora . D ue t o t he s mall s ize o f t his c ollection a d etermination o f M NI o r N ISP w as n ot d one . A s imple c ount o f t he a nimals r epresented s eemed t he m ore a ccurate m eans o f a scertaining t he n umbers r epresented. M ost n umerous o f t he m ammal c omponent i s t he t ribe C aprini w ith 1 2 i ndividuals r epresented . T he g enus C anis a nd t he o rder R odentia a re t he s econd m ost c ommon w ith f ive ( 5) u nits c ounted f or e ach . T he t hird m ost c ommon g roup i s t he B ovids, w ith o ne ( 1 ) u nit i dentified o nly t o f amily a nd f our ( 4 ) s pecimens i dentified t o g enus . T he g enus E quus u l as t he f ourth m ost c ommon g roup w ith f our ( 4 ) w hile t he g enus C apra w as r epresented b y t wo ( 2) u nits . T he g enera F elis a nd O vis w ere e ach r epresented b y o ne ( 1) u nit; a nd t he f amily S uidae w as a lso r epresented b y o nly o ne ( 1) u nit. T he d omestic s tock c urrently i n t his a rea a nd u tilized b y p resent d ay i nhabitants i s r epresented b y t he f ollowing f amilies : E quidae, B ovidae & C anidae .
T he r emains o f t hese a nimals i n t his s ite i s c onsistent w ith
c urrent s ubsistence p atterns . I t i s t he u nderstanding o f t his a nalyst t hat t he f amily S uidae i s n ot c urrently r epresented i n d omestic s tock . R odents a nd I nsectivores a re a lso u sed a s f ood s ources c urrently ,
b ut
i t c annot b e s aid f rom t he e vidence a t t his s ite t hat t hese w ere u sed f or f ood.
T heir p resence c ould b e f ortuitous. T he
d istribution
f requency
o f
t he
m ammalian
c omponent
o f
t his
a ssemblage s hows a f airly c onsistent s pread a cross t he t ime r epresented b y t he l evels i n e ach c utting a nd t rench . N ote h owever, t hat t here w ere i dentifiable c omponents i n C uttings D , Ha nd J a t K ongon M akeri . T rench I a t K asakogt E ast h as 1 4 i dentifiable s pecimens, t wice t he n umbers i dentified i n t he n ext two C uttings, E a nd G . a t K ongon M akert , b oth w ith s even ( 7) i dentified s pecimens i n e ach o f t hese c uttings . T his a nalyst
4 11
c annot a ccount
f or t his d ifference .
P erhaps t he p reservation f actors w ere
m ore f avourable i n t hose t hree c uttings a nd t rench .
C uttings A a nd C e ach
h ad t hree ( 3) i dentified s pecimens, C utting B h ad t wo ( 2) a nd C utting F h ad o nly o ne ( 1 ) i dentified u nit .
i dentified u nits
T he t ribe C aprini, w hich i ncludes b oth s heep a nd g oats, r epresents m ore t han t wice t he n umber o f t he n ext m ost n umerous g roups, t he C anids a nd R odents .
I f
o ne w ere t o u se t hese f igures a s a g uide i n d etermining t he
r elative u se o f s heep/goat i n t he d iet o f t he i nhabitants o f t his s ite , i t m ight b e s aid t hat s heep/goat f orm p art o f t he d iet t wice a s m uch a s t he n ext m ost c ommon m eat s ource . H owever, t his c oncept m ust b e u sed c autiously s ince t he e vidence f or t his c onclusion i s t enuous a t b est .
T otal i dentifications b y n umber: 1 2 C aprini 5C anis s p 5R odentia 1E quus b urchelli 3E quus s p. 4B og s p 1l arge B ovid
-
n ot d omestic
2C apra s p 1O vis s p 1S uid 1I nsectivora 1F ells s p
B one M odification E xamination o f t his f aunal a ssemblage s howed t hat t here h ad b een s ome k ind o f m odifcation t o 1 07 p ieces o f t he t otal a ssemblage , o r a bout 2 0 .987 . . 3 7 p ieces ( 34 .57%) e xhibited c ut m arks; 2 9 p ieces ( 27 .10%) s howed e vidence o f b urning ; 2 0 p ieces ( 18 .69%) s howed r odent g nawing m arkss ; 1 0 ( 9 .34%) i ndicated c hewing m arks ; a nd 7 ( 6 .54%) s howed e vidence o f b oth c ut a nd b urn m arks. T he r emaining f our ( 4) b ones s howed c ombined m odifications a s f ollows: o ne ( 1) w as b urnt a nd c hewed ; t wo ( 2 ) w ere c hewed a nd g nawed .
o ne ( 1) w as c ut a nd g nawed ;
a nd
T he b ones s howing e vidence o f c uts, b urns, a nd o ther m odifications a re s pread f airly e venly t hroughout t hese s ites . t he s ubsistence p atterns o f t hese s ites w ere t hey w ere o ccupied .
4 12
T his s e em s t o i ndicate s imilar t hroughout t he
t hat t ime
A PPENDIX I I W USHISI A REA P OTTERY S TUDY S .G .H . Dan iels
T he p ottery r eferred t o i n t his r eport w as c ollected b y P rof . T hurstan S haw i n e arly 1 976 f rom t he s ites o f K ongon R af i n N doko, K ongon M akeri a nd K ongon B unugi, i n t he W ushisi a rea . S herds w ere m arked b y M r . M atthias O puana, a nd c lassified b y m e d uring Oct ober 1 976. A ll d iagnostic s herds w ere m arked i n o ne o f t wo w ays:— ( 1) E xcavated m aterial f rom K ongon R af i n N doko w as m arked R FN , f ollowed b y ab ag n umber c ontained i n a t riangle. ( 2) S urface c ollections w ere m arked S SC ( = 'Shaw S urface C ollections'), f ollowed b y t he s urface c ollection n umber i n a n e llipse. -
C lassification w as n ot s equential i n t hat a ll d iagnostic s herds w ere p laced o n t he s orting t ables t ogther a nd t hen s orted i nto p iles o f s imilar s herds . E stablishment o f c ategories a nd s orting o f s herds i nto t hose c ategories t hus p roceeded s imultaneously . T he c lassification w as e ssentially b lind , c odes b eing o n t he u ndecorated s ide o f p otsherds . I n a ddition, a part f rom k nowing t he d ifference b etween R FN a nd S SC , Iw as i gnorant o f t he m eaning o f t he c oding , t o t he e xtent o f n ot k nowing h ow m any s ites w ere r epresented o r w hether t he s urface c ollections i ncluded a ny m aterial
f rom
K ongon
R af i n
N doko .
T he
c ategories
e stablished
f or
t his
c lassification a re l isted i n T able 1 . T hey a re n ot i ntended t o p rovide a n e xhaustive d escription o f t he m aterial, b ut w ere c hosen i n t he h ope t hat t hey w ould b e u seful i n u ncovering s ome o f t he h istorical s tructure o f t he p ottery d ata . T he f ollowing b ags w ere i nadvertently o mitted f rom a nalysis:— R FN 19 , S SC 3 6 , S SC 4 3 . T he n umbers o f s herds i n e ach c ategory f rom e ach l ocation a re l isted i n T able 2 . T he n umber s hown a gainst N i n t he b ottom r ow o f t his T able i s t he t otal n umber o f s herds f rom a l ocation c lassified u nder D ecoration o r F orm o r b oth . N i s i n g eneral l ess t han t he c ol u mn s um f or t he l ocation , s ince t he D ecoration a nd F orm p artitions i ntersect, a nd t hat f or D ecoration i s i tself m ultiple . B efore s tarting a nalysis o f t he d ata ,
i t w as n ecessary t o c ombine s ome
o f t he u nits o f t he b asic d ata s o a s t o p roduce a cceptably l arge s ample s izes . T he f irst s uch c ombination, g iving a m inimum s ample s ize o f 2 0 , p roduced D ataset 1 . T his d ataset i s n ot l isted h ere s ince , i n t he e arly s tages o f a nalysis, i t b ecame c lear t hat t he s mall s izes w ere b lurring p ossible p atterns w ithout g iving g ains i n c ontinuity o f t rends . A ccordingly a s econd c ombination e xercise w as c arried o ut t o g ive a m inimum s ample s ize o f 5 0 , p roducing D ataset 2 . T his d ataset i s l isted i n T able 3 . F or a nalysis o f D ataset 2 t he v ariables F .14 a nd 126 w ere o mitted a s b eing n on—homogenous : a ll o ther v ariables w ere i ncluded . A fter a nalysis o f D ataset 2 . a f urther c ombination g ave D atset
4 13
3 , w hose u nits a re c onsidered
t o b e h istorical e ntities, a nd i n w hich a ll s ample s izes a re o ver 3 00 . T he a nalyses a pplied t o t he d ata a re l isted a nd b riefly d escribed b elow . M athematical f ormulations a re a vailable b ut a re n ot g iven h ere. ( 1 ) B UCK a c omputerised r outine w hich m aps t he ' average s herd ' f rom e ach a ssemblage a nd e ach v ariable i nto a 2 -dimensional s pace . I t r ests o n t he a ssumption t hat e ach s herd w as m ade a t ap articular d ate, a nd e ach g roup -
o f s herds c an t herefore b e s aid t o h ave a n a verage d ate o f m anufacture . T he e xpected a ge o f a s herd f rom a g iven g roup i s t hen t he a verage o f t hat g roup . S tarting w ith a rbitrary v alues f or t he a ssemblages, v alues f or t he v ariables c an b e c alculated , a nd n ew a ssemblage v alues c alculated f rom t hese . T his p rocess, r epeated , l eads r ather r apidly t o a u nique s olution . A c ontinuous p rocess o f c ultural c hange i s e xpected t o a ppear a s a n a pproximately p arabolic c urve i n t he p lane . A lthough c onceived i n t erms o f t ime , B UCK c an e qually w ell p ick u p o ther s ources o f v ariation i f t hese a re g reater t han c hange-with-time . P revious e xperience s uggests t hat w here s ample s izes a re s mall, t he f irst ( major) d imension o f t his s pace m ay b e t ime-related, w hile t he s econd a rises o nly f rom s electing t he l argest r andom e rrors . H owever , i n t he p resent c ase s ample s izes a re l arger , a nd I w ould e xpect b oth a xes o f t he p lane t o r eflect a t l east s ome c ause o f s ystematic v ariation .
w ill
( 2) V ECK - a c omputertsed r outine f or s eeing h ow c losely t hat d ata f it o ne o r m ore s pecified p atterns . O f p articular i nterest a re t he
p lanes T I x T u ( the T ime V ector P lane) a nd G i l a nd G il ( the C ultureg eographic P lane ) . W here o ne o r m ore k nown s equences e xist i n t he d ata , t hese a re u sed t o e stimate t he d irection o f c hange-with-time o n t he T ime V ector P lane , T I r unning f rom e arly ( ) t o l ate ( + ) ‚ a nd T i ll f rom e nd-ofs equence ( ) t o m iddle-of-sequence ( + ) . T he C ulture-geographic P lane i s f ound b y i nputting t he g eographical l ocations o f a ssemblages. I n t he p resent c ase, w here t here a re o nly t hree l ocations, k nowledge o f t heir r elative d istances a re n ot n ecessary . T he C ulture-geographic P lane w ould n ormally b e i nterpreted a s r eflecting c ultural c hange-with-distance , b ut i n t he p resent a nalysis, w here t here i s n o r eason t o t hink t he t hree s ites a re c ontemporary , i t i s i nterpreted , a t l east i n p art, a s c hange-with-time . ( 3 ) D ELT - a s eriation t echnique w hich w ill f ollow a c omplicated c urve a nd w hich p roduces r esults n ear t o t he h istorically c orrect a nswers w hen t hese a re k nown . T he t echnique r ests o n t he i dea o f a c onsistent o rder , r ather t han a ny k ind o f ' best ' o rder . I t a lso p rovides a s cale , w hich i s d istorted f rom t he d istances a long a ny a ctual c urved t ime-track , b ut l ess s o t han a ny s traight l ine p assed t hrough s pace . D ELT m ay b e a pplied t o b oth v arious d ifferent d istance f unctions, w ith d iffering r esults . H ere i t w as a pplied t o b oth E uclidean a nd M anhattan d istances a nd a lso t o ' mutual d istance ' ( defined a s t he n egative l ogarithm o f t he p roportion o f e lements o f a s ystem w hich a re i n t he s ame s tate i n t wo d ifferent u nits). ( 4 ) M utual e xperimental a nd
c ontinuum a nalysis ( MCA ) -t his t echnique
i s
s till
Ih ave n ot y et p rogrammed i t f or t he c omputer .
h ighly G iven a
m atrix o f m utual d istances, t he a nalysis f inds, i n a s pecified n umber o f d imensions, a p attern f or t he a ssemblages w hich m ost c learly f its t he d istances i n t he m atrix . W here a p rocess o f c ultural c hange p roceeds a t r andom t he t ime-track i n a m utual c ontinuum i s e xpected t o b e a s traight l ine . I f t he c hange i s c onservative, i n t hat o lder e lements t end t o r emain i n t he s ame s tate, w hile y ounger e lements t end t o c hange t o a n ew s tate , t hen t he t ime-track w ill a ppear c urved . A s w ith o ther a nalyses, t ime i s n ot
4 14
t he o nly
f actor w hich m ay
l ie b ehind t he
p atterns
f ound i n a m utual
c ontinuum . G eographical d istance i s e xpected t o a ppear , a nd o ther f actors m ay a lso d o s o, i n w ays w hich a re n ot a t p resent c lear t o m e. N umerical r esults o f t he a pplication o f B UCK a nd V ECK t o D ataset 2 a re g iven i n T ables 5 a nd 6 . T hese r esults a re a lso s hown g eographically i n F igures 1 t o 4 . S ome c ommentary o n t hese f igures m ay b e u seful . F igure 1 , w hich s hows t he l ocation o f v ariables i n t he B UCK p lane, r aises i mmediately s ome o f t he p roblems w hich p ersist t hrough a ll t he a nalyses. I s t he e ssential u nderlying p attern a t ime-track , o r a s et o f d iscrete c lusters? I f w e l ook f or a n a pproximately p arabolic t ime-track , i t w ould a ppear, r ather u nexpectedly , t o b e l ying o n i ts s ide a nd t o r un f rom l ower r ight, t hrough l eft t o u pper r ight . I f, o n t he o ther h and , w e l ook f or d iscrete c lusters o f v ariables, w e m ay p erhaps d istinguish f our :- a l eft c luster , a n u pper r ight c luster, a l ower r ight c luster a nd a c entral c luster ( this l atter p resumably c onsisting o f v ariables w hich a re e ssentially u nchanged i n a ll u nits . T his i nterpretation i s s trengthened b y F igure 2 w hich s hows a ssemblages o f D ataset 2 i n t he B UCK p lane . H ere t he l eft c luster a ppears a s K ongon R af i n N doko, t he u pper r ight a s K ongon M akeri a nd t he l ower r ight a s K ongon B unugi . T here i s n o c entral c luster , s ince t here a re n o a ssemblages w hich a re m ixtures o f t he t hree s ites . T here i s a s light t endency a mong t he s tratified K ongon Raf in N doko a ssemblages f or c hange-with-time t o c oincide w ith a m ovement f rom l eft t o u pper r ight . ( The a ssemblages A l, B I, C l , w hich w ould a ppear t o c ontradict t his t rend h ave t hroughout b een e xcluded f rom c onsideration o f t he s equences, a s p robably c ontaminated w ith e arlier m aterial.)
I n g eneral,
i f t he p attern i s a n a pproximation t o a p arabolic
t ime-track i t a ppears t hat ( 1) t he p ositive e nd o f B i s hould h e ' late ', a nd ( 2 ) t he p arabola i s m arginally m ore p lausible i f d rawn r unning f rom l eft t o u pper r ight a nd t hen l ower r ight . A s omewhat s urprising f eature o f t his f igure i s t hat t he K ongon R afin N doko s urface c ollections a ppear i n a d iscrete g roup o n w hat i s a pparently t he e arlier s ide o f t he s tratified m aterial. F rom t he B UCK r esults i t i s e vident t hat a ny c hange-with-time i n t he K o r igon R afin N doko s equence i s o nly s lightly c orrelated w ith t he m ajor s ources o f v ariation i n t he d ata a s aw hole . Ac loser l ook a t K ongon R af i n N doko a lone w as o btained b y a pplying V ECK t o D ataset 2 t o g ive t he T ime V ector P lane T I x T i ll f or K ongon R afin N doko a ssemblages o nly ( A l,
B i ,
C l
b eing e xcluded f rom t he e stimating s equences) . T he r esults a re s hown i n F igure 3 , w here A l , B i a nd a ll t he s urface c ollections f orm a s ingle c entral g roup i n t he ' r netachronously m ixed ' p osition , w hile t he r emaining a ssemblages a re d isposed i n a p arabolic c urve i n t he e xpected f ashion , t here b eing n o r eversals o f t rend e xcept f or t he s upposedly c ontaminated C l, a nd t he n egligible r eversal o f C 3 a nd C 4 . l t t he v arious d istinct g roups, a s tratigraphically l ower g roup o n t he n egative s ide , a nd a s tratigraphically h igher g roup o n t he p ositive s ide . T hese g roups a re d istinguished i n t he f ormation o f D ataset 3 . Ia m n ot s ure t hat t hey s hould b e t aken a s r epresenting h istorically d iscrete c ultural e pisodes, b ut i t s eems a u seful w orking t actic t o d istinguish t wo s eparate e ntities, e ven i f m ore e vidence s hould s how t hat t hey g rade i nto e ach o ther . F igure 4 s hows t he V ECK p lane C I xG il , e stimated o n t he b asis o f t he s urface c ollections f rom t he t hree s ites . I n t his c ase t he p lane i s n ot e xpected t o r eflect g eographical v ariation , b ut t o r eflect c hange-with-time o ver a l onger p eriod t han t hat r epresented b y t he T ime V ector P hase . T he
4 15
o verall c onfiguration i s v ery s imilar t o t hat f ound b y B UCK , w ith t he s ame r elative p lacing o f g roups o f a ssemblages a nd t he s ame i ndeterm inacy o ver w hether a t rend l ine o r c ompletely d iscrete g roups l ie b ehind t he o bserved p attern . T here i s s lightly m ore s uggestion o f a t rend l ine t han i n t he B UCK p lane, p articularly i n t he K ongon R afin N doko a nd K ongon Makeri c lusters. O n t he b asis o f
t he r esults o btained i n a nalysis o f D ataset 2 ,
t he 5
a ssemblages o f d ataset 3 w ere p roduced . T he c omposliton o f t his d ataset i s s hown i n T able 4 a nd p ercentage v alues f or a ll v ariables i n T able 7 . W ith t he e xception o f t he K ongon R afin N doko s urface c ollections, t hese a re c onsidered, p rima f acie, t o c onstitute r eal h istorical e ntities.
T he
K ongon R af i n N doko s urface c ollection s hould , o n t he f ace o f i t , r epresent a m ixture b etween t he e arlier a nd l ater s tratified a ssemblages . T able 8 s hows t he r esults o f a pplying D ELT t o t hree d ifferent d istance f unctions f or D ataset 3 , t he s olutions, a fter e quating v ariances, b eing t o a ll i ntents a nd p urposes t he s ame . I n a ddition t o s howing K ongon R afin N doko a s c onsiderably e arlier t han t he o ther t wo s ites, t hese s cales s how t he K ongon B unugi s urface c ollection a s m arkedly l ater t han t hose f rom K ongon M akeri . T hey a lso a gree w ith B UCK a nd t he V ECK G I a nd G IL p lane i n p utting t he K ongon R afin N doko s urface e arlier t han t he l ower s tratified m aterial . I t i s w orth n oting t hat t he d ifferent m atrices f rom w hich t hese D ELT s cales a re d erived o nly j ust f ail t o b e c ompletely P etrifiable . I n af inal a ttempt t o e lucidate t he p roblems, m utual c ontinuum a nalysis w as a pplied t o D ataset 3 , t he r esults b eing s hown num erically i n T able 8 a nd g raphically i n F igure 5 . I t i s a t o nce a pparent t hat t he p lane r epeats t he b asic p atterns f ound b y B UCK a nd V ECK , t he o nly s ubstantial d ifference b eing i n t he p lacing o f K RN S C e ven f urther t o t he l ower l eft. l t i s e vident t hat t he f ive a ssemblages l ie a long a s ingle t ime-track t hey c an o nly b e r easonably p laced a long a h ighly c urved t rack w ith t he o rder a nd a pproximately
t he
s pacing
c hronologically d istinct
f ound
e ntities,
b y i t
D ELT . i s
S ince
d ifficult
t o
w e
h ave
s o
d ecide w hether
f ew t o
a dopt t his w orking h ypothesis, o r i nstead t o r egard s ome o f t he v ariation s hown o n t he M CA p lane a s d ue t o s ome o ther c ause . A mongst s uch p ossible c auses m ight b e c ultural h eterogebneity o f t he a ssemblages, i n t hat o ne o r m ore i s a n ' intruder ' i nto t he s equence; f unctional v ariations; o r a b ifurcating t ime-track . F urther s maller s urface c ollections f rom o ther s ites i n t he a rea m ight h elp t o s olve t his i ndecision b y f illing g aps i n t he o bservable p icture . F or t he t ime b eing t he f ollow ing a lternative m ain w orking h ypotheses a ppear t enable:( 1) T he a ssemblages a re b asically p art o f t he s ame c ultural s equence , w ith K ongon R afin N doko v ery c onsiderably e arlier t han t he o thers, a nd K ongon B unugi l atest . I f t he e vidence o f t he r adiocarbon d ates a nd o f t he s moking p ipes i s t aken i nto a ccount, t his h ypothesis w ould i mply a m uch h igher r ate o f c hange b etween K ongon M akeri a nd K ongon B unugi t han b etween K ongon R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri. ( 2)
K ongon R afin N doko a nd K ongon M akeri f orm p art o f t he s ame
c ultural s equence, w hile K ongon B unugi i s i n l arge p art c ulturally d istinct , t his d istinctiveness b eing t oo l arge t o a llow i t t o b e d ated t o t he m ain s equence. W hichever o f t hese h ypotheses i s a dopted , t here r emains t he s uggestion
4 16
t hat
t he
K ongon R af i n N doko
s equence
h as
m ore
t o r eveal .
I n p articular
t here i s t he p ossibility t hat t here i s a n ' earliest ' p hase, h eavily r epresented i n t he s urface c ollections, b ut u nrepresented o r u nderr epresented i n t he s tratified a ssemblages . T he s urface c ollectutons m ay a lso c ontain a l imited a mount o f l arge m aterial, s ince t hey c ontain s ome t raits i n c ommon w ith t he s tratified m aterial .
o ther
t wo
s ites
w hich a re
a bsent
f rom
t he
S .G .R . D aniels 2 4th N ovember 1 976
N ote:
A .S .U . W orking P apers a re i ntended p rimarily
f or t he u se o f r esearch
rojects . T hey a re n ot n ormally c irculated w orkers e ngaged i n o ngoing p b eyond t hose e ngaged o n a p articular p roject . T hey m ay h e q uoted i n p ublication i f s o d esired. F urther W orking P apers o n t his p roject m ay b e i ssued i n t he
l ight o f
f urther q ueries o r n ew d ata . n t his a ppendix c ould n ot b e l ocated b y M r . F igures 1 5 r eferred t o i art o f t his a ppendix . A iyedun a nd t hus c ould n ot f orm p -
4 17
TABLE I C a tegor ies u sed i nc l as s if y ing t h e Z ungeru A r ea P o t tery -
A . DECORAT IVE T ECHN IQUES** 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 6 .
M isce l laneous C o rd R ou le t te ' Her r ing -bone ' R ou le t te D ep ressed g r id R ou le t te ' Bobb le ' R ou le t te ' Lozenge ' R ou le t te ' M icro -punc ta te ' R ou le t te V e ry r ough g r id ? Rou le t te ? Comb S tamp ing F inge rI mp r es s ion M isce l laneou si mp r es s ion i n teg ra l t o ah o r izon ta l b and M isce l laneou si mp re s s ion n o ti n tegra l t o ah o r izon ta l b and C o rdon A pp l ied p e l le t s C omb -g roov ing F lu t ing D r agg ing W ip ing S ha l low s qua re -sec t ion g roov ing C r is s -cro ss g roov ing S la sh -g rooves i n as i ng le r ows O ppo sed p a i r so f? s la sh -g roove s Med ium -s ized g rooves a r ranged i na r ea l p a t ter ns M isce l laneous g roov ing C urv i l inear g roov ing /dragg ing m ak ing a r ea lp a t ter ns C urv i l inea rg roov ing s i ng le o rd oub le l i ne s D eco ra ted u nc la s s i f iab le -
B . FORMS 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 .
B ow ls w i th c ar ina t ion t hus o rt h us B ow ls w i th e x terna lf l ange b e low r im t h us B ow l sw i th f l a t topped r im se x tended e x terna l ly t h u s S ub -g lobu la rv e sse ls w i th u nd if f er en t ia ted t a p ered r im t hus M isce l laneous d i f f e r en t ia ted b ow lr im s M isce l laneou su nd if f e ren t ia ted b ow l r im s Smoo th ly e vened p o tr im s w i th r ounded r im s t h us Smoo th ly e vened p o tr im s w i th s qua red r im st h us S ha rp ly e vened p o tr im s t h us E vened a nd t a pe red r im st h us P i eces w i th p er fo r a t ions ( c f . c o lander ) P i eces w i th n ar row b o re ( c f . s mok ing -p ipe ) F la tb a se s F o rm sv i s ib le b u t u nc la s s if iab le
** I lus t ra t ive s pec imens o fd eco ra t ive c a tego r ies a r e h e ld a tC .N .C .S . , Ahmadu B e l lo U n ive r s i ty , Z ar ia .
4 18
TABLE 2 B a s ic d a ta -
B ag N umb e r s 1 D .1 D .2 1 D .3 DA D .5 D .6 D .7 D .8 1 D .9 D , 10 D .h I D .12 -
-
-
D
.
1
3
-
D
.
2
1
-
D ,22 D .23 4 D .24 D
.
2
5
-
D .26 El F .2 E3 F .4 F .5 F .6 F .7 F .8 F .9 F , 10 Eli F . 12 E 13 F . 14 N *
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 1
-
8
1 9 2 0 1 2 - 2 1 -
2
-
- I -
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
I -
2
6 2 6 1 1 3 7 28 11 3 2
2 -
-
-
-
2 I I
-
I
-
-
1
1 I
-
-
I 1 3 1 0 2 2 1 1 5 1 2 13 4 35 7 3 6 4 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 3
1 1 6 5 1 2 -
-
-
9 -
1 -
1 7 4 9
7 1 9 4 2 4 I 5 2 3 7 4 2 3 5 1 2 5 8 1 3 1 5 3 - - -
1 0 2 3 -
-
4 5 8 2 4 3 7 2 1 7 2 - 5 1 I I 8 1 4 2 I - - 1 - - I - - 1 1 - 3 - 2 4 6 I 7 1 3 4 2 1 6 5 0 1 5 3 5 1 4 7 2 9 1 6 1 2 3 8 1 0 3 5 2 0 1 0 2 8 I 1 3 5 3 3 I I 2 2 4 4 5 3 4 1 1 3 3 1 3 2 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- 4 1 2 4 8
-
-
1 5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
- I 1 - 1 1 1
2 8
1 02 5 0
-
1 -
2 4
2 - 2 6 1 - - 1 I -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6 2 *
1 2 6
1 3 1 1 1 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2 7
6
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- 3 3 1 1 - 3 1 2 - 2 144 1 1 2 2 2 - 6 - 3 7 - - - 6
-
- 2 1 3 1
1 1 2 5 1 -
3 4 1 I 4 11 3 0 4 3 3 5 -
- 1 5 1 2
1 14 1 5 4 3 2 3 -
1
5
2 2 2 1 18 I 4 2 6 5 - 4 4 -
-
1 - 2 1 6 1 2
3 9 1 88 5 7 2 0 1 19 9 4
Nd o es n o t i n c lude p l a in b ody s h e rds
4 19
-
-
-
- 1 2 -
-
-
-
1 - 2 - 2 1 2 1 06 5 5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
9
S ur f ace C o l le c t ion s
2 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 - - - - 1 - - 12 - 11 8 - 17 2 2 2 9 8 2 1 3 1 1 1 - 5 5 4 2 5 8 1 - 1 1
-
D ,14 D .15 D .16 1 D .17 1 D .18 D .19 D .20 -
-
n umb e r so fs p ec imen s
-
1 23
TABLE 2
( con t inued)
-
B ag N umb e r s 2 1 2 2 2 5 2 6 D ,1 8 3 1 D .2 - 6 11 D .3 - 16 D .4 1 6 1 4 D5 - 2 D .6 D .7 D .8 - 2 D .9 D10 8 3 DJI 6 2 1 D .12 3 1 D .13 I D . 14 1 7 1 7 l D .15 2 2 D .16 5 D . I7 D . 18 I 3 D . 19 D .20 3 I D .21 D22 2 I D .23 2 9 1 5 1 4 2 5 -
-
2 8
2 9 9 4 1 1 9 1 1 3
3 1 2 10 I 6 -
S ur f ace C o l lec t ion s 3 2 1 2 1 -
-
-
-
3 0 2 1
-
-
-
3 3 4 3 5 3 7 1 4 3 16 12 4 3 3 2 1 3 0 4 1 - 3 - 1 -
3 8 2 1 2 2 -
3 9 1 3 I -
4 0 4 1 7 3 2 6 5 6 2 1 -
- 4
-
-
2 -
-
3
- 1
-
-
1 1
1
2
1 2
2
-
3
-
- 1 - 2
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
I
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
D
.
2
4
I
-
D .25 D .26 1 F . I F F .3 .
8
2
.
1
-
-
-
-
3
2 -
-
-
1
I 7
1
1
-
-
- - 1 4 2 66 7 11 3 3 3 3 1 I
7 4
-
-
0
-
-
9 3
-
-
2 5
1 -
2 -
1 -
I -
1
I 2 8 3 2 I I 1 3 1
-
-
4
-
4 I
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
4
9
1 4
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
E lI F . 12 F . 13 F . 14 4 N
-
-
-
F5 F .6 F .7 F .8 F ,9 F
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 4 1 - 1 -
1
1 3 1 -
1 -
-
-
-
-
2 -
- 2 1 2 15 7 9 3 1 I -
-
-
-
-
1 1
-
-
- 2 -
-
-
5
3
4
6
3
2
2
4 4
4 3
5 3
6 4
1 3
8 3 3
4 20
1 3 2 I -
-
1 -
-
1 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 - I 4 7 1 2 3 -
1 -
-
5
-
1 7
-
1 -
1 -
3 3 -
-
2 I
-
-
8 2
1 5 7
8 7
1 5
2 4
1 2
5
4
3 9
4 1
TABLE 2
( cont inued)
-
S ur f ace E xcava ted Ma t e r ia l 4 2 D .1 D .2 D .3 4 DA D5 D .6 D .7 D .8 D .9 D .10 D .h I D .12 D .I3 D .14 D .15 D .I6 D .17 D .I8 D .19 D .20 D .21 D .22 D .23 2 -
4 4
I S I S 1 +2 3
-
i s I S 4 5 1 1
-
K ongon R a f in N doko
I S u S u S u S I T S u S I T S I T S u S u S u S 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 1 - 1 1 2 3 1 -
-
-
-
1
- - 11 - 2 1
1 1 1 2
-
-
- 1
-
-
-
1
-
1 I
2
-
-
3 3 1 1 - 1 -
1
- 1 1 1 - 2
-
1 - 2 - -
3 6 I -
7
9
-
-
- 5 3 2 2
2 1 2
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
9 5 3 4 1
2
5
6
-
2
4 1 0 1 1 6 6 1 10 12 -
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
- 1 1 -
-
2 3
- 1
-
D
.
2
4
-
D .25 1 D .26 F . i F .2 F .3 FA F .5 I F .6 E7 1 F .$ F .9 -
-
-
- 7
4
-
-
3 - 1 12 4 I I 2 1 -
-
7
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 2
-
-
I
- 2
-
-
-
-
-
-
F
.
1
0
-
F il l F
.
I
2
F . 13 F . 14 N
I
I
I 2 1
4 2 2 2 2 I 3 1 1 - 1 1 - I 2 - - I 1 8 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3 1 1 1 1 3 6 9 2 1 1 3 2 5 8 4 3 5 I 3 2 I 7 4 1 2 3 1 2 - - I 1 2 4 2 I 1 2 - 3 8 - 2 - -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
7
2
1
4
5
2
5
2 7
1
3 3
3
7 4 1
4 21
4
1
7
4
5
4
7
2 5
1 5
3 7
5 1
2 3
3 6
5 6
1 5
1
TABLE 2 ( c o n t inued ) -
E xcava ted Ma te r ia l u S u S u S 1 1 2 1 3 D .1 2 D .2 D .3 D ,4 D .5 D .6 D .7 I D .8 D ,9 D .IO - D .11 3 D .12 D .13 D .14 4 D .15 D .I6 D . 17 D . I8 D .19 D .20 D .21 D .22 D .23 2 1 1 D .24 1 D .25 D .26 1 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
K ongon R afm N doko
uN uN uN uN uN uN 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 - 6 1 - 2 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
2 1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
WA 4 1 2 4 4 -
8 1 8 1 1 1 2 I 1 1 3 2 1 9 1 6 4 9 3 4 1 1 2 1 -
uN 7 3 2 -
-
-
WA WA WA WA WA WA 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 -
-
1
4 -
I I
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4 - 2 13 - 1 1 1 5 10 6 I
1
-
-
-
-
- 1 3 2
6 -
I -
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
1
2 -
-
4
-
-
6 I -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
-
2 1 8 -
-
-
F . 1 F .2
-
F .4 F .5 F .6 I F .7 I F ,8 F ,9 F . 10 E li F . 12 F . 13 F . 14 2
-
-
-
5 -
-
2 1
I 2 -
2 I -
I
1
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
2
1
1
5 6 I 2
4 3
-
-
4
-
-
4
-
1
-
-
-
3 I 1
I -
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
8 I 1
-
2 -
4 -
1 6
9
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
I -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 -
2 -
1 -
5 2 I -
2
-
8 -
-
6 1
-
-
-
-
1 3 - 3 - 5 2 - -
4 1 3 1 1 4
1 -
2 3
1 1
1
- -
-
2
1
-
1 -
1 -
- 1
9
1
8
5 3
1
3 5 6
1 8
5 9
-
2 1 5 1
-
-
-
N
1 4
-
5
-
2 1
2 8
4 22
1
5 1
3 7
1 2 7
1 8
1 3
1 1 4
1
6
TABLE 2
( cont inued)
-
E xcava ted Ma ter ia l
-
K ongon R afm N doko
I VBlVB 'IVB I VB I VB I VB I VB I VB I VC I VC I VC J VC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1+23+4 5 6 D ,1 1 D .2 D .3 - 3 2 - 1 1 2 - D .4 1 - 2 1 6 1 1 4 3 D .5 D .6 D ,7 I I D .8 D .9 2 - 1 D .10 3 1 2 2 3 1 1 3 5 D .h I I 1 D .12 1 I I 3 5 3 1 1 4 D .13 D . 14 4 1 1 - 1 2 1 2 4 D .15 D .16 D .17 I D .18 D , 19 D .20 1 I 3 1 1 2 D .21 3 5 D .22 I D .23 7 3 7 5 5 1 5 5 1 D .24 1 I D .25 I D .26 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 -
-
-
-
-
2
1
1 3
-
-
-
-
P /C I VC I V !) l v i) 7 8 4+5 7 1 - - I
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I 6
-
-
3 I 4
-
-
-
-
1 3 - 1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
F
.
1
2
F . 13 F .1 4 N
2
-
-
-
-
3 -
1 -
-
-
2 1 -
I 6
-
-
-
F . 1 F .2 F . 3 F .4 F . 5 F .6 F . 7 F .8 F ,9 F . 10 F . 11
-
3
-
I -
-
1 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
- 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 5
-
I
-
-
1
3
1
1 2
2 0
1 6
-
-
-
1 -
1 -
-
-
-
-
1 2
- 1 - - - I 1 4 1 1 1 - 1 4 2 1 1 1 3 3
-
-
- 1 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4 3 - 2 1 4
-
-
-
-
1 -
1
- 6
-
-
-
2
1
1
2
6 2 0
7
1 7
4 23
1 1 7
1 7
1 3
1 9
2 1
I m 5
3 3
1 4
T ab le 3 D a t a se t2 C ompo s i t ion o fA s se rnb lae s -
UN IT I .
2 .
3 .
4 .
COMPR ISES
N
E xcava ted Ma te r ia lKongon Make r iN doko A l I S1 +2 , I l Si , I S2 A 2 I S3 , I S4 , I S3 , I l S4 A 3 I S5 , 1 S6 , I S5 , I l S6 A 4 I S7 , I S8 , I S9 , H S1 0 , I l Sil , I S12 , I l S13 B I uNi B 2 IN2 , 1N3 B 3 IN4 , IN5 , IN6 , IN7 C l I VB1 ,I VB2 ,I VB3 , I VC l+2 C 2 I VA4 ,I VB4 , I VC l+2 C 3 I VA5 ,I VBS ,I VC5 ,I VD4+5 C 4 I VA6 ,I VB6 ,I VC6 C S I VA7 ,I VB7 ,I VC7 ,I VD7 C 6 I VA8 , I VA9 ,I VA lO ,I VB8 ,I VC8
9 3 9 6 14 1 30 5 6 7 7 7 1 6 4 7 0 7 9 5 7 7 5 5 3
S u r f a ce C o l lec t ion sKongon R af in N doko KRN1 B ag 1 5 KRN2 B ag 1 6 KRN3 B ag 1 7 KRN4 B ag 1 8 KRN5 B ag 1 9 KRN6 B ag 2 0 KRN7 B ag s 2 0 , 2 1
1 88 5 7 2 0 1 19 9 4 1 23 1 27
S u r f ace C o l le c t ions Kongon Make r i KM B ag 2 6 KM 2 B ag s 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 1 KM 3 B ag s 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 2 KM 4 B ag 3 4 KM 5 B ag s 3 5 , 3 7 KM 6 B ag s 3 3 , 3 8 , 3 9 KM 7 B ag s 4 0 , 4 1
5 3 8 4 8 2 8 2 1 02 5 3 7 9
S u r f ace C o l le c t ions Kongon B unug i KB B ag s 2 ,5 KB B ag s 1 ,4 KB B ag s 6 ,7 KB B ag KB 5 B ag s 9 , 1 2 , 1 3
7 8 11 8 8 1 05 8 8
4 24
T ab le 4 D a tase t 3 C ompo s i t ion o fA s semb lage s -
-
D a ta se t 3i so b ta ined b yp oo l ing u n i t so fD a ta se t 2a sf o l low s : -
UN IT
COMPR ISES
N
KRN H I
A 2 , A 3 , B 2 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4
5 29
KRN LO
A 4 , B 3 , C 5 , C 6
3 29
KRN S C
KRNI- KRN7
9 09
KM
KMI- KM7
5 36
KB
KBI -KBS
4 71
4 25
T ab le 5 O u tpu tv a lue sf o rv a r iab le s -
D .1 D .2 D .3 D .4 D .5 D .6 D .7 D .8 D .9 D . 10 DA 1 D .12 D . 13 D .14 D . 15 D . 16 D .17 D . 18 D .19 D .20 D .2 1 D .22 D .23 D .24 D .25
B I . 082 . 2 12 . 0 2 1 . 1 46 . 2 0 1 . 1 78 . 106 . 1 83 . 070 . 10 1 . 106 . 10 1 . 004 . 110 . 037 . 054 . 2 33 . 2 24 . 153 . 085 . 188 . 113 . 0 60 . 110 . 046
F . 1 F .2 F .3 F .4 F .5 F ,6 F .7 F ,8 F .9 F . 10 F . 11 F , 12 F . 13
. 084 . 0 53 . 0 32 . 1 50 . 0 53 . 0 066 . 064 . 135 . 129 . 103 . 058 . 2 29 . 0 48
BUCK
-
D a ta se t2
B I T . 0 16 . 0 83 . 1 3 1 . 1 49 . 2 30 . 231 . 035 . 1 63 . 1 20 . 003 . 0 08 . 0 45 . 069 . 034 . 090 . 060 . 277 . 106 . 050 . 0 04 . 0 32 . 0 33 . 0 11 . 037 . 0 78
T I . 30 . 0 2 . 4 2 . 1 2 0 0 . 03 . 0 2 . 1 8 . 1 6 . 38 . 08 . 10 . 10 . 0 8 . 05 0 0 . 25 . 1 3 . 34 . 1 0 . 0 3 . 03 . 15
VECK G I TH . 14 . 1 0 . 03 . 2 7 . 41 . 0 7 . 2 2 . 0 9 0 . 1 6 . 1 4 0 . 12 . 25 . 0 2 . 1 8 . 17 . 0 3 . 24 . 09 . 24 . 10 . 1 4 . 10 . 0 2 . 05 . 06 . 38 . 09 . 08 . 19 . 0 9 0 . 2 0 0 . 2 3 . 05 . 22 . 2 4 . 11 . 14 . 04 . 2 7 . 12 . 16 . 2 6 . 2 4 0 . 1 4 . 0 1
G I l . 0 6 . 1 6 . 1 8 . 2 5 . 3 3 . 22 0 . 2 7 . 0 6 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 . 03 . 25 . 06 . 42 . 22 . 0 1 . 04 0 . 0 2 . 17 . 0 3 . 0 8
. 023 . 134 . 0 10 . 212 . 0 32 . 0 29 . 0 50 . 0 38 . 025 . 104 . 0 98 . 1 67 . 0 14
. 0 9 0 0 . 05 . 02 . 28 . 2 7 . 29 . 09 0 . 09 0 0
. 03 0 0 . 02 . 1 4 0 . 1 5 . 17 . 20 0 . 5 4 0 0
. 19 0 . 06 . 1 1 . 0 1 . 0 8 . 2 3 . 07 . 19 . 13 . 0 1 . 2 0 . 0 3
. 0 3 . 20 . 0 2 . 38 . 0 2 . 1 7 . 1 8 0 . 0 1 . 03 . 0 7 . 2 4 . 08
N o te : T he v a lue s s hown u nde r BUCK a r et h ec o -o rd ina t e s i nt h eB UCK p lane :
t h o se s hown u nde r VECK a r et h ed i r ec t ion c o s ine so ft h e a x e s .
4 26
T ab le 6 O u tpu tv a lue sf o ru n i t s -
-
BUCK
D a ta se t2
B i l . 024 . 0 34 . 0 37 . 0 15
T I 0 .57 1 . 79 0 . 89 3 .39
VECK T I ! G I 0 .67 2 .26 1 .18 0 .15 4 .55 1 .40 2 .02 2 .16
G i l 0 .74 0 .60 0 . 86 0 . 12
A l A 2 A 3 A 4
B I M67 . 039 . 085 . 07 1
1 3 1 B 2 B 3
. 043 . 976 . 065
. 046 . 007 . 0 13
0 . 20 14 7 293
1 .05 1 .53 0 16 2 5 4 1 34 1 143
1 .47 0 . 16 0 . 9 1
C l C 2 C 3 C 4 C S C 6
. 032 0 d1 8 . QO5 . Q2 1
. 0 03 . 0 28 . 0 66 . 0 64 . 0 08 . 0 15
2 . 09 2 39 0 . 64 065 17 4 455
0 . 14 254 243 240 076 196
0 .88 0 5 8 0 .12 022 221 12 7
0 .18 1 . 18 1 . 07 1 . 54 0 . 16 0 .12
. 084 -. 9 88 -. 0 76 -. 0 $2 . 1Q5
. 034 . 036 . 029 . 0 15 . 0 19 . 035 . 026
1 .18 0 54 075 079 022 092 008
0 .63 002 046 002 011 030 006
3 .9 1 346 310 254 315 314 265
0 .45 0 .28 1 .23 0 . 29 0 . 17 1 .24 0 .77
. 0 73 . iö
KRN 1 KRN2 KRN3 KRN4 KRN5 KRN6 KRN 7
. 96 9
. 066
KM 1 KM2 KM KM 4 KM KM KM 7
. 1 31 . 1 14 . 1 15 . 0 86 . 1 15 . 9 45
. 0 75
. 0 69 . 0 78 . 0 94 . 0 56 . 0 88 . 0 69 . 0 6 1
4 .91 3 47 3 39 2 81 3 58 20 1 295
2 . 31 2 . 0 1 2 . 9 1 2 . 50 2 . 62 2 , 70 2 . 58
KB 1 KB KB KB 4 KB 5
. 1 4 1 . 1 15 . 1 18 . 1 28 . 0 90
. 097 . 100 . 111 . 130 . 034
3 . 85 2 . 19 3 . 6 1 3 . 09 3 .02
3 .51 1 .63 4 .79 3 .86 4 .12
.
4 27
T ab le 7 D a ta se t 3 P e r cen tag e so ft o ta ld i ag no s t ic s h e r d s -
D .1 D .2 D .3 D .4 D .5 D .6 D ,7 D .8 D .9 D .10 D .h 1 D .12 D .13 D .14 D .15 D .16 D .17 D .18 D .19 D .20 D .2 1 D .22 D .23 D .24 D .25 D .26
KRN S C 5 . 0 0 . 3 0 . 2 0 . 2
-
KRN LO 5 . 8 -
0 1 . 8
-
-
-
-
0 . 6
0 . 6
-
-
-
8 , 9 3 . 5 2 . 8 0 . 1 3 1 .0 3 . 4 4 . 5 0 . 4 0 . 2 1 . 8 1 . 5 0 . 7 2 . 2 2 0 .4 2 . 9 0 . 3 1 . 4
F . 1 F .2 F .3 F .4 F .5 F .6 F . 7 F .8 F .9 F . 10 F . 11 F . 12 F . 13
2 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 3 0 . 4 1 . 0 7 . 3 1 ,1 3 . 2 2 . 2 1 . 2 2 . 0
N
9 09
-
0 . 6
KRN H I 1 . 8 0 . 4 4 . 7 8 . 5 -
-
0 . 3 6 . 7 9 . 1 5 . 5 0 . 3 1 8 .5 1 . 2 2 . 1 0 . 3
0 . 2 0 . 2 1 . 0 7 . 1 1 . 6 4 . 7 -
1 .4 1 . 6 0 . 8 0 . 4
KM
KB
19 1 6 .4 3 377 2 2 .6 22 04
0 . 2 9 . 6 -
6 . 4 -
2 . 5
-
-
2 .6 02 1 1 1 1 0 .2 0 .2 2 .4
0 . 4 0 1 . 1 1 . 1 0 , 4 0 . 2 5 . 7 3 . 8 1 . 9 2 2 .5 3 . 8
-
0 .9 0 . 7 1 . 3
-
-
2 . 1 0 . 9 2 . 4 0 . 9 2 1 .3 0 . 6 1 . 5
0 . 2 1 . 8
-
-
4 . 5 1 7 .8 0 . 4 1 . 2
0 .4 3 3 .2 0 .4 0 .6
0 . 2 4 5 .4 0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 8
0 .4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0 . 4
-
-
-
-
4 . 3
8 . 5
-
-
-
-
2 . 8 1 . 7 0 .4
0 . 2 0 . 6 0 . 2 2 . 3 1 . 3 6 . 8 0 . 8 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 . 6 0 . 4 0 . 6
5 36
4 7 1
0 . 3
-
-
-
0 . 6 1 2 .8 6 . 4 1 0 .6 3 . 3
3 29
4 28
0 . 6 7 . 1 1 2 .6 4 . 5 1 . 2
4 93
0 .2 -
h O 1 .2 63 04 Q .2
T ab le 8 O u tpu tv a lues f o ra s semb lages -
O u tpu tv ar iab le
-
D a ta se t 3
A s semb lage KRN S C
KRN LO
KRN H I
KM
KB
DELT w i th E uc l idean d i s tance
. 55
. 33
. 12
. 33
. 6 7
DELT w i th Manha t tan d i s tance
. 54
. 36
. 12
. 3 5
. 66
DELT w i th M u t ua l d i s tance
. 51
. 36
. 16
. 36
. 6 7
MCA i n 2d imens ions
. 35 . 23
. 40 . 02
. 20 . 19
. 40 . 26
. 56 . 25
*
**
*
T h i s i st h e s ame s o lu t ion a s MCA i n 1d imens ion .
**
T h is s o lu t ion i sa pp rox ima te o n ly .
4 29
A PPENDIX I II T he J uvenile S keleton f rom K ongon M akeri M . W edgwood
T his w as t he o nly com plete s keleton f ound a t t his a nd n earby s ites . T he b ones w ere e mbedded i n a h ardened r ed c lay m atrix t hat m ade s eparation d ifficult b ut s howed t hem a s t hey w ould h ave b een a t t he t ime o f d eath , i ndicating t hat t here h ad n ot b een a r eburial . T he b ones w ere r emoved f rom t he m atrix a nd p reserved b y i mpregnation w ith a l ow v iscosity c lear p olyester r esin . E ach b one w as X -rayed i n t he s tandard a nterior-posterior v iew a t 1 25kv f or 0 .05 s econds . A co mp lete p icture o f w as m ade w ith a c omposite o f t he r adiographs .
t he w hole
s keleton
T he b ones p resent w ere:M axilla, u pper j aw M andible, l ower j aw L eft c lavicle F ragments o f a bout e ight p airs o f r ibs R ight a nd l eft h umerus R ight a nd l eft r adius R ight a nd l eft u lna R ight a nd l eft f emur R ight a nd l eft t ibia R ight a nd l eft f ibula F ragments o f t he c ranium O ne p halanx b earing a n i ron r ing I n t he m atrix b elow t he m andible w ere b eads m ade f rom s nail s hells.
e mbedded
h undreds
I n a ddition t o g ross a nd r adiological e xamination ,
o f
t iny
s amples o f b one
w ere r emoved f or b iochemical a nd h istological a nalysis a nd b lood g rouping .
S ex I n t he a bsence o f t he p elvis, a p rovisional d ecision w as m ade t hat t he s keleton w as f emale b ecause t he a reas f or a ttachement o f m uscle o n t he l ong b ones and j aws w ere s o p oorly d efined a s t o b e almost i ndistinguishable . S uch r elative s moothness o f t he s urface c ould n ot b e a ccounted f or b y a brasion , a s t hat c ould n ot h ave b een s o u niform .
A ge T he l ower j aw w as e xamined a nd f rom a n umber o f e rupted t eeth , w ith t he p resence o f t he s econd m olars t hat n ormally a ppear a t a ge t welve, i t w as c lear t hat t he m andible w as t hat o f a j uvenile a bout f ourteen . I n s pite o f
t he s mall s ize o f t he
4 30
l ong b ones,
X -rays
s howed t hat
t hey w ere f ully d eveloped , t he c entres o f c alcification w ere o ssified a nd t he e piphyses w ere j oined t o t he s haft w ith n o s igns o f c ontinuous g rowth f rom c artilaginous c entres. T his s uggests a m inimal a ge o f f ourteen y ears. T he r adiographs o f t he j aws g ave s upport t o t his e stimate . T he t hird p ermanent m olar c rowns w ere f ormed b ut s till b uried w ithin t he b one . T he u pper t hird m olar h ad t he b eginning o f r oot f ormation s howing i t w as b eginning t o e rupt, g iving a n a ge o f a t l east f ourteen . T he s econd m olars h ad r oots o f f ull l ength b ut w ith t he a pical f oramina s till o pen . T his t ooth u sually e rupts a t a ge t welve a nd t he r oots c ontinue t o g row a nd d evelop f or a t l east t wo y ears a fterwards.
F orm a nd S tructure T here w ere
n o s igns o f i njury a mong t he b ones p resent,
b ut a s t he
s kull, v ertebrae a nd p elvis w ere m issing d eath , d ue t o f ractures o f t hese b ones c annot b e e xcluded . T he b reaks i n t he j aws a nd l ong b ones w ere d ue t o p oor p reservation a nd w ere n ot p athological .
N o d eformities w ere s een .
S tature E stimate o f s tature w ith t he f ormulae u sed i n f orensic s cience w as d ifficult b ecause t here w as d amage t o t he e nds o f s ome b ones . T he b ones o f t his s keleton w ere s mall a nd d elicate, s uggesting a l ight f rame . T he s tature w as e stimated t o b e a bout 15 c m .
D isease C areful e xamination o f t he r adiographs o f t he l ong b ones r eveal a ny o f t he m arks a nd s triations ( Harris 's L ines) t ypical
f ailed t o o f s evere
g rowth d isturbances d ue t o m alnutrition, e ndocrine d isease, p rolonged i nfections o r c hronic b lood d iseases. T his c hild s eems t o h ave b een r emarkably f ree f rom i llnesses o f e arly c hildhood . T here w as n o e vidence o f t he a nomalies o f b one g rowth t ypical o f t he a chondroplastic d warf o r o f p ituitary d eficiency . S he h ad h orizontal s triations a cross t he e namel o f h er i ncisor t eeth i ndicating f airly s evere b ut t emporary d isturbance o f t he n utritional s upply t o t hese t eeth w hen t hey w ere d eveloping w ithin t he b one , b efore e ruption b etween t he a ges o f t hree a nd f our . T his c ould h ave b een d ue t o a s evere i nfection o r t o i ntermittent d iarrhoea, b ut a l ikely e xplanation i s t hat s he w as b reast f ed u ntil t he a ge o f t hree o r m ore w hen t he a djustment t o a n a dult d iet, e specially i f c oinciding w ith a l ocal s hortage , w ould a ccount f or h ypoplasia i n t he d eveloping e namel .
D isease a t t he t ime o f d eath T here a re n o s igns o f d ramatic i njuries o r o verwhelming m alignant t umours a nd n o i ndication o f t hyroid, p ituitary o r a drenal d isease. T he s mall p erfectly f ormed l ong b ones a nd n ormal j aw s uggest t hat h er v ery s mall s tature w as g enetically d etermined , o r t hat i t w as a t otally i diopathic v ariation . I f h er t endency t o dw arfism h ad b een d ue t o c leido— c ranial d ysostosis, c retinism ( lack o f t hyroid h ormone ) o r L orain S yndrome ( lack o f p ituitary h ormone ) t here w ould h ave b een m arked c hanges i n t he
4 31
f ormation o f t he d entition, w ith c row di ng o f t he t eeth a nd d elayed e ruption. T he b one o f t he j aws s upporting t he t eeth s hows t hat s he h ad v ery s evere p eriodontal d isease f or a t l east t wo y ears b efore d eath . ( Plate ? ) . T he l evel o f t he b one a round t he n ecks o f t he c rowns o f t he t eeth i s m uch r educed a nd f lattened a nd i t i s v ery w orn a way t owards t he r oots .
T his b one
d estruction w ould h ave b een p receded b y v ery s evere i nfla mation o f t he g ums t hat w ould h ave b een r ed a nd s wollen , p robably b leeding a nd t ending t o e xude p us, c ausing p ain a nd d iscomfort. W hile s evere p eriodontal d isease w ith b one l oss o ccurs f requently i n o lder p eople i n m any p opulations d ue t o p oor o ral h ygiene, t his d egree o f b one l oss i s n ot s een i n t he s even p ieces o f j aw f rom d ifferent o lder i ndividuals f rom n earby s ites a nd i t i s b elieved t hat s evere p eriodontal d isease w as p eculiar t o t his j uvenile . S uch p eriodontal d isease i s n ot c ommon i n y oung p eople e xcept w hen a ssociated w ith c hronic s ystemic d isease i n w hich t he i mmunological d efences o f t he m outh a re s ignificantly l owered . T he c ause c an o nly b e g uessed a t . T his c ould h ave b een a l ong s tanding i nfestation s uch a s t rypanosomiasis, o r p ossibly s chistasomiasis; i t w ould b e i nteresting t o s ee i f t here i s a ny e vidence o f t he s nails t hat c arry t he l atter p arasite, a s s nails s eem t o h ave b een e aten . T he p arasitic w orms m ay h ave b een e ndemic a s w ould h e t he m alaria c arrying m osquitos t hat c ause c hronic a naemia . L eukaemia i s a p ossibility i n a c hild o f t his a ge a nd w ould h ave e xactly t his e ffect o n t he j aws. S he h ad n ot l ost a ny t eeth a nd h ad n o d ental c aries .
I t i s u nlikely
t hat t he s evere p eriodontal d isease w as d ue t o f ailure t o c lean t he t eeth . T he
t eeth w ere n ormal
i n s ize a nd n umber ,
w ell a ligned w ith a w ell
f ormed a rch , n ormal h eight t o t he p alate w ith t he t eeth t ouching e ach o ther i n a n e ven l ine . F rom t his i t c an b e d educed t hat h er t ongue w as o f n ormal s ize , u nlike t he l arge t ongue a nd c rooked t eeth c haracteristic o f c retinism . T he e ndocrine d isorders a ssociated w ith d warfism t end t o p roduce o besity a nd av ery s hort n eck . T he m anner i n w hich t he m ultiple n ecklaces o f t housands o f b eads w ere f ound i n c lose r elationship t o t he l ower j aw s uggests t he n eck r egion w as o f n ormal s ize. T he u pper a nd l ower j aws c ould b e p laced i n n ormal o cclusion . T here w as a m arked d egree o f a ttrition a nd f lattening o f t he o cclusal s urfaces . T his w as n ot d ue t o w eakness o r m alformation o f t he e namel. I t w as p robably d ue t o t he p resence o f c oarse p articles i n t he d iet .
D iet T here w as n o s keletal o r d ental e vidence o f m alnutition e xcept f or t he d isturbance a t a bout a ge t hree . . T he f acets o f w ear o n t he e namel a re p robably d ue t o c oarsely g round c ereal i n t he f ood.
B one S amples S mall f ragments o f l ong b one a nd j aws w ere r eserved f or b iochemical a nd h istological a nalysts.
4 32
T he t otal p rotein a nd t otal c ollagen c ontent w ere e stimated i n t he h ope o f o btaining i nformation a bout n utritional s tatus . T he o rganic c ontent w as a bnormally l ow . A p lausible e xplanation w ould b e t he h igh d egree o f c ontamination w ith e xtra-osseous m aterial f rom s oil a nd v egetation . T he h istological e xamination o f b one s amples a fter d ecalcification a nd s taining w ith t oluidine b lue r evealed n ormal s tructure . T he s hape o f t he o steons w as c haracteristic f or a j uvenile. B lood
t yping o f
p owdered b one w as
c arried o ut
w ith
t he m odified
f luorescent a ntibody m ethod a nd w ith t he h aemagglutination i nhibition t est, a nd b oth g ave t he r esult o f " AB" t ype. P robably t his r esult i s d ue t o a n a specific p anagglutination r elated t o p lant p olysaccharides s oaking i nto t he b one t issue.
4 33
C AM IDGE M ONO ( 1APHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander, M .A ., P h.D ., F .S.A . S t. J ohn 's C ollege C ambridge C B2 1 TP, E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r. A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance. T itles a lready p ublished : 1 .
'The N iger D elta : A spects N wanna N zewunwa. B AR-875.
o f
i ts P rehistoric E conomy a nd C ulture ' b y
2 .
' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , Mali ' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh. B AR-689.
3 .
' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation i n Eastern A frica : A n A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mboseli, S outhern K enya ' b y R obert F oley. B AR-897.
4 .
' Later P leistocene C ultural M ukhtar e l A min. B AR-5114.
5 .
' Settlement P atterns i n t he I ron A ge o f Z ululand: I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all. B AR-5119.
6 .
' The N eolithic P eriod i n t he S udan, M ohammed-Ali. B AR-6139.
7 .
A daptations
i n S udanese
c . 6 000
-
' H istory a nd E thnoarchaeology i n E astern N igeria :
N ubia '
b y Y ousif
A n E cological
2 500 B .C . ' b y A bbas S .
AS tudy o f I gbo-Igala
r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko. B AR-5195. 8 .
' Meroitic S ettlement i n t he C entral S udan :
A n A nalysis o f
S ites i n t he
N ile V alley a nd t he W estern B utana ' b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed . S 197. t he
L ate S tone A ge
B AR-
9 .
' E conomy a nd T echnology i n C harles C able. B AR-6201.
o f S outhern N atal ' b y
1 0.
' Frontiers: S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday ' e d . M . H all, G . A very , D .M . Avery, M .L . W ilson a nd A .J .B . H umphreys. B AR-5207 .
1.
' Archaeology a nd H istory i n S outhern N igeria: T he a ncient e arthworks o f B enin a nd I shan ' b y P .J . D arling . B AR-5215 .
1 2.
' The L atest S tone A ge o f S outhernmost A frica ' S 213.
1 3.
' F isher-Hunters a nd N eolithic P astoralists J ohn W ebster B arthelme. B AR-5254.
l inear
b y J anette D eacon .
i n E ast T urkana ,
B AR-
K enya ' b y
1 4.
' The A rchaeology o f C entral D arfur ( Sudan ) i n t he b y I brahim M usa M ohammed . B AR-6285 .
1 5.
' S table C arbon I sotopes a nd P rehistoric D iets i n t he S outh-Western C ape P rovince, S outh A frica ' b y J udith S ealy. BA R-S 2 93.
1 6.
' L 'art r upestre p réhistorique d es m assifs c entraux s ahariens ' b y A lfred M uzzolini . B AR-5318 .
1 7.
' Spheroids a nd B attered S tones i n t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge ' b y P amela R . W illoughby. B AR-5321.
1 8 .
' The R oyal C rowns o f K ush ' b y L . T örök .
1 9.
' T he L ater S tone A ge o f t he D rakensberg R ange a nd i ts O pperman. B AR-S 3 39.
2 0.
' Socio-Economic D ifferentiation H aaland. B AR-5350.
2 1.
' Later S tone A ge S ettlement P atterns i n t he S andveld o f t he S outhW estern C ape P rovince, S outh A frica ' b y A nthony Manhire . B AR-5351.
2 2.
' L 'art
r upestre d u
Q uellec .
F ezzan
i n
i st M illennium A .D . '
B AR-5338. f oothills ' b y H .
t he N eolithic S udan '
s eptentrional
( Libye)
b y
b y R andi
J ean-Lorc
l e
B AR-8365 .
2 3.
' Archaeology a nd E nvironment B arich . B AR S3 68 .
2 4.
' The E arly F armers S 378.
2 5.
' L ater S tone A ge H unters a nd G atherers o f t he S outhern T ransvaal ' b y L yn W adley. B AR-8380.
2 6.
' Prehistoric C ultures a nd E nvironments i n t he L ate Q uaternary o f A frica ' e dited b y J ohn B ower a nd D avid L ubell. B AR-5405 .
2 7.
' Zooarchaeology i n t he M iddle N ile V alley : S ites n ear K hartoum ' b y A li T igani E lMahi .
2 8.
' L 'Ancienne B AR-S422.
2 9.
' El G eili: T he H istory o f aM iddle N ile E nvironment , 1 500 ' e dited b y I . C aneva . B AR-S 4 24 .
3 0.
i n t he L ibyan S ahara ' e dited b y B arbara E .
o f T ranskei,
Metallurgie
d u
F er
S outhern A frica '
b y J .M .
F reely .
B AR-
AS tudy o f F our N eolithic B AR-5418 .
a Madagascar'
b y
C hantal
R adimilahy .
7 000 B .C .
-
A .D .
' The E thnoarchaeology o f t he Z aghawa o f D arfur ( Sudan) ' b y N atalie T obert.
B AR-5445.
3 1.
' Shellfish i n P rehistoric D iet' b y W .F. B uchanan.
B AR-8455.
3 2.
' Houlouf I : A rchéologie d es s ociétés C ameroun ' b y A ugustin B oll. B AR-5456.
3 3.
' The P redynastic L ithic I ndustries o f U pper E gypt ' b y D iana L . B AR-S469.
p rotohistoriques
d u N ord-
H olmes .
3 4 .
' Fishing S ites H olocene '
3 5 .
' Plant
o f N orth a nd E ast A frica i n t he L ate P leistocene a nd
b y K athlyn M oore S tewart.
B AR-5521.
D omestication i n t he M iddle N ile B asin ' b y A nwar A bdel-Magid .
B AR-S 5 23.