Prehistoric Occupation of a Marginal Environment: An Archaeological Survey near Kharga Oasis in The Western Desert of Egypt 9780860543886, 9781407345727

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Background
Chapter 2: Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 3: Late Quaternary Environments of the Western Desert of Egypt
Chapter 4: Site Descriptions
Chapter 5: Technological and Typological Variability in the Western Desert Assemblages
Chapter 6: Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Northern Kharga Region: A Preliminary Assessment
Chapter 7: Recommendations
Chapter 8: Concluding Remarks
References Cited

Citation preview

Prehistoric Occupation of a Marginal Environment: An Archaeological Survey near Kharga Oasis in The Western Desert of Egypt

Edited by Alan H. Simmons and Rolfe D. Mandel

BAR International Series 303

1986

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -SJOJ, 1986: 'Prehistoric Occupation of a Marginal Environment'

©

Alan H. Simmons and Rolfe D. Mandel, 1986

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543886 paperback ISBN 9781407345727 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543886 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS L ist

o f

F igures

L ist

o f

Tables

i ii

A cknowledgments

v i

Chapter 1 : I ntroduction a nd R esearch B ackground I ntroduction P revious Paleolithic R esearch . Cultural H istory Chapter 2 : R esearch D esign R esearch Design Methodology

a nd Methodology

C hapter 3 : L ate Quaternary E nvironments o f Western D esert o f E gypt . I ntroduction Modern E nvironment P leistocene a nd H olocene E nvironments G eomorphic Aspects o f S ite S ituation Summary a nd Conclusions

• • •

1 1 1 7 2 7 2 7 3 5

t he

• • • •

Chapter 4 : S ite D escriptions I ntroduction S ite D escriptions C hapter 5 : T echnological a nd Typological Variability i n t he Western D esert A ssemblages I ntroduction D iscussion C onclusions

4 3 4 3 4 3 4 9 7 0 7 4 7 9 7 9 8 6

1 81 1 81 1 81 1 98

C hapter 6 : P rehistoric S ettlement P atterns i n t he Northern Kharga R egion: A P reliminary A ssessment I ntroduction P revious S tudies The Western D esert E xpedition--Preliminary S ettlement P attern A ssessment Conclusions

2 02 2 11

C hapter 7 : R ecommendations I ntroduction R ecommendations Summary

2 15 2 15 2 15 2 23

C hapter

2 25

8 :

C oncluding

R eferences C ited

R emarks

2 01 2 01 2 01

2 29

L IST OF F IGURES 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

8 .

9 .

Map o f E gypt, project a rea.

s howing g eneral

l ocation o f 2

Overview o f t he project a rea, f rom t he L ibyan P lateau. S ite s urvey E xpedition.

f acing

s outh 3

f orm u sed by t he Western D esert 3 9

L ithic d ata a nalysis D esert E xpedition.

f orm u sed by t he Western

Map o f E gypt t ext.

l ocalities d iscussed

s howing

4 1 i n 4 4

S chematic b ioclimatic S ahara.

c urve o f

t he E gyptian 5 4

V iew o f T erminal P aleolithic a rtifacts a long t he s horeline o f a p laya o n t he L ibyan P lateau.

7 2

V iew o f A in e l-Ghasal, N ear Kharga O asis, s howing t ypical v egetation a round s prings.

.

7 3

Map o f t he p roject a rea, s howing a pproximate l ocation o f t ransects a nd s ites ( Transect 8 n ot s hown; t ransect s izes s lightly e xaggerated). . .

8 3

1 0.

S ite map f or KUWDE 6 .

9 3

1 1.

S ite map f or KUWDE 1 3.

1 10

1 2.

S ite map f or KUWDE

1 7.

1 19

1 3.

Photograph o f KUWDE 1 8 f rom t op o f r idge, f acing e ast. Note c obble f eatures.

1 23

1 4. 1 5.

1 6.

1 7.

.

Site map f or KUWDE 1 8. P lan v iew o f KUWDE 1 8.

c ircular

1 24 c obble

a t 1 25

Photograph o f c ircular c obble KUWDE 1 8. N ote b one c hips. P lanview o f KUWDE 1 8.

f eature

e longated c obble

1

f eature

a t 1 26

f eature

a t

1 28

1 8.

Sketch map o f T ransect 4 , s howing a pproximate l ocation o f s everal r ecorded s ites ( numerous small p layas n ot s hown). • •

1 32

1 9.

S ite map f or KUWDE 2 9.

1 35

2 0.

S ite map f or KUWDE 3 0.

1 39

2 1.

S ite map

2 2.

S ite map f or KUWDE 4 8.

1 62

2 3.

S ite map f or KUWDE 6 1.

1 74

2 4.

M icrolithic t ools: a . KUWDE 1 8-perforator/ point; b . KUWDE 6 1-double b acked perforator; c . a nd D KUWDE 1 8-double b acked p erforators; e . a nd f . KUWDE 1 7-double b acked p erforators. . .

1 86

Tools: a . KUWDE 4 2-biface f ragment; b . 3 4-pointed b iface; c . KUWDE 3 9-biface.

1 87

2 5.

f or KUWDE 3 1.

KUWDE 8 -biface;

b .

.

K UWDE • .

KUWDE 6 -biface.

1 43

2 6.

Tools:

2 7.

Projectile points: a . KUWDE 2 9-Late Neolithic; b . KUWDE 1 3-Late Neolithic; c . KUWDE 8 -Late Neolithic; d . KUWDE 2 9-Middle/Late N eolithic; e . KUWDE 6 1-Middle/Late Neolithic; f . and g . KUWDE 1 3-Middle/Late N eolithic; h . KUWDE 5 6M iddle/Late Neolithic. . . • .

1 91

Points: a . e ndscraper; Mousterian.

1 92

2 8.

a .

. .

1 88

KUWDE 6 1-Aterian, r eworked i nto b . KUWDE 1 3-Aterian; C . KUWDE 6 -

2 9.

A terian p oint

f rom KUWDE

3 0.

A terian p oints:

a .

KUWDE

i i

5 6. 5 6;

• •

• b .

KUWDE

6 0.

▪ ▪

1 93 1 94

L IST OF TABLES 1 .

P ersonnel a ssociated w ith t he Western D esert E xpedition.

3 6

2 .

S urvey t ransects a nd t heir s izes.

3 7

3 .

Summary o f G eological Events D esert.

5 1

4 .

5 .

i n t he Western

P resumed p rehistoric c ultural a ffiliations o f s ites r ecorded by t he Western D esert E xpedit ion ( recent c omponents o ccurring d irectly on a s ite a re parenthetically n oted).

8 0

D efinitions o f l ithic t his s tudy. .

8 5

t erminology u sed

i n

6 .

L ithic

s ummary

f or KUWDE 4 .

9 0

7 .

L ithic

s ummary

f or KUWDE 6 .

9 4

8 .

Tool

9 .

L ithic

t ypology

1 0.

T ool

1 1.

L ithic 7 m ).

s ummary

t ypology s ummary

f or KUWDE 6 .

9 5

f or KUWDE 7 . f or KUWDE

9 7

7 .

9 8

f or KUWDE 8 --Transect

1 ( 88

x 1 00

1 2.

Tool

t ypology

1 3.

L ithic

1 4.

Tool

1 5.

L ithic

s ummary

f or KUWDE

1 1.

1 07

1 6.

L ithic

s ummary

f or KUWDE

1 3.

1 11

1 7.

Tool

1 8.

L ithic

1 9.

T ool

2 0.

L ithic

2 1.

Tool

s ummary

t ypology

t ypology s ummary

t ypology s ummary

t ypology

f or KUWDE 8 .

1 01

f or KUWDE

1 04

1 0.

f or KUWDE 1 0.

f or KUWDE f or KUWDE f or KUWDE f or KUWDE f or KUWDE

11 1

1 3. 1 4. 1 4. 1 7. 1 7.

• • •

• • •

1 05

1 12 1 15 1 16 1 20 1 21

2 2.

L ithic

2 3.

Tool

2 4.

L ithic

2 5.

Tool

2 6.

L ithic

2 7.

Tool

2 8.

L ithic

2 9.

Tool

3 0.

L ithic

3 1.

Tool

3 2.

L ithic

3 3.

Tool

3 4.

L ithic

3 5.

Tool

3 6.

L ithic

3 7.

Tool

3 8.

S ites w ith

3 9.

Comparison o f observed l ithic a ssemblages 1 7 s ites r ecorded by t he Western D esert Expedition.

4 0.

summary

t ypology

f or KUWDE f or KUWDE

summary f or KUWDE

t ypology summary

t ypology summary

t ypology summary

t ypology summary

t ypology summary

t ypology summary

t ypology

1 8.

1 29

1 8.

. . .

2 9.

1 36

f or KUWDE 2 9. f or KUWDE

1 37

3 0.

1 40

f or KUWDE 3 0. f or KUWDE f or KUWDE

1 41

3 4.

1 47

3 4.

1 48

f or KUWDE 4 2.

1 55

f or KUWDE 4 2.

1 56

f or KUWDE 4 8. f or KUWDE 4 8. f or KUWDE f or KUWDE f or KUWDE

. . ▪

1 63

. . •

1 64

. ▪

1 70

. . •

1 71

5 6--south a rea. 5 6. 6 1.

1 76

f or KUWDE 6 1.

r ecorded

. .

• •

1 77

l ithic data.

1 82 f rom 1 83

Comparison o f major t ool c lasses ( excludes KUWDE 4 a nd 1 1, which c ontain n o t ools; s ites g rouped a s i n Table 3 9).

4 1.

P rojectile point

i nformation.

4 2.

D ebitage

4 3.

Tool

4 4.

Total n umber o f i dentifiable c omponents r ecorded by t he Western D esert E xpedition ( excluding UDLS).

r atios by c ultural

r atios b y c ultural

i v

1 30

a ffiliation.

a ffiliation.

•

1 85

• • •

1 90

•

1 95

• • ▪

1 96

2 03

4 5.

S ettlement d istribution d ata b y t ransect.

4 6.

Number o f i dentifiable c omponents b y t ransect ( excludes UDLS).

. .

2 05

2 06

4 7.

D ensity p er s quare k ilometer f or a ll c omponents b y t ransect ( includes UDLS). 2 09

4 8.

D ensity p er s quare k ilometer o f i dentifiable c omponents b y t ransect ( excludes U DLS). .

4 9.

.

2 10

M anagement a nd r esearch c onsiderations f or t ransects i nvestigated.

2 16

5 0.

M anagement r ecommendations f or t ransects i nvestigated.

2 20

5 1.

S ite-specific r ecommendations.

2 21

5 2.

I nformation o n s ites r ecommended f or a dditional i nvestigation.

2 22

A cknowledgments F unding f or t he Western D esert E xpedition w as p rov ided Ly a g rant f rom t he AMOCO F oundation o f C hicago, I llinois. W e a re g rateful f or t heir s upport a nd c oncern f or c ultural r esources. Many i ndividuals c ontributed t o t he s uccessful i mplementation a nd c ompletion o f t his p roject. F irst a nd f oremost, Iw ould l ike t o t hank D avid W ilke, f ormer p resident o f A MOCO-Egypt, f or h is u nstinting s upport a nd e ncouragement t hroughout t he p roject. H is e nthusiasm f or a rchaeology was e vident f rom o ur v ery f irst c ontacts w ith h im. O ther i ndividu als a t AMOCO-Egypt made t he p roject o ne o f c onsiderable l ogistical e ase a nd, during o ur b rief s tay i n C airo, t he a mentities p rovided t o u s t hrough t he c ourtesy o f AMOCOE gypt w ere f ar b eyond what a rchaeologists h ave c ome t o e xpect. I w ould particularly l ike t o t hank Charles C arr, c urrent p resident o f AMOCO-Egypt, a s w ell a s A . S hawky Abdine, Adbel A ziz e l-Aguizy, Charles K oepke, a nd F azi S hafi f or t heir a ssistance. F inally, o ur p roject w ould h ave b een much, much more d ifficult w ithout t he e nthusiastic f ield s upport a nd a ssistance o f Hanna B oulous T adros ( Rafat)--many t hanks, R afat, f or s howing u s a n E gypt f ew v isitors s ee. O f c ourse o ther i ndividuals a lso a ssisted g reatly w ith t he p roject. D r. A ll e l-Kouli, D irector-General o f t he E gyptian A ntiquities O rganization, a nd h is s taff o ffered c onsiderable a ssistance o n s hort n otice. O ur EAO i nspector, S amy F an d o f M inya, w as a d elight t o w ork w ith, a nd h e p rovided u s w ith many m emorable o ccas ions. B oth h is a nd R afat's a rtistic s kills w ere v ery u seful i n t he f ield, a s w as t heir k nowledge o f l ocal c onditions. D rs. R obert W enke a nd N anette Pyne a nd t he e ntire s taff o f t he American R esearch C enter i n E gypt ( ARCE) e xtended t o u s most v aluable a dvice a nd a ssista nce, a gain o n v ery s hort n otice. W e o we t hem a l ot. D r, P aul Walker o f t he N ew Y ork o ffice o f ARCE a lso w as i nstrumental i n p roviding u s w ith p ractical i nformation. I n C airo, D r. B ahay I ssawi p rovided u s w ith s ome o f h is v aluable t ime f or d iscussing g eological c onditions a nd a lso f or a rranging o ur f ield a ccommodations a t t he G eol ogical S urvey o f E gypt " guesthouse" i n e l-Kharga. T he s taff t here made o ur s tay a s c omfortable a s p ossible, b emused a s t hey w ere b y o ur s upplies o f f reeze-dried f ood, purchased when w e t hought w e w ould a ctually b e l iving i n t he f ield. A lso i n e l-Kharga, o ur g uide, A bu

v i

R eeshan ( Marsaoud) k ept u s f rom g etting l ost, i ntroduced u s t o n ew t aste s ensations, a nd o ffered f reely o f h is i ncredible f irst-hand k nowledge o f t he d esert. D r. F red W endorf o f S outhern Methodist U niversity o ffered c onsiderable a dvice a nd s uggestions t hroughout t he p roject. We owe h im a l arge d ebt o f g ratitude. D r. J ames U nderwood o f K ansas S tate U niversity p rovided u s w ith much v aluable g eological i nformation. A t t he University o f K ansas, R olfe Mandel, t he p roject's g eomorphologist, p rovided h is s ervices a nd e xpertise w ith c haracteristic g ood h umor a nd t horoughn ess. L aura P oracsky o f t he C enter f or P ublic A ffairs r endered most o f t he f igures i n t his r eport f rom l ess t han i deal f ield d rawings. The s taffs a t t he Museum o f A nthropology a nd t he C enter f or P ublic A ffairs s aw t o m uch o f t he " detail w ork," e specially r egarding f inances, a nd b oth B arb B rady a nd K athy P ate d eserve s pecial t hanks. Judy S chrick a nd Jan B eecham a lso d eserve t hanks f or t yping p ortions o f t his r eport. L ast, but c ertainly n ot l east, t he t wo r esearch a ssista nts o n t he p roject, Marion Dyer a nd John P arisi, w orked l ong a nd h ard w ithout c omplaint t o g et e verything d one o n s chedule. F inally, a s o ften h appens, j ust a s t his r eport w as c omplete, I h ave r eceived a n ewly p ublished a rticle b y F red W endorf, R . S child a nd A . C lose ( 1985). I t w as t oo l ate t o i ncorporate t he c ontents o f t his a rticle, a s ummary o f much o f W endorf's a nd h is c olleague's work i n t he S ahara, i nto t he p resent s tudy. A major a spect o f t his n ewest s ummary i s a r evision o f t he N eolithic s equence f or t he W estern S ahara; t his r evision w as a ll uded t o i n C hapter 2 o f t his r eport. We h ave r etained W endorf a nd S child's ( 1980) e arlier c lassification i n t he p resent s tudy, b ut t he r eader s hould b e a ware o f t he m ost r ecent r evision, which e ssentially omits t he T ermin al P aleolithic i n f avor o f a n e xpanded N eolithic s eq uence. I f o ne w ere t o a pply t he n ewest r evision t o o ur m aterials, a ll o f t he s ites r egarded a s T erminal P aleol ithic i n t his s tudy w ould b e r eclassified a s E arly N eolithic. 0 T his s tudy w as c onducted w hile I w as D irector o f t he O ffice o f A rchaeological R esearch a t t he U niversity o f K ansas' Museum o f A nthropology. I t w as o riginally p ublished i n 1 985 i n t he Museum o f A nthropology 's P roj ect R eport S eries. O nly a l imited n umber o f c opies w ere

v ii

produced a t t hat t ime, a nd I a m g rateful f or t he B ritish Archaeological R eport's i nterest i n making t his r eport a vailable t o a much w ider a udience. Except f or a f ew editorial a nd t ypographic c orrections, t his BAR volume does n ot d iffer f rom t he o riginal Museum o f A nthropology r eport.

A lan S immons S ocial S ciences C enter D esert R esearch I nstitute U niversity o f Nevada System R eno, N evada, U .S.A. June, 1 986

v iii

CHAPTER l r

I NTRODUCTION AND R ESEARCH B ACKGROUND ( Alan H .

S immons)

I ntroduction T his s tudy, o riginally published i n t he U niversity o f K ansas' Museum o f A nthropology P roject R eport S eries, r epresents t he f inal r eport o f t he U niversity o f K ansas' Western D esert E xpedition t o t he U nited A rab R epublic o f E gypt. This p roject, s ponsored b y t he AMOCO F oundation, c onsisted o f s ystematic a rchaeological i nventory s urvey o f e ight t ransects l ocated n orth o f Kharga O asis i n t he Western D esert ( Figures 1 a nd 2 ). T he p rimary o bjective o f t he p roject was t o l ocate p rehistoric a rchaeological s ites, a lthough s ome o f t he m ore s ubstantial l ater r emains e ncountered ( e.g., P haronic a nd R oman) a lso w ere n oted. A nother objective w as t o u ndertake t he p roject f rom w ithin a m anagement-preservation o rientation ( Simmons 1 983a). T wo p reliminary r eports s ummarizing t he p roject h ave b een i ssued ( Simmons 1 983a,b); t hese a re s uperseded b y t he p resent s tudy. T his v olume i s s tructured a s f ollows. T he p resent c hapter c ontains i nformation o n p revious r esearch i n t he W estern D esert, a nd p rovides a r eview o f t he c ultural h istory o f t he r egion. C hapter 2 p resents t he r esearch d esign f or t he W estern D esert E xpedition, a s w ell a s t he methodology e mployed o n t he p roject. C hapter 3 p rovides a d iscussion o n l ate Q uaternary e nvironments o f t he r egion. I n C hapter 4 , w e p resent b asic s ite i nformation. Chapter 5 p rovides a dditional i nformation o n t he l ithic a ssemblages r ecorded a t s ome o f t he s ites. I n C hapter 6 , s ettlement p attern i s d iscussed. C hapter 7 p rovides r ecommendations. F inally, C hapter 8 p rovides a b rief s ummary a nd c oncluding r emarks. P revious P aleolithic R esearch U ntil r ecently, a rchaeological r esearch i n E gypt h as c entered o n t he m agnificent r emains o f t he P haronic a ge. . T his i s u nderstandable, g iven t he s pectacular n ature o f t hese r uins. C oupled w ith t he c oncentration o n t he i mpressive r uins o f P haronic E gypt w as t he i mplicit f eeling a mong m any s cholars t hat t he p rehistoric, o r a t l east t he p aleolithic, p eriods o f E gypt r epresented a r etarded d evelopment i n c omparison w ith o ther a reas o f t he N ear E ast a nd N orth A frica. This c ombination l ed t o a g eneral n eglect o f p aleolithic a rchaeology, a lthough i n t he e arly 1 900s s ome r esearchers d id r ealize t hat E gypt a lso h ad a p rePharonic h eritage ( e.g., S chweinfurth 1 905, 1 909; S terns

1

S tudy A reas ( no t t o s ca le)

F igure

1 .

Map o f

E gypt

s howing g eneral

2

l ocation

o f p roject

a rea.

F igure

2 .

O verview o f

t he p roject a rea,

f acing s outh 3

f rom t he L ibyan P lateau

1 917; Currelly 1 913). I t w as n ot u ntil a fter World War I , h owever, t hat s ystematic i nvestigations o f p aleolithic s ites w ere u ndertaken ( e.g., C aton-Thompson a nd G ardner 1 932, 1 934; S andford 1 934; S andford a nd A rkell 1 929, 1 933, 1 939; V ignard 1 935). A fter World War I I, p aleolithic r esearch w as r estricted, a t l east p artially due t o l ingering n otions s till h eld b y many t hat E gyptian p aleolithic s ites h ad l ittle t o o ffer. F or n early 2 0 y ears, f ew l arge s cale prehistoric p rojects w ere u ndertaken. I t a lso s hould b e n oted t hat much o f t he e arly p rehistoric w ork t hat w as u ndertaken t ended t o c oncentrate o n t he r elatively r ecent ( in a c hronological s ense) P redynastic p eriod ( e.g., B aumgartel 1 947, 1 960; Massoulard 1 949; P etrie 1 920), v irtually i gnoring t he p aleolithic. T o d ate, o nly o ne n on-specialist s ynthesis d ealing w ith E gypt's p rehistory, i ncluding t he p aleolithic, i s a vailable ( Hoffman 1 979). I n t he e arly 1 960s, t his a ll c hanged w ith t he i nternational c ampaign t hat w as m ounted t o s alvage a rchaeological r emains t hat w ere t o b e i nundated b y t he c onstruction o f t he N ew H igh D am a t A swan. While t he p rincipal f ocus o f t his c ampaign w as d irected t owards P haronic m aterials, s ome s ystematic r esearch o n p aleolithic s ites a lso w as c onducted, p rimarily b y g roups w orking i n E gyptian a nd S udanese N ubia. S ome o f t he a rchaeological t eams, a lthough c oncentrating o n P haronic r emains, u ndertook l imited e xcavation a t p rehistoric s ites ( e.g., M arks 1 970; C havaillon a nd M aley-Chavaillon 1 966; S iiranen 1 965), a nd t hree g roups f ocused a lmost e xclusively o n p rehistoric materials. T he f irst o f t hese w as t he U niversity o f C olorado e xpedition, w orking n ear Wadi H aifa i n t he S udan ( Irwin, Wheat, a nd I rwin 1 968; G reen, Ewing, a nd A rmelgos 1 967). T he s econd w as t he Y ale U niversity-Canadian N ational Museum t eam w orking a t K or n Ombo a nd i n E gyptian N ubia ( Reed 1 966; S mith 1 966; B utzer a nd H ansen 1 968; W endt 1 966; K leindeinst 1 967; C hurcher 1 972). T he t hird a nd l argest g roup w as t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition, w hich w as c omposed o f r esearchers f rom s everal E uropean a nd .American i nstitutions. T he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition r esulted i n s everal p ublications, c ulminating i n t he m assive v olume e dited b y F red W endorf ( 1968). T hese e xpeditions c learly d emonstrated t hat t he p aleolithic a rchaeology o f E gypt, o r o f a t l east t he N ile V alley, r epresented a r ich a nd c omplex d evelopment. I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat t he i nitial s timulus f or t his r esearch w as f orced b y t he i mminent d estruction o f s ites b y t he A swan D am. T he r esulting a rchaeological s tudies r epresent o ne o f t he l argest s alvage, o r

4

e mergency, a rchaeology p rojects e ver u ndertaken. Had n ot t he dam b een b uilt, i t i s l ikely t hat t he p rehistory o f the N ile V alley would s till b e poorly k nown. O f t he p rehistoric e xpeditions a ssociated w ith t he N ubian-Aswan C ampaign, o nly t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition c ontinued t o p lay a n e xtremely a ctive r ole i n f urther i nvestigating paleolithic a rchaeology i n E gypt. T he p rimary s ponsors o f t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition w ere S outhern Methodist U niversity, t he I nstitute o f H istory o f Material Culture o f t he P olish A cademy o f S ciences, a nd t he G eological S urvey o f E gypt. A fter t he Nubian-Aswan Campaign, t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition u ndertook s everal a dditional p rojects, r esulting i n a s eries o f i mportant publications. A f ew o f t hese i nclude W endorf a nd S aid ( 1967); W endorf a nd S child ( 1975, 1 976a,c); W endorf, S aid, a nd S child ( 1970a,b); S aid, W endorf, a nd S child ( 1970); S aid e t a l. ( 1972a,b); S child ( 1971); P hillips ( 1970, 1 972, 1 973); Hassan ( 1972, 1 974); L ubell ( 1974), a nd Wendorf, S child, a nd C lose ( 1980). Summarizing much o f t he a rchaeological a nd g eological s tudies t hat h ave b een u ndertaken i n t he N ile V alley u nder t he a uspices o f t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition i s t he v olume by W endorf a nd S child ( 1976b). Thus, b y t he e arly 1 960s p aleolithic a rchaeology i n E gypt f inally w as r ecognized a s s ignificant. E ven s o, m ost a rchaeological s tudies w ere c onfined t o t he N ile V alley, a nd t he more a rid portions o f E gypt, s uch a s t he W estern D esert, r emained v irtually u nexplored i n a s ystematic s ense u ntil r ecently. There w ere s everal r easons f or t his, many o f which w ere p ragmatic. L ogistics w ere a major c oncern i n u ndertaking l arges cale a rchaeological p rojects i n t he r emote r egions, a nd i t i s o nly r ecently t hat t his f actor c ould b e o vercome. T here a lso was a l atent a nd i mplicit f eeling a mong many a rchaeologists t hat t he d esert was s imply t oo a rid a nd d esolate t o h ave s upported a ny but t he most e phemeral o f h uman o ccupations. C onsequently, much o f t he n on-Nile V alley p ortion o f E gypt was c onsidered u nimportant f or p rehistoric r esearch. The l ittle a rchaeological w ork t hat w as a ccomplished i n t he Western D esert during t he e arly t o m id 1 900s w as l argely c onfined t o t he v arious o ases. G ertrude C aton-Thompson's p ioneering i nvestigations a t F ayum ( Caton-Thompson a nd G ardner 1 934) a nd Kharga ( Caton-Thompson 1 952) o ases s tand o ut, a nd s et a p recedent f or f uture w ork. O ther e arly r esearchers a lso h ad c onducted s ome a rchaeological i nvestigations, o ften i n a ssociation w ith g eological s tudies. The f irst

5

s cientific i nterest i n t he W estern D esert was R ohlfs e xpedition o f 1 873-1874 ( Rohlfs 1 875), f rom t he N ile V alley t o F arafra O asis, D akhla S and S ea, a nd S iwa O asis. While t he p rimary t he R ohlf e xpedition w as g eological i n n ature, d id make s everal a rchaeological c ollections, P haronic i n a ge ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:3).

t he G erald w hich w ent O asis, t he p urpose o f t he g roup p rimarily

T he G eological S urvey o f E gypt w as f ounded i n 1 896, a nd s ponsored m ost o f t he l ater e xpeditions t o t he W estern D esert. S everal s ignificant g eological s tudies r esulted f rom t hese e arly e xpeditions ( e.g., B eadwell 1 931; H arding-King 1 913, 1 918, 1 925, B all 1 900, 1 927; B agnold 1 931, 1 933, 1 939, 1 941). M any o f t hese e arly e xplorers h ad a n i nterest n ot o nly i n t he g eology b ut a lso i n t he p rehistoric a rchaeology o f t he a rea. F or e xample, r ock d rawings w ere r eported f rom K ufra a nd Uweinat b y H assanein B ey ( 1924, 1 925) a nd K emal e l D in a nd B reuil ( 1928), a nd t he s pectacular r ock paintings a t Uweinat a nd a long t he G ilf e l K ebir w ere d iscovered b y P enderal ( 1934), C layton ( 1932a,b) a nd d eAlmasy ( 1942). O ther e arly r eports d iscussing a rchaeological m aterials i nclude P ond e t a l. ( 1938) a nd W inkler ( 1938-39). U nfortunately, m any o f t he a rchaeological a spects o f t hese g eological s tudies w ere n ever a dequately p ublished ( McHugh 1 975), a nd C aton-Thompson's s tudies a t F ayum a nd Kharga r emain m onuments t o e arly p rehistoric a rchaeology i n E gypt a nd t he W estern D esert. C aton-Thompson c onducted h er K harga r esearch n ear t he p resent d ay t own o f e l-Kharga d uring t wo s easons i n 1 930-31 a nd 1 931-32. S he f ocused h er r esearch a t s everal f ossil s pring v ents l ocated o n a s eries o f l ow r idges n ortheast o f e l-Kharga, b ut s he a lso w orked o n w adi d eposits n ear t he E ocene s carp a nd a t s and p ans o n t he s carp i tself. C oupled w ith h er a rchaeological w ork w ere t he p aleoenvironmental a nd s tratigraphic s tudies o f E . G ardner, a nd t ogether t hese p rovided t he f irst c omprehensive r econstruction o f t he p rehistory o f t he W estern D esert ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:3). A fter C aton-Thompson's r esearch a t K harga i t w as n ot u ntil t he e arly 1 960s t hat a dditional a rchaeological i nvestigations w ere c onducted i n t he W estern D esert. M any o f t hese s tudies w ere r elated i n o ne w ay o r a nother t o t he N ubian-Aswan C ampaign p reviously m entioned. A s s uch, t hey w ere p rimarily c oncerned w ith e xamining t he p ossible r elationships o f o utlying a reas ( e.g., K urkur O asis--Butzer 1 964; R eed 1 964; a nd D ungul O asis--Hester a nd H oebler 1 969) t o t he A swan r egion.

6

Systematic a rchaeological r esearch f ocusing o n t he Western D esert i tself a s a s tudy u nit d id n ot b egin until t he e arly 1 970s. The Combined P rehistoric Expedition, which, i t w ill b e r ecalled, h ad i ts g enesis i n t he Nubian-Aswan C ampaign, h as b een c onducting archaeological a nd g eological r esearch i n various portions o f t he Western D esert, a s well a s t he N ile Valley, f or the past s everal y ears. This h as r esulted i n numerous r eports ( e.g., S child a nd Wendorf 1 975, 1 977), c ulminating, f or t he Western D esert, i n t he l arge volume b y Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980). I n a ddition, r ecent r esearch a t D akhla Oasis by W endorf's t eam ( Schild a nd Wendorf 1 977) a nd b y t he U niversity o f Toronto h as documented n umerous p rehistoric s ites ( McDonald 1 980, 1 981, 1 982). The C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition i s c ontinuing i ts r esearch i nto t he c omplex prehistory o f b oth t he N ile Valley a nd t he Western D esert. Through t he e fforts of t his i nternational t eam, i t h as b een d emonstrated that t he W estern D esert was e xtremely r ich i n r emains f rom s everal p rehistoric periods. The g eomorphic evidence s uggests f luctuating e nvironmental c onditions that a llowed f or h uman o ccupation i n t his p resently hyperarid r egion f rom a t l east t he A cheulian t hrough t he Neolithic. This s equence i s s ummarized i n t he n ext s ection. Cultural H istory The f ollowing b riefly summarizes what i s k nown o f prehistoric cultural development i n t he W estern D esert. The majority o f t his d iscussion i s abstracted f rom Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:243-272). The i ntent h ere i s only t o p rovide a n o verview o f human o ccupation i n t he Western D esert. R egional variation a nd s pecific d etail i s n ot d iscussed u nless i t i s d irectly p ertinent t o t he Western D esert E xpedition. Lower

Paleolithic--Acheulian

. The e arliest documented h uman o ccupation o f t he Western D esert b elongs t o t he A cheulian T radition o f t he L ower P aleolithic. The A cheulian, while w idespread t hroughout North A frica a nd t he S ahara, i s t he m ost poorly d ocumented p rehistoric p eriod o f t he W estern Desert. I t s pans a c onsiderable t ime p eriod, a nd y et due t o i ts g reat a ntiquity, w ell-preserved s ites a re r are. A nother r eason f or our l ack o f k nowledge o f t he Acheulian i s a r esearch b ias: most r ecent p rehistoric r esearch i n t he a rea h as f ocused o n much more r ecent ( i.e., l ate P leistocene-early H olocene) p eriods.

7

D espite t his, h owever, t he Combined Prehistoric E xpedition h as documented a t l east f our Acheulian s ites i n t he Western D esert ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:243-244). S urface materials a nd s pot f inds a lso a re k nown ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:243; James U nderwood, personal c ommunication 1 984). S ince t here a re n o k nown s tratified A cheulian s ites i n t he Western D esert o r t he N ile Valley, c hronology i s l argely i nferential. I n v ery g eneral t erms, t he A cheulian i n t he r egion d ates t o c a. 2 50,000-90,000 y ears B .P. ( Hoffman 1 979:53); i n many a djacent a reas t he a ntiquity o f t he Acheulian may e xceed o ne m illion y ears ( Wenke 1 980:140-141). I n t he Western D esert, A cheulian s ites s eem t o c orrelate w ith a wetter c limatic phase. However, n o d atable materials h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he f ew A cheulian s ites k nown, s o i t i s i mpossible t o i ndicate s pecific c hronology f or t he Western D esert. What i s k nown i s l argely based on t ypological c omparisons w ith o ther, b etter dated A cheulian c ontexts e lsewhere. The Combined P rehistoric Expedition h as documented t wo, a nd possibly t hree, A cheulian t axonomic units i n t he Western D esert. These a re l argely defined on c omparisons o f qualitative a nd quanitative d ifferences i n g roups o f b ifaces, which a re t he m ost d iagnostic o f A cheulian t ools. A nalysis o f t hese m aterials suggested t hat t he t wo g roups b elong t o t he L ate A cheulian K hargaD akhla u nit a nd t he F inal A cheulian. The l atter may a lso b e r elated t o t he " Acheulio-Levalloisian" f rom t he R efuf P ass a rea n ear Kharga O asis t hat C aton-Thompson ( 1952:99) i dentified. I n a ny e vent, b oth Western D esert A cheulian e ntities a ppear t o b e d istinct f rom t he N ile V alley A cheulian. O ne i nteresting f actor i s that t he A cheulian g roups o ccupying t he Western D esert appear t o h ave a lways u tilized l ocally a vailable r aw m aterials i n t heir f abrication o f t ools. This s uggests t hat t ool m aking w as b ased o n e xpediency, e xpendibility, a nd s hort-term g oals. The majority o f t he A cheulian s ites i n t he W estern D esert a re a ssociated w ith s pring v ents. T hese a ppear t o h ave b een f avored s ettlement l ocations. However, o ther s ettlement s ituations a lso a re k nown f rom t he B ir S ahara, B ir T arfawi, a nd K harga a reas. T hese i nclude l ocations o n s and p lains, l akeshore o ccurrences, a nd a ssociations w ith w adi c ourses. I t i s l ikely t hat t he A cheulian p eoples o f t he W estern D esert e xploited a ny a rea i n which w ater c ould b e obtained.

8

The A cheulian e ncompasses a t remendous t ime s pan, and t he v ariability o f a vailable m icroenvironments would have b een c onsiderable. Due t o t he poor p reservation, l ack o f s tratified s ites, a nd t he l ong t ime s pan, i t i s unlikely t hat c hronological, e nvironmental, a nd f unctional c onsiderations r elating t o t he A cheulian w ill ever b e c learly understood f or t he W estern D esert. What we c an o ffer i s t he g eneralization t hat t he n ature o f the e nvironment o f t he Western D esert, p robably a semiarid s avanna, would s uggest a s ubsistence s trategy based o n s easonability o f b oth w ater a nd f aunal r esources. We s hould n ote, h owever, t hat r ecent advances u sing h igh-altitude a erial i magery i n t he detection o f a ncient r iver a nd w adi c ourses ( e.g., e lBaz 1 982:199) may a lter our p erspective o n t he e arly occupation o f t he Western D esert. F or e xample, Haynes has r eported o n t he r ecovery o f w ell-preserved L ower Paleolithic a rtifacts f rom t est t renches e xcavated i n areas s elected by u sing s uch i magery ( Mark B aumler, personal c ommunication 1 984). Middle P aleolithic The M iddle Paleolithic o f t he Western D esert i s much b etter k nown t han i s t he L ower P aleolithic o r Acheulian. The p rimary d ifference i s t hat many s ites, while s till n ot numerous, c ontain i n s itu l iving f loors and r elatively r ich f aunal a ssemblages. D espite t his, details o n c hronology a nd e xternal a ssociations a re f ar f rom c lear. Much o f t he M iddle P aleolithic c hronology i s, o nce again, b ased o n t axonomic c omparisons o f d iagnostic artifacts. This h as a llowed f or t he i dentification o f three c lear t axonomic u nits i n E gypt, e ach o ccupying a d istinct c hronological p eriod. T he t wo o ldest u nits, the Mousterian a nd t he A terian, o ccur b oth i n t he Western D esert a nd i n t he N ile V alley. T he y oungest, the Khormusan, a ppears t o o ccur o nly i n t he N ile Valley, and may c oincide w ith t he o nset o f a h yperarid phase i n the Western D esert. While a bsolute d ates a re n ot k nown, the Mousterian a nd t he A terian i n t he Western D esert appear t o p redate c a. 4 3,000 B .P. Hoffman ( 1979:53) dates t he M iddle P aleolithic o f t he r egion t o c a. 9 0,000-30,000 y ears B . P. A c onsiderable a mount o f t ypological a nd t echnological variability e xists i n b oth M ousterian a nd Aterian a ssemblages f rom t he W estern D esert, b ut t his does n ot s eem t o c onform t o " typical" c lassifications used f or t hese g roups e lsewhere. I n t he K harga r egion, Caton-Thompson ( 1952) r ecognized s everal M iddle

9

Paleolithic taxonomic e ntities. These i nclude: . L evalloisian, A terian, L evalloiso-Khargan, and K hargan. The l atter two a re e ssentially Mousterian. E xcept f or t he Dungul a rea, n either o f t he K hargan e ntities appear t o occur i n t he Western Desert o utside o f t he Kharga r egion. C aton-Thompson's work i s d ated, h owever, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o make c omparisons w ith more r ecent r esearch, s uch a s t hat o f t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition, w ithout r apidly b ecoming m ired i n a c onfusing s eries o f t erminologies. I n t erms o f s ettlement t ypes, a ll g eomorphic s ettings i n which water c ould b e o btained a ppear t o h ave b een o ccupied by M iddle P aleolithic g roups. These i nclude l akeshores, w adi c ourses, p layas, i nternally d rained b asins, a nd s pring-fed pools. T hese a ppear t o h ave b een e xploited by d ifferent g roups i n d ifferent ways. D ue t o t he b etter p reservation o f s ites a nd t he p resence o f l iving f loors, d istinct exploitation patterns c an b e documented. T his i ncludes t he d elineation o f k ill o r butchery a nd l iving/camp s ites. Many o f t hese a ppear t o r epresent r epeated occupations. I n s ome c ases, s uch a s a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi, t here i s a lso e vidence t o s uggest o ccupation o f s and dunes a djacent t o water h oles. I n t erms o f s ubsistence, r ecovered f auna s uggests t hat during a t l east p ortions o f t he M iddle P aleolithic t he e nvironment was more f avorable t han e ven t hat i n e xistence during t he Holocene w et p eriods. This f auna i ncludes white r hinoceros, e xtinct buffalo a nd c amel, z ebra, G azella dama a nd G . r ufifrous. I n s ome a reas o f t he Western D esert, s uch a s B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi, t here a re i ndications o f t he p resence o f r elatively l arge b odies o f p ermanent water a nd a ssociated a bundant l akeshore v egetation. Such a s etting, i n s tark c ontrast t o t he r egion t oday, would h ave a fforded a bundant e conomic o ptions f or M iddle P aleolithic hunters a nd g atherers. The M iddle P aleolithic e conomic patterns s o f ar i ndicated f or t he Western D esert a re d istinct f rom those o f t he N ile Valley. H ere M iddle P aleolithic s ites show a n e mphasis o n b oth f ishing a nd B os h unting. I n t he W estern D esert, t he e mphasis a pparently was o n t he h unting o f l arge g ame, t o t he n ear e xclusion o f s maller a nimals. I n a ny c ase, i n b oth t he N ile V alley a nd t he Western D esert, e conomic p atterns w ere u ndoubtedly i nfluenced by t he s easonal f luctuations o f r ainfall.

i n

The a dded c omplexity o f M iddle P aleolithic g roups t he W estern D esert a lso i s i ndicated b y t heir

1 0

a rtifact a ssemblages. T hese s uggest c omplex r aw material a nd t ool " economies." W hile l ocal r aw materials a re s till p redominant, i mported materials a lso o ccur. T echnological a nd t ypological p atterns o f t ool p roduction a nd d iscard a lso a re r elatively s ophisticated i n b oth Mousterian a nd A terian s ites. I n s ummary, t he M iddle P aleolithic o f t he Western D esert i ndicates r elatively s pecialized e conomic patterns e mphasizing l arge g ame p rocurement a nd t aking a dvantage o f l uxuriant m icroenvironments. O ther, l ess f avorable, e nvironmental s ettings a lso w ere e xploited, undoubtedly o n a s easonal b asis. M ost s ites w ere r eoccupied, p robably b y s mall g roups. F inally: When c ompared w ith t he A cheulian, g reater v ariability i n s ite s ituation, a rtifact a nd f aunal d istributions, a nd s ize o f o ccurrences i s e vident f or t he M iddle P aleolithic. F or t he most part, t his i ncreased v ariability i s d ue t o t he l arger number o f s ites a vailable a nd t o t heir b etter p reservation, b ut i t a lso r eflects a more c omplex e conomy a nd s ubsistence p attern during t he M iddle P aleolithic ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:256). H iatus T he A terian i n t he W estern D esert a ppears t o h ave been a ssociated w ith t he l ast P leistocene w et p eriod preceding a l ong h yperarid p eriod t hat d id n ot e nd u ntil t he e arly H olocene. While t he p recise d uration o f t his period i s n ot k nown, i t p robably e xceeded 3 0,000 y ears. Nowhere i n t he W estern D esert, o r i n t he e ntire S ahara f or t hat m atter, i s t here c lear e vidence f or l ocal r ainfall o r s pring a ctivity during t his l ong a nd d ry period. T here a re n o t races o f h uman o ccupation e xcept i n t he N ile V alley, where t he l atest M iddle P aleolithic g roup, t he K hormusan, a nd s everal L ate P aleolithic c omplexes, o ccurred. T he W estern D esert a pparently w as n ot o ccupied u ntil t he T erminal P aleolithic, which b egan i mmediately a fter t he o nset o f s lightly m ore moist c onditions ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:257). Terminal P aleolithic S everal T erminal P aleolithic s ites t he W estern D esert a nd t he N ile V alley, many p arts o f N orth A frica a nd t he N ear t he E gyptian s ites h ave b een s tudied i n knowledge o f t his p eriod i s c onsiderable. a nd t ypological v ariation w ithin

1 1

o ccur i n b oth a s w ell a s i n E ast. Many o f d etail a nd o ur T echnological t he T erminal

P aleolithic i s g reat, a nd s everal l ocal e ntities have b een defined. This h as l ed t o a c onfusing plethora o f t erms f or s pecific e ntities, a nd i n t his b rief r eview we w ill n ot a ttempt t o d istinguish between t he o ften m inute d etails t hat many r esearchers u se i n defining v arious a spects o f t he T erminal P aleolithic. I t m ay be u seful, h owever, t o k now t hat s ome r esearchers a re p resently r ee valuating t erminology f or t his c omplex p eriod, a nd a t l east o ne h as i ndicated t hat, f or t he Western D esert a t l east, i t may b e a ppropriate t o r eplace " Terminal P aleolithic" w ith a r evised a nd m ore c omprehensive " Neolithic" s equence ( Fred W endorf, p ersonal c ommunication 1 983). U ntil t his i s d one, however, w e s hall u se t he c ommonly a ccepted t erminology. I n t erms o f c hronology, t he e arliest T erminal P aleolithic s ites i n t he Western D esert a ppear t o b e c ontemporaneous w ith t he b eginning o f H olocene p laya f ormation. A ssociated r adiocarbon d ates place this b eginning a round 9 000 B .P.; r ecent e valuation o f a vailable d ata i ndicates t hat t he T erminal Paleolithic o f t he Western D esert may h ave b egun s lightly e arlier, but p robably n ot b efore a pproximately 1 0,000 y ears a go ( Fred Wendorf, p ersonal c ommunication 1 983). The e nd o f t he T erminal P aleolithic i s more a mbiguous, a nd s eems t o v ary by r egion. A d ate o f c a. 7 200 B .P. p robably r epresents t he l atest T erminal P aleolithic i n t he Western D esert. As opposed t o e arlier p eriods, a ssemblages d ating t o t he T erminal P aleolithic a re quite d istinct, w ith a n e mphasis o n m ircolithic t ool p roduction. R ecent r esearch o f t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition has d efined a t l east t hree t axonomic u nits f or the T erminal P aleolithic o f t he W estern D esert. These a re d iffere ntiated b y t heir " varying qualitative a nd quantitative c haracteristics, s pecifically t he p resence o r a bsence o r f requencies o f c ertain g eometric f orms, b acked b lades, s temmed p oints, a nd n otches a nd d enticulates" ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:259). The o ldest g roup o f t hese i s, u nfortunately, r epresented b y o nly o ne p oor a ssemblage. This c ontains a h igh p ercentage o f b acked b ladelets, most o f w hich a re s traight-backed a nd a rched. T here a re n o geometrics, b ut n otches a nd d enticulates a re c ommon. The s econd g roup i s r epresented a t t hree s ites a nd i s c haracterized b y h igh o ccurrences o f a rchs traight- , a nd s houlder-backed b ladelets, n otches, d enticulates, a nd r etouched p ieces. G eometrics, i n t he

1 2

f orm o f t rapezes a nd t riangles, o ccur i n l ow t o moderate f requencies, a nd Ounan o r H an f points a re numerous. The t hird g roup i s t he most r ecent. I t a lso i s r epresented a t three s ites a nd i s d istinguished by h igh p roportions o f t riangles, primarily e longated f orms; d enticulated a nd n otched b lades; a nd r etouched b lades. B acked b ladelets o ccur i n l ow t o moderate f requencies a nd s temmed points a re a bsent. These s ites may b elong t o what Caton-Thompson ( 1952) d efined a s t he " Bedouin M icrolithic" a t Kharga, a lthough t hese l atter s ites a pparently w ere m ixed w ith N eolithic materials. I n a ddition t o t hese t hree g roups, o ne o ther s ite i nvestigated by t he Combined P rehistoric E xpedition i s q uite d istinct. The a ssemblage f or t his s ite i s d ominated b y a rch-backed b ladelets, but a lso c ontains m oderate t o h igh f requencies o f g eometrics ( triangles a nd l unates), n otches, a nd d enticulates. I n t he n orthern f ringes o f t he Western D esert, r ecent r esearch a t S iwa b y H assan ( 1976, 1 978) h as y ielded s everal Terminal P aleolithic s ites t hat s hare e lements w ith t hose i n t he c entral a nd s outhern a rea o f t he Western D esert, but a re n onetheless d istinct. The a ssemblages c ontain b acked b ladelets, l ow p ercentages o f g eometrics, a nd h igh proportions o f burins. T erminal Paleolithic s ites i n t he N ile Valley a re g enerally d istinct f rom t hose i n t he Western D esert, a lthough s ome N ilotic a ssemblages b ear s ome r esemblance t o t he e arliest Western D esert g roup. There a lso a re b road s imilarities w ith c ertain T erminal P aleolithic a ssemblages f rom North A frica ( the Upper Caspian i n t he M aghreb -Schild a nd Wendorf 1 975) a nd t he s outhern L evant ( the H arifian i n t he N egev D esert a nd t he c entral S inai--Marks a nd S cott 1 976, B ar-Yosef 1 975). A s mentioned p reviously, t he T erminal P aleolithic i s a c omplex period. I n t he Western D esert, i nternal v ariability i s g reat, a s i t i s i n o ther r egions ( e.g., t he N ile Valley). B road s imilarities, h owever, e xist o ver a very w ide a real r ange, s uggesting a g eneral c ultural s imilarity, a nd a ll o f t he W estern D esert a ssemblages f all w ell w ithin t he T erminal P aleolithic T echnocomplex o f North A frica a s a whole. I n c omparison w ith e arlier h uman o ccupations o f t he W estern D esert, t he T erminal P aleolithic r epresents a r adical departure i n t erms o f s ettlement p atterns. O nly t wo b asic g eomorphic a ssociations a re k nown: s ites

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a ssociated w ith i nternally d rained b asins o r p layas, s ites a round s prings.

a nd

T he s ites a ssociated w ith p layas a re f urthermore e venly d istributed b etween t wo s lightly d ifferent s ettings: o n s and dunes o r s andy e olian o r l acustrine s ediments a long t he s hores o f p layas, a nd c loser t o t he c enter o f t he p layas o n l acustrine s ilts. CatonT hompson's " Bedouin M icrolithic" s ites f all w ithin t his g eneral g roup. T he s econd s etting, t hat o f s prings, a ppears r estricted t o t he Kharga a rea, w ith o ne e xception. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:263-264) s uggest t hat t he g eomorphic s etting a t Kharga m ay h ave permitted a r eactivation o f t he s prings s ooner t han e lsewhere i n t he W estern D esert, where s pring vents o f t his a ge a re o therwise u nknown. I nterestingly, t here a re n o T erminal P aleolithic s ites a ssociated w ith w adi s ediments, o r e ven l ocated n ear w adis, o r i n t he s pring-fed b asins o f t he B ir S ahara a nd B ir Tarfawi a reas. T he T erminal P aleolithic s ites t hat a re l ocated a long s horelines o f i nternally d rained b asins o r p layas a re a lways c haracterized b y t he p resence o f s everal c oncentrations, e ach o f which may r epresent i ndividual o ccupations. Whether o r n ot t hese r epresent a ctivity f oci o f s ingle l arge o ccupations o r r eoccupations o f f avored l ocales b y s maller g roups i s n ot y et k nown; h owever, Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:264) f eel t hat t he l atter a ppears more l ikely. A ll o f t he s ites c ontain f auna, much o f i t r epresenting small g ame. I n a ddition t o t he c hipped s tone a ssemblages, g rinding i mplements a lso o ccur i n v arying f requencies, s uggesting s ome u se o f p lant r esources. T his i s s ignificant i n t hat i t i s t he f irst t ime t hat g roundstone o ccurs i n t he W estern D esert. T he s ites t hat a re a ctually l ocated i n t he p laya s ediments a re a ll e ither s ingle-unit o r m ulti-unit o ccupations. Most o f t hese a re v ery r ich, c ontaining s ubstantial c ultural m aterials. O ne s ite i nvestigated b y W endorf's g roup y ielded t races o f a c ircular t entl ike s tructure. At l east t wo s ites c ontained n umerous g rinding s tones. T he f act t hat t hese s ites were l ocated o n s easonally f looded s urfaces a nd y et c ontained s ubstantial m aterials s uggests multiple r eoccupation o f t he s ame a rea, a ssuming, o f c ourse, t hat t he p laya a reas o n which t hey a re l ocated d id, i n f act, c ontain water. A p ossible a lternate e xplanation i s t hat o ccupation

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o ccurred o n a lready d ried-up p layas, p layas t hat s till c ontained w ater.

e xploiting a djacent

O nly o ne r elatively r ich s pring v ent s ite i s d iscussed b y Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:264), a nd i t d iffers i n a variety o f w ays f rom t hose l ocated i n t he p layas. T he s pring v ent s ite c onsists o f a s eries o f very s mall c oncentrations, s ome o f which h eavily emphasize n otched a nd d enticulated b lades a nd may b e d iscrete a ctivity a reas. Most s ignificantly, h owever, i s t he l ack o f g rinding s tones. T he e conomic s trategy o f t he T erminal P aleolithic g roups r epresents a c omplex a nd d iverse p attern, b oth i n t he W estern D esert a nd i n o ther r egions. I t i s a n i mportant p attern a nd i s o f p articular i nterest t o m any r esearchers who b elieve t hat t he o rigins o f p lant a nd a nimal d omestication t hat l ed t o s ettled v illage l ife, a nd u ltimately c ivilization, l ie w ithin t he T erminal P aleolithic ( or E pipaleolithic i n t he N ear E ast, a v irtually s ynonomous t erm w ith t he T erminal P aleolithic, a lthough g enerally o ccurring e arlier i n t he l atter r egion). S ince t his i s s uch a n i mportant a spect i t i s i nformative t o quote f rom W endorf a nd S child a t l ength r egarding t heir v iews o n t he e conomic s tructure o f t he T erminal P aleolithic o f t he W estern D esert: T he s emidry e nvironment o f t he e arly H olocene i n t he Western D esert a pparently c ould n ot s upport t he m egafauna c haracteristic o f t he moist p hases during t he M iddle P aleolithic, n or w as i t w et e nough t o s ustain t he l arge h erbivores t hat o ccurred i n t he l ittoral Maghreb i n t he e arly H olocene. G reater s tress w as t herefore p laced o n l agomorphs a nd g azelle. I t i s n ow obvious, h owever, t hat t he h unting o f s mall a nimals w as n ot t he o nly s ource o f f ood. T he l ocations o f s ites a nd t he c onstant p resence o f n umerous g rinding s tones w ith l arge g rinding s urfaces d emonstrate a c ertain d ependence o f c ereal a nd/or g rasses, w hich w ere h arvested d uring d ry p eriods, p robably i n t he w inter. T he p layas w ere t he o nly p lace w here t here w as s ufficient m oisture a nd a rea t o s upport l arge c olonies o f e ither d omesticated o r w ild e dible g rasses... . The r elative i mportances o f g rain a nd h unting a re u nknown... T he r aw-material e conomy o f t he T erminal P aleolithic i s a lso s trikingly d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he M iddle P aleolithic. A lthough m ost

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s ites c ontain a f ew p ieces o f i mmediately a vailable materials...the o verwhelming majority o f l ithic a rtifacts w ere made o n t he f inest s tone o f t he Western D esert: E ocene chert, which h ad t o b e t ransported l arge d istances.... The r aw material e conomy o f t he Terminal P aleolithic s trongly s uggests t hat g reat v alue was a ttached t o t he quality o f the r aw material, t hus i mplying e ither e xtensive t rade o r h igh mobility o f g roups o r both ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:264).

N eolithic The Neolithic i s w idespread t hroughout t he Sahara ( Hays 1 975), a nd r epresents o ne o f t he most i nteresting, y et most c onfusing, c ultural p eriods documented f or t he Western D esert. N eolithic o ccurrences h ave l ong b een k nown i n t he r egion, i ncluding C aton-Thompson's ( 1952) s o-called " Peasant N eolithic" n ear Kharga a nd t he " Libyan Culture" a t Dungul ( Hester a nd Hoebler 1 969), but t hese e ssentially r epresented i solated surface f inds o f l imited i nterpretative value. A s w ith t he T erminal P aleolithic, t he t erminology u sed i n defining s pecific a spects o f the N eolithic f requently c an b e c onfusing. Most r esearchers v iew a t l east t wo major d ivisions i n t he N eolithic o f t he N ear E ast: t he p repottery ( or a ceramic), e arly p hase, a nd t he pottery, o r l ate, phase. While i t m ay b e a questionable p ractice t o b ase a c ultural designation o n t he p resence o r a bsence o f a s ingle t rait ( i.e., pottery), t he t wo d ivisions a re u seful h euristic d istinctions, e specially i n s ome a reas, such a s t he L evant, w here a c onsiderable a nd s ophisticated N eolithic d evelopment c an b e d ocumented. F or t he Western D esert •o f E gypt, h owever, t he d istinction i s l ess u seful, a lthough M cDonald ( 1982:130-133) d oes f eel that a ceramic a nd _ ceramic phases o f t he Neolithic e xist a t D akhla O asis. The N eolithic h as a lways b een o f i nterest t o r esearchers b ecause i t r epresents o ne o f t he m ost s ignificant e vents e ver t o o ccur i n h uman h istory. T his w as t he t ransition f rom f ood p rocurement, o r h unting a nd g athering, t o f ood p roduction, o r t he d omestication o f p lants a nd/or a nimals. C oupled w ith t his t ransition a re t he b eginnings o f s ettled v illage l ife. While t rends t oward f ood p roduction c an b e d ocumented i n e arlier

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cultural p eriods, i t was during t he N eolithic t hat e conomies b ased primarily o n d omestication w ere i n operation. T hus, s tudy o f t he Neolithic h olds a n i ntrinsic i nterest t o t hose c oncerned w ith t he s tudy o f cultural p rocesses t hat u ltimately l ed t o c ivilization. What m akes t he Western D esert p articularly i nteresting i s t he a pparent o ccurrence o f s ome N eolithic groups t here much e arlier t han t heir p resence i n t he N ile V alley. T his i s s omewhat s urprising, c onsidering t hat t he N ile V alley w ould h ave p rovided a much b etter e nvironmental s etting f or f ood p roduction t han would h ave t he Western D esert. Thus e arly N eolithic s ites i n the W estern D esert a re v ery i mportant f or u nderstanding human a nd e nvironmental p rocesses r esponsible f or t he development o f f ood p roduction a nd f or t he s hift t oward i ncreasing d ependence o n t his s ource o f s ubsistence. As Wendorf a nd S child n ote, " [T]he e xample o f t hese Western Desert s ocieties f urther c onfirm t he c omplexity o f t he development o f a griculture a nd d omestication, a nd o f human a daptation t o d iverse e nvironments. I t was undoubtedly a n optimal a daptation t o t his s pecific s emiarid e nvironment" ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:264-265). S everal N eolithic s ites a re k nown f or t he Western Desert, a nd t heir chronology i s c onstantly b eing r evised a s n ew data b ecome a vailable. There a re, m inimally, t wo p laya ( i.e., w et) e pisodes a ssociated w ith t he e arly Neolithic o f t he Western D esert ( Playa I I a nd P laya III). The o ldest s ite i s dated t o c a. 8 100 B .P., while the N eolithic a ssociated w ith P laya I II c ommenced a round 7 500 B .P. a nd e nded a fter 6 300 B .P. W ithin t his s pan, Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:265) r ecognize a t l east f our t axonomic u nits. T he f irst o f t hese i s r oughly c ontemporary w ith t he e arliest N eolithic s ites b elonging t o t he s o-called " Sahara-Sudanese Neolithic" o f t he c entral S ahara, s ome s ites o f which c ontained p ottery a nd h ad f ully d eveloped a gricultural a nd pastoral e conomies b y 8 100 B .P. I t a lso i s l ikely t hat t he W estern D esert p artially overlaps w ith t he l atest T erminal P aleolithic i n t he same a rea b y a t l east s everal h undred y ears. I n t he N ile V alley, t he T erminal P aleolithic p ersisted t o t he very e nd o f t he 6 th m illenium a nd q uite p ossibly l ater. The e arliest W estern D esert N eolithic i s, t hus, c ontemporaneous w ith t he e arly S hamarkian, E l K abian, a nd Q arunian ( Vermeersch 1 976: W endorf a nd S child 1 976b) a nd p recedes t he e arliest N eolithic i n t he l ower N ile Valley, M erimda B eni S alams ( Derricourt 1 971) a nd t he F ayum A N eolithic ( Barker, B urleigh, a nd M eeks 1 971; Caton-Thompson a nd G ardner 1 934; W endorf a nd S child

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1 976b), by 1 980:265).

n early

2 000

y ears

( Wendorf

and

S child

The s econd a nd f ourth N eolithic u nits o f t he Western D esert d ate b etween 7 500 a nd 6 600 B .P. a nd a re c ontemporary w ith numerous S ahara-Sudanese s ites. They a lso a re c ontemporary w ith t he N eolithic o f C aspian T radition o f t he n orthern S ahara a nd t he A tlas Mountains, w ith t he o ldest s ites o f t he Mediterranean N eolithic o f t he Algerian l ittoral, w ith the o ldest N eolithic o f t he Haua F teah i n C yrenaica, L ibya, a nd w ith t he Khartoum-related N eolithic i n Nubia ( Camps 1 974; S hiner 1 968; McBurney 1 967; W endorf and S child 1 980:265). The t hird Western D esert N eolithic u nit i s k nown f rom o nly o ne s ite a t N abta. I t d ates f rom c a. 6 500 B .P. t o a fter 5 800 B .P. The c lose r esemblances b etween t he pottery f rom t his s ite t o t hat o f Abkan o f S udanese Nubia ( ca. 5 960-4470 B .P.) s uggest e ither t hat a t ypical N ilotic N eolithic e xisted by t his t ime both i n t he Nubian N ile V alley a nd i n t he a djacent d esert a nd t hat t he e arliest o ccurrence i s n ot y et d ated i n the V alley, o r t hat t he S aharan v ersion p receded t hat f ound a long t he N ile Valley ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:265-266). The above paragraphs h ave a ttempted to p ut t he Neolithic o f t he Western D esert i nto c hronological p erspective. N ow we may s ay a f ew w ords a bout t he t axonomic c onfiguration o f t he f our u nits, a s w ell a s about t wo possible additional o nes. Three of t he f our u nits o ccur i n a dated s tratigraphic s equence a t N abta, a nd t he f ourth i s k nown o nly f rom t he G ilf e l K ebir. The o ldest N eolithic e ntity i s k nown f rom o nly o ne s ite a nd i s a l arge w ell-organized s ettlement w ith h ouses, s torage p its, a nd w ells. I n t erms o f l ithics, i t s hows many s imilarities t o t he p receding T erminal P aleolithic, a lthough p roportional o ccurrences o f t ypes d iffer. This N eolithic a ssemblage c ontains a bundant p erforators, a s w ell a s b acked b ladelets, n otches, d enticulates, g eometrics ( primarily t riangles), b urins, r are e ndscrapers, a nd w ell-shaped g rinding s tones. T he p ottery i s s ome o f t he e arliest k nown i n A frica. I t i s r are b ut w ell-made, w ith s imple s hapes. I t i s c learly w ithin t he E arly Khartoum o r S ahara-Sudanese t raditions ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:266). The s econd N eolithic g roup i s k nown f rom t wo s ites. Two d ifferent t ypes o f h ouses a re p resent a t t hese, a s a re n umerous s hallow, s tone-lined h earths. T he a ssociated l ithic a ssemblages a re quite d istinct f rom

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t hose p reviously s een. The t ool k it i s dominated by t wo g roups: r etouched p ieces a nd n otches/denticulates. G eometrics a nd b acked b ladelets a re very r are, b ut t he g rinding i mplements a re s imilar t o t hose f rom t he f irst g roup. A s eries o f p rojectile points w ith t runcated b ases i s c haracteristic; t here a lso a re r are b ifacial p oints a nd s temmed points. The p ottery i s s till w ithin t he S ahara-Sudanese t radition, b ut i s r adically d ifferent f rom t hat previously s een. I t i s more f riable a nd t wo major g roups a re r epresented: d ecorated a nd p lainware ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:266-267). The t hird u nit i s f ound o nly a t o ne s ite. I t i s r epresented b y a very p oor l ithic a ssemblage c ontaining mainly n otches, denticulates, a nd r etouched p ieces s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he f irst u nit. T ransverse p rojectile p oints a re a lso o ccasionally p resent; g eometrics a re v ery r are. G rinding i mplements s imilar t o e arlier f orms o ccur. The p ottery s hows n o r esemblance t o t he S ahara-Sudanese t radition. I t i s w ell-made, h ard, a nd i ncludes burnished, s mudged a nd b urnished, a nd b uff-colored w ares. T here i s n o painted d ecoration, a nd t he c losest p arallels a re t o t he Abkan N eolithic w ares o f t he Nubian N ile Valley ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:267). The f ourth Neolithic u nit f ound i n t he W estern D esert o ccurs o nly a t Wadi B akht i n t he G ilf e l K ebir a nd i s poorly documented, c oming f rom a " grab-sample" c ollection t hat probably derives f rom s everal s ettlements ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:267). The l ithic a rtifacts a re h eavily d ominated b y d enticulates, most o f which a re d enticulated b lades. E ndscrapers, r etouched p ieces, a nd s idescrapers a re a lso c ommon, while g eometrics a nd b acked e lements a re a bsent. T he p ottery, s imilar t o t hat d escribed by McHugh ( 1974) i n t he s ame a rea, i s w ell-made a nd i ncludes b urnished w ares a nd c omb-impressed o r i ncised d ecorated w ares. S imilar m otifs h ave b een f ound i n s outhern L ibya ( Vita F inzi a nd K ennedy 1 965) a nd f rom Uweinat i n t he W estern D esert ( de H einzelin, H aesaerts, a nd v an N oten 1 969). A p ossible f ifth N eolithic t axonomic u nit e xists i n t he W estern D esert. This i s e xemplified b y C atonT hompson's s o-called " Peasant N eolithic," r epresented b y s everal s ites n ear Kharga. The l ithic a ssemblages a re d ominated b y n otches a nd d enticulates, w ith s idescrapers, e ndscrapers, a nd p erforators a lso o ccurring. L arge c hipped s tone " hoes" a re a lso c haracteristic. The a ssociated p ottery i s h andmade, h ard, a nd t empered w ith e ither c oarse o r f ine s and. I t i s s ometimes r ed-slipped o r s mudged b ut o therwise

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u ndecorated, a nd i s quite d istinct f rom a nything e lse i n t he Western D esert. Wendorf a nd h is c olleagues f eel t hat t he " Peasant N eolithic" a ctually i s Dynastic i n a ge a nd t hus s hould n ot, t echnically, b e c onsidered a s " prehistoric" ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:267). F inally, M cDonald ( 1982:123-133) h as r eported o n N eolithic s ites n ear D akhla O asis. S he f eels t hat b oth a ceramic a nd c eramic phases a re p resent. S he a lso i ndicates t hat t he D akhla s ites a re d issimilar t o o ther Western D esert materials, a t l east b ased on p ublished r eports. C larification o f t he r elation o f t he Dakhla s ites t o o ther N eolithic s ites i n t he Western Desert w ill h ave t o await d etailed publication. I n a ttempting t o e valuate t he s ettlement s ituation o f t he Western D esert N eolithic, Wendorf n otes t hat while s ites a re n umerous, most a re h eavily d eflated a nd t hus c ontain poor c ontextual i nformation. T he r elatively r are w ell-preserved s ites a re l arge a nd t herefore f ew h ave b een t horoughly i nvestigated. What a ll t his means i s t hat our c onception o f N eolithic s ettlement i n t he Western D esert i s l ikely t o b e s kewed. R ealizing t his, w e may make s ome g eneral observations. A lmost a ll N eolithic s ites i n t he Western D esert a re r elated t o p layas o r p laya-like l ocales. I n a ddition, a f ew s ites a t Kharga a re s ituated n ear s prings a nd s pring pools. N o s ites were f ound a ssociated w ith w adis. A s w ith t he T erminal P aleolithic s ites, t here a re t wo d istinct g eomorphic a ssociations w ith t he p laya l ocations. The f irst o f t hese a re s ites n ear t he p laya's e dge, a nd t he s econd c onsists o f s ites o n p laya s ilts, o ften n ear t he c enter o f t he f eature. W endorf's g roup i nvestigated t wo s ites t hat w ere l ocated a t t he e dge o f p layas. These a ppear t o r epresent o rganized s ettlements, p ossibly permanently o r s emi-permanently o ccupied v illages o r h amlets. At o ne s ite, t his i s i ndicated b y t he p lanned a nd l ogical p lacements o f h ouses a nd f eatures, s uggesting a " relatively l arge a nd d isciplined c ommunity.... [ that] h ad a c ertain d uration..." ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:269). S ites o n t he p laya s ilts s uggest a r adically d ifferent k ind o f o ccupation, o ne t hat i s n ot u niform. There a re t wo k inds o f h ouses a nd t wo k inds o f a ccumulations o f c ultural materials a t t hese s ites. T he f irst i s r epresented b y s lab-lined h ouses o ccurring s ingly o r i n s mall g roups a nd c haracterized b y m inimal a mounts o f l ithics a nd p ottery. T he s econd i s

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r epresented by s hallow b asin h ouses o r t ent f loors, a lso o ccurring s ingly o r i n small g roups, but a ssociated w ith r elatively r ich amounts o f l ithic materials. P ottery i s p resent but n ot abundant, a s a re l arge g rinding s tones. T hese playa s ettlements a re r egarded a s s easonal o ccupations. While t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition d id not e xcavate many N eolithic s ites, t hey d id observe t his b asic s ettlement s ituation a t many o ther p laya a reas. Thus, t he patterns o f l arger, r icher s ites o ccurring o n p laya e dges, a nd s maller, p oorer, a nd s easonally o ccupied s ites o ccurring w ithin t he p laya s ilts a ppears t o b e a c haracteristic o f t he N eolithic o f much o f t he Western D esert ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:270). D espite t his, a t Kharga t he s ituation s eems s omewhat d ifferent. S ites l ocated b y t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition i n t hat a rea a re r elatively s mall b ut dense a nd a re l ocated n ear s prings o r s pring p ools. T here a re n o t races o f a rchitecture o r f eatures, a nd l arge g rinding i mplements a re r are. S ites i n t he Kharga r egion t hat a re l ocated i n p laya s ilts a lso a re s mall a nd dense, b ut l ittle a dditional i nformation i s p rovided o n t hese b eyond n oting t hat t he K harga s ites e xhibit " [A]n e ntirely d ifferent s ubsistence s ystem a nd s ettlement o rganization .." ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:270). Another d istinct N eolithic s ite t ype i s k nown t hroughout t he Western D esert. T his c onsists o f d eflated c oncentrations o f burned s tone, most f requently w ith n o or f ew a ssociated a rtifacts. H owever, s everal r adiocarbon d ates r anging f rom 9 880 + 7 0 B .P. t o 3 375 + 1 40 B .P. p lace many o f t hese w ithin t he N eolithic. T hei i a re i nterpreted a s b rief s tops b y n omadic N eolithic p astoralists ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:270). Moving b eyond s ettlement s tructure, w e m ay b riefly l ook a t patterns o f r aw material p rocurement a nd u sage d uring t he N eolithic o f t he W estern D esert. I n t his r egard, t he e arly N eolithic d iffers s ubstantially f rom t he l ate N eolithic. T he e arliest N eolithic i s e ssentially s imilar t o t he T erminal P aleolithic, u sing h igh-quality f lint, o ften p rocured f rom a c onsiderable d istance. D uring t he l ate N eolithic, h owever, p oorer q uality, l ocally a vailable m aterials a re p referred. T hese d istinctions may b e r elated t o a n i ncreasing r eliance o n f ood p roduction ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:272).

t he

E conomy i s o ne o f t he most s ignificant N eolithic, a nd i n t he W estern D esert t he

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a spects o f s ubsistence

e conomy c onsisted o f a t l east t hree main e lements: h unting o f s mall a nimals ( primarily g azelle a nd hare), a griculture ( plus g athering), a nd c attle h usbandry. While t he r elative i mportance o f t hese c annot b e p recisely d etermined, i t a ppears t hat a griculture m ay h ave b een very i mportant, b ased o n t he n ature o f many o f t he s ites. B ased o n admittedly w eak data, Wendorf a nd h is c olleagues h ave p roposed a g eneral m odel f or t he Western D esert N eolithic. The d ichotomy i n g eomorphic p references a nd s ite s tructure s uggests t he presence o f p ermanent a nd s emi-permanent v illages near p layas, l ocated on h igh g round a bove t he w ater' s s easonal f luctuations, a nd o f smaller, s easonal c amps o n t he p layas' s urfaces. I t i s posited t hat t he small s ites w ere o ccupied during p lanting a nd/or h arvesting, while t he l arge s ites r epresent t he m ain s ettlement where m ajor f ood p reparation, s torage, a nd o ther a ctivities o ccurred ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:270-271). Wendorf a nd S child c ontinue t o e xpand on t his model u sing e thnographic a nalogies f rom m odern pastoralist a nd a gricultural s ocieties i n n orthern s ub-Sahara A frica. While t hey c aution a gainst a pplying d irect analogies t o t he N eolithic, t hey do s ee s ome basic s ocial a nd e conomic s imilarities b etween t he m odern g roups a nd t he p rehistoric o nes, a t l east i nferentially. I n l ooking a t d ata f rom B edouin g roups, t hey c onclude t hat: The B edouin model, i f c ombined w ith p astoralism a nd c onsiderable n orth-south s easonal d isplacements, m ight b ear s ome r esemblance t o t he N eolithic p attern o f p laya a nd d esert u se i n t he Western D esert, a lthough i t a ppears t hat t he N ile w as n ot utilized during d ry p eriods a nd t hat t here was m uch more d ependence o n h unting during t he N eolithic. The data f rom Kharga a re i nconclusive. . The s mall s ize o f t he o ccupations, t he l ack o f s tructures, t he s carcity o f p ottery, a nd t he r arity o f g rinding s tones a ll s uggest a d ifferent s ubsistence a nd/or s ocial pattern f or t hese s ites. These d ifferences m ay i ndicate e ither s pecialized a ctivities...or p erhaps d ifferent e conomic s tress w ith m ore e mphasis o n p astoralism a nd l ess o n a griculture. Our p erception o f t hese s ites m ight h ave t o b e r evised, h owever, i f t he

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l arge s tone " hoes" a gricultural purposes.

w ere

i ndeed

u sed

f or

E lsewhere i n t he s outhern a nd c entral S ahara t he a vailable data c oncerning patterns o f e xploitation a nd s ettlement s tructuring i n e arly N eolithic a re r ather p oor.... D ata c oncerning s ettlement s izes, t heir s tructuring, variability, a nd t he g eomoprhic m icroenvironments u tilized i n t his a rea [ i.e., s outhern a nd c entral S ahara] a re a lso s carce. Most o f t he s ites h ave b een o nly t ested. M any o f t hem h ave n ot y et b een d escribed i n d etail.... A t present, t herefore, i t i s n ot p ossible t o p ropose a model f or t he Neolithic a daptations t o t he physiographically d iverse a reas o f t he c entral a nd s outhern S ahara. T here m ust h ave b een s ome v ariability, a s i s i ndicated, f or e xample, b y t he p resence o f f ish a t s ome s ites a nd t heir a bsence a t o thers, but h ow t his m ight h ave b een r elated t o t he m icro- a nd macroenvironments o f t he a rea i s u nknown ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:272). A nother a spect o f t he W estern D esert N eolithic c oncerns t he p hysical t ypes o f human p opulations. Human r emains i n t he Western D esert a re s carce, but d o o ccur. A nalysis o f r emains s uggests a N egroidal p opulation ( Henneberg, P iontek, a nd S trzalko 1 980), a nd t his e ssentially i s i n a greement w ith e arlier s tudies o n e arly N eolithic p opulations f rom c entral a nd s outhern S ahara a nd f rom t he N ile Valley. T he Western D esert s keletal material, l imited a s i t i s, i s doubly i mportant s ince n o s keletal r emains h ave b een r ecovered f rom T erminal P aleolithic s ites i n e ither t he N ile V alley o r t he W estern D esert ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:272). A f inal n ote b efore c oncluding t his d iscussion o n t he N eolithic o f t he W estern D esert i s a ppropriate. A s i ndicated e arlier, t he N eolithic r epresents o ne o f t he most . s ignificant p eriods o f h uman a daptation a nd h as e njoyed c onsiderable r esearch a ttention. While t his h as b een, by a nd l arge, b eneficial, i t a lso h as r esulted i n a p roliferation o f t erminology a nd o ftentimes c onflicting i nterpretations. T he N eolithic o f t he Western D esert b ears s ome r esemblance t o o ther N eolithic o ccurrences t hroughout N orthern A frica a nd t he N ile Valley; t here e ven a re s everal s imilarities t o N ear E astern N eolithic materials, p articularly t hose i n t he S inai a nd t he N egev ( e.g., S immons 1 980, 1 981; B ar-Yosef a nd P hillips 1 977), a lthough m any o f t hese a ppear t o

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h ave g reater- a ntiquity t han t he E gyptian materials. D espite t he g eneral s imilarities, h owever, a " Neolithic R evolution" r esulting i n t he d evelopment o f l arge v illages o r t owns s uch a s Jericho ( Kenyon 1 957), B eidha ( Kirkbride 1 966) o r ' Ain Ghazal ( Simmons a nd R ollefson 1 984) i n t he L evant, does n ot a ppear t o h ave o ccurred i n t he Western D esert. What i s m uch more i ntriguing, h owever, i s t o v iew t he Neolithic d evelopment i n the Western D esert a s a n e ntity i n i tself, f or the i nformation t hat c an b e p rovided a bout m an-land a daptations i n a s emi-arid e nvironment i s s ignificant. Our k nowledge o f t he N eolithic o f t he W estern D esert i s c onstantly e xpanding a s n ew r esearch i s u ndertaken. T he s ummary g iven a bove must b e c onsidered f lexible a nd s ubject t o modification. I t was b ased p rimarily o n t he Combined P rehistoric Expedition's r ecent r esearch, a nd many o f t he c onclusions Wendorf a nd h is c olleagues r eached, e specially r egarding e conomic s tatus, a re b ased o n i nferential d ata, a s t hey w ould r eadily admit. As n oted e arlier, e ven t he b asic c hronology a nd c ultural s equence i s u nstable. For e xample, r ecent r eevaluation o f t his, a s p reviously mentioned, h as l ed Wendorf t o f eel t hat t he d istinctions b etween T erminal P aleolithic a nd e arly N eolithic may l argely b e s purious, t hat t he t wo a re, i n f act, c losely a ssociated, a nd t hat t he Terminal P aleolithic s hould p erhaps b e r eplaced w ith a r evised N eolithic s equence ( Fred Wendorf, p ersonal c ommunication 1 983). F urthermore, t he d istinctions b etween p repottery a nd pottery N eolithic, a t l east i n E gypt, may a lso b e a rtificial. W endorf b elieves t hat p ottery o ccurs i n a ll N eolithic phases i n t he W estern D esert, a lthough i t i s n ot i nitially a bundant ( Fred Wendorf, p ersonal c ommunication 1 983). F inally, t he question a s t o whether C aton-Thompson's " Peasant N eolithic" i s r eally l ate N eolithic, o r s ome variant o f D ynastic E gypt, i s y et t o b e r esolved. I ndeed, t he d istinctions b etween e arly a nd l ate N eolithic i n t he W estern D esert n eed c larification. R ather t han v iewing a ll t hese i ssues a s s tumbling b locks o r r esearch o bstacles, h owever, i t i s more a ppropriate t o r egard t he l ate T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic o ccupation o f t he W estern D esert a s o ne o f t he most i nteresting a nd r ewarding p eriods o f s tudy. Much m ore r esearch, h owever, w ill b e r equired b efore t his t antalizing p eriod c omes i nto c learer f ocus. P ost-Prehistoric The f ocus o f t his r eport i s o n t he p rehistoric o ccupation o f a portion o f t he W estern D esert. A c onsiderable p ost-prehistoric o ccupation o f many

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p ortions o f t he r egion i s k nown a nd c onstitutes a nother f ascinating v iew o f h ow m an a dapted t o t his l argely i nhospitable environment. Both Dynastic a nd l ater g roups o ccupied t he W estern D esert, b ut d iscussion o f t hese a daptations i s f ar b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent w ork.

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CHAPTER 2 :

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ( Alan H .

S immons)

R esearch D esign Three principal g oals s tructured t he Western D esert E xpedition. The f irst a nd m ost b asic w as t he r ecordation o f a ll p rehistoric s ites l ocated i n t he s urvey t ransects. The s econd w as t he more d etailed e xamination o f s ites dating t o t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd t he N eolithic. The t hird g oal w as t o s tructure t he p roject f rom w ithin a p reservation o r c onservation f ramework, what i n t he U nited S tates w ould b e r eferred t o a s " cultural r esource m anagement" ( or CRM). E ach o f t hese objectives i s d iscussed b elow. R ecordation o f

P rehistoric S ites

A s h as b een n oted e arlier i n t his r eport, prehistoric a rchaeology i n E gypt h as o ften b een r egarded a s a s omewhat t ainted s tepchild o f t he m ore c ommon f orm o f a rchaeological e ndeavor, t hat d ealing w ith c lassical a ntiquity. A lthough t his b ias h as b een p artially r ectified by r esearchers l ike Wendorf a nd h is c olleagues, by a nd l arge t he m ost p revalent f orm o f a rchaeology i n E gypt t oday s till r elates t o c lassical a ntiquity. This i s n ot t o s ay t hat s uch s tudies a re u nwarranted, f or c learly t he " recent" p ast o f E gypt i s r ich a nd d eserves c areful s tudy. H owever, t he W estern D esert E xpedition w as i ntentionally s tructured s o a s t o b e c oncerned w ith o nly p rehistoric r esources. A p rime r eason f or t his was l ogistical. T he p roject w as o perating u nder a t ight t ime-frame a nd b udget. I f w e h ad e lected t o r ecord P haronic a nd l ater r emains a s w ell a s p rehistoric s ites, t he a rea t hat c ould h ave b een s urveyed w ould h ave b een d rastically r educed. T hus w e r ealize t hat by r ecording o nly p rehistoric s ites w e, a lso, a re i ntroducing a b ias, f or t here c ertainly w as a n a bundant " historic" o ccupation o f t he p roject a rea. . Recording s ites t o m erely d ocument t heir p resence i s o f l ittle r esearch v alue i n a nd o f i tself. O ne o f o ur p rimary c oncerns w as i n d eveloping a p reliminary u nderstanding o f p rehistoric s ettlement p atterns, a daptive s trategies, a nd o f t he r elationship o f p rehistoric g roups t o t heir e nvironment. I n t he W estern D esert, w e c ould e xpect t o f ind s pecific a daptations t ailored t o t he c onstraints o f a h arsh, a rid e nvironment. O ne question t hat c ould b e a sked i s: " how d id t hese a daptations v ary ( or s tay t he s ame) o ver a l ong t ime s pan, when t he r egion w as o ccupied b y

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d iffering c ultural g roups p racticing d iffering t echnologies?" R elated t o t his question i s t he e ven more b asic o ne o f " was t he p roject a rea e ven o ccupied b y p rehistoric g roups?" a nd i f s o, " was t his o ccupation c onstant a nd c ontinuous, o r was i t r estricted t o o nly c ertain t ime a nd c ultural p eriods?" I n o rder t o a ddress t hese q uestions, i t i s n ecessary t o h ave a r epresentative s ample o f a ll r emains f rom a ll prehistoric p eriods. T his w ill a llow f or a n i nitial u nderstanding o f p rehistoric s ettlement o f t he p roject a rea b y t ime a nd c ultural p eriods. S uch b aseline data a re n ecessary p rior t o i nvestigating a ny more s ubstantial a nd c omplex r esearch i ssues. T hus t he f irst objective o f t he Western D esert E xpedition w as t o s ystematically r ecord a ll p rehistoric o ccurrences i n t he s urvey t ransects. This would t hen d ocument p rehistoric o ccupation o f t he r egion t hrough t ime. T erminal

P aleolithic/Neolithic

While t he d ocumentation o f a ll p rehistoric s ites i n t he p roject a rea was i mportant, t he s econd objective o f t he W estern D esert E xpedition was much more f ocalized. I t w as during p ortions o f t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd, e specially, t he e arly Neolithic t hat h uman g roups w ere e xperimenting w ith a variety o f e conomic s trategies, i ncluding t he i nitial domestication o f p lants a nd/or a nimals. The t ransition ( often r eferred t o a s t he " Neolithic R evolution") f rom h unting a nd g athering, o r f ood p rocurement, t o a n i ncreasing r eliance o n domestication, o r f ood p roduction, i s o ne o f t he s ingle most s ignificant e vents t o o ccur i n h uman h istory. While t he Western D esert may n ot r epresent a n a rea w here t his t ransition i nitially o ccurred, o r e ven h ad a s ignificant i mpact o n o ther a reas o nce d omestication h ad o ccurred, i t n onetheless o ffers a t antalizing e xample o f e arly e xperimentation w ith f ood p roduction i n a n a rid e nvironment. A lthough t he d ata a re o ften w eak a nd c onflicting, f ood , p roduction a ppears t o h ave o ccurred r elatively e arly i n portions o f t he W estern D esert ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:265-266, 2 70-272). A s n oted p reviously, T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites a re r elatively a bundant i n t he r egion. S ome a spects o f t he N eolithic i n t his a rea r elate t o C aton-Thompson's ( 1952) " Peasant N eolithic" f rom t he K harga r egion a nd t o w hat H ester a nd H oebler ( 1969) d efined a s t he " Libyan C ulture" n ear D ungul. P ossibly a ssociated N eolithic m aterials a lso o ccur i n t he N ile V alley, a nd i nclude s uch e ntities a s t he S hamarkian, E arly K hartoum, a nd F ayum A ( Wendorf a nd

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S child 1 976b;- A rkell 1 949). O n a w ider r egional s cale, t here a lso m ay b e s ome r elationships b etween t he W estern D esert N eolithic a nd North A frican ( Maghrebian) m aterials, s uch a s t he N eolithic o f Capsian T radition ( McBurney 1 967; Camps 1 974). F inally, numerous e arly N eolithic m aterials a re a lso k nown t o t he e ast i n t he S inai a nd t he N egev ( Bar-Yosef a nd Phillips 1 977; S immons 1 980, 1 981). S ome o f t hese materials, h owever, m ay b e more c losely r elated t o t he T erminal P aleolithic, e specially i n t erms o f e conomic s trategies. I t i s t he N eolithic, e specially t he e arly a spects o f i t, t hat h as b een e xtremely i mportant t o a n u nderstanding o f t he t ransition f rom f ood p rocurement t o f ood p roduction. While t rends t owards f ood p roduction, a t l east o n a n e xperimental l evel, may h ave o ccurred d uring t he T erminal P aleolithic, i t was during t he N eolithic t hat e conomies b ased p rimarily o n d omestication c ame i nto o peration. O f p articular i nterest t o t he Western D esert E xpedition w as t he f act t hat N eolithic e conomies i n t he Western D esert s eem t o h ave o ccurred a f ew t housand y ears e arlier t han i n t he N ile Valley. This i s s omewhat puzzling, c onsidering t hat t he N ile V alley w ould a ppear t o h ave b een a much m ore f avorable e nvironmental s etting f or f ood p roduction t han t he W estern D esert. R egardless, b ased o n c urrently a vailable e vidence, t he Neolithic o f t he N ile V alley d id n ot a ppear u ntil c a. 6 000 B .P., while i t may h ave b een p resent i n t he W estern D esert, i n o ne f orm o r a nother, b y a s e arly a s c a. 1 0,000-9,000 B .P. By a round 6 ,000 B .P., t he N eolithic w as p resent i n b oth t he Western D esert a nd t he N ile Valley, a nd i t i s i ntriguing t o p ostulate p rocessual l inks i nvolving t he movement o f f ood p roduction s timuli a nd i deas, i f n ot p eople, b etween b oth a reas. Complicating t his e ntire i ssue f urther i s t he i ncorrect d ichotomy many r esearchers h ave d rawn r egarding t he t ransition f rom h unting a nd g athering t o f ood p roduction. There h as b een a t endency t o v iew t hese a s t wo c lear-cut a nd d istinct e conomic s ystems. A m ore , c orrect v iew i s t o r egard t he t ransition a s a c ontinuum u pon w hich c hange w as g radual a nd s poradic, a nd i n which e lements o f b oth h unting a nd g athering a nd f ood p roduction o ccurred s imultaneously. There w as n o s ingle j ump i n which h unters a nd g atherers s uddenly a bandoned t heir t raditional e conomic s trategy i n f avor o f f ood p roduction. I n f act, i n s ome a reas, p eoples p ossessing " Neolithic" t echnologies c ontinued t o f ollow a n e conomic p attern b ased o n h unting a nd g athering, a s r ecent r esearch i n t he W estern N egev D esert o f P alestine h as i ndicated ( Simmons 1 980, 1 981).

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I t i s •r eadily a pparent t hat t he i nitial e xperimentation w ith f ood p roduction, p ossibly o ccurring during t he T erminal P aleolithic, i s a n i mmensely c omplex i ssue. I n t he W estern D esert, b oth T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic o ccurrences a re d ocumented, m aking t he r egion a n e xcellent a rea f or c omparative s tudy. The p recise m echanisms b y which t his s ignificant e conomic t ransition o ccurred i n t he W estern D esert, a nd t heir material r amifications, a re u nclear. C ertainly a dditional r esearch w ill c ontribute t o a b etter u nderstanding o f w hat c ultural p rocesses w ere u nderway d uring t he l ate H olocene i n t he W estern D esert t hat u ltimately r esulted i n t he a doption o f f ood p roduction i n m any p arts o f E gypt. T his u nderstanding w ill c ome a bout n ot o nly t hough a dditional a rchaeological r esearch, b ut a lso must i ncorporate g eomorphologic a nd p aleoenvironmental i nvestigations i f i t i s t o b e m eaningful. A ccordingly, t he W estern D esert E xpedition w as s tructured s o t hat g eomorphology w ould f orm o ne i nterpretative c omponent o f t he p roject. A dditional d iscussion o n t his a spect o f t he p roject i s provided b y Mandel i n t he f ollowing c hapter. The c oncerns e xpressed a bove p rovided a major s timulus f or t he W estern D esert E xpedition. W e r ealized t hat a m odest p roject s uch a s o urs p robably w ould n ot make major c ontributions t o t his c omplex i ssue, y et w e a lso r ealized t hat i t c ould a dd t o w hat i s a s cant data b ase.

C ultural R esource M anagement O rientation T he t hird o bjective o f t he W estern D esert E xpedition w as t o a pproach t he p roject f rom w ithin a c ultural r esource m anagement ( CRM) p erspective. I n t he U nited S tates, t his o rientation i s p erhaps t he s ingle most c ommon f orm o f a rchaeology p racticed t oday ( see, f or e xample, G umerman a nd S chiffer 1 977; L ipe a nd L indsay 1 977). C RM s tudies g rew o ut o f " salvage" o r " rescue" a rchaeology, a nd a re p rimarily i nvolved w ith t he . i nvestigation o f a rchaeological s ites, b oth p rehistoric a nd h istoric, t hat w ill b e d irectly o r i ndirectly i mpacted b y l and m odification a ctivities. A p rincipal t enet o f C RM a rchaeology i s t he p reservation a nd/or c onservation o f c ultural r esources. I n t his c ontext, c ultural r esources c an r efer t o a w ide v ariety o f h uman a ctivities, i ncluding c ontemporary f olk c ulture. H owever, i n i ts u sual s ense, c ultural r esources r efer t o a rchaeological m anifestations.

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Typically , CRM s tudies a re d ivided i nto s everal p hases, e ach more l abor a nd c ost i ntensive t han t he p revious o ne. A u sual f irst phase i s a l iterature r eview o f a n i mpacted a rea t o d etermine w hat i s a lready k nown o f i ts a rchaeology a nd o f p revious r elated s tudies i n t he a rea. T his g enerally i s f ollowed b y r econnaissance l evel s urveys, t hen b y m ore e xtensive r egional s urveys. A fter s urvey, t est e xcavations a t s ignificant s ites r ecorded during t he s urveys a re c ommon. F inally, major e xcavations, o r " mitigation o f a dverse i mpacts" i s t he l ast f ield p hase. T his a lso i s t he most e xpensive a nd l abor i ntensive s tage. I n most c ases, h owever, m itigation i s c onsidered u ndesirable, s ince e ven s cientifically c ontrolled e xcavation i s d estructive. O ften a voidance o f s ignificant r esources, i f a t a ll p ossible, i s r egarded a s t he b est r ecourse. T his n ot o nly i s l ess e xpensive, b ut i t a lso p reserves t he r esource b ase. T he t erminal p hase o f CRM i nvestigations, l ike o ther a rchaeological e ndeavors, i s d ata a nalysis a nd p reparation o f f inal t echnical r eports. U nlike m ore t raditional a rchaeological s tudies, h owever, most CRM r eports a lso m ake m anagement r ecommendations f or t hose s ites u nder i nvestigation. A m ajor d evelopment i n CRM s tudies i s t his r ecommendation p rocedure, w hich, w hen p roperly i mplemented, c an l ead t o c areful p lanning a nd g enerally a voids t he c ommon i mage o f s alvage a rchaeology a s u ndertaking e mergency e xcavations a t s ites a bout t o b e d estroyed. Another p oint o f d eparture f or CRM s tudies a s o pposed t o w hat h as o ften ( and i ncorrectly) b een r eferred t o a s " pure r esearch" ( i.e., t raditional a rchaeology) i s t hat w ith t he f ormer, a ll a spects o f c ultural r esources w ithin a s pecific p ro le-E t a rea are i nvestigated, e ven t hose t hat m ight n ormally b e o verlooked a s p oor o r u ninteresting. T his i s b ecause c ultural r emains f rom a ll p eriods a nd o f a ll f unctions a re c onsidered p otentially s ignificant. M any t raditional s tudies a re f requently much m ore f ocalized, e mphasizing, f or e xample, t he i nvestigation o f s pecific s ite t ypes d ating t o o nly o ne c ultural p eriod. A c onsiderable a mount o f c ontroversy o ften s urrounds C RM a rchaeology, a nd t here f requently i s d iscord a mongst CRM p ractitioners a nd " pure r esearchers." T his i s u nfortunate, f or t he t wo a pproaches c an a nd s hould c omplement o ne a nother. I t i s n ot t he p urpose o f t his d iscussion t o a ddress t he m any a nd c omplex i ssues i nvolved w ith c ontemporary CRM a rchaeology, b ut t he f oregoing h as b een n ecessary a s i mportant b ackground i nformation.

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While CRM s tudies a re h ighly d eveloped i n N orth America a nd many o ther c ountries a nd h ave s trong l egislative s upport ( see C leere 1 984; M cCreery a nd S auer 1 984; W ilson a nd L oyola 1 982), t he s ituation i s n ot s o p ositive i n m ost T hird World c ountries. T here a re n umerous r easons f or t his. O ne i s t hat a rchaeology i s e xpensive a nd m any d eveloping c ountries s imply do n ot p ossess t he r esources t o f und a rchaeology w hen m ore i mmediate e conomic p riorities e xist. Thus, a C RM o rientation i s n ot c ommon i n m ost d eveloping c ountries, i ncluding E gypt. R ather, more t raditional g rant s upported a rchaeology i s t he n orm. T his d oes n ot, h owever, m ean t hat t here i s n o p recedent f or C RM a rchaeology i n E gypt. C ertainly o ne o f t he l argest p rojects e ven u ndertaken a nywhere, t he A swan s alvage p roject, w as e ssentially a CRM s tudy. W ith t he i ncreasingly s ophisticated development o f t he E gyptian A ntiquities O rganization ( EAO), m ore l egislation d esigned t o p rotect a nd p reserve E gyptian h eritage i s b eing e nacted a nd e nforced. H owever, f unding f or e xplicit CRM p rojects i n E gypt a nd i n o ther d eveloping c ountries i s e xtremely l imited a nd o ften a vailable o nly i n i nstances w here d estruction o f a s ite i s i mminent. While l ocal g overnmental f unding i s l imited, many p rivate, n on-indigenous c ompanies working i n d eveloping c ountries h ave, m uch t o t heir c redit, o ften s upported a rchaeological r esearch, much o f i t e ither e xplicitly o r i mplicitly CRM i n n ature. A p reservation o rientation i s s lowly c oming i nto p ractice i n m any d eveloping c ountries a s i ssues s uch a s c ultural p atrimony a nd t he p rotection o f a ntiquities ( both s ites a nd a rtifacts) a re b eing c onsidered b y t hose i n p olitical p ower. C ertainly o ne s timulus f or t his i s t he a ttempt t o c urb t he i llicit t rade i n a ntiquities t hat h as s o r avaged t he c ultural h eritage o f m any c ountries. G overnment s ponsored a ntiquities s ervices a re a ssuming m ore p ower, a nd w hile t he d evelopment o f a t rue CRM p erspective i s y et i n i ts i nfancy a nd m any l ogistical a nd t heoretical d ifficulties e xist, p rogress i s b eing m ade. O ne i mportant a spect o f t his i s t he t raining o f q ualified i ndigenous a rchaeologists a nd CRM s pecialists w ho w ill b e a ble t o p roperly p rotect t heir c ountry's h eritage. C oupled w ith t his i s t he i ntegrat ion o f i ndigenous p eoples i nto k ey r oles o n f oreign p rojects. U ntil t hese g oals a re a ccomplished, m any c ountries w ill c ontinue t o b e s ubject t o a rchaeological a ctivities t hat m ay n ot b e i n t heir b est i nterests. W hile t he r econciliation b etween a nd CRM p ractitioners h as b een s low,

3 2

" pure r esearchers" i t n onetheless i s

o ccurring. C ertainly many r esearchers a nd s cholars a re r ealizing t he i mportance o f c ultural r esource p reservation a nd a re o rienting t heir r esearch a t l east p artially i n t his d irection. The r ecent F irst N ew World C onference o n R escue A rchaeology ( Wilson a nd L oyola 1 982) h eld i n Quito, E quador, i s o ne e xample o f t he p rofessional r ecognition o f t he problems f acing many d eveloping c ountries i n t heir a ttempts t o p rotect t heir h eritage. M cCreery a nd S auer's ( 1984) b rochure o n e conomic d evelopment a nd a rchaeology i n Jordan i s a nother. Thus i t w as w ithin t his f ramework t hat t he Western D esert E xpedition w as u ndertaken. While our p rimary o bjectives w ere r esearch-oriented, w e a lso w anted t o d emonstrate t hat i t i s p ossible t o u ndertake b oth a r esearch a nd CRM i nvestigation a t t he s ame t ime. The W estern D esert E xpedition w as, h owever, a r elatively s mall p roject, a nd o ne d ecision t hat i s c ontrary t o a CRM philosophy w as made e arly o n. This w as t he d ecision n ot t o r ecord P haronic a nd l ater materials. B y r estricting o urselves t o p rehistoric s ites, w e w ere a ble t o c over a l arge a rea during t he s urvey. However, w ith t his c ame t he p rice o f n ot g aining a ny s ystematically c ollected i nformation o n more r ecent c ultural r esources. S election o f

t he P roject

A rea

Our s election o f t he r egion n orth o f t he modern t own o f e l-Kharga f or a s tudy a rea was b ased o n s everal d ecisions, b oth p ragmatic a nd r esearch r elated. O n a p ragmatic l evel, w e h ad s cheduled o nly a t hree w eek f ield s eason, t hus t he l ogistical i mplications o f u ndertaking a m ajor p roject i n a r emote a rea o f t he W estern D esert w ould h ave b een o verwhelming f or a s tudy o f s uch a l imited s cope a s w as o urs. E l-Kharga proved i deal, s ince w e c ould b e b ased i n t he t own a nd c ould d rive t o t he s urvey z ones w ithin a f ew h ours o r l ess. F urthermore, l ogistical c oncerns r egarding f ood a nd w ater w ere s olved b y s taying a t e l-Kharga. .The o ther r ationale f or s electing t he Kharga a rea w as b ased o n r esearch p riorities. A s n oted, o ne m ajor e lement o f o ur r esearch d esign w as i nterested i n s ites b elonging t o t he c ritical p eriods o f e arly f ood p roduction, t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd t he N eolithic. S pecifically, w e w ished t o d etermine i f T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites o ccurred a long t he j uxtaposition o f t he e nvironmental z one c omprised o f t he Kharga D epression a nd t he L ibyan P lateau e scarpment. Our s election o f t his s tudy a rea w as b ased o n s everal observations. F irst, w e k now t hat a s ignificant

3 3

N eolithic o ccupation o ccurred a round Kharga Oasis, b ased o n C aton-Thompson's ( 1952) p ioneering w ork. S econd, m any r esearchers h ave p osited l inks b etween t he N ile V alley a nd t he W estern D esert, a lthough t hese r elationships a lso h ave b een q uestioned ( e.g., H ester a nd H oebler 1 969:165). The p roject a rea r epresents o ne p ossible c orridor o f s uch a l ink. T hird, t he p roject a rea h as n ot b een b een s ubjected t o s ystematic s urvey, s o a ny n ew i nformation w ould b e a c ontribution t o o ur k nowledge o f t he a rchaeology o f t he W estern D esert. I n f act, t he majority o f r ecent r esearch i n t he a rea h as f ocused o n t he K harga B asin, a nd n ot t he L ibyan P lateau; t hus b y e xamining s ome t ransects n ear t he e dge o f t he p lateau w e w ould d etermine w hether o r n ot t his a rea w as o ccupied. F ourth, a s ubstantial d ata b ase f or c omparisons w ith n earby materials a lready e xists ( i.e., C aton-Thompson's e arly w ork a t K harga a nd W endorf's more r ecent r esearch t here). F ifth, g iven t he c omplexity o f e conomic s trategies i n o peration d uring t hese e arly p eriods, w e w ished t o i nvestigate e nvironmental s ituations t hat o ffered t he p otential o f prehistoric e xploitation o f s everal m icro-zones w ithin a b asic-lly a rid e nvironment. W e f eel t hat t he a reas s elected f or s urvey r eflect t his. T he a ctual s election o f t he s urvey t ransects w as b ased o n i nspection o f b ase m aps b y b oth t he p rincipal i nvestigator a nd t he p roject g eomorphologist. T ransects w ere s elected o n t he b asis o f t hree p rimary c riteria: ( 1) a reas t hat a ppeared t o o ffer t he b est p otential f or l ocating s ites i n r elation t o e conomic v ariables ( e.g., n ear p layas o r w adis); ( 2) a reas t hat r epresented b oundaries b etween m ajor p hysiographic r egions, o n t he a ssumption t hat t hese c ould r epresent o ptimal r esource z ones; a nd ( 3) a reas t hat p resented t he l east d ifficulties i n t erms o f a ccess ( see n ext s ection f or a dditional d iscussion). A f inal f actor i nfluenced o ur s election o f t he K harga r egion. This i s r elated t o t he CRM a pproach o utlined a bove. Much o f t he K harga D epression i s s cheduled f or c onsiderable d evelopment i n t he h opes o f r elieving s ome o f t he t remendous p opulation p ressure i n t he N ile V alley. O nce t his l arge a rea, o ften r eferred t o a s t he N ew V alley, i s d eveloped i t i s i nevitable t hat c ultural r esources w ill b e l ost. W hile s ome o f t he t ransect z ones w e s elected f or s urvey m ay n ever b e d irectly i mpacted ( especially t hose o n t he L ibyan P lateau), o thers, c loser t o e l-Kharga, m ay b e d eveloped. T hus s election o f o ur s tudy z ones w as p artially b ased o n g aining a n i nitial i mpression o f t he d ensity a nd n ature o f c ultural r esources i n a reas t hat m ight b e

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s ubject t o d evelopment. This i nformation u seful i n p lanning f uture d evelopment.

s hould

b e

M ethodology L ogistics T he W estern D esert E xpedition w as c onducted f rom D ecember 2 3, 1 982 t o January 7 , 1 983. T he f ield c rew o n t he W estern D esert E xpedition c onsisted o f t hose i ndividuals l isted i n T able 1 . H ousing f acilities w ere p rovided b y t he G eological S urvey o f E gypt, which made a vailable t o u s t heir guest h ouse a t e l-Kharga. Two v ehicles ( a l ong-based L and R over a nd a C hevrolet B lazer, b oth p rovided by AMOCO-Egypt) w ere u sed a t a ll t imes, d espite t he s mall s ize o f t he c rew. S uch b ackup i s s trongly r ecommended f or s urvey o r e xcavation i n r emote a reas s uch a s t hose s tudied. E ach s urvey z one w as w ithin t wo h ours d rive, a t t he most, o f e l-Kharga, t hus t he c rew c ould r eturn t o t he b ase a t t he e nd o f a d ay. F ield M ethodology I n o ur p roposal w e i ndicated t hat s ix t ransects c overing a t otal o f a pproximately 2 0 s quare k ilometers w ould b e s urveyed. O nce i n t he f ield, h owever, i t b ecame a pparent t hat t he o riginal t ransects w ould h ave t o b e modified d ue t o l ogistical a nd s ecurity c onsiderations. W e e nded u p s urveying e ight t ransects o f varying s izes, f or a t otal c overage o f a pproximately 3 0 s quare k ilometers ( Table 2 ; t he l ocations o f t he t ransects a re i llustrated i n F igure 9 i n C hapter 4 ). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he l ocations o f t hese t ransects a pproximate t hose o riginally p roposed, a nd t hat t he a rea f inally s urveyed r epresents a n i ncrease o f a round t en s quare k ilometers o ver t hat i nitially i ntended. I nterestingly, i n o ur p roposal w e p redicted t hat t he t ransect o n t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau s hould c ontain t he h ighest d ensity o f T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites; t his w as v erified d uring t he s urvey, w ith T ransect 4 c ontaining a n e xtremely h igh s ite d ensity. T he l ocations o f t he e ight t ransects a re d istributed a s f ollows. T wo ( Transects 4 a nd 7 ) a re l ocated a t t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau w here i t d rops o ff t o t he K harga D epression; o ne ( Transect 8 ) i s l ocated a t M ilepost 5 0, a pproximately m idway b etween A ysut, i n t he N ile V alley, a nd e l-Kharga; t hree

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Table

1 .

P ersonnel a ssociated w ith t he Western D esert Expedition.

Alan H . S immons,* Desert R esearch I nstitute

P rincipal

Rolfe Mandel, University o f

P roject Geomorphologist Kansas

Marion Dyer, University o f

Kansas

John P arisi, University o f

Kansas

I nvestigator

A ssistant

Archaeologist

A ssistant

Archaeologist

Hanna Tadros, AMOCO-Egypt

A ssistant

Archaeologist

S amy F athy, Egyptian Antiquities Organization

I nspector

Abu R eeshan, e l-Kharga

Guide

* Formerly o f

t he University o f

3 6

K ansas

T able

2 .

Survey

T ransect

t ransects

a nd

t heir

s izes. Approximate Arga Surveyed ( km')

D escription

1

W adi

2

G ebel

3

' Ain e l-Ghasal

4

G ebel

5

" foothills"

6

G ebel

7

' Ac iabet

8

c a. 5 0 k m s outh o f A syut, e ast o f main r oad

Total

Rufuf

1 0.5

e l-Tier

4 .0 1 .5

e l-Yabisa-top o f

L ibyan P lateau

s outh o f G ebel

e l-Aguz

e l-Yabisa-"foothills" e l-Ramliya

A rea Surveyed

1 .5 1 .5 5 .0 3 .5

i mmediately 2 .5 3 0.0

3 7

km 2

( Transects 1 , 5 , a nd 6 ) a re l ocated n ear t he b ase o f t he e scarpment; a nd t he r emaining t wo ( Transects 2 a nd 3 ) a re l ocated b etween e l-Kharga a nd t he n orthern e dge o f t he e scarpment. T he s ize o f e ach t ransect w as not p redetermined; r ather, i t v aried d irectly w ith t he n umber o f c ultural r esources f ound. That i s, t he more s ites f ound, t he s maller t he t ransect. The m ethodology employed during t he s tudy w as t hat o f s ystematic p edestrian s urvey. C rew members w ere s paced a t r egular i ntervals; t hese, h owever, v aried a ccording t o t errain. A t t imes t he i nterval w as a s c lose a s t en m eters, o r l ess; i n s ome i nstances, t hough, c rew members m ight h ave b een s paced a s f ar a part a s 2 00 m eters. This l atter s ituation w as r arer t han t he f ormer. This methodology w as a n o ptimal a nd e xpedient s trategy t o e mploy f or t his p roject. W e r ealized t hat w e m ight m iss s ome s maller s ites during t he w ide i nterval s weeps. These, h owever, w ere made o nly i n s ituations where t he t errain was f lat a nd open a nd t hus o ffered e xcellent v isibility, s o i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny major s ites w ere m issed. Once a p rehistoric s ite w as l ocated, a ll c rew members a ssisted i n r ecording i t o n p reviously p repared s urvey f orms ( Figure 3 ). D epending o n t he n ature o f t he s ite, i t was photographed a nd, i f l ithic d ensity was h igh, a l ithic f ield a nalysis f orm o ften was c ompleted ( Figure 4 ). This l evel o f d etail was p rimarily r estricted t o T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites. No c ollections w ere made. D iagnostic a rtifacts w ere s ketched i n t he f ield. The s urvey f orms w ere d esigned t o p rovide c omparable i nformation. This i ncluded d ata o n l ocation, e nvironmental a nd g eomorphic s etting, e conomic p otential, s ite d imensions, p resumed c ultural a ffiliation, a nd n ature o f t he s ite. A s ection o f t he f orms a lso w as d evoted t o r ecording management d ata. A s ketch map w as made f or t he majority o f s ites r ecorded. .When t he l ithic a nalysis f orm w as u sed, t his n ecessitated c areful g round c overage, o ften o n h ands a nd k nees, o f p ortions o f t he s ite e xhibiting h igh l ithic d ensity. The s ize o f t hese a nalysis u nits v aried, a nd i n s ome c ases, m ore t han o ne u nit p er s ite w as e xamined. O ne c rew m ember w ould c all o ff t he t ype o f a rtifact, w hile a nother w ould r ecord t he i nformation.

3 8

WESTERN D ESERT EXPEDITION, S ITE S URVEY F ORM

E GYPT

C ONTROL DATA S ite N umber: L ocation: M ap R eference: D ate R ecorded: R ecorder: C ultural A ffiliation

( list U DLS-undiagnostic l ithic s catter-if n o a ffiliation

c an b e e stimated): M ethod u sed f or c ultural a ffiliation: d iagnostic a rtifacts

( list t ypes)

s tratigraphy o ther

( list)

E NVIRONMENTAL DATA G round Visibility---(kind a nd t ype o f c over):

D rainage---(distance a nd t ype):

T errain/Topography:

S lope:

E levation:

D irection o f S lope:

S oil: V egetation:

E conomic P otential-(Catchment):

N earest

D une: ( OVER)

F igure

3 .

S ite

s urvey

f orm u sed by t he Western D esert Expedition.

3 9

S ITE D ATA D imensions: ( measured

C ore A rea-,p aced

T otal A rea-,e stimated

E vidence o f A rchitecture/Structures

E vidence o f F eatures

,o ther

( if y es,

g ive t ype):

( give t ype):

E vidence o f S tratigraphy: A rtifacts O bserved

( give t ypes):

E stimated A rtifact D ensity: C ollections M ade?

Y es

L ithic D ata F orm F illed O ut? N o--If y es,

o f w hat? M ethod

S ingle o r M ultiple C omponent: P hotos T aken?

Y es

N o--Roll a nd N o.

( color)

R oll a nd N o.

( B&W)

E stimated S ite T ype: S ite D escription:

M ANAGEMENT D ATA C ondition o f S ite: P revious I mpacts: P otential f or F urther I mpacts: A ccess: P otential f or I n S itu M aterials: R esearch P otential R ecommendations: T esting E xcavation

N o F urther W ork O ther

C OMMENTS ( attach s ite m ap/sketch) F igure 3 --continued.

4 0

C ollections

Y es

N o

W ESTERN D ESERT E XPEDITION,

E GYPT

L ITHIC D ATA F ORM S ITE: A NALYSIS T RANSECT N O.: S IZE:

( overall)

( each u nit)

N UMBER

U NIT T ools

I .

N UMBER

U NIT T ools

i nformal

i nformal

microliths

m icroliths

( specify)

( specify)

p rojectile p oints

p rojectile p oints

f ormal

f ormal

( specify)

C ores

C ores

D ebris

D ebris

D ebitage

D ebitage

( specify)

f lakes w /

5 0%+ c ortex

f lakes w /

5 0%+ c ortex

f lakes w /

5 0%- c ortex

f lakes w /

5 0%- c ortex

b lades w /

5 0%+ c ortex

b lades w /

5 0%+ c ortex

b lades w /

5 0%- c ortex

b lades w /

5 0%- c ortex

M icroflakes

M icroflakes

G roundstone

G roundstone

h andstones

h andstones

g rinding

g rinding

o thers

o thers

,

C OMMENTS:

F igure

4 .

L ithic d ata

a nalysis

f orm u sed b y

4 1

t he Western D esert

E xpedition.

A lthough Pharonic a nd l ater s ites w ere n ot r ecorded o n s urvey f orms, s everal w ere e ncountered. F ield n otes w ere made o n many o f t hese. A nalysis M ethodology S ince n o c ollections w ere made, a nalysis c onsisted p rimarily o f a ssessing t he i nformation r ecorded o n t he s ite a nd l ithic f orms ( see C hapter 4 f or d iscussion o n l ithic t erminology). T his, a s w ell a s p reparation o f t he f inal r eport, t ook p lace a t t he Museum o f A nthropology, U niversity o f K ansas, i n L awrence, K ansas.

4 2

CHAPTER 3 :

LATE QUATERNARY ENVIRONMENTS OF THE WESTERN D ESERT OF EGYPT ( Rolfe D .

Mandel)

I ntroduction P re 7 ous r esearch ( e.g., Gardner 1 932; CatonT hompson 1 :52; Butzer a nd Hansen 1 968; Wendorf a nd S child 1 980) s hows t hat t he Western D esert o f E gypt, t oday o ne o f t ± driest r egions o f t he S ahara, h as e xperienced s everal d ramatic e nvironmental c hanges d uring t he Q uaternary. These c hanges a re r eflected i n t he g eological, palaeontological, a nd a rchaeological r ecord f or t he r egion. T he s equence o f c limatic e vents r esponsible f or t he e nvironmental c hanges c an b e d ivided i nto " wet phases" a nd h yperarid i ntervals. These phases a nd i ntervals r epresent p eriods o f varying l ength a nd i ntensity o f g eological p rocesses. Moreover, t he c limatic f luctuations h ad p rofound e ffects o n f lora, f auna, a nd p eople i n t he Western D esert. This c hapter s ummarizes t he paleoenvironmental i nformation f rom e arlier a rchaeological a nd g eomorphological i nvestigations o f t he Western D esert. I t a lso p rovides n ew g eomorphic data f or a rchaeological s ites i n t he a rea o f Kharga Oasis. This i nformation a llows u s t o b etter u nderstand t he c haracteristics o f t he P leistocene a nd H olocene e nvironments t hat f ormed t he s etting f or h uman o ccupation a nd e xploitation i n t he W estern D esert o f E gypt. Modern E nvironment P hysiography a nd Geology The W estern D esert o f E gypt c omprises a n a rea o f more t han 3 00,000 s quare k ilometers i n t he e astern S ahara. I t i s made u p o f t wo major physiographic p rovinces s eparated b y t he p rominent E ocene s carp ( Figure 5 ). T he a rea n orth o f t he s carp i s k nown a s t he L ibyan P lateau, o r N orthern L ibyan D esert. I t i s a d esolate l andscape c haracterized b y a g ently u ndulating s urface c overed w ith l arge quantities o f g ray l imestone c obbles a nd p ebbles. There a re a lso n umerous p ans a nd b asins s cattered a cross t he p lateau. T hese d epressions a re p roducts o f s olution o r d eflation, o r b oth ( Wendorf e t a l. 1 977:212). T he a rea s outh o f t he E ocene s carp i s k nown a s t he N ubian D esert. This r egion h as a s trikingly d ifferent l andscape c ompared t o t he L ibyan P lateau. I t i s

4 3

Med i ter ranean

7 /E I-D iffa

Sea

P lateau

‘

C a iro

Qattara

\

Depress ion

( \ I S iwa ! Depress io n

L ake Oarun t e r e• F a iyu m

I

S itra Depress i on

I

I I I

V \

e i p . . 0. • 3

B ahar iya Depress ion

Great Sand

Sea 1 11 ,

Dakh la Oas is

K harga Oas is

x r P

B ir T a rfaw i •

Gu lf K eb ir P lateau

EGYPT Gebe l Uwe ina t

F igure

5 .

SUDAN

B urg e l T uyur •

Map o f t ext.

E gypt

s howing

l ocalities d iscussed

i n

characterized by b road, f lat e rosion s urfaces mantled w ith small p ebbles. I n s ome a reas t he Nubia s andstone h as b een e roded by w ind t o f orm f lat-topped g ebels. There a re a lso o ccasional l ow-domed outcrops o f b edrock w ith s urfaces t hat a re s trewn w ith r ounded c obbles. L ong l ines o f h ogbacks, s ome more t han 5 0 k ilometers i n l ength, r adiate a way f rom t hese b edrock upthrusts ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:11-12). I n a f ew a reas t here a re d eeply i ncised w adis w ith s and-choked c hannels a nd d istinct t erraces. Thin s heets o f s and c over most o f t he desert, a nd b archan dunes a re w idely s cattered a cross i ts f lat, monotonous s urface. The s tudy a rea i s l ocated a long t he n orthern f ringe o f t he Nubian D esert n ear Kharga Oasis. Kharga i s o ne o f t he t hree m ajor o ases t hat o ccur a t t he f oot o f t he L ibyan P lateau. I t l ies i n a l ong n orth-south t renchlike b asin, about 2 00 k ilometers i n l ength a nd u p t o 4 5 k ilometers w ide, c arved down t o t he Nubia s andstone. The f loor o f t he Kharga B asin i s 3 50 t o 4 00 meters b elow t he t op o f t he L ibyan P lateau, a nd i t i s o nly o ne meter above s ea l evel i n i ts l owest p lace. The n orthern a nd e astern b oundaries o f t he b asin a re s harply d efined b y t he h igh c liffs o f t he L ibyan P lateau. T oward t he s outh a nd w est, h owever, t he b asin g radually merges i nto t he Nubian D esert. There a re a number o f l arge, s hallow, d eeply d issected s ilt- a nd c lay-filled depressions, o r p layas, w ithin t he Kharga B asin. The smooth s urfaces o f t he p layas n ear t he n orthern a nd s outhern b oundaries o f t he basin a re o ften i nterrupted by f ields o f y ardangs ( Beadnell 1 909:110; Embabi 1 978:84; Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:49; H aynes 1 981:100-101). The y ardangs n ear t he Kharga Oasis a re c omposed o f l aminated s ands a nd s ilts t hat c ontain n umerous s hells o f Melancides t uberculata a nd l ess f requent B ulinus t runcatus. The s ediments a lso c ontain d omestic a nimal r emains, G raeco-Roman pottery, a nd o ther c ultural materials ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:169). T he y ardangs a re a s much a s 1 0 m eters h igh, a nd t hey a ppear t o b e a erodynamically s table f eatures. Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:169) s uggested t hat t hey a re r emnants o f s pring-fed f ields a nd o verflow p ools i n which t he s ediments would b uild u p r apidly during periods o f d ischarge. T he most p rominent e olian l andforms i n t he Kharga B asin a re t he b archan dunes. These f eatures a re o rganized i nto l ong b elts t hat a re a pproximately parallel t o t he l ongitudinal a xis o f t he d epression ( Embabi 1 981:142). The i ndividual dunes a re a s much a s

4 5

2 5 meters h igh, a nd t hey r ange g enerally meters i n l ength ( Embabi 1 981:145).

f rom 3 0

t o 6 50

The f loor o f t he Kharga Basin r ises t oward t he b ase o f t he L ibyan P lateau a long t he e astern f ringe o f t he d epression. Extensive, g ravel-capped pediments s tand a t various l evels below t he t op o f t he p lateau, a nd m any w adis d escend f rom t he f oot o f t he s carp t oward t he c enter o f t he basin. The b edrock o f t he Nubia F ormation i s e xposed a s r idges i n a f ew l ocations, a nd s ome o f t hese r idges d isplay r emnants o f f ossil s prings. The e astern e scarpment o f t he E ocene L ibyan P lateau h as b een d escribed i n a n umber o f s tudies ( e.g., B all 1 900; B eadnell 1 909; Hassan 1 956; H ermina e t a l. 1 961; S aid 1 962; I ssawi 1 977; Wendorf a nd S child 1 980). A ccording t o Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:169), t he p lateau d isplays t he f ollowing s equence o f h ard r ock u nits, s tarting f rom t he t op: T hebes F ormation, c omposed o f l imestone b eds up t o 1 40 m eters t hick, i n which t here a re b ands o f chert n odules; E sna s hale, a pproximately 8 0-meter-thick beds o f g reen l aminated s hales; t he Tarawan F ormation, a c halk u nit r anging f rom 1 0 t o 4 0 meters i n t hickness a nd s ometimes r ichly f ossiliferous; t he D akhla s hale u nit, about 8 0 meters t hick; a s eries o f phosphatic beds; a nd t he Nubia F ormation a t t he b ase, t he t op o f which i s t he Qusseir s hale member ( or v ariegated s hale), u nderlain by t he T arel s andstone member. Westward a long t he e scarpment, b eyond Abu M ingar, t he two upper units d isappear a nd t he t op o f t he e scarpment i s c omposed o f chalky l imestone o f t he T arawan F ormation, o f Paleocene a ge. The Quaternary s equence i n t he Kharga B asin a nd t he a djacent L ibyan p lateau w as s tudied a nd d escribed by G ardner ( 1932, 1 935) a nd C aton-Thompson ( 1952). S ome o f t heir c onclusions a nd c hronological i nterpretations h ave b een d iscussed i n more r ecent l iterature ( Butzer 1 971:328-329; Butzer a nd H ansen 1 968; G autier 1 980). G ardner ( 1932, 1 935) f ocused o n t he t ufa d eposits n orth a nd e ast o f Kharga Oasis. The t ufas f all i nto t wo w elld efined s eries: a n o lder h igh-level m assive r ock a lmost d evoid o f f ossils, r esting i n h orizontal s heets o n t he E ocene r ocks o f t he L ibyan P lateau, a nd a y ounger f ossiliferous r ock t hat o ccurs i n t erraces j ust b elow t he s carp e dge, o r l ies o n g ravels a nd s ilts i n w adis c ut a fter t he f ormation o f t he massive t ufa. The o lder o r " plateau" t ufa i s t entatively r egarded a s a P liocene d eposit, m ainly b ecause o f i ts s tratigraphic a nd p hysiog raphic r elationships ( Gardner 1 935:480). The y ounger t ufas, o r " wadi" t ypes, w ere f ormed i n a t l east t hree d ifferent p eriods, which, a ccording t o t heir a ssociated

4 6

c ultural m aterials, r ange l ate M iddle P aleolithic.

f rom

l ate

L ower P aleolithic

t o

I n t he n orthern s ection o f t he Kharga B asin, n orth o f t he t own o f e l-Kharga, l ow r idges o f r eddish variegated s hale ( Qusseir F ormation) s tand out o n t he l andscape. T hese r idges a re partially m antled b y b eds o f a lluvial g ravels, a nd n umerous s pring m ounds o ccur a long t heir c rests. The r idges a re k nown a s G ebel e s S hams a nd G ebel Kharran, a nd i t i s h ere t hat C aton-Thompson c onducted m ost o f h er r esearch. The p aleoenvironmental i nformation g leaned f rom C aton-Thompson's a nd G ardner's i nvestigations w ill b e d iscussed l ater i n t his c hapter. C limate The W estern D esert o f E gypt i s t he d riest r egion o f t he S ahara, w ith l ess t han o ne m illimeter o f p recipitation p er y ear. I n parts o f t his h yperarid d esert, 3 0 o r more y ears may p ass w ithout m easurable r ainfall. T hus, p recipitation a verages a re meaningless. The r elative h umidity i s l ow t hroughout t he y ear, a nd t here i s a lmost c ontinuous s unshine. The a verage p otential e vaporation r ate i s a pproximately 5 ,000 m illimeters p er y ear ( Haynes 1 981:105). I n t he a rea o f t he Kharga O asis, d aily a verage w ind v elocities r ange b etween 4 .3 a nd 1 8.5 k ilometers p er h our t hroughout t he y ear ( Ezzatt 1 974). The p redominantly n ortherly a nd n orthwesterly d irection o f t he w inds i s r eflected i n t he l ines o f m igrating s and dunes. T he W estern D esert i s l ocated m idway b etween t he s outhernmost r each o f t he w inter r ainfall b elt a long t he Mediterranean a nd t he n orthernmost o ccurrence o f t he s ummer t ropical r ainfall b elt o f C entral A frica. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:12) n oted t hat while n either o f t hese c limatic s ystems c ontribute moisture t o t he r egion, e ach i nfluences t he s easonal c hanges i n t he c limate. .I n w inter ( December t o F ebruary) t he a verage d aily maximum t emperature i n t he Kharga a rea i s a bout 2 4° C , a nd t he a verage d aily m inimum t emperature i s a pproximately 6° C ( Embabi 1 967:12). A lthough s ome w inter r ains o ccur e ast o f t he N ile a long t he R ed S ea C oast, t his p recipitation d oes n ot p enetrate i nland b eyond t he m ountain p eaks o f t he R ed S ea H ills. A h ighp ressure c ell c overs t he W estern D esert during m ost o f t he w inter, r esulting i n s table a tmospheric c onditions.

4 7

S pring ( March t o May) i s a t ransitional s eason g enerally c haracterized b y m ild t emperatures. T here i s a s outherly s hift o f t he s torm t rack t hat guides d epressions f rom w est t o e ast a long t he Mediterranean. Approximately t wo t o s ix d epressions move r apidly a cross E gypt e ach month during t he s pring. These l ow-pressure s ystems a re u sually p receded b y h ot, d ry, d ust-laden w inds t hat c ause s evere s and s torms. I n a ddition, moderate t o s evere h eat w aves o ccur when t he S udan l owp ressure t rough moves n orthward, b ringing h ot a ir a nd l ow r elative h umidity t o t he W estern D esert ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:14). The s ummer ( June t o S eptember) i s v ery h ot a nd dry i n t he Kharga a rea, w ith June a s t he w armest m onth. The p revailing w inds a re f rom t he n orthwest, a nd a re p art o f t he c irculation a round t he A siatic s ummer l ow-pressure s ystem t hat i s c entered o ver n orthwestern I ndia. The mean d aily maximum t emperature a t K harga i n J uly i s about 4 0° C , a nd t he m ean d aily m inimum t emperature i s about 2 2° C ( Embabi 1 967:12). The a utumn c limate ( October a nd N ovember) i s l ike t hat o f t he s pring. T emperatures a re r elatively m ild, a nd t here a re o ccasional h igh w inds a ccompanying d epressions moving f rom w est t o e ast. F lora

a nd F auna

The L ibyan P lateau n ear t he K harga B asin c an b est b e d escribed a s a v ast w asteland t hat p resently l acks a ny t ype o f p lant l ife. Much o f t he K harga B asin i s a lso d evoid o f v egetation, b ut t here a re s ome p lants c lustered a round w ells a nd s prings w here t he g roundwater i s a t o r n ear t he l and s urface. T he m ost p rominent p lants i n a reas where w ater i s a vailable a re d ate palm ( Phoenix dactylifera), d om p alm ( Hyphaene t hebaica), t amarisk ( Tamarix a mphexicaulis a nd T . n ilotica), a nd a cacia ( Acacia r addiana a nd A . f laua)7 T here a re a lso s ticker l egumes, s uch a s h alfa g rass ( Desmostachya b ipinnata o r I mperta c ylindrica) a nd c amel t horn ( Alhagi mourprum), a nd e phermerals, s uch a s t riple-awned g rass ( Aristida p lumosa). R eeds, s uch a s P hragmites c ommunis a nd Typha a ustralis, o ften o ccur i n m arshy a reas o f t he o ases. T he s carcity o f v egetation i n t he K harga B asin a nd N orthern L ibyan D esert i s p aralleled b y a s cant n umber o f f aunal s pecies. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:16) n oted t hat t here a re a f ew s pecies o f b eetles a nd r odents p resent i n a ll b ut t he d riest a reas o f t he W estern D esert. The most c ommon r odents a re f our v arieties o f

4 8

k angaroo m ice ( Gerbillus g erbillus, G . c ampestris, A comys c ahirinus, a nd Jaculus jaculus). A lthough l izards, s uch a s g eckos, a re c ommon i n t he o pen d esert, s nakes a re g enerally r estricted t o t he o ases. G azelle ( Gazella d orcas) a nd f ox ( Vulpes s p.) a re o ccasionally s een a round t he major oases. The p aucity o f f auna a nd f lora i n t he Western D esert i s c learly a r esult o f t he modern h yperarid c limate. T here i s e vidence, h owever, t hat p lant a nd a nimal l ife was more a bundant i n t he r egion during w etter p eriods o f t he P leistocene a nd H olocene. This e vidence w ill b e d escribed l ater i n t he r eport. P leistocene P revious

a nd H olocene E nvironments

I nvestigations

G eoarchaeological a nd p aleoenvironmental r esearch i n t he Western D esert o f E gypt h as p rovided c onsiderable d ata o n t he Q uaternary c limates o f t he e astern S ahara. E vidence f or c limatic c hange i n t he r egion h as e xisted s ince t he m id-1930s. The major s ources o f t his i nformation w ere t he s tudies a t K harga O asis ( CatonT hompson 1 952) a nd t he F ayum ( Caton-Thompson a nd G ardner 1 934). No f urther s tudy o f t he W estern D esert w as made a fter 1 939 u ntil t he Nubian S alvage C ampaign i n 1 963 ( see B utzer 1 964; R eed 1 964; H ester a nd H oebler 1 969). T his c ampaign was f ollowed b y t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition which, i n 1 972, b rought t ogether a rchaeologists, g eologists, p aleontologists, a nd b otanists i n a detailed a nd s ystematic s tudy o f s everal w idely s eparated l ocalities w ithin t he W estern D esert. A t remendous a mount o f paleoenvironmental i nformation was o btained f rom t he s ix f ield s easons o f t he e xpedition ( see W endorf a nd S child 1 980:224-241). T his i nformation h as, i n t urn, l ed t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he past c limates o f t he S ahara. T he f indings o f t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition, a nd o f e arlier i nvestigations, a re s ummarized i n t he f ollowing d iscussion. L ate . Quaternary S equence T he p hysiography a nd p ast c limates o f t he W estern D esert h ave h ad a s trong e ffect o n b oth t he p reservation a nd k inds o f p aleoenvironmental e vidence a vailable i n t he r egion. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:223) n oted t hat t he b est e vidence f or p ast c limates i s a lways a ssociated w ith w etter p eriods. The a rid e pisodes, w hich t end t o o bliterate t he p receding e vidence, a re r epresented e ither b y n o r ecord a t a ll o r o nly b y e rosion a nd/or

4 9

e olian s ediments. They a lso pointed out t hat t he l ack o f s urface d rainage i n a reas s uch a s t he Kharga B asin h as p recluded t he o ccurrences o f a lluvial s ediments s imilar t o t hose t hat h ave b een i mportant i n t he d evelopment o f t he f ossil r ecord e lsewhere i n t he S ahara. Alpine e nvironments, which a re s ensitive t o c limatic change, a re a lso a bsent. Most o f t he p aleoenvironmental e vidence c omes, i nstead, f rom r elatively s mall, e nclosed basins, e ither s pring o r r ain f ed, a nd f rom t he deposits o f f ossil a rtesian s prings, b oth o f w hich a re b elieved t o r espond t o m ajor c limatic c hanges ( Wendorf a nd Schild 1 980:223). T he a ssembled p aleoclimatic d ata i ndicate t hat t here w ere a t l east f our major, w etter p eriods i n t he Western D esert during t he Q uaternary ( Table 3 ). The w etter p eriods h ave b een g iven n ames t hat r eflect t heir p redominant a rchaeological a ssociations: L ate A cheulian, Mousterian, A terian, a nd T erminal P aleolithic/Neol ithic. T he w et phases a ppear t o h ave b een s eparated b y h yperarid i ntervals a t l east a s d ry a s t he modern c limate o f t he e astern S ahara. F igure 6 s hows t he major b ioclimatic pulsations i n t he Western D esert. Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:223) n oted t hat t he major w et phases may b e c omposed o f s everal m inor c limatic f luctuations.

P re-Late A cheulian E nvironments T here i s v ery l ittle e vidence f or t he p re-Late A cheulian e nvironments i n t he W estern Desert. N ear D akhla O asis ( see F igure 5 ), d eposition o f r elatively t hick b eds o f u nsorted b oulders a nd g ravels preceded t he L ate A cheulian. S child a nd W endorf ( 1975:106) n oted t hat t he dynamics o f t ransportation f or t hese s ediments w ould h ave r equired e xtremely h igh s treamflow v elocities. T orrential r ains p roducing s urface r unoff on s teep, b are s lopes c ould h ave b een r esponsible f or t his s edimentation ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:225). T he w adi t ufa d eposits i n t he a rea o f Kharga O asis h ave y ielded s ome i nformation a bout t he p re-Late A cheulian e nvironments. E xtensive r emnants o f t he t ufas o ccur n ear t he t op o f t he s carp a long t he e astern e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau ( Caton-Thompson a nd Gardner 1 932; G ardner 1 932, 1 935; C aton-Thompson 1 952). T hese t ufas a re c omposed o f f resh-water l imestone, t ravertine, a nd f lowstones o f c ryptocrystalline c alcite, a nd t here a re o ften i nclusions o f s ands a nd g ravels. The p lateau t ufas n ear K harga w ere f irst d escribed b y Z ittel ( 1883) a nd B all ( 1900), a nd w ere l ater s tudied i n g reat d etail b y C aton-Thompson a nd G ardner ( 1932). I t i s s till unclear w hether t hese t ufas a re o f f inal P liocene o r o f e arly

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DESERT

R ecent

N eo l ith ic

— E o l ian S ands —E o l ian S ands

T e rm ina l P a leo l ith ic — — D e f lat ion

A te r ian — D e f la t ion

Mouster ian —

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— D e f la t ion P re -La te A cheu l ian —

F igure

6 .

S chematic b ioclimatic S ahara ( after Wendorf

c urve o f t he Egyptian e t a l., 1 976:112).

P leistocene a ge, a nd t he d etailed e nvironment o f d eposition i s vague. B utzer a nd Hansen ( 1968:363) s uggested t hat t hey a re p roducts o f f luvial a ctivity, a lluviation, a nd s pring a ction t hrough s everal d istinct e nvironmental phases. Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:224) a ttribute t he development o f t he t ufas t o p eriods o f " significant" l ocal p recipitation. I n t he a rea o f Kharga O asis t here a re n o k nown s ediments b etween t he p lateau t ufas a nd t he u pper s heet g ravels w ith t he U pper A cheulian, e xcept f or r emnants o f p re-upper s heet g ravels a t v arious e levations a t R efuf P ass a nd Umm-ed-Dabadib ( Caton-Thompson 1 952:5). The p re-upper s heet g ravels a re p edisediments o verlying e roded b edrock a t t wo d ifferent l evels--one 2 5 t o 3 0 m eters a bove t he u pper s heet g ravels, a nd a nother 3 4 t o 4 0 meters above t he w adi f loor ( Caton-Thompson 1 952:5). T he p re-upper s heet g ravels a t Kharga may b e c ontemporaneous w ith t he b eds o f b oulders a nd g ravels a t D akhla, a nd w ith t he p re-Acheulian wadi t ufas ( Tufa I a nd T ufa I I) a t Kurkur. B utzer a nd H ansen ( 1968) a ttribute Wadi Tufas I a nd I I t o t he m iddle P leistocene. T hese t ufas r epresent t wo w adi a ggradations s eparated a nd f ollowed by p eriods o f d issection, a nd t heir f ormation i s a ttributed t o p luvial e rosion o f u plands f ollowed b y s pring a ctivity ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:224). B utzer a nd Hansen ( 1968:363, 3 86) s uggested t hat t he e nvironment was o ne o f d ense v egetative c over, a nd a h igh g roundwater t able maintained b y s easonal r ainfall. T he s tratigraphic r ecord a t B ir S ahara-Bir T arfawi ( see F igure 5 ) i ndicates t hat t his b asin w as b eing f illed w ith s ands during t he m iddle P leistocene. The t hickness o f t he s ands e xceeds 1 0 meters, a nd t he m orphology o f t he g rains i ndicate e olian t ransportation a s t he m ain d epositional p rocess ( Schild a nd W endorf 1 975:106). A ccording t o W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:225), t he upper p ortion o f t he f ill c learly r epresents a n a rid p eriod a ntedating t he L ate A cheulian. I n s ummary, t he g eomorphic e vidence i ndicates t hat t he p re-Late A cheulian c limates o f t he W estern D esert v aried f rom a r elatively m oist f inal P liocene-lower P leistocene t o a much d rier m iddle P leistocene t hat w as o ccasionally s emiarid w ith t orrential r ainfall a nd s carce v egetation, a nd a t o ther t imes h ad c onsiderable s easonal r ainfall. I t i s l ikely t hat t he m oist i ntervals w ere s eparated by h yperarid e pisodes o f e rosion a nd w adi d issection, s uch a s t hat r ecorded i n t he u pper s and f ill

5 5

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a nd

S child

L ate A cheulian Wet P hase(s) The b est e vidence f or t he L ate A cheulian w et phase(s) c omes f rom t he B ir S ahara-Bir T arfawi b asin a nd t he Kharga a nd D akhla o ases. A cheulian a rtifacts o n t he s and p lain a t B ir S ahara s eem t o b e a ssociated w ith d eflated c arbonates o f p edogenic o rigin. Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:225) s uggested t hat t he c arbonates c ould r epresent a p etrocalcic ( K) h orizon o f a s emiarid s oil. The o ptimal e nvironment f or t he d evelopment o f a K h orizon v aries b etween 2 50 a nd 6 00 m illimeters o f p recipitation p er y ear ( Cooke a nd W arren 1 973:104). A t B ir T arfawi, a l arge number o f U pper A cheulian a rtifacts a re a ssociated w ith f reshwater l imestone b eds t hat m ark a ncient l akes ( Wendorf e t a l. 1 977:213). T he l imestone b eds a re s lightly b elow t he l evel o f t he s urrounding s and p lain. I t i s l ikely t hat t hese a ncient l akes w ere f ed b y s prings i n much o f t he s ame f ashion a s w ere l ater l akes i n t he a rea ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:225). A h iatus f ollows t he U pper A cheulian l akes i n t he B ir T arfawi s equence, s uggesting a p eriod o f a ridity a nd c oncomitant d eflation. The n ext e vent i s t he f ormation o f a s pring p ool a t B ir S ahara, w hich c ontains F inal A cheulian a rtifacts, a f ew f ragments o f o strich e gg-shell, a nd f ragments o f b one f rom a n e quid ( Wendorf e t a l. 1 977:213). W endorf a nd S child n oted t hat: T he e vidence f rom B ir S ahara-Bir T arfawi l eads u s t o i nfer a t hreefold s equence o f moister e pisodes, e ach w ith a s lightly d ifferent w ater t able, t hat a re s eparated b y t wo m inor periods o f d eflation a nd p resumed a ridity. T he h ighest w ater t able w as w ith t he o ccupations on t he s and p lains. T his i s f ollowed b y t hat o f t he p onds a t B ir T arfawi, a nd f inally b y t he F inal A cheulian s pring a t B ir S ahara. An open savanna o r g rassland, p erhaps a s emiarid e nvironment w ith s easonal p recipitation, i s i ndicated f or t he a rea d uring t his p eriod ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:225-226). A t K harga, t he L ate A cheulian c oincides w ith a p eriod o f a rtesian s pring d ischarge a nd t he d eposition o f u pper s heet g ravels. T he a rchaeological r ecord i ndicates a c lustering o f h uman o ccupations a round t he s pring v ents. T here a re a lso many A cheulian a rtifacts e mbedded i n t wo s eries o f s heet g ravels a t R efuf P ass o n t he L ibyan P lateau. T he t ufaceous c aps o ver t hese

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g ravels a re r eferred t o a s Tufas I a nd I I. A ccording t o W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:226), t he s equence o f wadi t ufas a nd g ravels a t R efuf Pass " suggests t hat e ach u nit o f gravel r epresents a n i nitial period o f i ncreased wadi d eposition i n h igh-velocity s treams, i mplying t orrential d ischarge a nd r elatively s carce v egetation, f ollowed by a period when f ine c lastic materials a nd c arbonates were f ormed i n ponds a nd s lowly moving water, o r s prings." The f loIal a nd f aunal r ecords i n t he w adi t ufa d eposits n ear Kharga Oasis ( Gardner 1 935) p rovide v aluable p aleoenvironmental i nformation f or t he L ate A cheulian. T he t ufas c ontain p lant r emains a nd molds ( leaves, s tems, n uts) a nd g astropod s hells. Most o f t he f ossil f lora i s w ithin t he h ighest w adi t ufa b elow t he s carp o f t he L ibyan P lateau. G ardner ( 1935:510) n oted t hat f igs a re t he dominant p lants, e specially F icus i ngens. There a re a lso f ruits o f a s pecies o f C eltis, m onocotyledonous l eaves ( possibly t hose o f Phoenix s ylvestris), a nd t he r emains o f t he f ern P teris v ittata a nd many r eeds ( Arundo s p.). The f lora i s t ypically A frican, a nd a c omparison w ith modern s pecies s hows t hat i t was p oorly d eveloped ( Gardner 1 935:510). The r ichest f aunal a ssemblage a t Kharga i s f rom a s ilt d eposit b elow t he l owest wadi t ufa. G ardner ( 1935:495) s uspected t hat t he s ilts a re F inal A cheulian i n a ge. S he f ound 2 6 s pecies a nd varieties o f m olluscs, o f which 1 4 a re t errestrial. T he t errestrial s hells a re mostly small f orms c haracteristic o f marshes a nd damp p laces; t here i s o nly o ne t ypically d esert s pecies. O f t he 1 4 s pecies r epresented a mong t he l and s nails, h alf a re paleoarctic. About o ne-fourth a re t ropical s pecies, a nd o nly o ne-fifth a re modern E gyptian f orms. The a quatic s nails c onsist mainly o f pulmonates, w hich a re a bundant a nd w ell d eveloped. There a re t wo b rachiates, M elanoides t uberculata a nd t he b rackish w ater H ydrobia s tagnalis. O f t he 1 2 s pecies o f a quatic s nails i dentified b y G ardner ( 1935), a ll b ut o ne a re E gyptian f orms. She n oted t hat s ince t he s ame a ssemblage o ccurs i n the N ile V alley t ufas, t he m olluscs o f t he w adi t ufas a t Kharga p robably l ived i n s mall, s tagnant p ools a nd

m arshes.

The p resence o f p aleoarctic f orms a mong t he t errestrial s nails a t Kharga s uggests t hat s ummer t emperatures w ere c onsiderably c ooler. T his i nterpretation i s s upported b y D egens' ( 1962) o xygen1 8/oxygen-16 i sotopic t emperature d eterminations o n s nail s hells f rom t he w adi t ufa d eposits. The r esults o f h is a nalysis i ndicate a mean a nnual t emperature 6° C c ooler t han t oday. O n t he o ther h and, t he p resence o f

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t ropical f orms s uggests warmer w inters t han t oday, a nd t hus t he c limate would h ave b een more e quable t han t he modern o ne. The p re e nce o f f ig a nd C eltis i ndicates a n a nnual r ainfall o f b etween 2 00 a nd 4 00 m illimeters ( Caton-Thompson 1 952), c onsiderably more t han i s r eceived t oday i n E gypt a long t he Mediterranean c oast ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:226). There i s e vidence f rom o ther r egions o f t he Sahara t hat i ndicates w etter c limates during t he L ate A cheulian. I n t he C entral S ahara, e xtensive b eds o f l acustrine d iatomaceous f ormations c ontain L ate A cheulian a rtifacts a nd a r ich f aunal a ssemblage ( Arambourg 1 948; A rambourg a nd B alout 1 952; R eygasse 1 935). The f auna i ncluded white r hinocerous ( Ceratotherium s imum), e lephant ( Elephas r ecki), a ss ( Equus g iant b uffalo ( Homoiceras a ntiquus), medium-sized a ntelope ( Alcelaphus b ubalis), a nd l arge a ntelope ( Taurotragus s p.). C lark a nd others ( 1973) r eported t hat L ate A cheulian m aterials o ccur w ith l acustrine d eposits a t A drar B aus, a lso i n t he C entral S ahara. N ear t he N ile a t A rkin 8 , L ate a nd F inal A cheulian s ites o ccur a long t he b anks o f w adis ( Chmielewski 1 968). S mall a mounts o f L ate A cheulian m aterial h ave a lso b een f ound o n a nd w ithin o ld N ile s ilts a t D andara j ust n orth o f L uxor ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 976b:97). The g eomorphic a nd paleoecologic e vidence f rom Kharga a nd o ther a reas o f t he S ahara i ndicates t hat t he c limate o f t he L ate A cheulian w as c onsiderably wetter t han t he modern o ne. L ocal r ainfall w as g reat e nough t o s upport t he f low o f wadis, t o p romote t he emergence o f s prings, a nd t o c reate l akes. W endorf a nd Schild ( 1980:228) a rgue t hat r ainfall i n more d istant areas, s uch a s s outhern S udan, c ould n ot h ave produced a ll t hese p henomena i n t he E gyptian S ahara. F urthermore, t he f aunal a nd f loral r ecords f rom t he W estern Desert s uggest t he p resence o f a t l east a g rassland, w ith a rboreal v egetation a round l akes a nd s prings, a nd bushes a nd . shrubs i n t he w adis. T he o ccurrence o f b oth p aleoarctic a nd t ropical s pecies o f molluscs i n L ate A cheulian w adi t ufa d eposits n ear Kharga Oasis s uggests t hat t he s ummers w ere m uch c ooler a nd t he w inters w ere w armer t han t oday. T hus, t he L ate A cheulian c limate a ppears t o h ave b een c haracterized b y g reater r ainfall a nd l ess s easonality t han t he m odern o ne.

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P ost-Acheulian D ry I nterval The L ate Acheulian w et p hase w as f ollowed by a major e pisode o f h yp9raridity. T he magnitude o f t his dry i nterval i s i ndicated by t he d evelopment o f t he d eep d eflational b asins a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir Tarfawi ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:228). S couring o f t hese b asins b y w ind was e xtended t o a d epth b elow t he p resent water t able. S oon a fterwards, t he B ir S ahara a nd B ir Tarfawi b asins w ere p artially f illed w ith s and dunes. The l ack o f human, f aunal, a nd f loral r ecords b etween t he L ate A cheulian a nd Mousterian w et phases s uggests t hat t he W estern D esert may h ave b een p ractically d evoid o f l ife f or m ost o f t his p eriod.

Mousterian W et Phase T he b eginning o f t he Mousterian w et phase i s i ndicated b y t he f ormation o f p hytogenic dunes i n t he l ower portion o f t he b asins a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:228). Mousterian c ultural m aterials w ere f ound w ithin t he s and dunes ( Schild a nd W endorf 1 975:108), i ndicating t hat t hey w ere l eft during t he t ime when t he dunes w ere s till f orming. A ccording t o Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:228), t he phytogenic d unes a re p roducts o f a r ising w ater t able, t hough t he p revailing e nvironmental c onditions a re t hought t o b e s emiarid a t b est. A s t he w ater t able c ontinued t o r ise, s wamplike c onditions o ccurred i n t he d epressions a t B ir S ahara. This w as f ollowed by t he d evelopment o f a r elatively l arge l ake w ith w ell-aerated w aters c ontaining a bundant p lant l ife ( Gautier 1 980:3173 18; 1 981:31) The l ack o f w ell-developed i ncoming wadis, a nd t he n umerous s pring r ings o n t he f loor o f t he d epression, s uggest t hat t he l ake w as f ed b y s pring d ischarge ( Schild a nd W endorf 1 975:108). A lthough t he l ake r eached a n e levaticn o f a t l east 2 48 m eters a bove s ea l evel, t here i s e vidence t hat t he l evel o f t he s horeline c onstantly f luctuated i n r esponse t o c hanges i n t he l evel o f t he w ater t able. T hese f luctuations a re s hown by t he l ithological c haracter o f t he l acustrine s ilts, which d isplay e rosional c ontacts a nd b eds o f b urned s ediments c aused b y f ires a mong t he d ry, n ears hore v egetation, a nd a lso b y t he o ccurrence o f M ousterian c omponents w ithin t hree o r f our s eparate s trata o f t he w ater-laid s ediments ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:228-229). T he f reshwater i nvertebrates i n t he s ediments a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi a re c omposed o f f ive s pecies o f pulmonate g astropods ( Lymnaea n atalensis, B iomphalaria a lexandrina, G yraulus c ostulatus, Bulinus f orskalii, a nd B . t runcatus), s everal s pecies o f

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p rosobranch g astropods ( Melanoides t uberculata, H ydrobia s p.) a nd o ne s pecies o f s maller b ivalve ( Corbicula c onsobrina). G autier ( 1980:318) n oted t hat t he r arity o f C orbicula c onsobrina, a nd t he f act t hat o ther s mall b ivalves s uch a s P isidium, S phaerium, a nd B yssanodonta h ave n ot y et b een f ound, p oint t o r estricted b odies o f w ater. The M ousterian o ccupations o n t he e dges o f t he l ake a t B ir S ahara y ielded a r ich mammalian f auna a ssemblage t hat i ncluded w hite r hinocerous ( Ceratotherium s imum), w ild a ss ( Equus a sinus), c amel ( Camelus w arthog ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus?), a l arge b ovid ( Homoioceras a ntiquus?), a nd a n u nidentified a ntelope. A s a whole, t he M ousterian v ertebrate f auna a t B ir S ahara i s c haracterized b y h erbivores l iving i n h erds o r s mall b ands i n o pen b iotypes o f s avanna o r s teppe. B iogeographically, t he f aunal a ssemblage i s E thiopian, w ith t he e xception o f t he e xtinct C amelus t homasis ( Gautier 1 980:325). T he p resence o f a w arthog i ndicates t hat t here w ere r ich, m esic, h abitats i n t he B ir S ahara b asin. T he w arthog p refers t o l ive i n w et e nvironments, where i t f eeds o n h erbs, f ruits, r oots, t ubercles, a nd a quatic p lants ( Malbrant 1 952). However, t he s carcity o f w arthog i n t he f aunal a ssemblage s uggests t hat t hese c onditions w ere l imited t o t he i mmediate s urroundings o f t he l ake a t B ir S ahara. M ost o f t he v ertebrate f auna r ecorded a t B ir S ahara a re s till f ound t oday i n t he S udan o r C had a t d istances a t l east 1 000 k ilometers s outhwest, s outh, o r s outheast o f t he Mousterian s ites. G autier ( 1980:325) s uggested t hat t he c ontraction o f t heir r ange w as d ue t o t he c ombined e ffect o f h uman a ctivities ( hunting, h erding a nd a griculture) a nd Quaternary c limatic c hange. A t B urg e l T uyur i n t he s outhern p art o f t he S elima S and S heet ( see F igure 5 ), H aynes ( 1982:632) i dentified t hree l andscape s urfaces o n t he b asis o f t he p aleosol r ecord. T he o ldest s urface i s c haracterized b y a s trongly d eveloped r ed p aleosol f ormed i n a lluvium. H aynes ( 1982:632) s uggested t hat t his p aleosol i s a p roduct o f a p re-Neolithic " pluvial" p eriod a nd m ay b e c oeval w ith M ousterian o ccupations, b ecause s uch a rtifacts w ith r elatively u nabraded u ndersides h ave b een o bserved i n l agged p ositions o n t hese d eflated s urfaces. T he M iddle P aleolithic w as a p eriod o f r enewed s pring d ischarge i n t he a rea o f t he K harga O asis ( CatonT hompson 1 952: 7 5-80). A n i ncrease i n l ocal r ainfall i s i ndicated b y w adi s ilts a nd t ufas c ontaining L evallois e lements. H owever, t he s pring v ents a nd w adis d o n ot a lways y ield e vidence f or t he t wofold c haracter

6 0

( Mousterian a nd A terian) o f t he M iddle P aleolithic w et p hase documented a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi. Wendorf a nd Schild ( 1980: 2 29) n oted t hat Mousterian a nd A terian a ssemblages c annot b e d istinguished e xcept b y t he p resence o f p edunculates o r b ifacial f oliates i n t he l atter, a nd t he l ow f requencies o f t hese A terian t ools a t Kharqa o ften p revent a f irm d istinction when s amples a re small. The f loral a nd i nvertebrate f aunal r ecords f rom t he w adi t ufas a t K harga t hat w ere d iscussed i n t he p revious s ection o n L ate A cheulian e nvironments a lso i nclude s pecies f rom t he wadi t ufas a ssociated w ith t he M iddle P aleolithic. T he c limatic i nferences g iven f or t he L ate A cheulian may t herefore a pply t o t he M iddle P aleolithic a s well ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980: 2 30).

P ost-Mousterian D ry I nterval A r eturn t o a rid c onditions i s i ndicated b y t he f ormation o f e vaporites o n t he s urface o f l acustrine s ediments a t B ir S ahara ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980: 2 29). T he t rend t owards a ridity i s a lso i ndicated b y t he a ppearance o f e olian s ediments i nterfingered w ith t he e vaporites. T he water t able a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi a gain d ropped t o a l evel b elow t hat o f t oday, r esulting i n t he d eflation o f t he e arlier l acustrine d eposits. T his e pisode o f d eflation w as a ccompanied by a n i ncrease i n dune a ctivity. The l ack o f a ny e vidence o f plant o r a nimal l ife i n t he W estern D esert during t he p ost-Mousterian d ry i nterval s uggests t hat t he c limate w as a t l east a s a rid a s i t i s t oday.

A terian W et Phase The A terian wet p hase b egan w ith t he f ormation o f p hytogenic dunes i n t he b ottoms o f t he B ir S ahara a nd B ir Tarfawi b asins ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980: 2 29). The p resence o f l acustrine d eposits o verlying e olian s ands i ndicates t hat t here w as a c onsiderable r ise o f t he w ater t able. A s t he w ater t able r ose, s pring d ischarge w as .i nitiated, c ausing t he f ormation o f l arge l akes i n t he b asins. T he l ake l evels s lightly e xceeded 2 47.7 m eters a bove s ea l evel, a nd t he mollusc a ssemblage i ndicates t hat t he w ater c haracteristics w ere b asically t he s ame a s t hose o f t he Mousterian w et p hase ( Gautier 1 973). H owever, l ike t he M ousterian w et p hase, t here w ere f luctuations i n t he l ake l evels. T hese f luctuations a re i ndicated b y s everal l ithostratigraphic f eatures i n t he l acustrine d eposits ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:229), a nd b y t he p resence o f l and s nails a nd n umerous

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mammalian f auna d eposits.

( Gautier 1 980:318-326)

i n t he w ater-laid

The f reshwater m ollusc a ssemblage i n t he u ppermost l acustrine d eposit a t B ir S ahara i s d ominated b y M elanoides t uberculata, B iomphalaria a lexandria, a nd G ryaulus c ostulatus. T here a re f ewer B ulinus t runcatus, B . f orskalii, C orbicula c onsorbina, a nd t he l and snail P upoides c oenopictus. T he A terian l acustrine deposits a t B ir T arfawi a lso c ontained n umerous f reshwater s nails o f w hich t he m ost f requent i s M elanoides t uberculata, a nd s everal p ulmonates, i ncluding B ulinus s p., B iomphalaria s p., G yraulus s p., a nd L ymnaea s p. T he i nvertebrate f aunal r ecords a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi i ndicate a r ich b iotype i n s hallow f reshwater l akes. T he u ppermost l acustrine d eposits a t B ir T arfawi c ontained n umerous a nimal r emains i n a ssociation w ith A terian a rtifacts. M any a rtifacts a nd f aunal r ef f iains h ave a lso b een f ound i n " beach" s ediments n ear t he edges o f t he p layas ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 977:215). The m ammalian f aunal a ssemblage i s d ominated b y white r hinoceros ( Ceratotherium s imum), f ollowed by a l arge b ovid ( Homioceras a ntiquus 17 ) -7-- a n e xtinct, l arge camel ( Camelus t homasi), w ild a ss ( Equus a sinus), r ed-fronted g azelle ( Gazella r ufifrons), s mall g azelle ( G. d ama ? ), f ox ( Vulpes r uppeli ? ), j ackal ( Canis a urenus l upaster ? ), t urtles, o strich, a nd s everal unidentified l arge a nd m iddle-sized a ntelopes ( Gautier 1 980:318-326). The f aunal a ssemblages f or t he Mousterian a nd A terian w et phases r ecorded a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi a re v ery s imilar. T he p aleontological e vidence, c ombined w ith t he s tratigraphic r ecord, s uggests that s imilar e nvironments p revailed d uring e ach M iddle P aleolithic w et p hase. T he p resence o f l arge g razers, s uch a s t he w hite r hinoceros a nd e xtinct b uffalo, i ndicate a g rassland. T he o ccurrence o f r ed-fronted g azelle a nd e xtinct c amel, moreover, s uggests t hat i t w as a d ry s avanna o r s teppe ( Gautier 1 980:325), p erhaps a n e nvironment s imilar t o t hat o f c entral S udan t oday. T here i s e vidence f or r enewed s pring a ctivity n ear K harga O asis, w here r ich A terian a ssemblages were r ecovered b y C aton-Thompson ( 1952:86-90). S he a lso i dentified a c omplex s equence o f w adi s ediments a t Bulaq P ass o n t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. T wo t ufa t erraces ( III a nd I V) a re a ssigned t o t he L ower a nd U pper L evalloisian; a p eriod o f e rosion s eparates t hese f rom t he L evalloiso-Kharga w adi g ravels; a nd a nother m inor e pisode o f e rosion i s b elieved t o o ccur b etween t he L evalloiso-Khargan w adi g ravels a nd a p eriod o f

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A terian w adi s iltation. C aton-Thompson ( 1952:28) a lso r eported t he p resence o f A terian a rtifacts a ssociated w ith s mall b asins, o r s and p ans, n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. S ome o f t hese b asins a re o ver t hree m eters d eep a nd c ontain f ine s ilts a nd s ands. Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:230) n oted t hat t hey a re c learly a nalogous t o t he M iddle P aleolithic s and pans i n t he h igh desert o f t he L ibyan P lateau. The g eomorphological e vidence f rom t he a rea o f K harga a rea c learly i ndicates t hat t here w as a n i ncrease i n e ffective p recipitation during t he A terian. F urthermore, t he h igh l ake l evels a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi must h ave b een c aused, i n part, by l ocal a nd r egional r ainfall during t he M iddle P aleolithic. The s prings t hat f ed t hese l akes u ndoubtedly r eceived water f rom m ore d istant s ources, a s t hey d o t oday, but h ow m uch t his r epresented i n t he t otal volume h as n ot b een d etermined. W endorf a nd S child c ommented: We a re i nclined t o b elieve, b ut c annot p roperly d emonstrate, t hat t he h igh l ake l evels i n t he S ahara r esulting f rom l ocal r ainfall w ere c aused by a n orthward s hift o f t he m onsoonal summer r ain. This h ypothesis would a gree w ith t he observation a t B ir T arfawi t hat t he b etter d eveloped w ave b each f eatures a re o n t he n orthern portion o f t he l ake, s upposedly a r esult o f s trong s outherly w inds. I f t his a rea was i ndeed well w ithin t he monsoonal b elt, t hen s trong s easonal v ariations i n p recipitation a lso c ould b e i nferred. T his w ould s trongly a ffect b oth a nimal a nd h uman p opulations ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:234). U nfortunately, i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he e xtent a nd d uration o f t he e nvironmental c hanges o f t he M iddle P aleolithic. T he a bsolute a ges o f t he s ediments a nd a ssociated f aunal r emains f rom t his p eriod a re b eyond t he r ange o f p resent r adiocarbon t echnology. D ating i s a lso c omplicated b y c ontamination. W endorf a nd o thers ( 1977: 2 20) n oted t hat t he a quifer which s upplied g roundwater t o s prings a t K harga a nd B ir S ahara w ere r echarged b y p recipitation i n d istant a reas, s uch a s t he G ilf e l K ebir, U nweinat, o r T ibesti. C onsequently, s everal t housand y ears c ould s eparate t he o riginal p recipitation o f t he w ater a nd i ts e ventual e mergence f rom t he s prings. The a quatic s nails i n t he l akes a t B ir S ahara w ould t hen b e l iving i n f ossil w ater, a nd t hey w ould a bsorb o ld c arbon f rom t he w ater. T hus, t he s hells

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o f molluscs w ould y ield t heir t rue a ge.

r adiocarbon dates

o lder

t han

P ost-Aterian D ry I nterval The A terian w et phase was f ollowed b y a l ong period o f deflation marking t he r eturn o f h yperarid c onditions i n t he Western D esert. D eflation c ut t hrough t he p receding l acustrine a nd e olian s ediments a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi, f orming t he modern l andscape o f t he Nubian D esert. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:234) n oted t hat " [N]owhere i n t he Western D esert i s t here a ny e vidence f or s ignificantly i ncreased p recipitation, spring a ctivity, o r e ven t he p resence o f h uman o ccupation t hat m ight b e r elated t o t he t ime s pan b etween t he M iddle P aleolithic a nd t he T erminal P aleolithic." B eaudet a nd o thers ( 1976:158) s uggested t hat t he S ahara D esert s hifted s outhward f rom 4° t o 5° f ollowing t he A terian w et phase. A f luctuation o f t hat m agnitude would h ave p laced t he d esert a bout 5 00 k ilometers b elow i ts present b oundary. During t his h yperarid i nterval, l acustrine d eposits i n t he Chad b asin w ere b uried b y e olian s ands ( Servant a nd S ervant-Vildary 1 972:88). Throughout t he S ahara t he l akes s eem t o d isappear ( Chamard 1 973a, 1 973b; M ichel e t a l. 1 968). D eep-sea c ores o ff t he West A frican c oast s how a n i ncrease i n w indblown s and i mmediately a fter t he A terian ( Diester-Haas 1 976). A nother s eries o f c ores f rom t he R ed S ea a nd t he Gulf o f Aden d isplay c hanges i n f oraminifera, which a re b elieved t o i ndicate, i ndirectly, c onditions o f a ridity ( Deuser e t a l. 1 976). I n s ummary, t here i s f irm e vidence f rom t he Western D esert a nd f rom o ther a reas o f N orth A frica t hat i ndicates a l ong a nd s evere p ost-Aterian h yperarid i nterval. This r ainless p eriod c ontinued u ntil t he T erminal P aleolithic o f t he e arly H olocene.

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic Wet P hase(s) The e vidence f or a p ost-Pleistocene w et p hase i n t he Western D esert c omes p rimarily f rom t he a reas o f E l N abta, G ilf e l K ebir, K harga, D yke, B ir K iseba, a nd t he G reat S and S ea i n t he s outhern a nd c entral portions, a nd f rom t he S iwi O asis a nd t he Q attara D epression i n t he n orth ( see F igure 5 ). This e vidence i ncludes T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic a rtifacts a ssociated w ith p layas, s pring d eposits, a nd paleosols. There a re a lso f aunal a ssemblages t hat i ndicate a n a melioration o f t he c limate f ollowing t he P leistocene. A ltogether, t he d ata

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o n t he H olocene i ndicate t hree e pisodes o f i ncreased r ainfall s eparated by i ntervals o f h yperaridity. A ccording t o Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980:236) t he a pproximate c hronology o f t hese e vents i s a s f ollows: P laya I F irst A rid I nterval P laya I I S econd A rid I nterval P laya I II

9 000-8500 B P 8 500-8200 B P 8 200-7900 B P 7 900-7700 B P 7 700-5800 B P

The c omplex pattern o f H olocene w et a nd d ry i ntervals i s b est d isplayed i n t he l ithostratigraphy o f p layas a t N abta. During t he p receding a rid i nterval, w ind e rosion h ad s coured o ut deep b asins i n t he b edrock. B eginning a round 9 500 B .P., e olian s ands w ere d eposited i n the b ottom o f t he d eflated b asins, s ometimes i n t he f orm o f phytogenic dunes ( Wendorf e t a l. 1 977:226). T here were a lso s urface washes c omposed o f r eworked dune s ands, a nd t hin pond d eposits made u p o f s ilt a nd/or c lay b eds ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:100). A ccording t o W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:100), i t i s l ikely t hat t he c limate w as b asically a rid, b ut t here w ere s cattered, i ntense r ainfalls. As s easonal r ainfall i ncreased, p laya l akes f ormed i n t he l ower p ortions o f t he b asins ( Playa I ). These p layas, which a re i ndicated by l acustrine s ilts a nd c lays, w ere e stablished by 9 000 B .P. T erminal P aleolithic o ccupations a re a ssociated w ith b oth t he p hytogenic dunes a nd t he l acustrine d eposits. W endorf a nd Schild ( 1980:103) p roposed t hree g eomorphic s ettings f or t hese o ccupations: ( 1) o n dunes s urrounded b y p layas; ( 2) o n s andy b eaches a long p laya margins; a nd ( 3) on s easonally d ry p laya s urfaces. S easonal r ainfall d eclined a t N abta s oon a fter 8 500 B .P. This d rier i nterval, o f u nknown duration, i s d ocumented i n t he E l K ortein P laya, where a n e xtensive T erminal P aleolithic s ettlement w as e stablished o n t he p laya s ediments a nd c hurned u p b y c ontracting c lays • instead o f b eing c overed b y a ggrading l acustrine s ediments ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:102). Arid c onditions w ere r eversed a t N abta s oon a fter 8 100 B .P., a s i ndicated by t he c ombined c ultural a nd s edimentary e vidence o f p laya c lays ( Playa I I) b eing d eposited o ver p artially f illed N eolithic p its. N eolithic o ccupation b egan i n t he a rea b etween c a. 8 300 a nd 8 000 B .P., w ith E arly Khartoum p ottery i mmediately a bove t he l atest P aleolithic v estiges ( Gautier 1 981:32). P laya I I w as f ollowed b y a major e pisode o f a ridity. D eflation a nd dune m igration during t his p eriod a re i ndicated b y a n e rosional c ontact o n t he P laya I I

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s ediments, a nd by e olian s and o verlying l acustrine deposits ( Haynes 1 980:370).

t he

t runcated

The n ext e pisode o f i ncreased p recipitation a nd p laya d evelopment ( Playa I II) i s s hown b y a s eries o f l acustrine c lays a nd s ilts a butting t he e olian sands. The a ccumulation o f P laya I II s ediments c ontinues f rom a t l east s lightly b efore 7 000 B .P., u ntil 5 820 B .P., w ith s everal m inor pulsations ( Wendorf a nd Schild 1 980:102). The a rea w as o ccupied ( or r eoccupied) b y N eolithic p eople during t his p eriod. The modern h yperarid c limate w as e stablished s oon a fter 5 800 B .P. A s i n t he N abta r egion, t he d ata f rom t he Great S and S ea s how i ncreasing precipitation n ear t he e nd o f t he P leistocene. H aynes ( 1982) e xamined t he r elation o f p laya s ediments a nd a ssociated a rchaeological s ites w ith l ongitudinal dunes s outh o f S iwa. N eolithic a rtifacts w ere f ound o n f oreset l ayers o f e olian s and i nterbedded w ith p laya muds. T he p resence o f a lternating b eds o f e olian a nd l acustrine s ediments s uggests t hat t he N eolithic wet p hase was i nterrupted by h yperarid i ntervals, a s i ndicated e lsewhere i n t he Western Desert. R adiocarbon dates o n i ndividual l ag c oncentrations o f o strich s hell i ndicate a t l east t wo s eparate o ccupations, o ne a bout 4 780 B .P., a nd a nother a bout 6 660 B .P. H aynes ( 1982:630) s uggested t hat a N eolithic o ccupation a t t he t op o f d une s and a nd partly i nterbedded w ith p laya f acies c oincided w ith a playa phase ( Playa I II) a bout 6 600 y ears a go. During t his phase, t he dune s and was a t l east p artly i nundated b y w ater. T he o ccupation a bout 5 000 y ears a go was e ither a t t he e nd o f t he l atest p laya p hase o r p ossibly l ater, w ith h and-dug w ells b eing t he f inal s ource o f w ater f or h uman u se. A t K harga, t he e arly H olocene w et phase m arks t he r enewal o f n atural a rtesian s pring d ischarge, a nd t he f ormation o f l arge s ilty p layas i n t he Kharga b asin a nd s mall p layas o n t he L ibyan P lateau. Much o f t he data o n t he H olocene c limate(s) o f t he K harga r egion a re f rom s tudies o f d eflated s pring mounds ( e.g., C aton-Thompson 1 952; G ardner 1 932; W endorf e t a l. 1 977). These mounds a re f ormed o n t he c rests o f s andstone r idges l ocated s everal k ilometers n ortheast o f t he t own o f e l-Kharga. D uring t he m id-1970s, m embers o f t he C ombined P rehistoric E xpedition ( see W endorf e t a l. 1 977) r ee xamined t he s pring m ounds e xcavated b y C aton-Thompson. T heir r econstruction o f r ecorded H olocene e vents i n t he K harga B asin b egins w ith t he s tabilization o f eolian s ands i n t he s wales b etween t he s andstone r idges. These s ands a re p reserved i n t he v icinity o f t he s prings,

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w here t he s ediments w ere s tabilized b y t he v egetation s urrounding t he v ents. The uppermost p ortion o f t he s ands c ontain f resh T erminal Paleolithic a rtifacts, i ndicating a s table s urface t hat may h ave b een c overed b y s ome v egetation. The e olian s ands a re o verlain b y p laya-like s ediments. These s ediments a re c omposed i n t heir l ower p ortion o f t hick c lays f ormed i n s pring-fed, p ond-like b asins. T he u pper p ortion o f t he s ection i s c haracterized b y a lternating s and a nd s ilt d eposits i n f inely l aminated b eds. W endorf a nd o thers ( 1977:228) s uggested t hat t he c hange i n t he dynamics o f s edimentat ion b etween t he u pper a nd l ower d eposits i s a r esult o f d iminished s pring d ischarge a nd i ncreased e olian t ransp ort. The l ower p ortion o f t he t hick l acustrine c lays c ontain t races o f a T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation, a nd t here a re a f ew N eolithic a rtifacts i n t he u pper s ection o f t he c lays. T he quantity o f N eolithic a rtifacts i nc reases d ramatically i n t he l owermost p ortion o f t he l aminated s and-silt d eposit. The t op o f t his l acustrine d eposit w as t runcated a nd s ubsequently c overed b y a more r ecent s et o f l aminated s ands a nd s ilts. These s urface s ediments c ontain many G raeco-Roman a rtifacts. The G raeco-Roman p layas h ave b een s everely d eflated, a nd t he r emnants o f t he s ediments a re p reserved i n a f ew a reas a s c lusters o f y ardangs. T he L ate H olocene e pisode o f e rosion i s s till c ontinuing, a nd e xtensive b archan dunes a nd s and s heets c over much o f t he Kharga B asin. There i s v ery l ittle p aleobotanical e vidence a ssociated w ith l ate P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene s ediments i n t he Western D esert. T he l imited f loral r ecord f rom a reas s outh o f t he L ibyan P lateau i ndicates t he p resence o f a cacia, s alsola, t amarisk, d om p alm, a nd d ate p alm, a s w ell a s s everal varieties o f g rasses, w eeds, a nd c ereals ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:237). S ome i nformation a bout t he d istribution o f v egetation c an b e i nferred f rom t he p layas s outh o f t he K iseiba s carp ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:236). The l ithostratigraphy o f t he p layas i ndicate t hat t hey w ere f ormed b y d eposition f rom s urface f loods a nd e olian a ctivity. M otts ( 1965) r efers t o t his t ype o f p laya a s a " total s urface-water d ischarge p laya." V egetation a ssociated w ith t hese p layas i s u sually d istributed i n a r ing a round t he p eriphery o f t he b asin. T he c entral a rea o f t he p laya i s b arren d ue t o t he h igh c oncentration o f e xpandable c lays. T he c ontraction o f t hese c lays, c aused b y a lternating w et a nd d ry s easons, p revents v egetational g rowth ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:236). The f auna a ssociated w ith T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites i n t he W estern D esert i s much d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he M iddle P aleolithic s ites a t B ir S ahara

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a nd B ir T arfawi. F aunal a ssemblages a t B ir K iseiba a nd G ebel N abta a re d ominated b y s mall d orcas g azelle ( Gazella dorcas), t he s lightly l arger r ed-fronted g azelle ( G. r ufifrons), a nd h are ( Lepus c apensis). W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:236) n oted t hat t he d ominance o f s mall r uminants i ndicate a s emiarid e nvironment w ith a r elatively l ow b iomass. T he a bsence o f l arge u ngulates, e xcept f or p resumably d omestic B os, s uggests much l ess f avorable e cological c onditions d uring t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic c ompared t o t he M iddle P aleolithic ( Gautier 1 980:168). T he N eolithic s ites a t Kharga y ielded v ery f ew a nimal r emains. C aton-Thompson ( 1952:168) r eported a g azelle mandible f ragment ( Gazella d orcas?) a nd t eeth o f H yaena c f. s triata. T here w ere a lso t ooth f ragments f rom a l arge b ovid s pecies a nd f rom g azelle ( G. dorcus?) o r a c aprovid. The G raeco-Roman p laya s ediments n ear Kharga O asis c ontained n umerous s hells o f M elanoides t uberculata, w ith o ccasional c lusters o f B ulinus t runcatus ( Wendorf e t a l. 1 977). T he character a nd p aucity o f f auna i ndicate t hat t he p laya w as a v ery u nstable e nvironment o f t emporary p onds, w ith l ong p eriods o f d esiccation. T he a vailable p aleoenvironmental d ata s uggest t hat t he a rea o f G ebel N abta w as s imilar t o t he modern s emidesert o f S udan d uring t he N eolithic. The n orthern l imit o f t he s emidesert p resently c oincides w ith t he 8 0t o 9 0-millimeter i sohyet, w hereas t he s outhern l imit i s b etween t he 3 00- a nd 4 00-millimeter i sohyets ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:237). T he v egetation i n t his r egion i s c omposed mainly o f a cacia s hrubs, g rasses, h erbs, a nd a f ew t rees, t he l atter u sually o ccurring a long w adis. T he p aleoenvironmental e vidence f rom t he a rea o f K harga i s n ot a dequate f or p recise e stimates o f t he r ainfall r eceived d uring t he N eolithic w et p hases. B utzer ( 1958,1961) s uggested t hat t he a rea w as w ithin t he 5 0-millimeter i sohyet d uring t he e arly Holocene. H is r econstruction, h owever, i s b ased o n e ssentially u ndated e vidence ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 980:238). T he p resence o f n umerous p layas o n t he L ibyan P lateau n ear Kharga a nd i n t he d epression i tself s uggests t hat t he m onsoonal r ains e xtended a t l east t o a l ine o f K harga a nd t he G ilf e l B agnold ( 1954) c onsiders a n a nnual r ainfall o f a pproximately 2 5 m illimeters t o b e t he m inimum t o b e e ffective i n s upporting a n omadic e xistence, b ut t his a mount o f p recipitation c ould n ot p roduce t he p layas. T he p resent p recipitation o f 1 00-200 m illimeters i n n orthernmost E gypt a nd i n t he n orth-central S udan t o t he

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s outh ( Oliver 1 965) i s i nadequate t o s upport l akes. I t i s l ikely, t herefore, t hat a nnual r ainfall during t he N eolithic moist phases e xceeded 2 00 m illimeters i n t he a rea o f Kharga. On t he o ther h and, t he p layas may h ave f ormed w ith l ess r ainfall i f t emperatures a nd e vaporation w ere r educed during t he e arly Holocene. A lthough t here i s d isagreement a mong r esearchers a bout t he a mount o f a nnual r ainfall r eceived i n t he W estern D esert during t he e arly H olocene, i t s eems c lear t hat t he N eolithic w et phases w ere d rier t han E arly a nd M iddle P aleolithic " pluvials." H aynes ( 1981:113) n oted t hat s olution f eatures observed o n t he L ibyan P lateau, o n wadi g ravels o f t he Kharga a rea, a nd o n t he l imestone o utlier o f G ebel Nabta, p redate t he N eolithic w et p hases, a nd t hat t hese f eatures h ave b een s everely m odified by w ind abrasion. He w ent o n t o p oint o ut t hat " [S]ubsequent precipitation during t he N eolithic p luvial f ailed t o r enew t ufa d eposition a long t he Kharga e scarpment o r t o l eave p ronounced s olution f eatures o n l imestones o ther t han p ossibly m inor r illenstein" ( Haynes 1 981:113). The t errace d eposits a long t he s carp o f t he L ibyan P lateau a lso i ndicate t hat t he P aleolithic moist phases w ere w etter t han t hose o f t he N eolithic. A t R efuf P ass, t hick a lluvial t erraces c omposed o f g ravels a re p roducts o f h igh-velocity s treams during A cheulian a nd M ousterian-Aterian t imes ( Caton-Thompson 1 952:86-90; W endorf a nd S child 1 980:226). There i s n o e vidence o f a ggradation i n a ny o f t hese w adis during t he e arly H olocene. A nother i ndication o f t he d ifferences i n t he n ature o f Neolithic a nd p re-Neolithic w et phases i s t he h eight o f t he w ater t able ( Haynes 1 981:114). A t B ir T arfawi a nd B ir S ahara, t he A cheulian s pring d eposits i ndicate a w ater t able a t l east 1 2 m eters h igher t han t oday a nd a t l east e ight m eters h igher during t he M iddle P aleolithic, b ut t here i s n o e vidence o f a N eolithic r ise a t e ither l ocation. I n s ummary, t he T erminal P aleolithic-Neolithic w et p hase(s) i s e vident f rom t he l arge n umber o f p layas t hroughout much o f t he W estern D esert. S ome o f t he more e xtensive p layas f ormed i n t he r egion o f N abta a nd t he K harga B asin. A t K harga O asis, t his w et p hase w as marked b y r enewed s pring a ctivity a nd b y t he d evelopment o f s mall p layas o n t he n earby L ibyan P lateau. M any a rtifacts o f T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic a ge a re a ssociated w ith t he e arly H olocene l acustrine d eposits. A t N abta, t he a rchaeological a nd g eomorphological

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e vidence i ndicates t hree major e pisodes o f human o ccupation a ssociated w ith t hree d istinct s tands o f p laya l akes. The p eriods o f p laya d evelopment a re a s f ollows: P laya I ( 9000-8500 B .P.), P laya I I ( 8200-7900 B .P.), a nd P laya I II ( 7700-5800 B .P.). The Holocene w et phases, i ndicated b y t he p eriods o f p laya development, w ere s eparated b y h yperarid i ntervals a s d ry a s t he modern c limate. T he f aunal a ssemblages i llustrate a t ransition f rom l arge u ngulates, s uch a s c amel a nd r hinoceros, which p ersisted during t he P leistocene, t o s mall r uminants, s uch a s d orcas g azelle, a nd h are, which d ominated during t he e arly H olocene. The H olocene f auna depended o n a r elatively l ow b iomass d ominated b y s everal varieties o f g rasses, w eeds, a nd c ereals. The c ombination o f f aunal a nd f loral e vidence s uggests t hat t he W estern D esert w as a s emiarid e nvironment during t he H olocene w et phases. I n a ddition, t he e arly N eolithic a ppears t o h ave b een d rier t han t he " pluvials" o f t he E arly a nd M iddle P aleolithic. T he H olocene p layas w ere p robably s urrounded b y s emiw oodland v egetation, s hrubs, a nd g rasses, a nd i t i s l ikely t hat a s parse g rassland s tretched out a cross t he s andy p lains b eyond t he p layas. I t was n ot u ntil about 5 000 y ears B .P. t hat t he modern, h yperarid c limate w as e stablished, w ith v egetation r estricted l argely t o t he o ases o f t he W estern D esert. G eomorphic A spects o f

S ite S ituation

T he r esults o f t his s tudy i ndicate t hat h uman o ccupation i n t he a rea o f Kharga O asis d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene w as s trongly i nfluenced b y t he a vailability o f w ater. The a vailability o f water, i n t urn, w as d ependent n ot only o n t he a mount a nd f requency o f p recipitation, b ut a lso o n t he g eomorphology o f t he a rea. I t s eems e vident t hat p ractically a ll g eomorphic s ettings w here w ater w as a vailable w ere e xploited. The t hree g eneral s ettings f or o ccupation w ere ( 1) s prings, ( 2) w adi c ourses, a nd ( 3) p layas. T he t hree A cheulian c omponents r ecorded b y u s ( KUWDE 3 0, 3 1, a nd 3 4) a re a ssociated w ith w adi c ourses a t t he b ase o f t he L ibyan P lateau. T hese s ites a re l ocated o n d eflated t erraces, a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny o f t he a rtifacts a re i n s itu. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:245) a nd C aton-Thompson ( 1952:5) r eported t hat A cheulian s ites a lso o ccur i n s pring deposits n ear K harga O asis. T he s pring-pool l ocalities a pparently

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r epresent multiple L ower P aleolithic o ccupations o ccurr ing t hroughout t he t otal p eriod o f s pring d ischarge, p erhaps s everal t housand y ears o r m ore. W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:245) s uggested t hat t he s pring p ools w ere a mong t he f ew p laces w here p ermanent w ater w as p resent, a nd may t herefore h ave a ttracted b ase c amps. A ll o f t he g eomorphic s ettings w here w ater w as a vailable w ere e xploited d uring t he M iddle P aleolithic. O f t he 4 2 M iddle P aleolithic c omponents i dentified i n o ur s urvey, 3 0 ( 72 p ercent) a re a ssociated w ith p layas, 1 1 ( 26 p ercent) o ccur a long w adi c ourses, a nd o ne ( 2 p ercent) i s s ituated n ear a s pring v ent. A mong t he 3 0 s ites t hat a re a ssociated w ith p layas, 2 2 ( 73 p ercent) a re o n dunes o r o n s andy e olian s ediments n ear t he p layas, a nd f ive ( 17 p ercent) a re o n s andy b eaches a long p laya margins. O nly t hree s ites ( 10 p ercent) o ccur o n t he p laya s ediments. A much d ifferent s ettlement s ituation i s e vident f or t he T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic o f t he Kharga a rea i n c omparison w ith t hose o f e arlier p eriods. O nly t wo b asic g eomorphic a ssociations o ccur: s ites a ssociated w ith p layas a nd s ites a round s prings. N o T erminal P aleolithic o r N eolithic s ites w ere f ound o n w adi c ourses. S ites a ssociated w ith p layas a re f ound i n t wo s lightly d ifferent g eomorphic s ettings: ( a) o n b eaches o r s horelines ( Figure 7 ); a nd ( b) c loser t o t he c enter o f t he p layas a nd o n t he p laya s ilts. O nly f our T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic s ites a re a ssociated w ith s prings, a nd a ll o f t hem a re i n t he K harga D epression. W hen c ompared t o t he M iddle P aleolithic, l ess v ariability i n s ite s ituation i s e vident f or t he T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic. T his d ecreased v aria bility may r eflect l ess f avorable b ioclimatic c ondit ions d uring t he e arly H olocene. T he a ssociation o f M iddle P aleolithic s ites w ith p layas, w adis, a nd s pringf ed p ools s uggests t hat w ater w as a vailable i n a ll o f t hese g eomorphic s ettings during t he w et p hases o f t he M iddle P aleolithic. I n c ontrast, t he c lustering o f T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic s ites o n t he s hores o f p layas, a nd t heir o ccurrence o n t he p laya s ilts, s uggest t hat s urface w ater w as r estricted t o s mall, s easonal p onds during t he e arly H olocene. I f t hat w as t he c ase, t hen v egetation, g ame, a nd p eople w ould h ave a lso b een r estricted t o t he p layas. The m icroenvironment o f t hese e arly-Holocene p onds p robably r esembled t hat o f a modern s pring i n t he N ubian D esert ( Figure 8 ). O n t he o ther h and, r educed s ite v ariability m ay b e d ue t o d iffering e conomic a nd s ubsistence p atterns d uring t he T erminal

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F igure

7 .

V iew o f T erminal t he s horeline o f P lateau.

P aleolithic a rtifacts a p laya o n t he L ibyan

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a long

F igure

8 .

V iew o f A in e l-Ghasal, n ear K harga O asis, s howing t ypical vegetation a round s prings. 7 3

P aleolithic/Neolithic c ompared t o t he M iddle P aleolithic. More d ata a re n eeded t o c learly u nderstand t he s ettlement patterns a nd t heir variability t hrough t he l ong p eriod o f t ime r epresented by h uman o ccupation o f t he r egion. T he g eomorphic a spects o f s ite s ituation o n t he L ibyan P lateau s upport t he h ypothesis t hat m onsoonal summer r ains o f C entral A frica p enetrated a t l east a s f ar n orth a s Kharga during s everal c learly d istinct p oints i n t ime. The p layas o n t he p lateau, u nlike t he s pring-fed l akes i n t he N ubian D esert, r eceive a ll o f t heir water f rom l ocal r ainfall; t hey a re n ot i nfluenced b y p recipitation f arther t o t he s outhwest. T he p resence o f Mousterian, A terian, a nd T erminal P aleolithic/ N eolithic s ites n ear a nd/or w ithin t he p layas s uggests t hat p eriods o f human o ccupation o n t he L ibyan P lateau c oincided w ith f ormer e pisodes o f g reater r ainfall i n t he Kharga r egion. Summary a nd C onclusions P aleoenvironmental r esearch i n t he W estern D esert h as y ielded c onsiderable d ata o n t he L ate Q uaternary c limates o f t he e astern S ahara. T he r econstruction o f Quaternary c limates b egins a t D akhla, w here t he d eposition o f t hick b eds o f u nsorted boulders a nd g ravels p receded t he L ate A cheulian. A h igh-velocity s tream f ed b y t orrential r ainfalls i s i ndicated f or t his s edimentation. Wadi t ufa d eposits a nd p re-upper s heet g ravels o n t he L ibyan P lateau n ear K harga m ay b e p roducts o f a p re-Late A cheulian w et phase. The s tratigraphic r ecord i ndicates t hat a l ong p eriod o f h yperaridity a lso p receded t he L ate A cheulian. T he W estern D esert e xpanded, a nd e olian s ands f illed t he B ir S ahara-Bir Tarfawi b asin t o a l evel s lightly h igher t han t hat o f t oday. T he L ate A cheulian w as a p eriod o f s pring d ischarge a nd a ssociated h igh g roundwater l evels a t s everal l ocations i n t he Western D esert. A t B ir S ahara, s pringf ed p layas a re marked b y b eds o f l acustrine l imestone c ontaining A cheulian a rtifacts. I n t he K harga a nd D akhla d epressions, t he L ate A cheulian a rtifacts a re a ssociated e ither w ith a ncient s prings o r s pring-laid t ufa d eposits. A long t he p lateau e scarpment n ear K harga, t he a rtifacts a re r elated t o i solated t errace r emnants o f f ormer d rainages a t h igher l evels t han t he p resent d rainage.

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The f aunal a nd f loral r ecords s uggest t he p resence o f a t l east a g rassland during t he L ate A cheulian, w ith a rboreal v egetation a round l akes a nd s prings, a nd b ushes g rowing a long t he wadis. The paleoecological e vidence a lso s uggests t hat t he L ate A cheulian c limate was more e quable t han t he modern o ne. The L ate A cheulian w et phase w as f ollowed b y a p ronounced p eriod o f a ridity. During t his d ry p eriod a d eep b asin w as s coured out by w ind e rosion a t B ir S ahara, i ndicating a d ramatic d rop i n t he g roundwater l evel. There a re n o t races o f p lants o r a nimals i n t he W estern D esert u ntil t he n ext w et phase. R eoccupation o f t he Western D esert b y l arge g ame a nimals a nd b y h umans o ccurred s ometime b etween c a. 1 00,000 a nd 4 5,000 y ears a go. The b eginning o f t he M ousterian w et phase i s i ndicated b y t he f ormation o f p hytogenic d unes i n t he l ower portion o f t he b asins a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi. S ucceeding Mousterian s ites a t B ir S ahara a re a ssociated w ith l arge s pring-fed p layas. The f ormation o f t hese p layas i ndicates a r ising w ater t able a nd, c onceivably, a n i ncrease i n p recipitation. A d ry g rassland o r s teppe e nvironment a pparently p revailed during t he p eriod o f r ising w ater t able a nd Mousterian o ccupation a t B ir S ahara. A n E thiopian f auna, i ncluding r hinocerous, c amel, a ss, a nd s everal varieties o f g azelle, e xisted i n t he v icinity o f t he p layas. T he r enewal o f s pring a ctivity a t B ir S ahara s eems t o h ave b een c ontemporaneous w ith t he d evelopment o f new s prings a t Kharga. A n i ncrease i n l ocal r ainfall i s i ndicated b y w adi s ilts a nd t ufas c ontaining L evallois e lements a t R efuf P ass, n ear Kharga. M ousterian a rtifacts a re a lso a ssociated w ith p layas o n t he L ibyan P lateau. T he Mousterian w et phase was f ollowed by a p eriod o f h yperaridity. D eterioration o f t he c limate w as r ecorded by t he f ormation o f e vaporites o n t he s urfaces o f l acustrine s ediments a t B ir S ahara. A rid c onditions a lso a re i ndicated b y t hick d eposits o f e olian s and o verlying d eflated l acustine s ediments a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi. T he l ack o f a ny e vidence o f p lant o r a nimal l ife i n t he Western D esert d uring t he p ost-Mousterian d ry i nterval s uggests t hat t he c limate w as a t l east a s a rid a s i t i s t oday. T he p ost-Mousterian d ry i nterval w as f ollowed b y a c onsiderable r ise o f t he w ater t able a nd i ncreased s pring d ischarge a t b oth B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi. T here i s a lso e vidence f or r enewal o f s pring a ctivity a t K harga O asis. A n i ncrease i n r ainfall i n t he a rea o f

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Kharga i s i ndicated b y t he a ssociation o f A terian a rtifacts w ith p layas o n t he L ibyan P lateau. A d ry g rassland o r s teppe p robably e xisted a gain a round t he p layas o f t he Western D esert; a n E thiopian f auna s imilar t o t hat o f t he Mousterian wet p hase r eturned t o t he r egion. The A terian w et p hase w as s ucceeded b y a l ong p eriod o f h yperarid c onditions a ccompanied by a d rop i n t he w ater t able. W ind e rosion r esulted i n the d eflation o f l acustrine s ediments a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi, a nd t he modern l andscape o f t he Western D esert w as f ormed. A fter t he A terian l akes d ried up, a n e vent which a pparently o ccurred more t han 4 4,000 y ears a go, t here a re n o t races a nywhere i n t he N ubian D esert o f s pring o r l acustrine s ediments u ntil t he T erminal P aleolithic ( ca. 9 ,500 B .P.). D uring t his h yperarid i nterval, most o f t he Western D esert w as a pparently d evoid o f v egetation, f auna, a nd p eople. The T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic w ere c haracterized by a c omplex p attern o f wet a nd d ry i ntervals. B eginning a round 9 ,500 B .P., p hytogenic dunes f ormed i n t he d eflated b asins a t N abta. As s easonal r ainfall i ncreased, p laya l akes f ormed i n t he l ower p ortions o f t he b asins a nd o n t he L ibyan P lateau. T erminal P aleolithic c omponents a re a ssociated w ith both t he phytogenic dunes a nd t he l acustrine d eposits. S easonal r ainfall d eclined a t N abta s oon a fter 8 500 B .P., b ut a rid c onditions w ere r eversed by a round 8 100 B .P. N eolithic s ites a re a ssociated w ith l acustrine c lays d eposited during t his s econd w et phase a t N abta. A r eturn t o d ry c onditions o ccurred a round 7 900 B .P., a nd a h yperarid c limate p ersisted f or a t l east 2 00 y ears. T he n ext e pisode o f i ncreased p recipitation a nd p laya d evelopment i s i ndicated by a s eries o f l acustrine d eposits o verlying e olian s ands. The f inal w et phase l asted f rom a bout 7 700 B .P. t o 5 800 B .P. The modern h yperarid c limate o f t he W estern D esert w as e stablished b y c a. 5 000 y ears B .P. .T he T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic w et phases a re n ot r ecorded a t B ir S ahara a nd B ir T arfawi. This h iatus s uggests t hat t he p eriod o f i ncreased r ainfall w as o f s uch l imited duration a s t o b e i nadequate t o c ause a s ubstantial r ise o f t he w ater t able a round b oth b asins. T he f aunal a ssemblages f rom T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites i n t he W estern D esert a re much d ifferent c ompared t o t hose a ssociated w ith E arly a nd M iddle P aleolithic s ites. L arge u ngulates, s uch a s r hinocerous a nd c amel, w ere r eplaced b y s mall r uminants

7 6

d uring t he e arly Holocene. The a bsence o f megafauna s uggests t hat t he T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic w et p hases w ere n ot a s moist a s e arlier " pluvials." The a rchaeological r ecord f rom t he L ibyan P lateau s upports t his i nterpretation. A ll o f t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites o n t he L ibyan P lateau a re a ssociated w ith p layas. M ost o f t hese s ites a re c lustered o n b eaches o r s horelines, a nd many o ccur o n t he p laya s ediments. The d istribution o f t hese s ites s uggests t hat t he p layas r epresent s easonal p onds t hat e xpanded a nd c ontracted i n r esponse t o i nfrequent r ainfalls. V egetation, g ame, a nd p eople w ere p robably r estricted t o t he i mmediate a reas o f t he p layas. The r emainder o f t he W estern D esert, w ith t he e xception o f o ases a nd s prings, w as p robably much a s i t i s t oday. I n c onclusion, t here i s e vidence t hat w et phases o ccurred a t s pecific t imes i n t he Western D esert f rom t he l ate P leistocene t o t he m id-Holocene. A lthough n one o f t hese c hanges i n p recipitation o r e ffective moisture c an b e quantitatively e stimated, t he e vidence s uggests t hat t he i ncreases i n p recipitation a t t he h eight o f t he w et phases w ere e cologically s ignificant. P eriods o f g reater p recipitation p rovided o pportunities f or g ame a nd people t o p enetrate i nto a reas o f t he Western D esert t hat h ad p reviously o ffered l ittle c hance f or s urvival.

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CHAPTER 4 :

( Alan H .

S ITE DESCRIPTIONS

S immons

a nd Marion Dyer)

I ntroduction S ixty-three p rehistoric s ites w ere l ocated a nd r ecorded b y t he Western D esert E xpedition ( Table 4 ). T heir l ocation b y t ransect i s i llustrated i n F igure 9 . D ue t o t he l arge s cale a nd g enerally p oor d etail o n a vailable m aps, t he s ite a nd t ransect l ocations s hown a re a pproximate. The purpose o f t his c hapter i s t o p rovide t he b asic d escriptive s ite d ata r ecorded f or e ach s ite l ocated b y t he s urvey. A ll o f t his i nformation i s a bstracted f rom t he s ite f orms t hat w ere u sed i n t he f ield. I n s ome c ases, much more d etail w as r ecorded a bout a s ite t han i n o ther i nstances, a lthough m inimal i nformation w as c ollected f or e ach s ite. G enerally, t he s ites f rom which a dditional d etail w as r ecorded w ere t hose d ating t o t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd Neolithic, which w ere p rincipal p eriods o f i nterest t o the p roject ( see Chapter 2 ). T he s ite maps i n t his c hapter a re r eproduced f rom f ield d rawings a nd r epresent g eneralized s ketches w ithout s cale; e stimated s ite d imensions a re p rovided i n t he t ext. O f t he 6 3 s ites, a t l east 8 7 p rehistoric c omponents a re r epresented ( see T able 4 ). S ites w ith n o d iagnostic m aterials w ere r ecorded a s " undiagnostic l ithic s catters" ( or U DLS). The d ecision t o r ecord a s ite a s m ulticomponent w as made i f c learly d iagnostic a rtifacts o f d iffering c ultural p eriods w ere observed a t t he s ame s ite. S ince n o c ollections w ere made, t his d etermination r epresents a b est e stimate. W e a lso s hould n ote t hat c urrent r esearch i n t he Western D esert h ad l ed t o t he s uggestion, a s p reviously n oted, t hat t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd t he N eolithic may, i n f act, b e c losely r elated a nd s hould p erhaps b e c onsidered a s t he s ame c ultural p eriod. T hus, t he s eparation o f T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic c omponents m ay b e s omewhat s purious. I n p ragmatic t erms, o ften t he o nly c lue t hat a s ite c ontained a p robable N eolithic c omponent w as t he p resence o f p resumed N eolithic p ottery. T he s eparation o f M iddle P aleolithic s ites i nto M ousterian o r A terian c omponents a lso w as l argely b ased o n t he p resence o r a bsence o f d istinctive a rtifact t ypes ( especially t he d istinctive A terian t anged p ieces a nd b lade-like d ebitage). F inally, f our s ites h ad r ecent " historic" c omponents d irectly a ssociated w ith t hem ( see T able 4 ). W e s hould

7 9

T able 4 .

P resumed p rehistoric

c ultural a ffiliations o f

s ites r ecorded

b y t he Western D esert E xpedition ( recent c omponents o ccurring d irectly o n a s ite a re parenthetically n oted).

T ransect

S ite Number

A ffiliation(s)

1

K UWDE 1

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter/(Bedouin)

1

KUWDE 2

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

1

K UWDE 3

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter/(Islamic)

2

KUWDE 4

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter/(Coptic/Roman)

2

K UWDE 5

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

2

K UWDE 6

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/Neolithic

2

KUWDE 7

T erminal P aleolithic

3

KUWDE 8

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

3

K UWDE 9

N eolithic

3

K UWDE 1 0

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

3

K UWDE 1 1

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

3

KUWDE 6 2

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 1 2

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

K UWDE 1 3

M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian/Terminal P aleolithic/Neolithic/(Islamic)

4

KUWDE 1 4

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 1 5

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

4

KUWDE 1 6

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

4

K UWDE 1 7

T erminal P aleolithic

4

K UWDE 1 8

T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 1 9

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

K UWDE 2 0

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

K UWDE 2 1

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

8 0

Table 4 .

T ransect

( Continued)

S ite N umber

A ffiliation(s)

4

KUWDE 2 2

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 2 3

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 2 4

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 2 5

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 2 6

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 2 7

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 2 8

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 2 9

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

4

KUWDE 4 2

T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 4 3

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 5 1

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 5 2

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 5 3

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 5 4

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 5 5

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 5 6

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian a nd A terian/ T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

4

KUWDE 5 7

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

4

KUWDE 5 8

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/ T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 5 9

T erminal P aleolithic

4

KUWDE 6 0

Middle P aleolithic-Aterian

4

KUWDE 6 1

M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian/ T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic 81

T able 4 .

T ransect

5

( Continued)

S ite Number

K UWDE 3 0

A ffiliation(s)

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithicMousterian

5

KUWDE 3 1

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithicM ousterian

5

K UWDE 3 2

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

5

K UWDE 3 3

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

6

KUWDE 3 4

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithicM ousterian

6

KUWDE 3 5

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

6

KUWDE 3 6

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

6

KUWDE 3 7

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

6

KUWDE 3 8

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

6

K UWDE 3 9

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

6

KUWDE 4 0

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

6

KUWDE 4 1

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

7

KUWDE 4 4

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

7

KUWDE 4 5

Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

7

K UWDE 4 6

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian

7

KUWDE 4 7

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

7

KUWDE 4 8

Middle P aleolithic-Aterian/Terminal P aleolithic

7

KUWDE 4 9

Middle P aleolithic-Aterian

7

KUWDE 5 0

M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian

8

KUWDE 6 3

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

t o A syut

L IBYAN P LATEAU

T .7 - 48

Aqabe t e l -Ram l iya ,

5 0 4 6 4 5

O ld R oad e l -Yab isa 1 2 18 1 9 -29 , 4 2 -43 5 1-6 1

T .4 G ebe l e l -Aguz

3 2

T .5 6 2

1

/

9

/ 3 3

3 0

3 1

T .1 N aqb e l -Rufuf 1

G ebe l T a r if

3

2

G ebe l e l -T ie r 5

T .2 6 7

.

/i e l -Kharga

1 0 km

F igure

9 .

Map o f t he p roject a rea, s howing a pproximate l ocation o f T ransects a nd s ites ( Transect 8 n ot s hown; t ransect s izes s lightly e xaggerated).

8 3

n ote t hat " historic"

s everal o ther s ites a lso w ere r emains.

l ocated

n ear

F or s everal s ites, w e p rovide b asic l ithic i nformation. A dditional d iscussion o n t hese data i s p rovided i n t he n ext c hapter. A f ew w ords o f e xplanation a re n ecessary w hen e valuating t his i nformation. N o c ollections w ere m ade d uring t he s urvey, a nd t he l ithic d ata p resented h ere w ere g enerated f rom f ield o bservations, o ften m ade u nder a dverse e nvironmental c onditions. T he r eader s hould b e a ware o f m any p otentially b iasing f actors i nherent i n s uch a s ystem. These i nclude q uestions o f s ystematic o bservation, a ccuracy o f i dentifications, a nd a ssemblage r epresentativeness. D espite t hese p otential p roblems, w e m ade e very e ffort t o r ecord l ithic i nformation i n a s ystematic m anner, a nd a ll l ithics observed w ere r ecorded, n ot j ust s pecific c lasses ( e.g., t ools), u nless o therwise n oted, t hus l essening t he c hances o f i ntroducing b ias. I n s pite o f t his, h owever, t ruly r epresentative s amples c an o nly b e o btained f rom s ystematic s urface c ollection a nd/or e xcavation, which w ould h ave t o i nclude s creening t he l oose s urface b lows and. A nother c onsideration i s a rtifact m ixing. O f t he 1 7 s ites w ith r ecorded l ithic d ata, o nly f ive w ere s ingle c omponent o ccurrences. T hus t he o bservations o n t he r emaining 1 2 s ites w ere m ade o n m ixed a ssemblages. T he i dentification o f t ool t ypes i s a lso b ased o n f ield o bservations. D etailed a nalyses w ere n ot p ossible, t hus t ypologies b ased o n s tylistic a nd/or f unctional d ifferentiation ( e.g., C lose 1 977) w ere n ot f easible. T he t ypology u sed i n t his r eport g enerally c orresponds t o a ccepted t ypologies f or t he r egion a s u sed b y W endorf a nd S child ( 1980), T ixier ( 1963), Marks ( 1976), a nd o thers. F or t his r eport, w e h ave u sed t he f ollowing major c ategories o f l ithic a rtifacts: t ools, c ores, d ebitage, d ebris, m icroflakes, a nd g roundstone. D ebitage may b e f urther s ubdivided i nto b lades, f lakes, b ladelets, a nd o ther s pecialized f orms, s uch a s c ore t rimming e lements. T ools w ere c lassified u sing c ommonly a ccepted t ypologies f or t he r egion. D efinitions o f t he t erminology u sed i n t his s tudy a re p rovided i n T able 5 . I n s ummary, p recise l ithic i nformation c an o nly b e g enerated a fter c areful a nalyses o f s ystematically c ollected m aterials u nder c ontrolled l aboratory c onditions. T hus t he i nformation p rovided i n t his a nd t he s ubsequent c hapter s hould b e c onsidered a s i ndicative o f t endencies r ather t han a s a ctual c ounts o f

8 4

Table 5 .

D efinitions o f l ithic t erminology u sed i n t his s tudy.

T ools:

T ools a re c hipped s tone a rtifacts e xhibiting p resumably i ntent ional m odification. I nformal t ools a re t hose whose e dge m odification i s i rregular a nd o ften s light. S uch t ools f requently a re r eferred t o a s " utilized" o r " retouched" p ieces. F ormal t ools a re t hose e xhibiting p urposeful m odification i nto d istinct f orms. T hese i nclude c lasses s uch a s p rojectile p oints, b ifaces, s crapers, p erforators, d enticulates, n otches, b acked p ieces a nd a v ariety o f m icrolithic f orms. O ften t hese c lasses m ay b e s ubdivided i nto d istinct t ypes - e .g., e ndscrapers, s idescrapers, e tc.

C ores:

C ores r epresent p arent r aw m aterials o f s ilicious s tone f rom w hich a ll o ther c hipped s tone a rtifacts a re p roduced.

Debitage:

D ebitage r epresents t he u sable b lanks s truck f rom a c ore. T hese b lanks c an b e f urther m odified i nto t ools. D ebitage c ontains c learly o bservable l andmarks, s uch a s p latforms, b ulbs o f p erc ussion, e tc. T ypes o f d ebitage u sed i n t his s tudy i nclude: F lakes -artifacts w ith a morphous o r i rregular f orms,

o r t hose

w hose w idth m ay e qual o r e xceed t heir l ength. B lades -artifacts w hose l ength i s a t l east t wice t heir w idth . B ladelets--a s ubset o f b lades w hose l ength d oes n ot e xceed 5 0 mm a nd w hose w idth i s u nder 1 2 mm ( cf. M arks 1 976:374). O ther-these c an i nclude s pecialized f orms s uch a s c ore t rimming e lements ( Marks 1 976:375), c ore t ablets ( Marks 1 976:374), a nd m icroburins Debris:

( Marks 1 976:380).

D ebris r epresents t he g enerally u nusable b y-products o f c ore r eduction a nd/or t ool m anufacture.

D ebris o ften i s r eferred t o

a s " chips a nd c hunks" o r " shatter." Microflakes: Microflakes a re a s ubset o f d ebitage t hat g enerally r esult f rom t he f inal m anufacture a nd/or r esharpening o f f ormal t ools. T hese a re u nder 1 5 mm i n l ength. T hey s ometimes a re r eferred t o a s " retouch f lakes." G roundstone:

G roundstone a rtifacts a re t hose w hose m orphology g enerally h as b een f ormed b y g rinding r ather t han c hipping. T hese u sually a re manufactured o n n on-silicious s tone. T heir p resumed f unction i s f or g rinding.

8 5

what i s a ctually p resent a t a s ite. The i nformation t hus g enerated i s u seful i n a llowing f or d ecisions r egarding t he s ignificance o f t he s ites a nd t heir p otential f or y ielding a dditional i nformation. H owever, o ne s hould b e c autioned a gainst u sing t hese d ata f or d irect c omparative s tudies w ith i nformation o btained f rom e xcavation o r s ystematic c ollection. S ite D escriptions S ite Number: T ransect: P resumed c eramics

KUWDE

1

1 Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

UDLS/recent Bedouin

D escription: The s ite i s l ocated o n t op o f a l ow gravel r idge a nd i s s urrounded b y s everal s mall h illocks. I t i s b isected b y a s mall w adi, a " tributary" o f Wadi R ufuf, which i s l ocated i mmediately t o t he n orth. T he s urrounding t errain i s r ough, a nd t he " soil" m atrix i s p rimarily c omposed o f r ocky d esert p avement. T here i s n o v egetation p resent. KUWDE 1 h as r elatively g ood e conomic potential, b eing a djacent t o a major w adi a nd t o t he " foothills" o f t he e scarpment. T here a re, h owever, n o s and dunes i n i ts i mmediate v icinity. T he t otal s ite a rea w as m easured a t approximately 9 4 m eters ( east-west) b y 1 00 m eters ( north-south). T he c ore a rea i s a pproximately 9 4 m eters b y 3 8 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or a ny f eatures. The s ite i s d eflated a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny s tratigraphy i s e xtant. L ithic a rtifacts, s parsely s pread t hroughout t he s ite i n l ow d ensity, a re l argely undiagnostic. Observed t ypes i nclude a b acked b lade, a double-backed b lade, a s emi-crescent s haped b acked b lade, a L evalloisl ike c ore, a nd s everal u nworked p ieces. I dentification i s h ampered b y t he a bundant p resence o f n aturally o ccurring f lint. S everal r ecent B edouin s herds a lso a re s cattered t hroughout t he s ite a rea. T he s ite m ay h ave r epresented o ne o r more l imited d uration p rocurement o ccupational e pisodes. I t may b e multicomponent, b ased o n t he L evallois-like c ore a nd t he b lades, b ut t his i s u ncertain. M anagement D ata: T he c ondition o f KUWDE 1 i s poor. B oth n atural a nd c ultural f actors h ave c ontributed t o i ts d eterioration. The l atter i ncludes p robable d isturbance b y t he c onstruction o f t he o ld r ailroad l ine, w hich l ies i mmediately t o t he n orth o f t he s ite.

8 6

T he potential f or f urther i mpacts i s s light, u nless t he r ailroad r oute i s r eactivated. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. There i s l imited p otential f or e ncountering i n s itu d eposits a nd w e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 1 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE 2

1

P resumed C ultural ( Mousterian)

A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T he s ite i s l ocated n ear a s mall t ributary o f t he W adi R ufuf, which i s c a. 2 00 m eters t o t he n orth. K UWDE 2 i s s ituated a t t he b ase o f t he L ibyan P lateau n ear t he j unction o f t wo b ox c anyons. I t h as a s light s lope t o t he n orth a nd i ts m atrix i s s and w ith a ngular p ebbles. T he n earest s and d une i s a pproximately 1 00 m eters t o t he e ast. While t here i s n o v egetation p resently e xtant a t t he s ite, i t h ad r elatively g ood p aleoeconomic p otential b y m erit o f i ts l ocation n ear a m ajor w adi a nd i ts t ributaries, s and d unes, a nd t he L ibyan P lateau. The t otal a rea o f t he s ite w as e stimated a t 7 5 m eters ( north-south) b y 2 5 m eters ( east-west). I ts c ore a rea, h owever, i s much s maller, m easuring o nly a bout f ive s quare m eters. T here w as n o e vidence f or a ny i ntact s tratigraphy o r f eatures. T he s ite i s h eavily d eflated a nd e roded, a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat i n s itu m aterials a re p resent. T he m ajority o f t he a rtifacts a re l ocated i n a s mall c oncentration, a nd i nclude t he f ollowing: t wo M ousterian p oints, a l arge u nifacial t abular " knife," t hree r etouched p ieces, a n e ndscraper, a nd v arious f orms o f d ebitage. N atural o ccurring f lint a lso i s p resent. D ensity i s e stimated a t a pproximately 1 0 a rtifacts p er s quare m eter i n t he s mall c oncentrat ion. O ther a rtifacts a re s parsely s pread t hroughout t he s ite a rea. S everal l arge, w eathered u ngulate b ones w ere n oted u pslope o f t he s ite, b ut i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine i f t hese a re r elated o r n ot. T he s ite u ndoubtedly r epresented a l imited d uration o ccupation. I t m ay h ave f unctioned a s a h unting s tation. I t a ppears t o r epresent o nly o ne o ccupational e pisode.

8 7

Management D ata: The s ite i s d eflated a nd e roded. While t here a re n o o ther obvious p revious i mpacts t o t he s ite, i ts o verall c ondition i s p oor. There i s a l ow l ikelihood o f r ecovering i ntact materials. T he p otential f or f urther i mpacts, b eyond a dditional e rosion a nd d eflation, i s s light. A ccess t o t he s ite i s good, w ith f our-wheel d rive. We r ecommend e ither n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite, o r l imited c ollecting. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE

3

I

P resumed Cultural p robably o f r ecent

A ffiliation(s): I slamic o rigin.

UDLS/pottery,

D escription: The s ite i s l ocated o n a t errace n ear t he b ottom o f t he L ibyan P lateau a nd t he j unction o f t wo s mall w adis. Wadi R ufuf i s a pproximately 5 0 m eters t o t he s outh. T he s ite's matrix c onsists o f s and m ixed w ith a ngular p ebbles; s everal l arge b oulders o ccur n earby. The n earest s and dune i s c a. 2 50 meters to t he e ast. T here i s a s light s lope t o t he w est. N o v egetation p resently o ccurs o n t he s ite. The e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 3 i s moderate t o g ood, primarily d ue t o i ts p roximity t o t he L ibyan P lateau, s and d unes, a nd a major w adi a nd i ts t ributaries. T he s ite a rea i s r elatively c oncentrated a nd i s e stimated t o c over a pproximately 2 5 b y 2 5 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r i ntact s tratigraphy. T he l ithic a rtifacts n oted i nclude s everal undiagnostic f lakes a nd o ne b roken b lade. N aturally o ccurring f lint a lso i s a bundant. A f ew i dentical I slamic s herds a re p resent. K UWDE 3 r epresents a n e xtremely l imited o ccupational e pisode. I t may c ontain t wo c omponents i f t he . lithics a nd t he c eramics a re n ot f rom t he s ame p eriod. I ts f unction i s u nknown, b ut i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny m ajor a ctivities o ccurred a t t he s ite. M anagement D ata: K UWDE 3 's c ondition i s poor. D eflation h as o ccurred, a s h as e rosion f rom t he wadis. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s s light. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. I t i s u nlikely t hat i ntact r emains a re p resent a nd w e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 1 .0 h ours.

8 8

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

KUWDE

4

2

P resumed Cultural c eramics

A ffiliation(s):

UDLS/Roman

a nd Coptic

D escription: The s ite i s l ocated a t t he b ase o f t he l ow h ills on t he e astern margin o f t he J ebal A in Z aaf ( or e l-Teir). T he h ills a re d issected by s everal s mall w adis, a nd t he s ite i s l ocated b etween t wo o f t hese. A ncient s pring v ents a nd a s mall o asis a re n earby, a nd t he n earest s and dune i s s ome 2 50 m eters t o t he west. T he s ite i tself i s l ocated i n a R oman a gricultural f ield. The matrix c onsists o f s and m ixed w ith p ebbles. T here i s a s light s lope t o t he w est. V egetation c onsists o f s parse g rass s tubble. The e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 4 i s g ood. The c ombination o f a n o asis, s pring v ents, w adis, a nd t he h ills p lace t he s ite i n a f avorable e nvironmental s etting. The t otal s ite a rea o f KUWDE 4 i s e stimated a t 1 00 b y 3 0 meters. Two c ore a reas w ere i dentified: A i s a pproximately 1 0 b y 1 0 meters a nd B i s a pproximately f our by e ight meters. There i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r i ntact s tratigraphy. L ithics o bserved ( Table 6 ) i nclude s everal multiple-platform c ores, f lakes, b lades, a nd a t l east o ne pointed L evallois-like f lake. N o t ools w ere n oted. D ensity i s e stimated a t c a. f ive l ithics p er square m eter i n t he c ore a reas. C eramics a lso a re p resent a nd r epresent b oth R oman a nd C optic o ccupations. The s ite obviously i s multiple c omponent. The p rehistoric o ccupation, c onsisting o f t he c hipped s tone i tems, p robably r epresented a l ithic w orkshop a nd p roduction l ocus. W e c annot, h owever, p lace t his i nto a s pecific c ultural p eriod due t o t he u ndiagnostic n ature o f the materials. A fter t he p rehistoric o ccupation, t he e ntire r egion w as t he s cene o f i ntense R oman a ctivity, w ith KUWDE 4 b eing i n t he m iddle o f a n a gricultural f ield. A s ubsequent C optic u se o f t he a rea a lso i s i ndicated. M anagement D ata: T he c ondition o f K UWDE 4 i s p oor. The p rehistoric c omponent o f t he s ite h as b een s everely d isturbed b y R oman p lowing a nd C optic a ctivity, a s w ell a s by n atural p rocesses. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s m oderate, d epending o n f uture d evelopment o f t he a rea. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. I t i s d oubtful t hat a ny i n s itu p rehistoric m aterials a re p resent. W e r ecommend n o a dditional work a t t he s ite, a lthough t he e ntire r egion h as g reat p otential f or t hose i nterested

8 9

T able 6 .

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 4 .

A rea A

T ools C ores

0 1 6

A rea B

0 .0

0

1 1.3

1 1

Total

0 .0 1 3.9

0 2 7

0 .0 1 2.3

D ebitage B lades

5

3 .5

1

1 .3

6

2 .7

B ladelets

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

F lakes O ther-

D ebris

2 9 0

2 0.6

2 9

0 .0

0

3 6.7 0 .0

5 8 0

2 6.4 0 .0

3 4

2 4.1

3 0

3 8.0

6 4

2 9.1

8 6

6 1.0

2 6

3 2.9

1 12

5 0.9

3 .5

1 2

1 5.2

1 7

7 .7

M icroflakes

5

G roundstone

0

T otal Chipped S tone 1 41

0

9 9.9

7 9

9 0

-

1 00.0

0

2 20

1 00.0

i n Roman s tudies. A s s uch, t his l ocality s hould b e m onitored f or a ny p otential development a ctivities. V andalism a lso i s l ikely a t s ome o f t he n earby Roman s ites. R ecording t ime: 2 .0 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

5

2

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

UDLS

D escription: The s ite i s l ocated a djacent t o what a ppears t o b e a f ormer s pring v ent. A w adi c hannel o ccurs a pproximately 1 00 m eters t o t he e ast. T he s ite's s lope i s m oderate, t o t he s outh. T he matrix i s e xtremely r ocky, a lthough a s and dune i s p resent i mmediately t o t he w est. There i s n o v egetation p resently g rowing a t t he s ite, b ut a p alm t ree o ccurs s ome 5 0 meters t o t he s outh. The e conomic p otential o f K UWDE 5 was g ood, e specially i f i t w as o ccupied w hen t he s pring v ent w as a ctive. The s ite a rea c overs a pproximately t wo b y t wo m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow a nd c onsists o nly o f 1 0-15 p ieces o f a ngular d ebris. The s ite p robably r epresented a n e phemeral c hipping s tation t hat w as o ccupied b riefly. T he c ultural period a ssociated w ith t he s ite c annot b e d etermined d ue t o t he l ack o f d iagnostic a rtifacts. M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated a nd a dditional d isturbance w as c aused b y t he p resence o f a n earby R oman " town," a s w ell a s b y r ecent a gricultural a ctivity. The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s s light u nless a dditional a gricultural d evelopment o ccurs. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. The p resence o f i ntact p rehistoric m aterials i s e xtremely u nlikely a nd w e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite

N umber:

T ransect:

K UWDE

6

2

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)/Neolithic

9 1

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite ( Figure 1 0) i s s ituated o n t he o uter p erimeter o f a l arge s pring v ent. T his v ent r ises a pproximately 1 0 meters a bove t he s urrounding t errain, which i s a f lat p lain. T he matrix c onsists o f s and m ixed w ith p ebbles. The n earest s and dune i s c a. 3 0 m eters n orth o f t he v ent. I t c onsists o f a l ow dune w ith abundant v egetation. There i s n o v egetation a t t he s ite i tself, a lthough g rasses a nd p alm t rees a re p resent a t a s mall p resently o ccupied f arm. There i s a gentle s lope t o t he n orthwest. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s e xcellent, e specially i f i t w as o ccupied when t he s pring v ent w as a ctive, which a ppears l ikely. The s ite's a rea i s e stimated a t 7 5 b y 1 00 meters, w ith a c ore a rea o f c a. 2 0 by 2 0 m eters. S tratigraphy i s n ot r eadily a pparent, b ut may b e p resent. F eatures o ccur, a lthough i t i s n ot c ertain i f t hey a re a ssociated w ith t he p rehistoric o ccupations o f t he s ite. These i nclude a s mall c ircle o f s tones c a. t wo m eters i n d iameter w ith a n o pening t o t he e ast. T his m ay r epresent t he b ase o f a s tructure. The r emains o f a p robable R oman s tructure a lso o ccur i mmediately s outh o f t he s pring v ent. L ithic a rtifacts a re abundant a t KUWDE 6 ( Tables 7 a nd 8 ), a lthough d ensity varies. I n t he c ore a rea, d ensity i s a pproximately t wo a rtifacts p er s quare m eter. T he c hipped s tone observed a t t he s ite i ncludes a bundant d ebitage c onsisting o f f lakes, b lades, a nd b ladelets. C ores a lso a re r elatively c ommon. Tools i nclude s ide a nd e ndscrapers, b acked p ieces, n otches, b ifaces, a nd Mousterian-like p oints. Many o f t he c hipped s tone a rtifacts h ave multifaceted p latforms a nd t he majority a ppears t o b e Mousterian. Cores i nclude multiple c hange o f o rientation t ypes a s w ell a s a t l east o ne s ub-pyramidal b ladelet t ype. C eramics a lso a re p resent a t KUWDE 6 . S ome a ppear t o b e R oman, but t he majority a re v ery c rude a nd r esemble t he N eolithic c eramics d escribed b y B anks ( 1980) a nd Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980: 2 66-267). KUWDE 6 r epresents a t l east t wo p rehistoric o ccupations, o ne during t he M ousterian a nd o ne p robably o ccurring during t he N eolithic. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp during b oth o f t hese o ccupations. This a ssessment i s b ased o n t he s ite's s ize a nd t he v ariety o f l ithic a rtifacts n oted. Management D ata: K UWDE 6 i s d eflated a nd h as s uffered p ost-prehistoric i mpacts i n t he f orm o f R oman a nd l ater r eoccupations. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s h igh. T hese may o ccur i n t he f orm o f i ncreased a gricultural u se o f t he a rea a nd b y r elic c ollectors. D uring o ur b rief v isit a t t he s ite, w hich i ncluded

9 2

•

c a . 1km t o R oman T owe r / A rea o f D ense S cat te r

L owe r E levat ion C e ram ic C oncent ra t ion

S tone -C ircu la r S truc ture

I n te r io r o f S pr ing V ent

. b 4 z ' e A rea o f D ense S cat te r

H ighe r E leva t ion

K UWDE6

e 1

N /

F igure

1 0.

S ite map

f or

KUWDE

6 .

9 3

R oman S truc ture

1

T able 7 .

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 6 .

T ools

1 8

1 6.1

C ores

1 0

8 .9

D ebitage B lades

8

7 .1

B ladelets

4

3 .6

F lakes

3 7

O ther- c ore t rimming e lement

1

D ebris

4 4.6

3 4

3 0.4

0

G roundstone

( 2) 1 12

9 4

0 .9

5 0

M icroflakes

T otal C hipped S tone

3 3.0

0 .0

1 00.0

T able

8 .

Tool typology

f or KUWDE 6 .

Type

N

I nformal T ools

4

2 2.2

P rojectile P oints

3

1 6.7

B ifaces

2

1 1.1

E ndscrapers

1

5 .5

S idescrapers

3

1 6.7

Ovoid S crapers

1

5 .5

P erforator o n N otch

1

5 .5

Notches

2

1 1.1

Backed B lades

1

5 .5

Total

1 8

9 5

%

9 9.8

portions o f t wo days, s everal p in-flagged a rtifacts ( primarily t ools) w ere r emoved b y l ocal r esidents. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. While t here was n o d irect e vidence f or i n s itu c ultural d eposits, s ome i ntact materials may b e p resent. D espite t he d isturbance, t he s ite h as g ood potential f or y ielding a dditional i nformation o n b oth t he Mousterian a nd N eolithic o ccupation o f t he a rea. We w ould r ecommend s ystematic c ollection a nd l imited t esting a t t he s ite i n o rder t o d etermine i ts f ull p otential. R ecording t ime: 2 .0 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

7

2

P resumed Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

P aleolithic

D escription: This s mall s ite i s l ocated i n a s and dune b lowout. I t i s a lso n ear a n a ncient s pring v ent ( ca. 2 50 meters t o t he n orthwest) a nd a modern oasis ( ca. 2 5 meters t o t he w est). T he matrix a t K UWDE 7 c onsists o f f ine a nd c oarse g rained s and. V egetation i s p resent a nd c onsists o f s parse g rasses a nd s crub b ush, w hich h ave s erved t o partially s tabilize t he s and dune u pon which t he s ite i s l ocated. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. The s ite i s a pproximately t wo k ilometers f rom a l ow h illy a rea t o t he w est. The e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 7 i s e xcellent, a nd t he s ite w ould h ave h ad o ffered a ccess t o s everal m icrohabitats. The t otal s ite a rea i s e stimated a t 2 0 by 7 0 m eters, w ith n o c lear c ore a rea b eing d istinguishable. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy or f eatures. L ithic a rtifacts a re s parsely s pread t hroughout t he s ite a rea. T he majority o f t hese r epresent u ndiagnostic d ebitage ( Tables 9 a nd 1 0), a lthough most o f t his material i s s mall a nd t hin i n s ection. Observed t ools i nclude a c ompletely s errated b ladelet, a small ovoid a nd e longated p rojectile p oint, a b acked b lade, a nd a d enticulate. Two s mall multiple c hange-of-orientation c ores a lso w ere o bserved, a s w as a h andstone f ragment. K UWDE 7 m ay h ave r epresented a s hort-term c amp s ite. I ts l ocation w ould h ave a llowed i ts o ccupants t o t ake a dvantage o f a v ariety o f r esources; i n s pite o f t his f avorable l ocation, h owever, t he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een o nly b riefly o ccupied.

9 6

T able

9 .

L ithic s ummary f or KUWDE 7 .

T ools

7

5 .3

C ores

2

1 .5

D ebitage B lades B ladelets F lakes O ther-

D ebris

1 0 3 7 1 0

2 .3 5 3.4 0 .0

8 4

6 3.2

3 6

2 7.1

M icroflakes

4

G roundstone

( 1)

T otal C hipped S tone

7 .5

1 33

3 .0

1 00.1

Table

1 0.

Tool t ypology f or KUWDE 7 .

Type

N

I nformal Tools

3

4 2.9

P rojectile

1

1 4.3

D enticulates

1

1 4.3

B acked B lades

1

1 4.3

S errated B ladelets

1

1 4.3

7

1 00.1

Total

%

M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s s everely d isturbed a nd d eflated. C ultural i mpacts h ave b een s evere s ince a t l east R oman t imes u p t o t he p resent. T he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s g reat i f d evelopment a ccelerates i n t his a rea. A ccess t o t he s ite i s e xcellent. The p otential f or e ncountering i n s itu materials i s l ow. W e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t his s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE 8

3

P resumed C ultural P aleolithic/Neolithic

A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

D escription: The s ite i s l ocated i n a s and d une b lowout. I t i s p resently s urrounded b y s everal dunes a nd i s i mmediately a djacent t o a s mall s pring o r w ell. T he s ite i s a pproximately 7 50 m eters s outhwest o f A in e l' Ghasal, a p rominent a ctive s pring. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. The m atrix c onsists o f l oose s and a nd s mall p ebbles. V egetation i ncludes n umerous r eeds a nd g rasses, a s w ell a s f erns, p alms, a nd a n a cacia t ree. T he e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 8 i s e xcellent, e specially i f t he g roundwater p resently a vailable w as e xtant during t he s ite's o ccupation. T he s ite a rea w as m easured a t 1 0 b y 9 0 m eters. A rtifacts o ccur i n t wo d iscrete c oncentrations, w ith s everal objects s pread b etween t hese a reas. N o r eadily d iscernible f eatures w ere o bserved. While t he m ajority o f t he s ite a rea i s d eflated, s tratigraphy a nd i ntact d eposits may e xist i n t he a djacent s and d une. A rtifact d ensity i s h igh, a nd a w ide v ariety o f l ithic a rtifacts a re p resent ( Tables 1 1 a nd 1 2). T hese i nclude a bundant d ebitage c onsisting o f b ladelets, b lades, a nd f lakes, a nd a v ariety o f c ores, i ncluding multiple c hange-ofo rientation a nd s ubdiscoidal t ypes. O bserved t ools i nclude t wo p rojectile p oints ( one l arge b ifacial l anceolate f orm a nd o ne v ery s mall b ifacial t ype), a p erforator, b ifaces, s crapers, a n otch, a d enticulate, a nd r etouched p ieces. A lso p resent o n t he s ite a re n umerous c eramics. S ome o f t hese a re R oman, b ut m any a ppear N eolithic, b ased o n W endorf a nd S child 's ( 1980:260-267) a nd B anks' ( 1980) d iscussions. F inally, o strich e ggshell, w hich m ay h ave s erved a s f luid c ont ainers, a lso i s a bundant.

9 9

T able 1 1.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 8 --Transect 1 ( 88 x 7 m )

T ools

2 0

4 .6

C ores

1 1

2 .5

B lades

2 6

6 .0

B ladelets

1 4

3 .2

1 47

3 3.8

D ebitage

F lakes O ther-

0

D ebris M icroflakes G roundstone

0 .0

1 87

4 3.0

1 54

3 5.4

6 3

1 4.5

0

T otal Chipped S tone

4 35

1 00

1 00.0

T able

1 2.

Tool typology

f or KUWDE 8 .

Type

N

I nformal Tools

4

2 0.0

P rojectile P oints

2

1 0.0

S idescrapers

4

2 0.0

Nosed S crapers

1

5 .0

B ifaces

3

1 5.0

Unifaces

1

5 .0

P erforators

2

1 0.0

D rills

1

5 .0

Denticulates

1

5 .0

Notches

1

5 .0

T otal

2 0

%

1 00.0

B ased o n t he l ithics a nd c eramics, w e h ave placed KUWDE 8 i nto t wo c omponents: T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic. The abundance a nd variety o f l ithics p resent s uggests t hat t he s ite may h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp. Management D ata: KUWDE 8 i s d eflated, b ut i ntact d eposits may i ntrude i nto t he s and dune o n which i t i s l ocated. E rosion a lso h as c aused s ome damage. T he potential f or f uture i mpact i s l imited t o m oderate. A ccess t o t he s ite i s f air, w ith f our-wheel drive. KUWDE 8 h as g ood potential f or a dditional i nvestigation. This s hould t ake t he f orm o f m apping, s ystematic c ollecting, a nd t esting f or i ntact m aterials. R ecording t ime: 2 .0 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

9

3

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

N eolithic

D escription: KUWDE 9 i s s ituated o n a deflated dune b lowout. The s ite i s l ocated a t t he s outhwest e dge o f A in e l-Ghasal. I ts matrix c onsists o f c oarse g rained s and a nd s mall p ebbles. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. V egetation i ncludes r eeds, g rasses, f erns, p alms, a nd a cacia t rees, a ll a ssociated w ith t he spring. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s e xcellent, e specially i f t he s pring w as a ctive d uring o ccupation. The s ite c overs a n a rea e stimated a t 2 5 by 3 0 m eters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifactual m aterials a re s parsely spread t hroughout t he s ite a rea a nd d ensity i s v ery l ow ( less t han o ne p iece p er s quare meter). L ithic m aterials c onsist o f d ebris, f lakes, a t l east o ne b ladelet, a s teeply n osed s craper, a s ingle p latform c ore, a nd a p ossible g rinding s tone f ragment. A ll a re h eavily a braded. C eramics a lso o ccur. U nfortunately t hese a re f airly u ndiagnostic, a lthough t hey d o r esemble N eolithic u tility w ares. This s mall s ite p robably r epresented a c ampsite. W e h ave t entatively d ated K UWDE N eolithic b ased o n t he materials p resent. Mana9ement c ondition. a dditional

s hort-term 9 t o t he

D ata: A lthough d eflated, t he s ite i s i n f air I f t he A in e l-Ghazal o asis i s d eveloped, i mpacts w ill u ndoubtedly o ccur. A ccess t o

1 02

t he s ite i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. The potential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials i s m inimal. We r ecommend n o a dditional work a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

KUWDE

1 0

3

P resumed C ultural P aleolithic/Neolithic

A ffiliation(s)

T erminal

D escription: This s mall s ite i s l ocated i n a dune b lowout a pproximately 1 .25 k ilometers w est o f A in e lG hasal. There i s n o s lope t o t he s ite a nd i ts matrix c onsists o f c oarse g rained s and, p ebbles, a nd f errite c oncretions. The s ite i s s urrounded b y s and dunes t o t he west, s outh, a nd e ast. Open p lains o ccur t o t he n orth. Vegetation c onsists o f s mall palms a nd s hort g rasses, which o ccur o n t he s urrounding dunes. The e conomic potential o f t he s ite i s j udged a s g ood. The s ite c overs a n e stimated 4 0 t o 5 0 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow, e stimated a t l ess t han o ne p iece p er s quare meter. L ithics c onsist p rimarily o f b ladelets, b lades, f lakes, a nd small c ores ( Tables 1 3 a nd 1 4). T ools i ncludes backed p ieces o n b lades a nd o n a b ladelet. O ne l aterally r etouched b lade a lso was n oted. A f ew s herds a lso a re p resent. These r esemble N eolithic p ieces a s d escribed by W endorf a nd S child ( 1980: 2 66-267) a nd B anks ( 1980). Based o n t he materials p resent, w e f eel KUWDE 1 0 r epresented a l ithic w orkshop. The s mall n ature o f t he m ajority o f l ithics s uggests a T erminal P aleolithic d ate. The c eramics p robably r epresent a nother e phemeral o ccupation, p ossibly o nly a p otbreak, t hat may d ate t o t he Neolithic. M anagement D ata: K UWDE 1 0 i s b adly d eflated b ut o therwise i n f air c ondition. The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. There i s n o p otential f or i n s itu d eposits a nd w e do n ot r ecommend a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

1 03

T able 1 3.

L ithic s ummary f or KUWDE 1 0.

T ools

4

1 0.5

C ores

4

1 0.5

B lades

6

1 5.8

B ladelets

7

1 8.4

F lakes

9

2 3.7

O ther-

0

0 .0

D ebitage

2 2

5 7.9

D ebris

7

1 8.4

M icroflakes

1

2 .6

G roundstone

0

T otal C hipped S tone

3 8

1 04

1 00.0

T able

1 4.

Tool t ypology f or KUWDE 1 0.

Type

N

I nformal Tools

1

2 5.0

B acked B lades

2

5 0.0

B acked B ladelets

1

2 5.0

4

1 00.0

T otal

1 05

%

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

1 1

3

P resumed Cultural P aleolithic/Neolithic

A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated i n a b lowout s urrounded b y s and dunes. I t i s a pproximately 7 50 m eters t o t he w est o f A in e l-Ghasal. There i s n o s lope t o t he s ite a nd i ts matrix c onsists o f c oarse g rained s and a nd p ebbles. V egetation o n t he s urrounding dunes i s c omprised o f s parse g rasses. More a bundant v egetation e xists t owards A in a l-Ghasal, where g rasses a nd palms a re p resent. KUWDE 1 1 i s l ocated a bout 5 0 meters s outhwest o f KUWDE 8 a nd c ould, i n f act, b e a part o f t hat s ite. An i nspection o f t he i ntervening a rea, h owever, r evealed n o c ontinuation o f a rtifacts. S uch a l inkage, t hough, m ight b e o bscured by c urrently a ctive dune movement. E conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood, e specially i f A in a l-Ghasal w ere a ctive w hen t he s ite w as o ccupied. The s ite a rea i s a pproximately 3 0 by 3 0 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity i s r elatively s parse a t KUWDE 1 1 ( Table 1 5). No t ools o r c ores w ere observed, w ith a ll n oted l ithics b eing c omposed o f f lakes, b lades, b ladelets, a nd m icroflakes. Two g roundstone f ragments a lso w ere p resent. S hell a lso o ccurs, a s d o c eramics. These r esemble N eolithic s herds d escribed f or t he r egion. KUWDE 1 1 m ay h ave f unctioned p rimarily a s a l ithic r eduction a rea, b ased o n t he l ack o f t ools. This, h owever, i s a t enuous a ssessment. L ikewise, t he c hronological p lacement o f t he s ite i s open t o q uestion. The l ithics a re g enerally s mall a nd r esemble T erminal P aleolithic p ieces; h owever, t he p resence o f p ottery i s s uggestive o f a p ossible l imited N eolithic c omponent a s • well. Management D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated b ut o therwise i ntact. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. T here a ppears t o b e l ittle l ikelihood o f e ncountering i n s itu m aterials a nd w e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 1 .0 h ours.

1 06

T able

1 5.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 1 1.

T ransect 1 ( 36 x 3 m )

T ransect 2 ( 16 x 3 m )

T otal

T ools

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

C ores

0

0 .0

3

9 .4

3

5 .3

B lades

0

0 .0

B ladelets

1

4 .0

3

9 .4

F lakes

7

2 8.0

4

1 2.5

O ther-

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

8

3 2.0

1 7

5 3.2

2 5

4 3.8

4 8.0

1 1

3 4.4

2 3

4 0.4

D ebitage

D ebris

1 2

1 0

3 1.3

1 0 4 1 1 0

1 7.5 7 .0 1 9.3 0 .0

M icroflakes

5

2 0.0

1

3 .1

6

1 0.5

G roundstone

( 2)

-

0

-

( 2)

-

T otal C hippled S tone 2 5

1 00.0

3 2

1 07

1 00.0

5 7

1 00.0

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

1 2

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he L ibyan P lateau a pproximately 5 0 meters e ast o f t he e dge o f t he s teep e scarpment t hat f alls t o t he Kharga D epression. T he n earest s and dune i s s everal h undred meters away. There i s n o v egetation p resently e xtant, n or i s t here a ny s oil d evelopment. R ather, t he matrix c onsists o f g ravels a nd r ocks. There i s n o s lope t o t he s ite i tself, b ut t he s urrounding a rea c onsists o f r idges a nd r olling h ills. The n earest w ater s ource c onsists o f s everal n earby p layas. The e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 1 2 i s m oderate t o p oor. The s ite's a rea i s e stimated a t a pproximately 2 00 b y 5 00 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or i ntact s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s e xtremely l ow. Observed a rtifacts i nclude L evallois-like c ores; t hick f lakes, many w ith multifaceted platforms; a s idescraper o n a f lake; r etouched p ieces, primarily o n f lakes, a nd a f ew b lades. A ll o f t he a rtifacts a re h eavily p atinated. B ased o n t he multifaceted p latforms a nd g enerally l arge s ize o f materials, w e h ave p laced t his s ite i n t he M iddle P aleolithic ( Mousterian). I t may h ave f unctioned a s a w orkshop, a lthough t he r elative a bundance o f t ools s uggests o ther f unctions a s w ell. I t a ppears t o r epresent a s ingle c omponent. Management D ata: T he o verall c ondition o f t he s ite i s poor. I t i s d eflated a nd h as b een s ubjected t o r ecent c ultural i mpacts i n t he f orm o f a n a bandoned c ampsite, possibly o f t he E gyptian G eological S urvey a ccording t o o ur g uide. I t a lso i s l ocated o n t he " Darb a l A rbain" c aravan t rail. A ccess t o t he s ite i s e xcellent--it i s i mmediately o ff o f t he o ld r oad f rom t he Kharga D epression t o t he L ibyan P lateau, w hich i s quite p assable. The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s h igh i f t he r oad a rea i s e ver r e-developed. W e d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

1 08

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

K UWDE

1 3

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): M iddle P aleolithic ( Ater I an)! T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic/Islamic D escription: This l arge s ite ( Figure 1 1) i s l ocated n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. I t i s e ast o f a l ow r idge t hat s hields t he s ite. I t i s d ivided i nto u pper a nd l ower p ortions b y a s hallow s wale a nd s light r idge t o t he w est. A s mall ( two t o t hree m eters h igh) r idge s eparates t he t wo p ortions. There i s a s light s outhwest s lope t o t he s ite. The matrix c onsists o f l arge r ocks a nd p ebbles o n d eflated, c oarse g rained s and. No v egetation i s p resently e xtant, a nd n o p otential w ater s ources a re p resent i n t he i mmediate s ite v icinity. There a re n o s and dunes n ear t he s ite. T he e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 1 3 i s moderate t o p oor. G iven t he w idely d ispersed n ature o f t he materials c omprising t his s ite, w e a re u nable t o p rovide a n a ccurate e stimate o f i ts t otal e xtent. T he c ore a rea, h owever, which i ncludes t he u pper a nd l ower s ections n oted above, i s a n a rea 8 0 by 8 0 meters i n e xtent. T here i s n o e vidence f or i ntact s tratigraphy. H owever, s pecific c oncentrations o f a rtifacts do o ccur w ithin t he c ore a rea a nd m ay r epresent f eatures. L ithic materials a re a bundant a t t he s ite ( Tables 1 6 a nd 1 7), a nd d ensity i n t he c ore a rea i s e stimated a t a pproximately 2 0 p ieces p er s quare meter. S everal d iagnostic a rtifacts a re p resent, i ncluding s everal p rojectile p oints. These i nclude L ate a nd M iddle N eolithic f orms, a s well a s a n A terian p oint a nd u ndiagnostic f orms. O ther t ools observed i nclude d enticulates, s idescrapers, n otches, b acked b lades, a b urin, a nd a p erforator. No m icrolithic t ools w ere n oted. C ores a re n umerous a nd a re primarily s mall i n s ize, many b eing b ladelet c ores. D ebitage i s a bundant a nd c onsists o f n u r i .erous b ladelets, b lades, f lakes, m icroflakes, a nd d ebris. N o g roundstone w as o bserved. A f ew I slamic s herds w ere n oted. K UWDE 1 3 i s a multiple c omponent s ite. B ased o n t he p resence o f a n A terian p oint a nd a m inority o f t he d ebitage, a l imited M iddle P aleolithic ( Aterian) o ccupation a ppears l ikely. T his a pparently w as f ollowed b y a T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation. While n o d istinctly d iagnostic T erminal P aleolithic t ools w ere o bserved, a m ajority o f t he d ebitage r eflects T erminal P aleolithic t echnology. A fter t he T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation, t here w as a N eolithic u se o f t he a rea. W e

1 09

L ower A rea

D ense M ate r ia l

L ow R idge 4 -6 m H igh

E dge o f E scarpmen t

KU WDE13 — C o re A rea

T

C O

a )

0

. 0 2

C o

x _

1 10

T able

1 6.

L ithic s ummary f or KUWDE 1 3.

T ransect 1 ( 10 x 2 m ) N %

E ast ( Tool Emphasis) N %

W est ( Tool E mphasis) N % 1 1

T ools

6

2 .2

1 7

1 5.9

C ores

7

2 .6

1 6

1 5.0

3

T otal N

%

1 0.2

3 4

7 .0

2 .8

2 6

5 .3

D ebi t age B lades

3 6

1 3.2

2 0

1 8.7

2 4

2 2.2

8 0

1 6.4

B ladelets

5 5

2 0.2

1 2

1 1.2

3 0

2 7.8

9 7

1 9.9

F lakes

7 8

2 8.7

2 0

1 8.7

2 5

2 3.1

1 23

2 5.3

O ther-Core t ablet

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

1

0 .9

1

0 .2

1 69

6 2.1

5 2

4 8.6

8 0

7 4.0

3 01

6 1.8

D ebris

7 0

2 5.7

1 7

1 5.9

1 1

1 0.2

9 8

2 0.1

M icroflakes

2 0

7 .4

2 .8

2 8

5 .7

G roundstone

0

T otal C hipped S tone 2 72

5

4 .7

0

1 00.0

1 07

1 11

3 0

1 00.0

1 08

0

1 00.1

4 87

9 9.9

Table

1 7.

Tool . . typology

f or KUWDE 1 3.

T ransect

E ast P ortion N %

West Portion N %

N

I nformal T ools

4

2 3.5

4

3 6.4

8

2 3.5

P rojectile Points

5

2 9.4

1

9 .1

6

1 7.7

3

1 7.6

4

1 1.8

1

2 .9

Type

S idescrapers

N

1

1

%

1 6.7

P erforators/Drills

1

9 .1

T otal %

Burins

1

5 .9

1

2 .9

Choppers

1

5 .9

1

2 .9

2

5 .9

D enticulates

1

1 6.7

1

5 .9

N otches

1

1 6.7

1

5 .9

2

1 8.2

4

1 1.8

B acked B lades

2

3 3.3

1

5 .9

2

1 8.2

4

1 1.8

C ompletely R etouched B lades 1

1 6.7

1

2 .9

1

2 .9

B acked B ladelets T otal

1 6

1 00.1

1 7

1 12

1 00

1 1

9 .1 1 00.1

3 4

9 9.9

b ase t his conclusion o n t he p resence o f d iagnostic N eolithic p rojectile points a nd o n s ome o f t he d ebitage. F inally, a b rief I slamic o ccupation o ccurred. D ue t o t he a bundance o f m aterials, e specially t hose r elating t o t he T erminal P aleolithic, i t i s l ikely t hat KUWDE 1 3 f unctioned a s a b ase c amp, a t l east during t his p eriod. The s ite a rea obviously w as a ttractive, e ven t hough t oday t here i s l ittle i ndication o f r esource a bundance. U nlike many o f t he s ites i n T ransect 4 , K UWDE 1 3 i s n ot l ocated a djacent t o a p laya. M anagement D ata: KUWDE 1 3 i s d eflated b ut o therwise i n g ood c ondition. The p otential f or f urther i mpacts a ppears l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s f air, w ith f ourw heel d rive. W hile t here a ppears t o b e l ittle p otential o f e ncountering i n s itu materials, w e r ecommend a dditional i nvestigation o f t he s ite i n t he f orm o f m apping, s ystematic c ollections, a nd t esting o perations. I t has a r ich m aterial i nventory a nd w as o ccupied o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime, t hus i t i s a g ood c andidate f or m ore d etailed i nvestigation. R ecording t ime: 2 .0 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE

1 4

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)/Terminal P aleolithic

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated n ear t he n ortheast e dge o f a p laya. I t h as a s light s lope t o t he s outhwest. T he matrix i s c omposed o f r ocks m ixed w ith s and. T here i s p resently n o v egetation a t t he s ite o r i ts e nvirons. There a lso a re n o s and dunes i n t he i mmediate a rea. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite, o n a s easonal b asis, i s g ood i f t he p laya c ontained w ater a t the t ime o f o ccupation. The s ite's b oundaries a re p oorly d efined, s ince d ispersed a rtifactual m aterial i s s o c ommon t hroughout T ransect 4 . H owever, t he s ite's c ore a rea i s a pproximately 5 0 b y 2 5 m eters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. M ost o f t he a rtifacts o ccur s ome 2 0 t o 2 5 m eters a way f rom t he p laya. D ensity i s r elatively l ow , e stimated a t b etween o ne t o t hree p ieces p er s quare m eter. S everal t ools w ere n oted, i ncluding a p erforator o n a f lake, a n otch o n a b lade, a b acked b lade, a nd r etouched b lades a nd f lakes. A f ew b ladelets

1 13

w ere observed , b ut most o f t he d ebitage consists o f f lakes a nd b lades, many o f which h ave multifaceted p latforms, a s d o s everal o f t he t ools ( Tables 1 8 a nd 1 9). The a bundance o f debitage s uggests t hat KUWDE 1 4 m ay h ave f unctioned a s a workshop. O n t he o ther hand, t he r elative abundance o f t ools s uggests p rocessing a ctivities. I n a ll l ikelihood, b oth t ool manufacture a nd processing o f r esources o ccurred a t t he s ite. The p resence o f b ladelets i ndicates a T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation a s w ell. Thus t he s ite may r epresent t wo c omponents, b oth o f l imited duration. B ased on t he l ack o f d iagnostic e lements, h owever, t hese must r emain t entative p lacements. M anagement D ata: The s ite i s d eflated, b ut t he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel drive. The potential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials i s l imited. We r ecommend n o a dditional work a t t he s ite. R ecording T ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: S tudy A rea:

KUWDE

1 5

4

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s):

U DLS

D escription: This s mall s ite i s l ocated i n a nd on t he e dges o f a p laya. The s ite i s s urrounded by l ow h ills a nd r idges. T here i s n o s oil p resent a t t he s ite, t he matrix b eing c omposed o f d esert p avement. There a lso i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. N o v egetation i s p resent, a nd t he n earest s and dune i s a pproximately 1 00 m eters d istant. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite w ould h ave b een m oderate t o g ood i f w ater was i n t he p laya a t t he t ime o f o ccupation. . The a rea o f t he s ite i s e stimated a t 2 0 by 1 0 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or i ntact f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow. O bserved a rtifacts i nclude a f ew t hin b lades, b ut most c onsist o f f lakes, p rimarily o n a b rown f lint. N o t ools were n oted. KUWDE 1 5 p robably r epresents a s ingle e phemeral o ccupation. I t m ay h ave f unctioned a s a workshop. D ue t o t he l ack o f d iagnostic e lements w e c annot a ssign a c ultural a ffiliation t o t his s ite.

1 14

T able

1 8.

L ithic

s ummary

f or KUWDE

1 4.

T ools

8

5 .4

C ores

2

1 .4

D ebitage B lades B ladelets F lakes O ther-

D ebris

2 8 6 5 8 0

4 .1 3 9.5 0 .0

9 2

6 2.6

4 1

2 7.9

M icroflakes

4

G roundstone

0

T otal Chipped S tone

1 9.0

1 47

2 .7

1 00.0

T able

1 9.

Tool t ypology

f or KUWDE 1 4.

Type

N

I nformal Tools

2

2 5.0

P erforators

1

1 2.5

Backed B lades

1

1 2.5

Notches

1

1 2.5

Completely R etouched B lades

3

3 7.5

8

1 00.0

Total

%

M anagement D ata: K UWDE 1 5 i s s everely d eflated. The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s g ood i f a ny d evelopment o ccurs i n t he a rea: t he s ite l ocated n ext t o a n o ld c aravan r oute a nd a modern r oad. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. The p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials i s l imited a nd we do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional i nvestigations a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite

Number:

S tudy A rea:

K UWDE

1 6

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

UDLS

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated a long a r idge t hat r uns i n a n orth-south d irection, p aralleling t he e scarpment. T he r idge, c a. 2 50 m eters f rom t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau, o verlooks a s mall w adi t o t he e ast. A p laya i s a bout 1 50 meters t o t he s outhwest. The m atrix a t t he s ite i s r ocky, a nd t here i s a s light s lope t o t he w est. N o v egetation i s p resent, a nd n o s and d unes a re n earby. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite w ould h ave b een moderate t o g ood i f w ater a nd a ssociated r esources w ere a vailable f rom t he w adi a nd/or p laya. This s ite, l ike s o m any l ithic s catters r ecorded n ear t he e scarpment, h as v ery e lusive b oundaries. The c ore a rea, h owever, i s e stimated a t a pproximately 2 5 b y 4 0 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or i ntact f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity w as e stimated a t o ne t o t hree p ieces p er s quare m eter. A rtifacts c onsisted o f f lakes a nd b lades, a s w ell a s o f s everal c ores. T he s ite p robably r epresents a s ingle o ccupation. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a w orkshop, b ased o n t he m aterials o bserved. D ue t o t he l ack o f d iagnostic a rtifacts, w e c annot a ssign a c ultural a ffiliation t o K UWDE 1 6. M anagement D ata: K UWDE 1 6 i s b adly d eflated, T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. W e b elieve t hat t here i s v ery l imited p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu m aterials a t t he s ite a nd d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

1 17

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

1 7

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

Paleolithic

D escription: This s ite ( Figure 1 2) i s l ocated o n t he e dge o f a nd i n a p laya . I t i s r inged by l ow r idges t o t he n orth, s outh, a nd w est, while t he a rea t o t he e ast i s o pen. The matrix c onsists o f c oarse g rained s and w ith s mall p ebbles a nd s ome l arger r ocks m ixed i n. T he s ite s lopes v ery s lightly t o t he s outh. There i s n o v egetation p resent a t t he s ite, a nd t he n earest s and d une i s a pproximately o ne k ilometer t o t he north. T he e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 1 7 i s g ood, a ssuming t hat s ome water was p resent i n t he p laya a t t he t ime o f o ccupation. KUWDE 1 7 i s a l arge s ite, c overing a n e stimated a rea o f s ome 2 50 meters b y 1 50 m eters. W ithin t his a rea, a c ore a rea o f a pproximately 5 0 meters by 7 5 m eters o ccurs i n t he s outhern portion o f t he s ite, i n a nd n ear t he e dges o f t he p laya. T here i s n o d irect e vidence f or i ntact s tratigraphy. F eatures, a nd p ossibly s tructures, m ay e xist a t t he s ite. T he f ormer a re d efined b y c oncentrations o f a rtifacts, w hile t he l atter may b e r epresented b y c lustered s tones. W ithout t esting, h owever, t hese c onclusions r emain t entative. A rtifact d ensity i s h igh a t K UWDE 1 7, e specially w ithin t he c ore a rea ( Tables 2 0 a nd 2 1). S everal t ools w ere observed, i ncluding t he f ollowing: a double-backed p erforator, a rched b ilaterally b acked b ladelets, s traight b ilaterally b acked b ladelets, s idescrapers, a n e ndscraper, t wo b ifaces, t wo n otches, b acked b lades, a nd s everal r etouched p ieces. S everal b ladelet c ores a lso w ere n oted, a s w ere o ther v arieties. Debitage i s a bundant, a nd c onsists o f b lades, b ladelets, f lakes, a nd m icroflakes. A l imited a mount o f g roundstone i s p resent. A c ircular c arved s hell b ead w as a lso n oted. S ome b one i s a ssociated w ith t he s ite, b ut whether o r n ot this i s f ortuitous c annot a t p resent b e determined. K UWDE 1 7 a ppears t o r epresent o nly a T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation. T his m ay h ave c onsisted o f o ne r elatively l ong-term o ccupation w ith f airly i ntensive a ctivity, o r i t m ight r epresent s everal s hort-term o ccupational e pisodes b y g roups o f p eople s haring t he s ame T erminal P aleolithic t echnology. T he v ariety o f m aterials p resent a t K UWDE 1 7 s uggests t hat t he s ite m ay h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp.

1 18

KUWDE17

N

.. . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .„ N

1\

S l ight H i l l

, • • • - . . . ." -

/ , —— / I S add le B etween I H i l ls i 1 \ S ca t te red L i th ic s

•••»

. • • • ‚ .

. . . . ..

—_—

. . .. .. .

. . .. . .

-

—

,

,

, , . .

. . . .

N

\ \

\

\ •

N

N, ,

,

, .

T o ta l A rea c a . 2 50m x 1 5O rn

, •

I I 1

. . . .

i

N

I

\

I I

S l ight H i l l

1 1 \ 1 \ \ \ \ \ \ \

1 2.

S ite m ap

f or KUWDE

1 7. 1 19

•

N

I

C o re A rea c a . 5 0m x 7 5m

\ \ •

•

KU WDE18 2 00 m S .W . /

\ \ I I

I I I \

\

F igure

\

/ / / 7

N

N— _ — •

' e _ . . _

_ . „ . -

. . .

/

/ / / / / /

i I 1 i / / / / / / /

/ / / / /

T able 2 0.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 1 7.

E ntire S ite

T ools C ores

2 4 7

T ransect 1 ( 10 x 2 m )

1 0.7

1 0

3 .1

4

Total

3 .6

3 4

6 .8

1 .4

1 1

2 .2

D ebitage B lades

4 0

1 7.8

3 5

1 2.6

7 5

1 4.9

B ladelets

5 6

2 4.9

2 2

7 .9

7 8

1 5.5

F lakes

9 4

4 1.8

9 6

3 4.5

1 90

3 7.8

O ther- m icrob urin: c ore t ables

1 1 91

0 .4

1

0 .4

2

0 .4

8 4.9

1 54

5 5.4

3 45

6 8.6

D ebris

0

0 .0

9 7

3 4.9

9 7

1 9.3

M icroflakes

3

1 .3

1 3

4 .7

1 6

3 .2

G roundstone

( 2)

-

T otal C hipped S tone

2 25

0

1 00.0

2 78

1 20

-

( 2)

1 00.0

5 03

1 00.1

T able

2 1.

T ool t ypology f or KUWDE 1 7.

E ntire S ite

T ransect

1

T otal

T ype I nformal T ools

8

3 3.3

E ndscrapers

1

4 .2

S idescrapers

1

4 .2

B ifaces

2

N otches

4

4 0.0

1 2

3 5.3

1

2 .9

3

8 .8

8 .3

2

5 .9

2

8 .3

2

5 .9

B acked B lades

2

8 .3

4

1 1.8

B acked B ladelets

6

2 5.0

6

1 7.6

2

2

2 0.0

2 0.0

B acked a nd P ointed B ladelet P erfora tors

1

1 0.0

1

2 .9

T wisted, B acked a nd P ointed B ladelet P erforators

1

1 0.0

1

2 .9

2

5 .9

P artially B acked B ladelets T otal

2 2 4

8 .3 9 9.9

1 0

1 21

1 00.0

3 4

9 9.9

Management D ata: A lthough d eflation h as o ccurred, t he o verall c ondition o f KUWDE 1 7 i s good. Additional i mpacts t o t he s ite i nclude t he d umping o f t ar o n p ortions o f i t a nd t he p resence o f a modern " road" ( unpaved). The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited, u nless a dditional d evelopment o ccurs i n t he a rea. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. B ased o n our observations, t he p otential f or e ncountering i n s itu c ultural materials a ppears l imited, a lthough t he p atterning o f a rtifacts a t t he s ite s uggests t hat s ome n ondisturbed c ultural r emains a re p resent. We r ecommend a dditional i nvestigation a t t his s ite i n t he f orm o f m apping, s ystematic c ollection, a nd t est e xcavations. R ecording t ime: 1 .0 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

1 8

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

Paleolithic

D escription: KUWDE 1 8 i s o ne o f t he most s ignificant s ites r ecorded b y t he Western D esert E xpedition. I t i s l ocated c a. 3 00 m eters s outh o f t he o ld Kharga-Asyut r oad. The s ite i s s ituated i n a nd o n t he edges o f a l arge p laya ( Figures 1 3 a nd 1 4). L ow r idges o ccur t o t he e ast a nd w est, w hile t o t he n orth a nd s outh t he a rea i s o pen. T he p laya i n which t he s ite i s l ocated h as a s light s outhward s lope. The m atrix i s c omposed o f f ine g rained s and, b ut a lso i ncludes s mall pebbles a nd c obbles. T here i s n o v egetation p resent a t t he s ite. The n earest s and d une i s a t l east o ne k ilometer t o t he n orth. KUWDE 1 8's e conomic p otential i s r ated a s good, e specially i f w ater a nd a ssociated r esources were a vailable a t t he p laya during o ccupation. The s ite c onsists o f s everal d iscrete c oncentrations o f a rtifacts. I ts t otal a rea i s a pproximately 3 60 m eters b y 6 0 meters, b ut most o f t he c oncentrations o ccur w ithin a c ore a rea o f 2 00 m eters b y 4 0 m eters. While d eflation h as o ccurred, t here i s s ome e vidence o f l imited s oil d evelopment a nd s tratified c ultural d eposits m ay b e p resent. S everal f eatures o ccur a t t he s ite; s ome o f t hese m ay r epresent h ut-like s tructures. T hese f eatures c onsist o f s mall, h eavily r olled c obbles t hat o ccur i n g enerally c ircular a rrangements ( Figures 1 5 a nd 1 6). M any a re a ssociated w ith l ithic a rtifacts, a nd a t l east o ne h as s everal f ragments o f b one o n i ts s urface. Many o f t he c obbles c omposing t he f eatures h ave a s mooth " soapy" t exture t o

1 22

F igure

1 3.

P hotograph o f KUWDE 1 8 N ote c obble f eatures.

f rom t op o f

1 23

r idge,

f acing

e ast.

A rea o f D ense L i th ic S cat te r M ay Y ie ld S pa t ia l D a ta _ ( 2

› . I zI c o/ I

2x 1 0 mT ranse c t , . /

— ' La rg e /S ca t te r z , ) f R o ck , -

0

L ow R idge 2 -3 m a bove P l a in

G r ind ing S l ab

(

T h

L arg e U pr ight S tone S l ab

KUWDE I8

N

S pa r se A rea c 'A rea o fC obb le C oncen t ra t ion

F igure

1 4.

S ite map

f or

KUWDE

1 8.

1 24

KU WDE18

( )

6 \ 38° c ircular

F igure

1 6.

P hotograph

o f

c ircular

c obble

f eature

1 26

a t

KUWDE

1 8.

Note b one

c hil

t hem a nd may b e b urned. C oring t he c enter o f s everal f eatures, h owever, f ailed t o r eveal a ny c harcoal. While m ost o f t he p resumed f eatures a re c ircular, s ome a re e longated o r o val ( Figure 1 7). A ll o f t hese f eatures a re constructed f rom t he s ame t ype o f c obbles. The o rigin a nd p lacement o f t hese c obble f eatures i s perplexing. S everal a lternative e xplanations s hould b e considered. F irst, t hey may r epresent s ome n aturally o ccurring phenomenon. Our p roject g eomorphologist, h owever, c ould n ot a rrive a t a s atisfactory n atural e xplanation f or t he f eatures. A s econd a lternative i s t hat t he f eatures may b e r ecent i n o rigin. A gain, t his i s d iscounted due t o t he a bsolute l ack o f a ny modern a rtifacts a t t he s ite. F inally, a nother a lternative i s t hat t hey r epresent T erminal P aleolithic f eatures. This i s supported b y t he f act t hat many o f t he f eatures a re a ssociated w ith c lusters o f a rtifacts. I f, h owever, t he f eatures r epresent s ome s ort o f c ircular h uts, t hey w ere q uite s mall. They may h ave f unctioned a s h earths o r r oasting f eatures. W ithout t esting, t he f unction o f t hese f eatures i s u nclear. A rtifact d ensity a t KUWDE 1 8 i s v ery h igh ( Tables 2 2 and 2 3), a nd s everal d iscrete c oncentrations a re r eadily d iscernible. T ools a re numerous a nd i nclude t he f ollowing: a t ang f rom a p rojectile point, p erforators, s ide a nd e ndscrapers, d enticulates, n otches, b acked b ladelets, a b iface, b ilaterally b acked b ladelets, a nd s everal r etouched b lades a nd f lakes. C ores i ncluded b ladelet f orms. D ebitage i s abundant a nd c onsists o f b ladelets, b lades, f lakes, a nd m icroflakes. G roundstone a lso i s r elatively a bundant. S hell a nd s hell b eads ( complete a nd p artially f inished) were o bserved, a s w as o strich e ggshell. KUWDE 1 8 m ay r epresent s everal T erminal P aleolithic r eoccupations, b ut t he p lacement o f t he f eatures i s more s uggestive o f a l arge, s ingle o ccupation. T his may h ave r epresented a T erminal P aleolithic " village" o f r elatively l ong t erm o ccupation. S everal d iscrete a ctivity a reas a re p resent, i ncluding a p ossible s hell w orkshop a nd l ithic p rocessing a reas. M anagement D ata: K UWDE 1 8 i s i n o verall g ood c ondition d espite s ome d eflation a nd i ts p roximity t o a c aravan r oute. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited, u nless t he r oad a rea i s d eveloped. A ccess t o t he s ite i s good. T here i s g ood p otential f or r ecovering i ntact c ultural m aterials. H orizontal a rtifact movement a ppears l imited, a nd a ctivity a rea p atterning s hould b e d etectable. W e r ecommend a dditional i nvestigations a t

1 27

z e_ r A ° 3

0 oD Dc 0

00

(b

1 28

T able

2 2.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 1 8.

E ntire S ite

T ransect 1 ( 10 x 2 m )

T ools

1 9

1 0.3

C ores

1 2

6 .5

B lades

4 0

2 1.6

B ladelets

4 8

F lakes

4 5

1 1

Total

3 .2

3 0

5 .6

2 .0

1 9

3 .6

6 7

1 9.4

1 07

2 0.2

2 5.9

6 2

1 7.9

1 10

2 0.7

2 4.3

8 5

2 4.6

1 30

2 4.5

7

D ebitage

O ther- c ore t ablet; c ore t rimming e lement

D ebris

1

0 .5

1

0 .3

2

0 .4

1 34

7 2.3

2 15

6 2.2

3 49

6 5.8

1 7

9 .2

8 2

2 3.7

9 9

1 8.6

3 1

9 .0

3 4

6 .4

M icroflakes

3

1 .6

G roundstone

( 8)

-

1 85

( 1)

1 00.0

3 46

1 29

1 00.1

( 9) 5 31

1 00.0

T able 2 3.

T ool t ypology f or KUWDE 1 8.

E ntire S ite

T ransect

1

T otal

T ype I nformal T ools

4

2 1.1

P rojectile P oints

1

5 .3

E ndscrapers S idescrapers

2

1 0.5

B ifaces

4

3 6.4

8

2 6.7

1

3 .3

1

9 .1

1

3 .3

1

9 .1

3

1 0.0

1

9 .1

1

3 .3

P erforators

1

5 .3

2

1 8.2

3

1 0.0

D enticulates

1

5 .3

1

9 .1

2

6 .7

N otches

2

1 0.5

2

6 .7

B acked B lades

1

5 .3

1

3 .3

B acked B ladelets

5

2 6.3

5

1 6.7

P artially B acked B ladelets

2

1 0.5

3

1 0.0

T otal

1 9

1 00.1

1 30

1 1 1

9 .1 1 00.1

3 0

1 00.0

t his s ite i n t he f orm o f detailed mapping, s ystematic c ollections, t est e xcavations t o d etermine v ertical i ntegrity, a nd, i f warranted, more s ubstantial e xcavation. G eomorphic s tudy a lso i s r ecommended. R ecording t ime: 4 .0 h ours.

S ite 2 8

Numbers:

T ransect:

K UWDE

1 9,

2 0,

2 1,

2 2,

2 4,

2 5,

2 6,

2 7,

a nd

4

P resumed Cultural ( Mousterian)

A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T hese n ine s ites w ere r ecorded t ogether d ue t o t heir p roximity a nd n early i dentical c omposition, a nd i n t he i nterest o f t ime. A ll a re l ocated i n a c a. 1 .5 k ilometer l ong s ection o f T ransect 4 ( Figure 1 8). T he s ites a re s eparated o ne f rom a nother a t a pproximately 1 00 m eter i ntervals, a lthough s ite d ensity d ecreases t o t he s outh. The s ites a re l ocated e ither n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau o r n ear t he e dges o f p layas; h owever, u nlike many o f t he T erminal P aleolithic s ites i n T ransect 4 , t hey do n ot o ccur w ithin o r d irectly a djacent t o p layas. Many o f t he s ites a re s heltered b y r idges, a lthough s ome a re open. T he matrix a ssociated w ith t hem g enerally i s r ocky; s and a lso o ccurs a t t he p laya e dge s ites. There i s n o v egetation p resent a t a ny o f t he s ites. There a lso i s l ittle o r n o s lope a ssociated w ith t he s ites. The n earest s and d unes a re l ocated a t l east o ne k ilometer a way; many o f t he c losest dunes a ctually o ccur a t t he b ottom o f t he e scarpment. The e conomic potential f or t hese s ites v aries f rom moderate t o g ood, l argely d ependent u pon t heir a ssociations w ith p layas. A ll o f t he s ites a re s mall a nd c ompact, r anging f rom c a. 1 0 m eters b y 1 0 m eters t o 2 0 m eters b y 2 0 m eters i n e xtent. They a re r elatively d iscrete o ccurrences. T here i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy a t a ny o f t he s ites. I n t erms o f c omposition, t hese s ites a re s imilar t o KUWDE 1 4, 1 5, a nd 1 6, a lthough t he l ithic a rtifacts a re s lightly more d iagnostic, a llowing f or a t entative M iddle P aleolithic ( Mousterian) p lacement. T his i s b ased o n s everal f actors, i ncluding t he h eavily a braded n ature o f t he a rtifacts, m ost o f w hich w ere m anufactured o n a dark b rown f lint. A rtifact d ensity a t t he s ites r anges f rom l ow t o moderate. F ew t ools w ere observed, a nd t he

1 31

B EG INN ING O f TRANSECT C, 1 2

e a 3 00 m

CD

1 7

Q 18

0

1 3

0 16 0 14

1 9 0 20

( 52 3 0 2 4 2 10

2 2 2 5

02'

( 3 4 3 0

7 LOW

2 8

H ILLS

0

42

051

e o

5 L ARGE PLAYA

0

5 4

057

0 5e H IGHER , ROCKY AREA

WAD I END Of TRANSECT

i gure

1 8.

S ketch m ap o f T ransect 4 , s howing a pproximate l ocation o f r ecorded s ites ( numerous s mall p layas n ot s hown). 1

' " )

s evera

m ajority o f t he debitage i s t hick a nd i t h as multifaceted p latforms.

" chunky."

Much o f

T he s ize o f t he s ites s uggests t hat e ach r epresents a s ingle o ccupation. B ased o n t heir s izes a nd observed a rtifacts, t hey p robably f unctioned a s l imited a ctivity, s pecialized t ask s ites, o r a s s mall, e phemeral c amps. W hile s ome o f t he s ites m ay r epresent u ndiagnostic l ithic s catters, w e f eel c onfident i n a ssigning t hem a M iddle P aleolithic a ge b ased o n t he a rtifacts. M anagement D ata: A ll o f t he s ites a re d eflated b ut a re o therwise i n g ood c ondition. U nless d evelopment o ccurs, t he p otential f or f uture ' _ T tpacts i s l imited t o n atural f orces. A ccess t o t he s ites i s r elatively g ood, e specially w ith f our-wheel d rive. T here i s v irtually n o l ikelihood o f r ecovering i t act c ultural m aterials. We d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ites, a lthough a d etailed s tudy o f t hem a nd t heir s patial r elationships c ould b e o t u se t o t hose i nterested i n M iddle P aleolithic s ettlemelt s tudies. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours e ach.

S ite N umber: T ransect:

K UWDE 2 3

4

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)/Terminal P aleolithic

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he e dge o f a p laya. I t h as a s light s lope t o t he s outhwest a nd a s andy a nd r ocky m atrix. T here i s n o v egetation a ssociated w ith t he s ite a nd t he n earest s and d une i s o ver o ne k ilometer d istant. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood, a ssuming t hat w ater w as a vailable a t t he p laya d uring t he t imes o f o ccupation. T he t otal s ite a rea i s e stimated a t c a. 1 00 m eters b y 3 0 m eters, w ith a s maller c ore a rea o f c a. 2 0 m eters b y 1 0 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence s uggestive o f s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s m oderate a nd s uggests t wo d istinct o ccupations b y g roups p ossessing d iffering t echnologies. T he m ajority o f t he l ithics c onsist o f d ebitage o n s lightly a braded d ark b rown f lint. M any o f t hese f lakes a nd b lades h ave m ultifaceted p latforms. A f ew t ools w ere o bserved, i ncluding a s idescraper o n a b lade a nd a s errated b lade. O ther l ithic materials i nclude a l imited n umber o f b lade l ets

1 33

KUWDE 2 3 r epresents t wo o ccupations. One p robably d ates t o t he M iddle P aleolithic ( Mousterian) a-i d t he o ther t o t he T erminal P aleolithic. B oth o ccupations m ay h ave f unctioned a s l imited c ampsites. M anagement D ata: KUWDE 2 3 i s d eflated a nd p artially e roded. P revious i mpacts h ave b een m inimal, a nd t he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s f air t o g ood. T here a ppears t o b e l ittle p otential f or t he r ecovery o f i n s itu m aterials, a lthough s ome may e xist i n t he p laya's e dge. W e do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t his s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE 2 9

4

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): P aleolithic/Middle-Late N eolithic

T erminal

D escription: KUWDE 2 9 ( Figure 1 9) i s l ocated w ithin a p laya. I t i s s pread t hroughout t he p laya, w ith m aterials p resent i n t he c enter a nd t he e dges. T he e sca:pment i s c a. 2 00 m eters t o t he w est o f t he s ite, a nd a r idge i s s ituated i mmediately t o t he e ast. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. T he matrix c onsists o f p laya s and. N o v egetation i s p resent a t t he s ite, a nd t he n earest s and dunes a re s ome o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood i f w ater w ere a vailable i n p ortions o f t he p laya. Obviously, t he s ite w as n ot o ccupied w hen t he p laya w as f ull o f w ater, s ince p art o f i t i s l ocated i n t he c enter o f t he p laya. H owever, s easonal o ccupation c annot b e r uled o ut. T he t otal s ite a rea i s e stimated a t 7 5 me ,: ers by 3 5 m eters. A v ery c oncentrated c ore a rea m easures f ive m eters b y f ive m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or i ntact s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity a t K UWDE 2 9 i s m oderate t o h igh. T he d ensest c oncentration o ccurs i n t he c ore a rea, l ocated o n t he n orth e dge o f t he p laya. O bserved materials a re v aried ( Tables 2 4 a nd 2 5), a nd i nclude a n umber o f t ools. T hese i nclude t wo N eolithic p rojectile p oints, n otches, a d enticulate, a b acked b lade, a nd a n osed s craper. D ebitage i s a bundant, c onsisting o f b ladelets , b lades, f lakes, a nd m icroflakes. C ores, p rimarily b ladelet t ypes, a lso a re f requent. S ome a braded p ieces a lso o ccur, but i t s hould b e n oted t hat t hese a re n early u biquitous i n t his

1 34

KU WDE29

N S l ight R idge

L a rge P l aya 1 00 m

D ense A rea

x P o in t

P l aya A re a

R id g e E s carpmen t c a . 1 00 m

S i te B ounda ry

S i te E x tends 5 0 mS outh

H ighe r R idge s ‘ 1 1

F igure

1 9.

S ite m ap

f or KUWDE

2 9. 1 35

KUWDE42 2 00 m - ->

T able 2 4.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 2 9.

E ntire S ite N %

T ransect 1 ( 10 x 2 m ) N %

T ools

8

6 .3

3

0 .8

C ores

4

3 .1

5

1 .4

Total N 1 1 9

% 2 .3 1 .9

D ebitage B lades

2 4

1 8.9

8 0

2 2.7

1 04

2 1.9

B ladelets

1 3

1 0.2

1 21

3 4.3

1 34

2 7.9

F lakes

4 2

3 3.1

7 5

2 1.2

1 17

2 4.4

O ther-

D ebris

0

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

7 9

6 2.2

2 76

7 8.2

3 55

7 4.0

3 3

2 6.0

4 0

1 1.3

7 3

1 5.2

2 .4

2 9

8 .2

3 2

6 .7

M icroflakes

3

G roundstone

( 5)

T otal C hipped S tone

0 .0

1 27

0

1 00.0

3 53

1 36

-

9 9.9

( 5)

4 80

-

1 00.1

T able

2 5.

T ool t ypology

f or KUWDE 2 9.

E ntire S ite

T ransect

1

T otal

T ype I nformal T ools

3

3 7.5

3

2 7.3

P rojectile P oints

2

2 5.0

2

1 8.2

N osed s crapers

1

1 2.5

1

9 .1

D enticulates

1

3 3.3

1

9 .1

N otches

2

6 6.7

2

1 8.2

B acked B lades

1

1 2.5

1

9 .1

P artially B acked B ladelets

1

1 2.5

1

9 .1

8

1 00.0

Total

1 37

3

1 00.0

1 1

1 00.1

t ransect. o bserved.

F inally,

f ive

g roundstone

f ragments

were

B ased o n t he t ypes o f a rtifacts p resent a t t he s ite, w e b elieve t hat t wo c omponents a re r epresented: T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic. T he N eolithic o ccupation may b e a M iddle t o L ate o ne, b ased o n t he two p rojectile p oints. KUWDE 2 9 a ppears t o h ave f unctioned a s a s mall b ase c amp. Management D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated b ut o therwise i n g ood c ondition. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. T here i s some p otential f or t he r ecovery o f i n s itu c ultural m aterials, e specially n ear t he e dges o f t he p laya. W e w ould r ecommend a dditional i nvestigation o f t he s ite i n t he f orm o f d etailed mapping, s ystematic c ollection, a nd t est e xcavation. R ecording t ime: 1 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE 3 0

5

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Late A cheulian?)/Middle P aleolithic

L ower P aleolithic ( Mousterian)

D escription: KUWDE 3 0 ( Figure 2 0) i s l ocated o n the h ighest t errace o f a w adi t hat l ies c a. 5 00 meters t o t he e ast o f t he s ite. T he t errace h as b een d issected b y a s mall s tream c hannel t hat c rosses t he s ite i n a n orth t o s outhwest d irection. T his c hannel a ppears t o postd ate t he s ite a nd h as c ut i nto i t, r emoving s ome c ultural materials. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. I ts m atrix i s r ocky. T here i s n o v egetation a t t he s ite a nd t he n earest s and d une i s c a. 5 00 m eters t o t he w est. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood due t o i ts l ocation n ear t he j unction o f a m ajor w adi a nd n umerous s maller o nes. T he s ite i s a lso o ptimally l ocated t o b oth t he L ibyan P lateau a nd t he K harga D epression. The t otal a rea o f t he s ite i s a pproximately 5 0 m eters b y 7 5 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy. T here i s t he s uggestion o f a h earth a t t he e asternmost e dge o f t he s ite, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine t he p recise n ature o f t his p ossible f eature w ithout b enefit o f t esting. A rtifact d ensity o n t he t errace r emnant i s v ery h igh ( Tables 2 6 a nd 2 7). The m ajority o f t he a rtifacts a re f lakes, a lthough a f ew t hick b lades w ere n oted. M any o f t he f lakes a re a morphous. T he p latforms o n s everal a re c rushed o r

1 38

N

z

N

Sm a l l Wad i C hanne l Z _

W e s te rnmo s t P or t ion , D ense M a te r ia l c a . 1 0 x2 0

r '

-

M idd le P or t io ' D ense M a te r ia c a . 2 0 x2 0 _

• •••

L a rge S tone s .1. „ 1 i nC i r cu lar P a t te rn

E as te rnmo s tP or t ion D ense M a te r ia l c a . 2 0 x2 0

F loodp la in

F igure

2 0.

S ite m ap

f or KUWDE

i mnW ad i C hanne l

3 0. 1 39

• • • •

KUWDE30

T able

2 6.

L ithic Summary f or KUWDE 3 0.

T ools

1 3

C ores

1 0.5

2

1 .6

B lades

7

5 .6

B ladelets

0

0 .0

D ebitage

F lakes O ther- c ore t able

D ebris

4 2 1

3 3.9 0 .8

6 7

5 4.0

4 2

3 3.9

M icroflakes

0

G roundstone

0 1 24

0 .0

1 00.0

T able

2 7.

Tool t ypology

f or KUWDE 3 0.

Type

N

I nformal T ools

8

6 1.5

B ifaces

1

7 .7

Handaxes

2

1 5.4

Choppers

1

7 .7

Notches

1

7 .7

Total

1 3

%

1 00.0

u nidentifiable, a lthough multifaceted t ypes a re p resent. S everal L evallois-like f lakes a re p resent. Many t abular p ieces ( here c lassified a s " debris") a lso o ccur. Tools a re r elatively a bundant a nd i nclude t he f ollowing: t wo o void h andaxes, a c hopper, a b iface f ragment, a nd s everal r etouched f lakes. KUWDE 3 0 may r epresent a multiple o ccupation s ite i nitially dating t o t he L ower P aleolithic ( Late A cheulian?) a nd e xtending t hrough t he M iddle P aleolithic. I t m ay h ave f unctioned a s a p rimary r eduction s tation, a lthough t he r elative abundance o f t ools s uggests a dditional f unctions a s w ell. Management D ata: T he s ite i s e roded a nd d eflated. Wadi c hannel a ction h as d isturbed s ome o f t he c ultural m aterials. The p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s d ifficult, e ven w ith f our-wheel d rive. W e s uspect t hat n o i n s itu c ultural materials a re p resent, a lthough i ntact deposits may e xist o n t he t errace r emnants. W e w ould r ecommend work a t t his s ite i n t he f orm o f m apping, a dditional s ystematic c ollection, a nd t esting. R ecording t ime: 0 .75 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE 3 1

5

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithic ( Mousterian)

L ower

D escription: KUWDE 3 1 ( Figure 2 1) i s l ocated o n a s eries o f h eavily d issected r idges o r t erraces. Materials a re s pread t hroughout a l arge r egion, a nd t his " site" i s p erhaps m ore r ealistically c onsidered a s a " district," o r s eries o f r elated s ites. T he l ocation o f t his d istrict i s i n a n e xtremely c omplex g eomorphic s etting c onsisting o f n umerous w adi s ystems. C ultural materials o ccur b oth o n t he r idges o r t erraces b etween w adis a s w ell a s i n t he w adis t hemselves. The e ntire a rea i s l iterally c overed w ith c ultural m aterials. T he matrix o f t he r egion i s p rimarily c omposed o f wadi c obbles a nd s and. N o v egetation i s p resent, a nd t he n earest s and d unes a re s ome t wo t o f our k ilometers d istant. The e conomic p otential f or t he r egion w ould h ave b een good, d epending o n w adi f low. A ccess t o s everal m icrohabitats i s a vailable.

1 42

2 0

1 43

The " district" t hat c omprises t his " site" i s a pproximately t wo k ilometers b y 1 00 m eters, a s a c onservative e stimate. While t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or s tratigraphy, t he e ntire d istrict d eserves c areful g eomorphological a ssessment. T here i s n o e vidence f or f eatures, a lthough c onsidering t he s ize o f t he " site" t his may b e m ore o f a n a rtifact o f our c ursory i nvestigation r ather t han a r eflection o f r eality. A rtifact d ensity i s v ery h igh. A rtifacts observed i nclude L evallois-like c ores, L evallois-like f lakes w ith multifaceted p latforms, b attered p ieces, a nd r etouched p ieces. This d istrict u ndoubtedly c onsists o f m ultiple o ccupations by g roups o f p eople w ith M iddle P aleolithic, a nd p robably L ower P aleolithic, t echnologies. F unctionally, s everal t ypes o f " sites" c ould b e i dentified w ith c areful s tudy, r anging f rom p otential b ase c amps t o t ask-specific s ites. M anagement D ata: T he KUWDE 3 1 " district" i s h eavily e roded a nd d eflated. O ther i mpacts i nclude c amel t rails a nd o ld d irt r oads. T he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited, e xcept f or a dditional n atural f orces o r a ny a dditional e conomic d evelopment, w hich a ppears u nlikely. A ccess t o t he a rea i s d ifficult, e ven w ith f our-wheel d rive. T here i s l imited ' p otential f or i n s itu materials, a lthough s ome m ay o ccur i n s ome portions o f t he " site." W e w ould r ecommend a dditional work i n t he f orm o f g eomorphic i nvestigation, m apping, s ystematic s ample c ollection, a nd l imited t esting. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE 3 2

5

•P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated o n t op o f a s mall s carp n ear t he w estern e dge o f T ransect 5 . I n a s ense, i t c ould b e c onsidered a s a n e xtension o f t he K UWDE 3 1 d istrict, a lthough i t i s j ust o ut o f t hat a rea.About 5 0 m eters t o t he e ast a w adi i s p resent, a t t he b ase o f t he s ite. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite i tself. I ts m atrix c onsists o f s mall r ocks a nd c obbles. N o v egetation e xists a t t he s ite. T he n earest s and d une i s a pproximately o ne k ilometer t o t he w est. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite w as j udged a s f air.

1 44

T he c ore area o f t he s ite i s s mall, m easuring s ome 1 0 meters b y 1 0 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity i s e stimated a t approximately t wo p ieces p er s quare m eter. A rtifacts c onsist p rimarily o f t hick f lakes, many w ith m ultifaceted p latforms. S ome t hick b lades a lso w ere n oted, a s w as a s idescraper a nd a n otch.

K UWDE o ccupation. l ocality.

3 2

p robably r epresents a s ingle l imited I t m ay h ave f unctioned a s a t ask-specific

M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated a nd s ome e rosion h as o ccurred. T he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s d ifficult, e ven w ith f our-wheel d rive. There i s n o p otential f or i n s itu m aterials. W e d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE 3 3

5

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated a t t he b ase o f t he f oothills o f t he L ibyan P lateau. I t i s i mmediately a djacent t o a w adi. There i s a v ery s light s lope t o t he s ite. Matrix a t t he s ite i s c omposed o f s and w ith r ocks a nd a ngular p ebbles. There i s n o v egetation p resent, a nd t he n earest s and dune i s c a. 5 00 m eters d istant. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood, c onsidering i ts p roximity t o a w adi a nd t o t he p ossible r esources t hat m ight h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he f oothills. T he s ite m easures s ome 1 00 m eters b y 2 5 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rti .fact d ensity i s e stimated a t a bout t wo p ieces p er s quare m eter. A rtifacts c onsist o f l arge a nd t hick L evallois-like f lakes, m any w ith multifaceted p latforms. A t l east o ne L evallois-like c ore a lso w as n oted. S everal b attered p ieces w ere o bserved, b ut t ools w ere r are a nd u ndiagnostic. T he s ite a ppears t o r epresent a s ingle o ccupation. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a w orkshop o r l ithic r eduction s tation. W e t entatively h ave p laced i t i n t he M iddle P aleolithic ( Mousterian) o n t he b asis o f i ts a rtifacts.

1 45

Management Data: KUWDE 3 3 i s d eflated. P revious c ultural i mpacts i nclude a d irt r oad t hrough t he s outhern p ortion o f t he s ite. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s f air, w ith f our-wheel d rive. There i s l ittle potential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials. W e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t K UWDE 3 3. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number T ransect:

KUWDE 3 4 6

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): ( Late A cheulian?)/Middle P aleolithic

L ower P aleolithic ( Mousterian)

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated o n a s mall t errace j ust w est o f t he L ibyan P lateau's e scarpment. T here i s a l arge w adi i mmediately s outh o f t he s ite. A small c hannel b isects t he s ite. The s ite h as a s light s lope t o t he w est. I ts m atrix i s c omposed o f r ocks a nd f ine g rained s and. T here i s n o v egetation p resent a t t he s ite a nd t he n earest s and dune i s a pproximately 2 00 meters t o t he e ast. T he e conomic p otential o f K UWDE 3 4 i s j udged a s g ood b ased o n i ts p roximity t o t he w adi a nd t he s and d unes. The s ite m easures s ome 5 0 m eters b y 1 25 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or f eatures. Many o f t he a rtifacts a ppear t o b e e roding o ut o f t he s lope t o t he n orth a nd w est o f t he t errace o n w hich t he s ite i s l ocated. T his s uggests t hat s ome i ntact deposits a nd s tratigraphy may b e p resent. A rtifact d ensity i s moderate b ut d ispersed ( Tables 2 8 a nd 2 9), a nd s everal s mall c oncentrations w ere n oted. S everal t ools w ere observed. T hese i nclude r etouched f lakes, f ive Narrow Mousterian p oints ( one i s a t ip f ragment), a n e ndscraper, d enticulates, a b acked p iece, a n otch, a nd t wo p ointed b ifaces t hat r esemble L ate A cheulian p ieces. F our c ores w ere o bserved. T he d ebitage i s dominated b y l arge a nd t hick f lakes, a lthough l arge b lades a lso o ccur. Much o f t he d ebitage h as m ultifaceted p latforms. N early a ll o f t he m aterials o ccur o n d ark b rown f lint. S ome l arge b one f ragments a lso o ccur i mmediately t o t he n orth o f t he s ite. T hese a re e roding o ut o f t he b ack o f a s mall w adi. I t i s u nknown w hether o r n ot t hey a re d irectly a ssociated w ith K UWDE 3 4. B ased o n t he v ariety a nd a mount o f m aterials, w e b elieve t hat K UWDE 3 4 f unctioned a s a b ase c amp. I t m ay

1 46

T able

2 8.

L ithic

s ummary

f or KUWDE 3 4.

N Tools

1 8

Cores

4

% 1 5.0 3 .3

D ebitage B lades B ladelets F lakes O ther-

D ebris

1 3 0 4 2 0

0 .0 3 5.0 0 .0

5 5

4 5.8

4 2

3 5.0

M icroflakes

1

G roundstone

0

Total Chipped S tone

1 0.8

1 20

0 .8

--

9 9.9

Table

2 9.

Tool t ypology

f or KUWDE 3 4.

Type

N

I nformal Tools

6

3 3.3

P rojectile Points

5

2 7.8

E ndscrapers

1

5 .6

B ifaces

2

1 1.1

D enticulates

2

1 1.1

Notches

1

5 .6

B acked P ieces

1

5 .6

Total

1 8

1 48

%

1 00.1

r epresent t wo o ccupations, i f t he b ifaces a re, L ate A cheulian. The p rincipal o ccupation, a ppears t o h ave b een M iddle P aleolithic.

i n f act, h owever,

M anagement D ata: The s ite h as b een d eflated a nd s lightly e roded, p rimarily by t he w adi. T he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s g ood. We f eel t hat t he p otential f or r ecovering i ntact c ultural materials i s f air t o g ood. W e w ould r ecommend a dditional i nvestigation a t t his s ite i n t he f orm o f m apping, s ystematic c ollection, a nd l imited t esting. W e a lso w ould r ecommend i nvestigation o f t he a rea f rom w here t he b ones a re e roding. R ecording t ime: 0 .75 h ours.

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

KUWDE

3 5

6

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

UDLS

D escription: This small s ite i s l ocated o n a r idge o verlooking e xtensive dune f ields. S everal s mall w adis a re i mmediately a djacent. There i s l ittle s lope t o t he s ite a nd i ts matrix i s r ocky. T here i s n o v egetation p resent a t t he s ite. The n earest s and d unes a re a pproximately 2 00 meters a way. The e conomic p otential o f this s ite i s j udged a s v ery g ood, d ue t o i ts p roximity t o b oth e xtensive w adi a nd dune s ystems. The a rea o f t his s ite i s o nly t wo m eters b y t wo m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. T he s ite c onsists o f u ndiagnostic d ebitage a nd d ebris. N o t ools w ere observed. B etween 1 5-20 a rtifacts w ere n oted. KUWDE 3 5 u ndoubtedly f unctioned a s a s mall c hipping s tation, o verlooking b oth w adi a nd d une a reas. T he duration o f o ccupation w as p robably q uite l imited. D ue t o the u ndiagnostic n ature o f t he m aterials p resent, w e c annot a ssign a c ultural p eriod t o t his s ite. Management D ata: The s ite i s d eflated, b ut h as o therwise s uffered n o i mpacts. T he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s p oor. There i s o nly l imited p otential f or r ecovering i ntact c ultural materials. W e d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

1 49

S ite Number: Transect:

KUWDE

3 6

6

P resumed Cultural ( Mousterian)

A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated on a r idge o verlooking a s and dune. S everal w adis d issect t his r idge. There i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. The matrix i s r ocky, a nd t here i s n o v egetation p resent. T he nearest dune i s a pproximately 2 00 meters d istant. The economic potential o f KUWDE 3 6 i s good i f r esources a ssociated w ith t he dunes a nd wadis w ere u tilized. The s ite's a rea i s a pproximately 2 0 meters by 3 0 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow. No t ools were observed. Much o f t he d ebitage h ad multifaceted p latforms, t hus a llowing f or a t entative M iddle P aleolithic p lacement. A s w ith KUWDE 3 5, t his s ite p robably f unctioned a s a l imited o ccupation c hipping s tation. I t w ould h ave s erved a s a n i deal l ocation f or h unters t o have observed g ame movement a t t he n earby s and dunes. Management D ata: The c ondition o f KUWDE 3 6 i s poor a nd t he s ite i s h eavily d eflated. The potential f or a dditional i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o the s ite i s p oor. There i s n o l ikelihood o f e ncountering i n s itu c ultural materials. W e r ecommend n o a dditional work a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

3 7

6

P resumed Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

U DLS

D escription: T he s ite i s l ocated o n a d issected r idge c a. 7 50 meters f rom t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. T here i s a s teep dropoff t o a w adi t o t he s outh o f t he s ite. S everal o ther w adis o ccur i n t he i mmediate v icinity. There i s, h owever, n o s lope t o t he s ite i tself. There i s v irtually n o m atrix t o t he s ite, s ince i t r ests o n b edrock. There i s n o v egetation p resent a nd t he n earest s and dune i s s ome 3 00 meters d istant. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s very

1 50

g ood, b ased o n d unes.

i ts p roximity t o n umerous w adis a nd s and

T he a rea o f t he s ite o nly m easures a pproximately o ne m eter b y o ne m eter. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. Approximately 1 0 a rtifacts w ere o bserved. T hese w ere p rimarily a braded f lakes w ith u nfaceted p latforms. A s w ith t he two s ites p reviously d iscussed ( KUWDE 3 5 a nd 3 6), KUWDE 3 7 p robably f unctioned a s a l imited o ccupation c hipping s tation. D ue t o t he u ndiagnostic n ature o f t he material c ulture, w e c annot make a c hronological p lacement. Management D ata: T he s ite i s s everely d eflated a nd w eathered. T here i s l imited p otential f or a dditional i mpacts. A ccess t o t he s ite i s p oor t o m oderate. There i s n o p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu m aterials. W e d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t his s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

3 8

6

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite s its o n a h eavily d issected r idge o verlooking e xtensive d une f ields. T he e scarpment o f t he L ibyan P lateau i s a pproximately 7 50 m eters t o t he e ast o f t he s ite. T he m atrix h as s ome s and b ut i s p rimarily r ocky. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. T he n earest s and d unes a re c a. 2 00 m eters t o t he w est. T he e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 3 8 i s v ery g ood d ue t o i ts p roximity t o n umerous s mall w adis a nd, e specially, t o a n e xtensive d une f ield. The t otal a rea o f t he s ite i s e stimated a t c a. 7 5 meters b y 1 50 m eters. I ts c ore a rea i s c a. 2 0 b y 3 0 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s m oderate, b ut o bjects a re d ispersed o ver a w ide a rea. H owever, s everal d iscrete c oncentrations w ere o bserved. A ll o f t he a rtifacts w ere manufactured o n a d ark b rown f lint t hat i s h eavily p atinated. T ools a re r are, a lthough a f ew s idescrapers w ere o bserved. D ebitage c onsists o f f lakes, m any w ith multifaceted p latforms. M any o f t he f lakes a re r elat ively t hin. S ome b lades a lso o ccur.

1 51

KUWDE 3 8 probably f unctioned a s a w orkshop. I t may r epresent s everal r epeated o ccupations o f a f avored l ocale. We h ave c hronologically p laced t he s ite w ithin t he M iddle P aleolithic due t o t he n ature o f t he a rtifacts. Management D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated a nd h as a lso s uffered s ome e rosion. The p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s poor t o moderate. There i s l ow potential f or t he r ecovery o f i ntact c ultural d eposits. W e do n ot r ecommend a dditional i nvestigations a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE

3 9

6

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

UDLS

D escription: This s mall s ite i s l ocated on t he bank o f a small wadi a pproximately 5 00 m eters west o f t he e scarpment o f t he L ibyan P lateau. The w adi r uns i nto a much l arger n earby w adi. There i s a s light n orthward s lope t o t he s ite. I ts matrix c onsists o f f ine grained s and a nd r ock. There i s n o vegetation p resent, a nd t he n earest s and dune i s c a. 5 00 m eters t o t he w est. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s p oor t o f air. The t otal s ite a rea i s only o ne meter by o ne meter. There i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy. A rtifact d ensity i s h igh, w ith a pproximately 5 0 p ieces observed. These c onsist o f p rimary a nd s econdary f lakes, a c ore, a nd a h ammerstone. The f lakes a nd t he c ore a re f rom t he s ame p iece o f r aw material, a nd t he c ore i s a t l east p artially r econstructable. KUWDE 3 9 a ppears t o r epresent t he a ctivity o f a n i ndividual i nvolved i n c ore r eduction. Due t o t he u ndiagnostic n ature o f t he a rtifacts, w e c annot g ive i t a c hronological p lacement. M anagement D ata: A lthough t he s ite i s p artially d eflated, i t i s i n e xcellent c ontextual c ondition. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s d ifficult. T here may b e s ome p otential f or t he r ecovery o f i ntact m aterials. C ertainly h orizontal d isplacement h as b een m inimal. W e w ould n ot r ecommend

1 52

a ny additional w ork a t t he s ite, u nless o ne wanted r econstruct a c ore. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

t o

K UWDE 4 0

6

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated o n a s mall r idge t hat r uns b etween t wo w adis. The e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau i s ca. 5 00 m eters t o t he e ast. There i s a s light w estward s lope t o t he s ite. I ts matrix i s r ocky. There i s no v egetation p resent a t t he s ite. The n earest s and d unes a re s ome 1 00 meters t o t he n orthwest. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood, due t o i ts p roximity t o b oth t he w adis a nd s and dunes. The s ite's a rea i s c a. 2 00 m eters b y 2 00 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence o f s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s moderate, e stimated a t a pproximately f ive p ieces p er s quare m eter. A rtifacts o bserved i nclude l arge f lakes w ith multifaceted p latforms, a L evallois-like c ore, a b acked p iece, a nd a s idescraper. The s ite p robably r epresents a s ingle c omponent t hat was o ccupied during t he M iddle P aleolithic. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp. M anagement D ata: The s ite i s d eflated a nd p artially e roded. The p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s poor t o f air. There i s l ittle l ikelihood t hat i ntact materials a re p resent. We r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

KUWDE

4 1

6

P resumed C ultural

A ffiliation(s):

U DLS

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated i n a s and dune b lowout. S everal w adis a re i mmediately a djacent t o i t. T he b lowout h as a s light s lope t o t he w est. T he matrix o f t he s ite i s s and, a lthough s ome r ock a nd p ebbles a lso a re p resent. T here i s n o v egetation p resent a t t he

1 53

s ite. The e conomic potential o f KUWDE 4 1 c onsidering i ts proximity t o s everal wadis l ocation on a dune.

i s good, a nd i ts

The s ite's a rea i s c a. 1 5 meters by 3 0 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy or f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s moderate, w ith p ieces spread t hroughout t he s ite's a rea. N o c oncentrations were n oted. A ll o f t he l ithics a re h ighly abraded. N o t ools were n oted. Only debitage, i n t he f orm o f f lakes a nd s ome b lades, a nd d ebris o ccur. The s ite p robably r epresents a s ingle e phemeral o ccupation. I ts f unction i s u nknown, a lthough i t m ay h ave s erved a s a c hipping s tation. We a re u nable t o a ssign a c hronological p lacement t o t he s ite. Management D ata: The c ondition o f KUWDE 4 1 i s very p oor. P revious n atural i mpacts i n t he f orm o f d eflation a nd e rosion h ave b een s evere. T he potential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited t o a dditional n atural f orces a ffecting t he dune. A ccess t o t he s ite i s p oor. T he p otential f or r ecovering i ntact c ultural materials i s a lso poor. We do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional work a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

4 2

4

P resumed Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

Paleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated o n t he e astern edge o f a p laya. I t i s s ituated i n a c omplex g eomorphic s etting, i n what i s p robably a multiple p laya s ituation. The s ite a rea i s s urrounded b y l ow r idges a nd h ills. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite, a nd i ts m atrix i s c omposed o f f ine t o c oarse g rained s and a nd small c obbles. T here i s n o v egetation p resent a t t he s ite, a nd t he n earest s and dunes a re a t l east o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 4 2 i s g ood i f w ater was a vailable f rom t he p laya a t the t ime o f o ccupation. The t otal s ite a rea i s a pproximately 5 0 m eters b y 1 25 meters, w ith a c ore a rea o f 1 0 m eters by 1 5 m eters. T here i s n o i mmediate e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s h igh, w ith a v ariety o f t ypes r epresented ( Tables 3 0 a nd 3 1). T ools, h owever, a re r elatively r are a nd n ondescript. Observed t ypes i nclude r etouched b lades a nd f lakes, backed a nd

1 54

T able

3 0.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 4 2.

E ntire S ite N % T ools C ores

4

T ransect ( 10 x 2 m ) N %

3 .1

8

T otal N %

2 .2

1 2

2 .4

1 4

1 0.9

1 3

3 .5

2 7

5 .4

B lades

1 1

8 .6

3 4

9 .2

4 5

9 .0

B ladelets

3 1

2 4.2

1 10

2 9.6

1 41

2 8.3

F lakes

2 7

2 1.1

7 8

2 1.0

1 05

2 1.0

D ebitage

O ther

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

6 9

5 3.9

2 22

5 9.8

2 91

5 8.3

D ebris

3 1

2 4.2

8 5

2 2.9

1 16

2 3.2

M icroflakes

1 0

7 .8

4 3

1 1.6

5 3

1 0.6

G roundstone

( 4)

Total Chipped S tone 1 28

-

( 1)

9 9.9

3 71

1 55

( 5)

1 00.0

4 99

-

9 9.9

T able

3 1.

T ool

t ypology f or KUWDE 4 2.

E ntire S ite

T ransect

1

T otal

Type I nformal T ools

3

3 7.5

3

2 5.0

S idescrapers

1

1 2.5

1

8 .3

1

8 .3

B ifaces

1

2 5.0

B acked B lades

2

5 0.0

1

1 2.5

3

2 5.0

B acked B ladelets

1

2 5.0

3

3 7.5

4

3 3.3

4

1 00.0

8

1 00.0

T otal

1 56

1 2

9 9.9

p artially b acked b ladelets, a nd a b iface f ragment. The p redominate d ebitage f orm c onsists o f b ladelets, a lthough f lakes, b lades a nd m icroflakes a lso a re a bundant. C ores a lso a re c ommon, w ith s everal b ladelet t ypes o ccurring. S everal s mall g roundstone f ragments w ere n oted. S hell a lso o ccurs i n p ortions o f t he s ite. KUWDE 4 2 probably r epresents a s ingle T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation. The v ariety o f a rtifacts p resent s uggests t hat i t may h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp. M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated b ut o therwise i n g ood c ondition. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s f air. There i s s ome p otential f or e ncountering i n s itu d eposits, e specially n ear t he p laya e dges. We r ecommend a dditional w ork a t t he s ite i n t he f orm o f g eomorphic a ssessment, mapping, s ystematic c ollection, a nd l imited t esting. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

4 3

4

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)/Terminal P aleolithic

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated b oth i n t he b asin o f a nd o n t he e dges o f a p laya. I t i s c a. 2 50 m eters e ast o f t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. There i s a s light s outhward s lope t o t he s ite. The matrix i s c omposed o f f ine g rained s and a nd p ebbles. No v egetation i s p resent a t t he s ite, a nd t he n earest s and dune i s o ver o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s very g ood, a ssuming t hat w ater w as a vailable f rom t he p laya a t t he t ime o f o ccupation. The s ite's a rea i s 2 0 meters b y 5 0 m eters, w ith a c ore. a rea o f 1 0 m eters b y 2 5 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow. A rtifacts o ccur w ithin t he c ore a rea i n n o d istinct c oncentrations. N ear t he e dge o f t he p laya, d ebitage i n t he f orm o f a braded multifaceted f lakes o ccurs, a long w ith d ebris. I n t he p laya b asin, s maller a nd t hinner debitage i s p resent, i ncluding s everal b ladelets. N o t ools w ere observed. K UWDE o ccupations,

4 3 p robably r epresents t wo o ne d uring t he M iddle P aleolithic

1 57

l imited a nd o ne

during t he T erminal P aleolithic. I ts f unction i s i ndeterminate, b ut i t may h ave s erved a s a l imited a ctivity c hipping a rea during b oth o ccupations. There i s n o e vidence f or i ntensive T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation, u nlike a s a t m ost o ther playa a reas i nvestigated. M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated. The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. The p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu m aterials i s p oor, w ith t he p ossible e xception o f t he a rea a t t he p laya's e dges. We d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t his s ite. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE 4 4

7

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated n ear t he n orthern e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau e scarpment, o verlooking t he K harga D epression. S everal s mall w adis a re n earby. T here i s v irtually n o s lope t o t he s ite. The m atrix i s r ocky a nd t he s urrounding t errain i s e xtremely r ough. T here i s n o v egetation p resent, a nd t he n earest s and d une i s a t l east o ne k ilometer d istant. T he s ite's a rea i s c a. 1 5 m eters b y 1 0 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow t o moderate. N o t ools w ere o bserved, a nd t he d ebitage n oted i ncludes s everal f lakes w ith multifaceted p latforms. D ebris a lso i s r elatively a bundant. A ll t he a rtifacts w ere m anufactured o n a dark b rown f lint. KUWDE o ccupation. s tation.

4 4

p robably r epresents a I t m ay h ave f unctioned

s ingle l imited a s a c hipping

M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s d eflated, a nd t he p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s p oor, e ven w ith f our-wheel d rive. I t i s u nlikely t hat a ny i n s itu materials a re p resent. W e d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t his s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25

1 58

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE 4 5

7

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated i n a l arge depression n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. S everal small w adis o ccur c a. 2 00 meters t o t he e ast a nd w est. There i s no s lope t o t he s ite, n or i s a ny v egetation p resent. T he matrix i s r ocky. The n earest s and dune i s c a. o ne k ilometer d istant, b ut t his i s a s mall, a ctive ( and p robably quite r ecent) dune. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s r egarded a s p oor. The s ite's a rea c overs s ome 5 0 meters b y 5 0 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s m oderate. Most o f t he a rtifacts w ere m anufactured o n a d ark b rown f lint a nd c onsist o f l arge, t hick f lakes a nd b lades, many w ith multifaceted p latforms. A f ew r etouched p ieces a lso w ere observed. The s ite a ppears t o r epresent a s ingle o ccupation. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a w orkshop. B ased o n t he n ature o f t he a rtifacts, w e h ave c lassified i t a s M ousterian. M anagement D ata: The s ite i s s everely d eflated. The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s r estricted t o n atural f orces. A ccess t o t he s ite i s poor. There i s n o p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials. We do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite N umber: T ransect:

K UWDE 4 6

7

P resumed C ultural ( Mousterian)

A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his s ite i s l ocated o n a f lat s urface n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. A w adi i s s ituated a pproximately 1 0 m eters t o t he s outhwest. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite, a nd i ts m atrix i s r ocky. T here i s n o v egetation p resent, a nd n earest s and d une i s a pproximately 1 00 m eters t o t he w est. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s j udged a s f air t o g ood.

1 59

The t otal s ite a rea i s a pproximately 2 5 m eters b y 5 0 meters, while a c ore a rea o f c a. 1 0 meters by 1 0 meters i s d iscernible. There i s n o evidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow. The majority o f t he material i s h ighly a braded d ebitage, primarily f lakes, much o f i t e xhibiting multifaceted p latforms. A s ubpyramidal b ladelet c ore, h owever, a lso was observed. The s ite p robably r epresents a s ingle o ccupation. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a w orkshop. B ased o n t he a rtifacts p resent, w e h ave p laced t he s ite w ithin t he M iddle P aleolithic. The b ladelet c ore may be i ntrusive. Management D ata: The s ite i s s everely d eflated. The p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. Access t o t he s ite i s d ifficult. There i s n o p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials. W e r ecommend n o a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

4 7

7

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s):

UDLS

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated i n a f lat d epression n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. S everal small w adis o ccur w ithin 5 00 meters. T here i s v irtually n o s lope t o t he s ite a nd t he matrix i s b oth s andy a nd r ocky. N o v egetation i s p resent. T he n earest s and dune i s c a. 5 00 m eters t o t he n orth. T he e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 4 7 i s p oor t o moderate. The t otal a rea o f t he s ite i s c a. 2 0 meters b y 1 00 meters. A s mall c ore a rea c overs a bout one b y t wo meters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy. A " feature" i s p resent i n t he f orm o f a d iscrete c ore r eduction a rea. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow, e xcept i n t he c ore . r eduction a rea, where i t i s e stimated a t o ver 1 00 p ieces p er s quare m eter. The m aterial p resent a t t he s ite i s v aried a nd c onsists p rimarily o f d ebitage. S ome o f t his i ncludes a braded f lakes a nd b lades, s ome w ith multifaceted p latforms. M ost o f t he m aterial, h owever, i s o n a l ight b rown f lint a nd c onsists o f d ebris a nd t hin f lakes. Most o f t hese o ccur i n t he c ore r eduction a rea. I n t his a rea, a t l east t hree m ultiplec hange-of-orientation c ores w ere n oted, a long w ith a bundant a ssociated d ebris a nd d ebitage. N o t ools were observed.

1 60

KUWDE 4 7 may r epresent multiple ( at l east two) o ccupations, i f t he c ore r eduction a rea i s c hronologically d iscrete f rom o ther a ssociated s ite m aterials. The s ite p robably f unctioned a s a work s hop. M anagement D ata: T he s ite i s deflated a nd e roded, a lthough t he c ore a rea ( where t he c ore r eduction a rea i s l ocated) a ppears t o h ave s uffered l ittle h orizontal d isplacement. The p otential f or a dditional i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess t o t he s ite i s p oor. The p otential f or r ecovering i ntact material i s l imited, w ith t he possible e xception o f t he c ore a rea. W e do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

K UWDE 4 8

7

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Aterian)/Terminal P aleolithic

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: T his l arge s ite i s l ocated i n a s eries o f p layas ( Figure 2 2). I t o ccurs b oth i n t he p laya b asin a nd a long t he e dges. The e scarpment o f t he L ibyan P lateau i s s ome 1 00 m eters d istant. The p laya(s) h as a s light s lope t o t he e ast, which a lso i s where t he h ighest d ensity o f a rtifacts o ccurs. The matrix o f t he s ite i s s andy a nd r ocky. There p resently i s n o v egetation p resent. T he n earest s and dune i s s ome 3 50 m eters t o t he n ortheast. The e conomic p otential o f K UWDE 4 8 i s v ery g ood, a ssuming w ater w as a vailable f rom t he playa a t t he t ime o f o ccupation. The t otal s ite a rea i s e stimated a t c a. 7 5 m eters b y 3 00 m eters. A c ore a rea e xists a round t he e astern s hore o f t he p laya. S ome s tratified c ultural d eposits m ay exist a t t he p laya e dge, a nd s ome c oncentrations o f a rtifacts may d efine f eatures. A rtifact d ensity a t t his s ite. i s e xtremely h igh. A v ariety o f a rtifacts o ccur ( Tables 3 2 a nd 3 3). T ools i nclude t he f ollowing: b acked b ladelets, b ilaterally r etouched b ladelets, a p erforator, a n e ndscraper, a d enticulate, s everal b iface f ragments, a b roken b ifacially r etouched t ang ( Aterian?), a p ointed a nd b acked b ladelet, a nd s everal r etouched b lades a nd f lakes. D ebitage i ncludes n umerous b ladelets, b lades, f lakes, a nd m icroflakes. C ores a lso a re r elatively a bundant, a nd p rimarily c onsists o f b ladelet t ypes. S everal g roundstone f ragments w ere n oted.

1 61

KUWDE48

r i e s. °k 0 • •

A rea o f P rev ious I mpact s

c a . 5 0 mt o E as te rn B ounda ry o f KU WDE49

T o K ha rg a D ep re s s ion

S l ight R idge s

F igure

2 2.

S ite map

f or

KUWDE

4 8.

1 62

T able 3 2.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 4 8.

E ast S ide N T ools C ores

1 9 4

% 1 2.0 2 .5

P laya I nterior N % 1 6 4

T ransect 1 ( 10 x 2 m ) N %

Total N

%

1 4.3

1 0

2 .5

4 5

6 .7

3 .6

1 1

2 .7

1 9

2 .8

D ebitage B lades

2 9

1 8.4

1 5

1 3.4

3 6

8 .9

8 0

1 1.8

B ladelets

2 6

1 6.5

1 1

9 .8

4 2

1 0.3

7 9

1 1.7

F lakes

4 3

2 7.2

3 1

2 7.8

1 27

3 1.3

2 01

2 9.7

Other-

D ebris

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

0

0 .0

9 8

6 2.1

5 7

5 0.9

2 05

5 0.5

3 60

5 3.2

3 0

1 9.0

2 0

1 7.9

1 37

3 3.7

1 87

2 7.2

4 .4

1 5

1 3.4

4 3

1 0.6

6 5

9 .6

M icroflakes

7

G roundstone

( 4)

Total C hipped S tone 1 58

( 2)

9 9.9

1 12

0

1 00.1

1 63

4 06

_ _

1 00.0

( 6)

6 76

-

1 00.0

T able 3 3.

T ool t ypology f or KUWDE 4 8.

E ast S ide

P laya I nterior

T ransect 1

T otal

T ype I nformal T ools

5

2 6.3

E ndscrapers

1

5 .3

1

2 .2

T angs

1

5 .3

1

2 .2

B ifaces

2

1 0.5

5

1 1.1

P erforators

1

5 .3

1

2 .2

1

2 .2

1

2 .2

1

2 .2

( broken)

D enticulates

1 1

2

1

6 8.8

1 2.5

5

1

5 0.0

1 0.0

6 .3

N otches

1

1 0.0

2 1

4 6.7

B acked B lades

1

5 .3

P artially B acked B ladelets

7

3 6.8

2

2 0.0

9

2 0.0

B acked B ladelets

1

5 .3

1

1 0.0

2

4 .4

T otal

1 9

1 00.1

1 6

1 64

1 00.1

1 0

1 00.0

4 5

9 9.9

KUWDE 4 8 r epresents a t l east t wo c omponents. The p rincipal o ne d ates t o t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd may h ave r epresented a b ase c amp, o ne t hat p ossibly was r eoccupied s everal t imes. B ased o n a f ew t ools a nd d istinctive d ebitage, t he o ther c omponent w as M iddle P aleolithic ( Aterian). This a lso may h ave r epresented a b ase c amp, a lthough t he d ata a re more e quivocal. M anagement D ata: KUWDE 4 8 i s d eflated b ut i n o verall g ood c ondition. H owever, p ortions o f t he s ite h ave b een s ubjected t o r elatively s evere r ecent i mpacts. These i nclude s everal o ld r oads, o r a t l east v ehicle t racks, a nd s tone c airns. O ne o f o ur E gyptian a ssistants a lso n oted t hat h e b elieved t he s ite a rea h as s erved a s a s occer f ield, p robably f or E gyptian a rmy p ersonnel o n m aneuvers i n t he a rea. T he p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s h igh due t o t he s ite's p roximity t o t he A syut-Kharga r oad, t o w hich i t i s d irectly a djacent. A ccess t o t he s ite i s a ccordingly e xcellent. The p otential f or r ecovering i ntact materials i s g ood, e specially a long t he p laya e dges. W e r ecommend a dditional work i n t he f orm o f g eomorphic i nvestigation, mapping, s ystematic c ollecting, a nd t est e xcavations. R ecording t ime: 1 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect: P resumed ( Aterian)

K UWDE

4 9

7 C ultural A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: The s ite i s n early c ontiguous w ith KUWDE 4 8, w hich l ies c a. 5 0 meters t o t he e ast. T he s ite i s c a. 1 00 m eters f rom t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. I t i s l ocated i n a n o pen a rea, w ith t he e dges o f t he p laya i n which K UWDE 4 8 i s s ituated b eing s ome 5 0 meters away. T he s ite h as a s light e astward s lope. I ts m atrix i s s andy a nd r ocky. T here i s n o v egetation a t t he s ite. T he . nearest s and dune i s s ome 5 00 m eters t o t he n ortheast. T he e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s g ood i f water w ere a vailable a t t he p laya d uring t he t ime o f o ccupation. T he s ite c overs a l arge a rea, e stimated a t c a. 2 00 m eters by 5 00 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s m oderate, w ith p ieces w idely d ispersed. The m ajority o f a rtifacts w ere m anufactured o n a d ark b rown f lint a nd c onsist o f

1 65

l arge, abraded b lades. A f ew t ools i ncluding a p robable A terian t ang.

a lso were observed,

The s ite probably r epresents a s ingle o ccupation. Due t o t he n ondescript n ature o f t he a ssemblage i t i s d ifficult t o a ssign i t a f unction. Based on t he a rtifacts, h owever, we b elieve t hat i t dates to t he A terian. Management D ata: The s ite i s d eflated b ut o therwise i n good c ondition. P revious modern i mpacts i nclude a vehicular t rail ( one o f t he s ame " roads" t hat r uns t hrough KUWDE 4 8). The p otential f or f uture i mpacts i s h igh i f t he n earby A syut-Kharga r oad i s d eveloped. A ccess t o t he s ite i s e xcellent. The potential f or t he r ecovery o f i ntact material a ppears p oor. We r ecommend a dditional w ork a t t he s ite i n c onjunction w ith a ny i nvestigations u ndertaken a t KUWDE 4 8. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect: P resumed ( Aterian)

KUWDE

5 0

7 Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: The s ite i s s ituated a long the s outhern b ank o f a small wadi. I t i s l ocated c a. 1 00 m eters f rom t he L ibyan P lateau. There i s a s light s lope t o t he n ortheast. The s ite's matrix c onsists o f c obbles, n aturally o ccurring f lint, a nd c oarse g rained s and. There i s n o v egetation a t t he s ite. The nearest s and dune i s c a. o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic potential o f t he s ite i s f air i f w ater w ere a vailable f rom t he wadi. T he s ite's a rea i s c a. 1 00 b y 5 0 meters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s moderately h igh. Observed a rtifacts i nclude f lakes a nd b lades w ith u nfaceted a nd multifaceted p latforms. A ll o f t he materials a re r elatively l arge, a lthough t he b lades t end t o b e t hinner t han t he f lakes. A f ew t ools w ere observed. A ll o f t he materials a re h ighly a braded dark b rown f lint. KUWDE 5 0 p robably r epresents a s ingle o ccupation. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a w orkshop. B ased o n t he a rtifacts, w e h ave t entatively d ated t o s ite t o t he A terian.

1 66

M anagement D ata: The s ite i s d eflated a nd e roded. T here appears t o b e l ittle potential f or a dditional i mpacts. A ccess i s f air, w ith f our-wheel d rive. The p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials i s l imited. W e do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional work a t t he s ite, a lthough s ystematic c ollections m ight s hed s ome more l ight on i ts c ultural a ffiliation a nd f unction. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite

Numbers:

T ransect:

KUWDE

5 1,

5 2,

5 3,

5 4,

a nd

5 8

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)/Terminal P aleolithic

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: As w ith a p reviously described c luster o f s ites, t hese o ccurrences w ere r ecorded t ogether due t o t heir o verall s imilarity, p roximity, a nd i n t he i nterest o f t ime. T he s ites a re a ll l ocated e ither o n t he e dge o f the L ibyan P lateau o r n ear t he e dge o f p layas. Most a re sheltered b y r idges, a lthough a f ew a re r elatively o pen. There i s n o s lope t o a ny o f t he s ites. The m atrix o f e ach i s r ocky a nd s andy. S and p redominates a t t hose s ites l ocated o n t he e dge o f p layas. There i s n o v egetation p resent a t a ny o f t he s ites. The n earest s and dunes a re a t l east o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic potential o f t he s ites i s moderate t o g ood, l argely based o n t heir p roximity t o p layas. These s ites a re u niformly s mall, r anging i n s ize f rom 1 0 meters b y 1 0 meters t o 2 0 b y 3 0 m eters. Only K UWDE 5 8 i s l arger, c overing a n e stimated 3 0 meters b y 1 00 meters. There i s n o e vidence f or f eatures o r s tratigraphy a t a ny o f t he s ites. A rtifact d ensity a t t he s ites i s l ow t o moderate. Materials c onsists o f t wo d istinct g roups: M iddle P aleolithic ( Mousterian) a nd T erminal P aleolithic a rtifacts, w ith t he M iddle P aleolithic b eing b y f ar t he m ost a bundant. M iddle P aleolithic m aterials a re p rimarily o n a braded dark b rown f lint a nd i nclude t he f ollowing: L evallois f lakec ores, a nd s crapers o n L evallois f lakes. T ools a re r are. T erminal P aleolithic a rtifacts i ncluded b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores; f ew t ools w ere observed. E ach o f t hese s ites r epresents a t l east t wo o ccupations, o ne during t he M ousterian a nd o ne during t he Terminal P aleolithic. During b oth o ccupations t hey a ppear t o h ave f unctioned a s l imited a ctivity, t asks pecific s ites. T he T erminal P aleolithic o ccupations,

1 67

h owever, were l ess t he Mousterian.

i ntense

t han

t hose o ccurring

during

Mana9ement D ata: A ll o f t he s ites a re deflated, a nd e rosion a lso h as o ccurred a t most. The potential f or f uture i mpacts i s l ow. A ccess t o t he s ites i s r elatively good. T he potential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials i s l ow, a lthough s ome s ites may h ave l imited i ntact d eposits, e specially t hose l ocated n ear playa e dges. We do n ot r ecommend a dditional work a t t hese s ites u nless o ne w as i nterested i n u ndertaking a d etailed s tudy o f M iddle a nd T erminal P aleolithic s ettlement o n t he L ibyan P lateau. I n t hat i nstance, t hese s ites c ould c ontribute t o a b etter understanding. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

5 5

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s n early i dentical t o t he group j ust d escribed, a nd a ll c omments r elating t o l ocation, c omposition, a nd management i nformation f or t hose s ites a re p ertinent h ere a s w ell. I ts s ize i s c a. 1 0 meters by 1 0 meters. T he o nly t hing t hat s ets KUWDE 5 5 apart f rom t he l arger g roup i s t hat t his s ite a ppears t o r epresent o nly o ne o ccupation, which o ccurred d uring t he M iddle P aleolithic. O f i nterest i s t hat s everal types o f r aw materials a re r epresented. N o t ruly d iagnostic p ieces w ere p resent, b ut s everal o f t he f lakes h ad multifaceted p latforms. Many o f t hese, h owever, were quite t hin a nd a pproached b lade p roportions. W e do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t K UWDE 5 5. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

5 6

4

P resumed C ultural A ffiliation(s): M iddle P aleolithic ( Mousterian a nd A terian)/Terminal P aleolithic/Neolithic D escription: T his s ite a lso i s s ituated i n a n early i dentical s etting t o t he g roup j ust d escribed. The c omments r elating t o l ocation a nd c omposition m ade f or

1 68

t hose s ites i s r elevant f or KUWDE 5 6 a s w ell. The s ite i s l ocated a t t he j unction o f t hree p layas, t wo o f w hich a re s eparated by a r idge a nd c onverge i nto a l arger p laya t o t he s outh. The s ite i s l ocated i n t he p laya s and a long t heir e dge. The d ensest amount o f c ultural material o ccurs a t t he e astern " shore" o f t he s outhern p laya. Two f eatures d istinguish KUWDE 5 6 f rom t he c luster j ust d escribed. The f irst i s i ts s ize, e stimated a t 5 0 m eters by 2 00 meters, w ith a c ore o f 5 0 m eters by 7 5 m eters. The s econd i s t hat i t a ppears t o h ave b een o ccupied during f our d istinct p eriods: t he Mousterian, t he A terian, t he T erminal P aleolithic, a nd t he N eolithic. T he s ite h as moderate a rtifact density ( Tables 3 4 a nd 3 5), a nd i n a ddition t o t he t ypes d escribed f or t he f ormer c luster o f s ites, KUWDE 5 6 a lso c ontained a t anged M iddle o r L ate N eolithic p oint, t hree A terian points, a nd s everal l arge l ightly a braded b lades w ith multifaceted p latforms. I n a ddition t o t he p rojectile p oints, o ther t ools i ncluded s crapers, r etouched p ieces, a d enticulate, a n otch, a b iface, a nd p artially b acked b ladelets. The s ite a ppears t o r epresent r epeated o ccupations o f a f avored l ocation o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime by g roups w ith d istinctly d iffering t echnologies. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp. T here i s n othing i mmediately a pparent i n i ts l ocation, h owever, t hat makes KUWDE 5 6 s tand out a s f avorable o ver o ther s ites i n t he v icinity. Our r ecommendations f or t his s ite a re f or l imited a dditional i nvestigation, i ncluding g eomorphic s tudy, mapping, s ystematic c ollection, a nd l imited t est e xcavation. R ecording t ime: 0 .5 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE

5 7

4

P resumed C ultural ( Mousterian)

A ffiliation(s):

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s a lso n early i dentical t o t he g roup p reviously d escribed a nd c omments r egarding t he l ocation, c omposition, a nd m anagement i nformation o n t hose s ites a lso a re p ertinent h ere. K UWDE 5 7 i s a pproximately 1 5 m eters b y 2 0 m eters i n s ize. A s w ith KUWDE 5 5, t he o nly t hing t hat makes t his s ite d istinct f rom t hose o f t he o ther g roup i s t hat i t a ppears t o r epresent a s ingle o ccupation t hat d ates t o t he M iddle

1 69

T able 3 4.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 5 6--South Area.

Tools

1 3

C ores

5

9 .8 3 .8

D ebitage B lades

3 4

2 5.6

B ladelets

1 0

7 .5

F lakes

4 5

3 3.8

O ther-

D ebris

0 8 9

6 6.9

2 2

1 6.5

M icroflakes

4

G roundstone

0

T otal Chipped S tone

0 .0

1 33

3 .0

1 00.0

T able

3 5.

Tool

.t ypology

f or KUWDE

5 6.

Type

N

%

I nformal T ools

1

7 .7

Projectile Points

4

3 0.8

S idescrapers

1

7 .7

Massive S crapers

1

7 .7

S craper o n Chunk

1

7 .7

B ifaces

1

7 .7

D enticulates

1

7 .7

Notches

1

7 .7

P artially Backed B ladelets

2

1 5.4

Total

1 3

1 00.1

P aleolithic. There a re n o materials p resent, u nlike a s a t n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

T erminal t he o ther work a t

P aleolithic s ites. W e d o t his s ite.

5 9

4

P resumed Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

T erminal

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated o n t he e dge o f a l arge p laya. T here i s n o s lope t o t he s ite, a nd i ts matrix i s s andy. No v egetation i s p resent. T he n earest s and dune i s over one k ilometer d istant. The e conomic p otential o f t he s ite i s v ery g ood, i f w ater w ere a vailable f rom t he p laya. The s ite c overs a n a rea o f c a. 2 0 meters by 2 0 meters, w ith a v ery c oncentrated o ne m eter by o ne m eter c ore a rea. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. Artifact density i s v ery l ow, w ith t he e xcept ion o f t he c ore a rea. This c ore a rea c ontains e ight b ladelets, a s idescraper, a p erforator, a p artially b acked b ladelet, a r etouched b lade, a r etouched f lake, o ne b lade, a nd t wo f lakes. These a rtifacts o ccur i n a p ile, a nd t heir c ontext i s s uspicious. They m ay w ell r epresent s econdary d eposition, p ossibly t he d iscards o f a c ollector. A f ew o ther a rtifacts a re s parsely s pread t hroughout t he s ite. Due t o t he questionable c ontext o f t he s ite w e c an n ot a ttempt a guess a t i ts f unction. A ll o f t he materials, h owever, a ppear t o b e T erminal Paleolithic. Management D ata: The s ite i s d eflated a nd, a s n oted, p robably t he r esult o f s econdary d eposition. T he potential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. Access t o t he s ite i s p oor, a s i s t he p otential f or r ecovering i ntact d eposits. We d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect: P resumed ( Aterian)

KUWDE

6 0

4 C ultural

A ffiliation(s):

1 72

M iddle

P aleolithic

D escription: This s ite i s l ocated o n t he h ighest part o f a l ow r idge t hat o verlooks a l arge p laya. The p laya i s some 2 5 meters t o t he e ast o f t he s ite. There i s a m oderate n ortheast s lope t o t he s ite. There i s v irtually n o matrix t o t he s ite; l arge r ocks o ccur t hroughout i ts a rea. There i s n o vegetation p resent. T he nearest s and dune i s c a. o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic p otential o f t his s ite i s g ood, i f water a nd a ssociated r esources w ere a vailable a t t he p laya. This s mall s ite c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 1 0 m eters by 1 0 m eters. There i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. O nly b etween 2 0 t o 3 0 a rtifacts w ere n oted. Most o f t hese a re abraded d ebitage, many w ith multifaceted p latforms; a n A terianl ike point a lso w as observed. This s ite may h ave f unctioned a s a h unting s tation o r small c amp. I ts l ocation a bove t he p laya w ould h ave b een o ptimal i n t erms o f e xploiting p laya-associated r esources. The a ssemblage i s c learly M iddle P aleolithic a nd based o n t he p oint, w e h ave t entatively p laced t his s ite w ithin t he A terian. M anagement D ata: The s ite i s d eflated a nd s ome e rosion h as o ccurred. T he potential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited. A ccess i s g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. The p otential f or r ecovering i n s itu materials i s l imited. W e do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional work a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite

Number:

T ransect:

KUWDE

6 1

4

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): M iddle ( Aterian)/Terminal P aleolithic / Neolithic

P aleolithic

D escription: A s w ith KUWDE 1 8, t his s ite ( Figure 2 3) r epresents o ne o f t he most s ignificant o ccurrences r ecorded b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition. The s ite i s l ocated o n a nd a round t he n orthern e dge o f a v ery l arge p laya. This r epresents a c omplex s eries o f g eomorphic e vents a nd i s s uggestive o f a s eries o f p layas. S everal m ajor w adis o ccur c a. 5 00 m eters t o t he s outh a nd e ast. T here i s v irtually n o s lope t o t he s ite. The matrix i s s uggestive o f a ctual s oil d evelopment, a nd c onsists o f r eddish p laya d eposits a s w ell a s s and. There i s s ome s parse s hrubbery a round t he s ite. The n earest s and d unes a re o ver o ne k ilometer d istant. The e conomic

1 73

v ega ta t ion w ith L i ght C i th i c / 1 \

c . 93 . \ \

KUWDE42 c a . 3 00 m N

1

ter

P • xe

0 A rea A c a . 1 25 x2 5 0

' D

i

o

0

E dg e o i L arg e P l aya

L ow R idge w i th Sma l l H i l ls c a . 2 -4m h i gh

C D /

/ / / A rea B

/

/

/

0

c a . 7 5x40

G rounds tone

/

\ \ 1 1

/

/ /

I

/ /

I \

/ / / / .. . . . . ——

' --

L ow R idge s

N

KUWDE61

I ‘

C oncen t ra t ion o f F i re C racked R ock 0

F igure

2 3.

S ite map

f or

KUWDE

6 1.

1 74

p otential o f KUWDE 6 1 i s j udged a s e xcellent, p roximity t o t he p laya a nd s everal wadis.

due

t o

i ts

The t otal s ite a rea i s e stimated a t 1 00 m eters by 2 50 meters. Two c ore a reas a lso w ere i dentified: " A" ( 125 meters b y 2 5 meters) a nd " B" ( 75 m eters by 4 0 m eters). There i s s ome e vidence f or i ntact s tratigraphy a t s everal a reas w ithin t he s ite. T here a lso a re s everal f eatures present. These a re r oughly c ircular f eatures s imilar t o t hose d escribed f or K UWDE 1 8. They a re c omposed o f u nburned c obbles a nd o f f ire c racked c obbles. P robing i nto a f ew o f t hese f eatures, h owever, f ailed t o r eveal a ny c harcoal. There i s a c onsiderable a mount o f v ariation i n t he morphology o f t hese f eatures a cross t he s ite. As w ith KUWDE 1 8, t he p ossibility e xists t hat t hese a re modern ( e.g., t ent w eights h ave b een s uggested). But, i f t his w ere t he c ase, o ne would e xpect more s ystematic patterning a s w ell a s a ssociated m odern d ebris, n one o f which w ere p resent. A rtifact density i s h igh, e specially i n t he c ore a reas ( Tables 3 6 a nd 3 7). A n e arly e phemeral c omponent i s suggested b y l arger a nd a braded materials o ccurring a t the e astern e nd o f t he s ite. These m ay r epresent a n A terian o ccupation, b ased o n t he n ature o f t he a rtifacts, i ncluding a n A terian point t hat h ad b een r eworked i nto a n e ndscraper. T he majority o f m aterial, h owever, a ppears t o b e T erminal P aleolithic a nd/or N eolithic. Observed t ools i nclude a M iddle/Late N eolithic p rojectile point, r etouched b lades a nd f lakes, n otches, d enticulates, s idescrapers, e ndscrapers, a b iface, c ompletely b acked b ladelets, a nd a double b acked p erforator. Overall, t hough, f ormal t ools a re r are, c onsidering a mount o f d ebitage. T his c onsists o f b lades, b ladelets, f lakes, a nd m icroflakes. C ores a lso a re c ommon a nd a variety o f t ypes was n oted, i ncluding b ladelet c ores. S everal g roundstone a rtifacts a lso w ere o bserved, i ncluding f ive h andstones o r " manos". S hell b eads w ere p resent. I n a ddition, a f ew v ery c rude a nd p oorly p reserved p otsherds w ere n oted. B ased o n d escriptions o f s imilar materials, t hese m ay b e N eolithic. N o b one was observed. KUWDE 6 1 r epresents s everal o ccupations, w ith t he f irst o ccurring during t he M iddle P aleolithic ( probably A terian). T his w as a r elatively b rief o ccupation. M ore s ubstantial u se o f t he s ite o ccurred d uring t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd/or t he N eolithic, a nd i t m ay h ave f unctioned a s a b ase c amp. T he s ite m ay h ave b een s easonally r eoccupied s everal t imes during t his t ime.

1 75

T able

3 6.

L ithic

s ummary f or KUWDE 6 1.

A rea A N %

A rea B N %

T ransect 1 ( 10 x 2 m ) N %

T otal N %

T ools

1 0

6 .4

3

1 .9

1 0

2 .8

2 3

3 .4

C ores

1 1

7 .1

3

1 .9

1 5

4 .2

2 9

4 .3

B lades

3 0

1 9.2

2 6

1 6.0

5 1

1 4.2

1 07

1 5.8

B ladelets

3 1

1 9.9

5 5

3 4.0

1 19

3 3.1

2 05

3 0.2

F lakes

4 4

2 8.2

3 0

1 8.5

7 9

2 1.9

1 53

2 2.6

D ebitage

O ther- c ore t rimming e lem ent-3; c ore t ablet-2

D ebris

1

0 .6

0

0 .0

4

1 .1

5

0 .7

1 06

6 7.9

1 11

6 8.5

2 53

7 0.3

4 70

6 9.3

2 4

1 5.4

2 5

1 5.4

6 3

1 7.5

1 12

1 6.5

2 0

1 2.3

1 9

5 .3

4 4

6 .5

M icroflakes

5

3 .2

G roundstone

( 8)

-

T otal Chipped S tone 1 56

1 00.1

( 4)

1 62

( 1)

1 00.0

1 76

3 60

-

1 00.1

( 13)

6 78

1 00.0

T able

3 7.

T ool

t ypology f or KUWDE 6 1.

A rea A %

A rea B N

T ransect

1

T otal

T ype I nformal T ools

1

1 0.0

P rojectile P oints

2

2 0.0

1

3 3.3

E ndscrapers S idescrapers

2

2 0.0

M assive S crapers

1

2

2 0.0

4

1 7.4

2

8 .7

1

1 0.0

1

4 .3

2

2 0.0

4

1 7.4

1

4 .3

1

4 .3

2

8 .7

3 3.3

B ifaces

1

1 0.0

D enticulates

1

1 0.0

N otches

2

2 0.0

2

8 .7

V aria

1

1 0.0

1

4 .3

1

4 .3

D ouble B acked P erforators

1

1

1 0.0

3 3.3

B acked B ladelets

3

3 0.0

3

1 3.1

S calene T riangles

1

1 0.0

1

4 .3

Total

1 0

1 00.0

3

1 77

9 9.9

1 0

1 00.0

2 3

9 9.8

M ana9ement D ata: KUWDE 6 1 i s i n r elatively good c ondition, d espite d eflation. S ome v ehicular i mpact h as o ccurred a t t he s ite, t hough, a nd t here a lso i s s ome e vidence o f " collector" a ctivities i n t he f orm o f small p iles o f a rtifacts. This c ould e xplain t he r elative p aucity o f t ools. The potential f or f uture i mpacts i s l imited, u nless t his a rea i s d eveloped, which a ppears h ighly u nlikely. A ccess t o t he s ite i s moderate t o g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. T he potential f or r ecovering i n s itu material i s v ery g ood. We r ecommend a dditional work a t t his s ite i n t he f orm o f g eomorphic i nvestigations, d etailed mapping, s ystematic collection, t est e xcavations, a nd more s ubstantial e xcavation i f w arranted. R ecording t ime: n ot a vailable.

S ite Number: T ransect:

KUWDE

6 2

3

P resumed Cultural A ffiliation(s): ( Mousterian)

M iddle

Paleolithic

D escription: This s ite c overs r idge t ops o n both s ides o f a s mall wadi a t t he v ery b ase o f the w estern f oothills o f t he L ibyan P lateau. I t l ooks out o ver t he p lains a nd dunes o f t he n orthern p art o f the K harga D epression. There i s a s light e astward s lope t o t he s ite. I ts matrix i s r ocky. There i s n o vegetation p resent. The n earest s and dune i s c a. 2 50 m eters t o t he e ast. D ue t o i ts p roximity t o a w adi, s and dunes, t he f oothills, a nd t he open a rea t o t he e ast, w e have j udged t he e conomic p otential o f t his s ite a s v ery good. The t otal s ite a rea i s c a. 2 0 m eters b y 4 0 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence o f s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s l ow. T he a rtifacts were m anufactured o n a b rown f lint. T hey a re a braded, a nd c onsist p rimarily o f m assive f lakes w ith multifaceted p latforms. A s craper o n a L evallois f lake a lso was o bserved. This s ite p robably r epresents a n e phemeral o ccupation. I t may h ave f unctioned a s a s mall h unting c amp. B ased o n t he n ature o f t he a rtifacts w e h ave c lassified i t a s M ousterian. M anagement D ata: The s ite i s s everely d eflated. The p otential f or f urther i mpacts i s l imited. Access i s m oderate t o g ood, w ith f our-wheel d rive. T here a ppears l ittle l ikelihood f or e ncountering i n s itu materials.

1 78

W e do n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional work a t R ecording t ime: 0 .25 h ours.

S ite Number: T ransect:

K UWDE

t he

s ite.

6 3

8

P resumed Cultural

A ffiliation(s):

UDLS

D escription: T his i s t he o nly s ite f ound i n T ransect 8 . I t i s l ocated o n a d eflated s and s heet a t what m ight b e a n a ncient s pring. There i s n o s lope t o t he s ite. The e ntire a rea i s e xtremely open; l ow h ills o ccur c a. t wo k ilometers t o t he w est. The s ite's matrix i s s andy. V egetation, p rimarily i n t he f orm o f c lumps o f g rasses, i s present a t t he s ite. This r epresents t he o nly v egetation observed i n t his t ransect. There a re n o s and d unes i n t he i mmediate a rea o f t he s ite. The e conomic p otential o f KUWDE 6 3 would h ave b een g ood i f t he p resumed s pring were a ctive a t t he t ime o f o ccupation. The s ite's a rea c overs s ome 2 0 meters b y 4 0 m eters. T here i s n o e vidence f or s tratigraphy o r f eatures. A rtifact d ensity i s very l ow. L ithics p resent a re a braded a nd primarily u ndiagnostic, a lthough a L evallois-like c ore w as n oted. C eramics a re p resent a t t he s ite, b ut t hese a ppear t o r epresent r elatively m odern t ypes. The s ite p robably r epresents t wo e phemeral o ccupations, o ne o f which w as r elatively r ecent. I ts f unction i s i ndeterminate, b ut i t may h ave s erved a s a s topping point f or water. ata: The s ite i s d eflated. T here i s l ittle M anagement D f or f uture i mpacts. A ccess i s g ood, w ith p otential d rive. There i s l ittle l ikelihood o f f our-wheel i n s itu materials. W e d o n ot r ecommend r ecovering w ork a t t he s ite. R ecording t ime: 0 .25 a dditional h ours.

1 79

CHAPTER 5 : T ECHNOLOGICAL AND T YPOLOGICAL VARIABILITY I N THE WESTERN D ESERT A SSEMBLAGES ( Alan H .

S immons a nd M arion D yer) I ntroduction

I n t his c hapter, w e a mplify o n t he l ithic d ata p resented i n C hapter 4 f or s ome o f t he s ites r ecorded b y t he Western D esert E xpedition. S eventeen o f t hese s ites ( Table 3 8) h ad s uch d ata r ecorded, a nd t he d escriptive a spects o f t he a ssemblages w ere p resented i n C hapter 4 . T able 3 9 s ummarizes t hese d ata. T he s ame c aveats i ssued i n Chapter 4 a re, o f c ourse, a pplicable h ere a s w ell. W e h ave n ot a ttempted a ny s tatistical m anipulation o f t he l ithic i nformation. T he p resent d iscussion i s d irected t owards e xamining s ome o f t he m ore o bvious a spects o f t he a ssemblages. T he l ithic d ata, o f c ourse, f ormed t he c ore o f c ultural a ffiliation i nterpretations m ade i n t his r eport, a nd s everal o f t he s ites r ecorded b y t he p roject w ould b enefit f rom m ore d etailed a nd s ystematic a nalyses o f t heir a ssemblages. S uch a t ask, h owever, w as f ar b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent p roject, which w as p rimarily a n i nventory o f p rehistoric c ultural r esources. I n t he f ollowing d iscussion, w e m ake s ome g eneral t echnological a nd t ypological o bservations t hat p ertain t o b oth r esearch a nd m anagement objectives. M uch o f t his i nformation w as u sed i n f ormulating t he m anagement r ecommendations made i n C hapter 7 . D iscussion While n one o f t he f igures i n T able 3 9 r epresent c omplete s ite i nventories, w e b elieve t hat t hey a re i ndicative o f t he b asic l ithic c omposition o f e ach s ite u nder d iscussion. T his i nformation s hould p rovide a g enerally r epresentative s ample o f t he l ithic m aterials a t a s ite a nd a s s uch w ould a llow r esearchers t o p lan s ubsequent c ollection o r e xcavation s trategies. I f o ne w ere t o e xamine t he a ssemblages g rouped t ogether b y t heir r espective c ultural a ffiliations, f ew c lear d istributional p atterns e merge. I t w as i nitially h oped t hat d istinct v ariations c ould b e o bserved b etween s ites b elonging t o d ifferent c ultural p eriods. T his c learly w as n ot t he c ase, e xcept w ithin v ery b road p arameters. O f c ourse, o ne f actor t hat u ndoubtedly h as o bscured a ny v ariation i s t he f act t hat m ost o f t he s ites u nder d iscussion c ontain m ore t han o ne c omponent,

1 81

T able 3 8.

S ites w ith r ecorded l ithic d ata .

S ite N umber

A ffiliation

K UWDE 4

u ndiagnostic l ithic s catter

K UWDE 6

M iddle P aleolithic-Mouterian/Neolithic

K UWDE 7

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 8

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 1 0

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

K UWDE 1 1

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

K UWDE 1 3

M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian/Terminal P aleolithic/ N eolithic

K UWDE 1 4

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/Terminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 1 7

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 1 8

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 2 9

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolothic

K UWDE 3 0

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

K UWDE 3 4

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian

K UWDE 4 2

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 4 8

M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian/Terminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 5 6

M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian a nd M ousterian/Terminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

K UWDE 6 1

M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian/Terminal P aleolithic/ N eolithic

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t hus c reating t he l ikelihood o f a ssemblage m ixing b etween c omponents. T his s hould b e k ept i n m ind during t he f ollowing d iscussion. W hile o ur r ecording s ystem w as i ntended t o p rovide b asic i nformation on w hat w as p resent a t a s ite, a nd n ot t o s ort o ut c omponents, t he l atter c ould u ndoubtedly b e a ccomplished w ith c ontrolled c ollection a nd l aboratory a nalysis. D espite t he l ack o f o verall p atterning b etween s ites f rom d iffering p eriods, s ome v ariation w as O bserved. T he m ost s triking a spects t o t his a re t he g enerally h igher p roportions o f m icroflakes a t l ate ( i.e., T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic) s ites, a nd t he p resence o f g roundstone a t t hose s ame s ites. These a ssociations s hould c ome a s n o s urprise. Tools m anufactured d uring t hese l ater p eriods g enerally were m ore c omplex, t hus a l arger n umber o f m icroflakes i s t o b e e xpected s imply a s f inal m anufacturing w aste. I f t he m anufacture o f s uch t ools w as a lso m ore l abor i ntensive a nd t hus more " expensive," r euse m ight h ave b een more c ommon t han p reviously, a gain r esulting i n a h igher p roportion o f m icroflakes due t o r esharpening a ctivities. T he p resence o f g roundstone, a lbeit i n l imited q uantities, s upports t he c ommon a ssumption t hat p lant r esources f ormed a m ore s ignificant c omponent o f T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic d iets t han t hey p reviously h ad. T ools a re r elatively r are i n t he a ssemblages under d iscussion, g enerally r epresenting l ess t han t en p ercent o f a n e ntire r ecorded a ssemblage. N ote, h owever, t hat t he t wo L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithic s ites c ontain r elatively h igh p roportions o f t ools, e ven i f t heir o verall a ssemblages a re s mall. A lso, K UWDE 6 , w hich i s a multicomponent M iddle P aleolithic/Neolithic s ite, h as a n u nusually h igh n umber o f t ools, b ut i t, t oo, s uffers f rom a s mall a ssemblage s ize. A s ummary o f s pecific t ool c lasses f or a ll s ites i s p resented i n T able 4 0. T he m ost c ommon c lass i s, n ot s urprisingly, t he u ndiagnostic i nformal t ool, o r " utilized p iece." N otches, a nother r ather n ondescript c lass, a lso w ere c ommon. S everal d ifferent c lasses o f f ormal t ools o ccurred a t m any s ites, w ith t he g reatest v ariety a t l ate s ites. F igures 2 4, 2 5, a nd 2 6, which a re d rawn t o s cale, i llustrate a f ew o f t hese. O ne u nexpected o ccurrence w as t he g eneral l ack o f m icroliths a t m any o f t he T erminal P aleolithic s ites. This p aucity, h owever, m ay b e m ore a pparent t han r eal, s ince t hese s mall t ools a re n ot r eadily a nd e asily i dentifiable w ithout s ystematic c ontrolled c ollection; a s urface " scan" s uch a s o urs w as b ound t o m iss many

1 84

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F igure

2 4.

M icrolithic t ools: a . KUWDE 1 8-perforator/point; b . K UWDE 6 1d ouble b acked p erforator; c . a nd d . K UWDE 1 8-double b acked p erforators; e . a nd f . KUWDE 1 7-double b acked p erforators.

1 86

F igure

-

A

B

2 5.

Tools: a . KUWDE 4 2-biface C . KUWDE 3 9-biface.

C

f ragment;

1 87

b .

KUWDE

3 1-pointed

b iface;

A

B

F igure

2 6.

T ools:

a .

K UWDE

8 -biface;

1 88

b .

KUWDE 6 -biface.

s maller p ieces a nd t hus b ias t he s ample. C onversely, p rojectile p oints a re r elatively c ommon; t hese a re a g roup o f t ools w ith h igh v isibility a nd t heir p roportional o ccurrences m ay b e o verrepresented. S everal p rojectile p oints w ere r ecorded during t he p roject. These, o f c ourse, r epresent s ome o f t he most s ignificant l ithic e lements e ncountered d ue t o t heir d iagnostic c apabilities. T able 4 1 p rovides b rief n otes o n t he p oints r ecorded, w hile F igures 2 7 t hrough 3 0 i llustrate e xamples, a ll d rawn t o s cale. S ince n o c ollections w ere m ade, o ur c lassifications a re b ased o n f ield d rawings. T hese w ere t hen c ompared t o p ublished i llustrations o f p oints f rom t he r egion ( e.g., W endorf a nd S child 1 980), a nd s everal o f t he d rawing a lso w ere e xamined b y P rof. F . W endorf a t S outhern M ethodist U niversity, w ho p rovided p rovisional c lassifications. I n a n a ttempt t o g ain a dditional i nsight i nto t he a ssemblages, o ne m ay l ook a t s eries o f r atios i nvolving d ebitage a nd t ools ( Tables 4 2 a nd 4 3). N ote t hat i n T ables 4 2 a nd 4 3, s ome s ites h ave i nformation r ecorded b y a rea ( e.g., a ,b,c). This s imply r epresents a s ituat ion i n w hich l ithic d ata w ere t abulated f rom m ore t han o ne l ocality w ithin a s ite ( see s ite d escriptions i n C hapter 4 f or m ore d etail). W e d ecided t o p resent t his i ntra-site i nformation a s o riginally r ecorded, r ather t han l umping i t a ll i nto a n e ntire s ite t abulation. B y d oing t his, s ome c lear i ntra-site p atterning h as e merged t hat may b e u seful f or making d ecisions a bout w hat parts o f a s ite t o c oncentrate o n i f a dditional w ork were c ontemplated. While n o s urprising c onfigurations e merge f rom a n e xamination o f T able 4 2, s ome c omments a re w arranted. P erhaps t he m ost s triking p attern i s t he a mount o f v ariation i n t he d ebitage t o c ore r atios. T his i s quite h igh, e ven w ithin d ifferent a reas o f t he s ame s ite ( e.g., K UWDE 6 1). T his p atterning p rovides i nsights i nto t he f unctional n ature o f s everal s ites o r s ite a reas, a nd i n t he l atter s ituation w ould b e u seful f or d etect .ing c ore-reduction a reas w ithin a s ite. The d ebitage t o d ebris r atios a re l ess u seful, r emaining r elatively c onstant a cross s ites. I n n early e very i nstance, d ebitage o utnumbers d ebris, u sually b y s everal p ieces. A gain, h owever, s ome i ntra-site v ariation i s a pparent, a lthough i t i s n ot a s p ronounced a s w ith t he d ebitage t o c ore r atios. The b lade, p resent, t o f lake

i ncluding b ladelets w hen t hey w ere r atios s how, n ot u nexpectedly, t hat i n

1 89

T able 4 1.

P rojectile p oint i nformation.

N umber o f

S ite

C omments

P rojectile P oints O bserved

KUWDE 6

3

1M ousterian;

1A typical M ousterian;

1L evallois-like KUWDE 7

1

K UWDE 8

2

s mall o void a nd e longated 1 s mall,

o void a nd b ifacial,

1 e longated, KUWDE

1 3

6

L ate Neolithic;

s ingle s houldered,

A terian-like

1A terian;

2 s mall,

o void a nd b ifacial, M iddle/Late

N eolithic;

1 s mall,

t anged,

L ate N eolithic;

2 u ndiagnostic KUWDE

1 8

1

small t ang,

KUWDE

2 9

2

1w inged,

i ndented b ase,

1 e longated, KUWDE 3 4

5

KUWDE 5 6

4

b roken L ate N eolithic;

M iddle/Late N eolithic

a ll n arrow M ousterian p oints 1 s mall a nd t anged,

M iddle/Late N eolithic;

3 A terian KUWDE

6 0

1

A terian

KUWDE 6 1

2

1 e longated, M iddle/Late N eolithic; 1A terian, r eworked i nto e ndscraper

A

' Igure

2 7.

P rojectile p oints: a . KUWDE 2 9-Late N eolithic; b . KUWDE 1 3L ate N eolithic; c . KUWDE 8 -Late N eolithic; d . KUWDE 2 9-Middle/ L ate N eolithic; e . KUWDE 6 1-Middle/Late N eolithic; f . a nd g . K UWDE 1 3-Middle/Late N eolithic; h . KUWDE 5 6-Middle/Late N eolithic 1 91

A

u re

2 8.

P oints: a . KUWDE 6 1-Aterian, r eworked A terian, c . KUWDE 6 -Mousterian. 1 92

i nto

e ndscraper;

b .

K UWDE

1 3

F igure

2 9.

A terian point

f rom KUWDE

1 93

5 6.

A

B

F igure

3 0.

A terian points:

a .

KUWDE

1 94

5 6;

b .

KUWDE

6 0.

T able 4 2.

D ebitage r atios b y c ultural a ffiliation.

S ite

A ffiliation

K UWDE 4 a K UWDE 4 b

U DLS U DLS

K UWDE 5 6

M P

K UWDE 3 0 K UWDE 3 4 K UWDE K UWDE K UWDE K UWDE

1 4 4 8a 4 8b 4 8c

D ebitage: C ores 2 .1:1 2 .7:1

D ebitage: D ebris

B lades: F lakes

0 .4:1 1 .2:1

0 .2:1 0 .3:1

1 7.8:

4 .0:1

1 .0:1

L P/MP L P/MP

3 3.5:1 1 3.8:1

1 .6:1 1 .3:1

0 .1:1 0 .3:1

M P/TP M P/TP M P/TP M P/TP

4 6.1:1 2 4.5:1 1 4.3:1 1 8.6:1

2 .2:1 3 .3:1 2 .9:1 1 .5:1

0 .6:1 1 .3:1 0 .8:1 0 .6:1

K UWDE 6

M P/NE0

5 .0:1

1 .5:1

0 .3:1

K UWDE 7

M P/NE0

4 2.0:1

2 .3:1

0 .2:1

K UWDE 1 3a

M P/TP/NEO

2 4.1:1

2 .4:1

1 .2:1

K UWDE 1 3b K UWDE 1 3c

M P/TP/NEO M P/TP/NEO

3 .3:1 2 6.7:1

3 .1:1 7 .3:1

1 .6:1 2 .2:1

K UWDE 6 1a K UWDE 6 1b

M P/TP/NEO M P/TP/NEO

9 .6:1 3 7.0:1

4 .4:1 4 .4:1

1 .4:1 2 .7:1

K UWDE 6 1c

M P/TP/NEO

1 6.9:1

4 .0:1

2 .2:1

K UWDE 1 7a

T P

2 7.3:1

K UWDE 1 7b K UWDE 1 8a K UWDE 1 8b

T P T P T P

3 8.5:1 1 1.2:1 3 0.7:1

1 .6:1 7 .9:1 2 .6:1

0 .6:1 2 .0:1 1 .5:1

K UWDE 8 K UWDE 1 0

T P/NEO T P/NEO

1 7.0:1 5 .5:1

1 .2:1 3 .1:1

0 .3:1 1 .4:1

K UWDE ha K UWDE l ib

T P/NEO T P/NEO

5 .7:1

0 .7:1 0 .7:1

0 .1:1 3 .3:1

K UWDE 2 9a K UWDE 2 9b

T P/NEO T P/NEO

1 9.8:1 5 5.2:1

2 .4:1 6 .9:1

0 .9:1 2 .7:1

K EY:

1 .0:1

' UDLS=undiagnostic l ithic s catter; L P=Lower P aleolithic; M P=Middle P aleolithic; T P=Terminal P aleolithic; N EO-Neolithic; a ,b, a nd/or c r efers t o d ifferent a reas o f a s ite.

T able 4 3.

T ool r atios b y c ultural a ffiliation.

S ite

A ffiliation

K UWDE 5 6

M P

0 .1:1

K UWDE 3 0

L P/MP

0 .1:1

6 .5:1

K UWDE 3 4

L P/MP

0 .2:1

4 .5:1

0 .1:1

2 .0:1

K UWDE 1 4 K UWDE 4 8a

M P/TP M P/TP

0 .1:1 0 .1:1

4 .0:1 4 .8:1

0 .5:1 0 .4:1

3 .0:1 2 .8:1

K UWDE 4 8b K UWDE 4 8c

M P/TP M P/TP

0 .1:1 0 .2:1

4 .0:1 1 .0:1

0 .9:1 4 .3:1

0 .5;1 1 .0:1

K UWDE 6 K UWDE 7

M P/NEO M P/NEO

0 .2:1 0 .1:1

1 .8:1 3 .5:1

0 .6:1

3 .5:1 1 .3:1

K UWDE 1 3a

M P/TP/NEO

0 .02:1

0 .9:1

3 .3:1

n o

K UWDE 1 3b K UWDE 1 3c K UWDE 6 1a

M P/TP/NEO M P/TP/NEO M P/TP/NEO

0 .2:1 0 .1:1 0 .1:1

1 .1:1 3 .7:1 0 .9:1

0 .3:1 0 .3:1 0 .5:1

3 .3:1 1 .8:1 9 .0:1

K UWDE 6 1b K UWDE 6 1c

M P/TP/NEO M P/TP/NEO

0 .02:1 0 .03:1

1 .0:1 0 .7:1

6 .7:1 1 .9:1

2 .0:1 4 .0:1

K UWDE 1 7a K UWDE 1 7b K UWDE 1 8a

T P T P T P

0 .1:1 0 .04:1 0 .1:1

3 .4:1 2 .5:1 1 .6:1

0 .1:1 1 .3:1 0 .2:1

2 .0:1 1 .5:1 3 .8:1

K UWDE 1 8b

T P

0 .03:1

1 .6:1

0 .8:1

1 .8:1

K UWDE 8

T P/NEO

0 .05:1

1 .8:1

3 .2:1

4 .0:1

K UWDE 1 0

T P/NEO

0 .1:1

1 .0:1

0 .3:1

3 .0:1

K UWDE K UWDE K UWDE K UWDE

ha l ib 2 9a 2 9b

T P/NEO T P/NEO T P/NEO T P/NEO

n o t ools n o t ools 0 .1:1 0 .1:1

2 .0:1 0 .6:1

0 .4:1 9 .7:1

1 .6:1 n o I F

K EY:

L P=Lower P aleolithic; M P=Middle P aleolithic; T P=Terminal

T :CS

T :C

2 .6:1

M F:T

0 .3:1

F :IF

1 2.0:1 0 .6:1

I F

P aleolithic; N EO=Neolithic; T :CS=Tools:Chipped S tone; T :C=Tools:Cores; M F:T=Microflakes:Tools; F :IF=Formal t ools: I nformal T ools; a s ite.

a ,b,

a nd/or c r efers t o d ifferent a reas o f

e arly s ites f lakes a re m ore a bundant t han a re b lades. H owever, e ven a t t he l ate s ites, w hen b lade t echnologies a re p resumed, f lakes a re a bundant, s ometimes a ctually o utnumbering b lades. I ntra-site v ariation f or t his r atio i s l ower a nd more c onsistent t han w ith t he o ther t wo d ebitage r atios. T urning t o t he t ool r atios ( Table 4 3), t he t ool t o a ll c hipped s tone f igure i s t he l east v ariable. This f igure i s r emarkably c onsistent a nd s imply i llustrates t he r elatively l ow o ccurrence o f t ools a t a ll s ites, r egardless o f t heir c ultural a ffiliations. T he l ate s ites u sually h ave e ven l ower t ool t o c hipped s tone r atios, b ut t his may i n p art s imply b e r eflective o f t heir g enerally l arger a ssemblage s izes. N ote t hat t wo o f t he T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic s ites, h owever, c ontained n o t ools. T hese s ites w ere b oth s mall a nd r epresented l imited s hort-term a nd p robably t asks pecific o ccupations. T he t ool t o c ore r atios i llustrate s ome i nteresting p atterns. T he e arly s ites g enerally h ave a h igher r atio, s uggesting a m ore e fficient t ool m anufacturing s trategy i n w hich a s ingle c ore m ight h ave p roduced s everal t ools. T his s ituation i s n ot s o p ronounced a t m ost o f t he l ate s ites. I t m ay b e t hat a t t hese s ites, w here s ophisticated t ools a re m ore c ommon t han p reviously, i t w as n ecessary t o p roduce m ore b lanks f or p otential m odification i nto t ools, t hus u ltimately r esulting i n more c ores. I ntra-site v ariation i n t he t ool t o c ore r atios i s g enerally q uite l ow, w ith t he e xceptions o f b oth KUWDE 4 8 ( Middle P aleolithic/Terminal P aleolithic) a nd K UWDE 1 3 ( Middle P aleolithic/Terminal P aleolithic/Neolithic). T he v ariation o bserved a t t hese t wo s ites i s s uggestive o f s pecific t ool p roduction a reas. T he m icroflake t o t ool r atios a re u sually l ower f or t he e arly s ites. T his i s e xpected, s ince m icroflakes • a re m ost a bundantly p roduced i n t he m anufacture o f t ools s uch a s p rojectile p oints, b ifaces, a nd o ther s ophisticated i mplements, w hich a re m ore c ommon i n l ater p eriods. T here i s c onsiderable i ntra-site v ariation i n t his r atio, a gain s uggesting t he p resence o f t ool m anufacturing/refurbishing a reas a t s ome s ites. T he f ormal t o i nformal r atios a re o ften h igh a t l ate s ites. T his a gain c omes a s n o s urprise, s ince t hese s ites f requently a re c haracterized b y a m ore s ophisticated f ormal t ool t echnology, w hereas e xpedient " utilized" t ools a re o ften c ommon i n e arlier t ime p eriods. N ote, h owever, t hat a h igh r atio o f f ormal t o

1 97

i nformal t ools c omes f rom a s ingle c omponent M iddle P aleolithic s ite, KUWDE 5 6. T his f igure m ay b e s omewhat m isleading, t hough, s ince t he s ample s ize w as small, w ith o nly o ne i nformal t ool o ccurring f rom a t otal o f 1 3 t ools. When l ooking a t i ntra-site v ariation f or t hese s ites, o nce a gain t here i s a h igh d egree o f v ariability. T his i s s uggestive o f f unctional, t ask-specific a reas w ithin t hese s ites. C onclusions T he l ithic d ata r ecorded b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition a llow f or s everal g eneral observations. T hese a re u seful b oth f rom r esearch a nd m anagement p erspectives. B ased o n t he n ature o f o ur r ecording i ntents, h owever, t he m anagement o bjectives a re p erhaps b etter s erved b y t hese d ata. I t w as n ot o ur i ntention t o o btain l ithic d ata t hat c ould b e s ubjected t o s ophisticated manipulations t hat w ould p rovide i nformation o n p ertinent a nd c urrent r esearch i ssues d ealing w ith l ithic materials, s uch a s s ite-specific f unctions, s tylistic v ariation, o r d etailed t ypological o r t echnological a nalyses This i s a s tep t hat must b e r eserved f or f uture s tudies. R ather, i t w as o ur i ntent t o p rovide a n e stimation o f t he r elative d ensity a nd t ypes o f m aterials p resent a t a g iven s ite. These d ata, a ssessed t ogether w ith i nformation s uch a s s ite c ondition a nd t he potential f or i mpacts, w ill a llow f or r ecommendations r egarding which s ites h ave t he b est p otential f or y ielding a dditional p ertinent i nformation. T he b asic l ithic d ata, o f c ourse, d id p rovide t he p rimary b asis b y w hich t o p lace a s ite w ithin a s pecific c ultural p eriod. T hese d ata, e specially w hen v iewed a s s pecific r atios, a lso p rovide g uidelines f or d irecting r ecovery s trategy i f f urther i nvestigations e ver o ccur a t a g iven s ite. P articularly u seful h as b een t he i ntra-site v ariation o bserved a t a f ew o f t he s ites. T his p atterning, e asily o bserved u sing a s imple a nd t ime e fficient m ethodology, c an p rovide b asic f unctional i nformation a nd h as a llowed f or t he d etection o f s pecific a ctivity a reas w ithin s ome s ites. T his i nformation w ill b e e xtremely u seful i n d etermining t he p lacement o f e xcavation o r c ollection u nits i f t hese s ites a re f urther i nvestigated. I n s ummary, t he d ata p rovided i n t his a nd t he p revious c hapter a re n ot m eant t o r eflect d etailed i nventories o f t he l ithic c omposition o f a s ite. R ather, t hey c an s erve a s g uidelines i ndicative o f

1 98

c ertain t endencies i n t he l ithic a ssemblages. A s s uch, t hey h ave a u seful f unction f or a iding b oth r esearch a nd m anagement d ecisions r egarding t he s ignificance o f t he s ites.

1 99

CHAPTER 6 : PREHISTORIC THE NORTHERN KHARGA REGION:

( Alan H .

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS I N A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT

S immons)

I ntroduction I t w ould b e p remature t o g enerate a s ettlement m odel f or t he n orthern K harga r egion b ased s olely o n t he r esults o f a l imited i nventory s urvey s uch a s t he W estern D esert E xpedition. T he p roject d id, h owever, p rovide d ata a llowing f or a n i nitial d etermination o f b road s ettlement d istributional p atterns. C ombined w ith t he r esults o f p revious w ork i n t he r egion, w e m ay m ake s ome g eneralized s tatements r egarding p rehistoric p opulation d istribution i n t he a rea, r ealizing t hat t hese a re s ubject t o m odifications a s n ew i nformation b ecomes a vailable. P revious S tudies A s s tated i n Chapter 2 , o ne o f t he o bjectives o f t he W estern D esert E xpedition w as t o d etermine what p rehistoric p eriods w ere r epresented i n t he p roject a rea, a nd t hen t o e xamine s ettlement p atterns a nd a daptive s trategies f or t he r egion t hrough t ime. O ne r eason t hat t he K harga a rea w as s elected f or s tudy w as t hat p revious r esearch i n t he g eneral a rea h ad d emonstrated t he p resence o f a c onsiderable p rehistoric o ccupation. T he m ajority o f t hese e arlier s tudies w ere c onducted b y G . C aton-Thompson, a s n oted i n C hapter 1 . More r ecently, W endorf a nd h is c olleagues i nvestigated t he K harga r egion a s w ell, a lthough t his d id n ot f orm t he c ore a rea o f t heir m ost i ntensive s tudies. T hese s tudies d emonstrated t he p resence o f a l ong p rehistoric o ccupation i n t he Kharga a rea. T his i ncludes m aterials f rom t he L ate A cheulian, M ousterian, A terian, T erminal P aleolithic, a nd N eolithic--in s hort, a ll o f t he p rehistoric p eriods k nown f or t he Western D esert. W e t hus k now, m inimally, t hat t he r egion w as o ccupied d uring t hese p eriods, b ut p ainfully l ittle i s u nderstood o f t he p recise n ature o f t hese o ccupations. B ased o n t hese e arly s tudies, h owever, i t a ppears t hat t he N eolithic m ay r epresent t he p eriod o f t he most i ntensive p rehistoric u tilization o f t he K harga r egion. T he m ajority o f t his p revious r esearch w as c oncentrated i n t he K harga D epression, n ear t he t own o f e l-Kharga i tself, a lthough C aton-Thompson d id m ake s ome e xcursions u p t o t he L ibyan P lateau. T he W estern D esert

2 01

E xpedition c oncentrated o n t he P lateau a s well as o n t he a reas s everal k ilometers n orth o f e l - Kharga. Thus, while Caton-Thompson a nd Wendorf's r esearch r epresents t he o nly major previous s ystematic s tudies o f t he g eneral r egion, t heir s tudy a reas were l argely t o t he s outh o f our p roject a rea. The Western D esert E xpedition-P reliminary S ettlement P attern A ssessment We may n ow s pecifically t urn t o t he r esults o f t he Western D esert E xpedition. T able 4 4 s hows t he p ercentages o f i dentifiable c omponents f rom specific c ultural periods r ecorded by t he p roject. These f igures r epresent a ll t ransects l umped t ogether. C learly, t he p eriod b est r epresented i s t he M iddle P aleolithicM ousterian. O f t he 3 5 s uch c omponents r ecorded, t he majority s hare a r emarkable s imilarity i n c onfiguration. Most a re s mall o ccurrences, s uggestive o f t ask-specific a ctivities. The majority a re b adly d eflated a nd s uggest t hat l ittle i ntact deposits r emain. T he s econd most a bundant c omponent belongs t o t he T erminal P aleolithic. These a lso r epresent t he most varied c onfigurations, r anging f rom possible v illages ( e.g., KUWDE 1 7, 1 8) t o quite e phemeral o ccupations. The l arger T erminal P aleolithic s ites, while d eflated, a re i n r elatively g ood c ondition a nd a f ew may c ontain i ntact c ultural materials. A terian s ites a re n ot w ell-represented, c omposing l ess t han t en p ercent o f t he i dentifiable c omponents. I n c omposition, t hese r esemble t he Mousterian o ccurrences. L ikewise, L ower P aleolithic s ites a lso a re r are t hroughout t he p roject a rea. F inally, N eolithic s ites c omprise 1 2 percent o f t he i dentifiable o ccurrences. O verall, h owever, t hese a re n ot i mpressive s ites. The majority a re suggestive o f e phemeral, t ask-specific o ccupations, w ith f eatures r arely b eing d iscernible. P ottery a t a ll these s ites i s r are . . They d o n ot r esemble many o f t he Neolithic s ites d escribed b y Wendorf a nd S child ( 1980) o r Caton-Thompson ( 1952) f urther s outh i n t erms o f d ensity o r i nternal c onfiguration. We s hould n ote, h owever, t he a mbiguity b etween T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic s ites i n t he W estern D esert ( see a dditional d iscussion i n C hapters 1 a nd 4 ), a nd r ealize t hat i t i s p erhaps m ore a ppropriate t o c onsider t hese t wo e ntities a s v ariants o f t he s ame c ultural manifestation.

2 02

T able 4 4.

T otal n umber o f i dentifiable c omponents r ecorded b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition ( excluding U DLS).

N umber

L ower P aleolithic M iddle P aleolithic-Mousterian M iddle P aleolithic-Aterian T erminal P aleolithic N eolithic

T OTAL

3 3 5 7 2 1 9

7 5

P ercent

4 .0 4 6.7 9 .3 2 8.0 1 2.0

1 00.0

One may e xamine t he W estern D esert Expedition data i n g reater d etail by l ooking a t t he d istribution o f s ites by t ransect ( Tables 4 5 a nd 4 6). Transect 1 , by f ar t he l argest e xamined, i s a lso t he a rea w ith t he s parsest a mount o f c ultural r emains. O nly t hree s ites w ere r ecorded i n t his t ransect, a nd o nly one o f t hree w as d iagnostic, r epresenting a n e phemeral M ousterian o ccupation. I t s eems c lear t hat T ransect 1 w as n ot a f ocus o f p rehistoric o ccupation a t a ny t ime i n t he past. This i s n ot a s urprising c onclusion i n l ight o f t he e xtremely i nhospitable n ature o f t his t ransect--no s pring v ents, p layas, o r m ajor dune f ields w ere observed. T ransect 2 w itnessed a l imited, but c onsistent, o ccupation t hrough t ime. S ites f rom t he M ousterian t hrough t he N eolithic w ere l ocated i n t his t ransect i n e qual p roportions. A gain, h owever, t hese r epresent e phemeral o ccupations a nd t he t ransect c learly w as n ot a major h abitation r egion. I n T ransect 3 , t here i s a n e mphasis on N eolithic s ites. T erminal P aleolithic o ccurrences a lso a re c ommon. E arly o ccupation, h owever, w as l imited, w ith o nly o ne Mousterian s ite b eing r ecorded. E conomically, T ransect 3 r epresents a r elatively f avorable e nvironment. This i s p rimarily d ue o t t he p resence o f s pring v ents a nd s mall " oases" s cattered throughout t he t ransect. I n t erms o f v egetation, T ransect 3 r epresents t he most f avorable o f t hose e xamined. O ther e conomic r esources would h ave b een a vailable f rom the numerous s and dunes a nd p layas o ccurring i n t he a rea. T ransect 4 w as t he most i ntensively occupied a rea w e i nvestigated. R emains f rom a ll c ultural periods, w ith t he e xception o f t he L ower P aleolithic, a re r epresented. By f ar t he most c ommon o ccurrence i s t he Mousterian. N early 5 0 p ercent o f t he c omponents r ecorded i n T ransect 4 b elong t o t his period. T he s econd most c ommon o ccurrence i s t he T erminal P aleolithic, a nd t his a lso r epresents t he most i nteresting. I t i s i n t his t ransect t hat t he most s ignificant s ites r ecorded by t he W estern D esert E xpedition o ccur. These i nclude t he l arge T erminal P aleolithic " villages" o f KUWDE 1 7, 1 8, a nd 6 1. More e phemeral T erminal P aleolithic o ccurrences, p ossibly s upport l ocalities f or t he l arger s ites, a lso a re p resent. I n s pite o f i ts p resent a pparent b arrenness, T ransect 4 obviously r epresented a f avorable e nvironment, a t l east during t he M ousterian a nd Terminal P aleolithic. F or t he l atter p eriod, s ettlement i s

2 04

T able 4 5. T ransect

S ettleMent d istribution d ata b y t ransect. U DLS

L P

M P-M

M P-A

T P

N EO

T otal

N /(%)

N /(%)

N /(%)

N /(%)

N /(%)

N /(%)

N /(%)

1

2

2

1

( 66.7)

( 33.3)

2 ( 40.0)

1 ( 20.0)

1 ( 20.0)

1 ( 20.0)

5 ( 100.0)

1 ( 12.5)

3 ( 37.5)

4 ( 50.0)

8 ( 100.0)

3

4

2

2 1

( 4.3)

( 44.7)

5

6

4 ( 44.4)

7

1 ( 12.5)

8

1 ( 100.0)

T otal C omponents

K EY:

1 2 ( 13.8)

3 ( 100.0)

4 ( 8.5)

1 6 ( 34.0)

4 ( 8.5)

4 7 ( 100.0)

2 ( 33.3)

4 ( 66.7)

6 ( 100.0)

1 ( 11.1)

4 ( 44.4)

9 ( 99.9)

3 ( 37.5)

3 ( 37.5)

1 ( 12.5)

8 ( 100.0) 1 ( 100.0)

3 ( 3.4)

3 5 ( 40.2)

7 ( 8.1)

2 1 ( 24.1)

9 ( 10.3)

8 7 ( 99.9)

U DLS=undiagnostic l ithic s catter; L P=Lower P aleolithic; M P-M=Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian; M P-A=Middle P aleolithicA terian;

T P=Terminal P aleolithic; N EO=Neolithic.

T able 4 6.

N umber o f i dentifiable c omponents b y t ransect

T ransect

N

L P

M P-M %

N

H P-A N %

T P N

N E0 %

N

1

1

1 00.0

2

1

3 3.3

1

3 3.3

1

3

1

1 2.5

3

3 7.5 3 5.6

4

2 1

4 6.7

4

8 .9

1 6

( excludes U DLS).

T OTAL %

N

1

1 00.0

3 3.3

3

9 9.9

4

5 0.0

8

1 00.0

4

8 .9

4 5

1 00.1

5

2

3 3.3

4

6 6.7

6

1 00.0

6

1

2 0.0

4

8 0.0

5

1 00.0

3

4 2.9

7

1 00.1

0

---

7 8

K EY:

3

4 2.9

1

1 4.3

L P=Lower P aleolithic; M P-M=Middle P aleolithic-Mousterian; M P-A=Middle P aleolithic-Aterian; T P=Terminal P ? .leolithic; N EO=Neolithic

d irectly t ied t o t he o ccurrence o f p layas, w ith major s ites b eing l ocated b oth o n o r a djacent t o t hese g eomorphic f eatures, a p attern a lso n oted b y W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:259-264, 2 68). These c learly s erved a s e conomic " tethers" f or T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation o f t his a rea. T he a bundant M ousterian o ccupation i s n ot s o c learly t ied t o a ny s pecific g eomorphic f eature. M ost o f t hese s ites d o o ccur n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau; t his m ay h ave o ffered s ome e conomic b enefits. T ransect 5 w itnessed o ccupation o nly during t he e arlier t ime p eriods. I t w as h ere t hat t wo o f t he t hree L ower P aleolithic c omponents w ere r ecorded. The o nly o ther s ites r ecorded i n t his t ransect w ere M ousterian. N ote, h owever, t hat t he l atter " sites" m ore r ealistically r epresent a " district" ( see a dditional d iscussion i n C hapter 4 ), a nd t hat Mousterian r emains a re v ery a bundant i n t his g eomorphically c omplex t ransect. F rom a n e conomic p erspective, t his t ransect i s b arren, b ut i t i s l ikely t hat d uring t he M iddle P aleolithic c onditions w ere m ore f avorable. A s w ith T ransect 5 , o nly e arly s ites o ccur i n T ransect 6 . T his t ransect s hares g eneral p hysiographic s imilarities w ith T ransect 5 i n t hat b oth a re l ocated a t t he j unction o f t he L ibyan P lateau a nd t he K harga D epression. T ransect 6 , h owever, i s much l ess g eomorphically c omplex t han i s T ransect 5 . R egardless, t hese t wo t ransects n early m irror e ach o ther i n t erms o f c ultural r emains a nd o verall p hysiography. T ransect 7 , l ike t he d ensely o ccupied T ransect 4 , i s a lso l ocated a t t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau. I t i s l ess t han 1 0 k ilometers n orth o f T ransect 4 , b ut t he cultural r emains a re f ar l ess a bundant. H owever, t he d istribution o f t hese r emains i s s imilar t o t hat o f T ransect 4 i n t hat a l ong t erm o ccupation o ver s everal c ultural p eriods i s i ndicated. M ost o f t he s ites a re e arly, b ut o ne ( KUWDE 4 8) c ontains a l arge T erminal P aleolithic c omponent q uite s imilar t o t he l arge o nes r ecorded i n T ransect 4 . F inally, T ransect 8 r epresents t he l east p roductive o f a ll a reas i nvestigated. O nly o ne s ite, a n u ndiagnostic e phemeral o ne a t t hat, w as r ecorded. T his t ransect a lso w as t he m ost r emote i n r elation t o t he o thers, r andomly p laced i n a n a rea c a. 5 0 k ilometers f rom A syut. C learly t his r egion w as a nd i s a n i nhospitable z one w ith l ittle t o a ttract h uman o ccupation.

2 07

O ne c annot r ealistically e xamine t he f igures i n T ables 4 5 a nd 4 6 w ithout a c onsideration o f t he s ize o f e ach t ransect, s ince t his c learly c an a ffect i nterpretations o f t he n umber o f s ites r ecorded i n e ach t ransect. T able 4 7 s hows t he d ensity o f c omponents p er s quare k ilometer f or e ach t ransect. Note t hat t he l arger t ransects ( especially T ransect 1 ) c ontain t he f ewest c ultural r emains. This r epresents a s implistic c orrelation: t he f ewer t he n umber o f s ites, t he l arger a n a rea w e w ere a ble t o s ystematically s urvey. T hus, i n t he c ase o f T ransect 1 , w here o nly t hree c omponents w ere r ecorded, a l arge a rea w as c overed. C onversely, i n T ransect 4 , w here s ite d ensity w as e xtremely h igh, w e w ere o nly a ble t o c over a much s maller a rea. T he o verall d ensity w as 2 .9 c omponents p er square k ilometer ( or 2 .1 a ctual s ites p er s quare k ilometer). T his f igure, h owever, i s s omewhat m isleading, s ince t he r ange o f c omponent d ensity i s h igh: 0 .4 t o 3 1.3. A m ore a ccurate c omparison i s d ensity b y t ransect. H ere i t i s o bvious t hat T ransect 4 w as t he m ost i ntensively o ccupied o f a ll t ransects i nvestigated. T his s tudy u nit h ad a n i ncredible d ensity o f 3 1.3 c omponents p er square k ilometer, e xceeding b y m any t imes t he d ensity o f a ny o ther t ransect. W e m ay a lso e xamine t he d ensity p er square k ilometer o f i ndividual c omponents ( Table 4 8). These a re u seful f igures a nd p rovide c onsiderable i nsight i nto t he p rehistoric s ettlement p atterns o f t he p roject a rea. T he Mousterian i s c learly t he p redominate r epresentation i n t he s tudy a rea, o ccurring i n s ix o f t he e ight t ransects, w ith d ensities r anging f rom 0 .3 t o 1 4.0 s ites p er s quare k ilometer. O nce a gain, T ransect 4 c ontained t he h eaviest M ousterian o ccupation. T ransect 5 a lso w itnessed a s ubstantial M ousterian o ccupation ( 2.7 s ites p er s quare k ilometer), a lthough i t d oes n ot b egin t o a pproach t he d ensity o bserved i n T ransect 4 . W e must, o f c ourse, v iew t hese f igures w ith a r ealization t hat t he M ousterian r epresents a v ery l ong t ime s pan, t hus t he i ntensity o f o ccupation m ay b e s omewhat e xaggerated b y t he s heer n umber o f s ites. T he T erminal P aleolithic r epresents t he s econd most i ntensive o ccupation o f t he p roject a rea, w ith T ransect 4 a gain h aving t he h ighest d ensity. T ransect 3 a lso h ad a s ignificant T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation. T erminal P aleolithic s ites o ccurred i n t wo o ther t ransects, b ut i n e xtremely l ow f requencies. I f o ne c onsiders t he r elatively s hort t ime s pan o f t he T erminal P aleolithic, t his may a ctually r epresent t he m ost i ntensive p eriod o f p rehistoric o ccupation i n t he p roject a rea.

2 08

T able 4 7.

D ensity p er s quare k ilometer f or a ll c omponents b y t ransect ( includes U DLS).

K m2 T ransect

S urveyed

N umber o f C omponents

O verall D ensity/Km 2

1

1 0.5

3

0 .3

2

4 .0

5

1 .3

3

1 .5

8

5 .3

4

1 .5

5

1 .5

6

4 .0

6

5 .0

9

1 .8

7

3 .5

8

2 .3

8

2 .5

1

0 .4

T OTAL

3 0 K m2

4 7

8 7 c omponents

3 1.3

2 .9 c omponents/km2

T able 4 8.

D ensity p er s quare k ilomter o f i dentifiable c omponents b y t ransect ( excludes U DLS).

M iddle M iddle L ower P aleolithic- P aleolithic- T erminal T ransect P aleolithic M ousterian A terian P aleolithic N eolithic

1

0 .1

2

0 .3

0 .3

0 .3

3

0 .7

2 .0

2 .7

4

1 4.0

2 .7

1 0.7

2 .7

0 .9

0 .3

5

1 .3

2 .7

6

0 .2

0 .8

7 8

0 .9

Neolithic o ccupation was r estricted t o t hree t ransects. O nly i n T ransects 3 a nd 4 was t his a s ignificant r epresentation. N ote t hat most N eolithic s ites o ccurred i n a ssociation w ith T erminal P aleolithic o ccurrences. L ower P aleolithic a nd A terian o ccupations w ere r arest i n t he p roject a rea. B oth o ccur i n o nly t ransects e ach.

t he t wo

C onclusions A n e xamination o f t he d istribution o f s ites i n t he p roject a rea r eveals s everal patterns. P erhaps t he most s triking i s t he p redominance o f Mousterian s ites. This i s somewhat a t v ariance w ith e arlier w ork i n t he Kharga r egion, which s uggests t hat N eolithic o ccurrences may h ave b een t he most c ommon, a lthough t he Mousterian w as b y no means r are. I n t he p resent s tudy, t he N eolithic a ccounts f or o nly 1 2 p ercent o f a ll i dentifiable s ites r ecorded. H owever, t he r elated T erminal P aleolithic a ccounts f or 2 8 p ercent, a nd i f t hese t wo a re c ombined, t hey r epresent 4 0 p ercent o f a ll s ites, n early e qual t o t hat o f t he Mousterian. The Mousterian s ites r epresent t he g reatest g eographic s pread. Mousterian a daptive p atterns i n t he p roject a rea a ppear t o h ave b een o riented t o t he e xploitation o f a w ide r ange o f h abitats. C oupled w ith t he g enerally s mall s ite s izes a nd a rtifact d ensities, t his i s s uggestive o f a h ighly mobile a daptation. W e w ere n ot a ble t o c orrelate Mousterian o ccupation w ith a ny s pecific g eomorphic f eatures, e xcept t o n ote t hat s everal, b ut n ot a ll, Mousterian s ites w ere d irectly a djacent t o w adis. B ased o n t he n ature o f t he s ites, t he p roject a rea w as o ccupied by s mall g roups i n a r elatively c onsistent manner during t he M ousterian. The T erminal P aleolithic o ccupation o f t he p roject • a rea r epresents t he most d iverse. While n ot q uite a s w idespread a s t he M ousterian, T erminal P aleolithic s ites d o g ccur a cross a w ide g eographic s pread. V ariety i n s ite t ypes w as p ronounced during t he T erminal P aleolithic, r anging f rom e phemeral l imited a ctivity s ites t o i ntensive o ccupations t hat m ay h ave r epresented " villages" o r l arge b ase c amps. T he l atter a re a lways a ssociated w ith p layas. I n f act, t he m ajority o f T erminal P aleolithic s ites a re a ssociated w ith t hese g eomorphic f eatures. T his i s b est i llustrated i n T ransect 4 , w here m ost T erminal P aleolithic s ites o ccur a t p layas, i ncluding t he p resumed v illages. I n s ome i nstances, e specially i n T ransect 3 , T erminal

2 11

P aleolithic s ites a re a ssociated w ith e xtinct s pring v ents a nd a re u sually i n c lose p roximity t o s and dunes. T his s ame p attern h as b een n oted b y W endorf a nd S child a s w ell ( 1980:259-264). The N eolithic s ettlement p attern c losely m imics t hat o f t he T erminal P aleolithic, a lthough N eolithic s ites a re much l ess f requent t han t he l atter. I n m ost i nstances, N eolithic s ites o ccur a t T erminal P aleolithic l ocalities. T his i ndicates e ither a r epeated o ccupation o f a f avored l ocale b y t hese t wo g roups o r, m ore l ikely, t hat t he d istinction b etween T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic i s p erhaps m ore a pparent t han r eal. N one o f t he N eolithic s ites r epresent l arge s ettlements; r ather, a ll a re r elatively e phemeral. O ccupation o f t he p roject a rea d uring t he o ther p rehistoric c ultural p eriods r epresented, t hat i s, L ower P aleolithic a nd A terian, w as l imited. The t hree L ower P aleolithic s ites l ocated w ere a ll s mall w ith l imited a rtifact d ensity. A f ew o f t he A terian s ites, h owever, w ere more s ubstantial i n c omposition. While o utside o f t he s cope o f t he p resent p roject, i t w ould n onetheless b e r emiss n ot t o a t l east mention t he " historic" o ccupation o f t he p roject a rea. T he Kharga r egion w as t he s cene o f c onsiderable o ccupation during P haronic, R oman, a nd C optic t imes, a s w ell a s m ore r ecently. R emains f rom t hese p eriods a re r epresented t hroughout t he p roject a rea. E specially i mpressive a re t he R oman r emains i n T ransect 2 , w hich c onsist o f a s eries o f i nterrelated t own/forts a nd a gricultural f ields. F inally, t he p otential f or e thnoarchaeological i nvestigations o f t he p roject a rea s hould n ot b e o verlooked. P articularly i nteresting w ould b e t he l ocation a nd i nvestigation o f s ome o f C aton-Thompson's f ield c amps, w hich a pparently h ave b een l ocated i n o ther p ortions o f t he d esert ( D. W ilkie, p ersonal c ommunication, 1 983). I n s ummary, t he p roject a rea w itnessed c onsiderable o ccupation during b oth p rehistoric a nd h istoric t imes. T he b est r epresented c ultural p eriod i n t erms o f s heer n umber o f s ites i s t he M ousterian, f ollowed b y t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd t hen t he N eolithic. A s w ith e arlier i nvestigations, m any o f t hese s ites a re a ssociated w ith a ncient s pring v ents; i n a ddition, t he m ajority o f t he T erminal P aleolithic s ites a re d irectly a ssociated w ith p layas, o ccurring b oth i n a nd o n t he e dges o f t hese f eatures. T ransect 4 r epresents t he m ost h eavily o ccupied z one. T he r easons f or t his a re u nclear, b ut i t s eems o bvious t hat t his a rea r epresented

2 12

a r elatively f avorable e nvironment t hat w as c onsistently r eoccupied o ver a p eriod o f s everal t housand y ears.

2 13

C HAPTER 7 :

R ECOMMENDATIONS

( Alan H .

S immons)

I ntroduction I n t his c hapter w e o ffer s everal r ecommendations p ertaining t o t he c ultural r esources e ncountered b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition. These a re p rimarily t ailored f or management a nd p reservation c onsiderations, s ince w e b elieve t hat t his i s a v ital e lement o f modern a rchaeology, o ne t hat o ften i s o verlooked i n T hird World C ountries ( see M cCreery a nd S auer 1 984 f or a dditional d iscussion). H owever, w e a lso m ake s ome r ecommendations b ased s olely o n r esearch m otivations. I n r eality, t he t wo o ften a re c losely i ntertwined. B efore b eginning, a w ord o f c larification i s n ecessary h ere r egarding our u sage o f ' direct" a nd " indirect" i mpacts. D irect i mpacts r efer t o a ctivities t hat c learly w ould a dversely a ffect c ultural r emains. E xamples i nclude r oads c utting t hrough a s ite, o r modern a gricultural d evelopment. I ndirect i mpacts a re more s ubtle, a nd r efer t o t he i ncreased p otential f or a dverse i mpacts t o c ultural r esources b rought a bout b y d evelopment a ctivities. T his i ncludes s ituations s uch a s t he c onstruction o f a r oad n ear c ultural r emains, t hereby i mproving a ccess a nd v isibility, t hus i ncreasing t he p otential f or v andalism. F inally, " impacts" a s u sed h ere r efers o nly t o human a ctivities. O ther i mpacts, s uch a s e rosion, d eflation, o r a nimal d isturbance, a re n aturally i nduced. I n s ome c ases, t hough, n atural i mpacts c an b e i ncreased b y c ultural a ctivities, t hus i ncreasing t he p otential f or c ausing a t l east i ndirect i mpacts t o c ultural r esources. R ecommendations W e m ay b egin o ur d iscussion b y e xamining e ach t ransect i ndividually. T able 4 9 p rovides a g eneralized m atrix f or d etermining r ecommendations f or a dditional r esearch i n e ach t ransect. T he c olumn m arked " Management S ensitivity" r efers t o a t ransect's p otential f or u ndergoing a dverse i mpacts b rought a bout b y modern d evelopment a ctivities. O f c ourse w e a re i n n o p osition t o p redict i f, when, a nd h ow s uch d evelopment w ill o ccur. I n t he f ollowing d iscussion, w e a ssess t he l ikelihood o f a dditional d evelopment f rom a n u ndoubtedly n aive u nderstanding o f d evelopment p riorities f or t he r egion. O ur s tatements r egarding t he

2 15

T able 4 9.

T ransect

M anagement a nd r esearch c onsiderations f or t ransects i nvestigated.

R esearch P otential E xcellent M oderate P oor

1 2

M anagement S ensitivity H ighly M oderately N onC ritical C ritical C ritical

X X1

3

X4 X

X

X

4

X2

X

5

X3

X

6

X

7

X

8

X X

X

1O nly

f or h istoric,

2H igh

p otential f or T erminal a nd M iddle P aleolithic s tudies.

3H igh

p otential f or M iddle P aleolithic s tudies.

4A ll

e specially R oman,

X

s tudies.

e ntries i n t his c olumn a ssume n o n ew d evelopment.

p otential f or a dditional d evelopment a re b ased o n o bservations o f c urrent a ctivity i n e ach t ransect.

o ur

F or T ransect 1 , b oth m anagement a nd r esearch r ecommendations a re t he s ame. T his t ransect i s n early d evoid o f c ultural r emains, a nd t hose e ncountered w ere n ot h ighly s ignificant. W e s hould n ote, h owever, t hat C aton-Thompson ( 1952) r eports L ate A cheulian o ccurrences i n t he Wadi R ufuf a rea, w hich i s w here T ransect 1 i s l ocated. T he p otential f or a dverse i mpacts i n T ransect 1 i s l ow. W hile s ome i mpacts, p ossibly s evere, h ave a lready o ccurred i n t he f orm o f r ailroad c onstruction, i t i s u nlikely t hat t his a rea w ill w itness a dditional i mpact i n t he n ear f uture. I n s hort, t here i s l ittle r eason, e specially i n a n e conomic s ense, f or a dditional d evelopment t o o ccur h ere. H owever, i f t he r ailroad w ere r evitalized, t he r egion c ould b e s usceptible t o c onsiderable i mpact. I f t his w ere t o o ccur, w e w ould r ecommend l imited monitoring f or c ultural r esources. T ransect 2 h as a h igh p otential f or u ndergoing a dditional d evelopment, p rimarily d ue t o i ts p roximity t o e l-Kharga a nd t he p otentially a rable n ature o f t he a rea. I n a ddition, c urrent r esidents o f t he r egion a re d amaging t he c ultural r esources p resent, e specially t hose b elonging t o " historic" p eriods. T his t ransect c ontains a n e xcellent e xample o f R oman o ccupation o f t he p roject a rea. D espite s ome v andalism, h owever, t hese r emains a re i n s urprisingly g ood o verall c ondition. N onetheless, v andalism i s l ikely t o i ncrease, e specially t o t hese h istoric r esources. P rehistoric r esources a re r elatively r are a nd n ot o verly i mpressive i n a v isual s ense, t hus t hey p robably a re s ecure f rom v andalism b eyond o ccasional c ollection o f d iagnostics ( e.g., p roj ectile p oints). We r ecommend t hat a ny d evelopment i n T ransect 2 b e c losely m onitored f or c ultural r esources. I t i s l ikely t hat m ajor d evelopment, e specially i f i t w ere a gricultural i n n ature, w ould b e u nable t o a void m any o f t he c ultural r esources p resent. I n t his c ase, w e w ould r ecommend m ajor m itigation e fforts, i ncluding d etailed s urvey, m apping, a nd e xcavation. T his t ransect i s t he most h ighly s ensitive z one e xamined b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition a nd i s s ubject t o b oth d irect a nd i ndirect i mpacts. T ransect 3 i s a lso r elatively c lose t o e l-Kharga a nd i s a p otential t arget f or a dditional d evelopment, e specially i n t he f orm o f a gricultural a ctivity. I ts c ultural r esource s ensitivity i s n ot a s p ronounced a s

2 17

w ith T ransect 2 . R oman r uins, h owever, a re p resent i n t he r egion, a s a re a bundant p rehistoric r esources. W e r ecommend c lose monitoring o f a ny a dditional d evelopment i n t he a rea. I n most s ituations, s ignificant c ultural r esources c ould p robably b e a voided by d evelopment a ctivities. T ransect 4 i s t he r ichest a rea e xamined i n t erms o f i ts r esearch p otential. I t a lso i s a n a rea u nlikely t o b e i mpacted b y m odern d evelopment i n t he f oreseeable f uture. F rom a p reservation p erspective, t his i s a n i deal s ituation, s ince i t i s u nlikely t hat t he s ites w ill b e i mpacted. F rom a purely r esearch s tandpoint, h owever, w e s trongly r ecommend a dditional i nvestigation o f t he r egion. I t i s e specially p romising a s a d ata b ase f or b oth M iddle P aleolithic a nd T erminal P aleolithic s tudies. The r egion a lso i s i deal f or g eomorphic a nd g eoarchaeological i nvestigations. E specially i mportant i n t his r egard w ould b e a c lose s tudy o f p laya a nd s ite r elationships. While i t a ppears u nlikely t hat T ransect 4 w ill b e d eveloped, w e s hould n ote t hat i f t he o ld K harga-Asyut r oad, w hich i s l ocated a t t he n orthern e xtremity o f t he t ransect, i s e ver r edeveloped, c lose monitoring f or i mpacts t o c ultural r esources i s h ighly r ecommended. I n a ddition, t he a rea h as a pparently w itnessed m ilitary m aneuvers. W e r ealize t hat l ittle c an b e done r egarding t his. H owever, i f t hese c ontinue, w e r ecommend t hat a dditional i nvestigations a t s everal s ites, e specially t he T erminal P aleolithic " villages," s hould b e u ndertaken a s s oon a s p ossible. T ransect 5 r epresents o ne o f t he m ost i naccessible a reas e xamined b y t he Western D esert E xpedition. I t i s u nlikely t hat much d evelopment i s t argeted f or t his r egion due t o i ts d issected n ature a nd t o l ogistical c onstraints. Cultural r esources, e specially d ating t o t he M iddle P aleolithic, a re a bundant h ere, a nd t he r egion d oes o ffer t he o pportunity f or a dditional s tudy f or t hose w ith r esearch i nterests i n t his c ultural p eriod. H owever, s uch s tudies p robably c annot b e j ustified f rom a p urely m anagement p erspective. I t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat T ransect 6 w ill w itness a ny d evelopment. L ike T ransect 5 , i t, t oo, c onsists o f e xtremely r ough t errain a nd h as l ittle t o a ttract d evelopment. T he c ultural r esources r ecorded i n T ransect 6 a re l argely e phemeral r emains w ith l imited r esearch p otential.

2 18

Portions. o f T ransect 7 a re v ery s ensitive t o a dditional i mpacts, b oth d irect a nd i ndirect. This i ncludes t he a rea n ear t he main r oad t o e l-Kharga, w hich i s l ocated a djacent t o t he t ransect. O ne l arge s ite, K UWDE 4 8, h as a lready b een s everely d isturbed b y m odern a ctivities. W e r ecommend t hat a dditional s tudies, m inimally i n t he f orm o f d etailed mapping a nd s ystematic c ollection, b e u ndertaken a t t his s ite b efore much more i nformation i s l ost. W e a dditionally r ecommend c lose m onitoring f or c ultural r esources i f a ny a dditional d evelopment o ccurs i n t he a rea, s uch a s r oad w idening. A s w ith T ransect 4 , t here a pparently h as b een a c onsiderable a mount o f m ilitary t raffic i n t he a rea. T ransect 8 , l ocated a t M ilepost 5 0 f rom A syut, i s u nlikely t o u ndergo d evelopment, b eyond m ilitary m aneuvers. D ue t o t he e xtremely l imited n ature o f t he c ultural r esources i n t his t ransect ( only o ne s mall s ite w as r ecorded), w e d o n ot r ecommend a ny a dditional work a nd do n ot r egard t his a s a s ensitive z one. T able 5 0 s ummarizes t he r ecommendations T his r epresents o ur r ecommendations f or e ach a n i ndependent e ntity. I t n ow i s u seful c onsider r ecommendations o n a s ite-specific

m ade a bove. t ransect a s t o b riefly b asis.

S pecific r ecommendations f or e ach s ite r ecorded b y t he project h ave a lready b een m ade i n C hapter 4 . T able 5 1 summarizes t hese r ecommendations, a nd T able 5 2 p rovides m ore s pecific i nformation o n t hose s ites a t w hich r ecommendations f or a dditional w ork w ere m ade. A s c an b e s een, o ut o f a t otal o f 6 3 s ites, a dditional work i s r ecommended a t 2 2.2 p ercent ( i.e., 1 4) o f t hem. A lthough w e d o r egard s everal s ites a s s ignificant, w e s hould a dd a n ote o f c larification h ere. While a dditional s tudy o f m any o f t he s ites w ould c ontribute t owards a b etter u nderstanding o f t he p rehistory o f t he K harga r egion, t his c ontribution w ould b est t ake t he f orm o f l ithic a nalyses a nd b road s ettlement p attern s tudies, a s w ell a s g eomorphic a ssessments. T hat i s t o s ay, » p reservation o f o ther i nformative d ata s ets, e specially f auna a nd f lora, i s g enerally l acking a t a ll s ites. T his a bsence o bviously h ampers a d etailed i nvestigation o f p aleoeconomy, f or e xample. T hus, w hile s everal s ites w ould b enefit f rom a dditional r esearch, f ew h ave a ny p otential f or c ontaining p reserved f aunal o r f loral r emains. F urthermore, t here a ppears t o b e a l imited p otential f or r ecovering c harcoal o r o ther d atable materials f rom m ost s ites. O strich e ggshell, h owever, i s p resent a t a f ew s ites, a nd i t i s d atable.

2 19

T able 5 0. M anagement

T ransect

1

r ecommendations f or t ransects i nvestigated.

N o A ddifional

L imited

C lose

W ork

M onitoring

M onitoring

X X

2 3

X

4

X

5

X

6

X X

7 8

1U nless

X

e xtreme d evelopment o ccurs.

T able 5 1.

S ite-Specific r ecommendations.

S ites R ecommended f or A dditional I nvestigation: K UWDE 6 ,

8 ,

1 3, 1 7,

1 8,

2 9,

3 0,

3 1,

3 4, 4 2,

4 8, 4 9,

5 6,

6 1

S ites R ecommended f or L imited A dditional I nvestigation : K UWDE 2 ,

S ites W here N o

3 9, 5 0

A dditional I nvestigation i s R ecommended: 1

K UWDE 1 , 2 4, 4 7,

3 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 9 , 1 0, 1 1, 1 2, 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, 2 3, 1 9, 2 0, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 2 8, 3 2, 3 3, 3 5, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 4 0, 4 1, 4 3, 4 4, 4 5, 4 6, 5 1, 5 2, 5 3, 5 4, 5 5, 5 8, 5 5, 5 7, 5 9, 6 0, 6 2, 6 3.

1S everal

o f t hese r epresent M iddle P aleolithic s ites i n T ransect 4 t hat

m ay b e o f i nterest t o t hose i nvestigating M iddle P aleolithic s ettlement p atterns.

T able 5 2.

S ite

I nformation o n s ites r ecommended f or a dditional i nvestigation .

T ransect

C ultural A ffiliation

K UWDE 6

2

M iddle P aleolithic

( Mousterian)/Neolithic

K UWDE 8

3

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

K UWDE 1 3

4

M iddle P aleolithic

( Aterian)/Terminal

P aleolithic/Neolithic K UWDE 1 7

4

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 1 8

4

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 2 9

4

T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

K UWDE 4 2

4

T erminal P aleolithic

K UWDE 5 6

4

M iddle P aleolithic Mousterian a nd A terian )/ T erminal P aleolithic/Neolithic

K UWDE 6 1

4

M iddle P aleolithic

( Aterian)/Terminal

P aleolithic/Neolithic K UWDE 3 0

5

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithic ( Mousterian)

K UWDE 3 1

5

L ower P aleolithic/Middle P aleolithic ( Mousterian)

K UWDE 3 4

6

M iddle P aleolithic

( Mousterian)

K UWDE 4 8

7

M iddle P aleolithic

( Aterian)/Terminal

P aleolithic K UWDE 4 9

7

M iddle P aleolithic

( Aterian)

F inally, most s ites a re d eflated a nd h ave l ittle s oil d evelopment, t hus t he l ikelihood o f r ecovering i n s itu m aterials i s l imited. T hus, f urther d etailed e xamination o f s everal o f t he s ites a nd o f t heir l ocalities c ould c ontribute t o i nvestigation o f l ithic a nalyses a nd s ettlement s tudies, f or e xample. C hronological a nd p recise p aleoeconomic s tudies, h owever, h ave much m ore l imited p otentials. Our r ecommendations w ere m ade a fter e valuating a v ariety o f c onsiderations, b oth m anagement a nd r esearch. G enerally, t he r ecommendations a re s trongly o riented t owards t hose s ites t hat a re b elieved t o h ave t he potential f or y ielding d ata t hat w ould c ontribute t o a ddressing a v ariety o f c ontemporary r esearch questions. I n s ome c ases, m anagement c onsiderations v is a v is c urrent s ite c onditions a nd t he p otential f or i mpacts a lso a re i mportant. H owever, i n m ost i nstances t he s ites a t w hich a dditional w ork i s r ecommended a re n ot s ubject t o i mmediate i mpacts. I n f act, h alf o f t he s ites r ecommended a re l ocated i n T ransect 4 , w hich i s n ot e xpected t o u ndergo a ny d evelopment. S ites t hat a re d irectly e ndangered a nd t hat w e f elt o ffered s ignificant r esearch p otential n umber o nly f our. T hese a re KUWDE 6 , 8 , 4 8, a nd 4 9. T he f irst t wo a re l ocated i n T ransects 2 a nd 3 , r espectively, a nd t he l ast t wo a re i n T ransect 7 . F inally, i n t erms o f p ure r esearch c onsiderations, w e f eel t hat KUWDE 1 8 o ffers t he b est p otential. T his i s f ollowed b y s ites KUWDE 6 1, 5 6, a nd 1 7. A ll a re l ocated i n T ransect 4 a nd r epresent m ajor T erminal P aleolithic o ccupations, p robably a s b ase c amps o r " villages." A dditional s ystematic i nvestigation o f t hese s ites w ould y ield c onsiderable i nsight i nto T erminal P aleolithic a daptive s trategies i n t he W estern D esert. S everal o ther s ites i n t he p roject a rea w ould a lso c ontribute t o a b etter u nderstanding o f m an/land r elationships i n t he p roject a rea, d epending u pon s peciTic r esearch o rientation. F or e xample, s everal s ites i n T ransects 4 a nd 5 c ould h elp i n b etter u nderstanding M iddle P aleolithic a daptations t o t he a rea. S ummary This c hapter h as p rovided r ecommendations f or t he c ultural r esources r ecorded b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition. W e h ave c oncluded t hat o f t he e ight

2 23

t ransects i nvestigated, T ransect 2 i s t he m ost s ensitive, f ollowed b y T ransects 3 a nd 7 . T he f ormer c ontains s ignificant h istoric c ultural r esources a nd i s h ighly l ikely t o b e t argeted f or a dditional development. T he l atter t wo a re a lso s usceptible t o d evelopment a nd c ontain p rehistoric c ultural r esources t hat a re j udged a s s ignificant, a lthough t hey do n ot r epresent t he m ost s ignificant s uch r esources r ecorded b y t he p roject. T wenty-two p ercent o f t he s ites r ecorded a re r ecommended f or a dditional i nvestigation; h owever, o f t hese, o nly f our ( 6.3 p ercent) a re r egarded a s i n i mmediate d anger d ue t o d evelopment. F rom a p ure r esearch p erspective, i rrespective o f m anagement c onsiderations, f our s ites, a ll i n T ransect 4 a nd a ll r epresenting m ajor T erminal P aleolithic o ccurrences, a re r ecommended f or a dditional i nvestigation.

2 24

CHAPTER 8 :

CONCLUDING REMARKS

( Alan H .

S immons)

The p receding c hapters h ave p resented t he r esults o f the U niversity o f Kansas' Western D esert E xpedition, w hich w as s ponsored by t he AMOCO F oundation t hrough AMOCO-Egypt. The principal objective o f t his p roject w as t o c onduct a n i nventory s urvey f or p rehistoric a rchaeological s ites n orth o f Kharga O asis. A pproximately 3 0 s quare k ilometers, r epresented b y e ight t ransects, w ere s ystematically e xamined o ver a p eriod o f t hree w eeks. W ithin our major objective, w e s ought t o a ddress both r esearch a nd management, o r p reservation, i ssues. The f ormer i ncluded a d etailed e xamination o f T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic o ccurrences i n t he p roject a rea. T he l atter g oal o f t he p roject w as t o a pproach t he s tudy f rom w ithin a c ultural r esource m anagement ( CRM) perspective. This a llowed f or r ecommendations t o b e made t hat w ill b est h elp p reserve t he cultural r emains i n t he a rea. The g oals o f t he Western D esert E xpedition w ere s uccessfully a chieved. F rom a r esearch p erspective, t he p roject c ontributed t o a g rowing b ody o f d ata r egarding p rehistoric s ettlement i n a n a rea o nce t hought d evoid o f h uman o ccupation. W ithin our l imited a real c overage, 6 3 p rehistoric s ites, r epresenting a t l east 8 7 p rehistoric c omponents, w ere r ecorded. The majority o f t hese w ere t entatively a ssigned t o s pecific c ultural p eriods. I n a ddition, t he p resence o f numerous " historic" r esources a lso was n oted. The s ites r ecorded s pan t he e ntire r ange o f human o ccupation k nown f or t he Western D esert. The e arliest o ccupation o f t he p roject a rea was r epresented b y e phemeral L ate A cheulian r emains. These s uggest a l imited u tilization o f t he p roject a rea during t his e arly t ime p eriod. The most c ommon p rehistoric o ccurrences b elong t o t he Mousterian o f t he M iddle P aleolithic. Mousterian s ites, g enerally s mall i n s ize a nd i ndicative o f t ask-specific a ctivities, o ccur t hroughout t he p roject a rea. Their d istribution s uggests a r elatively i ntensive u se o f t he r egion during t he Mousterian. T he o ther M iddle P aleolithic c ultural m anifestation k nown i n t he W estern D esert, t he A terian, i s r epresented i n t he s tudy a rea by o nly a f ew s ites. T erminal P aleolithic o ccurrences r epresent t he s econd most c ommon p rehistoric r emains i n t he r egion i n t erms o f a bsolute n umber o f s ites. They a re n ot,

2 25

h owever, a s g eographically w idespread a s a re M ousterian s ites. T he l argest a nd most c omplex prehistoric s ites r ecorded by t he p roject b elong t o t he T erminal P aleolithic. Many o f t he s ites s how a d irect r elationship w ith p layas, a nd, t o a l esser extent, w ith e xtinct s pring v ents. A w ide r ange o f T erminal P aleolithic s ite t ypes i s r epresented, f rom small, p robable t ask-specific o ccurrences t o much l arger basec amps o r " villages." F inally, N eolithic s ites a re r ather poorly r epresented i n t he p roject a rea. T his l acuna, h owever, may b e m ore a pparent t han r eal. N eolithic c omponents g enerally o ccur i n a ssociation w ith T erminal P aleolithic s ites a nd may, i n f act, b e d irectly a ssociated. This p attern t ends t o s upport t he c urrent t houghts o f s ome r esearchers, who v iew t he T erminal P aleolithic a nd N eolithic a s manifestations o f t he s ame o verall c ultural g roup. O f t he e ight t ransects e xamined, Transect 4 , l ocated n ear t he e dge o f t he L ibyan P lateau, w as t he r ichest i n t erms o f c ultural r emains. F orty-seven c omponents o ccur i n t his s mall t ransect, r epresenting a d ensity o f 3 1.3 c omponents p er s quare k ilometer. This t ransect a lso c ontained t he b est p reserved prehistoric s ites, i ncluding t he l arge T erminal Paleolithic basec amps o r " villages." I n c onjunction w ith t he p urely a rchaeological a spect o f t he p roject, t he u tility o f g eomorphic a ssessment h as b een c learly d emonstrated. I ndeed, such a multidisciplinary a pproach i s v iewed a s c ritical, e ven o n a p reliminary s tudy s uch a s t he W estern D esert E xpedition. O f p articular i nterest t o t he present s tudy w ould b e a dditional g eomorphic i nvestigation a t s everal o f t he p laya s ites i n o rder t o d etermine p aleoenvironmental c onditions a t t he t ime(s) o f o ccupation. The W estern D esert E xpedition h as d emonstrated t hat t here was a c onsiderable l ong-term p rehistoric o ccupat ion o f t he p roject a rea. While t he majority o f s ites r ecorded a re d eflated s urface s catters, m any n onetheless c ontain s ignificant i nformation. A dditional r esearch a t s everal o f t he s ites w ould c ontribute t o a b etter u nders tanding o f p rehistoric a daptation t o t his p resently h yperarid e nvironment. While t he r esearch f indings o f t he W estern D esert E xpedition a re i mportant, t he m anagement a pproach t aken i n t his s tudy a lso i s s ignificant. R apid d evelopment i n

2 26

m any Third W orld c ountries i s o ccurring a t a n a larming p ace, w ith t he c onsequence t hat many c ultural r esources a re being d estroyed. A lthough m any c ountries a re s ensitive t o t heir c ultural h eritages a nd h ave p reservation l egislation ( e.g., s ee C leere 1 984), t he p roblem i s o ne o f w orldwide s ignificance. Countries s uch a s E gypt h ave r elatively s ophisticated a ntiquities s ervices a nd p rotective l egislation, b ut o ften t his i s n ot o riented t o p rehistoric r emains, w hich g enerally h ave l ow a rchaeological v isibility. S uch a ntiquities s ervices a lso a re a ll t oo f requently u nderstaffed, u nderfunded, a nd o verworked. C ultural r esources a re u sually n ot a m ajor c oncern o f many d eveloping c ountries, w here p resent a nd f uture w elfare c oncerns a re p aramount. W hile t his i s a c omplex i ssue, i t s hould b e i ncumbent u pon f oreign m issions u ndertaking a rchaeological s tudies t o b e c ognizant o f p reservation p roblems f aced b y t heir h ost c ountries. A m ajor o bjective o f t he W estern D esert E xpedition w as t o p rovide i nitial m anagement r ecommendations f or t he s tudy a rea. The p roject h as d emonstrated t hat t he r egion i s r ich i n c ultural r esources, a nd d evelopment s hould o ccur w ith a n a wareness o f t his w ealth. T he K harga r egion, o r " New V alley," i s s cheduled f or c onsiderable d evelopment i n t he f uture, a nd w e h ope t hat t his c an b e a ccomplished w ith a c oncern f or t he r egion's c ultural h eritage, b oth p rehistoric a nd h istoric. We h ave p rovided s everal s pecific r ecommendations t hat w e h ope w ill b e o f u se i n t he f uture d evelopment o f he r ichest r esources o ccur i n t he a rea. I n m ost c ases, t t hus l essening t he c hances o f t he most r emote a reas, a p reservation o r m anagement a dverse i mpacts. F rom c ourse, r epresents a n i deal p erspective, t his, o f t here a re s everal a reas a nd a s ituation. N onetheless, f ew s pecific s ites t hat w ere i nvestigated b y t he W estern D esert E xpedition t hat a re s ensitive t o m odern a ctivities, a nd w e h ave r ecommended c lose m onitoring o f t hese. W e r ealize, o f c ourse, t hat t he r ecommendations m ade i n a r eport s uch a s t his w ill l argely b e s een o nly b y " archaeological e yes." N onetheless, t his r epresents a s tarting p oint, a nd i f m ore a rchaeological s tudies i ncluded s pecific m anagement a nd p reservation r ecommendations, t he c ultural r esources w ould u ltimately b enefit.

2 27

I n c onclusion, t he W estern D esert E xpedition h as d ocumented t he p resence o f a n umber o f a rchaeological s ites i n t he a rea n orth o f e l-Kharga. T his s tudy r epres ented a n i nventory s urvey, a nd w as a ccomplished w ithin m odest means. I t h as, h owever, d emonstrated t he u tility o f s ystematic c overage o f a n a rea. R ather t han s imply " looking f or g ood s ites," a s h as b een c ommon, a s ystematic s urvey w ill a llow r esearchers t o s elect f rom a w ide s ample t hose s ites t hat may b est a ddress s pecific r esearch t opics. T he Western D esert E xpedition w as n ot m eant t o p resent a d etailed s cenario o f p rehistoric o ccupation o f t he s tudy a rea. A s W endorf a nd S child ( 1980:169) a ptly p oint o ut, t he K harga r egion i s a n a rea o f i mmense p rehistoric a nd g eological c omplexity. A n a ccurate a nd p recise u nderstanding o f p rehistoric a daptations t o t his r egion w ill r equire a major multidisciplinary c ommitment o f s everal y ears. T he f indings, p atterns, a nd c onclusions r eported i n t he p resent s tudy a re s uggestive o f t endencies i n t he o bserved d ata. T heir a ccuracy i s s ubject t o f urther f ield i nvestigation f or v erification. N onetheless, a c ontribution h as b een made, a nd we n ow c an u nequivocally d emonstrate t hat t he a rea was, i ndeed, o ccupied during p rehistoric t imes. D elineating t he p recise n ature o f t his o ccupation r emains a f uture g oal. C oupled w ith t his i s t he e qually i mportant g oal o f p roperly managing a nd p reserving t he c ultural r esources o f t he a rea f or f uture g enerations.

2 28

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