Early State Formation in Central Madagascar: An Archaeological Survey of Western Avaradrano 9780915703630, 9781951519834, 2007049208

Table of contents :
Contents
Figures
Tables
Foreword
Teny Mialoha
Preface
Chapter 1. Introduction, by Henry T. Wright and Susan Kus
Chapter 2. Landscape and Archaeology in Western Avaradrano
Chapter 3. Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina
Chapter 4. The Ancient Settlements of Avaradrano
Chapter 5. The Development of Settlement Systems in Western Avaradrano
Chapter 6. Comments
Glossary, by Victor Raharijaona
Bibliography
Appendix A. Catalogue of Site Information, by Henry T. Wright and Susan Kus
Appendix B. Determination of Absolute Dates from Archaeological Sites in Central Madagascar, by Henry Wright, Andrianaivoarivony Rafolo, Ian Bailiff, David Burney, Herbert Haas, Victor Raharijaona,
Solo Rakotovololona, David Rasamuel, and Robert Dewar
Appendix C. A Contribution to the Paleoethnography of the Central Highlands of Madagascar, by Wilma Wetterstrom and Henry T. Wright
Appendix D. Population and Production in Eighteenth-Century Madagascar: Analyzing Archaeological Evidence of the Subsistence Economy of the Central Highlands, by George Schwartz
Appendix E. Ambohimanga: Creating a Capital and a Polity in Thought, Deed and Dirt, by Susan Kus

Citation preview

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

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Frontispiece. Aerial view of Amboatany (516.0-814.0) and nearby sites. (Blowup from Image 1J 8 of Madagascar Mission 189, taken in 1964. provided through the kindness of the Foiben-Taosarintanin'i Madagasikara [L'institute Geographique National de Madagascar].)

Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Memoirs, Number 43

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar An Archaeological Survey of Western Avaradrano

edited by Henry T. Wright

with contributions by Ian Bailiff, David Burney, Robert Dewar, Sigrid Gabler, Herbert Haas, Susan Kus, Andrianaivoarivony Rafolo, Victor Raharijaona, Solo Hilarion Rakotovololona,t David Rasamuel,t George Schwartz, Wilma Wetterstrom, and Henry T. Wright

Ann Arbor, Michigan 2007

©2007 by the Regents of the University of Michigan The Museum of Anthropology All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-0-915703-63-0 (paper) ISBN 978-1-951519-83-4 (ebook) Co ver design by Katherine Clahassey. The University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology currently publishes three monograph series: Anthropological Papers, Memoirs, and Technical Reports, as well as an electronic series in CD-ROM form. For a complete catalog, write to Museum of Anthropology Publications, 4013 Museums Building, 1109 Geddes Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Early state formation in central Madagascar : an archaeological survey of western Avaradrano / edited by Henry T. Wright; with contributions by Ian Bailiff ... [et al.]. p. cm. -- (Memoirs; no. 43) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-915703-63-0 (alk. paper) 1. Chiefdoms--Madagascar--Imerina--History. 2. Political anthropology--Madagascar--Imerina. 3. Ethnoarchaeology--Madagascar--Imerina. 4. Landscape archaeology--Madagascar--lmerina. 5. Imerina (Madagascar)--History. 6. Imerina (Madagascar)--Antiquities. I. Wright, Henry Tutwiler, 1943GN661.M2E37 2007 969.1'0l--dc22 2007049208

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1984 (Perma­ nence of Paper)

dedicated to Pierre Verin, the first master of Malagasy archaeology Atolotra an'i Pierre Verin, voalohany nametraka ny fikarohana arkeolojika amin 'ny toerana sahaza azy

Contents LIST OF FIGURES, LIST OF TABLES,

ix

xii

by Jean-Aime Rakotoarisoa, xiii by Jean-Aime Rakotoarisoa, xiv PREFACE, by Augustin F.e. Holl, xvi FOREWORD,

TENY MIALOHA,

1. INTRODUCTION, by Henry T. Wright and Susan Kus, I Madagascar and the Rise of the Merina State, 1 Building Complex Economic and Political Systems, 3 Archaeological Survey and the Study of Complex Social Forms, 6 A History of Archaeological Research in Central Madagascar, 6 Plan of the Present Work, 7

CHAPTER

2. LANDSCAPE AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN WESTERN AVARADRANO, 9 The Landscape, 9 Holocene Environmental Change in Imerina, 9 Traditional Life in Western Avaradrano, II . The Survey Projects of 1975,14 The Survey Projects of 1980 to 1989,14 Survey Methods Used in Avaradrano, 15

CHAPTER

3. CERAMICS AND CULTURAL PHASES IN CENTRAL IMERINA, 18 Introduction to the Issues of Survey Chronology, 18 Proposed Ceramic Chronology of 1975, 18 New Chronological Evidence from the Stratigraphic Soundings in Avaradrano: 1983,21 New Chronological Evidence from Excavations Elsewhere in Imerina: 1980-1985,38 New Chronological Evidence from Soundings and Excavations in Avaradrano: 1985-1989,39 Ceramic Chronology Used in the Present Work, 41

CHAPTER

4. THE ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS OF AVARADRANO, 59 Introduction, 59 Ditches and Banks, 59 Entries, Gates and Discs in Western Avaradrano, by Sigrid Gabler, 63 Houses, 67 Pits and Other Storage Structures, 70 Cattle Byres, 71 Tombs, 71 Monoliths, 73 Comment, 76

CHAPTER

5. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS IN WESTERN AVARADRANO, 77 Imerina at the Time of Human Settlement, 77 Fiekena Phase, 77 Antanambe Phase, 79 Ankatso Phase, 82 Angavobe Phase, 84 Ambohidray Phase, 86 Kaloy Phase, 89 Fiadanana Phase, 90 Processual Assessment of Population Changes in Western Avaradrano, by Robert E. Dewar, 101

CHAPTER

vii

6. COMMENTS, 104 Archaeology and Historical Traditions, 104 Evaluating Ideas about State Formation with the Evidence from Western Avaradrano, 104 The Archaeological Evidence of Cultural Development in Western Avaradrano, 106 Toward New Explanatory Constructs of Political Transformation in Imerina, 109 Future Archaeological Research in Imerina, 111

CHAPTER

GLOSSARY,

by Victor Raharijaona, 113

BIBLIOGRAPHY,

115

by Henry T. Wright and Susan Kus, 119 Archaeological Sites in the Kingdom of Marovatana, 123 Archaeological Sites in the Kingdom of Ambohimanga, 131 Archaeological Sites in the Kingdom of Ilafy, 249

ApPENDIX A. CATALOGUE OF SITE INFORMATION,

ApPENDIX B. DETERMINATIONS OF ABSOLUTE DATES FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR,

by Henry Wright, Andrianaivoarivony RaJolo, Ian Bailiff, David Burney, Herbert Haas, Victor Raharijaona, Solo Rakotovololona, David Rasamuel, and Robert Dewar, 271 Introduction, 271 Palynological Sites, 272 Archaeological Sites, 273 General Comment, 278 Acknowledgments, 280 Bibliography, 280 ApPENDIX C. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PALEOETHNOBOTANY OF THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF MADAGASCAR,

by Wilma Wetterstrom and Henry T. Wright, 281 Introduction, 281 The Archaeological Plant Record, 281 Recovering and Analyzing Archaeological Plant Remains, 282 Methods and Procedures, 282 Archaeobotanical Samples from Central Madagascar, 283 The Taxa, 286 Discussion, 287 Future Prospects, 287 References, 288 ApPENDIX D. POPULATION AND PRODUCTION IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY MADAGASCAR: ANALYZING ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF THE SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY OF THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, by George Schwartz, 289 Principles of Site Catchment Analysis, 289 Diet and Rice Field Requirements, 293 Site Populations, 293 Analysis from the Standpoint of the Demand for Rice: The Example of the Ambohimanga District in Western Avaradrano,294 Conclusions, 298 Future Research, 298 References, 299 ApPENDIX E. AMBOHIMANGA: CREATING A CAPITAL AND A POLITY IN THOUGHT, DEED AND DIRT,

Conclusion, 310 References, 311

viii

by Susan Kus, 301

Figures Frontispiece. Aerial view of Amboatany (516.0-814.0) and nearby sites, ii 1.1.

Map of Madagascar showing Avaradrano and other intensive surveys, 2

2.1.

Western Avaradrano, ]6

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9. 3.10. 3.11. 3.12. 3.13. 3.14. 3.15. 3.16.

Sections of Operation C, Ambohinanjakana, 24 Jar sherds from Ambohinanjakana, Ex. C, Layers 3-10, Ambohidray Phase, 27 Bowl sherds from Ambohinanjakana, Ex. C, Layers 3-10, Early KaIoy Phase, 29 Ceramics from Ambohinanjakana, Ex. C, Layers 1-2, Early KaIoy Phase, 3] Sections of Operation D, Amboatany, 33 Jar rims from Amboatany, Ex. D, Late Kaloy and Fiadanana Phases, 35 Bowl rims and other sherds from Amboatany, Ex. D, Late Kaloy and Fiadanana Phases, 37 Section of unfinished cut, Ambohidahy, 40 Ceramics from Ambohidahy, Antanambe Phase, 43 Fiekena Phase ceramics, 45 Antanambe Phase ceramics, 47 Ankatso Phase ceramics, 49 Angavobe Phase ceramics, 5] Ambohidray Phase ceramics, 53 Early Kaloy Phase ceramics, 55 Late Kaloy and Fiadanana Phase ceramics, 57

4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6.

Banks and small gates, 62 Large gates, 65 Histograms and cross plot of gate width and disc diameter, 66 Besakana: the palace of Andrianamasinavalona at Antananarivo, 68 Mahandrihono: the palace of Andrianampoinimerina at Ambohimanga, 69 Types of tombs, 74

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. 5.9. 5.10. 5.11. 5.12.

Fiekena Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 78 Antanambe Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 80 Ankatso Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 83 Angavobe Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 85 Ambohidray Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 87 Early Kaloy Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 9] Late Kaloy Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano, 92 Ambohimanga, showing some of the gates, the pattern of ditches, slopes, and rice paddies ca. 1967,93 Ilafy, showing the pattern of ditches, slopes, and rice paddies ca. 1967,94 Ambohidrabiby, showing the pattern of ditches, slopes, and rice paddies ca. 1967, 95 Histograms of site sizes for successive phases, 96 Histogram of population estimates for western Avaradrano, ] 03

6.1.

A map of western Avaradrano showing Late Kaloy Subphase centers, subcenters, and villages, 11 0

ix

Appendix Figures AI. A2. A3. A4. A5. A6. A7. A8. A9. AlO. All. A12. A13. A14. A15. A16. A17. A18. A19. A20. A21. A22. A23. A24. A25. A26. A27. A28. A29. A30. A31. A32. A33. A34. A35. A36. A37. A38. A39. A40. A41. A42. A43. A44. A45. A46. A47. A48. A49.

Key for maps, 122 Site 512.3-815.5, 123 Site 512.5-814.2, 125 Site 512.7-814.1,125 Site 512.8-812.7,125 Site 512.9-814.7,127 Site 513.0-813.4, 127 Site 513.2-812.6,127 Site 513.2-813.3,127 Site 513.4-812.6,128 Site 513.8-811.7,129 Site 513.9-812.5,130 Site 513.0-815.9,132 Site 513.4-815.2,131 Site 513.7-814.4,133 Site 513.7-815.1,134 Site 513.7-816.2,134 Site 513.7-816.6,135 Site 514.2-813.7,136 Site 514.2-814.6, 137 Site 514.5-813.8, 138 Site 514.5-815.2,138 Site 514.5-816.4, 139 Site 514.7-814.2,139 Site 514.7-814.4,140 Site 514.7-815.0,140 Site 514.7-815.6,141 Site 514.8-814.1,142 Site 514.9-812.6,143 Site 515.0-813.5, 143 Site 515.0-813.6,144 Site 515.0-814.0,144 Site 515.0-815.6,144 Site 515.1-811.5,145 Site 515.1-813.0,146 Site 515.2-814.8, site map, 147 Site 515.2-814.8, sherds, 148 Site 515.2-815.9,149 Site 515.3-810.4,149 Site 515.3-815.9, 150 Site 515.5-815.0,151 Site 515.5-816.7,151 Site 515.8-813.7,152 Site 515.8-816.4,153 Site 515.9-812.5, 153 Site 515.9-813.5, 153 Site 515.9-816.8, 154 Site 516.0-814.9,156 Site 515.8-814.8,156

A50. A51. A52. A53. A54. A55. A56. A57. A58. A59. A60. A61. A62. A63. A64. A65. A66. A67. A68. A69. A70. A71. An. A73. A74. A75. A76. A77. A78. A79. A80. A81. A82. A83. A84. A85. A86. A87. A88. A89. A90. A91. A92. A93. A94. A95. A96. A97. A98.

x

Site 516.0-814.9,157 Site 516.0-816.5,158 Site 516.2-810.3, 159 Site 516.2-813.0, 159 Site 516.2-813.1,160 Site 516.2-814.1,160 Site 516.2-815.0, site map, 161 Site 516.2-815.0, sherds, 161 Site 516.4-815.2, 163 Site 516.6-810.4,164 Site 516.6-812.6,165 Site 516.7-816.6,166 Site 516.8-813.6,167 Site 516.9-815.8,168 Site 517.2-815.0,170 Site 517.2-815.0,171 Site 517.2-816.3,172 Site 517.2-817.1,172 Site 517.3-815.7,172 Site 517.4-809.3, 173 Sites 517.4-815.8 and 517.5-815.9,174 Site 517.4-816.7,175 Site 517.6-814.0,176 Site 517.8-812.8,177 Site 517.8-816.1,178 Site 517.9-816.2,178 Site 518.0-812.0,179 Site 518.1-816.4,180 Site 518.1-816.5,180 Site 518.2-815.9,181 Site 518.3-812.3,181 Ceramics from various parts of Ambohimanga, 183 Site 518.5-811.2, 184 Site 518.6-809.9,185 Site 518.7-813.1,185 Site 518.9-811.4, 185 Site 518.9-811.8,186 Site 519.0-809.9,186 Site 519.0-814.3,186 Site 519.1-808.8,187 Site 519.1-812.5,187 Site 519.1-816.6,188 Site 519.2-810.1,188 Site 519.3-808.8,189 Site 519.4-811.3,189 Site 519.4-811.6,190 Sites 519.4-811.6, 519.4-811.9, and 519.5-811.8,191 Site 519.4-812.1,192 Site 519.5-811.8,193

A99. AWO. AWL AW2. AW3. AW4. AW5. AW6. AW7. AW8. AW9. A1W. AlII. A1l2. AlB. A1l4. A1l5. A1l6. A1l7. A1l8. A1l9. A120. A121. A122. A123. A124. A125. A126. A127. A128. A129. ABO. A131. A 132. A133. A 134. A135. A136. A137. A138. A139. A140. A141. A142. A143. Al44. A145. A146.

Sites 519.5-812.8, 519.6-812.8, 519.6-813.0, and 519.7-812.8,195 Site 519.6-813.0,197 Site 519.6-814.1, 198 Site 519.7-812.8,198 Site 519.8-815.6,199 Site 519.9-814.2, 201 Site 519.9-815.1, 201 Site 520.0-808.5, 201 Site 520.0-810.4, 201 Site 520.1-813.0, 203 Site 520.2-808.8, 203 Site 520.2-815.2, 204 Site 520.2-816.0, 204 Site 520.3-811.5, 205 Site 520.3-816.0, 206 Site 520.4-815.3, 207 Site 520.4-816.0, 209 Site 520.5-812.6, 209 Site 520.6-815.1, 210 Site 520.9-809.5, 211 Site 521.0-810.0, 211 Site 521.2-811.1, 212 Site 521.3-814.3, 212 Site 521.3-815.4, 213 Site 521.5-814.3, 214 Site 521.6-816.0, 215 Site 521.7-810.8, 215 Site 521.7-811.2, 215 Site 521.9-811.1, 216 Site 522.0-815.5, 217 Site 522.1-809.0, 217 Site 522.2-809.1, 217 Site 522.2-813.4, 218 Site 522.4-809.8, 219 Site 522.4-811.3, 221 Site 522.4-813.8, 221 Site 522.5-813.8, 221 Site 522.7-810.8, 222 Site 522.7-812.5, 222 Site 522.8-815.2, 223 Site 523.0-814.8, 225 Site 523.1-811.9, 225 Site 523.1-814.9, 225 Site 523.2-810.9, 227 Site 523.3-814.6, 226 Site 523.4-813.6, 229 Site 523.4-814.4, 230 Site 523.4-814.7, 230

A147. A148. A149. A150. A151. A152. A153. A154. A155. A156. A157. A158. A159. A160. A161. A162. A163. Al64. A165. A166. A167. A168. A169. A170. A171. Al72. A173. A174. A175. A176. Al77. A178. A179. A180. A181. A182. A183. A184. A185. A186. A187. A188. B1. D1. E1. E2. E3. E4.

xi

Site 523.4-814.8, 230 Site 523.4-815.0, 231 Site 523.5-810.8, 232 Sites 523.5-811.2 and 523.6-811.5, 233 Site 523.6-812.8, 235 Site 523.7-814.8, 236 Site 523.8-810.0, 236 Site 523.9-810.2, 237 Site 524.0-812.3,238 Site 524.1-814.1, 239 Site 524.2-814.2, 239 Site 524.3-812.5, site map, 240 Site 524.3-812.5, sherds, 241 Site 524.4-809.9, 242 Site 524.4-810.1, 243 Site 524.8-813.5, 243 Site 525.0-812.2, 244 Site 525.4-813.0, 245 Site 525.4-814.2, 246 Site 525.5-813.6, 246 Site 526.1-812.7, 247 Site 526.2-814.2, 248 Site 516.0-807.4, 249 Site 516.5-807.4, 251 Site 516.7-806.3, 252 Site 517.0-806.9,253 Site 517.1-805.5, 254 Site 517.2-806.8, 255 Site 518.0-805.1, 256 Site 518.3-806.3, 257 Site 518.4-808.3, 258 Site 519.6-807.8, 261 Site 519.7-805.5, 263 Site 519.8-806.1, 265 Site 519.9-806.4, 266 Site 520.7-807.7, 267 Site 521.3-807.8, 269 Site 521.5-808.3, 269 Site 521.3-808.4, 269 Site 522.2-808.8, 269 Site 522.5-809.3, 270 Site 522.5-809.5, 270 Calibrated absolute dates for Central Madagascar, 279 Developing land use in Ambohimanga area, 297 Four cardinal directions and system of vintana, 306 Seven gates of Ambohimanga, 306 Rova as center, 308 Village as center, 308

Tables 3.1. 3.2.

Summary of excavated units at Ambohinanjakana and Amboatany, 25 Summary of excavated units at Ambohinanjakana and Amboatany, 25

4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6.

Ambohidray ditches and banks in western Avaradrano, 60 Kaloy ditches and walls in western Avaradrano, 61 Sites with gates and discs, 64 Ambohidray-Early Kaloy byres in western Avaradrano, 72 Late Kaloy byres in western Avaradrano, 72 Stone tomb types on newly founded sites of each phase, 72

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. 5.9. 5.10.

Fiekena Phase settlements in western Avaradrano, 79 Antanambe Phase settlements in western Avaradrano, 81 Ankatso Phase settlements in western Avaradrano, 83 Angavobe Phase settlements in western Avaradrano, 85 Ambohidray Phase centers, villages, and hamlets in western Avaradrano, 88 Early Kaloy Phase centers, villages, and hamlets in western Avaradrano, 97 Late Kaloy Phase centers, subsidiary centers, villages, and hamlets in western Avaradrano, 99 Sites (continuing, founded, abandoned, or both) by phase, in western Avaradrano, 101 Estimated simultaneously occupied settlements by type, 102 Estimated total populations by phase, 102

Appendix Tables

D2. D3. D4.

Ambohimanga district: Ambohimanga district: Ambohimanga district: Ambohimanga district:

El. E2.

Major gates according to the cardinal directions, 305 Major gates with respect to the system of vintana, 305

Dl.

summary of Ambohidray, Early Kaloy and Late Kaloy Phases, 296 Ambohidray Phase, 296 Early Kaloy Phase, 296 Late Kaloy Phase, 296

xii

Foreword by Jean-Aime Rakotoarisoa and all University Museum of Antananarivo team

A

rchaeologists have tended to focus on individual archaeological sites, mapping them and making careful excavations in their deposits. This is fundamental and necessary work, but it rarely captures the broader geographical context of ancient communities, and never presents a truly regional perspective on what geographers have called "settlement systems." This monograph is the first attempt at a detailed study of a regional system. It covers a regional system important to historians and anthropologists because it documents the area around Ambohimanga, the capital of the first successful state formation in the central highlands of Madagascar. This publication - under the joint auspices of the Institute des Civilisations-Musee d' Art at d' Archeologie (ICMAA) of the University of Antananarivo and the Museum of Anthropology of the University of Michigan - will serve as an example for future regional studies and future publications. University of Michigan archaeologists first came to Madagascar in the austral winter of 1975. This was a time of change in Madagascar with widespread enthusiasm for socialist solutions to social and economic problems. This new political era put Madagascar inside the group of countries not sharing the capitalism adopted by the U.S. government and most western nations. Nevertheless, we consider that academic issues should not be related to political ones, so we decided to welcome Prof. Henry T. Wright and his team to help us. They began to study ceramic collections in the Musee recovered around Antananarivo during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Working with Museum staff members, they established the ceramic chronology that, with modifications, is used in this volume. Wright led three trial surveys, establishing that the ceramic chronology could be used to establish which settlement sites were occupied in each period. After Wright's departure, Susan Kus expanded the trial survey area northeast of the capital to include Ambohimanga. From 1983 until 1986, this area was further expanded and re-surveyed, as part of a program of student training, to include the southwestern part of the traditional province of Avaradrano. The Avaradrano regional survey was a first attempt to apply the method of intensive full coverage survey in Madagascar. The authors would be the first to admit that the survey was far from perfect. Even though some areas were examined four successive times, it is likely that some sites were missed. Furthermore, the nineteenth-century sites so important in understanding the current situation were not fully recorded. The dating of sites, particularly those that yielded only a few sherds, is sometimes questionable. The number of paleo zoological and paleobotanical samples recovered and analyzed was small. Finally, there was relatively little recording of the testimony of current occupants of the sites regarding their historical traditions and their knowledge of local land use. Nevertheless, this monograph will be a model for future studies. The documenting of the features of every site, and detailed presentation of the ceramics from every site, exemplified in this monograph, will be obligatory for future regional survey reports. The analysis of settlement systems using the archaeological evidence independently of our knowledge of history from the very different evidence of oral traditions is particularly important. Future archaeological tasks will use and include all new available technologies, such as new satellite images and GPS, to increase the accuracy of their surveys. All data provided by the landscape must be holistically analyzed in detail and considered as important clues for a better understanding of the exploitation of natural resources by successive settlers. Particularly in the area of Antananarivo, this work must be continued as rapidly as possible. The new prosperity has led to a rapid expansion of residential and commercial construction around the capital, and archaeological sites are being destroyed every week. We must not lose the evidence of the accomplishments of the early Malagasy without making a strong effort to record as much as possible. Finally, we have to thank the editor and all authors for their contribution in public awareness by showing the importance to keep alive the memory of the Malagasy ancestors' legacy.

xiii

Teny Mialoha lean-Aime Rakotoarisoa sy ny Mpikaroka Ao amin 'ny Mozean 'ny Oniversiten 'Antananarivo

N

y fikarohana momba ny arkeolojia teo aloha dia saika niompana mandrakariva tamin'ny fandinihana ireo toerana nantsoina hoe haolo, mbamin'ny fanaovana sarintany sy fiadiana am-pitandremana fatratra ireD rakitry ny ela. Asa fototra tena nilaina tokoa izany, kanefa ny lesoka aminy dia tsy ahafahana loatra marnantatra tsara ny toe-javatra nisy sy niainan'ny olona fahiny teo amin'io toerana io. Tsy voafaritra mihitsy ilay antsoin'ny jeografy hoe "fiorenam-ponenan'ny faritra." Ity fandinika ity dia andrana voalohany natao hamakafana faritra iray amin 'ny antsipirihany. Fomba fandinika manampy ny mpahay tantara sy ny mpandinika fiarahamonina satria mifototra amin' Ambohimanga sy ny manodidina, izay azo lazaina fa renivohitra niandohan'ny Fanjakana lehibe teto ani von' i Madagasikara fahizany. Ohatra azo alaina tahaka amin' ny fikarohana momba ny faritra hafa any aoriana ity avoaka boky ity, izay asa niombonan'ny Ivontoerana momba ny Riba/ Mozean'ny Oniversiten' Antananarivo sy ny Museum of Anthropology-Oniversiten'i Michigan. Tamin'ny Jolay 1975 no tonga voalohany teto Madagasikara ireo arkeology avy any amin'ny Oniversiten'i Michigan. Nampihatra ny firehan-kevitra sosialista moa ny Firenena Malagasy tamin'izany fotoana izany, toa ireo firenena an-dalam-pandrosoana mara nitady izay hampivoarana ny Firenena. Nivondrona tao anatin'ireo firenena nanohitra ny rafitra kapitalista notarihin' i Etazonia sy ireD firenena tandrefana i Madagasikara. Noheverinay anefa fa tsy mahasakana ny fiaraha-miasa eo amin'ny fikarohana siantifika ny lafiny politika, ka dia nantsoina hifanampy ny Profesora H. Wright sy ny mpiara-miasa aminy. Natomboka tamin'ny fandinihana ireo vakimbilany isan-karazany, voaangon 'ny Mozea tamin'ny faritra manodidina an' Antananarivo tamin 'ny faran'ny taona 1960 sy fiandohan'ny 1970 ny asa. Avy amin'ny famakafakana ireo vakim-bilany ireo no nahafahana nametra ny vanim-potoana niainan'ny mponina fahiny, ka nampiasaina ate anatin'ity boky ity rehefa nasiam-panitsiana. In-telo miantoana no nidinana teny an-toerana, ka nijerena avy amin'ny alalan'ireo vakim-bilany ny faritra tsirairay nonenan'ny olona sy ny vanimpotoana nipetrahany teo. Notohizan'i S.Kus ny asa ka nitariny nianavaratra atsinanana nip aka hatrany Ambohimanga. Tsy nitsahatra ny fikarohana, nivezivezena an-tongotra, niaraka tamin'ny mpianatra izay nofanina rahateo, nitety ny faritra atsimo andrefan' Avaradrano nandritra ny telo taona mahery 1983 hatramin'ny 1986. 10 fomba fiasa tamin'ny faritraAvaradrano io no andrana voalohany niezahana nanoritra ny fomba hentitra handalinana ny faritra rehetra eto Madagasikara. Miara-manaiky anefa ny mpanoratra fa tsy tonga lafatra velively akory ny fandalinana. Na niverenana an-tongotra in'efatra aza mantsy ny faritra sasany, dia hita fa mbola misy toeram-ponenana tsy voajery ihany. Ireo toeram-ponenana tamin'ny taon-jato faha-19, izay azo antoka fa hanazava betsaka ny zava-misy ankehitriny, dia tsy mbola voatrandraka avokoa. Tsy voafaritra mazava ny vanirn-potoana tamin'ny toeram-ponenana sasany tsy nahitana porofo mivaingana. Vitsy loatra ireo santionan-taolana sy zavamaniry nodinihina ka tokony hampiana. Toa izany koa ny tahirin-tsoratra na lovantsofina avy amin' ireo taranaka izay mbola velona ka monina amin'ireny faritra ireny ankehitriny, ny fanazavany ny tantaran'ny razany sy ny nataony teo. Anterina fa fitarihan-dalana ihany amin'ny asa mbola tokony hilofosana any aoriana ity natao ity. Ilaina hofakafakaina sy hohalalinina amin'ny antsipirihany isaky ny toeram-ponenana ireD akora nampiasaina teto. Ny fandalinana ny fomba niorenan'ny olona fonenana amin'ny alalan'ny arkeolojia, dia manana ny lanjany lehibe tokoa eo amin'ny famantarana ny tantara, fa tsy ampy ny mianona fotsiny amin'ny lovantsofina.

xiv

Saingy mba hanatsarana ny vokatra, dia ilaina ny fampiasana eo amin' ny fikarohana arkeolojika ireD haitao vaovao toy ny sarintany avy amin'ny zanabolana, ny GPS, sns. Hodinihina arnin'ny antsipirihany ny tontolo manodidina mba hahatakarana sy hahalalana bebe kokoa hatrany ny fomba nampiasain'ny olona ny akora voajanahary teo an-toerana. Tokony hohamafisina ary hohafainganina ny asa fikarohana manodidina an' Antananarivo, satria mihapotika ary very isan' andro ny rakitry ny ela noho ny fanorenana trano etsy sy eroa. Fahavoazana lehibe ho an'ny Firenena sy taranaka Malagasy raha tsy ho hita intsony ny vavolombelon'ny tantara : ny talentan'ny razana, ny fahalalany, ny rafitry ny fiarahamonina niainany, sy ny momba azy rehetra. Eto am-parnaranana dia isaorana indrindra ny mpanonta ny boky sy ireD nandray anjara tarnin'ny fanoratana, niezaka nampisongadina ny maha sarobidy ny fameloma-maso sy fikajiana ny lova samihafa navelan'ny razana taloha.

.xv

Preface by Augustin F.C. Holl

E

arly State Formation in Central Madagascar presents the results of some thirty years of archaeological research spearheaded by the editor of this long awaited volume. The thirteen contributors to this volume focus on research themes ranging from ethnohistory to survey methodology, settlement patterns, chronology, ceramic analysis, and paleoethnobotany. Malagasy history from the earliest stages of human settlement to the present is an original blend of Africa and Asia. The multi-scalar survey operations conducted in 1975 and 1980 to 1989 in Western Avaradrano were instrumental in increasing the resolution of settlement data, as well as the assessment of Holocene environmental change and patterns of traditional life. In Central Madagascar, where the Imerina state emerged later in the eighteen to nineteenth century, changes in settlement size, location, and distributional patterns are arranged into a chronological scheme comprised of seven phases. The documented site features include tombs and monoliths, storage pits and cattle byres, houses and other storage facilities, walls, gates and discs, as well as banks and ditches. All this material, including the ceramic chronology and ethnohistory, helps in the exploration of the congruence between archaeology and historical traditions. In the same vein, these data are important for the evaluation of the contribution of archaeology to the understanding of the formation of the Merina state, as well as the delineation of future research. The politics of space, plant resources and patterns of subsistence that may have supported the Highland state are all assessed and complemented with suggestions for future research. The catalogue of site information in the center of the volume is a "gold mine." Each of the surveyed or tested sites is presented with a map, precise locational and chronological data, and a selection of diagnostic wares. An independent evaluation of the authors' conclusion can thus be carried out. The possibility of falsification that seems to have guided the construction of this volume makes it a very valuable resource for students of Africans' past. The archaeology of complex societies, or more precisely, that of the emergent properties that sustained the development and persistence of state formations, is conducted differently depending on the part of the continent one wants to focus on. Egyptian and Nubian states - from Kerma to Christian kingdoms-have been investigated right from the beginning of the century generally through a cultural history perspective, with an anthropological archaeological perspective adopted during the last two decades. The same characterization holds for the Eritrean and Highland Ethiopian states, Zambezi states with the main focus on Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe states, East African Swahili polities, West Africa Dhar Tichitt, Inland Niger Delta, Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Bornu, and Chadic polities of the Chad Plain. The important and recent research on the Garamantes' frontier settlement at Aghram Nadharif has added enormously to the study of complex societies in Africa. The archaeology of state cannot be conducted from the vantage point of a single site, however spectacular it is. The volume Early State Formation in Central Madagascar is unique for the breadth and scope of the archaeological effort invested in the research project and shows what it takes to design a research protocol aimed at the investigation of state formation. This book shows clearly that sustained long-term research involvement is essential for the investigation of state formation processes. The rich and relatively well recorded ethnohistory of Madagascar provides challenging material that is used to derive more precise and focused research questions. Survey operations are devised to map the cultural landscape and test-excavations are sunk to probe the archaeological record and work out a chronological outline. The accumulated material is then used to address a number of anthropological issues revolving around settlement patterns, the politics of space, subsistence patterns, demography, warfare, and the evolution of the Merina state. Beside these important research achievements and in striking contrast with an unfortunate and current practice, Henry Wright has developed and sustained scholarly collaboration with Malagasy scholars and institutions. He has made it a priority to have all his Madagascar research published in local scholarly journals, an exemplary achievement. xvi

Chapter I

Introduction Henry T. Wright and Susan Kus

Madagascar and the Rise of the Merina State

participate in a program of research designed to provide critical archaeological data on such issues for a portion of Avaradrano, the traditionally defined northeastern quadrant of Imerina. This monograph presents the evidence derived from this study in a form that will, we hope, allow the readers to answer a wide range of questions about the early history of central Madagascar. The ancient towns of Ambohimanga and Ambohidrabiby, located in Avaradrano, were both important in the early history of the Merina people. Intensive archaeological survey of their environs, initiated in 1975, is a step in the larger research program sponsored by the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie throughout Madagascar. The purposes of this program are:

Indian Ocean mariners-Arabs, Indians, and Europeanssailed along the coasts of the great island of Madagascar for a millennium without going into the central highlands. When the French agent Mayeur (l913a, 1913b) visited the interior in the 1770s and 1780s, he found a rich land divided into competing polities and rent by conflict. Accounts of a militarily powerful and expansive highland state reaching the coasts in the last decade of the eighteenth century must have engendered surprise. How could a new political system so rapidly emerge? To understand this, we must understand earlier cultural developments in Madagascar's central highlands. During the last millennium or more, the ancestors of the Malagasy developed widely differing lifeways on the diverse landscapes of the island of Madagascar. The Malagasy speak: an Austronesian language whose ultimate home was in southeast Asia, but they utilized domestic plants and animals, technologies, and customs derived from the varied coasts of Asia and Africa (Deschamps 1965; Dewar and Wright 1993). Imerina, home of the Merina people, the area in the central highlands around the modem and traditional capital of Antananarivo (Fig. 1.1), saw the development of indigenous states in a context of competing pre-state societies. It is thus a case of primary state development (Wright 1977a), and the accomplishments of the Merina can be used to evaluate general ideas about the emergence of states. The ethnohistOlic documentation of political developments in Imerina is very rich (Delivre 1974), but only archaeology can provide the detailed evidence of subsistence, social life, and warfare needed to evaluate our possible explanations of political changes. From 1975 to 1989, the contributors to this volume were able to

• to develop survey techniques suitable to the complete recording of archaeological sites visible on the landscapes of each part of the island • to use these techniques to record changing settlement types, settlement locations, and population densities during successive periods, providing the data needed to evaluate ideas about cultural development in various parts of the island • to facilitate the selection of key sites for protection Ultimately this research will contribute to the understanding of changes in economic, political, and ideological processes in Madagascar, as well as to the development of general theories of cultural change. In order to explain the approach we have used in our fieldwork, it is necessary first to discuss what anthropologists and historians have learned about the development of civilizations and the questions that are of current interest.

1

2

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

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modern towns intensively surveyed areas

Figure 1.1. Map of Madagascar showing Avaradrano and other intensive surveys.

Introduction

Building Complex Economic and Political Systems The beginnings of civilization have been discussed among scholars for millennia, and among anthropologists for a century and a half. There is no need to summarize this ancient and complicated intellectual discourse here, but a brief summary of some current general issues and some specific studies of Malagasy society will help explicate why we used certain methods and why we have emphasized certain results. The emergence of civilization is a lengthy process. The development of food production and the many crafts related to sedentary ways of life required long periods of experimentation. The technologies, customs, values and world-views essential to life in permanent communities were devised and integrated in the course of many discrete social experiments, many of which failed. However, the emergence of hierarchical political orders seems to have taken place in a succession of swift and brutal transformations. Specialists have quite rightly focused on different aspects of the process defined in different ways. Some of these endeavors will prove to be more fruitful than others. We have chosen to focus on the emergence of absolute rulers who embody centralized and specialized agencies of control, which we have defined as "the origins of states" (Wright 1977a, 1977b). Pre-state rulers play many roles, often under divine aegis; emergent state rulers must strip their adversaries of many such roles, subdivide control activities, and allocate them to their own dependants who benefit from their support of the center. The emergence of such agencies of control is particularly well documented in Imerina. The details of the seizure of political control in the town of Ambohimanga by the prince Ramboasalama or lamboasalama, his declarations of a new national idcology, his rebuilding of the military apparatus, his conquest of the other polities of Imerina, his rebuilding of his capitals and his assumption of the throne-name "Andrianampoinimerina," and his restructuring of the political and economic order are detailed at length in carefully preserved historical traditions (Ellis 1838; Callet 1908; Raombana 1980). The writings of Ellis, Callet, and Raombana, as well as more recent compositions, differ in their sources of information and in their authors' perspectives. Callet, a Jesuit missionary stationed near the sacred capital of Ambohimanga, recorded traditions in Malagasy in the 1860s and 1870s in an effort to understand the philosophical basis of Malagasy beliefs. He collected traditions from the heartland of Andrianampoinimerina's state from elders who had witnessed or heard firsthand of the momentous events of the late eighteenth century. He indicates no awareness that many of his informants must have been familiar with written versions of these traditions. Raombana, a noble of the Ilafy area whose family opposed the Merina royal family as illegitimate usurpers, was among the group of young Merina sent to England by Radama I, the son and successor of Andrianampoinimerina, in 1822 (Ayache 1976). He received a grammar school education in Manchester, doubtless including exposure to biblical and classical histories. Serving in the delicate position of secretary to Queen Ranavalona I, Radama's widow

3

and successor, Raombana wrote his History in English, relying on accounts from older members of his own family. His texts, handwritten in a series of notebooks in the 1850s, were translated into Malagasy and circulated widely before Callet began to collect traditions. Ellis, a Welsh Congregationalist missionary writing to SUppOlt the efforts of the London Missionary Society to bring Madagascar into the nineteenth-century world, was collating reports sent to England by missionaries actually in Madagascar during the l820s and 1830s. His brief account was elicited, by an unknown colleague, from members of the entourage of Radama I. It is the oldest and perhaps the least influenced by nineteenthcentury ideas of what "history" should be. In spite of these differing sources and authors, these early accounts are similar in content. The report of Ellis may be summarized as an example. It begins with a listing of the "principal chieftains in Imerina, in the line of Radama's descent" (Ellis 1838: 114-15). First, it names seven rulers of Ampandrana, a village southwest of Antananarivo, and nine rulers of Merimanjaka, also in the south but closer to Antananarivo, without any other details. Subsequently, Andriamanelo, ruling from Alasora southeast of Antananarivo, is remembered as the one who formalized circumcision rituals. His son Rabiby, ruling from Ambohidrabiby northeast of the capital, changed his name to Ralambo after killing a wild hog (Zambo) (a point of contradiction with other accounts, which treat these as two individuals). Ralambo's son, Andrianjaka, was the first ruler to make Antananarivo his capital. Three succeeding rulers are named, but little is said about them. They were succeeded by Andriamasinavalona, who united all of the peoples of Imerina, but on his death divided the realm among his sons. The account then follows the line of succession of the rulers of Avaradrano, whose capital was at Ambohimanga, through Andriambelomasina to Andrianjafy. Ramboasalama, a younger brother of Andrianjafy, succeeds and takes the name of Andrianampoinimerina. (Other accounts consider Andrianampoinimerina to have been a son of Andrianjafy's sister.) This account ends with details of some of the alliances and marriages of Andrianampoinimerina. Having outlined the succession, Ellis's account continues with further details on particular chiefs: AndriamaneZo. In addition to his innovations in the ceremony of circumcision, Andriamanelo is said to have used firearms to make himself powerful. (In other accounts, in contrast, the first use of firearms is attributed to Ralambo.) RaZambo. Credited with the discovery of cooked beef, with the use of cattle as tribute, and with initiating the ceremony of the Royal Bath. Andrianjaka. Andrianjaka, the conqueror of Antananarivo, in addition to further innovations in the circumcision ceremony, is credited with giving special status to certain kin groups that served him, such as privileges in the funerals of nobles, in the construction of noble residences, and in the working of iron. AndriamasinavaZona. Having brought the whole of Imerina under his authority, Andriamasinavalona is remembered as an

4

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

exemplary ruler, devoting much effort to governance and to improvements, such as the building of dikes to extend and protect rice paddies. He had many wives, each with a personal estate or menakely, and many descendants, who retained high status, being allowed to marry into the royal family. (Here Ellis perhaps refers to the nobility of service created by Andriamasinavalona, which bore his name and had this privilege, not to his actual descendants.) Andriamasinavalona divided his realm into four parts, each under the control of one of his sons, and the realm fragmented after his death. Ellis, however, only alludes to the intense wars between the successors of Andriamasinavalona, emphasized in other sources. Andrianampoinimerina. Received the most detailed treatment of any Merina ruler. Ellis describes Andrianjafy's jealous attempts to murder Iamboasalama, and describes Iamboasalama's flight, return, and seizure of power in Ambohimanga. Iamboasalama conquered Amboatany to the west, Ambohidrabiby to the east, Ilafy to the south, Ambohidratrimo to the west, and Antananarivo itself. After conquering Imerina, Iamboasalama took the name "Andrianampoinimerina," meaning "The Lord Who is Desired by Imerina." Assessments of his abilities-his devotion to economic improvement, skill in war, sense of justice-and his temperament-his avarice, personal bravery, and suspicion of all others, even close kin-are detailed. It is in the time of Andrianampoinimerina that the trade in slaves, taken in war, for arms and ammunition became extensive. Ellis's account, like later ones, is centered on the predecessors of Andrianampoinimerina and on the events in the major towns of Antananarivo and Ambohimanga. Like the later accounts, it emphasizes the personalities of the rulers more than their policies and actions. Andrianampoinimerina's impact on popular consciousness continues today, long after his death in 1810. Many villages in Imerina conserve oral traditions of their particular relation to this commanding figure. It is not surprising that a number of scholars have written about Andrianampoinimerina, and have considered a number of ideas about state formation in light of the historical evidence of his achievements and those of his predecessors. Both Maurice Bloch and Conrad Kottak have presented understandings of general processes based in explicitly anthropological perspectives. Bloch speaks with authority as one whose ethnographic research among the Merina has laid the basis for understanding the structure of endogamous kin groups, or demes, the rituals of life from circumcision to funerals, and the systems of meaning in which these are grounded. In "The Disconnection between Power and Rank as a Process: An Outline of the Development of Kingdoms in Central Madagascar," Bloch (1977) makes his most detailed statement about state development in Madagascar's central highlands, aiming to understand the mutual influence of the economic base and ideology, not reducing one to the other. After noting that the lack of critical historical and archaeological studies necessarily limits his discussion to a most general level,

Bloch builds on the arguments ofIsnard (1953), Dez (1970) and Raison (1972), proposing that the smaller valleys, easily terraced for rice production, are the basic elements of highland economies, and the deme, as the land-holding and ritually responsible unit, led by its elders, is the basic building block of highland society. The demes in their valleys, their territories isolated from others by hills and marked by the tombs of ancestors, are the units that rulers must exploit if they are to sustain any degree of control. At the outset, some deme members build fortifications on high hills, and extract tribute from other demes with periodic threats of force. The self-appointed rulers of these "pre-take-off states" are in a state of constant hostility against other such rulers. The basis of political control changes when some of these competing rulers are able to organize the labor to build dikes and canals in the larger marshlands. The labor came from both increased corvee and imported slaves, overseen by more permanent officials. New capitals were established near the new rice paddies. The "pretake-off states" become "take-off states" when the expansion of irrigation systems comes to depend on the capture of more slaves in warfare, freeing more commoners to fight in wars of expansion. This expansion, however, is self-limiting. As these polities reach the limits of rich territories they can conquer and exploit for slaves, they break up into competing segments too small to maintain the fragile irrigation systems. It is only when one polity-the Merina state-trades slaves for a superior military technology, muskets, obtained from the coast, that a takeoff state is able to consolidate control of a larger area. Having characterized the system of material relations, Bloch presents a broad-ranging analysis, based on the ethnohistorical studies of Alain Delivre (1974) and others, of concepts of ancestral holiness and systems of status symbolization in which the people of the highlands perceive these relations, and the ritual performances in which these perceptions are acted out. Kottak's use of the cultural ecological perspective to understand the economic and social organization of the Betsileo in the southern highlands is a classic in this tradition. He begins "The Process of State Formation in Madagascar" ( 1977) with three useful general points. First, it is more fruitful to consider processes through time, rather than social or political types. Second, if we want to understand a process, we have to compare areas where it is manifested with areas where it did not occur. Third, similar social and political formations need not arise from exactly the same processes. He focuses on processes of political development in the Betsileo area of the southern highlands, using historical traditions collected in the early twentieth century. In the eastern Betsileo polity of Lalangina, famous for its rice fields, Kottak focuses on the productive apparatus, the organization of forceful agents, and the extension of governmental control through the creation of law and the promotion of groups. Lalangina emerged under its first ruler during the mid-seventeenth century, but it is only in the late seventeenth century, the time of its second ruler, that political processes are delineated. This ruler promulgated a code of laws in which most of the sanctions were in the hands of aggrieved parties, as there was no governing apparatus that

Introduction might have enforced them, other than the ruler's personal attendants. He received first fruits, and presided over public rituals. In subsequent reigns, a formal group of advisors was drawn from the heads of commoner lineages, and Lalangina was divided into four administrative districts. Also, the use of corvee labor is mentioned for the first time. The fifth ruler, whose long reign spanned the middle of the first half of the eighteenth century, presided over a great increase in the trade of slaves for guns. Laws were amended to include more crimes, and to reduce offenders to slavery. The ruler had a standing army, with land grants provided to successful soldiers, and traveling agents who reported on the activities of local officials. The sixth ruler took direct control of the appointment of his senior commoner advisors, and was deposed and killed as a result. The seventh ruler, however, maintained royal control over these appointments and through a long reign spanning most of the second half of the eighteenth century, conquered adjacent regions and established garrisoned frontiers, subsidized agricultural innovation and expansion, and extended judicial control over such issues as land inheritance. In contrast to Lalangina, the Isandra polity to its west, in a more arid region with more potential for cattle herding than rice cultivation, did not develop either a standing army or the judicial and administrative structures necessary for effective state control- though it had a similar heritage of descent groups, a similar political ideology, similar transregional exchange relations, and faced similar kinds of external threats. Kottak argues that state-building is unlikely to succeed without an environment amenable to intensification and without growing populations to motivate such intensification, a position concordant with the influential arguments of Ester Boserup (1965) that population growth drives agricultural intensification and Robert Carneiro (1970) that population growth in a bounded environment leads to conflict, conquest and state formation. In the case of Lalangina, Kottak argues that involvement in trade in slaves underwrote military expansion, administrative changes, and then improved hydraulic agriculture. This contrasts with Bloch's construct, in which investments in hydraulic agriculture, military expansion, and the use of slave labor feed each other until a point is reached when slaves are exchanged for guns. Kottak concludes that in state formation, different processes will interact in different ways in each case, leading through a series of advances and setbacks to form successful polities. A number of more focused papers have dealt with specific processes important in the more global proposals of Bloch and Kottak. The development of riziculture in Imerina is the topic of a paper by Gerald Berg (1981). In a critical study of Merina traditions related to rice, Berg argues that inigated rice is introduced into central Imerina from the south, probably in response to deforestation by farmers rather than to the policies of Merina rulers. Trade in general, and the trade in guns in particular, has been the subject of several more recent intensive studies of the documentary record. Gwyn Campbell (1993) considers evidence of interregional trade in foodstuffs, raw material, 10-

5

cally manufactured goods, and imported goods during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He notes that there was a long-standing demand for cattle, slaves and other products by Islamized west coast merchants and rulers. However, he argues that demand for products of the central highlands greatly increased when colonial investment in the Mascarenes increased in the mid-eighteenth century. Campbell attributes the organization of permanent regional markets to the ruler of Antananarivo, Andrianamboatsimarofy, during the 1770s. Andrianampoinimerina created the system of periodic markets closely monitored by political officials during the 1790s. Documentation prior to 1800 is rare, however, and it is difficult to ascertain the quantitative importance oflocal or interregional trade. While the trade of highland slaves for imported silver and guns undoubtedly occurred, one must consider how these items were locally utilized. Silver was very important as a ritual tribute, but its use in local markets is not well documented. Gerald Berg (1985, also 1988:208-10) focuses specifically on the trade in guns and on their political importance, arguing that prior to 1790 guns were not very effective and though widespread, served primarily as items of symbolic display, marking the status of important men, rather than as tactically or strategically critical weapons. It was only with the later expansion of the Ambohimanga state after 1793 that Andrianampoinimerina had the organization to use the supplies of guns and ammunition to gain tactical advantages. The manipulation of space to reinforce state ideology is emphasized in recent papers by Susan Kus (1989-1990 [see Appendix E]; Kus and Raharijoana 1998, 1999), building on the analyses of Delivre (1974) and Belrose-Huyghues (1983). Kus argues that Andrianampoinimerina' s reconstruction of the gates of his first capital at Ambohimanga had two different layouts, one based on cardinal directions from the perspective of a center at the Rova - the ruler's residence- and the other based on mystical directions related to destiny or vintana, from the perspective of a center in the traditional village center. This elides the social order of the cardinal directions, so important in the planning of houses and structuring of families, as discussed in Chapter 4, with the cosmological order of vintana. Similarly, the dual honoring of the sacred capital of Ambohimanga and the political capital of Antananarivo as a unity sanctifies the political apparatus as the major symbol system of Merina cosmology. The manipulation of kin ideology and relations, ritual, and rank is presented by Berg (1988). In the cognatic kin systems of the central highlands, one can claim relations through many descent lines. Just as, in the analysis of Bloch (1971), a person claims a particular kin group by choosing to participate in ceremonies in the tomb in which one will be buried, so a person chooses to give tribute, hasina, to one political ruler, who in return relays ancestral blessings, also hasina, back to the supporters. The use of the same term for material tribute and ancestral blessings emphasizes a symbolic reciprocity. People choose a political leader who has been successful in war and in the accumulation of wealth. Berg argues that people chose to accept Andrianampoinimerina as their leader because he was

6

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

exceptionally successful as a warrior and as a trader. In turn, Andrianampoinimerina, whose own ancestry was ambiguous, manipulated this system, making himself the sole conduit of the blessings from noble ancestors, and the major recipient of tribute from the populace. Clearly, to evaluate this rich diversity of ideas about Merina state formation, we would like to have better evidence of a number of structures, actions, or processes. In particular we need to know more about:

survey-the systematic coverage of landscapes, recording all sites - as a way to understand cultural change is a relatively recent development. The first settlement pattern study was undertaken in Peru by Gordon Willey (1953) of the multidisciplinary Viru Valley Project under Julian Steward. The method was applied with great success in central Mexico by William Sanders (Sanders, Parsons and Santley 1979) and Jeffrey Parsons (1971, 1974), and in lower Mesopotamia by Robert Adams (1965, 1981). From the beginning, the approach has involved:

• developing food production, particularly changes in irrigated rice cultivation and cattle herding

• close examination of the land surface in order to locate traces of human habitation and land use and to record them on air photographs or maps

• changes in population through time in different areas • changes in exchange, both local and domestic, particularly in the trade of slaves and guns • changes in the organization and use of military force • changes in the structure of kin groups and relations between kin groups through time • changes in the flow of tribute, both materially and symbolically • changes in the ideological basis of rulership All of these processes are articulated with material elements in cultural systems, and can be monitored with material remains left by past societies, but some issues, specifically kin relations and political strategies, may be more effectively approached with more comprehensive studies of the traditions. Archaeology, however, has developed methods particularly well suited to the study of changes in subsistence, population, exchange, military organization, differences between social groups, and ideological display.

Archaeological Survey and the Study of Complex Social Forms The material and traditional evidences are, in any event, of differing existential orders. Material artifacts are discarded elements no longer useful; traditions are symbolic elements remembered for particular reasons. It would be unwise to attempt to mix the archaeological and historical evidence at this time. In this work, we present the archaeological evidence, with only limited and specific references to the traditions. The use of the two kinds of evidence in concert should await the archaeological survey of the entirety of the heartland of Imerina and a full linguistically- and symbolically-informed critique of the traditions. Archaeologists have long used regional reconnaissance to discover sites to excavate. The use of intensive archaeological

• the collection and study of ceramics and other artifacts to determine the periods of occupation and the activities pursued at each site • the integration of results with historical and ethnographic studies of traditional agriculture and settlement Small excavations are conducted when possible in order to clarify issues of chronology and past activities. In recent years, archaeological survey has been integrated with paleoenvironmental and archaeogeological studies, and mapping has been enhanced with remote sensing, sometimes using images from orbiting satellites.

A History of Archaeological Research in Central Madagascar Archaeology has developed in Madagascar not as a means to elucidate social and political changes, but to resolve questions of broader cultural relationships. Nevertheless, as a brief review of the history of archaeology on Madagascar will show, this "culture historical" approach provided a strong foundation for our research in western Avaradrano. The first recorded archaeological observations in Imerina were made by the eminent Merina historian, Raombana, probably during the 1830s. He visited the traditionally early site of Fanongoavana in eastern Imerina and noted the existence and condition of house foundations (Raombana 1980:59). He also noted the many abandoned early village sites near Ambohimanga and inferred a high population density before the civil wars of the eighteenth century (Raombana 1980: 128-29). While Raombana's observations proved useful to David Rasamuel during his recent excavations at Fanongoavana (Rasamuel 1984), they did not lead to the development of an indigenous archaeological discipline. Most later nineteenth- and earlier twentieth-century archaeological observation was focused on Madagascar's coasts, particularly on port sites where Islamic mariners had traded with Malagasy communities and built mosques, storehouses,

7

Introduction

and tombs (Jully 1898; Millot 1912; Poirier 1947-1948; Vernier and Millot 1971). In the early 1960s, a more comprehensive archaeological endeavour focused on the origins of Malagasy culture rather than on foreign influence. Pierre Verin created the Musee d'Art et d' Archeologie as a research institute and the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie as a teaching unit. He commenced an island-wide effort to define and date the archaeological remains of early Malagasy communities. Because at that time radiocarbon dating, the principal method of absolute dating available to archaeologists, was unreliable and expensive, Verin focused this effort on the northern coasts, where local Malagasy material remains would be found with datable imported items such as Chinese and Near Eastern ceramics. In addition, some work was undertaken near the capital. Sites revealed by construction in the capital were salvaged and reported (Verin 1966). Sites important in the historical traditions were visited and small excavations were made to recover samples of ceramics and charcoal for radiocarbon dating (Mille and Verin 1967; Mantaux and Verin 1969; Verin 1970; Arnaud 1970; Mille 1971). These studies laid the basis for future archaeological progress in Imerina. Many of the key innovations forming the foundations of archaeology in Imerina and contributing to the success of our surveys must be credited to Adrien Mille. The first systematic use of air photographs to locate all fortified sites and to prepare detailed maps of well-preserved sites was carried out by Mille (1970a). He recorded more than 16,000 sites in an area approximately 110 km by 100 km centered on Antananarivo in the central highlands, classified them based on the size and shape of their fortifications, and suggested broad patterns of settlement development related to the political changes manifested in the historical traditions. Though the resources have never been available to publish Mille's study in full, it has provided a foundation for all future work. A problem with Mille's study that we tried to resolve in our own work is that his estimates of the age range of each type of settlement were based on what the historical traditions said about the founding of key sites. To use site evidence dated by the traditions to evaluate interpretations of the traditions is a circular argument. We have tried to develop independent, purely archaeological, means of dating sites. The designation of each archaeological site by its coordinates on the Laborde metric grid found on all maps of Madagascar was also first widely applied by Mille. Anyone hectare unit on Madagascar can be designated by no more than nine digits. Even if two archaeologists unaware of each other's work report the same site, they will-in principle-designate the site with the same number. This number can be written on the sherds and other artifacts found on a site, and the provenance of these items can be conserved indefinitely. Because most Malagasy place names are simple descriptive toponyms, the same name may be applied to dozens of places. It is often difficult to tell which of many places with similar names is the one referred to in a recorded historical tradition. Mille's Index Toponymique (1970b), listing more than 150,000

place names in Imerina and their coordinates, as indicated by topographic maps and other sources, is an invaluable resource for determining the range of possible referents for a particular historical tradition. Finally, Mille's excavation on the early site at Ankatso (518.8798.0),just east of Antananarivo, and his report on this work (Mille 1971) are exemplars of the careful fieldwork and descriptive reporting necessary to establish a local archaeological sequence. Our own interest in Imerina arose from our previous interest in pre-state polities and in state formation. We thought that our prior experience with regional archaeological surveys-Wright's in Iraq and Iran using the techniques developed by Robert McC. Adams (1965) in Mesopotamia and Kus's in Hawaii using techniques developed by Earle (1978)-might be useful in studying the extraordinary archaeological landscapes reported by Mille. In 1973, Conrad Kottak invited us to participate in a program of anthropological research in Madagascar. He sought funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation. Pierre Verin gave invaluable advice in planning all aspects of the program. Though events in Madagascar forced an indefinite suspension of the ethnographic part of the program, it Was possible to begin the archaeological aspects of the research in 1975 with much help from the staffs of the Musee d'Art et d' Archeologie under JeanAime Rakotoarisoa and the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie under Jean-Pierre Domenichini. During July of 1975, the authors were able to visit Madagascar for the first time. We spent our first days working in the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie on the collections made by Verin, Mille, Arnaud, and others, developing a preliminary ceramic chronology (see Chapter 3). We next examined about 15 km2 in each of three areas: the vicinities of Imerimanjaka, a village important in the earliest traditions of Imerina; Ambohidrabiby, a town important in the traditions of the early rulers; and Ambohidratrimo, a town important in the civil wars preceding the formation of Andrianampoinimerina's state (Wright and Kus 1976). We were happy to learn that our preliminary chronology was useful in dating sites, and that the development of settlement patterns in these small areas showed consistent changes broadly conformable with what had been inferred from the historical traditions. Circumstances, however, prevented the continuation of this work until the 1980s, as is discussed in Chapter 2.

Plan of the Present Work Chapter 2 provides further background discussion. It first summarizes geographical features-of both Imerina in general and western Avaradrano in particular-relevant to the ancient Malagasy. It then summarizes work relevant to the paleoecology of Imerina, and then discusses our research area, the western part of Avaradrano. Finally, we provide a history of our efforts to record the archaeological features of this landscape, recognizing the contributions of the many people who have helped in these endeavors over the years.

8

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Chapter 3 discusses an issue fundamental to all archaeological work, that of chronology, focusing on the development of our scheme of ceramic dating since 1975, and detailing our current understanding. While in an ideal world we would like to know the precise absolute dates of the foundation and abandonment of each ancient settlement, this would require excavations on every site and extensive use of absolute dating techniques (see Appendix B). Even if they could, archaeologists would not want to attempt such excavations because this would destroy a great deal of the irreplaceable archaeological record. Also, excavation and absolute dating are expensive, and we do not have the resources. Instead, we attempted to establish when characteristics of artifacts relatively common on archaeological sites appear in and disappear from the temporal continuum. These changes in artifacts have enabled us to ascribe sites to one or more divisions of the temporal continuum. Chapter 4 discusses the built features visible on the archaeological sites, including their fortifications, gates, house foundations, tombs and other features. This discussion necessarily concentrates on features that we recorded systematically, such as gates, and does not provide more than an introduction to other important classes offeatures, for example, tombs and house footings. Future studies must remedy these deficits. Chapter 5, arguably the most important in this study, integrates the observations on the individual sites and their features in terms

of both our ceramic chronology and our understanding of site features. All the information on the remains attributed to each successive time period is summarized. The summaries presented in Chapter 5 are thus descriptions of successive archaeological phases, the material remains of successive cultural patterns. Chapter 6 ends the main body of the study by presenting a few of the broader implications of the survey program. The Appendices contain evidence of interest to those who wish to use our data to resolve new problems. Appendix A presents the information we recorded on all the sites and their artifacts, including graphical material. Appendix B details the various absolute dates important for our understanding of the absolute temporal placement of each archaeological phase. Appendix C similarly details the preliminary ethnobotanical study of samples from sites in Imerina and their implications for the development of agriculture. Appendix D is a study of the relation between sites and areas suited for rice cultivation. Appendix E details the evidence of ideological change manifested at the emergent state capital of Ambohimanga. The contributions of specific authors are noted in the text and the table of contents. Unless otherwise indicated, the text was written by Henry Wright. The manuscript has been examined closely by Zoe Crossland, Geoffrey Emberling, Will Griffin, Susan Kus, Victor Raharijaona, Jill Rheinheimer, and Henry Wright. The responsibility for errors lies with Henry Wright.

Chapter 2

Landscape and Archaeology in Western Avaradrano

of Imerina to the south. The rest of the survey area is one of ridges sloping lower to the south to meet the rice fields at an elevation of about 1250 meters. The western margin of the surveyed area runs just west of the Marais d' Anketsa (now mostly rice fields), through which runs the lower Mambakely River. The southernmost limit of the survey incorporates the south or left bank of the Mamba River; the southeastern and eastern edges more or less follow the valley of the Mamba. As seen on the maps (Figs. 2.1,5.1-5.7), numerous small tributary valleys, now covered with irrigated rice fields, characterize the survey area. Throughout the nineteenth century, the entire area was lacking in forests except for the sacred forest surrounding Ambohimanga and a small remnant on Mangabe. However, the pollen evidence indicates that the vegetation cover was much more diverse in the recent past.

The Landscape Imerina, the heart of the central highlands, is a product of diverse geological forces. About 2400 million years ago, its core of metamorphic gneiss, a part of the Gondwanan continent, was emplaced. About 550 million years ago, granites were intruded into this mass, and they form some of the higher ridges in Imerina today. These durable basement rocks, higher along the east coast of Madagascar, were eroded by rivers flowing westward. At various times during the past few million years, however, these drainages were blocked by faulting and volcanic outflows (Allard et al. 1971). The resulting varied landscape visible today includes high ridges with striking granite domes and boulders and low plains with lakes and marshes, currently covered with a grid of rice paddies. The hills are dry and tan in the austral winter, with the only counterpoint being the intense green of the rice nurseries and red of the soil where erosion has cut the hills. In the humid summer, daily rain from the low clouds brings a mosaic of green rice fields and grasslands. Little more than two centuries ago, Imerina was a center of tumultuous political change, which this study seeks to understand. Our survey has focused on a small part of Imerina, Antananarivo, north and east of the capital, and the setting for some of the key political events in the history of Madagascar. The region of our survey is bordered on the north by the Mambakely River and its tributaries. Immediately south of this valley are a series of ridges and hills oriented east-west, all reaching an elevation above sea level of about 1450 meters. On the great granite outcrops that form these ridges, from east to west, were the historically important towns of Amboatany, Mangabe, Ambohimanga, and Ambohidrabiby, each with an expansive overview of the heartland

Holocene Environmental Change in Imerina Recent programs of paleoenvironmental study have provided new evidence of past vegetation changes. From Lake Tritrivakely, 150 km south of Antananarivo near Antsirabe in the Vakinankaratra region, Burney (1987a) removed a 5.0 m sediment core with an 11 ,000 year record of local vegetation. The early to middle Holocene vegetation at the site appears from pollen evidence to have consisted mostly of grasses and ericoid shrubs, and the abundance of charcoal in the sediments indicates the frequent occurrence of natural fires. Through most of the late Holocene period, from about 2000 B.c. until the first evidence of human impact, the area seems to have had a relatively closed mosaic of woodlands with few grasslands, and relatively little evidence of fire. However, beginning in a layer dating to about 400 B.c., grains

9

10

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

of pollen of the Cannabis/Humulus group-perhaps introduced by early visitors to the coasts of Madagascar-occur. After A.D. 800 there is a marked increase in charcoal, indicating increased burning and suggesting direct human impact on the local vegetation. However, because the uppermost 0.40 m of the core is disturbed, as indicated by intrusive recent Eucalyptus, Pinus and Zea pollen to a depth of 0.40 m, this possible human impact on the Vakinankaratra cannot be precisely dated. In 1992, a Franco-Malagasy team raised a 13 m core from Lake Tritrivakely (Gasse and Van Campo 1998). The study of this core focused on Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene climatic processes. However, they too report increased proportions of arboreal pollen indicating cooler and wetter conditions from about 1500 B.C. until about A.D. 950, when warmer conditions were reestablished. Pollen of the Cannabis/Humulus group is dated to about 250 B.c. After A.D. 1250, rapidly increasing proportions of grass pollen indicate increasing human disturbance. Recent studies of the marshy area of Ampasambazimba, in Imamo District, 80 km west of Antananarivo (MacPhee, Burney, and Wells 1986), have produced both paleobotanical and paleontological evidence, which give us a more representative idea of Middle Holocene to earlier Late Holocene environments in the central highlands. Here, lava blocked stream flow and created a marshy lake more than 9000 years ago. Sediments ofthe period up to about 2000 B.c. are relatively well preserved, but more recent layers have been disturbed. Studies of pollen from layers dating to about 4000 B.C. indicate that the Ampasambazimba area-today one of monotonous grasslands with only a few recently introduced trees and some arboreal vegetation on the edges of marshes - had a mosaic of vegetation types. Among these were humid valley bottom forests and marshes, dry ridge slope forests with trees today found more than 100 km to the west, and dry open areas of grasses and bushes. The record of animals living in and around this lake is particularly rich, in part a testimony to the many different projects undertaken here since discovery of the locality in 1902. The quantitatively controlled samples recovered by the interdisciplinary team in the 1980s indicates that 80% of the fauna that died and left their bones here were crocodiles, hippopotamuses, or giant tortoises. The heavy preponderance of these three animals is typical of most Madagascan subfossil sites, and probably results from their habit of living and dying in or near wet areas. In addition, various scholars have recognized at least 20 different genera of lemurs at the site, as well as carnivores, insectivores, and other forms. Among the birds are several large flightless ratites, eagles and other raptors, ducks, and geese. Some of these animals, particularly the hippopotamus, the flightless birds and the large browsing lemur Megaladapis, would be at home in the more open areas. Many of the lemurs would be found in forested areas. The ducks and geese would live on the open waters oflakes and marshes. This diversity of animals reinforces the implication, drawn from pollen analysis, that this area of the central highlands was neither a dense forest nor a grassland, but a mosaic of very different environments.

From Lake Kavitaha, 60 km west of Antananarivo near Lake Itasy in the Imamo District, we have our only well dated, detailed evidence of the increasing impact of human occupancy during the last millennium. Here, Burney's team removed a 3.5 m sediment core with a 1500 year record of local vegetation (Burney 1987b). The earliest layers of the core had pollen indicating a mosaic with trees, shrubs, and grasses on the uplands, and forest and swamp in the low areas. Pollen of the Cannabis/Humulus group occurs from the beginning of this sequence, supporting the suggestion from Lake Tritrivakely of early coastal visitors. About A.D. 650, there is a first increase in charcoal and the pollen of grasses, suggesting increased burning and the spread of grasslands. Around A.D. 1100, there is a major increase in charcoal and grass pollen. Also, the pollen of Ricinus communis, the castor bean, a commensal plant often found in disturbed areas near villages, indicates intensified gardening (Burney 1987b: Figs. 3 and 4). Around A.D. 1300 there is a more consistent appearance in the pollen of both Ricinus and the Compositae, in Madagascar often plants of disturbed or fallow fields, indicating increased agriculture at this time (Burney 1987b: 137). The consistency of the absolute dates, and the fact that pollen of recently introduced Eucalyptus and Pinus occurs only in the surface layer of Lake Kavitaha, indicate disturbance was minimal. In sum, the evidence indicates that in the central highlands, at the beginning of the later Holocene about 2000 B.c., a previous warmer, drier regime with more grasslands and more frequent fires was replaced by a cooler, wetter regime sustaining more closed forest cover in which fires were less frequent. Between A.D. 600 and 800, there are suggestions of direct human impact on the natural environment of the central highlands, with increased evidence of grasslands and burning. This could indicate the use of the region by foragers or herders using fire to drive game or encourage grass growth for cattle. So far, however, no archaeological sites of this period have been found. Similarly, indications of increased burning and commensal field weeds indicate some agriculture after A.D. 1100. This coincides with the beginning of our Fiekena Phase, discussed in the next chapter. A further increase in evidence of agriculture around A.D. 1300 coincides with the wide proliferation of settlement during the Antanambe Phase. Unfortunately, pollen cores taken from marshes in the vicinity of Antananarivo have not been precisely dated, and we have no detailed record of vegetation changes in western Avaradrano during the past few centuries. We do know that at the time of the first accounts of a European traveler, that of Nicholas Mayeur in 1771, the countryside around Antananarivo" ... was entirely bare and cleared. One does not see trees, except those which are planted in the ditches of villages." The nearest forests, from which wood for construction was brought, were 12 km to the south, 40 km to the north, or 60 km to the east (Mayeur 1913a: 160, 171). The completely anthropic landscape of the central Imerina today is dominated by rolling hills covered with a few common grasses such as Andropogon sp., Aristida sp. and Loudetia sp. In many places the grassy hillsides have been terraced for dry

Landscape and Archaeology in Western Avaradrano

farming, primarily manioc and sweet potatoes. The parldands of Uapaca sp. ("tapia") on dry slopes and pockets of sclerophyllic forest have largely succumbed to annual burning, an effort to improve pasturage, and the only trees visible are recently introduced eucalyptus and pine. The marshes and the edges of lakes are dominated by such rushes and reeds as Cyperus and Phragmites, found in many other parts of the world. As soil eroded from the hills has been deposited in the lower areas, many marshes have been converted into irrigated rice fields. Records made from 1951 and 1980 at the airport at Ivato, three km southwest of our survey area, document the benign climate of the central highlands today. Rainfall at Ivato varied from 979 mm in 1977-78 to 1723 mm in 1975-76 with an annual average of 1376 mm. On the average, this rain fell during 123 days of the year, mostly during the warmer rainy season between October and March. However, light rain often occurs during the cooler, drier season. The mean of the daily maximum temperatures during November, the warmest month of the rainy season, was 26.6°C, but the mean of daily minima during August, the coolest month of the drier season, was only 9.2°C. Frost was not reported.

Traditional Life in Western Avaradrano The patterns of life developed over many centuries in the central highlands of Madagascar are being rapidly changed by the impact of the world market system, by new government institutions, and by introduced ideas and exotic cults. Fortunately, we have a fund of studies of more traditionallifeways as they were pursued late in the nineteenth and early in the twentieth centuries, from which a synthetic overview can be constructed. A number of studies have described aspects of traditional land use in central Imerina (lsnard 1955; Le Bourdiec 1974; Raison 1972). The traditional crops were irrigated rice grown in irrigated rice fields (tanimbary) in the plains and valley bottoms; taro, legumes, green vegetables, and fruits such as bananas grown around the edges of these lower areas; and manioc and dry rice, grown in swidden plots (tavy) on the terraced hillsides. Rice and manioc, however, are by far the more important crops. The essential aspects of wet rice cultivation during the warm rainy season from October to May, the vary vakiambiaty, are outlined in a Merina text from the 1860s, translated by Pierre Verin (1969): "First, one cultivates the nursery, where one will seed the rice; after the spading, one piles up the lumps in rows so they can dry; once they have dried, ashes are spread between the rows, and the lumps are turned again; the seed is immersed in water until it splits open; one irrigates the nursery and breaks up the lumps. This being done, one tramples the soil until it becomes soft. During this time, the rice that one has soaked begins to germinate; the nursery is leveled and the rice is sown. Two days after sowing, the nursery is allowed to dry, and ashes are spread on the plants. This ends the sowing. Afterwards come the working of the rice fields in preparation for transplanting. After spading, one leaves the ground to dry and, at the moment

11

the rains come and the seedlings are large and there is water in rice fields, one breaks up the clods. The women are responsible for removing the seedlings [from the nurseries] while the men break up the clods and do the trampling [of the fields]. Those who have cattle make them trample the fields and those who do not do it themselves with the spade. Once the seedlings are removed and the fields are prepared, the women transplant [the seedlings] and, when the rice is growing well, hoe it in order to eliminate the weeds. This ends the way rice is cultivated. Nothing remains except the harvest at the end of the rainy season." This main season of cultivation of vary vakiambiaty contrasts with dry season cultivation of vary aloha, planted in April and harvested in January. These are not only grown at different times, they are grown in different places, vary vakiambiaty being grown in the upper plains and vary aloha being grown in the central plain in lower areas that can be irrigated by canals from the main rivers during the dry season. Vary aloha must involve more work per unit area but we have been unable to find labor statistics demonstrating this. Le Bourdiec (1974:354) has elicited the labor requirements for cultivation of a nursery of 0.05 ha and a rice field of 1.0 ha. Preparation and seeding of the nursery requires 10 days of labor by men. Spading and fertilization, maintenance of irrigation works and actual irrigating, and harrowing require 38 days, also by men. The removal of seedlings from the nursery and transport to the prepared rice field, and the replanting of the seedlings require 45 days of labor by women. Weeding requires 25 days, also by women. The harvest, threshing, and transport of the rice requires 50 days of labor by both men and women. The mean total person-days of labor per hectare is 168. This investment should produce about 2000 kilograms of rice per hectare. The traditional formula is that a hetra, about 0.8 hectares, of rice paddy could support a nuclear family and cover their tax obligation of about 30 kilograms of husked rice as well (Le Bourdiec 1974: 16). Unfortunately, I have found no precise statistics on the year-to-year variation in the actual production of rice per hectare in the area of Avaradrano, so this formula is difficult to evaluate. In Imerina, rice was stored in the houses in baskets or large bell-shaped pits (lava-bary) dug into the red soil (cf. DeCal)' 1951:107). Up to six cubic meters of husked rice could be stored in such a pit for several years. A key element in Merina farming was the keeping of cattle, though more for their social importance in establishing status and ritual than for their labor and their products. Merina cattle are a melange of south and southwest Asian and African varieties with large curved horns and a prominent fatty hump. During the day in the wet season, cowherds took the cattle to graze around marshes, in fallow fields, along canal banks, and in grassy hilltops. In the dry season when fodder was limited, they were often fed with fodder collected by the villagers. At night, cattle were kept in the well-protected villages in byres,fahitra, often stone-lined. As we will discuss below, at least since the end of the seventeenth century, the dung in these pits could be made into a slurry and sluiced via the village ditches and the drains down into the rice paddies. Before colonization, cattle did not pull plows or carts.

12

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Their primary labor was trampling the mud in the rice fields, mixing the mud and water to a smooth paste in which seedlings could be easily transplanted. Merina cattle produced little milk. In the community, their meat was consumed primarily after ritually prescribed sacrifices. They could also be sold in times of family crisis. Most of the cattle consumed in towns, however, were driven from outlying regions where people were more specialized as cattle raisers, and distributed in markets. We must not forget that even in the twentieth century when marshes and forests were greatly diminished, gathered resources were widely consumed. Birds were trapped in the grassy hill slopes and fish were netted in lakes, rivers, and canals, but more humble resources such as insects, shrimp, frogs, and algae probably provided more food in toto. Before the eighteenth century, when forests and marshes were still extensive, gathering may have been more diverse and more important. Even though many changes have been wrought in central Madagascar by the socialist revolutions of 1972 and 1975, and by subsequent political and economic events, much of the fabric of village life outside the capital is still visible on the landscape. Scattered from the grassy ridge crests down to the edges of the rice fields are clusters of houses, ranging from hamlets with one to four houses up to small towns with several hundred houses. The larger communities often have several churches, a school, and a few small stores. Older communities are still bounded by their defensive ditches, now largely filled with debris and used to cultivate bananas; new communities have pise walls or hedges of sisal and other plants on their perimeters. Each community has adjacent manioc gardens or orchards, its rice fields being in a nearby stream valley or formerly marshy area. Within some villages and scattered on grassy ridge tops are the many family tombs, often built of cut stone or modern cement and more durable than the houses of the living. Within the villages, the tall rectangular houses with steep roofs are oriented north-south, with windows and doors facing west. The houses of the very poor are of traditional pise with thatch roofs and have a single room with a kitchen in a loft at the south end. The houses ofthe more prominent and wealthier families are often of unbaked or baked brick with white plaster and tile roofs, and have up to three stories and many rooms and porches. There are outbuildings and gardens, the ensemble often surrounded by a rectangular pise wall. In our surveys, however, we found that many of the buildings were occupied by a few older family members or servants or were completely abandoned. We are fortunate to have a sociological study, by Prof. Adolphe Razafintsalama (1973), of villagers in our area of archaeological research as they lived in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as well as several studies of Merina communities elsewhere (Bloch 1971; Condominas 1960; Vogel 1982). The key concept in Merina social relations are those of the ancestors, the razana, and the kindred, thejirazanana, everyone dead or living descended from an ancestor. Any living person could belong to a number of differentjirazanana descending from different ancestors. The ideal building block of Merina society

was the Joko, a descent group composed of a number of extended families,jianakaviana, which held ancestral lands, tanindrazana, and used a family tomb,fasan-drazana (Razafintsalama 1973:3, 31-32). By choosing to support the maintenance of one tomb, an individual identifies with one oftheJoko to which one might belong (Bloch 1971: 111-24). Many people, however, live within, marry among, and are buried by members of the Joko within which they grew up. As a group related through bilateral kinreckoning that is in-marrying, theJoko is what Bloch (1971:4546) has termed a "deme." The larger named groupings ofJoko, such as the Tsimahafotsy and Tsimiamboholahy which dominate our research area, are also descent groups and also tend to be inmarrying, and these can also be referred to as "demes," though only Andriana or noble demes (see below) emphasize descent from specific named ancestors. By the early twentieth century, residential or territorial groups had come to be somewhat different from descent groups. A village might be dominated by one or more Joko. For various social reasons -disputes, marriage, affinity, and so on - some members of theseJoko lived elsewhere and members of otherJoko lived in the village. The residents of the village had to do various tasks together (for example, maintaining canals or paths and keeping the peace) andfokonolona was the authority that oversaw such issues and also served as an agent of the higher political authorities in the larger towns. The segmentary structures of descent groups and territorial groups are encompassed by hierarchical distinctions created by successive rulers in Imerina according to historical traditions recorded in the nineteenth century (Callet 1908). There are three broad ranked categories, within which there are many distinctions. Razafintsalama discusses several groups important within our research area.

The Andriana. The noble groups include the reigning monarch, the monarch's siblings, and the descendants of former kings. Also included is the most recently created noble group, the Andriamasinavalona, whose first members were give heritable noble status by a ruler of that name during the late seventeenth century and by subsequent rulers in recognition of special service to the ruler. Andriana were relieved of the responsibility to give tribute of cattle to the ruler and to serve as corvee laborers. They also had the right to hold feudatory estates, termed menakely, within which they exercised all the rights of the rulers except that of life and death, and for which they gave the ruler half of all tribute received. They had many sumptuary privileges, including special terms of address, ritual responsibilities, special elaboration of tombs, and the like. The highest-ranking Andriana were those most closely related to the reigning monarch, whilst the lowest-ranking Andriana were those descended from the most ancient rulers. A majority of the Andriana Joko lived on their tanindrazana caring for their cattle and rice fields in a manner little different from other Merina. The Andriamasinavalona had no specific territory, theirJoko being widely distributed throughout Imerina. Within western Avaradrano, the major Andriana

Landscape and Archaeology in Western Avaradrano

group was the Zanadralambo who lived in villages in the upper Mambakely valley to the northeast around Ambohidrabiby, the capital and tomb of their eponymous ancestor, Ralambo.

13

and who had the right to maintain their tomb inside the walls of the town (suggesting that contra Razafintsalama, they were properly of the nobility of service, created by and named for the ruler Andriamasinalvalona). Others such as the Zanatsitakatra The Hova. The commoner groups are aggregated into ter- also had this right, granted in recognition of the aid of their ritorial units each containingJoko of diverse origins. Hova are members - the "Twelve notables" - to Andrianampoinimerina obliged to give cattle in tribute to the ruler and to labor for the when he first took control of the town (Razafintsalama 1973:56). ruler at his or her command. Within western Avaradrano there Ideally, for purposes of organizing the corvee, there were sixteen were two major territorial groupings whose members formed HovaJoko, eight in the upper town and eight in the lower town endogamous demes (Bloch 1971): the Tsimahafotsy to the west (Razafintsalama 1973:57). Finally, there must have been many in the Mambakely Valley and its tributaries around the town of families of slave status serving households in the town, but we Ambohimanga, and the Tsimiamboholahy in the middle and know little about them. Some specific information is also available on several villages lower Mamba valley to the east and south around the towns of Ilafy. Both the Tsimahafotsy and the Tsimiamboholahy were of near Ambohimanga during the late nineteenth and early twenhigh status among the many Hova groupings, some oftheirJoko tieth centuries. The village of Ambohimandroso (520.0-814.5), providing the highest officers of the Merina state. The rulers two kilometers east of Ambohimanga, is occupied by families recognized the service of some higher status Hova by granting of a single HovaJoko plus one Andevo family. It is a scatter of menakely estates or the right to have special tombs. houses over about 2 hectares on a hill slope, and lacks surrounding ditches or gates. The village is relatively new, and is not The Andevo. Discussed in the older ethnographic literature recorded in the census of 1897. The inhabitants name theirJoko under the term Mainty, a term that, however, includes free demes after Andriantsiravinandriana, whose tomb is northeast of the vilas well as slaves, the slaves comprised as much as one quarter of lage but is not the object of any special rites. The royal traditions the population of Imerina at the time of colonization by France indicate that he was an early supporter of Andrianampoinimerina; in 1895 (Campbell 1988:475). They were people who were de- members of this Joko were traditionally in charge of the corvee prived of freedom because they were captured in war, convicted from the upper part of Ambohimanga. Some members of this of crimes, or purchased, or were the descendants of such people. Joko, however, claim descent from Andriamarofatsy, the name They had no rights to property and did not have their own tombs, of a known descent group in Ambohimanga. Razafintsalama and thus had no material basis for organization into Joko. They (1973 :71-74, 88-90) suggests that two Joko have been fused at nonetheless provided much of the labor in Merina agriculture Ambohimandroso. The adjacent Hova villages ofImerintsiafindra (518.0-812.0) during the nineteenth century. Since liberation, many of slave descent have migrated, and those who remain have established and Manankasina (517.8-812.6), three to four kilometers south of Ambohimanga, are occupied by members of a single Tsimahatheir own tombs. fotsy Joko, the Zanamaharefo, considered by other Tsimahafotsy For Ambohimanga, the census of 1897 reported 4762 inhabit- to be ofrelatively low rank. The tomb of their ancestor, Andriaants, a number probably already diminished by the dispersion of maharefo, is unknown. At the time of our survey, these villages participants in court life (Razafintsalama 1973: 16.) The built-up had modest houses, densely packed, but many were not occupied. space of the town including suburbs outside the walls, as indi- In 1897, Manankasina had 579 people and comprised about 4.2 cated by photographs contemporary with this census, was about hectares, indicating a village density of about 138 people per 30 hectares, indicating an urban density of about 156 people per occupied hectare. At the same time, Imerintsiafindra had 693 occupied hectare. As the sacred capital of the Merina polity and people and comprised about 4.8 hectares on early twentieththe site of a Rova, a palace where the Merina ruler and court century maps, indicating a village density of about 144 people resided at certain times of year, the town of Ambohimanga had per occupied hectare. A tomb located near Manankasina is used many unusual organizational features. First, until the end of the by both villages (Razafintsalama 1973:16,74-75,90-93). The village of Ambohitrandriamanjaka (519.9-812.3), three monarchy in 1896, Ambohimanga had residences ofJoko whose proper tanindrazana was elsewhere, but who served the ruler. kilometers southeast of Ambohimanga, is a prosperous village Some were Andriana with close relations to the ruler. Others with substantial houses and churches. In 1897, Ambohitranwere Hova Joko who had special duties in the court such as the driamanjaka had 460 people and comprised about 2.9 hectares, Talasora, who maintained the palaces and had ritual duties at the indicating a village density of about 160 people per occupied royal tombs, or the Andrianody, who kept the royal talismans (un- hectare (Razafintsalama 1973:16). The Andriana village of Soavinimerina (520.0-810.4) is til the destruction of these objects in 1868 when the royal family converted to Christianity). Second, Ambohimanga had a diversity five kilometers southeast of Ambohimanga and four kilometers of long-established local HovaJoko. Some had exceptional status, southwest of Ambohidrabiby. In 1897, Soavinimerina had 514 such as the Andriamborona who were emplaced at Ambohimanga people and comprised about 4.0 hectares, indicating an village by the ruler Andriamasinavalona in the late sixteenth century, density of about 128 people per occupied hectare (Razafintsalama

14

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

1973: 16.) It is occupied by groups of two very different ranks, emplaced here by Andrianampoinimerina in the late eighteenth century. Razafintsalama's informants disagreed about how the different groups arrived and where they lived in the village. One of the noble groups is the Zanadralambo whose ancestor, the early ruler Ralambo, is buried at Ambohidrabiby and whose other villages surround Soavinimerina. The other noble group is the higher ranked Andrianamboninolona whose principal tanindrazana and family tombs are southeast of our research area (Bloch 1971:211-12). It is said that originally the Zanadralambo and Andrianamboninolona lived on different sides of a central plaza. They did not intermarry, though they attended each other's funerary ceremonies. Recently, there has been more intermarriage, and residences have been constructed outside the ditches of the old village, the interior of the old fortified village now having mostly tombs. The villagers say Andrianampoinimerina placed this village under the control of Andriampontany, a son of his sister. The tomb of Andriampontany, now surrounded by others, is in the center of the village (Razafintsalama 1973:7780). Razafintsalama, however, shows that the sister of Andrianampoinimerina had no sons and that Andriampontany was a son of Ralambo and an ancestor of the Zanadralambo who lived long before Andrianampoinimerina. He suggests that the tensions created by placing the foreign Andrianamboninolona in this area were resolved by promoting a local ancestor to sufficiently high status that his rites could transcend these tensions (Razafintsalama 1973:97-103). As we will discuss in Chapter 4, the evidence of archaeological survey adds further context to these observations. From this socially diverse sample of settlements, we can draw several useful inferences. First, during the late nineteenth century (the later part ofthe archaeologically defined "Fiadanana Phase," defined in Chapter 3), a time of dispersed and often larger multiroom residences, the density of population ranged from 128 to 160 people per occupied hectare, with a mean of 145 people. This density might be used to assess other nineteenth-century settlements, but for earlier periods of single-room houses densely packed inside bounding ditches, a separate assessment of density will have to be devised in Chapter 4. Second, houses are quite variable, with more modest pise houses in areas occupied by demes of lower status, and larger and elaborate brick houses in settlements occupied by demes of higher status. On archaeological sites where house foundations are visible, we may be able to provide an assessment of social status and wealth. Third, as traditions state (Callet 1908), the Andriana settlements have tombs within the boundaries of villages, while the Hova settlements have tombs outside the villages. The tradition of non-Andriana tombs within the bounds of Ambohimanga, however, warns us that the uncritical use of tomb location alone as a means to identify the social status of former occupants could be misleading. Fourth, as Razafintsalama has shown, traditions are edited to speak to recent social circumstances, and traditions important

in the time of the Merina Monarchy, collected by Callet, can be quite different from traditions recorded today.

The Survey Projects of 1975 The first portion of Avaradrano to be examined carefully was that around Ambohidrabiby (Wright and Kus 1976). This work was supported by a U.S. National Science Foundation grant (NSF SOC-73-05744). During July of 1975, ajoint team of the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie, the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie, and the University of Michigan examined about 15 km2 in the vicinity of this town, one important in the traditions of the earlier Merina rulers. We confirmed Mille's inferences about the growth of Ambohidrabiby, and we found promising evidence of a pattern of small subsidiary settlements around the emerging town. Also, in the valley south of Ambohidrabiby, we found the site of Fiekena with a ceramic assemblage that appeared to be stylistically antecedent to those previously reported by Mille (1971) from Ankatso and Arnaud (1970) from Antanambe. We also examined similar-sized areas around Imerimandroso, important in the earliest traditions of Imerina's rulers, and around Ambohidratrimo. Our conclusion was that intensive or "full-coverage" survey could locate most former occupational sites on the land surface, and that these sites could be mapped and dated. Next, from August through October ofthe same year, Kus and Albert Ralaikoa from the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie surveyed the area around and to the west of Ambohimanga, including Mangabe and reaching Imerimandroso and Anosiarivo. They documented a surprising diversity of large early sites around Ambohimanga and found the first evidence of early hierarchical settlement patterns west of Mangabe. The data from both of these surveys were analyzed in terms of the preliminary chronology presented by Wright (1979), and preliminary reports were prepared (Wright and Kus 1976; Kus n.d.).

The Survey Projects of 1980 to 1989 During the cessation in research between 1975 and 1980, we discussed the results of the preliminary surveys with colleagues, and realized that if we were to precisely chart the rise of the Ambohimanga polity, we would have to expand the area studied to include the area between the isolated survey blocks around Ambohidrabiby and Ambohimanga, and we would have to have a better ceramic chronology with which to date the sites we had mapped. Most of the areas remaining between Ambohimanga and Ambohidrabiby were surveyed by teams from the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie during July 1980 with assistance from the University of Michigan's International Partnership Program. In 1983, we received substantial support from the National Science Foundation (grant NSF BNS-82-18574). With the help of colleagues from both the Musee and the Centre, and many students who merit our praise and thanks, we finished linking the isolated

Landscape and Archaeology in Western Avaradrano

blocks and revisited many previously recorded sites, increasing the sizes of ceramic samples. We also undertook small soundings on several sites, both to improve our chronologies and to retrieve plant and animal remains. During August and July 1984, we surveyed previously unexamined areas to the south, reaching Anosy and Namehana. Most of the summer of 1984, however, was spent reanalyzing all of the ceramics recovered from the more than two hundred sites in terms of an improved ceramic chronology. The improvements were based upon data from the extensive and well-dated excavations of David Rasamuel (1984) at Fanongoavana on the eastern margins of Imerina, and from our own soundings at Ambohinanjakana to the east of Ambohimanga and at Amboatany to its west (discussed in Chapter 3). These improved datings are used in this report. The season of 1985 was devoted to revisiting sites previously recorded to increase the size of sherd collections. In 1986, 1988, and 1989, we surveyed areas to the south and east, recording the southern frontiers of the Ambohimanga polity and reaching the ancient town of Ilafy, a center of resistance to Ambohimanga during the third quarter of the eighteenth century. During these final survey efforts, we introduced students to landscape survey techniques. All the observations in our various notebooks are assembled in Appendix A of this study. The portion of Avaradrano carefully examined by the end of 1989 covered approximately 120 km2 of land surface. Two hundred and fifty-eight sites have been recorded (see Fig. 2.1). The final revision of Appendix B in light of new research by Andrianaivoarivony Rafolo at Lohavohitra in the Vonizongo region, northwest of Imerina proper, and by Hilarion Solo Rakotovololona at Ankadivory, a promising early site near Ambohimanga, discovered by our survey, was begun late in 1993. The completion of this effort-the analysis and the writing of the text-was largely completed at the School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico, during the first half of 1994. The years since have been spent in making additions, incorporating the comments of specialists, and finishing the illustrations. Without the support of the School, the MacArthur Foundation, the Santa Fe Institute, and the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, completion of this study would not have been possible.

Survey Methods Used in Avaradrano During all seasons of work, actual field survey was done by two to four individuals on foot, usually one or more staff members of the Musee d'Art et d' Archeologie or the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie, and one or more students seeking training in survey techniques. Mapping was facilitated by using air photographs with a scale of 1:25,000 and maps with scales of either 1:50,000 or 1:100,000, all kindly provided by the FoibenTaosarintanin'i Madagasikara (F.T.M.: the National Institute of Geodesy and Cartography). For the western half of the area we also had the use of an excellent special edition map at a scale of

15

1:20,000, showing many of the ancient fortified sites. On each day of survey, the teams walked over a contiguous area of ridges and rice paddies with air photographs and maps in hand, looking for pottery fragments on the surface of the ground and carefully checking possible traces of ancient fortification ditches noted on the photographs. When a site was found, its dimensions and significant external and internal features (e.g., ditches, entries, tombs, storage pits, cattle pens, and house remains) were noted on a sketch map. Each site was assigned a two-dimensional coordinate identification based on the national coordinate system for the island, originally introduced to archaeology by Mille (1970). This number was then written on the potsherds in ink. The sites could subsequently be dated on the basis of these catalogued ceramic collections. Over the years, our methods changed. Air photographs at a scale of 1:7000, which we were able to study atF.T.M., allowed a more precise mapping of the fortified sites. We learned to record more precisely the types of stone and stone-laying patterns in the earlier tombs and gates, because these seem to be associated with the social status of a village's inhabitants. We also learned to estimate the thickness of walls within the fortification ditches, because their massiveness seems to be related to the increased use of firearms. Finally, we have learned that collections of pottery from surrounding fields often result from the more recent occupation of the site, and that-particularly on still occupied sites-the only samples of early pottery will be found in old pise (jeta in Malagasy) or mud brick walls. From 1985 to 1990, we revisited sites recorded between 1975 and 1984 in order to correct maps and increase ceramic samples, thus improving our chronological assessments. Even though we recovered every sherd we could see, our ceramic samples are often small and inadequate for precise dating. For those sites that are destroyed by expanding urban housing, however, our notes and these samples constitute our only record of these ancient communities. In the future on other surveys, we would recommend further improvements. For example, we would not only continue to search for sites marked only by sherd scatters, but we would also record more carefully isolated tombs, standing megaliths, and other features not directly associated with habitation sites. We would systematically measure and photograph all pre-modem tombs. We would also systematically photograph standing nineteenth- and early twentieth-century houses. Many of these important evidences of the recent historical periods have been tom down since we first saw them in 1975. Finally, even in the area of the modem metropolis of Antananarivo where many sites are no longer occupied by people knowledgeable in local traditions, some local people will volunteer interesting historical information. It would be best to immediately make tape recordings of such testimony. Finally, it is important to note that just as no excavation is perfect, no survey is perfect either. It is possible that one can fail to notice sites because of vegetation cover, particularly at the end of an exhausting day of survey. It is also possible to make a mistake with the dating of a site, either because the sherd sample

16

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

3

,--,,---,,--,I km

high area

~

marsh

Figure 2.1. Western Avaradrano. The round dots mark historically impOliant towns and villages. The dotted lines enclose the intensively snrveyed areas as of 2007.

Landscape and Archaeology in Western Avaradrano

is small or damaged by cultivation or because our understanding of ceramic chronology is incorrect. These problems can be ameliorated in the future, however, with further excavations and absolute dating programs to improve chronological understanding of the ceramics, and with revisits to the sites to increase the size of ceramic samples from each site.

17

This chapter has given the reader a sense of the geography of Imerina, past and present, and the approach we have taken to the archaeological study of past landscapes. We turn in the next chapter to the development of our understanding of past cultural patterns in the central highlands of Madagascar.

Chapter 3

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

Introduction to the Issues of Survey Chronology

the choice oflocations for settlements, the relations between different kinds of settlements, the production of goods of which the manufacture leaves durable traces (such as those of stone or iron), fortifications, houses, and tombs. Thus, we can answer questions not merely about ceramic assemblages, but about cultural "phases," archaeological units qualitatively distinguishable from other contemporary, antecedent, or precedent units, which we believe to be the material remains of particular societies during particular periods of time (cf. Phillips and Willey 1953:620-23; Willey and Phillips 1958:22-24,48-51). The cultural phase is a particularly useful analytical device for regional archaeologists because it gives them a means to discuss an ensemble of sites with a single name, and they can do so even though the precise chronological span of the phase is not yet defined by rigorous excavation and dating procedures. Future excavation of sites found in survey programs will always lead to modifications of classificatory systems, both for ceramics and for cultural phases. It must be emphasized that a classificatory system is a means to achieve a better understanding of the past, and that such schemes are always provisional and subject to revision as new evidence is recorded. The following discussion of our changing understanding of ceramics in Imerina is an illustration of this point.

Archaeological survey without knowledge of the age of sites can produce only catalogues of limited value. If one does not know which sites are contemporary, then regional archaeological maps are mere palimpsests, and it is difficult to use survey data to evaluate our ideas about economic and social organization. Fortunately, the inhabitants ofImerina, like many village people throughout the world, have inadvertently provided archaeologists with a means of deciding which sites found in the course of surveys represent particular past social systems. From earliest times until relatively recently, they made, used, and discarded copious amounts of broken pottery vessels. Potters took advantage of changing production technologies. Their vessels also had to meet new domestic needs as crops and techniques for cooking and storage changed, as well as meet new social and symbolic demands in rapidly changing political situations. We can therefore expect the materials, forms, and decorations on pottery to vary through time, enabling us to date the occupations of sites, and also providing information on crafts, exchange, domestic organization, and social symbolism. Handmade pottery is fragile, and a frequently used vessel rarely survives intact for more than a few years. Potsherds, however, are relatively durable, and can be found on the surface of even badly eroded sites. The custom of digging pits throughout a village to find clay for various purposes or to make storage pits further aids the survey archaeologist by bringing examples of even the earliest sherds-often deeply buried on a long-occupied site-to the surface. Once we can use the evidence of associated artifacts to recognize the former settlements of a particular society, we can discuss not only the domestic technology of each cultural unit, but also

Proposed Ceramic Chronology of 1975 Thanks to the excavated samples from the vicinity of Antananarivo carefully conserved in the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie, it proved to be relatively easy to construct a preliminary ceramic chronology for the central portion of Imerina. The excavations made between 1966 and 1972 at three different sites provided

18

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Centrallmerina

useful information on the chronology of ceramics because of association with items of known manufacturing date imported to Madagascar, because of association with charcoal, a material that can be absolutely dated with radiocarbon techniques, or because of geological super-positioning indicating the relative chronological relationship of ceramic samples. First, from the floor of a large sealed storage pit in the Fiadanana neighborhood (514.2-796.1) of Antananarivo, Pierre Verin (1966) reported a series oflocal ceramics, predominantly fragments of restricted vessels with strongly everted rims and vessel covers-all with distinctive mica inclusions in the clay. These were closely associated with sherds of a white-bodied ceramic with blue transfer-print decoration on a clear glaze, manufactured in Staffordshire in Great Britain between about 1840 and 1860. Similar associations have been found subsequently in Imerina. We remain confident that these micaceous local wares were made during the middle of the nineteenth century, though precisely when the manufacture of the Fiadanana ceramics began and when it ended are still uncertain. Second, from the abandoned village of Angavobe, 20 km east of Antananarivo (538.4-797.3), Adrien Mille and Pierre Verin (1967) excavated a sounding with stratified layers in which local ceramics, particularly plain jars with low necks and open bowls with interior and exterior polished graphite coatings, were in association with a hearth containing charcoal. Measurement of 14C in this charcoal, undertaken by the laboratory at Gakashuin University in Japan, indicated a date of a.d. 1620 ± 80. At the time of our restudy of the Angavobe ceramics, the calibration tables and programs that allow the transformation of a radiocarbon date into a close approximation of a calendar date were not available, and we accepted this 14C determination as indicating an early seventeenth-century date. However, in a road cut at the site of Ambohidratrimo (505.8-808.6) we found a similar local ceramic assemblage associated with a sherd of green-glazed "celadon," which Verin (1975:74, pers. comm.) had established was imported to Madagascar from China until about A.D. 1550. The two kinds of evidence suggested a sixteenth- to early seventeenth-century date for the Angavobe ceramic assemblage. We now know (see Appendix B) that calibrating this 14C determination indicates a date somewhere in the early fifteenth to late seventeenth centuries. A larger series of 14C determinations on loci with similar ceramics from the site of Fanongoavana (548.7781.8) in eastern Imerina (Rasamuel 1984) indicate a date during the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries (see Appendix B). Third, from excavations at the site of Ambohitsitakady in northeastern Imerina (535.0-863.3), Verin's team (1970) found stratified deposits that established the relative relationship between two distinguishable ceramic assemblages. Those from the deeper and older layers have bowls similar to those excavated at Angavobe, but have different jars. Those from the higher and more recent layers have jars like those of the lower levels, but have heavier bowls with poor graphiting similar to those sometimes found with the Fiadanana micaceous ware. This more recent Ambohitsitikady ceramic assemblage was also found in excava-

19

tions at Kaloy (528.1-833.9), where ceramics similar to those of Fiadanana were found on the surface. The Ambohitsitikady stratigraphy thus seemed to fill the chronological gap between the absolutely-dated assemblages from Angavobe and Fiadanana. In addition to the fifteenth- to nineteenth-century sequence indicated by these three sites, there were two excavated ceramic assemblages for which we had no dating evidence. One was excavated by Mille (1971) from Ankatso (518.8-798.0). The other was excavated by Raymond Arnaud (1970) from Antanambe (508.0-814.4). Both had impressed and incised decorations on both jars and bowls, in contrast to the smoothed surface ceramics from the sites noted above. The two samples differed in detail, but we could not determine whether the differences represented stylistic development through time or variations in space. We argued that the Ankatso ceramics were most similar to those of Angavobe and might be nearer in time to the dated assemblage, but there was no solid dating evidence. To complicate the situation further, as soon as we began field survey northeast of Antananarivo in the vicinity of Ambohidrabiby in 1975, we found the site of Antampon'i Fiekena (524.3-812.5), which had ceramics with impressed and incised designs differing from those excavated by Mille and Arnaud. We had no dating evidence for these ceramics. Our methods of observation and analysis of the available ceramic samples were elementary. The analysis focused on the rims and other distinctive vessel parts in each sample, since body sherds had not been uniformly conserved by the excavators. We attempted to identify and to estimate the proportion of inclusions in each rim by visual inspection. We measured the color just below the outer surface of each sherd with a Munsell Color Chart. We measured both the rim thickness and body thickness below the rim modifications with calipers. Where possible, we estimated diameter with a concentric circle chart. We also experimented with measuring the tiny impressed triangles on the early decorated ceramics. All these observations were recorded on tables. Then, the range and central tendency of each measurement from each site was compared to those of each other site. It was assumed that while explicitly decorative elements might change suddenly, technology would change slowly, and that comparable vessels from assemblages close in time would have similar measures of clay body coarseness, similar body and rim thicknesses, similar indications of firing, and so on. On this basis, we suggested a temporal seriation beginning with Fiekena, and continuing with Antanambe, Ankatso, and Angavobe. In retrospect, some of our approaches were naive. We were obliged to include surface samples in some of our analyses, and with the benefit of hindsight, some of them appear to be chronologically mixed. Also, we were ignorant of the variation in local potting materials in Imerina and attributed chronological importance to differences in clay bodies resulting from local geological variation. Finally, it is hard to believe that we did not realize that the use of specially fabricated tops or covers for jars was a well-known continuing tradition in Imerina. It is difficult to steam rice without a tight vessel cover. Though previous

20

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

researchers had published the sherds of such vessels correctly, we thought these were the sherds of plates or bowls (cf. Wright 1979: PIs. 3d, 4d-e, and 5d). Given the small samples available to us at the time, we proposed a sequence of six ceramic phases. The names for these phases were chosen at a meeting chaired by Pierre Verin, at which all parties active at that time in the archaeology of the central highlands of Madagascar were present. Other participants were Jean-Pierre Domenichini, Susan Kus, Jean-Aime Rakotoarisoa, Rarnilisonina, and Henry Wright. The names selected for the phases were those of sites associated with samples of pottery that could serve as type collections. We tried to avoid names that had strong traditional ethnic or political associations. Thus, we did not create a "Vazimba Phase" or a "Merina Phase," since such terms are already clearly associated with social groups mentioned in the traditions. Likewise, we did not create an "Ambohimanga Phase" or an "Ambohitsitikady Phase," since these sites have strong associations with famous rulers, and we did not want to prejudge the association of particular traditional rulers with particular archaeological manifestations. In retrospect, we regret the use of Kaloy for a phase name, not because it is the traditional childhood home of Andrianampoinimerina (few eighteenth-century sites in Imerina do not have some traditions of association with this innovative ruler), but because the manuscript on the material excavated there has never been published. Our 1975 phase definitions, which have since been amplified and changed, were as follows:

The Fiekena Phase. The preliminary definition of the Fiekena Phase (Wright 1979:22, PI. 1; Wright and Kus 1979:9, Fig. 2A-D) was based solely on the small surface collection fromAntampon'i Fiekena itself. The restricted forms, termed "jars," are of a sandy clay body; all have coarse or medium sand inclusions and 20% have granules of angular quartz. About 25% seem to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. There is essentially one variable shape: a small globular jar with rims ranging in height from very low to medium and slightly everted. There are indications of incised bands on the shoulders, but none of these sherds are well preserved. The open forms, termed "bowls," have a similar clay body, 20% having inclusions of angular quartz grains. As with jars, 25% seemed to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. The rims of all bowls are simple, without thickenings. We could see incised and impressed decoration on 75% of these bowls. Placed within a band bordered by incised lines, there seemed to be two designs of nearly equal frequency: either several rows or rectilinear bands filled with triangle imprints or vertical incised divisions containing oblique bands filled with rows of triangle imprints. Sometimes the bases of bowls had similar triangle imprints. The imprints are usually of a long-based isosceles form and are usually regularly spaced. The Ankatso Phase. The preliminary definition of the Ankatso Phase (Wright 1979:22-24, PI. 2; Wright and Kus 1979:9-10, Fig. 2E-H) was based on the large excavated samples from

Ankatso, well described by Mille (1971), and Antanambe. The ceramics from Ankatso seemed more like those from Angavobe, so we suggested there might be a chronological difference between the two sites, but we were unwilling to create two separate phases. The jars from the two sites have a sandy clay body, often with inclusions of angular quartz. Among the jars from Antanambe, 33% have inclusions of medium to coarse sand; among those from Ankatso, only 11 % have such inclusions. About 11 % of the jars from the two sites seem to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. Jar forms were similar to those of the Fiekena Phase, but there seems to have been a rare discrete variant with a higher everted neck, usually oxidized and with a roughened surface. Most jars are decorated with a shoulder band defined by incised lines. In the bands on jars from Antanambe, there are 33% incised zigzag lines, sometimes with impressions, and 67% simple rows of impression, usually triangles and rarely ovals. In the bands on jars from Ankatso, there are 78% incised zigzag lines, often complex and with impressions, and 11 % simple rows of impressions, usually ovals, rarely triangles. The bowls from the two sites have sandy clay bodies. Among the bowls from Antanambe, 42% have inclusions of medium to coarse sand; among those from Ankatso, all examples have such inclusions. Firing in a reducing atmosphere was used for 33% of the bowls from Antanambe and 75% of the bowls from Ankatso. The bowls were hemispherical in form, with relatively thin walls, some with a low cylindrical pedestal foot. At Antanambe, 50% of the bowls have traces of graphite coatings, while at Ankatso, all bowls exhibit such traces. We realized, however, that such differences might be attributable to differences in geological weathering. The bowl rims of Antanambe have interior thickenings in 67% of the cases, while those of Ankatso have such thickenings in 87% of the cases. Often, on the tops of the bowls' lips there are triangular impressions. On their exteriors, all bowls exhibit bands and zones defined by incised lines containing impressed decoration. Usually, there is a wide central band with vertical divisions containing complex designs, defined by upper and lower bands with simple rows of impressions. At Antanambe, 60% of the impressions are triangular and the rest oval; at Ankatso, 50% of the impressions are triangular and the rest are oval. In contrast to the triangular impressions on Fiekena bowls, the triangles are usually of equilateral or short-based isosceles form. Several designs seem to be typical of the vertical divisions within the central bands, but our samples were not sufficiently large to detect significant differences between the two sites. Vertical designs, oblique designs, guilloches, diamonds, and cruciforms were noted. In addition to these common jar and bowl forms, we noted a few rims of spherical hole-mouth jars and "plates" (probably jar covers). Some vessels had four tapered feet, half round in cross section, which Arnaud (1970) noted were similar to the feet of the cylindrical chlorite schist vessels carved in northern Madagascar from the twelfth to at least the sixteenth centuries and widely distributed (Dewar and Wright 2000; Verin 1975:831-41).

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

The Angavobe Phase. Preliminary definition of the Angavobe Phase (Wright 1979:24, PI. 3; Wright and Kus 1979:10-11, Fig. 3A-C, where it is incorrectly termed the "Angavo Phase") was based on the small excavated sample from Angavobe, Sondage II, and the surface sample from the road cut at Ambohidratrimo. The jars have a sandy clay body with fine sand and mica inclusions that may be natural inclusions in the clay. Medium to coarse sand inclusions were noted in 33% of the jars from Angavobe and 25% of those from Ambohidratrimo. 75% of the jars from the two sites appear to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. There seem to have been two discrete forms of jar, one with a low neck, often oxidized like those of the Fiekena and Ankatso Phases, and the other with a high neck, sometimes with an exterior graphite coating. The bowls have a fine sandy clay body with traces of fine to medium sand inclusions. All are fired in a reducing atmosphere, and all have interior and exterior graphite coatings, usually well polished and not fugitive. The rims of the bowls from Angavobe all have interior thickening, while those from Ambohidratrimo show thickening in 82% of the cases. Some bowls had a graphited pedestal foot. A few graphited sherds had impressed decorations, usually oval and rarely triangular. We also noted some rough "plates," probably covers. The Ambohidray Phase. Preliminary definition of the Ambohidray Phase (Wright 1979:25; Wright and Kus 1979:11) was based on the small excavated sample from Ambohitsitikady, the lower levels of Sondage M 50, and on a surface sample from Ankadimaro (815.0-523.4), a site near Ambohidrabiby. The jars have a sandy clay body, and more than 60% have inclusions of medium or coarse sand, but none have larger granules of quartz. From 40% to 50% were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The jars have ovoid bodies and high everted rims. Exterior graphite coatings occur, but there were no examples of highly polished graphite in these samples. The bowls are similar to those of Angavobe, with fine sandy clay bodies. All were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The graphite coatings are of variable quality, sometimes polished and durable and sometimes fugitive. The rims of the bowls have interior thickening on 60% or more ofthe examples, but a minority are simply rounded, without thickening. There are some cylindrical pedestal feet. There are also some rough "plates," probably covers. The Kaloy Phase. Preliminary definition of the Kaloy Phase (Wright 1979:25, PI. 4; Wright and Kus 1979: 11-12, Fig. 3D-F) was based on the small excavated sample from Ambohitsitikady, the upper levels of Sondage M 50, and on ceramics from various soundings at Kaloy. The clay bodies of jars are quite variable. Medium to coarse sand is the predominant inclusion in 80% of the jars from Ambohitsitikady and 35% of the jars from Kaloy. Mica is the preponderant inclusion in 16% of the jars from Ambohitsitikady and 60% of those from Kaloy. Regardless of inclusions, 40% to 50% were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The shape of the jars is similar to those from Ambohidray Phase samples, but some are very large. The exteriors of the jars are usually rough,

21

rather than graphite coated. Most rims are relatively high, and some have graphite on the inner rim. The clay bodies of the bowls are fine, usually with no visible inclusions. Surprisingly, though coated with graphite, some of these bowls were fired in an oxidizing atmosphere. Perhaps as a consequence, the interior and exterior graphite coatings are often fugitive. The bodies of the bowls are usually thick in comparison with the bowls of earlier phases, and all the rims in these samples are simple and rounded. As before, we noted graphite coated pedestal feet and rough "plates," probably covers. The Fiadanana Phase. The preliminary definition of this latest phase in our proposed sequence (Wright 1979:25-26, PI. 5) was based on the small excavated sample of sherds from squat jars or pots from the silo of Fiadanana, on sherds from a midden in the Haute Ville of Antananarivo on Venance Manifatra Street (515.0-798.1) revealed by construction in June 1975, and on surface samples of sherds from sites south of Antananarivo. The clay bodies of these local ceramics (and, as we later learned, most Fiadanana ceramics from sites to the north of Antananarivo) had copious mica inclusions. Most of these vessels in these samples were fired in oxidizing conditions, but heavy use over smoky cooking fires has reduced the lower bodies and left heavy coatings of charred debris on vessel exteriors. The rims of these vessels are very everted so that the interior of the rims is almost horizontal, and there is always a little graphite on the interior of the rim. We also havc vessel covers and a few sherds of hemispherical bowls with fugitive graphite coatings and pedestal feet, similar to those from Kaloy assemblages. During the Fiadanana Phase, several types made on the northwest coast appear occasionally in Imerina. These include a heavy red ware sometimes with applique made by Sakalava potters and a micaceous red slipped ware, sometimes with black painted designs made by "Karana" potters from Gujerat in India. The last Karana potter stopped work in Maravoay near Mahajunga during the 1970s.

The survey evidence collected in 1975 was organized in terms of these six proposed cultural phases, and the implications of changing settlement patterns for demographic, economic, and political development were discussed in several preliminary articles (Wright and Kus 1976, 1979).

New Chronological Evidence from the Stratigraphic Soundings in Avaradrano: 1983 Introduction

As discussed above, the preliminary ceramic chronology with which we ascribed sites to chronological periods was established in 1975, using samples available in the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie from sites in several parts of Imerina. Evidence for the integrity and absolute dates, even of the more recent ceramic assemblages, was minimal. It was clear that further

22

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

stratigraphic excavation in the Ambohimanga area would be necessary, particularly to characterize and better date the ceramics of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the period of rapid social and political development in central Madagascar. We undertook several small stratigraphic excavations in 1983, recovering not only the ceramic and dating evidence needed, but also carbonized plant remains, animal bones, and other forms of evidence. These data, though from small soundings, are useful in placing the ceramic changes in a context of economic and social activities. Soundings at Ambohinanjakana (520.4-815.3) The site of Ambohinanjakana, two kilometers east of Ambohimanga, was selected for excavation for several reasons: First, the ceramic collection made during the surface survey was tentatively defined as one with both Ambohidray Phase and Kaloy Phase sherds. We could hope to define locally and better date these putative seventeenth- and eighteenth-century ceramic assemblages here. Second, the site itself is an example of a hilltop fortress with multiple polygonal ditches, a common type of site during earlier phases of settlement in Imerina. Most of these (the primary exceptions are those that became major towns and/or sacred sites) were abandoned during the Kaloy Phase. Excavation here would provide evidence of activities performed on this kind of fortified site. Third, the site appeared well preserved, without evidence of the recent cultivation of gardens, though the hilltop was planted in pine trees several decades ago. We could hope to find undisturbed cultural deposits. Fourth, traditions associate the abandonment of the site with Andriambelomasina, a ruler of Ambohimanga during the civil wars of the mid-eighteenth century and grandfather of Andrianampoinimerina (Chapus and Ratsimba 1974:11:44). In principle, the final occupational phase at the site should be of the time of this important ruler. Permission to investigate Ambohinanjakana was granted by Jokontany authorities. Through the courtesy of Mr. Rodolphe Ralambomiadana, the school principal, the staff was able to stay in the schoolhouse of the village of Ambohirnandroso. On 24 August 1983 work began; it was finished on 31 August. The project was jointly sponsored by the Centre d' Art et d' ArcMologie and the Musee d'Art et d'Archeologie. The actual excavation was conducted by HT. Wright, David Rasamuel, Dieudonne Randriamanalina, and Chantal Radimilahy. The fortress of Ambohinanjakana (520.4-815.3) is on the largest of three peaks at an elevation of about 1475 m,just east of the large center of Ambohimanga, the major settlement of western Avaradrano from the Ambohidray Phase onward. On spurs below Ambohinanjankana were other polygonal fortresses of similar size, one to the south (Ambohitrinitompo: 519.9-814.2) and one to the north (519.8-815.9). Small outlying fortifications occupied

the other two peaks a few hundred meters west (520.2-815.2) and southeast (520.6-815.1) of the larger village of Ambohinanjakana, perhaps preventing the use of these outlying eminences by those seeking to besiege the central peak. The nearest water supply and rice paddies are now 90 m below and 150 m southwest of the fortress, but because of erosion, both this source and another possible source in the deeply cut gully or lavakabe that has damaged the north side of the site are doubtless lower than they were at the time of occupation. The fortifications of Ambohinanjakana were much rebuilt and expanded, and their detailed history has not yet been determined. The northern ditches, if there were any, have been cut away by erosion. The southern and southeastern fortifications include two ditches with an outermost third ditch cutting access via spurs. Inside and above the innermost ditch is a dry-laid stone revetment and ruined wall, even now standing up to 0.6 m high. The northeastern fortifications are similar but include at least four ditches. However, the strongest fortifications blocked the gentle slope to the west, also the side of the main entrance. To enter the fortress, one would have first crossed at least six ditches by a serpentine route to enter an outlying bastion, then crossed three more ditches and passed a gate in the stone wall. These ditches were probably cut at different times during the growth and decline of the village, and at various times there were perhaps other gates, no longer evident on the surface. Within the polygonal fortifications were at least seven levels of terraces, cut into the peak and revetted to provide level spaces for houses, courts, and cattle parks. The total terraced area covered at least 0.8 ha before erosion of the north margin. Several notable features are visible on the terrace surfaces. The highest and most central terrace has a small rectangular platform, perhaps a tomb, with a small monolith on top. One of the larger nearby terraces could have served as a public place, or kianja, but most terraces still have the traces of stone wall footings, indicating they were covered by houses. At least seven rectangular cattle parks are visible on the lower terraces; it is possible that some of these were built by partially filling and dividing up an earlier innermost ditch. Three small excavations of varying size-termed Operations A, B, and C - were undertaken in our efforts to find useful stratified deposits at Ambohinanjakana. Our methods maintained the standards set by Verin and Mille. The units were excavated in natural strata, most deposits were screened through a 0.62 cm mesh, and all items except natural rock fragments were retained, cleaned, serially numbered, studied, counted, and weighed. In addition, the volume of debris in each unit was recorded, so that the densities of artifacts per cubic meter, important in the assessment of site formation processes, could be calculated. Operation A was on a high terrace 20 m west of the central platform. A north-south stone alignment was visible. A 4.0 by 1.0 m unit was placed east-west perpendicular to the alignment. The strata were as follows, from oldest to youngest:

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

23

• A layer of solid quartz dipping northward, no doubt natural bedrock.

Layer II: Red sandy clay and quartz fragments, perhaps original terrace fill cut directly from the adjacent hillside.

• A layer of brown sandy silt, also sloping, probably a soil formed on the natural surface of the hill.

Layer 10: Lenses of red sandy silt and brown silt, with a thickness of 0.11 m, sloping down slightly to the north, probably a mixture of collapse from the terrace face and basketloads of debris from elsewhere.

• A reddish sandy silt wedge with a few quartz fragments and sherds on edge, up to 0.14 m thick, probably terrace fill. • A brown sandy level surface with sherds lying horizontally, 0.01 m thick, perhaps a house or courtyard flooring.

Layer 9: Dark (lOYR 512) silt and ash with charcoal, large sherds and cow bones, 0.10 m thick, sloping down to the north, probably dumped domestic refuse.

• A gray-brown silty sand, also level, with sherds on edge, 0.05-0.10 m thick, perhaps a later fill or slope wash discolored by soil-forming processes.

Layer 8: Lenses of whitish (lOYR 712) ash, 0.01-0.05 m thick, patchy to north and west, also sloping; probably dumped hearth fill.

Further work in the architecturally interesting area would require extensive horizontal excavation. The operation was filled in to protect it until such work is possible.

Layer 7: Brown (lOYR 5/2) silt with ash, charcoal, large quartz fragments, 0.07-0.09 m thick, also sloping, probably dumped domestic refuse.

Operation B was a small 0.5 x 0.5 m sounding on a large intermediate terrace about 50 m west of the central platform. This revealed the following level strata from oldest to youngest:

Layer 6: Brown (lOYR 6/3) silt with many quartz fragments, some ash, and sherds, 0.05-0.08 m thick, poorly differentiated from Layer 7; the two are both thicker to the north, so that the top of Layer 6 is essentially level, probably also dumped domestic refuse.

• A layer of quartz fragments, probably terrace fill. • A layer of brown silt and quartz fragments 0.08-0.11 m thick, probably a working surface on the terrace. • A layer of mixed red and brown silt 0.10 m thick with quartz fragments and sherds on edge, probably another layer of terrace filling. • A layer of brown silt 0.15 m thick with a few weathered sherds, washed in since abandonment, and discolored by soil-forming processes. The second and third layers had much iron slag, as well as some sherds, indicating that iron was smelted or forged nearby. As in Operation A, the scarcity of stratified ceramics and the need for magnetic survey and extensive horizontal clearance to clarify possible industrial features led us to close and refill this operation. Operation C, on the lowest terrace, 40 m northwest of the central platform, produced useful stratigraphic evidence. The area was selected because there seemed to be heaps of debris on top of the terrace surface. We hoped these would be deep midden deposits. This proved to be the case, and the operation was expanded to cover 1.0 x 1.3 m, reaching a maximum depth of 0.8 m below surface. The following layers were defined, from oldest to youngest (Fig. 3.1):

Layer 5: Gray (lOYR 6/2) ash lenses with some charcoal, 0.02 m or less in thickness, irregular to west; probably debris from cleaning hearths. Layer 4: Reddish brown (5YR 6/5) sandy silt with many quartz fragments, 0.14 m thick on the south and east, thinning to nothing on the northwest; this layer results from either a massive collapse of the rear cut of the terrace, or the disposal of debris from terrace cutting elsewhere; in either event, the clear-cut stratigraphic break need not represent a long span of time; the upper surface of this layer slopes down markedly to the nOlthwest. Layer 3: Brown (7.5YR 6/4) sandy silt with many sherds, 0.05-0.12 m thick, thicker to the northwest, somewhat reducing the slope of the surface. Layer 2: Dark gray (lOYR4/1.5) silt with ash, some charcoal and large sherds, 0.10-0.20 m thick, also thicker to the north, bringing the depositional surface to a level. Layer I: Light Gray (lOYR 512) silt with small battered sherds; the zone of recent slope wash and soil formation.

After taking photographs and flotation samples to allow us to search for carbonized seeds, Operation C was carefully refilled. The samples recovered are, for the most part, adequate to provide dating criteria for the small surface samples ordinarily collected during our surveys.

24

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Ambohinanjakana East Face

o

.30

I

m

I

South Face

Figure 3.1. Sections of Operation C, Ambohinanjakana (see Fig. 3.8. key).

25

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

Table 3.1. Summary of excavated units at Ambohinanjakana and Amboatany.

Disposal Patterns mean sherd sizes

Activities jar: bowl ratios

plain sandy body sherds

body sherds

rims

Phase

Site

Layer

medox (av wt in g)

medred (av wt in g)

intrp*

pin

ext/int graph

ratio

jar

bowl

Fiadanana

Amboatany

2B

2.2

3.1

Ter

191

20

.10

2

1

-

B+

Kaloy

Amboatany

3

2.9

2.8

Ter

266

19

.07

6

4

.66

B+

Kaloy

Amboatany

4AB

2.6

4.3

Ter

209

17

.08

7

6

.86

B+

Kaloy

Amboatany

4C

3.4

5.6

Sec+

53

2

.04

-

-

-

B-

Kaloy

Ambohinanjakana

I

-

-

45

3

.07

6

1

.16

B-

Kaloy

Ambohinanjakana

2

3.4

5.4

Sec

205

17

.08

II

6

.54

B+

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

3

5.8

4.3

Sec

73

9

.12

4

6

1.20

B+

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

5-6

5.2

5.3

Sec

65

2

.03

4

I

.25

B-

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

7-8

4.6

5.0

Sec

97

7

.07

6

0

-

B-

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

9

6.4

4.9

Sec

123

3

.02

7

I

.14

B-

ratio

intrp**

*Ter = tertiary deposit; Sec = secondary deposit **B+ = bowls predominate; B- =bowls rare, jars predominate

Table 3.2. Summary of excavated units at Ambohinanjakana and Arnboatany.

Technological Change clay body and firing jars

% mica! jar shrd

% oxdzdl plsndy

surface

Stylistic Change rim modifications

bowls

jars

jars

bowls

% finel bl shrd

% oxdzdl graph ext

% thickndl all jar rims

% thickndl all bowl rims

Phase

Site

Layer

Fiadanana

Amboatany

2B

.41

.78

-

.24

1.00

-

Kaloy

Amboatany

3

.12

.65

.57

.46

.60

.50

Kaloy

Amboatany

4AB

.11

.61

Kaloy

Amboatany

4C

.13

.70

Kaloy

Ambohinanjakana

1

.07

.53

Kaloy

Ambohinanjakana

2

.04

.21 .33'

.50

.66'

.60'

.49

.30'

.22'

.55'

.80'

.33

.75

.30 3

1.003

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

3

0

.64

.17

.57

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

5-6

0

.52

0

.09

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

7-8

0

.45

0

.11

Ambohidray

Ambohinanjakana

9

0

.55

0

.02

'Layers 4A-C combined 'Layers 1-2 combined 3Layers 5-9 combined

26

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The inference that the Operation C deposits result from ordinary domestic activities is supported by the nonceramic items noted below.

earliest archaeological evidence of guns in Imerina known to us. The scarcity of such evidence suggests that guns were rare in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

• Bone was poorly preserved, but large mammal bonesdomestic cow in all cases where identifiable-were found in Layers 9 and 7.

The great majority of the artifacts recovered are potsherds, most of which represent ceramic vessels made from two "wares," that is, groups of vessels characterized by certain clay preparation techniques, surface treatments, and firing patterns (Figs. 3.2-3.4). A majority of the vessels are made from a plain surfaced, relatively coarse, sandy ware with 5% to 25% inclusions. Fine sand is present in all of the 25 rim sherds from Operation C, but is the predominant inclusion in only 16%. Medium round to subangular sand is evident in 64% and predominant in 48%. Coarse sand is evident in 12% and predominates in all of these. Angular quartz particles are evident in 68% and predominant in 24%. This relatively coarse ware was used primarily to form restricted vessels with everted necks. Measurements allow these to be divided into small examples less than 22 cm in rim diameter and large examples with greater diameters, but no criteria allow division of the traditional vilany or vilany tany or cooking vessels from sinyor storage vessels (RasamueI1984:371-76), so the entire class is termed "jars." Both the large and small variants have carbonized cooking debris on the exterior indicating use as a vilany, but such debris is more common on the smaller variant. Conical tops, fitting these jar forms, also occur. The interiors and, in 7% of the sherds of this ware, even the exteriors show the marks of scraping. By definition, though graphite may be rubbed on the inside of the vessel rims or even occasionally on

• Flotation produced evidence of rice and legumes in Layers 6, 7, and 2, probably carbonized during the cleaning of storage features (see Wetterstrom and Wright 1992 and Appendix C). • Only a few fragments of iron slag were noted, all in Layers 2 and 1. • One concave quartz pebble with signs of abrasion, perhaps a polisher for ceramic manufacture, was found in Layer 1. • Two sherds chipped and perhaps used as scrapers were found in Layer 3. • A gunflint made from a honey-colored translucent chert (Fig. 3.3p) was found in Layer 9. The chert is not a typical imported English or French type. It resembles cherts from workshops in Cretaceous outcrops along the west coast of Madagascar and may have been brought to Imerina from those regions (Radimilahy and Wright 1986). This is the

Figure 3.2. Jar sherds from Ambohinanjakana, Ex. C, Layers 3-10, Arnbohidray Phase.

a, jar rim (C-23.9), Layer 3, 10% MS AQ, Om ca. 24 warped, NT .64, very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) body. b, jar rim (C-23.6), Layer 3, 20%AQ FS, Om ca. 20 warped, NT .80, pink (7.5YR 7/4) body, inner rim graphite. c, jar rim (C-23.7), Layer 3, 10% MS, Om ca. 18, NT .92, very dark gray (IOYR 3/0) body, poor exterior graphite. d, jar rim (C-23.8), Layer 3, 20% AQ MS, Om ca. 20, NT .72, dark gray (10YR 4/1) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. e, heavy jar rim (C-23.19), Layer 3, 10% MS AQ, Om ?, NT ca.. 93, rimT 1.35, pink (7.5YR 7/4) body. /, jar rim (C-23.8), Layer 3, 20% AQ MS, Om ca. 20, NT .72, dark gray (lOYR 4/1) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. g, jar rim (C-25.3), Layers 5-6, 20% CS AQ, Om ca. 17, NT .67, dark brown (7.5YR 4/2) body, inner lim graphite, ext carbon. ",jar rim (C-25.4), Layers 5-6,10% MS AQ, Om ca. 26, NT .64, gray (IOYR 5/1) body, inner rim graphite. i, jar rim (C-23.13), Layer 3, 5% FS, Om 20, NT ca. .42, dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2) body, int-ext graphite. j, jar rim (C-28.2), Layer 8, 20%AQMS, Om25, NT .79, light gray (10YR 7/2) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. k, jar rim (C-29.2), Layer 9, 20% CS, Om 28, NT .53, brown (IOYR 4/3) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon.

t, jar rim (C-27.2), Layer 7, 10% MS, Om ca. 14, NT .67, RT .75, pale brown (7.5YR 6/3) body. m,jar rim (C-29.3), Layer 9, 20% CS, AQ, feldspar, Om ca. 19, NT .70, brown (7.5YR 5/4) body, some ext carbon. n, jar rim (C-30.1), Layer 9, 15% MS M, Om 24, NT .53, grayish brown (IOYR 5/2) body, ext vertical scratches. 0, jar rim (C-29.5), Layer 9, 15% MSAQ, Dm28, NT 1.19, light brownish gray (IOYR 6/2) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. p, jar rim (C-29.4), Layer 9, 15% MS AQ, Om 14, NT .58, pale brown (lOYR 6/3) body, ext carbon. q, jar shoulder with applique (C-25.4), Layer 9, 10% MS, NT .51, strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) body. r, jar rim of orange surface ware (C-31.2), Layer 10, 10% MS, feldspar, Om ca. 19, NT .70, reddish yellow (5YR 7/6) body. Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, 1: not an error. Note: Possible junctures between clay patches, rings, or filets are shown on the sections as white marks.

27

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

-

-_ ....

-:

:"

.

........' .'

-,

('=-- .

a.

-. -.

'

(~- -,-----:, . . . A

•

:-~:~. ~~ ..~~~~

~

r-f-

,

".-

"*":~~ --~-

o.

E!!!f3~'-.

=-:::--: .. , .. -;-.::. '

p.

--"

-

r.

-.

.

28

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

the exterior, there is no carefully applied exterior graphite coating. These vessels had a wide range of firing conditions, only 25% having dark gray cores and 50% having buff or red cores. A few jar bases were reworked after breaking to form a rough bowl with ground rim. A minority of the vessels are made from a graphite coated finer sandy ware with up to 15% inclusions. Fine sand is the predominant inclusion in 80% of the 20 rims from Operation C. Medium sand is evident in 15% and predominant in 10%. Angular quartz particles are evident in 25%, but predominate in only one example. Only one example has a fine body, lacking even a trace of fine sand. Mica flecks are evident in only 10% of the examples, but predominate in none. Most vessels formed of this ware were open hemispherical bowls with pedestal feet, the traditionalloviamanga or serving bowl (RasamueI1984:364-67). There is a smaller variant from 12 to 18 cm in rim diameter and a larger one from 19 to 21 cm in rim diameter. A few restricted jars were also made of this ware. The exteriors of these fine ware vessels are by definition covered with a graphite coating, often highly polished. The interiors of the bowls are similarly polished, but the insides of their pedestal bases and of the jars are not. Firing in an oxidizing atmosphere would degrade the graphite coating, so it is not surprising that all but two of these vessels, that is 90%, have dark gray cores indicating reduction. Two other wares were represented by only a few sherds each. One has predominantly mica temper and is orange in color, but is unusually hard, in contrast to later wares with mica inclusions. The other has predominantly graphite temper. The former ware is represented only by jar rims not otherwise distinguishable from plain sandy ware jar rims. Sherds of the latter are not indicative of vessel form.

Even though the ceramics seem similar throughout the midden deposits, it is possible to demonstrate some technical and stylistic changes through time if one controls for other variables that can bias sample characteristics, and if one examines statistical variation in the ceramic attributes. The first variables that must be controlled are those of the depositional processes themselves. For example, if some layers of the midden were composed primarily of swept debris, while others were composed primarily of debris picked up by hand, the frequencies of ceramic types could be quite different. Also, if some trash deposits were walked upon, the proportion of more fragile and easily broken types of sherds would be increased. Any differences in trash disposal techniques should affect the average size of sherds. Table 3.1 shows the sizes of common sherd types expressed as average weights. The average weights of the sherds vary little, indicating similar disposal processes as this particular sequence accumulated. In comparison with other deposits, for example the tertiary terrace fills found at Amboatany (see below), the sherds are relatively large- from 4.3 to 6.4 grams-confirming the stratigraphic indications that the layers in Excavation C contain slightly disturbed secondary trash. The second class of variable that must be controlled are those related to pottery vessel use. The physics of vessel shapes alone would suggest that the relatively voluminous restricted jars would be used very differently from the smaller open bowls. Traditional cooking and eating customs in Imerina indicate the same (RasamuelI984:364-76). The presence of cooking debris solely on the jars provides confirmation. Table 3.1 shows a relatively low bowl-to-jar ratio, with bowls ordinarily broken less frequently than jars. The proportions of both graphited bow I body sherds and rim sherds vary similarly through time. Only

Figure 3.3. Bowl sherds from Ambohinanjakana, Ex. C, Layers 3-10, Early Kaloy Phase.

j, cylindrical bowl foot stem (C-23.9), Layer 3, 25% CA AQ, stem Dm 3.52, dark gray (IOYR 4/0) body, ext graphite.

a, bowl rim (C-23.1), Layer 3, Tr FS, Dm 29, RT .74, ST .51, gray (1OYR 5/l) body, good int-ext graphite. b, bowl rim (C-23.2), Layer 3, TrFS, Dmca. 18, RT .72, ST .71, dark gray (10YR 4/0) body, int-ext graphite. c, bowl rim (C-23.3), Layer 3, no visible inclusions, Dm ca. 16, RT .60, ST .63, very dark gray (1OYR 3/1) body, good int-ext graphite. d, bowl rim (C-16.1), Layer 3,5% MS, Dm 13, RT .59, ST .63, grayish brown (lOYR 5/2) body, rough surface! e, bowl tim (C-23.4), Layer 3, 10% FSAQ, Dm 23,RT .87, ST .93, black (lOYR 2/0) body, good int-ext graphite. f, bowl rim (C-25.6), Layer 7, 5% MS, Dm ca. 18, RT .56, ST .70, light reddish brown (5YR 6/5) body, poor int graphite. g, bowl rim (C-17.I), Layers 5-6, 10% FS, Dm ca. 24, RT .69, ST .62, very dark gray (lOYR 3/1) body, iIlt-ext graphite. h, bowl rim (C-25.1), Layers 5-6,5% FS M, Dm 17, RT .67, ST ca. .49,light brownish gray (1OYR 6/2) body, poor int-ext graphite. i, bowl rim (C-29.1), Layer 9,10% FS M AQ, Dm 21, RT .89, ST .80, very dark gray (1OYR 3/1) body, poor int-ext graphite.

k, jar base reworked into bowl (C-23.5), Layer 3, 10% FS M, Dm 14, RT .40, ST .42, very dark gray (2.5Y 3/1) body, ext scraping.

I, jar base reworked into bowl (C-28.1), Layer 8, 20% AQ FS, Dm ca. 26, RT .46, ST .50, very dark gray (lOYR 3/1) body, ext scraping. m, conical foot rim (C-31.3), Layer 10, 10% FS, foot Dm 9, dark gray (1OYR 4/0) body, ext good graphite. n, conical foot rim (C-28.4), Layer 8, 10% FS, foot Dm 14, light gray (1OYR 6/1) body, ext poor graphite. 0, conical foot rim (C-23.13), Layer 3, 20% AQ MS, foot Dm 18, dark gray (lOYR 411) body, ext graphite. p, gunflint (C-26.9), translucent light brown chalcedony. Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, CA: calcite, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Dm: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Centrallmerina

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Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

the higher proportion of bowl body and rim sherds in Layer 3 is statistically significant. The use and breakage rate of graphited bowls can be expected to vary with social activities, and the proportion of graphited sherds in a collection should not be taken as a chronological indicator. The technology of ceramic production for the major wares changed very little. Within the span of time represented in Ambohinanjakana Operation C, the types of inclusions, surface treatments and firing patterns seem to change little. There are, however, a few changes that may be of use in dating surface collected samples (Table 3.2). • Among the plain jars, vessels with a predominance of mica in the clay body appear only in more recent Layers 2 and 1, where they constitute respectively 4% and 7% of the plain body sherds. • The graphited jar sherds in the earlier layers were almost always fired in a reducing atmosphere, leaving a dark core. Only 2% to 11 % of the samples from Layers 9 to 5 had a buff or red clay body. In contrast, these exterior graphited jar sherds in the more recent levels had often been fired in an oxidizing atmosphere. From 22% to 57% of these sherds from Layers 3 and 2 have buff or red cores. This implies that the graphite coating was rubbed on after the initial firing. As one might expect, the later graphite coatings tended to be more ephemeral and poorly fixed.

Figure 3.4. Ceramics from Ambohinanjakana, Ex. C, Layers 1-2, Early Kaloy Phase.

a, bowl rim (C-ll.I), Layers 1-2, 15% FS, M, Om 13, RT .93, ST .97, very dark gray (IOYR 3/1) body, int-ext graphite. b, bowl rim (C-I1.2), Layers 1-2, 10% FS,AQ, Om IS, RT .59, STca.. 62, dark gray (IOYR 4/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. c, bowl rim (C-I1.3), Layers 1-2, 15% FS, AQ, Om ca. 20, RT .62, ST ca .. 65, dark gray (IOYR 4/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. d,jar base (C-I1.5), Layers 1-2,5% FS, Om ?, RTca .. 59, STca. .49, very dark gray (IOYR 3/1) body, cross-scraped exterior. e, bowl rim (C-19.1),Layers 1-2A, 5% FS,AQ,Dmca. 28, RT .74, ST .70, dark gray (lOYR 4/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. f, bowl rim (C-20.1), Layer 2A, 10% FS, Om 12, RT .48, ST .53, black (IOYR 2/1) body, int-ext graphite. g, bowl rim (C-20.2), Layer 2A, Tr FS, Om 21, RT .62, ST .70, very dark gray (lOYR 3/1) body, good int-ext graphite. h, bowl rim (C-20.3), Layer2A, TrFS, Om 18, RT .65, ST .71, dark gray (IOYR 4/1) body, good int-ext graphite. i, bowl rim (C-21.2), Layer 2B, Tr FS, Om 12, RT .71, ST .57, very dark gray (IOYR 3/1) body, good int-ext graphite. j, bowl rim (C-20.4),Layer2A, 5% FS, Om 18, RT .64, STca. .46, brown (IOYR 5/2) body, int-ext graphite. k, bowl rim (C-21.1), Layer2B, 5% FS, Om?, RT .57, ST .51, black (IOYR 2/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. [, top of conical bowl foot (C-II.2), Layers 1-2, inclusions not recorded, Om ca. 2.40, dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2) body, ext graphite.

• Among the graphited bowls, very fine clay bodies with only traces of inclusions are not found in earlier Layers 10 to 5. However, they constitute an increasing proportion of the bowls from Layers 3 to 1. The sample of bowls from the earlier levels is small, and further research may show that a technique of cleaning clay for bowl manufacture such as water-sorting was occasionally used earlier. The ceramics of Ambohinanjakana do not exhibit much design variation that might be taken to convey social information and thus might be considered "stylistic" (Wobst 1977; Plog 1980; Hegmon 1995). Our studies have been limited to observations of the details of vessel lips and rims, though in the future, aspects of vessel proportion and graphite quality must be considered. The studies to date have been limited by the relatively small numbers of rims. However, some chronological changes are notable (Table 3.2). • Among the jar rims, only a minority of the earlier examples have lip thickening, 30% in Layers 9 to 5 and 33% in Layer 3. In latest Layers 2 and 1, the proportion jumps to 55%. This could be a technical change, designed to strengthen the rim, rather than a stylistic change. In any event, such thickened lips characterize everted neck jars seen in local markets until recently. • Among the graphited bowl rims, all three ofthe earlier examples from Layers 9 to 5 have a thickening of the interior

m, bowl foot rim (C-15.2), Layer 2B, 10% FS, M, Om ?, good int-ext graphite, color not recorded. n, bowl foot rim (C-19.5), Layer I, Tr FS, OM?, poor int-ext graphite. 0, bowl foot rim (C-19.4), Layer I, 10% AQ, MS, Om ca. 18, int-ext graphite, color not recorded. p, jar rim (C-22.1), Layer 2B, 15% MS, AQ, Om ca. 26 warped, NT .66, dark brown (7.5YR 3/1) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. q, jar rim (C-I1.4), Layers 1-2, 15% MS, AQ, Om 19, NT .62, RT .72, brown (IOYR 5/3) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. r, jar rim (C-Il.5), Layers 1-2,5% FS, Dm26, NT .62, RT .64, dark gray (IOYR 4/1) body, inner rim graphite, ext carbon. s, jar rim (C-19.3), Layer I, 15% M, Om ca. 30, NT .66, very dark gray (IOYR 3/1) body. t, jar rim (C-20.6), Layer 2A, 10% MS, AQ, Om 28, NT .69, brown (7.5YR 5/4) body, inner rim graphite. u, jar rim (C-19.2), Layer I, 15% AQ+ M, Om ca. 26, NT .67, grayish brown (IOYR 5/2) body, inner rim graphite. v, jar rim (C-20.5), Layer 2A, 10% MS, Om 28, NT .89, brown (IOYR 5/3) body. W, jar rim (C-21.3), Layer 2B, 10% FS AQ M, Om 21, NT .65, brown (5YR 4/4) body, ext carbon. Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: In!: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central1merina

31

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Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

of the lip. One simple rounded fonu appears among the four rims from Layer 3, and two simple rounded examples of the ten examples from latest Layers 2 and 1. Some thickened examples from Layers 2 and 1 also have a distinctive lip flattening (Fig. 3.4a,j, h). Clearly, larger samples are needed, but the trend in the excavated material conforms to that suggested in the preliminary chronology. The evidence from the relatively undisturbed domestic debris sampled in Operation C at Ambohinanjakana provides evidence from the Ambohimanga area for revising the preliminary ceramic chronology constructed in 1975 with evidence from the far east ofImerina (Wright 1979). • Layers 9 to 3 are characterized by plain everted neck cooking and storage jars (Fig. 3.2) that have sandy inclusions-mica does not predominate in the inclusions in any jar-and less than 33% have thickened rims. There are sandy ware jars with graphite coatings on the exterior, less than 20% of which have oxidized bodies. These layers have bowls with interior and exterior graphite coatings made exclusively of sandy ware (Fig. 3.3). There are no sherds of the fine ware lacking inclusions known in later phases. All of the small sample of bowl rim sherds have interior thickening of the rim. We take these characteristics to define the Ambohidray Phase in western Avaradrano. • Layers 2 and 1 are characterized by plain everted neck cooking jars (Fig. 3.4) in which up to 10% have predominate mica inclusions, and 55% have thickened rims. There are also jars with graphite coatings on the exterior, 57% of which have oxidized bodies, and only ephemeral graphite coatings. These layers have bowls with interior-exterior graphite coatings made predominantly of sandy ware. However, sherds of fine ware lacking inclusions constitute up to 30% of the graphited bowls. Most of the bowl rim sherds have interior thickening of the rim (some with a distinctive lip flattening) but 20% have simple rounded lips without thickening. We take these characteristics to define the Early Kaloy Subphase in western Avaradrano. A Sounding at Amboatany (516.0-814.9) Within a few days ofcommencing work atAmbohinanjakana,we realized that only the very beginning of the Kaloy Phase was represented in preserved strata at the site. Amboatany, two kilometers west of Ambohimanga, was selected for further excavation for several reasons: First, the ceramic collection made in 1975 had indicated that Amboatany was a site occupied during the Kaloy and Fiadanana Phases. We hoped to define and better date the later eighteenthand nineteenth-century ceramics here. Second, the site itself is a twin hilltop fortress with an earlier western part with irregular polygonal ditches and a large later

pentagonal addition to the east (see Appendix A). The massive ditches and masonry gates of this later addition are typical of the later Kaloy Phase. Third, though-like most such sites-Amboatany had nineteenth-century houses, continuing occupation, and recent cultivation of gardens, there were many open terraced surfaces accessible for excavation. We hoped damage to some parts of the site would be minimal and undisturbed stratification could be found. Fourth, both local traditions and recorded royal traditions associate the reorganization of the site with Andrianampoinimerina (Chapus and Ratsimba 1974:II:153-58), and we hoped that the initial occupational phase in the eastern portion of the site should be of the time of the great state founder. Permission to investigate Amboatany was granted by the 10calJokontany authorities. We were generously aided during our brief period of fieldwork by M. Rakotoarison, the vice-president of the Jokontany, and his family. Work began on 19 September and finished on 22 September 1983. The project was jointly sponsored by the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie and the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie. The actual excavation was conducted by Chantal Radimilahy, Andrianaivoarivony Rafolo, Hilarion Solo Rakotovololona, Wilma Wetterstrom, and H.T. Wright. The twin fortresses of Amboatany (516.0-814.9) and Fiangarana (515.8-814.8) are on the steep west end of the ridge of Mangabe at an elevation of about 1450 m, west of the large center of Ambohimanga, the capital of the area during the Kaloy Phase. They overlook the whole of the Mamba Valley and the frontier between the kingdom of Ambohimanga and the kingdom of Marovatana to the west. The great grove of trees around the tomb of Andrianamahery, who was placed in charge of the fortress by Andrianampoinimerina, fonus a distinctive point of reference on the horizon of northern Imerina. The steep paths traditionally giving access to the fortress are difficult. The nearest water supply and rice fields are now 110 m below and 180 m to both north and south of the fortress. The eastward expansion of the fortress has completely obliterated an earlier Ankatso Phase site and encroached upon an Ambohidray Phase site farther east, and sherds of both of these earlier phases are found inside Amboatany. Operation D, our only sounding at Amboatany, was placed on the lower south terrace inside the eastern fortification of Amboatany. It is 35 m west-southwest of the central meeting place or kianja and 70 m west-southwest of the tomb of Andrianamahery. We selected this location because a nearby recently excavated pit had revealed more than a meter of stratified cultural debris. The operation was 1.0 x 1.0 m, and reached a maximum depth of 0.96 m below surface. The methods used were the same as those used at Ambohinanjakana. To our surprise, after excavating a series of more or less horizontal layers of debris, this small excavation revealed the inside of a comer of a structure with walls of pise orJeta. Layers 4 and 5 were deposited inside this structure, Layer 3C was the debris of its final destruction, and the higher layers were later

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

33

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Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

diameter. Conical tops or covers also occur. The exteriors show the marks of scraping in up to 10% of the sherds in a given unit. Burnishing occurs on up to 42% of the body sherds. There are no carefully applied graphite coatings, though graphite may be rubbed on the inside of vessel rims after firing. These vessels were usually fired under oxidizing conditions, only a few having dark gray cores and 90% of the rims and more than 60% of the body sherds having buff or red cores. Some of the vessels are made from a graphite coated sandy ware with up to 10% inclusions. Fine sand is the predominant inclusion in half of the 8 rims from Operation D. Medium sand is predominant in the remainder. Angular quartz particles are evident in 25%, but never predominant. Mica flecks are rare. Most vessels formed of this ware were open hemispherical bowls with pedestal feet, the traditionalloviamanga (Rasamuel 1984:364-67); they range from 14 to 28 cm in rim diameter, but the sample is too small to detect discrete size modes. Restricted jars and vessel covers or tops also occur. The exteriors of these fine ware vessels are covered with a graphite coating, varying from somewhat polished to fugitive. The interiors of the bowls are similarly coated, but the insides of their pedestal bases and of the jars and covers are not. Up to 59% of the graphited bowls and 39% of the graphited jars have tan to red cores, indicating firing under oxidizing conditions. Such firing would have oxidized the graphite, so it would have been rubbed on after firing, and it is not surprising that it is fugitive and of poor quality. Some of the vessels are made from a micaeous clay body, either oxidized to an orange or tan color or reduced to a dark gray color, and often friable and prone to splitting. The sherds are thin and 20% are burnished. This ware was used to manufacture a few everted jars and a range of distinctive, strongly everted

jar rims and cover rims, well known from the site of Fiadanana. The jar sherds frequently have fire marks and carbonized cooking debris on the exterior. There is also one distinctive carinated bowl with a flattened lip. Some of the vessels are made from a fine clay body, with only traces of fine sand or mica inclusions. This ware was used exclusively to make loviamanga, open bowls with interior and exterior graphiting. Though all attested vessels were fired in a reducing atmosphere, the graphite coatings are generally of poor quality. The procedure used to control for varying depositional patterns and activities in the sequence of Ambohinanjakana, Operation C, can also be used on the Amboatany samples. Table 3.1 shows the sizes of common sherd types expressed as average weights for Amboatany as well as for Ambohinanjakana. The average weight of sherd for Layer 4C, the floor deposit in the building, is relatively large, similar to the average sherd weights at Ambohinanjakana. This is probably secondary trash, dumped inside the little-used building and covered before being trampled and further diminished in size. The higher layers have generally smaller sherds-from 2.2 to 4.3 grams-supporting the stratigraphic indications that these layers are primarily tertiary deposits of trash dug up, mixed, used as leveling fills, and trampled. The second class of variable that must be controlled are those related to pottery vessel use. Table 3.1 shows that there is little variation in bowl-to-jar ratios, with bowls ordinarily broken less frequently than jars. The proportions of both graphited bowl body sherds and rim sherds vary similarly through time, but the variations are not statistically significant. The deposits sampled at Amboatany seem to have been ordinary domestic debris, much like those at Ambohinanjakana.

Figure 3.7. Bowl rims and other sherds from Amboatany. Ex. O. Late Kaloy and Fiadanana Phases.

k, bowl rim (0-7.2), Layer 3B, Tr FS, Om 12, RT .69, ST .56, gray CIOYR 6/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. I, bowl rim (0-7.3), Layer 3B, 5% FS, Om 21, RT .77, ST .48, grayish brown (IOYR 5/2) body, poor int-ext graphite. m, bowlrim (0-7.5), Layer 3B, Tr FS, Om 17, RT .71, STca .. 54, grayish brown (lOYR 5/2) body, poor int-ext graphite. n, bowl rim (0-6. I), Layer 3A, 5% FS, Om 14, RT .59, STca .. 59, grayish brown (lOYR 512) body, int-ext graphite, battered sherd. 0, bowl rim (0-7.4), Layer 3B, 5% FS, Om 19, RT .79, ST .56, grayish brown (IOYR 512) body, poor int-ext graphite. p, miniature bowl rim (0-6.2), Layer 3A, Tr FS, Om 7!, RT .36, ST .35, dark gray (IOYR 411) body, int-ext graphite. q, bowl rim (0-5.1), Layer 2,5% FS, Om ?, RT ca .. 62, ST ca . .42, dark gray (IOYR 4/1) body. r, bowl rim (0-5.3), Layer 2, Tr M, Om 19, RT ca .. 61, ST ca . .46, light reddish brown (5YR 6/4) body.

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bowl rim (0-9.1), Layer 3C, 10% MS, Om ca. IS, RT .6S. ST .62, light brownish gray (lOYR 612) body, poor int-ext graphite (fresh unbattered sherd). bowl rim (0-9.4), Layer 3C, 10% MS AQ, Om ca. 21, RT .S3, ST .62. dark gray (I OYR 411) body, poor int-ext graphite. bowl rim (0-11.5), Layer 4AB, 5% FS M, Om ?, RT .68. ST .60, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) body, rough surface. bowl rim (0-11.1), Layer4AB. 15% MSAQ, Om 24, RT .S4, ST .SI, mottled dark gray (IOYR 4/1) and brown (7.5YR 5/4) body, poor int-ext graphite (fresh unbattered sherd). bowl rim (0-1 1.2), Layer4AB, 15% MS AQ, Om ca. IS. RT .82, ST .54, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) body, poor int-ext graphite. bowl rim (0-9.5), Layer 3C, 20% MS AQ, Om ca. 26, RT .SO, ST .63, dark gray (lOYR 4/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. bowl rim (0-13. I), Layer 5, 10% MS AQ, Om 2S, RT .S4, ST .58, red (2.5YR 5/6) body, int-ext graphite. bowl base with oval punctates (0-7.7), Layer 3B, 10% FS M, ST .54, very dark gray (lOYR 4/1) body, poor int-ext graphite. bowl rim with oval punctates (0-9.2), Layer 3C, inclusions not recorded, Om ?, RT .56, ST .66, color not recorded, poor iut-ext graphite. bowl rim (0-7. I), Layer 3B, Tr FS, Om ca. IS, RT .60, ST .6S, very dark gray (lOYR 311) body, poor int-ext graphite.

Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness . Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

37

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

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Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Within the span of time represented in Ambotany Operation D, the types of inclusions, surface treatments, firing patterns, and rim embellishments seem to change in ways that may be of use in dating samples collected from the surface (Table 3.2). • Among the sherds of plain jars, the sherds of vessels with a predominance of mica in the clay body constitute between 10% and 15% of the sherds in Layers 4 and 3. In contrast, in Layer 2, the proportion increases to 40% of the plain body sherds. • The graphited jar sherds in earlier Layers 4 and 3 have 20% to 50% oxidized bodies. As one might expect, these graphite coatings tended to be more ephemeral and poorly fixed. • Among the graphited bowls, fine clay bodies with only traces of inclusions constitute 57% of the bowls from Layers 4 and 3. We do not have enough information on Layer 2 to assess bowl fabrics. Our studies of possibly "stylistic" design variation have been limited to observations of the details of vessel lips and rims. These studies to date have been limited by the relatively small numbers of rims. However, some chronological changes are notable (Table 3.2). • Among the jar rims, about 60% of the earlier examples in Layers 4 and 3 have a thickening of the lip, which may be either technical or stylistic. In later Layer 2, all such rims exhibit thickening. Thickened lips predominate in locally made jars up to the present day. • Among the graphited bowl rims, about half of the examples from Layers 4 and 3 have a thickening of the interior of the lip. Some of these have a distinctive lip flattening (Fig. 3.7a,J, g). The remainder are thicker bowls with a simple rounded lip, often on very fine clay bodies, and often with lip flattening. It is likely that at least the small and battered thickened lip bowl rims are earlier examples introduced into these layers as walls containing older debris decayed, and that the actual percentage of the rounded lip bowls in use was higher. Though the sample from the sounding at Amboatany is small, study of variation in the ceramics from layer to layer provides evidence useful for revising the preliminary ceramic chronology constructed in 1975 (Wright 1979): • Layers 4 and 3 are characterized by plain everted neck cooking jars (Fig. 3.6a-h) in which 10% to 15% have predominate mica inclusions, and 60% to 70% have thickened rims. There are also jars with ephemeral graphite coatings on the exterior, 20% to 50% of which have oxidized bodies. These layers have bowls (Fig. 3.7) with interior and

exterior graphite coatings made predominantly of sandy ware. Sherds of fine ware lacking inclusions constitute up to 57% of the graphited bowls. Many bowl rims have interior thickening of the rim, but 40% to 50% have simple rounded lips without thickening. However, some of the bowl rims in these layers are earlier sherds introduced with the collapsed pise fragments. Eliminating small battered rim sherds from consideration, the percentage of rounded lip bowls in use at this time would have been at least 70%. We take these characteristics to define the Late Kaloy Subphase in western Avaradrano. • Layer 2 is characterized by cooking jars with very everted necks, all of which have mica inclusions, with mica predominating in two-thirds of the examples (Fig. 3.6i-I). There are also sherds of jars with fugitive graphite coatings on the exterior. These layers have sherds of bowls with fugitive interior and exterior graphite coatings made predominantly of fine ware, but there are no measurable rim sherds. The sample is very limited, but the characteristics of the micaceous ware can be taken to define the Fiadanana Phase in western Avaradrano. Useful as the Amboatany evidence is, it is not enough to precisely define the Late Kaloy or the Fiadanana ceramic assemblages. More extensive excavation is needed.

New Chronological Evidence from Excavations Elsewhere in Imerina: 1980-1985 During the early 1980s, David Rasamuel directed extensive excavations at Fanongoavana (548.7-781.8), a site 36 km to the east of Antananarivo, under the aegis of both the Centre and the Musee d'Art et d'Archeologie (Rasamuel 1984). This was an important early center in Merina traditions located on a high peak overlooking most of eastern Imerina. The innermost earlier ditch encloses 0.13 ha. Within this space are traces of terraces, house platforms, cattle parks, silo pits and the tomb of the site's founder, Andrianamponga. An outer ditch encloses a much larger area. Rasamuel's strategy was to strip most of the site within the inner ditch to natural clay. The excavations revealed the footings of at least four houses; installations for obtaining clay, firing pottery, and smelting iron; silo pits; and other early features dating to the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries (see Appendix B). The ceramics associated with these early features include many fragments of shallow bowls with conical pedestal bases, usually thin-walled with thickened rims. These bowls were undecorated except for a graphite covering, often polished. Also frequent were fragments of high-necked jars, often with thin walls and scraped exteriors. Rasamuel has completed an exemplary study of the great quantity of archaeological evidence recovered from Fanongoavana (Rasamuel 1984). In addition, he has kindly allowed

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Centrallmerina

us to examine samples from certain house floors and pits. Our observations on these are crucial in better defining the Angavobe Phase, as is discussed below. During the mid-l 980s, Andrianaivoarivony Rafolo directed equally extensive excavations on the high citadel ofLohavohitra (489.1-828.7),42 km northwest of Antananarivo, for the Centre d' Art et d' Archeologie (Rafolo 1989, 1989-90). This is a key site in the traditions of Vonizongo, an independent polity in western Imerina until the late eighteenth century. Its high citadel has a deep and complex stratigraphy, with contexts dating from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries yielding ceramics similar to the Angavobe, Ambohidray and Kaloy Phases. Rafolo has kindly allows us to examine ceramics from contexts with associated radiocarbon dates (Appendix B).

New Chronological Evidence from Sonndings and Excavations in Avaradrano: 1985-1989 Excavations at Ankadivory (519.6-8/3.0) The evidence that led us to propose an early cultural phase called the "Fiekena Phase" in 1975 was minimal. None of the sites with the Fiekena ceramic assemblage seemed to be well preserved, and we despaired of ever finding archaeological deposits that would better enable us to define and date this phase. In 1984, however, our survey team returned to the hamlet of Ankadivory, 2 km southeast of Ambohimanga, to search for more examples of a puzzling coarse ware sherd we had found in 1983. In a field we had failed to examine, we found a village site with a dark brown midden and many fragments of Fiekena Phase pottery. The site is not visible on air photographs and is not specifically mentioned in local oral traditions. It could only have been found by a systematic walking of the fields. The early site at Ankadivory (519.6-813.0) is marked by a semicircular area of midden facing north toward a small marshy river valley, comprising about 1.5 ha. Excavations were conducted by Hilarion Solo Rakotovololona of the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie, from 1986 to 1991, with the support of the Wenner-Gren Foundation and the Malagasy-Swedish "Urban Origins" project. This work shows that the midden marks a village site of which the bounding ditch system was completely filled with debris. Rakotovololona's team made a permanent reference grid and systematically collected surface materials from the site; completed a program of coring, soil chemical, and geophysical tests; and excavated four areas: (1) a trench across the west ditch, (2) a 4 by 4 m area with scattered postholes and cooking debris, (3) a similar area with small pits, and (4) a similar m:ea with lines of postholes. The ditch and the pits have produced a range of jars and bowls with simple alTays of triangular impressions. Also found were a few sherds of imported Persian Gulf sgraffiato of twelfth- to thirteenth-century date and of imported Far Eastern Song white porcelains and stonewares of the same period (Rakotovololona 1989, 1993).

39

Rakotovololona undertook detailed study of the great quantity of ceramics recovered from Ankadivory before his unfortunate death in 1994. Publication of his manuscript will present the full range of variation. However, he had kindly allowed examination of samples from the refuse-filled ditch and various pits. Observations on these are crucial in better defining the Fiekena Phase, as is discussed below. A Sounding at Ambohidahy (515.2-814.8) On the west extremity of the high ridge of Mangabe, just west of Amboatany, overlooking the Mamba River to the north and west and the rice basin of Antananarivo to the south, is the settlement of Ambohidahy (515.2-814.8), covering 4.6 ha. It is composed of a larger south portion and a smaller north portion, both sUlTounded by a polygonal ditch system. Both portions have house telTaces. In the north part are one- and two-tier tombs. A recent road across the site has revealed several pits and many sherds, including a piece of imported Chinese celadon of the fourteenth to sixteenth century. A sounding was initiated on 15 July 1985 on a lower telTace on the west edge of the site by H. T. Wright and Raberanto of the Musee d' Art et d' Archeologie. Cleaning of the road cut revealed 1.7 m of cultural deposit. Eight cultural layers are visible (Fig. 3.8). The oldest are red to red-brown gritty silt clays (Layers 7 and 6B), probably the original hilltop soil. Above this is the first occupational layer with a brown silt with charcoal and sherds (Layer 6A). A small pit (P2) was cut from this layer. A yellowish gritty silt (Layer 5), probably a structure floor, seals Layer 6 and the small pit. After this structure is no longer used, a layer of light brown silt with reddish clay fragments and some sherds (Layer 4), probably domestic trash and house renovation debris, was scattered to raise the telTace surface. At the time of this filling, a large pit (PI) cut into natural silt-clay was also filled with the debris of Layer 4. Above this was a sequence of three thin floors of yellow or brown silt (Layers 3C-3A), probably from another structure. On top of the 3A floor, a gray-black silt with bones, sherds, and charcoal (Layer 2) was dumped. Finally, there is a layer of gray-brown silt, probably the result of recent slope wash and cultivation. We have never had the resources to continue work at Ambohidahy, though we did recover the contents of a small pit, originally about 1 m in diameter and 0.80 m deep, being destroyed by erosion on the west side of the site on 9 August 1989. The ceramics retrieved from these two locations on Ambohidahy (Fig. 3.9) were not from measured volumes of screened sediment, and therefore could not be analyzed quantitatively as were the samples from Ambohinanjakana and Amboatany. Nevertheless, the samples include the rims of low-necked jars with bands of impressed triangles and of incised zigzag lines, and low-footed bowls with complex arrays of impressed triangles and light graphite coatings similar to ceramics recovered by Arnaud (1970) at Antanambe (508.0-814.4), seven km to the west. They are helpful in better defining the Antanambe Phase, formerly

40

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

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Figure 3.8. Section of unfinished cut, Ambohidahy.

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

termed the "Early Ankatso Phase" (Wright 1979), as we discuss in the following section.

Ceramic Chronology Used in the Present Work An Undefined Phase. One site has produced a unique ceramic assemblage that has not been locally dated. This is the iron smelting site of Antoby (522.2-808.8), 3.5 km north of Ilafy. A majority ofthe ceramics (Appendix A and Fig. A186) have 10% to 20% inclusions of medium to coarse sand or angular quartz. A bare majority of the sherds are from vessels fired in a reducing atmosphere; a minority are oxidized. Almost all rims are from globular "hole-mouth" jars with rims varying from 15 to 29 cm in rim diameter. Most examples have incised parallel lines, either vertical, oblique, crosshatch, or with alternating triangular panels. One example has a row of triangular imprints between two lines. In addition to these hole-mouth jars, there is one bowl with an internally thickened rim with two rows of triangle impressions on this rim. The incised jars are most similar to those from thirteenth- to fourteenth-century Ambinanibe Phase jars in the Anosy region (Wright et al. 1993) and similarly dated material from Rezoky (Verin 1971) and sites in the Androy region (Heurtebize 1986), all in southern Madagascar. There is one other sherd of a reduced micaceous ware. Its closest parallels are in Kaloy Phase assemblages. There are two possibilities regarding the date of this assemblage. First, this could be earlier than the Fiekena Phase material discussed below, representing an early use of the central highlands by an iron-working community. Second, it could be later, perhaps eighteenth century as indicated by the one Kaloy sherd, representing an ethnically specialized iron-working group who made a brief visit to Avaradrano. Future research will doubtless produce more evidence, allowing phase definition and unambiguous dating. The Fiekena Phase (Fig. 3.10). The recognition criteria used for the ceramics of this phase are based upon the examination of samples carefully excavated from the site of Ankadivory (519.6813.0) in the center of our survey area (Rakotovololona 1989, 1993). As a result of this examination, we have changed our preliminary definition (see above), though this has not changed any previous ascription of sites to the Fiekena Phase. The restricted forms, termed jars, are of a sandy clay body, with 10% to 20% fragments of coarse sand angular quartz, feldspar or mica, much more variable than the small 1975 sample from Antampon'i Fiekena. About 15% seem to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. Those not damaged by recent cultivation and burning have smoothed and compacted surfaces. There is one common shape: a globular jar, with smaller examples 11 to 15 cm in rim diameter (Fig. 3.10a, d) and larger examples from 18 to 27 cmin rim diameter (Fig. 3.10b, c). The rims range in height from very low to medium and slightly everted. On 58% of the examples, we can see triangular imprints on the shoulder, usually

41

one or two simple rows of triangles with point up (Fig. 3. lOa, c) or one or two rows of alternating triangles in a "false chevron" pattern (Fig. 3. lOb, d). Incised bands define these triangle arrays in a minority of cases (Fig. 3.lOc, d). There is a rare restricted form, a hole-mouth jar without neck, usually shaped, fired, and decorated as are the examples with necks perhaps related to the major form in our undefined assemblage from Antoby (discussed above) (Fig. 3.lOe). The open forms, termed bowls, have a similar clay body. In contrast to the jars and to the small 1975 sample from Antampon' i Fiekena, 50% seem to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. Rakotovololona's studies of the more complete bowls show that most are not hemispherical, as was suggested in 1975, but carinated, with everted walls and convex bases. A majority of the bowls cluster between 15 and 28 cm in diameter, though there is a discrete group of smaller bowls between 8 and 12 cm in diameter (Fig. 3.lOi). The rims of almost all bowls have simple rounded lips without thickenings; a few have flattened lips, some patterned after Chinese celadon bowls (Fig. 3. !OJ). We could see incised and impressed decoration on 86% of the bowl rims. Placed within a band bordered by incised lines, there are vertical divisions containing one or two designs. Slightly more common are several vertical or horizontal rectangular blocks with rows of impressed triangles (Fig. 3. !Of-h). Less common are vertical incised divisions containing oblique lines or crosses filled with rows of triangle impressions (Fig. 3.10j, g, i). However, Rakotovololona's studies of the more complete bowls suggest most bowls had an alternation of both rectilinear and cross motifs. The triangle imprints are usually of a wide-based isosceles form. Some bowls have fugitive graphite traces on the outside. Several low pedestal bases on open forms have been found, but many bowls must have had simple, slightly rounded bases (Fig. 3. 10k). Several other elements occur in Fiekena ceramic assemblages, though they are rare. There are a few rims of very shallow open forms, perhaps of vessel tops or covers. Sometimes the bases had triangle imprints, but we do not know if these are parts of bowl bottoms or of covers. Fragments of tripod feet have been found, usually rectangular in cross section like carved chlorite schist bowls from the East Coast (Fig. 3.101). Rakotovololona's studies of more complete elements shows that some feet supported restricted jars. Finally, there are a few exotic sherds with affinities to other parts of the island. These will be discussed subsequently. A Fiekena Phase assemblage is suspected whenever we find sherds of a sandy ware, often rather coarse, with compacted surfaces. Certain identification can be made, however, if we find (l) low-necked jar rims with simple bands of impressed triangle decoration or (2) round lip bowl rims with simple bands with characteristic rectilinear or cross motifs filled with wide-based triangle imprints. Solid feet with rectangular sections are also a useful indicator. The absolute date of the Fiekena Phase at Ankadivory has been established by a range of techniques (see Appendix B). These indicate a date during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

42

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The Antanambe Phase (Fig. 3.11). The recognition criteria used for the ceramics of this phase are based upon the excavated samples from Antanambe described by Arnaud (1970) and from very small soundings made at Ambohidahy (515.2-814.8) by our survey team (see above). Even in 1975, after the phase scheme had been proposed, and while we were doing the initial survey, it became evident that one could recognize what we were calling the "Early Ankatso Subphase" with one or a few qualitatively distinct decorated sherds. It was therefore practical to consider this subphase a phase with its own name and definition. When excavations can be expanded at Ambohidahy, a more precise definition may be possible. However, changes in this definition since the 1986 preliminary article are minor, and have not changed the cultural ascription of any sites. The jars from the two sites have a sandy clay body, but there is notable local variation. Among those from Ambohidahy, 60% have such inclusions and angular quartz is rare; among the jars from Antanambe, 33% have inclusions of medium to coarse sand, but angular quartz is common. About 15% of jars from these sites seem to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. Jar forms were globular with low necks, similar to those of the Fiekena Phase (Fig. 3.11a-d). Most jars are decorated with a shoulder band, about half of which are defined by incised lines. In the bands on jars from our small sample from Ambohidahy, all examples have simple bands of triangles (Fig. 3.11a). In those from Antanambe, 67% have simple rows of impressions on the jar shoulders, usually triangles (Fig. 3.11b), sometimes ovals, but 33% have incised zigzag lines, like those common on later Ankatso Phase jars (Fig. 3.11 c, d). The bowls from the two sites have sandy clay bodies, but there is variation paralleling that in the jars. Among the bowls from Ambohidahy, 72% have inclusions of medium to coarse sand, while those from Antanambe have 42% of such inclusions. About 30% of the bowls from the two sites were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The bowls were hemispherical in form, with diameters varying from 18 to 32 cm. Some had a low pedestal foot, in the shape of an inverted cone (Fig. 3.111), rather than

"cylindrical" as they were mistakenly termed in 1975. At Ambohidahy, 85% ofthe small sample of bowls have interior and/or exterior thickening of their rims; at Antanambe, 67% of an even smaller sample have such rim modifications. Many have triangle impressions on top of the lip, particularly the larger examples with a ledge lip mimicking those of green-glazed "celadon" bowls from China (Fig. 3.11j). On their exteriors, most bowls exhibit bands and zones defined by incised lines containing impressed decoration. Usually, there is a wide central band with vertical divisions containing complex designs, defined by upper and lower bands with simple rows of impressions (Fig. 3. llg-i, k). All the recorded impressions at Ambohidahy and 60% of the impressions at Antanambe are triangular, the rest being oval. In addition to the wide-based triangle imprints like those on Fiekena bowls, some triangles are of an equilateral or short-based isosceles form. Several designs seem to be typical of the vertical divisions within the central bands. Oblique designs (Fig. 3.11g-i) are the most common, but rectilinear designs, guilloches, and triangles (Fig. 3.11j) were noted. At both sites, about 50% of the bowls have traces of graphite coatings. In addition to these common jar and bowl forms, we noted a few rims of spherical hole-mouth jars and of jar covers, usually with triangle impressions and graphite coatings. Some vessels, probably jars, had four tapered feet, half round in cross section (Fig. 3.l1e), in contrast to those of Fiekena assemblages. An Antanambe Phase assemblage can be identified whenever we find sherds ofthe distinctively thickened bowl rims, complex multiband motifs filled with predominantly narrow triangle imprints, and solid feet with half-round sections. The only direct indication of the absolute date of the Antanambe Phase is a suite of TL dates from Layer 2 of the sounding at Ambohidahy (see Appendix B). These suggest a date in the fifteenth to early sixteenth centuries. To the south on the border between Imerina and the Betsileo region, similar material has been dated to the late fourteenth to early sixteenth centuries at Vohimasina (465.2-664.1) (Raharijaona 1986) (see Appendix

Figure 3.9. Ceramics from Ambohidahy, Antanambe Phase.

g, bowl rim, top view, Layer 2, 15% CS, Om ca. 30, RT 2.16, ST ca. 80, gray (IOYR 511) body, int-ext graphite. h, bowl foot rim, Layer 2, 10% MS, base Om 13, ST .84, light yellowish brown CIOYR 6/5) body, int-ext graphite. i, jar rim, Layer 2, 10% MS, Om 13, RT .46, ST .62, light brownish gray (2.5YR 6/2) body.

a, bowl rim (small pit on east), 20% AQ MS, Om 20, RT .90, ST .65, dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2) body, poor int-ext graphite. b, bowl rim (small pit on east), 20% MS, Om 24, RT .78, ST .68, dark brown (7.5YR 3/1) body, int-ext graphite. c, bowl foot rim (small pit on east), 20% AQ, base Om 7, ST ca.. 90, very pale brown (IOYR 7/3) body. d, bowl rim, Layer 2, 10% MS, Om 24, RT .90, ST .72, brown (lOYR 5/3) body, int-ext graphite. e, carinated bowl rim, Layer 2, 10% CS, Om 20, RT .48, ST .73, light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) body, int-ext graphite. f, vessel leg with semicircular section (small pit on east). 20% AQ FM, upper section: 4.52 x 3.75, pale brown (IOYR 6/3) body.

B).

Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, FM: fine mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

43

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Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

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44

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Figure 3.10. Fiekena Phase ceramics. a, low neckjar,AnkadivoryG 116: n,5% medium sand inclusions, Dm 14, body

color light gray (5YR 7/1). b, low neck jar, Ankadivory P 108: FI, traces of angular quartz, mica and feldspar inclusions, Dm 18, body color grayish brown (IOYR 5/2). c, low neck jar, Ankadivory surface, 10% fine sand and mica inclusions, Dm 22, body color brown (lOYR 5/3). d, low neck jar, Ankadivory P 108: F6, 20% angular quartz, medium sand, and mica inclusions, Dm II, body color very dark gray (lOYR 3/1). e, hole-mouth jar, Ankadivory P 107: F8, 5% medium sand inclusions, Dm 21, color not recorded. /. carinated bowl, Ankadivory P 108: F3, trace angular quartz and mica inclusions, Dm 20, body color brown (lOYR 5/3). g, bowl, Ankadivory surface, 10% fine sand, mica inclusions, Dm IS, body color light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2). h, carinated bowl, Ankadivory surface, 20% medium sand inclusions, Dm 21, body color pink (7.5 YR 7/4).

i, small bowl, Antampon'i Fiekena surface, 5% fine sand inclusions, Dm 10, body color brown (7.5YR 5/4). j, ledge rim bowl, Ankadivory E l16: XI, 15% angular quartz and mica inclusions, Dm 26, body color very dark gray (5YR 3/1). k, ring base, Ankadivory P 108: F51, base Dm 12, other attributes not recorded. I, vessel leg, Ankadivory surface, 20% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, color not recorded. Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Dm: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

45

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Centrallmerina

b.

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46

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Figure 3.11. Antanambe Phase ceramics.

a, low neck jar, Ambohidahy surface, 15% fine sand, mica and angular quartz inclusions, Om 20, body color dark grayish brown (lOYR 4.2). b, high neck jar, Antanambe surface, 5% coarse sand inclusions, Om 14, body color brown (lOYR 5/3). c, low neck jar, Antanambe surface, 10% mica, medium sand inclusions, Om 19, body color light yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4). d, low neck jar, Antanambe surface, 15% coarse sand inclusions, Om 28, body color grayish brown (IOYR 4/3). e, vessel leg, Antanambe surface, 10% coarse sand and mica inclusions, body color light brown (7.5YR 6/4), light interior-exterior graphite coating. f, ledge rim bowl, Ambohidahy surface, 10% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om ca. 30, body color grayish brown (IOYR 5/2), interior-exterior graphite coating. g, grooved lip bowl, Ambohidahy east pit, 20% medium sand inclusions, Om 24, body color very dark gray (7.5 YR 3/1), interior-exterior graphite coating, white filling in triangular punctates.

h, bowl, Antanambe II:8, 15% coarse sand inclusions, Om 18, body color very dark gray (10 YR 311), interior-exterior graphite coating. i, flat lip bowl, Antanambe II:2, 15% coarse sand inclusions, Om 20, body color gray (5YR 511), interior-exterior graphite coating. j, flat lip bowl, Antanambe II:3, 15% medium sand inclusions, Om 22, body color dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4), interior-exterior graphite coating. k, groved lip bowl, Antanambe II:4, 10% fine sand inclusions, Om 25, body color dark grayish brown (IOYR 412), polished interior-exterior graphite coated surfaces. t, ring base, Antanambe surface, 10% medium sand and mica inclusions, base Om 8, body color red (2.5YR 4/6). Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

47

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

a.

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48

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The Ankatso Phase (Fig. 3.12). The definition of this phase is still based primarily on the excavated sample from Ankatso, well described by Mille (1971). Both major Ankatso Phase centers in our survey area, Mangabe (517.2-815.0) and Hafy (518.9-804.9), have extensive later occupation, and the ceramic samples available from them are mixed. Changes in this definition are minor, and we have not changed the cultural ascription of any sites. However, future study of excavated samples from additional Ankatso sites is likely to expand this definition. The jars have a sandy clay body, often with inclusions of angular quartz. Among the jars from Ankatso, only 11 % have medium to coarse sand inclusions. About 11 % of jars seem to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere. Jar forms were similar to those of the Antanambe Phase, but there seems to have been a rare discrete variant with a higher everted neck, usually oxidized and with a roughened surface, similar to Angavobe Phase jars. Most jars are decorated with a shoulder band defined by incised lines. Within the bands on jars from Ankatso, there are 78% incised zigzag lines (Fig. 3.12a, b), often complex and with supplementary imprints (Fig. 3.12c, d), and only 11 % simple rows of impressions. Imprints are usually oval and less commonly triangular. The bowls from Ankatso have sandy clay bodies. Among the bowls from Ankatso, all examples have medium to coarse sand inclusions. The colors indicate that 75% of the bowls from Ankatso were fired in a reducing atmosphere. As in the Anta-

nambe assemblages, the bowls were hemispherical in form with relatively thin walls, some with a conical pedestal foot. Almost all Ankatso bowls have thickenings on the interior of their rims. As in Antanambe assemblages, bowl exteriors usually exhibit a wide central band with vertical divisions containing complex designs, defined by upper and lower bands with simple rows of imprints (Fig. 3. 12e-h). Approximately 50% of the imprints are triangles similar in proportion to those of Antanambe and the rest are oval, sometimes rendered as small slash marks. Within the vertical divisions of the central bands, complex motifs such as guilloches (Fig. 3.12e,j), cruciforms (Fig. 3.12h), and rectilinear designs (Fig. 3.12g) occur repeatedly. At Ankatso, all bowls exhibit traces of graphite coatings. In addition to these common jar and bowl forms, we noted a few jar covers, usually with triangular impressions and graphite coatings. An Ankatso Phase assemblage can be identified whenever we find sherds with the thickened bowl rims and complex multiband motifs filled with predominantly oval or linear imprints on jar shoulders with complex incised and imprinted motifs, also usually oval or linear. There are no available direct absolute dates on Ankatso Phase contexts. However, to the south on the border between Imerina and the Betsileo region, similar material has been dated to the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries at Antsetsindrano (458.0-661.0) (see Appendix C).

Figure 3.12. Ankatso Phase ceramics.

g, small bowl with vertical motif, Ankatso III BS:l, S% medium sand inclusions, Om 16, body color brown (7.5YR 5/4), polished interior-exterior graphite coating. h, flat lip bowl with St. Andrew's cross, Ankatso III Al :3, IS% coarse sand and graphite inclusions, Om 23, body color pink (7.5YR 5/4), interior-exterior graphite coating.

a, low neck jar, Ankatso III AI: 10. 10% fine sand and mica inclusions, Om 21, body color red (SYR 6/6). b, low neck jar, Ankatso sUlface, 10% fine sand and mica inclusions, Om 16, body color strong brown (7.SYR S/6). c, low neck jar, Ankatso III Al :3, 10% mica and fine sand inclusions, Om ca. 17, body color red (2.5YR S/S). d, low neck jar, Ankatso III A 1:6, 10% fine sand inclusions, Om 17, body color dark reddish gray (SYR 412). e, flat lip bowl with guilloche motif, Ankatso III A2:9, IS% coarse sand and graphite inclusions, Om 30, body color very pale brown (1 OYR 7/4), polished interior-exterior graphite coating, white infilling in imprints. J, carinated bowl (?) with guilloche motif, Ankatso III Al:7, 10% medium sand inclusions, Om 27, body color brown (7 .5YR 5/4), interior-exterior graphite coating, white infilling in imprints.

Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angnlar quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

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Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The Angavobe Phase (Fig. 3.13). The current criteria for recognizing the presence of this phase are based on the small sample from Angavobe Sondage II, lower level, corrected and expanded based on information from the large samples recovered from Fanongoavana (548.7-781.8) on the eastern frontiers of Imerina by David Rasamuel (1984). The Ambohidratrimo samples used in 1975 are not used here because they are likely to contain both Angavobe Phase and later sherds. Better definition of this phase will be possible when samples are excavated from sealed contexts in sites in western Avaradrano, such as Ambohidrabiby (523.2-813.6), which appear to have Angavobe occupation. Until then, we must keep in mind the distinct possibility that this phase existed only in the eastern part ofImerina, and that the Ankatso Phase and the Angavobe Phase are material manifestations of distinct contemporary social entities (see the discussion of chronology below). The jars have a sandy clay body with coarse inclusions. The variation from site to site is probably related to variation in local potting material. For example, medium to coarse sand inclusions were noted in 33% of the jars from Angavobe, and 45% of those from Fanongoavana. Angular quartz inclusions were not noted in Angavobe sherds, but were present in 67% of the jars from Fanongoavana. At Angavobe, 75% of the jars appear to have been fired in a reducing atmosphere, while at Fanongoavana 50% appear to have been so fired. There seem to have been two discrete forms of jar, one with a low neck, often oxidized like those of the earlier phases (Fig. 3.13d-g), and the other with a high neck, sometimes fired in a reducing atmosphere (Fig. 3. 13a-c). Examples of both variants have a groove at the neck juncture (Fig. 3.13a, e, g). Lip thickening is observable on less than 10% of the jars. A few jar

necks have fine vertical incising or scraping. The body sherds of jars are often thin (less than 0.5 cm thick). Interior scraping is common, and some jars have marked exterior scraping. Exterior graphite coating is rare and of poor quality. The bowls have a fine sandy clay body with up to 5% fine to medium sand inclusions atAngavobe and up to 10% at Fanongoavana. Angular quartz was not noted in the bow Is from Angavobe, but was evident in 50% of those from Fanongoavana. All bowls were relatively shallow, and the rims of all bowls from both sites have marked rounded interior thickening (Fig. 3. 13h-o). Most have relatively thin walls, but thicker examples occur (Fig. 3.13i, n). All the bowls from these sites were fired in a reducing atmosphere, and all have interior and exterior graphite coatings, sometimes well polished, sometimes fugitive. Some bowls had a graphited conical pedestal foot (Fig. 3.131). Also noted were some rough covers. An Angavobe Phase occupation can be provisionally identified whenever there are (1) thin jar sherds that have distinct exterior, as well as interior, scraping and (2) the rims of well-graphited shallow bowls with marked inner lip thickening. These are unsatisfactory criteria, since both features sometimes appear in the ceramics of the succeeding phase. The best available indication of the absolute date of the Angavobe Phase is a suite of 14C dates from Fanongoavana (see Appendix B). These indicate a date in the fifteenth to early sixteenth centuries. These dates overlap those suggested above for the Antanambe and Ankatso Phases. It is possible that in western Avaradrano, there is only a later manifestation of the Angavobe Phase dating to some portion of the sixteenth century.

Figure 3.13. Angavobe Phase ceramics.

k, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 6:2, 10% medium sand and mica inclusions, Om 23, body color very dark gray (IOYR 3/1), light interiorexterior graphite coating. /, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 6:3, 5% fine sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 19, body color very dark gray (lOYR 3/1), polished interior-exterior graphite coating. m, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 1:6, trace fine sand and mica inclusions, Om ca. 19, body color dark gray (IOYR 4/1), light interior-exterior graphite coating. n, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 6:6, 5% fine sand, Om 20, body color dark gray (IOYR 4/1), interior-exterior graphite coating. 0, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 6:8, 5% fine sand and mica inclusions, Om 24, body color dark grayish brown (1 OYR 4/2), light interiorexterior graphite coating.

a, high flared neck jar, Fanongoavana 6: 11, 15% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 18, body color pink (7.5YR 7/4). b, high flared neck jar, Fanongoavana 1:43, 10% mica and fine sand inclusions, Om 21, body color pink (7.5YR 7/4). c, high flared neck jar, Fanongoavana 6:12,15% fine sand and mica inclusions, Om 23, body color dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2). d, open flared neck jar, Fanongoavana 1:33, 10% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 19, body color brown (10YR 5/3). e, open collared neck jar, Fanongoavana 1:14,10% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 20, body color pinkish gray (IOYR 7/3). 1. low flared neck jar, Angavobe II:6, 10% fine sand inclusions, Om 22, body color pinkish gray (IOYR 6/3). g, high flared neck jar, Fanongoavana 6:10,10% fine sand, Om 16, body color dark brown (IOYR 3/2). h, bowl with inner lip thickening, Angavobe II: I, 5% fine sand inclusions, Om 29, body color black (N 2), interior-exterior graphite coating. i, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 1:8, trace fine sand and angular quartz, Om 23, body color dark gray (IOYR 4/1), polished interior-exterior graphite coating. j, bowl with inner lip thickening, Fanongoavana 1:1, trace fine sand and mica inclusions, Om 25, body color dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2), polished interior-exterior graphite coating.

Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

51

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

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52

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The Ambohidray Phase (Fig. 3.14). The recognition criteria used for the ceramics of this phase in western Avaradrano are based upon the excavated samples from the lower layers of Ambohinanjakana, Operation C, described above. The jars have a sandy clay body, most having inclusions of medium or coarse sand, and 66% having angular granules of quartz. No jars with a micaceous clay body were noted. From 35% to 55% were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The smaller jars have medium everted rims (Fig. 3.14a, b), and the larger jars have high everted rims, often with a grove at the neck juncture (Fig. 3.14c, d). Lip thickening is observable on 20% to 30% of the jars. A few jar necks have fine vertical incising or scraping (Fig. 3. 14e). Exterior graphite coatings occur on about 15% to 30% of the jars (Fig. 3 . 14/). In examining surface collections from survey sites, we also noted that distinctive to this phase are graphited jar sherds with combing or heavy scraping on the interior. Though most of these jars were, like the graphited bowls, fired in a reducing atmosphere, there were few examples of jar sherds with a durable, highly polished graphite in these samples. The bowls have finer sandy clay bodies, similar to those of the Angavobe Phase. The one example with a very fine clay body lacking inclusions is in the latest Ambohidray layer at Ambohinanjakana. All bowls were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The graphite coatings are of variable quality, sometimes polished and durable and sometimes fugitive. The rims of the bowls have

interior thickening, sometimes marked as in Angavobe bowls (Fig. 3.14g), sometimes very slight (Fig. 3.14i), and sometimes created by making an incised groove on the inside of a relatively thick bowl (Fig. 3.14h). In addition to bowls with relatively wide conical pedestal feet (Fig. 3.14j, I), there are some with narrow cylindrical pedestal feet (Fig. 3.14k). Though not recovered in our soundings, we have noted the occurrence of rare rough impressed and incised design on bowl rims and pedestal feet on the surfaces of sites that otherwise have no evidence of later or earlier material. These are also probably an indicator of the Ambohidray Phase. There are also some rough covers or tops, and rough bowls reworked from broken jars. Also, there are a few sherds of vessels tempered with crushed graphite, a practice typical of the East Coast. An Ambohidray Phase occupation can be identified whenever one finds reduced sandy ware jar sherds with significant proportions of graphited exteriors, especially if the interiors are heavily scraped. One can also infer Ambohidray Phase occupation if the graphited bowls have slight interior thickening or interior grooving and narrow cylindrical pedestal feet. The best available indications of the absolute date of the Ambohidray Phase are 14C and TL dates from Ambohinanjakana (see Appendix B). These indicate a date in the seventeenth to early eighteenth centuries.

Figure 3.14. Ambohidray Phase ceramics.

h, bowl with inner lip thickening, Ambohinanjakana C-23.3:3, no visible inclu-

a, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-29.4:9, 15% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om ca. 14, body color pale brown (lOYR 6/3). b, low flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-23.8:3, 20% angular quartz and medium sand inclusions, Om ca. 20, body color dark gray (lOYR 4/1), light inner rim graphite. c, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-29.5:9, 15% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 28, body color light grayish brown (lOYR 6/2), light inner rim graphite. d, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-23.9:3, 10% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om ca. 24, body color very pale brown (lOYR 7/3). e, high flared collared neck jar with vertical scraping, Ambohinanjakana C-30.1 :9, 15% medium sand and mica inclusions, Om ca. 20, body color grayish brown (lOYR 5/2), light inner rim graphite. J, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-23.7:3, 10% medium sand inclusions, Om 18, body color very dark gray (N/3), interior-exterior light graphite coating. g, bowl with inner lip thickening, Ambohinanjakana C-23.1 :3, trace of fine sand inclusions, Om 29, body color gray (IOYR 5/1), interior-exterior polished graphite coating.

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sions, Om ca. 16, body color very dark gray (lOYR 3/1), interior-exterior polished graphite coating. bowl with inner lip thickening, Ambohinanjakana C-29.2:9, 10% fine sand, mica, and angular quartz inclusions, Om 21, body color very dark gray (lOYR 3/1), light graphite coating. wide pedestal base, Ambohinanjakana C-23.13:3, 20% angular quartz and medium sand inclusions, foot Om 18, body color dark gray (lOYR 4/1), graphite coating. straight pedestal base, Ambobinanjakana C-23.4:3, 25% coarse sand and angular quartz inclusions, stem Om 3.5, body color dark gray (lOYR 4/1), graphite coating. pedestal base of bowl, Ambohinanjakana C-31.3: 10, 10% fine sand inclusions, foot Om 9, body color dark gray (lOYR 4/1), polished graphite coating.

Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

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Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The Early Kaloy Subphase (Fig. 3.15). The recognition criteria used for the ceramics of this phase in western Avaradrano are based upon the excavated samples from the upper layers of Ambohinanjakana, Operation C, described above. The clay bodies of jars are quite variable. Most are of a sandy ware with fine sand, medium sand, and angular quartz represented in roughly equal proportions. Mica is the preponderant inclusion in 4% to 10% of the jars. Regardless of inclusions, 45% to 55% were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The shapes of the jars are similar to those from Ambohidray Phase samples (Fig. 3. 15a-d). About 55% of the jars have thickened lips (Fig. 3.15b, d), and some exhibit the groove at the neck juncture (Fig. 3.15c). Exterior graphite coatings occur on 15% to 25% of the jars, and about 20% of these graphited jars were fired in an oxidizing atmosphere. The clay bodies ofthe bowls are usually sandy, but up to 30% are fine, having no visible inclusions. A majority of the bowl rims in these samples have slight thickening, not a marked rounding like those of the Ambohidray Phase, but created by either turning

in (Fig. 3.15g) or flattening (Fig. 3.15e,j) the lip. About 20% of the bowls rims are simple and rounded (Fig. 3.15h, i). As before, we noted graphite coated conical pedestal feet. Plain sandy ware covers or tops occur. There are also a few tops made of micaceous ware. As in the preceding phase, there are a few sherds of vessels tempered with crushed graphite. An Early Kaloy Subphase occupation is suspected when an assemblage with predominantly thickened rim graphited bowls has less than 10% sherds from micaceous ware jars and a substantial minority of thickened rim jars. Identification can be more certain when there are rims of reduced, graphited, sandy ware bowls with lip thickening created by in-turning or flattening. Reconsideration of the ceramic data presented in Appendix A has resulted in changes in a number of Early Kaloy ascriptions since our 1986 preliminary report was published. The best available indications of the absolute date of the Early Kaloy Phase are 14C and TL dates from Ambohinanjakana (see Appendix B). These indicate a date in the mid-eighteenth century.

Figure 3.15. Early Kaloy Phase ceramics.

h, bowl with plain lip, Ambohinanjakana C-20.2: 1-2, trace fine sand inclusions, Om 21, body color very dark gray (IOYR 3/1), interior-exterior polished

a, low flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-20.5:1-2, 10% medium sand inclusions, Om 28, body color brown (10YR 5/3). b, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-l1.4:1-2, 15% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 19, body color brown (lOYR 5/3). c, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-21.3:1-2, 10% fine sand, angular quartz, and mica inclusions, Om 21, body color reddish brown (5YR 4/4), light inner rim graphite. d, high flared neck jar, Ambohinanjakana C-19.2: 1-2, 15% angular quartz and mica inclusions, Om ca. 26, body color grayish brown (lOYR 512), inner rim graphite. e, small bowl with inner lip thickening, Ambohinanjakana C-ll.l: 1-2, 15% fine sand and mica inclusions, Om 13, body color very dark gray (lOYR 3/1), interior-exterior graphite coating. /. small bowl with inner lip thickening, Ambohinanjakana C-20.1:1-2, 10% fine sand inclusions, Om 12, body color black (lOYR 2/1), interior-exterior graphite coating. g, bowl with inner lip thickening, Ambohinanjakana C-19.1:1-2, 5% fine sand and angular inclusions, Dm ca. 28, body color dark gray (IOYR 4/1), interiorexterior light graphite coating.

graphite coating. i, bowl with plain lip, Ambohinanjakana C-l1.3: 1-2, 15% fine sand and angular

quartz inclusions, Om ca. 20, body color dark gray (lOYR 4/1), interiorexterior light graphite coating. j, wide pedestal base of bowl, Ambohinanjakana C-19.4: 1-2, 10% angular quartz and medium sand inclusions, foot Om 18, body color not recorded, exterior graphite coating. k, pedestal base of bowl, Ambohinanjakana C-15.2:1-2, 10% fine sand and mica inclusions, foot Om 14, body color not recorded, polished exterior graphite coating. Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Central Imerina

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56

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

The Late Kaloy Subphase (Fig. 3. 16a-j). The current criteria for recognizing the presence of this subphase are based on excavated samples from Amboatany, described above. The clay bodies of jars are quite variable. Fine to medium sand is the predominant inclusion in the plain everted neck jars. From 10% to 15% have predominant mica inclusions. Regardless of inclusions, 30% to 40% were fired in a reducing atmosphere. The shape of the jars is similar to those from the preceding phases. From 60% to 70% have thickened lips (Fig. 3.16a, b). The exteriors of the jars are usually plain, only 10% to 15% having a fugitive graphite coating. Up to 50% of the graphited jars had been fired in an oxidizing atmosphere, so the graphite would have been rubbed on after firing, and it is not surprising that it is fugitive and of poor quality. The clay bodies of the bowls are fine, usually with no visible inclusions. From 25% to 35% of these bowls were fired in an oxidizing atmosphere and perhaps as a consequence had fugitive graphite coatings. Those bowls fired under reducing conditions, however, can have durable polished graphite coatings. The bodies of the bowls are usually thick in comparison with the bowls of earlier phases. Though slightly thickened and flat rims still occur (Fig. 3. 16d,j), the rims are usually plain and rounded (Fig. 3.16c, e). The bowls had low conical pedestal feet. Covers or tops, usually of micaceous ware, are common.

A Late Kaloy Subphase occupation can be provisionally identified whenever there is a substantial representation of thick fine ware bowls with rounded lips, some of which have high quality graphite coatings. In assemblages with little or no later Fiadanana occupation, an incidence of 10% to 30% micaceous jar sherds indicates a Late Kaloy occupation. This phase clearly requires more precise definition. Reconsideration of the ceramic data presented in Appendix A has resulted in changes in a number of Early Kaloy ascriptions since our 1986 preliminary report was published. Late Kaloy archaeological contexts have not yet been successfully dated by absolute techniques, but these ceramics must have been made during the late eighteenth century, and perhaps manufacture continued into the early nineteenth.

Figure 3.16. Late Kaloy (a-f> and Fiadanana (g-j) Phase ceramics.

g, strongly everted neck jar, Fiadanana silo, 15% medium sand inclusions, Om 28, height II, body color light red (2.5YR 617), trace of inner rim graphite,

a, flared neck jar, Amboatany 0-6.6:3,5% mediumsandincJusions, Om 18, body color grayish brown (lOYR 5/2), light inner rim graphite.

b, heavy flared neck jar, Amboatany 0-6.3:3, 15% medium sand inclusions, Om 19, body color light yellowish brown (I OYR 6/4). c, bowl with plain lip, Amboatany 0-7.1:3, truce of fine sand inclusions, Om ca. IS, body color very dark gray (IOYR 3/1), interior-exterior light graphite coating. d, bowl with plain lip, Amboatany 0-11.1:4AB, 15% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 24, body color dark gray (I OYR 411), interior-exterior light graphite coating. e, bowl with plain lip, Amboatany 0-7.2:3, trace of fine sand inclusions, Om 12, body color light gray (lOYR 611), interior-extelior light graphite coating. j, bowl with plain lip, Amboatany 0-13.1:5, 10% medium sand and angular quartz inclusions, Om 28, body color red (2.5YR 5/6), interior-exterior graphite coating.

The Fiadanana Phase (Fig. 3. 16g-J). The current criteria for recognizing the presence of this phase are based upon small samples of excavated ceramics from sites in Antananarivo and from the uppermost layer of the small sounding at Amboatany. It is a period that merits much more detailed archaeological study than it has received, and we can expect that future excavations in western Avaradrano will greatly increase our understanding of these ceramics.

heavy exterior carbonized debris. h, strongly everted neck jar, Amboatany 0:2B, 20% medium sand inclusions,

Om 37, body color dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2), trace of inner rim graphite, heavy exterior carbonized deblis. i, high ring base, Fiadanana silo, inclusions not recorded, base Om 7.5, body color light gray (lOYR 6/1), light interior-exterior graphite coating. j, bowl with plain lip, Amboatany 0:2B, 5% mica inclusions, Om 20, body color dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2), light interior graphite coating. Caption Abbreviations. Inclusions: AQ: angular quartz, FS: fine sand, MS: medium sand, CS: coarse sand, M: mica, Tr: trace. Dimensions: Om: rim diameter, ca: approximately, NT: neck thickness, ST: side thickness, RT: rim thickness. Other: Int: interior, Ext: exterior, !: not an error.

57

Ceramics and Cultural Phases in Centrallmerina

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The Development of Settlement Systems in Western Avaradrano

Kaloy Phase The Kaloy Phase as a whole is thought to begin early in the eighteenth century and end early in the nineteenth century, but more precise dating is not yet possible. In general, Early Kaloy must be contemporary with the period of the civil wars after the death of Andriamasinavalona, and Late Kaloy must be contemporary with the reign of Andrianampoinimerina, the reunification of Imerina and the consolidation of the Merina state. As one might expect, the settlement maps (Figs. 5.6 and 5.7, Tables 5.6 and 5.7) show that the Kaloy Phase spanned a time ofrapid settlement change. During the Early Kaloy Phase, some settlements grew and others were abandoned, but the overall pattern and density are not much different from the preceding Ambohidray Phase. Ambohimanga may have grown somewhat, with housing expanding down the northwest slope of its summit. Subsidiary villages to its west and north were abandoned, and those to the east were built up. In particular, an interlocking set of ditches created a complex fortification at Ambohinanjakana (520.4-815.3). The effect of this reorganization was to give Ambohimanga more balanced subsidiary defenses. To the north of this reorganized line of defenses at the foot of the east-west ridge along the Mambakely River, there is a proliferation of ten small hamlets with oval ditches, all less than 0.5 ha, most about 0.1 ha. To the south of the Ambohimanga settlement group, in the formerly vacant area, there is an even spacing of isolated villages and a few hamlets. The outlying villages of the Ilafy cluster are as before. In short, there is little evidence of change in the distribution of major settlements, but there is a trend toward the establishment of very small settlements. A possible explanation is that the focus of warfare is shifting away from raiding and toward battles between armies vying for the control of major towns and strong points; small rural settlements would not be militarily important, and could be by-passed in the hopes that their occupants would still be there to pay tribute when the war was won. Changes at Ambohimanga and in the surrounding area during the Late Kaloy Subphase were striking (Fig. 5.7). First, around Ambohimanga (518.4-815.2), a massive new ditch system was built (Fig. 5.8), enclosing an area of about 35.0 ha, of which at least 22.0 ha was occupied. The ditches are more than ten m wide and have interior walls, up to five m thick and strengthened with masonry around the gates. Six new entries were built, some of them doubled-most of them massive masonry portals with stone disc gates (Fig. 5.8E-J). The ditches surround Amparihy, the sacred lake (Fig. 5.8D). The ditches are doubled to the west and north, and tripled around the lake. There can be little doubt that these ditches and walls were the fortifications dedicated by Andrianampoinimerina as part of his spatial reorganization of his new capital and kingdom (Chapus and Ratsimba 19741II:278-82; Kus 1989/90; Appendix E). No doubt the Rova and other buildings within the town were rebuilt as well, but full documentation must await a program of more detailed survey and excavations at Ambohimanga.

89

Second, subsidiary centers were established to the east and west of the capital. This was accomplished by rebuilding, at a greatly expanded scale, three villages established during Ambohidray times or before. In each case, the new fortifications enclosed a little more than four ha. From east to west, these centers are: (1) the old town of Ambohidrabiby (523.4-813.6), (2) Amboatany-Fiangarana (516.0-814.9/8) to the west of abandoned Mangabe, and (3) Imerimandroso (513.0-815.9) farther west in the valley of the Mambakely. All had masonry portals with stone disc gates, though the surviving examples are smaller than those of the capital (see Gabler in Chapter 4), and none of these new centers had more than four entries. Third, there appear to have been a series of reorganizations of the village-sized, between 0.5 and 2.5 ha, settlements. Those in the lowlands to the west and south of Ambohimanga can be divided into a northern line of defense and a southern line of defense. The nOlthern line is anchored in Imerimandroso to the west and Ambohidrabiby to the east, and runs close to the foot of the east-west ridge, although it encloses major rice growing areas in the valley of the Antohadrano River. Six of the seven villages in this line either have no associated tombs or have earlier tombs outside their ditches, indicating that the occupants were not of noble status (see Chapter 4). The southern line of defense encloses most of the former vacant lands including the upper valley of the Mamba and the lower valley of the Mambakely, greatly augmenting the land that could be transformed into irrigated rice fields. Seven of these nineteen settlements have earlier tombs inside their ditches and six of these have earlier tombs outside their ditches. Many are notable for their unusually thick external walls, perhaps a response to the proliferation of firearms at the end of the eighteenth century. Many also had one or two small masonry portals, most leading to paths converging on Ambohimanga (see Gabler in Chapter 4 and further discussion in Chapter 6). Many had stone block tombs, some inside the ditches, indicating inhabitants of noble status, and some outside the ditches, indicating inhabitants of other statuses. Fourth, the proliferation of small hamlets continues. More than thirty exist within the frontiers delineated above, with concentrations east, northwest, southwest, and south of Ambohimanga. Most have no associated tombs, but a few examples of both interior and exterior tombs occur. At present, there is no archaeological way to definitively establish the chronological relation between these four kinds of settlement change. It is logical to propose that the construction of the subsidiary centers was first, the construction of the northern line of fortified villages was second because it is anchored on the westernmost and easternmost of the subsidiary centers, and the construction of the southern line of fortified villages was third. That the southern line of villages had very massive external walls inside their ditches suggests that firearms had become tactically important in warfare. Also, the southern line closely approaches the northern fortifications of the Ilafy polity, suggesting that these were built late in the period of conflict between Ambohimanga and Ilafy. Both points support a later dating for the southern line

90

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

of defenses. It would be more satisfactory, however, to have independent datings for the archaeologically documented settlement changes. Such evidence can be gained from future excavations. In contrast to the Late Kaloy changes at and around Ambohimanga, the changes around the competing polity of nafy (518.9-804.9) are less elaborate. Massive ditches-about eight m wide and with a massive interior pise wall and stone gates (Fig. 5.9B, C)-extended down the end of the ridge to the north of the old fortress, enclosing almost 10 ha and surrounding a lake (Fig. 5.9D). The configuration of the gates of nafy is not clear; detailed field work is needed. The pattern of surrounding large villages changed little from the Ambohidray and Early Kaloy pattern, though several new villages are added. None of the small hamlet-sized sites near Hafy have been dated to this period. The three northernmost villages-Namehana (816.5-807.4), Anosy (518.4-808.3), and Ambohidrano (520.7 -807 .7) - are expanded and more heavily fortified, but there is no indication of the radical reorganization of the central town, the landscape, or the frontiers of the llafy polity similar to what is in evidence around Ambohimanga. A useful counterpoint to Hafy is the hilltop center of Ambohidrabiby (523.4-813.6) east of Ambohimanga and north of nafy in the northeast corner of the western Avaradrano survey area. Like Ambohimanga and Hafy, Ambohidrabiby had a long occupation beginning during the Angavobe Phase, to which its innermost ditch (Fig. 5.lOA) is attributed. Within this ditch are tombs made of small slabs, attributed to the families of Rabiby, the eponymous site founder, and his son-in-law Ralambo, an early Merina ruler (Fig. 5. lOB). Additional ditches were added, the latest extending down the ridge to the west to enclose 6.2 ha including a spring, a permanent source of water in times of siege (Fig. 5.1 OE). This ditch, attributed to the Kaloy Phase (it cannot at present be more precisely dated), is similar to the latest Hafy ditch, though somewhat smaller. In sum, the configuration and defenses of Hafy are similar to those of other ancient towns of Imerina, while those of Ambohimanga contrast strongly. Using the same approach to population estimation introduced for the Ambohidray Phase, assuming 160 people per hectare of settlement, the 22.3 ha of Early Kaloy settlement of Ambohimanga would have had 3570 people. Similarly, the full extension of the Ambohimanga polity to the southern border (assuming no abandonment on the earlier border) during Late Kaloy times, including 60.0 ha of settlement, would have had about 9600 people. This would have been only a fraction of the total population of the Andrianampoinimerina's polity, however, since even before the conquest of Ilafy he controlled areas some distance to the north and east of the area intensively surveyed at present. In brief, while the Early Kaloy Subphase saw a continuation of the pattern of isolated settlement groups centered on a single town, the Late Kaloy Subphase saw the emergence of a new and more complex settlement system around Ambohimanga. The central town is larger and surrounded by massive fortifications. Subsidiary centers and linear arrangements of border villages were constructed so as to protect extensive valley areas suit-

able for development as irrigated rice fields. On the low hills overlooking such irrigable areas many small settlements were established. It is notable that many of the fortified settlements had both tombs and entries with a new style of small block masonry construction, with the size of the gates being roughly proportional to the scale of the settlement. Even without the evidence of the oral traditions, we would know from archaeological evidence alone that a major sociopolitical transformation had brought new patterns of administrative control, military defense, and national ideology to Avaradrano (Berg 1988; Delivre 1967; Kus 1982; Kus and Raharijaona 1999). The overall pattern of changing settlement size from the Fiekena Phase to the Late Kaloy Subphase, excluding settlements in the area of Ilafy, is represented in Figure 5.11. The graphs clearly show the small number of relatively small sites from the pioneering Fiekena Phase, the first emergence of a larger center clearly differentiated from nearby hamlets and villages during the Antanambe Phase, and the diminution in number of settlements and center size during the succeeding Ankatso Phase. It must be emphasized, however, that very few settlements ofthese early phases are included within the survey area, and their sizes were no doubt affected by local geographical and historical circumstances. This graphical presentation brings out two broad trends. The first is the accelerating increase in size of the largest center during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. This trend, however, is based on an assessment of traces of ditches and ceramics visible on the surface of Ambohimanga. Verification with careful excavation is required. The second trend is the proliferation, beginning in Early Kaloy times, of small hamlets, with their near circular ditches covering less than half a hectare with space for no more than two houses on their terraces. These cluster within three kilometers of Ambohimanga; none have been recorded near Ilafy. Some of the well-preserved examples have stone gates, but only a few have interior tombs. These could be farm settlements belonging to families in the larger town. Alternatively, they could relate to the rewarding of military veterans. To evaluate such propositions, complete excavation of several hamlets will be needed.

Fiadanana Phase Though evidence of settlement of the Fiadanana Phase of the nineteenth century is presented in Appendix A, it is not treated in detail here. At the time of the surveys, we did not adequately record the nineteenth-century houses and tombs. Indeed, nineteenth-century sites without evidence of earlier occupation were often not recorded. Also, the complexities of the ceramics - rapidly changing in a context of an emerging market economy - are not well understood. Analysis of the incomplete evidence we do have would be particularly misleading. Fortunately, though many of the standing buildings have been lost in recent decades, these sites are particularly clear on the early air photographs, and future study will be possible.

91

The Development of Settlement Systems in Western Avaradrano

Early Kaloy

•

~ 2

0

3

km

Wetlands

,

Survey limit

~

• ~

Figure 5.6. Early Kaloy Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano.

Site River

I

I

I

92

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Late Kaloy

•

,,

1 2

0

3

km

Wetlands , ........... "

•

Survey limit Site

..f"'\....J River

Figure 5.7. Late Kaloy Phase settlement pattern in western Avaradrano.

93

The Development of Settlement Systems in Western Avaradrano

Ambohimanga 518.4 - 815.2

........

_- -".

......

-.

7360

100

200

m

Figure 5.8. Ambohimanga (518.4-815.2). showing some of the gates, the pattern of ditches, slopes, and rice paddies ca. 1967. The contour interval is to meters. A, area of the Rova; B, eru'ly tombs at Mahazaza; C, traces of early polygonal ditch; D, Amparihy, the sacred lake; E, Ambatomitsangana, the main east gate; F, Amboara, the northeast gate; G, Miandravahiny and Mananiera, the north gates; H, Andakana, the west gate; J, Andranomatsatso, the south gate; J, approximate location of Antsolatra, the southeast gate.

94

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

lIafy 518.9 - 804.9 / / / / - - - - - - - . ..

(

)

_--

/

)/

/

/

/

I

i

/

)

//"-_.

\

)

__ .... .-/

/

!

~

J

( /

//---,\

\

---/'/'

/)

) /

/

\ (

/(

\i

\,

/

/

/

o

100

200

m

Figure 5.9. Ilafy (south: 518.9-804.9; north: 519.0-805.4), showing the pattern of ditches, slopes, and rice paddies ca. 1967. The contour interval is 10 meters. A, the area of earliest settlement, as well as the nineteenth-century Rova; B, a standing stone, vatolahy, perhaps indicating a former gate; C, remnant of the north gate, widened in recent times; D, lake.

95

The Development of Settlement Systems in Western Avaradrano

Ambohidrabiby 523.4 - 813.6

\ "\

\

\

\

o

100

•

N

I

\,

"

200

m

Figure 5.10. Ambohidrabiby (523.4-813.6), showing the pattern of ditches, slopes, and rice paddies ca. 1967. A, remnant of earliest ditch; B, early tombs; C, remnant of second ditch and west gate; D, outer ditch and east gate; E, spring; F, drains carrying runoff northwards; G, outer ditch, doubled at lower west end; H, small hamlet site (522.5-813.8).

96

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar 25

20

1:

15

:::l

0

Late Kaloy

0

10

5

0 2

0

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Area 15

1: :::l

10

Early Kaloy

0

0

5

0 2

0

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Area 10

1: :::l

0

0

Ambohidray

5

0 2

0

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Area

1: :::l

0

0

'j o

I 0

Angavobe

db 1

I 2

I 3

I 4

I 5

I 6

I

7

I 8

I 9

I 10

Area

1: :::l

0

0

:jo q i 0

1

Ankatso

I 2

I 3

I 4

I 5

I 6

I

7

I 8

I 9

I 10

Area

1: :::l

0

0

:j~ 0

Antanambe

ern 1

I 2

I 3

i 4

•

i

I 5

I 6

i

7

i 8

I 9

I 10

Area

1: :::l

0

0

'j o

i 0

Fiekena

r=CP 1

I 2

I 3

I 4

i 5

I 6

I

7

I 8

I 9

I 10

Area Figure 5.11. Histograms of site sizes for successive phases. Hatched bars represent small hamlets; solid bars represent centers.

1.06 1.04 0.90 1.56 0.79 0.80 1.76 0.39 2.32 0.64 0.94 0.83 0.51 0.40 1.77 1.78 1.96 1.08 0.72 0.56 1.34 0.59 0.88 1.05 1.06 1.56

A"idavenona Tananambony Arnbatomaharnasina

A"ipananina A"idrabiby Ankadimaro A"idrazana A"itronibe A"idroandriana At A"idraondriana Ambatomitsangana

A"inanjakana Arnperandoha A"itsimina Arnbohidrano Antanetibe A"iboangy Antsomangy

Antanamanjaka Av Ahitrinitompo A"i mena Mahatsinjo

polygon polygon oval polygon polygon polygon oval polygon polygon oval polygon polygon polygon oval polygon polygon polygon oval polygon polygon polygon oval oval polygon oval polygon

519.9 - 806.4 519.9 - 814.2 520.0 - 808.5 520.2 - 808.8 520.3 - 811.5 520.4 - 815.3 520.5 - 812.6 520.6 - 815.1 520.7 - 807.7 520.8 - 808.4 520.9 - 809.5 521.7 - 811.2 522.4 - 813.8 522.7 - 810.8 523.2 - 810.9 523.4 - 813.6 523.4 - 815.0 523.5 - 810.8 523.5 - 811.2 523.8 - 810.0 523.9 - 810.2 524.0 - 812.3 524.4 - 809.9 524.4 - 810.1 525.4 - 813.0 526.1 - 812.7

1.78 1.45 0.38 1.56 1.03 0.88 1.46 3.07 1.85 0.89 1.17 0.53 0.48 2.86 0.35 2.65 0.90

8.00 9.70

Area (ha)

oval polygon polygon polygon polygon polygon polygon polygon polygon oval oval oval oval polygon circle oval circle

Forma! Settlement

Early Kaloy Phase Villages 513.0 - 815.9 Imerimandroso 514.2 - 814.6 Antamponilivo A"inierana 514.7 - 815.0 516.0 - 814.9 Arnboatany 516.2 - 815.0 Tsarahonenana Ankazomby 516.4 - 815.2 516.5 - 807.4 Namehana Arnbohinaorina 517.0 - 806.9 517.2 - 815.0 Mangabe 517.4 - 815.8 A"ibololona A"ibololona Av 517.5 - 815.9 517.8 - 812.8 517.8 - 816.1 Anosy 518.4 - 808.3 AMdranosoa 519.4 - 811.6 519.7 - 805.5 Antsampandrano 519.8 - 806.1 Antanamanjaka

Name*

polygon polygon

N-S

Early Kaloy Phase Centers 518.4 - 815.2 A"imanga 518.9 - 804.9 Ilafy

E-W

35 15 50 55 45 90 15 80 20 15 20 30

1295 1315 1300 1315 1320 1475 1300 1470 1305 1280 1300 1310 1365 1310 1420 1455 1430 1440 1360 1480 1510 1315 1485 1490 1350 1465

290 360 50 290 350 60 180

110

250 80 100 125 85 100 30 320 200 130 300 190

60

150 20 250 190 170 150

230 250 210 270 10 50 105 150

140

90 160 140 180 220 210 170 100

390 190

Dist Paddy (m)

120 20 95 100 30 90

10 90 50 30 140 35

40

20 70 20 110 120 50 50 35 50 90 90 30 70 10 15 15 30

170 70

Dsnt Poddy(m)

1275 1335 1340 1450 1470 1490 1300 1285 1490 1395 1395 1280 1350 1260 1275 1275 1290

1470 1360

(m)

Elev

Table 5.6. Early Kaloy Phase centers, villages, and hamlets in western Avaradrano.

I small 1 obscure I small 3 small 2 small 2 small I small 2 small I large I small 2 large 2 small I small

I small 2 small I large I obscure 1 small 2 small I large 3 small I large I small I small 2 small

2 small I small I small 1 small 1 large I obscure 2 large I large 2 obscure

1 small 1 small I small 2 large 2 small 3 small ? obscure

Ditches

o

9

o

13

7

o

5 8

3

o o o o o o

o o o o

3

o o o o o

o

o

o o o o o o o o

3

o o o o o

3

o o o o

o o

ExTm No.

2

o o

4

o

5

o o

1

o o

o o

?

o o o o

o

5 8

I 2

o o

?

o

Byres

hor-vrt

block

block

block

block

block slab

ExTm Constr

2

o

2

2

ExMax Tiers

3

o o

1

4

block sm slab

a a

I

2

d a

d

a

d

a

a 2 2

b

a c a d

a

b d

d

a a d

a a

b a

a

b d a b a a b d a a d b a b c c

b b

Oeep Hist*

a block slab block block block

2

3

1 2 2

2

2 2

2

2 2

2

InMax Tiers

2 3

block slab hor-vrt

block block

slab block

block

slab

smslab hor-vrt block

block

block

o

hor-vrt block block block slab

sm slab

InTm Constr

o

4

o

I 4

o

2

6

o

1

o o o

o

1

o o o o o

1

o o o

2 I

5

1

2 5

2 ?

InTm No.

~

~

'0 'I

Cl

;:s

I:>

!:}

~

;;J

'"~

~

S·

~

~ ..... ~

[

~ ~

;:os ...,.

~

.g

tI>

~

~ tI>

N-S

Name *

Tsimandridrana

N;trondry Ah;manoa N;tralatenina

Ambohidaby

Anosibe N;trinimanga

Antanetibe

*See conventions given in Table 5.1.

513.2 - 812.6 513.7 - 815.1 513.7 - 816.2 516.0 - 816.5 516.8 - 813.6 517.4 - 809.3 517.4 - 816.7 518.1 - 816.4 518.5 - 811.2 518.7 - 812.8 519.0 - 816.0 519.1- 808.8 519.4 - 812.1 520.1 - 813.0 520.2 - 815.2 521.6 - 816.0 522.2 - 809.1 522.2 - 813.4 522.5 - 813.8 523.4 - 814.8 523.6 - 811.5

Early Kaloy Phase Hamlets 512.8 - 812.7

E-W

Table 5.6 cont.

oval oval circle circle circle oval oval oval circle circle oval circle circle oval oval polygon oval polygon circle oval oval oval

Forma! Settlement

0.11 0.15 0.14 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.31 0.18 0.16 0.26 0.11 0.18 0.29 0.21 0.30 0.34 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.12 0.12

0.33

Area (ha)

1260 1280 1260 1295 1270 1270 1310 1320 1285 1285 1320 1265 1250 1290 1470 1430 1315 1325 1360 1330 1350

1275

Elev (m)

20 25 10 25 20 20 40 50 30 25 40 15 20 10 85 35 20 20 35 10 30

30

Dsnt Paddy (m)

100 145 10 90 20 120 120 270 120 120 140 120 40 50 150 60 80 55 70 60 150

195

Dis! Paddy (m)

1 small 1 small 1 large 1 small 1 small 1 small 1 small 1 small 1 small 1 small I small 1 small 2 small 1 small 2 small 2 small 1 small 1 small 1 small 1 small 1 small

1 small

Ditches

0 0 1 0

I?

0 0 1 3

0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

4

Parks

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

I

ExTm No.

block

block

block

block

ExTm Constr

2

ExMax Tiers

7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

block

block

block sm slab

d c c a d d c d d d d

d c a

c

Deep Hist*

d d c a c

InMax Tiers

I 0 0 0 block

InTb Constr

0

InTm No.

\Q

~

~

">:>

O

'l::P

,,~

"b< a;,0

*-'b' ?::-.:..

.e.: Smithsonian Institution.

Rasamuel, I>avid 1984 L'Ancien Fanongoavana. Paris: These de IIIeme cycle I'Universite de Paris I.

Willey, Gordon R., and Phillip Phillips 1958 Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Razafintsalama, Adolphe 1973 Les Tsimahafotsy d' Ambohimanga. Cahiers du Centre de Sociologie et d' Anthropologie Social No.1. Antananarivo: Universite de Madagascar.

Wobst, H. Martin 1977 Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In For the Director: Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin, edited by Charles Cleland. Anthropological Papers, no. 61. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor.

Sanders, William T., Jeffrey Parsons, and Robert Santley 1979 The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. New York: Academic Press. Schacht, Robert M. 1984 The contemporaneity problem. American Antiquity 49(4):67895. Stuiver, Minze, and G.W. Pearson 1986 High-precision calibration of the radiocarbon time scale, AI> 1950-500 Be. Radiocarbon 28(2B):805-38. Taylor, Royal E. 1987 Radiocarbon Dating. Orlando: Academic Press. Tolstoy, Paul 1975 Settlement and population trends in the Basin of Mexico (Ixtapaluca and Zacatenco phases). Journal of Field Archaeology 2:97-104. Verin, Pierre 1966 Note sur deux sites archeologiques recernrnent decouverts dans la banlieue de Tananarive. Bulletin de l'Academie Malgache XXX: 113-20. 1969 L'agriculture en Imerina, il y'a une siecle. Terre Malgache 4:62-69. 1970 Fouilles d'Ambohitsitikady. Taloha 3:147-52. 1971 Les anciens habitats de Rezoky etAsambalahy. Taloha 4:29-45. 1975 Les echelles anciennes du commerce sur les cotes nord de Madagascar. Lille: Service de reproduction des theses.

Wright, Henry T. 1977 a Recent research on the origin of the state. Annual Review of Anthropology 6:379-97. 1977b Toward an explanation of the origin of the state. In Explanation of Prehistoric Organizational Change, edited by J. Hill, pp. 215-30. Albuquerque (1977): University of New Mexico Press. Reprinted in the Origins of the State, edited by R. Cohen and E. Service, pp. 49-68. Philadelphia (1978): Institute for the Study of Human Issues. 1979 Observations sur I' evolution de la ceramique traditionnelle en Imerina Centrale. Taloha 8:7-28. Wright, Henry T (editor) 1992 I>atations absolues des sites archeologiques du centre de Madagascar. Taloha 11:121-45. Wright, Henry T, and Susan Kus 1976 Reconnaissances archeologiques dans Ie centre de I'lmerina. Taloha 7:19-45. 1979 An archaeological reconnaissance of ancient Imerina. In Madagascar in History: Essaysfrom the 1970's, edited by Raymond Kent, pp. 1-31. Albany, CA: Foundation for Malagasy Studies. Wright, Henry T., J.-A. Rakotoarisoa, G. Heurtebize, and P. Verin 1993 The evolution of settlement systems in the Efaho River Valley, Anosy: a preliminary report on archaeological reconnaissances of 1983-1986. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 12:2-20.

Appendix A

Catalogue of Site Information Henry T. Wright and Susan Kus

The purpose of this appendix is to make available to the reader as much data as possible on each site, so that questions we have not thought to ask can be posed and answered by others. Of course, just as there is no perfect or complete archaeological surveyor ceramic chronology - new questions will demand new observations- there can be no fully comprehensive survey report. Even as we wrote the manuscript, inconsistencies in our observations became evident. Furthermore, we became aware of more precise ways to record our observations for the future. Such issues are discussed below as each category of data is presented.

Site numher: These are the grid coordinate locations of each site (or each portion of a large or complex site). The Transverse Mercator projection used is the "Laborde Grid," marked on all maps of the island, formerly by the Institut Geographique National and today by the Foiben-Taosarintanin ' i Madagasikara (F. T .M.). The first number is the x coordinate, expressing the distance, to the nearest tenth of a kilometer, east of an arbitrary north-south line in the Mozambique Channel to the site's western edge. The second number is the y coordinate, expressing a similar distance north of an arbitrary east-west line in the southern Indian Ocean to the site's southern edge. The system was first used for archaeological sites by Adrien Mille (1970), who placed the north-south coordinate first and the east-west coordinate second. Following Mille, we wrote that number on the ceramics recovered from each site. Since 1985, however, to conform to national usage by the F.T.M. and other agencies, archaeologists have reversed Mille's order. The numbers in this report conform to this new practice. Survey sherds numbered before 1985 follow the earlier practice, while sherds numbered after 1985 follow the new practice. Using Digital Globe imagery on the "Google Earth" website, it has recently been possible to relocate most of the moated sites exactly and calculate the latitude and longitude of their centers. We have also estimated the location of scatters, though inaccuracies are possible. However, east oflongitude 47°35'15" E, only low precision imagery is

available, and only a few sites can be precisely located; imprecision is indicated by a question mark (?) following the longitude. During the past few decades, national Transverse Mercator grids such as the Laborde Grid have been superseded by the "Universal Transverse Mercator" (UTM) grid, which specifies all points on the planet. UTM coordinates or longitude and latitude for any site are easily found using a hand-held "Geographical Positioning System," which receives signals from satellites. How archaeologists will accommodate this new system depends on whether F.T.M. continues to use the Laborde Grid on its maps.

Site name: Names elicited from local informants or, in the case of still-occupied communities, recorded on F.T.M. maps, are given where known. Most have definite meanings, but we have not provided a translation into English unless it was given to us by local informants. Original number: During each season of survey, the sites visited were usually assigned a serial number in the order in which they were visited. These numbers appear in the original field notes-copies of which are on file in Antananarivo and Ann Arbor-so they are included here for reference. The full designation for each site begins with the year the site was recorded, continues with an initial indicating who took the notes ("K" for Susan Kus or "W" for Henry Wright) and ends with a serial number, if one was assigned. Some larger sites, such as Ambohimanga itself, were never assigned such numbers. Some parts of larger sites were given a letter designation. Figure ascription: If either a site map or sherds are illustrated, the appendix figure number is indicated here. Precisely what is illustrated is indicated by asterisks in the succeeding sections. Chronological summary: This series of eight indicates, from left to right, occupation during the Fiekena (Fk), Antanambe (An) (formerly

119

120

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

Early Ankatso), Ankatso (Ak) (fonnerly Late Ankatso), Angavobe (Ag), Ambohidray (Ad), Kaloy (X), Fiadanana (F), and Modern (M) Phases. A zero indicates no occupation during the phase, a question mark (?) symbolizes one possible indication of occupation during a given phase, the letter "T" symbolizes the presence of a very few characteristic ceramics of a phase, and a phase letter acronym symbolizes the presence of a number of definite characteristics of a phase. At present for the Kaloy Phase only, we can often distinguish occupation either early or late in the phase: early occupation is indicated by a left slash (\) and late occupation is indicated by a right slash (I). Occupation during both Kaloy subphases is indicated by a large "X," and occupation that cannot be specified to subphase is indicated by a small "x."

earth -are often difficult to interpret. Dry-laid rough stone construction was simply noted during the 1975 surveys. In subsequent seasons, we began to differentiate the use of roughly squared blocks (probably late eighteenth and nineteenth century), of thick slabs, and of thin slabs (less than 0.10 m) (probably seventeenth century or earlier). Also, special construction techniques, specifically alternation of vertical slabs or orthostats with stacks of horizontally laid slabs, perhaps an indication of the status of the family (Rasamuel 1983), were consistently noted only after 1983. It is unfortunate that we did not make measurements and detailed drawings or photographs of all the dry-laid masonry tombs; in the future we will do so. Our records of tombs associated with sites are discussed in Chapter 4.

Elevation: In meters above sea level for the middle of the site, estimated from F.T.M. maps to the nearest 5 meters.

Other: Architectural features such as collapsed pit silos for rice and shallow oval or rectangular pits for the guarding of cattle (particularly those reserved for ritual slaughter) were common, and are discussed in Chapter 4. The stone footings or platforms for the earlier wood frame houses are sometimes evident, but the most common internal features of these are standing walls of pise or Jeta, most late nineteenth- or twentieth-century house remnants, though a few could be as early as the late eighteenth century. Still-occupiedJeta or brick houses are also noted or indicated on a site map.

Distance to paddy: Meters to the nearest paddy indicated on our maps and air photographs of the late 1960s. Particularly during the early phases, these may not have been cultivated fields, but they would have provided a source of water for both people and cattle. The compass direction is also indicated. Where the site sits on a ridge or hilltop, the site can be equidistant from several paddies. Descent: In meters to the nearest paddies, estimated to the nearest 5 meters from maps. Bounds: The ditch, bank, or wall that defines the outer limit of most sites is described. If there is no such feature, and the site is just a scatter of broken pottery, this is indicated; often the area of such "scatters" could not be estimated precisely because of vegetation cover. The fonn and scale of the ditch are indicated by adjectives, "deep" being more than 4 meters in depth. If, however, the actual measurements were estimated by pacing or taping, the minimum width can be given, followed by the estimated maximum depth. Erosion fills ditches, making them shallower and wider, so such estimates provided an approximation at best. Ditch drains are indicated only on the maps. Village walls (tamboho in Malagasy) of pise (jeta in Malagasy) or dry-laid masonry are noted, but most are too eroded to estimate measurements without excavation. Well-preserved ditches and banks are discussed in Chapter 4.

Area: The hectares available for occupation within the bounding fortifications, estimated by counting ten-meter squares on the site map. An asterisk (*) after the area indicates that a map is reproduced in the designated figure. Entry: Where not obscured by erosion or recent changes, the qualitative features of the entrance are noted. Simple causeways created by leaving part of the ditch unexcavated are most common. Evidence of a gate, either a bit of dry-laid masonry or a monolith used as a jamb, is common; disc gates are less common. Detailed drawings and measurements of well-preserved gates are presented in Chapter 4. Tombs: Possible tombs inside or within 100 meters of each site were recorded. The visible part of a tomb is a rectangular platfonn, sometimes with successively smaller platfonns above. The number, the location inside or outside, the number of tiered platfonns, and the construction materials were noted. Modern cement-laid masonry tombs are not differentiated. Cut masonry in the neo-Classical style associated with Jean Laborde, technician to Queen Ranavolona I (1828-1861), is noted but not described. Pise (jeta) tombs and their eroded remnants - simple heaps of

Ceramics: Except where noted, the ceramic drawings and statistics were all compiled in July 1984 or subsequently by Wright. The ceramics have been divided into wares distinguished primarily by their visible inclusions. 1. Compact Ware: Sherds with coarse angular sand inclusions and a smooth, almost waxy, surface finish, probably created by a self-slip and light burnishing procedure. Typical of the Fiekena and Antanambe Phases. 2. Very Sandy Ware: Sherds with more than 30% medium to coarse angular sand inclusions. Often these are Compact Ware that have been burnt and weathered so the smooth surface is destroyed. 3. Sandy Ware: Sherds with 5% to 30% sand, angular quartz and - in some areas-traces of mica inclusions. This is the predominant ceramic fabric in Imerina. There are many variations in surface treatment. 4. Fine Ware: Sherds with less than 5% fine sand or mica, usually without visible inclusions. These are usually reduced and coated with graphite. 5. Mica Ware: Soft-bodied sherds with more than 20% mica inclusions and little or no angular quartz sand. 6. Graphite Ware: Rare in the survey area, these sherds appear to have quantities of graphite powder mixed in the clay, rather than simply coating the surface. Isolated sherds are known from Ambohidray and Early Kaloy contexts. 7. Other: Odd sherds, mostly nineteenth-century imports from the coast or from overseas, and notable nonceramic items are listed here.

The term "oxidized" refers to sherds with a red to light brown core; the tenn "reduced" refers to sherds with a gray to black core. Surface colors could have often been altered by recent burning of the sites, so core colors are assumed to be more reliable indicators of the potter's firing techniques. Within each category, we first list thin sherds (up to 4 mm), medium sherds ("med": 4-8 mm), and thick sherds, then graphited and scraped sherds similarly divided, and then rim and base sherds. Rims with graphite coatings inside the lip are indicated by "(irg)." Graphite coatings of poor quality are indicated by "(-)"; those of good quality are indicated by "(+)."

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

Sherds marked with asterisks (*) have been illustrated and described on the designated figure in the hope that future typological study of excavated samples will allow a more precise dating of the site without the need to refer to the original collections. Sherds that document particular phase designations are indicated by acronyms in parentheses-F'le Fiekena, An: Antanambe, Ak: Ankatso, Ag: Angavobe, Ad: Ambohidray, K: Kaloy in general, Ke: Early Kaloy, Kl: Late Kaloy, F: Fiadanana, and M: Modern. In a few cases, the bags could not be found and statistics made in 1976 were used. These earlier observations record surface oxidation of the ceramics, which could be enhanced because of recent burning of the sites. Also, some sherds with fine sand tempers were placed in the category "Fine Ware" and other sherds with 20% to 40% mica tempers were placed in the category "Sandy Ware." Though not strictly comparable to observations made after we had studied the soundings at Ambohinanjakana and Amboatany, these data are, for the moment, all we have on these sites, and we have used them for dating as best we could.

Comment: This final section contains discussion of the occupational phases represented on the site, which is almost always necessary, except in the case of Fiadanana ascriptions; summaries of oral traditions volunteered by informants met on or near the sites; and other observations.

121

An exclamation mark (!) in any of the sections indicates an unusual finding, not a typographical error. Generally, for each site, the description is accompanied by the map (if any) and then the sherds (if any). Maps are at 1:2000 scale and sherds are at 1: 1 scale. See Figure A 1 for key. The site lists are di vided into three areas, one for each of the polities existing about 1770. The first list includes the area west of the Mamba River, traditionally within the bounds of the kingdom of Marovatana, ruled from the town of Ambohidrabiby. These descriptions will be republished in amplified form in a forthcoming monograph on the intensive survey of eastern Marovatana. The second list includes sites within the kingdom of Ambohimanga, after its absorption of Ambohidrabiby, but before its conquest of Ilafy. The third list includes sites ruled from the town of Ilafy. These descriptions will eventually be republished in amplified form in a monograph on the survey of the traditional kingdom of Antananarivo. Each site list begins with the westernmost examples and proceeds in numerical order of the Laborde Grid number to the easternmost.

122

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

~-

, , •

A

Q

0

.

• • ..., , ,

Feta wall without ditch

Well-preserved ditch Eroded ditch

::-L!-

Ditch with Feta wall

.........--

Ditch with stone-faced wall

~~

Ditch with simple causeway

4:12.

Ditch with gate stones

=-=1==

Path / road

~"TT"'"

Terrace

~ Eroded scarp

0

Large pit - probable cattle park

o /.

Silo pit / standing stone

Q~

Natural granite boulder

miff!

Standing house / church

1-='(

Ruined building

181

Tomb with one tier

@

Tomb with two or more tiers

~ .. o./'i:"

Stone footing / stone heap

C)

Dense brush or trees

Figure AI. Key for maps.

123

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

Archaeological Sites in the Kingdom of Marovatana

SITE 512.3 - 814.7 (18°45'58" S, 47°30'08" E) Original number: 1975K:123 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? ? Elevation: 1295 m Distance to paddy: 110 m NE, S Descent: 35 m Bounds: Sherd scatter, possible terrace Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 11 med, 1 thin oxidized: 32 med, 7 thin, 2 top rims, 1 foot fragment ext graphite (-) Fine Ware oxidized: 2 med Mica Ware oxidized: 2 thin (F?)

SITE 512.3 - 815.5 (18°45'33" S, 47°30'07" E) Site name: Tsarasaotra Original number: 1975K:121 Figure ascription: Fig. A2 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? x F M Elevation: 1275 m Distance to paddy: 130 m E, W Descent: 30 m Bounds: Oval ditch 6 x 4 m, interior tamboho wall Area: 0.63 ha * Entry: Causeway with monolithic gate to NE Tombs: Interior: 1 horizontal-vertical large slab double-tier tomb Exterior: 2 double-tier stone, 1 single-tier stone, 1 masonry Other: Occupied housing, standing stone Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, 1 med black burnish (F), 3 med ext graphite (K), 4 med int-ext graphite (K) oxidized: 2 med Mica Ware reduced: 5 med, 5 thin, 1 plain applique strip (F), 2 everted jar rims (irg), 3 v. everted jar rims (F), 1 shoulder of same (F), 2 thick ext graphite, I foot fragment ext graphite oxidized: 25 med, 4 thick, 1 med black burnish (F), 2 med ext graphite (-),1 med red slip (F-M), I top rim Comment: Much Fiadanana especially in the 1975 collection. The 1985 collection from old walls has more Sandy Ware, particularly reduced, graphited Sandy Ware, indicating Ambohidray or (more likely) Kaloy occupation, not ascribable to subphase. An older man said the standing stone was dedicated by Andrianampoinimerina.

512.3-815.5

Figure A2. Site 512.3-815.5.

124

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 512.5 - 814.2 (18°46'16" S, 47°30'15" E) Original number: 1975K:124 Figure ascription: Fig. A3 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F 0 Elevation: 1285 m Distance to paddy: 135 m W, NE Descent: 40 m Bounds: Oval ditch 4 x 3 m Area: 0.34 ha Entry: Causeway to southwest and, perhaps, to east Other: Trace of tamboho wall Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 hi everted jar rim (Kl) *, 1 med ext graphite oxidized: 1 thick, 3 med, 1 thin, 1 hi everted jar rim (irg) (Kl) * Fine Ware reduced: 3 med int-ext graphite (-) (K), 1 foot fragment graphite (-) (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 5 med, 1 hi everted jar (irg) * oxidized: 9 med, 1 thin v. everted jar rim (F) * Other 1 tile fragment (F-M) Comment: Ambohidray or Kaloy indicated by reduced graphited Sandy Ware. Fine Ware bowl sherd indicates Kaloy. Jar rims indicate Late Kaloy.

SITE 512.7 - 814.1 (18°46'17" S, 47°30'22" E) Site name: Ankadimbazimba Original number: 1975K:125 Figure ascription: Fig. A4 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F M Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 205 m E, N, S Descent: 35 m Bounds: Oval ditch, much eroded 5 x 3 m Area: 0.72 ha * Entry: Causeway with stone gate on NE Tomb: Exterior: 1 single-tier stone tomb to NE Other: Presently occupied houses Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, 1 thin, 1 med burnished black with large angular quartz inclusions, 1 everted jar rim with orange ext (M), 1 plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (+) (Kl) * oxidized: 8 med, 1 thin, 1 10 everted jar (M), 1 foot rim, 1 rim and 1 neck fragment of everted jar (irg) Fine Ware reduced: 1 thick, 1 med ext graphite, 1 med int-ext? graphite (+) (K)

Mica Ware reduced: 12 med, 8 thin (F), 1 v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: 7 med, 3 thin, 1 10 everted jar (M) Comment: Fine Ware bowl sherd indicates Kaloy. The heavy plain graphited bowl rim indicates Late Kaloy.

SITE 512.8 - 812.7 (18°46'59" S, 47°30'26" E) Original number: 1975K:129 Figure ascription: Fig. A5 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 Elevation: 1275 m Distance to paddy: 195 m SE Descent: 30 m Bounds: Oval ditch 4 x 1.5 m, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.33 ha * Entry: Causeway to NE Tombs: Exterior: 1 triple-tier stone, 1 triple-tier tamboho, 1 single-tier earth Other: Monolith, 4 cattle parks Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 12 med, 1 med punctate carination, 1 int-ext graphited foot fragment oxidized: 21 med, 3 thin, 1 med ext graphite, 2 foot fragments without graphite (!), 1 plain bowl rim without graphite (!), 1 v. everted jar rim (?), 3 top rims Fine Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 med int-ext graphite (K) oxidized: 1 med Mica Ware oxidized: 1 med Comment: Forms and reduced graphited Sandy Ware indicate Ambohidray or Kaloy. Fine Ware bowl sherd indicates Kaloy. Low Mica Ware proportion indicates Early Kaloy, but oxidized Fine Ware in the absence of Fiadanana indicates Late Kaloy as well.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

125

512.5-814.2

(il 30% AQ,MS,M

D: ca. 28

T:.70

10YR 7/3

10% MS,AQ

rF

D: ca.32

15%

T: .77

D: ? T: .65

D: 24

10YR 5/2

10YR 5/1

2.5YR 5/6

M,MS

15% M,MS

T: .69

Figure A3. Site 512.5-814.2.

512.7-814.1

512.8-812.7

Figure A5. Site 512.8-812.7.

512.7-814.1

10% MS

D: 22

T: .70

10YR 2/1

FigureA4. Site 512.7-814.1.

126

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 512.9 . 814.7 (18°45'57" S, 47°30'27" E) Site name: Ankosy Original number: 1975K:122 Figure ascription: Fig. A6 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F M Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 50 m N, S, E Descent: 20 m Bounds: Exterior oval ditch, interior oval tangential on SE, both ca. 5 x 4 m though partly filled Area: 1.24 ha * Entry: Causeway and stone entry to east Tombs: Interior: single-tier stone block tomb said to be of noble women of the time of Andrianampoinimerina. Another stone tomb between ditches. Other: Earlier stone footings eroding out amidst occupied houses Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 6 med, 2 thin, 2 ext graphite foot fragments oxidized: 8 med, 1 med black burnish, 1 int ledge rim jar (M) Fine Ware reduced: 2 med int-ext graphite (K), 1 thick int-ext graphite (+) (KI), 1 plain tapered bowl rim int-ext graphite (F) * Mica Ware reduced: 6 med, 2 thin, 1 med burnished black (F) oxidized: 4 med, 3 thin, 1 v. everted jar rim (F), 1 hi everted jar neck (irg) (K7), 2 top rims Other 2 tiles (F-M), 1 rear of animal figurine Comment: Arnbohidray or Kaloy indicated by reduced, graphited Sandy Ware. Reduced thick Fine Ware bowl sherds indicate Late Kaloy.

SITE 513.2 . 812.6 (18°47'02" S, 47°30'41" E) Original number: 1975K:128 Figure ascription: Fig. A8 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 7 x F M Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 100 m W, N Descent: 20 m Bounds: Oval ditch Area: 0.11 ha * Entry: Now via ditch to north Tomb: Interior: 1 single-tier stone tomb Other: None noted Ceramics:

SITE 513.0·813.4 (18°46'36" S, 47°30'33" E) Site name: Manintona Original number: 1975K:126 Figure ascription: Fig. A7 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 7 x F M Elevation: 1265 m Distance to paddy: 35 mE Descent: 20 m Bounds: Oval ditch Area: 0.53 ha * Entry: Causeway on NE with stone gate and disc (diam: 1.5 m), but this

SITE 513.2 - 813.3 (18°46'43" S, 47°30'40" E) Original number: 1975K:127 Figure ascription: Fig. A9 Chronological summary: F 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1265 m Distance to paddy: 55 m W, N Descent: 15 m Bounds: Scatter on oval terrace Area: 0.28 ha Entry: None Other: None Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections):

seems recently built or restored Tomb: Interior: 1 single-tier baked brick tomb with tranomanara Other: Modern housing, abandoned silos Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 8 med, 1 med black burnish, 1 med ext graphite, 2 med int-ext graphite, 1 everted jar rim (irg), 1 high jar neck fragment (irg) (Ad-K) oxidized: 7 med, 1 med black burnish, 1 int ledge rim jar Mica Ware reduced: 11 med, 6 thin, 5 med polished (M), 1 med applique strip (F) oxidized: 12 med, 2 thin (F), 1 v. everted jar rim (F), 1 hi grooved jar rim (M) Other 1 white glazed china Comment: The reduced, graphited Sandy Ware sherds indicate Ambohidray or Kaloy, with jar neck sherd pointing to Kaloy, though not assignable to subphase.

Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 10 med, 5 thin, 1 med int scraped, 1 top rim, 1 med ext graphite (Ad-Ke), 1 med int-ext graphite (Ad-Ke) oxidized: 2 thick, 8 med, 1 hi neck fragment Fine Ware reduced: 1 thick int-ext graphite (-),7 med int-ext graphite probably same vessel, similar but some of good quality (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 7 med, 2 thin, 1 top rim, 1 v. everted jar (F) oxidized: 2 med, 2 thin, 1 10 jar rim (M) Other 1 compact micaceous heavy rim: Majunga Karana Red Slip Ware (7) (F-M) Comment: Reduced interior scraped Sandy Ware and graphited Sandy Ware indicate Ambohidray and Early Kaloy. The non-Fiadanana Mica Ware indicates Kaloy.

Compact Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 med impressed graphite (-) (Fk) * oxidized: 1 med Sandy Ware (some probably fire-damaged Compact Ware) reduced: 8 med, 1 thin oxidized: 14 med Mica Ware reduced: 5 med, 3 thin (F), 2 med black burnish (F) oxidized: 9 med, 2 thin Comment: Fiekena scatter indicated by Compact Ware and impressions with recent Fiadanana usage.

127

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

512.9-814.7

0: 22

513.0-813.4

T: .74

10YR 3/1

ill ~{[jDJ

Figure A 7. Site 513.0-813.4.

CD

513.2-812.6 Figure A6. Site 512.9-814.7.

Figure A8. Site 513.2-812.6.

513.2-813.3

~p

~ 15% MS,AQ

0: 25 T: .70 7.5YR 5/1

Figure A9. Site 513.2-813.3.

128

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

ES 513.4-812.6

"'/; // II 0

----

/ III III

l) -0

I!!I/J

I2lIlJ flJllJllJ

~a()

5% FS

5% FS

D:? T: .65

D:? T: .70

Lip T: .72

10YR 4/1

Lip Angle? 2.5YR 3/1

Figure AlD. Site 513.4-812.6.

SITE 513.4 - 812.6 (18°47'03" S, 47°30'44" E) Site name: Bemiandalana Original number: 1975K:46 Figure ascription: Fig. AlO Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 x F M Elevation: 1265 m Distance to paddy: 150 mE Descent: 15 m Bounds: Shallow oval ditch with int tamboho 4 x 1.5 m Area: 1.22 ha * Entry: Causeway to NE with damaged stone gate Tombs: Exterior to NE: 2 single-tier stone, 1 single-tier masonry, 1 double-tier tamboho, 1 earth Other: Modern houses still occupied Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 thick ext graphite, 1 thick and 1 med int-ext graphite, 1 foot fragment ext graphite (+),2 plain bowl rims int-ext graphite (K) **,1 cut disc burnished black oxidized: 4 med

Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 6 med, 3 thin (F), 1 top rim oxidized: 6 med, 1 thin, 1 carinated shoulder (F), 1 v. everted jar rim (F) Other unbaked clay wheel, 1 modern white glazed sherd (M), 1 very worn mid-nineteenth-century British half-penny Comment: Much Fiadanana and modern, but reduced, graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambohidray or Kaloy. Bowl rims indicate Kaloy, but subphase is not certain.

129

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

513.8-811.7

D:? T: .70 10YR 3/1

Figure AIL Site 513.8-811.7.

SITE 513.8 - 811.7 (18°47'32" S, 47°31'00" E) Site name: Ambatolampy Original number: 1975K: 132 Figure ascription: Fig. All Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 x F M Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 115 m N, E Descent: 25 m Bounds: Oval ditch 5 m wide with interior 4.2 m tamboho wall Area: 2.43 ha * Entry: NE destroyed, SW monolithic gate and disc (diam: 1.70 m) Tombs: Interior: 2 masonry tombs of family of noble founder and 2 double-tier stone block tombs Other: Stone footings, occupied housing Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 11 med, 1 hi everted jar neck fragment (irg), 2 med ext graphite (-),1 thick int-ext graphite, 1 med int-ext

graphite, 1 foot fragment ext graphite, 2 flattened plain bow I rims int-ext graphite (K) * oxidized: 7 med, 2 thin Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite (+) (K), 2 foot fragments ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 5 med, 6 thin (F), 1 v. everted jar rim (F), 1 shoulder of same (F) oxidized: 9 med, 1 thin, 1 v. everted jar and 1 shoulder of same (F), 1 med red slip (F-M), 1 top rim Other 2 tile fragments (F-M) Comment: Reduced, graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambohidray or Kaloy. Fine Ware bowl sherd and flat bowl rims indicate Kaloy. Though the ceramics cannot be ascribed to subphase, the scale of the ditches and gates indicate Late Kaloy occupation.

130

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 513.9·812.5 (18°47'08" S, 47°31'04" E) Original number: 1975K:45 Figure ascription: Fig. A12 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? x F M Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 40 mE, N, S Descent: 15 m Bounds: Filled circular ditch now 0.5 m deep, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.14 ha * Entry: Stone gate to NE, entered from drain; also possible SW entry Other: Silo, occupied houses Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 top rim, 1 med ext graphite (Ad-Ke) oxidized: 3 med Fine Ware reduced: 2 thick, 1 med int-ext graphite (-) (K) Mica Ware reduced: 4 thin (F), 1 v. everted jar rim (F), 1 med black burnish (F) oxidized: 3 med, 2 v. everted jar rims (F), 1 10 everted jar rim (M) Other feldspar (?) tempered thick, oxidized sherd with added strip Comment: Much Fiadanana and Modern, but reduced, graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambohidray or Kaloy. Fine Ware bowl sherds indicate Kaloy.

513.9-812.5

Figure A12. Site 513.9-812.5.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

131

Archaeological Sites in the Kingdom of Amhohimanga

SITE 513.0 - 815_9 (18°45'15" S, 47°30'32" E) Site name: Imerimandroso Original number: 1975K:63 Figure ascription: Fig. A13 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 Ad X F M Elevation: 1275 m Distance to paddy: 90 mE, W, S Descent: 20 m Bounds: Double deep oval ditches 6 x 6 m, thick (3 x 3 m) tamboho wall inside outer ditch Area: Inner ditch: 1.78 ha; outer ditch: 4.17 ha * Entry: SE stone gates, north and SW gates widened Tombs: Interior: 1 double-tier tomb: large horizontaVvertical slabs Exterior: 2 single-tier stone block tombs by SE entry Other: There are two standing stones in south end; silos, occupied/eta and brick buildings Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 6 hi everted jar rims (3 irg) ****, 1 plain foot, 2 med ext graphite, 3 med int-ext graphite oxidized: 6 med, 1 med int scraped, 1 med int-ext scraped, 2 med ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin, 3 med black burnish (F) oxidized: 2 med, 2 thin, 1 10 jar rim (M) Other 1 tile fragment (F-M), 1 fine med tan: Majunga Indian Ware (M) Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambohidray or Kaloy. The inner ditch is earlier. Ambohidray is indicated by scraped sherds and high jar rim with vertical scraping, associated with tomb said to be a "Betsileo Andriana." The scale of the outer ditch and wall indicate Late Kaloy, but we have no direct ceramic evidence.

SITE 513.4 - 815.2 (18°45'37" S, 47°30'48" E) Original number: 1975K:64 Figure ascription: Fig. A14 Chronological summary: T TOO 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 30 m W, N Descent: 10 m Bounds: Circular terrace Area: 0.11 ha Entry: None Other: None Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware oxidized: 2 med, 1 med impressed (FkJAn) * Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 2 med Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin, 1 med oxidized: 1 thin, 2 v. everted jar rims (F), 2 top fragments Comment: Fiekena or Antanambe Phase impressed jar shoulder, probably an early scatter with later threshing floor use.

513.4-815.2

30% AQ,MS

D:? T: .61 5YR 6/6

FigureAl4. Site 513.4-815.2.

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

132

513.0-815.9

15%MS

rP

D:? T: .59 7.5YR 5/2

IRG

IRG-

20% FS.M

20% M.AQ

10% FS

D:ca.19

0: ca. 26

0: 26

T: .78

T: .67

Lip T: .62

5YR 6/6

10YR 7/4

10YR 4/1

T: .70

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

133

513.7-814.4 Ambatonaorina

-- -

513.7-814.4

10% MS

D:? T: .53 Lip T: .53 10YR 4/1

Figure A15. Site 513.7-814.4.

SITE 513.7 - 814.4 (18°46'02" S, 47°30'58" E) Site name: Ambatonaorina Original number: 1975R:67 Figure ascription: Fig. A15 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 10M Elevation: 1310 m Distance to paddy: 190 m N, E, W Descent: 55 m Bounds: Deep oval ditch, doubled to W, probably with interior tamboho wall Area: 1.22 ha * Entry: To east, monoliths with disc; to west, simple causeway Tombs: Exterior: 2 tombs: eroded earth Other: Stone footings, occupied houses, silo, a monolith raised by Iamboasalama (the young Andrianampoinimerina) according to local tradition. Two other large monoliths up hill to east.

Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 6 med oxidized: 3 med, 2 everted thickened jar rims *, 2 med ext graphite (+) (Ad-K) Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin, 1 med ext polish oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin, 1 orange with applique strip (M) Comment: Sherds must be Kaloy, probably late given the non-Modern Mica Ware proportion and oxidized, exterior graphited Sandy Ware of good quality. There is no definite Fiadanana, supporting the local tradition of abandonment between the time of Andrianampoinimerina and this century. The lower western extension is later, but undated.

134

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

513.7-815.1

513.7-816.2 - - -, ........t I

20% AQ

D:? T: 1.01

7.5YR 3/4

FigureA16. Site 513.7-815.1.

Figure Al7. Site 513.7-816.2.

SITE 513.7 - 815.1 (18°45'41" S, 47°30'58" E) Original number: 1975K:65 Figure ascription: Fig. A16 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? \ 0 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 145 m SW Descent: 25 m Bounds: Round shallow ditch 2 x 0.5 m, interior wall Area: 0.15 ha * Entry: Earth causeways to NE and SW Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, 1 thin, 2 med ext scraped (Ad?) oxidized: 3 med, I thin, 1 hi everted jar rim without thickening (irg) (AdlKe) * Mica Ware oxidized: 1 cover rim (Ke) Comment: Limited presence of Mica Ware indicates Early Kaloy; scraping suggests Ambohidray. SITE 513.7 - 815.7 (18°45'25" S, 47°30'56" E) Original number: 1975K:69 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1265 m Distance to paddy: 50 m N, S, W Descent: 15 m Bounds: Scatter Other: None Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med oxidized: 3 med, I med ext graphite Mica Ware oxidized: I top rim, I v. everted jar rim (F)

SITE 513.7 - 816.2 (18°45'06" S, 47°30'57" E) Site name: Antanetibe Original number: 1975K:73 Figure ascription: Fig. AI7 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 X T 0 Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 10 m W, N Descent: 10 m Bounds, inner: Circular ditch 4 x 3 m Area, inner: 0.14 ha Bounds, outer: Shallow circular ditch 4 x 1.5 m, inner tamboho Area, outer: 0.50 ha * Entry: Inner gate to SW with monoliths; outer causeway to east Other: Interior rectangular cattle park Ceramics, inside (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 5 med, 1 thickened lip everted neck jar rim, 1 top rim, I med ext graphite, 1 thick int-ext graphite (K), 1 med int-ext graphite (Ad-K), 1 foot rim ext graphite (Ad-K) oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin, 1 med int. graphite (-) (!) Fine Ware reduced: 1 bowl base with int graphite Mica Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 2 med, I 10 rim (F-M) Ceramics, outside: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin oxidized: 1 med Comment: Inside ditch, Ambohidray or Kaloy given reduced graphited Sandy and Fine Ware, probably Early Kaloy given low non-Fiadanana Mica Ware proportion. Outside ditch perhaps Late Kaloy as well.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

135

513.7-816.6 513.7-816.6

T: .96 7.SYR 6/6

o

1S% MS 7.SYR S/3

FigureAl8. Site 513.7-816.6.

SITE 513.7 - 816.6 (18°44'50" S, 47°30'58" E) Site name: Mahatsindry Original number: 1985W:12 Figure ascription: Fig. Al8 Chronological summary: 0 An 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 60 m S Descent: 20 m Bounds: Rectangular terrace and ditch, largely filled Area: 0.90 ha * Entry: Obscure Other: Midden on west side, much damaged by cultivation Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med

Compact Ware reduced: 9 med, 2 thick int-ext graphite (-), I same with triangular imprints (An) *, I bowl rim with lip imprints * Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 5 med oxidized: 1 thick, 3 med Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin, 1 applique shoulder with black burnish (F) oxidized: 4 med, 1 med red slip (F) Comment: Fiadanana reoccupation of an Antanambe site. Stray Antanambe foot found across river to south is also illustrated.

136

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 513.9 - 814.5 (18°45'58" S, 47°31'03" E) Site name: Antaniandro Original number: 1975K:68 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1310 m Distance to paddy: 120 m S Descent: 55 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch Area: 0.16 ha Entry: Causeway and stone gate to north Tombs: Exterior: to south, double-tier with lower stone block and upper Laborde style stone masonry (!) Other: Brick structure walls and occupied houses Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 2 thin, 1 v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: 6 med Fine Ware reduced: 2 thin

514.2-813.7

Figure A19. Site 514.2-813.7.

SITE 514.0 - 815.8 (18°45'20" S, 47°31'02" E) Original number: 1975K:70 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 ? F M Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 115 m NE, NW Descent: 10 m Bounds: Circular ditch 2 x 2.5 m, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.10 ha Entry: Causeway to north Tomb: Exterior tomb of/eta and stone with 2 monoliths Other: Shallow ditch to east, still-occupied house Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin, 1 top or bowl rim (M) Fine Ware reduced: 1 foot fragment ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 thin, 1 top rim oxidized: 4 med, 3 thin, 3 top rims, 1 everted jar with thickened lip (F) Comment: Reduced conical graphited foot fragment suggests Kaloy.

SITE 514.2 - 813.7 (18°46'30" S, 47°31 '11" E) Site name: Ambohitsoa Original number: 1975K:130 Figure ascription: Fig. A19 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? x F M Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 120 m W, N Descent: 30 m Bounds: Oval ditch, 5 x 2.5 m with interior tamboho 2.5 m thick Area: 1.18 ha * Entry: Causeways to north and south, stone gate, 1.20 m, with four monoliths to north Tombs: Interior and exterior: possible tamboho tombs Other: Occupied houses Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 14 med, 2 med ext graphite (Ad-K), 2 foot fragments ext graphite (+) (K) oxidized: 1 thick, 12 med, 1 top rim, 1 med ext graphite, 1 med int-ext graphite, 1 med int graphite (!) Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 6 med, 5 thin (F), 1 sm everted jar rim oxidized: 5 med, 3 thin, 2 top rims, 1 v. everted jar rim and 1 neck fragment of same (F), 1 10 jar rim (M) Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware suggests Ambohidray or Kaloy. Foot fragments indicate Kaloy of indeterminate subphase.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information SITE 514.2 - 814.6 (18°45'56" S, 47°31'12" E) Site name: Antamponilivo Original number: 1975R:66 Figure ascription: Fig. A20 Chronological summary: 0 An 0 0 0 \ F 0 Elevation: 1335 m Distance to paddy: 160 m N, S

Descent: 70 m Bounds: Polygonal ditches 5 x 4 m, enlarged by erosion Area: 1.45 ha *; circular tamboho wall inside east part, area: 0.22 ha Entry: Obscure except for causeway connecting east and center Tombs: Interior (4): east: 2 two-tier stone block; west: 1 triple-tier horizontal/verticallarge slab, 1 single-tier small slab on rock Other: Stone footings,feta structure walls to east

514.2-814.6 General

20% MS,AQ

10% MS

D: ca.26 T: .60

T: .75

Lip T: .64

7.5YR 4/2

7.5YR 4/2

514.2-814.6 East 514.2-814.6 West 20% MS

D: 22

7.5YR 712

5% FS,M

D: 25

137

T: .73

Up T: .90 7.5YR 4/2

20% MS,AQ

T: .52 7.5YR 5/3

Figure A2D. Site 514.2-814.6.

Ceramics, general: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med jar shoulder with incised zigzag band (An) *, 1 int-ext graphite bowl rim with slight interior thickening (AdlKe) * Ceramics, east: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, 4 thin, 2 med int scraped, 1 thin int scraped, 1 thin ext graphite oxidized: 49 med, 1 plain bowl rim, 2 top rims, 110jar(An-Ak), 1 tetrapod foot (An), 1 grooved bowl rim int-ext graphite (An) * Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite, I int-ext graphite slightly thickened bowl rim (Ke) *, 3 foot fragments ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 2 thin (F) oxidized: 2 med Other tile (F-M), slate, clear glass (F-M) Ceramics, west: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 11 med, 3 med int-ext graphite oxidized: 6 med, 1 med incised jar shoulder with narrow triangle imprints (An) * Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med oxidized: 1 med, 1 thickened rim shallow bowl (!) Mica Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin Comment: Antanambe indicated by jar and bowl decoration. Thickened bowl rims indicate Early Kaloy. Small circular inner ditch and house remains probably Fiadanana.

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

138

514.5-813.8 '-.

" ~

514.5-813.8

"

I.)

....;

t.) /

•

,--""

,,"'-. '\

"-

'\

/'

~ I'

.J

// /

//

,"-..

20% MS,M

o ""'-

'\

0:

? T: .80

10YR 7/3

20% M D:? T: .85

10YR 4/3

/

/

FigureA21. Site 514.5-813.8.

SITE 514.5 - 813.8 (18°46'23" S, 47°31'22" E) Original number: 1975K:41 Figure ascription: Fig. A21 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 x F 0 Elevation: 1295 m Distance to paddy: 100 m SW Descent: 25 m Bounds: Circular ditch 4-6 x 10 m Area: 1.33 ha * Entry: Masonry gate with disc to NE Tombs: Interior: rebuilt stone tomb Exterior: I triple-tier feta Other: Monolith, some ruinedfeta buildings, 2 possible cattle parks Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: I thick, 3 med, 1 med ext graphite, 1 hi everted jar rim (irg) (AdlKe) * oxidized: 1 thick, 3 med, 2 thin Fine Ware reduced: 1 thick (KI-F) and 1 med (K-F) int-ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 2 top rims, 1 10 jar rim (F) * oxidized: 2 med, 1 thin Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambohidray or Kaloy. Unthickened jar rim indicates Kaloy. Thick graphited Fine Ware suggests Kaloy as well. The subphase cannot be determined. Standingfeta walls are probably Fiadanana.

SITE 514.5 - 815.2 (18°45'40" S, 47°31'24" E) Original number: 1975K:78 Figure ascription: Fig. A22 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 ? F 0 Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 200 m NE, SW Descent: 20 m Bounds: Circular ditch x 2 m Area: 0.16 ha * Entry: Stone gate, causeway to NE Other: Cattle park, silos,feta structure walls Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 2 med Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin Comment: Sample small, but low Mica Ware proportion suggests Kaloy. Standing structures perhaps Fiadanana.

FigureA22. Site 514.5-815.2.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

514.5-816.4

139

514.7-814.2

///~

71

/

25% AQ,MS

30% MS,AQ

0: 24

0: ca.50 T: .72

T: .55

7.5YR 5/4

/

(//

L"

~.

~ "-

~

f.

10YR 4/3

30% CS T: .73

10YR 3/1

FigureA23. Site 514.5-816.4.

20% AQ,M

10% MS

0: 21 T: .75

0: ca.15

Lip T: .77

T: .60

10YR 5/2

10YR 5/1

20% AQ,MS

N 3/0

Figure A24. Site 514.7-814.2.

SITE 514.5 - 816.4 (18°45'40" S, 4r31'24" E) Original number: 1975K:75 Figure ascription: Fig. A23 Chronological summary: 0 0 Ak 0 0 0 0 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy; 145 m N Descent: 70 m Bounds: Possible ditch obscured by cultivation Area: ? Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Very Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med jar shoulder with incisions and ovoid punctate (Ak) * Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 10 jar rim (An-Ak) * oxidized: 1 thick, 9 med, 1 10 jar rim (An-Ak) *, 1 top handle fragment Comment: Ceramics weathered. 1985 re-examination showed that recent plowing had destroyed all traces of ditch.

SITE 514.7 - 814.2 (18°46'12" S, 47°31'28" E) Original number: 1975K:39 Figure ascription: Fig. A24 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 Ad 0 0 M Elevation: 1325 m Distance to paddy: 120 m NW, NE Descent: 45 m Bounds: Terraced hilltop, unfinished ditch to S, W, and N Area: 0.99 ha * Entry: Causeway on north end Other: Holes of footing for unfinished buildings of ca. 1900 on summit and some tamboho walls to E, N Ceramics (very fire damaged): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 3 med, 5 med ext graphite (-),3 med ext graphite int scraped (Ad), 1 med int scraped, 1 graphited top rim (AdK), 1 foot fragment graphited and incised (Ad?) * oxidized: 5 med, 1 everted jar thickened rim (irg) *, 1 thickened bowl rim without graphite (Ad-Ke) * Mica Ware oxidized: 4 med, 1 everted jar rim (F-M) Other white glazed "Floral Ware" rim (M), glass fragment Comment: Ambohidray site, perhaps unfinished, damaged by construction of late nineteenth/early twentieth-century estate, also probably unfinished.

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

140

514.7-815.0

514.7-814.4

t N

I

I I ( r

I

I"

,-

-"

;!--.~-

::-n --W FigureA25. Site 514.7-814.4.

'_g. 1

~-

--

Ij

10% MS

10% FS

D:ca 20 T: .54

D:ca 22 T: .40

Lip T: .65

Lip T: .53

Lip T: .68

10YR 4/1

10YR 3/1

10YR 4/1

FigureA26. Site 514.7-815.0.

SITE 514.7 - 814.4 (18°46'04" S, 47°31'28" E) Site name: Ankaretra Original number: 1986W:l Figure ascription: Fig. A25 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F 0 Elevation: 1315 m Distance to paddy: 70 m S, NW Descent: 25 m Bounds: Oval ditch 4 x 3 m with addition to E Area: 0.34 ha * Entry: Causeway to southeast with damaged stone gate Tombs: Interior of east extension: 1 single-tier stone block Exterior to east: Laborde style tomb Other: Walls of jeta structures, 2 interior, 4 exterior cattle parks Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 foot rim, 1 graphited int-ext plain bowl rim (K) oxidized: 3 med Fine Ware reduced: 1 int-ext graphite med (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 7 med, 2 top rims, 2 plain applique shoulders (F), 1 10 jar rim (irg), 1 v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: 3 med Other 1 tile fragment (F-M), 1 late nineteenth-century European porcelain Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware plain bowl rim with Fine Ware and non-Fiadanana Mica Ware sherds indicate Kaloy, probably late. Local informants say site was abandoned during the 1896 Menalamba revolt.

SITE 514.7 - 815.0 (18°45'47" S, 47°31'28" E) Site name: Ambohinierana Original number: 1986W:2 Figure ascription: Fig. A26 Chronological summary: 0 TOO Ad \ 0 0 Elevation: 1340 m Distance to paddy: 140 mE Descent: 20 m Bounds: Polygonal ditch, 3 x 2 m on west Area: 0.38 ha * Entry: Causeways to E, W Tombs: Interior: 3 double-tier stone block, 2 single-tier stone block Other: Large rectangular cattle park, 2 silos Ceramics: Compact Ware oxidized: 1 med Sandy Ware reduced: 2 thick, 68 med, 3 thin, 2 med ext scraped, 3 top rims, 1 hi jar rim and 2 rim fragments (irg), 15 med ext graphite, 1 med ext graphite-int scraped (Ad), 12 med int-ext graphite (Ad-K), 2 slightly thickened bowl rims int-ext graphite (Ad/Ke) *, 2 plain bowl rims int-ext graphite (K) *, 1 int incised bowl rim int-ext graphite (Ad) * oxidized: 1 thick, 39 med, 1 med int-ext grapite Mica Ware reduced: 7 med, 1 hi jar rim, 1 ext graphite foot fragment? oxidized: 2 med Comment: Most sherds on south terrace, including Ambohidray and Kaloy diagnostic bowl rims. Low Mica Ware proportion and lack of Fine Ware indicate Early Kaloy. Possible Antanambe Phase sherds on north slope not included in above counts. Northernmost tomb overrides line of north ditch, and must be later.

141

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

514.7-815.6

\

\

D \ \\

\ \

\

\

------- -

\

\

\

----

514.7-815.6

Figure A27. Site 514.7-815.6.

10% FS

20% CS

15% FS,AO

D:? T: .75

T: .78

D:? T: .70

D:? T: .70

7.5YR 6/2

7.5YR 7/3

7.5YR 5/3

10YR 3/1

SITE 514.7 - 815.6 (18°45'25" S, 47°31'33" E) Original number: 1975K:76 Figure ascription: Fig. A27 Chronological summary: Fk 0 0 0 Ad 0 ? T Elevation: 1300 m Distance to paddy: 160 m W, E Descent: 50 m Bounds: Deep polygonal ditch 5 x 3 m Area: 2.03 ha * Entry: Simple causeway to NE Other: Earth platform in center, probably recent Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Compact Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 bowl rim incised/impressed (Fk) oxidized: 1 med

*

10% FS,AO

Sandy Ware reduced: 13 med, 2 thin, 1 slightly thickened hi everted jar rim (irg) (Ad-Ke) * and a fragment of same, 1 top handle, I med ext graphite, 1 int-ext graphite bowl rim with grooved lip (Ad) *, 1 med int-ext graphite (+), 1 foot fragment? with ext graphite (+) oxidized: 1 thick, 2 med, 1 med jar shoulder with triangular imprints (Fk) * Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 3 med, 2 thin, 1 top rim, 1 plain strip, 1 ledge rim(M) oxidized: 4 med, 7 thin, 1 foot rim (!), 1 hi everted jar rim Comment: Impressed rim indicates Fiekena; good graphite quality and bowl lip indicate Ambohidray, to which period the ditch is attributable.

142

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

. T) V;;

514.8-814.1 .... "':"--. .:-.. ~ --.

...

~~.\

.

..

"

.'

... '

30% AQ,MS

D: ca.26 T: .80

D: ca.21

7.5YR 7/2

10YR 5/2

T: .82

5% MS

10% FS,AQ

T: .60

T: .64

10YR 5/3

10YR 6/2

d??J

~ 10% MS,AQ

T: .80

T: .64

7.5YR 4/2

10YR 6/3

Figure A28. Site 514.8-814.1.

20% MS,M

SITE 514.8 - 814.1 (18°46'13" S, 47°31'32" E) Original number: 1975K:38 Figure ascription: Fig. A28 Chronological summary: 0 An Ak 0 ? 0 0 M Elevation: 1315 m Distance to paddy: 165 m NE, E Descent: 45 m Bounds: Circular ditch 2.0 x 1.0 m, but filled Area: 0.12 ha * Entry: Causeway to NW Other: Recent tamboho wall crosses site Ceramics (much damaged by burning. erosion):

T: 1.00

10YR 4/1

Sandy Ware reduced: 3 thick, 37 med, 1 thin, 1 med bowl rim ext scraped (Adl K) *,2 med ext scraped, 3 med int scraped (Ag, Ad?), 2 med int-ext graphite (Ad-K), 1 med incised shoulder (An/Ak)*, 1 med int-ext graphite with imprints *, 1 grooved bowl rim (An) *. 1 ext graphite pedestal foot rim with imprint (An) * oxidized: 1 thick, 19 med, 1 med incised jar shoulder (An) *, 1 med incised and punctate jar shoulder (Ak) * Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 med black polish (F-M) oxidized: 1 med Other 13 magnetite fragments but no slag Comment: Antanambe and Ankatso definite. Scraped items suggest later use, probably Ambohidray. Modem strays from nearby 514.7-814.2.

143

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

514.9-812.6

515.0-813.5

30% AQ.MS D:23

T: .70 2.5YR 5/6

Trace FS D: 22 T: .80

20%MS

7.5YR 5/2

T: .80

2.5Y 7/3 Figure A29. Site 514.9-812.6.

SITE 514.9 - 812.6 (18°47'04" S, 4r31'35" E) Site name: Manadredraka Original number: 1975K:44 Figure ascription: Fig. A29 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 35 m NW, W Descent: 10 m Bounds: Shallow oval ditch, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.10 ha Entry: Obscure Other: Ruinedfeta structure inside Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 3 med oxidized: 1 med, 1 top rim * Fine Ware reduced: 1 int-ext graphite (-) tapered lip, plain bowl (F) * Mica Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 2 med (F?) Comment: Lime on Sandy Ware top rim suggests architectural use. SITE 514.9 - 813.6 (18°46'31" S, 47°31'36" E) Original number: 1975K:42 Chronological summary:? ? ? 0 0 0 0 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 50 m W Descent: 15 m Bounds: Damaged circular terrace Area: 0.21 ha Other: None Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 3 med Comment: Certainly not late sherds, though terracing perhaps late.

20% FS

T: .86 2.5Y 7/2

FigureA30. Site 515.0-813.5.

SITE 514.9 - 813.9 (18°46'21" S, 47°31'36" E) Original number: 1975K:36 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 130 m SW Descent: 30 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.05 ha Entry: Simple causeway on NE Tomb: Exterior: simple stone-outlined grave to NW Other: Possible cattle park, silo Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 1 med Mica Ware reduced: 3 thin oxidized: 3 thin, 3 med, 1 small everted jar rim (irg -) Comment: High Mica Ware proportion indicates Fiadanana. SITE 515.0 - 813.5 (18°46'35" S, 47°31'40" E) Original number: 1975K:35 Figure ascription: Fig. A30 Chronological summary: 0 An 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 80 m S Descent: 20 m Bounds: Circular terrace with tamboho wall Area: 14 ha Entry: None Other: None Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Very Sandy Ware reduced: 10 med, 1 med int-ext graphite oxidized: 2 thick, 10 med, 2 med incised and impressed (FkAn) **, 1 med jar shoulder with incised line (An-Ak) Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, 1 thin, 1 top rim oxidized: 4 med Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin (F?) oxidized: 2 med, 1 thin Comment: Probably scatter of Antanambe incised and impressed sherds exposed by probable Fiadanana terrace cut.

144

5 15.0-8 13.6

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

~

515.0-815.6

515.0-814.0

{

I

I

(

40% AQ,MS

D:? (Left) FigureA31. Site 515.0-813.6. (Middle) Figure A32. Site 515.0-814.0. (Right) Figure A33. Site 515.0-815.6.

T: .43

•

•

.

lOYR 6/4

515.0-815.6 --_

SITE 515.0 - 813.6 (18°46'31" S, 47°31 '41 " E) Original number: 1975K:34 Figure ascription: Fig. A31 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 x F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 130 m E, W, S Descent: 35 m Bounds: Circular terrace ditched to west, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.21 ha * Entry: Obscure Tombs: Interior: 1 possible Jeta tomb Exterior: 1 single-tier stone block with monolith, 1 single-tier Jeta tomb, both to NE Other: Walls of Jeta structures, silo, cattle park Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, I thin, 2 everted jar rims (irg), I neck fragment (irg +) (K) oxidized: 6 med, 1 foot rim Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: I med burnished black (F-M) oxidized: 1 thin, 1 med burn Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware and low non-Fiadanana Mica Ware propoltion indicate Kaloy. SITE 515.0 - 814.0 (18°46'19" S, 47°31'40" E) Original number: 1975K:37 Figure ascription: Fig. A32 Chronological summary: TOO 0 0 I F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 65 mE Descent: 20 m Bounds: Circular ditch x 0.5 m Area: 0.06 ha Entry: Causeway to west Other: None Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 6 med, 1 med impressed jar rim (Fk)

*

15% MS

0D:ca.23 A-:./T:.66 5YR 6/1

Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 3 med, 2 thin, 1 top rim, 1 med black burnish (F-M) oxidized: 9 med, 1 thin, 1 thick burnished red (F), 1 med ext graphite Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext burnish (!) Mica Ware reduced: 4 thin, 2 v. everted jar rims (F), 1 hi everted jar rim (irg), 1 plain strip (F) Graphite Ware reduced: 1 med Other 1 faience with blue-gray lines, 2 Staffordshire green transfer Comment: Most Fiadanana-late nineteenth century - but some earlier very battered Fiekena sherds.

SITE 515.0 - 815.6 (18°45'24" S, 47°31'39" E) Original number: 1975K:77 Figure ascription: Fig. A33 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 105 mE Descent: 30 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch x 1 m Area: 0.11 ha * Entry: Simple causeway to west Other: Inside: earth platform Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 5 med, 1 med ext graphite (-) (K-F) oxidized: 1 thick, 1 thick plain bowl rim (!) (Kl-F) * Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin oxidized: 2 med Comment: Perhaps bowl accidentally oxidized, removing graphite. Bowl form and non-Fiadanana Mica Ware proportion indicate Late Kaloy.

145

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

, I

j

,

I

I

I

I

I

FigureA34. Site 515.1-811.5.

SITE 515.1- 811.5 (18°47'41" S, 47°31'44" E) Site name: Anosiarivo Original number: 1975K: 131 Figure ascription: Fig. A34 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F M Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 115 m W Descent: 20 m Bounds: Concentric oval ditches with inner tamboho wall Area, inner: 0.92 ha Area, outer: 1.96 ha * Entry: NWhas stone gate and stone disc (diam: 2.10 m); NE damaged; SW has simple causeway Tombs: 2 single-tier stone block, 3 single-tier horizontal/vertical large slab, 1 double-tier larger slab, and 1 masonry, all in N-S row in center of site. One tomb has a block grooved to simulate horizontal slabs, like the Besakana of Antananarivo. Other: Presently occupied houses, stone footings of earlier houses

Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Very Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med oxidized: 2 med Sandy Ware reduced: 2 thick, 10 med, 2 ext graphite foot fragments (Ad-K) oxidized: 3 med Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 3 med, 2 thin (F), 1 top rim oxidized: 6 med, 2 thin, 2 med black burnish (F), 2 v. everted jar rims (F), 1 small everted jar rim (F) Other I tile fragment (F-M) Comment: Small sample, but reduced graphited Sandy Ware foot fragments indicate Ambohidray or Ka\oy and non-Fiadanana Mica Ware proportion indicates Late Kaloy. Coarse sherds could be earlier.

146

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

515.1-813.0

515.1-813.0

\

20%

20% MS

0: 22 T: .79

D:? T: .78

Lip T: .75

7.5YR 3/1

7.5YR 5/4

I f

Figure A35. Site 515.1-813.0.

SITE 515.1 - 813.0 (18°46'51" S, 47°31'46" E) Site name: Mahatsinjo Original number: 1975K:43 Figure ascription: Fig. A35 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F M Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 85 mE, SE Descent: 30 m Bounds: 2 oval ditches, partly filled 8 x I m Area, inner: 0.29 ha Area, outer: 1.32 ha * Entry: Stone with disc (diam: 1.75 m) to north, causeway to south Tombs: Exterior: 4 single- and double-tier earth tombs Other: Still-occupied houses Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 2 thick, 17 med, 5 thin, 1 med int scraped, 1 med black burnish, 1 everted jar rim *,2 med int graphite (!), 1 med ext graphite (Ad-K), 1 thick and 3 med int-ext graphite (Ad-K), 1 thick plain bowl int-ext graphite (K) *, 2 foot fragments and I foot ext graphite oxidized: 10 med, 1 med ext graphite (K) Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 8 med, 3 thin (F), 1 top rim oxidized: 9 med, 2 everted jar rims (irg), 1 med ext graphite Other 1 Red Ware (M), 3 glass bottle fragments Comment: Sherds from a refuse-filled Late Kaloy pit include reduced graphited Sandy and Fine Ware sherds, bowl rim and everted jar rim.

SITE 515.2 - 814.8 (18°45'50" S, 47°31'47" E) Site name: Ambohidahy Original number: 1983W: 11 Figure ascription: Figs. A36, A37 Chronological summary: Fk? An 0 0 Ad 0 0 0 Elevation: 1410 m Distance to paddy: 130 m NE, SW Descent: 40 m Bounds, outer: Deep polygonal ditch x 5 m Bounds, inner: Older filled ditches Area inside older ditch: 2.09 ha Total area: 4.60 ha * (Fig. A36) Entry: Obscure Tombs: Interior: to north, 5 single-tier small slab tombs, 1 on large rock; to south, very recent masonry tombs Other: Terraces, silos evident in road cut Ceramics, south portion (general collections from 1983-86): Compact Ware reduced: 1 med impressed * oxidized: 2 med Sandy Ware reduced: 2 thick, 29 med, 2 thin, 4 10 jars: 3 imp (An), 3 med jar shoulders (An), 3 thin int scraped, 2 hi everted jar rims with neck groove (irg) (Ag, Ad) *, 1 hi neck (irg), 6 tetrapod foot fragments (An) *, 1 top rim?, 1 thick and 11 med int-ext graphite, 4 round lip bowls int-ext graphite (-) with imprints (Fk?, An), 14 ledge lip bowls: same (An) ***,4 pedestal foot fragments int-ext graphite, 2 with imprints, 1 bowl foot int-ext graphite * oxidized: 3 thick, 22 med, 1 med int scraped, 3 10 jar rims (An), 2 with triangle impressed shoulder *,4 impressed shoulders (An), 5 tripod foot fragments (An) *, 1 ledge bowl rim int-ext graphite (-) with triangle imprints (Fk, An) *

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

147

515.2-814.8

Ambohidahy

/'

,-

I(~.

II

.~

,,/1 .-' .-'

,-

..-

""

I

--Figure A36. Site 515.2-814.8.

Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 2 thin int scraped oxidized: 2 med, 1 10 jar rim with oval imprint on shoulder * Other 1 celadon sherd, 2 cow teeth Ceramics, pit eroding from road in southeast portion (1989 collection: see Fig. 3.9): Sandy Ware reduced: 5 thick, 4 med, 2 top rims, 1 tetrapod foot fragment *, 2 med int-ext graphite with triangle impressions (An), 3 simple bowl rims int-ext graphite with triangle imprints (An) **

oxidized: 1 thick, 6 med, 1 med int-ext graphite, 1 rough ring base or top handle *, 2 fragments of same? Comment: Possible Fiekena trace, much Antanambe. Ambohidray sherds on the east part of the south enclosure. The final large and well-preserved ditch is attributed to this final occupation.

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

148

515.2-814.8

Ambohidahy --- -.-

1

\

-.7-.. .

\6444414 _4. 4:~~ \ - ..-.- '-.

..

5% FS

~'.

D:18

10YR 4/2

10% MS.AQ

D: ca.32

10YR 5/2

10% MS D: g6 10YR

5% FS,GR

20% AQ.MS.M SD: 13

D: 27

10YR 5/3

10YR 5/1

5/1

20% MS,AQ

5% M,FS 25%. AQ.MS

D: 10

D: ca. 21

10YR 5/3

10YR 5/1

15% FS,M,AQ

5% FS,M

D: 20

D: 9

20% AQ

10YR 4/2

2.5Y 6/4

5YR 6/6

FigureA37. Site 515.2-814.8.

149

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

515.2-815.9

Q V 515.2-815.9

15%AQ,MS

T:.67

.~-v .. "~'

.

T: .94

@. . .0;.

,6. ..

10YR 4/2

D: ca. 25

T: .77 10YR 5/2

2.5YR 6/6

5% MS

10% AQ,FS

10% MS

Trace FS

T: .75

D:? T: .68

7.5YR 6/4

10YR 5/3

Figure A38. Site 515.2-815.9.

SITE 515.2 - 815.9 (18°45'15" S, 47°31'46" E) Original number: 1975K:83 Figure ascription: Fig. A38 Chronological summary: 0 An 0 0 0 I 0 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 55 m W Descent: 20 m Bounds: Shallow oval ditch to east, terrace to west Area: 0.11 ha * Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics (battered): Coarse Sandy Ware reduced: 26 med, 1 10 jar neck fragment, 1 med sherd with cut rim, 2 med int graphite (!), 1 med bowl sherd ext graphite with triangle impressed band (An) * oxidized: 2 thick, 31 med, 1 med jar shoulder with triangle impressed bands (An) *, 1 med bowl sherd with ext graphite, triangle impressed motif (An) *, 1 ledge lip bowl rim with graphite and with motif (Fk-An) * Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite, 1 bowl rim int-ext graphite (K)

SITE 515.3 - 810.4 (18°48'09" S, 47°31'51" E) Site name: Ambodisiarivo Original number: 1985W:3 Figure ascription: Fig. A39 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 ? F M Elevation: 1255 m Distance to paddy: 50 m E, W Descent: 5 m Bounds: Scatter Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 tapered plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (-) (KI-F) * oxidized: 1 thick Fine Ware reduced: 1 tapered plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (F) * Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 2 thin, 1 top rim, 1 very everted jar rim (F), 1 ring base (M) oxidized: 4 med, 1 thin Comment: Fiadanana predominant, but bowl suggests Kaloy as well.

*

Mica Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 2 med Comment: Antanambe, perhaps early because triangles are of the widebased form, but Mica Ware and reduced graphited Fine Ware bowl rim indicate Late Kaloy as well.

515.3-810.4

~%FS

D: ca. 20

T: .76 10YR 4/1

Figure A39. Site 515.3-810.4.

10YR 3/1

150

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 515.3·812.4 (18°47'10" S, 47°31'52" E) Original number: 1975K:18 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 140 m W, E Descent: 30 m Bounds: Outer circular ditch x 2.5 m; inner tamboho wall Area: 0.28 ha Inner ditch tangent and without wall Entry: Perhaps to north Tombs: Exterior to NW: 2 single-tier, I earth and 1 stone Other: Silo and cattle park in interior; between ditches are tamboho structure walls and sherds Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 black burnish (F-M) oxidized: I med Mica Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: 1 thin SITE 515.3·815.9 (18°45'15" S, 47°31'49" E) Original number: 1975K:82 Figure ascription: Fig. A40 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 I ? 0 Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 120 m W Descent: 30 m Bounds: Small ditch x 1.5 m; interior tamboho wall Area: 0.11 ha Entry: Causeway to north Other: Feta structure eroded to foundations Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 23 med, 3 thin, 1 top rim, 1 hi jar rim (irg) *, 1 neck (irg), 1 ext graphite (Ad-K) oxidized: 21 med, 1 thin, 1 jar neck v. thick (irg) Fine Ware reduced: 1 flattened plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (Kl) *, 2 bodies int-ext graphite (+) (K) Mica Ware reduced: 10 med, I thin, 2 top rims (K-F) oxidized: 6 med Comment: Probably Late Kaloy given Mica Ware proportion and Fine Ware bowl rim.

515.3-815.9

Trace FS

0: ca.20

30% AQ,MS

T:. 79

7.5YR 4/2

0: 27 T: .95 10YR 3/2

Figure A40. Site 515.3-815.9.

SITE 515.4·813.7 (18°46'28" S, 47"31'53" E) Original number: 1975K:33 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 40 m W Descent: 20 m Bounds: Circular terrace, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.15 ha Entry: None Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 12 med, 1 10 jar rim (F-M), 1 top rim oxidized: 3 med, 1 med int-ext graphite (-) (F) Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin oxidized: 1 med Comment: Low Mica Ware proportion is surprising but other sherds are Fiadanana or modem. SITE 515.4·815.9 (18°45'19" S, 47°31'51" E) Original number: 1975K:81 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1300 m Distance to paddy: 270 m W, E Descent: 35 m Bounds: Circular terrace beside tamboho rectangle Area: 0.17 ha Entry: Obscure Tomb: Stone tomb to east Other: Monolith in center Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 1 med, 1 thin Mica Ware reduced: 3 thin, 1 med oxidized: 1 top rim Comment: This sample is completely Fiadanana, but the monolith could mark a point of significance in earlier times. SITE 515.5 . 813.6 (18°46'32" S, 47°31'58" E) Original number: 1975K:32 Chronological summary: 0 ? ? 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 60 mE, S, W Descent: 20 m Bounds: Shallow circular terrace Area: 0.16 ha Entry: Causeway to north Other: None Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 2 thin, 1 med ext graphite (Ad-K) oxidized: 12 med, 1 thin, 1 med incised jar shoulder (An-Ak) Fine Ware reduced: 2 med Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin oxidized: 2 med, I plain bowl rim, no graphite (F) Comment: Incised shoulder indicates Antanambe or Ankatso scatter with Kaloy or Fiadanana animal pen andlor threshing floor.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

151

515.5-816.7

515.5-815.0

uO 15% MS. AQ I I

I I I

I

, '' \

T: .88

Figure A4J. Site 515.5-815.0.

SITE 515.5 - 815.0 (18°45'44" S, 47"31'58" E) Original number: 1985W: 11 Figure ascription: Fig. A41 Chronological summary: 0 0 Ak 0 0 / 0 0 Elevation: 1410 m Distance to paddy: 200 m W Descent: 55 m Bounds: Polygonal ditch, much filled Area: 0.89 ha * Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics: Compact Ware reduced: 3 med oxidized: 2 med, 1 med with triangular imprint (Ak) Very Sandy Ware reduced: I med Sandy Ware reduced: I thick, 13 med, 2 med ext scraped, 1 incised and punctate jar shoulder (Ak) *, 1 top handle fragment, 1 jar neck fragment, 1 med ext graphite oxidized: 7 med Mica Ware reduced: I thick, 6 med oxidized: 1 med Comment: Ankatso indicated by decorated sherds. Ambohidray or Kaloy indicated by reduced graphited Sandy Ware; Mica Ware proportion indicates Late Kaloy.

30% AQ, MS 7.5YR 7/2

T: .77

T: .64

7.5YR 5/3 FigureA42. Site 515.5-816.7.

SITE 515.5 - 816.7 (18°44'50" S, 47°31'56" E) Original number: 1975K:85 Figure ascription: Fig. A42 Chronological summary: 0 An 0 0 0 0 ? 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 35 m N, W Descent: 10 m Bounds: Small shallow circular ditch Area: 0.11 ha Other: None Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 med ext graphite, 1 med int-ext graphite with triangular imprints (An) * oxidized: 1 thick, 8 medium, 1 shoulder with triangular imprints (An) * Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 1 med Mica Ware oxidized: 1 everted small jar rim (irg) (F?) Comment: Decorated sherds indicate Antanambe plus something later, perhaps Fiadanana. SITE 515.6 - 815.6 (18°45'21" S, 47°31'56" E) Original number: 1975K:79 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 Ad? 0 F 0 Elevation: 1315 m Distance to paddy: 220 mE, W, SE Descent: 60 m Bounds: Oval ditch 4 x 3 m Area: 0.23 ha Entry: 2 simple causeways to north and SE Other: Cut away to south Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, I thin, 1 hijar neck (irg), 1 med ext graphite (-) with int scraping (Ad?) oxidized: 2 med, 1 plain top rim Fine Ware oxidized: 1 med, 1 thick ext graphite (Kl-F) Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 4 thin (F) oxidized: 1 med, 1 v. everted jar rim (F) Other tile fragments (F-M) Comment: Poor graphite quality, not typical of exterior graphite/interior scraped Ambohidray sherds, perhaps a result of burning.

152

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 515.7·814.2 (18°46'08" S, 47°32'03" E) Original number: 1975K:22 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 ? F 0 Elevation: 1300 m Distance to paddy: 110 m E Descent: 30 m Bounds: Small oval ditch Area: 0.09 ha Entry: Probably small causeway to NE Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 1 med Fine Ware reduced: 1 thin int-ext graphite (K?), I foot fragment ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin oxidized: 1 med, 2 thin Other 1 tile fragment (F-M) Comment: Perhaps Kaloy given reduced graphited Fine Ware; Fiadanana likely. SITE 515.7 . 815.8 (18°45'16" S, 47°32'03" E) Original number: 1975K:80 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1305 m Distance to paddy: 120 m E Descent: 40 m Bounds: Small scatter Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin oxidized: I med, I med ext graphite (-) Mica Ware reduced: I thin oxidized: I thin, I top rim. 1 v. everted jar shoulder (F) SITE 515.8·812.3 (18°47'07" S. 47°32'14" E) Original number: 1975K:17 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 I F M Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 120 m W Descent: 25 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch x 0.5 m Area: 0.13 ha Entry: Obscure Other: 1 silo Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 12 med, 1 small hi everted jar (K), 1 neck fragment (jrg) oxidized: 7 med. 1 thin. 1 hi everted jar rim (irg -). 1 neck fragment (irg), I v. large neck with ext graphite (K) Fine Ware reduced: 2 med ext graphite. 3 thick (!) int -ext graphite (+) (KI), I med int-ext graphite, 1 foot fragment ext graphite

Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 2 thin, 1 top rim ext graphite oxidized: 6 med. I thin. 2 10 jar rims (M), I ledge rim (M) Other I European porcelain (M) Comment: Probably Late Kaloy given non-Fiadanana Mica Ware proportion and reduced well-graphited Fine Ware.

SITE 515.8·813.7 (18°46'26" S, 47°32'06" E) Original number: 1975K:20 Figure ascription: Fig. A43 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? x F ? Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 60 m W Descent: 20 m Bounds: Oval ditch 4 x 3 m Area: 0.13 ha Entry: Causeway to SE Other: Cattle park,feta wall stub Ceramics (1985 collection from field to south): Sandy Ware reduced: I med, 1 thin. 1 everted jar neck fragment (K). 1 thick int-ext graphite (Ad-K), 1 thick ext graphite, 1 plain tapered bowl rim int-ext graphite (KI?-F) * oxidized: 5 med, 1 thickened lip everted jar (F-M) Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 1 med, 3 thin (F), 1 med black burnish (F-M), I v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: I thick, 4 med, 4 thin, 3 top rims Comment: Heavy Fiadanana, however reduced graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambohidray or Kaloy of indeterminate subphase.

515.8-813.7

~~%? M~

•. 72

10YR 4/1

.)77

Z/

Figure A43. Site 515.8-813.7.

SITE 515.8·814.1 (18°46'14" S, 47°32'06" E) Original number: 1975K:21 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1295 m Distance to paddy: 120 mE Descent: 30 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch x 1 m, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.14 ha Entry: Simple causeway to north Tombs: Exterior: 2 single-tier: vertical/horizontal slab Other: Cattle park, silos,feta structure walls Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin oxidized: 1 med Fine Ware reduced: 1 graphited fragment Mica Ware reduced: 3 med, 9 thin (F), 1 med int-ext graphite (F) oxidized: 4 med, 1 thin, 1 med black burnish (F-M) Other 1 tile fragment (F-M), I med with fine carnelian red slip (F)

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

515.8-816.4

515.9-812.5

153

515.9-813.5

&§J

i t

I 1

,,1

\I

\

25% MS

0: ca.25 (Left) Figure A44. Site 515.8-816.4. (Middle) Figure A45. Site 515.9-812.5. (Right) Figure A46. Site 515.9-813.5.

T: .77 2.5Y 6/1

SITE 515.8 - 814.8 See 516.0 - 814.9 Site name: Amboatany

SITE 515.8 - 816.4 (18°46'08" S, 4r32'03" E) Original number: 1975K:90 Figure ascription: Fig. A44 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / ? 0 Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 85 m W Descent: 30 m Bounds: Circular ditch Area: 0.21 ha * Entry: Causeway to SE, monolith gate remnant Other: Feta walls inside Ceramics (from nearby fields, 1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 1 med, 1 plain bowl rim with int-ext graphite (-) (Kl) Fine Ware reduced: 1 med plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware none noted Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware with Fine Ware in the absence of Fiadanana indicates Late Kaloy. The well-preservedJeta wall stub suggests Fiadanana occupation, but the complete lack of Mica Ware is puzzling. Perhaps this is a relatively early ceramic collection from decayingJeta walls, which do not represent the later Fiadanana occupation. SITE 515.9 - 812.5 (18°47'07" S, 47°32'14" E) Original number: 1975K: 16 Figure ascription: Fig. A45 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F 0 Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 70 m W Descent: 20 m Bounds: Circular 4 m ditch, inner 1 m tamboho wall Area: 0.11 ha * Entry: Causeway with monoliths, disc (diam: 1.35 m) to north Tomb: Exterior tomb to north Other: Possible rectangular cattle park Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 10 med, 2 thin, 1 v. everted jar rim (F), 1 med ext graphite

" V .. ...

"

,

!.

~

\1 1\

101

(L __ r&I

11

Ir-~::-_ I I

\ \ , ,

,

\

0'1 ~

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(-), I med int-ext graphite, 1 plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (Kl) *, 1 foot fragment cxt graphite oxidized: 8 med, 1 med ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 2 thick, 10 med, 2 thin, 1 med black burnish (F), 1 shoulder of v. everted jar (F), I shoulder carination with vertical impressions (F) oxidized: 6 med, 1 thick shoulder of v. everted jar (F) Other 1 white glazed sherd, 1966 two-franc piece Comment: Proportion of non-Fiadanana Mica Ware and reduced graphited Sandy Ware sherds and bowl rim indicate Late Kaloy, even though Fine Ware is not reported. Middle-aged Tsimahafotsy owner says his great-grandfather lived here; that would have been during the mid- or late nineteenth century.

SITE 515.9 - 813.5 (18°46'33" S, 47°32'11" E) Original number: 1975K:13 Figure ascription: Fig. A46 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / 0 M Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 110 m SW Descent: 30 m Bounds: Circular double ditch x 2 m, interior tamboho wall Area: 0.12 ha * Entry: Causeway to NE Tombs: Exterior: nearby are I double-tier small horizontal/vertical slab, I double-tier horizontal/vertical large slab, 2 single-tier horizontal/ vertical slab, I single-tier small horizontal/vertical slab, 2 single-tier Jeta, 1 double-tier Jeta inside rectangular tamboho wall Other: 2 monoliths in south interior, Jeta structure walls, oval cattle park Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 med and 1 thin ext graphite oxidized: 3 med Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite (+) (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 3 med Other white glaze with yellow design (M) Comment: Ceramics all removed from walls probably represents earlier occupation. Proportion of non-Modern Mica Ware and reduced wellgraphited Sandy Ware indicate some Kaloy, probably Late.

154

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

515.9-816.8

515.9-816.8

35% CS

?

0:

T: .95 lOYR 3/1

/ 30% MS

0: ? T: .73

~

9-\

10YR 4/1

\

/"

~(? ..

Trace FS 0: ?

T: .45

10YR 4/1 \

\ \

\ /'

FigureA47. Site 515.9-816.8.

SITE 515.9 - 816.8 (18°44'44" S, 47°32' 11" E) Original number: 1975K:87 Figure ascription: Fig. A47 Chronological summary: 0 An 0 0 0 x F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 50 m N, W Descent: 25 m Bounds: Complex of nested polygonal and circular ditches Area: Antanambe: 1.11 ha; Kaloy: 0.27 ha * Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Compact Ware reduced: 2 thick, 14 med, 1 thick ext graphite with triangle imprints * oxidized: 4 med Very Sandy Ware reduced: 6 med oxidized: 2 med

Sandy Ware reduced: 21 med, 1 minature low neck jar rim (An) *, 1 tetrapod foot (An), 1 med int graphite, 1 med int-ext graphite with incisions and narrow triangle imprints (An-Ak) *, 2 pedestal foot fragments ext graphite oxidized: 49 med, 3 thin, 1 top rim, 2 10 rim jars with incisions (An), 2 tetrapod foot fragments (An), 1 med int graphite, 1 med int-ext graphite Fine Ware oxidized: 2 med, 1 foot fragment ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin, 1 top rim (F-M) Comment: Antanambe ceramics occur everywhere, and the basic polygonal ditch must be of this phase. The northeast oval ditch had Kaloy sherds. The others could also be Kaloy; the internal rectangular ditches are Fiadanana alterations, judging from the well-preserved leta walls (not shown on map).

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

SITE 516.0·813.5 (18°46'32" S, 47°32'16" E) Original number: 1975K:14 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? M Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 140 m SE Descent: 20 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch, interior tamboho wall Area: 0.34 ha Entry: Perhaps simple causeway to north Other: Occupied housing Ceramics: Sandy Ware oxidized: 2 med

SITE 516.0·813.6 (18°46'31" S, 47°32'15" E) Original number: 1975K:15 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F M Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 120 m SE, N Descent: 20 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch, inner tamboho wall Area: 0.25 ha Entry: Causeway to south may be recent Tombs: Outside to south: 1 single-tier earth fill and 1 single-tierjeta Other: Occupied houses Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 thin, 1 v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin

SITE 516.0·814.9 (18°45'48" S, 47°32'12" E) Site name: Amboatany-Fiangarana (East) Original number: 1975K Figure ascription: Figs. A48, A50 Chronological summary: 0 0 Ak 0 Ad / F M SITE 515.8·814.8 (18°45'49" S, 47°32'04" E) Site name: Fiangarana (West) Original number: 1975K Figure ascription: Fig. A49 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? X F M

155

Elevation: 1450 m Distance to paddy: 180 m N, S Descent: 11 0 m Bounds: Double polygon each with 3 large ditches, each 6+ x 5 m, and drains, all enlarged by erosion. Stone reinforced 1.4 m tamboho wall inside. Area: Ad-Ke: 1.56 ha; Kl-F: 4.66 ha * Entry: There are two gates on the east and west sides of the space between the two polygons, one to east and one to west of this space, called "Maizivanoro," perhaps two at the west end of Fiangarana, and one more at the northeast extremity of Amboatany, called "Ambovadiatsinana." Most are damaged. Only the east gate is intact with its lintel. It is said that all gates had discs, but none are evident. Tombs: Tomb of Andriamaherilahitany, double-tier stone block with tranomanara, in kianja of Amboatany; 1 double-tier stone block, 1 double-tier jeta, and in Fiangarana, 1 Laborde style. Other: Kianja, or public place with a monolith, 11 + cattle parks, stone footings, ruinedjeta or brick houses, and occupied houses. Ceramics, east (Fiangarana): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 11 med: 5 int scraped, 2 thin and 3 med ext scraped, 110 rim jar neck *,1 hijar neck (irg), 2 top handles, 2 top rims, 6 foot fragments ext graphite, 4 med ext graphite, 3 thick int-ext graphite (Kl) oxidized: 4 med: 2 int scraped, 1 thin int scraped, 1 everted jar rim ext scraped, 1 foot fragment ext graphite and incised/ punctate (Ad) * Fine Ware reduced: 1 med ext graphite foot, 1 plain med bowl rim (Kl) *, 1 med int-ext graphite jar rim * Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin, 1 med black burnished (F), 1 hi everted jar rim (irg) (Kl) *,4 top rims oxidized: 1 med, 1 thick, 1 punctate strip (M) Other 1 tile (F-M) Ceramics, west (limited collection): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med int scraped, 1 plain foot rim, 1 thick int-ext graphite (K), 2 med int-ext graphite (Ad-K) Fine Ware reduced: 2 med int-ext graphite (K-F) Comment: Fiangarana probably begins in Ambohidray or Early Kaloy times, given the reduced, graphited Sandy Ware and scraped sherds. Incised and impressed sherds (Fig. 3.7h, i) found in our sounding are Ankatso Phase, similar to nearby Mangabe (517.2-8\5.0). The incised and impressed foot on Fig. A50 and several rims from our sounding (see Fig. 3.7g, I, n), however, may be Ambohidray Phase. A small site (ca. 1.0 ha) of these earlier phases is probably hidden under the east end of Amboatany. Kaloy expansion, probably Late Kaloy given the evidence of the sounding and various Fine Ware and Sandy Ware rims, is clear. In 1989, the wife of the Fokontany VicePresident and the guardian of the tomb remarked that the original name had been "Ambohinitany" - "village above the land" - but it had been shortened.

156

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

515.8-814.8

Fiangarana

Figure A49. Site 515.8-814.8.

516.0-814.9

Trace FS

10% FS

D : 25 T : . 85 10VR 4/1

D : ca.12 10VR 5/1

T : . 79

10 % M, FS

5% FS

D : ? T: . 70 10VR 6/4

10VR 3/1

Figure A48 . Site 516.0-814.9.

D : 1.5

T : .80

Appendix A: Catalogu e of Site Information

157

516.0-814.9 and Amboatany

A: Covered Ga tew a y 8: Earlier Foundations

C : Tomb of Andriamahery 0: Kianja E: Excavation of 1983 F: Terraces with vertical-horizontal slab construction

516.0-814.9 From Easternmost Garden

10% MS, M

0: ca.11

T: . 50

5YR 6/6 Figure ASO. Site 516.0-814.9.

· P

158

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

516.0-816.5

~

.. : .. '

',:

..

"

/

I

10% MS,

15% MS, AQ

D: 19

D: 38

T: .88

10YR 5/2

T: .60

FigureA51.Site516.0-816.5.

7.5YR 6/5

SITE 516.0 - 816.1 (18°45'14" S, 47°32'44" E) Original number: 1975K:91 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 40 m SW Descent: 20 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch x I m Area: 0.13 ha Entry: Simple causeway on SE Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 1 med Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 2 thin (F) oxidized: 3 med, 2 thin SITE 516.0 - 816.5 (18°44'49" S, 47°32'13" E) Original number: 1975K:88 Figure ascription: Fig. A5} Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 Ad \ F 0 Elevation: 1295 m Distance to paddy: 90 m W, E Descent: 25 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch 1 x 0.5 m Area: 0.08 ha * Entry: Obscure Other: Silos,jeta structure footings Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med oxidized: 3 med Sandy Ware reduced: 24 med, 4 med int scraping, 2 hi everted jar rims (irg) **, 1 med and 1 thick int-ext graphite, 1 wide cylindrical foot fragment ext graphite (+) (Ad) oxidized: 9 med, 1 ext scraped med, 1 top rim, 1 everted jar rim (irg-) Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int/ext graphite (K), 1 foot fragment ext graphite (K-F) Mica Ware oxidized: 1 med, 1 10 jar rim (irg -) (F-M) Comment: Coarseness, scraping, low Mica Ware proportion, and wide foot indicate Ambohidray and Early Kaloy. Feta walls and Mica Ware jar indicate Fiadanana.

SITE 516.0 - 816.9 (18°44'41" S, 47°32'14" E) Original number: 1975K:86 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 I F M Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 65 m N, E, W Descent: 25 m Bounds: Circular ditch Area: 0.30 ha Entry: Causeways on SE and SW Other: Roofless brick houses, monolith and gate disc to SW, cattle park, silo Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 v. thick int-ext graphite (Kl), 1 med int graphite oxidized: 3 med, 1 punctate applique (F) Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 5 med, 4 thin (F), 1 thin with black burnish, 1 v. everted jar (F), ledge rim jar (M) oxidized: } thick, 8 med, 4 thin, 1 top rim, 1 hi jar with grooved rim (M), } 10 jar rim (M), 1 top handle, 2 med ext graphite Other 1 ox. med limestone tempered ware, 1 blue-transfer Staffordshire glazed ware, 1 writing slate Comment: Thick reduced graphited Sandy Ware indicates Kaloy, probably late. Fiadanana and modem debris heavy. SITE 516.1 - 814.6 (18°45'59" S, 47°32'15" E) Original number: 1975K:23 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 x F 0 Elevation: 1340 m Distance to paddy: 190 m SW Descent: 55 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch Area: 0.14 ha Entry: Obscure Other: Brick structure, cattle park Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 med plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (K) oxidized: 1 med Fine Ware reduced: 2 thin (!) Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 2 thin (F) oxidized: 1 carination (F) Comment: Bowl indicates Kaloy, but subphase cannot be determined.

159

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

516.2-810.3 10% MS 0: 19

T: .70

Q P.

t!!> _ b

"

.

-~ .

.~

..

30% MS

516.2-813.0 Figure AS2. Site 516.2-810.3.

D:? T: .60 5YR 6/4

Figure AS3. Site 516.2-813.0.

SITE 516.1 - 816.5 (18°44'54" S, 47"32' 17" E) Original number: 1975K:89 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 x 0 0 Elevation: 1300 m Distance to paddy: 150 m N, W, E Descent: 35 m Bounds: Circular terrace Area: 0.16 ha Tombs: Exterior: double-tier stone tombs Other: 2 silos Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 8 med, 1 thin, 2 med ext graphite, 1 thin ext graphite, 1 heavy jar rim oxidized: 11 med, 1 thin, 2 med ext graphite, 1 med int graphite, 1 top rim Fine Ware reduced: 1 med foot fragment int-ext graphite (K-F) Comment: Lack of Mica Ware, and presence of reduced graphited Sandy Ware and Fine Ware in absence of Fiadanana, indicate Kaloy. SITE 516.2 - 810.3 (18°48'18" S, 47°32'21" E) Original number: 1983W:23 Figure ascription: Fig. A52 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / 0 0 Elevation: 1255 m Distance to paddy: 40 m SE Descent: 5 m Bounds: Scatter Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, I int-ext graphite thick bowl rim (Kl) * oxidized: 2 med, 1 thin Comment: Thick Sandy Ware bowl rim and scarcity of Mica Ware indicate Kaloy.

SITE 516.2 - 812.3 (18°47'15" S, 47°32'20" E) Original number: 1975K:5 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1285 m Distance to paddy: 50 m SE Descent: 15 ill Bounds: Small scatter Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware oxidized: 1 med, 1 thick ext graphite (-) Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin oxidized: 1 v. everted jar rim (F) SITE 516.2 - 813.0 (18°46'50" S, 47°32'23" E) Original number: 1975K:9 Figure ascription: Fig. A53 Chronological summary: TOO 0 0 ? F 0 Elevation: 1285 m Distance to paddy: 140 m SW Descent: 30 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch Area: 0.12 ha Entry: Obscure Tombs: Exterior: 6 tombs. To west, 2 single-tier/eta, 1 single-tier earth; to north, 3 single-tier stone, 2 with monoliths. Other: 1 silo Ceramics: Very Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 1 impressed rim (Fk) * Sandy Ware reduced: 4 med, 1 thin, 2 top rims, 1 med int-ext (?) graphite (K?) oxidized: 4 med, 1 med red slip (F), 1 med graphite (-) (F) Mica Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 thin, 1 shoulder of v. everted jar (F) oxidized: 3 med Other 2 tile fragments (F-M) Comment: While most ceramics, the ditch, etc. are Kaloy or Fiadanana, a trace of earlier Fiekena occupation is indicated by the impressed rim.

160

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

5 16.2 - 8 1 3. 1

5 16.2 - 8 1 4. 1

Tr ace FS

D: ? T: .60 2.5YR 6/4 Figure A54. Site 5 I 6.2-8 I 3.1.

FigureA55. Site 516.2-814.1.

SITE 516.2 - 813.1 (18°46'47" S. 47"32'24" E) Original number: 1975K:1O Figure ascription: Fig. A54 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / T M Elevation: 1285 m Distance to paddy: 100 m N Descent: 20 m Bounds: Circular ditch x 3 m Area: 0.10 ha * Entry: Possible causeway on SW Other: Standing roofless structure, possible cattle park Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med oxidized: 1 med with black burnish (F-M) Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite plain bowl rim (Kl) * Other pewter fragment Comment: Though the sample is small, the bowl is indicative of Late Kaloy occupation.

SITE 516.2 - 814.1 (18°46'13" S, 47°32'21" E) Original number: 1975K:29 Figure ascription: Fig. A55 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1300 m Distance to paddy: 110 m W Descent: 30 m Bounds: Circular ditch Area: 0.12 ha * Entry: Simple causeway to NE by drain Other: Cattle park with stone sides, 2 Jeta structures Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 9 thin, 1 10 jar rim, 1 med burnished black (F-M) oxidized: 1 thick, 6 med, 5 thin, 2 everted jar rims (F), 1 v. everted (almost ledge) jar rim (F), 1 plain strip Other 1 tile fragment (F-M) Comment: Probably relatively late Fiadanana, given similarity of very everted jar rims to modern ledge lim jar form.

SITE 516.2 - 814.0 (18°46' 16" S, 47°32'21" E) Original number: 1975K:30 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F ? Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 180 m W Descent: 30 m Bounds: Scatter Ceramics (1976 counts): Sandy Ware reduced: 10 med, 2 thin, 1 med burnished (F), 1 med int (?) graphite oxidized: 16 med, 1 thin, 1 ring base (F-M) Fine Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 thin, 1 med int-ext graphite (K-F) oxidized: 1 med, 1 med ext graphite Mica Ware oxidized: 3 heavy jar rims (F-M?)

161

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

516.2-815.0

FigureA56. Site 516.2-815.0.

SITE 516.2 - 815.0 (18°45'43" S, 47°32'23" E) Site name: Tsarahonenana Original date: 1975K Figure ascription: Figs. A56, A57 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 ? Ad \ 0 0 Elevation: 1470 m Distance to paddy: 220 m N Descent: 120 m Bounds: Double polygonal ditches 3 x 2.5 m Area: 1.03 ha * Entry: Obscured by later construction Tombs: Interior: 2 single-tier large slab, 3 single-tier stone, 1 double-tier stone Exterior to northwest: 1 double-tier small slab Other: 5+ large cattle parks Ceramics (similar to those of adjacent 516.4-815.2, but smaller and more battered): Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 9 med, 6 thin, 4 med int scraped, 2 everted jar rims *, 6 med, 2 thin ext graphite, 1 cylindrical pedestal foot ext graphite (Ad) *,1 ext grooved bowl rim (!) int-ext graphite (Ad?) *, 2 foot rims, ext graphite (Ad-K) oxidized: 7 med, 5 thin, 2 med, 2 thin int scraped (Ag?) Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 hi everted jar rim oxidized: 1 med, 1 thick Comment: Thin scraped sherds may indicate trace of Angavobe occupation. The primary component is Ambohidray given reduced exterior graphiting, cylindrical pedestal foot, and bowl rims, though Mica

516.2-815.0

:1

~~o

'. · I' (

10% MS

. ::;) /

T: .61

0,"ca'9

10YR 2/1

.' ·''i.

;' ~1

,.

.. '.lI. ,

~:

10% FS, AQ D: 3.2

T: 1.15

10VR 5/2

10% MS D: ca.20 T: ,69 10VR 4/1

Figure A57. Site 516.2-815.0.

Ware indicates some Early Kaloy use. Traditionally called "it is good to live here" and said to have been the settlement of Andriamahery before Andrianampoinimerina ordered him to move the short distance west to Amboatany (see 516.0-814.9). It is notable that the polygon of Tsarahonenana was cut by the later outworks of Amboatany.

162

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

SITE 516.3 - 813.6 (18°46'30" S, 47°32'27" E) Original number: 1975K:12 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F M Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 40 m N Descent: 15 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch Area: 0.20 ha Entry: Perhaps on south Other: 2 silos Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 thin, 1 heavy ledge rim with ext graphite (F-M) Other tile (F-M), plaster (M), sheet iron (M)

SITE 516.3 - 814.6 (18°45'58" S, 47°32'04" E) Original number: 1975K:24 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1310 m Distance to paddy: 80 m E Descent: 25 m Bounds: Circular terrace with tamboho wall Area: 0.6 ha Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thin, 1 everted jar rim oxidized: 1 med, 1 med int-ext graphite Mica Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 thin oxidized: 1 thick, 3 med burnished (F-M)

SITE 516.4 - 812.9 (18°45'53" S, 47°32'31" E) Original number: 1975K:8 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Elevation: 1285 m Distance to paddy: 140 m SW Descent: 30 m Bounds: 2 shallow ditches Area: Each 0.10 ha Tombs: Interior of SW ditch: 1 single-tier modern brick tomb Exterior: to NW is triple-tier stone tomb with monolith, also double-tier earth and stone tomb Ceramics: No sherds noted Comment: Probably cattle parks rather than occupation sites.

SITE 516.4 - 815.2 (18°45'37" S, 47°32'34" E) Site name: Ankazomby Original number: 1975K Figure ascription: Fig. A58 Chronological summary: 0 0 TOAd \ 0 0 Elevation: 1490 m Distance to paddy: 210 m E Descent: 50 m Bounds: Triple ditches in complex polygon (3 x 2 m), stone wall inside with many sherds Area: 0.88 ha * Entry: Causeways over inner ditch to west and SE, but both blocked by outer ditches Tombs: Exterior to west: I double-tier small slab, 2 single-tier large slab tombs Other: 8 large cattle parks, rectangular stone footings, silos Ceramics (statistics from 1975 collections): Sandy Ware reduced: 2 thick, 31 med, 5 thin, 3 med int-ext scraped, 1 everted jar rim with neck groove (irg) (Ad-Ke) *, 2 everted jar rims (Ad-K), I thin and 9 med ext graphite, 4 med ext graphite/int scraped (Ad), 1 thickened bowl rim int-ext graphite (Ag-Ad) *, 2 slightly thickened bowl rims int-ext graphite (Ke) **,2 foot fragments and 1 foot rim, ext graphite, 1 foot fragment, ext graphite with imprints (Ad) *,2 med ext graphite jar shoulders with imprints (Ak) ** oxidized: 1 thick, 14 med, 2 thin, 3 med int scraped, 1 med ext scraped, 1 thickened lip bowl rim with graphite destroyed? *, 1 everted jar rim (K) Mica Ware reduced: 1 thick, 1 med, 1 thin, 1 jar rim (Ke) * oxidized: 2 med Note: Bottom row of 2 bowl and 3 jar rims are from 1983 collection, not included in statistics. Comment: Large, well-preserved sample. Possible Ankatso trace indicated by jar shoulder fragments. Ambohidray indicated by bowl rim and foot variants. Mica Ware proportion and bowl rims indicate continuation into Early Kaloy. Note the high proportion of graphited sherds in this sample.

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

163

516.4-815.2 Ankazomby

10% AO. MS T: .61

10YR 4/2

20% AO. MS

-'~-

-~'J)""':'~-:V~'

I! i ' .. ,

,

::

10% FS, AO 0: ca. 23 T: .69

LipT: .73 N 2/0

- . ~~l;)' '.

15% MS, M 0: 38 T: .46

Lip T: .81 7.SYR 6/4

D:? T: .66

5%fv

Lip T: .90

Lip T: .83

10YR 3/1

10YR 4/1

. .

10% MS

T: 1.04

7.5YR 5/2

20% AO,MS. M T 53 0: 19 :. 7.5YR 2/1

'\I

.C/'

::~.: ~

'

..'

.

15% M, AO 0: 20 T: .58

10% AO. FS 5YR 5/4

10YR 4/2

0: 25 T: .42

FigureA58. Site 516.4-815.2.

T: .75

164

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

516.6-810.4 Malaza

~ 110 SITE 516.5 . 814.5 (18°46'00" S, 47°32'29" E) Original number: 1975K:25 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 ? ? 0 Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 10 m NW Descent: 10 m Bounds: Oval terrace Area: 0.13 ha Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thin Fine Ware reduced: 1 med int-ext graphite (+) (K-F) Mica Ware reduced: 1 thin oxidized: 1 thin Comment: Graphited bowl sherd on path outside.

Figure A59. Site 5 16.6-810.4.

SITE 516.6·810.4 (18°48'11" S, 47°32'40" E) Site name: Malaza Original number: 1983W:24 Figure ascription: Fig. A59 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 I? F M Elevation: 1260 m Distance to paddy: 90 m W, SE Descent: 10 m Bounds: Oval ditch now filled Area: 0.73 ha * Entry: SW has monoliths, NE damaged Tombs: Interior: 1 large single-tier stone tomb vertical slab/horizontal block (!) and 1 single-tier/eta Exterior: to west: I single-tier stone, I Laborde style, and 1 modem; to north: 4+ leta tombs Other: Still-occupied houses Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, 2 thin oxidized: 1 med Fine Ware reduced: 2 med int-ext graphite (K), 3 graphited foot fragments Mica Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 v. everted jar rim (F) oxidized: 2 everted jar rims Comment: Fine Ware foot fragments suggest Late Kaloy. A middle-aged man cited a local tradition that Malaza was founded by nine men of Namehana, but the ditch was built under Andrlanampoinimerina who placed monoliths and a voandelaka tree at south gate.

165

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

516.6-812.6 516.6-812.6

20% MS 15% MS

0: 6

0: 17 T: .73

2.5Y 7/2

7.5YR 4/2

Figure A60. Site 516.6-812.6.

SITE 516.6 - 812.6 (18°45'01" S, 47°32'37" E) Original number: 1975K:7 Figure ascription: Fig. A60 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 20 mE Descent: 30 m Bounds: Polygonal deep ditch, interior tamboho wall Area: 0.53 ha * Entry: Causeways to north and west Tomb: Interior: 1 single-tier brick tomb Other: Silo,jeta structure walls, possible cattle park Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections): Very Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 2 med oxidized: 1 med Sandy Ware reduced: 2 thick, 18 med, 4 thin, 3 top rims, 1 hi everted jar rim (irg), 2 med ext graphite, 4 foot fragments ext graphite, 2 plain bowl rims int-ext graphite (KI) * oxidized: 7 med, 3 thin, 1 top handle *, 1 med ext graphite Fine Ware reduced: 3 med ext graphite (+),1 med int-ext graphite (+) (K), 1 plain foot lip Mica Ware reduced: 4 med, 5 thin (F), 1 thin burnished black, 1 hi everted jar, 3 top rims oxidized: 1 med, 3 thin Graphite Ware reduced: 2 med, 2 thin Comment: Graphited bowl rim and low proportion of non-Fiadanana Mica Ware indicate Late Kaloy.

SITE 516.6 - 814.2 (18°46'10" S, 47°32'3S" E) Original number: 1975K:28 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 0 Elevation: 1280 m Distance to paddy: 50 mE, S Descent: 20 m Bounds: Small circular ditch Area: O.OS ha Other: None Ceramics: Mica Ware reduced: 1 med, 1 thin oxidized: 1 med, 1 thin SITE 516.6 - 814.4 (18°46'04" S, 47°32'34" E) Original number: 1975K:27 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 0 F M Elevation: 1290 m Distance to paddy: 60 mE Descent: 20 m Bounds: Shallow oval ditch, partly filled Area: 0.08 ha Entry: Obscure Other: None Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 2 med, 1 thin Mica Ware reduced: 4 med, 2 thin, 1 med ext graphite, 1 v. everted jar rim (F), 1 10 jar rim oxidized: S med, 3 thin, 1 heavy everted jar rim (M), 1 med black burnish (F-M) Other white glaze with blue flower: twentieth century

166

Early State Formation in Central Madagascar

516.7-816.6

20% MS .

D:

ca. 14':,

T: .85 10YR 311

Figure A61. Site 516.7-816.6.

SITE 516.7 . 816.6 (18°44'52" S, 47°32'37" E) Original number: 1975K:95 Figure ascription: Fig. A61 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / 0 T Elevation: 1320 m Distance to paddy: 235 m W Descent: 50 m Bounds: Shallow circular ditch, interior tamboho wall Area: 0.11 ha Entry: Obscure Other: 2 silos Ceramics: Sandy Ware reduced: 3 med, 1 med ext scraped, I hi everted jar rim (irg) *, 1 jar neck frag (irg), 1 top rim oxidized: 1 thick, 4 med, 1 thin Mica Ware reduced: 3 med oxidized: 1 med Other white glazed European white ware (M) Comment: Reduced graphited Sandy Ware indicates Ambihidray or Kaloy. Non-Modem Mica Ware proportion indicates Late Kaloy.

SITE 516.8 . 813.5 (18°46'33" S, 47°32'42" E) Site name: Anosibe Atsimo Original number: 1975K:11S Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 0 / F 0

SITE 516.8·813.6 (18°46'28" S, 47°32'42" E) Site name: Anosibe Avaratra Original number: 1975K:llN Chronological summary: 0 00 0 0 / F M

SITE 516.8·813.6 (18°46'30" S, 47°32'44" E) Site name: Anosibe Atsinanana Original number: 1975K: 11 V Figure ascription: Fig. A62 Chronological summary: 0 0 0 0 ? X F M Elevation: 1270 m Distance to paddy: 20 mE Descent: 20 m Bounds: Outer double polygonal ditch with tamboho wall Inside to east: damaged earlier oval Area: Ke: 0.11 ha; KI-F: 2.74 ha * Entry: Damaged offset double causeway to west; others obscure Tombs: Interior: to north: 1 double-tier feta and 3 modem tombs; to east: 1 single-tier stone block tomb Other: Feta structure walls, 1 still-occupied house Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections), S - Atsimo: Sandy Ware reduced: 1 thick, 7 med, 1 thin, 1 thick int scraped, 1 med ext scraped, 1 everted jar rim (irg) *, 3 med and 1 thin ext graphite oxidized: 13 med, 3 thin, 2 everted jar rims (1: irg), 1 top rim Fine Ware reduced: 2 med int-ext graphite (-) (K) Mica Ware reduced: 4 med, 5 thin (F), 1 top rim oxidized: 15 med, 4 thin, 2 everted jar rims (K) *, 2 thin everted jar rims (F) Other 3 fine wheel-thrown (?) thick sherds (M), 1 heavy rim (M), 1 glazed floral sherd (F-M), 1 glazed banded sherd (M), 3 iron ore fragments Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections), N - Avaratra: Very Sandy Ware oxidized: 1 med Sandy Ware reduced: 10 med, 2 thin, 1 med ext graphite, 1 foot fragment ext graphite (Ad-K), 1 plain bowl rim int-ext graphite (-) (KI) * oxidized: 2 thick, 14 med, 1 thin, 1 everted thickened jar rim (M), 1 everted jar rim (M), 1 everted jar rim (irg -), 1 10 jar rim (M) Fine Ware reduced: 1 med ext graphite (+) (K) Mica Ware reduced: 4 med, 3 thin (P), 1 plain applique (F), 2 very everted jar rims (F) oxidized: 7 med, 2 thin, 1 v. everted jar rim (irg), 1 top rim Graphite Ware reduced: 2 med Other 1 tile (F-M), 1 wheel-thrown grooved rim (M) Ceramics (combined 1975 and 1985 collections), E - Atsinanana ("vegetated" ): Very Sandy Ware reduced: 1 med Sandy Ware reduced: 9 med, 1 thin, 2 everted neck jars (Ad-Ke) *, I med ext graphite, 1 med int-ext graphite, I bowl with slightly thickened lip jnt-ext graphite (Ad-Ke) * oxidized: 2 med, 1 hi everted jar neck (irg)

Appendix A: Catalogue of Site Information

167

516.8-813.6

516.8-813.6 E

Anosibe

L) •