Prehistoric Ceramics of Northeastern Thailand: with special reference to Ban Na Di 9780860545927, 9781407347479

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: A Review of Previous Studies
Chapter 3: Objectives and Methods
Chapter 4: The Study Area and Potting Clays
Chapter 5: The Petrology of Sakon Nakhon Basin Potting Clays
Chapter 6: The Identification of Production Centres
Chapter 7: The Ceramic Traditions of Ban Na Di
Chapter 8: A Model to Account for Temporal Change
Chapter 9: The Level 5/6 Interface at Ban Na Di
Chapter 10: The "Om Kaeo" and "Ban Chiang painted" Ware Problems
Chapter 11: Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
Appendix One
Appendix Two
Appendix Three
Works Referred to in the Text
Index

Citation preview

Prehistoric Ceramics of· Northeastern Thailand with special reference to Ban Na Di

Brian Vincent

BAR International Series 461

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -8461, 1988: 'Prehistoric Cera:mics of Iortheastern Thailand'

©

Brian Vincent, 1988

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545927 paperback ISBN 9781407347479 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545927 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

1

C on ten t s

p re f ace

i x

A cknow ledgemen t s

x i i

1 I n troduc t ion

1

2 Ar ev iew o fp rev ious s t ud ie s

8

2 . 1 2 . 2 2 . 3

I n t roduc t ion T heo re t ica la spec t s R ev iew o fe a r l ie rS ou thea s tA s ian s t ud ie s

8 1 0 1

2 . 4

T echno log ica ls t ud ie s

1 7

2 . 5

E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s

1 8

2 . 6

S ty le a na ly s i sa nd f ab r ic a na ly s i s

1 9

2 . 7

S umm a ry

2 2

3 Ob jec t ive sa nd me thods

2 5

3 . 1

Ob jec t ive s

2 5

3 . 2

D i scu s s ion

2 6

3 . 3

Me thod s

2 9

3 . 4 3 . 5

T he e l im ina t ive d educ t ion o r" s ieve" mode l Da ta t r ea tmen ta nd " enhancemen t" p rocedu re s

3 0 3 0

3 . 6

E nhancemen te xamp le s

3 2

3 . 7

P roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion

3 2

3 . 8

D i scu s s ion

3 4

3 . 9

S umm ary

3 6

4 T he s t udy a rea a nd p o t t ing c l ay s

3 7

4 . 1

I n t roduc t ion

3 7

4 . 2 4 . 3

G eog raphy ,g eomo rpho logy a nd c l ima te T he g eo log ica ls e t t ing a nd i t si mp l ica t ion s

3 7 3 9

4 .4

A na ly s i so fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s 4 .4 .1 Me thod s

4 1 4 5

4 .4 .2

4 6

4 . 5

R e su l t s

S umm a ry o fp o t t ing c l ay q ua l i t ie s

5 T he p e tro logy o fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s

6 1 6 3

5 . 1

I n t roduc t ion

6 3

5 . 2

R e su l t s

6 4

i

CONTENTS 5 . 3

S umma ry a nd c onc lud ing r ema rk s

8 0

5 . 4

M ine ra log ica lz one s

8 1

5 . 5

P aragene s i s

8 2

6 T he i d en t if ica t ion o fp roduc t ion c en tre s

8 4

6 . 1

C e ram ic p roduc t ion e v idence

8 6

6 . 2

P r ima ry e v idence

8 6

6 . 3

S econd a ry E v idence

9 6

6 . 4

F ina lc ommen t sa nd c onc lu s ion s

9 9

7 T he c eram ic t r ad i t ion so fB an N aD i

1 04

7 . 1

A r chaeo log ica ls umm a ry

1 04

7 . 2

B an N aD iC e ram ic T rad i t ion s

1 05

7 . 3

Mo r tuary p ha se o ne

11

7 . 4

F i r ing t empe ra tu r es

1 34

7 . 5

Mo r tua ry P ha se Two v e sse l s

1 40

7 . 6

O ccupa t ion F ab r ics

1 43

7 . 7

I ndu s t r ia lF ab r ic s

1 65

7 . 8

F ina lc ommen t sa nd s umm a ry

1 67

8 A mode lt oa ccoun tf or t empora lc hange

1 73

8 . 1

S u r f ace c o l lec ted S akon N akhon B a s in p o t te ry

1 73

8 . 2

E xcav a ted S akon N akhon B a s in f a b r ic s

1 74

8 . 3

E xcav a ted K ho ra tB a s in f ab r ic s

1 74

8 . 4

E xcav a ted C en t ra lH igh land f ab r ic s

1 82

8 . 5

K hokPhanom D i

1 83

8 . 6

T empo ra li n te rp r e ta t iv e mode l

1 83

9 T he l e ve l5 /6 i n ter face a tB an N aD i

1 88

1 0 T he " Om Kaeo" a nd " Ban C h iang p a in ted" w are p rob lem s

1 94

1 0 .1 T he " Om K aeo" p rob lem

1 94

1 0 .2 T he " Ban C h iang P a in ted" p rob lem

2 03

1 1 C onc lud ing r emarks a nd f u ture p ro spec t s

2 15

Append ix One T he c eram ic f abr ic so f Nor thea s tT ha i land

2 28

A .1

T he p e t ro logy o fB an N aD i" who le" v e s se ls

2 28

A .2

Mo r tua ry P ha se O ne f ab r ic s

2 28

A .3

Mo r tuary P ha se Two f ab r ic s

2 33

A .4

Who le V e sse lf ab r ic s

2 33

A .5

C o rd -ma rk so nv e s se l s

2 42

A .6

B an N aD ir im fo rm f ab r ic s

2 47

A .7

B an N aD ib ow p e l le t , a nv i la nd c ruc ib le f ab r ic s

2 6 1

CONTENTS Append ix Two

i i 2 64

B .l B .2 B .3 B .4

I n t roduc t ion C a ta logue o fS i t es S akon N akhon B a s in s u r f a ce c o l lec ted f ab r ic s B an Muang P h i-u kR imfo rm s

2 64 2 64 2 67 2 70

B .5

B an K ho No ia nd N on N o if ab r ic d i s t r ibu t ion s

2 72

Append ix T hree Cd C .2

I n c i sed w a re sa tB an N aD i P a in ted S he rd sa tB an N aD i

2 81 2 81 2 84

Works r ef erred t oi nt he t e x t

2 85

I ndex

3 16

i v

L i s to fF igure s 1 . 1

GENERAL MAP OF SOUTHEAST A S IA

5

1 . 2 1 . 3

GENERAL MAP OF THE S AKON NAKHON BAS IN GENERAL MAP OF THA ILAND

6 7

2 . 1

THE D ISTR IBUT ION OF S ITES WITH RECORDED TEMPER S PEC IES

2 4

4 . 1 4 . 2

GENERAL MAP OF THE KHORAT P LATEAU . THE KUMPHAWAP I STUDY AREA

4 7 4 8

4 . 3

THE KHORAT P LATEAU

4 9

4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6

GEOLOGY OF THE KHORAT P LATEAU QUARRY ING CLAY AT NONG ILAENG S CHE MAT IC S U M MARY OF THE PR INC IPLE CLAY MINERAL S TRUCTURES

5 0 5 1 5 2

SAKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING CLAY SOURCES CLAY 1( BAN KHA M 0 ) . CLAY 2( BAN P LUA I )

5 3 5 4 5 4

4 . 7 4 . 8 4 . 9

4 . 10 CLAY 3( BAN NONG THAN ) .

5 5

4 . 11 CLAY 4( NONG HO I KHAN ) . 4 . 12 CLAY 5 .( n e a r BAN KHA M 0 ) .

5 5 5 6

4 . 13 CLAY 6( NONG SUNG ,n e a r BAN P ANG NGU ) . 4 . 14 CLAY 7( BAN NONG PHA I ) .

5 6 5 7

4 . 15 CLAY 8( BAN MUANG ( Hua D in ) ) . 4 . 16 CLAY 9( BAN THU M )

5 7 5 8

4 . 17 CLAY 1 0( NONG KHA M D IN ) . 4 . 18 CLAY 1 ( BAN LAO SUAN KLUA I ) .

5 8 5 9

4 . 19 CLAY 1 2( NONG ILAENG ) 4 . 20 CLAY 1 3 ( BAN NA D I( Hua i Wang D uan H a ) ) .

5 9 6 0

4 . 2 1 CLAY 1 4( BAN NA D I( Nong H aeo ) ) .

6 0

5 . 1 5 . 2

M ICROPHOTOGRAPH OF QUARTZ OVERGRO WTHS TOURMAL INE I NCLUS ION I N A WELL -ROUNDED QUARTZ GRA IN

7 0 7 9

5 . 3

SAKON NAKHON BAS IN M INERAL ZONES

8 3

6 . 1

S ELECTED PROPER IT hS OF GROGS I N TH IN -SECT ION

8

6 . 2

GEOLOGY OF THA ILAND

6 . 3

I DEAL IZED S TRAT IGRAPH IC CROSS -SECT ION ACROSS TKR

1 02

6 . 4

PHYS IOGRAPH IC REG IONS OF THA ILAND

1 03

7 . 1 7 . 2

S TRAT IGRAPH IC CROSS -SECT ION OF BAN NA D I S ITE P LAN OF BAN NA D I

1 06 1 07

9 0

L IST OF F IGURES

v

7 . 3

S ELECTED BAN NA D I BUR IALS

1 08

7 . 4

S ELEC IED BAN NA D I BUR IALS

1 09

7 . 5

S ELECTED BAN NA D I BUR IALS

10

7 . 6

S ELECTED BAN NA D I BUR IALS

11

7 . 7

BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s l a , l ba nd i c . )

13

7 . 8

BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 2 )

14

7 . 9

BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s 3a nd 4 . ) .

15

7 . 10 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s5 , 6a nd 7)

16

7 . 11 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s8 ,9 a nd 1 0 . ) .

17

7 . 12 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s 1 , 1 2a nd 1 3 . )

18

7 . 13 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s 1 4a a nd 1 4b . ) .

19

7 . 14 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 1 4c . ) .

1 20

7 . 15 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s 1 5 a nd 1 6)

1 2 1

7 . 16 BAN NA D J "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm s 1 7 ,a nd 1 8 . ) .

1 22

7 . 17 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 1 9 . ) .

1 23

7 . 18 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 1 9 . ) .

1 24

7 . 19 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 1 9 . ) .

1 25

7 . 20 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 2 0 . ) .

1 26

7 . 21 BAN NA D I "WHOLE" VESSELS ( f o rm 2 1 . ) .

1 27

7 . 22 THE NONPLAST IC CO MPONENT OF SAKON NAKHON BASIN POT I ING CLAYS

1 29

7 . 23 POT NU MBER 3 5

1 30

7 . 24 V ITR IF ICAT ION S TRUCTURES I N BAN NA D I MP LOCAL WARES

1 38

7 . 25 V ITR IF ICAT ION S TRUCTURES I N CLAY 1 0 AND BAN NA D I MP 1 LOCAL WARES

1 39

7 . 26 THE BAN NA D I BUR IAL F IGUR INES

1 42

7 . 27 THE BAN NA D IR IMFOR MS FROM L EVEL 8

1 45

7 . 28 THE BAN NA D IR I MFOR MS FROM LEVEL 7

1 46

7 . 29 THE BAN NA D IR I MFORMS FROM LEVEL 7

1 47

7 . 30 THE BAN NA D IR I MFORMS FRO M LEVEL 6

1 48

7 . 31 THE BAN NA D IR I MFOR MS FRO M LEVEL 6

1 49

7 . 32 THE BAN NA D IR I MFORMS FROM LEVEL 6

1 50

7 . 33 THE BAN NA D IR I MFOR MS FRO M LEVEL 6

1 51

7 . 34 THE BAN NA D IR IMFOR MS FROM LEVEL 5

1 51

7 . 35 THE BAN NA D IR IMFOR MS FRO M LEVEL 5

1 52

7 . 36 THE BAN NA D IR I MFOR MS F ROM LEVEL 5

1 53

7 . 37 THE BAN NA D IR I MFOR MS FROM LEVEL 5

1 54

7 . 38 THE BAN NA D IR IMFOR MS FRO M LEVEL 5

1 55

7 . 39 THE BAN NA D IR I MFOR MS FRO M LEVEL 4

1 56

7 . 40 THE BAN NA D IR IMFORMS FROM LEVEL 4

1 57

7 . 41 THE BAN NA D IR IMFOR MS FROM LEVEL 4

1 58

7 . 42 THE BAN NA D IR IMFOR MS FRO M L EVEL 4

1 59

7 . 43 THE BAN NA D IR I MFORMS F RO M LEVEL 3

1 60

7 . 44 THE BAN NA D IR IMFORMS FRO M LEVEL 3

1 6 1

7 . 45 THE D ISTR IBUT ION OF EXOT IC F ABR ICS AT BAN NA D I

1 63

v i

L IST OF F IG URES 7 . 46 THE D ISTR IBUT ION OF ORTHODOX AND BLEB GROG AT BAN NA D I 7 . 47 CERAM IC ANV ILS FRO M BAN NA D I 7 . 48 A BAN NA D I CRUC IBLE 7 . 49 A FRAGMENT OF FURNACE FRO M BAN NA D I

1 64 1 70 1 71 1 72

8 . 1 8 . 2

SAKON NAKHON BASIN ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES THE D ISTR IBUT ION OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES CONSIDERED .

1 77 1 79

8 . 3

COMPAR ISON OF BAN CH IANG W AN , BAN NA D I AND BAN W ANG PHRUK R IMFORMS

1 86

THE D ISTR IBUT ION OF F ABR ICS AT BAN NA D I

1 93

9 . 1

.

1 0 .1 " O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERD 0 19 1 0 .2 " O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : S HERD 0 3 1 0 .3 " O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : S HERDS 0 20 AND 0 25

1 96 1 96 1 97

1 0 .4 " O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERDS 0 1 AND 0 3

1 99

1 0 .5 1 0 .6 1 0 .7 1 0 .8

2 00 2 01 2 02

" O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERDS 0 24 " O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERD 0 38 " O M KAEO" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERD 0 7 " BAN CH IANG P A INTED" WARE AT BAN NA D I : 0 29 AND 0 37 1 0 .9 " BAN CH IANG P A INTED" WARE AT BAN NA D I : 1 0 .10"BAN CH IANG P A INTED" WARE AT BAN NA D I :

AND 0 42

SHERDS SHERD 0 30 SHERD 0 34

2 09 2 10 2 10

1 0 .11 " BAN CH IANG P A INTED" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERD 0 32

2 11

1 0 .12"BAN CH IANG P A INTED" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERD 0 28 1 0 .13"BAN CH IANG P A INTED" WARE AT BAN NA D I : SHERD 0 35

2 12 2 13

1 .1 THE BAN NA D I CERAM IC S EALS

2 22

A .1 A .2

ORTHODOX GROG I N TH IN -SECT ION . MODERN AND PREH ISTOR IC BLEBS I N TH IN -SECT ION .

2 34 2 35

A .3 A .4

PREH ISTOR IC BLEBS I N HAND S PEC IMEN PREH ISTOR IC BLEBS I N HAND S PEC IMEN

2 35 2 36

A .5 B .1

PREH ISTOR IC BLEBS WITH R ICE I N TH IN -SECT ION . BAN W ANG PHRUK R IMFOR MS .

2 36 2 74

B .2 B .3

BAN W ANG PHRUK R IMFOR MS . BAN W ANG PHRUK R IMFOR MS .

2 75 2 76

B .4 B .5 B .6

BAN W ANG PHRUK R IMFOR MS . BAN W ANG PHRUK R IMFOR MS . BAN W ANG PHRUK R I MFOR MS .

2 77 2 78 2 79

v i i

L i s to fT ab le s 2 . 1

P reh i s to r ic t empe r sp r ev iou s ly i d en t if ied i nT ha i land

2 2

4 . 1 4 . 2

T he p o t t ing p rope r t ie so fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s T he s h r inkage r a te so fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s

6 1 6 2

5 . 1

P o in tc oun t ing a na ly s i so fm a jo rc omponen t s

6 5

5 . 2

R e la t ion sh ips b e tween m ic ro fo ss i l s

6 5

5 . 3

T he q u ar tz a nd c he r tc omponen t

6 6

5 . 4

S hape ,s o r t ing a nd m ax imum s i ze o fn onp la s t ic s .

6 7

5 . 5 5 . 6

H eavy m ine ra l sa nd m e tamo rph ic q uar tz . F e ld spa r sa nd w ea the red n onp la s t ic p ropo r t ion s .

6 8 6 9

7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3 7 . 4

B an N aD i : E xcav a to r sP ropo sed C h rono logy B an N aD i" Gob le t" f ab r ic s P o in tc oun t ing a na ly s i so fB an N aD ib u r ia lv e s se l s P ropo r t ion so fe xo t ic MP1 b u r ia lp o tf o rm s

1 05 1 31 1 40 1 43

7 . 5 7 . 6

P ropo r t ion so fe xo t ic MP1 b u r ia lp o t s . B an N aD ic e ram ic " r ing" f ab r ics

1 44 1 65

7 . 7

P e r fo ra ted s he rd f a b r ic s

1 67

8 . 1

S akon N akhon B a s in s u r f ace c o l lec ted f ab r ic s .

1 73

8 . 2 8 . 3

T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fB an Muang P h ruk f ab r ic s . T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fN on K ao No if ab r ics

1 74 1 78

8 . 4

B an C h iang H ian f a b r ic s .

1 78

8 . 5 8 . 6

T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fN on C ha if ab r ic s T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fR o iE tf ab r ic s .

1 80 1 80

8 . 7

T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fP h ima if ab r ic s .

1 81

8 . 8

B an Muang P h ruk : T he s u r f a ce t r ea tmen t so fe a r ly r im s .

1 85

A .1 A .2

B an N aD i" who le" v e s se lf ab r ic s T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o f" who le" v e sse lf ab r ic s .

2 37 2 40

A .3 A .4

T he mo r tua ry p ha se l at ol cw ho le v e s se lf ab r ic s T he mo r tu ary p ha s e l at ol cw ho le v e s se lf ab r ic s

2 4 1 2 4 1

A .5

T he c o rdma rk so nB an N aD i" who le" v e sse l s .

2 42

A .6

T he B an N aD ib u r ia lf i gu r ine s .

2 46

A .7 A .8 A .9

T he B an N aD io ccupa t ion l e ve lr im fo rm f ab r ic s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f BND o ccupa t ion l e ve lr im fo rm f ab r ics . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fe xo t ic B an N aD ir im fo rm f ab r ic s

2 48 2 59 2 59

A .10 T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fB an N aD ir im fo rm g rog t empe r s

2 59

A .1 T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fB an N aD ir im fo rm r i ce t empe r s .

2 60

v i i i

L IST OF T ABLES A .12 T he B an N aD ib ow p e l le tf ab r ic s A .13 T he B an N aD ic e ram ic a nv i lf a b r ic s . A .1 4 T he B an N aD ic ruc ib le f ab r i cs

2 6 1 2 62 2 63

B .1 C a ta logue o fs i te se xam ined . B .2 S chedu le o fs i te se xam ined .

2 65 2 67

B .3 B .4

S akon N akhon B a s in s u r f a ce c o l lec ted f a b r ic s . T he B an Muang P hruk r im fo rm f ab r ic s

2 68 2 70

B .5 B .6

T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fB an K ho N o if a b r ic s . T he c h rono log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o fN on N o if ab r ic s .

2 73 2 73

B .7 B .8

T he c on s t ruc t ion a nd s ur f a ce f i n ish o fP o t s6 2a nd 6 3 T he s u r f ace d eco ra t ion o fr im sa tB an N aD i .

2 80 2 80

C .1 T he s u r f ace f i n i sh o f" Um K aeo" s he rd sa tB an N aD i . C .2 A s umma ry o fp a in ted w a r ef a b r ic sa tB an N aD i

2 82 2 84

i x

p reface F ie ldwo rk c a r r ied o u td ur ing 1 980 -1981 , i nt h e S akon N akhon B a s in o f No r thea s tT ha i land , p rov ided mo s to ft h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence s e to u ti nt h ep resen tr epo r t . I na dd i t ion ,p o t te ry r e cove red f r om e xcava ted a nd /o r s u rveyed s i tes s p read w i th in t h e Kho ra t P la teau , t h e a d ja c en tP e tchabun H igh land s , a nd t h e mo re d i s tan tC en t ra lP la ins r eg ion ,h a sp rov ided i mpo r tan t c ompara t ive d a ta . I n fo rma t ion r ega rd ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc e r am ic t r ad i t ions i nt h ea r ea w a s v i r tua l ly n on -ex is ten ti n1 980 . When s uch c ond i t ions e x is t ar e search s t ra tegy w h ich p rov ide s a no ve rv iew o ft h er eg ion i nq ue s t ion i s av i ta lf i r s ts t ep i no r ien ta t ing t h ed a ta u nde ri mmed ia te s c ru t iny . H ence , a tD av id P ea coák 's s ugge s t ion ,i tw a sd ec ided t oa im f o ra ne x ten s ive c o rpus o fp o t te ry ,f r om a s many s i tes a sp o s s ib le ,a ga ins tw h ich t h ep r imary ma ter ia lc ou ld b eb rough t i n to f ocus . T he c ompa ra t ive p o t tery e nhanced S akon N akhon B a s in e v idence b y a l low ing i t t ob es e ti n at empe ro -a rea lb ackg round . S uch b ackg round i n fo rma t ion c an g i ve i mpo r tan ti n s i gh ti n to s oc io -econom ic a nd o the rc u l tu ra l f a c to r s . I nt h ep resen ts t udy i th a s a l lowed t h ese p roces se s t ob e b rough t u nde rc l o se rs c ru t iny . F ie ldwo rk d ur ing 1 985 , a tt h e n eo l i th ic s i te o f Khok P hanom D i ,c on t r ibu ted t e chno log ica li n fo rma t ion w h ich f u r the rb ea r so n s eve ra li n f e r e nce sa nd c onc lus ions w i th in t h is r epo r t . T hese e xp lana t ions p a r t icu la r ly c once rn t h eo r ig ins o f manufac tur ing t e chn ique s w h ich w e re a dop ted b y p o t te r s l a te i nt h e Nor thea s te rn c u l tu ra l s equence . T h is r epo r t i s av ery s l igh t ly mod if ied v e r s ion o ft h e a u tho r 's d oc to ra l d i s se r ta t ion " The P reh i s tor ic C e ram ics o fN o r thea s t T ha i land" , s ubm i t ted t ot h e U n ive r s i ty o fO tago i n 1 987 . T he c hanges i n vo lve ad if e r en tp age f o rma t s u i ted t od oub le -s ided p ub l ica t ion , w i th r unn ing h eade r s ,a nd a ni ndex . I ta l so e xpand sa nd c l ar if ie sp re l im inary r e su l t sp rev ious ly p ub l i shed b y t h ea u tho ri nt h et h ree v o lume r epo r t , B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 2 31( i i i ) , e d i ted b y H igham a nd K i jngam ( 1984 ) . R eade r s w ho w ish t oa va i l t h em se lves o f ad e ta i led r epor t w h ich a l so c ove r s t h en on -ce ram ic a spe c t s o ft h e 1 980 -81 a r chaeo log ica l e xped i t ions , c arr ied o u t u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o ft h e T ha iF ine A r t sD epar tmen t 's N o r thea s tT ha i land A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t , s hou ld r e f e r t ot h a t p ub l ica t ion . T he p r e sen t v o lume s e rve s a s af u r the r c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e 1 984 t h ree v o lume s e r ies , w i th t h e i n ten t ion t h a t i tp rov ide amo re c omp rehens ive c ove r o f t h a ti n ve s t iga t ion . I ti sa l so t h ea u tho r 's h ope t h a tt h ep resen tr epo r t may c on t r ibu te t oo u ru n d e r s tand ing o ft h ep reh is to ry o fT ha i land , t h rough ac ons ide ra t ion o fT ha ip reh is tor ic c e ram ic a r tef ac t s . Many o ft h es i te sc ove red a r el o ca ted b eyond t h ea r ea c overed b yt h e 1 980 -81 i n ves t i ga t ion ,a nd i th a st h us b een p o s s ib le t o make a va i lab le aq u i te b road p er spec t ive o fN o r thea s t T ha ip r eh is to ry , i nt e rms o ft h ec e ram ic s pec t rum a va i lab le a tt h e t ime o fp ub l ica t ion . A tt h ec ommencemen to ft h eS akon N akhon B a s in f i e ldwo rk , wh ich p rov ided b o th c u l tu ra l a nd g eo log ica ld a ta ,i tw a se nv isaged t h a ta ny t e chno log ica lo rp e t rog raph ic i n fo rma t ion w ou ld f a l lu nde rt h ea na ly t ica lr ubr ic s oc ogen t ly p romo ted b ye a r l ie rw o rke r ss uch a sA nna S hepa rd a nd D av id P eacock . T h is a pp roach s e emed f i t ted t oe v idence d er ived f r om p o t t ing c l ays a nd /o r c e ram ic a r tefac t s . Af undamen ta l a s sump t ion w as t h a tm ine ra log ica le v idence w ou ld p rov ide

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t h e y a rd s t ick f o rs ugge s t ing l i k e ly c e r am ic s ou rce a r ea s , i d en t ify ing e xchange n e two rk s , d e t e c t ing p o s s ib le c u l tu ra l c hange s , a nd e xp lor ing t h e i n teg r a t ion o fp o t te ry m anuf a c tu r e w i th o t he rs oc io -econom ic a c t iv i t ie s . O ne e xamp le i su nde r s tand ing t h er o le o fp o t t e ry i nr i tua lb e h av iou r , a sd i sp layed i na c t iv i t ie sc on s ide red t or ef lec ts ymbo l ic e xp re s s ion . I nt h i s s t udy t h e a s sump t ion sp roved t ob ei n suf f i c ien tf o rt h et a sk a th and . T hey w e re i n adequa te b ecau se t h e m a ter ia lp roved i n t rac tab le u nde rn o rma l a na ly t ica lp rocedu re s . T hu sn ew t e chn ique sc apab le o fr e so lv ing t h i si mpa sse w e r en eeded . When n ew r e sea r ch p ro jec t s a r e i n i t ia ted , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se i n vo lv ing f r e sh m e thod s o f i nqu i ry , o r me thod sw h ich h ave n o t b een a pp l ied i nt h e a r ea b efo re , i ti sp e rhap sp red ic tab le t h a tt h er e su l t sw i l ln o tf i tn ea t ly i n to p rev iou se xp lana tory s t ruc tu re so r" s c ien t if i cp a rad igm s" . S uch w a st h ec a se i nt h i s s t udy . Much o ft h ep o t ter y d e sc r ibed i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r s w a s m anuf ac tu red f r om c l ay sw h ich a r e ,i ns t anda rd p e t rog raph ic t e rm s ,b e s tc on s ide red " geo log i c a l ly n on -spec if i c" . I nl i gh to ft h is d if i cu l ty , an ew a pp roa ch h a sb een a dop ted . E a r l ie rS ou thea s tA s ian s t ud ie sh ave c oncen t ra ted o np o t te ry s t y le . T he se e mpha s ize f o rm a nd d e s ign c ha rac te r i s t ic s , f e a tu r e s s u scep t ib le t ot r an s ien ti nf luence s . R e l iance o n s uch e v i d ence r i sk sm i s lead ing r e su l t s . C e ram ic f a br ic s , h oweve r ,e ncapsu la te t e chno log ica la nd m in e r a log ica l i n fo rma t ion p o ten t ia l ly u sef u l i ne xp la in ing c u l tu ra l r e la t ion sh ip s a nd c hange s i n t h ep o t te r 's c r a f t . S uch i n fo rma t ion i se s sen t ia li fp r eh i s to r ic w a r es a r et ob e u sed f o rc h rono l o g ica l f r amewo rk s , a nd a s ma rke r s o fs oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion , e xchange n e two rk s a nd c u l tu ra l c hange s . K ho ra tP la teau g eo logy , g eomo rpho logy a nd p a laeoc l ima te a r ee ach o u t l ined a nd r e la ted t oS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s . T he g eo logy i sr e la t ive ly h omogeneou s , d ue t oi t s p r inc ipa l ly s ed imen t a ry c ompo s i t ion . Ma te r ia ls d e r ived f r om s ed imen ta ry a r ea sc an p re sen t t e chn ica lp rob lem sf o rp o t te r sb ecau se t h ey o f ten r equ i re s p ec ia l manuf ac tur ing m e thod s . T he r e su l tan tf ab r ic sa r eo f t en d i s t inc t ive . T hu sb o th m ine ra log ica la nd t e chno log ica li n fo rma t ion c an b ei d en t if ied i nw a re sp roduced u nde rt h e se c ond i t ion s . An ew a na ly t ica l m e thod , w h ich c omb ine s t h e se d a ta , i sp re sen t ed . Many p reh is to r ic m anuf ac tur ie s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een l o ca ted i ns ed imen t ary t e r ra in f o rt wo i mpo r tan tr e a sons . F i r s t , i ti se s t ima ted t of o rm u p t o 8 0% o ft h ee a r th 's c ru s t . S econd ,p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t st e nd t ob ec oncen t ra ted i ns u ch t e r ra in f o rs oc io -econom ic r e a son su n re la ted t op o t te ry f a c to r s . T he r o le p roduc t ion c en t re s p l ayed i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ic s i sc on s ide red c r i t ica l . P roduc t ion i sc on s t ra ined b yt h en eed f o rr e l iab le s upp l ie so fs u i tab le c l ay sa nd o t he rc e ram ic i ng r ed ien t s . Q ua l i ty p o t t ing c l ay sa r eo f t en r e s t r ic ted t os ma l ll o ca l i sed d epo s i t s . P o t te ry w a s o f ten ap rom inen te xchange i t em . T h i sw a sp a r t ly b ecau se c onsume rp opu la t ion s w e r eo f ten n e ti mpo r te r s . T hus t h em e re p re sence o fp o t te ry i na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t sd oe sn o tg ua ran t ee i ns i tu m anuf ac tu re . T hese f a c to r sm us tb et a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion ,t h e refo re ,w hen p o t te ry i s u sed t oc on s t ruc ta r chaeo log ica lf r amewo rk ss u ch a sr e la t ive l o ca lo rr e g iona lc h rono log ie s ,i f r e l iab le c onc lu s ion sa r et or e su l t . F u r the r ,g eog r aph ica l ly e xp l ic i tl a be l s , s u ch a s" Ban C h iang P a in ted" o r" Om K aeo Wa r e" , s hou ld o n ly b e u sed i ft h ey g enu ine ly d ef ine aw a r e 's o r ig in . E v idence i sp r e sen ted w h ich c on t r ad ic t s p rev ious a s sump t ion s r ega rd ing t h eo r ig in s o ft h e se l a t te rw a re s . A l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion sa r eg i v en i nt h e i rp l a ce . P a r t icu la ra t ten t ion i sp a id t ot empe rs pec ie sb ecau se t h ey a r ei mpo r tan ti ng red ien t si np o t t e ry manuf ac tu r e . S ince p o t te r s d i sp lay ma rk ed c onse rv a t i sm i nt e chno log ica l m a t te r s , t em p e r sh e lp i d en t ify d if e r en tc e ram ic t r ad i t ion s . O ne B an N aD i mo r tua ry w a re f a b r ic ,h oweve r , c on ta ined at e chno log ica l ly s uperf luou s a dd i t ive . T h is i sc on s ide red t or ep re sen t s ymbo l ic e xp re s s ion . I tc o r r e la t es s t rong ly w i th amo r tua ry v e s se lf o rm w h ich i sa l so c on s ide red r i tu a l ly s i gn if i can tf o ri ndependen tr e a son s . S uch c o r re la t ion sd emon s t ra te t h e n eed t oc omb ine

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t e chno log ica l a nd s t y l is t ic e v idence . Two t empo ra l ly s epara ted B an N aD i c e ram ic t r ad i t ions a r e d e ta i led t h rough a na lyses o f p o t t ing c l ays , c e ram ic a r tef a c ts , t oo ls a s soc ia ted w i th p o t te ry manufac tu re , a nd t h e a ccou t r emen t s o f me ta l lu rgy . E ach d i s t inc t ive t r ad i t ion e mp loyed d if e ren t c l ays a nd f abr ica t ion t e chn iques , a nd d i sp layed d if e ren tp o t te ry s t y le s . T he l o ca l c hanges a r ec ons ide red t or ef lec t b road sca le d eve lopmen t s o f s ome m agn i tude . T heo re t ica l mode ls a r e s ugge s ted t oa ccoun t f o r t h e se c hange s . T hey d raw o n m a ter ia l f r om s i te s w i th in a nd b eyond t h e K ho ra t P la teau . T h i s e v idence i su sed t os ugge s t e xchange n e two rk s , t h e p re sence o fi t ine ran t m e ta l lu rg i s t s , a nd t oi ndex t h e movemen to fp o t tery m ade u nde rt h er ub r ic o ft h el a te rc e ram ic t r ad i t ion i n to a n a r ea p rev ious ly l a ck ing i t s a s soc ia ted d i s t inc t ive t e chno logy . I ti sa rgued t h e i mp l ica t ions o fs uch c hanges a r ei mpo r tan tb ecause t h ey h e ra lded s i gn if i can ts oc io -econom ic e ven t sw h ich ma rked ly w idened t h e e x te rna l r e la t ionsh ips o fe a r ly S akon N akhon B a s in c ommun i t ie s . I n a dd i t ion t h ey a r e t hough t t oi n dex t h e a r r iva l o fi mm ig ran tp o t te r s f am i l ia r w i th t h e n ew C e r am ic t e chno logy . I ti sp o s tu la ted t h a t t h is t e chno logy o r ig ina ted f a r t ot h e s ou th , u l t ima te ly b eyond t h e ma rg ins o ft h eK ho ra tP la teau . T he c o inc idence o ft h e se n ew c e ram ics a nd e xo t ic a r tefac t s s ugge s t s t h a t S akon N akhon B a s in c ommun i t ies s ub sequen t ly t ook p a r t i n am uch e xpanded a nd mo re d ynam ic e xchange n e two rk t h an t h ey p rev ious ly k new . F ina l ly , t h er o le p o t tery p l ays i na r chaeo log ica l m e thod a nd t h eory i sb r ief ly c ons ide red . A s c e ram ic ma te r ia ls a r e r ock l ike i nc ompo s i t ion t h ey a r e u sua l ly d u rab le . S uch d u rab i l i ty a fo rd s p o t tery ad eg ree o fi mpor tance t oa r chaeo log is t s w h ich may o f ten e xceed t h a t g i ven i tb yp reh is to r ic s oc ie t ie s . I ti sf o r tuna te , h oweve r , t h a tp o t tery i sd u rab le b ecause i tp rov ide s i n s igh ti n to c u l tu ra la c t iv i t ies w h ich w ou ld o t herw ise b eu nob ta inab le .

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a cknow ledgemen t s T h i s s t udy i s as l igh t ly mod if ied v e r s ion o f ad i s se r ta t ion s ubm i t ted f o rt h ed eg r ee o f Doc to r o fP h i lo sophy a tt h e Un iv e r s i ty o fO tago . T he f i e ld w o rk f o rmed p a r to ft h eT ha iF ine A r t s D epa r tmen t 's N o r thea s tT ha i land A r chaeo log ica l P ro jec t . T he B an N aD ie xcava t ion s w e re c ar r ied o u tu nde r ,t h e c o -d i rec to r sh ip o f Amphan K i jngam , w ho w a sa tt h a tt ime t h e d i r ec to r o ft h eN o r thea s tT ha i land p ro jec t , a nd P ro f e s so rC ha r le sH igham o ft h eU n iv er s i ty o fO tago . T he d i r ec to ro fr e sea rch ,A r chaeo logy D iv i s ion o ft h eF ine A r t sD epa r tm en t ,a tt h i st ime ,w a s P i s i tC ha roenwong sa , a nd h ep l ayed a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nt h ep l ann ing a nd s upe rv i s ion o ft h e r e sea r ch , w h ich b egan a tB an C h iang a nd w a s c a r r ied o n a to t he rN o r thea s t e rn s i t e s s uch a s N on C ha i . T he B an N aD i e xped i t ion w a s s uppo r ted b y t h e T ha iF ine A r t sD epa r tmen t a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fO tago . F und ing w a sp rov ided b yt h eF o rd F ounda t ion ,a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o f O tago . T he e xcava t ion d i rec to r si n v i ted t h e a u tho rt ou nde r take a n a na ly s i so ft h ec e ram ics , a nd t ot h em Ie xp re ss my t h ank s . F ie ldwo rk c ar r ied o u td u r ing t h ee xcava t ion p rog r amme , a imed a tl o ca t ing S akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay q ua r r ie s , w a sc onduc ted w i th t h es uppo r to ft h e F ine A r t sD epar tmen tw h ich p rov ided af ou r—whee ld r ive v eh ic le a nd d r ive r . T he N ew Z ea land G ove rnmen tp rov ided f und ing f o rp o t te ry s o r t ing i nt h eO tago U n ive r s i ty l a bo ra to r ie s . I na l l ,t h i r ty—f ive N ew Z ea land s t uden t sh e lped s o r tp o t te ry i n to v a r ious c a te g o r ie s . T he g ov e rnmen ta l so p rov ided t empo ra ry h e lpe r sw ho w e re t r a ined i nt h in— sec t ion ing t e chn ique s a nd o the r t a sk s . O v e r 1 , 000 s e c t ion s w e re c r ea ted , a nd t h e a s s i s tance o f t h e se h e lpe r si sg ra te fu l ly a cknow ledged . T he r epo r th a s b enef i ted f r om t h e c omb ined a s s i s tance a nd e ncou r agemen to fm any c o l l e ague s a nd a dv i so r s w i th ab road r a nge o fi n te re s t s , b u tu n i ted i nt h e i rd e s i re t oe xpand o u r u nde r s tand ing o fS ou thea s t A s ian p reh is to ry . Ia cknow ledge t h e i rg ene rou s a s s is tance . A n e s sen t ia l a spec to ft h e i n v es t iga t ion i n vo lved g eo log ica l e v idence . T he h e lp o f e red b y g eo l o g i s t s a nd g eochem i s t s a t tached t ot h e U n ive r s i ty o fO tago 's G eo logy D ep a r tmen th a s b een i n va luab le . Among t h e se It h ank A ssoc ia te P rof e s so r C .L .Land is , A s soc ia te P ro f e s so r J .D . C ampbe l l ,D r . A .F . C oope r ,D r . D . C raw ,D r . Y . K awa ch i a nd D r . A .R eay . Du r ing m yv i s i t t oS ou thamp ton Un ive r s i ty D r . D .P .S . P eacock i n s t i l led i d ea sw h ich p l ayed a ni mpo r tan tp a r t i nt h eo ve ra l la na ly t ica ld i rec t ion o ft h ew o rk . D i scu s s ions w i th D r . I . C .F rees tone ,D r . J .R i l e y ,D r . M .S .T i te ,a nd P ro f e s so rW . Wa t son h e lped s t imu la te a nd c l a r ify many q ue s t ion s . D r . C .G . A dam s o ft h e B r i t i sh Museum ( Na tu ra l H i s to ry ) h e lped w i th t h e s ponge s p icu le i d en t i f i ca t ion . T he s pec ie s E phyda t ia m eyen i w a s k i nd ly i d en t if ied b y P ro f e s so rF .W . H ar r i son , We s te rn C a ro l ina U n ive r s i ty . P rof e s so rA lan Musg rave h e lped w i th q ues t ion sc once rn ing t h e p h i lo sophy o fs c ience . Iw i sh t oa cknow ledge a s s i s tance o ft h et e chn ica ls t af o ft h eD epa r tm en to fA n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fO tago w i th v ar iou sa spec t so fs o r t ing a nd p r epar ing p o t she rds . C ha r le sH igham

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a nd Amphan K i jngam h ave k i nd ly a l lowed m e t or ep roduce s ome d raw ings p rev ious ly p ub l i shed ( H igham a nd K i jngam 1 984 ) . It h ank t h em f o rt h e i rh e lp i nt h i s r e spec t . T he se d raw i ng s a r e t h e w o rk o f Ma r t in F i she r , C hr is Mo isa , R ichard N ewe l l , L isa -Dan ie l le P onwe i se r a nd P au l S h i r r if f s , w ho se a s s i s tance i sa cknow ledged . Ma r t in F i she r a l so h e lped w i th maps a nd p ho tog raphs . J ohn P i l l idge , am embe ro ft h et e chn ica ls t af fo ft h eD epa r tmen to fG eo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fO tago ,g ave a dv ice w i th t h in -sec t ion ing t e chn iques . It h ank Mr s . N ico le K o l ig ,a p rof e s s iona lp o t te r ,f o rh e ra s se ssmen to ft h eS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ays " wo rkab i l i ty" . T he d oc to ra ld i s se r ta t ion b enef i ted f r om t h ee ncou ragemen ta nd a dv ice o ft wo s upe rv iso r s , C har les H igham a nd C ha r le s L and i s . It h ank t h em b o th f o r t h e i r a s s is tance . R e spons ib i l i ty f o ra ny e r ro r s i nf a c to ri n te rp re ta t ion , a sw e l l a st h e i d ea s a nd c onc lus ions p re sen ted b e low , h oweve r ,r e s t s o le ly w i th t h e a u tho r . Io we a n i mpo r tan t a cknow ledgemen t t om embe r s o ft h e T ha i F ine A r t s D epa r tmen t f o r t h e ir a s s is tance a nd k ind p e rm i ss ion t ow o rk i nt h e i rc oun t ry i no rde rt oe xp lo re i t sf a sc ina t ing p reh i s to ry . I th a s b een ap r iv i lege a nd p l ea su re t od o s o . F ina l ly , Ie x tend t h y t h ank s t ot wo f am i l ie s w ho h ave h e lped g u ide my p rog re ss s i nce a r chaeo logy w rapped me i ni t s g r ip . T o A ga the T ho rn ton a nd t h e l a te H ar ry T ho rn ton , Io we as pec ia l a cknow ledgemen tf o rt h e ir s uppo r t . T o m y w if e a nd f am i ly Iam mos ti n deb ted . T o t h em Ie x tend my w arme s t g r a t i tude f o rt h e ir c on t inued p a t ience . T h is r epo r t c ou ld n o t h ave b een c omp le ted w i thou tt h em .

I

Chap ter 1 I n troduc t ion " The a r t i s t 's r epre sen ta t ion i s . . al o ng w a yr enoved f rom t r u th , a nd h ei sa b le t or eproduce e v er y th ing b ecau se h en ever p ene t ra t es b enea th t h es uper f ic ia la ppearance o fa ny th ing ."

P la to : T he R epub l ic :598 .

I ti sl e s s t h an t wo d ecade s s i nce H igham ( 1972 ) d e scr ibed T ha i land a sa n a r chaeo log ica l " t e r ra i n cogn i ta" . P re l im ina ry r e po r t so fm a jo re xcava t ions a tN on N ok T ha ( Baya rd 1 971 ) , a nd B an C h iang ( Go rman a nd C ha roenwong sa 1 976 ) , s uppo r ted b y e v idence f r om as e r ie s o fs ma l le ri n ve s t iga t ion s , h oweve r , s ugge s ted t h a t , r a the rt h an ac u l tu r a l b ackwa te r ( Coede s 1 966 ) , S ou thea s tA s ia ,a nd N o r thea s tT ha i land i np a r t icu la r ,w a s ac r ad le o fv e ry e a r ly b ronze ( So ihe im 1 968 , Go rman 1 978 ) , a nd i r on w o rk ing ( Baya rd 1 979 ) . T he se m e ta l sw e r e t h ough t t oh ave b een e xp lo i ted d ur ing t h e4 t h mi len ium a nd b y 1 500 B .C .r e spec t iv e ly ( Baya rd 1 970 , S o ihe im 1 968 , Go rman a nd C ha roenwong sa 1 976 ) . C lea r ly ,t h ed i scove ry o fb ronze w o rk ing w h ich r an c oun te r t on o t ion s o f aE u ropean i n v en t ion ( Renf r ew 1 973 ) , o r t h e p re sence o f i r on a t at ime i tw a sg ene ra l ly c on s ide red aH i t t i te monopo ly ( A l lch in a nd A l lch in 1 968 :207 ) , n eeded c a re fu l e xp lana t ion . U n fo r tuna te ly , h oweve r , d e ta i led r e po r t s c l ea r ly s e t t ing o u t t h e p rovenance a nd c onf i rm ing t h es t r a t ig raph ica li n teg r i ty o fs uch v e ry e a r ly f i nd sw e re l a ck ing . F aced w i th a na b sence o fi n fo rma t ion n ece s s a ry f o rd e ta i led a s se s smen t so ft h e se s t a r t l ing p o s s ib i l i t ie s , H igham a nd K i jngam d ec ided t ou nde r tak e as u rvey o f s i te s ( K i jngam e ta l . 1 980 ) , i n as e t t lemen t p a t te rn w h ich i n c luded B an C h iang , a nd t oe xcava te o ne o r mo re o f t h e se t og a in i n s igh ti n to t h ep r eh i s to ry o ft h er eg ion ( H igham a nd K i jngam 1 984 ) . T hus t h e s t r a tegy w a sd ev i sed i no rde rt or e so lve ah i a tu si nd e ta i led k now ledge . T h i sg ap e x tended t o s e t t lemen ts i ze a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd t h ec u l tu ra lr o le o fm e ta l lu rgy . I n fo r m a t ion o ft h is n a tu re i s ap re r equ i s i te i ft h eo re t ica l mode l sd e s igned t oi lum ina te p a s tc u l tu ra l p roce s se sa r et ob ef o rmu la ted . A ne x ten s ive c o rpu so fp o t te ry f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e m e ta l ss im i la r ly l a cked s uf i c ien ts t udy . T he w r i te rw a sk ind ly i n v i t ed b yH igham a nd K i jngam t os t udy t h e se w a re s . F rom t h eo u t se t ,p o t te ry h a sp l ayed ac en t ra lr o le i n mo s ta r chaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion si n N o r thea s tT ha i land . P r eh i s to r ic w a re sf o rm t h ec o rne r s tone o fc h rono log ica lf r amewo rk s . C u l t u re sh ave b een c ha ra c te r i sed b yp o t te ry s t y le s , a nd c hange si ns t y le h ave o f t en b een d i rec t ly c o r re la ted w i th c u l tu re c hange . T hese a s sump t ion s h ave o f ten b een q ue s t ioned b y w o rk e r s e l sewhe re b ecau se e xo t ic s t y le sc an b ei m i t a ted b yi n d igenou s p o t te r s , t h u s m e re ly f a sh ion s ,

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CHAPTER 1 . I NTRODUCT ION

n o tc u l tu ra lc hange s , may b ei n vo lved ( P ea cock 1 967 , 1 968 , 1 969 , 1 970 ,S hepa rd 1 936 , 1 942 , 1 965 ) . B ecau se p o t te ry w a s o f t en a n i mpo r tan t i t em i np reh i s to r ic e xchange n e two rk s , i t s p re sence i na r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s , e ven w hen i tf o rm s l a rge d epo s i t s ,i si n suf f i c ien tr e a son t oa s sume i tw a s made l o ca l ly ( Shepa rd o p . c i t . , A rno ld 1 985 ) . T or ed r e s s t h e se p rob lem s c e ram ic i s t sh ave c on s ide r ed t h em a te r ia lp o t te ry i sc ompo sed o f ,i t sf ab r ic ,a nd c ompa r ed t h i s w i th t h e s hape a nd d eco ra t ion o fw a re s ( i . e . s t y le ) . T he o r ig in o fp o t te ry c an b e s ugge s ted b yi d en t ify ing m ine ra l sw i th in t h ef ab r ic , a nd i ft h ey a r ed i s t inc t ive e nough ,r e la t ing t h e se t o a pp rop r ia te c l ay s ou r ce s . Mo r eove r s ome s ou r ce s , p romo t ed a sl i k e ly f o ro t he rr e a son s , c an b e e xc luded f r om c on s ide ra t ion b ecau se t h ey d o n o tc on ta in m ine ra ls w h ich ma tch t ho se i n t h ep o t te ry . T he a im o ft h ep re sen tw o rk i st oi lum ina te t h ep reh i s to ry o fN o r thea s tT ha i land t h rough a n a na ly s i so fc e ram ic s . Ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f ma te r ia le xcav a ted a tB an N aD i( s ee f i g . 1 . 1 o np age 5 ) ,p rov ide se v idence f o rc ompar i son w i th s eve ra lo the re xcava ted a nd s u rveyed T ha i a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . .T he p o ten t ia lo fp e t rog raph ic a na ly s i sb a sed o nt h in sec t ions o fp o t te ry w i l lb ee xam ined w i th r e f e r ence t ot h ew o rk o fS hepa rd i nt h eR io G rande . T h is l aue rr eg ion f e a tu r es av ar ie t yo fd i s t inc t ive g eo log ica lz one s . Mo s to ft h ep re sen ts t udy a r ea i sl e ss g eo log i c a l ly d i s t inc t ive . T h i si sb ecau se i ti sl o ca ted w i th in ar e la t ive ly h omogeneou ss ed imen ta ry p l a teau . P rev iou sc e ram ic s t ud ie sh ave o f t en s ucce ss fu l ly f ocu s sed o nt h eu n iquene s so rd i s t inc t iv e n e s so fi nd iv idua lo rr e la ted g roup so fp o t te ry i ndu s t r ie si no rde rt oc harac te r i se o rc a tego r i se t h em . S eve ra l a pp roache s h av e b een emp loyed . S t y le -o r ien ted s t ud ie s empha s i se f o rm a nd d e s ign d if e rence s . A ma jo rp rob lem , h oweve r , i st h a t s t y le s a r e s u scep t ib le t ot r an s ien t i n f l uence sa nd a ppa r en t ly s im i la rw a r e s may a c tua l ly b eq u i te d if e r en t . T echno log ica la na ly se s i n c lude l e s s e pheme ra l a spec t s . T hey r e ly o n m e thod s c ommon t ot h en a tu ra l s c ience s , a nd t h i sa l low s ac on s ide rab le d eg r ee o fa na ly t ica lr i gou r . P hy s ica l p henomena g ene ra l ly l e nd t h em se lve s t o av ar ie ty o fc l a s s if i ca t ion t e chn ique s . E a r ly t e chno log ica l s t ud ie s , i nt h e m a in , a pp l ied e s tab l i shed g eo log ica l m e thod s . T he t wo p r inc ipa l a im s o fs uch a na ly se s a r et h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft empo ra l c hanges i nt h ep o t te r s c r a f t , a nd t h ei lum ina t ion o fp o s s ib le c u l tu ra lr e la t ion st h rough m a te r ia li d en t if i ca t ions a nd t h el o c a t ion o ft h e i rs ou r ce s . I d en t if i ca t ion o fd if e r en ts ou r ce sd epend so nt h ed i s t inc t ivene s so ft h e g eo log ica l z one s u nde re xam ina t ion , a nd a n a b i l i t y t od i sc r im ina te p rec i se ly b e tw een t h em . I nt h i sr e spec t , i g neou s a nd m e tamo rph ic z one s a r eo f ten mo re d i s t inc t ive t h an s ed imen ta ry r eg ion s . A l though e xcep t ion s t ot h i s m ay o ccu r , m any s ed imen t a ry r eg ions a r ef o rs ou r c ing p u rpo se sc a tego r ised a s" geo log ica l ly n on -spec if i c" . Of t en t h i si sb ecau se t h ea na ly t ica ld e ta i l n eeded t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween d if e ren tz one si sb eyond t h es cope o fn o rma lr e sea rch d emand s . T he l im i ta t ion si ns uch a na pp roach a r em an i f e s t . U n le s st h es ed imen t a ry r eg ion i nq ue s t i on c on ta in s d i s t inc t ive m ine ra l s o rb io some i ti sl i k e ly t ob e l a be l led " non -spec if i c" . T he e x ten to ft h e se i nd i s t inc ts ed imen t a ry r eg ion si su nknown ,b u ts eve ra lf a c to r sm ake i tr e a son a b le t oa s sume mo s t w i l l i ndeed b e n on -spec if i c . S ed imen t a ry r ock s a r e e s t ima ted t oc ov e r b e tween 6 6% t o8 0% o ft h e e a r th 's c ru s t ( P re s s a nd S i eve r 1 974 , F o lk 1 980 ,T ucke r 1 981 ) . T h i sp redom inance i se xace rba ted b y ak ey c u l tu ra lp ropen s i ty r e f lec ted i np r eh i s to r ic s e t t le m en t p a t te rn s . P r eh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s d i sp lay ap r e f e r ence f o r t h e o ccupa t ion o fs ed imen ta ry r eg ion s . E a s ie rt e r ra in s ,o f t en c l o se t ow a te rway s ,w e r ee mpha s i sed . C oa s ta lr eg ions a nd l a ke m a rg in s ,p l a in sa nd r i ve rv a l ley sw e r ep re f e r red . T he se a r ep r inc ipa l ly s ed imen t a ry z one s . O f c ou r se , m any e xcep t ion s t os u ch s e t t lemen tp a t t e rn s , a nd t ot h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f" geo log ica l ly n on -spec if ic" s ed imen ta ry s t r a ta , e x i s t . T he o ve ra l l t e ndency s e em s c l ea r , h ow eve r , i nb o th c a se s .

3 A ne xam ina t ion o fb road -sca le g eo log ica lm ap sw i l ls how t h a t many r eg ion sc on ta in s ed i men t s w ea the red f r om s e d imen t a ry s t r a ta , a nd i ti sf r om t h e se s ed imen t s t h a t p o t t ing c l ay s a r eq ua r r ied . S eden ta ry p opu la t ion c oncen t ra t ion si nf e r t i le l ow land e co tone s a r er e ad i ly u n d e r s tood . T he se a r ea s w i tne s sed t h e i n ten s if ica t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e a nd a s soc ia t ed p opu la t ion i n c r ea se s( F lanne ry 1 976 ,R edman 1 978 ) . P o t te ry manuf ac tu re i sc l o se ly c onnec ted w i th a g r i c u l tu re ,a nd a l though s ome p o t te r sa r ei tne ran t , mak ing p o t si s as eden tary -ba sed o ccupa t ion ( A rno ld 1 985 ) . T he se f a c to r sh ave i mpo r tan ti mp l ica t ion sf o rt h et e chno log ica l s t udy o fp r e h i s to r ic p o t te ry . A l though d e ta i led d a ta a r e u nava i lab le , i ts e em s r e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o fp r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry w a s m ade i n" geo log ica l ly n on -spec if i c" s ed imen t a ry z one s . B ecau se s e t t lemen tp a t te rn sa r ea s soc ia ted w i th s ub s i s t ence ,e conom ic ,d emog raph ic a nd r e la ted s oc io p o l i t ica l i nf luence s ( Bo se rup 1 965 , R enf rew 1 972 , R edman 1 978 , F lanne ry 1 976 , F lanne ry a nd Ma r cu s 1 983 ) ,p o t te r sp robab ly w e re o f t en l e f tw i th l i t t le c ho ice i nc l ay r e sou r ce s . Ma rk e t f o r ce s , h owev e r , p l ay a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion ( P eacock 1 982 ) . I n s ome r eg ion s , l a rge sca le e xpo r t -o r ien ta ted p roduc t ion w a s c oncen t ra ted i na r ea s o fh i gh c l ay q ua l i ty ( A rno ld 1 985 ) . Ar e l iab le t r an spo r t s y s tem a nd a ne s tab l i shed e xchange n e two rk a r ek ey c omponen t so ft h i sk i nd o fp roduc t ion ,a nd i np reh i s to ry t h ey w e re n o ta lway s a va i lab le . T he q ua l i ty o fp o t t ing c l ay sv ar ie sf r om e xce l len tt op oo r( G r im 1 962 ) . Many f a c to r sa f ec t t h e i rq ua l i ty ,s u ch a sm ine ra lc ompo s i t ion ,c r y s ta l l in i ty ,p l a s t ic i ty a nd n on -p la s t ic c on ten t . C lay q ua l i ty c an b e a f ec ted b y n a tu ra l ly p re sen tn onp la s t ic s o rt h o se t h ep o t te ra dd s . Mo s t c l ay s c on ta in s ome n a tu ra l n onp la s t ic s ( Shepa rd 1 956 ) . Many r equ i re t h e a dd i t ion o fo rgan ic o r i n o rgan ic ma t e r ia l a s at empe r . I ti si mpo r tan t t h a t t empe r s d o n o t e xpand e xce ss ive ly a s t h i s w i l l s ha t te rp o t te ry d u r ing f i r ing . S ed imen t a ry r ock s t e nd t oh ave av e ry w ide r a nge o f e xpan s ion r a te s ( A rno ld 1 985 ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t , i na r ea s w he re c l ay q ua l i ty i sm a rg ina l , s ed imen t ary r ock f r agmen t s may o f ten b e u n sa t i s f a c to ry f o r t empe r . I fs u i tab le a l t e rna t ive s w e r eu nava i lab le , t h i sc ou ld p l ace e x t reme d emand so nt h ep o t te r 's s k i l la nd s pec ia la dap t ive t e chn iques w ou ld b en eeded t ot r an sfo rm s ub s tanda rd r aw c l ay si n to as u i tab le p o t t ing m a ter ia l . O ne s t ra tegy e mp loyed b yp r eh i s to r ic p o t te r si n vo lved t h e manuf ac tu re o fa r t if ic ia lt empe r ,o r " g rog" ( Hodge s 1 965 ) . T o manuf a c tu r e g rog , t h e p o t te r i sr equ i r ed t oi n ve s t e x t ra t ime a nd f ue l r e sou r ce s t h an n eeded i fr e ad i ly a va i lab le n a tu ra lt empe r sa r ep rocu rab le . T hu sw ec an b er e a sonab ly c onf i d en tt h a tg rog w a sd eve loped i nr e spon se t o al a ck o fl o ca la l te rna t ive s . We h ave n o ted a bove t h a tt h i s i s mo s tl i ke ly t oh ave o ccu r red i ns ed imen t a ry r eg ion s . O nce a dop ted , h oweve r , t h e g rog t empe r ing m e thod p rov ide s ad eg ree o fr e sou r ce i ndependence . T he e s sen t ia li ng r ed ien t s n eeded t o make p o t te ry f r om i mpe r f ec tc l ay sa r et empe r , f u e l a nd w a te r . O n ly t h el a t te rt wo a r er equ i r ed ,h oweve r ,w hen e xper t i se i ng rog manuf ac tu re i sa cqu i red . T h i sr epo r t w i l l e xp lo r e t wo a spe c t s o ft h e s ed imen t a ry s ou r ce z one p henonmenon . P r i m a r i ly i tt e s t st h ev a lue o ft h e" geo log ica lt e chn ique" i n ar eg ion w h ich i n c lude sl a rge a r ea so f s ed imen ta ry t e r ra in . T h i sr e g ion c on ta in ss ome c l ay sw h ich a r ed if i cu l tt od if e ren t ia te m ine r a l og ica l ly . S econd ly ,b yi d en t ify ing d if e ren tt e chno log ica lr e spon se sp reh i s to r ic p o t t e r sm ade t ot h ed emand so fc l ay ma t e r ia l s ,t h ev a lue o fi lum ina t ing t e chn ica lc hange si sc on s ide r ed . We h ave n o ted t h a t m anuf ac tu r ed t empe r h a s b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s pec ia l r equ i re m en t so f mak ing p o t te ry i ns ed imen t a ry r eg ion s . E v idence p r e sen ted i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r s s how st h a t ,i np r eh i s to r ic T ha i land ,t wo d if e ren tk i nd so fg rog w e re made . I nb o th c a se st h ey a r en o rma l ly d i s t inc t ive . T hu s , i n s tead o ft h em ine ra log ica ld ef in i t ion o fp o t te ry f a b r ics , d i f f e r ence si ng rog s pec ie s a low sf o rd if e ren t ia t ion a l ong t e chno log ica l l i ne s . We c an u s e t h i s

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CHAPTER 1 . I NTRODUCT ION

m e thod o fd i s t ingu i sh ing f abr ics i na dd i t ion t ot h em ine ra log ica la pp roach . When a ni nd is t inc t m ine ra logy means t h a tp o ss ib le s ou r ces c anno tb es ugge s ted ,t h e t e chno log ica ld ef in i t ion c an b e h e lpfu l i ni nd ica t ing b road s ou r ce a r ea s . T h is i sb ecause t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e t wo g rog s pec ie s i sa td if e ren t t ime s mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive t oc e r ta in w e l l d ef ined g eog raph ica l r eg ions . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se g rog s , a nd t h e ir r e la ted t e chno log ie s ,c hange sw i th t ime . B ecause s ome f abr ics a r em ine ra log ica l ly a nd t e chno log ica l ly d i s t inc t ive ,i th as b een p o s s i b le t ot r ace t h e movemen to fe xo t ic p o t te ry , manuf ac tu red u nde rt h er ub r ic o fo ne g rog t r a d i t ion ,i n to ar eg ion w he re o n ly t h eo the rt empe rw a s made . T h is e v idence h a sc omp lemen ted g eo log ica l i n fo rma t ion a nd a l lowed a n a s sessmen t o fc u l tu ra l c hange t h rough t h e i d en t if ica t i on o fd if e ren tr e spon se st ot h es ame t empe r ing r equ i remen t s . T hu st h e se d a ta h ave p rov ided e v idence o fc u l tu ra l c hange , r e la ted t ot h e p roduc t ion a nd e xchange o fp o t te ry , a nd p o s tu l a ted movemen t so fp eop le ,b yc omb in ing t wo d if er en ta pp roache st ot h e s ame t e chno log ica l p rob lem . F o l low ing t h ei n t roduc t ion o ft h en ew p o t te ry , al a rge -sca le c hange i np roduc t ion o c c ur red i na s soc ia t ion w i th aw ide r ange o fp e r sua s ive e v idence f o rc u l tu re c hange ,b o th w i th in B an N aD ia nd t h es u r round ing r eg ion . T he c e ram ic d eve lopmen t sr e la te t o many n on -ce ram ic a spec t so fc u l tu ra lp roce ss i n No r thea s tT ha i land a nd ,t oge the r ,t h ey p re sen t ac ohe rence w h ich s ugges t s t h er e la t ionsh ip o fp o t te ry t op reh is to r ic c ommun i t ie si s as ub jec t w o r th r e cogn i t ion f o rt h el i gh ti tc an s hed o np a s ts oc ie t ie s . N o tt h el e a s to ft h er e la t ionsh ips b e tween t h ec hange si np o t tery a nd n on -po t tery t e chno l o gy a tB an N a D i i sa n a s soc ia ted c hange i nm e ta l w o rk ing a ccou t remen t s u sed i n me l t ing b ronze . T h is i sa ccompan ied b y t h e f i r s t f i rm e v idence f o rw o rk ing w i th i r on , a nd p robab ly ma rks t h e movemen to fp eop le f r om amuch l a rge rs ou the rn r eg ion . T he c hange a l so h e ra lded p ar t ic ipa t ion i na ne xpanded e xchange n e two rk . Aga in t h e se d eve lopmen t s a r ee v idenced b y b o th c e ram ic a nd n on -ce ram ic i n fo rma t ion . T he p resen tr epor tc oncen t ra te so nt h es i te o fB an N aD i w i th in t h e S akon N akhon B a s in , b u t s i tes b o th w i th in t h e l a rge rK ho ra t B a s in a nd b eyond t h e ma rg ins o ft h e K ho ra tP la teau w i l l a l so b e t o uched o n ( s ee f i g . 1 . 2 a nd f i g . 1 . 3 o n p age s 6a nd 7r e spec t ive ly ) . I n t h e n ex t c hap te rw ew i l lr ev iew p rev iou sc e ram ic s t ud ie si nT ha i land w i th av i ew t ob r ing ing i n to f ocus t h ea im so ft h ep re sen tw o rk .

5

F IGURE 1 . 1 : GENERAL MAP OF SOUTHEAST AS IA

6

CHAPTER 1 . I NTRODUCT ION

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Chap ter 2 Ar ev iew o fp rev iou ss t ud ie s 2 . 1

I n troduc t ion

F o rme r s t ud ie s o fp r eh i s to r ic S ou thea s t A s ian c e r am ic s s h a re many o ft h e i n adequac ie s d i s p layed b yc e r am ic r e sear ch u nde r t aken e l sewhe r ea nd u pon w h ich much p r eh i s tor i cr e se ar ch i n S ou thea s tA s ia h a sb een b a sed . Wi th v e ry r a r ee xcep t ion s mo s to ft h e se s t ud ie sa r ec once rned w i th a spec t s o fp o t te ry s t y le . S uch s t y l i s t ic p e r spec t ive s s uf e r f r om s ho r tcom ing s i nhe r en t i nt h e r e sea r che r 's p e rcep t ion w hen a s se s s ing p hy s ica l p henomena . T he se i nf luence s a f ec t a l l a na ly ses w h ich empha s ize a n a r tef a c t 's s upe rf i c ia lp hy s ica la ppea rance . I na dd i t ion , t h ey may b e b i a sed b y t h e r e sea rche r 's n a tu ra l s ub jec t iv i ty . C e ram ic a r te f ac t s a r e a f ec ted b y a w ide v ar ie ty o f many p hy s ica l a nd s oc io log ica lf a c to r s . T he i ri n te r re la t ion sh ips a r e embod i e di np o t te ry . T he se p a rame te r sw i l lb ed i scu s sed p r io rt or e v iew ing e a r l ie rs t ud ie si no rde r t od emon s t ra te t h en eed f o r mo re d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion . O fa l la r tef ac t sa va i lab le t oa r chaeo log i s t s ,p o t te ry h a sp robab ly s uf e red mo s tf r om s ub jec t i ve c l a s s if ica t ion . S hepa rd ( 1971 :98 ) ,d i scu s sed t h en a tu r eo ft h i sp rob lem ,w h ich s he t e rmed " po t te ry s en se" . S he d ef ined i ta st h e" p roces so fo rgan i sa t ion o fi mp re s s ion s" . T ens ion b e t ween o b jec t ive m e thod sa nd p o t te ry s en se u nde r l ie sm any o ft h ei n adequac ies i nc e ram ic a na l y s i s . T hu s , d e sp i t er i go rou se fo r t st ob eo b jec t ive , a t t en t ion may u ncon sc iou s ly b ed rawn t o q ua l i t ie sd ef ined b yt h ei mmed ia te i n te re s t s . Empha s i so nr e ad i ly i d en t if iab le v ar iab les , made a tt h ee xpen se o fo the r s , may l e ad t od i s to r t ion si np e r cep t ion w h ich a moun tt o ap roce s s o f s e lec t ion b y om i s s ion . C e r am ic s s ha re w i th l i th ic a r tef a c t s ah i gh d eg ree o fd u rab i l i ty a nd t h i s h a s g i ven b o th c on s ide rab le p rom inence i nc l a s s if i ca t ion s t ud ie s . I np ra c t ica l t e rm s , p o t t ing c l ay s p o s se s s p o ten t ia l t ob ef a sh ioned i n to a n a lmo s ti nf in i te v ar ie ty o ff o rm s . B yc on t ra s t , d u rab le l i th ic a r te f ac t s c an o f ten o n ly b ef a sh ioned i n to al im i ted r ange o ff o rm s , w i thou ta n i n pu to fh i gh l e ve l so fe ne rgy a nd /o rt e chno logy . T he se l im i ta t ion sr ef lec tc on s t ra in t si mpo sed b yp hy s ica l f o r ce sw h ich a c tt os hape d u rab le r ock s ( F l in ta nd S k inne r 1 977 ) . T hu sd ependen tu pon t h e p reh i s to r ic ma te r ia lu nde rc on s ide ra t ion ,t wo p o s s ib le p a rame te r sa ppea ri n ev i tab le : 1 .Af i n i te r ange o f( known ,o ru nknown b u tp o ten t ia l ly d e te rm inab le )f o rm sw i l le x i s t . 2 .A na ppa ren t ly i nf in i t ev ar ie ty o ff o rm se x i s t . E ven w i th h and -c r af ted m e thod s , a na lmo s ti nf in i te v ar ie ty o fp o t te ry f o rm sa r ep o s s ib le . I no rde rt od emon s t ra te t h i s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t oc on s ide rt h ev a r iab les w h ich i nf luence p o t te ry f o rm . We c ommence w i th t h en eed t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween t wo ma jo rp a rame te r s ,t ho se i mpo sed b yt e chn ica la nd t ho se a f ec ted b ys oc io -cu l tu r a lf a c to r s . I nt h el a t te rg roup a r et empo ra l ,a r ea l ,

I NTRODUCT ION

9

m a t e r ia l ,s t y l i s t ic a nd f unc t iona lc on s t ra in t s . E a ch o ft h e se i s ,t o av a ry ing d eg r ee ,i n te r r e la ted a nd i n te rdependen t . T empo ra l a nd a r ea l d i s t r ibu t ions a r e b o th c r i t ica l ly i nf luenced b y s c a le . F o re xamp le ,i tw ou ld b em i s lead ing t oa s se r tt h a tc ompar i son so fr im fo rm sb e tween t wo c u l t u re s s epa ra ted t empo ra l ly w a s n ece s sar i ly m ean ingf u l w i thou tc o r robo ra t ive e v idence . T he d eg r ee t ow h ich t h ec u l tu r e sw he r et empo ra l ly s e pa ra ted ,h oweve r ,a f ec t st h ew e igh tl i k e ly t o b ea fo rded a ny s uch c o r robo ra t ive e v idence . A rea ld i s t r ibu t ion i ss im i la r ly a f e c ted b ys c a le . N o ma t te r h ow d i s t inc t ive , ar im she rd d emon s t rab ly t y p ica l o f , f o re xamp le , B r i t i sh B eake r Wa re , a nd r e cove red i na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s f r om , s ay , R omano -Br i t i sh s t r a ta , w i l l n o tb e c l a s s if i ed a sa ny th ing mo r e t h an as t ra t ig raph i ca l ly " mob i le" a r te f ac t . I tr equ i r e s mo re t h an mo rpho log ica la s soc ia t ion t oo rde ra r tef ac t si n to at empo ro -a rea lf ocu s . T he r ange o ff o rm sp o s s ib le i sd e te rm ined b yt h ea va i lab le ma te r ia ls i nc omb ina t ion w i th t h e d eg ree o ft e chno log i ca l c omp lex i ty a tt h e d i spo sa l o f t h e p o t te r s c once rned . B o th a r e i n te r re la ted . W i th in t h e se c on s t ra in t s , s t y le i sa lowed c omp le te f r eedom . T ha ti st os ay , t h e o n ly p hy s ica ll im i ta t ion st os t y l i s t ic c r ea t ion a r et h o se i mpo sed b ym a te r ia la nd t e chno log ica l f a c to r s . P o t t ing c l ay i st h ep l a s t ic ma te r ia lp a re xce l lence . No te ,f o re xamp le ,t h ec omp lex i ty o ff o rm sr epo r ted f r om b u r ia lc on tex t si nP e ru ( Donnan a nd Mackey ,1978 :pa s s im ) . F unc t iona lc ons t ra in t sp l a ce f o rm a na ly s is o nm uch f i rme rg round ,b ecau se h e r e ad eg r ee o f mo rpho log ica l u n if o rm i t y m ay b ei mpo sed o nf o rm si n tended f o rl i ke e nd u se s . I n tended f unc t ion sd i c ta te t h er ange o ff o rm sa pp rop r ia te t ot h em . Wa te rc on ta ine r sf o re xamp le , m u s t b e c apab le o f ef i c ien t ly c on ta in ing l i qu id . I n s p i te o ft h i s c on s t r a in t , h oweve r , o n ly ab r ie f g l ance a t ar a nge o f f o rm s a s soc ia ted w i th a ny g i ven f unc t ion w i l l d emon s t ra te t h e magn i t ude o fp rob lem s f a ced i nf unc t ion -o r ien ta ted f o rm s t ud ie s . C ompa r e , f o re xamp le , c ook ing v e s se l so fc on tempo r a ry N o r thea s tT ha i land ( o f ten f unc t iona l ly c onnec ted b ya na logy t op re h i s to r ic e xamp le s ( MacDona ld 1 980 ) ) ,w i th t h o se o ft h eR omano -Br i t ish " Da le s" w a r e( Pea c ock 1 982 :87 ) . F o rm a na ly s i sw ou ld c o r rec t ly s epa ra te t h e se v e s se ls i n to t wo e n t i r e ly d if e ren t c l a s se s . T h i si sb ecause t h es i gn if i cance o ft h e i rf o rm sr e la te st od if e ren tc u l tura la pp roa che s t ot h es ame p rob lem . Y e tt h ey w e re a lmo s tc e r ta in ly d e s igned f o r ,a nd s e rv ed ,s im i la rf unc t ion s a sc ook ing v e s se l s . T he s ucce s s o f f unc t iona l -fo rm c l a s s if i ca t ion , h oweve r , i sn o t s u s ta inab le i n a l l c ro s s c u l tu ra lc ompar i sons . F o re xamp le , ac ompa r i son c an b ed rawn b e tween R oman a mpho rae a nd v e s se l sf r om a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s a tP an P o , C h ina (W a t son 1 961 :43 , R aw son 1 980 :189 ) . A l though ac l o se e xam ina t ion w ou ld r e vea l m ino r b u t d i agno s t ic f o rm d if e rence s , s u ch a s h and le p o s i t ion a nd b a se s hape , t h e c l o se s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e se t wo f o rm s i ss t r ik ing . I t g i ve sr i se t oi mmen se t h eo r e t ica lp rob lem s . A r ew ed ea l ing w i th d ifu s ion , i n va s ion ,p a ra l le l d ev e lopmen t ,o rs ome e x t reme ly r a re c o inc idence? I np rac t ice s uch a nomo l ie sa r en o ta fo rded t h eo r e t ica l momen tw i thou ts uppo r t iv eo rc o r robo ra t ive e v idence . We r equ i re a dd i t iona le v idence t os uppo r tt h ei s o la ted d a ta p rov ided b ya na r te f a c t 's f o rm . T h i s may b ee i the rq ua l i ta t ive o rq uan t i ta t ive . I nt h ef i r s ti n s tance s uch f a c to r sa sa r chaeo log i c a lp rovenance o rt empo ra lc on tex tw i l lb eq ue s t ioned . T he p rovenance o fa r te f ac t sc on s ide red t ob et empo ra lm i s -f i t sw i l lb ec on s ide r ed s u spec t . C onve r se ly ,d oub t fu lp rov enance w i l ls e r i o us ly w eak en a ny a nomo lou sa r te f ac t 's t empo ra la s soc ia t ion . B yd ef in i t ion ,m e ta l l ic a r te f a c t s d on o tb e long i nt h e Me so l i th ic a ny mo re t h an p l a s t ic b e long si nt h eB ronze A ge . T he p re sence o fo cca s iona l " rogue" a r te f ac t s i sp red ic tab le g i ven t h e v ag ar ie s o fp o s t d epo s i t iona ld i s tu rbance s . A r te f ac t su ncove red f r om e ven r e a sonab ly s e cu re s t ra t ig r aph ic c on t e x t s ,i nq uan t i t y ,a r eu sua l ly j u s t if iab ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h et empo ra l , if n o tt h ea r ea l ,c on tex t s t h ey a ppea rt or e p re sen t . R ogue s o ccu ro n ly o cca s iona l ly . A u then t ic r ep re sen ta t ive s o ft h e

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CHAPTER 2 . A REV IE W OF P REV IOUS S TUD IES

c u l tu re u nde rs t udy c an b ee xpec ted i nr e la t ive a bundance . E ach s ucceed ing e xamp le o f ad i s t i nc t iv ef o rm f u r the rr e info r ce sb o th i t sa s soc ia t ion w i th t h ec u l tu re i ti sh e ld t or e p re sen t ,a nd t h a tc u l tu re 's a s soc ia t ion w i th t h ef o rm . T h i s mu tua l ly r e in fo r c ing p roce s s i st h ee s sence o f s c ien t if i ci nduc t ion . U np red ic ted r e su l t sc anno tb ea ccep t ed w i thou tf u r the rt e s t st h a tc onf i rm t h ei n i t ia lr e su l t .In as en se t h i si s ad educ t ive s o lu t ion t oa ni n duc t iv ep rob lem . B ya s soc ia t ing l i k ef o rm sw i th l i k e ,f o rm c l a s s if i ca t ion p roceed si na ni n duc t ive manne ru n t i ls ome a noma ly o ccu r s . T he c o rpu s o fi nduc t ive ly d e r ived d a ta i st h en u sed t ot e s t t h e u np red ic ted " rogue" a ga in s tt h ee s tab l i shed f o rm c l a s s . S uch a rgumen t sa r ei n va l id . T hey t a ke t h ef o l low ing i n va l id l og ica lf o rm o fd educ t ion: 1 . Many a r te f ac t sf r om s i te " X" a r eo ft h i sf o rm . 2 . T h i sa r te f a c ti st h es ame f o rm .

3 . T h i sa r te f a c tb e long st os i te " X" . T he c onc lu s ion d oe sn o tf o l low o fn ece s s i ty f r om 1 .a nd 2 . E ven i f1 .a nd 2 . a r et r ue i t may t r an sp i re t h a tt h ea r te f ac ti nq ue s t ion i so ne t h a tw a sm ade e l sewhe r e ,e i the ra s ac opy o f t h em a jo rf o rm c l a s sa ts i te " X" ,o ra s ap ro to type f o r as i te " X" ma jo rf o rm c l a s s . A l t e rna t ive ly i tmay r e p re sen ta ni n s tance o fi ndependen t ,p a ra l le ld eve lopmen t .

2 .2

Theore t ica la spec ts

I n s igh ti n to s eve ra lb a s ic c oncep t su sed i np rev iou ss t ud ie sw i l lb ea i ded b y ac on s ide ra t ion o f s ome t h eo re t ica la pp roache sw h ich a ppea rt ol i ea tt h ec o re o fs t y le a na ly s i s . C la rke ( 1968 , 1 978 ) ,v i ewed mo s ta r chaeo log ica le n t i t ie sa sb e ing c omp r i sed o fg roup so f e n t i t ie so fl owe rt a xonom ic r ank . " Cu l tu re g roup sa r ec l u s te r so fc u l tu r e s ,c u l tu r e sa r ec l u s te r s o fa s semb lage s ,a s semb lage sa r ec l u s te r so ft y pe s ,t y pes a r ec l u s te r so fa r te f a c t sa nd a r te f ac t s a r ec l u s te r so fa t t r ibu te so rt r a i t s" ( C la rke 1 978 :35 ) . T he t r ad i t iona l ' s en s ib le 'g roup ing o fo b j e c t sa cco rd ing t op re judged u n ique s e t so fa t t r ibu te st h a ta r eb o th s uf i c ien ta nd n ece s sar yf o r g roup m embe r sh ip , i sd e sc r ibed a s mono the t ic . C la rke a r gue st h a tw h i le mono the t ic g roup i ng sa r ec ommon p ra c t ice t h ey a r ei lu so ry ,a sa r chaeo log ica lt a xonom ic g roup sn eve rc on ta in i nd iv idua l sw i th i d en t ica la t t r ibu te s . T hu ss u ch g roup ing sa r ep o ly the t ic n o t mono the t ic . T ha t i s" a g roup o fe n t i t ie s s uch t h a te ach e n t i ty p o s se s se s al a rge n umbe ro ft h e a t t r ibu te so ft h e g roup ,e ach a t t r ibu te i ss ha red b yl a rge n umbe r so fe n t i t ie sa nd n os i ng le a t t r ibu te i sb o th s uf f i c ien ta nd n ece s sary t ot h e g roup m embe r sh ip" ( C la rke 1 978 :36 ) . T hu s , i nC la rk e 's mode l , t h eu n iquene s so ft h e mono the t ic g roup f o rm i sn o tp rac t ica l ly a ppa ren ti na r chaeo log ica l a s s emb lages . Wha tw ea r ed ea l ing w i th a r ep o ly the t ic g roup s . C lea r ly t h e k ey f a c to r i ne i the r o ft h e se g roup s i sa n u nequ ivoca l d ef in i t ion o f w ha t i s a n a r chaeo log ica l a t t r ibu te . C la rke ( 1 978 :156 ) , p romo te s a n " app rox ima te" d ef in i t ion : a l o g ica l ly i r r educ ib le c ha rac te ro ft wo o r mo r es t a te s ,a c t ing a sa ni ndependen tv ar iab le w i th in a "

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s pec if i cf r ame o fr e f e rence" . T oC la rke ,a t t r ibu te sa r er e s t r ic ted t o" fo s s i lb ehav iou ra le l emen t s o ft h e l e ve l o fs i ng le k i nd o fa c t ion s , o rm ic ro sequence s o fa c t ion s" ( 1978 :154 ) . A t t r ibu te s r e su l t f r om a nd a r e e qu iva len tt o , " p remed i ta ted a nd d e l ibe ra te h om in id b ehav iou r" ( C la rke 1 978 :1 56 ) .

2 .3 . REV IE W OF EARL IER SOUTHEAST AS IAN STUD IES

1

T he g ene s i so fC la rk e 's b ehav iou ra la pp roach m ay l i ei nh i sw o rk o np o t te ry s t y le ,p ar t icu l a r ly w i th E u ropean B eak e r Wa re ( 1962 , 1 967 , 1 970 ) . H ep a id c l o se a t ten t ion t oi n c i sed d e s ign e l emen t so n b eak e r s . D e s ign s , a nd d e s ign f i e ld g roup s , w e r e t r ea ted s t a t i s t ica l ly t og ene ra te c l a s sc l us te r s . T he se w e r eh e ld t oi nd ica te a ni nd iv idua lv e s se l 's a t t r ibu te g roup r e la t ion sh ip . S uch a t t r ibu te -de r ived s t y le g roup sw e re c on s ide red c u l tu ra l ly s i gn if i can tb yC la rk e( 1970 :1 -8 , 1 978 :156 -158 ,2 10 -214 ,2 52 ,2 77 ) . T he a bove d ef in i t ion o fa t t r ibu te i se i the re xp l ic i to ri mp l ic i ti nm any a na ly se so fp o t te ry s t y le . Unfo r tuna te ly i tl e ad st o mo s to ft h ei n adequac ie si mbedded i nt h em e thod . C la rk ee qua te sa t t r ibu te sw i th h uman b ehav iou ra nd e x tend st h i st oc u l tu re s ,c u l tu ra lg roup s , a nd l a rge ra r chaeo log ica lg roup ing st e rmed " t echnocomp lexe s" ( 1978 :328 ) . T echnocomp lexe s a r ec u l tu re g roup sr e la ted t h rough p o s se s sed a r tef ac t / a t t r ibu te af in i t ie s . S uch i nduc t ive r e a s on ing v i ew st h e se af in i t ie sa so rde red a nd r egu la ted p henomena o bey ing s c ien t if ica l ly t e s tab le " l aw s" o fh uman b ehav iou r . B u tt h ey s ha re al a ck o fp red ic t iv er i gou rd i sp layed b ys oc io log ica l s t ud ie sg ene ra l ly ( Poppe r 1 967 ) . T h i sg i ve sr i se t ot wo ma jo rd if i cu l t ie s . F i r s t , a tw ha ts c a le a r ea t t r ibu te sr ep re sen ta t ive o fa ny p ar t icu la rc u l tu ra le n t i ty? S econd ,h ow a r en on -soc io log ica l d a ta t ob et r ea ted w hen t h ey c on t rad ic tC la rke 's e s sen t ia l ly s oc io log ica la pp roach? A l though a t t r ibu te sa r ed emon s t rab ly v a luab le d e l inea te r so fl a rge sca le t e chnocomp lexe s ( C la rke 1 978 :328 -362 ) , t h e i rv a l id i ty i nc ha rac te r i s ing s ma l le r s ca le c u l tu ra l g roups i sq ue s t i onab le . P a r t icu l a r ly w hen t h ey a r eu sed t od ef ine c u l tu ra l s ubd iv i s ion s a r ea l ly a nd /o rt em p o ra l ly . Unfo r tuna te ly , c e ram ic a t t r ibu te sh ave b een e x t ens ive ly emp loyed i nt h is manne ri n No r th Ame r ica ( M cKem 1 939 , P h i l l ip se ta l . 1 951 ) , a nd i n many p r ev iou s S ou thea s t A s ian s t ud ie s . A cco rd ing t oA rno ld ( 1985 ) , mo s ti n te rp re ta t ions o fC en t r a l A ndean a r chaeo logy r e s to n c e ram ic s t y le d i s t r ibu t ion s a s sumed t or ef lec tr eg iona l c u l tu re h i s to ry . B u tr e cen t w o rk s ug g e s t st h a tt h e se d i s t r ibu t ion sg i ve " ad i s to r ted p i c tu re o fC en t ra l A ndean p r eh i s to ry" ( A rno ld 1 985 :94 -95 ) . T h i si sb ecau se p roduc t ion w a sc en t red i nr e la t ive ly f ew l o ca t ion s w he re f u l l t ime p o t te r se ngaged i ny ea r round p roduc t ion . T he l o ca t ion o ft h ese c en t r e sw a sd e te rm ined b yc l ima t ic a nd r e sou rce r e s t r ic t ion s . T hey w e r ef a c i l i ta ted , a nd p o s i t iv e ly r e info rced ,b y t h e e x i s tence o fl a rge sca le p o t te ry t r ade a nd e xchange i n vo lv ing l o ng d i s tance s . T he se A ndean c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion sr ef le c t ,n o tc u l tu r eh i s to r ie ss en su s t r ic to ,b u tc hang ing p a t te rn so ft r ade a nd e xchange . T h i si sa ni n s tance w he re q ue s t ion so fs ca le a nd n on -soc io log ica l f a c to r s , a s w e l la ss oc io log ica l ,a r ei n vo lved . T he a bove d i scu s s ion i sn o ti n tended t os ugge s tt h a ts t y le a na ly s i sh a sn op l ace i ns t ud ie s o fa r chaeo log ica lc e r am ic s . I ti si n c luded , h oweve r , i na ne fo r tt os how t h a t s uch s t ud ie s , i n t h ea b sence o fn on -s ty l i s t ic c or robora t ive e v id ence ,a r ew eakened b yt h a t om i s s ion .

2 . 3

R ev iew o fe ar l ier S ou thea s tA s ian s tud ies

S ou thea s t A s ian p o t te ry s t ud ie s o ve r t h e p a s t f i ve d ecade s s ha r e a n a pp roach o f t en e v iden t i nb o th E u rope a nd N o r th Ame r ica . T h i s h a s b een c ha rac te r i sed b y o n to logy g i v ing w ay t o t a xonomy . Nomenc la tu re o f t en i mp l ied f unc t iona l ly o r ien ted d e r iva t ion s f o r a r tef ac tf o rm s . D e s ign e l emen t sw e r e d e s igna t ed t ov ar ie t ie so r s t y le s . C omb ina t ion s o fs hape , d e s ign t y pe a nd l o ca t ion o n av es se l ,e qua ted w i th s t y le . B e fo r er e cen ta dvance s ,d i sc re te e n t i t ie s ,s uch a s E u ropean " Beake r Wa re" ( C la rk e 1 970 , H a r r ison 1 980 ) , w e re h e ld t od eno te c o r re spond ing c u l tu ra le n t i t ie s . W i th af ew n o tab le e xcep t ion s ,t e chn ica la na ly s is w a si g no red . T he t r ad i t iona l" Eu ro -Ame r ican" a pp roach c ha rac te r i ses t h es t udy o fS ou thea s tA s ian p o t t e ry f r om t h e e a r ly w o rk o fQ uar i tch -W a le s t ot h e p re sen t . T hus as t ra tum a t Muang P he t

w h ich r evea led a ppa ren t ly d i s t inc t ive p o t she rd s w a s e qua t ed w i th am ovemen t o fD vã rv a t i p eop le f r om t h eL owe rC hao P h raya a r ea b y Q uar i t ch -W a le s ( 1 957 ) . S o ren sen ( 1 972 ) b a sed h i sa na ly s i so ft h eB an K ao f une r ary w a re o n s hape , s u r f a ce t r ea tmen ta nd c o lou r . F unc t iona l i n f e r ence s a r er ef lec ted i nh i s s y s tem o fn omenc la tu r e . S ome o ft h e B an K ao v e sse l s hape s l e d h im t od raw d i rec tp a ra l le l s w i th L ung shango id p o t te ry a nd t op o s tu la te a n o ve r land m i g ra t ion r ou te f r om C h ina . T he s ame u nde r ly ing c oncep t ,t h a tc u l tu ra lr e la t ion sh ip sa r ec l ea r ly d i sce rn ib le i np o t te ry s t y le s , ma rk s t h ec r i t ic i sm so fS ø r en sen 's w o rk b yP a rke r( 1 968 ) . B a y ard ( 1970 ) c on s ide red t h eB an K ao p o t te ry t y pe st oh ave r e a sonab ly c l o se p a ra l le l sw i th t h e m idd le p e r iod a t Non N ok T ha . O ne v e s se l f o rm , l a be l led " f ru i t s tand s" , h e c on s ide r ed d i s t i nc t iv e e nough t ob e d i agno s t ic . R a the r t h an L ung shano id , h owev e r , B aya rd f ound c l o se r r e la t ion sh ip sb e tween B an K ao a nd N on N ok T ha ,L opbu r ia nd K hok C ha roen . I n many w ay s ,B ay a rd 's a pp roa ch t ot h er i ch N on N ok T ha d a ta h a si nf luenced mo s ts ub s equen t s t ud ie s , t h e refo re h i s a na ly t ica l t r ea tmen t s w i l l b e c ove r ed i ns ome d e ta i l . H i s f i r s t i mp r e s s ions o ft h eo ve r a l lp o t te ry a s semb lage w e r et h a t am a jo r i ty c omp r i sed s and t empe r ed , c o rdm ark ed , o pen -f i red e ar then -wa re . O the r t y pe s o f t empe r a nd f i n i sh , s uch a s p l a in o r s moo thed s he rd s t empe red w i th r i ce o rg round c l ay w e re c on s ide r ed m ino rc a t ego r ie s ," ve ry p robab ly f r om i mpo r ted v e sse l s . ." ( Baya rd 1 976 :146 ) . S ub sequen t q ua l i ta t ive e xam ina t ion o fs he rd s a nd w ho le v e sse l s , h oweve r , r ev ea led a" r ea sonab le v ar ie ty" o fd if e r en t t empe r s , f o rm sa nd s u r f ace d eco ra t ion . I nv i ew o ft h e se a ppa r en tv ar ia t ion s ,c ompu te ra na ly s i s ,f o l low i ng ah i e ra r ch ic t a xonomy , w a s u sed . V ar iab le s i n c luded s i ze , f o rm , t empe r , s u r f a ce f i n i sh , r im s hape , s u r f ace t r ea tmen to fr im s ,r im l i pd i ame te ra nd m any m e t r i ca lv a r iab le si n c lud ing s i ze d imen s ion s , s he rd q uan t i t ie s a nd w e igh t s . A par tf r om t h e me t r ica lv ar iab le s , a l lt h ed a ta w e re s ub jec t ive ly d e r ived a nd h eav i ly b i a sed t owa rd sf o rm a nd d eco ra t ion . B aya rd c on s ide r ed f une r ary p o t te ry t ob eo fp r ime i mpo r tance a mong t h ea r te f a c tc l a s se s r e cove red . H ev i ewed v e s se l s t y le a nd m e thod o fi n te rm en t a sr e la t ive ly p r ec i se p rov enance i nd ica to r s f o r d i s tu rbed b u r ia l s . V e s se l t y po logy w a s u sed a s a n i ndependen t c heck o n t h e p ha se d e s igna t ion so fb u r ia l s . T empe ri so ne o fB aya rd 's v ar iab le sb u ti tw a sn o tp rom inen ti nh i sc l a s s if i ca t ion s c heme . T he m e thod o fd e te rm in ing t empe r i nb u r ia l v es se l s i sn o t d e sc r ibed , b u t n on -bu r ia l s he rd s w e re e xam ined w i th al ow -powe r ed b i nocu la rm ic ro scope . E leven t empe rt y pe sw e re r e cog n i sed : S and 6 0 .0% , s and a nd c haf f 1 5 .3% , f i ne c haf a nd s and 8 . 2% , c haf f6 . 2% , p r epa red t empe r 3 . 5% , c haf fa nd l a te r i te 1 . 7% , l a te r i te a nd s and 1 . 7% , s and a nd r ed p igmen t 1 . 0% , c rumb ly s and 1 . 0% ,l a te r i te 1 . 0% , a nd n ot empe r ,0 . 1% . V a r ia t ion si nt empe rt y pe a r el i s ted a cco rd ing t oc h rono log ica lp e r iod ss e to u ta sg ene ra l i sed p e r iod s ,b u tn o ts pec if i cs t r a t ig raph ic u n i t s ( Bay a rd 1 977 :76 ) . T h i s t y po log ica l s c heme i sc onceded t ob e a r b i t r a ry a nd s omewha t i mp re s s ion i s t ic ( Bay a rd 1 977 :65 ) . B u ti n al a te rs t udy , w h ich e mp loyed t h e s ame b a s ic v ar i a b le s a pp l ied t o al a rge r s amp le ( 847 v e s se ls a ga in s t l e s s t h an 1 00 ) , i ti ss e en t op rov ide a s a t i sf ac to ry d eg ree o fr i gou r( Baya rd 1 984 :117 ) . B aya rd ( i n p re s s ) , h a s s ub sequen t ly a s se r ted t h a t t empe r w a s i n c luded i nt h e N on N ok T ha v e sse l t y po logy . I ti si mpo r tan t t oc l a r i fy w he the r t empe r w a s i n c luded a s av ar iab le i nB aya rd 's c l a s s if i ca t ion , b ecau se a tN on N ok T ha t h e m o s tc omp r ehen s ive a s semb lage o f S ou thea s tA s ian mo r tuary v e sse l s w a su ncove r ed . A cco rd ing t oB ay a rd ( 1 984 :90 ) ,t h e" f ina l t y po logy" i s" ba sed o nr e con s t ruc t ion ,f u l lm ea su r emen t ,a nd c ompu te ra na ly s i so fs ome 8 47 v e s se l s , a nd a ch ieve s aq u i te s a t i s f a c to ry s t anda rd o fr i gou r ." H i s c l a s s if ica t ion s c heme i n v o lved t h r ee s t eps . V e s se l sw e r ef i r s tg rouped i n to s i xc l a s se sb a sed o ns hape a nd b a se f o rm . " S ty l i s t ic v ar ian t so rt y pe sw e r et h en d i s t ingu i shed f o re a ch c l a s s , b a sed o n n on -me t r ica ld i f f e r ence s i n s u r f ace t r ea tmen t , d eco ra t ion , s hape , a nd r im f o rm T he t h i rd s t ep i n vo lved .. ".

2 . 3 . REV IE W OF EARL IER SOUTHEAST AS IAN STUD IES

1 3

m e rg ing o fs ome o ft h e se " t ype s" t op roduce 3 8" t ype s" w i th in t h es i xc l a s se s . T h i sa ccoun ted f o r7 99 ( 94% ) o ft h e t o ta l s amp le . T he r ema in ing v e sse l s b e ing " 27 u n ique s pec imen s a nd 2 1 C la s s 1v e sse l sl a ck ing t h e b a sa lp o r t ion" . S ome o ft h e s t y l i s t ic v a r ian t so r" t ype s" , w e re c ons ide red t od if e ro n ly s l igh t ly i ns hape o rp ropo r t ion . Two v e s se ls ,h oweve r ," r ep re sen ted a c tua lb l end so ft wo t y pe s ,a nd o n ly o ne f e l li nb e tween t wo o ft h es i x mo rpho log ica lc l a sse s" . T he se w e r e t h u s c on s ide r ed u n ique . F ac to r a na ly s i s , u s ing " t he mean d imen s ion s o fe a ch t y pe ," a nd " ba sed o n 1 0m e t r ica lv ar iab le so n ly" c onf i rmed t h e mo rpho log ica l ly -ba sed i n i t ia l c l a s s if i ca t ion s( Bay a rd 1 984 :90 ) . None o ft h ea bove s t ep ss pec if i ca l ly i n c lude st empe ra s ad e te rm ina te . A l though t empe ri s l i s ted a s a" ce r am ic v ar iab le" ( Bay ard 1 984 :117 ) , i ti sn o tu sed t od if e r en t ia te e i the r" t ype s" o r" c la s se s" . T hu si nB ay a rd 's f i na l ( 1984 ) s c heme b o th " c la sse s" a nd " t ype s" a r ep re sen ted a s mo rpho log ica le n t i t ie s . P red ic tab ly , f a c to ra na ly s i s emp loy ing t h es ame me t r ica lv ar iab le s u sed i nt h ei n i t ia ls i x -c la s sc l a s s if i ca t ion s cheme p roduced ac l ea rg roup ing o fv e s se l si n to t h e c l a s se so r ig ina l ly c r ea ted f o rt h em t h rough s e lec t ing t h ei d en t ica lm e t r ica lf a c to r s . T he u t i l i ty o fs uch p red ic t ion s may b eq ue s t ionab le b ecau se o ft h e i rc i r cu la rn a tu re ( O r ton 1 980 :138 -139 ) . A l though t empe ra ppea r st oh av eb een om i t ted f r om B aya rd 's c l a s s if i ca t ion c a lcu la t ion s , i ti si n c luded w i th al i s to fn on -me t r ica lv ar iab le sa sc ompa rab le t of ab r ic ( 1984 :117 ) . T empe r a nd f ab r ic a r eh e re d ef ined a st wo d if e ren te n t i t ie s . T empe ri sa na dd i t ive d e l ibe ra te ly m ixed i n to p l a s t ic p o t t ing c l ay s i no rde rt oi mp rove t h e i ru se f u lne s s f o r c e r am ic p urpo se s . F ab r ic s may b et empe red o ru n tempe r ed . T h i si sb ecau se s ome p o t t ing c l ay sc an b eu sed w i thou tt h e a dd i t ion o ft empe r . B ay ard g roup st empe rw i th f o rm v ar iab le s( 1984 :117 ) . A ga in ,t h i sc oncep t i sd if e ren tt ot h ed ef in i t ion o f ap o t te ry t y pe u sed h e re . T h i si si mpo r t an ta nd w ew i l lr e tur n t oi tl a te r . T he o n ly p ub l i shed t empe r /ve s se la s soc ia t ion a va i lab le f o rt h e Non Nok T ha f une r a ry v e s s e l s i s" an i n te r im t ypo logy" ( Bay a rd 1 977 :65 -79 ) , l a te r t e rmed a n " i n te r im c l a s s if i ca t ion" ( Bay a rd i np re s s ) . I s o la ted r e f e rence s o f ag ene ra l n a tu re a par t , s uch a s" po t te ry t empe red w i th c haf f "( Bay a rd 1 971 :22 ) ,i nt h ea b sence o fa ny s ub sequen td e ta i led t empe r inc lu s ive t y p o logy w e mu s tp re sume t h a tt h e 1 977 t empe r /ve s se la s soc ia t ion sw e re a l so u sed i nt h e" f ina l c l a s s if i ca t ion" ( Baya rd 1 984 ) . A mo re c omp le te t y po logy i si n tended ,h oweve r : " T empe rt y pe s o ft h ef une r a ry v e s se l st h em se lve sw i l lb ep ub l i shed w hen f u l lf o rma ld eco ra t ive a na ly s is h ave b een c omp le ted" ( Baya rd 1 977 :99 ) . T he se t r ea tmen t si n vo lve t empe ra si tr e la te st ot h ev a r iou s f une r a ry v e sse l " t ype s" ( Bay a rd 1 977 :65 -72 ) , a l though t h e o r ig ina l " t ype s" a r el a t e rt e rmed " c la s se s" ( Baya rd 1 984 :91 ) . B ay a rd 's 1 977 p ub l ica t ion c l ea r ly s e t s o u t s i x f une r a ry v e s se l " t ype s" " d i s t ingu i shed p r im ar i ly b ys hape" "W i th in t h e se s i xt y pe s an umbe ro fs ub type s h ave b een e s tab l i shed o nt h eb a s i so fd eco ra t ion a nd s i ze ( f igu re 4 )" ( Baya rd 1 977 :65 ) . T ype o ne i ss ubd iv ided i n to s i x s ub type s t h r ee o fw h ich ( 1A ,1B , a nd 1 C ) a r e s and t em p e red . No t empe rd e ta i l s a r e g i ven f o r s ub type s 1 D o r i F , b u t mo s to ft h e 1 E s ub type s a r e t empe r ed w i th " c ru shed r i ce c haf fa nd s ome s and . ." ( Baya rd 1 977 :69 ) . T ype t wo i ss ubd iv ided i n to f ou rs ub type s . S ub type 1 A i ss and t empe red ; 1I i st empe red w i th c oar se ly g round c l ay w h ich i s" l igh t ly t empe red w i th r i ce c haf f ; . ." F o r s ub type 1 C t h e " t empe ri su n i fo rm ly o f s i l ic if i ed r i ce c haf fa nd as ma l l amoun to fs a nd" . 11 Di st empe red w i th s and ,a nd i na dd i t ion " t he b r i l l ian tr ed c o lou ro ft h ec l ay b ody , m ake si ts e em l i ke ly t h a ts ome f o rm o fr ed p igmen t w a sa dded t ot h ec l ay" . T ype t h r ee c on ta in so n ly t h ree v e sse l sa l lo fw h ich a r es and t empe red . .. .

T ype f ou ri ss ubd iv ided i n to f ou rs ub type s . 1 VA a nd 1 VB a r el i s ted a ss and tempe red . 1 VC , h oweve r , i st empe red w i th s i l ic if ied r i ce c haf f . 1 VD a r e s imp ly s ma l le rv e r s ion so ft h e 1 VC s ub type s . T ype f i ve h a st wo s ub type s ,b o th s and t empe red . A sw i th t h e 11 Dv e s se l s ,t h e VB s ub type s , h oweve r , a ppea r ed t oh ave h ad r ed p igmen t a sw e l l a s s and m ixed w i th t h e c l ay .

C J-I APTER 2 . A REV IE W OF P REV IOUS S TUD IES T ype s i xi ss ubd iv ided i n to t wo s ub type sa nd b o th a r es a nd t empe red ( Baya rd 1 977 :72 ) . I na n e a r l ie rt y po logy ( Bay a rd 1 971 :43 -44 ) , t h e s ame mo rpho log ica l s cheme a st h a ts e to u t a bove w a se mp loyed ,b u tt empe ri sn o tm en t ioned . " C la s s" a nd " t ype" a r eu sed i nt h ef i na l ( 1984 )t y po logy i np l ace o f" t ype" a nd " sub type" i n t h e e a r l ie r ( 1977 ) " i n te r im t y po logy" . T he se s ub s t i tu t ion s r e f e r t of o rm c r i te r ia a nd a r e t h u s o fn oc on sequence t ot h e t empe r /ve s se l a s soc ia t ion s . P e rhap s s i gn if i can t ly , " c la s s" h a s o f ten b een u sed a s al oo se " men ta l i s t" s ynonym d eno t ing aw idespr ead o ccu r rence o fs t y le d ef ined p o t te ry t y pe s( G if f o rd 1 960 ,D ee tz 1 967 ) . A pa r tf r om t y pe 1 Da nd I F ,w h ich f e a tu re a na pp l iqué b and a nd n ubb in sr e spec t ive ly i nt h e 1 977 t y po logy ,t h er ema in ing 1 984 t y pe sa r e t h e s ame a st ho se p r ev iou s ly l a be l led " sub type s" ( 1977 ) ,o r" t ypes" ( 1971 :43 ) . I ne ach s t ep , f r om " t ype s" t o" sub type s" , t o" c la s se s" c omp r i s ing " t ype s" , B ayard ' s c l a s s i f ica t ion s h ave b een mo rpho log ica l . T empe ri sn eve re xp l ic i t ly ac r i te r ion . H ence w en eed o n ly c on s ide rt h e mo r ed e ta i led e a r l ie r( 1977 )p ub l ica t ion . C lea r ly t h e 1 977 t y pe s a r e n o t s ubd iv ided i n to s ub type s o n t h e b a s i s o ft empe r . S ome s ub type sc on ta in t h es ame t empe ra nd o t he r sa r en o tg i ven t empe rc a tego r ie s . I nd eed B aya rd ( 1977 ) c l ea r ly s t a ted t h a t t h e s ub type s w e re e s tab l i shed o n t h e b a s i so fd eco r a t ion a nd s i ze . Ad e ta i led e va lua t ion o fN on N ok T ha f ab r ic sc ou ld p rove w o r thwh i le ,a s much o ft h e s t ra t i g raph ica li n teg r i ty r e s t so nt h ec o r re la t ion sc on s ide red t ob er e p r esen ted b yt h ef une r a ry v e sse l t y po logy ( Baya rd 1 977 :63 , 6 5 , a nd 7 9 ) . F u r the r , d i sc re te , s oc ia l ly s t ra t if i ed , g roup s m ay b e i d en t if i ed b yt h ep r e sence o ra b sence o fd if e r en tv e s se l" t ype s" ( Bay a rd 1 984 :109116 ) . P e t r og r aph ic d a ta c ou ld h e lp t e s t t h i s h ypo the s is , a nd f a b r ic a nd f o rm a s soc ia t ion sc ou ld a l low a n a l te r na t ive a pp roa ch t ot h e e v idence . O ne p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a tc hange si nt empe rs pec ie s a t N on N ok T ha a r ec o r r e la ted w i th c u l tu r a lc hange s . Much o ft h ep resen tt a xonom ic c on fu s ion s e em st os t em f r om al a ck o fg ene ra la g r eemen tr ega rd ing t h ed ef in i t ion o fw ha tc on s t i tu te sa c e ram ic t y pe . T h i sd if i cu l ty m ay b er e c t if ied b ye mp loy ing t h ek ind o fa pp roa ch r e commended b yH u i then ,a nd t o uched o nb e low . C oncen su sr ega rd ing w ha td ef ine s ac e ram ic " t ype" , h a sb een r ea ched r e cen t ly i nE u rope ( Hu i then 1 974 :7 ) . T h is h a s a low ed au n if ied m e thodo log ica l a nd t h eo r e t ica l a pp roa ch . Y e t c oncen su s a nd c l ar if i ca t ion w e re a b sen tl e s s t h an t wo d ecade s a go ( P eacock 1 970 :380 -389 ) . As im i la r c oncep t , h oweve r , h ad a l ready b een a pp l ied t oS udanese p o t te ry ( Adam s 1 964 ) . E u ropean c oncen su s h a s r e su l ted i nr ewa rd ing a dvance s i nc e ram ic i nv e s t iga t ion s ( Hu l then 1 977 , Howa rd a nd Mo r r i s 1 981 , F r ees tone e t .a l 1 982 ) , u nde r taken w i th in t h is p r e sc r ip t ive s c ien t if i c" pa rad igm" ( Kuhn 1 962 ,1963 ) . U nfo r tuna te ly t h eE u ropean e xpe r ience h a sn o tb een ma tched i nN o r th o r Me so -Ame r ica . T he "men ta l i s t" a pp roach ( Arno ld 1 985 :412 ) , w i th i t s s t y le o r ien ted empha s i s ,h a sc on t inued t od om ina te r e sea rch i nt h e Ame r icas i ns p i te o fa t temp t s t oi n cu lca t e t h e k i nd o ft e chno log ica l m e thod s e spou sed b y S hepa rd a nd o the r s ( e .g . P o r te r 1 964 , 1 965 ) . A n a b sence o fs uch c oncen su si nS ou thea s tA s ia mak es t h eu rgen tn eed f o rt h e a dop t ion o f as t anda rd i sed t e rm ino logy , t h a ti sb o th p rec i se a nd a pp ropr ia te ,s e em o bv iou s . B aya rd 's m e thod sc l o se ly f o l low t h o se o fm any Ame r ican p rac t i t ione r s . T he se g ene r a l ly e i the r om i to re mpha s i se s upe rf i c ia lt e chno log ica la spec t so fc e ram ic f ab r ics . T yp ica l ly ,t e ch n o log ica l " a t t r ibu te s" a r e e ncompa s sed i na n a l l -emb ra c ing c a tego ry l a be l led " gene ra l t e ch n o logy" w h ich ,t oge the rw i th s u r f ace t r ea tmen ta nd v e s se lf o rm ( o r" de s ign s t y le" ) ,c ompr ise " ac l a s so fp o t te ry" ( c f . Whea te t .a l 1 958 :34 -46 ) . Ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h ese i mpo r tan tq ue s t ion s i ss e to u ti nc hap te rt h ree . I n s igh t i n to t h e s e lec t ion o f m e thod s u sed i n B ay ard 's d e ta i led s t y l is t ic a na ly s i s i si n c r ea sed t h rough ac on s ide ra t ion o fB uchan 's r e sea r ch o na s semb lage sd e r iv ed f r om H igham a nd P a rk e r 's e xcava t ion sa tN on N ong C h ik . Wo rk ing u nde rB ay a rd 's s upe rv i s ion ,s he d evo ted

E4 RL IE J 'OUT1EASY

SA N STUDIES

c on s ide rab le a t ten t ion t ot h ed ef in i t ion o ft h et y pe . S he f o l lowed E hr ich ( 1950 ) ,a nd S pau ld ing ( 1960 )i nn o t ing t h a t a" t ype ( i s )d ef ined a s ag roup o fa r te fa c t sc on s i s tan t ly d i sp lay ing as pe c if i cc omb ina t ion o fa t tr ibu te ss uf i c ien tt op roduce ac ha ra c te r i s t ic f o rm" ( Buchan 1 973 :15 ) . D ef in ing a nd s e lec t ing a pp ropr ia te a t t r ibu te si sc l ea r ly c r uc ia l . B uchan empha s i sed t h ev a r i e ty o fp o s s ib le a t t r ibu te si np o t te ry s amp le s , ad i rec tr e su l to ft h ep l a s t ic n a tu re o fc l ay . T he e nd r e su l ti s ag r ea te rv ar ie ty o fc omponen ta t t r ibu te sv e r su s al e s se rd eg r ee o fn ece ss a ry i n te r d ependence b e tween t h em . T h i s m ean s t h a t as pe c if i c a t t r ibu te c omb ina t ion may n o ta lway s o ccu r . T he t y pe -v ar ie ty s y s tem o fc l a s s if i ca t ion w i th i t s empha s i so nc e r am ic t y pe c l u s te r si s mo s ts im i l a rt ot h eh i e r a r ch ica ls y s tem c ho sen b yB uchan ,e mp loy ing a si td oe s3 8p o t te ry v a r i a b le si n co rpo ra ted i nB aya rd 's c ompu te rf o rma t . O ne p a r t icu la rv a r iab le , t empe r , c on ta ined 3 9 s ub -ca tego r ie s d e r ived f r om v ar ious c omb ina t ion s o ff ou rb a s ic t empe r t y pe s : s and , r i ce c haf f ,l a te r i t ea nd p r epa red t empe r( e i the rg round p o t she rd so rc ru shed p re f i r ed c l ay b a l l s ) . I ti sn o tab le t h a t , f o l low ing ad e ta i led s t a t i s t ica la na ly s i s ,o n ly o ne p a i ro fv ar iab le sc ou ld b eu sed f o r

x2t e s t so fa s soc ia t ion :

t empe rt y pe s a nd b ody d eco ra t ion . Ad ef in i te a s soc ia t ion

b e tw een t h e t wo v a r iab le s w a s e v iden t i nt h e ma jo r i ty o fr e su l t s . T hu s , a l though a t t r ibu te s c once rned w i th a r te f ac tf o rm c omp r ise t h em a jo rp o r t ion o ft h e s t a t i s t ica lf o rmu la , t h e s i ng le f ab r ic r e la ted a t t r ibu te w a se qua l ly i nf luen t ia ls t a t i s t ica l ly . C la rk e ( 1962 , 1 970 ) , c once rned w i th r e cogn iz ing a t t r ibu t e g roup ing s i nh i s b eak e r w a re s t ud ie s , w a s l e ad b y h i s s oc io log ica l a pp roach e s sen t ia l ly t oi g no re ma te r ia l a spec t s o f t h e p o t te ry . T hu s , B uchan i n c lude sb o th ma te r ia l a nd n on -ma te r ia l a t t r ibu te s wh i le C la rke d oe s n o t . Y e t b o th a r e i n te re s ted i np rov id ing ad e scr ip t ive " t ype" c once ived a s amo rpho log ica l e n t i ty . S ign if i can t ly ,a l though B uchan 's a t t r ibu te sa r ec l ea r ly b i a sed t owa rd sn on -ma te r ia lf a c t o r s ,t h eo ne ma te r ia l a t t r ibu t ec on s ide red w a sp rom inen ti nt h es t a t i s t ica l ly g ene ra ted r e su l t s . S uch s t ud ie st y p if yt h e mo rpho log ica la nd d eco ra t ion empha s i st h a tc ha r ac te r ise s t y le o r ien ted r e sea r ch . F a ced w i th a po t te ry a s semb lage o fc . 200 ,000 b ody she rd sa nd 5 0 ,000 r im s ,B ron son ( 1976 ) , c on s ide red ma thema t ica l a t t r ibu te a na ly s i s t oo t ime c on sum ing b ecau se o ft h e h uge s amp le s i ze a nd e xce s s ive a moun to fa ppa ren t ly s i gn if i can ta t t r ibu t e s . R andom s amp l ing w a sr e jec ted d ue t ot h er i sk o fi g no r ing u n ique o rr a re s he rd t y pe s ,w h ich a r ep o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan ti ft h ey a r e i mpo r ted . F u r the r ,w h i le ap a r t icu la rd e s ign o rf o rm a t t r ibu te m ay h ave al im i ted t empo ra la nd s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion ,a nd i st h u sp o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan tf o rd ocumen t ing c on tac tb e tween s oc ia l g roup s , mo s t ma thema t ica l t a xonom ic s y s tem s , a cco rd ing t oB ron son , a r e u nab le t op rov ide a pp rop r ia te w e igh t ing empha s i s . C h rono logy i sc en t ra lt oB ron son 's me thodo logy . Y e tt h ee x i s t ing s y s tem o fn omenc la tu re f o r t h e p ro toh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p e r iod s i nt h e C han sen a r ea w a s b a sed o n a r t s t y le s a nd K ingdom s ,s uch a st h eH inan ,D vä rava t T ,K hm e ra nd S ukho tha i . I nc on sequence ,i nB ron son 's a nd D a le 's o wn w o rd s ," such b a s ic p rocedu r e sa sp o t te ry c l a s s if i ca t ion h ad t ob es t a r ted f r om s c ra t ch" ( Bron son a nd D a le s1 972 :18 ) . N o to n ly d i dS ou thea s tA s ia l a ck a ne s tab l i shed s y s tem o fd e sc r ip t ion a nd c l a s s if i ca t ion , t h eC han sen m a te r ia l w a sc ons ide red n o tt ob e a menab le t o s y s tem sf a vou red e l sewhe re . A n i n nova t ive s y s tem w a st h e r e fo re d ev i sed , w h ich u sed t e rm s a nd c a tego r ie s , s u ch a s" so r t ing c l a ss" , " spec ia l s" a nd " v ar ian t s" . Wh i le t h e t e rm ino logy i s f am i l ia r ,d ef in i t ion sd i sp lay a dap t ive f l ex ib i l i ty s u i ted t ot h e k i nd a nd q uan t i ty ( c6 6% o ft h e s he rd sr e cove red )o ft h ep o t t e ry a na ly sed . C en t ra lt ot h e" r ea sonab ly o b jec t ive" s y s t em e mp loyed i sa ga in t h ec oncep to ft y pe . B ron s on 's t y pe s c omp r i se r im she rd s w i th a tl e a s t o ne s ha red d i s t inc t ive a t t r ibu te . A t t r ibu te s a r e " any s i ng le d es cr ip t iv ec ha ra c ter i s t ic" , a nd ac ha r ac te r is t ic i nt u rn " canno tb es ubd iv ided f u r t h e rw i thou td e ta i led t e chn ica le xam ina t ion" . A t t r ibu te s ,t h ee l emen ta ry t a xonom ic u n i t s , a r e

1 6

CHAP T hR 2 . A REV IE W O I P REV IOUS S TUD IES

v a r iou s ly c omb ined t op roduce mode s , t y pe s , s pec ia l s , s o r t ing c l a s se s , v ar ian t s , t y pe c om p l exe sa nd f ab r ic g roup s . B ron son 's t r ea tmen to ft h ed a ta i sd e ta i led a nd c omp r ehens ive w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o u t l i ned a bove . A t t r ibu te so f at e chn ica ln a tu r e ,s uch a sc o lou r , s u r f ace f i n i sh a nd t empe ra ppea r s ub jec t ive ly d e r ived , h oweve r , a nd f o rm n omenc la tu re r ef lec t sf unc t iona la s sump t ion s . F o rm c l a s se sa r eb a sed ma in ly o ns hape a nd s i ze c r i te r ia . T hey a r el im i ted t oc ommon w ho le -ve s se l t a xa ,a nd f e a tu re af o rm p l u ss pec if ic a t t r ibu te f o rmu la d ef i n i t ion . T hey a l so i n v ar iab ly i n c lude e i the r af ab r ic g roup o rt empe rt y pe a sa na t t r ibu te . U l t ima te ly ,t h ec e r am ic p ha se sd e r ived f r om t h ea bove s t ud ie sa r es e en t om i r ro rc u l tu ra le p i sodes ,w he r el o ng ,s t ab le p e r iod sa r es ep a ra ted b ys ho r te r ,a cce le ra ted p e r iod so ft r an s i t ion . Wh i te ( 1986 ) ,u se s ac e ram ic " t ypo logy" ,i na s soc ia t ion w i th s t ra t ig raph ic a nd r ad ioca rbon d a ta ,w i th t h ei n ten t ion o fd ef in ing ar e la t ive a nd a b so lu te c h rono logy f o rB an C h iang b u r ia l s . S he t h en a t temp t st oc ro s s -da te t h i sc h rono logy w i th s equence sf r om o t he rs i te s . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy o fB an C h iang " . the ' t ype s i te ' f o rt h en o r the rn K ho r a tP la teau . ." i sp r inc ipa l ly b a sed o n" ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o fb ur ia lc e ram ic sa nd t h e i rs equen t ia lr e la t ion sh ips" (Wh i te 1 986 :134 ) . A cco rd ing t o Wh i te ,p r io r" .da t ing o ft h eB an C h iang s equence h a sb een am a jo r c on t rove r sy . ." ( 1986 :133 ) . A ga in t h i s s t udy c oncen t ra te s o n s t y le . Wh i te p o s tpone s t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f a" fo rma l t y po logy" i nf a vou ro f a" p rov i s iona l t y po logy" ( o r" p t" ) . S he a r gue s t h a t p o s tponemen t i s n ece ss ary b ecause o fd if i cu l ty i nr e la t ing m a rk ed c e ram ic v ar ia t ion t ot h ec h rono logy , al a ck o fs t a t i s t ica ld a ta ," and p ar t icu la r ly i n suf f i c ien ti n fo rma t ion o nf ab r ic" (Wh i te 1 986 :82 ) . T hu s " Type s" w i th ac ap i ta l" T" a r e c on s ide red t or equ i re t h ei n c lu s ion o ft e chno log ica l a na ly s i s , w he rea s a" p r" i sa n a r te f a c t g roup w ho se m embe r s s ha re at r a i t" c lu s te r" . T h i sr e la t ion sh ip a l low st h em t ob ed i s t ingu i shed f r om a no the rg roup . B ecause t h e" p t" c oncep ti ss pec if ica l ly r e la ted t od ef in ing c h rono logy ,d ef in i t ive " P t" c r i te r ia may v a ry (Wh i te 1 986 :83 ) . V e s se l mo r p ho logy a nd s i ze a r e o f t en c on s ide red " key" d ef in i t ive " t ra i t s" . A l te rna t ive ly , s u r f ace t r ea t m en t sa l one a r es ome t ime sh e ld t ob ed i s t inc t ive a nd c ommon e nough . H ence ,i nt h e se c a se s , d if e ren t v e s se l s hape s " wou ld u nnece s sa r i ly e ncumbe r" t h e d i scu s s ion . A s mo rpho logy i s n o t d eemed t ob e c on s i s ten t ly " r e levan t t ot h e d ef in i t ion o fe ve ry p r , t h e t e rm ' F o rm ' . wa s r e jec ted" (Wh i te 1 986 :83 -84 ) . G ene ra l ized s i ze c a tego r ie s ( sma l l , m ed ium a nd l a rge ) a nd f unc t iona l ly i mp l ic i t d e sc r ip t ion s ( bow l s ,j a r s , o rr ound b o t tomed p o t s ) , a r e c omb ined w i th ..

t e chno log ica ld a ta ( co lou r ,s u r f a ce d eco ra t ion ,c on s t ruc t ion m e thod a nd f ab r ic d e ta i l s ) ,w he re a va i lab le . T h i s " t empo r a ry s c heme" a l lowed 1 8 p t 's t ob e r e la ted t o 1 9 c h rono log ica l s equence s (Wh i te 1 986 :82 -84 ) . T hu sa cco rd ing t o Wh i t et h e3 41 e xcav a ted B an C h iang v e s se l s( Ha s t ing s 1 982 :38 -39 ) , c an c onven ien t ly b er e p re sen ted b y 1 8p t 's . P e rhap s s i gn if i can t ly 1 0 o ft h e 1 8 p t 's i n c lude v e s se l sf o rw h ich t e chno log ica ld a ta w e r ea va i lab le . T he se t e chno log ica l s t ud ie s a r ed i scu s sed b e low . Wh i te 's a t t r ibu te s a r e s e lec ted s ub jec t ive ly " ba sed o ne x ten s ive e xpe r ience w i th t h ec o l l e c t ion" ( 1986 :82 ) . P h ra se s s uch a s" i n tu i t ive ly o fi mmed ia te c h rono log ica l u se" ( 1986 :81 ) , o r" The s equence p ropo sed h e re m ak e s mo r e ' s ty l i s t ic s en se" ( 1986 :113 -114 ) ,r ef lec t as ub '

,

s t an t ia lr e l iance o n as ub jec t ive " po t te ry s en se" ,a nd u nde r l ine t h eo ve ra l la pp roa ch u sed . H e r " p r " d ef in i t ion , w h ich i si n t ended t or e la te d i s t inc t ive a r t ef a c t s w i th d i sc re te a r cha eo log ica l u n i t s ,e choe sC la rk e 's d i scu s sed a bove . I tt y p if i es t h es t y l i s t ic " pa rad igm" . S eve re c on s t ra in t sw e r ei mpo sed o n Wh i te b yt h el im i ted t e chno log ica li n fo rma t ion a va i l a b le . C ompar i son o fB an N aD i v e s se l f o rm s w i th B an C h iang " p t 's" h e lped l e ad Wh i te t o c onc lude t h a t ,i ns p i te o f ap auc i ty o fe xcava t ed d a ta ,N o r thea s tT ha i land c an b ec h ar ac te r i sed

2 .4 .

TEC T h\ TOLO& i QL .

l i i

b yi t sm a rk ed r eg iona lc e ram i cv a r iab i l i ty . A tB an N aD i ,h oweve r ,i mpo r ted c e ram ics c l e a r ly d eno te e x t e rna lr e la t ionsh ip s . T he se a ppa ren t ly c onf l ic t ing f a c to r sa r et h u sc on s ide red i r recon c i lab le w i th c u l tu ra lh omogene i ty . O ppo s i t ion b e tween t h e se t wo c u l tu ra la spec t si st h u s s e en t or ef lec t" no ti s o la t ion b u t mo r e s ub t le s oc io -cu l tu ra lp roce s se s" ( 1 986 :220 ) . P a radox ica l ly , h oweve r , a cco rd ing t o Wh i te , i n te r s i te a s syme t ry i ni mpo r ted i t em s d i squa l if ie s a ny s i ng le c a tego ry a ss uf i c ien tf o rc r o s s -da t ing b e tween s i te s( 1986 :221 ) . Wh i t e 's u se o ft h e B an C h iang c e r am ic a s semb lage t u rns o n a" p rov i s iona l" c e ram ic t y p o logy . T h i s i sp romo ted a s as t y le -on ly t y po log ica l c l a s s if i ca t ion . U nfo r tuna te ly i ti so f ten u nc lea ra st ow h ich d ef in i t ion o f" t ype" Wh i te i sr e f e r r ing . T he l im i ta t ion so fc e r am ic s t y le sf o r c ro ss -cu l tu ra lc ompar i son sa r ef r ee ly a dm i t ted (Wh i te 1 986 :233 ) . H ence t h eu t i l i ty o ft h i sk i nd o fs t udy f o ra s se s smen t so fc u l tu r a ld eve lopmen t si nt h er eg ion i sd e te rm ined b yt h ea pp roach emp loyed . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e v ar iou s g roup s o fa s soc ia ted p t 's , a nd /o rt h ep t 's t h em se lve s , m ay r ef lec ta ny o f aw ide r ange o fc u l tu ra l e ven t s , e i the r s i ng ly o ri nc omb ina t ion . F o re xamp le , a sw i th A rno ld 's A ndean c a se , t h e se c hange s m ay r ef lec t ac hange i nt h e s ou rce o fi mpo r ted c e ram ics . A l te rna t ive ly t h ey may r ep re sen t ac hange i nl o ca l f a sh ion p ref e r ence s ( c f . Wa t s on e ra l . 1 982 ) . A s af i r s ts t ep t owa rd sr e so lv ing t h e se p rob lem s , i tw ou ld s e em p ruden t t o e s tab l i sh w he the rt h ec e ram ic sw e re t h ep roduc to f al o ca li ndu s t ry o r , i fn o t , t ow ha td eg r ee t h ey r e p re sen ti mpo r ted g ood s . Wh i te ( 1 982 :82 )l i s t sc e ram ic a nv i l s ,a ccou t remen t so fp o t te ry manu f a c tu re ,f r om b o th L a te a nd M idd le P e r iod sa tB an C h iang ,a nd h in t st h a tt h ey may r e la te t o al o ca li ndus t ry . Unfo r tuna te ly n of u r the ra s se s smen to ft h e i rs t a tu sh a sb een p ub l i shed t o d a t e .

2 . 4

T echno log ica ls tud ies

P e t rog raph ic a na ly s i so fs he rd sf r om K hok C ha roen u s ing s t anda rd t h in -sec t ion p o lar ized l i gh t , a s w e l l a s e l ec t ron m ic rop robe c hem ica l d e te rm ina t ion t e chn ique s , h a s i d en t if i ed s i x f ab r ic g roup s (W a t son e ra l . 1 982 ) . T h i si mpo r tan ts t udy h i gh l igh t st h en eed f o rf i ne -g ra ined a na ly s i s o fp r eh i s to r ic c e r am ic s . I d en t if i ca t ion o ft empe ra nd i n c lu s ions m ine ra log ica l ly c ons i s t en tw i th l o ca l ly a va i lab le w ea the red v o lcan ic r ock so fa c id c ompo s i t ion p rov ide sf i rm e v idence o fl o ca l manu f ac tu re . O the ri mp l ica t ion so ft h i sw o rk a r eo u t l ined b e low . McGove rn ( e ra l . 1 985 :104 -113 ) ,c onduc ted a n" adm i t ted ly l im i ted s amp l ing o ft h r ee p e r i od so fB an C h iang c e ram ic s" . S ome f ab r ic s s how c l o se p a ra l le l s w i th t h e i n t ru s ive " b leb" t empe r ed w a re sa tB an N aD i . T h i sd i s t inc t ive f ab r ic i sr e cogn i sab le i np ho tom ic rog r aphs i n c l uded i nt h ea bove p ub l ica t ion s( McGove rn 1 985 :106 ,P la te 2 ,V incen t1 984a :694 ,f i g 1 5 -3B . a nd C . ) . A l though t h e magn if i ca t ion l e ve l sa r ed if e ren t( 25x a nd 8 0x r e spec t ive ly ) ,c ompa r i s on o ft h e se p ho tom ic rog r aph sd emons t ra te s ac l o se mo rpho log ica ls im i la r i ty b e tween t h et wo t empe r s . Wh i te , h oweve r , a r gue sf o r al a ck o fe qu iv a lence b e tween L a t e P er iod B an C h iang a nd B an N a D i . S he c on s id e r s t h a t b l eb tempe r i sa b sen t f r om B an C h iang . A cco rd ing t o Wh i t e( 1 986 :263 ) ,V e rnon ,w ho c onduc ted t h ep e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s ,n o ted " l i t t le i fa ny o bv i o u s p l an t ma t e r ia l a s soc ia ted w i th t h e g rog f r agmen t s . A ny p l an tr ema in s w e re f ound w i th in t h ec l ay ma t r ix" . Q u i te s o . T h i sc omp l ie sw i th t h ea s soc ia t ion n o ted f o ro t he rb l eb tempe red f ab r ic s . T h i si sa ni mpo r tan tt empe ra nd w ew i l ld i scu s si ti nd e ta i li nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r s . McGove rn ( e ra l . 1 985 ) , i np re l im ina ry o b ser va t ion s b a sed o n a n e xam ina t ion o ft we lve v e sse l s ,a nd s ub jec tt o amo r ed e ta i led s t udy , a s se r tt h a t" a l though t h e re a r e s ome s im i la r i t ie s i nv e s se lf o rm s ,t h ef ab r ics o fB an N aD i a r ec l ea r ly d if e r en tf r om t h ew a r es i n c luded i nt h i s

C J T IÄF T hR 2 . AR V IE W OF P REV IOUS S TUD IES s t udy" . T hey a rgue t h a tt h eB an C h iang p o t te ry i ndu s t ry " appea r st oh ave b een h i gh ly c on se r v a t ive" . C hange s i np e t ro logy , c l ay t y pe s , p a in t , s l ip s , a nd f a b r ica t ion t e chn ique s a r eh e ld t o " have b een m ino rd epa r tu r e sf r om t h ew e l l -founded t r ad i t ion" ,b u tt h e se v a r iab le sa l so p o s se s s p o ten t ia l" i nu nde r s tand ing t h ee vo lu t ion o ft h ei ndu s t ry" . O sc i l la t ion sb e tween d if e ren tf ab r i ca t ion t e chn ique s ,h ow ev e r ," a r ed if i cu l tt ou nde r s tand w i th in ac on t inuou st r ad i t ion" . S uch c hange sa r ep o s tu la ted t ob et h er e su l to f" cu l tu re c on ta c to rp opu la t ion movemen t s" . F ina l ly , w h i le t h ef i r ing t empe r a tu re r a nge i sh e ld t ob ew e l ld ef ined ," mo re d e t a i led a na ly s is a nd /o ra l a rge rs amp le i sd e s i rab le i nr e so lv ing an umbe ro fi s sue s" . T hese a r eo b se rva t ion sw h ich w i l l b ec on s ide r ed i nt h ep re sen tw o rk . G lanzman a nd F lem ing ( 1985 :114 -121 ) , u sed m ac ro scop ic s u r f ace e xam ina t ion a nd x e r o rad iog raphy o fB an C h iang v e s se l st oa s se s sf ab r ica t ion m e thod s . T hey f e e l" co i l -and s lab" a nd " l ump -and -s lab" f ab r ica t ion t e chn ique s c harac te r i s t ica l ly e mp loy ed b y c r a f tp o t te r s a r e r e ad i ly d e tec ted i np r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry . T he se m e thod sw e r e" cen t ra le l emen t s" o fB an C h iang v e s se l f ab r ica t ion . P add le -and -anv i l s hap ing i se v iden t i nb o th c omp le te mode rn B an C h i a ng v e s se l sa nd a nc ien te xamp le s . T he a u tho r si d en t ify f ou rE a r ly P e r iod v e s se l sa sc o i l -and s l ab ,a nd t wo a sl ump -and -s lab ,f ou rM idd le P e r iod w e re l ump -and -s lab a nd o ne c o i l -and -s lab , w h i le t h eL a te P e r iod r evea led t h ree c o i l -and s lab a nd o ne v e s se lo fu nce r ta in f ab r ica t ion . A s w i th t h e p r ev iou s s t udy t h e s amp le i ss ma l l ( at o ta l o f 1 5 v e s se ls ) .S uch f ab r ica t ion s t ud i e s , h oweve r , h ave c on s ide rab le p o ten t ia l f o ri lum ina t ing a n i mpo r tan t a spec to fp reh i s to r ic c e ram ic t e chno logy .

2 .5

E thnograph ic s tud ies

E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f e rv a luab le i n s igh t i n to t h e manuf ac tu re a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o t te ry . T h is i sr e levan t t ot h e a na ly s i so fp reh i s to r ic s amp le si ft r ea ted w i th c au t ion . U n fo r tuna te ly , f ew s uch s t ud ie s h ave b een u nde r taken i nT ha i land . C a lde r( 1972 )c on s ide red manu f ac tu r ing p roce s se s ,c on sume rd emand s ,t r ade p a t te rn s ,s e a sona lp roduc t ion ,b r eakage p a t te rn s ,r ep la ce m en tr e spon se s a nd v ar iab le e nd -p roduc tu se s . S he n o ted t h a tt h e i n hab i tan t s o fB an K oeng s aw t h em se lve s o n ly a s c on sume r s , n eve r a s p roduce r s o fp o t te ry . Y e t t h ey w e re f am i l ia r w i th t h ep roduc t ion t e chn ique s emp loyed a tt h en ea rby s pec ia l i s tp o t t ing v i l lage o fB an Mo . E xcav a t ion sd e s igned t ot e s th ypo the se sr e la ted t ob r eakage mode s ,a nd s ub sequen ts he rd d i s t r ibu t ion s ,p rov ided v a luab le i n s igh ti n to d epo s i t ion , t r an spo r ta t ion a f te rb reakage , a nd s he rd w ea r . I n s igh t i n to p roduc t ion r a the r t h an c on sump t ion i sp rov ided b y S o lhe im 's s t udy o f t h e s ou the rn T ha i v i l lage o fS t ing Mo r ( So lhe im 1 964 ) . P o t te ry manuf ac tu r e p rov ide s t h e e co n om ic b a se o ft h ev i l lage . T he p o t te r sa r ef ema le ,a nd t h em anuf ac to ry u t i l i se sc l ay p roduced f r om " p r iva te ly o wned b ed s" s i tua ted s ome d i s tance a way . S and t empe ri sa dded ,a nd ac y l in d e ro fc l ay i sw hee lf o rmed i n to v e s se l s ,e i the rc omp le ted i no ne s t age o rp a r t ly w hee l -fo rmed a nd s ub sequen t ly s haped w i th aw ooden p add le a nd f i red c l ay a nv i l . V e s se lf i e ld sa r ev ar iou s ly t r ea ted e i the r w i th p add le i mp re s s ion s , s t amps , o r s imp ly b y b e ing l ef tp la in . I nt h e c a se o f w a te rj a r s , t h ei mp r e s s ion so fc a rv ed p add le su sed i ns hap ing a r e s moo thed o ve r , b u ts t amp s , w h ich v ary i n mo t if f o re ach p o t te ra r ea pp l ied t ot h es hou lde r s . P ebb le b u rn i sh ing a nd g roov i ng a r e a l so e mp loyed . F i r ing i su nde r taken i nv e r t ica lo rh o r izon ta lk i ln s b y m en . T he k i ln s a r ep r iva te ly o wned ,a nd may b er en ted . S o ihe im ( 1964 )h a sa l so d e sc r ibed t h ep o t te ry mak ing t e chn ique so ft h ei n hab i tan t so fB an N ong , l o ca t ed c .5 5 km n o r thwe s to fK hon K aen . T he i n hab i tan t s a r r ived a bou tt wo d ecade s e a r l ie rf r om K ho r a t a nd Ubon r e spec t ive ly . C a r ef u l ly s e lec ted c l ay i sg a the red b y m en a nd

2 .6 . S TYLE ANALYSIS AND F ABRIC ANALYS IS

1 9

w omen f r om ap ond l o ca ted f i ve m inu te sw a lk a way . T he t empe ri sp repa r ed b y m ix ing c l ay w i th r i ce h u sk s i n to t h e s hape o fb a l l s a bou t 1 5 c mi nd i ame te r , a nd t h en a f t e rd ry ing , f i r ing t h em . D u r ing f i r ing , t h ey b ecome r ed h o t , a nd a f te rf i r ing , t h ey a r eb rown o n t h eo u t s ide a nd b l a ck i nt h ec en t re . T hey a r et h en t a k en b y w om en a nd p ounded i n aw ooden mo r ta rb e fo re b e ing s i eved t h rough a3o r 4mm b a ske tw eave m e sh . C lay i st h en m ixed w i th t h et empe ro n am a tp l aced o nt h eg round . Wh i le m en m ix t h et empe rw i th t h ec l ay ,w omen a l one c ons t ruc t t h ev e s se l s . P r epa red s o l id c l ay c y l inde r s a r eh o l lowed e i the rw i th t h umb s , o r , i nt h ec a se o f l a rge v e sse l s , as t ick , t of o rm b o th s o l id a nd h o l low b a sed c y l inde r s . T he se a r e s e cu r ed o n aw ooden p o s ta nd e n la rged a nd e vened w i th ar ough p add le . T he r im i sf o rmed b y w a lk ing r ound t h e p o s t , a nd u s ing ah and -he ld l e a fa st h e s moo th ing a gen t . T he b ody o ft h e v e s se l i sf o rmed u s ing ap l a in p add le a nd a nv i l , a nd af i na l c arved p add le a pp l ica t ion i mp r es se s a p a t te rn o n t h e s hou lde r so ft h e l a rge rj a r s . T he re a r e s eve ra l d if e ren tf o rm s , a nd t h ep o t te r s a r ek nown t oi m i ta te e xo t ic v e s se l s . E ach p o t te rp roduce sb e tween 1 2a nd 1 4v e s se l s ad ay ,a nd w hen 2 00 -300 h ave a ccumu la ted ,m en f i r et h em o n ar af to fw ood ,w i th g ra s sf ue lh eaped o ve r t h em a nd r ep len i shed a sr equ i red o ve r ap e r iod o ft h ree t of i ve h ou r s . S o ihe im n o ted : " The re i sm uch f l ame ,w i th g ene ra l ly o x id i s ing a tmo sphe r e . T he s u r f a ce f i re s al i gh tb rown , w i th f i re c l oud sc ommon . T he p a s te i su sua l ly b rown a l lt h ew ay t h rough ,b u ti nt h icke rp o r t ions t h e re i so f t en ab l ack c o re r ema in ing" . T he b a s ic e conom ic -p roduc t ion u n i ti st h ef am i ly . Women mak et h ev e s se l s ,m en ma rke tt h em . Wh i le k now ledge o fp o t t ing i sr e ta ined w i th in t h ef am i ly a nd c ommun i ty ,w omen c om ing i n to t h ev i l lage a r eo cca s iona l ly t a ugh tp o t t ing s k i l l s . A t B an P han L uang n ea rL uang P rabang , t h e p o t te r s g a the r c l ay f r om n ea rby f i e ld s . I t i st h en d r ied , p ounded a nd b a sk e t s ieved ( So ihe im 1 967 ) . T h i s p r epa r ed c l ay i st h en w a te r mo is tened a nd t empe red w i th r i ve rs and u n t i l" i tf e e l sr i gh t" . B a t che so fp o t sa r em anuf ac tu red i ns t age s , i n i t ia l ly o n as l ow w hee l . Two p add le a nd a nv i l s t age s c omp le t e t h e f o rm ing , a nd f i r ing t a ke sp l ace o n ag ra s sf u e led t imbe rr a f t . N oa dd i t iona lf ue li sa dded d ur ing f i r ing ,w h ich l a s t sb e tween 1 1 .5 h ou r s . B aya rd ( 1977a )h a sd e sc r ibed af u r the rp o t t ing t r ad i t ion a tB an N aK ra seng ,L oe iP rov ince . H en o ted t h a tc l ay w a sc o l lec ted o n ly f r om t e rm i te mound s . T he n a tu ra lo ccu r rence o fc oa r se s a ndy i n c lu s ion s m ade i tu nnece s sa ry t oa dd t empe r ing m a ter ia l , s o t h e w a te r -sof tened c l ay w a ss imp ly p ounded u n t i lu n i fo rm i nt e x tu r ea nd o fa ccep tab le c ons i s tency . P r epa red c y l inde r s o fc l ay w e r eh o l lowed b yh and ,t h en p add le b ea ten a f te rt h eu ppe re dge w a ss moo thed a nd t h e r im c omp le ted . T he i n ne rr im s u r f ace w a st h en s moo thed w i th ab amboo s t ick a nd t h es hou lde r a r ea e xpanded w i th ap add le a nd a nv i l . Ac a rved p add le a nd c a ref u l ly s e lec ted r i ve rp ebb le a nv i lw e re u sed . F i r ing o n al o gp l a t fo rm f ue l led b ys t raw a nd b amboo l a s ted f r om t wo t ot h r ee h ou r so ru n t i lt h ev e s se l sw e r eg l ow ing h o t . T he r e su l tan tv e s se ls w e re f ound t ob e" un ifo rm , f u l ly o x id i sed ,b r ick r ed i nc o lou r "a nd w i th l i t t le o rn of i r ec l oud ing .

2 . 6

S ty le a na lys is a nd f abr ic a na lys is

Many o ft h es t ud ie sd e sc r ibed a bove a r ec once rned w i th t h ec on s t ruc t ion o fm ean ing fu lr e la t ive c h rono log ie sb o th i n te r - a nd i n t ra reg iona l ly . T h i si sp e rhap s ap red ic tab le i n i t ia lr e spon se t o a na r ea l i t t le -known a r chaeo log ica l ly . S t y le i se mpha s i sed i n mo s to ft h e se a pp roache s . Y e t s t y le so f t en g rade i mpe r cep t ib ly ,a nd s t y le a na ly s i sa l one o f t en f a i l st or e cogn i se i m i ta t ion so f i n t ru s ive p o t te ry ,o rt h ea dap ta t ion o ff o re ign m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique sa nd s t y le si nc on t r a s t t ol o ca li n nova t ion . F ab r ic a na ly s i s ,h oweve r ,w hen c l ea rg eo log ica lp a rame te r se x i s ti nt h er aw m a te r ia ls ou r ce a r ea ,c an p rov ide f i rm e v idence o fp rovenance ,o re qua l ly i mpo r tan t , t h ee xc lu s ion o fc e r ta in

2 0

CHAPTER 2 . A REV IE W OF P REV IOUS S TUD IES

a r ea sa ss ou r ces o fr aw ma te r ia l . T empe r ing m a te r ia l sa fo rd e v idence o fq ua l i ta t ive c hange . O ne t empe rv a r ie ty d oe s n o tg rade i n to a no the r , a nd w hen e xam ined p e t rog raph ica l ly , s and , g rog , s he l l ,r ock o ro rgan ic t empe r sa r ec l ea r ly d i sce rn ib le . E x t r eme c on se rva t i sm i nt empe r u se i sw ide sp r ead ( Shepa rd 1 956 ) . T hu st empe rc an p rov id ei mpo r tan ti n fo rma t ion r e ga rd ing p o t te ry -mak ing c u s tom so rt r ad i t ion s , p a r t icu la r ly i fo ne t empe ri sp r ef e r red t oo t he re qua l ly s u i tab le a nd /o ra va i lab le m a te r ia l s . T he p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i sd e ta i led b y Wa t son e ta l . ( 1982 ) ,t h ef i r s to fi t sk ind i nS ou thea s t A s ia ,p rov ided a ne xamp le o ft h ei mpo r tance o ff ab r ic a na ly s i sf o rp rovenance d e t e rm ina t ion s . S ix f ab r ic sa r ee v iden t ,8 0% o ft h es amp le c omp r i s ing l o ca lw a r e so ff ab r ic g roup 1 .H ow eve r , am eande rd e s ign ,d e r iv ed f r om a ne xo t ic f ab r ic 6v e s se l ,w a sf ound r e p roduced i ns imp l if ied f o rm o n af ab r ic 1p o t . Wa t son v i ew st h i sa sc o r robo ra t ive e v idence o ft h ep r e s t ige a t tached t o t h ei mpo r ted v e s se l . C lea r ly , as t r ic t ly s t y le -o r ien ta ted s t udy w ou ld h ave f a i led t od i sc r im ina te b e tween t h e se t wo d if e ren tt y pe s . T h i s s i tua t ion i sr e levan tt oB aya rd 's 1 977 a na ly s i so ft h eN on N ok T ha b u r ia lv e s se l sa l r e ady d i scus sed a bove ,b ecau se h i sc r i te r ia u sed i nd ef in ing v e s se lt y pe sd id n o ti n c lude t empe r . T hu sh i st y pe 1v e s se l sc on ta ined e i the rs and o rr i ce c haf . G iven t h ep r imacy a f o rded p o t te ry f o r" e s tab l i sh ing r e la t ion sh ip s a nd r e la t ive c h rono log ie s i nt h ep o s t Hoab inh ian" ( 1 977 :59 ) , t h i s om i s s ion i ss u rpr i s ing . I tc ou ld a l so b e c en t ra l t ot h e a na ly s i s a s , a cco rd ing t oB aya rd , t h e re i ss t rong e v idence f o r as i ng le c e ram ic t r ad i t ion t h roughou tt h eN on N ok T ha s equence . T ab le 2 . 1 b e low s e t s o u t t empe r t y pe s p rev iou s ly i d en t if ied i nT ha i land . A cco rd ing t o B aya rd ( 1977 ) , N on Non T ha E a r ly P e r iod w a r e s w e re t empe red s o le ly w i th s a nd . B y t h e L a te P e r iod 5 0% o ft h e p o t te ry w a s c haf ft empe red . I n v i ew o fp o t te r s ' c on se rv a t i sm w i th r ega rd t ot empe ru se ( Shepa rd 1 956 ) , i ts e em su n l ik e ly t h a tt wo s epa ra te t empe rt y pe sw ou ld b ec oncur r en t ly u t i l ized w i th in ac e ram ic i ndu s t ry o ft h i sn a tu re . E v idence s e to u ti nf o l low ing c hap t e r sw i l l s how t h a tr i ce t empe red w a re sf o l lowed t h e b l eb t empe rt r ad i t ion a tN on C ha i , B an C h iang Wan ,B an N aD i ,B an Muang P h ruk a nd N on K ho N o i . B o th t empe r sa r ee v iden t t h roughou tt h eS akon N akhon B a s in s i te ss u rveyed b yK i jngam e r .a l . ( 1 980 ) . R ice a nd /o rr i ce a s soc ia ted t empe r sa ppea rt ob eg ene ra l ly l a te i nt h i sa r ea . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t as im i la rs i tua t ion p reva i led a tN on N ok T ha . B ay a rd ' sa s se r t ion t h a tt h en ew t empe rt y pe sp robab ly i n d ica te i n c rea sed e x te r na lc on tac t a nd " movemen te i the ro fv e sse l so rn on loca lp o t te r s" ( 1977 :82 ) ,a ppea r st ol e ave o u tt h ep o s s i b i l i ty o f am a jo rc u l tu ra lc hange . C on t inu i t ie si nt h ea s soc ia t ion o ft empe r ,f o rm a nd s u r f ace t r ea tmen tw e r e a c t ive ly s ough t ( Bay a rd 1 977 :80 ) . B ecaus e n of une ra ry w a re c on ta ined c haf f o r" sand -and -chaf f " ,a nd t h ese t empe r sa r ec o r re la ted w i th p l a in w a re s ,t h el a t te ra r ep r esumed t or e p r e sen td ome s t ic p o t te ry ( Baya rd 1 977 :8 1 ) . B u r ia lv e s se ld e scr ip t ion s ,h owev e r ,i n c lude t y pe st h a tc on ta in t h e se t empe rs pec ie s . F o re xamp le t y pe s 1 E , 1C , a nd 1 V c on ta in c haf f t empe r( Baya rd 1 977 :65 -72 ) . B aya rd l a te r mod if ie st h i ss t ance b yd i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween w ha t a r en ow t e rmed " genu ine" " C" a nd " L" v e sse l s ,a nd " r a the rc r ude i m i ta t ion s" ( 1 984 :114 ) . T he f o rme ra r et empe red w i th " sand -and s i l ic if ied -r ice -chaf f " ,t h el a t te rw i th s and . T he se " C" a nd " L" v e s se l s a r eh e ld t or ef lec t" two d i s t inc t af i l ia t ive g roup si nN on N ok T ha P ha se s oc ie ty" ( Bay a rd 1 984 :105 ) . Ma jo rc hange s i nf une r ary w ea l th a tt h ee nd o ft h e Non N ok T ha P ha se " cou ld h av eb een d ue t o at a keove ro ft h el o ca la u tho r i ty b y al a rge ra nd mo re c omp lex r eg iona l e n t i ty" ( Baya rd 1 984 :116 ) . P e t rog raph ic e xam ina t ion o fp o t te ry f ab r ic si ns uch s t ud ie ss e em sw o r thy o fc on s ide ra t ion . S uch a n a s se s smen to ft h eN on Nok T ha f une r a ry v e s se l sc ou ld h e lp d ef ine t h e s t ra t ig raphy . T he s i te l a you tm ay i n vo lve a ni n i t ia lc o re a r ea ,r e p re sen t ing t h ef i r s tc eme te ry p ha se ,f o l lowed

2 .6 . S TYLE ANALYSIS AND F ABR IC ANALYS IS

2 1

b y s ub sequen tp e r iphe ra l s equence so fb ur ia l a nd /o ro ccupa t ion p ha se s . S and t empe red p o t t e ry w a sf ound w i th t h ee a r ly b ur ia l s . D if f e r en t ly t empe red p o t te ry may m a rk t h es ub sequen t b u r ia l /occupa t ion p ha se s . Wichakana ( 1 984a ,b ) ,u sed v e s se lr im sf r om B an Muang P h ruk ,N on K ao N o ia nd B an N a D i ,t oc on s t ruc t ab a s ic f r amewo rk f o rt h eU ppe rS ongkh ram V a l ley 's p reh i s tor ic s equence . I n d ef in ing a na t t r ibu te h ef o l lowed t h eg ene ra la pp roa ch u sed b yB ron son ( 1 976 ) . F ou ra t t r ibu te s , r im fo rm ,r im o r if i ce d i ame te ra nd /o rh e igh t ,s u r f a ce d eco ra t ion ,a nd " t he b road c ha rac te r is t ic s" o ff ab r ic sw e r ec on s ide red . R im t y pe sw e r ed ef ined b y as ha red s im i lar i ty o fa l lf ou ra t tr ibu te s . T empe r sw e r ei d en t if ied w i th t h ea i do f ab i nocu la rm ic ro scope . N ine t een t empe rg roups w e re r e cogn i sed ,n ine e xc lu s ive t oN on K ao N o i . T he N on K ao No ir im a s semb lage i sd i s t inc tf r om e i the rB an N aD io rB an Muang P h ruk . A tB an N aD i , ad rama t ic c hange i nt h ec ommon t y pe so ccu r r ed a tt h el e ve l5 / 6i n ter f ace . T h i s c o inc ided w i th am a rked i n c rea se i nr im t y pe s . I n a dd i t ion , m any o ft h e se l a t te r r im s p a ra l le lr im t y pe s f r om t h eb a sa l l a ye ro fB an Muang P hruk . S ome B an N aD ir im s p a ra l le l t y pe sf r om N on C ha ii nt h eU ppe rC h iV a l ley ( Ru tn in 1 979 ) . T h in s e c t ion so fW ichakana 's r im t y pe sh ave b een p repa red b yt h ew r i te ra nd p e t rog raph ic d e sc r ip t ions o fe a ch a r es umma r ized i na ppend ix o ne . C han t a ra t iy ak a rn ( 1 984 ) u nde r took as im i la rs t udy t ot h a to u t l ined a bove f o rW ichakana . T h i si n vo lved p o t te ry e xcava ted a tB an C h iang H ian , al a rge M idd le C h i V a l ley s i te , a nd t h e r e la ted b u t s ma l le r s i tes o fB an K ho N o i a nd N on N o i . O ne o b jec t ive w a s t od eve lop ar e g iona lc h rono logy b a sed o np o t te ry t y po logy . A s w i th Wichakana 's s t udy , t empe r , r im fo rm , d eco r a t ion a nd s i ze a r e empha s ized . R im fo rm ss im i la rt ot ho se f r om N on C ha i ,a nd N on D ua i nR o iE tP rov ince ( H igham 1 977 ) , w e re n o ted .Th i si sr ef lec ted i nt h et y po log ica ln omenc la : u re . B an C h iang han b ody she rd s w e r e a l so s amp led , a nd am a jo rc hange n o ted i nl e ve l 8 ( c . 6 00 B .C . ) . T h i si n vo lved t h es ub s tan t ia lr ep lacemen to fp r ev iou s ly a bundan t" r ed o n b uf f p a in ted w a re s" b yp add le i mp re s sed p o t te ry . Wa re sr em in i scen to f" Ph ima i B lack" ( So lhe im a nd Ay re s 1 979 ) ,a nd " Om K aeo" ( P reecha a nd P uka jo rn 1 976 ) ,a nd ama rked d eve lopmen to f n ew t y pe so ccu r red f r om l e v e l s5 / 6 ( c . 0A .D . ) . T h in s e c t ion so ft h e se w a r e sh ave a l so b een p repa red a nd e xam ined p e t rog raph ica l ly b yt h ea u tho r . T he r e su l t sa r es ummar ized i nc hap te r e i gh t( t ab le 8 . 4 ) . A cco rd ing t oR u tn in ( 1 979 ) ,p o t te ry f r om t h el a rge M idd le C h i s i te o fN on C ha i w a s a l mo s te n t i re ly t empe r ed w i th as i ng le t empe r s pec ie s . D e scr ibed a sc l ay , s a nd a nd c haf f , t h i s t empe ri si d en t if ied w i th 8 8 .4% o ft h er im she rd sa nd 8 2 .3% o ft h eb ody s he rd s . Ap e t rog r aph ic c on s ide ra t ion o ft h i s ma te r ia li ss e to u ti na ppend ix o ne a nd c hap te re i gh t( t ab le 8 . 5 ) . T ab le 2 . 1 s e t so u ti nc h rono log ica lo rde rt empe rs pec ie sd ocumen ted b yv ar iou sw o rke r so n ma t er ia lf r om s e ve ra lT ha ip r eh i s to r ic s i te s . I nt h e l i gh to ft h eo b jec t ive so u t l ined a bove , a nd d i scu s sed f u r the ri nc hap te rt h ree ,c au t ion n eed s t ob ee xe r c i sed w hen a s se s s ing d i s t r ibu t ion s o f t empe r s pec ie s i d en t if i ed a s a t t r ibu te s f o r e s sen t ia l ly s t y l i s t ic a na ly se s . C a tego r ie s s uch a s s and , f i b re , g rog a nd c r u shed p o t she rd s , h oweve r , h e lp i d en t ify b road t empe rc a tego r ie s . H ence s uch i n fo rma t ion c ou ld p rov ide i mpo r tan tp r ima f ac ie e v idence o fr eg iona lv a r ia t ion s a nd /o rt empo ra lc hange si nc e ram ic t e chno log ie s .

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CHAPTER 2 . A REV IE W OF P REV IOUS S TUD IES

TABLE 2 . 1 : P r eh i s to r ic t empe r sp r ev iou s ly i d en t if ied i nT ha i land . C h rono logy T empe r

S i te

K hok C ha roen

P h ima i

P e r iod 1 g ran i t ic r ock f r agmen t s -f a b r ic g rp 6 e r iod s2 / 3 S and , (p robab ly w ea the red v o lcan ic s ) -f a b r ic g rp 1 P P e r iod 4 G rog ,( c on ta in ing f a b r ic 1ma te r ia l ) -f a b r ic g rp 2 T am yae f i ne s and P h ima i r i ce c haf f e a r l y h i s to r ic f i ne t oc oa r se s a nd

m ine ra ld om inan t

P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se

N on C ha i

c l ay , s and a nd c haf f

t h roughou t

R o iE ts i te s : N on Dua

f i b re 6 2% ,c l ay 3 8%

P ha se 1

B oP han K han D on T aphan

f i b re 6 8% ,c l ay 2 3% , s a nd 8% f i b re 9 9% f i b re 9 9%

P ha se 2 P ha se 2 P ha se 2

N on D ua B oP han K han

f i b re 3 1% ,c l ay 4 8% , s a nd 1 9% f i b re 8 7%

P ha se 3 P ha se 3

D on T aphan

f i b re 9 3%

P ha se 3

N on N ok T ha

s and 9 2% s and 6 7% ,c haf f2 6% s and 5 0% ,c haf f5 0%

E a r ly P e r iod M idd le P e r iod L a te P e r iod

C han sen

m ine ra ld om inan t v ege tab le v e ry c ommon v ege tab le d om inan t v ege tab le d om inan t ' v ege tab le v e ry c ommon

1 2 3 4 5 6

( No te : t h ep e r iod d e s igna t ion sf o rN on N ok T ha a r et h o se g i ven b yB aya rd ( 1977 ) . T he se w e r el a te r( 1984 :88 ) c hanged t ot h eP hu W iang P ha se ( w i th a s sumed i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion 3 000 2 600 B .C . ) , N on N ok T ha P ha se ( l a te r 3 rd m i l len ium t ob e tween 5 00 B .C .and 2 00 A .D . ) , a nd a f te r ah i a tu s t h e -

" pa rah i s to r ic" Don S awan P ha se ) . D a ta f r om Wa t son e ta l . 1 982 f o rK hok C ha roen , We lch ( 1983 ) f o rP h ima i , B ron son ( 1976 ) f o r C hansen , R u tn in ( 1 979 )f o rN on C ha i ,H igham ( 1977 )f o rt h eR o iE ts i te sa nd B aya rd ( 1977 ) f o rN on N ok T ha . I ne ach c a se t h ed om inan tt empe ri sg i ven , a nd p e rcen t a ge sr ounded t ot h en ea re s tn umbe r . T he l o ca t ion so ft h e se s i te sa r es e to u t i nf i gu re 2 . 1

2 . 7

S ummary

T h i sc hap te rh a sr e v iewed t h ep r inc ipa ls t ud ie si n to p reh i s to r ic c e r am ic sp rev iou s ly u nde r taken i nT ha i land . S ev e ra lw e re om i t ted e i the rb ecau se t h ey r ep r e sen tf u r the re xamp le so fa na ly t ica l m e thod s a l r eady d i scu s sed i nd e ta i l , s u ch a sH igham 's ( 1 977 ) R o i E tr e po r t s , w h ich c l o se ly f o l low B aya rd 's a pp roa ch , o rb ecau se t h ey a r e t oo g ene ra l o rp e r iphe ra l ( f o re xamp le H a s t i n g s 1 982 , Ma r sh 1 971 ; Mou re r 1 977 , S chauf f le r 1 976 , V a l l ib l io tama 1 984 , P uk a jo rn 1 984 ,

2 .7 . SU M MARY

2 3

a nd Wong 1 982 ) . O the rw o rk h a s b een s upe r ceded b y s ub sequen t s t ud ie s ( f o re xamp le V an E s t er ik 1 973 ) . P o t te ry f r om K hok C ha roen w a su sed b y Ho ( 1984 ) ,f o ri n te r -s i te c ompar i son s . T he f a b r ic g roup si d en t if ied b yF r ee s tone a r el i nk ed t op o t te ry f o rm s . D eco ra t ion a nd s hape , h oweve r ,a r eg i ven p r imacy . T he i mpo r tance a t ta ched i n t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e se s t ud ie s t o t h e c oncep t a nd a na ly t ica l v a l id i ty o f" a t t r ibu te s" ,a sd ef ined b yE u ropean a nd Ame r ican t h eo r i s t s ,i sc en t ra lt oa nu nde r s t and ing o ft h e i rg ene ra la pp roa ch ,t h ee xcep t ion so u t l ined a bove a s ide . We h ave s e en t h a tt h i s c oncep tw a se x tended n o to n ly t oa r te f ac t sb u tt oc u l tu r e sa nd c u l tu ra l g roups . T hu s , i nt h e i r e ndeavou rt od e sc r ibe a nd e xp la in s oc io -cu l tu r a ls im i lar i t ie sa nd d if e rences , ad i sp ropo r t ion a t e a nd p o ten t ia l ly m i s lead ing e mpha s i s h a s b een p l aced b y t h e ma jo r i ty o fe a r l ie r w o rk e r s o nc e ram ic s t y le s . T h i si si ns p i te o fe t hnog raph ic e v idence t h a tp o t te r si m i ta te e xo t ic s t y le s ( So lhe im 1 964 ) . S uch i n fo rma t ion d emon s t ra t e st h ef i ck le n a tu re o ff a sh ion a nd i t sp owe r fu l i nf luence o na r t ef ac ts t y le . I n t h i s r epo r t w ç w i l l e mpha s i se t e chno log ica l a na ly s i s a nd p l ace i mpo r tance o n n on s oc io log ica l , a sw e l la ss oc io log i ca l ,i nf luence so nc e ram ic i ndu s t r ie si n Nor thea s tT ha i land . T he f o rmu la " fo rm p lu sf ab r ic" ( Hu l then 1 974 ,P eacock p e r s .comm . ) ,b es td e sc r ibe st h ec on c ep to f ac e r am ic " t ype" u sed h e re . R a the rt h an ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o fd eco ra t ion o r mo r p ho logy , t h e ma te r ia l o fw h ich p o t te ry i sc ompo sed , i t s f a b r ic , w i l l n o t o n ly b e e mpha s ized b u tg i ven p r imacy .

2 4

CHAPTER 2 . A REV IE W OF P REV IOUS STUD IES

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F IGURE 2 . 1 : THE D ISTR IBUT ION OF S ITES WITH RECORDED TE MPER S PEC IES

2 5

Chap ter 3 Ob jec t ive sa nd me thod s 3 . 1

Ob jec t ives

T he o b je c to ft h i sr epo r ti st oi lum ina te t h ep reh i s to ry o f No r thea s tT ha i land t h rough a na na l y s i s o fc e r am ic s f r om B an N aD i a nd r e la ted s i te s w i th in t h e S akon N akhon B a s in a nd t h e u ppe rC h ia nd Mun V a l ley s . We h ave n o ted i nc hap te ro ne t h a tt h e se s i te sw e re e xam ined s o a st of i l l al a cuna i ne v idence r ega rd ing c l a im sf o re a r ly me ta l lu rgy . B an N aD iw a sc ho sen f o r e xcav a t ion b ecau se i tl a yc l o se t oB an C h iang ,o ne o ft h ep o s tu la ted v e ry e a r ly s i te sc on ta in i ng m e ta l ,a nd b ecau se i to ccup ied a ne nv i ronmen ta ll o ca t ion s h a red w i th many s u rvey ed s i te s . T e s te xcava t ion s i nd ica ted am a te r ia lc u l tu r e w h ich i n c luded b ronze a nd i r on . S eve ra l mo re d i s tan ts i te sw i l lb ec on s ide red w he r et h ey p rov ide b ackg round d a ta o fr e levance t ot h ed eve l o pmen t sd ocumen ted f o rt h eS akon N akhon B a s in . I n c lu s ion o ft h e se a dd i t iona l s i tes a s s i s t s t h et h eo re t ica l mode lo u t l ined b e low b yb roaden ing t h e s ca le o ft h ei nqu i ry . T he p o ten t ia lo f p e t rog raph ic a na ly s is o fp o t t e ry i sd ocumen ted w i th r e f e rence t ot h ew o rk o fS hepa rd ( 1936 , 1 942 , 1 956 , 1 965 )i nt h eR io G r ande . I ne s sence , S hepa rd a pp l ied e s tab l i shed g eo log ica l a nd s t a t i s t ica l me thod s t op reh i s to r ic c e r am ic t e chno logy a sr ev ea led b ya r cha eo log ica ls u r vey sa nd e xcava t ion si nt h eR io G r ande r eg ion . T he r e su l tw a s , a cco rd ing t oK idde r ," no to n ly av a luab le c on t r ibu t ion t oR io G rande p reh i s to ry b u ta ne xpo s i t ion ,b yw ha tm igh tb ec a l led t h ec a se s y s tem ,o ft h er o le o fc e ram ic t e chno logy i na r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch" ( K idde r 1 942 : i i ) . T h i sa s se s smen tw a sl a te rd en ied b y S hepa rd ( 1965 :62 -63 )w hen s h ea r gued t h a t" Seve ra ld i s t inc tc i rcum s tance sf avo red t h et e ch n o log ica l s t udy o fP eco s p o t te ry" . T he f i r s ti n c luded t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween a r chaeo log i s t a nd a na ly s t wh ich m ean tt h a tt h e" a r chaeo log ica lb a ckg round" ," s ty l i s t ic f e a tu r e sa nd r e la t ive d a t ing o ft h e t y pe s" w e r e k nown f r om t h e o u t se t" and t h roughou t t h e s t udy t h e re w e re f r e q uen to ppo r tun i t ie sf o re xchange o fi n fo rma t ion a nd d i scu s s ion w i th D r .K idde r . S econd , t h e h i s to ry o ft h e w a r e w a s e xcep t iona l b ecau se i t s u n ique d eco r a t ive t e chn ique r equ i red al e ad o re t h a tw a sr e s t r ic ted i no ccu r rence . T h i rd ,t h eg eo log ica ld i ve r s i ty o ft h er eg ion f r om w h ich t h ep o t t e r so b t a ined c l ay s ,n onp ia s t ic s ,a nd p igmen t sg r ea t ly f a c i l i ta ted t h el o ca t ion o fs ou r ce s o rs ou r ce a r ea so ft h e se c e ram ic m a te r ia l s . C on sequen t ly ,t h i si n ve s t iga t ion w a s as pec if i c ,n o t ag ene r a l , t e s t" . Whe the ro rn o tS hepa rd ' sP e co si n ve s t iga t ion w a s ac a se s t udy w i th g ene ra l a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion ,i sc en t ra lt ot h eo b jec t ive sa nd a lm so ft h i sr epo r t . I ti s aq ue s t ion t h a tw i l lb et e s ted i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r s . S hepa rd 's r e sea r ch w a su nde r t aken a ga in s t ab ackg round o f as e r ie so f mee t ing s , c onf e r e nce s a nd p ape r s d e s igned t oc ope w i th a n e no rmous c o rpus o fc e r am ic d a ta d e r ived f r om b o th s u r f ace s u rveys a nd e x cava ted m a te r ia l . T he c o l lec t ion o ft h i s m a te r ia l b egan i n 1 9 10

2 6

CHAPTER 3 . OBJECT IVES AND METHODS

a nd b u i l tu p t ow ha tw a sr e f e r red t oa tt h eP eabody Museum a s a" l ib r ary o fs he rd s" ( K idde r 1 936 :xx iv ) . B y 1 936 ,t h ec omb ined a s semb lage i nt h ree S ou thwe s te rn i n s t i tu t ions r ep r e sen ted ac o l lec t ion o f s he rd s f r om a bou t 1 2 ,000 s i t e s . F u r the r d a ta w e re a ccumu la t ing f r om o the r N o r th Amer ican s i te s ( Ph i l l ip se ta l . 1 951 ) . E v en b efo re s h e rd s u rvey ing w a su nde r taken o n as e r iou s b a s i st h en eed " fo r au n ifo rm n omenc la tu re o fp o t te ry t y pe " (K idde r ,o p . c i t . ) w a s c on s ide red e s sen t ia l . T he 1 927 P e co s C onf e r ence r e su l ted i ng ene ra la g r eemen tt h a tp ar t ic i p an t ss hou ld c on s ide r" ab i nom ina lw a r e -n omenc la tu re ; t h ef i r s tn ame t ob ei nd ica t ive o ft h e l o ca l i ty o fh ighe s td eve lopmen t ,t h es e cond at e chn ica l ly d e s c r ip t ive t e rm ;f o re xamp le ,S iky a t k i y e l low , M imb re s b l a ck -on -wh i te , U ppe rR io G rande i n c i sed , e t c ." ( K idde r 1 936 :xxv ) . F u r the rd i scu s s ion f o l lowed a tt h e 1 929 P eco sC onf e rence ,a nd t h es y s tem w a sa dop ted a tt h e 1 930 G lobe C onf e rence . A t temp t st oc o r r e la te c e r am ic c a t ego r ie sw i th b io log ica lt a xonom ie s w e re q u ick ly d i scoun ted a su n tenab le . I tw a s , h oweve r , f e l t t h a t " sound c l a s s i f ica t ions a nd v a l id d educ t ion se ven tua l ly w i l l eme rge" ( K idde r 1 936 :xxv i ) . C la s s if ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s w a sc ons ide red b y K idde rt ob et h ed oma in o f t h e " gene ra l a r chaeo log i s t" w ho , h oweve r , " i s n o t c ompe ten t t oc a r ry o u t t h e d e ta i led a nd h igh ly s pec ia l ized s t ud ie s" e s sen t ia lt ou nde r s tand ing f ab r ic c ompo s i t ion o rf i r ing c ond i t ions . " Al i t t le l e arn ing i s ,i nc e ram ic s , av e ry d ange rou st h ing" ( K idde r 1 936 :xxv i i i ) .

3 .2

D iscuss ion

T en s ion o ve rt h ep rope rd oma in o ft h e" gene ra l" a r chaeo log i s tl i e sa tt h eh ea r to f many o ft h e d eba te si n to a r chaeo log ica lp r ac t ice a nd i t ss c ien t if i cs t a tu s . A r chaeo logy i s mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry , i n vo lv ing b o th t h e n a tu ra l a nd s oc ia l s c ience s . T he n a tu ra l s c ience s s ome t ime s i n vo lve d a ta a s soc ia ted w i th p henomena t h a tb ehav ei n ap red ic tab le ma nne r( Poppe r1 963 :340 ) ,f o re xam p i et h es un 's mo t ion . I t sa ppar en t movemen td oe sn o tp rov ide a nu nequ ivoca le xp lana t ion o f i t st r ue mo t ion o rr o le i nt h es o la rs y s tem , h oweve r . T h i sr e qu i r e sd ef in i t ion a nd e xp lana t ion . S uch e xp lana t ion s a r e o f ten b e s t a r t icu la ted a nd s imp l if ied w i th t h e a i do f amode l . S c ien t i f i c e xp lana t ion sa sd i scove r ie sa r e" t he e xp lana t ion o ft h ek nown b yt h eu nknown" ( Poppe r 1 972 :191 ) . S uch d ef in i t ion sa nd e xp lana t ion sa r es ough tb yr e sear che r si na r chaeo logy . T he r i gou ra t ta ched t o" s c ien t if i c" e xp lana t ion sv a r ie sa c co rd ing t ot h ek ind o fd a ta u nde r c on s ide ra t ion . P hy s ica lp henomena , t h e s ub jec tm a t t e ro ft h e n a tu ra l s c ience s , o nce d ef ined a nd e xp la ined ,e xh ib i tp rope r t ie sw h ich a r ep r ed ic tab le i nt e rm so ft h e se d ef in i t ion sa nd e xp la n a t ion s . S uch i n te rp r e ta t ion sc an b er e l ied u pon b ecau se t h ey c o r r e spond t ot h er u le sc on ta ined w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o ft h eu n if i ed t h eo ry o r" pa rad igm" ( Kuhn 1 962 )t h ey a r e emb raced b y . O n ly i ft h eu n if ied t h eo ry o rp a rad igm i so ve r tu rned i st h i sp r ed ic t ib i l i ty d e s t roy ed . F o re ach s uch d e s t ruc t ion an ew u n if ied t h eo ry o rp a rad igm i sc r ea ted ( Kuhn 1 96 1 :348 -365 , 1 962 :67 1 05 ) . H ence ,g iven g ene ra l a g reemen ta st ot h et h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk w i th in wh ich r e sea r ch i su nde r taken , a nd t h er u le sw h ich d ef ine a nd o rde rt h i sf r amewo rk ,p r ed ic t ions c an b e made w i th c onf idence . B yc on t ra s t , many e xp lana t ion si nt h e s oc ia l s c ience s d on o te n joy s uch p red ic t iv e c onf i d ence . T hey c anno te xp la in n o rp red ic tc onc lu s ive ly e i the ru nknown p a s t ,o rf u tu r eh i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t s . Two i mpo r tan tf a c to r sc on t r ibu te t ot h i sl a ck o fe xp lana to ry p owe r .F i r s t ,s oc i e t ie sa r ei nhe ren t ly i n as t a te o fc on s tan tt r ans fo rma t ion ( R en f rew a nd C ooke 1 979 ) . S econd , t h e se d eve lopmen t s a r ei nt h e ma in n o tr e pe t i t ive ( Poppe r 1 963 :340 ) . I nc on t ra s t ,t h e s o la r s y s tem type c yc l ica l e ven t s a r e d e te rm ined b y p hy s ica l l aw s . T he i r e xp lana t ion may h ave e nhanced t h ep r ed ic t ive r e spec tab i l i ty o ft h en a tu r a ls c ience s . S oc ie t ie s ,h oweve r ,a r en o tg ove rned o rc on s tan t ly c on s t ra ined b yp hy s ica ll aw s . H uman s

3 .2 . D ISCUSS ION

2 7

may a c tt o mod i fy t h e i rp hy s i ca la nd /o rs oc ia le nv i ronmen t . T he i ra c t ion sa r em e r e ly s ub jec t i ve ly a pp ropr ia te h owever , a nd h i s to r ica l ly , e ven i fe f ec t ive , o n ly mo r e -o r le s sr a t iona l . A s ac on sequence , t y p ica l s oc ia l s c ience mode l s n eed t oi n co rpo ra te " t he r a t iona l i ty p r inc ip le" ( Poppe r 1 967 ) ,w h ich w eak en st h e i re xp lana to ry p owe r . T h i sp r inc ip le e f ec t ive ly d en ie st h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fi nd iv idua l s o ra gen t sa c t ing a dequa te ly o ra pp rop r ia te ly i na ny g i ven s i tua t ion . T o d o s o w ou ld r equ i re p e r f ec t k now ledge o fa l l p o s s ib le v ar iab le s i n vo lved i na l l p o s s ib le i n s tance so re ven t s . T hu sa c to r sa r eh i s to r ica l ly i n adequa te f o ra ny g i ven s i tua t ion a st h ey s ee i t( Poppe r 1 967 :9 ) . T he re fo r e , t ou nde r s tand t h e i ri n adequa te a c t ion s , w e mu s t" r econ s t ruc t aw ide rv i ew o ft h e s i tua t ion t h an t h e i ro wn " (Poppe r 1 967 :9 ) . T he s oc ia l s c ience a pp roach i nvo lve sc on s t ruc t ion o f mode l sw h ich i n c lude t y p ica ls i tua t ion so rc ond i t ion s . T hey a r eo ve r s imp l if i ca t ion st h a t om i tm uch a nd o ve r -empha s ize much ( Poppe r1 967 :7 ) . I no rde rt oa n ima te s uch mode l sw em u s ta ccep tt h et r u th o ft h er a t iona l i ty p r inc ip le b u tn eed n o ta l low i t su nce r t a in ty t od e s t roy o u r mode l s b ecau se i t s a dop t ion c on s ide rab ly r educe st h e i ra rb i t r a r ine s s . I t a s sum e st h ea dequacy o fh uman a c t ion st op rob lem -s i tua t ion sa sw es e et h em . S uch p rob lem s a r en o te ncoun t e r ed i nt h en a tu ra ls c ience s . T he t h eo r e t ica l /me thodo log ica ld i cho tomy b e tween t h en a tu ra la nd s oc ia ls c ience sp l ace s c on s t ra in t so na r chaeo log ica lp rob lem sw he r eb o th a r ei n te r r e la ted . T h i sa pp l ie sw he the rw e f avou r ap roce s sua l o rh i s to r ica l a pp roa ch . Whe r e p hy s ica l l aw s a r e i n vo lved , c on s ide r ab le a na ly t ica lr i gou rc an b ee xpec ted . C onve r se ly , s oc io log ica ld a ta r equ i re ad if e r en ta pp roach , a nd ,w i thou tt h eu t i l i ty o fa pp rop r ia te mode l s ,a r es e r iou s ly w eakened b yt h a t om i ss ion . T he se p rob lem s , w h i le g ene ra l i na r chaeo logy , a r e e ncap su la ted i nc e r am ic s t ud ie s . A s P ea cock ( 1982 :173 )o b se rved " Ce ram ic s t ud ie sa r e am ic roco sm o ft h ed i sc ip l ine a s aw ho le : t h ef o rm a nd d eco ra t ion o fv es se l s c an b e as ub jec t f o r t h e a r t h i s to r ian , g r af f i t i a nd s t amps f o r t h e e p ig raph i s t ,w h i le t h ef ab r ic c an b ea na ly sed b yt h eg eo log i s t ,c hem i s to rp hys ic i s t" . We may n ow r e tur n t ot h e e n igma t h rown u p b y S hepa rd 's d en ia l o f t h e p e t rog raph ic me thod 's u n ive r sa l i ty . S he a r gued t h a ts pec ia lc i r cum s tance sw e re e n joyed i nt h eP eco ss t udy , b ecau se t h e i n ve s t iga t ion i n vo lved u nequ ivoca l e v idence . S ign if i can t ly , s uch c i r cum s tance s a r ea na logou st ot ho se embod ied b yt h en a tu ra ls c ience 's " pa rad igm" . A st h eR io G rande g e o logy w a sv ar iab le ,a nd c l ea r ly d iv ided i n to m ine r a log ica l ly d i sc re te z one s ,t h es ou r ce so fr aw ma t e r ia l s w e re r e ad i ly d e te rm ined . T h i s e v idence d id n o t , h oweve r , i d en t ify t h ep roduc t ion s i te s . T he se o we t h e i ro r ig ins t o ac omb ina t ion o fp hy s ica la nd s oc ia lf a c to r s . T o e x t ra c t m ean ingf u l i n fo rma t iom f r om r aw p hy s ica l d a ta , b ackg round o r" con tex tua l" a r cha eo log ica li n fo rma t ion i sn eeded . A sS hepa rd ( 1965 :83 -84 )o b se rv ed ,w i thou tt h i si n fo r ma t ion ," The a na ly t ica ld a ta w ou ld h ave s a id n o th ing mo re t om et h an t h a tp o t te ry f r om P eco s c on ta ined an umbe ro fk ind so ft empe r ing m a te r ia l" . S oc io log ica l f a c to r s h e lped d e te rm ine whe r e t h e p o t te ry w a s made . S hepa rd 's r aw d a ta c omp r i sed ma te r ia l a menab le t oa na ly s i s a nd i n te rp r e t a t ion w i th in t h er ub r ic o fe s tab l i shed p hy s ica ll aw s . C omp le te c onf idence i nt h e p e t rog raph ic a nd c hem ica l r e su l t s i st h u s w a r ran ted . S hepa rd 's t r ea tmen to ft h e se , h oweve r , a nd t h ea rchaeo log ica ld a ta c omb ined ,i n vo lved t h eu se o f amode lt y p ica l ly emp loyed i nt h e s oc ia l s c ience s . T he r a t iona l i ty p r inc ip le i si mp l ic i ti nt h i s mode l . Un fo r tuna te ly t h ec l ea rg eo log ica lv a r iab i l i ty o ft h e R io G rande i sn o tu b iqu i tou s . O f ten t h e s t udy a r ea w i l l c on ta in g eo log ica l ly mo re -o r le s s h omogeneou s t e r ra in . T he se a r e d if i c u l t , o cca s iona l ly i mpo s s ib le , t od if e ren t ia te w i th s t anda rd m e thod s . A l te rna t ive ly t h ed a ta may r equ i re e xce s s ive ly l a bo r iou sa nd /o re xpen s ive a na ly t ica lt e chn ique s . I nt h ef o rme rc a se s t h em e thodo logy i so f ten l a be l led a si n adequa te ( Ma t son 1 951 :273 -275 , S hepa rd 1 965 :62 -63 , P ea cock 1 970 :382 -383 ) . O the r w o rk e r s a r gue t h a t , b ecau se o ft h e l a t te rp rob lem s , t h e p e t r og raph ic / techno log ica l a pp roach g ene ra l ly s hou ld b er e jec ted a st ime c on sum ing ,e xpen s ive

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CHAPTER 3 . OBJECT IVES AND METHODS

a nd i n adequa te ( Ma t son 1 951 :112 ) . I dea l ly w ew ou ld p re f e rt h em e thod t ob eu n ive r sa l ly a pp l icab le . Am a jo rd if i cu l ty may b e t h a ti nt h ei d en t if i ca t ion o fr aw ma ter ia ls ou r ce sw ea r ed ea l ing w i th s i ngu la re ven t s ,w he r ea s t h eo ve ra l la im o fa r chaeo log ica la na ly s i si st h ee xp lana t ion o fc e r ta in k ind so rt y pe so fe v en t s . P oppe r( 1967 :2 )n o te st h a t" t he d if e r ence b e tween t h e se t wo k i nd so fp rob lem i st h a tt h ef i r s t c an b e s o lved w i thou tc on s t ruc t ing am od e l , w h i le t h e s e cond i s mo s te a s i ly s o lved w i th t h e h e lp o fc on s t ruc t ing amod e l" ( i ta l ic s P oppe r 's ) . T hu s t h ed if i cu l ty l i e s n o t w i th t h e p e t ro g raph ic me thod b u t i nt h ef ormu la t ion o f am od e la ppropr ia te t ot h e a va i lab l e d a ta ( i ta l ic s m ine ) . T he s ucce s s e n joyed b y p e t rog r aph ic -ba sed t e chno log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s s t em s f r om t h e e xp lana to ry r i gou ra t tached t om e thod si n vo lv ing p hy s ica ll aws . S hepa rd 's P eco s s t udy e p i t om i se s t h i s p o in t . Unequ ivoca l p hy s ica l e v idence a r t icu la ted S hepa rd 's e xp lana to ry mode l . Y e tt h i sc l ar i ty i sn o ta lway s s or ead i ly a t ta ined , e ven i nt h ep hy s ica l s c ience s . I ng eo log ica l s t ra t if i ca t ion s t ud ies ,f o re xamp le ,t h el aw o fs upe rpo s i t ion c anno ta u toma t ica l ly b ea s sum ed . T hu st h es t ra t ig r aph ie y oung ing d i rec t ion i so f ten u nc lear a nd t o p to -bo t tom i n f e r ence s may b e i n v a l id . Many i n s tance so ft e c ton ica l ly o ve r tu rned b ed sh ave b een d ocumen ted w h i ch r equ i r e d e ta i led a na ly s i sf o re xp lana t ion a nd s t ra t ig raph ie c o r r e la t ion ( Dunb a ra nd R odge r s1 957 :112 ) . Two d ev ices a r eo f t en u sed t oo ve r come s uch p rob lem s . T he f i r s ti n vo lve s i n c r ea s ing t h ei n t e n s i ty o rd e ta i l o ft h e s t udy , a nd t h e s e cond i st ow iden i t s s cope . T he se s t ra teg ies w i l l b e a dop ted . R eg ion sc on ta in ing c l ea r ly d if e ren t ia ted g eo log ica la r ea sc an b ee xpec ted t op rov ide p ow e r f u lp r ima f ac ie p e t rog raph ic e v idence . L e s sh e t e rogeneou sr eg ion s may o f t en p rov ide e qu iv o ca l p e t rog raph ic i n fo rma t ion . T h i s may r equ i r e t e s t ing a ga in s to the re v idence o re nhance m en t . P hy s ica l e v idence , h oweve r , i sn o rma l ly e s sen t ia l t oa dequa te i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd e x p l ana t ion s . Y e tp e t rog raph ic i n fo rma t ion d evo id o fa r chaeo log ica l a nd /o rs oc io log ica l b ack g round k now ledge i so fd oub t fu lu se . S im i la r ly ,c e ram ic d a ta l a ck ing p e t rog raph ic d e ta i l sa r e o f t en h igh ly s u spec t , a nd o cca s iona l ly e r roneou s a nd m i s lead ing ( P eacock 1 970 ) . C e ram ic f ab r ic s a r ep o ten t ia l s ou r ce s o fe i the rp hy s ica l e v idence a l one o ri nc omb ina t ion w i th s oc io l og ica l d a ta . B u tc e r am ic f o rm s e ncap su la te e s sen t ia l ly s oc io log ica l i n fo rma t ion o n ly . I ti s a x ioma t ic ,t h e r efo re ,t h a tt h ef o rmu la " f ab r ic -p lu s -f o rm -equa l s type" b ei n va r iab ly a pp l ied i f t h ef u l le s tp o ss ib le i n fo rma t ion i st ob ee x t rac ted f r om c e ram ic a r tef ac t s . S hepa rd a s sumed t h a tt h em e thod w a sa ne s sen t ia lp a r to ft h eP eco si n ve s t iga t ion b ecau se i tc o inc ided w i th t h ec i r cum s tance s . P e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s ,h oweve r ,w a so n ly o ne p a r t( a lbe i t av e ry i mpo r tan to ne ) , i na no ve ra l l mod e lc on s t ruc ted t oi lum ina te t h ep reh i s to r ic c e ram ic p roce sse si n vo lved . I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te i nt h i sr ega rd t h a tw h i le p re sen ted a s" at e s to fp e t r og raph ic a na ly s i s" t h eP eco ss t udy a l so i n vo lved w ha tw a sd e sc r ibed a sa n" un ique d eco r a t ive t e chn ique" S hepa rd ( 1965 :62 -63 ) . C le ar ly , s oc io log ica lf a c to r sa l so p l ayed a ni mpo r tan tr o le . C e r am ic se mbody b o th s oc ia la nd p hy s ica lp henomena . I f ,b ys ome c u l tu ra l ly d e te rm ined f a c to r ,t h eP eco st empe r sh ad b een ,f o re x amp le ,r eg iona l ly u nd if f e r en t ia ted o rgan ic ma te r ia l r a the rt h an r ock ,S hepa rd 's t h e s is c ou ld s t i l lh ave b een v a l ida ted b yt h em ine ra logy a nd c hem i s t ry o ft h ep a r en tb ody a nd t h eg l aze s . Wh i le t h ei n c lu s ion s may h ave b een l e s se a s i ly d ef ined a nd r equ i red amo r ef i ne -g ra ined t r ea tmen t , s uch a sh eavy m ine ra l ( Pea cock 1 967 )o rt e x tu ra l a na ly s i s( S t ree ten 1 982 :123 -134 ) ,t h em e thod w ou ld h ave s t i l lp rov ided s uf i c ien tu se fu ld a ta t oa r t icu la te t h eo ve ra l l mode l . I ns ome i n ve s t iga t ion s ,h oweve r ,p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i sa l one , may f a i l t op rov ide s uf i c ien t d a ta f o r s u ch ar e su l t . Y e t t h i s w eake r p e t rog raph ic i n fo r m a t i on may p rov ide s uf i c ien tb a ckg round i n fo rma t ion f o rv a l id c onc lu s ion s t ob e d rawn w hen a s soc ia ted w i th o t he rp e r t inen ti n fo rma t ion . I nt h ea b sence o fa ny u nequ ivoca le v idence , t h e

3 . 3 . METHODS

2 9

i n teg ra t ion o ft wo o r mo re p i eces o fu nco r robo ra ted i n fo rma t ion i so f ten r ew a rd ing . E qu ivoca l i ni s o la t ion ,t h ey b ecome m u tua l ly s uppo r t ive a nd e xp lana to ry i na s soc ia t ion . T h i si n t e r re la t e dne s s i sa na logou s t og eo log ica l m ine ra l a s soc ia t ion s a s a pp l ied t ot h e d ef in i t ion o fr ock s ( P re s sa nd S i eve r 1 974 :109 -111 ) a nd /o rf a c ie s ( Ma son 1 966 :262 -276 ) . Ad educ t ive e xp lan to ry m ode l , w h ich c on ta in s s eve ra l d i sc re te b u t r e la ted h ypo the se s , n eed n o td emand t h a te ach h ypo the s is b ev a l ida ted . T he e xc lu s ion o fe ach h ypo the s i st h rough ap roce s so fe l im ina t ion i s av a l id m ean so fd educ ing w h ich i sc o r rec t . P rov ided , o fc ou r se , t h a t t h e n umbe r o f s uch h ypo the se s i sn o t i nf in i te . A s w i th a l l s c ien t if i c e xp lana t ion s , t h e mode ls hou ld m ee tt h er equ i r emen to f" exp lana to ry r e levance" ( Hempe l 1 966 :48 ) . I ts hou ld b en on -c i r cu la r ,n on a dh oc a nd i ndependen t ly t e s tab le ( Hempe l 1 966 :28 -32 ) . G iven t h i s ,a nd t h a tt h e mode lh a s av a l id l o g ica ls t ruc tu re ,r e l iab le c onc lu s ion sw i l lr e su l t . C e ram ic ss ome t ime sp l ay ap ivo ta lr o le b e tween e co log ica la nd s oc io log ica lr e la t ion sh ips . Mode l sd e s igned t oi lum ina te t h e se r e la t ion sh ips , t h e refo re , may n eed t oi n c lude ac omp re h en s ive n umbe ro ff a c to r s . E a ch c a se w i l li n vo lve av ar ie ty o fs oc io -p hy s ica lv ar iab le s . T he i r i mpo r tance w i l l d epend u pon t h e s pec ia l , a nd s ome t ime s u n ique , c i r cum s tance s o fe ach i n q u i ry . T hu s , t h e w e igh t a cco rded e a ch v ar iab le may b ec ruc ia l . When u nequ ivoca lp hy s ica l d a ta o ft h eP eco sk ind i se ncoun te red ,h oweve r ,i tw i l ls uf i ce .

3 . 3

Me thods

E l im ina t ive d educ t ion l e nd si t se l ft oa r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic s t ud ie sb ecau se ,w h i le i ti so f ten d if i cu l t , a nd o cca s iona l ly i mpo s s ib le t oi d en t ify t h eo r ig in o fc e ram ic ma te r ia l s , i ti su sua l ly p o s s ib le t oe xc lud ep o ten t ia l a r ea s . T h i sp r inc ip le i s , i n as en se , a r t icu la ted b yn ega t ive e v i d en ce . T yp ica l " i n i t ia l c ond i t ion s" i nc e ram ic s t ud ie s i n vo lve t h ek ind o fl o ca l a nd r eg iona l g eo log i ct e r ra in ,t h es c a le o ft h ei n ve s t iga t ion ,t h ew e igh tg i ven t ot h ev ar iou se l emen t so ft h e d a t aa va i lab le ,b a ckg round o r" con tex tu ra l" i n fo rma t ion o ft h ek ind d i scu s sed a bove , a nd t h e a na ly t ica l me thod s emp loyed . I nc e ram ic s t ud ie s , a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e o r ig in s o fa r chaeo log ica l ly -de r ived ma te r ia l c an b ec ruc ia l . Ac e ram ic a r te f ac t 's p rovenance may b ed educed b yf i r s ta s sum ing t h a ti tw a s made f r om l o ca l ly a va i lab le r aw ma te r ia l" X" .T hu s ,i fa ny g i ven c e ram ic a r te f a c ti sl o ca l ,t h en i tw ou ld b e made o f" X" .H en ce i fi ti sn o tm ade o f" X" i ti st h e refo r en o tl o ca l . When s eve ra l p o s s ib le s our ce se x i s tt h e se c an b ee l im ina ted o ne b yo ne ,u s ing t h es ame p rocedu re ,u n t i lt h e c o r rec tr aw ma te r ia ls ou r ce i si d en t if ied . T h i sk ind o fp rocedu re w a s s e to u t b y B acon ( 1620 ) i nh i sN ovum O rganum . I tb ecame k nown a se l im ina t ive i nduc t ion ( Mu sg rave p e r s .comm . ) . E s sen t ia l ly B acon a r gued t h a t b y e l im ina t ing p o s s ib le c au se so ne b yo ne ,w es ha l lf i na l ly e nd u pw i th o n ly o ne p o s s ib i l i ty w h ich i st h e r eby e s tab l i shed b y t h e w ho le p roce s s a st h e t r ue c ause o fX . O fc ou r se t h e p rocedu re a s sum e s t h a t t h en umbe ro fp o ss ib le c au se s o fa ny th ing ( o ro fp o s s ib le h ypo the se s ) i sf i n i te a nd k nown . F o ro u rp u rpo se s , i ni n s tance s w he re i t may b e i mpo s s ib le t os ugge s t al i ke ly s ou rce , i t may b e u sefu l t oa tl e a s t d e te rm ine t h a t t h e ma te r ia l a n a r te f ac t w a s m ade f r om c ou ld n o tb el o ca l ly d e r ived . I ns uch c a se si ti sn o tn ece s sary t og a in i n s igh ti n to a l lp o s s ib le d e r iva t ion s ,b u tm e r e ly t oe s tab l i sh t h a tt h e ma te r ia lw a sn o tl o ca l . We w ou ld ,h oweve r ,p re f e r a dd i t iona li n fo rma t ion ,e ven o f ag ene ra ln a tu re ,r ega rd ing l i ke ly s ou r ce s . Un fo r tuna te ly ,i nc e ram ic p rovenance s t ud ie s ,a dd i t iona lp rob lem sf a ce u st ot h a ts ugge s ted b yB a con 's m e thod . E l im ina t ion o f ,f o re xamp le ,i g neou sa nd m e tamo rph ic t e r ra in a sp o s s ib le s ou rce r eg ion s may b e aP y r rh ic v i c to ry . We may b e l e f t w i th as ed imen t a ry r eg ion w h ich p re sen t sp rob lem so fj u s ta sg r ea t amagn i tude a st h a tw i th w h ich w ec ommenced . I na dd i t ion ,

3 0

CHAPTER 3 . OBJECT IVES AND METHODS

s e ve ra lm anu f ac tu r ie sc ou ld h ave a va i led t h em se lve so fd if e ren tp o r t ion so fw ha te s sen t ia l ly , i ns t anda rd m ine ra log ica lt e rm s ,i st h es ame c l ay d epo s i t . F u r the rmo re ,s u ch p roduc t ion c ou ld b e s t y l i s t ica l ly u nd if f e ren t ia ted . I n many s t ud ie s t h er e spon se t ot h e se s o r t so fp rob lem s h a s b een t oi n ten s i fy t h e m e thodo log ica l d e ta i l o rt oi n voke f i ne -g ra ined a na ly se s s u ch a sh eavy m ine ra lo rs i ze / tex tu re s t ud ie s( S t ree ten 1 982 ) . We h ave n o ted ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h e se a pp roache s h ave b een c r i t ic i sed a s t oo t ime c on sum ing o re xpen s iv e . Q u i te s o . F o rl a rge g eo log ica l ly u nd if f e ren t ia ted a r ea s ,e conom ic f a c to r s may r u le o u ts uch m e thod s . I nt h e se c a se st h eq ue s t ion t h a tn ow p re sen t si t se lf i s : c an w es a t i s fy b o th t h el og ica la nd t h ep ragma t ic p rob lem st h a tf a ce u s? It h ink w ec an b yt h eu se o fa na pp ropr ia te mode l . T h i s mode li so u t l ined b e low .

3 . 4

The e l im ina t iv ed educ t ion o r" s iev e" mode l

I nt e rm s o fB a con ian e l im ina t ive i nduc t ion , i ft h er e jec t ion o fo u rf i r s t h ypo the se sl e ave s u s w i th ap rob lem o f much t h es ame m agn i tude a st h a tw es t a r ted w i th ,o ne o p t ion i st oe nume ra te af u r the rs e to fh ypo the se s . T h i sp rocedu re c ou ld b er epea ted u n t i lw ed i scove rt h er i gh to ne . F o rf ab r ic inc lu s ive c e r am ic s t ud ie s , t h i sm ean st h ea va i lab le d a ta mu s tb ee nhanced i no rde r t om ak ei t amenab le t ot e s t ing i nt e rm so ft h e n ew h ypo the se s . E ach f a i lu re m ean s w e mu s t p roceed t o ah ighe ro rde ro fi n ve s t iga t ion . E ach s ucceed ing o rde rr equ i r e sa dd i t iona li n pu t so f i n fo rma t ion a nd /o r mo re c omp lex m e thod so fi nqu i ry . T he p roce s st h u sb ecome si n c rea s ing ly mo r e d if i cu l tt of o rmu la te w i th e ach a dd i t iona l s t ep . E ven tua l ly , s ome p rob lem s m ay p rove i n so lub le . T he k ey q ue s t ion i sw he r et od raw t h el i ne b e tween i d ea ls o lu t ion sa nd p ragma t ic r e so lu t ion s . Wh i le w es eek ap e r f ec tv i ew i tmay b e" be t te rt ov i ew t h es c ene t h rough b l u r red v i s ion t h an t oh ave n o tl ook ed a ta l l" ( Hank s 1 972 ) . P y r rh ic v i c to r ie sa r ev i c to r ie sn one the le s s . O u re l im ina t ive d educ t ive mode li n vo lve st e s t ing as e r ie so fr e la ted h ypo the se s . Hypo the s e s u nab le t op rov ide c onc lu s ive e xp lana t ion s a r e p a s sed o ve r u n t i l a l l t h e h ypo the se s h ave b een c on s ide red i nt u rn . I fn one o ft h eh ypo the se si sc o r r ec t ,t h ed a ta a r et h en e nhanced . T h i s a l low st h eh ypo the se st ob er e fo rmu la ted . I ns ome i n s tance s ah ypo the s i si n i t ia l ly n o tv e r if ied w i l lb enef i tf r om t h i s t r ea tmen t a nd b ecome v e r if iab le . S uch s o r t ing i sa na logou s t op a s s ing t h ed a ta t h rough as i ev e . T he t r ea tmen t sa r ed i scu s sed b e low . I ts hou ld b ea ppa ren tf r om t h ea bove d i scu s s ion t h a tt h e mode lp roceed st h rough as e r ie s o fs t ep s . E ach s t ep i n vo lve st h eu se o fs eve ra lh ypo the se s ,s ome o ra l lo fw h ich a r el i ab le t ob e e l im ina ted . T hu s ,i ne f ec t ,e ach s t ep i sa l so l i ab le t oe l im ina t ion . T he c on sequence o f as t ep e l im ina t ion i st h en eed t oa s se s sw he the r" da ta e nhancemen t" i sp rac t icab le . E ach s u cceed ing s t ep e l im ina t ion i nvo lve sf u r the re nhancemen t . D a ta v e r if iab le u s ing c ommonp la ce a na ly t ica l m e thod sa r et e rmed s t andard . C r i t ic s o ft h i s a pp roach may a r gue t h a te nhancemen t p rocedu re s s hou ld c on t inue i nde f i n i te ly u n t i l a l l p o s s ib le h ypo the se s a r e v er if i ed , r a the r t h an r e ly o n a n a ppa r en t ly a r b i t ra ry c e s sa t ion a nd r e t r ea tt ot h e" nega t ive e v idence" p o s i t ion o u t l ined a bov e . Wh i le a tf i r s tg l ance t h i sp ropo s i t ion s e em st oh ave c on s ide rab le a ppea l ,i tw ou ld b ep r uden tt on o te t h a tt h i ss t ra tegy b r ing sw i th i tn og uaran tee t h a ta ny h ypo the se ss ot r ea ted w i l le ven tua l ly i p so f ac to b ecome v e r if i ab le .

3 . 5

Da ta t r ea tmen ta nd " enhancemen t" p rocedure s

C e ram ic a r tef a c t s a r eh e r e a pp roached w i th in t h e r ub r ic t h a t" f ab r ic -p lu s -fo rm -equa l s type" . I n c lu s ion o ft h i sr u le i sa x ioma t ic . T he w e igh ta cco rded e ach e l emen ti se qua l , y e te ach m ay

3 .5 . DATA T REAT MENT AND " ENHANCE MENT-' PROCEDURES

3 1

b e a na ly t ica l ly i ndependen t . O n ly w hen b o th a r e u nde r s tood c an t h e e qua t ion b e r e so lved ( c f .Shepard 1 971 :316 ) . T he d eg ree t ow h ich t h e se e l emen t s c an b e d ef ined a nd e xp la ined v ar ie si na cco rdance w i th t h ea v a i lab le d a ta ,a nd c onc lu s ions s t emm ing f r om a na ly s i so ft h em a r ei na cco rdance w i th t h ep hy s ica l / soc io log ica le xp lana to ry p a rame te r sd i scu s sed a bove . A d e qua te b ackg round k now ledge i se s sen t ia lt ot h eo ve ra l la r t icu la t ion o ft h e mode l . Ad if e ren tb u tr e la ted v i ew o f" t ype" i sd e ta i led b yG a rd in ( 1 980 :62 -134 ) . G a rd in s ugge s t s t h a tp hy s ica l ,g eom e t r ica la nd s em io t ic p rope r t ie sa r ei n t r in s ic ,w h i le t empo ra l ,l o ca t iona la nd f unc t iona lp rope r t ie sa r ee x t r in s ic a t t r ibu t e s( 1 980 :72 ) . G a rd in c ommence sw i th ap rov i s iona l d ef in i t ion o ft y po logy a s" any c l a s s if i ca t ion o f ma te r ia lr ema in su sed a st h eb a s i so fi n f e rence s r e la t ing t of a c t s t h a ta r e n o ti n c luded i nt h ei n i t ia lr ep r e sen ta t ion o ft ho se ma te r ia ls" ( Ga rd in 1 980 :63 ) . T h rough ap roce s s o f" a s y s tema t ic ma tch ing o fi n t r in s ic p rope r t ie s w i th e x t r in s i ca u r ibu te s ," (op .c i t .: 7 6 ) ,t y po log ica lc l a s s if i ca t ion sa r ea ch ieved . A cco rd ing t oG a rd in ,s u ch t y po log ie so f t en i n co rpo ra te b o th c omp i la t ion s ,w he re t h ep r im a ry o b jec t ive i st op re sen tp re v iou s ly u npub l i shed r h a t e r ia ls ,a sw e l la se xp lana t ion so ft h e se s ame m a te r ia l s . T he b ounda r ie s b e tw een t h e se t wo c l a s se so fa r chaeo log ica lc on s t ruc t ion s ,h oweve r ,a r en o ta lway sc l ea r . H e r e w e a r e i n te re s ted i np r e sen t ing b o th c omp i la t ion s a nd e xp lana t ion s o ft h e d a ta . I n t e rm so ft h ei n t r in s ic p rope r t ie srecogn ized b yG a rd in ,t h et y pe c oncep t emp loyed h e re c an b e v i ewed a si n co rpo ra t ing b o th g eome t r ica l a nd s em io t ic p roper t ie su nde rt h ef o rm e l emen ti n t h ee qua t ion d i scu s sed a bove . T he e qua t ion i si nG a rd in 's t e rm s" i n t r in s ic" ,w h i le e xp lana t ion s i nt e rm so ft h et y po log ica lr e su l t s may i n c lude ,e i the ri mp l ic i t ly o re xp l ic i t ly ,b o th " i n t r in s ic" a nd " ex t r in s ic" p a r ame te r s . Many v a r iab le sa r ei n co rpo ra ted w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o fe ach o ft h ef ab r ic / fo rm e l emen t s . F o re ach e l emen t ,t h e se c an b ed i v ided i n to p hy s ica la nd n on -phy s ica l . T hey a r ea pp roached i nt e rm so ft h et h eo re t ica l /me thodo log ica ld i cho tomy e v iden tb e tween t h ep hy s ica la nd s oc ia l s c ience s . T he a s syme t ry i ne xp lana to ry f o rce b e tween t h e se t wo s c ience sm ean st h a tv ar iab le s s ub jec tt op hy s ica l l aw sa r e a cco rded p r imacy . T h i s i sn o t t os ugge s tt h a tp hy s ica l v a r iab le s w i l l n ece s sar i ly p rove mo r e u se fu l t h an n on - p hy s ica l , b u t t h a t i nt h e a b sence o fa ny s i ng le c onc lu s ive i t em o fe v idence t h i sa s syme t ry i sl i ke ly t op r eva i l . Ab road r a nge o fc e r am ic v ar iab le s , many u n ique t ot h i ss t udy ,a r ed i scu s sed b e low . T he se a r en o tp romo ted a sf o rma lo rs t anda rd i sed c l a s s if i ca t ion u n i t s , n o ra r et h ey r equ i red t ob ei n t e rm so ft h e mode ld i scu s sed a bove ,a l though m any h ave b een p rev iou s ly emp loyed b yo t he r s i nt h i sw ay . D a ta e nhancemen t i sa ch ieved i nt h ree s e pa ra te w ay s . F i r s t ly , t h e s ca le o f t h e i nqu i ry may b e i n c r ea sed . B y w id en ing t h e g eog r aph ic a r ea u nde rc on s ide ra t ion , g r ea te rg eo log ica l v ar iab i l i ty i sf a vou r ed . T h i s s t r a tegy , i n as en se , c r ea te s g eo log ica l v a r iab i l i ty . T he n umbe r o fa r chaeo log ica l s i te sc an a l so b e i n c r ea sed , w i th o rw i thou ti n c rea s ing t h e s t udy a r ea g eo g r aph ica l ly . S uch s i te si n c lude e i the ro ccupa t iona la nd /o rr aw ma te r ia ls ou r ce s . S im i la r ly ,t h e c h rono log ica ls c a le o rr ange o fa r te f ac tt y pe sc an b ei n c rea sed . S econd ,t h ed e ta i la nd s cope o ft h ei nqu i ry c an b ei n c rea sed . F o re xamp le ,i nf ab r ic s t ud i e s ,t h i sc ou ld i n vo lve i n ten s ive a nd f i ne -g ra ined a na ly se s s uch a se l ec t ron m ic rop robe , s c an n i ng e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy o rn onp la s t ic s i ze / tex tu re d i s t r ibu t ion a s se s smen t s . T he se t e chn ique s a r e , o fc ou r se , s t anda rd g eo log ica l a pp roa che s . T he f i r s te nhancemen t s t ep , h oweve r , a c t s t o i n c r ea se t h e q uan t i ty o fd a ta r equ i r ing a na ly s i s . B ecau se o ft h i s , m e thod s o f t en a pp l ied t o s ma l le rs ca le i n ve s t iga t ion sb ecome i n c rea s ing ly t ime -con sum ing w i th s c a le . S ome w i l le ven t u a l ly p rove e xce s s ive . T hu se x tended d a taba ses a c tt ol im i ta na ly t ica li n ten s i ty f o rp ra c t ica l r e a son s .

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CHAPTER 3 . OBJECT IVES AND METHODS

T h i rd ly ,t h en umbe ro fv ar iab le sm ay b ei n c r ea sed . T h i si sr e la ted t ot h ew e igh t ing p roce d u re sd i scu s sed a bove .

3 .6

Enhancemen te xamp les

S ome p rob lem s may r equ i re e nhanced a na ly s i so fa l lt h ev a r iab le s . G iv en t h a tt h ec ho ice o f v a r iab le si sa dequa te ,h oweve r ,t h i si su n l ike ly . At y p ica le xamp le o ft h en eed f o re nhancemen t w ou ld a r i se w hen ap ar t icu la rf ab r ic w a sc l ea r ly d if e ren tf r om t h em a ter ia lr ep r e sen ta t ive o fa l o ca lc e ram ic t r ad i t ion ,b u ts im i la ra nd c on s i s ten tm ine ra log ica l ly w i th t h er eg iona lg eo log ica l t e r r a in w i th in w h ich t h e s i t e i sl o ca ted . Ad i s t inc t ive f o rm may o f t en a s s i s t t oc l ar ify s u ch p rob lem s . T he a r tef ac t 's f o rm ,h oweve r ,a l so p roved t ob ee qu ivoca l . O ne s t ra tegy c ou ld b et ow iden t h es c a le o ft h ei nqu i ry a nd t h us i n c rea se b o th t h eg eo log ica l t e r r i to ry a nd t h e amoun to fc ompa r a t ive c e ram ic ma te r ia l s . I ft h ef a b r ic w a sm ine ra log ica l ly c on s i s ten tw i th t h ee xpanded t e r ra in ,b u ts t i l li n compa t ib le w i th t h ei n c r ea sed r ange o ff a b r ic s e xam ined ,t wo l i k e ly r e a son sa ppea rp o s s ib le : ( i )i n suf f i c ien tc ompa ra t ive ma te r ia lf r om w i th in t h eg eo log ica l s t udy r eg ion h ad b een e x a m ined . ( i )t h ef ab r ic w a se xo t ic . A sp o s s ib le s ou r ce sw i th in t h es t udy z one a r ei n c rea s ing ly e l im ina ted ,t h ee xo t ic s t a tu so f t h e f ab r ic i ss t a t i s t ica l ly e nhanced . I tw ou ld n o tb ep o s s ib le d i r ec t ly t oi d en t ify t h ef a b r ic a s e xo t ic t ot h ei mmed ia te g eo log ica lr eg ion . I tw ou ld s e em r e a sonab le ,h oweve r ,i nt h ea b sence o fe v id ence t ot h ec on t rar y ,t oa s sume t h a ti tw a sn o tl o ca l .Th i sp o s i t ion i sa dm i t ted ly t e nuou s b ecau se , s t a t i s t ic sa s ide ,t h e r ei sn oe v iden t ia lr e a son t of a vou ro ne s ou r ce a ga in s ta no the r . I f , h oweve r , s im i la re nhancemen tt r ea tmen t so ft h ea r tef a c t 's f o rm c ha ra c ter i s t ics a l so i n d ica ted an on loca lo r ig in ,t h en t h i sa dd i t iona le v idence w ou ld f u r the ra dvance t h ep robab i l i ty t h a tt h e a r tef ac tw a se xo t ic . I ti sa r gued t h a ti ns uch i n s tance s ,s uf i c ien tp r imaf ac ie d educ t ive e v id ence e x i s t s t oa l low a v a l id c onc lu s ion i nt h e a b sence o fa ny n ega t ing d a ta . S uch e xp lana t ion s a r ev a l id b ecause t h ey h ave b een s ub jec ted t o" r igo rou s t e s t s" , a r e n on -c i rcu lar , n on -ad -hoc a nd i ndependen t ly t e s tab le . T he s ub sequen td i scovery o fa ny l o ca l s ou r ce w ou ld f a l s ify t h i s c onc lu s ion . I no rde rt oe nhance t h ep e t rog raph ic d a ta d e r iv ed f r om w i th in t h e S akon N akhon B a s in , t h e s ca le o ft h ep re sen ts t udy a r ea h a s b een b roadened t oi n c lude g eo log ica l ly d if e ren t ia ted r eg ion s . S ome o ft h e se a r e ac on s ide rab le d i s tance f r om t h ep r im a ry s i te . S im i la r ly , ac om p rehen s ive a s semb lage o fS akon N akhon B a s in m a te r ia l s u r f a ce c o l lec ted f r om 2 9 s i te s b y K i jngam e t . a l . ( 1980 )h a sb een e xam ined i no rde rt ob roaden t h es ca le o fc ompa ra t ive d a ta . U se o ft h ee l im ina t ive d educ t ion mode l i s ar e spon se t o as t udy a r ea t h a t , u n l ike t h e R io G rande men t ioned a bove , i sg ene ra l ly p e t rog raph ica l ly h omogeneou s . I ti sn o tp romo ted a s i n f a l l ib le . T he mode lw ou ld b enef i tf r om b e ing s ub jec ted t o" seve r et e s t s" ( Poppe r1 972 :287 ) . T he p r inc ipa lo b jec t ive si nc on s t ruc t ing t h i s mode la r et om in im i se t h ea r b i t r a r ine s so fc l a s s if i c a t ion so r" i den t if i ca t ion s" ( P eacock 1 981 :187 ) , ap rob lem t h a tc once rned S hepa rd ( 1971 :312 ) , a nd t oo rgan i se t h ed a ta i na na r chaeo log ica l ly m ean ing fu lm anne r .

3 .7

P roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion

C en t ra lt op reh i s to r ic c e r am ic i n ve s t iga t ion si n vo lv ing t e chno log ica la na ly s is i st h ee xp lo r a t ion o ft empo r a l c hange s i nt h e p o t te r s ' c r a f t , t h e i lum ina t ion o fp o ss ib le c u l tu ra l r e la t ion sh ip s

3 .7 . P RODUCT ION AND CONSU MPT ION

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t h rough ma te r ia li d en t if i ca t ion s , a nd t h el o ca t ion o ft h e i rs ou r ce s , a nd t h ec ha ra c ter i sa t ion o f c e ram ic c u l tu re s . C e ram ic c u l tu r e s ,h oweve r ,m ay b ee i the rc on sume r so rp roduce r s . P roduc t i on i sr e s t r ic ted b ya cce s st or aw ma ter ia l sa nd c l ima t ic f a c to r s( A rno ld 1 985 ) . P roduce r sm ay c on sume t h e i ro wn o ro t he rp roduc t ion , b u tc on sume r sd on o tp roduce . B ecau se s eve ra ld i f f e ren t mode so fp roduc t ion ( V an d e rL eeuw 1 981 , P eacock 1 982 ) , a nd c on sump t ion ( A rno ld 1 985 ) , a r e p o s s ib le , many a l te rna t ive s e x i s t . T he o rgan i sa t ion o ft h e se p roce s se s , t h e re fo re , i sc en t ra lt ot h e manne rg roup so fc e ram ic c ommun i t ie sa r er e la ted . A nu nde r s tand ing o ft h e n a tu r eo fs uch l i nk age si sa ni mpo r tan to b jec t ive . C e r am ic c u l tu r es f a l la l ong ap roduc t ion / con sump t ion c on t inuum . T ho se c u l tu r es c r i t ica l ly d ependen to np roduc t ion l i ea to ne , a nd t ho se d ependen to nc onsump t ion t h eo t he r ,e x t reme . We m ay a n t ic ipa te t h a t mo s tw i l ll i es omewhe re i nt h em idd le ,w i th c e ram ic sf o rm ing amo re o r le s si mpo r tan tc u l tu ra lc omponen t . I no rde rt om ake s en s ib le t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fp reh i s to r ic p o t t e ry ,c e r am ic c u l tu r e sf i r s tn eed t ob ec ha ra c te r i sed i nt h ese t e rm s . T he m e re p r e sence o f p o t t e ry i na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s ,h oweve r ,d oe sn o t ,i ni t se lf ,a l low t h i s . C ha rac te r i sa t ion o f c u l tu re s a sp roduce r s a nd /o rc on sume r s d epend s c r i t ica l ly o n t h e p ropo r t ion o fl o ca lv e r su s e xo t i c w a re s p re sen t a r chaeo log ica l ly . T h i s m ay b e i mpo ss ib le t oe s tab l ish p rec i se ly . I ti s e s sen t ia l , h oweve r , t h a tp roduc t ion s i te s a r ea ccu ra te ly i d en t if ied a sw i thou tt h i si n fo rma t ion m any c onc lu s ion s r ega rd ing t h e o r ig in s o fp r eh i s to r ic c e ram ic s a r e w i thou t f ounda t ion . A n i mpo r tan t o b jec t ive h e r e i st op rov ide a n o u t l ine o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ic a r te f ac t s i n o rde rt od emon s t ra te r e la t ion sh ip sb e tween g roup so fc ommun i t ie s . A rno ld ( 1985 :9 ) , c on s ide r s S t ewa rd 's ( 1 955 ) , " cu l tu ra le co log ica l" p e r spec t ive a si n ade q ua te b ecau se , a par tf r om r e sou rce s , i ts e em s t op e r ce ive t h ee nv i ronmen ta su n impo r tan ti n c e r am ic v a r iab i l i ty . C e ram ic c u l tu re s a r eh e re , h oweve r , d ef ined i nt wo w ay s . P roduce r s i n v o lve b o th e nv i ronmen ta l ly a f ec ted " cu l tu r e c o re" p roce sse s a nd " second a ry" a spec t s . T he l a t te rn eed o n ly a pp ly i nt h ec a se o fc on sume r s . P roduce r s a r ei nvo lved e co log ica l ly o n t wo d i sc re te b u t i n t e r re la ted l e ve ls . F i r s t ly , p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a r e a f ec ted b y t h e e nv i r onmen t . S econd ly , c u l tu ra ls t y le , as e cond a ry f a c to r , i si nf luenced b y b o th ma te r ia l r e la ted p roduc t ion me thod sa nd c on sume rd emand s . T he f unc t ion a nd /o rf a sh ion re la ted p re f e rence s o fc on sume r sw i l li n t ima te ly r ef lec tt h e i rv ar iou sc u l t u ra ls t y le s . Av i ta lf i r s ts t ep i nc ha ra c te r i s ing t h en a tu r eo fa ny c e r am ic c u l tu r ei st oe s tab l i sh w he r et h ep o t te ry w a sp roduced ,h ow i t c hanged h and sa nd whe r ei tw a su sed . A sP ea cock ( 1982 :165 ) o b se rved , p roduc t ion s i te s a r ec en t ra l t os eve ra l i mpo r tan tq ues t i on s . T hey a s s i s t" ch rono log ica l e va lua t ion ," b ecau se a n u nde r s tand ing o f" o r ig in s c an b e v i ta l ,p a r t icu la r ly i ft h e s ame f o rm i s made i n an umbe ro fp l ace sa td if e ren tt ime s" . I nc on t r a s t ," p roduc t ion s i te sc an p roduce e v idence f o rt h ec on tempo rane i ty o rs equence o fd if e ren t f o rm s o fc ommon o r ig in" . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , a cco rd ing t oP ea cock , t h ey d i rec t o u r u nde r s t and ing o ft h e "mode o fp roduc t ion" . P eacock o u t l ine s ah i e r a r ch ica lf r amewo rk o fp roduc t ion mode si n c rea s ing i nc omp lex i ty f r om s imp le s po rad ica l ly -p roduced a nd s e lf -con sumed h ou seho ld p roduc t ion , t o mo re c om p l ex i n come -o r ien ta ted e n t i t ie ss uch a s" wo rk shop s" ,and "manuf ac to r ies" . T he m a jo rd if e r e nce b e tween t h e se e n t i t ie s ,t e chno log ica lq ue s t ion sa s ide ,i se f ec t ive ly e conom ic . A nu nde r s tand ing o ft h eB an N aD ic e ram ic s ,t h e refo r e ,i s af i r s ts t ep t owa rd so u ra s se s s m en to fi t sp o s i t ion , w i th in aw eb o fc on tempo r a ry s i te s , a s ac e ram ic c u l tu r e . E v idence f o r p roduc t ion i ss e t o u t i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r s . I ti sv ar iou s ly t r ea ted w i th t h e i n ten t ion o f b r ing ing i n to f o cu st h ed if e r en tm e thod s a nd mode so fp roduc t ion e v iden ti nt h ep reh i s to r ic s equence a tB an N aD ia nd r e la ted s i te s .

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3 .8

CHAPTER 3 . OBJECT IVES AND METHODS

D iscus s ion

Many p e t rog raph ic a na ly se s o fp r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry h ave b een u nde r taken p r io rt ot h i s s t udy . Y e t f ew Ame r ican s t ud ie s h ave b een c ompa rab le t o S hep ard 's p ionee rP eco s i n v e s t iga t ion ( F ry 1 981 :147 ) . I n We s te rn E u rope , h oweve r , " t he f i e ld i sd eve lop ing i n to as pec ia l i sed a nd s oph i s t ica ted b ranch o fa r chaeo logy" w i th a" g row ing i n te r e s t i nt h ea na ly s i so ff ab r ic s ," ( P eacock 1 981 :187 ) . S hepa rd 's P eco s s t udy p rov ide s n o to n ly me thodo log ica l b u ta l so h i s t o r ica li n te re s t . T h i si sb ecau se ,i n as en se ,t wo m a jo rc o ro l lar ie so ft h is i mpo r tan tw o rk h ave s t rong ly i nf luenced t h ep r e sen tr e se a r ch . .. . .

I nt h ef i r s ti n s tance , t h eR io G rande i n ve s t iga t ion p rov ide sa ni d ea ls e to fm e thodo log ica l a nd t h eo r e t ica lv a r iab les f o rc ompar i son w i th a nd t e s t ing a ga in s t ,a nd t h is h as b een d i scu ssed i np a r ta bove . S econd ly ,t h ei nf luence e xe r ted a nd t h ef a te s uf e r ed b yS hepard 's s em ina lw o rk i sg e rmane t ob o th t h eh i s to ry o fc e r am i cr e sea r ch a nd t h ec u r r en ts t a te o ft h e s ub -d i sc ip l ine i nS ou thea s tA s ia . Ab r ie fa s se s smen to ft h e se e a r l ie rr e sea r ch d eve lopmen t sw i l lh e lp b r ing i n to f ocu st h et h eo re t ica lb ackg round b eh ind a na ppa r en tr e jec t ion o fw ha ts e emed ar e sea r ch s t ra tegy o fg r ea tp rom i se . C e ram ic t e chno log ica ls t ud ie s ,a f te rS hepa rd ,w e re i n i t ia l ly h e ld t ob e" e s sen t ia l" y e t" be c au se o ft h ew ide rh o r izon so pened b y" ( t hem )" one c an h a rd ly d raw c onc lu s ion sa ta l l" ( K id d e r1 936 :xx i i i -xx iv ) . S hepa rd 's r e su l t st u rned t h er eg iona lR io G rande c h rono logy o ni t sh ead . I nr e t ro spec t ,g i ven t h ei mpa c tt h e se f i nd ing sh ad o nc on t empo r a ry a r chaeo log i s t s , ac l a s s ica l K uhn ian p a rad igm c hange w ou ld s e em c a l led f o r . Y e ti td id n o to ccu r . P e rhap st h er e a son sf o r t h i sl i ea tt h eh ear to ft h es ub sequen tt u rn ing a way f r om s uch d e ta i led t e chno log ica lr e sea r ch i n N o r th a nd Me soAme r ica ,a nd u l t ima te ly , S ou thea s tA s ia . I no rde rt oi lum ina te t h is p rob lem , i ti sn ece s sa ry t or ev iew p o s t -P eco sd eve lopmen t si nN o r th Ame r ican c e ram ic s t ud ie sa nd t h e i r i nf luence o nt h ep r e sen ts t udy a r ea . F o l low ing t h eP eco sa nd G lobe c on f e rence sm en t ioned a bove , as e r ie so ff u r the rm ee t ing s w a s h e ld . O fp ar t icu la r c once rn w a s t h e n eed t oe s tab l i sh as t anda rd i sed s e t o ft a xonom ic d ef in i t ion sa nd t e rm s . C la s s if i ca t ion w a ss e en a st h ef i r s ts t ep i nc op ing w i th ac o rpu so fd a ta t h a t w a s a ccumu la t ing a ta n a l arm ing r a te . C on s ide r ab le e fo r t w a s a cco rded t h e d ef in i t ion o f t h e mo s t c omp rehen s ive a nd d e ta i led l i s t s o fp o t te ry " a t t r ibu tes" . L i t t le a t ten t ion s e em s t oh ave b een p a id t ow e igh t ing a t t r ibu te s , a l though ac ompa ra t ive s y s tem w h ich f e a tu red a f o rmu la c omp r i s ing " p r inc ipa l d i agno s t ic t r a i t s" c apab le o f w ide c ompa ra t ive a pp l icab i l i ty w a s p ropo sed b y G i l len ( 1938 ) . P o t te ry f or m s w e r e c once ived a st h er e su l to ft h ei n te rp lay b e tween t h e h uman "m ind" , h and s a nd p r inc ip le s o fp hy s ic s . " Qua l ify ing a t t r ibu te s f o l low ( t he )t r a i t st h ey r e f e rt o "( G i l len 1 938 :27 ) . S uch a pp roa che s h ave b een l a be l led a s b e long ing t o a"men ta l i sm" p arad igm ( A rno ld 1 985 :5 -19 ) . A cco rd ing t oA rno ld , t h i sB oa s ian v i ew o fc e r am ic s w a ss t i l le v iden ti n Ame r i c an a n th ropo logy d ur ing t h e 1 970 's . B oa si n i t ia l ly a r gued t h a td a ta c o l lec t ion s hou ld p r ecede g ene ra l iza t ion s , b u t l a te ra bandoned t h i s a pp roach . " H i sc once rn f o r men ta l i sm a nd t h en a t i ve 's p o in to fv i ew l e dt o ar e la t iv i s t ic a pp roa ch i nw h ich t h eu n i t so fa na ly s i sw e r ed ef ined d if e ren t ly i ne a ch c u l tu re w i th n oc ro s s -c u l tu ra l s t anda rd so fc ompar i son" ( A rno ld 1 985 :8 ) . L ingu i s t ics p rov ided ab a s ic d esc r ip t ive a nd a na ly t ica l u n i t ,p honeme s ,w h ich i nf luenced c e r am ic s t ud ie si nf ou rw ay s . L ik ep honem e s ,c e ram ic t y pe sb ecame b a s ic d e sc r ip t ive u n i t s ,t h ey h ad a" p sycho log ica lr e a l i ty" f o rb o th t h e i rc r ea to r s a nd a r chaeo log i s ts , a nd s i nce p honeme s w e r ec ompo sed o ff e a tu re s , s od id t h ec e ram ic t y pe . B o th t h e " po t te r 's men ta l t emp la te" a nd t h e " a r chaeo log i s t 's c e ram ic t y pe" d ef in i t ions o r ig ina t ed i nt h e 1 920 's a nd 1 930 's , " and t h e se c oncep t sa r e s t i l l i mpo r tan ti n Am e r ican a r c haeo logy" ( A rno ld 1 985 :7 ) . " Even mo r ei mpo r tan t. .wa st h ei mpac tt h a tm en ta l i sm h ad o n

3 .8 . D ISCUSSION

3 5

t h el a ck o fg ene ra l iza t ion i na r chaeo log ica lr e se a rch "A rno ld ( 1985 :8 ) . I no u t l in ing t h e m idwe s te rn t a xonom ic m e thod McKem ( 1939 ) e choe s B oa s 's d a ta c o l l e c t ion , c l a s s if i ca t ion a nd g ene ra l iza t ion c oncep t s . C la s s if ica t ion i s am ean so f" d i scover ing o rd e r" , a nd " e s sen t ia l t r a i te l emen t s" a r eu sed t od em a rca te d i sc re te c u l tu ra le n t i t ie s . L inked t r a i t sa r es h a red b yt wo c u l tu re sw h i le u n sha r ed a r ed i agno s t ic a sc u l tu ra ld e te rm inan t s( McK em 1 939 :305 ) . O the r s f o l lowed McKe rn 's m e thod , b u t f ound d if i cu l ty i nd e te rm in ing a nd e xp r e s s ing t h er e la t ion sh ip sb e tween s i te si nt h ef r amewo rk o f" an a r b i t r ary t a xonom ic s y s tem" ( Gr if f in 1 943 :335 ) . T h i sp rob lem i sr a t iona l ized a way i nl a te rs t ud ie s ,w h ich ,w h i le s t i l lf o l low ing t h e m en ta l i s ta pp roach ,v i ew s c ien t if i cm e thod a s" as e to fp robab i l i t ie sw h ich l e ad t oc onc lu s ion s t h a t a r e o u rb e s t g ue s se s" ( Ph i l l ip s e ta l . 1 951 :219 ) . Ar e spon se p e rhaps t ot h e " t e r r i fy ing h eap" o fs he rd s a va i lab le f o ra na ly s i s ( Ph i l l ip se ta l . 1 951 :66 ) . C e ram ic t y pe sa r ec once ived a ss t y l i s t ic e n t i t ie sw ho se s u r f ace f i n i sh a nd d eco ra t ion a r ec on s tan t s . T hey a r ea l so t ime s pace f o s s i l so fc u l tu ra lr e la t ion sh ip s( Ph i l l ip se ta l . 1 951 :6 1 ) . I n ak ey r ev iew o ft e chno log ica l s t ud ie s , Ma t son ( 1 951 :102 - 16 ) c on s ide r s s hape , d ec o ra t ion a nd " r ecen t ly A nna S hepa rd 's d e s ign a na ly s i s" a sc ha rac te r i s ing t h e " t rad i t iona l" a s o ppo sed t ot h e t e chno log ica l a pp roa ch . Ma t son a r gue s t h a t i t i ne r en t p o t te r s , am a jo rp rob l em , a nd /o r t h e i mpo r ta t ion o fr aw c l ay s f o r m ix ing w i th l o ca l c l ay s , s e r iou s ly c omp l ica te s p hy s ica l a na ly s i s . C onsequen t ly , s ub t le d if e rences i ns hape a nd d eco ra t ion may c on s t i tu te t h ep r im a ry m ean so fi mpo r tr e cogn i t ion . C hem ica la na ly s i s ,w h i le a ccep tab le f o rg l azes a nd g l a s se s ,i s a" comp le te w a s te o ft ime" f o rp o t te ry d ue t oi t sh e te rogene i ty ( Ma t son 1 951 :110 ) . P e t rog r aph ic m ic ro scopy ,v a luab le f o rt h er e cogn i t ion o ft empe r , n a tu ra li n c lu s ion sa nd p a s te t e x tu re , w a s c on s ide red b y Ma t son t oh av e o n ly l im i ted v a lue i nd if e ren t ia t ing b e tween l o c a l a nd i mpo r ted p o t te ry . S uch s t ud ie s a s S hepa rd 's ( 1 942 ) " c la s s ica l w o rk" a r e d e sc r ibed a s t ime -con sum ing , e xpen s ive , a nd r ef lec t ing i n adequa te s he rd s amp l ing . I n a ny c a se , f ew m ic ro scop i s t s a r e a v a i lab le a nd o t he rt e chn ique sc an p roduce r e su l t s" a r chaeo log ica l ly s a t i s f y ing" ( Ma t son 1 951 :111 ) . Ma t son r e commend s e xam ina t ion o fc l ean b reak s b y b i nocu la r m ic ro scope a t6 xt o2 0x m agn if i ca t ion s . T h i sr equ i re sn os pec ia lt r a in ing a nd i si nd i spen sab le f o re v a lua t ing f ab r ic t e x tu re , t empe rt y pe sa nd f o rf i r ing a s se s smen t s . E thnog raph ic e v idence a s s i s t si ns o lv ing f i r ing a nd c hem ica l ly r e la ted p o s t -depo s i t iona lp rob lem s ,a cco rd ing t o Ma t s on ,w ho c on s ide r st h er o le o ft h ep o t te ri nt h ec ommun i ty a nd t h ef unc t ion o fc e ram ic sa st h e mo s ti mpo r tan ta spec to fc e ram ic a na ly s i s . S hepa rd 's ( 1953 :273 -275 )r e spon se i st ov i ew t h e se c r i t ic i sm so ft h et e chno log i ca lm e thod a s s t emm ing f r om d if e r ence s b e tween Ma t son 's N ea rE a s te rn m a te r ia l a nd t h a t s t ud ied b y Am e r ican r e sea r che r s . H ad Ma t son m a in ly c on s ide red Ame r ican ma te r ia l ,S hepa rd r e sponded , h ew ou ld n o th av ea cco rded t h ed if e ren t ia t ion o fl o ca la nd i mpo r ted p o t te ry as e conda ry p l a ce . F u r the rmo re ,S hepa rd a r gue s ,t h ec omp lex i t ie si nhe ren ti nc e ram ic sr equ i re t h eu se o fp rec ise m e thod s ,p a r t icu la r ly f o rt empe ri d en t if ica t ion sa nd f i r ing a s se ssmen t s ,a nd t h e se s hou ld c om m ence w i th p e t rog raph ic d a ta . I ti si mpo r tan t t on o te t h a t , i ne s sence , S hepa rd d e f end s t h e m e thod b yi mp ly ing t h a t t h eP eco sm a t er ia ld emand ed s uch a na pproach . T hu s t h e m e thod h ad s pec if ic n o tg ene ra l a pp l ica t ion . A ne n thu s ia s t ic p romo t ion o f Ma t son ian " a r chaeo log ica l ly s a t i s fy ing" n on -spec ia l i s tt e ch n ique s i si mp l ic i t i n many s ub sequen t Ame r ican c e ram ic s t ud ie s . A" t ype -v ar ie ty" c oncep t (Whea te t .a l . 1 958 ; P h i l l ip s 1 958 ; Sm i th e t .a l . 1 960 ; P h i l l ips 1 970 ; T o th 1 974 ) , f i r s ta pp l ied t o Mayan c e r am ic s d e -empha s ized f a b r i c a na ly s i s i nf a vou ro fs t y l i s t ic f e a tu r e s . C lu s te r s o f s im i la r t y pes w e re h e ld t or ef lec t c e ram ic s y s tem s w h ich i nt u rn r ef lec ted c u l tu r a l i mage s .

3 6

CHAPTER 3 . OBJECT IVES AND METHODS

T ype c l u s te r sw e re r e la ted i nd e s ign s t y le o rs u r f a ce t r ea tmen t ,v e s se lf o rm a nd " gene r a lt e ch n o logy" , c once ived a s" a c l a s s o fp o t te ry" (Whea t e t .a l . 1 958 :40 ) . C e ram ic s pec ia l i s t s a r e a ppa ren t ly n ow c on s ide red u nneces sa ry b ecau se a" F und amen ta l r equ i remen t o ft a xonom ic p rocedu re i st o make t h ea na ly s t 's o wn o b se rva t ion su sef u la nd a va i lab le t oo t he r s . . ." (Whea t e t .a l . 1 958 :42 ) . Sm i th e t .a l . ( 1960 :332 ) s e et h et y pe -v a r ie ty s y s tem a s a" f i r s ts t ep" t owa rd s a ne s sen t ia ls t anda rd i sa t ion o fp o t te ry a na ly s i s . I nt h e se s t ud ie s ,S hepard 's P eco sr e sea r ch i se i the ri g no red o rd i sm i s sed i np a s s ing w i th a w ave o ft h eh and . S pau ld ing ( 1960 :60 -8 1 )o u t l ined as t a t i s t ica lf r amewo rk f o rt y pe d ef in i t ion a nd c ha ra c te r i sa t ion b u t n o ted ama jo rp rob lem w a s t h e" p rope rw e igh t ing o fa t t r ibu te c om b i na t ion s" ( op .c i t . : 81 ) . E x ten s ive s i t e s u rv ey p rog ramme sp roduced h uge p o t te ry c o l lec t ion s w h ich t ook s eve ra ly ea r st os o r ta nd c o l la te . H ence p ub l ica t ion sw e re o f ten c on s ide rab ly d e l a yed . T he e n t i re p roce s sw a s b o th l a bou ri n ten s ive a nd e xpen s ive . C o l la t ion o f ten r evea led t h ee x i s tence o fp rev iou s ly u n su spec ted n ew " t ype s" . I ns ome c a se s ,h ad a l lt h ec l a s se si d en t i f i ed i nt h e s amp le b een k nown a tt h e o u t se t , ad if e r en t s t ra tegy w ou ld h ave b een a pp l ied ( Ph i l l ip s e t . a l 1 951 :66 ) . I n s ho r t , much o ft h e c a t a logu ing p roceded i nduc t ive ly a nd o f ten s imp ly i n vo lved t h e r e co rd ing o fd a ta i na n e n t i r e ly a ccumu la t ive m anne r . T h i s " l ib r a ry o f s he rd s" s ynd rome a ppea r st oh ave b een a im ed a tt h ec o l lec t ion a nd c o l la t ion o fa sm any p o t t e ry " t ype s" a sp o s s ib le i na n a r chaeo log ica l t e r ra i n cogn i ta . H i l l a nd E v an s ( 1 972 ) g i ve a s umma ry o ft y po log ica la pp roa che s . D ef in i t ion o f ak ey e n t i ty c apab le o fp rov id ing d a ta a menab le t os t a t i s t ica la na ly s i sa nd t h e c ha rac ter i sa t ion o ft h eb roade s tp o s s ib le r ange o fc u l tu r a l ly d ef inab le e n t i t ie sw a se ne rge t ica l ly s ough t . S ev e ra lr e sea r che r sa t temp ted t op romo te t h ec oncep to fa na r te f ac tt y pe a sp rov id ing t h ea n swe rt oa nu n if ied t h eo ry o fc u l tu ra lc h ar ac te r i sa t ion a nd s t ruc tu re .

3 . 9

S ummary

T he t h eo r e t ica la pp roa ch t ob ee mp loyed i n vo lve st h eu se o fa ne l im ina t ive d educ t ion mode l . T h i si sp a r t ly ar e spon se t ot h ea na ly s i so fs i te sl o ca ted i n ar e la t ive ly h omogeneou sg eo log ica l r eg ion . S tanda rd a na ly t ica lt e chn ique sw i l lb eu sed w he r ep o ss ib le . When t h e se m e thod sp rove i n adequa te ,t h ed a ta w i l lb ee nhanced i nv a r iou sw ay s . N ega t ive e v idence i sc on s ide red u sef u l i ns ugges t ing l i k e ly s ou r ce a r ea s i nt h e a b sence o fc on t r a ry i n fo rma t ion . T h i s i sb ecau se i t h e lp s n a r row t h e a r ea o fi nqu i ry b y s i ev ing o u ti r re levan t s ou rce s . I t s i mpo r tance i n c rea se s w i th e ach a pp l ica t ion o ft h e mode l . Mode so fp roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c on sump t ion a r ek ey e l emen t s i nd e te rm in ing t h e c ha rac te ro fc e r am ic c u l tu re s . E v idence f o rc e r am ic p roduc t ion a tB an N aD ia nd r e la ted s i te s i ss e to u tb e low . Ad ef in i t ion o ft h ep o t te ry " t ype" , w h ich g i ve se qua l empha s i st ot h ef a b r ic a nd f o rm i semp loyed . T h i sd if e r sf r om d ef in i t ion sp rev iou s ly u sed i nt h ea r ea b yf o rm o rs t y le a na ly s t s . Whe r er e levan t , p hys ica le v idence i sg i ven p r ima cy o ve rn on -phy s ica l . P roduc t ion s i te i d en t if i ca t ion i sc on s ide red ak ey d e te rm inan ti nt h ec ha rac te r i sa t ion o fc e r am ic c u l tu re s .

3 7

Chap ter 4 The s tudy a rea a nd p o t t ing c l ay s 4 . 1

I n troduc t ion

C e ram ic i ndu s tr ie s emp loy ing s imp le m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique so ft h ek i nd se x tan ti n No r th e a s tT ha i land t oday ,a nd p o s tu la ted a se x tend ing b ack i n to t h ep reh i s to r ic p er iod su nde rq ues t i on h e re , a r ec l o se ly a f ec t ed b y t h e i re nv i ronmen t . R aw ma te r ia l s a r ed i s t r ibu t ed a cco rd ing t og eo log ica lp roce sse s( Shepa rd 1 956 ) ,a nd t h e i ra cqu i s i t ion i n vo lve s ad e ta i led k now ledge o f t h ea r ea lt e r ra in . P o t t ing c l ay d i s t r ibu t ion sa nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sc an c on s t ra in c l ay e x t ra c t ion a nd p o t te ry manuf ac tu re ( A rno ld 1 985 ) . T he a va i lab i l i ty o fq ua l i ty m a te r ia l s c an d e te rm ine t h el o ca t ion o fp roduc t ion c en t re s( Shepa rd 1 956 ,A rno ld 1 985 ) ,a nd w ea the rc ond i t ion sm ay r e s t r ic t p o t t ing t of a vou r ab le c l ima t ic z one s a nd s ea son s ( A rno ld 1 985 ) . I n t h i s c hap te r w e w i l l b r ief ly e xam ine t h e g eog raphy , g eomo rpho logy a nd c l ima te o fN o r thea s tT ha i land . T he g eo logy o ft h eK ho ra tP la teau ,a nd i t si mp l ica t ion sf o rp o t te ry p roduc t ion ,w i l la l so b et o uched o n . F ina l ly , t h ec l ay m ine ra logy o f 1 4 S akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s w i l lb ec on s ide red i nd e ta i l .

4 . 2

G eography ,g eomorpho logy a nd c l ima te

T he f o l low ing g eomo rpho log ica lo u t l ine i sd e r ived m a in ly f r om C ru i js ( 1 964 , 1 978 ) , Moo r m an e t . a l . ( 1964 ) ,a nd T h i ramongko la nd P i su tha -A rnond ( 1983 ) . B an N aD ii ss i tua ted i nt h eS akon N akhon B a s in ,t h es ma l le ro ft wo l o ca ted w i th in T ha i l a nd 's n o r thea s t e rn K ho ra tP la teau ( f ig . 4 . 1 ) . T he K ho ra tP la teau c omp r i se sa n a r ea o fa bou t 1 70 ,000 km2,a nd i sb ounded t ot h e n o r th a nd m uch o ft h e e a s t b y t h e Mekong R ive r . I t s w e s te rn ,s ou the rn a nd s ou thea s te rn n a tu ra lb ound ar ie sa r ef o rmed b ys t eep e s carpmen t so fu p l i f ted Me sozo ic s t ra ta . T he se v a ry i ne l ev a t ion f r om a bou t 2 50 m t o9 00 m a bove s e a l e ve l ( m .a . s . l . ) . B o rde r ing t h ew e s te rn p l a teau p e r ime te ra r ec omb ina t ions o fs ed imen ta ry , i g neou s a nd m e tamo rph ic f o rma t ion sw h ich t o ge the rc omp r ise t h eC en t ra lH igh land s . I np l ace st h e se c omb ina t ions a r ec omp lex . T h i s i n c lude s t h e 1 , 300 m h igh P hu K r adung "me sa l ike o u t l ie r" ( C ru i js 1 978 ) . T he p l a teau 's t wo b a s in sh ave s u r f a ce e l eva t ions r ang ing f r om a bou t 1 00 t o3 00 m .a .s . l . T he i r p r inc ipa l l a nd scape f e a tu r e s a r e t h e r i ve r t e r race s l o ca ted i np l ane t og en t ly u ndu la t i n g s u r f a ce s , w h i le mound sa nd h i l l s a r ec ommon m ic ro r e l ief s ( C ru i js 1 978 , Moo rman e ta l . 1 964 ) . T he p l a t eau i sl o ca t ed b e tween 1 4 °t o1 9 °n o r th ,a nd 1 0 1° t o1 06 °e a s t . I tg en t ly s l ope s d own t owa rd st h ee a s ta nd s ou thea s t . S t ream p a t te rn sa r ed i rec ted p r inc ipa l ly t ot h ee a s t , a nd t h e ma jo rK ho ra tB a s in i se n t i r e ly d ra ined e a s twa rd si n to t h e Mekong R ive rb y t h e Mun a nd

3 8

CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING C LAYS

C h iR iv e r sa nd t h e i rn ume rou st r ibu ta r ie s . B o th t h e se r i v e r so r ig ina t ei nt h ew es te rn h i l ly z one s o ft h eC en t ra lH igh land s . T he s ma l le rn o r the rn S akon N akhon B a s in i sp r inc ipa l ly d ra ined b y t h eS ongkh ram a nd i t st r ibu t a r ie sn o r thea s tw a rd si n to t h e Mekong . T he S ongkh r am o r ig ina te s i nt h eP hu P han R ange . B an N aD if a l l sw i th in t h eL ake K umphawap ic a tchmen t ,a nd a d jacen t s t ream sd r a in s ou th i n to t h el a k e w h ich i nt u rn d i s ch a rge s i n to t h eP ao R iv er . T he P ao f l ow s s ou th t h rough t h eP hu P han R ange t oj o in t h eC h iR iv e r( f ig s .4 . 2a nd 4 .3) . Moo rman ( e ta l . 1 964 ) , i n te rp re ted t h eN o r thea s te rn ( i . e . K ho ra tP la teau ) ,l a ndfo rm sa s l a rge ly a l luv ia li no r ig in ,t h er e su l to f as e r ie so fd epo s i t iona la nd e ro s iona le ven t s .T hey a r gue t h a tt h ep l a teau 's g eomo rpho log ica lf e a tu r e s" a r ep redom inan t ly d e te rm ined b yt r emendous a l l u v ia ld epo s i t so ft h e Mekong R ive ra nd i t st r ibu t ar ie s" ( Moo rman e ta l . 1 964 :4 ) ,s ev e ra ls u ch s ed imen ta t ion p ha se s b e ing s epa ra ted b ye ro s iona l p e r iod s t of o rm f our ma in s ed imen ta t ion l e ve l s( h igh ,m idd le a nd l ow a l luv ia lt e r race s ,a nd t h ep re sen td ay a l luv ia lp l a in ) ,o ft h ee x i s t ing l a nd scape . T h i sw ide ly a ccep ted " t e r race mode l" h a sr e cen t ly b een q ue s t ioned b yL of f l e r( e ta l . 1 983 :123 1 30 ) ,w ho a rgue f o re s sen t ia l ly e ro s iona lN o r thea s tu p land sa nd s l opes w i th t h el a rg e rv a l leys r ep r e sen t ing f i l led in v a l ley s . S ed imen ta t ion " wa s mo re o rl e s sc on t inuous f o l low ing ap e r iod o fp ronounced i n c i s ion . . . .d ue t o ar i se i nb a se l e v e ln ea rt h e Mun R ive r - Mekong R ive rc on f l uence" . C hang ing e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion s a r eh e ld t ob er ef lec ted i nt h ec ha rac te ro ft h e s e d imen t sw i th g l ac ia lp e r iod a eo l ian m a te r ia l "ma sk ing m uch o ft h ee ro s iona ll a nd scape w i th ab l anke to fs and" . T he g l a c ia lp e r iod c o inc ided w i th p ronounced d ryne s s i nt h e N o r thea s t d ue t ot h e" g rea t ly e x tended l a nd a r ea" d ur ing c l ima t ica l ly i nduced l ow s ea l e ve ls . " C l ima t ic c hange h oweve rw a s n o tt h e c on t ro l l ing m echan i sm f o ri n c i s ion o rs ed imen ta t ion . T h i s w a s c on t ro l led b yc hange si nb a se l e ve lw h ich i nt u rn w e re c on t ro l led b yt e c ton ic e ven t s" ( Lof f l e r e ta l . 1 983 :130 ) . T ha i land l i e si nt h e mon soon ( Koppen Aw )t r op ica lz one o fS ou thea s tA s ia ( S t rah le r1 973 ) . E x t reme si nw e t -t hy s ea son s t y p i fy t h i s z one w i th i n te r m i t ten th eavy r a in f a l l sn o rma l ly p ro d uc ing e x ten s ive s e a sona lr i ve rp la in f l ood ing . L oca la nnua lr a inf a l l sa r ea f ec ted b y ,a nd v a ry i na cco rdance w i th ,t o pog raphy . We t -sea son r a in sa nd r e su l tan th eavy l e ach ing p romo te l a te r i s a t ion ( P re s sa nd S i eve r 1 974 :211 -212 ) . A cco rd ing t o Hope a nd Hope ( 1976 ) ,N ew G u inea mon tane e v idence s ugge s t st h a t ,f o rt h el a s t5 , 000 y ea r s ,t h ec l ima te h a sb een r e la t iv e ly s t ab le . S ea l e ve l s t ab i l i ty a l so r ef lec t st h e se c ond i t ion s ( Ga l loway a nd L of f l er 1 972 , C happe l l 1 976 , C happe l l a nd T hom 1 977 ) . T he se d a ta a r e s uppo r ted b yr e cen tT ha i land mon tane e v idence w h ich s ugge s t st h a tt h e c l ima te h a s b een w e t a nd w a rm f o ra bou t t h el a s t 1 ,000 y ea r s , a nd t h a tt h e p re sen tc ond i t ion s h ave b een e xpe r ienced f o ra tl e a s t t h e l a s t4 , 300 y e a r s ( Ha s t ing s a nd L ieng saku l 1 983 ) . A rno ld ( 1985 :66 -79 ) r epo r t s t h a t i nc l ima te s s ub jec ted t os ub s tan t ia l r a iny s ea son s , a nd c on sequen th i gh h um id i ty ,c e ram ic i n du s t r ie sa r es e r iou s ly a f ec ted . B ecau se o fe xce s sa tmo s phe r ic mo i s tu re ,a nd /o rl o ng p e r iod so fh eavy r a inf a l l ,p l a s t ic p o t te ry f ab r ics o f t en c anno tb e d r ied e nough t oe n su re t h ey w i l l h o ld t h e i r s hape . T he se c ond i t ions may a l so c au s e u nf i red p o t te ry t oc r ack . F i r ing u nde rt h e se c ond i t ion s i sh aza rdou s , a nd i na dd i t ion mov ing u nf i red p o t te ry r i sk sd amage . I ns uch c ond i t ion s manuf ac tu r ei sn o tw ar ran ted a nd p roduc t ion c ea se s i nt h ew e ts e a son . T h i sr egu la to ry e f ec tc an h ave i mpo r tan ti mp l ica t ion sf o rt h ei n teg r a t ion o f s ub s i s tence a nd t e chno logy .

4 . 3 . THE GEOLOGICAL S ETT ING AND I TS IMPL ICAT IONS

4 . 3

3 9

The g eo log ica ls e t t ing a nd i t si mp l ica t ions

I n t h i s s e c t ion , i na dd i t ion t ot h e s ou r ce s q uo ted a bove , g eo log ica l map s p ub l i shed b y t h e R oya l T ha i S u rvey D epar tmen t ( 1978 , 1 980 , 1 982 , 1 984 ) , t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey D iv i s ion o ft h e D epar tmen t o fM ine ra l R e sou r ce s (D MR ) : 1 971 , 1 974 , 1 976 , 1 980 , 1 984 ) , a nd t h e F ede ra lI n s t i tu te f o rG eo sc ience sa nd N a tu ra lR e sou r ce s( 1975 , 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 978 , 1 979 , 1 981 ) , h ave a l so b een c on s ide red . T o d a te , d e ta i led 1 : 250 ,000 s ca le map s c ove r ing t h e s t udy a r ea a r e u nav a i lab le , a l though t h ey a r e c u r r en t ly i np r epa ra t ion ( C ru i js 1 978 :4 ) . S uch m ap s a r e a va i lab le f o rt h ew e s te rn p l a t eau ma rg ins ( NE 4 7 -12 , NE 4 7 -16 , ND 4 7 -4 ) , Mun V a l ley , a nd C en t ra lH igh land s . T hey h ave a l lb een c on s ide r ed ,b ecau se t h e se a r ea si n c lude s t ra ta r e levan t t ot h ep re sen tw o rk . I n s t a rk c on t ra s t t o t h e R io G rande , S hepa rd 's s t udy a r ea , t h e l ow land s o f t h e K ho ra t P la teau a r e b l ank e t ed a lmo s t e n t i r e ly b y Q ua te rna ry s ed imen t s ( C ru i js 1 978 , a nd f i g . 4 . 4 ) . T he se a r eu nde r la in b yv e ry t h ick Me sozo ic s ed imen t a ry d epo s i t so ft h eK ho ra tG roup ( Cr u i js 1 978 ) . T he t wo s t ruc tu ra lb a s in sa r ew i thou tl a rge e xpo su re so f Me sozo ic b ed rock . O u t c rop s o ft h e se r ock sa r eu sua l ly l a ck ing ,a par tf r om af ew s ma l la nd s c a t te red o u tc rop so fs t ra ta b e l o ng ing t ot h eU ppe r Kho r a tG roup ,w i th in t h ep l a teau . T he S akon N akhon a nd K ho ra tB a s in s a r ec ompo sed o fb a sem en t Me sozo ic s ed imen t a ry r o ck se x ten s ive ly o ve r la in b ya l luv ium a nd c o l luv ium s ed imen t sa nd m an t le so fs a nd o fa eo l ian o r ig in ( C ru i js 1 978 ,L of f l e re ta l . 1 983 ) . I gneou s r ock s a r e a b sen t e xcep t f o r T e r t ia ry a nd /o r Q ua te rnary b a sa l t s w h ich o ccu r i n t h e Mun R ive rb a s in ma in ly n ea rt h es ou the rn e dge o ft h ep l a teau . S ome h i gh t e r race g rave l s c on ta in ,p r inc ipa l ly P a laeozo ic ,r emnan ti g neou sr ock si nv ar iou sp ropo r t ions . A l la r er e s i s tan t o rv e ry r e s i s tan t ,a nd a r et hough tt or ep re sen tf l uv ia ld epo s i t ion f r om r emo te C en t ra lH igh land s ou r ce s( C ru i js 1 978 :28 ) . T he P hu P han R ange , w h ich s epa ra te s t h e S akon N akhon a nd K ho ra tB a s in s , c on s i s t so f f o lded Me sozo ic r ock so ft h eK ho ra tG roup ( C ru i js 1 978 ) . T he K ho ra tG roup c on ta in s as e r ie s o fs i xs ed imen t a ry f o rma t ion s . A1 : 1 ,000 ,000 s c a le g ene ra l ized DMR map ( J avanaphe t 1 969 ) , s how s t h eP hu P han R ange a sc omp r i s ing t h e P hu P han , P h ra W ihan a nd P hu K radung F o r m a t ion s . A cco rd ing t oC ru i js ( 1978 :35 -37 ) , t h eP hu P han R ange i sc ompr i sed p r inc ipa l ly o f t h eP h ra Wihan ,S ao K hua a nd P hu P han F o rma t ion s . T he K hok K rua tF o rma t ion o n ly o ccu r s i nl a rge s ync l ine s a tl owe r e l eva t ion s , a nd t h e U ppe r T r ia s s i c -Lowe r J u ra s s ic P hu K radung F o rma t ion may a l so b ep re sen t . T he Maha sa rakham ( o rS a l t )F o rma t ion , w h ich i st h eh i ghe s t Me sozo ic s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t ,h a sb een t o ta l ly r emoved f r om o u t c rop s . T he R oya lT ha iS ur vey D epa r tmen t( 1980 ) ,i n a1 : 2 ,500 ,000 s c a le g eo log ica la t la so fT ha i land , s how t h eU ppe rK ho r a tG roup u nde r ly ing b o th m a jo rb a s in s , w i th M idd le a nd L owe rK ho r a tG roup sc ompr i s ing t h eP hu P han R ange . C hongpan a nd N a re s( 1979 ) ,n o te t h ef o l low ing a s soc ia t ion s ,i nd e scend ing o rde r ,f o rK ho r a tG roup F o rma t ion si nC hangwa tP e tchabun ( map NE 4 7 -16 ) . T h i s a r ea l i e s a bou t 1 20 km w e s t -sou th - w e s t o fB an N aD i . T he K hok K rua t c on ta in s m icaceou s s and s tone , s ha le a nd s i l t s tone ,l ime -nodu le a nd c ong lome ra te . T he P hu P han i sc omp r ised o f as and s tone c on ta in i n g p ebb le s c on s i s t ing o fq ua r tz , c he r t , s i l t s tone a nd i g neou s r ock s u p t o 5 cm i nd i ame te r i n te r ca la ted w i th s ha le a nd c ong lome ra te . T he S ao K hua c on s i s t so fm icaceou ss and s tone a nd s ha le , a nd l ime -nodu le c ong lome r a te . T he P h ra W ihan c on ta in sa n o r thoqua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone w i th s ome i n te r ca la t ion so fs ha le . T he P hu K radung c on s is t so fm icaceous s ha le ,s i l t s tone a nd s and s tone ,w i th s ome l ime -nodu le c ong lome ra te . A cco rd ing t oC ru i js ( 1978 :13 ) , t h e a bove g eomo rpho log ica l a nd g eo log ica l e v idence i s b a sed o n d r i l l ing s , e xpo sed o u tc rop s a nd s a te l l i te r emo te s en s ing s t ud ie s . H e n o te s t h a t t h e P hu P han s and s tone c ap sn ume rous m e sa l ike h i l l sa r ound t h er im o ft h eK ho ra tP l a teau a nd

4 0

CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING C LAYS

e roded a n t ic l ine s i nt h eP hu P han h i l l s . I tc on ta ins r e s i s tan tl a ye r s o fa r ko s ic a nd c ong lom e r a t ic s and s tone s a nd c ong lome ra te . T he se f o rma t ion s a l so o u tc rop a l ong t h e w e s t e rn a nd s ou thwe s te rn m a rg in so ft h ep l a teau ( C ru i js 1 978 :14 ) . A st h ea bove g eomo rpho logy s ugge s t s , t h eK ho ra tP l a teau w a su p l if t ed , t i l t ed p r inc ipa l ly t owa rd s t h e s ou thea s t , a nd o n ly s l igh t ly w a rped i n to ah uge s ha l low b a s in . A p ar t f r om t h e P hu P han a n t ic l ine s , l i t t le d efo rma t ion i sa ppa ren t . A cco rd ing t oC ru i j s ( 1978 :10 ) , C enozo ic e pe i rogen ic movemen t s w e re ma in ly r e spon s ib le f o rt h e p re sen t p l a teau s t ruc tu re . F o ld ing , f a u l t ing a nd v o lcan i sm a s soc ia ted w i th aL a te T e r t ia ry -E ar ly Q ua te rna ry o rogeny s aw t h e em p l a cemen to fi gneou si n t ru s iv es a l ong t h e w e s te rn p l a teau ma rg in s , a nd i ni s o la ted l o ca t ion s w i th in t h es ou the rn p l a t eau b ounda r ie s( C ru i js 1 978 :18 ,33 -34 ) . E x ten s ive s a l td epo s i t so ccu rw i th in t h e Me sozo ic f o rma t ion s ,a l though t h e i rp rec i se d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd /o ro r ig in s a r e n o tf u l ly u nde r s tood ( C ru i js 1 978 :39 -45 ) . O u t c rop s o ft h e Ma h a sa rakham F o rma t ion ,c omp r i s ing ma in ly " s i l t s tone ,s a ndy s ha le ,m ud s tone ,e vapo r i te s( r ock s a l t /ha l i te ,g yp sum -anhydr i te a nd p o ta s s ium m ine ra l s )a nd m ino rs and s tone" ,a r e" spa r se a nd s ma l l" ( C ru i js 1 978 :15 ) . I ti st hough tt of o rm t h e ma jo rp o r t ion o ft h eb ed rock so fb o th b a s in s . " No o u t c rop so fs o l id ,p r im a ry s ed imen t ary o rs t ruc tu ra lc on t ro l led s a l td epo s i t sa ppea rt oe x i s t ,b ecau se ,a cco rd ing t oG a rdne re ta l . ( 1967 ) ,t h ey h ave b een d i sso lved e ve rywhe re t od ep th s o fa s much a s6 1 t o7 6m e t r e so r mo re b yd eep l e ach ing f a c i l i ta ted b yh eavy s e a sona lr a in f a l l a nd f l uc tua t ing g roundwa te rl e ve lt h a tc ha ra c te r i ses t h er eg ion" ( C ru i js 1 978 :39 ) . G eo log ica l map s a nd c ro s s s e c t ion sp ub l i shed b yt h eR oya lT ha iS u rvey D epar tmen t a nd t h e DMR ( 1969 , 1 976 ) ,s how t h eK ho ra tG roup a st h eb a semen ts t ruc tu re u nde r ly ing t h ee n t i re K ho ra t P la teau . V ar iou s K ho ra t G roup f o rma t ion s a r e s hown o u tc ropp ing s o a s t oa lmo s t e nc i r c le t h eK ho ra tB a s in . M ino rl o ca lo u tc rop sa l so o ccu ri nt h en o r the rn p o r t ion o ft h eS akon N akhon B a s in . T he o ve ra l l g eo log ica l s t ruc tu r e f e a tu re sl i t t le d i sp la cemen to ft h e Me sozo ic s t ra ta a nd t h i s i st y p ica l o fe pe i rogen ic p roce s se s . I tm ay h ave i mpo r tan t i mp l ica t ions f o r p re -a nd p o s t -epe i rogene r i cs ed imen t a ry d epo s i t sn ow p r e sen ta sr e s id ium . Unfo r tuna te ly ,t h e c l a s t ic s ed imen t s o ft h e K ho ra tG roup h ave n o t b een s ub jec ted t o ad e ta i led a nd s y s tema t ic s ed imen to log ica ls t udy ( C ru i js 1 978 ) . A sn o ted a bove ,d e ta i led s ma l ls ca le g eo log ica l map sa r en o ty e ta va i lab le f o r much o ft h e s t udy a r ea , i n c lud ing B an N aD i a nd many r e la ted S akon N akhon B a s in s i te s . L of f l e re ta l . ( 1 983 ) , o nt h eb a s i so f3 5md eep d r i l l ing s a tT ung K u la R ongha i ( TKR ) , a r gue f o rt e c ton ic d e r ived p ronounced i n c i s ion a nd s ed imen ta t ion ,o nw h ich w a ss upe r impo sed c l ima t ic r e la ted s ed imen ta t ion . T hey c on s ide r t h a t t h ese p roce s se s a r er e levan t t ot h e w ho le p l a teau . T he i r c o re sr evea led ap re sen tl a nd s u r f a ce o f2 -4 m t h ick c l ay t os andy s i l ty c l ay ,o ve r ly ing f i ne t o c oa r se n on -o rgan ic s and sw h ich v a ry w ide ly i nd ep th b u tr a re ly e xceed 8m . B enea th t h i si sa n o rgan ica l ly r i ch s and u n i t 1 0 -20 m t h ick , C 14 d a ted t oc .3 4 ,000 t oc .2 0 ,000 y ea r sa go . T he o l de s t s ed imen t sw e r ec u ta t3 0 -35 m d eep , a nd c on s i s to fn on -o rgan ic v e ry f i ne t o med ium s and s . H a s t ing s a nd L ieng saku l ( 1983 :26 ) c on s ide rt h a tt h e TKR o rgan ic s and sr ep re sen t al a te P le i s tocene d epo s i t ion . I ti su nc lea rw he the rt h e TKR s e d imen t sr e la te t ot h eS akon N akhon B a s in c l ay s . D e ta i led m ine ra log ica l d e scr ip t ion s a r e n o tg i ven b yL of f l e re ta l . ( 1983 ) . T he y ounge s tc l ay d epo s i t ion f o rm s ac ap o ve r ly ing a na l luv ia ls ub s t ra tum . I ti st h u sc ons i s ten tw i th t r an spo r ted c l ay . T he re i sn o e v idence t os ugges t t h a ti tr e su l t s f r om mode rn s ed imen ta t ion . T he p o t t ing c l ay sd i scu s sed b e low w e r eq ua r r ied 1 2mb e low t h ep r e sen tl a nd s u r f a ce a t mo s t s i te s( f ig .4 . 5 ) . T hey a r ec on s ide red t oh ave b een d epo s i t ed p r io rt ot h ef i r s to ccupa t ion o fB an N aD ic .3 , 500 y ea r sa go .

4 . 4 . ANALYS IS OF S AKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING CLAYS

4 1

D i scus s ion I n as en se t h e K ho ra t P la teau r e p re sen t s at e x tbook e xamp le o fg eo log ica l p roce s se s w he r e t e c ton i sm h a s t r an s fo rm ed al a rge s ubcon t inen ta l Me sozo ic l imn ic a nd p a ra l ic s ed imen ta ry b a s in i n to ap o s t - Me sozo ic t e r re s t r ia l s t ruc tu r e ( C ru i js 1 978 ) . R ecen td a ta s ugge s t s t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty c on t inued d u r ing t h eQ ua t e rna ry . I na dd i t ion ,c l ima te i nduced e nv i ronmen ta lc hange s , w h ich f e a tu red a l te rna t ing d r ie ra nd mo r eh um id p ha se s ,w e re s uper impo sed o n to t h e se l a t te r t e c ton ic e ven t s . T he se a r er ef lec ted i nt h ep r e sen ts t ra t ig raph ic s ed imen tv ar ia t ion s ( Lof f l e re t a l . 1 983 ) . T ec ton i sm ,e ro s ion ,s ed imen ta t ion a nd c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion sh ave t oge the rp roduced ag eo l og ica l ly h omogeneou sa nd t h e re fo r ed i sc re te r eg ion . C lay sw i th in t h ep l a teau w i l lr ef lec tt h i s h omogene i ty t ov a ry ing d eg ree s ,d ependan tu pon t h en a tu re o ft h el o ca lg eo logy . T hu sp o t te ry made o fc l ay sd e r ived f r om s ou r ce se xo t ic t os uch h omogeneou sa r ea sa r el i k e ly t os t and o u t b e cau se t h e g eo logy i s mo r e m ine ra log ica l ly d i s t inc t ive . H ence c e ram ic s o r ig ina t ing i nt h e P hu P han H i l l s , t h e w e s te rn m a rg in s , s ou the rn i g neous z one , a nd t h e C en t ra lH igh land s , c an b ee xpec ted t ob e ,m ine ra log ica l ly ,c l ea r ly d i s t inc t ive . G rada t iona l c hanges i nt h e o v e r a l l m ine ra logy s hou ld b e a ppa ren td own s t ream f r om t h e s ou rce r ock o u tc rop s . D ue t ot h e ma in ly w e s t t oe a s t i n te rna l d ra inage p a t te rn s , i n c rea s ing q uan t i t ie so fd i s t inc t ive i n c lu s ion ss hou ld b ecome e v iden tt h ef u r the rw e s tt owa rd st h eC en t ra l H igh land s t h ec l ay s a r eq ua r r ied . W i th in t h e S akon N akhon B a s in , s ou r ce sc l o se t ot h eP hu P han R ange a r e s im i la r ly l i k e ly t op rove d i s t inc t ive . T he se d i s t inc t ive m ine ra l a s semb lage s a r eu n l ike ly t ob eo bv iou s e xcep ti nc l ay sr e la t ive ly c l o se t op a r en tr ock o u tc rop sb ecau se o f r ap id w ea the r ing . T hu st h i sh uge p l a teau i sc ompo sed a lmo s te n t i r e ly o fs ed imen ta ry s t ra ta , a nd a st h ed a ta s e to u tb e low d emon s t ra te ,t h ea s soc ia ted p o t t ing c l ay so f ten c on ta in c ommon m ine r a l s u i te s w h ich a r eu nd iagno s t ic f o rs ou r c ing p u rpo se sw i thou ti n ten s ive a na ly s i s . S eve ra lp o ten t ia l ly r ewa rd ing me thod sa r ea va i lab le t oc ope w i th s uch c i r cum s tance s . S im i la rs ou rc ing q ue s t ion s h ave b een r e so lved u s ing t e x tu ra l ( P eacock 1 971 , S t ree ten 1 982 ) , o rh eavy m ine r a l a na ly s i s ( P ea cock 1 967 , 1 970 , 1 973 ;W i l l iam s 1 977 ) . H eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sp robab ly h o ld st h eb e s t p o ten t ia lf o rt h ec ha rac te r i sa t ion o fp o t te ry a nd c l ay sn o ta l r eady d i s t ingu i shab le u s ing s t anda rd t h in -sec t ion p e t rog raphy . T h i sa pp roa ch w a sn o tu nde r taken b ecau se t h em e thod i se xce s s ive ly l a bo r iou s w i thou tn ece s sar i ly p rov id ing c l ea rc onc lu s ion s , p ar t icu la r ly w he re t wo d if e ren t ly s ou r ced c l ay sh ave b een c omb ined (W i l l iam sa nd J enk in s1 976 ) . I nv i ew o ft h ee x ten s ive s cope o ft h e p r e sen t e nqu i ry , q uan t i ta t ive a pp l ica t ion s o f s uch i n ten s ive m e thod s w e re c ons ide red i mp ra c t icab le . T he a bove d i scu s s ion i sn o tm ean tt oi mp ly t h a td i s t inc t ive s ed imen t a ry d epo s i t sa r en on e x i s ten tw i th in t h eK ho ra tP la teau . T he r e su l t so f ap e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s o fv a r ious moder n S akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s ,s e to u ti nc hap te rf i ve ,s how t h a ts eve ra la r ed i s t ingu i shab le p e t rog raph ica l ly . T he X ray d if ra c t ion d a ta p r esen ted b e low c omp lemen t s o p t ica l e v idence d i scu s sed i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r . T he se s ou rce ma te r ia l s w e re o b ta ined d u r ing f i e ldwo rk u nde r taken b yt h ea u tho r .

4 .4

Ana lys is o fS akon Nakhon B as in p o t t ing c l ays

I n troduc t ion At o ta lo f1 4c l ay sh ave b een e xam ined u s ing s t anda rd X -r ay d if ra c t ion m e thod s . A st h es pec t r og raph s s e to u t i nf i gu r e s 4 . 8 t o 4 . 21 s how , t h ey c on ta in av ar ie ty o fc l ay m ine ra l s pec ie s

4 2

CHAPTER 4 . THE S TUDY AREA AND POTT ING C LAYS

i nv a ry ing p ropo r t ions a nd c omb ina t ion s . S eve ra l i n c lude c l ay m ine ra l s t h a t h yd r a te e xce s s i ve ly . Smec t i te s , f o re xamp le , a r e p r e sen t i nc l ay s 2 ,4 ,1 0 , 1 2 a nd 1 4 . Wh i le t h i s i so n ly o ne f a c to ri nt h e i ru se fu lne s s , i ts ugge s t st h a to ve ra l lt h e se r aw c l ay sa r et h e refo r eo fv a ry ing q ua l i ty a sp o t t ing c l ay s . S amp le s 8 ,1 , 1 3 a nd 1 4d e r ive f r om l o ca t ion s t h a tw e re u nab le t o b e u nequ ivoca l ly v er if ied a sg enu ine s ou r ce s i nt h ef i e ld , b ecau se t h eo r ig ina lp rec i se q ua r ry l o ca t ion s w e re u nce r ta in .Th i s w a sd ue i ns ome c a se s t ot h e i rl o ng t e rm a bandonmen t . H ow e ve rt h ey h ave b een i n c luded b ecause t h ey w e re i d en t if i ed b yl o ca li n fo rman t sa sh av ing o nce b een e xp lo i ted b y p o t te r s , a nd a l lp o s s ib le s ou r ce s w e re c on s ide red a sp o ten t ia l ly c r uc ia l t o t h es t udy .

D i scu ss ion G ene ra l ly p o t t ing c l ay sc on ta in ing ah i gh p ropo r t ion o fk ao l in i te A 1 203. 2S iO 2. 2H20 a r ep r e f e r red b yp o t te r s . T h is r ef lec t s b o th i t s c on t r ibu t ion t o ap o t t ing c l ay 's " wo rkab i l i ty" , a nd i t s s t reng th o nf i r ing d ue t ot h ec hem ica lc hange p romo ted v i at h ed ehyd ra t ion o ft h ea l um in ium s i l ica te c ompound t of o rm am e t akao l in i te o rc e ram ic f a b r ic . R igby ( 1 948 :96 )d e sc r ibe sk ao l i n i te a st h e" p r im ary c on s t i tuen to fc h ina c l ay a nd f i r ec lay s" . H ame r a nd H ame r( 1977 :3 -4 ) , f r om ap o t te r 's p e r spec t ive , c on s ide rk ao l in i te a s ap u re c l ay . D i so rde red k ao l in i te , a l though l e s sp u r e ,a l so q ua l if ie sa s ac l ay . A cco rd ing t oH ame ra nd H ame r ,h oweve r ,a ny o t he rm ine ra l , m ica a nd mon tmo r i l lon i te f o re xamp le , d oe s n o t . T h i s c oncep t , a ppa r en t ly c ommon a mong p o t te r s , a nd u n t i l r e cen t ly a mong many g eo log i s t s ( Gr im 1 968 :14 ) , i sn o t a ccep ted b y c l ay m ine ra log i s t sw ho h ave c l ea r ly e s tab l i shed " t ha tt h e r ea r em any c l ay m a te r ia l si nw h ich t h e re i sn o k ao l in i te p re sen t" ( Gr im 1 968 :15 ) . Wh i le u n ive r sa l a g r eemen t h a s y e t t ob e r e ached o n ap rec i se d e ta i led c l a s s if i ca t ion , t h eb a s ic m a jo rc l ay m ine ra l g roup s , a l though s ome c on t a in c omp lex i nd iv idua ls pec ie sa nd r e la t ionsh ip s ,a r ew e l lu nde r s tood a nd g ene ra l ly a ccep ted ( G r im 1 968 :34 ,F o lk 1 980 :89 -94 ,W i l l iam se ta l . 1 982 :317 -324 ,L ew i s 1 984 :151 -157 ) . K e r r ( 1977 :454 ) , t a bu la te s c l ay m ine ra l s i n to f o u r g r oup s , k ao l in s ( k and i te s ) , i n c lud ing k ao l in i te , a naux i te , d i ck i te , n acr i te , h a l loy s i te , h yd roha l loy s i te , a nd a l lophane , ‚ n on tmor i l l o n i re s ( smec t i te s ) , i n c lud ing mon tmo r i l lon i te , b e ide l l i te , n on t ron i te , s a pon i te , a nd h ec to r i t e , i l i t e( h ydromu scov i te ) ,a nd p a lygor sk i t e s ,i n c lud ing p a lygo r sk i te ,a t tapu lg i te a nd s ep io l i te ,a s d i s t inc tc l ay m ine r a lg roup s . Many mode rn r e sea rche r si n c lude d i ck i t ea nd n acr i te ( bo th r a r e ) w i th k ao l in i te ( G r im 1 968 :38 , McConch ie 1 978 ) . G r im ( 1 968 :38 ) , a r gue s" t ha th a l loy s i te i s d i s t inc tf r om k ao l in i te a nd w a r ran t s as e pa r a te s pec if ic n ame" . Many a u tho r s , h oweve r , ( Ma s on 1 966 , F o lk 1 980 , T ucke r 1 981 , W i l l iam s e ta l . 1 982 , L ew i s 1 984 ) , i n c lude h a l loy s i te w i th k ao l in i te . W i l l iam s e ta l . ( 1982 :317 -320 ) , r e cogn ize i l i te s , s mec t i te s , k ao l in i te s , c h lo r i te ,g i bb s i te ,a nd h a l loy s i te . A na l te rna t ive c l a s s if i ca t ion i d en t if ie sk and i te s( k ao l in i te ,d i ck i te , n a c r i te a nd h a l loy s i te ) , i l i te s ( i l l i te , a nd t h e s o -ca l led h yd rom ica s i n c lud ing s e r ic i te ) , s mec t i e s( mon tmo r i l lon i te ) ,v erm icu l i t e sa nd p a lygor sk i t e . C h lo r i te i sn o ti n c luded i nt h is s y s tem ( Dee r , How ie a nd Z us sman 1 966 :253 -254 ) . Mon tmo r i l lon i te i sn ow t e nded t ob er e cogn ized a s am embe ro ft h es mec t i te g roup . T he i mpo r tan tf a c to r sf o rc e r am ic p u rpo se sa r ec r y s ta l l in i ty ,m anne ra nd p e r f ec t ion o ft h e s t a ck ing o fl a ye r s , a nd t h e n umbe ra nd t y pe o fc hem ica l ly b ound l a ye r sp re sen ti na ny g i ven c l ay m ine ra l . T h i sl a t te rf a c to ri np a r t icu la ri sd i rec t ly r e la ted t ot h ea moun to fw a te rt h ec l ay w i l la d so rb ( Gr im 1 968 :234 -235 ) ,a nd c r uc ia l ly a f ec t si t ss u i tab i l i ty f o rc e ram ic s . As c hema t ic s umma ry o ft h ep r inc ip le c l ay m ine ra l s t r uc tu r e si ss e to u ti nf i gu re 4 . 6b e low . K ao l in i te h a s ad ioc tahed ra l s t ruc tu re c ompr is ing o ne s i l ica t e t rahed ra l s hee ta nd o ne a l u m ina o c tahed ra l s hee t c omb ined t of o rm ac ommon l a y e r ( Gr im 1 968 :58 F ig . 4 -4 ) . T hese l a ye r sf o rm s hee t s s t acked v e r t ica l ly a l ong t h e Cc r y s ta l log r aph ic a x i s ( Dee re ra l . 1 966 :256 ,

4 . 4 . ANALYS IS OF S AKON NA KHON BASIN POTT ING CLAYS

4 3

F ig . 8 7 ) .Kao l in i t e n o rma l ly i sw e l l c r y s ta l l ine a nd s ub jec tt ol i t t le s ub s t i tu t ion . Wi th in laye r s h ar ing o fa t om sr e su l t si nr e la t ive ly f ew h yd roxy l si nc ompa r i son t oo the rc l ay m ine ra l s . T he l a ye r s a r eb ound b y h yd rogen - o rh yd roxy l type b ond s ( Dee re ra l . 1 966 :256 , F ig . 8 8 ) . T he OH l a t t ice w a te ri sl o s tb eg inn ing a tt empe ra tu r e sa bove a bou t3 00 ° Cw i th mo s to ft h ed ehy d ra t ion o ccu r r ing b e tween a bou t4 00 ° a nd 5250 C , a nd a ta bou t7 50 ° t o8 00 ° d ehyd ra t ion i s e s sen t ia l ly c omp le te ( G r im 1 968 :298 ) . T he r e su l tan tl o s so fo xygen a t om si n me tak ao l in a l mo s tc e r ta in ly r ef lec t s at e t rahed ra la l um in ium c oo rd ina t ion ,a nd i ti st h is n ew s t ruc tu re w h ich g i ve sr i se t ot h es t r eng th o fm e takao l in ( G r im 1 968 :298 -30 1 ) . A d so rbed w a te r( i . e . in p o re s ,on s u r f a ce s a nd e dge s o fm ine ra l p ar t ic le s ) , i sl o s t a tl i t t le a bove o rd ina ry r oom t empe ra tu re s . F o rc l ay m ine ra l s o t he rt h an w e l l c r y s ta l l ine k ao l in i te a d so rbed w a te ri sn o rma l ly d r iven o f a tt empe ra tu re sw e l lb e low 3 00 °C .P o re w a te ri su sua l ly l o s ta t1 20 °t o1 50 °C . A i rd ry ing i s s uf i c ien tt or emove t h eb a lance o fa d so rbed w a te r . D i so rde r ed k ao l in i te i sn o rma l ly p oo r ly c ry s ta l l ine w i th i mpe r f ec t ion s i nt h e s t a ck ing o f l a ye r s . G r im ( 1968 :6 .6 ) , s ugge s t sg rada t ion sf r om w e l lc r y s ta l l ized k ao l in i te t oc omp le te r an d omne s si nl a y e ro rgan iza t ion a nd p opu la t ion so fa l um in ium p o s i t ion sf o rd i so rde red k ao l in i t e . S ub s t i tu t ion s ,u sua l ly o ft i an ium o ri r on f o ra l um in ium , o n ly o ccu ri np oo r ly c rys ta l l ine ( i . e .d i so rde red ) k ao l in i te . A cco rd ing t oH ame r ( 1 975 :100 ) s u ch c l ay m ine ra l s f o rm t h e f i ne a nd p l a s t ic p o r t ion o ft h es o -ca l led s e cond ary c l ay s ( e .g . b a l lc l ay s , s t onew a re c l ays a nd l ow g rad ef i re c l ay s ) . I nt h e c a se o fs mec t i te s , v e rm icu l i te s a nd t h e h yd ra ted f o rm o fh a l loy s i te , t h e i n te r laye r w a te rr equ i re s t empe ra tu r e s o fu p t o4 00 ° Cf o rc omp le te r emov a l . Smec t i te s h ave e i the r a d ioc tahed ra l o r t r ioc tahed rl s t ruc tu re c ompr is ing S i -A l -S i u n i t s w i th t h e 0l a ye r s o f e ach u n i t a d ja cen tt o0l a ye r s o fn e ighbou r ing u n i t ( G r im 1 968 :79 , F ig . 4 13 ) . T h is r e su l t s i na v e ry w eak b ond . Wa te rc an r e ad i ly e n te rb e tween t h eu n i tl a y e r sc au s ing t h el a t t ice t oe xpand s ub s tan t ia l ly . D ehyd ra t ion o fi n te r laye rw a te ri sr ap id u pon h ea t ing a nd i sp robab ly c omp le te a ta bou t3 00 °c e l s iu s . T h i si sa c compan ied b y ama rked r educ t ion i n Ca x i sd imen s ions . R a te s f o rt h el o s so f OH l a t t ice w a te rv a ry w ide ly f o rs me c t i te s . Howeve rn o rma l mon tmo r i l lon i te s l o se OH w a t e rr a p id ly f r om a bou t5 00 ° C , a nd d ehyd ra t ion i sp rac t ica l ly c omp le te a t8 00 ° C ( G r im 1 968 :314 -315 ) . Smec t i te s ,i l i te sa nd v e rm icu l i te sa r ea l ls t ruc tu ra l ly r e la ted t ot h em ica s ,w i th i l i te ss how i ng t h ec l o se s ts im i lar i ty . M i ca sh ave t h es ame b a s ic s t ruc tu re a s "mon tmo r i l lon i te e xcep tt h a t s ome o ft h e s i l icon s a r e a lway s r ep laced b y a l um inum s" ( G r im 1 968 :93 -98 ) . T he r e su l tan t c ha rge d ef ic iency i sb a lanced b y p o ta s s ium i o ns l o ca ted b e tween u n i t l a ye r s . A s ac on se q uence m ica s g ene ra l ly c on ta in l i t t le i n te r laye rw a te r . I ni l i te st h i s s ub s t i tu t ion o ccu r s c l o se t ot h el a ye rs u r f ace t h u sp r even t ing t h er e ady e n t ry o fp o la ri o n s . I l i te sd if e rf r om t h e w e l l c ry s ta l l ized m ica si nt h e i rA lf o rS is ub s t i tu t ion r a t io sa nd t h i sg i ve sr i se t o ac ha rge d ef ic iency r educ t ion . S ome p o ta s s ium i o n sb e tween u n i tl a ye r sm ay b er ep la ced b yo the rc a t ion s . S tack i ng o fl a ye r s i nt h e Cd i r e c t ion i ss omewha t r a ndom a nd i l i te s h ave s ma l le r p a r t ic le s t h an m ica s . I l i tes l o se a d so rbed w a te rr ap id ly b e low 1 00 °C ,g radua l ly b e tween 1 00 0 a nd 3 50 ° C , al a rge r e la t ive ly a b r up tl o s so ccu r sf r om a bou t3 50 ° Ct o6 00 °C , a nd a bove 6 00 ° Cw a te ri s g radua l ly l o s t( G r im 1 968 :334 ) . T he OH l a t t ice w a te ri sg r adua l ly l o s tf r om 3 00 ° t o6 00 ° C ( Gr im 1 968 :334 -335 ) . Smec t i te sm ay c on ta in r a ndom ly m ixed c e l ls a nd t h i sr e su l t si n av ar ie ty o fw a te rc on ten t s w i th b a sa l s pa c ing sr ang ing f r om b e tween a bou t 1 0 t o2 1 A( Dee re r .a l . 1 966 :265 ) . H ence t h ey a r eo f ten r e f e r red t oa ss we l l ing c l ay s . S e r ic i te i sc ha rac ter i sed p r inc ipa l ly a s ad eg raded m ica , o r a l te rna t ive ly a s at r ue c l ay m ine ra l . F o lk ( 1980 :90 ) , d e scr ibe s i ta s ac l ay m ine ra l t h a t i s" p robab ly j u s t f i ne -g ra ined

4 4

CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING CLAYS

s l igh t ly i mpu re o r K -def i c ien t m u scov i te" . G r im ( 1968 :42 ) , h oweve r , o b jec t s t ot h e d ef in i t i on o fs e r ic i te a s ac l ay m ine ra la nd p re f e r si l i te " fo rc l ay -m ine ra lm ica so fb o th d ioc tahed ra l a nd t r ioc tahed ra lt y pe sa nd o fm u scov i te a nd b i o t i te c ry s t a l l iza t ion s" . O the r s ,( Ke r r1 977 :430 , 4 33 ,4 6 1 ,H e inr ich 1 965 :28 ,2 81 ) ,c on s ide rs e r ic i te i se i the r ah yd ro the rma ls e conda ry m ine ra l o r aw ea the r ed m ica . D ee re ta l . ( 1966 :202 ,2 6 1 ) ,n o te t h a tt h et e rm i s" gene r a l ly u sed t od e s c r ibe af i ne -g ra ined w h i t em ica w h ich may b e mu scov i te o rp aragon i te" . L ew i s( 1984 :151 ) , a rgue s t h a t " i l l i te ( h yd romu scov i te ) g rade s i n to s e r ic i te" . Rom ap u r e ly p e t rog r aph ic v i ew p o in t ,h oweve r , Wi l l iam se t .a l( 1 982 ) ,a vo id t h et e rm e n t i re ly p re f e r r ing t od e sc r ibe s uch ma t e r ia l a s" f ined -g ra ined m uscov i te" o r" wh i te m ica" . I nl i gh to ft h e se v ar ia t ion si nd ef in i t ion a nd t e rm ino logy , G r im 's c ha ra c te r iza t ion o fi l i te , b ecau se i tr e f e r st ot h ec hem i ca l s t ruc tu re o ft h e m ine ra l , w i l l b e a pp l ied t oc hem ica l a nd X ray c l ay m ine ra l d a ta i n c luded h e r e . T he t e rm s e r ic i te w i l lb eu sed f o rf i ne g r a ined ,o p t ica l ly i d en t if i ab le , mu scov i te . V e rm icu l i te s a r e o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th m ica s i nm ixed laye r s t ruc tu re s . T he v erm icu l i te s t ruc tu re c on s i s t so fa na l te rna t ion o fe i the rd ioc tahed ra lo rt r ioc tahed ra lm ica o rt a lc l ik el a y e r sa nd d oub le w a te rl a ye r s . I ti ss im i la rt ot h es mec t i te si nt h a ti th a sa ne xpand ing s t ruc tu r eb u t d if e r si nt h a ti t se xpan s ion w i th w a te ri sl im i ted t oa bou t4 . 98 A ( G r im 1 968 :104 -111 ) . V e r m icu l i te d ehyd ra te si ns t ep sf r om an o rma lC -ax i sd imen s ion o f1 4 .36 A d own t o9 . 02 A a st h e i n te r laye rw a te ri sg r adua l ly l o s ta nd t h e s i l ica te s t a ck ing s equence c hanges ( G r im 1 968 :108 10 ) . When h ea ted r ap id ly t oa bou t3 00 °C ,v e rm icu l i te e xfo l ia te sw i th ama rked e xpan s ion . I fi ti sh ea ted s l ow ly u p t oa bou t 2 50 ° C , h oweve r , e x fo l ia t ion d oe s n o t o ccu r ( Dee r e t .a l . 1 966 :272 ) . C h lo r i te c on s i s t so fa l te rna te t r ioc tahed ra lm ica l ike a nd b ruc i te l ike l a ye r s( G r im 1 968 :100 ) . D ependen to n t h ec a t ion p re sen t , c h lo r i te s s how v e ry l i t t le w a te rl o s sp r io rt oa bou t5 00 ° C , a l though t h i s may v a ry d ependen to np a r t ic le s i ze a nd l a y e ro r ien ta t ion . A f te r as h arp l o s sb e t ween 5 00 °t o5 50 ° C mo s tc h lo r i te sc omp le te ly d ehyd r a te a ta bou t8 50 ° C . Am ine ra lw i th a 1 4 As pac ing ,w h ich e xpand ss l igh t ly o ng l yco la t ion t oa bou t1 6 At o1 8A ,h a sb een d e sc r ibed a s a" swe l l ing c h lo r i te" . S uch m ine ra l sp robab ly h ave d i s con t inuou sb ruc i te l a ye r si n suf f i c ien t t op reven te xpan s ion o n g l yco la t ion ( G r im 1 968 :103 -104 ) . S ep tech lo r i te sa r ec l o se ly r e la ted t oc h lo r i te s c hem ica l ly b u t s t ruc tu ra l ly h ave s e rpen t ine l ik e l a ye r s w i th a7 a ng s t rom b a sa l s pac ing ( Dee re ta l . 1 966 :241 ,L ew i s 1 984 :152 ) . P a lygo r sk i t e , a t tapu lg i te a nd s ep io l i te h ave a n a mph ibo le - l i k e d oub le c ha in s t ruc tu r e . T hey a r en o ti mpo r tan tc e r am ic c l ay m ine ra ls . K ao l in i te a l one , h oweve r , d oe s n o te n su re aq ua l i ty p o t t ing c l ay b ecau se t h e p o t te r a l so r equ i r e s t h e c l ay t ob e " wo rkab le" . T h i s m ean s i t mu s t b e s t rong , p l a s t ic a nd t h ixo t rop ic . H ame r( 1975 :295 ) ,d e sc r ibe st h i sl a t te rp rope r ty a st h ea b i l i ty o fc l ay t or e ta in i t ss hape w h i le r ema in ing v i scous a nd t h u se a s i ly w o rked . G r im ( 1968 :236 -238 ) , a l so a s c r ibe st h i sp rope r ty t ot h ixo t ropy ,a l though g eo log i s t sm ay c on s ide rt h et e rm t or e f e rt ot h ep rope r ty o fs ome g e l s t ob ecome f l u id w hen s hak en ( Ame r ican G eo log ica lI n s t i tu te 1 976 ) . P la s t ic i ty i st h ep rope r ty o f mo i s tened c l ay t ob er e fo rmed w hen s ub jec ted t o mechan ica l p re s su r e , w i th t h en ew f o rm r e ta in ing i t s s hape w hen t h ep r e s su re i sr emoved . T h i sp rope r ty i sd eve loped b yc l ay sm ixed w i th al im i ted a moun to fw a t e ru n t i lr e ad i ly w o rk ab le . E xce s s ive w a te rc r ea te s ac l ay w h ich i st oo f l u id . P la s t ic i ty i sp r im ar i ly d ue t ot h e a d so rp t ion o fw a te r b yc l ay m ine r a l s . I np o t t ing c l ay s i ti sa l so d ependen to n s e ve ra l o t he rf a c to r si n c lud ing t h e r e la t ive p ropo r t ion so fn onp la s t ic a nd o t he rn on c l ay i n c lu s ion si na dd i t ion t ot h eo ve ra l lc l ay m ine ra lc ompo s i t ion . P a r t ic le s i ze , u n ifo rm i ty , t e x tu re a nd s hape i nf luence p l a s t ic i ty i nb o th c l ay m ine ra l sa nd c o l lo ida ln onp la s t ic s .

4 . 4 . ANALYS IS OF S AKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING CLAYS

4 5

C lay -m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion " r e f e r s t ot h e i d en t i ty a nd r e la t ive a bundance o fa l l t h e c l ay m ine ra l c omponen t s" ( Gr im 1 968 :4 ) . I ti sc r uc ia l t ot h e o ve ra l l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e p o t t ing c l ay m a t er ia l . Aq ua l i ty p o t t ing c l ay, t h e r efo r e , mu s ti n c lude e i the r am ix tu r eo fc l ay m ine ra l s o r , a si nt h ec a se o ft h el ow e rf i red w a re s s uch a sb i scu i ta nd /o rs t onew a re , am ix tu re o fc l ay m ine ra l ( s ) a nd n onp la s t ic m a ter ia l . T h i s l a t te rc omponen t may f o rm f r om 2 5 t o5 0% o ft h e t o ta lm ix . Many c omme r c ia l c l ay m a ter ia l s c on ta in k ao l in i te a nd i h i te i na bou te qua l a moun t s , o f t e n w i th s ma l l a dd i t iona l a moun t s o fc h lo r i te . Mon tmo r i l lon i te i sa ccep tab le o n ly i ns ma l l q uan t i t ie s a sl a rge a moun t sc ause c a ta s t roph ic s h r inkage a nd d ry ing p rob lem s . O ve ra l l t h e se c l ay s g ene ra l ly d i sp lay r e la t ive ly l ow s h r ink age , g ood p l a s t ic i ty a nd f i r ing p rope r t ie s ( G r im 1 962 :131) .

4 . 4 .1

Me thod s

I nt h ef i e ld , s po ts amp le so fs ma l lr ep re sen ta t ive a r ea so fp o t t ing c l ay , w e igh ing a bou t 1k g , w e r et a ken . I nt h el a bo ra to ry , d ry s amp le se a ch w e igh ing a bou t5 0 g r am s w e re i mme r sed i n 4 00 m l o fd i s t i l led w a te r f o ra bou t 3 0 m inu te s u n t i l f u l ly f l occu la ted . T hey w e r e t h en t h o r o ugh ly s t i r red a nd a l lowed t os e t t le f o r 9 0 s e cond s w hen t h e u ppe r h a lf o ft h e c o lumn w a s d ecan ted i n to a no the rb eake r . T h i s f i ne f r a c t ion w a s a l lowed t os e t t le f o r af u r the r 2 4 h ou r s w hen t h ee xce s s w a te rw a s d ecan ted a nd t h er e s idua l 2 pw i l lp robab ly b ei n c luded i nt h ei n i t ia ld ecan t ,t h es e cond 2 4h ou rs e t t l ing p e r iod m ean st h a tt h e< 2 pf r ac t ion w i l ls e t t le l a s t . O n ly t h eu ppe rp o r t ion o ft h es e cond p repa ra t ion i su sed ,t h u s ah omogeneou s < 2 ,p c oa t ing s hou ld r e su l t . T h i ss t udy i sp r ima r i ly c once rned w i th t h ec ha rac te r isa t ion o ft h eo ve ra l ls pec t rum i nt er m s o fb o th t h ep re sence a nd r e la t ive p ropo r t ion so fc l ay m ine ra l s . F o rc e ram ic p u rpo se st h ec l ay m ine ra lc ompo s i t ion o fc l ay m a ter ia l si so fc r uc ia li mpo r tance . T hu s ,b ecau se t h e se d e te rm i n a t ion sw e re u nde r tak en i no rde rt oa s se s st h eq ua l i ty o ft h ec l ay m a te r ia la s ap o t t ing c l ay ,a nd

4 6

CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING C LAYS

t oc omp lemen tp e t rog raph ic d a ta ,t h eq uan t i ta t ive a moun to fi nd iv idua lc l ay s pec ie s w i th r e s pec tt ot h eo ve ra l ls amp le h a sn o tb een a s se s sed . R e su l t so ft h et e s t so u t l ined a bove i nd ica ted t h a t t h e p ou r -on -g la ss -s l ide m e thod w a s s u i tab le . I ndeed D r .A .Reay ( p e r s .con im . ) , f a vou r s t h i sm e thod b ecau se o fi t ss imp l ic i ty a nd m in ima le xpe r im en ta le r ro r .

4 . 4 .2

R e su l t s

XRD r e su l t sa r es e to u ti nf i gu r e s4 . 8t o4 . 21 ,a nd s hou ld b ec ompa r ed w i th t h es h r ink age t e s t s ( T ab le 4 . 2 ) ,a nd p e t rog raph ic d a ta s e to u ti nc hap te rf i ve . Ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e XRD r e su l t s i ss e to u tb e low . S amp le s 8 ,1 3 , a nd 1 4w e re i d en t if i ed b y n on -po t te r s a sh av ing o nce b een q uar r ied b y p o t te r s . B ecau se m any c l ay s p o ten t ia l ly s u i tab le f o r p o t t ing p urpo se s o ccu r i n s ma l ll o ca l ized d epo s i t s , a nd mo s tr equ i re mod if i ca t ion , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e se c l ay m a te r ia l s r equ i r et h e a dd i t ion o fs u i tab le c l ay m ine ra l si ft h ey a r et ob ecome v i ab le p o t t ing ma te r ia l s . T hu st h e se r e su l t sh igh l igh tt h en eed t oe n su re ,w he r ep o s s ib le , t h a tv e r if i ed p roduc t ion c l ays a r ec o l lec ted f o ra na ly s i s . E ach s amp le c on ta in s mo r et h an o ne c l ay m ine ra l s pec ie , a nd h ence t h ey a r em ix ed layer c l ay m a t er ia l s ( G r im 1 968 :121 ) . T he se a r e d if e ren t t om ixed la yer c l ay m inera ls t ruc ture s w h ich r e su l tf r om t h ei n te r s t ra t if i ca t ion o fi nd iv idua ll a ye r so fs i ng le ,o r af ew ,a l um ino -s i l ica te s hee t s . M ixed l a ye rc l ay ma te r ia l sa r et h o se w he re ,w i th in a ny g iven n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing c l ay m a te r ia ld epo s i t , t h em ix tu re i so fd i sc re te c l ay -m ine ra lp a r t ic le s w h ich a r en o to r ien ta ted i n a ny g eome t r ica l ly p re f e r r ed manne rw i th r e spec tt ot h e i rc l ay -m ine ra ln e ighbou r s . Ad epo s i t w h ich c on ta in s k ao l in i te a nd s mec t i te , f o r e xamp le , i s am ixed laye r c l ay m a t er ia l . M ica v e rm icu l i te a nd m ica -mon tmo r i u lon i te i n te r s tn t t if i ca t ion s a r e c ommon e xamp le s o f m ixed l a ye rc l ay m ine ra l s ( C ar ro l l 1 970 :38 ) . Whe re t h er ef lec t ion sa ta bou t 1 4Ah ave s h i f ted f o l low ing g l yco la t ion t oa bou t1 7At h e c l ay m ine ra li sc on s ide red t ob e as mec t i te ( Gr im 1 968 :143 ) . S ome s amp le sp robab ly a l so c on t a in m ixed laye rc l ay m ine ra l s . Wh i le i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t ob ec e r ta in ,i ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h es t ab le 1 4

Ap eak s a r ec on s i s ten tw i th c h lo r i te . G r im ( 1968 :147 ) n o te s t h a t b ecau se o ft h e i r s ma l l

s i ze ,a nd l e s sr egu la rc ry s ta l l in i ty ,c h lo r i te c l ay -m ine ra lp a r t ic les o f ten g i ve d ifu se r ef lec t ions , a nd s ome o rd in a ry r ef lec t ion s m ay b e a b sen t . C h lo r i te i su n l ike ly t oa f ec t t h e s u i tab i l i ty o f t h e se c l ay ma te r ia l s f o rc e r am i c p u rpo se s . I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tt h e se p o t t ing c l ay s c an b e d i v ided i n to t ho se w h ich c on ta in " swe l l ing" c l ay m ine ra l sa nd t ho se w h ich d on o t . I n s amp les 1 ,5 ,6 ,7 , 8 ,9 , 1 , a nd 1 3 , n o s h if t i nt h e 1 4 A p eak s o ccu r r ed , a l though s amp le s6 ,7 ,9 ,1 , a nd 1 3d i sp lay as l igh td ec r ea se i ns pec t rum h e igh tp a r t icu la r ly a tt h el ow i n c id en tb eam a ng le s . T h i si sp robab ly d ue t ot h ee t hy lene g l yco lp roduc ing ac oa t ing e f ec t w h ich h a sm u ted t h e se s i gna l ss l igh t ly . T he s pec t rog raph sa r es e to u tb e low . I ne a ch c a se t h ec har ts peed w a s2 0 mm p e rm inu te . T he l o ca t ion o fe a ch c l ay s ou r ce i ss e to u ti nf i gu re 4 . 7 .

4 .4 . ANALYSIS OF S AKON NA KHON BASIN POTT ING CLAYS

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CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING CLAYS

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4 . 4 . ANALYSIS OF S AKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING CLAYS

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4 . 4 . ANALYS IS OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN POTT ING C LAYS

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CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING CLAYS

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4 . 4 . ANALYS IS OF S AKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING CLAYS

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4 . 4 . ANALYS IS OF S AKON NA KHON BASIN POTT ING C LAYS

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CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING C LAYS

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4 . 4 . ANALYSIS OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN P07T ING CLAYS

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F IGURE 4 . 20 : CLAY 1 3 ( BAN NA D I( Hua i Wang D uan H a ) ) . 1 0 ,000 c oun t sp e rs e cond .

a

3I

31

IS

j

1 .

a

‚

2 0

70

50

30

20

G lyco la ted

2 9

2 8

2 7

2 6

2 5

2 4

2 3

2 2

2 1

2 0

1 9

t o

1 7

1 6

1 5

1 4

1 3

2

1

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2o

F IGURE 4 .2 1 : CLAY 1 4( BAN NA D I( Nong H aeo ) ) . 1 0 ,000 c oun t sp e rs e cond .

4 .5 . SUM MARY OF POTT ING CLAY QUAL IT IES

4 . 5

6 1

S ummary o fp o t t ing c l ay q ua l i t ie s

F rom t h ep e r spec t ive o fc e ram ic m anuf ac tu re ,p o t t ing c l ay sn eed ar ange o fi n te r re la ted p hy s i c a l a nd c hem ica l q ua l i t ie s . T he t y pe a nd r e la t ive q uan t i t ie s o fc l ay m ine ra l sp re sen ti na ny p o t t ing c l ay m ay h ave i mpo r t an te f ec t s o ni t sq ua l i ty . V ar ia t ion si nt h eq ua l i ty o fc l ay m in e r a l s may i nf luence t h eo ve r a l lt e chno log ica lp roce s se sr equ i red t op roduce av i ab le c e r am ic m a t e r ia l . O ft h ec l ay sd e s c r ibed a bove ,d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion r eg a rd ing m e thod so ft empe r ing a r en o tk nown f o rs amp le s 5 ,6 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , a nd 1 4 . C lay s 1 ,2 ,a nd 7 ,a nd p o s s ib ly 1 2 ,w e r et empe red w i th t h eb l eb s pec ie so fg rog . C lay 7f e a tu r ed h eavy r i ce t empe r ing i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h eb l eb s . T he c l ay w a sq uar r ied am e t r eb e low ar i ce f i e ld t or each c l ay c on s ide red s t icky e nough . L e s ss t i cky c l ay w a sr e jec ted a st oo s andy a nd t h e refo r el i ke ly t oc r ack o nf i r ing . T he h igh p ropo r t ion o fc l ay m ine ra l si s c o r re la ted w i th wha t ,i nt h in -sec t ion ,a ppea r st ob e ah igh s i l tc on ten t . C lay 3w a sn o tt empe red . I tw a sk i ln -f i r ed i n to s t onew ar e . C lay 4w a sr i ce tempe red . T he amoun to ft empe ru sed i sn o t k nown . P e rhap st h eo u t s tand ing o ve ra l lf ea tu re o ft h ese c l ay si st h e i rm ine ra log ica lv a r iab i l i ty . T h i s f a c to rd emon s t r a tes t h ee xpe r t i se r equ i red i ni d en t ify ing s u i tab le r aw c l ay d epo s i t sa nd p r epa r i ng t h e se c l ay sf o rc e r am i c manuf a c tu re . I ta l so e mpha s ize st h es k i lf u la pp roa ch emp loyed b y p o t t e r s u nde r tak ing t h e i rc r af t o f ten u nde r t h e mo s t r ud imen t a ry o fc ond i t ion s . S amp les 2 a nd 4c on ta in s we l l ing c l ay s , w h i le s amp le 7d oe sn o tb u ti ss i l ty , y e t ,i ne ach c a se ,t h ey a r e s ucce s s fu l ly e xp lo i ted . T ab le s 4 . 1 a nd 4 .2 b e low s e to u tt h eq ua l i ty o ft h eu nmod if ied c l ay s f r om ap o t te r 's s ub jec t ive p e r spec t ive ,a nd t h er e su l t so fs h r inkage t e s t sr e spec t ive ly . B i sque s u sed i nt h es h r inkage t e s t sm ea su red 1 5 x2 . 5 x0 . 8 cm w hen f o rmed . A1 0c ml o ng ma rk w a s i n c i sed i n to t h e i r s u r f a ce s w hen s of tt oe nab le t h e s h r ink age r a tes t ob ec a lcu la t ed ( How a rd 1 982 ) .

TABLE 4 . 1 : T he p o t t ing p rope r t ie so fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s C lay No . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 .

P rope r t ie s . mode ra te ly p l a s t ic mode ra te ly p l a s t ic s ho r ta nd c oa r se p l a s t ic a nd f i ne mode ra te ly p l a s t ic p l a s t ic a nd s moo th s ho r ta nd f i ne v e ry s ho r ta nd s andy p l a s t ic a nd s moo th p l a s t ic ,v e ry f i ne a nd s t icky s l igh t ly p l a s t ic ,f i ne a nd s andy mode ra te ly p l a s t ic mode ra te ly p l a s t ic a nd f i ne s ho r t ,f i ne a nd s andy

A l lo ft h eb i sque sw e re f i red i na no x id iz ing a tmo sphe re a f te ra i r -d ry ing t ot h el e a the rh a rd

6 2

CHAPTER 4 . THE STUDY AREA AND POTT ING C LAYS

TABLE 4 . 2 : T he s h r inkage r a te so fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ays t e s t 3 . t e s t 2 . t e s t 1 . 1 000C 9 00C 8 00C d r y f i r ed ry f i r ed f i red d c l ay d ry 8 .0 0 .0 8 9 .5 9 0 .0 9 0 .0 8 1 9 0 .5 9 9 .0 0 .0 8 0 .0 9 0 .0 9 0 .5 9 2 9 0 .5 9 8 6 . 0 9 0 . 0 8 8 . 5 0 .0 0 .0 9 0 .0 9 3 9 4 9 0 .0 3 .0 5 9 1 .0 6 9 2 .0 7 9 6 .0 8 9 0 .5 9 9 1 0 9 0 .0 1 9 7 .0 1 2 9 1 .0 4 .5 1 3 9 1 4

9 7 .0

8 9 .5 9 3 .0 9 0 .0 9 0 .0 9 6 .0

9 0 .0 9 3 .0 9 1 .5 9 2 .5 9 6 .5

9 0 .0 8 9 .0 9 7 .0 9 0 .0 9 3 .5

9 0 .0 9 0 .0 9 6 .5 9 2 .5 9 5 .0

9 7 .0

9 7 .0

9 0 .0 9 2 .5

8 7 .0 9 2 .0

9 6 .5 9 0 .0 8 9 .0 9 6 .5 9 1 .5 9 5 .0

9 1 .5 9 0 .0 9 6 .5 9 0 .0 9 0 .0 9 6 .0 9 2 .0 9 4 .5

9 0 .0 8 8 .5 9 6 .5 9 0 .0 8 6 .5 9 6 .0 8 9 .5 9 4 .5

9 6 .5

9 6 .0

9 6 .0

8 9 .0 9 3 .0 9 0 .0 9 2 .0

s t age ,f o l low ing s t and a rd mode rn p o t t ing p ra c t ice ,t ot e s tt h e i rl i ke ly f i r ing b ehav iou r( Howa rd 1 982 ) . C lay s 8 ,1 , 1 3 a nd 1 4w e re c o l lec ted u naccompan ied b y ap o t te r . S ign if i can t ly t h ey d i sp layed t h el e a s ts h r ink age . C lay s3 ,7 , 8a nd 1 4h ave l i t t le p l a s t ic i ty d ue t o ad i sp ropo r t iona te a moun to fn on -p la s t ic s . I n mode rn p o t t ing t e rm ino logy t h ey c an b ed e sc r ibed a s" sho r t" .The s h r ink age r a te sd on o td i squa l ify a ny o ft h ec l ay sf o rp o t t ing . Ah igh p ropo r t ion o fn on -p la s t ic s i nt h e" sho r t" c l ay si sn o te nough t or ende rt h em u n su i tab le ,h owev e r al a ck o fs uf i c ien ts u i tab le c l ay m ine ra ls w ou ld b ec r i t ica lt ot h e i ru se a sp o t t ing m a te r ia l . I ti sl i k e ly t h a tt h e se c l ay sw ou ld n o tf i re w e l l , g i ven t h e i rn a tu ra l c ompo s i t ion , w i thou t mod if i ca t ion . I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a t w h i le n on -p la s t ic i n c lu s ion ss e rve t or educe s h r ink age ,b yc oa r sen ing a nd o pen ing t h et e x tu re o ft h e ma te r ia l t h ey a l low t h e mo re r ap id e scape o fg a se s , t h ey may a l so w eak en t h ec l ay b y r educ ing t h ep ropo r t ion o fc l ay m ine ra l s . T hu st h ea moun to fn on -p la s t ic ma te r ia l ac l ay may a c commoda te i sl im i ted . T he n o rma l moder np o t t ing p ra c t ice i st ob l end a" p la s t ic" ( i . e . h igh i ns u i tab le c l ay m ine ra l s ) ,c l ay w i th t h e" sho r t" c l ay ( Hame r 1 975 :264 ) .

6 3

Chap ter 5 T he p e tro logy o fS akon N akhon B a s in p o t t ing c l ay s 5 . 1

I n troduc t ion

T he f o l low ing p o t t ing c l ay s w e re c o l lec ted f r om q ua r r ie se i the ri nc u r r en tp roduc t ion o ru t i l i zed i nl i v ing m emo ry . C lay sf r om s i te s5 ,8 ,1 , 1 3 ,a nd 1 4w e r ec o l lec ted u naccompan ied b y ap o t te r . T he s h r inkage a nd XRD d a ta s e to u ti nc hap te rf ou rs ugge s tt h a tt h e se r aw c l ay sa r e o fp oo rq ua l i ty . T hu st h e i ru sef u lne s sa sp o t t ing c l ay si su nce r ta in . I ti sp o s tu la ted t h a tc l ay s p e t rog raph ica l ly c on s i s ten tw i th 1 3a nd /o r 1 4a nd 1 0 ,w e re b l ended i no rde rt op roduce f ab r ic g roup 3a tB an N aD i( f ig .7 . 22 ,a ppend ix o ne ,a nd T ab le 5 . 1 b e low ) . E ach c l ay w a s f i r ed a t5 0 ° Ci n c remen t s f r om 7 00 °C t o

1 050 0

C , i na n o x id i s ing a tmo -

s phe re , a nd t h en t h in -sec t ioned . T hu se i gh t s e c t ion s o fe a ch c l ay h ave b een e xam ined . P r io r t oc ove r ing w i th ag l a s s s l ip , t h e s e c t ion sw e re e t ched w i th h yd rof luo r ic a c id f ume s a nd t h en s t a ined s ucce s s ive ly w i th s od ium c obah in i t ra te , a5% b ar ium c h lo r ide s o lu t ion , a nd f i na l ly w i th an ea r -sa tu ra ted a m a r an th s o lu t ion . T he l a t te rt wo c hem ica l s s t a in p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r r ed , t h e f i r s t s t a in s p o ta s s ium f e ld spa ry e l low . Af u l l d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e p rocedu r e i ss e to u t b y N o rman ( 1 974 ) . L ew i s ( 1984 :144 -145 ) g i ve s a n a l te rna t ive m e thod . S ta in ing a s s i s ted i n i d en t i fy ing f i ne t ov e ry f i ne s and s ized f e ld spa r s . R oundne s s a nd s o r t ing h ave b een v i sua l ly e s t ima ted . C o lou r sr ep re sen tf i r ing st o1 000 ° Cr e co rded u nde rt h e Mun se l ln o ta t ion s y s tem . P o in tc oun t ing h a sh e lped d if e ren t ia te s ou r ce st h rough t h eq uan t if ica t ion o ft h e i rv ar iou s n onp la s t ic c on ten t s .The G lago lev -C haye sm e thod ( Ga lehou se 1 971 :385 -407 )w a su sed . T he r e su l t sa r es e to u ti nT ab le s5 . 1 a nd 5 . 6 . T hese s hou ld b et r ea ted a s ag u ide o n ly b ecau se t h e d if i cu l t ie se ncoun te red i ne va lua t ing s ed imen t a ry f ab r ics ( Lew i s 1 984 :66 -67 ) , a r e i n c rea sed i nc e ram ic sf o rt wo i mpo r tan tr e a son s . F i r s t ,t h em ix ing o fn onp la s t ics i nc l ay si sn o ta lway sh omogeneou s . H e te rogeneou sm ix i ng may b en a tu ra l ,o rp romo t ed b y" wedg ing" , ap roce s sd e s igned t oe xc lude a i rp r io rt of i r ing . T he refo re s ome a r ea s o f ten c on ta in l e s s n onp la s t ic s t h an t h e o ve ra l la ve rage , b u to the ra r ea s c on ta in mo re . T he se d if e rence sa r eo f ten n o te a s i ly d i sce rn ib le ,o rr e ad i ly a ccommoda ted ,i n c e ram ic t h in -sec t ion s . S econd , aw ide v ar ia t ion i nn onp la s t ic s i ze r ange i sc ommon b o th w i th in a nd b e tween c l ay s . I ti so f ten d if i cu l t ,t h e re fo r e ,t od ec ide o p t imum magn if ica t ion l e ve l s . Magn if i ca t ion st oo l ow may m ean t h a ti mpo r tan tc ryp toc ry s ta l l ine i n c lu s ion sa r en o td i sce rn ib le ,a nd t h u se r roneou s ly c oun ted a sc l ay ma t r ix . T he se n onp la s t ic p a r t ic le sa r eo f t en i mpo r tan tt ot h ep o t t ing m ix tu re . T hey p e r fo rm ad if e ren tr o le ,h oweve r ,t oc l ay m ine r a l s ( s ee c hap te rf ou r ) .

6 4

CHAPTER 5 . THE PETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING C LAYS

A n l OOx magn if i ca t ion w a sa dop ted a st h i s a l lowed f o rt h er e cogn i t ion o fs i l t -s ized n on p l a s t ic p ar t ic le s . I nT ab le 5 . 1 p hy to l i th s ,d i a tom sa nd u n iden t if iab le f r agmen t ary m ic ro fo s s i l s h ave b een g rouped t oge the r . T ab le 5 . 2s e t so u tt h er e la t ion sh ip sb e tween s p icu le s ,f r agm en ta ry f o s s i l si n c lud ing d i a tom s ,a nd p hy to l i th s . S p icu le sa nd p hy to l i th sa r et r ea ted s epa ra te ly . N oa t t emp th a sb een made t oi d en t i fy d i a tom so rp hy to l i th s . Ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o fm ic ro fo s s i l s l i e so u t s ide t h es cope o ft h ep re sen ts t udy . H eavy m ine ra l s h ave b een e xam ined i nt h in -se c t ion a nd w a shed s amp le s . T ou rma l ine , z i rcon , a nd r u t i le h ave b een i d en t if i ed o p t ica l ly . T h i si s ar e s t r ic ted s u i t e . Many g r a in so ccu r a ss i l t -s i zed p ar t ic le s . T h i si sp robab ly c ommon t oh eavy m ine r a l si n mo s ts ed imen t s( B la t te t a l . 1 980 :306 ) . T he i rs i ze m ean st h ey c an b ed if i cu l tt oi d en t ify . Z i r con ,t ou rma l ine a nd r u t i le a r ep robab ly p re sen ti n mo s t , i fn o ta l l , K ho ra ts ed imen t s . ZTR p e r cen tage s a r eo f ten u sef u l i nd e te rm in ing t h e ma tu r i ty o ft e r r igenou ss ed imen t sa nd s and s tone s( I iwHube r t 1 962 ) . L oca l c oncen t ra t ion so fh eavy m ine ra l s may b e g ene r a ted b y c hance d epo s i t iona lc ond i t i on ss uch a st e c ton ic a nd s e al e ve ls t ab i l i ty . S uch a symme t ry may r equ i re i n ten s ive s amp l ing t oa l low i n te rp re ta t ion . I na dd i t ion , w ea the r ing induced d if e ren t ia l d e s t ruc t ion , p ar t icu la r ly i n mo re t r op ica lc l ima te s ,m ay a l so p o se s e r iou si n te rp re t ive p rob lem s( B la t te ta l . 1 980 :286 , 3 05 - 3 09 ) . R u t i le , f o re xamp le , w h i le v e ry s t ab le i ns ed imen ta ry e nv i ronmen t s , m ay m e re ly r ef lec t r eg iona l w ea the r ing c ond i t ion s r a the r t h an d i s tance f r om , o r a bundance i n , i g neou s s ou rce r ock s ( B la t t e ta l . 1 980 :252 -257 ) . R e su l t s s e to u t b e low s ugge s t t h a t f o r t h ep re sen t s ou rc ing a nd p e t rogene t ic p u rpo se si n ten s ive h eavy m ine ra lt e chn ique sa r eu nw ar ran ted . T h i s i sn o t i n tended t os ugge s t t h a t h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i s w ou ld n o t b e u se fu l , b u t t h a tp re sen t a na ly t ica lt e chn ique sa r ee xce s s ive ly l a bo r iou s ,a nd t h u si mp rac t ica l ,i ns t ud ie sw h ich i n vo lve l a rge q uan t i t ie so fp o t te ry f r om many s i te s . R ecogn i t ion o fs ome p o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan t s i l t o r s ma l le r s i zed m ine ra ls i n i t ia l ly c au sed s ome d if i cu l ty . A tt h e s t anda rd 3 0 pt h in -sec t ion t h ickne s st h ey may b e ma sked b y t h ec l ay ma t r ix . C a lc i te , f o re xamp le , i so f t en p r e sen t a s ad ru sy s pa r i te o r am icr i t ic s c a t te r . S ome t h r ead s o ff l ak ey " wh i te m ica" a r e as im i la rd imen s ion . T hu s b o th a r e r e ad i ly d i sgu i sed b y t h ef ab r ic ma t r ix . S uch m ine ra l s may o n ly b ev i s ib le i ft h et h in -sec t ion i st h inne rt h an n o rma l . T h i sa l so a pp l ie st o many h eavy m ine ra lp a r t ic le s ,e spec ia l ly z i r con a nd r u t i le .

5 .2

R esu l t s

T he o ve ra l lc ompo s i t ion o fe ach c l ay i sd e sc r ibed b e low . T ab le s s e t t ing o u tt h er e la t ion sh ip s b e tween i mpo r tan tm ine ra l s a r e g i ven t op rov ide a n o ve ra l l o u t l ine . C lay c ompo s i t ion s a nd m ine ra la s soc ia t ion sh e lp i nt h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h ec l ay s ' g eo log ica lp a ragene s i s .

( a ) T ab le s T ab le 5 . 1 s e t s o u t p o in t c oun t s o ft h e m a jo r c omponen t s . I ne a ch s amp le 5 00 p o in t s w e re c oun ted . A l though s ome i n c lu s ion so cca s iona l ly f a i led t or eg i s te r ,e a ch i sp re sen t , a tl e a s ti n t r ace amoun t s ,i na l lc l ay s . I nc l ay 3 ,t h e mo s to u t s tand ing e xamp le ,o n ly t wo s p icu le f r agmen t s w e re n o ted i nt h ee i gh tt h in - s e c t ion s . T hey d id n o tr eg i s te ri nt h ep o in tc oun t s .

5 . 2 . RESULTS

6 5

TABLE 5 . 1 : P o in tc oun t ing a na ly s i so fm a jo rc omponen t s C lay Ma tr ix Q ua r tz K spa r F e S p icu le s M ic rofo s s i l s 1 6 8 .8 2 4 .8 0 . 2 4 . 0 0 . 8 0 .2 2 8 1 .0 1 0 .2 0 . 0 3 . 0 0 . 6 5 . 2 3 4 5

7 0 .8 8 0 .2 6 1 .4

2 2 .8

0 . 6

5 . 8

0 .0

0 .0

1 3 .2 3 0 .0

0 . 0 1 . 6

3 . 8 2 . 8

1 . 2 1 . 0

1 . 6 3 . 2

6 7

8 6 .2 9 1 .8

9 . 6 3 . 6

0 . 0 0 . 0

0 .0 2 . 8

1 . 0 0 . 4

1 . 2 1 . 4

8 9 1 0

6 2 .6 8 2 .2 7 8 .6

3 6 .2 6 . 8 5 . 2

0 . 8 0 . 0 0 . 2

0 . 2 2 . 4 5 . 2

0 . 2 4 . 8 7 . 6

0 .0 3 . 8 3 . 2

1 1 2

7 5 .0 6 5 .2

2 3 .4

0 . 4

1 . 2

0 . 8

0 . 0

1 3 1 4

7 5 .0 6 5 .0

1 8 .8 2 3 .8

0 . 4 0 . 0

2 . 0 0 . 4

1 .2 0 . 4

2 . 4 0 . 4

3 3 .6 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 .6 N o te s : A l lc he r tv a r ie t ie s w e re c oun ted w i th q uar tz . F ei n c lude s l imon i te a nd a l lo the rh yd rou sf e r r ic i r on c ompound s . P lag ioc la se i so n ly r a re ly p re sen t( s ee T ab le 5 . 6b e low ) .

S p icu le , d i a tom a nd o t he ru n iden t if i ed m ic ro fo s s i l s , a nd p hy to l i th p ropo r t ion s a r e g i ven s epa ra te ly i nT ab le 5 . 2b e low . T hey a r ei mpo r tan ti na s se ss ing p o s s ib le p aragene t ic v a r iab i l i t i e s .

TABLE 5 . 2 : R e la t ion sh ips b e tween m ic ro fo s s i l s ( e xp re s sed a sp e r cen tage o ft o ta ls amp le ) . c l ay

S p icu le s

D ia tom se t c .

P hy to l i th s

1 2

0 . 8 0 . 6

0 . 0 2 . 2

3 4

0 . 0 1 . 2

0 . 2 3 . 0 0 . 0 1 . 6

5 6

1 . 0 1 . 0

0 . 8 1 . 0

7

0 .4

1 . 0

0 . 4

8

0 . 2 4 . 8

0 . 0 2 . 8

0 . 0 1 . 0

7 . 6 0 . 8 1 .2 0 . 4 0 . 2

1 . 8 0 . 0 1 . 4

1 . 4

9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

0 . 0 0 . 2

0 . 0 0 .0 2 . 4 0 . 2

0 .0 1 . 0 0 . 4 0 . 4

6 6

CHAPTER 5 . THE PETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN POTT ING C LAYS

Q uar tz ,i n av ar ie ty o ff o rm s ,i sp rom inen tt h roughou t ,a nd monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz a lway s d om ina te s . Many g ra in sd i sp lay o ve rg row th s . C he r ti sa l so u b iqu i tou s . B o th a r eh igh ly d i ag n o s t ic o fs ed imen t ary a u th igen ic p roce s se s( F) lk 1 980 ,T uck e r 1 981 ) . Many monoc ry s ta l l ine , a nd mo s tp o lyc ry s ta l l ine , q ua r tz g r a in sd i sp lay u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion . T h is i so cca s iona l ly i n t e n se a nd r e su l t si ne x t inc t ion s hadow sw h ich s weep a c ro s st h eg ra in i n ar ad ia lf a sh ion w hen t h es t age i sr o ta ted mo re t h an 5° ( Fo lk 1 980 :72 ) . I gneou sa nd m e t amo rph ic q ua r tz may e a ch f e a tu r et h i sp henomenon . T he i ra bundance a nd t y pe ,w hen c oup led w i th t h es pec ie so fh eavy m ine ra l sp r esen t , h oweve r , s ugge s t s many m ay h ave am e tamo rph ic o r ig in ( T ucke r1 981 :44 , F o lk 1 980 :95 -97 ) . T ab le 5 . 3 b e low s e t so u tq uar tz a nd c he r tc omponen t s .

TABLE 5 . 3 : T he q ua r tz a nd c he r tc omponen t c l ay o ve rg row th s 1 s eve ra l 2 f ew 3 f ew 4 s eve ra l

p o ly q ua r tz 9 . 09 1 4 .54 1 . 81 1 4 .54

c he r t 1 7 .53 7 . 14 9 . 09 1 6 .20

q ua r tz %+ 2 4 .8 1 0 .2 2 2 .8 1 3 .2

s hape A -SR A -R A -SR A -SR

s o r t ing M -P M -P P M

5 6

r a re f ew

9 . 09 1 . 81

5 . 84 0 . 64

3 0 .0 9 . 6

A -SR A -R

M P

7 8 9 1 0

v .r a re n one r a re f ew

1 0 .90 1 . 81 1 . 81 5 . 45

1 . 94 6 . 49 5 . 19 1 . 29

3 . 6 3 6 .2 6 . 8 5 . 2

A -SR A -SR A -SR A -SR

M M M M

1 1 2 1 3 1 4

many f ew many f ew

1 0 .90 9 . 09 7 . 27 1 . 81

6 . 49 2 0 .77 0 . 64 0 . 64

2 3 .4 1 8 .8 2 3 .8 3 3 .6

A -R A -R A -R A -R

P P P P

No te s : Q ua r tz %+ r e f e r s t ot h e t o ta l p o in t c oun ted q ua r tz f r ac t ion . T h i s i n c lude s mono - a nd p o lyc ry s ta l l ine v a r ie t ie s a nd c he r t . T he o ve rg row th q uan t i t ie sa r es ub jec t ive e s t ima te s . C he r ta nd p o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz q uan t i ie sa r eg i ven a sp e r cen tage so ft h eq ua r tz c oun tn o ta sp e rcen tages o ft h e o ve ra l ln on -p la s t ic f r a c t ion . S hape ,s o r t ing a nd t h et o ta lq uar tz f r ac t ion a r e i n c luded f o rc onven ience .

5 . 2 . RESULTS

c l ay 1 2 3 4

6 7

TABLE 5 . 4 : S hape , s o r t ing a nd max imum s i ze o fn onp ia s t ic s . q uar tz %+ s hape r a nge s o r t ing m ax s i ze 2 4 .8 A ngu la r / sub rounded Mode ra te /poo r 0 . 55mm 1 0 .2 A ngu la r / rounded Mode ra te /poo r 0 . 50mm . 2 2 .8 ++++ A ngu la r / sub rounded P oo r 0 . 50mm 1 3 .2 A ngu la r / sub rounded Mode ra te 0 . 60mm

5 6 7 8

3 0 .0 9 . 6 3 . 6 3 6 .2

+++

A ngu la r / sub rounded

Mode ra te

0 . 25mm

++

A ngu l a r / rounded A ngu la r / sub rounded A ngu la r / sub rounded

V e ry P oo r Mode ra te Mode ra te

1 . 20mm 0 .40mm 0 . 50mm

9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

6 . 8 5 . 2 2 3 .4 1 8 .8 2 3 .8 3 3 .6

+++

A ngu la r / sub rounded A ngu la r / sub rounded

Mode ra te Mode ra te P oo r P oo r P oo r P oo r

0 .3 0mm 0 .4 0mm

A ngu la r / rounded A ngu la r / rounded ++++ A ngu la r / rounded ++++ A ngu la r / rounded N o te s : ++++ r a re ly w e l lr ounded +++ r a r e ly r ounded ++ m a in ly a ngu la r

0 . 70mm 0 .6 5 mm 0 . 90mm 0 . 50mm

t o ta lq ua r tz f r ac t ion i n c lud ing mono a nd p o lyc rys ta l l ine a sw e l la sc he r t v ar ie t ie s . +

S hape h a s b een v i sua l ly e s t ima ted u s ing R us se l l a nd T ay lo r s ' r oundne s s c ha r t( 1937 , a f te rP ryo r 1 971 ) . S o r t ing a f te rF o lk ( 1980 ) . C hance -pack ing v ar iab i l i ty i n t h in -sec t ion s r equ i re s c au t ion i n i n te rp re t ing s o r t ing e s t i ma te s (W i l l iam se ta l . 1 982 :309 ) . "Max imum s i ze" c o r r e la te sw i th F o lk 's ( 1 980 :10 ) ," l ea s tp ro jec t ion l e ng th" ,n o tt h ea c tua ll o ng d imen s ion .

6 8

CHAPTER 5 . THE PETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN POTT ING CLAYS

TABLE 5 . 5 : H eavy m ine ra l sa nd me tamo rph ic q ua r tz . c l ay

z i r con

t ou rma l ine

q ua r tz " tw in s"

s t r e tched ?

1 0 . 10mm

0 .04mm

s eve ra l

2 0 . 13mm 3 0 . 10mm 4 0 . 15mm

0 . 10mm 0 .05nm i 0 . 10mm

s eve ra l s eve ra l s eve ra l

5 0 .03mm

0 .03mm

s eve ra l

6 7 8 9 1 0

0 .06 m 0 .08mm 0 .08mm 0 .08 m 0 .03mm

0 . 08mm 0 .07mm 0 .1 4mm 0 .08mm 0 .03mm

1 1 2

0 .22mm 0 . 10mm

0 .04mm 0 . 15mm

1 3 1 4

0 . 10mm 0 . 10mm

0 .03mm 0 . 12mm

No te s :

*

?

-

*

+

s eve ra l r a re r a r e r a r e

0 . 40mm

s eve ra l s eve ra l

? 0 . 50mm

-

-

s eve ra l s eve ra l

many v e ry f i ne

n ume rou s ?p robab ly me t amo rph ic T he a bove v a lue s a r em ax imum g ra in s i ze i nm i l l ime t re sf o rh eavy m ine r -

+

a l s . Q u a r tz " tw in s" r e f e r st oc ompo s i te g ra in sw i th s ha rp t w in l ike b ound a r ie s w h ich h ave b een f o rmed a st h er e su l to fs t ra in a nd s ub sequen t ly a n n ea led d u r ing t h ef i na ls t age so fm e tamo rph i sm (W i l l iam se ta l . 1 982 :332 ) . S t re t ched me tamo rph ic f o l low sF o lk 's g ene t ic c l a s s if i ca t ion ( 1 980 :69 -72 ) . P a r t icu la ra t ten t ion h a sb een p a id t ot h eo r ien ta t ion o fm ic roc ry s ta l s .

5 . 2 . RESULTS

6 9

TABLE 5 . 6 : F e ld spa r sa nd w ea the red n onp ia s t ic p ropo r t ions . q ua r tz c l ay

t o ta l

+

w ea the red

" f re sh"

k spa r

+++

1 2

2 4 .8 1 0 .2

5 0% 5 0%

5 0% 5 0%

0 . 22 0 . 10

3 4 5

2 2 .8 1 3 .2 3 0 .0

5 0% 5 0% ma in ly f r e sh

5 0% 5 0%

0 . 10 0 . 20 0 . 15

6 7

9 . 6 3 . 6

5 0% 5 0%

5 0% 5 0%

8

3 6 .2

ma in ly f r e sh

9 1 0

6 . 8 5 . 2

1 1 2 1 3 1 4

2 3 .4 1 8 .8 2 3 .8 3 3 .6

N o te s :

+

-

-

0 . 28 0 . 25

0 . 06

0 . 20

0 . 10 0 . 07

3 0% 5 0%

7 0% 5 0%

0 . 16 0 . 18

5 0% 6 0% 6 0% 5 0%

5 0% 4 0% 4 0% 5 0%

0 . 18 0 . 08 0 . 10 0 . 42

++

p l ag ioc la se

+++

-

0 . 05 -

0 . 09 0 . 08

t o ta lq uar tz f r a c t ion i n c lud ing mono a nd p o lyc ry s ta l l ine a sw e l l

a sc he r tv a r ie t ies ++ n one h eav i ly w ea the red +++

v a lue sf o rf e ld spa r sa r e max imum s i ze i nm i l l ime te r s .

( b ) C lay d e scr ip t ion s Many i n c lu s ion sa r ec ommon t oa l lt h ec l ay s . I mpo r tan tq ua l i ta t ive v ar ia t ion sw i l lo n ly b ed e s c r ibed i nd e t a i lw hen f i r s te ncoun te red . E xcep tf o rc l ay 1 0 , monoc rys ta l l ine q ua r tz d om ina te s t h e n onp ia s t i cs . Q u ar t z i sd e scr ibed i nd e ta i l f o rc l ay 1 . T he mo re s a l ien tf e a tu r e s o n ly a r e g i ven s ub sequen t ly . S eve ra l h eavy m ine ra ls a r e e v iden t . Z i rcon , t o u rma l ine , r u t i le , h ema t i te , l imon i te , a nd m ica sh av eb een n o ted . Many a r ep robab ly u b iqu i tou sa sm inu te ,o p t ica l ly u nd iagno s t ic ,p a r t i c le si nt h in -sec t ion . H ence o n ly t ho se r ead i ly d e tec ted ,o rh i gh ly d i agno s t ic o fs ou r ce r ock s , h ave b een c on s ide red . T e rm su sed t od e sc r ibe f e a tu r e sc ommon t o many q ua r tz g r a in s h ave t h ef o l low ing mean ing s : c r a ck sa r e s ha l low v a l ley s haped f e a tu re st og ra in s u r f a ce s , f i s su re s a r ed eep n ar row f e a tu r e s ,a nd f r ac tu re st r ave r se t h ee n t i re g ra in t ol e ave n ar row g ap s . C la y] . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re s i l ty p ink ( 7 .5YR 17 /4 ) c l ay . T he c l ay ma t r ix i sd u l l , a nd t h is c o r r obo ra te s XRD r e su l t sw h ich i nd ica te t h ep re sence o fm ixed laye rc l ay m ine ra ls . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz d om ina tes t h en onp ia s t i ci n c lu s ion s . I ti sp r inc ipa l ly a nhed ra l ,b u t t h eo r ig in o f many g ra in si sr ef lec ted i nt h e i re uhed ra ls hape . Many a r es t ra ined a nd u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion i sc ommon . S eve ra lg ra in sc on ta in v a cuo le s o f t en a st r a i ls . Q uar tz r ange s i ns i ze f r om c oa r se s and t of i ne s i l t ,b e ing p oo r ly t o mode ra te ly s o r ted ,a nd a ngu la rt os ub rounded i n f o rm . O ve rg row th sa r ec ommon ( f ig .5 .1 ) ,a nd s ome g ra in sh ave s eve ra lw e l l -deve loped c ry s ta l f a ces ( T uck e r 1 981 :56 ,f i g . 2 . 44 ) . O cca s iona lq ua r tz g r a in sa r ew ho l ly o rp a r t ly e nca sed i na r ed - b rown i r on o x ide ,p robab ly h ema t i te ( B i rke land 1 974 :86 ; K e r r 1 977 :227 ) . H ema t i te c an

7 0

CHAPTER 5 . THE P ETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN POTT ING C LAYS

a l so b e i d en t if i ed i nh and s pec imen . E ar thy , o ch r eou s , a nd g i v ing ar ed s t r eak ,i ti s ma in ly s c a t te r ed t h roughou ta ss and s ized i r regu la rn odu le so rp e l le t s .

F IGURE 5 . 1 : MICROPHOTOGRAPH OF QUARTZ OVERGROWTHS . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz w i th e i the rf r ac tu re s ,p i t s ,c r ev ice so rr ough ,s ome t ime sp ucke red s u r f a ce s ,i sc ommon . Many g ra in s s how w ea the r ing t oe dge s . O f ten f i s su re sh ave b een p en e t ra ted b yd a rk r ed -b rown l imon i te . T h i sl imon i t ic " s ta in ing" o f t en d e l inea te ss ub rounded t o r ounded s ub sequen t ly o ve rg rown " ho s t" g r a in s . O ne a ngu la rg ra in i sc emen ted t o ac he r tg ra in w h ich d i sp lay s mo sa ic p in -po in te x t inc t ion . B o th mono a nd p o lyc ry s ta l l ine g ra in sa r e o cca s i ona l ly i n ten se ly s t ra ined . " Tw in s" a r e p rom inen t (W i l l iam s e ta l . 1 982 :332 ) . C ompo s i te g ra in s ,i n wh ich m ic ro l i te sb ehav ea s" nega t ive

"

c r y s ta l sa nd e x t ingu ish i nt h eo ppo s i te p o s i -

t i on t ot h eh o s tg ra in , a r ec ommon ( Ca rozz i 1 960 :4 1 ) . T he m ic ro l i te sa ppea rt ob es i l iceou s . Many g ra in sh av ei n c lu s ion s ,a nd /o rv acuo le s ,e i the ra bundan t ,d ifu se ly s c a t te red t h roughou t , o ra sw e l ld ef ined t r a i l s( Fo lk 1 980 :69 -72 ) . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz f a l l si n to s eve r a lv ar ie ta lg roup s . T hey a r ed i scus sed i nd e scend ing o rde ro ff r equency . G roup 1i n c lude s many m ed ium s a nd s i zed g r a ins w h ich s how d i s t inc t i n t e rna ls u tu re sb e tween c r y s ta lb ound ar ie s . E x t inc t ion r ange sf r om s l igh t ly t os t rong ly u ndu l o se ( Fo lk 1 980 :72 ) . T he i n terna lc ry s ta l sa r ee i the rr ough ly e quan to rc omp r i se o ne o r mo re l a rge rc r y s ta l sb ounded o ri n te rm e shed b y s ma l le ro ne s . T he se s u tu red g ra in ss ugge s t a u th i g en ic s i l ica c em en t ing o fv e ry c oa r se s i l tt ov e ry f i ne s and . T hey a r eb e s td e sc r ibed a sq uar tz i te a l though t h e i rp a ragene s i si su nce r ta in . T he c l ar i ty o fc r y s ta lb ound ar ies g r ades f r om c l ea rt o i n v i s ib le . I nt h el a t te rc a se i nd iv idua lc r y s ta l sa r eo n ly a ppa ren tw hen t h em ic ro scope s t age i s r o ta ted u nde rc r o s sed p o la r sa nd t h ei n te rna lc ry s ta l log raph ic s t ruc tu r ei sr ev ea led G roup 2p o lyc ry s ta l l ine q u ar tz g r a in s a r e c ompo sed o fe i the rr ough ly e quan t ,o rs l igh t ly

5 .2 . RESULTS

7 1

s ubequan ta nhed ra lc ry s ta l s ,w i th c l ea ru n su tu red b oundar ies . T he se a r ee i the ri r r egu la ro ra l mo s ts t r a igh t . E x t inc t ion t e nd st ob e mode ra te ly u ndu lo se o ri n c l ined . S eve ra le n t i re p o lyc ry s t a l l ine g ra in s a r ep a r t ia l ly o v e rg rown . I nr a re c a se s" no rma l" q ua r tz c ry s ta l sa r ei n te r spe r sed w i th o ne o r mo r eg ra in so fm o sa ic m ic roc ry s ta l l ine c he r t . G roup 3g ra in sa r ec omp r i sed o fi regu la re l onga te , s ubequan ta nd r ough ly p a ra l le l ,l a rge r c r y s ta l s s ome t ime s w i th m any s ma l le r c ry s ta l s r andom ly d i s t r ibu ted b e tween t h em . C ry s ta l b ound ar ie sa r eo f t en c r enu la te . E x t inc t ion i sa lway s s t rong ly u ndu lo se o rd i s to r ted . I nd iv id u a lc r y s ta ls g ene ra l ly a pp rox ima te p a ra l le lc ry s ta l log raph ic o r ien ta t ion , a l though s ome e n t i re g ra in s a r e s eve r e ly c on to r ted . T h is c on t ra s t s w i th g roup s 1a nd 2 ,w he r e c ry s ta l s t e nd t ob e r andom ly d i s t r ibu ted . S h a rp b ound ar ie s b e tween n e ighbou r ing s e c to r s w h ich e ach d if e ri n e x t inc t ion b y af ew d eg ree s ,p l u si n te rna ls t ra in s ugge s t st h a tt h e se g ra in sa r em e tamo rph ic i n o r ig in . G roup 3g r a in sa r eo ff i ne s a nd s i ze . C he r ti sp re sen ti nt h r ee f o rm s ,m ic roqua r tz ,c ha lcedon ic q uar tz a nd m egaqua r tz . T he l a t t e rc an b ei d en t if ied i nc ompo s i te g r a in s . T he f o rme rt wo v ar ie t ie so ccu re i the ra si nd iv idua l o rc ompo s i te g r a in s( Fo lk 1 980 :79 ,T ucke r 1 981 :210 ) . O ve ra l l ,c he r t sa r e ma in ly s ub rounded , b u t s ome a r ea ngu la ro rr ounded , o fv e ry c oa r se s i l tt o med ium s and s i ze . M ic roqua r tz c he r t i sc ompo sed o f af i ne ly c r y s ta l l ine e quan t mo sa ic w i th p in -po in te x t inc t ion . Megaqua r tz c he r t c r y s ta l s a r e l a rge r , u p t of i ne s and s i ze , o f ten w i th u n i te x t inc t ion . C ha lcedon ic c he r t h a s f i b rou sc ry s ta l s . T he se o f t en d i sp lay ar ad ia t ing a r rangemen t , s ome f o rm ing w edge -shaped o r mamm i l la te ds t ruc tu re sw h ich a r es ub rounded t or ounded a nd u pt om ed ium s a nd s i ze ( T uck e r 1 981 :210 -211 ) . Many g r a in sa r e ma rk ed ly g raded . S ome i n c lude b o th m ic ro a nd m egaquar tz . Af ew c ompo s i te g ra in s a l so i n c lude w edge s haped c ha lcedon ic a nd mo sa ic c he r t a r range m en t s . W i th in c ha lcedon ic m amm i l la ted q uar tz i n te rna l s e c to rb ound ar ie s move s equen t ia l ly i n to e x t inc t ion a st h em ic ro scope s t age i sr o ta ted . A l l o ft h e se c he r t s a r ed i agno s t ic o fa n e roded o l de r s e d imen t ary s ou r ce ( Fo lk 1 980 :80 ) . T hey p robab ly r e p r e sen t t h e w ea the red r ema in s o f ac ha lcedon ic c emen t p o re f i l l ing . S uch c em en t s a r ec ha rac te r is t ica l ly a s soc ia ted w i th q ua r tz a r en i te s . T he m ic roquar tz , m egaquar tz a nd c ha lcedon ic q ua r tz c ou ld a l ld e r ive f r om s u ch as ou r ce ( T ucke r 1 981 :211 ,f i g . 9 . 1 ) . C a lc i te i sp r inc ipa l ly d i spe r sed s p ar se ly t h roughou t t h e c l ay ma t r ix a s am icr i te ( T ucke r 1 981 :116 ) , o rm ic roc ry s ta l l ine i r regu la r g r a in s o fu p t o0 . 01 mm . I to cca s iona l ly o ccu r s a s v e ry f i ne s and s i zed e uhed ra lc r y s ta l s ,o ri ng roup so fi r regu la rs i zed e uhed ra lc ry s ta l s . T he se o f ten d i sp lay mu l t ip le t w inn ing . P o ta ss ium f e ld spa r i sr a re , a ngu la r , a nd o fv e ry f i ne t of i ne s a nd s i ze . N o p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa rw a sp r e sen t . B o th t o urma l ine a nd z i r con a r ep rom inen t ,b u tn o tn ume rou s . T ou rma l ine i sa ngu lar ,e i the r b l aded a nd e uhed ra l , o r c o r roded a nd a nhed ra l , t ov e ry c oa r se s i l t s i ze . Z i r con p r inc ipa l ly o ccu r sa sa ngu la r ,v e ry f i ne s a nd s i zed ,d e t r i ta lg ra in s . Af ew g ra in sa r ee uhed ra l . H ema t i te o ccu r s a sr ed t od a rk b rown s em i -opaque r ound p e l le t s o f med ium s and s i ze . T hey o f t en c on ta in a ngu la rs i l ts i zed q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s( s ee a l so a bove a nd c l ay 2 ) . F r agmen t so ff r e sh w a te rs ponge s p icu le sa r er a re . T he se s p icu le sh ave k i nd ly b een i d en t i f ied f o rt h ew r i te rb yP ro f e s so rF .W .H ar r i son ,h ead o fb i o logy , We s te rn C a ro l ina U n ive r s i ty , a sb e long ing t ot h eg enu sE phyda t ia m eyen i . H a r r i son r epo r t st h a tt h e se s ponge sa r ep re sen t ly f ound i nt h e r e g ion . T he g enu s w a s p robab ly a bundan t i nt h e Me sozo ic ( Be rgqu i s t 1 978 ) . T hey o ccu ri ne a ch o ft h ec l ay se xam ined . D ia tom sa nd p hy to l i th sa r er a re . P hy to l i th s a r e u b iqu i tou si nS akon N akhon B a s in c l ay s . A n a na ly s i s o ft h e i ro r ig in s l i e s o u t s ide t h e s cope o f t h e p r e sen t w o rk . Av e ry b r ie f s umma ry o f t h e m a jo r t y pe s n o ted i s n ece s sa ry , h oweve r , b ecau se s ome a r e c on s ide r ed t or e p re sen t d e l ibe ra te ly a dded r i ce p l an t

7 2

CHAPTER 5 . THE PETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN POT T ING CLAYS

r ema in s i n s ome c e ram ic f a b r ic s ( Append ix o ne ) . S ome i n c lus ion s a r e o p t ica l ly c on s i s ten t w i th r i ce p hy to l i th s . I ns hape ,s ub rounded t or ounded ,b i r ef r ingence a nd r e f rac t iv ei n dex ( l e s s t h an 1 . 54 d e te rm ined b yB ecke l i ne t e s t ) ,a nd s i ze , 5t o1 0Mt h ey p a ra l le ls i l iceou sd epo s i t ion s w i th in r i ce l e a fa nd h u sk ( Yo sh ida e ra l . 1 962 ) . P hy to l i th q uan t i t ie sv a ry w ide ly b e tween c l ay s , a nd a st h ey n ev e re xceed 4 0 ii nd i ame te r , t h ey may e a s i ly e scape d e tec t ion i nt h in -sec t ion , i ft h ey a r er a r e . G iven t h a tr i ce c u l t iva t ion i sc u r ren t ly w ide sp read , t h e i rp re sence i n mode rn s ed imen t si sp red ic tab le . P hy to l i th si nt h eS akon N akhon B a s in c l ay sa r ep robab ly r e la ted t o ,

e a r l ie rp roces se s ,h ow eve r ,b ecau se t h e se a r ee xcav a ted a sm uch a s 2m e t re sb e low t h ep re sen t l a nd s u r f ace s . Tw i s s e ra l . ( 1969 :109 -114 ) , i n c lude amo rpho log ica l c l a s s if i ca t ion o fg r a s s p hy to l i th s , b o th c l a ss 3 ( p an ico id ) , a nd 4 ( e longa te ) , a r e p r e sen t i nt h e a bov e c l ay s amp le . B rydon e t a l . ( 1 963 :476 -477 ) ,d e scr ibe a nd i lu s t ra te s ha rd l ik es i l i c if i ed p lan ta s te ro sc le r e id so fs im i la r s hape a nd o p t ica lp rope r t ie st oi n c lu s ion sn o ted . W i ld ing a nd D ree s( 1 973 :647 -650 ) ,i lu s t ra te ( F ig . 1 f ) , o pa l ine b od ie s w h ich a r e a l so s im i la r t oi n c lu s ion s o b se rved i n S akon N akhon B a s in c l ay s . N one o ft h e se a r el i ke t h er i ce p hy to l i th s d e sc r ibed b yY o sh ida e ra l( 1 962 ) , o r t h ei n c lu s ion sr e f e r red t oa sr i ce p hy to l i th si nt h eS akon N akhon B a s in c l ay s . C la y2 . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re s i l ty ( 10YR / 8 /4 ) c l ay . M ica i se v iden t i nt h e XRD s pec tog r aph . D e ta i led o p t ica le xam ina t ion r evea led v e ry f i ne s and s i zed b l ea ched b i o t i te . B io t i te o f t en a l t e r st oc h lo r i te o rv e rm icu l i te ( Ke r r 1 977 :439 -440 ) ,a nd s o i l sm ay c on ta in v e rm icu l i te ( Ba t tey 1 972 :276 ) . T he 1 4 AXRD p eak d i scu s sed i nc hap te rf ou rc ou ld r ep re sen t av e rm icu l i te . T h i s i se qu ivoca lb ecau se o fs im i lar i t ie sw i th s mec t i t e( G r im 1 968 :104 -113 ) . A l te rna t ive ly ,m ixed l a ye rc l ay m ine ra l s ,p o s s ib ly i n vo lv ing v e rm icu l i te , may b ep r esen t( s ee c hap te rf ou r ) . M icr i t ic a nd m ic roc ry s ta l l ine t of i ne ly c ry s ta l l ine c a lc i te ( Fo lk 1 980 :164 ) ,i sd if u se t h rough o u tt h e c l ay ma t r ix a s amo sa ic o fn ume rou s c l u s te r s o fe uhed ra l o rs ubhed ra l c r y s ta ls . T he d i agene s i so ff r e shwa te rc a lca reou sc emen t s o f ten i n vo lve s t h er ep r ec ip i ta t ion , a sc a lc i te , o f d i s so lv ed a r agon i te f r om ,f o re xamp le , a nc ien tu ndo lom i t ized l ime s tone s( Tuck e r 1 981 :130 ) . T he se a r ec h ief ly d e scr ibed a s" d ru sy s pa r i te s" ( T uck e r1 981 :126 - 1 27 ) . C a lc i te i sc ommon i n r e cen ts ed imen t s( Fo lk 1 980 :98 ) . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sm a in ly a nhed ra l b u t s ome g r a ins a r e s ubhedr a l . I ts pan s f r om s i l tt om ed ium s and s i ze . Af ew g ra in s a r e s t ra ined . S eve ra ld i sp lay u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion . A f ew i n c lude o ve rg row th s . O ne a u th igen ic ( ? ) g r a in h a so ve rg rown as ponge s p icu le . S eve ra l c on ta in v acuo le s , s ome a st r a i l s . S eve ra l h ave f r ac tu r e s , c r a ck s a nd m ic ro p i t s . S ome s how c r e scen t ic ma rk s . Many g ra in s a r e d eep ly w ea the red . I n af ew l imon i te h a s p ene t ra ted i n to c r a ck sa nd f r ac tu re s . O ne g ra in c on ta in s a0 .05 mm l o ng e uhed ra lt o u rma l ine i n c lu s ion . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sp rom inen t . G roup 1i sr a r e , g roup 2 c ommon , a nd g roup 3 i s w e l l r ep re sen t ed . Mo s t g r a in s d i sp lay u ndu lo se a nd /o ri n c l ined e x t inc t ion o f t en w i th c l ea r c ry s ta lb ound ar ie s . T he se g r a in sh ave c r y s ta l st h a ta r em a in ly u n i fo rm i ns i ze w i th i r regu la r , r a r e ly s u tu red , b ound ar ie s . S ome g ra in s h ave u nc lea rc r y s ta l b ound ar ie s , a nd mo s to ft h ese a r es ubequan t . Af ew g r a in sw i th c l ea rc ry s ta lb ound ar ie sc on ta in n ume rous v a cuo le so f t en a s t r a i l s . M ic roquar tz , megaqua r tz a nd c ha lcedon ic c he r ta sd e sc r ibed f o rc l ay 1a r ep r e sen t . Two c ompo s i te g ra in sa r ee v iden t . O ne i sp ar t mo sa ic ,p a r tc ha lcedon ic . T he o the ri sc ha lcedon ic , p a r tw edge a nd p ar t mamm i l la te . Ar ed t od a rk b rown i r on o x ide c ompound ,p robab ly h ema t i te ,o rt h eh ydrou so x ide g oe th i te , o ccu r si nv ar iou sf o rm s . T hey a r ep robab ly w ea the r induced p rec ip i ta t es ( B i rke land 1 974 :66 6 8 ) . T hey o ccu r a s d en se , a lmo s t o paque , p e l le t s o r a s as t a in w h ich l i gh t ly c oa t s t h e c l ay

5 . 2 . RESULTS

7 3

m a t r ix ( Fo lk 1 980 :99 ) . R ock f r agmen t s , c emen ted b y d a rk r ed -b rown h ema t i te o r g oe th i te , a r ep r e sen ti nt wo f o rm s . O ne f o rm i sa ngu la ro f av e ry c oar se s and s i ze . T he o t he rr ock f r ag m en ti sw e l lr ounded o o id l ik e o fg ranu le s i ze . B o th c on ta in a ngu la r , s i l tt of i ne s and s i zed , q uar tz i n c lu s ion s . I ns om e , i r on e nca se s a ngu la rt or ounded s i ng le g r a ins o fq ua r tz t of o rm , f i ne s a nd s i zed ,o o id l ik ep e l le t s . P o ta s s ium f e ld spar o ccu r sa ss ubangu la rt os ub rounded v e ry f i ne t om ed ium s a nd . A tl OOx m agn if i ca t ion n op o ta s s ium f e ld spa rr eg i s te red d u r ing p o in tc oun t ing . I tf o rmed 0 . 4% o ft h e s amp le a t2 00x . N op l ag ioc la se f e ld spa rw a se v iden t . Z i rcon , o fv e ry f i ne s and s i ze , i sm a in ly d e t r i ta l . O ne e uhed ra l g ra in i s0 . 13 mm l o ng . A ngu la rt o u rma l ine o ft h es ame s i ze i sa l so p re sen t . S ponge s p icu le so ccu ri nm ino ra moun t s , b u td i a tom s a nd p hy to l i th sa r er e la t ive ly a bun d an t . C la y3 . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re m icaceou s ( 7 .5YR1 7 .5 /6 )c l ay . T he o ve ra l l a ppea rance o ft h e ma t r ix , i nt h in -sec t ion , i so f n ume rou s f l ake s o ff i ne mu scov i te o r " wh i te m ica" . T he se , a nd r a re f i ne s and s i zed g ra in so fk ao l in i te , a r ep robab ly d e r ived f r om t h ew ea the r ing o ff e ld spa r . F ine , s and -s ized m uscov i te p seudomo rphs o fp o ta s s ium f e ld spa r , i d en t if ied p rov i s iona l ly b y t h e i r" du s ty" a ppea rance a nd b l ocky s hape ( T ucke r1 98 1 : 45 ) ,a l so r a r e ly o ccu r . K ao l in i te a nd w ea the red mu scov i te m ay m ea su r e s i l t s i ze . T hey d i sp lay l i t t le m ine ra log ica lv ar iab i l i ty . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i s ma in ly a nhed ra l , b u t s ome t ime s s ubhed ra l . G r a in s g ene r a l ly r ange i n s i ze f r om v e ry f i ne s i l t t ov e ry f i ne s and . Mo s t a r e f r e sh . Undu lo se e x t inc t ion i s c ommon i nt h e f ew f i ne s and -s ized g ra in s . Wea the r ing t oe dge s , f r a c tu re s o rf i s su r e s i su n c ommon . I n te rna l s u r f ace sr a re ly i n c lude l imon i te . O ve rg rown g ra ins a r er a r e . Af ew h ave d ifu se v a cuo le s . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i s mode ra t e ly w e l lr ep r e sen ted . I ti n c lude s g roup s 1a nd 2g ra in s . T he se a r ea ngu la rt of i ne s and s i ze . O ne g r a in i si n ten se ly s t ra ined a nd may b e long t og roup

3 . S ign if i can t ly , a l though s p ar se , a l l t h ree v ar ie t ie s o fc he r t a r e p r e sen t . Mo sa ic a nd c ha l c edon ic c he r t sr ange i ns hape f r om a ngu la rt os ub rounded . T hey n eve re xceed v e ry f i ne s a nd s i ze . Mamm i l la ted g r a ins , d i sp lay ing s e c to re x t inc t ion , a r e s ub rounded a nd o ff i ne s and d i m en s ion . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa r i sa ngu la r , t of i ne s and s i ze , a nd i sp oo r ly r ep re sen ted . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa rw a sn o tp re sen t . C a lc i te o ccu r s i nt wo f o rm s . F i r s t a s n ume rou s t oa bundan t m ic r i t ic c ry s ta ls w h ich a r e s p read d ifu se ly t h roughou tt h ef a b r ic . S econd ly , af ew i s o la ted e uhed ra lc ry s ta l s ,w h ich m ea s u re u p t of i ne s a nd s i ze , a r e a l so p re sen t . Ac ompo s i te g r a in , c ompo sed o fe uhed ra l c a lc i te o n a nhed ra l q uar tz , s ugge s t s t h e c a lc i te m ay d e r ive f r om a s i l ica c a lc i t e s a nd s tone c emen t ( W i l l iam s e ra l . 1 982 :339 -341 ) . D ru sy s pa r i te s a r e c ommon f o rm s o fc a lc i t ic s ed im en ta ry

5 . 2 . RESULTS

7 5

c emen t s( T ucke r 1 981 :57 ) . H ema t i te ,o rg oe th i te ,i sm a in ly p r e sen ta s af ew a ngu la rt os ub rounded p e l le t so fu pt ov e ry f i ne p ebb le s i ze . O ne r ounded o o id l ike g r a in i so ff i ne p ebb le s i ze . I te nca se ss p icu le s ,p o ta s s i um f e ld spa r ,a nd s i l t -s ized q ua r tz g ra in s ,a l lo fw h ich a r ec on s i s ten tw i th t h ec ompo s i t ion o f t h eo ve ra l lf ab r ic . Z i r con a nd t o urma l ine a r e r a r e . T hey o ccu ra sd e t r i ta l , a ngu lar t os ubangu la r , g r a in s o f v e ry c oa r se s i l ts i ze . S ponge s p icu le sa r er a re a nd f r agmen t a ry ,d i a tom sr a re ,a nd p hy to l i th sr e la t ive ly a bundan t . C lay 6 . A no the rt e x tu ra l ly i mma tu r ea nd s i l ty ( 1OYR /8 /3 )c l ay . Many q ua r tz g ra in sh ave e x ten s ive , a nd a ppa r en t ly f r e sh ,f r a c tu r e s . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q uar tz i s ma in ly a nhed ra l , b u t s ome g ra in s a r e s ubhed ra l . Many g r a in s s how u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion . Wea the r ing t os u r f a ce s ,a nd t h ei n te r s t ice so ff i s su r e sa nd f r ac tu re s , i sc ommon . T he l aue r o f t en c on ta in l imon i te . S ome g r a in s h ave m ic ro p i t s . Af ew h ave o ve rg row th s . V acuo le sa r er a re . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i se x t reme ly r a re . O n ly o ne g roup 2g ra in ,o f med ium s and s i ze w a s o b se rved . I th ad b een o ve rg rown b ya u th igen ic q uar tz . O ne m ed ium s and -s ized g ra in h a s a n i n te rg row th o fz i r con . C he r t i sa l so e x t r eme ly r a r e . O n ly o ne g r a in o f s ub rounded , v e ry f i ne s and s ized c ha l c edon ic c he r tw a so b se rved . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa ri sa ngu la rt os ub rounded , f r om c oa r se s i l t t om ed ium s a nd s i ze , a nd r a se . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa ri se x t reme ly r a r e . O n ly t wo c oa r se s i l t s ized g ra in sw e r en o ted . C a lc i te r a re ly e xceed s 0 . 05 mm . I tt a ke s t wo f o rm s . F i r s t , a s ad ifu se m ic r i t ic " du s t" t h roughou t t h e f ab r ic . T he se c r y s ta l s a r e g ene ra l ly a nhed ra l . S econd ly , o ne v e ry f i ne s ub r ounded p ebb le ( 2 .25 mm ) , i sc ompo sed o fc a lc i te -cemen ted , f i ne s and -s ized , q ua r tz g ra in s . O ne o ft h e se q ua r tz g ra in s a ppea r s t oh ave a u th igen ica l ly o ve rg rown as ponge s p icu le . T he c a lc i te c ry s ta l s ,w i th in t h ep ebb le ,r a nge f r om s i l tt of i ne s and s i ze . T hey a r ee uhedr a lo rs ub h ed ra l a nd o f t en t w inned . At h in b and o fc l ay m a t r ix a d ja cen t t ot h i sp ebb le f o rm s ad a rke r " co rona" . T he p ebb le i sp robab ly a u th igen ic t ot h es ed imen ta nd n o td e t r i ta l . S im i la rc a lc i t ic a gg r ega te s a r e c ommon w i th in t h e i n te r s t ice s a nd o n t h e s u r f ace s o fp r eh i s to r ic p o t she rd s , wh i ch s ugge s t st h ey r ep re sen ta u th igen ic d epo s i t s . Z i rcon a nd t o u rma l ine o ccu ra sr ounded ,d e t r i ta l ,g ra in so fv e ry f i ne s and s i ze . F ragmen t a ry s p icu le s ,d i a tom sa nd p hy to l i th sa r er a re . C l ay 7 . T h i s i s at e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re ( 1OYR J7 .5 /4 ) c l ay . As h arp v ar ia t ion i nt e x tu r e i se v iden t b e tween i n d iv idua lt h in sec t ion s . S ome a r es i l ty . O the r sa r es ub s tan t ia l ly m ica ceou s . I nt h e se l a t te r s e c t ion s t h e p a r t ic le s a r e p re f e ren tua l ly o r ien ta ted s o t h a t a s t h e m ic ro scope s t age i s r o ta ted t h e ma jo r i ty o ff i e ld o fv i ew s weep si na nd o u to fe x t inc t ion i nb road p a ra l le lb and s . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i s ma in ly a nhed ra l . Af ew g r a in s a r e s ubhed ra l . S ev e ra l h ave u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion . I n many t h i si sv e ry s t rong . V acuo le sa r ep r esen ta sd if use s c a t te r si na f ew g r a in s . F ra c tu re s , a nd w ea the r ing t oe dge sa nd i n te rna l s u r f a ce sa r er a re . O n ly o ne g ra in d i sp lay so ve rg row th s . P o lycry s ta l l ine q uar tz i sp r inc ipa l ly o ft h eg roup 1v ar ie ty ,w i th i r regu la r s ized c r y s ta l sa nd b ounda r ies . T he se g r a in sa r ea ngu la ra nd f r om v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and s i ze . O ne s ubangu la rf i ne s and -s ized m ay b e long t og r oup 3 ,b u tt h is i se qu ivoca l . C he r ti sc ha lcedon ic o n ly ,a nd v e ry r a re . I ti sa ngu la ra nd o fv e ry f i ne t of i ne s a nd s i ze . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa ri sr a r e ,a nd a ngu la rt os ub rounded . I tr ange si ns i ze f r om v e ry f i ne s a nd

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CHAPTER 5 . THE PETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN POTT ING C LAYS

t of i ne s and . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa ri sa b sen t . C a lc i te a bundance v a r ie s m a rk ed ly b e tween s e c t ion s . T he c r y s ta l s a r e m icr i t ic . N eve r p rom inen t , t h ey o f ten o ccu r i nd en se , a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 mm t o 3 0 mm d i am e te r , i s o la ted p a tche s . I n a dd i t ion t ot h ese a gg r ega t ion s , i nd iv idua l c r y s ta l s may a l so b e s p r ead d ifu se ly t h rough t h e ma tr ix . T hey a r em a in ly a nhed ra l ,b u to cca s iona l ly e uhed ra l . H ema t i te , o rg oe th i te , i sp re sen ta sa ngu la rt ow e l lr ounded p rec ip i ta te so fu pt om ed ium s and s i ze . I t sa bundance v a r ie sc on s ide rab ly b e tween s e c t ion s ,f r om r a r et on ume rou s . Z i rcon o ccu r sa sa ngu la r ,v e ry c oa r se s i l tt ov e ry f i ne s and s i zed ,d e t r i ta lg r a in s . I ti sv e ry r a r e . T ou rma l ine i sr ep r e sen ted b y as i ng le f r agmen ted ,e uhed ra l ,v e ry f i ne s and s ized g ra in . F ragmen t a ry s p icu le s ,d i a tom sa nd p hy to l i th sa r er a re . C lay 8 . T h i s c l ay i st e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re . A s w i th c l ay 5 ,c l ay m ine ra l s a r e p oo r ly c ry s ta l l ine . A l though g r a in s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion r a nges f r om f i ne s i l tt om ed ium s a nd t h em ed ian i s0 .084 mm ( n= 3 0 ,S .D .= 0 .04 , V= 0 . 001 ) . T hu st h e ma jo r i ty o fg ra in sa r eo ff i ne s and s i ze . N oh ema t i te , o rg oe th i te , i sa ppa ren t . Ar edd i sh y e l low ( 5YR1 7 /8 ) m a t r ix ,h oweve r , s ugge s t st h ep re sence o fc ryp toc ry s ta l l ine f e r rug inou sm ine r a l s . Monoc ry s t a l l ine q ua r tz c l ea r ly d om ina te st h en onp la s t ic s . I ng ene r a lt h ey h av ef r e sh s u r f a ce s . A l though af ew f r agmen t a ry e uhed ra lg r a in sw e re n o t ed ,n oo ve rg row th sw e re o b se rv ed . Many g ra in sd i sp lay i n ten se u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion . G ra in sw i th s ma l lc r ack so rc omp le te f r a c t u r es a r e n ume rou s . Many c on ta in n ega t ive c ry s ta l s , s ugge s t ive o fa n i g neou s s ou rce ( Fo lk 1 980 :69 ) . Af ew h ave m ic ro p i t s ,o rv a cuo le s . T he l a t te ra r e ma in ly d ifu se ly d i s t r ibu t ed b u t i ns ome g ra in st h ey o ccu ra st r a i l s . Wea the r ing ,e i the rw i th o rw i thou tl imon i te t os u r fa ces ,i s c ommon . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sr a r e . O n ly af ew g roup 2g r a in sw e re n o ted . T hey w e re a ngu la r a nd o ff i ne s and s i ze . T he s i ng le g roup 1g ra in o b se rved c on ta ined " wh i te m ica" i n c lu s ion s . C he r ti sr a r e . I ti sr e s t r ic ted t o mo sa ic o rc ha lcedon ic ,v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and s ized ,g ra in s . T he se a r e ma in ly a ngu la r b u t af ew a r e s ub rounded . O ne c ompo s i te g ra in g r ade s b e tween mo sa ic a nd c ha lcedon ic . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa ri sa ngu la rt os ub rounded ,a nd f r om v e ry f i ne s a nd t o med ium s and s i ze . O ne g ra in i so ve rg rown ,s ugge s t ing as and s tone s ou r ce ( Tuck e r1 98 1 : 58 ) . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa r i sp re sen ta s as i ng le a ngu la r ,v e ry f i ne s a nd -s ized ,d e t r i ta lg r a in , a nd a n a lmo s te uhed ra lf i ne s and s ized g ra in . B o th h ave v e ry c l ea rp o ly syn the t ic t w in s . S ymme t r ica l e x t inc t ion a ng le s o f5 ° a nd 1 2 °r e spec t ive ly , a l though i n suf f i c ien tf o ra pp l ica t ion o ft h e M iche l -Levy m e thod , s ugge s t as od ium r ich c ompo s i t ion . C a lc i te i sp re sen ta s ad ifu se , ma in ly m icr i t ic ,a gg r ega te o fd if e ren ts hape sa nd s i ze s . I ti s n ume rou st oa bundan t . Af ew f r agmen t a ry o ri n tac te uhed ra lp l a te sr e a ch f i ne s a nd s i ze . Mo s t c a lc i te o ccu r sa st i ny e uhed ra lc r y s ta l s . Z i rcon i sr a re . I to ccu r sa sa ngu la r ,v e ry f i ne s and -s ized ,d e t r i ta lg r a in s . T ou rma l ine i sp re sen ta sr a r e ,a nhed ra l ,v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and s ized ,d e tr i ta lg ra in s . F ragmen t ary s ponge s p icu le s ,p hy to l i th sa nd d i a tom sa r e r a re . C lay 9 . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re s i l ty ( 10YR1 7 .5 /6 )c l ay . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz d i sp lay s ma in ly u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion . Wea the red g r a in s ,s ome w i th s u r f a ce ss t a ined b yl imon i te ,a r er a re . G ra in sw i th v acuo le so ro ve rg row th sa r ea l so r a re . T hese t wo f a c to r ss ugge s tt h i sm ay b e aw e l l -wea the red ,m ine ra log ica l ly ma tu re ,f ab r ic . T he o ve ra l l

5 . 2 . RESULTS

7 7

q uar tz f r ac t ion i sl ow . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q uar tz i se x t reme ly r a re . O n ly t wo g ra in sw e r en o ted . O ne b e long st og roup 2 ,a nd t h eo the rp o s s ib ly t og r oup 1 . C he r ti ss im i la r ly r a r e . B o th mo sa ic a nd c ha lcedon ic v ar ie t ie s ,a ngu la rt os ub rounded ,a nd f r om v e ry c oa r se s i l tt of i ne s a nd s i ze ,a r ep re sen t . P o ta s s ium f e ld spar o ccu r sa sv e ry c oa r se s i l tt of i ne s and -s ized ,s ubangu la rt os ub rounded , g r a in s . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa ri sn o tp re sen t . C a lc i te i sp rom inen tb u tn o ta bundan t . I ti sp r inc ipa l ly s c a t te red t h roughou tt h em a t r ix a s d if u se m icr i t ic i n d iv idua lc r y s ta l s . T he re a r ea l so s ome f i ne s and -s ized a nhed ra lc ry s ta l s . T he a bundance o fc a lc i te v ar ie sw ide ly b e tween s e c t ion s ,a nd i tmay b e ma sk ed i nt h icke rs e c t ion s b yt h ec l ay ma t r ix . H ema t i te ,o rg oe th i te ,i sp r e sen te i the ra ss ub rounded ,v e ry f i ne s and t om ed ium s and s ized p e l le t s ,o ra s as t a in ing t oc l ay s ized p a r t ic le s . Z i r con o ccu r sa sh eav i ly w ea the red ,t oc oa r se s i l ts i ze ,d e t r i ta lg ra in s . I ti sr a r e . T ou rma l ine i sw e l lr ep r e sen ted b ya nhed ra l ,c oa r se s i l t -s ized ,d e t r i ta lg ra in s . S ponge s p icu le s a r e n ume rou s , r a r e ly i n tac t , b u t many a r eo n ly s l igh t ly f r agmen ted . D i a t om sa nd p hy to l i ths a r ep rom inen t . C lay 1 0 . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re a nd mode ra te ly m ica ceou s ( 10YR1 7. 5 /6 )c l ay . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q uar tz i sa lmo s te n t i r e ly a nhed ra l ,w i th r a r ef r agmen t so fe uhedr a lg r a in s . Many g ra ins a r ef r ac tu r ed . U ndu lo se e x t inc t ion i sc ommon , a nd g ra ins w i th d if u se v acuo le s a r ep rom inen t . S eve ra l g r a in s a r ew ea the r ed ,b u tn one h eav i ly . I n many g r a in s b o th e x te rna l a nd f r ac tu re s u r f a ce sh ave l imon i te s t a in s . Af ew a r ef r ee o fl imon i te . O n ly af ew o ve rg row th s w e r en o ted . O ne g ra in h a sc i yp toc ry s ta l l ine m ica ( ? ) i n c lu s ion s . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sv e ry r a re . I tr ange si ns i ze f r om f i ne t om ed ium s and ,a nd i se i the r a ngu la ro rs ub rounded . E a ch o ft h et h r ee g roup si sr ep r e sen ted b yj u s to ne g ra in . C renu la ted c r ys ta l b ounda r ie s a r e a b sen t f r om t h e g roup 3 g r a in . I ti s , h oweve r , v e ry h eav i ly s t ra ined i n to s ubpa ra l le l b and s . S uch s t re s s b and sc ha rac te r ise q ua r tz d e r ived f r om s ome v a r ie t ie so f m echan ica l ly s t r a ined m e tamo rph ic r ock s (W i l l iam se ta l . 1 982 :503 -504 ) . C he r ti sr a re . I ti sr ep re sen ted b y af ew mo sa ic , a nd o ne mamm i l la ted c ha lcedon ic g ra in , w i th s e c to re x t inc t ion . A l lw e re a ngu l ar ,a nd o ff i ne s and s i ze . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa rr ange si ns i ze f r om v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and ,a nd f r om a ngu la rt os ubangu l a ri ns hape . I ti sr a re . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa ri sa ngu la ra nd r ep re sen ted b yv e ry f i ne s and -s ized g ra in s ,a nd i sa l so r a re . C a lc i te o ccu r s t h roughou t t h e ma t r ix . Many d ense p a tche s c on ta in a gg r ega te s o f ma in ly m ic r i t ic c r y s ta l s i n te r spe r sed w i th l a rge re uhed ra l c ry s ta l s . T he se p a tche s a r e u sua l ly a bou t 0 . 25 mm i nd i ame te r . E uhed ra lp l a tey c ry s ta l s ,o fv e ry f i ne s and s i ze ,a r es c a t t e r ed t h roughou t t h ef a b r ic . Af ew ,f i ne s a nd s ized ,a nhed ra l ,c r y s ta l so ccupy v o id s . I ne ach c a se t h ese c r y s ta l s s ugge s ta no r thochem ica lo r ig in . H ema t i te , o rg oe th i te , i ss c a t te red t h rough t h ef ab r ic . I ta ppea r st oh ave p rec ip i ta ted i n to s ub rounded ,o rr ounded ,p e l le t sa nd a r ea so fs t a ined c l ay . T hese a r eu p t of i ne s a nd s i ze . Z i rcon a nd t o u rma l ine , f r om c oa r se t ov e ry c oa r se s i l t s i ze , a r e b o th p r e sen t a s d e t r i ta l g ra ins . T hey a r er a re . S ponge s p icu le sa r en ume rou st oa bundan t . Many a r eo n ly s l igh t ly i mpe r f ec t ,a nd s eve ra l a r ei n tac t . F ragmen t st e nd t ob ew e l lp re se rved . D ia tom sa nd p hy to l i ths a r en ume rou s . C la y1 . T h i st e x tu ra l ly i mma tu r ec l ay i sd om ina t ed b ys i l tt oc oa r se s and -s ized n onp la s t ics . I ti sa

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CHAPTER 5 . THE P ETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BASIN P017 ING C LAYS

b rown i sh y e l low ( 10YR1 7 .5 /6 ) . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sm a in ly a nhed ra l , o f ten s ubhed ra l , a nd a bundan t . O ve rg row th s a r en ume rou s . Many g ra in ss how s eve re s t ra in w i th u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion b e ing c ommon . S ev e r a l h ave f r a c tu re s , a nd m ic ro p i t s . G r a in s w h ich h ave b een h eav i ly w ea the r ed m a in ly t oi n t er na l s u r f a ce s a nd e dge sa r e f ew . H eavy w ea the r ing w i th l imon i te t of r ac tu r e sa nd e x te rna l s u r f a ce si sc ommon . S eve ra lg ra in sh ave d ifu se v a cuo le sa nd i n af ew v acuo le so ccu ra sw e l l d ef ined t r a i l s . S ome o ft h e se g ra in sa r ee x ten s ive ly s t ra ined . N ega t ive c ry s ta l sa r ec ommon . An o tab ly w ide r ange o fs u r f ace t e x tu re s ,f r om c r i sp a nd f r e sh t oh eav i ly w ea the red ,i sr ep r e s en ted . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine g ra ins a r er e la t iv e ly r a re . A l l t h ree g roup s a r e p r e sen ta sa ngu lar , f i ne t o m ed ium s ized s and . O ne g ra in w a s h eav i ly w ea the red . A no the r g roup 2 g ra in i ss eve re ly s t ra ined . C he r t i sa l so r a re . I tm a in ly o ccu r s a s mo sa ic , v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and -s ized , a ngu la r t o s ub rounded , g r a in s . A l so p re sen ti sa ngu la rc ha lcedon ic c he r t , o fv e ry f i ne o rm ed ium s a nd s i ze . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa ro ccu r sa sv e ry f i ne t of i ne s a nd o fa ngu la rt or ounded s hape . I ti sr a r e . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa r i se x t reme ly r a re . On ly o ne r ounded , v e ry f i ne s and s ized , g ra in w a s d e tec ted . C a lc i te i ss c a t te red l i gh t ly t h roughou t s ome s e c t ion sa sd if u se m icr i t ic c ry s ta l s . I ti sn o t g ene ra l ly p rom inen t . H ema t i te ,o rg oe th i te ,o ccu r sa ppa ren t ly a s ap r ec ip i t a te . I ti so f ten p re sen ta sr ounded ,b u t w i th s ome w e l lr ounded ,p e l le t so f ma in ly f i ne s and ,b u ta l so u pt oc oa r se s and s i ze . Z i r con i sr a re . I tr a nges i n s i ze f r om v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and . T ou rma l ine a nd r u t i le a r e e x t reme ly r a re ,a ngu la r ,a nd o fv e ry c oa r se s i l ts i ze . S ponge s p icu le sa nd p hy to l i th sa r ew e l lr ep r e sen ted . D ia tom sa r en o tp rom inen t . C lay 1 2 . A no the rt e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re a nd s i l ty ( 10YRT 7 .5 /6 )c l ay ,i tc on ta in st h eh ighe s td en s i ty o f s ponge s p icu le s ,t o u rma l ine a nd c he r te ncoun te r ed i nt h es amp le . Monoc iy s ta l l ine q uar tz i sd om ina ted b y a nhed r a l g r a in s , b u tm any a r e s ubhed ra l . Many g ra in s a r e s t ra ined , u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion b e ing c ommon . F r ac tu re s a nd m ic ro p i t sa r ep rom i n en t . S eve ra l g r a ins a r e w ea the red , b u t o n ly af ew h ave l imon i te c oa t ing s t os uch s u r f ace s . I n te rna lf r ac tu re s u r f ace s , a nd w ea the r ed e x te rna lg ra in s u r f a ce sa r ec ommon ly l imon i te f r ee . V acuo le s ,w h ich a r ee i the rd ifu se o ro ccu ra st r a i l s ,a r er a re . G ra in sw i th a c icu la ri n c lu s ion so f t o u rma l ine a r ea l so r a re . T hese i n c lu s ion sa r eu pt o0 . 025 mm l o ng . O ne q uar tz g r a in c on ta in s ap r i sma t ic t ou rma l ine i n te rg row th 0 . 02 mm w ide b y0 . 07 mm l ong . Q uar tz g ra ins w i th o ve r g row th sa r ec ommon . S ome a ppa ren t ly a u th igen ic s ubhed ra lg ra in s ,h owev e r ,d on o td i sp lay o v e rg row th s . Aw ide r ange o fs hape sa r ee v iden t . T hey v a ry f r om a ngu la rt or ounded . S ome a r ea lmo s tw e l lr ounded . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sn o ta bundan t . A l lt h ree g roup s ,h oweve r ,a r ep re sen t . T hey r a nge i ns i ze f r om f i ne t o med ium s a nd . T hey a r ea l la ngu la ra nd o ne i sh eav i ly w ea the red . Ag roup 3g r a in ,p robab ly m e tamo rph ic i no r ig in ,i ss t r e tched a nd g r anu la ted ( Fo lk 1 980 :69 -72 ) . C he r t , b o th mo sa ic a nd c ha lcedon ic ,i sp rom inen t . B o th v ar ie t ie sr ange f r om v ery c oa r se s i l tt of i ne s and i ns i ze ,a nd f r om a ngu la rt os ub rounded i ns hape . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa ri sr a re ,a ngu la r ,a nd o ff i ne s and s i ze . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa ri sa b sen t . C a lc i te i ss c a t te red t h in ly t h roughou t t h e f ab r ic a s a nhed r a l m icr i t ic c ry s ta ls . E uhed ra l m icr i t ic c ry s ta l s s u r round af ew q uar tz g r a in s . Many v o id s a r e f u l l o fa u th igen ic e uhed ra l p l a te sa nd a nhed ra lc r y s ta l s ,o fu pt ov e ry f i ne s and s i ze .

5 . 2 . RESULTS

7 9

H ema t i te , o rg oe th i te , o ccu r s a sa ngu l a rt or ounded p e l le t s a nd c l ay s t a in ing s , o f ma in ly v e ry f i ne ,b u ta l so u pt om ed ium ,s and s i ze . A n i so t rop ic b l ack l a tente i sp re sen ta sw e l lr ounded v e ry c o ar se s and . Ap o r ef i l l ing o fm icn i t ic c a lc i te c r y s ta l si ns ome c a se sb ound st h el a ten tec l ay -ma t r ix i n te r f a ce . Af ew q u ar tz g ra in sa r ee nca sed i nf e r rug inou s ma te r ia l . T h i sh a sp ro d uced o o id l ike s hape s . Z i r con i sr a re , d e t r i ta l , a nd f r om v e ry c o a r se s i l tt ov e ry f i ne s and i ns i ze . T ou rma l ine i s w e l lr ep r e sen ted . I to ccu r s ma in ly a sa ngu la rt or ounded ,d e t r i ta l g ra ins . T he se a r eo fc o a r se s i l tt of i ne s and s i ze . I na dd i t ion , s eve ra la c icu la rr od sr ang ing f r om 0 .05 mm t o0 . 07 mm i n l e ng th a r ep r esen t . O ne e uhed ra lc r y s ta l ,w i th r hombohed rona lt e rm ina l s ,m ea su red 0 . 05 mm i nl e ng th . S ponge s p icu le sa r ea bundan t . T hey a r eo f ten w e l lp re se rved . D ia tom sa nd p hy to l i th sa r e n ume rou s . C la y1 3 . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re ,( 10YR f 7 .5 /4 ) ,c l ay . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i s ma in ly a nhed ra l , o f t en s ubhed ra l . Many g ra in s a r e s t ra ined . Undu lo se e x t inc t ion i sc ommon . S eve ra l g ra in s h ave f r a c tu re s o rm ic ro p i t s . Wea the r ing t o i n te rna la nd e x te rna ls u r f ace s ,e i the rw i th o rw i thou tl imon i te s t a in ing ,i so f t en p re sen t . Many g ra in s c on ta in n ume rou s , b u td ifu se ly s p read , v acuo le s . O v e rg row th s a r e c ommon . Af ew g ra in sc on ta in t o u rma l ine i n c lu s ions ( f ig . 5 . 2 ) .

F IGURE 5 . 2 : TOURMAL INE I NCLUS ION I N A WELL -ROUNDED QUARTZ GRA IN . P o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz i sn o tp rom inen t . Af ew g roup 2a ngu la r ,v e ry f i ne t oc oa r se s and s i zed , g ra in s w e r e n o ted . Ag roup 3g ra in ,p robab ly m e tamo rph ic i no r ig in , i ss t re t ched a nd g ranu la ted ( Fo lk 1 980 :69 -72 ) . C he r ti sr a r e . I ti sr ep r e sen ted p r inc ipa l ly b ya ngu la rt os ub rounded ,f i ne t om ed ium s and s i zed , mo sa ic g r a in s . O ne c ompo s i te g ra in ,w h ich i sg r aded b e tween mo sa ic a nd c ha lcedon ic , a nd o ne o rd ina ry c ha lcedon ic g r a in w e re a l so n o t ed .

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CHAPTER 5 . THE P ETROLOGY OF S AKON NAKHON BAS IN POTT ING CLAYS

P o ta s s ium f e ld spa r i s am ino r c omponen t . A l though n one w e re r e co rded d ur ing p o in t c oun t ing , s eve ra l a ngu la r , v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and s ized , g r a ins w e r e o b se rved . P lag ioc la se f e ld spa r i sv e ry r a r e . Two a ngu la rg ra in s , o ne o fv e ry c oa r se s i l t a nd t h e o t he ro fv e ry f i ne s a nd s i ze ,a r ep re sen t . S ymme t r ica le x t inc t ion a ng le ss ugge s t as od ium -r ich c ompo s i t ion . C a lc i te g ene r a l ly o ccu r s a s an ume rou s s c a t te ro fm icr i t ic c r y s ta l s t h roughou tt h e f ab r ic . I np l ace s t h i s may b e a bundan t . I t sp re sence i sh i gh ly v a r iab le , h oweve r , a nd s ome s e c t ion s h ave l i t t le . Af ew l a rge r ,o f t en e uhed ra l ,p l a tey c r y s ta l so fu pt of i ne s a nd s i ze a l so o ccu r . H ema t i te , o rg oe th i te , i sr e p r e sen ted b y s eve ra l a ngu la rt or ounded p e l le t s , o rc l ay s t a in i n g s , o fu p t of i ne s and s i ze . O ne r ounded g ra in , o fv e ry c oa r se s and s i ze , c on ta in s s eve ra l q uar tz g ra ins . T he f e r rug inou s m a te r ia l i nt h i s l a t t e r g r a in i sd en se , a nd ma in ly o paque i n t h in -sec t ion . I tg rade s f r om b rown t ob l ack a nd i st h u s o p t ica l ly c on s i s ten t w i th ah ema t i t ic i r on s tone (W i l l iam se ta l . 1 982 :4 15 ) . T h i s ma te r ia lm ay t h u sr ep re sen tt h ed ehyd r a ted g oe th i te a nd h ema t i te c ha ra c t e r i s t ic o fl a te r i te ( B i rke land 1 974 :114 ) . "Wh i te m ica" i sp r e sen ta st h read su pt o0 .05 mm l o ng . I ti sv e ry r a re . Z i rcon i sa l so r a r e . I to ccu r sa sa ngu la r ,v e ry f i ne s and s ized , d e t r i ta l g r a in s . T ou rma l ine i so fc oa r se s i l ts i ze a nd v e ry r a r e . F ragmen ta ry s ponge s p icu le s ,d i a tom sa nd p hy to l i ths a r er a r e . C lay 1 4 . At e x tu ra l ly i mma tu re ( 10YR1 7 .5 /4 )c l ay . Monoc ry s ta l l ine q u ar tz i ss ub s tan t ia l ly a sf o r c l ay 1 3 . I th a s s l igh t ly f ewe r g ra in s w i th o v e rg row th s . O ne g ra in h a s as ubhed ra lt o u rma l ine i n te rg row th 0 . 08 mm l o ng . P o lycry s ta l l ine q uar tz o fg roup 2 ,a nd mo sa ic c he r t a r ee ach r e p re sen ted b y as i ng le f i ne s and -s ized g ra in . P o ta s s ium f e ld spa ri sa ga in m ino r . I tr ange sf r om v e ry c oa r se s i l tt om ed ium s a nd i ns i ze , a nd i ns hape f r om a ngu la rt os ubangu l ar . T h ree a ngu la r ,v e ry f i ne t of i ne s and s ized ,g ra ins o f p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r w e re n o ted . T he i rs ymme t r ica l e x t inc t ion a ng le s s ugge s t as od ium r ich c ompo s i t ion . C a lc i te i sn o t a bundan t . I ti sp re sen t a s ad ifu se s c a t t e ro fm ic r i t ic c r y s ta l si n mo s tt h in s e c t ion s . F e r rug inou sm ine ra l sa r et h es ame a sd e sc r ibed f o rc l ay 1 3 . S eve ra l g ra in s o fz i r con w e re n o ted . I to ccu r s e i the r a sa ngu la r , v e ry c oa r se s i l to rv e ry f i ne s and . T ou rma l ine ,o ft h es ame d imen s ion sb u tu sua l ly b l aded r a the rt h an g ranu la r ,i sr a r e . S ponge s p icu le s ,d i a tom sa nd p hy to l i th sa r er a re .

5 . 3

S ummary a nd c onc lud ing r e mark s

S akon N akhon B a s in c l ay s c an b e c ha ra c te r i sed b y ad om inance o fm ine ra l s d e r ived f r om o l de r s ed imen ta ry s ou rce s . T hey a r er ewo rked s ed imen t s . T he s ponge s p icu le d epo s i t s a r e c on s i s ten tw i th t r an spo r t ed c l ay . T he re i sn oe v idence t os ugge s tt h ey r e su l tf r om mode rn s ed i men ta t ion ( s ee a l so c hap te rf ou r ) . G iven t h e d ep th t h a tt h ep o t t ing c l ay s a r eq uar r ied , e ven i ft h ey r e la te t ot h e l a te s td epo s i t ion o fs ed imen t s d ocumen ted b y L of f l e re ta l . ( 1983 ) , t h ey p reda te t h eo ccupa t ion o fB an N aD i . T he n onp ia s t ic s a r em ine ra log ica l ly m a tu r e , b u t t h e i r t e x tu re a ppea r s i mma tu r e . Af u l l t e x tu ra l a na ly s i s i sb eyond t h e s c ope o ft h ep re sen t w o rk . A l though t h es hape a nd s o r t ing o fn onp la s t ics h ave b een e s t ima ted i nt h in sec t ion ,t h e se ,a l ong w i th t h e s u r f ace t e x tu r e so fg r a in s a nd f ab r ic c ompo s i t ion , s ugge s t t e x tu ra l i mma tur i ty . A c c o rd ing t oF o lk 's ( 1980 :26 )s ed imen ts cheme ,t h ec l ay sc an b ec on s ide red s andy ( >1 0% b u t