Pistachios: cultivation, production and consumption 9781685079499, 9798886970630

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Agriculture Issues and Policies

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Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui Editors

Pistachios Cultivation, Production and Consumption

Copyright © 2022 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. https://doi.org/10.52305/SFGV3430 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication’s page on Nova’s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title’s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: [email protected].

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The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN: 979-8-88697-063-0 (e-book)

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Contents

Preface

.......................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts..................................................................... 1 Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

Chapter 2

Post-Harvest Practices of Pistachios ..............................27 Kamin Alexander, Monika, Richa Srivastava and E. P. Lal

Chapter 3

Micro-Propagation of Pistachios ....................................41 Aman Prakash, Pragalbh Tiwari, Nidhi Kumari and Aditi Chandra

Chapter 4

Pistachio Cultivation and Consumption for Sustainable Development ................................................59 Sumanta Bhattacharya

Chapter 5

Factors Affecting the Production of Pistachios .............73 Ankita Singh

Chapter 6

Pistachios’ Antioxidant and Bioactive Properties ......................................................................... 87 Kamin Alexander, Richa Srivastava, Monika, Archana Shukla and Regina John

Chapter 7

Benefits of Pistachio Consumption...............................105 Sunanda Das

Chapter 8

Pistachio Waste-Derived Carbon: An Efficient Material for Heavy Metal Adsorption .........................129 Runit Isaac, Prerna Higgins and Mini Singh

vi

Contents

Chapter 9

Environmental Remediation of Organic Pollutants Employing Pistachio Waste ........................147 Prerna Higgins and Runit Isaac

Chapter 10

Applications of the Waste from Pistachios: A Review ......................................................................... 165 Reena S. Lawrence

Chapter 11

Consumption Patterns of Pistachios in India and Overseas .................................................................. 183 Shanti Swaroop Chauhan

Chapter 12

An Analysis of Pistachios’ Production Patterns and Their Impact on Consumption in India and Overseas .................................................................. 205 Humaira Khatoon

About the Editors ...................................................................................... 225 Index

......................................................................................... 227

Preface

Pistachios: Cultivation, Production and Consumption published by Nova Science Publication is designed to help readers working in the field of agriculture, biology, chemistry and marketing. The book focuses on the aspects of pistachios cultivation process, its health benefits, consumption, and its phyto-chemical properties as well as production processes. The book also deals with the application of pistachio waste as a useful product in various processes such as water treatment, oil extraction and so on. The book covers the wide knowledge about the production and consumption pattern of Pistachios in India and abroad.

Chapter 1

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts Mustafa Bayram1,* and Ege Aral Bayram2 1University

of Gaziantep, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Gaziantep, Turkey 2BLG ARGE Information-service, Consultancy, Training, Food, Machinery, and Medical Prd. Ind. Co. Gaziantep Technopark, Gaziantep University Campus, Gaziantep, Turkey

Abstract Pistachio is a favorable nut in the world due to its use in snack, desserts, ice cream, sauce, paste, cream and bakery industries. It is produced and processed in the USA, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Italy, and Spain. It is also harvested in small amounts in some countries. Its variety and processing technology are different in different countries. In particular, postharvesting systems are different, therefore the technology and equipment are different. In Turkey, after harvesting, the pistachio is dried as soon as possible in the hull, then it is processed. In the USA, Iran, Italy, and Syria, fresh pistachio after harvesting is processed. Depending on harvesting time and usage in the different products, pistachio nut is harvested as green, meverdi (semi-mature) and mature. Food safety and product quality are very critical for pistachio during harvesting, drying, processing, and storing. In particular, microbiological, toxicological and chemical defects can occur. In this chapter, processing technologies, equipment, production stages, process control, alternative technologies, food safety, quality control and quality plans are explained. *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

Keywords: pistachio nuts, processing, control, harvesting

1. Introduction 1.1. General Information The cultivated pistachio is known as “Pistacia vera L.,” which is a member of the Anacardiaceae or cashew family. In this family, cashew, mango, poison ivy, poison oak and sumac are available. Pistacia is a genus that contains 11 species and P. vera from this family is the most important due to economic issues. Pistachio nut is a popular and delicious nut used as a salted and roasted product or as an ingredient (perfect green, meverdi and reddish) in desserts (baklava, halva, bakery and paste, etc.), cake, ice-cream, sauce, and chocolate. Iranian and the USA types (wide kernel and split) are very famous in the salted/roasted nuts industry due to their high split ratios and kernel sizes. The Turkish type (long kernel) is preferred as the shelled kernel for dessert, ice cream, sauce and chocolate due to its high-fat content and dominant taste. The Turkish type is also used as a roasted product; however, its popularity is less than large size Iranian and US varieties due to its low split ratio. As seen in Figure 1, perfect green pistachio (boz, immature pistachio and early harvested before maturation) is used for baklava, dessert, sauce, and ice cream due to its dense flavor and perfect green color. When the pistachio nut matures, its color turns to red-yellowish (rose) and/or meverdi, which is used in chocolate, sweet, and paste. The unsplit-inshell-kernel is broken with a rotary type mill (or with special machines and hand) to obtain a shelled kernel. During pistachio nut processing, physical properties (size, density, surface area, and sphericity), moisture content, maturity, split ratio, and color are important parameters to design the system. These are also important to increase the production yield by decreasing the broken kernel ratio during processing (Bayram, 2011). The shape of pistachio nuts is ellipsoidal. Therefore, there is no simple equation to calculate the particle surface area and sphericity. Both are also important properties in mass transfer operations of pistachio nuts (drying rate, diffusion, dehydration and rehydration, etc.), fluid mechanics operations (fluidization, drag force and settling, etc.), and heat transfer operations (heat transfer rate calculation, cooling, heating and freezing, etc.).

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

Mature fresh pistachio nut

Pistachio nut with bunch

Perfect green pistachio nut (Boz)

Mature (red) kernel

Long type pistachio nut

Wide type pistachio nut

Hull

Pistachio nut dried-in-hull

3

Perfect green kernel Semi-matured kernel-Meverdi

Peeled perfect green

Unsplit pistachio nut

Figure 1. Different pistachio nuts at different stages (created by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

Pistachio as an important nut has been known by people, is growing in a specific region in the Mediterranean to India. The origin of pistachio nut is known as Minor Asia (Anatolia), Iran, Syria, Afghanistan, the neighbors of Afghanistan and Italy. Its cultivation and production in different countries have been started due to its economic importance, recently, e.g., the United States of America (since 1950). In addition to economic issues, its resistance to difficult climatic conditions supplies a good advantage. Farmers prefer the plantation of pistachio nuts for arid and hot regions. In some countries, it grows as wild and it is planted in unusable fields to evaluate the farms and soil. It probably developed in interior arid areas, because of its long and hot summer requirement for fruit maturation. Additionally, it is drought and salt tolerant and has a high chilling requirement. Geographically, when the growth areas are analyzed, pistachio nuts are also found in mountains, arid and unirrigated fields in some parts of Turkey, Italy (Sicily), Syria, Iran, Afghanistan and Kirgizstan. Recently, new and special farms have been created due to the increase in the value of pistachio nuts in the food industry, especially in Turkey, Iran, and the USA (California). The USA started to grow pistachio nuts in the last century by developing agricultural and food processing techniques. Then, the pistachio nuts revolution started in Turkey and Iran by changing agricultural and processing techniques. The pistachio nuts industry has started to change by the developing technology with research and development, increase in use in other food industries. It is today a modern industry and is part of other food industries. The biggest producers of pistachio nuts were Iran and Turkey fifty years ago. Due to exportation problems from Iran and some quotas applied to Iran, the international pistachio trading supplied from Iran has been affected, therefore the production in California started to increase. It was also an alternative product for almonds in California due to some tax problems. These problems pushed to increase the production of pistachio in the USA. The USA is today the leader in the production of pistachio.

1.2. Harvesting, Processing, Storage, and packaging 1.2.1. Harvesting Preparation for pistachio harvesting begins at the end of summer, which depends on the climate, raw material types (immature or mature usage), irrigation, variety, splitting ratio, insect, and aflatoxin (Aspergillus flavors) risks. Harvesting principles are the same for both young and full-bearing

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

5

pistachio trees. The nuts are removed by knocking or shaking onto a catching frame. Depending on the technology, harvesting is made by hand or mechanical vibrators. For big farm administration, continuous shaking machines are used and loading is made to trucks by conveyors. In some countries, early harvesting is made to obtain immature pistachio nuts to use in baklava, deserts and ice cream, etc. This product is called perfect green, boz or bird feces. This product has a specific color and aroma, therefore it is used as a special ingredient in special products. It is very expensive due to immaturity and yield loss. If the harvested product is processed as fresh, it should be transferred to the processing plant as soon as possible. Especially in Gaziantep city, which is the center of pistachio nuts production and processing in Turkey, drying is made after harvesting in-hull by farmers due to storage, price and economic issue. It is only made in this region. The other pistachio nuts (PN) producing countries and cities use fresh processing techniques (harvesting, dehulling and then drying).

1.2.2. Storage Stages Storage can be made in four stages; i) pistachio nuts storage after harvesting (fresh and dried-in-hull), ii) dehulled and dried pistachio nuts storage, iii) pistachio nuts kernel storage and iv) salted and roasted pistachio nuts storage. The detail about the storage of pistachio nuts is reported by Bayram and Şahan (2012). 1.2.2.1. Storage of PN after Harvesting (Fresh and Dried-in-Hull) The change in the color of the hull and shell of pistachio nuts is the main problem after harvesting. The change in color occurs during transportation, waiting in pitting holes and storing. High levels of hull damage, insufficient aeration and high temperatures accelerate deterioration. Color change and shell staining (hard shell, mussel-shell) generally increase with an increase in temperature and holding time during pre-processing. Intact hulls on the surface of pistachio nuts can be safe during 24-48 hrs at ambient temperature. If the hull is damaged, safe storage time decreases to around 4-8, 18-24 and 40-48 hrs at 35-45, 30-35 and 20-25oC, respectively. Transportation and waiting under the sun increase denaturation. If the processing time is delayed, raw material should be sorted and cold storage should be used for the shelf life of pistachio nuts (around 0oC).

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

1.2.2.2. Storage of Dehulled and Dried PN The regular storage for dehulled and dried product (m.c. %8-10%) can be made at 20°C and 65-70% RH in a controlled aerated silo and/or warehouse. Insect and temperature due to heat generation and respiration) controls should periodically be monitored during storage. It is also possible to apply low oxygen, fumigation, cold storage, and a controlled atmosphere to increase shelf-life and protect the quality of the product. Moisture content, aflatoxin, microorganisms, insect growth and peroxide value should be controlled and monitored during storage. Pistachio nut is less susceptible to oxidative rancidity relative to other nuts, which may be the result of a lower unsaturated to saturated fatty acids ratio. Additionally, lower temperature slows down deterioration and lipid oxidation (peroxide value, rancidity), prevents mold growth and greatly reduces insect activity. A low oxygen atmosphere positively affects the flavor quality of pistachio nuts. It can be carried out by vacuum packaging or by flushing with nitrogen to exclude oxygen. 1.2.2.3. Storage of PN Kernel The kernel is more sensitive than in-shell and in-hull pistachio nuts. It has a short-self life. Therefore, it should be stored in a cold storage room. It can be stored at 0 and/or -18oC. Additionally, vacuum, controlled and modified atmosphere packaging methods help to increase shelf-life. These techniques increase the shelf-life of pistachio nuts. 1.2.2.4. Storage of Salted and Roasted PN Salted and roasted in-shell pistachio nuts can be stored at low relative humidity to protect texture under atmospheric conditions. Vacuum, controlled and modified atmosphere packaging systems are used for safe storage and packaging. 1.2.3. Processing The pistachio nuts processing can mainly be classified into two groups; i) dried-in-hull processing (Figure 2) and ii) fresh processing after harvesting. The processing of pistachio nuts can be classified according to the parts of pistachio nuts such as hull, shell, skin and kernel. The pistachio kernel has four layers. The outer layer is called a hull (husk), which is a cellulosic material. Its color turns from light yellow/green to red color during maturation. The second layer is the shell (hardshell under the hull). It is like a mussel shell. It splits during maturation. Its splitting ratio depends on the pistachio variety.

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

7

Under this hard shell, there is a thin skin to cover the kernel of pistachio nuts. When the skin is peeled, a kernel is obtained. The detailed information about processing is given by Bayram (2010a, 2010b, 2014) and Bayram and Öner (2014). The processing also depends on these layers, which are explained as follows.

Figure 2. Fresh and dried-in-hull processing (created by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

1.2.3.1. Dried-in-Hull Processing This processing type (Figure 3) is preferred in Gaziantep/Turkey. It is a traditional technique. It is preferred by farmers due to some storage and economic advantages. A dried-in hull means “drying pistachio nuts under the sun in the hull after harvesting.” The dried product is stored in the storage room under atmospheric conditions. When dried-in-hull pistachio nut is received by processors, the first operation is “soaking in water” for 6-12 hrs. After soaking (m.c. 30-35%), the hull is soft, and then it is ready for the dehulling operation. In general, a potato peeler is used to remove the hull. A potato peeler is a typical rotating bowl and water is used during dehulling. After this operation, the further operations are nearly similar to fresh processing. Technology and equipment change according to factories.

Figure 3. Dried-in-hull processing (created by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

1.2.3.2. Fresh Processing The harvesting period of pistachio nuts can change according to climate, variety, season, aflatoxin risk and required product type. The required product type is critical to predicting the harvesting time. For example, immature pistachio (perfect green) is harvested very early when the kernel is green. This product is very expensive and it is a special product for baklava, ice cream and chocolate, etc.

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

9

In some countries and regions (Iran, the USA, Italy and the East part of Turkey), the processing starts after harvesting the fresh pistachio nuts. The moisture content of fresh pistachio nuts is normally between 35 and 40%. The harvested fresh pistachio nuts are transferred to the factory. Therefore, it should be processed as soon as possible to prevent the darkness on the hard shell surface, the growth of microorganisms, odor formation and biochemical changes. If fresh-type pistachio processing is used, the capacity of the factory should be high to process all harvested products daily. Fresh processing factories should be near pistachio nuts gardens and farms because of time limitations for the transportation of raw materials. Pistachio nuts are received from the pitting hole to the processing line after quality control (Figure 4). In processing, the first stage is the dehulling operation to remove the hull from the pistachio nuts surface. In some countries, harvesting is made with the bunch/stem of pistachio nuts. Therefore, it is removed at the dehulling operation. The dehulling operation is batch or continuous operation depending on technology, capacity and equipment. In batch operation, a typical potato peeler (bowl type dehuller) is used with water, and it is rotated at high speed. The hull and in-shell kernel are separated after the dehulling operation by using the vibro screen, rotary or pool washers. In the continuous system, there are different dehuller systems. One of them is equipped with the first and second dehullers. The first one is a rubber roller and the second one is a steel screw-type rotary dehuller. First rubber roller dehulls pistachio nuts, gently. The second one is used to remove sticky and adhesive hulls on the hard surface of pistachio nuts by using a hard abrasive force. During the dehulling operation, a high amount of water is used to clean the rubber surface. After dehulling, the next step is washing and cleaning the surface of the in-shell kernel by spraying water and screw-type cleaners. A steel screw-type rotary dehuller is only used in some small factories. In another process, rod-type-dehullers are used, which are covered with abrasive-type materials. These abrasive materials on the surface of rods should be renewed. The hull is a big problem as waste for the environment. It is used as a byproduct to produce jam, marmalade, fiber source, coloring agent, fabric/textile dye, medicine and fuel, etc. in some countries. After the dehulling operation, empty in-shell kernels are separated with the specific gravity difference principle by using the water floating technique. The empty kernels are waste and generally used as fuel. After the dehulling operation, the product is called an in-shell kernel. Some of them are closed (unsplit) and/or open (split). The moisture content of the product is around 35-40%. The next step is pre-drying, which is the most

Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

10

FLOW-CHART FOR DEHULLING OPERATION FOR PN Fresh raw material with red hull PN

Dry raw material with red hull PN

mc=35-36%

mc=4-5%

Dry raw material inlet Conveying Silo/Storage

Conveying

Water Aflatoxin chemical Antimicrobial chemical

Washing unit Disinfection unit (Aflatoxin destruction+Microbial destruction)

Conveying

Water

Soaking Discharge water

mc=32-36%

Conveying

Stem separator Red hull remover/ separator

R-3

Hot air from 2nd. dryer

Empty PN Immature PN Bunker

R-2

Conveying

Water

Separator for adhesive red hull from shell

Water

Decantor

Conveying Red hull (waste)

R-1 Waste water Waste water

Water

Spray washer

Small tower dryer

To kernel/unshelling unit

1

Figure 4. Flowchart for dehulling operation of pistachio nuts (fresh and dried-inhull) (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

mc=35-38%

1

Ambient air

Ambient air

11

1st. Dryer (80-90 C)

Air heater mc=24-27%

Humid air out Small amount of water

Fuel

Unhulled PN

Unhulled product seperator (drum type)

Conveyor Bunker Waste (Red hull)

Abrasive type dehuller

Water

Hulled PN

R-1

R-2 (RECYCLE LINE)

Ambient air

Ambient air

Ambient air

Air heater

Fuel

Air out

R-3

Small amount of water

Air heater

Fuel

Ambient air

2nd. Dryer (45-55 C)

mc=16-18%

3rd. Dryer (35-40 C)

mc=12%

Conveyor (Pre-apron)

Air out Ambient air

Small amount of water Aerated storage

DEHULLED PRODUCT

mc=8%

Figure 5. Flowchart for drying operation of pistachio nuts (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

difficult operation in the production of pistachio nuts (Figure 5). There are some drying techniques such as sun drying (traditional, small production), push-mix-horizontal continuous dryer as mixing type drying, belt dryer as static or mixing type drying, column and/or tower drying (high capacity and

12

Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

mixing type) and tray drying (mixing type). In the USA, Iran, and Turkey, column, push-mix-horizontal, and sun/tray/tower dryers are preferred. Drying is a critical operation, therefore it needs extra attention, design and control. The type of dryer depends on the capacity and required techniques. Some dryers are designed as one, two or three stages. Due to the high moisture content of pistachio nuts before the drying operation, step-by-step drying is recommended. Additionally, pistachio nuts kernels should be mixed during the drying operation. Some kernels are closed (unsplit), therefore their drying periods are different from others. Decreasing drying time causes the deformation of kernels by increasing drying temperature and airflow rate. Some processors use a single-stage drying operation using hot air at constant drying temperature (60-100°C for 8-15 hours) to decrease moisture content directly to 8-10%. The control of this drying operation is difficult, therefore, drying is preferred minimum 2 or 3 temperature stages instead of one drying stage. Today, new generation dryers use two or more stages by changing drying temperature and airflow rate as parallel to decrease in the moisture content of pistachio nuts during the drying operation. High air temperature is applied at the inlet of the dryer for moist pistachio nuts, and then the step-by-step temperature is decreased. In general, 100-110oC of temperature is applied at a high airflow rate for input pistachio nuts at the inlet of the dryer. High temperature is used for the moist product. Then, the temperature is decreased to 65-75oC at the second stage and then finally decreased to 40-50oC. The airflow rate is also decreased parallel to the decrease in the drying temperature. The drying operation can take 6-12 hr depending on drying temperature, the type of product, dryer airflow rate and the relative humidity of the air. If the product is stored in aerated storage, the final moisture content is decreased to 10-12% after the drying operation. Remain moisture is gently removed in the storage system by using an aeration system. As a note, decreasing moisture to 6-8% needs a very gentle and careful operation. Alternatively, moisture content can be decreased to 6-8% in a dryer. After drying, the final moisture content can be around 8-10% depending on the further operation required. In some systems, the moisture content is decreased to 12% with a dryer, explained as previously. Then, the final moisture is decreased to 8% in an aerated silo. The safe moisture content for the dehulled and dried pistachio nuts is app. 8-10%. It can be stored in an aerated silo or directly transferred to split separators to separate split and unsplit kernels. If the product is stored in the silo, there are some critical parameters such as temperature, moisture content and relative humidity. Insects and microorganisms are critical during the storage operation.

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

13

In the split separation, there are some techniques such as acoustic separator (acoustic sorter), drum needle sorter and hand separation (Figure 6). The acoustic sorter has advanced technology and process control. The acoustic sorter uses a computerized system to separate split and un-split kernels by using their different sounds. In the acoustic separator, pistachio nuts strike a standard metal surface. The split and un-split pistachio nuts kernels have different sounds when they strike the metal surface. The sound is recorded by a microphone and the signal is sent to the controller. The controller analyzes the sound with calibration data. Then the split and un-split pistachio nuts are separated by an actuator (air ejector). The capacity of the acoustic sorter is low. The drum/rotary needle sorter is widely used in the pistachio nuts industry. In this system, there are too many specially designed needles to catch the split kernels. The split kernels are carried by needles to a conveyor to separate from un-split ones. In Iran, the USA and Turkey, the needle-type sorter is widely used. But, if the kernels are too split (the shell is too open), the needles can damage the kernels. Additionally, size calibration should be made by using a screen before the needle separation. If pistachio nuts are long or wide, needle size, length and the number of needles per unit area should be different. Hand selection is an old and primitive system. It causes hair, foreign materials and microorganisms contamination. Therefore, it is not suitable for food safety and hygiene. When the product is separated as the split and un-split pistachio nuts, they can be used for different purposes. In general, the split pistachio nuts are used to produce snack products (salted and roasted). The un-split pistachio nuts are used for the cracking operation to produce kernel without shell, chopped kernel, flour and paste. Snack products (salted and roasted pistachio nuts) can be produced by using batch and continuous systems. In a batch system, batch-type rotary roasters are used for small capacities. However, it is also used to obtain a shined and polished shell surface. It is especially preferred in Turkey. Some companies also used some chemicals to obtain a reddish color on the surface of pistachio nuts shells. In this stage, there are a lot of details and specifications. For example, if a polished and shined surface is required, salting is made using moist salt. Roasting is made together with salt in a roaster. After roasting, there is no salt on the surface (smooth and polished surface) (Figure 7). Detailed information about salting and roasting is given by Balcı and Bayram (2013, 2015).

14

Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram FLOW-CHART FOR SPLIT SEPARATION OF PN

Storage

mc=7-8%

Bunker Conveyor Feeder-Vibro Under-screen product (Bunker)

Conveying

Split separator Unsplit product (Bunker)

Conveying

Conveying Split product (Bunker) Conveying

Reject product (hull on the shell)

Color sorting (UV type/optional)

Clean product

Bunker

Apron

Breaking line

Bunker

Figure 6. Flowchart for split processing of pistachio nuts (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

15

FLOW-CHART FOR ROASTING PN Split PN Salt Water

Feeder

Oxalic acid

Salt mixer Rotary/belt type

Salt mixer Rotary/belt type

Conveying Tempering/resting bunker Belt roaster

Screen

Excess salt

Conveying Slow cooling tanks (to open the shell gap) Magnet/Magnetic detector Resonance separator (to separate hair, stone, shell etc.) Apron Packaging (Vacuum, bag, PP, modified)

Figure 7. Flowchart for salting and roasting operations of pistachio nuts (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

In another system, roasting is made after salting and/or brining. The roaster is continuous. In general, a belt or palette roaster design is used. After roasting, salt crystals are found on the surface. Some countries prefer this kind of product.

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

After roasting, the product is cooled slowly or rapidly. The main objective depends on the rate of cooling is to increase the split ratio and opening kernel. In general, the roasted pistachio nuts are slowly cooled during resting in a special tank. Natural conventional heat transfer (slow cooling) is used for cooling to increase the split ratio (opening shell). After cooling, the product should be packaged as soon as possible by using vacuum packaging, Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) or Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CA) techniques to prevent soft texture and lipid oxidation. Before packaging, a control screen, metal detector and/or X-ray detector are used due to food safety. The un-split pistachio nuts are generally used for cracking by removing the hard-shell (Figure 8). The product is called a “kernel” (without a shell). To produce a “kernel,” the in-shell pistachio nuts are tempered with water to supply the soft texture on the hard shell. Moisture content is increased to 1113%, then rested for 3-8 hrs. The screen calibration is used to obtain a uniform dimension. Each calibrated product is cracked using different cracker sizes to prevent loss due to broken kernels. The cracker is a special rotary type cracker (a special mill). There are also different designs and machines. After breaking, some of the products are broken. Therefore, they are separated by using a fluidized bed separator. To separate whole and broken shells found in the kernel, a fluidized bed, screen and resonance separator are used. Un-split pistachio nuts are alternatively split by using a special splitter or by hand instead of cracking. Hand splitting causes a lot of hygienic problems (microorganisms, salmonella, coliform, total bacteria, mold and yeast, etc.). The splitting machines are used in the different countries under patent and/or secret operation/design. The kernel without a shell can be packaged under a vacuum or using MAP. Alternatively, it can be processed by roasting (Figure 9). The roasting is made by using a belt-type roaster. This roasted kernel is also important for the ice cream, chocolate and dessert industries. Additionally, the roasted or raw kernel can be chopped to obtain chopped product and/or floor (Figures 10 and 11). These products are also used in the ice cream, dessert and bakery industries. This product can be used as paste (Figure 12) or blend (Figure 13) production by using a pre-mill and fine-mill (colloidal ball mill). This product is new to the market. It is especially used for breakfast. It is also good for dressing in meals. To produce this kind of product (paste), a perfect green kernel is better than mature pistachio nuts due to its color, taste and flavor.

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

17

FLOW-CHART FOR BREAKING (KERNEL OBTAINING) PN Immature un hulled PN

Unsplit PN

Underscreen PN mc=7-8%

Tempering screw Tempering screw Tempering screw

Resting bunker mc=11-13%

Classification screen (7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5 mm) Breaking mills (7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5 mm) (depends on PN size)

Screen

Shell Conveying

Intact kernel

Broken kernel

Conveying

Conveying

Silo/bunker

Silo/bunker

Conveying Conveying Fluidized bed separator Resonance separator

Broken kernel Intact kernel

Fluidized bed separator Conveying Destoner Color sorter

Apron Shell silo

Silo/bunker Broken kernel Shell

Conveying Fluidized bed separator

Intact kernel Shell

Conveying Destoner

Resonance separator

Resonance separator

Apron

Apron

Conveying

Conveying

Intact kernel silo

Broken kernel silo

Figure 8. Flowchart for breaking operation of pistachio nuts (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram FLOW-CHART FOR DRYING/ROASTING LINE OF KERNEL PN

Intact kernel

mc=7-8%

Conveying

Belt dryer mc=2-4%

Silo/bunker

Metal detector

Packaging (Vacuum, modified, bag, PP)

Figure 9. Flowchart for drying, roasting and packaging operations of pistachio nuts kernel (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.). FLOW-CHART FOR SLICING KERNEL PN

Peeled intact kernel mc=7-8%

Conveying

Slicer (like salami, grid etc.)

Packaging (Vacuum, modified, bag, PP)

Figure 10. Flowchart for slicing operation of pistachio nuts kernel (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

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FLOW-CHART FOR CHOPPING/GRINDING/ POWDER LINE OF KERNEL PN

Broken kernel

Intact kernel

Peeled kernel mc=7-8%

Bunker and Conveying Vibrator feeder

Conveying Grinder/Chopper

Flour machine (Fine particle PN)

Screening Screening Conveying

Flour bunker Silos/tanks for chopped products

Conveying

Packaging (Vacuum, modified, bag, PP)

Figure 11. Flowchart for choping operation of pistachio nuts kernel (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

If an immature (perfect green) pistachio kernel is used to produce paste and dressing products, the peeling operation is recommended (Figure 14). In the pistachio kernel processing, the perfect green pistachio nuts are blanched with hot water and then peeled to remove the skin to obtain a perfect-greenpeeled kernel. Peeling is made by hand or rubber-type roller after the blanching operation. Intact kernel without pasting is packaged for sale. It is very popular in Italy to prepare the dressing for pasta, salad and some special

Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

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products. The paste is also produced from this product, which is a value-added product. In general, immature Antep-type pistachio nut is preferred to produce the prefect-green pistachio due to its flavor, color and high oil content. FLOW-CHART FOR PASTE LINE OF KERNEL PN

Broken kernel

mc=7-8%

Moisture adjusment

Peeled kernel

mc=4-5%

Conveying

Pre-press/Paste tank Pre-press/Paste system Tank

Fine paste system

Fine paste screen

Mixer tank

Packaging (Jar)

Figure 12. Flowchart for pistachio nuts kernel paste/cream (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

The unpeeled mature kernel can be used as raw or its intact form can be roasted. It is used in chocolate, desserts and other industries. It is also chopped or milled as fine and coarse. Its roasted type is marketed as a snack product.

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

21

During the pistachio nuts processing, color sorter, acoustic sorter, destoner, metal detector, screening, calibration, selection, fluidized bed separator, X-ray detector, sterilization and pasteurization are used at the different stages (Figures 4-14). Due to microbial risks, especially salmonella and coliform, regular kernels and peeled kernels are pasteurized or sterilized. These processes are generally used in developed countries. If the products are packaged (vacuum, controlled atmosphere and modified atmosphere packaging), a metal detector, X-ray detector, destoner and control screen are used. The packaged product should be stored in a cold area. The unpackaged product should be controlled periodically for insect contamination. Additionally, raw materials and finished pistachio nuts should be fumigated. FLOW-CHART FOR BLENDED PRODUCT PN (SUGAR-AROMA BLENDED)

Coarse paste

Fine paste

Powder sugar

Heater mixer (Jackated)

Water Vanilin Additives

Packaging (Jar)

Figure 13. Flowchart for pistachio nuts kernel blended product (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram FLOW-CHART FOR PEELING KERNEL PN

Intact kernel

mc=7-8%

Conveying

Blanching with hot water mc=2-4%

Rubber type roll peeler

Aspiration

Thin skin

Peeled kernel

Apron

Belt type dryer

Color sorter

Metal detector

Packaging (Vacuum, modified, bag, PP)

Figure 14. Flowchart for peeling operation of pistachio nuts kernel (designed by Bayram M. and Bayram E. A.).

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

23

1.3. Process and Quality Controls 1.3.1. Process Control Process control is the main important topic in pistachio nuts processing. Process control is made for safety, environmental protection, equipment protection, smooth production, profit, quality, monitoring and diagnosis. Small pistachio nuts plants use manual control due to technological levels and low capacity. Big capacity plants use advanced technology and high-level automation. In general, feedback, feedback+feedforward and cascade control systems are used for process control. On-line and in-line positioning of sensors are preferred in the pistachio nuts processing. In particular, non-contact sensors are preferred to prevent cross-contamination. Kernel, peeled kernel, pistachio nuts flour and chopped products are very sensitive and have a short shelf-life. Therefore, their proceedings are made under controlled temperature, moisture content and relative humidity. Additionally, cold storage is required, therefore temperature control is made during cold storage. During the receiving, soaking (for dry processing), dehulling and drying operations (Figures 4 and 5), relative humidity, moisture content and temperature are controlled. In the receiving step, temperature sensors are used to measure temperature in the pitting hole and to measure ambient temperature. Temperature and time are controlled during the soaking operation (for dry processing). At/off-line sampling and analysis are made to measure moisture and aflatoxin contents in the laboratory. During the dehulling, time, rpm, pressure and gap are manually or automatically controlled. The most important process control is made during the drying operation. Temperature, airflow rate, relative humidity, moisture content and drying time are controlled during the drying operation. Additionally, heat loss is measured to control energy efficiency. Inverter as an actuator in the process control is used to control dryer and fan motor speed. In a storage area or silo, process control is the most critical to prevent denaturation and quality loss due to moisture, insects, microorganisms, humidity and temperature. As a process control, temperature, level, RH and moisture sensors are used in silos. The sensors are controlled by PLC. PLC manipulates actuators (aeration and fan etc.). During the loading and discharging of the silo, elevators, belt conveyors and screw conveyors are controlled by using an inverter (speed controller). A dense phase pneumatic conveyor can be used instead of a dilute phase pneumatic conveyor to prevent the breaking of pistachio nuts kernels during conveying in the pistachio nuts processing.

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Mustafa Bayram and Ege Aral Bayram

In the split separator (Figure 6), the feeder rate (vibro feeder and frequency control are generally preferred) and the revolution of the needles drum are controlled by using inverters. Split/unsplit separation efficiency is manually controlled in the laboratory as at/off-line control. If color, acoustic and resonance sorters are used, advanced control systems are required such as a camera, PLC, microphone and ejector, etc. In the salting and roasting operations, roasting time, temperature and moisture content are controlled. High temperatures cause quality loss and burning, therefore temperature control is more critical than the others. Longtime roasting causes the loss of flavor. After roasting, the cooling temperature is also controlled during the cooling operation (Figure 7). In the breaking operation, feeding machines are controlled by using vibrofeeder. Additionally, the size control of pistachio nuts is made during calibration (Figure 8). At the end of the breaking operation, a resonance sorter, destoner, control screen, fluidized bed separator and metal detector are used for food safety. They are also adapted to the process control system. For the drying of the kernel (belt dryer), belt speed, air temperature, moisture content and temperature profile are controlled. In similar, the roaster is also controlled by measuring temperature, belt speed, color and moisture content. In the packaging operation, the vacuum level is controlled by measuring pressure. If CA and MAP techniques are used, a gas analyzer is used to control the composition of the gas. Common sensors, controllers and actuators are used during the whole process such as peeling, selection, screening and fumigation, etc. All processes are controlled from a control panel or control room using SCADA or similar programming systems.

1.3.2. Quality Control GMP, HACCP, CODEX, companies’ specifications, national and international standards are mainly used during receiving raw materials and the production of pistachio nuts. The first quality control analysis is made on raw materials. Aflatoxin (Bayram, 2006), foreign material, microbial contamination (coliform, salmonella, mold, yeast and mesophilic microorganisms, etc.), moisture content, color, split ratio, insects damage and taste are mainly controlled quality parameters. Aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1 and G2) is measured using rapidkit, HPLC and ELISA methods. As a rapid detection, UV light is also used during the processing line. Sampling is very important to detect aflatoxin

Processing Technology and Controls for Pistachio Nuts

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correctly. Bulk pistachio nuts are heterogeneous. While sampling, if an aflatoxin-containing kernel is taken, the analysis may be positive. Otherwise, it is negative. Sampling is very risky. Therefore, enough amount of samples should be taken and wet-sample preparation should be used. Approved pistachio nuts are received to plant. There are different quality plans and control points at each processing step (Figures 4-14). After the soaking and dehulling operations, moisture content and dehulled product ratio are measured, respectively. Additionally, empty kernel and foreign materials are determined. After the dehulling operation, drying is made and moisture content is monitored, periodically. During drying, the flavor of pistachio nuts is also controlled. Then, the product is stored in a silo. In the silo, the moisture content of pistachio nuts should periodically be monitored. If long-term storage is required, peroxide value and acidity should be measured and controlled to prevent rancidity in the product. Additionally, insects and microorganisms should be inspected during the storing period. After the splitting operation, the split/unsplit ratio is measured in the product. Then, tempering and cracking operations for the unsplit-inshellkernel are made, as explained previously. The moisture content of the product is measured to determine the required moisture level during these operations. After the breaking operation, the broken kernel ratio, moisture content and shell particle ratio are determined. In the salting and roasting operations, salt content, color, aroma, flavor, moisture content, split ratio, peroxide value, number/weight value and acidity are measured. During chopping, paste/blend production and kernel drying, moisture content, sugar content, fat content, particle size distribution, color, taste, microorganisms and aroma are measured. In the peeling operation, the moisture content is critical due to microbial risks. Therefore, moisture and microbial contents are controlled. Before the packaging operation, CODEX, standards and specifications are used. Some of these analyses are moisture content, fat content, acidity, peroxide value, microorganisms content, foreign material, kernel number/weight, aflatoxin and color, etc.

Conclusion An increase in the plantation and growth of pistachio nuts in the USA, Iran, Turkey, Italy and other countries causes a big market growth in the World.

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Snacks, desserts, chocolate, ice cream and baklava use pistachio nuts in high amounts, therefore the value of pistachio nuts continuously increases. The big processing facilities are found in the USA, Iran, Turkey and Italy. Modern high-tech factories are available in these countries. Research&Development (R&D) and Product Development (PD) also create a new era for pistachio nuts. New products based on pistachio nuts are preferred by consumers, therefore there is a big potential in these sectors. Pistachio nut is a new rival for almond, hazelnut, peanut and walnut. In old-time, pistachio nut was planted in arid and not good fields, it is today planted in irrigated and modern farms due to its economic importance.

References Balcı, F. and Bayram, M. (2013). The effects of different salting and roasting methods on the acceptability of Antep Pistachio nut. The 2nd International Symposium on “Traditional Foods From Adriatic to Caucasus, 24-26 October, Struga /Macedonia. Balcı, F. and Bayram, M. (2015). Salting and roasting Antep pistachio nuts. IFW-The Journal of the International Trade in Processed Food, Dried Fruit and Nuts, (Issue: 2), 70-74. Bayram, M, (2014). Antepfıstığı-bademde hasat sonrası işlemler ve hijyenik işleme teknolojileri. V. Ulusal Antepfıstığı-Badem Çalışma Grubu Çalıştayı, Gıda, Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı, Mardin, 08-09. Eylül. Bayram, M. (2006). Antepfıstığının Aflatoksin Oluşumu ve Önlenmesi. Antepfıstığı Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, Antepfıstığı Yetiştiriciliği, 2006 yılı Hizmetiçi Eğitim Programı. 31 Ekim-03 Kasım 2006, Gaziantep-Turkey. Bayram, M. (2010a). Fıstık ve bademin gıda sektöründe kullanımı. Antep Fıstığı Araştırma Enstitüsü, Eylül, Gaziantep. Bayram, M. (2010b). Processing Technologies for Pistachio Nuts. The Second International Conference in Food Industries and Biotechnology and the Associated Fair, Homs/Syria, (Nov.) 1-3. Bayram, M. (2011). Comparison of unsplit inshell and shelled kernel of the pistachio nuts. Journal of Food Engineering, (107), 374-378. Bayram, M. and Öner, M. D. (2014). Antepfıstığı Entegre İşlenmesi. Antep Fıstığı Book, Ed. Gonca Tokuz, Tevella Kültür Derneği Yayınları ve Gaziantep Ticaret Odası Publ., 147-158. Bayram, M. and Şahan, A. (2012). Possibilities of storage of Antep pistachio nuts in steel grain silos. Miller Journal, (March-April, V:32), 94-102.

Chapter 2 Post-Harvest Practices of Pistachios Kamin Alexander ∗, Monika, Richa Srivastava and E. P. Lal

Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, India

Abstract The pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.) is an important agricultural crop in Iran, with production concentrated in the provinces of Kerman, Khorasan, Semnan, and Pars. In 2010, the globe exported 320,000 t of pistachios, with Iran producing 160,000 t (50 percent of the total). Iran is the world’s largest producer of pistachios. Harvesting and postharvest treatment are two critical tasks in attaining a high output of high-quality pistachio nuts, which affect marketability and profit. After the harvest, proper handling is critical to the unit’s success. Drying and storing techniques have a significant impact on the quality of dried nuts. Early September is the typical start date for postharvest, which lasts 4–6 weeks. Pistachios are shaken mechanically or by hand from the tree and fall into capturing frames. Pistachios with a high moisture content of 40 to 50% on a fresh weight basis, split shell pistachios, and a fragile outer green hull all contribute to the nuts’ vulnerability to mechanical injury and contamination after they fall to the orchard floor. Because Aspergillus flavus may infect pistachios that come into touch with moist orchard soil, this is why several physical methods and other means to preserve the seed from infection are included in postharvest practices. The pistachio nut is dehulled, dried, harvested, stored, and disinfected using radiofrequency. Handling, transportation, removal of green nulls, dehydration, bulk storage, and packing of pistachio nuts are ∗

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Kamin Alexander, Monika, Richa Srivastava et al. the most essential postharvest operations. Physical Method, Radio Frequency, Temperature, Relative Humidity, and Mortality Rate are some of the key terminologies used in this study.

Keywords: radiofrequency (RF), Aspergillus flavus, humidity, Tocopherol, harvesting

1. Introduction One of the most significant tree nuts is pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Pistachio nuts, both in-shell and shelled, are widely sold all over the globe, mostly dried or roasted with salt, with a focus on shelled or crushed pistachios for use in pastries, sausages, ice creams, and other culinary products (Tsantili et al., 2010). In 2012, the world’s pistachio output was over 1 million metric tonnes, with Iran, the United States, and Turkey accounting for the majority of it (FAOSTAT, 2014). The provinces of Kerman, Khorasan, Semnan, and Pars are the leading producers of pistachios in Iran. In 2010, the globe exported 320,000 t of pistachios, with Iran producing 160,000 t (50 percent of the total). Iran is the world’s largest producer of pistachios (Tavakolipour and Mokhtarian 2012). Pistachios are eaten fresh and toasted all over the globe, as well as in fermented foods, ice cream, and other confections. Cream, bread, sauces, puddings, halva, baklava, and other Persian delicacies the composition of pistachios varies with on cultivar, harvest maturity, and moisture level. Pistachios are a highly nutritious nut, according to the compositional study of Persian pistachio kernels (Table 1). It has a lot of valuable information. Unsaturated fatty acids account for 89.1% of total fatty acids, with polyunsaturated fatty acids making about 30% of this total. Because the pistachio nut has a high lipid content and is high in unsaturated fatty acids, it is susceptible to rancidity and mold infection. Pistachios offer various health advantages, according to recent research, since they control cholesterol levels, have a protective impact against cardiovascular disease, and contain high quantities of antioxidants, including Polyphenols and Tocopherols (Tsantili et al., 2011). Pistachio nuts are an excellent source of vitamins and antioxidants, with the kernels containing around 50% lipids and 20% protein (Arcan & Yemeniciolu, 2009; Arena, Campisi, Fallico, & Maccarone, 2007; Kornsteiner, Wagner, & Elmadfa, 2006). The average export price of raw and

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dried pistachio nuts in the international market in 2012 was above 5000 dollars per ton due to its high nutritional content and split shell (FAOSTAT, 2014). As a result, the nut industry’s worries about postharvest processing of pistachio nuts are growing. Table 1. Chemical Composition and fatty acid profile of pistachio nuts Chemical composition Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Ash (minerals) Fatty acids profile Palmitic Acid Stearic Acid Palmitoleic Acid Oleic Acid Linoleic Acid Linolenic Acid

(%)

Reference

2.5–4.1 15–21.2 55.2–60.5 14.9–17.7 1.7–2 2.2–2.5

Kamangar and Farsam (1977) Kamangar and Farsam (1977) Kamangar and Farsam (1977) Kamangar and Farsam (1977) Kamangar and Farsam (1977) Kamangar and Farsam (1977)

10.24–11.20 0.7–0.9 0.6–0.7 51.0–52.0 26.7–27.1 0.3–0.5

Tsantili et al., (2010) Satil et al., (2003) Tsantili et al., (2010) Satil et al., (2003) Satil et al., (2003) Tsantili et al., (2010)

Harvesting and postharvest treatment are two critical tasks in attaining a high output of high-quality pistachio nuts, which affect marketability and profit. After the harvest, proper handling is critical to the unit’s success. Drying and storing techniques have a significant impact on the quality of dried nuts (Kashaninejad et al., 2010), because Aspergillus flavus may infect pistachios that come into touch with moist orchard soil (Thompson et al., 1997).

2. Post Harvest Methods 2.1. Methods of Measurement Harvesting and postharvest treatment are two critical tasks in attaining a high output of high-quality pistachio nuts, which affect marketability and profit. After the harvest, proper handling is critical to the unit’s success. Drying and storing techniques have a significant impact on the quality of dried nuts

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Kamin Alexander, Monika, Richa Srivastava et al.

(Kashaninejad et al., 2010). Harvesting normally starts in early September and lasts 4–6 weeks. Pistachios are shaken mechanically or by hand from the tree and fall into capturing frames. Pistachios with a high moisture content of 40 to 50 percent by fresh weight, split shell pistachios, and a fragile outer green hull all contribute to the nuts’ sensitivity to mechanical injury and contamination once opened. They crash to the ground in the orchard. Because Aspergillus flavus may infect pistachios that come into touch with moist orchard soil, this is why (Thompson et al., 1997). Water adsorption and desorption processes play a key role in deteriorative variables such exterior and internal browning, lipid oxidation, and microbial development of nuts and shells throughout different postharvest procedures like drying, storage, and packing (Tavakolipour and Kalbasi-Ashtari 2008). The sorption isotherms may be used to determine ideal residual moisture content as a consequence of the drying process since aw is the most essential parameter for the stability of raw and processed agricultural goods (Wang and Brennan 1991). Saravacos et al., (1986) employed sorption isotherms to develop optimal packing and storage conditions for their products, as well as to choose the right components for their manufacture. A cuisine with an intermediate moisture content that has been specially designed (Mir and Nath 1995). However, information on the sorption isotherms of several pistachio cultivars is scarce (Chayjan and Esna- Ashari 2011; Zomorodian and Tavakoli 2007). At 15, 25, 35, and 40 degrees Celsius, Tavakolipour and Kalbasi-Ashtari (2008) examined the sorption properties of whole pistachio nuts, kernels, and powder and produced sorption equations for the results. One of the most critical unit tasks in any pistachio processing operation is drying the nuts.

2.2. Factor RF A 6 kW, 27.12 MHz pilot-scale RF system (SO6B, Stray Field International, Wokingham, U.K.) with a hot air system (6 kW) and a conveyor belt was used to RF heat pistachios (Figure 1). The electrode gap was changed by moving the top electrode (40 cm 83 cm) and adjusting the RF power. To imitate continuous operations, a conveyor belt carried samples across electrodes from the in-feed side to the out-feed side of the RF system. The hot airspeed within the RF cavity was 1.6 m/s, given by an air distribution box beneath the bottom electrode and recorded by an anemometer at 2 cm above the bottom electrode (DT-8880, China Everbest Machinery Industry Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China).

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Pistachio samples were placed in a plastic container with perforated side and bottom walls (27 cm 18 cm 8 cm) and then placed in the center of the bottom electrode for RF or hot air heating. Complete kill might be achieved when the ultimate temperature and holding duration exceed 52 °C and 1 minute, respectively, according to the thermal death kinetics of the Indianmeal moth (Johnson et al., 2003). Because of the non-uniformity of RF heating, the treatment procedure was developed with a target sample temperature of 55 °C.

2.3. Determination of Electrode Gap and Cooling Mechanism RF power and heating rate are proportional to the electrode gaps in the RF system. About 1.8 kg of in-shell and 2.0 kg of shelled pistachios with a 7 cm sample depth in the container described above were placed on the center of the bottom electrode and subjected to RF heating without belt movement and hot air heating to determine the appropriate gap for the desired heating rate of 4–6 °C/min. For in-shell and shelled samples, the electrode spacing was set at 10.5 to 12.0 cm and 9.5 to 11.0 cm, respectively, with a 0.5 cm interval. Hot air was utilized to heat pistachio samples to roughly 55 °C, which was used to compare temperature profiles with RF heating and choose the optimum cooling strategies. Because quick cooling is necessary to minimize quality deterioration and increase industrial-scale output, for cooling testing, in-shell and shelled samples at 7 and 4 cm depths, as well as an extra single layer retained in the container, were exposed to ambient natural and forced air. The forced air conditioning system was installed. Achieved with the aid of an electric fan The anemometer measured the airspeeds at the sample surface, which were roughly 0.2 and 3.5 m/s for natural and forced air cooling, respectively. During the experiments mentioned above, a fiber-optic temperature sensor system (HQ-FTS-D120, Heqi Technologies Inc., Xian, China) was used to measure the kernel temperature of pistachio (in-shell and shelled) in the center of the samples with an accuracy of 0.5 °C. Through a predrilled hole, the probe was introduced into the pistachio kernel. During RF heating and cooling testing, the temperature of samples was monitored and recorded every 1 s until it reached 55 °C and then decreased to 30 °C. For each test, two duplicates were created. Based on the data, the best gap and cooling techniques were chosen. The appropriate sample heating rate (4–6 °C/min) and shortest cooling time were determined, and the RF treatment technique was further developed.

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Figure 1. Schematic view of the pilot-scale 6 kW, 27.12 MHz RF system showing the plate electrodes, conveyor belt, and the hot air system. (Wang, S., G. Tiwari, S. Jiao, J. A. Johnson, and J. Tang. “Treatment protocol development for disinfesting legumes using radiofrequency energy.” In Proceedings of 2010 IMPI 44th Annual Microwave Power Symposium. Denver: [sn]. 2010.).

2.4. Tests of Heating Uniformity For an effective RF treatment strategy to eradicate insects and assure product quality, heating homogeneity is critical. Full loads of in-shell and shelled pistachios were heated in five different ways to improve heating uniformity: RF heating alone, RF heating with forced hot air at 55 °C, RF heating with sample movement, RF heating with mixing, and RF heating with hot air, sample movement, and mixing. For in-shell and shelled samples, the movement was obtained by setting the conveyor belt speed to 8.9 and 9.1 m/h (belt speed was estimated by dividing the electrode length by the resultant heating duration) until the conclusion of RF heating. In the middle of the treatment duration, mixing was done manually outside the RF cavity in a big polypropylene container (35.5 cm 27.5 cm 10.5 cm). The samples were returned to the treatment container and inserted back into the RF system for the balance of the treatment duration after mixing for 20 seconds. Two varieties of pistachios in the container were split into two layers (Figure 2) and separated by thin gauze (with a mesh aperture of 1 mm) throughout the above experiments without mixing to readily map the surface temperatures using a thermal imaging camera (DM63, Zhejiang Dali Technology Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China). The surface temperatures of the two layers were mapped consecutively within 10 seconds after the RF treatment was done, and then ten pistachios (in-shell and shelled) were randomly picked at the top and bottom layers for kernel temperature measurements using a Type-T thermocouple thermometer (TMQSS-020-6, Omega Engineering Ltd., CT, USA). Only the top layer surface was mapped with mixing, and the other ten pistachios were

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chosen at random below the container’s surface for the internal kernel temperature measurements stated above. For two varieties of pistachios, each test was conducted twice. The RF heating uniformity was assessed using the average and standard deviation (SD) values of the surface and inner kernel temperatures for each duplicate. A heating uniformity index is used to assess the differences between the aforementioned treatments to identify the ideal heating uniformity. The value used to assess the homogeneity of RF heating in almond, coffee bean, and chestnut (Gao et al., 2010; Hou, Ling, & Wang, 2014; Pan et al., 2012). It is defined as the ratio of the increase in the standard deviation of sample temperature to the rise in average sample temperature during treatment. (Wang, Yue, Tang, & Chen, 2005).

λ=

𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫

Where Δσ and Δμ represent the change in standard deviation and mean values from starting to final nut temperatures (°C) across treatment time. The lower the number, the greater the RF heating uniformity.

Figure 2. Plastic container and two layers for surface temperature measurements (all dimensions are in mm). (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2015.10.013).

2.5. Developing a Treatment Plan and Confirming Its Effectiveness With previously established acceptable electrode gaps, heating uniformity testing, and cooling procedures, the best RF treatment regimen may be designed. The fifth-in star Indian meal moth, the most heat-resistant life stage

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(Johnson et al., 2003), was chosen as the target insect for effectiveness confirmation to verify the final technique. Test insects were raised at the Northwest A&F University in Yangling, China, from an Indian meal moth laboratory colony that originated in a grain packing house. Johnson et al., provide a detailed description of the raising circumstances (2003). Through a 4mm hole drilled in the kernel, one larva was inserted into each in-shell pistachio, and the infected pistachio shell was sealed with scotch tape to prevent the insects from leaving. Each container included 100 infected in-shell pistachios as well as enough uninfested pistachios to equal 1.8 kg (about 1400 nuts). This amounted to a fake infestation rate of 7%, much higher than the real rate of 2% for insect-damaged nuts (USDA-AMS, 2004) and the maximum permissible rate of 6% based on Iran’s national standard (NSI, 1995). All three containers of infected pistachios used for RF treatments and unheated controls were utilized in the confirmation testing. The infected pistachios were removed for insect mortality studies after RF treatments, similar to the precise protocols reported in Wang et al., (2002).

Conclusion The most essential postharvest operations of pistachio nuts were investigated in this study, which included dehydration, bulk storage, and pistachio packing. The moisture sorption isotherms and water-pistachio binding energy play a significant role in the design of pistachio driers and the identification of optimal storage conditions. Plots of sorption isotherms for pistachio nuts were obtained at temperatures of 15 and 35 °C. When aw was in the range of 0.2– 0.7, hysteresis was strongest, and it decreased when it was less or higher than 0.2 and 0.7, respectively. The Smith model was the best sorption model among other suggested models for sorption data fitness. In a cross-flow drier, the influence of temperature on the drying of entire pistachio nuts was tested. In the monolayer, increasing the drying temperature from 50 to 70 °C reduced the drying time from 275 to 120 minutes. The drying time was unaffected by the air velocity. The whole drying process was placed in a decreasing rate phase, with no evidence of a constant rate period. The Modified Page model was determined to be the best fit for characterizing the Kerman pistachio cultivar’s drying behavior. Pistachio nuts bulk held at less than 10 °C (e.g., 5 °C) and RH of 65–70% or maintained at more than 10 °C (e.g., 15 °C) and less than 32 percent RH and accumulated adequate moisture content in monolayer had the longest shelf

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life owing to the least changes in lipid quality indicators. The impacts of diverse packaging on pistachio nut quality revealed that different packages and circumstances had a substantial impact. Pistachio nuts’ quality is affected. Pistachio nuts were discovered to be best packaged in nylon under vacuum. Furthermore, higher temperatures and longer storage times were shown to be beneficial. The deterioration of pistachio nuts will speed up with time, notably in the fat component. For in-shell and shelled pistachios, optimal electrode spacing of 11.5 and 10.5 cm were chosen in R.F Factor to achieve an RF heating rate of roughly 5.4 °C/min. When compared to hot air heating, RF heating significantly lowered the heating time of pistachio samples. Increased sample surface heating with 55 °C hot air increased RF heating uniformity, decreasing the influence of electromagnetic field fluctuations and most notably, by sample movement and a single mixing in the RF treatment duration, by position effect. To ensure that insect mortality is kept to a minimum and that quality is not harmed. The pistachio samples were kept in hot air for 2 minutes after RF heating, then forced room air cooling for 4 cm depth and single-layer cooling for in-shell and shelled samples, respectively. The fifth-instar Indian meal moth larvae, the most heat resistant target storedproduct pest in pistachios, died completely as a result of this treatment. The impact of RF treatments on pistachio quality and storage stability was not significant, showing that pistachios were tolerant of a brief exposure at the treatment temperatures used for thermal disinfestations. This RF technique might be a practical, efficient, and ecologically benign way to get rid of pistachio pests.

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Jiao, S., Johnson, J. A., Tang, J., Mattinson, D. S., Fellman, J. K., Davenport, T. L., and Wang, S., 2013. Tolerance of codling moth, and apple quality associated with low pressure/low temperature treatments. Postharvest biology and technology. 85, 136140. Johnson, J. A., Vail, P. V., Brandl, D. G., Tebbets, J. S., and Valero, V., 2002. Integration of nonchemical treatments for control of postharvest pyralid moths (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in almonds and raisins. Journal of economic entomology. 95(1), 190-199. Johnson, J. A., Wang, S., and Tang, J., 2003. Thermal death kinetics of fifth-instar Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Journal of Economic Entomology. 96(2), 519524. Kamangar, T. and Farsam, H., 1977. Composition of pistachio kernels of various Iranian origins. Journal of Food Science. 42(4), 1135-1136. Kashaninejad, M., Maghsoudlou, Y., Khomeiri, M., and Tabil, L. G., 2010. Resistance to airflow through bulk pistachio nuts (Kalleghochi variety) as affected by moisture content, airflow rate, bed depth and fill method. Powder Technology. 203(2), 359-364. Kornsteiner, M., Wagner, K. H., and Elmadfa, I., 2006. Tocopherols and total phenolics in 10 different nut types. Food chemistry. 98(2), 381-387. Kouchakzadeh, A., 2013. The effect of acoustic and solar energy on drying process of pistachios. Energy Conversion and Management. 67, 351-356. Kouchakzadeh, A., and Shafeei, S., 2010. Modeling of microwave-convective drying of pistachios. Energy Conversion and Management. 51(10), 2012-2015. Leufven, A., Sedaghat, N., Habibi, M. B., 2010. Influence of different packaging systems on stability of raw dried pistachio nuts at various conditions. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science. 8(5), 576-581. Ling, B, Lixia, H., Li, R. and Wang, S., 2014. Thermal treatment and storage condition effects on walnut paste quality associated with enzyme inactivation. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 59(2), 786-793. Ling, B., and Wang, S., 2017. Dielectric properties of pistachio kernels as influenced by frequency, temperature, moisture, and salt content. In 2017 ASABE Annual International Meeting, p. 1. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. Ling, B., Lixia, H., Rui, L. and Shaojin, W., 2016. Storage stability of pistachios as influenced by radio frequency treatments for postharvest disinfestations. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 33, 357-364. Marra, F., Zhang, L., and Lyng, J. G., 2009. Radio frequency treatment of foods: Review of recent advances. Journal of food engineering. 91(4), 497-508. Maskan, M., and Karataş, S., 1998. Fatty acid oxidation of pistachio nuts stored under various atmospheric conditions and different temperatures. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 77(3), 334-340. Maskan, M., and Karataş, S., 1999. Storage stability of whole-split pistachio nuts (Pistachia vera L.) at various conditions. Food chemistry. 66(2), 227-233. Mexis, S. F., and Kontominas, M. G., 2009. Effect of γ-irradiation on the physicochemical and sensory properties of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.). Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 78(6), 407-413.

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Mir, M. A., and Nath, N., 1995. Sorption isotherms of fortified mango bars. Journal of Food Engineering. 25(1), 141-150. Mitcham, E. J., Veltman, R. H., Feng, X., Castro, Johnson, J. A., Simpson, T. L., Biasi, W. V., Wang, S., and Tang, J., 2004. Application of radio frequency treatments to control insects in in-shell walnuts. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 33(1), 93-100. Nelson, S. O., and Payne. J. A., 1982. RF dielectric heating for pecan weevil control. Transactions of the ASAE. 25(2), 456-0458. NSI, 1995. Methods of pistachio tests. National Standard of Iran (No. 4290). Pan, L., S., Jiao, L., Gautz, K. T. and Wang, S., 2012. Coffee bean heating uniformity and quality as influenced by radio frequency treatments for postharvest disinfestations. Transactions of the ASABE. 55(6), 2293-2300. Saravacos, G. D., Tsiourvas, D. A. and Tsami, E., 1986. Effect of temperature on the water adsorption isotherms of sultana raisins. Journal of food science. 51(2), 381-383. Satil, F., Nezihe A., and Baser, K. H. C., 2003. Fatty acid composition of pistachio nuts in Turkey. Chemistry of natural compounds. 39(4), 322-324. Shakerardekani, A., and Karim, R., 2013. Effect of different types of plastic packaging films on the moisture and aflatoxin contents of pistachio nuts during storage. Journal of food science and technology. 50(2), 409-411. Taoukis, P, S., Theodore P. L. and Saguy, I. S., 1997. Kinetics of food deterioration and shelf-life prediction. The Editors 30. Tavakolipour, H., 2011. Drying kinetics of pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.). World Applied Sciences Journal. 12(9), 1639-1646. Tavakolipour, H., and Ashtari, A. K., 2008. Estimation of moisture sorption isotherms in Kerman pistachio nuts. Journal of Food Process Engineering. 31(4), 564-582. Tavakolipour, H., and Mokhtarian, M., 2012. Neural network approaches for prediction of pistachio drying kinetics. International Journal of Food Engineering 8(3). Tavakolipour, H., Armin, M. and Ahmad, K. A., 2010. Storage stability of Kerman pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.). International Journal of Food Engineering. 6(6). Tavakolipour, H., Armin, M. and Ashtari, A. K., 2010. Storage stability of Kerman pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.). International Journal of Food Engineering 6(6). Thompson, J. F., Rumsey, T. R. and Spinoglio, M., 1997. Maintaining quality of bulkhandled, unhulled pistachio nuts. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 13(1), 65-70. Tiwari, G., Wang, S., Birla, S. L., and Tang, J., 2008. Effect of water-assisted radio frequency heat treatment on the quality of ‘Fuyu’persimmons. Biosystems engineering. 100(2), 227-234. Tsantili, E., C., Takidelli, M. V., Christopoulos, E., Lambrinea, D., Rouskas, and Roussos, P. A., 2010. Physical, compositional, and sensory differences in nuts among pistachio (Pistachia vera L.) varieties. Scientia Horticulturae. 125(4), 562-568. Tsantili, E., K., Konstantinidis, M. V., Christopoulos, and Roussos, P. A., 2011. Total phenolics and flavonoids and total antioxidant capacity in pistachio (Pistachia vera L.) nuts in relation to cultivars and storage conditions. Scientia Horticulturae. 129(4), 694-701. Tsantili, E., K., Konstantinidis, M. V., Christopoulos, and Roussos, P. A., 2011. Total phenolics and flavonoids and total antioxidant capacity in pistachio (Pistachia vera L.)

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nuts in relation to cultivars and storage conditions. Scientia Horticulturae. 129(4), 694-701. Venkatachalam, M., and Sathe, S. K., 2006. Chemical composition of selected edible nut seeds. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 54(13), 4705-4714. Wang, N., and Brennan, J. G., 1991. Moisture sorption isotherm characteristics of potatoes at four temperatures. Journal of food Engineering. 14(4), 269-287. Wang, S., Ikediala, J. N., Tang, J., Hansen, J. D., Mitcham, E., Mao, R. and Swanson, B., 2001. Radio frequency treatments to control codling moth in in-shell walnuts. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 22(1), 29-38. Wang, S., J., Tang, T., Sun, E. J., Mitcham, T., Koral and Birla, S. L., 2006. Considerations in design of commercial radio frequency treatments for postharvest pest control in inshell walnuts. Journal of Food Engineering.77(2), 304-312. Wang, S., Tang, G., Johnson, J. A., Mitcham, E., Hansen, J. D., Bower, and Biasi, B., 2002. Process protocols based on radio frequency energy to control field and storage pests in in-shell walnuts. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 26(3), 265-273. Wang, S., Tiwari, G., Jiao, S., Johnson, J. A. and Tang, J., 2010. Developing postharvest disinfestation treatments for legumes using radio frequency energy. Biosystems engineering. 105(3), 341-349. Wang, S., Tiwari, G., Jiao, S., Johnson, J. A., and Tang, J., 2010. Treatment protocol development for disinfesting legumes using radio frequency energy. In Proceedings of 2010 IMPI 44th Annual Microwave Power Symposium. Denver:[sn]. Wang, S., Yue, J., Tang, J. and Chen, B., 2005. Mathematical modelling of heating uniformity for in-shell walnuts subjected to radio frequency treatments with intermittent stirrings. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 35(1), 97-107. Whiting, D. C., Lisa E., Jamieson, Karen J., Spooner, and Lay-Yee, M., 1999. Combination high-temperature controlled atmosphere and cold storage as a quarantine treatment against Ctenopseustis obliquana and Epiphyas postvittana on ‘Royal Gala’apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 16(2), 119-126. Zomorodian, A. A. and Tavakoli, R. A., 2007. The adsorption-desorption hysteresis effect on pistachio nuts. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology. 9(4), 259-265.

Chapter 3

Micro-Propagation of Pistachios Aman Prakash1,*, Pragalbh Tiwari2, Nidhi Kumari2 and Aditi Chandra2 1Department

of Molecular and Cellular Engineering, Jacob Institute of Biotechnology and Bio-Engineering, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India 2College of Forestry, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract The smack walnut, known as L. pistachio in botany, is the only edible among 11 dicotyledonous plants. These dicotyledonous plants are native to West Asia and therefore native to peninsulas from the Syrian Arab Republic to the Caucasus and Afghanistan. Tests in Turkey indicate that it has existed since 7000 BC and is used as food. This tree was introduced to Europe at the beginning of the Christian era. Pistachios thrive in cold places, where winter disrupts hibernation and long hot summers. Therefore, the world places that are suitable for the crazy pistachio group are limited globally to high humidity. Pistachio tissue culture research began nearly two decades ago. These cover the majority of the work done with Pistachio trees between 1982 and 2000. Cloning Pistachio trees in vitro is very useful for propagating heterozygous and sexually incompatible Pistachio trees. Tissue culture techniques can help with this. Micro-propagation can be used to accomplish rapid asexual reproduction through organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis, and micrografting. The Anacardiaceous includes more than 70 genera and more than 600 species, most of which are mainly trees and shrubs that grow *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Aman Prakash, Pragalbh Tiwari, Nidhi Kumari et al. regularly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. The genus Pistacia includes eleven shrubs and deciduous trees. For Ex-vitro growth, the seedlings are washed with water to induce the removal of material. Before planting, soak the shoot tips in commercially available rooting powder. In this review, we have tried to brief the micro-propagation of the pistachio by the accessible literature.

Keywords: Anacardiaceous, asexual reproduction, micro-propagation, organogenesis, pistachios, somatic embryogenesis

1. Introduction The smack walnut, known as L. pistachio in botany, is the only edible among 11 dicotyledonous plants. These dicotyledonous plants are native to West Asia and therefore native to peninsulas from the Syrian Arab Republic to the Caucasus and Afghanistan. Tests in Turkey indicate that it has existed since 7000 BC. Used as a food. This tree was introduced to Europe at the beginning of the Christian era. This plant was originally given to us in 1854 by Charles Mason, who distributed the seeds to the California experimental plantation. Under favorable conditions, the tree grows slowly on one or more trunks with a height and length of 5 to 9 meters. According to reports, in most cases, this advantage is characteristic of the pistachio diet and the growth pattern of floral organs. The replacement extension begins in mid-March and ends in late April to mid-May. Most axillary buds open in April. The last harvest will be completed last June. Vera pistachio is often confused with another type of pistachio called pistachio. These different species differ in their geographic (wild) distribution and the number of seeds. In 2019, Iran will be able to produce 74% of the world’s pistachios (Onay et al., 2003). Pistachios thrive in cold places, where winter disrupts hibernation and long, hot summers. The cooling requirement is estimated to be 800-1000 hours. Pistachios are the best in the recently arid areas of south-eastern Turkey, especially in the Gaziantep countryside. Pistachios are hermaphrodites, with male and female flowers on different plants. All geezers and lassie woody plants must bear fruit, and the branches of the male tree are usually grafted onto the female tree. Flowers are small, greenish-brown, glabrous in axillary ament in untimely dry weather season. No sooner when flower buds appear, there are fewer nutritional buds and more buds. The nutrient buds are rich and the flower buds are few, forming secondary branches or inactive in the

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following year. The wind brought the Spurs from male to female (Onay et al., 2003). The fruit is red, wrinkled, and clusters like grapes. Although called walnuts, pistachios can be used as medicine, and half of the edible is walnuts. The core is a parallelogram, about twelve millimeters long and 6 millimeters in diameter. It is protected by a thin layer of dentin. Normally, the armor will break vertically as it matures along the seam line. The core color varies slightly from yellow to green. Pistachios are rich in nutrients and high in fat, with an average of about 58% of macromolecules (19%). Some varieties have relatively low sugar content. Pistachios usually bear fruit every two years, with a bumper harvest in one year, and a light or not bumpy harvest in the next year. Excessive rain, heat and cold, and strong wind will reduce seed yield. Diseases and pests decrease the harvest. Some fungi attack pistachios. The main serious plant disease in Turkey is Septriapistacin, which can quickly kill trees of certain ages. Currently, most pistachios are grafted stated as the P. terebinthus flora. Uromyces terebinth, Phyllstinia guttata, Septoria histacina, Nematospora coryli, etc. Aspergillus and Penicillium species cause biological poisons. The main growing areas of pistachios are Iran, California, and Turkey, as well as Syria, India, China, Eras, and Pakistan. Pistachios are used as seeds to decorate and attach cheap seeds. Pistachios are rich in oil and protein, and most strollers have relatively low sugar content. In addition, pistachio leaves, nectar, and bark are rich in tannins, which can be used for coloring (Onay et al., 2003).

2. In Vitro Approaches Pistachio tissue culture research began nearly two decades ago. Three resumes covering the majority of the work done with Pistachio trees between 1982 and 2000. Cloning Pistachio trees in vitro is very useful for propagating heterozygous and sexually incompatible Pistachio trees. Tissue culture techniques can help with this. Micro-propagation can be used to accomplish rapid asexual reproduction through organogenesis, somatic embryogenesis, and micro-grafting (Onay et al., 2003).

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2.1. Organogenesis Both juvenile and mature Pistacia vera L. trees have been micro propagated. Various basal culture medium and growth regulators have been utilized at various stages of growth. Shoot tips, apical and axillary buds, and nodal segments have all been used to obtain clonal proliferation through axillary branching from immature seedlings. The amount of time it takes to get the cultures started varies depending on the type of explant the age of the mother tree, and the species. Shoot growth and multiplication from juvenile Pistacia vera L seedlings usually take two weeks. Due to browning of the media and tissue, as well as callus formation at the base of the cultured explants, establishing explants from plants older than one year was more challenging than establishing explants from aseptically germinated seedlings. Pruning, grafting, and BA and GA3 spray treatments are commonly used to encourage the new growth of shoots on mature plants when starting cultures from adult material. There is only one report on the development of genuine auxiliary shoots from adult material explants. The forced flushing of branch sections in conjunction with BA was employed to stimulate shoot development in this study. Although adventitious buds emerge on the initial explants, shoot tips and nodal bud segments can always be used to achieve additional shoot multiplication from auxiliary shoots (Onay et al., 2003). Morishige and Skoog (MS) media enriched with benzyl aminopurine were used to generate many shoots from mature Pistacia vera L. tree (BA) section parts. When cultivated on MS media that has solidified with 4 mgr1 BA, shoot tips from Shoots that multiplied invitro generated the most shots. The growth rate was 20 micro shoots per plant piece for only 30 days. Micro shoots were successfully rooted in MS media enriched with indole butyric acid (IBA). The percentage of in vitro created shoots that root is exceptionally high, at over 80%. On the rooting media, roots normally develop after 7-10 days. Only in vitro can shoots be planted. Acclimatization of in vitro plants is simple, and if the transplant quality is maintained, 50 percent survival can be achieved. Adult Pistachio plants were grown from phenotypically stable regenerated plants in the greenhouse (Onay et al., 2003).

2.2. Surface Sterilisation In the formation of Pistachio tissue cultures, eradication of fungal and bacterial contamination is a crucial concern. However, a method for producing sterile

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explants from mature seeds or immature kernels, seedlings, and mature meristem tips from Pistada vera mature seeds or immature kernels has been developed. The newly developed leafy shoots (2-3 cm long) from the forced buds can be surface sterilized in 100% ethanol for 2 minutes, followed by a 10-minute soak in 10% H202 and a 20-minute soak in 20% (v/v) Noel solution in the case of explants from adult Pistachio trees (10-14 percent available chlorine). Under aseptic circumstances, the explants were rinsed 4-5 times in sterile distilled water. Buds were then shrunk down to 5 to 7 mm in diameter and grown in MS medium.

2.3. Culture Initiation Medium Most studies of Pistacia cultivation have used a modified Morishige Skoog (1962) media. In our tests, a modified MS medium with Gamborg’s vitamins (M-0404, Sigma Ltd.) containing 200 mg/l casein hydrolysate and 20 mg/l Iascorbic acid, 30 g/l sucrose, and 1 mg/l BA was the best medium for culture initiation. Before adding the 0.7 percent agar, the pH was adjusted to 5.7 and the medium was autoclaved at 15 PSI for 15 minutes before being distributed into culture vessels. The shoot tips were cultivated in Magenta GA-7 culture jars that held 50 mL of media and were sealed with aluminium foil. The cultures were cultured at 25°C under continuous illumination during establishment and shoot multiplication (20 f.1mol m-2 S-I). Almost all shoot tips or buds from juvenile material grow into shoots during culture initiation, forming both axillary and adventitious shoots. Shoot tips from adult material on the other hand typically degenerate after the culture period due to increased vitrification and chlorosis. More recently, a pilot approach for regenerating adventitious shoots from adult Pistachio material has shown increasing promise and could be useful for fast propagation.

2.4. Shoot Multiplication The MS medium containing Gamborg’s vitamins, 3 mgr’ BA, 3 percent sucrose, and 0.6 percent agar at pH 5.7 was the optimum media for shoot multiplication. MS-grown shoots also had the lowest percentage of calli at the basal end of the explants, with 15 percent, 65 percent, 30 percent, and 20 percent cultures, respectively, compared to 50 percent, 65 percent, 30 percent, and 20 percent cultures for WP, SR, G-5, and R media. At the studied levels,

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all four media sources produced significantly varied rates of necrotic shoots. Cultures in MS medium, on the other hand, produced very few necrotic shoots. Explants grown on MS produced more and longer shoots than those grown on WP media or WP enriched with nitrogen components found in MS but not in WP medium (1250 mgrl ammonium nitrate and 1900 mgr1 potassium nitrate). Shoots were multiplied in Magenta GA-7 culture jars containing 50 mL of media and covered with aluminium foil. Every fourth week, the material was sub-cultured. The conditions for cultural initiation were similar to those for culture initiation. It is not possible to base a quick micropropagation strategy on axillary branches alone for adult Pistachio material. Adventitious shoots can be produced directly from forced explants when modest doses of cytokinins are employed. Shoot tips and nodal segments can be used for further multiplication, resulting in a good multiplication rate of 2-20 new shoots per shoot tip.

2.5. Rooting In Vitro In vitro, acclimatization of Pistachio micro cuttings is usually simple. The shoots used for roots must be in good growth shape. Healthy elongated shoots (1-3 cm) with 1-2 internodes were chosen for in vitro roots to ensure a high survival rate after acclimatization. Explants were cultured in Magenta GA-7 vessels for root initiation. On MS medium with Gamborg’s vitamins supplemented with 1 mgr1 indole-butyric acid (IBA) and 30 gr1 sucrose, root elongation was seen. Within 30 days, fully grown plantlets with roots and laterals may be obtained. With cultures and the type of auxin employed, rooting ability and percentage increased. Shoots that had been through more than two passages had a stronger rooting response. The Magenta GA-vessels outperformed the other culture tubes.

2.6. Acclimatization Acclimatization is critical for ex-vitro plant development in the future. Plantlets were washed in running water to remove the agar and placed in a 1: 1 mixture of peat and perlite or peat and grit after roughly 7 days on the rooting medium. For at least two weeks, the plantlets were covered with a Pyrex beaker to maintain a relative humidity of 95 percent, and then the humidity was gradually reduced to 65 percent before being transferred to greenhouse

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conditions. Plants undergoing growth were provided nutrient feed (Solinure 7, Fisons) weekly. The regenerated plantlets were placed in plastic containers with a sterile horticultural substrate that had been soaked with a 0.1 percent solution of N:P: K. (2: 1: 1). The plastic pots, each containing one plantlet, were placed in a growth environment for at least four weeks under a 24-hour photoperiod with 20°C Day and night temperatures. The relative humidity in the growth room was kept constant (95%) for the first week, and the plants were sprinkled with water every day. The humidity was gradually reduced to normal (65 percent) levels after 2-3 weeks. This treatment resulted in a near100 percent survival rate (Onay et al., 2003).

2.7. Field Performance There was no data on nursery and field trials with in vitro produced plantlets for Pistachio till now. When compared to control seedlings under the same conditions, the viable plantlets developed latent buds, survived overwintering, and seemed phenotypically normal. When compared to control seedlings under the same conditions, the viable plantlets developed latent buds, survived overwintering, and seemed phenotypically normal. Field performance data on these propagules is required to prove micropropagation’s potential for largescale propagation. If the regenerated plantlets are genetically stable, micropropagation can be called a true clonal propagation strategy (Onay et al., 2003).

2.8. Somatic Embryogenesis Although shoot tip culture is the most popular method for micro-propagation, somatic embryogenesis is preferred because it allows for the creation of large numbers of plantlets in fewer steps, reducing labor, time, and expense. Recently, some protocols are established for the first stage of a study of somatic embryogenesis in Pistachio. The rising effectiveness of somatic embryogenesis methods in Pistachio indicates that they will gradually replace the shoot tip culture approach, which is more susceptible to automation. Pistachio, Pistada vera L., somatic embryos, and embryogenic masses have been successfully encapsulated to generate somatic seeds, which are capable of germination. Both of these methods can be used to preserve attractive elite Pistachio genotypes as well as to control culture stocks during production.

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Embryogenic callus, cell suspension cultures, or clusters of cells from somatic embryos can all be used to induce indirect somatic embryogenesis. Embryogenic competence refers to the ability of a cell to grow into a somatic embryo. Transfer of callus to a new culture regime is required for the commencement and subsequent development of embryogenic masses. According to histological research, there appear to be at least two pathways that could account for their genesis. An early asymmetric division at the epidermal layer of the embryogenic cell mass can produce somatic embryos from single cells or tiny cell clumps (ECM). Second, a few tiny meristematic cells within the ECM can grow into somatic embryos (Onay et al., 2003). In all proliferating ECMs, histological examinations revealed two unique regions: 1. Having cells with relatively dense cytoplasm, thin walls, and vacuoles (meristematic cells). 2. Including cells with unclear cytoplasm and huge vacuoles. After three days of culture, a portion of the ECM was passed through to reveal meristematic activity. Within the epidermal layer, several of these cells showed evidence of growth. The embryogenic cells at the ECM’s cut end were also tiny and compact, with densely stained cytoplasm, characteristics associated with early embryogenic ECM development, which resulted in globular stage somatic embryos. The embryogenic cultures’ surface structure could be discriminated from non-embryogenic cultures using scanning electron micrographs. At the surface of the embryogenic cellular masses, single-cell differentiation invariably occurred. After 27 days of culture, scanning electron micrographs reveal a huge number of embryos developing on the surface of explants. Embryos usually only have a single cotyledon. Proembryo genic determined cells (PEDC) or induced embryogenic determined cells (IEDC) can be found in the callus of leaf explants (IEDC). To extend the expression of embryogenic potential to adult tree explants, cell or tissue types that are physiologically comparable to these juvenile tissues must be identified (Onay et al., 2003).

2.9. Micrografting Micro-grafting, a grafting process developed for tissue cultures that can be done in vitro or in vivo, is becoming more popular with fruit and nut tree

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species for a variety of reasons. These include disease-free scion generation, rejuvenation of mature shoot materials, and graft union research. Pistachio has reaped little advantage from this relatively recent strategy. The initial attempts to rejuvenate mature materials by micrografting mature scion shoot tips onto juvenile Pistacia vera rootstocks in vitro are included in the existing knowledge on micrografting in this nut species. Despite adding GA3 to the culture media, only extremely slow growth of the grafted scion was seen, and no elongation was achieved. In vitro and in vivo studies of pistachio micrografting have been conducted. With 10 mm (100 percent) and 1-3 mm (83-92 percent) long scions obtained from four-year-old Pistacia vera, high levels of graft take were attained, but no rejuvenation was reported when an elite-mature tree was employed as a source of scions (Onay et al., 2003). Pistachio (Pistacia vera L. cv. Siirt) in vitro micrografting has recently undergone refinement (unpublished results). Rootstocks were made from excised embryos that had been germinated in vitro. Scions were derived from forced-shoot tips that proliferated from 30-year-old trees. To get a welldeveloped micrograft in vitro, grafting inside tubes was necessary. With 2-4 mm (56.75%) and 4-6 mm (79.25%) long scions produced from shoot-tips, high levels of micrograft take were achieved. With scions measuring 0.5 in length, no response was obtained. The scions’ subculture only once onto the multiplication medium showed slow growth and a lack of axillary shoot development. Micro grafted plantlets were successfully acclimatized in vitro, and no issues with micro grafted plant establishment in vivo were detected (Onay et al., 2003).

3. Factors Affecting In Vitro Micro-Propagation of Pistachio The Anacardiaceous includes more than 70 genera and more than 600 species, most of which are mainly trees and shrubs that grow regularly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. The genus Pistacia includes eleven shrubs and deciduous trees. Perennial or deciduous leaves are called croutons. Pistachio is the only commercially grown genus in this genus, while the remaining species are mainly used as a reserve of pistachios. The pistachio species is identified by a sexually transmitted gender system, which assumes that male flowers develop on plants, while female flowers develop in different environments. As the different species in some parts of the genus, pistachios are characterized by long-term underdevelopment, usually with little fruit for up to six years. The buds of P. Atlantica and P. terebinthus have large seedlings

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are required for the fight nematodes and soil fungi, but the requirement of these ancient methods limits the spread of pistachio plantations. In the case of the rapid micro proliferation process of organisms in vitro, the industry may pay a high price. Tissue culture technology is majorly required in farming practices, horticulture, life sciences, and plant breeding. The large-scale propagation of excellent genotypes, the destruction of viruses, the manufacturing of secondary metabolites, and the in vitro biological research of plants are necessary due to their periodic use. This approach currently provides support to dietary forms and may lead to high prevalence (Benmahioul et al., 2017).

3.1. Factors Affecting Explants Establishment 3.1.1. Types of Sterilizing Agents All plants contain the body’s microorganisms, so it is difficult to inoculate samples. These microorganisms are also difficult to kill, and they also limit the start of antibacterial culture. In 2013, Tilkat reported that 10% NaCl x 30unit time is also the most effective time for soaking NaCl to clean pistachio seed heads. In addition, HgCl2 is no longer used as a plant disinfectant because it is very dangerous to use and difficult to remove. The procedure for surface disinfection of pistachios is as follows: remove all the flowers and rinse under running water to prepare the buds for disinfection. When dividing, soak the sample in 70-degree alcohol for one minute, then add a few drops of water to a strong bleach solution for ten minutes to disinfect, and then rinse with sterile water three times (Benmahioul et al., 2017). 3.1.2. Explants Type Almost all plant areas are commonly required as a starting point of colonocytes, and fully developed seedlings can be regenerated in vitro. However, it is very important to select suitable explants before tissue culture. In addition, inappropriate explants increase the possibilities of virus attack. The explant must be obtained at the appropriate physiological development stage. Benmahioul in 2009 inferred the effect of seasonal response rate and explant contamination rate. All the explants of big woody species were infected for a few days between autumn (dormant axillary buds), but a good outcome was received because of the general node growth stage (spring). The probability of contamination by reagents and sublimate is 84.7% and 38.7%, respectively. The age at which the explant is released also affects the organ

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response. Younger, faster-growing tissues are often very effective: the younger the tissue, the stronger the response to in vitro treatments. Tissue discoloration is usually measured in vitro using tracheal plant explants. Due to rapid tissue oxidation during sowing, it is difficult to initiate micropropagation of pistachio branches or fully grown plant parts in the field. With the emergence of the never-ending subculture of new media, this shortcoming is largely due to scale. Carbon inhibitors and polyvinylpyrrolidone did not reduce phenol exudation throughout the organization (Benmahioul et al., 2017).

3.1.3. Effect of Light Luminescence is usually an important signal from the vicinity of woody plants and plays an important role in regulating plant growth and development. In vitro microenvironmental conditions (such as light) will undoubtedly change the response of plants. The internodes are long, the thickness is moderate, and the frost resistance is poor. Juicy, the leaves are bigger. There is some information about the effect of sunlight quality on pistachios in vitro. Benmahiul reported in 2009 that the sunshine intensity of 90 μmol m2/s changed the growth of Chinese dicotyledonous plants. The result uses 40 μmol m2/s (Benmahioul et al., 2017). 3.1.4. Culture Medium The structure of the medium relies on the woody family, the explants, and the purpose of the experiment; the best growth and growth of tissues relies on the biological needs of different plants. The constitution of the Eupenicillium in vitro medium is generally supplemented with nutrients. In the experiment, the most suitable medium to start the culture was MS medium supplemented with food. B5, 100 mg L inositol, 500 mg L casein hydrolysate, 3% sucrose and 16 mg adenine (BA) hydrogen ion concentration is 5.7, add 0.7% Difco Bacto agar, autoclave at 113 ° C for 20 minutes (Benmahioul et al., 2017). 3.2. Shoot Multiplication It has been found that environmental elements, especially plant growth regulators (PGR), can affect tissue growth and differentiation. The requirement of PGR in pistachio tissue culture is crucial. With plant hormones.

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Our analysis results show that Metapolin (mT) is suitable for the effective propagation of axillary buds in vitro. For best results, use 2 mg-1 mT i.e., 2.5 usable buds/explants, bud height 2.3 cm. The poor quality of the bud hinders development and domestication. After the propagation step is complete, transfer a small portion to a fresh medium containing 0.2% activated charcoal from the PGR. The purpose is to increase the elongation and strength of the plant, making it suitable for future development and domestication experiments (Benmahioul et al., 2017).

Figure 1. Multiplication of shoots on MS medium containing 2 mg·l–1 meta-topolin (A), Vigorous shoots were obtained after 30 days on a hormone-free MS medium containing 0.2% activated charcoal (B).

3.3. Rooting and Acclimatization These microphones were then placed in a Fortis lid (4 x 6 cm) containing a mixture of vegetable perlite and vermiculite, placed in a lined plastic tray, and kept under high proportions. This technique gives the best results in terms of growth rate (82%), and the total number of roots per microprocessor is 3 to 4 roots (Benmahioul et al., 2017). Approximately 80% of the seedlings transferred to the in vitro greenhouse conditions have fully adapted to the environment, our results show that the in vitro rooting of angiosperm trees does not depend on organisms previously cultivated with BA or mT, no differences were found between the two sections of infected rhizobia microorganisms. The bud growth rate is high in the medium containing mT and BA (82.5% and 75%, respectively) in vitro conditions (Benmahioul et al., 2017).

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Figure 2. Ex vitro rooted shoots treated with 2% indole-3-butyric acid (Rhizopon).

4. Ex-Vitro Rooting of Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) For Ex-vitro growth, the seedlings are washed with water to induce the removal of material. Before planting, soak the shoot tips in commercially available rooting powder. Two completely different commercially available rooting powders were tested: 1. Rhizopon AA 2. Rootone F (Benmahioul et al., 2011) Then put these micro-green plants with a 5% perlite and humid acid vermiculite (8015) mixture of Ferriss blocks into a plastic bowl with a lid and occupy a high proportion. The conditions of the culture chamber are the same as those of the ex-vitro proliferation test. 6 weeks later, the ex-vitro training course began. The following information was collected: survival rate, degree of rooting, total root diversity, and root length. We tend to jointly evaluate the impact of propagation media on ex-vitro sowing of micro seeds. Use Victimization Stat graph software to perform an inspection of divergence (ANOVA) on technical vehicles, and use Duncan’s multiple variation test to verify the average interval. The importance level is (p.05). The results are expressed as mean ± standard error (SE). The medium supplemented with BA

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and mT is more sensitive to stimulating bud proliferation than the medium containing kinetin. 11 kinds of BA at 4 mg produced the best, simplest, and most shocking explant-induced buds (Benmahioul et al., 2011). However, the integer of shoots obtained with mT for each explant of suitable height and morphology was recorded and contrasted with the BA results mg/L mT torque. The solution accommodating KIN does not promote axillary proliferation, and the overall concentration of 4 mg 11 gives very poor results (Benmahioul et al., 2011). We also tend to evaluate the influence of social groups on bud growth in MS medium supplemented with 2 and 4 mg of 11 BA or mT Obtained with 4 mg l1 BA, but the best average shoot variety and the most effective stem length obtained in the ball are both rich in 2 mg l1 mT Each explant produced approximately 34 “smart” quality buds. The length is 1.5-2.0 cm. After 30 days, the leaves develop well (12 cm). The buds obtained with 4 mg of 11 VA are less than those obtained with mT, so Metapolin can even recommend a concentration of 2 mg/L. For the reproduction of L. pistachio, hormone-free basal MS medium with 0.2 atomic number 6 is advantageous in situations of intense inflammation. After a few weeks under in vitro conditions, Ferriss plants appeared for the first time. At intervals in the primary growth experiment, P. vera L. bacteria from the mT propagation medium responded differently to each rooting meal treatment, as shown by their survival rate, rooting percentage, and overall root diversity. Plate, Rootone F, or rhizome; however, the control shoots produced root plants (47.5%), but the shoots were treated with root plants (78.6%) and Ruton F (74.3%). The simplest treatment for Microgreen growth is Rhizopon treatment, which doubles the number of primary roots compared to the control. The average root length varies significantly with different treatment schemes. The average root length (5.9 cm) is the easiest to control Then Rootone F (3.5 cm) (Benmahioul et al., 2011). In our second rooting experiment, the outcome tells that the L. angiosperm tree rooted from the vitreous is not connected to the previous BA or mT culture. No differences were established in the middle of two microbial cutting varieties from Rhizopon. Interestingly, this anomaly prevented Bargchi and Alderson’s micro-transmission in 1989 (Benmahioul et al., 2011).

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(a) 2 mg l-1 mT (b) Nodal explant showing no differentiation of axillary buds on MS with 4 mg l-1 KIN, after 30 days of culture (c) Shoot multiplication obtained after two successive subculture passages on MS supplemented with 2 mg l-1 mT (d) Vigorous shoots were obtained after 1 month on hormone-free MS containing 0.2% activated charcoal. (e) Ex vitro rooting (note roots emerging out the Ferriss plugs). (f) Ex vitro rooting of P. vera L. after 6-weeks: Rhizopon. (g) Rootone F. (h) Control. (i) Ex vitro rooting of micro cuttings propagated on media containing Mt. (j) BA. (k) Greenhouse-grown micro propagated plant after 2 months under ex vitro conditions. (l) Bar = 1.0 cm. Figure 3. Micropropagation and ex vitro rooting of pistachio (P. vera L.). Multiple axillary shoots were obtained after 30 days of culture on MS medium containing 4 mg l-1 BA.

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5. Microbiological Safety in Pistachios and Pistachio Containing Products Pistachio nut, and also salted cured pistachios, tasteless pistachios, and shelled pistachios that are suitable to eat foods, recently appeared as feasible sources of infection with foodborne microorganisms besides the high levels of aflatoxins. The various forms of pistachios and pistachios containing byproducts were assessed for the existence of staphylococci aureus, and enterobacteria spp; conjointly aerobic mesophilic bacteria, coliforms, yeasts, and moulds, were enumerated. The codex suggested the international code of hygienic practices for tree nut states that these products ought to be free from morbific microorganisms. Pistachio fruits and pistachio-containing products were usually tested for their microbiological quality like microflora desecration and aflatoxins levels however recently it’s come across to be a doable supply of pathogenic microorganisms as enterobacteria (Moghazy et al., 2014). In March 2009, the United States of pathogenic of America Food Drug Administration (FDA) enlightened unwellness management and prevention CDC (center for disease control and prevention) that multiple samples of pistachio nuts and pistachio products collected over many months from one company were contaminated with several serotypes of salmonella. Pathogenic microorganisms like salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and L. monocytogenes will not be reborn on nuts, however, can exist these products for periods that expand over one year. Salmonella was detected in different nuts such as raw almonds. Salmonella furthermore was found in 0.8% of 2886 edible nut kernels collected from retail markets in the UK. Food poisoning outbursts that pull place in the USA within the years 2006 - 2007 correlated with peanut butter. Tree nuts (almonds, walnuts, and pistachio) are put through to infection by a variety of microorganisms that may cause food-borne illness, spoilage, or destructive effects on humans (aflatoxicosis). Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of varied strains of fungus genus flavus and Aspergillus parasitic us because of their hepatic carcinogenic potential, aflatoxins are extremely regulated in different countries around the world. International organizations are certain for 4 ppb as the most level of total aflatoxins, till in the USA the federal agency has set the supervision level for tree nuts of 20 ppb. The microbiological quality and safety of many pistachio nuts and pistachio having by-product and further the result of packaging of variety and procedure by analyzing the aerobic mesophilic bacteria, Coliform, staphylococcus aureus, and salmonella spp. Yeasts and moulds add up and

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assess overall samples and aflatoxins levels were determined total within the samples way more contaminated with fungus. Molecular identification was performed for suspected isolated salmonella spp colonies that get from classical particular media. PCR ways are outlined to discover pathogens in clinical and food samples the PCR-based current identification of pathogens existing in pistachio and pistachio product insertion to standard microbiological and biochemical analyses (Moghazy et al., 2014).

Future Prospects and Conclusion The pistachio plantation is currently being cultivated from seedlings. Until recently, the seeds used were usually obtained by any means, not by controlled crosses between clones selected for breeding programs. The selected strains are usually established in the breeding ground by grafting good rootstocks. Since pistachio is as well a natural hybrid, there are a lot of genetic variations in very specific seed populations. Because they can control the environment and nutritional conditions, they also provide a micropropagation method for the grassy culturing of individual plants with clonal conditions suitable for pistachio cultivation. Used for rapid culturing of the required types of pistachios. Pistacia vera L. Propagates on a diminutive from seedlings and adults. The consequences obtained with pistachios are encouraging because the forced maturation explants can produce many buds in large numbers. Using BA buds before cultivation can effectively produce multiple buds from mature explants. Consequences of the pre-treatment, the explants may be under conditions conducive to germination. The time required to start cultivation relies upon the type of explant, the age, and the condition of the mother herbage. Flower buds usually appear within four weeks. Although the primary specimen develops random shoots, further propagation is possible by using axillary shoots at the ends and chunk of the propel. Axillary bud induction usually requires low levels of the plant hormone BA. The maturation rate of the buds obtained in vitro is surprisingly high80%. The resulting healthy seedlings can be transferred with a 50% survival rate. Before expanding the program, the fidelity of the reproduced small plants should be checked through detailed tests. The biological exploration of pistachio plants through somatic embryogenesis provides the advantage of maintaining a coherent array of large cloned seedlings in a bioreactor and rapid commercialization of plants. Somatic embryogenesis in pistachios is very much of our desired deeds. Recent embryogenesis from pistachio leaf tissue

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may even be the first step in completing these methods. The limit is set on the serologically, the lifetime of the keratinocytes, and the stuff; however, physical embryogenesis is consistent across many explant types. The amalgamation of the asynchrony of a corporeal fetus, early germination, and the low incidence of somatic seedlings limits the appeal of somatic embryos in pistachio flavoring. It lay hold of a lot of effort to synchronize the assembly of the corporeal fetus and start the bioreactor process. In addition, artificial seed technology makes it undemanding to handle various large seedlings during transportation, and it is easier to plant them with machines in a greenhouse environment. Artificial seeds and regenerated plants have the potential for semi-permanent storage and exchange of genetic material. In addition, the basic technique for alternative methods has also been developed, such as culturing biological materials. However, the potential use of pistachio body part fusion should be explored. In the long run, genetic improvement of this rare species should be considered in the breeding program and commercial manufacture of the orchard.

References Benmahioul, B., (2017). Factors affecting in vitro micropropagation of Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Agriculture and Forestry Journal. 1(1), 56-59. Benmahioul, B., Dorion, N., Harche, M. K., and Daguin, F., (2011). Micropropagation and ex vitro rooting of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 108, 353–357. Moghazy, M. A., Boveri, S., and Pulvirenti, A., (2014). Microbiological safety in pistachios and pistachio-containing products. Food Control. 36, 88-93. Onay, A., (2003). Micropropagation of Pistachio. Micropropagation of Woody Trees and Fruits, Kluwer Academic Publishers. 565-567.

Chapter 4

Pistachio Cultivation and Consumption for Sustainable Development Sumanta Bhattacharya ∗

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, Kolkata, India

Abstract Originating in Central Asia and the Middle East, the pistachio is a nut of the cashew family that is cultivated in many countries. The dried fruit has many health benefits, and the shell is used for various purposes. The shell covering the pistachio is used for multiple purposes, like decoration, treating water pollution, producing biogas, etc. They provide tremendous benefits to our health and even a solution to diseases and weight management. As a result of rapid changes in weather patterns, climate change has had a significant impact on production in many countries around the world today. Pistachio trees can be found in many Asian and African countries today. In India, for instance, the pistachio tree has begun to grow, including Kerman, Red Allepo, Peter, Joley, and Chiko. Pistachio cultivation requires land preparation, and it can’t be grown like other nuts. Pistachio is widely used in festivals and religious ceremonies, and it is primarily grown in the South Indian states of West Bengal and Kashmir. It is a long process, but with advancements in technology, new means have been adopted to increase the production rate.

Keywords: micronutrient, antioxidant, cultivation, polysaccharides

∗

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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1. Introduction As far back as 700 BC, traces of pistachios were discovered in the hanging gardens of Babylon during the reign of King Merodach. Later, during the first century AD, pistachios were introduced from Asia to Europe and the cultivation started in Europe and North Africa. Ancient Pistachio seeds were grown in Central Asia during the Bronze Age. The pistachio is also known as the green almond or “happy nut” due to its happy nature. In the Republic of China and Iran, it is known as the “Smiling Nut.” In the Bible, the pistachio is one of the oldest flowering nut trees. It is mentioned only twice, which indicates people have been eating pistachios for the past 9,000 years. It is even said that the pistachio has been found growing in the hanging garden of Babylon for over 2700 years. Another person named Queen of Sheba had accorded the pistachio as the food of the royal people, and she would take the country’s harvest of pistachios for herself and her royal court. During the 17th century, pistachio trees were called pitch trees in Ukraine as people would consume the tree’s pitch or sap as a breath freshener. The demand for nuts has increased over the years since the late 1970s. It was introduced to the United States in 1854 as a garden tree. Hardier varieties were collected in 1904, but commercial production started after 1929. The average pistachio tree produces around 50,000 or 50 kg of nuts every 2 years. Pistachios are biennial-bearing, so their harvest is much heavier in alternate years. They live up to 300 years and take 7 to 10 years to produce the fruit, but full production doesn’t take place until they are around 15 to 20 years of age. Today, the top-consuming countries for pistachios are Turkey, the United States, Iran, Germany, China, Spain, Italy, South Korea, France, and Syria. The three main varieties of pistachios are Sicilian Napoletana from Italy, Sierra from Australia, and Kerman from the United States. The 11 species of pistachio trees produce Pistacia vera for commercial purposes, but they are very expensive nuts. Pistachios are harvested in late summer, from August to mid-September in California, which is responsible for the cultivation of 98% of American Pistachios. The Kerman female plant is pollinated by the male Peters variety at a ratio of 1 male tree for every 8 to 12 female trees. Iran is the biggest producer of pistachios worldwide, followed by Turkey, Afghanistan, Italy, and Syria, all growing well depending on their suitable climate conditions.

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2. Literature Review Pistachio cultivation requires a dry climate. They are grown particularly in the desert region and are of high economic efficiency. It is a perennial tree and has a high tolerance for saline soil. They are drought-tolerant. The flowers are pollinated by wind, usually a good April storm. Pistachios need to be pruned like almonds for optimal nut production. A couple of aim branches are chosen to be the framework of the tree with everything. Commercially, pistachios are grafted onto rootstock trees or base trees that give the pistachio additional protection against disease. In the harvesting process, all the nuts need to be harvested and processed within a few weeks as they are all ripe at once. Taking into consideration the size of the operation, the nuts are collected by hand and partially by machine assistance or completely by machines. Some of the fresh nuts will go to local markets for sale, and the rest will be processed so they can be shipped across the world. If they aren’t processed properly, the chemical aflatoxin produced can cause cancerous mold that can be fatal. Once the nuts are harvested, they are stored in a cold room just above freezing and pulled out at a speed that feeds the processing machines adequately. The first step of processing is the dehulling, which rips the pistachio fruit from the nut. The fruit can only be eaten by birds, whereas humans can only eat the nut [5]. Macadamia nuts with nuts sink to the bottom of the sink, where they are removed and either sun-dried or added to a machine that blows hot air vertically, such as this one. Well-dried pistachio helps to ensure that no fungal growth occurs. The town of Bronte, Italy, supports pistachio production as a community and hosts an annual pistachio festival that attracts tourists from all over the world to experience pistachio eating. Pistachios are digested in a variety of places across the world: we have pistachio ice cream, kulfi, pistachio dessert, pistachio chocolates, and Americans make pistachio salad and pistachio paste. It is consumed as a dry fruit in many countries [15] and is used in many sweet recipe books. The nut is expensive but it also has many health benefits attached to it; it is consumed around the world. Iran and America produce 74% of the world’s pistachios whereas Iran has been the largest exporter of pistachios in the world. Central Asia and the Middle East consume and produce the maximum. Today California has emerged as the secondlargest producer of pistachio in the world and exporter adding to the economic growth.

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3. Research Methodology For this exploration we have used secondary data from different journals and websites, followed by that we conducted a small survey in the village region interacting with the farmers asking them after the production process, and in the urban region survey was conducted asking about Pistachio utility in their daily life and what do they do with the waste of Pistachio at homes, where we also discussed with policymakers and waste management authorities on the usage of Pistachio waste.

4. Results and Discussion Raw pistachios contain 4% water, 45% fat, 28% carbohydrates, 20% protein, dietary fiber, several dietary minerals, vitamin B, vitamin B5, vitamin K, vitamin B6, thiamin, calcium, riboflavin, folate [2]. It can reduce the possibility of cardiovascular disease. Fiber and monounsaturated fats like oleic acid and polyunsaturated fats like linoleic acid help in keeping the blood sugar, cholesterol, and blood pressure levels in check. They have a good effect on the gut, promote weight loss, and are filled with nutrients, so they are taken as snacks. Above all, they are high in antioxidants, low in calories, and high in protein. It also promotes healthy gut bacteria. It can treat some serious diseases like diabetes type 2, cancer, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome. Pistachios have magnesium, dietary fiber, and low sodium, which can prevent obesity. The fiber content makes you feel full, and magnesium reduces hypertension [3]. Pistachio contains a variety of macro and micronutrients, the quantity of which is strongly reliant on the cultivation process and variety [13]. Well, pistachio waste can play a significant role in managing environmental pollution and waste management. We can say that food waste can help to reduce water pollution in Iran. Pistachio shells are used to reduce water pollution [6]. Industries produce a massive amount of air pollution and also produce water pollution, where activated carbon is the process through which wastewater is treated and also air pollution is treated. It is used for gas purification, petrochemical industries, and oil refineries. Activated carbon is an important substance for purification, or we can refer to it as a filtering medium. The activated carbon is made up of wood, coal, shells, fruit stones, and coconut shells. The activated carbon is made of coal, and, taking into consideration the current environmental conditions, the use of coal hurts the

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environment. The use of coal for activating pistachios has been replaced by coconut shells, walnut shells, and pistachio shells. In the same way, in Turkey, pistachio shells are being used to produce power for cities [8]. Turkey is among the top countries when it comes to the production of pistachios. The country produces more than 50% of its pistachios. Turkey has used the shells as biogas, a substitute for fuel produced by cutting down the organic matter. Pistachio shells are being used to produce heat for the green city [10]. This is renewable and cost-effective. It is proposed that nuts can be converted into biogas and are the best alternative source of power that can provide electricity to 60% of the population [11]. In Australia, nutshells have been turned into biomass, and in Mexico, decaying garbage has been used to produce electricity. Table 1. Beneficial effects of various nutrients of pistachio Category of nutrients

Name of nutrient

Micronutrient

Phosphorus

Micronutrient

Calcium

Micronutrient

Iron

Micronutrient

Magnesium

Micronutrient

Potassium

Antioxidants

Tocopherol

Beneficial effect It breaks meat and other protein products consumed by humans into amino acids. It is also essential for the secretion of hormones. It controls glucose level and serum phosphate level in the body which prevents acute diseases like anemia, muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults, numbness and tingling sensation in the extremities, and difficulty in walking. It is an important element of bones and also acts as a cofactor for enzymes and proteins. It helps in celsignalingng, relaxation of blood vessels, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and secretion of hormones like insulin. It is an important component of protein that is used to carry oxygen. It also takes a significant part in cellular metabolism, cell growth, and differentiation. It prevents osteoporosis, diseases in the nervous system, and immune system diseases. It plays an important role in metabolic reactions and other biological activities in the human body. It also prevents hypercalcemia, neuromuscular hyperexcitability, hypokalemia, cardiac dysrhythmias, and acute myocardial infarction [1] It maintains cardiac rate, rhythm, and conduction. The deficiency of these elements in the body results in potential negative structural and functional alterations in vital organs of the human body. It prevents heart diseases, HDL oxidation, diabetes, and cancer and promotes immunity for being an important source of vitamin A.

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The wood-plastic nanocomposite will be employed in the building trade, and it’s immune to wetness, loss of color, and varied sorts of fungi and insects in the best property tradition. It has the additional virtue of being derived from a regionally generated supply of filler material. As one of the world’s prime pistachio producers, the Asian nation annually produces and exports thousands of plenty of pistachio loco to alternative countries. The country has prepared access to a reliable supply of pistachio shell waste. The structure of the pistachio shell and its elements, specifically polysaccharides, hemicelluloses, and polymers, build this material into an applicable selection for the assembly of biocomposites. The researchers checked out the cons of sequences of different loadings of nano clay as a secondary reinforcement and 2 different ultraviolet radiation stabilizers on the tensile properties, impact, loss of color, and resistance to weathering of a pistachio shell flour/high-density alphabetic character composite. Table 2. An overview of the weather in the regions where pistachio is produced predominantly

Source: Western Regional Climate Center, 2004.

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Source: Data Player, 7th January 2020. Figure 1. The major pistachio producing nations.

Their results showed that the simplest increase in lastingness and tensile strength occurred with the addition of 3 components per hundred nanoclay to the formulation. Upping this share to 6 yielded the alternative result. When nanoclay is added at a level of three components per hundred, lastingness increases by twenty-seven, whereas, at a level of six components per hundred, it is four-dimensional but small. The nanoclay presence in the HDPE group formulation improved the water absorption resistance [7]. Another study that examined the consequences of nano clay particles and pistachio shell flour on the mechanical properties of wood-plastic composites doled out by researchers at Iran’s Muslim Azad University at Karaj additionally turned up fascinating findings [9]. The results of this study showed that adding a tenth and three by weight loading of nano clay particles to the formulation increased the impact resistance and therefore the tensile strength; adding five-hitter nano clay caused a rise in the bending strength, bending, and tensile modulus of woodplastic composite. Adding twenty-fifth pistachio flour and thirty-fifth pistachio shell flour increased the lastingness and therefore the impact resistance; this same impact was seen at thirty-fifths. However, a fivehundredth by weight loading of pistachio shell flour was found to cause a rise in the bending strength and, therefore, the tensile and bending modules of the wood-plastic composite. The results are also distinctive in that leveraging 21

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and 30 pistachio shell flour will increase the sheared load-bearing capacity of wood-plastic nano-composites once compared to the five hundredth treatment. The plastic-wood composites say the Iranian researchers, have really smart compatibility with the setting. The fabric they need to create and study is made of regionally sourced waste matter and useful plastic materials. It requires less maintenance, resulting in lower prices when compared to rough wood, while also exhibiting high resistance to decay, fungi, and insects.

5. Pistachio for Sustainable Development 5.1. Energy from Shells and Tree Prunings To achieve zero waste, a product that consumes this enormous amount of biomass is crucial. Property energy from biomass (biofuels) or bio-derived electricity consumes immense amounts of biomass but has been established. Once the corn-based grain alcohol was up and running, executive department researchers developed “green” innovations to convert shells into ethyl alcohol to supplant gas. [8] Grain alcohol, which currently displaces more than 10% of the United States’ gas offer, is viable as a result of 80% being possible. However, shells contain up to 40% sugar. Strong technologies exist to convert shells into grain alcohol. However, we haven’t found a standard fermentation method that may contend with corn to displace oil given traditionally low oil prices. They’re building a $158 million plant in Riverside, Golden State, to convert plantation pruning and nutshells into biofuel. Aemetis gains potency by utilizing heat and chemical processes to make an energy-rich vapor (syngas). Syngas is cooled, cleansed, and fed to a proprietary fermentation bioreactor that converts them to grain alcohol. Aemetis intends to go live in late 2019, transforming underexploited coproducts into bioenergy in an attempt to reach California’s renewable fuel mandates.

5.2. Bio Coal: Thermal Conversion for Energy Applications Vast amounts of tree nut co-products can be employed in generating electricity. When “coal was king,” it was easy to imagine generating electricity in coal-fired power plants using shells and pruning as a coal substitute. Through torrefaction, we tend to develop technology to get “bio-coal” - high-

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energy pellets that look and act a great deal like coal [14]. Multiple torrefaction units that made shell-derived bio-coal for utility plants were introduced in the Golden State. One such mobile unit generated bio coal that was fed to a utility plant for the months following harvest. Clean-air mandates have pushed utility corporations far away from coal toward solar, wind, and clean-burning fossil fuels. Later, we’re sorting out products on the far side of bio-coal to change shells into valuable products.

5.3. Thermal Conversion to Shopper Product One plan − using torrefied shells as an inert filler in artifact plastics - changed into a nice surprise. The addition of torrefied shells to recycled plastics wasn’t inert but rather improved the stiffness and stability of the material, with a rise in softening point of 5-8°C once shells were added. Improved heat stability creates new market opportunities, like stackable spermatophyte trays. Trays made with recycled plastic alone tend to warp in the sun. Those with tormented shells don’t last. We tend to create shipping pallets containing 10-15% torrefied shells. The lower-density pallets give lower shipping weights and stiffer pallets.

5.4. Biochar: Additional Uses for Thermally Processed Shells Products generated from torrefaction, chemical processes, or transmutations are all termed “biochar,” and a whole industry has developed around biochar to enhance soil properties. “Activated carbon” is biochar that has been chemically or steam-treated to form additional pores. Activated charcoal from shells makes a good filter that will contend favorably with the normal, activated charcoal from coconut fiber, with the advantage of native production. Pistachio shells are being recycled and used for several purposes. They can be used as a fire starter. They can line the bottoms of pots for drainage and retention of the soil. In India, pistachios are widely used and consumed in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Kannada. They require long summers and cold winters. Kemon, Chiko, Red Allepo, Joley, and Peter are some of the varieties of the pistachio plant grown in India [4]. It is the main product used in many of the food items in India. In most sweet dishes, it is used, and also, for decorative purposes, the shell is used. The Indian nut

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industry has grown to 4 billion USD. The consumption pattern in India is widespread when it comes to pistachios. Earlier, the use of nuts was limited to the occasion. The eating of pistachios is part of festivals, especially during Diwali. It is the main ingredient in sweet dishes. The Charaka Samhita, an old Sanskrit text, mentions nuts and dried foods in Ayurveda, where nuts and dried fruits like pistachio, almond, cashew nuts, coconut, peanut, and groundnut are considered a source of protein. The Mughals made the nuts popular. It has become the food of the rich and royal people. Today, the cultivation of pistachios has become simpler due to advancements in technology. People are trying to practice the cultivation of pistachios using hydroponics. In many Indian families, the cultivation of pistachio has been started in home gardening, thus increasing its production. The demand for pistachios is rising every day as it is regarded as one of the lowest-calorie nuts in the world and also because it is rich in phytosterols, unsaturated fats, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, fiber, and carotenoids. There are 11 varieties of pistachio, but only Pistachio Vera is grown for commercial purposes. Due to specific climatic conditions, growth becomes a problem when cultivating Pista requires a temperature of more than 38 degrees Celsius during the daytime, which is considered ideal, and a temperature of 5 degrees or below during the colder months for absolute growth. They grow best in sandy loam soil. They grow up to a height of 30 feet, and for the first 3 to 5 years, they can be kept in the container and then moved to the garden or orchid for the nuts to be grown. It is a long process and takes around 7 years to grow. In California, the second-largest producer of pistachios producing 99% of the nation’s nuts, there are millions of pistachio trees grown today. It is also called a bumper crop as it is turned into a small pink and green mixture. In America, pistachio is considered to be the most loved snack and they also make different kinds of food items from it, like ice cream [12]. Pistachio cakes are very famous in America and Japan. Well, at times the cultivation is not as accepted. There are usually 10% of the hollow nuts grown, whereas in the year 2015 the San Joaquin valley saw 90% of the nuts be hollow, which is often referred to as “blank,” which also has an equal impact on the economic profit, as in 2015. Pistachio cultivation necessitates very cold winters, which is why Pistachio cultivation is best in desert regions because it allows both male and female nuts to grow properly and pollinate.

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Source: International Nut & Dried Fruit Council. * Other nuts includes pecans, pine nuts, macadamias, Brazil nuts. Figure 2. The consumption of different types of nuts worldwide.

If they don’t receive the necessary climatic conditions, the maple trees are found scattered among the females, and this results in malfunctioning. This is why male trees release pollen and grow at the wrong period. The unpredictable growth of the trees also leads to a different time for the harvest season as they stay for a longer period during the cold and warm seasons, while the fruits in the summer season take a longer time to ripen. Moreover, the ratio of growth is 1 to 8. One male plant and eight female plants have to be planted at one time. They require plenty of moisture to grow, as droughts can delay their growth for longer periods. As of 2020, America produces 51%, Iran produces 31%, Turkey produces 11%, and China produces 4% of the world’s pistachios, whereas the best pistachios come from Iran and Afghanistan. For the first time, Pista has been found growing in the cold weather of Kerala and not in the dry climatic region of Munnar at the Carmelgiri Botanical Garden at Korandakkad, Maattupetti. It was planted by keeping the plant away from the cold Munnar weather and protecting it with a rain guard shield.

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Pistachios require no specific growing season; we can grow them twice a year, once in June-July and then again in November-December. Today in India, people are producing pistachios in their home gardens by taking the raw seeds by removing the upper cover and dipping them in the water for 10 to 15 days. After that, we clean them with airtight containers and keep them for 10 to 15 days where they receive indirect sunlight every day. We need to make 3 to 5 drainage holes and use 90% Bhall mitti and 10% wood ash for growing them. By this, the production of pistachio has increased. However, growing pistachio using hydroponics has not been possible yet.

Conclusion Pistachio cultivation is very crucial as it has a lot of benefits attached to it. Today, pistachios are consumed by people across the globe in different ways. It has led to economic development and provided ample benefits. Growing pistachios at home have reduced the period of their growth. Iran is the largest exporter and producer of pistachios in the world. The waste produced by pistachio has been used for several positive purposes, which has helped to keep the environment stable with the proper waste management system of pistachio shells, which has helped to reduce air pollution and generate electricity. We can use the nuts in many other ways to cut down on waste. It’s a nut with massive benefits.

References [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5]

Ghaseminasab, P. M., Ahmadi, A., and Mazloomi, S. M., 2016. A review on Pistachio: Its composition and benefits regarding the prevention or treatment of diseases. Journal of Occupational Health and Epidemiology. 4(1), 57-69. Ferre, M. G., Bullo, M., Gonzalez, M. A. M., Ros, E., Corella, D., Estruch, R., Fito, M., Aros, F., Warnberg, J., Lapetra, J., Vinyoles, E., Raventos, R. M. L., Majem, L. S., Pinto, X., Gutierrez, V. R., Basora, J., and Salvado, J. S., 2013. Frequency of nut consumption and mortality risk in the PREDIMED nutrition intervention trial. BMC Medicine. 11(11), 1-11. Tezo, S., Baldassano, S., Caldara, G. F., Ferrantelli, V., Gianlugi, L. D., and Mule, F., 2017. Health Benefits of Pistachios Consumption, Taylor & Francis online. Organic Pistachio Farming-Production in India, Agri Farming. How to grow Pista Plant at home - Growing Fruits, Indian Gardening.

Pistachio Cultivation and Consumption for Sustainable Development [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]

[14] [15]

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Fallahzadeh, Reza A., and Eslami, H., 2019. Pistachio waste management for sustainable development. Igwegbe, C. A., Ighalo, J. O., and Ahmadi, S., 2021. Pistachio waste as adsorbent for wastewater treatment: a review, Springer. Celik, L., and Demirer, G. N., 2015. Biogas Production from Pistachio processing waste. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology. 4(4), 767-772. Alisaraei, A. T., Assar, H. A., Ghobadian B., Motevali, A., 2017. Potential of biofuel production from Pistachio waste in Iran. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 72, 510-522. Ozerkan, F., 2014. Going nuts? Turkey looks to Pistachios to heat a new eco-city, PHYS ORG. Richmond, H., 2014. Turkey’s nutty green idea for heating its eco-city? Pistachios; Pistachios Grist. Zheng, Z., 2011. World production and trade of pistachios: The role of the U. S. and factors affecting the export demand of U. S. pistachios, University of Kentucky. Kola, O., Hayoglu, I., Turkogu, H., Parildi, E., A., Bekir E. A., and Murat, R., 2018. Physical and chemical properties of some pistachio varieties and oils grown under irrigated and non-irrigated conditions in Turkey. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods. 10(4). Tonbul, Y., 2008. Pyrolysis of pistachio shell as biomass. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 91(2), 641-647. Shakerardekani, A., Karim, R., Ghazali, H. M., Chin, N. L., 2013. Development of Pistachio Spread. Journal of Food Science. 78(3), 484-489.

Chapter 5

Factors Affecting the Production of Pistachios Ankita Singh ∗

Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

Abstract Pistachio belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, which includes approximately 70 genera and 600 species, the majority of which are tropical, subtropical, and temperate trees and shrubs. In the 20th century, the pistachio was one of the most important plants in the United States. The Pistachio is a desert shrub that grows well in salines oil. In Iran, pistachios are the most important agricultural product. Exports of the fruit have faced major hurdles due to increased aflatoxin contamination. The level of aflatoxin in pistachios is influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental variables. Managing agricultural parameters may be an effective way to solve the export issue. A detailed investigation of its agro-ecological requirements could lead to the identification of ideal pistachio-growing sites as well as the application of optimum management practices for long-term sustainability. The rate of photosynthesis is influenced by both radiation and temperature. Some plants require the least amount of sunlight, while others demand the most. Pistachio is classified as a solar plant because of its sensitivity to sunlight. This chapter provides information about the agro-ecological demands of pistachio trees by discussing the role and limitations of climatic, landscape, and soil parameters in regulating the production and quality of pistachio trees.

Keywords: pistachios, Anacardiaceae, aflatoxin, genetic, environmental, ecological Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

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In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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1. Introduction Pistachio is one of the most important products in the Mid east (e.g., Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Greece), as well as Europe and the United States. It is a subtropical plant in the Anacardiaceae family (Kamali & Owji, 2016). It spans nearly 5000 km2 of the world’s surface, with an average production of 1.3 tonnes per hectare (Janick & Paull, 2008). Where as much research has been carried out to identify the impact of various soil nutrients, water stress, and individual land features on pistachio yield and ecology, few attempts have been made to prepare all of the necessary agro-ecological requirements for pistachio growth (Ryan et al, 2013). On either hand, the pistachio tree’s strong resistance to moisture in the soil tension and salinity, as well as the economic value of its production, have led to its cultivation in many arid and semi-arid regions around the world (Ferguson & Haviland, 2016). Land requirements for pistachio cultivation in arid and semi arid regions of the world are becoming increasingly important due to the need for understanding exact land requirements. High levels of soluble salts, gypsum, and lime increase the chances of landdegradation when these lands are irrigated (Buol et al., 2011; Pessarakli, 2019). Thus, this chapter aims to offer a reasonable foundation for evaluating land suitability for pistachio orchards to both pick the best sites appropriate for developing pistachio orchards and advise on the best management strategies to boost pistachio performance in existing planted areas.

2. Factors affecting the Pistachio Yield Climate evaluation for growing crops is an integral element of land suitability studies. Analysis of the environmental conditions before performing a project may reduce the occurrence of adverse events (De la Rosa et al., 2004; Rossiter, 1996). Several climatic parameters are essential to be considered during land capability study for pistachio cultivation.

2.1. Precipitation Although pistachio trees may produce and live in a broad variety of soil moisture regimes, optimal growth and high-quality pistachios are only achieved when the soil water content is just right (Wilkinson, 2005). Drought-

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resistant plants like pistachio trees may live and even generate a reasonable crop with so little water (Galindo, 2018; Ferguson & Haviland, 2016). In dry seasons, its roots can reach a depth of 2.5 meters to access wet soil layers (Schulze et al., 1996). Moreover, during periods of drought, roots in all soil layers may cease to function for 4 to 5 weeks and water levels in the soil may drop below the permanent wilting point (Kanber et al., 1993; Spiegel-Roy et al., 1977). Despite their drought tolerance, pistachio plants require sufficient water to operate at their best (Goldhamer, 2005; Gijón et al., 2010). High moisture content or weakly to very poorly drained soils that result in extended wet circumstances throughout the growing season is not acceptable pistachio growing conditions (Buringh, 1975). The optimal quantity of precipitation for this tree has been observed to be between 300 and 450 mm per year (Scanlon et al., 2002). In semi-arid countries like Syria and Turkey, pistachio trees are not commonly watered, while in Iran and the United States, all trees are irrigated (Scherr & Yadav, 1996). Pistachio water requirements must be considered in both situations when evaluating land suitability for pistachio production (Kamali & Owji, 2016).

2.2. Chilling Requirement The chilling requirement is a minimum duration of cold temperatures needed by pistachio trees for fruit set to be productive (Ghrab et al., 2014). Pistachio trees require between 500 and 1000 cumulative hours of chilling below 7.2°C, depending on their age, region, and even cultivars (Küden et al., 1995). Inadequate cumulative chilling hours have been observed as a persistent problem in the production of pistachios in Kerman regions over the years studied by researchers (Javanshah et al., 2006). For moderate climates, altitudes between 1000 and 3000 meters above sea level are ideal for growing pistachios. One of the most important elements in receiving enough cooling hours for pistachios is the elevation above sea level (Flannery, 1973). The latitude of the designated land is another key element that influences the chilling required for pistachio. The lower the region’s latitude, the more altitude will be required. Trees do not fall dormant completely in places with lower latitudes (Flannery, 1973). Moreover, the presence of shade or foggy weather promotes the dormancy off lowers to break sooner, especially those of plants that require more cooling. Because of the lower temperature, the chilling criterion is likely met easier in cloudy or foggy conditions (Erez, 2013).

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2.3. Radiation The rate of the reaction is influenced by both radiation and temperature. Plants require absorbed chemicals for growth, which are provided by photosynthetic activity (Dengı̇ z, 2006). Yet, not all plants require the same amount of sunlight. A few of them require the least amount of sunlight, while others demand the most. Pistachio is classified as a solar plant because of its sensitivity to sunlight (Javanshah et al., 2006).

2.4. Temperature The pace of growing plants is largely determined by temperature (Dela Rosa et al., 2004). Plants differ in their optimal temperature ranges, and they can tolerate a wide variety of winter and summer air temperatures. Pistachios require cold winters and hot, dry summers with 2200 to 2800 heat units (Janick & Paull, 2008). Spring frost, on the other hand, can destroy blossom sand new foliage. Pistachios can with stand temperatures as low as-20°C in the winter and as high as 45°C in the summer (Javanshah et al., 2006). The two primary restrictions to pistachio development in Turkey were believed to be severe (low and high) temperatures and relatively low rain fall (Sykes, 1975). The ideal temperature for pistachios is between 25 and 35 degrees Celsius (Yeganeh, 2013). Table 1. List of Countries by Pistachio Production (Top Pistachio Producing Countries, 1970) Country United States of America Iran Turkey China Syria Greece Italy Tunisia Afghanistan Spain Madagascar

Production (Tons) 406.646 315.151 170.000 83.310 56.833 6.338 3.649 3.400 2.814 2.418 1.730

Production per person (Kg) 1,241 3,855 2,104 0,06 3,108 0,589 0,06 0,297 0,089 0,052 0,066

Acreage (Hectare) 96.720 346.000 60.814 26.864 55.406 3.869 3.848 26.580 2.311 6.914 4.310

Yield (Kg/Hectare) 4.204,4 910,8 2.795,4 3.101,2 1.025,8 1.638,1 948,4 127,9 1.217,9 349,7 401,3

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3. Landscape and Soil Variables Influence PistachioYield Landscape, drainage, and floods all have a role in whether a certain land use succeeds or fails. Some important factors determining agricultural land use types are landscape and soil (Kamali & Owji, 2016). The irrigation system (surface or sprinkler) and land management methods (mechanized or traditional) to be used in desired land-use types are directly determined by the slope (Majumder & Roy, 2019). Irrigation methods are not suitable for slopes greater than 6 to 8 percent and 25% in some areas of the UK, according to the British Waterways Agency (Brown, 1981; Harmon et al., 2001). Using machinery to manage agricultural land is not viable on slopes greater than 12 percent with out land tracking, according to researcher satthe University of British Columbia (UBC) in Canada. Furthermore, due to the difficulties of tillage methods, tillage methods can only be used on slopes of upto 12 percent with land tracking (Chiang, 2008; Ferrante & Mariani, 2018; Wohlers et al., 2021). It also has an indirect impact on land characteristics such as vegetation, air temperature, and water table depth (Buol et al., 2011). Perfect soil drainage classes are more difficult to achieve with a deep water table (i.e., a depth of more than 1.5 m below the soil surface). These are necessary attributes for virtually all perennial plants to achieve their highest yield and quality inspring and summer (Kamali & Owji, 2016). Flooding is another land quality linked with the land form that verifies the consistency of a crop planted on a certain piece of land as well as the established infrastructural instruments (Kamali & Owji, 2016). Most fruit trees have similar limitations in terms of the influence of landscape variables. The development and maintenance of pistachio trees are also affected by these restrictions. Although different plant species have varied tolerances for landscape features, numerous studies have shown that they are all affected by the same factors (Elseedy, 2019; Kamali & Owji, 2016; Rossiter, 1996; Soil Survey Manual, 1993; Sys & Verheye, 1974; Verheye, 2000). The proportion of coarse fragments has a comparable influence on crop productivity and farm management in most fruit trees, such as pistachio trees, since coarse fragments cause tillage issues and reduce the water and nutrient retention capacity (Kamali & Owji, 2016; Soil Survey Manual, 1993; Sys & Verheye, 1974; Verheye, 2000). As a result, there is no need to consider a specific restriction level when evaluating the impact of coarse particles on pistachio production. The following are the other key soil parameters for pistachio cultivation.

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3.1. SoilTexture One of the most significant variables in determining landsuitability for nearly all crops is soil texture (Albaji et al., 2019; Baja et al., 2002; Mustafa et al., 2011; Pan & Pan, 2012). Fine-textured soils are selected for assigning to agricultural areas due to their high cation exchange and water retention capacity. This soil property has an impact on soil water and nutrient availability, as well as soil management methods (Boyd, 1995; Li et al., 2017). These soils usually see a reduction in water penetration into the soil. Water ponding around the roots happens in extreme circumstances, causing aeration issues for plants (Ndava et al., 2018; Hillel, 1998, 2003). Furthermore, the high water content of these soils raises the risk of fungal infections invading the pistachio roots (Jaime-Garcia & Cotty, 2006). The volatilization of Nfertilizers is another issue in heavy-textured soils (Power & Prasad, 1997). High clay content has been identified as a key limiting factor in the soil of pistachio plantations in some parts of Kerman Province, south east Iran.In particular, experts have identified high clay content as one of the most important hindrances to the cultivation of the fruit as one of the most important hindrances to the cultivation of the fruit (Salehi & Hosseinifard, 2012; Shakeri et al., 2015). On either side, coarse texture soils’ poor cation exchange and water retention capacity are the major issues that contribute to important nutrient leaching as well as drought stress (Jackson, 2005; Marschner, 2011). Nonetheless, different plants require varied soiltextures. Pistachio trees, like every othercrop, may grow in a variety of soil conditions (Janick & Paull, 2008; López-Escudero & Mercado-Blanco, 2011).

3.2. Salinity and Sodicity of the Soil Salinity is widely recognized as a key soil limitation due to its detrimental impact on plant growth and crop quality. Such problems develop as a result of soil osmotic pressure-induced water stress and iontoxicity, both of which endanger the plants’ life (Kao et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2004; Zhu, 2001). Pistachios are a popular crop in arid and semiarid regions with salty soils, but salt stress inhibits pistachio growth and development. Studies have shown that salt stress reduces photosynthesis, respiration, protein synthesis, and thus biomass production, particularly insensitive species (Ajmal Khan et al., 2000; Boyer, 1982; M. Khan, 2000; Liu, 1987; Mehari et al., 2005; Ungar, 1996). Pistachio trees may be irrigated with water with an electrical conductivity of

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8 dS/m without a noticeable loss in production. Pistachios are more resistant to soil salt than other equivalent fruit trees. According to laboratory and field research, pistachio tree roots can withstand high levels of salt exposure (Janick & Paull, 2008; Kamali & Owji, 2016). Pistachio yield can be increased by increasing the electrical conductivity of the soil, but increasing the level of conductivity from 6 to 8dS/m reduces pistachio yields by half. Pistachio growth is unaffected by soil electrical conductivities of upto 6 dS/m, but this increase in conductivity leads to a reduced rate of growth (Kamali & Owji, 2016; Sanden et al., 2004). Excess sodium ions in the soil can cause soil infiltration problems by degrading the soil structure, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). High exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) or sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is one of the most common causes of soil erosion (Kamali & Owji, 2016; Lakhdar et al., 2009; Osman, 2018). The ESP threshold of 15% is the point at which soil structural deterioration and salt toxicity start to damage plants (Buol et al., 2011; Jackson, 2005; Soil Survey Manual, 1993). For pistachio plants, ESP of upto 25% is a non-limiting barrier. The researchers said that ESP concentrations of more than 45 percent are like wise in appropriate for these plants, according to the researchers (Ferguson & Haviland, 2016). In Kerman province, in south-east Iran, high levels of SAR in the soil have been identified as a major limiting factor for pistachio development (Kamali & Owji, 2016).

3.3. Status of Calcium Carbonate and Gypsum Calcium carbonate’s impact on pistachio yield is influenced by the amount and size of a lime in the soil, just like it is for other crops (Sabir et al., 2014; Sys & Verheye, 1974). In general, lime enhances structural consistency in dry and semi-arid soils, particularly in particles smaller than 20 microns, which is an essential factor in air and water movement into the soil (Verheye & Boyadgiev, 1997). However, large amounts of soil calcium carbonate, particularly in the very fine fractions, increase the risk of lime-induced nutritional deficiency (Ellis & Foth, 1996; S. A. Khan et al., 2007; Power & Prasad, 1997). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that excessive levels of lime in soils affect the physical characteristics of soil sand make them impermeable to roots when they are irrigated (Beek & Bennema, 1974; Sys & Verheye, 1974). Gypsum can be used to improve soil structure and meet the calcium needs of many common plants, including pistachios. Because gypsum

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is 100 times more soluble than lime, it has a greater impact on soil characteristics in lower concentrations than calcium carbonate. It is clear that calcium ions released from soil gypsum concentrations of less than 2% (Benguergoura & Remini, 2016). If the gypsum is in powdered form, it has little or no influence on plant development, but more than 25% can significantly lower yields. Indeed, gypsum concentrations greater than 5% in soil reduce water holding capacity and mobility in soils to the point that a layer of soil containing more than 25% gypsum is considered an impenetrable layer for roots (Hesse, 1976; Verheye & Boyadgiev, 1997). In general, pistachio orchards that are regularly watered for extended periods have minimal gypsum concentration, but researchers found gypsum to be one of the limiting factors incertain pistachio orchards in the Kermanregion, south-east Iran (Kamali & Owji, 2016; Salehi & Hosseinifard, 2012).

3.4. Soil pH In dry and semi-arid environments, soil pH is one of the most critical variables in determining the fertility quality of soils (Sys & Verheye, 1974; Verdoodt & Van Ranst, 2003). It has an impact on the solubility of elements in soil, as well as soil microbial activities (Kamali & Owji, 2016; Lakhdar et al., 2009). As a result, nutrient availability is influenced by soil pH. Higher soil pH than neutral restricts the solubility of micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe), where as acidic soil pH can cause P or Ca deficiency as well as Al, Fe, or Mn toxicities (Ellis & Foth, 1996; S. A. Khan et al., 2007; Power & Prasad, 1997). Many experts believe that the pH range of 6.5 to 7.5 is ideal for nearly all plants, including pistachios (Ellis & Foth, 1996; Kamali & Owji, 2016; Power & Prasad, 1997).

3.5. Organic Carbon In addition to cation exchange capacity, soil organic carbon content is frequently used as a intrinsic agricultural productivity (Beek & Bennema, 1974; Sys & Verheye, 1974). Phenomenon such as soil pH is crucial for assessing soil fertility. This measure is especially important in tropical and sub-tropical regions where organic carbon is the main source of plant nutrients. In dry locations, soil properties such as organic carbon content aren’t

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essential because clay activity rate typically exceeds plant nutrient requirements (Kamali & Owji, 2016).

Conclusion Despite numerous studies on the effects of land properties on pistachio growth, the most difficult issue in assessing land suitability for pistachio as a basis for allocating the best sites for this tree and planning the proper management practices to sustain pistachio production has been the lack of comprehensive agro-ecological requirements for this tree. The goal of this chapter was to expand the scope of land suitability assessments and to take a step toward sitespecific and, as a result, long-term management of pistachio-growing lands. This study attempted to attain these objectives by gathering the most effective land features on pistachio tree development and assessing the impact of those attributes on pistachio nut yield and quality.

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Jaime-Garcia, R., and Cotty, P. J., 2006. Spatial relationships of soil texture and crop rotation to Aspergillus flavus community structure in South Texas. Phytopathology.96(6), 599-607. Janick, J., and Paull, R. E., 2008. The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts. CABI. Javanshah, A., Alipour, H., and Hadavi, F., 2005. A model for assessing the chillunitsreceived in Kerman and Rafsanjan areas. In IV International Symposium on Pistachios and Almonds.726, 221-226. Kamali, A., and Owji, A., 2016. Agro-ecologicalrequirements for growingpistachiotrees: ALiteratureReview. Elixir Agriculture. 41450-41454. Kanber, R., Yazar, A., Önder, S., and Köksal, H., 1993. Irrigation response of pistachio (Pistaciavera L.). Irrigation Science. 14(1), 7-14. Kao, W. Y., Tsai, T. T., Tsai, H. C., and Shih, C. N., 2006. Response of three Glycine species to salt stress. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 56(1), 120-125. Khan, M., 2000. Effects of Salinity on Growth Relations and Ion Accumulation of the Subtropical Perennial Halophyte, Atriplex griffithii var. Stocksii. Annals of Botany. 85(2), 225-232. Khan, S. A., Mulvaney, R. L., Ellsworth, T. R., and Boast, C. W., 2007. The myth of nitrogenfertilization for soilcarbonsequestration. Journal of Environmental Quality. 36(6), 1821-1832. Küden, A. B., Kaska, N., Tanriver, E., Tekin, H., and Ak, B. E., 1994. Determining the chillingrequirements and growingdegreehours of somepistachionut cultivars and regions. In I International Symposium on Pistachio. 419, 85-90. Lakhdar, A., Rabhi, M., Ghnaya, T., Montemurro, F., Jedidi, N., and Abdelly, C. (2009). Effectiveness of compost use in salt-affectedsoil. Journal of hazardousmaterials, 171(1-3), 29-37. Lee, G. R. N., and Duncan, R.R., (2004). Photosyntheticresponses to salinity stress of halophyticseashorepaspalumecotypes.Plant Science. 166(6), 1417-1425. Li, G., Messina, J. P., Peter, B. G., and Snapp, S. S., 2017. Mapping Land Suitability for Agriculture in Malawi. Land Degradation & Development. 28(7), 2001-2016. Liu, G. T., 1987. Therapeuticeffects of biphenyldimethyldicarboxylate (DDB) on chronic viral hepatitis B. Proceedings of the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and the Peking Union Medical College/Chung-kuo i hsuehk’ohsueh yuan, Chung-kuohsieh ho i k’o ta hsuehhsuehpao. 2(4), 228-233. López-Escudero, F. J., &Mercado-Blanco, J., 2011. Verticilliumwilt of olive: A case study to implement an integrated strategy to control a soil-borne pathogen. Plant and Soil, 344(1), 1-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0629-2. Majumder, D., and Roy, R., 2019. 7, 3-17. https://doi.org/10.22271/ed.book.419. Marschner, H., 2011. Marschner’sMineral Nutrition of Higher Plants. AcademicPress. Mehari, A., Ericsson, T., &Weih, M., 2005. Effects of NaCl on seedlinggrowth, biomass production and water status of Acacia nilotica and A. tortilis. Journal of arid environments, 62(2), 343-349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2004.11.014. Mustafa, A. A., Singh, M., Sahoo, R. N., Ahmed, N., Khanna, M., Sarangi, A., and Mishra, A. K., 2011. Land suitability analysis for different crops: a multi criteria decisionmaking approach using remote sensing and GIS. Researcher.3(12), 61-84.

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Chapter 6

Pistachios’ Antioxidant and Bioactive Properties Kamin Alexander *, Richa Srivastava, Monika, Archana Shukla and Regina John

Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract Pistachio (Pistacia vera. L), a crop of high value, belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. Pistachio is classified as a semidry drupe that contains a single shell-covered seed (kernel). Pistachio originated from arid regions of central & west Asia and 68% of total production of pistachio is produced by Iran/USA together, while in India pistachio is grown in Jammu & Kashmir. Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) byproducts include pistachio green hull (PGH), leaves, clusters, remaining kernel, and hard woody shell. PGH forms a major part (more than 60%) of pistachio and has a high content of bioactive compounds (like polyphenols, tocopherols, dietary fibers, essential oils, and unsaturated fatty acid) with antioxidant properties and health-promoting effects. However, PGH is considered to be a waste. But in recent years, due to the toxicological and carcinogenic effects of synthetic antioxidants, the tendency to use natural antioxidants and anti-microbial agents, such as phenolic compounds, has increased. PGH is known as an abundant source of bio-active compounds (the compounds that have action in the body), especially phenolic compounds which have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, and biological benefits on

*

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Kamin Alexander, Richa Srivastava, Monika et al. human health, especially the ability to prevent hypertension and antimutagenic and anti-diabetic effects.

Keywords: antioxidant, bioactive properties, phenolic compounds, pistachio

1. Introduction Pistachio is derived from “pistakion,” a Greek word often translated as “green nut,” and is widely grown in the Mediterranean region, most probably originating in Central and Southeast Asia. Pistachio consumption evidence has been found through archaeological excavation, thus proving its association with human activities. With the help of the carbon dating method, remains of nuts have been found from the sixteenth millennium BC in Afghanistan and Southeastern Iran. It is believed that pistachio was cultivated first in Iran and that it grew there as a wild plant. Afterward, it was widely cultivated in the ancient Persian Empire, from where it expanded to the west. Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is a crop of high value originating from the Central arid regions of West Asia. It belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. Pistachio is a fruit classified as a semidry drupe that contains a single edible seed (kernel) that is enclosed by a thin and soft coat (testa), which is also enclosed by a creamy lignified shell (endocarp), which is surrounded by a green- to yellow-red coloured hull, which depends on the degree of ripeness, and a fleshy hull (mesocarp and epicarp) (Erşan, Güçlü Üstünda, Carle, & Schweiggert, 2016; Seeram, Zhang, Bowerman, & Heber, 2008). In 2016, the total world production of pistachio was estimated at 1,057,566 tons, of which about 68% was produced in the USA and Iran, followed by Turkey (16%), China (7.5%), and Syria (5%) (FAOSTAT, 2016). Pistachio by-products include pistachio green hull (PGH), leaves, clusters, remaining kernel, and a hard woody shell called PGH, which forms the major part (more than 60%) of pistachio by-products (Mohammadi Moghaddam, Razavi, Malekzadegan, & Shaker Ardekani, 2009). To avoid hull-trapped moisture, which causes staining of the pistachio hard shell, pistachios have to be processed within 24 hours of harvest (Seeram et al., 2006). In this process, the PGH is separated from the hard woody shell and is often discarded without useful reuse, leading to environmental problems. In some areas, PGH is used as animal feed, which causes nutritional problems for livestock due to the presence of a high concentration of phenolic compounds and tannins through interaction with carbohydrates, protein, and

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minerals (Mokhtarpour, Naserian, Valizadeh, & Danesh Mesgaran, 2014). PGH is very prone to microbial contamination and fermentation and also contains a large amount of water (70%). Therefore, it should be subjected to the drying process to significantly reduce its moisture content. Due to the toxicological and carcinogenic effects of synthetic antioxidants, the tendency for using natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents, such as phenolic compounds, has increased in recent years. PGH is known for its abundant source of bioactive compounds, especially phenolic compounds (Goli, Barzegar, & Sahari, 2005; Rafiee, Barzegar, Sahari, & Maherani, 2018). Some functional properties of PGH extracts have been previously studied in terms of phenolic compounds (Barreca et al., 2016; Erşan et al., 2016; Seifzadeh et al., 2019), antioxidant activity (Abolhasani, Barzegar, & Sahari, 2018; Alhariri, Kishk, Khalil, & Gibriel, 2007; Goli et al., 2005), antimicrobial activity (Rajaei, Barzegar, Mobarez, & Sahari, 2010), and biological benefits on human health, especially the ability to prevent hypertension (Sila et al., 2014), anti-mutagenic (Rajaei et al., 2010), and antidiabetic (Lalegani, Ahmadi, Gavli, & Sarteshnizi, 2018) effects. Therefore, allowing utilisation of a by-product, which is produced in a large quantity by using PGH as a source of bioactive compounds, can lead to the valorization of pistachio production. The pistachio is also known for its role in weight management, blood pressure control, heart and antioxidant support, and eye health. According to a scientific review of numerous clinical studies, eating pistachio nuts does not result in weight gain or an increase in body mass index, which is a measure of body fat based on weight and height. This information is described in a review article published in the British Journal of Nutrition titled “Nutrition Attributes and Health Effects of Pistachio Nuts.” Eating pistachio nuts contributes to health benefits like plant-based protein, vitamins, and minerals and is also a good source of fibre.

2. Pistachio and Weight Management Reverse arranged random controlled trials to analyse the effect of pistachios on body weight found that presence of pistachios in the diet was unrelated to weight gain. Another study found there was a significant decrease in body mass index and another found a significant decrease in waist circumference for those who were eating pistachios. Satiety refers to the feeling of fullness after eating, and it is proven that eating nuts promotes satiety and inhibits

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hunger. Two studies analysed the effect of pistachios, and the results showed that those participants consuming pistachios in shells ate fewer calories and expressed greater feelings of satiety than those who were eating pistachio kernels alone. Participants may have eaten fewer nuts because the act of physical shelling may have moderated the eating process. The empty pistachio shell acts as a visual cue and may serve as a signal to stop eating.

3. Pistachio and Heart Health Researchers checked five studies that scrutinised the effect of this pistachio on heart disease. The result shows a positive aspect in that a diet linked to pistachio significantly lowered cholesterol and blood pressure levels, even for those who were at higher risk of diabetes. These benefits are due to the pistachio’s higher protein fibre content and lower fat content when compared to other nuts. Pistachios have the highest level of phytosterol among other nuts, which helps in decreasing blood cholesterol levels by lowering the level of cholesterol absorption through prolonged digestion and reducing the body’s production of cholesterol.

4. Pistachio’s Nutritional Value Researchers found that serving 49 nuts of pistachio provides 10% of the recommended daily allowance of protein and 11% of the RDA for adults. With three grammes of fibre per serving, pistachio ranks among the top two in fibre content. Fibre intake leads to decreased weight gain and helps to lower the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and some types of cancer. • •

•

Vitamin content: Pistachio is high in vitamin K and B, as well as thiamine, pyridoxine, and folic acid. Mineral content: Pistachio contains potassium, minerals, magnesium, calcium, and copper, which play an important role in the control of BP, bone health management, and prevention of several chronic diseases. Antioxidants support: Several studies propose that pistachios contain phytochemicals that act as antioxidants in the body.

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Role in eye health: Pistachios accommodate approximately 13 times more zeaxanthin and lutein carotenoids than the next highest nuts. The high amounts of these carotenoids found in the pistachio are formed in the retina of the eye and are known to benefit the health of the eye, which may also aid in preventing vision loss and its association with aging. Researchers suggest that pistachios are referred to as “superfoods” for people who have a 9-to-5 desk job. Their recent research studies are going to give nut lovers the good news that while at work, having a handful of nuts, especially pistachios, can benefit in many ways. A survey in the US suggests that if you take pistachios like that, it might contribute to boosting brain power and concentration level.

A French study shows that adding pistachios as a snack daily would not contribute to weight gain, other than that it is going to add some essential nutrients to your body that you might lack. The scene says it all: the deportee resides in a healthy mind and a healthy body comes from good sleep the day before and healthy food. According to Loma Linda University (LLU), eating nuts at a regular interval can enhance the working efficiency of pain and gain with frequencies that are associated with cognition, learning, memory (called recall), and other key brain functions. Researchers conducted tests on several nuts, but the pistachio produced the most gamma waves, helping in cognitive processing, retrieving information, learning, and perception.

Figure 1. Pistachio health benefits.

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To measure the strength of brain wave signals, an EEG electroencephalogram was taken. The waves of EEG band activity were recorded from 9 regions of the scalp, which were associated with thin cerebral cortical function, according to Lee Berk, DrPH, MPH, Associate Dean of Research at the LLU School of Allied Health Professions, in an interview that was featured in November 2017, in an issue of the publication LLU. The abstract of the study was presented at Experimental Biology 2017 in San Diego, California and then published in the FASE-B journal. The study provides significant proof demonstrating that nuts are good for your brain as well as your body.

4.1. Pistachio Assisted Office Workers in Remaining Focused until Lunchtime Dr. Mike Rousell, nutrition expert and advisor to men’s health and self-help magazines, advises people not to skip breakfast. Even with a good, healthy and full breakfast and lunchtime, stress-driven hunger and hunger pangs can be distracting, which may lead to unhealthy snacking habits. Pistachio is an ideal mid-afternoon snack because of its unique nutrient package that gives the feeling of fullness and satiation. Studies are going on and it promotes focus at work and an ideal mental state. Pistachios are a healthy snack that you can eat throughout the day and night. Pistachio is a healthier and more nutritive alternative to donuts and vending machines for people who have a desk job. A survey involved office workers in the Northeast, South, Midwest, and Western US who used to snack two or more times a week in the mid-morning. About 90% of them said they were confronted that pistachios were a healthy snack other than their usual snack. Pistachio nuts have been known to human beings since 6000 BC. Pistachio is dense with nutrients that contain fiber, unsaturated fatty acids, and antioxidant compounds. The Queen of Sheba (Assyria, ca. 10th century BC) monopolised a limited crop of nuts for her exclusive use. The Assyrians and Greeks gradually realised that pistachios could be used as medicine, and it is best to include antidotes. By the end of the rule of the Greek Assyrian emperor Tiberius, the Roman consul of the province introduced pistachio into Italy. From Italy, it has spread to the Mediterranean region in southern Europe and North Africa. Pistachio was cultivated in China in the 10th century and then in Australia, New Mexico, and California.

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5. Pistachios Have High Nutritional Value Dry roasted pistachio has lower fat content (43.4 gramme/100 gram) composed mainly of saturated fatty acid (5.6 gram), polyunsaturated fatty acid (13.3 gram), and monounsaturated fatty acid (24.5 g). Table 1. Nutritional composition of Different Nuts roasted Energy SFA,g PUFA,g MUFA,g Proteins,g Carbohydrates Fiber,g Water,g Ashes,g

Almonds 598 4.1 13.0 33.1 21.0 10.1 10.9 2.4 3.1

Hazelnuts 646 4.5 8.5 46.6 15.0 8.2 9.4 2.5 2.5

Macadamia 718 11.9 1.5 59.3 7.8 5.4 8.0 1.6 1.1

Nuts 587 7.7 9.8 26.2 23.6 12.9 8.4 1.8 2.9

Peanuts 587 7.7 9.8 26.2 23.6 12.9 8.4 1.8 2.9

Peas 710 6.3 20.6 44.0 9.5 4.2 9.4 1.1 1.6

Pista 572 5.6 13.3 24.5 21.0 28.3 10.3 1.9 3.0

Abbreviations: PUFA Polyunsaturated fatty acid; MUFA: Monounsaturated fatty acid; SFA: Saturated fatty acid.

The values are given in grams of macronutrients per 100 g of pistachios (A) and as a percentage of specific minerals from the total mineral amount (B). Others include copper, iron, manganese, selenium, sodium, and zinc. Data obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture, Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28.3; MUFA stands for monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA stands for polyunsaturated fatty acid; SFA stands for saturated fatty acid; CHO stands for carbohydrates regardless of fibre; and PRO stands for protein. Oleic acid and linoleic acid, one of the fatty acids, represent more than half of the content in pistachios. Pistachios are a good source of vegetable protein, making up about 21% of the total weight, along with essential amino acids, which are higher than those of other commonly consumed nuts (almonds, walnuts, peanuts, hazelnuts) and have a higher percentage of branched-chain amino acids. The total amount of carbohydrates is about 29% by weight. They are richer in fibre in comparison to other nuts, with 10% by weight of insoluble forms and 6.3% of soluble forms. Pistachios are high in minerals (phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium) and vitamins A and E, particularly tocopherol, Vit C, Vit B (except B12), K and folate, and the amount is relatively higher than any other nut. Pistachios are a rich source of lutein and zeaxanthin (Xanthophyll carotenoids) and phenolic compounds,

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including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and proanthocyanins. Antioxidants have a significant capacity. Pistachios have the highest amounts of phytosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol and sitosterol. Pistachios have a diverse set of micronutrients and macronutrients. Pistachios are a God’s gift and potentially health-promoting food. According to the nutritional profile of pistachio, it plays an important role in improving metabolic conditions such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) or other metabolic syndromes. Nuts are an energy-packed food with a high fat content. One of the misconceptions regarding the regular consumption of nuts is that they are supposed to be fattening.

Figure 2. Macronutrient and mineral composition of pistachio nuts (dry roasted). (A) Macronutrient and (B) mineral composition of pistachios.

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Figure 3. Pistachio nutrition fact.

To date, no evidence supports an association between nut or pistachio consumption and any risk of weight gain or obesity. Trials of controlled feeding confirm that adding nuts to the usual diet does not increase weight gain and body mass index. A recent study on the T2DM topic has shown that it has a significant reduction in body mass index after the consumption of pistachios. The pistachio energy density, fibre content, protein content, unsaturated fatty acids, and crunchy structure provide the feeling of satiety and therefore reduce frequent intake of food. Various signalling systems like mechanical nutrient sensory are activated by mastication, which modifies appetitive sensation. To date, only two studies have scrutinised the satiating property of nuts in humans.

6. Functional Compound of Pistachio Green Hull 6.1. Phenolic Substances Phenolic compounds are the secondary metabolites with the most widely distributed diversity of structures, from simple molecules, such as phenolic acids, to polyphenols such as flavonoids and tannins, which comprise several groups of polymeric molecules. According to previous research, PGH has a

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higher total phenolic content (TPC) than many edible vegetables and fruits considered to be high in phenolic compounds (Goli et al., 2005; Martorana et al., 2013; Seifzadeh et al., 2019); in fact, the phenolic content of PGH water extract is reported to be around 197 mg GAE/g dry weight (Garavand et al., 2017). PGH has already been identified by phenolic compound profiles by several authors (Barreca et al., 2016; Erşan et al., 2016; Seifzadeh et al., 2019). Phenolic compounds contained in PGH could be classified into three main groups: phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins. Gallic acid, quercetin-3-Orutinoside, cyanidin-3-O galactoside, quercetin-O-hexoside, galloylshikimic acids, phloroglucinol, theogallin, galloyl-O-hexoside, catechin, and pyrogallol are the most abundant phenolic compounds found in PGH (Barreca et al., 2016; Lalegani). A common low molecular weight polyphenol widely distributed in red fruits is gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxy benzoic acid). Garavand et al. (2017) and Seifzadeh et al. (2019) said that gallic acid is one of the predominant phenolic compounds of PGH and can be found both free and as part of hydrolysable tannins. Another polyphenolic flavonoid of PGH that is responsible for the astringency and bitterness in fruit juices and wine is quercetin (FerrerGallego et al., 2015). Barreca et al. (2016) and Seeram et al. (2006) reported that among the PGH phenolic compounds, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside has the highest amount. Therefore, Lalegani et al. (2018) said that phloroglucinol was the dominant phenolic compound in this same matrix. The phenolic compound profile of PGH is varied due to the differences in the cultivar, soil condition, as mentioned previously, climate, and degree of fruit ripeness. The basic moiety in the natural compound Phloroglucinol is 1,3,5-trihydroxy benzene. Pharmaceutics (anticancer, anti-microbial, neuro-regenerative, enzyme inhibitory, and antioxidant), cosmetics, paint, textile, and dyeing industries have all been linked to phloroglucinol (Singh, Sidana, Bansal, & Foley, 2009). Anacardic acids are phenolic lipids that consist of phenolic rings and side aliphatic chains. They are named by the side chain length and the number of double bonds in the aliphatic chain. Erşan et al. (2016) identified a total of 11 anacardic acids with different lengths of side (alkyl) chains (C13, C15, and C17) and degrees of saturation (fully saturated or mono-, di-, or triunsaturated) in the PGH and reported that they were major constituents of PGH phenolics. In the Anacardiaceae family, anacardic acids are also considered as chemotaxonomic markers such as cashew, mango, and pistachio (Schulze-Kaysers, Feuereisen, & Schieber, 2015).

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6.2. Pectin Pectin ((1 4)-linked -D-galacturonosyl residues), a natural heteropolysaccharide found in the middle lamella of plants and the primary cell wall, is gaining popularity in the food industry and biomedical fields (Bush, 2014). According to the sources from which it is extracted, pectin’s characteristics are different. Fruits and vegetable by-products can be used as sources for commercial pectin, depending on their processability (in terms of time, cost, and yield of extraction), the quality characteristics of the extracted pectin, and the availability of the raw materials (Panouillé, Thibault, & Bonnin, 2006). Apple pomace and citrus peels, which are considered a waste of juice production, are the main raw materials processed for the extraction of pectin. Nowadays, pistachio hull (Chaharbaghi et al., 2017), sugar beet pulp (Chen, Fu, & Luo, 2015), and tomato waste (Grassino et al., 2016) are also being studied, but not yet on a commercial scale. In the food industry, pectin is widely used as a functional component due to its valuable gelling, emulsifier, stabilizer, and thickening properties (Bush, 2014; Ngouémazong, Christiaens, Shpigelman, Van Loey, & Hendrickx, 2015). The main factors affecting pectin’s ability to gel are the degree of esterification and molecular size. Based on the degree of esterification, the pectin molecules are divided into (i) high methoxyl pectin (> 50%) and (ii) low methoxyl pectin (> 50%) types for their different mechanisms of gelation (Dobies, Kusmia, & Jurga, 2005). Both Chaharbaghi et al. (2017) and Kazemi et al. (2019) characterised the properties of PGH pectin obtained by the acidic extraction method and reported that the degree of esterification of PGH pectin ranged from 26.0 to 58.3%. Hence, the PGH pectin can be classified as low methoxyl pectin, which does not require sugar to gelify. This type of pectin is usually applied as a food ingredient for the gel formation in low-calorie products (Belovi, Torbica, PajiLijakovi, & Mastilovic 2017).

6.3. Essential Oil Essential oils, known as ethereal oils or volatile oils, are mixtures of volatile, lipophilic, and odoriferous substances from the secondary metabolism of plants (Lis-Balcnin, Ochocka, Deans, Asztemborska, & Hart, 1999). The use of essential oils from plants is broad, ranging from perfumes and fragrances to pharmaceuticals (Adams, 2012). Essential oils are mainly composed of terpenoids (mono-, sesqui-, and di-terpenes), isoprenoids (oxygenated

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derivatives of hydrocarbon terpenes), and aromatic compounds arising from the phenylpropanoid pathway (Adams, 2012; El Asbahani et al., 2015). Thus, the essential oil of PGH extract can be classified into five main chemical classes: (i) monoterpene hydrocarbons (79.8–93.6%), (ii) oxygenated monoterpenes (3.9–10.2%), (iii) sesquiterpenes (0.03–0.08%), (iv) phenols (0.01–0.03%), and (v) aliphatic hydrocarbons (0.6–1.9%) (Chahed et al., 2007; Smeriglio et al., 2017). The extraction yield of essential oils from PGH was previously reported in the range of 0.14–0.53% (on a dry weight basis) by Chahed et al. (2007). The composition of the essential oils is usually studied by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (Ozel, Gogus, Hamilton, & Lewis, 2004). The major constituents identified in the PGH essential oil are -pinene, terpinolene, limonene, and -3-carene (80%), which are followed by smaller amounts of other volatile compounds, such as -phellandrene, bornyl acetate, 2-carene, -terpinene, -terpineol, 2-furan methanol, camphene, and terpinene4-ol. -Pinene is a natural compound of the terpene class that occurs in the essential oil of PGH extract at concentrations of up to 54% (Küsmenoglu, Baser, & zek, 1995). Complete profiles of PGH essential oil are reported in studies by Smeriglio et al. (2017), Chahed et al. (2007), Ozel et al. (2004), and Küsmenoglu et al. (1995). Taghizadeh et al. (2018a) also investigated the essential oil of pistachio (Pistacia khinjuk) hull and identified 56 components, with its yield being 0.5% (v/w on a dry weight basis). The major essential oil constituents detected in Pistacia khinjuk included -caryophyllene (25.32%), myrcene (16.51%), -pinene (14.98%), limonene (9.85%), and -humulene (5.73%). The monoterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes were almost identical in the studied PGH extract. The very low presence of sesquiterpenes and phenols makes the essential oil of PGH easily distinguishable from essential oils derived from other pistachio hull varieties (Rezaie, Farhoosh, Sharif, Asili, & Iranshahi, 2015; Smeriglio et al., 2017).

6.4. Fatty Acids The fatty acid composition of the PGH was recently studied by zbek et al. (2018), Mahoney, Gee, Higbee, and Beck (2014), Ghaffari, Tahmasbi, Khorvash, Naserian, and Vakili (2014), and Grace et al. (2016) (Table 3). Fatty acids of PGH extracted with dichloromethane, analysed by GC–MS, comprised 1.5 g/100 g of the dry hull, of which the ratio of unsaturated fatty acids to total fatty acids was about 87% (Grace et al., 2016). The difference

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between the fatty acid profiles reported by the researcher could be related to diversity in the pistachio cultivars, maturity stage, growing practices, geographical origin, climatic conditions, and dehulling process (Grace et al., 2016; Mahoney et al., 2014). The fatty acid composition of pistachio hull has slight differences in comparison with other sources such as almond hull, grape pomace, wine waste, and pistachio kernel (Arvanitoyannis, Ladas, & Mavromatis, 2006; Beres et al., 2017; Chahed et al., 2006; Mahoney et al., 2014). Oleic (18:1) and linoleic (18:2) acids were the main unsaturated fatty acids, while palmitic acid (16:0) was the predominant saturated fatty acid in the non-polar extracts of PGH.

7. Biological Activities 7.1. Antioxidant Activity Several biological benefits have been attributed to the consumption of bioactive compounds from plant sources. Recently, attention has been drawn to the involvement of free radicals and active oxygen in disease processes such as inflammation, chronic diseases, and cancer (Charles, 2012). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the main free radicals causing oxidative stress and deteriorating DNA, RNA, proteins, and cellular structure, potentially destroying tissues. Superoxide radicals (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), lipoperoxides (R, ROO, and RO), and hydroxyl free radicals (OH) are among them. Due to their “radical-scavenger” activity, phenolic compounds are considered potent antioxidants against free radicals. This activity is ascribed to their hydrogen-donating capability. As mentioned previously, PGH is a rich source of natural antioxidants (gallic acid, quercetin, phloroglucinol, theogallin, galloyl derivatives, catechin, pyrogallol, polysaccharides, -pinene, and -terpinolene) with promising antioxidant activities. Gallic acid, as the most abundant phenolic compound of PGH, has been reported to possess strong antioxidant properties in many sources (Giftson, Jayanthi, & Nalini, 2010). Researchers have stated that phenolic acids, such as gallic acid, exhibit their antioxidant properties in two ways: 1. donating an atom of hydrogen, and 2. acting as a donor of electrons

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Wright, Johnson, and DiLabio (2001) compared the two mechanisms and reported that both play a role in antioxidant activity, but at different rates. Analysis of the antioxidant activity of several phenolics using density functional theory showed the prevalence of the first mechanism. Quercetin is another major antioxidant polyphenol in PGH extract (Barreca et al., 2016) and is extensively reported for its biological activity (Razavi, Zahri, Zarrini, Nazemiyeh, & Mohammadi, 2009). According to the literature, quercetin is a strong scavenger of ROS, such as O2 and RO, and of reactive nitrogen species (RNS), such as NO and ONOO (Boots, Haenen, & Bast, 2008). The antioxidative ability of quercetin has been attributed to the presence of two antioxidant pharmacophores within the quercetin molecule, including the OH group at position 3 and the catechol group in the B ring, which have a good configuration for free radical scavenging (Gupta, 2016). Previous research by Grace et al. (2016) and Grace et al. (2016) discovered that pistachio hull extract can inhibit the production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in raw macrophage cells.

7.2. Antimicrobial Activity Recently, there has been an interest in the use of more natural or non-synthetic antimicrobial agents as alternatives to foodborne and spoilage microorganisms. According to the published literature, phytochemicals with recognised antimicrobial activity belong mainly to the following chemical structural classes: phenolics, alkaloids, lectins and polypeptides, terpenoids, other essential oil components, and polyacetylenes (Omojate Godstime, Enwa Felix, Jewo Augustina, & Ezehristopher, 2014). In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of studies investigating the phytochemical composition of plants and their antimicrobial properties. However, the antimicrobial mechanism of these compounds is still not well understood. Several mechanisms for the antimicrobial action of phenolic compounds have been proposed. Interaction with proteins such as those in bacterial cell walls and fimbria, disruption of energy production due to enzyme inhibition by the oxidised products, and inhibition of the synthesis of nucleic acids, are the main proposed mechanisms for the antibacterial action of phenolic compounds (Heinonen, 2007; Simoes, Bennett, & Rosa, 2009). Also, the B ring of the polyphenols (flavonoids) may be involved in intercalation or hydrogen bonding with the stacking of nucleic acid bases that induce inhibitory action

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on RNA and DNA synthesis (Simoes et al., 2009). Gallic acid and quercetin, two of the major phenolic compounds found in PGH extract, induce the increase in permeability (or fluidity) of the outer and inner bacterial membranes and disturbance of the membrane potential (Mirzoeva, Grishanin, & Calder, 1997; Simoes et al., 2009). In addition, quercetin can prevent the supercoiling activity of bacterial (E. coli) gyrase by interaction with DNA (Plaper et al., 2003).

Conclusion Processing the by-product of pistachio PGH, which has been considered due to its natural bio-active ingredients such as antioxidants, has promising potential for several industrial and medical uses. It is expected that commercial applications of pistachio hulls will expand in the coming years. In the last decade, many efforts have been made to identify and fully extract the functional compounds in the pistachio hull and assay their biological effects. Phenolic compounds, essential oils, fatty acids, and pectin are the most important compounds of PGH. Conducted research also offered ample evidence that PGH extract may protect humans against some diseases. The high prophylactic potential of the pistachio hull extract against oxidative species (ROS and RNS) can provide new avenues for future in vivo research and pharmaceutical applications. Besides the health-promoting effects, it also promotes sexual health in men, and the recovery of functional compounds, such as phenolics and pectin, can also be useful from an environmental and economic point of view. Studies conclude that consumption of shelled pistachios leads to a lower intake of calories. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in nuts have a greater impact of thermic effect, which induces a higher thermogenic effect than saturated fatty acids, leading to less fat accumulation by an increase in the sympathetic activity of adipose brown tissue. Finally, after nut intake, the fat in the walls of gut cells is not completely absorbed in the gut, which suggests that the energy is poorly absorbed from the nuts. The metabolised energy of the nuts is less than predicted by the water general factors, the system for calculating the amount of energy present in the food, which was developed by experimental studies in the early twentieth century.

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Lis, B. M., Ochocka, R. J., Deans, S. G., Asztemborska, M., and Hart, S., 1999. Differences in bioactivity between the enantiomers of α-pinene. Journal of Essential Oil Research. 11(3), 393-7. Mirzoeva, O. K., Grishanin, R. N., and Calder, P. C., 1997. Antimicrobial action of propolis and some of its components: the effects on growth, membrane potential and motility of bacteria. Microbiological research. 152(3), 239-46. Moghaddam, T. M., Razavi, S. M., Malekzadegan, F., and Ardekani, A. S., 2009. Chemical composition and rheological characterization of pistachio green hull’s marmalade. Journal of Texture studies. 40(4), 390-405. Mokhtarpour, A., Naserian, A. A., Valizadeh, R., Mesgaran, M. D., and Pourmollae, F., 2014. Extraction of phenolic compounds and tannins from pistachio by-products. Annual Research & Review in Biology. 1330-8. Mokhtarpour, A., Naserian, A. A., Valizadeh, R., Mesgaran, M. D., and Pourmollae, F., 2014. Extraction of phenolic compounds and tannins from pistachio by-products. Annual Research & Review in Biology. 1330-8. Msaada, K., Hosni, K., Taarit, M. B., Chahed, T., Kchouk, M. E., and Marzouk, B., 2007. Changes on essential oil composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) fruits during three stages of maturity. Food Chemistry. 102(4):1131-4. Msaada, K., Hosni, K., Taarit, M. B., Chahed, T., Kchouk, M. E., and Marzouk, B., 2007. Changes on essential oil composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) fruits during three stages of maturity. Food Chemistry. 102(4):1131-4. Ngouémazong, E. D., Christiaens, S., Shpigelman, A., Van, L. A., and Hendrickx, M., 2015. The emulsifying and emulsion‐stabilizing properties of pectin: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 14(6):705-18. Omojate, G. C., Enwa, F. O., Jewo, A. O., and Eze, C. O., 2014. Mechanisms of antimicrobial actions of phytochemicals against enteric pathogens–a review. J Pharm Chem Biol Sci. 2(2):77-85. Panouillé, M., Thibault, J. F., and Bonnin, E., 2006. Cellulase and protease preparations can extract pectins from various plant byproducts. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 54(23):8926-35. Plaper, A., Golob, M., Hafner, I., Oblak, M., Šolmajer, T., and Jerala, R., 2003. Characterization of quercetin binding site on DNA gyrase. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 306(2):530-6. Rafiee, Z., Barzegar, M., Sahari, M. A., and Maherani, B., 2017. Nanoliposomal carriers for improvement the bioavailability of high–valued phenolic compounds of pistachio green hull extract. Food chemistry. 220:115-22. Razavi, S. M., Zahri, S., Zarrini, G., Nazemiyeh, H., and Mohammadi, S., 2009. Biological activity of quercetin-3-O-glucoside, a known plant flavonoid. Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry. 35(3):376-8. Rezaie, M., Farhoosh, R., Sharif, A., Asili, J., and Iranshahi, M., 2015. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Bene (Pistacia atlantica subsp. mutica) hull essential oil. Journal of food science and technology. 52(10):6784-90. Schulze, K. N., Feuereisen, M. M., and Schieber, A., 2015. Phenolic compounds in edible species of the Anacardiaceae family–a review. RSC Advances. 5(89):73301-14.

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Seeram, N. P., Adams, L. S., Zhang, Y., Lee, R., Sand, D., Scheuller, H. S., and Heber, D., 2006. Blackberry, black raspberry, blueberry, cranberry, red raspberry, and strawberry extracts inhibit growth and stimulate apoptosis of human cancer cells in vitro. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 54(25):9329-39. Simoes, M., Bennett, R. N., and Rosa, E. A., 2009. Understanding antimicrobial activities of phytochemicals against multidrug resistant bacteria and biofilms. Natural product reports. 26(6):746-57. Smeriglio, A., Barreca, D., Bellocco, E., and Trombetta, D., 2017. Proanthocyanidins and hydrolysable tannins: occurrence, dietary intake and pharmacological effects. British journal of pharmacology. 174(11):1244-62. The British journal of nutrition highlights the health benefits of eating pistachios. Wright, J. S., Johnson, E. R., and DiLabio, G. A., 2001. Predicting the activity of phenolic antioxidants: theoretical method, analysis of substituent effects, and application to major families of antioxidants. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 123(6):1173-83.

Chapter 7

Benefits of Pistachio Consumption Sunanda Das *

Department of Chemistry, CMP College (a constituent college of the University of Allahabad), Allahabad, UP. India

Abstract Pistachios are very nutritious food with several health benefits, especially for the heart, gut, and waistline. They are prized for their unique slightly sweet and delicious flavor. They have an iridescent hues. The colorings come from two key compounds – lutein and zeaxanthin. Pistachios are in the category of nuts which deserve major health accolades. They are the lowest-calorie nuts. They are the world’s oldest nuts grown in the Middle East for thousands of years. They even have a mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible. Researchers suggest that people have been consuming pistachios for thousands of years which indicated their rich history as a prized food source. Pistachios are high in monosaturated fat, fiber, thiamin, vitamin B6 and minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, copper, and manganese. They are an excellent source of protein, antioxidants, fatty acids, vitamins A, E, and K, riboflavin as well as minerals like iron, magnesium, zinc, selenium, and melatonin. Melatonin is beneficial for the quality of sleep. Daily consumption of pistachios can improve some cardiometabolic risk factors with type 2-diabetes. Studies have also indicated that polyphenols from pistachios are effective against herpes simplex virus type 1. Their versatility and nutritional benefits can be an added perk to pleasant palates, thus they can be used as a snack, salad toppings, trail mix, in baked goods, and as crunchy coatings for non-vegan products.

*

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Keywords: pistachios, health benefits, nuts

1. Introduction Dietary guidelines around the world recommend the regular intake of nuts because of their nutrient contribution to diet and reported health benefits. The health benefits of regular nut consumption have been well documented. Pistachios are in the category of nuts which deserve some major health accolades. They are the world’s oldest nuts and have been grown in the Middle East for thousands of years. They are mentioned even in the Old Testament of the Bible. Researchers suggest that people have been consuming pistachios for thousands of years which indicated their rich history as a prized food source. Research findings [1] suggested that Pistachios are nutrient-dense nuts with heart-healthy fatty acids, protein, dietary fiber, potassium, magnesium, vitamin K, γ-tocopherols, and many phytochemicals. The unique green and purple color is a result of lutein and anthocyanin content. These nuts have the highest levels of potassium, 𝛾𝛾 −tocopherols, vitamin K, phytosterols, xanthophylls, and carotenoids. They are a great source of a γ-tocopherol-a form of vitamin E; this has powerful anti-inflammatory properties which have been linked to a lower risk of cardiovascular and prostate cancer. Pistachios are the richest nuts in antioxidants. The high amounts of lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene are carotenoids that are important for good vision. The versatility and nutritional benefits of pistachios can be an added perk to pleasant palate, thus can be used as a snack, salad toppings, trail mix, in baked goods, and as a crunchy coating for non-vegan products. Pistachios are a pretty filling food that helps in the consumption of fewer calories a day in addition to containing lots of minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants that are vital for burning fat and thus aiding in weight loss.

2. Health Benefits of Pistachios 2.1. Antioxidant Properties Pistachios are packed with antioxidants. Substances that play a critical role in health are antioxidants present in food. They reduce diseases by preventing damage to the body cells and even the risk of cancer is minimized. Research

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reports that nuts and seeds have several antioxidant compounds but pistachios may have higher levels of some antioxidants than other nuts. They are 𝛾𝛾 −tocopherols phytosterols, and xanthophylls carotenoids. These compounds were found to have high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. One finding involving 28 participants with high cholesterol, when fed daily with pistachios, experienced an increase in the levels of antioxidants lutein,𝛼𝛼 −carotene, and 𝛽𝛽 −carotene compound compared to those who ate none. Pistachios is a rich source of antioxidants, high in lutein, β-carotene, and γ-tocopherol in addition to selenium, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins compared to other nuts, which suggests that it increases serum antioxidants and decreases the serum oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentration in hypercholesterolemic adults as suggested by Kay et al. [2]. Table 1. Nutritional values of pistachios per 100g Nutrient Component Calories Protein Sugar Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Saturated Fatty Acids Monosaturated Fatty Acids Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Calcium Magnesium Iron Potassium Phosphorous Copper Zinc Manganese Vitamin E Lutein and zeaxanthin

Weight(g) 560 20 7.6 45 27 10.6 5.9 23.3 14.4 105 mg 121 mg 3.9 mg 1020 mg 490 mg 1.3 mg 2.2 mg 1.2 mg 23.2 mg 2900 mg

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Antioxidant classes present in pistachios seeds such as anthocyanins, tocopherols, chlorophylls, carotenoids, isoflavones, flavonoids, proanthocyanins, anacardic acid, cardanols, resveratrol, and vitamin C can interact in very different ways. The synergistic effects improve the protection against oxidative damage. Studies [3] describing the benefits of pistachios consumption in hypercholesterolemic adults show that mean plasma total cholesterol malondialdehyde levels, a ratio of total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein, significantly decrease. It has been also found that the use of antioxidants as chemo preventive agent inhibits free radicals which are responsible for DNA damage. These antioxidants can be scavengers that are probably important in cancer prevention. Tomaino and his researchers [4] found that pistachio nuts of high quality are grown in the lava level around the Etna volcano in Sicily showing intense green color and aromatic taste. These nuts are a rich source of phenolic compounds ranked highest in antioxidant potential. The total content of phenolic compounds in Pistachios was found to be significantly higher in the skin than in the seed. HPLC analysis shows that gallic acid, catechin, eriodictoyl-7-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, naringenin-7-Oneohesperidoside, and eriodictyol were present more in the seed than in the skin. Whereas genistein, apigenin, and daidzein appeared to present in the skin. Based on various chemical analyses such as DPPH, pistachio’s skin has been shown to process better antioxidant activity for the seed. It was further found by HPLC-TLC analysis that gallic acid, catechin, cyanidin-3-O-galactoside epicatechin, eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside appeared to be responsible for the antioxidant activity of pistachio’s skin. The antioxidant activity undoubtedly protects human health from cancer, cardiovascular, inflammatory diseases, and pathological conditions related to free radical overproduction. Multiple studies by Mandalari et al. [5] have shown that antioxidant compounds in Pistachios may be beneficial from overall health to antiinflammatory and antimicrobial activities which help to slow down brain aging and prevent heart disease. Antioxidant compounds present in Pistachios are readily available for the body. It has been published in the ‘Nutrition’ journal that polyphenols, xanthophylls, and tocopherols are 90 percent more bio-accessible during digestion. In an experiment by Alasalvar et al. [6], the level of natural antioxidants6 in tree nuts are not a good source of vitamin A and C but pistachios have the highest amount of vitamin A (28mg RAE/100g), isoflavones (176.9mg/100g),

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lignans (198.9mg/100g) and phytoestrogens 382.5mg/100g), and antioxidants (1.27mmol/100g). A study investigated by Paterniti [7] showed that pistachio intake can protect against oxidative stress. The polyphenol oxidative extract has antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties. The in-vitro model showed that pretreatment with pistachios polyphenol extracts reduced and protected from inflammatory damage as well as antioxidant activity. According to Dreher [8], randomized clinical studies have shown that pistachios have a beneficial effect on blood lipid profiles. It may reduce oxidative and inflammatory stress and promote vascular health, appetite management, glycemic, and weight control. About 1113 food samples were obtained from the US Department of Agriculture National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program by Halvorsen et al. [9] which showed pistachios were among the 50 foods with the highest antioxidant content. Total antioxidant potential of Sicilian pistachio (Pistacia vera L. Var. Bronte) nut extract was measured. The test was found to be much higher i.e., 50-fold more in hydrophilic than in lipophilic extract. Peroxyl radicalscavenging activity was found in these Pistachios. Tocopherol, γ-tocopherols was the only vitamin E-isomer found in the lipophilic extract. Vitamin C was found in a modest amount.

Figure 1. Antioxidant activity of Pistachio Nut on Human Body.

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The hydrophilic extract was a source of polyphenol compound among which trans-resveratrol, proanthocyanidins, and a remarkable amount of isoflavones, daidzein, and genistein were found in the edible nut. The bioactive molecules were remarkably reduced in the pistachio nut after roasting and the total antioxidant activity decreased about sixty percent. These findings by Gentile [10] provided pieces of evidence that Sicilian pistachios can be considered for their bioactive components thus effectively contributing to a healthy status. Other studies by Seeram [11] revealed that skin phenolics of pistachios are destroyed by the roasting processes. The destruction of bioactive phenolics in the pistachio skin may negatively impact the potential health benefits arising from their consumption.

2.2. Weight Management Losing weight is not easy because it requires dedication, hard work, and lots of patience. We must say no to junk and unhealthy food and include healthy foods in our diet. In the list of healthy foods are nuts which are counted as superfoods. Pistachio is one of them. It is rich in antioxidants, dietary fibers, proteins, healthy fats, vitamins, and minerals that help in weight loss and burn belly fat. As pistachios contain a modest amount of protein, they help keep a person satiated for a longer time thereby preventing craving for junk food. Monosaturated fats have been shown to boost weight loss. Unsaturated fats have been shown to boost weight loss. Also, protein in pistachios helps to build new muscle tissues. Here is a much better reason why pistachios can be a better option for weight loss, the human body cannot metabolize all the calories from pistachios therefore they are not absorbed by the body. These nuts are considerably low in unsaturated fatty acids but high in monosaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are good fat. These fatty acids increase thermogenesis after a meal which means that the human body burns more calories without exercise. Saturated fatty acids do not have this quality. An avid lover of pistachios can add a handful to the morning meal, consume as a mid-day snack, or sprinkle on the food for dinner thereby reaching and maintaining the health goals.

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Regularly eating nuts helps to reduce the risk of weight gain. In this context, pistachios may be beneficial for weight loss management because of their high caloric values, fiber, and protein content. Kennedy-Hagan [12] and his team of scientists found that having to shell pistachios before eating them may also aid in weight loss by leaving pistachios shells as a visual cue to consumption may help consumers consume fewer calories. Clinical studies suggested by Mattes [13] that pistachios help in controlling body weight because of their satiety and satiation effects and reduce net metabolizable energy. The study indicated that individuals who consumed pistachios demonstrated lower body mass index and triglyceride levels. On addition of pistachios to high-glycemic meals also lowered overall postprandial glycemic response. Pistachios are low in calories and high in protein, potassium, fiber, and packed with monounsaturated fatty acids which help in controlling cholesterol. According to research in the journal Nutrition, sixty middle-aged adults with diabetes and heart disease were divided into two groups. The group that had pistachios in their diet had smaller waists, lower total cholesterol levels, better blood sugar controls, and less inflammation. Opting for pistachios with shells leads to consuming fewer calories because it takes longer to eat. This technique to lose weight without deprivation is called the ‘Pistachio Principle’. Studies have shown that obese people tend to have low levels of vitamin E. It is also a potent antioxidant, which fights oxidative stress that is a common cause of obesity. This improves insulin resistance and inflammation markers in obese humans. A recommended dose of 15 mg of vitamin E along with pistachios is the best dietary source of vitamin E. Low potassium levels have been linked to increased body mass index (BMI), obesity, and type 2 diabetes. Potassium deficiency may lead to high blood pressure, weak bones, and increased kidney stone risk. An adequate amount of potassium can be consumed from pistachios, where 10g of pistachios contains 291mg of potassium. A recommended dose for men is 3400 mg and 2600 mg for women, which can be more important for fast weight loss. Food high in phosphorus content (1oz contains 139mg of phosphorus) may decrease body weight, waist circumference, and Body Mass Index (BMI). They help in the prevention of obesity. The best time to consume pistachios is in the morning because they provide steady levels of energy throughout the day and keep hunger at bay for a long time. However, consuming it during the night is also useful because

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they are the richest in melatonin (per 100g of pistachios contains 23.3 mcg melatonin). Melatonin is known as the ‘Sleep hormone’ and is a powerful antioxidant. A night of good quality sleep is necessary for losing weight, so taking 1oz at dinner is beneficial for weight loss.

2.3. Reducing Inflammation The immune system attacks all external elements such as pollens, germs, chemicals, etc. This process causes inflammation. Intermittent attacks by the immune system on foreign bodies threaten the health of the body. Nonetheless, many major diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, Alzheimer’s, and depression are associated with chronic inflammation in the body. To prevent chronic (bad) inflammation, consuming anti-inflammatory food is effective in curbing swelling in the body. They help the body fight infectious agents and strengthen the body’s natural immune system. Fresh pistachios have anti-inflammatory properties due to their high content of vitamin A, E and antioxidants. According to research findings, the inflammatory effects of white bread alone versus eating white bread with pistachios prevent blood glucose from rising. The cause of arthritis pain can be due to inflammation. Consumption of anti-inflammatory food such as pistachios can be of great importance. Even cancer is caused by the effect of cell mutations on the cell- nucleus, especially DNA. The inclusion of fresh pistachios therefore, in the diet can be a good way to prevent cancer from developing. A study at Penn State University on snacking of pistachios has proved to have a positive impact on improving cardiovascular health by significantly reducing inflammation in the body at a cellular level which is a prominent cardiovascular disease risk factor. The effectiveness of polyphenols from natural raw shelled pistachios against oxidative stress and inflammation was reported by Paterniti et al. [14], in both in vitro and in vivo models. The data demonstrated that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of polyphenols in low doses could attribute to the reduction of nitrosative stress and subsequent formation of nitrogen oxide (NO), thus suggesting potential therapeutic use of these natural products.

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2.4. Good for Gut Pistachios are full of fiber, minerals, and unsaturated fat which can keep blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol in check. The dietary fiber present can also have a positive effect on the gut by aiding ‘good’ bacteria. These fibers also possess prebiotic properties which support probiotic microorganisms in the digestive tract, protecting the body from infections and regulating the immune system. Prebiotics are dietary fibers that create a favorable environment in the gut for good bacteria to grow. Pistachios are a fantastic source of prebiotics that brilliantly support the build-up of good bacteria. The added presence of photochemical such as antioxidants also has a positive effect on gut bacteria, all of which work together to create a nourishing environment for a healthy life. Studies have been conducted to find out the impact of pistachios on the gut microbiome (this is defined as the ecosystem in the gut which contains both good and harmful bacteria). It was found that the group of people who consumed pistachios showed significant levels of various good gut bacteria than those who did not, thereby establishing a link between nut and gut health. A preliminary study by Ukhanova [15] on 16 persons suggested that eating pistachios may help in altering levels of potentially beneficial bacteria in the gut. Gut microbiota in the gastrointestinal tract provides important functions to the human host. Modifying microbial environment towards a beneficial composition is a promising approach for supporting intestinal health which has larger effects on the overall health, and through findings, pistachios play a role in this modification. The people who ate pistachios showed an increase in potentially beneficial butyrate-producing bacteria. Butyrate is a preferred energy source for colonic epithelial cells and plays an important role in maintaining colonic health in humans. In addition to feeding essential butyrate-producing bacteria, the fiber in pistachios is great at preventing constipation, helping waste to pass through the intestine more easily. A one ounce serving of pistachios provide 3 grams of dietary fiber which is more than found in a serving of wheat bread. These nuts are also an excellent source of vitamin B6, copper, manganese, phosphorus, and vitamins.

2.5. Eye-Friendly An article by Dr. Goosey [16] in ‘Eye News’ stated that the only nut to contain significant amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin, pistachios are eye-friendly nuts.

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They are also packed with significant amounts of vitamin E. The mono and polyunsaturated fats in pistachios also help to boost the absorption of carotenoids. In a study it was found that consumption of pistachios significantly boosts levels of lutein. Pistachios are high in carotenoids. Carotenoids are the group of antioxidants found in many foods. Carotenoids are very beneficial for protecting against cataracts that are very common in older people which impairs vision by clouding the lens of the eyes. Retina also suffers damage as a person gets older. Thus, a diet high in carotenoids helps in minimizing damages done to the retina. It is also known that free radicals can cause serious damage to vision. The antioxidants in pistachios can help to protect against macular degeneration by reducing the damages done by free radicals. It was found experimentally that excessive exposure to the sun can damage the eyes. One of the antioxidants – zeaxanthin in pistachios can help reverse the effect of sun damage by protecting the eye muscles and tissues. The deficiency of vitamin E can harm vision. A significant quantity of vitamin E may decrease the risk of age-related macular degeneration, cataract, and other vision-related problems. There has also been evidence that suggests vitamin E can reduce the risk of diabetic retinopathy or cut the risk of developing type 2 – diabetes. It is a fact that one cup of pistachios has 60 percent of the recommended daily intake of phosphorus which is one of the nutrients that helps to protect against diabetes. Monosaturated fats found in pistachios are a type of healthy fat. These fats can boost the absorption of carotenoids. Findings by Bullo [17] and his research team showed that people who consumed this nut had higher levels of lutein- a carotenoid. Vitamin A, an essential component found in pistachios is essential for good night vision. This also supports the health and functioning of the conjunctiva and cornea (layers/coverings of the eye in the front part). This also helps in removing eye dryness. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that scavenges harmful free radicals and protects eye cells from damage and breakdown. Lutein absorbs excess and harmful light energy and reduces glare impairment. This compound is especially important for young eyes. It has antiinflammatory properties and helps in improving contrast sensitivity. DHA is important for visual development and retinal function (retina is a lightsensitive layer of the eye that can be damaged if there is DHA deficiency). Zeaxanthin is an essential carotenoid that protects against light-induced damage by free radicals. This supports eye health and good vision. Astaxanthin is a unique and powerful antioxidant that destroys harmful free

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radicals, improves blood circulation in the small eye vessels, enhances health and functions of eye muscles, and quality of vision.

2.6. Protects Nervous System The presence of vitamin B6 in pistachios helps in the formation of amino acids, which develop amines and act as a neurotransmitter. Myelin is also produced by vitamin B6, which forms an insulating cover around the nerve fiber for the proper transportation of nerve signals. Vit. B6 also produces serotonin, melatonin, and GABA which help to reduce stress in the nervous system. A new study Berk et al. [33] has found that consuming nuts strengthens brain wave function associated with cognition, memory, healing, and learning. In a study titled ‘Nuts and Brain: Effect of eating nuts on changing electroencephalograph brain waves’, pistachios produce the greatest gamma-wave response which is critical for enhancing cognitive processing, information retention, learning, perception, and rapid eye movement during sleep.

2.7. Cholesterol Control Research regarding a trial period of six months was carried out by the Diabetes Foundation of India (DFI) and the National Diabetes, Obesity and Cholesterol Foundation, found that pistachios have been shown to have beneficial effects on glycemic and lipid parameters. According to some research, pistachios have a low glycemic index and are naturally cholesterol-free, they are the source of protein, fiber, and antioxidants. These properties make consumption of these nuts potentially useful for those at risk for obesity and heart diseases. A handful of one to two may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by significantly reducing LDL cholesterol levels and higher doses markedly reduce lipoprotein ratios. In research [18], it was found that 3 ounce of pistachio reduced the amounts of total cholesterol in the blood by 8.4 percent and low-density lipoprotein (LDL), the so-called ‘Bad Cholesterol’ by 11.6 percent. The study also found that non-high-density lipoproteins (non-HDL) decreased by 11.2 percent. Non-HDL levels are considered reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease risk. Also, in a study it was shown that pistachios, eaten with a heart-healthy diet may decrease a person’s CVD risk profile.

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A study indicated that after consumption of pistachios as a daily diet by 30 adults, the ratio of total HDL cholesterol and triglycerides was significantly lowered. There were no treatment differences in fasting glucose and insulin, but fructosamine was significantly lowered. Research by Sauder et al. [19] examined the positive effects of daily pistachios consumption on the lipid /lipoprotein profile and glycemic control in adults with Type 2 diabetes. A new study byHendrick [20] has found that eating pistachios increased antioxidant levels in adults with high cholesterol. It also showed the benefits of pistachios in lowering lipids and lipoproteins which are risk factors for heart disease. Pistachios are high in antioxidantslutein, β-carotene, and γ-tocopherol compared to other nuts. β-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A and γ-tocopherol is a form of vitamin E. Low-density lipoproteins or ‘Bad Cholesterol’ have been implicated in inflammation and plaque buildup inside blood vessels. Antioxidants present in pistachios prevent LDL from oxidizing and migrating into blood vessel walls that causes inflammation. This test was conducted in a randomized manner to test the effects of eating pistachios on antioxidant levels when added to a healthy diet. The study was published in the June 2010 issue of the ‘Journal of Nutrition’. Pistachios, a nutritious snack, contains Thiamin (Vitamin B1) which helps the body change carbohydrates into energy. Potassium is a mineral that helps offset the harmful effects of sodium on blood pressure. Polysterols and cholesterol have similar structures and activity in the intestine to lower cholesterol absorption. Magnesium is a mineral and a deficiency of it is associated with higher levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Vitamin B6 may play a role in reducing the risk of heart disease. Also, poly and monounsaturated fat is linked to improving cholesterol levels and promoting heart health. Research by Mall [21], found that consuming 30ounces of pistachios or about two handfuls per day for one month raised high-density lipoprotein (HDL) to healthy good cholesterol. In another study which was published in the ‘Journal of Nutrition’, a high triglyceride level and low HDL level is a cause of the metabolic syndrome. The more it is, the higher is the risk of diabetes, stroke, and heart disease. In a 24-week study on 60 people, the pistachio eating groups showed statistical improvement in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, waist circumference, and fasting blood glucose. In a study it was found that 58 g (2 ounce) could indeed lower triglycerides. That works out to about 100 pistachio kernels per day. This

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finding was published in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition, June 2010 issue. It was widely thought that high-fat content of nuts will lead to weight gain which will ultimately cause unhealthy changes in lipid profile. Keeping this in mind, a study by Li et al. [22] and his team was designed to see the effects of pistachio consumption on body weight and lipid levels in obese participants under real-world conditions. The nut was consumed as a portion-controlled snack. In comparison to the refined carbohydrate snacks, pistachios have proven to have beneficial effects on triglycerides. Including nuts in the diet, improves appetite control without any weight gain. The objective was to assess the effects of daily consumption of pistachios as an afternoon snack on satiety, body energy, self-reported nutrient intake, body weight, and body composition. The randomized study by Carughi et al. [23] included a free-living setting on a two parallel groups of 30 healthy French women. According to visual analog scores, consuming 56g of pistachios for a month had no impact on body weight, whereas thiamin, vitamin B6, copper, and potassium intakes were significantly higher in the pistachio group and it did improve micronutrient intake.

2.8. Complete Protein Pistachios are sometimes touted as protein-rich or a source of complete protein, especially for those who want to shift from animal-based proteins to plant-based ones. A complete protein is a food that contains all the essential amino acids in adequate amounts. As pistachios are with adequate levels of all nine essential amino acids, they are considered as a complete source of protein. Pistachios join the ranks of a small number of plant proteins such as quinoa, chickpeas, and soybeans that have become popular among vegetarians. A report said that roasted pistachios contain 81 percent of casein, a protein found in milk. Mostly a vast majority of plant-based foods are incomplete proteins as they are deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids. Amino acids are the 20 building blocks of protein, but the nine essential amino acids are not produced by the human body, thus they are obtained from outside sources i.e., through food. Research on pistachios suggest that these nuts are a great choice in many weight loss plans. As protein present in pistachios is one of the three micronutrients that reduce appetite and hunger level, this nut, therefore, they can be consumed to maintain weight by eating less.

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A study shows that adding pistachios to a daily diet can help people control their good habits. A great advantage of having adequate amounts of protein in the body can improve the function of dopamine in the brain. It is one of the main hormones in the brain that can control craving and feelings of addiction to any consumable product. The protein in pistachios can boost metabolism and increase fat burning. As this nut is high in calories, moderation in consumption is advised since overeating will not be very helpful in reaching and maintaining the weight loss goals. Since pistachios are rich in protein, eating a definite quantity each day will promote muscle growth. It is therefore recommended for athletes to consume pistachios after their workout, which is a healthier way to build muscle power than consuming synthetic protein powders. Sarcopenia, an age-related muscle weakness can be prevented by taking pistachios. As people age, the more protein they have in their meals the lower the risk of bone-related damages such as fractures or osteoporosis. It is found through research that protein in pistachios is even more beneficial for women after menopause because at this stage, they are at high risk of osteoporosis and bone damage. Eating a recommended dose of pistachios can speed up recovery after injury. It is the protein in the nuts which can build blocks of tissues and organs in the body. One of the benefits of pistachios is that they are heart-healthy, the protein present in them can lower blood pressure, the main cause of strokes and heart attacks. As these nuts are rich in good cholesterols, i.e., mono and polyunsaturated fats, they are good for the heart. A daily intake of pistachios can reduce the risk of many cardiovascular diseases. Table 2. Protein content present in various types of pistachios Types of Pistachio Variety Pistachio Nut Pistachio Nut Dry roasted Pistachios

Amount of Intake 1 1oz

Protein content/g 0.14 5.84 6.57

2.9. Cancer Prevention and Neurodegenerative Diseases Vitamin E and other antioxidants present in pistachios provide some protection against a certain form of cancer. It was found by Yang [24], the nuts have a high content of γ- tocopherol (a form of vitamin E) with antioxidants

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that reduce the risk of cancer in the body. However, the skin of this nut contains considerable amounts of resveratrol which has been researched for its role in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases [25] such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

2.10. Glucose and Insulin Metabolism Several clinical studies have been investigated by Sari [26], the effect of pistachio consumption on glucose concentration. It was found to be a significant decrease in fasting plasma glucose, postprandial glycemia, and insulinemia [27]. Pistachios consumed alone had minimal effect on postprandial glycemia, but when added to a meal containing food rich in carbohydrates with a high glycemic index, it showed reduces postprandial glycemia [28]. Pistachio intake has been found to significantly enhance the glucose and insulin metabolism of pre-diabetic patients and improve insulin resistance status, investigated by Rajaram and Sabate [29] and other cardiovascular risk factors [30], but more studies are required to evaluate the long-term effects of pistachio consumption on insulin resistance. According to a study by Bailey and Stein [31], raw and roasted pistachio nuts were found to have Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) and Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) greater than 75, thereby qualifying them as a good source of protein. It was found less in roasted pistachio nuts than in raw pistachios, but both are considered a good quality protein source. However, processing conditions associated with roasting decreased the digestibility of amino acids in these nuts.

2.11. An Aphrodisiac Researchers have shown that pistachios can be an effective aphrodisiac. It is extolling for its aphrodisiac properties and tops the list of aphrodisiac foods. As per the study published in the International Journal of Impotent Research in the year 2011, these nuts are well known to promote sexual vitality in men. 100g of Pistachios taken daily proves to be the best remedy to improve men’s health problems such as erectile dysfunction, which is an issue that many men face as they age. Several other components can contribute to the problem such

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as comprising low testosterone level, vascular deficiency, specific chronic medical conditions, and other age-related factors. Another study by Aldimir [32] titled ‘Pistachio diet improves Erectile Function Parameters’, suggests that this nut can improve blood cholesterol and stimulate better blood flow throughout the body. This might help in slowly dissolving the symptoms of erectile dysfunction. The goodness of amino acids, L-arginine in pistachios, stimulates the blood flow in the arteries by increasing the nitric oxide level in the blood, a vital ingredient that assists in relaxing blood vessels and treats erectile dysfunction. Based on the principles of Ayurveda, nuts help to strengthen Shukra dhatu. Shukra dhatu is the 7thtissue that helps men to produce healthy semen with good sperm count and sperm motility. Pistachio is one of those superfoods that is loaded with amazing amounts of potassium which contributes to the sexual health of an individual and overall fertility.

2.12. For Healthy Skin and Hair The benefits of pistachios on overall health, skin, and hair are very profound. This nut is loaded with vitamin E which helps regulate the levels of sebum secretion. Excess of sebum with clogged pores in the skin causes inflammation which results in acne. Antioxidants in pistachios have the amazing contribution of unclogging the pores and curing them by removing acne. Even pistachio oil works marvelously. Vitamin E, which is fat-soluble antioxidants keep the body cell healthy and rejuvenated. It also protects the skin from harmful effects of sunrays such as skin cancer and sunburns.

2.12.1. Benefits for Hair The deficiency of biotin in the body plays an important role in hair. Pistachios have considerable amounts of biotin which helps in preventing persistent hair loss. It also promotes healthy hair growth because of the presence of healthy fatty acids. Consumption of these nuts further ensures that hair grows to become smoother and much stronger. Using a pistachio mask has moisturizing agents which not only moisturize the hair but also aid in nourishing the hair roots from inside, thus keeping it healthy and strong. 2.12.2. Benefits for Skin Consumption of pistachio can lead to glowing healthy skin as these nuts are loaded with beneficial fatty acid chains, essential vitamins, and minerals

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which had substantial effects in providing a natural glow to the skin. Excess free radicals in the body affects the healthy cells causing damage leading to premature aging like wrinkles and fine lines. Antioxidants present in pistachios neutralize the presence of free radicals in the body thus delaying the signs of aging. Consumption of pistachio forms a natural sun shield around the body thus, protecting the skin from the harmful UV rays of the sun. This is due to the high content of vitamin E in these nuts helping the skin become supple and soft, at the same time fighting the free radicals that attack the cell membrane. Protection from UV rays also prevents premature aging. Pistachio oil plays an amazing benefit in removing dryness and scaly appearance of the skin, thereby hydrating it. Oil from this nut is loaded with demulcent properties, which helps in moisturizing the skin from within.

2.13. For Hormones Pistachios contain more potassium, which can lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol, than any other nuts. These nuts are known to encompass the highest volumes of phyto-estrogen that may increase estrogen levels and regulate the normal menstrual cycle. A study by Aldemir et al. [32] showed that a three-week pistachio diet applied to patients with erectile dysfunction resulted in a significant improvement in erectile function parameters with additional improvement in serum lipid parameters without any side effects. Long-term consumption of Pistachios could potentially improve glucose homeostasis. Pistachio intake significantly lower postprandial glucose, insulin and gut-derived incretin hormone, gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) levels but higher glucagon-like peptide-1(GLP-1) levels in comparison to isocaloric high carbohydrate whole wheat bread meal found by Feng, Liu, Li, Carughi and Ge [34]. Data also suggested these nuts ate an effective alternative to lowfat high carbohydrate food to improve postprandial glucose insulin. Studies found good response in women patients with gestational diabetes mellitus and gestational impaired glucose tolerance. Gestational diabetes mellitus is hyperglycemia which has a significant impact on the health of mother and baby. Testosterone is a sex hormone that plays a powerful role in the body. Maintaining healthy levels of testosterone is important for gaining muscle mass, improving sexual functions, and boosting overall strength, however,

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alterations in testosterone levels have been associated with several healthrelated problems such as obesity, heart problems, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Pistachios are a great source of important nutrients such as fibers, heart-healthy fats, and minerals like folic acid, magnesium, and selenium. These nuts are generally high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been associated with decreased testosterone levels found through some studies. Nuts also increase levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), which is a type of protein that binds to testosterone, which can lead to a decrease in the levels of free testosterone in the body.

2.14. Helps in Sleep Disorders Pistachio is one of the high nutritional foods because of rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and essential fatty acids, whose benefits cover almost all body functions. It balances the nervous system due to its magnesium content, and prevents disorders like anxiety, anger, depression, stress, and insomnia. One of the causes of insomnia is anemia. Pistachios are an iron-rich food to prevent anemia. Vitamin B6 found in pistachios also has great effects on the nervous system. The messenger molecules called amines need vitamin B6 to build them. B6 also plays a critical role in the development of myelin which is a protective covering around nerve fibers that helps in messaging between the nerves. Vitamin B6 is also helpful in the synthesis of epinephrine, serotonin, melatonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that enable the transfer of nerve impulses in the body. Gastrointestinal problems also cause insomnia. Foods with prebiotic properties such as natural dietary fibers increase the activity of beneficial intestinal bacteria. They use dietary fibers as food sources. These nuts also contain special chemical compounds that improve gut microbial balance. A study showed that hydroalcoholic extract of pistachio gum has a beneficial effect in facilitating sleep processes, anti-anxiety, and muscle relaxation. Melatonin is a hormone produced in the pineal gland in the brain that helps to regulate the sleep cycle in the body. The secretion of this hormone is maximized at noon and night. This hormone appears to be involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms. The change in the levels of melatonin and serotonin leads to the symptoms of mood disorder, depression, and insomnia. Pistachios are one of the good sources of tryptophan, an amino acid, which

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helps in the production of serotonin and melatonin hormones, thus improving wake-sleep cycles, dizziness, and nausea. Increasing hemoglobin and red blood cells by consuming pistachios can increase iron content in the body. Pistachio contains magnesium which helps to improve sleep by relaxing the muscles and acting as a nerve messenger inhibitor in the brain. A warm glass of milk with some powdered pistachios before bedtime can help to ward off insomnia.

2.15. Anti-Herpetic and Anti-Microbial Effect In a study recently published by Musarra-Pizzo [35] in the journal ‘Plants’, the researchers examined the anti-herpetic effect and activity of polyphenol compounds present in natural shelled pistachios kernels on herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) replication. The results indicated that polyphenolic components (antioxidants) from pistachios are effective against the virus. The Plants study highlighted that cultures were infected with the HSV-1 virus and treated with different concentrations of pistachio extract. The highest concentration of the extract resulted in the total reduction of the virus. In earlier studies, researchers prepared polyphenol-rich extracts from roasted and raw pistachios. These extracts were tested on several bacterial cultures to determine their bactericidal strength. Staphylococcus aureus and L. monocytogenes were the most susceptible strains. “Pistachio extracts could provide a novel topical or oral treatment against HSV-1 infections (Herpes simplex), as well as a novel strategy to overcome problems related to drugresistant strains,” said the University of Messina’s, Dr. Giuseppina Mandalari [36].

3. Harmful Effects of Pistachios Excess consumption of any nuts including pistachios harms the overall health and well-being. It is therefore always advised to consume these in measured quantities. Some of the harmful effects are detailed below.

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3.1. Stomach Problems Excess consumption of pistachios that contain extra fibers may end up causing gastrointestinal problems like irregular bowel syndrome and constipation. Pistachios also contain fructan which affects gastrointestinal functions by causing allergies such as flatulence, abdominal pain, diarrheas, and constipation.

3.2. Kidney Problems Potassium in pistachios can be very beneficial for the overall well-being of an individual but it could have a completely adverse effect on the kidney of an individual affecting many body functions as excess potassium is not good for a person suffering from kidney problems. It also increases the risk of kidney stones. It is due to the presence of oxalates (potassium oxalates) which can cause stones in the kidney.

3.3. Manganese Risk Overdose of manganese by consuming an excess of pistachios can result in several negative implications such as Parkinson’s disease and even chronic liver diseases.

3.4. Hypertension Raw pistachios contain a very little amount of sodium i.e., 0-2 mg, but the roasted and salted, which generally enhances their taste, can lead to heightened levels of blood pressure because of added sodium in the nuts.

3.5. Allergies Some people are allergic to green nuts. It is therefore, best to avoid consumption of these. Growth or storage of pistachios are often contaminated with Aflatoxin, which is a harmful carcinogen produced by the fungus

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Aspergillus flavus. Consuming contaminated nuts for an extended period may increase the chances of cancer.

3.6. Weight-Gain Consuming pistachios in moderate amounts can be effective for weight loss management but excess can have an adverse effect of obesity.

Conclusion Pistachio or Pista is a type of tree nut that comes in an array of colors and is infused with numerous health benefits. Sources suggest that people have been eating pistachios for thousands of years because of their lowest calorie status. This small green colored nut has diverse and countless health benefits as it lowers blood sugar levels, promotes a healthy heart, boosts the immune system, improves hemoglobin, helps in weight management, keeps the nervous system safe and healthy, tackles inflammations, makes hair and skin better, consumed as an aphrodisiac, improves brain health, prevents cancer, infections from Herpes virus and other microorganisms, and even imparts UV protection from sunrays. Adding pistachios regularly in the meal may be a good way to improve the health and well-being of a person. It is important that one should stick to one ounce or a handful a day of plain, unsalted pistachio nuts in shells than the salted and roasted kind to reap its full benefits.

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Ros, E., 2010. Health benefits of nut consumption. Nutri., 2.7, 652–682. Kay, C.D., Gebauer, S. K., West, S.G., and Kris-Etherton, P.M., 2010. Pistachios increase serum antioxidants and lower serum oxidized-LDL in hypercholesterolemic adults. J. Nutr., 140(6), 1093-1098. Saitta,, M., Gluffrida, D., Di, G., Giovanna, B., La, L., and GiacomoDugo, T., 2011.Compounds with antioxidant properties in pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) seeds Academic Press. Nuts and seeds in health and disease prevention., 909-918. Tomaino, A., Martorana, M., Arcoraci, T., Montelone, D., Giovinazzo, C., and Sajija, A., 2010. Antioxidant activity and phenolic profile of pistachio (Pistacia vera L., variety Bronte) seeds and skins. Biochimie., 92(9), 1115-1122.

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Sunanda Das Mandalari, G., 2013. Bioaccessibility of pistachio polyphenols, xanthophylls, and tocopherols during simulated human digestion. Nutrients., 29, 338-344. Alasalvar, C., 2009. Natural antioxidants in tree nuts. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 111, 1056–1062. Paterniti, I., 2017. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of pistachios in vitro and in vivo. Nutrients., 22, 9(8). Dreher, M. L., 2012. Pistachio nuts: composition and potential health benefits. Nutr. Rev., 70(4), 234-40. Halvorsen, B.L., 2006. Content of redox-active compounds (i.e., antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 84(1), 95-135. Gentile, C., Tesoriere, L., Butera, D., Fazzari, M., Monastero, M., Allegra, M., and Livrea, M. A., 2007. Antioxidant activity of Sicilian pistachio (Pistacia vera L. Var. Bronte) nut extract and its bioactive components .J. Agric. Food Chem., 55(3), 643648. Seeram, N.P., 2006. Pistachio skin phenolics are destroyed by bleaching resulting in reduced antioxidative capacities. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 54, 7036-7040. Kennedy, H. K., Painter, J.E., Honselman, C., Halvorson, A., Rhodes, K., and Skwir, K., 2011. The effect of pistachio shells as a visual cue in reducing caloric consumption. J. Appet., 57(2), 418-420. Mattes, R. D., Dreher, M. L., 2010. Nuts and healthy body weight maintenance mechanisms. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr., 19(1), 137-141. Paterniti, I., Impellizzeri, D., Cordaro, M., Siracusa, R., Bisignano, C., Gugliandolo, E., Carughi, A., Espositio, E., Mandalari, G., and Cuzzocrea, S., 2017. The Antiinflammatory and antioxidant potential of pistachios (Pistacia vera L.) in vitro and in vivo. Nutrients., 9(8), 915. Ukhanova, M., Fredborg, M., Daniels, S., Netter, F., Novotny., J.A., Gebauer, S.K., Xiaogu, W., Baer, D., and Mai, V., 2000. Human gut microbiota changes after consumption of almonds or pistachios. Appl. Eurorn. Microbial., 66(4), 1654-1661. Goosey, J.D., (2015). Eye News. Bullo, M., Juanola-Falgarona, M., Hernandez-Alonso, P., and Salas-Salvado, J., 2015. Nutrition attributes and health effects of pistachio nuts. Brit. J. Nutri., 113, 879-893. Penn State, 2007. Pistachios lower cholesterol, provide antioxidants. Science Daily. Sauder, 2015. Effect of pistachios on lipid/lipoprotein profile, glycemic control, inflammation and endothelial function in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. Metabol., 64(11), 1521-1529. Hendrick, B., 2010. Pistachio nuts may lower cholesterol. J. Nutri. Mall, J., 2021. How pistachio nuts help reduce cholesterol and your waistline. verywell Health. Li, Z., Song, R., Nguyen, C., Zerlin, A., Karp, H., Naowamondhol, K., Thames, G., Gao, K., Tseng, C., Henning, M., and Heber, D., 2010. Pistachio nuts reduce triglycerides and body weight by comparison to refined carbohydrate snacks in obese subjects on a 12-week weight loss program. J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 29(3), 198203.

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Carughi, A., Bellisle, F., Dougkas, A., Giboreau, A., Feeney, M.J., and Higgs, J., 2019. A randomized controlled pilot study to assess effects of daily pistachio (Pistachia vera) afternoon gouter on next meal energy intake, satiety, and anthropometry in healthy women. Nutrients., 11(4), 767. Yang, C.S., Suh, N., Kong, A. N., 2012. Does vitamin E prevent or promote cancer? Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.)., 5(5), 701-705. Bastianetto, S., Ménard, C., and Quirion, R., 2015. Neuroprotective action of resveratrol. Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1852(6), 1195–1201. Sari, I., Baltaci, Y., and Bagci, C., 2010. Effect of pistachio diet on lipid parameters, endothelial function, inflammation, and oxidative status: a prospective study. Nutrients., 26(4), 399–404. Hernández-Alonso, P., Salas-Salvadó, J., Baldrich-Mora, M., Juanola-Falgarona, M., and Bulló, M., 2014. The beneficial effect of pistachio consumption on glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, inflammation, and related metabolic risk markers: a randomized clinical trial. Diab. Care., 37(11), 3098–3105. Kendall, C.W., Josse, A.R., Esfahani, A., and Jenkins, D.J., 2011. The impact of pistachio intake alone or in combination with high-carbohydrate foods on postprandial glycemia. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 65(6), 696–702. Rajaram, S., and Sabaté, J., 2006. Nuts, body weight, and insulin resistance. Br. J. Nutr., 96(2), S79–S86. Gebauer, S.K., West, S.G., Kay, C.D., Alaupovic, P., Bagshaw, D., and KrisEtherton, P.M., 2008. Effects of pistachios on cardiovascular disease risk factors and potential mechanisms of action: a dose-response study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 88(3), 651–659. Bailey, H. M., and Stein, H. H., 2020. Raw and roasted pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.) are ‘good’ sources of protein based on their digestible indispensable amino acid score as determined in pigs. J. Sci. Food. Agric., 100(10), 3878-3885. Aldemir, M., Okulu, E., Neşelioğlu, S., Erel, O., and Kayıgil, O., 2011. Pistachio diet improves erectile function parameters and serum lipid profiles in patients with erectile dysfunction. Int. J. Impot. Res., 23(1), 32–38. Berk, L., Lohman, E., Bains, G., Bruhjell, K., Bradburn, J., Vijayan, N., More, S., Patel, K., Dhuri, S., Mourya, S., Park, G., Gujaran, A., and Nikam, S., 2017. Nuts and Brain Health: Nuts increase EEG power spectral density (μV&[sup2]) for delta frequency (1–3Hz) and gamma frequency (31–40 Hz) associated with deep meditation, empathy, healing, as well as neural synchronization, enhanced cogn. Special issue: Exp.Biol., 2017, Meet. Abs., FASEB, J., 31, S1, 636.24-636.24. Feng, X., Liu, H., Li, Z., Carughi, A., and Ge, S., 2019. Acute Effect of Pistachio Intake on Postprandial Glycemic and Gut Hormone Responses in Women With Gestational Diabetes or Gestational Impaired Glucose Tolerance: A Randomized, Controlled, Crossover Study. Front. Nutr., 6, 186. Musarra-Pizzo, M., Pennisi, R., Ben-Amor, I., Smeriglio, A., Mandalari, G., Sciortino, M. T., 2020. In Vitro Anti-HSV-1 Activity of Polyphenol-Rich Extracts and Pure Polyphenol Compounds Derived from Pistachios Kernels (Pistacia vera L.). Plants., 9(2), 267.

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Chapter 8

Pistachio Waste-Derived Carbon: An Efficient Material for Heavy Metal Adsorption Runit Isaac1, ∗, Prerna Higgins1 and Mini Singh2 1Department

of Chemistry, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India 2Tribeni Sahai Misra Medical College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract The presence of heavy metals in the environment has shown grim effects on the living organisms as well as the lithosphere and the hydrosphere. Living organisms need trace elements of low concentration for various physiochemical processes of the body. But due to the pollution, when high amount of these elements enters the living organisms, they show hazardous effects such as DNA and genetic replications. Before wastewater treatment and consumption of water, it is very necessary to remove the toxicity of heavy metals. Adsorption is one kind of a process where the heavy metal contamination is minimized with the application of adsorbent, which on the other hand helps to remove heavy metals such as Zn, Cu, Ni, Cd, Cr, Pb, etc. Recent studies have shown that the waste such as leaves, peels, husk, etc. has a high affinity to remove heavy metals from contaminated soil and water when used as an adsorbent. Pistachio waste-derived carbon has shown an exquisite adsorption capacity towards heavy metals due to its lignocellulosic structure composition in raw form. Biochar and Activated Carbon have the property of being chemically activated based on the studies that suggest that the Pistachio carbon has high adsorption capacity due to cation exchange, surface precipitation, and surface complexation with oxygen∗

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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containing functional groups present in the biochar. The quality of the produced carbon can be assessed by evaluating its properties such as carbonization yield, pH, char, fixed carbon, ash, and C, H, S, N content. This chapter discusses the adsorption capacities and the study of various heavy metals over modified and unmodified pistachio adsorbent for environmental remediation. Overall, it can be concluded that carbon derived from pistachio is a green cost-effective sorbent for the removal of water contamination.

Keywords: activated carbon, heavy metals, pH, Pistachio Activated Carbon (PAC)

Introduction Industrialization and urbanisation have caused serious environmental changes in the ecosphere of water [1]. In the process of the development of adsorbents, an instrumental precursor can be seen in bio-mass, as an applicant for water treatment [2]. It provides for a bi-fold advantage, one of management of waste in solid form and the other of control of environmental pollution [3, 4]. Pollutants in the form of pharmaceuticals [5–7], dyes [8, 9], and heavy metals [10, 11] have a reducing sign on the flora & fauna. Adsorption is seen as the most effective technique used for treating wastewater having these pollutants in it [12, 13]. Pistachio (Pistachia vera) which belongs to the family of Anacardiaceae is a very high commodity kernel that is consumed for its nutritional and sensory value [14]. They are a good source of fat (about 50–60%) comprising mainly of unsaturated fatty acids [15, 16]. The major producer being Iran [17] is followed by the USA [14]. The nuts are made up of a fleshy hull, a nutshell, and a nutmeat or kernel [14]. The obtained by-product of pistachio nuts by the de-hulling process is called the ‘hulls’ [18]. There is a major consideration of the by-product, as a waste from the agriculture sector, and researchers are bent upon looking for ways to valorize the product [19]. The nutshells & pistachio hulls have been valorized by the means of assessment of their capacity as water-soluble poly-saccharides [18], antioxidants [14] and phenolics source [20], as feedstock for slow pyrolysis [21], as soil mulch and livestock feed [19] and as a precursor in bio-sorbent [22] and activated development of carbon [23]. The other forms of bio-mass, for example microorganisms, can be effectively used for the function of biosorption [12, 24], waste generated from the agriculture industry can also be

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considered sustainable because no competitive use of them is seen and found [25–27]. There have been recent reviews of other biomass-based adsorbents like agricultural residues [28, 29], cocoa pod husk [30], plant barks [31], leaves [32], aloe vera waste [33], sugarcane bagasse [34], and others [35–37]. But the authors have come to observe that we have zero comprehensive literature review on the usage of adsorbents from pistachio waste in the elimination of pollutants from aqueous media. The pistachio-based adsorbents are tested for heavy metals [38], dyes [39], aromatic compounds [40], and compounds other than these [41]. It is examined in batch [41] and through column studies [42]. The need remains for the control of pollution in the attainment of such an environment that is in nature sustainable and viable. The idea of such a situation cannot be emphasized more and takes roots in judicial development and management of the developmental procedures of adsorbents that will further find use in various sectors of work. Reviews are absent on the adsorbents derived from pistachio despite a colossal number of experiments performed on the issue. A dire need can be seen to find an exposition that is proper in the arena of research and touches the state-of-the-art mark. The motive of this piece of research would be to put under discussion the empirical findings on the uptake of various pollutants that have been developed through pistachio waste. The review examined the methodology of preparation and findings of adsorbent performance and key adsorption. All of this was done to evaluate the progress related to research going on the focal matter and for the identification of the gaps of knowledge that remain and also to propose areas of interest for research in forthcoming years.

Adsorbent Preparation from Pistachio Waste that is generated from pistachios can be made into adsorbents in several modernized ways. In this segment, all such ways will be discussed upon. Most studies do not include the source of feedback of the country's pistachio waste explicitly, but it is to be observed that Iran is the major source (31%). The cause for this is nearly clear in its sense as Iran is the major producer of pistachio in the world [17]. Studies have also been made by other Middle East countries such as Qatar & Turkey. What is expected is that the climatic conditions are similar to those in Iran; therefore, the plant should be able to survive in those regions also. In a large number of studies, an explicit idea about the country’s source was not provided. Nearly 47% of such information

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as part of the study was indicated as ‘unidentified.’ The source location is of concern because it gives the relevance in terms of geography of the findings related to the study. Our observations will only be appreciated by authors whose countries consider pistachio as a product that valorizes waste for adsorbent preparation. There is no requirement of processes related to thermal energy in case of PSPs (Pistachio seed shell/hull powder (bio sorbent). 150°C is the approximated temperature at which disintegration of bio-mass is seen to start [44], and temperatures beyond this set temperature never yield a product called bio-sorbent. Generally, PAC (Pistachio seed shell/hull activated carbon) is obtained through activation methods that in nature may be chemical or physical. Chemical agents affect the devolatilization of the provided biomass at temperatures that are found to be very high, to create high porosity products with an area that is highly specific in nature. A myriad of chemical activation agents has been put to use, and these include acids, for example, H2SO4 [45], HCl [46, 47], HNO3 [46, 48], alkalis, examples being NaOH [49, 50] and KOH [51, 52] and known salts ZnCl2 [53, 54], NH4NO3 [55] and K2CO3 [23, 56]. Activation by physical methods of CO2 or steam is not reported for pistachio adsorbents. The situations utilized for the preparation of activated carbon play a great role in the varieties of the AC prepared [57-65]. Time & temperature play considerable roles in the process of conversion as they decide the end of thermal degradation and volatilization of the volatile matter present in the biomass. This also affects the final carbon content, atomic ratios, and many other properties. The qualities of the carbon produced under nitrogen and other conditions differ [50]. Microwave-induced activation is a better and reserved process for the production of activated carbon from residues that come from the agriculture industry [54]. The product is then characterized by a variety of techniques (shown in Table 1) aimed at major issues. Table 1. Summary of preparation methods for pistachio adsorbents Adsorbent class PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC

Reagent

Process

Carbonization Time 1h 1h

Reference

700°C for 1 h 750°C for 4 h 900°C for 10h

Carbonization temperature 900°C 600°C 750°C

K2CO3 KOH HCL, HNO3 NaOH K2CO3 ZnCl2 NH4NO3

710°C for 2 h 700°C for 2 h 750°C for 2 h 800°C for 2 h

410°C -

2h -

[92] [93] [94] [95]

[89] [90] [91]

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Adsorbent Characteristics It is instrumental to characterize the adsorbent to give an idea of its potential for the intended application. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon; the specific surface area of the adsorbent is usually considered the most important property of adsorbent material [51, 52]. The surface area(specific) of adsorbents is shown in Table 2 alongside the modes of determination, agent of activation, and temperature. The specific surface areas in the table are made simplified in declining order. The peak of specific surface area for adsorbent, recorded is 1884 m2/g for PAC-activated by NH4NO3 + NaOH and carbonized at 800°C temperature [50]. PAC usually has a higher surface area (specific) area compared to PSP as observed by their distribution table. The reason for high surface area is not hidden, since the thermochemical processing of the activated carbons usually leads to a highly porous finality of carbon. This however is not for biosorbents, but bio-sorbents still can perform for pollutant-uptake as they possess a wide range of functional classes which are chemically capable of interacting with adsorbate-species [53–55]. The mark of zero charges (pHzpc) is shown in Table 2. This represents the iso-electric point where the net effective negative and positive charges on the adsorbent’s surface are seen to equalize with each other. This is a significant sign in the determination of the threshold of pH values for the positive and negative regimes of adsorbents’ surficial charge. By getting to know these, the researcher can make out the pH effects on the up-take mechanism as attraction and repulsion in electrostatic terms are easily predictable matters. Table 2. Specific surface area for pistachio shells adsorbents Adsorbent class

Method of determination

Activation agent

PAC

BET

PAC

BET

NH4NO3 + NaOH 800°C NH4NO3 800°C

PAC PAC

BET BET

PAC

BET

PAC

BET

PAC

BET

KOH H2SO4 H2SO4 H2SO4 KOH

Carbonization temperature

Specific surface area (m2/g) 1884

pHzpc

Ref

8.1

[96]

1448

9.6

[97]

600°C 150–157°C

1218 58.03

7.8 3.02

[98] [99]

80°C

55.80

9.6

[100]

80°C

37.06

3.8

[101]

600°C

29.13

6.5

[102]

Adsorbent PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC PAC

Pollutant

Pb(II) Cd(II) Pb(II) Cu(II) Cu(II) Hg(II) Zn(II) Cu(II) Cd(II)

Max RE% 99.00 88.00 99.70 99.60 63.40 83.00 33.80

pH 6.0 5.0 4.0 6.0 6-10 6-10 6-10

qm(mg/g) 190.2 19.84 22.00 -

25°C 30°C 25°C -

Temp 1h 90 24 h 24 3h -

Time 0.25 g/L 1.0 10 10 g/L 0.3 g/L 0.2 g/L 0.1 g/L 0.1 g/L 0.1 g/L

Dosage Langmuir Langmuir Langmuir -

Isotherm Fitted

Table 3. Adsorption performance of pistachio waste adsorbents for different adsorbates

[103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [109] [109]

Ref

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Apart from the surface properties, there remain many important features of pistachio-adsorbent mainly determined by researchers that provide pointers to their capacities in form of adsorbent material. Analysis (morphological) by SEM and FESEM enable the investigation of the characteristic nature of the surface. In such cases, a heterogeneous outlook can enable the selection of a good adsorbent [76, 77]. Transformation also shows the result of modifications and the outcome of uptake of pollutants. Acid & base modifications result in deep fissuring and the genesis of better interstices on the surface [78]. Pollutant uptake causes the betterment in form of smoothening of the surface [73]. Functional class analysis using FTIR is one of the most classic characterizations. The performance of an adsorbent is rooted in its adsorption capacity (qm) and efficiency of removal (RE%). The qm can be estimated either through the Langmuir isotherm plot or experimentally. As observed from Table 3, qm estimation by classical isotherms is found to be more popular than experimentally obtained estimates. Similar observations have been made for other reviews [69, 70]. This scenario is more regularly utilized as it can be used to make it easier to make comparisons with other studies of which isotherm constants are also found to be reported. The qm and RE% obtained using pistachio adsorbent on different adsorbates is presented in Table 3. Similar observations on research interest have been made for leaves of Plants [32] and plant bark [31] adsorbent. Given industrialization and the changing patterns of life in newer times, newer varieties of emerging adsorbents are seen in contaminated bodies of water, which need the researchers’ attention. These are studied as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) [71, 72, 73], pesticides, endocrine disruption chemicals (EDCs) [83, 84], microplastics [75–83] and pharmaceutical personal care products (PPCPs) [78-83]. These classes of pollutants must be examined for pistachio-adsorbent as these are more relevant water pollution issues that we face. From Table 3, pollutant uptake of greater than 90% efficiency of removal (in most cases) was observed for dyes, heavy metals & pharmaceuticals apart from other compounds. The overall performance of the adsorbent depends on a myriad of factors (some of which can be seen in Table 3 for specificity). The solution pH (concerning the adsorbate pKa and adsorbent pHzpc) alters the essence of the mechanism of uptake. Adsorption temperature either supports or hinders the uptake depending on the nature of the process is endothermic or exothermic. Lower temperatures of processing favor the exothermically carried out process of adsorption and the reverse [84]. The dosage gives us an

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idea of the availability of sites that are active for the uptake of pollutants [30]. Higher dosages support uptake except for high dosages where the adsorbent begins to show agglomeration.

Desorption and Adsorbent Reclamation Studies The multiple times use that we see in the case of the adsorbent brings down the treating cost. It also manages to give the adsorbent as well as the industrial application points as reuse cycles are important in case the material is to be put to use in a packed bed-like column. Such columns are at times used as the ultimate stage of treatment just before the environmental release of pollutants [85, 86]. Based on this consideration it is important to investigate whether the adsorbent can be re-used followed by adsorption. Only a few studies have investigated the desorption of pollutants from adsorbents of pistachio. Heavy metals and dyes have been studied, but there is barely any literature for pharmaceuticals desorption and other environmental contaminants. Desorption in the case of heavy metals from pistachio adsorbents was processed with the use of HCl, while alkalis and organic acids were more frequently used for dye-desorption. Though pistachio adsorbent could be reclaimed and put to re-used, a steep fall in recovery was always considerably seen in cycles that fall under the higher value category (usually n > 3).

Column Adsorption Examination of the modeling of the adsorption of pollutants in column setup is relevant to their applications seen in a continuous way [24]. Continuous mode of operation provides a reduction in downtime and spares a lot of manhours. This enables to ensure the financial as well as the technical thriving issues of the process when incorporated with the usual industrial operations. That is precisely the reason why most industrial processes go for this configuration against the batch setup. Only a few studies have been carried out on column adsorption. Banerjee et al., [87] attained an adsorption capacity of 20.89 mg/g for the process of uptake of Cr(VI) by making use of a column type of set-up. The model by Yan et al., is the best-fitting model for this particular process. [42] Reached an adsorption capacity of 33.25 mg/g for the process of column adsorption of Cu(VI). The Thomas model unfolds that the reaction rate of adsorption is moderated by the surficial

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reaction between Cu(VI) and the under-used capacity of the pistachio adsorbent [88, 52]. Şentürk and Alzein [52] reached an adsorption ability of 41.77 mg/g for the process of uptake of basic-blue (41) using a column type set-up. The model by Thomas and Yoon-Nelson is excellent for the process too. On this basis, we can suppose that the decrease in the probability of each basic-blue (41) molecules are to be in proportion to the probability of its uptake [88].

Conclusion The empirical findings derived from this study concerning the uptake of various pollutants by the means of adsorbents developed from pistachio (Pistachio vera) waste were put to the minute analysis and then reviewed, leading to many conclusions being made. Iran proved to be the major source (31%) country for preparation of adsorption, as the source of feedback. The properties are valuable as they are indicators of the potency for application in specificity. The highest reported surface area(specific) for pistachio-derived adsorbent was 1884 m2/g for a carbon-activated NH4NO3 + NaOH and carbonized at a temperature of 800°C. Research interest in pistachio adsorption has come majorly from demands of heavy metals (39%) and dyes (43%). The adsorbents presented excellent efficiencies of removal, greater than 90% in most cases, and adsorption capacities for both dyes as well as heavy metals apart from other compounds and pharmaceuticals. It was seen that the classical isothermic models of Langmuir and Freundlich also the pseudo-second-order kinetics model usually are most apt in the description of pollutant-consumption by adsorbents derived from pistachio. A thermodynamical review showed that process of uptake was majorly endothermically driven for dyes as well as heavy metals, whereas it is mainly exothermically driven in the case of pharmaceuticals. In the case of all adsorbate types, the process is found to be spontaneous. Disorderliness in the system at the solid-liquid interphase increased in the case of heavy metals as well as dyes but saw a decrease in the pharmaceutical scenario. The regularly used eluent for heavy metals desorption was HCl, whereas organic acids and alkalies were put to use more for dyes. The gaps of knowledge were seen in adsorbent preparation by activation(physical), research interest in emerging contaminants, improvisation of desorption & adsorption, the systematic use of statistical modeling tools, and the examination of spent-adsorbent disposal. It is hereby concluded that pistachio is an instrumental resource for adsorbent-

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development for treatment of water, majorly in the countries of the Middle East and has been gauged to be effective against most species of pollutants.

References [1]

[2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

[7]

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Runit Isaac, Prerna Higgins and Mini Singh Rafiee, A., Ghanavati, N. S., Teimouri, A. 2020. Synthesis and characterization of pistachio shell/nanodiopside nanocomposite and its application for removal of Crystal Violet dye from aque- ous solutions using central composite design. Int J Environ Anal Chem 100(14),1624–1649 . Sajjadi, S. A., Meknati, A., Lima, E. C., Dotto, G. L., Mendoza-Cas- tillo, D. I., Anastopoulos, I., Alakhras, F., Unuabonah, E. I., Singh, P., Hosseini-B. A. 2019. A novel route for preparation of chemically activated carbon from pistachio wood for highly efficient Pb (II) sorption. J Environ Manage 236, 34–44. Rani, S. A. F., Selvi, M. M., Savitha, R., 2018. Adsorptive removal of Cd (II) from aqueous solutions using chemically activated pis- tachios seed shell and commercially activated carbon. Chem Sci 7(2), 247–257. Komnitsas, K., Zaharaki, D., Pyliotis, I., Vamvuka, D., Bartzas, G., 2015. Assessment of pistachio shell biochar quality and its potential for adsorption of heavy metals. Waste Biomass Valoriz 6(5), 805–816. Jalayeri, H., Pepe, F., 2019. Novel and high-performance biochar derived from pistachio green hull biomass: production, characterization, and application to Cu(II) removal from aqueous solutions. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 168,64–71. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.10.058. Karagianni, E., Chatzitheodoridis, E., Papassiopi, N. 2019. Characterization of activated carbon prepared from Aegina pistachio shells for Hg removal. In: Proceeding of the 16th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology. Kazemipour, M., Ansari, M., Tajrobehkar, S., Majdzadeh, M., Kermani, H. R. 2008. Removal of lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper from industrial wastewater by carbon developed from walnut, hazelnut, almond, pistachio shell, and apricot stone. J Hazard Mater 150(2):322–327 Nejadshafiee, V., Islami, M. R. 2020. Intelligent-activated carbon prepared from pistachio shells precursor for effective adsorption of heavy metals from industrial waste of copper mine. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(2), 1625–1639. Selvi, M. M., Rani, S. A. F., Suganthi, S. P. 2017. Studies on the removal of Ni (II) from aqueous solutions using chemically activated pistachios seed shell and commercially available carbon. Chem Sci 6(4), 601–613.

Chapter 9

Environmental Remediation of Organic Pollutants Employing Pistachio Waste Prerna Higgins ∗ and Runit Isaac

Department of Chemistry, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract Water contamination is an influential aspect of environmental concern. Several organic pollutants have been detected in the water showing devastating effects on human health. Adsorption technique is therefore considered to be suitable as a remedy for decontamination owing to its cost-effectiveness, easy scale-up and environment-friendly approach. An emerging diversity of adsorbents with high efficiency as well as high adsorption capacity has been considered for the removal of these contaminants from water. Amongst all Pistachio waste unmodified as well as a modified form has been considered to be an efficient adsorbent for the uptake of these contaminants due to the superior efficiency in the aqueous phase, including enhanced porous nature and surface functionalities. The application of this adsorbent has been popularized in recent years. The modified as well as unmodified form of pistachio waste possessing unique character develops its potential to remove organic as well as an inorganic pollutants from wastewater. This chapter will further discuss the synthesis of the adsorbent and its particular modification to increase its efficiency towards the adsorption of the pollutant. The characterization of the adsorbent will be discussed inferring about the surfacetopography and morphology, nature of the adsorbent, surface capping groups, surface area, density, pore-volume, porosity, pore size ∗

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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distribution, and other physicochemical parameters. The chapter will briefly describe the interaction and reactivity of the adsorbent with organic pollutants following some mechanistic pathways. The desorption and regenerating ability will also be discussed which will further illustrate the importance of using the adsorbent again and again for wastewater purification.

Keywords: water purification, adsorption, pistachio waste, desorption, regeneration.

1. Introduction Water is an essential requirement as it is the source of existence for all biota. More than 71% of the earth's surface is covered with water, but only less than 1% of water is potable as per International Standards because of different contaminations (Singh et al., 2018). However, pure and uncontaminated water is the basic requirement for all living organisms. The pollution in the water nowadays is increasing at an alarming rate due to the increase in the population. The discharge of wastes into river bodies is also simultaneously increasing. In the current scenario, pharmaceutical water contamination is one of the greatest and most serious environmental challenges, especially in places where water is reliant on potable purposes. (Gasser et al., 2018; Oh et al., 2017) as pharmaceutically active compounds which are recalcitrant in environmental matrices are classified as hazardous materials that can damage the natural ecosystem by changing the status of the equilibrium (Kalhori et al., 2018; Ji et al. 2014). Antibiotics are a part of pharmaceutical compounds, which are consumed in great quantities, as they are highly effective in treating a wide spectrum of bacterial diseases in humans, livestock, poultry, and fish (Huang et al., 2017). Among the various types of antibiotics, tetracycline, amoxicillin, and ciprofloxacin are widely used in the world as efficacious therapeutic agents in the treatment of a variety of bacterial diseases (Al-Musawi et al., 2019). The discharge of pharmaceutical wastewater loaded with these antibiotics can cause lethal health risks to non-target humans and biota, related to their chronic or acute exposure, as they contain toxic and carcinogenic elements (Shi et al., 2019). On the other hand, dyes are chemical pollutants that are released from the dyeing and dye manufacturing industries. Many kinds of dyestuffs have been widely manufactured and used in the industries of textiles, paper, leather, and

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plastics. The vast majority of these highly colored and toxic dyes are discharged into natural water bodies as industrial effluents every year These organic dyes cause a great deal of water pollution and impact photosynthesis in aquatic plants by preventing light from penetrating the water, destroying the food chain in water ecosystems, and damaging the esthetic quality of water. The dyes and their metabolites are highly toxic and carcinogenic in nature, and therefore harmful to animals and human beings. This pollutant directly affects the water and biotic components, environment due to its heavy toxicity (Moussavi et al., 2011). Amongst the dyes, Methylene Blue and Acid Violet 17 are used by several industries, such as textile, paper, printing, and plastics to color their products. The effluent discharged from these industries is highly colored and disposal of this colored water into the receiving water body not only causes damage to aquatic life but also to human beings, by producing carcinogenic and mutagenic effects because of their highly soluble nature (Robinson et al., 2001; Khan et al., 2015). Similarly, Cyanide is also toxic to human beings and animals since it binds to key iron-containing enzymes i.e., cytochrome oxidase, which is required for cells to respire aerobically. Assimilation of cyanide can also result in either acute poisoning (including death) or chronic poisoning to human beings and animals (Dwivedi et al., 2016). These industries are distributed in a wide area, which results in serious environmental problems because of their toxicity, poor biodegradability, and accumulation potential in plants and tissues. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reduce these recalcitrant compounds to the permissible limits before being discharged into water bodies (Balcioglu and Otker, 2004) as due to their stability and long degradation time in the environment they are not completely removed using conventional treatment methods (Xian et al., 2010). Therefore, an efficacious method is a necessity to be applied to treat wastewater containing organic pollutants. One of the most interesting treatment methods is the adsorption process. The adsorption treatment method is an efficient, simple, and universal advanced treatment technology. Several adsorbents have been utilized to scrap off the pollutants from water. However, some other reported adsorbents like, cork powder waste (Mestre et al., 2007a, 2009b), modified silicates, zeolites (Krajisnik et al., 2011) as well as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) (Hasan et al., 2012a; Hasan et al., 2016b), have also been employed for removal. However, slow adsorptive capacity cost in-effectivity, and low regenerative ability of these adsorbents have been a hurdle towards operation at an enormous scale.

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2. Pistachio as an Adsorbent Pistachio (Pistachia vera) of the family of Anacardiaceae is a high commodity kernel consumed for its nutritional and sensory qualities. They are a good fat source of unsaturated fatty acids. The by-product is considered agricultural waste and researchers have been looking for ways to valorize the product. Pistachio wastes have been valorized by evaluating their potential as a source of antioxidants and as a biosorbent and developing carbonized form in order to control pollution which can lead to a sustainable environment. There are no reviews on pistachio adsorbents despite a vast amount of experimental work done on the subject. There is a need to synthesize the literature and show a proper exposition on the state of the art in the research area. This review aims to discuss the empirical findings on the uptake of different pollutants using adsorbents developed from pistachio (Pistachia vera) waste (Igwegbe et al., 2021).

3. Need for Modification For the adsorption process to be integrated in terms of removal efficiency and economic feasibility, the adsorbent should be chosen with great care (Gisi et al., 2016). In this context, the adsorbents should be tested for their adsorption performance towards numerous contaminants before being applied. In the current scenario, agricultural waste, in its original or modified form, has attracted a great deal of attention by the scientific workers, to be utilized as adsorbents (Kamar et al., 2017). This is because of their low cost, availability in large quantities, and also they are found to be efficient for removal of several organic and inorganic matters in the adsorption systems (Khodadadi et al., 2019). To further improve the adsorption capacity of agricultural wastes and to enhance their practical performance, some surface modifications have been made. The result of the modifications was the formation of a more effective adsorbent (Mohammed et al., 2020).

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4. Modification of Pistachio Waste 4.1. Carbonized Pistachio Waste Pistachio nut shells (PNS) were repeatedly washed with distilled water to remove dirt, dust, and other impurities. The washed shell materials were then dried in sunlight for 48 h. The sample was prepared by mixing one part of pistachio nut shells and 2 parts of 18N sulphuric acid and kept in a muffle furnace at 353K for 24 h. The carbonized material was washed several times with distilled water until the filtrate reached neutral pH. Then it was dried at 1100C for 4 h in a hot air oven, grounded, and sieved, and was ready to be employed as an adsorbent (Vijayalaxami et al., 2010).

4.2. H2O2 and NaOH Modified Pistachio Shells Pistachio shells were collected from the local dry foods supplier. Pistachio shells were washed with DI water to remove dust and dirt. Pistachio shells were dried in an oven at 60°C for 24 h. The dried PS were grounded with a grinder and sieved to 0.2–0.4mm particle size. Biomass (PS, 1.0 g) was treated with 100 mL hydrogen peroxide (30% w/w) and the resulting mixture was kept in a water bath shaker at 50°C for 60 min with constant stirring at 100 rpm to oxidize the organic content. Afterward, the biomass was washed several times with DI water to remove the traces of hydrogen peroxide. The oxidized biomass was again treated with 0.10M NaOH in a water bath shaker at 25°C for 24 h with constant stirring at 100 rpm. The NaOH-treated biomass was washed several times with DI water to achieve neutral pH. The resultant biomass was dried in an oven at 65°C for 24 h to get constant weight and the modified pistachio shell (MPS) biomass was kept in sealed plastic bags and stored in a desiccator to avoid moisture contamination (Khan et al., 2015).

4.3. ZnO Nanoparticles Coated Pistachio Shells The Pistachio shells were washed with de-ionized water and dried in an oven at 105°C overnight and then were ground and sieved. Then, ZnO nanoparticles purchased from Xi'an Lyphar Biotec (China) were dispersed thoroughly in acetone under a sonolysis process for about half an hour. Following this, the powdered pistachio shells were added to the ZnO nanoparticles solution at a

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ratio of 5:1 (g/g) and vigorously stirred until a homogenous mixture was obtained. Next, the supernatant was decanted and the resulting precipitate was filtered and placed in an oven at 60°C for complete dryness. Finally, the dried precipitate (ZPS) was stored to be used in the required experiments (Mohammed et al., 2020).

5. Significance of Using Carbonized Form, Modified and Zno Nanoparticles Coated Pistachio Waste Due to the superior efficiency in the aqueous phase, including enhanced porous nature and surface functionality, carbonized adsorbents are widely employed to remove organic pollutants from wastewater (Bhadra et al., 2016). Lower environmental load in its life cycle, less corrosive ability, and economic feasibility are the major merits of using H2O2 and NaOH as a modifying agent. Also, Zinc oxide nanoparticles were examined and studied by several adsorption studies and they were found reliable as adsorbents and catalysts in the treatment systems (Bazrafshan et al., 2019). ZnO is easy to manufacture, cheap, has an adjustable morphology, is eco-friendly, and is not affected by any change in the environmental conditions (Li et al., 2017). In addition, the iso-electric pointof ZnO is high and equal to 9.5, which improves the positive charge of its surface (Joshi, 2018). ZnO nanoparticles have been used to coat various dry adsorbents such as mesoporous silica (Jeong et al., 2014), zeolite (Wang et al., 2016), cross-linked chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol microspheres (Abdelwahab and Ghoneim, 2018), 13X zeolite, activated carbon (Changsuphan et al., 2012) exhibiting good results. Agriculture raw wastes, such as a pistachio shell (PS), provide an effective surface for coating with ZnO nanoparticles. Moreover, ZnO nanoparticles are promising materials to be employed in adsorption systems. Pistachio shells, similar to other agricultural materials comprise several functional groups having a negative charge, such as polysaccharides and carbohydrates. These groups have a high tendency to bond with the positive charge of the ZnO particles (Piness, 2010).

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6. Adsorbent Characteristics It is instrumental to characterize the adsorbent to give an idea of its potential for the intended application. The TEM analysis analyzed the irregular shape of ZPS, which were roughly spherical within the nano-size range with an average size of < 100 nm. Also, the agglomeration of these nanoparticles is low, as their dispersion appears to be in a mono-dispersed manner. This is a positive adsorptive characteristic for ZnO nanoparticles, as the monodispersed particles offer a maximum benefit from the surface area that is allocated for adsorption of the pollutant molecules, rather than multi-dispersed particles (Bazrafshan et al., 2019). Therefore, ZnO can be a promising material for coating adsorbents with low adsorption capacity. The morphological characteristics of ZPS were examined by SEM which indicated that the surface of ZPS is coarse; as well as it consists of several non-uniform and separated aggregates. In addition, there are many big ravines and long grooves in the outer wall of ZPS. These morphological properties of the ZPS surface represent a positive point, as they provide a high surface area and active sites for sorbing the adsorbate molecules. In this manner, the specific surface area of ZPS has been determined to be 0.97 m2/g, which significantly increases to 4.24m2/g, after coating with ZnO nanoparticles. The FT-IR analysis of pistachio demonstrated four functional groups. The broadband detected at 3414 cm-1 is assigned to the O-H bond of alcohol of CIPRO. The band detected at 2929.09 cm-1 is attributed to the appearance of a C-H bond stretching functional group of TET. The two bands at1500.62 and 1384 cm-1are related to bonds between polymer chains belonging to ZPS. Finally, the band at894.97 cm−1 is assigned to AMC vibrations of benzene and its derivatives (Piness, 2010). These groups offer effective sites for adhering to ZnO nanoparticles. The band at563.21 cm-1 corresponds to inorganic ZnO stretching (Mohammed et al., 2020). The shifts towards lower intensities 3410.15, 2912.51, 1427.32, 1373.32, and 898.83 cm-1 exhibited possible interactions between ZPS and the pharmaceuticals. Similarly, for acid violet 17 adsorption, the surface area of the activated carbon sample was measured by nitrogen adsorption at 77K with anASAP-2010 porosimeter (Micromeritics Corporation, Norcross, GA). The sample was degassed at 623K overnight before the adsorption experiments. The surface area of activated carbon prepared at 303K was found to be 25.34m2/g. With the increase in temperature from303 to 333 and 353 K, there might be re-organization of bonds of the activated carbons. In other words,

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some of the existing bonds might be broken and new bonds maybe formed. It should lead to the conversion of the micropores into mesopores. As a result, the surface area increased to 37.06m2/g respectively for an enhanced acid violet 17 adsorptions (Vijayalaxami et al., 2010). The Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images were taken using the Jole Jsm-6360 scanning electron microscope. The SEM images inferred the surface morphology of the prepared carbonized form. The SEM images of activated carbon appeared smoother and the presence ofH2Oin a larger amount in carbon prepared at room temperature might be the cause for the smooth surface. By hydrogen bonding property of polar species, thepartly polar grouping such as ester could be brought into some orientation that confers a smooth surface. The FT-IR spectra of activated carbons showed broadband at 3500 cm_1 is assigned to (O-H) stretching of H2O. Its intensity decreased with an increase in drying temperature. The peak at 3000 cm_1 is due to (C-H) vibrations of the alkyl group. The presence of H2O is once again confirmed by its bending vibrations at about 1630 cm_1. The peak at about 1750 cm_1 is assigned to the (C=O) stretch of an ester. The broadband at 1250 cm_1 confirms the presence of an ester functional group. The corresponding alkoxy (C-O) vibration of an ester gives a peak at 1000 cm_1. The FT-IR studies revealed functional groups present on the surface of the biosorbent. The corresponding bending vibrations were seen at about 1357 and1450 cm_1corresponding to MB. The reduction in the intensity of these absorption bands confirmed that MB biosorption onto the adsorbent MPS occurred through a hydrogen bonding between the acidic oxygen groups (O–H and phenolic) and nitrogen atoms present in MB (Khan et al., 2015). On the other hand, the SEM micrograph of surface PHP particles displays flask-type amorphous particles with smooth surfaces and pores. BET-specific surface and total pore volume on the adsorbent were 1.04m2/g and 0.0002cm3/g, respectively. Because the specific surface area of PHP is low, the functional groups likely have a more pronounced role than particle surface area in adsorbing cyanide ions from the liquid. The mean pore diameter was calculated to be 0.77 nm, indicating that PHP is a micropore adsorbent. The FTIR spectrum of PHP, including the peak wave numbers and the corresponding assigned groups, depicts that there are hydroxyl, carboxylic, phenolic, and amino groups on the surface of the tested adsorbent. This result implies that a complex PHP particle surface is involved in adsorbing cyanide ions (Moussavi and Khosravi, 2010).

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7. Adsorption Mechanism Adsorption behavior can be explained according to the electrostatic interactions between antibiotic molecules and the surface of the ZnO-coated Pistachio Shells (ZPS). For example, the TET molecule has several ionizable functional groups like dimethyl ammonium, tricarbonyl amide, and phenol diketone groups. These active groups undergo protonation–deprotonation reactions, as a result, there may be the formation of a speciesof H2TET+ at pH 7.7, anion species of HTET−/TET2− are dominant in the aqueous solution. According to the analysis, the pHpzc of the ZPS was determined to be 6.5. Also, it is important to note that the surface of the ZnO nanoparticle typically comprises -OH groups of neutral charge. The charge of this group may vary according to the pH value. At pH >pHpzc, the H+ ions leave the particle surface owing to a negative charge of ZnO with partially bonded oxygen atoms, that is, ZnO−. Conversely, at pH < pHpzc, ions of H+ are transferred to the particle surface and combined with the OH- groups leading to a positive charge of the ZnO surface due to the formation of ZnOH2+ groups. Under these circumstances, the net surface charges of the ZnO nanoparticles and ZPS at pH = 5 are positive, thus electrostatic attraction may take place among them and the negatively charged tricarbonylamide groups of TET, which results in high TEC removal efficiency. When the pH is below 5, the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged ZnO nanoparticles and cationic moieties of TET causes a decrease in the TET adsorption efficiency. Similar results were obtained in the case of AMC adsorption onto ZPS. For CIPRO adsorption, it is known that the molecules are positively charged at aqueous solutions of pH lower than 4 where about 99% of the CIPRO molecules exist as CIP+ (cationic), while at a pH higher than 10, over 95% of CIP molecules are present in a CIPRO- form (anionic). At the pH = 7, the CIPRO (zwitterion) is dominant within the system (Wu et al., 2010). It is observed that CIPRO adsorption is favored wherever the dissimilarity of adsorbents and CIPRO molecules charges occur. This is mainly because when the adsorbate molecules and adsorbent surfaces have dissimilar charges, electrostatic attraction forces tend to exist, which can benefit the adsorption process. Therefore, a chemisorption reaction may occur between the CIPRO molecules and ZPS active sites at pH = 5.

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Similarly, the effect of pH on the adsorption of acid violet 17 dye solution by pistachio nutshell activated carbon was studied byvarying the pH of the solution from 2-10. The pH of the dye solution itself was found to be 6.1 andthe zero point charge (pHzpc) of the adsorbent was determined to be 3.8. The maximum adsorption occurs at pH 2 i.e., pHpHzpc, the negative charge density on the PNS activated carbon surface increases and this does not favor the adsorption of anionic dye due to the electrostatic repulsion (Vijayalaxmi et al., 2010). Furthermore, lower adsorption of the anionic dye in alkaline medium is due to the competition from excess OH- ions with the anionic dye molecule for the adsorption sites. The observed pHPZC of Modified Pistachio Shell was ~6.0. At lower pH values, the surface of the biosorbent was highly protonated and electrostatic repulsive forces dominate between MB and MPS. However, the surface of MPS was positively charged below pHPZC [pHPZC 6.0] opposing MB biosorption. The biosorption of MB onto MPS biosorbent improved with an increase in solution pH due to the reduction in the number of protons in an aqueous medium (Khan et al., 2015). For cyanides, it was observed that the final pH [pHf] washigher than the pHi at equilibrium for the initial pH(pHi) 2.32–7.72 range, whereas the pHf was lower than the pHi 8.27–10.98 range at equilibrium. The pKa of HCN is 9.0and the pHzpc of the PHP surface is 4.9, implying that HCNis completely dissociated to CN−at a solution pH of 10, whereas the adsorbent particle surfaces are negatively charged for a pH over 4.9(pHzpc). Because CN−is a nucleophilic ion, wherein contact with the negatively charged adsorbent, it binds with the anionic functional groups present on the surface of the adsorbent and there by improves adsorption. Therefore, chemical ion exchange is determined to be the prevailing mechanism for the adsorption of cyanide ions onto PHP (Moussavi and Khosravi, 2010).

8. Adsorption Performance The adsorption experiment was facilitated in batch mode for all the respective pollutants. The varied operational studied parameters were analyzed in which reaction time chosen was (0-120 min) and change in concentration (10-60 mg/L) was carried out by adding 0.1 g of ZPS to different drug aqueous solutions. Acid Violet 17, a study was carried out for (5-240 min), in

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concentration (10-50 mg/L) at 0.1 g dose. Similarly, Methylene Blue and Cyanide study was carried out for (60-240 min) (60-180 min), in concentration (25-100 mg/L) (50-200 mg/L) at 0.25 g and1.5 g dose respectively. The results for scavenging of the pollutants were fitted in various models and deductions were made accordingly. The data of qe experimental and qe calculated for both applied models and the R2 values that were obtained from the equation justified that the Pseudo second-order kinetic model is obeyed.

(e)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(f)

Figure 1. Chemical structures of (a) Amoxicillin (b) Tetracycline (c) Ciprofloxacin (d) Acid violet 17 (e) Methylene Blue (f) Cyanide.

Amoxicillin Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin Acid violet 17 Methylene Blue Cyanide

Pollutant

Amoxicillin Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin Acid violet 17 Methylene Blue Cyanide

Pollutant

qm(mg/g) 132.24 92.45 98.71 125.00 16.5 156.2

qe Exp(mg/g) 55.74 48.35 58.14 73.00 23.07 33.2

R 0.9854 0.9878 0.9427 0.985 0.948 0.891 2

qe Exp(mg/g) 55.74 48.35 58.14 73.00 23.07 33.2

Pseudo 2nd order qe Cal(mg/g) K2 55.00 0.001 48.01 0.001 64.51 0.001 73.67 0.23 24.33 0.002 33.3 0.3

Langmuir model b RL 0.103 0.13 0.146 0.10 0.149 0.102 0.04 0.17 0.24 0.1 0.3 0.2 R2 0.997 0.995 0.989 0.990 0.978 0.998

1/n 2.5 4.2 3.8 2.2 0.2 3.3

Freundlich model Kf R2 26.60 0.989 33.38 0.997 33.17 0.995 15.3 0.901 4.90 0.843 49.0 0.839

Mohammed et al.,2020 Mohammed et al.,2020 Mohammed et al.,2020 Vijayalakshmi et al., 2010 Khan et al., 2015 Moussavi and Khosravi, 2010

Reference

Mohammed et al.,2020 Mohammed et al.2020 Mohammed et al.2020 Vijayalakshmi et al., 2010 Khan et al., 2015 Moussavi and Khosravi, 2010

Reference

R2 0.9992 0.9906 0.9981 0.994 0.997 1

Table 2. Isotherm parameters for different applied models

Pseudo 1st order qe Cal(mg/g) K1 50.05 0.04 45.18 0.06 80.92 0.08 68.14 0.06 46.74 0.06 2.36 0.12

Table 1. Kinetic parameters for different applied models

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Therefore, the deductions made it clear that the scavenging of the pollutants onto the adsorbents was following the kinetic model of pseudosecond-order. The 1/n is Freundlich constant is related to the capacity of adsorption its intensity, respectively which is in the range 1-10 thereby deducing for feasible adsorption. The R2 value obtained from the linear plot of Langmuir was higher than the R2attained from the linear plot of the Freundlich model. The Langmuir model was found to be the perfect suited model for the pollutant scavenging as the formation of monolayer adsorption (qm) was high and it was also supported by the RL factor. The overall comparative data of various pollutants are tabulated. Table 3. Comparative study of pistachio waste monolayer adsorption capacity (qm) with other adsorbents Adsorbent Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) shell powder Olive stone activated carbon Bamboo charcoal Activated carbon from a pistachio nutshell Carbonized Pistachio nutshell ZnO coated Pistachio shell

Pollutant Ciprofloxacin

Qm (mg/g) 8.8

Reference Dhiman et al., 2018

Amoxicillin

57.0

Limousy et al., 2016

Chloramphenicol Acid violet 17

23.5 125.0

Liao et al., 2013 Vijayalakshmi et al., 2010

Phenol

130.2

Bazrafshan et al., 2012

132.2 98.71 92.45 156.2

Mohammed et al., 2020

Pistachio shell powder

Ciprofloxacin Amoxicillin Tetracycline Cyanide

Pistachio hull waste

Methylene Blue

16.5

Moussavi and Khosravi, 2010 Khan et al., 2015

Conclusion Water contamination is an influential aspect of environmental concern. Several organic pollutants have been detected in the water showing devastating effects on human health. Adsorption technique is therefore considered to be suitable as a remedy for decontamination owing to its costeffectiveness, easy scale-up and environment-friendly approach. An emerging diversity of adsorbents with high efficiency as well as high adsorption capacity has been considered for the removal of these contaminants from water.

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Amongst all the modified as well as Pistachio waste form has been considered to be an efficient adsorbent for the uptake of these recalcitrant contaminants due to the superior efficiency in the aqueous phase, including enhanced porous nature and surface functionalities. The application of this adsorbent has been popularized in recent years because of its unique character and its potential to remove organic pollutants from wastewater. This chapter has discussed the synthesis of the adsorbent and its particular modification to increase its efficiency towards the scavenging of the pollutant. The characterization of the adsorbent was discussed inferring about the surfacetopography and morphology, nature of the adsorbent, surface capping groups, surface area pore size, pore-volume, and other physicochemical parameters. The chapter has briefly described the interaction and reactivity of the adsorbent with organic pollutants following some mechanistic pathways. This chapter aims to discuss the empirical findings on the uptake of different pollutants using adsorbents developed from pistachio (Pistachia vera) waste. This chapter examined the preparation methodology, adsorbent performance, and key adsorption findings. This was done to evaluate the progress of research on the subject matter, identify knowledge gaps, and propose interesting areas for future work. Therefore, this study precisely focuses on providing sharp insights in decontaminating recalcitrant pollutants from water which will further set a new benchmark for sustainability in society.

References Abdelwahab, N. A., and Ghoneim, A. M., 2018. Photocatalytic activity of ZnO coated magneticcross-linked chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol microspheres, Materials Science and Engineering B. 228, 7-17. Al-Musawi, T. J., Kamani, H., Bazrafshan, E., Panahi, A. H., Silva, M. F., and Abi, G., 2019. Optimizationthe Effects of Physicochemical Parameters on the Degradation of Cephalexin in Sono-Fenton Reactor by Using Box-Behnken Response Surface Methodology, Catalysis Letters. 149(5), 1186-1196. Balcioglu, I. A., and Otker, M., 2004. Pre-Treatment of Antibiotic Formulation Wastewater by O3, O3/H2O2, and O3/UV Processes. Turkish Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences. 28(5), 325-32. Bazrafshan, E., Al-Musawi, T. J., Silva, M. F., Panahi, A. H., Havangi, M., Mostafapur, F. K., 2019. Photocatalytic degradation of catechol using ZnO nanoparticles as catalyst: Optimizingthe experimental parameters using the Box-Behnken statistical methodology and kineticstudies. Microchemical Journal. 147, 643–653.

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Liao, P., Zhan, Z., Dai, J., Wu, X., Zhang, W., Wang, K., and Yuan, S., 2013. Adsorption of tetracycline andchloramphenicol in aqueous solutions by bamboo charcoal: a batch and fixed-bed columnstudy, Chemical Engineering Journal. 228, 496–505. Limousy, L., Ghouma, I., Ouederni, A., and Jeguirim, M., 2016. Amoxicillin removal from aqueoussolution using activated carbon prepared by chemical activation of olive stone. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 24(11), 9993–10004. Liu, T. Z. Q. S., Wang, P., Jiang, J. P., and Li, N., 2010. Adsorptionisotherm, kinetic and mechanism studies of some substitutedphenols on activated carbon fibers. Chemical Engineering Journal. 157,348-356. Mestre, A. S., Pires, J., Nogueira, J. M. F., Carvalho, A. P., 2007. Activated carbons for the adsorption of ibuprofen. Carbon. 45, 1979–1988. Mestre, A. S., Pires, J., Nogueira, J. M. F., Parra, J. B., Carvalho, A. P., and Ania, C O., 2009. Waste derived activated carbons for removal of ibuprofen from solution: Role of surface chemistry and pore structure. Bioresoure Technology. 100, 1720–1726. Miri, M., Ghaneian, M., Shahriari, F. A, Fallahzadeh, R., 2015. Effectiveness of rosewater waste in de-colorization of reactive Blue 19 from synthetic textile wastewater. Journal of Health Research in Community. 1(4), 28-36. Mohammed, A. A., Al-Musawi, T. J., Kareem, S. L., Zarrabi, M., and Al-Ma'abreh, A. M., 2020. Simultaneous adsorption of tetracycline, amoxicillin, and ciprofloxacin by pistachio shell powder coated with zinc oxide nanoparticles. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 13(3), 4629-4643. Moussavi, G., and Khosravi, R., 2011. The removal of cationic dyes from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto pistachio hull waste. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 89(10), 2182-9. Moussavi, G., and Khosravi, R., 2010. Removal of cyanide from wastewater by adsorption onto pistachio hull wastes: Parametric experiments, kinetics and equilibrium analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 183(1-3):72 :30-4. Oh, W. D., Chang, V. W., and Lim, T. T., 2019. A comprehensive performance evaluation of heterogeneous Bi2Fe4O9/peroxymonosulfate system for sulfamethoxazole degradation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 26(2), 1026-1035. Pan, G., and Kurumada, K. I., 2008. Hybrid gel reinforced with coating layer for removal of phenol from aqueous solution. Chemical Engineering Journal. 138, 194-199. Piness, J., 2010. Physical and Chemical Structural Analysis of Pistachio Shells. Journal of Undergraduate Materials Research. DOI:http://doi.org/10.21061/jumr.v4i0.1564. Rengaraj, S., Moon, S. H., Sivabalan, R., Arabindoo, B. and Murugesan, V., 2002. Agricultural solid waste for the removal oforganics: adsorption of phenol from water and wastewater bypalm seed coat activated carbon. Waste Management. 22 (5), 543548. Robinson, T., McMullan, G., Marchant, R., and Nigam, P., 2001. Remediationof dyes in textile effluent: a critical review on current treatmenttechnologies with a proposed alternative. Bioresource Technology. 77, 247. Singh, N. B., Nagpal, G., and Agrawal, S., 2018. Water purification by using adsorbents: a review. Environmental technology & innovation. 11, 187-240. Sumathi, K., 2005. Use of Low-Cost Biological Wastes and Vermiculite for Removal of Chromium from Tannery Effluent. Bioresource Technology. 96, 309–316.

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Shi, Z. Q., Liu, Y. S., Xiong, Q., Cai, W. W., and Ying, G. G., 2019. Occurrence, toxicity andtransformation of six typical benzotriazoles in the environment: A review, Science of theTotal Environment. 661: 407–421. Vijayalakshmi, P., Bala, V. S. S., Thiruvengadaravi, K. V., Panneerselvam, P., Palanichamy, M., and Sivanesan, S., 2010. Removal of acid violet 17 from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto activated carbon prepared from pistachio nut shell. Separation Science and Technology. 46(1), 155-163. Wang, L., Han, C., Nadagouda, M. N., Dionysiou, D. D., 2016. An innovative zinc oxidecoated zeoliteadsorbent for removal of humic acid, Journal of Hazardous Materials. 313, 283-290. Wu, Q., Li, Z., Hong, H., Yin, K., and Tie, L., 2010. Adsorption and intercalation of ciprofloxacinon montmorillonite, Applied Clay Science. 50(2), 204–211. Xian, Q., Hu, L., Chen, H., Chang, Z., and Zou, H., 2010. Removal of nutrients and veterinaryantibiotics from swine wastewater by a constructed macrophyte floating bed system. Journal of Environmental Management. 91, 2657-2661.

Chapter 10

Applications of the Waste from Pistachios: A Review Reena S. Lawrence ∗

Department of Biochemistry and Biochemical Engineering Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract Pistachio (Pistacia vera) is a small tree of the family of cashew (Anacardiaceae), and its eatable seeds are grown in drylands of warm or sometimes temperate climates. The pistachio tree is believed to belong to Iran and is widely grown in areas extending from Afghanistan to the Mediterranean region and possibly in California. The seeds of Pistachios have a variety of benefits like showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activity; it seems to lower blood sugar and cholesterol levels. This review focuses on the uses of waste obtained from Pistachio, which mainly constitutes the shell discarded after using the eatable seeds. The Activated Carbon obtained from the shell has a high specific surface area and can be used for the adsorption of chemical gases and liquids. It can also be operated for removing heavy metals because it shows biosorbent properties. Anaerobic digestion can also be a good option for generating renewable energy obtained as biogas. The silver nanoparticles immobilized on the surface of the Pistachio shell can be employed in 4nitrophenol and organic dyes reduction.

∗

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Keywords: anaerobic digestion, nanoparticles, activated carbon, lithium batteries

Introduction Pistachio (Pistacia vera) is a small tree belonging to the cashew family (Anacardiaceae) with edible seeds indigenous to drylands with warm or temperate climates. The pistachio tree is believed to originate in Iran. It is widely cultivated from parts of Afghanistan to the Mediterranean region and is also found in California. Pistachios have been a part of the healthy diet of humans since primitive times. They have been known to be eaten by past civilizations because it has Nutrition and a variety of disease-management activities. The Pistachio is a nut that is used prehistorically. It is native to Middle Eastern countries. The pistachio tree is one of the oldest flowering trees with nuts. There are archeological records indicating that pistachio consumption by humans dates back to 7000 B.C starting from Turkey. It is estimated to be a native of hot climatic conditions, and generally, trees spread from the Middle East to the Mediterranean. The nuts are considered to be delicacy and royalty to ordinary men. The Pistachio has been beneficial as a folk remedy for various diseases, and the high nutritional value is also supposed to be very high. It has long storage life, making it an essential light food used as a snack. It was used by early explorers and traders also (Heber, D. and Bowerman, S (2008). Salas-Salvado, J. et al., (2011; Dreher, M. L. (2012). Pistachios are obtained as seeds from pistachio trees. They are generally green and sweet. They are commonly called nuts, but scientifically they are seeds. People are in the practice of consuming them for thousands of years. The color of pistachio kernels varies from yellow to different shades of green depending on the environmental conditions. The length varies from one and a half an inch in diameter. On a commercial scale, California, New Mexico, and Arizona are the countries that produce it. They can be purchased as shelled or unshelled, salted, or roasted. They are readily available in most grocery stores and supermarkets, and they can be brought in bulk from pistachio growers (Borozgi et al., 2013).

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Composition of Pistachios The main constituents of seeds are: 1. Macronutrients: The composition of seeds depends on how they are grown, i.e., their cultivation, rootstock, the time at which they are taken out, i.e., their maturity at the time of harvest, and moisture content. The composition of Pistachio has been studied already, and it has been found that 100 g of Pistachio contains 55.2-60.5% of oil, 15.0-21.2% of protein, and 14.9-17.7% of carbohydrates. They are among the class of compounds which are the richest sources of fiber (10.3 g/100 g), and 100 g of Pistachio has been considered to have around 600 calories. Pistachio also gives a high level of energy. 2. Micronutrients (minerals): The minerals content in pistachio kernels is also found to be very high: it contains 4.0 mg of sodium, 120-150 mg of calcium, 494-514.5 mg phosphorus, 1.0-1.4 mg of copper, 1048-1142 mg potassium, 157.5-165.0 mg magnesium, 5.8-11.4 mg iron, and 9.3 mcg/100 g of selenium. 3. Vitamins and Antioxidants: Pistachios contain a good amount of antioxidants, which include tocopherols, carotenes, lutein, selenium, flavonoids, and also phytoestrogens (5,6 β-carotene,α-carotene, and cryptoxanthins) which are good sources of vitamin A. Flavonoids, a subclass of phytochemicals, constituting a significant group of food constituents, many of these constituents change the metabolic processes of the human body and also have positive impacts on human health. Pistachios are also found to be the richest source of phytosterols (which goes to be 279 mg of total phytosterols/100 g; sitosterol going to be 210 mg/100 g, as the predominant phytosterol), lutein and zeaxanthin are also found (as 1205 g/100 g), carotenes (157g/100g), tocopherols (22.5 mg/100 g), vitamin B-6 (1.3 mg/100 g) and isoflavones (which include anthocyanins, chalcones, dihydroflavonols, dihydrochalcones, flavanones, flavonols, isoflavonoids and flavones) (accounting for 3.63 mg/100 mg). Some studies have also shown the presence of eriodictyol and anthocyanins in pistachios. The Pistachio is also a good source of unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid, oleic acid, and linolenic acid), which are essential for the body. Nuts like pistachios do contain a high rate of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (which is more than 55%) (Bullo M. et al., 2015, Ghaseminasab, P et al., 2015).

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Health Benefits of Pistachios The health benefits of pistachios are abundant: • • •

•

•

The presence of abundant unsaturated fatty acids and potassium contributes to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory traits. Pistachios also lower the possibilities for cardiovascular disease. Pistachios are full of fiber, nutrients, and unsaturated fat, which help keep blood sugar levels low. It can help in keeping blood pressure and cholesterol levels also in check. The fiber and protein content in nuts like Pistachio can give a sanctity feeling for a more considerable period. This fiber content also has an affirmative effect on gut health (Hernandez-Alonso et al., 2016). Pistachios can also help manage weight since their nutritious and fulfilling snacks (Bullo M. et al., 2015; Terezo et al., (2017)).

Applications of Pistachio Waste Pistachio kernels are used for various reasons, more importantly for the synthesis of activated Carbon and as a cheap adsorbent. These have a variety of uses in a variety of fields.

Activated Carbon Activated Carbon is a product obtained from environmental wastes that have more Carbon in them. The raw materials generally used for activated carbon production are lignocellulosic mass and coal materials. Activated Carbon has various properties that make them useful, like greater surface area, micropore size, and chemical complexity of its external surface area, making it useful in various applications. The adsorptive properties of charcoal were first reported by the end of the 18th century. Activated Carbon has a wide range of industrial applications, including gas and air cleaning, which involves traditional reusable substances. The strictness of environmental awareness has led to the development of new applications, especially in air pollution removal. Activated Carbon is one of the initiatives in this effort to treat all types of water. Its primary role is to adsorb dissolved organic impurities and remove

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substances affecting odor, taste, or color in homogenized hydrocarbons and other organic pollutants. It is used for organic impurities removal. There are many more applications of activated Carbon. It is helpful in the treatment, purification, and decolorization of liquids, which is particularly important in pharmaceuticals, beverages, food, and various other industries (Yang T. and Lua A.C. 2003).

Activated Carbon from Pistachio Shells First of all, removal of impurities and dust is done, the raw material (shell) is washed with deionized water and is dried at an oven temperature of 80°C. The raw materials are crushed using a vibrating mill; nearly 30 minutes later, the granules are prepared with 20 mesh sizes. The prepared granules are entirely dried by keeping them inside the oven at a temperature of 70°C for 6 h. After this, 200 g of each sample is placed in special crucibles. These crucibles are placed in the atmospheric furnace to carry out the process of carbonization (pyrolysis). The furnace condition is so adjusted that nitrogen atmosphere is used with the precise temperature cycles. The samples are heated up to 600°C, and this temperature is maintained for 1 hour. Finally, the samples are cooled down to ambient temperature, and the decay rate of 10°C min−1 is given. During these operations, pure nitrogen is supplied at the rate of 150 cm3 −1 min in the furnace for maintaining an inert atmospheric condition. The products of the carbonization stage have a pretty low adsorption capacity, and there is a presence of bitumen in the pores between the crystals and the surfaces. In the carbonization (or pyrolysis) process, non-carbon components such as hydrogen, oxygen, and volatiles are released from raw materials like gases. Free Carbon forms regular groups of graphite crystals. The pore structure of Carbon is formed at a temperature of about 600°C. There is further activation to open the pores and which can be used as an adsorbent (Niskair A. and Nasernajad B. (2017); Yang, T., and Lua A, C. (2003).

Pistachio Derived Carbon Application Improvisation of Li-S battery Pistachio shell, a by-product from the agri-food industry, can be used to attain activated Carbon with outstanding textural properties, giving a conductive

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matrix in which Sulphur atoms can get attached. The Carbon, which is shellderived and phosphoric acid, shows a high surface area (1345 m2·g-1) and a pore volume of around (0.67 cm3·g-1). It also has an interconnected system of micropores together with mesopores. It can also accumulate considerable amounts of S, which increases the charge carrier mobility of the electrochemical reactions. Additionally, the preparation of the S composite can be obtained by simply wetting and grinding the components by eliminating the usual stage of S melting. The cell performance is found to increase significantly in long-term cycling measurements and rate capability tests. Once the initial cycles required for cell stabilization are complete, a good capacity of around 300 cycles can be maintained. The rate capability test was also found to be successful. The capacity released was around 650 mAh·g-1 at 1ᵒC, a higher value than that supplied by other activated carbons from nut wastes (Benitez A., 2020).

Nanoparticle Synthesis Foo, K, Y., and Hameed B, H. (2011) have prepared a relatively cheap activated carbon with well-developed porosity from pistachio shell waste. The method developed for this purpose was microwave-induced pyrolysis. Various chemicals were used to carry out the effects of activating agents on the porosity, surface area, and carbon yield of the activated Carbon. The activated Carbon with the highest porosity produced was subsequently used to synthesize tungsten carbide. The characterization studies of the end product have been carried out by the Elemental analysis, TGA, N2 adsorptiondesorption studies, XRD, FESEM, and FTIR analysis. The chemical considered to be best was K2CO3 when exposed to a 600W power level for 15 min. The full-grown m pore structures were obtained with the highest surface area of (681.2 m2g -1), and the maximum carbon yield was obtained to be 70.3%.

Pistachio Shell activated Carbon for Tungsten Carbide Preparation The activated Carbon with the highest porosity (AC600) was subsequently utilized in the tungsten carbide (WC) preparation employed in a facile method of mechanical milling. In the final stage, a high-thermal treatment process is used with inert conditions to convert W into WC. The tungsten carbide

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produced was small, uniform, and of spherical nanoparticles with average diameters of 60 to 100 nm. High porosity and high surface area of catalyst support led to a homogeneous distribution of metal catalysts. Various physicochemical properties were evaluated, like N2 adsorption-desorption, FESEM, XRD, and TEM. It was found that the nanoparticles of Tungsten carbide so produced is because of the activated Carbon with relatively high porosity (AC600) because of the distribution of the tungsten crystal phase.

Pistachio Hull Activated Carbon for the Effective Removal of Parabens Rashidi H et al., (2020) conducted experiments on Parabens. These are the byproducts obtained from the reaction between para-hydroxybenzoic acid with alkyl substituents ranging from methyl to butyl or may be benzyl groups, so they are categorized as ester group derivatives. These belong to a particular class of preservatives used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, foodstuff, and in making products that are industrially useful due to their low cost and broadspectrum antimicrobial anti-fungal properties. The most common parabens are methylparaben and propylparaben. Since they are highly consumed as a common preservative, parabens are present in environmental resources, like surface waters, sediments, soils, sludge, dust, air, and are even detected in biotas like fish tissue human tissue, and body fluids. These are also reported to be harmful to human health. Removing methylparaben (MP) and propylparaben (PP) requires water and 20 mg of activated Carbon to make a solution. The adsorption performance was investigated by changing the pH of the solution (from 2–10), the mass of activated Carbon was taken to be (10–100 mg), NaCl (salt) concentration (ranges between-0–10%, w/v), adsorption time (taken to be 10–300 min), initial concentration of MP and PP (10–300 mg L–1), and solution temperature taken to be (25°C–50°C). After every adsorption procedure, the adsorbent was separated from a water sample by filtration. The aliquot amount of supernatant was filtered through a 0.45 µm PTFE syringe filter. Then it was transferred to a vial for determining the concentration of the residue of MP and PP by UV-Vis spectrophotometer.

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Production of Fungicidal Oil using Pistachio Activated Carbon The process for the production of fungicidal oil consists of the following steps: •

Production of activated Carbon for fungicidal oil

Okutucu C et al., (2011) produced activated Carbon. The char obtained from pyrolysis of the shell at 500◦C was heated up to 900◦C under a nitrogen atmosphere. When the reactor temperature reached 900 ◦C, the inert atmosphere was replaced by flowing carbon dioxide (at a 350 ml min−1) rate. The reactor was cooled to reach room temperature in a nitrogen atmosphere at the end of the desired activation time. The activated Carbon was weighted (m2) to calculate the burn-off value from the activation process. •

Fractionation of bio-oil phase

The bio-oil phase, obtained after pyrolysis of the pistachio shell, was fractionated and categorized into groups, namely water-soluble, low molecular weight lignin compounds (LMWL), and high molecular weight lignin (HMWL) compounds. Thus, the bio-oil was extracted with cold water at 0◦C (1:10, w/w), and the powder-like precipitate obtained was filtered, dried, and weighed as water-insoluble. The amount of water-soluble was determined by difference. The extraction was done by a water-insoluble fraction which was extracted with dichloromethane. Dichloromethane soluble fractions contain various extractives and LMWL; Dichloromethane insoluble fractions consist of HMWL. Principal extractives were found in bio-oil and were determined in hexane soluble fractions. Thus, the bio-oil and hexane (1:10, w/w) mixture was stirred for 2 h and separated by decantation. Hexane soluble compounds were defined as extractives.

Low-Cost Adsorbents Pollution is identified as one of the significant threats to humanity; therefore, research has been done to implement the concept of waste removal using waste. Water is one of the most affected environmental factors, loaded daily with heavy metals from various industries. A wide range of treatment technologies is employed in industry to remediate polluted water streams, e.g., Chemical precipitation, extraction, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, filtration,

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membrane bioreactor, and electrochemical techniques. Adsorption is an alternative and effective technology widely used in recent years because it covers a broad spectrum of pollutants, has exceptional performance, has high adsorption capacity, has an ecofriendly nature, and above all, has a low operating cost. In recent years, various agricultural waste has been used for the removal of lead, such as olive cake, olive stone waste, cow bone, sunflower plant biomass-based carbons, walnut shell, tea waste, cocoa pod husk, coffee ground, waste Lyocell fiber forestry waste of araucaria, pine and eucalyptus, agricultural bean husk powder Banerjee M et al., (2019).

Pistachio Shells as Adsorbent Removal of Dye On average, 700,000 tonnes and 10,000 different dyes and pigments are produced worldwide. They are extensively used in various industries, including textile, pulp, leather, paper, plastics, and food (Aksakal O. et al., 2010). Dyes, which usually have a synthetic origin, are characterized by complex aromatic molecular structures that supply thermal, physicochemical, and optical stabilities. Dyes can be classified as cationic (basic dyes), anionic (direct, acid, and reactive dyes), or non-ionic (disperse dyes). Cationic dyes, the examples being Methylene Blue (MB), can be applied to leather, silk, paper wool, plastics, and the production of ink, copying paper, and cotton mordant with tannin. Physico-chemical processes such as electrocoagulation, ozonolysis, photocatalysis, and adsorption have been employed to treat dyecontaining waste-water (Ravanpaykar et al., 2012). In the experimental procedure, an aliquot of the Acid blue 56 solutions, at pH = 3.5 and 15 ± 1oC was passed through a sample containing 0.3 g powder of pistachio shells (100 mesh). The absorbance of the dye was measured spectrophotometrically at λmax-603 nm before and after the passing of the blue 56 solutions through the column. Finally, the percent of the removal of the dye was calculated by using a calibration curve of blue 56. The concentration of dye in an aqueous solution was determined before and after spectrophotometrically. The efficiency of the extracted dye is calculated as follows: Where Co and Ct are the initial concentration and dilute phase concentration of the dye, respectively.

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Where C0 and Ce denote the initial and equilibrium dye concentration (mg L-1), the stock solution was prepared as 1000 mg L-1, in which VB dye was prepared in double-distilled water. The dilution was done in distilled water when necessary (Turan 2011). Despite the low toxicity of MB, it can cause harmful effects such as vomiting and enhanced heart rate, cyanosis, diarrhea, shock, jaundice, quadriplegia, and human tissue necrosis. Brilliant green (BG) is applied as a dermatological agent, veterinary medicine, and as an inhibitor of mold propagation and following contact with skin and eye, inhalation and ingestion generate toxicity to the lungs and other tissues target-organ damage. Pistachio shells were collected from local markets, cleaned with tap water, rinsed with distilled water several times, then dried at 373 K for 12 h. Sulphuric acid-based activated Carbon (ACS) was prepared by mixing 150 mL of 13 mol/L sulphuric acids with 30 g of a pistachio shell. The mixture was put in the furnace, whose temperature was kept at about 423-430 K for 90 min with intermittent stirring. After cooling, the resulting black residue was filtered using a Buchner funnel under a vacuum. Activated Carbon was washed for some time with distilled water until pH value reached 5-6 and dried at 373 K. For carrying out batch adsorption experiments, 0.025 grams of ACS with 25 mL aqueous solution of dye were introduced into 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks, shake well in a temperature-controlled water bath shaker using variable concentrations of dye between 10 and 400 mg/L of BG and between 50 and 500 mg/L of MB, pHs (between 3-10 for BG and 2-12 for MB), temperatures (between 32°C and 50°C), doses of ACS (between 0.005 and 0.0625 g) and ionic strength (in between 0.005 and 0.2 mole/L) and shaking at a constant rate of 200 rpm. The concentrations of the non-adsorbed components in the solution were determined spectro-photometrically at 623 and 662 nm for BG and MB, respectively. The removal percentage (R %) of cationic dyes is calculated (Banerjee et al., 2019). % removal = (C0-Ce)/C0 × 100

Pistachio Shell Biochar for Heavy Metal Adsorption Biochar is a carbon-rich, fine-grained, and porous material produced by heating organic matter at a temperature below 700ᵒC. Biochar is different from charcoal as far as its final use is concerned because it is used to improve soil quality and sequester Carbon. In contrast, charcoal is generally combusted for heating or cooking only. Many thermochemical processes are in use for its

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synthesis, namely conventional or flash carbonization, slow or fast pyrolysis, and gasification can be used to produce biochar from agricultural wastes.

Biochar Production The raw material (pistachio shell) is first soaked for 6 h in warm water at 60ᵒC to remove most salt and then it is oven-dried for 24 h to remove moisture. Using porcelain capsules, small quantities of shells are taken (e.g., 50 g) for pyrolysis in a modified laboratory furnace at a temperature varying between 250ᵒ and 650ᵒ C. Nitrogen was fed in the oven for 60 min at a rate of 100 mL min-1 to remove air. The heating rate was maintained at 10ᵒC min-1 while the retention time of the raw material at each temperature was 60 min. Use of Pistachio Biochar for Heavy Metal Removal Kinetic and equilibrium experiments were carried out in 200 mL glass beakers using pistachio shells (PI) and selected biochars (PI300 and PI550). PI300 was selected as a comparatively low pyrolysis temperature biochar with a higher yield and PI550 as a relatively high temperature for biochar pyrolysis with a lower yield. Four solutions with various concentrations of Pb and Cu were prepared by dissolving the required quantities of Pb(NO3)2 and Cu(NO3)2. H2O, respectively, in distilled water. For the kinetic experiments, the adsorbent (PI, PI300, and PI550) concentration used was 10 g L-1, while the concentration of Pb and Cu was 15, 45, 70, and 150 mg L-1. Stirring took place on a Vibromatic rocking mixer at 350 rpm and room temperature. Control tests were also carried out using 10 g L-1 of activated Carbon. At various time intervals (0.5, 1, 6, 12, 18, 24, 48, and 72 h), 10 mL of liquid samples were withdrawn and filtered through Whatman filter papers (0.45 lm) for the determination of Pb and Cu concentrations in solution using a Perkin Elmer Analyst 100 flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The adsorbed heavy metal concentration was calculated as the difference between the liquid phase's initial and final metal concentration. Equilibrium experiments were carried out using varying concentrations of adsorbent (PI, PI300, and PI 550), namely 1, 2, 5, and 10 g L-1, and heavy metals (Pb and Cu) 15, 45, 70, and 150 mg L-1. Stirring occurred at 350 rpm at room temperature while the kinetic experiments determined the contact time. By the end of the contact, time samples were withdrawn, filtered, and analyzed for their metal content, as described in the kinetic experiments. All tests were carried out in triplicate (Komnitsas, K, (2015).

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Use of Pistachio Shells as an Adsorbent for the Removal of Zinc(II) Ion Turan NG (2011), in their study of the removal of zinc(II) ion from an aqueous solution by pistachio shells (PS), has been investigated. The dynamic behavior of the adsorption is examined on the effects of pH, adsorbent dosage, and contact time. The adsorption rates are determined quantitatively and simulated by the Lagergren first order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion kinetic models. The adsorption kinetic models are also tested for validity. The thermodynamic parameters have also been deduced, which are very useful in elucidating the nature of adsorption. The experimental results reveal that the optimum pH value and the contact time for the adsorption of Zn2+ onto PS are 6 and 10 min, respectively. According to these parameters, the adsorption process followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model with high correlation coefficients (R2 = 0.999). The obtained results demonstrate that PS is a reasonably effective adsorbent for removing Zn2+ from aqueous leachate of hazardous waste. Copper-doped zinc sulfide nanoparticles loaded on activated carbon waste formed by pistachio nutshell were used to remove naphthol green B (NG-B) and phenol red (PH-R) dye from synthetic waste-waters. The study involved catalyst characterization and identification of optimal experimental conditions via appropriate screening based on experimental measurements and central composite design. The experimental study was performed with simultaneous sonication of the solution, and at the optimal conditions, they achieved 99% removal of the dyes in a short time. The kinetics obtained were of pseudosecond-order (Masoudian et al., 2018). Pistachio nutshell has been used as adsorbent raw material by many researchers. In most cases, it has been suitably treated so that an appropriately activated carbon is formed, which has subsequently been used to remove different pollutants from different media, mainly surrogate waste-waters.

Nanoparticles from Pistachio Shells Two methods can prepare nanoparticles related to Pistachio: a. Nanoparticles preparation using Pistachio shell b. Nanoparticles immobilized on Pistachio shell

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Preparation of Nanoparticles (Ag) from Pistachio Shell Khan et al., (2021) reported that the seed coat extract of pista (Pistacia vera) was used to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The material was cleaned with distilled water to remove harmful contents and then air-dried in sunlight. The material was ground into a fine powder, and 20 g of the fine powder was placed in a flask with 200 mL double distilled water, which was then refluxed for 30 min. For the next step, the plant extract was cooled and filtered through Whatman filter paper no. 1. As such, silver nitrate GR was used, obtained from Merck (India). In an Erlenmeyer flask, 100 mL of silver nitrate at a concentration of 1 mM was prepared. Then, different concentrations of the seed coat extract (2.5, 5.0, and 10 mL) were added to 90 mL of silver nitrate solution to optimize the rapid reduction of AgNO3. Furthermore, left at room temperature to observe the color change, the formation was also recognized using UV-Visible spectroscopy at 443 nm. Centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 20 min was used to collect biosynthesized AgNPs, then carefully washed with double distilled sterile water. The collected nanoparticles synthesized using 10 ml of the extract based on the rapid reduction of AgNO3 to AgNPs were further investigated using FT-IR, XRD, UV-Vis, SEM, and TEM spectroscopic techniques. Preparation of Nanoparticles Embedded on Pistachio Shell Mohammed et al., 2020 worked on silver nanoparticles (NPs) immobilized on pistachio shell surface prepared from Cichorium intybus L. leaves extract as an antioxidant media. The Fourier transform infrared spectra, X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscope analyses confirmed the support of silver NPs on the pistachio shell (Ag NPs/pistachio shell). Ag NPs on the pistachio shell had a 10-15 nm diameter. Reduction reactions of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) and organic dyes at ambient conditions were used to investigate the catalytic performance of the prepared catalyst. Through this research, the Ag NPs/pistachio shell shows high activity, recyclability, and reusability without losing its catalytic activity.

Applications of Pistachio Shell Embedded Nanoparticles as Catalyst Taghizadeh, A and Rad-Moghadam, K (2018) biosynthesized copper nanoparticles (CuNPs). In this method, CuNPs immobilized on the surface of

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waste pistachio shell (PS), as environmentally benign support, using pistachio hull extract (PHE) as a reducing and stabilizing agent has been mentioned. The biosynthesis was realized through a straightforward and inexpensive onepot procedure without any toxic reductants or capping agents. The biosynthesized CuNPs and copper/pistachio shell nanocomposite (Cu/PS NC) were characterized by UV–Vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and transform electron microscopy (TEM). The CuNPs and Cu/PS NC were successfully employed as efficient catalysts in the reduction of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), methylene blue (MB), rhodamine B (RhB), and methyl orange (MO) at ambient temperature. Cu/PS NC is a highly effective and easily recyclable catalyst, as it can be reused repeatedly without an appreciable decrease in its catalytic activity. Because of these properties, Cu/PS NC was employed as the packing material of a flow reactor for running the reduction of 4-NP into 4-AP expediently in a continuous flow manner. The flow reactor was successfully tested for simultaneous reductive degradation of the dyes that contaminated the actual waste-water samples collected from the drains of different local textile and drug industries.

Formation of Cellulose Nanocrystals from Pistachio Shell The pistachio nut (Pistacia vera) is a common food source. The nutshell has few known applications and is considered a waste product of the agriculture industry (agro-waste). Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from the pistachio shell can be obtained. CNCs have excellent mechanical properties, which have shown themselves to be effective in many different polymer-based nanocomposites (Marett, J. et al., (2017). After purification and hydrolyzing, cellulose will result in useable CNCs. The yield was found to be 50 ± 14 wt%, which is relatively high for any agrowaste product. The aspect ratio was found to be 17±3, the crystallinity obtained to be 66%, and a surface charge density of 90 ± 12 mmol/kg. These numbers compare well with other familiar commercial sources of CNCs. Movva, M. and Kommineni, R. (2017). Mohammed A et al., (2020) worked on a new adsorbent formed from pistachio shell powder that was coated with ZnO nanoparticles (CPS) and examined in terms of simultaneous adsorption of tetracycline (TEC),

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amoxicillin (AMO), and ciprofloxacin (CIP) from an aqueous solution. Initially, the characterization properties of CPS-like surface morphology, functional groups, and structure were obtained using advanced TEM, SEM, XRD, EDS, and FT-IR analysis. Post coating with ZnO nanoparticles, several surfaces and structural characteristics relating to the adsorption ability of the pistachio shell were significantly improved. The correlation of the kinetic data by a pseudo-second-order model was successful for three antibiotics—high compatibility between the TEC and CIP isotherm data and the Freundlich model. However, the Langmuir model produced a better fit for the AMO isotherm curves. In addition, its spontaneous and exothermic nature was the main feature of the adsorption process of the three antibiotics onto CPS. Through the results, the chemical adsorption has been governed by the AMO, CIP, and TEC reaction onto the homogeneous and heterogeneous sites of CPS surfaces. The CPS exhibited the highest adsorption capacity for AMO (132.240 mg/g), then for TEC (98.717 mg/g), and CIP (92.450 mg/g). These results place CPS as one of the highly efficient adsorbents that can be used to eradicate waste-water-containing antibiotics.

Conclusion From all the studies above, it can be concluded that the Pistachio shell can be used for various purposes like preparing low-cost adsorbents, activated Carbon, nanoparticles, and catalyst to prepare fungicidal oil well. So this can be concluded that the waste generated can be helpful for various purposes.

References Aksakal, O., and Ucun, H., 2010. Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies of the biosorption of textile dye (reactive red 195) onto Pinus sylvestris l. J. Hazard. Mater. 181(1), 666-672. Banerjee, M., Basu, R. K., Das, S. K., 2019. Adsorptive removal of Cu(II) by pistachio shell: Isotherm study, kinetic modeling, and scale-up designing — continuous mode. Env. Technol and Innov.15, 100419. Benitez, A., Morales, J., Caballero. A., 2020. A. Pistachio Shell-Derived Carbon Activated with Phosphoric Acid: A More Efficient Procedure to Improve the Performance of Li– S Batteries. Nanomaterials. 10(5), 840-854. Bozorgi, M., Memariani, Z., Mobli, M., Salehi, S. M. H., Shams-Ardekani, M. R., Rahimi, R., (2013). Five pistacia species (P. Vera, P. Atlantica, P. terebinthus, P. Khinjuk, and

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P. Lentiscus): a review of their traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. Sci World J. 219815. doi: 10.1155/2013/219815. Bulló, M., Falgarona, J. M., Alonso H. P., Salvadó, S., 2015. Nutrition attributes and Health effects of Pistachio nuts. Braz J. Nutr. Suppl 2, S79-93. doi: 10.1017/S0007114514003250. Dreher, M, L., 2012. Pistachio nuts: composition and potential health benefits. Nutr Review. 70(4), 234–240. Foo, K, Y. and Hameed, B. H., 2011. Preparation and characterization of activated Carbon from pistachio nut shells via microwave-induced chemical activation. Biomass and Energy. 35(7), 3257-3261. Ghaseminasab, P. M., Ahmadi, A, Mazloomi, S. M., 2015. A review on Pistachio: Its composition and benefits regarding the prevention or treatment of diseases. Winter. 4 (1), 57-69. Hernandez-A. P., Bullo, M., Salvado, S. J., 2016. Pistachios for Health What Do We Know About This Multifaceted Nut?, Nutrition today. 51(3), 133–138. Khan, M., Khan, A, U., Moon, S., Felimban, R., Alserihi, R., Alsanie, W, F., and Alam, M., 2021. Synthesis of biogenic silver nanoparticles from the seed coat waste of Pistachio (Pistacia vera) and their effect on the growth of eggplant. Nanotechnol Rev. 10, 1789-1800. Komnitsas, K., Zaharaki, D. P., I., Vamvuka, D., and Bartzas, G., 2014. Assessment of Pistachio Shell Biochar Quality and Its Potential for Adsorption of Heavy Metals. Waste Biomass Valor doi 10.1007/s12649-015-9364-5. Marett,J., Aning, A., and Foster, E,J., 2017. The isolation of cellulose nanocrystals from pistachio shells via acid hydrolysis. Indust Crops and prod. 109, 869-874. Masoudian, N., Rajabi, M., Ghaedi, M., Asghari, A., 2018. Highly efficient adsorption of Naphthol Green B and phenol red dye by a combination of ultrasound wave and copper-doped zinc sulfide nanoparticles loaded on the pistachio-nut shell: rapid removal of naphthol green b and phenol Red. Appl. Organometal. Chem. 32:e4369. doi: 10.1002/aoc.4369. Mohammed, A. A., Al-Musavvi, T. J., Kareem, S. L., Zarrabi, M., Al-Maabreh, A. M., 2020. Simultaneous adsorption of tetracycline, amoxicillin, and ciprofloxacin by pistachio shell powder coated with zinc oxide nanoparticles. Arab J. Chem. 13 (3), 4629-4643. Movva, M. and Kommineni, R., 2017. Extraction of cellulose from pistachio shell and physical and mechanical characterization of cellulose-based nanocomposites. Mat Res Exp. 4(4),045014. Niskair, A, and Nasernajad, B., 2017. Activated carbon preparation from pistachio shell pyrolysis and gasification in a spouted bed reactor. Biomass and Bioenergy. 106,4350. Okutucu, C., Duman, G., Ucar, S., Yasa, I., 2011. Production of fungicidal oil and activated Carbon from pistachio shells. J. Anal. and Appl. Pyrolysis. 91(1), 140-146. Rashidi, H., Nodeha, H. R., Sereshtib, H., Ataolahib, S., Toloutehranib, A., Ramezanib, A. T., 2020. Activated Carbon derived from pistachio hull biomass for the effective removal of parabens from aqueous solutions: isotherms, kinetics, and free energy studies. Desalin and Wat Treat. 201, 155–164.

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Ravanpaykar, A., Asfaram, A., Emadabadi, M. R. F., 2012. Removal of Dye (Blue 56) From Aqueous Solution via Adsorption onto Pistachio Shell: kinetic and isotherm study of the removal process. J. Chem Health Risks. 36(5), 475-481. Taghizadeh, A., and Moghadam, R. K., 2018. Green fabrication of Cu/pistachio shell nanocomposite using Pistacia Vera L. hull: An efficient catalyst for expedient reduction of 4-nitrophenol and organic dyes. J. Cleaner Product 198, 1105-1119. Terezo, S., Baldassano, S., Caldara, G. F., Ferrantelli, V., Dico, G. L., and Mule, F., 2017. Health benefits of pistachios consumption. Nat Products Letters. 33(5),715-726. Turan, N. G., 2011. Pistachio Shells as an Adsorbent for the Removal of Zinc(II) Ion. Clean, Soil, Air water. 36(5),475-481. Yang, T., and Lua A. C., 2003. Characteristics of activated carbons prepared from pistachio-nut shells by potassium hydroxide activation. Micropor and Mesopor Mater. 63 (1-3), 113-124.

Chapter 11

Consumption Patterns of Pistachios in India and Overseas Shanti Swaroop Chauhan *

Department of Business Studies, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, India

Abstract The present research aims to investigate the effect of attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio in India. The non-probability purposive sampling method was adopted for the selection of participants. The questionnaire was pretested to collect data from 522 respondents. Descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modeling is carried out to analyze the data. Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability demonstrate the inner consistency and reliability of the size items of the questionnaire. The fit indices projects measurement and structural models relating attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience orientation with purchase intention and consumption of pistachio are well fitted with data. The path analysis of the structural model demonstrates attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience had a significant and positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The social status was linked with purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The path analysis of the structural model further indicated that health benefit was the most important determinant, followed by convenience, attitude, and lifestyle influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Keywords: pistachio, determinants, consumption, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Introduction Changing consumers’ food habits, socio-demography, economic conditions, health properties, and commercial determinants affect the nut market worldwide. Due to a significant increase in full-time employment, nuclear families, expandable income, economic conditions advancement in food processing technology, and desire to spend more on health beneficial foods motivates consumers for consumption of nuts worldwide. The United States of America remains the largest producer of pistachios in the world with approximately 99% grown in California, where the climate and precision agricultural practices produce high-quality nuts. The growth in consumption of pistachio worldwide has hiked the profitability of various production houses involved in the pistachio business. Those times are gone, when Iran was the largest producer of pistachio in the world with approximately 480 tonnes. After Iran, pistachio-producing countries are the USA, Turkey, China, and Syria which produces 240, 144, 80, and 57 tons annually. Currently, the trend is completely changed. The U.S. continues to lead the world in pistachio production and is forecast to reach 476,000 metric tons in 2020/21. During 2018/19, U.S. production was 447,696 tons. This represents an increase of 28,302 tons for the current marketing year. Turkey is the second-largest global producer by volume and is set to produce 250,000 tons of pistachios in 2020/21, nearly tripling output. The pistachio orchards located in south-eastern Turkey, got a boost from the on-year in terms of good climatic conditions which resulted high production. However, most of Turkey’s harvest will be consumed domestically, leaving little left for international exports. Turkish domestic consumption is expected to hit 211,000 tons. Iran is the third-largest pistachio producer by volume, with production forecast to reach 190,000. tons. Exports to China were particularly strong, but this high trade volume is expected to decrease as supplies dwindle. Iranian domestic pistachio consumption is forecast to remain unchanged at 30,000 tons for 2020/21. Syria and the European Union are estimated to reach 50,000 and 18,000 tons of pistachio production, respectively. The U.S. supplies the majority of the European market. Consumption in Syria and the European Union is forecast at 45,500 and 137,730 tons, respectively. The worldwide acceptance of pistachio and growth of consumption is increased to a new extent which is clear from the figures given by various countries like Germany where pistachio production has seen 84.2 percent growth in consumption over three years.

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Spain has new plantings of pistachios, most of which will come into production within the next two to three years. There has been a consumption increase of 29.8 percent since 2015. Italy produces the Bronte pistachio, prized for its dark green color. Consumption of in-shell pistachios over the past three years has risen 41.2 percent. Similarly, France produces no pistachios and has seen a 20.1 percent consumption increase over the past three years. Even, South Korea has no pistachio production. But still, there has been an increase of 47.2 percent pistachio consumption since 2015. China has nominal pistachio production and is, by far, the largest consuming nation of pistachios. There has been an increase of 182.4 percent in consumption over the past three years. India’s pistachio market is dominated by Iran and other Middle Eastern countries, which have conducted pistachio trade with India for hundreds of years. The overall consumption of the nut has increased by 49.6 percent over the past three years. In all these countries the maximum market share is dominated by the USA. The USA is the largest producer and supplier of Pistachio throughout the globe. However, the overall consumption of pistachio is expected to be driven by increasing demand and consumption across Iran, United States, Turkey, Syria, China, Greece, Italy, and Afghanistan due to its positive effect on individuals’ health (Mehdi et al., 2008). Consumption of pistachios is the perfect addition to any eating plan for health concern individuals as it offers many health benefits which result from strong nutritional values, like amino acids, healthy fats, minerals like magnesium, and dietary fibre (Mandalari et al., 2021). Nuts are energy-dense but also nutrient-dense, high in protein, fibre, and micronutrients, and low in saturated fatty acids, and thus are part of a healthy dietary pattern (Nadimi et al., 2014). In India due to fast urbanization, significant rise in nuclear families, dual working conditions, a rise in family income, competitive lifestyle, and health concerns has increased the consumption of pistachio is significantly. However, pistachio consumption is mainly influenced by attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience. Consumption of pistachio can displace other dry fruits in the diet, and thus, promote a healthier dietary pattern. Pistachio is a nutrient-dense tree nut that can make contributions to a healthy dietary pattern and weight loss, in the context of an energy-based food plan in behavioral intervention and gives extra health benefits along with a reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Additionally, regular pistachio consumption is related to healthy shifts in dietary consumption and meals selections, reduced consumption of sweets, and a more beneficial ratio of poly-and

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monounsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids (Holligan et al., 2014; Nadimi et al., 2014; Mandalari et al., 2021). Compared with other nuts (Table 1), dry roasted pistachios have a lower fat content (43.4 g/100 g), which is composed mainly of saturated fatty acid (5.6 g), polyunsaturated fatty acid (13.3 g), and monounsaturated fatty acid (24.5 g), fatty acids, oleic and linoleic acids represent more than half of the total fat content in pistachios. Pistachios are also a good source of vegetable protein (about 21% of total weight), with an essential amino acid ratio higher than most other commonly consumed nuts (i.e., almonds, pistachio, walnuts, pecans, and hazelnuts), and they have a high percentage of branched-chain amino acids. The amount of total carbohydrates is low to moderate (about 29% by weight), but they are richer in fiber than other nuts with a 10% by weight of insoluble forms and 0.3% of soluble forms. Table 1. Nutritional composition of dry roasted nuts

Data obtained from US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28.3 Abbreviations: MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; SFA, saturated fatty acid.

Pistachios also contain significant amounts of minerals (i.e., potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin E (especially γ-tocopherol), vitamin C, vitamin B (except B12), vitamin K, and folate with relatively high amounts of these compounds compared with other nuts. Moreover, pistachios are also a rich source of lutein and zeaxanthin (xanthophyll carotenoids) and phenolic compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins, and their antioxidant capacity is considerable. Pistachios are the nuts that have the highest content of phytosterols, including stigmasterol, camp sterol, and β-sitosterol. The

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complete and diverse set of micronutrients and macronutrients are present in pistachio nuts which makes it potentially one of the most health-promoting dry fruits.

Literature Review World Market Trends of Pistachio The pistachio market is expected to grow at a rate of 3.20% in the forecast period of 2020 to 2027. The increasing demand for pistachio as a flavoring agent in bakery products is the factor for the growth of the pistachio market in the forecast period of 2020-2027. Increasing awareness among the people regarding the benefits associated with the consumption of pistachio, surging demand of pistachio as a snack, rising health benefits of pistachio such as provides relief from constipation, reduces heart attack as well as cancer risk, improves immunity thereby increases immunity are some of the factors that will accelerate the growth of the pistachio market in the forecast period of 2020-2027. On the other hand, the rising need for pistachio in confectionery and bakery products is further creating new and ample opportunities for the growth of the pistachio market in the forecast period (http://www. databridgemarketresearch.com).

Market Trends of Pistachio in Asia Pacific Region Nine thousand Tons by 2027, growing at a CAGR of 3.3% over the period 2020-2027 Shelled, one of the segments analyzed in the report, is projected to record 3.4% CAGR and reach 543.1. While China is forecasted to grow at 5.3% CAGR. China, the world`s second-largest economy, is forecast to reach a projected market size of 160.9. China and India forms two important countries producing pistachio nuts in the Asia Pacific where they continue to rely on their exports to generate revenue. India accounted for 58% and 26% of Afghan pistachio exports respectively. The major application areas for pistachios are confectionary, bakery, snacks, and dairy products where its demand is high due to the addition of different flavors which enhances its taste thus getting more people hooked on it every day (https://dataintelo. com).

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Market Trends of Pistachio in India India consumes 4.5 million kg of pistachios a year and most of them are Californian. The bulk pistachios come from Iran and Afghanistan, routed through Dubai-based exporters of Indian origin or Pakistani traders. In the next five years, it aims to achieve 22.5 million kg of sales of Californian pistachios in India. The report finds that the market grew at a CAGR of 12.8% during 2017. The major factor for the growth of the pistachio market in India is, the rapid rising in in population due to which the consumption levels are witnessed significant growth. India is becoming the leading importer of pistachio from worldwide. In 2018, approximately 8.48 thousand metric tons of pistachio nuts were consumed in India. However, there is a decrease from the previous year when around 12 thousand metric tons were consumed (https://economictimes.indiatimes.com).

Determinants Influencing Consumption of Pistachio Attitude Attitude refers to an individual’s evaluation of a given behavior as favorable or unfavourable and it depends on individual belief about the outcomes of the behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005). Attitudes are learned and affected by perceived information and experience. Attitudes are ambivalent when people have both positive and negative evaluations of behavioral outcomes (Sparks et al., 2001). Patch et al. (2005) found that the attitude toward novel food enriched with omega-3 is the only significant predictor of the intention to consume pistachio. Numerous scholars have indicated that consumer attitude shows the strongest association with consumer intention, especially in terms of behavior toward functional food (Hung et al., 2016). Studies on the relationship between attitude and the intention of consuming organic food, fruit, dry fruits and vegetables have consistently shown positive associations (Emanuel et al., 2012; Wang and Wang, 2015). Hung and colleagues (2016) also demonstrated that attitude is the most vital determinant for the purchasing intention towards dry fruits. Several factors determine people’s dietary attitudes, such as sensory preferences, beliefs about the nutritional quality, and health perception of food (Naughton et al., 2015). Studies have confirmed that perceived value affects customer attitude (Ruiz-Molina and Gil-Saura, 2008) Thus, the first hypothesis is proposed as follows:

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H1. Consumer attitude positively affects the purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Perceived Health Benefits Health can be explained as a multidimensional construct encompassing the overall wellbeing of a person in terms of physical, mental, and social aspects and not only the absence of disease or infirmity (Hughner and Kleine, 2004; Ogden, J., 2007; Geeroms et al., 2008). The physiological health motive dimension includes emotional wellbeing, feeling happy, being with friends, social responsibility, having energy, looking good, and achievement (Geeroms et al., 2008). The health benefits are also associated with the consumption of pistachio which is packed with numerous health benefits. Pistachio is a good source of carbohydrates, energy, and skin glow, which seem to be prevalent almost universally (Dreher, 2012). There are entrenched beliefs associated with the consumption of pistachio and its benefits on human health. Many consumers consume pistachio as they believe that this makes them more easily digestible and so the nutrients in the nuts lend themselves more readily to absorption by the body (Casas et al., 2011). Thus, the second hypothesis was proposed as: H2. The perceived health benefits positively affect the purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Lifestyle To have a good time with the traditional heritage, those gala act as a pretext to mark cultural rootedness. Indian sweets (mithai), pistachio is via a long way the most popular choice for gifting in the course of festivals and weddings. This class is generally bought unfastened in India and the branded products are mostly imported. Based on the Indian lifestyle pattern of Indian cuisine pistachio is making way to penetrate more on the platters of Indian consumers through pouch formats which encourages small eats also, in regular seasons (Varuna and Kasturi, 2018). Pistachio has a dominating presence in breakfast, snacks, and also leisure time. It cannot be ignored in sweets, ice creams, custards, and many mouth-watering dishes of India, which are still reflecting quintessential exotic India (Parizi et al., 2016). Thus, the third research hypothesis was proposed as follows:

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H3. Lifestyle positively affects the purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Convenience Perceived convenience like price, convenience, and availability which affects consumer food selection (Sabbe et al., 2009). With the contemporary advent of malls and retailer brands, there are large players in the market selling pistachio in the packaged format. Interestingly, this is the only category that is seen in both separate pistachio counters where they are sold in bulk as well as in premium, packaged formats closer to the cash counter, due to the availability of small packs this green nut now can be seen in the tiffin box, on the go small pack in the bags of many people. The more positively consumers rate the health and convenience aspects of pistachio, the more they are willing to along with their health. Accordingly, the fourth hypothesis is proposed: H4. The perceived convenience value positively affects the purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Purchase Intention and Consumption The popularity and consumption of pistachio are increasing sharply worldwide, because of the desire, to maximize leisure time, competitive lifestyle, availability, and perceived health benefits. The purchase intention of consumers toward pistachio is complex and governed by socio-demographics, physical, economic, social, attitude, health, lifestyle, etc. However, the importance of each factor that derives from purchase intention depends on the attitude and behavior of consumers. It is important to gain in-depth knowledge to understand in which circumstances consumers perceived purchase intention for a food product. The perceived value of the product is directly associated with food convenience, sensory, quality, safety, health, price, and availability has a positive effect on consumer purchase intention. The consumer purchase intention toward pistachio is also influenced by the external environment, hunger, physiological motivation, and shopping culture. In recent years, the dry fruit processing industries and marketing agencies have extensively relied on social media and electronic communication systems to motivate consumers toward purchase intention for pistachio. The pre-purchase services, transaction-related services, billing, delivery, and security services play an important role to drive consumers towards purchase intention of food products (Hong and Cho, 2011; Kuster et al., 2016). The demand and consumption of

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food products are increasing sharply in both developed and developing nations, and the reason is fast urbanization, dual working conditions, a rise in family income, busy work schedule, competitive lifestyle, and desire to maximize leisure time, the consumption of pistachio increased significantly in India. The consumption behavior of pistachio is influenced by attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience determinants. Accordingly, the fifth hypothesis is proposed: H5: Purchase intention has a positive effect on the consumption of pistachio. The conceptual model of the present study is based on previous research theoretical background to assess the role of convenience, attitude, health benefits, and lifestyle influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Conceptual model.

Method Development, Pre-Testing, and Structure of the Questionnaire The developed questionnaire is based on previous studies carried out about attitude, health benefits, lifestyles, and convenience orientation influencing consumption of pistachio as well as suggestions obtained from participants comprising of buyers of pistachio and nutrition experts. Comprehensive literature review and feedback from participants provided guidelines to develop questionnaire to examine the role of aforementioned determinants on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The pre-testing of the questionnaire was carried out at, various counters both departmental stores and retailers selling pistachio in Prayagraj, India to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the questionnaire (Grim, 2010).

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The designed questionnaire was pre-tested with fifty participants comprised of consumers purchasing pistachio. The participants were briefed about the purpose and objectives of the study as well as the structure of the questionnaire. The participants were asked to identify and remove potential problems as well as to ensure their comprehensibility. After completing the questionnaire, the participants were asked to give their responses about the design, structure, and interpretation of the questionnaire to assess the role of the aforementioned determinants on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The suggestions made by the participants were included in the final questionnaire to ensure accuracy and precision in data collection (Pieniak et al., 2009; Konuk, 2019). The structure of the questionnaire was based on the proposed conceptual model relating convenience orientation, attitude, and perceived health value and competitive with purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. Section one of the questionnaire was constructed to collect general information of consumers i.e., educational qualification, occupation, marital status, dry fruit preferences, and frequency of eating pistachio. The second, third, fourth, and fifth section of the questionnaire was framed to collect information regarding the role of various aspects of attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Participants The participants comprised consumers buying pistachio from various departmental stores and retail outlets. The participants consisted of 38.3% of males and 61.7% females. The age of the participants ranged from 15 to 60 years (average age = 30.37 years). The participants comprised 48.9% single and 51.1% married of which 34.1% and 65.9% were unemployed and employed respectively. Most of the participants were educated and aware of the health benefits of pistachio. The annual family income of the participants varied from INR 50000 to INR 3000000 (US$ 700 to US$ 40000).

Sampling Method and Sample Size The non-probability purposive sampling method was adopted for the recruitment of the participants because researchers were targeting a specific group of participants as they are major consumers of pistachio products (Tan

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et al., 2014; Singh and Kathuria, 2016). The present study comprised 600 participants from five major cities of Uttar Pradesh i.e., Lucknow, Prayagraj, Kanpur, Agra, and Meerut. The total population of five cities is approximately 9.50 million. These cities are having cultural diversity, availability of a large number of departmental stores, and availability of a wide variety of dry fruit in the retail and wholesale market as well as a wide volume of sales of dry fruits. The 78 participants were eliminated because they provided incomplete information. Thus, the final sample size was 522, with a response rate of 87%. Participants taken in this study were more than 400 as recommended for the population over 0.25 million with a confidence level of 95% and 5% margins of error (The Research Advisor, 2006).

Data Collection The researcher gave the questionnaire to the participants and briefed them about the purpose, objectives, and importance of the study. The effect of the aforementioned determinants on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio were determined on a five-point Likert scale (Strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, don’t know = 3, agree = 4, strongly agree = 5). The participants were asked to choose one from 1 to 5 for each question (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001; Contini et al., 2018).

Data Analysis The structural equation modeling approach was adopted to test the postulated hypotheses (Wang et al., 2015; Konuk, 2019). The structural model was constructed to examine the relationship between attitude, health, lifestyle, convenience orientation, and purchase intention as well as purchase intention of consumption of pistachio. The CFI, TLI, GFI, RMSEA, SRMR, and ꭓ2/df (Chi-square/ degree of freedom) were determined to assess the fit of the structural model (Rezai et al., 2014; Singh and Kathuria, 2016; Konuk, 2019). The standardized estimate (path coefficient), standard error, t- value, and pvalue were used to test the hypotheses (Konuk, 2019).

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Results Descriptive Statistics Table 2 shows the mean score of constructs and different items of constructs i.e., convenience orientation, attitude, health, lifestyle, purchase intention, and consumption. The mean participants score indicated that perceived health benefit was the most important determinant influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio, followed by attitude, convenience, and lifestyle. ‘Easy to serve’/‘time saving/minimum physical efforts clean-up’ and wide availability within convenience orientation; ‘feel good/helps to relax’; ‘no constraint for consumption’; ‘nutrition value’ properly marked’ within the attitude. Vitamin and Mineral content, Fibre content, lowering blood pressure, low risk of heart attack, reducing weight were the important factors influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio (Table 2). The Skewness for different items of convenience orientation, social status, moral attitude, mood, spiritual concern, religious beliefs, and ethical values ranged from -0.918 to 0.505, which were within the threshold values of -1 to 1 (Table 2). The kurtosis for different items of convenience, attitude, health, and lifestyle ranged from -1.357 to 1.933, which were within the threshold values of -2 to 2 (Table 2). The skewness and kurtosis values obtained for different items of the determinants indicated that data/participants’ Likert scores were normally distributed (Rezai et al., 2014).

Measurement Model Table 2 presents factor loading, Cronbach’s alpha (α), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) for convenience, attitude, health, lifestyle purchase intention, and consumption of pistachio. The factor loading of the different items of convenience, attitude, health, lifestyle, purchase intention, and consumption ranged from 0.628 to 0.985, which exceeded the minimum cut off point of 0.60, therefore all items were included for the interpretation of the factors influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio (Nunnally, 1978; Hair et al., 2010.

4.21 4.60 3.71 4.08 4.21 4.24 4.32 4.16 3.55 3.67 2.94 3.01 3.80 3.22 3.22

Convenience (CNV) I prefer pistachio due to its availability near my residence (CNV 1) I prefer pistachio due to its availability near to my workplace. (CNV2) I prefer pistachio because it is easily available in supermarkets, grocery stores. (CNV 3) I prefer pistachio because it is easy to serve. (CNV4) I prefer pistachio because it is easy to clean up. (CNV5) I prefer pistachio because it is easy to store. (CNV 6) I prefer pistachio because its waste disposal is easy. (CNV 7) Attitude (ATT) I prefer pistachio to maintain my social status. (ATT 1) I prefer pistachio because it keeps me at par with my peers in the social circle. (ATT 2) I prefer pistachio because it gives me an opportunity to socialize with my friends. (ATT 3) I prefer pistachio because I don’t feel I am promoting unhealthy food (ATT 4) I prefer pistachio because it cheers the mood of my spouse/children/friends/guests. (ATT 5) I prefer pistachio because it comes from a country that follows high standards for processing and packaging (ATT 6) I prefer pistachio because all the nutritional values are properly marked on its packet. (ATT 7) Health (HLT) Pistachio has antioxidants (HLT 1) Pistachio helps in controlling weight (HLT 2) Pistachio control blood sugar (HLT 3) Pistachio is good for my heart (HLT 4) Pistachio controls blood pressure (HLT 5) Pistachio contains vitamins and minerals. (HLT 6) 3.52 3.98 3.66 3.87 3.69 3.80 3.72 3.95

Mean

Constructs/Items

*** *** *** *** *** ***

0.799 0.736 0.754 0.769 0.729 0.798

*** *** *** *** *** ***

0.712 0.880 0.681 0.717 0.632 0.814

***

*** *** *** *** *** *** ***

0.978 0.923 0.729 0.665 0.686 0.953 0.919

0.789

pvalue

Factor loading

0.901

0.899

0.910

0.987

0.990

CR

0.731

α

0.764

0.582

0.969

AVE

Table 2. Mean participant’s score, factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha (α), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) of determinants influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio

Mean

Lifestyle 3.76 I consume pistachio very often as snacks. (LFS 1) 4.23 I prefer to gift pistachio to my friends and relatives during celebrations. (LFS 2) 4.55 I consume pistachio due to boredom/distress (LFS 3) 4.11 I consume pistachio during my leisure time (LFS 4) 4.34 I prefer pistachio because it makes me feel good. (LFS 5) 3.65 I consume pistachio often before going to bed (LFS 6) 3.17 I prefer pistachio because it makes life easier. (LFS 7) 3.91 Purchase intention (PI) 4.21 I will continue to buy pistachio due to the competitive price and promotional offer. (PI 1) 4.14 I will continue to buy pistachio due to my lack of skills for preparing snacks. (PI 2) 3.65 I will continue to buy pistachio due to good quality, safety, and health. (PI 3) 3.50 I will continue to buy pistachio because it is readily available and easy to serve. (PI 4) 4.20 I will continue to buy pistachio as there are choices available for multi-brands. (PI 5) 3.93 Consumption (CON) 3.95 I consume pistachio due to convenience. (CON 1) 3.83 I consume pistachio because it is good for leisure time (CON 2) I consume pistachio due to its application in various dishes. (CON 3) 3.38 I consume pistachio due to its good taste, smell, and appearance. (CON 4) 3.79 I consume pistachio due to its attractive packaging. (CON 5) 3.59 I consume pistachio due to the competitive price. (CON 6) 3.81 I consume pistachio due to good quality, high safety, and health. (CON 7) 3.36 I consume pistachio due to easy availability. (CON 8) 3.67 Measurement model fit indices: CFI = 0.945; TLI = 0.938; GFI = 0.933; RMSEA = 0.075; SRMR = 0.054 *** Significant at p ≤ 0.01; Skewness: - 0.910 to 0.505; Kurtosis: -1.343 to 1.933.

Constructs/Items

Table 2. (Continued) pvalue *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

Factor loading 0.701 0.692 0.593 0.874 0.903 0.735 0.790 0.628 0.842 0.754 0.694 0.763 0.900 0.767 0.826 0.765 0.816 0.912 0.741

0.968

0.900

0.940

0.780

0.740

CR

0.933

α

0.690

0.576

0.771

AVE

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Januszewska et al., 2011; Pula et al., 2014; Contini et al., 2018; Konuk, 2019). Cronbach’s alpha for convenience attitude, health, lifestyle, purchase intention, and consumption constructs ranged from 0.731 to 0.901, which exceeded the minimum acceptable value of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978; Pieniak et al., 2009; Rezai et al., 2014). Composite reliability of convenience, attitude, health, lifestyle, purchase intention, and consumption constructs varied from 0.899 to 0.990 exceeding the recommended cut-off value of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978; Konuk, 2019). Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values obtained for different constructs revealed good internal consistency and reliability of scale items of the questionnaire (Hair et al., 2010; Januszewska et al., 2011; Konuk, 2019). The average variance extracted (AVE) for convenience, attitude, health, lifestyle, purchase intention, and consumption constructs varied from 0.538 to 0.864, which exceeded the threshold value of 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Contini et al., 2018). The factor loading higher than 0.60 and the average variance extracted higher than 0.50, confirmed the convergent validity of the constructs (Fornel and Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010; Contini et al., 2018). The square root of AVE estimates (diagonal values) was higher than the correlations estimate amongst constructs (Table 3), confirming the discriminant validity of the constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Konuk, 2019). The Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Mean Square Residual (SRMR) were used to assess the fit of measurement model relating convenience, attitude, health, lifestyle, with purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The CFI was 0.915 (≥0.90); TLI was 0.908 (≥0.90); GFI was 0.903 (≥0.90); RMSEA was 0.079 (≤0.08) and SRMR was 0.054 (≤0.08), which were within the recommended threshold values (Table 2). The values of the indices show a satisfactory fit of the measurement model with data (Hu and Bentler, 1999; Singh and Kathuria, 2016; O’Connor et al., 2017; Konuk, 2019).

Structural Model The results of the structural model presented in Table 4 demonstrated the extent of association between convenience orientation, attitude, health benefits, lifestyle, and purchase intention as well as purchase intention with consumption of pistachio.

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Table 3. Discriminant validity of the constructs Constructs CVO ATT HLT LFS PI CON

CVO 0.984 0.165 0.186 0.403 0.159 0.189

ATT

HLT

LFS

PI

CON

0.763 0.283 0.217 0.537 0.405

0.733 0.121 0.275 0.245

0.876 0.129 0.680

0.793 0.451

0.795

Table 4. Structural model results to examine the association between attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience determinants with purchase intention and consumption of pistachio Hypothesis H1

Structural Path

Convenience orientation  Purchase intention H2 Attitude Purchase intention H3 Health  Purchase intention H4 Lifestyle Purchase intention H5 Purchase intention  Consumption ** Significant at p ≤ 0.01

Standardized estimate (ß)

tvalue

pvalue

Results

0.789

The standard error (SE) 0.024

32.462

**

Accepted

0.653

0.040

31.484

**

Accepted

0.794

0.028

20.984

**

Accepted

0.586

0.028

18.683

**

Accepted

0.998

0.016

61.962

**

Accepted

Hypothesis 1 (H1), that postulated positive effect of convenience orientation on purchase intention of pistachio was supported as a standardized estimate (ß) of the path of structural model was significant (ß = 0.789, t-value = 32.462, p ≤ 0.01). Hypothesis 2 (H2), which proposed positive effect of attitude on purchase intention of pistachio was supported as a standardized estimate (ß) of the path of structural model was significant (ß = 0.653, t-value = 31.484, p ≤ 0.01). Hypothesis 3 (H3), which predicted that health benefit has a positive effect on purchase intention of pistachio was supported as a standardized estimate (ß) of the path of structural model was significant (ß = 0.794, t-value = 20.984, p ≤ 0.01). Hypothesis 4 (H4) that proposed positive effect of lifestyle on purchase intention of pistachio was supported because standardized estimate (ß) of the path of structural model was significant (ß = 0.586, t-value = 18.683, p ≤ 0.01). Hypothesis 5 (H5), which postulated positive effect of purchase intention on

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the consumption of pistachio was also supported because standardized estimate (ß) of the path of structural model was significant (ß = 0.998, t-value = 61.962, p ≤ 0.01). Further, a standardized estimate of the path of the structural model revealed that health (ß = 0.794), was the most important determinant, followed by convenience (ß = 0.789), attitude (ß = 0.653), and lifestyle (ß = 0.586) influencing purchase intention and consumption of pistachio.

Results and Discussion Health plays an important role in driving consumers towards the consumption of pistachio. The results of the structural model and mean participants’ scores of the construct revealed that health had a significant and positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The standardized estimate of the structural model indicated that health was the most important factor influencing consumers for pistachio. Further, convenience, attitude, and lifestyle are the key factors that positively affect purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The analysis of the structural model indicated that all factors, convenience, attitude, health, and lifestyle affect purchase intention and consumption of pistachio the standardized estimate was statistically insignificant. Further, the mean participant’s score of the construct, as well as different items of the construct, also revealed that social status had no significant effect on choice for pistachio. The effect of social status/social class on choice for pistachio is ambiguous (Schultz et al., 2007). Attitude is an important factor that affects pistachio choice. The analysis of the structural model indicated that attitude had a significant and positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The mean participants’ score of construct and different items of construct revealed that attitude had a positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. This is due to fact that consumers feel social status, an opportunity to socialize with friends cheers the mood, high nutritional value, maintaining social status, getting an opportunity to socialize with friends, and promoting healthy food traditions during shopping and consumption of pistachio. Further, social and moral norms do not restrict the purchase and consumption of pistachio. Even, the findings of other studies carried out in developed countries demonstrated a positive effect of attitude

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towards shopping and consumption of pistachio. Parizi et al. (2016) reported that attitude had a positive effect on shopping and consumption of nuts. They further stated that cultural differences in the context of moral attitude play a key role in the consumption of pistachio worldwide. It is generally believed that pistachio reduces stress, minimizes daily hassles, and provides opportunities for leisure activities. The analysis of the structural model indicated that health also has a significant and positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The effect of lifestyle on purchase decisions and consumption of pistachio may vary with religion, tradition, culture, and socio-economic conditions. The analysis of the structural model indicated that lifestyle had a significant and positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. Further, the mean participants’ score of construct and different items within the construct revealed that lifestyle had a positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. This is due to fact that the lifestyle norms, promote purchasing and consumption of pistachio in emerging economies like India. Tan et al. (2014) reported that tradition and culturebased lifestyle had a significant effect on consumer choice for pistachio. They further revealed that a high level of lifestyle based on cultural facts might result in better food-related lifestyles. The religious laws and practices prevent consumers from purchasing and consumption of specific food (Suki and Suki, 2015). The analysis of the structural model indicated that religious beliefs had a significant and positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. Further, the mean participants’ score of construct and different items within the constructs also revealed that lifestyle had a positive effect on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. This is due to fact that lifestyle norms and guidelines do not restrict the purchase and consumption of pistachio. The results of the previous studies showed that the Indian traditionbased lifestyle of gifting during celebrations was an important determinant that affects consumers’ attitude, behavior, and purchase decision for dry fruits (Bakar et al., 2013).

Conclusion and Implications The consumption of pistachio is sprawled into the lifestyle of consumers in developing and emerging economies due to a significant rise in employment and nuclear families, busy work schedules, competitive environment, and

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lifestyle, and significant change in food consumption patterns. The findings of the present study highlight the role of convenience orientation, attitude, health, and lifestyle on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The nonprobability purposive sampling method was adopted for the recruitment of participants because researchers were targeting a specific group of consumers. Descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modeling were employed to analyze the data from 522 consumers. The skewness and Kurtosis values obtained for different items of constructs indicated the normal distribution of data. Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability demonstrated adequate internal consistency and reliability of scale items of the questionnaire. The factor loading, average variance extracted, and correlations indicated convergent and discriminant validity of constructs. The statistical indices demonstrated a good fit of measurement and a structural model relating attitude, health, lifestyle, and convenience on purchase intention and consumption of pistachio. The health benefit was found to be the most important motivating factor driving consumers towards pistachio. The convenience orientation was found to be the second most important motivating factor driving consumers towards pistachio choice mainly due to easy serving, time-saving, and minimum physical effort in clean-up and waste disposal. The overall results indicate that attitude and lifestyle norms do not restrict consumers for purchase and consumption of pistachio in developing and emerging economies like India. The conceptual framework and findings highlight some theoretical and practical contributions. Firstly, to the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first comprehensive research carried out in emerging economies particularly in India to assess the role of the aforementioned determinants in a single study on the consumption of pistachio, which shall add new information to the literature. Secondly, some important factors such as health-related benefits, have importance in the context of pistachio consumption. The empirical evidence for the determinants adds novel information to the literature. Thirdly, the empirical evidence indicates that in emerging economies convenience orientation is the concern factor due to lack of time is becoming an important factor influencing consumers’ choice consumption of pistachio. Fourthly, due to significant changes in food-related lifestyle, food processing industries and marketing agencies need to understand the role of the determinants on the consumption of pistachio to promote their business and provide healthy pistachio to consumers.

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Finally, the green nut processing industries should obtain quality, safety, and ethical certifications from authorized agencies to enhance consumers’ trust in choice for pistachio consumption. The present study has some limitations. Due to time and resource constraints, the present study was carried out in five cities in Uttar Pradesh, which limits the generalization of the results. Hence, it is recommended to carry out similar research across cities and countries to obtain more generalized and representative results. The present study concentrates on a specific group of consumers which also limits the applicability of the findings. Therefore, future research should include a wide range of consumers to enhance the overall applicability of the results. Further, school children constitute important consumer segments for pistachio consumption. Hence, it is recommended to carry out similar studies across cities and countries to provide safe and healthy consumption of pistachio.

References Bakar, A., Lee, R. and Rungie, C., (2013). The effects of religious symbols in product packaging on Muslim consumer responses. Australasian Marketing Journal. 21, 198-204. Ben Mimoun, Mehdi & Bobokashvili, Zviad & (Goldhirsh, Avi & Ibrahim, Ashraf & Marra, Francesco & M, Müller & M.A, Saeed & K. I., Vaccaro. (2008). Following Pistachio footprints (Pistacia vera L.), cultivation and culture, folklore and history, traditions and uses. Casas, A. P., Bulló, M., Ros, E., Basora, J., Salas, S. J., and Nureta, P. (2011). Crosssectional association of nut intake with adiposity in a Mediterranean population. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 21(7), 518–525. Dreher, M. L. Pistachio nuts: composition and potential health benefits. Nutr Rev 2012; 70(4):234-40. Fornell, C. and Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research. 18, 39-50. Grimm, P. (2010). Pretesting a Questionnaire. Wiley Inter. Encycl. of Mark. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/97 81444316568.wiem02051. Holligan, S. D., West, S. G., Gebauer, S. K., Kay, C. D., Kris-Etherton, P. M. A moderatefat diet containing pistachios improves emerging markers of cardiometabolic syndrome in healthy adults with elevated LDL levels. Br J Nutr 2014;112(5):744-52. Hu, L. T. and Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling. 6 (1), 1-55.

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Konuk, F. A. (2019). The impact of retailer innovativeness and food healthiness on store prestige, store trust, and store loyalty. Food Research International. 116, 724-730. Mandalari, Giuseppina & Barreca, Davide & Gervasi, Teresa & Roussell, Michael & Klein, Bob & Feeney, Mary & Carughi, Arianna. (2021). Pistachio Nuts (Pistacia vera L.): Production, Nutrients, Bioactives and Novel Health Effects. Plants. 11. 18. 10.3390/plants11010018. Nadimi, Ali & Jalalli, Ms & Shahrabadi, Mr & Shahriyari, Ms & Asadollahi, Ms. (2014). The effect of pistachios on human health: A review study. Journal of occupational health and epidemiology. 3. 10.18869/acadpub.johe.3.4.242. O’Connor, L. E., Sims, L., and White, M. K., (2017). Ethical food choices: Examining people’s fair-trade purchasing decisions. Food Quality and Preferences. 60, 105-112. Parizi, G., and Mazloomi, S. M. (2016). A review on pistachio: Its composition and benefits regarding the prevention or treatment of diseases. 57. Patch C. S., Tapsell, L. C., and Williams, P. G. (2005). Attitudes and intentions toward purchasing novel foods enriched with omega-3 fatty acids. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 37, 235-241. Pieniak, Z., Verbeke, W., Vanhonacker, F., Guerrero, L. and Hersleth, M. (2009). Association between traditional food consumption and motives for food choice in six European countries. Appetite. 53: 101-108. DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2009.05.019. Reddy, Chandu & Dande, Sreeramulu & Manchala, Raghunath. (2010). Antioxidant activity of fresh and dry fruits commonly consumed in India. Food Research International - FOOD RES INT. 43. 285-288. 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.10.006. Rezai, G., Teng, P. K., Mohamed, Z. and Shamsudin, M. N., (2014). Structural equation modeling of consumer purchase intention toward synthetic functional foods. Journal of Food Products Marketing. 20, 13-34. Ros, E. (2010). Health benefits of nut consumption. Nutrients. 2(7), 652–682. Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., CIaldini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J. and Griskecicius, V. (2007). The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychological Science. 18, 429 - 434. Singh, A. and Kathuria, L. M. (2016). Understanding drivers of branded food choice among low-income consumers. Food Quality and Preference. 52, 52-61. Sweeney, J. and Soutar, G. (2001). Consumer Perceived Value: The Development of a Multiple item Scale. Journal of Retailing. 77, 203-220. U.S. Department of Agriculture; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–2020, 8th ed.; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 2015–2020. US Department of Agriculture ARS. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. 2013. http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl.

Chapter 12

An Analysis of Pistachios’ Production Patterns and Their Impact on Consumption in India and Overseas Humaira Khatoon *

Joseph School of Business Studies, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture Technology &Sciences, Allahabad, India

Abstract The main purpose of the study is to determine the production & consumption pattern in India along with other parts of the world. This study also provides a glimpse about the climatic conditions required for the excellent productions and the potential market which contribute significantly either by producing excellently or by improving the strategy of production & commercialization. This research is explorative and has used research articles to draw reliable & effective results. Major findings conclude that Iran & USA are doing excellent with productions whereas China & South Korea are significantly involved with the consumption. Indian market is having a high potential both in the production as well as in consumption but due to lack of commercialization & awareness India is behind.

Keywords: pistachio, production, consumption, commercialization

*

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pistachios Editors: Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui and Shoaib Alam Siddiqui ISBN: 978-1-68507-949-9 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Introduction Pistachio (Pistacia vera) is a deciduous, subtropical & dioecious plant that belongs to the family of cashew (Anacardiaceae) [Ahmad Haidari 2021]. Pistachios are among the most demanded nuts on the globe (Aldars-Garcia et al., 2016). Normally it takes seven to ten years to reach maturity. The nut carries substantial properties which lead to a healthy heart, phenolic, phytosterols and other pivotal properties, and their utilization has become progressively acclaimed over the past ten years (Dreher, 2012). It is one of the utmost remarkable products in the Middle East nations i.e., (Turkey, Iran, Greece& Syria) some European nations (Italy) & America [Ozden &Alyant 2006]. The pistachio can be planted in different soil conditions and water due to its resistance to drought and saltiness. It enfolds the region about over and above 5000 km2 of the global surface with an average yield of 1.3 ton/ha (Janick & Paull, 2008). The globe has approx 1.023.000 Tons of overall pistachio production. The massive cultivator of pistachio around the globe is Iran with 480.000 tons. After Iran, the USA, China Turkey, and Syria produce 240.000, 144.000, and 57.000, 80.000 tons yearly (FAO, 2015). Like several tree nuts, pistachio trees suffer from alternate bearing, which suggests production goes up and down annually. There are about 11 varieties of pistachios that often have a greater commercial & economic worth significantly in Iran & the U.S.A. [Ahmad Haidari 2021]. Pistachios are having a wide etymology being known as different names in the part of the world such as it is “pistace” in old French, “pistachio” known in Italy, “pistakion” in Greek, “pistak” middle Persian & the new Persian variant being “pista”. Economic forms in Persia and is termed the “green gold” by local individuals (Aghdaie, 2009). Pistachio was introduced from Asia to Europe in the first century A.D. by the Romans. The first article about pistachios was pendown by “Ibn al Awwam” in the 12thcentury agriculture work in “Book on the Agriculture”. Although in some research it has been found that the “Hanging Garden of Babylon” used to have pistachios trees during the period of (700 B.C) King Merodac Baladon, archaeologists have evidence from evacuations that in the region of Northeast Iraq at Jarmo the consumptions of Atlantic pistachios are being done widely.

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The nut seed of Pistacia vera L. is a popular edible because of its useful nutritional properties and pleasant taste. The pistachio among agricultural products as a strategic product has special economic importance in some countries, including Iran, the United States, and Turkey [Ahmad Haidari 2021]. Pistachio (Pistacia vera) is cultivated in Iran, the Middle East, the United States, and Mediterranean Countries. The commercialization of pistachio as a nut came into existence in the 19th century in the Englishspeaking world i.e., Australia, Mexico, & the United States of America (U.S.A). Today, the U.S.A & Iran alone account for 74% of the world’s total pistachio production, manufacture of pistachios Iran is the world’s largest pistachio grower yielding about 40% of the total global production in the year 2009. The U.S. is the second largest after Iran with 27% of the total global production. Pistachio is produced in the Central and Eastern areas of Iran. Kerman has 45.5% and Rafsanjan 20.6% of the total global pistachio orchards (2). Pistachios comprised 2% of the total nut consumption in 2005 [Mazloomi 2016] Pistachio is world’s most popular tree nuts (Aldars-Garcia et al., 2016). This fruit is the richest source of heart-healthy fatty acids, metals, phytosterols, phenolic, and other substances, and its consumption has grown in popularity in recent years (Dreher, 2012).

Literature Review Goldhamer (2005) studied, for excellent production of pistachios one should have better soil conditions, weather, water & fertilizers. Even though pistachio trees can grow and thrive in a wide range of soil moisture regimes (Sepaskhah & Karimi Goghari; 2005). However, optimal production and high-quality nuts can only be achieved with the right soil water content. Ferguson et al. (2005) studied Pistachio trees are drought-tolerant plants that may live and even produce a reasonable harvest with very little water. Goldhamer (2005) studied during dry seasons, their roots can reach a depth of 2.5 meters to access moist soil layers. Goldhamer (2005) discussed that high humidity or weakly to very poorly drained soils that result in prolonged wet circumstances during the growth season, on the other hand, are not acceptable pistachio growing conditions. Goldhamer (2005) suggested the ideal quantity of precipitation for this tree has been estimated to be between 300 and 450 mm per year. Goldhamer (2005)

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discussed that in semi-arid locations like Syria and Turkey, pistachio trees are not commonly irrigated, while in Iran and the United States, all trees are irrigated. Goldhamer (2005) discussed in both circumstances, pistachio water requirements must be taken into account when determining pistachio land suitability. The chilling requirement is a minimum time of cold temperatures required by pistachio trees for the fruit set to be successful. Beede et al. (2005) showed that, Depending on the age, location, and even cultivars of pistachio trees, chilling requirements range from 500 to 1000 cumulative hours below 7.2°C. Küden et al. (1994) span nearly 5000 km2 of the world’s surface, with an average production of 1.3 tonnes per hectare. Janick & Paull (2008) even though numerous research has been undertaken to evaluate the impact of various soil nutrients. Shahriaripour et al. (2011) water stress on pistachio output and ecology, as well as specific land parcels. Ferguson et al. (2005) Pistachio trees, on the other hand, have a great tolerance for soil moisture tension and salinity. Sanden et al. (2004) Due to the sheer economic value of its yield, this crop is now grown in many arid and semi-arid regions around the world.

Role of Climatic Factors in the Production of Pistachios Production Climatic investigation plays a pivotal role in matching climatic conditions for a specific area or a region to get the desired results of production. According to the author Dent and Young (1981), De la Rosa et al. (2004) Climatic conditions will decide the land suitability for the production. Preparatory Analysis will likely reduce the unfavourable happenings. Goldhamer (2005) the ideal quantity of precipitation for this tree has been estimated to be between 300 and 450 mm per year. Ferguson et al. (2005) discusses that although pistachios tree can survive both the climatic conditions of hot summer & chilling winters. Pistachios trees are known as drought tolerant plants, still they can produce fairly well with a very little amount of water. Goldhamer (2005) during dry seasons, their roots can reach a depth of 2.5 meters to access moist soil layers. Spiegel- Roy et al. (1977) and Kanber et al. (1993) during periods of extreme drought, when accessible soil water content falls below the permanent wilting point, roots throughout all soil layers may cease to function for 4 to 5 weeks. Ferguson et al. (2005) despite their drought tolerance, pistachio trees require a sufficient amount of water to perform at their best.

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Goldhamer (2005) high humidity and poorly drained soils, which result in persistent wet conditions, are not suitable occurrences for pistachio plants during their growing seasons. Beede et al. (2005) pistachio trees require between 500 and 1000 total hours below 7.2 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on their age, location, and even cultivars. Küden et al. (1994) if the climate in the chosen region does not allow for the appropriate accumulation of chilling hours, yields will suffer. Faust (1989) most of the essential considerations in obtaining enough cooling hours for pistachios are the altitude above sea level. For warm climates, heights between 1000 and 3000 meters above sea level are ideal. Sys et al. (1991) the rate of plant growth is primarily determined by temperature. Ferguson et al. (2005) pistachios require cold winters and hot, dry summers with 2200 to 2800 heat units to produce larger yields. Javanshah et al. (2005) pistachios can withstand temperatures as low as -20°C in the winter and as high as 45°C in the summer. Ferguson et al. (2005) Major constraints for the high yield of production of pistachios are both the extreme conditions (low- high) of temperature & low annual rainfall will affect the yielding capacity and productivity of the plant. The ideal temperature for pistachios has been observed to be between 25 and 35 degrees Celsius. Storie (1933) Sysand Verheye (1974) Dent and Young (1981) Sys et al. (1985) Sys et al. (1991) Soil Survey Staff (1993) one of the most essential criteria in determining land suitability for practically all crops is soil texture. Brady & Weil (2007) this soil property has an impact on soil water and nutrient availability, as well as soil management approaches. Because of their high water retention capacity, fine texture soils are generally favoured for allocating to agricultural fields. Hillel (2003) discusses that in severe conditions water pounding occurs around the roots and causes aeration problems for plants. Jaime-Garcia & Cotty (2006) moreover, high water holding capacity in these soils increases the probability of fungal diseases invasion to the pistachio roots. Power and Prasad (1997) & Havlin et al. (2005) another problem in soils with heavy texture is the volatilization of the Nfertilizers. Brady& Weil (2007)and on the other hand, coarse texture soils’ limited cation exchange and water retention capacity are the key issues that lead to crucial nutrient leaching as well as drought stress. Ferguson et al. (2005) Nonetheless, different plants require varied soil textures. Pistachio trees, like every other crop, may grow in a variety of soil conditions. Goldhamer (2005) Ferguson et al. (2005) Ferguson et al. (2002) however, for high-quality yield production, they require sandy loam.

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Methodology The philosophy adopted for the analysis was based on qualitative data collection. And all the relevant articles and research papers published in the last decade were identified and reviewed respectively. And articles were selected from Research Gate, Google Scholar, International Society for Horticulture Science, Elsevier, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), ICAR, Academia Journals, etc. The Paper was reviewed using the keywords of production, consumption pattern, climatic conditions, pistachio Vera. And all the reviewed Research papers & articles consist of perspectives from various regions of the globe such as the USA, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Greece, India, etc.

Result and Analysis Production and Consumption Analysis: Country-Wise United States of America A report published by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) relatively 98 percent of US Pistachios are produced in California, not only California but other states are also involved in the production of pistachios such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, & Nevada. Pistachio consumption has increased significantly across international markets between 2015 and 2017, according to a report published by the California State University, Fresno (CSUF) Department of Agricultural Business, Jordan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology. U.S.A growers have been providing a lot of those. This figure, together with the fact that nearly 70% of pistachios farmed in the United States are exported, demonstrates the nut’s global popularity. Pistachio exporters in the United States have seven major trading partners that are China, South Korea, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, & the United Kingdom of these, Pistachios are produced only in Spain, Italy, and, allegedly, China. India also is mentioned as a significant transpires market in the study. Following data has been retrieved from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for an analysis of production & consumption of since the year [1989 to 2008].

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Iran Pistachio exports from Iran have been a part of the world since 2500 years ago. After date trees, pistachio plants are the 2nd in the list which can survive for a longer period without water. In 1979 Iran was the only distinctive exporter of pistachios until the Iranian pistachios were found with excessive content of Aflatoxin. Aflatoxin is a serious problem in the pistachio industry; some pistachios provide an ideal environment for the growth of fungus within the fruit, which is the source of aflatoxin, for a variety of reasons, the most important of which is the splitting of the pistachios’ outermost green covering, which may be linked to aflatoxin. Aflatoxin is a poison produced by a type of fungus that is commonly found on crops. Fungi that produce aflatoxins injure crops in the field, after harvest, and during storage. As a result, it is critical to determine the maximum aflatoxin parameter ahead of time (A.S. Mozaffari Nejad 2012). The leading variations of aflatoxins are B1, B2, G1, and G2 that are majorly churned out in plant products, but further bio-transformed aflatoxins may occur in milk, such as aflatoxin M1 & M2 (Mozaffari Nejad, 2008; Arino et al., 2008). AFB1 is developed in pistachio and is studied for its toxicity and carcinogenicity (Aghamohammadi et al., 2006). The European Union has regulated higher permitted levels of 2 μg/kg for aflatoxin B1 and 4 μg/kg for total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in various nuts for direct human consumption, including pistachios (EC, 2006). In 1979, because of the hostage plight in Iran, trade control with Iran was imposed, opening the market to US producers. Today, The US is the world’s second-largest producer and exporter of pistachios behind Iran (Azizi and Yazdani, 2006). The conducted study by Karim Koshteh and Urutyan (2005) global data indicates that Iran and The United States is the world’s largest manufacturer of pistachio nuts: whereas Iran contributed over 300,000 metric tonnes in 2002, United States produced around 127,000 metric tons. Lack of attention to marketing and sanitation is a weakness for Iran pistachios export causing countries like the United Arab Emirates and Germany to maybe misuse this situation by repacking Iranian pistachio is very fit packages and exporting them to other countries. Consequently, it is for years that despite the administration of various policies and also the enjoyment of immense capacities, there has not yet been much more achievement to the agricultural importing of the country (Khaledi and Rahimzadeh, 2008). Iran has a greater potential for the production of pistachios as well as importing of the product at the global level need more systematic policies.

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Classification of Pistachios in the Region of Iran Iran deals with a variety of pistachios. Iranian pistachios have different names according to the shapes and sizes being produced by the region as well as some varieties enlisted below: 1. Jumbo pistachio (‘Kale ghuchi’): this kind is thick with opened mouth. 2. Natural pistachio (red and cream color) kernel: it is prepared from closed pistachio. 3. Green kernel Pistachio: This is used as a spice in ice cream, cookies, and a little green color adds to this type. 4. Round pistachio (‘Fandoghi’): this is the first in product and export. 5. Long pistachio (‘Akbari’): this is the most expensive and ceremonial. 6. Long pistachio (‘Ahmad aghaee’): this is a favorite for eastern Asian people. 7. Long pistachio (‘Badami’): the shape of its kernel is similar to almond. Some definite regions in Iran are predominantly larger producers of pistachios (Karim Koshteh and Urutyan, 2005). 1. Central areas: Damghan, Qazvin, Saveh, Qom, Kashan, Semnan, Najaf Abad, Naein, Ardestan, Ardekan and Yazd. 2. Northern areas: Tabriz and Maraqeh. 3. Eastern areas: Birjand, Kashmar, Khansar, TorbatHeydariyeh, Sabzevar and Tabas. 4. South-eastern areas: Rafsanjan, Shahr Babak, Zarand, outskirts of Kerman, Sirjan and Zahedan. 5. South-western areas: Neiriz, Abadeh, Abarqu, Sarvestan, and the outskirts of Shiraz. In 2002, it was the center of pistachio production in Iran, accounting for 83 percent of overall output and 80 percent of total harvested land. Kerman province is the major among all the stated regions. Every region and area varies in terms of annual rainfall, elevation from the sea, & the temperature factors which determine the quality of pistachios, tastes & tenderness. Therefore, climatic conditions play a very pivotal role in bringing up the quality production of pistachios; areas with favourable climatic conditions have the best production and vice versa.

Major Regions Markazi E.Azarbaijan Ardebil Kermanshah Fars Kerman Khorasan Isfahan SistanvaBaluchestan Zanjan Semnan Yazd Jiroft and Kahnuj Tehran Total Total % Kerman Source: Ministry of Agriculture Jahad, Iran.

Harvested Area(Ha) 1684 63 1 50 30550 224243 24943 1242 1858 65 2931 15941 90 804 280.000 80

Contribution (Metric Tons) 2500 127 0 150 773 250000 15924 3420 2585 702 8252 11490 120 103 300.000 83

Table 1. Harvested area and pistachio output rate in different Iranian Provinces (2002)

Country 1991 Afganistans 2,000 China 23,000 Greece 4,989 Italy 2,400 Iran 1,82,484 Syria AR 14,400 Tunisia 620 Turkey 64,000 U.S.A 34,930 Other 721 World 3,29,544 Iran % 55 Total U.S.A % 11 Total Source: FAOSTAT, FAO.

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1993 2,200 24,000 5,573 1,799 2,29,332 13,700 900 50,000 68,950 626 3,97,080 58 17

1992 2,100 21,500 4,786 156 2,01,632 20,200 800 29,000 66,680 752 3,47,606 58 19

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1994 2,300 25,000 5,351 240 1,95,000 14,925 900 40,000 58,500 565 3,42,781 57 17

1995 2,400 25,000 5,591 2,200 2,38,780 14,500 900 36,000 37,130 606 3,93,107 61 11

1996 2,500 2,8000 8,892 100 2,60,085 24,324 1,000 60,000 47,630 563 4,33,094 60 24

1997 2,600 30,000 9,137 5,000 1,11,916 29,428 1,150 70,000 81,900 657 3,41,788 33 17

1998 4,000 26,000 8,072 512 3,13,957 35,684 1,200 35,000 85,280 642 5,10,347 62 19

1999 2,800 29,000 6,000 2,649 1,31,166 30,133 1,300 40,000 55,790 573 2,99,411 44 19

2000 2,800 22,000 6,500 2,768 3,03,957 39,923 1,300 75,000 1,10,220 1,470 5,65,938 54

Table 2. Global pistachio production (Metric Tons) by major producer countries

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2001 2,600 26,000 7,500 2,500 1,12,432 37,436 1,300 30,000 73,030 1,641 2,94,439 38

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2002 2,800 26,000 8,500 2,500 3,00,000 39,208 1,300 40,000 1,27,010 1,441 5,48,759 55

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Syria Syria can be considered an old pistachio producing country and at the same time an an important area for the natural distribution of wild Pistacia, s.a. P. Atlantica, P. palaestina, P. Khinjukand P. lentiscus (Khalife 1958, Chandler 1965, Maggs 1973). Maggs (1973) reported that the main pistachio varieties in the world have been spread from Turkey, Iran, and Syria. These varieties were obtained through seedling selection in the field. There are specifically 5 varieties of pistachios that were found in dry environmental conditions in Houran, South Syria [Nahlawi et al. (1985)]. The following varieties are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ashoury Batoury Oleimy Bundouky Ain El- Thainah

According to statistical information provided by FAO (1997) and the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (Anonymous 1997) pistachio production reached more than 30 000 tons in 1997. The area involved 60 thousand ha, total trees were 10 million out of which bearing trees were 4 million average tree production was 7.5 kg and total productions were 30 thousand tons. The country produced up to 80,000 tons a year until there was a bitter war in 2011, then Syria witnessed a major downfall, still country manages the list of major pistachios producing countries in 2013 after Iran, U.S.A & Turkey [reports of United Nations Food & Agriculture Organizations(UNFAO)] but years of bitter fighting blocked access to Syria’s best pistachios regions such as Hama, Aleppo, & Idlib provinces, leading production to plunge by more than half during the war (according to the Syrian agriculture ministry). 70,000 hectares (170,000 acres) of farmland allotted for the pistachios growing in the northwest a quarter of land has been damaged by war (director of ministry pistachio department).

Turkey The country has 144.000 tons of total pistachio production (TSI, 2015). Southeastern Region has 93.39% of Turkey’s pistachio production [Mikdat ŞİMŞEK 2017]. Turkey’s pistachio trees may be found in the country’s

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southeast part because the biological parameters (temperature and soil) throughout this region are ideal for the growth of trees and shrubs of this species. Although the yearly precipitation is quite low, the soils are poor, stony, and calcareous, the summers are very hot and dry, and the winters are very cold, this region eventually becomes the most important place for pistachio production. In this method, pistachio trees are cultivated in Southeastern Turkey on marginal lands where no other fruit or even field crops can be grown profitably without the use of cultural treatments such as water and fertilizer. A total of 1,023.000 tonnes of products have been consumed over the world. Turkey produces 144.000 tonnes of total pistachios, according to 2015 statistics. When it comes to total pistachio output in Turkey, the Southeast Anatolia and Aegean regions come in first and second with 134.481 and 4.197 tonnes, respectively, while the West Black Sea Region comes in last with 73 tonnes. In this regard, the Southeast Anatolia region produces 93.39 percent of Turkey’s pistachios. Gaziantep and Anlurfa, both in the Southeastern area, rank first and second with 53.109 and 47.848 tonnes of pistachio production, respectively, while Sirnak province ranks last with only 43 tonnes. Pistachio, walnut, hazelnut, chestnut, and almond are all native to Turkey (Sykes, 1975; Soylu, 1984; Köksal, 2002; Akça, 2009; Gülsoy et al., 2015). Turkey is the traditional producer of pistachio nuts (Satil et al., 2003). Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is primarily farmed in Southeastern Turkey. Pistachios grafted on wild Pistacia species are also grown in Turkey’s various areas (Kaska, 1995). Pistachio trees grow naturally in practically every section of Turkey. The bulk of this species’ trees, however, are found in the Southeastern region of the country. Because the biological parameters (temperature and soil) in this location are ideal for the growth of trees and shrubs of this species. Pistachios are grown in Turkey and are produced in eight indigenous kinds and five foreign varieties. The following domestic kinds are listed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Uzun Krmz Halebi Siirt Beyazben Sultani Deirmi GömleiKeten

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The varieties listed below are enumerated (foreign). Ohadi is ranked first, followed by Bilgen and Vahidi, Sefidi is the fourth member of the Sefidi family and on the fifth Mümtaz (Mumtaz). Table 3. Major Provinces & Production of Pistachios of Southeastern Turkey Provinces Gaziantep Adiyaman Sanhurfa Diyarbakir Mardin Batman Sirnik Sirrt Southeastern Turkey Turkey Source: TSI 2015.

Production (Tons) 53.109 15.368 2.271 1.408 1.659 1.654 43 11.221 134.581 1,44,000

Pistachios production in southeastern turkey: there are 40 provinces in turkey where production of pistachios is carried out as major parts for pistachios production is found in southeastern turkey. Gaziantep and Sanlurfa, both in the Southeastern Anatolia Region, finish in first and second with 53.109 and 47.848 tons of pistachio production, respectively, while Sirnakprovince comes in last with only 43 tonnes. (TSI, 2015) We can draw some statistics for the production as well such as Southeastern the region producing 93.39 percent of Turkey’s pistachios. This region produces 134.581 tons of pistachios in this context.

North Africa (Morroco) Pistacia species are present in Morocco under diverse soil and climatic conditions and scattered along the western border of the Atlas Mountains, in the Rif, East, and Southwest areas. The commercial production of pistachio nuts started in 1970. A small-scale program of cultivation was later extended to Meknes, Ouarzazate, and Beni-Mellal to test the adaptation of pistachio cultivars to diverse environments. By the mid-1980s, 28 ha of commercial pistachio groves were established throughout the country. Today, the total area cultivated with pistachio in Morocco is 150 ha (1995-1996 period).

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Tunisia There is 44000ha planted with pistachio, corresponding to about 2730 million trees. Pistachio trees represent about 11% of the country’s total area planted with stone fruit trees (excluding date palm and olive trees). Irrigated areas cover about 2000 ha while non-irrigated orchards consist of 42 000 ha. The most important pistachio producing zones are Gafsa, Sidi Bouzid, Kasserine, Sfax, and Kairouan, as a whole, they contribute to 80% of the total national production. The area of Kasserine (the largest concentration of pistachio orchards in the country) contributes 29% to the national pistachio production, Sidi Bouzid (22%) and Gafsa (17%). A recent increase in interest for this horticulture crop has contributed to the expansion of its cultivated area, which has risen from 9300 ha in 1984 to 44 000 ha in 1997. India Iran and other Middle Eastern countries, which have traded pistachios with India for hundreds of years, dominated India’s pistachio market. The pistachio business in the United States, on the other hand, has seen its market share increase by 146.7 percent in the last year. In India, the overall consumption of nuts has surged by 49.6% in the last three years. Pistachios are not commercially produced in India. The Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir has little, unregulated production. In-shell pistachios are traditionally popular in India, with peak demand from October to February. While there is a little amount of demand throughout the year, sales spike during the Indian holiday and wedding seasons. Pistachios are commonly sold in retail and wholesale settings. To meet rising pistachio demand, established retail locations and online stores have expanded their market presence. According to sources, India’s pistachio market could reach 50,000 MT by MY 2024/2025. Pistachios from Iran and Afghanistan have long been preferred by Indian consumers. This preference emerges from customers’ familiarity with the tree nut’s tastes, texture, color, and shape. Akbari, Kalleh, Fandoghi, and Ahmad Aghaei are popular Iranian kinds. Pistachios from the United States, on the other hand, have a unique greenish tinge, are larger, and have a distinctive texture while California’s U.S. grade 21-25 No. 1 pistachios are the preferred American variation. India’s pistachio imports are expected to reach 31,000 MT in MY 2021/2022, up 11% from MY 2020/2021, according to FAS New Delhi. The UAE was the top supplier of pistachios to India from September 2020 to May 2021, followed by Afghanistan, the United States, and Hong Kong Pistachios

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are not produced in the UAE or Hong Kong; instead, they are transhipped from other countries, particularly the United States. In the year 2019, approximately 9.2 thousand metric tons of pistachio nuts were consumed in India, an increase from the previous year when around eight thousand metric tons were consumed. The consumption of pistachios is fluctuating since 2012.

Source: Statista 2021. Figure 1. Consumption in thousand metric tons (in India).

Source: Statista 2021. Figure 2. Production share of Pistachio worldwide in 2020-2021.

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Source: Statista 2021. Figure 3. Production of tree nuts in 2020-2021(1000 metric tons).

This statistic shows the leading producers of pistachios worldwide, based on production share in 2020/2021. In the marketing year of 2020/2021, the United States produced about 47 percent of the pistachios that were produced worldwide. In the marketing year of 2020/2021, the production of almonds (kernel basis) amounted to about 1654 million metric tons worldwide. That year, about one million metric tons of walnuts were produced worldwide; also, pistachios took third place with 1008 million metric tons worldwide.

Pistachios Consumptions Worldwide Since 2015, pistachio consumption in South Korea has increased by 47.2 percent. In South Korea, the United States enjoys nearly a 100 percent market share. Since 2015, Spain’s consumption has climbed by 29.8%. In 2017, the United States had a market share of 31.7 percent, up 31.6 percent from 2015. However, fresh pistachio plantings have been made in Spain, and the majority of them will be ready to harvest in the next two to three years. Pistachios are grown in Italy as well, and the ‘Bronte’ type is prized for its dark green hue. In-shell pistachio consumption has increased by 41.2 percent in the last three years, with the United States accounting for 31% of the market in 2017, up from 31.2 percent in 2015. China is the world’s greatest pistachio consumer, with a stunning 182.4 percent growth in consumption

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over the last three years. In 2017, the United States had a market share of 96.6 percent, a rise of 74 percent in just three years. Germany: over three years, from 2016 to 2018, Germany’s consumption increased by 84.2 percent. In 2017, the United States had 45.4 percent of the market, up 16.1 percent from 2015. France: over the last three years, consumption in France has increased by 20.1 percent. Although overall volume for U.S. goods is increasing, the United States’ share of the market in 2017 was 42.6 percent, down 1.7 percent from 2015. The United Kingdom: The United Kingdom stands out as an anomaly, with a 34.4 percent decrease in global pistachio consumption since 2015. However, in 2017, the United States grabbed a 68.7% share of the market, more than doubling American pistachio consumption.

Conclusion There is an overall global increase in the demand for pistachios either in the production sector, consumption pattern, or overall export regime. It is evident that the market share of pistachios is quite splendid, with more attention on commercialization in the market of pistachios in India & some other countries will get the market favorable. Iran & U.S.A are doing wonders with production pattern but numerous evidence is available which showcase that even other countries such as Turkey, Syria, South Africa, India & other parts of the world can also be the part of excellent production; there just needs to be effort in commercialization and controllable factors of climatic conditions such as water & soil quality. From the mentioned data provided by the various sources one can conclude that there is a potential market worldwide. As of now we can witness that consumption of pistachios is not limited to the winter. Pistachios used to only be consumed in winter, but due to health benefits, consumers are switching over to the other seasons as well (summer & autumn months).

References Aghamohammadi, M., Hashemi, J., Asadi, K., 2007. Enhanced synchronous spectrofluorimetric determination of aflatoxin B1 in pistachio samples usingmultivariate analysis. Anal. Chem. Acta. 528, 288-294.

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About the Editors Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui, PhD

Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Dr. Shaziya Haseeb Siddiqui completed her PhD in Applied Chemistry in the year 2012 from Aligarh Muslim University, India. She is an expert in the field of waste water treatment. She has published more than twenty papers in international reputed journals of Elsevier, Taylor & Francis and International Water Association. She has also contributed various chapters in the edited books of Elsevier and Taylor & Francis. ORCID: 0000-0003-2766-2808 Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Shoaib Alam Siddiqui, PhD

Assistant Professor, Department of Business Studies, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Shoaib Alam Siddiqui holds his PhD in Business Studies. His research interests include Financial Services, Health Economics and Applied Econometrics. He does research on efficiency, productivity, market structure and development economics with special focus on life insurance, health insurance and pension. He has published in various refereed journals of Wiley, Sage and Indian Commerce Association. He has contributed various chapters in the edited books. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-9979-1532 Email: [email protected]

Index A acid, 29, 37, 38, 44, 46, 53, 87, 93, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102, 108, 120, 122, 138, 139, 141, 143, 145, 151, 153, 154, 156, 161, 162, 164, 167, 170, 171, 173, 174, 180, 186 activated carbon, 62, 129, 130, 132, 133, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 152, 153, 154, 156, 159, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 176, 180, 181 adsorption, v, 30, 38, 39, 79, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 155, 156, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181 aflatoxin, 4, 6, 8, 23, 24, 25, 38, 61, 73, 124, 211, 221, 222, 223 almonds, 4, 36, 37, 56, 61, 93, 126, 186, 220 Anacardiaceae, 2, 73, 74, 87, 88, 96, 103, 130, 150, 165, 166, 206 Anacardiaceous, 41, 42, 49 antioxidant, v, 35, 38, 59, 87, 88, 89, 92, 96, 99, 100, 102, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 116, 125, 126, 139, 165, 168, 177, 186, 203 asexual reproduction, 41, 42, 43 Aspergillus flavus, 27, 28, 29, 30, 83, 125, 222

B bacteria, 16, 54, 56, 62, 103, 104, 113, 122, 161 beneficial effect, 109, 115, 117, 122, 127

benefits, vii, 59, 61, 70, 87, 89, 90, 99, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 116, 118, 120, 122, 125, 126, 165, 168, 180, 181, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197, 201, 202, 203, 221, 222 bioactive properties, v, 87, 88

C calcium, 62, 79, 90, 93, 167, 186 cardiovascular disease, 28, 62, 90, 112, 115, 118, 127, 168 cholesterol, 28, 62, 90, 107, 108, 111, 113, 115, 116, 120, 126, 165, 168 climate, 4, 8, 59, 60, 61, 84, 96, 102, 184, 209 climate change, 59, 102 commercialization, 57, 205, 207, 221 Comparative Fit Index, 197 confirmatory factor analysis, 183, 201 consumption, v, vi, vii, 59, 68, 69, 70, 88, 94, 95, 99, 101, 105, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 137, 166, 181, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 207, 210, 211, 218, 219, 220, 221 control, 1, 2, 9, 12, 13, 16, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 36, 37, 38, 39, 47, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 83, 89, 90, 109, 115, 116, 117, 118, 126, 130, 131, 150, 175, 195, 211 cultivation, v, vii, 4, 45, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 68, 70, 74, 77, 78, 167, 202, 217

D determinants, 183, 184, 188, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 198, 201

228 diet, 42, 89, 90, 95, 106, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 127, 166, 185, 202 dietary fiber, 62, 87, 106, 110, 113, 122 digestion, 90, 108, 126, 139, 165 diseases, 59, 62, 63, 70, 101, 106, 112, 148, 166, 180, 203, 209, 222

E ecological, 73, 74, 81, 143, 223 ecological requirements, 73, 74, 81, 223 environmental, vi, 23, 37, 51, 62, 73, 74, 79, 81, 82, 83, 88, 101, 130, 136, 138, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 168, 171, 172, 215, 222 essential fatty acids, 122 exports, 64, 184, 187, 211

F fat, 2, 25, 35, 43, 62, 90, 93, 101, 105, 106, 110, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 130, 150, 168, 186, 202 fatty acids, 28, 35, 92, 93, 95, 98, 99, 101, 105, 106, 110, 120, 130, 150, 167, 168, 186, 203, 207 fertilizers, 78, 207, 209, 222 fiber content, 62, 168 flavonoids, 38, 94, 95, 100, 107, 108, 167, 186 formation, 9, 44, 112, 115, 150, 155, 159, 177

G genetic, 57, 58, 73, 129, 223

H harvesting, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 27, 28, 29, 61 health, vii, 28, 59, 61, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 119, 120, 121,

Index 122, 123, 125, 126, 148, 168, 180, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 221, 222 health benefits, vii, 59, 61, 70, 89, 91, 104, 105, 106, 110, 125, 126, 168, 180, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197, 202, 221, 222 heavy metals, 129, 130, 131, 135, 136, 137, 140, 141, 145, 146, 165, 172, 175, 180

I inflammation, 54, 99, 111, 112, 116, 120, 126, 127 inflammatory disease, 108 insecticide, 144, 145 insects, 23, 24, 25, 32, 34, 36, 38, 64, 66 isoflavonoids, 167

K keratinocytes, 58 kidney, 111, 124 kidney stones, 124 kinetic model, 141, 157, 159, 176, 179 kinetic studies, 162 kinetics, 31, 37, 38, 137, 138, 141, 145, 162, 163, 176, 180

L Lepidoptera, 37 linoleic acid, 62, 93, 167, 186 lipid oxidation, 6, 16, 30 lithium batteries, 166 low-density lipoprotein, 107, 115, 116 lutein, 91, 93, 105, 106, 107, 113, 114, 116, 167, 186

M macromolecules, 43 macronutrients, 93, 94, 187

Index micronutrient(s), 59, 62, 63, 80, 94, 117, 185, 187 microorganisms, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 23, 24, 25, 50, 52, 56, 100, 113, 125, 130 micro-propagation, v, 41, 42, 47, 49

N nanocomposites, 102, 178, 180 nanoparticles, 102, 138, 141, 151, 152, 153, 155, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 171, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180 nuts, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38, 39, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 68, 69, 70, 71, 83, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 101, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 166, 167, 168, 180, 184, 185, 186, 189, 200, 202, 206, 207, 211, 218, 220, 222

O organogenesis, 41, 42, 43 oxidative stress, 99, 109, 111, 112 oxide nanoparticles, 152 oxygen, 6, 63, 99, 129, 154, 155, 169

P PGH, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101 pH, 45, 80, 84, 130, 133, 134, 135, 151, 155, 156, 171, 173, 174, 176 phenolic compounds, 87, 88, 89, 93, 96, 99, 100, 102, 103, 108, 139, 186 phosphorus, 93, 105, 111, 113, 114, 167, 186, 223 photocatalysis, 173 phytosterols, 35, 68, 106, 107, 167, 186, 206, 207 Pistachio Activated Carbon (PAC), 130, 132, 133, 134, 172

229 pistachio nuts, v, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 56, 89, 94, 108, 119, 125, 126, 127, 130, 139, 144, 145, 156, 159, 176, 187, 188, 203, 211, 216, 217, 219, 222, 223 pistachio waste, v, vi, vii, 62, 129, 131, 134, 147, 148, 151, 152, 159, 168 polyphenols, 87, 95, 100, 105, 108, 112, 126, 128 polysaccharides, 59, 64, 99, 139, 152 polyunsaturated fat, 28, 62, 93, 101, 110, 114, 118, 122, 186 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 28, 101, 110, 122 processing, v, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 36, 61, 71, 91, 101, 115, 119, 133, 135, 184, 190, 195, 201, 202 producers, 4, 28, 64, 85, 211, 212, 220 production, v, vi, vii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 11, 16, 23, 24, 25, 27, 47, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 97, 100, 123, 132, 140, 141, 143, 146, 168, 172, 173, 175, 180, 184, 185, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223 propagation, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57, 174 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 142 pyrolysis, 130, 139, 142, 144, 169, 170, 172, 175, 180

Q quality control, 1, 9, 24 quercetin, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 108

R radiofrequency (RF), 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 38

230

S saturated fatty acids, 6, 101, 185, 186 saturation, 96 sawdust, 143 scanning electron microscopy, 177 seed, 27, 35, 43, 50, 57, 58, 85, 87, 88, 108, 132, 146, 163, 177, 180, 207 seedlings, 42, 44, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 57, 223 selenium, 93, 105, 107, 122, 167 somatic embryogenesis, 41, 42, 43, 47, 57

T tannins, 43, 88, 95, 96, 103, 104 Tocopherol(s), 28, 63, 87, 106, 107, 108, 109, 126, 167 total cholesterol, 108, 111, 115, 116 triglycerides, 116, 117, 126 tryptophan, 122 Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), 197

U U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 34, 84, 186, 203, 210 UV light, 24 UV-Visible spectroscopy, 177

Index vitamin E, 106, 109, 111, 114, 116, 118, 120, 121, 127, 186 vitamin K, 62, 90, 106, 186 vitamins, 28, 45, 46, 68, 89, 93, 105, 106, 110, 113, 120, 122, 186, 195

W water absorption, 65 water ecosystems, 149 water purification, 148 weight gain, 89, 90, 91, 95, 111, 117 weight loss, 62, 106, 110, 111, 112, 117, 118, 125, 126, 185 weight management, 59, 89, 125

X xanthophyll, 186 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 170, 171, 177, 178 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 178

Y yield, 2, 5, 43, 74, 77, 79, 81, 84, 97, 98, 130, 132, 170, 175, 178, 206, 208, 209, 222, 223

V

Z

varieties, 2, 32, 38, 43, 54, 60, 67, 68, 71, 98, 132, 135, 206, 212, 215, 216, 217 vitamin A, 63, 108, 112, 116, 167, 186 vitamin B6, 62, 105, 113, 115, 117, 122 vitamin C, 108, 109, 186

zinc, 93, 102, 105, 141, 142, 146, 163, 164, 176, 180 zinc oxide (ZnO), 151, 152, 153, 155, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 178, 180