Papers in Italian Archaeology IV: The Cambridge Conference. Part iii: Patterns in Protohistory 9780860543145, 9781407340401

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF TABLES
ADDRESSES OF CONTRIBUTORS
Preface and Acknowledgements
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ALCUNE NOTE SULLAPRIMA ETA DEL FERRO IN DAUNIA
3. THE LATE IRON AGE IN LOMBARDY
4. ASPETTI DELLA CULTURA TARDO LA TENE IN LOMELLINA
5. MAGNA GRAECIA BEFORE THE GREEKS: TOWARDS A RECONCILIATION OF THE EVIDENCE
6. THE IRON AGE CEMETERY OF OSTERIA DELL'OSA, ROME; EVIDENCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN LAZIO IN THE 8TH CENTURY B.C.
7. AN APPLICATION OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR A SOCIOECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF AN IRON AGE NECROPOLIS IN LATIUM
8. NECROPOLI ARCAICHE D'ABRUZZO: LA NECROPOLI DI CAPESTRANO
9. HUTS IN THE CENTRAL TYRRHENIAN AREA OF ITALY DURING THE PROTOHISTORIC AGE
10. STEPPING OVER OR OVER-STEPPING THRESHOLDS: ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF HUTFLOORS, COOKING-AREAS AND RUBBISH PITS AT THE SITE OF SATRICUM
11. AN APPLICATION OF THE RANK-SIZE RULE TO PROTOHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS IN THE MIDDLE TYRRHENIAN AREA
12. THE SITE AT DOGANELLA, IN THE ALBEGNA VALLEY: SPATIAL PATTERNS IN AN ETRUSCAN LANDSCAPE
13. ITALY AND CENTRAL EUROPE: MATERIAL CULTURE, RITUAL, AND COMMUNICATION IN THE IRON AGE
14. IMPORTAZIONI CERAMICHE E INFLUSSI CULTURALI IN DAUNIA NEL VI E
V SEC. a.C.
15. THE USE OF IRON IN 9TH AND 8TH CENTURY ETRURIA
16. THE MYCENAEAN SPECTRUM
17. CONTACT, EXCHANGE AND CONFLICT IN THE ITALIAN BRONZE AGE: THE MYCENAEANS ON THE TYRRHENIAN COASTS AND ISLANDS
18. TYRRHENIAN RELATIONS AND MYCENAEAN EXCHANGE IN THE EARLY BRONZE AGE
19. SOUTHERN ITALY AND THE AEGEAN DURING THE LATE BRONZE AGE: ECONOMIC STRATEGIES AND SPECIALISED CRAFT PRODUCTS
20. SYNOICISM IN BRONZE AGE SICILY
21. EVIDENCE, EXTENT AND EFFECTS OF MYCENAEAN CONTACTS WITH SOUTH EAST SICILY DURING THE LATE BRONZE AGE
22. VAULTING IN MYCENAEAN THOLOS TOMBS AND SARDINIAN NURAGHI

Citation preview

Papers in Italian Archaeology IV The Cambridge Conference

Part iii

Patterns in Protohistory edited by

Caroline Malone and Simon Stoddart

BAR International Series 245

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S245, 1985: 'Papers in Italian Archaeology IY. Part iii: Patterns in Protohistory'

© The Individual Authors, 1985 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543145 paperback ISBN 9781407340401 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543145 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

t o

Dedicated t he Memory

M .

A ylwin

of

C otton

CONTENTS Page List of illustrations Addresses of Contributors Preface and Acknowledgements 1. Caroline Malone and Simon Stoddart: Introduction.

1

2. Patrizia Iannantuono: Alcune note sulla prima eta del ferro in Daunia.

13

3. Marco Tizzoni: The late Iron Age in Lombardy.

37

4. Gloria Vannacci Lunazzi: Aspetti della cultura tardo La Tene in Lomellina.

69

. 5. Ruth Whitehouse and John Wilkins: Magna Graecia before the Greeks: towards a reconciliation of the evidence.

89

6. Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri: The Iron Age cemetery of ·osteria dell'Osa, Rome; evidence of social change in Lazio in the 8th century B.C.

111

7. Micaela Angle and Adolfo Gianni: An application of quantitative methods for a socio-economic analysis of an Iron Age necropolis in Latium.

145

8. Rosella Salvia Del Rosario: Necropoli arcaiche d'Abruzzo: la necropoli di Capestrano.

165

9. Gilda Bartoloni, Arnold Beijer and Anna De Santis: Huts in the central Tyrrhenian area of Italy during the protohistoric age.

17 5

10. M. Maaskant-Kleibrink and R. Olde Dubbelink: Stepping over and over-stepping thresholds: on the identification of hutfloors, cooking areas and rubbish pits at the site of Satricum.

203

11. Alessandro Guidi: An application of the rank size rule to protohistoric settlements in the middle Tyrrhenian area.

217

12. Lucy Walker: The site at Doganella, in the Albegna valley: spatial patterns in an Etruscan landscape.

243

13. Peter Wells: Italy and central Europe: material culture, ritual, and communication in the Iron Age.

255

1 4. Marina c ulturali i n

M azzei: I mportazioni c eramiche Daunia n el V I e V s ec. a .C.

1 5. N icholas H artmann: 8 th c entury E truria. 1 6.

E lizabeth

F rench:

T he

u se

o f

i ron

i n

e i nflussi 2 63 9 th

a nd 2 85

T he

M ycenaean

s pectrum

2 95

1 7. A nna Maria B ietti S estieri: C ontact, exchange, a nd c onflict i n t he I talian B ronze A ge: t he M ycenaeans o n t he T yrrhenian c oasts a nd i slands.

3 05

1 8. S ebastiano T usa: T yrrhenian r elations Mycenaean exchange i n t he e arly B ronze A ge.

3 39

a nd

1 9. G iovanna B ergonzi: S outhern I taly a nd t he A egean during t he l ate B ronze A ge: e conomic s trategies a nd s pecialised c raft products. 2 0.

R .

Ross

H olloway:

S ynoicism

i n

B ronze

A ge

S icily.

2 1. R obert L eighton: E vidence, extent a nd e ffects o f Mycenaean contacts w ith s outh east S icily during t he l ate B ronze A ge.

i n

2 2. W illiam C avanagh a nd R obert L axton: Vaulting Mycenaean T holos t ombs a nd S ardinian n uraghi.

3 55 3 89

3 99

4 13

L IST OF

I LLUSTRATIONS

F igures P age P .

M .

G .

R .

I annantuono F ig. 2 .1.

T izzoni F ig. 3 .1. F ig. F ig.

3 .2. 3 .3.

F ig.

3 .4.

F ig.

3 .5.

F ig.

3 .6.

F ig.

3 .7.

V annacci F ig. 4 .1. F ig.

4 .2.

F ig. F ig.

4 .3. 4 .4.

F ig.

4 .5.

F ig. F ig.

4 .6. 4 .7.

F ig.

6 .2.

F ig.

6 .3.

F ig.

6 .4.

n ella

I e ta del

f erro 1 7

T he g eographical position o f L ombardy a nd t he main s ites quoted i n t he a rticle D istribution map o f t he M isano f ibula D istribution map o f t he t rottola v ase D istribution map o f t he ' Egg C ups' a nd l ens-shaped v ases D istribution o f o bjects i n t he R aethic t radition D istribution map o f t hree l ocal f ibula t ypes M ap of d ifferent burial r ites L unazzi L T/B. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 : L a S forzesca d i V igevano. 5 : G ropello C airoli L T/C1. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; G arlasco - M adonna delle B ozzole; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; G arlasco - Madonna d elle B ozzole C T/C2-D G ropello C airoli C T/D. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 : Valeggio, t omba 2 07; 6 ; 7 ; 8 : V aleggio, t omba 1 00 L T/D. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 : V aleggio, t omba 1 26; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 : G ambol , t omba 2 3 L T/D. G ambolö, t omba 2 1 L T/D. G ambolö, t omba 2 1

W hitehouse F ig. 5 .1. F ig. 5 .2.

A . M. B ietti F ig. 6 .1.

L ocalitä n ote i n D aunia

a nd J . W ilkins I nscription o n t he T he T emple-tomb a t

c enturipe K nossos

v ase

S estieri T erritory o f O steria d ell' Osa C astiglione O steria dell'Osa, g eneral p lan o f t he c emetery O steria dell'Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. G raves b elonging t o t he n orth a nd s outh g roups O steria d ell'Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. D ifferent t ypes o f f unctionally e quivalent b ronzes f rom t he c remations o f t he t wo g roups

3 9 4 2 4 4 4 7 4 9 5 5 5 7

7 0

7 1 7 4

7 5 7 9 8 0 8 2

9 2 1 06

1 12 1 14

1 16

1 19

M .

R .

F ig.

6 .5.

F ig.

6 .6.

F ig.

6 .7.

F ig.

6 .8.

M .

i n a c entral position O steria dell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. F ossa c remation 1 58 O steria d ell'Osa, 8 th c entury s ample. P lan o f t he c entral g roup. O steria dell'Osa. C omparison b etween t he t ypological a nd f unctional a ssociations i n t he f unerary o utfit o f g raves b elonging t o t he 9 th a nd 8 th c entury s amples

A ngle a nd A . F ig. 7 .1a F ig.

7 .1b

F ig.

7 .2

F ig.

7 .3.

F ig. F ig. F ig.

7 .4. 7 .5. 7 .6.

F ig.

7 .7.

S alvia D el F ig. 8 .1. F ig.

G .

O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. P ottery f rom t he n orth g roup c remations

8 .2.

B artoloni, F ig. 9 .1. F ig. 9 .2. F ig. 9 .3. F ig. 9 .4. F ig.

9 .5.

F ig.

9 .6.

F ig.

9 .7.

F ig.

9 .8.

F ig.

9 .9.

G ianni T able o f t he c hronological phases o f t he L atial Culture I ron A ge s ettlement d istribution i n L atium Map o f t he n ecropolis a nd t he s ettlement P lan o f t he n ecropolis - G roups 1 a nd 2 P lan o f t he n ecropolis - G roup 3 P opulation h istograms D istribution o f r ank a nd wealth i ndicators H istograms o f wealth i ndicators a nd d iagram s howing v alue o f f emale f ibulae

R osario N ecropoli a rcaiche i n A bruzzo: d istribuzione 1 . C apestrano. F° 1 46 I NO 2 . P ianta d egli s cavi d el 1 934 A .

B eijer, A . D e S antis I taly, d istribution o f H ut u rns H ut u rns H ut p lans

h ut

u rns

A rdea C olle d ella N oce: p lan o f t he t emple a nd e arlier r emains o f h uts a nd t ombs 1 . H ut r econstructed b y C ozza; 2 . Hut r econstructed b y D avico. 1 . R oselle, I casa t onda'; 2 . V eii, house b eside N orth-West g ate S atricum, p lan o f t he a cropolis ( with r emains o f t he I ron A ge). S atricum, p its D 10/I, D 10/II, E 9/II, D 9/I, D 9/V, D 9/IV: p lans a nd s ection

M aaskant-Kleibrink a nd F ig. 1 0.1. P lans o f

R . O lde D ubbelink t he p its at S atricum

1 21 1 31 1 33

1 36

1 46 1 46 1 48 1 50 1 51 1 53 1 56

1 58

1 66 1 68

1 76 1 78 1 80 1 82

1 83 1 85 1 93 1 95 1 97

2 06

A .

L .

M .

F ig.

1 0.2.

H istograms

F ig.

1 0.3.

F ig.

1 0.4.

D istribution m ap o f d aub a nd t ufa f ragments i n p it D 10/11 D istribution o f b ones a nd c ooking s tand f ragments i n two p its a t S atricum

G uidi F ig. 1 1.1. F ig. 1 1.2. F ig. 1 1.3. F ig. 1 1.4. F ig. 1 1.5. F ig. 1 1.6. F ig. 1 1.7a. F ig.

1 1.7b

F ig. F ig.

1 1.8. 1 1.9.

F ig.

1 1.10.

F ig.

1 1.11.

W alker F ig. 1 2.1.

F ig.

1 2.2.

F ig.

1 2.3.

M azzei F ig. 1 4.1. F ig.

1 4.2.

F ig.

1 4.3.

c omparing

p it

f ills

P hase I : d istribution map P hase I : r ank-size g raphs P hase I I: d istribution map P hase I I: r ank-size g raphs P hase I II: d istribution map P hase I II r ank-size g raphs C omparison b etween r ank-size d istributions: E truria C omparison b etween r ank-size d istributions: L atium P hase I V: r ank-size g raphs P hase I V: d istribution map o f t he u rban c entres A . T arquinia, P hase I I; B . V eio, P hase I II A . R ome, P hase I II; B . R ome, P hase

2 09

2 11

2 13

2 18 2 19 2 25 2 26 2 29 2 30 2 33 2 34 2 35 2 36

I V

T he A lbegna v alley - A ger C osanus s urvey a rea, w ith a n i nset l ocation map o f I taly T he t opography o f t he s ite w ith t he s urface evidence o f t he d istribution o f s ettlement debris T he s urface d istribution o f a rtefacts a ssociated w ith w eaving, m etal working, a nd a mphora production a nd s torage

C arta d i d istribuzione d el b ucchero p esante C arta d i d istribuzione delle c oppe ' ioniche' C arta d i d istribuzione d elle a ntefisse f ittili

N .

A .

H artmann F ig. 1 5.1. M . B ietti F ig. 1 7.1.

F ig.

1 7.2.

M ap o f

2 38 2 39

2 44

2 46

2 49

2 65 2 68 2 75

t he

s tudy

area

S estieri I slands a nd a rchipelago a djacent t o t he T yrrhenian c oast o f mainland I taly a nd S icily B ases o f t he ' Mycenaean' s ailings i n t he T yrrhenian a nd f inds o f i mported M ycenaean p ottery i n t he T yrrhenian r egions o f mainland I taly

2 86

3 09

3 12

F ig.

S .

G .

R .

R .

W .

1 7.3.

T usa F ig. 1 8.1. F ig.

1 8.2.

F ig.

1 8.3.

F ig.

1 8.4.

B ergonzi F ig. 1 9.1.

F ig.

1 9.2.

F ig.

1 9.3.

F ig.

1 9.4.

F ig.

1 9.5.

F ig.

1 9.6.

F ig.

1 9.7.

F ig.

1 9.8.

D istribution of p ottery o f C apo G raziano t ype i n t he T yrrhenian

D istribution o f early B ronze A ge c ultures i n S icily S ea-routes a nd c ultural d istribution of Rodi-Tindari-Vallelunga, C apo G raziano, P roto A ppenninico B , Mycenaean p ottery a nd t he T arxien c emetery D istribution o f P roto A ppenninico B i n c oastal p eninsular a reas T ypological a ffinities b etween S icily, t he A eolian i slands a nd s outhern I taly during t he early B ronze A ge

M ain l ate B ronze A ge s ites i n s outhern I taly a nd S icily, 1 3th1 0th c enturies B .C. D istribution o f s ome c raft p roducts o f A egean o rigin i n s outhern I taly, S icily a nd S ardinia during t he l ate B ronze Age ' Grey pottery' f rom B roglio d i T rebisacce ' Grey pottery' f rom B roglio d i T rebisacce ' Grey pottery' f rom B roglio d i T rebisacce B roglio d i T rebisacce: p ottery f rom S quare D , f rom t he post-built house A egean world a nd s outhern I taly during t he l ate B ronze A ge: t he range o f p ottery A egean world a nd s outhern I taly during t he l ate B ronze A ge: a c omparison

R oss H olloway F ig. 2 0.1. M ap o f S icily s howing major m entioned i n t he t ext L eighton F ig. 2 1.1. F ig. 2 1.2.

C avanagh a nd F ig. 2 2.1. F ig.

2 2.2.

area

R . L axton C omparison o f a t holos t omb a nd a n uraghe a s s tone s tructures S ection A -B t hrough t he n uraghe B arbara,

S india

3 40

3 42 3 44

3 46-7

3 56

3 58 3 60 3 62 3 64

3 66

3 67

3 69

s ites

P antalica c hronologies 1 899-1979 L ate B ronze A ge s ites 1 3th-llth c enturies B .C.

S anta

3 19

3 90

4 01 4 04

4 17 4 21

F ig.

2 2.3.

F ig.

2 2.4.

F ig.

2 2.5.

F ig.

2 2.6.

F ig.

2 2.7.

P lan o f S india

t he

n uraghe

S anta

B arbara,

P lots o f t he l ogarithm o f t he a verage r adius against t he l ogarithm o f t he d epth b elow t he e stimated apex f or t he t he main c hambers o f f ive nuraghi P rofiles o f t he d omes o f t he f ive n uraghi n ormalised s o t hat t he h eight b etween t he t op a nd l intel i s u nity P rofiles o f t he domes o f t he f ive Mycenaean a nd t wo l ate M inoan t holoi normalized s o t hat t he h eight b etween t he t op a nd l intel i s u nity P rofiles o f t he domes i n f ive n uraghi, two l ate M inoan a nd f ive Mycenaean t holoi normalized s o t hat t he depth f rom apex t o l intel i s u nity

4 23

4 25

4 26

4 27

4 28

P lates P age

G .

A .

P late P late P late P late P late P late P late P late

2 .1. 2 .2. 2 .3. 2 .4. 2 .5. 2 .6. 2 .7. 2 .8.

P late

2 .9.

P late

2 .10.

P late

2 .11.

P late

2 .12.

P late

2 .13.

P late

2 .14.

P late P late P late

2 .15. 2 .16. 2 .17.

O rsara. O rsara. O rsara. O rsara. V ieste. V ieste. U rsata. A scoli. F oggia A scoli. F oggia A scoli. F oggia A scoli. F oggia A scoli. F oggia A scoli. F oggia A scoli. F oggia L ucera. L ucera. L ucera.

Vannacci L unazzi P late 4 .1. Valeggio P late 4 .2. V aleggio

A ntiquarium D iocesano A ntiquarium D iocesano A ntiquarium D iocesano A ntiquarium D iocesano Museo C ivico Museo C ivico A ntiquarium D iocesano F ondi del Museo C ivico

2 0 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 5 2 5 a

F ondi

del

M useo

C ivico

d i

F ondi

del

Museo

C ivico d i

F ondi

del

Museo

C ivico d i

F ondi

del

Museo

C ivico

F ondi

del

Museo

C ivico d i

F ondi

del

Museo

C ivico

2 7 2 7 2 8 2 8 d i 2 9 2 9 d i

Museo C ivico Museo C ivico Museo C ivico

t omba t omba

1 26 1 00

( T/D1) ( T/02)

M . B ietti S estieri P late 6 .1. O steria d ell'Osa, 9 th c entury s ample: s et of m iniature vases f rom p it c remation i n c entral p osition. P late 6 .2a/b. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample, North g roup. Vases w ith p lastic decoration f rom d ifferent g raves, probably made b y t he s ame potter P late 6 .3. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample, S outh G roup. S et o f u ndecorated v ases f rom g rave 1 13 P late 6 .4. O steria d ell'Osa, 9 th c entury s ample, D ifferent t ypes of f unctionally equivalent v ases f rom g raves o f t he two g roups P late 6 .5. O steria dell'Osa, 9 th c entury s ample, C omparison b etween t he n umberof b owls f rom f our g raves o f g roups t o s outh a nd n orth r espectively P late 6 .6a/b. O steria d ell'Osa, 8 th c entury s ample

3 1 3 1 3 2 3 2

7 7 7 7

1 18

1 23

1 25

1 28

1 30 1 35

R .

S alvia D el P late 8 .1.

P late

G .

M .

8 .2.

B artoloni, P late 9 .1. P late

9 .2.

P late

9 .3.

P late

9 .4.

Mazzei P late 1 4.1. P late 1 4.2. P late P late P late

R osario 1 . T omba 2 . T omba 3 . T omba 4 . T omba

1 4.3. 1 4.4. 1 4.5.

P late

1 4.6.

P late P late

1 4.7. 1 4.8.

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . A .

T omba T omba T omba T omba

1 2, 1 2, 1 2, 1 2,

o lla c aldaio s tamnos S chnabelkanne

1 2, f asciodi S piedi 3 , c alzari 2 , f ibula 1 4, b racciali

B eijer, A . D e S antis 1 . R ome, P alatine: r emains o f h uts. 2 . S hepherds' huts n ear Guidonia B isenzo. S . B ernardino. T omb 2 1; hut u rn C erveteri. Monte A batone, T omb 4 26. house u rn o f t erracotta; F alerii, h ouse u rn o f b ronze C openhagen, house u rn f rom I taly

O inochoe trilobata C oppa c arenata i n bucchero p esante d alla t omba U /1939 d i A pri K ylix a f igure n ere d alla t omba C /1939 d i A pri U lix a f igure n ere d a S alapia K ylix t ipo P almetten-Schalen d a A pri O lpe con decorazione a f asce d alla t omba 1 /1980 d i A pri K ylix a V ernice n era d a S alapia S kyphos a decorazione g eometrica d a A scoli

1 70

1 71

1 87 1 89

1 91 1 94

2 66 2 66 2 69 2 69 2 71 2 71 2 73 2 73

L IST OF TABLES P age M .

Maaskant-Kleibrink a nd R .A. O lde D ubbelink T able 1 0.1. X2 t able a rtefacts. D 10/ID 10/II T able 1 0.2. F requency d istribution o f D 10/I i n % T able 1 0.3. F requency d istribution o f pot f orms f rom t he s ettlement o f S atricum a nd N ecropolis o f O steria d ell'Osa, period 2 , i n % . S . T usa T able 1 8.1. S hapes a nd c hronology o f Mycenaean p ottery f ound a t V ivara T able 1 8.2. S hapes a nd c hronology o f Mycenaean pottery f ound a t L ipari

W .

C avanagh

a nd

T able

2 2.1.

T able

2 2.2.

R .

2 07 2 07

2 14

3 48 3 50

L axton

C d ates o f t he earlier Nuragic period V alues o f a , c , a nd d f or a l east s quares f itting o f d ata t o a n e quation o f t he f orm l og y = d , l og ( x + a ) + l og c 1 4

4 15

4 24

A DDRESSES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

M icaela A ngle S oprintendenza a rcheologica p er V ia P ompeo Magno, 2 , 0 0100 Roma, I taly. G ilda B artoloni, I stituto d i E truscologia U niversitä d egli Studi, P .le A . M oro, 0 0185 R oma, I taly. A rnold B eijer, K lassiek A rcheologisch P leiadenlaan, 1 0-26, 9 742 NG G roningen, N etherlands.

i l

L azio,

e A ntichitä

i taliche,

I nstituut,

G iovanna B ergonzi, I stituto d i P aletnologia, V ia P alestro, 6 3, 0 0185 R oma, I taly. A nna Maria B ietti S estieri, S oprintendenza a rcheologica d i P iazza S . Maria N ova, 5 3, 0 0186 R oma, I taly. W illiam C avanagh, D epartment o f C lassical T he U niversity, N ottingham, NG7 2 3D. E ngland.

a nd

R oma,

A rchaeological

A nna D e S antis, I stituto d i E truscologia e A ntichitä U niversitä degli S tudi, P .le A ldo Moro, 0 0185 R oma, I taly. E lizabeth F rench, A shburne H all, T he U niversity o f Manchester, O ld H all L ane, M anchester, M 14 6 HP, E ngland.

S tudies

i taliche,

Adolfo G ianni, V ia A . L eonari, 0 0100 Roma, I taly.

1 21,

Alessandro G uidi, V ia L ivio A ndronico, 0 0136 Roma, I taly.

1 6,

N icholas H artmann, 4 329 O sage A venue, Philadelphia, Pa. 1 9104, United S tates o f A merica. Ross H olloway, Center f or O ld World A rchaeology Brown University, Box 1 837, Providence, Rhode I sland, R .I. 0 2912, U nited S tates o f America. P atrizia I annantuono, V iale F rancia, 4 0, 7 1100 Foggia, I taly. Robert L axton, Department of M athematics, The U niversity o f N ottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2 3D, E ngland. Robert L eighton, 5 S outh E ast C ircus E dinburgh, EH3 6TJ, S cotland.

P lace.

M . Maaskant-Kleibrink, K lassiek A rcheologisch P leiadenlaan 1 0-26, 9 742 NG G roningen, Netherlands.

I nstituut,

C aroline M alone, D epartment of A rchaeology, Downing S treet, Cambridge, E ngland.

a nd

A rt,

M arina Mazzei, V ia A . T orelli, 7 1100 F oggia, I taly. R .

A .

O lde

2 2,

D ubbelink,

K lassiek A rcheologisch P leiadenlaan 1 0-26, 9 742 NG G roningen, N etherlands. R osella S alvia D el V ia T rilussa, 2 2, 6 5100 P escara, I taly.

I nstituut,

R osario,

S imon S toddart, D epartment of A rchaeology, D owning S treet, C ambridge, E ngland. M arco T izzoni, V ia del C aravaggio, 2 0144 M ilano I taly.

1 ,

S ebastiano T usa, V ia B ara, 2 4, 9 0136 P alermo, I taly. G loria Vannacci L unazzi, V ia G ambolina, 4 2, 2 7029 V igevano ( Pavia), I taly. L ucy W alker, 1 0 S ummerville, D urham C ity, C o. D urham, D H1 4 QH, E ngland. P eter W ells, D epartment o f A nthropology, P eabody Museum, H arvard U niversity, C ambridge, M assachusetts 0 2138, U nited S tates o f A merica.

Ruth W hitehouse, Department of C lassics a nd Lonsdale College, University o f L ancaster, Bailrigg, L ancaster, LA1 4 YN, E ngland. John W ilkins, Department of C lassics Queen Mary C ollege, University o f L ondon, E ngland.

A rchaeology,

P reface

a nd A cknowledgements

T his i s t he t hird o f f our v olumes b ased o n t he papers p resented a t t he T hird C onference o f I talian A rchaeology t hat t ook place i n S t. J ohn's C ollege a nd C hrist's C ollege, C ambridge i n J anuary, 1 984. T he conference was h eld a lmost exactly f our y ears a fter t he s econd c onference i n t he D epartment of C lassics a nd A rchaeology at S heffield U niversity w hich w as a lso published b y B ritish A rchaeological R eports ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981) a nd s even y ears a fter t he f irst at L ancaster ( Blake e t a l. 1 978). T he o rganisers o f t he C ambridge c onference i nvited s peakers t o p resent e ither l onger t hematic p apers, o r period r eports o r v isual d isplays o n c urrent r esearch. About o ne h undred people r esponded t o t he c all f or p apers; a pproximately two f ifths of t hese were f rom I taly ( of w hom a bout o ne t hird were b ased i n L azio); a bout one t hird w ere B ritish; a f urther one f ifth w ere f rom N orth America; a nd a l esser n umber were f rom t he N etherlands, S weden a nd A ustralia. T he g eographical coverage o f t he papers was f airly even; o ne t hird o f t he p apers c overed t he S outh a nd t he I slands; a f urther t hird covered C entral I taly ( although a f ull t hird o f t hese c oncentrated o n L azio); o ne f ifth covered t he N orth o f I taly; t he r emaining f ifth t ackled t hemes t hat encompassed more t han o ne o f t hese a reas. I t was t he s pontaneous a nd varied r esponse o f a ll t he c onference p articipants t hat c ontributed s o much t o t he s timulating c onference t hat r esulted. T he published papers h ave b een d istributed among f our v olumes. T he f irst v olume r etains a n important t heme of t he c onference: t he H uman L andscape. T he t hree o ther v olumes a re d ivided a long b roadly c hronological l ines: P rehistory, P rotohistory a nd C lassical/Historical p eriods. I n t he s poken conference, t he t hematic s essions b rought s pecialists o f d ifferent p eriods t ogether. H owever, i t was f elt t hat i n p ublication a ccess t o s pecialist i nterests would b e f acilitated i f t he v olumes were d ivided c hronologically. A cknowledgements T he s uccess o f t he c onference r elied o n t he e fforts o f many people. T he o rganisers would l ike t o t hank D r. D . W hitehouse f or t he i nitial s uggestion o f h olding t he T hird C onference o f I talian A rchaeology a t C ambridge a nd f or h is c ontinuing a dvice. T he o rganisers a re v ery g rateful t o a ll w ho c oordinated t he c onference debates: P rof. A .C. R enfrew ( President), D r. G . B arker, M r. M . C rawford, D r. H . H urst, D r. T . P otter, P rof. P . W ells, P rof. J . W ilks, D r. D . W hitehouse a nd D r. R . W hitehouse ( Session C hairmen), P rof.ssa A .M. B ietti S estieri, P rof. S . T in , P rof. M . T orelli, D ott. S . T usa a nd D r. D . W hitehouse ( Discussants). A n umber o f b odies made g enerous contributions t owards t he f inance o f t he c onference: B ritish A cademy, B ritish S chool a t R ome ( loan), A lwyn Cotton F oundation, S t. J ohn's C ollege. W e would l ike t o t hank t he M aster, F ellows, B ursar, Junior B ursar a nd s taff o f C hrist's C ollege a nd S t. J ohn's C ollege who p rovided f ood,

accommodation ( St. J ohn's C ollege) a nd c onference f acilities. Many others provided a dvice a nd we would especially l ike t o t hank Dr. J . A lexander, D r. J . C herry, Mr. M . Crawford a nd Dr. H . H urst i n t his r espect. L astly, we would l ike to express our gratitude t o t he many w ho h elped i n t he preparation a nd r unning o f t he conference: E lizabeth B annan, Kate B oyle, S am E vans, Judith G römberg, N icholas J ames, S imon Kaner, James McVicar, Mark P earce, G ilbert P witi, A ndrew S argent, J anet S mith a nd J ames W hitley. Publication

A cknowledgements

I n t he f irst p lace t he e ditors would l ike t o t hank A ntonia L ovelace who patiently u ndertook t he massive t ask o f t ransferring a 1 000 pages o f t ext o nto t he m icro-computer. T his work continued even when t he editors were away i n I taly. We would l ike t o t hank t he D epartment o f A rchaeology f or t he u se of t heir micro-computer f acilities a nd i n particular Dr. C . S hell f or h is a dvice. T he C ambridge U niversity C omputing S ervice g enerously a llowed u s t o u se i ts KDEM text r eading s ystem which considerably s peeded u p t he t ransfer o f t exts t o t he computer memory. I n a ddition, w e would l ike t o t hank Debbie C annon, Margerite J ones a nd T im M alim who r e-modelled s ome o f t he drawings f or publication. L astly w e would l ike t o t hank K ate C lark a nd R owland R eeve who g ave v aluable a ssistance i n t he l ast moments o f preparation o f t he t ext f or publication.

B ibliography B arker,

G . a nd H odges, R . ( eds.) 1 981. A rchaeology a nd I talian S ociety. P rehistoric, R oman a nd M edieval s tudies ( Papers i n I talian A rchaeology I I). ( B. A.R. I nternational S eries 1 02). Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

B lake,

H . McK., P otter, T . W. a nd W hitehouse, D .B. ( eds.) 1 978. P apers i n I talian A rchaeology I . ( B.A. R. S upplementary S eries 4 1). Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

I NTRODUCTION

C aroline

M alone

a nd

S imon

S toddart

I talian protohistory c an b e v iewed a s a period o f u neasy d efinition a nd methodological d ifficulty l urking b etween p re h istory a nd h istory, the meeting point o f the s eparate a cademic t raditions o f P rehistoric a nd C lassical a rchaeology. H owever, i t i s more s timulating t o make c lear t hat t his i s t he phase when r apid p rocesses o f e conomic/social/political/ c ultural c hange c ulminated i n t he c ity s tates o f t he central M editerranean. I n t his s ame phase, r estricted l iteracy, t he s ine qua n on o f h istory, was o nly i ncidentally i ntroduced a s a tool o f i ncreasingly h ierarchical s ociety. T he wealth o f d ata f rom I taly s hows t hat t he c entral M editerranean i s a s good a ' laboratory' for r esearch i nto s tate f ormation a s t he more widely publicised f oci of s uch r esearch i n G reece, t he M iddle E ast a nd b eyond. T he r ich t raditional k nowledge o f material culture h as particularly i n t he l ast d ecade b een approached f rom new d irections. T he d evelopment o f s ocially ranked societies a nd s tates i n I taly w ill soon b e u nderstood i n a f ramework which allows c omparison a nd contrast to b e made w ith c ases more widely d ocumented i n E nglish. R esearch s hows t hat t here i s no one p attern o f I talian p rotohistory; t here i s v ariation n ot only i n cultural content but a lso i n s tructural d evelopment. I n t his v olume, t he papers have b een a rranged to p rogress f rom t he s tudy o f material culture per s e t o t he d iscussion o f a s et of f ields o f s tudy p rominent i n t he n ew and d eveloping b ranches o f I talian protohistoric research: burial, s ettlement a nd i nteraction ( more s pecifically t he M ycenaeans). Twelve o f t he papers h ave b een r egrouped f rom s essions p resented a t t he conference on I nteraction, the Mycenaeans, I ndigenous g roups a nd s ocial o rganisation. S even p apers w ere o riginally presented a s r eports a nd a re h ere considerably r evised and e nlarged. O ne n ew paper h as b een w ritten f or t he v olume. The papers c oncentrate c hronologically o n t he period c . 1 200 - c . 5 00 B .C., b ut i t i s t he t hematic content t hat has d etermined t heir s election f or t his v olume r ather than f or o ther v olumes. V olume o ne contains some papers o n t he human l andscape t hat t ouch more o r l ess on t he p rotohistoric period ( Coltorti a nd D al R i v olume o ne; B alista a nd L eonardi v olume o ne; D e Guio v olume o ne; T rump v olume one; B onomi P onzi v olume o ne; N aso a nd Z ifferero v olume o ne; R endeli v olume o ne). Walker's p aper i s p art o f a l arger p roject s tudying t he p rotohistoric a s well a s t he R oman l andscape, but i s p laced i n this v olume a s a n eat contrast to t he ' simpler' i nternal o rganisation o f t he s ettlement K leibrink and O lde D ubbelink t his

1

o f S atricum ( Maaskant v olume). Two papers which

overlap c hronologically w ith p rotohistory h ave b een p laced i n t he i ntroductory r itual s ection o f V olume 4 ( Edlund v olume f our; B lagg v olume f our). T here i s a l ack o f work o n t he E truscans i n t his v olume i n comparison w ith many t reatments of I talian p rotohistory. T his p artly b ecause o f t he p resent o rganisation o f the p roceedings o f t he conference; two E truscan p apers a re i n t he l andscape v olume and two i n t he r itual s ection o f t he C lassical v olume. H owever, t he l ack o f E truscologists was a lso v isible a t t he conference, although, i n addition to t hose published i n t he p roceedings, S pivey ( 1984) presented a paper on E truscan B lack F igure v ases, P hillips a nd N ielsen r eported o n t heir r ecent excavations a t Murlo a nd Humler on B agnolo S an V ito. P erhaps a more f undamental r eason i s t hat t he r ichness o f E truscology a s a s elf c ontained d iscipline has encouraged the maintenance o f a r esilient t radition o f r esearch. I n t he l ast d ecade, t here h ave b een i mportant changes t hat a re concentrated i n n on-Etruscan protohistoric r esearch. I n t he n ext d ecade, t here i s t he c hallenge o f r esolving t he d ifferences b etween t he r ichness o f E truscology a nd more a nthropological a nd e nvironmental a pproaches t o t he p rotohistoric p ast. M aterial

Culture

Typological work h as f requently b een p rominent i n protohistoric work. T he work o f Müller K arpe ( 1959) a nd of t he B ronzefunde s eries ( Bianco P eroni 1 979; C arancini 1 975; 1 984) b y themselves s how t he d epth a nd i mportance o f t his t radition. S uch work i s c omplementary a nd n ot n ecessarily a ntithetical to a more e xplanatory a pproach, e specially i n t he l ight o f r ecent r esearch i n t he f ield. A sound o rdering o f material culture i s f undamental t o the moves b eyond typology t hat a re r eadily v isible i n current p rotohistoric r esearch i n I taly. N evertheless, c aution must b e observed i n t he typological d efinition o f t he p rotohistoric p ast. T he demand for chronological ' stability' i n t his p eriod h as l ed t o a s tretching of t he powers o f c rossdating a nd typological comparison, f using v ast a reas i nto c ultural h omogeneity. M any definitions o f material culture h ave t oo r eadily r elied o n c emetery evidence, a lthough now w ith t he i ncreasing evidence f rom s ettlements t his p attern i s c hanging ( see b elow). I n t he case o f t he ' Protovillanovan' entity, a confusion of s tylistic, cultural a nd c hronological t erminology h as b een i ntroduced ( cf. d iscussion b y F ugazzola D elpino 1 976, 2 582 60). A lternative c hronglogical methods, i ndependent o f material culture ( e.g. "C d ating) h ave b een p erceived, s ometimes r ightly, a s t oo i naccurate t o v erify t raditional chronological s chemes a nd most a rtefactual c lassification i s measured a gainst a n umber o f well p ublished a nd f undamental s tudies f rom ' core' a reas.

T he

T hree s tudies o f material f irst i s f rom t he 1 st

culture i ntroduce t his I ron A ge o f D aunia

2

v olume. ( Puglia,

s outhern

I taly).

I annanuono g ives

a v ery

u p-to-date

s ummary

o f r ecent work, t aking c are t o d raw a ttention n ot only to t he w ell known s ites b ut a lso to t he l ess r esearched s ites t hat w ould otherwise r emain gaps i n our k nowledge. F rom t he north, two I ron A ge s tudies a re p resented. T izzoni g ives a precise a nd detailed a ccount o f t he l ate I ron A ge i n L ombardy. T he main f ocus o f t he paper i s on t he c haracteristics a nd spatial d istribution o f material culture during L a Tene C a nd L a T ene D , but c are i s t aken to g ive t he h istorical s etting. V annacci L unazzi makes a n even more d etailed s tudy of o ne r egional g roup mentioned b y T izzoni. T he

r econciliation o f

w ritten

a nd

a rchaeological

evidence.

T he paper o f W hitehouse a nd W ilkins ( this v olume) raises a s et o f i ssues, i n t he context o f M agna G raecia, t hat have much wider i mplications. I ndeed r ecently t here h as b een a r esurgence o f i nterest i n t he p roblem of r econciling t extual i nformation that i s not strictly contemporary to a rchaeological evidence ( e.g. B ennett 1 984; C hakrabarti 1 984; B arnes 1 984). I n common w ith t he h istory o f l ater mercantile a nd colonial p eriods ( cf. Wolf 1 981), i t i s important t hat t he d ifferential coverage b y written sources s hould not d etract f rom t he s tudy o f s hared h istorical p rocesses. A s a n ext s tage, the problems i nherent i n the exegesis o f l inguistic a nd l iterary d ata f rom p rotohistoric I taly d eserve c omparison with the s imilar methodological problems e ncountered i n o ther parts o f t he world. O ne of the c ritical p roblems r aised b y Whitehouse and W ilkins ( this v olume, C 3) i s t hat l iterary sources a re o ften p roducts o f s ocio-cultural f ormations o f a d ifferent l evel of c omplexity to t hat o f t he ' indigenous' I talic populations d escribed. Whitehouse a nd W ilkins make t he i mportant l inkage t o t he w ider t heoretical d iscussion of F ried ( 1968) a nd R enfrew ( 1977) t hat h as b een t aken even f urther b y Wolf ( 1981, 3 87). F rom t his d iscussion i t i s s uggested t hat t he c rucial t ransition to recognisable ' peoples' does not precede t he development o f s tate o rganisation. O ne i mportant s olution p roposed i s the elaboration o f i ndependent quantitative m easures o f complexity i n s ettlement o rganisation to d etermine whether C lassical authors h ave c reated entities merely to match t heir own p reconceptions. I t i s t herefore v ery encouraging t o b e able t o r eport t hat for c entral I taly, s uch i ndependent quantitative methods a re n ow b eing applied. Guidi ( this v olume) u ses r ank s ize a nalysis f or s outh E truria a nd L azio during t he 1 0th-8th c enturies B .C. Judson a nd H emphill ( 1982) h ave covered S outh E truria w ith t he s ame t echnique f or t he f ifth c entury B .C. I n t he l atter's work i t i s i nteresting t o note t he m ismatch b etween t he p osition o f C apena when ranked i n i ts r egional s ettlement system a nd when d escribed b y L ivy. T he l iterary s ource g ives C apena a rank much above t hat s uggested b y i ts s ize ( Judson a nd H emphill 1 982, 2 00). F urthermore, D oganella ( Walker t his v olume) i s a c ity surprisingly l arge f or o ne i dentified i n t he w ritten s ources.

3

The i nterpretation o f myth i s o ne o f t he many o ther points o f importance i ntroduced b y Whitehouse a nd W ilkins. T here i s much t o b e u nderstood f rom a general rather t han particularising approach t o myth ( Kirk 1 970). I n t he c ase of foundation myths f or s tate o rganised s ocieties, much c an b e l earned about t he p rocesses o f l egitimisation, b ased o n a comparison o f a rchaeological evidence f or s ettlement a nd for t he cult o f t he f ounder w ith t he l iterary a ccounts o f the actual myth. F or i nstance, the r ecent c elebration o f the B imillenario V irgilliano gave t he opportunity f or a n i n-depth analysis o f A eneas ( Ministero 1 981). H olloway ( this v olume; 1 981) t ackles t he comparable question o f Hyblon a nd K okolos i n S icily. T he d ebate opened b y W hitehouse a nd W ilkins h as a b earing on many o f t he o ther papers i n t he v olume ( and i ndeed v olume four). T izzoni r emarks o n t he s ilence o f L atin h istorians on t he cultural d evelopments i n L ombardy i n t he l ast c enturies B .C. V annacci L unazzi b egins h er s tudy o f t he L omellina w ith a p resentation of t he l iterary sources. B ietti S estieri ( this volume) cautiously proposes t hat t he f ormation of the c l ens might b e v isible i n t he f unerary evidence of O steria dell'Osa. I n t hese a nd o ther s timulating p roblems, i t i s important to r efine a methodology t o d eal w ith t he s eemingly i ntractable points of contact b etween l iterary/linguistic evidence a nd t he more material evidence o f a rchaeology. B urial C emeteries h ave t raditionally b een a central focus of protohistoric r esearch, a lthough t his h as o ften b een t o the d etriment o f a more b alanced v iew of culture and s ociety. Funerary a nalysis h as mainly b een r estricted to the e lucidation of c hronological v ariation a nd t he d escription of material culture. B urial i s f requently where the aesthetically most p leasing objects a re d eposited a nd f ound i ntact i n a p rimary context a nd where a n i mportant d imension o f v ariability i n material culture c an b e appreciated. H owever, h ere two papers go b eyond t hese t raditional p reoccupations and explore the social f actors that m ight contribute to v ariation i n f unerary practice. T he third p aper on f unerary r emains p resented h ere, r edresses a n unbalanced impression of t he c emetery of C apestrano, a n ecropolis too f requently r eported solely for t he d iscovery of an outstanding a rt object: t he C apestrano w arrior. D el R osario makes c lear that t he warrior was o ne o f a number o f f unerary s culptures d iscovered i n t he c emetery a nd summarises her a rchival r esearch o n t he o ther tombs i n t he c emetery. T he

f irst

two

papers

s eek

to

i dentify

s ocial

personae

f rom l arge mortuary s amples. I n t he case of O steria d ell' Osa, there i s a l ong t erm p roject to e xcavate t he w hole cemetery. A lthough t he cemetery i s a t p resent l ess t han o ne t hird excavated, the f inal s ample o f c arefully collected mortuary d ata w ill b e v ery i mpressive. B oth t hese s tudies a re f rom L azio where a s ufficiently p recise c hronological f ramework h as b een e stablished to move o n to more s ocial

4

a nthropological analysis. Angle and Gianni base their a rgument o n r egularities d erived f rom c omparative mortuary s tudies. Rank, wealth a nd s ocial affiliation are measured; f or example, a s a d etermination o f r ank t hey f ollow T ainter i n attempting t o measure energy expenditure on f unerary p ractices. B ietti S estieri, on t he other hand, emphasises t hat ' the s ignificance of the funerary r itual and s ymbolisation i s s pecifically l ocal' a nd s tresses t he L atial c ontext of her r esearch. Both t hese two papers make a very t horough analysis of the spatial organisation of the d epositions a nd h ow t his might b e i nterpreted i n t erms of s ocial groups. I n a ddition, b oth t he s tudies, i n p articular t hat by B ietti S estieri, are paying important attention to t he r econstruction o f a ge a nd s ex s tructure . A s emphasised i n r ecent reviews o f approaches to funerary d ata ( O'Shea 1 984) thi s is an important independent check on the r epresentativity o f t he b uried p opulation. S ettlement In 1 848, C ities and Cemeteries of Etruria was p ublished; D ennis ( 1848) a chieved a c lassic s ynthesis o f b oth s ettlement a nd b urial. H owever, s ince t hen a nd u ntil r ecently a ttention has concentrated on cemeteries not only for t he E truscan period but also for the preceding formative p rotohistoric periods not t ackled by Dennis. S urvey and excavation are now altering this, although there is i nevitably an u neven coverage both by period and b y r egion. B artoloni e t a l. ( this v olume) i ntroduce t heir d iscussion b y i llustrating t he r ecent i ncrease i n t he excavation of p rotohistoric s ettlements . A t a more r egional s cale, s urvey b y Swedes and British i s matched by I talian work. I n t he Val d i Fiora (Negroni Ca tac chio 1 981), the Vicentino area ( Balista et a l. 1 982), on t he Colfiorito a ltiniano, t he Agro Romano ( Bietti S estieri 1 984), and by i ndividu al s and other o rganisations i n a range of areas ( Cardarelli et al. 1 980; D i Gennaro a nd S toddart 1 982), there have b een and continue t o b e long t erm i nvestigations t hat are not constrained by t he logistic preoccupations of many f oreign surveys. T he i nternational p roject i n t he A ger C osanus i s a lso important f or more r ecent p eriods o f p rotohistory ( Walker t his v olume). There i s a n i ncreasing r ealisation t hat more detailed i nterpretation can b e derived from t he j uxtaposition and l inkage o f f unerary a nd s ettlement d ata. Maaskant K leibrink a nd Olde Dubbelink comment explicitly on t he dangers of a r eliance exclusively on a f unerary definition of material c ulture. T heir work goes on t o s how the complementarity of material c ulture f orms f rom f unerary ( Osteria d ell'Osa) a nd s ettlement ( Satricum) contexts. Caracupa ( Angle and G ianni t his volume) a nd O steria dell'Osa are both c lose to and p robably associated with at l east partly contemporary s ettlement. The work i n t he Val d i F iora ( Negroni Catacchio 1 981) has r econstructed a L ate B ronze Age landscape of s ettlements a nd c emeteries, where l ater t he t erritory o f t he c ity s tate o f Vulci was f ormed. P onzi ( volume o ne) d escribes

5

the fossilised u pland l andscape o f castellieri and cemeteries, t he r esult o f l ong t erm work b y t he Soprintendenza a rcheologica per l 'Umbria. A s et o f d etailed studies a re b eing built u p which b egin to i llustrate t he d iverse t rajectories o f s ocio-economic d evelopment. B artoloni et al. ( this v olume) make a d etailed comparison o f one c lass o f evidence f rom s ettlement and cemetery. T heir r esearch b rings together t he evidence f or ' real' ' functional' h ut s tructures reconstructed f rom settlement d ata a nd t he symbolic r epresentation o f t hat hut s tructure a s a n u rn modelled i n c lay a nd metal and found i n many c emeteries. A t o ne l evel t he s tudy o f t he hut u rns i s an a id to the r econstruction o f l ost d etails o f building s tructures a nd to a f ull i nterpretation of s ocial d ifferentiation. A t a nother l evel, t here i s much i nterest i n t he s ymbolic t ransformation b etween ' functional' hut a nd representative u rn. A nother d imension i s t he pattern of r egional v ariation apparent i n t he hut u rn d istribution. C areful a ttention i s now b eing turned to i ntras ettlement o rganisation. M aaskant K leibrink a nd O lde Dubbelink ( this volume) and W alker ( this v olume) make a f unctional i nterpretation o f t he i nternal o rganisation o f two contrasting types o f s ettlement. M aaskant K leibrink and O lde Dubbelink a nalyse t he r esults of r ecent excavation work at S atricum. T he work h as d efined t he f orm o f the I ron A ge h uts a nd i dentified t he d ifferent s ubsistence r elated activities within them. Walker r eviews s urvey work a t the s ite of Doganella. T he r esults c larify t he e conomic r ole o f what i s probably politically and administratively a n second o rder centre i n t he t erritory o f V ulci, but l arger i n e nclosed surface a rea t han Vulci i tself. T he recent conference on t erritorial o rganisation i n Rome ( Atti 1 982) i llustrates h ow much a ttention i s n ow b eing focused on the p atterning o f s ites and their territories. B arker ( 1972) a nd R enfrew ( 1975) were t he f irst to employ t erritorial a nalysis o f p rotohistoric s ites i n I taly. A t t he Rome conference, t he 1 984 I talian C ambridge conference and t he TAG 8 4 s ession, t his t rend h as d eveloped s till f urther. S ite c atchment ( Angle et al. 1 982) a nd t hiessen polygons ( Di Gennaro 1 982) h ave b een d eveloped i n n ew contexts and o ther t echniques s uch a s r ank s ize a nalysis a nd mathematical modelling h ave b een i ntroduced. T he work o f Guidi ( this v olume) s hould b e r ead i n conjunction w ith t he earlier w ork o f Judson a nd H emphill ( 1981). T he work o f Guidi i s a s triking d emonstration o f t he t ransformation o f r elationships b etween s ettlements i n 9 th century E truria and L atium, whereas Judson a nd H emphill s how t he o rganisation of s ettlement

h ierarchy

a t

t he

h eight

o f

E truscan

power.

A n i mportant development i s t he s tudy of n ucleation p rocesses i n I taly. Work i s u nderway a t principal c entres s uch a s V eii ( Guaitoli 1 982) a nd R ome. H owever, contrasting d evelopments a re a lso b eing noted i n r egions away f rom t he Tyrrhenian coast o f central I taly ( Holloway t his v olume;

6

B arker a nd

1 977;

M alone

synoicism conceal

p rocesses t hat d etailed work o f

and

S toddart

a l arge

s hould b e t he future.

1 984).

r ange the

o f

T he

t erms

economic

s ubject

o f

n ucleation

a nd political

s tudy

i n

more

I nteraction The c entral l ocation o f I taly i n t he Mediterranean has m ade t he peninsula a nd i slands a n important f ocus o f i nteraction throughout p roto-history. T his s ection i s i ntroduced b y t hree s tudies t hat d iscuss t he cultural a nd e xchange i nteractions b etween I taly a nd a reas b eyond h er modern geographical b oundaries. I t i s important t o h ave a b alancing p erspective o f t his i nteraction f rom outside I taly. W ells a nd F rench provide t his. W ells analyses t he i mplications o f the r eady a cceptance o f certain c lasses o f r itual paraphernalia i n c entral Europe, t hat, i n h is i nterpretation, were t he p lunder o f r aids s outh o f t he A lps. M azzei g ives a n u p-to-date p icture of t he complex i nteraction i n I ron A ge D aunia. H artmann proposes t hat the i ncrease i n i ron objects i n V illanovan I I i s d ependent o n i nteraction w ith t he G reek colony o f P ithecusae. T he v olume c loses w ith s even papers that r eview i n depth t he impact of t he Mycenaeans i n I taly, f rom d ifferent cultural a nd g eographical p erspectives. T he s eminal s tudy r emains T aylour's ( 1958) work o n M ycenaean pottery i n I taly. H owever, s ince t hen t here h ave b een f undamental changes i n k nowledge marked p articularly b y t he 1 967 mostra, V agnetti's ( 1970) a rticle a nd more r ecently b y t he T aranto ( Vagnetti 1 982) and P alermo conferences. S lowly t he d istribution o f t he Mycenaean ' presence', d etermined b y f ind spots of Mycenaean p ottery, subdivided i n t hree chronological periods, i s b ecoming c lear ( Vagnetti 1 982). T he earliest f inds s eem to b e c oncentrated i n the A eolian/Tyrrhenian a rea. T he f ullest e xpansion o f t he Mycenaean p resence i s r eached i n Mycenaean I IIA-IIIB; b y t he end o f t his phase t here i s evidence for M ycenaean activity i n S ardinia. I n t he l ater p hases, t he c oncentration o f activity s eems t o s hift to t he I onian a nd A pulian a reas. N evertheless, F rench a nd B ietti S estieri emphasise t hat a b etter k nowledge o f t he archaeological c ontext of ' Mycenaean' material culture' would g reatly a id t he elucidation of t he n ature o f the Mycenaean presence. F or t his period, B ergonzi notes t he p reponderance o f s ettlement d ata i n t he eastern I talian a rea a s opposed to t he p reponderance o f b urial d ata f rom S icily, a nd t hat work s till n eeds to b e done to f ill i n k nowledge o f l esser k nown areas s uch a s t he Tavoliere, C alabria a nd W est S icily. Furthermore, t his r elative c larity o f t he Mycenaean p resence i n s pace and t ime contrasts w ith much more d ifficult i nterpretation o f t he p rocesses i nvolved. F undamental questions t hat a re t ackled b y t he f ollowing p apers i nclude t he n ature of t he Mycenaean contacts a nd t he i mpact o n l ocal i ndigenous g roups. T he p apers r eview t he g eographical a nd cultural i mpact of t he Mycenaeans i n

M ycenaean p resence f rom s eparate p erspectives. F rench s ets t he a much wider E astern context a nd

7

d raws out the particular contrasts w ith t he E astern Mediterranean. B ergonzi, working o n t he b asis o f h er d etailed knowledge o f B roglio, concentrates o n t he I onian a rea. B ietti S estieri a nd Tusa s hift t heir focus f urther w est t o the Tyrrhenian s phere o f a ctivity. H olloway and L eighton make a complementary s tudy of S icily which presents particular contrasts o f r esponse t o Mycenaean a ctivity. C avanagh and L axton t ackle t he l ongstanding p roblem of t he t holoi of S ardinia. T he most challenging question r emains t he n ature o f the Mycenaean presence a nd of t he v aried p rocesses of ' indigenous' development t hat t his may have s timulated. B ietti S estieri contrasts t he i ntense mainland i nteraction t hat took p lace on t he I onian coast with v ery d ifferent developments i n t he Tyrrhenian a rea. S he b elieves t hat A egean contact i n t he Tyrrhenian a rea goes b ack i nto t he p reMycenaean period, but t hat t he cultural ' distance' b etween Mycenaean a nd i ndigenous g roups i n much o f t he a rea i s l inked to t he i naccessibility o f much o f t he S outh Tyrrhenian coastline a nd t he p resence o f s trategically p laced i slands. B ietti S estieri a lso p resents a c areful outline o f t he major cultural sequences over t his t ime period. Tusa pays particular a ttention t o two contrasting S icilian g roups i n t his s equence: the C astelluccio a nd the Rodi-TindariV allelunga. T hese two g roups s eem t o h ave r esponded v ery d ifferently t o the ' terminals' of Mycenaean activity that Tusa envisages a t V ivara a nd L ipari. H olloway a nd L eighton explore certain a spects o f t his S icilian r esponse; H olloway concentrates on t he s ettlement p rocesses t hat a re v isible f rom t he available d ata a nd s ets t his w ithin a b roader geographical a nd h istorical context; L eighton makes a d etailed a nalysis o f t he a rtefactual evidence. B ergonzi opens a n ew d imension o f possible Mycenaean i mpact o n s pecialised production; i t i s s uggested t hat not o nly metalwork p roduction but a lso pottery manufacture m ay have b een a ffected. I t i s c lear t hat t here a re many i mportant n ew d irections i n I talian p rotohistoric r esearch. O n t he o ne h and t here i s t he continuity o f much typological a nd a rt h istorical work. H owever, s cholars a re r eworking a nthropological t heory with a n extensive awareness a nd h ealthy c ritique o f developments outside I taly i n t he s tudy o f complex s ociety. P atterns a re not o nly v isible i n t he material culture b ut now i ncreasingly i n t he determining p rocesses b ehind t he d istribution and f ormation o f t he a rchaeological r ecord.

B ibliography A ngle,

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1 982. A tti del S eminario ' Economia e o rganizzazione d el t erritorio n eu e s ocietä p rotostoriche. D ialoghi d i A rcheologia 4 (2), 1 -160.

B alista, C ., De Guio, A ., L eonardi, G . a nd Ruta S erafini, A . 1 982. L a f requentazione protostorica d el t erritorio vicentino. Me todologia analitica ed elementi preli minari d i l ettura i nterprettiva. D ialoghi d i A rcheologia 4 ( 2), 1 13-136. B arker,

G .W .W . 1 972. T he c onditions o f c ultural a nd e conomic gro wth in the Bronz e Age of central Ital y. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 8, 1 70-208.

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Peroni, V . 1 979. I r asoi nell'Italia continentale ( Prähistorische B ronzefunde 8 , 2 ). München, B eck .

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S estieri, A .M. ( ed.) 1 984. P reistoria n el t erritorio d i R oma. R oma, D e L uca.

Carancini, G . 1 975. D ie nadeln nell'Italia continentale 1 3, 2 ). München, B eck.

e P rotostoria

i n I talien. G li S pilloni ( Prähistorische B ronzefunde

C arancini, G . 1 984. L e asce nell'Italia continentale ( Prähistorische B ronzefunde 9 , 1 2). München, B eck.

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C ardarelli, A ., D i G ennaro, F ., Guidi, A . and P acciarelli, M . 1 980. L e r icherche d i t opografia protostorica nel Lazio. I n Peroni, R . ( ed.) I l Bronzo finale in I talia. B ari, D e D onato, 9 1-103. Chakrabarti, D .K. 1984. Archaeology and the l iterary t radition: an examination of the I ndian context. A rchaeological R eview f rom C ambridge 3 ( 2), 2 9-34. D i

Gennaro, F . 1982. Or ganiz zazi one del territorio n ell'Etruria meridionale protostorica: applicazione d i u n modello g rafico . D ialoghi d i A rcheologia 4 (2), 1 02-112.

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Gennaro, F . and Stoddart, S . 1982. A review of the evidence f or prehistoric activity i n part of South E truria. P apers of t he B ritish S chool at R ome 5 0, 1 2 1.

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G .

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M .H. 1 968. S ociety. I n t he T ribe. P ress, 3 -20.

O n the concepts o f ' Tribe' and ' Tribal H elm, J . ( ed.) E ssays o n t he P roblem o f W ashington, U niversity of W ashington

Fugazzola D elpino, M .A. 1 976. O rigini 1 0, 2 46-232.

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Guaitoli, M . 1 982. N otizie r icognizioni svolte i n Quaderni d ell'Istituto d ell'Universitä d i R oma 9 ,

preliminari su r icenti s eminari d ell'Istituto. d i Topografia a ntica 2 3-57.

H olloway, R .R. 1 981. I taly a nd t he A egean 3 000-700 B .C. ( Publications d 'histoire d e l 'art e d 'archdologie d e l 'universit6 c atholique d e L ouvain 2 8). L ouvain-laN euve, I stitut S uperieur d 'archdologie e t d 'histoire de l 'art. Judson,

K irk,

S . a nd H emphill, P . 1 981. S izes o f S outhern E truria 6 th - 5 th c ent. B .C. 4 9, 1 93-202.

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G .S. 1 970. Myth. I ts meaning a nd f unctions a nd o ther cultures. C ambridge, C ambridge P ress.

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Müller-Karper, H . 1 959. B eiträge z ur C hronologie d er U rnfelderzeit nördlich d er A lpen ( Romische G ermanische F orschungen 2 2) B erlin, G ruyter. Negroni

C atacchio, N . 1 981. S orgenti d ella N ova. U na comunitä p rotostorica e i l suo t erritorio n ell'Etruria meridionale ( Catalogo d ella mostra). R oma, C onsiglio N azionale d elle R icerche.

O 'Shea,

J . 1 984. Mortuary v ariability. A n a rchaeological i nvestigation. N ew Y ork, A cademic P ress.

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A .C. 1 975. T rade a s a ction a t a d istance: questions o f i nteraction a nd communication. I n S abloff, J .A. a nd L amberg-Karlovsky, C .C. ( eds.) A ncient C ivilisations a nd T rade. A lbuquerque, S chool o f American R esearch - U niversity o f N ew M exico, 3 -59.

R enfrew,

A .C. 1 977. S pace, t ime a nd p olity. I n F riedman, J . and R owlands, M .J. ( eds.) T he Evolution o f S ocial S ystems. L ondon, D uckworth, 8 9-112.

1 0

S pivey,

N .

1 984.

T owards

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E truscan B lack-Figure workshops. P aper p resented a t t he t hird conference o f I talian a rchaeology, J anuary 1 984. T aylour,

W . 1 958. Mycenaean pottery i n I taly. C ambridge, C ambridge U niversity P ress. V agnetti, L . 1 970. I m icenei i n I talia. L a documentazione a rcheologica. P arola d el P assato 2 5, 3 59-380. V agnetti, L . ( ed.) 1 982. M agna G recia e mondo m iceneo. Nuovi d ocumenti. ( Atti d el XXII convegno d i s tudi sulla M agna G recia, T aranto, 7 -11 o ttobre, 1 982.) T aranto, I stituto p er l a s toria d ella M agna G recia W olf,

E .R. 1 981. E urope a nd B erkeley, U niversity o f

1 1

t he P eople C alifornia

w ithout P ress.

h istory.

2 .

ALCUNE NOTE

P RIMA E TA D EL F ERRO

P atrizia

S ULLA I N

DAUNIA

I annantuono

Nell'ambito d i u n a ggiornamento s ugli s tudi r iguardanti l 'antica D aunia durante l a f ase c ronologica d ella p rima e ta d el F erro, c he c omprende i s ecoli I X e V III a .C., s i c ercherä d i r iassumere, i n queste note, g li u ltimi d ati a cquisiti r iguardo a s iti g iä i nteressati d a s cavi a rcheologici, e d i e saminare a lcuni d egli o ggetti p iü i ndicativi, conservati n ei d ecenni passati e mai pubblicati, p rovenienti d a a ltre l ocalitä p iü o m eno note. L 'unico l avoro, apparso i n questi u ltimi a nni, c on l 'intendo d i u na s intesi d elle r icerche e , n ello s tesso t empo, d i u na e lencazione completa d ella d ocumentazione a rcheologica i n D aunia, ä s tato quello d el D e Juliis ( De Juliis 1 975). Questi, i nfatti, n ell'esaminare d ati acquisiti p er u na p iü ampia r icostruzione d ell'intera e ta del F erro n ella r egione, i i t iene d istinti n eu e due t radizionali f asi c ronologiche d ell'etä d el F erro: l a p rima, c he qui i nteressa l a nostra r icerca, e l a s econda c he d al V II s ec. s i p rolunga i n D aunia f ine a ll'inoltrato I V s ec. a .C. N ell'ambito d elle s ingole f asi i ndividua i v an i t ipi d i i nsediamenti e d i abitazioni, i r iti f unebri p resenti e l e d iverse t ipologie d elle t ombe, g li o ggetti metallici e l a c eramica c aratteristici d el p eriod°. I r eperti c onsiderati p rovengono t utti d a s cavi a rcheologici e ffettuati n elle l ocalitä c he c iteremo i n s eguito, e s eguono s ostanzialmente l e medesime d atazioni f ormulate n eu e prime pubblicazioni e spositive. I n p recedenza e d opo p erö, sono apparsi v alidi s ull' e ta d el F erro, r iguardanti l 'intera r egione ( Peroni 1 967) o d eterminati a spetti d ella cultura d auna 1 975) oppure monografie s u s ingole z one ( Gravina 1 979; 1 980; N ava e P ennacchioni 1 981).

s tudi Apula ( Tinä AAVV

D i particolare i nteresse, per quanto r iguarda i i l avoro d el P eroni, ä l a parte r iservata a lla p resentazione d i u n s epolcreto ad i numazione d etto, d al nome d el d onatore, ' Bellak', d a u na l ocalitä i gnota d ella P uglia, i cui c onfronti perö, f anno r itenere proveniente s enz'altro d all'area d auna. L a n ota c aratteristica d el t esto ä c ostituita d al f atto che per l a p rima v olta v iene d ato r isalto ad o ggetti f unerari paticolari, d i cui S i i gnora l 'esatta p rovenienza, ma che t rovano r iscontri con e semplari p rovenienti, o ltre c he d a l ocalitä g iä e splorate, quali A rpi, S alapia, M onte S araceno, d a a ltre a ncora poco n ote, come L uceria ed A usculum, e c he p resenteremo i n quest° s ede. L 'importanza i nvece d i c onsiste n ell'aver a rricchito

1 3

a lcune monografie l e conoscenze s u

r ecenti, s iti poco

esplorati, come T iati e S .Maria d i R ipalta, e per i quali s i auspica un u lteriore approfondimento. P er c hiarezza espostiva, S i procederä quindi ad u n e lenco s chematico dei centri p er i quali s i hanno d ati ormai n oti, s eguiti d a a ltri non a ncora, o solo parzialmente, i nteressati d a s cavi a rcheologici. S alapia G li s cavi effettuati d ai coniugi T ine n el 1 967-8 ( Tin B ertocchi e T ine 1 973; T ine B ertocchi 1 975), portarono a lla l uce resti d i capanne r isalenti a l IX-VIII s ec.a.C, t estimonianti l a p resenza, nella s tessa a rea, d i due d iversi t ipi d i abitazione. I i primo i nfatti, ä a pianta r ettangolare ( metri 8 x 5 ) con parete d i f ondo absidata, p receduto d a u n portico e c ircoscritto d a u n d oppio solce perimetrale, p er i l p robabile a lloggiamento d i pareti d i c anne. A ll'interno s i h anno g ruppi d i buchi per i pali d i sostegno, mentre v erso i l fondo della capanna doveva e sserci i i f ocolare. I l s econdo t ipo d i abitazione ä i nvece a p ianta r ettangolare ( metri 5 x 3 .50) con pareti r ettilinee e portico a nteriore. Qui i b uchi d el pali d i sostegno d el t etto, s eguono i i p erimetro della capanna. L a ceramica r invenuta d allo s trato d i queste c apanne ä a nch'essa d i due c lassi: una ä costituita d a v asi d 'impasto b runo-grigiastro a s uperficie i n genere molto f ine, l isciata e l evigata a s tecca; l 'altra, plasmata u gualmente a mano, v ede v asi d 'argilla d epurata con i ngubbiatura opaca color g iallo-verdognolo e d ecorati con motivi geometrici ( tra i quali prevalgono: quello a ' tenda' e a ' pseudotenda', i i motivo a ' pettine' e quell° a ' reticolo') d i colore b runo opaco. D alla s tessa a rea e l ivello delle c apanne, sono s tate r invenute s parse a lcune tombe ad e nchytrismös, c ioä ad i numazione, e ntro dolii ( semplici o cordonati) ed o lle b iconiche d 'impasto, chiuse d a c iotole d i copertura ( con o rli r ientranti l isci o d ecorati) o d a l astre d i p ietra. Questo particolare r ito f unebre, g iä noto per l 'Italia meridionale, i n v an e l ocalitä d ella C alabria e d ella L ucania ( Orsi 1 912; 1 926; L o P orto 1 973), e ra r iservato esclusivamente a i n eonati e , poichä questi non e rano a ccompagnati d a alcun e lemento d i corredo, contrariamente a quanta s i potä osservare i n due t ombe s imili p rovenienti d a M asseria C upola, d atate p erö t ra i l V II e g li i nizi d el V I s ec.a.C. ( Drago 1 936; D e J uliis 1 977a; 1 977b), s i ä portati a collocare t ali tombe n ello s tesso a rco c ronologico d elle c apanne e d elle c eramiche ( IXV II A l b ambini ed agil a dulti i nvece, v eniva r iservato l 'uso f unerario delle tombe a f ossa s emplice, t erragna, coperte d a g randi quantitä d i c iottoli. I n queste tombe i i morto e ra posto i n posizione r annicchiata, s econdo u n r ito a ttestato a nche ad A rpi, O rdona e Cupola e , f uori del confini d auni, i n P eucezia ed i n a lcune l ocalitä d el M aterano ( Drago 1 936); l a t esta i n genere e ra a dagiata s u u na p ietra a mo'di cuscino, mentre i i s uo corredo e ra costituito d a soli o ggetti b ronzei e f errei. D opo g li s cavi d el 1 967-68, l 'unico r invenimento r elativamente r ecente e degno d i nota r appresentato d a u n r ipostiglio d i 5 a sce b ronzee ( una s esta a scia a ndö d ispersa), v enuto alla l uce f ortuitamente durante i l avori a gricoli i n l ocalitä G iardinetto-Risaia. Questi

1 4

reperti, tutti del t ipo ad occhio, sono s tati studiati e pubblicati dalla dott.ssa M .L. Nava ( Nava 1 981) i nsieme ad altre asce si mili, sempre sporadiche, ma di di versa p rovenienza, ed ascritte, per i confronti e le analisi r iportate, alla p rima f ase d ell'etä del F erro. O rdona Dal sito dell'antica Herdonea, dove proseguono r egolar mente da o ltre v ent'anni g li s cavi b elgi d iretti dal p rof. J . Mertens ( Mertens 1 965; 1 967; 1 971; 1 974; 1 976; 1 979), sono emersi pochi resti arcaici, in quanto l a r icca c ittä romana f u costruita s u u n p iü antico abitato i ndigeno, c omprendente t ombe ed abitazioni, s convolgendo c osi i n g ran parte le s trutture precedenti. L e sole tombe databili al p eriodo i niziale d el F erro, s ono l a T omba I X e l a T omba XXXI, pubblicate da R . I ker ( Iker 1 967), mentre l a Tomba 1 43, p roveniente dagli scavi d el 1 978, è ancora i nedita. S i t ratta, anche i n questo caso, d i tombe d i adulti a fossa s emplice con i l fondo r icoperto da u no strato d i c iottoli p iatti, sul quale g iaceva i i d efunto . S olo n ella T omba 1 43 i l c orredo f unerario comprende, o ltre a i b ronzi r appresentati d a u n b acile, una punta d i lancia, una f ibula ad occhiali, due f ibule serpeggianti d i cui u na d i t ipo ' siciliano' e l 'altra i n due pezzi, anche l a caratteristica olla protodaunia, con a nse ad anello e decorazione geometrica i n b runo opaco, acco mpagnata dalla si mbolica brocchetta-attingitoi o, u gual mente decorata con motivi geometric i , i n b ase ad u n' usanza rituale non soltanto locale ma anche peuceta ( Quagliati 1 907; Gervasio 1 930). L a Tomba IX i nvece, vede u nicamente oggetti b ronzei e ferrei, come neu e tombe d i S alapia; a l contrario, l a T omba XXXI e sclusivamente e lementi c eramici. D alla pubblicazione d i un vecchio epistolario d el capitano An gelucci (Angelucci 1872) e del Catalog o d ell'Armeria R eale d i T orino ( Angelucci 1 890), dove f ini g ran parte del materiale herdoniense proveniente dagli s cavi e d agli acquisti f atti d al capitano i n quegli anni, S i sono potute i ndividuare altre sette t ombe, probabil mente anche queste a f ossa, a scrivibili p er i l l oro contesto s empre a lla p rima eta del F erro. ( Mentre, i l presente articolo era i n c orso d i s tampe u scive i l p rimo v olume s ulle tombe d aunie d i O rdone, a cura d i R . I ker. A tale testo s i fa r i mando per una maggiore completezza b ibliografica). M onte

S araceno

L 'insediamento d i M . S araceno ( Mattinata), n el G argano, s empre s tato o ggetto d i s tudio d a parte d i p iü autori. P rima l e r icerche f urono guidate d al p rof. R . B attaglia ( Battaglia 1 956); dopo la sua sco mparsa ci fu una nuova missione archeologica coi prof.ri C . Corrain, V . Fusco e R . R ittatore ( Corrain, et al. 1 958-59); i n seguito g li s cavi d i S . F erri ( Ferri 1 970) ed a ttualmente quelli d iretti dalla dott.ssa. M .L. Nava e a ncora i nediti. Questo p romontorio è o ccupato d a u na v asta n ecropoli ( oltre 6 00 s epolcreti) con t ombe a f ossa d i for ma tronco-pira mi dale, cavate nella rocci a. In s uperficie v enivano chiuse d a u na l astra monolitica. L e l oro

1 5

d imensioni ( profonditä e l arghezza) s ono v an e e , p oiche generalmente sono apparse manomesse, ancor o ggi è i n d iscussione i i l oro u so e ffettivo come tombe d i f amiglia, collettive, oppure come o ssari, u sati solo p er u na s econda deposizione. D ata l a f orma particolare d i queste tombe, non s arä s tato possibile porre i c adaveri d istesi, ma piü probabilmente i n posizione r annicchiata o s eduta, c on l e g inocchia r ipiegate sul petto. P urtroppo, delle tombe s cavate durante l e v an e m issioni a rcheologiche, s i a spetta a ncora u na pubblicazione completa. L 'unica c he h a avuto u na t rattazione a parte e s tata l a tomba d i Masseria F andetti ( Rittatore Vonwiller 1 971) c he, o ltre a comprendere u n consistente numero d i oggetti tombali, h a r estituito r esti s cheletrici d i b en 2 6 i numati ( 6 adulti d i s esso maschile, 7 d i s esso f emminile e 1 3 g iovinetti). L a tomba fu quindi definita collettiva d al R ittatore e posta i n u n ampio a rco c ronologico ( XII-VIII s ec.a.C.). A nche l a sua s truttura r isultö particolare. I nfatti e ra costituita d a u na f ossa a forma d i ' L', con l e pareti r ivestite d a muretti a s ecco e completamente r iempita d i c iottoli d i s piaggia. L 'area d ella necropoli e d ivisa d all'abitato d a u n profondo f ossato, parzialmente s cavato d a S . F erri, c on l e pareti i nterne r ivestite d a due muri d i c ontenimento. N el r iempimento del fossato v i e rano numerosi f rammenti d i c eramica d 'impasto e d 'argilla d ipinta, d atati f ra i l X cd i i V I s ec.a.C. ( Ferri 1 975). A nche d i questi, l a maggior p arte ä i nedita. C i s tato comunque possibile e saminarli e s i e cosi-constatato c he, a lmeno per i r eperti i nquadrati n el p eriodo d a noi considerato, s i t ratta d i f rammenti d i o lle, b rocche e v asi modellati a mano con u n'argilla r elativamente d epurata e d i u n colore rosato, t endente a v olte a ll'arancio. E 'sempre p resente l 'ingubbiatura c olor c amoscio. L a d ecorazione, d ipinta i n n ero o b runo-marrone opaco, v ede i consueti motivi geometrici d el protodaunio ( motivo a ' tenda' e a ' pseudotenda', a ' reticolo', a ' denti d i l upo', a p iccoli t riangoli i n f ile v erticali, a d ischi p ieni, etc.). U n elemento i nteressante ä ' costituito d a u n c avalluccio a cefalo d ipinto ( Lo P orto 1 970), f acente parte d i u n p robabile c arretto v otivo, che h a come u nico confronto n ella z ona un a nalogo cavalluccio f ittile, p erö a cromo, d el s epolcreto B ellak. Cupola r esti d ell'antico abitato ( Tine B ertocchi 1 969), r isalenti a l X-IX s ec.a.C. e q iunti s ino al I II s ec.a. C., h anno i ndotto g li s tudiosi a p ensare c he questo s ito s ia s ucceduto a quell° d i C oppa Nevigata, d istante d a C upola appena 4 km. e durato non o ltre s ec.a.C. S i potrebbe pertanto i dentificare l 'abitato d i C upola con l a S ipontum p reromana, successivamente spostata a S . Maria d i S iponto, quando f u d edotta l a p rima c olonia r omana n el 1 94 a . C. N ell'area e splorata d al D e Juliis n el 1 977 sono emerse due t ombe a f ossa, l a I a e l a I b, d i e ta p rotostorica ( De Juliis 1 977a; 1 977b). D a altri due s aggi d i s cavo, e ffettuati s empre n ello s tesso a nno, e d alla T omba 6 abbiamo s ingole f ibule d i

1 6

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b ronzo. Nell'estate d el 1 982 poi, sono s tati eseguiti due saggi nella medesima area ( Masseria L auriola), dove s ono s tate i ndividuate t racce d i u na c apanna i ndigena ed u na t omba a fossa, i n parte s convolta d a lavori s tradali allora i n corso, ma r icchissima per i l materiale recuperato ( scavo a ncora i nedito). A rpi D a questo centro, maggiormente noto a partire d alla s econda e ta d el F erro, f u r invenuta n el 1 965 l 'unica t omhe a t umulo f inora nota i n D aunia ( Tine B ertocchi 1 975; T ine 1 976). E ssa e costituita da un cumulo d i p ietre e t erra, d elimitato d a l astre poste v erticalmente, per u n d iametro d i m . 4 .50. Nel mezzo s i apre una fossa, contenente u n s olo i numato i n posizione rannicchiata. A nche qui troviamo u n consistente c orredo f unerario c on o ggetti b ronzei e c eramici. S an

S evero

D alla l ocalitä S erpente provengono due tombe a fossa, recuperate fortuitamente, u na d a i gnoti ( Tomba I ) e l 'altra dalla S oprintendenza A rcheologica della Puglia ( Tomba 2 ). E ntrambe, comprendenti u n'olla ed u na b rocchetta d 'argilla, s ono s tate d atate d al D e Juliis a gli u ltimi d ecenni s ec.a.C. ( De Juliis 1 977, 3 2, Tavv. LVIII-XCIII, A ; Tavv . CIII, B-LIL, A ). I sola Con questa denominazione l 'Angelucci volle i ndicare quella s tretta l ingua d i terra che d ivide i l l ago d i V arano d all'Adriatico ed i n cui u n c erto s ignor M . S erra r invenne u n sepolcro della pri ma et ä del Ferro, con ab bon dant e suppe 1le tt le di br on zo . Tale corre do fu acq u i s tato d all'Angelucci e custodito n el Museo d 'Artiglieria d i T orino ( Angelucci 1 872). S .

M aria

d i

R ipalta

L 'antico abitato d i S . Maria d i R ipalta, sulla sponda s inistra dell'Ofanto, ä s tato oggetto d i due campagne d i s cavi: l a pri ma nel 1 980 con relativa pubblicazione ( Nava e P ennacchioni 1 981), l a s econda n el 1 981 c on r isultati a ncora i nediti. L 'insediamento appare a ttivo d agli i nizi d el B ronzo medio, perdurando f ino al IX s ec.a.C. E ' presente s iala ceramica d 'i mpasto che quella dipinta. Que s t ' unti ma e a ttribuibile a l g eometrico p rotodaunio ed, i n massima p arte, a l p rotogeometrico j apigio . C oppa

Nevigata

L a s tazione p reistorica d i C oppa N evigata s orgeva s u u na col 1inett a ( oggi completa mente d i stru tt a ) d i fi gu ra e llittica, e levata d i s oli 2 metri d el p iano d ella c ampagna e d i 9 .50 metri d al l ivello del mare.Dopo i i r itrovamento d ei p rimi materiali, r accolti d all'ing . A . B oschi e consegnati a l

1 8

M useo P reistorico d i Roma. s i succedettero g li s cavi del Q uagliati n el 1 904-1905 e quelli d el Mosso ( Mosso 1 908). D ai r isultati o ttenuti apparve che C oppa N evigata dovette avere i nizio nel I periodo neolitico, raggiunse i i suo piü grande s viluppo n ell'etä d el b ronzo, e continue poi f ino a lla prima e ta d el F erro. N on s i r inyennero perö t racce d i s epolcri, ma solo f ittili d i impasto e d ipinti, attualmente d iyisi tra Musei d i Taranto, Napoli e Roma. F ra i l materiale custodito a l ' Pigorini' d i R oma e pubblicato d al Mosso e dal Taylour ( Taylour 1 958, 1 63, f igg. 2 6-12, 1 3, 1 4, 15), S i d istinguono f rammenti d i o lle, c iotole e v asi d i u n 'argilla b eige-rosata, d ecorati con motivi geometrici p rotodauni ( motivi a I tenda', a l inee t remule, ad archetti penduli, a z ig-zag) d ipinti i n brun o. Nel 1955, ad opera del Puglisi e del D rago, si e ffettuarono altri sondaggi s tratigrafici l ungo i i muro d i d i fesa del v illaggio, ma solo nel 1 967 lo scavo fu esteso e s i appurö cosi 7 che tale muro apparteneva alla fase s ubappenninica ( Delplace 1 968). A ltri s cavi a rcheologici s i s ono ayuti nel 1 983-84, a cura d ell'Universitä d i R oma i cui r isultati perö s ono a ncora i nediti. O rsara

d i

P uglia

L 'i mportanza d i questa s ito ä stata settolineata per l a p ri ma volta in un recente articolo della Nava su un gruppo d i a sce del t ipo ad occhio, u na d elle quali p royeniente appunto d alla localitä i n questione e d atata f ra i i IX-VIII sec.a.C. ( Nava 1981, 1 5). Una v isita all'Antiquarium D iocesan° d i O rsara, dove sono s tati r accolti, n el corso d egli a nni, tutti rinveni menti fortuiti della zona, ci ha rivelato e r iconfermato l a p resenza d i u n p rocesso culturale, nonchä d i p artecipazione a lla sviluppo d ell'intera c iviltä d auna, anche d i u na z ona cosi i nterna d el S ubappennino d auno . I i reperto p iü interessante ä costituito da una c iotola d 'impasto ( Plate 2 .1) e u na f ibula b ronzea a d a rco s emplice r itorto ( Plate 2 .2), facenti parte d i un'urna c ineraria, t rovata casualmente durante lavori agricoli nel 1 974 i n contrada ' Serro F ercelle'. L a c iotola-coperchio, a p rofilo d i cono t ronco reyesciato, f ondo p iatto e s tretto, o rb or ivolto i nternamente, presenta una sola ansa spezzata, secondo l 'antica u sanza, e f rammenti della parte superiore del v aso b iconico a cui f aceva d a copertura. I nternamente a d e ssa, v i era la fibula ad arc° se mplice ritort o, in perfette condizioni, e pochi frammenti ossei, ora d ispersi. D a un e same o steologico, avremmo potuto avere u na conferma sull'uso c inerario d i tale tomba e sui resti ossei, appartenenti ad u na o piü persone. L a sua collocazione cronologica i n un periodo d i passaggio d al B ronzo f inale alla pri ma eta del F erro, s caturisce d al confronto c on alcune f ibule e c iotolecoperchio della n ecropoli p resso T i mmari ( Quagliati e R idola 1 906, 66 F ig. 6 9, 70 F ig. 75, 85 F ig. 93) e S ala Consilina ( Kilian 1 970, T ay. 2 1 1 -7, Tay. 2 5 V-4a, Tay. 6 8-I1, Tay. 7 4 1-3a). L 'i mportanza di tale ritrova mento e costituita i nnanzitutto d alla s ua u nicitä i n ambiente d auno, d ove f inora e ra conosciuto i l solo r ito funerario dell'inumazione, ed i noltre d allo s tesso l uogo d i p rovenienza, mai i nteressato d a

1 9

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scavi arche ologi ci. Queste sole testi m oni anz e e considerazioni s ono comunque poche a nche p er avanzare d elle s emplici ipotesi, ma nella prospettiva d i r icerche future, s embra l ecito domandarsi se g li i ndigeni delle z one piü i nterne della D aunia, u sassero l 'incinerazione per i loro morti, oppure, dopo essere giunti ad un esa me piü approfondito degli e nchytrismoi d i S alapia ( come a nnunciato d a t empo) e ad u lteriori r icerche s ul t erreno, s e ä possibile attes tare in Da uni a la coesi stenz a dei due riti, i ncinerazione ed i numazione, al meno f ino agli i nizi del IX s ec.a.C. Alb ostesso periodo dell'urna cineraria, ci sembra collocabileancheunafibula ad arco semplice(Plate 2 .3) d i b ronzo, r inyenuta fortuitamente i n contrada ' Spuntoni' nel 1 977, documentata i n Daunia, dove sarä presente f ino agli i nizi dell'VIII s ec.a.C., nella tomba d i Masseria Fandetti ( Rittatore Von willer 1971, Fig. 2 ) e in van i siti meridionali, come: Amendolara ( De L a Geniäre 1967, 196 F ig. 2 ), T i mmari ( Quagliati e R idola 1 906, 85, F ig. 9 4), Garguso ( Kilian 1970, Tay. 2 69-1). Altro t ipo d i f ibula qui presente e quello serpeggiante con occhiello ed ago curvo ( Plate 2 .4). Tale f ibula, detta comunemente d i t ipo ' siciliano ', compare, comu l 'altra i n due pezzi, nel IX s ec.a.C. e scende, pur con sempre minore f requenza, f ino alla pri ma metä bec.a.C. Essa ampiamente d iffusa n ella penisola i taliana e , r estando n eu e culture delle tombe a fossa dell'italia meridionale, la s i r itrova a Torre Galli ( Orsi 1 926, F igg. 6 6-/la), Torre del Mordillo, S erra A iello, Roccella I onica, S ala Consilina ( Kilian 1 970, Tay . 2 71-9, Tay. 2 73-14, Tay . 2 78 IV-3 e V-2, T ay . 3 2 I II-7a), n el Materano ( Lo P orto 1 969, 1 23 F igg. 1 -2, 21-2, 124; Fig. 2 , 2-3) ed a San Marzano sul Sarno ( D'Agostino 1 970, 5 90 F igg. 6-9). I n D aunia questo t ipo d i f ibula pub assumere un aspetto s tretto ed allungato, come appare d a uno degli esempl ari d i V ieste ( Plate 2 .5), e p iccole d i mensioni, con l 'arco d i v an e sezioni ( quadrata n ella f ibula d i O rsara). L a f ibula s erpeggiante i n due pezzi ( Plate 2 .6) i nvece, pur avendo forse una minore f requenza nei centri dauni r ispetto al t ipo precedente, e comunque caratteristica di quest'area geografica, presentando generaimente l a s taffa a canale o piü raramente a d isco. E 'attestata fuori della Dauni a, anche in Pe ucezi a ( Biancofiore 1 963, Tay. XVI-b), S .Lucia al B radano ( Lo Porto 1 969, F ig. 4-4),Amendolara ( De L a Geniere 1 967, 1 97 F ig. 3 I ), Pontecagnano e Torre Galli ( Kilian 1 970, Tay. 2 62-9, Tay.274

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I i sito dell'antica Auscul um fu oggetto d i scavi a rcheologici negli a nni 1 965-66, sotto l a d irezione della T ine B ertocchi ( Tinä B ertocchi 1 969, 1 70). Furono allora e splorate 8 0 tombe n elle contrade ' Serpente' e ' Cimitero V ecchio'. R isultö frequente i i tipo d i tomba a fossa r ettangolare s cavata n el c onglomerato e r icoperta d a l astre d i s faldatura d i r occia. P resente perö, anche 1 1 t ipo a g rotticella a rtificiale preceduta d a d romos. I corredi f unerari, d atabili tra i i V I ed i i I II s ec.a.C., f urono p arzialmente e saminati d al D e Juliis, i i quale i ndividuava, per tale i nsediamento, una caratteristica prod u zione v ascolare n el periodo compreso t ra i l 4 00 e i l 3 00 a .C. ( De Juliis 1 977b, 7 6-77). F ino ad oggi quindi, non abbiamo n otizia d i r eperti a nteriori al V I s ec a .C., eppure i v ani r itrovamenti f ortuiti e l e c ollezioni l ocali c i a ttestano i i c ontrario. F ra l e c eramiche, n otiamo u n p iccolo v aso b iconico ( Plate 2 .8) c on p iede a d isco ed a nse l aterali a d a nello, d i u n'argilla beige, tendente al ver dog nolo, e con una d ecorazione geometrica, d i color b runo opaco, eseguita i n maniera alquanto i ncerta. I i v aso ä s enz'altro modellato e d ipinto a mano e c olpisce p er l a s ua s ingolaritä i n ambiente d auno. I nfatti e sso t rova confronti, s ia per f orma c he per d ecorazione, c ol c osiddetti v asi d i B orgo Nuovo, d el I X-VIII s ec.a.C, che r icorderebbero, s ebbene i n proporzioni molte p iccole, l 'ossuario v illanoviano ( Mayer 1 908, T ay. X-I2; D rago 1 940, T ay . I I- D. L a c aratteristica o lla f uneraria d el g eometrico ' protodaunio' ä presente anche ad A scoli ( Plate 2 .9) con una s emplice decorazione p ittorica i n b runo opaco ed u na forma p iü compressa r ispetto agli esemplari s imili, p rovenienti d a altre l ocalitä della D aunia ( Arpi:tomba a t umulo; O rdona: Tomba XXXI, Tomba 1 43; S .Severo: T omba I , t om b a 2 ). Sono ugual mente documentate le s i mboliche b rocchette-attingitoio ( Plate 2 .10), modellate c on u n 'argilla d ura color s abbia e d ipinte c on i consueti motivi g eometrici ( a r eticolo, a meandro s pezzato, a p iccoli t riangoli o r ombi campiti, etc.) i n nero opaco, eseguiti con estrem a a ccuratezza e i n i n p iccole f orme. A ltro e semplare d a n otare ä u na coppa monoansata ( Plates 2 .11-2.12) con v asca fonda, a nch'essa decorata, e profilo l eggermente a rrotondato. C ostituisce i nfatti, u na delle r are t ipologie i ndigene, p resenti i n D aunia, nel I X-VIII s ec.a.C. ( De Juliis 1 977, T ay . P assando a i b ronzi t roviamo, o ltre a lle note f ibule s erpeggianti d i t ipo ' siciliano' e a quelle i n due pezzi, g iä v iste per altre l ocalitä, l a f ibula ad o cchiali i n u n solo pezzo ( Plate 2 .13). Questa, con cappio ad 8 tra i d ue d ischi, s embrerebbe i l t ipo piü a rcaico, f ra i due presenti in Daunia, di origine trans-adriatica e p recisamente, d i u n'area culturale i nterna della penisola b alcanica. D all'esame dei contesti i n cui compare, s embra p erdurare i n Daunia s ino agli i nizi d ell'VIII s ec.a.C., c ronologia c onfermata a nche f uori d ella n ostra a rea, d ove ä a ttestata a S ala C onsilina ( Kilian 1 970, T ay . 1 16 I I-4b, T ay .

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1 20-6a, T ay . 1 36 e B itonto ( Jatta 1 904, T ay . I i r asoio a l ama rettangolare ( Plate 2 .14.) ä presente ad A scoli con due e semplari s imili, n ella t omba a t umulo d i A rpi e nel sepolcreto B ellak, d i l ocalitä i gnota. I i t ipo ä d iffuso n el I X-VIII s ec .a.C . i n v an e n ecropoli meridionali, dove contraddistingue l e tombe maschili. S i v eda ad e s. a Torano C astello ( De L a Geniere 1 977, F igg. 2 4-5) e ad A ltamura ( Biancofiore 1 963, T ay . XVIII). I l materiale arcaico proveniente da Ascoli, ed attualmente custodito n ei deposit! d ella S oprintendenza archeologica d i T aranto, non s i esaurisce certamente i n questi pochi o ggetti p resentati, c he s enz'altro meritano u no s tudio p iü approfondito ed un i nserimento i n un p iü ampio d iscorso s torico-culturale sull'antica Ausculum, c he c i riserveremo d i f are i n u n prossimo contesto. B asterä qui s ottolineare c he t ale c entro d eye a ver ayuto c ertamente u na s ua f isionomia ed autonomia, n ell'ambito d ell'intera r egione dauna, g iä d agli i nizi dell'etä del F erro, anche s e i l periodo d i maggiore sviluppo ed apertura commerciale ä i ndividuabile n el corso d el I V s ec.a.C . L ucera D al punto d i v ista s torico-archeologico, l 'i mportanza d i L uceria ä l egata a l momento d ella s ua d eduzione quale colonia militare r omana, avvenuta n el 3 15 o 3 14 a .C . A bbiamo i nfatti notizie r iguardanti l 'anfiteatro romano, altre su alcuni scavi effettuati nel 1 957, quando f urono scoperte alcune t ombe a g rotticella contenenti materiale a rcheologico d atato nel I II s ec.a.C., e su un altro scavo, condotto d alla T ine B ertocchi n el 1 965-66 n ei p ressi d ell'anfiteatro, r iguardanti i resti d i u n'antica v illa romana ( Delplace 1 968). Eppure, t ra i l materiale custodito n el Museo C ivico d ella c ittadina, costituito i n gran parte d a donazioni d i c ittadini local!, quindi f rutto d i r itrovamenti f ortuiti, a ppare d ella c eramica geometrica d auna e materiale e neo, a ttestanti l 'esistenza e la v italitä del s ito anche i n periodo preromano. T ra g li oggetti compresi n ell'arco c ronologico d a noi c onsiderato , ä presente l 'olla p rotodaunia ( Plates 2 .15-2.16) d i un'argilla color r osa-arancio con i l c aratteristico motivo p ittorico a ' denti d i l upo', cosi come l o s i r itrova sulle analoghe o lle del tumulo d i A rpi e del s epolcreto B allak. L 'altro p ezzo c aratteristico e i i t ipo d i f ibula ad o cchiali c on s upport° a f ettuccia e b orchiette t ronco-coniche a l c entro d elle s piral! ( Plate 2 .17) ( lungh.max .cm . 5 .90; d ia m . spi r.cm . 3) Questa specie d i f ibula, che puö anche presentare l 'occhiello i ntermedio come n el p rimo t ipo ( Plate 2 .13), ä c aratteristica d ella cultura l iburnica e a ttestata, i n D aunia, s oprattutto a S alapia, dove s i osservano i n genere profonde analogie etnico-culturali con i l popolo d ei L iburni ( Lo S chiavo 1 970, Tay. XXX 1-2-3; B atovic 1 973, 4 08 e 4 18, F igg.9-14, c arta n .3). Nell'area d auna essa perdura f ino alla metä dell'VIII sec.a.C., mentre i n altre l ocalitä, quali: Montescaglioso, L avello, T orre Mordillo ( Kilian 1 970, T ay . 2 69-3, T ay . 2 70 I I , Tay. 2 71 1 1-8) e A ltamura ( Biancofiore 1 963, Tay . XVIII), puö g iungere s ino a gli i nizi d el V II s ec.a.C .

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Conclusioni D a questa b reve s intesi s ulle a ttuali r icerche n ell'area settentrionale della Puglia, appare doveroso sottolineare a lcune o sservazioni. L e tombe d i S alapia sono s tate collocate d alla T ine-Bertocchi t ra i i I X e l a p rima metä d ell'VIII s ec. a .C. ( Tine e B ertocchi 1 965, 2 78 e T ay . 7 1), non considerando forse che l a f ibula serpeggiante con staffa a spirale, presente n ella T omba 9 , e documentata a T i mmari ed A llumiere ( Müller-Karpe 1 959, I I, T ay. 2 6, A 5; 1 960, T ay. I ) nonche nel Materano ( Lo Porto 1 969, F ig. 21-I), i n contesti a ncora databili nel X sec. a .C., cosi come l e f ibule serpeggianti con due occhielli e staffa a spirale o s i mmetrica, d elle Tombe 7 5-8-88, sono u gualmente presenti ad A llumiere, T erni, P ianello e B ismantova, i n contesti d atabili a ncora e ntro l a f ine del X sec. a .C. ( Müller-Karpe 1 959 I I, Tavv. 2 6, A356, A37-87, D13; 1 960, Tay. 1 ). I noltre, la T ine B ertocchi ditingueva, nell'arco della sua cronologia, una pri ma fase ( IX s ec.a.C .), cui a ttribuiva alcune t ombe a f ossa f emminili caratterizzate d alla p resenza d i f ibule ad arco s emplice, d a una seconda ( fine IX-prima metä V III sec.a.C.) con t ombe maschili i n cui appaiono van i tipi d i f ibule ad arco serpeggiante. Ma, oltre all'assurditä d i tale d istinzione, c 'e d a obiettare che o ccorrerebbe v erificare s e, all'interno dell e fi bul e ad arc o se mpli ce, non esista un a di versificazione che permetta d i d istinguere i tipi piü arcaici da quelli meno arcaici. F del resto, solo d opo un esame antropologico dei resti scheletrici, s i potrebbe accertare se davvero tutte l e tombe con f ibule ad a rco semplice sono f emminili, i n quanta, com'e noto, tale f ibula h a avuto, n ella penisola i taliana, t radizioni molto complesse ( Si v eda ad es. a Torre G alli, dove i nizialmente e ra c omune s ia n ei corredi maschili c he f emminili) e non e quindi s empre vera l a sua assenza dalle tombe maschili. I nfatti e ssa e p resenta n ell'Isola ( sep./1872) e n el s epolcreto ' Bella 10, i n to mbe senz'altro maschili per la presenza di oggetti caratterizzanti, quali: i i rasoi o, l e punte d i lancia e la f alera. Le conclusioni a cui giungeva i i R ittatore, circa la t omba d i Masseria F andetti, s ono s tate r idiscusse d a S . T ine ( Tine 1 975), i l quale avanzava l 'ipotesi che tale tomba avrebbe p resentato u n corredo abbastanza u nitario e d atabile nell'ambito dell'VIII s ec.a.C., ben addicendosi ad un u nico i numato. Ma questa nuova p roposta, non c i t rova concordi per l e d iverse d atazioni d ei s ingoli q ruppi d i e lementi. S aremmo p iuttosto propensi a r estringere l 'arco c ronologico, p roposto dal R ittatore, tra l a f ine del X e gli i nizi del'VIII sec. a. C. , in quanto gli ele menti piü antichi sarebber o r appresentati: d alla f ibula ad a rco s emplice, d alla c iotola d 'i mpasto, dal collare e dagli spilloni; mentre quelli piü recenti: dalla f ibula serpeggiante d i t ipo ' siciliano' e in due pezzi e d alla f ibula ad o cchiali. I ritrovamenti sporadici presentati i n questa s ede, ri vestono particolare importanza soprattutto perche r ichiamano l a nostra a ttenzione s ul l uogo d i provenienza. S i

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tratta i nfatti d i s iti archeologicamente sconosciuti ( v. O rsara d i P uglia) oppure poco n oti, d i cui S i a ttende a ncora l a pubbliczazione degli s cavi ( come nel caso d i A scoli S atriano) o l a r ipresa d i e splorazioni sul t erreno p iü ampie. I i nostro i ntendo, e s tato quello d i voler continuare i i d iscorso sul primo periodo d ell'etä del F erro e d i porre l 'accento s ulla n ecessitä d i u n ampliamento d elle r icerche i n u n'area a rcheologica s olo p arzialmente s tudiata.

B ibliografia AAVV .,

1 980. I l G argano nell'etä p eno e C .

del Ferro.

Lucera,

A ngelucci, A . 1 872. R icerche preistoriche Ca2itanata. T orino, G . C andeletti. A ngelucci,A. 1 890. Catalogo G . C endeletti.

d ell'Armeria

e

C .

C ate-

s toriche

Reale.

i n

Torino,

B atovic, S . 1 973. N in e l 'Italia meridionale nell'etä f erro . A rchivio S torico P ugliese 1 -2, 3 79-421.

del

B attaglia, R . 1 956. R icerche e s coperte paletnologiche nel G argano ( 1955-56). R iviste d i S cienze P reistoriche 1 1, 1 9-29. B iancofiore, F . 1 963. S turtture e materilai dei s epolcri a t umulo d i A ltamura ( Bari). R endiconti N apoli 3 8, 8 11 03. Corrain, C ., Fusco, V .e R ittatore, F . 1 958-9. L a N ecropoli d ell'etä d el f erro d i Monte S araceno ( Gargano) e l e s ue s culture. S ibrium 4 , 1 41-146. D 'Agostino,B. 1 970. Tombe della I eta del F erro a S . Marzano s ul S arno . Melanges d 'Ecole d e R ome, 5 71-619. De Juliis, E . 1 975. Considerazioni sull'etä del f erre nella P uglia s ettentionale. A rchivio S torico Pugliese 2 8 ( 1-4), 5 5-79. D e

Juliis, E .1977a. Manfredonia. S cavi a Masseria N otizie d egli S cavi s .8 3 1, 3 43-371 .

Cupola.

D e

Juliis, E . 1 977b . L a ceramica F irenze, S ansoni.

D aunia.

D e

L a

Geniäre, J . 1 967. Amendolara, une v ille e nvirons d e S ybaris. R evue A rch6ologique

De

L a

Geniere, J . 1 977. Torano C astello ( Cosenza). S cavi n ella necropoli ( 1965) e saggi i n contrada Cozzo l a T orre ( 1967). N otizie d egli S cavi 3 1, 3 89-422 .

3 3

geometrica

della

antique aux 2 , 1 95-208.

D elplace, Chr. 1 968. C hronique d es f ouilles d ans l es P ouilles d e 1 956 ä 1 967. A ntiquit6 C lassique 3 7 ( 1), 2 05-241 . D rago,

C . 1 936. Manfredonia. S cavi nella palude del C ervaro. Notizie d egli S cavi 1 2, 5 9-66.

D rago,

C .

1 940.

C orpus

V asorum A ntiquorum.

T aranto,

I ,

I V.

Ferri,

S . 1 970. L 'attivitä archeologica i n Puglia. d el I X , Convegno d i s tudi s ulla M agna G recia, 1 969. N apoli, 2 70-274.

Ferri,

S . 1 975. L a s tele s ipontine. C iviltä preistoriche e protostoriche d ella D aunia . F irenze, S erenti, 3 263 33.

G ervasio,

M .

1 930.

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J apigia

1 ,

I n A tti T aranto

2 41-272.

Gravina,

A . 1 979. P reistoria e P rotostoria sulle r ive d el Basso Fortore. I Convegno sul la Preistoria e P rotostoria d ella D aunia . S an S evero, D otoli, 7 3-101.

I ker,

R .

1 967. Tombes d aniennes ä H erdonia. O rdona 2 ( Rapport 1 964-65 et 1 965-66), Wetteren ( Belgique), I mprimerie U niversa, 3 1-88.

Jatta,

A . 1 904. B aresi. 3 2-79.

K ilian,

K . 1 970. F rüheisenzeitliche F unde aus d er S ude stnekropole v on S ala Consilina. A rchaeologische F orschungen i n L ukanien . H eidelberg.

Lo

Avanzi della I eta d el ferro nelle Murge B ullettino d i P aletnologia I taliano 3 0,

P orto, F .G. 1 969. Metaponto. ferro scoperte n el suo S cavi 2 3, 1 21-170.

Tome a tumulo dell'etä d el entroterro. Notizie d egli

Lo P orto, F .G. 1 970. L 'attivitä A tti d el I X C onvegno T aranto 1 969. Napoli.

archeologica i n Puglia. I n d i s tudi sulla Magna G recia,

Lo

Lo

P orto, F .G. 1 973. C iviltä i ndigena e penetrazione g reca n ella L ucania o rientale . Monumenti A ntichi d ei L incei 4 8 ( 1), 3 Schiavo, F . 1970. Memorie A ntichi

I l gruppo d ei L incei

1iburn i co-j apodico. ( 8) 14.

Mayer, M.

1 908. D ie K eramik d es V orgrieschischen Apuliens. I V D aunia S chluss. V T arent. M itteilungen d es D eutschen A rchaologischen I nstituts; R omische Abteilung 2 3.

Mertens,

J . 1 965. O rdona I -Rapport p rovisoire s ur l es t ravaux d e l a mission b eige e n 1 962-3 e t 1 963-4. B ruxellesR ome-Wetteren ( Belgique), Imprimerie U niversa.

3 4

Mertens, J . 1 967. O rdona I I-Rapport provisoire sur l es travaux de l a mission b eige en 1 964-65 et 1 965-667 B ruxelles-Ro me-Wetteren ( Belgique), Impri merie U niversa. Mertens, J . 1 971. O rdona provisoire sur les travaux de l a mission b eige en 1 966, 1 967, 1 968 et 1 969. B ruxelles-Rome-Wetteren ( Belgique) I mprimerie U niversa. Mertens, J . 1 974.0rdona merie U niversa.

IV .Bruxelles-Rome-Wetteren,

M ertens,

J . 1 976. O rdona e rie U niversa.

V .

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J . 1 979. O rdona e rie U niversa.

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Impri-

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I mpri-

A . 1 908. S tazione p reistorica d i C oppa N evigata presso Manfredonia . Monumenti A ntichi d ei L incei 1 9, 3 083 86.

Muller-Karpe, H . 1959. Beitrage zur Chronologie der U rnenfelderzeit nordlich und sudlich der A lpen. B erlin. Muller-Karpe, Nava,

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( Foggia).

M .L . e Pennacchioni, G . 1981. L 'insediamento p rotostorico d i S .Maria d i R ipalta ( Cerignola). P rima c ampagna d i s cavi. S an F erdinando d i P uglia, F . U iulli.

Nava,

O rsi,

P .

1 912.

S cavi, O rsi,

H .

P .

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i n

C alabria

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1 911.

Notizie

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1 926. L e n ecropoli prelleniche calabresi d i Torre Galli e d i Canale, Janchina, P atariti. Monumenti Antichi dei L incei, 3 1, 1 -376. R .

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Quagliati, Q . degli

1 907. Tombe d aunie dei S cavi, 2 9 sq.

tempi

storici. Notizie

Quagliati, Q . e R i dola, D . 1906. Necropoli incinerazi one press o Ti m mari nel Monumenti A ntichi d ei L incei 1 6, 5 -166.

R ittatore

R oma,

L uca.

V onwiller,

F .

1 971.

3 5

L a

tomba

d i

arcaica ad Materan o.

Masseria

F andetti

e le origini della necropoli d i Monte S araceno. I n A tti d el Convegno S torico-Archeologico d el G argano 1 970, 3 5-40. T aylour,

W . 1 958. Mycenaean P ottery C ambridge U niversity P ress. 1 969.

Ausculum.

F asti

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C ambridge,

T ine

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T ine

B ertocchi, F . 1 975. F ormazione d ella c iviltä d aunia d al X al VI sec.a. C. In Ci vilt ä preistoriche e p rotostoriche d ella D aunia. F irenze, P arenti, 2 712 85.

T ine

F .

i n

B ertocchi, F . e T ine, S . 1 969. Cupola Manfredonia ( Foggia). F asti A rcheologici

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B ertocchi, S alapia .

T ine

B ertocchi, F . e T ine, S . 1 976. I r iti n ell'etä d el f erro. J adranska h istorij Z agabria, 2 65-271.

T ine,

A rcheologici

S .

F . e T ine, S . 1 973. G li s cavi A rchivio S torico P ugliese 2 6,

1 975. I n C iviltä preistoriche D aunia. F irenze, P arenti, 3 62 .

2 0,

contrada 2 0, 1 73.

d el 1 967-68 1 31-158.

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e protostoriche

d i

a

P uglia P roto-

d ella

S ummary The author reviews the early I ron A ge o f D aunia. N ew d ata f rom t he s ites o f S alapia, O rdona, Monte S araceno, C upola, A rpi, S an S evero, I sola, S . Maria d i R ipalta, C oppa N evigata, O rsara d i Puglia, A scoli, S atriano a re i ntroduced a fter a b rief a ppraisal of recently published l iterature. The author clarifies certain chronological d istinctions a nd points out the s trengths and weaknesses o f p resent k nowledge . R iassunto L 'autrice passa i n r assagna rarcheologia d ella p rima e ta d el F erro i n D aunia. S ono p resentati i nuovi d ati d i S alapia, O rdona, Monte S araceno, Cupola, Arpi, S an S evero, I sola, S . Maria d i R ipalta, C oppa N evigata, O rsara d i P uglia, A scoli, S atriano d opo u na b reve v alutazione d ella l etteratura r ecentemente p ubblicata . L 'autrice c hiarifica a lcune d istinzioni c ronologiche e s ottolinea l e f orze e l e d ebolezze d elle a ttuali c onoscenze.

3 6

3 .

T HE LATE

I RON

Marco

A GE

I N

L OMBARDY

T izzoni

The l ate I ron Age began i n L ombardy ( Fig. 3 .1) when C eltic g roups ( the Gauls o f t he R oman t radition) i nvaded t he country. This i nvasion was part o f a much l arger migration which b rought t he C elts, i n d ifferent periods, t o t he B alkan peninsula, Greece and A natolia. I t s eems that t he migration was started by a demographic i ncrease ( Livy 5 , 3 4). Most probably they came t hrough t he passes of t he western ( Livy 5 , 3 5) and not t he eastern Alps ( Polybius 2 , 1 4), as s hown by the f inds of Val d 'Aosta ( Mezzena 1 982, 5 8) and by the S i milarities between t he C eltic c ulture i n I taly a nd e astern F rance . In northern I taly the Celts occupied the plain of L ombardy a nd Emilia R omagna. U nfortunately we k now t oo l ittle about P iedmont to b e sure of the existence of Celtic settlements there. Only t he Verona province was occupied b y t he C elts i n V eneto . T his r egion a nd L iguria were not i nvaded e ven i f t he l ocal people were i nfluenced b y many a spects o f C eltic c ulture ( for e xample t he f inds f rom: Ameglia, P agazzano, A rquä P etrarca) ( Durante and Massari 1 977, 1 7-34; Durante and Massari 1 979, 2 57-259; F rova 1 968, 2 89-304; C allegari 1 940, 1 45-163). I n t he p lain of L ombardy ( Lomellina excluded) two C eltic g roups s ettled: t he I nsubres, whose main town was Milan, i n t he area b etween t he r ivers O glio a nd T icino ( but we a re n ot y et s ure about t his western border) a nd the C enomanes, whose main town was Brescia, who s ettled i n the a rea f rom the Oglio r iver as f ar as t he Verona province. We k now two d ifferent d ates f or t he C eltic i nvasion o f I taly. T he R oman t radition d ates i t t o t he r eign o f T arquinius P riscus ( 6145 76 B .C.) and the G reek authors date it to the b eginning of the 4 th century B .C. This later date i s more r eliable a nd f its b etter with t he a rchaeological f inds ( Sordi 1 976-77, 1 11-117; D e Marinis 1 977, 3 1; T izzoni 1 980a, 2 11-212). L A 1 1 1 . &ne Culture i n northern I taly f its i nto the general development a nd c hronology of central European L a T ne, so the s ame chronological framework can be u sed ( De Marinis 1 977, 3 1; T izzoni 1 980a, 2 11; T izzoni 1 984, 1 151 17):

3 7

4 75

3 88 3 75

-

-

G olasecca I II A C eltic I nvasion 1 E arly L a

T äne

B L a

T äne

2 2 50

1 M iddle L a

T äne

C L a

T äne

2 1 20

1 L ate L a

T äne

D L a

T äne

2 2 5

R omanisation

I n Lombardy there are L a T äne A f inds, but they are i n Golasecca contexts. T hey can be thought of a s imports f rom t he C eltic world ( De M arinis 1 981, 2 45-246). La Täne culture i n L ombardy i s known to u s mainly f rom grave goods. Layers of s ettlements belonging to t his p eriod have b een found at B ergamo, Brescia a nd Milan; but i t was possible to explore only very small areas which could not g ive u s a c lear i dea of the s ettlement. Besides, b ecause of the continuous r ebuilding on t he s ame s ites, s ince the I ron A ge, t hese l ayers a re most d isturbed. L a T äne c ulture d eveloped a s f ollows ( for f urther d etails a nd b ibliography s ee D e Marinis 1 977, 2 3-50; T izzoni 1 980a, 2 11-223; T izzoni 1 980b, 1 39-146; T izzoni 1 981a, 5 -38). La Täne B . This phase is poorly kno wn in Lombardy. The only excavated c emetery i s C arzaghetto ( Mantua), where i nhumation graves were f ound . T here a re a lso a f ew o ther i solated f inds and graves b elonging to t his period. Men were buried with their weapons, f ibulae and armrings; women with t heir torques, f ibulae and armrings. Pottery i s very rare i n the graves o f t his p eriod, a s a lso c an b e o bserved i n T ransalpine Europe, and i t s hows s i milarities with the f inds from the Marne region. S ilver j ewels are already common l s i s f ound a lso i n t he C eltic g raves o f Switzerland .

3 8

F ig.

3 .1.

T he

G eographical position o f L ombardy a nd t he main s ites quoted i n t he a rticle.

3 9

L a

T äne

C .

I n t he y ears 2 25 B .0 to 2 2 B .C., t here was a war b etween t he Romans a nd t he C eltic confederation which was f ormed b y t he I nsubres, B oians, L ingones a nd G esates ( Celtic mercenaries ? ). T he w ar e nded w ith t he d efeat a nd d eath o f V iridomarus, k ing o f t he I nsubres. T his o ccasion was t he f irst t ime t hat t he R omans c rossed t he P o r iver; t he towns o f M ilan a nd A cerrae ( the l ocation o f t his s ite i s s till u nknown) were d estroyed a nd t he R oman colony o f C remona was c reated. H owever L ombardy was not y et part o f t he R oman s tate; i t was j ust t he b eginning o f t he R oman penetration i nto n orthern I taly. T he 2 nd C elts a nd t he events: 1 96 1 91

B .C. B .C.

1 89 1 83

B .C. B .C.

century R omans.

B .C. H ere

b egan w ith a n ew w ar b etween t he a re t he d ates o f s ome o f t he main

R oman conquest o f C omum oppidum d efeat o f t he B oians w ho l eft E milia to s ettle o n the D anube r iver i n p resent d ay B ohemia. T he L atin colony o f B onomia ( Bologna) i s f ounded. T he R oman colonies o f Mutina ( Modena) and P arma were f ounded.

A round t he y ear 1 90 B .C. t he c olonies o f P lacentia ( Piacenza) a nd C remona were n ewly founded a fter t he w ar w ith H annibal a nd t he u prising o f t he C elts. I n 1 48 B .C. t he v ia P ostumia was b uilt. T his connected t he L igurian ( Genoa) w ith t he Adriatic s ea ( Aquileia) a nd was a m ilitary r oad which k ept i ts i mportance u ntil t he e nd o f t he 1 st c entury B .C. B esides t he n ew L a T äne f ibulae a nd weapons, L a T äne C w itnessed a n i ncrease o f imports f rom t he M editerranean world. B lack painted pottery ( Campanian ware) had a lready s tarted t o s pread during L a T äne B ( Frontini 1 983, 1 89-194), but t hese objects were v ery f ew a nd d id n ot s how an o rganized pattern o f t rade. A t t his s tage, t he i mports i ncluded b ronze v essels too ( Capuan b ronze v essels). U nfortunately t here a re n ot y et s tudies d ealing w ith t hese two c lasses o f objects a nd w e d o n ot k now h ow many o f t hem a re i mports a nd h ow many were l ocally made. P robably some o f t hese o bjects had b een made l ocally s ince t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c entury B .C. I n t his p eriod t he s o c alled v aso a t rottola ( top-peg v ase) d eveloped. T his i s a g lobular o r l ens-shaped b ody f lask w ith a s hort a nd n arrow n eck. Most p robably i t was u sed f or t he w ine t rade a s s hown f rom t he i nscription o n o ne o f t hese v ases f ound a t O rnavasso ( Piana A gostinetti 1 972, 1 04). T his type o f v ase s hows a w ide r ange o f v ariety o f s hapes w ithin t he g eneral f rame o f i ts d evelopment. I t s eems that t he v aso a t rottola d eveloped i n L omellina a nd s pread f irst i n t he non C eltic a reas a long t he T icino v alley ( Appendi3 .2) ( De Marinis 1 977, 3 4, P late 4 ; S töcli 1 975, 5 3-58; F ig. 3 .3).

4 0

D uring L a T äne C t he p rocess o f cultural R omanisation o f t he C isalpine C elts s lowly b egins. T his phenomenon g reatly i ncreased during L a T äne D ( see b elow). T he f irst I talian C eltic coins appeared t hen; t hey a re t he s o c alled d racme p adane. T hese a re s ilver c oins i mitating t he G reek d rachma o f M arseille ( Pautasso 1 962-3). A t t he e nd o f L a T äne C t he m ixed b urial r ite a ppears, i .e. warriors were c remated while women a nd c hildren w ere i nhumed. T his b urial h abit had a lready s tarted a mongst t he B oians i n e arly L a T äne ( Kruta 1 980, 2 8). L a T äne C c an b e d ivided i nto two phases n ot o nly a ccording t o t he L a T äne objects but a lso a ccording t o t he i ncrease o f t he R oman i mports a nd t he b urial r ites. I t i s i nteresting to o bserve t hat a t M ilan a nd B rescia t here a re R oman r emains which c an b e d ated to t he a ge o f S illa, but t his d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat t hese two t owns w ere a lready R oman. L a

T äne

D .

T his i s a v ery c omplex p eriod b ecause we h ave t he i nteraction o f d ifferent cultural t rends b elonging to t he C elts, to t he R omans a nd t o t he l ocal non-Celtic g roups. During this period t here w ere no wars b etween t he R omans a nd t he C isalpine C elts. F or i nstance, when i n 1 09 B .C. the t ribe o f t he C imbri c ame t o I taly, a fter c rossing t he B renner P ass, the C elts d id not j oin t hem a gainst t he R omans. T he C imbri were d efeated b y t he R oman a rmy, u nder t he c ommand o f M arius i n 1 01 a t C ampi R udii n ear V ercelli i n P iedmont. N o t races o f t his p eople a re k nown to u s, but s ome gold R egenbogenshüsselchen a nd two v ery peculiar gold t orcs have b een found i n t he V ercelli p rovince ( Viale 1 971, T ay.7). T hese objects s eem to b e r elated to a nalogous f inds i n G ermany, t hey a re u nrelated t o t he I talian C eltic culture. I b elieve t hat t hey p robably b elong to t he t ribe o f t he C imbri. M ost o f t he L a T äne objects f ound i n L ombardy b elong to L a T äne D , s o we c an h ave a more d etailed p icture o f i t. L a T äne D has b een d ivided i nto two sub-phases. T hey h ave t he f ollowing c haracteristics i n c ommmon: m ixed b urial r ites; i ncrease i n t he a mount o f pottery amongst t he g rave goods; i ncrease i n t he d iffusion o f t he t rottola v ase, o f t he C ampanian ware ( locally made) a nd o f b ronze v essels; R oman c oins b ecome more c ommon a nd s trigils appear. P hase L a T äne D 1 s till h as w arriors' g raves w ith s words o f l ate L a T äne t ype a nd f ibulae o f middle L a T äne s cheme, A ylesford p ans a nd O rnavasso j ugs, N euheim f ibulae a re v ery r are, g lass a rm-rings o f H aevernick's types 2 a nd 3 . I n phase D 2 t here a re no more ' real' warriors' g raves, t he o nly w eapons l eft i n t he g raves a re t he b ig ' battlek nives' and t he s pearheads. D ippers of P escate type a nd I dria j ugs a ppear. Nauheim f ibulae which c an b e, a t t imes, v ery l arge, and s ome o f t heir v ariants, C enisola f ibulae,

4 1

F ig.

3 .2.

D istribution

M ap o f t he M isano f ibula 3 .1 f or k ey)

( see

A ppendix

A lmgren's type p ainted l amps,

6 5 f ibulae, S chüsselfibeln, R oman b lackl arge amounts o f l ocally made u npainted

pottery which i mitates t he s hapes o f t he b lack-painted c an a lso b e f ound. T he R oman f lagons s lowly s ubstitute t rottola v ases, which a re n ow s ometimes v ery s mall.

ware t he

T his d eep change b etween t he two phases w as p robably due t o the L atin ( Lex P ompeia S trabonis d e G allia C iteriore 8 9 B .C.) and to t he R oman c itizenship ( 49 B .C.) g iven to h e C isalpines. A fter t he y ears 2 5/20 B .C. i t i s i mpossible to d istinguish t he G aulish f rom t he R oman g raves, even i f some t ypes o f objects o f Gaulish t radition d o s urvive w ell i nto t he I mperial a ge. During L a n ne D t he I nsubres a nd t he C enomanes b ecame f ully ' Romanized', b ut h ow d id t his h appen? W hy was t here n ever a r eally p ermanent o ccupation o f t heir l and b y t he R oman a rmy? A nd l ast, b ut not l east, w hy d id R oman h istorical s ources, s o o ften a ccurate about w ars a nd h istorical events, avoid w riting about t his s ubject a fter t he e nd o f t he wars a gainst t he C elts i n t he 2 nd c entury B .C.? T he R omans, p robably compelled b y m ilitary, p olitical a nd e conomical r easons, chose a policy o f cultural i nstead o f m ilitary p enetration ( for example: t hey w ere a t t hat t ime b usy with t he w ars i n t he E astern M editerranean; L ombardy could b e, a s i t w as f or C aesar, a n excellent s tarting point f or t he e xpeditions t oward T ransalpine E urope; i t was a lso a u seful d efence b etween t he R oman s ettlements a nd t he d angerous A lpine p eoples. T he country was r ich a nd i t could p rovide l arge amounts o f f ood a nd t here was no r eason to d espoil i t w ith w ar). B ecause o f t his t hey could h ave s ent R oman workers, a rtisans a nd a rchitects f or t he construction o f the e arly ' Roman' b uildings a t B rescia a nd M ilan ( main t owns o f t he C enomanes a nd o f t he I nsubres), a s a s ort o f p ropaganda. P robably a ll t he G aulish s ocial c lasses f elt i n o ne way o r a nother t he R oman cultural i nfluence. T he R omans avoided b uilding r ural s ettlements a nd v illas i n t he C isalpine G aul b efore t he e nd o f t he i st c entury B .C. p robably t o avoid quarrels w ith t he l ocal f armers. T his p rocess o f R omanization t ook a l ong t ime, but i t h ad t he advantage o f making military e xpeditions a nd a rmies u nnecessary; t hese people would h ave b een n eutral o r p roR oman i n t he c ase o f wars ( as h appened i n t he y ears 9 0-88 B .C. when t he G auls d id n ot j oin t he I talic p eoples i n t heir u prising a gainst R ome) and t he R omans could r aise mercenaries amongst t hem. I n t his w ay t he R omans a cquired r eliable a nd a lready culturally ' Roman' c itizens. T he s ilence o f t he L atin h istorians o n t his s ubject can b e e xplained a s f ollows: o n t he o ne h and t he R omans h ad no i nterest i n r eminding t he C isalpines o f t heir p ast a s C eltic warriors, now t hat t hey were a ccustomed to s end t heir c hildren to R ome f or education a nd i n t his w ay t hey h elped t he spread o f R oman culture i n t heir l and ( as d ji t he G aulish mercenaries coming b ack to t heir country). O n t he o ther h and t he C isalpines ( new R oman c itizens) who h ad a b ureaucracy

4 3

L I Z

4 4

f ormed by t heir o wn p eople l ife, d id n ot w ant t heir

a nd e njoyed t he n ew R oman way o f ' barbarian' p ast a nd t heir wars

a gainst t he R omans t o b e r emembered. T his i nterpretation o f R omanisation a s a c ultural p henomenon a lone, c an e xplain t he a pparently c ontrasting d ata we h ave o n t his p eriod. During L a T bne I cultural g roups o ther t han t he C elts e xisted i n L ombardy. T hese g roups c an b e d etected b ecause we h ave a v ery l arge n umber o f g raves b elonging to t his period. I t i s i nteresting t o observe t hat while s ome objects l ike t he M isano type f ibula ( Fig. 3 .2) ( Tizzoni 1 982a, 5 0) o r t he t rottola v ase a re s pread a ll over t he r egion a nd b eyond i t, o ther objects ( Appendices 3 .3-3.6) c an o nly b e found i n c ertain a reas a nd c learly i ndicate cultural g roups, which a re s hown a lso b y t he d ifferent b urial r ites ( Appendix 3 .7). A ccording t o t hese d istribution maps we f ollowing c ultural a reas:

c an

d etect

the

1 ) A rea o f t he G olasecca cultural t radition. c an b e d ivided i nto two main g roups, a ccording to b urial r ite:

T his t he

a ) L epontic a rea o f t he O ssola a nd M esolcina v alleys. H ere t he d ead were i nhumed i n l arge cemeteries. T he G olasecca t radition c an b e d etected i n s ome t ypes o f pottery, s uch a s b eakers a nd b owls a nd i n s ome o f t he metal objects s uch a s types o f f ibulae a nd a rmrings. b ) T he a rea o f G ravellona T oce ( at t he e nd o f t he O ssola v alley), M t. T essin s outh o f M t. C eneri, part o f t he V arese p rovince, t he C omo province and B rianza w ere i nhabited b y g roups o f G olasecca cultural d escent. T he b urial r ite was t he s ame a s t hat o f t he G olasecca f olk: c remations i n u rns a nd g raves f ormed b y s tone s labs. T he G olasecca cultural t radition c an b e f ound a lso i n s ome types o f metal a nd pottery objects ( Tizzoni 1 982a, 5 6). T he S assina v alley, w here many c remation g raves h ave b een excavated s ince t he l ast c entury ( Tizzoni 1 982a, 4 35 3; T izzoni 1 984, 1 5-22), s hows a lso a f ew o bjects b elonging t o t he R aethic t radition ( Fig. 3 .5; F ig. 3 .6). T hese types were p robably acquired f rom t he v alleys t o t he e ast o f t he S assina, b ut u nfortunately we k now l ittle about t hese a reas. 2 ) T he T ellina a nd C amonica v alleys b elong to the R aethic cultural a rea. U nfortunately t here a re f ew f inds f rom t his a rea a nd t he p roblem c annot b e b etter r esolved. W hile i n t he T ellina a nd C amonica v alleys t he d ead were i nhumed, on t he s outhern s hore o f the I seo l ake a t T imoline ( Brescia), t hey were c remated a nd b uried i n g raves f ormed b y s tone s labs ( Patroni 1 912b, 1 3; T izzoni 1 984, 6 -8). 3 )

L omellina.

T he

b urials

4 5

i n

t his

a rea

h ave

t he

following c haracteristics: t he c emeteries a re f ormed b y numerous g raves; t he g raves a re c onstructed w ith l arge Roman b ricks, o r a s s imple h oles i n t he s oil ( this w as p robably due to t he s carcity o f s tone i n t he a rea); t he g raves a re c remations a nd t he a shes were put i nto a b owl; t hese g raves a re v ery r ich i n pottery a nd o n t he contrary v ery poor i n metal objects; t he t rottola v ases a re v ery numerous. T here a re many l ocal types i n t he pottery and a lso a f ew l ocal types o f f ibulae. T hese l ocal t ypes d id not s pread to t he e ast, b ut t o t he north, a long t he T icino r iver, t o t he w est i n t he V ercelli p rovince a nd t o t he south i n t he A lessandria p rovince, a long t he r ivers B ormida, T anaro a nd S crivia. T he contacts amongst t hese a reas a re s hown a lso b y o ther types o f objects; f or e xample t he f ibulae w ith l arge a nd f lat b ows o f a p eculiar type which h as b een found s o f ar only n ear T ortona ( Alessandria) a nd a t V aleggio ( Barocelli 1 923, 7 5, F ig. 2 2; V annacci L unazzi 1 978b, F ig. 2 8). O r t he f ibulae o f m iddle L a T& .le s cheme ( but b elonging to l ate L a T ä 'ne ) a nd w ith a n e nlarged g lobe o n t he foot, found a t C asal C ermelli ( Alessandria), V aleggio a nd C astellaro d e' G iorgi ( Lo P orto 1 952, 4 6; V annacci L unazzi 1 978b, F ig. 6 ; P onte 1 964, T ay. 2 , 2 4, 2 8). 4 ) T he g raves i n t he A lessandria province a re s imple c remations w ith t he a shes put i nto a n u rn covered b y a b owl, a nd i t s eems t hat t hey were not c onstructed w ith s tones o f b ricks ( Lo P orto 1 952, 4 6). Most p robably t hey b elong to t he L igurians. W e must a lso s tress t hat t he n earby a reas o f t he A lessandria a nd P avia provinces, t o t he s outh o f t he P o r iver were i nhabited b y the L igurians. T he g raves o f C asal C ermelli ( Alessandria) b elonged t o them a nd L ivy ( 32, 2 9) w rote t hat C lastidium ( the modern C asteggio i n t he p rovince o f P avia) was a L igurian s ettlement. T he g raves o f L omellina s how t hat t hey d id not b elong to t he C elts, but to t he g roups which h ad a s trong G olasecca i nfluence a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, L igurian a spects. 5 ) T he f inds f rom t he s outhern part of t he M antua p rovince, f rom t he s outh-western part o f t he V erona p rovince a nd f rom t he A ppenines i n t he p rovinces o f R eggio Emilia a nd P iacenza s how t hat t he i nhabitants o f t his a rea were L igurians. T he

s ettlement

o f

L igurians

t o t he

north of

t he

P o

r iver

i s t estified a lso b y L ivy i n t he y ear 1 72 ( Luraschi 1 981, 7 38 0) a nd a lso i n t he y ear 1 89 ( Livy 4 0, 1 6). T hese m igrations o f L igurians to t he n orth o f t he P o r iver may have h appened a lso i n earlier periods. We must b ear i n mind t hat t he L igurian t ribes i n t his a rea o f t he A pennines w ere v ery s trong s ince t hey w ere able to conquer t he R oman c olony o f Mutina ( Modena), e stablished i n 1 83, a nd t o plunder t he t erritories o f t he colonies o f B ologna a nd P isa ( Livy 3 9, 2 , 1 ; 4 1, 1 4, 1 8). P robably w e u nderestimate t he extent o f

4 6

F ig.

3 .4. D istribution M ap o f vases ( See A ppendices

t he ' Egg-Cups' a nd l ens-shaped 3 .3 a nd 3 .4 f or k ey).

4 7

t he

L igurian

s ettlement

i n

t he

E milia

R omagna

r egion.

T he g raves f rom t he A pennines i n t he P iacenza p rovince, f rom t he s ame s ite o f t he R oman municipium o f V eleia s how t hat t he L igurians l iving i n t he a rea w ere able to k eep t heir own cultural i dentity i n t he f irst c entury B .C., d espite t he s trong a nd early Roman s ettlement i n t he a rea ( Petracco S icardi 1 969, 2 07-218; F rescaroli 1 969, 2 19-222). 6 ) T he a rea to t he e ast o f P avia, a long t he n orthern b ank o f t he P o r iver a nd a s f ar a s t he M ilan p rovince b elonged to a d ifferent cultural g roup. T he g raves we k now f rom t his a rea c an b e d ated t o t he I c entury B .C. a nd t hey a re a ll c remations. T he b urials were o ften i n amphorae cut i nto h alves. E ach o ne contained r ather p oor g rave-goods a nd a n u rn c overed b y t he b owl w ith t he a shes i n i t ( Tizzoni 1 982b, 1 97-198; S pizzi 1 927, 3 -4; P atroni 1 912c, 4 22-423; a nd v arious u npublished f inds i n t he museums o f L odi, S . C olombano a l L ambro a nd i n t he F iorani-Gallotta private collection o f S .Colombano a l L ambro). T he pottery s hows r ather d istinctive s hapes which h ave s ome r esemblance w ith t he f inds f rom L omellina a nd w ith t hose f rom t he a rea o f C asteggio ( unpublished P avia museum). T he g raves f rom t he L igurian s ettlement o f C lastidium a re c remations i n u rns. S mall b ronze f igurines of gods o r d emigods, s uch a s M ercurius a nd H ercules, a re o ften f ound amongst t he a shes. T heir o rigin c an b e t raced b ack t o t he s mall b ronze f igurines w hich were t raded a long t he L igurian coast ( Frova 1 967, 3 3-42) a nd to t he north o f t he A pennines a lready d uring t he e arly I ron A ge.

4 8

7. -- ' , _ , , ( , , t

) 1 , ,

\ _ _ _ _ _ J

. ,,

, ' , J ' i

, , . _ ,\ I i s __ , i i

4 24 1 .an W ir m m = = = i mm u l d

•

•' ;

0 Af ' 0 2

, , , ,

. Se

•

1 8

A 1 7

1 6

-

1 3

Chi

0 1

• D ISTRI

•

• •

UTION

3 .5.

OBjECIIS

OF

RAFT

I C

I TION

BEAKERS

WITH

DEP RESSED

WAL I

OF

EARLY

BEAKERS

WITH

DEPRESSED WALL

OF

LATE

BEAKERS

WITH

DEPRESSED

OF

ROMAN

OTHER

F ig.

OF

OBJECTS

OF

WALL

P AETHIC

r AGE I RON

AGE

PERIOD

TRADITION.

D istribution o f objects i n ( See A ppendix 3 .5 f or

4 9

_r e

t he R aethic K ey)

t radition.

A ppendix

3 .1

- M isano

f ibula.

T his r efers t o a type o f b ronze o r i ron f ibula o f m iddle L a T äne s cheme, which b elongs t o t he l ate L a T äne period o f L ombardy ( Tizzoni 1 982a, 5 0). T his t ype i s d istributed a ll over t he r egion, i n K anton T essin a nd G risons. L ist o f f inds ( Fig. 3 .2): 1 ) S . Bernardo d 'Ornavasso ( Piana A gostinetti 1 972, 1 25, 1 55). 2 ) M iazzina ( Ponti 1 896, T ay. 5 ). 3 ) S olduno ( Stöckli 1 975, T ay. 4 8, 4 9). 4 ) G iubiasco, S ementina ( Ulrich 1 914, T ay. 5 6, 1 8; S töckli, 1 975 T af. 8 ). 5 ) G olasecca ( unpublished f inds, B rescia A rchaeological Museum). 6 ) V izzola ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 9 8). 7 ) S .Pietro d i S tabio ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 1 03). 8 ) A ppian ( ) G entile ( Piovan a nd P agani 1 982, 2 42). 9 ) G erenzano ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 9 1). 1 0) S .Lorenzo N erviano ( Sutermeister 1 960b, 1 1). 1 1) G arlasco, M iradolo ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, 1 03; U npublished P avia Museum). 1 2) G ropello C airoli ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, 1 07). 1 3) V aleggio ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, 1 06). 1 4) B arzio ( Tizzoni 1 982a, F ig. 9 ). 1 5) A cquate ( Tizzoni 1 982a, F ig. 4 ). 1 6) P ianvalle ( Negroni C atacchio 1 982b, F ig. 2 6). 1 7) R ogorea d i R ogoredo ( Tizzoni 1 982a, F ig. 1 4). 1 8) Mezzano ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 2 /c). 1 9) P resedio ( Tizzoni 1 982b, T ay. 2 ). 2 0) T reviglio ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 1 7/ i ). 2 1) C aravaggio ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 3 ). 2 2) M isano d i G era d ' Adda ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 6 /a/b/c). 2 3) M alpaga ( Unpublished, B ergamo A rchaeological Museum). 2 4) C alcinate ( De M arinis 1 977, P late 1 2). 2 5) G ambol ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 982, T ay. 1 0). 2 6) R emedello ( Tizzoni, i n p ress). 2 7) P iadena ( Unpublished f inds i n P iadena Museum). 2 8) Governolo d i R oncoferraro ( Tizzoni 1 980a, F ig. 2 /b). 2 9) Molinazzo d ' Arbedo ( Ulrich 1 914, T af. 3 3, 1 8, 1 9, 1 0). 3 0) S charans ( not o n m ap) ( Rageth 1 979, 1 34). 3 1) V igasio, f ondo C astelbarco ( not o n m ap) ( Salzani, p ers. c omm.).

Appendix

3 .2

- T rottola

v ase.

T he t rottola ( top-peg) v ase i s d istributed i n t he a rea f rom V al d 'Aosta to R omagna, i t s hows t hree main a reas o f f inds i n t he n ecropolises o f K t. T essin, a round B ellinzona a nd L ocarno, O ssola v alley a nd L omellina. A nother l arge g roup o f f inds comes f rom t he n ecropolises o f t he C omo p rovince.

most

T hey a re l ess widespread i n t he r eal C eltic t rottola v ases i n t his a rea come f rom t he

5 0

a rea, i n f act necropolis o f

R emedello ( Brescia), t wenty four g raves.

where

t here

a re

o nly

f ive

i n

a total

of

T he pattern o f d istribution o f t he t rottola v ase i s not d ue to chronological r easons, i n f act s ome o f t hese v ases i n t he Celtic A rea b elong t o t he m iddle L a T äne period, f or e xample those o f B ologna, G hisalba a nd t hree f rom R emedello. B eside t he s carcity o f t rottola v ases i n t he p rovinces o f M ilano, B ergamo, B rescia a nd M antua i s contrasted w ith the l arge number o f m iddle a nd l ate L a T äne f inds i n t hese a reas. B ecause o f t his we must t hink t hat t his v ase was l ess w idespread i n t he r eal C eltic a reas o f L ombardy ( De M arinis 1 977, 3 4). I ts d istribution i n t he T icino v alley s hows that t his r iver was t he route a long which t his v ase was t raded. L ist o f f inds ( Fig. 3 .3): 1 ) S embrancher ( Frei 1 960, P late 5 4). 2 ) G ran. S . B ernardo ( Vogt 1 960, 5 ). 3 ) A osta ( Pupilli 1 981, 6 4). 4 ) S ion ( Kaenel 1 983, 5 0). 5 ) Montjovet ( Arslan, p er. comm.). 6 ) C astelletto C ervo ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 79). 7 ) B annio A nzino ( Piana A gostinetti 1 972, F ig. 2 04). 8 ) C amp 4lia ( Bertamini 1 978, 1 86). 9 ) Toceno ( Bertamini 1 978, 5 9). 1 0) S . Bernado d ' Ornavasso ( Piana A gostinetti 1 972, 3 0,

3 5,

4 5, 5 0, 5 4, 6 0, 6 3-65, 6 9-72, 7 4, 7 6-83, 8 5, 8 8, 9 1, 9 2, 9 4, 9 6-100, e tc.). 1 1) M iazzina ( Ponte 1 896, T ay. 6 ). 1 2) C andoglia, M ergozzo ( De G iuli a nd R ossi 1 970, 3 89). 1 3) G ravellona Toce ( Piana A gostinetti 1 972, 1 84-197). 1 4) B elgirate ( Negroni C atacchio 1 982b, 3 37). 1 5) A ngera ( Bertolone 1 947, 2 9). 1 6) G erenzano ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 80). 1 7) S illavengo ( Negroni C atacchio 1 982b, 3 38). 1 8) P ezzana ( Leone 1 887, T ay. 1 5). 1 9) Mercallo d ei S assi ( Bruscherini 1 954, 6 -7). 2 0) Appiano G entile, Guanzate ( Piovan a nd P agani 1 982, 2 37; P iovan 1 968-9, 2 39). 2 1) S esto C alende ( Bertolone 1 949-50, 7 1). 2 2) C astelletto T icino ( Barocelli 1 955). 2 3) L omnago ( Bertolone 1 949-50, 7 0). 2 4) Mezzano ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 6 2). 2 5) S omma L ombardo ( Bertolone 1 960, T ay. 2 3). 2 6) C ä d i A ss ( Unpublished, S esto C alende Museum). 2 7) A rsago S eprio ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 74). 2 8) Busto A rsizio ( Sironi 1 952, 3 -18). 2 9) G allarate ( Sironi 1 952, 3 -18). 3 0) V arallo P ombia ( Negroni C atacchio 1 982b, 3 38). 3 1) C astellanza ( De Marinis, pers. comm.). 3 2) L egnano, C ascina B uon G esü ( Ricci 1 901 Tay. 2 ; N egroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 79). 3 3) C anegrate ( Sutermeister 1 960, 1 2-14). 3 4) S . Lorenzo N erviano ( Sutermeister 1 960, 9 -11). 3 5) Nosate ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 6 8). 3 6) C assolnoyo ( Barocelli 1 955). 3 7) G ravellona L omellina ( Cassani 1 962, F ig. 1 7).

5 1

3 8) 3 9) 4 0) 4 1) 4 2) 4 3) 4 4) 4 5) 4 6) 4 7) 4 8) 4 9) 5 0) 5 1) 5 2) 5 3) 5 4) 5 5) 5 6) 5 7)

5 8) 5 9) 6 0) 6 1) 6 2) 6 3) 6 4) 6 5) 6 6) 6 7) 6 8) 6 9) 7 0) 7 1) 7 2) 7 3) 7 4) 7 5) 7 6) 7 7) 7 8) 7 9) 8 0) 8 1) 8 2) 8 3)

V igevano ( Arslan 1 969, 1 36). S forzesca ( Trucco 1 979, T ay. 9 ). G ambolö ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 983, T ay. 1 , 6 , 7 . 9 , 1 1-13 1 6, 2 1). G arlasco ( Ponte 1 964, 1 74; A rslan 1 969, 1 23-155; A rslan 1 971, 5 7-77; T rucco 1 979, 3 3). V aleggio ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, F ig. 1 5, 1 7). Z erbolö ( Arslan 1 969, 1 36). S . Varese ( Unpublished, P avia museum). G ropello C airoli ( Fortunati Z uccalä 1 978, 1 33; V annacci L unazzi 1 978b, 1 06; R epetto 1 980, 1 6-17). C arbonara T icino ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 1 0). P avia ( Unpublished, P avia Museum). L omello ( Vanacci L unazzi 1 982, 7 8). S .Giovanni d oria ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, 1 00). D orno ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 9 ). S uardi ( Arslan, 1 969, 1 36). P ieve d el C airo ( Ponte 1 964, 1 32). A rbedo-Molinazzo ( Ulrich 1 914; T af. 3 6). R ivolta d ' Adda ( Unpublished, S oprintendenza A rcheologica M ilano). Luino ( Arslan, pers. comm.). Gudo ( Baserga 1 911, 3 -137). S olduno, M inusio, T enero ( Stöckli 1 975 T af. 2 6, 2 8-32, 3 5, 3 6, 3 8, 4 0-42, 4 5-48, 5 0; C rivelli 1 943, 6 6; S töckli 1 975, 5 6). S ementina ( Stöckli 1 975, T af. 8 -9). G iubiasco ( Ulrich 1 914, T af. 4 2, 6 0, 7 1). S .Maria ( Boldini 1 963, 7 3). M esocco ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 76). Obercastels ( Frei 1 960, T ay. 5 4). Corbetta ( Unpublished, D ossi p rivate collection, C orbetta, M ilano). S . Maria i n C azis ( Unpublished, C oira Museum). A rdena ( Brusimpiano) ( Bertolone 1 940, 1 2-13; B aserga 1 944, F ig. 4 -5). R iva S . Vitale ( Crivelli 1 943, 6 9). S tabio ( Stöckli 1 975, F ig. 6 2-63). P onna I nferiore ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 77). S chignano V ecchio ( Magni 1 916, 8 1-137). C aversaccio ( Valmorea) ( Giussani 1 937-8, 6 5-67). G rayedona ( Baserga 1 916, 5 9-80). P ian d i S pagna ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 77). E sino L ario ( Bertolone 1 954, 1 7-22; T izzoni 1 984, T ay. 1 5). I ntrobio ( De M arinis 1 977, P late 1 0; T izzoni 1 984, T ay. 2 8, 3 4). B arzio ( Tizzoni 1 982a, F ig. 5 ). Mandello ( Baserga 1 928, 2 8-36). C apiago I ntimiano ( Luraschi 1 977, t omba 2 2). C ä Morta ( Baserga 1 919-21, 4 8). C asate, P ianvalle ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, T ay. 1 /2 ; Negroni C atacchio 1 982b, F igs. 4 7, 5 0, 5 1, 6 0). C ermanate ( Giussani 1 936, 9 7). L uisago ( Unpublished, C omo a rchaeological museum) C osta M asnaga ( Magni 1 912, 1 33-134). C antü ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 77).

5 2

8 4) 8 5)

B renna ( Piovan 1 968-69, M eda, S eveso ( Baserga 1 974, Tay. 8 ).

2 44). 1 916,

5 9-80;

N egroni

C atacchio

8 6) C asate Nuoyo ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 1 9). 8 7) B iassono ( Negroni C atacchio 1 982a, 7 3). 8 8) P aderno D ugnano ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 8 1). 8 9) C hiarayalle ( Tizzoni 1 984, Tay. 4 4). 9 0) Mariano a l B rembo ( De M arinis 1 977, P late 2 ). 9 1) V erdello ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 1 4). 9 2) T reviglio ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 1 7). 9 3) C alvenzano ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 2 ). 9 4) M isano d i G era d ' Adda ( Tizzoni 1 981a, T ay. 1 ). 9 5) D overa ( Patroni 1 912a, 7 ). 9 6) P resedio ( Tizzoni 1 982b, T ay. 1 ). 9 7) B issone ( Patroni 1 906, 1 70). 9 8) C arrobbio ( Tizzoni 1 980b, F ig. 2 /1). 9 9) B olgare ( Unpublished, B ergamo a rchaeological museum). 1 00) S .Zenone ( De M arinis p ers. comm.). 1 01) Ghisalba ( De M artini 1 978, T ay. 1 4). 1 02) L eno ( Unpublished, A sola museum). 1 03) C remona ( Pontiroli 1 969, 1 979). 1 04) R emedello ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 977, T ay. 6 , 1 7, 3 4). 1 05) P iadena ( Unpublished, P iadena museum). 1 06) S alö ( Arslan 1 969, 1 36). 1 07) P olpenazze ( Bocchio 1 971, 8 ). 1 08) Monte L offa ( Negroni C atacchio 1 974, 1 80). 1 09) Povegliano ( Cipolla 1 880, 2 36-241). 1 10) V igasio ( Unpublished, V erona a rchaeological museum). 1 11) Mantova ( Tamassia 1 970, 1 6). 1 12) I sola R izza ( Salzani p ers. comm.). 1 13) V arano dè M elegari ( Scarani 1 971, 7 89). 1 14) B ologna ( De M arinis 1 977, P late 7 ). 1 15) Monte B ibele ( Pagliani 1 983, 1 03). 1 16) V agna ( Caramella a nd D e G uili 1 983, 8 5). 1 17) C rodo ( Caramella a nd D e Guili 1 983, 8 1). 1 18) A lbairate ( Unpublished, P isani D ossi p rivate collection, Corbetta, M ilano). 1 19) C isliano ( Unpublished, P isani D ossi p rivate c ollection, Corbetta, M ilano).

A ppendix

3 .3

- L ens

s haped

b ody

v ase.

T he small l ens-shaped b ody v ases a re w idely s pread i n L omellina, i n t he V ercelli p rovince, a long t he r iver T icino, mainly on i ts w estern b ank a nd i n K t. T essin ( like t he t rottola v ase). L ist o f f inds ( Fig. 3 .4): 1 ) S . B ernardo d 'Ornavasso ( Piana A gostinetti 2 ) B orgomanero ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 9 0). 4 ) S ementina ( Stoöckli 1 975, T af. 1 0). 5 ) L uino ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 9 0). 6 ) P ombia ( Lo P orto 1 955, 1 55). 7 ) G alliate ( Tizzoni 1 984, Tay. 1 00).

5 3

1 972,

4 4,

1 59).

8 ) C assolnoyo ( Trucco 1 979, T ay. 1 5/5). 9 ) S forzesca ( Trucco 1 979, T ay. 8 /6). 1 0) Motta V isconti ( Unpublished, L ecco museum). 1 1) B orgo S .Siro ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 8 2, 8 3). 1 2) Z erbolö ( Unpublished, P avia museum). 1 3) G arlasco ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 9 /5). 1 4) D orno ( Unpublished, P avia museum). 1 5) V illanova d ' Ardenghi ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 9 /13). 1 6) T orre dä T orti ( Unpublished, P avia museum). 1 7) P avia ( Unpublished, P avia museum). 1 8) V aleggio ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, F igs. 1 3, 1 5, 1 9). 1 9) S .Nazzaro d ä B urgundi ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 1 0/7). 2 0) P ieve d el C airo ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 1 8/3, 1 9/5/7). 3 2) A ppiano G entile ( Piovan a nd P agani 1 982, 2 37). 4 0) Monticello ( Unpublished, t ownhall o f Lumellogno, P avia, A rslan p ers. comm.). 4 1) G ambolö ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 983, T ay. 1 1, 1 3, 1 4, 1 9 2 1). 4 2) C asteggio ( Unpublished, P avia museum). 4 3) V ercelli, n ot o n map ( Sommo 1 982, T ay. 1 30). 4 4) D omodossola ( not o n map) ( Caramella a nd D e G iuli 1 983, 8 5).

Appendix

3 .4

- ' Egg caps'.

T he l ate L a T äne type o f ' egg-cups' s tems f rom t he m iddle L a T äne type o f which we k now s o f ar o nly t he s pecimens f rom Malnate ( Varese) ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 9 6). T he s hape o f t his object s hows i ts o rigin f rom t he G olasecca b eakers. I ts complete d evelopment c an b e s een i n t he K t. T essin n ecropolis ( Stöckli 1 975, Abb. 4 5). T he

pattern

o f

d istribution o f

g eographical a rea which p rovince, b y t he C omo n ecropolis o f K t. T essin.

L ist o f f inds ( for 5 7) ( Fig. 3 .4): 3 ) 4 ) 2 1) 2 2) 2 3) 2 4) 2 5) 2 6) 2 7) 2 8)

i s f ormed p rovince,

complete

t he ' egg-cups' s hows a b y p art o f t he V arese b y B rianza and b y t he

b ibliography

2 9) 3 0) 3 1) 3 3) 3 4) 3 5) 3 6) 3 7) 3 8) 3 9)

S olduno. G iubiasco. S tabio. M alnate. C aversaccio. P ianyalle. C as ate. B reccia. C amerlata. C ä M orta.

5 4

s ee

T izzoni

V igna S anta d i R ebbio. C antü. G erenzano. G ravedona. I ntrobio. B arzio. E sino L ario. C asate Nuovo. B iassono.

1 982a,

L uisago.

F ig.

3 .6.

D istribution map o f A ppendix 3 .6

5 5

t hree l ocal f or k ey).

f ibula

types

( see

Appendix

3 .5

- O bjects o f

R aethic

t radition.

T he d istribution map o f t he h andled i ndented b eakers s hows t hat t his type c an b e f ound mainly i n t he A lpine a nd p re-Alpine a reas o f t he B ergamo p rovinces ( De Marinis 1 982, 7 3-99). T he d istribution map o f t hese b eakers i s i ncludes t he t ypes o f t he e arly I ron A ge a nd of t he R oman period. I t i s i nteresting to note t hat t he f inds o f t his type outside t he B ergamo a nd B rescia p rovinces b elong t o t he early i mperial a ge. A s imilar d istribution p attern i s f ound a lso f or t he metal objects o f R aethic t radition: k nives w ith b ent b lades and o ther i ron i nstruments. T hese objects a nd t he b eakers c an b e compared w ith s imilar f inds f rom t he R aethic a rea o f T rentino A lto-Adige. L ist o f f inds ( Fig. 3 .5): 1 ) A ngera ( Sena C hiesa 1 979, 5 3). 2 ) I ntrobio ( Tizzoni 1 982a, F ig. 1 1). 3 ) C asate Nuovo ( Tizzoni 1 981a, Tay. 2 0/c), 4 ) G iubiasco ( Ulrich 1 914, T af. 3 4/12, 8 5/8). 5 ) C arrobbio ( Bolla e t a l. 1 979, T ay. 4 /6/7/8). 6 ) C apo d i P onte, D os d ell'Arca ( Unpublished, C entro C amuno d i S tudi P reistorici, C apo d i P onte, B rescia; D e M arinis 1 982, 9 0-94). 7 ) V al C amera d i B orno ( De M arinis 1 982, 9 0-94). 8 ) B reno ( De M arinis 1 982, 9 0-94). 9 ) C ividate C amuno ( Unpublished, C ividate C amuno museum, B rescia). 1 0) L overe ( De M arinis 1 982, 9 0-94; T izzoni 1 984, T ay. 2 , 1 11-116). 1 1) T imoline ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 5 -8). 1 2) S alö ( Simoni 1 972, Tay. 1 /8/9). 1 3) P eschiera ( Montelius 1 895, premiere p artie, col. 3 26, P late 6 4, F ig. 1 3/a). 1 4) C avriana ( Piccoli 1 975, 2 4). 1 5) F ontanella ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 1 9). 1 6) F orcello ( Unpublished, B rescia a rchaeological museum). 1 7) Manerba ( Unpublished, M anerba museum, B rescia). 1 8) I dro ( Unpublished, S oprintendenza a rcheologica della L ombardia). 1 9) S pininbecco ( Verona, not o n map) ( Trecca 1 900, T ay. 5 ). 2 0) Martigny ( Switzerland, n ot o n map) ( Wibld 1 983, F ig. 1 4/2).

5 6

cre mation

F ig.

3 .7.

M ap o f

i nhu mat ion

areas

d ifferent

b urial k ey).

5 7

r ites

( See

A ppendix

areas

3 .7

f or

A ppendix

3 .6

- L ocal

types

o f

f ibulae.

F ibula o f P avese type. T his r efers t o a t ype o f f ibula o f m iddle L a T ene f orm, b ut b elonging t o l ate L a T ene a nd t o t he e arly i mperial a ge. I t i s c haracterized b y i ts s ize ( about 1 5 c m. l ong) a nd b y a p eculiar s hape a nd d ecoration o f t he b ow. T he d istribution map o f t he P avese type ( Fig. 3 .6) s hows t hat i t i s l imited t o L omellina, w ith a f ew f inds a lso i n t he V ercelli p rovince, a nd t o t he e ast o f t he r iver T icino. I t i s c haracteristic o f t he n ecropolis o f L omellina w ith t he t rottola v ase a nd t he l ens-shaped b ody v ase. S corpion-bow f ibulae. T his type ( Tizzoni 1 980b, 1 43-146) i s f ound i n t he p re-Alpine a rea which s tretches f rom t he n ecropolis o f K t. T essin t o t he G arda l ake. T o t he e ast o f t his l ake t hey a re common i n T rentino a nd A lto A dige ( Fig. 3 .6). I n t his map a ll t he v arieties o f t his type h ave b een considered. I t i s i nteresting t o o bserve t hat t hese f ibulae c an b e f ound i n t he s ame a rea a s t he ' egg-cups', t he i ndented b eakers a nd t he metal objects o f R aethic t radition. L eaf-shaped b ow f ibulae. T hey a re l imited to t he s outhern p art o f M antua p rovince a nd t o t he A pennine a rea o f t he R eggio E milia p rovince ( Fig. 3 .6.). T his type i s i n g raves where t he o ther g rave goods s how a L igurian t radition. T he f act t hat t he b uttons f rom o ne o f t he g raves f rom B agnolo S . Vito a re l ike t hose o f g rave 6 2 o f P edemonte ( Novara) ( Piana A gostinetti 1 972, F ig. 1 95) a nd o f g rave 2 1 o f G ambolö B elcreda ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 983, T ay. 1 0/12) s hows t hat t hese b uttons a re o bjects o f L igurian t radition ( Tizzoni 1 981b, 5 9) a nd t hey were n ot s pread i n t he C eltic a rea. I dentical b uttons h ave b een f ound a lso i n a p robably f emale c remation g rave f rom t he n earby s ite o f S orgä ( Verona) ( Salzani p ers. comm.). T his f ind s eems to b elong t o t he s ame cultural t radition o f B agnolo S . Vito. L ist 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6 ) 7 ) 8 ) 9 ) 1 0) 1 1) 1 2) 1 3) 1 4) 1 5) 1 6) 1 7) 1 8)

o f

f inds

( Fig.

3 .6):

S olduno ( Stöckli 1 975, T af. 2 8). S . Maria ( Stöckli 1 975, T af. 7 ). C laro - a lla M onda ( Stöckli 1 975, A bb. 2 8). C asargo ( Tizzoni 1 980b, F ig. 3 /a). I ntrobio ( Tizzoni 1 982, F ig. 1 2/d/e/f). B arzio ( Tizzoni 1 982, F ig. 9 /k/1). V al S eriana ( Tizzoni 1 980b, 1 44). L overe ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 2 ). T imoline ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 4 ). S abbio ( Arslan 1 973, 3 9-40). S alb ( Massa 1 979-80). ' Bresciano' ( Tizzoni 1 984; i n p ress). C rescentino ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 1 01). C asale Monferrato ( Barocelli 1 920, 3 2). R omentino ( Barocelli 1 920, 3 0). G ambolö ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 981, F ig. 1 3). B orgo S .Siro ( Tizzoni 1 984, T ay. 8 6). G ropello C airoli ( Fortunati Z uccäla 1 978, F ig.

5 8

1 ).

1 9) 2 0) 2 1) 2 2) 2 3) 2 4) 2 5) 2 6) 2 7) 2 8) 2 9) 3 0) 3 1) 3 2) 3 3) 3 4) 3 5) 3 6) 3 7) 3 8)

G arlasco, M iradolo ( Ponte 1 964, 1 8; U npublished, P avia Museum). T orre d 'Isola ( Patroni 1 904, 5 ).

T ay.

1 5/8;

R epetto

1 980,

V illanova d 'Ardenghi ( Ponte 1 964, Tay. 2 /18). P avia ( Saronio M asolo 1 981, F ig. 2 ). S . G iorgio L omellina ( Barocelli 1 920, 2 9). V aleggio ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978b, F ig. 1 4). O ttobiano ( Ponte 1 964, T ay. 2 /23). L omello ( Barocelli 1 920, 3 2). S . N azzaro d ä B urgundi, l oc. C ardinala ( Ponte 1 964, Tay. 3 ). C astellaro d ä G iorgi ( Ponte 1 964, 1 24). P ieve d el C airo ( Ponte 1 964, 1 44). T ortona ( Barocelli 1 923, 7 4). S . G iuliano N uovo ( Barocelli 1 923, 7 4). V illa d el F oro, V illa S tortigliona ( Barocelli 1 923, 7 4). G iubiasco ( Ulrich 1 914, T af. 4 5/20/21/22). Luceria ( Montelius 1 895, s rie A F ig. 1 60, s &ie B P late 1 13, F ig. 6 ). B osco C ernaieto ( Ambrosetti 1 975, 1 08, F ig. 3 7). B agnolo S . Vito ( Tizzoni 1 981b, 5 5-71). C astel d ' Agogna ( Patroni 1 904, 6 ). Montichiari ( Tizzoni 1 984; i n p ress).

A ppendix

3 .7

- B urial

r ites.

T he d istribution map o f t he b urial r ites i deally s hould b e b ased o nly o n v ery good evidence. U nfortunately t his i s n ot possible f or s ome a reas where we h ave o nly v ery f ew, i solated a nd old g rave f inds.

i nto

O n the b asis o f b urial t he f ollowing a reas:

r ites we

c an

d ivide

t he

r egion

1 ) I nhumation a rea: C amonica a nd T ellina v alleys. T he a reas n eighbouring L ombardy where t his r ite w as p ractised were K t. T essin ( to t he n orth o f M t. C eneri) a nd t he O ssola v alley. 2 ) I nhumation, f ollowed f rom t he e nd o f L a T äne b y a m ixed b urial r ite, was p ractised i n t he a rea o f t he C enomanes, but t here a re s ome d oubts about i t i n t he a rea o f t he I nsubres b ecause o f t he l ack o f r ecent e xcavations o f c emeteries i n t his a rea ( De M arinis 1 977, 3 8; T izzoni 1 980a, 2 17; T izzoni 1 980b, 1 40). 3 ) C remation a rea: L omellina, p robably a ll t he T icino v alley s outh of t he M aggiore l ake, a s s hown b y t he r ecently e xcavated c emetery a t S omma L ombardo ( Varese) ( Simone pers. c omm.) a nd probably b y t he f inds f rom M agenta ( Milano) ( Tizzoni 1 984, 4 6), t he a rea o f G ravellona T oce, t he C omo a nd V arese provinces, t he w estern part o f t he P avia p rovince, t he s outhern s hores o f l ake I seo, t he s outhern part o f t he M antua p rovince, t he n eighbouring a reas o f t he A pennines o f E milia i n t he R eggio ( Ambrosetti 1 975b, 1 07), P arma a nd P iacenza ( Scarani 1 969, 8 6-159; S carani 1 971, 7 89; K ruta P oppi 1 981, 3 9-48) provinces, t he south-western part o f the V erona p rovince ( Salzani pers. comm.). T he e astern p art o f t he A lessandria a nd V ercelli p rovinces i n P iedmont ( Lo P orto

5 9

1 952,

i s 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6 ) 7 ) 8 ) 9 ) 1 0)

1 1) 1 2) 1 3) 1 4)

1 5) 1 6) 1 7) 1 8) 1 9)

4 6-66;

A map o f a s f ollows

V annacci

L unazzi

t his a rea d rawn ( Fig. 3 .7):

1 980-81, o n

t he

7 7-88).

b asis

o f

t he

b urial

r ite

V al d ' Ossola. N ecropolises o f L ocarno a nd B ellinzona. A rea o f t he V arese p rovince a nd o f K t. T essin s outh o f M t.Ceneri. C omo a nd B rianza a reas. N ecropolis o f A cquate. V al S assina a nd v al d 'Esino. V al T ellina. V al C amonica. N ecropolis o f G ravellona T oce. T icino v alley, t he r eal extent o f t he c remation a rea to t he north a nd to t he west o f t he T icino r iver i s not y et k nown. A rea o f t he I nsubres, i ts e astern b order i s the O glio r iver, while i ts w estern b order i s n ot y et c learly k nown. N ecropolis o f T imoline, t he e xtent of t he non C eltic g roups a round t he I seo l ake h as y et t o b e e stablished. A rea o f t he C enomanes. V erona a rea, i t s hould b elong t o t he C enomanes, b ut w e a re w aiting f or t he publication o f t he f inds f rom t his a rea t o b e sure o f t his. L omellina. C remation a rea a long t he P o r iver a nd b etween t he T icino a nd L ambro r ivers. C remation n ecropolis o f B agnolo S .Vito a nd S orgä. E astern p art o f t he V ercelli p rovince, a rea o f A lessandria a nd C asteggio. L igurian a rea o f t he A pennines o f E milia.

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S coperta d i u na 1 940, 1 45-163.

C aramella, P . a nd D e Guili, A . 1 983. U n s ecolo d i s coperte a rcheologiche i n p rovincia. O scellana 1 2 ( 2), 7 9-85. C assani,

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C ipolla, C . 1 880. 2 36-241.

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C rivelli, A . 1 943. A tlante p reistorico S vizzera I taliana. B ellinzona. D e

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Guili, A . a nd R ossi, B . 1 970. N otizie r omana. S ibrium 1 0, 3 81-391. M arinis, R . 1 977. T he L a T äne G auls. I n K eltske S tudije. 2 3-50.

r omane

e

e p reromane

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1 880,

s torico

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su C andoglia

i n

e ta

c ulture o f the C isalpine B rezice, P osavki muzej,

Man n s, R . 1 981. I l periodo G olasecca I II A i n L ombardia. I n S tudi A rcheologici ( 1), B ergamo, 4 3-285. Marinis, R . 1 982. P reistoria e p rotostoria della V alcamonica n el quadro d ell'ambiente prealpino e a lpino d ella L ombardia c entro-orientale. I n I l c aso V alcamonica, M ilano, 7 3-99.

M . 1 978. G hisalba. D e Martini, t erritorio. B ergamo. D urante,

A .

a nd

n ecropoli Durante,

Massari, d i

Ameglia.

A . a nd M assari, 4 7, 2 75-279.

F ortunati Z uccäla, C airoli:

G .

G .

R itrovamenti

1 977.

Quaderni 1 979.

erratici

Comunicazione 2 ,

n el

sulla

1 7-24.

N otiziario.

S tudi

E truschi

M . 1 978. L a n ecropoli r omana d i G ropello p rimi spunti e considerazioni. I n

6 2

R itrovamenti a rcheologici C asteggio, 1 27-137.

n ella provincia

d i

P avia.

F rescaroli, M . 1 969. T oponomastica d ella T abula A limentaria e r omanizzazione d ella V al Nure. I n A tti d el I II C onvegno d i S tudi V eleiati, M ilano, 2 19-222. F rei,

B .

1 960.

L 'age

du F er

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S uisse.

B asel.

F rontini, P . 1 983. L a c eramica a v ernice n era i n L ombardia n el I V e I II s ecolo. R ivista A rcheologica d ell'Antica P rovincia e D iocesi d i C omo 1 65 ( 1984), 1 75-194. F rova,

A . 1 967. L igustico

U n d iscobolo b ronzeo a G enova. 1 9 ( 1/2), 3 3-42.

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A . 1 968. U na t omba g allo-ligure nel t erritorio d ella S pezia. R ivista d i S tudi L iguri, ( omaggio a F .Benoit) 2 , 1 973, 2 89-304.

Fumagalli, R . 1 955. A ppunti p er u n c atalogo d ella s ezione a rcheologica d el Museo C ivico d i N ovara. B ollettino S torico per l a P rovincia d i N ovara 4 5 ( 2), 2 32-263. G iussani, A . 1 936. T ombe r omane d i B ellagio, C ermenate, E rba, L enno, R ebbio, V almadrera. R ivista A rcheologica d ell' Antica P rovincia e D iocesi d i C omo 1 11-113, 9 41 09. G iussani, A . 1 937-38. T ombe r omane a C aversaccio. A rcheologica d ell'Antica P rovincia e D iocesi 1 15-116, 6 5-67. K aenel,

G . 1 983. A rcheologia

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P orto, F .G. 1 952. U na n ecropoli d i n ell'Alessandrino. R ivista d i S tudi 4 6-66. P orto, F .G. R ivista

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5

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C atacchio, N . 1 982b. S cavi a P ianvalle ( Como) i r invenimenti d i e poca L a T äne. I n S tudi i n o nore d i F . R ittatore V onwiller. C omo, p art I , v ol. I 3 15-356.

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N otizie

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t erritorio

P iovan,

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C . and P agani, G . 1 982. N ecropoli d ella romaniz zazione s coperta ad A ppiano G entile. R ivista A rcheologica d ell'antica P rovincia e D iocesi d i C omo 1 64, 2 21-246.

P onte,

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G . 1 896. V erbano, I ntra.

P ontiroli, G . M ilano,

r icognizioni A rcheologica C omo 1 50-151,

B ollettino 9 3-204.

d ella

I R omani e i l ore precursori s ulle r ive d el n ell'Alto Novarese e nell'Agro V aresino.

1 969. C remona 1 63-207.

r omana.

I n

A tti

C e.S.D.I.R.

P upilli,

L . 1 981. A rcheologia

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A . 1 980. C airoli.

R icci,

M .

S aronio

1 901.

S ena

A ntiquarium

L a n ecropoli

M asolo, P . 1 981. i n o nore d i F . v ol.2, 6 79-691.

S carani, R . S tudi S carani,

Augusta P aetoria e i i s uo t eritorio. i n V alle d 'Aosta. A osta, 6 3-107.

I ,

d i

L aumellinum A ntona.

L egnano.

U na tomba R ittatore

g allica d i V onwiller.

R . 1 971. R invenimenti g allici parmense. I n Oblatio, s tudi i n A . C alderini. C omo, 7 83-795.

6 5

G ropello

M ilano.

1 969. V eleia p reromano. I n A tti V eleiati. M ilano 1 967, 8 6-159.

C hiesa, G . 1 979. S cavi M ilano n ella n ecropoli

I n

P avia. C omo,

I n S tudi p art 1 ,

I II

C onvegno d i

i n

t erritorio memoria d i

d ell'Universitä d egli S tudi d i r omana d i A ngera. A cme 3 2 ( 1),

3 7-80. S imoni,

P . 1 972. R ipresa d ella s cavo n ella n ecropoli r omana d el ' Lugone' d i S älo ( Brescia). A nnali B enacensi 1 0, 3 1-130.

S ironi,

P .G. 1 952. S u alcuni r itrovamenti R assegna G allaratese 1 1, 3 -18.

S ommo,

G .

1 982.

V ercelli

d el

G allaratese.

e l a memoria d ell'antico.

V ercelli.

S ordi,

M . 1 976-77. L a l eggenda d i A runte C hiusino e l a p rima i nvasione g allica i n I talia. R ivista S torica d ell' Antichitä. ( Scritti i n memoria d i G . T ibiletti) 6 -7, 1 11-117.

S pizzi,

G .

S töckli,

W .E. 1 975. C hronologie T essim. B asel.

1 927.

M emorie

s toriche

d i

C astel

d er

L ambro.

Jüngen

P avia.

E isenzeit

im

S utermeister, G . 1 960a. I ndizio d i s epolture d i e poca r epublicana-romana a C anegrate. M emorie della S ocietä d i A rte e S toria d i L egnano 1 8, 1 2-14. Sutermeister, G . S .Lorenzo S toria d i T amassia, A .M. N otizie

1 960b. S epolture d el 2 , 3 , s ecolo ay. C r. a N erviano. M emorie d ella S ocietä d i A rte e L e _gnano 1 8, 9 -11.

1 970. M antova. S cavi 1 970, 1 6.

S cavi

i n

p iazza

P aradiso.

T izzoni,

M . 1 980a. L a s econda e ta d el F erro. C onvegno A rcheolgico R egionale. M ilano,

T izzoni,

M . 1 980b. L a G allia t ranspadana n el I I e n el I s ecolo a .C. I n A tti d el C olloguio I nternazionale P opoli e f acies culturali c eltiche a nord e a s ud d elle A lpi d al V a l I s ecolo a .C. M ilano ( printed 1 983), 1 39-146.

T izzoni,

M . 1 981a. L a cultura t ardo L a Tr ie S tudi A rcheologici 1 , B ergamo, 5 -38.

T izzoni,

M . V ito

T izzoni,

M . 1 982a. I materiali d ella t arda e ta d el F erro al C ivico Museo d i L ecco. R asse ra d i S tudi d el C ivic° Museo A rcheologico d el G abinetto Numismatic° d i M ilano 2 9-30, 4 3-57.

T izzoni,

M . 1 982b. L a A rchivio S torico

T izzoni,

M . 1 984. I materiali d ella t arda C iviche R accolte A rcheologiche d i

1 981b. T ombe d el ( Mantova). A nnali

i n

I n A tti d el 2 11-223.

L ombardia.

I s ecolo a .C. d a B agnolo B enacensi 7 , 5 5-71.

t arda e ta d el F erro nel L odigiano 1 01, 1 89-202.

6 6

e ta d el M ilano.

I

I n

S an

L odigiano.

F erro n elle R assegna d i

S tudi del C ivico Museo A rcheologico d el C ivico G abinetto N umismatico d i M ilano. supplemento 3 . T izzoni, a l

M . I n p ress. I materiali C ivico Museo d i B rescia.

F . 1 979. A spetti e p roblemi d ell'etä d i L a T äne antica e m edia t ra T icino e S esia. R assegna d i S tudi d el C ivico Museo A rcheologico e d el C ivico G abinetto Numismatico d i M ilano, 2 3-24.

U lrich,

R . 1 914. B ellinzona.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 977. L a n ecropoli d i C a'di M arco d i F iesse. R eggio

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 978a. L a cultura L a T äne i n L omellina. I n R itrovamenti a rcheologici n ella p rovincia d i P avia. C asteggio, 8 7-97.

V annacci

Lunazzi, G . 1 978b. Mostra a rcheologica d i V aleggio'. V igevano.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 980-81. S ibrium 1 5, 7 7-88.

V annacci

L unazzi, c ircostante

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 982. T omba d ella f ase media d ella cultura d i L a T äne d a G ambolö-Belcreda ( Pavia). I n S tudi i n o nore d i M . Bertolone. A ngera, 7 1-78.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 983. U n a spetto d ella r omanizzazione del t erritorio : l a n ecropoli d i G ambolö-Belcreda ( Pavia). R ivista A rcheologica d ell'Antica P rovincia e D iocesi d i C omo 1 65, 1 99-275.

V iale,

V . 1 971. V ercelli.

W iblä,

s ecolo

D ie G räberfelder Z ürich.

G . d alle

1 981. o rigini

V ercelli

R epertoire

N ote

e i l

S uisse

F . 1 983. L e T ämänos 6 ( 2), 5 7-67.

d i

X X.

F erro

T rucco,

1 960.

f ino a l

d el

G .

E .

L egnago

e ta

T recca,

V ogt,

1 900.

d ella tarda B rescia.

i n

L egnago.

d er

U mgebung

d i R emedello Emilia.

' la

p rotostoria

v on

S otto e

n ecropoli

v ercellese.

G ambolö e i i t erritorio a ll'etä romana. G ambolö.

V ercellese

nell'antichitä.

3 .

d e M artigny.

A rcheologia

S vizzera

S ummary A fter a n i ntroduction d ealing w ith t he chronology o f p eriod, t he Author explains t he main c haracteristics o f d ifferent phases o f L a T äne culture i n L ombardy.

6 7

t his t he

Then t he problem o f R omanization i s d iscussed a nd l astly, working f rom d istribution maps o f c ertain types of objects, d ifferent geographical areas are d istinguished: those i nhabited b y t he C eltic t ribes o f t he I nsuberes a nd o f the C enomanes and t hose i nhabited b y g roups of d ifferent o rigin ( for example Golasecchians, L igurians, R aetians) who s urvived to t he C eltic i nvasion a nd absorbed v arious cultural e lements o f L a Vene culture. R iassunto L ' Autore, dopo u n'introduzione r iguardante l a c ronologia d i questo periodo, espone b revemente l e p rincipali caratteristiche d elle d iverse f asi d ella cultura d i L a 71 1 . 1 e i n L ombardia. V iene quindi d iscusso i l problema d ella R omanizzazione ed i nfine, b asandosi sulle carte d i d istribuzione d i v an i t ipi d ' oggetti e dei r iti funerari, delimita alcune aree d ifferenziando t ra quelle abitate d alla t ribü c eltiche d egli I nsubri e d ei C enomani e l e a ltre abitate d a gruppi d i v aria o rigine ( ad es. G olasecchiani, L iguri e R eti) che, sopravvissuti a ll'invasione celtica, assorbirono d iversi e lementi d ella cultura d i L a T ne.

6 8

4 .

ASPETTI

DELLA CULTURA

G loria

TARDO

V annacci

L A

T r iNF

I N

LOMPLLINA

L unazzi

T ra i v an i g ruppi culturali d ella L ombardia n ella s econda e ta d el f erro ( De M arinis 1 977), u n ruolo particolarmente i mportante h a l a L omellina, s ituata i n provincia d i P avia, n ella p ianura t ra i f iumi T icino e S esia ( Landini 1 952, 3 33 4). Abbiamo testimonianze d alle fonti s toriche, n eu e quali s i parla d i L evi, d i M arici e d i L ibui, s ugli a ntichi abitanti d i questo territorio. L ivia ( V, 3 5, 2 ) d ice che, d opo i C enomani, i quali a rrivarono f ino a B rescia ed a V erona, sopraggiunsero I L ibui ed i S alluvii, che a ndarono ad i nsediarsi presso i L iguri L aevi: ' Libui considunt, post hos S alluviique, prope antiquam gentem L aevos L igures i ncolentes c irca T icinum amnem'. P linio, a sua volta, a fferma due cose: l a f ondazione d i V ercelli ad opera d ei L ibuiL ibici e l a f ondazione d i ' Ticinum' ( Pavia) ad opera d ei ' Laevi' e dei ' Marici' ( N.H., I II, 1 24): ' Vercellae L ibiciorum ex S alluis o rtae, Nouaria ex V ertamocoris L igurum, ex quibus L aevi e t M arici condidere T icinum, non p rocul a P ado'. I n un a ltro passo, L ivia ( XXI, 3 8, 7 ), u sa l 'espressione ' ad L ibuos G allas' ed ancora ( XXXVIII, 3 7, 6 ) s ostiene c he, n el 1 96 a .C., mentre l 'esercito romano operava n el territorio d ei L iguri, i B oi passarono i l P o e d evastarono i i paese d ei L aevi e d ei L ibui, r iconoscibile t ra i f iumi T icino e P o, precisamente a d occidente d el T icino e a nord d el Po. S embra, quindi, d i poter i ndividuare i n questo territorio due p resenze: quella dei L evi, che v engono considerati d ei L iguri e quella d ei L ibui, c he sono r itenuti d ei G alli. A nche i r itrovamenti a rcheologici v engono a d ar v alore a lle fonti: i i r ito f unebre della L omellina nella s econda e ta del f erro, i nfatti, ä l a c remazione e c iö v iene considerato u n i ndizio d ell'appartenenza d i questo t erritorio a ll' e thnos' l igure. R icardo, i nfatti, che l a c remazione ä i i r ito f unebre c aratteristico d i questa z ona a p artire d a un momenta d i passaggio t ra l a media e l a tarda e ta d el b ronzo ( Bronzo C /D d ella c ronologia c entroeuropea; f ase Garlasco-Scamozzina-Monza) ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 971; D e M arinis 1 972). S arebbe, quindi, questa o rigine l igure ad aver d eterminato l a continuitä d el r ito f unebre per t utta l a eta d el f erro. Come ä noto, gruppi l iguri abitavano a nche l 'Alessandrino e parte d ell'Appennino emiliano f ino a lle p rovincie d i P arma e R eggio Emilia, z one a nche queste n eu e quali persiste l a c remazione ( Poppi K ruta 1 983, 3 4-37). L a c remazione c aratterizza anche l a z ona collinare e montuosa compresa t ra i i L ago M aggiore e l a V alsassina ( abitata d a g enti d i d iscendenza golasecchiana); questo a d ifferenza d ella maggior parte degli altri t erritori che, n ella f ase a ntica e p er gran p arte d ella f ase media d ella cultura d i L a T äne, praticano l 'inumazione ( Tizzoni 1 981). D 'altra parte

6 9

1

5

4 F ig.

4 .1.

LT/B. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 : L a S forzesca d i T rucco 1 979). 5 : G ropello C airoli ( da V annacci L unazzi 1 975-80)

7 0

V igevano

( da

2

3

F ig. 4 .2. LT/C1. V annacci L unazzi

1 ; i n

2 ; 3 G arlasco - M adonna d elle B ozzole ( da s tampa); 4 ; 5 ; 6 G arlasco - M adonna d elle B ozzole ( Trucco 1 979).

7 1

non b isogna d imenticare che l a L ombardia occidentale, i i P iemonte, l a L iguria ed alcuni t ratti d ell'Appennino emiliano, costituiscono u n'area culturale d ifferente r ispetto al r esto d ell'Italia s ettentrionale, a partire d alla media eta d el b ronzo. U na v era e p ropria u nificazione s i a vrä solo con l a R omanizzazione ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 981b). L a

f ase

L T/B ä conosciuta

i n

L omellina

solo

a ttraverso

v ecchi e mal documentati r itrovamenti ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 975; T rucco 1 979), d ai quail emerge u n t ipo d i cultura che r isente, p er quanto r iguarda g li o ggetti d i ornamento e d i armamento ( spade, c atene porta-spada, cuspidi d i l ancia) d egli i nflussi t ransalpini ( Fig. 4 .1/1,4). L a c eramica, i nvece, presenta un'evoluzione d ei t ipi d i derivazione golasecchiana ( ad es. l e o lle a c orpo ovoide e p anciuto) ( Fig. 4 .1/2), accanto alle o lle a corpo p iriforme ( Fig. 4 .1/3) ed a lle b rocche a b ecco t ubolare ( Fig. 4 .2/4), c he r iproducono fogge t ipicamente c eltiche. I n questa f ase l a f unzione d i c inerario s embra v enga r icoperta r ispettivamente d alla o lla a corpo p iriforme ( Sforzesca) e d all'olla a corpo panciuto ( Cassolnovo). S trette a nalogie esistono con i materiali del C anton T icino ( Stöckli 1 975), z ona con l a quale l a L omellina ä s empre s tata i n d iretto contatto culturale, g razie all'arteria commerciale costituita d al f iume T icino, u tiliz zata f in d alla preistoria. L e caratteristiche del r ito f unebre n el Media LT i n L omellina, ( LT/C; 2 50-120 a .C.) s ono s tate r ecentemente evidenziate d alla T rucco ( Trucco 1 983), attraverso l 'analisi d ei corredi d i G arlasco-Madonna delle B ozzole ( Arslan 1 972). D elle t rentacinque tombe s cavate, i nfatti, quattordici avevano l e ceneri contenute i n u na c iotola, t re avevano due c iotole adibite a c inerario, i n s ette ( attribuibili a guerrieri) i r esti combusti e rano collocati i n un pozzetto s cavato s otto i l f ondo della b uca ed i i corredo metallico e ra posto s opra i r esti o ssei, i n quattro c asi, i nfine, ä i potizzabile l a f rantumazione r ituale d egli oggetti. A partire d a questo periodo, quindi, i i c inerario, quando ä presente, ä s empre costituito d a u na c iotola ( Fig. 4 . 2 /5 ) . U n'altra c aratteristica d ei periodi media e t ardo L a T äne, ä rappresentata d al corredo ceramico particolarmente abbondante. A ll'inizio d el I I s ec.a.C., i noltre, c ompare l 'oggetto c he puö e ssere considerato i l ' fossile guida' d ei s ecoli I I e I a .C. i n L ombardia: i l v aso a t rottola ( Fig. 4 .3). I l corredo ceramico b ase, costituito d a o lla, c iotola e c iotolina, ä o ra p resente con u n numero v ario d i e semplari per ogni t ipo, a i quali v iene ad a ggiungersi i i v aso a t rottola. N el LT/C l a t ipica f ibula ä quella i n f erro d i s chema media L T, con l 'arco munito d i uno o d i due g lobetti: l a sua f attura d iventa s empre meno massiccia ( Vannacci L unazzi, i n s tampa) ( Fig. 4 .2/1-3). Quasi t utte l e n ecropoli l omelline r icoprono u n l ungo a rco d i t empo; a d e sempio: G arlasco-Madonna d elle B ozzole ( dall'inizio d el I II s ec.a.C. a lla r omanizzazione, c he avviene, c ome p er t utto i i t erritorio, i n e ta augustea), V aleggio, G ambolö-Belcreda e

7 2

G ropello C airoli ( dal L T/C2 a lla romanizzazione) ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978; 1 981b; 1 983b), D orno ( dal LT/D1 a lla r omanizzazione). L a maggior concentrazione d i e sse s i h a l ungo i t errazzi f luviali d el T icino ( Cassolnovo, S forzesca d i V igevano, G ambolö-Belcreda, B orgo S an S iro, G arlascoMadonna d elle B ozzole, G ropello C airoli), mentre V aleggio e p orno s ono s ituate l ungo i i T erdoppio e L omello l ungo l ' Agogna. Queste t re u ltime l ocalitä, p erö, s ono c ollocate l ungo i i tracciato d ella S trada romana che d a P avia ( ' Ticinum') conduceva a lle G allie e c he s embra a bbia r icalcato u n'antica p ista g allica. P articolare i nteresse r iveste l 'origine e l 'evoluzione d el v aso a t rottola p roprio i n L omellina ( Fig. 4 .3) e l a d iffusione c he questo o ggetto h a avuto p er t utto l 'arco d el LT/D ( la s ua s parizione s i h a a ttorno a gli a nni 4 0-30 a .C., quando v iene s ostituito d all'olpe), i n s pecial modo n ei t erritori s ituati l ungo i l corso d el T icino e d ei s uoi a ffluenti, ma a nche n ella L ombardia i n g enerale, c on qualche s poradica apparizione n el V eneto e n ell'Emilia. I i v aso a t rottola v eniva u sato come r ecipiente contenitore d i v ino, come c i v iene a ttestato, ad e sempio, d all'iscrizione g raffita s ul noto e semplare d i O rnavasso, d ove v iene n ominato i l v ino d i N asso ( De S imone 1 978) e d all'iscrizione V INI posta s ulle s palle d el v aso a t rottola d ella t omba 2 03 d i V aleggio. I i t erreno l omellino, per l a s ua n atura s abbiosa, e ra p articolarmente a datto a lla c oltivazione d ella v ite: questa, quindi, p robabilmente, l a r agione d ella n ascita e d ella particolare d iffusione d el v aso a t rottola i n questo t erritorio. P linio ( II, 5 ) c i parla d egli e stesi v igneti c oltivati n ella z ona s ud-orientale d el P iemonte ( del quale g eograficamente l a L omellina f a parte), tanto c he, f in d a quei t empi, s i v erificava u na s ovrapproduzione d ei v ini c isalpini. U na i ndicazione p i üpuntuale d ella coltivazione d ella v ite, s i h a d al r itrovamento, a G ropello C airoli, d i u na s tatuina f ittile, d a u na t omba d i e ta augusteo t iberiana, r affigurante u n p ersonaggio ammantato ed i ncappucciato, r ecante u n f alcetto n ella mano d estra ed u n g rappolo d 'uva n ella s inistra ( Tozzi 1 983). C iö t estimonierebbe c he i n L omellina, i n e poca romana, c 'era l a v ite, coltura, d 'altra p arte, c he v iene a ncora menzionata c ome s pecializzata, a lmeno f ino a gli a nni ' 50, i n 2 7 comuni t ra l 'Agogna e i l T erdoppio ( Landini 1 952, 1 76-177). T racce d i coltivazione d ella v ite s ono a nche s tate r invenute a ll'interno d i u n'olpe i n u na t omba d i e ta a ugustea, s cavata i n questi u ltimi a nni a C assolnovo. S e, c ome d ice L ivio ( V, 3 3), ä s tate l 'abbondanza d el v ino e d elle messi che h a s pinto i G alli a v alicare l e A lpi e ad i nvadere l 'Italia, l a L omellina d eve e ssere s tata d a l oro g iudicata un t erritorio i doneo a lle aspettative: r itrovamenti d i e poca L a T äne, i nfatti, d ocumentano o gni f ase d i questa cultura e con p articolare i ntensitä l a f ase D . T ornando a l v aso a t rottola, e sso ä p resente i n u na t omba maschile d i G ropello C airoli ( LT/C2-D) con b en o tto

7 3

1

3

5

8

7 F ig.

4 .3.

CT/C2-D.

G roppello C airoli 1 983a).

7 4

( da

V annacci

L unazzi

1

4

8 ä l i m= =1 11 3

C : i

7 F ig.

4 .4.

CT/D.

1 ;

2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 : V aleggio, V aleggio, t omba 1 00.

7 5

tomba

2 07;

6 ;

7 ;

8 :

e semplari ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 983a) ( Fig. 4 .3), mentre abbas tanza comune ä l a d ocumentazione d i t re quattro e semplari i n corredi, comunque, che d enotino l 'appartenenza d el d efunto ad u no s tato s ociale e levato ( Fig. 4 .6/1,3,5). P asso o ra a puntualizzare l e v an e c aratteristiche d ella cultura t ardo L a T äne ( 120-25 a .C.). S e G arlasco-Madonna d elle B ozzole puö e ssere considerata l a n ecropoli b ase p er l a conoscenza d el medio L a T äne, l a f ase t arda ä e semplificata i n t utti i s uoi passaggi d alla n ecropoli d i V aleggio-Cascina T essera ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978) e d a quella d i G ambolö-Belcreda ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 983b). 1 1 LT/D ä o ra d istinguibile i n due momenti: LT/D1 ( 120-70 a .C.); LT/D2 ( 70/-25 a .C.). L a n ecropoli d i V aleggio ä c omposta d a 2 07 t ombe, s cavate n egli a nni 1 976-77, che coprono u n a rco d i t empo che v a d al LT/C2 a i F lavi. I l materiale p roviene d a s ei s ettori d i s cavo. I i s esto s ettore ä quello che presenta i i materiale p iü a ntico ed h a l e s eguenti v arieta d i s trutture f unerarie. 1 ) T ombe s u d ue l ivelli ( ad e s. tomba 2 07 del L T/D) con c iotola c ineraria posta s ul f ondo d i u na b uca e contenente, o ltre a i r esti c remati, g li oggetti d i o rnamento ( Fig. 4 .4/1-5). E ' u n p roseguimento d el r ito documentato a G arlasco n el L T/C2 ed ä a ttestato i n a lmeno s ette c asi negli s cavi a ttualmente i n corso a D orno i n t ombe d ella p rima fase d el LT/D. 2 ) T ombe con c orredo post° i n u na f ossa i n nuda t erra, a llungato i n s enso o rizzontale r ispetto a lla m acchia c arboniosa. L e f ibule e g li eventuali o ggetti d i o rnamento s ono c ontenuti n ella c iotola c ineraria ( ad e s. t omba 1 26) ( Plate 4 .1) ( Fig. 4 .5/1-5); t alvolta l a c iotola c ineraria manca ed i r esti c ombusti s ono collocati i n u n p ozzetto s cavato n ella t erra. 3 ) V erso i l 7 0-50 a .C. cominciano a d apparire l e p rime s trutture costruttive t ombali r omane, r appresentate d a c assette r ettangolari f ormate d a t egoloni ( ad e s. t omba 1 00) ( Plate 4 .2). 4 ) T ombe costituite d a macchie c arboniose d i f orma r ettangolare, con corredo posto r iunito i n u n pozzetto adiacente ad u n a ngolo d ella m acchia ( LT/D2) ( ad e s. t omba 1 55). T alvolta i i corredo ä r idotto a pochissimi o ggetti. 5 ) U na t omba s ola d i i numato ( tomba 1 71). I l corredo ä composto d a u n b raccialetto i n b ronzo e d a due a nelli a gomito i n b ronzo, u no d ei quali ä p iccolissimo. F orse s i t ratta d ella tomba d i u n b ambino. N ell'ambito d ella cultura L T, i n t utta l a L omellina, s ono documentati s olo due a ltri c asi d i i numati, a G ropello C airoli-S. S pirit°, d eposti r ispetti-vamente c on u na f ibula i n f erro d i t ipologia LT/D2, collocata s u e ntrambe l e s palle. C ome g iä detto p er i l medio L T, i l c inerario c aratteri stico a nche p er i l t ardo L T ä l a c iotola: accanto alla evoluzione d elle t ipologie p recedenti, compare l a c iotola c arenata b iansata, c he s embra, per i l momento, l imitata a questo t erritorio t ra S esia e T icino ( Fig. 4 .5/5). V ediamo come, a ttraverso l a considerazione d egli e lementi d i corredo d i a lcune t ombe t ipiche d ella n ecropoli d i V aleggio, s ia possibile s eguire i l g raduale p rocesso d i romanizzazione nel c orso d el L T/D.

7 6

P late

P late

4 .1.

4 .2.

V aleggio

V aleggio

t omba

t omba

7 7

1 26

1 00

( T/D1).

( T/D2).

L a tomba 1 26 ( LT/D1) p resenta, t ra i reperti c he c aratter izzano l a p rima f ase d el t ardo L T, d ue v asi a t rottola ed u n coltello i n f erro ( Plate 4 .1). L e f ibule, i n b ronzo, sono due, u na d i t ipo ' Pavese' ( che e u na v ariante t arda d i quella d i s chema medio LT) ed u na d i s chema media L T; l a a rmilla e d el t ipo a f ascetta, i n l amina d i b ronzo a c api aperti ,, con d ecorazione a c erchiolini impressi ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978). S ia l a f ibula ' Pavese' ( Fig. 4 .4/7) c he l 'armilla d ecorata i n l amina d i b ronzo ( Fig. 4 .4/1) sono o ggetti c he, ancora u na v olta, c i r iconducono a ll'ambiente l igure come z ona d i confronto. L a f ibula, i nfatti, contraddistingue, oltre c he l a p rovincia d i P avia, a nche quelle d i V ercelli e d i A lessandria ( Barocelli 1 923). L 'armilla, a sua volta, t rova puntuali confronti n eu e provincie d i V ercelli ( Quinto V ercellese, R ovasenda, C aresana, B orgosesia, Montalto D ora) e d i Cuneo; o ltralpe v e n e sono a l Mus e d ' Art e t d ' Histoire d i G inevra ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 980-81). Considerando c he l e l ocalitä l omelline n elle quail e emerso questo t ipo d i reperto ( Valeggio, G ropello C airoli, D orno e G ambolö) s i t rovano tutte ( fatta eccezione per G ambolö che e s ulla v ia costiera d el T icino) l ungo i i t racciato d ell' Antica S trada P avese', c ioe l ungo l a v ia che portava d a u n l ato a T orino, d all'altro a d A osta e , quindi, a lle G allie, appare c hiaro come s i s ia svolta l a penetrazione i n I talia d i quest'armilla. E sse non sono documentate prima d el LT/D1, mentre, i n a lmeno u n c aso, compaiono i n tombe con o lpe ( ad e s. a V aleggio, tomba 1 04). Tornando a lle f ibule, u n'altra f ibula c he, n ella n ecropoli d i V aleggio, c i r iconduce a ll'ambiente l igure, e l a f ibula a corpo f ogliato d ella t omba 2 07 ( LT/D1) ( Fig. 4 .4/4). A nche essa ä presente, con v an i e semplari i dentici, nel Museo d i Tortona ( Prov. d i A lessandria); l a t ipologia, i nvece, r icopre tutto l 'ambiente l igure ( Ambrosetti 1 975; P oppi K ruta 1 983). I i menzionato coltello d ella tomba 1 26, s i presta a d alcune considerazioni sulla p resenza d elle a rmi n ei corredi l omellini. N el L T/D non sono d ocumentate spade. T roviamo u n buon numero d i s pade, i nfatti, s olo n eu e n ecropoli piü a ntiche ( Sforzesca d i V igevano e G arlasco Madonna delle B ozzole), u na s pada a V aleggio ( tomba 1 89; LT/C2) ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 981b), spade sporadiche i n contesti non d atabili e s empre, comunque, u na p er l ocalitä, a G ambolö-Belcreda, a V igevano-Monte O liveto, a S annazzaro-Val C ardinala ( LT/C2) e a P ieve d el C airo. L e due importanti n ecropoli d i G ropello Cairoli e d i D orno non h anno r estituito spade. Tutte, i nvece, h anno i n comune l a s eguente c aratteristica: mentre n el LT/D1 sono a ncora presenti tombe con coltelli, p iü o meno a ssociati a cuspidi d i l ancia, c esoie, r asoi, n ella s econda metä d el s ecolo r estano solo c esoie e rasoio, o solo cesoie. S empre n ella tomba 1 26, t ra l a c eramica a v ernice n era d i i mitazione c ampana, c he comincia d a questo momenta a d e ssere p iuttosto abbondante nei corredi f unebri, a nnoveriamo l e f orme 3 , 2 8, v ariante 2 8 ( Morel 2 614) e 3 6 ( Lamboglia

7 8

6

7

F ig.

4 .5.

8

L T/D.

1 ;

2 ; 9 :

9

3 ; 4 ; 5 : G ambolö,

7 9

V aleggio, t omba 2 3.

t omba

1 26;

6 ;

7 ;

8 ;

1

7

9 F ig.

4 .6.

LT/D G ambol ,

t omba

i z a r= sd in i am r= 1

2 1

8 0

( da

V anacci

L unazzi

1 983b).

1 952; Morel 1 981) ( Fig. 4 .5/1, 3 , 4 ). L a coppa v ariante d ella f orma 2 8 ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978, F ig. 1 8) ä t ra l e piü a ntiche d ocumentate n ella n ecropoli. Numerose, i n t utte l e n ecropoli l omelline, l e f orme d ella c eramica d i i mitazione c ampana, con o senza v ernice n era, f ino ad eta a ugusteot iberiana, tanto c he s i ä s pinti a r itenere c he u na o p iü f abbriche operassero i n L omellina, a partire a lmeno d al LT/D2. I i c inerario ä costituito d alla c iotola c arenata b iansata ( Fig. 4 .5/5); l e a ltre f orme c eramiche consistono n eu e consuete c iotole, c iotoline, o lle e o llette d i f oggia v aria. O n colino ( Fig. 4 .5/2), documentato i n a ltre t re tombe, conferma i l t ipo d i s tanziamento a c arattere a gricolo e p astorale d i questa gente. L e fonti, i nfatti, o ltre che d ella coltivazione d ella v ite, c i parlano d ella r icca p roduzione d i p rodotti a gricoli d ella C isalpina ( Polibio, I I, 1 5; S trabone, V , 1 , 7 ) e a ccennano a ll'abbondanza delle ghiande r icavate d alle selve, tale d a consentire l 'allevamento d i molti maiali. S icuramente i n L omellina S i p roduceva anche i l l ino. P linio, a proposito, r icorda i c elebri l ini d ella r egione ' Alliana', p rodotti ' inter P adum T icinumque' ( XIX, 1 , 2 , 9 ) g iudicati i t erzi per b ontä i n Europa. I C elti, quindi, c essato i i periodo d i l otte per l a conquista d el t erritorio, dopo e ssersi s tanziati i n pianure p articolarmente f ertili, s i t ramutano i n p aciffici a gricoltori: t ali l i t roviamo i n L omellina, a lmeno p er tutto i l LT/D. L a s econda f ase d el L T/D ä b en r appresentata d alla tomba 1 00 d i V aleggio. L a s truttura costruttiva t ombale ä o rmai t ipicamente romana, essendo costituita d a una c assetta r ettangolare d i t egoloni ( Plate 4 .2). T ra g li e lementi d i corredo non t roviamo p iü i i v aso a t rottola, ma l 'olpe; gran p arte d elle c iotoline e delle o llette presenta l a caratteristica d ecorazione a motivi geometrici, o ttenuti con r ozze impressioni o i ncisioni. E ntro l a c iotola c ineraria, che ä a nche i n questo c aso c arenata e b iansata, a ccanto a lla p ersistenza d elle f ibule ' Pavesi' ( Fig. 4 .4/7) e d ei b raccialetti i n l amina d i b ronzo, compare l a f ibula d i t ipo ' Cenisola' ( Fig. 4 .4/6), t ipica d el L T/D2 ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978, F ig. 1 4). U n'altra i nteressante tomba per l a d ocumentazione d el LT/D2 ä l a 1 55 d i V aleggio. N el corredo, c he era posto i n u na b uca n ell'angolo nord d ella macchia carboniosa, e c he g iudichiamo f emminile, avendo s ei f usarole, possiamo notare, come e lementi t ipici d i questa f ase, un'olpe a corpo g lobulare, due f ibule ' Pavesi', u na f ibula d i t ipo A lmgren 6 5, una S chüsselfibeln, ecc. I n due t ipiche tombe maschili, i nfine, come l a 1 39 e l a 1 40, f ormate d a cassette r ettangolari d i t egoloni, abbiamo l e s eguenti c aratteristiche. L a t omba 1 40 p resenta l a doppia d isposizione d ei resti combusti ( riallacciandosi a d u n r ituale d el medio L T a Garlasco); n el s ettore nord d ella t omba, al d i s opra d i u n mucchietto d i r esti c remati, sono s tati posti u na moneta ( asse r epubblicano), l e cesoie ed i l r asoio: v erso s ud ä s tata collocata l a c iotola c ineraria con u n'altra moneta; t ra l a c eramica, anche i n questo caso ä p resente u n'olpe a

8 1

2

1

4

3

T 1 6 7

5

I m e=m ed ic l im= i

9

1 3 F ig.

4 .7.

L T/D.

G ambolö,

t omba 1 983b).

8 2

2 1.

( da

V anacci

L unazzi

corpo g lobulare, l a f ibula i n b ronzo ä u na d el t ipo N anheim ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 978, F ig.

v ariante 1 9-22).

tarda

Nella t omba 1 39, che è a ffiancata alla precedente, l e c esoie ed i i r asoio sono s tati posti s opra l a c iotola c ineraria. F ' d ocumentata i n questa tomba l a p iü antica l ucerna d ella n ecropoli; l a c eramica a v ernice n era d i i mitazione campana presente, r ientra n ella categoria con d isco d i i mpilamento rosso, c he contraddistingue l e tombe d ella f ine d el L T/D2 e dell'etä augusteo-tiberiana. L a forma m aggiormente documentata ä l a L amboglia 5 ( Morel 2 254-22832 284). S i t ratta, evidentemente, d i due p ersonaggi d i s esso m aschile, d i a lto r ango, s epolti a ffiancati, negli a nni c he p recedono i mmediatamente l 'affermarsi dell'impero a ugusteo: 4 0-25 a .C. D opo questo momenta, n ei corredi tombali v ediamo g radualmente comparire, con s empre maggior f requenza, p rodotti t ipici d elle o fficine r omane. U n'altra necropoli che permette d i s eguire i l graduale p rocesso d i romanizzazione n el corso d el LT/D, ä l a n ecropoli d i G ambolö-Belcreda ( Vannacci L unazzi 1 983b): ä composta d a quarantuno t ombe, c he s i s calano t ra i l LT/D1 e l 'etä augustea. L a tomba 2 1, che s embra e ssere l a p iü antica e , a g iudicare d alla quantitä degli o ggetti posti a corredo, quella del p ersonaggio p iü autorevole, p resenta t re e semplari d i v aso a t rottola ( Figs. 4 .6; 4 .7). I r eperti i n f erro s ono: u n coltello ( Fig. 4 .6/9), uno s perone ( Fig. 4 .7/14) ed u n a nello f rammentario con castone ovale ( Fig. 4 .7/10) t ra l e f ibule i n b ronzo, due r ientrano n ello s chema medio L T ( Fig. 4 .7/9/12) ed u na è u na f ibula ' Pavese' f rammentaria. I nteressanti i due b ottoni i n b ronzo ( Fig. 4 .7/11) N otiamo, quindi, a ncora l a p resenza d i v asi a t rottola e d el c oltello, i n questa tomba maschile i nquadrabile nel L T/D1. A nche i n questa n ecropoli, nelle t ombe d el L T/D2, s pariscono i coltelli e r imangono, eventualmente, solo l e cesoie ed i i r asoio. T ra l e f ibule d i questa s econda f ase, v i ä d ocumentazione d i S chüsselfibeln, A lmgren 6 5, N auheim tardo e d i f ibule i n f erro con s taffe t rapezoidali o t riangolari e c orda della molla i nterna. U na t ipica r appresentante d el L T/D2 ä l a t omba 2 3, f emminile, n ella quale, o ltre ad u na i nteressante a ssociazione d i f ibule ( Fig. 4 .5/6-9), abbiamo t re patere i n c eramica a v ernice n era d i f orma L amboglia 5 , u na delle quali ä d ecorata con l 'impressione d i u na gemma c he r appresenta u na f igura f emminile. S ono o rmai C elti i n v ia d i r omanizzazione, come v iene d ocumentato soprattutto d alla tomba 1 2, c he r eca i nciso s ulla c iotola c ineraria i i n ome d i V INDONIDTUS; g li elementi d i corredo sono tutti t ipici d ella cultura t ardo c eltica, mentre l a s truttura d ella tomba, a t egoloni, ä chiaramente d i i nfluenza r omana. D i

eta

c hiaramente

augustea

ä ,

i nvece,

l a

t omba

9 ,

c he

ä

l a p iü r ecente; i n e ssa, oltre a lla s truttura costruttiva t ombale o rmai t ipicamente romana i talica ( rappresentata d a d eposizione entro due mezze a nfore s egate e t ra l oro i ncastrate), abbiamo o rmai tutti g li e lementi d i corredo r omani: l a l ucerna, i l b alsamario i n v etro, l 'olpe, ecc.

8 3

Con A ugusto g iungiamo a l momento, quindi, i n cui anche questo t erritorio p resenta u na cultura u nificata a quella c he c aratterizza l a c iviltä r omana, a nche s e e lementi d i s ostrato t endono a s opravvivere n el r ito f unebre ed i n a lcune t ipologie c eramiche.

B ibliografia Ambrosetti, G . 1 975. V illa B aroni d i R oncolo e B osco C ernieto. P reistoria e P rotostoria d el R eggiano. R eggio n ell' Emilia, C ivici Musei e G allerie, 1 07-108. A rslan,

E . 1 972. E lementi p er u na c lassificazione d ella c eramica p reromana a G arlasco. C onvegno d i A rcheologia e S toria n ella P adana a V arenna. Como, 1 23-155.

t ipologica A tti d el L ombardia

B arocelli, P . 1 923. D i a lcuni oggetti p reromani e g allor omani d el T ortonese e d ell'Alessandrino. B ollettino S ocietä P iemontese A rcheologia e B elle A rti 7 , 3 -4; 7 4-76. D e

M arinis, R . 1 972. N uovi d ati d el B ronzo n ell'Italia A lpina 8 , 7 3-105.

s ulle spade d ella t arda e ta S ettentrionale. P reistoria

D e

M arinis, R . G auls. B rezice.

1 977. T he L a T ene C ulture o f t he C isalpine K eltske S tudije. B rezice, P osayski Muzej K njiga 4 , 2 6-27.

D e

S imone, C . 1 978. I G alli i n I talia: l inguistiche. I G alli e l 'Italia. R oma, 2 66-267.

testimonianze D e L uca Ed,

L amboglia, N . 1 952. P er u na c lassificazione preliminare d ella c eramica c ampana. A tti d el I C onvegno d i S tudi L iguri. B ordighera, 1 39-206. L andini,

Morel, Poppi

P . 1 952. S ignorelli.

J .P.

1 981.

L a

L omellina,

Cdramique

p rofilo g eografico.

c ampanidnne.

L es

f ormes.

Roma,

P aris.

K ruta, L . 1 983. G ruppi d i cultura l ateniana i n E miliaR omagna. P opoli e f ad es culturali c eltiche a n ord e a s ud d elle A lpi. A tti d el C olloquio I nternazionale. M ilano 1 4-16 novembro 1 980. C omune d i M ilano I , 3 43 7.

S to kli,

W .E. 1 975. C hronologie d er j üngeren E isenzeit T essin. B asel, S chweizerischen G esellschaft f ür u nd F rühgeschichte.

8 4

i m U r-

T izzoni,

M . 1 981. L a s econda e ta d el f erro. A rcheologico R egionale. M ilano 1 980. A rcheologico C avriana, 2 11-223.

T ozzi,

P .L. 1 983. L a v iticoltura nella L omellina i n e ta r omana. B ollettino S ocietä P avese S toria P atria n .s. 3 5, 3 83-384.

T rucco,

F . 1 979. A spetti e p roblemi d ell'etä d i L a T ene a ntica e media t ra T icino e S esia. N otizie d al C hiostro d el Monastero M aggiore 2 3-24, ( 1-68) Tavv. 1 -39.

T rucco,

F . 1 983. C orredi f unebri d ei g ruppi L a T ene i n V al P adana n el I V e I II s ec.a.C. P opoli e f acies culturali a ntichi a n ord e a s ud d elle A lpi. A tti d el C olloquio I nternazionale M ilano 1 4-16 novembre 1 980. C omune d i M ilano I , 5 9-73.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 971. N ecropoli d ella media e t arda e ta d el b ronzo n ella L ombardia occidentale. Oblatio. R accolta d i s tudi i n o nore d i A . C alderini. C omo, S ocietä A rcheologica C omense, 7 08-742.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 975. L a n ecropoli p reromana d i G iovanni D oria d i L omello. C ontributi d ell'Ist. A rcheologia d ell'Universitä C attolica d i M ilano. 1 1-28.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 975-80. L 'abitato p rotostorico d i G ropello C airoli, l ocalitä S . S pirito ( Pavia). B ullettino d i P aletnologia I taliana 8 2, 3 43,9.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 978. L a n ecropoli d i V aleggio. d ella mostra. V igevano, V ä-lvassori.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 980-81. S ibrium 1 5, 7 7-88.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 981a. L a r icerca a rcheologica i n L omellina. A tti I C onvegno A rcheologico R egionale M ilano 1 980. B rescia, Museo A rcheologico C avriana, 4 85-517.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 981b. A spetti d ella L omellina s ec.a.C. B ollettino d ella S ocietä P avese d i P atria, n .s. 3 3, 2 65-280.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 983a. I ntervento s ulla r elazione d i M . T izzoni. P opoli e f acies culturali c eltiche a n ord e a s ud d elle A lpi. A tti d el C olloquio I nternazionale. M ilano 1 4-16 novembre 1 980. C omune d i M ilano, 1 781 80.

V annacci

L unazzi, G . 1 983b. U n a spetto d ella r omanizzazione d el t erritorio: l a n ecropolo d i G ambolö-Belcreda ( Pavia). R ivista a rcheologica C omense. 1 65, 1 99-275.

N ote

8 5

d i

A tti I C onvegno B rescia, Museo

p rotostoria

S . d i 5 ,

C atalogo

V ercellese.

n el I I S toria

V annacci

L unazzi, G . G arlasco-Madonna

i n s tampa. T ombe protostoriche d elle B ozzole. S ibrium 1 7.

a

S ummary Among t he d ifferent c ultural a reas o f t he s econd p eriod o f t he I ron A ge i n L ombardy, t he L omellina, s ituated o n t he p lain b etween t he T icino a nd S esia r ivers, p lays a p articularly important r ole. F rom h istorical sources i t appears possible to r ecognise i n t his t erritory two e thnic e ntities: t hat o f t he L evi, w ho a re c onsidered L igurians, a nd t hat o f t he L ibui who a re t hought t o h ave b een C elts. T he b urial r ite f or t he whole I ron A ge i n t he a rea was c remation; a p henomenon common t o t he w hole L igurian e thnic a rea. T he e arly period o f t he L a T ne culture b esides b eing c haracterised b y t ransalpine i nfluence ( swords, b aldrics, p iriform j ars, f lagons w ith t ubular s pouts) also h as a ceramic t radition b ased o n G olaseccan p rototypes. C lose a nalogies exist w ith material f rom Canton T icino, a n a rea l inked w ith L omellina b y t he T icino r iver, a n i mportant l ine o f communication. A c haracteristic f eature o f t he b urial r ite i n m iddle L a i nne, e xemplified b y f inds f rom G arlasco - Madonna d elle B ozzole, i s t he exclusive u se of a pot a s a container o f c remated b ones, whenever a container i s u sed. I n t he c ase o f s even t ombs a ttributed to warriors, o n t he o ther h and, t he c remated r emains were i n a small h ole a t t he b ottom o f a l arger p it a nd m etal g rave goods were p laced above t his. T he pottery g rave goods s tart a t t his point o f t ime to b e p articularly abundant. A lmost a ll t he c emeteries o f t he L omellina cover a l ong p eriod o f t ime ( from L T/C1 o r L T/C2 to t he period o f r omanization); t he main concentration i s to b e f ound a long t he t erraces o f t he T icino, o r a long t he a ncient ' Strado P avese', t he r oad t hat l ed f rom P avia ( Ticinum) t o G aul. A t t he b eginning o f t he 2 nd c entury b .c. the p eg-top f lask a ppears ( vaso a t rottola), o riginating i n t he L omellina a nd f rom h ere d iffused b y t he T icino r oute: i t d isappears c . 4 0-30 b .c., when i t i s r eplaced b y t he f lagon. T he p articular concentration o f t hese t ypes i n t he L omellina s eems to b e a ssociated w ith t he cultivation o f v ines. A griculture i n general was a lso f lourishing. T he c haracteristics o f t he l ate L T culture ( 120-25 b .c.) emerges c learly f rom a n e xamination o f t he two c emeteries: V aleggio-Cascina T essera a nd G ambolo-Belcreda. L T D , i n addition, i s i dentifiable a t two d istinct moments o f t ime: L T D 1 ( 120-70 b .c.); a nd L T D 2 ( 70-25 b .c.). T h2 b urial r ite during L T D 1 r epresents a nd evolution f rom t he p receding

8 6

phase. T owards 7 0/50 b .c., o n t he o ther h and, t he f irst b uilt R oman t ombs a ppear, r epresented b y r ectangular c ists made w ith t egulae. A t V aleggio t here i s a n i solated e xample o f a n i nhumation ( tomb 1 71), s ome objects c an c learly b e c ompared o nly w ith i tems f rom L igurian contexts: t he ' Pavian' type f ibula ( which i s a l ate v ariant o f h e m iddle L T type), the f ibula w ith l eaf-shaped b ow a nd b racelet o f s heet b ronze w ith s mall c ircle d ecoaration. I n L T D 2, on t he o ther h and, l ate N auheim, C enisola, A lmgren 6 5, ' Schüsselfibeln' f ibulae appear a long w ith e xamples i n i ron w ith a t riangular o r t rapezoidal b ow a nd i nternal s pring w ire. I n L T D no s words a re r ecorded. A lso, while i n L T D 1 k nives a re s till p resent, u sually a ssociated w ith s pear h eads, s hears, a nd r azors; during t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury o nly s hears a nd r azors, o r s hears a lone r emain. A t t his t ime among t he g rave goods b lack g loss pottery, i mitating C ampanian w are, b ecomes r elatively common ( Lamboglia f orms 3 , 5 , 7 , 2 8 a nd 3 6). Typical a s f unerary u rns a re t he c arinated b owl ( often twoh andled), o r o ne w ith a n i ncurving r im. D ecoration i s r epresented b y o nly c rude g eometric i ncisions o n pots a nd b owls, a nd b y p ainted b ands o n s ome o f t he peg-top f lasks ( vasi a t rottola). A t t he t ime o f A ugustus t his t erritory takes u nified cultural appearance c haracteristic o f c ivilization.

o n

the R oman

R iassunto T ra i v an i g ruppi culturali d ella L ombardia nella s econda e ta d el f erro u n ruolo particolarmente i mportante l o h a l a L omellina, s ituata i n p rovincia d i P avia, nella p ianura t ra i f iumi T icino e S esia. D alle t estimonianze d elle f onti s toriche, s embra d i poter i ndividuare i n questo t erritorio due p resenze e tniche: quella d ei L evi, c he v engono considerati d ei L iguri e quella d ei L ibui, che s ono r itenuti d ei G alli. I l r ito f unebre p er t utta l 'etä d el f erro ä l a c remazione: questa c aratteristica ä comune a t utto 1 "ethnos' l igure. L a f ase a ntica d ella cultura d i LT presenta, a ccanto ad e lementi d i i nfluenza t ransalpina ( spade, c atene porta-spade, o lle a c orpo p iriforme, b rocche a b ecco t ubolare), u n'evoluzione d i t ipi c eramici d i d erivazione g olasecchiana. S trette a nalogie e sistono con i materiali d el C anton T icino, z ona con l a quale l a L omellina ä c ollegata a ttraverso l 'arteria commerciale costituita d al f iume T icino. L e c aratteristiche d el r ito f unebre n el medio L T, a ttraverso l 'analisi d el materiale d i G arlasco-Madonna d elle B ozzole, f anno emergere c he l a f unzione d el c inerario, quando e sso ä p resente, ä s empre e ffettuata d a u na c iotola. N el c aso d i s ette tombe a ttribuibili a guerrieri, i nvece, i r esti combusti e rano c ollocati i n u n pozzetto s cavato s ul f ondo d i u na b uca ed i l c orredo metallic° e ra posto a l d i s opra.

8 7

I i corredo c eramico i nizia, d a questo moment°, a d e ssere p articolarmente a bbondante. Quasi t utte l e n ecropoli l omelline r icoprono u n l ungo a rco d i t empo ( dal L T/C1, o d al L T/C2, a lla r omanizzazione); l a maggior concentrazione l o s i h a l ungo i t errazzi d el T icino, o l ungo l 'Antica ' Strada P avese', l a v ia c he d a P avia ("Picinum 1 ) conduceva a lle G allie. A ll'inizio d el I I s ec. a .C. compare i l v aso a t rottola, o riginario d ella L omellina e d a qui d iffusosi a ttraverso l 'arteria d el T icino: e sso s parisce a ttorno a gli a nni 4 0-30 a .C., quando v iene s ostituito d all'olpe. L a p articolare concentrazione d i t ipi, i n L omellina, s embra l egata a lla coltivazione d ella v ite. F lorida e ra, c omunque, l 'agricoltura i n g enerale. L e c aratteristiche d ella cultura t ardo L T ( 120-25 a .C.) emergono c hiaramente a ttraverso l a considerazione d i d ue n ecropoli: V aleggio-Cascina T essera e G ambolö-Belcreda. I i L T/D, i noltre, ä d istinguibile i n due momenti: LT/D1 ( 120-70 a .C.); LT/D2 ( 70-25 a .C.). I i r ito f unebre d el L T/D1 ä u na evoluzione d i quello d ella f ase p recedente. V erso i l 7 0/50 a .C., i nvece, cominciano ad apparire l e p rime s trutture c ostruttive t ombali r omane, r appresentate d a c assette r ettangolari f ormate d a t egoloni. A V aleggio c 'ä u n i solato c aso d i i numato ( tomba 1 71). A lcuni o ggetti t rovano a ncora u n puntuale confronto s olo i n ambiente l igure: l a f ibula d i t ipo ' Pavese' ( che ä u na v ariante t arda d ella f ibula d i s chema medio L T), l a f ibula a corpo f ogliato ed i i b raccialetto i n l amina d i b ronzo c on d ecorazione a c erchiolini. N el L T/D2, i nvece, c ompaiono l e f ibule i n b ronzo d i t ipo Nauheim t ardo, C enisola, A lmgren 6 5, S chüßelfibeln ed i n f erro con s taffa triangolare o t rapezoidale e corda d ella molla i nterna. N el L T/D non s ono documentate s pade. I noltre, mentre n el L T/D1 s ono a ncora p resenti i coltelli, p iü o meno a ssociati a cuspidi d i l ancia, c esoie, r asoi, n ella s econda metä d el s ecolo r estano s olo c esoie e r asoi, o s olo c esoie. C omincia d a questo momento ad e ssere p iuttosto abbondante n ei corredi f unebri l a c eramica a v ernice n era d i imitazione c ampana ( forme L amboglia 3 , 5 , 7 , 2 8, 3 6). T ipiche come c inerario s ono l a c iotola c arenata ( spesso b iansata), o quella ad o rbo r ientrante. L e d ecorazioni s ono r appresentate s olo d a r ozze i ncisioni g eometriche s u o lle e c iotole, e d a f asce d ipinte s u a lcuni v asi a t rottola. C on c ultura r omana.

l 'etä d i A ugusta a nche questo t erritorio p resenta u na u nificata a quella c he c aratterizza l a c iviltä

8 8

5 .

MAGNA GRAECIA BEFORE

TOWARDS

R uth

T HE GREEKS:

A R ECONCILIATION OF T HE

D .

W hitehouse

a nd J ohn

B .

EVIDENCE.

W ilkins

A rchaeological evidence f or t he p re-Greek populations o f S outhern I taly a nd S icily i s now f airly p lentiful. I t i s n ot, however, o ur o nly s ource o f i nformation. C ommonly s cholarship h as m ade u se o f two o ther s ources: t he f irst, which we may l oosely c all l inguistic, consists o f epigraphical material a nd a k ind of ' toponomastic g lottology'; t he s econd i s m ade u p o f r eferences a nd t reatments t o b e f ound i n t he work o f s everal G reek a nd L atin authors. A t f irst s ight common s ense would s ugest t hat we should combine t hese t hree i nto a composite p icture o f t he p re-Greek world. R egrettably t his combinatory r esearch h as on occasion s hown i tself to b e u ndisciplined, p lainly i ll-informed, o r downright c apricious. T his f ailure a rises f rom two c auses. T he f irst i s t he b izarre d emarcation t hat h as g rown u p b etween the v arying d isciplines i nvolved. S ocial a nd educational pressures, notably during t he n ineteenth a nd early twentieth centuries, h ave p roduced i solated c amps o f c lassicists o n t he o ne s ide, a nd ' dirt' a rchaeologists o n t he o ther. T he c lassicists s ubdivide f urther i nto l iterary c ritics, h istorians, p hilosophers, a rt h istorians a nd philologists ( in t he E nglish s ense o f e xpert manipulators o f t he a rcane e quations of I ndo-European e tymology). Communication b etween t hese f actions i s minimal. T he c lassicists m ight, h owever, u nite t o c ast doubts u pon t he l iteracy o f t he a rchaeological c amp, whose members a re a t b est t o b e s een a s a rtisan f ieldworkers. T he a rchaeologists, contrariwise, m ight r egard t he c lassicists a s b lanched b ookworms, whose burial i n t he past i s b oth personal a nd l iteral - and w ho wouldn't r ecognise a good f loor surface i f t hey s aw o ne. U nfortunately t he i ssues r aised b y t his a rticle l ie i n a n o-man's l and b etween, where a f ew i ntrepid c amp t raders continually d odge t he c rossfire. T he s econd r eason f or t he f ailure o f t his combinatory e ffort r esides i n t he u nequal a nd h eterogeneous n ature o f t he evidence i tself. S ince we are powerless to h eal t he s cholarly s chisms, t his a rticle w ill i nstead a ttempt to t idy up t he p roblems a ssociated w ith t he evidence. W e s hall consider f irst t he l inguistic material ( A); t hen t he l iterary s ources ( B); a nd f inally t he problems i nvolved i n combining t he l iterary w ith t he a rchaeological sources ( C). A .

T he T he

L inguistic evidence

S ources s ubdivides

i nto two:

8 9

f irst

epigraphical,

v iz. i nscriptions s econdly o nomastic p lace n ames, a nd

i n l ocal l anguage o r d ialect ( 1); a nd t oponomastic, v iz, l ocal personal a rguments b ased t hereon ( 2).

a nd a nd

A .1.

E pigraphical I t h as b ecome t raditional to g roup t hese i nscriptions u nder t itles s uch a s M essapic, w ith s ubgroupings o f D aunian a nd P eucetian, ( covering r oughly t he a rea o f modern P uglia); O scan, w ith s ubgroupings of Northern a nd S outhern, ( corresponding r oughly w ith t he a rea o f modern C ampania a nd C alabria); a nd S icel ( i.e. f rom S icily). A number o f i nscriptions h ave d isappeared s ince t heir d iscovery, while s ome extant t exts a re n ot e asily available i n a ccessible museum o r o ther l ocations. S ome e xamples may b e s een a s o f u ncertain d ialect g rouping, a nd s ome r eadings a re o f course u nclear i n t he t rivial s ense o f d amaged l etters and a reas. W ith t hese qualifications, w e m ay count s ome t wo h undred a nd f ifty M essapic, some two h undred O scan, a nd, v ery t entatively, p erhaps t hree o r f our S icel. T he s cript o f t he more northerly b elongs to a general c lass o f ' Latin' a lphabets, t hemselves d erived f rom E arly E truscan a nd perhaps u ltimately f rom G reek - a lthough t his i s now d isputed. T he more southerly e xamples u se o ne o r a nother l ocal s ubvariant o f the G reek a lphabet. W here d ate may b e e stablished, e xamples r ange f rom f ifth to f irst c entury B .C. D ates, h owever, a re commonly e stablished o n i nternal g rounds, s uch a s s cript typology a nd ( possibly) a rchaic o r l ate l inguistic f eatures. I t i s r are f or t hese conclusions to h ave t he corroboration o f s tratigraphy or a rtefact c orrelation, a nd not u ncommonly t he p rovenance i s i mprecise. Even w ith t hese d rawbacks, p rovided we k eep t he s tudy o f t his material s trictly w ithin t he b ounds o f l inguistic a nalysis, v alid conclusions m ay b e r eached. T here i s, f or i nstance, c learly e nough O scan material ( thanks mainly to t he existence o f l onger continuous t exts, s uch a s t he s oc alled C ippus Abellanus a nd T abula B antina) f or t he conclusion that O scan i s a n I talic d ialect i n t he C onway, W hatmough a nd J ohnson 1 933 s ense. T his, h owever, i s a n odd u se o f t he word d ialect, that h as somehow b ecome t raditional u sage i n t his context. W hile F aliscan ( texts f ound i n o r a round a ncient F alerii j ust north of R ome) a nd P raenestine ( texts f ound i n t he v icinity of P alestrina s outheast o f R ome) may w ell b e d ialects o f L atin - or L atin a d ialect o f e ither o f t hem, s ince we a re u nder n o obligation to p erpetuate a R omano-centric v iewpoint - O scan i s a s d ifferent f rom L atin a s, s ay, Dutch f rom G erman, o r P ortuguese f rom S panish. W e m ight b etter s ay t hat i n O scan we h ave a n I ndo-European l anguage. I t i s p robably more c losely r elated t o Umbrian ( principally attested b y the T abulae I guvinae f rom Gubbio) t han i t i s to L atin. Together w ith U mbrian and L atin i t f orms a s ub-group o f I ndo-European t hat m ay b e l abelled I talic. B ut t his i s perhaps t o a ssume f or I ndo-European a t radit ional g enetically b ased paradigm w hich may n ot b e a t a ll appropriate f or t he p rehistory o f I taly. W hile t he merits o r

9 0

o therwise o f such a f ramework may h ardly b e d ebated h ere, i t r emains evident t hat, b eyond t he t hree l anguages ( or d ialects) j ust mentioned, a conventional I ndo-European model i s o f no h elp f or t he r emainder o f I taly. E truscan c an, i t i s t rue, be h andled. I t i s s imply e xcluded a s non-Indo-European. B ut t he r emaining material i s exceptionally f ragmentary, a nd t he analysis o f i t confused a nd over-optimistic. T his i s a s t rue i n t he north of R aetic a nd V enetic, a s i t i s i n t he s outh o f M essapic a nd g icel. U nlike O scan, Messapic h as f ew c haracteristic f eatures t hat would w in u niversal acceptance. T hree o r f our l onger i nscriptions were d iscovered, b ut h ave s ince d isappeared. T he t ranscripts t hat survive r aise more p roblems t han t hey s olve. O f the s horter e xamples, v ery l ittle emerges t hat i s a t a ll c lear a nd consistent. I ndeed, i t i s open to question, t o what extent M essapic a s a g rouping h as a reality. A c ertain c ircularity i s p erhaps evident. T he t erms, Messapic a nd s imilar, were s elected o riginally f rom t he accounts g iven b y t he l iterary authorities ( see s ections B . a nd C . b elow). T he terms a re t hen applied to t he geographical a reas d elineated b y those w riters ( in s o f ar a s t he b oundaries a re i dentifiable). I nscriptions f ound, o r purporting to have b een found, i n s uch a reas s eem t hen t o b e l abelled more f or t heir provenance, than for t heir possession o f welle stablished characteristics.

B ut

T his t his

i s l ikely t endency,

to b e a crude overstatement of t he c ase. i f p resent, i s o f t he ' dustbin' v ariety,

v iz, any l ocal i nscription i s M essapic. T he position i s made worse b y what may b e a s imilar pernicious t endency. M any o f t he texts a re o f t he l ength 5 - 2 5 words, and f requently t here i s n either s pace n or punctuation b etween words. M aybe o ut of the desperation generated b y the v iewing of what a ppears to b e a s tring o f g ibberish, t here s ometimes a rises a f urther tendency - v iz, the over-optimistic i dentification o f l ocal n ames. W ithout control, t his c an e asily b e a nother ' dustbin', v iz, any unintelligible s equence i s a l ocal n ame. T he i rony o f t his i s t hat t he o ccurrence o f l ocal n ames i s h ighly probable; but to command c redibility, t hese names s hould at t he v ery l east c ross-check f rom i nscription to i nscription, hopefully s how s ome r epetitive patterns o f morphology, a nd b est o f a ll, b e corroborated b y i ndependent s ources. T he position w ith s o-called S icel i s worse. T he o nly t ext o f any l ength i s that found o n a v ase f rom C enturipe ( Fig. 5 .1). The v ase, we a re t old, i s e arthenware and o f guttus t ype, some 2 5cm. a cross a nd s ome 1 4cm. h igh. T he i nscription b egins to the l eft o f t he spout and r uns w ithout space or punctuation i n two rows a round t he n eck o f t he v essel. T he r eading i s g iven by P ulgram ( 1978, 7 2) as ( There i s no s ignificance i n t he d ivision o f l ine s hown h ere - which i s d ictated

b y

the

p rocessor):

nunustentimhmarustainamhemitomestiduromnaneposduromhemitomesti v elhomnedemponitantomeredesvinobrtome

9 1

DN

l y

F ig.

\ _ 5 1

( -4

5 .1. I nscription o n t he c enturipe v ase ( after a l. 1 933), no s cale g iven, but p robably n atural

9 2

C onway et s ize.

I t i s o f c ourse t rue t hat o ne might write absolutely a nything a round t he n eck o f a v ase, i ncluding c omplete g ibberish, o r a mystery s pell. A d edicatory i nscription t o a d eity i s quite p robable o n c omparative g rounds. T he g reatest d egree o f agreement b etween t he s pecialist commentators c entres a round t hree ' words' o nly, a nd i s n ot u niversal. T he words a re: nunus, a n ame, c f. L atin N onus; maru, a ttested e lsewhere ag— ' 1-E alic' f or a magistrate; a nd vIF IE7 c f. L atin v inum. A number o f w idely d ivergent i nterpretations o f t he w hole t ext h ave b een o ffered. P agliaro ( 1935, 1 53) t ranslates ( English b y P ulgram ( 1978, 7 2)): No d runkard t ends me t he b ottle. T aking d ifficult. 0 b arrel, s ince t aking f rom me put o nly pure w ine i n t his container. F or V etter b etween a n

( 1962, 6 5), however, t he i nnkeeper a nd h is guest.

t ext

i t i s

g ives

f rom me i s d ifficult,

a conversation

S trictly, a ll o f t his i s i rrelevant to our s tated p urpose. W e might s imply h ave s aid t hat a ll t his material i s i n a ny c ase t oo l ate, a nd t hus avoided t he i ssue. W idespread a ssumptions d o, however, e xist concerning t his l anguage material - a ssumptions w hich h ave b een u sed f or t he r econstruction o f I talian p rehistory. I n particular, we s hould l ike to n ail b ack i nto t heir coffins o ne o r two g hosts w ho have won f or t hemselves s omething o f a v ogue. S ome

examples might

b e:

( i) t hat t he r eal e xistence d ialects), even albeit a t a l ater r eality o f t he l ocal p eoples ( ii) t hat t he b oundaries a nd s ources.

o f t he l anguages d ate, corroborates

( or t he

a reas covered b y t he d ialects confirm t he d istinctions s uggested b y t he l iterary

( iii) t hat a ffinities o f a l inguistic k ind may b e u sed to s trengthen t he c ase f or a n h istorical o r a rchaeological l ink, i n a d irect o ne-to-one correspondence. We t rust t hat our d iscussion w ill h ave gone s ome w ay to d emonstrate t he superficial n ature o f these a rguments. T rivially w e concede t hat t he existence of a n i nscription s trongly s uggests t he e xistence i n t he past o f someone to i nscribe i t. I nscriptions, h owever, a re o ften more mobile t han their e ngravers, a nd i t i s n ot u nknown f or t hen to t ravel v ast d istances i n t he a ncient w orld - e ither i n t rade o r a s p ersonal possessions, o r, i n t he c ase o f l argish s tones, quite o ften a s b allast f or s hips. W e could also s ay, a s we emphasise b elow, that t here i s no n ecessary e quivalence b etween l anguage a nd e thnic or p olitical d ivisions. Even where we h ave l ive people s peaking a l anguage, t here a re well-documented a nd r esearched c ases w here t here i s a lmost total m ismatch b etween l anguage a nd o ther f elt o r d iscerned g roupings. T he c ase f or s hort

9 3

' disembodied'

i nscriptions

would n ot

a ppear

t o

b e

s trong.

S uch a rgument i s, h owever, too w eighty. T his i s to a ssume t hat t he l inguistic evidence s uggests c lear and u nequivocal d istinctions - which, a s we h ave s een, i t does not. F or M essapic, t he position i s v ery confused a nd the material n eeds a comprehensive r e-evaluation. F or S icel, the s ituation v erges u pon t he l udicrous. I ronically, where the evidence i s much b etter, t he l ines t hat d o appear, a s b etween L atin, O scan, U mbrian a nd E truscan r espectively - a nd the f ind-places o f t heir t exts, do not c orrespond i n a ny o bvious o ne-to-one w ay e ither w ith t he c ategories s uggested b y t he a ncient h istorians,or w ith t he a rchaeological evidence. Nor i s t here a ny r eason w hy we s hould n ecessarily expect t hem t o. A .2.

Evidence f rom personal a nd p lace n ames. T hese notions f irst g ained popularity i n prehistory s tudies, particularly f ollowing t he l ate n ineteenth c entury work o f P aul K retschmer o n early G reek, and were p robably s timulated b y t he g eneral V ictorian c raze f or o rigins. T hey h ave p roved r emarkably l ong-lived, a nd h ave won a p ersistent measure o f r espectability. D espite t he d istinction o f s ome o f t he s cholars who h ave r epeated o r e xtended t his avenue o f r esearch, we consider t hat i n t he p resent context this approach i s u nusable. B riefly, t he t hesis would a ppear t o b e t hat a g rouping o f personal n ames a nd/or p lace n ames, e .g. a s f ound i n a geographical s pread, c an o f i tself i ndicate patterns o f o ccupation, a l inguistic s ubstrate ( a confused a nd p oorly j ustified concept), o r even a n e thnic o rigin for i ntrusive p eoples. A n e xample would b e t he a ttempt to a ssociate I llyrian a nd M essapic n ames to s upport a B alkan o rigin for t he I apygians - or, more ambitiously, to r econstruct a ncient I llyrian ( which d oes not o therwise e xist), c f. K rahe e t a l. ( 1955). S imilar e nterprises would s eek to map t he preG reek o ccupancy o f s outhern I taly a nd S icily. I t would s eem s ensible p rocedure f irst to construct a model o f approach, b ased u pon a context where we h ave a ccess t o much more p lentiful d ata, e .g. t he f ate o f R oman p lace n ames i n E urope. S uch a s tudy would s how a whole medley o f f actors a t p lay which a ccelerate o r r etard t he p rocesses o f t ransition a nd c hange, o r, alternatively, f avour fossilisat ion - n ot t he l east o f t hese b eing t he p rocesses o f ref ormation due t o popular b elief a nd f alse l earning. I n f act, f rom where w e a re, w e could s core quite w ell i n p lotting, s ay, R oman o ccupation a nd a dministration o n the b asis o f s urviving R oman n ames. B ut t hat i s p recisely b ecause we h ave much ' inside' k nowledge. W e already know most o f t he phonological c hanges t hat h ave t aken p lace; we h ave evidence f or m edieval F rench a nd A nglo-Saxon; w e have p rivileged acquaintance w ith t he s everal l anguages i nvolved, a nd a re c losely f amiliar w ith t he i ntervening h istory and c ultural developments. I n a s ense, w e would k now t he a nswer

9 4

b efore we b egan - o r much o f i t. W ithout t hat p rivileged s tatus, we s hould n ot b e c ertain w here to d ivide f or suffix, a nd, c rucially, w hich s uffixes a re o f i dentical appearance a nd morphology, b ut o f d ifferent p arentage. I t would b e a n amusing exercise, but even w ith t hese advantages i t would s carcely o f i tself s uggest a n hypothesis o f t he R oman E mpire, o r, even l ess, e nable u s t o r econstruct L atin. F or p rehistory, t he d evice h as t o b e s omething quite d ifferent, a nd t hat i s h euristic. B oth f rom a t heoretical a nd f rom a p ractical point of v iew, t his i s a n i mpossibility. Just t wo p oints f rom many. F irst, t he d ata i s o f s triking s carcity. W e h ave v ery f ew o r, possibly, no p ersonal o r p lace n ames w here w e c an b e r easonably s ure o f t heir e xact f orm i n o r n ear t he p rehistoric period. O n a ny evaluation, t he number would b e so s mall a s to b e s tatistically u nusable. L ater d ata i s more p lentiful, but s till hardly p lentiful e nough t o p rovide a motivation f or p refering o ne patterning t o a nother. Our modern model would s uggest t hat, w ith v ery l ittle i f a ny d ata available o n t he s emantic a nd cultural p rocesses o f c hange t hat must l ikewise h ave o ccurred, v irtually a ll p arameters a re u nknown a nd u nknowable. S econdly, t he i ssue i s a lso l ogical a nd p hilosophical. I t i s f alse to s uppose t hat f ormal p atternings c an o f t hemselves ever y ield u p n ew i nformation. A s w ith t he ubiquitous c omputer, nothing i n, nothing out. W e may a ssemble patterns o f n ames i nto e ternity, but w ithout the m atching o f s ome f urther external d ata ( say, w ith a k nown l anguage), t hey w ill r emain j ust t hat. B ut even i f c ertain n ames could b e s hown to b e I llyrian, o r non-Greek - s o what? T here a re no u seful conclusions. P ersonal n ames a re, f or e xample, l argely s hared b y I talic a nd E truscan; b ut c an we conclude t hat t hey a re t herefore r elated, a nd i f s o, h ow? P eople d o commonly b orrow, r etain, i nvent, modify a nd s ometimes positively c rucify n ames o ften w ithout a ny consciousness o f p rocess o r i ndebtedness, o ften with deliberate i ntent. N aming i s a t otally c apricious a ctivity. B .

T he

L iterary

S ources

T he prehistory o f M agna G raecia i s r epresented i n a s election o f s urviving G reek a nd L atin authors. T he p rincipal o f t hese r ange f rom H erodotus a nd T hupydides ( both f ifth c entury B .C.), t hrough P olybius ( second c entury B .C.), t o a g roup o f l ate R epublican a nd e arly I mperial writers s uch a s P liny ( the E lder), S trabo, D iodorus S iculus a nd D ionysius o f H alicarnassus. R eferences h ave b een collected together b y B erard ( 1941) a nd d 'Agostino ( 1974). D iodorus, D ionysius a nd S trabo o ffer s pecialist t reatises d evoted to t he a rea - a lthough much more to S i ,7 ily t han to t he p eninsula. I n t he r emaining a uthors much o f t he comment a rises t angentially t o o ther major topics, s uch a s t he

9 5

P ersian A thenian

problem, expedition

o r to

i n T hucydides' S icily.

c ase,

the

abortive

T his g roup o f s urviving authors are all s econdary authorities, i n t he s ense t hat o nly v ery o ccasionally d o t hey c laim t o h ave u tilised o riginal epigraphic o r d ocumentary evidence, o r t o h ave a ny d irect p ersonal f amiliarity w ith t he a reas a nd t he p eoples t hey d escribe. T he work o f t hese h istorians i s t he surviving v isible p ortion o f a w hole n etwork o f h istorical t radition. T his t radition i s c omposed o f o ther h istorians, mostly n ot s urviving except i n i solated f ragments, a nd o ften quite u nacknowledged i n t he extant w riters. T he t radition a lso i ncludes, we m ay p resume, other i ntermediate s ources, such a s summaries o r abstracts p robably o f H ellenistic o r A ugustan d ate, w hose e xistence we may r econstruct u pon g eneral grounds. T he S icilian h istory o f D iodorus, f or e xample, h as a s s ource a nd p redecessor possibly f ive o r more no l onger e xtant s pecialist t reatises, v iz, t hose b y T imaeus of T auromenium, E phorus o f Cyme , D iyllus o f A thens ( all o f these f ourth c entury B .C.); P hilistus a nd A ntiochus ( both o f S yracuse a nd b oth f ifth c entury B .C.). O ther l ikely sources i nclude C tesias, T heopompus, P hilinus, F abius P ictor a nd P olybius. T his i s n ot t he s ame a s s aying t hat a ny o r a ll o f s uch authors would h ave b een d irectly a ccessible t o D iodorus, a nd e xtensively r esearched b y h im. T he d ifficulty o f s uch a n h istoric t radition i s evident. F or t he moment, h owever, i ts u nravelling m ay b e l eft a s a s eparate exercise - s ince t here i s i n t his context n o obvious correlation b etween e arlier d ate a nd e nhanced r eliability. Even t he e arliest o f t he r elevant authors, a nd o f t heir i mmediate sources, must l ie at a d istance o f s everal c enturies l ater t han t he p reG reek p eriod i n which t his p aper i s i nterested. More i ntractable a re w ider p roblems c4 approach a nd i nterpretation. S ome o f t hese a re f airly s elf-evident, a nd h ave b een r aised e lsewhere. W e m ight point t o t he n eed, f or e xample, to decide u pon a n e xplicit s et o f c riteria w hich may d etermine a b orderline b etween t he purely mythological ( common i n c ity-foundation contexts); the quasi-mythological w hich may perhaps b e i nterpreted a s s ymbolic o r p icturel anguage f or h istorical events; and t he h istorical proper. T hese a re a reas which t he a ncients t hemselves constantly confuse. A gain s cholarship o n t hese t exts n eeds t o b ear i n m ind j ust h ow s trong w as t he r equirement u pon a c olonial G reek c ity to push i ts a ncestry not o nly a s f ar b ack i n t ime a s w as conceivably c redible - s ince a ntiquity l ends r espectability a nd a n u nchallenged r aison d 'être; b ut a lso to ' hype u p' a ll i ts connections w ith t he h omeland o f mainland G reece, t o emphasise t he c ohesion o f panhellenic c ivilisation, a nd t o r einforce i ts own i dentity i n e xile. T his h as t he i ronic r esult t hat t hese c ities are o ften more G reek t han t he G reek. T hey a re t he N ew World o f G reek c ivilisation, w ith culture a nd p rosperity o n a g igantic b illh oarding, a c ommercial f or a ll t hat i s G reek. T his

now

i s

t he

c ontext

i n which w e make a l ess obvious,

9 6

but more pervasive point. We raise, that is, the whole issue of attitude, model and theory both on the part of the ancient writer·, and of the modern scholar. There is , that is to say, an interlinked set of problems that relate to the approach of these writers towards the writing of history in general, and to the particular difficulty of writing a pre­ Greek prehistory. With some of the authors, we know something of their approach to the writing of history from their own words - as, for instance, in Thucydides' long and thoughtful introduction. Even more important, however, are the unspoken, the implicit assumptions of both ancient historian and modern critic. What kind of people would Thucydides have expected to find outside the ambit of the Greek civilised world - people who predated its very existence? What picture would he have of their existence long before the arrival of the 'benefits' of Greek culture? Similarly, what kind of ethnic entity - for want of a better term do we for our part expect to find in these Does it make any sense to chase ancient authorities? ghostly bands of Choni, Oenotri, Peucetii, Iapygii through the pages of Diodorus? For these authors the real problem of how late they wrote is not the simplistic one of chronological distance from their subject matter; but the much greater effort of imagination required to envisage a pre-Greek, non-Greek world managing to exist centuries before the events of Greek colonisation had assembled for the writers the only world they knew - and, in most cases, would wish to know. Strabo (6) illustrates the force with which Greek cultural insularity and pride lived on even under Roman administration, when he regrets what he terms the 'rebarbarisation' of whole areas of Magna Graecia in his o�n day. If we accept the etymology of barbaros as a Greek coinage to mimic the sheeplike stammering of dolt-like incomprehension, the passage is the more remarkable. These areas, Strabo complains, have fallen into the hands of people such as the Lucani, the Bruttii, the Campani - and in almost the same breath - the Romans! It is perhaps, therefore, no accident that the picture given of these areas before the Greeks is almost entirely negative. Names of peoples and kings exist in profusion. Shadowy Sicels pursue equally shadowy Sicans across Sicily, but names are virtually their only identity. If we compare �acitus' description of British peoples (itself owing more to rhetoric perhaps than any uncomfortably close personal observation), with Caesar's commentary on the tribes he encountered, and above all, perhaps, Herodotus' lively and we begin to appreciate salacious account of the Scythians, the anomaly of this almost total absence of detail and characteristation for the pre-Greek peoples of Magna Graecia. The problem, however, does not end with what may be xenophobic prejudice, implicit or intended, ignorance, or lack of imagination. To the unspoken assumptions of the Greco-Roman world must be added the explicit concepts of those who were accepted as its educators, its rhetoricians 97

a nd i ts p hilosophers. T his i s t oo l arge a t opic f or proper exposition h ere, b ut two i nfluential n ames may b e s ingled out b y way o f e xample. F or t he e arlier G reek component o f the h istoric t radition, notably f rom t he f ourth century B .C. o nwards, we m ight i nstance t he w ritings of I socrates, A thenian o rator o f t he l ate f ifth c entury. I socrates' i dealistic c all t o p romote p anhellenism and t o protect the b lessings o f G reek c ivilisation f rom t he perils of b arbarism e xerted a v ery l ong-lived a nd p ervasive i nfluence. S imilarly f or t he l ater G reco-Roman w riters, p erhaps an even more potent force was P osidonius, t he f irst century B .C. p hilosopher. P osidonius e ffectively g ave conceptual v indication to t he s pread o f R oman i mperialism, depicting i t a s t he t rue c ommonwealth o f man, a lmost a k ind o f v isible k ingdom o f t he gods u pon e arth. I n t his world t he b ringers o f c ivilisation, l aw a nd o rder b rought t heir b enefits v oluntarily t o e xternal a nd u nderprivileged p eoples - who h ad b etter s how t he good s ense t o r ecognise t hese b enefits f or what t hey were, a nd to a ccept t hem i n t he spirit o ffered. L ike s ome more r ecent colonialists, t he h aves o f t he c ivilised world could i magine, b oth a round t hem i n remote p arts, o r b efore t heir t ime i n r emote periods, g roups o f l ittle-known p eoples, who could b e s een as v ariously extraordinarily b arbaric, w icked, godless, quaint, cute, n aively i nnocent a nd u ntouched b y modernity - thus c ombining t hat k ind o f s pectrum o f a ttitudes, t hat m ay again b e paralleled f rom R ousseau's noble s avage t o the p resent d ay. T his s ection h as d iscussed t hese points a t some l ength, p recisely w ith t he a im o f o ffering s ome counterbalance t o t he naif i nnocence t hat c haracterises some archaeological u se o f t his material. T he f amiliar a pproach of ' Thucydides mentions...' or'Diodorus t ells u s t hat...' t ends to h ave t he e ffect o f s etting u p t hese a ncient a uthorities a s e xactly t hat, authorities.The w riters t ake o n t he guise o f g rand o ld V ictorian g entleman f ather-figures, w hose w isdom, s obriety a nd b alance h ave s omehow a n a lmost godlike e quipoise. Our contention i s c ertainly t hat t hese s ources m ay b e u sed; b ut t hey s hould b e u sed i n a manner t hat i s a s i nformed, cautious a nd r igorous, a s w e s hould unquestionably e xpect f or t he a rchaeological s ources. C .

L iterary a nd

A rchaeological

S ources

C ombined

A rchaeologists o f e arlier g enerations s aw l ittle d ifficulty i n t he correlation o f l iterary with m aterial evidence. A rchaeological cultures w ere r egarded a s t he d irect material r epresentations o f t he peoples and t ribes t hat f igured i n t he a ncient h istorians. I t w as thus considered v alid to apply i nformation d erived f rom e ither s ource t o c ategories d efined i n t he o ther. T here w as a n a ssumption - l argely a n u nspoken a ssumption - t hat there d id exist a ' true' v ersion o f h istory ( and p rehistory), a nd t he t ask o f r esearch was s een a s t he need t o arrive a t t he t ruth a s c losely a nd a ccurately a s p ossible. T he p roblems

9 8

were s een t herefore, i n t he c ase o f t he w riters, a s i ssues o f i ndividual r eliability, a nd, i n t he c ase o f t he material evidence, as general d ifficulties o f c lassification a nd o rdering. I n r ecent y ears, h owever, t he s traightforward l ink b etween cultures a nd e thnic g roups h as b een questioned, a nd s ome s cholars h ave s uggested ( shock h orror!) t hat cultures t hemselves h ave n o r eal e xistence. T he t endency h as b een i nstead to f rame s tudies i n t erms o f e ntities o ther t han c ultures, e .g. i n t erms o f i ndividual s ites, o r g roups o f s ites s een a s a ssociated i n a p articular e nvironment o r i n a s patial p atterning - r ather t han a s s haring a common c ulture. S imilarly many would n ow s ay t hat a ll a ccounts o f t he p ast, whether b y h istorians o r a rchaeologists, emerge n ecessarily f rom a specific i nterpretative f ramework o r model, implicit o r explicit, concerned w ith t he n ature o f man a nd h is h istory. S ince t here i s not guaranteed coincidence b etween f rameworks, a ncient h istorians may well b e u tilising c ategories o r types o f e ntities which h ave no correspondence w ith what c an b e r ecognised a rchaeologically, a nd w hich a re p erhaps not v alid a t a ll. F aced w ith t he d ifficulties s o f ar outlined, many a rchaeologists i gnore t he h istorians a ltogether. T his s eems a p ity, s ince we c annot a fford t o n eglect a ny potential s ource o f i nformation. A s a more constructive s trategy, we n ow s uggest f ive h eadings u nder w hich t he correlation b etween l iterary a nd a rchaeological sources m ay b e s een. U nder each h eading we t ry t o a ssess s ignificance a nd u tility, a nd the p roblem o f r ecognition i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 4) ( 5)

R eferences to migrations, i nvasions, b attles a nd s imilar. R eferences to f oundations o f c ities. R eferences to n ames a nd d escriptions o f p eoples. R eferences to s pecific c ities, s ites, monuments a nd l ocal topography. R eferences to t echniques, practices, i ndustrial processes, t rade p atterns, material implements a nd u tensils.

C .1.

M igrations, i nvasions, b attles a nd s imilar T his i s the t raditional ' stuff' o f h istory, a s f ound i n h istory b ooks d own to r ecent t imes a nd s o admirably l ampooned i n S ellar & Y eatman's 1 066 A nd A ll T hat. W hile t here i s l ittle d ispute t hat s uch events a re f actual, t he i dea t hat t hey a re t he s ignificant s haping f orces o f h istory i s r arely c hampioned today e ither b y h istorians o r a rchaeologists. T here may t herefore b e l ittle point i n d evoting t ime o r e nergy to t heir r econstruction - e xcept p erhaps i n s pecific r estricted c ontexts, s uch a s m ilitary h istory. E arlier generations o f s cholars d id, i t i s t rue, a ttach i mportance t o t his type o f i nformation - e specially, i n t he c ase o f prehistory, t o m igrations a nd i nvasions. Much s pace w as d evoted to a ttempts t o correlate t he m igrations a nd

9 9

i nvasions mentioned b y t he a ncient w riters w ith c hanges i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. O ne e xample i s D unbabin's a ttempt to correlate t he s tories o f M inoans i n S icily a nd s outheast I taly ( as r ecounted e specially b y D iodorus S iculus) w ith f inds o f A egean p ottery ( admittedly n ot o f C retan o rigin) i n t hose a reas, ( Dunbabin 1 948). A nother e xample i s B ernabö B rea's i nterpretation o f t he B ronze A ge s equence i n the A eolian i slands, where t he s ettlements o f t he middle B ronze A ge M ilazzese culture c ame t o a n apparently abrupt e nd, a nd on t he a cropolis o f L ipari a s ettlement a ppeared s howing s trong connections w ith t he A pennine culture o f the mainland. B ernabö B rea correlated t his t ransition w ith t he a ccount b y D iodorus S iculus ( 5, 7 ) o f a n i nvasion b y a n a rmy l ed b y L iparos, s on o f A uson, k ing o f t he A usoni, a people o f c entral s outhern I taly. S o confident was h e o f the v alidity o f t his correlation t hat h e n amed t he L ate B ronze A ge culture o f L ipari A usonian , r ather t han u sing t he normal p ractice o f employing a t ype s ite o r a rtefact n ame, ( Bernabö B rea 1 957, 1 37). O n the f ace o f i t s uch correlations s eem eminently r easonable a nd i t h as b een s uggested, b y D unbabin a nd o thers, t hat t he a rchaeological r ecord s hould b e r egarded a s o ne w ay, p erhaps t he o nly w ay, o f t esting t he v alidity o f t he w ritten s ources. T he weakness i n t his approach l ies i n t he a rchaeology: a t p resent we d o n ot have a s atisfactory b ody o f t heory t o t ell u s what to e xpect a s t he a rchaeological manifestations o f m igration a nd i nvasion. F or a l ong t ime, i t i s t rue, a rchaeologists d id f eel t hat they k new h ow t o r ecognise t hese p henomena, a nd c ertain t ypes o f evidence, such a s c hanges i n t he s tyle o f pottery o r other a rtefacts were a ccepted a s i ndicators o f i nvasion a nd r eplacement o f p eoples. T oday, however, i t i s r ecognised t hat t he r elationship b etween s uch h istorical events a nd t he a rchaeological r ecord i s much more c omplex a nd ambiguous. O n t he o ne h and, we k now f rom b etter d ocumented l ater h istorical periods t hat s ome i nvasions i nduce p rofound c hanges i n material culture, while o thers l eave r emarkably l ittle t race. O n t he other h and, t here are alternative explanations o f c hanges - even s udden changes i n material culture, o ther t han m igration and population r eplacement. I t i s l ikely t hat t heories c an b e constructed t o e nable u s t o a ssess t he s ignificance o f t hese aspects o f t he a rchaeological r ecord more a ccurately t han we c an a t p resent. I t i s not d ifficult to imagine some of t he f actors t hat m ight contribute t o s uch t heories: f or e xample, we s hould e xpect t he r elative l evels o f cultural d evelopment o f t he putative i nvaders a nd i nvaded to b e r elevant; a nother f actor would b e t he n ature of t he i nvading g roup adventurers? a n a rmy? a w hole population? r efugees? etc. A lso s ignificant would b e t he n ature o f t he l ong-term e ffect on t he i ndigenous c ommunity,- d estruction? absorption? s ubjugation? t erritorial partition? O n t he other s ide we s hould h ave t o l ook a t t he a lternative f actors t hat might e xplain t he c hanges observed i n t he m aterial culture - s uch a s e nvironmental c hange, t echnological development, c hanges i n s ocial o r e conomic o rganisation, a nd social r evolution. A t

1 00

p resent, h owever, i n t he a bsence o f a dequate t heories f or h andling t hese t opics, we a re not a t l iberty to p ick a nd c hoose, e ither out o f t he a ncient sources o r out o f t he a rchaeological r ecord, t aking what appears t o f it a nd i gnoring t he r est. T he a pproach t o e ither b ody o f d ata must b e e qually r igorous. C .2.

Foundations o f C ities More e asily c orrelated w ith t he a rchaeological evidence a re t he t raditional f oundation d ates o f c ities. T here a re, h owever, some p roblems. I n general, i t i s o nly f or n ew c olonial s ett :dements t hat a f actually b ased f oundation i s l ikely to b e p reserved i n l ocal t radition. F or t hose c ities, o n t he contrary, t hat l ike T opsy, ' just g rowed', p robably f rom long-forgotten a nd v ery modest b eginnings, a f oundation d ate i s l ikely t o owe a d ebt l ess t o f act, a nd more to t he p retensions o f t he i nhabitants - o r to t he p reconceptions o f h istorians. F urther, contradictory a ccounts o ften exist. F or R ome, for e xample, there i s a choice r anging t hrough 8 14, 7 53, 7 51, 7 48 a nd 7 29 B .C. T he popular c andidate o f 7 53 B .C. has n o s pecial p lausibility, a nd i t i s n o s urprise t hat a rchaeological evidence h as r evealed a n A pennine B ronze A ge s ettlement o f e arlier d ate. I n o ther c ases t he d ate h as b een d eliberately put t hrough a p rocess o f mythological a geing, e nding u p earlier e ither t han t he l ikely r eality, o r than t he a rchaeological r ecord. A n e xample i s Cumae: t raditionally f ounded i n 1 050 B .C., t he s ite h as not y ielded material e arlier t han t he e ighth c entury. C .3.

N ames a nd D escriptions o f P eoples A range o f b arbarian p eoples i s mentioned, who occupied t he a rea a t t he t ime o f t he G reek c olonies, a nd, a llegedly, a lso at e arlier d ate. A part f rom t he p roblems i nherent i n t he l iterary s ources t hemselves ( see above s ection B .), t here are d ifficulties b oth w ith correlation w ith t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd w ith a ssessment o f t he s ignificance o f t his t ype o f i nformation. Much e ffort h as b een d evoted b y s cholars t o a ttempts t o r ecognise s uch p eoples i n t he m aterial evidence. S uch e fforts a re u sually b ased u pon the a ssumption t hat a people w ill h ave possessed s hared t raditions of b ehaviour a nd t hat t herefore i t i s r easonable t o regard a rchaeological cultures a s t he material manifestations o f p eoples. W e quote a s ingle e xample f rom a r ecent t reatment: ' Taken t ogether, t hese two t exts ( Herodotus 1 64, 7 ; and S trabo 6 , 2 65) s uggest t hat i n t he f ifth century B .C. t he O enotrians were i n possession o f a v ast territory e xtending f rom t he T yrrhenian t o t he I onian S ea. A rchaeology h as s hown t hat t he s ettlements e stablished b etween t he n inth a nd t he s ixth centuries i n t his mountainous a rea h ad common t opographical c haracteristics a nd a common material culture - a nd t hat, f urthermore, t hey w ere engaged i n f requent exchanges. I t would t herefore s eem r easonable to e quate t hese f eatures w ith a s ingle people: t he O enotrians.' ( De L a G eniäre 1 979, 9 0).

O ne

T here a re r elates to

t wo major p itfalls w hether ' peoples'

1 01

i n a s

t his s uch

s ort o f e xercise. r eally exist, o r

r eally existed a t t hat t ime; t he o ther i s whether s uch ' peoples' c an b e correlated w ith t he m aterial evidence, i n t erms o f cultures o r a ny o ther i dentifiable u nits. I n r ecent y ears s everal d iscussions h ave c ast d oubt on t he v alidity o f t he concepts o f b oth ' culture' a nd ' people'. F or i nstance, i n 1 977 C olin R enfrew a rgued f or'the f inal abandonment o f t he s imple notion o f ' culture' w ith i ts counterpart o f ' people' a s a f undamental u nit o f d iscussion, for these i mpose u pon t he d ata, a nd h ence u pon o ur v ision o f t he past, c ategories o f t hought w hich s eem t oday o f d oubtful v alue o r v alidity, obscuring j ust t hose questions w hich we m ay hope t o a nswer.' ( Renfrew 1 977, 8 93). L ater i n t he s ame a rticle h e w rites, ' One m ight w ell enquire i ndeed; whether t he notion o f " people" i n t he s ense o f a l arge g roup o f b roadly s imilar a nd r elated i ndividuals a nd g reater i n s ize t han i ndividual community g roups, i s not i tself d ependent upon t he e xistence i n t he world o f l arge political u nits. T he n otion o f " one p eople" f amiliar f rom t he modern n ation s tate, c an p erhaps b e t raced b ack t o t he R omans, b ut i t may n ot b e n ecessary t o t ake i t v ery much f urther ( Renfrew 1 977, 9 5). I n t his s ection, R enfrew i s pursuing a l ine o f d iscussion current among a nthropologists during t he p revious d ecade which w as i tself s timulated b y M orton F ried's i nfluential d iscourse O n T he C oncepts O f ' Tribe' A nd ' Tribal S ociety', ( Fried 1 968). I t i s u seful to t urn to t his a rticle to u nderstand h ow d ifficult i t i s t o p in d own e ntities s uch a s ' tribes' o r ' peoples' even i n t he e thnographic present. F ried i llustrates t he p roblems a nthropologists have f ound, i n t he s atisfactory d efinition e ither o f e thnic u nits ( sometimes d esignated ' races') o r of p olitical u nits ( 'tribes'). ( Incidentally, i t i s w orth noting t hat i t i s e ntirely u nclear whether our a ncient s ources made a ny s uch d istinction b etween e thnic a nd political groupings; we t herefore do n ot k now w hich t ype o f g rouping we s hould b e s eeking i n t he material evidence.) N ot only d o the a nthropologists f ind s uch d efinitions t roublesome, b ut even ' informant s tatements o f t ribal s elf-identification p rovide no w ay out o f t he d ilemma', ( Fried 1 968, 6 1). I n o ther words, people d o n ot a lways k now t hemselves which t ribe t hey t he examples quoted i n t he b elong to! M oreover ndicate t hat t his i s not s imply a nthropological l iterature i ases, b ut a r ecurrent f eature. a question o f a f ew r are c so-called t ribal names' - the F ried goes o n to d iscuss ' t hose we f ind p reserved i n t he p robable e quivalents o f a ncient s ources - a nd p oints o ut t hat s uch n ames a re often d erived f rom two particularly f requent s ources: f rom a d esignation applied t o a population b y outsiders, o r f rom a word e quivalent t o t he concept ' person' o r ' human b eing'. H e goes o n to s uggest t hat ' such n ames a re proteanly f lexible t hrough s pace a nd t ime a nd p robably have always v aried s ituationally a s well.' ( Fried 1 968, 1 43). I f this i s r ight - a nd we f ind i t convincing - h ow c an we h ope to f ind even a n a pproximate c orrelation b etween a n ame employed b y one o f t he a ncient sources a nd a ny a rchaeologically i dentifiable e ntity?

1 02

To

r eturn

t o

R enfrew's

d iscussion,

what

h e

i s

s uggesting

i s t hat t he c oncept o f ' peoples' a rose o nly w ith t he e xistence o f complex political s tructures, t hose o rganised a s s tates. I ndeed, t here i s a n i mplication i n R enfrew's a rgument, t hough i t i s not s tated e xplicitly, t hat t he c oncept m ight n ot h ave a ppeared w ith s imple c ity s tates, but o nly w ith t he r ise o f g reat empire s tates - o f which R ome i s t he e arliest E uropean e xample, a lthough t here a re e arlier A siatic empires. Whether we a ccept t his a rgument i n f ull o r n ot, i t d oes s eem r easonable t o doubt w hether t he c oncept of ' peoples' h as a ny meaning i n t he context o f o rganisationally s imple s ocieties; we s hould expect i t t o a ppear o nly w ith a t l east r elatively complex political o rganisation. I n t he c ase o f t he p re-Greek o ccupants o f M agna G raecia, t here i s no a p riori r eason to t hink e ither t hat t hey possessed a c omplex p olitical o rganisation, o r t hat t hey t hought o f t hemselves a s o ne p eople o r a s a number o f s uch p eoples. I t may b e t he c ase t hat the a rrival of t he G reeks i n f act s timulated t he d evelopment o f more h ighly o rganised s ocieties, a s h as b een suggested f or parallel s ituations i n o ther a reas, ( e.g. F ried 1 968, 1 5) - but t hat i s a s eparate i ssue, a nd o ne t hat would r epay f urther s tudy. T he point we s hould l ike to make h ere i s t hat t he a ncient w riters, t hemselves p roducts o f s tate societies, whether G reek o r R oman, would h ave t hought i n t erms o f ' peoples' a nd would h ave r equired s uch e ntities f or t heir models o f t he p ast. H owever, t he f act t hat t hey, f or t heir p art, c onceptualised t he p rehistoric world i n t erms o f such u nits, d oes not oblige u s to accept the s ame f ramework. A t t he l east, we s hould r equire i ndependent a rchaeological evidence f or t he e xistence o f g roupings t hat w ere s ignificantly l arger t han i ndividual communities. I t m ight s eem t hat t he t raditional concept of a rchaeological culture f its t his r equirement admirably, a nd c ertainly i t h as b een t he p ractice to e quate the a rchaeologist's c ulture w ith t he h istorian's ' people' o r ' tribe'. H owever, s everal a rchaeologists h ave s uggested r ecently t hat cultures t hemselves h ave no r eal e xistence. I n t he a rticle a lready quoted, R enfrew s hows h ow cultures may b e a rtificial e ntities g enerated out o f a continuum o f c hange b y t he r andom s election o f o ne s ite ( usually t he f irst to b e d iscovered) a s t he t ype s ite. O ther s ites w ill t hen s how d ecreasing s imilarity t o t he type s ite, i n a rtefact i nventory a nd o ther c haracteristics, w ith i ncreasing d istance f rom i t. T he s election o f a d ifferent type s ite wöuld c reate a d ifferently d efined ' culture', w ith a d ifferent d istribution, R enfrew 1 977, 9 4). A more p rofitable w ay o f l ooking f or ' peoples' i n t he m aterial evidence would b e i n terms o f the spatial p atterning o f s ites. I f p eoples a re t o b e f ound o nly w here t here i s r elatively complex o rganisation, t hey s hould t hen b ecome v isible i n t erms o f t he h ierarchically o rganised s patial patterning characteristic o f the s ettlements o f

1 03

c omplex s ocieties. U nfortunately, consideration, s patial s tudies o f t he n ot y et b een c arried out.

f or t he a rea u nder appropriate type h ave

F inally, d escriptive i nformation a bout t he l ife-style and s ocial o rganisation o f t he p eoples m entioned h as potential v alue f or a rchaeology, provided i t i s s ufficiently p recise a nd i t i s possible t o i dentify t he communities a rchaeologically - a t l east approximately. T he f irst c entury B .C. w riters d o p rovide s uch i nformation about t heir contemporaries, e .g. D iodorus S iculus o n t he G auls ( 5, 2 5 3 2), b ut, p resumably b ecause o f t he l ong c hronological g ap, t here i s v irtually no i nformation o f t his k ind about the p rehistoric i nhabitants o f M agna G raecia. T he o nly passage i n D iodorus o f r elevance t o s ocial o rganisation i n t his p eriod i s a r eference t o t he S icani w ho ' originally made t heir h omes i n v illages, b uilding t heir s ettlements u pon t he s trongest h ills b ecause o f t he p irates; f or t hey h ad n ot y et b een b rought u nder t he s ingle r ule o f a k ing, but i n each s ettlement t here w as o ne man w ho w as l ord.' ( 5, 6 ). T his could b e i nterpreted a s a genuine memory of political o rganisation i n B ronze A ge S icily, but s o g eneral an observation might b e r elated s imply t o w idely h eld v iews about t he expected n ature o f s uch p rimitive s ocieties, a s a lready d iscussed. C .4.

a nd C .5. T hese two c ategories together o ffer t he b est c hance of u seful i nformation f or t he a rchaeologist. T hese a re made u p o f r eferences to e ntities t hat c an b e recognised i n the material evidence, a nd t he context i s o ne where modern p erceptions a re s ufficiently c lose t o t hose o f t he a ncient s ources, t o avoid major d ifficulties o f i nterpretation.

C .4.

C ities, s ites, monuments a nd t opography T opographical d escriptions a nd r eferences t o the r esources o f particular a reas, normally f all w ithin the p eriod o f t he G reek s ettlements, but h ave a t l east potential r elevance t o e arlier periods. E xamples i nclude r eferences to s oil f ertility ( e.g. S trabo o n A pulia, o r t he t erritory of S yracuse, 5 , 3 , 5 ; 6 , 2 , 4 .), g ood h arbours ( Strabo a gain o n S yracuse a nd T aranto, 6 , 2 , 4 ; and 6 , 3 , 1 ), food p roducts ( e.g. many authors o n t he excellence of H yblaean h oney; or D iodorus S iculus o n t he f ish, and t he f ruit t rees o f L ipari, 5 , 1 0), a nd m ineral r esources ( e.g. D iodorus S iculus o n t he ' styptic e arth' which s upposedly a ccounted f or t he wealth o f L ipari, 5 , 1 0). T his l ast i s a k ind o f a lum u sed i n medicine a nd f or d yeing textiles, and a ccording to D iodorus, i s f ound n owhere e lse i n t he i nhabited world . .. ' for o n t he i sland o f M elos a lone i s t here f ound a d eposit o f s typtic earth, but a s mall o ne which c annot s uffice f or m any c ities.' O ther u seful r eferences i nclude d escription' o f s pecific s ettlements o r monuments. T he majority o f t hese r efer t o t he G reek colonies t hemselves ( e.g. d etailed d escriptions b y

1 04

S trabo o f S yracuse a nd T aranto, 6 , 2 , 4 ; 6 , 3 , 1 ), but t here a re o ccasional r eferences to n ative s ettlements. T hese l atter a re mostly o f t he p eriod o f G reek c olonisation, but s ome o f a llegedly e arlier d ate. F or e xample, b oth S trabo ( 6, 2 , 6 ) a nd D iodorus S iculus ( 6, 7 8) w rite o f t he c ity o f C amicus o r C amici i n s outhern S icily. S trabo r efers t o i t a s ' the r oyal r esidence o f C occalus, a t w hich M inos i s s aid t o h ave b een murdered b y t reachery,' a nd D iodorus d escribes i t a s a ' city which l ay u pon a r ock a nd w as t he s trongest o f a ny i n S icily a nd a ltogether i mpregnable t o a ny a ttack b y f orce; f or t he a scent t o i t h e made n arrow a nd w inding, b uilding i t i n so i ngenious a m anner t hat i t could b e d efended b y three o f f our m en.' S uch d escriptions c an p rovide a rchaeologists w ith a b asis f or i dentifying t he l ocations o f a ncient s ettlements ( although t here i s no c lear a greement about t he l ocation o f C amicus); o r, i n t he c ase o f k nown c ities, u nderstanding t heir a ncient t opography. C omments about monuments i nclude t antalising passing r eferences, e .g. S trabo o n t he t own o f U ria i n t he S alentine p eninsula, where h e s ays, ' there i s s till to b e s een the p alace o f o ne o f t he c hieftains' o f t he M essapians, ( 6, 3 , 6 ). T here a re a lso s ome r ather s ome p recise d escriptions. D iodorus S iculus d escribes t he s upposed t omb o f M inos a t M inoa i n S icily a s, ' .... o f two s toreys, i n t he p art o f w hich t hat was h idden u nderground t hey p laced t he b ones, a nd i n t hat w hich l ay o pen t o g aze t hey made a s hrine o f A phrodite' ( 4, 7 8). T his a ccount b ears a c lose r esemblance to t he s o-called T emple T omb e xcavated b y S ir A rthur E vans a t K nossos, ( Fig. 5 .2). W hile we c annot a gree w ith D unbabin ( 1948, 8 ) that t his p rovides convincing evidence o f a M inoan colony i n S icily ( where no s uch s tructure h as b eon f ound), i t might r epresent a t rue s urviving t radition a bout M inoan a rchitecture. C .5. T echniques, practices, i ndustrial processes, t rade patterns, material i mplements a nd u tensils. U nfortunately, d escriptions o f e quipment a nd t echnology a re a lmost e ntirely l acking f or our a rea a nd period. W e i nclude t he c ategory, h owever to complete t he a nalysis, a nd b ecause s uch d escriptions d o o ccur i n t he f irst c entury B .C. authors, when t hey a re d ealing w ith t heir contemporaries i n v arious parts o f E urope. A t a n e arlier d ate, a nd a gain w ith r eference to o ther a reas, s uch a ccounts a lso o ccur i n the work o f H erodotus. A ccounts o f t his type a re n aturally among t he most u sable f or i mmediate a rchaeological correlation, a nd pose f ew p roblems. I n t he a ssessment o f a n axe o r a s hield, f or i nstance, o r o f a method o f manufacture, t here a re l ikely to b e o nly m inor d ifferences b etween t he perceptions o f t he a ncient w riters a nd t hose o f t he modern s cholar. Conclusion W e o ffer t his paper a s a n i ntroductory cortribution to t he f ormulation o f a modern approach t o i nterdisciplinary s tudies. O ur p rincipal concern i s w ith t hose a reas where

1 05

1 ,

F ig.

5 .2.

T he

T emple-tomb a t K nossos b y P hil H oward).

1 06

( drawn

f or

publication

l inguistic, a ncient h istorical, a nd a rchaeological s ources overlap. W e hope t hat we h ave not o nly outlined s ome o f the d ifficulties o f i nterpretation i n t hese a reas a nd o f c orrelation b etween t hem, but h ave a lso made s ome p rogress t owards t he development o f a r igorous methodology.

B ibliography B 6rard,

J . 1 941. L a meridionale e t l 'histoire e t l a

colonisation g recque d e l a S icilie d ans l egende. P aris.

B ernabö

B rea, T hames

C onway,

R .S., Whatmough, J . a nd J ohnson, S .E. I talic D ialects o f I taly. C ambridge, U niversity P ress.

L . 1 957. a nd H udson.

S icily b efore

t he

d e l 'Italie l 'antiquitd:

G reeks.

L ondon,

1 933. T he P raeM ass., H arvard

D 'Agostino, B . 1 974. I l M ondo p eriferico d ella magna G recia. I n P opoli e C iviltä d ell'Italia A ntica ( Biblioteca d i S toria P atria), I I. R ome, 1 77-271. D e

l a

G eniere, J . 1 979. T he I ron A ge i n S outhern I taly. I n R idgway, D . a nd R idgway, F . ( eds.) I taly b efore t he Romans. L ondon, A cademic P ress, 5 9-93.

D unbabin, T .J. 1 948. M inos a nd D aidalos i n S icily. t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 1 6, 1 -18.

P apers

o f

F ried,

M .H. 1 968. O n t he concepts of ' Tribe' a nd ' Tribal S ociety'. I n H elm, J . ( ed.) E ssays o n t he P roblem o f t he T ribe. Washington, U niversity of Washington P ress, 3 -20.

K rahe,

H . I I:

a nd D e S imone, C . 1 955. D ie S prache d er D ie M essapische I nschriften. W iesbaden.

P agliaro, A . 1 935. L a L ingua d ei S iculi. I n A ctes I nternational d es L inguistes 3 , 1 51-159. P ulgram,

E . 1 260:

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C . 1 977. S pace, R owlands, M .J. S ystems. L ondon,

V etter,

E . 1 962. G lotta 4 0,

W ilkins,

J . 1 962. P hilological

I llyrier,

du C ongrds

1 978. I talic, L atin, I talian. 6 00 B .C. to A .D. t exts a nd commentaries. H eidelberg, W inter. T ime a nd P olity. I n F riedman, ( eds.) T he E volution o f D uckworth, 8 9-112.

W ar d as 6 2-73.

S ikulische

e ine

i talische

E truscan Numerals. T ransactions S ociety 1 962, 5 1-79.

1 07

J . a nd S ocial

S prache?

o f

the

S ummary A rchaeological documentation o f t he p re-Greek populations o f s outhern I taly a nd S icily i s abundant. H owever, i t i s n ot our o nly s ource o f i nformation, s ince commonly s cholarship h as made u se o f two o ther sources: l inguistic i nformation ( epigraphical material a nd p lace n ames) a nd r eferences a nd t reatments i n t he works o f G reek a nd L atin a uthors. I n t his p aper we l ook f irst a t t hese two t ypes o f evidence a nd t hen consider t he p roblems i nvolved i n c ombining t he l iterary w ith t he a rchaeological s ources. O n t he l inguistic evidence we conclude t hat o f t he n ative ' languages' u sually r ecognised i n M agna G raecia, o nly O scan h as a c lear i dentity. W e a rgue moreover t hat t here i s no r eason t o expect o ne-to-one correlations b etween l inguistic a nd e thnic o r o ther g roupings. I n d iscussion o f t he l iterary s ources, we pay particular a ttention t o t he i ssue o f a ttitude, model a nd t heory b oth o n t he p art o f t he a ncient w riter a nd a nd o f t he modern s cholar. W e s uggest t hat t he a ssumptions, b oth explicit a nd i mplicit, o f t he a ncient authors p rovide a n i nterpretative f ramework w hich n eed h ave no correspondence w ith t hose f avoured b y modern a rchaeologists. F aced w ith t his d ifficulty, many a rchaeologists i gnore t he h istorians a ltogether. A s a more constructive s trategy w e s uggest t hat t he i nformation f rom t hese sources c an b e o rganised i n a n umber of c ategories which c an b e a rranged i n a r ank o rder o f u tility to a rchaeologists. W e d escribe f ive c ategories a nd a ttempt to a ssess t heir s ignificance a nd u tility, a nd t he problem o f r ecognition i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he a rticle i s concerned w ith the overlap b etween l inguistic, a ncient h istorical a nd a rchaeological s ources. S ome d ifficulties o f i nterpretation a re o utlined a nd s ome components s uggested f or a r igorous m ethodology.

R iassunto L o documentazione a rcheologica d elle populazioni preG reci d i I talia meridionale e S icilia ä a bbondante. C omunque, non ä l a sola f onte d i i nformazione, poichä spesso g li s tudiosi hanno u sato due a ltre f onti: l 'informazione l inguistica ( materiale e pigrafica e t oponimi) e i r iferimenti r icavati d ai l avori d egli autori g reci e l atini. P er p rima cosa i n questo a rticolo f issiamo l 'attenzione sui due g iä c itati t ipi d i evidenza e poi c onsideriamo i p roblemi i nerenti alla combinazione d elle f onti l etterarie e a rcheologiche. P ossiamo concludere che p er l 'evidenza l inguistica t ra l e l ingue i ndigine d i s olito r iconosciute i n Magna G recia, s olo O sco h a u n'identitä b en d efinita. I noltre, r iteniamo c he n on c 'e r agione d i p ensare c he c i s ia u na correlazione u no a

1 08

u no

t ra

i gruppi

A

p roposito

l inguistici delle

e t ra

fonti

quelli

etnici.

l etterarie,

concentriamo

l 'attenzione s ulla questione d ell'atteggiamento, modello e t eoria, s ia dello s crittore a ntico, s ia dello s tudioso moderno. S uggeriamo c he l e s upposizioni, s ia e splicite s ia i mplicite, degli autori a ntichi, forniscono u na s chema d i i nterpretazione c he non h a n ecessariamente u na corrispondenza c on quelle f avorite d agli a rcheologi moderni. D i f ronte a questa d ifficoltä, molti a rcheologi i gnorano completamente g li s torici. Come s trategia piü costruttiva s uggeriamo c he l e i nformazioni p rese d a queste f onti possono e ssere o rdinate i n u n numero d i c ategorie c he possono e ssere s istemate i n u n'ordine d i r ango u tile a gli a rcheologi. D escriviamo c inque c ategorie e p roviamo a v alutare i l l oro s ignificato e l a l oro u tilitä e i i p roblema d ella r iconoscimento t ra i d ati a rcheologici. L 'articolo s i i nteressa d ella sovraposizione d elle fonti l inguistiche, s toriche ( antiche) e a rcheologiche. S ono d elineate alcune d ifficoltä d i i nterpretazione e s ono s uggeriti alcuni componenti p er u na metodologia r igorosa.

1 09

6 .

THE

EVIDENCE

OF

I RON AGE

CEMETERY OF

SOCIAL CHANGE

A nna

I N

M aria

O STERIA DELL'OSA,

LAZIO

B ietti

I N

THE

ROME;

8 TH CENTURY

B .C.

S estieri

I ntroduction T his paper d oes not purport to summarize t he r esults o f a lready completed a rchaeological r esearch: t hough t he c emetery o f O steria dell'Osa h as b een excavated f or s everal y ears a nd 3 50 g raves have b een d iscovered, t he excavation i s s till going o n. M oreover, a l arge proportion o f t he material, b oth a rchaeological a nd a nthropological, h as n ot y et b een s tudied or even r estored. The s econd point t hat I w ish to s tress i s t hat I w ill not d eal completely w ith t he v ast quantity o f i nformation which i s b eing e xtracted f rom t his c emetery, but e ssentially w ith t he specific p roblem o f t he c hange i n f unerary r itual a nd i deology a s an i ndicator o f social change ( the general t heoretical p roblem o f t he correspondence b etween f unerary r itual and social s tructure h as b een e xamined b y, among o thers, B inford ( 1971), Tainter ( 1978), C hapman a nd R andsborg ( 1981); t he r elevance o f symbolisation a s an active i ntermediate b etween t hese two f actors h as b een r ecently e mphasized b y H odder ( 1982)). T o i llustrate t his p roblem, two g roups o f g raves t hat b elong r espectively to t he early 9 th a nd to t he 8 th c entury B .C. h ave b een s elected, which can b e c onsidered a s homogenous u nits f rom a c hronological a s w ell a s f rom a s patial p oint o f v iew. T he comparison b etween t hem o ffers a v ery c lear p icture o f t his change; o f course, what w ill b e analysed i s not t he a ctual p rocess, but two s eparate m oments i n i ts development. F inally,

although

t he

c emetery participates

i n

a cultural

p rocess on a w ider r egional s cale, t he s ignifcance o f t he f unerary r itual a nd s ymbolisation i s specifically l ocal and i s not d irectly applicable t o o ther contemporary contexts i n t he s ame r egion a nd s haring t he s ame archaeological f acies. O steria d ell' Osa i s a n I ron A ge cemetery t hat d eveloped b etween t he 9 th a nd 7 th c entury B .C. ( Bietti S estieri 1 979) a nd b elongs to t he so-called cultura l aziale, which c haract erizes t he r egion s outh o f t he T iber, U 5 ,-, i een E truria and C ampania. T he e arliest phase o f t he cultura l aziale not d ocumented a t O steria d ell' Osa, i s d ated t o t he 1 0th c entury B .C. ( final B ronze A ge). This c rucial p eriod i n a ncient L azio i s characterized b y t he emergence o f a c learly i dentifiable r egional f acies, t hat a pparently corresponds to a s pecific cultural d evelopment; b y a s ettlement p attern o f g roups o f v illages d istributed at a

1 11

0

L AGO D I CAST IGL IONE

)

P ANTANO BORG F : 1ES

p i _ 1 0 0

F ig. 1 8,

2 . 40 1

• PRE NEST INA

1 3 1 6

1 000

-

6 .1. T erritory o f O steria d ell'Osa - C astaglione. 2 0: d istribution o f early I ron A ge s ettlements c emeteries; 1 9: c emetery of O steria d ell' Osa.

1 12

1 and

s hort d istance f rom o ne a nother over l imited t erritories; and b y a process o f s patial concentration t hat apparently b egins i n t he 8 th c entury B .C. a nd e nds w ith t he emergence of u rban c entres ( Rome, G abii, L avinium, A rdea e tc.) i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 7 th c entury ( Colonna 1 974; A tti 1 980). T he c losely a djacent

cultural

p rocess

connected w ith r egions.

t he

o f

I ron

A ge

contemporary

L azio

i s

o f

d evelopment

course i n

t he

I n E truria, where t he most i mportant m ining r esources o f I taly a re concentrated, t he p eriod b etween t he 1 0th a nd 7 th c entury B .C. i s characterized b y t he f loruit of the l ate B ronze A ge 1P rotovillanovani g roups i n t he 1 0th c entury and b y the emergence i n t he 9 th c entury o f t he much l arger and s patially concentrated V illanovan groups, apparently t he d irect p recedent o f t he E truscan c ities; t he l ocal process of u rban formation was completed i n t he 7 th c entury ( Torelli 1 981). I n C ampania, t he cultural p rocess b etween t he l ate B ronze a nd early I ron A ges i s p robably more complex a nd much l ess k nown as r egards t he a rchaeological evidence. We k now v ery l ittle about t he l ocal l ate B ronze A ge g roups of I Protovillanovani f acies; i n t he e arly I ron Age t he region a pparently i s s ettled b y g roups w ho do n ot s hare t he s ame cultural t radition: the F ossakultur of Cuma, the S arno v alley a nd northern C ampania, c losely connected w ith C alabria ( Torre G alli, A mendolara, C astiglione d i P aludi); the soc alled group o f O liveto-Cairano, concentrated i n t he S ele a nd O fanto v alleys a nd connected w ith t he Adriatic r egions o f S outhern I taly; t he so-called southern V illanovan, connected w ith E truria ( Capua, Pontecagnano, C apodifiume, S ala C onsilina). A c rucial event i n t he d evelopment o f I ron A ge C ampania i s t he b eginning o f the G reek ( Euboean) c olonisation: P ithecoussai, c . 7 70 B .C., Cumae, c . 7 50 B .C. ( dtAgostino 1 974). The d evelopment o f I ron A ge L azio i s a lso characterized b y a consistent connection w ith t he i nterior r egions o f C entral and S outhern I taly ( Sabina, U mbria, Abruzzi); one o f t he most important f actors t o b e considered i s t he r ole c onsistently p layed b y the r egion i n t he communications a nd exchange b etween E truria a nd C ampania, t hat of course i s emphasized b y t he b eginning o f t he G reek colonisation. A s regards t he s pecific i nstance o f O steria d ell' Osa, t he p rocess o f social change d ocumented b y the necropolis p articipated i n t he u rban f ormation o f G abii. T he c emetery i s o ne o f t he I ron A ge complexes which are l ocated a round t he a ncient v olcanic c rater of C astiglione ( Fig. 6 .1). I n t he 9 th c entury t his t erritory i s characte rized b y t he occurrence of a number o f small s ettlements a nd c emeteries a t a s hort d istance f rom one a nother; b y the e nd o f t he 8 th century t he s ettlement evidence concentrates o n t he s outhern edge o f t he c rater, t hat i s, o n the s ite o f the

1 13

2T l e q S 0

8

:2 S OI T T a P

C

•

-

r

-

X

a

nn C D( DC D

r t

r t r t

„ .

Z u z u H

H

( Q L Q S I O 0

6

( D r t

▪ •1 c 5

1 14

' e

g

g

s

m

f uture

c ity o f

Gabii

( Guaitoli

1 981).

T he two g roups o f g raves t hat w ill b e i llustrated i n d etail a re l ocated r espectively i n t he n orth-western a nd central part o f t he c emetery ( Fig. 6 .2). T he north-western o ne i s p robably t he e arliest core o f t he complex, o r a t l east, one o f t he f irst, a nd c an b e d ated t o t he e arly 9 th c entury ( phase I I A ); t he c entral g roup b elongs a lmost e xclusively t o t he 8 th c entury, with j ust s ome g raves d ating to t he 7 th ( end o f p hase I I B , p hase I II, phase I V). I n b oth g roups, a s well a s i n t he r est o f t he c emetery, t he s patial d istribution o f t he g raves a nd t he number, appearance a nd quality o f t he f unerary goods a re meant to r eflect two b asic c haracteristics o f t he c orresponding community: t he o ccurrence o f l ineal d escent g roups a nd t he a ttributions o f t he i ndividual s ocial p ersonae ( Goodenough 1 965) w ho constitute t he community. T he v ariation i n t he d egree o f emphasis o n o ne o r t he o ther o f t hese two c haracteristics a s s hown b y t he f unerary r itual i s considered h ere a s a n i ndicator o f a s hift i n f unerary i deology r eflecting a c hange i n s ocial s tructure. T he

9 th

c entury s ample

( Fin.

6 .2/1,

F ig.

6 .3)

T his i ncludes a t otal o f a bout 6 0 graves, b oth c remations a nd i nhumations, possibly, a s a lready r emarked, t he e arliest core o f t he w hole c emetery; t hey h ave b een s eparated f rom t he o ther g raves i n t he s ame a rea o f t he c emetery ( that apparently b elong t o a n i mmediately s ubsequent moment o f the s ame p hase) o n t he g rounds o f t heir s patial d istribution, f unerary r itual, a nd a verage a ssociations o f pottery types i n t he s ingle f unerary outfit o f male a nd f emale a dults ( Bietti S estieri i n p ress). The general a ttribution o f t he g raves t o t he s o-called p hase I I A o f t he cultura l aziale i s b ased o n t he p reliminary typological c lassification o f t he material o f O steria d ell'Osa ( Bietti S estieri 1 979, 2 4-58). I n o rder parameters i n

t o a nalyse c ombination

t his g roup o f h as b een u sed.

d istribution a nd g raves a nd g roups o f

g raves

s eries

o f

position

o f

1

- S patial i ndividual

2

- I dentification o f t he d eceased b y s ex a nd a ge-groups ( see A ppendix) a ccording to the c lassification b y V allois ( 1960) ( infans I : 0 -6/7 y rs.; i nfans I I: 6 /71 2/13 y rs.; j uvenis: 1 2/13-20/21 y rs.; adultus: 2 0/214 0 y rs.; maturus: 4 0-59/60 y rs.; s enilis: 6 0+ y rs.). I t has t o b e s tressed t hat a nthropological d ata about t his c emetery a re s everely b iassed b y t he p oor s tate o f p reservation o f t he s keletons, due t o t he a cidity o f t he l ocal v olcanic s oil ( Becker 1 984).

1 15

r elative g raves.

a

f

1 ,

• s )DE 0

7

0

33

•

3 -

3

o 3

( 9 . ) 0

g

C

2

C a , O

43 ! •1

3

2 0 3 3

F ig.

6 .3.

O steria b elonging

0

0

E ; • ° o g 3 a

— 0

7

•

3

®

pue

a c

suodee m

1 • J D

pe wnuu!

a •

pe4e weJo

c

U9 W

II O o

l ie W

C

' 0

3

3

m

C . 0

8 2 !S i e w4ou q

;

0

•

3

luzno

C

r ,

d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. t o t he north a nd s outh groups.

1 16

G raves

3 )

-

C haracteristics o f t he f unerary r itual, the most i mportant d istinction b eing t hat b etween c remation a nd i nhumation. C remation i n t his phase apparently i s exclusively male; i n most c ases, t he t omb i s a c ircular p it that i ncludes a l arge v ase ( dolium) i n which the u rn a nd t he f unerary outfit a re s et. I n j ust a f ew c ases, t he s tructure o f t he g rave i s a s mall r ectangul ar fossa w ithout dolium ( Fig. 6 .6). I nhumations a re s et i n f ossa g raves w ith t he d eceased a nd t he g ravegoods a rranged o n t he b ottom; t he f ossa i s f illed w ith earth a nd b locks o f t uff a nd l ava. T his r itual i s u sed f or b oth s exes a nd f or a ll a ge-classes.

4 )

-

Typological and f unctional characteristics of the f unerary outfits. T here i s apparently a systematic r elation b etween t he s ex and a ge c lass o f the i ndividual d eceased a nd h is s ocial i dentity, which can b e i dentified though the specific association o f g rave-goods.

5 )

-

P ottery s tyle; the s ignificance o f t his parameter d irectly r elated to t he domestic manufacture of p ottery i n t his phase.

i s t he

The spatial d istribution i n t his part o f the c emetery i s characterized b y t he i solation o f t he i ndividual g raves; tombs b eing s uperimposed o r t angential to each o ther are quite r are. T he d istribution does n ot s how a ny r eadily i dentifiable p attern, e xcept f or the occurrence o f two s eparate groups o f c remations ( 4 a nd 6 r espectively), which h ave b een i dentified a s North ( graves 1 35, 1 37, 1 38, 1 39) and S outh ( graves 1 26-131), b oth i n a c entral position among t he graves r espect-ively adjacent ( Fig. 6 .3). T he two g roups o f c remations s how a s eries o f common f eatures: the d eceased a re e xclusively male, e ither adult o r young ( grave 1 28); - except f or one c ase ( grave 1 38, North), t he f unerary outfit i ncludes only m iniature objects i n a systematic association ( Plate 6 .1): u rn ( either a model h ut o r a v ase w ith conical or r oof-shaped l id); a s et o f v ases t hat apparently constitute a f unctional a ssociation ( three o r f our s torage v essels, o ne o r two l arge containers f or l iquids, a h igh s tand, e ither s eparate o r i ncorporated i n t he container, a cup, u sually p laced o n t he mouth o f t he container, a b owl o r a shallow cup f or an i ndividual portion o f s olid f ood); s ome o ther pottery i tems ( a l amp, a three-legged s tool) may b e occasionally i ncluded. T he majority o f t he g raves i nclude a miniature f ibula a nd a spear; r azors appear i n f ive g raves, s words a nd k nives i n three g raves r espectively ( Fig. 6 .5). Apart f rom t hese commonly s hared characteristics, the c remations i n t he two groups d iffer i n a nother s eries o f f eatures, the majority b eing mutually exclusive. S pecific f eatures o f t he North g roup c remations ( graves 1 35, 1 37,

1 17

111 1 11 11 1 11 11

P late 6 .1. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. S et o f m iniature v ases f rom a p it c remation i n c entral p osition ( grave 1 31, s outh). L eft: hut u rn, f our s torage v essels; r ight, u pper r ow: cup a nd l iquid container ( two-handled v ase); l ower r ow: b owls.

1 18

1

e D

4

5

C

M

5

6

F ig. 6 .4. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. D ifferent t ypes of f unctionally e quivalent b ronzes f rom t he c remations o f t he two g roups. N orth g roup: 1 - a rco s erpeggiante f ibula w ith d isc-foot; 2 - r ectangular r azor; 3 - s ocketed s pearh ead. S outh g roup: 4 ' Sicilian' f ibula; 5 - lunate r azor; 6 c ast spear. 1 19

1 38, 1 39): - t he f illing o f t he p it i ncludes a l arge s lab o f y ellowish t ravertine c rust, u sually j ust above t he mouth o f t he d olium. - i n e ach g rave, t he b owl c ontains t he s ame portion o f meat: t hree o r f our c aprovine r ibs. - a ll t he f ibulae ( that a re p resent i n t hree g raves) b elong t o t he a rco s erpegqiante type w ith d isc-foot; t he r azors ( in f our g raves) a re quadrangular; t he s pear-heads ( in two g raves) a re o f t he s ocketed t ype w ith wooden s tick ( Fig. 6 .4/1,2,3). - t he pottery manufacture i s e xtremely a ccurate a nd t he m ajority o f t he v ases a re d ecorated; p lastic motifs a re quite f requent ( Fig. 6 .5). - t he h ut-urn appears i n one c ase o nly ( grave 1 37, F ig. 6 .5/1); i n two g raves ( 135, 1 39), t he l iquid c ontainer i s a two-handled v ase s et o n a h igh s tand o r c alefattoio ( Fig. 6 .5/4). S pecific f eatures o f t he S outh g roup c remations ( graves 1 26-131): - t he f illing o f t he p its i ncludes two o r more s mall w hite p ebbles; i n t he m ajority o f t he g raves, t he u pper l ayer o f t he f illing i s a rranged i n a r ing o f p ebbles; t he mouth o f t he d olium i s c overed b y a n i mpasto l id. - t he o nly p reserved evidence o f m eat b eing i ncluded i n t he f unerary o fferings i s a f ragment o f d eer f emur i n t he u rn o f g rave 1 26. - t he f ibulae a re p resent i n f ive g raves o ut o f s ix a nd b elong t o t he s o-called S icilian type ( arco s erpeggiante w ith s ymmetrical f oot); t he r azor ( in o ne g rave o nly) b elongs t o a l unate type; i n a nother g rave i t i s p robably r eplaced b y tweezers; t he s pears ( in f ive g raves) a re a ll c ast i n o ne p iece ( Fig. 6 .4/4,5,6). - t he p ottery manufacture g enerally i s l ess a ccurate t han i n t he N orth g roup; many o f t he p ieces a re not d ecorated; t he e xisting d ecorations a re i ncised, while p lastic motifs a re n early a bsent ( Plate 6 .1). - t he h ut-urn a ppears i n a ll t he g raves; i n f ive g raves, t he l iquid container i s a two-handled v ase o n a h igh c onical f oot ( Plate 6 .1, r ight u pper r ow). T he most p lausible h ypothesis t o explain t his s ituation w as t hat t he two g roups o f c remations b elonged to two d ifferent but contemporary g roups, quite p robably k in a ffiliations. I n o rder t o v erify t his hypothesis a nd t o i dentify t he o ther g raves ( mainly i nhumations) w hich p robably c orrespond t o t he members o f t he t wo g roups, t he p arameters l isted above h ave b een u sed. T he f eatures most r elevant t o t he specific i dentification o f k in a ffiliation a re: a ) P roximity t o t he c remations o f c ombination w ith s ex a nd a ge ( Fig. 6 .3). T hough

t he

d istribution o f

1 20

g raves

e ither

i n

the

p roblem o f

g roup,

S outh

t he

i n

g roup

0

1

y r

0

_ cm

5

F ig. 6 .5. O steria d ell'Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. P ottery f rom t he N orth g roup c remations i n c entral position. 1 - h ut u rn, g rave 1 37; 2 - u rn ( jug), g rave 1 38; 3 - b iconical j ug, g rave 1 38; 4 h igh s tand ( calefattoio) w ith two-handled v ase, g rave 1 39.

1 21

a pparently i s more r egular, i n b oth g roups t he majority o f adult, mature a nd o ld women a re b uried i mmediately a round t he male c remations i n a c entral position ( South: g raves 1 13, 1 14, 1 32, 1 53, 1 54; N orth: g raves 1 34, 1 49, 1 47, 1 23, 1 45,); i n t he N orth g roup a lso s ome o f t he c hildren ( graves 1 24, 1 22, 1 40, 1 36) a nd o f t he i nhumed men ( graves 1 46, 1 51) a re a rranged i n t he s ame position. S ome g raves o f a dult, mature a dult a nd o ld women, p robably more r ecent t han t he p revious o nes, a re i n a p eripheral position ( North: g raves 1 60, 1 18, 1 08); S outh: g raves 1 11, 1 06). a long w ith t hose o f young women ( South: 1 56; N orth: 1 17), i nhumed m en, mostly young ( North: g raves 1 25, 1 07; S outh: g raves 1 10, 1 05, 1 02) a nd c hildren ( North: g raves 1 09, 1 50, possibly 1 72 a nd 1 73; S outh: g raves 1 52, 1 00, 1 01). A f ew m ale c remations a re a lso i n a peripheral p osition ( North: p it-grave 1 03; g raves 9 8, 1 58 a nd p ossibly 1 55, a ll o f t he f ossa type, a re o f u ncertain a ttribution). b )

P ottery s tyle.

I n a greement w ith t he evidence f rom t he two g roups o f c remations, s ome d ifferences i n s tyle i n t he p ottery f rom t he g raves a djacent t o e ither g roup c an b e r emarked. T he v ases f rom s everal g raves a round t he N orth c remations b ear p lastic d ecorations; i n s ome c ases, i t i s even possible t o i dentify t he i ndividual potter's h and ( Plate 6 . 2 /a , b ). A s r egards t he S outh g roup, s ets o f u ndecorated v ases a re r ather c ommon i n t he i nhumations, a s t hey a re i n t he c remations ( Plate 6 .1 a nd 6 .3); p lastic motifs a re n early a bsent, w hile s ome v ases h ave i ncised d ecorations. c ) C onsistent o ccurrence o f f unctionally e quivalent a nd typologically d ifferent objects i n t he g raves t hat c an b e a ttributed t o e ither g roup; c onsistent p reference f or s ome pottery s hapes a nd types ( not mutually exclusive) i n e ach g roup. A s a lready s tated f or t he c remations, t he f ibulae i n male i nhumations i n t he N orth g roup b elong to t he a rco s erpeggiante type w ith d isc-foot ( see F ig. 6 .4/1), w hile i n t he S outh g roup t hey a re o f ' Sicilian' t ype ( Fig. 6 .4/4). T hese a re t he o nly b ronzes w hich a ppear i n male i nhumations. A s r egards t he pottery, t he v ase w ith two h orizontal h andles ( probably a container f or l iquids) i n t he v ersion w ith f lat b ase i s e xclusive o f t he N orth g roup, while t he type w ith h igh conical s tands i s c haracteristic o f t he S outh g roup ( Plate 6 .4). T he o ccurrence o f more t han o ne b owl p er g rave i s r ather f requent i n t he N orth g roup, w hile a h igher n umber o f j ugs h as b een observed i n t he o ther o ne ( Plate 6 .5). T hese d ifferences i n s patial d istribution a nd s tylistic a nd t ypological f eatures most p robably r eflect t he a ffiliation o f

1 22

P late 6 .2 a & b . O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample, N orth g roup. V ases w ith p lastic d ecoration f rom d ifferent g raves, p robably made b y t he s ame p otter. a - g lobular j ugs w ith t woh andled v ase; b - amphorae.

1 21

t he t he

d eceased, which corresponds N orth a nd S outh g roups.

t o

t he

d istinction

b etween

H owever, t he two g roups a re r emarkably s imilar a s r egards t he c omposition a nd f unctional a ssociation o f t he f unerary goods i n r elation w ith s ex a nd a ge: i n o ther words, a lthough t hey c an b e d istinguished o n t he g rounds o f a n umber o f f ormal f eatures, t he N orth a nd S outh g roups apparently s hare t he s ame c ultural ' norm' a s r egards t he a ttributions o f t he i ndividual s ocial p ersonae. T he f ollowing d ifferent combinat ions o f r itual, f unerary o utfit, a ge a nd s ex p robably a llow t he i dentification o f t he s ocial personae i n b oth g roups ( Fig. 6 .3; F ig. 6 .8). a - c remated men c entral position

w ith m iniature

o utfit

a nd

weapons,

i n

T hese g raves, ( 135, 1 37, 1 39, 1 26-131), apparently concentrate t he h ighest number o f i ndicators o f p restige a nd s ocial i dentities: t he p osition i n e ach group, t he t ype o f r itual a nd f unerary outfit which i mplies t he maximum e nergy e xpenditure, t he u se o f h ut-urns o r u rns w ith roof-shaped l ids, t hat c learly s ymbolise t he h ouse, t he o ccurence o f weapons ( spear a nd/or s word) a nd o f o bjects o f r eligious s ignificance ( votive o fferings a nd a s tatuette i n a n o ffering a ttitude i n g rave 1 26; possibly t he k nives f rom g raves 1 26, 1 27, 1 39). T his c ombination o f f eatures a pparently d esignates t he members o f t he community who concentrate t he most i mportant s ocial r oles. I n a k inship-based community, a s i s quite p robably t he o ne o f O steria d ell'Osa i n t his p eriod, t hese c an b e r easonably i dentified a s t he i ndividual f amilyh eads. b - c remated men w ith n ormal-sized o utfit, b oth i n c entral a nd p eripheral position

w ithout

weapons,

T he d ifference i n r itual p robably h as a chronological s ignificance, s ince t he m iniaturisation o f t he g rave-goods s eems t o d isappear completely i n a ncient L azio a lready b y t he s econd h alf o f t he 9 th c entury. O f t he t wo g raves o f t his t ype, b oth i n t he North g roup, o ne ( 138) i s i n a c entral position a nd i ncludes a r ich s et o f pottery a nd a r azor; t he a ttributions o f t he d eceased, w ho i s a n adult male, d o n ot s eem t o d iffer f rom t hose o f t he o ther t hree n earby c remations w ith m iniature outfits ( 135, 1 37, 1 39); t he s econd g rave ( 103, a lso a n a dult m ale), i s i n a peripheral position, w ith a complete s et o f v ases ( liquid container, c up, j ug a nd b owl) a nd n o b ronzes. T he s ocial i dentity o f t he d eceased i s n ot c learly i dentifiable.

c - i nhumed men

i s

T he f unerary o utfit o f u sual f or i nhumations;

t hese g raves i s o f n ormal s ize, a s t he a bsence o f w eapons p robably i s

1 24

1 1 U

1 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1

P late 6 .3. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample, S outh g roup. S et o f u ndecorated v ases f rom g rave 1 13 ( inhumation). F rom l eft to r ight: a mphora a nd cup; j ug a nd b owl; t wo-handled v ase a nd s pindle w horls.

1 25

not a s ignificant f eature s ince apparently i n t his only o ccur i n m iniature v ersion i n c remations. T he

r elevant

f eatures

i l eceased a nd t he f unctional t he f unerary outfit. I n b oth g roups, complete s et o f v ases

p robably

a re

a ssociation

t hese g raves a nd t he b owl

o f

t he

phase

age

pottery

t hey

o f

t he

types

i n

u sually do not i nclude i s a bsent i n most cases.

a

A s r egards t he young males ( graves 1 10, 1 05, 1 02, 1 07, 1 51), t he c ombination o f r itual, a ge, position i n t he g roup ( peripheral w ith t he e xception o f grave 1 51) and f unerary outfit apparently point to a r ole h ierarchically s ubordinate i n comparison w ith t he c remated men i n c entral position. A

t entative

i dentification

o f

s ocial

i dentity

complex f or t he i nhumed adult males ( graves 1 46, North g roup; 1 76 i n t he South g roup). N one o f i ncludes a complete s et o f v ases; g rave 1 46 i s t hat b elongs t o t he c ircle i mmediately a round cremations.

i s

more

1 25, i n t he t he burials the o nly o ne t he c entral

O ne cannot e xclude t he hypothesis t hat these graves ( and possibly t he peripheral c remation 1 03) s imply r epresent l ate equivalents o f t he central cremations, though o ther possibilites s hould b e considered. d - c remated men peripheral_position Two graves

o f

w ith m iniature

t his

type

( 98

and

outfit

1 58,

a nd

adult

weapons,

and

i n

young m ale

r espectively), plus a t hird o ne ( 155), d amaged b y a canal, h ave b een f ound i n t his p art o f t he cemetery.

R oman

A lthough t he r itual a nd composition o f t he f unerary outfit a re i dentical to t hose o f t he central cremations, these g raves s how s ome exclusive f eatures: t he s tructure i s not a p it b ut a small f ossa, w ith t he u rn a nd g rave-goods n ot protected b y t he dolium; t he hut-urn i s characterized b y a f alse d oor a nd b y a mobile roof-lid ( Fig. 6 .6). Moreover, i n contrast w ith t he central c remations, t hese graves a re mutually i solated a nd t he two p reserved o nes ( 98 and 1 58) l ie i n t he v icinity o f two g roups o f i nfants' g raves. A nother i nteresting f eature o f these g raves i s t he d ifficulty i n a ttributing t hem to e ither g roup: t hough most o f t he e lements s eem t o i ndicate t hat t hey b elong to t he S outh group, g rave 1 58 i ncludes a d isc-foot f ibula; i n b oth c ases, t he r elative position d oes not s eem to b e a s afe d iscriminant. A t entative i dentification o f t he d eceased as men w ho h ave n ot y et r eached - o r not y et e xerted - t heir f unction a s f amily-heads c an r easonably b e p roposed.

1 26

e - infants inhumed with or without some vases and with personal ornaments

no

(Graves 136, 150, 100, 101, 172, 173). Since the only personal ornaments present in children's graves are of female type, those without ornament quite probably are male. This could indicate that the passage from infancy to youth is an event socially more relevant for the male than for the female members of the community, and therefore formally reflected in the funerary outfit. f - adult, mature and old women Inhumation graves 154, 153, 132, 133, 114, 111, 106, 108, 118, 119, 141, 144, 145, 159, 160, with a relatively rich set of personal ornaments and a spindle whorl: the vases usually include at least one large liquid container, a cup, a jug and a shallow cup or bowl, that is, the complete functional association plus some additions (Plate 6.3). In some instances (graves 111, 154, 132) the funerary outfit of mature and old women includes very few personal ornaments and the spindle whorl can be absent. As we have already seen, these graves usually are concentrated around the central cremations and quite probably correspond to the female equivalents of the family head. The only identifiable indicator of a special social role in this age-group is an iron knife, associated with a rich set of personal ornaments, in grave 153 (South group). g - young women, inhumed with 'rich' funerary outfits The grave goods include sets of accurately made and decorated vases, a large quantity of personal ornaments (North group, grave 117: South group, grave 156): the graves are in a peripheral position. The funerary outfit of these graves apparently concentrates the maximum quantity of 'wealth' (bronze, amber and glass-paste ornaments) in the two groups. A privileged access of the young women to these resources of the community is rather unlikely: more probably an unusually large amount of personal ornaments is a specific attribution of women in this age-class, who constitute the medium for intercommunal exchange and contact through marriage. h - infants with personal ornaments of female type The funerary outfit can include some vases 124, 109, 122, 140, 152).

too

(graves

The only 'sociotechnic' item which appears in graves of young or infant II women is a special type of spindle whorl, often decorated with schematic human figures (graves 117, 109).

127

P « late

6 .4. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. D ifferent t ypes o f f unctionally e quivalent v ases f rom graves o f t he two g roups U pper r ow: S outh g roup, two h andled-vases o n c onical f oot; l ower r ow: N orth g roup, two-handled v ases w ith f lat b ottom.

1 28

i - graves with 'poor' or anomalous outfits A few inhumation graves (123, 147, 157), all belonging to adult women, apparently respond to identities of lesser social relevance. Another case that seems difficult to explain for the moment is grave 134, with an almost certainly female deposition and funerary outfit of male type Carco serpeggiante fibula and no spindle whorl); it is set in pair with a normal female grave (133). In general, these data seem to indicate that the community of Osteria dell'Osa at the beginning of the Iron Age is based on a relatively simple 'egalitarian' kinship structure, whose basic unit can probably be identified as an extended family; this hypothesis is based on two main elements: the size of the North and South groups and the time-span of their development. Twenty three and twenty nine/thirty graves can be attributed to the two groups respectively; though these figures certainly are an underestimate, since their order of magnitude is unlikely to be modified by the addition of a few graves unidentified or not yet excavated. On the other hand, the central cremations, which obviously represent the focus of either group, cannot be attributed to men belonging to a different and subsequent generation, since the two groups apparently belong to the very beginning of phase II a, as is indicated by the subsequent development of the necropolis; their time-span should be less than a half century. It is therefore probable that the central cremations are partly contemporary with one another. The funerary ritual tends to identify the individual social personae in a very definite way for both sexes and for each age-class; the maximum concentration of features which characterises one or other group (pottery style, specific types of bronzes, special aspects of the ritual) appears in the cremations in the central position; in other words, the identity of the kinship group is symbolically expressed in the funerary outfit of the same individuals who hold the most important social roles in the community. The 8th century sample The second group of graves chosen for this analysis (that also consists of c. sixty graves), can be separated from the rest of the cemetery (Fig. 6.2), not only for its position, but essentially for the peculiar spatial relationship among its burials (Bietti Sestieri and De Santis 1984). Few graves of this phase (c. thirty) have been found besides those in the central group; the original figures cannot be estimated since 8th century graves usually were set in shallow fosse and many of them have been destroyed by ploughing. As regards 129

ewe

1 1 1r

‘ 4 11 1 Pe rr % eV " N e iN IP A t i e -

g i ve

Air e m ir

P late 6 .5. O steria d ell' Osa, 9 th c entury s ample. C omparison b etween t he number o f b owls f rom f our g raves o f groups t o s outh ( upper r ow) a nd n orth r espectively.

1 30

3 42

F ig.

0

C

6 .6.

O steria

9 6

5 0

d ell' Osa, c remation

9 th 1 58.

c entury

s ample.

F ossa

their d istribution, h owever, t hey u sually a re l oosely scattered over t he whole a rea o f t he c emetery. O nly i n i ts southern part i s t here a s mall concentration, w ith a f ew a lmost contemporary g raves s uperimposed o n o ne a nother; t he l ower d epositions a re n ot d amaged b y t he l ater o nes. T he graves i n t he c entral g roup a re concentrated i n a l imited a rea; t he i ntentionality o f t his d istribution i s confirmed b y t he o ccurrence o f w ide empty spaces a ll a round. W ithin t his a rea, t he occurrence o f i ndividual i solated b urials i s quite r are, while t he majority of t he g raves a re superimposed o n o ne a nother. M oreover, c . 3 7% o f t he g raves have b een d amaged, a s r egards the s keleton a nd/or t he f unerary outfit, b y t he subsequent d epositions; i n s everal i nstances, t he d amage was so s evere t hat t he b ones a nd objects of t he d isturbed g raves w ere a lmost e ntirely d estroyed. T o evaluate t his s ituation c orrectly i t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he g reat majority o f t he g raves i n t his g roup b elong to a l imited t ime-span, t hat p robably corresponds to t he c entral d ecades o f t he 8 th c entury B .C. ( phase I II); i n other words, i t i s not possible to s uppose t hat t he superimposition a nd d amage to earlier g raves w as u nintentional a nd due t o i gnorance o f t heir position. T he majority o f t he parameters u sed i n t he analysis o f the earlier g roup c an b e adopted f or t he s econd o ne too, although t he context i s d ifferent; pottery s tyle i s not s ignificant, s ince apparently t he pottery production i n t his period i s n o l onger domestic, but d epends o n s pecialized craftsmen; b esides, the 8 th century s ample p robably corresponds t o j ust o ne corporate g roup, a nd no d istinctions such as those b etween t he N orth and S outh g roups i n the earlier s ample s hould b e expected. A s erious b ias to a systematic a nalysis i s a lso r epresented b y t he d amage c aused b y s ubsequent d epositions i n t he s ame a rea. A part f rom t he d istributional characteristics t hat h ave a lready b een r emarked, a f ew f urther observations a re possible. The g raves s eem to b e d istributed o n t he g round w ith no a ttempt a t o rder a nd r egularity; however, two main f eatures c an b e i dentified. a ) T he t ombs ( Fig. 6 .7) apparently t end t o c luster i n r oughly s eparate groups, each c haracterized b y t he superimposition o f graves; at l east f ive s uch g roups can b e i dentified, p lus a small number o f s cattered g laves, e ither i solated o r i n p airs; however, w ide empty spaces a re available w ithin t he total a rea o f t his g roup. b ) A n a rea t hat approximately coincides with t he c entre i s occupied b y two e arlier g raves ( a male i nhumation 2 62, a nd a f emale c remation 2 59) partly touched o r d isturbed b y two l ater o nes ( 261 a nd 2 60). T he occurrence u sually w ith a male a lso f or g raves 2 83

o f g raves i ntentionally s et i n pairs, a nd a f emale d eposition, i s quite c lear a nd 2 84, t hat b elong to t he l ate phase of

1 32

OSTERIA CENTRAL

DELL'OSA

GROUP

-1

metrl

�

Vo

,

. 0

N

M

. (.b l

K

•

34

33

32

31

30

29

status and wealth indicators

0

+

sword. spear

0

male graves

spear

female graves

...

knife

later graves ( phase IV)

many ornaments

graves in pairs

1i..

cremation

.

many vases

Fig.

6. 7.

Osteria dell'Osa, 8th century sample. Plan of the central group. 133

this group (mid 7th century, phase IV A of the cultura laziale) and for graves 230 and 231; other instances would be possible, but further disturbance of the burials often prevents the recognition of sex. Although the identification of age and sex is difficult in many cases, the preliminary anthropological observations by M.J. Becker and L. Salvadei seem to indicate a normal distribution; however, depositions of children in the infant I class by Vallois (0-6/7 yrs.) seem to be almost completely absent. As regards the funerary ritual, differences are not so clear as they were in the earlier sample, since all the graves, except 259, are inhumations. Differences in the relative proportions of the fossa, which obviously imply a difference in the energy needed for its excavation _and filling, do not seem to be especially significant. composition of the funerary outfit seems more The significant. About 15% of the graves not seriously disturbed by subsequent ones or altogether intact have no funerary outfit at all. They do not seem to belong to a particular age-class or sex. As regards the other graves, the basic functional association of pottery shapes is less varied than in the 9th century sample and is not always complete; it includes an amphora and two deep cups of different size; another amphora may occasionally appear while jugs and bowls are rather rare (Plate 6.6/a, b). Personal ornaments are not systematically present, especially in male graves; one or two fibulae and a certain number of bronze rings and amber and glass beads are present in the majority of female graves, while the spindle whorl is often lacking. In general a systematic correspondence between age-class (and sex) and association of funerary goods is not clearly identifiable (Fig. 6.8). The indicators of social roles, prestige and wealth are not numerous and are usually concentrated in the same graves (Fig. 6.7). Seven female graves include a high number of personal ornaments (graves 235, 236, 246, 251, 261, 267, 290); three of these (235, 236, 251) also include a high number of vases. An iron knife is present in three female graves (235, 244, 285, one including also several vases and personal ornaments, the other with a high number of vases; the third grave of this group has been partly destroyed by a later one). A few male graves are characterized by the occurrence of a spear (grave 262 in the central pair) and by the association of sword and spear (grave 239). These data concern the great majority of the graves of the central group, which belong to the III phase. In the few graves that belong to the subsequent phase, the trends described above 134

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s hown b y t he f act t hat members o f t hese g roups were b uried i n d ifferent f ormal d isposal a reas. T herefore, t he s patial a nalysis o f n ecropolises g ives p recious i nformation a bout t he o rganization a nd t he l evel o f s ocioeconomic complexity a c ertain s ociety r eached. B earing i n m ind a ll t he t heoretical contributions above a nd t he d ifferent a pplications o f t hese models, w e h ave t ried t o e laborate a n analytical method t o b e u tilized i n the s pecific f ield o f I ron A ge n ecropolises i n L atium. T hese a re characterized - i n common w ith c entral T yrrhenian n ecropol ises of t his p eriod - b y a n e lement o f g reat i mportance: w ithin o ne n ecropolis, t here a re g raves r eferable to a period o f t ime o f t hree o r f our c enturies, during which p rofound changes o ccurred i n t he s ocioeconomic s tructure o f t hese communities. R ecent s tudies - among t hem I l S eminario s ulla f ormazione d ella c ittä n el L azio. ( Atti 1 980) a nd t he R icerca s u u na c omunitä d el L azio. ( Bietti S estieri 1 979) - w hich were made a fter t he excavation o f s everal c emeteries a nd s ome s ettlements, h ave p roved that, during t he period f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 6 th c entury B .C., s ociety i n t his a rea c hanged f rom a n egalitarian social o rganization, b ased u pon f amily t ies, t o a complex s tratified s tructure b ased u pon h ereditary t ransmission o f wealth. S uch d evelopment corresponds t o a n u rbanization p rocess, which culminated i n a s ociopolitical s tructure t hat w e c an d efine as a s tate. F rom t he point o f v iew o f t he a rchaeological evidence t herefore, t hese c emeteries r epresent a l arge f ield o f r esearch f or t he a nalysis o f t he r elationship b etween t he evolution o f a complex social s ystem a nd t he change i n mortuary p ractices. I n our r esearch, w e h ave s tudied C aracupa's n ecropolises i n southern L atium a long t he b orders o f t he a lluvial p lain b etween t he Tyrrhenian coast a nd t he L epini mountains ( Fig. 7 .1b). T he g rave-yard consists o f about a h undred t ombs which were dug s ystematically f rom 1 902 to 1 904 ( Mengarelli a nd P aribeni 1 909; S avignoni a nd M engarelli 1 903; 1 904). A ll t he b urials d ate f rom t he e nd o f t he 9 th c entury t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. ( IIB - I V p hases o f t he L atial culture) ( Fig. 7 .1a). T hey a re g raves w ith v ariable o rientation; t he d ominant r itual i s i nhumation, a nd o nly s ome male b urials a re c remated. T he contemporary s ettlement i s l ocated about 1 k m. d istant f rom t he c emetery ( Fig. 7 .2). B y a nalysing t he s patial o rganization i n t his n ecropolises, i t i s possible t o observe a g rave d istribution i n t hree d ifferent concentrations. I n t he e astern p art, t here a re two d ifferent g roups ( Fig. 7 .3) w ith t ombs covering t he whole p eriod o f t he c emetery ( IIB - I V p hases). A t hird concentration a rea ( Fig. 7 .4), which l ies a l ittle way f rom t he o thers, i ncluded g raves r eferable o nly t o t he t hird a nd f ourth p hases. Furthermore, w ithin t he s ettlement, t here was a f ourth g roup o f burials o f t he I IB-III p hases. T his s patial d ifferentiation w as f ound a lso i n o ther n ecropolises i n

1 47

•4uewei T4GS

s TIodo . z3au

L atium, a nd c an b e s een a s t he r eflection g roups o n t he mortuary b ehaviour.

o f

d ifferent

s ocial

The a nalysed b urials s how a d emographic composition r evealing a r elatively h omogeneous quantitative d istribution i n phases, w ith a population i ncrease e qual to 3 .5%. A n i nteresting e lement t o point out i s t he considerable overr epresentation o f f emale r elative t o male i ndividuals ( Fig. 7 .5). T his over-representation i s even more evident during t he third phase a nd c annot b e e xplained b y e xternal causes o nly, b ut possibly b y a p rocess which concerns h ierarchy d evelopment ( Brown 1 981). W e would l ike t o p oint o ut t hat a nthropological d ata r elative t o a ge c lasses were n ot t aken i nto account, e xcept i n t hose c ases i n w hich t hey were i ndicated b y t he excavators, s ince t he b ones w ere n ot preserved. I n o rder to c arry o ut o ur r esearch, we t abulated a ll t he elements r elating t o every t omb. W e employed a f unctional typology f or t he objects a nd we i nserted a ll t he d ata r elating t o s tructure, r itual, a nd s patial d isposition o f burials. O n t he b ase o f t his f ormalization we d efined some i ndicators f or t he p rincipal a spects o f t he ' social p ersona'. Such aspects a nd t heir d evelopment a re symbolized i n the r itual, a nd c an b e r econstructed b y o bserving i ts c hanges t hrough t ime. T he e lements o f s ocial i dentity o f e ach d ead person, t hat we h ave taken i nto a ccount, w ere t he f ollowing: 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

r ank ( authority a nd/or w ealth; s ocial a ffiliation.

p reeminent

r ole);

We were able to i dentify t he d esignators f or t hese v ariables, b y c onsidering s ome s tudies about o ther I ron A ge necropolises i n L atium a nd t he a ssociation o f d ifferent components. Furthermore, t he concept o f e nergy expenditure a s d efined b y T ainter ( 1978) was considered a s s ignificant o f t he d ead p erson's s ocial s tatus. A s f ar a s r ank i s c oncerned, we considered t he f ollowing t hree f actors s ignificant: 1 ) t he e nergy e xpenditure i n t he b ody t reatment . and i n t he construction o f t he g rave. A greater e nergy e xpenditure i n r espect t o t he u sual r itual ( inhumation i n f ossa g raves) i s i mplied b y c remation ( Tomb 5 , 5 b is, 6 , 1 7, V ), a s well a s b y t he c onstruction o f t he p seudo-chamber t omb ( Tomb 4 3), which r equired t he r emoval o f about 4 0 m . 3 o f e arth. W e h ave c onsidered a ll t hese cases a s b eing i ndicators o f r ank i n t he g raphs. 2 )

t he grave l ocation i n a _ particular d isposal a rea A s s tated b y J .A. B rown ( 1981, 3 7): ' Typically, d ifferent l ocations w ill b e u sed t o mark out s tatus d ifferences, h ence t he archaeologist s hould b e p repared to l ink u p b urials i n d ifferent l ocations i nto a s ingle b urial s ystem b efore s earching f or r ank'. T he d isposal a rea possibly connected w ith a d ifference i n r ank l ies w ithin t he s ettlement ( Fig. 7 .2), near where a v otive d eposit w ith V III-VI c entury

1 49

1 50

s uodozpau

C AR AC UPA 1 14 13 OF NECROPOLIS

6 4

6 2

6 3

6 5

3 7B is

4 0

0 1

4 5

3 9

e t9 4 6

3 8

366

4 3

o 6

n

5 4

, 4 2 i Om

841

U 9 G R O UP

II B

P i 2 1 . 1 3 ,—III

PHASE

I V

PH ASE

—

F ig.

7 .4.

P lan o f

N ecropolis 1 51

PHASE

- G roup

3 .

m aterial 3 )

t he

w as

found.

p resence

o f

s tatus

s ya lbols

i n

t he

f unerary o utfit

T he k nife i n f emale t ombs o f phase I IB, the s pits i n t he s ubsequent p hases a nd t he s acrifice of a p ig: a re a ll e lements o f t he r itual o f t he f uneral b anquet. M oreover, i n f emale g raves t here a re s ome types o f v essels possibly w ith r itual s ignificance. T he a xe t ogether w ith t he s word a nd s pear i n t he male t ombs o f t he I II a nd I V p hases, c an p robably b e r egarded a s s tatus s ymbols. A s

w ealth

i ndicators w e

1 )

b ronze

v essels

2 )

t he o ccurrence c hariot

3 )

t he

amount

h ave

considered:

o f_precious materials,

o f personal

i mported goods a nd

o rnaments

T hese a re t o b e compared w ith t he normal amount i n t he f unerary outfit o f t he i ndividual g raves i n t he s ubsequent p hases. A ll t hese e lements h ave b een e qually weighted a nd e ach considered a s wealth i ndicators i n t he g raphs ( Fig. 7 .6 a nd 7 .7). F inally,

f or

s ocial

1 )

a ssociation

2 )

double

i n

a ffiliation,

t he

s ame

w e

h ave

d isposal

a rea

considered:

b urials

T hese t ombs c onsist o f t wo n earby b urials; i n s ome c ases t he s ame r itual i s u sed f or t he d ead p erson ( Tomb 5 , 5 b is, T omb 4 ), i n o ther c ases t he r itual c hanges ( Tomb 6 ), a nd s ometimes, f inally, a n ew t omb i s i ntentionally p laced b eside o r a bove a n e arlier o ne ( Tomb 5 7, 5 7 b is, T omb 3 5, 3 6). T he s patial a nalysis o f t he n ecropolis a t every c hronological p hase a llows u s t o p ropose some considerations concerning t he d istribution o f wealth a nd r ank i ndicators, a nd c oncerning t he f orm o f social a ggregation i n t his c ommunity a t d ifferent s tages o f i ts s tratification p rocess. P hase

I IB

D uring t his p eriod i t concentrations o f t ombs; a rea, w hereas t he o ther i s

i s possible to d istinguish t hree two o f t hem l ie i n t he c emetery l ocated w ithin t he v illage.

G roup 1 T his g roup r epresents 6 2% o f t he contemporary s ample. I n t his a rea, two concentration f oci a re i dentifiable: t he f irst o ne n ear T omb 3 6, t hat i s c haracterised b y t he p resence o f t he k nife a nd a round w hich o nly f emale burials a re l ocated ( this t rend w ill b ecome even more evident i n the f ollowing p hase); t he o ther o ne g ravitates a round T omb 5 a nd 5 b is,

1 52

1 53

w hich n earby

i s a double male i ncineration w ith o ther m ale a nd f emale o r a dolescent t ombs a long i ts edges.

G roup 2 T his r epresents 2 0% rough c ircle a nd no r ank

o f t he s ample. i ndicators a re

T he b urials r ecognisable.

t ombs

f orm

a

G roup 4 T his r epresents 1 7% o f t he s ample a nd s hows some s pecial f eatures s ince i t i s l ocated i n a n i nner p art o f t he s ettlement. A ll the b urials a re f emale a nd a re a rranged a round a nother double t omb. T hese g raves a re c haracterized b y t he presence o f k nives o r r itual v essels. A s a lready mentioned, no t ombs o f t his p eriod a ppear i n t he a rea o f g roup 3 . P hase

I II

While i n t he p receding p hase no t ombs were consistently o rientated i n a s ingle d irection i t appears t hat, a t l east i n t his p eriod, a ll t he g raves e xcept t he d ouble g raves a re g enerally o rientated f rom E ast t o W est. I t s hould b e p ointed out t hat, during t his p hase, a ll t hree d isposal a reas w ithin t he n ecropolis, a nd t he o ne outside i t w ere i n u se. G roup 1 T his r epresents 5 2% o f t he c ontemporary s ample. T here a re two main s ectors. S ome burials a re a gain p laced a round t omb 3 6, b eyond a w ide a rea w ith n o b urials a t a ll. T hese g raves a re a ll f emale, except a c hild's. I n t he o ther s ectors t he tombs l ie a round t he e arlier b urials. I n t his s econd g roup, T omb 1 i s o f p articular i nterest, s ince i t i s a male t omb, w ith a v ery l arge amount o f f unerary goods and t he axe a ssociated w ith t he sword a nd t he s pear. G roup 2 T his r epresents 3 2% o f t he s ample. T he tombs f orm a c ircle round t he f emale double b urial 5 7 a nd 5 7 b is, w ith o ne tomb s lightly o lder t han t he o ther. F urthermore, t his d ouble b urial i s t he o nly o ne i n t his g roup w hich i ncludes w ealth a nd r ank i ndicators. M ale t ombs a re l ocated a t t he e dges o f t he a rea. G roup 3 T his r epresents 7 % o f t he s ample. T he area c oncerned w hich l ies about 1 00 m . s outh-west f rom g roup 1 a nd 2 , i s u sed i n t his p eriod f or t he f irst t ime a nd i ncludes o nly t wo t ombs ( Tomb 4 6, T omb 5 4). G roup 4 T his consists c remation. P hase I n male

o f

t wo

t ombs,

o ne o f

w hich

i s

a

m ale

I V t his phase burials s eem

t oo t he t o b e

t ombs h ave v ariable mainly o rientated

1 54

o rientation; t owards t he

n ortheast-southwest. G roup 1 T his i ncludes 3 2% o f t he b urials o f t his period. I t l ies a round T omb 3 6; a nother f emale burial was s et n ext to i t, w ith t he s ame o rientation. T he o ther t ombs a re f emale a nd c haracterized b y r ank a nd/or w ealth i ndicators. I n t he s econd s ector, male c remation b urials appear a gain a nd o ne o f t hese i s particularly i nteresting s ince t he s ame g rave a lso i ncludes a f emale i nhumation. W ith t he e xception o f t his o ne, h owever, b oth c remations a nd i nhumations i n t his g roup a re male. G roup 2 T his embraces 2 8% o f t he c ontemporary g raves. I n this c ase, t oo, tombs a re a rranged a round t he double t omb 5 7 a nd 5 7 b is o f t he p receding p hase. F or t he f irst t ime, d epositions w ith r ank a nd wealth i ndicators a ppear i n t his g roup, b esides a double tomb. G roup 3 T his r epresents 4 6% o f t he t otal. T he g roup consists o f t ombs b elonging to a n a dvanced moment o f t his p hase. T he c entre o f this g roup i s o ccupied b y a male b urial i n a p seudo-chamber t omb, which contains a ll t he r ank a nd w ealth i ndicators i n t he g roup; i n f act, none o f t he o ther g raves a re supplied w ith f unerary outfits. T his f act, p robably, i ndicates t hat t hey d ate b ack t o a f inal moment o f period I V, i n agreement w ith o ther n ecropolises i n L atium. G roup 4 T here

a re

n o

b urials

f rom t his

phase.

C onclusions W e h ave worked out a s eries o f graphs i n order to i dentify t he p resence o f r ank a nd w ealth i ndicators i n every g roup f or e ach p hase ( Fig. 7 .6). I t h as t o b e s tressed t hat, during t he e arliest p eriod ( IIB phase), t here a re n either w ealth i ndicators, n or s ignificant d ifferentiations i n t he amount o f goods i n t he b urials. T he observed d istinctions a lways s eem to b e r elated t o moment, h owever, d ifferens ex a nd a ge v ariables. A t t his which m ight b e evidence o f a t iated d isposal a reas appear, c ommunity a lready o rganized i n corporate g roups. C remation, t he special r ite o f s ome m ale a dults, appears i n g roup 1 o nly. O ther n ecropolises i n L atium s how t his p ractice t oo, p articularly a s r egards a rmed a dults, w ho apparently p layed a l eading r ole w ithin t he communities ( Bietti S estieri 1 979). C remation, h owever, b elongs g enerally t o a moment s lightly e arlier t han t hese two g raves f rom C aracupa. I n t he f ollowing

1 55

g

s iv iane

C . ) ( 1, I

I ( . )

f t

-

h . )

( . )

rr

l u l

4 «.

N I ND I C AT ORS

N I ND I C AT ORS

1 .0. 1 •

i s a v n s t i n a

n . ) c . )

A • l 4 k ) I 1 N . 1 6 -

s iv rans

s iv idne

u oTqncr raqs -F e

Hi r IV3A1

Z Z

N

N I ND I C AT ORS

N I ND I CAT ORS

s iv ians

S 10 -4P D TpL I

( D 9

3S V Hc i

A l

N I ND I C AT ORS

N . I ND I CATORS

I N I C O 3 S H V

p hases t he r itual i s absent i n most o f L atium, w hile a t C aracupa, i t c ontinues during t he w hole t ime-span o f the n ecropolis, even t hough i n o ne g roup o nly. F rom t he point o f v iew o f s ocial o rganization, t he d isappearance o f c remation i s p robably r elated t o t he g eneral p rocesses o f u rbanization a nd t o t he emergence o f more c omplex social r elationships. T he c ommunity o f C aracupa i s n ot d irectly a ffected b y t he m ajor cultural c hanges w hich o ccur i n t he r egion: t herefore t he s ame r itual b ehaviour may l ast l onger t han i n o ther L atial c entres, c onforming w ith p receding t radition. I n t he f ollowing p hase ( period I II), e lements r evealing a w ealth d ifferentiation i n g rave o utfits appear f or t he f irst t ime ( Fig. 7 .7). I n f act, o nly 1 0 burials out o f 2 7 b elonging t o t his p hase i nclude w ealth i ndicators ( bronze v essels a nd p recious m aterials), w hich were d istributed i n t wo l evels ( as c an b e s een f rom t he g raph F ig. 7 .7) with o ne o r two i ndicators r espectively. F urthermore, w e c alculated t he s tandard d eviation o f t he b ronze f ibulae i n t he f emale t ombs f or e ach p hase. T his m easurement o f v ariability a av alue

=

( X - A )

2

where

X = t he number o f e lements i n e ach u nits A = t he a verage number o f e lements k = t he t otal number o f o bserved c ases

s hows a quantitative d istribution w ith a n i ncreasing p resence o f v alues d ifferent f rom t he a verage ( Fig. 7 .7). A ll t hese e lements s eem t o i ndicate a n i ncreasing i nequality a s t o w ealth a nd t he b eginning o f a s ocial d ifferentiation. T he p roblem r elating t o t he wealth d istribution w ithin t he s ame g roup i s p articularly i nteresting. F or e xample, i n g roup 2 , w ealth i ndicators a ppear o nly i n t he double t omb 5 7 a nd 5 7 b is. A s a lready r emarked, o ne b urial i s o lder t han t he o ther. A s imilar c ase i s s hown b y g roup 1 , i n t he s ector which g ravitates a round t omb 3 6. T his b urial, which m ay d ate b ack t o a f inal moment o f p hase I I B i ncludes r ank i ndicators, w hile t he t omb n earby w hich w as a dded l ater, contains wealth i ndicators. T he o ther f emale t ombs o f t his p hase a re a rranged a round t his d ouble t omb. S ome d epositions, p robably l inked t o e ach o ther b y f amily t ies a nd l ocated i n a p re-eminent p osition i n c omparison w ith t he others, o ften s how p articular types o f f unerary r itual; t his f act m ight i ndicate t he f ormation o f a k ind o f h ereditary t ransmission not o nly o f t he r ole o f t he d eceased i n t he c ommunity, b ut a lso o f h is p ersonal b elongings. D uring phase I V ( 730 - 5 80 B .C.), i t i s possible to o bserve a d isposition o f wealth i ndicators a t f our l evels, w hich are d ifferentiated f rom a h ierarchical p oint o f v iew, w ith a maximum o f s ix i ndicators ( Fig. 7 .7). T he d istribution o f f ibulae i n t he f emale t ombs f ollows a n a nalogous t rend,

1 57

C AR ACUPA WEALTH

I NDICATORS

D ISTRIBUT ION

0

32-

3-

no t p resent

2_

1 BURI ALS

PH ASE

I I P H A SE

3-

N WE ALTH

I ND I CATORS

I B

BUR IALS

2_

1 BUR IALS

I V

6 VALUE

FE MALE

P H ASE

F IBUI A E

2 -

I V

I B

F ig.

7 .7.

PHASE

H istograms o f wealth i ndicators s howing ü v alue of F emale f ibulae. 1 58

and

d iagram

w ith a n i ncrease o f p receding p hase ( Fig.

t he 7 .7).

a v alue

a s

c ompared

w ith

t he

Even i f t here i s a general i ncrease i n wealth, the r atio b etween t he number o f b urials a nd t he w ealth i ndicators d ecreases, a nd t hese i ndicators a re mainly present i n one d eposition ( Tomb 4 3), t hat b elongs t o a s ubsequent moment o f t his phase. I n t his p seudo-chamber tomb, t here a re a lso s tatus s ymbols, s uch a s t he c hariot, t he f ire dogs a nd t he a xe; this a ssociation p robably i ndicates t hat t he tomb b elonged t o a h igh-status p erson. F inally, f or t he f irst t ime, i n t his p hase g raves a ppear w ith no f unerary o utfit a t a ll, o r j ust w ith o ne object. A ll t hese o bservations l ead u s t o conclude t hat t he s tratification p rocess, w hich b egan i n t he p receding p hase, e nded with t he f ormation o f a s ocial c lass combining power a nd wealth ( Atti 1 980). A t t he s ame t ime, w ithin t he s ettlement, a v otive d eposit c onnected t o a l ocal cult p lace b ecomes i mportant. Extensive t erracing o f t he s ettlement, w hich implied collective work, was c arried out a t t he s ame t ime. T his combination o f e lements possibly i ndicated t he e mergence o f a s ocio-political o rganization o f t he community o f C aracupa which m ight f all w ithin t he well-known d efinition o f c hiefdoms g iven f or e xample b y R enfrew ( 1973; 1 974). H owever, while i n t he o ther c entres o f L atium V etus, t his development t akes p lace together w ith t he g eneral t ransformation o f t he o rganisational l evels a nd w ith t he f ormation o f u rban c entres, t he s ettlement o f C aracupa d oes n ot r each t his more a dvanced s tage o f d evelopment. T his I ron A ge c ommunity o f L atium s eems, t herefore, to b e c haracterized b y a s imple s ocial o rganization i n t he e arliest p eriod. I n t his p hase, t he e xertion o f authority b y s ome m embers i s f ormalized o nly s ymbolically i n t he mortuary r itual. D uring t he f ollowing period t he g eneral wealth i ncreases, a nd t he social s tructure b ecomes more complex. T his phenomenon i s r epresented i n t he mortuary b ehaviour b y m eans o f a d ifferent d istribution o f goods a nd b y the p rogressive concentration o f w ealth a nd power i n a c entralised l eadership. A cknowledgements W e would l ike to t hank t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica p er i l L azio a nd t he S oprintendenza S peciale a l Museo P reistorico E tnografico L . P igorini, f or a llowing u s t o s tudy t he materials f rom t he n ecropolis o f C aracupa. W e a re p articularly g rateful to A nna M aria B ietti S estieri for c omments a nd a dvice during t he e laboration o f t his work, a nd t o A lessandro B edini f or h is u seful s uggestions. F inally we w ould l ike t o t hank P atrizia B erardi a nd D omenico A lfonsetti, f or t he d rawings a nd g raphs a nd Quirino B erti f or t he p hotographs.

1 59

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T ainter,

J .A. 1 978. Mortuary p ractices a nd t he s tudy of p rehistoric s ocial systems. I n S chiffer, M .B. ( ed.) A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory 1 . N ew Y ork, A cademic P ress, 1 05-141.

S ummary I n t his work we h ave s tudied C aracupa's I ron A ge n ecropolis i n S outhern L atium, a ccording to a quantitativemathematical approach, i n o rder t o define the s ocial o rganization o f s uch a community. F rom t he methodological point o f v iew we made a r eference t o t he works b y L . B inford, A . S axe a nd J .A. T ainter, w hich a nalyse t he mortuary b ehaviour a nd t he r elationship b etween t he k ind o f r itual a nd t he s ocio-economical s tructure o f a p rehistoric g roup. T o b egin w ith we t abulated a ll t he d ata r elating t o t he position, f urnishings a nd t he r itual o f each t omb, d efining a s eries o f r ank i ndicators ( as a uthority s ymbols), a nd wealth a nd s ocial-affiliation i ndicators, a s well. I n t his w ay, i t was possible to f ormulate some hypotheses r egarding t he t ransformation i n t he s ocial o rganization o f t his p rotohistoric s ociety, analysing i ts c hange f rom a n egalitarian s tructure t o a s tructure b ased on a c entralised l eadership. T he r esults were quantified a nd t he g raphs/diagrams r esulted, d ealing w ith t he d istribution o f t he i ndicators i n t he d ifferent d isposal g roups o f t he n ecropolis, t aking i nto a ccount t he quantitative v ariations t hat c haracterize the t hree c hronological p hases o f t he c emetery. R iassunto I n questo l avoro abbiamo e saminato l a n ecropoli d ell'etä d el f erro d i C aracupa n el L azio meridionale, u tilizzando u n approccio quantitativo-matematico p er d efinire l 'organizza zaione s ociale d i questa c ommunitä. D a u n p unto d i v ista metodologico abbiamo f atto r iferimento a i l avori d i L . B inford, A . S axe e J .A. T ainter sul c omportamento f unerario e s ul r apporto che i ntercorre t ra t ipo d i r ituale e l a s truttura s ocio-economica d i u n g ruppo p reistorico.

1 62

I nizialmente a bbiamo t abulato t utti i d ati r elativi a lla p osizione, a l c orredo e a l r ito d i o gni t omba, d efinendo u na s erie d i i ndicatori d i r ango ( inteso cor n e spressione d i a utorita), r icchezza e a ffiliazione s ociale. I n questo modo ä s tato p ossibile f ormulare u na s erie d i i potesi s ulla t rasformazione n ell'organizzazione s ociale d i questa s ocietä p rotostorica, o sservandone i i p assagio d a u na s truttura d i t ipo e gualitario a d u na b asata s u u na l eadership c entralizzata. S ono s tati q uindi e laborati u na s erie d i d iagrammi s ulla d istribuzione d egli i ndicatori n ei d iversi r aggruppamenti d i s epolture i ndividuati n ella n ecropoli, t enendo i n c onsideraz ione l e v ariazioni quantitative durante l e t re f asi c ronologiche d el s epolcreto.

1 63

8 .

N ECROPOLI

ARCAICHE D 'ABRUZZO:

L A N ECROPOLI

R osella

D I

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N elle c artina ( Fig. 8 .1) ä evidenziata l a d istribuzione t opografica d elle n ecropoli a rcaiche i n Abruzzo e sono i ndicate n ecropoli - i n u n s olo c aso, T orricella P eligna, s i t ratta d i u na t omba i solata, l e quali h anno u na f ase d i V I V s ecolo a .C. L e i ndicazioni s ono l imitate s e S i consideri l a c onsistente l etteratura a rcheologica r iferibile s oprattutto a lla f ine d el s ecolo s corso ed a gil i nizi d el N ovecento: c iö ä dovuto a l f atto che, per quanto r iguarda n ecropoli c oncosciute d a t empo, ho p referito i ndicare s oltanto s ituazioni i cui d ati s ono, a lmeno i n parte, a ncora v erificabili; n on mancano, t uttavia, i ndicazioni nuove ed i nedite, f rutto d i s cavi o d i r invenimenti r ecenti. N ell'ambito d i u na g enerale omogeneitä culturale, c he ä quelle della cultura medio a driatica o a nzi, come s i ä detto r ecentemente c entro-italica ( Ruggieri G love e B aldelli 1 982), evidenziata d alla p resenza d i e lementi d i ampia d iffusione g eografica, s i puö a ffermare c he l a z ona s ettentrionale d ell'Abruzzo, pur con p recise a rticolazioni c ronologiche e t opografiche, r ientra p ienamente n eu e f asi IV A e I V B d ella s equanza e laborata per l a cultura p icena ( Lollini 1 976), e s i p resenta p iü a perta a contatti c on g li ambienti etrusco ed a driatico; l a z ona meridionale, i nvece, mostra p iü s tretti l egami con l 'area d el M olise, d ella C ampania e d el L azio M eridionale ( Parise B adoni e Ruggieri G iove 1 980, 3 9-40). S i i nserisce i n questo p anorama l a n ecropoli d i C apestrano ( AQ, F I GM 1 46 I NO, F ig.2, I ), nota s oprattutto p er l a s tatua d el Guerriero e p er i l t orsetto f emminile con e ssa r invenuto, ma f inora non s tudiata n el s uo complesso e p resentata s oltanto c on b revi note ( Cianfarani 1 976; F ranchi D ell'Orto 1 978; S alvia D el R osario i n s tampa). S ituata i n t erritorio v estino, a lle s orgenti d el f lume T irino, i n u n a ltopiano s otto i l p aese d i C apestrano, l a n ecropoli c opre u na v asta e stensione c ronologica, a rrivando f ino a l t ardo e llenismo. L a f ase a rcaica f u evidenziata d agli s cavi e ffettuati n el 1 934, d opo i i r invenimento c asuale d el Gueriero, s ommariamente pubblicati ( Moretti 1 936-7), e d a a lcuni s aggi, r ealizzati n el 1 965, i quail p ortarono a lb os cavo d i t re t ombe ed a lla l ocalizzazione d i ' numerose a ltre', che non f urono mai s cavate ( Terrosi Z anco 1 967). L a

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z ona Ovest d ell'area s cavata, u n a llineamento p iuttosto r egolare d elle t ombe a rcaiche, t utte con o rientamento E stO vest. L e t ombe I , 9 , 1 0, 1 7, 2 2-33 appartengono a f asi p iü r ecenti, mentre l a t omba 8 f u r invenuta s convolta e l a t omba I I e ra s enza corredo. N ell'altre z ona s cavata, i nvece, S i n ota u na d isposizione d iversa, quasi ad a rco d i c erchio, d elle t ombe 1 2, 1 5, 1 4 e 1 3 i ntorno a lla t ombe 3 , l 'unica c he p resenti l a d eposizione con o rientamento N ord Sud. N ä ä solo questa l a p articolaritä d ella t omba 3 , l 'unica, n el s ia pur l imitato contesto d ella n ecropoli, a presentare u n r ipostiglio p er i l c orredo, molto r icco, l 'unica p er l a quale M oretti s egnalö l a p resenza d i u na r ituale o fferta d i c ibo ( Moretti 1 936-7). I i r ito f unerario ä quello d ella i numazione, con l 'inumato s upino - i n u n s olo c aso, ä r annicchiato - c on l e b raccia d istese l ungo i f ianchi oppure i ncrociate s ul b acino, e l e g ambe p er l o p iü d istese e parallele e s olo t alvolta i ncrociate l 'una s ull'altra. D alla d ocumentazione d 'archivio ( lettera d i G . A nnibaldi, d atata 2 0 novembre 1 934), r isulta c he l e t ombe f emminili p resentavano l o s cheletro con l e b raccia i ncrociate e quelle maschili l o s cheletro c on l e b raccia d istese. L a t omba ä c ostituita d a u na fossa r ettangolare o e llittica, s cavata n ella t erra e d elimitata sul p iano d i i numazione d a massi d isposti l ungo t utto 1 1 p erimetro oppure l ungo u na parte d i e sso i n g enere due l ati contigui. S uccessivamente, d opo l a d eposizione d el corredo, l e tombe f urono r iempite d i c iottoli e p robabilmente molte d i e sse ebbero i l tumulo d i c opertura, come ä attestato i n a ltre n ecropoli i n A bruzzo e s olo i n qualche c aso r ilevato a C apestrano ( documenti d i a rchivio p er g li s cavi d el 1 934; T errosi Z anco 1 967). I i c orredo, p er i l quale i n a lcuni casi s ono d ocumentati d iversi l ivelli d i d eposizione, s econdo u na c aratteristica r ituale a nche a ltrove d ocumentata, ä c aratterizzato d alla quasi constante p resenza d ell'olla, d i i mpasto o d i a rgilla, posta a i p iedi d ell'inumato, i n u n a ngolo d ella f ossa, t alora r acchiusa d a u na p rotezione d i p iccole p ietre e p osta ad u n l ivello s uperiore d i c irca 2 0 cm. r ispetto a l p iano d i i numazione, con l 'imboccatura c hiusa d a u na c iotola o d a u na p ietra. ( Plate 8 .1/1). A ltrettanto c ostante ä l a p resenza, pure n ella p arte i nferiore d ella t omba, d el r esto d el v asellame f ittile, p er l o p iü impasto b uccheroide d i p roduzione l ocale, r aramente r ecuperato p er l a f orte a ciditä d el t erreno ( Moretti 1 936-7; T errosi Z anco 1 967). T ra l e f orme r icorrenti ä a ttestata l a c iotola b iansata a poda. I n qualche c aso, s ono s tate r invenute u n'anforetta ( Terrosi Z anco 1 967) oppure u na ' tazzina' ( Moretti 1 936-7) a ll'interno d ell'olla, p robabilmente quindi c on f unzioni d i a ttingitoio. I i t enuto

v asellame m etallico, i n g ran p arte d i i mportazione e i n g ran c onto, s e consideriamo i numerosi s egni d el

1 67

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168

r estauro a ntico, e ra posto i ntorno a ll'inumato. T ra l e f orme r icorrenti s i s egnalano l e b acinelle d i b ronzo con o rbo p erlato, i c aldai d i b ronzo, c on b acino emisferico ed o rbo r ientrante e con manico mobile d i f erro, ( Plate 8 . 1 /2 ) , s tamnoi ( Plate 8 .1/3) e o lpai, pure i n b ronzo. U n u nicum a C apestrano ä l a S chnabelkanne d ella tomba 1 2 ( Plate 8 . 1 /4 ) , t ipo peraltro a ttestato i n a ltre n ecropoli d ell'Abruzzo s ettentrionale. C aratterizzanti b e t ombe maschili s ono b e a rmi, t utte d a o ffesa, i n f erro, poste a i l ati d ell'inumato, c he s ono purtroppo t ra i m anufatti meno conservati. S ono a ttestate p unte d i l ancia, u na t esta d i mazza, u na s pada l unga con e lsa a c rociera e p or no d ecorato con t raforo a g iorno. I n due t ombe maschili, e d i n e ntrambi i c asi i n a ssociazione, c ompaiono a lari e u n f ascio d i spiedi ( Plate 8 .2/1), t estimonianza d ella p resenza e sclusivamente maschile a l b anchetto ( Cianfarani 1 976; C ianfarani 1 978), oppure d ocumento d ell'esistenza d i u n r ituale b anchetto f unebre. I n due t ombe m aschili ä p resente i i r asoio, i n f erro, con l ama l unata e manichetto a r iccio, mentre n ella g iä r icordata t omba 3 compare u n p aio d i c alzari ( Plate 8 .2/2) i n pessimo s tato d i conservazione, c he i n Abruzzo t rovano confronti con e semplari i nediti d a N occiano-Catignano, d a L oreto A prutino ( Leopardi 1 954), d a C ampovalano ( Cianfarani 1 978). L e tombe f emminili, i nvece, sono c aratterizzate d agli o rnamenti p ersonali, posti s ul corpo d alla d efunta; c ompaiono u na collana formata d a g rani d i ambra e d i p asta v itrea g ialla ad o cchi a zzurri, a gganciata sub p etto c on u na coppia d i f ibule d i b ronzo con a rco a d oppia o ndulazione ( Plate 8 . 2 /3); f ibule d i f erro, a s taffa l unga c on a ppendice d esinente a r iccio; b racciali d i f ib od i b ronzo a s pirale ( Plate 8 . 2 /4), r icorrenti e sclusivamente n eu e t ombe i nfantili ( Parise B adoni e R uggieri G iove 1 980, 2 8); e s oprattutto, i n d ue t ombe, l e s tole, ' distese d al p etto a lle g inocchia' ( Moretti 1 936-7), con p lacche d ecorate d a b ulloncini e a ppartenenti a l I t ipo d ella c lassificazione C olonna ( Colonna 1 958), che avviö l a d iscussione s ui c entri d i p roduzione, o ra a rricchita d ai numerosi r itrovamenti i n a rea abruzzese. P er completare questo r apido p anorama, i nfine, ä d egno d i i nteresse r icordare c he l a s tatua d el Guerriero ed i i t orsetto f emminile r invenuti n el 1 934 n on s ono g li u nici e sempi d i s cultura f uneraria d ella n ecropoli d i C apestrano: r isulta i nfatti d a documenti d i a rchivio c he, i n u na b revissima e p oco d ocumentata c ampagna d i s cavo n el 1 937, f urono r invenute a lmeno a ltre due b asi d i s tatua, n on p iü r intracciate e d elle quali s i ä p erso p erfino i l r icordo. Questo d ato, comunque, ä u na u lteriore t estimonianza d el f atto c he b e s culture a rcaiche r invenute i n Abruzzo n on s ono episodi i solati m a s i i nseriscono n ell'organico sviluppo d i u na cultura c he t rova p ropria n el Guerriero d i C apestrano u na d elle sue u ltime e spressioni.

1 69

2 . .T omba

. T omba

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1 70

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4 .

T omba

1 4,

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1 936-7).

b racciali. P late 1 71

8 .2.

R ingraziamenti. D esidero r ingraziare C aroline M alone e S imon S toddart p er l a l oro cortesia e g entilezza. S ono p articolarmente g rata a l d ottor G iovanni S chichilone, S oprintendente A rcheologico d ell' Abruzzo, c he m i h a a ffidato l o s tudio d ella n ecropoli n el quadro d i u na r iorganizzazione d el M useo A rcheologico d i C hieti, c he p revede l a e sposizione d i a lcuni questi c orredi. L e f otografie sono d el L aboratorio F otografico d ella S oprintendenza A rcheologica d ell' Abruzzo.

B iblio2rafia C ianfarani, V . 1 976. C ulture a rcaiche d ell'Italia medioa driatica. I n B iblioteca d i S toria P atria ( ed.) P opoli e c iviltä d ell'Italia A ntica V . R oma, 1 1-106. C ianfarani, V . 1 978. Culture a driatiche a ntiche d i A bruzzo e d i M olise. I n D e L uca, ( ed.) Cultura adriatiche a ntiche d i Abruzzo e d i M olise. R oma, 3 -223. Colonna,

G . 1 958. c apenate.

P lacche a rcaiche d i c inturone d i A rcheologia C lassica 1 0, 6 9-80.

F ranchi

D ell'Orto, L . 1 978. S chede. C apestrano. I n D e L uce ( ed.) C ulture a driatiche a ntiche d i A bruzzo e d i Molise. R oma, 3 09-316.

L eopardi, G . B. 1 954. E splorazioni C olle F iorano. N otizie 2 91-301.

p roduzione

d el s epolcreto p reromano d i d egli s cavi d i A ntichitä,

L ollini,

D .G. S toria A ntica

Moretti,

G . 1 936-7. I l G uerriero i talic( ) e l a n ecropoli d i C apestrano. B ullettino d i P aletnologia I taliana N .S. I , 9 4-112.

P arise

B adoni, F . e R uggieri G iove, M . 1 980. A lfedena. n ecropoli d i C ampo Consolino. R oma, C entenari.

R uggieri

S alvia

T errosi

1 976. L a c iviltä p icena. I n B iblioteca d i P atria ( ed.) P opoli e c iviltä d ell'Italia V . R oma, 1 07-195.

G iove, M . e B aldelli, G . d el f erro d i A tri. S tudi V onWiller I I, 6 31-651.

1 982. N ecropoli i n o nore d i F .

L a

d ell'etä R ittatore

D el R osario, R . i n s tampa. L a n ecropoli d i C apestrano. N ota P reliminare. Quaderni d ell'Istituto d i A rcheologia d ell'Universitä d i C hieti 3 . Z anco, 0 . 1 967. S u a lcune l ocalitä C apo d ' Acqua. A ntichitä: 3 20-330.

1 72

t ombe i taliche r invenute i n Notizie d egli S cavi d i

S ummary Among t he A rchaic c emeteries i n A bruzzo, an important e xample i s t he n ecropolis o f C apestrano ( VIth - I st c entury B .C.). T he A rchaic p hase i s r epresented b y f ifteen tombs, e xcavated a fter t he c asual d iscovery o f t he C apestrano W arrior i n 1 934, a nd b y t hree t ombs f ound i n 1 965. T he t ypical C apestrano t omb i s a n i nhumation g rave, w ith d elimitation s tone. P ottery was p laced a t t he f oot o f the b ody, while b ronze v essels w ere a ll a round i t. A b ronze S chnabelkanne was f ound i n g rave 1 2. M en's g raves a re c haracterized b y i ron a rmour a nd women's g raves b y personal o rnaments s uch a s a n ecklace, b rooches, a rmlets. B urial r ites a nd objects h ave s trong connections w ith c emeteries o f t he n orthern a rea of Abruzzo, which reveals c lose contacts w ith E truscan a nd A driatic c ultures.

R iassunto N ell'articolato e complesso panorama d elle n ecropoli a rcahiche d ell'Abruzzo, u n posto i mportante o ccupa l a n ecropoli d i C apestrano, che ha u na ampia e stensione c ronologia ( 6-1 s ec.a.C.). L a f ase a rcaica ä d ocumentata d a quindici t ombe r invenute n egli s cavi d el 1 934, r ealizzati d opo i i c asuale r itrovamento d el guerriero, e d a t re t ombe s cavate n el 1 965. L e tombe s ono a f ossa, d elimitate d a massi d isposti l ungo i i permetro s ul p iano d i d eposizione ed h anno o rientamento E st-Ovest, t ranne u n g ruppo d i c inque tombe. I i corredo f ittile, d eposto a i p iedi d ell'inumato, c araterizzato d alla p resenza d ell'olla, mentre t ra i i v asellame m etallico, p er l o p iü d i i mportazione, s i s egnala l a p resenza d i u na S chnabelkanne. L 'armamento c aratterizza l e t ombe maschili ( punte d i l ancia, t esta d i mazza, s pade), m entre l e s epolture f emminili p resentano o rnamenti p ersonali ( collana, f ibule, b racciali, p ettorale). I confronti p iü p recisi r imandano s oprattutto a i materiali d elle contemporanee n ecropoli d ella z ona s ettentrionale d ell'Abruzzo, f acente p arte d ella cultura p icena, c on s tretti l egami c on i l mondo e trusco ed a driatico.

1 73

9 .

H UTS

I N THE C ENTRAL TYRRHENIAN AREA OF D URING T HE

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P ROTOHISTORIC

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D e

S antis

H ut u rns, c ontainers o f a shes made o f impasto o r b ronze, a re f requently f ound i n T yrrhenian I taly ( Etruria a nd L atium v etus) f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 8 th c entury B .C. ( Bartoloni e t al. f orthcoming)(Fig. 9 .1). O ne o f t he p rincipal objects o f r esearch i nto h ut u rns h as b ecome t he c omparison b etween hut u rns a nd c ontemporary a rchitecture. T his comparison h as, i n t he l ast t en y ears, b een f acilitated b y t he a ttention o f a rchaeologists i n I taly above a ll to t he e xcavation o f h abitation s ites ( Sorgenti d ella Nova: N egroni C atacchio 1 981; T arquinia: L inington 1 982a; L inington 1 982b; A cquarossa: ö stenberg 1 975, 3 1-32; S an G iovenale: P ohl 1 977; P ohl 1 980; C ivitavecchia T orre V aldaliga: M affei 1 981; V eio: S tefani 1 944 ( Piazza d ' Armi), S tefani 1 953 ( Portonaccio), W ard-Perkins 1 959 ( North-West G ate); A ntemnae: Quilici a nd Quilici G igli 1 978, 2 9; R oma: P uglisi 1 951 ( Palatino), B rown 1 976 ( Regia); F icana: B randt 1 980; P ratica d i M are: F enelli i n p ress; A rdea: T ortorici 1 983; S atricum: C olonna 1 976, S tibbe 1 982, B eijer 1 983). I n f act t hrough t he typological a nalysis o f t he f unerary models together w ith t he r emains o f h uts b rought to l ight b y e xcavation one h as b een able to propose a n outline o f some types of h abitation d ocumented i n L atium a nd i n E truria during t he p rotohistoric p eriod. I t i s opportune t o r emember t hat, however o ne l ooks a t hut u rns, t he c haracteristics o f t he c lass o f t he materials a nalysed d o not a llow f or t he e xtraction o f c learly d efined types. T he p resentation o f p revalent i ndividual typological c haracteristics ( plan, i nclination o f t he w alls, a rched r oof, e tc.), t he s pecific s ymbolic s ignificance a nd t he v ariations o f some morphological c haracteristics d emonstrate t hat many h ut u rns c an i n f act b e i ncluded i n t he c lassification o f a g roup; t hey c an h owever a lso b e considered i ndividually. A ll t he s ame, i t h as b een possible t o i dentify s ome e lements which d istinguish t he models o f L atium v etus f rom t hose o f E truria; a nd f urther, t hose o f coastal E truria f rom t hose o f i nland E truria. T he L atial h ut u rns a re d istinguished b y s mall d imensions ( in g eneral n ot more t han 3 0 cm. h igh), b y t he g enerally c ircular p lan a nd a bove a ll b y a greater a ttention i n the r endering o f t he s tructural e lements. T his i s s ometimes evident i n t he p resence o f b eams a long t he w alls ( Marino, P ascolaro; V elletri, V igna D ' Andrea; C astelgandolfo, M onte Cucco) ( Fig. 9 .2/5), b y a s ide w indow ( Villa C avalletti, T omb 8 ; O steria d ell'Osa T omb 1 29) ( Fig. 9 .2/3), b y a double d oor

1 75

1 76

d istribution

( Tomba A ndreoli; O steria d ell' Osa, T omb 1 28 a nd T omb 1 31; P ratica d i M are, T omb 1 6) ( Fig. 9 . 2 /4 ) , o r e lse b y a l ittle p orch ( Marino, C ampofattore)(Fig. 9 .2/1), o r b y a s mall l eant o ( Tomba A ndreoli) ( Fig. 9 .2/2). W hereas i n t he E truscan p roduction, a nd p articularly t hat of coastal E truria: T arquinia, Vulci, V etulonia, t he s tructural e lements appear t o b e s ubordinate t o t he g reater s uperabundance o f d ecorative e lements, such a s t he t ermination o f t he b eams o f t he roof w ith b ird-form a ntefixes ( Fig. 9 .3/3-4), t he g reater u se o f i ncised d ecoration a nd a bove a ll t he application o f metal f oil ( Fig. 9 .3/4). I n t his p anorama i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat i nstead t he u rns f rom V eii p resent c loser a nalogies w ith t he L atial h ut u rns t han t hose f rom E truria. T he hut u rns f rom V eii h ave s mall d imensions a nd t he s tructural e lements, l ike b eams a nd s ide-doors, a re emphasized. T his c onnection o f V eii w ith L atium i s r econstructable f rom o ther d ifferent manifestations s uch a s i n a rtistic p roductions a s w ell a s i n f unerary p ractice. T he h ut u rns f rom b oth B isenzo i n i nland E truria ( Fig. 9 .2/6 a nd 9 .3/1) a nd f rom C amporeatino ( Fig. 9 .3/2) s how the s ame p roblematic c haracteristics a s t hose f rom V eii. E xamples i n t he p roduction o f coastal E truria appear, o n t he o ther h and, only o nce a t S alernitano ( Tomba 2 500 o f P ontecagano). T he d ifference b etween t he r emains o f h uts d iscovered a t s ites i n t he two a reas i s o bviously l ess c lear. H uts a re d ocumented i n E truria f or a ll o f t he p rotohistoric p eriod a nd i n L atium mainly during t he 8 th c entury B .C., t herefore t hese h uts a re g enerally l ater. T he archaeological r emains o f t he h uts consist s imply o f foundations r ecognizable b y f oundation channels a nd postholes, o r more o ften b y a s carcely evident l ayer o f man-made d ebris o n b edrock ( Fig. 9 .4). T he a nalysis o f t hese t races l eft o n t he g round b y t he h uts h as r evealed g reat complexity a nd thus a g reat v ariety o f s olutions h ave b een adopted. I n f act round h ut p lans, oval o nes, s quare o nes a nd r ectangular o nes h ave a ll b een d ocumented. T he r ectangular p lans sometimes h ave r ounded c orners. D ifferences i n f orm d o n ot i mply s ome c hronological d ifferentiation, a s i s s hown b y t he more o r l ess contemporary e xamples f rom T arquinia, P ratica d i M are a nd S atricum. I n s ome c entres a p reference f or a particular t ype o f p lan h as b een noted, f or e xample, r ectangular huts a t F icana, oval h uts a t S . G iovenale ( Fig. 9 .4/1). F urthermore, t he v ariation i n d imensions d oes n ot s eem to b e connected w ith a p reference f or a particular type o f p lan. T he l argest e xamples a re, h owever, oval o r r ectangular, t hey a re a lso t he o nly o nes which a re s ometimes d ivided i n two p arts ( Tarquinia, S . G iovenale, S atricum). T he f loors o f t he h uts a re s ometimes s unk i nto t he g round ( Satricum, A cquarossa a nd o f a n e arlier d ate, S orgenti d ella N ova), a nd w hen t hat i s t he c ase neither postholes n or f oundation c hannels a re generally found. T his k ind o f ' halfs unk h abitation m ay b e r eproduced i n a f ew h ut u rns w here t he o pening r epresenting t he d oor i s c learly e levated w ith r esp ect to t he b ase; i ndeed, a n e xample f rom V ulci f urther s hows o n t he w all a n e levated d ado ( Fig. 9 .3/3). I n o ther h uts, t he

1 77

1

2

) t s• . , r,„

J . ,

(21

i

I i

/

3

5

6

F ig. 9 .2. Hut u rns: 1 . Marino C ampofattore ( 1:4); 2 . Tomba A ndreoli ( 1:4); 3 . O steria dell' Osa Tomb 1 29 ( 1:4); 4 . O steria d ell' Osa Tomb 1 28 ( 1:8); 5 . V elletri V igna D ' Andrea ( 1:4); 6 . B isenzo P orto Madonna T omb 1 2 ( 1: 4). 178

i nside f loor, s lightly l owered, appears to b e d elimited b y a s mall f oundation channel f or t he walls i n which s ometimes h oles f or t he b eams o f t he s upporting s tructure a re f ound ( Roma; A rdea) ( Fig. 9 .5 a nd P late 9 .1/1). I n some c ases, c ircular p ostholes, f or b eams t o s upport t he r oof, a re s ituated a long t he i nside o f t he p erimeter o f t he h ut i n two p arallel l ines o f f our h oles ( Pratica d i M are; T arquinia)(Fig. 9 .4/4) o r s ix h oles ( Ardea; T arquinia) ( Fig. 9 .4/2 and 9 .5) o r e lse i n o ne l ine a long a l ongitudinal axis ( Tarquinia; S .Giovenale) ( Fig. 9 .4/1-4). P ostholes outside t he foundation c hannel, w hich a re u sually much s maller t han t hose w ithin ( Roma) ( Plate 9 .1/1), would i nstead appear to i ndicate t he p resence o f s upporting p rops f or t he w alls. A s econd s mall c hannel, c lose t o t he f irst ( Sorgenti della N ova) would i ndicate a s eries o f s upports f or r einforcement f rom t he g round t o t he apex o f t he r oof, o r e lse p erhaps a much l ower r ing-shaped s tructure. T he s tructure would consist o f a v ertical w all f illed b ehind w ith e arth a nd s tones. I ts f unction would b e t o i solate t he hut. I t i s o ften u ncertain, h owever, w hether t wo c hannels w ith a g reater d istance b etween t hem ( Ardea, l arge oval hut) ( Fig. 9 .5) a re t o b e r elated t o a d ifferent o r c ontemporary phase o f t he h ut; i n t his c ase t he outer perimeter could i ndicate t he p resence of a n e nclosure. I n a ll o ther c ases, o n t he o ther h and, t he p erimeter o f t he h ut a ppears t o b e d elimited b y a s mall d rystone w all ( Colle S .Magno; F rosinone; C ivitavecchia T orre V aldaliga) o r b y a s mall embankment made o f a h eap o f s tones a nd mud ( Antemnae) w ithin which t here must h ave b een p laced o r f ixed a n e levated s tructure i n wood. A s light h ollow i n t he f loor, g enerally c ircular i n s hape, o r a s imply t he r emains o f a shes a nd b ones i ndicates t he p resence of a h earth. T his a ppears t o b e t he u sual l ocation a t t he c entre o f t he r oom ( Roma; S atricum; V eii), o r s lightly o ff c entre t owards t he b ack o f t he h ut, opposite t he e ntrance. T his i s e specially t he c ase i n oval huts ( Satricum). F ar more r are a re h earths o utside t he h ut, s uch a s t he e xamples a t P onte S . P ietro V alle a nd V eio, P iazza d 'Armi. T he d oor, r ecognizable b y the p ostholes f or t he d oorposts a nd s ometimes b y t he p resence o f a s tep, i s u sually p laced i n o ne o f t he s hort s ides o f t he h ut. O ften t he e ntrance h as a s mall porch a s i s i ndicated b y t he p resence o f t wo o r f our postholes f or poles ( Roma; P ratica d i M are; A rdea) ( Fig. 9 .6/2 a nd P late 9 . 1 /6 ) . I t a ppears to b e u nusual f rom t he p lans f or t he d oor t o b e o n o ne o f t he l ong s ides ( Tarquinia, hut 4 2 a nd p erhaps h ut 3 ) ( Fig. 9 .4/3) o r f or i t to b e a double d oor ( Tarquinia; P ratica d i M are). I f t he r 3ading o f t he t races i n t he g round l eft b y t he huts d oes n ot p resent a ny g reat d ifficulties, t he r econstruction o f t heir s uperstructures i s f ar more d ifficult, s ince i t w as constructed i n p erishable m aterial, a nd h as b een c ompletely l ost, e xcept f or a f ew b its o f p laster a nd c lay w ith t he i mpressions l eft b y twigs o f w ood a nd r eeds. I n t he v arious a ttempts a t t he r econstruction o f p rotohistoric h uts, made t owards t he e nd o f t he l ast c entury, u se was e ither m ade o f t he c omparison w ith f unerary models, which r eproduce w ith extreme r ealism t he e lements o f t he

1 79

F ig. 9 .3. H ut C amporeatino

u rns: 1 . B isenzo P orto M adonna T omb 1 ( 1:4); 2 . ( 1:4); 3 . Vulci O steria ( 1:4); 4 . V etulonia P oggio a lla Guardia Tomb 1 ( 1:4). 1 80

s uperstructure a nd t he r oof, o r w ith h uts s till i n u se, u p u ntil twenty y ears a go o r s o, i n t he r ural a reas o f T uscany a nd L atium, which s howed t he p ersistence a nd f unctional v alue o f t his m ethod o f c onstruction ( Plate 9 .1/2). O ne c onfirmation o f t he t enacious conservatism o f t his type o f construction w as g iven b y a s hepherd's h ut s ituated o n t he h ighland p lain o f V accareccia n ear V eii which was e xamined i n 1 964 b y J . C lose B rooks a nd S . G ibson ( Close B rooks a nd G ibson 1 964). T hey i dentified i t e ssentially a s i dentical w ith a hut f rom t he l ast c entury f rom t he s ame z one, o bserved a nd d escribed b y D ennis, a lthough i ts d imensions were s maller ( Dennis 1 878, 1 7-18). C onsequently, t he a nalysis o f t he p lans a nd t echnique o f covering t he extant h uts, w hich l eft t races i n t he g round o ften i dentical w ith t hose o f p rotohistoric h uts, c an o ffer i n s ome c ases a v alid a id t o t he i nterpretation o f a whole c ategory o f t races observed during a n excavation which would a lmost a lways r emain i mpossible to i nterpret o n a purely a rchaeological l evel. T he v arious r econstructions o f t he s tructure o f protohistoric h uts t hus obtained a re o n t he whole s ubstantially u nequivocal. T hey a ll a gree i n f act i n considering t he E trusco-Latial h ut a s a p lace o f h abitation w ith walls o f i nterwoven b ranches, h eld u p w ith p osts f ixed v ertically i n t he g round p lastered w ith c lay. T he d oor i s u sually o n o ne o f t he s hortest s ides, w hile g enerally t he r oof i s a rched a nd c overed w ith b ranches a nd s traw made w aterproof w ith c lay. Two o penings a t t he f ront a llow t he s moke f rom t he h earth t o e scape. T he r eferences i n t he l iterary s ources c onfirm s uch a s tructure. F or e xample, t he passage f rom V itruvius ( De A rch. I I, 1 , 3 ) i n which h e d escribes t he p rocedure u sed b y p rimitive m en f or t he construction o f h uts: ' ....furcis e rectis e t v irgulis i nterpositis l uto p arietes t exerunt'. A lso Ovid ( Fasti, V I, 2 62) s peaks o f ' pan es l ento v imine t extus'. F urthermore f rom t he l iterary s ources w e h ave t he r ecord o f h uts p reserved f or a l ong t ime o n a ccount o f r eligious t radition, s uch a s t he hut o n t he P alatine considered t o b e t hat of R omulus, which a ccording t o D ionysius o f H alicarnassus ( Ant. R om. 1 ,7,9), h ad come to b e r estored, m aintaining f or e ver t he construction, S imilarly, a c ircular h ut w ith a n a rched r oof r epresented on a medallion o f A ntoninus P ius i s t he edifice a t L avinium i n w hich A eneas p laced h is n ative gods, t hat i s t he t emple o f t he P enati, s uch i s t he a nalogy w hich c an b e d rawn f rom w hat w e k now f rom t he s ources t hat d escribe i t, i t i s, l ike t he t emple o f V esta, l ike a c ircular h ut ( Dionysius, I , 6 4, 1 ) ( Castagnoli 1 981). I f t hen w hen w e l ook a t t he s tructure a nd materials u sed f or t he construction o f a h ut t here a re n o g reat d ifficult ies; t here a re, however, o ften many d ifferent s olutions proposed f or p articular t echnical d etails a nd above a ll f or i ts s tatic n ature. I n t he r econstruction b y C ozza, r elated b y B arnabei ( Barnabei 1 893, 2 02-208), f or e xample, t he s keleton s tructure o f t he w alls o f t he h ut would h ave b een constructed

1 81

F ig.

9 .4.

Hut

p lans:

1 . S an G iovenale; C alvario. 1 82

2 -4.

T arquinia

1 _1 _1

F ig.

71 7 9 .5.

1 0

1 ?

2 0

2 ?

3 5-

3 0 -

A rdea C olle d ella N oce: e arlier r emains o f h uts

1 83

p lan o f t he a nd t ombs.

1

t emple

a nd

o f a l arge number o f r ather t hin posts e ach o f which would also h ave s upported t he j oists o f t he r oof. T he posts and j oists were h eld together b y a p lait o f f lexible r eeds. T he v ertical s tructure t hus made was t hen completed w ith h orizontal r ows o f canes b efore s preading t he s traw covering ( Fig. 9 .6/1). B esides t he comparison w ith t he hut u rns, i n w hich t he r elief e lements o n t he r oof n ever r each t he e dges, Cozza h ad s uggested t he e xistence o f a n e xternal doubling o f a ll t he e lements o f t he r oof a s a method o f g aining a g reater s olidity i n t he s traw covering. T his d oubling method c ame to f orce a doubling o n t he i nside a s w ell a s t he outside o f the hut. F inally, according to C ozza, t he t ermination o f the b eams o n t he r oofs o f hut u rns w ith h orns ( Latium) o r w ith b ird-shaped a ntefixes ( Etruria) i ndicated the a ctual existence o f coverings moulded i n c lay o n t he huts f or t he protection o f t he wood. I n connection w ith t his s uggestion o ne s hould r emember t he u se i n rural a reas o f c lay pots to protect t he tops o f t he roofs o f conical huts a nd t he t ops of t he posts o f h aystacks. T here h ave b een c ritics o f t his r econstruction. F or e xample P inza ( Pinza 1 924, 1 25 f ootnote 3 ) considers t he doubling o f t he r oof e lements a s u nlikely, on the o ther h and i t i s g enerally accepted ( Andre & I 1 9516 0, 5 1 f ootnote 7 3), t hat t he b inding b etween t he i nternal a nd external s tructures would p erforate t he t hatch r oof, d estroying i ts p rincipal f unction, t hat i s s topping t he r ain getting i n. A ccording to P inza t he skeletal s tructure o f t he hut would only h ave b een v isible o n t he i nside of t he r eal t hing, whereas b ecause o f t he f unction o f the f unerary models t he r epresentation or p rojection o f i nternal f eatures o nto t he outside would h ave b een n ecessary, along w ith the exaggeration o f t he i mportance o f s ome o ther i nternal f eatures. O n t he o ther h and, P uglisi a nd D avico ( Puglisi 1 951, 6 5-74; D avico 1 951), while publishing t he r emains of huts f rom t he G ermalus, h eld a s i nadequate t he method of b inding o f t he posts a nd j oist s uggested b y Cozza. T hey considered i t too e lastic a nd consequently i nadequate to s upport t he weight o f t he r oof. I n t he, b y now, c lassical r econstruction b y D avico t he s keletal s tructure o f t he walls of t he hut a re i n f act formed o f s even robust posts, o ne at each o f t he f our corners a nd t hree a t t he c entre o f t hree of t he walls. T he upper extremities o f t he posts a re connected to t he h orizontal b eams r igidly, so t hat t he posts a ugment t he s tability o f t he hut a nd a t t he s ame t ime also s erve to b ear t he j oists o f t he r oof, which a re propped u p to a l arge post i n t he c entre o f t he hut ( Fig. 9 .6/2). A nother e xample o f t he u alue o f t he comparison w ith the f unerary models a nd above a ll w ith r eal extant huts a s a n aid to i nterpretation of more complicated s ituations i s g iven by t he c ase of t he monumental edifice a t L uni sul M ignone ( Östenberg 1 967; P eroni 1 967; H ellström 1 975). T he edifice i s d atable to t he f inal B ronze A ge, a nd consists of a l arge r ectangular r oom w ith t he d imensions o f c . 9 x 1 8 metres, cut to a depth o f 6 metres i n a b ank o f tufa. T he a nalysis o f t he s tructure o f some h uts i n t he z one b etween A nagni a nd T erracina i n s outhern L atium a nd above a ll t hat of a l arge rectangular h ut, s ituated n ear t he monastery of F ossanova,

1 84

1

2 F ig.

9 .6. 1 .Hut

r econstructed

b y Cozza; D avico.

1 85

2 .

H ut

r econstructed

b y

w ith d rystone walls o n which r ested a r oof ( sloping o r conical a ccording t o t he p lans a nd t he d imensions), made o f v egetation, has made possible t he construction o f a hypothesis t hat t he edifice a t L uni h ad a s loping roof, w hich on t he s outh-east a nd t he s outh-west s ides must h ave r ested d irectly o n t he w all o f t ufa, whilst o n t he n orth-east a nd t he n orth-west s ides, w here t he tufa w all i s a t a l ower l evel, i t must h ave r ested o n a d rystone wall. A s imilar r oof h as b een hypothesized f or a n a nalogous a nd contemporary edifice a t Monte R ovello ( Maffei 1 973). T he edifice i s r ectangular i n f orm, 7 .65 x 1 5.25 m ., a nd i s cut d eeply i nto t he r ock. I n t he h ypothetical r econstruction o f t his edifice t he c arrying s tructure f or t he roof r ested d irectly o n t he tufa s urrounding t he r ock-cut r oom. C riticisms h ave b een made o f t he r econstruction o f t he edifice a t L uni; e specially regarding t he r oof ( Lollini e t al. 1 967). I ndeed, even considering t he hut u rns, t here d oes n ot appear to b e a ny evidence f or s uch a s teep s loping roof o r f or s uch a g reat h eight w ith r espect to t he walls. T he w alls o f p rotohistoric places o f h abitation must h ave consisted f or t he most p art o f posts covered i n p laster, even w hen evidence f or t he postholes h as n ot s urvived; i n which c ase, the posts could have b een s upported b y a d rystone w all, perhaps r epresented i n t he h ut u rns b y a d ado. F inally, i t i s necessary t o r emember t he s eries o f experimental examinations mainly u ndertaken over t he l ast t en years i n G reat B ritain, F rance a nd S candinavia. S ome o f t hese experiments a ttempted to r econstruct t he amount o f t ime r equired f or t he construction, t he amount o f work r ecquired, t he methods o f construction, o f abandonment, o f r econstruct ion a nd t he d istribution o f p rotohistoric s ettlements. T he r esults o f t hese experiments h ave y ielded v alid a id t o t he solution o f p roblems o f i nterpretation a nd f unction p osed b y t he a rchaeological r emains ( Reynolds 1 979; C oles 1 981, 4 96 2). A lthough t here i s v alue i n g iving more r econstructions o f huts, our e ndeavour i s more s pecifically a imed a t s eeing i f the d ifferences observed b etween L atial h ut u rns a nd t hose o f E truria a re a lso perceptible i n r eal a rchitecture. W e w ill d eal mainly w ith f our c entres ( two i n L atium, R ome a nd P ratica d i M are, a nd two i n E truria, T arquinia a nd V eii) f rom which t here a re h ut u rns, a nd a t w hich e xcavation h as r evealed t races o f h uts. T he c hoice t o e xamine t hose s ites which p resent b oth parts o f t he evidence was f urther controlled b y t he material a t s omP s ites to a p reference f or a particular t ype o f h abitation, f or e xample, r ectangular h uts a t F icana, oval h uts a t S . G iovenale a nd so o n. I t s eemed i nteresting to prove whether o r not t hese s ame c haracteristic t endencies i n t he a rchitecture could b e d etected a lso i n t he f unerary models. L ooking a t t he p lans, b oth oval a nd r ectangular h uts a re t estified i n t he two z ones ( Tarquinia, P ratica d i M are); however, c ircular huts appear t o b e more d iffused i n L atium. T his appears t o b e authenticated b y t he f unerary models. A

1 86

P late

9 .1.

1 .

R ome,

P alatine: h uts n ear

r emains o f G uidonia.

1 87

h uts;

2 .

S hepherds'

c ircular p lan appears t o b e o ne o f t he c haracteristics o f t he hut u rns f rom L atium. I t i s i nteresting t hat a t V eil, w hich i n many r espects s eems t o b e t ied t o t he L atial z one, c ircular h uts a re p robably p resent. O n t he b asis of excavations s o f ar u ndertaken i t i s moreover possible t o n ote that t here i s a g reater f requency o f p lans w ith g reater d imensions a t E truscan c entres, d atable t o t he V illanovan period ( for e xample T arquinia, h ut 7 : 1 2.7 x 7 .3 m .; h ut 1 3: 1 6.2 x 8 .6 m .; h ut 4 8: 1 1.3 x 6 .7 m .), t han a t most L atial c entres ( Rome, S atricum). I t i s d ifficult to e stablish i f t he d ifference i n d imensions noted i n t he models i s r elated to t he r eal a rchitectural d imensions, o r w hether i t i s d etermined perhaps b y t aste o r b y t he s trong t endencies to miniaturization i n t he L atial a nd V isentine material. T he objects which a re f ound i n hut u rns i n c oastal E truria a re never o f . r educed d imensions a nd t hus p robably r equired a l arge container. A t t his point i t s eems opportune t o n ote t his f urther d ifference. T he porch o f t he e ntrance, made more evident o r a ccentuated i n a lmost a ll R oman a nd L atial hut u rns, i s f ound o ften w ith t he r emains o f h uts e xcavated i n t he s ame a rea, t hat i s L atium. T he c lassical e xample i s that o f t he h ut o n t he G ermalus, which h as already b een mentioned, to which could b e a dded o ther e xamples a t R ome f rom t he z one o f t he R egia. T he p resence o f porches i s f urther a ttested a t A rdea a nd i n a r ecent excavation a t P ratica d i Mare. S o f ar t hey h ave n ot b een t estified i n E truria. I t i s a lways e asy t o d etermine t he d ifference b etween w indows a nd doors i n t he models, b oth a re generally p laced on the l eft s ide. H owever i t d oes s eem possible to n ote a preference f or a double d oor i n t he L atial z one a nd a t V eii, and f or a s ide w indow i n t he E truscan z one, e xcept at V etulonia where o nly a s ingle d oor i s f ound a t t he f ront. G enerally i t i s o nly possible i n t he h ut f loors to r ecognize t he position o f t he d oor. I n oval a nd r ectangular h uts i t i s o n o ne o f t he s hort s ide ( the f ront); while i n s ome l arge huts a double d oor i s r ecognizable ( Pratica d i M are; T arquinia, h ut 1 3). T he s ide d oor, a s i n t he h ut u rns ( Tomba A ndreoli; O steria d ell' Osa T omb 1 28 a nd T omb 1 31; P ratica d i Mare T omb 1 6) i s much s maller t han a f ront o ne. I n s upport of t his v iew i s t he p recise comparison a t P ratica d i M are b etween t he l arge oval h ut b rought t o l ight b y a r ecent excavation a nd t he h ut u rn f rom t omb 1 6. Much r arer a nd at t he moment l imited to r ectangular f orms o f s mr11 d imensions a re s ingle doors o n o ne o f t he l ong s ides ( Tarquinia, h ut 4 2 a nd p erhaps h ut 3 ) ( Fig. 9 .4/3). O ne d oes n ot f ind t his s ituation i n h ut u rns but o nly i n t he l ater h ouse u rns ( Buranelli) ( Fig. 9 .7/3). T his evidence a nd moreover the comparison w ith a r ectangular h ouse, w ith a s uperstructure o f wooden b eams a nd w alls o f c ane a nd c lay, e xcavated a t V eil n ear t he n orth-west g ate t o t he t own, d atable t o t he f irst h alf o f t he V II _ c entury B .C. ( Ward-Perkins 1 959, 5 8-65) ( Fig. 9 .7/2), which h as d oors o n o ne o f t he l ong s ides, together w ith much l ater h ouses a t A cquarossa ( östenberg 1 975, P late 2 42, E -K), would a ppear t o i ndicate t he a doption o f more evolved s tructural c haracteristics. T he p lan o f

1 88

P late

9 .

2 .

B isenzo

S .

B ernardino

1 89

T omb

2 1;

h ut

u rn.

t hese huts a t T arquinia, g enerally r ectangular o r a lmost s quare w ith a s ingle r ow o f i nternal s upports, could appear to s uggest moreover t hat t he s ubstitution o f a n a rched r oof ( characteristic o f h ut u rns a nd o f oval a nd c ircular h uts, a lso o f l arge d imensions w ith r ows o f i nternal s upports) had a lready b een made b y a r oof w ith t wo s urfaces, r epresented i n t he c inerary u rns o f b ronze made i n t he f orm o f a h ouse, f ound a t V eil, F alerii a nd V etulonia ( Plate 9 .3/2) w hich a re d atable t o t he f irst h alf o f t he 7 th c entury B .C., a nd i n t he s imilar models i n t erracotta, which a re d atable d own t o t he s econd h alf o f t he V II c entury B .C., e ven t hough t he r oof probably r emained t hatched ( Colonna 1 981, 5 1-56) ( Fig. 9 .3/1). F rom t he f irst period o f t he I ron A ge, at p resent, t here i s o nly o ne model, found a t S ala C onsilina ( Tomba S . A ntonio no. 6 3), t hat r eproduces t his type o f r oof w ith two s lopes ( Kilian 1 970, 2 44, 2 88). A f inal e lement i t appears opportune t o m ention i s t he exuberant d ecoration p resent o n t he r oofs o f t he h ut u rns f rom t he E truscan a rea. W e h ave n ot g ot a ny d irect evidence f or t he h uts; h owever, a rchitectural m aterial f rom l ater periods a llows a n a ttempt to l ook a t t he possibilities. I n E truria a whole s eries o f a croteri m ade o f t erracotta o f d ifferent f igures h ave b een f ound i n t he houses a t A cquarossa a nd Muria ( Rystedt 1 983), which could i ndicate t he f requent u se i n E truscan houses o f e xuberant d ecorations o n t he r oof. I n L atium, i nstead, t he a ttestation o f r oof d ecorations i s i n exclusively r eligious contexts ( for e xample t he temple o f S . Omobono), whilst t hey d o not appear t o b e evident a t t he R egia o r i n o ther h ouses i n L atium ( neither a t F icana n or S atricum), where i nstead, i t appears t hat t he u se o f r evetment p laques was t he n orm. I t s eems r ight t o t ransfer t his e xuberant d ecoration t o t he h uts a nd to s uppose t hat t he f unerary models b ore a p recise correspondence w ith t he r eal a rchitecture o f t he s ame a rea. T his h ypothesis appears t o b e s trengthened b y t he c lose agreement b etween t he d ecorative e lements o f t he r oof, made o f t hatching w ith two s urfaces, o f a house u rn made i n t erracotta f rom C erveteri ( necropolis o f Monte Abatone, T omb 4 26) ( Plate 9 .3/1) a nd t hose o f a r oof of a h ut u rn f rom B isenzo ( S. B ernardino, T omb 2 1) ( Plate 9 .2). O n t he o ther h and, t hatched r oofs, i dentical to t hose o f huts, continued t o b e constructed f or houses, a s i s s hown b y t he ' casa t onda' o f R oselle ( Fig. 9 .7/1), w hich i s made o f c rude b ricks a nd h as s ome f orm o f t hatched r oof, d atable to perhaps t he t hird quarter o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. T hese e xamples, a n u rn i n t he f orm o f a h ouse w ith a t hatched r oof, t he ' casa tonda' o f R oselle a nd t he ' casa d i l egno' o f V eii, p resent c haracteristics t hat may d efine t he t ransition f rom hut to r eal h ouse, w ith a p roper r oof m ade o f t iles, t he u se o f which i s a ffirmed i n c entral Tyrrhenian I taly f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. T his f ixed t he d ecisive d irection o f p rivate, c ivil a nd r eligious a rchitecture i n central Tyrrhenian I taly. I n s umming u p t his g enerally o f h omogeneous possible t o g rasp s ome

s urvey o f h ut s tructures, t hat a re construction, w e conclude t hat i t i s p eculiarities t hat d istinguish t he

1 90

P late

9 .3. C erveteri Monte Abatone T omb 4 26, house t erracotta; F alerii, h ouse u rn o f b ronze. 1 91

u rn

o f

huts

o f

t he

two

a reas.

T he e xamination o f t he p ossibility o f d istinguishing t he d iverse f unctions b y t he v arious types o f h abitation i n i ndividual centres h as b een a ttempted b y o ffering a n e xample f rom amongst t he survey o f t he d ata r ecently emerged f rom t he e xcavation a t S atricum, u ndertaken b y t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a t t he U niversity o f G roningen ( Beijer 1 983; S tibbe 1 982). A n a ttempt o f t his n ature h as a lready b een made b y L inington f or T arquinia, p roducing t he conclusion t hat t here i s a c lear d istinction b etween quadrangular h uts f or h abitation, a nd t hose w ith oval a nd r ectangular p lans d estined f or u ses ( stables, s torerooms a nd s o o n) ( Linington 1 982a; 1 982b). T he t races a ttributable t o p rotohistoric h abitation a t g atricum s hows a v ariety o f f orms a nd d imensions i n a p eriod s tarting s hortly b efore t he e ighth c antury B .C. a nd r unning d own t o t he middle o f t he s eventh c entury B .C., t hat i s t he L atial p eriods, a dvanced I IB, I II a nd I VA. T he d itches o f t he s tructures a re c ircular, oval o r r ectangular i n f orm a nd h ave b een cut i nto t he s andy c lay t hat covers t he t ufaceous h ill to a d epth o f b etween 5 0 a nd 7 5 cm. b elow t he s urface. I n some c ases a h earth h as b een cut i n t he f loor a nd s ometimes o ne f inds a n e ntrance o n t he eastern s ide ( the o rientation v aries b etween n orth-east a nd s outh-east ( Fig. 9 .8 a nd F ig. 9 .9/12). S cores o f small h oles, s ome c ircular, a re f ound s cattered i n t he g round. T he d iameter goes f rom a round t en c entimetres t o o ne metre a nd a h alf. T hese a re t he t races l eft b y posts, b y e xcavation f or c lay a nd i n s ome i nstances by open a ir h earths. T hree c ircular p its w ith a h earth, cut i n t he f loor, o r w ith a n e ntranceway h ave l arge d imensions ( diameter f rom 3 m . to 4 .0 m .). I n o ne ( D10/I, d iameter 3 .60 m .) t en postholes were noted i nside i n t he f loor. A ll o f t hese e lements r ender i ts i nterpretation a s a h ut p lausible. E ight o f t he p its h ave medium s ized d imensions ( from 1 .50 m . to 2 .50 m .) a nd a re w ithout h earths o r e ntrances. T hey h ave d ifferent characteristics; a lso n oted i n t he r elated material ( Maaskant K leibrink a nd O lde D ubbelink t his v olume). F or o ne o f t hem ( D9/I), w ith a d eep c oncave f loor, o ne could t hink o f i t a s a s tore f or f oodstuffs ( for example f or g rain) which was l ater f illed w ith r ubbish. A d ifferent o ne, i nstead ( E9/I), w as f illed w ith r efuse ( lots o f b its o f t ufa a nd l umps o f c lay) a s s oon a s i t h ad b een d ug i n t he g round. T he l arge majority o f t he p i4 L s a re oval i n f orm ( so f ar a t otal o f 2 9). T he l ength i s more o r l ess t wice t hat o f t he w idth. O ne hat w ith a h earth h as g reater d imensions t han a ll o f t he o thers ( 13 x 6 .80 m .). S ix h ave medium d imensions w ith a l ength o f b etween 9 a nd 5 m . A ll o f t hese h ave a h earth o r a n e ntrance. O f t he s eventeen oval p its w ith l engths f rom 2 to 5 m . h alf h ave a h earth o r a n e ntrance. I n two h uts ( D10/II a nd F 9/II) t he s ide o f t he p it i s s teep, while t he wall, o n t he o ther h and, i s o nly s lightly s loped a nd h as a porch. T he o ther oval p its d o not h ave a ny particular f eatures ( for e xample D 9/V); l acking a re, a n e ntrance, a h earth a nd p ostholes. F ive o f t he s maller p its ( dimensions 1 .40 to 1 .80 m .) containing h ardly a ny material,

1 92

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—

1

a

2

-

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F ig.

9 .7.

1 .

a

I -

c a

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--

5

R oselle, ' casa t onda'; N orth-West G ate.

1 93

0

4 -

-

1 0

2 .

V eii,

h ouse

b eside

P late

9 .4.

Copenhagen,

H ouse

1 94

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f rom

I taly.

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a a

F ig. 1 8.1. S icily.

D istribution o f early B ronze A L Rodi-Tindari-Vallelunga I Capo Graziano and Tarxien • Mycenean P ottery

3 40

A ge

Cultures

C emetery

i n

( Spigo

p ers.

c omm.;

R ecami

e t

a l.

1 983).

Therefore, t here i s a constant f eature among t he maritime g roups o f S icily: t he u ndecorated pottery w ith s imilarities i n f orms b etween e astern, western a nd northern s ettlements. U nfortunately our k nowledge o f t he R odl-Tindari-Vallelunga f acies i s s o small t hat i t h as b een i mpossible, u ntil now, to u nderstand i ts r elationship to s ea t rade. T he o nly c lear evidence o f r elations w ith n earby societies s eems t o b e a s eries o f v ases imported f rom Capo G raziano to V illafrati (Bovi o M arconi 1 944; B ernabö B rea 1 958) a nd M ilazzo ( Cavalier 1 970). S ince V illafrati i s i n t he w estern part o f n orthern S icily we c an s uppose t hat t here a re some i ntermediate s ites t hrough which exchange took p lace. However, g reater p roof o f r egular t rade b etween t he A eolian i slands a nd S icily comes f rom t he pottery f abric. T he c lay u sed to make C apo G raziano v ases was i mported f rom northern S icily, perhaps f rom t he a rea of S patafora, n ear M ilazzo, where b rick manufacture f lourished u ntil t he present d ay. We owe t his conclusion to r esearch done b y W illiams on a w ide range o f A eolian pottery ( Williams 1 967; 1 980). S o, a lthough t he available d ata a re l imited w e t hink t hat t he s ites o f northern S icily could h ave played a part i n the i nteraction w ithin t he south Tyrrhenian a rea. T he . A eolian i slands were u ndergoing, a t t his p eriod, a c lear r evival f ollowing a s erious c risis t hat took p lace during t he l ast phases o f t he N eolithic when t he obsidian p roduction f inally d eclined. D ue t o t hese p roblems t he a rchipelago was l eft v irtually i solated f rom t he Tyrrhenian c ircuits u ntil t he s econd phase o f t he C apo G raziano period ( Bernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 980). During t he s ame p eriod political events b rought t he C retan s ociety o f t he A egean to a n e nd, f ollowed b y t he r ise o f the Mycenaean economy. A new economic a gent b ecame d ominant i n t he M editerranean l andscape connecting d istant ports and cultures t hrough maritime a ctivity. F rom t he 1 6th c entury B .C. t he Mycenaeans b ecame a r emarkable p resence i n t he Mediterranean l eaving c lear a rchaeological t races of t heir passage ( Marazzi a nd Tusa 1 979; V agnetti 1 982; V agnetti 1 983) ( Fig. 1 8.2). The A eolian communities were a dept a t e xploiting t heir r esources a nd t heir excellent g eographical position. I n t his period t hey b ecame aware o f t he n ew s ituation a nd t ried to e nter t he M editerranean t rade c ircuit. S o, s tarting f rom t he s econd phase o f t he C apo G raziano period - a round t he 1 6th c entury B .C. - M ycenaean i tems appeared i n t he A eolian s ettlements i n l arge quantities. H owever, r elated r isks c ame w ith t he n ew wealth. F or t his r eason t he l ower v illages of F ilicudi a nd L ipari were abandoned and were r ebuilt o n h igher s ites during t he s econd p hase of C apo G raziano period. T he r evival o f t rade a nd consequent accumulation of wealth b rought t he typical p roblems of expanded systems i n t he f orm o f a ggressive

3 41

F ig. 1 8.2. S ea-routes a nd cultural d istribution of R odiT indari-Vallelunga, C apo G raziano, P rot° A ppenninico B , Mycenaean ( hatched l ine) p ottery a nd t he T arxien c emetery.

3 42

c ompetition

or

a cts

o f

p iracy.

T he d evelopment o f t his n ew system of M editerranean r elations was a lready p rimed a nd p roceeded t o d evelop o n a v ery l arge s cale u ntil t he e nd o f Mycenaean s ea-power, a nd l ater when t he C ypro-Phoenicians b ecame d ominant f rom t he 1 1th century B .C. T he a ssociated r egenerated f unction o f t rade l inks i n t he southern Tyrrhenian gave a g reat impulse t o cultural i ntegration b etween t he a rchipelago, S icily a nd s outhern I taly ( Fig. 1 8.2). A lthough v ery l ittle i s k nown a bout northern S icily, we c an s uggest t hat d eep cultural t ies w ere connecting t his a rea w ith t he A eolian i slands. For e xample, b esides t he d iscussion above, we c an s ee a nalogies i n t he deep conical b owls w ith c arinated b ody a nd h igh necks. Moreover, a s imilar f eature i s s hown i n t he r ejection of painted d ecoration a nd i nstead t he u se o f i ncised d ecoration, a nd pottery w ith polished o r b urnished s urfaces. Typological s imilarities a re not r estricted to t he p reviously quoted v ases f rom V illafrati, a nd some C apo G raziano type b owls f rom M ilazzo. There were a lso e xtensive l inks b etween t he A eolian i slands a nd t he Tyrrhenian coasts of southern I taly ( especially w ith C ampania) ( Fig. 1 8.2). D uring t he f inal N eolithic t he a rea was o ccupied b y s cattered groups o f s oc alled ' warrior s hepherds'. T hese g roups accumulated l arge a mounts o f wealth. T he r esult o f t his p rocess was t he soc alled and w idely k nown c iviltä appenninica t hat continued t hrough t he e ntire B ronze a ge o f I taly ( Puglisi 1 959). During t he f irst s tage o f t his cultural p rocess many n ew s ettlements w ere founded, s ome o f t hem a long the coasts. T his typological a spect, k nown as P roto Appenninico B , marks t he b eginning of c ultural i ntegration i n southern I taly ( Lo P orto 1 964). T he c onnections b etween t he P roto A ppeninico B a nd C apo G raziano o ccurred i n C ampania, but i t i s quite certain t hat C alabria, ( yet to b e i nvestigated), was a lso partly i nvolved i n s uch a n i ntegration. U ntil now i t h as b een d ifficult to a scertain p recisely f rom t he a rchaeological d ata t he main communication route; b ut i t i s c lear t hat s uch routes were mainly concentrated a long t hose c oastal s ettlements b ased on s ea-faring a ctivities, s uch a s V ivara, o r p laced a long n atural s ea r outes, s uch a s G rotta d el Noglio ( Vigliardi 1 975) a nd P raia a Mare ( Cardini 1 970) ( Fig. 1 8.3). T he C ampanian P roto A ppenninico B o f V ivara ( Marazzi et al. 1 975-80) a nd G rotta d el Noglio, n ear M arina d i C amerota, s how v ery c lear t ypological t ies w ith C apo G raziano. P ottery manufacture w as, o f course, b ased o n t he h eritage o f l ocal groups, b ut, i n t his c ase, we note some i nter-relationship. T he e lements i n common concern b oth f orms a nd decorations. Among t he main f orms a re t i le hour-glass s haped supports, b owls w ith i nside h andle, c arinated b owls w ith concave s ides a nd h igh r ims, two-handled ovoid b owls

3 43

P ig.

1 8.3.

D istribution o f P roto-Appenninico peninsular a reas.

3 44

B i n

c oastal

c alotte s haped b owls w ith h igh r ibbon h andles a nd l ow concave r ims, a nd, most commonly, c alotte s haped b owls w ith s mall h andles. A mong decorations w e note t he i ncised z ig-zag, t he cuppelle, g rooves a nd t he t hree v ertical a nd p arallel cordons ( Fig. 1 8.4). T hese s tylistic s imilarities d emonstrate t he p resence o f quite f requent contacts t hat p roduced not o nly s imple e xchanges o f s ingle objects, b ut a lso t he a ssimilation o f t he r espective p roduction s tyles. T he g eographical u nity o f t he r egion i s b ased o n t he excellent communication o f t he s ea r outes. M oreover t he coasts o f northern S icily, o f t he A eolian i slands a nd o f C ampania s how morphological a ffinities, s uch a s h igh c liffs s ometimes b roken b y g ravel b eaches. I f we consider t hat S tromboli, w ith i ts early B ronze a ge s ettlement ( Cavalier 1 981), i s o nly 1 80 km. f rom P alinuro a nd G rotta d el N oglio, a nd t hat p revailing w inds w ere f avourable, we c an a rgue t hat c rossing t he s outhern Tyrrhenian w as n ot a d ifficult t ask. Further, t he s outhern T yrrhenian was n ot a s d angerous a s t he C anale d i S icilia o r t he I onian s ea, due t o i ts position s urrounded b y l and o n every s ide. F rom S tromboli i t i s e asy to r each t he C alabrian coasts w ithout l osing s ight o f t he coast. I t was p robably b ecause o f t his f ortunate position t hat t he A eolian i slands a nd S icily h ad c lose contact w ith C ampania a nd C alabria i n o ther p eriods ( for e xample P iano Conte). T herefore t he e xistence o f good g eographical connections was a p re-requisite f or c lose i ntegration. T he common i nterest i n e xchange, a nd t he p resence o f a n ' agent' t hat s timulated t his a ctivity t o i ncrease t he cultural i nteraction, a ffected a ll t he s outhern T yrrhenian coastal s ocieties during t he e arly B ronze a ge. T hey expanded t heir s ubsistence e conomies, a nd d eveloped t heir s ocio-political o rganisation to a lmost P roto-Urban l evels. T he ' agents' o f t he e xchange a ctivity w ere t he M ycenaeans w ho i mposed e fficient a nd s ophisticated exchange r ules a nd t echniques, c reating a n etwork o f p ermanent r outes. H owever, n ot a ll t he s ites o n t he coasts w ere i nvolved i n t his n etwork. O nly s ome o f t hem h ad a r ole i n i t, a nd b ecame l anding-places a nd exchange-points. E ven i f t he exotic Mycenaean i tems a re f ound everywhere, t hir d oes not m ean t hat t he Mycenaeans w ere i n contact w ith a ll t he s ettlements. O nly s ome coastal s ocieties a chieved t he r ole o f m iddlemen b etween A egean a nd l ocal s ocieties, t hrough t heir g eographical position, t heir s ea-faring h eritage a nd t heir s ocio-economic d evelopment. T here s eem t o b e t wo main l anding-places t hrough w hich t he r elation b etween Mycenaeans a nd t he i ndigenes were f ormed: V ivara a nd t he F legrean i slands t o t he N orth a nd t he A eolian i slands i n t he S outh. B oth a reas w ere a ssisted b y t heir i nsularity. T he A eolian i slands h ad b oth t he l ocation a nd a n a ncient h eritage o f s ea-faring a ctivities a cquired t hrough t he obsidian t rade d uring t he N eolithic. M oreover t he

3 45

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3 46

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A eolian i slands obtained sufficient f ood p roduction f rom l ocal p roduction. V ivara a nd I schia were i n a f avourable s ituation b ecause o f t heir p roximity t o C ampania, a r ich t erritory t hat w as r eceptive to e xotic convenience goods. I n t his connection i t i s c lear t hat r aw materials a nd t he s upply o f v arious objects d id not o ccur t hrough d irect c ontact b etween b uyer a nd t rader, b ut t hrough d efined c entres t hat we c an i dentify a s ' terminals' t hat may h ave b een d istant f rom t he exploitation a reas. I t i s c lear t hat t his m ethod o f e xchange c ould o nly work i f t he o rganisation w as f luid ( Marazzi a nd T usa 1 979; D ickinson 1 977). T he A eolian i slands h ad a n important i ntermediary p osition a long t he r oute f rom t he s traits o f M essina t o t he N orth. T he d istance f rom P alinuro i n t he n orth i s a lso not s o f ar, a nd we k now t hat P alinuro a nd t he surrounding a rea was a n i mportant o ne, a s t he f irst s afe l anding-place, where t he c oast i s s andy a nd f lat, when approached f rom t he s outh. T he F legrean i slands h ad c omparable positions a long t he s ame s ear oute, a lthough t hey were a part o f t he F legrean r egion, t heir i nsularity g ave t hem a p rivileged position. T hey were a t a s afe d istance f rom d angerous r aids c oming f rom t he l and, b ut c lose e nough f or e asy t rade. E qually i mportant t he F legrean r egion i s o ne o f t he most f ertile o f t he w hole o f I taly, a nd l ater I schia was c hosen f or t he s ame r easons a s a b ase f or t he E uboan colonization o f C ampania, a s w ell a s V ivara f or Mycenaean p roducts. V arious f actors d emonstrate t hat t he A eolian F legrean i slands h ad a more complex Mycenaean p resence i f t hey were r emote markets.

a nd t han

F irstly, t he s udden appearance o f M ycenaean p roducts d uring LH I s hows t hat t his p resence i s due t o p recise t rade r equirements i n o rder t o s upply t he Mycenaean c itadels o f t he G reek mainland. I n t his context, a lthough p art o f t he i mported p ottery f ound i n t he W est comes f rom C rete a nd o ther A egean i slands ( Cavalier a nd V agnetti 1 983), r ecent r esearch made b y M arazzi a nd R e v erified t hat among 8 2 s herds f rom t he A eolian i slands a nd V ivara, t he P eloponnese e xamples a re f ar more p lentiful t han t he f ew t hat could b e i dentified a s C retan o r b elonging t o t he s o c alled ' Aegean k oing.' Moreover our colleagues have pointed out t hat a l arge p ercentage o f t he p ottery f ound i n t he T yrrhenian a rea b elongs to medium o r l arge s ized v essels t hat w ere n ot t raded f or t heir i ntrinsic v alue b ut a s containers. W e t herefore b elieve t hat r egular s upplies w ere p assing b etween t he P eloponnese a nd t he T yrrhenian ( Tables 1 8.1, 1 8.2). A d ifferent s ituation was going o n i n t he I onian a nd A driatic a reas, w here a c apillary d iffusion o f M ycenaean p roducts s hows t he existence o f many d ifferent c hannels a nd e xchange r elations. I n t he T yrrhenian, t he concentration o f p roducts d emonstrates t he e xistence o f ' terminals' o r a xis p oints t hrough w hich t rade a nd s upplies p assed.

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C r".
. La documentazione archeologica in Puglia. In Atti del decimosettimo Convegno di Studi sulla Magna Grecia 1977. Taranto, 495-504. Lo

Schiavo, F. 1983. Le componenti epece e cipriote nelle metallurgia delle terde ete del bronzo in Italie. Magna Grecia 18, 14-20.

Lo

Schiavo, F. and Peroni, R. 1979. Il Bronzo finale in Calabria. In Atti della XXI Riunione Scientifica. Firenze, Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria 1977, 551-569.

Lo Schiavo, F. and Vagnetti, L. 1980. Micenei in Sardegna? Rendiconti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. 382

C lasse 8 ) 3 5,

d i S cienze morali, 3 71-393.

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( s.

M acnamara, E ., R idgway, D . a nd R idgway, F . i n B ronze H oard f rom S anta M aria i n P aulis, B ritish Museum O ccasional P apers.

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R ivista d i

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d i U stica. I n v ol. I , C omo,

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H allager, B . 1 983. A n ew s ocial c lass i n L ate B ronze A ge C rete: f oreign t raders i n K hania. I n K rzyszkowska, 0 . H., a nd N ixon, L . ( eds.) M inoan S ociety. B ristol, B ristol C lassical P ress.

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P eroni,

R . 1 992. L a c ampagna d i s cavo 1 980. I n B ergonzi, G ., Buffa, V ., C ardarelli, A ., G iardino, C ., P eroni, R . a nd V agnetti, L . 1 982b. R icerche s ulla protostoria d ella S ibaritide 2 . N aples, C ahiers du C entre du J . B drard 8 , 5 -24.

P eroni,

R . i n p ress a . L a c ampagna d i s cavo 1 981 a B roglio d i T rebisacce. I n P eroni, R . ( ed.) R icerche s ulla P rotostoria d ella S ibaritide 3 . R oma, P aleani.

P eroni,

R . i n p ress b . P unti f ermi. I n P eroni, R icerche s ulla P rotostoria d ella S ibaritide P aleani.

P eroni,

R . i n p ress c . s ulla M agna G recia

d el

P eroni,

R . ( ed.) i n p ress d . R icerche S ibaritide 3 . R oma, P aleani.

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R . ( ed.) i n p ress e . Nuove r icerche d ella S ibaritide. R oma, P aleani.

P eroni,

R . a nd C ardarelli, A . 1 980. Novitä s ull'etä del b ronzo i n C alabria. I n A tti e M emorie d ella S ocietä M agna G recia n .s. 1 8-20 ( 1980), 1 13-125.

P eroni,

R . a nd V agnetti, L . 1 982. R icognizioni d i a ltri s iti. I n B ergonzi, G ., Buffa, V ., C ardarelli, A ., G iardino, C ., P eroni, R . a nd V agnetti, L . 1 982b. R icerche sulla P rotostoria d ella S ibaritide 2 . N aples, C ahiers d u C entre J . B drard 7 , 1 53-163.

I n A tti 1 982.

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3 84

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emergence of

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Summary T his p aper e xamines t he a rchaeological s ources concerning t he s outh I talian l ate B ronze A ge ( 13th - 1 0th c enturies B .C.) w ith s pecial r eference t o d iscoveries o f new s ites a nd to a nalyses o f c raft p roductions, s uch a s metalwork a nd pottery, i nfluenced b y t he A egean o nes. T he l ack o f a ny i ndication p ointing t o t he exsitence o f a ctual ' colonies' a s w ell a s t o the most c omplex c haracteristics o f t he A egean s ocieties, s uch a s t he e xistence o f r edistributive c entres o r t he k nowledge o f w riting a re u nderlined. T he p icture o ffered b y t he a rchaeological s ources concerning t he l ate B ronze A ge could possibly b e b est e xplained b y a model i mplying t he movement o f s mall groups t o

3 86

v arious

l ocation,

i n

b oth

d irections.

R iassunto L e concoscenze r elative a lla t arda e ta d el b ronzo i n I talia meridionale s ono s tate n otevolmente ampliate s ia d a r ecenti s coperte c . i n uovi s iti ( Vagnetti ( ed.) 1 982), s ia d all'analisi d ettagliata d i p roduzioni a rtigianali s pecializzate i nfluenzate d a modelli egei, metallurgiche ( Bietti S estieri 1 973; L o S chiavo 1 983) e c eramiche ( Vagnetti 1 982a; B ergonzi e C ardarelli 1 982b-c; i n s tampa. Questo l avoro e samina i n p articolare due p roduzioni c eramiche s pecializzate s u modello e geo: l a ' ceramica g rigia' ed i d olii p er d errate. L e i mportazioni e gee s ono s empre p resenti i n contesti l ocali, n on s i h anno i ndizi d ell'esistenza d i v ere e p roprie ' colonie' e n eppure i ndicazioni d ella p resenza della c aratteristiche p iü c omplesse d elle s ocietä e gee, quali a d e s. l 'esistenza d i c entri r edistributivi o l a conoscenza d ella s crittura. M ovimenti d i p iccoli g ruppi d i v aria p rovenienza i n e ntrambi l e d irezione possono f orse s piegare i i quadro o fferto d alle f onti a rcheologiche d urante l a t arda e ta d el b ronzo.

3 87

2 0.

S YNOICISM R .

I N

Ross

B RONZE

A GE

g IcILY

H olloway

I n addition to o riginating, according to ancient t radition, w ith T heseus, synoicism i s n ow a current concept i n s tudies o f t he M editerranean B ronze A ge. T his t erm h as b een u sed b y R ichard H ope-Simpson a nd O liver D ickinson to d escribe C ycladic s ettlements a t t he e nd o f t he e arly B ronze A ge. I n t he Cyclades, t hey note, ' A f orm o f synoicism which r esulted i n t he e stablishment o f a s ingle major s ettlement o n many i slands' ( Hope-Simpson a nd D ickinson 1 979, 3 73). ( More r ecently o ther r eferences have b een made t o this concept ( Renfrew a nd Wagstaff 1 982; G amble 1 982)). T he s ame s tatement c annot b e made a bout t he G reek mainland a t t his t ime, but d espite i ts h alting p rogress i n t he c lassical l ands of t he M editerranean, s ynoicism i s an i mportant phenomenon. S peaking i n the most general t erms, o ne may h azard t he observation t hat the e arly B ronze A ge, a nd possibly certain phases o f t he N eolithic b efore i t, had s een s eparate f amilies coming t ogether i nto communities. S ubsequently, f rom among these c ommunities, t here emerged t he i ncorporation o f o ther c ommunities. S ynoicism, moreover i s a n h istorical p henomenon w hich s eems to o perate e qually i n G reece a nd i n I taly, two a reas whose l ater p rehistory o therwise s eems to h ave l ittle i n common. The object o f t his p aper i s to examine t he c ircumstances o f i ts appearance i n S icily. T he

a rchaeology o f

l ate

B ronze

A ge

S icily

( Fig.

2 0.1)is

d ominated b y t he s ite o f P antalica, i solated among t he chasms t hat i ntersect t he l imestone mass o f t he H yblaean h ills ( Orsi 1 899; O rsi 1 913; Tusa 1 983). I n t he 1 2th a nd 1 1th c enturies B .C., t he t own o f P antalica was centred on a building made o f l arge f itted s tone b locks which P aolo O rsi, evoking b aronial i f not r egal s plendour, dubbed ' the A naktoron' ( Holloway 1 981, 1 11, F ig. 6 .). T he population o f P antalica, a t l east 2 ,000 souls, must have l ived i n f ar l ess c omfort t hat was p rovided f or t he d ead b y t he 5 ,000 chamber t ombs t hat a re cut i nto t he s ides o f t he v alleys surrounding t he s ite. O ne o f t hese tombs s erved O rsi a s a n e xcavation l odge. ( The 5 ,000 c hamber tombs r epresent s ome 4 00 y ears o f l ife a t t he s ite. A .M. B ietti S estieri e stimated the population a t something about 1 ,000 ( Bietti S estieri 1 979, 6 08). I f t here were 3 b urials i n each t omb, 1 5,000 b urials took p lace over 4 ,000 y ears g iving a n average of 3 7.5 per y ear. E stimating 2 0 d eaths per 1 ,000, per y ear, one r eaches a n e stimate o f a p opulation o f 2 ,000. T his f igure i s conservative b ecause t he t ombs were r e-used o n v arious occasions, t he t ime span i s t he maximum possible, a nd t he tombs a re only t hose observed.). N o B ronze A ge houses h ave y et b een r eported, but t he s ite i s covered w ith M edieval r emains, s ome of which also f ront o n r ock s helters t hat could h ave b een B ronze A ge dwellings. N evertheless, d espite t he p roblem o f house r emains, f or i ts t ime and p lace t he apparent s ize o f the population at

3 89

C D

D C

U T

pauoTquau i

3

r t C D

3 90

P antalica i s impressive. S imilar s cale o f population d ensity i s r epeated b y two s ites o f t he s ame period, C altagirone a nd Monte D essueri ( near G ela), where t he surviving c hamber tombs s uggest populations o f about 2 ,000 a nd 1 ,000 respectively ( These estimates a re b ased on 1 ,500 tombs a t C altagirone a nd 1 ,000 tombs a t M onte D essueri u sing t he s ame s ource and method as f or P antalica ( Bietti S estieri 1 979, 6 08). A s lightly l ater s ite o f t he s ame type, b elonging t o t he s econd major phase o f t he P antalica sequence, i s C assibile s outh o f S yracuse. What p roduced P antalica? T here was a t ime when t he 1 2th c entury i n S icily was l ooked o n a s a period of d isaster s imilar to that o f t he w aning B ronze A ge i n t he A egean and t he Near E ast ( Bernabö B rea 1 958, ch. 6 .). P antalica was t herefore t hought o f a s a r efuge f or t he population which h ad f led d angers a long t he coast. But today t he s ituation a t t he e nd o f t he s econd m illenium appears l ess d esperate. T his i s t rue i n G reece, a s s hown particularly b y t he LHIIIC b uildings excavated a t T iryns ( Kilian 1 982, 3 93 f f.; S nodgrass 1 976, 3 70-77). A nd i t i s certainly t rue of I taly d espite t he d isruption no doubt c aused b y t he e xpansion o f t he c remating g roups i n t he peninsula. T he c remators r eached M ilazzo o n t he n orth coast o f S icily a t an e arly moment, but t he f orays of g roups w ith mainland connections ( and w ithout c remation) i nto s outheastern S icily b elong to a s econd s tage o f l ate B ronze A ge e quivalent to A usonian I I i n t he L ipari i slands or t he C assibile phase i n t he P antalica s equence ( Bietti S estieri 1 979). I n I taly, moreover, t here a re d efinite s igns o f e xpanded contact, w idened d istribution o f goods and a ccumulation o f w ealth i n t he f orm o f b ronze hoards. T he manufacturing s ite o f F rattesina a t t he h ead of t he A driatic comes i nto b eing. I vory r eached F rattesina f rom t he eastern M editerranean, amber f rom t he north, while g lass and metal w ere b eing worked o n t he s ite ( Atti 1 979, 2 05; H olloway 1 981, 8 1, n . 5 0). Metal h oards a re b eing accumulated i n I taly on a n u nprecedented s cale a nd A egean contact w ith I taly, S icily ( Holloway 1 981, c h. 2 ) and now S ardinia ( Lo S chiavo 1 980, 3 71-393) r emains u nbroken. To t he evidence against t he i nterpretation o f P antalica a s a r efuge t here must b e added t he t estimony o f s ettlements a long t he eastern coast o f S icily, which a lthough not a s e arly a s P antalica b elong to t he Cassibile period ( beginning p robably i n t he 1 1th c entury) when, according t o t he ' Dark A ges' theory, conditions s hould h ave b een no b etter a nd possibly worse ( Voza 1 972; d ' Agostino 1 976; P elagatti a nd V oza 1 973. c at n . 2 86-295). A force t hat must b e r eckoned w ith i n t he h istory o f P antalica a nd s imilar s ettlements i s t heir r ulers. W e k now t hese k ings existed b ecause a t t he e nd o f t he P antalica A ge we catch a g limpse o f o ne o f t hem, K ing H yblon a nd o f h is a ttempts to p lay o ff o ne b and o f G reek s ettlers a gainst a nother, a s tory v ividly r econstructed b y B ernabo B rea f rom t he accounts o f G reek colonisation ( Bernabb B rea 1 968). I w ish to argue now t hat f orebears o f K ing H yblon a nd h is l ike c reated t he P antalica s tates.

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I f we l ook b ack to an e arlier period f or a moment, the e lements f rom which t he l ater t owns f ormed a re c lear e nough. I n t he e arly B ronze A ge, the s ame g eographical a rea t oward t he south a nd the east o f t he i sland l ater to b e d ominated b y s ites o f t he P antalica g roup was t he home o f the Castelluccian culture. T he chronology o f t he Castelluccian culture i s s till not well d efined; i t apparently b egan i n t he t hird m illennium a nd i ts l ater phases continued i nto t he s econd ( Holloway 1 981, 4 4). L ike e arly H elladic a nd m iddle H elladic i n G reece, t his i s a culture of small communities. T he b est d ocumented C astelluccian s ite was a f armstead n ear G ela o ccupied b y two houses a nd t heir d ependencies ( Orlandini 1 962). T he v illage partially i nvestigated a t the b eginning o f t he century a t B ranco G rande n ear t he s ite o f c lassical C amarina m ight h ave b een occupied b y a s many a s t hirty huts ( one must r emember t hat not a ll buildings were n ecessarily dwellings a nd t hat not a ll were n ecessarily i n u se a t the s ame t ime ( Orsi 1 910, 1 58ff.)). T he settlement a t B ranco G rande was surrounded b y a s imple wall. T he defenses a t M ellili w ere more e laborate a nd were made w ith round towers o n t he model f amiliar f rom the A egean early B ronze A ge a nd f rom L os M illares i n S pain ( Voza 1 968, 1 73). T he p reserved s ection o f t he wall i s 7 0 m . i n l ength. C astelluccian s herds were found i n t he foundation t rench o f t he wall, a nd i t i s a ssumed t hat i t b elongs t o the Castelluccian s ettlement which existed o n t he b adly e roded h illtop above. T he s ame k ind o f walls e xisted a t T hapsos where t hey e nclose a s hallow a rc a long t he harbour s ide o f the p eninsula 4 00 m . i n l ength, an a rea f ive t imes s maller than t hat o ccupied b y t he middle B ronze A ge t own ( Voza 1 972, P late 1 ). N o C astelluccian material h as b een reported a t T hapsos a nd t he walls a re not c learly d ated. But t hey, l ike the walls a t M ellili, mark a s tage i n t he d evelopment o f t he S icilian s ettlement which s eems t o b e a prelude t o t he c reation o f t he l ate B ronze A ge t owns. T he middle B ronze A ge b rought A egean goods and foreigners, amongst t hem c ertainly p eople f rom Cyprus o r t he L evantine coast, to S icily ( Voza 1 972; A tti 1 975, 1 33ff.; P elagatti and V oza 1 973, 3 Off.) ( Recent Mycenaean i mports a re r eported i n V agnetti's r ecent v olume ( 1982)). T he evidence o f t heir p resence, b esides t he p lain C ypriote pottery f ound i n addition t o decorated A egean w ares a nd A egean b ronzes, i s t he warehouses e rected a t T hapsos, l arge rectilinear b uildings, over 4 0 m . i n l ength, w ith a s eries o f chambers opening not o nto t he s treet b ut o nto t he c entral courtyard. T his i s a typical warehouse p lan r eflected i n t he R oman horreum and k nown i n t he B ronze A ge a t E nkomi i n Cyprus ( Holloway 1 981, 8 6, F ig. 5 2). I t i s completely f oreign to S icily a nd t o t he small houses w hich occupied t he s ite b efore t he e rection o f t he warehouses a nd which possibly c ontinued to exist i n a k ind o f n ative quarter. T he i nfluence o f t he warehouses was great, f or when t he A naktoron at P antalica was built, i ts p lan was b ased o n t he T hapsos warehouse. C learly t he P antalica k ings had b een i nvolved i n more t han s imple b arter with t he f oreigners on t he coast ( I r efrain f rom c iting t he

3 92

legend of Minos, Daedalos and Kokalos to infer Aegean adventurers in the service of Sicilian lords. As I have argued elsewhere (Holloway 1981, Ch. 3), the story is more likely the product of historical mythology created by the Greek colonists to explain the prehistoric buildings, like the Anaktoron at Pantalica, which they encountered in Sicily. The contacts of the Pantalica rulers with the east were clearly through Thapsos, not by direct experience. Otherwise, I assume, a megaron would have been built at Pantalica. There may, however, be some centuries old recollection of the tholos tombs of Greece in the rock cut tholoi of s. Angelo Muxaro. But then one must allow that some kind of memory is active in the Etruscan built tholos of Quinto Fiorentino. There is nothing mysterious about the origin of a built Whenever the dimensions to be roofed in an tholos. underground chamber exceed the capacity of wooden roof beams or the span of a corbelled gallery, then a round corbel vaulted chamber is the only solution possible). There were other important changes in Sicily during the middle Bronze Age. The settlements of the early Bronze Age come to an end and are frequently abandoned. This observation has been made for the area around Caltagirone (Amore 1981/1979, 25). It is true for the entire southern coast. A survey has been made of the area around Camarina (Marazzi and Tusa 1976, 49ff.). The same has been done for the region bordering the mouth of the Salsa at Licata (surveys carried out by the Associazione Archeologica Licatese and the author). For Gela and its area one can rely with confidence on the results of the intense archaeological activity of the 1950's and the early 1960's. Along the entire coast from Cape Pachynus to Agrigentum there is a void. Caltagirone has no traces of the Thapsos period. Licata has none. Inland from Camarina there is a single Thapsos period necropolis at Chiaramonte Gulfi. There is a trace of occupation in this period at Manfria near Gela (Orlandini 1962). In the area of Agrigento, there are Thapsos Culture remains only at Favara and Caldare (De Miro 1968, 117 ff.). With the passing of the Thapsos period (closely datable on the basis of imported Mycenaean pottery to the 14th and 13th centuries B.C.), there emerge the towns of the late Bronze Age: Pantalica, Caltagirone, Monte Desseuri, Cassibile, and possibly Monte Castellazzo di Palma between Licata and Agrigentum. Each of these sites is in a position to dominate a large and well defined geographical territory. It is not hard to imagine the course of events in these centuries. To say that Castelluccian Sicily displays equilibrium between many small communities is not to say that these communities lived in peace. But the creation of the trading station at Thapsos (and elsewhere ?) placed better arms and possibly mercenaries to go with them in the hands of petty chiefs. Despite its foreign connections and Aegean imports one may suggest that the Thapsos period was one of turmoil. Synoicism in this context is a euphemism for bloodshed and forced absorption of one community by another. When the archaeological record revives again it is confined 393

to the end results of the process, the towns of the Pantalica period and their rulers. The theory that I have just put forward finds support in the Bronze Age Aegean and in Iron Age Italy, both areas where archaeological evidence is amplified by archaeological tradition. In the Aegean, the second millenium is marked almost everywhere by the concentration of population and the emergence of sites of major importance. In Attica of the middle Helladic Age there are only some twenty known sites, most of them substantial settlements centred on prominent acropoli (Dickinson 1977). In the eastern Peloponnesos, the great sites of epic tradition become prominent, and in Beoitia too. On Euboia all the early small sites on low ground are replaced by the great acropolis centres (Bintliff 1977a}. In the islands the same phenomenon is apparent (Hope­ Simpson and Dickinson 1979; Renfrew 1972). Crete, once considered a model of uninterrupted development from village to city, has now been reinterpreted to reveal significant change in government from one centred on the public piazza to one based on the palace, the growth of which interrupted and redirected the earlier street pattern (Dominai Indelicato 1982). The creation of the Cretan cities is thus connected with the appearance of centralised authority and its coercive powers. Only in Messenia, if we follow the results of the Minnesota survey, is there an uninterrupted �rowth in the number of sites (McDonald and Rapp 1972). (However, Bintliff (1977b} presents a different view}. One must approach Greek traditions about the Bronze Age with deep scepticism. However, the story of Theseus accords so well with the figure of the Bronze Age dictator that I have sketched above that I cannot resist quoting from Plutarch (Theseus, 2, 4) concerning Theseus' grand design for gathering all the inhabitants of Attica into one city (Thomas 1982). We read that some approved the merits of Theseus' programme. But Plutarch continues, 'the rest, fearing his power, which had already become awe-inspiring, and realising his courage and resolution, chose to be persuaded rather than forced into compliance.' I do not wish to impute a specious validity to the detail of coercion. The truth that it undoubtedly reflects about synoicism is probably due less to a genuine tradition derived from the Bronze Age than from the fact that synoicism and forced synoicism continued into historical times. That there was a dim, dim tradition about a state builder in the Bronze Age is a proposition I am more ready to entertain. But even in the Bronze Age, I imagine that there was no choice about joining the new greater Athens or Caltagirone or Pantalica. The second instance of synoicism for us to consider comes from Iron Age Italy. In Etruria, the formation of the great Etruscan centres after 900 B.C. is well known but this development of central villages with others grouped around them is not certainly the result of forced syn�icism (Bietti Sestieri 1981). In Latium of the 7th century, however, there can be no question that the subjection by Rome of her 394

n eighbours was a n a ct n ot o nly o f conquest b ut o f conquest f or the purpose o f i ncreasing t he population o f the v ictorious c ity. T he p ath o f R ome's expansion c an n ow b e s een i n t he r esults o f t he t he e xcavations a t L a R ustica, O steria d ell' Osa a nd C astel d i D ecima ( Colonna 1 976; Quilici 1 979). R omulus i ncorporated C aenina ( La R ustica?) a long w ith F idenae, C rustumerium a nd A ntemnae; A ncus d id t he s ame f or P olitorium ( Castel d i D ecima?). T he r eception o f T itus T atius a nd h is S abines i nto t he R oman s tate i s p art o f t he s ame s trategy o f s ynoicism ( Accame 1 959). T he phenomenon i s t he s ame a s t hat s uggested b y a rchaeology a nd t radition i n B ronze A ge G reece a nd b y a rchaeology i n B ronze A ge S icily. Synoicism i s a n e arly a nd w idespread method o f massing h uman a nd t erritorial r esources. I t s hould not b e confused w ith naked conquest b ecause t he r esult i s n ot s imply d omination b ut t he a ugmentation o f t he c itizen ' body o f t he v ictorious s tate. T his v ery a spect o f synoicism, h owever, m eans t hat t he g rowing s tate changes s ignificantly. T here f ollows l ogically t hose phenomena observed i n t he l ate B ronze A ge, i ncreased r esources f or t he r uler a nd l eaders, motives f or d isplay, r eceptiveness t o f oreign t rade a nd possibly t he a ccumulation o f h oarded w ealth a s well. ( The c lassic t reatment f rom t he point o f v iew o f t he p eninsula w ithout r eference to s ynoicism i s t hat o f P eroni ( 1969), but this s hould b e c ompared w ith B ietti S estieri ( 1976-7) a nd ( 1981). I t would b e c areless to a ssume t he l ist o f phenomena g iven i n t he t ext t o b e a n u nambiguous r eflection o f a ny s pecific political s ituation.) T he p olitical consequences o f t hese d espotisms, r ivalry a nd f actionalism, h ave l eft a r ich l egacy i n G reek l egend a nd i n e arly R oman t radition. I n S icily, t he memory o f o nly a f ew r ulers s uch a s H yblon a nd K okolos h ave s urvived, b ut the p olitics o f s ynoicism l ived o n to b e practiced o n a g rand s cale b y t he D einomenid tyrants a nd D ionysius I .

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R enfrew,

A .C. a nd Wagstaff, M . ( eds.) 1 982. A n i sland p olity, t he a rchaeology o f exploitation i n M elos. C ambridge, C ambridge U niversity P ress.

S nodgrass, A .M. Edinburgh T homas,

C .G. 3 49.

Tusa,

S . 1 983. S ellerio.

1 976. T he U niversity

1 982.

S tudi

L a

D ark a ge o f P ress.

M icenei

S icilia

ed E geo

n ella

G reece.

Edinburgh,

A natolici

P reistoria.

2 5,

3 37-

P alermo,

V agnetti, L . ( ed.) 1 982. M agna G recia e mondo m iceneo. N uovi d ocumenti. T aranto, I stituto per l a S toria l 'archeologia d ella M agna G recia. V oza,

G . 1 968. V illaggio f ortificato d ell'etä d el b ronzo i n C ontrada P etrato d i M elni ( Siracusa). I n A tti d elle X I-XII R iunione S cientifica. F irenze, I stituto i taliano d i p reistoria e p rotostoria, 1 73-187.

Voza,

G . 1 972. T hapsos, primi r isultati d elle p iü r ecenti s coperte. I n A tti d ella X IV R iunione S cientifica. F irenze, I stituto i taliano d i p reistoria p rotostoria, 1 75-207.

Voza,

G . 1 973. T hapsos: r esoconto s ulle c ampagne d i s cavo 1 970-1971. I n A tti d ella XV R iunione S cientifica. F irenze, I stituto i taliano d i p reistoria e p rotostoria, 1 33-157.

Summary T he author makes a s tudy o f s ynoicism i n S icily. The evidence i s r eviewed f or t he l ate B ronze A ge ( Pantalica) and t he m iddle B ronze A ge ( Thapsos), a nd t hen c omparisons made w ith B ronze A ge G reece a nd I ron A ge I taly.

R iassunto L 'autore f a u no s tudio d el s inoicismo d i S icilia. S ono passati i n r assegna i d ati d ella t arda ( Pantalica) e media ( Thapsos) e ta d el b ronzo. S uccesivamente s ono f atti confronti con l 'etä d el b ronzo i n G recia e l 'etä d el f erro i n I talia penisulare.

3 98

2 1.

EVIDENCE, WITH

E XTENT AND E FFECTS

SOUTH EAST

OF MYCENAEAN

S ICILY DURING THE

R obert

LATE

CONTACTS

B RONZE

A GE

L eighton

Ever s ince P aolo O rsi published h is excavations a t P antalica, D essueri a nd C altagirone ( 1899; 1 912; 1 904), S icilian p rotohistory h as p rovided particular evidence f rom s ingular s ites f or t he l atest period o f Mycenaean c ontacts w ith t he I talian t erritories. T he d evelopment o f a S icilian p rotohistoric chronology was i nevitably l inked w ith t his evidence s ince t he a ssociations w ith l ate M ycenaean a rtefacts a llowed a chronological f ramework to b e e stablished. T hree phases h ave b een p roposed w ithin t he P antalica culture, a lthough t he d ivisions b etween t hem a nd t heir d ating h ave b een t he s ubject o f v arious r evisions s ince O rsi's t ime ( Fig. 2 1.1). I n t he s earch f or more s ecure c hronologies, b ased u pon t ypological comparisons a nd a ssociations, r eference h as b een m ade, s ometimes i ndirectly, t o the i dea o f m iceneizzazione o f S icilian cultures during t he m iddle a nd l ate B ronze A ges. F or the middle B ronze A ge, the comparatively r ecent e xcavations at T hapsos ( largely u npublished) h ave i nitiated a r e-appraisal o f d iverse f oreign i nfluences i n s outh e ast S icily ( Maltese, C ypriot, Mycenaean), while f or t he p rotohistoric p eriod, t he d iscovery o f Mycenaean a rtefacts h as i ncreased l ess markedly t han elsewhere i n I taly. T aylour's s urvey ( 1958, 6 4-79), b ased o n the material f rom O rsi's e xcavations, r emains t he most d etailed s ingle a ccount, a lbeit r equiring b ecome available ( see b ibliography).

r evision where n ew a lso V agnetti

evidence 1 983,

h as a nd

I n b riefly r eviewing t he evidence o f t he f irst p hase o f t he P antalica c ulture, which consists mainly o f f inds f rom f unerary contexts, my purpose i s t o p resent t he p remises f or a wider a ssessment o f t he extent a nd e ffects u pon l ocal c ommunities o f exposure to M ycenaean culture contacts. A lthough many p eople h ave commented o n t he evidence, c omplete r e-publication o f t he major s ites i s s till l acking ( as f or F inccchito: S teures 1 980; F rasca 1 982); a ccordingly, a number o f r eferences a re i ncluded. M etal

A rtefacts

A lthough t he S icilian b ronzes h ave h ardly f igured i n r ecent s tudies o f I talian metallurgy ( e.g. t he P rähistorische B ronzefunde a nd A rcheologia, M ateriali e P roblemi s eries) t he f ollowing h ave a roused i nterest b ecause o f t heir a ffinity w ith Mycenaean types.

3 99

T he mirrors may b e Mycenaean i mports o r copies o f them ( Peroni 1 956a, 4 00; B ernabö B rea 1 957, 1 52; H encken 1 968, 4 34). C lose comparisons a re r estricted b y t he s implicity o f t he f orm a nd l ack o f h andles, which p erhaps were o f i vory a nd d ecorated l ike s ome f oreign e xamples ( cf. S chafer 1 958). O rsi ( 1899, 5 3) m entioned t races o f i vory h andles, n one o f which s urvive, t hough a n i mprint i s v isible o n s ome S icilian a nd A egean s pecimens. T he d imensions, t he f lattening o f t he edge near t he r ivets a nd t he u se o f t hree r ivets, which T aylour ( 1958, 7 0) noted a s a nomalous, n evertheless r ecall Mycenaean e xamples, p articularly f rom L H I IIA - C burials. T hey may b e d ated b etween t he 1 3th a nd 1 2th c enturies B .C. a t P antalica ( see a lso B ernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 980, 7 8; I talia 1 975-76, 1 6). O ther l uxury i tems f rom t he t ombs i nclude gold r ings ( Orsi 1 899, 5 6; 1 904, 7 7; 1 907, 1 2; 1 912, 3 19, 3 73) w hich a re not a ll s ecurely d ated b ut a re g enerally a ssumed t o b e i mported o r imitated Mycenaean p ieces. T he motifs c omprise: i nterlaced coils, w ith i mpossibly e arly p arallels o n C retan s eal-stones a nd a s lightly d ifferent r endering o n o ther goldwork ( e.g. P laton 1 969, nos. 8 4, 1 82, 2 27; K aro 1 930-33); a f ish motif, t hought t o r epresent a C retan skaros ( Gentili 1 956), a lthough t he d epiction may h ave b een s tandard i n Mycenaean a rt ( e.g. H ood 1 978, F ig. 1 66); l astly, t he eyemotif, l ong k nown t hroughout t he E ast Mediterranean ( e.g. M axwell-Hyslop 1 971, P late 1 00, 3 ) a nd also f ound o n A rchaic goldwork ( Marshall 1 911, P late 9 , 9 20; B oardman 1 970; L agona 1 973, 2 94). G old e ar-rings a nd b racelet f ragments i n t he P antalica tombs h ave a lso s uggested t he adoption o f Mycenaean j ewellery ( but s ee T aylour 1 958 7 0; P ace 1 9535 4; V agnetti 1 972). S uch i tems were much r arer i n t he tombs t han t he w ell-known f ibulae, t he earliest o f which ( violinb ow), r eflect S outh I talian a nd A egean e xamples ( Bietti S estieri 1 973, 4 02), t hough Mycenaean i nfluences w ere not r estricted to o rnamental i tems. S ome S icilian d aggers a re modelled o n t he A egean F -class ( Pantalica N 48, 5 57, D essueri P 44; perhaps O rsi 1 889, P late V , 3 ; S andars 1 963, 1 37). Mycenaean swords p robably c irculated i n S icily, a s i n A pulia ( Macnamara 1 970) a nd positively i nfluenced l ocal p roduction. Even t he u nusual a nd o ften-mentioned m iniature d aggers ( Pantalica 5 70, S 130), w hich omit m any d etails o f f orm a nd h ardly compare w ith f ull-size s words, have b een t hought t o r eflect f oreign s tyles ( Peroni 1 956a, 4 02; B ernabö B rea 1 957, 1 52; Müller-Karpe 1 959, 2 2; B ianco P eroni 1 970, 1 25; 1 974, 1 2; B ietti S estieri 1 973, 4 06; K ilian 1 974, 6 3). T he

' Peschiera'

k nife

( Pantalica

N W23),

w ith

a gold

r ivet

a t t he l ower e nd o f t he g rip, b elongs i n t he c entre o f t he M editerranean d istribution o f s uch t ypes ( cf. M atthaus 1 980, 1 23) while t he more common S icilian o ne-edged k nives constitute a r egional b ranch o f t he I talic f amily; A egean t raits s eem t o h ave l ess overall s ignificance ( but c ompare: Müller-Katre 1 963; M atthaus 1 980, 1 33; H arding 1 975, 1 99; B ianco P eroni 1 976, 8 1; J ockenhovel 1 974, 8 6). T he s ame may b e s aid o f t he r azors, mostly d ifferent f rom l ate H elladic double- a nd s ingle-edged t ypes, t hough o ccasional

4 00

1 957 1 89 9 ORS !

1 9 5 9

BERNABÖ AREA

MÜLLER KAPPE

1 956

P ERON!

1 968 HENCKEN

1 9 7 1 SANDARS

1 9 7 7 ALLEN

1 979 B IETT I SESTIE RI B .C .

•

•

1 200

1 100

2

S ICULAN

2

2 2

3

2

- -900

• e r.

3

3 • • • •

3

3

1

•• • •• , . .. .

8 00

3

7 00

F ig.

2 1.1.

P antalica

chronologies

4 01

1 899-1979.

s imilarities h ave b een n oted ( Müller-Karpe 1 960-61, 1 94; M atthaus 1 980, 1 14). A l ink b etween S icilian, S ardinian, E arly M inoan a nd E arly C ypriot r azors ( Branigan 1 968, 4 0) s eems h ard t o s ustain i n v iew o f t he c hronological g ap. P ottery A rtefacts T he painted j ug f rom P antalica N 133 i s t he o nly i mported v essel a t t he s ite ( Vagnetti 1 968a). H owever, T aylour ( 1958, 7 5) pointed t o t he c ollar-necked j ars f rom many C altagirone t ombs a s a n obvious i nstance o f Mycenaean i nfluence o n l ocal pottery ( cf. Furumark F orm 6 4; e xamples f rom P erati d ated 1 2th - early 1 1th c entury B .C.; I akovides 1 970, 4 41; compare type w ith f laring n eck; T aylour 1 958, 7 5; V ermeule 1 960, 4 -5). O rsi ( 1904, 9 7) b elieved t hat t he b ell-shaped l ids c overed t hese v essels ( cf. S tubbings 1 947, 4 7), p erhaps t ied to t he s houlder-lugs f or t ransportation. T he P antalica amphora v essels b ear comparison w ith F urumark's type 5 8 a nd 6 3, t hough t hey a re n ot c losely modelled u pon t hese. T he b asins o n s tands i ncorporated f oreign t raits: the f ine r ibbed d ecoration a nd r ed b urnish r ecall s ome Cypriot v essels a nd b ronze types ( cf. B ase R ing I I d ecoration: A strom 1 972, F ig. 4 9; K arageorghis 1 976, P late 2 8; c ompare S andars 1 978, 1 12). M any o ther l ocally-made v essels r ecall Mycenaean types: tubular-spouted j ugs may d erive f rom t hose of T hapsos ( Taylour 1 958, 7 3) and t he s ame m ay b e said o f t he cylindrical b eakers, o r pyxides, w ith concave s ides a nd f lat l ids, perhaps modelled on E ast M editerranean types o f pottery, wood o r i vory. T he s trainer-jugs also enjoyed a l ong-lived t radition i n S icily w here t hey were p robably i ntroduced b y t he Mycenaeans a round 1 200 B .C. ( Leighton 1 981). S ome S icilian a skoi imitate M ycenaean f orms ( Peroni 1 956a, 4 04; F urumark F orm 5 1, type 1 95; a lso B ernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 980, P late 2 58; compare D ikaios 1 969, P late 2 38:1; O rsi 1 912, P late 9 :56; M orricone 1 965-66, F ig. 9 ) a nd i t i s also possible t hat t he Mycenaeans i ntroduced t he, t refoill ipped j ug t o S icily during LH I IIC o r s oon a fter w hen t he type was more common i n t he A egean ( compare B ernabö B rea 1 964-65, 2 1; B isi 1 968, 2 2). A ll t hese f orms i ndicate t he adaption o f M ycenaean pottery i n t he p rotohistoric p eriod i n S icily. D iscussion T he chronology o f contacts b etween P antalica a nd t he Mycenaean world may h ave extended f rom L H I IIB ( 13th c entury B .C.) t hough more evidence e xists f or t he p eriod L H I IIC ( 12th c entury B .C.). H owever, i t i s t empting t o postulate t he b eginning o f P antalica a t about t he s ame t ime a s t he b eginning o f A usonian I a nd t hereby i nclude t he emergence o f s ites s uch a s P antalica i n t he w ider context o f c ultural c hanges t aking p lace i n I taly during t he 1 3th c entury B .C. ( Bronzo R ecente), r ather t han a s t he r esult o f a c risis i n r elations w ith, t he A egean a round 1 200 B .C. ( compare S andars 1 971; B ernabö B rea 1 957, 1 36).

4 02

I n f act, imported m aterials continued t o a rrive i n S icily i n t he l ate B ronze A ge, d espite marked i nternal c hanges a t t his t ime. T he i dentifiable b ronze i mports ( cf. V agnetti 1 983, a nd b ibliography) a re f ewer t han t he l arge g roup o f f ibulae, weapons a nd t ools which r eflect I talian a nd A egean e quivalents. T his i s a w ell-known p henomenon o f t he period, u sually d iscussed i n t erms o f a l ate B ronze A ge m etallurgical koin6, which i s r egarded a s t he r esult o f c lose contact i n t he s phere o f metallurgical commercial a ctivity ( Peroni 1 969, 2 0; B ietti S estieri 1 973). T he c ommunities o f t he P antalica culture, culturally and g eographically d istinct, but n ot i solated, were a lso i nvolved i n t his p henomenon. F rom a S icilian s tandpoint, one r eason f or t his appears, n ot s urprisingly, to b e e conomic, i n s o f ar a s t he absence o f l ocal metal s ources necessitated the p rocurement o f t he r aw material, o r f inished p roduct, f rom t rading partners. T he parallels b etween S icilian a nd I talian b ronze p roduction c an t herefore b e s een a s an e conomic r elationship b etween t he two a reas ( cf. B ietti S estieri 1 980-81; f or a r ecent summary o f t he possible commodities e xchanged s ee Tusa 1 983, 4 46-447). T he p ractical s uccess o f c ommercial l inks i s w itnessed b y t he i ncreased u se o f b ronze, s een i n S icilian b urials a nd hoards, a nd some p rogress i n t he quality a nd i ncreased r ange o f b ronze p roduction. T hese a re a lso w idely r ecognized c haracteristics o f 1 3th - 1 2th c enturies B .C. I talian cultures ( Peroni 1 969). While k oing i mplies t he u se o f many types h eld i n c ommon i n d ifferent r egions, l ocal adaptations and modifications c an b e pointed out, s uch a s S icilian r azors a nd k nives which, i n S andars' words s eem to b e ' ..on t he w hole moving away t owards a d ifferent i dentity' ( 1955, 1 87). W ithin t he g eneral a ssertion o f - koing, s pecific r elationships may b e d iscerned, a s b etween S icily a nd South T yrrhenian I taly ( cf. B ietti S estieri 1 973, 4 07; L o S chiavo a nd P eroni 1 979), a lthough t he evidence i s meagre a s y et. S till t entative a re t he i dentification o f l inks with s pecific r egions o f t he A egean. T he u nequal spread o f evidence a nd t he u ncertain c omposition o f s hips' c argoes r aise s erious p roblems f or i nterpretation. T he u se o f many s tandard b ronzes w as w idespread s uggesting w ide n etworks o f c ontact. C onsideration o f t he above evidehce f or contact, n ot j ust o ne a rtefact type, h as s uggested to t he writer t hat S icily was s till a ' melting-pot' o f cultural i nfluences during t he l ate B ronze A ge a s during t he m iddle B ronze A ge; s uch a v iew d oes not p reclude t he existence o f p articular r elations w ith s ome a reas ( e.g. C yprus: V agnetti 1 968a; c f. S ardinia, L o S chiavo 1 983). T he pottery evidence, s ummarized above, also g ives i mportant c lues t o t he a ssessment o f l ong d istance contact. W hile A egean imported pottery i s s carce i n s ites o f t he P antalica culture ( Leighton i n p ress), s ome l ocal p roduction c losely i mitated t he f orms o f Mycenaean v essels o f t he 1 2th c entury B .C. I n o ther c ases, v essels s imply i ncorporated s pecific t raits, s uch a s s trainer-spouts, t ubular-spouts a nd p erhaps t refoil l ips. T hey s uggest t hat t he f unctional

4 03

2

a

a

CA THAPSOS ALT I TU DE

I N

ME TRES

0

-

300

Fr i m

300

-

600

I I I I

600

-

900

M

900

1 5 00

i l l

o ver

1 5 00

F ig.

2 1.2.

L ate

B ronze

A ge

s ites

4 04

1 3th

- 1 1th

c enturies

B .C.

c haracteristics o f Mycenaean pottery made s ome i mpression o n S icilian pottL . who 'rgely i gnored t he r ich r epertoire o f l ate M ycenaean v ase p ainting. T his f urther emphasizes t he t echnical a nd e conomic i nterest o f t he P antalica culture i n f oreign contacts, a lready s uggested b y t he b ronzes. T he f irst S icilian u se o f t he potter's wheel a t t his t ime m ight a lso b e r egarded a s t he r esult o f t echnical ' information f low'. T he o riginality a nd v igour o f l ocal pottery p roduction ( more s o t han t he b ronzes perhaps) i s u nmistakable. T he r ed b urnished b asins o n s tands, p articularly t he colossal s pecimen ( which m ight h ave b een connected w ith a n i mportant b urial; O rsi 1 899, 4 9) d isplay a h igh t echnical a nd a rtistic a chievement during t he f irst p hase a t P antalica. T he d ecoration may w ell h ave b een i nspired b y f oreign s tyles ( see above) while t he f orm i s c onsistent w ith earlier S icilian t raditions o f p edestal v ases; b ut t he o utcome i s a n o riginal c reation, t he more outstanding e xamples o f which w ere made b y e xpert c raftsmen. A quantitative a ssessment o f s tylistic a ttributes i n t he c ontext o f t he P antalica culture c an o nly b e t entative. I ndeed, t he e xtent o f f oreign i mports a nd i mitations i n t he f unerary a ssemblage m ay n ot b e e qually r eflected i n t he d omestic contexts, which a re s till l ittle k nown f rom e xcavation ( cf. T hapsos; V oza 1 980, 2/ ). N evertheless, i t may b e pointed o ut t hat t he r ange o f types l isted above c onstitutes more t han h alf o f t he k nown p roduction o f t he f irst phase o f t his culture. N oticeable v ariations appear i n t he u se o f t ypical f orms b etween t he major s ites. A t C altagirone t he i mitations o f collar-necked j ars o ccurred i n a lmost every t omb a long w ith a h igher f requency o f o ther M ycenaean p ottery t raits. T his s upports t he s uggestion t hat t he f ine c arved c upola t ombs h ere w ere i nspired b y Mycenaean t holos d esigns o f LH I IIB ( compare T aylour 1 958, 6 8-9; F atta 1 983, 1 16-7). D ifferences i n t he material a ssemblage, t he f unerary r ites a nd a rchitecture b etween t he major s ites a lso s uggest a h eterogeneous c omposition o f t he l ate B ronze A ge communities, even w ithin t he l imited a rea o f s outh east S icily. T he s ite l ocations o f t he P antalica cuture, which r eflect a s hift i n emphasis f rom coastal t o i nland r egions, h ave a lso s uggested a brupt c hanges a t t he e nd o f t he m iddle B ronze A ge ( Bernabö B rea 1 957, 1 36). T he r elationship b etween s uch s ites a nd t heir r ole i n t he o rganization o f i nternal a nd external t rade, r aises m any questions. B ernabö B rea ( 1968, 1 64) argues t hat t he k ey s ite o f P antalica must h ave maintained a maritime outlet w ithin i ts b road t erritorial c ontrol ( e.g. p re-colonial S yracuse, o r T hapsos, o n t he east c oast), w ith a ccess t o coastal a nd m aritime r esources a nd l ong d istance t rade. T he s ame m ight b e s aid o f D essueri a nd C altagirone; t he l atter, which i s t he f urthest f rom t he c oast ( about 3 4 k m.), h as much evidence o f Mycenaean i nfluence, a n explanation f or w hich m ight b e s ought i n t he e nvironmental s ituation ( e.g. t he p roximity o f

4 05

the Catania plain communications).

and

its

importance

for

inland

Further evidence for internal communications during the late Bronze Age is provided by the Valledolmo tomb (Peroni 1956 b) in the central region which contained a 'Peschiera' knife, violin-bow and arched fibulae. This relatively minor site, in a remote region, gained access to current metallurgical equipment or know-how, also found in the main centres. The Milena tomb (La Rosa 1983) also indicates that high quality bronzes and pottery, even of Mycenaean type, circulated quite far inland. The larger centres may have played a role in this by some form of redistributive trade to smaller sites. Pantalica can certainly be regarded as a key site (or 'central place') in view of its size (large cemeteries and 1otential settlement area), comparatively wealthy tombs, Jermanence the anaktoron), of its architecture (i.e. iefensive capabilities, ecological advantages (e.g. fresh water) and longevity of occupation. Bernabo Brea (1968) regards it as the seat of a local king (or 'chiefdom'; Bietti Sestieri 1981) with a surrounding territory and some satellite communities within the domain of the metropolis (e.g. Rivetazzo. Cf. a similar diagnosis for Termitito in Basilicata): careful survey work may allow this to be The social structure of P(ntalica can also be elaborated. assessed in terms of the symbolic importance of the funerary assemblage. The use of miniature pottery and bronze forms rite, indicates the importance of symbolism in the funerary but the re-use of many rock-cut tombs over a long period and their susceptibility to plundering, both ancient and modern, present major difficulties in an accurate correlative analysis. The idea of marked social stratification at Pantalica can be traced back to the writings of Paolo Orsi; particularly, on the suggestion of different tomb shapes and the presence of large rectangular chambers (1899, 91; Pantalica NW22, NM38), unequal grave goods (1899, 101; Pantalica N37) and the presence of luxury items of adornment (1912, 405). Such differences were less apparent in the tombs of Thapsos, where a more collective burial rite was observed, obscuring specific associations between wealth and individuals. One of the best furnished burials at Pantalira almost entirely contained metal artefacts of foreign style (Pantalica N37) with a s�ggested link b8tween trade and social distinction (albeit a child's tomb). This link is tenuous of course, although it may be of greater significance that by the second phase of the Pantalica culture (the Cassibile phase), when trade with Mycenaean Greece had ended, the tomb shapes, grave goods and funerary rites were far more standardized than before (cf. Orsi 1899, 134; and for a comparison of Ausonian and Pantalica groups see Bietti Sestieri 1979). The settlement evidence has centred upon the anaktoron, neither the excavation nor the Mycenaean affinities of which 406

a re entirely c lear ( Orsi 1 899, 7 5-85; S ardo 1 941-42; D unbabin 1 948, 4 3, 9 5; T aylour 1 958, 7 6; Tusa 1 983, 4 734 77; B ergonzi t his v olume; H olloway t his v olume), a lthough T hapsos h as s upported t he t heory o f Mycenaean a rchitectural a nd u rban i nfluence ( Whitehouse 1 973; V oza 1 980, 2 7). F rom t he point o f v iew o f s ocial s tructure, t he a ssociation o f b ronze moulds a nd h oard f ragments w ith t his u nique s tructure h as s uggested a d irect l ink b etween metallurgical a ctivity a nd t he c entral b uilding o f t he s ite. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat the a naktoron i ndicates t he s torage o f s urplus, t he r egulation o f e conomic a ctivity a nd r ecalls t he a ssociation b etween metallurgical p ractices a nd t he Mycenaean o r e ast M editerranean p alace. T his a spect o f P antalica can c ertainly e ncourage r ather n otional r econstructions. L ittle i s k nown a bout s ubsistence s ince o nly l imited d eductions c an b e made f rom t he p resent-day e nvironment, p eninsula s tudies a nd t he c lassical s ources, a nd t his s ubject r emains a major c hallenge f or n ew f ieldwork. I n conclusion, t he above s urvey h as b riefly r eviewed s ome i deas a nd e lements w hich, o n t he b asis o f s tylistic s tudy, h ave a rgued f or s erious consideration o f f oreign i nfluence. A n umber o f t hese c learly r equire f urther a nalysis, a nd s tudy o f questions o f d etail s hould b e f ruitful. M eanwhile, they c annot b e d ismissed e ither a s t he r esult o f a d evotion t o t he d iffusionist h eresy, o r a s t he i nevitable outcome o f the typological approach, s ince t he l atter c an b e u sed to a ccept o r r eject t he s ignificance o f s imilarity. T he i ncreasing d etail which c haracterizes I talian a rtefact s tudies s hould a t l east a llow more a ccurate qualitative a nd quantitative observations t o b e made ( perhaps b y e laborazione e lettronica). I n t he P antalica culture, i mported a rtefacts a re not t he most conspicuous i ndicator o f contact a nd t herefore t he a bsence o f c haracterisation s tudy may b e u nfortunate but h ardly r elevant; t he s tudy of ' imitations' a nd ' local v ersions' a s well a s i mports i s o f considerable i nterest w ith r egard to t he t ransmission o f i deas, i f not materials, a s p art o f t he s tudy o f cultural i dentity a nd c hange. I n s outh east S icily t his question v isibly and t heoretically t ranscends t he b ounds o f pottery and b ronze p roduction, while f rom a h istorical perspective t he l ate B ronze A ge marks t he culmination o f c lose p rehistoric c ontacts b etween t he A egean a nd S icily, which h ave s hown t enacious c ontinuity t hroughout t he B ronze A ge.

A cknowledgements I

would

l ike

t o

t hank t he

C onference

O rganizers

a nd,

above a ll, many S icilian a rchaeologists w ho a ided my r esearch i n S icily b etween 1 979 a nd 1 983, particularly G ioacchino F alsone; a lso D avid R idgway a nd E llen M acnamara who made h elpful c riticisms o f my P h.D t hesis u ndertaken a t E dinburgh U niversity during t he s ame p eriod.

4 07

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S chiavo, F . 1 983. L e componenti e gea e c ipriota n ella metallurgia d ella t arda e ta d el b ronzo i n I talia. M agna G recia 1 8 ( 1-2), 1 4-20.

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S chiavo, F . a nd P eroni, R . 1 979. I l b ronzo f inale i n C alabria. I n A tti d ella XXI R iunione S cientifica. B ronzo F inale i n I talia. F irenze, I stituto I taliano d i P reistoria e P rotostoria , 5 51-569.

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4 10

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S andars, N .K. 1 971. F rom B ronze A ge t o I ron A ge: a s equel t o a s equel. I n B oardman, J ., B rown, M .A., a nd P owell, T . G.E. ( eds.) T he E uropean C ommunity i n L ater P rehistory. S tudies i n h onour o f C .F.C. H awkes. L ondon, R outledge a nd K egan P aul, 3 -29. S andars, N .K. Hudson. S ardo,

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N . 1 941-42. I l p alazzo p rincipesco d i P antalica. A tti d el A ccademia d i S cienze, L ettere ed A rti P alermo 2 ( 4), 7 57-768.

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a nd

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4 11

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R evisited.

T he Mycenaean p ottery o f A ttica. S chool a t A thens 4 2, 1 -75.

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V agnetti, L . 1 968b. I b acili d i b ronzo d i C aldare s ono C iprioti? S tudi M icenei ed E geo-Anatolici 7 , 1 29-140. V agnetti, L . F irenze M icenei

1 972. U n a nello d el M useo A rcheologico d i e l e o reficerie d i S ant' Angelo Muxaro. S tudi ed E geo-Anatolici 1 5, 1 89-202.

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S ummary T he evidence f or m iceneizzazione o f t he P antalica c ulture i n s outh e ast S icily during t he l ate B ronze A ge i s b riefly r eviewed u nder t he h eadings o f metal a nd p ottery a rtefacts. A d iscussion f ollows i n w hich t he n ature, extent a nd e ffects o f contacts a re a ssessed w ith due consideration t o the f ormation a nd i dentity o f t he P antalica culture i n i ts l ocal context. R iassunto L 'idea d ella ' miceneizzazione' d ella cultura d i P antalica n ella S icilia sud-orientale durante l a t arda e ta d el b ronzo v iene b revemente e saminata sotto l a v oce manufatti d i metallo e d i c eramica. L a n atura, l 'estensione e g li e ffetti d el contatti v engono d iscussi t enendo i n c onsiderazione l a f ormazione e l 'identita d ella cultura d i P antalica n el suo contesto l ocale.

4 12

22. VAULTING IN MYCENAEAN

HOLOS TOMBS

AND SARDINIAN NURAGHI William G. Cavanagh and Robert R. Laxton.

In the long history of research into the megalithic towers of Sardinia it has commonly been held that they are to be derived from the cyclopean tombs of Mycenaean Greece. Indeed the resemblance was evidently noted in antiquity. Thus the pseudo-Aristotelian Mirabilium Auscultationes relates that there were said to be constructions on the island of Sardinia built in the ancient Hellenic manner, and among them tholoi with smoothed walls. The author thought they were built by Iolaos son of Iphikles when he colonised the island with the offspring resulting from Herakles' astounding night with all fifty of the daughters of Thespius (Ps. Arist. Mir . Aus. 100). As many authors from Petit-Radel onwards have pointed out, 'tholoi' seems to be an authentic reference to the domed chambers of the nuraghi. Diodorus Siculus has a somewhat similar story mentioning that Daidalos went with Iolaos to Sardinia and that the buldings there were called Daidaleia {Diodorus Siculus 4, 30, 1). These sound respect­ ably Bronze Age to the prehistorian, but the luxurious gymnasia and the law courts which Diodorus goes on to mention give a jarring note of anachronism. It is a matter of no surprise that these references were seized on by the antiquaries of the last century to date and place in some sort of context monuments so conspicuous as the nuraghi of Sardinia. In his slyly amusing account of research up to his own day, Count Albert de La Marmora catalogues the opinions of his predecessors {La Marmora 1840, 147 ff.): Vidal makes giants' houses of them, Captain Borelli does not presume to put forward an opinon. Fr. Madao sees them as the tombs of an antediluvian people. Abbe Peyron, viewing them as very ancient constructions, considers them the tombs of ancient nomadic herders. M. Mimaut actually regards them as tombs ... attributing them to Iolaos. Baron Manno .... ascribes them to the original population, of probably oriental origin; he considers them as the tombs of ancient tribes or families. M. Petit-Radel .... attributes to Iolaos and the Thespians the nuraghi built of irregular polygons, whilst those whose stones are more regularly cut and placed in horizontal courses can according to him belong to the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians; he evidently believes they are tombs. M. Inghirami on the contrary makes them funerary monuments and attributes them to the Tyrrhenians. The Abbe Arri believes them to be Phoenician structures, intended for the cult of fire; this opinion had already been developed by Munter. Finally P. Angius appears to tend to tre view of the Abbe Arri.' The delightful suggestion by Fr. Stephanini that the nuraghi were trophies erected after victories does not, 413

u nfortunately merit mentioned e arlier i n

a p lace i n h is summary, c hapter f our ( La M armora

t hough i t 1 840, 1 19).

i s

I t comes a s no s urprise t hat a ntiquaries o f t he n ineteenth c entury s hould l ean h eavily o n t exts, t here a ppear to b e two s chools t he B iblical a nd t he C lassical, t o u nderstand p rehistoric monuments. A ncient h istorians o f the f ollowing generations f rom G rote to B eloch a nd b eyond, h ave l ost t his i nnocent a cceptance o f G reek myth. I n f act n either author d iscusses t he h eroic c olonisation of t he W est M editerranean; b oth consider t he e arly h istory o f t he a rea o nly w ith r eference to P hoenician c olonisation ( Grote 1 8461 856, v ol. 3 , C h.18; B eloch 1 912-1931, v ol. 1 ( 2), C h.22). Movers b elieved t hat H erakles' r ole a s a colonist i n t he w est M editerranean was d ue t o h is i dentification w ith t he T yrian g od M elcarth ( Movers, v ol. 1 , 4 17 f f.; v ol. 2 ( 2), 1 09 f f., 5 56 f f.; s ee F razer 1 898 a pud 1 0, 1 7, 2 ). T he notion o f a n h istorical I olaos w ho colonised S ardinia would t oday b e v iewed s ceptically. T hus t he a ncient r eferences quoted above m ight b e explained a s a n o riginal observation o f t he s imilarity b etween t he n uraghi a nd ' heroic' s tructures s et i n a conflation o f myth c omposed b y t he l ogographers o f a ntiquity. Y et t he o riginal observation h as r ecommended i tself i n modern a s i n a ncient t imes. L a M armora's d iscussion i s i llustrated w ith a cut o f t he T reasury o f A treus ( La M armora 1 840, 6 4) t aken f rom S tuart a nd R evett's A ntiquities o f A thens, a nd e arlier s cholars h ad mentioned t he s imilarity. I ndeed t he v iew t hat t he c orbelled v aulting of t he n uraghe h as i ts o rigins i n t he t echnology o f Mycenaean G reece h as emerged a s a s tandard c onsensus. T hus L illiu h as r ecently s tated ' The c hronological d ata o f a rchaeology a nd o f P hysics s erve to confirm t hat t he t holos o f t he S ardinian n uraghi d erives f rom t he more evolved t ype o f M ycenaean v ault' ( Lilliu 1 980, 1 62). T himme h as e choed t his v iew, ' In t he f irst i nstance t he e arly t holos tombs o f M ycenae p robably i nspired t he ogival v aults' ( Thimme 1 980, 1 04). S lightly more c autious v iews h ave b een expressed b y Guido ( Guido 1 963, 1 09ff.), C ontu ( Contu 1 974, 1 59-161) a nd B almuth ( Balmuth 1 981, 4 0), but t hese authors a re s till s truck b y t he s imilarity o f t he v aulting u sed i n b oth a reas, a nd t hey h ave n ot b een p repared t o r ule out s ome t echnological exchange. Nor i s t he c laim o f t echnological e xchange b etween t he two cultures f ar-fetched o r improbable. O n t he contrary i n t he f irst p lace t he d iscovery o f o x-hide copper i ngots, a nd more r ecently t he d iscovery o f Mycenaean p ottery i n S ardinia p rove t hat t rading l inks were maintained b etween t he A egean a nd t he i sland. T he Mycenaean p ottery which h as b een published c an b e d ated to t he 1 3th a nd p erhaps t he 1 2th c enturies B .C. T hese d ates a re s omewhat l ater t han most a rchaeologists t oday would b e p repared t o allow f or t he e arliest Nuraghi ( French, t his v olume). T he ox-hide i ngots c ould b e o f e arlier d ate b ut d o not o f n ecessity b elong t o t he 1 6th o r 1 5th c enturies B .C.; B uchholz h as r ecently a rgued t hat t hey d ate t o t he l ate 1 3th c entury ( Buchholz 1 980). A ll

4 14

t he s ame t here i s sufficient Mycenaean pottery o f s uitably e arly d ate f rom t he W est M editerranean i n general to make t he c ase of a M ycenaean parentage of S ardinian corbelling p erfectly u nexceptionable. Nor i s t here l ikely t o b e a ' second r adiocarbon r evolution' ( Ridgway 1 980, 5 7) t o mount a n a ttack o n t he S ardinian B ronze A ge. R adiocarbon d ates a re s lowly a ccumulating f rom Nuragic contexts a nd t hey p ose no t hreat t o t he t heory o f Mycenaean o rigin. I n t he f ollowing t able we quote t he b .p. e stimate o n L ibby's h alf l ife a nd t he c alibrated v alues according t o R adiocarbon 2 4 ( 1982), 1 231 50:

Table

N o.

K 1 51 G if 2 42 G if 2 43 P 2 403 P 2 399 P 2 400 P 2 401 P 2 402 P 2 788

2 2.1:

D ate

b .p.

3 420+200 3 349±50 3 170+50 3 770±250 * 2 920+50 2 910±250* 2 910+220* 3 080+60 2 970+50 3 310±50

1 4

C d ates

o f

t he

C alib rated B .C. 2 185-1380 1 865-1545 1 875-910 2 155-1340 1 350-895 1 570-780 1 570-780 1 545-1125 1 390-915 1 765-1440

e arlier

N uragic p eriod.

S ite

B arumini P izzinu d i

S ource

P osada

A lbucciu, A rzachena B runku M adugui G enna M aria O rtu C omidu O rtu C omidu O rtu C omidu O rtu C omidu O rtu Comidu

T he calibrations a re a t 9 5% p robability l evel, 200. * These a re c alibrated a s t hough s igma = ±

R 2(1960)10 E illiu 1 980,366 R 8(1966)86 U 8(1966)86 i19(1977)194 i 19(1977)194 R 19(1977)194 U 19(1977)194 7 R 19(1977)194

U 23(1981)231 f ollowing 2 1 24.

A s t holos tombs were c ertainly b eing constructed i n G reece f rom t he b eginning o f t he 1 6th c entury B .C., t hese 14 C e stimates d o n ot s erve t o u ndermine t he h ypothesis o f a l ink w ith the nuraghi. T he c hronology which p laces t he s tart o f t he Nuragic p eriod p roper c . 1 500 B .C. ( Ridgway 1 980) s trikes u s o n p resent evidence a s p erfectly a cceptable. I t must b e s tressed f rom t he b eginning, h owever, t hat i t i s specifically t he t echnique o f c orbelling w hich i s u nder d iscussion. T he d esign a nd purpose o f t he b uildings p roduced i n each culture v aried g reatly: t he Mycenaean t f iölöi a re t ombs, constructed b elow g round, a nd covered w ith e arthen mounds. T he nuraghi d iffer f rom t he t holos t ombs i n t he f ollowing ways: i n purpose t hey were d efended dwellings o r t ower houses; i n d esign t hey a re built e ntirely above g round w ith w indows t o l et i n l ight a nd a ir, w ith i nternal s taircases, multiple c hambers a nd w ith t erraces a t r oof l evel; a nd s tructurally t he n uraghi a re f ree s tanding a nd a n e arthen f ill p lays no p art i n t heir s tatics. T hese

4 15

f undamental d ifferences o f purpose a nd d esign w eaken a lmost t o i nsignificance t hose s light s imilarities o f t echnique w hich m ight b e u sed t o l ink t he two types o f b uilding. T hus t he r elieving s quares over t he l intels o f t he n uraghi r esemble t he r elieving t riangles o f t he Mycenaean t holoi, b ut t hey a re n ot c lose i mitations. T he c orbelled passages o f t he g reat Nuraghe S antu A ntine a t T orralba h ave o ften b een compared w ith t he c orbelled g alleries a t T iryns. T he v isual e ffect o f b oth i s i ndeed r emarkably s imilar, but a gain t here a re d ifferences o f purpose, d esign a nd t echnique which s eparate t he two. T he p assages a t S antu A ntine s erve, a t l east i n p art, t o l ink t he courtyard a nd s ubsidiary t owers o f t he complex. W hereas t he s outh a nd w est g alleries a t T iryns a re n ot c orridors j oining s eparate e lements o f t he c itadel; o n t he c ontrary t hey s tand i solated a nd s elf-contained w ithin t he d efence walls. I t i s possible t hat b oth a lso s erved a d efensive f unction, b ut t he a rrow-slits o f S antu A ntine a re n ot p aralleled i n t he G alleries a t T iryns ( contrast t he L ower C itadel). F inally, t he f orm o f t he c orbelling i s n ot t he s ame, t hat a t T iryns h aving a v ertical s ection, whilst t he w alls o f S antu A ntine f ollow a r egular curve. I f a t echnological e xchange i s t o b e e stablished i n t he a rchitecture o f t he cultures, t hen i t must b e p roved b y a p recise s imilarity i n t he m ethod b y w hich d omes were c onstructed i n e ach a rea. M ethod o f

A nalysis

S ince i t i s t he c orbelling o f t he c hambers i n b oth t he nuraghi a nd t he Mycenaean t ombs a nd t heir s ame g eneral b eehive s hape which h as g iven r ise t o t he s peculation o f t echnical exchange, i t i s a ppropriate t o e xamine b oth t he s tability o f corbelled s tructures a nd t he e xact f orm o f t he b eehive s hapes i n b oth c ases. A s a m atter o f f act t he t wo questions a re i nterrelated. I n a p revious a rticle o n t he s hapes o f Mycenaean t holoi we h ave c arried o ut a s tructural a nalysis o f c orbelled d omes ( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 981). W e a rgued t here i n s ome d etail t hat n either a h orizontal r ing e ffect n or a ny f orm o f t rue a rching i s n ecessary f or t he s tability o f s uch s tructures. T he a nalysis was c arried out s imply o n t he p rinciple o f corbelling, s o t hat o nly t he f orces o f weight were i nvoked. P lastic T heory explains t he g reat s tability o f c orbelled b uildings ( Heyman 1 966; 1 969). S uch d ry-stone s tructures w ill contain n o t ension o f a ny extent, a nd consequently t hey c an a ccomodate s mall c hanges i n b oth t he d istribution a nd m agnitude o f t he f orces w ithin t hem b y a ltering s hape. G iven c ertain conditions, f or e xample t hat t he s tone h as g reat c ompressible s trength ( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 981, 1 19), t hey w ill s till b e s table a fter t he c hanges h ave t aken p lace. A p ractical consequence o f t he t heory i s t hat i f a s tructure s tays u p f or a bout a g eneration to a llow t he f oundations t o s ettle, t hen i t i s guaranteed t o r emain s tanding t o t he p resent d ay - a cts o f G od a nd m an e xcepted ( Heyman 1 977). D ry-stone b uildings s uch a s t he t holos t ombs a nd t he n uraghi t est t hemselves f or s tability i n t he b uilding p rocess i tself.

4 16

F ig.

2 2.1.

Comparison

o f

a t holos t omb a nd s tructures.

4 17

a nuraghe

a s

s tone

T his f eature, o f course, i s o f e normous b enefit t o p rimitive b uilders. A s a r esult we a rgue t hat c orbelling i s a mode o f construction r eadily o pen t o a ny g roup o f p eople t o d iscover f or t hemselves. P lastic T heory i s o f f urther b enefit t o u s i n o ur p resent a nalysis. T he Mycenaean t holoi a re c overed b y earth a nd l oose r ubble, a nd t his p rovides a n e xtra c ounterbalance t o the s labs o f s tone w hich f orm t he c orbels ( Fig. 2 2.1). N ow i f e arth a nd r ubble w ere r eplaced b y s tone s labs, t hen t his would make n o s ensible d ifference t o t he s tability o f t he s tructure, s ince o nly weight i s i nvolved. F urthermore, a s we a ssume no h orizontal r ing e ffect, i t would make l ittle d ifference i f s ome r ubble ( now r eplaced b y s tones) were r emoved, p rovided a r easonable t hickness o f s tone i s l eft a t a ll h eights r ound t he d ome ( Fig. 2 2.1). B ut w hen t his i s d one t he r esulting s tructure i s e ssentially t hat o f a n uraghe. T hus t he r esults w e d erived f or t he t holos t ombs c an a lso b e u sed t o s tudy t he n uraghi. W e h ave s hown ( Cavanagh s hape f or t he d omes i s g iven

a nd L axton 1 981) t hat b y a n e quation o f t he

y = c xd

a p ossible f orm

( 1)

where x i s t he d epth b elow t he a pex ( Fig. 2 2.1) a nd y i s t he r adius o f t he d ome a t d epth x . H ere c a nd d a re c onstants w hich a re to b e d etermined f or e ach d ome f rom t he measurements. T he v alue o f t he c onstant c d epends u pon t he u nits o f m easurements u sed w hilst d d oes n ot. F or f ixed u nits, and g iven d , t he v alue o f c i s d etermined b y the overall s ize o f t he d ome. F or t his r eason p erhaps t he e xponent d i s o f most i nterest i n c omparing t he s hape o f two d omes. O n t aking l ogarithms t he above e quation b ecomes l og y = d log x + l og c .

( 2)

T his expression p rovides a v ery s imple means o f t esting i f t he s hape o f t he d ome i s i ndeed o f t he f orm s uggested: a p lot o f t he l ogarithm o f t he r adius ( log y ) a gainst t he l ogarithm o f t he d epth ( log x ) s hould f orm a s traight l ine; a nd i f i t i s, t he s lope o f t he s traight l ine g ives t he v alue o f t he e xponent d . I n t he c ase o f t he f ive M ycenaean t holoi measured b y u s t he p lots w ere s traight l ines a nd t he v alues o f t he e xponent d were e stimated t o b e 0 .67, 0 .67, 0 .67, 0 .69, a nd 0 .71; a s imilarity w hich i s p erhaps a ll t he m ore r emarkable g iven t he w ide r ange o f s ize a nd t he v aried quality o f t he s tone-work i n t he f ive monuments ( Cavangh a nd L axton 1 981, 1 26). W e a rgued t here t hat w e were j ustified i n a ssuming t hat t he exponents w ere t he s ame; two-thirds w e s uggested. I n a l ater a nalysis o f two s maller l ate M inoan t holoi ( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 982) v alues o f 0 .735 a nd 0 .734 w ere obtained f or t he e xponent d ; a lmost t hree-quarters. W ith o nly t wo e xamples f rom C rete available i t s eems a lmost i mpossible t o d ecide whether t his r epresents a c lear d ifference b etween t he two

4 18

g roups o f tombs. k nown to h ave b een

But o f course i nfluenced b y

t he t he

l ate M inoan Mycenaean.

culture

i s

B efore we p roceed to analyse t he d ata f rom S ardinia two t echnical points n eed e xplaining. F irst i t i s sometimes d ifficult t o s ee e xactly where t he apex of t he dome l ies. F or example t he topmost s tone m ight b e u neven o r s loping; or again although t he s tone s labs h ave c losed i n a t t he t op f rom a ll s ides t here may s till b e a v ery small gap l eft b etween t hem. Does t he a pex l ie a t t he t op o r a t t he b ottom of t his g ap? A lso a s t he walls o f t he chamber curved i n t owards t he t op t he b uilders may h ave s topped corbelling a nd p laced one l arge s lab on t op to c lose a l arge g ap. T his l ast was t he c ase with t he M inoan tombs a t A chladia a nd S tylos ( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 982, 7 4, F igs. 1 0, 1 1). B ecause o f such ambiguities i n d efining t he apex, a curve o f t he f orm y = c (x

+ a )d

( 3)

i s f itted to t he d ata, i n p lace o f expression ( 1), so t hat not only a re t he constants c a nd d evaluated b ut a lso t he constant a . T his a llows t he apex to b e l ocated a t a d istance a ( above o r b elow d epending o n t he s ign) f rom t he topmost point of t he v ault a ctually measured. T his p rocedure w ill b e s atisfactory provided a i s not too l arge, s ay about the t hickness o f a small course ( 10-15 cm. i n t he p rasent case). S econdly h ere, as i n our p revious work, we h ave a nalysed t he s hapes only o f t he dome o f t he c hambers. I n t he c ase o f t he t holoi the d ome was d efined to b e f rom t he t op down to t he l intel above t he doorway ( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 981, 1 16 f f.). The s ame r ule w ill apply h ere e xcept i n the c ase o f one nuraghe, S antu A ntine, where t here i s a l arge opening o r w indow above t he g round l evel entrance passage. I n t his c ase t he dome i s d efined to b e f rom t he apex to t he l intel above t he w indow. A n a lternative approach to defining t he d ome w ill b e considered i n a s ubsequent paper. F inally f or t he purpose o f t his i nitial paper o n t he nuragic towers w e s hall i gnore a ll complications s uch a s s tairways w ithin t he w alls, t he s ide n iches a nd s o f orth. T o s ummarize w e consider two questions r egarding t he d omes o f t he main c hambers i n t he f ive nuraghi which h ave b een measured b y us: ( i)

I s t he b y an l og c ,

r adius y r elated to the d epth b elow t he t op e quation o f t he f orm l og y = d log ( x + a ) f or some constants a ( small), c and d ?

( ii)

I f t he a nswer t o t he f irst i s i n t he a ffirmative, what a re t he v alues o f t he e xponent d , do t hey form a coherent s et, a nd i f s o h ow do t hey compare a s a whole to t he s et o f v alues obtained f or t he Mycenaean a nd l ate M inoan t holoi?

4 19

x +

D escription o f

t he

S ample

D uring o ur f irst s eason o f s urvey, July 1 983, we w ere able to make a c areful r ecord o f f ive nuraghi: Madrone, S ilanus; S antu A ntine, T oralba; S anta B arbara, S india; S anta S abina, S ilanus; S uccoronis, M acomer. A f ull d escription o f t hese monuments a nd a b ibliography c an b e f ound i n L illiu's s tandard work o n t he nuraghi ( Lilliu 1 962, 7 0, 7 6 a nd 1 08), t hough h e does n ot s eem to mention t he l ast. T hey l ie f airly c lose t o o ne a nother, w ith f our i n t he v icinity o f M acomer, a nd S antu A ntine t he most d istant, a bout 2 5 k m. north o f t he t own. W e w ish t o s tress t herefore, t hat our d ata h as s o f ar c ome f rom a v ery r estricted p art o f t he i sland, t hough f rom monuments o f v arying c omplexity. T hus S anta B arbara, S anta S abina a nd S uccoronis a re s ingle t ower nuraghi, whilst M adrone h as s ubsidiary t owers o f t he polylobate d esign, a nd S antu A ntine i s, o f course, one o f t he most e laborate o f t he n uragic c omplexes. T hus i n our f irst r esearches w e h ave r estricted o urselves t o b uildings f rom a l imited a rea, but o f d iffering d esign. I n p articular t he ambulatory' r ound t he p rimary chamber o f S antu A ntine appears typlogically a dvanced. T hese nuraghi a lso v ary i n s ize, a s c an b e j udged c rudely f rom t he h eight o f t he v ault above t he f loor: M adrone 5 .8 m .; S antu A ntine 7 .55 m .; S antu B arbara 6 .0 m .; S anta S abina 9 .25 m .; S uccoronis 8 .25 m . t hough g reat weight c an n ot b e p laced o n t h2se f igures b ecause o f t he r ubble a nd f ill covering t he f loor. T he materials v ary f rom l imestone i n t he c ase o f S uccoronis to granite/basalt i n t he o thers. T he s ize o f t he b locks i s roughly s imilar i n a ll f ive c ases: S antu A ntine - t he b locks i n t he l owest course measure c . 1 x 0 .6 x 0 .5 m ., t hey a re s maller h igher u p v arying f rom 0 .3 - 0 .5 m . i n h eight. I n M adrone t he l arge s tones a t t he b ase measure u p t o 1 .4 x 0 .9 x 0 .5 m ., a nd t hroughout t he v ault t he h eights o f t he s tones l ie w ithin t he r ange 0 .1 - 0 .5 m . A t S anta B arbara b locks i n t he l owest course v ary f rom 1 .8 x 0 .8 x 0 .8 m . to 0 .7 x 0 .6 x 0 .4 m .; h igher u p t hey range f rom 0 .4 to 0 .2 m . h igh. A t S anta S abina t he l arger s tones f orming t he b ottom c ourse measure u p to 1 .4 x 0 .9 x 0 .5 m ., a nd t he s tones o f t he v ault v ary b etween 0 .1 a nd 0 .3 m . i n h eight. S uccoronis h as b locks i n t he l owest course measuring 1 .0 x 1 .0 x 0 .6 m ., but f rom t he l intel u pwards smaller b locks, 0 .1-0.2 m . h igh, a re t o b e f ound. M ethods

o f

S urve y ing

A lthough not s trictly r elevant t o t his p aper i t may b e o f s ome i nterest to f ellow a rchaeologists to l earn about our methods o f s urveying. W hen t he t holos tombs were r ecorded t ape measures w ere u sed; two p laced e quidistant e ither s ide o f t he l ine o f t he s ection, a nd a t t he s ame l evel, t o p revent our s traying f rom t he t rue v ertical s ection, a nd a t hird t ape a t a k nown point o n t he l ine o f t he s ection t o e nable the positions o f t he points o n t he s ection to b e c alculated. S caffolding was n ecessary t o r each t he h igh points o f the v ault. A ll t his complexity w as avoided b y employing a l aser eyepiece mounted o n a t heodolite. O ne t heodolite ( A) was

4 20

w indow

a pprox

l i ne o f u pper c hamber

0

F ig.

2 2.2.

S ection

5

A - B t hrough S india.

4 21

t he

nuraghe

A

S anta

B arbara,

p laced over t he c entre o f t he c hamber f loor, a nd could t hen b e o rientated to p ass t hrough a ny v ertical s ection d esired. A K ern DKM 2 t heodolite was u sed b ecause t he l aser, when p laced o n t he i nstrument's h igh-angle v iewer c ould p ass t hrough t he z enith. T he l aser t hus d efined t he v ertical s ection o f t he v ault. A s econd t heodolite ( B) was s et u p o n a l ine p assing t hrough t he c entre a t 9 0 d egrees t o t he r equired s ection; t he l aser i tself could b e u sed t o p in-point s uch a p osition. T heodolite B 's position was k nown r elative to A . I t could t hen b e t argeted o n t he s pot w here t he l aser b eam t hrough t heodolite A s truck t he s urface o f t he v ault. F rom t he d istance b etween t he t wo t heodolites a nd t he v ertical a nd h orizontal a ngles r ecorded o n t heodolite B i t w as possible t o c alculate t he point where t he l aser s truck t he s urface o f t he wall. T he method g enerally worked w ell, a lthough we e ncountered two main p roblems. I n t he f irst p lace poor i llumination: t heodolite B h ad t o t race t he course o f t he s mall l aser spot o n t he wall o f t he nuraghe, a nd a t t imes t his p roved d ifficult i n t he d ark; f urthermore t he c rosshairs d id not s how c learly u nless a b eam was d irected t o t he a rea o f t he l aser s pot. S econdly i n t he s maller u pper c hambers s ome o f t he points w ere s o c lose t hat t he i nstruments could not f ocus. B oth p roblems would b e overcome b y mounting a s econd l aser o n i nstrument B . A nalysis

o f

D ata

f rom t he

M ain

C hambers

o f

F ive

Nura2hi

I n a ll c ases t he r adius i s a n a verage o f r adii f rom two s ections. F or e ach s et o f d ata t he v alues a , c a nd d have b een e stimated b y m inimizing t he e rror s um o f s quares ( Chatfield 1 970; NAG L ibrary R outine E04DF, N umerical A lgorithms G roup 1 981). T he r esults a re d isplayed i n T able 2 2.2. I n a ll c ases t he coefficient o f d etermination i s 0 .99. T hus t he p rofiles o f a ll f ive d omes a re w ell f itted b y equations o f t he f orm y = c ( x + a )d. F urthermore, t he v alue o f a i s w ithin 1 2 cm. o f t he t opmost m easurement. T hus i n e ach case the estimated apex used for curve f itting i s c lose t o t he t opmost point measured during t he survey. T he f ive v alues o f t he e xponent d f or t hese c hambers, 0 .50, 0 .55, 0 .58 a nd 0 .63 f orm a r easonably coherent g roup w ith a mean o f 0 .57 a nd a r ange o f 0 .13. T his i s t o b e compared w ith t he f ive v alues obtained f or t he M ycenaean t holoi: 0 .67, 0 .67, 0 .67, 0 .67, 0 .69 a nd 0 .71, which h ave a mean o f 0 .68 a nd a r ange o f 0 .04. T he two g roups, t herefore, a re quite d istinct w ith t he v ariation w ithin t he nuragic g roup b eing s omewhat g reater t han t hat w ithin t he M ycenaean. W e r emark t hat o nly o ne s ection was m easured i n the c ase o f t he Mycenaean t ombs, a s o pposed t o t hree o r f our f or t he M inoan t ombs a nd two f or t he n uraghi. P lots o f t he l ogarithm o f t he d epth b elow t he e stimated a pex a gainst t he l ogarithm o f t he average r adius f or t he main c hambers o f t he f ive nuraghi a re s hown i n F ig. 2 2.3.

4 22

F ig.

2 2.3.

P lan

o f

t he

nuraghe

4 23

S anta

B arbara,

S india.

T able

2 2.2:

M ain

V alues o f a , c a nd d f or a l east s quares o f d ata t o a n e quation o f t he f orm l og y = d l og ( x + a ) + l og c .

C hambers

a ( metres)

c

f itting

d

S uccoronis

0.02

0 .78

0 .63

S anta

B arbara

0.10

1 .11

0 .50

S anta

S abina

0.04

0 .75

0 .55

M adrone

+ 0.09

0 .85

0 .58

S antu

0.12

1 .06

0 .58

A ntine

S imilarities a nd d ifferences b etween t he s ets o f d omes, t he main c hambers o f t he f ive nuraghi, t he f ive Mycenaean a nd t he two M inoan t ombs, a re f urther i llustrated i n F igs. 2 2.4, 2 2.5 a nd 2 2.6. I n F igs. 2 2.4 a nd 2 2.5 t he r aw measurements ( taken f rom T able i n t he A ppendix 2 2.1, a nd f rom C avanagh a nd L axton 1 981; 1 982) h ave b een n ormalized: b oth t he d epth and t he average r adius m easurements o f a d ome h ave b een d ivided b y t he d epth o f t he l intel b elow t he a pex, s o t hat e ach dome h as u nit d epth. T his s hows i mmediately t hat t he n uraghi a re s teeper f or most o f t heir h eight t han t he t holoi, a nd s o t he Mycenaean a nd M inoan d omes cover a g reater r adius t han t he d omes o f t he nuraghi f or a g iven h eight. I n e ffect t he l arger t he e xponent d t he more r apidly t he v ault i s s panned. I n F ig. 2 2.6 w e h ave u sed t he e stimates a nd d ata t o i llustrate b oth t he s imilarities w ithin t he g roups a nd t he d ifferences b etween t he g roup o f b uildings. T he a verage r adius a t u nit d epth, t hat i s a t l intel h eight, o f t he main c hambers o f t he f ive nuraghi i s 0 .46 m . E ach nuragic d ome p rofile i s s caled s o t hat b oth t he h eight f rom e stimated apex t o l intel i s u nity, a nd t he r adius a t t he l intel i s 0 .46. T he r esults a re p lotted i n F ig. 2 2.6 t ogether w ith t he a verage Y = 0 .46

0-

( 4)

5 7

curve w hich b est f its a ll t hese n ormalized p rofiles. A s imilar double normalising p rocedure w as c arried out w ith t he d ata f rom t he o ther t wo g roups o f d omes; f or t he l ate M inoan t holoi t he average r adius i s 0 .65 a nd t he curve y = 0 .65 a nd t he

f or t he curve

Mycenaean

g roup

t he

Y = 0 .81 T his

g ives

a c lear

i dea o f

t he

4 24

x( 3 1 .7 4

( 5)

a verage

x

r adius

0 .68

i deal

i s

0 .81

a nd

( 6) f orm

f or

t he

d ome

o f

b e lo w a pex 0

J 11 1 1 1 1

1

1

1 11 1 1 1

1

1

1

0 0

•

S uccoron is

0

S antu Ant ine

o

E l

< 1

t

o

0 0

o

0

F ig. 2 2.4: P lots o f t he l ogarithm o f t he average r audius a gainst t he l ogarithm o f t he d epth b elow t he e stimated a pex f or t he m ain c hambers o f f ive nuraghi, w ith s traight l ines f itted b y t he m ethod o f l east s quares.

4 25

0

0 .2

04 x a x is 0 .6

0 .8

1

0

0 .4

02

0.6

08

y a x is

F ig. 2 2.5: normalized

P rofiles s o t hat

o f t he

t he d omes o f t he f ive nuraghi h eight b etween t op a nd l intel i s u nity.

4 26

0.2

O4 x a x is

O

6

O 8

1 0

04

0 .2

06

08

1

y a x is •D im in i

i f Marathon

•K ard itsa

, • ) T reasury o f e

P ig. l ate a nd

* A ch lad ia A treus

S ty los

T o mb o f t he Gen i i

2 2.6: P rofiles o f t he d omes o f t he f ive Mycenaen a nd two M inoan t holoi normalized s o t hat t he h eight b etween t op l intel i s u nity ( Data f rom C avanagh a nd L axton 1 981; 1 982).

4 27

0 .2 •

y=0 .8 1x 0 .68 ( Mycenaean T ho lo i)

0 .4 y =0 .65x 074 xa x is

( M inoan T ho lo i) 06

y =0 .46x ( Nuragh i , l ower c ha mbers )

08

I

1 0

I

0 .2

0 .4

0 .6

0.8

ya x is

Fig. 2 2.7: P rofiles o f t he d omes i n f ive nuraghi, t wo l ate M inoan a nd f ive Mycenaean t holoi n ormalized s o t hat t he d epth f rom a pex t o l intel i s u nity a nd t he r adius a t t he l intel i s 0 .46, 0 .65 a nd 0 .81 r espectively.

4 28

e ach g roup o f b uildings. I t s hows t hat t he members o f e ach g roup a re i ndeed s imilar t o e ach o ther, a nd d emonstrates t he d ifferences b etween t he g roup. T he two s ets o f t holos t ombs s pan a g reater r adius i n a g iven h eight t han t he n uraghi; t he l atter r emain more v ertical f or h eight, a nd t hen t urn over more t he t op.

t he g reater p art s harply t han t he

o f t heir t holoi a t

C onclusions We h ave r ecorded i n t he i ntroduction h ow m any o bservers h ave b een s truck b y t he s imilarity o f t he v aulting u sed i n b oth G reece a nd S ardinia. I n s pite o f t he manifest d ifferences i n t he d esign o f t he s tructures f ound i n e ach a rea, t hese observers h ave b een l ed t o s uppose s ome s ort o f t echnological e xchange. I t i s p resumably t he s imilarity o f s tone v aulting t o c orbelling, a nd t he r esultant b eehive s hapes o f t heir i nteriors w hich h as i nspired t he s uggestion. W e h ave a rgued i n o ur a nalysis t hat t he b uildings i n n o way r ely o n t ensile f orces f or t heir s tability, a nd t hus t hey s atisfy t He conditions o f P lastic T heory i n t his a pplication. A s was r emarked e arlier, i f a b uilding s tays u p w hen i t h as b een completed i n c orbelling t hen t he s tructure s hould s tay u p i ndefinitely. O f course i f t he s tone i s w eak o r i s w eakened d uring t he c ourse o f t ime, o r i f t here i s v iolent e arth movement e tc., t hen c ollapse i s possible. N ow t his w ould s eem t o i mply t hat a mode o f b uilding s uch a s c orbelling c an b e d iscovered b y a ny p eople w ho w ish t o v ault a s pace w ith s tone. F rom t his a rgument we c onclude t hat o nly i f t he corbelled v aulting b y t hese two g roups o f p eople i s i n s ome e xactly d efined s ense o f t he s ame f orm, i s i t p ossible t o s upport t he s uggested t echnological exchange b etween t hem. W e h ave p roposed a m ethod w hereby t he s imilarity c an b e d efined e xactly, v iz, b y t he v alue o f t he exponent d , a nd h ave s een t hat w hereas a ll f ive Mycenaean t ombs s atisfy t his c riteria o f e xactness, d about 0 .67, a s d o t he f ive main c hambers o f t he n uraghi, d a bout 0 .57, t he t wo g roups a re quite d istinct. W e d educe t hat t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t he n uragic p eople l earnt t he t echnique o f c orbelling f rom t he Mycenaeans o r v ice-versa. F uture Work O ur s tudy o f t he n uraghi i s i nco m plete f or w hilst s ufficient d ata h ave b een g athered t o s upport t he c ase a rgued a bove, t his p owerful m ethod o f a nalysis i s c apable o f y ielding f urther r esults. I n p articular w e p ropose t o obtain f urther d ata f rom o ther n uraghi i n o rder t o i nvestigate w hether t here w as a ny c hronological d evelopment i n t he t echnique o f c orbelling, a nd a lso i f g eographical g roups c an b e d istinguished. W e w ish t o e stablish more p recisely t he m ethod b y w hich t he a ncient a rchitects d ecided t he c urvature o f t he v aults. F inally o ur work o n s tructures e lsewhere i n E urope s hould h elp p lace t he n uraghi i n a b roadet c ontext.

4 29

A cknowledgements O ur f ield work i n S ardinia h as b een g enerously s upported b y t he B ritish A cademy a nd t he B ritish S chool a t R ome. W e w ish t o r ecord o ur g ratitude t o b oth. T hroughout S ardinia w e h ave b een k indly r eceived a nd e ncouraged i n our w ork. A p articular d ebt i s d ue t o t he S oprintendenze A rcheologiche o f C agliari a nd S assari, a nd t o t heir r espective s uperintendents P rofessor B arreca a nd D r. L o S chiavo, w ho h ave b een p atient, g enerous w ith t heir t ime a nd h ospitable t o u s. O ur w armest t hanks a re d ue t o t hem. T wo s tudents f rom N ottingham U niversity, Guy B eattie a nd A lfio M artinelli, h elped u s measure t he n uraghi d uring J uly 1 983.

A ppendix

2 2. .

T he

D ata

D ata a re l isted f rom t he m ain c hambers o f t he f ive nuraqhi s tudied. O ur a nalysis i s b ased o n t hese d ata d own t o l intel l evel ( *). R adii a re averages d erived f rom two s ections, t hough o f c ourse w here o ne s ection i s i nterrupted b y t he e ntrance, a w indow o r a n iche, t he averages a re t aken f rom l ess. M easurements a re i n metres. D ep. i s D epth, a nd R ad. i s R adius. M adrone,

S ilanus.

D ep. R ad. 0 .12 0 .35 0 .32 0 .52 0 .52 0 .61 0 .72 0 .72 0 .92 0 .85 1 .12 0 .96 S antu A ntine, D ep. 0 .16 0 .36 0 .56 0 .76 0 .96 1 .16 1 .36 S anta D ep. 0 .20 0 .40 0 .60 3 .40 3 .60 3 .80

R ad. 0 .16 0 .50 0 .59 0 .68 0 .90 1 .11 1 .24 B arbara, R ad. 0 .37 0 .60 0 .91 2 .02* 2 .07 2 .07

D ep. 1 .32 1 .52 1 .72 1 .92 2 .12 2 .32

R ad. 1 .10 1 .16 1 .28 1 .34 1 .46 1 .49

D ep. R ad. 2 .52 1 .60 2 .72 1 .51 2 .92 1 .70 3 .12 1 .71 3 .32 1 .74

D ep. R ad. 3 .52 1 .77 3 .72 1 .82 3 .92 1 .86* 4 .32 2 .02 4 .52 2 .07

D ep. R ad. 4 .92 2 .03 5 .12 2 .05 5 .32 2 .1 . 5 .52 2 .17 5 .72 2 .23

D ep. R ad. 2 .96 2 .04 3 .16 2 .11 3 .36 2 .12 3 .56 2 .15* 3 .76 2 .17 3 .96 2 .26 4 .16 2 .33

D ep. R ad. 4 .36 2 .35 4 .56 2 .33 4 .76 2 .32 5 .56 2 .58 5 .96 2 .52 6 .16 2 .53

D ep. R ad. 6 .36 2 .57 6 .56 2 .60 6 .76 2 .56 6 .96 2 .71 7 .16 2 .71 7 .36 2 .75

D ep. 1 .40 1 .60 1 .80 4 .60 4 .80

D ep. R ad. 2 .00 1 .74 2 .20 1 .75 2 .40 1 .72 5 .00 2 .18 5 .20 2 .21

D ep. R ad. 2 .60 1 .84 2 .80 1 .93 3 .20 1 .98 5 .40 2 .28 5 .60 2 .34

T orralba. D ep. 1 .56 1 .76 1 .96 2 .16 2 .36 2 .56 2 .76

R ad. 1 .33 1 .42 1 .61 1 .59 1 .80 1 .81 1 .94

S india. D ep. 0 .80 1 .00 1 .20 4 .00 4 .20 4 .40

R ad. 0 .97 1 .04 1 .21 2 .02 2 .10 2 .12

4 30

R ad. 1 .22 1 .48 1 .46 2 .13 2 .20

S anta D ep. 0 .08 0 .28 0 .48 0 .68 0 .88 1 .08 1 .28 1 .48 1 .68

S abina,

S ilanus.

R ad. 0 .13 0 .34 0 .49 0 .60 0 .72 0 .77 0 .83 0 .89 0 .97

D ep. R ad. 1 .88 1 .04 2 .08 1 .09 2 .28 1 .20 2 .48 1 .25 .29 2 .68 1 .34 2 .88 1 3 .08 1 .38 3 .48 1 .49 3 .68 1 .54

S uccoronis, D ep. 0 .08 0 .28 0 .48 0 .68 0 .88 1 .08 1 .28

D ep. 3 .88 4 .08 4 .28 4 .48 4 .68 4 .88 5 .08 5 .28 5 .48

R ad. 1 .58 1 .62 1 .66 1 .72 1 .78 1 .83 1 .88 1 .86 1 .89

D ep. 5 .68 5 .88 6 .08 6 .28 6 .48 6 .68 6 .88 7 .08 7 .28

D ep. 2 .88 3 .08 3 .28 3 .48 3 .68 3 .88 4 .08

R ad. 1 .55 1 .69 1 .63 1 .74 1 .79 1 .81 1 .89

D ep. Rad. 4 .28 2 .03 4 .48 1 .95 4 .68 1 .85 4 .88 2 .02 5 .08 2 .05* 5 .28 2 .11 5 .48 2 .06

R ad. 1 .96* 1 .97 2 .05 2 .06 2 .10 2 .15 2 .10 2 .18 2 .20

D ep. R ad. 7 .48 2 .23 7 .68 2 .23 7 .88 2 .19 8 .08 2 .26 .32 8 .28 2 .32 8 .48 2 .34 8 .68 2 8 .88 2 .29 9 .08 2 .31

M acomer.

R ad. 0 .14 0 .30 0 .46 0 .56 0 .82 0 .87 0 .98

D ep. 1 .48 1 .68 1 .88 2 .08 2 .28 2 .48 2 .68

R ad. 0 .98 1 .16 1 .10 1 .25 1 .28 1 .43 1 .47

D ep. 5 .68 5 .58 6 .08 6 .28 6 .48 6 .68

R ad. 2 .21 2 .26 2 .25 2 .24 2 .36 2 .27

B iblio maphy B almuth,

M .S. 1 981. T he N uraghi A rchaeology 3 4 ( 2), 3 5-43.

B eloch,

K .J. 1 912-1931. 2 nd edition.

G riechische

T owers

G eschichte.

o f

S ardinia.

S trasburg,

C avanagh, W .G. a nd L axton, R .R. 1 981. T he S tructural M echanics o f t he Mycenaean T holos T omb. A nnual o f t he B ritish S chool a t A thens 7 6, 1 09-140. C avanagh, W .G. a nd L axton, M inoan T holos T ombs. A thens 7 7, 6 5-77.

R .R. 1 982. C orbelling i n L ate A nnual o f t he B ritish S chool a t

C hatfield, C . 1 970. P enguin.

S tatistics

Contu,

E . M . 3 ,

S ardegna d ell'Etä Nuragica. I n P allottino 1 974. P opoli e C iviltä d ell'Italia A ntica

F razer,

J .G. 1 898. P ausanias' L ondon, M acmillan.

1 974. L a e t'al. 1 43 f f.

G rote,

G .

1 846-1856.

Guido,

M .

1 963.

f or

D escription

H istory o f

S ardinia.

T echnology.

G reece.

L ondon,

4 31

T hames

o f

G reece.

L ondon, a nd

H armondsworth,

D ent.

H udson.

H eyman,

J . 1 966. T he S tone S keleton. S olid S tructures 2 , 2 49-299.

H eyman,

J . 1 969. T he S afety o f M asonry A rches. I nternational Journal o f M echanical S cience 1 1, 3 63-385.

H eyman,

J . 1 977. E quilibrium o f O xford, C larendon P ress.

L a

M armora, A . d e ( AntiquitA).

1 840. P aris,

I nternational

S hell

V oya2e e n D elaioiest.

o f

S tructures.

S ardaigne.

L illiu,

G . 1 962. I Nuraghi, T orn i P reistoriche C agliari, L a Z attera.

L illiu,

G . d ei

Movers,

J ournal

v ol.

d i

2 .

S ardegna.

1 980. L a C iviltä d ei S ardi d al n eolitico a ll'etä nura2hi. T orino, F ri E dizioni R .A.I. 2 nd edition.

F .C.

P allottino, M . A ntica.

1 841-56.

D ie

e t a l. 1 974. R ome, B iblioteca

P hoenizier.

B onn,

Popoli e C iviltä d i S toria P atria.

F .

W eber.

d el'Italia

R idgway,

D . 1 980. A rchaeology i n 7 9. A rchaeological R eports

S ardinia a nd E truria 2 6, 5 4-70.

T himme,

J .

K arlsruhe,

1 980.

K unst

S ardiniens.

1 974-

Mäller.

S ummary Writers i n A ntiquity a nd modern s cholars h ave p roposed a connection b etween t he d omed nuraghi _ o f S ardinia a nd t he t holos Tombs o f Mycenaean G reece. C hronology d oes n ot r ule out t he d erivation o f t he o ne type o f b uilding f rom t he o ther, a nd t he two a reas w ere certainly i n contact i n t he B ronze A ge. A s t he t holos t ombs d iffer f rom t he n uraghi i n many f eatures t he c rux o f t he c omparison must b e t he curvature o f t heir corbelled v aults. Our e arlier w ork o n t he s tructural mechanics o f corbelled v aults e nables t he curvature i n e ach t o b e c ompared i n a p recise manner. A n e xpression o f t he f orm: y = d escribes t he c orbelled v aults accurately. T he e xponent ' d' i s e specially d iagnostic o f t he f orm o f c urve. M easurements h ave b een t aken o f f ive n uraghi. T hey a re f ound t o d iffer s ignificantly i n t he exponent ' d' f rom t he t holos t ombs. W e conclude t hat t he p roposed d erivation i s not c onfirmed.

4 32

R iassunto G li s crittori d ell'antichitä e s tudiosi moderni h anno c reduti c he c 'era u na connessione t ra i nuraghi a c upola d i S ardegna e l e t ombe a t holos d ella G recia m icenea. L a c ronologia n on e sclude l a d erivazione d i u n t ipo d i edificio d a u n a ltro e l e d ue a ree e rano c ertamente i n c ontatto durante l 'et d el B ronzo. V isto c he l e t ombe ' a t holos' s ono d iverse d ai n uraghi i n molti e lementi l a c hiave d el c onfronto d eve e ssere l a c urvatura d elle v olte d i g randi p ietre i ncastrate a contrasto. I i n ostro l avoro p iü v ecchio s ulla meccanica s trutturale d elle v olte d i g randi p ietre i ncastrate a c ontrasto p ermette i i c onfronto d ella c urvatura d ell'uno con l 'altro i n u n m odo p reciso. U na f ormula d el f ormato: y

c xd

d escrive l e v olte e sattamente. L 'esponente ' d' e s opratutto d iagnostico d ella c urva. L e m isure e rano p rese d i c inque nuraghi. V iene n otato c he l e m isure e rano molto d iverse d a quelle d elle t ombe a t holos. S i c onclude c he n on è confermata l a d erivazione p roposta.

4 33