Papers in Italian Archaeology IV: The Cambridge Conference. Part i: The Human Landscape 9780860543121, 9781407340180

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Plates
List of Tables
ADDRESSES OF CONTRIBUTORS
Preface and Acknowledgements
1. LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY IN ITALY
2. ALCUNI PROBLEMI DI GEOMORFOLOGIA RELATIVI ALL'ARCHEOLOGIA ITALIANA
3. MODERN LAND USE VERSUS THE PAST: A CASE STUDY FROM CALABRIA
4. PHYSIOGRAPHIC SOIL SURVEYS AND ARCHAEOLOGY
5. CHANGING PATTERNS OF PREHISTORIC LANDUSE IN THE AGRO PONTINO
6. THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSIT OF REBIBIA - CASAL DE' PAZZI (ROME - ITALY)
7. ENVIRONMENT AND PALAEOLITHIC SETTLEMENTS IN NORTHERN ITALY DURING THE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE: THE GHIARDO SITE
8. THE HUMAN IMPACT ON THE LANDSCAPE: SOME EXAMPLES FROM THE ADIGE VALLEY
9. HILL SLOPE EVOLUTION: PRE AND PROTOHISTORIC OCCUPATION IN THE VENETO
10. TOWARDS AN ANALYTICAL-MATHEMATICAL APPROACH TO LOCATIONAL STRATEGIES: SOME PRELIMINARY STEPS FROM FIELD WORK IN THE 'VICENTINO' (VENETO)
11. BONU IGHINU - SITE AND SETTING
12. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF THE COLFIORITO DI FOLIGNO PLATEAUA CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE STUDY OF THE POPULATION IN THE TERRITORY OF THE PLESTINI
13. ETRUSCAN SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE MONTI DELLA TOLFA AREA (LAZIO)
14. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE CASTRO AREA (VITERBO)
16. POPULATION AND AGRICULTURE: MAGNA GRECIA IN THE FOURTH CENTURY B.C.
17. CHANGES IN THE PATTERN OF URBAN SETTLEMENT IN ROMAN, BYZANTINE AND ARAB SICILY

Citation preview

Papers in Italian Archaeology IV The Cambridge Conference

Part i

The Human Landscape edited by

Caroline Malone and Simon Stoddart

BAR International Series 243

1985

·B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S24J, 1985:

'Papers in Italian Archaeology IY. Part i: The Human Landscape'

© The Individual Authors, 1985

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543121 paperback ISBN 9781407340180 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543121 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page List of Illustrations Addresses of Contributors Preface and Acknowledgements 1. Graeme Barker: Landscape Archaeology in Italy

1

2. Tiziano Mannoni: Alcuni problemi di geomorfologia relativi all'archeologia italiana

21

3. Albert Ammerman: Modern land use versus the past: a case study from Calabria

27

4. Jan Sevink: Physiographic soil surveys and archaeology

41

5. Hans Karnermans, Susan Loving and Albertus Voorrips: Changing patterns of prehistoric land use in the Agro Pontino

53

6. Anna Paola Anzidei and Massimo Ruffo: The Pleistocene deposit of Rebibia - Casal de' Pazzi (Rome - Italy)

69

7. Mauro Cremaschi and Christopher Christopher: Environment and Palaeolithic settlement in northern Italy during the middle Pleistocene: the Ghiardo site

87

8. Mauro Coltorti and Lorenzo Dal Ri: the human impact on the landscape: some examples from the Adige valley.

105

9. Claudio Baiista and Giovanni Leonardi: Hill slope evolution: pre and protohistoric occupation in the Veneto

135

10. Armando De Guio: Towards an analytical­ mathematical approach to locational strategies: some preliminary steps from field work in the "Vicentino" (Veneto)

153

11. David Trump: Bonu Ighinu - site and setting

185

12. Laura Bonomi Ponzi: Topographic survey of the Colfiorito di Foligno plateau: a contribution towards the study of the population in the territory of the Plestini

201

13. Alessandro Naso and Andrea Zifferero: Etruscan settlement patterns in the Monti della Tolfa area (Lazio)

239

1 4. Marco Rendeli: area ( Viterbo)

i n

1 5. G ianfranco R oman t imes

S ettlement patterns

Gazzetti:

i n

t he

Castro 2 61

Castro

t erritory

s ettlement 2 75

1 6. J . C . Carter, L . Costantini, C . D ' Annibale, J . R . Jones, R . L . F olk a nd D . S ullivan, w ith t he a ssistance of M .E. R eed: Population a nd agriculture: Magna G recia i n t he f ourth c entury B .C.

2 81

1 7. Roger W ilson: C hanges i n s ettlement i n R oman, B yzantine

3 13

t he p attern o f urban a nd A rab S icily

L IST OF

I LLUSTRATIONS

F igures P age A .

J .

H .

A

Ammerman F ig. 3 .1.

Map o f t he l and u se area o f C alabria i n

S evink F ig. 4 .1a. F ig.

4 .1b.

F ig.

4 .2.

F ig.

4 .3.

Kamermans F ig. 5 .1. F ig. 5 .2. F ig.

5 .3.

F ig.

5 .4.

F ig.

5 .5.

F ig.

5 .6.

F ig. F ig.

5 .7. 5 .8.

i n t he 1 980

P hysiographic s oil map of Volturno basin P hysiographic s oil map o f Volturno b asin D istribution o f colmatage t he Agro Pontino D istribution o f colmatage t he l ower Volturno b asin et

A cconia 3 0

t he

u pper

t he

u pper

4 2 4 3 deposits

i n

deposits

i n

4 7

al. L ocation o f t he Agro P ontino T he major s edimentary complexes i n t he A gro P ontino Major c haracteristics of t he marine complexes i n t he Agro P ontino T he land evaluation approach i n physical g eography a nd archaeology Map of t he Agro Pontino r egion s howing d istribution o f dominant s oil types a nd areal d ivisions f or synoecological g roups u sed i n palaeoenvironmental r econstructions of pollen z ones C l a nd D 2 D istribution o f l ate P alaeolithic f ind s pots D istribution of Neolithic f indspots Map o f t he A gro P ontino b y C ornelio Meyer 1 678

A nzidei a nd M . Ruffo F ig. 6 .1. L ocation o f P leistocene s ites i n t he L ower A niene valley, i n t he urban area o f R ome F ig. 6 .2. M iddle t errace of t he A niene. T he excavation a rea F ig. 6 .3. T ransversal s ections of t he r iver b ed F ig. 6 .4. Detail o f t he t uff a nd l acustrine b locks, vertebrate b ones, a nd l ithic i ndustry F ig. 6 .5. T ransverse s ections of pot-holes moulded i n r ock r iver b ed F ig. 6 .6. T ransverse s ections o f t he r ocky r iver b ed a nd of t he position of t he lacustrine s ilt b locks F ig. 6 .7. S tratigraphic sequence

4 9

5 4 5 5 5 7 5 8

6 0 6 2 6 4 6 5

7 0 7 2 7 4 7 5 7 7

7 7 7 8

M .

M .

C .

A .

F ig.

6 .8.

F ig. F ig. F ig.

6 .9. 6 .10. 6 .11.

Cremaschi F ig. 7 .1. F ig.

7 .2.

F ig.

7 .3.

F ig.

7 .4.

F ig.

7 .5.

Coltorti F ig. 8 .1. F ig. 8 .2. F ig. 8 .3. F ig. 8 .4. F ig. 8 .5. F ig. F ig.

8 .6. 8 .7.

F ig. F ig. F ig.

8 .8. 8 .9. 8 .10.

F ig. F ig.

8 .11. 8 .12.

Tentative s ketch of t he position o f t he parietal f ragment o f Rebibbia - C asal de Pazzi on a s kull of Neanderthal t ype L ithic i ndustry L ithic i ndustry 1 . Hand axe; 2 . C hopping tool 3 . R etouched b one f ragment a nd

a nd

Balista and F ig. 9 .1. F ig. 9 .2. F ig.

9 .3.

F ig.

9 .4.

D e Guio F ig. 1 0.1. F ig. 1 0.2. F ig.

1 0.3.

F ig.

1 0.4.

8 1 H D;

C . C hristopher S ketch map o f t he a rea s urrounding t he G hiardo s ite Geological map a nd g eological crosss ection o f t he G hiardo area ( 1) G hiardo profile; ( 2) I solines o f t he i nterface b etween I II B 24 a nd I I B23 horizons D istribution o f artifacts i n t he G hiardo s ite D istribution of artifacts i n t he excavated area L . D al R i L ocation map G eomorphological map of S . F loriano S . F loriano s ection Vadena: g eomorphological map Vadena: s outh s ection ( A) and west s ection ( B) Vadena s ection S . Maurizie; west s ection ( top), north s ection ( below) L aives A : A ica d i F id, B : B arbiano I I A : B arbiano IV, B : V elturno I Velturno I I Table s ummarising t he environmental context of t he various deposits

G .

7 9 8 0

L eonardi Veneto h ill area Quantity o f s ites a ctive i n t he d ifferent c hronological phases D iagram of t he human occupation by g eographical area Hypothetical model o f t he d istribution and movement o f s ites i n t he h ill system i n t he middle a nd r ecent B ronze Age colonisation c ycle

Geological map o f t he V icentino area T erritory of V icentino: t otal archaeological presences C hrono-cultural matrix of t he 4 8 s ites examined F low chart of t he r ecognition of l ocational s trategies

8 2

8 8 9 0

9 2 9 4 9 6

1 08 1 09 1 11 1 13 1 15 1 16 1 18 1 19 1 24 1 26 1 28 1 30

1 36 1 40 1 42

1 44

1 54 1 55 1 66 1 67

F ig.

1 0.5.

F ig.

1 0.6.

F ig. F ig.

1 0.7. 1 0.8.

F ig.

1 0.9.

F ig.

1 0.10.

F ig. F ig.

1 0.11. 1 0.12.

F ig.

1 0.13.

F ig.

1 0.14.

F ig.

1 0.15.

D .

L .

Trump F ig. 1 1.1. F ig.

1 1.2.

F ig.

1 1.3.

F ig. F ig. F ig.

1 1.4. 1 1.5. 1 1.6.

Bonomi Ponzi F ig. 1 2.1. F ig. F ig. F ig.

A .

1 2.2. 1 2.3. 1 2.4.

Naso a nd A . F ig. 1 3.1. F ig.

1 3.2.

F ig.

1 3.3.

' Cultural' data matrix ( settlement s tructures a nd i nfrastructures, portable material culture, b ioarchaeological data) for t he B ronze A ge s ites P hysiographic data matrix associated with t he h ill s ites ' Survival A nalysis' Survival Analysis graph of t he ' density' f unction of b eginning a nd abandonment o f t he s ite S urvival A nalysis graph o f t he ' hazard' f unction of b eginning and abandonment o f t he s ites Survival analysis: graph of t he s urvival f unction o f s ites occupied a t t he b eginning of t he r ecent B ronze Age Chrono-cultural matrix S et theory i n t riangular f orm o f t he t hree s ets D iscriminant a nalysis b etween t he two s ets D iscriminant a nalysis b etween t he t hree s ets C luster analysis of t he s ites on t he basis o f t he s oil r esources

T he B onu I ghinu b asin, l imits a nd environment T he B onu I ghinu b asin, early Neolithic s ettlement pattern M iddle Neolithic t o middle B ronze Age s ettlement pattern Nuragic period s ettlement pattern Roman s ettlement pattern Medieval s ettlement pattern a nd paved mule t racks

T he Umbrian s etting of t he t erritorio d ei P lestini Archaeological map o f t he t erritorio dei P lestini Archaeological map o f t he P iani d i R icciano S ystem o f t he P iani d i R icciano Z ifferero D istribution map o f E truscan c emeteries i n t he Monti della Tolfa t erritory I mpasto pottery f rom t he P ian d i S tigliano s ettlement. Basins Impasto pottery f rom t he P ian d i S tigliano s ettlement. B owls, j ars a nd Bucchero Kantharos

1 68 169 1 70

1 71

1 72

1 73 1 74 1 75 1 76 1 77 1 78

1 88 1 89 1 92 1 94 1 96 1 97

2 02 2 04 2 14 2 20

2 40 2 41

2 43

F ig.

1 3.4.

F ig.

1 3.5.

F ig.

1 3.6.

F ig.

1 3.7.

F ig. F ig.

M .

J .

C onserva T he necropolis of P ian della C onserva with t he r elated i dentified s ettlements P ian della Conserva: l ocation of t he excavated areas P lan of area A . P ian della C onserva P lan a nd s ections o f T omb. PC 1 7. P ian della Conserva P lan a nd s ection o f T omb. PC 3 7. P ian della C onserva P lan a nd s ection o f T omb. PC 5 7. P ian della C onserva S ynoptical t able o f t he N ecropolis

1 3.8. 1 3.9.

F ig.

1 3.10.

F ig.

1 3.11.

F ig.

1 3.12.

Rendeli F ig. 1 4.1. F ig. 1 4.2. F ig. 1 4.3. F ig. F ig. F ig.

G .

T he P ian d i S tigliano s ettlement s howing necropoli on t he boundaries Impasto pottery f rom t he P ian d ella

S ettlements i n the C astro t erritory T he s ettlement at R ofalco T he s ettlement at Rofalco: detail of F ig. 14.2. F irst phase of s ettlement S econd phase of s ettlement T hird phase of settlement

1 4.4. 1 4.5. 1 4.6.

G azzetti F ig. 1 5.1. F ig.

1 5.2.

F ig.

1 5.3.

F ig.

1 5.4.

F ig.

1 5.5.

F ig.

1 5.6.

C arter et F ig. 1 6.1. F ig. 1 6.2. F ig.

1 6.3.

F ig.

1 6.4.

F ig.

1 6.5.

F ig. F ig.

1 6.6. 1 6.7.

T he t he

l ocation o f R oman f irst half of t he

s ettlements i n 3 rd century B .C.

T he l ocation o f R oman s ettlements i n t he 2 nd century B .C. T he l ocation of Roman s ettlements i n t he 2 nd century A .D. T he l ocation o f R oman s ettlements i n t he mid 3 rd century A .D. T he l ocation of R oman s ettlements i n t he l ate 4 th-early 5 th c entury A .D. T he l ocation o f t he l atest Roman s ettlements i n the l ate 5 th - early 6 th c entury A .D.

2 44 2 46

2 48 2 50 2 52 2 53 2 54 2 55 2 56

2 62 2 64 2 65 2 66 2 68 2 71

2 76 2 76 2 78 2 78 2 79

2 79

al. Map of t he T erritory of Metaponto T opographic profile s howing prominent P leistocene t errace l evels a nd s carps P izzica Pantanello. S pring S anctuary a nd C ollecting B asin, partial r econstruction P izzica - P antanello. D istribution of s eeds b y l evel i n t he a rea o f t he c ollecting b asin Grasses, cultivated p lants a nd g razing i ndicators

2 87

Wood a nd maquis Aquatics

2 95 2 99

a nd weedy pollen

t ypes

2 83 2 85

2 92 2 94

R .

F ig.

1 6.8.

F ig.

1 6.9.

F ig.

1 6.10.

F ig.

1 6.10.

W ilson F ig. 1 7.1. F ig. 1 7.2. F ig. 1 7.3. F ig. 1 7.4. F ig. 1 7.5. F ig. F ig.

1 7.6. 1 7.7.

Number o f e lements of each t axon per l evel w ith c onservative minimum numbers i n parentheses D iagram o f t he t erritory of Metaponto w ith t he d irection o f geologic f ractures a nd concretions O rientation d iagram s howing parallelism of geological f eatures and " division l ines" P lan s howing r elationship of t he n ecropolis f arms, d ivision l ines a nd projected d ivision l ines a nd major r oads a long t he coast

S icily c . S icily c . S icily c . S icily c . S icily c . s tations' S icily c . S icily c .

3 30 B .C. 2 00 B . C. 2 0 B .C. 2 00 A .D. 2 00 A .D.

3 04

3 06

3 08

3 08

3 15 3 17 3 22 3 24 i ncluding

5 00-600 A .D. 1 000 A .D.

' road 3 26 3 28 3 30

P lates P age M .

Cremaschi P late 7 .1.

P late

D .

L .

7 .2.

Trump P late 1 1.1. P late 1 1.2. Bonomi P onzi 2.1. P late 1 P late 1 2.2. 2.3. P late 1 P late P late P late

1 2.4. 1 2.5. 1 2.6.

P late

1 2.7.

P late

1 2.8.

P late

1 2.9.

P late

1 2.10. 1 2.11. 1 2.12. 1 2.13. 1 2.14. 1 2.15.

P late P late P late P late P late P late P late P late P late P late J .

and

1 2.16. 1 2.17. 1 2.18. 1 2.19. 1 2.20.

C arter et a l. P late 1 6.1. P late

1 6.2a.

P late

1 6.2b.

P late P late P late

1 6.3a. 1 6.3b. 1 6.3c.

C .

C hristopher

a ) U nmodified f lake of coarse grained chert. T he d istribution of v isible damage a nd m icropolish i s i ndicated by t he b lack l ine; b ) edge at 1 00 x ; c ) edge a t 2 00 x a ) F lake of s ilicified s iltstone D istribution o f modification a nd p olish i ndicated b y b lack l ine; b ) edge at 2 00 x

1 00

The Bonu I ghinu b asin f rom Monte North S lope o f Monte I ghinu

1 86 1 91

N oe

Monte O rve: polygonal walls Monte Orve: polygonal walls Monte Orve: A rea i nside t he c ircuit o f polygonal walls Croce d i C asicchio - C astelliere S trada d ei P iani d i R icciano Road f rom P iani d i R icciano t o P alude d i Colfiorito Cupigliolo 9 30 m . P robable f ortified s ettlement Cupigliolo b etween 9 30 and 8 30 m . Remains of bank a nd d itch

2 08 2 09 2 10 2 11 2 15 2 16 2 16 2 17

Monte d i C upigliolo. 9 30 m . Squared b lock o f l imestone A 7. Monte S auro. D itch A7. Monte S auro. D itch A 7. Monte S auro. B ank A 7. Monte S auro. Bank A7. Monte S auro. A rea w ithin enclosure A 8. L a Castellina. R emains o f bank and d itch A 8. L a Castellina. A 8. L a Castellina. A 9. C . B orgarella A15. M . d i F ranca. A 20. M . d i F ranca.

Remains of R emains o f A rea o f A rea of

V iew o f t he c ollecting basin at Pantanello V iew o f t he area o f t he s anctuary: collecting b asin a nd spring-well a t P antanello 1 982 Detail of t he northern end of t he collecting b asin a t P antanello 1 982 S ections of v ine s tem with cut O live O live

b ranches w ith b ranches w ith

cuts a worked

2 18 2 21 2 22 2 23 2 24 2 25 2 27

d itch b ank

s ettlement s ettlement

surface

9 8

A B

2 28 2 29 2 30 2 31 2 32

2 88

2 89 2 89 2 91 2 91 2 91

P late P late

1 6.3d. 1 6.3e.

P late

1 6.3f.

P late 1 6.4a. P late 1 6.4b. P late 1 6.4c. P late 1 6.4d. P late 1 6.4e. P late 1 6.4f. P late 1 6.4g. P late 1 6.4h. P late 1 6.5a.

P late

1 6.5b.

P late

1 6.6a.

P late

1 6.6b.

P late P late

1 6.7. 1 6.8.

D rawing o f f ir p lank S ection o f maple w ith d ark f ungi ( ancient) i n t he c ells S .E.M. v iew of t he c ross s ection of a v ine s tem H ordeum T riticum compactum G alium a nd A vena R achides Z annichellia E uphorbia B erries o f V itis I nsect w ings V iew o f t he excavation o f t he 4 th c entury B .C. Greek f armhouse a long t he v alley o f t he Venella at P onte F abrizo 1 890 T he l ate imperial v illa r ustica a t S . B iagio a fter excavation Gallus domesticus ( chicken) r ight metatarsus S us s crofa f erox ( wild swine) r ight mandible f ragment, cut mark S andstone outcrops A erial photograph of t he P antanello f rom t he north

2 91 2 91 2 91 2 93 2 93 2 93 2 93 2 93 2 93 2 93 2 93

2 97 2 97 3 04 3 04 3 07 3 07

L IST OF

TABLES P age

A .

M .

J .

Ammerman Table 3 .1. Table

3 .2.

Table

3 .3.

Cremaschi T able 7 .1.

S ummary of t he f ields s hown F ig. 3 .1. S ize d istribution o f c ereal i n F ig. 3 .1. Landownership on at A cconia a nd

C arter et al. T able 1 6.1. Table 1 6.2. T able 1 6.3. Table 1 6.4.

f our

C . C hristopher S hort description a nd of Ghiardo profile

i n 3 2 f ields 3 2

c adastral maps 3 2

a nalytical

d ata

S ite s ize versus period ize versus elevation S ite s S ite s ize versus d istance f rom water istance f rom a ncient S ite s ize versus d c ity

9 1

3 01 3 01 3 02 3 02

A DDRESSES Albert Ammerman, D epartment of S ociology a nd Colgate University, H amilton, N ew York 1 3346, U nited S tates o f America. A nna Paola A nzidei, S oprintendenza a rcheologica P iazza S . Maria Nova, 5 3, 0 0100 R oma, I taly.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

A nthropology,

d i

R oma,

C laudio B alista, I stituto d i A rcheologia, P .zza C apitaniato, 7 ., 3 5100 Padova, I taly. Graeme B arker, B ritish S chool at V ia G ramsci, 6 1, 0 0197 Roma, I taly.

R ome,

L aura Bonomi P onzi, S oprintendenza archeologica P iazza G iordano Bruno, 0 60100 Perugia, I taly. Joseph C oleman C arter, Department of C lassics, T he U niversity o f T exas a t Austin, T exas 7 8712, United S tates o f America.

per

l 'Umbria,

Austin,

Christopher C hristopher, Department of A nthropology, Southern Methodist U niversity, Dallas, T exas. Mauro C oltorti, V ia L . de B osig, Jesi, I taly.

2 5,

Mauro C remaschi, Consiglio Nazionale delle R icerche, C entro d i Studio p er l a s tratigrafia A lpi c entrali, V ia Mangiarelli, 3 4, 2 0133 M ilano, I taly.

e petrografia delle

Lorenzo Dal R i, V ia D ante, 5 , 3 9055 L aives, Bolzano, I taly. Armando De Guio, I stituto d i Archeologia, P .zza Capitaniato, 7 , 3 5100 P adova, I taly. G ianfranco Gazzetti, C irconvallazione Casalina, 0 0100 Roma, I taly.

8 ,

Hans K amermans, Albert Egges Van G iffen I nstituut U niversiteit van Amsterdam, S ingel 4 53, 1 012 WP, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

v oor

P rae

e n

P rotohistorie,

voor

P rae

en

P rotohistorie,

G iovanni L eonardi, I stituto d i Archeologia, P .zza Capitaniato, 7 , 3 5100 Padova, I taly. Susan L oving, Albert Egges Van Universiteit van S ingel 4 53, 1 012 WP, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

G iffen I nstituut Amsterdam,

T iziano Mannoni, S ezione d i M ineralogia U niversitä d i Genova, Palazzo delle S cienze, Corso Europa, 3 0, 1 6132 G enova, I taly.

A pplicata

Caroline Malone, Department of A rchaeology, D owning S treet, C ambridge, E ngland. A lessandro Naso, V ia Carlo Emanuele 0 0185 Roma, I taly.

I ,

2 0,

a ll' Archeologia,

Marco Rendeli, V ia Rugghero Bonghi, 0 0184 Roma, I taly.

1 1,

Massimo Ruffo, S oprintendenza A rcheologica P iazza S . Maria N ova 5 3, 0 0100 R oma, I taly.

d i

R oma,

J an S evink, F ysisch G eografisch en B odemdundig Universiteit van Amsterdam, D apperstraat 1 15, 1 0993 BS, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

L aboratorium,

S imon S toddart, Department of A rchaeology, Downing S treet, C ambridge, E ngland. David Trump, 8 7, De F reville C ambridge, E ngland.

A venue,

A lbertus Voorrips A lbert E gges Van G iffen I nstituut Universiteit van Amsterdam, S ingel 4 53, 1 012 WP, Amsterdam, Netherlands. R oger W ilson, S chool of C lassics, T rinity College, University of Dublin, Dublin 2 , I reland.

A ndrea Z ifferero, V ia Tasso 4 0, 0 0185 Roma, I taly.

voor

Prae

en

P rotohistorie,

P reface

a nd

A cknowledgements

This is the f irst of four volumes based on the papers presented at t he T hird Conference o f I talian A rchaeology t hat took place i n S t. John's College and Christ's College, Cambridge in January, 1 984. The conference was h eld almost exactly four years after the second conference in the Depart ment of Classics and Archaeology at Sheffield University which was a lso published b y British A rchaeological Reports ( Barker and Hodges 1 981) and seven years after the f irst a t L ancaster ( Blake et a l. 1 978). T he organisers o f t he Cambridge conference i nvited speakers to present either longer t hematic papers, or period r eports or v isual d isplays on current research. About one hundred people r esponded to t he call f or papers; approximately two f ifths of t hese were from Italy ( of whom about one t hird were based i n Lazio); about one third were British; a further one f ifth were from North America; a nd a l esser number were f rom t he N etherlands, Sweden a nd Australia. T he geographical coverage o f t he papers was fairly even; one t hird of the papers covered the South and the I slands; a further third covered Central Italy ( although a full third of these concentrated on Lazio); one f ifth covered t he North of I taly; t he r emaining f ifth t ackled t hemes t hat encompassed more t han o ne o f t hese areas. I t was the spontaneous and varied response of all the conference participants that contributed so much to the s ti mulating conference t hat r esulted. The published papers have been d istributed among four volumes. T he f irst volume r etains a n important t heme of the c onference: t he Human L andscape. T he t hree other volumes are divided along broadly chronological l ines: Prehistory, Protohistory and Classical/Historical periods. In the s poken conference, t he thematic s essions b rought s pecialists of different periods together. However, it was f elt that i n publicati on access to specialist interests would be f acilitated i f t he v olumes were d ivided c hronologically. Acknowledgements The success of the conference relied on the efforts of many people. The organisers would l ike to t hank Dr. D . Whitehouse for the i nitial suggestion of holding the Third Conference of Italian Archaeology at Cambridge and for h is continuing advice. The organisers are very grateful to all who coordinated the conference debates: Prof. A .C. Renfrew ( President), Dr. G . Barker, Mr. M . Crawford, Dr. H . Hurst, Dr. T . Potter, Prof. P . Wells, Prof. J . Wilks, Dr. D . Whitehouse and D r. R . Whitehouse ( Session C hairmen), P rof.ssa A .M. B ietti Sestieri, Prof. S . T ine, Prof. M . Torelli, Dott. S . Tusa and Dr. D . Whitehouse ( Discussants). A number of bodies made g enerous contributions t owards t he f inance of the conference: British Academy, British School at R ome ( loan), A lwyn Cotton Foundation, S t. John's College. We would l ike t o t hank t he Master, F ellows, Bursar, Junior Bursar a nd s taff of Christ's College and St. John's College who provided food, accommodation ( St. J ohn's C ollege) a nd c onference f acilities. Many others provided a dvice a nd we would especially l ike to

t hank Dr. J . Alexander, Dr. J . Cherry, Mr. M . Crawford and Dr. H . Hurst i n t his respect. Lastly, we would l ike to express our gratitude to the many who helped in the preparation a nd r unning o f t he c onference: E lizabeth Bannan, K ate B oyle, S am E vans, Judith G römberg, N icholas James, S i mon Kaner, James McVicar, Mark Pearce, G ilbert Pwiti, Andrew S argent, Janet Smith a nd J ames Whitley . P ublication

Acknowledgements

In the f irst place the editors would l ike to thank Antonia Lovelace who patiently undertook the massive task of transferring a 1 000 pages of text onto the micro-computer. T his work continued even when t he editors were away i n I taly. We would l ike t o t hank t he D epartment o f A rchaeology f or t he u se of t heir micro-computer f acilities a nd i n particular Dr. C . S hell for h is advice. The Cambridge University Computing Service generously allowed us to use its KDEM text reading s ystem which considerably s peeded up t he t ransfer o f t exts t o the computer memory. I n addition, we would l ike to thank D ebbie C annon, Margerite J ones a nd T im Malim who r e-modelled s ome of t he drawings f or publication. L astly we would l ike to thank Kate Clark and Ro wland Reeve who gave valuable a ssistance i n t he l ast moments of preparation o f t he t ext f or publication.

B ibliography Barker,

G . and Hodges, R . ( eds.) 1981. Archaeology and Italian Society. Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval studies ( Papers i n Italian A rchaeology II). ( B.A.R. Internati onal Seri e s 10 2). Oxfor d, Bri tis h A rchaeological R eports.

Blake,

H . McK., Potter, T . W. and Whitehouse, D .B. ( eds.) 1978. Papers in Itali an Archaeology I . ( B.A.R. Suppl e mentary Series 41). Oxford, Bri ti sh Archaeological R eports.

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LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY G raeme

I N

I TALY.

B arker

The papers f ollowing i n t his volume a re revised v ersions o f t hose p resented a t t he conference on I talian a rchaeology h eld a t C ambridge i n J anuary 1 984 that d eal with the human l andscape. I chaired t he s ession on L andscape a nd E nvironment a t t he conference, a nd was a sked b y the general editors o f t he conference p roceedings to i ntroduce t hese papers b y commenting generally on t he development o f l andscape a rchaeology i n I taly a nd specifically on the contribution made to t hat process b y t he o thers presented i n t he s ession which a re b eing published elsewhere. I k now o f no s ingle a ccepted d efinition o f l andscape a rchaeology, but I t hink t hat for most B ritish a rchaeologists t he t erm h as come to mean t he a rchaeological s tudy o f t he r elationship of people to l and i n a ntiquity a nd more particularly o f t he r elationships b etween people to l and i n t he context o f t he environment t hey i nhabited. I t h as a particularly l ong h istory i n B ritain, where the wealth o f the a rchaeological r ecord i n t he countryside - s ettlements, c emeteries, roads a nd above all ancient f ield s ystems i nevitably d rew a ttention to t he potential i nterest of s tudying t he h istory o f r ural s ettlement a nd i ts r elationship to d ifferent forms o f l and u se, l eading to t he early i ntegration o f a rchaeological and geographical perspectives: G eneral W illiam Roy, f or example, o ne of t he founding f athers o f t he O rdnance S urvey i n the e ighteenth century, was b oth a n a ntiquary a nd a geographer ( Myres 1 951, 9 ). Two o ther f actors have b een s ignificant: f irst, much o f our rural a rchaeology i s amenable to s tudy f rom t he a ir, a nd f rom t he outset a ir photography i n B ritain h as s erved to emphasise a ll t he more the r elationship b etween f ield monuments a nd their n atural s etting ( Crawford a nd K eiller 1 928; Curwen 1 938); a nd s econd, t he topographical d iversity of t he B ritish I sles further emphasised t he r elationship b etween particular types o f a rchaeological monument a nd particular z ones o f t he l andscape ( Clark 1 940; C rawford 1 953; F ox 1 932; 1 948; H oskins 1 955). Today, t he s tudy o f a rchaeological l andscapes embraces a v ery b road spectrum o f techniques, some specifically a rchaeological, o thers b orrowed o r adapted f rom human and physical geographers, i ncluding f or example a ir photography a nd more recently s atellite r emote s ensing; i nvestigating s ettlement s ystems b y means o f s urface surveys a nd s tudies of existing f ield monuments; l ocational studies, b oth c atchment a nalyses o f i ndividual s ites a nd spatial analyses o f s ite n etworks; and palaeoenvironmental r econstruction u sing pollen a nalysis, geomorphology a nd o ther e arth s ciences. I n addition, a full i nvestigation o f a r egional l andscape i n a ntiquity must a lso i nvolve normal e xcavations a nd the analysis of the full r ange o f excavated d ata, b oth a rtifactual and b iological, a nd for the h istorical periods,

1

t he i ntegration r esearches.

o f

t he

a rchaeology

w ith

d ocumentary

L andscape a rchaeology i s a comparatively n ew p henomenon i n I taly, h owever. I n f act, t here i s no e asy t ranslation o f t he t erm: t he o bject o f s tudy i s t he paesaggio a rcheologico, b ut t here i s n o c ommonly a ccepted t erm f or l andscape a rchaeology a s a g eneral a pproach - t he much more s pecific a rcheoloqia ambientale ( environmental a rchaeology) would o ften b e u sed. O ther k inds o f a rchaeology h ave t raditionally h eld s way. G iven t he w ealth o f material culture i n t he g reat c lassical c ities s uch a s R ome a nd P ompeii, t he u rban c lassical a rchaeologies - a rchitectural h istory, a rt h istory, a nd c lassical t opography - h ave t hroughout t his c entury d ominated b oth u niversity r esearch a nd t he c areer s tructure o f t he s tate museums a nd a ntiquities s ervices: t he a bundant evidence f or rural c lassical s ettlement, f or e xample, i s i n most r egions o nly j ust b eing mapped a nd i ts i mportance f or t he s tudy o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic h istory o f R oman I taly b eing a ssessed ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981, p ages 2 0-24; B arker e t a l. 1 978; C eluzza a nd R egoli 1 982). I n t he c ase o f p rehistoric a rchaeology, c hronological a nd t ypological r esearch h as c haracterised most I talian publications u ntil r ecent y ears, a nd t he f irst u niversity t extbook o n I talian p rehistory a ttempting t o r econstruct p rehistoric s ociety b y a ssessing t he a rchaeological d ata i n t erms o f a nthropological models a ppeared o nly i n 1 984 ( Cassano e t a l. 1 984). T he s tudy o f p rotohistory, particularly o f t he E truscan s tate a nd i ts i mmediate a ntecedents, h as s uffered c onspiciously f rom a d earth o f s ettlement d ata a nd - a gain u ntil v ery r ecently - a v ery n arrow s et o f r esearch o bjectives f or t he a bundant c emetery d ata ( Ridgway a nd R idgway 1 979). M edieval a rchaeology, o ne o f t he major s trengths o f l andscape s tudies i n B ritain ( Beresford 1 963; R owley 1 974; T aylor 1 974), h as l argely b een c reated a s a mainstream s ubject i n I talian a rchaeology i n t he p ast d ozen y ears o r s o, a nd a ttention i s o nly j ust b eginning t o f ocus o n r ural s ettlement p atterns i ntegrating e xcavation a nd s urvey ( Barker a nd S ymonds 1 984; F rancovich a nd H odges 1 983). P robably t he two most c ritical r equirements f or l andscape a rchaeology a re a multi-period o r d iachronic perspective a nd a n e clectic multi-disciplinary a pproach. B oth h ave l ong c haracterised B ritish l andscape a rchaeology, but a re r elatively n ew t o t he r esearch t raditions o f I talian a rchaeology. I n o ne s ense t he d evelopment o f a d iachronic a pproach was a n i nevitable r esponse to t he n ature o f much B ritish f ield d ata, g iven t he considerable p roblems o f d ating monuments s uch a s f ield s ystems, b ut a t t he s ame t ime i t h as a lso f lourished a s p art o f t he l ong e stablished movement i n B ritish h istorical s cholarship i nterested i n l ong t erm p rocesses o f c hange i n r ural s ettlement, d emographic t rends, a gricultural h istory a nd t he l ike. O ver t he s ame p eriod i n I taly, h owever, i t i s p robably f air t o s ay t hat p articularist r ather t han g eneralising models h ave c haracterised a majority o f h istorical a nd a rchaeological approaches t o t he p ast. B raudel's magisterial s tudy o f M editerranean h istorical

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g eography ( Braudel 1 972) i s a ll t he more r emarkable b ecause i t s tood s o much a gainst t he currents o f c ontemporary h istorical r esearch i n many M editerranean c ountries. C ertainly f ew I talian a rchaeologists u ntil v ery r ecently c rossed t he major p eriod b oundaries i n t heir r esearch. T he i nter-disciplinary a pproach, p articularly t he l ink b etween a rchaeology a nd g eography, a lso h as a l ong h istory i n B ritish s cholarship, t ypified i n t he 1 920s a nd 1 930s b y t he work o f t he O rdnance s urvey o n ' the p roblems o f monuments a nd maps, t he f undamentals o f f ield a rchaeology' ( Thomas 1 972, 6 2), b y f ield a rchaeologists s uch a s C rawford, F ox a nd G rinsell ( Ashbee 1 972; Myres 1 951; T homas 1 972), a nd b y r egional r esearch p rojects s uch a s t he F enland R esearch C ommittee i ntegrating a rchaeology, g eology, a nd p alynology ( Phillips 1 951). I n I taly c ontemporary c ollaboration b etween p rehistorians a nd g eologists s uch a s B lanc a nd S egre, s tudying quaternary e nvironments a nd h uman s ettlement i n t he e nvirons o f R ome, was t he e xception r ather t han t he r ule, a nd B lanc t oo w as v ery u nusual i n t he b readth o f h is g rasp o f P leistocene a rchaeology, g eology, a nd f aunas ( Blanc 1 935; 1 936; 1 957; B lanc a nd S egre 1 953). A part f rom s uch b iases i n t he major r esearch d irections, t here h ave b een t hree p ractical d ifferences b etween B ritish a nd I talian a rchaeology t hat h ave c ontributed s ubstantially t o t he d ifferent r ates o f d evelopment o f l andscape s tudies i n t he two c ountries. F irst, t here i s l ittle evidence i n I taly f or t he k ind o f f ossilised a gricultural s ystems t hat h ave b een t he c ornerstone o f t he l andscape t radition i n B ritain a lthough i t must b e s aid t hat t he a rchaeology o f t erracing i n I taly r emains l argely u nstudied. S econd, c ivilian u se o f a irspace i n I taly i s f ar more controlled t han i n B ritain, a nd a ir p hotographic c over i s g enerally r ather poor: a rchaeologists c an n ormally o nly h ave a ccess t o v ertical p hotographs t aken f or mapping p urposes, u sually a t t oo h igh a n a ltitude t o h ave much a rchaeological v alue, a nd whilst a rchaeological a ir p hotography c an b e a rranged f or s pecified s ites, t here i s none o f t he t radition o f r egional r esearch b y a rchaeological f lyers t hat h as made s uch a n i mmense c ontribution t o t he d evelopment o f B ritish l andscape a rchaeology ( Beresford a nd S t. J oseph 1 958; M axwell 1 983; R iley 1 980; W ilson 1 975). J ohn B radford's p ioneering s tudy o f P rehistoric, R oman a nd M edieval s ettlement o n t he T avoliere p lain, f rom a ir p hotographs t aken a round t he F oggia a ir b ase w here h e h ad worked during t he l ast war, i s p owerful t estimony t o t he potential t estimony t o t he potential c ontribution s uch r esearch c ould make t o l andscape s tudies i n I taly ( Bradford 1 957). T he h istory o f a ir p hotography i n B ritain, s o much t he p rovince o f h ighly p rofessional ' amateur' a rchaeologists working i n t heir h ome r egion, r aises a f inal point o f f undamental d ifference b etween t he a rchaeological t raditions o f t he two c ountries. T he amateur contribution h as a lways b een counted a s o ne o f t he major s trengths o f B ritish a rchaeology: a part f rom i ndividual r esearchers o f h igh

3

calibre, t he county s ocieties f ormed a bout a c entury a go h ave d rawn amateur f ieldworkers together, p ublished t heir w ork i n t heir a nnual j ournals, a nd i ntegrated amateur r esearch w ith l ocal museums, u niversities a nd more r ecently c ity o r r egional e xcavation u nits. T he r elationship b etween amateur a nd p rofessional a rchaeology i n I taly h as t raditionally b een much l ess h appy o r mutually b eneficial. T he a uthorities h ave mostly t ried t o b lock amateur i nvolvement r ather t han f oster i t, ever s uspicious o f amateurs' motives g iven t he p ersistent p roblems o f t omb robbing f or f inancial g ain. M any c landestine e xcavations, h owever, h ave b een u nauthorised work b y l ocal e nthusiasts w ith n o malicious i ntent ( though o ften v ery d estructive, a nd b y d efinition u npublishable), t he k ind o f people w ho i n B ritain would a lmost c ertainly b e working u nder t he a egis o f a l ocal s ociety. P art o f t he r eason f or t he h istory o f l ow p rofessional i nvolvement i n t he a rchaeology o f t he I talian c ountryside s urely r ests w ith the t raditional s eparation b etween amateur a nd p rofessional i nterests i n I taly's a rchaeological h eritage, t he amateur i nterest s o o ften b eing r egional a nd r ural. H appily, t he r elationship i s c hanging r apidly f or t he b etter. P ioneering work o n t he r elationship b etween a rchaeological s ites a nd t heir t opographical s etting i n I taly was c arried o ut e arly i n t he p resent c entury b y T homas A shby, a s cholar a t t he B ritish S chool a t R ome f rom 1 901 a nd i ts d irector f rom 1 906 t o 1 925, w ho made e xtensive s tudies o f t h a ncient r oad n etworks a nd a ssociated monuments o f t he country s ide a round R ome ( Ashby 1 927). H is f ieldwork was c omplemented b y t he d ocumentary r esearches o f h is f riend G iuseppe T omasetti, published i n f ive v olumes f rom 1 910 t o 1 926. H owever, l andscape a rchaeology a s a s ubject i n t he modern s ense was more o r l ess c reated i n I taly s ingle h anded b y J ohn W ard-Perkins, t he d irector o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome f rom 1 946 u ntil 1 974. Over a p eriod o f s ome twenty y ears h e o rganised a s ystematic a nd i maginative p rogramme o f f ieldwalking, s urveying t he c ountryside i mmediately north o f R ome a round t he a ncient c ity o f V eii i n s outh E truria ( Ward P erkins 1 962; 1 964; W ard-Perkins e t a l. 1 968). T he s urvey w as conducted v ery o pportunely, a t a t ime when l arge a reas o f woodland a nd p asture were b eing c leared f or cultivation, d eep p loughing w as b ecoming w idespread, a nd s uburban d evelopment was e xpanding north o f R ome. M ore t han 2 000 a rchaeological s ites were r ecorded ( principally p rotohistoric, R oman a nd medieval), a nd l imited e xcavations w ere u ndertaken t o o btain s tratified s equences o f l ocal p ottery t ypes, w ith w hich t o d ate t he s urface c ollections o f m aterial a nd t o a nswer s pecific questions about p articular types o f monument. T he p roject w as c omplemented b y s imilar w ork u nder W ard-Perkins' s upervision e lsewhere i n s outhern E truria ( Duncan 1 958; J ones 1 962; 1 963; P otter 1 979). W ard-Perkins w as g ifted w ith a r emarkable eye f or t opographical r elationships, a s w ell a s i ntellectual i nterests t hat t ranscended a ll t he t raditional p eriod a nd s ubject b oundaries o f I talian a rchaeology. T he surveys e stablished t he f irst s eries o f r egional m aps o f

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a rchaeological s ettlement i n I taly. I n a ddition, t he a rchaeological d ata could b e s et i n t he context o f p alynological a nd g eomorphological s tudies o f t he e nvironmental h istory o f t he r egion ( Bonatti 1 963; J udson 1 963; W ard-Perkins 1 964). O f course, a spects o f t he methodology c an b e c riticised today, but i n b oth c onception a nd e xecution t he s outh E truria s urveys a nd a ssociated s tudies l aid t he f oundations o f modern l andscape a rchaeology i n I taly. M oreover, W ard-Perkins p roposed models t o a ccount f or t he s ettlement t rends e stablished b y h is f ieldwork w hich, l ike h is f ield d ata, s till d ominate I talian l andscape s tudies t oday ( Celuzza a nd R egoli 1 982; H odges a nd W hitehouse 1 983; P otter 1 979). C ertainly f ield s urvey h as r emained a s tandard p art o f a rchaeological m ethodology i n I taly e ver s ince; a s eries o f major s urveys o f p rehistoric, c lassical a nd m edieval s ettlement were r eported i n t he p roceedings o f t he s econd conference o n I talian a rchaeology ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981). Two o ther m ajor s timuli to t he d evelopment o f a concern w ith l andscape p roblems w ere p rovided i n t he l ate 1 960s a nd e arly 1 970s. T he f irst w as a p ublication b y V ita-Finzi o f h is model o f a lluviation i n M editerranean s tream v alleys, d efining a n e arlier phase i n t he l ate P leistocene a nd a l ater p hase i n t he f irst m illennium A .D. ( Vita-Finzi 1 969). T he model h as p rovided t he c ritical f ramework f or most e nsuing g eomorphological work o n l andscape c hange i n t he M editerranean r egion. T he l ater p hase o f a lluviation h as b een o f particular i nterest i n I taly b ecause o f i ts possible i mplications ( in t erms o f c limatic c hange, o r e nvironmental d egradation t hrough human a gency) f or t he s ocial, e conomic a nd d emographic t ransformations m arking t he t ransition f rom c lassical t o e arly medieval s ettlement ( Hodges a nd W hitehouse 1 983). T he s econd s timulus c ame f rom r esearch o n I talian p rehistory b y m embers o f t he P arly H istory o f A griculture p roject a t C ambridge U niversity d irected b y E .S. H iggs. R ecommendations h ad b een made i n t he f irst major p ublication o f t he p roject f or t he i mprovement o f current methodologies f or c ollecting a nd a nalysing b otanical a nd f aunal d ata f rom e xcavations ( Dennell 1 972; J arman, H .R. e t a l. 1 972; P ayne 1 972a; 1 972b). I n a ddition, S ite C atchment A nalysis was p roposed a s a s imple f ield t echnique f or a ssessing t he s ubsistence potential o f p rehistoric s ites, t o d elimit a nd i nvestigate t he t erritory a round t he s ite which - t he model p roposed - would h ave b een t he p rincipal f ocus o f t he s ubsistence a ctivities o f t he i nhabitants ( Higgs a nd V itaF inzi 1 972; V ita-Finzi a nd H iggs 1 970). T hese t echniques o f s ubsistence a nalysis were w idely applied i n I taly b y members o f t he p roject, b oth a t i ndividual s ites ( e.g. B arker 1 975a; 1 976a; 1 976b; J arman, H .N. 1 976; J arman, H .N. a nd G amble 1 975; J arman, M .R. 1 975), a nd a t g roups o f s ites i n a n e cological z one o r i n a djacent z ones i n a ssessments o f r egional p atterns o f s ettlement over t he l ong t erm ( Barker 1 972; 1 975b; 1 981; J arman, M .R. 1 971; 1 976; J arman a nd W ebley 1 975).

5

Most o f t he p apers i n t his v olume d iscuss p roblems o f e nvironmental a nd s ubsistence r econstruction s temming f rom t he r esearches d escribed a bove. P robably t he d ominating t heme o f t he conference s ession w as t he n eed f or d etailed p alaeoenvironmental r econstruction a s t he s ine qua n on o f a ny l andscape a rchaeology, f or two r easons. I n t he f irst p lace, s uch s tudies a re e ssential t o u nderstand t he e ffects o f g eomorphological p rocesses o n t he c reation o f t he a rchaeological r ecord - why d o w e f ind a rchaeological s ites o f p articular p eriods i n s ome a reas a nd n ot i n o thers ? ( Such b iases m ay b e r eal i n t he s ense t hat c ertain a reas w ere a voided f or s ettlement a t c ertain t imes i n a ntiquity; o r t hey may b e t he r esult o f e nvironmental c hange, w ith s ites b eing b uried b y l ater s ediments o r d estroyed b y l ater e rosion.) S econd, w e n eed t o u nderstand t he r elationship b etween h ow p eople l ived a nd w hat t he l andscape was l ike, o n t he c onstraints a nd o pportunities i t p rovided a nd h ow a ncient populations r eacted t o t hem. P apers 2 -9 i n t his v olume a ll d eal to a g reater o r l esser extent w ith t he c ritical r ole o f g eomorphological c hange i n t he d iscovery o f a rchaeological s ites, a nd t he s ame p oint was made b y o ther s peakers a t t he s ession ( Hemphill e t a l. 1 984; J ones, M . 1 984; J udson 1 984; M ills 1 984). I n Ammerman's a pt phrase ( Ammerman 1 981; Ammerman a nd B onardi 1 981; A mmerman t his v olume), many s ites - p articularly o f more r emote a ntiquity - may o nly b e f ound i n z ones w hich a re i n e ffect ' geomorphological w indows', o r a reas w here g eomorphological p rocesses a re e xposing t he l andscape a nd a rchaeology o f t he p eriod i n question. S ustained i ntegration b etween g eomorphological a nd a rchaeological f ieldwork i s n ow t he norm i n I talian l andscape s tudies a nd i ts l ack i s a n o bvious weakness o f s ome o f t he e arlier s ettlement s urveys ( di G ennaro a nd S toddart 1 982). T he s econd r ole o f p alaeoenvironmental r econstruction, f or s tudying t he r elationship b etween a ncient l andscapes a nd h uman a ctivities, i s t he p rincipal p oint o f d iscussion i n p apers 3 -5 a nd 9 -11. S everal c riticise p ast work o n s ite c atchment a nalysis o n t he g rounds o f poor g eomorphological control: i nterpretation o f a c atchment c learly h ad t o s tart w ith a d etailed g eomorphological evaluation o f t he l andscape contemporary w ith t he a rchaeological s ite, a nd w hilst t he b est s tudies o f t he e arly 1 970s were b ased o n s uch work ( e.g. D ennell a nd Webley 1 975; J arman, M .R. a nd W ebley 1 975; V itaF inzi a nd H iggs 1 970), o thers o f t he p eriod c an b e f airly c riticised f or i ts l imited i nput ( my own i ncluded). A mmerman

( this

v olume)

a lso makes

a n

e xtended

c riticism

o f s ite c atchment o n o ther counts, s uch a s t he d anger o f making s implistic a ssumptions a bout s ubsistence a ctivities i n a ntiquity f rom modern l and u se, a nd o f e quating s ubsistence p otential w ith s ubsistence r eality. A nother common c riticism, a lluded t o b y T rump ( this v olume), i s t hat d etailed surveys o ften i ndicate t hat p rehistoric communities f armed f ar s maller a reas t han t he f ive k ilometre c atchments o riginally p roposed. A ll t hese c riticisms w ere made s everal y ears a go,

6

i ncluding b y s ome o f t he o riginal p ractitioners ( Barker 1 981, 1 24; D ennell 1 978, 4 4-58; F lannery 1 976; R oper 1 979) a nd t heir i mmediacy i n I taly t oday e mphasises a ll t he more t he i mpact o f s uch s ubsistence s tudies g enerally o n I talian a rchaeology ( first o n p rehistory, b ut n ow t oo i n p rotohistoric, c lassical a nd medieval s tudies) - f unctional a nalyses o f s ettlement h ave b ecome i ncreasingly c ommon, a nd t he k ind o f s ocial a nd cognitive a rchaeologies t hat h ave had s uch a n i mpact o n B ritish a rchaeology ( prehistory e specially) i n r ecent y ears h ave y et t o g ain a ny currency i n I talian a rchaeology. Moreover, w hilst c learly i n n o s ense a n i mpartial o bserver, I d o f ind s ome o f t he f ollowing c riticisms o f t he c atchment s tudies made i n I taly a d ecade a go r ather u nfair. I n t he f irst p lace, t he r econstructions o f p rehistoric s ubsistence were i nvariably b ased o n a ssessments o f l anduse i n t erms o f t he a gricultural t echnologies o f t he period i n question, not i n t erms o f a bsolute ( modern) s oil f ertility Ammerman's point ( Ammerman t his v olume,28-9) t hat t he l ight s ands o f h is s tudy a rea i n C alabria would p robably h ave b een t he p rincipal a rable s oils g iven N eolithic cultivation t echnology, whereas t hey a re marginal f or modern a griculture ( which p refers t he h eavier s oils), was s urely o ne o f t he p rincipal a rguments o f t he C ambridge p roject f or p rehistoric f arming i n many p arts o f E urope. S econd, t he r ealisation t hat t he i mmediate a rea a round a p rehistoric s ettlement was l ikely t o h ave b een t he p rincipal z one o f p rimary c rops was a gain made e arly i n t he application o f s ite c atchment s tudies, w ith t he f ive k ilometre c atchment r egarded a s a guide to t he z one o f l ess l abour i ntensive s ubsistence a ctivities s uch a s h erding a nd wood-gathering. A bove a ll, t he most e ffective s ite c atchment s tudies w ere t hose which were p roperly i ntegrated w ith t he r est o f t he a rchaeological r ecord, w ith t he a rtefacts, b iological a nd p alaeoenvironmental d ata, a nd s tructural evidence o f t he e xcavated s ettlements, f ar r emoved f rom t he s elf-fulfilling p rophecies d ivorced f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord o f Ammerman's c ritique. T hese i ntegrated s tudies p rovided t he f irst d iachronic models o f p rehistoric s ettlement a nd s ubsistence a t a r egional s cale f or I taly a nd h ave b een a d ominant i nfluence o n I talian p rehistoric s tudies ever s ince. Current a pproaches t o t he e stablishment o f s imilar models f or o ther r egions i n I taly a re r epresented i n t his v olume ( Kamermans e t a l. t his v olume; C oltorti a nd D al R i t his v olume; B alista a nd L eonardi t his v olume; D e Guio t his v olume; R endeli t his v olume). A ll t he p apers d ealing w ith d etailed g eomorphological d ata ( Sevink t his v olume; C remaschi a nd C hristopher t his v olume; C oltorti a nd D al R i t his v olume; B alista a nd L eonardi t his v olume; J ones, M . 1 984; Judson 1 984; M ills 1 984) a gree o n t he c omplexity o f e rosional h istory a nd c olluviation i n t heir s tudy a reas, a nd t he c hronological evidence p rovided b y t heir a rchaeological d ata g enerally s uggests a s equence o f a lluviation more complex t han t he V ita-Finzi model. S imilar f indings have r esulted f rom o ther r ecent s tudies e lsewhere i n t he M editerranean ( Barker e t a l. 1 983; D avidson a nd T asker

7

1 982; D avidson e t a l. 1 976; G ilbertson e t a l. 1 983). I t s till s eems t o b e t he c ase t hat t here i s w idespread evidence f or s tream a lluviation d uring t he course o f t he f irst m illennium A .D. t hroughout t he M editerranean, but t he more r efined c hronologies a chieved s ince V ita-Finzi's f ieldwork d o n ot i ndicate a s ingle major p hase - p eriods o f a ctivity a re d ated t o d ifferent c enturies i n d ifferent r egions. T here i s t hus g eneral a greement i n t he l iterature t hat t he n ext s tage o f r esearch must b e t he f urther e stablishment o f i ndependent r egional s equences o f l andscape c hange, a nd o nly t hen c an possible c orrelations b e i nvestigated. C ertainly a t p resent t here i s l ittle consensus o n t he n ature a nd t he e xtent o f c limatic c hange o r o n i ts i mpact o n t he l andscape i n t he l ate p rehistoric a nd h istoric p eriods, a nd s till l ess o n t he p ossible r oles o f h uman a ctivities s uch a s a griculture, d eforestation a nd pastoralism o n v egetational a nd p edological h istory. T he r egional s cale o f e nquiry i s a lso i ncreasingly a ccepted i n I taly a s a c ritical f ocus f or l andscape i nvestigation, not o nly f or e nvironmental s equences a nd t heir r elationships ( if a ny) t o human a ctivities, but a lso f or s tudying t he composition a nd i nternal a rticulations o f s ettlement systems i n a ntiquity b y f ield s urvey. S urvey i s a t t he h eart o f l andscape a rchaeology i n I taly t oday, a nd w hilst many o f t he major r ecent s urveys w ere r eported i n t he p roceedings o f t he s econd I talian c onference ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981a) r ather t han a t C ambridge, i t i s u seful i n t his g eneral d iscussion o f t he d evelopment o f I talian l andscape s tudies t o consider t he s trengths a nd weaknesses o f current s urvey methodologies i n I taly a nd possible a reas f or f urther r esearch. M any o f t he e arlier C lassical s urveys i n I taly a nd e lsewhere i n t he M editerranean w ere d esigned t o e xplore t he k nown o r p resumed t erritory o f a n a ncient town. T his a pproach c an h ave t he b enefit o f a p recise t erritorial model c onstructed f rom d ocumentary s ources, b ut t he a rchaeological s urvey h as to b e c apable o f obtaining d ata o n a s patial s cale t hat c an p roperly t est o r b e compared w ith t his model, r ather t han s imply f itted i nto t he p redicted t erritory a nd s o a pparently ( but quite s puriously) c onfirming t he e xisting a ssumptions about t he n ature o f t he t erritory. M ore s eriously, p erhaps, t he a rea s o d efined f or o ne p eriod o f s ettlement m ay well n ot b e s uitable f or t he s tudy o f s ettlement c hange i n o thers; a nd t here i s g eneral a greement t hat w hilst a p articular c ultural p hase may w ell b e a p rincipal f ocus o f i nterest i n a s urvey, t o i gnore o ther m ajor g roups o f s urface a rchaeologyin favour o f o thers i s m ethodologically p erilous ( a majority o f s ites w ith p articular l ithic o r p ottery a ssemblages may w ell b e u ndateable i n t he e arly s tages o f a s urvey) a s well a s o ften b eing s imply i nefficient, a nd s eems i ncreasingly o n a p ar w ith t he b ad o ld d ays o f b ulldozing t he u pper l evels o f a s ite t o concentrate e xcavation o n ' more i nteresting' cultural l evels f urther d own. F or t hese r easons s urvey a rchaeologists a re n ormally a dvised t oday t o a dopt a r egional a pproach,

8

s electing a n atural t opographic u nit s uch a s a r iver c atchment, i nland b asin, coastal p lain o r i sland. T his a pproach h as u ndoubtedly made a f undamental c ontribution t o o ur u nderstanding o f s ettlement t rends i n M editerranean a ntiquity, b ut p rincipally w here t he r egions s elected h ave b een l arge e nough t o p rovide r easonable c ase s tudies o f s ettlement p atterns, l ocal s ettlement h ierarchies a nd s o o n many o f t he 6 0 ' regional' s urveys d escribed i n K eller a nd R upp's ( 1983) s ummaries o f c urrent f ieldwork i n t he M editerranean a re t iny, w ith g eneralisations o ffered i n s ome c ases a bout s ettlement t rends i n t erritorial u nits o f s everal h undred k ilometres o n t he b asis o f work i n p erhaps a dozen s quare k ilometres o r even l ess. Furthermore, t he s tudy o f t he s ingle r egion, w hilst c ertainly t he most p rofitable a nd e conomical approach f or much s ettlement a nalysis, c annot b e t he e xclusive f orm o f i nvestigation ( Adams 1 977; R edman 1 982). I n s outhern F rance, f or e xample, M ills ( 1981) h as c onducted i ndividual r egional f ield s urveys o n t he c oastal p lain, i nland b asins, t he G arrigues p lateau a nd t he G rands C ausses mountains, a nd f ound a complex a nd c hanging n etwork o f r elationships l inking t he t rends i n p rehistoric s ettlement a nd d emography i n e ach r egion which o nly made s ense a t t he i nter-regional s cale. I n my own s urvey i n M olise i n s outhern I taly o f s ome 5 00 s quare k ilometres o f t he 2 000 s quare k ilometres o f t he B iferno v alley ( Barker i n p reparation; B arker e t a l. 1 978; L loyd a nd B arker 1 981), w e h ave found t hat t he r elationships b etween t he d ifferent p arts o f t he v alley - t he A pennine a ltipiano a t t he h ead, t he adjacent l ake b asin, t he r emote m iddle r eaches o f t he v alley, t he c oastal l owlands - h ave c hanged f undamentally a nd r epeatedly during t he course o f s ettlement f rom p rehistoric t imes t o t he p resent d ay, a nd t he d ifferent p arts o f t he v alley were a lso l inked d ifferentially w ith t he o utside world: i n f act, t he v alley o nly b ecame the s ingle i ntegrated r egion o f my o riginal p reconception w ith t he construction o f t he r ailway i n t he l ast c entury. A t a s maller s cale, t he Montarrenti s urvey n ear S iena w ith which I a m p resently concerned ( Barker a nd S ymonds 1 984) a lso i nvolves t he i nvestigation o f s everal quite d istinct l andforms w hich a re t ypical o f t he i nland T uscan l andscape, b ut i t i s a lready c lear t hat s ettlement t rends w ill have t o b e i ntegrated w ith t he r esults o f o ther s urveys i n a djacent r egions s uch a s c oastal T uscany ( Celuzza a nd F entress 1 982) a nd t he c entral A pennines ( Malone a nd S toddart 1 984). T he i mportance o f i nter-regional r elationships i s a f eature o f T rump's d iscussion o f t he p rehistory o f t he B onu I ghinu v alley i n S ardinia ( Trump t his v olume); a nd t he impact o f ' world s ystems' o n r egional s ettlement i s w ell i llustrated i n C arter's s tudy o f southern I taly i n t he fourth c entury B .C. ( Carter t his v olume) d ocumenting t he d isplacement o f t he i ndigenous p eoples f rom t he p rime a gricultural l ands b y t he G reek c olonists, a nd i n W ilson's e xample ( Wilson t his v olume) o f t he e ffect o f E gyptian a nd A frican g rain i mports t o R ome o n c ereal p roduction i n S icily, r esulting i n u rban d ecline a nd r ural r estructuring.

9

C herry ( 1983) h as s hown t hat r ecent s urveys i n G reece a nd I taly u sing i ntensive f ieldwalking ( with t eams o f 4 -6 people walking 5 , 1 0 o r 1 5 metres a part) h ave f ound s ite d ensities s ixty o r s eventy t imes g reater t han e arlier s urveys u sing l ess i ntensive methods. I n a ddition, s urveys i n t he American S outh W est have i ndicated a d irect r elationship b etween t he n umber o f man-days e xpended o n s urveying a u nit o f l and a nd t he number o f s ites found i n i t, w ith n o s igns o f d iminishing r eturns ( Plog e t a l. 1 978). T he e xperience o f r ecent I talian projects, w here s urveying h as b een r epeated f rom y ear to y ear, h as a lso b een t hat o nly a p ortion o f t he s urface a rchaeology i s f ound i n a ny o ne s eason b ecause o f a complex r ange o f f actors a ffecting s ite v isibility ( geomorphological c hange, v egetation cover, p lough a nd l ight conditions, t eam experience, a nd t he r elative a rchaeological v isibility o f d ifferent c lasses o f m aterial). H owever, i n my own w ork i n t he B iferno v alley i n M olise a nd t he M ontarrenti s urvey s ome 7 5% o f t he s urvey r esults e ach y ear h ave b een b roadly comparable - w hilst i ndividual s ites c ome a nd go, t he overall t rends i n s ettlement t ypes, d ensities a nd l ocations have b een e ssentially t he s ame. T he conclusion f rom t he American a nd I talian e xperience n eed not b e t hat t iny u nits o f l and have t o b e r e-surveyed i n p erpetuity f or m eaningful d ata, b ut t hat we h ave t o s elect a l evel o f i ntensity t hat s eems a dequate o n two counts: f irst, i n t erms o f t he p roblems b eing s tudied, a nd s econd, i n t he s ense o f b eing a ble t o e stimate what k ind o f s urface a rchaeology i s b eing f ound a nd what i s b eing m issed. I n t he p ast, most M editerranean s urveys a ssumed t hat t he a rchaeological l andscape d ivided i nto d istinct a nd r ecognisable ' sites' o n t he o ne h and, a nd more o r l ess e mpty spaces o n t he o ther. H owever, e thnoarchaeological s tudies make i t c lear t hat much h unting a nd p astoral a ctivity i n t he p rehistoric p eriod p robably would h ave l eft t hin s preads o f d ebris over h undreds o f metres, q uite u nlike t he ' site' o f normal a rchaeological expectations ( Foley 1 981). S o t oo t he a rchaeology o f l ater a gricultural s ocieties ( both p rehistoric a nd h istoric) consists n ot o f s ites a nd empty a reas, but a contour m ap o f d iscarded m aterial c ulture, l ike a t opographic r elief map, w ith ' peaks' o f d ifferent s izes r epresenting d ifferent f orms o f s ettlement a nd l ow d ensity s preads o f d ebris o r i solated ' humps' r epresenting a r ange o f a gricultural a nd i ndustrial a ctivities s uch a s m anuring, s hepherding, c harcoal b urning a nd w oodland management. I n t he Montarrenti s urvey, t he c ollection o f a ll s urface f inds i ncluding material n ormally r egarded s imply a s s poradic h as s hown t he e xistence o f b oth ' normal' s ettlements i n l ater p rehistory a nd ' non s ites' o f d iscontinuous s preads o f l ithic d ebris, s upporting t he t hesis e stablished f rom excavations e lsewhere i n c entral I taly ( Barker 1 981). T he d ifferential d istributions o f l ater m edieval a nd p ost medieval ' sporadic' p ottery, o n t he a ssumption t hat t hey a re t he r esult o f manuring, a lso s eem t o b e a quite s ensitive guide t o a c ycle o f a gricultural e xpansion a nd c ontraction. A lthough

t here

i s w idespread a greement

1 0

i n

I taly o n

t he

i ntensity o f s urvey coverage a nd o n s ampling s trategies t o o btain r epresentative populations o f t he surface a rchaeology o f a s tudy r egion, a major p roblem i s t hat t his k ind o f s urvey c an cope w ith a rable l and but n ot w ith l arge a reas o f s crub, p asture a nd woodland. S urvey r egions t herefore h ave t o b e s tratified i n z ones o f d ifferential v isibility, a nd a v ariety o f d ifferent t echniques applied t o t he v egetated z ones s uch a s s atellite r emote s ensing, n ormal a ir p hotography, a uguring, d igging t est p its, c leaning a ll e xposed s ections, walking f orest f irebreaks, a nd cutting b ulldozer s ections o r p its. I n t he s urvey o f t he t erritory o f t he S an V incenzo monastery i n M olise, f or e xample, n ormal f ieldwalking w as u sed t o s earch t he v arious t ypes o f a gricultural l and, a nd t hese l ocated a t ypical r ange o f P rehistoric, C lassical a nd e arly M edieval s ites, b ut e arly M edieval s ites w ere o nly l ocated b y s hovel-testing f orested h ills w here e arly M edieval s ettlement was p redicted f rom d ocumentary sources ( Hodges 1 982). T he p rincipal d evelopment i n s urvey methodology i n I taly, i n s hort, i s a n i ncreasing awareness o f t he c omplexity o f s urvey d ata, a nd o f t he complexity o f t he r elationships b etween b uried a rchaeology a nd s urface a rchaeology, a nd b etween s urface a rchaeology a nd i ts d iscovery a nd c lassification. W e u rgently n eed quantitative i nformation o n t he way s urface a rchaeology c hanges f rom y ear t o y ear, f rom s eason t o s eason, a nd w ithin s easons. F or t his r eason i n t he M ontarrenti s urvey we a re making r eplicated collections o f s ome typical s urface s ites - l ithic s catters, l ithic/pottery s catters, a nd t ile/pottery s catters, t o i nvestigate t he m echanisms i nvolved i n b ringing buried a rtifacts to t he s urface o f c ultivated l and. A t o ne C lassical s ite, f or e xample, t he s urface material was c ollected s lowly a nd p ainstakingly i mmediately a fter d eep p loughing i n S eptember 1 982 ( in a g rid m easuring 7 0 x 8 0 m ., i n 5 b y 5 m . collection u nits), w ith t otal c ollection t he g oal, b ut t he s ite was ' rejuvenated' s ufficiently b y h arrowing a nd r ain to a llow a s econd c ollection o f comparable s ize a week l ater. 1 37 s herds w ere c ollected o n t he f irst o ccasion a nd 1 63 o n t he s econd, b ut t he average s ize a nd weight o f f inds s tayed much t he s ame. A lthough t he d istribution o f d ifferent a rtifact c lasses, a nd t heir r elative p roportions i n e ach collection u nit, a re s howing s ome v ariation i n r esponse t o s oil movement, i t h as b een h eartening t o f ind t hat t he t wo major c lusterings o f material n oted i n 1 982 have also b een r epeated i n t he t wo 1 983 a nd 1 984 collections. T he most i mportant g eneral p oint to make about t he p resent s tate o f a rchaeological s urvey i n I taly i s t hat i ts ' loss o f i nnocence' i n D avid C larke's t erm ( Clarke 1 973) i n c onfronting t he k ind o f p roblems d iscussed a bove i s a c ause f or optimism r ather t han p essimism. T he more p recise d ata t hat we c an o btain o n t he r elationship b etween b ehaviour i n a ntiquity a nd s urvey d ata, t he more w e c an work b ack w ith c onfidence f rom t he l atter t o t he f ormer. C ertainly, t he l andscape p rojects i n I taly today a re i ncorporating f lexible multi-stage s urvey s tategies w ith d etailed g eomorphological

1 1

s tudies, s elected e xcavations, a ssociated a nalyses o f b iological d ata a nd s o o n - s uch a s t he A gro P ontino ( Sevink t his v olume; K amermans e t a l. t his v olume), A lbegna v alley ( Jones, M 1 984; W alker v olume t hree), M etaponto ( Carter t his v olume), G ubbio ( Malone a nd S toddart 1 984) a nd M ontarrenti p rojects - s urely s trengthen r ather t han d iminish o ur confidence i n t he p otential o f t his k ind o f a rchaeology t o s tudy r egional s ettlement p atterns o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime, a nd s o monitor w hat B raudel ( 1972, 2 0-21) t ermed t he ' slow b ut perceptible r hythms o f h istory . . ... t hose u nderlying currents, o ften n oiseless, w hose d irection c an o nly b e d iscerned b y watching t hem over l ong p eriods o f t ime'. I n our i ntroduction t o t he p roceedings o f t he s econd conference o n I talian a rchaeology, R ichard H odges a nd I w rote t hat t he s imilarities b etween current t rends i n P rehistoric, C lassical a nd M edieval a rchaeology i n I taly were much more s triking t han t he d ifferences, but t hat t hese t rends had h ad l ittle o r no i mpact o n t he s tudy o f p rotohistory: ' the v irtual absence f rom t his v olume o f p apers d ealing w ith t his p eriod o f I talian a rchaeology r eflects p recisely t he d ifference i n a ims. Y et i n our v iew t his p eriod o f I taly's p ast must b e a goldmine f or a rchaeological r esearch o f t he k ind n ow current i n t he r est o f I talian a rchaeology .. [ and i s] p otentially o f e normous i nterest t o s tudents o f c hiefdom a nd e arly s tate f ormation' ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981b, 4 ). I t i s g ratifying t o s ee h ow quickly t hese comments h ave b een overtaken b y e vents, a nd t he 1 984 c onference w ill s urely b e r emembered most f or i ts t estimony t o t he r evolution t hat h as t aken p lace i n I talian p rotohistoric s tudies i n t he l ast f ive y ears. I t was f irst h eralded b y t he p ublication o f t he s eminar o n ' Pconomia e o rganizzazione d el t erritorio n elle s ocietä p rotostoriche' h eld a t R ome i n 1 982 ( Atti 1 982), which s et out t o a ssess t he p otential contribution o f l andscape a nd t erritorial s tudies ' of t he k ind p ractised i n n orthern Europe, G reat B ritain a nd t he U nited S tates' ( Bergonzi e t a l. 1 982, 4 ) t o I talian p rotohistory. T wo papers i n t he p resent v olume ( Naso a nd Z ifferero t his v olume; R endeli t his v olume) r eport surveys w hich a re s pecifically t ackling t he s ettlement t ransformations o f t he f irst m illennium B .C., d ocumenting a d iversity o f r ural E truscan s ettlement - h itherto k nown o nly f rom s outh E truria s urveys t hat must b e t he foundation f or a ny comprehensive models o f s tate f ormation i n t his p art o f I taly. T he r emaining p apers o n p rotohistory a re published together i n V olume t hree, but t he v igour a nd v ariety o f current a pproaches to p rotohistoric s ettlement a nd l andscape a rchaeology a re w ell r epresented t here, f rom d etailed s tudies o f major s ites s uch a s D oganella a nd S atricum t o r egional a ssessments o f s ite h ierarchies, a nd w hat i s s o i mpressive i s h ow well t hese s tudies i ntegrate w ith t he n ew c emetery s tudies o f s tratification a nd complexity. R ichard H odges a nd I d edicated t he p roceedings o f t he s econd conference to J ohn W ard-Perkins, i n a cknowledgement o f t he r emarkable r ole h e h ad p layed f or over t hirty y ears i n t he development o f I talian a rchaeology: e ither d irectly a s a

1 2

t eacher or i ndirectly i n h is writings h e h ad b een a dominant i nfluence on most o f t he contributors t o t he volume. H e d ied soon after its publication, but it is a pleasure to a cknowledge t hat s o much o f t he proceedings of t he Cambridge conference a gain r eflect t he extraordinary s timulus which h is ideas and f ield skills have g iven to Italian landscape archaeology, an archaeology that now encompasses the protohistoric period as much as the millennia before and a fterwards. B ibliography Adams,

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the Mount Carmel area of Palestine: s ite catchment a nalysis. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 6, 1-37. Ward-Perkins, J .B. 1 962. Etruscan towns, Roman roads and Medieval v illages: the historical geography of s outhern Ward-Perkins, I taly. Ward-Perkins,

E truria.

G eographical

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1 28,

J .B. 1 964. Landscape and history i n Oxford, J .L Myres Memorial L ecture. J .B.,

Kahane,

A .

and

3 89-405. central

Murray-Threipland,

1968. T he ager veientanus north and east of P apers o f t he B ritish S chool at Rome 3 6, 1 -218. Wilson,

L .

Rome.

D .R. ( ed.) 1975. Aerial reconnaissance for Archaeology. ( CBA r esearch r eport 1 2) L ondon, C ouncil for B ritish A rchaeology.

1 9

2 .

ALCUNI

P ROBLPMI

DI

GEOMORFOLOGIA RELATIVI

ALL'ARCHEOLOGIA

I TALIANA

T iziano M annoni

L e i nformazioni c he possono f ornire l e S cienze d ella T erra s ulle t rasformazioni dell'ambiente f isico olocenico possono spesso r isultare non u tilizzabili sul t erreno d a parte d i a rcheologi c he non abbiano r icevuto u n'adeguata p reparazione n aturalistica, come normalmente avviene a ncora n ei corsi universitari i taliani, s e S i escludono a lcune s cuole d i P reistoria i nserite neu e F acoltä s cientifiche. A nche a i n aturalisti i taliani che operano nella ' Geologia s torica' s i potrebbe tuttavia chiedere u n maggiore i nteresse per l 'aspetto a ntropico d i tale periodo, non soltanto considerando l 'uomo come u n fattore s empre piü i ncidente s ulle t rasformazioni d ell'ambiente f isico, ma o ccupandosi a nche d elle v icende n aturali relative a i manufatti d i qualsiasi genere ed epoca l asciati d all'uomo s tesso nei v ani t ipi d i t erritorio. M entre s i confida, p er l a soluzione del p roblema a l ivello i stituzionale, i n una p ratica a ttuazione dei programmi i nterdisciplinari e laborati d al Consiglio U niversitario N azionale, s i i ntendono portare con l a p resente comunicazione due p iccoli contributi che r iguardano p roprio i s ignificati f isici, e l e conseguenti i nterpretazioni, d i alcune g iaciture s tratigrafiche orizzontali e v erticali dei r eperti a rcheologici. B isogna r icordare, p rima d i tutto, che l 'Italia f isica f a parte d i quei paesi che p resentano u na g ran v arietä d i ambienti g eomorfologici, caratterizzati d a comportamenti a ssai d ifferenti, e t alora opposti, per quanto r iguarda l e s ingole ' ston e' del s eppellimento, o delle m igrazioni s econdarie subite d ai manufatti abbandonati d all'uomo. pure noto c he i i f attore geomorfologico principale sotto questo p rofilo ä costituito d alla pendenza media d elle s uperfici. Non s i puö tuttavia adottare a i f ini a rcheologici l a d istinzione u sata d ai geografi f isici t ra a ree p ianeggianti e collinari, c aratterizzate d a b asse pendenze, ed a rce montagnose, t ipiche delle alte pendenze. q e c iö ä s enza dubbio a ccettabile quando s i considerino i caratteri generali d ei t re ambienti morfolgici, puö non e ssere s empre v ero s e applicato a s iti d i superficie molto r idotta, quali s ono i n genere g li i nsediamenti. A questo l ivello, i nfatti, e sistono a ree d i b assa pendenza anche s ui c rinali o sui v ir g anti d elle montagne, ed a ree ad alta pendenza s i r iscontrano a nche a b asse quote, ad opera d i solchi e rosivi, o d i e rosioni d ifferenziali quando i i modellamento non s ia maturo; s enza contare c he proprio questi s iti caratterizzati d a contrasti d i pendenza, s iano essi sulle montagne o i n z one collinari, sono s tati spesso abitati, per ragioni d ifensive, i n epoche d ifferenti c he v anno d alla P reistoria a l M edioevo.

2 1

q i puö concludere quest'aspetto d el p roblema d icendo c he s i considerano ' aree a rcheologiche d i b assa pendenza' quelle n eu e quali a nche n eu e condizioni p iü s favorevoli, e c ioä i n a ssenza d i v egetazione e con s corrimento superficiale d elle acque p iovane, i r eperti p i üp iccoli non s ubiscono t rasporto ( giaciture o rizzontali p rimarie), mentre tutte l e a ltre v engono d efinite ' aree a rcheologiche d i a lta p endenza', a nche s e alcune d i e sse possono e ssere ' temporaneamente p rotette', quando i i p ersistere d i c erte a ssociazioni v egetali i mpedisce i i ruscellamento superficiale. N elle a ree d el p rimo t ipo, qualora non v i s iano s tate s ovrapposizioni d i i nsediamento ( stratigrafie antropiche), e ntrano i n g iuoco i meccanismi n aturali d i s eppellimento ( stratigrafie n aturali), ma qualora g li apporti d i copertura s iano molto l imitati ed i manufatti s iano r imasti n ell'ambito del s uolo v egetale od a grario, l e g iaciture v erticali possono e ssere d isturbate ( giaciture pedologiche). N elle aree d el s econdo t ipo s i v erificano a nche t rasporti l ungo l e l inee d i massima pendenza ( giaciture o rizzontali secondarie), con possibili f ormazioni d i p seudostratigrafie. evidente che d i t ali d ifferenze d i comportamento e sistenti f ra i due t ipi d i a ree s i debba t ener conto neu e p rospezioni e n eu e r icerche a rcheologiche condotte nel t erritorio. L e possibilitä d i spostamenti orizzontali S i r ipercuotono maggiormente s u quell'importante f ase p reliminare d ella r icerca che s i svolge mediante r accolte d i superficie, mentre l e g iaciture pedologiche e l e p seudostratigrafie possono i nfluire n egativamente s ugli s cavi s tratigrafici. S arebbe tuttavia u n g rosso e rrore r inunciare a lle i nformazioni che pur s empre e sistono a nche n eu e aree a rcheologiche d i a lta pendenza; ä s olo n ecessario conoscere i meccanismi n aturali d i spostamento, e r icondurre d i conseguenza i r eperti a rcheolgici a i l oro punti d i partenza. S e non S i f acesse cosi b isognerebbe d 'altra parte escludere dalle r icerche s istematiche d i superficie l a maggior parte dei territori i taliani i quail, e ssendo tettonicamente e morfologicamente molto g iovani, s ono d ominati d a a lte pendenze i n s enso a rcheologico. S enza contare i nfine che g li s tessi s trati a ntropici degli i nsediamenti a rroccati, i n occasioni d i f orte e rosione d ei f ianchi, possono e ssere s tate i n tutto o i n parte a sportati ed i l oro materiali i mmessi i n g iaciture s econdarie. A ltre

conseguenze

d elle

p endenze

d elle

s uperfici,

che

i ndirettamente i ncidono a ncora sulla r icerca a rcheologica, sono costituite d ai d iversi u si s torici d el s uolo e d alle v icende dell'agricoltura a ttuale. L e a ree d i b assa pendenza, non essendo soggette ad e rosione g rossolana i n a ssenza d i manto vegetale, sono s tate s ottoposte f in d all'antichitä a colture estensive, s eminative, a rboricole o m iste, con r elative s istemazioni d ei terreni c he s i possono d ividere, s econdo l a c lassificazione a gronomica i taliana, i n due gruppi: s istemazioni d i p ianura per evitare i i r istagno d elle acque; s istemazioni a r intocchino, g irapoggio cavalcapoggio, per pendenze comprese t ra i i 5 % ed i l 2 5%. Nelle a ree d i a lta pendenza ä i nvece n ecessaria u na

2 2

p rotezione d al r uscellamento s uperficiale, perciö f ino a l t ardo M edioevo e sse s ono s tate r iservate a i b oschi, e s olo p er s famare l a c rescente p opolazione r urale d ell'Etä M oderna s ono s tate p arzialmente t rasformate i n c olture t errazzate. M entre p erö n eu e p ianure g li a pporti a lluvionali h anno f atto c rescere abbastanza v elocemente i l ivelli d ei suoli, p roducendo u n s eppellimento a bbastanza p rofondo d ei manufatti a bbandonati, n on p iü i nteressati d al t erreno a grario, n eu e v ere e p roprie a ree a rcheologiche d i b assa p endenza ( 5%-25%), p ur n on e sistendo t rasporti o rizzontali, i manufatti h anno s ubito d eboli s eppellimenti, d ovuti a d u n l ento a pporto p er d ilavamento d i materiali f ini, e s ono s tati perciö i nteressati d a p arziali o t otali r imaneggiamenti v erticali a d o pera d elle a ttivitä a gricole. P iü c omplessa ä l a s ituazione d elle a ree d i a lta p endenza, d ove i manufatti s cendono a v alle d urante l e c arenze o d a ssenze t emporanee d i manto v egetale, ed e ntrano a f ar p arte d el suolo quando S i i nstaura u n n uovo b osco; m a possono a nche e ssere i nteressati d a s eppellimenti s tabili durante l a c reazione d i t errazzi a gricoli, o s ubire r imaneggiamenti v erticali n el t erreno a grario d i o gni s ingolo t errazzo. I i p rogressivo s uperamento d ella t radizionale a gricoltura d i pura s ussistenza, avvenuto i n I talia n el c orso d egli u ltimi d ecenni, h a d eterminato u n nuovo c ambiamento n egli u si d el s uolo. T ale c ambiamento ä c aratterizzato d all'abbandono d ei t errazzamenti, d estinati a d u n r imboschimento s pontaneo, c on l a s opravvivenza n eu e a ree d i a lta p endenza d egli o rti c ircostanti g li abitati, m a a nche d a u na modernizzazione d elle t ecniche a gricole n elle a ree d i b assa pendenza, c on l 'introduzione d i a rature m eccaniche p rofonde c he v anno p urtroppo a d i ncidere, e s pesso a r imuovere c ompletamente, i p aleosuoli a ntropici s opravvissuti a lle a rature t radizionali. I n questo c aso, o nde evitare costosi s cavi s tratigrafici c he potrebbero r isultare i nutili, s i c onsiglia d i a ffiancare a lle r accolte d i s uperficie a lcuni c arotaggi a mano p er constatare s e e sistano a ncora s trati culturali i n posto. L a i nsufficiente importanza d ata a l f attore ' pendenza d elle s uperfici' d ai p iü i mportanti t rattati d i S cienze d ella T erra a pplicate a ll'Archeologia s i pub s piegare s apendo c he questi s ono s tati e laborati i n p aesi c aratterizzati d a u n modellamento f isico morto maturo, e dove quindi g li i nsediamenti s ono s empre i n r elazione con v aste a ree d i b assa p endenza ( Cornwall 1 958; B utler 1 971; L imbrey 1 975; S hackley 1 975; D avidson a nd S hackley 1 976). C he t ale f attore g iuocasse i nvece u n r uolo f ondamentale p er l 'interpretazione d elle g iaciture d ei r eperti a rcheologici n ella maggior p arte d ei t erritori i taliani, e p iü i n g enerale c ircummediterranei, ä s tato s perimentato i n L iguria n el c orso d egli a nni g essanta, quando c ioä s ono cominciati g li s cavi s tratigrafici d i i nsediamenti montani, e s i ä c ercato d i r endere s istematiche l e r accolte d i s uperficie ( Mannoni 1 970). I metodi d i r icerca s ono s tati p erfezionati d all'Istituto d i S toria d ella C ultura M ateriale ( ISCUM) n el d ecennio s uccessivo, come S i pub v edere d alla p roduzione s cientifica d ell'Istituto s tesso ( 1).

2 3

S i ä parlato f inora di insediamenti minori o di manufatti abbandonati nel t erritorio, per i quali l e cause naturali d i s eppelli mento s ono e sclusive o prevalenti r ispetto a quelle a ntropiche. E ' ben noto c he, al c ontrario, nei centri urbani s i ä s empre c ercato d i t enere l ontani g li a pporti n aturali d i materiali, e c he s olo e venti t raumatici, come l e alluvioni, potevano ogni tanto i nfrangere t ali d ifese. Nel corso delle r icerche d i archeologia u rbana condotte i n I talia s ettentrionale d all'ISCUM ( Istituto d i S toria della Cultura Materiali) nell'ultimo decennio s ono s tati r iscontrati t uttavia almeno quattro c asi d i apporti naturali non c lassificabili come depositi a lluvionali. S i tratta di strati a crescita continua, e quindi non d ifferenziati nella l oro composizione, c he raggiungono s pessori d i alcuni a l metri. L e a nalisi g eomorfologiche e sedi mentologiche hanno d i mostrato c he e ssi derivano d a d ilavamenti molto l enti e c ontinui d i materiali f ini i n z one urbane abbandonate e c aratteriziate d a b asse p endenze . N on a c aso t ali f enomeni s ono s empre d atabili t ra i l t ardo I mpero e l 'XI s ecolo, quando c ioä le c ittä h anno s ubito notevoli contrazioni edilizie, ed ä venuto a cessare ogni t ipo d i manutenzione pubblica ( Mannoni 1 968) ( 2). C iö che piü importa i n questo caso ä che l o s trato a c rescita c ontinua, b en n oto a i preistorici c he s cavano n eu e caverne, non ä s empre f acilmente i dentificabile d a parte d egli archeologi u rbani, a bituati a s ovrapposizioni d i s trati monoculturali nettamente d ifferenziati, e che s ono quindi portari a considerarlo come un unico evento cronologico. Qualora, perö lo s trato a crescita c ontinua venga s cavato come strato unico, e non a tagli paralleli a ll'inclinazione d i sed men ta zion e , se con do le tecniche de 1lo scavo p reistorico, s i p erdono importanti i nformazioni s ulla l unga successione di r ifiuti urbani i n esso contenuta, che r iguardano quel periodo a ltomedievale g iä molto povero d i t estimonianze materiali.

N ote 1 )

Tali

metodi

i nsegnamento d i p resso l a S cuola P isa. 2 )

A ltri

c osi

sono

stati

inseriti

T ecniche s ussidiarie S peciale p er A rcheologi

s ono a ncora

i n

C orso d i

dal

1 981

nell'

d ell' A rcheologia . d ell U niversitä d i

pubblicazione.

B ibliographia Butzer,

K . W.

1 971.

E nvironment a nd A rchaeology.

L ondon.

C ornwall, I . W. 1 958. S oils f or t he A rchaeologist. L ondon. Davidson, D .A . and S hackley, M .L 1 976. Geoarchaeology. Earth

2 4

S cience

a nd

t he

P ast.

L ondon.

Istituto di Stori a della Cultura Materiali. Catalogo g enerale. N otiziario d i A rcheologia Medievale 3 3, 2 6-30. L imbrey,

S .

1 975.

S oil

S cience

a nd

Man noni, T . 1968. L ' Aurelia L igustico 2 0, 1 00-104.

a

A rchaeology. S .

London.

Vincenzo.

Bolleti no

Mannoni, T . 1970. Sui metodi della scavo archeologico nella L iguria montana. Applicazioni d i geopediologia e g eomorfologia. Bolletino L igustico 2 2 ( 1/2), 4 9-64. S hackley,

M . L.

1 975.

A rchaeological

S ediments.

L ondon.

S ummary T he author examines t he importance o f g eological k nowledge for the study of horizontal and vertical stratigraphies of archaeological remains. In small settlements and f ield survey, slope angle i s considered the critical variable. I n excavation a n understanding o f continuously accumulating i s considered essential.

urban l ayers

R iassunto L 'autore esamina l 'importanza della conoscenza g eologica per lo studio di alcune giaci ture stratigraphie orizontali e verticali dei r eperti archeologici. Nei i nsediamenti minori e g li studi d i superficie, la pendenza ä considerata il variabile critico. Negli scavi urbani, una conoscenza dello strato a crescita continua ä considerata essenziale.

2 5

3 .

MODERN LAND A CASE

U SE VERSUS THE PAST:

STUDY F ROM CALABRIA

A lbert

J .

A mmerman

I ntroduction I t has b ecome common i n t he more recent l iterature on p rehistory, at l east i n some quarters, to turn to t he modern l andscape a s a guide to t he past. T he u nderlying assumption i s t hat t he l andscape, acting a n a n environmental constraint, g ives r ise to a concurrence b etween prehistoric and contemporary modes of economic exploitation i n a given a rea. B y s tudying modern l and u se, i t i s b elieved, we can g ain i nsight i nto l and u se i n t he remote past. A n a im of this a rticle w ill b e to raise some questions about s uch a n approach. A t hesis to b e developed here, as t he t itle i ndicates, i s t hat perhaps we are not paying enough a ttention to d ifferences b etween modern a nd prehistoric l and u se. A c ase s tudy i nvolving t he A cconia a rea of C alabria w ill b e e xamined a s a means o f developing the a rgument. Survey work a nd excavations ( Ammerman a nd S haffer 1 981; Ammerman 1 985) have revealed d ense patterns of n eolithic occupation i n the dune area a t A cconia. T here was, i n f act, a twofold motivation for u ndertaking the mapping of modern l and u se a t A cconia which i s l ocated on the Tyrrhenian coast o f C alabria. I n previous work ( Ammerman a nd B onardi 1 981, 3 40), i t was possible to show that there i s a c lose r elationship b etween the v isibility o f prehistoric s ites on t he l and s urface and t he presence o f so-called ' geomorphological' windows o n t he l andscape. T here was the f urther s uggestion that t he occurrence o f such windows might, i n turn, b e a ssociated i n some cases w ith certain practices o f modern l and u se. While t he question o f t he role t hat modern l and u se may p lay i n l eading t he way to t he exposure o f a p rehistoric s ite ( and over t he l ong run i n acting against t he a rchaeological record a s t he s ite i s s ubject to i ncreasing d isarticulation) i s o ne o f considerable i nterest, i t i s not t he question that we i ntend to explore i n this a rticle. R ather we would l ike to t urn to the o ther motivation a s mentioned above: t he i ssue o f t he extent to which the l andscape, as we see i t today, can b e u sed a s a means o f making i nferences about economies a nd s ettlement patterns i n p rehistory. O ne present

o f t he o ffers

t hings that may e ncourage u s to think t hat the a guide to t he r emote past i s t he persistence

o f what appear t o b e archaic w ays o f l ife. For example, one could s till s ee ' contadini' d riving oxcarts o n u npaved country roads a t A cconia i n t he mid 1 970s. W hen t he s tudent of prehistory e ncounters the man o n t he A cconia oxcart, i t can occasion a s light weakening o f the k nees: such a s cene

2 7

makes i t possible i n o ne's m ind t o t ravel b ack t hrough c enturies. H owever, w hen t he s ame man i s e ncountered i n t he c orridors o f a modern o ffice b uilding i n C atanzaro w here h e h as come to e xamine c adastral r ecords r elated t o t he h oldings o f h is f amily, t he r everie i s b roken. E ach p lot o f l and o n t he l andscape h as, i n f act, b een c arefully m easured b y t he s tate, a ssigned a n i dentifying number, a nd a ssessed a t ax v alue to b e p aid e ach y ear b y i ts owner. B ehind w hat i nitially a ppears t o b e a n a rchaic w ay o f l ife, t here i s a f ully modern o ne. O ne o f t he l imitations o f much o f t he w ork t hat h as b een done b y p rehistorians o n modern l and u se i s i ts s uperficial c haracter. T here i s a l ack o f c haracterisation i n a ny d etail o f w hat o ne a ctually s ees o n t he l andscape. T here a re s ome notable e xceptions s uch a s t he s tudy o n M elos b y Wagstaff a nd A ugustson ( 1982), w ho a re i ncidentally g eographers a nd not a rchaeologists, b ut i n g eneral p rehistorians h ave t ended t o b e i n s omething o f a h urry. A t A cconia, we h ave t ried t o make a c onscious e ffort t o s low d own a nd t o d evelop a c haracterisation i n g reater d epth, which h as i nvolved t he f ield-by-field mapping o f l and u se. I t i s worth a dding h ere t hat w hen t he s trategy o f s lowing d own a nd t aking a more i ntensive a pproach t o c overage w as adopted a s p art o f t he o riginal survey f or p rehistoric s ites a t A cconia ( Ammerman 1 985), i t p roved t o b e h ighly p roductive. T he a pproach o f taking a s maller a rea a nd e xamining i t more c losely h as p arallels w ith t he s trategy i n s ocial a nthropology i n which emphasis i s p laced u pon w hat h as b een c alled ' dense d escription' ( Geertz 1 973). T he h ope i n b oth c ases i s t o d raw l arge conclusions f rom s mall b ut v ery d ensely t extured f acts. S ome b ackground o n s ite c atchment a nalysis n eeds to b e i ntroduced a t t his point, s ince i t i s a n a pproach t hat h as b een employed i n p revious s tudies o f l and u se i n I taly ( for example B arker 1 975; J arman a nd W ebley 1 975). V ita-Pinzi a nd H iggs ( 1970) c onducted t he f irst s ite c atchment s tudy which was concerned w ith t he e conomies o f N atufian s ites i n t he M ount C armel a rea o f P alestine. T he b asic i dea, a s e laborated b y H iggs a nd V ita-Finzi ( 1972), i s t hat a p rehistoric s ite c an b e r egarded a s h aving a ' territory', which i s d efined a s t he a rea h abitually e xploited b y i ts i nhabitants. I n o rder t o u nderstand h ow a g roup m et i ts s ubsistence n eeds, i t i s u seful t o c haracterise t he e nvironment w ithin s uch a t erritory. T his i s e ffectively d one i n t erms o f t he c lassification o f s oils. O perationally, f our r adial t ransects o f a f ixed l ength o r a s pecified t ravel t ime a re made i n c ardinal d irections f rom t he s ite. T he m ap t hat i s p roduced i n t his w ay - h ow a f ull two d imensional m ap i s obtained f rom f our r adial t ransects r emains a t rade s ecret - makes i t p ossible t o e stimate t he percentages o f d ifferent s oil types ( arable, g razing a nd s o f orth) w ithin t he s ite t erritory a nd p ermits t he a nalyst, i n t urn, to make ' an a ssessment o f p ast a nd p resent e conomic p otential o f t he s ite t erritory' ( Higgs a nd V ita-Pinzi 1 972, 3 6). I t i s worth n oting t hat t he ' economy' o f a s ite i s

2 8

d efined a lmost e xclusively i n t erms o f s ubsistence. T his a r eductionist a ssumption t hat w e s hall r eturn t o b elow. P robably

t he

b est

k nown

c riticism

o f

t he

i s

t raditional

a pproach t o s ite c atchment work i s t hat b y F lannery ( 1976). H e i s n ot c ontent w ith d rawing c ircles o f e ssentially a rbitrary r adius a round a s ite i n o rder t o d emarcate i ts t erritory. A s a n a lternative, h e p roposes a more empirical a pproach. T he a nalyst s hould b egin b y l ooking a t t he r emains o f p lants a nd a nimals r ecovered during t he course o f e xcavations a t a s ite a nd t hen t ry t o l ocate w here t hey w ould h ave r espectively come f rom o n t he l andscape s urrounding t he s ite. T he a pproach t hat F lannery a dvocates i s i llustrated b y means o f a c ase s tudy f rom M esoamerica. T he r eal p roblem, o f course, i s t hat h is a pproach r equires j ust t he k inds o f i nformation t hat s ite c atchment a nalysis w as meant t o o bviate i n t he f irst p lace. A s a s hort cut t o e conomic d iscourse i n p rehistory, a c atchment a nalysis could b e c arried out a t a s ite even w hen d irect evidence o n p lant a nd a nimal e xploitation was not a vailable. I n r esponse t o c riticisms s uch a s those o f F lannery ( 1976) a nd H odder a nd O rton 1 976; D avidson 1 981; B intliff 1 981) h as s tressed t hat s ite c atchment a nalysis i s o nly concerned w ith ' land p otential'. B ut t he more e xplicit s tatement o f the objective o f t he a nalysis i n t erms o f e conomic p otential, i f a nything, o nly makes matters worse. D iscussions o f e conomic p otential n ecessarily e ntail t he u se o f e conomic models, w hich i s a nother point we s hall r eturn to. S ite c atchment a nalysis makes t he c laim o f b eing a t echnique o r method o f empirical a nalysis. I n a ctuality, i t i s e ssentially a model i n d isguise. S ome

A spects

o f M odern

L and U se a t

A cconia

T he s tudy o f l and u se t o b e d escribed h ere was conducte9 i n t he s pring o f 1 980 a nd consisted o f two main components. T he f irst was t he mapping o n a f ield-by-field b asis o f t he c rops g rown i n a n a rea which covers s ome 7 km. 2 a t A cconia. T he s econd i nvolved t he u se o f c adastral r ecords i n o rder t o d evelop a map s howing t he owner o f e ach f ield i n t he s ame a rea. A n a ttempt w ill made t o p resent o nly s ome o f t he main r esults o f t he s tudy i n t he s pace t hat i s available h ere. F or purposes o f r ecording i n t he f ield, we were f ortunate to h ave a t our d isposal a s eries o f a erial p hotographs i n c olour a nd a t a s cale o f 1 :5,000 t hat h ad b een f lown i n t he s pring o f 1 977. O n t he p hotographs, r esolution i s s uch t hat f ield b oundaries a nd even i ndividual t rees a nd v ine r ows c an b e c learly s een. T he mosaic o f c rops s hown i n F ig. 3 .1 i ncludes more t han t hree h undred f ields t hat were i ndividually mapped i n 1 980. S even m ain c lasses o f l and u se a re d istinguished o n t he m ap. 3 T he f irst t hree - f ruit t rees, o live t rees a nd v ines - a re a ll c rops o f a more permanent n ature i n t he s ense t hat a t l east over t he s hort t erm t he s ame t hing i s p roduced i n a f ield f rom o ne y ear t o t he n ext. T he most i mportant c lass o f t he t hree i n e conomic t erms would b e f ruit t rees w ith c itrus

2 9

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 P

1 1 1 1 0 , 1 i i l l f

2 0 41 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . _

` e ät k --

1 1 07 1 m v

1 . 1 2

1-e t l q

3 e

l ' a t e l a m eA l# 1 ,1 1 1 ; l i r

3 0

N i l

b eing p redominant. I rrigation i s r equired f or t his f orm o f l and u se a nd i t i s o nly s ince t he s econd w orld war t hat a ctive i nterest i n c itrus p roduction h as b een t aken a t A cconia. O live g roves r epresent a more t raditional f orm o f l and u se i n t he a rea. S ome o f t he l argest f ields i n F ig. 3 .1 a re t hose d evoted t o t he p roduction o f o lives. S uch f ields a re u sually owned b y f amilies t hat h ave h ad l arge h oldings i n t he a rea f or s everal g enerations. W hile t here a re m any f ields t hat a re p lanted i n v ines, most o f t hem a re quite s mall i n s ize. Much o f t he w ine t hat i s p roduced i s i ntended f or c onsumption a t t he h ousehold o r l ocal l evel. This would b e i n contrast w ith t he f irst two c lasses where most o f t he p roduction e nters t he n ational market. T ogether t hese t hree c lasses a ccount f or a bout o ne h alf o f t he l and t hat i s u sed f or a gricultural purposes a t A cconia. H orticulture, t he fourth c lass, i ncludes t he cultivation o f s trawberries a nd a w ide r ange o f v egetables ( peas, g reen b eans, p eppers a nd s o f orth). S ubstantial i nputs o f l abour a nd c apital a re r equired f or t he p roduction o f s trawberries, w hich r epresents potentially t he most r emunerative c ash c rop t hat c an b e r aised o n t he dunes a t A cconia. S trawberry f ields w hich h ad r eached 2 0 i n number b y 1 980 a re s hown f or t his r eason a s a s eparate s ubdivision o f h orticulture o n t he m ap. T he f ifth a nd s ixth c lasses, c ereals a nd g razing, a re a gain more t raditional o nes. T ogether t heir f ields cover o nly about o ne t hird o f t he a rea o n t he map. T he main c ereal c rop g rown i n t he a rea i s b read w heat. T here were t hree major f locks o f s heep a nd qoats t hat had t heir f olds w ithin t he m apped a rea i n 1 980. 4 I t i s a lso common f or f amilies a t A cconia t o k eep o ne o r two c attle f or purposes o f m ilk a nd meat. B y 1 980, o xen were n o l onger k ept i n a ny r eal number f or purposes o f t raction. T he s eventh c lass i ncludes a ll l and t hat i s n ot d irectly u sed f or a gricultural purposes: t hat i s, quarries, r oads a nd r esidences. T he b road w hite b and r unning f rom n orth t o s outh t hrough t he map r epresents l and o ccupied b y t he autostrada a nd t he r ailway w hich r uns p arallel t o i t. T able 3 .1 g ives a s ummary o f t he number o f f ields b elonging t o e ach c lass a nd t he r elative p roportion o f t he mapped a rea t hat e ach o ne c overs. O n t he whole, t he p attern o f l and u se a ppears t o b e a r easonably d iversified o ne. N o o ne c rop d ominates t he p icture. T he t hree c lasses w ith t he l argest number o f f ields a re r espectively h orticulture, c ereals a nd f ruit t rees. I n t erms o f t he overall a reas covered, t he f irst t hree c lasses would b e o live t rees, g razing a nd f ruit t rees. T he two most i mportant c lasses i n e conomic t erms a re h orticulture a nd f ruit t rees. A point t hat a lso s hould b e made h ere i s t hat t he quantities o f f ruits, v egetables a nd o live o il l eaving t he a rea f or n ational a nd i n s ome c ases even i nternational m arkets a re many t imes t hose a ctually n eeded t o f eed t he l ocal population a t A cconia. I t may b e i nstructive to l ook a t t he p roduction o f c ereals i n s omewhat g reater d etail, s ince t his i s a n a spect

3 1

T able

3 .1.

S ummary o f

C lass

No.

t he

of

f ields

s hown

F ields

i n

% o f

F ruit

T rees

5 4

1 6

O live

T rees

3 5

2 6

V ines

4 4

H orticulture

7 7

1 3

Cereals

6 8

1 0

G razing

3 9

2 2

S ize

d istribution S ize 0 .5-1.4

< 0 .4 Dune

O ff

T able

Dune

3 .3.

6

o f i n

c ereal

Public

> 2.5

F ig.

8

1 9

3

L andownership on

2 4

Map

3 .1.

T otal

four

3 2

5

C adastral Maps

Map

o f 4 4

6 0

a t

A cconia.

A rea Map

4 5

F our

M aps

9 5.8

9 5.2

7 0.2

6 5.9

7 9.4

Owners

0 .0

3 .6

0 .5

3 1.4

1 1.2

L ands

4 .2

1 .2

2 9.3

2 .7

9 .4

Owners

O ther

i n

2

3 3

Map

f ields

H ectares 1 .5-2.4

P ercentage

F ive

A rea

9

3 .2.

O n

3 .1.

4

O ther

Table

F ig.

3 2

o f modern l and u se a t A cconia t hat p erhaps h as more o f a b earing u pon n eolithic s tudies t han t he o thers. O ne o f t he f indings o f s ome i nterest i s t hat c ereal c rops a re o ccasionally g rown o n t he d unes a t A cconia. A d escription o f t he d une s oils i s p rovided b y R emmelzwaal ( 1985). T he f ields a re u sually quite s mall a nd y ields t end t o b e modest b y modern s tandards. I rrigation does n ot s eem t o b e r equired i n o rder t o g row s uch c rops o n t he d unes. I n T able 3 .2, t he s izes o f t he c ereal f ields r aised o n t he d une s oils a nd o n o ther s oils ( mainly t he c layey s oils o f P leistocene a lluvial t erraces) a re g iven. O nly two o f t he e ight f ields t hat were g rown o n t he d unes i n 1 980 r eached a s ize o f more t han 1 a cre. I n contrast, many more f ields w ere r aised o ff t he d unes a nd a number o f t hese covered much l arger a reas. I t i s worth a dding t hat t he c rops p lanted o n t he dunes w ere g rown e ssentially f or household consumption. S uch f ields r eveal t hat, i f o ne i s not p articularly worried a bout h igh y ields, t he d une s oils d o n ot p resent a n e nvironmental i mpediment to t he g rowth o f t he c ereals. O n t he o ther h and, t he dune s oils a re n ot r eally s uitable, i f o ne i s i nterested i n t he market o riented p roduction o f c ereals. T his p oints u p a d ilemma w hen i t comes t o t he c lassification o f s oils even w ithin t he contemporary f ramework a t A cconia: terms s uch a s ' arable' a nd ' non-arable' o nly t ake o n meaning i n t he c ontext o f e conomic s ystems. T he s ame dune s oils c an b e c lassified a s b oth a rable a nd n on-arable r elative to d ifferent e conomic s trategies t hat a re b eing p ractised i n t he a rea t oday. I t i s a lso u seful t o t ake a d eeper l ook a t t he f actors t hat d etermine what i s g rown w here o n t he l andscape. F nvironmental f actors s uch a s s oils m ay r epresent o nly p art o f t he s tory a nd p erhaps n ot even t he most i mportant o ne f or u nderstanding t he o rganization o f modern l and u se a t A cconia. O ne way o f e xploring t his question i s b y l ooking a t t he ownership o f l and a nd h ow i t i nfluences d ecisions made w ith r espect t o l and u se. T his c an b e u ndertaken t hrough t he s tudy o f c adastral maps a nd r ecords. T he c adastral maps w hich a re d rawn a t a s cale o f 1 :2,000 contain parcels o f l and w hose i dentifying numbers c an b e l inked w ith t heir r espective owners. W ithout going i nto t he d etails o f h ow i t i s a ctually d one, o ne c an work o ut t he p attern o f ownership f or a cadastral m ap a s a whole a nd a lso t race t he h istory o f l and t ransfers t hat h ave o ccurred i n t he r ecent p ast. T here a re s everal c adastral maps ( foglios i n t he C omune d i Curinga s eries) w hich f all w ithin t he mapped a rea s hown i n F ig. 3 .1. I n T able 3 .3, t he p ercentages o f t he l and h eld b y t hree c lasses o f owners a re g iven f or f our c adastral maps a t A cconia. I n e ach c ase, i t c an b e s een t hat t he b ulk o f t he l and i s owned b y f ive i ndividuals w ith l arge h oldings i n t he a rea. I n a ll e xcept o ne c ase, t hese i ndividuals a re t raditional l andowners whose f amilies h ave passed t he l and f rom o ne g eneration t o t he n ext. O nly a s mall p roportion o f t he l and i s owned b y o ther p rivate i ndividuals o r b y t he s tate. T he c adastral maps l isted i n T able 3 .3 a re l ocated f or t he most p art i n t he n ortheast c orner o f F ig. 3 .1 where many f ields o f l arge s ize a re o bserved. T he e conomic

3 3

s trategies f ollowed b y t he l arge l andowners h ere t end to b e t raditional a nd n on-intensive. T here i s a n emphasis o n o live t rees a nd g razing w ith t he l and b eing r ented t o s hepherds i n t he l atter c ase. T he owners a ppear to b e content w ith a s afe a nd l ow r eturn o n t heir l and. T hey i ndirectly c reate s ome opportunities f or s mall s cale, s ubsistence o riented s trategies f or m aking a l iving. H ence t he s mall c ereal f ields o ccasionally g rown o n t he d unes i n t his a rea. A t t he s ame t ime, t he overall s hortage o f l and a L f ar a s o ther i ndividuals a re concerned r esults i n much more i ntensive s trategies f or u sing t hose a reas not u nder t he control o f t he f ive major owners. H ence t he number o f s mall f ields i n s trawberries a nd o ther f orms o f h orticulture a long t he c entral p art o f t he s outhern e dge o f F ig. 3 .1. T he l abour f or s uch s mall s cale, i ntensive operations i s d rawn l argely f rom w ithin t he f amily. S till a nother r —onomic s trategy i s r epresented i n t he s outhwest c orner o f F ig. 3 .1. H ere medium-sized t racts o f l and h ave b een a cquired b y e ntrepreneurs d uring t he l ast twenty y ears a nd h ave b ecome p art o f much l arger a gro-business o perations i n t he r egion. Foremen s upervise t he work o f f arm l abourers w ho a re paid a d aily wage. T he c hoice o f c rops t o b e g rown i n s uch f ields i s made w ith m arkets i n northern a nd c entral I taly s pecifically i n m ind, w here ' primizie' ( first-fruits) command g ood p rices. F ull j ustice c annot b e d one i n t he l imited s pace t hat i s available h ere t o t he v ariety o f e conomic s trategies pursued a t A cconia a nd t he ways i n w hich t he v arious a ctors condition t he d ecisions made b y o ne a nother. B ut even t his b rief a ccount s hould b egin t o s uggest t hat w hat w e s ee o n t he l andscape t oday i s n ot s imply a p assive t racking o f t he e nvironment b ut r ather i s t he complex expression o f a w ide r ange o f e conomic, s ocial a nd h istorical f actors. D iscussion What c onclusions c an w e d raw f rom t his e xercise i n ' dense d escription' a t A cconia? W hat a re w e t o make, f or e xample, o f t he t raditional approach t o s ite c atchment a nalysis i n l ight o f w hat i s s een i n F ig. 3 .1 a nd t he v arious t ables p resented a bove? W hich e lements among t he v arious o nes t hat w e c an observe o n t he l andscape a t A cconia t oday p rovide t he b est ' guide' when i t c omes t o t rying t o m ake i nferences about n eolithic l and u se? T he c loser t hat o ne l ooks a t modern l and u se, t he l ess i t would s eem t o o ffer a n appropriate guide, o n t he w hole, t o l and u se i n t he r emote p ast. I f w e h ave t o s ingle o ut o ne e lement t hat p erhaps d eserves g reater a ttention, t he man o n t he A cconia o xcart would b e a good c andidate. H e i s t he person w ho a roused our i nterest i n t he f irst p lace a nd w ho h inted t hat t he r emote p ast m ight s omehow h ave s urvived i nto t he p resent. S uch p ersons make u p a v ery m inor c omponent o f t he overall p attern o f l and u se a t A cconia t oday. I n r eturning t o t he man o n t he A cconia oxcart, w e m ay want t o p ut a side s ome o f o ur r omantic notions a bout h im. W e h ave t o r esist t he t emptation o f s eeing h im a s a n e xpression o f a

3 4

p rimordial f orm o f a daptation t o t he l ocal e nvironment. H is e xistence i s c onditioned i n s ignificant ways b y a s et o f l arger s ocial a nd e conomic r ealities. I t r epresents o ne way o f coping w ith a c hanging e conomic world w hich h e h as l ittle c ontrol o ver. M oreover, t his way o f coping - t hat i s, s triving t o b e a s s elf-sufficient a s possible i n t erms o f o nes s ubsistence - i s not l ikely t o s urvive f or m any y ears i n t he f uture. W here i nsights c an b e g ained i s n ot s o much i n observing h ow h e o r o ther members o f h is f amily p erform s pecific a ctivities b ut i n d eveloping a s ense o f h ow t hings h appen a nd h ow t hey a re o rganized a t t he h ousehold l evel. S ince h ouseholds p resumably comprise o ne o f t he main b uilding b locks i n t he s tudy o f n eolithic e conomies a nd s ettlement p atterns a nd we s till k now comparatively l ittle a bout s uch u nits, s tudies a t t his l evel m ay b e r ewarding. O ne o f t he s triking t hings a t A cconia i s t he s mall s ize i n s patial t erms o f t he l and worked b y a h ousehold f ollowing a s ubsistence s trategy. A s mentioned above, t his i s i n p art s omething t hat i s i mposed b y t he p attern o f l andownership i n t he a rea. I f more l and w ere available, a household would no d oubt make u se o f i t. A t t he s ame t ime, t he s mall s ize o f h ousehold operations a t A cconia may c aution u s against t he a ssumption t hat a n eolithic h ousehold h ad t o h ave a s ubstantial ' territory' i n o rder to meet i ts s ubsistence n eeds. T he question o f s cale i n t he operation o f a h ousehold i s perhaps t he most i mportant o ne f or t he s tudy o f n eolithic e conomics a t t he p resent t ime. P art o f t he i mportance o f t he h ousehold s tems f rom i ts s erving a s t he i mmediate f ramework w ithin w hich d ecisions a re made w hen i t comes t o s uch t hings a s where a g iven c rop i s a ctually to b e p lanted o r w hich a nimal i s t o b e s laughtered. I t i s a t t he h eart o f d ecisions t hat a re made about s ubsistence. B y e xamining c ontemporary h ouseholds, we c an a lso g ain a b etter i dea o f h ow non-subsistence a ctivities s uch a s t he building a nd maintenance o f h ouses a nd o ther f acilities e nter i nto t he o verall e conomic l ife o f a household. I t i s worth r ecalling a p oint made b y F inley ( 1973, 1 7) w ith r eference to e conomics a s a f ield o f i nquiry among t he a ncient G reeks: n amely, t hat e ven a s l ate a s t he t ime o f A ristotle, i t was s till t hought o f l argely i n t erms o f t he management o f t hings a t t he h ousehold l evel. I t was f rom o ikos, t he G reek w ord f or household, t hat e conomics o riginally t ook i ts n ame. T he s tudy o f n eolithic e conomics perhaps s tands t o g ain f rom a r eturn to household concerns. When s een i n t heir worst l ight, t raditional f orms o f s ite c atchment a nalysis c an b e r egarded i n s ome w ays a s v isionary e xercises. T hey a re v isionary i n t he s ense t hat t he a nalyst e ssentially t ries t o l ook t hrough r ather t han a t what i s a ctually growing o n t he l andscape a nd t o make a c lassification o f s oils w hose a im i s t o i ndicate w hat s hould b e ( as o pposed t o what i s o r w hat o nce was) r aised t here. I n e ffect, t he a nalyst i s p rojecting h is own i deas about l and u se b ack o ut o nto t he l andscape t hrough t he c lassification o f s oils. T he w hole b usiness e nds u p h inging u pon t he i nterpretation o f s oils w ithout d irect r eference to

3 5

e ither t he s patial a rray o f t he c rops g rown i n a n a rea t oday o r t hat o f t hose c rops g rown a t a n earlier t ime. T hus, complex i ssues o f c lassification t hat o ne m ight e xpect t o b e r ampant i n c atchment s tudies d o n ot a rise. T he a bsence o f c lassificatory t ension i s n ot a s ign o f a nalytical h ealth b ut b elies i t. A s w e h ave s een a t A cconia, o ne would b e h ard p ressed t o make a h omogeneous c lassification o f s oils t hat would b e e ntirely m eaningful w ith r eference t o c ontemporary l and u se p ractices i n t he a rea. A ttempts c an b e m ade b ut t he r esulting maps a re l ikely t o b e u nsatisfactory i n l ight o f w hat we k now. T he p roblem h ere i s t hat o ne c annot go v ery f ar o n t he b asis o f a s oil m ap a lone ( however g ood i t m ay b e), i f o ne i s s eriously i nterested i n t he s tudy o f modern l and u se a t A cconia. O ther k inds o f f actors h ave to b e t aken a ctively i nto a ccount. I n t he c ase o f t he c atchment a nalyst, t here i s no s erious i nterest i n e xplaining p atterns o f modern l and u se. F undamental p roblems a nd l imitations i n d ealing w ith t he modern l andscape o n i ts own d o n ot c ome t o l ight. I nstead, t he a nalyst h as p robably a lready f igured out h ow t he dune s oils a t A cconia s hould b e c lassified f or t he S tentinello p eriod i n t he 5 th m illennium B .C. a nd moved o n t o s tudy a nother a rea. S ite c atchment a nalysis c an b e s een i n a more f avourable l ight a s a n a ttempt t o model p rehistoric l and u se. I n t he l ate 1 960s, t here was a b road i nterest among a rchaeologists i n B ritain a nd t he U nited S tates i n t he r elationship b etween a s ite a nd i ts s urrounding e nvironment. B ut t he t reatment o f t his t heme t ended t o b e impressionistic a nd i diosyncratic. W hat was n eeded w as a more f ormal a nd consistent approach. S ite c atchment work r epresented a p ositive s tep i n t his d irection. T he p lunge was t aken i n p roposing a model o f t he u se o f s pace a round a p rehistoric s ite w hich contained a g eometry a nd s ome quantification. U nfortunately, t he model was p resented a s a n empirical a nalysis. T his h as i mpeded a n awareness o f t he l imitations o f the g eometry a nd quantification o f t he o riginal model a nd t he development o f s econd a nd t hird generation models t o t ake i ts p lace. A s mentioned i n t he i ntroduction, more r ecent c atchment work h as e xplicitly s tated i ts purpose i n t erms o f e conomic potential. N o c laim i s made w ith r egard t o h ow t he l and was a ctually u sed a t t he t ime w hen t he s ite was occupied, a lthough t his would s eem to b e s omething t hat t he p rehistorian o r h istorian would eventually want t o k now a nd even t o compare w ith v arious a ssessments o f l and p otential. I n a ny c ase, a point t hat n eeds t o b e made h ere i s t hat questions o f e conomic potential c an o nly b e d iscussed m eaningfully i n t he w ider context o f e conomic s ystems a nd models. T o t ake a n e xample f rom o ur own t ime, t he e conomic p otential o f a n o il f ield, a s a ll t hose w ho watch a s oap o pera about a major c ity i n T exas o n t elevision e ach w eek k now f ull w ell, i s n ot g iven b y t he n umber o f b arrels i n t he g round l isted i n a g eologist's r eport. T he potential o f t he o il f ield i s f ormulated i n t erms o f models. T he a rgument c an b e made t hat models p lay no l ess o f a r ole when i t c omes t o t he a nalysis o f e arlier e conomies a nd t hat model b uilding

3 6

i s, o f

i n f act, e ssential t o t he d iscovery o f a lternative ways s eeing a p roblem.

A n e xample f rom A cconia may h elp t o i llustrate t his p oint. I n t he t raditional s ite c atchment model, t here i s a lmost a n e xclusive emphasis o n s ubsistence w hich i s t ranslated i nto a p reoccupation w ith t he f ertility o f s oils. A t A cconia, t here a re d ense p atterns o f n eolithic o ccupatio r . i n dune a reas a nd t he d une s oils were p resumably b eing u sed f or t he cultivation o f c ereal c rops, even t hough t he s oils d o n ot h ave a p articularly h igh f ertility. O n t he o ther h and, o ne o f t he c lear a dvantages t hat t he dune s oils may h ave o ffered t he n eolithic f armer would h ave b een t he ease w ith w hich t hey c an b e worked. S oil p roductivity may not h ave b een t he l eading concern. I t i s a concern o f market o riented s ystems o f a griculture t hat h as b een p rojected b ack u pon n eolithic e conomics. I t may even b e p ossible t o s uggest t hat t he a pparent p reference f or d une s oils a t A cconia h as l ess t o d o w ith t heir i mmediate exploitation f or s ubsistence p urposes a nd more t o d o w ith o ther k inds o f e conomic a ctivities s uch a s house construction a nd t he b uilding opens a nd f ences, w here t he dune s oils would o ffer c lear a dvantages over o ther s oils i n t he a rea. T he s uggestion b eing made h ere i s t hat we h ave to put more t han s ubsistence i nto o ur models o f n eolithic e conomics. I n t rying t o d evelop a n ew generation o f c atchment models, a ttention w ill h ave t o b e paid t o a w ider r ange o f f actors o r v ariables. T hese would i nclude: ( a) a comprehe nsive k nowledge o f t he s ettlement patterns i n a n a rea, ( b) i nformation o n h ow t he e nvironment i n p rehistoric t imes may h ave d iffered f rom t he l andscape t hat w e s ee t oday, ( c) s ome i dea o f t he number o f p eople who l ived a t a g iven s ettlement a nd t he l evel o f p opulation d ensity i n a n a rea, a nd ( d) s ome i dea o f h ow t he e conomics o f p roduction a nd consumption work a t t he household l evel. O ther f actors could b e l isted but t hese f our a lready r epresent a , t all o rder. P erhaps t he s ingle most d ifficult o ne concerns t he question o f population l evels. T hese a re notoriously d ifficult t o e stimate i n p rehistory. N evertheless, population s izes h ave m ajor i mplic ations f or t he t reatment o f g eometry i n a n ew g eneration of models. I f t here i s o nly o ne household t hat i s o ccupied a t a ny o ne t ime a t a s ettlement, i t's r equirements i n t erms o f e conomic s pace w ill b e quite d ifferent, f or e xample, t han t he c ase w here s even h ouseholds a re p resent a t t he s ame t ime. W hat considerations o f t his k ind imply f or t he s tudy o f p rehistoric l and u se i s e ither t hat o ne w aits p atiently f or t he k inds o f i nformation n eeded t o build models ( in o ther words, t he s tudy o f l and u se o r l and potential o r whatever i t i s c alled i s n ot a n opening s tratagem i n t he s tudy o f p rehistoric e conomies) o r t hat o ne a cknowledges t he n ature o f models a s hypothetical constructs a nd makes a t entative s tart ( in o ther words, d iscourse i s c onducted i n a n o pen m anner w ith a r ange o f a lternatives b eing e xplored). I n b oth c ases, w e a re i n f or a marathon a nd modern l and u se, i f i t h as a ny message t o g ive u s, would i ntimate t hat t hings a re p robably much m ore c omplex t han w e i nitially i magine.

3 7

Notes 1 .

F or o ther commentaries on s ite c atchment a nalysis a nd a r eview of t he l iterature, s ee H odder a nd O rton ( 1976, 2 312 36) and Roper ( 1979).

2

T he r esearch done at A cconia was s upported by a g rant f rom the National S cience Foundation ( BNS-79-06187). F or their participation i n the actual mapping of land use, gratitude i s expressed to J . I ngraham and R . S tromberg. S tudies of modern l and u se were a lso conducted a t A cconia i n 1 979 a nd 1 981,

3 .

For purposes of making a map of t he whole area that i s readable ( i,e., that does not contain too many d ifferent classes), only the main crop grown i n a g iven f ield i s indicated in Fig. 3 .1. While intercropping is not generally practised i n t he l arger olive groves, t here a re many cases where more than one thing is raised i n a fi eld. There is a wi de range in the di fferent combinations t hat can occur t ogether: f rom s trawberries grown under orange trees to lupines grown under olive t rees. T he system of olive production u sed on t he dunes at Acconia i nvolves the land surface being i n a ploughed state f or much of t he year.

4 .

Sheep an d goats tend to be herde d together in ' promiscuous' flocks at Acconia. The three f locks with folds in the mapped area each consisted of at l east one h undred a nimals. I t i s worth n oting t hat t hese f locks are k ept i n t he area t hroughout t he year; t ranshumance i s not employed i n many of t he coastal a reas of C alabria today .

B ibliography Ammerman, A . J . 1984. The Acconia S urvey: Neolithic S ettlement a nd t he Obsidian T rade. L ondon, I nstitute o f A rchaeology O ccasional P ublication. Ammerman, A . J . and Bonardi, S . 1 981. Recent developments i n t he s tudy o f neolithic s ettlement i n C alabria . I n B arker, G . a nd H odges, R . ( eds.) A rchaeology a nd Italian Society. ( B.A.R. I nternational S eries 1 02) Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 3 35-342. Ammerman, A . J . and patterns i n 4 32. Barker,

Shaffer, G . 1 981. C alabria. Current

Neolithic settlement A nthropology 2 2, 4 30-

G . W . W . 1975. Prehistoric territories and economies in central I taly. I n H iggs, E . S . ( ed.) Palaeoeconomy . Cambridge, Cambridge University press, 1 11-175.

B intliff,

J .

1 981.

Theory

and

3 8

reality

i n

palaeoeconomy:

some

words

o f

I n S heridan, A rchaeology. I nternational

encouragement

to

t he

a rchaeolog'st.

A . a nd B ailey, G . ( eds.) Economic Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, S eries 9 6, 3 5-50.

D avidson, I . 1 981. C an we s tudy p rehistoric economy for f isher-gatherer-hunters? A n h istorical approach to Cambridge ' Palaeoeconomy', I n S heridan, A . and B ailey, G . ( eds.) E conomic A rchaeology. ( B.A.R. I nternational S eries 9 6) Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 1 7-33. F inley,

M . T . 1 973. a nd W indus.

T he

A ncient

E conomy.

L ondon,

C hatto

F lannery, K . V . 1 976. Empirical d etermination of s ite catchments i n O axaca a nd T ehuacan. I n F lannery, K . V , ( ed.) The E arly Mesoamerican V illage. New Y ork, A cademic P ress, 1 03-117. G eertz,

C . 1 973. T he B asic B ooks.

I nterpretation

o f

Cultures.

H iggs,

E . S . and V ita-Finzi, C . 1 972. economies: a t erritorial approach, I n ( ed.) P apers i n E conomic P rehistory. Cambridge U niversity P ress, 2 7-36.

H odder,

I . a nd O rton, C . 1 976. S patial A nalysis i n A rchaeology. Cambridge, C ambridge U niversity P ress.

Jarman,

M . a nd W ebley, D . 1 975. S ettlement a nd l and u se i n Capitanata, I taly. I n H iggs, E . S . ( ed.) P alaeoeconomy. C ambridge, Cambridge U niversity P ress, 1 77-221.

P rehistoric H iggs, E . S . Cambridge,

R emmelzwaal, A . 1 985. P hysiography and s oils. I n A . J . ( ed.) T he A cconia Survery: S ettlement and t he Obsidian T rade. I nstitute of A rchaeology O ccasional P aper. R oper,

D . C . 1 979. T he method a nd theory o f analysis: a review. A dvances i n Method a nd T heory 2 , 1 20-140.

New Y ork,

Ammerman, Neolithic L ondon,

s ite catchment A rchaeological

V ita-Finzi, C . a nd H iggs, E .S. 1 970. P rehistoric economy i n t he Mount C armel a rea o f P alestine: s ite catchment a nalysis. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 6, 1-37. Wagstaff, M . a nd Augustson, S ., 1 982. T raditional l and u se. I n R enfrew, C . a nd Wagstaff, M . ( eds.) A n I sland P olity. T he A rchaeology o f Exploitation i n M elos. Cambridge, Cambridge University P ress, 1 06-133.

3 9

Summary T he paper proposes alternative methods of examining the potential o f S ite C atchment A nalysis i n t he l andscape o f Curinga, Calabria. T hrough a n e xamination o f modern f ield boundaries, c rops a nd environmental constraints, c riteria f or new c atchment models a re considered. R iassunto S ono propositi metodi a lternativi per potenziale d i S ite C atchment A nalysis nel

l 'esaminare a paesaggi

Curinga, C alabria. S ono v alentati i c riteri per i modelli d i s ite catchemnt t ransmise u n'examinatione d ei moderni dei c ampi e d ei cottritoni ambienti.

4 0

d el d i

nuovi l imit

4 .

PHYSIOGRAPHIC

SOIL SURVPYS

J an

AND ARCHAFOLOGY

S evink

I ntroduction F rom 1 967 onwards pedologists f rom the U niversity of Amsterdam h ave b een i nvolved i n s emi-detailed physiographic soil s urveys i n I taly. E xperiences during these years s howed that t he r esults c an b e of g reat v alue f or a rchaeological s tudies. F ollowing o n a b rief d escription of the characte ristics o f physiographic soil surveys, s everal f ields o f application i n a rchaeology w ill b e i ndicated. P hysiographic

soil

s urveys

P hysiographic s oil maps g enerally a re at a s cale o f 1 :25,000 o r smaller. L ongterm experience has s hown that a t such s cales t he r elation s oil-physiography b ecomes prominent, i .e. soil boundaries which c an b e mapped at t hat s cale f requently coincide with b oundaries b etween physiographic units. P hysiographic units c an b e d efined a s parts o f a l andscape ( 'landforms') with a s pecific morphogenesis, composition a nd a ge. T hese units often c an b e easily delineated o n a ir photographs b y soil s urveyors, t rained i n photo-interpretation. O ne o f the f irst s teps i n a physiographic soil s urvey of a s pecific a rea i s t he s tudy o f i ts genesis. T his embraces the r ecognition o f l andscape genetic phases ( stable and u nstable p hases, B os and S evink 1 975) a nd i dentification o f t he r elated u nits ( 'landforms'), s tudy o f the processes ( soil f ormation, sedimentation, e rosion) a ctive during the s uccessive phases a s well a s o f t he e nvironmental conditions u nder which these operated and, f inally, t he d ating o f the v arious phases. O nce these a spects h ave b een adequately s tudied, soil patterns a nd c haracteristics b ecome p redictable a nd c an b e mapped w ith r elative ease, i .e. at r elatively l ow costs. L andscape genetic r esearch thus f orms a n i ntegral part o f a ny physiographic soil s urvey, i n particular during the f irst i nventory s tages i n which t he r elations b etween s oil and l andscape h ave to b e e stablished. I ts importance i s reflected i n t he l egend to t he soil map produced, i n which physiography i s u sed a s c riterium a t h igh l evel ( see F ig. 4 .1). Applications T he

r esults

o f

and

k nowledge

obtained

b y

physiographic

soil surveys have b een applied i n a rchaeological r esearch many d ifferent w ays. H owever, four b road f ields c an d istinguished, which a re described b elow.

4 1

i n b e

P hys iograph ic s o i l map o f t he Uppe r -Vo ltu rno b as in SCALE 1113.500) ,

l egend P RE-BASIN F ILL D EPOS ITS l imestone o utcrops:cp l.Rendz ina,Orthic L uv iso l

1

B ASIN F ILL A ND A SSOCIATED D EPOSITS n on e roded s urfaces:Eutr ic N itoso l

L A

m oderately e roded s urfaces: a lluv ia l

f ans:cp l.Chrom ic

c p l.Calcic G leyic L uv iso l. L uv iso l,Orth ic L uviso l C hrom ic G leyic L uviso l t ravertines:Chrom ic V ertiso l s trong ly e roded s urfaces:

' - E ROSION T ERRACES

c pl.Chrom ic V ertic L uv iso l,Orthic

SN L O,,, e 1.

i n

h igh t errace:cpl.Vertic L uv iso l, C hrom ic G leyic L uv iso l

L uv iso › e au

n iddle t errace:cp l.Orthic L uv iso l,Calcic n " -W1 21 ' 1 /

E

I t . „• p • :

C amb iso l

Y OUNGER D EPOSITS l ow t errace:Calcic C amb iso l

a lluv ia l

f ans:cp l.Calc ic C amb iso l,Orth ic L uviso l

t ravertines:cpl.Rendzina,Lithoso l , I .f loodplain:Calcar ic F luv iso 1;2-incisions a nd s trong ly d iss ected s urfaces:Calcic C ambiso 1;3-alluvio-co lluv ial

d eposits o f

m ixed o rig in:ass.Calc ic C anbiso l,Orth ic L uviso l,Mo llic G leyso l; 4 -co lluvial 5 -colluv ial

F ig.

4 .1.

a

- P hysiographic soil b asin.

4 2

d epressions:cp l.Calcic C ambiso l,OrChic L uv iso l;

s lopes:ass.(Chrom ic)Calcic C ambiso l,(Chrom ic)Luv iso l

map

o f

the

U pper-Volturno

Non-eroded s urfaces r es idua l c he rty l ayer a t s o me d ep th Modera te ly e roded s urfaces r es idua l c he rty l aye r a t s urface S trong ly e roded s urfaces g enera l ly w ithout c he rty ma te r ia l

F ig.

4 .1.

b - physiographic soil B asin.

4 3

map of

the

Upper

Volturno

The recognition of stable surfaces. S table surfaces, whether buried or forming part of the present-day s urface, a re those surfaces which f or a prolonged p eriod o f t ime h ave been subjected to soil formation i n the ( near) absence of e rosion o r sedimentation ( Bos a nd S evink 1 975). S tudy o f t he a ssociated soils may p rovide i nformation o n t he l ength o f t he s table phase, a s well a s o n t he question t o which extent t he s urface has b een e roded during t he s ubsequent p hases. Maps, showing the location of s table surfaces and their age, are of great v alue i n regional archaeological surveys, mainly because archaeological material will b e a ssociated with s table s urfaces r ather t han w ith u nstable s urfaces. I t i s however clear that such maps are most v aluable for archaeologists i nterested i n more ancient archaeological periods ( for example P alaeolithic) r ather t han f or C lassical a rchaeologists. Secondly, s ites which f rom the archaeological point of v ie w can be deemed as ' ideal' ( good stratigraphy and preservation) will not b e e ncountered on s table s urfaces but on unstable surfaces, rapidly buried b y new sedi ments. H owever, f rom t he s tatistical point of v iew t he chances for d iscovery of s uch s ites during surveys a re much l ower. T he soil survey o f t he U pper-Volturno b asin may s erve to i llustrate t he s tatements made above . T his b asin h as a t hick fluvio-lacustrine f ill of which the top strata date f rom about 0 .5 million years ago ( Sevink and v an O tterloo 1 983). F rom that t i me onwards i ts surface remained rather stable u ntil, most p robably, t he l ate middle P leistocene, when the V olturno and i ts t ributaries s tarted to i ncise. T he f ill i s p resently rather s everely d issected a nd e roded . R emnants o f the original surface of the b asin f ill could be i dentified as such by the presence of a deep, highly weathered soil. The upper part of this soil i s developed i n a younger, tuffaceous colluvium, v ery l ow i n a rtefacts, while t he l ower part, i n the fluvio-lacustrine deposits, exhibits a strong r esidual accumulation o f chert. I n F ig. 4 .1 the s implified soil map o f t he U pper-Volturno b asin i s presented . Where t he soil i n t he b asin f ill i s noneroded the probably Wurmian colluvium covers t he palaeosurface; where moderately e roded t his h ighly cherty surface i s e xposed a nd v ery l arge numbers o f artefacts c an b e found, which may date b ack to the early middle P leistocene. S till older artefacts, l ike those found at the famous s ite of I sernia, may b e encountered i n t he f luvial i ncisions, where the top strata of the fluvio-lacustrine f ills are exposed. T he soil map, o riginally a t s cale 1 :25000, thus constitutes a perfect b ase f or a rchaeological s urveys o f t he b asin. I t should be stressed that geomorphological and geological maps, although they o ften i ndicate the age and genesis of landfor ms, co mmonly provide very l ittle i nformation on the exact age a nd the effects of later erosi on on their surface. These maps, as compared to

4 4

physi graphic s oil maps, a re r egional a rchaeological s urveys.

therefore

l ess

u seful

for

R econstructions o f e nvironmental conditions i n t he past. S tudies b y a rchaeologists o n t he e nvironmental c onditions a nd possibilities f or h uman o ccupation during a s pecific p eriod a re r elatively r are a nd, i n t he eyes o f earth s cientists, a re often rather f ragmentary. T he techniques a nd methods employed - mostly p ollen a nalysis - g enerally p rovide r ather l imited i nformation a nd t he c oncept o f t he l andscape i s t oo s tatic, i .e. t he present l andscape i s often considered a s nearly i dentical to t hat i n t he past. T hese s tatements hold i n particular f or s tudies on t he prehistory of areas with a h ighly complex s oil a nd d rainage pattern, which abound t hroughout I taly . B arker r ecently g ave a r eview o f t he current i deas a bout these environmental conditions ( Barker 1 981). F or pedolog ists, t he l ack o f s omewhat more d etailed i nformation o n t he soil conditions a nd physiography a nd their impact on v egetation a nd l and u se i n e arly t imes i s s triking, a s t hese, according to their experiences, exert a s trong i nfluence on a ny p rimitive s ociety . S uch b asic i nformation c an b e r eadily obtained t hrough p hysiographic s oil s urveys. A lthough n ot b eing a n e xpert i n t hat f ield, I t hink t hat t he results of c atchment analyses and related studies i n I taly c ould b e g reatly improved b y p aying more a ttention t o t he soils and l andscape genesis, a nd b y u sing methods employed i n l and evaluation. The a rchaeological survey of t he Agro P ontine b y t he A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstitute of : he U niversity. of Amsterdam f orms a typical e xample o f s uch a multidisciplinary approach. T he s urve t eam u ses the re lts o f a n earlier detailed s tudy b y t he author cf the soi s a d physicgraphy o f t he A gro P ontino , T heir f irst r esu:ts a nd t he methodology u sed are d iscussed i n the paper b y K amermans et al. ( this v olume).

S ite evaluation a lA i nterpretation. A rcnaecic , ;-sts and soil scientists have one thinq , i n commcn: t hey b oth s tudy s oils, a lthough with d ifferent a ims. T h3 main purposes o f a rchaeologists a re to d iscover objects produced o r u sed by man a nd t o s tudy t heir s patial a nd t emporal d istribution . T he i dentification o f cultural l ayers and the establishment of t heir s tratigraphy play an important part i n t he l atter. A rchaeologists, d igging i n I taly, however, tend to neglect t he role o f soil f ormation and s tudy s ites, r ather than r elations b etween s oils a nd l andscape. They frequently are una ware of the fact that, in particular i n t he Mediterranean area, later soil formation may have s eriously a ltered t he cultural l ayers a nd t heir contents, which u nsettles t heir i nterpretation o f e xcavation results. P reliminary studies o f t he soil conditions and

4 5

l andscape genesis of t he area i n which the s ite i s l ocated, are rare. Such studies will improve the planning and execution of excavations a nd p rovide b asic i nformation on t he p rovenance o f t he cultural l ayers as well a s o f t he objects e ncountered . A f ew examples may s erve to i llustrate t he f oregoing remarks. A t S atricum ( Lazio), on t op o f a r ather i solated tuff plateau, settlements ranging i n a ge f rom B ronze A ge to early Roman are b eing excavated . T he major part o f t he tuff p lateau h as b een l evelled b y f armers, who r emoved most o f t he cultural l ayers. O n t he b asis o f a d etailed physiographic soil survey we were able to a id t he a rchaeologists with t he f ollowing problems: - the i dentification of a reas which h ad b een completely s tripped, - t he d ifferentiation b etween h ut s ites a nd r ecent i nfills, o n t he b asis o f t he s oil f ormation i n t he f ills, - t he provenance o f the building material, mostly t uff b locks, u sed f or t he construction o f a t emple, - t he p rovenance o f p ottery, i .e. l ocally m anufactured o r i mported. A t Monte L eoni ( Parma) a B ronze A ge settlement h as b een excavated, s ituated on an i solated h ill ( Ammerman et a l. 1 978). T he o ccupation l ayers consist o f d ark c lays i n which a V ertisol has developed. Such soils a re formed a s a result of s trong swelling and s hrinking, generating p ressure forces, which cause d isplacements along s lide planes ( slickensides). A s a r esult t he o riginal h ut s tructures h ave b een s trongly d eformed . S tudy o f t he f aunal r emains s howed that t he ratio teeth:bones i ncreases a nd that t he number of b one f ragments decreases towards t he surface. Thi s i s attributed to fragmentation caused by the processes mentioned above. T he excavation results might easily have been wrongly i nterpreted by archaeologists, l acking e xpertise i n s oil f ormation . Numerous other examples can b e g iven a nd t hese all support the opinion, s hared b y an i ncreasing number o f archaeologists, that at l east one member of an e xcavation t eam s hould b e t rained i n p edology a nd s oil s urvey . T he recognition of anthropogenic l andscape f eatures. C areful s tudy o f s oils a nd s ediments i n a s pecific a rea may r eveal t hat s ome d eposits o r l andforms c annot h ave f ormed a s a r esult of ' natural' processes, but only b y man-induced processes. Soil erosion i nduced b y destruction of the v egetation by man a nd d epostion of t he eroded material on l ower s lopes a nd i n v alleys, a s f or e xample s tudied b y V itaFinzi ( 1969), is a well-known p henomenon . Most s tudies, d ealing w ith man-induced s oil e rosion a nd t he r esulting v alley a ggradation, a re r ather v ague a bout t he d ating o f t his p henomenon a nd a re b ased o n l imited evidence, i .e. f rom s ites rather than f rom a reas. This i s u nder-

4 6

9'

H I M . ... . . 1 , .. . . .. . . . % % %41 121 1 11 Vim

4 e

_ ., -

• •

4 1 1 1 , 1 M44 1 14 4N M IR IB M. I M M k l /I M I I M IN I M M I• M

'

.ket.

r 4"1

=

31 1

M 1411 M . '. 4 2 M 14 1. N MI.

C o l ma tage d epos i ts

k 5 , m

Lr nes tone moun ta in

A l luv ia l f a ns . s l ope d epos i ts e tc

• MI U M1 1 1. 14 I « 4 1.4 . 144 1. 1 1M . .. M I O M MOM NM IB M1 4 ” 1 1 14 M I I M1 1 1 1. 14 1 10. 4 4M M Y1 1• 14 1. 1 M4 1 1 1. 1 .ki . MINI M = Mu , . 4 1 1 1 M M I MB I 7 4 . 11 7 1 15 1. 4, 1 M44 1 1 1. , de ma m m. m . 4. 111. 1 1414 1 1 n 04 3 . 1 11. 1 1 1 1 11 •4 r a. 4 44 I M M • 4 1 I• M a MI. 3 1 1 11 1 11 • 14 MI MB I M IM O ‚O M B 1• 1 1

H ighe r p a r t o f t he A g ro P on t ino

4 1 1 15 11 MB MU M M

44 14 1

, 1 1 1 1

L owe r p a r t o f t he Ag ro P on l eno

T own

F ig.

4 .2.

D istribution

of colmatage P ontino.

4 7

deposits

i n

the

A gro

s tandable a s, u nt i l r ecently, more d etailed s tudies o n l and u se and s ettlement patterns i n a ncient t i mes were v ery s carce. A combination o f t his k ind o f r esearch w ith d etailed soil surveys might l ead to a much b etter u nderstanding of t he environmental impact o f human activities i n ancient t imes. A good e xample o f t he p roblems i nvolved w ith t he r egiona lisation o f s ite o bservations c omes f rom t he G rosseto a rea i n southern Tuscany, which was r ather densely populated i n E truscan t imes . T he E truscan t owns o f V etulonia a nd R oselle a re s ituated o n h illtops, overlooking t he w ide a lluvial p lain of G rosseto. T he soils o n t he s lopes o f t hese h ills a re s everely eroded, while i n t he adjacent G rosseto p lain f ine textured ( sub)recent fluvial deposits a re quite extensive. A t f irst s ight i t might b e concluded t hat i n E truscan t i mes widespread erosion occurred, l eading to s ilting u p o f t he b asin; a rather c lassical p icture, often d escribed i n t he l iterature. F rom t he soil survey o f the G rosseto a rea i t however appeared t hat s trong, man-induced soil e rosion i s s trictly l imited to the immediate v icinity of t hese towns ( only a few s quare k ilometres) a nd that e lsewhere i n t he h ills soil e rosion h as b een v irtually n il, even on s teep s lopes. T he b ulk o f t he f luvial d eposits f urthermore appeared to be of very recent age a nd thus a completely d ifferent p icture emerges f rom t he s oil s urvey . S oil erosion and t he related s ilting u p of v alleys a re not t he o nly l arge-scale p henomena which may o ccur, a s w ill appear f rom the f ollowing example. P hysiographic soil s urveys o f t he A gro P ontino a nd L ower-Volturno b asin s howed the presence of h itherto unnoticed Roman ' col matage deposits' ( Sevink et al. 1 984; S chenk 1 983). I n the A gro Pontino these consist of more o r l ess r ectilinear n arrow gravel and sand bodies, representing former canals, a nd a ssociated e xtensive s heets o f r eddish b rown c lay t o s ilty c lay which over l arge a reas cover t he p eats a nd p eaty c lays of the i nternal l ow-lying part o f the A gro P ontino ( Fig. 4 .2). The d irection of the canals b ears no relation to t he original r elief, thus proving their anthropogenic origin. S outh o f S ezze a R oman s ettlement w as f ound o n t op o f o ne o f t hese c anals, w ith s ome l arge constructions which may h ave s erved t o control t he s ystem. T he o ldest p ottery f ound a t t he surface dates f rom t he 4 th century B .C. ( pers. comm. P . A rthur), which points to a very early s tart, possibly even pre-Roman, of t he system. T he system i n t he L ower-Volturno b asin ( Fig. 4 .3) has i dentical s tructural and s edi mentol ogical c haracteristics, b ut c lear a rchaeological evidence for i ts age i s l acking. I ts Roman a ge i s i nferred f rom the available abundant h istorical evidence o n t he o ccupation o f the area. I n b oth i nstances i t i s c lear t hat these s ystems cannot h ave b een i ntended f or i rrigation a s t he amount o f s ediment t ransported a s f ar too l arge a nd t he a rea to b e i rrigated

4 8

F luv ia l d epos i ts o f l o ca l r i ve rs

F o rme r c ana ls

F luv ia l d epos its o f t he V o l tu rno r i ve r

C ana l

D unes

—

R oad

Moun ta in

R a i lway w i th t unne l

S lope d epos i ts

T own

C o l ma tage d epos its l gn i mb r i te

0

V o lcan ic t uf fs

Pig.

4 .3.

D istribution

1

2

3

4

5 km

of colmatage deposits Volturno b asin.

4 9

i n

the

L o wer

was a very marshy area. I t i s therefore assumed that they were i ntended for colmatale, i .e. the s ilting up of marshy a reas t hrough f orced s edi ment t ransport and s edimentation, i n order to gradually reclai m such areas. Such systems, i n as far as could b e traced, are not yet known to have existed i n I taly during ( early) Roman t imes. The foregoing exa mples illustrat e 'hat ph . no mena, described above as large-scale anthropogenic l andscape features, will only occur where human activities had a s erious impact on t he l andscape. T his s ets l imits f or t heir age as such an impact is not to be expected for nonagricultural o r s till p rimitive agricultural societies. Conclusions I n t he f oregoing v arious ways i n which r esults o f physiographicsoil surveys can b e applied i n a rchaeology have b een i ndicated. I t must b e stressed that the reverse may also b e true, i .e. archaeological studies can be highly u seful for pedologists and other earth scientists, interested i n Quaternary geology a nd geomorphology . Good examples o f what can be achieved through co-operation may for example b e found i n the studies of C remaschi and Ammerman. T his potentially h ighly fruitful co-operation between earth s cientists a nd a rchaeologists, however, s till does not s eem to b e common practice i n I taly a nd t he possibilities o ffered b y the physiographic soil survey, to my opinion, a re not yet f ully u nderstood.

B ibliography Am merman, A .J., Butler, J .J., D iamond, G ., Monozzi, P ., P als, J .P., S evink, J ., Smit, A . and Voorrips, A . 1 978. Report on the excavations at Monte L eoni, a bronze age s ettlement i n t he P arma v alley . H elinium 1 8, 1 261 64. Barker,

B os,

G . W. W. Central

1 981. I taly .

L andscape and Society: L ondon, A cademic P ress.

P rehistoric

R .H .G. a nd S evink, J . 1 975. I ntroduction of g radational and pedomorphic features i n descriptions of soils. Journal of S oil S cience, 2 6 ( 3), 2 23-233.

Cremaschi, M . a nd P eretto, G . 1 977. I depositi quaternari d i Borzano, R io Groppo, Toscanella: sedi menti, paleosuoli, i ndustrie. Annali U niverstä Ferrara, n .s., sez. 15, ( 3). Sevink,

J ., Rem melz waal, A . and S paargaren, O .C. 1 984. The soils of southern Lazi o and adjacent Ca mpani a. Publications o f the L aboratory for P hysical Geography and S oil S cience, 3 8, Amsterdam.

5 0

S evink,

J . and v an O tterloo, R .H. 1983. The Quaternary evolution o f the Upper-Volturno b asin. I n Calderini ( ed.) I sernia L a P ineta. B ologna, 3 5-39.

V ita-Finzi, C . 1 969. T he Mediterranean C ambridge U niversity P ress. Schenk,

V alleys.

Cambridge,

P .S.M. 1 983. Soil survey and accompanying land evaluati ons of the northern part of the Basso V olturno a nd the adjacent h ills ( NW C ampania, I taly). Unpublished postgraduate thesis, L aboratory for P hysical G eography a nd S oil S cience, U niversity o f Amsterdam.

S ummary P hysiographic soil surveys not only provide i nformation on the soil characteristics, genesis and pattern within a specific area, but also on the landscape genesis of that a rea and on the relation soil-landscape. Four broad f ields of their application i n archaeology are d iscussed, using e xamples f rom I taly. 1 )

P hysiographic soil maps can b e u sed f or the i dentification of dated s table surfaces, i .e. surfaces which for a prolonged period of ti me have not been affected by er osi on. Thi s can be of great hel p in regi onal archaeological s urveys.

2 )

These surveys provide essential i nformation on the environmental conditions i n t he past a nd thus a re of g reat v alue for c atchment a nalyses a nd r elated s tudies.

3 )A

good k nowledge o f soil forming processes i n general and of the local soil and landscape genesis, as obtained during a d etailed physiographic soil survey, may g reatly improve the planning and execution of an excavation as well a s t he i nterpretation o f i ts r esults.

4 ) During physiographic soil surveys man-induced l andscape f eatures may b e d iscovered which, b ecause o f their d imens ions and n ature, e scaped t he a ttention of a rchaeologists. I t i s concluded that t he possibilities o ffered b y physiographic soil surveys are still underesti mated or not fully u nderstood b y many a rchaeologists working i n I taly. R iassunto L a r icognizione f isiografica dei s uoli f ornisce d ati non solo sulla loro caratteristiche, genesi e t ipo i n un'area deter minato, ma anche sulla genesi del paesaggi o di quell'area e sul rapporto f ra suolo e paesaggio. Quattro campi d i applicazione d i questo t ipo d i ricognizione dei

5 1

s uoli

i n

a rchaeologia

v engono d iscussi

con e sempi

d all'Italia.

1 )

Carte f isiografiche d ei suoli possono e ssere u sate per l 'identificazione d i s uperfici s tabili d atate, c ioè per s uperfici c he n on h anno s ubito p rocessi d i e rosione p er u n l ungo p eriodo d i t empo . Questo p uö e ssere d i g rande a iuto i n r icognizioni a rchaeologiche r egionali.

2 )

Questo t ipo di ricognizione fornisce i nformazioni essenziali sulla s istemazione ambientale del passato, e sono quindi d i g rande importanza n ella c atchment a nalysis e n egli s tudi collegati c on e ssa .

3 )

U na b uona conoscenza d ei p rocessi d i f ormazione d ei s uoli i n generale e della genesi dei suoli e del paesaggio locali, che puö essere raggiunta attraverso la r icognizione f isiografica dei s uoli, puö contribuire i n modo essenziale alla programmazione e all'esecuzione d i u no s cavo e a ll'interpretazione d ei r isultati.

4 )

Nel corso d i u na r icognizione f isiografica d ei suoli possibile i dentificare caratteristiche del paesaggio dovute all'intervento dell'uomo che a causa delle loro d i mensioni e d ella loro natura possono essere s fuggite a ll'attenzione d egli a rcheologi.

I n conclusione, l e possibilitä o fferte d alla r icognizione f isiografica dei s uoli sono ancora s ottostimate o non d el t utto c omprese d a molti a rchaeologi c he l avorano i n I talia.

5 2

5 .

CHANGING

PATTERNS I N

H ans

K amermans,

THE

Susan

OF

AGRO

P REHISTORIC LANDUSF PONTINO

L oving and

A lbertus

Voorrips

I ntroduction The Agro Ponti no archaeological survey project is s ponsored b y the A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstituut voor P raeen P rotohistorie ( I.P.P.) of the University of Amsterda m i n cooperation with t he Dutch I nstitute i n R ome, t he I stituto I taliano d i Paleontologia Umana and the Museo Preistorico Etnografico Luigi Pigorini, both i n Rome ( Voorrips et al. 1 983). The A gro P ontinois a coastal plain b etween Rome and Naples, about 8 0 k m. south of Rome. I t i s 6 0 km. long and 1 5 km. wide and i s surrounded b y t he Monti L epini, t he Monti Ausoni, t he Tyrrhenian sea and the low h ills south of Rome ( Fig. 5 .1). Geologically s peaking, t he a rea consists o f two parts, a low lying graben, mainly filled with peat, and a sandy dune area along the coast, both dating to the Quaternary. The c alcareous mountains along t he north o f t he A gro Pontino, and Monte C irceo, a n i solated part o f the A ppenines, were formed during t he Mesozoic. The soil map o f the area ( Fig. 5 .2) shows that along the coast four marine terraces can be d istinguished. E sti mated dates are 250,000 B .P. ( Tyrrhenian I ), 100,000 B .P. ( Tyrrhenian II), 70,000 B .P. ( Tyrrhenian I II), and postglacial ( pre-Neolithic) ( Fig. 5 .3). Each terrace consists of a sandy b each r idge and a clayey lagoon. S ome of the beach r idges contain f lint pebbles of a sufficient s ize for the manufacture of s tone tools. The soil map was made by scholars and s tudents from the Laboratory for P hysical Geography and Soil science of the U niversity of Amsterdam ( Sevink et a l. 1 984). D uring the soil survey much archaeological material was encountered, mainly flint artefacts and pottery. In order to continue the research i n this a rea the I .P.P. started an archaeological survey project i n 1979. I n 1980 palynological studies were b egun. At

this

time

the

main

research

goal

i s

to

investigate

c hanging p atterns o f prehistoric l anduse i n t he A gro P ontino, f rom the middle P alaeolithic to the B ronze A ge, using land evaluation techniquesin conjunction with archaeological, ethnographic and h istorical data. I n this way the potential o f l and evaluation for prehistoric r esearch will b e a ssessed

5 3

F ig.

5 .1.

Location

o f

the

Agro

P ontino

( drawing

I PP).

P ig. 5 .2. t he major s edimentary complexes i n t he A gro P ontino ( after S evink e t a l. 1 984). I b each r idge d eposits, T erracina l evel I I l agoonal d eposits, T erracina l evel I II b each r idge a nd g ravelly d eposits w ith l agoonal d eposits, B orgo E rmada l evel I V l agoonal d eposits, M inturno l evel V b each r idge d eposits, M inturno l evel V I l agoonal d eposits, l atina l evel V III a eolian d eposits I X a lluvial a nd colluvial d eposits ( drawing I PP)

5 5

a nd s omething w ill b e l earned about e conomic o rganization a nd d evelopment

t he p rehistoric s ocioi n t he A gro P ontino.

T he l and evaluation a pproach L and evaluation i s a t echnique d evelopea b y p hysical g eographers a nd i s w idely u sed b y t he FAO ( Food a nd A griculture O rganisation o f t he U nited N ations) i n t hird world countries ( Brinkman a nd S myth 1 973; B eek 1 978; F AO 1 976). T he l and evaluation a pproach a sks: G iven t he p hysical d ata a nd g iven t he s ocio-economic s ituation w hat w ill b e t he most r ational u se o f l and? I n o ther w ords, l and evaluation i s t he u tilization o f social a nd e conomic p arameters i n evaluating p hysical d ata. L and evaluation e ntails c ollecting a b asic i nventory o f l and p roperties o r c haracteristics i n o rder t o i dentify p romising l and u se a lternatives i n s imple s ocio-economic t erms. L and evaluation s tarts w ith b asic s urveys ( Fig. 5 .4). O n t he b asis o f t hese surveys a qualitative l and c lassification i s m ade. T he b asic s urveys i nclude t he c ollection o f d ata about, f or e xample, g eology, geomorphology, s oils, c limate a nd h ydrology. T hese s urveys r esult i n m aps i ndicating l and c haracteristics, i .e., s lope a ngle, r ainfall, s oil t exture, available water c apacity, b iomass o f t he v egetation e tc. T hese characteristics a re t hen t ranslated i nto l and qualities. F or e xample, t he l and quality " hazard o f s oil e rosion" i s d etermined b y a number o f v ariables: s lope a ngle, s lope l ength, p ermeability, s oil s tructure, r ainfall i ntensity a nd s o o n. T he l and quality together w ith a s ocioe conomic a nalysis a re u sed t o d erive a quantitative l and c lassification: t he l and suitability. A reas w ithin a r egion c an t hen b e r anked a ccording to t heir suitability o f u se. I n t his way, t he F AO makes t he d ecisions about l and u se which a re n ecessary f or p lanning a t a r egional s cale. O f course, t he FAO d oes n ot k now w hether o r not d ecisions, b ased o n i ts a nalysis w ill b e i mplemented, o r w hen t hey a re, whether o r not t hey w ill s ucceed a nd f or h ow l ong. T he FAO l acks d ata o n t he o utcome o f i ts d ecisions, o r, i n o ther t erms, t he e xperimental r esult. T he a rchaeological r ecord, o n t he o ther h and, c ontains t he r esults o f t housands o f e xperiments i n l and u se. T he a rchaeological r ecord i s l ess c lear, h owever, about t he s ocio-economic contexts o f t hose e xperiments. I n a rchaeology t he l and evaluation approach c an b e u sed i n a s lightly d ifferent w ay. B ecause t he a pproach r elates l and u se t o t he s ocio-economic s ituation, models f or t he p rehistoric s ocio-economic s ituation c an b e evaluated, compared o r, perhaps, t ested. A n a rchaeologist f irst c ollects t he p hysical d ata, a nalogous t o t he b asic s urveys, b y t ranslating a nd combining p alaeoecological i nformation t o y ield a qualitative l and c lassification f or d ifferent t ime periods. T hen, u sing e thnographic, a rchaeological a nd

5 6

M ax imum S e a L e ve l , M e t e r sa . s . l .

U n i t

D om inan t

T en t a t i v e D a t ing

T ex tu r e

D r a inag e

S o i l s

c oa rse

w e l l

C a lcar ic

d ra ined

R egoso ls

T e rrac ina Il o locene

0

Comp lex

p oor ly

E utr ic

med iu m

d ra ined

G leyso ls

c o me

w e l l

C hrom ic L uv iso ls

d ra ined

O r th ic L uv iso ls

med iu m

T yr rhen ian

B orgo E rmada

I I

6

C omp lex

f i ne /

p oor ly

S o lod ic P lanoso ls

d ra ined

G ley ic L uv iso ls

p oor ly

C hrom ic

d ra ined

V er t iso ls

w e l l

F er r ic

d ra ined

L uv iso ls

i mper fec t ly

S o lod ic P lanoso ls

d ra ined

G ley ic L uv iso ls

p oor ly

C hrom ic

d ra ined

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w e l l

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d ra ined

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1 6

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2 5

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p oo r ly

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F ig.

i mpe rfec t ly d ra ined

5 .3. t he

M ajor A gro

characteristics Pontino

( after

5 7

o f

the marine

S evink et

al.

complexes

1 982).

i n

PHYS JCAL GEOGRAPHY

ARCHAEO UIGY

B a s ic S ur vey s

B a s ic S u r vey s

1

Q ua l i ta t ive L a nd C l a s s i f ica t ion

Q ua l i ta t ive L and C l a s s i f ica t ion

ric onomic and

1 E c onom ic a nd S oc ia l A na ly s i s

—

Q uan t i t a t ive L and C l a s s i f ica t ion

5 .4.

T he a nd

4

Q uan t i ta t ive L a nd C l a s s i f ica t ion

F u tur e L and U s e

F ig.

-

S o c ia l M ode l s

P r eh i s to r ic L and U s e

l and evaluation approach i n P hysical A rchaeology ( adapted f rom FAO 1 976).

5 8

G eography

h istorical s ources, t he a rchaeologist constructs a s eries o f models o f p rehistoric s ocio-economic s ituations. T hen, a l and s uitability a ssessment i s d erived b y combining t he a ppropriate l and c lassifications w ith p lausible s ocioe conomic models. F inally, t he a rchaeological s urvey r esults a re examined i n o rder t o evaluate t he s ocio-economic models i n t erms o f t he l and s uitability a ssessment. I n o rder t o u se t he l and evaluation a pproach i n a rchaeol ogy, a n a rea i s r equired t hat c an p rovide palaeoecological d ata, t hat h as w ell-developed s oils ( land evaluation l eans h eavily o n d ifferences i n s oil types), t hat i s a more o r l ess c losed a rea ( a p hysiographic u nit) a nd t hat h as b een s urveyed f or i ts a rchaeological material. A pplication P ontino T he m ents

o f

o f

t he

l and evaluation a pproach

A gro P ontino i s a n a rea w hich f ulfills t he

t o

t he

t he

A gro

r equire-

l and evaluation a pproach.

T he l and s urface o f t he A gro P ontino, l ike much o f l owland c entral I taly, w as n ot a ffected b y g laciation, a nd u nlike t he i ntermontane r egions, i s r elatively f ree o f c olluvium. T hus, i ts s oils a re v ery well d eveloped. I t i s a p hysiographic u nit, c losed o n t hree s ides w ith o nly f our e ntrances: two a long t he coast, o ne f rom t he n orth a nd t he o ther f rom t he s outh, o ne b etween t he C olli A lbani a nd t he Monti L epini, a nd o ne b etween t he M onti L epini a nd t he M onti A usini. T he g eological, g eomorphological a nd p edological h istory o f t he a rea h as b een v ery well s tudied b y t he I talian g eologists ( Blanc, S egre a nd T ongiorgi 1 953; S egre 1 957; 1 969) a nd t he D utch p hysical g eographers ( Sevink 1 977; R emmelzwaal 1 978; S evink e t a l. 1 982; 1 984). E xcellent c onditions e xist f or collecting p alaeoecologic al d ata: t he p eat i n t he s lowly s inking g raben i s a m ine f or p alaeobotanical s amples a nd t he c aves i n t he s urrounding A ppenines a nd M onte C irceo h ave y ielded well-preserved p alaeo-zoological s amples. T he e xcavations i n t he A pennines a nd a t M onte C ireo t hat s tarted i n t he t hirties y ielded s ufficient z oological material to g ive a r ough i dea a bout t he f auna f rom t he l ast i ce a ge o nwards ( Blanc a nd S egre 1 953; P iperno 1 976/1977). T he I .P.P. h as c ollected s amples f or p alynological a nalysis f rom t he g raben a nd f rom f ossil l agoons i n t he a rea. O ne o f t he core s amples, w hich h as a continuous r ecord d ating f rom approximately 1 6,000 t o 4 ,500 B .P., h as g iven a g eneral i ndication o f t he a rea's v egetational h istory s ince t he l ate g lacial ( Eisner e t a l. i n p ress). L ast, b ut not l east, t here i s a n abundance o f a rchaeol ogical material s cattered a ll o ver t he P ontino p lain. A rchaeological r esearch f rom t he t hirties o nwards b y B lanc ( 1937; 1 939), T aschini ( 1968; 1 970; 1 972; 1 979) B ietti ( 1969), Z ei ( 1953; 1 954/1955; 1 970; 1 973), Mussi & Z ampetti

5 9

L EGEND : X— l o ca t ion o f Mezza luna c ore —A 1=3 — B -C -D -E —F 0

M I —mode rn c oas ta l

5

1 0km

l a goons

F ig. 5 .5. Map of A gro P ontino region s howing d istribution of dominant soil types a nd a real d ivisions for synoecological groups u sed i n palaeoenvironmental reconstructions of pollen z ones C l a nd D 2 ( Eisner et a l. 1 984). a . dominant soil types A - C hromic L uvisols f ormed i n s andy b each r idge and aeolian d eposits B - P lanosols f ormed i n f ossil l agoons C - H istosols a nd G leysols formed i n t he graben a rea D - Luvisols a nd Ombisols formed i n colluvium E - L ithisols a nd R endzinas f ormed o n mountain s lopes F - A reas w ith multiple s oil types ( not i ncluded i n palaeoenvironental r econstructions) b .

P ollen z one Cl ( 16,000 B .P.) A - Poaceae, P inus and Chenopodiaceae B - S teppe v egetation C - F e v egetation D - S parse oak woods - P inus, B etula a nd Abies

c .

Pollen z one D 2 ( 6000-5000 B .P.) A - Dune v egetation B - D ry, open v egetation C - D ryopteris D - Quercus i lex f orest, macchia E - mixed oak forest b elt 6 0

garrigue,

a nd V itis

sp.

( 1978) a nd f rom t he I .P.P. s urvey a llows g eneral maps o f t he l ocations o f a rchaeological material f rom t he middle P alaeol ithic u p t o R oman t imes t o b e c onstructed. T o d ate t he A gro P ontino s urvey h as f ound about 2 60 l ocations w ith a rchaeological material. W hich o f t hese l ocations c an b e c alled s ites h as y et t o b e d efined a nd t herefore i n t his p aper l ocations a re t ermed f indspots. L ast y ear a t ypological s tudy o f t he f lints, most o f which a re made f rom b each p ebbles, was made i n o rder t o d ate t he f indspots ( Kamermans 1 984). O verall, a bout 1 0% o f t he material c onsists o f tools, 9 0% i s d ebitage. T he pottery i s v ery b adly p reserved, a nd s o f ar, w ith t he e xception o f t he R oman p ottery, h as b een o f l imited u se f or d ating. N everthel ess, p reliminary c hronological s orting o f t he s herds h as b een d one. O n t he b asis o f t hese a nalyses, i t w as p ossible to a ssign t he f indspots, i n a p reliminary w ay, t o d ifferent t ime p eriods. U sing d ata f rom t he s outhern part o f t he A gro P ontino, w here t he survey i s more complete, t he l and evaluation a pproach c an b e i llustrated. I n t he t wo e xamples b elow, r esults a re g iven but n ot t he s tep-by-step d etails i nvolved. L and U se d uring t he

l ate P alaeolithic

F ig. 5 .5 s hows a g eneral v egetational r econstruction o f t he a rea during t he l atter p art o f t he l ast g lacial, a pproximately 1 6,000 B .P. I t i s a r esult o f t he combination o f t he s oil map a nd t he p alynological r esearch. D uring t his t ime p eriod t he c limate was d ry a nd cool. A r epresents dune v egetation w ith p ine. B i s A rtemesia ( wormwood) s teppe. C r epresents marsh v egetation. D i s s parse o ak woods. T his, c ombined w ith t he p hysiograpf iic c ircumstances, i s t he p hysical d ata w hich would b e u sed t o d efine l and qualities f or a reas i n t he r egion. N ow a s ocio-economic model f or t his t ime p eriod, b ased o n e thnographic, a rchaeological a nd h istorical k nowledge, i s c hosen. L et u s s ay t he A gro P ontino w as u sed b y u pper P alaeolithic g roups to h unt l arge s easonally-migrant h erbivores. T he more suitable a reas a re t hose concentrated a long t he m igration p aths o f l arge h erbivores a nd t hose n ear f resh water i n v egetation z ones w here t he a nimals g raze. W here t hese a reas coincide w ith t hose c ontaining r aw materials f or tool-making t he s uitability a ssessment would b e even h igher. L ooking a t t he p reliminary s urvey r esults ( Fig. 5 .6), t his s eems t o b e a r easonable s ocio-economic model. L ate P alaeolithic f indspots a re d istributed a long f resh w ater c hannels, near f lint r esources a nd a t t he e ntrances t o t he A gro P ontino. O f course, t his i s j ust a n i llustration, a nd i n p ractice d etailed s uitability a ssessments o f t he r egion u sing a number o f s ocio-economic models would b e made.

6 1

MONT I A USON I

MARE T / RRE NO

T errac ing

0

Fig.

5

5 .6.

Monte i r c

1 0km

D istribution o f ( drawing

6 2

l ate I PP).

o

SF e l ice C irceo

P alaeolithic

f indspots

L and U se d uring t he N eolithic A s t he v egetational r econstruction s hows ( Fig. 5 .5), b y 6 000-5000 B .P. t he c limate was a lready o f a M editerranean t ype. A a gain r epresents a dune v egetation w ith p ine a nd t he a ddition o f t amarix. H ere t he s oils a re p rimarily c hromic l uvisols. B c onsists m ainly o f p lanosols s upporting a n open, d ry v egetation w ith many h erbs. C i s a D ryopteris ( marsh f ern) marsh w here t he s oils a re h istosols a nd g leysols. D i s a c ombination o f o ak f orest a nd macchia-garrigue o n l uvisols a nd g leysols. F or t his e xample, t wo d ifferent s ocio-economic models a re s elected: a griculture a nd pastoralism. U nder a p astoralist model, l et u s s ay t hat b ecause o f l owland s ummer d roughts, t he A gro P ontino was u sed f or w inter p asture. A reas A a nd D would b e quite s uitable, b ut a rea B would b e t he most s uitable a nd a rea C t he l east s uitable. U nder a n a griculturalist model, t he f ertile a nd l ight s oils w hich a re r elatively i nsensitive t o s ummer d rought - t he c hromic l uvisols o f a rea A - would b e most s uitable. O ther a reas would b e f ar l ess s uitable. F ig. 5 .7 s hows t hat f indspots w ith N eolithic m aterial t end t o c luster o n t he c hromic l uvisols n ear B orgo E rmada. I n o ther a reas, t he f indspots a re f ewer a nd more d ispersed. T he d ata c ollected s o f ar m ight s uggest t hat a s ocio-economic model i ncorporating s everal s ubsistence s trategies m ight b e a ppropriate f or t he N eolithic p eriod. D iscussion F igs. 5 .6 a nd 5 .7 s how t he f irst, v ery p reliminary s urvey r esults w hich a re b ased o n l ess t han 1 % a real c overage. About 1 0% o f t he s urveyable a rea w ill b e covered i n t hree more f ield s easons. I n o rder t o d ate t he o pen-air s ites more p recisely, d etailed s tudy o f a rchaeological materials f rom w est c entral I taly i n g eneral, a nd f rom t he A gro P ontino i n p articular, w ill b e continued. P ertinent t o t he a pplication o f t he l and evaluation approach a re s everal n atural a nd cultural i mpediments t o r econstucting t he p alaeo-landscape. T he post-glacial s ea t ransgression h as t runcated a p ortion o f t he physiographic u nit; colluviation a t t he f oot o f t he A pennines h as i ncreased s ince N eolithic t imes; a nd a eolian s ands, p robably d eposited during t he l ate g lacial, h ave covered t he s outhwestern p art o f t he s urvey a rea. C ultural i mpediments i nclude a s eries o f i ntermittent r eclamation p rojects b eginning i n p re-Roman t imes; t he most r ecent a nd t he most e xtensive o ne b egan i n t he 1 930s. A nalyses o f t he c ore s amples p roceeds v ery s lowly, b ut i t i s expected t hat s amples f rom t he most r ecent l agoon w ill a llow d ating o f t he y oungest t errace a nd s ubsequent i nferences about h ow much o f t he a rchaeological r ecord, c hronologically s peaking, h as b een t runcated. T he i nland i mpact o f c olluviation a nd a eolian d eposition c an b e a ssessed f rom a rchaeological s ettlement d ata g athered b y t he s urvey,

6 3

MONT I AUSON I

MA RE T I RRE NO T er roc ino

0

F ig.

5

S .F e l ice C irce°

1 0km

5 .7. d istribution of Neolithic f indspots. S haded a rea s hows d istribution o f Chromic L uvisols ( drawing I PP).

6 4

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but t his i s i n t he a reas

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f or

r econstructing t he

l andscape

I n order to r econstruct t he pre-reclamation physiography, a ir photos i n conjunction w ith the more detailed r ecords o f t he s oil survey a re b eing s tudied. T here a re a number o f old maps of t he a rea which a re b eing u sed to r econstruct the socio-geographical h istory o f t he area u p to t he p resent d ay. F ig. 5 .8 s hows s uch a map made b y a Dutch hydrologist, Cornelio Meyer, i n t he 1 7th century. Conclusions To summarize, l and evaluation emphasizes t he v ariable l andscape. L andscape i s s een as a n entity a nd human activity i s considered a s something t hat takes p lace i n and i s part o f t his entity. T he l andscape was p resent f irst; man had to f ind h is p lace i n i t and by d oing s o altered the l andscape. B y mapping t hese c hanges i t w ill b e possible to s ay something about t he patterns o f prehistoric l anduse i n t he A gro Pontino, a nd we w ill b e i n a b etter position to f ocus on the d etails o f h uman b ehaviour a s r epresented i n the v arious a rchaeological s ites.

B ibliography B eek,

K .J. 1 978. D evelopment.

L and Evaluation I LRI P ublication 2 3.

B ietti,

A . 1 969. Due s tazioni d i superficie S uperiore n ella P ianura Pontina. P aletnologia T taliano 2 0 ( 78), 7 -39.

B lanc,

A .C. della

B lanc,

A .C. 1 939. U n g iacimento aurignaziano medio G rotta d el P ossellone a l M onte C irce°. A tti I tal. P rog. S ci. 2 7 ( 6), 2 15-221.

B lanc,

A .C. a nd S egre, A .G. 1 953. E xcursion au Mont IVe congräs i nternational du A ssociation n ationale pour l 'etude du Quaternaire. Roma.

B lanc,

A .C., S egre, A .G. a nd Tongiorgi, P . 1 953. quaternaire d e l 'Agro P ontino. S upplement Excursion au Mont C irce. IVe congräs i nternational A ssociation I nternationale pour l 'etude Quaternaire. R oma.

1 937. Nuovi g iacimenti Toscana. S tudi P truschi

B rinkman, R . and S myth, Rural Purposes.

A .J. I LRI

f or A gricultural W ageningen. d el P aleolitico Bullettino d i

paleolitici d el 1 1, 2 73-304.

L azio e

nella S oc.

C irce. I nter-

( eds.) 1 973. L and Evaluation Publication 17. Wageningen.

6 6

L e au du du

for

E isner,

FAO .

W ., Ka mermans, H . and Wymstra, T .J. i n p ress. The Agro Pontino survey: Results from a f irst pollen core. Journal of Mediterranean A nthropology and A rchaeology . I n p ress.

1 976. A F ramework f or Publication 2 2.

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Evaluation.

Wageningen,

I LRI

Ka mermans, H . 1 984. Artefacten onderzoek Agro Pontino P roject. I nternal r eport. Rome, I stituto O landese. Mussi,

M . and Za mpetti, D . 1978. S iti preistorici d i s uperficie n el t erritorio d i S . F elice C irceo ( Prov . d i L atina). Quaternaria 2 0, 4 1-48.

P iperno,

M . 1 976/1977. A nalyse du sol Mousterien d e l a Guattari au Mont C irce . Quaternaria 1 9, 7 1-92.

R emmelzwaal, A . 1 978. Soil G enesis a nd Quaternary D evelopment i n t he Tyrrhenian C oastal A rea C entral I taly . Amsterdam.

grotte

L andscape o f South-

Segre,

A .G. 1 957. Contributo alb ostudio del Quaternario dell' Agro Pontino: I l t ravertino d i C isterna d i Latina. G iaci mento del P aleolitico Superiore e del B ronzo. Quaternaria 4 , 1 91-197.

Segre,

A .G. 1 969. L inee d i riva sommerse e morfologia della piattaforma continentale i taliana relative alla t ransgressione marina versiliana. Quaternaria 11, 4 1-154.

S evink, J. 1 977. H et b odemonderzoek i n de f ysische geografie. Konink Uk Nederlands Aardrijkskundiq Genootschap G eografisch T ijdschrift 1 1, 1 89-194. Gevink,

J ., Remmelz waal A . and Spaargaren O .C. 1 984. The Soils of Southern Lazio and Adjacent Ca mpania: Amsterdam.

Sevink,

J ., Vos, P ., Westerhoff, W .F., S tierman, A . and K amermans, H . 1 982. S equence o f marine t erraces n ear L atina ( Agro P ontino, Central I taly). Catena 9 , 3 613 78.

Taschini, M . 1968. L a datation au C14 de C irceo). Quelques observations s ur I talie. Quaternaria 1 0, 1 37-165.

l 'abri B lanc ( Mont l e mesolithique en

Taschini, M . 1 970. La grotta B reuil al Monte C irce per una impostazione dello s tudio del P ontiniano . O rigini 4 , 4 5-78. T aschini, M . 1 972. S ur l e P aleolithique d e ( Latium). Quaternaria 1 6, 2 03-223. T aschini,

M .

1 979.

L 'Industrie

6 7

l ithique

de

l a

p laine

G rotta

P ontine

Guattari

au

Mont C irce ( Latium): Definition culturelle, typolog igue et c hronologique du P ontinien. Quaternaria 2 1, 1 79-247. Voorrips, A ., L oving, S .H. a nd K amermans, H . 1 983. A n A rchaeological survey o f t he A gro P ontino ( prov. o f L atina, I taly). I n K eller, D .R. a nd R upp, D .W. ( eds.) A rchaeologial S urvey i n t he Mediterranean A rea. ( BAR I nternational S eries 1 55) Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 1 75-181. Z ei,

M .

1 953. Romano. 1 02-107.

Z ei,

M .

1 954/1955. R icerche preistoriche nel L azio. A gro Pontino. B ulletino d i P aletnologia I taliana 9 , 6 4.

Z ei,

M .

1 970. S cienze

Z ei,

M .

E splorazione B ulletino

d i d i

grotte n ei pressi d i S ezzoP aletnologia I taliana 8 ,

R icerche nel L azio meridionale. P reistoriche 2 5, 3 23-325.

R ivista

1 973. U n g iacimento epigravettiano n ell' A gro a Molella d i S abaudia ( Latina). R ivista d i P reistoriche 2 8, 1 07-132.

d i

P ontino S cienze

Summary The authors r eview a long t erm a rchaeological survey of the A gro Pontino. T he a im o f t he project i s to i nvestigate s ettlement changes f rom t he m iddle P alaeolithic t o the B ronze Age u sing l and evaluation t echniques ( as u sed b y t he FAO) i n conjunction w ith a rchaeological, e thnographic a nd h istorical d ata. L and u se during t he l ate P alaeolithic a nd t he N eolithic i s d escribed. R iassunto G li autori passano i n r assegna l a r icognizione d i l unga durata del A gro Pontino. L o s copo del progetto e d i i nvestigare i c ambiamenti d i i nsediamento d al paleolitico medio a ll'etä del b ronzo u tilizzando t ecniche d i v alutazzione del terreno ( come quelle del FAO) i nsieme con i d ati a rcheologici, e tnografici e s torici. E ' d escritta l 'utilizzazione d el s uolo durante i l paleolitico s uperiore e i l

neolitico.

6 8

6 .

TH P

P LPISTOCFNE

- CASAL D E'

A nna

P aola

D EPOSIT

PAZZI

A nzidei

( ROME

O F R EBIBIA - I TALY)

a nd M assimo R uffo

I n N ovember 1 981, i n t he course o f extensive e arthworks f or a n ew d rain t runk l ine a t R ebibbia - C asal d e' P azzi i n t he u rban a rea o f R ome, a l arge P leistocene d eposit ( a s egment o f a n a ncient r iver-bed), c onsisting mainly o f s tratified s ands a nd g ravel w ith f aunal r emains a nd l ithic i ndustry, was i dentified. ( Anzidei e t a l. 1 984a; A nzidei a nd Ruffo 1 984b). T he d eposit was l ocated o n t he m iddle t errace o f t he l ower A niene v alley a nd quite s imilar i n c omposition a nd s tratigraphic p osition t o t he well k nown s ites o f S edia d el D iavolo a nd M onte d elle G ioie ( Cresta e t a l. 1 982). S everal f luvial d eposits, a ll i ncluding s tone t ools, g reat mammalian f ossil b ones a nd s ome h uman b ones h ave b een i dentified s ince l ast c entury i n t his a rea, o n t he a ncient r iver t erraces. T he most i mportant f inds a re t he two p re-Neanderthal s kulls i n t he g ravel quarry o f S accopastore ( Sergi 1 944; 1 948). N one o f t hese d eposits, h owever h as b een s ystematically e xcavated a nd a ll h ave b een d estroyed b etween 1 940 a nd 1 950 i n t he course o f t he u rban e xpansion o f R ome. ( Fig. 6 .1). T he d iscovery o f t he n ew s ite o f R ebibbia - C asal d e'Pazzi o ffered a n o pportunity t o p lan a s ystematic r esearch a nd s tratigraphic excavation o f a d eposit o f t he s ame type a nd d ate a s t he o nes t hat h ave b een d estroyed. T he r esults o f t he e xcavation a re e specially r elevant t o t he r econstruction o f t he n atural e nvironment i n t he r egion o f R ome a t t he e nd o f t he middle P leistocene. T he e xcavation h as b een o rganized b y t he p rehistoric s ection o f t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica d i R oma a nd c arried out s tratigraphically o ver a n a rea o f 1 200 m .2, o n a g rid o f 5 x 5 m .2 I t u ncovered a l arge s egment o f t he r iver b ed a nd f luvial d eposit; t heir g ood s tate o f p reservation i s d ue t o t he o ccurrence i n t his a rea o f a r ocky b ed o f h ard ' tufo l itoide'; i n t he adjacent a reas, w here t he r iver-bed w as e xcavated i n a l acustrine d eposit, i t was s ubsequently e roded a nd t herefore i s n ot p reserved ( Fig. 6 .2). T he r econstruction o f t he o riginal morphology a nd s tratigraphic s equence o f t he a rea a nd o f t he r iver-bed i s b ased o n t he d ata c ollected d uring t he e xcavation s upplemented b y t he s urvey o f g eological s ections exposed b y e arthworks i n t he n eighbouring z one, w ith a r adius o f a bout 5 00 m . T he e arliest f luvial p hase was c haracterised b y a s trong f low w hich h ad s haped t he t uff r ocky-bed a fter e roding a s uperimposed l acustrine l ayer; t his l ayer was p reserved i n

6 9

F ig.

6 .1.

L ocation o f P leistocene s ites i n t he l ower v alley, i n t he u rban a rea o f R ome.

7 0

A niene

t he corresponding s tratigraphic s eries o f S edia d el a nd Monte d elle G ioie ( Blanc 1 955; T aschini 1 967). I n

t he s outh-eastern p art o f

t he e xcavation,

D iavolo

w here

t he

g ravel l ayers w ere u p to 2 m . t hick, t he f ront o f t he tuff r ocky-bed, which f ormed a s ort o f n atural b arrier, h ad b een s haped b y t he w ater i nto r ounded b locks a nd r ocks ( Figs. 6 .2 a nd 6 .3). Tuff a nd l acustrine s ilt b locks, v ariously s haped b y t he s tream, w ere r oughly a ligned s outheast - n orthwest w here t he r ocky-bed d epression r eached t he l owest l evel ( Fig. 6 .4). T he u pper s urface o f t he l acustrine, s ilt b locks w ere marked b y t ransverse l inear r ipples a nd i nterference r ipples marks, g enerally observed i n t he s hallow w ater o f s ea o r r iver. I n t he northern a rea o f t he e xcavation, w here t he s ands a nd g ravel l ayers w ere t hinner, t he r ocky b ed h ad b een s haped b y t he s tream a nd b y t he g rinding a ction o f s tones a nd coarse s ediments i nto a s eries o f p ot-holes ( Figs. 6 .5 a nd 6 .6). T he f luvial s ediments u ncovered s o f ar s how t wo d istinct f acies: i n t he s outh - s outheast s ection t he s trata consist o f l ocal pyroclastics m ixed w ith a ugitic s ands. T he s trata w ith coarse pyroclastics a re i n t he l owest l evels, p articularly i n c ontact w ith t he r ocky b ed. I n t he h ighest l evels t he s mall-size p yroclastic l ayers a lternate w ith s ands a nd mud i n c onformity w ith t he v ariations i n t he r iver s tream. I n t he n orth - n orthwest s ection t he s trata consist o f c alcareous g ravels m ixed w ith mud a nd i ntercalated w ith a ugitic s ands. I n t he southwest s ection which i s b eing p resently e xcavated, t he c alcareous g ravel l ayers l ie i mmediately above t he o nes c omposed o f pyroclastic g ravels t hat b elong t o a n e arlier d eposit. T he d istribution o f s tone t ools a nd f ossil b ones i n t he l ayers i s not u niform; t he l argest b ones a re c oncentrated i n t he south - s outheast s ection o f t he excavated a rea t hat c orresponds t o t he n atural b arrier c aused b y t he e rosion a nd s ubsequent moulding o f t he f ront o f t he tuff r ocky b ed. Quite p robably, t he c ourse o f t he s tream i n t his p art o f t he r iver was about p erpendicular t o t he b arrier a nd r an f rom east s outheast towards w est - s outhwest a s may b e i nferred f rom t he position o f t he b ones ( Fig. 6 .4). About 2 ,200 v ertebrate b ones were collected a nd a bout 9 00 h ave a lready b een i dentified o r a re i dentifiable. T he b ones s how a d ifferent d egree o f f ossilization a nd f low; on t he g rounds o f a p reliminary e xamination, t he b ones w ith a l ower d egree o f f ossilization a nd a l ighter p atina p revail i n t he l owest l ayers w ith coarse s tructure ( pebbles d iameter c . 8 -10 cm.), d irectly a bove t he r ocky b ed which corresponds t o t he f irst t orrent-like r iver p hase. T he b ones w ith a h igher d egree o f f ossilization a nd a d ark-brown p atina a re u niformly d istributed i n a ll t he l ayers o f t he f luvial d eposit. T he l ithic a nd f aunal f inds, h owever, a re mainly concent rated i n t he l owest l ayers a nd a re r are i n t he mud a nd s and

7 1

I'I

c s

,', ,,

p a

' \ ) 3

• . ›

7 2

3

K EY to F ig.

6 .2.

1 . S ilt a nd l acustrine c lays. 2 . P alaeosol. 3 ."Tufo l itoide l ionato" w iih moulding r ocks a nd pot h oles. 4 . G ravel w ih p ebbles a nd f ragments o f u nderlying l acustrine c lay w ith a ugitic s and l enses overlying rounded b locks, t usks a nd molars o f P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus 5 . G ravels w ith p iroclastic p ebbles o f d ifferent s hape i ncluding l ithic i ndustry a nd f ragmentary b ones ( Palaeoloxodon a ntiquus, H ippopotamus s p. B os p rimigenius, f resh w ater b irds). 7 . S andy y ellow s ilt w iih i nfrequent mammalian b ones ( Cervus e laphus). 8 .Calcareous c rusts a nd b locks o f t ravertine. 9 . " Pupees" h orizon. 1 0. L ight t ufitic p aleosol a nd d iatomite w ith o xidations a nd f loral marks. 1 1. B rown s oil.

l ayers T he

f ormed l ocally

b y a w eak f low.

f ollowing f aunal

s pecies

h ave

b een

i dentified:

M ammals: P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus, D icerorhinus s p., H ippopotamus amphibius, B os p rimigenius, C ervus e laphus, D ama sp., C a neolus c apreolus, H yaena c rocuta, C anis l upus, E quus s p. A quatid b irds: A nas c recca.

A nser a lbifrons,

R eptilia:

o rbicularis.

E mys

A nas p enelope,

A nas

s trepera,

T he d istribution o f t he a natomical p arts, a s s hown b y t he b ones, i s u neven f or e ach s pecies; t he P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus i s e specially r epresented b y molar t eeth a nd t usks, to b e r eferred t o v ariously a ged i ndividuals. T he f inds i nclude about 6 0 c omplete molars a nd 1 20 f ragments, a bout 2 5 complete t usks a nd 5 0 f ragments. S kull, j aw, pelvis, v ertebra a nd r ibs f ragments a re v ery r are a nd t here i s o nly o ne humerus. T he B os p rimigenius i s r epresented b y a lmost a ll t he a natomical p arts; h owever, a s f or t he P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus, molar t eeth p revail ( about 1 30 complete o nes). S kull f ragments a re r are, w hile o ther b ones a re more f requent. T he D ama sp., C ervus e laphus a nd C apreolus c apreolus a re l ess r epresented a nd t he b ones a re f ragmented a nd f ragile; a ntlers a re more numerous: t he m ajority a re d eer. H ippopotamus amphibius, D icerorhinus se., a nd P quus sp. a re r epresented o nly b y t eeth ( molars a nd i ncisors). T he b ird b ones a re mainly d iaphysis f ragments, p lus a t ibia; t he E mys o rbicularis i s r epresented o nly b y a c arapace f ragment.

7 3

F ig. 6 .3. l itoide".

T ransversal s ections o f t he r iver b ed: t i = " tufo 2 = P aleosol u nderlying t he " Tufo l itoide" l ayer.

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6 .4.

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7 5

b locks,

I n t he d eepest l ayer o f t he f luvial d eposit a f ragment o f a h uman r ight parietal b one h as b een r ecovered; i t b elongs most p robably to a a rchaic f orm o f s apiens. S egments o f t he s agittal a nd l amboidea s uturae a re p reserved ( Figs. 6 .7 a nd 6 .8). A H omo s apiens b one f ragment i n t his context i s o f s pecial r elevance t o t he s tudy o f h uman evolution i n t he I talian p eninsula. T he two skulls o f S accopastore w hich w ere a lso f ound i n a l ower t errace o f t he A niene r iver, o nly a t about 2 k m. d istance, d ocument a more r ecent p hase o f t his evolution. I n a ssociation w ith v ertebrates b ones, a v ery r ich f lint i ndustry w as c ollected ( more t han 5 00 t ools), g enerally d istributed i n a ll t he l ayers, b ut p articularly concentrated i n t he l owest o nes ( Pigs. 6 .9 - 6 .11). A lmost a ll t he a rtifacts h ave b een m ade f rom s mall f lint p ebbles o f d ifferent quality; t he a rtifacts made o f s iliceous l imestone a re r are; o nly a b one t ool h as b een f ound, a n i ntentionally worked f ragment, f rom a l ong b one d iaphysis o f P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus ( Fig. 6 .11,3). T he s tone t ools s how v arious p atinae, a lthough t he majority h ave f resh working edges a nd patina. T he d egree o f typological d iversification i s r ather h igh, a nd more t han 2 0 types o f t he H ordes s tandard c lassification a re r epresented. M ost o f t he t ools a re i n t he s crapers g roup ( simple, d ouble, dejete, c onvergent a nd a lternate s ide s crapers); s ome o f t he s crapers a re o n pebbles a nd L D c hoppers; 1 /2 Quina a nd Quina r etouches a re documented. T here a re s everal notches, s ometimes a lso o f c lactonian type, b orers a nd b ecs, d enticulates, e nd-scrapers, f ew b acked k nives a nd L D c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools. T he cores a re g enerally s hapeless, s ome a re p rismatic, w ith o ne s triking p latform a nd o f c hopping-tool type. A f ew a typical f lakes o f L evallois t echnique a re r epresented, a long w ith s everal f lakes s howing t races o f i rregular r etouches o r u tilization, waste f lakes a nd ' debris'. T he s triking p latforms a re mostly o n c ortex o r p lain; i n v ery f ew c ases t hey a re f acetted. I n t he s ame l owest l ayer o f t he d eposit, d irectly i n contact w ith t he rocky-bed, where t he human p arietal b one h as b een r ecovered, a s iliceous l imestone b iface a nd a H D chopping t ool made o f f lint w ere f ound ( Fig. 6 .11,1-2). T he l ack o f t his k ind o f s tone t ool a t t he s ites o f S edia d el D iavolo a nd M onte d elle G ioie i s p robably due t o s ampling b ias c ircumstances. I n f act t he material f rom t hose l ast two s ites comes f rom old a nd non-systematic e xcavations. H owever, o n t he g rounds o f a p reliminary typological a nalysis, t he i ndustrial a ssemblage f rom t he d eposit o f R ebibbia-Casal d 'Pazzi, s eems r ather s imilar t o t he o nes f rom t hese l ast two s ites, l ocated o n t he s ame medium t errace o f t he l ower A niene v alley. I t s hows a lso s ame t ypological i milarities t o t he Mousterian i ndustry o f c oastal L atium ( the s o c alled

7 6

F ig.

6 .5.

T ransverse s ections o f pot-holes moulded r ock r iver b ed.

i n

6 .6. T ransvese s ections o f t he r ocky r iver b ed a nd o f t he position o f t he l acustrine s ilt b locks; ( rep. 3 27 marks t he p osition o f t he b one f ragments.

Fig.

7 7

O

I

cl 1 1 O 1

3 I 2 . 1 4

O

I I

0

F ig. 6 .7. S tratigraphic s equence: t l = B edrock o f " tufo l itoide". * = ( rep. 7 92) marks position o f t he s kull f ragment. T he l etters i ndicate s ingle l ayers o f g ravel/sands.

7 8

. •

.. . . . .

• • • • • • . •• •

F ig. 6 .8. T entative s ketch o f t he position o f t he p arietal f ragment o f R ebibbia - C asal d e'Pazzi o n a s kull o f N eanderthal type.

7 9

1

4

8

1 3

Fig.

6 .9.

L ithic

1 4

i ndustry:

1 - 3 ,

5 ,

9 ,

s ingle

s ide s crapers;

4 , a lternate s ide s craper; 6 , 1 8, a typical l evallois f lakes; 7 - 8 , 1 2, d ouble s ide s crapers; 1 0, e nd s craper; 1 1, 1 5, 1 7, t ransverse s ide s crapers; 1 3, convergent s ide s craper; 1 4 b orer; 1 6, p oint.

8 0

8 6

3e n i

1 3

6 .10. L ithic i ndustry: 1 , 1 3, cores; 2 , 7 , d enticulates; 3 , 1 2, t ransverse s ide s crapers; 4 , 8 , r etouched c hopping t ool LD; 5 , c hopper LD; 6 , 9 , 1 0, 1 1, ' c l jete "s' s ide s crapers. Fig.

8 1

2

3 P ig.

6 .11.

1 ,

h and-axe; b one

2 , c hopping t ool f ragment. 8 2

H D;

3 ,

r etouched

P ontinian). T he v ariability o f t he p atinae a nd t he k ind o f d eposit s eem t o e xclude t hat t he material o riginally b elongs t o t he s ame c ontext. T he b ones a nd t he l ithic i ndustry, i n f act, h ave b een c arried b y t he r iver f rom s everal d ifferent z ones a nd s tratigraphic c ontexts a t v arying d istance f rom t he s ite w here t hey h ave f inally b een d eposited. T he a nalysis o f t he m aterial t herefore i s r ather c omplex, a nd w ill r equire a s tudy o f t he c orrelation among t ypological f eatures, d ifferences i n p atina a nd s tratigraphic p osition, i n o rder t o e stablish t he r elative c hronology o f t he d eposits. A s r egards t he a bsolute c hronology, t he d eposit o f R ebibbia C asal d e'Pazzi c an b e d ated to a r elatively l ate moment o f t he R iss g laciation, a s a re t he n earby s ites o f S edia d el D iavolo a nd M onte d elle G ioie. T he a ge o f t he ' tufo l itoide' i s b ased o n i ts s tratigraphic position, a nd i s t herefore roughly a pproximate. T he ' tufo l itoide' i s more r ecent t han t he l eucitic l ayer d ated b y KAr t o c . 3 66,000 y ears i n t he s equence o f t he l ower P alaeolithic s ite o f A nagni-Fontana R anuccio ( Frosinone), a nd could t herefore b e t entatively d ated b etween 3 66,000 a nd 3 00,000 y ears a go. A fter t he f ormation o f t he r ocky b ed a t ime s pan l ong e nough f or i ts s urface t o b e s haped must h ave e lapsed, t he s ubsequent f luvial e pisode could b e d ated t o c . 2 00,000 y ears a go, t hat i s, to a n a dvanced moment o f t he R iss g laciation. A more p recise d ate s hould b e obtained b y t he a spartic-acid r acemization method t hat i s a t p resent b eing c arried o ut o n b one s amples f rom t he d eposit b y t he I stituto d i G eochimica ( Universitä d i R oma l a S apienza). O ne o f t he b est p reserved a reas o f t he d eposit, w ith b ones a nd l ithic i ndustry, a nd a s egment o f t he o riginal r iver b ed i s b eing r estored a nd consolidated i n s itu a nd w ill b e p rotected b y a p ermanent s tructure a nd open t o t he public.

A cknowledgements T he f ollowing c ollaborated i n t he p reliminary s tudy o f t he s ite: G eological s tudy: A .G.Segre ( Istituto d i P aleontologia U mana, R ome); A nthropological s tudy: G . M anzi, P . P assarello, L . S alvadei ( Universitä ' La S apienza' a nd S oprintendenza A rcheologica, R ome); P alaeontological s tudy: P .P. C assoli ( Istituto I taliano d i P aleontologia U mana e S oprintendenza a lla P reistoria L . P igorini, R ome); L ithic i ndustry: A . B ietti ( Istituto d i P aleontologia U mana e U niversitä ' La S apienza', R ome); A spartic a cid r acemization m ethod: G .

8 3

B elluomini

( University

" La

S apienza",

R ome).

B ibliography Anzidei,

A .P., C assoli, P . P., R uffo, M . and S egre, A .G. 1 984. R isultati p reliminari d ello s cavo i n u n deposito pleistocenico i n l ocalitä R ebibbia - C asal d e'Pazzi. I n A tti del XXIV Convegno d ell'Istituto I taliano d i P reistoria e P rotostoria. R oma, 1 982, 1 31-139.

A nzidei,

A .P. a nd Ruffo, M . 1 984. I l d i R ebibbia - C asal de' P azzi. P reistoria e P rotostoria d el Roma, S estieri, 9 4-104.

deposito pleistocenico I n B ietti, A .M. ( ed.) territorio d e R oma.

B iddittu, I ., C assoli, P .F., R adicati d i B rozolo, F ., S egre, A .G., S egre N aldini, E . and V illa I . 1 979. A ngani, a K-Ar d ated l ower and m iddle P leistocene S ite, C entral I taly: preliminary r eport. Quaternaria 2 1, 5 3-71. B lanc,

A .C. 1 955. R icerche sul Quaternario l aziale. I II. Avifauna a rtica, c rioturbazioni e t estimonianze d i soliflussi nel P leistocene medio-superiore d i R oma e d i T orre i n P ietra. I i periodo g laciale Nomentano nel quadro della s erie d i g laciazioni r iconosciute n el L azio. Quaternaria 2 , 1 87-200.

Cresta,

M ., S erge, A . G., F ollieri, M ., S pedini, G ., P assarello, P . a nd B ietti, A . 1 982. L 'uomo d i S accopastore e i i suo ambiente. I Neandertaliani nel L azio. Roma, U niversitä degli s tudi ' La S apienza'.

S ergi,

S . 1 944. C raniometria e c raniografia paleantropo d i S accopastore. R icerche d i 2 0-21, 3 -58.

S ergi,

S . 1 948. I l c ranio d el s econdo paleantropo d i S accopastore c raniografia e c raniometria. P alaeontographia I talica, M emorie d i P aleontologia 4 2, ( 1). P isa 1 942, 4 6, 2 5-164.

Taschini, M . 1 967. I l ' Prontopontiniano' d el D iavolo e d i Monte delle Quaternaria 9 , 3 01-319.

d el primo M orfologia

r issiano G ioie

d i S edia ( Roma).

ummary T he deposit i s i n t he l ower M iene v alley, w ithin t he u rban a rea of Rome a nd was d iscovered casually i n t he course o f e xtensive earthworks for a n ew d rain t runk l ine. I t h as b een i dentified a s a s egment of a n a ncient b ed o f t he A niene

8 4

r iver

a nd consists m ainly o f

s tratified s ands

a nd g ravel.

T he c omposition a nd s tratigraphic p osition i s quite s imilar t o t hose o f t he w ell-known s ites o f S edia d el D iavolo a nd M onte d elle G ioie, b oth i n t he l ower M iene v alley. A l arge amount o f v ertebrates b ones h ad b een c arried out b y t he w ater a nd h ave b een f ound o n t he b ottom o f t he a ncient r iver a nd i n t he s tratified d eposit. T he most c ommon s pecies a re: P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus, H ippopotamus amphibius, D icerorhinus s p., C ervus e laphus, B os p rimigenius. A f ew h undred s tone t ools h ave b een f ound w ith t he f auna, t hat a re typologically c lose to t he l ithic i ndustry o f S edia d el D iavolo a nd M onte d elle G ioie. F rom t he s ame l ayer a lso a f ragment o f a human p arietal b one h as b een r ecovered, most p robably o f a n a rchaic f orm o f H omo s apiens. T he d eposit c an b e d ated a round 2 00,00 y ears ( final R iss) o n t he g eological g rounds, s ince i t i s connected w ith t he r ocky-bed o f ' tufo l itoide'.

R iassunto N ella b assa v alle d ell'Aniene, n ell'area u rbana d i R oma, durante i l avori per l a construzione d i u n c ollettore, ä s tato i denificato u n b anco d i g hiaie e s abbie r iferibili a d u n a ntico e pisodio f luviale d ell'Aniene, s imile p er posizione s tratigrafica e p er c omposizione a quelli noti d i S edia d el D iavolo e M onte d elle G ioie. L o s cavo a rcheologico h a r iportato a lla l uce u n t ratto d i p aleoalveo d ell' Aniene; i i f ondo r occioso, s cavato n el b anco d i t ufo, e ra s tato modellato d alle a cque d ando o rigine a s cogli, massi a rrotondati e marmitte. I n tutto l o s pessore d el d eposito e i n p articolare s ul f ondo, i ncastrate t ra i massi, v i e rano numerosissime o ssa d i v ertebrati; l e s pecie p iü c omuni s ono l e s eguenti: P alaeoloxodon a ntiquus, H ippopotamus amphibius, D icerorhinus sp., C ervus e laphus, B os pEimogenius. I n a ssociazione c on l a f auna s ons s tati r itrovati p iü d i 5 00 s trumenti l itici, t ipologicamente r icollegabili a lle i ndustrie d i S edia d el D iavolo e M onte d elle G ioie. D allo s trato p iü b asso d el d eposito p roviene f ramento d i p arietale u mano r iferibile a d p reneandertaliano.

a nche u n u n t ipo

L a d atazione d el d eposito, b asata s ulla s ua p osizione s tratigrafica i n r elazione a l b anco d i ' tufo l itoide' S i pub s timare i ntorno a i 2 00,000 a nni, c iod c . a l R iss f inale.

8 5

7 .

ENVIRONMENT AND DURING

PALAFOLITHIC

THE MIDDLE

M .

SETTLEMENTS

PLEISTOCENE:

C remaschi

a nd

C .

THE

I N NORTHERN

I TALY

GHIARDO S ITE.

C hristopher

F oreword More t han a h undred l ower P alaeolithic s ites a re l ocated on p iedmont t erraces b etween t he A pennine foothills a nd the Po plain ( Vaufrey 1 928; C remaschi a nd P eretto 1 977). The tools assemblage d iscovered at these s ites consists o f r are h andaxes a nd many f lakes, tools and cores o f d ebitage l evallois. F rom a typological point o f v iew, t he i ndustry i s a scribed to the l ate A cheulean ( Coltorti et a l. 1 982), ( Fig. 7 .1). I n most cases t he P alaeolithic a rtifacts were collected on the surface o f t he f ields after p loughing a nd t herefore t hey l ack even a s tratigraphical context. R ecent r esearch ( Cremaschi 1 973) developed according to observations already made at t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth century ( Strobel 1 883) has s hown that the P alaeolithic a rtifacts a re actualy contained i n s itu i n t he l oess covering t he p iedmont t erraces and outcrop o nly where the a rchaeological l ayer has b een a ffected by e rosion or deep p loughing. H owever,

s ince

the

l oess

underwent

considerable

weathering during t he l ast i nterglacial period ( Ferrari and Magaldi 1 968; C remaschi 1 978), t he a rchaeological material, especially bones and charcoal o nce a ssociated w ith t he l ithic i ndustry, has b een d estroyed a nd only s tone a rtifacts have b een preserved. U nder t hese conditions, most i nformation on t he activity o f t he P alaeolithic populations a nd t heir r elationships w ith t he e nvironment would appear to have b een definitively l ost. O n the Ghiardo s ite, a n a ttempt has b een made to v erify j ust how much t he i ntegrated u se o f a rchaeological t echniques and palaeo-pedological and geomorphological methods could l ead to t he acquisition of not only s tratigraphical a nd typological d ata about l ithic tools, but a lso o f more specifically palaeo-etnological a nd paleoe nviromental i nformation. To t his purpose t he r elationships b etween t he artifacts, s ediments and paleosols were f irst examined; t he a im was to r econstruct t he environmental conditions p resent when the s ite was f requented a nd to i dentify t he s edimentary and pedological processes which occured a fter abandonment. T hen t he a ttention was concentrated on t he artifacts t hemselves: a s t hey were considered a s s imple c lasts i n a s ediment, o r exposed o n a surface a nd subject to weathering, a nd the e ffects o f t he e nvironmental i mpact on their s urfaces were

8 7

F ig. 7 .1. S ketch map o f t he a rea surrounding G hiardo Upper middle P leistocene moraines; 2 ) P leistocene covered by l oess; 3 ) P alaeolithic s ites.

8 8

s ite. 1 ) t erraces

t ested ( patina, f rost c racking, p olishing). O n t he o ther h and t he l ithic i ndustry h as b een i nvestigated b y s tudying t he t echnical p roducts a nd t he t ools a ssemblage b y m eans o f m icrowear a nd r eduction s equence a nalysis. F urthermore t he d istribution o f t he a rtifacts h as b een t aken i nto a ccount, i n o rder t o r econstruct t he o rganisation o f t he a rchaeological s ite a nd w here p ossible, t o i dentify t he a reas u sed f or s pecific a ctivities. G eomorphology,_palaeopedology_and s tratigraphy. T he G hiardo s ite l ies o n t op o f f ew k ilometres s outh o f t he A pennine

a P leistocene t errace a f oothills ( Fig. 7 .2).

T he t errace consists o f c ontinental d eposits o f t he l ower-middle P leistocene a ge, l ifted b y n eotectonic movements ( Cremaschi a nd P apani 1 975), a nd cut a t t he t op b y a n e rosional s urface which i s a p art o f a w ider g lacis d eveloped i n t he A pennines d uring l ate m iddle P leistocene. T he g lacis, mainly i n t he p iedmont a rea, was covered b y l oess. T he G hiardo a rea was a lready k nown i n t he m iddle o f t he l ast c entury a s a r esult o f t he P alaeolithic f inds c ollected t here ( Degani 1 942), b ut i t was o nly a t t he e nd o f t he s ixties, during t he quarrying o f t he l oess, t hat t he l arge p alaeolithic s ite s tudied h ere was d iscovered. T he t errace w as cut d own t o about two metres t o quarry t he l oess a nd t herefore t he s equence o f pedological h orizons w as exposed. I t i s s chematically d escribed i n T able 7 .1 a nd i n F ig. 7 .3. P edogenetic f eatures a nd t extural a nd c hemical a nalyses i ndicate t hat t he p arent material consists o f t hree d ifferent s tratigraphic u nits: f luvio-lacustrine c lay ( III B 24), r ich i n e xpandible c lay m inerals; l oess 1 ( II B 23, I IB22 a nd I I B 21) a nd l oess 2 ( A2 a nd A p). T he b oundary b etween I II B 24 a nd t he overlying I II B 23 i s e rosional, a nd s hows a v ery u ndulating p attern i n c ross s ection, b ut a ctually i s due t o a lternating hummocks a nd c ircular h ollows ( Fig. 7 .3) which a re p art o f a g ilgai m icro-relief ( Hallsworth 1 955), d eveloped during t he f irst s tage o f w eathering o f l oess 1 . L oess 2 c an b e d istinguished f rom t he u nderlying l oess 1 owing t o i ts h igher content i n u nstable h eavy m inerals, a nd t he l inear b oundary b etween A 2 a nd I T B 21 could b e e rosional ( Cremaschi 1 978). T he I I B 21, I I B 22 a nd I I B 23 h orizons a re t hicker i nside t he h ollows w hereas o n t he hummocks t he I 1B21 a nd I I B 22 a re much t hinner a nd t he T I B 23 may c ompletely d isappear. T he p edogenetic, s edimentary e nd e rosional p hases w hich h ave p layed a r ole i n t he d evelopment o f t he d escribed p rofile, c an b e l isted a s f ollows: a ) e rosion o f t he P leistocene c lay, b ) s edimentation o f l oess 1 , c ) s hrinking a nd s welling i n t he P leistocene c lay a nd d evelopment o f t he g ilgai d ) w eathering o f t he l oess 1 ( leaching o f c arbonates,

8 9

Geo log ic s ketch map

S che mat ic c ross s ect ion

G h iardo s i te •

•

• •••

• •

/1 4 . ••• •• •

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+

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w ig. 7 .2. Geological m ap a nd g eological c ross-section o f t he G hiardo a rea. 1 ) P leistocene t erraces covered b y l oess; 2 ) P leistocene a nd P liocene marine c lay; 3 ) M iocene evaporites; 4 ) A rgilla a P alombini; 5 - 6L P lysch; 7 ) A rgile S cagliose and O fiolite outcrops; 8 ) P alaeolithic s ites; 9 ) P leistocene marine c lay; 1 0) P luviolacustrine P ormation; 1 1) P alexeralf o n g ravels; 1 2) U pper P leistocene d eposits. A rr_, ) ws i ndicate r aw m aterial sources.

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lit ' i l .l1 "1c ,11Ik /l/Il i t :" I II : 11 . 1 11 : 1 . 1 1 . 1 (I 1 0 1 ! , i - 7 1 2::23 1 ) 1l i t it l ' I ' t i llI , f oo ,y , . . . , , , ,, , I

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( 1) G hiardo p rofile; b etween T IT B 24 a nd

9 2

1 , 1 1 1 1

W iY 1 1 1 ,'

( 2) T solines o f t he I T B 23 h orizons.

i nterface

movements o f c lay a nd i ron w ithin t he p rofile a nd d evelopment o f hydromorphic f eatures i n t he I II B 23 h orizon); e ) e rosion, f ) s edimentation o f l oess 2 , g ) p edogenesis i n p oorly d rained e nvironment a nd d evelopment o f t he A 2 p lanosolic h orizon. T hese p hases, owing t o t he l ack o f g eochronometrical d atings c an b e r eferred to t he r egional s tratigraphic context. T he f irst u nit b elongs to t he ' Fluviolacustrine F ormation' ( Cremaschi 1 982) a nd d ates b ack t o l ower-middle P leistocene t imes. L oess 1 i s commonly d ated t o a g lacial p eriod o f l ate m iddle P leistocene a ge ( Riss g lacial period i n A lpine s tratigraphy) ( Ferrari a nd M agaldi 1 968). T he w eathering o f l oess I p robably d ates b ack to t he l ast i nterglacial p eriod, t he e rosion a nd t he s edimentation o f l oess 2 d ates b ack t o t he Würm g lacial p eriod a nd, eventually, p hase g i s due t o postglacial w eathering. S tratigraphical

s etting o f t he palaeolithic

f inds.

Most a rtifacts were f ound a t t he t op o f t he I II B 24 a nd i nside t he I I B 23; o nly f ew f inds w ere c ollected i n t he overlying h orizon. T herefore s tratigraphical evidence s uggests t hat t he P alaeolithic i ndustry l ies o n t he e rosional s urface b etween h orizons I II B 24 a nd I I B 23, a nd i s b uried b y t he l oess 1 . A rtifacts h ave s ystematically f resh edges; s mall movement due t o t he v ertic p roperties o f h orizon, t hey l ie s trictly i n s itu.

apart t he I II

f rom B 24

T he s urfaces o f t he a rtifacts, i n s ome c ases, c an b e a braded b y l oess f riction o r f ractured b y f rost. N ormal, abraded, a nd f ractured s urfaces a re a ll covered b y a r eddish, i ron r ich p atina, due to w eathering p rocesses t hat a ffected l oess 1 . D istribution o f

a rtifacts.

T he l oess e xtraction was c arried o ut d own t o, b ut not b eyond t he b eds o f t he g ilgai. T his l evel was maintained w ith g reat p recision b ecause t he c lay o f t he I II B 24 h orizon w as not s uitable f or t he manufacture o f b ricks: s o t he b uried e rosional s urface a ssociated w ith t he P alaeolithic a rtifacts i n t he f loor o f t he quarry w as exposed, over a n a rea f our h ectares w ide. T he s ite was r epeatedely v isited during t he extraction work a nd a fter e ach r aintall; each f ind was p ositioned w ith r espect t o p reviously e stablished f ixed points. S ome l imited a reas particularly r ich i n f inds, h ave b een s ystematically e xcavated. A fter t his, i n o rder t o r each t he objects which h ad not b een e xtracted d uring t he quarry e xcavation, b ecause t hey w ere l ying i n t he l ower part o f t he h ollow o f t he g ilgai, t he e ntire a rea w as r epeatly p loughed a nd t he a rtifacts w ere mapped. I t i s e stimated t hat b etween 6 0 - 7 0% o f a ll t he l ithic a rtifacts, p resent o n t he s ite, were r ecovered i n

9 3

F ig. R oman

7 .4. a ge

D istribution o f a rtifacts i n t he G hiardo s ite. p its; 2 ) i solines a nd h eight a .s.1.; s ystematically e xcavated a reas.

9 4

1 ) 3 )

t his

way.

A mong t he 4 000 a rtifacts, collected u p to now, t here i s a considerable p revalence o f f lakes and cores, while t ools a re r are. q tone h ammers, a nvils u nused b locks o f r aw material and l arge s tones, c ertainly t ransported b y men i n t he s ite, have b een a lso f ound. T he o ccurrence o f s everal h earth a reas i s t estified b y a rtifacts w ith t hermal d etachments. T he collected i tems d o n ot h ave a u niform d istribution, but a re concentrated o n a s light r ise d elimited b y two s mall d epressions ( Fig. 7 .4). H owever t he concentrations of a rtifacts were n ot due to n atural t ransport, which would have concentrated t he o bjects i n t he d epressions, not o n t he r ise, b ut o n t he contrary, r eflect t he o rganisation o f t he s ite a nd t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement. O ne o f t he c oncentrations was s ystematically e xcavated ( Fig. 7 .5). T he a rtifacts were exactly d istributed on t he i nterface b etween I II B 24 a nd I I 6 23. T he s urface, o riginally f lat, was s trongly d isturbed b y v ertic movements o f c lay which g ave r ise to g ilgai. H owever a c lear concentration of a rtifacts o ccurs i n the northern s ide o f t he e xcavation, where s everal f lakes w ith f ire d amage, a small f ragment of burnt b one a nd some c harcoal ( preserved b ecause t hey were e nclosed i n F e - Mn concretions), w ere found; a number of b roken s andstone p ebbles a nd tools were a lso d iscovered n ear t hese burnt f ragments which t estify t o t he presence of a n h earth. R eduction

s equence

a nd m icrowear

a nal mis.

T he l ithic a nalysis o f t he G hiardo a ssemblage was d eveloped to a nswer questions about t he a ctual b ehaviour o f t he i nhabitants, particularly r egarding t he p rocurement a nd management o f r aw m aterials f or tools a nd f ood. W e w ished to d iscover t he r ange o f e conomic a ctivities o f t he p eople c amping a t G hiardo and t he t echnological p rocesses i nvolved t o a chieve t hese e nds. Two types o f a nalysis a re b eing u sed t o explore t hese a ctivities a nd p rocesses: m icrowear a nalysis a nd r eduction s equence analysis. T he r eduction sequence a nalysis o f t he l ithic waste r elies mainly o n s ize r elated v ariables. T he s ize a ttributes o f d imensions a nd weight h ave b een s hown i n numerous s tudies t o b e s ensitive i ndicators o f t he progressive s tages o f l ithic r eduction. I n a g eneral way, t he s ize o f f lakes b ecomes s maller a s r eduction o f cores p rocedes. F or t he G hiardo a rtifacts, l ength, width, and weight were r ecorded a long w ith s everal o ther v ariables which provide s omewhat r edundant i nformation. R edundant d ata was considered a dvantageous a s a m ethod o f v erifying a ny p atterns f ound i n t he s izes o f a rtifacts. T he a dditional a ttributes i ncluded p latform c haracteristics, amount o f cortex, a nd d orsal s car count. W ith e ach s uccessive s tage o f core r eduction, p latforms b ecome more complex and t he number o f n egative

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96

d orsal f lake s cars i ncreases. T he number o f a rtifacts c ortex a nd t he amount o f c ortex p resent h elps t o p in t he f irst s tage o f core p reparation.

w ith d own

A ll s tages o f l ithic r eduction a re p resent a t G hiardo, f rom f irst s tage f lakes s truck t o r emove t he cortesx f rom l umps o f r aw material, t o f ine, s mall f inishing f lakes. I t i s not y et c lear i f t his i s t rue f or a ll t he types o f r aw m aterial f ound a t t he s ite. S ome types a re k nown to h ave c ome f rom d istant s ources, none o f which o ccur o n t he s ite i tself, s o t he p ossibility e xists t hat s ome c ore p reparation was d one e lsewhere. T he f act t hat a ll s tages o f l ithic t echnology were p erformed i n t he s ite, f rom f irst f lakes to f inal tool s haping, s uggests t hat G hiardo w as a c amp o f s ome p ermanence, r ather t han a n overnight s top o r t emporary h unting c amp. B ecause a ll a rtifacts h ave b een mapped i n p lace, i t w ill b e possible t o i solate a pparent concentrations o n t he s ite i n o rder t o c heck i nternal p atterns o f core r eduction. T his i s e specially i mportant b ecause o f G hiado's s ize. T here a re s ome i nitial o bservations about t he a reas o f a rtifact concentrations. T ools a nd expanded c ores s eem t o o ccur n ear t he e ntre o f t he c oncentrations. L ikewise, t he p roportion of c asually u sed p ieces d ecreases f rom t he c entre t o t he edges o f a c oncentration. O n t he o ther h and, t he p roportion o f f irst s tage, core p reparation f lakes s eems to i ncrease away f rom t he c entre. M icrowear s tudy i s p roceeding i n s everal s tages. D uring t he a nalysis a nd r ecording o f a rtifact a ttributes, each p iece h as b een e xamined u nder l ow magnification f or t races o f u se t hrough c hipping a nd abrasion. B ecause t he G hiardo a rtifacts s uffered l ittle p ost d epositional d isturbance, t here i s l ittle r isk t hat d amage could have b een c aused b y n on-human a gencies. A ll a pparent u se-wear h as b een d escribed b y c haracter a nd l ocation. A ll t hese p ieces a re n ow b eing e xamined b y h igh p ower m icroscope t echniques f or evidence o f w ear polish. S ome p reliminary i dentifications o f u se a re s hown i n P ig. 7 .6-7.7. A n u nmodified f lake o f f airly coarse g rained c hert i s s hown i n P ig. 7 .6 a long w ith two m icrographs s howing a polish t entatively i dentified a s a nimal s kin. T his i s a r ather b right a nd well d eveloped polish h aving a m att s urface w ith c ircular p its o ften f ound o n a nimal h ide polish. I n F ig. 7 .7, a f lake o f f ine g rained, s ilicified s iltstone i s s hown w hich h as s ome f ine r etouch a t t he t ip. T he p olish f ound a t t he t ip o f t his p iece i s s hown i n t he m icrograph. T his polish i s b right, s mooth, a nd h ighly r eflective. I t i s not w ell d eveloped o r e xtensive, b ut i s i s t entatively i dentified a s wood p olish. A pproximatively 4 00 p ieces h ave b een s et a side f or h igh p ower m icro-wear a nalysis. T hese i nclude a ll f ormally s haped t ools a nd a ll p ieces w ith d amage v isible a t l ow

9 7

-CK 4 1 11 1 1 1 1

Plate 7 .1. a ) U nmodified f lake o f coarse g rained c hert. T he d istribution o f v isible d amage a nd m icropolish i s i ndicated b y t he b lack l ine; b ) edge a t 1 00 X ; c ) edge a t 2 00 X . 9 8

magnification. T here a re only 4 2 f ormal t ools i n t he s ample. T his v ery l ow p roportion o f s haped t ools d ramatizes t he f act t hat t his p articular m iddle P leistocene t echnology r elied p rimarly o n i nformal t ools. P robably t he most common t ool u se p attern was t he s election a nd u se o f unmodified f lakes. T his o f course confers a d istinct a dvantage f or a m icrowear a nalysis b ecause most u sed a rtifacts w ill h ave f unctioned i n o nly o ne a ctivity b efore d iscard. A nother a dvantage i s t hat most t ools were p robably d ropped v ery c losed t o t he p hysical l ocation o f t he t ask. T his s hould improve t he c hances o f p inpointing a ctivity a reas. A lthough t he s tudy i s not c omplete, w e a re r easonably a ssured o f s uccess. T he d ominant r aw material a t G hiardo i s a s ilicified s iltstone w hich d id d evelop a nd p reserve m icropolish. M ost o f t he o ther r aw materials i n u se t here h ave not b een f ound t o b e u seful f or t his s tudy, b ut t hose constitute a s mall p roportion o f t he a rtifact s ample. M any a rtifacts e xamined s o f ar s how d efinite u se p olish. A s m ight b e expected w ith a v ery c asual tool u se t echnology, t he p olishes a re not o ften well d eveloped. A p rogramme i s now u nderway t o i mprove t he r eliability o f i dentification b y c rosschecks, b lind t ests, a nd c orrelation w ith v arious a rtifacts c haracteristics s uch a s s ize, s hape, a nd edge a ngle. T he

s ources o f t he r aw material.

T he r ocks u sed i n t he G hiardo i ndustry a re c herty s iltstones, a nd, to a l esser extent, quarzites, j asper, c hert a nd c herty l imestone. A ll t hese r ocks come f rom t he A pennine g eological u nits, mainly f rom F lysch a nd A rgilla a P alombini ( Fig. 7 .2). I n most c ases cores was f ormed f rom l arge p ebbles not p resent i n t he v icinity o f t he G hiardo; t hey were c ollected i n l ower P leistocene g ravels, o utcropping o n t he f oothills 4 .6 k m. s outh o f t he s ite. I n o ther c ases t here i s evidence t hat t he r aw material h as b een collected f urther i nside t he A pennine c hain: f or i nstance t he s ource o f a h ammer s tone, made o f a c haracteristic g ranite, i s l ocated 1 5 k m. to t he s outh. T he p resence o f P alaeolithic h unters i n t he c entral montane a reas i s f urther confirmed b y t he d iscovery o f p alaeo-lithic a rtifacts, s imilar t o t hose f rom G hiardo, o n p aleosurfaces covered b y l oess, c lose t o t he r aw material s ources ( Bernini e t a l. 1 979 ) . C oncluding r emarks. T he i nvestigations c arried o ut u p t o n ow i n t he G hiardo P alaeolithic s ite h ave p rovided s ignificant i nformation o n t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement, t he a ctivities a nd t he surrounding e nvironment. T he

a rchaeological

material

9 9

h as

b een a ffected

b y

poor

a

P late 7 .2. a ) F lake o f modification a nd polish

s ilicified s ilstone. D istribution of i ndicated b y t he b lack l ine; b ) edge a t 2 00 X .

1 00

postdepositional r eworking. E ach concentration o f s tone a rtif acts corresponds t o a rea o f multiple a ctivities, s ites o f s tone manifacturing, h earths a nd p robably coincide w ith t he r emains o f dwelling s tructures. T he t ools a nd t he o ther f lakes w ith a brasion o r d amages due to u se t estify s pecific a ctivities t hat t he a dvancing m icrowear a nalysis w ill b etter d efine. T he f act t hat a ll t he s tages o f l itho t echnique a re r epresented i n s itu, t he abundance o f f inds a nd t he g eomorphological p osition s uggest t hat t he G hiardo was not a c amp u sed s poradically a nd f or s hort s tays, but r ather a b ase c amp. A t t he p resent moment i t i s n ot possible t o evaluate w hether t he concentrations o f a rtifacts were d eposited a t t he s ame t ime o r correspond to s everal phases o f f requentation. A nyway t hese w ere not s eparated b y l ong t ime i ntervals, b ecause t he P alaeolithic p resence a t t he G hiardo s ite, f rom a s tratigraphical p oint o f v iew, s tands i nside a u nique a nd well d efined p hase. T he c amp was s et o n a e rosional s urface where a ctive f rost c racking o ccurred a nd t he l oess s tarted to b e d eposited. T he e nvironmental conditions were cold a nd must b e r eferred t o a g lacial period ( possibily R iss i n t he A lpine s tratigraphy). T he s urrounding l andscape c an b e l ikely i magined a s s teppe o r p rairie w ith s cattered t rees. D uring t his p hase a C oniferae f orest was p resent towards t he p lain ( Bertolani M archetti 1 969) while t he s teppe a nd t he t undra d eveloped f or a l ong d istance i nside t he mountain c hain, b ecause t he g laciers were l imited t o t he t opmost a rea o f t he A pennines ( Mancini 1 962). T he e nvironmental condit ions were h ere f avourable t o t he b ig mammals, t hat r epresented t he p referred p reys o f t he P alaeolithic h unters. T herefore i t i s possible t hat t he G hiardo i nhabitants f requented t he c entral montane not o nly f or collecting r aw material, b ut a lso f or h unting purposes. T he abandonment o f t he G hiardo s ite t ook p lace when t he l oess s edimentation i ncreased, p robably when t he c limatic c onditions got worse a nd p roduced a w idening o f t he p en g lacial a rea.

A cknowledgements T he r esearch a nd t he a rchaeological e xcavation were p romoted b y t he C ivici Musei d i R eggio E milia. G eological p alaeo-pedological a nd a rchaeological r esearches a re due t o M . C remaschi, s equence a nd m icrowear a nalyses to C . C hristopher. T hanks a re due t o p rof. G . O rombelli, D ipartimento d i S cienze d ella t erra - M ilano, f or r eading t he

1 01

manuscript a nd o ffering h elpful

s uggestions.

B ibliography B ernini,

M ., C remaschi, M . a nd T ellini, C . 1 980. L a p aleosuperficie d i S elvapiana ( Appennino r eggiano). A spetti g eomorfologici e paleopedologici. I n I stituto d i G eologia e P aleontologia d ella U niversitä d i P arma, V olume d edicato a S . V enzo. P arma, 8 1-95.

B ertolani M archetti, D . 1 969. p ianura p adano-veneta. adriatica 8 , 6 9-77.

C limax e p aleoclimax d ella M emorie d i b iogeografia

Coltorti, M ., C remaschi, M ., P eretto, C . a nd S ala, B . 1 982. 1 1 p aleolitico i nferiore i n L ombardia, n el V eneto, i n E milia e n elle M arche. I n A tti d ella XXIII R iunione s cientifica. I i P aleolitico i nferiore i n I talia. F irenze, I stituto I taliano d i P reistoria e P rotostoria 1 34-146. C remaschi, M . 1 973. D eposito p aleolitico a C a B edogni, i n l ocalita G hiardo ( Reggio E .). A nnali d ell'Universitä d i F errara 1 5, ( 2, 4 ), 1 95-215. C remaschi, M . 1 978. U nita l itostratigrafiche e p edostrat igrafiche n ei t erreni quaternari pedeappenninici; l oess e p aleosuoli t ra i i f iume T aro ed i l t orrente S illaro. G eografia F isica e D inamica Quaternaria 1 , 4 -22. C remaschi, M . 1 982. L a f ormazione f luviolacustre d el P leistoc ene i nferiore-medio n el p edeappennino emiliano. I n R icci L ucchi, F . ( ed.), G uida a lla G eologia d el margine a ppennino-padano. ( Guida G eologica R egionale d ella S ocieta G eologica I taliana) B ologna, 1 45-149. C remaschi, M . a nd P apani, G . 1 975. C ontributo p reliminare a lla n eotettonica d el margine p adano d ell'Appennino. L e f orme t errazzate comprese f ra C avriago e Quattro C astella. A teneo P armense - A cta N aturalia 1 1, 3 353 71. C remaschi, M . a nd P eretto, C . 1 977. I l d ell' Emilia e R omagna. F irenze, I stituto P reistoria e P rotostoria. F irenze, 1 5-78.

P aleolitico I taliano d i

D egani,

M . 1 942. C ontributo a d u na p iü e satta t opografia d el Musteriano n ella provincia d i R eggio n ell'Emilia. A rchivio per l a A ntropologia e l 'Etnologia 7 2, 2 262 34.

F errari,

G . a nd M agaldi, D . 1 968. I paleosuoli ed i l l oro s ignificato. A teneo N aturalia 4 , 5 7-92.

1 02

d i C ollecchio P armense-Acta

H allsworth, E .G., Robertson, G .K. a nd G ibbons, P .R. 1 955. S tudies i n p edogenesis i n N ew S outh W ales, v ol. 7 . T he ' gilgai' s oils. J ournal o f S oil S cience 6 ( 1), 1 -31. M ancini,

F . 1 962. L e v ariazioni c limatiche i n I talia d alla f ine d el R iss a ll' Olocene ( tentativo d i o rientamento c ronologico). B ollettino d ella S ocietä G eologica I taliana 8 1, 2 21-248.

S trobel,

P . 1 883. O ggetti d i p armigiano. B ullettino d i 1 13-115.

V aufrey,

R . 1 928. l 'Institut P aris.

L e d e

s ilice macrolitici P reistoria I taliana

P aleolithique i talien. P aleontologie H umaine,

d el 9 ,

( Archive d e M emoire I II)

S ummary G hiardo i s a v ery l arge l ower P aleolithic s ite l ocated o n t he A pennine b order o f t he P o p lain i n northern I taly. T he s ite l ies o n a e rosional s urface covered b y a l oess w hich c an b e r eferred t o t he l ate middle P leistocene. D etailed p edological a nd g eomorphological r esearches h as b een conducted t o i nterpret t he s tratigraphy a nd t he p aleoenvironement o f t he s ite. A pproximately 4 ,000 a rtifacts ( flaked s tones, h ammer s tones a nd a nvils) h ave b een r ecovered f rom G hiardo, a ll o f w hich h ave b een numbered a nd mapped i n s itu. A rchaeological r esearch, s till i n p rogress, i ncludes h igh magnification m icrowear a nalysis, core r eduction a nalysis. T hat s tudies a re b eing u sed to i nterpret t he s ignificance o f concentrations o f a rtifacts f ound o n t he s ite. P reliminary d ata s uggest t he concentrations r epresent a ctivity a reas s urrounded b y z ones o f l ithic waste. T hermal d etachments f rom s ome a rtifacts i ndicate t he p resence o f h earths. T he s ources o f s ome l ithic r aw m aterial f ound o n t he s ite a re s ome 1 5 km. i nto t he i nterior o f t he A pennines, g iving s ome i ndication o f t he t erritorial r ange o f t he G hiardo h unters. T he p resent i nterpretation o f t he g eological evidence i ndicates p eriglacial e nvironment. T he s ettlement w as abandoned concommitantly w ith t he o nslaught o f l oess d eposition w hich was p robably c aused b y a d eterioration o f c limate.

R iassunto I l G hiardo é u n s ito d i v asta e stensione, r isalente a l P aleolitico i nferiore, ubicato a l margine a ppenninico d ella p ianura p adana. I l s ito appoggia s u d i u na s uperficie d i e rosione, s epolta d a l oess, r isalente a l P leistocene medio. A l

f ine d i

i nterpretare

l a

1 03

s tratigrafia e l a

s ituazione

p aleoambientale d el s ito s ono s tate condotte d ettagliate r icerche g eomorfologiche e p edologiche. I materiali a rcheologici r accolti constano d i 4 000 o ggetti c irca ( manufatti i n p ietra s cheggiata, martelli ed i ncudini). G li s tudi a rcheologici, t uttora i n corso, consistono p rincipalmente n ella a nalisi d elle f asi d i r iduzione d ei nuclei e n ello s tudio d elle t racce d 'usura. L 'insieme d i questi s tudi é f inalizzato a ll'interpretazione d elle con c entrazioni i n cui i manufatti S i r aggruppano. I d ati c he s i possiedono s uggeriscono c he queste r appresentino a ree d 'attivitä é d i l avorazione d ella s elce. A lcuni manufatti o ffesi d al f uoco, i n e sse contenuti, d enunciano l a p resenza d i f ocolari. L a f onte d elle r occe u tilizzate n ella l itotecnica, c he s i t rova t alvolta n ella media montagna, s uggerisce u na i dea approssimata d el t erritorio f requentato d ai c acciatori d el G hiardo. S ulla b ase d ei d ati g eologici, l 'ambiente c he c ircondava l 'insediamento d el G hiardo d oveva avere c arattere periglaciale. L 'abbandono d el s ito c oincide con l 'aumentare d ella s edimentazione e olica, p robabilmente c ausata d a u n i nasprimento d el c lima.

1 04

8 .

THE

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Mauro

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I ntroduction T he archaeological excavations c arried out b y t he S oprintendenza a i B eni C ulturali delle P rovincia d i B olzano i n t he l ast f ew years have a llowed u se to enrich our present k nowledge of t he h istory of s ettlement i n t he area a nd t o i dentify previously undocumented episodes i n i ts h istory. T he geological r esearch c arried out at t he s ame t ime has a llowed u s t o document t he a lternation o f cultural and natural s ediments. I t was a lso s een t hat t he l argest quantity o f material was f ound where t he s lope behind t he s ettlement was i n s ome way more vulnerable t o degradation processes. During a more detailed a nalysis, however, i t was s een h ow processes of erosion r ecur f requently i n certain periods, while t hey are a lmost a bsent during others. T he choice of t he s ites studied was not s elective; t he l argest number of deposits possible were examined, usually d iscovered during r escue a nd s alvage excavations a nd therefore d istributed at r andom t hroughout t he t erritory of t he P rovince. S uch a method made it possible, i n t he various s ites, to r esearch i nto s imilar processes r ecurring during well defined periods. T he r esearch c arried out parallel to the examination of c ultural material was orientated t owards t he u nderstanding o f t he environmental context w ithin which t he s ite was s ituated i n order t o evaluate t he g eomorphological processes. A nalysis o f t he sediments was also conducted i n order t o u nderstand t he depositional mechanism a nd r outine chemical analyses were c arried out upon t he s oils i n order to evaluate the pedogenetic processes. I n t his paper s ections o f t he deposits quoted i n t he t ext a re i llustrated but, due t o t he l imited amount of s pace, only two g eomorphological maps h ave b een drawn u p, r egarding t he a reas of S . F loriano a nd Vadena. T hese are t he two s ections of greater i nterest i n r elation t o t he a ims o f t his r esearch project a nd, furthermore, s how t he t ype of approach u sed i n t he r econstruction o f t he paleoenvironment. T he a uthors a re aware of t he fact t hat t he data concerning t he s tratification r efer, i n many c ases, t o s pecific s ituations a nd r emain v alid f or r elatively l imited areas of t he s lope e xamined, f urthermore, they do not exclude t he possibility o f f inding variations of t he t rend s ingled out b y t his work i n other p arts of t he r egion. T he f act t hat i t may be applied t o a ll t he prehistoric a nd h istoric s ites l ocated t o d ate e ncouraged u s t o s tate t his model which, based on present k nowledge, appears

t o

be

generally

applicable.

1 05

G eographical

S etting

T he A dige R iver i s o ne o f t he main watercourses o f t he P adana V alley a nd, a long w ith t he P o R iver a nd i ts own t ributaries, makes u p o ne o f t he b iggest d rainage b asins i n t he W estern A lpine A rc. C onsequently t he A dige v alley i s a n i mportant c ommunications r oute l inking t o P o v alley t o C entral E urope. I ts p hysiographic c haracteristics a re s imilar t o t hose o f other A lpine v alleys w ith a r iver d eeply e mbedded i n a v alley o nly a f ew k ilometres, w ide w ith t he s urrounding r elief r eaching 2 -3000 m . T he v alley i s o f g lacial o rigin a nd i n t he h igher t racts t here a re s addles a nd d iversions; l ower t erraces, h anging v alleys, g lacial a nd f luvioglacial d eposits c an b e f ound e verywhere. T he masses o f i ce r eached a t hickness o f 2 -3000 m . during t he l ast p leni-glacial a nd b y m eans o f powerful t ongues which o ccupied t he main v alley l ines, r eached t he P o p lain c reating massive a rches o f t erminal moraine ( Venze 1 968a; 1 968b). A s a r esult o f e rosional processses t he A dige V alley w as d eepened i n s everal p laces b y more t han 2 00 m . b elow t he l evel o f t he c urrent p lain; t his d ifference i n l evel w as f illed b y f luvial a nd l acustrine s ediments d eposited a fter t he r etreat o f t he v alley g lacier. O n t he v alley walls, no l onger s ubjected t o g lacial c ompression, mass movements t ook p lace, s ome o f l arge d imensions, t he r emains o f w hich h ave a lso b een l ocated i n t he a reas c oncerning t he work i n question. F ollowing t he progressive e stablishment o f v egetation ( Sala 1 977; S eiwald 1 980), r unning w ater b ecame p rogressively more c hannelised, d epositing t he e roded material o nto t he v alley f loor, t he g radient o f which v aried s harply t hus permitting a longside t he f ormation o f e xtensive f ans, t he a ggradation o f t he p lain i tself. T he b raided p attern t ypical o f f luvioglaical p lains was s ubstituted b y a meander-form o ne. A s imilar p attern i s i n f act d ocumented b y v arious b ore h oles, a nd b y t he t races o f a bandoned meanders a nd b ackswamps which may b e f ound o n t he s ides o f t he present t alweg d elimited b y a rtificial d ikes. B efore t hey w ere b uilt t he e nvironment was c ertainly l ess f avourable t o human s ettlement a nd a griculture a s f loods were a c ontinual h azard a nd o nly l imited areas c ould b e u sed f or a griculture a nd g razing. T he most a ncient s ettlements o f t he A dige v alley w ere t he l ate g lacial d etritic t alus ( Broglio 1 973; B artolomei 1 974). F rom e arly N eolithic t imes, s imilar t o t he ' Gaban g roup', t o t he ' Square Mouthed P ottery C ulture' a nd t o t he ' Beaker C ulture' t he s poradic d eposists a re a lways l ocated o n t erraces o n v alley s ides, o r o n h ill t ops a nd r idges a nd i n r ock s helters. During t he e arly a nd m iddle B ronze A ge t he s ettlements were a lmost a lways l ocated o n h illtops a nd only during t he l ate a nd f inal B ronze A ge d id man s ettle n ear t he v alley f loors o n f ans o r o n l ow g radient s lopes. D uring t he I ron A ge, which l asted i n t his r egion u p u ntil 1 5 B .C., man c ontinued t o f requent t he v alley s ides a nd f loors w idely while t he occupation o f h ills, f or s tratigraphic r easons, s eems t o b e s poradic. D uring R oman t imes t he w idespread o ccupation o f t he most f avourable a reas t ook p lace o n t he

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v alley f loor o r e lsewhere. O nly i n l ate R oman t imes d id t he n eed f or d efence e ncourage t he o ccupation o f h illtops o n which, during medieval t imes ( mostly s ince t he 1 2th c entury) c astles were e rected. T he i ntense h uman o ccupation o f t he v alley f loor i s t herefore a r elatively r ecent p henomenon. T he p rogressive g rowth o f M an's c ontrol over h is e nvironment, which a lso c ame a bout t hrough t he c onstruction o f e nbankments, c onsiderably f reed h im f rom t he c ontinual d anger f rom n atural e vents a nd, a longside t he h istorical e vents, l ed t o t he p resent d ay c omposition o f t he t erritory. T he s ites e xamined a re l ocated i n t he A dige v alley a nd I sarco v alley, t he l atter b eing a l eft t ributary f lowing i nto t he A dige a t B olzano a nd w ill b e i llustrated f rom s outh t o n orth ( Fig. 8 .1). THE A DIGE VALLEY S .

F loriano

T he s ettlement i s l ocated n ear t he v alley f loor o f t he R iver A dige a t 2 30 m . a .s.1., ( Fig. 8 .2) n ear L aghetti-Laag, d ownstream f rom t he c hurch o f S . F loriano f rom which t he s ite t akes i ts n ame. A t t his p oint t he v alley i s l ittle wider t han 2 km. a nd t he r elief o n e ither s ide e xceeds 1 500-1600 m . a .s.l. ( La Madrutta, M . P rato d el R e-Konigswiese, e tc.). O n t he a lluvial p lain a djacent t o t he present c analised c ourse t here a re t races o f a ncient m eanders. T he s harp i ntersection w ith t he s lope i s a t estimony t o t he p ast i mportance o f t he l ateral m igration o f t he A dige. N ear t he s ite n umerous c oalescent f ans a re t o b e f ound, whose o rigins l ie i n i ncision i nto t he r ock a nd t he s lope d etritus. T he l atter c onstitutes t he r emains o f a ncient f ans, t he s ummits o f w hich e ven r eached notable h eights o n t he t alweg. T he g ullies which g ave b irth t o t he f ans a re s till a ctive a nd a t t heir b ase t here a re l imited a reas which a re s ubject t o f looding, while a t t he h eads c reep movement c an b e o bserved. T he r ock i nto which t he g ullies c ut i s made u p o f l andslide materials. T he o riginal s tratification, g enerally p reserved b y mass movement, h as a t c ertain p oints b een c ompletely obliterated a nd b locks o f l imestome, s ome more t han 1 0 m . i n d iameter emerge i n a d isjointed f ashion f rom t he s urface. T he main c rown, a l ittle u pslope a t a h eight o f 1 050 m . a .s.1, i s marked a t t he b ase b y a n e longated t rench w ith b locks o f c onsiderable d imensions d eposited i n a h aphazard manner a nd s ometimes d etritus o f f all o rigin c overing t he u pslope parts o f t hese s mall d epresions. T he f ront, a lthough b uried b y s ubsequent s ediments i s o ver 2 km. l ong extending f rom ' Il C onvento' t o ' Maso G iradi'. T he e ffects o f t his h uge l andslide may a lso b e s een a round t he s ummit o f t he r elief w here detached f ractures a nd m inor e scarpments a re p resent, w ith a b lock f ield a t t he b ase. T he p resence o f n umerous c oalescent f ans a t t he f oot o f t he s lope, a bove w hich t he s equence h as b een l ocated, i s t herefore t o b e a ttributed t o a l arge e xtent, t o t he r apid d egradation t o which b oth t he

1 07

F ig. 8 .1. L ocation map. 1 ) Mezzocorona 2 )S.Floriano 3 )S. P ietro 4 ) Vadena 5 ) Laives 6 )Gries 7 )S. Maurizio 8 ) Terlano 9 ) Aica d i F id 1 0)Barbiano 1 1)Velturno 1 2)Castelbello.

1 08

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K ey t o F ig. 8 .2. 1 ) a lluvial p lain deposits; 2 ) a lluvial f an d eposits; 3 ) l andslide b lockheaps; 4 ) t alus h eap; 5 ) g lacial a nd f luviog lacial d eposits; 6 ) D olmia P rincipale ( Retico); 7 ) R aibliano ( Carnice S uperiore); 8 ) D olomites ( Carnice-Ladinice); 9 ) D olomia d el S erla ( Middle-Upper A nisico); 1 0) R ichtofen c onglomerate ( Anisico); 1 1) W erfeniane; 1 2) I gnimbriti r iolitiche ( Permian p .p.); 1 3) E dge o f e rosion s carp; 1 4)edge o f e rosion s carp c onditioned b y s tructure; 1 5) e dge o f f luvio-glacial t errace; 1 6) r ockfall c rown; 1 7) t ension f ractures c onnected w ith l andslide b lockheaps; 1 8) p alaeochannel; 1 9) a lluvial f ans; 2 0) a ctive gullies; 2 1)nona ctive g ullies.

l andslide material a nd t he s lope d etritus a re s ubject, t he l atter a rising t o a c onsiderable e xtent a t t he e xpense o f t he f ormer. S pread o n t he a djacent s lopes, u naffected b y t he l andslide, a re t erraces o f g lacial o rigin o r moraine w hich i ndicate h ow t his p henomenon i s probably l inked t o d ecompressional f orces i n a ction a fter t he r etreat o f t he v alley g lacier. A t t he b ase o f t he s equence a re o utcrops o f p ebbly-sandy materials o n t he t ip o f which s poradic evidence h as b een f ound w hich may b e a ttributed t o t he I ron A ge ( Fig. 8 .3: l ayers 1 0-11). T hey a re f ollowed b y a n early I mperial R oman l ayer ( tile s tamp A URESIS, 1 st c entury A .D., l ayer 9 ) p robably i ndicating, i n t he i mmediate v icinity, t he p resence o f a b uilding o f c onsiderable a rchitectural i mportance ( villa). T hese r emains w ere l ater u sed a s a s ource o f b uilding material f or c onstructions o f a modest t echnical s tandard ( dated b y a f ibula o f C restqulta-Gurina t ype, 5 th6 th c entury A .D.: l ayer 8 -7). t he l ayers which a ccumulated f rom t he 1 st c entury A .D. t o t he D ark A ges r each a t hickness o f j ust 9 0 cm. a nd among t hese t here a re n o materials f rom t he s lope, t hus t estifying t o i ts r elative s tability, w hether d ue t o w orks b y man o r t o progressive r eafforestation. A fter t he 6 th c entury A .D. a t hin l ayer o f s olifluction i s p resent ( layer 6 ) which was t hen s tabilised b y t he d evelopment o f a s oil w ith woodland v egetation, a s i s t estified b y n umerous t races o f t ree s tumps a t t he b ase o f t he profile ( layer 5 ). A t t he t op o f t his l ayer s poradic 1 2th c entury m aterials c onstitute a p ostquem p oint o f r eference t o t he d egradation o f t he v egetational c over. A t f irst d istal s andy s ediments w ere d eposited u pon t he s ite ( layer 4 ), t hen s everal metres o f h eterogeneous fan material ( layer 3 ) t estifying t o i mportant mass movement. T he s ame m aterials c over t he p art u pslope a nd t he a rea a round t he s ides o f h e C hurch of S . F loriano ( 12th-13th c entury A .D.) f or s everal m etres; i n o rder t o c ontinue u sing t he c hurch, t he d oor a nd p art o f t he f loor were r econstructed. I n t he s equence e xamined t here w ere, i n a ddition, i n t he u pper p art, two l ayers ( layer 2 ) s howing a gricultural i mprovement w orks c arried o ut i n o rder t o a id t he c ultivation o f

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1 10

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F ig. 8 .3. S . Floriano s ection: 1A-11 3) p loughed horizon; 2 ) d rainage d itch; 3 ) a lluvial deposits; 4 ) weathered a lluvial deposits; 5 ) colluvial s oils; 6 ) s olifluction deposits; 7A) M edieval ( 5th-6th c ent. A .D.); 8 ) R oman ( 3rd c ent. A .D.); 9 ) r edeposited cultural material; 1 0) colluvial s oil; 1 1) a lluvial s ediments.

1 11

Vadena-Pfatten T he s ettlement i s l ocated o n t he r ight o f t he r iver A dige at ' Maso S tadio-Stadlhof', o n t he d istal p art o f a s mall f an w hich c omes f rom a s mall v alley t hat i ntersects t he s lope a t N ovale a l Varco-Kreitsattel ( Fig. 8 .4). H ere a modest s addle i nterrupts t he c ontinuity o f t he r idge w hich i s c omposed o f t he ' Artesino Vulcanic C omplex' r ocks ( Permian). T he r idge s eparates t he A dige v alley f rom t he C aldaro-Appiano v alley which i s a n a ncient v alley o f t he A dige, a nd was c ompletely f illed w ith moraine a nd f luvioglacial s ediments d uring a p eriod o f g lacial r etreat ( Castiglioni 1 973). T he N ovale a l Varco s addle i s a lso c ompletely f illed b y g ravelly a nd s andy f luvioglacial materials a nd b ears w itness t o t he d ivergence o f t he v alley g laciers t hat o ccupied t he a forementioned v alleys ( Castiglioni 1 973). D uring t he r etreat i t i s p robable t hat dead i ce was p reserved i n t he s addle, o n t op o f w hich preglacial s treams d eposited s everal metres o f s and w ith p ebbly l enses which, a fter t he i ce m elted, s loped s harply t oward t he c entre o f t he s mall v alley c reating c ollapse s tructures a nd c onvolutions. G lacial materials a nd t races o f g lacial moulding a re, a t a ny r ate p reserved a long t he w hole o f t his watershed, f rom t he l akes o f M onticolo-Montiggl w hich a re l ocated w ithin g lacially d ivergent v alleys, t o t he s ummit o f t he r elief a t C astelchiaro-Leuchtemburg ( 576 m .) a nd D enti d i C avallo-Rosszähne ( 608 m .). A long t hese r idges t here a re n umerous s mall r ectilinear v alleys, r unning parallel t o t he s lope. T heir s ides a re d elimited b y f ractures a nd t here a re s ometimes g lacial materials i n t hem. T hese h ave b een a ttributed t o d etachment f ractures i n t he s lope h aving t heir o rigin during a nd a fter t he r etreat o f t he g lacier. A s c onfirmation o f t his h ypothesis, g igantic mass movement i s a lso present, a s i n t he c ase o f t he S . F loriano, o n t he s ide o f t he r idge, o n t he e astern s lope o f D enti d i C avallo. T he s lopes which s eparate t he r elief f rom t he v alley f loor a re g enerarally c overed i n d etritus t alus a nd f ans. O nly s poradically, due t o t he a bsence o f extensive d rainage b asins, a re a lluvial f ans p resent, g enerally s mall i n s ize. T he origin o f t he M aso S tadio-Stadlhof F an l ies i n t he p resence o f t he a forementioned more easily d egradable s andy f luvioglacial s ediments i n t he Novale a l V arco s addle. A t present t he s lopes o f t he s mall v alley a re c overed i n v egetation a nd t he p rocesses o f e rosion have b een h alted f or s ome t ime; h owever, t he t races o f a ncient g ullies, w hich g ave t he l eft s lope o f t he s ite a n a lmost b adlands a ppearance a re s ill r ecognizable. T he r iver p lain a t t his p oint i s more t han 2 km. w ide, a nd h ere a lso, t races o f meanders p revious t o t he c analation o f t he A dige a re r ecognizable. D uring t he f loods o f 1 966, Maso S tadio was r eached b y t he f loodwaters a nd t he l ower p arts o f t he h ouses w ere i nundated. T he s tratigraphy o f Vadena i s o ne o f t he most c omplex o f t he r egion d emonstrated i n more t han 7 m . o f t hickness a n a lmost c ontinuous a lternation o f l ayers o f s ettlements w ith t hose o f a lluvial d eposits ( Fig. 8 .5). A b ore h ole, which was p ushed d own t o more t han 1 2 m . f rom t he s urface a t a p oint n ear t he f lood p lain, b rought t o l ight, s urface s ands a nd muds w ith i ntervening p eaty s trata w hich mark t he p ast e xtent

1 12

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K ey t o F ig. 8 .4. 1 ) a lluvial p lain d eposits; 2 ) a lluvial f an d eposits; 3 ) l andslide b lock h eap; 4 ) t alus h eap; 5 ) g lacial a nd f luvial deposits; 6 ) s ubstrata; 7 ) e dge o f s carp ( < m 2 5); 8 ) e dge o f s carp ( >m 2 5); 9 ) e dge o f f luvio-glacial t errace; 1 0) r ock f all c rown; 1 1) t ension f ractures c onnected w ith l andslide b lock h eap; 1 2) p ush moraine; 1 3) p alaeochannels; 1 4) g lacial d iversion; 1 5) n on-active g ullies; 1 6) a ctive g ullies.

o f t he f lood p lain. T he o ldest s ediments s howing h uman f requentation a re r epresented b y c lay f loors s ometimes w ith r ectangular s tone s lab f ooting f or w ooden h ouses ( layers 1 31 5). T hese b elong t o t he L uco C ulture ( late B ronze A ge, 1 0th9 th c entury B .C.). T here f ollow n umerous l ayers o f s ettlement f rom t he s ame c ulture. S ediments s tratified a long p arallel p lanes w ith t hin l aminations a nd s mall c ut a nd f ill s tructures s eparate o ne l ayer f rom t he n ext e ven i f a f ew t hicker s andy l ayers a re a lso p resent f ining u pwards. T he s andy c ontent i s d ominant b ut t o t he s ides t here a re pebbles ( lobes) a nd s mall gullies c an b oth b e s een. T hus a longside evidence o f c ontinuous occupation w e have evidence o f a n a ctive process o f s lope e rosion i ncluding f loods w ith d evastating c onsequences a lso f or t hese s ettlements. D uring t he 7 th c entury B .C. ( bronze p ins o f t he ' a n oduli s errati' t ype, ( Carancini 1 975), C entro-Alpine L uco-Meluno c ulture p hase C ), i n o rder t o prevent a nd l imit s uch d amage, a c omplex s ystem o f c hannels was b uilt. T he o ldest d rainage c hannel, which was more t han 1 2 m . w ide w as s ubsequently f illed w ith g ravelly c hannel b ar s ediments ( layer C ). Subsequently ( layer A ) i n i ts p lace s maller c hannels were constructed a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, t he b uilding o f a r eal dwelling c omplex ( layer ) B, s till w ith d ry p orphyric w alls t ook p lace. T hese walls a re positioned b eside a nd a bove t he previous d rainage c hannel. T he l atter, a fter i t h ad b een f illed i n must, i n f act, have c onstituted a r aised s tructure u pon t he s urrounding s lope ( Fig. 8 .6). T races o f f ire b ear w itness t o t he p rogressive abandonment o f t he s tructure during t he 6 th-5th c entury B .C. ( Serpentine f ibula w ith s heet b ow, F ritzens c up e tc.). H uts i n s itu a re t hen f ound u p u ntil t he m iddle o f t he 4 th c entury B .C. ( Sanzeno c up). O n t he s urface h owever, R oman t ile f ragments t estify t o a p relonged p eriod o f o ccupation during h istory. M oreover, t races o f l ater occupation ( up t o t he 5 th c entury A .D.) h ave b een excavated o n v arious o ccasions f rom t he l atter h alf o f t he l ast c entury o nwards, a lso i n t he c emetery a reas p resent t o t he n orth o f t he s ettlement. T he f an t herefore, d oes n ot s eem t o r eceive a ny more s ediment a fter t he I ron A ge. L aives-Leifers T he s ettlement ( Fig. 8 .8/A)is s ituated o n t he western outskirts o f t he p resent d ay s ettlement, n ot f ar f rom t he s ummit o f t he f an c reated b y t he R io V allarsa t hat f lows i nto t he A dige v alley. T his s tream c uts d eeply t he r ocks o f t he ' Atesino Vulcanic c omplex' o n t op o f w hich l ie f luvioglacial materials, t ightly c emented a nd s uspended o n t he v alley

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t o F ig. 8 .8. A . L aives: 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) c olluvial d eposits; 4 ) b locks f rom c ollapsed walls; 5 ) o ccupation l evels ( Iron a ge); 6 ) 7 ) a lluvial f an d eposits. B . T erlane: 1 ) u pper h orizons o f t he a ctual s oil; 2 ) c olluvial s oil o n s lope waste d eposits; 3 ) 4 ) b rown s oil; 5 ) s lope w ash d eposits. C . C astelbello: 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) c olluvial d eposits; 4 ) b locks f rom t he c ollapsed walls; 5 ) I ron a ge d eposits; 6 ) f luvioglacial d eposits. ( layer 1 2). T he s lope d id n ot r eceive f urther s ediments u ntil medieval t imes a s materials f rom t his period may b e found t ouching t he R oman l ayers. F rom 1 200 o nwards t he walls p ut u p during t he Roman era were taken away t o b e u sed i n t he construction ofnotable c annalization works a nd a c hannel more t han 1 2 m . wide was built ( layer 1 0-6). I t i s possible t hat t hese works a re c onnected w ith t he g rowth o f t he v illage after t he building of Gries C astle b y t he Counts of t he T yrol. T his c hannel was a bandoned a nd r ebuilt s everal t imes f ollowing t he continual deposition o f material a nd i n i ts p lace other l ateral ones were built, even above t he r oman dwellings. A l oose s tone foundation dating f rom 1 400-1500 A .D. l evels t he t op o f t he f an a nd only 1 m . of a lluvial s ediments b ear witness t o t he h igh f loods a fter t his p eriod. T hus i t i s during t his period ( layer 2 ) t hat t he s lope a ppears t o have t aken o n i ts p resent d ay f orm. S .

M aurizio-Moritzing.

B ergerhof

T he S . Maurizio c emetery i s l ocated near t he v alley f loor, on the outskirt of t he Bolzano, 1 km. west of t he G ries s ettlement. T he A dige r iver i s moving p rogressievely t o t he r ight, pushed b y t he comgined s edi ments of t he T alvera a nd I sarco R iver, to t he point of t ouching C astel F irmiano c lose t o t he r ight-slope ( Castiglioni 1 974). Minor s treams h ave a lso c ontributed t o t his movement, n amely t he R io G ries, R io S . Maurizio a nd f urther n orth, t he R io P etroso . T his s ite i s s ituated c lose to t he s lope where t he ' Atesino Vulcanic C omplex ' o utcrops. A n a ncient t alweg o f t he T alvera, t he s ame a s t he o ne a t G ries, i s present a t t he f oot o f t he s lope. T he s lope, near t he s ite r ises s harply t o 7 80 m . a .s.1 where t here i s a wide t errace of g lacial origin. U p a s lope which i s s till quite s teep o ne r eaches t he ' Altopiano d i Montalto ' ( 1220 m .) which a lso s hows t races o f g lacial e rosion. A s mall s tream which springs f rom t he b ase o f t he t errace a t 7 80 m . h as d eposited u pon t he p rotohistoric s ettlement part o f t he materials, g lacial i n o rigin, which a re p resent i n n early a ll t he l ayers o n t he p rotohistoric s ettlement ( Fig. 8 .7). T here are alluvial fan s edi ments at t he b ase of t he s equence, which b ear witness to i ntense processes of s lope degradation. Subsequently, part of t he a rea above t hese s ediments was u sed a s a c emetery d uring t he 5 th-4th c entury B .C . ( Cerosa f ibula). A s eries of holes was t herefore dug i n the substrata i n order to place the foundation pits c ontaining t he b urned s keletal r emains a nd t heir g rave

1 20

g oods. T he c remations i nitially t ook p lace i n t he i mmediate v icinity, a nd o nly a fterwards a bove t he e arlier g raves. T he n umerous p ostholes w ere p robably c losely l inked t o t he p ractice o f c remation. T o t he s ide s ome k ind o f s tructure, p erhaps a p alisade c ordoned o ff t his a rea, d elimited b y l arge p orphyric b locks f rom t he s urrounding a rea. T he l ayers r elating t o t he c remations d isappear s uddenly a nd i n t heir p lace t here a re l ayers i n w hich t he quantity o f m aterial o riginating f rom t he s lope i s i mportant. T he c emetery was a bandoned o n t he u pper l evels ( layer 4 ) a nd more s andy materials washed d own t he s lope. U pslope a nd h igher u p i n t he s equence t hese b ecome c oarser, s ometimes w ith g ravels, s ome o f l arger s ize. T here f ollow more c olluvial a nd a lluvial materials ( layer 3 ) c ontaining r are c eramic f inds, a llow u s t o a ttribute t hem t o t he b eginning o f modern t imes ( after t he 1 5th c entury). I n r ecent t imes a d rainage d itch h as b een d ug ( probably t he o ne a fter w hich materials w ere f ound f or t he f irst t ime i n S .Maurizio i n 1 860). I t w as s ubsequently f illed u p w ith b locks, mainly o f p orphyry. Above t he c olluvial p rocesses c ontinue up u ntil t he a rea i s c ultivated. I t s eems t herefore t hat f ew s ediments were d eposited a fter t he burial g round was a bandoned. T erlano-Terlan T he deposit ( Fig. 8 .8/B) i s s ituated o n t he r ight s ide o f t he A dige a f ew k ilometres u pstream f rom B olzano, n ear t he p resent d ay v illage. I t i s l ocated a t t he f oot o f t he e scarpment made u p o f t he ' Atesino Vulcanic C omplex'. T his g entle p art o f t he s lope i s c overed i n mixed oak woodland w hich have s tabilised t he s urface. O pposite t his d eposit t here i s a s mall r idge which r uns p arallel t o t he v alley a xis. D own- s tream i t i s made u p o f materials f rom t he r ocky s ubstratum b ut upslope a nd on t he s ummit t here i s a moraine, w hich t estifies t o t he past i mportance o f g lacial p rocesses i n t he morphological development o f t his p art o f t he s lope. O n t he p lain i n f ront w hich h as n otable f ans o n b oth i ts v alley s ides ( Rio d ella C hiusa, R io S .Pietro, R io G ido e tc.) a nd t races c i f a ncient m eanders o f t he A dige a re s till e vident w ith t he l ocal t oponymy ( Palü G rande-Weitmoos) b earing w itness t o t he p ast p resence of b ackswamps a nd a bandoned c hannels. B elow t he p resent s oil ( layers 1 -2) a t T erlano t here a re c oarse d etritic d eposits s lightly p edogenized, l ower d own, o n t he o ther h and, t here i s a f airly w ell developed b uried s oil ( layers 3 -4). T he p resent s oil i s r elatively r ecent i n a ge s ince i t c overs a coarse d etritus which l inks u pslope w ith t he t alus w hich i s s till a ctive b elow t he a forementioned s carp. T hese would r epresent t he d istal parts r endered s table b y t he p rogressive r eafforestation o f t he a rea. T he materials o f t he p rofile u nderneath h owever, d eveloped u nder v egetation w hich l asted f or a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime. T he m ost s alient c haracteristics o f t his b uried p rofile a re t he a ccumulation o f a f air amount o f l eached c lay materials i n t he l ower h orizon, t he p rogressive decrease i n o rganic m atter a nd t he c omplete a bsence o f c arbonates. I n t he l ower p art o f

1 21

t his s oil N eolithic t ools a nd c eramics were d iscovered; t hese c onstitute a point o f r eference postquem t o t he degradation o f t he s oil a nd t herefore o f t he original v egetation cover. S ubsequent t o t hese processes t here was probably a r eactivation of t he detritic t alus n ext t o t he walls. T he most i mportant p hase o f degradation i s p ost-Neolithic b ut i t i s not possible to date i t more p recisely. C astelbello-Kastelbell T he s ite i s s ituated i n t he c entral Val V enestaV intschgau n ear t he present d ay s ettlement, o n t he l eft s lope o f t he Adige valley, t o t he r ight o f t he R io d i C olsanoG alsum, 7 05 m . a .s.l. T here t he f airly s teep s lope i s a t t his point o verhung b y a s teeper s carp o f a bout 1 0 m ., c omposed o f r ocks o f t he ' Sudalpine M etamorphic C omplex' ( Prepermian). O n t he v alley s ide l arge t erraces are v isible, positioned o n progressiely h igher l evels i n r elation t o t he present t alweg. T hese underlie g lacial a nd/or f luvioglacial deposits. T he p oint a t which t hey j oin t he s lope i s o ften h idden b y s lope deposits. On t he v alley f loor t he r iver Adige f ollows a s lightly s inuous course a s t he imposing a lluvial fans built b y i ts t ributaries h ave s hifted i ts c ourse t owards t he s lope where t he only l imited s ediments were d etritic o r f rom s lope wash. The r iver h as n ow cut i nto t he a forementioned s ediments i n s ome p laces c reating t erraces f or s everal metres a bove t he t alweg. F luvial a nd g lacial erosion h as moulded the s ubstrata t o a g reat extent, s ometimes c reating a n e scarpment i n excess of 1 00 m ., a t t he f oot o f which a re b lock f ields a nd extensive t aluses. Above 3 000m. t owards t he w atershed, present day n ival a nd g lacionival morphologies are f ound w ith r elated s ediments. T he C astelbello s ettlement ( Fig. 8 .8/C) i s r epresented b y I ron Age dwelling ( La T ene C f ibula) s tructures ( layer 5 ), erected a fter t he s lope h ad b een t erraced at l east o n a l ocal s cale during t he f inal B ronze A ge ( flat everted r ims o f L uco t ype). T he collapsed drystone s tructures ( layer 4 )together w ith t he t errace were buried b y c olluvial p rocesses o f modest proportion. T here are no s ediments a bove t his s howing l arge t he s lope a fter t he I ron A ge. A n s cale degradation of tone w ine press, p robably c onnected i rrigation t ank a nd a s n t his s lope ( related t o t he n earby w ith v ine c ultivation o 1 2th c entury M ontalban c astle?) a re b uri ,a b y a t hin l ayer o f colluvial materials ( layer 1 ). T hus s lightly p edogenised t here i s t he p ossibility o f s light degradation a fter t he 1 2th c entury. T he A ica

I sarco-Eisack d i

v alley

F ie-Völseraicha

T he s ite o f C ampaccio-Kompatsch i s l ocated n ear ' Aica d i S opra', o n t he r ight s ide o f t he R io B ria v alley, a l eft t ributary o f t he I sarco j ust north o f B olzano. T he s ettlement i s positioned a t 1 056 m . a .s.l. o n t he r ight s ide o f a s mall v alley w ith a c oncave f loor s loping s lightly d ownslope; t his

1 22

s mall v alley owes i ts o rigins t o g lacial moulding p rocesses. E xtensive morainic d eposits a re f ound i n t he v alley i tself a nd d ownslope where t here i s a n extensive t errace o f g lacial o rigin b ounded b y h igh v ertical walls o verlying t he v alley f loor o f t he R io B ria. M orainic d eposits i n t he s mall v alley h ave b een a ffected b y s urface mass movement a nd t he w hole o f t he s lope h as s ubsequently b een t erraced, s ome t erraces a re s everal m etres h igh, i ncreasing s tability a nd a iding a griculture. N ot f ar f rom h ere d ry walling r elating t o t he e arly B ronze A ge h ave b een f ound ( Bagolini e t a l. 1 982; N isbet a nd Macphail 1 983). A f ew t ens o f m etres u pslope f rom t he deposit o n t he r ight s ide o f t he s mall v alley r ocks o f t he ' Atesino Vulcanic C omplex' outcrop, o verlain u p t o t he w atershed b y t he ' Valgardena S andstone' ( Permian). L arge e rratic morainic b locks l ie o ver t he s ubstrata. T he r eddish c olour i n t he l ower l evels o f t he s ettlement i s d ue t o t he degradation o f t he s ubstrata. A R oman c emetery ( Fig. 8 .9: l ayers 9 -10) h as b een i dentified at C ampuccio o n s lope d eposits w hich a re moderately p edogenised ( layer 1 1). T o t he s ide t here i s a n e arly-middle B ronze A ge s ettlement ( not i ncluded i n F ig. 8 .9) t he s ediments o f w hich s eem t o b e b uried a t t he s ame l evel a s t hat o f t he R oman c emetery g round s urface ( Layer 7 ). F rom t he 2 nd-3rd c enturies A .D. ( Marcus Aurelios a nd M aximinus T hrax c oins). Above, c olluvial materials w ith b locks ( layers 6 -8), s ome o f n otable s ize, i mmersed i n a f ine matrix may b e a ttributed t o s low l ocalised mass movements t aking p lace a fter ( or during) t he D ark A ge. S ome R oman t ombstones, l eft i n t he d eposits b ear w itness a s t o h ow s uch movements have a ffected R oman t ombs p ositioned a l ittle h igher u p s lope. T he h igher c ontent o f o rganic matter i n t he u pper a nd i n t he l ower parts o f t his l ayer s uggest t hat a fter p edogenesis s tarted a t t he b ase, s low mass movements w ere a ctivated ( soliflucution) which g radually c eased a s t he v egetation c over i ncreased. S ubsequently, t he f ormation o f t his s oil s topped a nd a t hin l ayer o f c olluvial material was d eposited ( layer 5 ). A n u nconformity c uts t he s ediments u pon which v arying t hickness o f c oarse material r est ( layer 4 ). A c oin f ound among t hem ( imp. L eopold A ustria, 1 699) p ermits t heir a ttribution t o a fter 1 700 A .D. A s wallow s oil t hen s tabilised t he s urface a gain u ntil materials f rom r ecent f ires buried t he h orizons. I t a ppears t herefore, t hat t here w ere n o n otable e rosive p rocesses o n t he l ocal s lope b etween t he l ate-middle B ronze A ge a nd t he R oman e ra. T he o nly a ddition t o t he s lope would b e p ost D ark A ge a nd b efore 1 700 A .D. B arbiano T he d eposits o f B arbiano I I a nd I V a re s ituated a t a h eight o f 8 30 m .a.s.1., o n t he r ight s lope o f t he I sarco Valley, t o t he w est o f t he c onfluence w ith t he R io G ardena. A t t his p oint t he v alley f loor i s n arrow a nd t he r iver i s d eeply e mbedded i n t he r ocks o f t he ' Sudalpine M etamorphic C omplex'. O n t he s lopes t here a re t erraces o f g lacial o rigin, v arying i n s ize a nd s eparated b y e scarpments f rom which t he s ubstrata o utcrops i n p laces. T hese t erraces a re o verlain b y

1 23

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1 24

c oarse g lacial a nd f luvioglaical material, a nd s cattered moraine i s o ften p resent i n t he s ubstrata. D eep i ncisions made b y s treams, n amely t he Gouder B ach a nd t he ' Rio d egli O rli', c ut t ransversely i nto t he B ariano s lope b reaking t he c ontinuity o f t he t erraces a nd t heir r espective d eposits t o v arying d epths. H igher u p t erraces o f g lacial o rigin a re t o b e f ound u p t owards t he watershed ( 2100 m .a.s.1.) where p ossible l ocal g lacial f orms ( Alpe d i B arbiano) c an b e i dentified. A t t he b ottom o f t he s equence o f B arbiano I I ( Fig. 8 .9B) g lacial s ediments a re p edogenised b y a f airly e volved b rown p aleosoil ( Layer 1 0), i n which s poradic N eolithic m aterials h ave b een f ound. T hese p rovide a p oint o f r eference a ntequem f or t he d evelopment o f t he p aleosoil a nd postquem f or i ts d egradation ( layer 8 -9). L ess s trongly p edogenised c olluvial s lope material i s d eposited u pon a n e rosion s urface w hich b rings a h alt t o t he a forementioned s oil. A t t he t op o f t hese s ediments t here a re s tructures f rom t he B arbiano I I c emetery ( layer 7 ). T hese b elong t o t he f inal B ronze A ge ( 11th c entury B .C.). T he p its w here t he h uman s keletal r emains were p laced a fter c remation c an b e s een w ith a f ew s tones o n t op. T hese a re b uried b y s lope wash materials ( layers 6 ,5,4) f rom t he l ocal s lope a lso c ontaining pottery p robably f rom t he I ron A ge. A t hin l ayer o f c olluvial materials o verlies t hese s ediments ( layer 3 ); t his i s t he only d eposit o n t he s lope d eposited l ater t han t he previously mentioned d eposits. I n f act, t he u pper s ediments a re o f c olluvial o rigin w ith t races o f f ires. T hey a re r ecent s ediments c onnected w ith dwelling s tructures i n t he s ettlement. A t B arbiano I V, ( Fig. 1 1:5) t here i s a b rown s oil i n which t ools a nd c eramic r emains have b een f ound t hat can b e a ttributed t o t he S quare M outhed P ottery C ulture ( layer 4 ), o n a n u nconformity, which cuts t he f luvioglacial material, c omposed o f p ebbly a nd s andy l ayers s tratified o n p arallel p lanes ( layer 9 ). S lightly pedogenised c olluvial materials ( läyer 3 ) r est u pon a nother u nconformity w hich c uts t he b rown s oil. A n f urther u nconformity a ffects t he t op o f t his material. L aterally, b etter s orted g ravels a nd s ands, a lso d eposited i nside r ills a nd s mall g ullies s how h ow, o n a l ocal s cale, s lope wash p rocesses must h ave h ad a f air i mportance. T he o verlying c olluvial materials a re a ffected b y a n oticeable s olifluction p rocess ( layer 1 ) w hich h as a lso a ffected t he s urface morphology. T he d etachment s urface o f t his s light movement i s l ocated i n t he c olluvial s ediments a nd probably o riginates f rom d ifficulties o f r ainwater d rainage c aused b y t he f ine, i mpermeable l ayers. V elturno-Feldthurn D eposits V elturno I a nd I I a re s ituated a t a d istance o f s everal m etres f rom o ne a nother, o n t he r ight s ide o f t he I sarco, n ear t he s ettlement o f t he s ame n ame. T hey a re l ocated n ear t he s lope, o n t he e dge o f a t errace o f g lacial o rigin l ocated a t 8 90 m . a .s.1., t herefore a t 4 40 m . a bove t he t alweg o f t he r iver I sarco, which a t t his p oint, h as a

1 25

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d eeply embedded v alley f loor. T his t errace e xtends c onsiderably u p a nd d own v alley. C oarse g lacial a nd f luvioglacial s ediments outcrop o n t he t errace, b ut o n a l ocal s cale s andy s ediments b ecome p redominant. C oinciding w ith t he f lattest p arts o f t his a ncient s urface t here a re p eaty materials s hows t he e xistence o f s mall l akes a nd ponds, f or e xample a t t he f oot o f t he V olturno s ettlement. l ike. T here a re o utcrops o f t he S udalpine m etamorphic c omplex o n t hese v alley walls, j ust a s b etween t he t errace a nd t he v alley f loor. T here a re a lso o utcrops o f s catterd moraine w hose d egradation h as a llowed f or t he a ccumulation o f m aterial which c overs t he a rchaeological l ayers. T he s tability o f t he s lope, e ven a t t he s teepest p oint, i s g uaranteed b y t he p resence o f n umerous d ry s tone w alls, s ome o f a f air t hickness a nd l ength. T hese walls a re o ften buried a nd a t c ertain p oints a re i nterrupted b y s mall mass movements. A f airly w ell d eveloped s oil ( Fig 8 .11. l ayer 2 6) i s p resent a t t he b ase o f t he V elturno I s equence, c ontaining i n i ts m iddle t o u pper h orizons e arly B ronze A ge t o l ate N eolithic r emains. I t i ndicates t he p resence o f a n important v egetation c over o n t he s lope, w hich, a fter t he e arly B ronze A ge was s trongly d egraded a s t here i s a c lear e rosion s urface a t t he t op. H igher u p, l ayers s howing h uman a ctivity during t he B ronze A ge a lternate w ith s lope materials b rought t o t he s pot b y e ither s low m ass movements ( solifluction) o r f low o f v arying f luidity ( sheet f lood, debris f low, e tc.). T he p resence o f a d ry s upport wall p arallel t o t he s lope a nd b uried b y B ronze A ge s ediments s uggests t hat Man t ried t o s tem t he d amage p roduced b y t he i ntense d egradation o f t he s lopes b y m eans o f s tructures o f t his k ind. T he u pper l evels o f t he s ection s till s how s lope material a lternating w ith h uman d eposits, t he most r ecent d ating t o t he I ron A ge ( comb d ecorated p ottery, 5 th t o 3 rd c entury B .C.). A fter t his p eriod s lope d egradation s topped a nd t here a re n o s imilar o ccurrences r ight u p t o t he p resent d ay. N owadays t he w hole s lope i s t erraced a nd i s s table due t o t he p resence o f d ry s tone w alls. I t i s d ifficult t o s ay w hether t he i nitial b uilding o f t hese s tructures d ate a s f ar b ack. H owever, t he walls f ound i n t he e xcavation s uggest t hat t here w ere a lready s tructures i n e rected i n t he l ate B ronze a ge, f unctioning a s t hose p resent t oday. A t t he b ase o f t he V elturno I I s ection t here a re g lacial a nd f luvioglacial ( Fig. 8 .10) materials u pon which a b rown s oil i s e volving, s imilar t o t hat n oted i n V elturno I . W ithin t he p rofile t here i s a n i ncrease i n t he c lay f raction t owards t he b ottom, p arallel t o a p rogressive d ecrease i n c oarse materials. W ithin t hese t ightly packed s ediments ( layer 7 ) t here a re n umerous N eolithic a nd E neolithic s tructures, o ften overlapping o ne a nother. I n t he u pper part ( Stratum 7 a) a f air amount o f s oil d egradation i s a lready v isible a nd t here a re s ome v ery c oarse materials. A t t he s ides o f t his l ayer, t he r emains o f a M egalithic C ircle, ( of M icaschist s labs)

1 27

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g ain v . a lternative f orm > d isjunction v . c ontradictory f orm > equivocation v . c onfirmative f orm > r edundancy). S et

T heory

S et t heory ( Litvak K ing a nd G arcia M oll 1 972; L ipschutz 1 980) s ustains t he model o f ' compounded c onstraints' a lready well e stablished i n t he a rchaeological l iterature ( Clarke 1 978, 5 5) a nd which c an a dapt i tself w ith a f ew a lterations, t o t he process o f l ocational s trategy ( De G uio 1 982). T he p rogressive r eduction o f t he ' space o f e vents' or ' universe' s imulates t he r estriction o f t he g eographical s pace cumulatively produced b y t he p articular s tates t hat a re c ulturally s elected, f rom t he r elevant v ariables. T he e nd product ( subset) i s t he f inal c hoice o f s ettlement p osition. T he c orrecting p rocedures i ntroduced b y t he a uthor r efer t o s patial f actors ( differentiated c overage a nd s patial p atterns o f t he v ariables i n t he t erritory), t o weighting f actors ( hierarchy o f t he v ariables, f or whose c alculation i t i s a dmissable t o s earch f or more s atisfactory s olutions t han t hose presently a vailable, s uch a s t hose b y Davison, R icher a nd R ogers 1 976)) a nd t o t he model o f c umulative s election. T his model i s n ot s haped a s a c losed s equence o f s tages but a s a c yclical a nd f eed-back p rocess, which i s e asily s imulated b y s tep-wise p rocedures r ecurrent i n many multivariate a lgorithms ( De G uio 1 982). Models

f or

l ocational

s imulation

T hese h ave, t o t heir c redit, a l arge s ustaining l iterature, a n a cceptable qualitative s tandard a nd f ull s cientific r espectability ( Ammerman a nd C avalli S forza 1 971; T homas 1 972; C hadwick 1 978; Z immerman 1 978). C atastrophe

T heory

T his h as b een r ecently a cquired a s o ne o f t he b est t ools 1 979) f or modelling ( Renfrew 1 971; R enfrew a nd P oston e ndogenous d iscontinuity i n s ettlement p atterns. I t i s a lso d emonstrated i n macroscopic t erms i n t he p re- a nd p rotoh istory o f t he V icentino. T he

L ogical

P ath

T he ' facile' e nthusiasm r esulting f rom s uch t heoretical i nput h as s purred m e t o d raw u p a s tandardised f low c hart f or t he a nalytical r ecognition o f t he l ocation s trategies ( De G uio 1 982) ( Fig. 1 0.4), w ith t he v arious s teps, f rom t he p lanning t o t he s election a nd matrix t abulation o f u nitv ariables, t o t he c entral b ody o f mathematical d escriptive a nd i nferential p rocedures a nd t o model b uilding. A c yclical

1 57

p rocess o f f itting a nd v alidation t ends p rogressively, b y d iscriminating b ackground n oise f rom i nformation, t o c onverge t owards a n i ntegrated explanatory c onstruct ( Gardin 1 980, F ig. 2 6, 2 7). T his l ogical p ath h as s ustained, i n t he c ourse o f t he practical work, s ometimes e ven s ubstantial r eduction, c orrection a nd i ntegration. H eavy l imits a nd o bstructions have c onstrained t he r esearch s trategy w hich h as n ot r eached i ts f ull p otential; i ts g rowth h as a lso b een h ampered b y l ow f inancial s upport. T hese r estrictions a ppear t o b e p resent a t a ll l evels o f r esearch s o f ar c onducted ( Balista e t a l. 1 982), s tarting f rom t he c hoice o f t he s urvey u nit f or p hysiographic a nd e cocultural v ariables ( 20 m inutes walk r adially f rom e ach s ite which i s c ertainly a s ignificant u nit, b ut t heoretically objectionable ( Roper 1 979)), u p t o t he l evel o f quantitative r esolution o f t he d ata ( some o f which, f or i nstance t he e xtension o f t he v arious t ypes o f s oil w ithin t he a rea d escribed a bove h ave b een k ept a t a s imple r ank s cale, w ith t he r esulting l oss, i f i n p art experimentally c ontrolled, o f i nformation; t his i s e specially n oticeable w hen c ompared t o a more s uitable ' ratio s cale' o f r eference). E ven t he s upposedly h olistic, e xplanatory t arget h as b een progressively r e-dimensioned i n t he l ight o f i ncreased awareness o f t he d ifficulty o f c ompletely i nterpreting l ocational s trategies, i f o nly f or t he i nteractions o f t he s ocio-cultural s ubsystems i nvolved. O ther f actors h ave b een t he c ontinually d iminishing c redibility o f positions b ased o n determinism a nd o n optimising c riteria, t he e ase o f c omputer a ccess, a nd e specially t he e valuation o f t he d ifficulties i n a pproaching t he ' black b ox' o f l ocational b ehaviour ( Schiffer 1 976; J ochim 1 979; O rme 1 981; H odder 1 982). T he h euristic e ffort was t herefore d irected t owards t he extraction f rom t he u niverse o f d ata, o f a l imited b ody o f evidence, s ufficient t o s ubstantiate s ome p robabilistic explanatory models, e ven i f l imited i n s cope, a nd t o b e t ested w ith s pecifically d evised c ycles o f v alidation. T he a im was t o s uggest a n ' epigenetic l andscape' ( Waddington 1 977) c apable o f s imulating, w ith g ood v ersimilitude, a t l east t he p rincipal t rends i n t he p re- a nd p rotohistoric l and occupation. T he p athway e ffectively t aken w ill h ere b e s chematically d escribed, v ery b riefly, i n i ts p rincipal s teps: ( 1) D elimitation a nd p roblem o rientation w ell-defined c oordinates:

w ithin

( a) s patial: t erritory o f t he p rovince o f V icentino. ( b) c hronological: B ronze a nd I ron A ges. ( c) t hematic: p robabilistic s imulation i n above t erms, o f t he l ocational s trategies a long two s ynchronic a nd d iachronic axes, a nd a t

1 58

t hree

t he

t he t he t he

s pecific s patial r esolution o f l evel' ( Clarke 1 977, F ig. 1 ).

' between-site

macro

( 2) T he s election f rom t he a vailable i nformational u niverse o f a l imited s et o f t he p hysiographic a nd c ultural v ariables c onsidered t o b e p otentially r elevant w ith r espect t o t he p roblem a lready o utlined. ( 3) T he f ield a nd t he

c ollection o f t he r elevant i nformation i n t he r ecognition o f t he s elected c haracteristics.

( 4) T he matrix t abulation o f t he u nits ( 48 s ites, 4 0 o f w hich a re o n h ills, 5 i n t he p lain a nd 3 i n t he mountainous r egion ( cf. F ig. 1 0.6)) a nd v ariables ( on d ifferent s cales o f m easurement: n ominal, o rdinal a nd r atio). T he t hree r elevant o rders o f i nformation c an b e e asily b roken d own i nto s ubmatrices: ( a) C rono-cultural s ub-matrices ( Fig. 1 0.3) i n a provisional c hronological f ramework d ivided i nto t hirteen p hases, f rom t he early B ronze A ge t o t he e nd o f t he I ron A ge ( IV A testino period), w ith s egments r oughly p roportional t o e ach presumed t ime-span a nd d ifferent s ymbols f or t he d ifferent s ampling v alues. S uch matrices c an b e r e-ordered w ith r espect t o t he r andom o rder o f e ntry a ccording t o d ifferent i conic a nd/or i nformational r equirements ( here f or e xample, a ccording t o t he t he b eginning o f o ccupation); ( b) ' cultural s ubmatrices' ( e.g. F ig. 1 0.5, B ronze A ge), w ith v ariables r elative t o t he morphoc ultural s ituation ( from t he i nfrastructures a nd i nhabited s tructures, t o t he v arious c lasses o f a rtefacts a nd t he b ioarchaeological evidence. ( c) p hysiographic a nd e cocultural s ubmatrices ( e.g. F ig. 1 0.6): p hysical, l ocational - r elational a spects a nd t he s pectrum o f n atural r esources, c onsidered a s p ermanent f eatures o r e xtrapolated, a s f ar a s p ossible, f rom t he p resent human l andscape b ack t o t he presumable pre- a nd protohistoric c onfiguration ( Balista a nd L eonardi t his v olume). T wo d ifferent i nformational r eservoirs o f l ocational v ariables c onverge h ere: ( a) p rimary l ocational c haracteristics i n d irect r elationship w ith t he s ite, ( b) t he c haracteristics o f t he w ider t opographical c ontext a nd t hose r elevant t o t he t he p attern o f r esources ( such a s water, p edological a gronomic, a nd m ineral r esources). ( 5) T he e laboration o f t he d ata i n t hree d ifferent a nalytical d irections ( a) s ite-territory r elationship: s ynchronic a nd d iachronic s patial models a nd r estitution o f t he d ifferent l ocational s trategies w ith r espect t o t he opportunities o ffered b y t he l andscape; ( b) r elationships b etween v ariables; d efinition o f r elevant c lusters a nd p rincipal c omponents o f t he p hysiographic h uman c haracteristics i nvolved i n t he l ocational b ehaviour; ( c) r elationships b etween t he s ites: e xploration o n d ifferent

1 59

l evels o f c hronological r esolutions ( single p hases o r major p eriods o f l and o ccupation) i n o rder t o i solate a ggregates o f f unctionally s imilar o r i nterdependent s ites t o r e-introduce t he evolutionary processes e mbedded i n t he c hanging l ocational p attern. My most r ecent r esearch h as b een f ocused o n t his l ast k ey p roblem. H ere, I w ill e xamine f or i llustrative purposes, j ust t wo c lasses o f a nalytical models w hich a re particularly p roductive; t hese a re ( 1) ' Survival A nalysis' ( 2) Multivariate a nalysis p receded b y a s et t heory approach. A nalytical

S teps

' Survival A nalysis' o riginates f rom t he m edical s phere, t aking, i n v ery g eneral t erms, a s o bjects o f s tudy, t he s urvival t rends o f p atients i n s pecific a nd s erious d iseases. I t h as a lready r eached, a h igh l evel o f f ormalisation a nd c omputer-processing ( Hopkins 1 981; H ull a nd N ie 1 981). T he a pplication o f S urvival A nalysis t o a rchaeological p roblems r epresents o ne o f t he most i nteresting a nalytical a reas which t he a uthor i s developing a t p resent ( De Guio 1 984). A t i ts most t rivial l evel ( based o n t he equivalences o f s ite a nd p atient, s urvival a nd l ength o f o ccupation) S urvival A nalysis o ffers a r ecognition model f or p opulation d ynamics. I n t he c ase o f t he V icentino, w ith o nly a m inimal c omplication o f t he i nitial model, we c an p roject o nto a s ingle g raph w ith g raded axes, ( x = % o f s ettlement, y = d imension o f t ime, w ith i nterval o f 5 0 years s tarting w ith t he e arly B ronze A ge) s ome s tatistics r elative t o t he p atterns o f t he b eginning ( or r eoccupation) a nd a bandonment ( or i nterruption) o f t he s ites. T he t hree most r elevant s tatistics i llustrate r espectively: ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)

T he c umulative f requency ( Fig. 1 0.7). T he d ensity f unction ( Fig. 1 0.8). T he h azard f unction ( Fig. 1 0.9).

A s imple v isual i nspection o f t he t ables o r a more f ormal i nspection b ased o n a mathematical a ppreciation o f t he f unctions c an p ick out, i n t he d iachronic pattern, t he p rincipal t rends a nd c ritical s teps ( abandonment, p hases o f e xpansion, d ecline, i n t he d ifferent o bserved c ombinations). I n o ur c ase we c an i solate t hree m ajor p eriods o f l and occupation: e arly > f inal B ronze ( phases 1 -5); n inth c entury ( phase 7 ), t hird t o f ourth A testino p eriod ( phases 1 1-13), s eparated b y marked p hases o f r egression o r a lmost t otal a bandonment o f t he t erritory. A t a more c omplex l evel w e c an, s tarting f rom a p oint 0 l ocated a nywhere a long t he c hronological axis, e xamine a ny s ignificant d ifferences i n t he r ate o f s urvival among s ubsets o f our ' imaginary p atients' ( that i s t he s ites) d iscriminated b y particular v alue r anges among s ingle i nherent v ariables ( that i s, e ssentially, p hysiographic) a nd b ehavioural v ariables ( that i s, d eriving f rom t he s pecific h uman a daptive modification i mposed o n t he s ites f rom i nfra-structures t o t he material c ulture).

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C lusters o f v ariables a re t herefore i solated, w hich, o n p articular v alue r anges, a re a ssociated w ith a ' life' s ignificatively l onger o r s horter f or e ach s ettlement. N ormally s uch a ggregates i solate s ingle l ocational s trategies, f or w hich i t would b e p ossible t o o bserve a long a n a xis w ith t he b est c hronological d iscrimination p ossible, t he s pecific p rocess o f s ystemic a ggregation. I n t he c urrent e xample ( Fig. 1 0.9) w e d iscover t hat w e h ave a h ighly s ignificant d ifference ( probability v alue o f 0 .0077) i n t he s urvival r ate among f ive d ifferent g roups o f s ettlements d efined o n a p olythetic b asis r elative t o t he p otential e xploitation o f t he s oil. T he s ites c oncerned d isplay i ndeed v ery d ifferent v alues o f c umulative s urvival r ate ( and o f d ensity a nd h azard f unctions: c f. D e G uio 1 984: t he g roup h as b een d efined a ccording t o t he r ecurrence i n t he c ombination o f r ank v alues r egistered b y t he s ites o n 5 d ifferent t ypes o f s oils: primary a rable; ' rough g razing'; ' summer pasture'; ' semi-permanent pasture', t aken w ithin t he e mpirical a rea around e ach s ettlement). O ther a lgorithms, o f t he s tepwise k ind, a utomatically s elect f rom a g roup o f v ariables u nder o bservation, t hose s ignificantly a ssociated, p ositively o r n egatively w ith t he r ate o f s urvival ( cf. H opkins 1 981). F urther t heoretical amplifications o f t he model ( De G uio 1 984) l ead t o f ields s uch a s a utomatic c hronological s eriation ( minimisation o f t he s urvival f unctions) o r t o ' trend s urface a nalysis' t his t ime b y i somorphically t ransforming t he p arameters ( Ashby 1 971, 1 24), f rom t emporal t o s patial: b eginning o f e vent > a s ource point, v ariable o f duration > v ariable o f s patial d iffusion, t emporal g radients > s patial g radients, f inal e vent > l imit o f d iffusion e tc. ( for a r elevant p receding u se o f t he s urvival model, i n t he a rea o f demography s ee R enfrew 1 972, 2 26-264). T he

s econd

p rocedural

c lass o f

r ule,

a r eal

a lgorithms, ' Micky M ouse

i s d erived L aw'

f rom a s imple

( Flannery

1 973,

5 1;

R enfrew 1 979, 5 ), b ut f ull o f r elevant t heoretical a nd a nalytical i mplications: i f w ithin t he u niverse made u p o f a ll t he s ites u nder s tudy, t here e xist, among t he s ubsets o f t he v arious p hases o f l and o ccupation s ome i ntersections ( that i s c ommon s ettlements among t he s ets) w e must exploit t he p otential i nformation w hich t his i mplies. T he k ey a ssumptions a re t he f ollowing: ( 1) t he m inimal t ime d epth o f o ur a rchaeological ' phases' o ften s ynchronically c ompresses h uman l andscapes, w hich i n r eality a re s till d istinct ( palimpsest). ( 2) t he expected evolutionary model i s n ot p resenting a d iscrete s tadial s uccession o f s ingle l ocational s trategies, b ut t hat o f a whole g roup o f t hem ( or s ubstrategies) w ith d ifferent d egrees o f c hronological o verlap, a nd which c onstitute a t each ( theoretical) s ynchronic cut, a r eal

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' system o f i nformation' ( Clarke 1 978, 8 8-101). S uch a s ystem p resents a s pecific r elational d ynamic among t he v arious l ocation s trategies i n p lay ( gain, d isjunction, e quivocation, r edundance). W hichever t he e quilibrium ( unstable, m etastable, s teady s tate, dynamic, d ynamic metastable, c .f. B utzer 1 982, F ig. 2 -3) we presume t o b e i n t he e volutionary t rajectory, a t l east v arious ' moments' i n t he s ystemic e volution o f t he s ingle s trategy w ill t end t o b ecome d iscrete, a long t he d iachronic axis, e ven i f t he ' moments' c an b e c onsidered a s b eing more c omplex t hen t hose o f a s imple o ntogenetic c ycle ( 'birth', ' growth;, ' modality', ' decline', ' death'). O ur data t herefore n ormally c ontain a g reat d eal o f ' noise', e ssentially a p alimpest o f i nformation ( partially d ue t o o ur a nalytical l imits, a nd p artly due t o t he n ature o f t he o bject o f s tudy). S uch ' noise' c an b e, i n p art, c ontrolled a nd r emoved b y e xamining a t d ifferent o perative l evels ( single p hases o r main p eriods o f d emographic e volution) s ome r elevant s ubsets a nd t he r elationships among t hese. A t t he l evel o f t he t hree main p eriods a lready mentioned, f or i nstance, t he V icentino o ffers t he f ollowing s et c onfiguration ( Fig. 1 0.11): c ompare t he r elative r esorted c hronological table a nd t he i conic model o f t he e quilateral t riangle o f F ig. 1 0.12 ( at t he c entre o f t he t riangle a re s ites c ommon t o a ll p eriods, a t t he v ertices t hose c ommon t o t wo p eriods a nd o n t he s ides t hose b elonging t o o ne p eriod). T he s pecificity o f s uch a a rrangement i s evident; t he B ronze A ge p eriod a lmost t otally c oincides w ith a ' super-set', t hat i s t o s ay, i t ' contains' a lmost a ll t he s ites f rom t he s uccessive p hases ( secondary c olonization). I f we t herefore t ry t o c ompare, f or e xample w ith a d iscriminant a nalysis, t he t hree whole s ets ( periods) o n t he b asis o f a p hysiographic matrix t hat i s o nly i n p art ' time s ensitive', t he h igh r edundancy o f t he i nformation produces r ather b lurred r esults, w ith v ery l imited c hanges t aking p lace i n t he v alues o f c ontinuous, o rdinal a nd n ominal v ariables. I t w ould b e impracticable o n t he o ther h and t o c ompare b y u sing a multivariate a nalysis, t he t hree s ets o f s ettlements e xclusive t o t he t hree major p eriods o f l and o ccupation ( number o f s ettlements r espectively 1 7, 1 , 4 ) b ecause o f t he l ow f requency o f s ites i n t he l ast t wo s ets. O n t he c ontrary, s electing s ome u seful s ets ( about t en i n n umber), w hich a re a lso c onceptually i nteresting w e h ave s ome d ecent r esults. F or i nstance c omparing s et { A-B} ( that i s s ites f rom t he f irst p eriod { A}, n ot o ccupied i n t he s econd p eriod { B} ( Figs. 1 0.11-10.12) a nd s et { B} ( all t he s ites f rom t he 2 nd p eriod) m eans o ne i s e xamining t he l ocational v alues o f t he s econd p eriod which, a lready p resent a s a s ubset i n t he f irst, t hen b ecome modal. W e c an, t herefore, c ompare t hem w ith t hose p eculiar t o t he f irst p eriod { A}. A t t he h igher l evel o f r esolution i nto s ingle p hases, a nother particularly i nteresting r esult, c onsists i n e xamining t he d istinctive s ites o f t he t hree p hases o f t he

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e arly B ronze A ge ( BZA) m iddle ( BZM) a nd r ecent ( BZR1), t hat i s s ets { BZA}, { BZM-BZA},{BZM1 - ( BZA U B ZM)} t herefore i solating r elevant l ocational t rends. T he r esults o f t he d iscriminant a nalysis b ecome c onspicious a nd h ighly i nformative. F or t he f irst c ase ( sets { A-B};{B}: c f. F ig. 1 0.13), o n t he whole, w e f ind a c onfirmation o f t he e volutionary c haracteristics a lready p icked u p i n t he s urvival a nalysis f or t he n inth c entury w ith r espect t o t he p eculiarities o f t he p receding p eriod: t he most evident s hifts ( De G uio 1 984) c oncern t he p otential s oil r esources ( Fig. 1 0.10), w ith a marked i ncrease ( modal v alue o f t he p olythetic t ype 4 , l inked t o a more i ntegrated e xploitation, b oth i ntensive a nd s edentary ( primary a rable, w hich s hows t he h ighest i ncrease; s econdary a rable, r ough g razing, s emipermanent p asture), a n a lmost c omplete a bsence o f t he t ypes l inked t o t he p ractice o f t ranshumance ( low p lain, s ummer pastures, t ransient c amps, t ype 5 , 2 , 3 o f F ig. 1 0.10, c ompare b elow) a nd c onspicuous d ecline o f t hose ( type 1 i n F ig. 1 0:secondary a rable, r ough g razing) which s eem p articularly t o i ntegrate ' swidden-agriculture' a nd g razingh aymaking ( compare b elow). S imilar s hifts i n v alues c an b e r egistered w ith p erfect c orrespondence, a lso a t a d ifferent l evel o f s patial r esolution ( within s ite) a nd o n a r educed q uantitative s cale: i n t he c ases o f l imited d islocations, b etween o ne p eriod a nd t he n ext, o f t he s ettlements ( cf. F ig. 1 0.2-10.3: S antorso I -II; C ostabissara I -II; C astelgomberto S . S tefano - C astelgomberto C astello). O ther c lues, s uch a s t he g rowing s earch f or water, t he a bandonment o f t he B erico p lateau, t he a verage i ncrease i n s ite s ize, s ettlement d ispersal a nd t he appearance o f s pecialised f ood s torage c ontainers ( 'silos' c f. B alista e t a l. 1 982) a gree w ith t he p redicted s trategy o rientation, while t he s earch f or m ineral r esources i s i ndicative o f a f urther e conomic e xpansion. T he s econd d iscriminant a nalysis ( cf. F ig. 1 0.14) i s e specially u seful i n i solating c ertain l inear e volutionary t rends o f t he process s tudied, e xpansion i n B ronze A ge l and o ccupation. S ome, f or i nstance t he i ncrease o f t ype 4 o f t he p otential s oil e xploitation, t he i ncrease o f s ites o n t he b order o f t he p lain a nd i ncreased s earch f or water r esources, a lready s eem t o b e d irected t owards a p rogressive i ntegration o f t hose v alues w hich w ere l ater c haracteristicf eatures o f t he s econd p eriod. O ther c lues, f or i nstance t he movement o nto t he middle h ill z one o n t he o ne h and a nd t owards t he l ow a nd m iddle p lain r ich i n h ydromorphic s oils o n t he other, s uggest a n expansion o f t he o ther t wo s ubs trategies mentioned a bove t hat b elong t o t he f irst p eriod ( respectively: e xploitation o f g rasslands - p astures a nd ' swidden a griculture' i n t he m iddle h ill r egion/transhumance i nto t he p lains; s ee b elow). T he n ext o bligatory s tep, which i s a t p resent i n p rogress ( Fig. 1 0.15) points t o a h igher l evel o f d ata r esolution b y i solating, w ithin e ach m inimal c hronological s tep, s ome c lusters o f s ites a nd v ariables which d efine s pecific

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s trategies o r s ubstrategies. I n d oing s o w e h ope t o r each t he maximum p ossible c hronological d iscrimination a nd t o p roject t he r elevant r esults a long t he d iachronic a xis, a pproaching w ith a s ubstantial u se o f ' allactic m odels' ( Renfrew 1 979, 1 7) a n u nderstanding o f t he t emporal e volution o f t he h uman l andscape. P reliminary P roduction o f

t he M odels o f

E xplanation

T he s ummary c ritique o f t hese a nd many other c lasses o f e vidence s o f ar p roduced ( especially t hrough t he v arious t ypes o f multivariate a nalysis a nd s ignificance t ests) a lready p ermits, o n a B ayesian b asis, t he p robabilistic i ntegration ( Iosifescu a nd T autu 1 971) o f c ertain explanations. B y l imiting o urselves j ust t o o ne s ingle p eriod w e c an i n a v ery b rief s ummary s tress t he i nterpretative s ubstance o f t he f ollowing points. 1 ) T he d emographic ' boom', a ssumed t o b e c entral t o t he B ronze A ge i n t he whole p eninsula, must b e r e-discussed, a lthough w ithout i nvalidating t he a rgument f or population p ressure t hat i s c ertainly p resent i n t he t erritory u nder s tudy. T he v arious p resumed s ynchronic h uman l andscapes s o f ar c onjectured, i n f act, i n g eneral c ontain a g reat d eal o f a synchronism due t o t hree f actors ( a) s easonality o f occupation ( b) l ong t erm c ycles o f o ccupation, ( c) t he l imits o f c hronological r esolution o f t he d ata. S uch a n e valuation i nvolves a n i ncrease i n t he expected c arrying c apacity o f t he t erritory ( Brush 1 975; Z ubrow 1 975; G lassow 1 978). 2 ) D efinition o f f our p robable l ocational s trategies ( De G uio 1 984), ( a) p erilacustrine a nd n eighbouring h ill s ites w ith s easonal s hifting w ithin a n a nnual t erritory, ( b) s ites i n t he l ow p lain, t ransit-sites, a nd s ites i n t he h igh h ills o n mountains, a ll i ntegrated i n a c ircuit o f t ranshumance, ( c) s ites i n t he h ills r egion o f moderate a ltitude, l ocated i n a n a rea a t p resent c overed mainly w ith m ixed oak but c ertainly i nvolVed i n t he S ub-Boreal i n a w ider e xtension o f t he p resent mesophytic o r a lready mountain s pecies ( in p articular F agus, P icea a nd A bies ( Bertolani M archetti 1 974)), w ith i ntensive exploitation o f t he l ocal o r n earest g rasslands p astures a nd w ith s ubsistence a griculture p robably o f t he ' slash a nd b urn' t ypes. A l ow t echnological l evel a nd e nvironmental c onstraints p robably n ecessitated a p eriodic s hifting o f t he s ites. T he r elatively s mall s ize o f t he o ptimal t erritory a vailable a nd t he w idespread u se o f l arge s tructures ( terraces, e arth e nbankments) a re s uggestive o f c yclical r ather t han p ioneer s hifting ( Harris 1 972; B rush 1 975; S ereni 1 981). ( d) S ites l ocated i n p articular s egments o f a v ast e cotone ( hill margins) h ad a w ide a ccessibility o f r esources ( primary a rable, s econdary, r ough g razing a nd s emip ermanent p astures) which a lmost c ertainly f avoured a p rogressive i ntegration/intensification o f t he p rocesses o f p roduction, a n i ncreasing s tability o f s ettlement a nd a h igher l evel o f s ocial a ggregation. T his i s c onfirmed b y t he l arge a rea o f t he s ite s urface o ccupied w hich a ppears, s o f ar, t o b e u nmatched b y t he o ther c lasses o f s ites. C lose

1 64

s imilarities i n t he e conomic r epertoire a nd o f t he r ate o f s urvival w ith c ertain s ites o n h igh h ills o r mountains w hich c ontrolled t he b est s ummer p astures a nd i n w hich a re c oncentrated, s ignificantly, p restige o bjects ( amber, v itreous paste, A pennine ware), a ll s eem t o s uggest, w ith a g ood d egree o f p robability, a n i ntegrated model o f e xploitation w ith t he c ontrol o f v ast t erritories. T hese p robably i ncluded t he s ummer p astures d escribed a bove, w hich w ere r eached, i n l imited s easonal movements, b y s egments o f t he main c ommunity. T his g ives s hape t o t he i nference o f r anking i n t he s patial o rganization a nd could b e i ndicative o f a s hift f rom t ribal t o c hiefly o rganisation. T his t entative t axonomy c an b e a nalysed a nd d issected i nto i ts e volutionary p rocesses i n t he f ollowing s tages o f f unctional a ggregation/modality/dissolution f or each t ype: t ype

1

e arly/early/final

B ronze

t ype

2

e arly/middle/final

t ype

3

m iddle/recent/final B ronze A ge

t ype

4

m iddle/final

B ronze

B ronze

A ge A ge

A ge-9th/8th c entury.

3 ) T his e volutionary p lan c an b e s imulated b y a n ' epigenetic l andscape' i n w hich c atastrophe t heory f inds a lmost exemplary a pplicability: t he most r elevant v ariables i nvolved, a part f rom t he obvious t ime d imension s eems t o b e t he p opulation p ressure, t he c arrying c apacity ( which we h ave a lready c onsidered a s h aving a h igher t hreshold t han p reviously s upposed) a nd, I would s ay, e specially t he ' sociocultural ' energetic b udget' i n i ts w idest s ense ( Jochim 1 979; R enfrew 1 979; R enfrew a nd P oston 1 979) t hat i s n ecessary t o a ccomplish t he d irect b ehavioural i mplications o f e ach c lass o f s trategies ( extremely h igh, f or i nstance, i n t he s ites w here s widden a griculture was p ractised). T he d ifferent s urvival pattern, o utlined h ere o nce a gain r epresents a p recious c ontrol f or a nalytically exploring t he c hanging t raits o f t he h uman l andscape. ( based o n a t ranslation b y D ott. S am E vans)

1 65

M ATkICE

B ZA

1 83ü 47 8A5TO A L C . 4 3 F IMON—II 1. ALONTE 3 0 B USO D .RANA 5 M .TON00 2 M .CR.SOSSANO 6 M .ALTO 7 CAS.BROSIMO 1 8 M .MADAROSA 2 4 T AISSINO 8 M .CR.ARCUGN 3 1 M ONTECCNIO P 4 LOVOLO 1 2 8 REND0LA—I8A 9 M .B.GUARDIA 23 M .S.GIORGIO 2 8 M .SISILA 3 8 CALTRANO 2 6 C .GOMBERTO—S 37 P IOVENE 4 1 b RENDOLA—C.R 2 0 M .CR.VICENZA 4 6 M .COF IGNON 27 M .PALAZZO 1 6 N .CALVARINA 1 1 ALTAVILLA 3 5 S ANTORSO—I 3 S OSSANO 34 CAST.SCHIO 1 3 BRENDOLA—CAS 2 1 C .BISSARA—I 1 5 M .PARNESE 32 B REGANZE 1 7 M .CR.ARZIGN 3 3 M AGRE 36 S ANTOR50—II 1 4 M ONTEBELLO 1 9 MONTECCHIO M 40 AMOARANO 4 8 R OTZO 44 F IMON—I 2 5 C .GOMBERTO—C 2 2 C .8155ARA—II 29 P RIABONA 4 5 V ICENZA 42 B RENDOLA—T I 1 0 M .BERICO 3 9 C OGOLLO

E LM

C RONOLOGICO—CULTURALE

B Z ( 2 1

1 636

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1 3 ( 23

B ZF2

1 10)

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6 ( 0

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200

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4 +4 + 4 + 4 + ** ** **

* *

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++ + + + + + 41 .1 .4 .4 .4 -- -

++ + + + 4 ++ + + + + ++ + + + ++ +

++ + + + ++ + + + +

**

44 + +

++ + + + + + + + + + + +

+ +1 -1 .4— e++++4******* **** 4 ***

+ 4 111 -4 + + + + 4+ 44 -

++ + + + ++ + + + + + + * * * * * *

** 9 4

* * * * * * * * *X * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * 1 11-e r r 11 + +. 1 .4 .1 . 4 + + + + + + +11 -1 . + + + + + + + + + ti + +. 1-* *41 .

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+ ++++++++++

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** * *

+4 + +

+4 4 +

** * * * t * 4 .4 4 1 -14 .

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++ + + + + * * * 9 4 *

++++++ 4 * +

- -- + + + + + + + 4 + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ** ++ + + 4 ++ + + + 4+

* *4444++++++ r +++++ e ++++++re++++++++++ * * * * * * *** * * ** ** * * * * ** * * * #

F ig. 1 0.3. C hrono-cultural matrix o f t he 4 8 s ites e xamined. ( open a ir s ites f rom B ronze t o I ron Age. C ompare w ith 1 -48 o f F ig. 1 2.2.) d ivided a ccording t o 1 3 s uccessive p hases f rom t he e arly B ronze A ge ( BZA) t o t he 4 th A testino p eriod p hase I I ( IVA2) ( Balista e t a l. 1 982). O n a r oughly p roportional s cale, l argely conventional f or t he a bsolute c hronology ( 1800-50 B .C.). T he d ifferent s ymbols d enote t he d ifferent r epresentative value o f t he s amples ( decreasing i n t erms o f r elative r ank a ccording t o t he sequence + /*/-/./1. T he o rder o f t he s ites ( 1-48) h as b een s orted a ccording t o t he e arliest p hase of o ccupation.

1 66

STAR

p lan i f i cazione

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SI e l i mi n az io ne n o ise

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chart of t he r ecognition o f s trategies ( De Guio 1 982).

1 67

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1 68

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F ig. 1 0.6. P hysiographic d ata matrix a ssociated w ith t he h ill s ites. V ariables: morphological c haracteristics d irectly a ssociated w ith t he s ites ( 1-5) a nd o f t he w ider p hysiographic c ontext ( 6-15), l ocational-relational c haracteristics ( height, o rientation, p rospecting ( 16-18); w ater r esources ( 19-24) g eo-agronomic r esources ( 25-35) m ineral r esources ( 36). S cale o f m easurement: r atio ( 16); r ange ( 18, 2 4-35); presence/absence ( the r est) ( Balista e t a l. 1 982).

1 69

G RAPH O F S URVIVAL F UNCTION SURVIVAL V ARIABLE A Z GROUPED B Y B ORNDEAD

1

1

1

1 .00000

I \2 2 2 2.

0 .90000

I

0 .80000

I

0 . 70000

I

0 .60000

I

0 .50000

1

ABBANDONO-OCCUPAZIONE S TAID DEI S ITI

2

4_

1 3 14151

5 _ ,

D EI

SURVIVAL

S ITI

1 7 1 5 1 9

l lol

1 1._1

1 2

1 3

A NALYSIS

. 1

1 -1-1-1

1 -1-1-1

0 . 40000

I

0 .30000

I

0 .20000

1 1

0 .10000

I

4 1 1 > 11

0 .0 0 V ALUES O F

VALUE

1

B ORNDEAD G RAPH S YMBOL

1

2 00 S TAID DEI

400

600

8 00

1 000

S ITI

VALUE L ABEL S IT! O CCUPATI

1 200

1 400

AND T HEIR

VALUE 2

G RAPH S YMBOL 2

GRAPH

1 600

• 1 800

2 000

S YMBOLS

V ALUE L ABEL S IT! A BBANDONATI

F ig. 1 0.7.'Survival a nalysis': g raph o f t he c umulative f requency f or t he b eginning ( 1), a bundance ( 2), a nd t he s ites i n t he s uccessive c hrono-cultural p hases ( 1-13) w ith t he p ertinent s cale o f t he absolute c hronology ( 0 = b eginning o f E arly B ronze A ge).

1 70

G RAPH O F D ENSITY FUNCTION S URVIVAL V ARIABLE A Z G ROU ED B Y B ORNDEAD 1

I

1

2

ABBANDONO-OCCUPAZIONE S TATO DEI S ITI . _

1_2_141*I

2

DEI

S ITI

1 7 1 _8 1

' SURVIVAL 1 1 01

1 1.

1

12

1

1 3

I s

•

1 800

2000

A NALYSIS

0 .00500

0 .00450

2

0 . 00400

0 .00350

0 .00300

0 .00250

0 .00200

0 .00150

0 .00100

0 .00050 I t 0 .0

2 • 0

V ALUES O F

VALUE 1

F ig.

B ORNDEAD GRAPH S YMBOL 1

* I

2 2 00 . STAID DEI

400

6 00

8 00

1 1 000

S ITI

V ALUE L ABEL S ITI O CCUPATI

1 200 A ND

V ALUE 2

G RAPH S YMBOL 2

1 400

1 600

T HEIR GRAPH

SYMBOLS

V ALUE L ABEL S ITI A BBANDONATI

1 0.8. S urvival A nalysis g raph o f t he o f b eginning ( 1) a nd a bandonment

1 71

' density' f unction ( 2) o f t he s ite.

G RAPH O F HAZARD FUNCTION SURVIVAL VA T ABLE AZ G ROU ID BY BiRNDEAD

ABBANDONO-OCCUPAZIDNE S TATO D T S ITI

2 4. _

I

3

4

I *1

9

DEI

S ITI

I

7 I 8 1 9 1 101

1 .

S URVIVAL I

1 2 ,

I

1 3

I .

ANALYSIS

•

0 .04000

0 . 03600

0 .03200

0 .02800

0 .02400

0 .02000

0 .01600

0 .01200

0 .00800

0 .00400

0 .0

V ALUES O F

V ALUE 1

F ig.

Z

s i\ 2 , , 2 1 \ * * • 0

B ORNDEAD G RAPH S YMBOL 1

2

•

* *

2 00

S TAID

+

400 D EL

2

+ 6 00

i +

*

+

8 00

1200

1 000

S ITI

V ALUE L ABEL S ITI O CCUPATI

AND

VALUE 2

G RAPH S YMBOL 2

1 400 T HEIR GRAPH

1 600

1 800

2 000

S YMBOLS

V ALUE L ABEL S ITI A 88ANDONATI

1 0. 9 . S urvival A nalysis g raph o f t he ' hazard' f unction o f b eginning ( 1) a nd a bandonment ( 2) o f t he s ites.

1 72

G RAPH O F S URVIVAL FUNCTION S URVIVAL VARIABLE S URV3 GROUPED B Y POTTYPE

B ZR 1 1 .00000

*

1 111 1211ZF11

*

SURVIVAL

S OPRAVVIVENZA D AL B ZR1 T IPO 0 1 S FRUTTAMENTO P OTENZIALE

2

8 ZFt

I

I X

. _I

V IIJ_

I

_ y i l

A NALYSIS

I.V I

2

0 .90000

0 .80000

0 .70000

0 .60000

0 .50000

0 .40000 4

4

4

0 .30000

1 0 .20000

0 .10000 1

0 .0

• 0

V ALUES O F

V ALUE

•

I 4

POTTYPE GRAPH S YMBOL

1

4

• ' 80 T IPO DI VALUE L ABEL T IPO 1 T IPO 4

1

1

1

4

• 1 60

2 40

S FRUTTAMENTO

•

3 20

4 00

P OTENZIALE

VALUE 2 5

GRAPH S YMBOL 2 5

480

5 60

AND

THEIR GRAPH

V ALUE L ABEL T IPO 2 T IPO 5

6 40

7 20

8 00

S YMBOLS

V ALUE 3

GRAPH S YMBOL 3

V ALUE L ABEL T IPO 3

F ig. 1 0.10. S urvival A nalysis: g raph o f t he s urvival f unction o f s ites o cdupied a t t he b eginning o f t he r ecent B ronze A ge phase 1 ( 1300 B .C. approx) i n t he course o f t he s uccessive c hrono-cultural p hases. T he s ites a re d iscriminated i n 5 g roups o n t he b asis o f t he s oil potential ( the a sterisk d enotes t he c oincidence o f v alues: c ompare t ypes 3 ,5 which a re a lready a bandoned during t he r ecent B ronze - phase 1 a nd w hich d o n ot t herefore appear i n t he g raph ( De G uio 1 984).

1 73

M ATFICE C RJN0LOGIC0 . . .GULTORALE

B ZA

1 800 47 4 3 1 5 6 7 8 1 2 A-( B U C) 9 2 3 2 8 2 0 2 0 3 3 2 1 7 4 4 2 4 AB B ) -C 4 b 3 5 3 4 3 1 3 7 2 7 1 1 1 3 2 1 AB B 3 3 3 6 1 4 4 0 1 9 4 3 0 1 8 3 8 4 1 1 6 1 5 4 8 F r A U C )2 5

n c

( A nc ) -8 (e nc ) -A C . .(

AU

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O ASTO A L R e F IML Ie .II A LONTE M eTONDO N oALTO CA5e8ROSIM0 M .C .R.ARCOGN B RENOOLA-18A M oBeGOARDIA 1 ,5.1100010 M oSISILA C e00MBERT0-5 M oC0.VIGENZ3 5 05SANO 8 REGANZE M oGReAR1IG1 F IM I ON-1 M eCK•5355440 L OVGLO M eCGPGNON S AN URS0-1 C ASTeS8 1 11J M ONTEGCM10 P P IOVENE M .PALAllO A LTAVILLA 0 08NOGLA—CAS C aBISSARA-1 M ÄGRE S ANTORS0-11 M ONTEBELLO A NGARANO M ONTECCHIO

S IN

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44

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A

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F ig. 1 0.11. C hrono-cultural matrix ( see F ig. 1 2.3.) r eordered i n order t o h ighlight t he r elationship b etween t he 3 s ets: A ( Bronze Age s ites), B ( 9th c entury s ites), C ( 3rd - 4 th c enturies) which outline t he t hree p rincipal periods o f l and occupation.

1 74

1 5 4 8

3 1

4 0

2 7

3 7

11 -1 V

P . A .

2 2

F ig. 1 0.12. S et t heory i n t riangular f orm of t he 3 s ets A ,B,C, ( Fig. 1 2.11.), a t t he c entre are s ites common to A ,B a nd C while at t he vertices a re t hose c ommon t o t he t hree possible c ouples o f s ets, a long t he s ides t hose which are exclusive

1 75

t o

each

s et.

P ERCENT

- C 1 2 r n C L i r n

" n

G F " GROUPED"

N J • •

LL

e •

S I X 1 V N I N V I W M I C

C D C : • A

C ASES C ORRECTLY

‘ I D

CLASSIFIED:

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C L J › • p . N J Q r r a t

r P 1 .m . m . 1 .•

i

1 .•

▪ S . l •• r S -

C D + h i r S . — I —

r i m - h i h i r s . )N J r h i h i r - r u r u h i N

N J N N

N J + N J N N N J N J h5 h i r i h i N J F ' N J N)

e J N J

P a h i h i r u h i

4, +

t

t

•

+

•

•

•

+

•

•

•

F ig. 1 0 . 13. D iscriminant a nalysis b etween t he 2 s ets A -B ( Bronze A ge s ites n ot occupied i n t he 9 th century) a nd B ( sites o f t he 9 th c entury) c orresponding t o numbers 1 -2 a nd t he g raph ( on t he b asis o f t he p hysiographic v ariables).

1 76

D ISCRIMINANT

ANALYSIS

A LL-GROUPS

S CATT ERPLOT

C ANONICAL OUT x

12 •

8 •

- * I NDICATES

D ISCRIMINANT

4 •

A G ROUP

C ENTROID

F UNCTION

0

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a

f

+

+

1 2 +

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•

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8

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4

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1

1 * 1

I 1

1

; 2

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2 12

:

4 -

12

-8

C LASSIFICATIUN

A CTUAL

4

R ESULTS

G ROUP

1

G ROUP B Z.A. G ROUP O Z.M.

N ON

G ROUP 8 Z.R1

N UN 1 -2

P ERCENT

O F

0

1 2

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NU. O F C ASES

P REDICTED 1

7

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1 3

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1 6 .74

1

" GRUUPED"

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0

0 .04

C LASSIFIED:

1 3 1 00.04

9 7.144

F ig. 1 0.14. D iscriminant a nalysis b etween t he t hree s ets: BZA ( early B ronze A ge s ites), B ZM-BZA ( middle B ronze A ge s ites n ot occupied i n t he early Bronze A ge) a nd BZR1-(BZA U B ZM) ( sites o nly b elonging t o t he r ecent B ronze Age - phase 1 ) c orresponding t o numbers 1-3 ( on t he basis of t he physiographic variables).

1 77

C LUSTERING 0E1

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F ig. 1 0.15. C luster a nalysis o f t he s ites o n t he b asis o f t he s oil r esources ( Fig. 1 2.6. n o. 2 5-35): d endogram a nd ' standard matrix' r elative t o a ll t he 4 8 s ites o f t he t hree s uccessive c ycles o f occupation i n t he t erritory ( Bronze/9th c entury/3rd t o 4 th A testino p eriod: a ccording t o d ata o f 1 982) ( De G uio 1 982).

1 78

B ibliography Ammerman, a .J. r ate o f 6 74-688.

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I ntroduzione

a lla

1 971. Measuring i n Europe. Man

c ibernetica.

t he 6 ,

Ashby,

W .R. 1 971. E inaudi.

B alista,

C ., D e Guio, A . a nd Ruta S erafini, A . 1 982. L a f requentazione protostorica del t erritorio v icentino: metodologia a nalitica ed e lementi preliminari d i l ettura i nterpretativa. D ialoghi d i A rcheologia 2 , 1 13-136.

B arker,

G . 1 981. L andscape a nd I taly. L ondon, A cademic

s ociety. P ress.

B ertolani Marchetti, D . 1 974. L ineamenti del postglaciale neu e Prealpi Montagna 2 -3, 4 5-54. 1 983. P ress.

Working

at

P rehistoric

Torino,

c entral

c limatico-forestali venete. Natura e

B inford,

L .R. A cademic

A rchaeology.

Boserup,

E . 1 965. T he c onditions of agriculture growth: t he economics of agrarian c hange under pressure. Chicago, A ldine.

B rush,

S .B. 1 975. T he concept of carrying c apacity f or s ystems of s hifting cultivation. American Anthropologist 7 7, 7 99-811.

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M . A. 1 979. Breaking down t he s ystem: r ecent ecological appraoches i n a rchaeology. I n S chiffer, M .B. ( ed.) Advances i n a rchaeological method a nd t heory. vol. 2 . N ew Y ork, A cademic P ress, 7 7-117.

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a model.

S ummary T he a rea c hosen f or t his s tudy i s t he V icenza d istrict, o n t he n orthern b orders o f t he V eneto. A lthough t he s tudy a rea h as n o n atural o r h istorical b oundaries, i t was c hosen b ecause a h igh d ensity o f a rchaeological i nformation had b een f ound, a nd t here was a t radition o f r esearch b y t he U niversity o f P adua a nd t he S oprintendenza o f A rchaeology f or t he Veneto. E cologically a nd e nvironmentally, t he a rea o ffered a w ide r ange o f l andscapes, f rom l ow p lain/hills w ith ' sub-Mediterranean' v egetation, t o t he mountain a nd u pland r egion w ith ' sub-continental' c limate. T he r egion o ffered s cope f or s tudying n etworks, s uitable f or c hecking t he d iscriminant a nd s elective l ocational s trategies o f a ncient s ociocultural s ystems. T he c ore p roblem o f t he r esearch h as b een c entred o n l ocational b ehaviour embodied i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, r elating e cofacts a nd s patial-functional a nd c hronological r elationships o f t he d ata. S ome o f t he preliminary i ssues o f t he r esearch design a pplied t o t he V icentino ( through v arious a nalytical methods, e specially a n ew ' survival a nalysis' a pproach, derived f rom medical s tudies, a nd a p articular operative i ntegration o f s et-theory a nd d iscriminant a nalysis) a re s ummarised a t t he c hosen l evel o f s patial r esolution ( inter-site) a nd w ithin t he c hronological b oundaries i n o ur i nterest ( Bronze A ge/Iron A ge). T he

1 82

processed d ata o ffers a n operational b asis f or s ome positive i nferential o r d eductive e xplanatory c onstructs o n t he l ocational s trategies u nderlying t hree main periods o f l and o ccupation ( Bronze A ge/9th c entury B .C./middle a nd l ate I ron a ge), a nd o n t he e volutionary t rend. R iassunto L 'area d i s tudio c orrisponde a lla p rovincia d i V icenza, c ollocata n el margine c entro-settentrionale d el V eneto. I l motivo d i u na t ale s elezione t erritoriale, e straneo a d o gni e sigenza d i l egittimazione i n c hiave d i r egione ' naturale' o ' storica' ä d ettato e ssenzialmente d all'alta d ensitä d i i nformazione a rcheologica s ul c ampo e d alla t radizione d i s tudio c he v ede t uttora i mpegnati l 'Istituto d i A rcheologia d ell'Universitä P adova e l a S oprintendenza a rcheologica d el Veneto. L a v ariabilitä d el mosaico e cozonale i n c ui s i a rticola i i paesaggio n aturale, e steso d alla b assa p ianura e dal margine c ollinare a r egine a ncora s ublitoraneo f ino a i massicci montani c on c aratteri g iä ' subcontinentali', c ostituisce poi u na o ttimale ' rete d i c attura', c apace d i r egistrare i n modo potenzialmente d iscriminatorio i i c omportamento l ocazionale d ei s istemi s ocioculturali p reprotostorici. I n e ffetti l 'obbiettivo d ella r icerca S i ä f ocalizzato n ella r icognizione d ell'informazione l ocazionale s ottesa a gli a spetti morfo e d e co-culturali n ei l oro c ontesti s pazio-funzionale e c ronologico. A lcuni dei r isulatati preliminari ( conseguiti a ttraverso v an i metodi a nalitici, s pecialmente u n a pproccio d i t ipo ' analisi d ella s opravvivenza' mutuato d alle s cienze mediche e u na particolare i ntegrazione operativa d i t eoria d egli i nsiemia nalisi d iscriminante) v engono presenatati s inteticamente c on r iferimento a l l ivello d i r isoluzione s paziale s elezionato ( 'inter-site') e a lla c ornice c ronologica i ndagata ( Bronzo/Ferro). L 'elaborzione dei d ati, f ornisce u na b ase operativa per l 'integrazione p robabilisitica d i alcuni c ostrutti e splanatori s ui modelli e p rocessi l ocazionali s ottesi a i t re p rincipali c icli d i f requentazione d el t erritorio i ndividuati ( Bronzo/ 9 s ecolo/media e t arda e ta d el F erro) e a lla l oro t raiettoria evolutiva.

1 83

1 1.

B ONU I GHINU

- S ITE A ND

S ETTING

D avid T rump

While e normously worthwhile r esults h ave b een a chieved i n t he I talian a rea i n r ecent y ears f rom s urface s urveys o n a r egional s cale, t here i s s till a n u rgent n eed o f much more i ntensive r esearch o ver more n arrowly r estricted a reas. S uch p rojects a re l ikely t o b e e ven more f ruitful i f c ombined w ith excavation o f s elected s ites. T hough b road p atterns o f, f or example, g eomorphological c hange o f t he l andscape may b e l ess easily r ecovered, t he more i ntimate r elationship o f s ite w ith s etting, a nd s ite w ith s ite w ithin t hat s etting, may well prove particularly i lluminating. I n t he B onu I ghinu v alley, c ommune M ara ( Sassari, S ardinia), c ontrary t o t he u sual t endency o f l ate, t he s ite c ame f irst, t he s tudy o f i ts s etting a rising n aturally f rom t he questions p osed b y t he s ite. T hat i n t urn l ed t o t he i nvestigation o f o ther s ites, a nd t he r ealisation t hat t hese s hould n ot b e, c ould n ot b e, r egarded a s d iscrete e ntities w ihin t he s etting, b ut a s d ifferent manifestations, s ome s uccessive, s ome c ontemporary, o f t he a ctivities o f a h uman c ommunity w ithin i ts t erritory. A ttention f irst f ocused o n t he a rea when D on R . L oria, i n t he course o f s pelaeological e xploration, d iscoverd pottery a nd b ones i n t he c ave k nown a s S a ' Ucca d e S u T intirriolu i n 1 969. A t t he i nstigation o f P rofessor E . C ontu, a f ull excavation was mounted b y t he S oprintendenza a lle A ntichitä per l e p rovincie d i S assari e Nuoro i n 1 971, d irected b y t he writer. S ince i t h as b een f ully published ( Loria a nd T rump 1 978), detail c an b e k ept t o a m inimum h ere. E xtremely r ich d eposits o f O zieri material o verlay a p oorer but i ntact l evel o f B onu I ghinu t ype, h ere f or t he f irst t ime i solated a nd s tudied. T he r ichness o f t he p ottery a nd s tone i ndustry i n quality a s well a s quantity, t he p resence o f f igurines a nd e ngraved h uman d ancing f igures o n t he pottery ( Loria 1 971), t he d iscovery o f h uman b ones, t he b anks o f c harcoaly a sh, a nd a bove a ll t he d ifficulty o f a ccess ( the e ntrance passage i s u nder a m etre h igh) a nd s pectacular s talagmitic f ormations i nside, p ersuaded u s t hat t his was n ot a dwelling but a s anctuary. R econnaissance s oon l ocated a l ikely s ettlement f or i ts ' worshippers'. 3 50 m . d ownstream, t he G rotta F iliestru opens i n t he r ocky a nd s crubby h illside o f t he s ame v alley, i mmediately above a p erennial s pring. T hough n ot l arge, i t c ould h ave a ccommodated t wo t o t hree f amilies v ery c omfortably. E xcavation t o c onfirm t he s upposition was c arried o ut b y t he s ame a uthority, n ow u nder D r. F . N icosia, i n 1 979-80 ( Trump 1 983). O ccupation h ad b een j ust a s i ntense a s i n S u T intirriolu, b ut o ver a much l onger period, f rom am t 1 85

P late 1 1.1. T he B onu I ghinu b asin f rom Monte N oe ( see F ig. 1 1.1): 1 . Mule t rack t o M ara; 2 . N uraghe S ant' A ndria; 3 . Nurache Monte T ilepere; 4 . R oman s ite; 5 . t he C astello, v illage a nd c astle; 6 . B itti c emetery; 7 . F iume T emo v alley i n d istance.

1 86

E arly N eolithic w ith C ardial Ware t o immediately p re-Nuragic w ith S a Turricula . A s eries o f twelve 14 C d ates t hrough t he 3 m . of deposit r anged, i n the r ight s tratigraphical order, f rom 4 760 ± 7 5 t o 1 490 t 4 0 b .c. Again we s hall not dwell on t he c ultural s uccession a nd c hronology, b ut e nquire f urther i nto t he f unction o f t he c ave. T here was a s ubtle c hange a t a bout t he B onu I ghinu l evel, a round 4 500 b .c. A bove t hat point, t he r ate o f a ccumulation s lackened markedly, carbonised grain a nd p igments were no l onger f ound, querns a nd b one awls b ecame much 1 9ss f requent, t he p roportion o f p ottery well-finished o r d ecorated declined sharply, far below that of Su Tintirriolu, and the r epresentation o f ' prime j oints' i n t he a nimal b ones r educed s ignificantly ( analysis M . L evine). I t l ooked a s i f the community had moved t o more commodius quarters elsewhere, l eaving t he G rotta F iliestru t o more c asual occupation b y t he f locks a nd herds a nd t heir custodians. T his was perhaps t he moment when our casual i nterest i n t he surrounding area s trengthened with t he r ealisation t hat we h ad t o e xplore t he whole of i t throughly i f we were to understand our s ites. This extension of the research was encouraged by the s ucceeding S oprintendente, Dottoressa F . Lo S chiavo. The r esults, g athered o ver a number o f years a nd s till c oming i n a t t he t ime o f writing, c an b e d escribed u nder two h eadings, b oundaries a nd c ontents ( Plate 1 1.1 a nd F ig . 1 1 .1). North east of the valley, the trachitic cliffs s urrounding Monte T raessu are almost unscalable, and t he plateau of jumbled rock above, r ising t o a n altitude of 7 17 m . would never have had a ny attraction to man. I t i s worth s tressing that at this early period the i sland h eld no g ame l arger t han the f ox, s o hunting was of no s ignificance. The f irst c ertain p iece o f d eer b one f rom t he F iliestru d eposits was i n t he u ppermost l evel. To t he east, t he dolina of Tuva e Mare continues t he p hysical b arrier, a nd marks t he b eginning o f a l arge a rea of scrub grazing at b est. T he h ills t hen drop t o g ive t he only b road opening i nto t he v alley, a nd t he o nly s tretch where t he b oundary i s not c learly d efined. A ccess i s e asy e astwards u p t he valley of the Su S egadu and across a b arely perceptible watershed b elow C ossoine i nto t he central plateau of t he L ogudoro. T o t he south east t he b arrier i s not apparent until one r eaches the l ip o f i t, s ince the S u S egadu r iver i s deeply i ncised here i n a s teep valley. P assage across i t t o t he h ills above Pozzomaggiore i s not impossible, but certainly d ifficult . N or i s t here a ccess a long i ts f loor t o t he b roader b asin i n i ts lower course, b elow Mara and Padria. I nstead, t he o ld mule t rack t o Mara c limbs over t he d ifficult s houlder of Monte T ilepere a bove i t t o t he west . T he present r oad i nto t he valley wriggles b etween Monte T ilepere a nd t he craggy p eak o f t he C astello d ei B onvei, o r d i B onu I ghinu, a t 5 10 m . T his

i n

turn drops to a narrow defile,

1 87

altitude

2 21 m .,

Mon te T raessu 7 1 7

6 5 7 r * . » _ • • L i. --.

i „ .u . , )

j . N4 :

• •( ' . /

+

+

•' "/" .• .Ch iesa

, .

d

•

\' ,

1 ,.

,. :4. (

•

Monte

-

1

. • 3 0 c y

N oe \ ' g) • • . 1T uva e \ ° \ • 4\ 2„ Mare

': •

I

4 -

S .

? 1k m .

1 1.1. T he B onu I ghinu b asin, l imits a nd e nvironment. 00000=boundary; 7 7 =cultivable a reas; + =springs; 1 > v iew i n P late 1 1.1; 2 - v iew i n P late 1 1.2.

Fi g.

-

1 88

F ig. 1 1.2. The B onu I ghinu basin, early Neolithic s ettlement pattern. 1 . G rotta F iliestru; 2 . S a Ucca de Su T intirriolu.

1 89

where t he R io B adeddu cuts b etween t he C astello a nd t he c olumnar b asalt c liffs o f M onte P eidru. A l ane, f ollowing a f ormer muletrack, l eaves t he v alley b y t his d efile. T he whole o f t he r est o f t he w est s ide o f t he B onu I ghinu b asin i s f ormed b y a l ine o f h ills, c rossable w ithout g reat d ifficulty b ut s creening progressively p oorer a nd s teeper c ountry, w ith l ess a nd l ess t o o ffer e ven i n t he w ay o f r ough g razing i n t he macchia. O nly t o t he n orth i s t here, 1 .5 k m. o ff, a s mall i sland o f c ultivable s oil b y t he C asale L occhera, d ominated b y t he N uraghe M andra s as E bbas. A round much o f t his c ircuit, t he c ountry i s i tself a r eal p hysical b arrier. A t t hree p oints where a ccess i s e asy, b roadly t o t he s outh e ast, a nd b y n arrow passes t o s outh a nd s outh west, e ither s ide o f t he C astello, t here a re p robably o r c ertainly o ther c onstraints. T he l ower B adeddu v alley, d own t o i ts c onfluence w ith t he F iume T emo, was c ontrolled f rom, owned b y, a prehistoric v illage a t S anta V ittoria, a s ite r eoccupied i n t he M iddle A ges t hough n ow a gain abandoned. T he M ara-Padria b asin w as d ominated b y a major s ite b eside t he l atter v illage. T here must have b een a nother w here t he S egadu b asin o pens o ut u pstream t o t he e ast, t hough i t h as n ot yet b een l ocated o r l ooked f or. W ith t he a ddition o f t hese political r estraints t o t he g eographical o nes, t he B onu I ghinu v alley i s d efined a s a t erritory, t he h ome o f a h uman c ommunity t hroughout past t ime. T his t erritory, t hen, i s n ot a g eometrial c onstruction, e ither a p olygon b ased o n k nown s ites, o r a c ircle d rawn f rom one a t i ts c entre, b ut s omething w ith a d emonstrable existence. A f irst point e merges i mmediately. A c ircle o f exploitation f or a f arming s ettlement i s c onventionally g iven a r adius o f 5 km., a nd s o a t otal area o f 7 8.5 k m. 2 . T he B onu I ghinu b asin measures a pproximately 4 km. x 2 .5, w ith a n a rea o f o nly 1 0 k m. 2 , perhaps r ather more i f o ne i ncludes t he r ough g razing t o n orth a nd east. But i t i s t ime t o t urn t o t he c ontents o f t he t erritory, n ot a t s ome s ingle moment o f t he p ast but a s a s eries o f s uccessive moments. W ith a n i ndividual t erritory t o s tudy, t he c hanging p attern o f exploitation i s b ound t o b e more i nstructive t han a ny s ingle o ne, j ust a s a l ength o f c ine f ilm c onveys f ar more t han i ts s eparate f rames. I t w ill c ertainly t hrow u p q uestions o f s ocial organisation a nd o f c ultural d evelopment, a s w ill b e s hown s hortly. I n t he e arlier p eriod o f t he G rotta F iliestru's u se, t hat i s i n t he C ardial t o about t he B onu I ghinu p hase, t here s eems t o h ave b een n o o ther s ettlement i n t he a rea, a nd e ven S u T intirriolu c ame t o b e f requented o nly a t i ts very e nd ( Fig. 1 1.2). W e may s uppose t hat t he a ttraction o f F iliestru was p rimarily t he cave i tself a nd i ts s pring, a nd t hat t he s mall g roup occupying i t was a ble t o g row t he f ew c rops ( emmer, e inkorn a nd pea a re a ttested) i t n eeded f or i ts s ubsistence i n t he r estricted c ultivable a rea i n t he i mmediate n eighbourhood. N or was t here a ny p roblem a bout t he g razing o f i ts f locks a nd h erds. T he main b asin t o t he s outh may h ave

1 90

Plate 1 1.2. North s lope of Bonu I ghinu basin ( telephoto, see F ig. 11.1): 1 . Roman s ites; 2 . Nuraghe Sant' Andria; 3/ Monte Noe; 4 . Nuraghe S alaserru; 5 . prehistoric v illage s ite, F iliestru valle b ehind; 6 . Monte Traessu; 7 . Tuva e Mare; 8 . Nuraghe S alighentosa.

1 91

F ig. 1 1.3. M iddle N eolithic t o middle B ronze A ge s ettlement pattern. 1 . G rotta F iliestru; 2 . S u T intirriolu; 3 . M onte N oe v illage s ite; 4 . B itti c emetery; 5 . S anta V ittoria v illage 6 ; N oeddos v illage.

1 92

b een

u sed

f or n o other purpose.

But a s t he c ommunity g rew i n s ize, i t moved, s omewhere a bout 4 500 b .c., t o a f lat s pur a bove t hat main v alley, s heltered f rom t he n orth w inds o f w inter b y Monte N oe a nd T uva e M are, s upplied w ith water b y s mall s prings a bove a nd a major o ne i n a f old o f t he h illside i mmediately b elow, w ith a n extensive a rea s uitable f or c ultivation dropping d own t o t he valley f loor, a ll u nder t he v illage's w atchful eye ( Fig. 1 1.3). O pposite i t, o n t he f lank o f t he C astello, i ts c emetery was f ounded a nd g rew eventually t o c ontain s ome d ozen r ock-cut t ombs o f v arying c omplexity. I t was early i n t his p eriod t hat t he r ichest o f S u T intirriolu's r itual d eposits a ccumulated. T hat t he poorer country a round t he F iliestru v alley r emained e xploited i s s hown b y t he c ontinuing d eposits i n t he G rotta F iliestru, p robably r epresenting f requent b ut more o r l ess c asual u se b y t he s hepherds a nd h erdsmen f or a nother 3 000 y ears. I n t he s ame g eneral p eriod, o ther a rchaeological material s hows t hat s helters o verlooking t he T uva e M are d olina a nd t he S u S egadu g orge w ere a lso a t l east o ccasionally r esorted t o, f or s imilar r easons. U nfortunately, n atural e rosion o n t he v illage s ite, a nd human d isturbance coupled w ith d ecay o f t he s oft v olcanic a sh i n which t he t ombs o f t he c emetery a re cut, mean t hat a rchaeological d eposits a re a vailable f or s tudy o n n either o f t hese c rucial s ites. I nvestigation o f a c omparable v illage s ite, w ith d eposits i n a nd a round two c ircular s tone-built h uts b eside t he N uraghe N oeddos, o n t he e xternal s lope o f t he C astello a nd d ating t o r oughly 2 000-1500 B .C., b egan i n 1 982 a nd c ontinued i n 1 984. 1 500 b .c. i s a c rucial d ate f or t he valley a nd f or S ardinia a s a whole. T he M onte N oe v illage a nd F iliestru a nd S u T intirriolu c aves were a ll a bandoned. I n p lace o f t he n ucleated s ettlement pattern b ased o n a c entral v illage, t he s ucceeding one w as markedly d ipersed, b ased o n n ine s eparate n uraghi ( Fig. 1 1.4). O f t hese, only t hree a re k nown t o have a ssociated huts. E ach n uraghe c onsists o f a c ircular t ower o f 1 2.5 m . a verage d iameter, w ith i n most c ases demonstrably a c entral c hamber t hough o nly o ne, T rescoronas, h as t hat c hamber s till i ntact. N one i n t he v alley s urvives t o t he 1 0 m . o r s o o f t hose w hich f igure i n t he i sland's p icture p ostcards o r t ravel p osters. T hree e xtreme i nterpretations o f t his s ituation a re p ossible. 1 ) A ll n ine n uraghi w ere c ontemporary, e ach r epresenting a s ingle f amily g roup l arge e nough t o provide t he manpower t o e rect t hese s tructures a s d efences a gainst t heir i mmediate h ostile n eighbours. 2 ) O ne s uch f amily g roup e rected a nuraghe t o exert c ontrol o ver t he v alley, r eplacing i t w ith a nother o n a n ew s ite every c entury or s o w hen i t n eeded r epair. 3 ) A s ingle c ommunity occupied t he v alley, b uilding n uraghi b y c ooperative e ffort f or t he u se o f i ts c omponent f amilies, j ointly d efending t he v alley a s a whole. T he p ossibility o f s ome nuraghi having f unctions o ther t han

1 93

F ig. 1 1.4. Nuragic period s ettlement pattern. Nuraghi 1 . Mandra s as Ebbas; 2 . f edra e Multa; 3 . Cuguruntis; 4 . Monte P eidru; 5 . Sant' A ndria; 6 . S alaserru; 7 . S alighentosa; 8 . T res C oronas; 9 . Monte T ilepere; 1 0. P irasta; 1 1. N oeddos; 1 2. F ratta.

1 94

t he

s trictly d efensive s hould n ot b e e ntirely o verlooked.

N one o f t hese e xtreme v iews i s v ery c redible o n i ts own, b ut a ll have a ttractive f eatures, a nd c ertainly t hey a re not mutually exclusive. T he f irst v iew i s c losest t o t he c onventional o ne, i ts main d isadvantage b eing i n u nderstanding h ow s o many c ommunities l arge e nough t o c arry o ut c onstructional works o f t his s ize c ould b e s upported o n t he modest a rea o f c ultivation a vailable t o e ach o ne i n t he v alley, particularly i n t he f ace o f c onstant t hreat f rom n eighbours. T he s econd, t he f requent r eplacement o f n uraghi, i s patently u neconomic, b ut c ould well have h appened o n o ccasion. T he o nly n uraghe e xcavation i n t he i mmediate n eighbourhood, t hat a t N oeddos a lready mentioned, s uggested t hat t hat s ite was b oth b uilt a nd a bandoned i n t he n uragic p eriod. I e nvisage i t working s omething l ike t his. T he f amily o ccupying t he n uraghe o n M onte P eidru h ad g iven t hemselves a n u nnecessarily d ifficult p roblem i n c hoosing t hat s ite, o f v ery d ifficult a ccess. B ut i f g iven t he e ncouragement a nd p hysical a ssistance o f a ll t heir n eighbours i n t he v alley, w ho r ecognised t he s trategic n eed o f h olding t he t rack t hrough t he d efile a t i ts f oot, t hey would have b een much more r eady t o a ccept t he d isadvantages. T his n uraghe c ould even have b een a j oint e nterprise o f t he v alley c ommunity a s a w hole, n ot o nly i n c onstruction b ut a lso i n g arrisoning. C learly a ll t he p receding i s h ighly s peculative. A t l east t he detailed s urvey o f t he a rea h as b rought t he p roblems i nto s harp f ocus, a nd t hat c an o nly b e t o t he g ood. F or f urther p rogress t o b e made, more r esearch i s o bviously c alled f or, b y excavation, t o d ate t he i nception, duration a nd n ature o f o ccupation a t e ach nuraghe, o r b y f urther s urvey t o a ssess b etter t he e conomic potential o f e ach's c atchment a rea a nd t o e nsure c omplete r ecovery o f s ites, o r i n a ny other way which s hows p romise o f y ielding n ew a nd r elevant i nformation. A nd s o f ar I am not p repared e ven t o s peculate o n t he p roblem o f what c aused t hat apparently s udden a nd very marked c hange of s ettlement pattern a round 1 500 b .c. T he s tory o f t he v alley d id n ot, o f c ourse, e nd w ith t he d ecline o f t he n uraghi. N o e vidence h as y et c ome t o l ight h ere o f t he t ransition f rom n ative t o p rovincial R oman. B y t he t urn o f t he C hristian e ra, a s s hown b y s herds o f C ampanian b lack-slipped wares, a l arge f arm e stablishment, b ut w ith n o wall p laster o r mosaic f ragments t o s uggest a ny l evel o f opulence had a ppeared i n t he s heltered v alley b elow M onte N oe ( Fig. 1 1.5). B y e arly i mperial t imes, a nother r ose o n t he t errace a t t he f oot o f t he o pposite s lope a nd s maller s catters s uggest more modest o nes e lsewhere i n t he v alley. But h ere w e a re d ealing n ot w ith s mall s ubsistence c ommunities b ut l arge s cale e xploitation o f t he v alley a s p art o f a c ash e conomy, quite possibly b y a bsentee l andowners. T he p attern, h owever, r emains s imilar i n t he way t hat t he s ites c luster r ound t he a griculturally r icher p art o f t he b asin. A fter a nother p eriod

f or w hich e vidence o n

1 95

t he g round

i s

F ig.

11.5.

Roman

s ettlement B addeda; 3 .

pattern. N oeddos.

1 96

1 .

S alaserru;

2 .

F ig. 1 1.6. M edieval s ettlement pattern and .. . paved mule tracks. 1 . Chiesa d i Bonu I ghinu; 2 . C astello dei B onvei a nd a ssociated v illage; 3 . Santa V ittoria v illage a nd c hapel.

1 97

c ompletely l acking. A p artial p icture r eappears f or t he M iddle A ges ( Fig. 1 1.6). T hen t he c astle r ose o n t he i solated p eak which i s s uch a f eature o f t he l andscape o ver a much w ider a rea t han j ust t he B onu I ghinu b asin - i t s tands u p p roudly i n t he v iew f rom V illanova d i Monteleone, 1 5 km. o ff. L ittle o f t he s tructure r emains - a t ower c ommanding a n e ven more r uined g ateway, a nd a t t he f urther e nd o f t he s ite a c istern. A s catter o f s herds d own t he n orthern s lope s uggests a s ettlement a t i ts g ates, providing i ts s ervices a nd f ood. T he v illage a t S anta V ittoria, 1 .5 k m. t o t he w est, must a lso have b een u nder i ts i mmediate c ontrol. O f t his, o nly a much r uined c hapel r emains s tanding. B ut even more t han i n R oman t imes, t he s tory o f t he a rea now f orms part o f a much b roader o ne, a s t he B onvei o f B onu I ghinu d isputed a w ide p art o f t he T emo v alley w ith t he D oria o f M onteleone, 7 .5 km. t o t he n orth west. D ocumentary r esearch w ould p robably y ield more f or t his p eriod t han f urther a rchaeology. O ther e xamples a re t he question o f w hether t here was a p redecessor t o t he present 1 7th c entury c hapel o f B onu I ghinu, a nd i f p ossible a d ate f or t he v alley's well-built muletracks, n ow i n c omplete d ereliction, not only t he o ne s till o ccasionally u sed d own t o M ara, b ut a lso t hat w hich o nce b isected t he v alley o n a n e ast-west c ourse f rom C ossoine t o R omana. T he modern pattern i s a n e xtreme e xample o f t he r esults o f a move t o a c ash e conomy. A griculture h as b een a lmost e ntirely abandoned, a part f rom a f ew s cattered v ineyards, a nd i n i ts p lace t he whole a rea i s g iven o ver t o s heep pasturage. T his y ields l arge quantities o f m ilk which i s c arried o ff twice d aily b y t anker l orry f or t he i ndustrial production o f c heese. T he f locks a re t ended a nd m ilked b y t heir owners, who c ome out d aily b y c ar, motor s cooter o r d onkey f rom t heir h omes i n t he v illage o f M ara. T he v alley i s d eserted b y man a t n ight, e xcept f or t he archaeologists during t he b rief excavating s eason. I t i s h oped t hat t he s tudy o f t his s mall a rea may u sefully c omplement s urveys o n t he r egional s cale r eported e lsewhere i n t his c onference, b y g iving a d epth o f d etail a nd c ompleteness which t hey could not expect t o y ield. But c learly, our v alley s tory c annot b e u nderstood i n c omplete i solation. W e n eed t o l ook a t o ur s tudy a rea a s t hrough a z oom l ens, s ince b oth d istant p erspective a nd m iroscopically c lose e xamination a re e qually n ecessary. I ts f irst i nhabitants s uplemented t heir p lentiful l ocal j asper w ith obsidian imported f rom M onte A rci, 7 5 km. away, t o t he extent of s ome 3 0% o f t heir f laked s tone ( by number o f f ragments, much l ess b y weight). T he f ine muletracks s how t hat movement i nto a nd o ut o f t he v alley was i mportant i n medieval t o n earr ecent t imes. M idway b etween t he t wo, a s herd o f a h igh quality L HIIIC c up was f ound s poradically w ithin a k ilometre o f M ara v illage ( Grotta S u G uanu, c or n. P ozzomaggiore) a nd w ell w ithin t he 5 k m. c ircle o f B onu I ghinu i n t he s ummer o f 1 983. T his h ad b een i mported, b y means we s hould d early l ike t o k now more a bout, f rom a v ery much g reater d istance away. B onu

I ghinu had i ts own

s tory,

1 98

a t a ll

t imes

r elated

t o

t hose o f much w ider a reas. W e may h ope t hat i ts f urther s tudy w ill p erhaps y ield a nswers o f c orrespondingly w ider i mport t han i ts 1 0 km. 2 m ight s uggest.

B ibliography L oria,

R . 1 971. F igurette s chematiche f emminili n ella c eramica e neolitica d ella S ardegna. R ivista d i S cienze P reistoriche 2 6 ( 1), 1 79-202.

L oria,

R . a nd T rump, D .H. 1 978. L e s coperte a ' Sa U cca d e s u T intirriolu' e i i n eolitico s ardo. M onunmenti A ntichi s erie m isc. 2 ( 2), 1 13- 2 56.

T rump,

D .H. 1 983. L a g rotta d i F iliestru a B onu I ghinu, M ara ( SS). Q uaderni-13, S oprintendenza a i B eni A rcheol ogici p er l e P rovincie d i S assari e Nuoro, S assari.

S ummary S ince 1 969, t wo c ave s ites, S a U cca d e S u T intirriolu a nd t he G rotta F iliestru, have b een excavated i n t he B onu I ghinu b asin, c or n. M ara, b y t he S oprintendenza a lle A ntichitä, S assari. Work c ontinues o n a v illage s ite b eside t he Nuraghe N oeddos j ust o utside t he v alley. B etween t hem, t hey were o ccupied f rom c 4 800 t o 1 500 b .c. Questions a s t o t heir s ocial a nd e conomic f unction h ave l ed t o a d etailed s urvey o f t he 1 0 km. 2 o f t he v alley, r evealing many other s ites. W e n ow h ave t he o utlines o f a s tory o f t he whole s pan o f h uman exploitation o f t he a rea d own t o t he present t ime a nd i ts r elationship t o s urrounding a reas. T he main o utstanding p roblem, c urrently b eing i nvestigated, i s t he N uragic period, r epresented b y n ine n uraghi w ithin t he v alley. R iassunto I due s iti i n g rotta d i S a U cca d e S u T intirrioulu e G rotta F iliestru, n el b acino d i B onu I ghinu ( comune d i M ara) s ono i n c orso d i s cavo d a parte d ella S oprintendenza A rcheologica d i S assari d al 1 969. G li s cavi r iguardano a nche u n v illaggio p ress° i i N uraghe N oeddos s ubito f uori d ella v alle. N ell'insieme, questi s iti s ono s tati occupati d al 4 800 a l 1 500 b .c. P er l a c omprensione d ella l oro s ignificato s ociale e d e conomico, s i ä c ompiuta u na r icognizione s istematica della v alle ( ca. 1 0 k m. 2 ) c he h a portato a lla s coperta d i molti a ltri s iti. I i r isultato d i queste r icherche ä l a possibilitä d i i dentificare n eu e l inee g enerali l a s toria d ella v alle f ino a i n ostri g iorni e i s uoi r apporti c on l e a ree c ircostanti. I i principale problema s ul quale a ttualemente l a r icerca ä c oncentrata ä i i p eriodo Nuragico, r appresentato d a n ove n uraghi n ell'area della v alle

1 99

1 2.

TOPOGRAPHIC

A CONTRIBUTION I N

S URVEY

OF

TOWARDS

T HE COLFIORITO D I

FOLIGNO

P LATEAU

THE STUDY OF THE POPULATION

THE TERRITORY OF THE PLESTINI

L aura

Bonomi

P onzi

I ntroduction The C olfiorito d i F oligno p lateau ( Perugia) has f or c enturies b een i dentified by s cholars a s t he t erritory o f the Umbrian P lestini ( Jacobilli 1 617, 3 66; Mengozzi 1 781) ( Fig. 1 2.1). T he small church o f S . Mario d i P istia, p laced a lmost a t t he c entre o f t he plateau, b etween C olfiorito a nd T averne, has a lways b een i ndicated a s t he l ocation of t he R oman municipium of P lestia ( Nissen 1 902, 3 88; Rossetti 1 970). S poradic f inds dating t o t he end o f t he last a nd the f irst half o f t he present c entury, ( Faloci 1 890, 3 15; F renfarelli 1 896, 2 20; S tefani 1 934, 4 53) and especially the r esults obtained f rom t he r egular excavation s easons c onducted during t he last twenty years by t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica f or Umbria 1 have confirmed t he h istorical a nd archaeological importance o f t his t erritory. T he r esults o f t he excavations a nd t he development o f r esearch f ocused on the landscape, environment a nd t opography a nd more i mportantly, a n i ncreasing k nowledge o f t his a rea a nd t he people who l ive t here, o f their t raditions a nd the c urrent t ransformations, have s timulated t he author t o attempt a r econstruction, a s completely a s possible, of the h istory of t hese populations which i nhabited t he t erritory of t he P lestini. T his i s a presentation of the i nitial r esults. T he

area

i s

o f

i nterest,

not

only

h istorically

a nd

archaeologically but also environmentally a nd i n t erms of the l andscape, s ince t here i s a c lose connection b etween t he environment, t he r esources of t he t erritory a nd the h istorical events which h ave h ad v arying impacts according t o t heir i ntensity. T he h istory of t his a rea, more t han b eing marked by exceptional events i s one o f permanent a nd s low t ransformations, whose traces even i f at t imes very f aint, a re s till almost a lways decipherable. E nvironment The p lateau which c onstitutes t he C olfiorito b asin ( approximately 9 3 km. 2 ) ( Lotti 1 926; L ippi B oncampi 1 940) i s l ocated a t t he watershed o f t he Umbro-Marchigiano A pennines b etween F oligno a nd Nocera Umbra. I t i s made u p of various k arstic depressions w ith f lat b ottoms, u sually orientated on a n east-west axis ( with varied h eights of 7 50-800 m .). T hese make up s even s mall valleys or p lateaus l ocated a s f ollows:

2 01

1 . bono m o ponz o

F ig.

UMBR ih

K ;

I CAI A ,

A ha r l i d

TEF tR IT OR I O DE I PLEST IN I I N RAPPORTO ALL ' U MBRIA ( macm . -F4 2 3w s r )

1 2.1.

T he

Umbrian

s etting P lestini.

2 02

o f

t he

t erritorio

dei

A ) P iano d i R icciano i n t he s outheast; B -C) P iano d i C ollecroce i n t he n orth f ollowed b y P iano d i A nnifo; D ) P iano d i A rvello i n t he west; E ) T he marsh o f C olfiorito i n t he c entre; F ) P iano d i P opolo a nd C esi i n t he s outh; G ) P iano d i C olfiorito a nd d i C asone i n t he e ast. A ll t hese i ntercommunicating p lateaus ( with t he modern e xception o f R icciano) t owards t he e nd o f t he P leistocene must have b een occupied b y a s ingle l ake. T he waters o f t his l ake partly r etreated a s t he r esult o f t ectonic a ction a nd t he a ccumulation o f a lluvial material l eaving t wo p ermanent l akes: s till existent a t C olfiorito, a nd a nother a t C asone. I n t heir s enile p hase t hey w ere b oth marshes. T he l atter was s o r educed i n s ize t hat i t was d rained b y t he V arano n obles o f C amerino i n t he f ifteenth c entury 3 . T his l ake p robably c orresponds t o t he l acus p lestinus o f t he a ncient s ources ( Liv. 2 2, 8 , 9 ; P olyb 3 , 8 6; C orn. N ep. H ann. 4 3; A pp. H ann. 9 , 1 1). T he l and, o ver 7 50 - 8 00 m ., was above t he waterallowing b oth s ettlement a nd t ransit t o t ake p lace. T he s ides o f t he b asin a re made u p o f mountain s lopes which s tart o n t he o uter l imits o f t he p lateaus a nd o thers which r ise u p b etween p lateaus l ocated a long p arallel a nticlines r unning n orth-south ( Lotti 1 926, 1 63). V arious p eaks r ise b eyond 1 000 m . a nd amongst t hese i s Mt. P ennino ( 1571 m .) t o t he n orth, M t. P refoglio ( 1322 m .) t o t he east a nd Mt. T olagna t o t he s outh e ast ( 1404 m .). I n t hese mountain s lopes t here are t hree d eep i ncisions; o ne i s o n t he s outh-west f ace, i n t he P lain o f R icciano, t hrough which o ne r eaches t he M enotre Valley; A nother i s i n t he e astern f ace, i n t he P lain o f C olfiorito, which l eads i nto t he C hienti Valley. A t hird o ne i s i n t he n orth-west f ace i n t he P lain o f C ollecroce, which l eads i nto t he E gna V alley t owards t he T opino. T he r ocks b elong t o t he U mbrian-Marche s tratigraphic s equence a nd a re mainly r epresented b y r ed a nd p ink marl, w hite a nd g rey l imestone a nd s ome t race o f g rey a nd r eddish c alcareous s chist, b lack b itumous s chist a nd s olid white l imestone ( Lippi B oncampi 1 940). I nstead, t he b ottom o f t he p lateaus i s made u p o f a t hick a lluvial d eposit o f s caglia r ossa pebbles a nd b y b lack e arth r ich i n h umus. T he whole b asin i s r ich i n water which f lows i nto t he p lateaus f rom t he mountain s lopes, p artly t hrough a rtificial c hannels. T he p lains b ecome easily i nnundated, a nd t he o utflow o f t he water o nce t ook p lace b y a bsorbtion a nd t hrough n atural k arstic drainage 4 . e xample, a t C apofossa, C asone e tc., k arstic a ction.

S prings f ound, f or a re a lso t he r esult o f

T he v egetation, u p t o r ecent t imes ( see b elow h ow r ecently t he i ntroduction o f n ew c ultivated s pecies o r r ef orestation h as b rought a bout c onsiderable a gricultural a nd e nvironmental c hange) was made u p o f g rasslands o n t he g reater part o f t he p lateaus o f a gricultural c ultivation o n t he l ower mountains o f s mall t hickets o f h olm oak ( Quercus

2 03

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i lex) a nd mixed oak, a nd then o f pastures l ocated on t he s teeper or more r ugged mountains. T his i s not however a n atural phenomenon, as might s eem s uperficially, but t he r esult of changes brought about t hrough the centuries b y a c ombination of a s eries of f actors, t he most important one b eing man. P ollen

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of Colfiorito ( Paganelli 1 956, 4 7 ff.; Paganelli 1 958; Marchesoni 1 959) has permitted a n outline of t he h istory of t he c limate a nd woodland o f t he p lateau from t he e nd o f t he l ast i ce-age u p t o t he Medieval period a nd have provided i nteresting results u seful i n the study of the h istory of h uman h abitation . The stratigraphic s equence ( 0 - 0 .5 m . grass l ayer; 0 .15 - 0 .85 m . p eat; 0 .85 - 8 .15 m . l acustrine c lay) i ndicates t he existence of two types of s edi mentation: marsh ( from 0 .85 0 .15 m .) and lacustrine ( 0.85 - 8 .15 m .). T he h istory of t he lake can be deduced from the pollen spectrum of the g raminacae ( genus P hragmites a nd r arely T hypha) p resent b oth a t t he b irth a nd i n t he s enile p hases o f t he l ake. T he c limatic a nd woodland h istory o f t his d eposit ( today mixed oak c li max vegetation) i s characterised b y two b asic p eriods. 1 ) A nathermic continental period ( 20,000 - 2 ,500 B .C.) i n which t he woodland v egetation i s a lmost e ntirely d ominated b y P inus a ssociated w ith small amounts o f Quercus a nd r are A bies a nd P icea . 2 ) C atathermic period ( 2,500 B .C. - 1 500 A .D.) a ssociated w ith c limatic d eterioration a nd a d ecline i n P inus f orest . I n t his period there are two phases: the f irst i s oceanic with a d iffusion of the chestnut and Fa2us. The second is c haracterised by mixed oak with hazelnut, ash and small hornbeam. I t i s i n the l atter phase t hat there are the most i nteresting data f or t he h istory o f h uman h abitation . I n f act c hestnut a nd Juglans R egia a re p resent a nd a re b oth e aten b y man. The latter is only available in this area when cultivated and i s consistently present at a denth of 1 .50 0 .95 m . t hat i s t he f irst millennium B .C. Paganelli c laims t hat i ts d iffusion was due t o R oman colonization, but the a rchaeological d ata s uggest t hat i t d ates i n f act t o t he t ime o f t he f irst protohistoric s ettlements. T he e conomy. The study of the territory has resulted i n the i dentification o f s elf-contained s ystems s een f rom t he point o f v iew o f t he l andscape, s ettlement a nd s ocio-economic a nd h istorical development. S uch systems correspond t o the k arstic p lains o utlined i n t he I ntroduction a nd t he mountain a nd h ill complexes encircling them. T he modern s ettlements a re p laced o n t heir s lopes; a nd i ndeed R oman s ettlement was upland and fortified. T hese s ettlements were l inked b y a w idespread r oad n etwork s ystem c onnected t o a f ew p rincipal r oads.

2 05

T he e cosystem i s c losely b ound t o a n economy s upported o n a griculture. T he c ultivation o f t he l and i s b ased o n s mall f arms r un a s f amily u nits a nd on c ollectively owned l and, t hat i s, a grarian c ooperatives. T he i solation a nd l imited e xtension o f productive l and h as meant t hat i n s uch a n a rea, a nd i n g eneral i n a ll l imestone mountain a reas ( Desplanques 1 975, 7 27), a n a rchaic t ype o f a griculture h as b een maintained. T his i s, h owever, p resently g oing t hrough a r apid t ransformation w ith t he i ntroduction o f m echanised machinery, more r ationalised s ystems o f cultivation a nd o f n ew c ultivated s pecies i n t he p lace o f t he more t raditional. A n e xample o f t his i s t he r elatively r ecent d iffusion o f t he Dutch r ed p otato w hich h as partly r eplaced t he t raditional c ereal c rops. T he d isappearance o f t he c ultivation o f f lax a nd o f h emp i s i nstead i ndicative o f t ransformation i n t he productive organisation b ased o n t he f amily u nit. T he s patial o rganisation o f c ultivation was profoundly i nfluenced b y t he n atural s etting a nd d eveloped i n a n ordered c lustered p attern. T he v arious a gricultural z ones a re a rranged o n a n a ltitudinal b asis a nd t he l and i s s ubject t o s hifts i n t he pattern o f a griculture f rom o ne y ear t o t he n ext. T he o pen f ield s ystem i s present e verywhere a nd i s s imilar t o a n o pen f ield l andscape i n n orthen E urope ( Desplanques 1 975, 7 30). A nother f undamental a spect o f t he e conomy i s s tock-raising, at o ne t ime e specially p ig ( Desplanques 1 975, 6 91) a nd s heep ( today s ubstituted o n t he whole b y c ow a nd h orse) 6 . T his l ed t o s easonal e xploitation o r c ontrol o f t he pastures. S uch a n e conomy, which r emained a lmost u nchanged up t o twenty y ears a go, was i ntegrated w ith h unting, f ishing i n t he l akes / a nd w ith t he c ollection o f woodland r esources, o nce more a bundant t han t oday 8 . T he

a rchaeology.

T he i nformation a bove provides t he n ecessary b asis f or t he s ystematic t opographic s urvey i n t his a rea, which w e k now i n p re-Roman t imes c oncerned t he I talic population o f t he P lestini a nd i n t he l ater R oman t imes, t he municipium o f P lestia ( RE 2 1, 2 34; EAA, u nder P lestina). T he s even s elf-contained s ystems o utlined a bove 9 a re n ot s eparable, b ut a re i nter-communicating a nd c omplete i n a l arger a nd more h omogeneous h istorical s etting, r epresented b y t he t erritory o f t he P lestini ( Fig. 1 2.2). T his t erritory extended f or a bout 1 00 k m. 2 a nd i ts b oundaries were r epresented a s f ollows: t o t he west, b y a c hain o f mountains w ith h eights v arying f rom 9 70 t o 1 100 m . a nd w hich d ominate t he V alley o f t he T opino ( where t he R oman V ia F laminia was l ater t o p ass); t o t he s outh, b y t he v alley o f t he M enotre a nd b y t he mountains t o t he n orth o f t he C asenove - C erreto d i S poleto r oad, p robably a v ery o ld l ink w ith t he V al N erina ( Bonomi P onzi 1 982, 1 59); t o t he e ast b y

2 06

t he l ine w hich g oes f rom Mt. T olagna t o M t. P refoglio, which r epresents t he f rontier w ith t he V alley o f N era a nd t he t erritories l inked t o i t; t o t he n orth b y t he Mt. P ennino massif a nd i ts s urrounding p eaks t hat i ndicate t he b oundary w ith t he t erritorio c amerte a nd b y M t. C ollecroce a nd t he V alley o f t he E gna w hich marks t he f rontier w ith t he t erritory o f N ocera. T here i s t he c onstant presence, o n t he p eaks which mai u p t his b oundary, o f f ortified s ettlements o r c astellieri v isually l inked w ith e ach o ther a nd l ocated i n a w ay which d oes n ot a ppear t o b e c asual, but whose p lanning s till r equires i nvestigation ( for i nstance w ith a s tudy o f i nternal s ubdivisions). I t i s a lso n oticeable t hat t he c astellieri a re p laced s o a s t o d ominate a ll t he a ccess r outes i nto t he p lateau. W ithin t his f ortified l ine, t he whole l andscape i s o rganised a round t he s even k arstic p lains, w hich r epresent, a s w e have s een, t he c entral point o f each t erritory. F irst, o nly t he p re-Roman p eriod w ill b e considered ( the R oman p eriod h as, i n f act, a d ifferent t erritorial o rganisation a round t he c ity o f P lestia, e ven i f a f ew p ree xisting c entres r emain). I t has b een n oticed t hat t he s ettlements a re made u p o f a s eries o f f ortified v illages w hich u sually o ccupy a part o f t he peaks o f t he mountains, w hose h eight v aries b etween 8 30 a nd 9 60 m . S uch s ettlements, e asily r ecognisable b oth i n a erial photographs a nd f rom s urface s urvey, h ave a more o r l ess c ircular o r o voidal p lan w ith a d efensive s ystem made u p o f a d itch 4 - 5 m . wide a nd w ith a bank w hich c an r each 4 m . i n h eight. T he i nternal g round p lan i s l ower w ith r espect t o t he edge o f t he b ank a nd h as a n o blique s lope. I n s ome c ases, w ithin t he s ettlement t here i s a s econd more r estricted a rea a lso w ith a d itch a nd b ank, which occupies a l ateral s ector o f t he whole. T he s ize v aries, b ut a l arger s ettlement s eems t o c orrespond i n g eneral t erms w ith a s eries o f more m inor o nes. T he r oute o f a ccess i s g enerally a s ingle o ne a nd l eads away f rom a more i mportant r oad. E ach c luster o f s ites a lso s eems t o e o rganised a round a h igher p eak, which u sually r epresents a l ink b etween t wo or more s ystems ( for i nstance Mt. A nnifo, M t. P alarne, a nd Mt. C upiglioli etc:) where i t i s n ot p ossible t o r ecognize f ortified s ites, b ut w here o ccupation i s c learly present. S urface material i s r epresented b y p ottery s herds o f c oarse ware, u sually b elonging t o l arge f orms a nd b y t iles o f a n a rchaic t ype 11 . T hese a re o n t he whole n ot s ignificant e nough t o a llow a n e xact d ating; h owever, t hey a re a scribable t o t he p re-Roman p eriod. Amongst a ll t he s ystems r ecognized s o f ar, t he o ne at M t. O rve, a ssociated w ith many s ystems, emerges a s t he most c omplex i n i ts o rganisation a nd i s l ocated a lmost a t t he c entre o f t he t erritorio p lestino.

a n

O n t he n orth-west s ide o f t he p eak, which i s f lat w ith oblique north-east - s outh-west o rientation, t here a re

2 07

2 8

2 09

P l a t e 1 2 . 2 .

2 10

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t races o f a p olygonal wall which p robably s urrounded t he whole mountain t op. T he r emains a re s till v isible o n t he e astern s ide ( Plates 1 2.1-3). T he c ircuit must h ave measured a round 1 300 m . W ithin t his f ortified a rea t he l ie o f t he t errain s eems t o s uggest p arallel t erracing w hile t he h igher p eak i s s urrounded b y a s econd s maller d efensive c ircuit, w ithin w hich t he a erial photo s hows t races o f a r ectangular b uilding. T he west s ide o f t he massif i s o ccupied b y t he c astelliere o f C roce d i C asicchio ( Plate 1 2.4) w ith a d ouble c ircuit o f walls a nd b ank a nd d itch. O n t he n orth-west spur o f t he c omplex w hich e xtends i nto t he p lains o f A nnifo, b etween t he h eights o f 8 61-865m., a s eries o f s urface f inds ( fictile f ragments a nd s quared b locks o f c alcareous r ock) i ndicate t he e xistence o f a more d ispersed s ettlement, possibly a lso o f a n a grarian t ype. A ccess was g uaranteed f rom t he s outh a nd t he west b y two r oads which a re s eparate f rom a r oute w hich l inks t he V alle V accagna w ith t he marsh o f C olfiorito. I n a f ew c ases s ystematic e xcavation o r r escue o perations have i ndicated a t t he b ase o f t he h eights, o n which s ettlements were l ocated, t he e xistence o f n ecropolis. T his i s s o f or t he n ecropolis o f C olfiorito, d atable f rom t he 9 th t o t he 4 th c entury B .C., w hich d eveloped a t t he b ase o f Mt. Orve a nd a t t he mouth o f V alle V accagna. A nother e xample can b e s een o n M t. d i F ranca, w here t wo f ortified s ettlements have b een f ound, outside which, a lmost a t t he f oot o f t he mountain, t here i s a n ecropolis d atable t o t he e nd o f t he 6 th t o t he 4 th c entury B .C. ( Bonomi P onzi 1 973, 5 18). A t hird c ase i s P opola, where, o n t he p eak, t here i s a c astelliere which c orresponds t o a l ater c astle, w hile, a t t he b ase, n ear t he modern c emetery, t here i s a n ecropolis o f t he s ame d ate. A f urther n ecropolis, a ttributable t o t he s ame p eriod, was f ound a nd dug a t t he b eginning o f t he c entury ( Del T urco 1 934) o n t he s outhwest f oot o f Mt. T rella. I t i s p robable t herefore t hat f or e ach s ettlement t here i s a c orresponding n ecropolis a nd t he r eports o f t he d iscovery o f t ombs i n v arious p arts o f t he p lateau, mostly l ocated n ear r oads o r v alleys s eem t o c onfirm t his h ypothesis ( Rossetti 1 964, 1 3). T he r oad n etwork ( Schmiedt 1 966, 1 77; B onomi P onzi 1 982, 1 38) i s primarily s et a long s everal p rincipal axes: 1 ) V ia d ella S pina ( from S poleto), V ia P lestina ( from F oligno); 2 ) V ia d i Valle Vaccagna o N ocerina ( to N ocera); 3 ) t he r oad o f t he B occhetta S curosa ( to P ioraco); 4 ) V ia d ella V alle del C hienti ( to t he t erritorio c amerte, T olentino a nd t he A driatic); 5 ) V ia d i V al S . A ngelo ( to P ieve T orina a nd t he Val N erina); 6 ) V ia d i S eggio-Annifo-Passo C ornello ( again f or t he t erritory o f N ocera a nd t he M arche a rea; 8 ) t he r oad which c rosses t he p lains o f R icciano t o T esina a nd P isenti a nd d escends t owards C apodacqua a nd t herefore t he V alle del 1 2 A ll t he r oads a re c onnected i n t urn w ith axes o f i nter-regional i mportance w hich l inked t he T yrrhenian a nd t he A driatic a rea. T hese r oads f ollow n atural r outes, maintaining h eight a s f ar a s p ossible a long t he h eights, t hey a lso c orrespond w ith

2 12

t he t ranshumance r outes a nd, a ccording t o t he t eoria dei c rinali ( Cataldi 1 983, 8 33), s ome o f t hese w ere p robably t he f irst r outes u tilised i n t he occupation o f t he P lestini t erritory. T here i s a lso a v ery s m 1 1 s cale l ocalised r oad n etwork w hose r econstruction i s o f g reat u tility f or a b etter u nderstanding o f t he a ncient p attern o f s ettlement. T he e vidence o f a s ocial a nd economic n ature, made a vailable b y t he excavation o f t he c emeteries, o f t he s anctuary d edicated t o t he f emale d eity C upra ( Ciotti 1 964, 1 01) which was p laced o n t he s hores o f t he l ago p lestino a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th a nd b eginning o f t he 5 th c entury B .C., a nd o f t he a rea o f t he R oman c ity, h as b een c ombined w ith t he r esults o f t he t opographic s urvey. T his e vidence s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he f ortified s ettlements, e ach o ne w ith i ts own a gricultural l and a nd t he productive c apacity t o maintain a c ertain n umber o f i nhabitants, were o rganized a round a much l arger c entre ( very probably t hat o f Mt. O rve) a nd a lso a round a ' federal' s anctuary, t hat o f t he g oddess Cupra. T his was a s tate-organised s ociety b ased o n a p agus/vicus i nfrastructure. S uch a t erritorial organisation s eems t o have r eceived a n i mpulse a nd s ubsequent d evelopment i n t he 6 th c entury B .C. w ith a c orresponding a ristocratic s ociopolitical organisation. T his mountain a ristocracy, which p robably d eveloped a s a r esult o f t he r ich a nd a dvanced E truscan c ulture w hich was i n c ontact w ith t his a rea, drew i ts s trength a nd p ower f rom a c ontrol o f t he means o f a gricultural production, o f t he pastures, o f weaponry, a nd o f t he c ommercial e xhange b etween E truscan a nd A driatic s ources ( Bonomi P onzi 1 984). D espite having s ettlement c entres a nd c ult l ocations o f s ome i mportance t here was no u rbanisation. T his only took p lace o nly a fter i ts e ntry w ithin t he R oman s tate, when t he t erritory was o rganized more c oherently w ithin t he R oman political s ystem, i n t he municipium o f P lestia. T he u rban o rganisation, i n i tself f ragile, r apidly d isintegrated w ith ' the c risis o f R oman o rganization, when modifications w ere i mposed a nd i nduced b y t he b arbarian i nvasions, a nd t he early medieval wars, b y t he d eterioration o f t he l andscape, p robably c aused b y c hanged c limatic c onditions ( Paganelli 1 956), b y earthquakes a nd p erhaps b y t he a bandonment o f t he water c ontrol s ystems. A ll t his c aused a c hange i n t he e arly M iddle A ges o f t he s ocio-political s tructure a nd t he r e-introduction o f pre-urban patterns. N evertheless, a n o rganised human p resence i s l ong s tanding a nd c ontinuous. T here h as b een a c onstant r elationship b etween Man, v alley, mountain a nd r oad.

A ppendix: A nalysis o f R icciano ( A) ( Fig. 1 2.3)

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P lateaus o f

T he b oundaries o f t his s ystem a re o utlined b y M . C upigliolo, M . L e P iane, M . d i F ranca, t he 9 57 m . s pot h eight a bove S eggio, M . P alarne a nd M . S auro.

2 13

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S quared b lock

o f

T he p lain, t he maximum e xtent i s p robably r epresented b y t he 8 00 m . contour, h as a n a lmost r ectangular s hape a nd a n a rea o f c . 1 25 h ectares. I n t he w inter months a nd d uring t he t haw, t he l ow l ying a reas b ecome marshy. C ommunication

r elied

o n a s tretch o f

t he

V ia

P lestina

w hich r eaches t he p lateau f rom C asenove t hrough C ifo 15 f rom t he C upigliolo - V olperino r oad; f rom a nother r oad, which c rosses t he p lain a t a s lightly e levated l evel, o n t he o ne s ide r eaching t he C olfiorito marsh ( Plate 1 2.5-12.6) a nd o n t he other s ide d escending t o C apodacqua a nd t he T opino v alley; f rom t he S eggio-Annifo-Passo C ornello r oad a nd f rom t he r oad w hich d escends f rom f rom M . d i F raca t o t he p lateau o f L e S trade a bove S copoli, a nd o n t o t he V ia P lestina. T he organisation o f t he a gricutural l and was t hat p reviously described f or t he w hole p lateau, w ith g rasslands a nd f oraging c ultivation o n t he p lain, c ereal c rops o n t he l ower s lopes o f t he mountains s uitable f or c ultivation, f ollowed b y a n i ntermediate b and o f woodland o f which s izeable r emains c an b e s een o n M . P alarne, i n t he S elva o f t he Macchia d i C upigliolo. P astures a re o n t he u pper parts of t he mountains. A rchaeological

f eatures

A 1 - Mt. d i C upigliolo: a d ispersed a rea o f c oarse ware s herds. A 2 - S elva d i C upigliolo: o n t he e xtreme e dge o f t he preceding mountain, o n t he e dge o f t he r ural r oad which d escends t o V olperino, a fter p loughing, t wo w ell d efined a reas w ere r ecognized c ontaining f ragments o f t iles a nd i mpasto p ottery. A 3 - A t t he h eight o f t he p lain o n t he s mall p eak a t a h eight o f 8 30 m . a n a rea o f m ixed f ictile f ragments a nd s quared b locks o f s pugna r ock. A 4 - B etween h eights o f 8 30-930 m . a bove t he v illage o f C upigliolo, a f ortified s ettlement which o ccupies t he n orthern e dge o f a p eak w hich d ominates t he V ia P lestina. I t h as a more or l ess ovoidal p lan, w ith d itch a nd b ank. ( Plates 1 2.7-12.9)The l argest a xes measure a round 5 0 x 2 0 m . A 5 - 2 1 km. a long t he S S. V al d i C hienti a t t he b ase o f t he p eak j ust mentioned, t here i s a v ast a rea o f f ictile f ragments which e xtends o n a s urface o f c . 8 00 m . 2. T ile f ragments o f r ectangular s hape i n o range-red c lay, p robably o f R oman a ge, d ominate. A 6 - Mt. S auro, o n t he s outh-west s lopes: r ural s ettlement o f t he r oman p eriod i n t he s hape o f a b uilding ( Bonomi P onzi 1 983, 1 65) o f w hich a f ew r ooms were dug i n 1 971, i ncluding a portico. I t i s a two p hase b uilding, o ne o f R epublican a ge ( c. 2 nd c entury B .C.) which was destroyed b y f ire a nd o ne o f I mperial a ge ( c. 3 rd c entury A .D.). A 7 - M t. S auro C astelliere: T he s ite o ccupies t he n ortheast s ide o f t he mountain which o n o ne s ide d ominates t he C olfiorito pass. I t h as a r oughly o voidal p lan, w ith t he s outhern e dge r oughly r ectilinear. T he b ank r eaches a h eight o f 4 m . a nd t he d itch i s 4 -5 m . w ide. T he d efences v anish o n

2 19

e a,

3 i s

5

3

a 0 0 0

5 3 o

o 2 3

F ig. 1 2.4. S ystem o f t he P iani d i C astellina ( A) a nd Monte S auro ( B).

2 20

R icciano: C astellieri P lan a nd S ection.

o f

2 21

P l a t e 1 2 . 1 0 .

M o n t e S a u r o .

2 22

2 23

P l a t e 1 2 . 1 2 .

M o n t e S a u r o .

2 24

• 0 1 2 S

a 4 U O W

t he e astern s ide, where t he s heer s ides o f t he mountain make a rtificial d efenses s uperfluous. W ithin t he s ettlement o n t he s outhwest e dge t here was probably a s maller f ortified a rea, a lthough t he t races o f d itch a nd b ank a re s carcely v isible due t o t he t hick v egetation. T he i nternal s urface i s s lightly depressed w ith r espect t o t he edge o f t he b ank a nd h as a s lope t o t he s outh-east ( Fig. 1 2.4b; P lates 1 2.10-12.14) A 8 - L a C astellina C astelliere: t he s ite, ( note t he p lace n ame i s s till c learly v isible d espite s ome o ld a nd more r ecent c onstructions a nd a r ecent f orestation p rogramme. I t i s o voidal i n s hape w ith d itch a nd b ank s till v isible a t s ome points. T he i nternal s urface i s s lightly d eeper w ith r espect t o t he e dge o f t he b ank. D uring r e-forestation work a h earth ( ?) a nd a nimal b ones were found ( Fig. 1 2.4a; P lates 1 2.151 2.17). A 9 - C . B orgarella 8 77 m .: f rom t he p hoto i t s eems t here i s a f ortified s ettlement s imilar t o t he o thers, w ith a n ovoidial p lan. I n t he s urface s urvey t he r emains a re d ifficult t o i nterpret due t o r ecent w ork. T he s ituation i s made more d ifficult b y t he p resence o f a working f arm. T he P lebs d e P orcarella e xisted i n t his l ocality i n e arly Medieval t imes, a s r ecorded i n a 1 2th c entury d ocument ( Rossetti 1 910, 3 3). ( Plate 1 2.18). A 1 0 - C . G entili: A rea w ith p robable n ecropolis. A ccording t o i nformation g athered i n l oco, during agricultural work i n t he past, s ome t ombs were f ound. O n t he g round, t iles a nd impasto c eramic f ragments a re s till n oticeable. A 1 1 - Madonna d i R icciano, 8 18 m . A n area o f d ispersed t ile f ragments o f r ectangular s hape i n r eddish fabric o f c oarse i mpasto p ottery. A 1 2 - S eggio: Rural s ettlement o f R oman date r epresented b y a b uilding o f which t hree s quare r ooms a re s till r ecognisable, w ith walls i n opera i ncerta o f l ocal calcareous s tone. I n o ne o f t he r ooms t here was a s mall s quare, s labbed area, probably a h earth ( Bonomi P onzi 1 983, 1 62). A 1 3 - S eggio voc. Casale: probable r ural s ettlement, whose t races a re s till r ecognisable f rom t he a erial p hoto. T here i s a r ectangular s ettlement a rea o f s mall proportions a nd a lso t he presence o f f ictile f ragments o f t he u sual t ype o n t he western s lope o f t he mountain. A 1 5 - S pot H eight 9 57 m . t o t he west o f S eggio: f ortified s ettlement w ith d itch a nd b ank, o f more or l ess ovoidal p lan, w ith t he r ectilinear s outh-east s ide o ccupying t he w estern edge o f t he mountain a nd d ominating t he r oute d own t o C apodacqua. A 1 6 - M . de F ranca: T he f eatures i n t his l ocality a re p lentiful a nd v aried. T here a re t wo f ortified s ettlements o n t he north-west a nd s outh-east e dges o f t he mountain. T hese s ites a re d istinguishable o n t he a erial p hotos b ut n ot s o well o n t he g round. T he f irst c astelliere o n t he s outh-west s ide, was probably d estroyed b y l ater agricultural work, b ut may a lso h ave b een abandoned b efore t he o ther s ite. During t he e xcavation c arried o ut h ere i n 1 971 b y t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica p er l 'Umbria ( Bonomi P onzi 1 973, 5 18) p art o f t he d itch was excavated a nd f ound to b e f illed i n. T he f ill was made u p

2 26

2 27

2 › . c o

• N . r 1 C 9 r 4 0 4 . 7 O S 0 . 4 0 -

2 29

P late

1 2.18.

A 9.

2 30

C .

B orgarella.

P late

1 2.19.

A 15.

M .

d i

F ranca.

2 31

A rea of

s ettlement

A .

P late

1 2.20.

A 20.

M .

d i

F ranca.

2 32

A rea o f s ettlement B .

o f v ery f ine b lack e arth m ixed w ith a f ew f ragments o f t iles a nd i mpasto c oarse ware. A t t he t ime o f t he excavation, o n t he s outh-west s ide s ome o f t he r emains o f t he d itch a nd b ank were s till noticeable, while t he s urface was r ich i n a rtefacts: p ietra s pugna s quare b locks, t ile f ragments a nd t he s ides o f l arge i mpasto v essels ( Plate 1 2.19). T he s econd s ite, o f r oughly c ircular p lan, w ith d itch a nd b ank w as a lmost t otally d estroyed b y r ecent r eforestation work ( Plate 1 2.20). I n 1 971, a n ecropolis w ith c ist t ombs o n t he e astern s ide o f t he mountain, a t a d istance o f 4 00 - 5 00 m . f rom t he two s ites was partly r evealed. T he f unerary g oods were d ateable t o t he e nd o f t he 6 th a nd 4 th c enturies B .C. a nd were t ypologically s imilar t o t hose o f t he C olfiorito n ecropolis. A t t he b ase o f t he mountain a R oman s ite was a lso excavated, made u p o f t wo b uildings. O ne b uilding was s ited i n a pass b etween M . d e F ranca a nd a p eak o f 8 82 m . T his f irst b uilding, r ectangular i n p lan w ith t wo r ooms a nd w ith a p illar a t t he b ase o f t he l onger r oom was p erhaps a s hrine, r e-utilised l ater f or a gricultural p urposes. T he s econd b uilding o f which only a s mall part was excavated, i s s ituated a t a d istance o f 7 0 m . t o t he west o f t he f irst, a nd s hows t he t race o f a s quare h earth, w ith a s mall f urnace a l ittle f urther away. T his d ates t o a round t he 1 st c entury A .D. ( Bonomi P onzi 1 983, 1 59). I n s ynthesis, w ithin t his t erritorial s ystem w hich w e have s een to b e c losely b ound t o t he o thers b y a w ell d efined r oad n etwork, t here a re s ix s ettlements o f p re-Roman d ate, o f which t wo a re o f major d imensions ( that o f M . S auro a nd t he d ouble o ne o f M . de F ranca), a nd four s maller o nes. F urther s tatistical, t erritorial a nd e conomic r esearch w ill have a g ood p robability o f r econstructing t he a verage dens W o f t he population During

i n

r elation

t he R oman

t o

t he p roductive

p eriod,

t hree

c apacity.

s mall

s ettlements

have

b een r ecognised t hat a re t ypologically h omogeneous 1 a 8 nd l ocated at l ower h eights t han t he p re-Roman o nes, a nd n ear t he r outes o f c ommunication. T hese a re t herefore e asily a ccessible. T heir e quipment was p robably more s uited t o t he e xploitation o f t he f arm, whether i t was l arge o r s mall i n s ize, a nd a lso t o t he t ype o f p roduction, which i s e asily r ecognisable o n t he b asis o f what h as a lready b een s aid. I t i s easily deduced t hat i n t he population o f t he v arious s ettlements had c ity o f P lestia a nd i n p art g ave l ife y u le r ustiche i n t he a rea. T he l ast word u ntil a fter f urther e xcavation.

R oman p eriod, t he partly moved t o t he t o t he f arms a nd must h owever r emain

N otes T he a bove work i s t he r esult o f r esearch c onducted b y t he a uthor i n t he course o f a ctivities a s a member o f t he S oprintendenza a rcheologica p er l 'Umbria.

2 33

would l ike t o t hank a ll t he p ersonel o f t he S oprintendenza, who a t v arious l evels, have c ontributed t o t he r esearch a nd have made t he p ublication p ossible. S pecial t hanks s hould g o t o t he S oprintendente A .E. F eruglio, a nd S igg. A . B rizzi, C . C assisa, G . Ceppitelli, C . Ponzi a nd S . G ermini.

t he

T he maps were drawn b y t he C ooprogetti d i T echnical O ffice o f t he S oprintendenza.

G ubbio a nd

b y

N otes. 1 . R esearch b egan i n 1 960 a nd h as c ontinued w ith r egular s easons o f excavation w hich h ave i nvolved b oth t he a rea o f t he c ity o f P lestia, i n which a public b uilding has b een u nearthed probably a t emple o f R epublican d ate, a nd a d omus d ating t o t he e nd of t he r epublican and b eginning o f t he i mperial periods, a nd t he s anctuary d edicated t o t he goddess C upra ( Ciotti 1 964, 1 01). F rom 1 970 onwards, r esearch h as c oncentrated p rimarily o n t he a rea o f t he p rotohistoric n ecropolis ( which i s n ear t he modern c emetery o f C olfiorito a t t he f oot o f Mt. O rve). 2 48 t ombs d atable t o t he 9 th - 1 2th c enturies B .C. h ave b een b rought t o l ight ( Bonomi P onzi 1 973, 5 18; 1 982, 1 40; 1 984). C ontemporaneously a s eries o f s tudies h ave b een c onducted b oth t opographically a nd w ith e xcavation i n t he t erritories o f P opoa, Mt. de F ranca a nd A nnifo. 2 ) T he R egion o f U mbria has c onducted a s eries o f p reliminary i nvestigations i nto t he h istory, e nvironment, l andscape, g eology etc. f or a publication o f a L andscape P lan o f t he a rea ( Garano a nd P ineschi 1 983). 3 ) A n i nitial bonifica t ook p lace i n t he 1 5th c entury u nder t he V arano, l ords o f C amerino, a nd other works w ere c arried o ut i n l ater c enturies e specially by t he J acobelli o f F oligno ( Metelli 1 982, 1 02). G eological s oundings w ere made i n 1 9596 0 b y t he s ocietä UNES w hich h ave c onfirmed t he e xistence o f a l arge p iece of d ry l and b etween t he two l akes. 4 ) T he works o f b onifica b oth a ncient a nd r ecent h ave modified t he n atural a ppearance o f t he p lateaus. I n f act, t he modern f low o f t he waters t owards t he k arstic drainage f ormations i s f acilitated b y a rtificial c anals. T he k arstic f ormations h ave a lso b een artificially a dapted ( Lippi B oncampi 1 940, 1 6). 5 ) T he a grarian C omunanze, t he v illage c ommunities whose j uristic e ntity i s r ecognized b y t he l aw. T his t ype o f ownership i s c oncentrated around t he mountainous r egion o f Umbria ( Desplanques 1 975, 2 42). T he a grarian c ommunity o f C olfiorito, f or i nstance, owns l and s uitable f or s eed c rops , w hich i s u sed i n t urn b y t he members o f t he c omunanze. P astures a nd woodland are o nly o pen t o members o f t he c ollective a nd a ccess t o i t i s possible o nly b y f ollowing c learly d efined r ules. T he o rigin o f s uch a n extremely o ld, a nd i s s imilar

i nstitution i s, t o t he R oman ager

2 34

t o my m ind, p ublicus, b ut

t his t oo may b elong P asquinucci 1 979).

t o

t he

e arlier

p eriod

( Gabba

6 ) I n t he y ears i mmediately f ollowing World W ar I I, i n t own o f C olfiorito a lone, t here w ere a round 8 000 s heep, t here i s o nly a s mall h erd on a f amily f arm. T ranshumance c ommon a nd f ollowed t he v ia d ella S pina a nd had a s i ts z one t he t erritory b etween O rvieto a nd V iterbo.

a nd

t he n ow was own

7 ) A part f rom t he b ird f auna, above a ll o f a m igratory t ype, t he a rea t oday i s particularly r ich t hanks t o a f aunal s anctuary which i ncludes A nas querquedula, w ild duck a nd c oots ( Fulica a tra). I n a ncient t imes t he w ild f auna w as c ertaily more r ich a nd abundant, w ith t he p resence f or i nstance o f t he d eer a nd t he b oar. T he L ake o f C olfiorito w as a lso r ich i n t enches ( Tinca t inca), f avoured t hroughout t he t erritory o f F oligno, a nd w ho c ommercial exploitation i n p ast c enturies was a s ource o f i ncome f or t he i nhabitants o f t he t own. 8 ) L arge-scale d eforestation t ook p lace during t he l ast c entury a nd i n t he f irst h alf of t he p resent o ne i n a n a ttempt t o i ncrease t he l and a vailable f or a g rowing f arming c ommunity ( Desplanques 1 975, 3 87). A fter W orld W ar I I r ef orestation o f l arge a reas h as t aken p lace, e specially o f p ine, which h as i n p art modified t he l andscape. 9 ) T he t erritorial o rganisation o f t his s ystem, i s n ot c haracteristic o nly o f t he C olfiorito P lateau, but i s p resent i n a ll c alcareous mountain areas. O ne c an r ecognize i ts organisation even w ith s uperficial c artographic o bservation. 1 0) I n p opular or C astellaro.

t erms

t hese

s ites are c alled e ither C astellina

1 1) T he t iles o f a rchaic t ype a re o f c oarse f abric and o f a c ream c olour w ith i nclusions of d ark r ed o r c alcareous material, t he s hape i s n arrow a nd r oughly r ectangular or s lightly r ounded i n s ection. 1 2) T his r oad i s i ndicated as b eing v ery o ld a lso b y l ocal i nhabitants who c all i t ' the R oman r oad' or ' the r oad'.

t he b ig

1 3) T he d ata f rom t he e xcavated n ecropolis s eems t o i ndicate t his. N ew a nd more s ignificant e lements w ill emerge w ith r esearch i nto t he i nternal parts o f t he dwellings. 1 4) I n e arly M edieval t imes ( Plestia i s r emembered f or t he l ast t ime i n a document o f 9 96 o f O ttone I II) t he p opulation s pread t hroughout t he t erritory a nd r eturned t o occupying p eaks n ear t o o r o n t op o f p re-Roman s ettlements. 1 5) T he r oad which g oes u p f rom C asenove t o t he p lateau o f Colfiorito i s i dentified a s t he V ia P lestina. T he r oute o f t his r oad must, i n my opinion, h ave c oincided o n t he whole

2 35

with the Valle del Menotre, but this needs to be confirmed by f urther i nvestigation . 16) A s i milar phenomenon i s noticeable on other localities f or i nstance t he Castellaro d i A nnifo . H ere, near t o a wellpreserved settlement there i s another recognizable from an aerial photograph but only s lightly t raceable on t he ground. T his may b e a s ettlement o f o lder d ate abandoned or destroyed a nd l ater rebuilt. 1 7) A recent study has begun, i n collaboration with the Faculty of Agriculture of the University of P erugia, to try a nd define t he possible extent of areas o f production a nd t he quantity of population which could l ive on such an area, b earing i n mind t he a verage y ields o f c rops, o f t he practices i nvolved etc . 1 8) The rural settlements of Roman date which have been identi fi ed and partly excavated all sh o w si mila r characteristics. These are buildings of modest di mensions, probably small forms connected to an agricultural/pastoral activity.

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Ponzi, L . 1 973. Colfiorito, M . d i Franca R icciano. Studi Etruschi 4 1, 5 18-519.

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Ponzi,L. 1982. Alcune considerazioni sulla s ituazione della dorsale apenninica umbro-marchigiano. D ialoghi d i Archeologia 4 (2), 1 37-142.

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I n

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N otizie

2 37

A tti

S ummary I n t he t erritory o f C olfiorito d i F oligno, t hat b elonged t o t he P lestini i n t he p re-Roman p eriod a nd t o t he municipium o f P lestia i n t he R oman p eriod, s even u nitary t erritorial s ystems have b een d efined c orrisponding t o t he k arstic p lateaus o f R icciano, A rvello, A nnifo, C olle C roce, C olfiorito P opola a nd t he marsh o f C olfiorito, w ith t he c onnected mountain a nd h ill complexes. H uman s ettlement f rom t he 6 th c entury B .C. i s w idespread a nd r epresented b y upland v illages f ortified w ith b ank a nd d itch, p laced b etween 8 30 a nd 1 000 m . w ith a r elated productive t erritory. S ystematic excavations h ave d emonstrated t he n ecropolises i n t he v alley c orrespond t o t he s ettlements. The r oad n etwork was c entred o n p rincipal t ransapennine routes a nd o n a w idespread s econdary r oad n etwork. T he t erritorial o rganisation c orresponds t o a s ocial political o rganisation o f t he p agus/vicus t ype t hat f rom t he 6 th c entury l ed t o t he appearance o f a n a ristocracy t hat d rew i ts p ower f rom t he c ontrol o f t he m eans o f p roduction a nd f rom t he c ommercial r oads a cross t he A pennines. T he a ristocracy was e quipped w ith s ettlement a nd c ult c entres o f s ome i mportance, b ut d id n ot p roduce a t rue a nd proper u rban c entre, t hat a rrived o nly w ith t he R oman s tate.

R iassunto

N el t erritorio d i C olfiorito d i F oligno, pertinente i n e ta preromana a l popolo d ei P lestini e i n e ta r omana a l municipium d i P lestia, s ono s tati i ndividuati s ette s istemi t erritoriali u nitari c orrispondenti a i p iani c arsici d i R icciano, A rvello, A nnifo, C olle C roce, C olfiorito P opola e p alude d i C olfiorito, c on i c onnessi c omplessi montuosi e c ollinari. L 'insediamento umano dal V I s ec. a .C. M iffuso e r appresentato d a v illagi f ortificati d i a ltura c on v allo e d a ggere, s iti t ra g li 8 30 e i 1 000 m . c on r elativo t erritorio produttivo. S cavi s istematici hanno d imostrato c he a gli i nsediamenti corrispondevano a v alle l e n ecropoli. I i s istema v iario era i ncentrato s u percorsi p rincipali t ransappennici e s u u na r ete d i v iabilitaph' s econdaria d iffusa. L 'organizzazione t erritoriale c orrisponde a d u na o rganizzazione politico s ociale d i t ipo paganico-vicano c he d al V I s ec. a .C. p ort? ) a ll'affermarsi d i u n'aristocrazia che t raeva i l s uo potere d al controllo dei mezzi d i p roduzione e d elle v ie c ommerciali t ransappenniche. T ale a ristocrazia pur a ttrezzando c entri d i i nsediamento e d i c ulto d i u na c erta r ilevanza, n on p rodusse u n v ero e p roprio c entro u rbano, c he S i a vrä s oltanto c on l o S tato r omano.

2 38

1 3. I N

E TRUSCAN

THE MONTI

A lessandro

SETTLEMENT DELLA

Naso

a nd

PATTERNS

TOLFA

AREA

( LAZIO)

A ndrea

Z ifferero

The r esearch programme carried out i n t he Monti della T olfa area b y t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica dell'Etruria Meridionale, w ith the collaboration of t he G .A.R. a nd s upported b y t he M inistero degli A ffari E steri, has y ielded a preliminary wealth of data, which provides a n understanding o f t he l ocal E truscan s ettlement patterns. I n t his t erritory, well-known b ecause o f s everal P rotovillanovan s ettlements and cemeteries, many E truscan burial s ites have b een i nvestigated s ince t he s econd half of the l ast century ( Benndorf 1 866; K litsche de L a G range 1 882; K litsche de L a G range 1 891). Our i nvestigation has s ampled a n area l ying b etween the medieval v illage of Rota a nd t he a ncient t own o f Monterano ( Fig. 1 3.1). I t i s a l arge d istrict characterized by tufaceous plateaux overlooking t he M ignone r iver a nd i ts two t ributaries, t he L enta a nd t he Verginese r ivers. Numerous Etruscan n ecropoli are l ocated on t hese p lateaus a nd s ome o f t hem have b een excavated or s imply t ested b y the S oprintendenza s ince 1 955 ( Sommella Mura 1 969; B runetti Nardi 1 972; Brunetti N ardi 1 981). A s u sual t he i nformation derived f rom burial s ites was not accompanied by s imilar i nformat ion on t he r elated dwellings. T he s urface i nvestigation has d iscovered new cemeteries and has s ometimes found the traces of E truscan s ettlements. A preliminary map of Etruscan rural s ettlements may n ow b e drawn. The P iana d i S tigliano pottery ( Zifferero 1 980; Z ifferero 1 980a), mostly r epresented by impasto rosso-bruni ( Serra 1 970), i ncluding many basins ( Fig. 1 3.2), b elonging t o types s till not well k nown, bowls a nd l arge b owls w ith s harp r inged f eet, j ars of various s izes ( Fig. 1 3.3) a nd s everal bucchero s pecimens ( Fig. 1 3.3/5), has r evealed t he presence of a s izeable pagus l ocated on t he edges of a f ertile plateau, overlooking t he L enta r iver valley ( Fig. 1 3.4). A new area ( Fig. 1 3.4/2) s cattered w ith numerous impasto s herds has r ecently b een d iscovered, t hrough deep p loughing. T he new a rea i s l ocated v ery c lose t o t he old o ne ( Fig. 1 3.4/1), surveyed i n 1 978 ( Zifferero 1 980, 3 ) a nd allows u s t o r econsider t he r eal extent o f t he P iana d i S tigliano pagus. T ypologies o f s herds c oming f rom t he s econd area a re t ightly r elated t o t hose

collected

o n

t he

f irst

area.

T he pottery c hronology s uggests a hypothetical f oundation o f t he v illage at t he end of t he 7 th c entury B .C.; t he l arge bulk of i mpasto f ragments s eems t o i ndicate a period o f s olid prosperity during t he f irst half o f t he 6 th century. The

2 39

0 •

3 I U

•r u

• • •l u

r u • r t( 1 )( O rt 1 1 f r •C . 1 )

r tO t 1 )

4

0

e n•

C O • o 3

•

C O • •

« 4

•0 •

2 40

B

F ig.

1 3.2.

Impasto pottery s ettlement.

2 41

f rom t he B asins.

p . •

P ian

d i

S tigliano

t opographical d istribution o f f indings a llows u s t o make s ome c omments a bout t he c emeteries w hich d epended o n t he S tigliano s ettlement. A f ew c hamber t ombs, l ocated n ear G rottini d i R ota ( Fig. 1 3.4/3 a nd F ig. 1 3.1/16), c an s urely b e l inked t o t he s econd a rea a nd presumabaly t o t he f irst o ne. T here i s s ome doubt a bout a quite l arge n ecropolis p laced o n t he Monte S eccareccio ( Fig. 1 3.4/4 a nd F ig. 1 3.1/15) a nd a bout a s maller o ne, which i s l ocated i n t he s outhern a rea o f t he P iana d i S tigliano ( Fig. 1 3.4/6 a nd F ig. 1 3.1/17). S ome t opographical e lements c ould c onfirm t he h ypothesis c onnect ing our two c emeteries t o o ur s ettlement: t he s hort d istance s eparating t he t wo b ut more p robably t he r estricted e xtent o f t ufa b anks i n t he z one. I t i s e asy t o t hink, l ooking a t t he s mall t ufaceous a rea ' floating' o n l imestone b anks, t hat t he E truscans p robably s et u p a s ystem o f s mall c emeteries, e ach s eparate f rom t he o thers b ut a ll c onnected t o t he s ame s ettlement. I t i s d ifficult t o g ive a d efinite opinion a bout t he l argest n ecropolis i n t his a rea, t he F errone ( Fig. 1 3.4/5 a nd F ig. 1 3.1/18). T his c emetery would b e t he o nly o ne, s upposing i ts r elationship w ith t he P iana d i S tigliano s ettlement, i n w hich a principle o f u rban s patial organization h as b een f ully observed. I t i s i n f act l ocated quite f ar f rom t he s ettlement a nd s eparated f rom i t b y t he v alley o f t he L enta r iver. F uture r esearch m ight a nyway f ind t he t races o f a n ew s ettlement, p laced o n t he l eft b ank o f L enta, t o c onnect more appropriately w ith t he F errone n ecropolis. T he r emarkable f eature o f t he P iana d i S tigliano s ettlem ent c onsists o f t he r elationship b etween t he dwellings a nd t he s urrounding l andscape. I n d irect c ontact w ith t he a gricultural z one o f t he p lateau, t he p agus s urely p layed a n e ssential r ole i n t he r ural e conomy o f t he r egion. T he prese nce o f s everal n enfro g rindstones ( Zifferero 1 980, 7 7 a nd F igs. 1 3-14) among t he s herds i s a quite g ood i ndication a bout t he l ocal processing o f p roducts c oming f rom c ereal cultivation. T he a rchaeological evidence a nd t he p lateau morphology have l ed u s t o make a f irst a ttempt t o r econstruct t he E truscan r ural l andscape ( Fig. 1 3.4). A h ypothetical i dentification o f t he z ne g iven o ver t o agricultural a ctivites i s p ossible c ourse, s tarting f rom t he present p hysical c onditions o f t he P ian d i S tigliano. A nyway, i t s eems t hat n o r emarkable g eological a lterations h ave o ccurred f rom t he 6 th c entury B .C. u ntil t oday. O n t he c ontrary a d ifferent c onnection b etween E truscan r emains a nd t he r ural l andscape h as b een r evealed f rom t he d iscoveries n ear P oggio S . P ietro ( Fig. 1 3.1/8). T he t races o f a s mall s ettlement ( Zifferero 1 984) h ave b een r ecovered o n a s mall t ufaceous p lateau f acing t he M ignone r iver, v ery c lose t o t he v illage o f R ota. A l imited quantity o f s herds h ave b een c ollected o n t he p lateau, c haracterized b y t he presence o f s everal s tructures c arved i n t he t ufa r ock, a s u nderground drainage-ways, wells a nd c isterns. A f ew c hamber t ombs l ocated o n t he s ame p lateau w ere i nvestigated b y t he S oprintendenza s ome t ime a go ( Sommella Mura 1 969). T he

2 42

4

s

5

F ig.

1 3.3.

Impasto

s ettlement.

Bowls,

pottery

f rom

j ars

Bucchero

a nd

2 43

t he

P iana

d i

Kantharos

S tigliano ( 5).

0

km 1

1 1 1

1

N E C R O P OL I

IN S E O I A ME NT O

F ig.

1 3.4.

T he P ian necropoli

d i on

Z O N A A GR I C OL A

S tigliano s ettlement t he b oundaries.

2 44

s howing

e arliest s herd c ollected i s a C orinthian f ragment w ith s cale o rnament ( olpf, o inochoe?), t o b e r eferred p resumably t o t he T ransitional P eriod a nd d atable t o 6 40-625 B .C. ( Payne 1 931, P late 1 1 b is.). M ost o f t he f inds b elong t o t he i mpasto r osso-bruni; t he c ommonest pottery s hapes a re b asins, b owls a nd j ars. T he w hole s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he s ettlement was e stablished i n t he l ast d ecades o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. T he E truscan o ccupation o f t he p lateau l asted a lmost u ntil t he e nd o f t he 6 th c entury B .C., a s t he c hronology of p ottery r ecovered f rom t ombs ( now k ept i n t he Museo C ivico d i T olfa) would s uggest. D uring t he R epublican p eriod t he s ite was r eoccupied; t he R oman p resence o n t he p lateau i s c learly defined f rom f inds u ntil 6 th-7th c enturies A .D. A part f rom E truscan c hamber t ombs o f c ourse, i t i s d ifficult t o a ssign t he o ther s tructures e ither t o t he E truscan o r t o t he R oman p hase. T he main f eature o f t his s ettlement i s t he d irect c onnection w ith i ts own c emetery, l ocated a s hort d istance away o n t he s ame p lateau. T he f act t hat we a re d ealing w ith a r emarkably s mall v illage i s c learly s hown b y t he l ow n umber o f t ombs, j ust s even f rom a r ough e stimate ( Del C hiaro 1 962, 5 1). U nlike P iana d i S tigliano, t he P oggio S . P ietro p2gus i s quite s eparate f rom i ts r ural l andscape; we s hould b ear i n m ind p erhaps d efence n ecessities, but more l ikely i ts position d epended o n a m ixed e conomy, b ased o n f arming a nd c attle-breeding. T he l imited extent o f b oth v illage a nd n ecropolis d erives f rom a z oning process w hich b rings t ombs n ear dwellings, owing o bviously t o t he f unctional n eeds o f j ust a f ew f amily g roups. D ifferent e vidence c an b e o bserved a t P ian d ella C onserva ( Fig. 1 3.1/5). I n t his s ite s everal s catters o f s herds, mostly r epresented b y i mpasto r osso-bruni ( Fig. 1 3.5), i ndicate t he t races o f E truscan dwellings f rom t he l ate 7 th c entury t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 6 th c entury B .C. E ven i f w e a re working o n p rovisional d ata, w e c an n ow a ssociate a c luster o f v ery s mall v illages ( Fig. 1 3.6) w ith t he l arge n ecropolis, l ocated o n t he main p lateau ( Naso 1 980). M ost o f t hese s catters o f s herds a re n ot v ery w ide, l ying o n g ently s loping a reas t o t he n orth o f t he p lateau. I t i s o n t he o ther h and p ossible t hat s ome a reas, r ecognized t hrough s poradic f indings o f s herds o n t he s urface a nd r egistered a s s eparate u nits o n t he map, m ight b e l inked t ogether. S ometimes, h owever, i n t hose a reas where p loughings h as ' explored' t he s oil ( Fig. 1 3.6/12-15), i t s eems e xtremely possible t o s uppose t he e xistence o f a c luster o f dwellings, c ontiguous b ut d istinct f rom o ne a nother. A s election o f p ottery f rom d ifferent a reas may b e u sed t o make s ome t ypological r emarks. F ragments o f b asins, j ars a nd d olia ( Fig. 1 3.5/1-7), b elonging t o t he i mpasto r ossob runi, c ome f rom a rea 1 2. A f ragment o f a b lack b ucchero c arinated v essel ( cup, K antharos?) ( Fig. 1 3.5/4) h as b een c ollected f rom t he s ame a rea. A f ew s herds f rom a rea 1 1 ( Fig. 1 3.5, 8 -10) c an b e r eferred t o a s imilar t ypology. T he

2 45

12

16

(

)

F ig.

1 3.5.

Impasto

pottery

--

71 9

e _ i_ _L2 . . . . .t_ y_ t_l _ _ _Li

f rom t he

2 46

P ian

della

—

Conserva.

pottery r ecovered f rom a rea 1 4 ( Fig. 1 3.5/11-19), o n t he c ontrary, s hows s ome f ragments made o f a more p urified i mpasto ( Fig. 1 3.5/11-12); a f ew s hapes would b e r elated t o a l ater c hronological l imit ( Fig. 1 3.5/ 1 8-19). A c omplex s ettlement p attern m ay b e o bserved t hrough t he d istribution o f f inds, b ased o n f arms d epending p resumably o n a gricultural a nd p astoral e conomy, d irectly c onnected w ith t he r ural l andscape. M any o f t hese v illages h ad a c ommon l andmark i n t he l arge c emetery ( Fig. 1 3.6/1) l ocated o n t he e astern p lateau. A d ifferent z oning p rocess may b e d efined h ere: a p lateau was r eserved f or f unerary p urposes whose morphology i s v ery s imilar t o t hat o f many E truscan c ities. T he g eneral e vidence r eveals a t hickly populated r egion, f illed mostly w ith f arms. T he d imensions o f t hese r ural c ommunities d iffered f rom o ne a nother a ccording t o t he a rea u nder t heir c ontrol a nd t heir e conomic f unction. A ll h owever were c ulturally l inked t o t he powerful c ity o f C aere ( Colonna 1 967); t he f unerary a rchitecture o f most c emeteries o ffers excellent c onnections w ith t he monumental a rchitecture i n C aere. I t i s possible t hat a p rocess o f e xtensive c oloniza tion had t aken p lace i n t he l ate 7 th c entury B .C., o n t he i nitiative o f C aere, i n o rder t o p opulate i ts n atural h interl and. T hus a s ystematic s urvey o f t he M onti d ella T olfa a rea c an b e c learly s hown t o f ill t he t opographical g aps r emaining a nd above a ll c an b e u sed t o t ry t o d efine t he t ypology of s ettlements, l ooking a t t wo p rimary f actors: t he c hronology o f f oundation a nd t he p roductive r elationship w ith t he l ands cape. A ndrea

Z ifferero

T he n ecropolis o f P ian d ella C onserva ( Fig. 1 3.1/5) was k nown f rom t he l ast c entury t hrough t he work o f 0 . B enndorf ( 1866) a nd G . D ennis ( 1883), who p ublished t he f irst s poradic d iscoveries c arried o ut b y l ocal s cholars. T he n ecropolis was d ug f rom 1 955 b y t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica dell'Etruria M eridionale w ith e mergency excavations ( Bastianelli 1 942, 2 45; S ommella Mura 1 969); s ince 1 975 G . A.R. h as b een c ontributing t o t he s ystematic exploration o f t he s ite ( Naso 1 980, 3 0 f f.; N aso 1 980a). T his c onsists o f a t ufaceous p lateau o verlooking t wo s mall t ributaries o f t he M ignone r iver, A cqua B ianca a nd V erginese r ivers ( Fig. 1 3.6). T he M onti d ella T olfa a re c omposed mainly o f l imestone, b ut t hey a lso have s ome ' tufa-islands'. U sually t hese a re i ncorporated a s s ites o f E truscan c emeteries, c arved i n t he r ock. T hese r esearches have l ocated 6 5 b urial u nits, d ating f rom t he e nd o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. u ntil t he 3 rd c entury A .D., b ut mainly b elonging t o t he 7 th a nd t he 6 th c entury B .C.

a re

A t t his moment w e k now o f 5 0 c hamber t ombs, a nd 1 6 o f t umuli; P ian d ella C onserva i s t he l argest a nd t he

2 47

t hem b est

0

m 500

•

IN S E C I I A IV IE NT O

F ig.

1 3.6.

N ECROPO U

Z O N A A G RI C OL A

T he n ecropolis o f P lan d ella C onserva w ith r elated i dentified s ettlements.

2 48

t he

known Etruscan n ecropolis i n t he Monti della T olfa ( Del C hiaro 1 962, 51). T he excavations have i solated two s ectors of t he s ite, called A , the southern one, a nd B , t he northern one ( Fig. 1 3.7): z one A , t he monumental one, i ncludes now 3 4 c hamber t ombs with many t umuli. A l ittle b urial r oad c rosses i t ( Fig . 1 3.8). Z one B covers a nother r oad, c arved two metres i nto t he t ufa, a nd 1 7 chamber t ombs with a f ew t umuli. H ere a re a lso s ituated t he l atest t ombs. P loughing c ontinued u p t o 3 0 years ago, a nd marks are evident i n b oth t he areas: a l arge n umber o f t ombs a re d amaged a nd many o f t he v aults h ave c ollapsed. I n

this

r eport,

however,

I wish

to d iscuss

t he

f uneral

architecture; f or other aspects, l ike the topography of the s ite, reference s hould b e made t o my previous work ( Naso 1 980). T he i nfluence of Caere i s c lear i n t he architecture of t he c hamber t ombs. C aeretan patterns a re f ollowed, s ometimes s o s trictly t hat we b elieve s ome t ombs ( Fig. 1 3.9) were built b y s killed workers f rom C aere. T his t omb b elongs a t l east t o t he mid-6th c entury . T he f uneral c ouches, with t he masculine one and the feminine one d istinguished as at Caere ( Steingraeber 1 979, Typen katolog: k linentyp lb, 1 s arkophagbett, 6 ), t he c hild-couch, t he f irst r oom's f rontal wall o f t he f irst r oom d ecorated w ith s mall w indows a nd r ight ' projecturae', r epeat typically C aeretan s ubjects ( Ricci 1 942: e .g. t .174, 6 38f.). P ian C onserva 1 7 i s t he c learest e xample o f t his t endency, a lso t estified b y o ther t ombs ( Fig . 1 3.12, 1 1, 1 2, 6 5).The C aeretan c hambers f orm our f irst g roup. T here a re a lso a g reat number o f t ombs, t hat a re b uilt v ery d ifferently ( second g roup); t hese a re poor i n d ecoration a nd i naccurately c ut o ut ( Fig. 1 3.10). T hey c an b e d ated f rom t he end of t he 7 th t o t he 6 th century, but t he commission and t he working of t hem i s t otally d ifferent f rom t he f irst group. T he chambers b elonging to the s econd c lass are characterized b y r ather i rregular p lans a nd b y t he r ough c arving o f e ach e lement. T he f uneral c ouches, j ust 3 0-40 cm. h igh or l ess, have no f eet or cushions a nd t he wall s urface i s n ot polished . I n o rder t o d istinguish t he v arious c lasses, i n which t he t ombs are d ivided, I have developed a k ey ( Fig. 1 3.12). I t i s a s ynoptical t able t hat l ists e ach a rchitectural e lement a nd t he a ssociations among all t he elements i n every c hamber tomb. T he t able o ffers two k inds of i nformation: i t can b e used vertically, t o f ind t he chamber(s)'s c haracteristics, a nd h orizontally, t o c ompare where e ach a rchitectural e lement i s l ocated i n t he n ecroplois. I n t he t able I h ave b een f orced to a dopt t he I talian l anguage, but I hope my terms will b e quite c lear. A s r egards t erminology, however, i t needs a n explanation . F or e xample, d efinitions l ike ' geometric p lan', c onsidered a s a C aeretan i nfluence, a nd ' irregular p lan ' c ons idered a s a l ocal f eature, d o n ot a pply o nly t o t he r eal a nd s ingleplan,but t o t he general building process. F rom the

2 49

F ig.

1 3.7.

P ian d ella C onserva:

l ocation o f

2 50

t he e xcavated a reas.

f rom t he t able I have a certained t hat a t omb w ith p erpendi cular walls may a lso h ave C aeretan e lements ( such a s f uneral c ouches a nd c ushions) ( Fig. 1 3.9) which d o n ot e xist i n t he t ombs o f t he s econd g roup ( PC 3 7: F ig. 1 3.10). I put f orward, t herefore, t his m ethod a s a n atempt a t c lassification which s eems t o m e t o b e v alid. N aturally patterns o f t he p lan a lone a re n ot a ble t o d efine t he t omb's o rigin. T he f uneral couches a nd t he d ecoration a re o ne o f t he most i mportant f actors. T he s o-called f emale c ouches a re r arely s een: t he c hambers, where t hey a re v isible, c an b e c onsidered C aeretan. I n t he s ame w ay, l ow c ouches c haracterize l ocal t ombs. T here a re also a l arge number o f c hambers, t hat h ave e lements b elonging b oth t o t he f irst g roup a nd t o t he s econd o ne. A ' kline' s imilar t o a C aeretan a rchetype, c an b e f ound t ogether w ith a c ompletely d ifferent b ed ( Fig. 1 3.11). T his model, p robably s howing t he s ex o f t he d ead, i s a l ocal s olution f or t he f emale c ouch, d iffering f rom t he u sual practice o f C aere. T hese l ocal t ombs w ith C aeretan f eatures f orm o ur t hird g roup. I h ave t ried t o a ssign e very t omb t o o ne o f t he t hree g roups, but i t i s n ot a lways possible. I am a ble, h owever, t o g ive s ome i ndicative data, c oncerning t hese 5 0 t ombs. T hese a re d ivided t hus: 1 0% a re C aeretan; 3 0% a re l ocal; a nd 6 0% a re l ocal, b ut w ith c lear i nfluences o f C aere. T his d istribution i n t hree g roups s hows t he v arious origins a nd t he d ifferent r ank o f t he p eople t estified b y t he n ecropolis of P ian d ella C onserva. T he u pper c lass was p robably f rom C aere, t hat c olonized i ts h interland, b eginning a t l east f rom t he e nd o f t he 7 th c entury ( Colonna 1 967, 1 3 f f.). T o point o ut many i mportant a spects, we h ave now t o d efine more e xactly t his h istorical d evelopment: w e n eed a c hronology f or t hese monuments. W e h ave t he t omb g roups i n t he T olfa Museum, b ut w e do n ot a lways k now, f rom which t ombs t hey c ome, b ecause t hey h ave b een f ound i n r escue e xcavations c onducted b y t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica d ell ' Etruria M eridionale, t hat a re n ot well e nough d ocumented. W e k now t he materials f ound s ince 1 975 b etter. B oth t he g roups c ontain p ots i mported f rom C aere ( bucchero w ith i ncised a nd i mpressed d ecorations, E trusco-Corinthian wares) a nd l ocally made ( bucchero, f ine p ainted c ream a nd c oarse w ares). O vers eas i mports a re quite r are ( Bastianelli 1 942, 2 49 f f.). W e s hall s tudy t hese t omb g roups a s p art o f o ur f uture r esearch: f or n ow w e c an s ay t hat t he n ecropolis was u sed a t l east f rom l ast q uarter o f t he 7 th c entury. T his d ate c ould b e i ncreased a fter our s ystematic s tudies. R ecently a g rave h as b een f ound a t P ian d ella C onserva, which was n ot s ituated i n t he a rea o f t he n ecropolis ( Fig. 1 3.7/2). I t c ontained a s mall s piral amphora o f b lackish c oarse ware, quite e arly f or i ts f orm ( similar t o B eijer 1 978, t yp.Ib); t his s mall a mphora c an b e d ated a t t he l atest t o t he b eginning o f t he 7 th c entury a nd p robably i t was i mported f rom C aere. A t t he moment t his i s t he e arliest o bject we k now f rom P ian della C onserva: s o t he r elations

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Future work may develop i n two d irections: t he f irst one i s verification o f our hypothesis on t he origin a nd development of t he n ecropolis. The s econd o ne c oncerns other Etruscan c emeteries i n t he Monti della T olfa a rea ( Fig. 1 3.1): at t he moment we have l ittle i nformation about t hem, but probably their condition i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he P ian d ella Conserva. A lessandro

Naso.

Acknowledgements We t hank Prof. G . C olonna, who encouraged t his work a nd d iscussed w ith u s s everal problems concerning i t. We are also g rateful t o N igel S pivey, who h elped u s t ranslate our I talian expressions i nto E nglish.

B ibliography Bastianelli, S tudi B eijer,

S . 1 942. E truschi

A . 1 978. s pirali. Rome 4 0,

Benndorf, d i

I l t eritorio 1 6, 2 29 f f.

t olfetano n ell'antichitä.

P roposta per una s uddivisione delle a nfore a Mededelingen van h et Nederlands I stitut t e 7 f f.

0 . 1 866. S cavi Corrispondenza

etruschi. Bullettino dell'Instituto Archeologica 1 1, 2 25-231.

Brunetti

Nardi, G . 1 972. R epertorio degli s cavi e delle s coperte a rcheologiche n ell'Etruria M eridionale I I ( 1966-1970). R oma, 8 3-84.

Brunetti

Nardi, G . 1 981. R epertorio degli s cavi e delle s coperte a rcheologiche n ell'Etruria Meridionale I II ( 1971-1975). Roma, 1 71-177.

Colonna,

G . 1 967. L ' Etruria Meridionale I nterna V illanoviano a lle t ombe r upestri. S tudi E truschi 3 -30.

Del

dal 3 5,

C hiaro, M . A. 1 962. A n Archaeological-Topographical S tudy o f t he T olfa-Allumiere D istrict: P reliminary R eport. American J ournal o f A rchaeology 6 6, 4 9-55.

Dennis,

G . 1 883. C ities a nd C emeteries edition. L ondon, 3 00 f f.

2 57

o f

E truria.

s econd

Klitsche de 3 00. K litsche de 2 9.

La

L a

Grange,

Grange,

A .

A .

1 882.

1 891.

Notizie

N otizie

Naso,

A . 1 980. L a necropoli etrusca ( Quaderni 1 5) Roma, G .A.R..

Naso,

A .

1 980a.

Studi

E truschi

4 8,

degli

degli

d i

P ian

S cavi

S cavi

della

1 882,

1 891,

2 8-

C onserva.

5 44-545.

Pace,

B ., Vi ghi, R ., Ricci, G . and Monumenti A ntichi dell'Accademia 4 2. Caere.

Payne,

H .G .

Serra,

F .R. 1 970. Pyrgi. Scavi del santuario etrusco ( 19591 967). Notizie degli S cavi 1 970 Supp1.2, 5 45-549.

1 931.

Necrocorinthia.

Moretti, M . Nazionale del

1955. L incei

O xford.

Sommella Mura, A . 1 969. Repertorio degli scavi e delle scoperte archeologiche nell'Etruria Meridionale I ( 1939-1965). Roma, 6 7-68. Steingraeber,

S .

1 979.

E truskische

Moebel.

Z ifferero, A . 1 980. L 'abitato etrusco ( Quarderni 1 4) Roma, G .A.R. Z ifferero,

A .

1 980a.

S tudi

E truschi

4 8,

d i

R oma. P iana

d i

S tigliano.

5 36-537.

Z ifferero, A . i n press. Nuove presenze etrusche e romane a Poggio S .Pietro ( Tolfa): osservazioni preliminari. R icognizioni A rcheologiche 1 .

Summary A systematic i nvestigation of t he Tolfa territory has yielded a preli minary wealth of data, which provides an understanding of t he essential f eatures of the Etruscan s ettlement patterns. Surface i nvestigations were concentrated mainly i n t hose areas where small burial s ites had been previously i dentified. Conspicuous f inds of impasto pottery i n t he P iana d i Stigliano, near P oggio S . P ietro and P ian della Conserva have revealed the presence of several v illages, which must h ave p layed a p rimary r ole i n t he r ural economy of the region. These f inds are useful i n putting f orawrd s ome h ypotheses on t he possible mechanism a dopted b y t he E truscans i n colonizing t he r egion. The necropolis of P ian della Conserva has revealed a l arge number of c hamber t ombs i n about 3 0 years o f r esearch, carried out by t he S oprintendenza. S ince 1 975 G .A .R . has b een contributing to the excavations. Tu muli appear to be

2 58

concentrated i n two l ocations of t he tufaceous plateau. T he f unerary a rchitecture i s c learly i nfluenced b y n earby C aere, even if local f eatures are someti mes preferred. The chronology of t he s ite r anges f rom t he l ate 7 th century ( Etrusco-Corinthian ware, bucchero with g raffiti a nd impasto pottery) t o t he e nd o f t he 6 th c entury B .C. ( Attic b lack a nd r ed f igured vases, l ocal imitations, bucchero a nd impasto p ottery), w ith s poradic t races o f e arlier p eriods.

R iassunto L a r icognizione del t erritorio tolfetano ha prodotto n umerosi d ati c he f anno c omprendere l e c aratteristiche d ell' i nsediamento etrusco i n z ona. Le r icerche sono state c oncentrate i n quelle a ree d ove n ecropoli p oco e stese e rano s tate g iä l ocalizzate i n p recedenza. C ospicui r itrovamenti d i c eramica d i impasto n ella P iana d i S tigliano, p resso P oggio S . P ietro e P ian della Conserva hanno permesso d i i dentificare alcuni pagi, che svolsero un ruolo d i primo p iano n ell'economia r urale d ella r egione. Q uesti r itrovamenti s ono utili per t racciare alcune ipotesi s u una presumibile c olonizzazione e trusca d ella z ona. La necropoli d i P ian della Conserva ha r estituito molte tombe a c amera i n t renta a nni d i r icerche s volte dalla S oprintendenza. Dal 1 975 i l G .A.R . collabora alb os cavo. L e t ombe a c amera s ono c oncentrate p rincipalmente i n d ue s ettori d el p ianoro t ufaceo . L a a rchitettura f uneraria ä c hiaramente i nfluenzata dalla v icina Caera, an che se S i osservano n umerosi e lementi f rutto d i e sperienze l ocali. L a c ronologia del s ito va dall'ultimo quarto del V II s ecolo ( ceramica e trusco-corinzia, b ucchero g raffito e d impasto) a ll f ine d el VI s ecolo a .C. ( ceramica attica a f igure nere e r osse, imitazioni etrusche, bucchero ed impasto), con qualche s poradica p resenza p iü a ntica.

2 59

1 4.

SETTLEMENT

PATTERNS

I N

Marco

THE

CASTRO

AREA

( VITERBO)

R endeli

T his r eport outlines t he r esults o f a s urvey r esearch c arried out b y t he Gruppo A rcheologico Romano a nd t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica dell' Etruria Meridionale, w ith t he contribution of t he M inistero degli A ffari E steri, i n the t erritories of t he municipalities o f I schia d i C astro a nd F arnese. S ince 1 979 t he Gruppo A rcheologico Romano has developed t his r esearch w ith a l arge group o f volunteers each s ummer ( Fig. 1 4.1). I schia d i C astro l ies i n n orthern L azio, near t he b order w ith Tuscany, b etween t he E truscan c ity of Vulci a nd L ake Bolsena. T he western l imit was f ixed on t he R iver F iora, t he eastern one on t he h illy plateaux, 3 km. east f rom I schia d i Castro. T he whole area i s c overed b y vulcanic f ormations of t ufa banks. T his r ock i s f riable, impermeable a nd i t i s very easy t o c arve a nd work. I t i s derived f rom t he vulcanic area of L atera a nd Monte B ecco, which l ies on t he western s ide of L ake B olsena. O nly a f ew z ones do not l ie on t he t ufa b anks but on l imestone ( but a lways o f vulcanic origin): t he S elva del L amone, i n t he northern part of t he t erritory, a nd t he a rea around t he Monti d i C anino. T he whole t erritory i s well watered: two r ivers a nd a great number of s treams r un t hrough i t; the F iora which r uns north-south a nd the O lpeta w ith t he other s treams east-west. T he methodology o f our r esearch i ncluded a 1 00% f ield survey of t he area. I n t he majority o f t he s ites, a fter t he f irst d iscovery, we r eturned two or t hree t imes i n d ifferent s easons or a fter f arm work. F ew areas were i naccessible: t he w ide T orlonia property, b etween t he Monti d i C anino a nd t he R iver F iora, was o ne of t hem, s o we decided to put t he s outhern l imit o f our i nvestigation h ere. We have r ecorded a ll t he d iscoveries of d ifferent ages f rom prehistory to medi eval t ime. However, i n t his r eport I w ill mention only t he E truscan f indings f rom t he orientalizing t o t he c lassical period. Apart f rom Vulci only a f ew s ites were covered b y archaeological r esearches i n t he t erritory u nder consideration: t hese i ncluded a f ew r eports concerning d iscoveries i n t he l ast c entury, t he excavation of t he necropoli of C astro ( de Ruyt 1 973, 1 89 f f.) a nd o f P oggio Buco ( Bartoloni 1 972; Matteucig 1 951), a nd t he t opographic study of G . C olonna ( Colonna 1 977, 1 89 f f.), which i s t he b est work c arried out f rom t he archaeological a nd h istorical point of v iew. T he excavations i n t he n ecropoli o f C astro were very r ich i n f indings, but none o f t hem was published completely b y t he B elgian M ission o f A rchaeology which has worked i n C astro f rom 1 960. We have made around a hundred a nd t en n ew d iscoveries; but only f ifty have g iven pottery o f t ypologized

2 61

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2 62

c lasses ( Fig. 1 4.1). W e h ave f ound s tructures l ike c hamber t ombs a nd s mall r oads ( tagliate) c ut i n t he r ock i n a f ew c ases; most o f t hem c onsist o f s herds o f p ottery c oncentrated i n w ell d efined a reas. I t hink t hat t hey probably d emonstrate t he presence o f r ural s ites. T hey w ere d ivided i nto f our p atterns, b ased o n t heir f unction or t opography: a l ittle t own l ike C astro, d efensive s ites o n t he s outhern e dge o f t he S elva d el L amone, r ural s ites d ivided i n t wo t opographical p atterns; s ites l ying b etween C astro a nd t he T orlonia e state a nd o n t he h illy p lateaux i n t he eastern z one. T hat t hese l ast two p atterns b elong t o r ural s ites i s c onfirmed b y t he r elative w idth o f t he p ick-up a reas a nd b y t he s mall n umber o f p oor c hamber t ombs, when t hey a re p resent. I h ave c alled t hem p atterns o f s ite s ettlement b ecause t he l ocation i n t he d efined t erritory, i n my o pinion, t he r ule a nd t he t ype o f e xploitation i n which t hey w ere i nvolved. T hey a re n ot o nly z ones o f s ettlement o r c ateg ories: t he r elationship b etween t he f unction a nd t he l ocation i s t he main f actor a t t his s tage. W e h ave f ound g reat d ifficulties i n t he a nalysis o f t he p ottery: a ll t he s tudies i n t he Vulci a rea a re l imited t o t omb g roups, which a re q uite d ifferent f rom s ettlement p ottery. T he o nly excavation b eing c arried out i s i n R egisvilla, t he E truscan h arbour o f V ulci, b y t he U niversity o f R ome; b ut t he f indings a nd t he s tratigraphy a re n ot y et c ompletely p ublished. T he majority o f o ur f indings c oncern c oarse ware pottery o f l ocal p roduction; i t s eems t o s uggest a g eneral c onnection i n s hapes a nd c lays w ith t he C aeretan w are f ound i n P yrgi ( Notizie d egli S cavi 1 959; 1 970 ( 2), 1 , 2 ) a nd o n t he M onti d ella T olfa ( Zifferero 1 980). I n a f irst p hase, h ere f rom t he mid 6 th c entury B .C., s hapes a nd c lays o f ' impasti r osso b runi' ( Serra 1 970, 5 45f.) a re p redominant. L ater, f rom t he e nd o f t he s ame c entury t he i mpasti c hiaro s abbiosi ( Serra 1 970, 5 45 f f.) a nd t he i nternal s lip ware ( Threipland-Torelli 1 970, 6 2 f f.) r eplace t he p revious c lays w ith more a ngled s hapes. O ther p ottery c lasses w itnessed a re t he b ucchero, w ith f ew f ragments o f l ate b owls, t he e truscoc orinthian a nd t he a ttic b lack f igure w are each w ith t wo s herds. T he s ite o f C astro, a lready k nown t o a rchaeology s ources ( de R uyt 1 973, 1 89f.; C olonna 1 977, 1 89f.; R endeli 1 984, i n p ress), h as t he u sual s hape o f a c ity i n s outhern E truria d uring t he o rientalizing a nd a rchaic p eriods: a t riangular a rea w ith t wo d efended e dges s urrounded b y c emeteries. F ig. 1 4.2 s hows t he w hole a rea: f rom t he s outhern e dge a w ide a nd l ong r oad c ut i n t he r ock ( Cava G rande) g oes t oward Vulci a nd T uscania ( Fig. 1 4.2, 1 ).

O n t he n orthern e dge w e h ave f ound a dump o f E truscan p ottery made u p b y t he c onstruction o f t he R enaissance c ity, c apital o f t he ' Ducato d i C astro' ( Fig. 1 4.2, 2 ). T he pottery i s mostly o f c oarse w are, b ut a s herd o f a n ' italo-geometric' j ug t estifies t he p resence o f t he s ettlement a t l east f rom

2 63

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t he b eginning of t he 7 th c entury B .C. A great number of s hapes o f impasto r osso b runo l ike d olia, j ugs a nd b owls b elong t o t he 6 th c entury B .C . We d id n ot f ind impasti c hiaro s abbiosi a nd i nternal s lip ware: t his d atum, a s well a s t he Er pmb groups, confirms t he end of t he t own during t he f irst quarter o f t he 5 th c entury B .C . A round C astro t here a re t hree necropoli; t he most important of t hem i s i n f ront o f t he f ree entrance o f the s ettlement ( Fig. 1 4.2, 3 ). T he others are on t he northern a nd s outhern h ills i n f ront of t he t own ( Fig. 1 4.2, 4 -5). O f great importance i s a tomb, ' rediscovered' b y t he G ruppo A rcheologico R omano, n earby t he C hurch o f t he S S . Crocefisso ( Fig. 1 4.2, 6 ). U ntil a few years ago i t was b elieved t o b e a n a ltar ( Colonna 1 977, 2 04; T orelli 1 981, 1 92); but a fter a complete c leaning operation we can now confirm without a ny doubt t hat i t i s a tomba a dado ( Rendeli 1 979, 4 9 f f.), very s imilar to t he others found i n C aere and i n t he i nteranl c ities u nder C aeretan i nfluence during t he s econd h alf o f t he 6 th c entury B .C . ( Colonna 1 968, 3 f f.). T he other necropoli, i nstead, have a very s trong architectural b ond with Vulci, f rom which they also derive t heir pottery. T he f irst tomb groups s eem to appear at t he beginning o f t he o rientalizing period until t he end of 6 th century B .C. T he f unction of t his l ittle town during t he E truscan period was, i n my opinion, t he control of t he t erritory: u nder t he p olitical a nd t he e conomic i nfluence o f Vulci, Castro developed control of t he h interland t hrough e ither l and exploitation or a s a t rading c entre b etween t he main c ity a nd C entral E truria ( Rendeli 1 984, i n p ress). T he f irst pattern of r ural s ettlement ( marked b y dots; F ig. 1 4.1) l ies b etween C astro a nd t he T orlonia estate, a s a lready mentioned . T he t erritory, which g ently s lopes d own t o t he Vulci p lain, i s i ntersected b y s treams. T he s ites, a lthough near watercourses, s eem to b e r elated t o roads connecting C astro with Vulci a nd Tuscania. We have noticed t hat i n t his pattern neither c emeteries nor a s ingle tomb were found. T his f act could b e explained b y t he r elative c loseness o f part o f t hese s ites w ith C astro: o nly t he b igger o nes c ould h ave a n a utonomous l ife. T hese ( 142 a nd 2 25) b egan during t he s econd h alf of t he 6 th century B .C.; t he others were l ater, perhaps a t t he end of t he s ame c entury, b ecause o f t he f irst f inds o f t he impasti c hiaro s abbiosi. During t he 5 th century only t he b igger s ettlements s urvived a nd t hey c ontinued u ntil t he R oman c onquest . T he f unction o f t his p attern i s d ifficult t o e xplain; but i f we c onsider t he a grarian exploitation o f t he 1 6th a nd 1 7th century A .D., k nown f rom t he archives of t he Ducato d i Castro', i n r elation to t he archaic period, i t s eems t hat a gricultural a ctivity, a rable i n p articular, was p rominent . B esides agriculture t here was also l ivestock b reeding; c ontinuing t he f inal B ronze a ge t radition ( Barker 1 972, 1 70) w ith s ummer p asture l ands mostly u sed f or s heep-breeding . The second pattern of rural settlement ( marked by squares; F ig. 1 4.1) l ies i n t he eastern part of t he s urveyed area. The topography changes: long tufa plateaux are

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demarcated by streams which r un to the River F iora. During t he f inal B ronze a ge t he v alleys b etween t hese p lateaux were u sed a s t ranshumance r outes c onnecting t he A ppennines t o t he p lains n ear t he T yrrenhian S ea. During t he A rchaic p eriod t he f irst autonomous settlements were created on the edges of t hese h ills. They continued t he tradition of protohistoric t i mes i n their location, always near watercourses but also n ear t he r outes c onnecting C astro a nd Vulci t o L ake B olsena. T hey s eem t o b e b roader a nd perhaps b etter organised t han t he s ites of the f irst pattern. As our research r eflects, t he b igger ones ( e.g. 9 1) i nclude small l ittle roads cut i n the r ock ( tagliate) a nd modest c emeteries made u p o f f ive or s ix chamber tombs. These imitate the models of Vulci but as no p ottery was f ound i n t hem t he c hronology c ould not b e g iven. F rom s ite 9 1, t ogether with t he impasti r osso bruni, two s herds o f A ttic b lack f igure a nd o ne o f etrusco- c orinthian ware were f ound; t hey are t oo small t o i dentify t he group or the hand who painted them. These fragments and also t he pottery f rom t he other s ites s uggest a n earlier c hronology, at least to t he mid 6 th century B .C. Exploitation of this area continues i n part of the s ettlements during t he whole c lassical period ( e.g . 6 8). T he main occupation was probably a griculture, v iticulture i n particular, t ogether w ith c attle a nd s heep b reeding. The last pattern ( marked by triangles; F ig. 1 4.1) is r epresented by f our d iscoveries. A s a lready mentioned i n t he i ntroduction, t hey l ie along the southern edge of the S elva del Lamone. The S elva del L amone i s a wide tableland formed by vulcanic l i mestones and covered by impenetrable woods. T hree o f t he s ites are i n t he v alley o f t he O lpeta R iver; t he fourth is a more complex settle ment with re mains of structures on t he edge of the tableland ( 193). I t takes advantage of an open space which was surrounded by a wall facing the S elva ( Fig. 1 4.3, 7-8). F ig. 1 4.3 g ives a sketch plan which shows a ll t he structures d iscovered. We found t hree e ntrances: two n ear t he l imits o f t he wall, o ne i n t he middle ( Fig. 1 4.3, 1-6). t he r ight entrance was probably c onstructed with t ufa b locks a nd i s i nteresting, b ecause t his t ufa r ock was b rought f rom other s ites, 3 or 4 km. away f rom the Selva del L a mone. In the area of the settl ment clandestine excavations have exposed foundation of houses ( Fig. 1 4.3, 2 -3-4), one c istern ( Fig. 1 4.3, 5 ) a nd a great number of sherds. The t hree foundations ( e.g. F ig. 14.4 = F ig. 1 4.3, 3 ) a nd t he c istern are built with l i mestone b locks. The pottery g ives some i nteresting data: beside the j ugs a nd b owls o f impasto r osso bruno, with s hapes t hat s eem to b e l ate, we have found a r elevant number of sherds of i nternal s lip ware, s ome basins and one neck of amphora of impasto chiaro s abbioso. S i milarities with t he pottery d iscovered i n t he f irst r ural pattern a nd t he absence o f t he earlier s hapes found i n t he f irst rural pattern s uggest t he b eginning o f t his s ettlement during t he l ast years o f t he 6 th century B .C. The internal sli p ware testifes to its existence i n the 5 th century and i t continues during t he whole c lassical a nd h ellenistic period, a nd t he c eramica sovradi pinta and t he vernice nera demonstrate. T he s ame

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c haracteristics were f ound i n t he p ottery o f t he o ther t hree s ites . Why a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th c entury B .C . was t his s trong d efensive s ettlement ( 193) b uilt? I t l ies i n a n u nproductive e nvironment, c ut o ff f rom t he main r oads, f ar f rom water . My s uggestion, at t his s tage of our r esearch, i s t hat t he f unction a nd t he h istory of t he s ite are s trictly connected with t he need for a defensive and i solated place f ar f rom t he p lain. T hus I r ecall t he c onnection w ith t he e nd o f t he t owns i n i nternal E truria ( Colonna 1 968, 3 f f.) and t he f oreign i nvasions during t he 5 th a nd 6 th c entury B .C . T his i s o nly a n h ypothesis o n which we w ill work . T hese a re t he f our s ite s ettlement p atterns d istinguished i n t he C astro area. A s already s een, t he patterns do not s uggest a ny d ifferentiation i n t he chronology of t he s ites b ecause they could have developed t he s ame f unction i n d ifferent p eriods. B ut i f t he p revious r esearches c oncerned mainly t he h istory of t he c ities a nd towns ( Colonna 1 977, 1 89 f f.; R endeli i n press), t he d iscoveries o ffer n ew d ata o n t he evolution of land u se during t he archaic a nd c lassical periods. I have d ivided t his evolution i nto t hree phases, defined b y t he pottery f ound i n t he s ites. T he f irst c overs t he s econd h alf o f t he 6 th c entury ( Fig. 1 4.5): Castro was a r ich town a nd under t he i nfluence of Vulci b egan the development of t he f irst r ural s ites ( e.g. I II) 9 1; I I) 1 42, 2 25). T hey are f ew, well s paced, a lways on t he main r oads. T he s econd i s very d ifficult to place ( Fig. 1 4.6): during t he l ast years o f t he 6 th century n ew areas were occupied a nd n ew s ettlements c reated a s ub-division o f land. I n t his period I notice t he maxi mum f luorit of land exploitation i n t he r ural s ettlements. Beside t hem, t he defensive s ites of pattern IV) also appear and t estify t hat s omething i s r adically c hanging i n t he e volution o f t he a rea . The third and last phase covers the 5th century B .C. Important c hanges a re s hown i n F ig. 1 4.7: t owns l ike C astro, P oggio B uco, Tuscania a re d ead ( Colonna 1 968, 3 f f .), b ut t he bigger rural s ites continue their l ife. This datum i s important b ecause i t d emonstrates t hat, a lthough w ithout t he l ittle t owns, i n t he 5 th c entury a v iable economic l ife b ased on agriculture and l ivestock b reeding continued u nder t he s upport o f Vulci. I n my opinion t his d ivision i n phases could a lso b e r eflected i n a h istorical b ackground . T he predominance o f t he aristocracy i s c learly present i n t he b ig properties of t he f irst a nd t hird p hase. B ut i t i s n ecessary t o d istinguish i n t he f irst o ne t he p resence o f C astro which h eld a n important f unction o f political a nd e conomic c ontrol i n t he t erritory u nder t he i nfluence o f V ulci. I n t he s econd t he b ond b etween Vulci, C astro a nd t he r ural s ettlements s eems t o b e s tronger, as i s a lso t estified b y t he d iscoveries of E truscan coarse ware amphorae both i n t he necropoli of Vulci a nd i n t he t erritory under consideration. T he t hird t estifies t o t he complete control i n the area o f t he Vulci aristocracy a fter t he d eath o f t he i nternal c ities.

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I n conclusion, I would l ike t o s tress t hat t his r eport i s the r esult of a f irst analysis on the Castro territory. We have t horoughly e xamined s ome s elected areas t o t ry t o u nderstand t he r elationship between Castro, Vulci and t he rural s ettlements. Besides f ield s urveys we plan to begin a n excavation, perhaps i n t he defensive s ettlement I V, 1 93. T his further analysis will clarify some of our doubts and will offer u s a c learer p icture o f t he C astro t erritory. A cknowledgements I wish t o t hank P rof. G . C olonna f or having e ncouraged me i n the realization of this work. Dr. N igel Spivey a nd Mr. Michael C arroll f or t urning my r eport i nto proper E nglish. I wish t o also mention Mr. T . L otti a nd a ll t he volunteers who have worked with me: without t hem this r eport would never have b een written. B ibliography Barker,

G . 1 972. The Condition of Cultural and E conomic Gro wth in the Bronze Age of Central Ital y. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 8, 1 70 f f.

Bartoloni, G . 1972. Le tombe Archeologico d i F irenze. Colonna, G . 1968. V illanoviano 3 ff.

da Poggio F irenze.

G . 1 977. Vulci n eu e v alli del I n Atti del X Convegno d i Studi F irenze, 1 89.

De

F . 1 973. C astro. Enciclop _ edia 1 973, 1 89ff.

Matteucig, Notizie

G .

1 951.

degli S cavi

Notizie

P oggio

S cavi. 1 43

B uco.

M .

1 979.

Museo

1 959.

UCLA

S anta

F iora e dell'Albegna. E truschi ed I talici.

dell'Arte

A ntica

P ress.

S evera.

I n

Notizie

degli

f f.

degli S cavi. 1 970. S upplementi 2 -1, 2 .

R endeli,

nel

L ' Etruria Meridi onale Interna dal a lle t ombe r upestri. S tudi E truschi 3 5,

Colonna,

R uyt,

Buco

L a

T omba

P yrgi.

a d ado

A tti del I V Convegno L azio. R ieti 4 9 f f.

I n

del

dei

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de Tli

C rocefisso

del

Gruopi

S cavi,

T ufo.

A rheologici

I n del

Rendeli, M . 1 984. Su a lcuni r itrovamenti nell'area u rbana e note sull'etä orientalizzante ed arcaica d i Castro. A rcheologia-Contributi, i n p ress. Serra,

F .R. ( 2),

1 970. 5 45

Pyrgi.

Notizie degji

f f.

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2

T hreipland, L .M. a nd T orelli, M . 1 970. A s emi-subterranean Etruscan Building i n t he C asale P ian R oseto ( Veii) A rea . P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 3 8, . T orelli,

M .

1 981.

Z ifferero, A . R ome.

E truria.

1 980.

B ari.

L 'abiato etrusco d i

P iana d i

S tigliano.

S ummary This r eport outlines t he r esults of a s urvey r esearch carried out i n t he C astro area. Four patterns of s ettlement are defined: t he t own o f C astro, a group o f f our defensive s ites along t he southern edge of t he S elva del L amone a nd two patterns o f r ural s ettlement . T he i dentication o f p atterns i s made o n t he l ocation o f s ites which d efines t he f unction a nd r ule i n t he t errirory. The l ast part s uggests a hypothesis for t he h istory of t he exploitation o f t he area: we have d ivided t he period b etween t he mid 6 th c entury B .C. a nd t he c lassical age i nto t hree phases. The f irst a nd t hird are characterized by b ig p roperties d eveloped b y t he a ristocracy; t he s econd s hows a f ragmentation o f p roperties, a s ymptom o f a p rocess which we h ave y et t o u nderstand c ompletely.

R iassunto Questa r elazione delinea i r isultati d i una r icerca svolta nel t erritorio castrense. L e r icognizioni s u questa area hanno evidenziato quattro modelli . di i nsediamento: I ) l 'abitato d i C astro; I I) u n p rimo t ipo d i i nsediamento r urale posto n ella z ona meridionale d el t erritorio; I II) u n s econdo t ipo d i i nsediamento r urale s ituato nella fascia collinare fra Castro ed i i L ago d i Bolsena; IV) una serie d i i nsediamenti d i c arattere d ifensivo posti l ungo i l imiti meridionali d ella S elva d el L amone. La identificazione del modelli ä stata esequita principal mente su caratteristiche geomorfologiche del t erritorio, ma a nche l e poche s trutture emergenti e l e t ipologie ceramiche testi moniano questa d iversitä. N ell'ultima parte vengono considerate alcune i potesi d i carattere s torico s ull'area i n questione. Molto importante r isulta i n tutte l e fasi l a i nfluenza della aristocrazia vulcente. A bbiamo d iviso i l p eriodo c he, d alla metä d el s ec . VI a .C., comprende tutta l 'etä c lassica i n tre parti: l a prima e l a t erza s ono c aratterizzate d alla p resenza d i g randi p roprietä a ristocratiche; n ella s econda i nvece s i a ssiste a d u na n otevole f rammentazione d ei possedimenti, s intomo d i u n cambiamento che e ancora ben lungi da poter essere e saurientemente c ompreso .

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1 5.

CASTRO TERRITORY SETTLEMENT

G ianfranco

I N

ROMAN

T IMES

Gazzetti

A fter t he Roman c onquest i n 2 80 B .C., t he t erritory o f Vulci was d ivided i nto two praefecturae - S aturniensis i n t he North a nd S tatoniensis i n t he S outh. T he consular r oads v ias Aurelia a nd C lodia-Claudia, which very l ikely f ollowed the previous r oute o f E truscan t imes, b ecame t he main axes f or t he connections w ith Rome a nd i nland E truria, a nd mansiones a nd v ici l ike F orum a nd Maternum were built a long t hem. T he whole r eorganisation of t his r egion can b e t raced b ack t o t he f irst quarter of t he 3 rd c entury B .C. I t i s noteworthy t hat d ata emerging f rom t he s urface survey s ubstantially s upport t his c hronological f ramework, even t hough t heir origin must r ecommend s ome caution i n d iscussing t hem. F orty f ive r ural s ettlements, out o f f ifty e ight f ound i n t he a rea s elected f or s ampling, were probably already i n existence b y t he m iddle of t he 2 nd c entury B .C. T he main chronological i ndicators u sed t o date t hese s ites a re the b lack g lazed ware r elated t o t he Atelier des P etites E stampilles and l ocal or r egional E truscan pottery productions which f ind t heir counterparts i n t he RomanH ellenistic necropolises of T arquinia, Tuscania, Norchi, C astel d ' Asso. The emergence o f more or l ess defined c lusters o f r ural v illae s uggest a d ivision i nto four areas probably gravitating t owards d ifferent c entres: the f irst i n t he North, i ncluding C astro, t he L amone f orest and t he Mezzano l ake ( the a ncient l acus S tatoniensis mentioned b y P liny); t he s econd i n t he C anino countryside i s t he r ichest s ettlement a nd t he only one b earing t races of C enturiation; t he other s ettlements are p laced a long r outes partly following t he old E truscan ones, a nd connected with Valentano a nd C anino. T his t opographical p icture r emains much t he s ame u ntil t he end o f t he 4 th c entury A .D. T he periods considered b elow a re t he most s ignificant f or u nderstanding t he s ettlement o f t he r egion a nd t he t opographical position of t he farms. T owards t he m iddle of t he 2 nd c entury B .C., s even r ural s ettlements d isappeared a nd t en others were founded, b ringing t he t otal number o f s ites t o f orty n ine. During t his phase we can probably i dentify t he b eginning of t he occupation of the northern area, while t he other areas s how o nly minor modifications. T he dating of t hese f arms was b ased o n s ignificant f indings o f C ampana B , or B-type, l ocal o r

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S ' 4 U G W I ' . ' 4 G S

r egicnal b lack g lazed ware t ypes o f t he 2 nd c entury B .C., monochrome t hin-walled w are a nd c oarse pottery f ound a t C osa i nside l ate R epublican s trata. F rom J ulio-Claudian t o A drian t imes f ifteen s ettlements s eem t o d isappear, w hile a f urther twenty f our o thers emerge, b ringing t he t otal n umber t o f ifty e ight which i s t he h ighest t otal observed during t he t ime s pan considered h ere. A decrease o f t he f arms i n t he C anino i s c ontemporary w ith a n i ncrease o f t hose i n t he V alentano a rea. A t t he s ame t ime t he c onstruction - o r maybe t he r ebuilding - o f t he R oman r oad, T uscania - V alentano - L atera o ccurs, a nd a ssumes a n i mportant r ole i n t his t erritory, d emonstrated b y s everal a rchaeological s ites o f I mperial d ate s et a long i t, ( villae a nd f amily g raves); s ome s cholars h ave e ven s uggested a s hifting o f t he V ia C lodia a long t he r oute during t his p eriod. F rom t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury A .D. a c risis c an b e observed, which p robably a ffected t he f our a reas s imultaneously, c ausing a p rogressive d ecrease i n t he n umber o f f arms. T owards t he middle o f t he 4 th c entury A .D. t he t otal n umber o f r ural s ettlements drops t o t wenty t hree, w ith r emarkable d ifferences b etween t he a reas; t he n orthern c luster a nd t hat a round V alentano u ndergo o nly s light c ontraction, i n c ontrast t o t he C anino p lain c luster which i s r educed b y h alf. T he a nalysis o f t he A frican t erra s igillata ware a nd c oarse pottery c learly u nderlines t his c hange; i n particular t he a bsence o f A frican D t ype a nd l ater C t ype t erra s igillata g ives u s a n e xact c hronological c lue f or t he d esertion o f t he f arms. I n p ost-Roman t imes t he p icture s eems t o a lter; b esides a f urther d ecrease o f t he s ettlements, n ow amounting t o s ixteen, i t i s a pparent t hat a n ew a rrangement r estores i mportance t o t he V ulci a nd C anino p lain i n c omparison w ith t he more i nland t erritory; particularly i nteresting i n t his r espect a re t he f indings o f monochrome p ottery w ith i mpressed d ecorations o f L ongobard p eriod i n t hree r ural s ettlements, a long w ith A frican D t ype t erra s igillata, r ed p olished ware, a nd r ed p ainted post-Roman p ottery. A t p resent t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica d ell'Etruria M eridionale, i n c ollaboration w ith v olunteer p ersonnel o f t he G .A.R., i s u ndertaking a n e xcavation a t L a S elvicciola i n t he C anino p lain, which c onfirms t he s urface s urvey d ata. T he s ite s tratigraphy h as p roduced i nteresting i nformation, t he most i mportant o f w hich, i s t he p resence, i n t he d esertion l evels o f t he f arm, monochrome pottery i mpressed w ith g eometric p atterns t ypical o f L ongobard t imes ( VII c entury A .D.) which c an b e p aralleled w ith t he t omb g ifts f rom t he C astel T rosino a nd N ocero U mbra L ongobard n ecropolis. S ubsequently s ome o f t he p eripheral r ooms o f t he v illa were o ccupied b y a n ecropolis which, b esides o ther g ifts, h as

2 77

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produced

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Post-Roman a nd early Medieval written s ources s eem t o confirm t he v itality of t his a rea, p laced o n t he b order of t he Marca Romana a nd gravitating t owards t he S . Mamiliano monastory and t he Castrum of Musignano. T he f inal desertion of t he s ite must h ave t aken p lace towards t he end o f t he 9 th century A .D., after t he landing o f t he s o-called S aracen p irates a t R egisvillae a nd t he r esulting f inal d esertion o f Vulci. I n 9 64 A .D. t he last b ishop o f Vulci t ransfered t he s eat o f h is d iocese t o C astro, s anctioning t he desertion o f t he coastal plain. Acknowledgements This

article

was

t ranslated

2 80

b y

C arlo

P ersiani.

1 6.

POPULATION A ND AGRICULTURE:

MAGNA GRECIA

I N T HE FOURTH CENTURY B .C.

J .C. C arter, L . C ostantini, C . D ' Annibale, J .R. J ones, R .L. F olk, a nd D . S ullivan, w ith t he a ssistance o f M .E.Reed.

T he t erritory o f M etaponto h as b een a n o bject o f e xplora tion a nd s tudy n ow f or n early twenty y ears. P ioneering work b y D inu A damesteanu a nd h is c ollaborators, b oth I talian a nd f oreign, b y t he e arly 1 970s had e stablished t he e xistence o f o ver a h undred s ites i n t hat part o f t he t erritory s tretching f rom t he c ity walls 1 5 k m. i nto t he i nterior, a nd b ounded b y t he B radano a nd B asento R ivers. ( The c orresponding a rea b etween t he B asento a nd C avone was f ound t o b e even more d ensely s ettled). A erial p hotographic s tudies i ndicated t hat t he t erritory was d ivided i nto s trips a nd p erhaps i nto a g rid p attern b y parallel ' lines', s paced o n t he a verage 2 00 m . a part. T his, i t h as b een maintained, i s t he earliest s urviving e xample o f s ystematic l and d ivision i n t he G reek w orld. T he ' lines' h ave b een d escribed v ariously a s c ountry r oads a nd drainage c anals ( Adamesteanu 1 973; 1 976). E xcavation o f a d ozen or s o o f t he s ites r evealed a n u nexpected r ichness a nd v ariety. R ural s anctuaries, f armhouses, i ndustrial s ites, a nd n ecropoleis c rowded t he l andscape. E xcavation a lso d efined i n b road o utline t he c hronology o f r ural s ettlement ( Adamesteanu 1 974a; C arter 1 980a, 1 981). T he f irst w ave o f G reek c olonists moved o ut i nto t he c ountryside e arly i n t he 6 th c entury B .C. a nd b y t he e nd o f t hat c entury t here were f armhouses a ll o ver t he t erritory. M aterial o f 5 th c entury d ate i s n ot a bundant a nd i s l agely l imited t o t he g rave g oods f rom r ural b urials. T he majority o f s ites b elong t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c entury B .C. T here i s s ome evidence o f l arge s cale d estruction a t t he e nd o f t hat c entury o r e arly i n t he 3 rd, c orresponding t o a p eriod o f L ucanian a nd R oman i ncursion, o f c ondottieri, s uch a s C leomenes a nd P yrrhos. A m odest r evival i n t he l ate R epublic a nd a g radual i rreversible d ecline i n p opulation i n t he E mpire r ounds out t he p icture ( Adamesteanu 1 974a; G iannotta 1 980a). E xcavations b y t he S uperintendency i n a ncient M etaponto i tself i ndicate a r oughly p arallel h istory. T he c ity was a t t he h eight o f i ts f ame i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 6 th c entury B .C. I t h ad b egun t o d ecline i n t he 5 th. A fter a r evival i n t he 4 th c entury B .C. t he u rban s ettlement c ontracted dramatically i nto t he a rea o f t he c astrum, where i t s urvived u ntil t he s ixth c entury A .D. ( Adamesteanu 1 974b; D 'Andria 1 976b; G iardino 1 977, 1 983).

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I n t he l ast f ive t o s ix y ears t he a pproach t o t he p roblem o f t he t erritory h as b roadened t o i nclude a nother s urvey t his t ime a b lanket s urvey o f o nly a l imited a rea - a nd s pecialized s tudies o f t he g eology o f t he t erritory, i ts p aleoenvironment a nd a gricultural p roduction i n a ncient t imes. T hese s tudies n ow make i t possible t o v iew t he phenomenon o f i ntensive r ural s ettlement i n f resh t erms ( Carter 1 983). T he purpose o f t his p aper i s t o i ndicate t he d irections o f t hese i nvestigations, a s i t i s f ar t oo s oon t o s peak o f d efinitive c onclusions, b y f ocusing o n a major p roblem: t he e normous expansion o f t he population o f t he t erritory i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c entury B .C. ( a t ime w hen, c onsidering t he u ncertainty o f t he political s ituation, w e s hould n ot h ave e xpected i t) a nd i ts s udden c ontraction a fter t he f irst quarter o f t he 3 rd c entury B .C. Metaponto:

S urvey

T hree y ears o f s urvey, u nder t he d irection o f C esare D ' Annibale ( D'Annibale, 1 982), h ave p roduced r esults which i ntensify t he c ontrast b etween t his p eriod, 3 50-275 B .C., a nd t hose which preceded a nd f ollowed i t. T he s urvey t eam c oncentrated o n a t ransect 4 k m. w ide a nd 1 0 k m. l ong, b etween t he B radano a nd B asento, b eginning a t a d istance o f 6 km. f rom t he a ncient c ity ( Fig. 1 6.1). A s o f t he a utumn o f 1 983 f ive h undred a nd t hirty-six s ites r anging i n d ate f rom t he archaic t o t he l ate R oman p eriod h ad b een p laced o n t he map. T hese a re t he s ites c onsidered i n t he f ollowing a nalyses. T he d ensity o f s ites - a nd t his must b e v ery c lose t o t he original d ensity - i ncluding t ombs, i s o ver t en p er k m. 2 , a nd 9 5% o f t he d atable s ites b elong o r h ave a c omponent b elonging t o t he 4 th a nd e arly 3 rd c enturies B .C. T he d ates, b ased o n a bundant c eramic material c ollected f rom t he s ites, have t o b e modified, s ome, a s o ur k nowledge o f l ocal b lack-glazed p ottery b ecomes more p recise. S till, i t i s r easonably s afe t o s ay t hat most o f t his material b elongs t o t he y ears b etween 3 50 a nd 2 75 B .C. T he a gricultural n ature o f s ettlement i n t he t erritory h as b een c onfirmed b y e xcavation. I t i s a lso evident w hen t he s urveyed s ites a re c onsidered i n r elation t o t he l andscape. R obert F olk ( Folk 1 982) h as s hown t hat r ural s ettlement a t M etaponto o ccupies l and f ormed i n t he l ast 2 00,000 y ears, a s t he s ea r etreated f rom a l evel c orresponding r oughly t o t he e levation o f P isticci. T he P leistocene s ands a nd g ravel w hich v ary i n d epth a nd c over P liocene marine c lays w hich a re n aturally i mpermeable t o w ater. T he g ravel a nd s and i s r ich a gricultural l and. T he t errain b eyond P isticci, h owever, i s d eeply eroded c lay, a r egion o f c alanchi f ormations w hich i s o nly r ecently - w ith e arth l eveling o perations a nd i rrigation - b eing f ruitfully f armed ( Alexander 1 982). A 1 931 s tudy s howed t hat t he s andy l and a long t he c oast was t wenty-four t imes more d ensely s ettled t han t he ' argil l e a zzure'. T he G reek h eld t erritory - i t i s n ot s urprising - s tops w ith t he

2 82

' Fig. 1 6.1. M ap o f t he T erritory o f M etaponto. S ites i dentified i n t he s urvey d uring 1 981-82 ( indicated w ith s olid dots) i n t he t ransect ( indicated b y t he r ectangle) a nd i n a o ne k ilometre r adius f rom t he s anctuary o f P antanell ( in t he c ircle).

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s ands a nd t he g ravel, i ndigenous p opulation.

l eaving t he

c lay

t o

t he

d isplaced

I n t he 4 0 k m.2 area o f t he b lanket s urvey h abitation s ites a re o ften l ocated a long t he r ims o f t he r ivers a nd t heir t ributaries, o r t hey a re a ligned a long t he r oughly parallel r idges o f t he marine t erraces which c orrespond t o t he a ncient b eaches ( Fig. 1 6.2). T he c ommon e lement i n e ach c ase i s proximity t o a s upply o f f resh water. S prings i n t he t erritory - a nd t here i s a s urprisingly l arge number o f t hem - a re l ocated i n t he v alleys a t t he i nterface b etween t he s andy g ravel a nd t he m arine c lay. W ater i s a lso t rapped h ere a nd c omes t o t he s urface a long t he o ld s horelines ( Folk, 1 982). ( Wells l ined w ith mass-produced t erracotta d rums s eem t o have c ome i nto u se o nly i n t he f ourth c entury B .C.). W hen h abitation s ites c luster, a s t hey d o a t s everal points i n t he i ntensively s urveyed t ransect, a n a ll-weather s pring i s u sually f ound a t t he c entre. C roton B efore 1 983 M etaponto was t he s ole k nown e xample among t he G reek c olonial c ities o f M agna G recia w ith a n e xtensive r ural s ettlement. A t t he g enerous i nvitation b y t he S uperintendent o f C alabria, D ottoressa E lena L attanzi, a s urvey o f t he t erritory o f C roton was b egun i n t he s pring o f 1 983. S ince M etaponto i s n ot u nique i n a ny r espect, e xcept t he a ttention paid b y a rchaeologists t o i ts t erritory, t he C roton s urvey s eemed a g ood o pportunity t o b roaden t he d iscussion o f G reek r ural s ettlement, a nd p rovide a b asis o f c omparison f or M etaponto. T his expectation was amply f ulfilled a nd i n a s hort t ime. A t otal o f f ifteen s ites were previously k nown f or t he whole t erritory o f C roton. W ith s ix w eeks o f f ield work D 'Annibale a nd h is c rew b rought t he n umber t o 1 38. H ere, a s t he a rea c oncerned i s v ery l arge - 2 70 s quare k ilometers a s o pposed t o l ess t han a h undred f or t he a rea b etween t he B radano a nd B asento - a s ampling s trategy was devised. O ne k ilometre ' quadrats' ( squares) i n e ach o f f ive e ast-west t ransects w ere c hosen a t r andom a nd c ompletely covered b y t he t eam. I n t his f ashion, a bout f ive p ercent o f t he t erritory h as b een covered. S o f ar t he d ensity o f s ites i s c omparable t o t hat a t M etaponto. W hat i s d ifferent, t hough, i s t he f act t hat t he s ites a re c oncentrated a long t he s teep l imestone r idges which a lternate w ith t erraces d own t o t he c oast. T here a re f ar f ewer s ites, i n a ny period, o n t he f lat p lateaus b ehind. T he G reek s ites a re b oth l arger a nd more c losely s paced t han a t M etaponto, a nd t hey a re l ocated n ear s prings, w hich a re f ound a t t he b ases o r a long t he s lopes o f t he r idges. T hese l ocations w ere a ttractive t o s ettlers i n t he N eolithic, B ronze A ge, a nd o n i nto t he R oman I mperial a nd M edieval p eriods. G reek s ites, h owever, s eem a t t his early s tage i n t he i nvestigation t o b e l argely l imited i n t ime t o t he l ate 6 th a nd early 5 th c enturies B .C. - t he p eriod o f C roton's g reatest e xpansion u nder t he l eadership o f i ts p hilosophically m inded a ristocracy o f P ythagoreans.

2 84

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2 85

T his, c uriously, c orresponds t o a t emporary a bandonment o f t he t erritory a t M etaponto. T he 4 th c entury i s, b y c ontrast, p oorly r epresented a t C roton. T hese p reliminary r esults d o prove t hat M etaponto was n ot a n i solated c ase, b ut a lso t hat i t i s c learly t oo s oon t o g eneralize a bout r ural s ettlement i n Magna G recia ( Carter a nd D ' Annibale, i n p ress). E xcavation A t M etaponto t he r esults o f e xcavations h ave a dded a n i mportant d imension t o t he s tudy o f r ural s ettlement a s a whole a nd t hey s upport t he e vidence o f t he s urvey - t hat t he t erritory i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c entury was i ndeed exceptionally p opulous a nd w as u ndergoing r apid c hange. T o i llustrate t he f irst point: s alvage e xcavation t his y ear a t P antanello ( Carter i n p ress) b rought t o l ight a n i ntact b urying g round w ith 1 91 t ombs. T he b urials which c luster, p robably i n f amily p lots, r ange i n d ate f rom t he l ate 6 th t o t he early 3 rd c entury B .C. B y f ar t he l argest n umber b elong t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c entury. T he n ecropolis i s n ot t oo d istant f rom t he c ity t o b e c onsidered a n e xtension o f t he u rban n ecropolis ( Figs. 1 6.1 a nd 1 6.10; P late 1 6.7), a nd a s w e s hall s ee, i t i s l ocated a long a major t horoughfare l eading i nto t he c ity, b ut t he s urvey had s hown t hat i t i s a lso i n v ery c lose p roximity t o a number o f f armsites o f t he s ame p eriod. ( D' Annibale 1 983). I t m ight w ell have b een a b urying g round f or t his r ural population. W hichever s olution i s c orrect a t remendous g rowth i n t he p opulation o f t he c ountryside i n t he p eriod f rom 3 50 t o 2 75 B .C. c annot b e d enied, a nd i t i s l ogical t o wonder what, i f a ny, c hanges c an b e observed i n l anduse i n t his period. P alaeobotanical

R esearch

H ere excavation o nce a gain h as p rovided t he e vidence, which, s o f ar i n t his c ase, i s u nique a nd f undamentally i mportant ( Carter 1 983). T he s ubmerged G reek s pring-sanctuary a t P antanello preserved s tratified a nd w ell-dated d eposits o f l arge quantities o f o rganic m aterial i n a n a naerobic e nvironment. T his i ncludes n ot o nly a w ide v ariety o f s eeds o f c ultivated a nd u ncultivated p lants, b ut f ruit, l eaves, s tems a nd t runks o f p lants a nd t rees f ound i n t his a rea o f t he t erritory, o r b rought i nto i t b etween 6 00 a nd 2 75 B .C. T he t rees s o f ar i dentified b y C ostantini's g roup ( Costantini 1 983b) i nclude o live ( Olea e uropaea) a nd f ig ( Ficus c arica) a s w e could expect, b ut a lso p oplar ( Populus a lba) a nd w illow ( Salix s p.), which may have b een u sed t o s upport g rape v ines. S ome o f t he l arger f ragments, p reserved i n t he o xygen f ree e nvironment o f t he b asin, had b een t urned i nto l umber a nd ( as y et u nidentified) wooden i mplements. T he woods s o employed i nclude maple ( Acer. s p.), f ir ( Abies a lba), a nd o live ( Meiggs 1 982, 4 62). B ranches o f o live a nd v ine s tems o f g rape ( Vitus v inifera) h ave f requent c lean c uts

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PI ZZ ICA PA NTANELLO S pr ing S anc tuary a nd C o l lec t ing B as in p ar t ia l r econs t ruc t ion ( a l l p hases )

A B C D E F

Fig. 16.3. C ollecting

E a r ly S ix th C en tury B .C . L a te S ix th C en tury B .C . M idd le F ou r th C en tu ry B .C . L a te F our th C en tu ry B .C . T h ird -F ir s t C en tury B .C . F i r s t C en tury B .C . —F i r s t C en tu ry A .D .

Pizzica Pantanello. Spring Sanctuary and Basin, partial r econstruction ( all phases).

2 87

P late 1 6.1. V iew o f t he c ollecting b asin a t P antanello ( from t he s outh) with t he ' well-point' p umping s ystem i n o peration d uring t he e xcavation 1 982.

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P late 1 6.2.a . V iew of the area o f t he sanctuary: c ollecting basin a nd s pring-well a t P antanello 1 982 ( from t he s outhe ast).

P late

1 6.2b.

Detail o f t he northern b asin a t P antanello

2 89

end o f 1 982.

t he

c ollecting

made,

s urely,

b y

t he

pruning

h ook

( Plate

1 6 .3A a nd B ).

T he b ulk o f t he material r elating t o a griculture c onsists o f s eeds a nd c omes f rom t he r eservoir . T his was a n important s ource of water f or s urrounding f arms ( Fig. 1 6.3 and Plate 16.2). It dates to the second half of the 4 th c entury B .C., t he period o f concern h ere and one f or which we h ave a d ocument o f v ery g reat i nterest, d escribing i n v ivid detail agricultural l ands a nd c rops i n neighbouring Heraklea, the bronze Heraklea Tablets (Uggu z one and Ghinatti, 1 968). T he t able h ere ( Fig. 1 6.6) l ists most of t he p lants a nd i ndicates t heir importance i n t hree p hases c overing r oughly s eventy-five y ears i n t he e ventful l ife of t he sanctuary. I n t he mid 4 th century B .C., a s t he study of L orenzo C ostantini ( Costantini 1 982; 1 983a; 1 983b) a nd h is g roup h as made c lear, among t he c ultivated plants, t he o live, grape a nd f ig predominate. Moreover, there are r elatively f ewer r emains of wheat a nd b arley ( Plate 1 6.4). I t s hould b e noted t hat t he H eraklea T ablets mention t hese f ive c rops a nd n o o thers . At t he e nd of t he century or t he b eginning of t he n ext, j ust f ifty years a fter, t he r everse i s true. T he grains a nd to a l esser extent t he l egumes ( preserved i n a c arbonized s tate), a re r elatively f ar more important . I n t he i ntervening h alf c entury t he s anctuary was a bandoned a nd t he c ollecting basic c logged and f inally f illed. H ere t he acquatic p lants a nd weeds t ell the s tory. I n t he e arly 3 rd c entury a f arm building, probably a s tall, was constructed on t he marshy ground of t he f ormer s pring a nd collecting b asin ( Fig. 1 6.3). P ollen

A nalysis

T he main l ines o f t his development j ust s ketched have b een c onfirmed i ndependently b y pollen a nalysis. D on S ullivan ( Sullivan 1 983), working w ith s amples t aken f rom c olumns o f c ompact c lay i n b aulks where t he s tratigraphy a nd d ating a re s ecure, has described t he c hanging l anduse i n t he t erritory from the 6 th century to the i st century A .D. Briefly, s ignificant quantities o f t histle, p lantain, r umex a nd f orage crops i ndicate that t he grazing or pasturing of s heep and goats was important i n t he l ate Archaic period ( Fig. 1 6.5). A t t he s ame t i me t here are s ome c ereals a nd a l ittle olive. Together, t he evidence points t o a diversified f arming e conomy a t t his t ime. T he l ate 6 th c entury B .C . was t he g reat building period i n t he c ity. T he major s anctuaries were already i n decline i n t he 5 th. By t he mid-4th c entury t he p lants which i ndicate g razing d eclined, a nd b rowsing may h ave ceased. I n the second half of the 4 th century the i ncreasing magui, mentioned, b y t he way, i n t he H eraklea Tablets ( Ugg li z( 3-r i e a nd Ghinatti 1 968, 7 3), i s a probable i ndication o f this ( Fig. 1 6.6). T here were c attle and s heep, p erhaps, b ut n o g oats. T here i s a d ramatic i ncrease i n o live by t he mid 4 th. Cereals a nd l egumes r each t heir h igh i n t he s econd half of t he c entury. T he pollen of aquatic p lants r eflect t he l ocal s ituation o f s tanding water ( Fig. 1 6.7).

2 90

lt bO live b ranches w ith c uts

a S ections o f v ine s tem w ith c uts

1 1 1 1

I t imi l lA m er f lo M m a e r e m o r l i mm i r

cO live b ranches w ith a w orked

dD raw ing o f f ir p lank

s urface

e S ection d ark f ungi t he c ells.

P late

o f

( ancient)

m aple i n

w ith

fS .E.M .

v iew o f t he c ross

s ection o f a v ine s tem .

1 6.3.

2 91

P izz ica -Pan tane l lo D is t r ibu t ion o f S eed s b y l e ve l i n t he A rea o f t he C o l lec t ing B a s in x -p re sen t x x -nume rous x xx -abundan t

L EVEL I B a se l e ve l ( m id 4 th c en tury B .C . )

L EVEL I L EVEL I I C ompac ted C a rbon ized o rgan ic o rgan ic m a te r ia l ma te r ia l ( e a r ly 3 rd c en tu ry B .C . )

C e rea ls T r i t icum d icoccum /emme r

x x

T hc i tur n c ompac tum /whea t

x

x

x xx

H o rdeum v u lga re /ba r ley

x

x

x xx

L egumes C ice r a r ie t inum / ch ick p ea L en s c u l ina r is / len t i l P i sum s a t ivum / f ie ld p ea x x

V ic ia f a ba /b road b ean V ic ia e rv i l ia /b i t te r v e tch F orage c rops Med icago ( s pFa l fa l fa A vena s a t iva /oa t s L o l ium t emu len tum / rye g rass W i ld a nd S pon taneous P lan ts C a rex [ s p l / sedge f am i ly E upho rb ia e l io scop ica / spu rge G a l ium [ s p ] /beds t raw L a thy ru s [ s p ] /ve tch l ing P o l igonum [ s p j /kno tweed R anuncu lu s I s p l /bu t te rcup f am i ly R ubu s [ s p ] /b lackbe r ry S onchu s ( s p l / sow t h is t le

XXX

C e ro taphy l l ium d eme r sum /coon ta i l

x xx

Z ann iche l l ia [ s p ]/ho rned p ond w eed

x xx

F ru i r s F icu s c a r ica / f ig

XXX

O lea e u ropaea /o l ive

MO (

V i t is v in i fe ra /g rape

XXX

F ig.

1 6.4

2 92

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bT r it icum c ompactum

t

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T he l ate 4 th a nd early 3 rd c enturies s ee a f urther d ecline i n o lives a nd a s ubstantial i ncrease i n g rasses . L egumes may b e h igh at this t i me i n response to intensified cereal cultivation. T he evidence s eems t o i ndicate a s pecialized a griculture. A s a l arge p ortion o f t he p opulation n ow r esides i n t he t erritory, t he r esult o f t his s pecialization ( DelanoSmith 1 979, 2 00) would b e t o create a surplus a nd a profit. I n f act, one of t he f ew documentary s ources we have f or t he period i ndicates t hat t he Metapontines were wealthy enough about 3 00 B .C. to pay an enormous ransom to C leomenes ( Gianotta 1 980, 1 2) . T he i ncreasing p olitical i nstability o f t he period may b e r eflected i n t he l andscape, i n t he s hift away, i n t he l ate 4 th, f rom o lives a nd grapes , with t heir relatively great c apital i nvestment, t o t he c ereals. O n t he local level, cattail i ncreases i ndicate a b oggy condition with some s tanding water at t he e nd o f t he 4 th century. T he emergence of sedge i n t he early 3 rd century s hould have c orresponded with t he f inal d isappearance o f water f rom t he b asin a nd i ts abandonment . T he conclusion, b ased on a nalysis of t he pollen, t hat t he r eservoir was completely s ilted up b y about 2 75 B .C . i s c onfirmed i ndependently b y t he b uilding h istory o f t he s ite . I t was at t his point, chronologically, t hat t he f irst s tage of t he well was s et over t he mouth of t he archaic s pring at Pantanello. A lthough there i s archaeological evidence f or v iolent destruction o f t he f armhouse above t he s pring, a nd t he a bandonment o f n inety p ercent o f t he f armhouses w ithin a 1 km. radius of t he s ite ( D'Annibale 1 983), t here i s n o c orrespondingly dramatic b reak i n t he pollen r ecord, t hough t here i s a c onsiderable d iminution i n t he p ollen c ounts a fter 2 75 B .C. O live continues, at a l ow l evel as do t he g rasses ( and grains). T here are s igns of a moderate i ncrease i n g razing. F aunal

A nalysis

T he s i milar conclusions r eached, i ndependently, b y Sullivan and Costantini, and t heir c ompatibility with t he a rchaeological evidence f rom t his s ite i s v ery e ncouraging, but it sh ould be emphasized at this point that g eneralizations about c hanging l anduse i n t he t erritory a s a whole must await c onfirmation b y s imilar r esults f rom o ther si tes. The program me of excavati on and study of palaeobotanical a nd faunal material undertaken b y t he U niversity o f T exas i n c ollaboration w ith L orenzo C ostantini h as obtained s ignificant r esults n ow f rom f our s ites i n t he t erritory c overing t he e ntire t housand y ear s pan o f G reek a nd R oman s ettlement ( Plate 1 6.5 .). T he p alaeobotanical e vidence i s a bundant a t I ncoronata f or t he 7 th a nd 6 th c enturies B .C ., and at Pantanello f or t he 6 th t o t he 3 rd c enturies B .C. F aunal material i s a s ignificant p art o f t he r ecord n ot o nly at t hese s ites but also at S ant'Angelo G rieco f or t he early Empire and at S an B iagio f or t he 4 th century A .D. ( Scali 1 983). T he

f aunal

evidence

f rom

t hese d ated d eposits,

2 96

s eparated

i n

P late 1 6.5a. View of t he excavation o f the 4 th century B .C. Greek farmhouse a long t he valley of t he Venella at Ponte F abrizio 1 890.

P late

16.5b.

T he

l ate Imperial v illa a fter excavation.

2 97

rustica

at

S .Biagio

s pace a s well a s t i me, b ears d irectly on t he question o f l anduse. I t i s not t oo s oon t o s uggest t hat, as a whole, i t r eflects a s hift f rom a principally a gricultural e conomy i n t he Greek period t o one based on pastoralism i n t he period of R oman domination. Such a conclusion has b een r eached b y h istorians u sing documentary s ources ( Toynbee 1 965, 3 09; B runt 1 971, 2 83) a nd challenged b y an early a nalysis o f f aunal material f rom t his area ( Barker 1 977, 2 70). A more p recise i dea o f t he c hronology o f t his t ransformation i n t he t erritory of Metaponto may b e obtained by t urning again t o P antanello, where occupation with i nterruptions extended f rom t he 6 th century B .C. t o t he l ate Empire. T he principal e vidence c onsists o f a l arge quantity o f f aunal material f rom a c omplexly s tratified d eposit t o t he n orthwest o f t he s pring a nd c ollecting b asin ( Cabaniss 1 983). At t he l owest l evel, a s t he t able i llustrates ( Fig. 16.8), cattle, whose pri mary use was for traction and p loughing, are numerous. T his l evel contained numerous amphorae, f ine, l ocally p roduced M egarian b owls, a nd a R epublican b ronze c oin which was m inted i n 1 54 B .C. C attle decline progress-ively. T here are n one i n t he early 1 st c entury A . D . l evel, which i s well d ated b y s tamped A rretine vessels. S heep/goat numbers a re r elatively low, u ntil t he l ater l evels where t hey take a s udden j ump. This dramatic f all i n c attle a nd c oresponding r ise i n s heep/goat would s eem t o have t aken p lace i n t he f irst c entury B . C . T he evidence f rom Pantanello - i t s hould b e cautioned - may r eflect a purely l ocal s ituation, a c hange i n l anduse at t his t ime i n t his particular a rea o f t he t erritory. I t will r equire f uller confirmation f rom other s ites a nd s ources, but i t i s a gain e ncouraging t hat t he p reliminary r esults o f t he p ollen r ecord - which h as a w ider a rea o f r eference - i ndicates a n u psurge o f pastoralism i n t he 1 st c entury B .C . ( Sullivan, 1 983). T his excursus on t he f aunal r ecord and i ts implications h as taken us s ome way from t he major theme of t his paper which i s population a nd a gricultural production i n 4 th c entury B .C. Magna Grecia. Y et i t i s r elevant i n important ways: i t provides additional evidence for t he conclusion, b ased o n t he pollen data, t hat t he t ransformation of t he Metapontine countryside, a fter t he 4 th c entury was not s o v iolent o r abrupt a s t he c onventional a rchaeological r ecord would i ndicate. D espite t he e vidence f rom e xcavations o f t he destruction o f farmsites at t he e nd of t he 4 th c entury or b eginning of t he 3 rd, despite t he apparent total a bsence of s ites o f l ate 3 rd century or early S econd c entury B .C. date i n t he a rea o f t he s urvey, t he a gricultural e conomy s urvived a t a very much r educed l evel u ntil t he i st century B .C. when i t y ielded d efinitively t o p astoralism. S tatistical

A nalysis

To date, fe w s ites of the Roman period have been e xcavated i n t he t erritory. T hey a re l arger t han t he t ypical i solated Greek f armhouse, t hough s eemingly more modest a nd u tilitarian t han v illas o f t his d ate e lsewhere. S ites o f t he

2 98

C O

I f )

g e

c i ) "

C f)

c o

C J

a )

I T!

a l a )

l e Ör 2

F ig.

1 6.7.

—

( ‘ )

a ) N • c o r e e l

6 + . 1 a )

a )

T r . ;

0 )

l ate 2 nd a nd i st centuries B .C. d iscovered by t he survey t eam, however, are numerous enough t o provide a b asis f or s tatistical comparison with t hose o f t he C lassical period ( 5th, 4 th, a nd early 3 rd c enturies B .C.). I nformation about s ite s ize, b ased a s i t i s on a ssumptions a nd judgements, i s i n i ndividual c ases open to considerable doubt. I n t he aggregate, however, i t may b e i ndicative o f trends. I f t he conclusion drawn f rom t he f aunal s tudies i s correct, t hat t here i s a s hift f rom agriculture t o pastoralism at t his t i me, t hen t he r evived s ettlement o f t he t eritory might b e expected t o s how d ifferent characteristics. I t might b e supposed t hat a Metapontine s heep r ancher's dwelling a nd work space would have been l arger t han a farmer 's, more w idely s eparated f rom h is n eighbours, l ess d ependent o n t he c ity, a nd p erhaps o n a c onstant, n earby water s upply, a s t he h erds would n ormally b e o n t he move . S ummary s tatistics d emonstrate t hat t he a bsolute number o f s ites o ccupied i n t he C lassical p eriod t o t he H ellenisticRoman period ( 2nd and ist centuries B .C.) decreased considerably. T hese data, however, do not r eflect u pon t he s tatistical s ignificance of s ite occupancy c haracteristics b etween t he two p eriods ( Cowgill 1 975, 2 62). I n o rder t o t est i f the s ite characteristics during these two periods of o ccupancy were s ignificantly ( 0.05) d ifferent, c hi-square ( x) analyses were c omputed. T he chi-square t est i s a nonparametric s tatistic t hat i s used when t he data a re at t he nominal l evel of measurement a nd a Gaussian d istribution ( normal) c annot b e a ssumed. Theoretically, t he t est i s only valid f or t he s pecific data, a nalyzed, however, t he large s ize of t he s ample could s uggest t hat t he r esults have a pplication outside t he s tudy a rea. For the tests, s ites were grouped according to the f ollowing d imensions: t hose s ites w ith a t ile s catter u nder 800 m . 2 , and t hose s ites with a scatter of greater d i mensions. T he r esults of t he t est ( Table 16.1) c learly d emonstrate t hat t he s ize o f t he s ite o ccupied, a s i ndicated by elements on t he surface, d id n ot d iffer s ignificantly b etween t he two p eriods . A c hi-square t est was a lso c omputed t o t est t he s ignificant d ifference b etween s ite s ize a nd elevation. F or t his t est t he e levations were g rouped i nto t he f ollowing c lasses: l ow land ( under 7 0 m .), corresponding to r iver valleys a nd v alley s lopes, m idland ( 70 t o 1 05 m .), a nd h ighland ( over 1 05 m .), corresponding to t he marine t erraces. T he r esults of t his t est ( Table 1 6.2) s uggest t hat t here i s a s ignificant d ifference ( 0.05) b etween t he s ite s ize a nd e levation f or t he two periods. T o i nvestigate f urther t his r elationship two s eparate c hi-squares were c omputed f or each o f t he p eriods. F or t he C lassical p eriod a s ignificant d ifference ( 0.05) d oes exist b etween s ite s ize a nd elevation. F or t he H ellenisticR oman p eriod n o d ifference was f ound .

f rom

F or t he c hi-square a nalysis o f s ite s ize a nd d istance water, t he d istances were g rouped a s f ollows: w ithin 1 50

3 00

Table S ite X2 = 3.66

S ize

16.1.

versus

P eriod

C lassical

H ellenistic

R oman U nder Over

8 00 m . 8 00

m .

8 4

1 2

1 35

3 8

T able S ite

S ize

X2 = 14.48

1 6.2

versus

U nder

7 0

E levation 7 0

Under

8 00 m .

2

4 0

4 7

Over

8 00 m .

2

8 1

5 0

C lassical

t o

1 05

Over

1 05

9 4 2

P eriod

X2 = 9.47

U nder

7 0

7 0

to

1 05

Under

8 00

Sq.

meters

3 5

4 0

Over

8 00

S q.

meters

6 6

3 9

H ellenistic-Roman

Under

8 00

m .

Over

8 00

Sq.

1 05 9 3 0

P eriod

X2 =5.98 U nder

Over

7 0

5

2

meters

7 0

to

1 05

7 1 5

3 01

Over

1 05

0 1 1

1 2

Table S ite

S ize

2 '

X = 2.52

versus

1 6.3. D istance

U nder

1 50

F rom Water

1 50

t o

4 00

O ver

U nder

8 00 m .

2

4 2

4 0

1 4

Over

8 00

2

6 0

8 2

3 1

m .

T able S ite

S ize

versus

X2 = 0.46

1 6.4.

d istance

L ess

t han

F rom A ncient

C ity

G reater

8 k ilometers

8 k ilometers

U nder

8 00 m .

2 3

7 3

Over

8 00

4 8

1 25

C lassical

t han

m .

P eriod

X2 =2. 44

L ess t han 8 km.

Greater t han 8 km.

U nder

8 00

m .

1 8

6 6

Over

8 00 m .

4 2

9 3

H ellenistic-Roman

P eriod L ess t han 8 km.

X2 =3. 56

U nder

8 00

m .

5

Over

8 00

m .

6

3 02

G reater t han 8 km. 7 3 2

4 00

m . 150 to 400 i n . and greater than 4 00 i n . The test demonstrated t hat a s ignificant d ifference ( 0.05) does not exist between s ite s ize a nd respective d istance f rom water ( Table 1 6.3). T he a nalysis f or each of t he periods also failed to show a s ignificant difference b etween t hese f actors. A chi-square t est was computed f or t he s ize of t he s ite a nd i ts d istance f rom t he ancient c ity. F or t his t est d istance from t he c ity was grouped i nto two classes: u p t o 8 km. a nd g reater t han 8 km. T he t est f ailed t o s how a s ignificant d ifference f or t he two periods ( Table 1 6.4). S eparate t ests were c omputed f or e ach p eriod . A s ignificant d ifference d oes not exist f or t he C lassical period, but one very probably d oes exist f or t he H ellenistic-Roman period . T o s ummarize b riefly, c ontrary t o o ur e xpectations, s ite s ize did n ot vary s ignificantly f or t he two periods. T here i s, however, a v ariation b etween s ite s ize a nd e levation i n t he C lassical period . T he small s ites a s a r ule were l ocated a long t he edges o f valleys, t he l arger ones on t he f lat expanses o f t he marine t erraces. T his sort of variation did not occur i n t he l ate Republic. I n t he C lassical period we s hould expect t he l arge s ites to have b een l ocated near springs, a nd f or t he H ellenistic-Roman, a l ooser r elation b etween s ite s ize a nd d istance from water. T he c hi-square test indicates that for the two periods there i s no s ignificant d ifference b etween s ize a nd d istance f rom water . S everal f actors c ould have i nfluenced t his r esult. S ome a ncient water sources could have dried up or gone u nderground, a nd i t i s common for a l ate Republican farmhouse to b e b uilt f rom t he material, s ometimes e ven o n t he foundation, o f a n earlier Greek f armhouse. ( Good s tone was at a premium i n a ll periods). F inally, t hough there i s no s ignificant d ifference b etween s ite s ize a nd d istance f rom t he c ity f or t he two p eriods t aken t ogether, s eparate t ests s how t hat s ite s ize does vary with d istance f rom the c ity i n t he Roman p eriod . T here a re s ome d istinct d ifferences i n t he s ettlement p atterns f or t he two p eriods. T he s tatistical study of t he survey r esults i s at a preliminary s tage. F urther r efinements o f t he d ata a nd f uller i nterpretation will b e required before i t can b e s aid to s upport f ully o r c ontradict t he o ther e vidence f or d efinite change i n l anduse b etween the l ate 4 th c entury a nd the i st century B .C. T he s ame may be s aid of t he point-pattern a nalysis, whose a pplication t o t hese p roblems l ikewise h as c onsiderable promise ( Hodder 1 977, 2 23). T he ' division l ines', to r eturn t o a f requent point of departure f or d iscussion o f t he s ettlement pattern at Metaponto were, i f they assumed t he f orm t hat was early a ttributed t o t hem, a r adical imposition o f man 's measure o n t he l andscape. T hey would have r educed the marine t erraces a nd t he valleys s eparating t hem, i ndiscriminately, to geometrical order with a checkerboard network of r oads or c hannels. R ecently, R obert F olk h as c alled i nto question t his

3 03

N umbe r o f e l emen t s o f e ach t axon p e r l e ve l w i th c onse rva t ive m in imum n umbe r s i n p a ren the ses . < -Ea r ly

C era m ic

-> la ter

D epos i t

L eve l 4

L eve l 3

L eve l 2

e ar ly

L eve l 1

2 nd c BC

i s t c AD

B os T aurus C ow

10 (13 )

3 9 (6 )

2 9 (3 )

6 (1 )

0

5 5 (5 )

6 (2 )

2 (2 )

2 (1 )

1 (1 )

1 3 (3 )

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interpretation of the evidence on the ground. The l ongitudinal l ines, h e points out, have t he orientation of t he p rincipal u nderlying g eological f racture p attern ( Figs. 1 6.8; 1 6.9; P late 1 6.6), and t he t ransverse l ines c orrespond t o t he s ucessive b eachlines l eft by t he s ea a s i t r eceded. F or t his h e a dduces much e vidence a nd c onvincing a rguments . I f the l ines truly existed and served the function of d ividing one property f rom a nother, i t i s l ogical t o expect t he r egular pattern of t he lots to b e r eflected i n t he pattern of t he s ites, at least for t he t i me s pan i n which t he l ines would have b een maintained, namely, i n a period when t he e conomy was p rincipally a gricultural. S ince n early a ll o f t he s ites i n the t ransect covered b y t he b lanket s urvey are of t he 4 th c entury B .C. or have a 4 th century B .C. component, t hen t hey s hould b e expected t o demonstrate ' spatial o rder '. Within t he context of l ocation t heory, nearest neighbor or point-pattern analysis can be used t o t est the deviation of points from a rando m d istribution. Essentially, the test consists of measuring t he s traight-line d istance b etween e very l ocation p oint t o i ts nearest neighboring point within a g iven s ample area. When t he value i s 0 .0 t he points are perfectly c lustered; a v alue o f 1 .0 s uggests a p erfect r andom d istribution, a nd a value o f 2 .15 i ndicates a perfect hexagonal or ordered p attern. I n r eality, h owever, t hese ' perfect ' c oefficients are rarely achieved. T he technique has b een u sed t o d etermine s patial r elationships i n a v ariety o f d isciplines ( Greig-Smith 1 964: J ones i n press). F or t he Metaponto s urvey data a nearest neighbor s tat istic was determined. The s tudy area i ncluded s ome 4 0 km. 2 w ith t he s patial l ocations o f 4 31 s ites l ocated w ithin t his a rea . T he n earest n eighbor c oefficient c omputed f or t he s ites was 0 .70. T his v alue s uggests t hat t he s ites f orm a c lustered o r a ggregated p attern ( King 1 968, 1 59). A lthough t he s patial p attern f or t he 4 31 s ites s uggests a poor c lustering, o n-going r esearch a ims t o s ee i f d ifferent patterns c an b e i dentified f rom t he r elative t opographic a nd s ite s ize s ubgroupings. I t i s t oo s oon t o s ay t hat point pattern a nalysis d isproved the ' division l ine' theory. T here i s i n f act considerable s upport for t he l ines, conceived not as channels, but as country roads or u ncultivated s trips . T here i s t he d ocumentary evidence o f t he a ntomoi o r b oundary r oads which d ivided t he s acred l ands o f D ionysos a nd A thena a t H eraklea ( Uguzzoni a nd G hinatti 1 968, 6 1). B ut b y f ar t he most c ompelling evidence to d ate has come f rom the excavation of t he P antanello n ecropolis. T ombs l ine a n arrow s trip o f r oad f or a d istance of 1 50 meters. Not only do t he t ombs, s trip a nd ' division l ines' have t he s ame o rientation, t he s trip l ies p recisely o n top of the projected pattern of t he l ines ( Fig. 1 6.10; P late 1 6.7). I t

i s

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t hat a fter

3 05

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outcrops.

P late 1 6.8. Aerial photograph of the Pantanello f rom the north. I n t ne foreground and centre the area of the sanctuary and recently s alvaged E neolithic v illage ( 1983); i n the b ackground a nd l eft, t he a rea o f t he n ecropolis.

F S F ig . 1 6.10. Orientation diagram showing parallelism of geologic features and " di vision lines": DL= Metaponto " division l ines"; FR=fracture i n s andstone a nd c onglomerate ( dashed = minor f racture); SS=orientated concretions i n s ands tone; FS=major s ubsurface f aults; M=Metaponto overthrust.

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( solid dots) d ivision l ines and projected d ivision l ines ( solid dots a nd dotted s traight l ines) a nd major r oads a long t he coast ( to H eraklea a nd t he i nterior of P isticci). 3 08

else where in the territory seem to show no preferred direction i n their orientation. With the d isappearance of i ntensive agriculture the division l ines served no further purpose a nd t he n umerous country r oads, we c an conclude, f ell out of use and were grown over as the countryside reverted to pasture l and. Why d id t his h appen? Why d id t his agricultural s ociety f lourish a nd decline s o r apidly? T he problem with which we b egan i s p erhaps c loser t o a s olution. Not a ll t he evidence i s i n ( we await t he study o f human s keletal material f rom P antanello a nd much more). Y et the problem can now be seen as a great deal more complex than i t was a t t he onset, a nd t hat r epresents progress.

B ibliography Ada mesteanu, D . 1973. Le suddivisioni di terra nel metapontino. I n F inley, M . ( ed.) Problemes de la t erre en Grece a ncienne. Mouton, P aris, 4 9-61. Adamesteanu, D . Cava dei

1 974a. L a t erreni ( SA)

B asilicata I taly.

a ntica.

D i

Mauro

A damesteanu, D . 1 974b . P roblemi t opografici ed u rbanist ici metapontini. I n Metaponto, Atti del tred icesimo C onvegno d i studi s ulla Magna Grecia, 1 531 86. Adamesteanu, D . and Vatin, C . 1 976. L 'arriere-pays de Metaponte. Co mpte Rendu de l ' Academie des I nscriptions, 1 10-123. Alexander, D . 1 982. D ifference b etween ' calanchi' and ' biancane' badlands i n I taly. I n Bryan, R . and Yair, A . ( ed.) Badlands Geo morpholo _gy and Piping. Geo B ooks. G eo A bstracts, L td " N orwick, UK, 7 1-87. Barker,

G . 1 977. Animal Husbandry and Economic Change at Monte Irsi. In Small, A . ( ed.) Monte Irsi, Southern I taly. ( B.A.R. Supplementary S eries 2 0). Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 2 65-273.

Brunt,

P .A . 1 971. I talian Manpower C larendon P ress, N ew Y ork .

225

B .C.

- A .D.

14.

Cabaniss, B . 1 983. I n Carter, J .C. ( ed.) The T erritory of Metaponto 1 981-1982. I nstitute of C lassical A rchaeol ogy, U niversity o f T exas, Austin, T exas, 4 4-46. C arter,

C arter,

J .C . 1 980a. A C lassical Landscape: Rural at Metaponto. A rchaeology 3 3, 2 3-32. J .C .

1 980b .

Metaponto,

Excavations 1980.

Austin,

3 09

i n

t he

Texas,

A rchaeology

T erritory

o f

Insti tute

of

C lassical

A rchaeology,

U niversity

of

T exas.

Carter,

J .C. 1 981. Rural S ettlement at Metaponto. I n Barker, G . and Hodges, R . ( ed.) Archaeology and Italian Society.(B.A.R. I nternational S eries 1 02) British Archaeological Reports, 167-178.

Carter,

J .C. 1 983. I n Carter, J .C. ( ed.) The T erritory of Metaponto 1 981-1982. I nstitute of C lassical A rchaeol ogy, Austin, T exas, 4 -6.

Carter,

J .C. ( ed.) 1 983. The T erritory of Metaponto 1981-1982. Institute of Classical Archaeology, U niversity o f T exas, Austin, T exas.

Carter,

J .C. ( in press). The Pantanello Necropolis, T erritory o f Metaponto, 1 983. ( abstract), American Journal of A rchaeology.

Carter,

J .C. and D 'Annibale, C . i n press. Metaponto C roton. S ociety of A ntiquaries of L ondon.

and

Constantini, L . 1 982 I ndagine b ioarcheologiche n el s ito d i P izzica-Pantanello. Rome, Museo N azionale d 'Arte Orientale, L aboratorio d i B ioarcheologia ( unpublished manuscript). Costantini, L . 1983a. I n Carter, J .C. ( ed.) The Territory of Metaponto 1 981-1982. I nstitute of C lassical A rchaeol ogy, Univrsity of T exas, Austin, T exas, 3 3-37. Costantini, L . 1 983b . T estimonianze del paesaggio arboreo e tecnologi del legno. Museo Nazionale d ' Arte Orientale, Laboratorio di B ioarcheologia ( unpublished manuscript). Cowgill,

G .L . 1 975. S election o f S amples. I n Mueller, J .W . ( ed .) S ampling i n A rchaeology. U niversity of A rizona Press, Tuscon, 2 58-274.

D 'Andria, F . 1 976. Metaponto r omano . L a Magna G recia nell eta r omana. I n A tti d el guindicesimo C onvegno d i s tudi s ua Magna Grecia. N aples, 5 29-544. D 'Annibale, C . 1 983a. F ield Survey of the Chora of Metaponto. I n Keller, D . and Rupp, D . ( eds.) Archaeological S urvey i n t he Mediterranean Area. ( International Series 155) Oxford, British Archaeological R eports, 1 91-193. D 'Annibale, C . 1 983b. I n Carter, J .C. ( ed.) The T erritory of Metaponto 1981-1982. I nsti tute of Classical Archaeology, University of T exas, Austin, Texas, 81 2. Delano

Smith, H istory

C .

1 979.

and

Western

Geography of

3 10

Mediterranean I taly,

Spain

and

Europe:

A

S outhern

F rance Folk,

s ince

t he

N eolithic.

Academic

P ress,

L ondon.

R . 1982. Geologic Controls on Aspects of the Archaeology of Metaponto, Basilicata, Southern Italy. Depart ment of Geologi cal Sciences, University o f T exas, Austin, T exas

G ianotta, M .T . 1 980. Metaponto Galatina ( LE), I taly. G iardina,

L .

1 978.

e llenistico

Metaponto

1 977

-

r omana.

La

C ongedo,

Campagna

d i

scavo nell'area del Castrum. In Magna Grecia b izantina e tradizione classica. Atti del deci mos ettimo Convegno d i studi s ulla Magna G recia, 4 134 29. G iardino, L . 1 983. Proposta d i miliarium Antichitä 3 ,

Metaponto tardo-i mperiale e turiostu. i dentificazione i n margine ad un de Guiliano l 'apostata. Studi di 1 55-173.

Greig-Smith, P . 1967. Quantitative Buttersworth, London. Hodder,

Jones,

K ing,

Plant

Ecology.

I . 1 977. Some New D irections in the Spatial Analysis of Archaeological Data at the Regional Scale (Macro). In Clarke, D . L. ( ed.) Spatial Archaeology. Academic P ress, L ondon, 2 23-350. J .R. ( in press). Analysis of Coastal Dunes: A Remote Sensing and Statistical Approach. Journal of G eography.

L .J . 1 968. A Quantitative E xpression of t he P attern of Urban Settlement i n S elected Areas of the United States. I n Berry, B .J.C. and Marble, D .F. ( ed.) A Reader i n Statistical Geography. Prentice Hall, E nglewood, N .J.

Meiggs,

R . 1982. Trees and Ti mber in the Ancient Mediterranean World. C larendon Press, O xford.

Scali,

S . 1 983. I n Carter, J .C. ( ed.) The Territory of Metaponto 1 981-1982. I nstitute of C lassical A rchaeol ogy, U niversity o f T exas, A ustin, Texas, 4 7-50.

Sullivan,

D .

1 983.

Pollen

Evidence

for

Landuse

and

Veg2tation C hange at P izzica-Pantanello. D epartment of Geography, University of California ( unpublished manuscript), B erkeley, California Toynbee, A . J . 1 965. Hannibal's s ity P ress, London.

Legacy.

Oxford

Uguzzone, A . and G hinatti, F . 1 968. L e Tavole Eraclea. L 'Erema d i B retschneider, Rome.

3 11

Univer-

greche

d i

S ummary. The author d iscusses t he i nterdisciplinary project o f Metapontum, where a n i ntegrated programmes o f s urvey, excavation, f aunal a nalysis, a nd palaeobotany a re b eing implemented. S tatistical a nalysis was carried out t o study t he r elationships o ver t i me, b etween s ite s ize a nd e levation, s ite s ize and d istance f rom water, s ite s ize a nd d istance f rom c ity. R iassunto. L 'autore discutte i l progetto i nterdisciplinare d i Metaponto, dove c 'e i n corso d i a dempi mento u n p rogramma integrato di r icognizione, scavo, analisi faunale e p aleobotanica . E ' s tata e ffettuata u n'analisi s tatistica p er s tudiare i l r apporto a ttraverso i s ecoli t ra l a g randezza d ei s iti e l 'altitudine, l a d istanza d all'acqua e l a d istanza d alla c ittä.

3 12

1 7.

CHANGES

I N

THE

PATTERN

OF URBAN

B YZANTINE AND ARAB

Roger J . A.

A

r eview

o f

s ettlement

SETTLEMENT

I N

ROMAN,

S ICILY

W ilson

patterns

at

a ny

s tage

of

S icilian a ntiquity i s b ound a t present t o b e a hazardous operation. Despite t he r ich potential f or s urvey archaeology t hat t he i sland u ndoubtedly possesses, a potential r ecently u nderlined by Dyson ( 1982, 9 3), S icily has n ot s o f ar b een t he f ocus o f i ntensive s urvey programmes c overing l arge areas o f ground, o f t he t ype which has a lready r evealed s o much i n peninsular I taly. O f t he S icilian projects l isted b y K eller and Rupp i n their r ecent monograph ( 1983, 8 ), t hose around Morgantina a nd i n t he B elice v alley r emain unpublished; t hat i n t he h interland o f H imera has b een l imited t o t he i nvestig ation o f k nown h ill-top s ites a nd of occasional f arms d iscovered by accident ( Bonacasa 1 976, 6 50-660); t hat near S ciacca deals w ith only f ive s ites ( Tirnetta 1 978); a nd my own work n ear H eraclea M inoa, a lthough t he s urvey area has recently b een s omewhat extended, h as s o f ar c overed o nly a r elatively modest-sized z one ( Wilson 1 981); t he r ecent emphasis h ere has b een on excavation. T o t he work l isted b y K eller and Rupp might b e a dded B ejor's review of t he territory b etween R ibera a nd C altabellotta i n c entral southern S icily ( Bejor 1 975), a nd t he desultory r esearches o f G iustolisi west o f P alermo ( Giustolisi 1 973; 1 975; 1 976), but b oth were concerned w ith t he r eporting of casual d iscoveries which h ad come t o t heir notice r ather t han w ith a s ystematic programme of f ield r esearch i n a s pecific z one; f urthermore, s ince i ndications of c hronology are f requently only o f the b roadest k ind ( 'hellenistic', ' Roman'), a nd s ince i nformation o n t he s ize o f s herds catters i s v irtually non-existent, i t i s impossible t o make a ny worthwhile deductions about overall s ettlement patterns f rom the evidence they present. O n t he other hand, the s ystematic f ield s urvey now b eing conducted b y D r. J eremy Johns i n c entral western S icily i s p lanned on a l arger s cale t han a ny previously attempted i n t he i sland, a nd i ts r esults, when published, w ill b e of correspondingly greater i mportance. I t i s c lear, t hen, t hat t he raw data are s imply not at present available f rom any part of S icily to enable a detailed a ssessment t o b e made o f r ural s ettlement i n R oman t imes, and i n t he a bsence of s uch evidence any c lues t o possible c hanges i n t he overall pattern o f s ettlement are t o b e sought f rom t he t owns, however partial a nd potentially m isleading t hat evidence may b e. T his b rief paper i s i ntended t o s ignpost what appear t o b e s ome o f t he p rincipal s hifts i n s ettlement d istribution during t he period u nder review, t o s uggest possible r easons for t hem, a nd t o i ndicate t he more gaping o f t he present v ast l acunae i n our k nowledge i n the hope o f s timulating f urther work.

3 13

A word a t t he o utset a bout t he m aps which a ccompany t his paper. T hey a re c ompiled i n p art f rom a rchaeological e vidence a nd i n p art f rom h istorical o r d ocumentary s ources which i ndicate t hat t he t owns i n question w ere o ccupied at, o r a t l east v ery c lose t o, t he p eriod c hosen f or e ach map. F or a n umber o f d ifferent r easons, h owever, t he maps c annot a nd s hould n ot b e v iewed a s a ccurate b arometers o f t he t otal n umber o f major s ettlements occupied a t a ny o ne t ime. F irstly, t he a rchaeological e vidence i s r arely a s p recise a s o ne would w ish i n i ndicating w hether o r n ot a t own was o ccupied a t a ny o ne p articular p eriod o r when i t was f inally a bandoned: r e-examination o f material r ecovered f rom o lder excavations m ight w ell r equire a r evision o f d ating a t s ome s ites. S econdly, t he r ate o f d iscovery o f n ew ' anonymous' h ill-top c entres o ver t he p ast t wenty y ears ( compare G abba a nd Vallet 1 980, I , 7 45, F ig. 2 23 w ith 7 46-7, F ig. 2 24) makes i t c lear t hat many more s uch s ettlements await d etection a nd a rchaeological i nvestigation: t here a re s till l arge a reas o f t he i nterior o f S icily which h ave b een s o i nadequately e xplored t hat our k nowledge o f t he d istribution o f u rban s ettlement a t a ny p eriod o f S icilian a ntiquity i s s till v ery l acunose. T hirdly, t he quality a nd r eliability o f t he e vidence i n s ome o f t he h istorical s ources i s o ccasionally o pen t o d oubt, a nd i t i s b y n o m eans c ertain i n s ome c ases t o w hich p eriod t he s ource i s r eferring: h ave, f or e xample, a ssumed h ere t hat t he S icilian s ection i n P liny's N atural H istory ( 3.86-94) i s b ased o n a f ormula provinciae o f A ugustan d ate, a nd t hat t he A ntonine I tinerary i s s ubstantially a d ocument o f c . 2 15 A .D. ( van B erchem 1 937, 1 66-81) r ather t han a l ate 3 rd o r early 4 th c entury o ne. F urthermore i t i s o bvious t hat t he f ailure o f s uch documents t o l ist a s pecific s ettlement d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat t he s ettlement h ad b een a bandoned a t t he t ime t o which t he s ource i s r eferring. F ourthly, t here a re a n umber o f p laces k nown t o u s f rom l iterary s ources o r i nscriptions which h ave n ot b een s atisfactorily i dentified o n t he g round, a nd t hese p laces h ave p erforce b een omitted f rom t he maps a ltogether. T he f igures a nd p ercentages g iven b elow, t herefore, a re m erely i ntended t o g ive a n o verall i mpression o f b road c hanges i n t he d istribution o f s ettlements f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother: t hey a re i n n o s ense meant t o r epresent a bsolute t otals f or e ach p eriod i n question. T he f irst map ( Fig. 1 7.1) s hows t he u rban c entres occupied t owards t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury B .C. i mmediately b efore R oman i nvolvement i n t he i sland: s ome e ighty s ettlements a re n ow k nown t o have b een o ccupied a t t his t ime, w hen b oth a rchaeological a nd l iterary evidence point t o a p eriod o f g eneral p rosperity i n S icily ( Talbert 1 974, e sp. 1 46-160; F inley 1 979, 9 7-101). T he c ities o n o r i mmediately o verlooking t he c oast, w hich c omprise s ome 3 0% o f t he t otal, w ere o riginally G reek o r P hoenician f oundations f rom t he l ate 8 th c entury o nwards; t he r emaining 7 0% which l ie i nland w ere f or t he most p art f ormer n ative s ettlements w hich b y t he l ast quarter o f t he 4 th c entury had b ecome c ompletely H ellenized.

3 14

F ig.

1 7.1.

S icily c .

3 15

3 30

B .C.

T he v ast majority was d efended b y a p owerful g irdle o f f ortifications; b ut n ot a ll, h owever, w ill h ave b een i ndependent poleis, a s e ach t own's c hora o ften c ontained a n umber o f o utlying phrouria w hich, a s excavations a t M onte A dranone ( 43) a nd e lsewhere h ave s hown, m ight c ontain t emples, h ouses a nd b uildings f or a gricultural u se a s w ell a s a m ilitary g arrison ( Fiorentini 1 980 w ith e arlier b ibliography). O f t hese s ettlements i n t he i nterior, n early t hree-quarters l ie i n t errain a bove 5 00 m ., a lways i n e asily d efendable a nd s ometimes i n v irtually i mpregnable s trongholds: a s pectacular e xample i s E nna i n t he v ery h eart o f S icily ( Fig. 1 , 2 4), a t 9 48 m . o ne o f t he h ighest u rban s ettlements o f e ither a ncient o r modern S icily. T hroughout t he u nsettled t imes o f a rchaic a nd c lassical S icily i t w as o f n ecessity d efensive c apability more t han a ny o ther f actor which d etermined t he c hoice o f u rban s ite. A c entury a nd t wo b loody P unic w ars ( as well a s much o ther f ighting) l ater, t he p icture w hich emerges i s s ignific antly d ifferent. F ig. 1 7.2 s hows t he u rban c entres o f t he i sland k nown t o h ave s till b een occupied a t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury B .C., w hen war-torn S icily was s ettling d own a s R ome's f irst provincia t o a l onger e ra o f peace t han s he had k nown a t a ny t ime i n t he p receding f our c enturies. B ut t he wars h ad t aken t heir t oll: t he n umber o f c entres s till i nhabited h ad dropped b y o ver a t hird t o 4 9. B y n o m eans a ll o f t hese c asualties, h owever, c an b e b lamed o n t he R omans. S ome s ettlements, s uch a s S abucina, V assallaggi, M onte S araceno ( Fig. 1 7.1, 6 2, 8 0 a nd 5 2) a re k nown t o h ave p erished i n t he l ast t wo d ecades o f t he 4 th c entury, presumably during t he u nrest which a ccompanied A gathocles' a nti-Carthaginian t hrusts i n t he w est. O thers were a bandoned i n t he t hird c entury p rior t o t he o utbreak o f t he f irst P unic war i n 2 64: t hey i nclude G ela ( 29), r azed t o t he g round when P hintias moved i ts i nhabitants t o L icata ( Diodorus 2 2.2.2), a nd R egalbuto ( 59), c omprehensively d estroyed about 2 70 w hen i ts t erritory was d ivided b etween t he t wo n earest t owns, A gyrium a nd C enturipe ( Diodorus 2 2.13.1). N evertheless t he majority o f t he c entres which d isappear b etween c . 3 30 a nd 2 00 d o a ppear t o h ave b een a bandoned a fter t he b eginning o f R oman i nvolvement i n t he i sland, a nd i n s ome c ases t he d esertion o r decline c an b e documented c onvincingly a s b eing d irectly due t o R oman m ilitary a ction, w hether f rom a rchaeological e vidence ( as at M onte A dranone) o r f rom l iterary e vidence: t he l atter i ncludes s ome p laces, s uch a s A skelon, I laron, a nd T yritton ( Diodorus 2 3.5.1), w hich d o n ot a ppear o n F ig. 1 7.1 b ecause t heir w hereabouts a re t otally u nknown. I n t he c ase o f C amarina ( 12) i n s outh-east S icily, t aken b y R ome i n 2 58 w hen most o f i ts p opulation w as s old i nto s lavery, r ecent excavation h as s hown t hat t he s ubsequent t own o ccupied o nly a f raction o f i ts f ormer s ize ( Gabba a nd V allet 1 980, vol. 1 , 5 19), a nd R oman p olicy m ay have had a s imilar d evastating, even i f t emporary, i mpact o n p laces s uch a s A grigento ( 3) a nd P alermo ( 57), w here p ortions o f t he population w ere a lso s old i nto s lavery ( Finley 1 979, 1 15), or M ytistraton ( of u nknown l ocation), b esieged a nd f inally

3 16

F ig.

1 7.2.

S icily

3 17

c .

2 00

B .C.

s acked i n 2 58 ( Diodorus 2 3 . 9.4; P olybios 1 . 2 4. 1 1), b ut l ater r ecorded among t he c ommunities l isted b y P liny ( NH 3 .91). I t s eems i mprobable, h owever, t hat t he dramatic drop i n t he n umber o f h ill-towns b y t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury i s w holly e xplicable i n t erms o f d irect m ilitary a ction: d eliberate d estruction o f t own a fter t own was n ot a R oman o bjective, a nd e ven a d estroyed t own i s l ikely t o b e r ebuilt i f i t s till h as a v ital r ole t o p lay i n t he e conomic a nd s ocial c ontext o f i ts r egion. E ven t hough t he c hronology o f t hird-century b lack g loss p ottery i s s till n ot p recise e nough f or u s t o g auge e xactly when i n t he c entury many o f t hese s ettlements w ere g iven u p, t he majority o f t he h ill-towns w hich d o n ot a ppear t o h ave p roduced pottery g oing b eyond t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury s eem t o h ave b een p eacefully r ather t han v iolently a bandoned, t he r esult o f f ar-reaching s ocio-economic c hanges w hich w ere a t work i n t he a ftermath o f t he R oman c ontrol o f S icily. S o l ong a s t here were C arthaginian, R oman or S icilian a rmies marching u p a nd d own t he i sland, t he h ill-tops w ere t he obvious p lace t o s tay; but t he a rrival o f t he pax R omana meant t hat f or t he f irst t ime d efensive c onsiderations w ere no l onger c entral i n t he c hoice o f u rban s ite. T he R oman p eace i n i tself, h owever, was n ot t he o nly f actor which c ontributed t o c hange: t he i mpact o f t he R oman c onquest o n a gricultural production was e normous, a s c ommunities had t o a djust t heir e conomic s ights f rom what w as i n s ome c ases a s omewhat n arrow, s mall-scale i ntra-regional market e conomy ( although o thers h ad a lready i n t he 4 th c entury b een producing f or export o verseas: D iodorus 1 6.83.1), t o t he c ompulsory p roduction o f a f ood s urplus f or e xport t o R ome. T his i n t urn s timulated a griculture, e ncouraged more e fficient f arming a nd l ed, i t may b e a rgued, t o t he c ultivation o f a g reater a creage t han p reviously. I t s eems, t herefore, u nlikely t hat t he b ig d rop i n t he number o f i nhabited h ill-top c entres r epresents a s imilarly d ramatic d rop i n o verall p opulation ( the h uman t oll e xacted b y t he wars s hould n ot b e o ver e xaggerated): much more p robable i s a d ispersal o f p opulation i nto t he c ountryside i n t he a ftermath o f R oman c ontrol, a process e ncouraged b y t he r emoval o f earlier f ears a bout r ural i nsecurity. T he p henomenon i s o f course w ell d ocumented b y s urvey w ork i n t he I talian p eninsula ( Ward-Perkins 1 972; P otter 1 979, 9 3-101; B arker, L loyd a nd W ebley 1 978, 4 2-48), b ut a t p resent t he p rocess h as y et t o b e d emonstrated i n a ny d etail i n S icily ( but c f. W ilson 1 981). H ow f ar i t was p art o f a d eliberate r esettlement p olicy i mposed b y c entral a uthority, a nd h ow f ar i t was s haped b y n atural market f orces, i t i s impossible t o s ay. C ertainly, w ith a p roportion o f t he p roduce d estined f or t he ports, i t makes s ense t o e stablish c ollecting p oints o n o r n ear t he p rincipal r oads d own i n t he v alleys: t here i s n o p oint d ragging g rain u p t o a s ettlement perched o n a l ofty h ill-top, i f p art o f i t h as t hen t o b e t aken d own a gain f or export. Just h ow s oon t he n ew market c entres a nd ' agrot owns' i n t he v alleys s prang u p must a wait t he v erdict o f f urther f ieldwork a nd t he s pade; but w hat l imited e vidence t here i s ( from S ofiana, T enutella R ina, T erme S egestane a nd e lsewhere: A damesteanu 1 963, 2 65; 1 960, 2 14; G iustolisi

3 18

1 976, 6 1-2; a nd p ersonal o bservation), c oupled w ith t he s cale o f a bandonment o f t he f ormer u rban c entres, s uggests t hat t he p rocess was a lready w ell u nder way b y t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury B .C.: n ew n uclei o f population, c ongregated i n ' agro-towns' i n t he w ell-watered v alleys, w ere b eginning t o r eplace t he t raditional ( often waterless) h ill-top s ettlements. B y c ontrast w ith t he I talian p eninsula, h owever, t he R oman r oad s ystem h ad a l ess d ecisive d irect p art t o p lay i n t he d ispersal o f s ettlement, a s R oman r oadb uilding a ctivity i n S icily was more c oncerned w ith u pgrading e xisting l ines o f c ommunication t han w ith t he c reation o f t otally f resh a rteries, a lthough t he A grigento-Palermo h ighway d ated b y a m ilestone t o 2 52/1 B .C. i s a n e xception ( Verbrugghe 1 976, 2 0-3). B ut t he p roximity o f t he h illt owns o f t he i nterior t o t he major l ines o f t he R oman r oad n etwork ( such a s t he g roup i n e astern S icily o n o r c lose t o t he C atania-Enna r oute) may have had a d ecisive part t o p lay i n d etermining which o nes were t o s urvive a s v ital e conomic u nits well i nto t he R epublic a nd b eyond, a nd which w ere quietly a bandoned. Q uite w hat w as h appening i n b oth t own a nd c ountry i n S icily during t he l ast t wo c enturies B .C. h as b een t he s ubject o f l ively a nd c ontinuing d ebate among h istorians, f rom w hich n o c lear c onsensus h as emerged ( cf. most r ecently M anganaro 1 980; C lemente 1 980-1; M azza 1 980-1; Coarelli 1 980, 3 73-5; C oarelli 1 981; M azza 1 981). O ne t hesis maintains t hat t here w as a d ispersed s ettlement p attern b ased o n s mall-proprietor ownership o f l and, a nd t hat t he g rowth o f l atifundia was n either a s w idespread n or a s d isastrous f or t he S icilian e conomy a s D iodorus would h ave u s b elieve. A n a lternative h ypothesis postulates a s low d ecline i n S icilian a griculture, t hat t he l atifundia were i ndeed r uining S icily, t hat t he c ities were l ikewise i n d ecay, a nd t hat t he v illa s ystem w hich emerged i n t he 2 nd c entury B .C. i n I taly n ever t ook r oot i n S icily. S uch sweeping g eneralizations, h owever, b ased a lmost e ntirely o n c onflicting s trands i n t he l iterary e vidence, d o s cant j ustice t o t he l ikely c omplexity o f t he p attern o f s ettlement, a c omplexity w hich c an o nly b e s uggested b y s eparate p rogrammes o f f ield-survey work i n d ifferent a nd c ontrasting t errains. S cattered s mall-holdings during t he R epublic a re d ocumented a rchaeologically i n t he i mmediate h interland o f H eraclea M inoa ( Wilson 1 981), b ut t he pattern o f l and-use w ill h ave v aried e normously f rom r egion t o r egion, a ccording t o s uch f actors a s t he productivity potential o f t he s oil a nd t he c rops most s uited t o i t. E ven o n t he b asis o f C iceronian f igures, Duncan-Jones h as s hown h ow t he a verage s ize o f property h oldings i n a f ertile a rea s uch a s t he t erritorium o f L entini ( 34) i s l ikely t o h ave b een a s much a s f ifteen t imes g reater t han t hat a round H erbita, a h ill-town o f t he i nterior ( Duncan-Jones 1 976, 1 3-14). S urvey a rchaeology h as c learly much t o o ffer t o t his d ebate. S o t oo h as e xcavation. O nly a s ingle R epublicanperiod f armstead i s k nown i n a ny d etail i n S icily, t hat i n c ontrada A guglia i n t he t erritory o f A krai ( 4), a nd f rom h ere, while t he s mall f inds, amphorae a nd o ther c eramic

3 19

material h ave b een a dequately p ublished, n o f aunal o r o ther e nvironmental e vidence was a pparently r ecorded ( Pelagatti a nd Curcio 1 970, 4 47-65). T o s peak, t hen, o f t he a bsence o f ' villas' i n S icily during t he R epublican period ( Clemente 1 980-1, 1 97; C arandini 1 982b, 1 97) a nd t o draw f rom i t h istor ical, s ocial a nd economic c onclusions i s a t p resent t o u se argumenta e s ilentio. T he t ruth i s t hat t he archaeol ogical i nvestigation o f b oth f arms a nd v illas a t a ny p eriod o f S icilian a ntiquity i s o nly j ust b eginning . F rom t he t owns, however, t he evidence i s s omewhat c learer. A map of urban centres occupied about 7 0 B .C., b ased o n b oth t he C iceronian a nd t he a rchaeological e vidence, would have b een v irtually i dentical t o t hat of C . 2 00 B .C., with t he a ddition of a handful o f s ettlements -( Mistretta, Modica, Imachara, C apizzi) which are not heard o f i n t he sources at any earlier period. When a llowance i s made f or t hese, f or t he i sland c ommunity o f M alta ( and probably t hose of Pantelleria a nd Gozo), and f or t he s ites which a re not s hown on F ig. 1 7.2 b ecause t heir whereabouts are u nknown, t he t otal c omes c lose to t he f igure of 6 5 c ivitates which, a s we can i nfer f rom C icero ( ii i n Verr. 2 . 1 33, 1 37), was t he n umber i n V erres ' t ime, 7 3-71 B .C . ( Goldsberry 1 973, 7 657 87 f or a f ull d iscussion); b ut what a ctually c onstituted a c ivitas i s u nclear, a nd s ome o f t he p laces marked may not have been c ivitates i n t heir own r ight but u rbes within t he c ivitas o f a nother c ity ( cf. i i i n V err .3.79). I n o ther words t here was n o c ontinuation o f t he process o f a bandonment t hat was s uch a s triking f eature o f t he t hird century: t here may have b een a f ew which were g iven u p during t he 2 nd c entury ( Wataghin Cantino 1 978, 6 44, but o n very u ncertain evidence), but b y and l arge t he c ities which d id s urvive t he e arlier u pheavals c ontinued i n e xistence t hroughout t he R epub lic. One or two can b e s hown to b e l ess f lourishing c . 7 0 B .C . t han c . 2 00 B .C., s uch as H eraclea Minoa ( where the c ity was r educed i n s ize, and where l andslides may have contributed t o economic decline: D e M iro 1 965, 7 , 1 4-20) L entini ( which C icero d escribes a s c ivitas m isera a tque i n anis i i i n Verr. 2 .66. 1 60) and Morgentina ( Bell 1 981, 7 ); but e xcavations e lsewhere, n otably a t Marsala, H alaesa, S olunto Monte and I ato, demonstrate t he e xistence of f lourishing communities with a v igorous c ity l ife i n t he course of t he 2 nd a nd early 1 st c enturies B .C., documented above a ll b y building activity i n t he r esidential quarters, i ncluding mosaic pavements at places s uch a s P alermo, T aormina a nd T indari ( Coarelli 1 980, 3 73-80 f or a r ather g loomier v iew). I t i s true t hat t he number of public buildings attributable t o t he p eriod i s n ot v ery l arge ( although t he l ist i ncludes t he a gora a t S olunto, s toai at H alaesa, Monte I ato, E loro a nd T ermini I merese, b ouleuteria a t S olunto, A crae a nd Monte I ato, a nd a macellum at Morgantina), but t hat i s b ecause many o f t hese c ities h ad b een p rovided w ith t emples, t heatres a nd t he l ike i n t he 4 th c entury o r e arlier a nd had n o n eed t o d o more t han r epairs a nd minor a lterations t o t hese b uildings during t he period of t he R epublic. O nce S icily had geared i tself a s n umber-one c orn-producer f or I taly, t he r esulting s timulus p robably b rought a r ise i n p opulation a nd i ncreasing

3 20

p rosperity ( rather t han d ecline) i n t he t owns, p ossibly a long t he l ines o f t he m odel s uggested b y H opkins ( 1978, 6 1); a nd t he s lave wars o f t he 2 nd c entury w ere probably o nly t emporary s etbacks t o t he f undamental s tability o f S icily a t t his t ime ( Finley 1 979, 1 46). F rom 4 2 t o 3 6 B .C. t he i sland w as i n t he g rip o f t hat d etermined a dventurer, S extus P ompey. H ow d isastrous f or S icily was t his p eriod a nd i ts a ftermath ( the f ighting i n 3 6 was c onfined a lmost e ntirely t o t he north-east c orner o f t he i sland a nd i ts f ar w estern t ip) i s a matter f or d ispute: b ut t he s udden c essation o f c orn-exports t o I taly, a t l east u ntil 3 9, w ith t he r esulting s lump i n d emand a nd, p resumably, i n p rices, t ogether w ith t he enlistment o f S icilian f armers i n S extus P ompey' s l egions, c an h ardly h ave b een g ood f or S icilian a griculture ( Stone 1 983 paints a r osier p icture), w hile i n t he i mmediate a ftermath O ctavian was i n n o mood t o b e f orgiving: t he w ar i ndemnity o f 1 600 t alents a lone p oints t o t hat ( Appian B C 5 . 1 20). T here i s even s ome evidence o f l ooting a nd d eliberate v andalism a t M organtina, a t own which otherwise e scaped t he f ray, a nd t his may h ave b een t he work o f o ver-zealous l ieutenants o f O ctavian a cting o n i nstructions t o p unish S icilian c ites w hich h ad s upported S extus P ompey; a nd S helley S tone ( 1983, 1 8-21) has r ecently s uggested t hat t he d ecline i n s everal o ther S icilian c ities a t t his t ime i s also d irectly a ttributable t o O ctavian's b ullying. I t s eems, h owever, u nlikely t hat a t own w ith a s ound e conomic b asis would have s uffered t erminally f rom o ne s uch v isit f rom a ' heavy g ang'. M ajor e conomic t rends w ere probably a more s ignificant f actor, a nd i n p articular t he a rrival o f more E gyptian a nd A frican g rain o nto t he R oman market a nd t he s ubsequent d ecline i n S icily's i mportance a s a c orn e xporter: S icilian a griculture may h ave t aken t ime t o a djust t o t he n ew s ituation, e ven t hough t he l ong-term e ffects o n S icilian g rain-production h ave o ften b een o ver-exaggerated ( Rickman 1 980, 1 05-6). T he map s howing t he p rincipal u rban s ettlements o f A ugustan S icily ( Fig. 1 7.3) does n ot s how a ny o verall f all i n t otal n umbers s ince 2 00 B .C., b ut t he n umber o f c ities k nown t o b e i n d ecline o r o n t he v erge o f a bandonment ( indicated b y s olid a nd o pen t riangles r espectively) d oes s how a s harp i ncrease a nd f orms n early t wenty p er c ent o f t he t otal. H eraclea M inoa ( 26 o n F ig. 1 7.2) d oes n ot a ppear, a s i t h ad a lready b een a bandoned b y c . 3 0 B .C.; i t was j oined b y o thers i n t he A ugustan p eriod o r i mmediately a fterwards, i ncluding C amarina ( 12) a nd M egara H yblaea ( 38) ( a s hadow o f i ts f ormer s elf s ince t he s ack o f 2 13 B .C.) o n t he c oast, a nd C altavuturo ( 11), M ontagna d i M arzo ( 42) a nd M organtina ( 53) i nland. I t must b e e mphasised o nce a gain, h owever, t hat F ig. 1 7.3 d oes n ot r epresent a c omplete p icture o f k nown c ity c ommunities o ccupied c . 2 0 B .C. a s t here a re o ver a dozen c ivitates l isted b y P liny a bout w hich w e k now n ot e ven t heir w hereabouts, l et a lone t heir f ortunes a t t his p eriod. T hat

t he

p rocess

o f u rban d ecline d etectable

3 21

i n

s ome

F ig.

1 7.3.

S icily

3 22

c .

2 0

B .C.

c entres a t t he e nd o f t he i st c entury B .C. c ontinued d uring t he i st t wo c enturies o f t he Empire, t here c an b e l ittle d oubt. T he n umber o f s ettlements s hown o n t he map o f c . 2 00 A .D. ( Fig. 1 7.4) s hows a 2 0% d rop c ompared w ith F ig. 1 7.3; t here i s a lso a h igh proportion o f p laces ( indicated b y o pen c ircles) w here a rchaeological r esearch h as n ot y et i ndicated w hether o r n ot e ach was o ccupied a t t his t ime, a nd where t here i s n o o ther s upporting d ocumentary o r e pigraphic e vidence: s ome o f t hese, t oo, m ay w ell h ave b een a bandoned b y t he p eriod o f t he middle E mpire. E xcavations a t E loro i n s outh-east S icily ( 23) a nd a t S olunto i n t he n orth-west ( 70) h ave c learly d emonstrated t hat b oth t owns w ere i n t heir d eath-throws n ow; a nd o mitted, t oo, f rom F ig. 1 7.4. a re p laces s uch a s E ntella a nd S egesta i n w estern S icily, where I talian s igillata p ottery i s p resent o n t he s urface i n s ome quantity but where A frican r ed s lip ware a ppears t o b e a bsent ( personal o bservation). B oth s ites may, t herefore, have b een abandoned t owards t he e nd o f t he i st c entury A .D.; a nd i n t he c ase o f S egesta i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he t heatre would have u ndergone n o major a lteration a fter t he i st c entury B .C. ( Isler 1 981, 1 56-8, c f. 1 41) i f t he t own had r emained i n f ull-scale operation d uring t he E mpire ( Wilson 1 976-77). A t n earby M onte I ato ( 48 o n F ig. 1 7.3), t he S wiss excavations have d emonstrated c learly t hat t he t heatre was d isused f rom t he b eginning o f t he E mpire, a f ine 2 nd c entury B .C. p eristyle h ouse which c ollapsed i n t he m id-lst c entury A .D., was n ot r ebuilt a nd t he market p lace was c ertainly i n d ecay b y t he 2 nd c entury ( Isler 1 980), b y which t ime t he b ouleuterion was a lso d isused. I t s eems, t herefore, t hat normal c ivic amenities c eased t o f unction a t I aitas i n t he e arly i mperial p eriod; b ut l ife d id n ot c ease a ltogether. C oins a nd pottery r ight t hrough t o t he l ate E mpire a re r eported ( Isler 1 980-1981, 1 008), a lthough t he i ndications a re t hat t he l evel o f o ccupation h ardly r ose much a bove t hat o f s quatter a ctivity: I have t herefore omitted i t f rom F ig. 1 7.4. H alaesa ( 31) a nd A crae ( 4) a re a mong o ther p laces w here t he a rchaeological evidence i s h ardly s uggestive o f f lourishing u rban l ife a t t he t ime o f t he m iddle E mpire ( Wilson, f orthcoming a , f or t he d etails). T he c ontinuing d ecline o f t he t raditional u rban c entres i s, t herefore, r easonably w ell d ocumented - i ndeed t heir n umber h as d ecreased b y s ome 6 0% o ver t he h alf m illenium s ince t he 4 th c entury B .C. - a nd t he p henomenon h as u ndoubtedly i nfluenced many r ecent c ommentators w hen m aking t heir g loomy d iagnoses o n t he s tate o f S icily a t t he t ime o f t he e arly a nd m iddle E mpire ( e.g. C oarelli 1 980, 3 80-384; M azza 1 980-81, 3 36-44; C arandini 1 982a, 1 5-16; C lemente 1 980-81, 2 15) . B ut t hat s uch u rban d ecline was matched b y a c orresponding g rowth i n t he prosperity a nd importance o f t he a gro-towns a nd r oad-stations during t he R oman E mpire s eems n ot o nly p robable but a lso d emonstrable i n t he h andful o f e xamples w hich h ave s o f ar b een s tudied i n S icily. T hese s ettlements, t he n ew r egional market-centres, u ndoubtedly h old t he k ey t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he p rofound s ocioe conomic c hanges w hich a ccompanied t he a bandonment o f t he o ld

3 23

F ig.

1 7.4.

S icily

3 24

c .

2 00

A .D.

h ill-towns, a nd t he f act t hat b arely three of t hem have b een i nvestigated a rchaeologically ( Sofiana, V ito S oldano, N axos), a nd t hen only very partially, only h inders a n a ppreciation o f t heir t rue i mportance. F urther f ieldwork a nd excavation a re badly n eeded. F ig. 1 7.5, which r epeats F ig. 1 7.4 b ut w ith t he a ddition o f t he s ettlements l isted i n t he A ntonine I tinerary, t he original f orm of which d ates f rom s hortly a fter A .D. 2 00, i s designed t o g ive a s lightly more b alanced ( although s till only very partial) i dea of t he d istribution o f n ucleated s ettlement i n S icily under t he E mpire. N ot a ll o f t he s ettlements s hown have y et b een s ecurely i dentified o n t he g round ( their approximate position i n s uch cases can b e j udged b y t he mileage d istances), a nd t here a re no doubt many more s ettlements of t he s ame t ype away f rom t he trunk r oads awaiting d iscovery i n f uture f ieldwork: t hose i n t his c ategory auout which s omething i s k nown ( but which are not marked on F ig. 1 7.5) i nclude the s ettlements o f P etrusa a nd C asa Mastro i n t he h interland of G ela ( Adamesteanu 1 960, 2 14-7), Castrofilippo a nd C anale ( Naro) i n t he h interland o f A grigento ( De M iro a nd F iorentini 1 972-3, 2 47; L a L omia 1 980-1981) a nd C ittadella, a harbour s ettlement i n S .E. S icily, 7 km. s outh o f ( and probably s uccessor to) E loro ( Pace 1 949, 1 60-1, 3 47, 3 70-1) ; while t he l arger o f t he many l ate Roman r ural c atacombal c omplexes i n t he i sland may well also b e i ndicators o f f urther s ettlements o f t his t ype ( Pace 1 949, 1 35-201; F allico 1 971). Such ' agro-towns' and market s ettlements v ary a g ood deal i n s ize; t hey are n ever as l arge a s t he t raditional t owns they r eplace - P hilosophiana, f or e xample, covers 1 5 h ectares, P etrusa 2 0 hectares, compared w ith a h ill-town s uch a s Monte I ato o f s ome 5 0 hectares - but t here were c ertainly many more o f t hem. S urface pottery at most of t hese s ites appears t o i ndicate more or l ess continuous o ccupation during t he i mperial period ( although s ome - t he excavated r emains o f Caucana ( 97) a nd C ittadella, for example - do not s eem t o b e earlier t han t he 4 th c entury): i n contrast t o t he market s ettlements a nd road-stations of south E truria, which went i nto decline a fter t he 2 nd c entury ( Potter 1 979, 1 17-20), t heir S icilian counterparts go on t hriving i nto t he l ate Empire a nd B yzantine t imes. F urthermore, f inds s uch a s t he marble capital a nd monumental i nscription f rom Aquae S egestanae ( 93) ( Giustolisi 1 976, 6 0) or t he s eries o f b rick-faced concrete t ombs at N axos ( 55), n ow destroyed ( Houel 1 784, 5 9-60), s how t hat b uildings o f s ome a rchitectural pretensions were not u nknown i n t hem. H ow

f ar

t he

growth o f

s uch

s ettlements

was

a ccompanied

b y

a r ise i n t he number of s cattered farms a nd v illas, or whether s mall nuclei o f f arm-workers at t he c entre o f l arge e states were t he norm ( the a gglommeration o f land i nto l arge e states continuing a t t he expense o f t he s mall f armer) i s s omething only f urther r esearch will s how: t he pattern i s l ikely t o vary a g ood deal f rom area t o a rea. I n t he immediate h interland o f H eraclea M inoa, f or e xample, I have s uggested t hat t he s mall h oldings o f t he R epublican p eriod were combined i nto l arger e states at t he t ime o f t he early Empire ( Wilson 1 981) , a nd e xcavation at t he c entre o f one of

3 25

F ig.

1 7.5.

S icily

c .

2 00

A .D.

3 26

i ncluding

' road-stations'.

t hem i n 1 982 and 1 983 has r evealed a moderately s ized but u npretentious building, 2 5 m . b y at l east 1 3m., with c lay f loors, s tone f oundations a nd mud-brick s uperstructure, e rected i n t he s econd h alf of t he i st century A .D. a nd o ccupied u ntil l ate i n t he 2 nd c entury ( Wilson f orthcoming b ) . I t was perhaps t he home of t he steward who s upervised a gricultural workers l iving i n t he o ther b uildings which a re u ndoubtedly i ndicated b y surface f inds at Castagna, and he was p robably working f or a n a bsentee l andlord u nless a r icher building awaits d iscovery elsewhere on the s ite. T he b one a nd s eed e vidence w ill, I h ope, y ield f or t he f irst t ime i n S icily i nformation o n t he e conomic b asis o f a n a gricultural e state b elonging t o t he period of t he early Empire. T o a ssume, however, a s Mazza ( 1980-81, 3 42-4) , C arandini ( 1982a, 1 5 )a nd others have r ecently done, t hat t he whole o f r ural S icily at t his t i me was i n a depressed s tate a nd worked b y a s ystem o f l atifondo s chiavistico i s, I b elieve, a n o verstatement o f t he e vidence a t p resent a vailable. T hat v illas d isplaying a moderate l evel o f a ffluence e xisted i n S icily, a t l east b y t he 2 nd c entury A .D ., i s s hown b y t he excavations at Ca stro rea 1e San B iagio and Dur re 1i d i R ealmonte a nd b y t he e arlier s tructures b elow t he l ate R oman v illas a t P iazza A rmerina a nd P atti Marina, while s cattered mosaics, c arved p ortrait b usts a nd marble s arcophagi f rom r ural f ind-spots a re f urther pointers to v illa s ites i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies. T he undoubted prosperity of t he countryside i n t he 4 th a nd 5 th centuries may, t herefore, r epresent part of a continuing i f accelerating process, r ather t han a s udden b reak with what had gone b efore as has o ften b een s uggested . How l ong t he pattern of f arms, v illas, v illages a nd l arger nucleated s ettlements persisted i nto l ate Roman, B yzantine a nd e ven l ater t imes i s a t present h ard t o a ssess . We might, for example, expect t o s ee s ome t race i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f V andal r aids o n S icily b etween 4 25 a nd 4 75 when G aiseric was on the r ampage, ' enslaving s ome of t he c ities, r azing others t o t he ground and p lundering e verything ' i f P rocopius ( BV 1 .5 .22) i s t o b e b elieved. O n t he map of S icily of c . 5 00 - 6 00 A .D. ( Fig. 1 7.6) I have u sed a solid d iamond t o p lot evidence of occupation i n t he ' Byzantine' period at u rban s ites, most of them on h ill-tops, which had b een more o r l ess c ompletely d eserted during t he Roman imperial period. I n each of t he s ixteen c ases s hown, t he e vidence d oes n ot amount t o f ull-scale r eo ccupation a s a ' town' - i n most c ases t here were probably o nly small g roups o f s ettlers - b ut t hat t he p rocess occurred a t a ll i s worth n oting : i t i s p ossible t hat i t a lso h appened a t o ther s ites which d id l ater d evelop i nto f lourishing e arly medieval towns, but where t he evidence for occupation or r eoccupation a t t his date i s l ost b eneath l ater overlay. What prompted g roups of s ettlers to r eturn to s ome of t he f ormer t own-sites a t t his p eriod i s u nknown: o ne p ossibility i s a c hange i n f arming p ractice, t o i ncreased s tockraising, p erhaps, o r t o t he c ultivation o f marginal u plands t hat i n t he immediately p receding p eriod h ad b een n eglected: a g rowi ng s ense of i nsecurity i n t he Mediterranean world i s

3 27

F ig.

1 7.6.

S icily

3 28

c .

5 00-600

A .D.

a nother. But even t hough s ome of t he material at t hese s ites c an i ndeed be s hown to b elong to t he 5 th century, i t would b e r ash t o a ttribute a ny major u pheaval i n s ettlement pattern to the agency of the Vandals. Marsala ( 37) c ertainly a nd A grigento ( 3) probably s how s igns of 5 thc entury destruction b est attributed t o r aiders f rom across t he A frican s ea, a nd are i n decline t hereafter, a nd s ome o ther l arge c ities, s uch a s T indari ( 75) a nd T aormina ( 72) a lso a ppear t o b e f ar f rom f lourishing a t t his t ime ( Wilson f orthcoming a ). But t he countryside presents a d ifferent p icture : t he a bundant c eramic e vidence o n t he s urface a t a ll t he market s ettlements a nd r oad-stations mentioned above s uggests a continuity of occupation t hroughout t he 5 th a nd 6 th c enturies, without a h int o f r ural i nsecurity . N or d o t he l etters of Gregory t he G reat at t he end of t he 6 th c entury s uggest t hat a ny major c hange i n l and u se had occurred: small holdings co-exist with l arge estates i nto t he B yzantine p eriod. A s f or t he e nd o f t he l uxury v illas, t he evidence f rom P atti Marina s uggests t hat t he 4 th-century v illa d id n ot o utlast t he 6 th c entury, when b urials were made i n t he f ormer b aths ( Voza 1 976-1977, 5 76-7); a nd i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he mansion o f P iazza A rmerina s urvived a ny l onger. I n both cases, however, peasant v illages grew up i n and around t he r uins, l asting, probably not without i nterruption, i nto A rab and early medieval t i mes ( Wilson 1 983, 4 2). W ith t he d isappearance o f A frican r ed s lip ware i n S icily around t he middle of t he 7 th c entury, we are plunged i nto a period o f chronological uncertainty, f or t he s tudy of the l ater B yzantine and A rab pottery i n t he i sland i s s till i n i ts i nfancy: i n particular i t i s d ifficult to d istinguish t he wares produced i n l ater Byzantine and Arab S icily f rom t he ' Arab-Norman' p ottery o f t he m id 1 1th c entury o nwards, a fter t he Normans had s eized control of the i sland ( Ragona 1 979). I t i s, t herefore, e xtremely d ifficult a t p resent t o a ssess i n a rchaeological t erms t he impact o f t he Arab i nvasions on S icily: t he f irst s ignificant r aids took p lace i n the f irst half of t he 8 th century, but most of t he s erious u pheavals o ccurred i n t he 9 th c entury . My f inal map, F ig. 1 7.7, i s designed to s how t he major urban centres of Arab S icily b efore t he arrival o f t he Normans i n 1 060, a nd i s drawn mainly f rom documentary sources of t he 1 1th c entury p reserved i n Y aqut's MucjAm a l-buldan, p ublished i n 1 228: as far as possible I have tried to omit all the s ettlements which appear t o b e Norman foundations r ather t han e arlier ( Amari 1 935, 4 92-7). Two p oints which emerge f rom t his map are particularly s triking. O ne i s t he h igh percentage ( about 4 4%) of s ites which do not appear to have b een occupied a t any t i me i n G raeco-Roman a ntiquity ( only t en towns, all o f t hem coastal, have c lear documentation of c ontinuous occupation f rom c .330 B .C. to 1 000 A .D.; t he n umber r ises t o n ineteen - 2 5% o f t he t otal s hown o n F ig . 1 7.7 - i f c entres which were p robably i n c ontinuous o ccupat ion a re a dded). T he s econd s triking f eature i s t he o ccupat ion or r eoccupation of h ill-top s ites i n a very b ig way. B ecause o f chronological uncertainty, i t i s impossible to

3 29

F ig.

1 7.7.

S icily

3 30

c .

1 000

A .D.

s ay whether t his t ook p lace l argely i n l ate B yzantine t imes as a consequence of Arab r aiding a nd l ater of f ull-scale i nvasion, or during t he period of t he A rab occupation i tself, a s Johns h as r ecently emphasized i n h is s tudy of Monte Guastanella ( 131) ( Johns 1 983); but t he most obvious explanation of t he r e-emergence of t he h ill-towns i s t he strategic importance o f these s ites during t he military unrest i n t he l ater B yzantine and A rab periods. Whether f looding i n certain r iver valleys may also have b een a contributory f actor i s s omething o nly f urther work c an s how, a s S heldon J udson 's p ioneering s tudy i n t he G ornalunga v alley ( 1963) has not s o f ar been followed u p b y s i milar research elsewhere i n S icily. I t i s important to s tress, however, t hat t he r eturn t o t he h illtops was not accompanied by widespread d esertion o f t he c ountryside, a t a ny r ate during t he Arab period: t he documentary s ources provide abundant evidence of a thickly populated countryside, with a d ispersed pattern of s ettlement i n r ural v illages and farmsteads, i n t he more f ertile parts of t he i sland ( Peni 1 978, 3 -12), and i n s ome cases t hese may well have been on s ites occupied during late Roman and Byzantine ti mes ( D'Angelo 1 971). H ow f ar t here was a continuity of r ural occupation t hroughout t he B yzantine a nd A rab p eriod, a nd h ow d isruptive t he 9 th-century f ighting was, f ield s urvey work a nd a more s ophisticated u nderstanding o f t he p ottery o f t he period s hould b e able t o s how. A lthough t he widespread desertion of t he countryside, at l east i n s ome parts of S icily, d id not t ake place until t he 1 3th century ( Johns volume 4 o f t his c ollection), i t was during the troubled period of t he Arab a nd Norman i nvasions t hat the s eeds were b eing s own for t he pattern of urban s ettlement i n l ater medieval a nd modern S icily, w ith i ts o verriding emphasis o n t he h ill-top t owns .

A cknowledgements I am very g rateful to D r. J eremy Johns for a llowing me t o draw f reely o n h is u nrivalled k nowledge o f t he c harter a nd other documentary evidence when compiling F ig. 1 7.7, and to Charlotte Westbrook who drew t he maps with i nfinite care, patience a nd g ood h umour. I h ave a lso b enefitted g reatly f rom Robert K irkwood 's h elpful comments on R epublican S icily, a lthough he does n ot n ecessarily agree with all t hat I have w ritten.

A dditional N ote

After completion of my paper, Dr. G iorgio B ejor of t he Scuola Normale S uperiore d i P isa has k indly s ent me a n offprint o f a r ecently-published paper of h is ( Bejor 1 983) which partly deals with s ome of the topics d iscussed b y me ( but from a rather d ifferent angle), with s i milar

3 31

conclusions.

Appendix

1 7.1.:

Figure 1 :

Key!

S icily c .

to

3 30

F igs.

1 7.1

- 1 7.7.

B .C.

B ibliography i n t his appendix i s k ept t o a bare minimum ( usually of the most recent accounts, where references to earlier work can be found). S ic. Arch. = S i cilia Archeologica; other abbreviations a s i n L 'Ann6e P hilologique. 1

A drano

2 5

E ntella

2

Agira

2 6

E raclea

3

Agrigento

2 7

E rice

4

Akrai

2 8

G angi

5

Apollonia

2 9

G ela

6

Assoro

3 0

G ibil-Gahib

7

B alate d i

31

H alaesa

8

Butera

9

Calacte

3 3

L avanca Nera

1 0

C altagirone

3 4

L eontini

11

Caltavuturo

3 5

L icata

1 2

Camarina

3 6

L ipari

1 3

Capodarso

3 7

Marsala

1 4

Castellazzo d i

Marianopoli

3 8

Megara H yblaea

1 5

Castellazzo d i

P alma

3 9

Messina

1 6

d i Montechiaro. C astiglione

4 0

M ilazzo

1 7

Catania

4 1

M ineo

1 8 Cefalu

4 2

Montagna

1 9

C enturipe

4 3

Monte

A dranone

2 0

C hiaramonte Gulfi

4 4

Monte

C astello della

2 1

( if A crillae) C ozzo Matrice

4 5

P ietra Monte Bubbiona

2 2 Cozzo Mususino

4 6

Monte

2 3

4 7

Monte D esusino

E loro

Marianopoli

3 2

( Mt.

R iparato)

3 32

Minoa

( Monte

K assar

A lburchia)

( Castronovo)

d i

Marzo

C avalli

2 4

E nna

4 9

Monte

5 0

4 8

Monte

I udica

6 8

S egesta

Monte

Navone

6 9

S elinunte

5 1

Monte

R affe

7 0

S olunto

5 2

Monte

S araceno

7 1

S yracuse

5 3

Morgantina

7 2

T aormina

7 3

T ermini

5 4 Mura

P regne

I ato

Imerese

5 5

N axos

7 4

T erravecchia

5 7

P alermo

7 5

T indari

5 8

P aternö

7 6

T rapani

5 9

R egalbuto

7 7

6 0

Roca

7 8

T riocala ( if C altabellotta) T ripi

6 1 Rossomano

7 9

T roina

6 2

Sabucina

8 0

Vassallaggi

6 3

S alemi

6 4

S .

Agata

6 5

S .

B asilio

6 6

S .

Marco

6 7

S cornovacche

Nadore

( if

H alicyae)

Militello d i

S cordia

d 'Alunzio

1 40

C hiarastella d i

1 41

C ittä Vecchia

d i

1 42

Montagnola

Marineo

1 52

Montedoro

d i d i

C efalä C orleone

Montelpre

The map i s based on that i n Gabba and Vallet 1 980, I , F ig. 2 24, with some additions, and with s ites removed which were deserted before t he second half of the 4 th c entury. E ntries with b ibliographies u p t o 1 975 can b e found i n R . S tillwell, e d., T he P rinceton E ncyclopedia o f C lassical S ites ( Princeton 1 976) on a ll s ites except 7 ,11, 1 3-15, 2 0-22, 2 5, 3 3, 44, 4 8-49, 51, 5 4, 5 8-60, 74, 7 7, 1 40-142, and 1 52, most of which can be followed up i n the references g iven or63 i n Gabba and Vallet 1 980 ( see i ndex) . C f. also for 7 , 1 4, a nd 2 1, Kokalos 2 6-27 ( 1980-1981) 5 83, 5 92, a nd 6 13; f or 1 1, K okalos 2 2-23 ( 1976-1977) 7 11; f or 2 0, A rchivio S torico per S icilia orientale 4 ( 1951) 3 5 a nd 6 ( 1953) 5 ; for 2 5, S ic. Arch. 1 3, no. 4 3 ( 1980) 2 1 and ASNP3 1 2 ( 1982) 7 71-1103; f or 4 4, Magna G raecia 1 3. 1 -2 - (f 9-7 8) 5 ; for 4 8, I sler 1 980; for 5 1, Talbert 1 974, 1 57 note 3 ; f or 5 4, S econdo Quaderno Imerese ( Rome 1 982) 1 75; f or 6 0, Kokalos 1 8-19 ( 1972-1973) 2 47; f or 1 40, S ic. A rch. 2 , no. 5 ( 1969) 1 1 and 16, no. 5 1 ( 1983) 71; for 1 41, ibid.

3 33

2 , no. 7 ( 1969) 1 9; for 1 42, ibid. 8 , nos. 2 8-29 ( 1975) 1 01; f or 1 52, G iustolisi 1 973, 4 5 . B ibliography a nd n otes o n a ll s ites w ill b e c onveniently a ccessible when G . N enci, ( Ed). D izionario dei luoghi storici e geografici della S icilia. P isa f orthcoming, i s published . P laces w ith q uestion marks a re t hose where t he p ublished d ating evidence i s e specially t hin . T he map s hould p robably b e l iberally s prinkled w ith many more s uch queries; a ll t oo o ften t he pottery i tself o n which t he d ate o f t he o ccupation of a s ite i s based has not been published, a nd the excavator 's j udgement h as t o b e t aken o n t rust . O pen c ircles a re f or p laces which p robably e xisted a t t his p eriod b ut f or which evidence, whether documentary or archaeological, i s l acking.

F ig.

1 7.2.

S icily c .

2 00 B .C.

8 1 Petra, probably i n or n ear P rizzi ( if t he s ame a s t he P etrine of I t.Ant . 9 6.8) i s t he only an addition here ( cf. ANSP 3 iT ( 1982, 8 25). C entres probably to b e a dded t o this map i f t heir l ocations were k nown i nclude E rgetium, Tyracium ( both on t he t heorodokoi inscription: H i storia 3 ( 1964, 4 14), Cytattarium x Macella, N akone ( all on t he E ntella i nscriptions: ANSP 3 1 2 ( 1982, 8 15), E chetla, H erbessus, H erbita, Mytisti a-um ( which I do not t ake t o be i dentifiable with 1 4 on F ig. 1 7.1): all except Nakone t urn up again i n e ither C icero's Verrines or P liny or both and were probably occupied r ight t hrough t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd c enturies. 1 2 a nd 3 8 a re marked ' in d ecline': t he f ormer h ad s everel y c ontracted i n s ize ( see t ext), t he l atter was a pparently no more t han a n a gricultural v illage a fter 2 12 ( Bolletino d 'Arte 4 5 ( 1960, 2 72). Milazzo ( 40) s hould probably b e a solid dot: f requently mentioned i n t he l ate 4 th a nd early 3 rd centuries ( Diod. 1 4.87.1, 1 9.65.3, 2 2. 1 3.1; Polybius 1 .9.7) i t t hen gets no mention u ntil t he c ivil wars; but t here i s a 2 nd-century B .C . mosaic f rom t he t own ( D . v on B oeselager, A ntike M osaiken i n S izilien . R ome 1 983, 6 5).

F ig.

1 7.3.

8 2

M istretta

g 3

M odica

1 56

S icily c .

2 0

( Amestratus)

B .C. 8 4 N issoria o r n earby ( if I machra) 8 5 S ciacca

C apizzi

8 2-4 a nd 1 56 f irst a ppear etc.; 3 .18.47 etc; 3 .43. 1 03)

i n C icero ( ii i n V err . and 8 3-4 r eappear i n

3 34

3 .39.88 P liny's

l ist ( NH 3 .91) ; 82 and 1 56 do not, and it perhaps i s rash t o i nclude t hem h ere, but t he l atter a lso r ates a mention i n P tolemy ( 3.4.12) a nd b oth have produced L atin i nscriptions, probably early imperial (CIL X .7461-2). 85 is first mentioned i n A ugustan sources ( Diod . 4 .78.3; S trabo 6 .2.9; P liny NH 3 .90) but may be earlier: i t takes its name ( Thermae S elinuntinae) f rom S elinus ( 69 on F ig . 1 7.1), which was dead by c . 250 (Kokal os 3 ( 1957) 70). I have r eintroduced Naxos ( 55), which does appear i n P liny ( some t hink b y mistake), as t he archaeological evidence appears t o s uggest r enewed a ctivity i n l ate H ellenistic a nd early R oman imperial t imes ( Kokalos 2 6-27 ( 1980-1981) 6 97). 5 on F ig. 2 i s not marked here: it i s not i n P liny and is not heard of after C icero i i i n Verr. 3 . 4 3.103 and 5 .33.86. Of other places i n P liny's l ist, Paropos may be at 1 1 and Noae at 4 9 ( the latter i ll-known archaeologically: i f early reports ( NSc 1 907, 4 89) are r ight i n suggesting that pottery goes dc ; -w7 . 1 only t o t he t hird century, then Monte I udica i s unlikely to be Noae, as the latter appears i n P liny, but the s ite badly needs r e-investigating); I have despaired of placing Cy ta tta r um , Eche t1a , Erge t um , He rbe ssus , Herbita, Macella, Mytistratum a nd Tyracium ( as o n F ig . 1 7.2) a s well as Aceste, B idis, S chera, Talavia, T issa and the places i nhabited by the Semelitani and the S ymaethii. None are heard of i n the late Empire,and it i s a reasonable guess that most or a ll of them were given up i n t he 1st or 2 nd century A .D. Of the centres marked ' in decline', 2 7 has a temple vetustate d ilapsam ( Tac. Ann. 4 .43) and l ittle other imperial material with a s ecure f indspot; f or 2 4 there i s Strabo 6 .2.6; for 34 apart from C ic. i i i n Verr. 2 .66.160 ( quoted i n text) there i s only a trickle of imperial material from the town itself ( S. C iancio, L eontinoi - Lentini, Rome 1 967); for 4 8 there i s c lear archaeological evidence of decline ( Isler 1 980); 4 9 is a guess. Of the to wns ' about to be abandoned', 3 8 may have a lready gone, a s t here appear t o b e n o c oins l ater t han c . 4 0/30 ( MEFR 6 3 ( 1951) 4 7-8); 1 1 goes down t o t he end of t he 1 st century B .C. ( Sic. Arch. 5 , nos. 1 8-20 ( 1972) 83); 1 2 hardly survives i nto the i st century A .D. ( the few scraps of Italian s igillata i nclude one stamped i n planta pedis ( Bolletino d 'Arte 4 4 ( 1959), 3 47), i .e. not before c . A .D. 3 5); 4 2 has at least two burials of late i st century A .D. date but then a gap until ' Byzantine' t i mes ( NSc 2nd Supple ment 1 969, 98); at 53 the latest material i s T iberian ( AJA 8 3 ( 1979) 3 79), except on the C ittadella h ill ( see b elow on F ig. 1 7.6).

F ig.

1 7.4.

S icily 8 6

c .

2 00

A .D.

Mazara

8 7

S cicli

86 is a n emporion i n 4 09 B .C. ( Diod. 1 3.54.6) butthen the name appears only as a r iver until It. Ant. 8 9.1; t he i nscriptions a nd archaeology a re s imilarly mid

3 35

imperial or l ater ( Wilson f orthcoming a ). 8 7 has p roduced parts of Roman houses and mosaics ( NSc 1 886, 468; ibid. 1 947, 2 55) a nd t here i s 2 nd t o 4 th c entury A .D . material f rom here i n Ragusa museum: probably, ( and possibly one t hat s hould have

not certainly, appeared o n F ig .

a town 1 7.3).

Of the towns marked ' in decline' on F ig. 1 7.3, 2 4 appears to be hanging on ( It. Ant. 93.3; i nscription: NSc 1 947, 2 41, probably a 2 nd-century pace Arch. C lass. 1 7 ( 1965) 1 89), 2 7 perhaps not ( Wilson f orthcoming a for details on this and the following). They have perhaps b een j oined b y 1 ( a t own contracted i n s ize ( AR 2 8 ( 1981-82) 92) if not exactly i n decline), 4 ( I. E . 7- Ant. 89.8, but no early or mid imperial i nscriptions and no r ehandling o f t he t heatre), 1 8 ( even more o f an arqumentum e s ilentio this, but there i s v irtually no mid-i mperial evidence from here as yet; yet cf . I t. Ant. 9 2.2), 3 1 ( apparently flourishing until c . 150/200, but less certainly so thereafter), 7 8 ( which has yet to produce material later than lst-2nd century A .D.: NSc 1 954, 4 6, Bolletino d 'Arte 5 1 ( 1966) 89), and 7 9 ( apparently l ikewise: C .G.Canale, Engyon, R icerche d i topografia antica nell'interno della S icilia ( Catania 1 955) ; FA 1 3 ( 1958) 4 131). O n t he verge of abandonment c . 2 00 A .D. are 2 3 ( lst-2nd c entury l amps, I talian s igillata a nd t he earliest f orms o f A frican r ed s lip, but apparently no t hirdf ifth century material: Mon. Ant. 4 7 ( 1966) 2 03) and 7 0 ( where t he l atest material i s of t he s econd half of t he 2 nd century, t he l atest coin i s of C ommodus ( Kokalos 6 ( 1960) 110) , and the latest i nscription A .D. 2 02/5 ( CIL X , 7 336); it does, however, rate a mention i n the Antonine I tinerary ( 91.6). 2 5 and 6 8, which do appear on F ig. 17.3, have dropped out ( see text); so too 8 2, 84 and 156, more through lack of i nformation than any positively negative evidence. P erhaps open c ircles would h ave b een f airer; but unlike t he others s hown thus on t his map, 82, 8 4 a nd 1 56 do not r eappear i n B yzantine or Arab t imes. F ig.

1 7.5.

8 8

A cium

89

a d

S icily

c .

2 00

A .D .

i ncluding 9 9

F luvium

L anarium

1 00

' road-stations'

C hala C orconiana

9 0 A d O livui um

1 01

D aedalim

9 1

A llava

1 02

F ilosofiana

9 2

Apolline

1 03

H ereo

9 3

Aquae

9 4

C alloniana

9 5

C alvisiana

S egestanae

9 6 Capitoniana

1 04

H ybla

1 05

Hyccara

( Vito

( Ragusa) ( Carini)

1 06

L ongaricum

1 07

Mesopotamium

3 36

S oldano)

9 7

Caucana

1 08

P arthenicum

9 8

C ena

1 09

P etiliana

1 10

P irama

1 12

T raiectus

1 11

P itiniana

1 13

T amaricii

( Partinico)

( Capo

P eloro)

These are all, with the exception of 9 7 ( Ptolemy 3 .4.7, presumably near the excavated s ite which i s not before the 4 th century: Kokalos 1 8-19 ( 1972-1973) 1 85), recorded i n t he A ntonine I tinerary, s ome i n other handbooks t oo, b ut t hey are not the only s ettlements of this type ( see text).Not all have been i dentified on the ground, and the positions here suggested are someti mes at variance with previous accounts ( Vichiana 6 ( 1969) 1 27; A and R 1 4 ( 1970) 1 07; Verbrugghe 1 976): I h ope t o j ustify t hem i n a f uture article. 1 04 i s problematical: t he Hyble of I t. A nt. 8 9.7 i s presumably Hybla ( pace E . Manni, Geografia f isica e politica della S icilia antrca ( Rome 1 981) 1 87) a nd t he d istances s uggest Ragusa, where the archaeological evidence points to a gap between the 5 th century B .C. and the later Roman period ( cf. e .g. P rinceton E ncyclopedia 3 99): h ence i ts absence f rom F igures 1-3. The Hyblenses of C icero ( ii i n Verr. 3 .43.102), P liny ( 3.91) and others probably, therefore, are from Greater Hybla, presumed to be 5 8 ( Paternö; cf.CIL X , 7 013). But that raises problems for Aetna, 12 m .p. from Catania ( It. Ant. 83.6) : that is where Paternö i s, and there i s a Roman bridge west of the town to show the l ine of the Roman road. Could A etna a nd H ybla, c learly s eparate i n c lassical t imes, be a lternative names for 5 8 b y t he mid-late Empire? Certainly not earlier, for Aetnenses as well as Hyblenses appear i n Cicero ( ii in Verr. 4 .51.114) and P liny ( 3.91), unless that Hybla i s not Paternö. The problem appears i nsoluble without f urther f ieldwork a nd/or documentary evidence.

F ig.

1 7.6.

S icily c .

1 14

Avola

1 15

Castellazzo

5 00-600 A .D.

v ecchia d i

P oggioreale

1 17

L icodia

E uboea

1 18

P antalica

1 16 C omiso

114 was possibly but not certainly founded about now ( S . T roia, Avola a lla l uce delle s coperte a rcheologiche, 1963,29; cf. NSc 1 899, 6 9). 115, not occupied s ince the 5th century B .C. , has some late Roman material ( not medieval, pace S ic. Arch. 1 2, no. 39 ( 1979) 74), but not much. 116 appears to blossom i n the late Empire, with i nscriptions, a mosaic, opus sectile and a hoard of gold solidi ( NSc 1937, 456; ibid. 1 946, 1 62; RAL 8

3 37

( 1953) 4 22); t here was a lso H ellenistic a ctivity h ere ( yet a pparently n othing i n b etween), but i t i s n ot c ertain whether i t was a ' town' t hen ( I h ave l eft i t off F igs. 1 2 ). 1 17, also deserted s ince t he 5 th c entury B .C ., has l ate R oman/Byzantine c atacombs ( Pace 1 949, 1 59) ; 1 18, d eserted f or e ven l onger, has r ock-cut churches, b urials a nd g old j ewellery, at l east f rom c . 6 00 ( Pace 1 949, s ee i ndex). 1 15, 1 17, 1 18 b elong t o t he g roup o f s ixteen s ites o n t his map which, a fter b eing a bandoned f or s ome c enturies, s how ' activity' again now; but t hey a re n ot towns ( see t ext), except f or 3 4 ( see b elow). 4 8, h owever, a pparently h as a t hread o f c ontinuity t hroughout t he Empire ( see t ext); f or 5 th century material, M I 2 1 I ( R) 8 9 ( 1982) 2 13. 5 th century material i s also c lear - it -5 3 ( in a c istern o n t he C ittadella h ill: S .C . S tone, R oman P ottery f rom Morgantina, U niversity M icrofilms 1 981, 5 18); 6 9 ( nuclei around t emples C a nd D a s well as on t he eastern h ill, producing i nter alia a 4 th or 5 th century b ronze l amp: Kokalos 3 ( 1957) 7 0); 1 2 ( African lamps ( Bolletino d 'Arte 4 4 ( 1959) 3 53): t here a ppears t o have b een a v illage a round t he T emple o f A thena c onverted i nto a c hurch); 4 4 ( African l amps ( Magna Graecia 1 3.1-2 ( 1978) 6 ); and 8 0 ( African l amps f rom burials: NSc 1 971 S upplemento, 2 07). 2 3 has a 5 th or 6 th century cht-IT C-h ( Mon. A nt. 4 7 ( 1966) 3 32-334), but f rom t he others t he dating evidence has b een l ess s pecific ( 'Byzantine'): 8 ( Mon.Ant. 4 9 ( 1958) 5 83-90), 3 0 ( NSc 1 958, 4 08). 4 2 ( NSc 1 969 2 nd s upplement, 2 2), 5 0 1 0), 6 2 ( tomb 1 3A : -ä iitanissetta Museum i nv . 1 798-9). 3 4 ( Pace 1 949, 1 52) i s t he o nly o ne which c ertainly d eveloped i nto a ' town' a nd was a b ishopric b y t he t ime o f G regory, 5 90-604 ( Ep . 1 2.48); on 4 8 s ee b elow ( on F ig. 1 7.7). T he number of ' road-stations' a nd t owns marked o n t his map where e vidence f or occupation i s ' uncertain' reflects l ack of f ieldwork a nd e xcavation : 7 3 s hould probably b e a s olid d ot ( it was a b ishopric b y 6 49), a nd many o f t he ' road-stations' o nce i dentified b y f ieldwork, would probably produce material o f t his date, i f t he ones which have b een s tudied are typical ( see text) . O f t he four major towns i n decline, a ll were s till b ishoprics i n t he l ate s ixth century, but a ll h ad contracted i n s ize, a s t he archaeological evidence makes c lear ( Wilson f orthcoming a ) .

F ig.

1 7.7.

S icily c .

1 000 A .D.

1 19

A ci

1 28

G agliano

1 43

A lcara

1 29 M isilmeri

1 20 A lcamo

1 30

1 21

1 31 Monte G uistanella

C alascibetta

Monte d ella

1 23 C alatafimi

1 32 N aro

1 24

1 33

C altanissetta

P atti

3 38

G uidecca

1 25

C ollessano

( Monte d ' Oro)

1 34

S .

1 26 C orleone

1 35

R ometta

1 27

F razziano

1 36

S .

1 37

S copello

1 49

C inisi

1 38

T usa

1 50

G elso

1 39 V icari

1 51

G eraci

1 44 C alatrasi

1 53

N icosia

1 45 C aronia

1 54

S .

S icilia

1 55

S tefano d i

C amastra

A ngelo Muxaro ( Monte P almeto)

S tefano d i

1 46

C astiglione d i

1 47

C erami

1 56

P etralia

1 48

C astronovo

1 59

S utera

C amastra

S clafini S oprana

T his map i s c ompiled a lmost e ntirely f rom d ocumentary evidence ( see t ext), with much h elp f rom J eremy J ohns. S ize a nd r elative importance are not a lways c lear; s ome places i ndicated h ere ( e.g. 1 18) may have b een v illages r ather t han proper t owns . A ll t he p laces l isted a bove a ppear t o b e n ew foundations, a lthough s ome are s ituated very c lose to a ncient s ettlements: 1 48 n ear 3 2; 1 26 n ear 1 41; 1 45 a bove 9 ; 1 38 near 3 1 a re examples. O thers ( e.g. 5 4, 1 40) r eoccupied s ites a bandoned s ince t he 3 rd c entury B .C. O f the places marked with open c ircles ( 'possibly occupied') , 1 0 and 1 15 are s o marked because i t i s not c lear i f t heir reoccupation pre- or post-dates the Norman conquest ( more could b e a dded); 2 5, 4 8, 1 49 a nd 1 50 were probably only r efuge-castles r ather t han properly-settled t owns a t t he t i me o f t he N orman i nvasion, a nd o nly d eveloped f ully i n t he l ater 1 1th c entury: a t a ny r ate most o f t he e arly Medieval pottery f rom 4 8 postdates t he Norman conquest ( Isler, H .P. ( ed.) 1 984. Studia I etina vol. 2 , Zurich, 1 19). O f coastal t owns a ll t he major s ettlements o f R oman a nd B yzantine S icily a re s till prominent i n A rab t i mes ( and especially 5 7 and 8 6), except for 7 5 ( which l acks a harbour) a nd 3 6 ( Lipari) which i s a s pecial case: destroyed b y a volcanic eruption s ometi me b etween t he mid-7th and t he mid-9th c enturies, i t l ay deserted until a Norman monastery was founded t here i n 1 083 ( Archivio S torico S iracusano n ew s eries 5 ( 1978-79) 8 4).

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Summary Until more field survey work has been conducted, a detailed assessment of the broad changes in settlement pattern that occurred in Sicily during antiquity cannot be attempted. This paper concentrates on evidence from the towns, starting c. 330 B.C., and charts the steady decline in the number of occupied hill-top centres from then until the early imperial period. Only in part can the abandonment of such centres be directly attributable to hostile military action: urban decline is mainly due to the profound socio­ economic changes that came with the pax Romana, and in particular to increasing dispersal of population into the countryside. The new market centres and agricultural villages which sprang up reach their greatest extent in the period of the Empire, and there is no evidence to suggest major upheaval at the time of the Vandal incursions in the fifth century. But unsettled conditions in later Byzantine and Arab Sicily led to a gradual return to hill-top sites on a large scale, a pattern that was already well established by the time of the Norman Conquest.

Riassunto Perche c'e state una mancanza quasi totale di studi archeologici nella campagna siciliana, non si puo fare a questo memento un riassunto dettagliato sul cambiamento del tipo di insediamento nella Sicilia antica fra un periodo e altro. Questo contribute si concentra sull'evidenza dalle citt� (il punto di paitenza e c. 330 a.C.), � documenta il decline nel numero dei centri urbani situati in collina dal quel punto fine al epoca alto-imperiale. Questo fenomeno puo essere attribuito solo in parte agli interventi militari ostili; e dovuto principalmente ai profondi cambiamenti r socio-economici che sono arrivati con la pax romana, e sopratutto uno spostamento alla campagna della popolazione urbana . I nuovi bor gi agricoli e le sedi di mercato raggiunsero la lore massima estensione nel periodo romano imperiale, e non c'e nessun evidenza che suggerisce uno sconvolgimento generale in campagna ai tempi delle incursioni vandaliche nel quinto secolo. Ma risult o dalle condizioni instabili nella Sicilia tardo-bizantina e araba che si ritornava man mane a numerosi siti urbani in collina, un processo gia molto chiaro al tempo della conquista normanna.

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