Paleoradiology : imaging mummies and fossils [1 ed.] 9783540488323, 3540488324

Table of contents :
Content: Paleoradiology : history and new developments / Rethy K. Chhem --
Paleoradiologic techniques / George Saab, Rethy K. Chhem, and Richard N. Bohay --
The taphonomic process, biological variation, and x-ray studies / Don R. Brothwell --
Diagnostic paleoradiology for paleopathologists / Rethy K. Chhem, George Saab, and Don R. Brothwell --
Paleoradiology in the service of zoopaleopathology / Don R. Brothwell --
Normal variations in fossils and recent human groups / Don R. Brothwell --
Concluding comments / Rethy K. Chhem and Don R. Brothwell.

Citation preview

R. K. Chhem · D. R. Brothwell Paleoradiology

R. K. Chhem  ·  D. R. Brothwell

Paleoradiology Imaging Mummies and Fossils

With 390 Figures and 58 Tables

123

Don R. Brothwell, PhD Department of Archaeology The University of York The King’s Manor York Y01 7EP UK Rethy K. Chhem, MD, PhD, FRCPC Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry University of Western Ontario London Health Sciences Centre 339 Windermere Road London, Ontario N6A 5A5 Canada

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007936308

ISBN 978-3-540-48832-3 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springer.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information about dosage and application contained in this book. In every individual case the user must check such information by consulting the relevant literature. Editor: Dr. Ute Heilmann, Heidelberg, Germany Desk Editor: Meike Stoeck, Heidelberg, Germany

Production: LE-TEX Jelonek, Schmidt & Vöckler GbR, Leipzig, Germany Reproduction and typesetting: Satz-Druck-Service (SDS), Leimen, Germany Cover design: WMX Design, Heidelberg, Germany Printed on acid-free paper   24/3180/YL   5 4 3 2 1 0

Foreword

The Radiologist’s Perspective It is my pleasure to write the foreword to this groundbreaking text in paleoradiology. Dr. Rethy Chhem is a distinguished musculoskeletal radiologist, and he is the founder of the Paleoradiologic Research Unit at the University of Western Ontario, Canada, and the Osteoarchaeology Research Group at the National University of Singapore. His special area of paleoradiologic expertise is the Khmer civilization of Cambodia, and his contributions to radiologic and anthropologic science have built bridges between these two not always communicative disciplines. Dr. Don Brothwell is of course well known to the paleopathology community. He is something of an anthropologic and archaeologic polymath, having made important contributions to dental anthropology, the antiquity of human diet, and veterinary paleopathology, among others. His textbook, “Digging Up Bones” (Brothwell 1982), has introduced many generations of scholars to bioarchaeology, a discipline of which he is one of the founders. It is only fitting that this book is the work of a radiologist and an anthropologist, both of whom have experience in musculoskeletal imaging and paleopathology. For more than 100 years, diagnostic imaging has been used in the study of ancient disease. In fact, one of the first comprehensive textbooks of paleopathology, “Paleopathologic Diagnosis and Interpretation,” was written as an undergraduate thesis by a nascent radiologist, Dr. Ted Steinbock (Steinbock 1976). The advantages of diagnostic imaging in paleopathologic research should be intuitively obvious. Osseous and soft tissue may be noninvasively and nondestructively imaged, preserving original specimens for research and display in a museum setting. Not only will the original material, often Egyptian mummies, be preserved for future generations of researchers, but public enthusiasm will be fostered by the knowledge that we can see what is really underneath all those wrappings. Recent advances in computed multiplanar image display present novel ways to increase our understanding of the individuals, the processes of mummification and burial, and the cultural milieu in which these people lived. Unfortunately, although the potential of radiology has been recognized, the realization of collaborative effort has been inconsistent. The earliest use of radiography in paleopathology was in the diagnosis of specific diseases in individuals, much as it is in clinical medicine today. Egyptian mummies were radiographed as early as 1896. Comprehensive studies of mummy collections were performed in the 1960s and 1970s, culminating in the exhaustive treatise by Harris and Wente, with important contributions by Walter Whitehouse, MD, in 1980 (Harris and Wente 1980). The usefulness of radiologic analysis of collections of such specimens led to the realization that diagnostic imaging has important implications in paleoepidemiology as well as in the diagnosis of individual cases. Technical innovations in radiology have paralleled progress in paleopathology. We are now able to perform per three-dimensional virtual reproductions of the facial characteristics so that mummies do not have to be unwrapped, and we can now carry out “virtual autopsies” using three-dimensional computed tomography as a guide. We are now also using modern imaging technology to go beyond pic-

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Foreword

tures. It is well established that radiologic and computed tomographic evaluation, in conjunction with physical anthropologic and orthopedic biomechanical data, may yield important biomechanical information in such studies as noninvasive measurement of the cross-sectional area of long bones to compare biomechanical characteristics in different populations such as hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists, and to study the mechanical properties of trabecular bone. This textbook represents a significant advance in the effort to engage clinical physicians, especially radiologists and paleopathologists in a dialogue. Although there have been many such attempts in the past, they have for the most part dealt with specific imaging findings to diagnose disease in specific ancient remains. Chhem and Brothwell have given us the opportunity to go beyond this type of ad hoc consultation by presenting a systematic approach to the radiologic skeletal differential diagnosis of ancient human and animal remains. However, I believe that the intent of the authors is not so much to have paleopathologists interpret these finding in a vacuum, but rather to understand the capabilities of musculoskeletal radiologists, not only to assist with diagnosis, but also to offer information about the clinical setting in which these diseases occur and to suggest other appropriate imaging technology. For their part, musculoskeletal radiologists should be able to use this text to understand the context in which paleopathologists work, including taphonomic change, and to appreciate the rich legacy of diagnostic imaging in biological anthropology and archaeology. Along with the authors, I hope that radiologists and biological anthropologists will use this textbook to translate both the radiologic and anthropologic idiom to better comprehend the other’s potential for collaboration. Once we establish a common language, it will be easier to solve the diagnostic problems and dilemmas we share. Doctors Chhem and Brothwell are to be congratulated for taking that important first step. Ethan M. Braunstein

References Brothwell DB (1982) Digging up Bones (3rd edn). Cornell University Press, Ithaca Steinbock RT (1976) Paleopathologic Diagnosis and Interpretation. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, p 423 Harris JE, Wente EF (1980) An X-Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, p 403

Foreword

The Anthropologist’s Perspective The study of human paleopathology has benefited from the use of radiological methods for many decades. However, the use of radiological images and interpretative insights has in earlier years tended to be limited to medical professionals with expertise and experience in interpreting radiographic images as well as having access to the necessary equipment to produce radiographs in the hospitals where they worked. As the diagnostic value of radiology in the evaluation and diagnosis of disorders in archaeological human and nonhuman remains became more apparent, plain-film radiological facilities were established in many nonmedical centers where research on these remains was a central part of their scientific endeavors. With greater access to radiographic data on paleopathological specimens, biological anthropologists became increasingly competent in interpreting these images. However, there remain very important reasons why ongoing collaboration between radiologists and biological anthropologists in the analysis of paleopathological cases continues to be a valuable contribution to science. One of the troublesome limitations of plain-film radiology is that three-dimensional anatomical features are projected onto a single plain. The inevitable superimposition that occurs can obscure important details of a radiographic image, adding to the challenge of interpretation. With the advent and widespread use of computed tomography (CT) radiological methods as an important diagnostic tool in clinical radiology, these methods began to be applied to archaeological remains. Among other advantages, CT imaging virtually eliminates the problem of superimposition. However, access to CT technology by paleopathologists, unless they are also radiologists, is often inconvenient or beyond the limited budgets of many researchers. This limitation in the use of CT imaging is changing as more facilities with CT equipment are available, including some in nonmedical research institutions. The remarkable power of CT imaging has made this mode of radiological investigation an important tool for the paleopathologist. During my collaborations with radiologists in my own research on human skeletal paleopathology during the past 40 years, several issues have been highlighted. One is the need for better specimen positioning in taking radiographs of archaeological human remains. In clinical radiology, great attention is paid to the orientation of the anatomical site to be imaged relative to the axis of the X-ray beam. Clinical radiographic technicians receive careful training in the placement of the patient to be radiographed. Positioning of paleopathological cases of disease is often a helterskelter arrangement in which little attention is paid to the anatomical relationship between multiple bones or the anatomical position relative to a living person. The emphasis is often on getting as many bones as possible on the X-ray film to save expense. Such a procedure does not lend itself to taking full advantage of the vast knowledge and experience of radiologists in the diagnosis of skeletal disorders. Another problem is that in the burial environment, soil constituents often penetrate archaeological human skeletal remains and can pose real challenges in diagnosis, particularly for those inexperienced in recognizing these infiltrates. Soil infiltrates are denser than bone and appear as sclerotic areas in radiographic images.

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Foreword

These areas can be confused with antemortem pathology. Postmortem degradation of bone also occurs in the burial environment from both the acidic conditions commonly encountered in soil and the action of organisms, including bacteria, fungi and insect larvae, and plant roots. These destructive processes can mimic osteolytic pathological processes. Very careful attention to the fine details of the margins of destructive defects in bone is necessary to resolve the question of anteversus postmortem destruction. In interpreting radiographs of skeletal remains curated in museums, there is the further complication of distinguishing between substances added during museum curation of archaeological remains and antemortem pathological processes. For example, the glue used to repair breaks in older museum accessions can be very dense and create an appearance of a sclerotic response or a bone tumor in a radiograph. These examples highlight the importance of collaboration between the clinical radiologist with an interest in paleopathology and the biological anthropologist in any study of archaeological remains, including mummified tissues and skeletal remains. Each discipline brings a specialized knowledge of the subject that maximizes the quality of the interpretation of radiological images from archaeological remains, both human and nonhuman. Although collaboration between radiologists and biological anthropologists is an obvious strategy, the increasing use of radiology in the study of archaeological biological tissues calls for an explicit statement regarding the use of this methodology in research. As indicated above, the radiology of archeological remains poses special problems, and these need to be identified and resolved to ensure that radiographic data on such remains is interpreted correctly. There is a very real need for an authoritative reference work that will provide the insight from both anthropology and radiology as this relates to the use of radiological methods in the study of ancient evidence of disease. I am very pleased to learn about the collaborative effort between Dr. Rethy Chhem, a skeletal radiologist, and Dr. Don Brothwell, a biological anthropologist, to produce a book on the radiology of archaeological biological tissues. Both are distinguished international authorities in their respective disciplines. In addition, both bring a depth of experience in the study of paleopathology that ensures careful coverage of the subject and new insight into the technical, theoretical, and interpretative issues involved in the application of radiology to the evaluation and diagnosis of abnormalities encountered in the analysis of human and nonhuman archaeological remains. I am confident that this book will be a major milestone in the study of disease in human and nonhuman archeological as well as paleontological remains. Donald J. Ortner

Preface

This book arose from chance meetings and discussion between the two of us, one a radiologist and anthropologist (RC), the other a bioarchaeologist and paleopathologist (DB). The former expressed his interest in developing a scientific field that combined radiology with anthropology, especially bioarchaeology and paleopathology. The latter agreed completely that the subjects of radiographic techniques and the application of all aspects of medical imaging to the study of anthropological materials were sadly neglected. At the same time, both recognized that a publication was needed to show more clearly the considerable potential of paleoradiology. At this point, one of us (DB) expressed some uncertainty about finding the time (if not the mental strength) to contribute to the formation of this field. However, the extreme enthusiasm and persuasiveness of his friend and colleague (RC) resulted not in his withdrawal, but in discussing a joint plan of action. Such is the power of an enthusiastic colleague and a challenging project! What follows in these pages is an attempt to introduce a new field of academic study that is concerned with the value of applying X-rays to a broad range of bioanthropological materials, from human remains to other animals and even plants. We would emphasize that brought together in this way, it becomes a new field, even if components of the whole field have a much longer history. An entire chapter deals with the use of paleoradiology as a diagnosic method of ancient diseases. So in its entirety, the book is a pilot survey, an introduction to a broad-based subject that we feel is going to expand and interest a growing number of our colleagues, spanning human and veterinary radiology, anthropology (especially bioarchaeology), zoology, and botany. It is clear that at the present time, the literature relevant to this broad discipline is highly variable, and to some extent locked away in specialist publications. There is currently a strong bias toward human remains, both skeletal and mummified. We predict that this will change, and in particular we suggest that it will be employed increasingly in the field of zooarchaeology, where considerable numbers of bones and teeth are processed annually throughout the world and increasing attention is being paid to reconstructing the health status of earlier animal populations. We sincerely hope that this introductory text on paleoradiology will stimulate interest in our colleagues, sufficient for them to ponder how they might contribute to this field in the future, or at least bring it to the notice of their colleagues or students. We do not see paleoradiology as a marginal and somewhat exotic occupation, rather one of considerable academic potential. Rethy K. Chhem and Don R. Brothwell

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our great appreciation to our many friends and colleagues who have assisted in the preparation of this book in many ways. We sincerely hope that this list is complete, but if we have overlooked anyone by mistake, we ask for their forgiveness. Supporting Rethy Chhem: Gord Allan, Ian Chan, Ghida Chouraiki, Eadie Deville, Jillian Flower, Jill Friis, Bertha Garcia, John Henry, Carol Herbert, David Holdsworth, Cheryl Joe, Stephen Karlik, Karen Kennedy, Jodie Koepke, Kyle Latinis, Luy Lida, Julian Loh, Liz Lorusso, Jay Maxwell, David McErlain, Wendy McKay, El Molto, Andrew Nelson, Jeremy O’Brien, Katie Peters, Christophe Pottier, Lisa Rader, Janine Riffel, Cesare Romagnoli, Frank Rühli, Roberta Shaw, Wang Shi-Chang, Vankatesh Sudhakar, Cynthia Von Overloop, Corie Wei, Jackie Williams, Deanna Wocks, Kit M. Wong, Eric Yap, Anabella Yim, and members of the Osteoarchaeology Research Group of Singapore. Supporting Don Brothwell: Trevor Anderson, John Baker, Keith Dobney, Ben Gourley, Deborah Jaques, Simon McGrory, Theya Molleson, Naomi Mott, Sonia O’Connor, Terry O’Connor, Ian Panter, Jacqui Watson, Wyn Wheeler We wish to thank GE Healthcare Canada for their support to the Paleoradiology Research Unit, and the Department of Radiology, London Health Sciences Centre and the University of Western Ontario, Canada. Finally, but by no means least, we both wish to thank Sirika Chhem and Jade Orkin-Fenster, whose hard work and commitment in York during the summer of 2005 provided us with a wide range of digital radiographs for use in this book.

Contents

Chapter 1 Paleoradiology: History and New Developments Rethy K. Chhem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1 Paleoradiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2 1.1 1.2 Paleoradiology of Royal Egyptian Mummies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5 1.2.1 1912 Thoutmosis IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5 1.2.2 1933 Amenophis I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6 1.2.3 1965 Royal Mummy Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6 1.2.4 1968 Tutankhamun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7 1.2.5 1976 Ramesses II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7 1.3 Paleo-CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8 1.4 Paleo-MRI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9 1.5 Paleoradiology and Clinical Radiology:Historical Development. . . . . . . . 10 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Chapter 2 paleoradiologic Techniques George Saab, Rethy K. Chhem, and Richard N. Bohay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.4 2.2.4.1 2.2.4.2 2.2.5 2.2.5.1 2.2.5.2 2.2.6 2.2.6.1 2.2.6.2 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.4 2.4.1

X-ray Imaging For Bioarcheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Radiographic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Equipment Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Portable X-ray Imaging Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 X-ray Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 The Photoelectric Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 The Compton Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Equipment Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Grids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Radiographic Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Geometry Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Focal Spot Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Source, Object, and Film Distances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Standard Radiographic Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Cranial Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Postcranial Bones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Optimizing Radiographic Production Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Quick Troubleshooting Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Image Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Contrast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Advances in Radiography and Archiving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Computed Radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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2.4.2 Digital Radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.4.3 Picture Archiving and Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.5 Computed Tomography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.5.1 Four Generations of CT Scanner Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.5.2 Spiral, Multislice, and Three-Dimensional CT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7 Advanced Imaging Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7.1 Micro-Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7.2 Coherent-Scatter CT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7.3 Stereolithography and Fused Deposition Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8 Dental Radiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8.1 Technical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8.1.2 Dental Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8.1.2 Film Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8.1.3 Film Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.8.1.4 Digital Image Receptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.8.1.5 Film Mounting and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.8.2 Basic Anatomy of the Teeth and Jaws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.8.2.1 Basic Dental Radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.8.2.2 Occlusal Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.8.3 Specimen Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.8.3.1 Imaging Intact Jaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.8.3.2 Radiography of Tooth/Bone Fragments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.8.3.3 Radiography of Loose Teeth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.9 The Radiographic Appearances of Some Selected Diseases of the Teeth and Jaws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.9.1 Dental Caries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.9.2 Periapical Inflammatory Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.9.3 Periodontitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.9.4 Osteomyelitis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.9.5 Pericoronal Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.10 Applications in Paleoradiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.10.1 Three-dimensional CT in Paleoanthropology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.10.2 CT and Burials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.10.3 CT and Mummies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Chapter 3 The Taphonomic Process, Biological Variation, and X-ray Studies Don R. Brothwell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.10.1 3.10.2 3.10.3 3.10.4 3.10.5

X-raying the Whole Range of Bioarcheological Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 The Evaluation of Botanical Remains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Radiological Aspects of Zooarcheology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Positioning and Image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Taphonomic Aspects of Bones and Teeth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Measurement from X-rays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 X-raying Aspects of Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Frozen, Dried, and Mummified Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Microradiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Problems of Differential Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Horncore “Thumbprints”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Leg Bones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Significant Bone Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Abnormal Cavities in Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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3.11 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   69 3.12 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   70 Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   70 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   70 Chapter 4 Diagnostic paleoradiologyfor paleopathologists Rethy K. Chhem, George Saab, and Don R. Brothwell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   73 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   73 4.1 4.2 The Paleoradiology Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   74 4.2.2 The Classification of Human Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   76 4.3 Gamuts Approach: The Tricks of the Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   76 4.3.1 The Classification of Human Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   76 4.4 Bone Trauma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   76 4.4.1 The Classification of Fractures and Basics of X-ray Interpretation. . . .   77 4.4.2 Differential Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   78 4.4.3 The Healing Process and Complications of Fractures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   78 4.5 Joint Trauma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   80 Arthropathies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   81 4.6 4.6.2 Basics of X-ray Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   84 4.6.3 Arthropathies of the Spine and Pelvis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   87 4.6.4 Arthropathies Affecting the Limbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   91 4.6.4.1 Osteoarthritis (Degenerative Joint Disease). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   91 4.6.4.2 Rotator Cuff Arthropathy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   92 4.6.4.3 Neuropathic Arthropathy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   92 4.7 Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   93 4.7.2 Basics of X-rays Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   93 4.7.3 Differential Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   93 4.7.4 Common Bone Infections in the Archeological Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.7.4.1 Pyogenic Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94 4.7.4.2 Syphilis and other Treponematosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94 4.7.4.3 Tuberculosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   96 4.74.4 Leprosy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   98 4.7.4.5 Brucellosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   98 4.7.4.6 Paget’s Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   99 4.8 Tumors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   99 4.8.1 Classification of Bone Tumors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   99 4.8.2 Basics of x-ray Interpretation of Bone Tumors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.8.2.1 Periosteal Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.8.2.2 Internal Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.8.2.3 Matrix Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.8.3 Common Tumors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.8.3.1 Osteochondroma or Exostosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.8.3.2 Enchondroma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.8.3.3 Osteosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.8.3.4 Paraosteal Sarcoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.8.3.5 Ewing’s Sarcoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.8.3.6 Chondrosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.8.3.7 Giant Cell Tumor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.8.3.8 Osteoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.8.3.9 Fibrous Dysplasia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.8.3.10 Simple Bone Cyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.8.3.11 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.8.3.12 Vertebral Hemangioma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

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4.8.3.13 Pseudotumor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.3.14 Metastases Versus Multiple Myeloma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Metabolic, Endocrine, Ecosystem Diseases,and Anemias. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1 Congenital Skeletal Diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.2 Osteoporosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3 Osteomalacia and Rickets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3.1 Rickets at the Wrist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.4 Harris Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.5 Avascular Necrosis–Bone Infarcts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.6 Anemias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

110 110 112 112 113 113 114 114 115 115 116

Chapter 5 Paleoradiology in the Service of Zoopaleopathology Don R. Brothwell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.1.1 5.2.1.2 5.2.1.3 5.2.1.4 5.2.1.5 5.2.2 5.2.2.1 5.2.2.2 5.2.2.3 5.2.2.4 5.2.2.5 5.2.2.6 5.2.3 5.2.3.1 5.2.3.2 5.2.3.3 5.2.3.4 5.2.3.5 5.2.3.6 5.2.3.7 5.2.3.8 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.2.3.3 5.2.3.4

Congenital Abnormalities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Summary of Radiological Featuresof Congenital Abnormality. . . . . . . . 121 The Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Encephalomeningocele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Hydrocephalus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Brachygnathia and Micrognathia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Cleft Palate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Cerebral Hernia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 The Postcranial Skeleton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Dwarfism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Hip Dysplasia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Hemivertebrae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Arthrogryposis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Syndactyly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Other Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Nutritional and Metabolic Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Osteoporosis (Osteopenia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Rickets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Hypervitaminosis A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Hypothyroidism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Juvenile Scurvy (Hypertrophic Osteodystrophy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Osteodystrophia Fibrosa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fluorosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Harris Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Trauma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Fracture Healing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Interdigital Necrobacillosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Vertebral Osteomyelitis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Actinomycosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Coccidioidomycosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Contents

5.2.3.5 Atrophic Rhinitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.2.3.6 Osteopetrosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.4 The Arthropathies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.4.1 Osteoarthritis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.4.2 Osteochondritis Dissecans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.4.3 Legg-Perthes Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.4.4 Infectious Arthritis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.4.5 Rheumatoid Arthritis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 5.4.6 Ankylosing Arthritis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 5.4.7 Navicular Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.4.8 Bovine Spavin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.5 Neoplasms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.5.1 Examples of Tumors Affecting the Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5.1.1 Synovial Sarcoma of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5.1.2 Benign Tumors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.5.1.2 Malignant Tumors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.5.2 Secondary Tumors of Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.5.2.1 Metastatic Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.5.2.2 Hypertrophic Pulmonary Osteoarthropathy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.6 Oral Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 5.6.1 Classifying Oral pathology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.6.1.1 The Teeth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.6.1.2 The Jaw Bones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.6.1.3 Comparative and Epidemiological Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.7 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Chapter 6 Normal Variations in Fossils and Recent Human Groups Don R. Brothwell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Fossil Studies by Conventional Radiography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.1 6.2 Teeth and Jaws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 The Advent of CT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.3 6.4 The Cranial Sinuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 6.5 The Frontal Sinuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.6 Variation in Recent Populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.7 Age and Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Sella Turcica Variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.8 6.9 The Bony Labyrinth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.10 Variation in the Postcranial Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.11 Variation in Cortical Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.12 Cremations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Concluding Comments Rethy K. Chhem and Don R. Brothwell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

XVII

List of Contributors

Don R. Brothwell, PhD (Editor) Department of Archaeology The University of York The King’s Manor York Y01 7EP UK Rethy K. Chhem, MD, PhD, FRCPC (Editor) Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry University of Western Ontario London Health Sciences Centre 339 Windermere Road London, Ontario N6A 5A5 Canada Richard N. Bohay, DMD, MSc, MRCD Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry University of Western Ontario London Health Sciences Centre 339 Windermere Road London, Ontario N6A 5A5 Canada Ethan M. Braunstein, MD Radiology Department Mayo Clinic Scottsdale 5777 East Mayo Boulevard AZ 8505 Phoenix Arizona, USA Donald J. Ortner, PhD Smithsonian Institution Washington 20560 District of Columbia, USA George Saab, MD, PhD Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry University of Western Ontario London Health Sciences Centre 339 Windermere Road London, Ontario N6A 5A5 Canada,

Chapter 1

Paleoradiology: History and New Developments Rethy K. Chhem

“… by far the greatest technical advance was made when radiology began to be used in the examination of anthropological and paleontological materials.” … “The Roentgenological examination, moreover, has the great advantage in that it permits the investigator to examine bones without destroying them and to inspect mummies without unwrapping them.” (Sigerist 1951) Paleoradiology is the study of bioarcheological materials using modern imaging methods, such as x-ray radiography, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and micro-CT. The first x-ray study of human and animal mummies was performed by Koenig in 1896 (Koenig 1896), but to the best of my knowledge, the terms “paleoradiology” and “paleoradiologist” were coined much later by Notman, a radiologist at the Park Nicollet Medical Center in Minneapolis, in his article in the American Journal of Roentgenology in 1987 (Notman et al. 1987). Although “paleoradiology” etymologically means “ancient radiology,” it is clear that when used within the context of paleopathology, the term defines without any confusion, the applications of x-ray tests to bioarcheological materials. Notman, in collaboration with a pathologist and an anthropologist from the University of Alberta, Canada, used radiographic investigation to study paleopathological lesions in two frozen sailors from the Franklin expedition (1845–1848) who perished in the Canadian arctic. As part of the investigation, Notman and his colleagues correlated the x-ray images of the two sailors with the results found at autopsy. Early publications on x-ray studies of mummies and skeletal remains include descriptive techniques, anatomy, and some of the paleopathology results. The development of paleoradiology has, to a large extent, been dependent on the parallel development of radiology and medical imaging technology. Unfortunately, for the last 100 years, the lack of input from radiologists, particularly those with expertise in skeletal pathology, has hampered the development of a sound scientific foundation for diagnostic methods to assist paleopathology studies.

The availability of CT scanners in the early 1970s and the ongoing development of CT methods in the subsequent decades provided better visualization of the anatomy and of paleopathological lesions in mummies and in ancient skeletal remains. At the present time, the newer generations of CT scanners with their three-dimensional (3D) and surface rendering capabilities can create a 3D face reconstruction, or whole-body reconstructions of mummies. These have become extremely useful for anthropological studies museum displays and have attracted tremendous media attention. Despite these achievements, however, the role of CT in detecting ancient diseases is still not well established, largely due to a lack of clear diagnostic protocols. Most publications of CT deal with image acquisition of a whole body of a mummy, but without any tailored protocol designed to study a specific skeletal disease (O’Brien et al. 2007). This textbook is an attempt to lay these crucial foundations for the development of a scientific method for diagnostic paleoradiology, providing paleopathology studies with the structure to develop as an evidence-based discipline. This is the approach of the Paleoradiology Research Unit at the Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine within the Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario (Canada). This endeavor is facilitated by the presence of renowned experts in medical imaging science at the Robarts Research Institute, a private medical research institute affiliated with the University of Western Ontario and located within the university campus. Despite their laudable effort to acquire some radiological knowledge, many paleopathologists use what radiologists call “Aunt Minnie’s” approach, which is to compare x-rays of a specimen with radiological images from textbooks to establish the final diagnosis. This approach has led to many errors in the interpretation of x-ray images simply because most x-ray patterns are not specific and a thorough differential diagnosis has not been discussed. There is a widespread belief that radiologists who interpret x-rays of dry bone specimens are prone to mistakes because of the lack of understanding of ta-

1



Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments

phonomic changes. This is, in my opinion, a logical fallacy, as once radiologists are made aware of these pitfalls, they will be integrated within the differential diagnosis of authentic paleopathological lesions. Who better to study disease than those who are intimately involved in its diagnosis? Therefore, the main reason for underdevelopment of paleoradiology is most likely that the paths of anthropologists and radiologists rarely cross. Bringing experts from these two separate scientific fields would, without any doubt, allow the establishment of evidence-based paleopathology. This kind of close collaboration between clinical radiologists, medical imaging scientists, anatomists, pathologists, and bioanthropologists has allowed an intense cross-fertilization of ideas and forms a very strong interdisciplinary approach for the development of scientific paleoradiology and paleopathology disciplines at the University of Western Ontario. The imaging facility at Robarts Research Institute, in particular, has some of the most advanced medical imaging technology available, including multislice CT, micro-CT, high-field MRI, and magnetic resonance (MR) spectroscopy, all of which are useful for enhancing paleoradiological studies. This chapter reviews the history and development of paleoradiology from its pioneering years to the present, when advanced medical imaging technology is used to investigate biological materials from archeological settings. The most recent developments of methods in paleoradiology are also reviewed, using the anatomical-clinical model (Boyer et al. 2003; Chhem 2006; Chhem and Ruhli 2004; Chhem et al. 2004), together with a radiological–pathological correlation model (Chhem et al. 2006; Notman et al. 1987). Radiological–pathological methods, as used in the clinical setting, are essential for a rational and objective interpretation of radiological findings in paleopathology, while keeping in mind any pitfalls caused by taphonomic changes. Finally, we describe the ongoing advanced imaging investigation being carried out by our Paleoradiology Research Unit on some unique materials from the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM). The ROM has allowed members of our team access to its rare and precious collection of Egyptian mummies, among them the famous 3200-year-old mummified brain of Nakht, for which the first historical CT scans were performed on September 27, 1976.

rays by Roentgen in November 1895, but well before the official establishment of radiology as a medical specialty, x-ray study was used for nonmedical purposes to evaluate mummies of both humans and other animals, as well as to image ancient skeletal remains and hominid fossils (Böni et al. 2004; Koenig 1896) (Fig. 1.2). These studies were carried out primarily in Europe and in the USA (Albers-Schoenberg 1904; Culin 1898; Dedekin 1896; Eder and Valenta 1896; Elliot Smith 1912; Gardiner 1904; Gocht 1911; GorjanovicKramberger 1902; Holland 1937; Koenig 1896; Londe 1897; Petrie 1898; Salomon 1921) (Figs. 1.3–1.5). In those early stages of x-ray technical development, radiological studies were performed on mummies for several reasons. X-ray images of the contents and the wrapping often were taken to distinguish authentic mummies from fakes, to evaluate the bone age, to detect skeletal diseases, and to search for burial goods. The most common geographic origins of mummies were Egypt and Peru, which served as materials for the first monography of paleoradiology that was published in 1930 (Moodie 1930) (Fig. 1.6). Occasionally, an x-ray study was performed to evaluate bones and

1.1 Paleoradiography The first documented paleopathological studies were recorded more that two centuries ago (Esper 1774) (Fig. 1.1). Much later, soon after the discovery of x-

Fig. 1.1.  Cover page of the first book on paleopathology

1.1  Paleoradiography Fig. 1.2.  a Koenig: Radiography of an Egyptian human mummy (1896). Reprinted with permission from Thieme, New York. b Koenig: Radiography of an Egyptian cat (1896). Reprinted with permission from Thieme New York

a

b

Fig. 1.3.  a Londe: Mummy’s forearm (1897). b Londe: Radiography of a mummy’s forearm

a

b

teeth in paleolithic human fossils (Gorjanovic-Kramberger 1902). These early x-ray studies and results were published in French, German, or English in diverse scholarly journals (Böni 2004). A historical review of the literature published within the first 25 years after the discovery of x-rays by Roentgen showed that paleoradiological studies were

conducted by scientists from diverse backgrounds, including physicians and physicists, simply because there were no “radiologists” trained yet at that stage of x-ray development. For more information on this subject, a good source is Böni and his colleagues, who published a general review of the early history of paleoradiology (Böni et al. 2004) (Table 1.1).





Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments Fig 1.4.  a Londe: Fake mummy (1897). b Londe: Fake mummy

a

b

Fig. 1.5  Petrie: Radiography of the lower leg of a mummy (1898)

Fig. 1.6  Cover first book on x-ray study of mummies. Reprinted with permission from Field Museum Press, Fieldiana

1.2  Paleoradiology of Royal Egyptian Mummies Table 1.1.  Early paleoradiology studies of mummies/skeletal remains/fossils Author

Year

Study subject

Site

Koenig

1896

Human and cat mummies

Frankfurt, Germany

Holland

1896

Bird mummy

Liverpool, UK

Dedekind

1896/97

Egyptian mummies

Vienna, Austria

Londe

1897

Egyptian mummies Fake mummy

Paris, France

Leonard

1898

Peruvian mummies

Philadelphia, USA

Petrie

1898

Egyptian mummies

London, UK

Gorjanovic-Kramberger

1901

Hominid fossil

Vienna, Austria

Gardiner

1904

Egyptian mummies

London, UK

Albers-Schoenberg

1905

Egyptian mummies

Hamburg, Germany

Elliot Smith

1912

Egyptian mummies

Cairo, Egypt

Salomon

1921

Peruvian mummy

Berlin, Germany

1.2 Paleoradiology of Royal Egyptian Mummies

Table 1.2.  Published x-ray studies on Egyptian royal mummies

Because there is a widespread public and academic fascination with Egyptology, this section gives a detailed review of the history of paleoradiology of the royal Egyptian mummies, which has helped to shed light on the lives of ancient Egyptian rulers. The following section is a review of the literature related to the paleoradiology of royal Egyptian mummies (Chhem 2007) (Table 1.2). 1.2.1 1912 Thoutmosis IV The first x-ray study of a royal Egyptian mummy was performed on Thoutmosis IV in 1903 by Dr. Khayat, an Egyptian radiologist. Thoutmosis IV was the 8th Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled from 1400 to 1390 BC. The x-ray study provided the following information: “…The left ilium (which was exposed in the embalming-incision) and the upper of the tibia (exposed in the broken right leg) was made, and other parts of the body were examined by means of the Roentgenrays” (Elliot Smith 1912, p 44). “The epiphysis of the crest of the ilium was in process of union being united in the front but still free behind. This seemed to indicate that the body was that of a man of not more than 25 years…...in Piersol’s Human Anatomy, which was published three years after (in 1907) my report on

Thoutmosis IV

1912 Elliot-Smith

Amenophis I

1933 Derry

Ramesses II

1976 Bucaille et al.a 1979 Massarea 1985 Bard et al. 2004 Chhem et al.a

Tutankhamun

1971 Harrisona 1972 Harrison and Abdallaa 1976 Bucaille et al.a 2003 Boyer et al.a 2006 Shafik et al.b

Royal mummies

1972 Harris and Weeks 1980 Harris and Wente 1988 Braunstein et al.a

a 

Peer-reviewed journals Abstract

b 

this mummy was written…” (Elliot Smith 1912, p 44). “In the skiagrams of this mummy, which were taken by Dr. Khayat in 1903, the epiphysis of the vertebral border of the scapula appears to be separate….but so far as it goes appearances support the low estimate of age, even if we accept Testut’s date for the union of this epiphysis, …..and thereby extend the limit to 28 years. Judging from the texture of the bones as revealed by the x-rays, one would be inclined to admit that Thoutmosis IV might possibly have been even older than this.” (Elliot Smith 1912, p 45).





Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments

1.2.2 1933 Amenophis I Amenophis I (also known as Amenhotep I) was the 2nd Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, who is generally thought to have ruled for 20 years between 1526 and 1506 BC. His mummy was found by Victor Loret in 1898 in the Deir el-Bahri cache in the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut in the Valley of the Kings. An x-ray study was done at the Cairo Museum on Saturday January 30, Tuesday February 2nd, and Thursday February 4th, 1932, after removal of the mummy from the coffin and cartonnage. Dr. Douglas Derry used x-ray findings to assess the age of the mummy: “The body proved to be that of an adult man. It is not possible to assign an age, except to say that all epiphyses are completely united and he is therefore above 25 years of age. So far as the teeth could be seen, they would were not unduly worn, nor are there any signs indicating advanced age such as loss of teeth or rarefaction of any of the bones, so that this king may have been about 40–50 years of age” (Derry 1933, p 47). In his further evaluation of the x-ray study, Derry reported the following findings. “The cranial cavity appears to contain a diffuse mass, but whether this is the remains of the brain and membranes or whether it represents linen packing introduced by way of the nose, cannot be definitely decided, as the photographs do not show the condition of the ethmoid” (Derry 1933, pp 46–47). “The body has suffered considerable damage probably at the hands of the thieves. The right arm is bent at the elbow and the forearm is lying across the abdomen. There is a small amulet on the middle of the right arm, and towards the lower end of the arm there are two or three beads…”. “The body cavity both chest and abdomen probably contains linen package” (Derry 1933, p 48). 1.2.3 1965 Royal Mummy Collection In the spring of 1965, a team from the University of Michigan, in collaboration with Alexandria University in Egypt, was invited to undertake a paleoradiological study of skulls of ancient Nubian populations who lived near the Nile River. The Michigan project focused mostly on craniofacial variation studies. The radiological equipment used included a portable xray cephalometer using ytterbium-169 isotope with a half-life of 32.5 days, which allowed the equipment to be totally independent of a power source. Following this first Nubian project, the Egyptian Department of Antiquities invited the same team, led by Dr. James E. Harris, Chairman of the Department of Orthodontics at the University of Michigan, to

conduct an x-ray survey of the royal mummy collection of the Egyptian Museum. The project started in December 1967 with a radiographic study limited to the royal mummies’ skulls. At that time, x-ray images of mummies were taken while they were still lying within their glass cases, to prevent any possible damage. However, the glass was found to contain lead, which severely degraded the images. In 1968, permission was given to remove the glass cases so that the mummies could be x-rayed in their wooden coffins, which resulted in far fewer artifacts than those caused by the glass cases. At this time the ytterbium source was replaced by a conventional x-ray machine using 90 kV, and, in addition to skull studies, a whole-body radiographic evaluation of the complete collection of royal mummies from the middle kingdom to the Roman period was performed. The standard x-ray protocol included lateral and frontal views of the skull, the thorax, the pelvis, and the lower limbs. The data obtained during those multiple expeditions to Egypt form the basis of the publication of the Atlas of Royal Mummies by Harris and Wente (1980). The Atlas focused primarily on craniofacial variations and dental malocclusion, understandably, as the analysis of the data was conducted by a team of academic dental surgeons. The main limitation of this study was the lack of a specific x-ray protocol designed to study specific skeletal regions, as whole-body radiography was obtained for the survey. In lieu of a thorough analysis of x-ray data, apart from the study of craniofacial variations, there was a limited radiological inventory made available to potential mummy scientists, which was described in the preface of the Atlas. The preface stated that the reader was provided with “copies of x-rays from which he may draw his own conclusions and interpretations” (Harris and Wente 1980). This approach, although laudable, did not offer appropriate x-ray data for a paleopathological study of any of the royal Egyptian mummies. In addition, these data were not validated in the peer-reviewed literature until 1988 when 12 royal mummies were selected for paleopathological studies using x-rays as methods for disease detection (Braunstein et al. 1988). However, in 1973 the data were collated in a scholarly textbook, which became generally popular. Interestingly, this book entitled “X-raying the Pharaohs” (Harris and Weeks 1973) shed light on the context in which the radiological study of royal mummies was conducted, as revealed in the following quotes. “We arrived at the museum each morning at 9 o’clock and, after signing the guard’s register, proceeded upstairs to Gallery 52 where the mummies were displayed. While some of the staff began the task of setting the x-ray unit on its tripod, adjusting the transformers, and loading the film cassettes, two of

1.2  Paleoradiology of Royal Egyptian Mummies

us would decide on the mummies to be x-rayed that day. After a museum official and a guard arrived to oversee the work, the museum riggers would take one of the huge display cases, slide it into a narrow passage in the crowded room, and remove the leaded glass lid. Inside, the pharaoh lay in a solid oak coffin, covered with linen……..”. “The x-rays were taken, usually six to eight of each mummy, and the films rushed to a make-shift darkroom in a nearby hotel for developing. If they were acceptable, the workmen carefully returned the mummy to its case, sealed it, and prepared to bring another pharaoh to the unit. It was slow work and the average was four mummies a day…….”. “During the third season, a complete set of headto-toe x-rays of each of the royal mummies was obtained. Some revealed important material for physicians and Egyptologists – information on pathological conditions, artifacts, and unusual techniques of mummification……” “The expedition was confronted by two problems that first season. There was only a short time left after the problems of moving equipment from Aswan, and only frontal and lateral x-rays of the pharaohs’ heads were obtained. Head-to-toe x-rays would have been preferable, since many of the mummies had never been unwrapped and held the possibility of revealing pathological conditions and, perhaps, artifacts. More importantly, the museum staff was justifiably concerned about the mummies, which, after 3000 years, were in fragile condition, and they asked that the x-raying be done through the glass display cases and no attempt be made to move the mummies about. This added greatly to the exposure time necessary to obtain prints, and, after several tests, it was discovered that the glass used in the cases was leaded. The x-rays penetrated with 3- to 5-minute exposures, but the resulting prints were generally foggy and lacking detail…….” “In spite of the rather poor quality of the prints, everything went smoothly. The members of the expedition did not disrupt the work of the museum, nothing was damaged, and even the foggy x-rays proved interesting. The director of the museum, Henry Riad, realizing the problems the leaded glass cases had caused, and pleased with the results, invited the expedition to return the following year, when, he promised, the cases could be opened and clearer x-rays made” (Harris and Weeks 1973). 1.2.4 1968 Tutankhamun The almost intact tomb of this young Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty was found by Howard Carter’s team

in 1922 in the Valley of the Kings. In 1968, a team led by R.G. Harrison was granted permission to xray the mummy. Because the permission to remove the mummy from the tomb to Luxor hospital was not granted, an old portable x-ray machine (manufactured in 1930) was used. Parameters for exposure were selected based on a trial-and-error approach, and a set of test films was developed in a bathroom of the Winter Palace Hotel in Luxor. Once the quality of test films become acceptable, the rest of the x-rays films were sent to Liverpool for development. Radiography of the skull provided information about the teeth that allowed an estimation of the age of Tutankhamun at between 18 and 22 years, although x-rays of the limbs also allowed an estimation of bone age, which suggested the age at death was 18 years. Radiographs of the thorax showed that he had not died of tuberculosis. Radiography of the abdomen and pelvis demonstrated mummification materials, but no evidence of any diseases. Finally, the estimation of the height based on measurements of the x-ray of the limbs showed that Tutankhamun’s stature was 5 ft 6 in. Radiography of the skull also showed two bony fragments in the skull cavity. The first may come from the ethmoid, but in a publication in 1971, Harrison stated that: “This piece of bone is fused with the overlying skull and this could be consistent with a depressed fracture, which has healed. This could mean that Tutankhamun died of a brain hemorrhage caused by a blow to his skull from a blunt instrument” (Harrison 1971). Using these same set of x-rays of the skull, Boyer et al. have more recently dismissed this murder hypothesis, because a review of skull and cervical xrays did not bring any convincing evidence to support proposed “theories of a traumatic or homicidal death” (Boyer et al. 2003). A recent CT study (Shafik et al. 2006) confirmed the radiological results by Boyer et al. that had already demonstrated post-mortem fracture of Tutankhamun’s skull, overturning the homicide theory of the king. It took almost 30 years to correct an erroneous medical diagnosis caused by poor interpretation of simple skull x-rays (Boyer et al. 2003; Harrison 1971). This is yet another example of the importance of having x-rays of mummies read and interpreted by an expert in the field, who in this instance would be a trained pediatric radiologist (Boyer et al. 2003). 1.2.5 1976 Ramesses II Ramesses II, the third Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty, ruled from around 1279 to 1213 BC. His original tomb was in the Valley of the Kings, but his mummy





Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments

was moved to Deir el-Bahri, where it was discovered in 1881. More recently, on the recommendation of Dr. Bucaille, a French surgeon, the mummy of Ramesses II was sent to France for scientific study and arrived in Paris in September 26, 1976 (1 day later, the world’s first CT of a mummy was performed in Toronto, Canada) and was returned to Cairo on May 10, 1977. Before its trip to Paris, this mummy was x-rayed in early 1976 in Cairo by Bucaille and his collaborators. The results of that study were presented at the annual meeting of the “Société Française de Radiologie in Paris April 26, 1976 (Bucaille et al. 1976). The mummy of Ramesses II was again radiographed at the Musée de l’Homme in Paris and the results were published in a monograph almost a decade later in 1985 (Bard et al. 1985). A xeroradiographic study of the mummy of Ramesses II was also carried out on December 20, 1976 and the results published in Brussels in French (Massare 1979) (Fig. 1.7). Massare, the sole author of the paper, claimed that Ramesses II suffered from ankylosing spondylitis, but in 2004 this diagnosis of spinal inflammatory disease was refuted by Chhem and his colleagues, based on a study of unpublished and limited x-ray materials provided by Fauré, one of the three radiologists involved in x-raying and interpreting the films in 1976 at the Musée de l’Homme in Paris. Chhem’s alternative diagnosis was a diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (Chhem et al. 2004). CT of the spine and sacroiliac joints would represent the gold standard with which to validate the diagnosis of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis as established by this limited set of x-ray studies. Beyond spi-

nal disease, the x-ray study shows other findings such as calcification of the intracranial carotid arteries, periodontal abscesses, and a rotator cuff arthropathy (Bard et al. 1985; Massare 1979).

Fig. 1.7.  Ramesses II. Xeroradiography, lateral skull and upper cervical spine (courtesy of Dr. Massare)

Fig. 1.8.  First computed tomography (CT) of a mummified Egyptian brain (from ICRS Medical Science 1977)

1.3 Paleo-CT CT also uses x-rays, but records many images from different angles that are stacked together to show cross-sections of body tissues and organs. CT can provide much more detailed information than x-ray films, giving images of soft tissues and blood vessels as well as bone. In August 1974, two cerebral hemispheres were retrieved from an autopsy performed at the Medical Science Building at the University of Toronto, by an international multidisciplinary team sponsored by the Academy of Medicine, the University of Toronto, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, and the Paleopathology Association in Detroit, Michigan (Hart et al. 1977). The first CT scan of Egyptian mummy material was performed on September 27, 1976 at the Hospital of Sick Children in Toronto on the preserved and desiccated brain of Nakht, a 14year-old weaver who died 3200 years ago in Egypt (Lewin and Harwood-Nash 1977a, b) (Fig. 1.8). A CT study of another Egyptian mummy (Djemaetesankh) was also performed from head to the hips (Harwood-Nash 1979). During the same period, the mummy of the famous Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II was sent for a scientific investigation at the Musée de L’Homme, Paris. X-rays and xeroradiography studies were conducted by a French team of three radiologists: Drs. M. Bard, C. Fauré, and C. Massare. However, no CT investigation was performed during this project, which was begun in 1976, but during the same period, a mummy’s brain and another mummy

1.4  Paleo-MRI

were evaluated by CT in Toronto. The French team had missed a historical opportunity and the Toronto team became the first in the world to perform a CT scan of Egyptian mummies. The CT investigation included not only the study of a naturally mummified brain, but also whole-body imaging of the mummy. CT helps to assess not only the mummy’s anatomy without the need of unwrapping, but also in the detection of amulets or paleopathological lesions. As the Toronto team used a first-generation CT scanner, the image resolution was poor. The overall morphology of the cerebral hemispheres and the ventricular outline were identified, the demarcation between the white and grey matters was faint, and a few post-mortem lacunae were identified. The thickness of each slice was 12 mm (Harwood-Nash 1979).

From this pioneering work to the current period, CT has been used to investigate many other mummies. Also, as CT technology has developed over time, the applications have expanded considerably (Table 1.3). More recently, micro-CT has been used to investigate mummy’s materials (Fig. 1.10) and fossils (Chhem 2006; McErlain et al. 2004). Note that CT and micro-CT have been used on many bioarcheological materials other than mummies and skeletal remains. Although this subject is beyond the scope of this chapter, there are other sources for this information (Hohenstein 2004; McErlaine et al. 2004; Van Kaik and Delorme 2005).

1.4 Paleo-MRI Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides very detailed anatomical images of organs and tissues throughout the body without using x-rays, but MRI works by magnetizing the protons of the water mol-

Table 1.3.  A 30-year-history of advanced medical imaging of mummies: milestones

a

a Fig. 1.9.  a CT head. b CT abdomen. Both reprinted with permission from Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins

Author

Year

Study subject

Lewin and Harwood-Nash

1977

CT mummy’s brain (Nakht)-September 27, 1976

Harwood-Nash

1979

CT mummy’s brain and whole-body

Marx and D’Auria

1988

3D Skull/Face

Magid et al.

1989

3D Entire skeleton

Nedden et al.

1994

CT Guided Stereolithography Head

Yardley and Rutka

1997

CT ENT (ear-nose)

Melcher et al.

1997

CT dentition-3D

Ciranni et al.

2002

CT skeleton/handtailored for arthritis

Hoffman et al.

2002

3D/Virtual fly-through “endoscopy”

Ruhli et al.

2002

CT-guided biopsy

Cesareni et al.

2003

3D-Virtual removal of wrapping

McErlain et al.

2007

Micro-CT of mummy’s brain (Nakht)

Karlik et al.

2007

MR imaging and MR spectroscopy of mummy’s brain (Nakht)



10

Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments Fig. 1.10.  a Micro-CT of Nakht’s brain. b Micro-CT of Nakht’s brain with maximum intensity projection

a

b

ecules within the body. As mummies are generally desiccated, MRI usually is not an efficient method to obtain the best images. Despite this, a few attempts were made in the early 1980s to investigate mummies using MRI. On July 23, 1983, an Egyptian mummy from the Minneapolis Institute of Arts was transported by a private jet to St Mary’s Hospital, Rochester, Minnesota (USA) for MRI and CT studies. A body coil was used consisting of two saddle coils. Several sequences were carried out, including spin echo, inversion recovery, and free induction decay. Despite the diversity of pulse sequences used, it proved impossible to obtain an MRI signal or image (Notman et al. 1986). On June 21, 1991, another Egyptian mummy from the Egyptian Gallery of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Hospitals was submitted for an MRI examination. Once again, no MRI images could be produced. MRI study has also been attempted in Minneapolis, Buffalo, and other medical centers with little success (Kircos and Teeter 1991). The first successful MRI study of mummies was conducted by Piepenbrink et al. at the University of Goettingen Institute of Anthropology in 1986. However, to obtain the image of a foot of a Peruvian child mummy, the authors rehydrated the samples with 20% aqueous solution of acetone for 18 days (Piepenbrink et al. 1986). This invasive method would not be approved by many museum curators, for whom the preservation of fragile and precious, mummified material is of utmost importance. The first successful MRI study of an ancient brain was actually performed in 1986 using a 0.15-T resistive magnet unit (Doran et al. 1986). The 8000year-old brain was recovered from a swampy pond in Central Florida. MRI was possible because the brain was preserved in an aqueous environment. This MRI

study allowed the identification of several anatomical structures, such as the occipital and frontal lobes, the cingulate gyrus, and the lateral ventricles. However, no MRI study of a desiccated mummy’s brain had ever been conducted in the past until May 24, 2006, when the paleoradiological team of the Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Western Ontario obtained both MR images (Fig. 1.11) and spectra of a desiccated 3200-year-old brain from a 15-year-old Egyptian male (Karlik et al. 2007). This technological achievement may warrant the replacement of the term “paleoradiology” by “paleoimaging,” although, given the underdevelopment of paleoradiology and the rarity and limitations of MRI study of bioarcheological materials, it might be wise to stick to “paleoradiology,” at least for now.

1.5 Paleoradiology and Clinical Radiology: Historical Development The use of x-rays dramatically expanded after their discovery by Roentgen in 1895. In 1897, Walsh published a book on the role of Roentgen rays in medical work, discussing the diagnostic possibility offered by x-rays in detecting diseases of bone including trauma, infection, tumor, congenital diseases, and rheumatoid arthritis. The first edition was followed by three others soon after. In the same period, a textbook focusing exclusively on “Disease in Bone and its Detection by X-rays” was written by W.H. Shenton in London, UK (Shelton 1911). This small didactic book described with great detail the radiographic findings in inflammatory bone diseases, tuberculosis, osteoarthritis, tumor, and osteomalacia. In the USA, Leon-

1.5  Paleoradiology and Clinical Radiology: Historical Development Fig. 1.11.  Magnetic resonance imaging of Nakht’s brain

ard of Philadelphia acknowledged that “the advent of the Roentgen method into the diagnosis of fractures has created the highest standard by which the results obtained in the treatment of fracture must be judged” (cited by Walsh 1907, p 186). Golding Bert urged “that radiography should be regarded as a subsidiary agent to diagnosis, and its evidence in cases of doubt and difficulty should be received with caution, and only after due interpretation by someone whose experience warrants his speaking with authority” (cited by Walsh 1907, p 198). Skiagraphy was coined in April 1896 by a 24-year-old medical student, Sydney D. Rowland, who served as editor of the world’s first radiological journal called “Archives of Clinical Skiagraphy,” which was devoted to new photography in medicine and surgery. In the preface of that first journal on radiology, Rowland wrote: “the object of this publication is to put on record in permanent form, some of the most striking applications of the new photography to the needs of medicine and surgery. The progress of this new Art has been so rapid that, although Prof. Roentgen’s discovery is only a thing of yesterday, it has already taken its place among the approved and accepted aids to diagnosis…the first essays were of a rough and ready character; week after week, however, improvements have been made in the practical applications of the Art which I venture to call skiagraphy; and, at the present time, we are in the

position to obtain a visible image of every bone and joint in the body…” (Burrows 1986). This brief review of the literature on radiology in the early phase of development of x-ray technology shows there was a considerable corpus of literature on radiology of bone pathology, indicating the availability of radiological expertise that paleopathologists could have used to enhance their attempts to detect skeletal lesions in mummies or dry bone specimens from archeological settings. The lack of actual interaction between radiologists and anthropologists/paleopathologists still plagues the methods and practice of paleopathology 100 years after the discovery of x-rays by Roentgen. One hundred and ten years after the first x-ray study of bioarcheological material performed by Koenig on a human and an animal Egyptian mummy, and despite the publication of paleoradiological articles in numerous and diverse scientific journals, there is still no single didactic paleoradiology book available to teach both the method and diagnostic approach of this discipline. Hence our endeavor to produce this book to fill this gap. Although Harris et al. published two unique books on x-ray studies of royal Egyptian mummies, their purpose was not to teach paleoradiology, but instead to offer a kind of radiographic database of mummies for researchers in the field of Egyptology and mummy science (Harris and Weeks 1973; Harris and

11

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Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments

Wente 1980). The Atlas of Egyptian and Peruvian Mummies, which was published by Moodie using the material from the Field Museum, Chicago, was the first book exclusively dedicated to x-rays of mummies (Moodie 1930). Again, the purpose of this atlas was to offer an inventory of human and animal mummies from the museum collection. The two classic textbooks on paleopathology (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998; Ortner 2003) contain a collection of ancient skeletal materials with pathologic lesions. However, x-ray images represent less than 5–10% of the total number of illustrations contained in these textbooks. Of all textbooks published on paleopathology, only one offers a didactic approach to diseases in the ancient skeleton using the “medical diagnosis” paradigm, which is that published by R.T. Steinbock in 1976 (Steinbock 1976). Finally, after a review of the historical development of radiology for the last 100 years, we can define paleoradiology as a method that is used to investigate mummies and ancient skeletal remains. There is still the potential to expand the discipline to include the radiological exploration of other biological materials such as botanical fossils. According to Chhem (2006) paleoradiology can be divided into two main domains: anatomical paleoradiology, which covers morphological study and is useful for mummies and hominid fossils, and diagnostic paleoradiology. Borrowing from Ruffer’s definition for paleopathology (Ruffer 1921), I would state that “diagnostic paleoradiology can be defined as the science of radiological detection of diseases, which can be demonstrated in human and animal remains of ancient time.” From this historical review, there is a need to make paleoradiology a more formal scientific discipline defined by sound methodology that should not be confused with techniques (Louiseau-Williams 2002), such as radiography, CT, micro -CT), or postprocessing of images such as 3D-surface-rendering. According to Louiseau-Williams, method is “the mode of argument that a researcher uses to reach explanatory statements.” Lack of methodology, or at best weak methodology in paleoradiology has led to much confusion in this discipline for the last 100 years since its origin and early development. Considering this historical background, our book calls for increased collaboration between radiologists, paleopathologists and bioarcheologists, as well as other basic scientists in order to establish a solid evidence-based study of ancient human, other animal, and plant remains.

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Aufderheide AC, Rodriguez-Martin C (1998) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Pathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Bard M, Fauré C, Massare C (1985) Etude radiologique. In: Balout L, Rouet C (eds) La Momie de Ramses II. Edition Recherche Sur les Civilizations, Paris, pp 68–75 Böni T, Ruhli FJ, Chhem RK (2004) History of paleoradiology: early published literature, 1896–1921. Can Assoc Radiol J 55:203–210 Boyer RS, Rodin EA Grey TC, Connoly RC (2003) The skull and cervical spine radiographs of Tutankhamen: a critical appraisal. Am J Neuroradiol 24:1142–1147 Braunstein EM, White SJ, Russell W, Harris JE (1988) Paleoradiologic evaluation of the Egyptian royal mummies. Skeletal Radiol 17:348–352 Bucaille M, Kassem K, Meligy RL, Manialawiy M, Ramsiys A, Fauré C (1976) Interêt actuel de l’étude radiologique des momies pharaoniques. Ann Radiol 19:5, 475–480 Burrows EH (1986) Pioneers and early years: a history of British radiology. Colophon, Alderney Chhem RK (2006) Paleoradiology: imaging disease in mummies and ancient skeletons. Skeletal Radiol 35:803–804 Chhem RK (2007) Paleoradiological studies of Royal Egyptian mummies: history, development and future challenges. Abstract, VI World Congress on Mummy Studies, 20–24 February, Lanzarote Chhem RK, Ruhli FJ (2004) Paleoradiology: current status and future challenges. Can Assoc Radiol J 55:198–199 Chhem RC, Schmit P, Fauré C (2004) Did Ramesses II have ankylosing spondylitis? A reappraisal. Can Assoc Radiol J 55:211–217 Chhem RK, Woo JKH, Pakkiri P, Stewart E, Romagnoli C, Garcia B (2006) CT imaging of wet specimens from a pathology museum: how to build a “virtual museum” for radiopathological correlation teaching. HOMO J Comp Hum Biol 57:201–208 Ciranni R, Garbini F, Neri E, Melai L, Giusti L, Fornaciari G (2002) The “Braids Lady” of Arezzo: a case of rheumatoid arthritis in a 16th century mummy. Clin Exp Rheumatol 20:745–752 Culin S (1898) An archaeological application of the Roentgen rays. Bulletin of the Free Museum of Science Department of Archaeology and Palaeontology, University of Pennsylvania 4:182–183 Dedekind A (1896) A novel use for the Roentgen rays. Br J Photogr 131 Derry DE (1933) An X-ray examination of the mummy of King Amenophis I. Trans ASAE 34:47–48 Doran GH, Dickel DN, Ballinger Jr WE, Agee OF, Laipis PJ, Hauswirth WW (1986) Anatomical, cellular and molecular analysis of a 8000-yr-old human brain tissue from the Windover arcaheological site. Nature 323:803–806 Eder JNL, Valenta E (1896) Versuche ueber Photographie mittlest der Roentgen’schen Strahlen von Regierungsrath Dr. J.M. Eder und E. Valenta. Herausgegeben mit Genehmigung des k. k. Ministeriums für Cultus und Unterricht von der k. k. Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt für Photographie und Reproductions-Verfahren, Wien. R. Luchner (W. Mueller), Wien Elliot Smith G (1912) The Royal Mummies. Catalogue General des Antiquites Egyptiennes du Musée du Caire, 1912. L’Ins-

  References titut Français d’Archeologie Orientale, Le Caire. Reprinted in 2000, Duckworth, London Esper JF (1774) Description des Zoolites Nouvellement Découvertes d’Animaux Quadrupedes Inconnus et des Cavernes qui les Renferment de Même que de Plusieurs Autres Grottes Remarquables qui se Trouvent dans le Margraviat de Bareith au Delà des Monts. (Translated from German by Isenflamm JF) Nuremberg, Knorr GW, 1774 Gardiner JH (1904) Radiographien von Mumien. The London Roentgen Society. 7. IV. Fortschr a. d. Gebiet der Roentgenstr 7:133 Gocht H (1911) Die Roentgen-Literatur. Zugleich An hang z Gochts Handbuch der Roentgen-Lehre. F. Enke, Stuttgart Gorjanovic-Kramberger K (1901, 1902) Der palaeolithische Mensch und seine Zeitgenossen aus dem Diluvium von Krapina in Kroatien. Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien 1901, 31:164–97 (4 plates); 1902, 32:189–216 (4 plates) Harris JE, Weeks KR (1973) X-raying the Pharaohs. Charles Scribner, New York Harris JE, Wente EF (1980) An X-ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies. University of Chicago University Press, Chicago Harrison RG (1971) Post mortem on two pharaohs: was Tutankhamen’s skull fractured? Buried History 4:114–129 Harrison RG, Abdalla AB (1972) The remains of Tutankhamun. Antiquity XLVI:8–18 Hart GD, Cockburn A, Millet NB, Scott JW (1977) Autopsy of an Egyptian Mummy, Can Med Assoc J 117:1–10 Harwood-Nash DC (1979) Computed tomography of ancient Egyptian mummies, J Comput Assist Tomogr 3:768–773 Hoffman H, Torres WE, Ernst RD (2002) Paleoradiology: advanced CT in the evaluation of nine Egyptian mummies. Radiographics 22:377–385 Hohenstein P (2004) X-ray imaging for palaeontology. Br J Radiol 77:420–425 Holland T (1937) X-rays in 1896. Liverpool Medico-Chir J 45:61 Karlik SJ, Bartha R, Kennedy K, Chhem RK (2007) MRI and multinuclear NMR spectroscopy of a 3200 year old Egyptian mummy brain. Am J Roentgenol (in press) Kircos LT, Teeter E (1991) Studying the mummy of Petosiris: a preliminary report. News Notes Orient Inst 131:1–6 Koenig W (1896) 14 Photographien von Roentgen-Strahlen aufgenommen im Physikalischen Verein zu Frankfurt a. M. Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth Lewin PK, Harwood-Nash DC (1977a) X-ray computed axial tomography of an ancient Egyptian brain. ICRS Med Sci 5:78 Lewin PK, Harwood-Nash DC (1977b) Computerized axial tomography in medical archaeology. Paleopathol Newsl 17:8–9 Londe A (1897) Les rayons Roentgen et les momies. La Nature 25:103–105 Louiseau-Williams D (2002) The Mind in the Cave. Thames and Hudson, London Magid D, Bryan BM, Drebin RA, Ney D, Fishman EK (1989) Three-dimensional imaging of an Egyptian mummy. Clin Imag 13:239–240 Marx M, D’Auria SH (1988) Three-dimensional CT reconstructions of an ancient human Egyptian mummy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 150:147–149

Massare C (1979) Anatomo-radiologie et vérité historique : a propos du bilan xéroradiographique de Ramsès II. Bruxelles-Medical 59:163–170 McErlain DD, Chhem RK, Bohay RN, Holdsworth DW (2004) Micro-computed tomography of a 500-year-old tooth: technical note. Can Assoc Radiol J 55:242–245 McErlain DD, Chhem RK, Granton P, Leung A, Nelson A, White C, Holdsworth D (2007) Micro-computed tomography imaging of an Egyptian mummy brain. Abstract, VI World Congress on Mummy Studies, 20–24 February, Lanzarote Melcher AH, Holowka S, Pharoah M, Lewin PK (1997) Noninvasive computed tomography and three-dimensional reconstruction of the dentition of a 2,800-year-old Egyptian mummy exhibiting extensive dental disease. Am J Phys Anthropol 103:329–340 Moodie RL (1930) Roentgenologic studies of Egyptian and Peruvian mummies. In: Laufer B (ed) Anthropology Memoirs of the Field Museum, Vol III. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago Nedden DZ, Knapp R, Wicke K, Judmaier W, Murphy WA Jr, Seidler H, Platzer W (1994) Skull of a 5300-year-old mummy: reproduction and investigation with CT-guided stereolithography. Radiology 193:269–272 Notman DN, Anderson L, Beattie OB, Amy R (1987) Arctic paleoradiology: portable radiographic examination of two frozen sailors from the Franklin expedition (1845–1848). Am J Roentgenol 149:347–350 Notman NH, Tashjian J, Aufderheide AC, Cass OW, Shane OC III, Berquist TH, Gedgaudas E (1986) Modern imaging and endoscopic biopsy techniques in Egyptian mummies. Am J Roentgenol 146:93–96 O’Brien J, Battista J, Romagnoli C, Chhem RK (2007) CT imaging of human mummies: a critical review of the literature (1979–2005). Abstract, VI World Congress on Mummy Studies, 20–24 February, Lanzarote Ortner DG (2003) Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains, 2nd edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam Petrie WMF (1898) Deshasheh, 1897. Fifteen Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund. The Offices of the Egypt Exploration Fund, London Piepenbrink H, Frahm J, Haase A, Matthaei D (1986) Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging of mummified corpses. Am J Phys Anthropol 70:27–28 Ruffer MA (1921) Studies of Paleopathology of Egypt. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Ruhli FJ, Hodler J, Böni T (2002) Technical note: CT-guided biopsy: a new diagnostic method for paleopathological research. Am J Phys Anthropol 117:272–275 Salomon F (1921) Roentgenbild eines peruanischen Mumientiels. Fortschr Roentgenstr 28:309–310 Shafik M, Selim A, Eisheik E, Abdel Fattah S, Amer H, Hawas Z (2006) The first multidetector CT study of royal mummy: King Tutankhamen. Abstract, Radiological Society of North America, Nov 26–Dec 1, 2006 Shenton WH (1911) Disease in Bone and its Detection by XRays. MacMillan, London Sigerist HE (1951) A History of Medicine. Oxford University Press, New York

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Chapter 1  Paleoradiology: History and New Developments Steinbock RT (1976) Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Populations. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield Van Kaik G, Delorme S (2005) Computed tomography in various fields outside medicine. Eur Radiol 15:D74–81 Walsh D (1907) The Röntgen Rays in Medical Work, 4th edition. William Wood, New York

Yardley M, Rutka J (1997) Rescued from the sands of time: interesting otologic and rhinologic findings in two ancient Egyptian mummies from the Royal Ontario Museum. J Otolaryngol 26:379–383

Chapter 2

2

paleoradiologic Techniques George Saab, Rethy K. Chhem, and Richard N. Bohay

2.1 X-ray Imaging For Bioarcheology X-ray imaging is used in three main types of human bioarcheological investigations. The first deals with the identification of anatomical structures that allow the determination of the stature, age at death, and gender. The second is to identify diseases in ancient skeletal remains and mummies. The last is the study of hominid fossils embedded in a burial matrix (Chhem and Ruhli 2004). In order to achieve these goals, bioarcheologists may need to undertake several steps. Bioarcheological materials can be submitted first to an x-ray investigation, and high-quality images can be obtained. The images are stored either on the traditional x-ray films or, more recently, on digital data supports. The ideal image analysis will be performed by radiologists with not only a qualification in musculoskeletal pathologies, but also equipped with an adequate and working knowledge of ancient bioarcheological materials. Alternatively, there can be collaboration between bioarcheologist and radiologist. These steps underline the need for adequate xray equipment and appropriate qualification in paleoradiology (Chhem 2006). X-ray studies have also been used to evaluate cultural material from archeological settings (Lang and Middleton 1997). This chapter provides a general description of conventional and advanced imaging techniques suitable for bioarcheological applications. These include analogue and digital radiography, imaging physics, digital archiving, recent developments in computed tomography (CT), novel imaging methods, and threedimensional specimen reconstruction techniques. A section on dental radiography has also been included. The imaging physics principles contained herein are not meant to be comprehensive, but rather to elucidate simple radiographic production factors that produce the best possible images. These factors exploit two important distinctions between bioarcheological and medical imaging applications: (1) the specimens do not move and (2) the total x-ray dose is less of a concern than it would be with a living subject. Emphasis is given to those technical factors that can be cont-

rolled without costly upgrades. Care has been taken to avoid the use of physics and mathematical jargon in order to make this chapter accessible to readers without a background in radiology and physics. X-ray equipment is available either in a hospital radiology department or in an anthropology department. In the former, one faces a few challenges, including the lack of specialized staff for taking radiographs of bioarcheological materials, but also the competition with clinical services. However, this is where one can have access to more advanced and costly imaging procedures such as CT scanning. Hospital x-ray equipments have also been used successfully to image 1-million-year-old slate fossils from the Devonian era (Hohenstein 2004). These plates of slate measure around 35 mm in thickness and contain a large variety of fossilized specimens including sponges, jellyfish, coral, mollusks, worms, and arthropods. The role of x-ray was to identify the fossilized animals, and to guide their exposure and preparation for paleontological study. Conversely, some x-ray equipment already available in an anthropology department may have a few limitations. Some types of x-ray equipment designed to study small specimens may not allow the study of an entire mummy or a large bone such as the femur or pelvis. In either department, mastering key concepts in x-ray imaging will help bioarcheologists to obtain the highest-quality image from their specimens. Beyond hospital facilities, a research imaging center offers the most cutting-edge technology (micro-CT scan and others) for the radiological assessment of bioarcheological materials. From this short review, bioarcheologists are facing technical, scientific, medical, and financial issues. Access to x-ray facilities, especially advanced imaging tests, represents the first challenge. Finding the expert to read and interpret the findings is also a major challenge. Diagnostic errors are common in paleopathology not only when x-rays are read by a radiologist with no specialized qualification in musculoskeletal pathologies, but also when the reader has no knowledge of the taphonomic processes that have altered the physical characteristics of skeletal specimens relative to those of the live clinical model. This stresses the value of a

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Chapter 2  paleoradiologic Techniques

multidisciplinary approach to the radiological study of bioarcheological materials mentioned in the preface of this book.

2.2 Radiographic Production 2.2.1  Equipment Overview Reduced to its elemental form, the x-ray imaging system consists of a high-voltage electrical supply, an xray tube containing a cathode and anode, and an image receptor (Fig. 2.1). The high-voltage power supply includes a series of transformers that amplify the electric inputs to meet the voltage requirements of the imaging system. This establishes a voltage across one end of the x-ray tube to the other. The peak kilovoltage, or kVp, can be manually set by the radiographer (Bushong 2004). The x-ray tube is usually encased in an oil bath and lead housing. It is essentially a vacuum with two principle components: the cathode and the anode. The former consists of a coil of tungsten wire, much like

the filament of a household light bulb, surrounded by a focusing cup. Most x-ray tube cathodes actually have two separate filaments, each with an associated focusing cup. When the x-ray system is initiated, a current is passed through the tungsten filament. The high resistance of the filament causes it to heat with increasing current until it begins to boil off electrons from its constituent atoms. This process is called thermionic emission, and the product is a cloud of electrons. These electrons (or tube current) are accelerated across the tube by the kilovoltage and focused onto the anode by the focusing cup. Like the kVp, both the x-ray tube current in milliamps (mA) and the exposure time in seconds (s) are controlled by the radiographer. The anode usually consists of a tungsten target mounted on a rotating surface, which is bombarded by electrons from the x-ray tube current. The rotating design allows a greater surface area to interact with the incoming electrons. This allows much higher tube currents to be used without damaging the target, as the heat is distributed along the entire target area. These interactions between electrons and the tungsten target produce x-rays. The area on the anode from which the x-rays are produced is the focal spot. X-ray tubes are usually equipped with two filaments and have two focal spots, one big and one small, for reasons that will become clear later in this chapter. Xrays are produced at the anode by two principle processes: Bremsstrahlung radiation and characteristic x-ray production (Johns and Cunningham 1984). The former is named for the German word for braking, producing x-rays with a continuous range of energies, with the maximum energy rays equal to the selected kVp. Characteristic x-rays occur at discrete energy levels. Characteristic x-rays result when an outer shell electron drops to fill the vacancy created when an inner shell electron is knocked from the atom. Both processes of x-ray production contribute to the x-ray emission spectrum (Fig. 2.2). The anode is oriented to direct all of the produced x-rays towards the object or specimen to be imaged. A fraction of x-rays will emerge through the object, to be captured by an image receptor, which is any medium, analogue or digital, that converts incident x-rays into an image. 2.2.2 Portable X-ray Imaging Systems

Fig. 2.1.  A schematic of x-ray imaging system components. A power supply creates a voltage (peak kilovoltage, kVp) across the ends of an x-ray tube. This directs an electron beam from the cathode toward the anode. The electron beam produces xrays that pass through the specimen to be captured at the image receptor, which is converted into a radiographic image

There are currently several types of small, self-contained, shielded imaging systems available on the market that are well suited for bioarcheological applications. They are user-friendly and easy to maintain. These systems come with small focal spot sizes (20 µm

2.2  Radiographic Production

Fig. 2.2.  The x-ray emission spectrum produced at the anode. The maximum energy of the x-rays in kiloelectron volts (keV) is equivalent to the peak kilovoltage (kVp) of the x-ray system. Characteristic x-rays occur at discrete energy levels, when electrons of the inner shells of atoms at the anode are ejected by the electron beam (the x-ray tube current)

is typical) and capacity for low peak kilovoltages, ranging from 10 to 40 kV, to optimize image quality. Optimization of these parameters is discussed in the subsequent sections of this chapter. These systems are designed with imaging areas in the range of 4.4– 8.8 cm2, appropriate for imaging small specimens. 2.2.3 X-ray Factors For the purpose of this discussion, x-ray factors include the kVp, tube current (mA) and exposure time (s). These can be adjusted by the radiographer to modify the quantity and energies of the produced x-rays, thereby affecting the appearance of the final image (Bushong 2004). Increasing the tube current increases the amount of x-rays at each energy level, whereas increasing the kVp increases both the amount of xrays at each energy level as well as the maximum x-ray energy (Fig. 2.3). Higher-energy x-rays penetrate the object and register on the image receptor. Lower-energy x-rays do not contribute to the image and only add unnecessary radiation to the object, which is especially concerning for medical applications. Fortunately, the lower-energy x-rays can be selectively filtered in a process called beam hardening. The filtration occurs within the material of the x-ray tube itself and with additional layers of aluminum or copper placed in the path of the x-ray beam.

Fig. 2.3  Alterations in the x-ray emission spectrum. Characteristic x-rays have not been included in this figure, for simplicity. The shape of the spectrum (solid line) is affected by an increase in tube current (mA, dashed line), and an increase in kVp (dotted line)

Why not maximize the kVp to produce high-energy x-rays, as shown in Fig. 2.3, and therefore produce a more penetrating beam? If the x-rays had sufficiently high energy, they would all penetrate the object regardless of its composition resulting in an image that would be completely homogenous and not very useful. This is discussed in more detail in section 2.3.1. The problem with high kVp also has to do with the way the x-rays interact with the object being imaged. X-rays interact with matter in many different ways, but only two are relevant for image production. These interactions are the photoelectric effect, which improves image quality, and Compton scattering, which reduces image quality. 2.2.3.1    The Photoelectric Effect The photoelectric effect is a fundamentally important interaction between x-rays and matter (Fig. 2.4). It was first described in 1905 by Albert Einstein, who was recognized for this work with the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics. The photoelectric effect occurs when an incoming x-ray with energy equal to or slighter greater than that of a tightly bound inner shell electron of an atom, and an electron (referred to as a photoelectron) is ejected (Johns and Cunningham 1984). This leaves a vacancy in an inner electron shell that is quickly filled by an electron from an outer electron shell to stabilize the atom. The shift in energy levels from an outer to an inner shell causes excess energy to be emitted in the form of secondary x-rays, or in some instances the ejection of another electron called an Auger electron. The photoelectric effect naturally requires incident x-rays to have at least as much energy as the binding energy of the electrons in the inner shell. The proba-

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Chapter 2  paleoradiologic Techniques

Fig. 2.4.  The photoelectric effect. a An incident x-ray is absorbed by an inner shell electron (e–) of an atom of the object being imaged. This causes an electron, called a photoelectron, to be ejected. b Secondary characteristic x-ray radiation is released after an electron from an outer electron shell drops down to fill the vacancy left by the photoelectron. The photoelectric effect produces the image contrast necessary for radiographic imaging

bility that the photoelectric effect will occur (which we want to maximize) is proportional to the atomic number of the absorbing material (which we cannot control) and inversely proportional to the x-ray energy (which we can control with kVp). This is a nonlinear relationship; modest decreases in kVp will produce large increases in the probability of this interaction, resulting in the image contrast necessary for image formation (Johns and Cunningham 1984). 2.2.3.2  The Compton Effect The next interaction between x-rays and matter significant for x-ray imaging is the Compton effect, sometimes referred to as “Compton scattering”. This phenomenon was first measured by Arthur Compton in 1922, earning him the 1927 Nobel Prize in physics. The Compton effect occurs between incident xrays and lower-energy electrons, which reside in the outermost shells of an atom (Johns and Cunningham 1984) (Fig. 2.5). The incident x-ray collides with the electron, knocking it out of the atom, which is henceforth referred to as a Compton, or recoil, electron. The incident x-ray has transferred some of its energy to the Compton electron, but continues along a path anywhere from 0° to 180° from its original trajectory. Its energy decreases as a result and is now scattered, reducing the quality of the radiographic image. The probability of the Compton effect occurring is proportional to the number of outer electron shells in the atom. The probability is also inversely proportional to the kVp, as was the case with the photoe-

Fig. 2.5.  The Compton effect. An incident x-ray interacts with an atom and ejects an electron from an outer shell. The electron is now called a Compton electron. The incident x-ray becomes a scattered x-ray, which continues at a different path with lower energy. The Compton effect reduces x-ray image quality

lectric effect. The difference is that the relationship between the Compton effect and kVp is linear, thus small decreases in kVp produce small increases in xray scatter. In summary, minimizing kVp increases the probability of the photoelectric effect, thereby producing differences in attenuation between anatomic structures in the object being imaged. Minimizing kVp also increases the probability of the Compton effect, which produces x-ray scattering to reduce image quality. Fortunately the increase in the photoelectric effect exceeds the increase in the Compton effect. Therefore, in considering both of these interactions, the radiographer is advised to select a kVp that is adequate for object penetration but kept at a minimal level. 2.2.4 Equipment Factors In addition to x-ray factors, various components of the x-ray imaging system itself influence the appearance of radiographs. These include grids and radiographic film. 2.2.4.1  Grids Scattered x-rays reduce image quality. The most common physical means of reducing scatter is a device called a grid. The grid is placed between the object and the image receptor to filter scattered x-rays so they cannot contribute to the image. Grids consist of alternating sections of material that x-rays cannot penetrate (radiopaque strips) and material through which x-rays can easily pass (radiolucent interspaced

2.2  Radiographic Production

material strips). The strips are arranged to transmit only the x-rays directed toward the receptor that have not been scattered. One disadvantage of using a grid for medical applications is increased x-ray dose to the patient, as a higher tube currents and exposure times are required to make up for the x-rays lost to the grid. A disadvantage applicable to bioarcheological applications is the production of grid lines on the radiographic film, caused by the absorption of x-rays by the grid. This is a shortcoming that can be minimized by use of a reciprocating grid, which moves back and forth rapidly throughout the x-ray exposure, thereby decreasing grid lines (Bushong 2004). 2.2.4.2  Radiographic Film An image receptor is any medium that converts incident x-rays into an image. Film remains the most commonly used image receptor in radiography, although it is largely being replaced by computed and digital radiography (CR and DR, respectively) in the hospital environment (see sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, respectively). Most radiographic film consists of a base, which causes the film to be rigid, and an emulsion layer on both sides. The emulsion layer is a mixture of gelatin and silver halide crystals; this is the part of the film that creates the image. The main purpose of a dual emulsion film is to limit patient dose, a consideration less important for bioarcheological specimens. Most radiographic films are used in conjunction with an intensifying screen, a sheet of crystals of inorganic salts (phosphors) that emit fluorescent light when excited by x-rays. This serves to intensify the effect of x-rays during exposure of the radiographic film. Figure 2.6 is a schematic cross-section of a screen-film image receptor. For portability and durability, these are usually permanently mounted in cassettes (Bushong 2004). When selecting a film-screen combination for bioarcheological radiography, it is important to consider the film speed. The faster the speed of the film, the thicker it will be, allowing for improved x-ray absorption and reduction in the necessary x-ray dose. However, this benefit is not as critical for bioarcheological specimens and it comes at the expense of resolution, therefore slow speed (thinner) film is optimal. Other important parameters to consider are single-emulsion films, to maximize resolution, and uniform small crystal size in the intensifying screen to provide high contrast and maximum resolution.

Fig. 2.6.  Simplified cross-section of a screen-film image receptor system. The phosphor screens serves to absorb x-rays and emit visible light photons, which is recorded on the film emulsions. The emulsion-base-emulsion layers comprise the film

Proper handling and storage of radiographic film is very important. Film should be kept free of dirt, and bending and creasing films should be strictly avoided. The film is sensitive to light and radiation, so it must be stored and handled in the dark, away from sources of radiation, such as the x-ray imaging system. The storage area should also be dry and cool, preferably less than 20°C (68 F).

2.2.5  Geometry Factors The geometric arrangement of x-ray equipment is an important determinant for image quality. Geometry factors include the size of the focal spot and its distance from the object and image receptor. 2.2.5.1  Focal Spot Size Most general x-ray tubes are equipped with a small and a large focal spot. Recall from section 2.2.1 that the focal spot is the x-ray source, the area on the anode where the electron beam interacts to produce xrays. A small focal spot provides greater image detail than its large counterpart because it casts the smallest penumbra, which is the area of blur at the edge of the image (Schueler 1998) (Fig. 2.7). One might wonder when a large focal spot would be ever required. It is used because the greater surface area for x-ray production minimizes heat production and the risk

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Chapter 2  paleoradiologic Techniques

of the anode cracking or “pitting.” Furthermore, a large focal spot enables the shortest possible exposure time to reduce blurring caused by patients who cannot remain still because of breathing problems or dyskinesia. This is not an issue for bioarcheological applications; a small focal spot should be selected with care not to pit or damage the anode by excessive use.

2.2.5.2  Source, Object, and Film Distances As illustrated in Fig. 2.7a, even a small focal spot is not a precise point source. It has a finite area and will therefore cast an image penumbra, the area of blur at the edge of an image (Schueler 1998). The penumbra, along with image magnification, can be minimized by decreasing the distance from the object to the im-

Fig. 2.7.  A comparison between small (a) and large (b) focal spots of x-ray production. The larger focal spot increases image blurring at the edges, called the penumbra, decreasing image detail

Fig. 2.8.  The effects of focal spot, object, and image receptor positioning on image quality. a A slight penumbra is cast by a small focal spot. b The penumbra can be reduced when the distance between the object and the image receptor is minimized and the distance between the focal spot and the image receptor is maximized. This also reduces image magnification

2.2  Radiographic Production

age receptor, and increasing the distance between the focal spot and the image receptor, as illustrated in Fig. 2.8. 2.2.6 Standard Radiographic Views Bioarcheological specimens are often fragments, or isolated but intact bones, either cranial or postcranial. Postcranial bones refer to any bone other than those of the skull, which fall into four broad categories: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. 2.2.6.1    Cranial Bones Despite the extensive use of CT in documenting skull pathology in clinical situations, conventional radiography of the skull is still widely performed today. Obtaining adequate radiographs can be difficult because of the complexity of skull anatomy, particularly when one is investigating fragmented bioarcheological specimens. Positioning a skull for standard radiographic views is often described in terms of the orbitomeatal line, sometimes denoted as the radiographic baseline. This refers to the conceptual line from the

outer canthus of the eye to the center of the external auditory meatus (Ballinger 1982).The most common skull views are listed in Table 2.1 and illustrated in Figs. 2.9–2.14. These have been described previously in great detail in numerous texts and the interested reader is referred to the References section for a selection. A modified Caldwell is described rather than the original method because the modification is angled to further decrease the superimposition of the petrous ridges, which obscure the orbits. Anteroposterior views, as opposed to posteroanterior or modified Caldwell views, are selected when one wants to magnify the frontal structures, such as the orbits, which would be situated furthest from the image receptor. Recall that these magnified structures also have an increased penumbra and therefore increased blurring, as explained in section 2.2.5.2. 2.2.6.2    Postcranial Bones Postcranial bones are classified as: long bones, including the femur, tibia, fibula, ulna, humerus, phalanges, and metacarpals; short bones, including the tarsals and carpals; flat bones, including the ribs, sternum, scapula, and skull bones; and irregular bones, including the vertebrae, and facial bones. These are imaged individually, in frontal and lateral projections (Ballinger 1982).

Table 2.1.  Standard radiographic views of the skull. OML Orbitomeatal line, IOML infraorbitomeatal line, IR image receptor Radiographic view

Skull OML position

Central x-ray orientation

Structures viewed best

Posteroanterior modified Caldwell

20° from vertical

Perpendicular to the IR

Orbits, frontal bone, anterior structures, frontal sinuses, nasal septum

Anteroposterior modified Caldwell

20° from vertical

Perpendicular to the IR

Magnified orbits, posterior view of the skull, frontal sinuses, nasal septum

Lateral

Interpupillary line perpendicular to the IR Midsagittal line parallel the IR

Perpendicular to the IR

Sella turcica, dorsum sellae, clivus

Waters

37°–40° to the IR

perpendicular to the IR

Maxillary sinus, orbits, zygomatic arches

Towne’s

Perpendicular to the IR

Caudad 60° to the IR

Occipital bone, dorsum sellae, petrous ridges, foramen magnum

Basal

IOML parallel to the IR

perpendicular to the IR

Petrous bones, mandible, zygomatic arches, ethmoid sinuses, foramen magnum

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Chapter 2  paleoradiologic Techniques Fig. 2.9.  Posteroanterior modified Caldwell view: positioning and resulting radiograph. The straight arrow signifies the direction of the central x-ray and the dotted line represents the orbitomeatal line, as described in Table 2.2. Images courtesy of Mr. John Henry

Fig. 2.10.  Anteroposterior modified Caldwell view: positioning and resulting radiograph. The straight arrow signifies the direction of the central x-ray and the dotted line represents orbitomeatal line, as described in Table 2.2. Images courtesy of Mr. John Henry

Fig. 2.11.  Lateral skull view: positioning and resulting radiograph. The straight arrow signifies the direction of the central x-ray, the double line represents the interpupillary line, and the dotted line represents the midsagittal line, as described in Table 2.2. Images courtesy of Mr. John Henry

2.2  Radiographic Production Fig. 2.12.  Waters skull view: positioning and resulting radiograph. The straight arrow signifies the direction of the central x-ray and the dotted line represents the orbitomeatal line, as described in Table 2.2. Images courtesy of Mr. John Henry

Fig. 2.13.  Towne’s skull view: positioning and resulting radiograph. The straight arrow signifies the direction of the central x-ray and the dotted line represents the orbitomeatal line, as described in Table 2.2. Images courtesy of Mr. John Henry

Fig. 2.14.  Basal skull view: positioning and resulting radiograph. The straight arrow signifies the direction of the central x-ray and the dotted line represents the infraorbitomeatal line, as described in Table 2.2. Images courtesy of Mr. John Henry

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Chapter 2  paleoradiologic Techniques

2.2.7  Optimizing Radiographic Production Factors The previous sections described how radiographers can optimize a wide variety of factors that influence appearance of the x-ray image. These included x-ray, equipment, and geometry factors; they are summarized for easy reference in Table. 2.2.

Table 2.2.  X-ray imaging variables to optimize radiographs for bioarcheological applications Radiographic production factors

Setting

X-ray factors: mAs (miliamperes × seconds)

High

2.2.8  Quick Troubleshooting Guide

kVp (peak kilovoltage)

High enough for object penetration, otherwise as low as possible

There will be times when x-ray systems fail. It is therefore a good idea to keep all of the service documentation in an easily accessible place. A troubleshooting flowchart is provided in Fig. 2.15 for quick reference. If all else fails, the best thing to do is to contact the manufacturer directly.

Equipment factors: Grid

Reciprocating

Screen–film combination

Slow speed, single emulsion, uniform crystal size in the intensifying screen

Geometry factors:

2.3  Image Quality

Focal spot

Small

Source-to-image distance

Maximized

Radiographic images are said to be of high quality when they reproduce precisely the structures and

Object-to-image distance

Minimized

Fig. 2.15.  Quick troubleshooting guide for equipment failure

2.4  Advances in Radiography and Archiving

composition of the object being imaged. There are many aspects to image quality, but here we discuss three of primary importance: contrast, resolution, and noise. 2.3.1 Contrast

asing the distance between the x-ray source and the image, while minimizing the distance between the object and the image receptor (Fig. 2.8). 2.3.3 Noise

Radiographic contrast is the difference in density between areas on an image. It is directly dependent on two separate factors: image receptor contrast and subject contrast. The former refers to the inherent properties of the film and processing factors. The latter pertains to the composition of the object to be imaged. X-rays do not penetrate an object equally because of differences in object density and atomic structure, resulting in images with good subject contrast. However, if the kVp were increased, more of the high-energy x-rays would be produced, decreasing the differences in the x-ray penetration throughout the object. Thus, the primary controller of subject contrast is kVp. This should be kept adequate for object penetration but set at a minimal level (Bushong 2004).

Noise is an undesirable characteristic of image quality that causes an image to appear textured or grainy. Noise can be caused by inherent properties of the image receptor. It could also originate from quantum mottle, a term given to the random interactions that xrays have with the image receptor (Bushong 2004). The radiographer can reduce the noise caused by quantum mottle by increasing exposure (tube current multiplied by exposure time, mAs) to increase the number of xrays that produce the image (Fig. 2.3), and decreasing the kVp so as to maintain the same density on the film. Noise is a greater problem with digital systems, as it is with any electrical system. Noise can be controlled with special software or by increasing the signal. The signal, determined by the kVp and mAs, is often quoted as a signal-to-noise ratio.

2.3.2 Resolution

2.4 Advances in Radiography and Archiving

Radiographic resolution can be described by many different and complex methods (Bushong 2004). Perhaps the simplest way is to consider resolution as the distinction between adjacent high-contrast structures on an image. Resolution is closely related to sharpness, which describes the abruptness between borders of adjacent high-contrast structures within an image. Resolution can be estimated by imaging an object of parallel line bars with alternating radiopaque and radiolucent lines. This object can be described in terms of line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm). For most diagnostic imaging examinations, a minimum resolution of 2.5 lp/mm is required, and preferably 5.0 lp/mm. The latter is in the range of standard films/screens used in hospital radiology departments. Images with low resolution or sharpness are described as “blurry.” One unavoidable cause of image blurriness is the structure of the object being imaged. Anatomical features that do not have well-defined edges, such as rounded objects, produce blurry edges on radiographs. Subject motion can also cause blurring, which could be problematic in bioarcheological imaging if the specimens roll or shift during the exposure. Another cause of blurriness is the selected film speed, described in section 2.2.4.2, and the penumbra effect described in section 2.2.5. The latter can be reduced by controlling geographic factors: incre-

Radiographs have been recorded on film for over a century. Coupled with image intensifier screens and chemical processing after exposure, radiographic film has provided high-quality images that can be easily viewed on light boxes and archived. Despite the advent of digital imaging modalities such as CT and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), radiography has not lost its importance or relevance, and has remained predominantly film-based. The reliance on film, however, is decreasing as DR methods challenge traditional screen-film image receptors. DR images equal or surpass the quality of film, and the highspeed electronic networks that are integral parts of healthcare and research infrastructure facilitate the transition and storage of digital media (Gallet and Titus 2005). The digital image receptors include CR, introduced in the early 1980s and, more recently, DR. Both CR and DR are briefly compared in Table 2.3. Although the image resolution of each is similar but less than that of film (5–8 lp/mm for screen-film at 400 ASA speed), the ability to “window” or dynamically alter the contrast of the image greatly enhances image quality and therefore facilitates interpretation. The specifications of the monitor used to display the images are very important, including brightness, amount of ambient light, size of display, number of gray scales, and monitor resolution.

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Chapter 2  paleoradiologic Techniques Table 2.3.  A comparison between computed radiography (CR) and digital radiography (DR) IR type

Processing procedure

Processing time

Typical resolution

CR

Exposure of cassette, transfer to CR reader, transfer to network

30–45 s

3–5 lp/mm

DR

Exposure of digital panel, images immediately available

5–20 s

3–5 lp/mm

2.4.1 Computed Radiography CR is a process of producing digital radiographs using a storage phosphor plate in the x-ray cassette rather than film. These storage phosphors store the energy from the x-rays. During processing, the phosphor is stimulated with a laser, causing it to emit light. The light is captured and converted into electrical signals. Instead of the chemical image development necessary for film-based radiography, a CR reader extracts the electrical information to produce a digital image (Gallet and Titus 2005). CR is relatively easy to implement. It is fully compatible with existing x-ray equipment designed for film processing. The main disadvantage is that CR requires several steps for processing: the exposed cassette is brought to the CR reader, data is transferred to a computer, and then the cassette is erased. This takes approximately half the time of conventional radiography methods. 2.4.2 Digital Radiography As CR was growing in popularity, a new step in digital imaging became available: DR. DR technology consists of flat-panel detectors with integrated image readout. Unlike CR, where an exposed cassette has to be physically brought to the CR reader, DR provides rapid access to digital images. Images can be viewed as they are being exposed, with a quality comparable to CR. DR excels for applications where speed and image quality are paramount, and its use is rapidly becoming more widespread (Gallet and Titus 2005). 2.4.3 Picture Archiving and Communication Systems Digital images must be stored and archived. Picture Archiving and Communication Systems (PACS) is a software and computer server method for image storage and retrieval that has the potential to eliminate ra-

diographic film. Digital images from all imaging modalities, including radiography, CT, ultrasound, MRI, and nuclear medicine, are transferred through the computer network to a PACS server, which archives the images in a local drive (De Backer et al. 2004). A copy of the data is also stored on a separate archive. Whenever a stored imaging study is requested, all relevant prior imaging is also immediately available. In addition to being a robust archival system, there are numerous advantages for image viewing. The software has many features for image analysis, including image contrast windowing, measurement tools, and three-dimensional image reconstructions for tomographic data. With proper security access and software, images can be retrieved from virtually anywhere worldwide, greatly facilitating international collaboration and peer-to-peer information access. This is particularly beneficial to scientific disciplines such as bioarcheology, where multidisciplinary involvement is essential.

2.5 Computed Tomography The main limitation of radiography is that all the structures of the object are superimposed onto a single image plane, where extraneous structures may obscure important findings. Godfrey Hounsfield and Allan Cormack independently described an imaging technique to overcome this limitation. They shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for the development of CT. Unlike conventional radiography, CT produces distinct images from multiple planes (or “cuts”) through the object (Bushong 2004). Accordingly, the word “tomography” originates from the Greek word “tomos” meaning “to cut.” The original CT scanners of the early 1970s had a small bore (gantry aperture) designed solely for head scanning. In 1976, large-bore, whole-body scanners were introduced, and CT became widely available for medical applications in 1980. Typical bore sizes are in the range of 70 cm, although some manufacturers now offer CT scanners with bores up to 90 cm at an increased price. Large bores may ease the sensation

2.5.  Computed Tomography Table 2.4.  Comparison of the various computed tomography (CT) design types CT design

Principle

Source

Detector

Scan time per image

First generation

Rotate-translate

Pencil-beam

Single

5 min

Second generation

Rotate-translate

Fan-beam

Multiple, linear array

30 s

Third generation

Rotate

Fan-beam

Rotating curvilinear array