Out of Etruria: Etruscan Influence North and South 9781407324258, 9780860541219

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
Introduction
PART I: ETRUSCAN INFLUENCE IN THE NORTH: THE SITULA PEOPLE
Chapter 1: ETRUSCAN DRESS AND CIVILIZATION IN NORTHERN ITALY AND BEYOND
Chapter 2: THE WORLD OF THE SITULA PEOPLE: A PROTO-URBAN CIVILIZATION
Chapter 3: SITULA PEOPLE AND ETRUSCAN ART AND THE AFTERMATH IN THE NORTH
Chapter 4: SITULA ART IN ROME: THE CORSINI THRONE
PART II: LANGUAGE AND ALPHABET
Chapter 5: ETRUSCAN INFLUENCE IN EARLY ROME: THE LATIN WORD TRIUMPHUS
Chapter 6: THE LANGUAGES OF THE SITULA PEOPLE
Chapter 7: THE SPREAD OF THE ALPHABET IN EUROPE: AREZZO, ERZ, AND RUNES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ILLUSTRATIONS

Citation preview

Out of Etruria Etruscan Influence North and South

Larissa Bonfante

BAR International Series I 03 1981

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :'.\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :'.\I.A.

B.A.R. Sl03, 1981: ©

"Out of Etruria"

Larissa Bonfante, 1981

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541219 paperback ISBN 9781407324258 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541219 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS p age P REFACE 1

I NTRODUCTION P ART

I .

E TRUSCAN I NFLUENCE T HE S ITULA P EOPLE

N ORTH: 1 4

E truscan D ress a nd C ivilization i n N orthern I taly a nd B eyond

1 5

2 .

T he W orld o f t he S itula P eople: A P roto-Urban C ivilization

3 3

S itula P eople a nd a nd t he A ftermath

6 6

4 .

I.

T HE

1 .

3 .

P ART

I N

S itula A rt i n R ome: T he C orsini T hrone

L ANGUAGE 5 .

6 .

7 .

E truscan A rt i n t he N orth

A ND

7 9

A LPHABET

9 2

E truscan I nfluence i n E arly T he L atin W ord T riumphus

R ome:

T he L anguages o f t he S itula R haetic, V enetic, I llyrian, b y G iuliano B onfante

P eople: G allic

T he S pread o f t he A lphabet A rezzo, E rz, a ng , .Runes b y G iuliano B onfante

B IBLIOGRAPHY M APS I LLUSTRATTnmc

9 3

11 i n

E urope: 1 24 1 35

P REFACE

W hen I w as a g raduate s tudent a t C olumbia U niversity t wenty y ears a go P rofessor O tto B rendel s uggested t wo t opics f or m y d issertation: E truscan d ress, o r t he " Bologna" s itulae. I c hose t he f irst, a nd e ventually e xpanded i t i nto a b ook. I n t he c ourse o f s tudying A rchaic E truscan f ashions I b ecame c urious a bout t he o bvious i nfluence t hey h ad b eyond t he b orders o f E truria. I n R ome, w here t he E truscans b rought t he o utward s igns o f c ulture, m agistrates, e mperors a nd g enerals c elebrating t he t riumph d ressed i n g arments l ike t hose o nce w orn b y t he E truscan k ings. I n t he a rea o f " situla a rt," i n n ortheast I taly a nd b eyond, m en a nd w omen w ere r epresented w earing s eventh-century s tyles o f E truscan d ress. I f ound m yself, i n d ue t ime, t urning m y a ttention t o t he s econd t opic O tto B rendel h ad o nce s uggested. M uch h ad c hanged i n t wenty y ears. I c ould n ot h ave w ritten t his b ook t hen. M ost i mportantly, t he c hronology o f s itula a rt i s n ow f irmly e stablished, s o t hat i ts o riginality a s w ell a s i ts d ebts c an b e m ore e asily s tudied. O tto-Herman F rey's E ntstehung d er S itulenkunst ( 1969) h as s hown t he p roduction t o h ave s tarted i n t he s eventh c entury B .C., a t E ste, n ot B ologna. T hen, t oo, t he d istinctive c haracter o f N orth E truscan a rt i n t he O rientalizing a nd A rchaic p eriods h as b een i llustrated a nd f ocused b y t he s pectacular m aterial f rom M urlo ( Poggio C ivitate), n ear S iena, e xcavated a nd p romptly p ublished b y K yle P hillips, h is c olleagues a nd s tudents i n t he B ryn M awr e xcavation, w orking i n c lose c ollaboration w ith G uglielmo M aetzke a nd t he S oprintendenza o f T uscany. T his s ite, i n t he a rtistic s phere o f C hiusi, s hows t he i mportance o f t his C hiusi r egion f or c ontacts f arther n orth. O ften, i n w orking o n t he r epresentations o f . situla a rt, I t hought I h ad m ade a d iscovery, o nly t o f ind t hat P aul J acobsthal, G . M ansuelli a nd O tto-Herman F rey h ad r eached a s imilar c onclusion l ong b efore m e. I c ontinued b ecause t he m aterial f ascinated m e, a nd b ecause n ew d iscoveries i n I taly a nd i n t he n orth a re a lmost d aily r efining o ur p icture o f a w orld w hich e xisted l ong a go o n t he f rontier o f c ivilization. I h ave s tepped o n t hin i ce. C learly a ncient t ravellers c rossed t he A lps m ore e asily t han m odern a rchaeologists; f ortunately, I h ave b een a ble t o c onsult w ith P eter W ells, w ho o ften s tretched o ut a h elping h and f rom h is p ost n orth o f t he A lps.

;

L inguists, o n t he o ther h and, f ind t he A lps m uch l ess o f a b arrier. T he s econd p art o f t his b ook, " Language a nd A lphabet," c ontains t wo a rticles w ritten b y m y f ather, G iuliano B onfante, o n t he l anguages o f t he s itula p eoples, a nd o n t he s pread o f t he E truscan a lphab et n orthward i nto E urope, i ncluding t he G ermanic a nd S candinavian r unes, d erived f rom a n E truscan s cript. I h ave l earned m uch f rom h im a bout t he h istorical r econs truction o f t he p ast f rom a rchaeological a s w ell a s l inguistic e vidence; a nd a bout t he i nfluence o f a c ulture, a nd i ts l imits. M y d ebts a re m any. S ome a re a cknowledged i n t he n otes t o t he i ndividual c hapters. I m ust m ention t wo f riends a nd c olleagues, h owever: D avid R idgway, w ho s uggested t he p resent v olume f or B .A.R.; a nd N ancy d e G rummond, m y e ditor, w ho e ncouraged m y f irst a rticle o n E truscan i nfluence i n t he n orth a t a s ymposium i n T allahassee i n 1 976, a nd g ave i t a h ome i n A rchaeol ogical N ews. T he g enerosity o f t he I nstitute f or A dvanced S tudy m ade i t p ossible f or m e t o w ork o n t his a nd o ther p rojects i n P rinceton d uring S pring 1 980. I a m g rateful t o t he d irectors o f m useums a nd a uthors o f b ooks w hose p hotographs, d rawings, m aps a nd m aterial I h ave u sed. R enate v on V iebahn t yped t he m anuscript i nto a b ook, A nna F arkas m ade m aps a nd d rawings. B oth a lso c ontributed g ood c ounsel a nd t aste. T o L ucilla M arino o f t he L ibrary o f t he A merican A cademy i n R ome a nd t he s taff g o m y s pecial t hanks. T he i ndividual c hapters o f t his b ook h ave a ppeared p reviously i n v arious j ournals. T hey h ave a lmost a ll b een r evised, a nd I h ave a ttempted t o c orr elate t he r esulting s tudies b y a ppropriate c rossr eferences. I n s ome c ases, s imilar m aterial a ppeared i n t wo o r m ore a rticles; r ather t han e liminate p ortions t o a void r epetition, I h ave k ept t he m aterial i n e ach c hapter, s o t hat t he c ontext a nd a rgument m ay r emain c lear. m e t o w hich

I a m a lso g rateful t o t he e ditors w ho p ermitted p rint r evised a nd t ranslated v ersions o f a rticles o riginally a ppeared i n t he f ollowing j ournals:

" Etruscan I nfluence i n N ews 5 ( 1976) 9 3-106. " I p opoli d elle s itule: D ialoghi d i A rcheologia " I 1 7

p opoli ( 1979)

d elle s itule 3 1-37.

N orthern

I taly,"

A rchaeological

u na c iviltä p roto-urbana," n .s. 2 ( 1979) 7 3-94. e l 'arte

" The C orsini T hrone," E ssays H ill. J ournal o f t he W alters 10-122,

e trusca,"

i n H onor o f A rt G alTery

P rospettiva D orothy K ent 3 6 ( 1977)

I NTRODUCTION

T he s ubject o f t his b ook i s t he i nfluence o f t he h istorical p eople o f t he E truscan c ities, w hose c iviliz ation c ame c lose t o u niting I taly f or t he f irst t ime, a nd p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he h istory o f o ur o wn W estern c ivilization. S uch a s tudy h as b een m ade p ossible, a s w ell a s d esirable, b y t he e xtraordinary r ate a t w hich e xcavation a nd p ublication h ave b een c arried o n i n b oth I taly a nd c entral E urope i n t he l ast t en y ears. A ll t his n ew m aterial, a nd e specially t he m ore c ertain d ates, a re a llowing s cholars t o s ort o ut t he i dentity o f t he v arious p eoples i n I taly, t heir r elationships t o e ach o ther, t o t he G reeks i n I taly a nd a cross t he s ea, a nd t o t he p rehistoric p eoples o f E urope. I h ave t ried t o b ring s ome o f t his i nformation a nd b ibliography t ogether f or a n E nglish-speaking p ublic, f or w hom t he s peciali zed p ublications i n w hich m uch o f t his d ialogue o ccurs a re n ot a lways e asily a vailable. 2 T he v arious c hapters o f t his b ook a ll d eal w ith s pecific c ontributions E truscan c ivilization b rought t o E urope i n t he e arly p eriod. T he i nfluence o f E truscan a rt i n I taly a nd E urope i n l ater R oman t imes a nd i n t he M iddle A ges a nd t he R enaissance i s a f ascinating s ubject w hich i s a ttracting t he a ttention o f s cholars, a nd w e c an l ook f orward t o t he p ublication o f a n umber o f s tudies s howing h ow M ichelangelo, P oussin, P iranesi, a nd o ther a rtists r eacted t o t he i nspiration o f E truscan a rt.3 B ut t he r eader w ill f ind n one o f t hat m aterial i n t his v olume, w hich l imits i tself s trictly t o t he p eriod o f E truscan h istory, f rom c a. 7 00 B .C. t o t he a ge o f A ugustus. G eographically, t he a rea c overed e xtends f rom R ome a ll t he w ay t o S candinavia a nd t he f arthest l imits o f t he n orthern r unes. T hus t he i nfluence o f E truscan c ulture o n E truria's n eighbors w ent w ell b eyond t he b oundaries o f E truscan p ower, d efined b y L ivy a s e xtendi ng f rom t he A lps t o t he S traits o f M essina ( map 2 ). 4 T he f irst s ection d eals w ith E truscan i nfluence o n s itula a rt a nd t he s itula p eople i n t he n orth, w here E truscan c ulture e arly f ound i ts w ay. T he a rea o f s itula a rt i ncludes n ortheast I taly--the V eneto a nd t he P o V alley--and t he A lps a nd t erritory b eyond, i n m odern A ustria a nd Y ugoslavia ( map 4 ).

1

T he A lps w ere m uch t ravelled i n a ntiquity, a nd s erved a s a b ridge r ather t han a w all, f unneling M edit erranean i nfluences, t echniques a nd l uxuries n orthward ( map 3 a) .These a reas,however, r emained i ndependent, s till s peaking t heir o wn I ndoeuropean l anguages--from 2 000 B .C. o r e ven e arlier--and c elebrating t heir o wn w ay o f l ife o n t he b ronze b uckets o r s itulae t hey u sed f or w ine a t h eroic b anquets, a nd b uried w ith v aliant w arriors a nd l ords i n t heir g raves. T he b irth o f s itula a rt h as n ow b een f irmly s et i n t he s eventh c entury B .C., a t ime w hen E truscan i mports w ere f inding t heir w ay n orth. 5 H ere t he c hronologies p atiently s et u p b y s cholars w orking o n b oth s ides o f t he A lps a llow u s t o p lace t his w orld--on t he b rink o f u rbanization a nd " civilization," b ut n ever q uite m aking i t--in a h istorical c ontext, a nd t o t race v arious f eatures o f t heir a rt a nd t heir c ulture. I o nly d eal w ith t he E truscan e lements o f t his a rt a nd c ulture, i n t he h ope t hat i dentifying o ne t hread i n t his c omplex c reation w ill m ake i t e asier t o i dentify o thers. T here i s l ittle d oubt n ow t hat C hiusi w as t he r oute o f m ost E truscan i nfluence n orthward. T he w ork o f C olonna, C ristofani, a nd C ristofani M artelli i n e pigraphy a nd i conography h as m ade t his c lear. 6 B ut i t i s t he m aterial f rom M urlo ( Poggio C ivitate), i n t he a rtistic s phere o f C hiusi, w hich h as p rovided t he " missing l ink." 7 C hiusi's r ole c an n ow b e b etter u nders tood. S o, t oo, c an s ome o f t he p ersistent l egends a bout t he i mportance o f i ts k ings. L ars P orsenna c ame a s f ar a s R ome--and t ook i t, t hough t he R omans t ried t o c over u p t his s hameful s tory. 8 A nother k ing o f C hiusi h ad t he u nfortunate i dea o f c alling i n t he G auls--whom h e e vidently d ealt w ith o n a r egular b asis--as m ercen aries. O nce t hese n ortherners h ad c ome t o k now t he d elights o f I talian s unshine, f ruit, a nd e specially w ine, t here w as n o g etting t hem o ut o f I taly a gain. A s [ ivy t ells t he s tory, " Disaster a pproached t he i ll-fated c ity ( Rome) w ith t he a rrival o f e nvoys f rom t he m en o f C lusium s eeking h elp a gainst t he G auls. T he s tory r uns t hat t his r ace ( the G auls), a llured b y t he d elicious f ruits a nd e specially t he w ine--then a n ovel l uxury--had c rossed t he A lps a nd p ossessed t hemselves o f l ands t hat h ad b efore b een t illed b y t he E truscans; a nd t hat w ine h ad b een i mported i nto G aul . expressly t o e ntice t hem, b y A l Aruns o f C lusium, i n h is a nger a t t he s eduction o f h is w ife b y L ucumo...." 9 T he c ustom o f d rinking w ine, a nd, e ventually, t he t echnique o f p roducing i t, w ere i ndeed i mportant E truscan c ontributions t o c ivilization i n t he n orth: i t w as f rom t he E truscans, w ho h ad l earned i t f rom t he G reeks, t hat t he a ncestors o f t he F rench a nd t he p eople w ho l ived b y t he R hine l earned t o g row t he v ine a nd t o m ake w ine.10 L ong b efore t he G auls a nd n ortherners h ad b ecome a cquainted

2

G ermans, o ther w ith w ine o n t he

s hores o f t he M editerranean. T he G reek-speaking M yceneans, w hen t hey c ame i nto G reece f rom t he n orth, t hemselves h ad l earned h ow t o c ultivate t he v ine a nd h ow t o m ake a nd d rink w ine f rom t he p eople w hom t hey f ound l iving i n t he A egean r egion. W e k now t his, f or t he w ord w ine, w hich c omes t o u s f rom t he G reek l anguage, i s n ot I ndoeuropean.11 N or d id t he v ine g row i n t he r egion w here w e s uppose t he I ndoeuropeans c ame f rom, m odern G ermany a nd P oland. I t w as o riginally f rom t he G reeks, o f c ourse, t hat t he p eople o f I taly h ad l earned t o d rink w ine. I n t he I ron A ge t he G reeks i ntroduced w ine t o t he i nhabit ants o f c entral I taly, a long w ith w heel-made p ottery. E truscan v inum i s a l oan w ord f rom G reek o inon: t he w ord a nd t he o bject b oth c ame i nto t he c ulture t ogether. T he f ertile v alleys o f E truria, a mong t hem t he g reat v alleys o f t he n ortheast ( the V al d i C hiana, t he V al d 'Arno, t he u pper T iber V alley), b ecame a t t hat t ime t he g reat w inep roducing c enters t hey s till a re t oday. W e o we t o t he E truscans t he w ines o f O rvieto, t he C hianti C lassico, a nd m any o thers. 1 2 A t t hat t ime t oo t here w as i ntrod uced t he i dea o f a n e laborate d rinking r itual, p art o f t he b anquet w hich m arked t he c enter o f a ristocratic s ocial l ife. I n t he c ities o f s outhern E truria-T arquinia a nd C erveteri--Etruscan w omen p articipated i n t hese s ymposia, a nd e ven t ook p art i n t he t oasting, a s d id l adies i n c ertain o ther a ristocratic c ommunities.13 B ut i n C hiusi a nd e lsewhere i n t he n orth, a s i n A thens i n t he A rchaic a nd C lassical p eriods, o nly m en t ook p art i n t hese s ymposia a nd b anquets w hich m arked t heir s tatus i n s ociety. A nd i n t he r egion o f t he s itula p eople, b ronze s itulae a nd m atching s ets o f d rinking w are a re a lmost a lways f ound i n t he g raves o f m en ( fig. 4 8); n ot s urprisingly, s ince o nly m en, e vidently n oble l ords, a re s hown s eated a t t hese f easts.14 N or w as t he t rade a ll o ne w ay. I n f act, b efore t he O rientalizing p eriod, w hen I taly w as o verwhelmed b y i nfluences f rom t he e astern M editerranean, c ontacts w ere m ostly w ith t he n orth. E ven s uch a t ypically E truscan f ashion a s t he r ounded m antle, t he a ncestor o f t he l ater R oman t oga, w hich t he E truscans c alled t he t ebenna, m ay h ave c ome f rom t he n orth, w here w e f ind p reserved a . woolen, c heckered o val c loak f rom S weden, d ating t o a round 1 200 B .C. 1 5 T he a mber c oming d own f rom t he n orth i n s uch g reat q uantities b ears w itness t o t he c ontact b etween t hese t wo r egions, n orthern E urope a nd I taly b elow t he A lps ( map 7 ). C ommerce b etween I taly a nd c entral E urope t o t he n orth t ook p lace b y l and a nd s ea, a long m any d iverse r outes. I t i nvolved t he e xchange o f g oods, o f m en, o f i deas a nd t echniques. F rom t he n orth c ame s alt, a nd a mber, f rom v ery e arly t imes: o thers h ave s tudied s uch t rade i n d etail, a nd m ore i s b eing l earned e ach d ay a s

3

s cholars' i nterests a re f ocused o n t hese i mportant a reas. T he t rade i n a mber ( map 7 ) i s e specially i nteresting. I ts u se c learly d efines t he s tatus o f w omen i n w hose g raves i t i s f ound, o ften i n s taggering q uantities. ( It i dentifies w omen's g raves, a long w ith l oom w eights, j ust a s a rmor a nd s itulae c haracterize m ale b urials.) A nother a spect o f t he d emand f or a mber w hich i s o f p articular i nterest f or u s i s i ts m agical c haracter. T he e normous d istances s eparating I taly f rom t he f arthest n orthern s hores o f E urope w ere s panned b y t he m agic l ure o f a mber o riginating i n t he B altic a rea a nd a vidly i mported i n E truria a nd t he a rea o f t he s itula p eople a nd b y t he S candinavian r unes, b ased o n E truscan w riting. T he m agic p ower o f a mber a nd o f r unes p rovided a p owerful i mpetus f or t rade. A nd i n t he m iddle o f a ll t his l ively e xchange b etween n orth a nd s outh, a t t he c enter o f t he " Adriatic k oine," f lourished t he s itula p eople. A s r emnants o f e arlier c ontacts w ere p icked u p a nd d eveloped, t hey g rew w ealthy, c lustered a round t heir p rinces i n t own-like s ettlements, a nd b egan t o a dopt t he e xternal f eatures o f c ity l ife, o r " civilization." B esides w ine-making, t he E truscan a ristocracy h ad a dopted f rom t he G reeks a n umber o f o ther f eatures o f t he g entlemanly w ay o f l ife--music, a thletics, t he a lphabet--and a ll o f t hese w ere p assed o n t o o ther n obles i n t he r egions b eyond t he E truscan c ities ( in t he V eneto a nd e lsewhere) a s s igns o f c ivilization a nd s tatus i n a c ultured, r ich, a ristocratically r eligious c ontext. I n C hapter I o f t his b ook, I h ave a ttempted t o c larify t his c ontext f urther, b y c oncentrating o n p articular a spects o f t he l uxurious " citified" l ife a ffected b y t he l ords o f t he s mall s ettlements i n t he n orth, w ith s pecial e mphasis o n t heir d ress. I n t he e xamination, i t b ecomes e vident t hat C hiusi p layed a k ey r ole i n t ransmitting s uch e lements f rom E truria t o t he n orth. A s s omeone w hose f ield i s E truscan c ulture, I h ave b een i nterested i n t he q uestion o f E truscan i nfluence i n t he r egion, w hen i t c ame a nd w here i t c ame f rom. B ut o nce t he i nfluence h as b een t raced, m any f mportant q uestions a re s till l eft u nanswered. I n t he s econd c hapter, I i nquire: w hat w as t heir l ife l ike? H ow m uch d oes t he a rt o f t hese p eople r eflect t heir o wn r eality? S o m uch o f t heir w orld, s eemingly t heir d aily l ife, i s r epresented f or u s. Y et i s i t r eally d aily l ife? W hy d o t hey c hoose c ertain s cenes a bove o thers, a nd w hat d o t hese s cenes m ean? H ow w ere t hese p atres s hown o n t he s itulae a ble t o s upp ö rt t he m ilit ary o rganizations d epicted w ith t hem? W e a re t empted t o c ompare t he m ilitary o rganization o f R ome u nder E truscan i nfluence, a pparently c oinciding w ith i ts t ransformation i nto a c ity. B ut s uch c hanges d o n ot

4

t ake p lace a ccording t o a s et s chedule, a nd t here i s g reat d eal w e s till d o n ot k now a bout w hat i s i mplied t he a doption o f h eavily a rmed t roops l ike t he G reek h oplites.

a i n

H ere a gain, r ecent e xcavations a nd p ublications h ave a dded e normously t o o ur k nowledge, m aking i t p ossible t o a ttempt a r econstruction o f t his " protou rban" w ay o f l ife. " Excavations" i n m useums h ave b een p articularly s uccessful. C ollections f rom i mportant a rchaeological s ites, l ong u npublished a nd p ractically u nknown, h ave, s ince t he w ar, b een m ade a vailable t o s cholars. M ost r ecently, f or e xample, t he r esults o f t he D uchess o f M ecklenburg's e xcavations b efore t he F irst W orld W ar ( figs. 1 -2)--at M agdalenska G ora, V inica, a nd S ti na, i n S lovenia ( modern Y ugoslavia)-a re b eing p ublished a t t he P eabody M useum o f H arvard U niversity.1 6 T he c leaning o f a b ronze t intinnabulum, o r a xe-shaped p endant, i n t he B ologna M useum h as b rought t o l ight t he p icture o f l adies w orking t heir w ool, a ssisted b y t he m ost a mbitious t echnical m achinery k nown f rom t his p eriod, a t wo-story l oom ( figs. 5 -6).17 O tto-Herman F rey's a nd S tane G abrovec's p ublication o f m aterial f rom t his r egion i n c onnection w ith t he t omb f inds d istinguishes l ocal p roducts a nd f ashions f rom t he i mports.18 T heir i nterpretation o f t he s cenes i llumin ates t he m entality o f t he p eople i nvolved a s w ell a s t he h istorical c ontext o f t he r eal l ife t hey r eflect. S tephanie B oucher, M ario Z uffa, P eter W ells, a nd o thers h ave s tudied t he t rade r outes ( maps 3 , 5 , 7 ).19 M uch w ork i s b eing d one o n t he a mber t rade.20 T hen t here a re t he l ucky f inds, w hich m ust b e s et i n a h istorical c ont ext. I n G ermany, t he d iscovery i n 1 962 o f t he H irschl anden w arrior, a k ouros-stele o riginally s et o n a b urial m ound i n s outhern G ermany ( fig. 6 9),21 s howing c lear t races o f E truscan i nfluence, w as t opped i n t he f all o f 1 978 b y t hat o f t he t omb o f a w arrior i n H euneburg, n ear S tuttgart, c omplete w ith b ronze k line, l eather a nd g old b oots, a nd o ther s plendid a ppurten ances. 22 T he p ublication i n t he l ast f ew y ears o f t he V illanovan t ombs f rom t he S an V itale n ecropolis o f B ologna, o f 7 23 e ighth-century B .C. t ombs f rom I schia i n P ithekoussai I , o f t he C ronologia d i E ste e G olasecca a nd o f o ther v aluable c orpora a nd s tudies h ave m ade a vailable f or s tudy p recious m aterial, a llowing u s t o s ee m ore c learly w hat w as h appening i n t he v arious a reas o f I taly d uring t he V illanovan a nd O rientalizing p hases o f i ts h istory, a nd t heir r elat ion t o e ach o ther a nd t o t he n orth.23 W e s ee, f or e xample, t hat w hile t he l ife o f t he E truscan c ities d eveloped, c hanged, a nd m oved i nto t he l ively s tream o f M editerranean h istory, t he I ron A ge c ivilization i n t he n orth c ontinued w ith v ery l ittle c hange. T he p eople s poke d ifferent l anguages--Venetic, R haetic, I llyrian, G allic ( map 9 ). T hey l earned t o 5

w rite--all b ut t he I llyrians--from t he E truscans o f C hiusi a nd i ts t erritory; a nd t hey w rote d own, i n a n orth E truscan a lphabet, s ome i nscriptions, u niquely p recious, w hich h ave a llowed l inguists t o s tudy t heir l anguages, a s a rchaeologists h ave e xamined t he d ecorat ion o f t heir b ronze w are. B ut b ecause t hey h ad n o c ities, l ife a nd a rt d eveloped n o f urther. T he g lorious d ays o f t he a ristocracy e nded, b ut m uch o f t heir a rt a nd c ulture s tayed t hus, u nchanging a nd f ossilized, u ntil t he c oming o f t he R omans. 24 I mported O rientalizing m otifs o f E truscan a rt a nd c ulture r emained i mprisoned a s i n a mber, a nd w ere a vailable f or l ater E uropean g roups t o u se i n t heir o wn a rt. T he t hird c hapter, " Situla P eople a nd E truscan A rt a nd t he A ftermath i n t he N orth," a ttempts t o s ketch t he c urious h istory o f s uch m otifs a s t he m onster w ith a l imb i n i ts m outh, a nd t he d ouble-bodied a nimal. B oth o f t hese b ecame f avorites i n E truscan a rt, f rom w hich t hey e ntered t he w orld o f s itula a rt, p artic ularly i n E ste. F rom t here s uch d esigns f ound t heir w ay i nto C eltic a nd S cythian a rt, i nto t he a rt o f t he R omanesque p eriod, w here s culptured c apitals o ffer t hem s anctuary, a nd i nto t he l ater a rt o f t he M iddle A ges, w here t hey f rolic o n t he p ages o f i lluminated m anus cripts ( figs. 8 0-92). T he f ourth c hapter d eals i n s ome d etail w ith a p articular a nd p eculiar m onument s howing t he i nfluence o f s itula a rt i n a s urprising c ontext, t hat o f t he l ast g eneration o f t he R oman R epublic i n R ome.25 " Situla A rt i n R ome: T he C orsini T hrone" i s s et a t t he m oment w hen J ulius C aesar o pened u p t he n orth, w hich h ad g one o n f or s o l ong o n i ts o wn, f or t he s econd t ime t o t he c ulture o f t he M editerranean c ities. W hen C aesar, t he f irst a nthropologist,26 c ame t o G aul, h e o bserved t he w orld a round h im a nd t old u s a ll w e k now--except f or T acitus' a ccount--about t his n orthern l and o f t he C elts a nd t he G ermans, w ith t heir f orests a nd D ruids a nd r unes. W ith C aesar c ame h is s oldiers, w ho t aught t he n atives t o s ay K aiser; t heir g eneral's n ame r emained a mong t he G ermans a s a t itle u ntil m odern t imes. S ome o f h is s oldiers b rought b ack w ith t hem t o R ome a s s ouvenirs a n umber o f t hose b ronze b uckets, t he s itulae w hich w ere s till b eing m ade i n t he n orthern r egions ( figs. 4 , 9 3). T hese m ementoes s et o ff a f ashion, a lbeit s hort-lived, f or t he e xotic w orld o f t he n orth i n f irst-century B .C. R ome. A t a t ime w hen A thenian a rtists w ere w orking t o s upply s ophisticated R omans w ith m uch-appreciated N eo-Attic o r a rchaistic r eliefs, i n t he s tyle o f " primitive" o r C lassical G reek a rt, a nd a n a rchitect w as s atisfying t he c raving o f t he w ealthy R oman, C estius, f or e xotic E gyptian m onuments--a t aste e ncouraged b y C leopatra's s uccess a nd f ame--by b uilding h im h is o wn p rivate p yramid, a R oman s culptor c arved t he m arble C orsini T hrone w ith

6

r elief d ecoration t aken f rom t he a rt o f t he s itulae ( figs. 1 02-103). C hapter F our d eals w ith t his p uzzling e xample o f t he p resence o f s itula a rt i n R ome, a nd e xamines s ome o f t he p roblems i t p resents, a s w ell a s c onsidering s ome o f t he a spects o f t he a rt o f t he s itulae w hich w ould b e s ympathetic t o R oman t aste. I n t he c limate o f A ugustan a ntiquarianism t he a rchaistic C orsini c hair c an b e u nderstood a s a n e xample o f i mit ation, r ather t han o f H ellenistic " quotation" o f e arlier s ubjects a nd m odels. W hile C icero's i deal w orld w as t hat o f t he S cipionic c ircle o f t he s econd c entury B .C., L ivy's w as t he p rimitive w orld o f R omulus a nd o ther g reat n ative h eroes. T hese w ere h eroes i magined s omething l ike t he l ords o f t he s itula p eople a t t heir b anquets. U ntil f airly r ecently, t he C orsini C hair h ad b een t hought t o b e a w ork o f t he f ourth c entury B .C.-w ith s ome j ustification, c onsidering t he a ntiquarian m ood p revalent a t t hat t ime, w hen a s eventh-century t omb w as p romoted i nto t he h eroon o f a n a ncestor, t o w hom o fferings w ere m ade,27 a nd R oman a nd E truscan n oble f amilies r epresented t heir f amilies' e arly t riumphs i n t heir t ombs a nd r ecorded t hem i n i nscriptions a s e logia. 28 B ut w e c an n ow b e c ertain o f t he C orsini's C hair's l ater d ate. I ts P entelic m arble c ould n ot b e e arlier t han t he f irst c entury B .C., a nd w e c an o nly w onder w hat p roud R oman f amily c ommissioned t his t hrone f or r itual u se i n s acrifice o r f uneral. T he s econd p art o f t his b ook d eals w ith l anguage a nd w riting, a nd E truscan i nfluence, a s w ell a s i ts l imits, t o t he n orth a nd s outh. T wo w ords, o ne f rom R ome a nd o ne f rom t he n orth, r emain i n o ur l anguages t oday t o m ark t he e xtent o f E truscan i nfluence i n e arly E urope. T he h istory o f t hese t wo w ords, E nglish t riumph ( Latin t riumphus) a nd t he G erman w ord E rz, i s t aken u p i n t his s ection. T he f irst, t riumph, s tands f or t he p roudest o f R oman h onors. T he r ite p reserves f eatures o f E truscan i nfluence i n R ome. I n t his c hapter I t race t his w ord's p assage i nto L atin b y w ay o f t he E truscan l anguage a s a s ynonym f or t he n ative w ord f or d ance, t ripudium. I h ave a lso t ried t o r econstruct t he h istorical a nd c ultural c ontext w ithin w hich b oth t he w ord t riumphus a nd t he E truscan f orm o f t he t riumph c ame t o R ome. T he p rimitive, I ndoeuropean p urification r ite r eceived a n ew n ame w hen i t w as t ransformed i nto a n o rganized m ilitary p rocession u nder a n E truscan k ing, w ho b rought t o i t t he p ageantry o f t he m onarchy a nd t he a rts a nd l uxuries o f a c ity--costumes, m usic a nd p arade, c ult s tatue a nd t emple. A n ew r eligious c enter, t he C apitoline H ill, b ecame t he g oal o f t he s plendid r itual p rocession o f t he v ictorious a rmy.29 T he C ampidoglio, s till t he c enter o f R ome t oday, w itnesses t he c ontinuity o f t he e arly E truscan l egacy i n R ome.30 d eal

T he l ast t wo c hapters, w ith t he l anguages o f t he

7

b y G iuliano B onfante, s itula p eople, a nd w ith

t he a lphabet, t he c hief b enefit E truscan c ivilization b rought t o E urope. A n a ccount o f e ach o f t he f our l anguages u sed i n t he a rea o f t he n orthern s itula a rt-R haetic, V enetic, I llyrian, a nd G allic--is f ollowed b y t he d escription o f t he s pread o f t he a lphabet i n E urope. T he E truscans t aught w riting n ot o nly t o t he L atins b ut a lso t o t he G auls, L igurians, L epontians, V eneti, R haetians, O scans, a nd U mbrians ( maps 9 -10). A s t he f irst w riting t o c ome i nto t he n orth, i n t he s ixth c entury B .C., t he E truscan a lphabet a llowed t he r ecordi ng o f t hese l anguages o f I taly--Venetic, R haetic, G allic, a nd o thers--before R ome b rought u nity a nd t he v ictory o f L atin a s t he u niversal l anguage. T he G ermanic r unes ( figs. 1 20-122), a lso b ased o n t he E truscan a lphabet, f ound t heir w ay m uch f arther n orth. J . W erner w as r ight t o c onnect t he c oming o f w riting t o n orthern E urope w ith t he i ntroduction o f t he h uman f igure i n a rt.3 1 B ut i t w as t he E truscans, n ot t he R omans, w ho b rought b oth. G iuliano B onfante a ccounts f or t he e arly d evelo pment o f t hese G ermanic a nd S candinavian r unes. I n t he n ineteenth c entury, S candinavian r unes w ere s till b eing u sed i n t he n orthernmost a reas o f E urope, b earing w itn ess t o t he e arliest c ivilizing o f E urope, l ong b efore t hat o f t he G reeks o r R omans. T he b ook c loses w ith t he e tymology o f t he G erman w ord E rz, " metal": i t d erives f rom t he E truscan c ity o f A rezzo, f amous f or i ts b ronze C himaera a nd o ther i mportant b ronze s tatues. J ust a s w e s till u se t he w ord " Bible," d eriving f rom B yblos, t he s ource o f t he p apyrus f or m aking b ooks, t he n orthern p eople w ho i mported E truscan b ronze u sed t he p roper n ame o f t his c ity a s a c ommon n oun, t o d escribe t he s ophisticated b ronze w orks o f a rt a nd t able s ervices w hich c ame t o t hem f rom t he c ities o f n orth E truria. T hus t he n ame o f A rezzo c ame t o s tand f or " bronze," o r " metal" i n g eneral.

8

N OTES ' D. a nd F .R. R idgway , I ta ly B efore t he R omans 2 39; P a llottino, T he E truscans 1 01; A . P fiffig, " Die E trusker u nd d ie e uropä ische K ultur," E inführung i n d ie E trusko logie ( Darmstadt 1 972 ) 8 5-87. 2B ibliography t o b e f ound i n t he v arious c hapters o f I ta ly B efore t he R omans ( 1979), a nd P opo li e C iviltä d e ll'Ita lia A ntica ( 1974-1978 ). F or a s ummary a nd i nterpretation o f n ew f inds a nd n ew c hrono logies, s ee f or e xamp le H . M üller-Karpe, e d., B eiträge z u i ta lienischen u nd g riechischen B ronzefunden, P rähistorische B ronzefunde 2 0, 1 ( Munich 1 974 ); r eviewed b y F .-W. v on H ase, P rähistor ische Z eitschrift 5 3 ( 1978 ) 2 84-289.

3S till b asic a re t he s tudies b y A . C hastel, " L ' ' Etruscan R eviva l d u X Ve s iecle ," R evue a rcheb logique ( 1959) 1 65-180; " Le m use e e trusque e t 1 "Etruscan R eviva l'," i n A rt e t h umanisme äF lorence ( Paris 1 959) 6 3-71. S ee a lso J . W ilton-Ely , T he M ind a nd A rt o f G .B. P iranesi ( London 1 978 ) 7-80; L . B onfante, N . d e G rummond, " Poussin e g li s pecchi e truschi," P rospettiva 2 0 ( 1980) 7 2-80.

4L ivy 1 .2; 5 .33. P a llottino, T he E truscans 9 1. A . A lfö ldi, E ar ly R ome a nd t he L atins 2 83 : " The A testine c ivilization, a t t he g ateway o f I ta ly a nd s trongly i nf luenced b y t he E truscan c ulture, t ransm itted E truscan i nf luences t oward t he n orth." E lements o f t his i nf luence " did n ot m igrate a s s imple o rnaments, b ut p resumably a long w ith t heir s piritua l b ackground." 5R ecent r esearch h as p ushed u p t he d ate o f E truscan c ontact w ith t he n orth, a s w e ll a s t he r ise o f s itula a rt : F rey , E ntstehung; F . S tare, E tr iACani i n j ugovzhodni p reda lpski p rostor ( Die E trusker u nd d er s üdöst liche V ora lpenraum ( Ljub ljana 1 975); P . W ells, J ourna l o f F ield A rchaeology 5 ( 1978 ) 26 : " Slovenian g roups w ere i n d irect o r i ndirect c ontact w ith t he E truscans f rom t he 8 th c entury B .C. o n." T he V enetic a lphabet h ad d eve loped b y t he s ixth c entury B .C., a s ar ecent i nscription s hows : G . C olonna , E ste e l a c iviltä p a leoveneta . A tti d ell'XI c ongresso d i s tudi e trusch i ei talic i ( F lorence 1 980 ) 1 89. F or E truscan i mports i nto G au l i n t he s eventh c entury B .C ., s ee S . B oucher, " Une a ire d e c ulture i ta lo-celtique a ux V II-VI s iecles a y. J .Ch.," M EFRA 8 3 ( 1969) 3 7-57; " Importations j trusques e n G aule ä l a f in d u V IIe s iecle a y. J .Ch.," G a llia 2 8 ( 1970 ) 1 93-206 ; a nd R echerches s ur l es b ronzes f igures d e G aule p rer oma ine e t r omaine ( Rome 1 976 ) 1 3ff . ( But s ee r eview o f R echerches, b y R . F leischer, G ermania 5 6 [ 1978] 6 36-643 .) O n t he

9

r outes f rom s outh t o n orth ( from M assa lia, t he P o V alley, o r G o lasecca ), s ee L . P auli, " L 'Etä d el F erro n ell'Europa c entra le ," E t äd el F erro a C omo ( Como 1 978 ) 2 7. S ee a lso , f or t he i mportance o f t he A lpine r outes, F . M ezzena , i n L 'arte p reistorica n ell'Ita lia s ettentriona le d a lle o rigini a lla c iviltä p a leoveneta ( Verona 1 978 ) 5 9. 6S ee

c hapter 2 , n . 3 6.

7S ee

c hapter 1 , p assim .

8T acitus, H ist. 3 .72.1; P liny , H N 3 4 .139; O gilvie, A C ommentary t o L ivy , B ooks 1 -5 ( Oxford 1 965 ) 2 55. E . G jerstad, " Porsenna a nd R ome," O puscula R omana 7 ( 1969) 1 59.

9L ivy 5 .33. T ranslation b y A . d e S e lincourt, T he E arly H istory o f R ome ( Harmondsworth 1 970).

1 0 O n t he w ine f rom t he R haetic A lps a bove V erona , s till o ne o f t he f inest w ine-grow ing d istricts i n I ta ly , s ee H . W arner A llen, AH istory o f W ine ( London 1 961) 1 27-128 . I t w as t he f avorite w ine o f A ugustus, a ccording t o S uetonius ( Aug . 7). R haetic w ine i s m entioned b y V ergil, G eorgics 2 , 9 6, a s ag ood w ine, t hough n ot a s g ood a s F a lernian. T he S oave s o p opular t oday c omes f rom t hat r egion o f t he V eneto .

1 G . B onfante, " Das P rob lem d es W eines u nd d ie l inguistis che P a laonto logie," A ntiquitates I ndoger i nanicae, G edenkschrift f ür H . G ünter ( Innsbruck 1 974 ) 8 5-90 . T he w ord c ame f rom L atin i nto E truscan, U mbrian, F a liscan, V o lscian a nd n orthern l anguages: I r . f in, b ret . g w in, G erm . W ein, E ng l. w ine . C f . P fiffig, E truskische S prache ( 3 10), o n v inum a s al oan-word i n E truscan ( Latin v inum ). L inguistic p roof o f t he n on-Indoeuropean o rigin o f t he w ord i s t he f act t hat t he v arious w ords f or " w ine" i n t he s evera l I ndoeuropean l anguages e xhibit n one o f t he p honetic e quiva lents w e e xpect f rom w ords o f I ndoeuropean o rigin. S upposing--as w e m ust--that t he G reek w ord w om bs p reserves t he o ldest f orm , w e w ould e xpect, f or t he d iphthong o i, a 0 i n C lassica l L atin ( o i i n A rcha ic L atin : A rchaic L atin o i i i os, C lassica l L atin O nus, G reek w oinos). I n E nglish, f or a n I ndoe uropean * oi, w e w ould e xpect ö : * wone . T he E nglish w ord w ine, h orrowed f rom t he L atin w ord v inum , " w ine ," c omes, i nstead, l ike a ll t he o thers, f rom a n on-Indoeuropean r oot ( G. B onfante, l oc. c it.). A n i nteresting a rchaeo logica l d ocument i n c onnection w ith t his t heme i s al ate B ronze A ge e wer f rom A krotiri, o n T hera ( 1600-1500 B .C.), w ith r epresentation o f b unches o f g rapes. T hese " seem t o m ark t he f irst a ppearance o f g rapes i n A egean a rt, a lthough t he f ruit h ad a lready b een c ultivated f or o ver a t housand y ears": G reek A rt o f t he A egean I slands ( New Y ork 1 979) C at . N o . 2 9 .

1 2

R ichardson, T he E truscans 1 3, 3 8 , 7 5.

1 0

1 3 O n w omen 's s tatus i n t he s outhern E truscan c ities, s ee L . B onfante W arren, " The W omen o f E truria ," A rethusa 6 ( 1973) 9 1ff .; A rchaeology 2 6 ( 1973) 2 42ff.; L . B onfante, " Etruscan C ouples," W omen 's S tudies ( forthcom ing).

1 4 M en r ecline t ogether o n c ouches i n t omb p a intings a nd r eliefs o f t he A rcha ic p eriod f rom C hiusi ( Bianchi B andinelli, C lusium [ 1939] 1 8-19, p l. Va , f ig. 1 9), a s o n G reek v ase p aintings a nd t he p a intings o f t he G reek T omba d el T uffatore f rom P aestum ' (M . N apo li, L a t omba d el t uffatore, B ari 1 970). T hough t wo d ecorated s itulae w ere f ound i n ar ich w oman 's g rave i n N ovo M esto, s itulae a re g enera lly t ypica l o f m en 's g raves: T . K nez, " Neue W erke d er S itulenkunst a us N ovo M esto," A rchaeo logia I ugoslavica 1 5 ( 1974) 1 8 . O n t he u se o f t he s itulae, a nd t he d rinking-sets w hich a ccompanied t hem, f or s erving w ine, s ee G hirardini, " La s itula i ta lica p rim itiva s tudiata s pecia lmente i n E ste," M onAnt I ( 1893) c o ls. 1 95-198 . T he i nscription i n t he R haetic l anguage o n o ne s itula s pecifica lly d esignates i t a s ac ontainer u sed f or w ine : p he lna v inutalina, t hat i s, " s itu la f or w ine" ( P isani 3 23, N o. 1 37; s ee i nfra c hapter 6 , p . 12).

1 5 O n t he r ounded E truscan m antle, s ee B onfante, E truscan D ress 4 8, 1 06. T he s hape m ay h ave c ome i n m uch e arlier t han t he s ixth c entury B .C. S ee E . P eruzzi, M yceneans i n E arly L atium ( forthcom ing); " Tebenna," E uphrosyne 7 ( 1976) 1 37-143, w ho c onnects t he I ta lic n ame o f t he r ounded m antle w ith a M ycenean r oot a nd s uggests a n e arly, n orthern o rigin f or b oth t he n ame a nd t he g arment.

1 6 H . M encken, M ecklenburg C ollection, P art I ( Cambridge 1 968); M ecklenburg C ollection, P art I ( Cambridge 1 978 ). P . W e lls, " The E xcavations o f S tit 'na i n S lovenia b y t he D uchess o f M ecklenburg, 1 905-1914," J ourna l o f F ield A rchaeology 5 ( 1978 ) 2 15-226; a nd " A S tatuette f rom S ti n ia ( S lovenia)," A rchNews 7 ( 1978 ) 7 3-82.

1 7 C . M origi G ovi, " Il t intinnabulo d ella T omba d egli O n ," A rcheologia C lassica 2 3 ( 1971) 2 11-235.

1 8

S ee c hapter 2 , n . 4 .

P . W e lls, " West-Central E urope a nd t he M editerranean, T he D ecline i n T rade i n t he F ifth C entury B .C .," E xpedit ion 2 1 ( 1979) 1 8-24; B oucher, s upra n . 5 . Z uffa, B ib liography S ect ion A . 1 9

2 0

F or b ibliography o n a mber t rade, s ee c hapter 2 , n .

2 1 D ie H allstattkultur, C ata log o f a n e xhibit h eld a t S chloss L amberg, 1 980, g ives a n e xcellent s ummary . F or t he H irschlanden k ouros, s ee c hapter 3 , n . 1 0.

1

1 00.

2 J . B iel, " Das f röhke ltische F örstengrab v on E berdingenH ochdorf, L andkreis L udw igsburg," D enkma lspf lege i n B adenW örttemberg, N achrichtenblatt d es L andesdenkma lamtes 7 ( Oct .-Dec. 1 978 ) 1 68-175.

2 3 P opo li e C iviltä d e ll'Ita lia A nt ica f urnishes a n u p-to-date g uide. F or a ll t hese, s ee t he B ibliography . 2 4 B ut t he g roup s cenes s how ing a ristocratic a ctivities o n t he e ar lier m onuments o f s itula a rt d uring t he " proto-urban" p hase o f t heir c ulture a re n o l onger p resent o n t he l ater s heet b ronze v otive p laques f rom s anctuaries a t E ste . T he l atter s how s ingle i ndividua ls, o r p rocessions o f m en a nd w omen, p robably t he p eople d edicating t hese g ifts ( Frey , E ntstehung 6 0-61). H . R oth, " Venetische E xvoto-Täfelchen a us V icenza , C orso P a lladio," G ermania 5 6 ( 1978 ) 1 72-189 w ith b ibl.; G . F ogo lari, " Dischi b ronzei f igurati d i T reviso," B oll.d 'Arte 4 1 ( 1956 ) 1 10 ; P a leoveneti d i V icenza ( V icenza 1 963).

J . W erner d escribes t he c ulture o f t he G ermanic t ribes i n t he t ime o f T acitus a s p ure ly p rehistor ic, c omparable t o t he c ulture o f t he m iddle E uropean H a llstatt p eriod, s even h undred y ears e arlier : J . W erner, D as A ufkommen v on B ild u nd S chrift i n N ordeuropa ( Munich 1 966) 7 . 2 5 E .S. G ruen, T he L ast G eneration o f t he R oman R epublic ( Berkeley 1 974 ). C f . L .A . H olland, L ucretius t he T ranspadane ( Princeton 1 979 ).

2 6

E .J . B ickerman, " Origines G entium ," C P 4 7 ( 1952) 6 5-8 1.

2 7

P . S ommella, R endiconti P ont. A cc . 4 4 ( 1971-72 ) 4 7-74 .

2 8 M . T orelli, E logia T arquiniensia ( F lorence 1 975). C f. T . C orne ll's r eview , J RS 6 8 ( 1978 ) 1 67-173. L . B onfante, " Historica l A rt : E truscan a nd E ar ly R oman," A merican J ourna l o f A ncient H istory 3 ( 1978 ) 1 36-162.

2 9 L . B onfante W arren, " Roman T riumphs a nd E truscan K ings : : The C hanging F ace o f t he T riumph," J RS 6 0 ( 1970 ) 4 9-66; a nd r eview o f H .S . V ersne l, T riumphus ( Leiden 1 970 ), i n G nomon 4 6 ( 1974 ) 5 74-583. T he t riumph, o rigina lly a r itua l i ntended t o Arify t he a rmy f rom t he b lood g uilt i t h ad i ncurred i n t he w ar, s oon w as s een a s as acrifice f or v ictory r ather t han a p urificat ion r itua l.

3 0 T he w ea lth o f a rchaeologica l m aterial n ow a vailable f rom R ome a nd L atium a s ar esult o f i ncredibly s uccessful s a lvage e xcavations h as a llowed u s t o s ee m ore c learly t he r e lations o f R ome , o ther s ett lements i n L atium , a nd t he s outhern E truscan c ities i n t he e ighth a nd s eventh c enturies B .C., a nd t o a ssist a t t he b irth o f t his c ity t he E truscans w ere s oon t o b eautify . C iviltä d el L azio P rim itivo ( Rome 1 976); L a N aissance d e R ome

1 2

( Paris 1 976). E . P eruzzi, A spetti C ultura li d el L azio P rim itivo ( Florence 1 978 ); A . A lföldi, R öm ische F rühgeschichte ( Heidelberg 1 976); L . Q uilici, R oma P rimitiva e l e o rigini d ella c iviltä l azia le ( Rome 1 979). 3 1 J . W erner, D as A ufkommen v on B ild u nd S chrift i n N ordeuropa ( Munich 1 966).

1 3

P ART E TRUSCAN

I NFLUENCE T HE

S ITULA

I I N

T HE

P EOPLE

N ORTH:

C hapter E TRUSCAN I N

D RESS

N ORTHERN

A ND

I TALY

1 C IVILIZATION A ND

B EYOND

T he E truscans b rought w riting a nd c ivilization t o a ll o f E urope. I n t his s tudy, I s hall d eal b riefly w ith e arly E truscan i nfluence i n a s pecific a rea, i mmediately t o t he n orth o f E truria p roper. I s hall

f ocus

o n

t hree

p oints:

1 . T he s tudy o f t he d etails o f e veryday l ife, a nd e specially d ress, r eflected i n t he a rt o f t he a rea n orth o f E truria a llows u s t o t race E truscan i nfluence, a nd i ts d ate. E specially i mportant a re c ontacts w ith N orth E truria. 2 . T hese o utlying a reas w ere c onservative i n t heir a rt a nd c ustoms, s uch a s t heir w ay o f d ressing, a nd c ertain s tyles, c ustoms, a nd m otifs, o nce a dopted, l asted m uch l onger h ere t han i n E truria i tself, w here t hey o riainated. 3 . P erhaps s ome p arallels c an b e d rawn a s t o t he w ay e arly R ome a lso r eceived E truscan i nfluence, a nd p reserved a rchaic f orms. N orthern I taly a nd R ome, a t t he n orthern a nd s outhern b orders o f E truria, a dopted E truscan a rt, E truscan f ashions, a nd t he a rt o f w riting f rom E truria. B ut t he N orth I talian p eoples, a nd t he R omans t oo, t urned w hat t hey l earned f rom t he E truscans t o t heir o wn u se. T here w as a g reat , d eal t hey b orrowed f rom t he E truscans. B ut c ertain t hings, n otably G reek m ythology, w hich t he E truscans a dopted, w ere r ejected b y t he n orthern p eoples, a s w ell a s b y t hose s uccessful s outhern p eoples w e c all t he R omans. N ow l et u s t ake a l ook a t w hat w as h appening o n t he n orthern f ringes o f t he E truscan w orld i n t he s eventh a nd s ixth c enturies B .C. T his w as w hen a n a rt d eveloped i n t hese n orthern r egions, a t a s pecial m oment i n h istory, w hich h as e arned a s pecial n ame: " situla a rt." I t w as a s pecialty o f b ronze s miths w ho w orked o n " situlae," o r b ronze h andled b uckets, o ther b ronze t ableware f or d rinking, a nd o rnaments s uch a s b elt b uckles; a nd i t f lourished i n N orth I taly--in t he P o V alley a s w ell a s f arther n orth, i n t he r egion a round

1 5

V enice--and, b eyond, t o t he n orth, i n t he a nd a s f ar a way a s A ustria a nd Y ugoslavia

A lpine r egions ( maps 1 , 4 ). 1

B ronze s itulae a nd o ther b ronze o bjects w ere o ften d ecorated w ith f igured s cenes o f m en a nd w omen, a nd p rocessions o f O rientalizing a nimals. T hese m onum ents o f " situla a rt" w ere m ade i n p re-Roman t imes b y p eoples w ho s poke d ifferent l anguages, b ut w ho s hared a s kill i n b ronze w orking, a nd d eveloped a c ertain a rtistic s tyle. S ince a c ommon c ulture e mbraced t hese d ifferent p eoples, I w ill r efer t o t hem a ll a s " situla p eople," u sing a n a rchaeological r ather t han a l inguist ic n ame. T heir a rt s hows t hat t hey s hared a t ype o f l ife--a l ife t hat w e k now q uite a b it a bout, s ince t he w ealthy a nd i mportant m en a mong t hem c ommissioned a nd u sed d ecorated b ronze o bjects o n w hich t he i mportant o ccasions o f t heir l ives w ere d epicted. T he p eoples o f N orth I taly, a nd o thers o f t he a rea o f s itula a rt, p articipated i n t he c ulture t o t he n orth o f t hem, t he H allstatt I ron A ge i n E urope; t hey w ere a lso i nfluenced b y t he E truscans, t heir n eighbors t o t he s outh. 2 W hen I f irst b egan t o s tudy t he c lothes r epres ented o n t he s itulae, I w as p uzzled b y t he f act t hat t hese w ere v ery l ike t he c lothes t ypical o f t he s eventh c entury i n E truria. A t t hat t ime s itulae t ended t o b e d ated i n t he m id-sixth c entury a t t he e arliest. 3 I w ondered h ow o ne c ould a ccount f or t his d ifference i n d ate. N ow, t he d ating o f t he B envenuti s itula ( figs. 3 4 ) 4 a nd o f a nother m onument o f s itula a rt ( figs. 5 -6) t o a round 6 00 B .C. b y t heir t omb c ontexts r emoves a ny d ifficulty i n t his d ating. T his o ther e arly e xample o f s itula a rt d ating t o a round 6 00 B .C. i s a b ronze o bject f rom B ologna ( figs. 5 -6), a s o-called " tintinnabulum," a l arge p endant i n t he s hape o f a n a xe, m ade o f t wo s heets o f b ronze f astened t ogether. 5 F ound i n t he t omb o f a w ealthy m atron, t hirty t o f orty y ears o ld, i t h ad b een i n t he B ologna M useum f or a l ong t ime, b ut i t w as o nly r ecently c leaned, r evealing a d esign r epresenting w omen s pinning a nd w eaving w ool. S ide B ( fig. 6 ) s hows t he m ost e labo rate l oom k nown f rom a ntiquity, a t wo-storied a ffair w ith a l ady w orking i n i t f rom a bove, s eated i n a n a rm c hair. T his r epresentation o f w ool w orking a grees w ith t he i mportance o f t he m anufacture o f h eavy w oolen f abr ics i n t he n orth, e xamples o f w hich w e s hall s ee l ater. T he i mportance o f s uch m anufacture o f h ome-spun, p laidp atterned w ool i s s till a ttested b y P liny f or R oman t imes .6 O n t his b ronze a re a n umber o f f eatures o f d ress a nd f urnishings t ypical o f s itula a rt: t he c hairs ( the b osses a re m eant t o i ndicate t he d ecorated b ronze r elief p lates c overing t he o riginal m odels); t he s itula-

1 6

s haped c ontainers ( here a pparently m ade o f w icker, a nd u sed a s b askets); t he f an h anging o n t he w all ( fig. 5 , l ower r egister); t he d ress o f t he w omen, w ith t he l ong t extured w oolen m antles p ulled o ver t heir h eads, i n a l ate-seventh-century N orth E truscan s tyle. A ll t hese e lements w e s hall s ee o n o ther m onuments o f s itula a rt. S itula a rt i n g eneral b etrays v arious i nfluences . F irst, t he t ype a nd s hape o f b ronze b ucket ( figs. 3 , 4 8) w as c ommon i n n orthern E urope, i n t he H allstatt r egion.7 S econd, t he c raft o f b ronze w orking w as p robably a lso l earned f rom t he n orth, a lthough i t m ay h ave c ome f rom t he s outh--from E truria, f or t he E truscans w ere a lways s killful m etal w orkers, a nd i n f act E truscan w ealth i n t he s eventh c entury w as b ased o n t he m ineral m ines o f N orth E truria ( Populonia, f or e xample ). 8 I t h as r ecently b een s uggested t hat t he G erman w ord E rz m ay d erive f rom " Arezzo," t he n ame o f a n E truscan c ity f amous f or i ts b ronze w orking. 9 N ext, t he o rganization o f t he d ecoration i n r egisters, w ith p rocessions o f f igures a nd a nimals, w as b orrowed f rom t he E ast--from P hoenician a rt, b y w ay o f E truria. T he s itula p eoples e vidently h ad a s m odels s o-called P hoenician b owls a nd o ther m etalwork i mported i nto E truria f rom t he E ast i n t he s eventh c entury a nd f ound i n w ealthy E truscan t ombs o f t his p eriod, s uch a s t he g ilt s ilver b owl f rom t he B arberini t omb i n P raeneste.1 0 T he " Plicasnas" v ase, a s imilarly e ngraved P hoenician-style b owl p robably m ade i n C erveteri, a nd f ound i n C hiusi, i s i mportant f or t he b eginning o f t he O rientalizing s tyle i n n orthe rn E truria ( fig. 5 0). ( Interestingly e nough, i t h as h andles, a nd i s s haped s omething l ike a s itula.) 1 1 I n f act, r elief f riezes w ith t iny f igures w ere a lso c hara cteristic o f C hiusi, w here t hey d ecorated t he b lack m etallic b ucchero w are o f t he r egion ( fig. 5 4). W e s hall s ee t hat C hiusi s eems t o b e t he c rossroads o f c ommerce b etween n orthern a nd s outhern E truria, a nd t he c enter f rom w hich E truscan i nfluence r adiated n orthw ard ( maps 2 , 1 0) . 12 F inally, t he p rimary E truscan c ontribution t o s itula a rt i s i n t he f igures t hat p opul ate t he r egisters. A nd i n f act t he m ost i nteresting t hing a bout t his s itula a rt i s t he p icture o f t he d aily l ife o f t his r egion i t g ives u s, i n s cenes o f b anquets, g ames, p arades, a nd l ovemaking. W e o f

m ust

l ook

a t

t hese

f igures

f rom

t wo

p oints

v iew:

1 . W hat r eflected t he a ctual l ife o f t hese p eoples, a s a gainst w hat w as b orrowed a s a c onvention f rom a nother a rt? I n o ther w ords, w hat w as " real" o n t he s cenes s hown o n t hese s itulae? 2 . W hat w as E truscan? W e c an, I t hink, g et a p icture o f d aily l ife i n N orth I taly, a nd a t t he s ame t ime t race t he n orthward i nfluence o f E truscan c ustoms, f ashions, a nd s kills--that c omplex w e c all " civilizat ion." 1 7

A nd w as

T he c ivilization, t he a rt a nd m otifs t he r outes o f i nfluence a re v aried. B ut c learly E truscan.

a re o ne

G reek. o f t hem

A n umber o f m otifs i n t he a nimal f riezes w ere b orrowed f rom E truscan a rt i n t he s eventh c entury, w hen E truria e xercised i ts g reatest i nfluence i n t he n orth. T he r ows o f O rientalizing a nimals w hich d ecorate t he l ower r egister o f m any o f t hese s itulae a re c ertainly n ot " real." T hey a re a rtistic c onventions, u ltimately d erived f rom O riental a rt, w hich t he G reeks h ad t aken o ver, a nd p assed o n, t ransformed, t o t he w hole M editerr anean. B ut s ome s pecial f eatures s how t hat t hese a rtistic m otifs c ame t hrough E truscan a rt t o t he n orth, n ot f rom G reece d irectly. O ne i s t he l eg d angling f rom t he l ion's m outh, a c haracteristic, a nd g ory, E truscan m otif.13 I t a ppears o n t he V aC 'e s itula f rom Y ugoslavia ( figs. 7 , 7 5), t he B oldl-Dolfin s itula ( fig. 1 5), a nd o ther m onuments, i ncluding t he l ater b elt h ook f rom E ste ( figs. 7 4, 7 8-79). T he q uaint m otif o f p lants g rowing o ut o f a nimals' m ouths i s l ikewise a f eature o f E truscan O rientalizing a rt ( figs. 4 , 7 , 1 3-15).14 A lso E truscan i s t he d ressed c entaur, s een o n t he B envenuti s itula ( fig. 4 ) a nd t he O ppeano h elmet ( fig. 7 2). C entaurs w earing c lothes a re o ccasionally s een i n e arly G reek a rt ( fig. 2 0), b ut t hey r emain p opular i n E truria,15 w here t hey w ear e ither s hort t runks, l ike t he c entaur o n t he s itula a nd o n a b ronze s tatuette i n H anover ( fig. 2 1), o r e lse a b elted r obe o r c hiton, a s o n t he P ania s itula, a n i vory b ox f rom C hiusi d one i n a b elated O rientalizing s tyle i n t he e arly s ixth c entury B .C. ( fig. 2 3; c f. f ig. 1 9).16 I n c ontrast t o t he a nimal f riezes, t he h uman f igures s eem t o b e r eal. T hey a re o bserved f rom l ife, a nd, a lthough " primitive," t hey a re v ery m uch a live. T he c lothes t hey w ear a lso s eem t o b e p ortrayed f rom l ife. T hey a re t ypical o f t he s eventh c entury B .C. i n E truria. T he w ide, p laid-patterned m antles o f t he m en r esemble t he p laid m antles o f m ale m ourners, r ealistic ally p ortrayed o n t erracotta u rns f rom C hiusi, i n N orth E truria ( fig. 2 4).17 P laid p atterns w ere p articularly p opular i n t he n orth. T he p laid m antles o f t he w omen, a lways w orn o ver t he h ead, n ot i n m ourning b ut a s a r egular f ashion, w ere a lso t aken o ver f rom E truria, w here t his w as t he s tyle a round 6 00 B .C. T hey a re l ike t hose o f w omen o n a nother i vory b ox f rom C hiusi, a lso d ating f rom t he s ixth c entury ( though i ts s tyle i s t ypical o f t he l ater s eventh c entury) a nd l ike t hose o f s everal b ronze s tatuettes f rom N orth E truria ( figs. 2 2, 2 6). 1 8 T he w omen o n t he s itulae w ear t his m antle o ver a f ull, w ide c hiton o r r obe ( on t he P rovidence s itula, f ig. 8 , t he f olds a ppear a s a s calloped h em). T he t ight, e laborately d ecorated m etal b elt o f t he w omen o n t he P rovidence s itula i s a n O rientalizing f ashion

1 8

a lso f ound o n s eventh-century E truscan f igures. P erhaps t heir e arrings ( if t hat i s w hat t hey a re) a re a lso a n E truscan f ashion, a gain o f t he s eventh c entury. 1 9 M ale s ervants w ear t hree-Quarter-length r obes o r c hitons w hich r each b elow t he k nees ( fig. 4 ). T hese a re r are i n G reece, b ut t hey a re c ommon i n N orth E truria, w here t hey a re f ound o n a n umber o f m onuments o f t he s ixth c entury. ( They w ere p robably a lso w orn e arlier, b ut c overed o ver b y a m antle.) 20 W e s ee s uch a g arment w orn b y a w arrior o n a s tele f rom V olterra,2 1 a nd b y m ale a ttendants--as o n t he s itulae--on o ne o f t he t errac otta f riezes f rom M urlo, n ear S iena, w hose a rt i s r elated t o t he s tyle o f C hiusi ( fig. 3 1). B oth t he s tele a nd t he f rieze s how f igures h olding a k nife; t he f igure s econd f rom t he r ight i n t he f rieze f rom M urlo, a n a ttendant, h olds i t f or h is m aster, s hown s eated i n f ront o f h im. M ale a ttendants b efore a c arriage, o n a nother f rieze f rom M urlo, a re a lso d ressed t his w ay ( fi g . 3 2).22 I n c ontrast t o t hese E truscan b orrowings, s ome o f t he h ats s eem t o b e l ocal c reations. T hey c ome i n m any s tyles, a s w e s ee f or i nstance o n t he P rovidence s itula. L ike t he w omen, m en r egularly h ave t heir h eads c overed. O nly a f ew m en a re b are-headed: s ervants, a nd n aked b oxers. E meline R ichardson's i nteresting o bservat ion t hat h ats o n E truscan m ale f igures a lways s ignify d ivinities o r a t l east p riests23 d oes n ot a pply i n t he w orld o f t he s itulae; b y t hat t oken, t here w ould b e o nly g ods a nd p riests r epresented! A t l east o ne k ind o f h at, a f lat b eret s omething l ike a G reek p illeus, i s w orn b y s ervants, j udges, a nd a ll s orts o f p eople i n b etween; i t i s e vidently n ot a s ign o f s tatus.24 O ne k ind o f h at, w hich i s s urely l ocal, i s c overed w ith a p attern o f i ncised l ines a nd l ooks s omet hing l ike a k nit T am o 'Shanter. I t i s w orn b y g entlem en o n t he P rovidence s itula ( fig. 8 ; t wo b oxers h ave p ut t heirs c onspicuously o n t op o f t heir c lothes), a nd o n o ne o r t wo o ther m onuments.25 O ther h ats, o nce t hought t o b e o f a l ocal s tyle, c an n ow b e c onnected w ith f ashions r epresented a t M urlo, n ear S iena, i n N orth E truria. T his i s t rue o f t he m ost p eculiar h at f ound o n t he s itulae, a w ide-brimmed h at, d efinitely a s ign o f s tatus, w orn b y i mportant g entlem en. L ike m any f ashions r epresented o n p rovincial m onuments, i ts s ize a nd s alient f eatures a re e mphasized i n o rder t o m ake i t r eadily r ecognizable, a nd i mpress ive. T his h at i s v ery s imilar t o t he " cowboy" h at w orn b y t he s eated f igure o f a g entleman f rom M urlo ( or p erhaps, i n t his c ase, a g od?), d ating, l ike t he r elief w e s aw b efore, f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he s ixth c entury ( fig. 2 8).26 I t i s t rue t hat t he h ats o n t he s itulae d o n ot h ave t he h igh p oint o f t he E truscan e xample f rom M urlo;

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b ut t his d ifference m ay b e d ue t o a l ocal a daptation o f t he s ame b asic s tyle. T his f igure w as p laced o n t he r idgepole o f t he r oof i n a f rieze-like c omposition w hich -like t he a rt o f t he s itulae--included O rientalizing a nimals. O bviously m eant t o r epresent a n i mportant p ersonage, h e w ears p ointed s hoes, i n t he E truscan m anner, l ike a v ery s imilar f igure o n t he B envenuti s itula ( fig. 2 7; c f. 2 9), a nd a n umber o f f igures f rom H allstatt d ating f rom t he L a T ene p eriod ( fig. 3 0). 2 7 T he e normous b rim o f t hese h ats o n t he s itulae u sed t o b e c ompared w ith t he h eaddress w orn b y t he a lmost l ife-size s tatue o f t he C apestrano w arrior f rom C hieti, e ast o f R ome, i n a p rovincial a rea ( fig. 7 0) . 28 B ut i t i s a h elmet t he C apestrano w arrior i s w earing, a s p art o f h is a rmor, w hereas t he h ead c overings w orn b y t he s eated f igures f rom t he s itulae a nd f rom M urlo a re h ats, p robably m ade o f l eather, o r f elt. T hey e vidently r emained i n u se f or a l ong t ime; f or m uch l ater, a round 2 00 B .C., P lautus r idicules ( Trinummus 8 51-852) a m an w ho c omes i n l ooking l ike a m ushroom, b ecause h e w ears t he b road-brimmed I llyrian h at. P lautus i s p robably r eferring t o t his c ostume w hich, a s t he s itulae i ndicate, w as p revalent i n n orthern I taly, a nd e specially i n r egions t raditionally i dentified w ith t he I llyrians. 2 9 I n f act, w e k now c ostumes w ere l ong l asting i n t his p eripheral a rea. A nother t ype o f h at f ound o n t he s itulae a lso f inds i ts c ounterpart i n t he a rtistic a rea o f C hiusi: t he p ointed s tocking c ap o f j ockeys a nd c harioteers i n h orse r aces a nd c hariot r aces ( figs. 5 2-53). T he d epiction o f t he o nes o n t he s itulae i s, a gain, e xtreme. T here a re s ome l ovely e xamples, f loating i n t he w ind b ehind m adly c areening c harioteers a nd r iders, o n t he A rnoaldi a nd t he K uffarn s itulae ( figs. 1 2, 1 4).30 T hey a lso o ccur o n t he E truscan h orseback r iders f rom M urlo ( fig. 3 4). 3 1 A h orseman f rom A dria ( fig. 5 1) w ears a s imilar h at, c haracteristic o f r iders ( cf. f ig. 5 3).32 T wo o ther a rticles o f c lothing c an b e c onnected w ith e arly E truscan o r V illanovan m onuments. T he c entaur a nd s ome s oldiers o n t he B envenuti s itula ( fig. 4 ) w ear a r ounded, o r o val-shaped b elt o f a t ype a ctually f ound i n t ombs o f t he r egion ( figs. 4 2-44) r elated t o a k ind f requently f ound i n V illanovan t ombs i n E truria f rom t he n inth t o t he s eventh c enturies. T he b elt t ype i s a lso r epresented o n s eventh-century E truscan f igures, f or e xample, s ome b ronze s tatuettes o f s oldiers a nd a crobats i n t he M useum a t S iena ( figs. 3 9-40). 33 T he h elmets w ith p oints w orn b y s oldiers o n t he C ertosa s itula a re o f a l ocal t ype, r einforced w ith r ound p laques a round t he s ides a nd o n t op( f ig. 9 ).34 O ne i s t empted t o c ompare t he p oints o f t hese h elmets w ith t hose o f a t ype f ound i n t ombs o f t he

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V illanovan p eriod, s ome o f t he s eated

w hich m ay a lso b e r epresented o n a kroterion f igures f rom M urlo.

T he r epeated c omparisons w ith f igures f rom M urlo, a nd i n g eneral w ith t he r egion o f C hiusi, a re i nteresting; f or c onservative t endencies c aused C hiusi, t oo, t o p reserve u nderlying V illanovan t raditions, t hat i s, t raditions o f a n e arlier, I ron A ge p eriod i n t his p art o f I taly.3 6 I n t he E ste r egion, t raditions a nd c ostumes o f a n e arlier p eriod l asted r ight i nto t he f ourth a nd t hird c enturies B .C., a nd e ven l ater; 37 t he l ocal p eople w ent o n w earing t he s ame c lothes, i ncludi ng e arlier E truscan f ashions, f or a l ong, l ong t ime. O ther d etails o f s cenes r epresented o n t he s itulae, m ostly m ilitary p arades, b anquets, a nd g ames, a lso s how s pecifically N orth E truscan i nfluence. T he a xe w hich i dentifies t he o fficers i n t he m ilitary p arade o n t he u pper r egister o f t he C ertosa s itula, f or e xample, a s w ell a s i n o ther s itula a rt--on t he V aC/e s itula i t i s h eld b y a j udge ( fig. 7 ); o n t he B envenuti s itula i t a ppears o n t he g round b elow t he s itulae ( fig. 4 )--occurs i n n orthern E truria o n f unerary s telai s howi ng w arriors i n f ull d ress u niform: o n a s tele f rom F iesole, f or e xample, o r a v ery p rimitive o ne f rom L iguria, f arther n orth ( fig. 6 8). T he C apestrano W arrior a lso h olds o ne ( fig. 7 0). T hese w ere e vidently s ymbols o f r ank, f or m en a s w ell a s f or w omen; w e h ave s een t hat t he B ologna p endant, a w omen's o rnament o r b adge ( figs. 5 -6), w as a xe-shaped. T he s ymbol c ontinued t o b e i mportant i n E truscan a rt, a nd w as t aken o ver i n R ome, w here i t k ept i ts b asic m eaning f or t he p ower o f t he c ommanding g enera1.38 A s f or t he b anquet a nd p rocession s cenes, a dmittedly t hese s how a g ood d eal o f l ocal c olor: f urnishings l ike s itulae a nd t ableware, a nd a rmor l ike t hat b uried w ith t hese p eople i n t heir t ombs. B ut m any f urnishings w ere e ither i mported f rom E truria, a cross t he b order, o r i mitated f rom E truscan m odels. T he f ans, f or e xample, a re s imilar t o t hose r epresented i n E truscan a rt, a nd f ound i n E truscan t ombs l ike t he T omba d ei F labelli a t P opulonia ( fig. 3 6). W e s ee t hem i n t he c arriage s cene, a nd o n a nother o f t he r eliefs f rom M urlo, a s a ttributes o f a l ady ( figs. 3 1-32), o r h anging o n t he w all, i n t he B ologna p endant ( fig. 5 ). 39 C arriages, c arts a nd o ther w heeled c onveyances r epres ented i n s itula a rt ( figs. 3 7-38) r emind u s o f t he i mportance o f h orses i n t hese r egions, a s w ell a s o f t he a rtistic f unerary m otif o f t he j ourney t o t he u nderworld i n a c arriage, t ypical o f n orthern I taly. 40 T he c hairs t he b anqueters s it i n a re t ypically „ s eventh-century E truscan m odels ( figs. 9 4, 9 6, 9 8-10 1) . ' O riginally m ade o f w icker, o r o f w ood, t hey w ere c overed

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w ith e mbossed m etal p lates. T hey w ere n ot p eculiar t o N orth E truria i n t he s eventh c entury; b ut t he t ype l asted l onger i n t he n orth, e specially a t C hiusi, w here s uch c hairs w ere u sed f or t erracotta f unerary u rns o f t he d eceased, o r f or s tone s tatues. I n t he r elief f rieze o f t he s eated f igures f rom M urlo a nd i n t he B ologna p endant t hese c hairs a re u sed b y w omen ( figs. 31, 5 -6); o n m ost s itulae i t i s m en w ho s it i n t hem, e specially a t b anquets ( figs. 4 , 7 -8, 1 2-13, 9 9-100). E arly E truscan b anquets w ere l ike t he b anquets o r s ymposia r epresented o n t hese s itulae i n t hat E truscan b anqueters s at b efore a t able, a nd w ere s o r epresented i n t heir t ombs ( fig. 4 9). T wo r ecently p ublished m onuments i llustrate t he c ustom: a s eventhc entury t erracotta u rn f rom M ontescudaio ( near V olterra l i n t he n orth), r ecently c leaned a nd s tudied ( fig. 4 5); 4 z a nd a t omb o f t he s eventh c entury a t C erveteri, w here t erracotta f igures w ere s eated i n c hairs b efore t ab les. 43 T he M ontescudaio u rn s hows a m an s eated b efore a f ull t able, w aited o n b y a s ervant g irl. B eside h er, a s o n t he s itulae, i s a h uge w ine c rater. S he a lso o riginally h eld a f an, w ith w hich s he f anned t he s eated g entleman ( fig. 4 5). T his e arly E truscan e xample o f t he p opular t heme o f t he b anquet, a ppropriately f or o ur p urpose, c omes f rom N orth E truria. I n t he s eventh c entury i n E truria, t hen, m en s it a t t he b anquet, a s t hey d o i n s itula a rt. B ut d uring t he s ixth c entury, f ashionable E truscans b egan t o b anquet i n t he G reek s tyle, r eclining o n c ouches. T his o ccurs f or t he f irst t ime o n t he f rieze p laques f rom M urlo, i n t he s tyle o f C hiusi ( fig. 3 3).44 S omewhat l ater w e s ee t he h usband a nd w ife c ouple o n t he V illa G iulia a sh u rn r eclining t ogether o n a h andsome c ouch. I n c ontrast t o E truria, i n t he s itula a rt i t i s o nly v ery l ate--well i nto t he f ifth c entury--that w e f inally g et a p icture o f a b anqueter r eclining o n a c ouch, i nstead o f s itting. O n a b elt h ook f rom E ste i s a s cene o f a b anqueter r eclining ( fig. 4 6).45 H e n ow u ses l ater, E truscan-style t ableware: a S chnabelkanne ( a k ind o f E truscan p itcher w idely e xported i n t he s ixth a nd f ifth c enturies; m ap 5 ) a nd a h andled c up o r k ylix, e ither a G reek i mport o r a n E truscan b ucchero m ode1.46 Y et h e i s s till d ining a lone, i n t he n orthern s tyle. A nd b oth h e a nd t he w oman w ho s erves h im a re s till d ressed i n t he s eventh-century p laid c ostumes, n ow l ong o ut o f f ashion i n E truria p roper. A lthough E truria e xercised i ts m ain i nfluence i n N orth I taly i n t he s eventh c entury B .C., t here w as a n ew w ave o f i nfluence i n t he s ixth c entury a nd l ater, w hen E truscan l uxury g oods a nd f ashions--bronze p itchers a nd p ointed s hoes, f or e xample--were i mported i n g reat q uantities a nd w idely i mitated. 47 I n t he s ixth c entury, 2 2

t he E truscans s tarted t o d ecorate t he b acks o f m irrors w ith e ngraved s cenes, a nd s oon t he N orth I talians b orr owed t his c haracteristic E truscan t echnique. E truscan a rtists d ecorate t he b acks o f t heir m irrors w ith m ythol ogical s cenes a nd f igures t aken f rom G reek a rt ( fig. 5 5), a s w ell a s s cenes f rom t heir o wn d aily l ife; t he t wo m irrors w e h ave f rom N orth I taly a re b oth d ecorated w ith f igures l ike t hose o f t he s itulae. O n t he m irror f rom C astelvetro, n ear M odena, a re t heir u sual s cenes o f d aily l ife, i ncluding t his t ime a s cene o f a c ouple m aking l ove ( fig. 5 6). T hese l ove s cenes i n s itula a rt a ll s how i nteresting l ocal f eatures, w hich w e s hall e xamine l ater. O n t he A rnoaldi m irror w e s ee t he h eroi zed f igure o f a t rumpeter ( fig. 5 7).48 O ther s cenes o n t he s itulae s how a s trong d ebt t o E truscan c ustom, f or e xample t he c hariot a nd h orse r aces, i n w hich, a s B ronson h as s hown, j ockeys a nd c harioteers p ractice t he d aredevil t rick o f t ying t heir r eins a bout t heir w aists, t o g ive t hem e xtra p ower a t t he t urns--a d angerous t rick N orth I talians a nd R omans b oth l earned f rom t he E truscans ( fig. 5 2).49 T he s cene o f b oxers f ighting ( with l ocal e quipment, t o b e s ure: s omething t hat l ooks l ike a s et o f d umbbells, b ut m ust b e m ade o f a l ighter m aterial, n ot m etal) w ith t he t rophy b etween t hem, w hile j udges s tand b y w atching, h as i ts c ounterpart i n G reek a s w ell a s E truscan a rt, t hough t he s cenes o n t he s itulae a gain s how a s pecific l ocal " realism" ( figs. 4 , 7 -8, 1 2, 1 4). T here i s t he " boxer 's s tance," t he j udge, a nd t he p rize--shown b etween t he t wo c ontestants, a s i n t he E truscan s cenes. B ut o nly t he s itulae s how t he b arbell-like o bjects--something l ike m odern b oxing g loves, p erhaps--held b y t he c ontestants, e vidently a l ocal s tyle o f f ighting ( fig. 9 7).50 M ore f amiliar, o f c ourse, a re e xamples f rom E truscan p ainting o f t he s ixth c entury B .C., s uch a s t he T omba d egli A uguri ( fig. 1 09). A t C hiusi, s everal t ombs s how t he c ontestants, a s o n t he s itulae, w ith t heir c lothes o n t he g round, r eady t o p ut t hem b ack o n a s s oon a s t hey h ave f inished f ighting.51 ( Perhaps t his d etail i ndic ates t heir s tatus, a nd s hows t hat t hese a re g ames o r c ontests, a nd n ot p rofessional e ntertainment.) W hat c an w e f inally c onclude f rom t his s urvey o f t he f igured s cenes o f t he s itulae a nd o ther b ronzes f rom N orth I ta ly a nd t he A lpine r egions? T hree p oints h ave, I h ope, b een b rought o ut: I . T he s tudy o f t he d ress a nd o ther d etails o f e veryday l ife o n t hese o bjects h as a llowed u s t o t race t he i nfluence o f E truscan a rt a nd c ulture, a nd i ts d ate -mostly i n t he s eventh c entury, a nd t hen i n t he s ixth c entury B .C. P articularly e vident a re c ontacts o f s itula a rt p eoples w ith C hiusi a nd t his a rea o f N orth E truria, w ith i ts s pecial s tyle, w hich t he d iscoveries a t M urlo a re r evealing. T he r oute o f E truscan c ontacts

2 3

t o t he n orth s eems t o g o b y w ay o f C hiusi. T here m ust h ave b een E truscans l iving a nd t ravelling i n t he r egions o f t he s itula p eoples; a nd i n t urn t he s itula p eoples, w hose l ife r evolved a round l arge f amilies, n ot c ities, m ust h ave g one d own t o t he E truscan c ities t o d o t heir s hopping a nd s ightseeing, b ringing b ack t he l atest f ashions i n c lothing a nd t ableware. S uch t horoughgoing a doption o f d ress s tyles i mplies c lose c ontact, n ot j ust c ommercial r elations. R ecent s tudies o n t he E truscan a lphabet a dopted i n n orthern I taly s how t hat t his a lphabet, t oo, i s t ypical o f N orth E truria, a nd s pecifically o f C hiusi. 5 2 2 . T he s econd p oint c oncerns t he s low p ace o f c hange o f t he n orthern a reas, w hich t end t o p reserve, a lmost a s f ossils, c ertain f eatures o f E truscan l ife ( e.g., m anner o f d ressing), s o t hat t hey a re m uch l onger l asting i n t he n orth t han i n E truria. T he w ay o f l ife w e s ee i llustrated, i n f act, i s c lose t o t hat o f N orth E truria a round 6 00 B .C. 3 . T he t hird p oint d eals w ith t he i solation a nd c onsequent o riginality o f s itula a rt, w hich a llows u s t o s ee t hese r eal p eople i n s cenes o f r eal l ife, s howing o ff t heir s tatus a nd r ank. A s I n oted i n t he b eginning, t here i s h ere s omething s trangely c lose t o t he s ituation i n R oman a rt; a n e specially g ood p arallel i s f ound i n R oman i mperial h istorical r eliefs, w ith t heir c ult s cenes a nd s acrifices c elebrating i mportant o ccasions.53 I n c ontrast, t he E truscans, t he R omans' s ophisticated, c itified n eighbors, a lthough t hey a lso c ontinued t o r epresent l ocal p rocessions, g ames, a nd b anquets i n t heir t omb p aintings, h ad b y t he s eventh c entury a ccepted G reek c ulture a nd G reek m ythology.

2 4

N OTES " Etruscan I nf luence i n N orth I ta ly ," a p aper p resented a t as ymposium o n t he E truscans, h eld i n T a llahassee, F lorida , M ay 1 976, w as p ub lished i n A rchaeologica l N ews 5 ( 1976 ) 9 3-106 . Ia m d eep ly i ndebted t o N ancy d e G rummond , I ngr id E d lund, a nd J ohn R e ich. Ia m a lso g rateful f or t he g enerous h elp, c riticism , a nd s uggest ions o f E rnst B adian, G len B owersock, M ark D avies, G eorge H anfm ann, D avid M itten, a nd P enny S ma ll, w ho h eard a l onger v ersion o f t his p aper a t aC o lloquium o f t he D epartment o f C lassics a t H arvard i n A pril, 1 976. M y h usband, L eo R aditsa, h elped m e u nderstand t he h istorica l c ontext o f t he s itula p eople. O n t he o ccasion o f t he h undredth a nniversary o f t he f irst d iscoveries m ade a t E ste i n 1 876 , t he X I C onvegno d i S tudi E truschi e I talici m et a t E ste a nd P adua , J une 2 7 t o J uly 1 , 1 976. P apers o n t he c ulture o f t he a rea, i ncluding s itula a rt, a ppeared i n t he A tt i o f t hese m eetings. T wo i mportant e xhibits h eld i n c onnection w ith t he m eetings w ere a ccompanied b y c ata logs w hose i ntroductions a re i mportant f or o ur s ubject : P adova P reromana ( Padua 1 976) a nd T rem ila A nni F a aV erona ( Verona 1 976 ). 'S itula a rt b ibliography i s e xtensive . D avid M itten, M useum o f A rt, R hode I sland S chool o f D esign, C lassical B ronzes ( Providence 1 975) 9 0-101, n o. 2 8 , l ists t he l atest l iterature. S ee a lso J . K aste lic , " Conservatismo e n uove c orrenti n ell'arte d eg li T h in e d e l V enet i," A tt i d e l p r imo s imposio d i p rotos tor ia d 'Ita lia ( Orv ieto 1 967) 1 9-27; a nd G . M ansue lli, " L 'arte d elle s itule f ra M editerraneo e d E uropa ," o p. c it. 1 05127. F or c onvenience , Ih ave r eferred t o t he i llustrations i n A rte d elle s itule d a l P o a l D anub io ( Florence 1 961), a nd i n W . L ucke a nd 0 .-H. F rey , D ie S itula i n P rovidence ( Berlin 1 962). F or c omparat ive E truscan m ateria l Ir efer t he r eader t o m y E truscan D ress ( Ba ltimore 1 975) w ith f ull b ibliography . F or t he c ontext o f s itula a rt, s ee L . B arfield, N orthern I ta ly B efore R ome ( London 1 971) C h. 8 ; N .K. S andars, P rehistoric A rt i n E urope ( Harmondsw orth 1 968 ) 2 23-225 ; G . M ansuelli, L es c ivilisations d e l 'Europe a ncienne ( Paris 1 967); a nd J . V . S . M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge ( New Y ork 1 970).

2M . P allottino, " Gli e truschi n ell'Ita lia d e l N ord : n uovi d at i en uove i dee," H ommages G renier, C o llect ion L atomus 5 8 ( 1962) 1 207-12 16 .

3G . C olonna , r eview o f L ucke-Frey , D ie S itula i n P rovidence , i n G nomon 3 6 ( 1964 ) 1 94 .

40 .-H.

F rey , D ie E ntstehung d er S itulenkunst ( Ber lin 1 9 69 ). 2 5

5C . M or igi G ov i, " I l t int innabulo d e lla T omba d eg li O n ," A rcheo logia C lassica 2 3 ( 197 1) 2 11-235; E truscan D ress 1 06, f ig . 2 . I t w as f ound i n aw oman 's t omb, w ith r ich g o ld j ewe ls.

6P liny ,

N atural H istory , 8 , 1 9 1; c f . J uvena l 9 , 3 0. L . B onfante W arren, " Roman C ostumes : AG lossary , a nd S ome E truscan D erivations," A NRW I 4 , 6 11; E truscan D ress, 1 06. 7S andars, P rehistor ic A rt i n E urope 2 23. S . P iggott, r eview o f A rte d el le s itule , i n P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 0 ( 1964 ) 4 39.

8M .

T orelli, " Tre s tudi d i s toria e trusca ," D ialoghi d i A rcheo logia 8 ( 1974-1975 ) 1 9 . 9S ee

c hapter 7 .

M ostra d ell'Arte e d ella C iviltä E trusca ( M ilan 1 955 ) n o. 9 4 , p l. 2 0. P allottino, E truscans p l. 6 . W . H elbig, F ührer d urch d ie ö ffentlichen S amm lungen k lassischer A ltertümer i n R om 4 th e d. ( Tübingen 1 969) II, 7 52-755 , 7 96, n o. 2 920. F . C anciani, " Coppe ' fenicie ' i n I ta lia ," A rchäo log ischer A nzeiger ( 1979 ) 1 -6. C anciani ( 6 ) s uggests t hat t wo f igures f lanking a l ebes o n o ne o f t hese b ow ls m ight b e b oxers, l ike t hose s o f requently s een i n s itula a rt. A . R athje, " Orienta l I mports i n E truria i n t he E ighth a nd S eventh C enturies B .C.: T heir O rigins a nd I mplicat ions," I taly B efore t he R omans 1 45-183, e sp . 1 52-156. 1 0

1 M arina C ristofani M artelli, " Documenti d i a rte o rienta lizzante d a C hiusi," S tudi E truschi 4 1 ( 1973) 9 7-120. S prengerB artoloni N o. 2 6, f ig . 2 5.

1 2

S ee C hapter 2 , n . 3 6.

1 3 G . d e 'Fogolari, " La c omponente o rienta lizzante n e ll'arte d elle s itule," A rte d elle s itule 1 6. J . K astelic, " Lo s v iluppo d ell'arte d e lle s itule d a l P o a l D anubio," A rte d elle s itule 3 8 . T his E truscan m otif a ppears i n F aliscan a rt, o n av ase f rom C apena , K astelic, " Lo s viluppo ...," a nd I . E dlund, " Faliscans a nd E truscans," A rchaeological N ews 5 ( 1976 ) 1 07114; a nd t he C apestrano w arrior , V . C ianfarani, A ntiche c iviltä d 'Abruzzo ( Rome 1 969) 1 9. S ee P . B occi, " Motivi e truschi s u b ronzi a testini e a lpini," S tudi L uisa B anti ( Rome 1 965) 7 1-78 . J acobsthal, E ar ly C eltic A rt 3 5ff . F rey , E ntstehung 6 4 , n . 3 10; 1 08 , n . 3 5 , p l. 7 7. S . R einach, " Les c arnassiers a ndrophages d ans l 'art g a lloroma in," i n C ultes, M ythes e t R eligions I ( Paris 1 908 , s econd e d .) 2 79 . A ccording t o M . B onam ici, I b uccheri c on f igurazioni g raff ite ( Florence 1 974 ), t his m otif o riginates i n i ncised b ucchero v ases f rom V eii, a long w ith t he m otif o f t he d eer w ith t endrils g row ing o ut o f i ts m outh ( 140 ; c f . 1 22, n . 1 55 ); s ee a lso r ev iew b y M . D el C hiaro, A JA 8 0

2 6

( 1976) 9 7-98 . P . L ambrechts, L 'exa ltation d e l a t gte d ans l a p ensge e t d ans l 'art d es c e ltes ( Brugge 1 954) 5 9-67 . B . G o ldman, I PEK 2 2 ( 1966-69) 7 5 . F or e xamp les i n s tone r e lief s te la i, s ee M . d el C hiaro, G etty M useum J ourna l 5( 1977) 5 1-53; F rey , E ntsteh ung t ext p l. D 3 ( opp . p . 8 1), f rom V ulci. 1 4

F rey , " Osta lpenraum ," 5 4 .

B occi, " Motivi e truschi,"

7 1-78 . 1 5 L . B anti, " Erac le e P holos i n E truria ," S tEtr 3 4 ( 1966) 3 71-379 : E truscan c entaurs a re m ore c ivilized t han G reek c entaurs. D . C anocch i, " I l c entauro, d a ll'Or iente i n E trur ia, d a c acc iatore a m otivo d ecorativo," M ondo A rcheo logico M A 3 9 ( 1979) 1 4-19. B occi, " Motivi e truschi," 7 8 ; c f . ad ressed c entaur f rom N arce ( 79). B ronze s tatuette f rom C ite a d e l C aste llo, N Sc 1 902, 4 8 1-482, f ig . 1 ; s tatuette o f ac entaur f rom F abrecce : F .-W . v on H ase, M arburger W incke lmann-Programm 1 974, 3 , p l. 9 , f ig. 3 ; F . P rayon R ömM itt 8 2 ( 1975) 1 77, p l. 4 9 .2 . L . B ant i, A tt i Ic onvegno d i s tudi u mbr i G ubb io 1 963 ( 1964) 1 7 1, f igs. 1-12 . F ig . 1 9 : a n i ncised b ucchero a mphora i n B arcelona ( no a cquisition n umber ) s hows av ery w ell-dressed c entaur w earing s omething l ike a n e normous s ty lized l otus f lower : It hank H e lle S a lskov R oberts f or g iving m e t his r eference, a s w ell a s t he p hotograph. H . S a lskov R oberts, " Etruscan B ucchero w ith I ncised D ecoration," s ummary o f p aper, A cta o f t he X I I nternationa l C ongress o f C lassica l A rchaeology , 3 -5 S eptember 1 978 ( London 1 979) 1 92; J .M .J. G ran A ymerich, " Un c onjunto d e v asos d e b ucchero i nciso . E nsayo d e f orma lizaciö n," T rabajos d e P rehistoria 3 0 ( 1973) 2 79, 2 91, f igs. 2 1, 3 0 ( incised b ucchero k antharos i n t he L ouvre, C 562; a lso s hows w inged l ion w ith h uman l eg i n h is m outh, b eing s tabbed f rom b ehind b y ah unter).

1 6 E truscan D ress 2 8 , 15, 1 33, 1 39, f ig. 7 0. C entaur i n H anover : G .Q . G iglio li, S tEtr 4 ( 1930 ) 3 60. S itula f rom P ania : M . C ristofani, N uove l etture d i m onumenti e truschi ( F lorence 1 971) 6 9-70; B occi, " Motivi e truschi" 7 5.

1 7

E truscan D ress 1 3, f igs. 6 , 8 , 9 .

1 8 J . B a lty , " Un c entre d e p roduction d e b ronzes f igure s d e l 'Etrurie s eptentriona le, N ote a dditione lle," B ulletin d e V Institut H istorique B elge d e R ome 3 7 ( 1965) 8 -12 o f t he o ffprint, p ls. 2 -6 , 8 , " Porteuses d 'offrande"; E truscan D ress 1 2-13, 4 6, f igs. 1 3, 9 5, 9 6. S . B oucher, " Une a ire d e c ulture i ta lo-celtique a ux V IIe-VIe s iecles a vant J .-C.," M EFRA 8 1 ( 1969) 4 1, f ig. 2 ; " Importations e t r u sq ue s e n G aule ä l a f in d u V II s iecle a vant J .-Ch.," G a llia 2 8 ( 1970 ) 1 96, f ig . 8( bronze s tatuettes). F ig. 2 5 : M . M arte lli C ristofani, " Un g ruppo d i p lacchette e burnee e trusche n ei m usei d i B o logna , P arma e t R ouen," R evue A rchgo logique 1 979, 7 3-86 ( Etruscan i vories f rom t he a rea o f C hiusi, d ating f rom t he l ate s eventh a nd e arly s ixth c entury B .C., e xported f arther n orth). P elagio P a lagi, C ata logo d e lla M ostra ( Bologna 1 976) 3 10, N o . 2 67.

1 9

M itten, C lassica l B ronzes 9 6, n . 2 1

2 7

2 0

E truscan D ress 3 4-35.

2 1

E truscan D ress 3 4, f ig . 6 8 .

2 2 T . G antz, " Divine T riads o n a n A rcha ic E truscan F rieze P laque f rom P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," S tudi E truschi 3 9 ( 1971) 3 -24, a nd " The P rocession F rieze f rom t he E truscan S anctuary a t P oggio C ivitate," R öm ische M itteilungen 8 1 ( 1974 ) 1 14 . E truscan D ress 3 5, f ig . 7 2 . U . H öckmann, " Zur D arstellung a uf e iner ' tyrrhenischen ' A mphora i n L eipz ig," F estschr ift F rank B rommer ( Mainz 1 977) 1 8 1185 . T hough n ew d raw ings a re p resent ly b eing m ade, a s K y le P hillips k ind ly i nforms m e, t he p resent d raw ings a re a ccurate e nough f or o ur p urpose .

2 3

E truscan D ress 6 9.

L etter o f S eptember 2 3,

2 4

E truscan D ress 6 8 ,

2 5

M itten, C lassica l B ronzes 9 0 .

1 976 .

1 34 .

2 6 I . E dlund G antz, " The S eated S tatue A kroteria f rom P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," D ia loghi d i A rcheo logia 6 ( 1972) 1 67-235. T here a re t wo f ragments o f f igures w ith " cowboy h ats." E truscan D ress 6 9, 1 35, f ig . 1 2 1. K y le P hillips i nforms m e t hat t he s tatue i s r econstructed f rom t wo p ieces w h ich d o n ot a ctually j o in .

F ig. 2 9 : E truscan b lack i mpasto w are, b oot-shaped v ase, f rom C irco lo d ella S agrona . F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. H . 1 c m . O . M onte lius, C ivilisation P rim itive , p l. 1 78 , N o . 1 7 . M .Cristofani, C ittä e c ampagna n e ll'Etruria s ettentriona le ( Banca T oscana , A rezzo 1 976) N o . 4 8 . F ig . 3 0 : D etail f rom i ncised d ecoration o n s word s cabbard f rom H a llstatt, G rave 9 94 . V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum , L . 6 8 c m . M an b eing t rampled b y ah orseman. M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge N o . 3 0 ; A lba R egia 1 4 ( 1975) f ig. 1 . F . S chwappach, " Schnabelschuhe i m ö st lichen F röhla enebereich," P amatky a rch. 5 8 ( 1967) 3 20-324 . E truscan D ress 1 32. W hat i s t he o rigin o f t hese p o inted s hoes? I n E truscan a rt p ointed I onian s hoes a ppear o nly s hortly b efore 5 50 B .C. o r s o . T he M urlo f igure d ates f rom a round 5 75 B .C., t he B envenuti s itula a round 6 00 B .C . T hey m ay w e ll b elong t o ad ifferent, e ar lier t radition w hich c omes f rom t he n orth. O n s hoe m ode ls i n N orth I ta ly , s ee G . C amporea le , " Nuovi d ate s ull'attivitä p roduttiva e s ugli s cambi a V etulonia d a l V illanov iano r ecente a l p r imo a rcaismo," A tt i X II c ongresso d i s tud i e truschi e i ta lic i, F lorence, J une 1 979 ( forthc om ing ). O n s hoe-shaped r hi ta f rom C hiusi, s ee G . C amporea le, " Vasi p lastici d i b ucchero p esante," A rchClass 2 5-26 ( 1973-74 ) 1 03-122, e sp . 1 03-109; S . U nderhill W isseman, A rchNews 7 ( 1978 ) 5 6, f igs. 2 6-27. C amporea le h as s hown ( ArchC lass 2 5-26 [ 1973-74] 1 03-122, e sp . 1 03-109), t he i mportance o f I onian i nf lue nce : R hod ian t erracotta b alsamar ia i n t he s hape o f ah uman l eg w ear ing p ainted, l aced h igh-topped s hoes w ere i m itated ( in b ucchero p esante w are) i n C h iusi i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he s ixth 2 7

2 8

c entury , f or t hese r hyta , w hich w ere v ases t o b e u sed f or d rinking r ather t han f or p erfumes ( E . R ohde, " Kleinkunstwerke a us a ltem u nd n euem B esitz d er B er liner A ntiken-Samm lung," F estschrift F rank B rommer [ Ma inz 1 977] 2 44-245, p l. 6 7). 2 8 C ianfarani, A ntiche c iviltä d 'Abruzzo, n o . 8 9-93; E truscan D ress, f ig. 2 7

2 9

E truscan D ress 1 35,

1 82, p ls. B ,

1 52-153.

3 0 A rte d elle s itule 10, n o . 5 2, p l. 3 8 , f ig. G ( Arnoa ldi s itula ); p . 12, n o . 5 4 , p ls. 4 0-4 1, f ig . H ( Kuffarn s itula ). B ronson, " Chariot R acing i n E truria," 9 6.

3 1 M . C ool R oot, " An E truscan H orse R ace f rom P oggio C ivitate," A merican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 7 ( 1973) 1 21-137.

3 2 B ronze s tatuette o f ah orseman, f rom C ontarino ( Rovigo ): A dria M useum , N . i nv . 1 5846 . H . 1 4 .6 c m . M ostra d e ll'Etruria P adana N .1261 ( not i l l.). It hank E meline R ichardson w ho t o ld m e a bout i t, a nd E lisabetta M angani w ho s ent m e p hotographs a nd i nformation. F or E truscan h orsemen, s ee t he T omba G olini I i n O rv ieto : G .C . C onestab ile d e lla S taffa, P itture m ura li a f resco es uppe llett ile ...scoperte p resso O rvieto n e l 1 863 d a D . G o lini ( F irenze 1 865) 1 6-17, t ay . 2 ; P . D ucat i, P ittura e trusca, i ta log reca e r omana ( Novara 1 942) p l. 2 0 ( here f ig . 5 3). C hiusi, T omba d e l C o lle, B rende l, E truscan A rt 2 77, f ig. 1 94 . I n R ome, r iders a nd c hariot d rivers w ore a f elt o r l eather c ap s haped l ike a p ileus, a s p rotection : B .M . F elletti M aj, L a t radizione i ta lica n ell'arte r omana ( Roma 1 977) 1 87-188 . G reek G eometric b ronze c harioteer f rom O lympia : B . S chweitzer, G reek G eometric A rt ( London 1 969) 1 48 a nd f igs. 1 82-184 . T his i s d ifferent f rom t he p o inted c ap o f t he s eated f igures o n t he M agda lenska G ora a nd V aCe s itulae ( Arte d e lle s itu le 1 02-104, n os . 4 1-42, p ls . 3 0-32, f ig . E ), a nd t he " Tam o 'Shanters" o f t he P rov idence s itu la ( M itten, C lassica l B ronzes 9 0-91). C la ireve G randjouan h as s uggested t hat t he C e lts i nvented k nitting, a s w e ll a s c ha in m a il; f or s uch " knitted" C e ltic p ointed c aps, s ee K . W illvonseder, " A S culpture f rom S a lzburg," A rchaeo logy 1 3 ( 1960) 2 5 1-252.

3 F igs. 3 9-40 : E truscan D ress 2-23, f igs. 3 5-38 . F ig. 1 21f : ab ronze s tatuette f rom D enmark ( Köng) o f an ude m a le f igure, w earing s uch a b e lt ( the f act t hat i t i s n ot r epresented i n b ack i s n ot s urprising, s ince t he c haracteristic b road p art o f t he b e lt i s t hat w orn i n f ront). T his l ittle b ronze i s p articular ly i nteresting : i t i s o ne o f t he v ery r are h uman f igures i n G ermanic a rt, a nd o ne o f t wo w hich b ear r unes o n t heir b odies. ( The o ther s tatuette w ears a k nee-length c hiton.) T he s tatuette w as o r igina lly d ated a s l ate a s t he f ifth o r s ixth c entury A .D . b ecause o f t he r unic s igns. B ut s im ilar s tatuettes ( the t ype c omprises b oth C eltic a nd G ermanic e xamples) h ave r ecently b een d ated e ar lier, w ithin t he p eriod o f t he R oman e mpire. H .J. E ggers, E . W ill,

2 9

R . J offroy , W . H o lmqvist, L es C e ltes e t l es G erma ins ä l 'j poque p a lenne ( Paris 1 964 ) 7 0, 7-78 ( with b ib l.) 3 4 S . G abrovec, S itula I ( 1960 ) 4 4-45, 6 0-6 1, f ig. 1 5, 4 ; A rheo logki V estnik 1 3-14 ( 1962-63) 2 93-305 , 3 17-321, d istribution m ap ( p . 2 94), p ls. 1 -6, 2 0 , 2. T he t ype, f ound i n t omb g roups d ating a round 7 00 B .C., s eems t o r epresent a n a rcha ic c ostume d epicted o n t he s itula . F or a d iscussion o f a rmor d epicted o n t he s itulae, s ee F rey , " Bemerkungen z ur H a llstättischen B ewaffnung i m S ödosta lpenraum ," A rheo logki V estnik 2 4 ( 1973) [ 1975] 6 21-635. S ee i nfra , C hapter 2 , n o . 2. A nother l oca l t ype i s t he O ppeano h e lmet ( infra f ig . 7 2 ). 3 5 E dlund G antz, " Akroteria f rom P oggio C ivitate, " 1 71, 1 76, 26-229, f igs. 1 2-15. 3 6 R . B ianchi B andine lli, " Osservazioni s ulle s tatue a croteria li d i P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," D ia loghi d i A rcheo logia 6( 1972 ) 2 40-247. 3 7 E truscan D ress 1 35, 1 52-153 . H . K riss, " Sopravvivenze d ello s tile d elle s itule," A rte d elle s itule 6 3-68 . C f. s upra n . 3 3.

A rte d elle s itule n os. 1, 1 7, 4 1, 4 7. S tele f rom F ieso le , E truscan D ress f ig. 3 3; s tele f rom L iguria , i nfra f ig. 6 8 . B o logna t intinnabulum : s ee a bove n . 5 . O n t he a xe o r h atchet s ee S tary , " Foreign E lements," 1 84 ; 2 03, n . 4 9; 1 92. F or i ts s ignificance a s s ymbo l o f p ower i n E trur ia a nd R ome, s ee i nfra c hapter 4 , n . 2 7, w ith c ross-references, a nd r elated t ext . 3 8

F . M agi, " L 'ossuar io d i M ontescuda io," A tti d e l p r imo s imposio d i p rotostor ia d 'Italia ( Orvieto 1 967) p p . 1 2 1-133 . F or M ur lo r eliefs a nd B o logna p endant, s ee n otes 5 , 2 2, 4 1. 3 9

4 0 T . G antz, " The P rocession F rieze f rom t he E truscan S anctuary a t P oggio C ivitate ," R ömMitt 8 1 ( 1974 ) 1 -14 . G . B onfante, L atini e G ermani i n I ta lia ( Bologna 1 977), a nd i nfra c hapter 6 ,n .43, o n t he G auls ' a bility a s c arriage m echanics; f rom t he G auls u l timatel y c omes o ur w ord c arpenter , d er ived f rom t he n ame o f aG allic c art, t he c arpentum , w hich w as a dopted b y t he R omans a long w ith t he w ord . 4 1 J . M acIntosh, " Representations o f F urniture o n t he F rieze P laques f rom P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," R ömM itt 8 1 ( 1974 ) 2 1-24 1. L . V lad B orelli, " Il c anopo d i D o lciano : e videnze e p erpless f tä d opo u n r estauro," S tudi E truschi 4 1 ( 1973) 2 11-2 12 . S teingräber 2 2-27, 1 49151, w ith b ib liography . F or t he s ignificance o f s uch c ha irs o r " thrones," s ee F . P rayon, F röhetruskische H aus- u nd G rabarchitektur ( Heidelberg 1 975) 1 08ff .; F .-W. v on H ase, " Eine u nbekannte e truskische S itzstatuette i n M assa M arittima ," M arburger W incke lm annP rogra m 1 974 , 5 -7 ; T . K lauser, D ie C athedra i m T otenkult d er h eidn ischen u nd c hristlichen A ntike ( Monster 1 927; r eprint 1 971) 7 , 2 5-28 , 7 2, 7 4-75, e tc. S ee c hapter 2 , n . 4 6 ; a nd c hapter 4 , o n T he C orsini T hrone . 4 2

N . 3 9, a bove.

3 0

4 3 F . P rayon, " Zum u rsprünglichen A ussehen u nd z ur D eutung d es K ultraumes i n d er T omba d elle C inque S edie b ei C erveteri," M arburger W inckelmann-Programm 1 974 , 1 2 .

4 4 J .P. S mall, " The B anquet F rieze f rom P ogg io C ivitate," S tudi E truschi 3 9 ( 1971) 2 5-61. S ee a lso S . D e M arinis, L a t ipol og ia d e l b anchetto n e ll'arte e trusca a rca ica ( Rome 1 961) 3 91.

4 5 A rte d elle s itule 8 9, n o. 1 8, p l. 1 4 . F rey , " Der O st' a lpenraum ," 4 6, f ig . 2 , a nd E ntstehung n o. 1 5, p l. 6 7.

4 6 F or a n A ttic k y lix o f 4 50 B .C. f rom a b arrow g rave a t K lein A spergle ( Stuttgart M useum ), s ee M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge, N o. 4 1. T he m an h olds a k y lix r ather t han a p atera : M ansue lli, i n S itula 1 4/15 ( 1974 ) 11 n . 9 . F or G reek k y likes a t E ste i n t he s ixth a nd f ifth c enturies B .C., s ee I . F avaretto, " Aspetti e p roblem i d ella c eran ica g reca d i E ste," S tEtr 4 4 ( 1976) 4 9-50.

S chwappach, " Schnabelschuhe," 3 24 , c ompares t he d istribut ion o f r epresentations o f p ointed s hoes, i n t he l ate s ixth a nd f ifth c entur ies, t o t hat o f t he i mported S chnabe lkanne; c f . F rey, E ntstehung 15-117, f ig . 4 9 . S upra n . 2 7, a nd m ap 3 b . 4 7

4 8 C aste lvetro m irror : A rte d elle s itule 9 1, N o. 2 1, p l. 1 6; A rnoaldi m irror , A rte d e lle S itule 9 1, N o. 2 2, p l. 1 7. L . B onfante, A JA 8 2 ( 1978 ) 2 35-240 ; A JA 8 3 ( 1979) 1 06. S ee c h. 2 , n . 6 1, f or e rotic s cenes.

4 9 B ronson, " Chariot R acing i n E truria ," 9 8-99, 1 06. O n t he p rize-w inning h orses o f t he V eneti, A lcman, f ragment o f a p arthene ion : D enys L . P age, T he P artheneion ( Oxford 1 951) 5 , v . 1.

5 0 F .-W. v on H ase , " Zwei e truskische G ürtelschliessen," N eue A usgrabungen u nd F orschungen i n N iedersachsen 6 ( Hildesheim 1 970) 4 1-45. E truscan e xamples, 4 4 , n . 1 ; e xamples f rom s itula a rt , 4 4 , n n. 1 3-14 . T he e arliest E truscan e xamples o f t he m otif o f t he b oxing m atch ( 575-550 B .C.), o n d ecorated b ronze r elief b e lt c lasps, c ome f rom N orth E truscan s ites, s uch a s M urlo a nd S iena.

5 1 M . P allottino, E truscan P a inting 3 7f. B anti, E truscan C ities, p l. 7 8 . G . C olonna , r eview o f L ucke-Frey , G nomon 3 6 ( 1964 ) 1 93, a lso i dentif ies t he " headless m an" o n t he B envenuti s itula ( f ig . 4 ) a s ap ile o f c lothes o n ac ha ir .

M . C ristofani, " Sull'origine e l a d iffusione d ell'a lfabeto e trusco," A NRW I 2 , 4 66-489, e sp . 4 84 . S ee c hapter 7 . 5 2

5 3 0 .J. B rendel, r eview o f I .S. R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R eligion i n R oman A rt , M emoirs o f t he A merican A cademy a t R ome 2 2 ( 1955), i n A merican J ournal o f P hilology 7 8 ( 1957) 3 02.

3 1

5 3 ( continued) O n r elations b etween R ome a nd n orthern E truria i n t he A rchaic p eriod, s ee G . C olonna, S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 6 9-72. F or t he a rchaistic, R oman " Sedia C orsini," s ee i nfra c hapter 4 .

3 2

C hapter T HE

W ORLD

O F

T HE

A P ROTO-URBAN

2 S ITULA

P EOPLE:

C IVILIZATION

T he f ollowing a ccount i s i ntended a s a c ontribut ion t o a d iscussion o f t he p roblems o f t he a ncient c ity i n I taly. 1 L imited i n s cope, b oth i n i ts E truscan-eye v iew o f t he c oming o f c ivilization t o t he s itula p eople o f n orthern I taly, t he A lps a nd b eyond, a nd i n t he a ntiq uarian n ature o f t he e vidence, i t b rings u p a f ew f acts a nd a sks s ome q uestions. T he s itula p eople b orrowed c ertain t echniques, f ashions, a nd i deas f rom t he E truscans. W hat d oes t his b orrowing a llow u s t o c onclude a bout c ommercial a nd c ultural r elationships b etween t hese t wo g roups? D oes t he a doption o f a c ertain s tyle o f d ress, o f a rt, a nd o f w riting a mount t o t he a doption o f a t ype o f c ivilization 2 o r o nly o f s ome o f i ts e xternal, s uperficial a spects? C an w e a ssume t hat t he p eople w ho a dopted a spects o f s uch a c ulture a s " status s ymbols" a ctually c hanged t heir w ay o f l ife? A nd i f s o, h ow m uch? H ow c lose d id t he s itula p eople c ome t o d eveloping t he c ities i mplied b y t he t ype o f c ulture f rom w hich t hey b orrowed?3 T he w ork o f O tto-Herman F rey a nd S tane G abrovec, 4 w hich I r ead w hile I w as s truggling w ith t his m aterial a nd i ts i nterpretation, h as b een o f g reat h elp. I n h is a ttempt t o d raw c onclusions a s t o w hen a n o rganized a rmy d eveloped i n t he r egion f rom r epresentations o f a rmed s oldiers o n t he s itulae, F rey's s killful d istinction b etween a rtistic c onvention a nd d epiction o f c ontemporary r eality s erves a s a n e xample, f or t he p roblem h e f aces i s , i n f act, w hether y ou c an h ave a n o rganized a rmy w ithout a n o rganized c ity.

I .

T he P roblem

M y f ocus i s t he r epresentation o f h uman b eings o n m onuments o f s itula a rt. T his t ype o f " narrative" a rt, s howing p eople i n a ction, i s o ne o f t he p rincipal f eatures o f E truscan i nfluence, w hich i ntroduced E urope t o t he a lphabet a nd f igures i n a rt, t hus a llowing t hese p eople t o w rite d own t heir l anguages a nd p resent p ictures o f t heir l ives. W e n aturally a ssume t hat o ne c an l earn a bout p eople f rom t he w ay t hey r epresent t hemselves, o r f rom

3 3

t he w ay t hey r epresent o thers, s ince e very p ortrait i s i n a s ense a s elf-portrait. B efore t hese p ictures c an b e u sed a s e vidence, h owever, w e m ust t ry t o s ee w hat t hey m eant. T here a re o bviously p roblems o f i dentification. I.

T he

E vidence

I n r ecent E truscan s tudies, t he i nterpretation o f m any A rchaic m onuments o f t he s eventh a nd s ixth c enturies B .C. h as b een a c ontroversial i ssue. T he f igures o f t he E truscan t erracotta r idge-pole d ecorations a nd t erracotta r elief p laques f rom M urlo ( Poggio C ivitate), 5 f or e xample ( figs. 2 8, 3 1-34), h ave b een v ariously e xplained. S ome h ave b een p erceived a s d ivine, o thers a s h uman. T he e xcavators, K yle P hillips a nd T imothy G antz, h ave i dentified t he g roup o f s eated f igures w ith s tanding a ttendants o n s ome o f t he p laques ( fig. 3 1) a s s eparate g roups o f t hree g ods e ach, o r s ets o f d ivine t riads, o n t he b asis o f t he o bjects h eld b y t he f igures. T his i nterpretation, g rounded o n t he a ssumption t hat t he c ontext i n w hich t hese f igures a ppeared w as a s anctuary, h as r ecently b een c hallenged. 6 W as t he b uilding c omplex w hich t hey d ecorated a s anctuary, o r w as i t a p alace d ecorated w ith i mages o f t he a ristocratic a ctivities o f t he l ord a nd l ady o f t he m anor? 7 T he q uestion w as l ong d ebated, a s w e s hall s ee l ater. O n t he o ther h and, a l ong-standing q uestion a bout t he i dentity o f f ive E truscan t erracotta f igurines f rom t he T omba d elle C inque S edie a t C erveteri ( two w ell-known e xamples a re i n t he B ritish M useum i n L ondon, o ne i n t he C onservatori M useum i n R ome) h as n ow b een r esolved b y F riedhelm P rayon's d iscovery o f t heir o riginal c ontext, a nd h is d emonstration t hat t hey r epresented i mages o f a ncestors . 8 G ods, h eroes, h eroized a ncestors, l ords o f t he m anor: t hese p ossibilities h ave a ll a t o ne t ime o r a nother b een c onsidered f or a n umber o f A rchaic E truscan f igures, a s w ell a s f or t he h uman f igures r epresented o n t he s itulae. A t l east i t s eems s afe t o e liminate, o n t he b asis o f F rey's s tudies, t he p ossibility t hat t he f igures o n t he s itulae a re g ods o r f amous m ythological h eroes o f a d istant p ast. T he s itula p eople a re s hown, a s w e h ave s een ( figs. 4 -17), e ngaged i n v arious a ctivities, a " real" p eople, o bserved f rom l ife, a nd v ery m uch a live. U nlike G reek a rt, t his a rt i s e vidently n ever m ythol ogical.9 T he s itulae s how u s p eople b usily e ngaged i n p rocessions, g ames, a nd c ompetitions, t hose s ocial r ituals w hich m ake u p t he " daily l ife" o f t he a ristoc racy.10 E truscan a rt a lso s howed a rmed w arriors a nd r eal p eople a t b anquets a nd g ames. B ut b y t he s eventh c entury, i t a lready a dded s cenes a nd c haracters f rom G reek m ythology t o i ts r epertoire--scenes w hich n ever a ppeared i n t he a rt o f t he s itulae, w here t here w as p reserved i nstead, p ractically u nchanged,11 a p icture o f a s pecial w orld: l ords a nd c hieftains a t h ome, a t g ames a nd c ontests, w ith t heir a rmies a nd t heir a ttendants. 3 4

T he s cenes p ictured o n t hese m onuments c apture m oment i n t ime, l ike s napshots a llowing u s t o l ook d irectly i nto t he p ast, a t t he w orld o f t his r egion i n t he s eventh a nd s ixth c entury B .C. W e c an d istinguish i ts l ocal f eatures, a s w ell a s a spects i t s hared w ith t he M editerranean c ulture o f t he O rientalizing p eriod. A p rimitively r ealistic s tyle, a wkward, l ively, a nd e xpressive, s eems t o b ring u s c lose t o t he r eality o f t hese p eoples' e veryday l ife a nd o f t heir f estival-day c elebrations; i t i s a r eality w hich t his s tyle i s a dmirably e quipped t o i llustrate.

a

T he b anquets o n t he s itulae t ake p lace i n a H omeric t ype o f s ociety, w ith h eads o f c lans g athered t ogether. N o s ingle k ing o r r uler t owers a bove t he r est, n or a re t here c ouples e nthroned, e ither r oyal o r d ivine. G roups o f m en s it a t t heir e ase w hile w omen a ttendants s erve t hem w ine f rom h andsome s itula-shaped c raters. ( Women a ppear o nly i n t his r ole, o r e lse i n s cenes o f l ove-making [ figs. 5 6, 6 3-641 1 2 o r w orking w ool [ figs. 5 -61. 1 3 ) T he f east i s e nlivened b y m usic: m usicians p lay t he l yre o r s yrinx, a b ard s ings a s ong ( figs. 7 -8, 1, 1 3).14 A s w e l ook a nd l isten, w e w onder w hat s ong t his b ard w as s inging. P robably n ot a s ong o f G reek g ods o r T rojan h eroes, t hough t hese h ad b y n ow b een a dopted a ll a bout t he M editerranean.15 P erhaps h e s ang a s ong o f d ifferent h eroes, o f t he a ristocratic a ncestors o f h is p atrons, o f t he l ords a nd c hieftains w ho l ived s imilar l ives i n e arlier t imes. L ike t he s ong o f t he b ard, t hese s cenes h ad a s pecial m eaning f or t he p eople w ho c ommissioned t hem. T hey l ooked a t t he p resent, b ut t hey a lso c onjured u p t he p ast.16 B anquets a nd s ymposia, a ristocratic e xercises, m ilitary p arades-a ll h ave a t imeless q uality. T hese h eroes f ight i n h and-to-hand c ombat; b ut t hey a lso l ead a rmies. T he s cenes r epresented o n t he s itulae, a nd t he a rms f ound i n t ombs, e xamined b y G abrovec a nd F rey, c an t ell u s m uch a bout t he m ilitary o rganization o f t he s itula p eople : 17 M ost i mportant i s t he f act t hat t he a rt o f t he s itulae s eems t o i llustrate a m oment o f c hange, w hen t he f ighting o f i ndividual w arriors g ives w ay t o t he d iscipline o f o rganized t roops. O nce m ore, t he e vidence m ust b e c arefully i nterpreted. T he t ype o f a rmor s hown o n s itulae a round 6 00 B .C. s eems t o h ave b een i n c urrent u se, a nd s eems t o g ive a p icture o f t he c hange-over f rom s ingle w arf are t o f ighting i n c losed f ormation--a c hange c onfirmed b y t he a rchaeological r ecord--when t he p eople o f E ste a nd t he s outhern A lps a dopted a G reek t ype o f m ilitary o rganization f rom t he n eighboring E truscans. A spects o f t hese c hanges a re r eminiscent o f t he s ituation i n R ome, w hich a lso a dopted m ilitary e quipment a nd t he o rganization o f t he a rmy f rom t he E truscans. F or h oplite w eapons a nd t he p halanx r eached R ome a nd L atium u nder

3 5

t he r ule o f t he E truscan k ings i n R ome, a round 6 00 B .C., a long w ith c ertain m odifications t he E truscans i ntroduced i nto t he G reek f orm o f w arfare, i n o rder t o m ake i t m ore f lexible.18

m ilitary

L et u s l ook m ore c losely a t t he e vidence s cenes r epresented o n t he s itulae.

o f

t he

O n t he C ertosa s itula ( figs. 9 -11) t here m arches a n , o rderly p rocession c omposed o f f our d ifferent t roops o r r egiments, d istinguished b y a rmor, s hields, a nd h elmets. T he e arlier B envenuti s itula, c a. 6 00 B .C. ( fig. 4 ), a nd t he A rnoaldi s itula ( fig. 1 4) a lready s eem t o i llustrate t he b eginning o f a d isciplined a rmy, f ighti ng i n c lose f ormation w ith h eavy a rmor. 1 9 B ologna a nd E ste w ere c ity-like s ettlements ( Frey's d efinition) a nd c ould a lready h ave b orrowed t his n ewest s ystem o f f ighti ng. U nlike c entral I taly a nd t he c entral P o V alley, h owever, w here f ull-fledged c ities a llowed p halanxt actics t o b e i ntroduced a s p art o f t he n ew M editerranean w orld, o ther g roups o f t he s itula p eople, a s S tary a nd F rey h ave s hown, d id n ot r eally a dopt t he n ew s ystems o f w arfare, t hough G reek-Etruscan e quipment w as a dopted a s s ymbolic o f r ank a nd s tatus f or o fficers a nd c hieftains. M any c hanges, a mong t hem o f a rmament a nd f ighti ng t echniques, d id t ake p lace i n t hese r egions a s w ell a s a ll o ver E urope i n t he w orld o f t he l ate H allstatt p eriod. T hese c hanges w ere t o s ome e xtent r elated t o t he d evelopment o f a n ew s ociety. T he e vidence o f s ettlement o rganization i n S lovenia a nd e lsewhere i n t he a reas w hich c oncern u s s hows t hat a t t he b eginning o f t he E arly I ron A ge ( in t he s econd h alf o f t he e ighth c entury B .C.) t here w ere e stablished l arge, f ortified h illtop s ettlements. T hey w ere n ot c ities a ccording t o t he G reek d efinition o f a c ity. T here w ere n o t emples, n o p laces f or a ssembly, n o p ublic b uildings. B ut t he n ew c oncentration o f p opulation--evidenced i n t he h uge c emeteries--and o f i ndustrial a nd c ommercial a ctivities, a pparent i n t he f ine l ocal c raftsmanship a nd i n t he m any i mported g oods i n t he g raves, r epresents a n ew c entrali zation o f c ultural l ife, a nd a n ew a ristocracy, w ith p owerful, w ealthy l ords. O n t he s itulae s oldiers c arry t wo l ances, o ne f or t hrusting, a nother f or t hrowing; a nd t he a rmor f ound i n w arriors' t ombs i n t he r egion r egularly i ncludes t wo s pears a nd a n a xe. 20 T wo o fficers o n h orseback, h owever, c arry o nly b attle a xes ( fig. 1).21 H ere a nd e lsewhere i n s itula a rt t hese e vidently s erved n ot o nly a s w eapons, b ut a lso a s s ymbols o f r ank. O n t he V as C e s itula a n a xe i s h eld b y a j udge ( fig. 7 ); o n a b elt p laque f rom V aCe, a b attle a xe i s u sed b y w arriors i n s ingle c ombat.

s itulae

A c loser l ook a t r eveals e xamples

s ome o f t he s cenes o n t he o f a n e arlier, " heroic" w orld 3 6

o f n oble k nights i n h and-to-hand c ombat. I t h as a lso b een n oticed t hat a t ype o f h elmet a pparently n o l onger i n g eneral u se a fter t he e arly H allstatt p eriod, c a. 7 00 B .C., 22 a ppears i n t he s ixth c entury B .C. o n b oth t he C ertosa s itula ( fig. 1) a nd o n a s tatuette f rom V aCie . T his a rchaizing r epresentation s uggests, a ccording t o F rey, t hat t he f igures a re r egarded a s h eroized, 23 t hus a ffording a s triking c omparison w ith t he H omeric b oar's t usk h elmet, 24 a s a t ype o f a rmor n o l onger i n u se, b ut r emembered i n a rt. I f t he s ingle c ombat o n t he V a2 Ce b elt ' is a h eroic r ather t han a r eal, c ontemporary o r g enre s cene,25 t his e xplains t he u se o f t he a xe, w hich t he s quire, o n f oot, i s h anding t o t he k night o n h orseback. T he a xe, a h eroic s ymbol, l ike t he s word i n l ater t imes ( figs. 4 , 7 , 1) , a ppears o n t he C ertosa s itula a nd o n t he s itula a nd b elt p laque f rom V aC 'e. O n t he B envenuti s itula ( fig. 4 ) i t i s p roudly e xhibited u nder t he r ack h olding t he b anquet s itulae.26 S uch a xes o ften a ppear o n s eventh-century m onuments o f n orthern I taly,27 o n g raves tones p ortraying w arriors f rom V etulonia a nd F iesole i n n orthern E truria, 28 a nd o n p rimitive s telae f rom L iguria ( figs. 6 8, 15-116).2 9 I n s itula a rt, t hey a lso s erved a s s ymbols o f r ank f or w omen: a w oman's o rnament o r b adge, t he b ronze p endant f rom B ologna ( figs. 5 -6), i s a xe-shaped.30 S o a re t he " palette r ituali" f ound i n m any t ombs, a nd d ecorative p endants o n j ewelry f rom t he n orth.31 T he s ymbol c ontinued t o b e i mportant i n E truscan a nd I talic t radition a nd a rt, f or e xample o n t he w arrior f rom C apestrano ( fig. 7 0);32 a nd w as i nherited b y R ome, i ts s ignificance s till i ntact, a s a s ign o f t he c ommanding g eneral's i ndividual p ower o r i mperium.33 A mong t he s itula p eople, t he a xe e vidently m arked t he r ank o f a n a ristocrat.34 T he c are w ith w hich t he a rmor, c lothes, f urniture, a nd t ableware o f t his e lite a re d epicted i n a rt s hows t he i mportance o f t hese e lements a s s ymbols o f s tatus, s igns o f a w ay o f l ife, o f l uxury, a nd t aste. I t a lso a llows u s t o r econstruct a spects o f t heir l ife, a nd t o t race t heir c ultural c ontacts. T his n ew a ristocracy w as f rom e arly t imes i n c ontact w ith t he u rban c ivilization o f t he n eighboring E truscans, f rom w hom i t i mported s ophistic ated t echniques, l uxury i tems, a rtistic m otifs, t ype o f w arfare, a nd f ashions o f d ress.35 T he a rea o f C hiusi w as e vidently t he p rincipal r oute f or t hese i nfluences.36 G roup a ctivities r epresented w ere m eant t o s how t he s uperior s tatus o f t hese m en, a s tatus e mphasized b y t heir a rmor a nd t he s plendor o f t heir d ress a nd f urniture. A side f rom m ilitary p rocessions, t he m ost p opular a ctivity i s t he b anquet o r s ymposium, c omplete w ith m usic a nd d rinking, g lorifying t he h ost's w ealth, g enerosity, h ospitality a nd i nfluence. W e a re i ndeed i n a H omeric t hough n ot a m ythological w orld: t he w orld b ehind t he O dyssey. T hough t hese p arties a re s imilar i n

3 7

m any w ays t o t hose s hown i n S outh E truscan t omb p ainti ngs,37 o ne f eature i s i n s harp c ontrast t o t hose. A s i n G reek a rt, i t i s s trictly a m an's w orld: w omen a re o nly p resent a s a ttendants, o r i n e rotic s cenes ( figs. 6 3-64), a t l east s ome o f w hich, a s i n G reek a rt, t ake p lace i n t he c ontext o f f ood a nd l uxury. 38 T he l uxurious f urnishings o f t hese p rincely d rinking f easts, s hown i n g reat d etail, a re o ften, i n p roper p rovincial s tyle, f ar m ore e laborate t han a nyt hing f ound i n t he c apital: t wo-story l oom, s wan b ed, a nd c ustom-made s itula r ack a re f ound n owhere e lse. T he c ouch o f t he C ertosa s itula ( fig. 1), w here t wo m usicians s eem t o b e e ngaging i n a m usical c ompetition, i s r epresented i n a ll i ts g lory.39 T opped w ith b ronze s tatues o f a thletes w ho s tand o ver a nimal-head f inials i n t he f orm o f l ions d evouring m en o r a nimals, 4 0 a s i n E truscan b ronzes a nd i vories, i t h ad s ix l egs, p robably o f w ood c overed w ith c arved i vory. T he b ody m ust h ave b een c overed w ith e mbossed b ronze p lates l ike t he b ed i n t he R egolini-Galassi t omb. T hese l uxuries t ypify t he a ristocratic w ay o f l ife, c ivilization p ar e xcellence. O ne m usician i s p laying t he p ipes, t he o ther t he l yre. B oth i nstruments, l ike o thers d epicted o n t he s itulae, a re o f a l ocal t ype.4 1 M uch o f t he t ableware a nd d rinking u tensils a lso c onsists o f l ocal s hapes. S itulae, u sed a s w ine c ontainers, a re p rominently d isp layed, s ometimes o n t he r ichly d ecorated r acks ( figs. 4 , 1 2). 4 2 A ttendants a re s hown b usily c arrying t hem a round, b ringing b ack t he e mpties, d ispensing w ine w ith c ups s haped l ike d ippers, a nd s erving t he a ssembled g uests. P rocessions s how w omen c arrying t hese i mplements, a s w ell a s s itulae a c ordone ( fig. 1). S uch " matching s ets" o f t ableware o r d rinking w are--featuring f igured a nd r ibbed s itulae, s ometimes d ecorated w ith p endant o rnaments, a nd s imilar c ups a nd d ippers--are f ound b uried i n n orthern g raves o f t his p eriod, 4 3 p recious p ossessions w hich t he d ead t ook w ith t hem w hen t hey d ied ( fig. 4 8). N oblemen t ook w ith t hem t heir a rmor o r w ar e quipment, a nd a lso t he p recious h eirlooms w ith w hich t hey c ould c ontinue t o h ave t he d rinking p arties r epresented o n t he s itulae, a nd e njoy t heir s uperior s tatus a fter d eath, j ust a s t hey s aw i t c elebrated o n t he s itulae d uring t heir l ifetimes. T hese r ealistic s cenes t herefore s howed n ot o nly e laborate l ocal f urnishings, b ut a lso e xpensive f oreign i mports f rom E truria a nd o bjects i mitated f rom E truscan m odels. T he f ans u sed t o m ake t he m en c omfortable o n t he P rovidence s itula ( fig. 8 ) a re s imilar t o a t ype r epres ented i n E truscan a rt a nd f ound i n s uch E truscan t ombs a s t he T omba d ei F labelli a t P opulonia 44 ( fig. 3 6). T hey w ere o ften a ttributes o f w omen. S uch f ans a re r epres ented h anging o n t he w all o n t he B ologna p endant ( fig.5 ),

3 8

a nd a ccompanying t he l adies o f t he E truscan f riezes f rom M urlo ( figs. 3 1-32). 45

r elief

T he c hairs u sed b y t he b anqueters a re, a s w e s aw i n c hapter 1 , t ypically s eventh-century E truscan m odels, l ike t he b ronze B arberini c hair f ound i n a t omb a t P raeneste ( fig. 9 4). 4 6 M ade o f w icker o r w ood, t hey w ere c overed w ith e mbossed m etal p lates; w hen p olished, t heir b ronze s urfaces p robably s hone s o t hat t hey l ooked l ike " golden c hairs." N umerous m odels o f t his r ound-backed ' type o f c hair w ere i mitated i n s tone i n t he t ombs o f C erveteri 47 ( fig. 9 6). I n t he n orth, p articularly a round C hiusi, s uch c hairs o r " thrones" l ong s erved a s s upports f or t erracotta f unerary u rns o f t he d eceased, o r s tone s tatues. 48 I n b ronze, s tone a nd t erracotta m odels, t he e xterior d ecoration o f e mbossed b ronze w as f requently i mitated b y m eans o f c onvex b osses. E verywhere t he c hairs w ere u sed b y b oth m en a nd w omen. A w oman s its i n o ne i n a n e rotic s cene r epresented o n t he b elt f rom B rezje ( fig. 6 3). W omen u se t hem i n t he B ologna p endant ( figs. 5 -6), a nd w omen u se t hem i n t he r elief f rieze f rom M urlo ( fig. 3 1).49 G entlemen u se t hem a t t he b anquets p ortrayed o n t he s itulae. F or a t t hese b anquets o r s ymposia, m en d id n ot y et r ecline i n t he I onian s tyle. T hey r egularly s at, a s p eople d id a t E truscan b anquets t hroughout t he s eventh a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he s ixth c entury. I n S outh E truria, i n t he T omba d elle C inque S edie a t C erveteri, a round 6 00 B .C., a " cult r oom" c ontained f ive t erracotta f igures s eated i n a rmchairs, r epresenting t he f amily's a ncestors, b oth m en a nd w omen, p artaking o f a b anquet w hich r esembles i n m any r espects t he b anquet s cenes o n t he s itulae.50 F rom N orth E truria w e h ave t he e vidence o f t he m id-seventh c entury u rn f rom M ontescudaio ( fig. 4 5), w here a s eated g entleman i s w aited o n b y a f emale a ttendant. 5 1 B y t he m iddle o f t he s ixth c entury f ashionable E truscan b anquets t ook p lace i n t he c ontemp orary G reek s tyle--reclining o n c ouches, a s o n a f rieze f rom M urlo ( fig. 3 3) a nd l ater t he V illa G iulia a sh u rn.52 A n i mportant d ifference b etween S outh a nd N orth E truscan c ustom c oncerns t he p lace o f w omen a t t hese b anquets. W hereas i n S outh E truscan c ities--Tarquinia a nd C erveteri--women r ecline t ogether w ith t he m en,53 r epresentations i n t he n orth--Chiusi a nd F iesole--show t hem, i f t hey a re p resent a t a ll, s itting b eside t he m en, w ho r ecline c omfortably o n c ouches.5 4 I n t he s itula a rt i t i s o nly i n t he f ifth c entury t hat w e g et a p icture o f a b anqueter r eclining o n a c ouch, o n a b elt h ook f rom E ste ( fig. 4 6).55 T his i s n ot t he o nly c hange w e n otice o n t his m onument. I nstead o f s itula a nd d ipper c up, t he b anqueter n ow u ses m ore " modernntableware i n t he E truscan f ashion: a S chnabelk anne, a nd a G reek o r E truscan h andled c up o r k ylix.b6 B ut h e s till d ines a lone, r ather t han w ith h is w ife; a nd 3 9

h is a ttendant i s f emale, a s c ustomary i n t he n orth, r ather t han m ale a s m ore f requently f ound i n t he s outh. 57 T he c ontinuity o f e arlier f ashions i s s hown m ost s triki ngly b y t he p laid w ool c ostumes r epresented, l ong o ut o f f ash'on i n E truria b ut a lways a s pecialty o f t he n orthern r egions . 58 T hus, t here s eems t o h ave b een a n ew w ave o f i nfluence f rom E truria a fter t he s ixth c entury. N ot o nly d id i t b ring a n ew e tiquette a nd t ableware, b ut a lso a n ew c raft. T he c haracteristic E truscan t echnique o f d ecorating t he b acks o f b ronze m irrors w as a lso b orrowed b y N orth I talian a rtists. T here w as, h owever, a n i mport ant d ifference. E truscan a rtists s ometimes d ecorated t he b acks o f t heir m irrors w ith m ythological s cenes o r f igures t aken f rom G reek a rt ( fig. 5 5). B ut m ythology w as e vidently n ot a ccepted i n t he n orth. S everal b ronze m irrors a nd m irror-shaped d iscs i n N orth I taly, i n i mit ation o f E truscan m irrors, w ere i nstead d ecorated w ith f igures l ike t hose o f t he s itulae ( figs. 5 6-59). T he A rnoaldi m irror ( fig. 5 7), f ound i n a w oman's g rave, p ictures a w arrior w ith a h orn, p erhaps a h eroized f igure, b ut n ot a m ythological o ne.59 O n t he m irror f rom C astelvetro, n ear M odena ( fig. 5 6), a re s cenes o f d aily l ife, i ncluding t he s cene o f a c ouple m aking l ove o n a n e laborately d ecorated s wan b ed.60 A n umber o f s uch s cenes o f l ove-making a re d epicted i n s itula a rt. O pinions d iffer a s t o t he i nterp retation o f s uch s ymplegmata, o r " embraces," a s a rchaeol ogists c all t hem ( figs. 5 6, 6 3-64).61 T hey h ave b een e xplained a s r eflecting n otions o f f ecundity a nd f ertili ty, a kin t o t hose a lluded t o b y s cenes o f p loughing, a lso s hown o n s itulae a nd o n l ate V illanovan o r e arly E truscan m onuments.62 S andars s uggests t hat s cenes o f l ove-making o n s itulae s imply i ndicate m arriage, s omet hing l ike t he t heme e xpressed p erhaps m ore p olitely, t o o ur m odern e yes, b y E truscan s cenes s howing h usband a nd w ife t ogether o n t he s ixth-century V illa G iulia a sh u rn o r t he f ourth-century s arcophagi f rom V ulci i n B oston.63 T he e xplicit e rotic s cenes o n a s eventhc entury E truscan v ase, t he o inochoe f rom T ragliatella ( near C erveteri) ( fig. 6 6), w hose l ively, p rimitive f igures h ave o ften b een c ompared t o t hose o f t he s itulae, w as r ecently e xplained a s a m ythological r endering o f t he m arriage o f T heseus a nd A riadne.64 S uch a m ythologic al e xplanation w ill n ot f it t he l oving c ouples o f t he s itulae. I n c ontrast, B oardman t hinks t he s itulae i llustrate g enre s cenes l ike t hose o f c ontemporary b lack-figure G reek v ases;65 i t i s t rue t hat o n t he s itulae s uch l ove-making d oes u sually t ake p lace i n t he c ontext o f b anquets o r s ymposia, l ike t he e rotic s cenes r epresented o n A rchaic G reek v ases, w hich d epict t he l ife o f a w ealthy a ristocracy f or w hom l ove-making f orms a n ormal p art o f a g roup f east.66

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B ut i n t he l ight o f t he s ocial, s ymbolic c ontext o f s itula a rt, t hose l ove s cenes w ould s eem t o r efer t o m arried s ex r ather t han a c hance e ncounter a t a p arty. O n t he s itulae w e d o n ot s ee t he G reek p icture o f a ristoc ratic y ouths w ith n aked h etairae, b ut s omething m ore a kin t o t he E truscan p icture o f a m arried c ouple, w ith t he w ife p ublicly r eclining b y h er h usband a t s ymposium o r b anquet. T here a re i mportant d ifferences, h owever, f rom b oth t he G reek a nd E truscan s cenes; c learly t hese n orthern s cenes i llustrate l ocal s exual c ustoms. ' Boardman h as p ointed t o s everal s pecial, n on-Greek f eatures: ( 1) t he u se o f b eds w ith c omfortable m attresses ( the o ne o n t he S anzeno s itula [ fig. 6 41 s eems t o b e v ibrating f rom t he a ction);67 ( 2) t he u se o f t he " missionary p osition,' r are i n G reek a nd E truscan a rt, w ith t he m an o n t he b ed o n t op r ather t han o n t he s ide, o n t he S anzeno s itula a nd C astelvetro m irror ( figs. 6 4, 5 6);68 ( 3) t he w oman s eated o n t he c hair, r ather t han t he m an a s i s r egularly t he c ase i n G reece ( fig. 1 9);69 ( 4) t he w oman c ompletely d ressed i n m antle, c hiton, a nd e arrings ( fig. 1 9). T hese c ustoms, h ere s hown r ealistica lly, a s p racticed l ocally, d iffered i n f orm f rom t hose p racticed i n G reece a nd i n E truria. W omen s eem t o p lay a l esser r ole i n t he a ristoc ratic w orld r epresented o n t he s itulae t han i n t he w orld o f t he E truscan c ities; b ut i t i s p erhaps o nly a d ifferent r ole. U pperclass w omen w ere h onored a s m uch a s t he m en i n t heir t ombs; m irrors a nd j ewelry w ere d ecorated w ith s cenes c elebrating t heir p lace i n s ociety. T he t omb o f t he w ealthy o wner o f t he b ronze p endant o r " tintinnabulum" f rom B ologna w as f ull o f p recious o bjects. A r epresentation o f w omen a t w ork o n w ool w as d epicted o n t his b ronze d ecoration, p erhaps o riginally u sed a s a m edal o r b adge ( figs. 5 -6).70 A ttributes s uch a s c hairs a nd f ans ( fig. 3 6) , l ike t hose o f t he m en's b anquet s cenes, p oint t o t he i mportance o f t hese w omen, w ho w ere d efinitely l adies. W e s ee h ere, t oo, a k ind o f ' heroization." O n a v ase f rom H allstatt t he w omen's w eaving i s a ccompanied b y a m usician o n h is l yre ( fig. 6 5),71 j ust a s m usicians a ccompany t he m ale b anqueters o n t he f riezes o f t he s itulae. S cenes i llustrating w omen's a ctivities a nd r ank 7 2 t end t o a ppear, n ot s urprisingly, o n o bjects m ade s pecifically f or w omen. I t i s i nteresting t o c ompare v ases, t raditionally m ade b y w omen, a lso d ecor ated w ith w omen's t hemes: s uch " household t asks" w ere o bviously o f g reat i mportance.73 T he s ize o f t he l oom ( fig. 5 ) o n t he B ologna p endant, a nd t he o rganized w ork i mplied b y t hese a mbitious s cenes--reminiscent o f t he p icture o f L ucretia s urrounded b y h er w omen w eaving l ate i nto t he n ight--remind u s h ow i mportant t extiles w ere n ot o nly i n t he h ome, b ut--in t he n orth i n p articular-i n a ncient c ommerce a nd t rade.

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I n C hiusi, t he w all p aintings o f t he T omb o f t he M onkey s howed a s eated l ady i n b lack, e vidently a ssisti ng a t h er o wn f uneral a nd e njoying t he f uneral g ames p erformed i n h er h onor ( fig. 7 1), 7 4 s omething u nheard o f i n c ontemporary G reece, a s w ell a s i n t he w orld o f t he s itula p eople. W hether f or m en o r w omen, t hough, g ames a nd c ompetitions, l ike t hose s o o ften s hown i n E truscan t ombs o f t he A rchaic p eriod, w ere a p opular t heme o f s itula a rt. T he N orth I talians, l ike t he R omans, b orrowed c ontests a nd g ames f rom t he E truscans. 7 5 C hariot a nd h orse r aces ( figs. 1 2, 1 4, 3 4) w ere f requent s ubjects f or f riezes a t a ll t imes i n a ncient G reece a nd I taly ( cf. f igs. 5 2-53), p opular e specially b ecause o f t he r hythm a nd m ovement o f t heir c ontinuous c omposition. 7 6 B ut t hey a re d epicted, o n t hese n orthern s itulae, w ith t hat i nterest i n t he d etails o f r eal l ife w hich i nforms s o m uch o f s itula a rt, a nd w hich m akes o f i t s omething i ndependent o f G reek a nd E truscan i nfluence. W e c an c onnect s uch s cenes w ith c ertain a ncient r eferences t o t he V eneti a s f amous h orse-breeders--see, f or e xample, t he G reek p oet A lcman's p raises, i n t he s ixth c entury B .C., o f t he p rize-winning h orses o f t he V eneti 77 -as w ell a s w ith t he m any b ronze v otive s tatuettes o f h orses o ffered t o t he V enetic g oddess R ehtia, a nd w e m ay n ote t he r epresentation o f c arriages a s a s ign o f s tatus ( figs. 3 7-38).78 T he a ristocrats o f t his r egion m ust h ave h eld s uch r aces i n t he p lains o f E ste a nd t he P o V alley. N orth I talian c harioteers, p racticing a d ared evil t rick l earned i n t he s ixth c entury f rom t he E truscans,79 t ied t heir r eins a bout t heir w aists t o g ive t hem m ore c ontrol i n t urning. T his t echnique, w hich h elped t hem w in, i s c learly i llustrated o n t he m onuments, a s a n i mportant, w ell-known f eature o f t he r ace, o bserved f irst h and. O n t he K uffarn s itula i n V ienna w e s ee a l ine o f f our c harioteers, e ach w ith h is r eins t ied a bout h is w aist ( fig. 1 2). I n E truria, w here t he t echnique o riginated, c harioteers a re s hown w ith t he r eins t ied a bout t heir w aists, f orming a b ig k not i n b ack ( Tomba d elle O limpiadi a t T arquinia, T omba d el C olle a t C hiusi, f ig. 5 2). T he t rick w as d angerous a nd r isky. I n t he t omb o f t he O lympiads, t he c harioteer i s d epicted i n t he a ct o f b eing h urtled o ut o f h is c hariot h ead f irst, h is s hort c hiton f lying o ver h is h ead; w ith t he r eins s till a ttached, h e w ill s oon b e d ragged a long i n t he d ust ( fig. 5 2).80 A nother p opular s pectator s port w as b oxing. B oxers o n t he s itulae u sed a p eculiar o bject w hich l ooks l ike a s et o f d umbbells, b ut w hich m ust b e o f s ome l ight m aterial l ike l eather o r c loth ( fig. 9 7). S uch a m anner o f f ighting i s s trictly a l ocal c ustom, f ound n either i n G reece n or e lsewhere i n E urope. 8 1 Y et h ere t oo E truscan i nfluence i s c lear. T wo s tandard f eatures o f s cenes o f b oxing, t he p rize o r t rophy s hown n ear t he t wo c ontende rs ( usually a l arge h elmet, f igs. 7 , 1 2, 1 4; o nce, o n t he P rovidence s itula, a l ebes, f ig. 8 ) a nd t he j udges

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s tanding b y r eady t o a ward t he p rize h ave t heir c ounterp art i n s uch E truscan p aintings o f t he s ixth c entury B .C. a s t he T omba d egli A uguri i n T arquinia ( fig. 1 09). A t C hiusi, a s o n t he B envenuti s itula ( figs. 7 1, 4 ), s everal t ombs s how t he c ontestants' c lothes o n t he g round, r eady t o b e p ut b ack o n a s s oon a s t he f ight i s o ver;82 t heir p resence i mplies t hat t he c ontestants a re n ot p rofess ionals, b ut g entlemen w ho w ill l ater r esume t heir d ign ified d ress. P rizes a nd c lothing t hus e mphasize t he h onor c onnected w ith s uch c ontests. T he a nimal h unt, a nother t ypically a ristocratic m otif, a ppears i n t he a rt o f t he s itulae, f or e xample o n t he C ertosa s itula ( fig. 1), 8 3 a s w ell a s i n A rchaic E truscan a rt. A t t he e nd o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. i t a ppears o n t he b ronze " cart" f rom B isenzio, 84 i n a c ont ext v ery s imilar t o t hat o f o ur s itulae, w ith a rmed s oldiers; r itual s cenes, w omen b earing w ater j ars a nd a m an p loughing, e mphasize t he i mportance o f l and a nd i ts f ertility. T his p icture o f t he f armer t illing t he f ield w ith t he p lough, w hich a lso a ppears o n s everal s itulae ( Benvenuti, C ertosa, S anzeno, T reviso, f igs. 4 , 9 -11, 6 4),85 m ight a t f irst s ight l ook l ike a s imple g enre s cene. B ut i t c an b e c ompared w ith t he l ater E truscan s tatuette o f t he p loughman f rom A rezzo, w ho w ears a h at a nd i s a pparently a p riest p erforming a r itual, s ymbolic a ction. 8 6 I n m ythology w e t hink o f R omulus m arking w ith a f urrow t he s acred b oundaries o f R ome. I n a ddition t he s ymbolism o f t he p lough a s a s ign o f f ertility i s a tt ested b y i ts u se a s a v otive o ffering, a s a t G ravisca. 87 P erhaps n ot c oincidentally t he s cene o f p loughing i s, i n s everal i nstances, r epresented n ear t he s ymplegmata o r l ove s cenes o n t he s itulae ( fig. 6 4) . 88 C learly, t his s cene, t oo, c ould h ave a w ide r ange o f i mplications i n t he c ontext o f a n a ristocratic w orld b ased o n a gric ulture. 89 II.

Q uestions

a nd

C onclusions

A rchaic E truscan a rt p resents m any p roblems o f i nterpretation s imilar t o t hose o f t he s itulae. I n a n e arlier r estoration, t he p loughman o f A rezzo w as s hown a ccompanied b y a f igure o f M inerva, a n a ssociation w hich e xpressed t he r eligious c onnotations t he s cene w as b elieved t o h ave. W e n o l onger a utomatically t hink e very s uch f igure o r s cene h ad a p urely r eligious s ign ificance. I n f act, t here i s a t endency i n t he o ther d irection. I n a r ecent a rticle a bout M urlo, M auro C ristofani e xplained t he c omplex a t M urlo a s a s ecular b uilding, a p rincely r esidence w hose d ecoration w as d esigned t o s how o ff t he w ealth o f t he s pecific o wner a nd m istress o f t he h ouse ( figs. 2 8, 3 1-34). A ccording t o t his i nterpretation, t he b uildings, f ar f rom b elongi ng t o a s anctuary, c onstituted a p rincely d welling o r p alace. T heir d ecoration i s t o b e c onsidered a s p urely

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" lay" a rt. 90 C ristofani h as s ince m odified a nd e xpanded h is i nterpretation o f t hese b uildings a nd o f t he f igures w hich d ecorated t hem. 9 1 H e d oes n ot d eny t hat s ome k ind o f c ult t ook p lace i n t hese l uxuriously o rnamented r ooms w ith c entral c ourtyard ( fig. 3 5), t hough h e i nsists t hat i t m ust h ave b een c losely c onnected w ith t he a ristocratic o wner o f t he p alace, t he l ord w ho w as b oth t he p olitical a nd r eligious l eader o f t he c ommunity. B eyond t he a rchaeological e vidence w hich s upports h is n otion o f t he n on-religious n ature o f t he b uilding, C ristofani b ases h is i nterpretation o n h is r eading o f t he f igures o n i ts t erracotta d ecoration, w hich d eal w ith t he s ame t hemes f ound i n s itula a rt. G ames, b anq uets, a nd p rocessions c elebrate t he w ealth a nd p restige o f t he l ords o f t hose n orthern a reas, t he o wners o f t he s itula--whose a rt w as i n f act i n m any w ays d ependent o n t hat o f t his v ery r egion o f C hiusi. C ristofani d enies t hat a ny f igures o n t he d ecoration h ad a ny m ythological s ignificance. R ather t han t riads o f d ivinities, h e s ees, o n t he p laque w ith t he s eated f igures, t he l ord a nd l ady o f t he m anor. H e i s r ight, i n m y o pinion, i n s tressing t he i mportance o f t he c ouple a nd t he a ristocratic f amily u nit, w hich g ives a d ifferent p icture o f t he s ociety f rom t hat o f t he s itulae, w ith t heir m ale g atherings o f c hieftains. H e a lso a dmits r eligious c onnotations: f or t he f irst s eated f igure o n t he p laques, h olding a l ituus ( fig. 3 1), a nd f or t he s eated s tatues o nce s urmounting t he r idge o f t he g able r oof ( fig. 2 8). T heir p osition a nd s ize s howed t hey m ust h ave r epresented h eroic, r egal o r e ven d ivine p ersonages, w ith a " significato l egato a ll'ambito d ella v enerazione o d ella r egalita." T he f igures o n t he t erracotta f riezes f rom M urlo ( figs. 3 1-34) h ave b een c ompared w ith t hose o f s itula a rt e ver s ince t heir e xcavation a nd e arliest p ublication. T he t erracotta a croteria ( fig. 2 8) a re a nother m atter. T here i s n othing e xactly l ike t hem i n s itula a rt, b ut t hey b elonged t o t his s ame a ristocratic w orld; a nd i nd eed t hey h ave b een c alled p ortrayals o f " ancestors," l ike t he f unerary f igures f rom C hiusi, a n umber o f o ther A rchaic E truscan s eated f igures--and t he s eated b anq ueters o f s itula a rt. I n E truria, b y t he s ixth c entury, i t i s p ossible t hat s uch f igures m ight e ven h ave h ad a m ythological s ignificance, w hich t he e arly f igures o f s itula a rt s urely n ever h ad. I n a ny c ase i t i s c learly i mpossible t o d raw a h ard a nd f ast l ine, i n t he a rt o f t his p eriod, b etween r eligious, s ymbolic, a nd " secular" a rt. T he A rchaic p eriod, e ven i n E truria, s aw l ittle o r n o d istinction b etween s acred a nd n on-sacred, d ivine a nd p rofane, g enre a nd s ymbolic. I n t his s ense, t he i deas o f F ustel d e C oulanges c oncerning a ncestor w orship i n a ntiquity a re s till v alid t oday. 92

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W e a re u sed t o a ccepting a r itual o r " symbolic" m eaning f or f unerary a rt. T he a rt o f M urlo i s d efinitely n ot f unerary. N or w ere t he s itulae o riginally f unerary, a lthough t hey w ere f ound i n t ombs. T he s itulae r epresent a s a " historical" r eality s cenes o f d aily l ife. Y et e ven t his h istorical r eality, t his d aily l ife, i s r aised t o a h igher l evel; t hese g enre s cenes a re a lso s omehow s ymb olic. 93 A n i nterpretation o f t he a rt o f t he s itulae a nd o f t he r eliefs f rom M uria m ust t ake i nto a ccount t he h istorical c ontext i n w hich t hey w ere e xecuted. T hese —l ords w ere, o f c ourse, p roudly s howing t he s igns o f t heir s tatus a nd r ank; b ut w hat l ooks l ike a g enre s cene t o u s w as s een f rom a d ifferent p erspective b y t he p eople w ho c ommissioned t hese A rchaic m onuments a nd b y t he a rtists w ho e xecuted t hem. T he q uestion o f t he s ignificance o f s cenes d epicted o n s itula a rt i s c losely c onnected w ith t heir s tyle.94 A s triking f eature o f t his a rt i s t he o bservat ion a nd d epiction o f r eal l ife. T he f igures a re a wkw ard a nd p rovincial, y et s trangely g raceful, t oo. A rtists c ombined, o ften s uccessfully, t he c onventional m otifs t hey h ad b orrowed--processions o f a nimals, t he f rieze c omposition o f t he r egisters, a nd a v ariety o f d ecorative e lements--with t he " realism" o f t heir o wn f avorite t hemes. W hen t he a rtist w as s uccessful, h e m anaged t o c reate a s ophisticated t ype o f a rt, i n w hich o ne f eels l ittle o r n o s train b etween b orrowed c onventions a nd s cenes t aken f rom r eal l ife. A t t heir b est t he s itula p eoples d eveloped a n a rtistic s tyle w hich c ould a ccommodate d ifferent e lements i nto a c ohere nt w hole, a nd w hich a llowed t hem t o t ranslate s tandard t hemes, l ike t he b anquet o r t he c hariot r ace, i nto t heir o wn i conography. T heir a rtists c ould s how t he d ignity o f t he m en p ortrayed a t t he b anquets a nd t he i mportance o f a ll t heir i mplements o f d aily l ife. L uxurious c ouches a nd f ine b ronzes g lowed w ith a s pecial m eaning o f t heir o wn, l ike t he o bjects c arefully l abelled o n t he F rancois v ase, o r t he g olden t ables o f t he g ods d escribed b y H omer . 95 O ne p oint r emains c ertain a bout t he a ctual s ignificance o f t hese s cenes. T hey a re n ever m ythol ogical. T he s itulae d epict l ocal c ustoms, f ashions, f urnishings, a ll t he s igns o f a r ich, a ristocratic s tyle o f l ife. S uch a l ife d id n ot c hange r apidly. I n f act, t hese s cenes s eem t o c onstitute a s till p icture o f a w orld t hat n ever e nds: t he s low p ace o f c hange i n t he n orthern a reas p reserved, a s f ossils, c ertain f eatures o f a rt a nd c ustoms, b oth l ocal a nd i mported. T he m anner o f d ressing, f or e xample, i s m uch m ore l ong-lasting h ere t han i n E truria, w here m uch o f i t o riginated. I n l anguage a nd f ashions p eripheral r egions, a way f rom t he m ain c enter o f c ivilization, t end t o c ontinue t o u se a rchaic f orms l ost e lsewhere, 96 p reserving l ocal c ustoms a nd b eliefs, e ventually t urning a ncient f orms i nto s pecialized s ymbols.

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W e h ave s een t hat t he s ignificance o f m any o f t he s cenes s hown o n s itula a rt g oes f ar b eyond t he " daily l ife" t hey m ight a ppear t o r epresent. T hey d ocument t he r ealien o f c ontemporary l ife a nd s how u s s pecial m oments, a ctions, a nd o bjects; b ut t hey a lso l ook b ack t o a h eroic p ast, a s F rey a nd G abrovec h ave s hown. W e c an c ompare t he l ife-style d epicted i n t hese s cenes t o t hat r eflected i n t he l ate p hases o f I ron A ge c ulture i n E truscan a rt. H ow a re w e t o i magine s uch a c ulture? W e s ee a p icture o f a t ribal, p atriarchal s ociety, n ot y et a c ity i n t he G reek s ense, 97 a w orld w hich i s s till H omeric. Y et e ven t he H omeric w orld w as n ot s tatic. I t w as o n t he v erge o f c hange. T he H omeric p oems a re f ull o f a nachronisms a nd c ontradictions, a rchaisms a nd l ater a dditions. 98 A s i n H omer, o n t he s itulae t here i s t he p roblem o f d eciding w hat i s r eal, o r r ealistically p ortrayed, w hat i s e arlier o r l ater. T his p roblem i s e specially i mportant i n t he c ase o f t he s eemingly c ontradictory r epresentations o f s oldiers i n s ingle c ombat a nd h eavily a rmed t roops, a nd o f t he c ont inuity o f d ress a nd c ustoms. I s t he w arrior w ith b attle a xe h eroized, a s F rey s uggests? W hat i s t he s ignificance o f t he u nchanging s tyle o f c lothes w orn b y t he b anqueters o n t he s itulae, a nd l ater b y t he p ilgrims o n t he b ronze v otive p laques? A c omparison w ith o ur o wn c ustoms m ight e xplain s ame a pparent a nachronisms a s c ont inuations o f t he d ress a nd a rmor o f f ormer t imes; w e, t oo, i n o ur m ilitary u niforms, r eligious h abits, a nd e ven p ersonal a ttire, c ontinue t o u se a nd r epresent s tyles o f t he p ast. M ore d ifficult t o a nswer a re q uestions b earing o n t he s ubstance r ather t han t he f orm o f t hese r epres entations. S cenes o f a rmed t roops d epicted o n t he s itulae m ight h ave b een a dopted s imply a s e xternal a rtistic c onventions. Y et F rey h as a rgued t hat i t i s m ore p robable t hat t hey a re r ealistic, t hat s ome a reas o f s itula a rt i n t he l ate s eventh a nd e arly s ixth c entury d id, i n f act, s ee t he d evelopment o f a w ello rdered m ilitary e stablishment, w ith s pecialized t roops, d rilled t o f ight a s a g roup. I mportant c hanges h ad t aken p lace i n t hese r egions j ust b efore t he t ime t hese l ords w ere s hown o n o ur s itulae; a p re-urban t ype o f c ivilization h ad c ome i nto b eing. R ecent s tudies h ave s hown t hat r elations hips b etween t he e astern H allstatt r egion a nd t he a rea o f E ste b ecame e specially c lose i n t he e ighth c entury B .C. O ne c an a ctually s ee t he e mergence o f a n " Adriatic k oine," 99 a n a rea a nd a c ultural c ontext, c onsisting o f v arious c enters, w ithin w hich t he a rt o f t he s itula p eople d eveloped, e volved a nd e xpanded d uring t he c ourse o f t he l ater s eventh a nd s ixth c enturies B .C. T he a mber t rade t o E truria w hich w ent

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t hrough t he V eneto a nd t he A driatic w as n o d oubt i n p art r esponsible f or t he t hriving e conomy a nd c ulture o f t he s itula p eople. 1 00 B ut t hese c enters n ever b ecame r eal c ities. 1 01 R eflected i n t he a rt i s a s ituation w hich r emained a mbiguous, c hanges w hich n ever c ame t o f ruition; f or i t w as o nly i n R oman t imes t hat c ivilization p icked u p a gain a nd c ities g rew u p i n t his r egion. S itula a rt d eveloped i n t he s eventh c entury, a nd i n g eneral r eflects t he i nfluence o f E truscan a rt a nd f ashions o f a round 6 00 B .C. T he l ocal l evel o f c ivilization i llustrated, h owever, i s c omparable t o a m uch e arlier p eriod o f E truscan d evelopment. T he a rt d epicts a s ocial s ituation w hich b ears s triking r esemb lances t o t hat o f E truscan a rt a c entury b efore, a t t he m oment o f t ransition f rom t he w orld o f t he l ate V illan ovan p eriod t o t he O rientalizing a ge. 1 02 I n E truria a nd L atium t here i s a m oment w hen t he a rchaeological p icture o f t he V illanovan p eriod s hifts t o t hat o f t he w ealthy o rientalizing t ombs, w ith t heir i mported l uxury i tems, t he c onspicuous c onsumption o f t heir a ristocratic f amilies, c learly e mphasized c lass d istinctions, a nd t he e xistence, a pproaching o r a ctual, o f n ewly-founded c ities i mplied b y t his w ay o f l ife. I n t he a rt o f t he s itula p eople w e s ee p arallels t o t his p roto-urban p hase o f t he e arly s eventh c entury i n E truria. T he G reek e migration o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. ( Pithekoussai w as f ounded c a. 7 75 B .C.)103 a ccelerated t his h istorical d evelopment, a lready u nder w ay i n E truria a nd L atium, a nd i n t he c ourse o f t he s eventh c entury w e s ee s igns o f t he f irst c ities. C aere w as a c ity b y a bout 6 50 B .C.; R ome l ess t han a c entury l ater. T he t raditional d ate o f t he m ilitary o rganization o f S ervius T ullius, a round 5 50 B .C., m ay n ot b e c oincidenta1.104 A n e volution w hich h ad o ccurred a round 7 50 B .C. i n G reece 1 05 n ow t ook p lace i n I taly i n w aves--and f ormal, s uperficial a spects o f t his e volution r eached t he a rea n orth o f E truria b efore s uch c hanges a ctually t ook p lace. W e h ave s een t hat t he r epresentations o f t he w ay o f l ife o f t he s itula p eople r eflect a p re-urban, o r a t l east p roto-urban s ociety, w ith c hiefs, o r p rinces, a nd t heir l adies, h orsemen o r k nights. T he s ociety a lso i ncluded b ronze w orkers, c raftsmen, f armers, h unters, a nd s ervants. 1 06 T he a bsence o f G reek m ythology, o f g ods o r t emples o r r eligion o ther t han t hat o f t he f amily, o f m onumental a rchitecture, i mplies t hat t here w as n o c ity a s y et. T his i mpression i s c onfirmed b y t he s tudy o f t he l anguages o f t hese r egions. I n t he V enetic l angu age, a s i n G allic a nd L epontic, t he h ereditary f amily n ame, " gentilizio," d oes n ot e xist.107 T his s ituation i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t hat o f t he l anguages o f

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c entral I taly. E truscan, O sco-Umbrian, L atin, F aliscan, a nd M essapic a ll d evelop t his t ype o f h ereditary n ame b etween t he s eventh a nd f ifth c enturies B .C. T he f act t hat i t i s o nly i n R oman t imes t hat t his n aming s ystem b egins t o b e u sed i n t he V enetic a rea108 a grees w ith t he s tage o f d evelopment r eflected i n t he a rt o f t he s itulae.109 Q uestions a nd c onclusions s uggest c ertain s imil arities b etween R ome a nd t he s itula p eople i n t he h istorical c ircumstances o f t heir c ivilization a nd t heir r eactions. R ome, t oo, l earned a rt a nd t he a lphab et f rom t he E truscans. W hile s he d id a dopt G reek m ythology i n a rt a nd l iterature, s he d id n ot a llow i t t o t ouch h er r eligion. R ome's h istory w as h er m ythol ogy; h er a ncestors w ere h er h eroes. H er e arly h uts s tood f or t he h ouse o f t he h ead o f t he f amily, f or t he s acred h earth, a nd f or t he g od's h ouse. 10 I n R oman r itual w e s ee t he s urvival o f e lements o f d aily l ife a s s omething i mportant a nd s ymbolic. S ome p arallels b etween R oman s ymbols a nd o bjects d epicted i n s itula a rt c an i n f act b e e xplained b y R ome's p reservation, i n h er r eligious c ustoms, o f a rchaic f orms g oing b ack t o t he s eventh c entury i n I taly, t o t hat m oment j ust b efore t he c hange f rom a n I ron A ge, V illanovan w orld, w hen t he E truscans b rought c ivilization. 1 11 I n R ome, a s i n t he A rchaic p eriod i n n orthern E truria a nd i n t he s itula a rt, t he a xe w as s till c arried a s s ymbolic o f t he g eneral's p ower, a nd t he l ituus a s a n a ttribute o f a uthority. A r emarkable n umber o f t hese R oman s ymbols w ere, i n f act, o f N orth E truscan o rigin. 12 M ost i mportantly, b oth i n t he n ative n orthern s itula a rt a nd i n R oman h istorical r eliefs, r eal p eople w ere r epresented i nvolved i n r itual a cts, p rocessions, g ames, a nd b anquets, i n c ontrast t o t he m ythological t endency o f G reek a rt, w hich e mphasized g ods a nd h eroes.1 1 3 B oth t he n orthern p eoples a nd R ome w ent o n r epresenting n ative s cenes, a s d isting uished f rom t he G reek m ythology w hich w as m uch m ore d eeply a bsorbed b y t he m ore a dvanced, s ophisticated E truscans. I n b oth t hese r egions E truscan i nfluence w as i mportant. B ut i n R ome i t l eft l anguage a nd r eligion u nchanged. A nd n orth o f t he E truscan w orld, t he d omestic, l ocal t radition r eflected i n t he s itula a rt r emained u ntouched b y G reek m ythology, f ree t o p ass o n t o u s a r ealistic, d etailed, y et t antalizing p icture o f t he w orld o f t hese p eoples, w hose p ast r esembled R ome's o wn p ast, i n t he l ong p eriod b efore t he R oman c onquest. H ere i n t he n orth, t hat w orld l asted u ntil t he c oming o f t he R omans b roke t he s pell.

4 8

N OTES " I p opu li d e lle s itule : u na c iviltä p roto-urbana ," D ia loghi d i A rcheologia n .s.2 ( 1979 ) 7 3-94 , i s a n e arlier v ersion o f t his s tudy t ranslated i nto I ta lian. Ia m g rateful t o O tto-Herman F rey a nd S tane G abrovec f or g uidance i n u nfam iliar t erritory . P eter W ells g ave m e u seful r eferences, a nd I l earned m uch f rom h is w ork, s tarting w ith h is H arvard d issertation ( 1976), W est-Centra l E urope a nd t he M editerr anean W or ld 6 00-400 B .C.: M ode ls o f C ulture C ontact a nd C ulture C hange ( Cambridge U niversity P ress, f orthcom ing ). Ia lso t hank M ar io T orelli f or h is e ncouragement, a nd t he e ditors o f D ialoghi d i A rcheologia ( DdA ) f or h e lpful c riticism . 1 L avori p reparatori p er u n i ncontro d i s tudi s ulla f ormazione d ella c ittä n ell'Ita lia p rotostorica ," D dA 7 ( 1973) 1 22ff.; D dA 8 ( 1974-75 ) 1 62-164 ; 5 24-526 ; a nd a S em inar io h eld i n R ome, J une 1 977, s ponsored b y D ia loghi d i A rcheologia. F or a n e xcellent a ccount o f t he d evelopment o f t he c ity i n L atium , s ee G . C olonna , i n C ivilta d el L azio P rimitivo ( Rome 1 976) 2 5-36; a nd t he v arious c ontr ibutions i n " Lazio a rca ico e m ondo g reco," P aro ia d el P assato 3 2 ( 1977) 1 72-177. S ee a lso L a c ittä e trusca ei ta lica p reromana , S tudi s ulla c ittä a nt ica , A tti d el C onvegno d i S tudi s ulla C itta E trusca e I ta lica ( Bologna 1 970 ).

2T he t erm " civilizat ion" i s h ere u sed t o m ean " the k ind o f c ulture f ound i n c ities" ( Cahnmann 5 42). O n t he d ef inition o f c ities : C . K luckhohn, C ulture a nd B ehavior ( New Y ork 1 962); W .J. C ahnmann, " The R ise o f C ivilization a s aP aradigm o f S ocia l C hange," i n W .J. C ahnmann, A lvin B oskoff , S ociology a nd H istory ( New Y ork 1 964 ) 5 37-559 ; M ason H ammond, T he C ity i n t he A ncient W or ld ( Cambridge 1 972) C hapter 2 , a nd b ibl. c ited o n p p. 3 93-94.

3T he m ost c omprehensive a ccount i s 0 .-H. F rey , D ie E ntstehung d er S itulenkunst ( Berlin 1 969 ). F or a c omparison o f t he f igured r epresentations o f t he s itulae t o E truscan w orks, p articularly t erracotta r e lief f rieze p laques f rom M urlo a nd V elletr i a nd b ucchero v ases f rom C hiusi w ith r e lief d ecoration, a nd d iscussion o f o rigins a nd i nterpretations, s ee G eorge K ossack, G räberfelder d er H a llstattzeit a n M a in u nd F ränkischer S aale , M ateria lhefte z ur b ayerischen V orgeschichte, v ol. 2 4 ( Ka llmünz 1 970) 1 60-168 . C f . a lso P . P etru, A rcheolo ki V estnik 2 4 ( 1973) 8 74-882. F or r ecent l iterature, s ee D . M itten, M useum o f A rt, R hode I sland S chool o f D esign, C lassica l B ronzes ( Providence 1 975 ) 9 0-101; G .A . M ansuelli, " Ancora s ui p roblem i d ell' A rte d elle s itule '," O puscula I osepho K astelic S exagenario D icata , S itula 1 4/15 ( 1974 ) 9 5-112. F or i l lustrations, s ee A rte d elle

4 9

S itule ( Florence 1 961); W . L ucke a nd 0 .-H. F rey , D ie S itula i n P rovidence ( Berlin 1 962 ); J . K astelic , S itulenkunst ( Vienna a nd M unich 1 964 ); a nd G . F ogolari, " La p rotostoria d elle V enezie ," P opoli e C iv iltä d ell'Italia A ntica 4 ( Rome 1 975) 6 1-222, e spec ia lly 1 24-132. F or t he r ole o f E truria i n c ivilizing E urope, s ee A .Pfiffig, E inführung i n d ie E truskologie ( Darmstadt 1 972 ) 8 5-87. F or a " westward b ias," a nd t he i mportance o f E truscan i nfluence n orthward b eginning i n t he s eventh c entury , s ee J .V.S. M egaw , " The O rienta li zing T heme i n E arly C eltic A rt : E ast o r W est?" A lba R egia 1 4 ( 1975) 1 5-33. 40 .-H. F rey , " Bemerkungen z ur H allstattischen B ewaffnung i m S üdosta lpenraum ," A rcheolo ni V estnik 2 4 ( 1973 ) [ 1975] 6 21-637; " Werke d er S itulenkunst ," D ie H allstattkultur ( Schloss L amberg , S teyr 1 980) 1 38-149. S . G abrovec, " La c omponente d ella c iviltä d elle n ecropo li d elle u rne n e ll'arte d elle s itule," A rte d elle S itule 3 -8 ; S itula 1 ( 1960) 4 4-45, 6 0-61, f ig. 1 5, 4 ; A rheo lo' § ki V estnik 1 3-14 ( 1962-63) 2 93-305, 3 17-321, p ls. 1 -6, 2 0, 2 2 . P .F. S tary , " Foreign E lements i n E truscan A rms a nd A rmour : 8 th t o 3 rd c enturies B .C.," P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 5 ( 1979 ) 1 79-206. Ih ave n ot s een S tary 's d issertation, s upervised b y O tto-Herman F rey , o n a rms, a rmor a nd w arfare i n C entra l I ta ly d uring t he I ron A ge, n inth t o s ixth c entury B .C.: P .F. S tary , Z ur e isenzeitlichen B ewaffnung u nd K ampfesweise i n M ittelitalien , ca. 9 . b is 6 . J 1 1 . v . C hr.), H amburg d iss. 1 978 ( forthcom ing p ublication). A lso u seful w ere t he p apers p resented b y G . C olonna, 0 .-H. F rey , S . G abrovec, a nd G . K ossack a t t he X I C onvegno d i S tudi E truschi e I talici h eld a t E ste a nd P adova, J une 1 976, p ub lished i n t he A tti o f t he C onvegno .

5F or a n a ccount a nd b ibliography o f t he e xcavation a nd f inds f rom M urlo, s ee E rik N ie lsen, K yle M . P hillips, J r., " Poggio C ivitate ( Siena ), G li s cavi d el B ryn M awr C o llege d a l 1 966 a l 1 974 ," N Sc 3 9 ( 1976) 13-147.

6F or t he r e lief p laques w ith s eated f igures s ee K .M . P hillips, A JA 7 2 ( 1968) 1 2 1-124; i b id ., A rchaeo logy 2 1 ( 1968) 2 54-257; a nd T .N . G antz, S tEtr 3 9 ( 197 1) 3 -24 . A gainst t he ir i nterpretat ion a s d iv ine t riads o r d iv inities , D um zil, R eligion r omaine a rchd ique 2 ( 1974 ) 6 70-671; K ossack, G räberfelder 1 64 ; L . B onfante W arren, J RS 6 0 ( 1970) 6 0, n . 6 9 ; B onfante, E truscan D ress 3 5, 18 , n . 1 6 , f iQ. 7 2 ; P fiffig, R elig io E trusca 3 6; M . C ristofani, " Considerazioni s u P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo)," P rospettiva 1 ( 1975) 9 -17 ; c f . 0 .-W. v on V acano , A NRW 1 4 , 5 37.

7C ristofani,

P rospettiva 1 ( 1975 ) 9 -17.

8F . P rayon, " Zum u rsprünglichen A ussehen u nd z ur D eutung d es K u ltraumes i n d er T omba d e lle C inque S ed ie b e i C erveter i," M arburger W incke lmann-Programm 1 974 , f ig. 2 ; " Zur D at ierung d er d rei f rühetrusk ischen S itzstatuetten a us C erveter i," R ömM itt 8 2 ( 1975) 1 65ff ., e specia lly 1 75, p l. 4 9, 1 ; F rühetrusk ische G rab -

5 0

u nd H ausarchitektur ( Heidelberg 1 975) 11f. T he i nterpretation o f t his g roup b y M engare lli, a ccepted b y P rayon, a grees w ith F rey 's c oncept o f t he " hero ization" o f t he l ords r epresented o n t he s itulae, t hough t he l atter a re n ot f unerary : " Si v olle c erto c on q uelle s edie e c on q uelle s tatuette c ostituire u na s pecie d i s acrario d i f am ig lia , o ve g li s piriti d egli a vi e d ei g enitori e rano v enerati d a i l oro d iscendenti p er a vere s empre l a l oro p rotezione e b enevolenza ." T he p roblem o f t he s ex o f t hese s tatue ttes h as r ecently b een s o lved w ith t he d iscovery t hat a ll t hree b odies a re m a le, t hough f ema le h eads w ere e rroneously a ttached t o t wo o f t hem b y t he n ineteenth-century r estorers : s ee P rayon, R ömMitt 8 2 ( 1975) 1 65-179, a nd B onfante, E truscan D ress 9 5-97, 1 50, n. 2 -11, w ith b ibl. C f . T . D ohrn, " Totenklage i m f rüheren E trurien," R ömMitt 8 3 ( 1976 ) 2 05. 9S .

G abrovec, " La c omponente d ella c iviltä d elle n ecropoli d elle u rne n ell'arte d elle s itule," A rte d elle S itule 7 . " L'arte d elle s itule...non h a c onosciuto...un m ondo d el m ito :" G . M ansuelli, " L 'arte d e lle s itu le f ra M ed iterraneo e E uropa," A tt i d e l Is imposio d i p rotostor ia d 'Ita lia ( Orv ieto 1 967) 1 06 . I n e ar ly E trur ia, t oo, b efore t he a rrival o f i mported G reek m ythology , r epresentations o f m ourners, b anquets, g ames, a nd w arriors w ere " rea listic." 1 °W e s ha ll e xam ine h ere p rincipally t he e arly s tages o f a t ype o f a rt w hich l ived o n f or a l ong t ime. 1, i n t he r egion o f E ste i n p articular t here w ere p reserved e arlier f orms b oth i n a rt a nd i n r ea l l ife. T he c lassic f orm o f b ronze b ucket o r s itula c ontinued t o b e m ade i nto R oman t imes, a nd s eventh-century f orms o f f ashions c ontinued t o b e r epresented, a s f ossilized f eatures o f a n e arlier c ulture . F ig. 9 3 i llustrates t he f unerary a ra f rom E ste o f t he R oman, L . M inucius O ptatus, m aking m eta l c ontainers l ike t he e arlier s itulae o f t he r egion: A rte d elle S itule 1 20, p l. 5 2 . F or c ontinuity o f s itula a rt i n E ste, s ee H . K riss, i n A rte d elle S itule 6 3-68 . O bjects w ere m ade f rom r e-used f ragments o f s itulae ( Kriss 6 7). T he p eople o f E ste c ontinued t o m ake u se o f t he s ame s ty le o f a rt a nd d ress f or c enturies, a s w e s ee o n f ourth- a nd t hird-century b ronze s tatuettes a nd v otive p lates f ound i n s actuaries o f t he g oddess R e itia a nd o ther h ea ling d ivinities, i n ac ontext r adically d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he a ristocratic s oc iety o f t he e ar lier s itu la a rt : L . B onfante, A tt i d e l X I c onvegno d i s tud i e truschi e i talic i ( F lorence 1 980 ) 1 99-200 . F ogo lar i, P op . eC iv . 1 68176 . S upra, I ntroduct ion n . 2 4 . 1 2

I nfra n . 6 1.

1 3 C . M origi G ovi, " Il t intinnabulo d ella ' Tomba d eg li O ri,'" A rchC1 2 3 ( 1971) 2 11-235. B onfante, E truscan D ress 1, f ig. 2 . M ansuelli 9 5ff.

1 4

S itula i n P rovidence, M itten 9 0-101, n o. 2 8.

5 1

1 5 O n H omer : D . R idgway a nd F .S. R idgway ,"From I schia t o S cotland ," 1 47. F or e ar ly R oman b anquet s ongs, s ee A . M om igliano, J RS 5 7 ( 1967) 2 12 : " To t he b est o f o ur e vidence , R oman b anquet s ongs d id n ot c elebrate w omen."

1 6

F rey , " Bemerkungen" 6 26.

1 7 F rey , " Osta lpenraum " N o . 4 2 ; " Bemerkungen" 6 34 . S upra, n . 4 . O n t he v ictory f r ieze o f t he B envenuti s itula , t he t heme o f s oldiers p ictured l eading p risoners b ehind t hem ( f ig. 4 ), u nknown i n G reek a rt ( which s hows t he f ight i n p rogress), a grees w ith t he O rienta l w ay o f s how ing t he v ictorious a rmy . I n t he R oman v ictory p arade o r t riumph , t oo , t he g enera l e ntered t he c ity l ike a k ing, b ringing w ith h im a rmy , p risoners, a nd b ooty : L . B onfante W arren, J RS 6 0 ( 1970) 4 9-66. F or t he c omparison w ith H omer ic s cenes, K aste lic, i n A rte d elle S itu le 5 5; i nfra n . 9 8 . F or p r isoners i n N ear E astern a rt, s ee G . L oud, T he M egiddo I vor ies ( Chicago 1 93 1) p l. 4 .

1 8 S tary, " Foreign E lements," 1 95196 . Ac lose f ormat ion o f w arr iors w as d eve loped i n G reece t ogether w ith t he p anop ly a bout 7 00 B .C. A bout 6 50 B .C. E truscan d efensive a rms c hanged, f ollow ing t he G reek e xample ; s o d id o ffensive w eapons, t hough t raditiona l a rms l ike a xes ( an i ndependent E truscan i nvention) r ema ined i n u se a s s econd w eapons. A ccording t o t he a uthor , t his i ntroduction o f p ha lanx-tactics w as c onnected w ith a r eorganiza t ion o f t he E truscan m ilitary h ierarchy , b ut n ot o f t he w ho le s ocia l s ystem , a s h as o ften b een s tated. A w ar-trumpet f ound i n at omb o f t he l ate s eventh c entury a t P opu lonia m ay b e c onnected w ith a t rad it ion t hat t he w ar-trumpet o r h orn w as i nvented b y t he E truscans t o g ive a coustic s igna ls t o t he f ighting t roops i n b attle, t hereby i mply ing a m ore f lexible o rganization t han t he r igid G reek p ha lanx; t he R omans t ook o ver t his t ype o f h orn a nd u sed i t i n t he l ater m anipular t actics ( Stary 1 93-195 ). O n t he a doption o f p ha lanx-tactics a mong t he s itula p eople s ee a lso F rey , D ie H a llstattkultur 1 45-149 . F or I taly s ee M . T ore lli a nd R . P eroni, D ia loghi d i A rcheologia 4 -5 ( 1970-71), 6 9ff. S tary ( 193) d isagrees w ith t he ir e ar ly d ate ( 700 B .C.), b ased o n t he ir i nterpretation o f t he e quipment o f t he w arr ior-graves o f t his p eriod a s am odif ied v ersion o f h op lite e quipment. F or t he R oman a doption o f h oplite w arfare, s ee O gilvie , E ar ly R ome a nd t he E truscans 4 3-48 : " The n ew h op lite a rmy n eed n ot ... h ave a dopted a t o nce h oplite t actics." C f. F rey , " Bemerkungen" 6 21-623. S ee a lso A .M . S nodgrass, " The H oplite R eform a nd H istory ," J HS 8 5 ( 1965 ) 10-22; a nd G .V. S umner, J RS 6 0 ( 1970) 6 7-78 . 1 9 F rey, i n D ie H a llstattkultur 1 48 . C f . F rey , " Bemerk ungen" 6 2 1-623 ; S tary , " Foreign E lements" 1 96 .

2 0 G abrovec, i n A rte d elle S itule 7 . F or c hange i n f ighting t echniques w ith r eference t o g raves c onta ining w eapons f rom S tiCna i n S lovenia , P . W e lls, J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 5

5 2

( 1978 )221-226. F or B aden-Wörttemberg , K imm ig m entions t he s ame c hange : W . K imm ig, H . H ell, S chätze d er V orzeit ( Stuttgart 1 965) 7 6. S ee a lso G . K ossack, S ödbayern w ährend d er H a llstattzeit ( Berlin 1 959 ) v ol. I ( text ) 9 3-99. F or s ettlement p atterns i n S lovenia , S . G abrovec, " Der B eginn d er H a llstattzeit i n S lowenien," A rcheolo ni V estnik 2 4 ( 1973) 3 72. F or L atium , C . A mpolo, " Su a lcuni m utament i s oc iali n el L azio t ra ei l Vs ecolo ," D dA 4 -5 ( 1970-71) 3 7-68 ; d iscussion 6 9ff. A mpolo c onnects t he r ise o f t he a ristocracy i n L atium w ith t he c hanges n oticed i n t he t ombs o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. 2 1 F rey , " Bemerkungen" 6 23, s uggests t hey m ight r epresent ac ontingent o f c ava lry , b ut c f . t he A rnoa ldi s itula ( Frey , f ig. 2 :2 ) l ed b y as ingle m an o n h orseback. T hat t hese a xes w ere a lso f unctiona l i s s hown b y t he l ast r egiment o n t he C ertosa s itula , a rmed w ith a xes b ut n o s hields.

2 S . G abrovec, S itula 1 ( 1960) 4 4-45 , 6 0-61, f ig. 1 5, 4 ; A rcheo lo ni V estnik 1 3-14 ( 1962-63) 2 93-305 , 3 17-321, p ls. 1 -6, ? 0, 2 2. A n e xamp le i s i llustrated i n V . S tare, P razgodov ina S marjete ( L jubljana 1 973) N o. 1 23, p l. 7 1, 1 . ( I t hank S tane G abrovec f or r eferences a nd o ffprints.) S upra C hapter 1 , n . 3 4.

2 3

F rey , " Bemerkungen" 6 21-623.

2 4 F or t he H omeric b oar 's t usk h elmet, s ee A . S nodgrass, E arly G reek A rmour a nd W eapons ( Edinburgh 1 964 ) 4 , 3 5, 2 05; J . B orchhardt , i n H .G. B uchho lz, K riegswesen. A rchaeologia H omerica I E ( Göttingen 1 977) 5 7-64 , w ith b ibl. C f. i nfra n . 9 8 .

2 5

A rte d e lle S itule 5 3 ;

" Bemerkungen" 6 26-627.

2 6 A rte d e lle S itule N os. 1, 1 7, 4 1, 4 7 ; p ls. 1 3, 3 5 , A , B , E . O ther m onuments f rom E ste : F rey " Bemerkungen" f ig. 5 ; A rte d e lle S itule 19, p l. 4 8 ; F ogolari, P op. e C iv. p l. 5 0.

2 7 O n t he i mportance o f t he h atchet o r a xe i n t he n orth, s ee M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge 2 3, 4 8-49, N o. 1 7 ; M ansuelli, L es c ivilisations d e l 'Europe a ncienne 1 28, N o. 5 0. B anti, E truscan C ities 1 59, c a lls i t n on-Etruscan. F or a T hracian r itua l a xe o f t he e ighth o r s eventh c entury B .C. i m itating a n O riental p rototype, s ee I . V enedikov, [ 'art t hrace e n B ulgarie ( Sofia 1 962 ) 3 1, N o. 1 .

2 8 S tele f rom V etulonia , M . P a llottino, E truscologia ( 6th e d. M ilan 1 973 ) p l. 2 2 ; c f . p l. 2 3. S tele o f L arth N inie, f rom F iesole, E truscan D ress, f ig. 3.

?9S tele f rom F iletto ( Massa C arrara ), L iguria . P rivate C ollection. B ianch i B andinelli-Giuliano, E truschi e I ta lici 5 5, f ig. 5 8 ; O rlandini, P opoli e C iviltä 7 ( 1978 ) 2 50, p l. 3 2.

5 3

F or s im ilar a xes s ee A . A mbrosi, C orpus d elle s tatue-stele l unigianesi ( Bordighera 1 972 ), N os. 1 4-15, 3 9 : s telai w ith s imilar a xes a re l ater i n d ate t han t he o thers, a nd s how E truscan i nf lue nce ( pp. 1 44-149). T hree h ave i nscriptions i n E truscan l etters ( Nos. 1 , 1 4-15 ). C f. C . H ugues, J . J eantet, " Les s tatues-menhirs d u M usee d 'Histoire N aturelle d e N imes," O maggio a F ernand B enoit ( Bordighera 1 972 ) 1 3 1-149. J . L andau, L es r epresentations a nthrop omorphes m ega lithiques d e l a r egion m editerrange ( Paris 1 977) G roupes 9 -10 , p ls. 2-25. 3 0 S upra n . 1 3 . F or t he s tatus o f w omen i n as im ilar s ocia l s ituation, s ee C o lonna , i n C iviltä d e l L azio P rim itivo : " Si d e linea u na e lite , i n c ui l a d onna e p r ivilegiata q uanto l 'uomo e r iceve n e lla t omba u gua le p rofusione d i b eni" ( 28). C f. a lso h is r emarks o n t he s ocia l s ignificance o f a rmor a nd t he r ise o f s pecia lized c raftsmen, e specia lly m eta lsmiths.

3 1 E .g . F rey , E ntstehung p ls. 1 9 , 2 8 ; P adova P reromana 2 2 ; F ogolari, P op. e C iv. p l. 17 ( "pa lette r itua li"). A xe-shaped p endants o r " jangles" h ang f rom t he h andles o f s itu -be , b oth t hose p reserved a nd t hose r epresented , f or e xamp le, o n t he B envenuti s itula ( Arte d e lle S itule N o . 1, p l. A ). S imilar p endants o n a h andsome f ibula w hich c ontinue a t ype p opular i n e ar lier u rn f ie ld c ontexts s ure ly h ave a " kultisch-symbo lische B edeutung": K imm igH ell, S ch tze d er V orzeit ( 1965) p l. 9 7.

3 2 V . C ianfarani, A ntiche c ivilt d 'Abruzzo ( Rome 1 969) 7 88 0, n o. 1 82, p ls. 8 9-94 , f igs. 1 -2 . B ianchi B andinelli, E truschi eI ta lici, 1 04-105 , f igs. 17-118 .

3 3 O n t he a xe o r h atchet a s s ymbol o f p ower i n E trur ia a nd R ome, s ee P a llottino, E truscans 1 30; E . P eruzzi, O rig ini d i R oma ( Bologna 1 973 ) 7 2. L ivy I , 4 0, 7 . S ee a lso t he h unting s cene i n t he C ampana T omb, V eii. B anti, E truscan C ities, p l. 2 0 ; M . C ristofani, F . Z evi, A rchC1 1 7 ( 1965) l ff . O n t he r elief f rom M ur lo t he d oub le a xe h e ld b y t he m a le s eated f igure i s, i n a N orth E truscan c ontext, m ore l ikely t o b e ah uman s ymbol o f p ower t han t he d ivine a ttribute s uggested b y T . G antz, " Divine T riads," S tEtr 3 9 ( 197 1) 3 -24 . S evera l s cho lars h ave a rgued a ga inst T . G antz ' i nterpretation o f t hese f igures a s d ivine ( supra n . 6 ). S ee e specia lly M . C r istofani, " Considerazioni s u P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," P rospettiva 1 ( 1975 ) 1 3 ( w ith r eferences f or h atchet).

3 4 I n I ta ly , i n E truria a nd L atium , t oo, t he r ise o f an ew a ristocracy h as b een c onnected w ith t he c hanges n oticed i n t he t ombs o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. F or t he r ise o f t he a ristocracy i n t he a ncient w or ld, s ee M . T orelli i n H ellenische P oleis 8 25 , 8 36 ; a nd E . L epore , i n R echerches s ur l es s tructures s ociales d ans l 'antiquite 'classique , C olloques d e C aen 2 5-26 a vril 1 969 ( Paris 1 970) 4 3-46. C . S tarr , T he E conom ic a nd S ocia l G rowth o f E ar ly G reece, 8 00-500 B .C. ( New Y ork 1 977).

5 4

3 5 P . W e lls, W est-Centra l E urope a nd t he M editerranean W orld 6 00-400 B .C. 6 9-70 : " ...contact a cross t he A lps i s w ell d ocumented l ong b efore 6 00 B .C.... W hen E truscan b ronze v essels a ppear i n c entra l E uropean g raves t hey r epresent o nly a c hange i n t he k ind o f m ater ia ls c arried a cross t he m ounta ins, n ot t he b eginning o f c ontact." F or E truscan b ronzes, s ee 2 05-207 ; a nd p assim f or l uxury o bjects. F or a mber, i nfra n . 1 00. F or E truscan b ronze i mports n orthward a s e ar ly a s t he s eventh c entury B .C., s ee S . B oucher , " Importat ions e trusques e n G aule a l a f in d u V IIe s iec le a vant J .C.," G a llia 2 8 ( 1970) 1 93-206; a nd M EFR 8 1 ( 1969) 3 7-57. F or a s eventh-century d ate f or o bjects o f s itula a rt f rom E ste, s ee P . C oretti I rdi, " Da E ste IIB a d E ste IID," i n R . P eroni a nd o thers , S tudi s ulla c rono logia d elle c iviltä d i E ste eG olasecca ( Firenze 1 975) [ 1976] 1 57-168 . F . S tar , D ie E trusker u nd d er s üdöst liche V ora lpenraum . R azprave D issertationes I X/3 ( Ljubljana 1 975). L ucke-Frey ( 13 ): E truria i s t he " fashion c enter ," f or c lothes a nd o ther l uxury i tems. F ogolari, P op . eC iv. 1 68-176. 3 6 T he i mpor tance o f t he a rt o f t he C hiusi r egion, a nd i ts i ndividua lity , c an b e b etter a ppreciated a s ar esult o f t he f inds f rom M urlo : R . B ianchi B andinelli, " Osservazioni s ulle s tatue a croteria li d i P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," D dA 6 ( 1972 ) 2 42-246. H is d efinition o f " prim itivismo," " in s enso t emporale p er i ndicare u no s pazio c he s ta f ra l e u ltime m anifestazioni V illan oviane e l e p rime r ecezioni o r ientalizzanti," c an b e a pplied t o t he s ty le o f s itula a rt a . , w ell. F or t he i mportant p art p layed. b y C hiusi a s t he p rincipa l c enter i n t he N orth, s ee M . C ristofani M artelli, " Documenti d i a rte o rienta lizzante d a C hiusi," S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 9 7120. M . C ristofani, P rospettiva 1 ( 1975) 1 7, n . 5 5. K ossack, G räberfelder 1 63 ; P . B occi P acini, " Un r itrovamento a rca ico p resso C astelnuovo B erardenga ," S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 1 22-14 1; G .A. M ansuelli, S tEtr 3 6 ( 1968 ) 1 9; G . C amporea le, " Irradiazione d e lla c ultura c hiT ig-Ta a rcaica," A spett i eP rob lem i d e ll'Etrur ia I nterna, V III c onvegno n az. d i s tudi e truschi e i ta lici, O rv ieto 1 972 ( F lorence 1 974 ) 1 24 ; J . H eurgon, C apoue p r6roma ine ( Paris 1 942 ) 6 9. A . S eeberg , " Tomba C ampana , C or inth, V eii," H amburger B eiträge z ur A rchäo log ie 3 ( 1973) 1 03 : . .[the] f low o f c ivilizat ion...north t hrough t he T iber a nd C hiana V a lleys o n E truria 's e astern f ringe, h eaded f or t he P o a nd C entral E urope." R oman h istory ( L ivy 5 .33.2-9 ) p reserved t he t radition t hat t he E truscans o f C hiusi t aught t he n ortherners t o d rink w ine . O n t he d er ivation f rom C hiusi o f t he V enetic s cr ipt, s ee M . C ristofani, " Sull'origine e l a d iffusione d ell'a lfabeto e trusco ," A NRW I 2 ( 1972 ) 4 66-489, e specia lly 4 84 ; I taly B efore t he R omans 3 8 1-382 . S ee a lso P . D efosse, " De E truskische T aa l: A lfabet-Schrift-Verklaring," H ermeneus 4 5 ( 1973-74 ) 3 50-351, f ig. 3 ( map ). 3 7 D e M ar in is, L a t ipo logia d e l e trusca a rcaica ( Rome 1 96 1).

b anchetto n e ll'arte

3 8 I nfra n . 6 1. F or a d iscussion o f t hese s cenes, s ee B oardman, " A S outhern V iew ," 1 36-137; 0 .-H. F rey , " Eine f igür lich v erzierte Z iste i n T reviso ," G ermania 4 4 ( 1966) 6 6-73. F or t he h istorica l a nd s oc iologica l c ontext o f e rotic s cenes w hich t ook

5 5

p lace a s p art o f t he s ymposium i n e ar ly f ifth c entury G reek a rt, i n c ontrast t o p rivate s cenes o f t he l ater f ifth c entury , s ee B rende l, " Erotic A rt ," 3 -107, e specia lly 3 2-42. S teingräber , C at. N os. 4 27, 4 34, 4 36 , 4 28 . T he d ecorat ive s tatues o f a thletes a re s im ilar t o t he o nes i l lustrated b y E . R ichardson, " The E truscan O rigins o f E arly R oman S culpture M AAR 2 1 ( 1953) 1 03, f ig . 1 4 . C f . L ucretius, D e R erum N atura 2 . 2 42 6 : " si n on a urea s unt i uvenum s imulacra p er a edes l ampadas i gniferas m anibus r etinentia d extra , l um ina n octurnis e pulis u t s uppeditentur, n ec d omus a rgento f ulget a uroque r enidet n ec c itharae r eboant l aqueata a urataque t empla ...," r eca lling H omer, O dyssey 7 .100-102. 3 9

4 0 F or b ronze f urniture d ecorations, c f . t he t ubes f rom t he B ernardini t omb : C . D ensmore C urtis, T he B ernardini T omb, M AAR 3 ( 1919) 8 2-84, N os. 9 0, 9 1, p ls. 6 5-66 ; E .A. S teinberg, B ronzes o f t he B ernardini T omb ( Ph.D. d issertation, U niversity o f P ennsy lvania 1 966) 1 29-140, f igs. 11-113.

A ccording t o S . G abrovec, t his i s am usica l c ompetition i n t he G reek s ty le r ather t han a d uet; t here a re n o p ara llels i n E truscan a rt ( Arte d elle S itule 7 ). G . F leischhauer, M usikg eschichte i n B ildern, e d . H . B esseler a nd M . S chneider , v ol. 2 , p art 5 ( Leipzig , n .d. [ 19651) 2-23, f ig. 1 . F or E truscan m usic, G . W ille, M usica R omana ( Amsterdam 1 967 ) 5 62-572 , N o. 1 66 ; M . C ristofani, D dA 1 ( 1967) 2 93-294, n. 4 3-44. F or t he s yrinx, af avor ite i nstrument s hown o n v ar ious s itu lae, s ee t he P an p ipes o f s heep b one f rom P rzeczye, P o land, d at ing f rom 7 00 B .C .: J .M. C oles, " Music o f B ronze A ge E urope," A rchaeology 3 1,2 ( 1978 ) 1 2. S ee a lso t wo b ronze s tatuettes o f s yrinx-players f rom t he V eneto, o f t he f ifth c entury B .C.: L 'arte p reistorica n ell' I ta lia s ettentriona le d a lle o rigini a lla c iviltä p a leoveneta ( Mus. C iv. V erona 1 978 ) 1 32-133, f ig . 4 4 ; 3 000 A nni f a aV erona ( Verona 1 976) 4 7, 1 71, f ig. 3 1. 4 1

4 2 B envenuti a nd K uffarn s itulae : S teingräber 2 76-277, N os. 4 29, 4 36. A rte d elle S itule N os. 1, 5 4 , p ls. G , H . T hese s itulae o n ar ack a re n ot , a s o ften a ssumed, t he w ares o f as itula-vendor ( Arte d elle S itule 8 2 ; F ogolari, P op. e C iv. 1 90); t hey a re t he h ost 's p roud p ossessions. S ee W ells, W est-Central E urope ( diss.) 1 42ff. o n t he r ole o f t he e lite i n c irculating g oods, t he ir l ia ison w ith o utside g roups, t heir p r iv ileges a nd d isp lay o f w ea lth . T he p opularity o f t he s itula s hape i n t he C hiusi r egion i s i nteresting . I t a ppears i n t wo o f t he f riezes f rom M urlo, a nd o n o ne o f t he P ania s itu lae ( Etruscan D ress f igs. 1 3, 7 2; s upra n. 5 , 3 3), C f . R . D ePuma, S tEtr ( 1974 ) p l. 6 0 .

4 3 S . G abrovec, i n A rte d elle S itule 7 . F or r ibbed s itulae , s ee B erta S tjernquist, C iste a c ordoni, P roduktion, F unktion, D iffusion ( Bonn a nd L und 1 967); L . F o lie, S tEtr 4 0 ( 1972 ) 5 21-526 .

5 6

4 4 F . M agi, " L 'ossuario d i M ontescuda io,"Att i d e l p r imo s imposio d i p rotostor ia d 'Ita lia ( Orv ieto 1 967) 1 2 1-133; F . N icosia, S tEtr 3 7 ( 1969 ) 3 69-40 1. F or s im ilar E truscan f ans, s ee l ist a nd d raw ings i n M agi, f ig . 2 a . C f . F ogolari, P op. e C iv. p l. 12. F ans a re a lso t ypica l o f N ear E astern ( North S yr ian, I ranian) s cenes o f b anquets. 4 5

E truscan D ress f ig . 7 2.

4 6 S upra , c h . 1 , n . 4 1. S teingräber 2 3-26, w ith b ib l. W . H e lbig, F öhrer4 ( 1969) N o . 2 857; P areti, T omba R ego lini G a lassi 2 44, n n. 1 9, 2 0 ; J . M ac Intosh, " Representations o f F urniture o n t he F rieze P laques f rom P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo )," R ömMitt 8 1 ( 1974 ) 2 1-24 . T hese c ha irs, o ften c a lled " thrones", d o n ot i n f act i mply e ither d ivinization o r k ingship : F . P rayon, M arbWProgramm 1 974 1 0-11; M . T orelli, D dA 4 -5 ( 1970-71) 7 4 .

4 7

S te ingräber C at . N os. 6 38 , 6 57, e tc.

4 8 L . V lad B ore lli, " Il C anopo d i D o lciano : e videnze e p erplessitä d opo u n r estauro," S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 2 11-212. M . Z uffa " Trono m iniaturistico d i V erucchio," S tudi B anti ( Rome 1 965) 3 513 55. R .D. G empe ler , D ie e truskischen K anopen ( Einsiedeln 1 974) p ls. 2 -3, 7 -9, 1-12, 1 7-20, 3 7-39 .

4 9 B elt f rom B rezje : S teingräber 2 78 , N o . 4 38 , w ith b ibl.; A rte d elle S itule N o . 4 9, p l. 3 7; L ucke-Frey N o . 1 7. O n t he r e lief f rieze f rom M ur lo a f ema le f igure i s t he o nly o ne u sing s uch a r ounded c ha ir . C f . B ologna s tele, i nfra f ig. 1 0 1.

5 0 P rayon, s upra n . 8 . S teingräber 32, N o . 6 82 , w ith b ibl. T hough t he t erracotta s tatuettes w ere p laced o n s quare c ha irs, t he r oom a lso c ontained t wo r ounded c ha irs l ike t hose o f t he s itulae. T hese m ay o r m ay n ot h ave h eld o ther f igures : P rayon, M arbWProgramm 1 974 , 9 . T hese s eated f igures h ave b een c ompared t o t he t wo e arlier ( ca . 6 50 B .C.) s eated s tatues f rom C eri, a lso i n t he r egion o f C erveteri, c arved o ut o f t he r ock o n e ither s ide o f t he a ntec hamber o f at omb, t he T omba d e lle S tatue : G . C o lonna , S tEtr ( 1973) 5 40f . p l. 15a : P rayon, M arbWProgramm 1 974 , 7 . S teingräber C at. N o . 6 01.

5 1 M agi, " Ossuario d i M ontescuda io," 1 21-133, s uggests t hat t he r ound b ase s till t o b e s een o n t he M ontescuda io u rn w as o rigina lly f or s uch a r ound c ha ir, r ather t han f or a s econd w ine c rater, a s i s r egularly s upposed. T he s uggestion i s t empting . W ould t he s econd s eated f igure h ave b een a m an, a s o n t he s itulae, o r aw oman, a s o n t he M ur lo r e lief a nd t he B ologna t intinnabulum?

5 2 J .P. S ma ll, " The B anquet F rieze f rom P oggio C ivitate," S tEtr 3 9 ( 1971) 2 5-61; B onfante, E truscan D ress, f ia. 1 44 , w ith b ib l.; B rende l, E truscan A rt 2 30-232 ." T hat t he f amous V illa G iu lia t erra c otta i s a n a sh u rn a nd n ot a s arcophagus, a s s upposed b y

5 7

m any : M . T ore lli, R . B ianchi B andine lli, c lassica : E truria , R oma n o . 7 8 . 5 3 L . B onfante, " Etruscan 2 42-249 ; " The W omen o f E truria ," a uthors r emarked o n t his c ustom , T heopompus, q uoted i n A thenaeus, D iodorus V , 4 0 , 3 .

5 4

S teingr 2er 1 8 1.

L 'arte d e ll'ant ich itä

W omen," A rchaeology 2 6 ( 1973) A rethusa 6 ( 1973) 9 1-101. G reek s o d ifferent f rom G reek e tiquette : D eipnosophistae I , 2 3d, I V, 1 53c;

S upra , I ntroduction n . 1 4 .

5 A rte d elle S itule N o . 1 8 , p l. 1 4 . F rey , E ntstehung N o . 1 5, p l. 7 6 ; " Osta lpenraum" 5 0-51, f ig. 2 . E . D i F ilippo , " Rapporti i conografici," 1 39-142, f ig. 5 6 ; F ogolari, P op. e C iv. 1 29, 2 10, N . 2 1, p l. 6 2.

5 6

S upra , c hapter 1 , n . 4 6.

5 7 C f . s upra n. 8 , 5 0 . F or T arquinia a nd C aere, s ee J . H eurgon, L a v ie q uotidienne d es e trusques 18-122 . O n t he f rieze f rom M urlo, i n t he n orth, i t i s h ard t o k now w hether t he b eardless f igures r eclining w ith t he b earded m en a re m en o r w omen: S ma ll, " Banquet F rieze." I n t he T omba d e l C o lle a t C hiusi ( ca . 4 80-470 B .C.) t he c ouples r eclining a re a ll m a le ( Arte e C iviltä E trusca N o . 2 77). W e h ave a lready d iscussed t he p ossibility o f af emale c ompanion i n an orthern b anquet s cene i n t he s eventh c entury , o n t he M ontescuda io u rn, i n n . 5 1.

5 8 E truscan D ress 1-14, f ig. 2 . O n w ool-working a nd w eaving a t E ste, s ee F ogo lari, P op. e C iv. 1 93, 21: t he a uthor r eports o n t he r ecent d iscovery n ear T rento ( « ago d i L edro ) o f a w ell-preserved t extile, a l ong, n arrow s trip o f l inen ( 7 c m w ide , o ver 2 m l ong), w oven w ith a t extured p la id p attern, " a r ombi c oncentrici o ttenuti d a f ili d ell'ordito e mergenti" ( R . P erini, R end. S oc. d i C ultura P re istorica T ridentina 1 967-69, 24-229 ). S pindles, s poo ls, a nd l oom-weights f ound i n w omen 's g raves c onfirm t he i mpression t hat t his i ndustry , l ike t hat o f m aking v ases, w as t he r esponsib ility o f w omen. I n R oman t imes ( Bonfante W arren, " Roman C ostumes," s .v. s cutulatus, 6 11) h eavy w oolen c loth, e specia lly w oven i n p la id p atterns, b ecame a s pecia lty o f G aul; i t c ontinued t o b e p roduced i n t he M iddle A ges a nd R ena issance , i n F landers a nd e lsewhere : H . P irenne, M edieva l C ities ( New Y ork 1 956 ; o rigina l e d. P rinceton 1 925) 7 0-71, 1 1, 1 55.

5 9 G . C amporea le, " Lo s pecchio A rnoa ldi," P aro la d e l P assato 2 2 ( 1967) 4 51-461. A rte d elle S itule N o. 2, p l. 1 7; B ianchi B andinelli-Giuliano, E truschi e I ta lici 2 17-218 , f ig. 2 49 ; L . B onfante, " The A rnoa ldi M irror, T he T reviso D iscs, a nd E truscan M irrors i n N orth I ta ly," A JA 8 2 ( 1978 ) 2 35-40, a nd " The A rnoa ldi M irror : A n A ddendum," A JA 8 3 ( 1979) 1 06 .

5 8

6 0 A rte d elle S itule N o . 2 1, p l. 1 6 ; S teingräber 2 77, N o. 4 34 ; B onfante, A JA 8 2 ( 1978 ) 2 36-237.

6 1 T he f o llow ing s ymplegmata h ave b een n oted i n s itula a rt : 1 . S itula f rom S anzeno, A rte d e lle S itule p l. C ; L ucke-Frey N o . 1 5 ; B oardman, " A S outhern V iew ," 1 36, f ig. 2 7; S teingräber 2 76, N o . 4 31; 2 . F ragment f rom T reviso, 0 .-H. F rey , G ermania 4 4 ( 1966 ) 6 6-73; 3 . M irror f rom C aste lvetro , A rte d e lle S itule N o . 2 1, p l. 1 6; L ucke-Frey N o . 6 , p ls. 2 1-22 ; 4 . B elt p laque f rom B rezje, A rte d e lle S itule N o . 4 9, p l. 3 7; 5 . F ragmentary s itula , L ucke-Frey N o. 3 0d. P erhaps a lso L ucke-Frey N o . 4 4, a " foot w ashing": F rey , G ermania 4 4 ( 1966 ) 6 8 , n . 5 . F or t he s ymbo lic s ignificance o f t hese e rotic s cenes, s ee B oardman, " A S outhern V iew ," 1 36-137; F rey , " Der O sta lpenraum ," 6-73; S andars, P rehistoric A rt 2 23-225 ; M ansue lli, C ivilisations d e l 'Europe a ncienne 1 25.

6 2 E .g. t he e xplanations g iven f or t he s cenes o n t he o inochoe f rom T rag liatella ( near C erveteri): G .Q . G iglio li, S tEtr 3 ( 1929 ) 11ff .; H . S ichtermann, i n H elbig, F ührer 4 ( Tübingen 1 966) N o. 1 528; A lfö ldi, E ar ly R ome a nd t he L at ins 2 82, p ls. 2 0-22; B ianch i B and ine lli-Tore lli, E trur ia N o . 6 1; R ykwert 1 46148, f ig . 1 23 . F or " the e ros a s p racticed f or i nstance b y t he a gricultura l c entres o f s ome a ncient t ribes," s ee G . T ucci, r eview o f M . B ussagli, E ros I nd iano ( Rome 1 972) i n E ast a nd W est 2 6, 1 -2 ( 1976) 2 9 1.

6 3 S andars, P rehistoric A rt 2 23-225. 2 31-232, 3 88-390.

B rende l, E truscan A rt

6 4 E . L a R occa , i n J . B oardman , E . L a R occa, E ros i n G reece ( New Y ork [ 1979]) 7 3-75.

6 5

B oardman, " A S outhern V iew ," 1 36.

6 6 I n t he l ater p art o f t he f ifth c entury , t he r ise o f a p rivate, i ndividua listic e thic i n A thens b rought w ith i t t he i dea o f " romantic" l ove o n t he o ne h and a nd E uripides ' e thica l q uestioni ng o n t he o ther : B rendel, " Erotic A rt" 1 36.

6 7 A rte d e lle S itule p l. C ; L ucke-Frey N o . " A S outhern V iew ," 1 36, f ig. 2 7.

1 5; B oardman,

6 8 A s r ecommended b y O vid i n t he A rs A matoria, 3 .787-8 : m u le i oci V eneris; s implex m inim ique l aboris, c um i acet i n d extrum s em isupina l atus. S ee D .W .T . V essey , " A n ote o n l atus," L iverpoo l C lassica l M onthly ( LCM) 1 , 4( 1976 ) 3 9-40. 6 9 S upra n n. 4 9, 6 1. B rende l, " Erotic A rt" 3 9; P . v on B lanckenhagen, " Puer ilia ," I n M emoriam O tto J . B rende l, E ssays i n A rchaeo logy a nd t he H umanities ( Ma inz 1 976 ) 3 7-4 1. C f. a lso a g ilt s ilver p ha lera f rom t he T hracian t reasure o f L etnica, o f t he f ourth

5 9

c entury B .C.: t he m an, f anned b y aw oman, s its i n ac hair m aking l ove t o a nother w oman ( who i s d ressed) s eated o n h is l ap. T he l arge w ine c rater b eside t hem s hows t he c ontext i s ab anquet o r s ymposium ( cf . t he v ase f rom M ontescudaio, s upra n . 5 1) . O ther o bjects f rom t his g roup r epresent s cenes o f h unting o r h eroes f ighting m onsters. A rch . M us. L ove . I . V enedikov, T . G erassimov, T hrakische K unst ( V ienna a nd M unich 1 973) 3 54 , N o. 2 90 ; I . V enedikov , T hracian T reasures f rom B ulgaria ( London 1 976) 6 3, N o. 2 75: " sacred m arriage b etween t wo d eities." 7 0

B o logna p endant , s upra n . 1 3.

7 1 H oernes, U rgeschichte, p ls. 2 8-29 ( cf. 3 1, w omen w atching g ames?); M ansuelli, C ivilisations d e l 'Europe a nc ienne 1 31, f ig. 2 7; M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge 4 6 , f ig . 1 0 .

7 2

F ogolari, P op . eC iv.

1 90-192, n . 5 .

7 3 O n t he c hange i n w omen 's r ole i n G reece d uring t he p eriod o f t he D ark A ges, a nd w eav ing a s ap restigious o ccupation, s ee M . A rthur a nd D . W ender o n H esiod 's W orks a nd D ays, i n H elios 5 ( 1977 ) 4 1-43 : W omen a re d ep icted a t w ork d riving a p low , l ooking a fter t he s tores, a nd s p inning . T here i s ad ifference b etween s lave w omen, w hose t asks i ncluded f lour-making, d a iry ing, g rapep icking , w ine-making, b utchering, a nd m aking f e lt a nd l eather g oods, a nd l adies, w ho o nly w orked i ndoors, s pinning, w eaving , a nd c aring f or t he c hildren.

7 4 B ianchi B andinelli, " Clusium ," 1 3 , p l. v ie q uotidienne 2 61-262, f ig. 6 4 .

7 5

B ronson,

I V ; H eurgon, L a —

" Chariot R acing i n E truria" 9 8-99.

7 6 B .S. R idgway , H esperia 3 5 ( 1966 ) 1 93 , o n b anquet a nd h unting s cenes, a s w ell a s c hariot a nd h orse r aces, a s " impersona l r epresentations o f ac ertain s tandard o f l ife, [ which] c an b e c ons idered n e ither h istorica l n or m ytho logical": c f . R oot , " Etruscan H orse R ace" 1 33.

7 7

5 0-51.

A lcman, e d. D iehl, A nth. L yr.

F rag.

1( Partheneion)

B ronze s tatuettes o f h orses, P adova P reromana ( Padua 1 976) 2 0-21, w ith r eferences. T he w icker c arriages w hich a ppear s o i mpressively a nd i nsistent ly o n t he s itulae ( Benvenuti, M oritzing, V aCe , K uffarn, N esactium ) a re s a id t o d erive f rom a n E truscan t ype a ntedating t hat o f t he M onteleone c hariot , a nd t o h ave b een b orrowed b y t he n orthern p eople, i ncluding t he G auls, f rom F e lsina ( Bologna ): P . D ucati, M onAnt 3 9 ( 1943) 4 18 . C f. T . G antz, " The P rocession F rieze f rom t he E truscan S anctuary a t P oggio C ivitate ," R ömMitt 8 1 ( 1974 ) 1 -14 . 7 8

6 0

7 9 B ronson, " Chariot R acing i n E truria ," 9 8-99, 1 05, 1 06 : N orth I talians a nd R omans b oth l earned t o t ie t heir r eins a bout t he w aist; t hey a lso l earned o f at race h orse t o g ive e xtra p ower a t t he t urns. O n l ate R oman m osa ics, c harioteers a re s t ill s hown w ith t he r eins t ied a round t heir w a ists : B ronson 9 ( Piazza A rmerina ).

8 0 B ronson 9 9, p l. 2 5b , c . T omba d el C olle : B ianch i B andin elli, " Clusium" 2 0-21, f ig. 1 8 , p ls. D , V II A . T omba d elle O limpiadi: B artoloni-Sprenger p l. 9 0.

8 1 G . v on M erhart, " Venetoillyrische R elieffigürchen a us T irol," M annus 2 4 ( 1932) 5 6ff.; L . F ranz, " Ein v erkanntes a ntikes B oxgerät ," D er S chlern 3 6 ( 1962) 2 68-272 ; G abrovec, i n A rte d elle S itule 7 ; L ucke-Frey 2 6-27. S uch o bjects a ppear o n n umerous s itulae ( Benvenuti, S anzeno, P rov idence , V aCe, A rnoa ldi, K uffarn), ab elt p laque f rom M agdalenska G ora , a nd a v ase f ragment f rom E ste ( Arte d elle S itule, p ls. A , C -E , G -H, 4 1, 3 6B, 4 9). T hey a lso a ppear, m uch l ater, o n t he R oman C orsini c ha ir : G .Q. G iglioli, S tEtr 3 ( 1929 ) 1 46 ; i nfra C hapter 4 .

8 2 P a llott ino, E truscan P aint ing 3 7f .; B ant i, T he E truscan C it ies p l. 7 8 .

8 3 B rendel, E truscan A rt 1 82, f ig. 19. K astelic, i n A rte d elle S itule 5 9 ; s ee a lso 5 3. F or a h unting s cene o n aB ologna s tele, s ee N i . Z uffa , C isa lp ina 1 ( 1950 ) 2 58 ; c f. i n t he C ampana T omb i n V e ii, s upra n . 3 3.

8 4 T ore lli, i n H e llen ische P o le is 8 36, n . 82 a nd i n B ianch i B and ine lli-Tore lli, E trur ia, N o . 7 ; H e lb ig, F ührer 4 N o . 2 54 1.

8 5

A rte d e lle S itule N os.

1,

1 7, p ls. A -C; R ykwert f ig. 3 8.

3 6 H elbig , F ührer 4 N o. 2 668 ; E truscan D ress 1 34-135. F or r itual p loughing c onnected t o t he f oundation a nd p lanning o f e arly c ities i n I taly ( and e lsewhere), s ee R ykwert 6 5-71, 1 32-135.

8 7 M . T orelli, " Gravisca ," N Sc 1 971, 2 42 ; P dP 2 6 ( 1971) 5 1ff . O n a ncient M editerranean p loughs, s ee A .S.F. G ow , J HS 3 4 ( 1914 ) 2 49-275; o n G reek p loughs, L . D eroy , " Gr ,ec ' IETOBOEYS e t l 'evo lution p rimit ive d e l 'ara ire e geen," L es E tudes C lassiques 4 5 ( 1977) 3 67-69 . 8 8 0 .-H. F rey , " Eine f igürlich v erzierte Z iste i n T reviso," G ermania 4 4 ( 1966) 6 6-73. S ee a lso K astelic, i n A rte d elle S itule 5 9. F or t he s ymbo lism , s ee S ophocles, A ntigone 5 69; a nd c oins w ith t he g oddess o f F ertility , o r F ortuna W . D eonna, L atomus 1 3 [ 1954] 3 64, 3 67-269), a nd t he f igure o f ap lough , o r ap loughman ( Hermeneus 4 5 [ 1973-74] 3 36, f ig . 1 6 ; R ykwert f igs. 3 3-37).

6 1

8 9 M . T ore lli, D dA 4 -5 ( 1970-7 1) 8 4 ; a nd i n H e llenische P oleis 8 25, 8 36.

9 0

S upra n . 6 .

M . C ristofani, P rospettiva 1 ( 1975 ) 9 -17.

9 1 F or C ristofani's l ater v iews s ee L 'arte d egli e truschi ( Turin 1 978 ) 1 31-138 . F or a s ummary o f t he e xcavations a t M ur lo , w ith p revious b ibliography , s ee E .O . N ie lsen, K .M . P hillips, S tEtr 4 5 ( 1977) 4 64-465 : " The o wner o r o wners c ou ld h ave b een t he r ulers, c lan c h ieftains, o r p r iests o f t he a rea ." I n m y a rt ic le i n D ia loghi d i A rcheologia ( 1979) I a rgued t hat t he E truscan f igures f rom M urlo ( unlike t hose o f t he s itulae ) c ould h ave h ad a m ytho logica l s ignificance, s ince t hemes f rom G reek m ytho logy h ad c ome i nto E truscan a rt b y t he e nd o f t he s eventh c entury B .C., a s C ristofani h imse lf h as s hown : M . C ristofani, N uove l etture d i m onumenti e truschi ( F lorence 1 971) 6 9-70 , i n r eference t o t he i vory b oxes f rom t he P ania b uria l. C f . I . K rauskopf , D er t hebanische S agenkreis... ( Mainz 1 974 ) 2-25 ; A . C amporea le, " Be llerofonte o u n c acciatore r P rospettiva 9 ( 1977 ) 5 6 . A ttr ibutes o f m ythologica l f igures, e ven d ivinities, a re d ifferent i n E truscan a rt f rom w hat w e h ave c ome t o e xpect i n G reek a rt : B rende l, E truscan A rt, e .g . 1 74-175; R ichardson, " The G ods A rrive," A rchNews 5 ( 1976 ) 1 25-133.

9 2 N uma D enis F uste l d e C oulanges, T he A ncient C ity ( Par is 1 864; E ng lish t ranslat ion, w ith n ew f oreword b y A . M om igliano a nd S .C. H umphreys, B a ltimore 1 980 ). A rna ldo M om igliano h as c ontribu ted i mportant d iscussions o n F ustel d e C oulanges ' i nf luence o n m odern v iews o f a ncient h istory . " La c ittä a ntica d i F ustel d e C oulanges," R ivista S torica I ta liana 8 2 ( 1970) 9 5 : " Finora l a c r it ica, s opratutto q ue lla t edesca, h a v isto i n F uste l i l t eor ico d e lla r e lig ione d eg li a ntenat i ed e lla p recedenza d e lla g ens a lbo s tato ...chi r ipercorre l a s tor ia d eg li s tudi d i s toria a ntica d ell'ultimo s eco lo d ovrä i nvece s ottolineare 1 c o llegamento d e lla s toria d ella p roprietä p rivata c on l a s toria d ella r eligione a ntica ." C f . A . M om igliano a nd S .C. H umphreys, i n C . A mpo lo, e d., L a c ittä a ntica . G uida s torica e c ritica ( Rome, B ari 1 980) 1 51. S ee a lso R . S taccio li, M odelli d i e dif ici e trusco-ita lici,I m odelli v otivi ( F lorence 1 968 ) 7 0-8 1; F . B rown , " Of H uts a nd H ouses," I n M emoriam O tto J . B rendel, E ssays i n A rchaeology a nd t he H umanities ( Ma inz 1 975) 5 -12; S . M azzarino, I i p ensiero s torico c lassico ( Bari 1 966) I . 9 0 . 9 3 0 .-H . F rey, i n A tt i d e l X I c onvegno d i s tud i e truschi e i ta lic i, f orthcom ing.

9 4.

A llo s tesso l ivello d e ll'esecuzione e i c ontenuto s imbo lico e , n e llo s tesso t empo, r ea le d elle s cene" ( Kastelic, i n A rte d elle S itule 5 5). 9 5

E .g.

I liad 1 8 , 3 73-377, 3 89-390, 4 22.

9 6 G iuliano B onfante, " Matteo B artoli n el c entenario d ella n ascita ," A tti d ell'Accadem ia d elle S cienze d i T orino 1 08 ( 19737 4 ) 6 94-696.

6 2

9 7.

s istema p atriarca le e t riba le e ra a ncora c ompletamente i ntatto, r endendo i mpossibile l 'esistenza d e lle c itfä d i t ipo a ntico c lassico . N on s i a ffermano, p erciö, l e t endenze a lla d emocratizzaz ione d e lla v ita c he d ovranno p o i, c ome a cutamente c onstata R anuccio B iancni B and ine lli, e spr imersi a nche n e ll'arte g reca c ome t endenze a ll'umanizzazione, s egnando i p assaggio d a u n 'arca ic ifä a ncora l egata a d u na l ibera c lassic ifä ," J . K astelic, i n A rte d elle S itule 3 8 . C f . P a llottino o n t he c ontrast b etween R ome a nd A lba L onga, " sulla v ia d i u na u rbanizzazione c he n on ' ( 2 m a i a vvenuta ," C iviltä d e l L azio P rim itivo ( Rome 1 976) 4 9. S ee n ow 0 .-H. F rey 's d escript ion : " Sowohl B ologna w ie E ste w aren s tadtartige S iedlungen": D ie H a llstattkultur ( 1980) 1 48 . 9 8 D .L. P age, H istory a nd t he H omeric I liad ( Berkeley a nd L os A ngeles 1 959), e specia lly 2 18-264 : " The I liad a nd O dyssey d escribe i n a ccurate d etail p laces a nd o bjects w hich n ever e xisted i n t he w or ld a fter t he M ycenean e ra," t he b est e xamp le b eing t he b oar 's t usk h elmet ( 2 18). As im ilar p rob lem o f r e lat ing a rt ist ic r epresentation a nd h istorica l r ea lity c omes u p i n c onnection w ith t he h ero c ult, a nd t he c hariot a nd h op lite f rieze o f A ttic G eom etr ic v ases : " Chariot a nd w arr ior t ogether w ould h ave i mmediate ly b rought t o m ind t he B ronze A ge f ighting t eam o f w arrior a nd c har ioteer l ong s ince s uperseded b y a rm ies o f h eavily a rmed i nfantry a nd c ava lry . T his m ay b e a ll t hat w as i ntended, w ith n o t hought o f ar ace c ourse f lanked b y s o ldiers, b ut s imp le r ows o f c hariots o r h orsemen o n o ther g eometric v ases c erta inly p ortray g enera l g ames": R . R oss H olloway , AV iew o f G reek A rt ( New Y ork 1 974 ) 1 5. C f. J .V . L uce, H omer a nd t he H ero ic A ge ( London 1 975) 1 01-120; D . S tanislawski, " Commonsense G eography : T he C ase o f t he G reek W ar C har iot," L andscape 2 0 ( 1976) 3 3-36; P .A .L . G reenha lgh, E arly G reek W arfare, H orsemen a nd C hariots i n t he H omeric a nd A rchaic A ges ( Cambridge 1 973). " Some c hariot g roups m ay b e n o m ore t han a p rocession o f m ourners t o t he g rave--a c hild a ppears o n o ne c har iot...". J . B oardman - D .C. K urtz, G reek B uria l C ustoms ( Ithaca 1 971) 6 0.

9 9 A . G uidi, " Precedenti d ella k oine a driatica n ei r apporti t ra l 'area a testina e l a S lovenia n e ll' V III e n e l V II s eco lo a .C.," A bruzzo, R ivista d ell'Istituto d i S tudi A bruzzesi 1 5 ( 1977) 5 1-57, o n t he v ar iety o f c ontacts a nd e xchanges l eading t o t he " common l anguage" o f c itula a rt.

" During t he I ron A ge, d ating a bout 8 00-400 B .C., t he e v idence s uggests a s harp i ncrease i n t he q uantities o f a mber b e ing t ransported s outhward...trade a ctivity i ncreased g reatly t hroughout E urope, a nd c ommerce i n a mber g rew a long w ith t hat i n o ther m ateria ls. A mber b eads a nd o ther o rnaments a re f ound a ll o ver c entra l E urope .... E specia lly l arge q uantities o f a mber h ave b een r ecovered a t t he t rading t owns o f n orthwest A lpine E urope...and o f t he s outheast A lpine r egion, i ncluding t he t wo g reat c enters o f s a lt e xtraction a nd t rade, H a llstatt a nd t he D brrenburg a t H ullein" ( P . W e lls, " Amber T rade a nd t he S itula P eople," p aper p resented a t t he S eventh C onference o n B a ltic S tudies, W ashington, D .C., J une 6 , 1 980 . T he p ane l o n " Amber" a t t his S eventh C onference o n B a ltic 1 00

6 3

S tudies w as o rganized b y J oan T odd; p apers w ere a lso p resented b y M arija G imbutas, C urt B eck, a nd L ar issa B onfante.) O n t he a mber t rade s ee a lso T ac itus, G ermania 4 5 . T . M alinowski, " An A mber T rad ing-Post i n E ar ly I ron A ge P o land," A rchaeo logy 2 7 ( 1974 ) 1 95-200, a nd P raehist. Z eitschrift 4 6 ( 197 1) 1 02-110 . W . N egroni C atacchio, " La p rob lematica d ell'ambra n ella p rotostoria i ta liana," S tudi L ucani ( Ga latina 1 976) 1 5-18 , a nd " Le v ie d ell'ambra , ip assi a lpini o rienta li e l 'Alto A driatico," A quileia ( 1976) 2 1-59 ( ample b ibl. 5 7-59); " L 'ambra n e lla p rotostoria i ta liana ," i n A mbra o ro d e l N ord . C ata logo d e lla M ostra ( Venice 1 978) 8 3-87 . M .L . N ave, H AMbre p rotostoriche d e l V eneto," i n A mbra o ro d el N ord 8 8-9 1. C f. G . G hirardini, " Il M us. C iv . d i A dria," N uovo A rchivio V eneto ( Venice 1 905) 1 32, n . 2 . R elated t o t he c ommerce o f t his a rea w as t he s a lt t rade : s ee S a lt, T he S tudy o f a n A ncient I ndustry , e d. K .W. d e B risay , K .A . E vans ( Colchester 1 975); N . H eger, S a lzburg i n R öm ischer Z eit ( Salzburg 1 974) 1-15. 1 01 C f . O gilvie, E ar ly R ome a nd t he E truscans 1 60, o f t he C e lts, w ho w ere n ever c ity b uilders b ut p referred s ma ll v illages o r o ppida . M . F rederiksen, " Changes i n t he P atterns o f S ett lem ent," A bh. A kad. W iss. G öttingen 9 7 ( 1976) 3 41-355 : " The m unicip a l a nd u rban d evelopment o f I ta ly w as a s low p rocess" ( 354 ).

1° 2T orelli, i n B ianchi B andine lli-Tore lli, E trur ia N os. 7 1 9, 6 1; L e c ittä e trusche 1 7 . F or t he d eve lopment o f c ities i n L at ium , s ee A mpo lo, D dA 4 -5 ( 1970-7 1) 3 7-38 . G . C o lonna, " Le f asi c ulturali d e lla p rotostor ia L azia le : L e f asi d e ll ' eta d e l f erro d a I X a l V II s eco lo a .C . ( per iod i IB, II, I V)," C iv iltä d e l L azio P r im itivo ( Rome 1 976) 2 5-36 .

1 03 J . C lose-Brooks a nd D . R idgway , i n I ta ly B efore t he R omans 1 20-121; " Pithekoussai h ad e vident ly a tta ined a f a ir d egree o f s tability a t s ome t ime i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he e ighth c entury B .C." P ithekoussai a nd C umae " represent n ot o nly t he e ar liest ( and s o t he l east d ocumented, a nd u nb lessed b y D e lphi) b ut a lso t he m ost n orther ly a dvance o f G reek c o lonization." C f. G . B uchner, i n I ta ly B efore t he R omans, 1 29-144.

1 04 C . A mpo lo, P dP 2 9 ( 1974) 3 82-388 . M . P a llottino, " Serv ius T ullius ä l a l um iere d es n ouvelles d e couvertes a rchd ol ogiques e t d pigraphiques," C RA I 1 977, 2 16-235 .

1 961)

1 05 C . S tarr, T he O rigins o f G reek C ivilization ( New Y ork 1 85, 3 37.

1 06

G . F ogo lari, P adova P reromana ( Padova 1 976 ) 2 3.

1 07 C . d e S imone, i n P aro la d e l P assato 3 ( 1978 ) 3 70-395, i dentifies t wo f am ily n ames a ttested i n O rvieto i n t he A rcha ic p eriod, K atacina a nd V erceva , a s C eltic, c onnecting t hem w ith a G a llic i mmigration a t a n e arly d ate, a t t he t ime o f T arquinius P riscus a nd t he f oundation o f M assa lia .

6 4

5 1ff. 1 977.

1 08 L ejeune, M anue l d e l a l angue v enete 4 1ff.; L epontica C . d e S imone, p aper r ead a t aS em inario, D dA , R ome, J une

1 09 O n t he d ifference b etween E ste ( which n ever k new a V illanovan p hase) a nd B ologna , s ee 0 .-H. F rey , R ea llexikon d er G ermanischen A ltertumskunde v o l. 3 ( Berlin, N ew Y ork, n .d. [ 1975?]) 2 13-2 15,s.v . ' Bologna," w ith b ibl. I bid., " Osta lpenraum " n . 4 1; " Bemerkungen" 6 25. G .A . M ansuelli, " Formazione d elle . c iviltä s toriche n ella p ianura p adana o rienta le," S tEtr 3 ( 1965) 3 9, 4 1, 4 2 : " di f ronte a lb oa rticolarsi d ell'Etruria p adana s u d i u n s istema d i s tati-citt 6 . . , i l m ondo v eneto r emase v inco lato a lla s ua a ntica s truttura t r iba le ." O n t he a rt o f B ologna, s ee B rende l, E truscan A rt 2 82.

10 B rown, " Of H uts a nd H ouses." u nd H ausarchitektur 7 0-8 1.

S ee a lso P rayon, G rab -

11 V illanovan c ostumes p ersist, i mbedded i n a n u nchanging r e ligious c ontext; t he a pex a nd f ibu lae o f i mportant p r iests, f or e xamp le : B onfante W arren, " Roman C ostumes" 5 87, 5 89 .

12

G . C o lonna , S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 6 9-72.

13 O tto J . B rende l, r ev . o f I .S. R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R e ligion i n R oman A rt, M AAR 2 ( 1955), i n A JP 7 8 ( 1958 ) 3 02. C f. G .A. M ansue lli, " Individuazione e r appresentazione n e ll'arte e trusca ," S tEtr 3 6 ( 1968 ) 1 9.

6 5

C hapter S ITULA T HE

P EOPLE

A ND

A FTERMATH

3

E TRUSCAN I N

T HE

A RT A ND

N ORTH

O tto-Herman F rey's d ating o f t he B envenuti s itula f rom E ste b y i ts t omb c ontext t o 6 00 B .C. o r e ven e arlier' s et t he d evelopment o f s itula a rt f irmly i n t he s eventh c entury B .C. i n E ste, m aking p ossible a c loser d efinition o f t he c hronology o f s itula a rt, i ts o rigins a nd d evelopment, a nd t he r elations o f t he s itula p eople w ith t heir n eighbors, t he H allstatt w orld t o t he n orth a nd t he E truscan c ities t o t he s outh. C hronological p roblems h ave b een s et a nd s olved b y t his a nd o ther s tudies, 2 s o t hat n ow, a s F rey h imself n oted i n 1 976-a t t he X I C ongresso d i S tudi E truschi e I talici, d evoted t o a d iscussion o f t he c ivilization o f E ste--scholars c an t urn t heir a ttention t o a n i nterpretation o f t he r apidly i ncreasing b ody o f e vidence f or t his i mportant a spect o f t he b eginning o f h istory i n E urope. I n t he c omplex O rientalizing w orld w hich s aw t he r ise o f c ities, t he i nfluence o f t he n ew u rban c ivilization o f t he E truscans, s o i mportant f or t he o rigin o f s itula a rt, b rought w ith i t m any f eatures o f c ity l ife. B ut i n t he a rea o f s itula a rt, i n n orthe astern I taly a nd i n t he A lps a nd y et f arther n orth ( map 4 ), n o r eal c ities a rose.3 I n f act t he k ind o f l ife r eflected i n s itula a rt a nd i n t he g raves a ssoc iated w ith i t p arallels a n e arlier, p re-urban p hase o f E truscan c ulture--a p hase w hich h ad l ong s ince c eased t o e xist i n E truria p roper. M uch o f t he n ew, O rientali zing t ype o f c ivilization h ad, i ndeed, r eached t hese r egions b y w ay o f E truria. F rom E truria t he l ocal n obles h ad a dopted n ot o nly t he c ustom o f h olding s umptuous b anquets, b ut a lso n ew f ashions i n c lothing, t he a lphabet a nd t he a rt o f w riting, t he r epresentation o f t he h uman f igure, a rtistic m otifs, a rmor a nd m ilitary o rganization, g ames a nd s ports, h orse- a nd c hariot-races, a nd o ther s ymbols a nd l uxuries s howing t heir s uperior s tatus . 4 T hough v arious l anguages w ere s poken, t here d eveloped a s ingle t ype o f a rt a nd c ulture, a rchaeol ogically d efined b y t he p resence o f b ronze s itulae u sed a s w ine c ontainers--for d rinking w ine w as a n ew s ign o f c ivilization--during t he b anquets a nd s ymposia w hich w ere n ow h eld, i n t he f ashion o f t he G reeks a nd

6 6

E truscans. W hen P olybius w rote t hat t he V eneti a nd t he C elts p racticed t he s ame c ustoms, b ut s poke a d ifferent l anguage,5 h e d escribed a s ituation w hich h ad e xisted i n t he r egion b efore t he c oming o f t he G auls, a nd w hich c ontinued t here f or a l ong t ime. H is s tatement a lso r eflects t he p oint o f v iew o f t he a ncients, a ccording t o w hich a g roup, o r a p eople, c an b e d istinguished b y t he e xternal s igns o f l anguage a nd c ustoms ( including c ostumes). 6 W e c an f ollow t heir e xample, e xamining, a s h as b een d one e lsewhere i n t his b ook, t he l anguages a nd d ress o f t he s itula p eople, a nd t rying t hereby t o u nders tand t heir r elations w ith v arious n eighbors t hroughout t heir h istory. I n t his c hapter o ur c hief c oncern w ill b e t o t race t he E truscan r oute o f c ertain a rtistic m otifs t aken o ver i n t he n orth f rom t he M editerranean a rt a nd c ulture. I s hall

t ry

t o

i llustrate

t he

f ollowing

p oints:

1 . T he r ole o f t he N orth E truscan c ities, C hiusi i n p articular, i n t ransmitting a spects o f t he O rientali zing c ivilization n orthwards. 7 2 . T he r ole o f E ste a nd o ther c enters o f s itula a rt i n t ransmitting s uch O rientalizing--and l ater-t echniques a nd m otifs, f arther n orth i n E urope. 3 . T he c onservative t endencies o f t hese r egions w ithout c ities, a s w ell a s t he o riginality o f t heir c ulture; a nd t he p ersistence o f m any a rtistic m otifs-c ut l oose f rom t heir o riginal c ontext--in t he a rt o f t he l ater C elts, S cythians a nd o thers. L inguistic a nd e pigraphic e vidence c onfirm o ur v iew o f a c ulture w ithout c ities, a nd t he c rucial i mportance o f C hiusi f or t he t ransmission o f t he a lphabet t o t he n orth. R ecent s tudies b y C olonna a nd C ristofani h ave s hown t hat C hiusi w as t he c enter f rom w hich t here r adiated, i n t he s eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C., t he N orth E truscan t ype o f a lphabet w hich w as e ventually u sed t o w rite t he V enetic a nd R haetic l anguages, a nd w hich f ormed t he b asis o f t he l ater G ermanic a nd S candinavian r unes. C hiusi's r ole i s c learly i ndicated b y C ristofani's m ap ( map 1 0). 8 T he r epresentation o f h uman f igures i n a rt, a nother d ebt t he n orth o wed E truscan c ivilization, a llowed t hese p eople t o d epict t heir o wn c ustoms. E truscan i nfluence e ven b rought t he a rt o f m onumental s culpture t o t he r egion. F or i t s eems t o a ccount f or t he u nexpected a ppearance, m uch f arther n orth, i n G ermany, o f a l ife-size s tone s tatue o f a n aked, a rmed, a pparently m asked w arrior, o riginally c rowning a f uneral m ound ( fig. 6 9). 9 D iscovered i n 1 962 a t H irschlanden, t he s tatue, n ow i n t he S tuttgart m useum, c ombines G reek a nd n ative e lements. I t i s, i n f act, h alf s tatue a nd 6 7

h alf s tele. T he f ully m odelled l egs a nd b ack r eflect t he G reek i mage o f t he k ouros, a nd t he G reek t echnique o f s culpture, e xperienced b y w ay o f E truria. 1 0 B ut t he m ost i mportant p art o f t he b ody i s t he f lat, s quared t runk, c arved i n r elief, l ike t he t raditional s telai o f t his r egion a nd n orthern I taly. N eck-ring a nd b elt a re l ocal t ypes; d ouble b elts l ike t his a re f ound i n t he t ombs, m ade u p o f o ne i ron a nd o ne b ronze r ing. 1 T he c onical h elmet i s l ike t hose o f s itula a rt--for e xample t he O ppeano h elmet ( fig. 7 2).12 T he f igure's n udity p i-e sents a n i nteresting p roblem: d oes i t r eflect a n ative t radition, 1 3 o r t he i nfluence o f t he G reek k ouros t ype? B oth e lements m ight w ell c oexist, i n t his l ocal t ranslation o f a G reek t ype. O n t he s itulae a re d epicted s uch l arge-scale s tatues t hat w e c an b elieve m onumental s culpture w as k nown t here t oo.14 T he s tatue f rom H irschlanden ( f ig. 6 9) h as b een c ompared t o t he I talic w arrior f rom C apestrano, s imilar i n s ize a nd p ose ( fig. 7 0).15 I t i s m uch c loser t o a L igurian s tele f rom M assa C arrara, i n n orthern I taly, w hich s hows t he s ame a ttitude, n akedness, t ype o f b elt, a nd E truscan i nfluence ( fig. 6 8).16 A ll t hese l ife-size s tatues b elong t o a pproximately t he s ame p eriod, i n t he s ixth c entury. L ife-size s tatues f rom e lsewhere i n I taly a re a lso b eginning t o b e s tudied m ore c losely, a nd w e c ar b egin t o m ake o ut t he e xistence o f d ifferent n ative t raditions a nd f oreign i nfluences.1 7 E ven t he C apestrano W arrior, t hough s trange, i s n o l onger u nique. A n umber o f s maller f igures, r ecently " excavated" i n m useums, s how t he p eculiar, l ively f eatures o f s itula a rt. A cross t he A tlantic, a t t he P eabody M useum a t H arvard, w here t he D uchess o f M ecklenburg's h uge c oll ection o f a ntiquities i s b eing p ublished,18 a f ifthc entury t omb g roup f rom S tiC9n a, i n S lovenia, y ielded a b ronze s tatuette o f a f emale f igure, r ecently s tudied b y P eter W ells ( fig. 4 1).19 S he w ears a b elted t hreeq uarter l ength c hiton, a d iadem o n h er h ead, a nd s omet hing t hat c ould h ave b een a l arge n ecklace. H ere a gain o ne i s s truck b y t he c ontrast b etween t he r ounded m odell ing o f t he b ack a nd t he f latness o f t he r est o f t he b ody. T he f igure b elongs t o a t ype n ot u ncommon i n t he r egion; e xamples a re p rovided b y a b ronze f igurine f rom S lovenia, f rom P arzin S pitze20 a nd a s tatuette f rom C aldevigo, i n t he E ste M useum, a lso w earing a s hort b elted c hiton a nd l arge n ecklace ( fig. 6 7).21 L ike t he a lphabet, t he m anner o f d ressing o f p eople r epresented i n s itula a rt i s c lose t o N orth E truscan m odels. A s w e h ave s een, p laid f abric, m antles a nd t hree-quarter l ength c hitons a re c ommon f eatures o f s eventh-century f ashion i n n orthern E truria.22 C lose r esemblances w ith t he a rt o f C hiusi a re e vident, i n p articular w ith s culpture f rom M urlo ( Poggio C ivitate),

6 8

i n t he a rtistic s phere o f C hiusi ( figs. 2 8, 3 1-34). T he b road h at t ypical o f t he s itulae, a s ymbol o f r ank o r s tatus, a nd p ointed s hoes l ike t hose o f a n a ristocratic g entleman o n t he B envenuti s itula a re w orn b y t he s oc alled C owboy ( figs. 4 , 2 7-28).23 I n s itula a rt l ocal s tyles, f or e xample w ide-topped b oots f or w omen ( figs. 4 6, 6 0, 6 7)24 f ind t heir p lace n ext t o t ypically N orth E truscan f ashions. W e h ave a lready m entioned s ome o f t he m any a rtistic m otifs o f s itula a rt w hich w ere d erived f rom E truscan a rt, a s F rey a nd o thers h ave s hown.2 5 S everal c an b e l ocalized i n t he n orth, a nd e specially C hiusi. T he f igure o f t he d ressed c entaur i s a t ype w hich a ppears i n n orthern E truscan a rt. W e s ee i t i n b ronze s tatuettes ( fig. 2 1),26 a nd o n t he l ate O rientalizing i vory P ania s itula f rom C hiusi ( fig. 2 3), 27 f or e xample. C entaurs a re o ften h unters. O n t he B enevenuti s itula, a c entaur w ith a l oin c loth p okes a B ig B ird, m uch l ike t he h unter o n a v ase f rom O rvieto, p ublished b y C amporeale, p ushing a s pear a t a m onster's b ack ( figs. 1 7-18, 7 2).28 A n umber o f o ther f ully d ressed c entaurs g race t he s ides o f s eventh-century i ncised b ucchero v ases ( fig. 1 9).29 A nother O rientalizing E truscan m otif w e h ave s een a dopted i n s itula a rt i s t hat o f t he l ion o r o ther a nimal w ith l imb i n m outh. O riginally a l iterary t opos i n t he E ast, i t a ppears i n t he B ible ( Amos 3 .12): " As t he s hepherd r escues f rom t he m outh o f t he l ion t wo l egs, o r a p iece o f a n e ar..." I n a rt, i ts e astern c onnection i s c onfirmed b y i ts a ppearance o n t wo t ablets o r m agic a mulets f rom A rslan T ash o n w hich a m onster a nd a w olf a re e ach s wallowing a m an, w hose l egs a re s till v isible ( figs. 7 6-77).30 B ut i t i s i n E truria, p erhaps i n V eii, t hat t his m otif, u nknown i n G reece, b ecomes a f avorite. A b ronze a mphora f rom O rvieto w ith a p rocession o f a nimals v ery c lose t o t hat o f t he n othern s itulae--winged l ions w ith h uman l egs d angling f rom t heir j aws, a nimals w ith p lants i ssuing f rom t heir m ouths, d eer, e tc.--is p articularly i nteresting f or u s i n v iew o f t he i mportance o f t his c entral E truscan c ity, a long w ith C hiusi, a s a s ource o f m odels f or t he n orthern c raftsmen ( fig. 7 4).31 I t i s w orth n oting h ow m any m otifs a re f ound t ogether, i n c ombination, i n b oth E truscan O rientalizing a rt a nd s itula a rt. S eventh-century E truscan a rt-b ronzes a nd i ncised b ucchero v ases, 32 f or e xample-i llustrate, c ombined i n t he s ame d ecorative g roups, c entaurs w ith c lothes, s phinxes w ith h ands a nd a rms, l ions w ith l egs d angling f rom t heir m ouths, h unters w ith s pears, d eer w ith t endrils e merging f rom t heir m ouths, d ouble-bodied a nimals. A ll o f t hese m otifs a re f ound, i n e ver v arying c ombinations, i n s itula a rt. T he E truscan m otifs, " masks" a nd b earded f aces, d ating t o t he s eventh a nd s ixth c entury, a lso f ind t heir w ay n orthward, b ecoming p articularly p opular i n C eltic a rt.33 6 9

R ecent d iscoveries a nd p ublications a re a llowing u s t o s ee m ore c learly t he v arious r outes w hich b rought s o m any O rientalizing e lements i nto t he a rt o f E urope. 34 A s K astelic h as n oted, t he s itula-makers' m odels w ere o ften t aken f rom t he E astern, I onian w orld, f iltered t hrough t he E truscan t emperament.35 A p rincipal r oute t o t he n orth l ed t hrough C hiusi, n orthern I taly a nd E ste. B eyond, C eltic a rt p roved t o b e f ertile g round f or m any s eventh- a nd s ixth-century E truscan a rtistic m otifs, w hich m ake o ften s urprising r eappearances i n l ater C eltic a rt. M any o f t hese m otifs, t ransformed a nd i nserted i n a n ew d ecorative c ontext, w ere " prepared" f or t heir n orthern v oyage i n t he e clectic a rt o f E ste a nd t he o ther r egions o f s itula a rt. F or t he a rt o f t he O rientalizing p eriod, a n ew w hole m ade o ut o f v aried, d isparate e lem ents, t ook o n a n i ndividual c haracter o n I talian s oil, i n t hat e bulliently c reative m oment o f E truscan c ulture. A nd i t w as t his E truscan v ersion o f O rientalizing a rt, w ith i ts t aste f or t he u nusual, u ncanny, a nd g rotesque, i ts s ub-human s phere o f i magery a nd i ts p eculiar s tyle-i ts s uggestive, d elicate, m ellow, f luent l ine c reating a u nified s hape, l ike a p attern36--that o ften c aught t he i magination a nd f ed t he a rt o f t he b arbarians b eyond t he b orders o f E truria, w ho e agerly a dopted t he n ew m otifs a nd s tyles f rom t he E ast a nd f rom t he M editerranean, r eady t o w eave s uch e lements i nto t he i ntricate t apestry o f t heir o wn t aste a nd t radition.37 T he r eceptivity t o E truscan i nfluence s hown b y n orthern b arbarian a rt i s r emarkable. H ere w e c an o nly g ive a f ew e xamples o f O rientalizing f eatures e vident i n C eltic a rt, i n S cythian a rt, a nd t he l ater a rt o f m edieval E urope. T he t wo-bodied a nimal o r m onster b ecame p articularly p opular, p robably b ecause o f t he d ecorative p atterns m ade p ossible b y i ts s ymmetrical d esign. O riginally a n O riental m otif ( fig. 8 0)38 t aken i nto O rientalizing a rt, f or e xample i n E arly C orinthian p ottery ( fig. 8 1, c f. f ig. 8 3),3 9 i t o ften o ccupied a s ubordinate p lace, a s a d ecorative e lement. A d oubleb odied p anther l urks b elow t he f oliage o n a G reek b ronze h elmet f rom t he S chimmel c ollection. 4 0 I n E truscan a rt, i t d ecorates t he n eck o f a n umber o f P ontic a mphoras, i ncluding o ne b y t he P aris p ainter i n t he M etropolitan M useum i n N ew Y ork ( fig. 8 2).41 P assing b y w ay o f s itula a rt--where i t m akes a h andsome a ppeara nce o n t he s itula B oldü-Dolfin ( fig. 1 5)42--it f louri shes a s a f avorite m onster o n t he p ages o f m edieval m anuscripts ( figs. 8 4-87),43 a nd o n R omanesque c apit als.44 M ost s trikingly E truscan i s t he l imb-in-mouth m otif. O riginally a t h ome i n t he E ast, a s w e h ave s een ( figs. 7 6-77), t he m otif d eveloped i ndependently i n E truscan a rt ( figs. 7 4, 7 8) 4 5 a nd s urvived i n E urope, n ot o nly i n s itula a rt, b ut a lso i n v ariants i n S cythian a nd C eltic a rt a nd f inally i n R omanesque a nd l ater m edieval

7 0

a rt ( fig. 8 7) E xamples a re i nnumerable. E truscan i nc ised b uccherOs o f t he s eventh c entury, a s n oted, 46 a nd t he s itula f rom V a n s how l ions w ith h uman l egs d angling f rom t heir j aws ( figs. 7 5, 7 8). 47 A s ilver b eaker f rom t he D anube, o f D acian, T hracian, o r S cythian a rt ( fig. 8 8), 48 s ports a s harp-toothed m onster b iting a n a nimal t high. A s et o f g old o rnaments i n t he W alters A rt G allery ( perhaps S cythian?) c onsists o f p airs o f b irds, o ne o f w hich a ppears t o h ave a h uman a rm w ith a h andhangi ng f rom i t b eak ( fig. 8 9, c f. 9 0). 49 T he s pecific , detail o f a h uman h ead e merging f rom t he j aws o f a l ion o r m onster a ppears i n a r emarkably s imilar c ontext o n t wo m onuments t wo t housand y ears a part: o n a n E truscan b ronze o inochoe ( fig. 9 1), 50 a nd o n a b rass a quamanile f rom G ermany i n t he s hape o f a m onster s wallowing a m onk, w hose c owled h ead a nd b ust a lone r emain o utside ( fig. 9 2). 5 1 A s t hese s uggestions i ndicate, t he n ew c hronol ogy f or t he b eginning o f s itula a rt n ow m akes i t p ossible f or u s t o s ee m ore c learly t he d ates a nd h istorical c ircumstances o f E truscan O rientalizing i nfluence i n t he n orth, a nd i ts a ftermath. W e c an s tart t o f ill i n t he d etails o f a p icture w hose l arger o utl ines, t hanks t o n ew f inds a nd t he e fforts o f m any s cholars, h ave b ecome m ore s harply d efined; o f t he i mportance o f C hiusi i n t he O rientalizing p eriod, a nd o f t he p art p layed f irst b y t he E truscan c ities, a nd t hen b y E ste a nd t he s itula p eople, i n p assing o n t o t he p eople o f E urope, i n t he n orth, f eatures o f c ity l ife, i ncluding t he s kills w hich a llowed t hem t o e xpress t he i ndividual c haracter o f t heir o wn a rts a nd l anguages

7 1

N OTES A n e arlier v ersion o f t his p aper a ppeared a s " I p opoli d e lle s itule e l 'arte e trusca ," P rospettiva 1 7 ( 1979) 3 1-38 . S ee a lso s ummary , " The S itula P eople a nd E truria ," A cta o f t he X I I nternationa l C ongress o f C lassica l A rchaeo logy , L ondon, 3 -9 S eptember 1 978 ( London 1 979) 1 94 . 1 0 .-H. F rey , D ie E ntstehung d er S itulenkunst ( Berlin 1 969). 2R . P eroni, G .L. C arancini, P .C. I rdi, L .P. B onom i, A . R a llo , P .S. M asolo, F . S erra R idgway , S tudi s ulla c rono logia d i E ste e G o lasecca ( F lorence 1 975 [ 1976]); " Northern I ta ly a nd E urope N orth o f t he A lps," I ta ly B efore t he R omans 4 15-511, w ith r ich b ibliography .

3J . K astelic, A rte d elle s itule 3 1, 3 8, G .A . M ansue lli, " Ancora s ui p rob lem i d e ll' A rte d e lle s itu le '," O puscula I osepho K aste lic S exagenar is D icata, S itu la 1 4/15 ( 1974) 9 5112 . C f . s upra, p . 6 5, n . 1 09 .

4L ucke-Frey; 0 .-H . F rey, " Der O sta lpenraum u nd d ie A nt ike W e lt i n d er f rüheren E isenzeit," G ermania 4 4 ( 1966) 4 8-66 . J .V .S . M egaw , " The O r ientaliz ing T heme i n E ar ly C e lt ic A rt : E ast o r W est?" A lba R egia 1 4 ( 1975) 1 4-35 . C .F .C . H awkes, " The C e lts: R eport o n t he S tudy o f t he ir C ulture a nd t he ir M ed iterranean R e lat ions, 1 942-1962," L e r ayonnement 6 1-79 ( w ine a nd b anquets, 6 5). M . P allott ino, " La m ediazione e trusca f ra i m ed iterraneo e l 'occidente e uropeo," L e r ayonnement 8 1-82 .

5P olybius

2 , 1 7.

6B onfante , E truscan D ress 1 ; 1 05, n . 6 . " The L anguage o f D ress," A rchaeology 3 1 ( 1978) 1 4-26. C .F.C . H awkes, " I C elti e l a l oro c ultura n ell 'epoca p re-romana e r omana n e lla B r itann ia," A ccadem ia d ei L incei, P roblem i A ttua li d i S cienza e d i C ultura , Q uaderno N . 2 37 ( 1978 ) 1 9.

7F or t he r ole o f C hiusi, s ee C hapter 2 , n . 3 6. E truscan i nfluence i n t he n orth p receded A rruns o f C hiusi a nd t he C elts : L ivy 5 .33; D ion. H alicarnassus 1 7 .10; P lut . C am illus 1 35 . G . C o lonna, " Basi c onoscit ive p er u na s tor ia e conom ica d e ll' E trur ia," S upp lemento, A nna li 2 2 d e ll'Ist ituto I taliano d i N um ismat ica ( Nap les 1 975) 1-12 . W e lls, W est-Centra l E urope a nd t he M editerranean W or ld 6 00-400 B .C . ( Harvard d iss. 1 976) 6 9-70 , 2 05-207 .

7 2

8M .

C r istofani, P opoli e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 4 15, f ig. 6 .

9H . Z ürn, H a llstattforschungen i n N ordwürttemberg : D ie G rabhügel v on A sperg, H irschlanden u nd M ühlacker ( Stuttgart 1 970 ) 6 7-72 . M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge 4 7.

W . K imm ig, " Der K rieger v on H irsch landen," L e r ayonnement, 9 4-101, e spec ia lly 9 5 . S ee a lso H . Z ürn, " Die H a llstattzeitliche , steinerne K riegerste le v on H irschlanden, W örttemberg," I PEK 2 ( 1966-1969 ) 6 3 : t he a uthor c ompares t his e xamp le o f i nfluence f rom t he s outh t o t hat o f t he w a lls o f H euneburg. T hese , a ccording t o P eter W e lls a nd o thers, m ust h ave b een p lanned b y E truscan b uilders. 1 0

1

Z örn, " Kriegerstele" 6 3.

1 2

K imm ig, " Krieger" 9 6-97.

1 3

Z ürn, " Kr iegerstele" 6 4 .

1 4 W . A nge li, " D ie H a llstattku ltur, e ine E inführung," K r ieger u nd S a lzherren ( Mainz 1 970 ) 1 0, f ig . 6 4, 2 , r emark ing o n t he l ife-size h eads w h ich d ecorate t he s itu la r ack o n t he s itu la f rom K uffarn ( Arte d e lle S itule N o . 5 4). S ee a lso t he d ecorat ions o n t he k line o n t he C ertosa s itu la ( Arte d e lle S itule N o . 1 7). F or d ecorat ive s tatues o f a th letes, s ee E .H . R ichardson " The E truscan O r ig ins o f E ar ly R oman S culpture," M AAR 2 1 ( 1953) 1 03, f ig . 1 4 .

1 5

Z ürn, " Kriegerstele" 6 4; A ngeli, " Hallstattkultur" 1 0 ,

t ay . 6 8 .2 . 1 6 F or t he L igurian s tele f rom M assa C arrara , s ee C hapter 2 , n . 2 9. O n t he p ossib ility o f a rtistic c ontacts b etween G aul a nd L iguria , s ee B ianchi B andinelli :G iuliano, E trusch i eI talici 5 5-56, p l. 5 8 . P . O r land ini, " L 'arte d e ll' I talia p reromana," P opo li e C iviltä 7 ( 1978) 2 50 , p l. 3 2 .

1 7 A . H us, R echerches s ur l a s tatua ire e n p ierre a rche iquE ( Paris 1 961); s ee e specia lly , f or C hiusi, 3 95, 5 71-572 . S ince 1 961, s evera l l arge E truscan s tatues h ave b een d iscovered. F rom M arciano , i n t he V a l d i C hiana , c omes a n e xample o f t he s culpture o f C hiusi w hich i nfluenced t he n orth, a f ragmentary f igure o f a s tone k ouros : A rte e c iviltä d egli e truschi, N o. 3 13 ; S prengerB artoloni, N o. 1 4 1. S eated f igures f rom t he T omba d elle S tatue, i n C eri: G . C olonna , S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 5 40, p l. 15a. F . P rayon, R ömM itt 8 2 ( 1975) 1 77, 4 8 .1. S eated t erracotta s tatues f rom M ur lo, s ee C hapter 1 , n . 2 6 . S ee a lso J .M .J. A ymer ich, M EFR 8 8 ( 1976) 3 97-454 .

7 3

1 8 H . H encken, M ecklenburg C ollection, P art I: T he I ron A ge C emetery o f M agda lenska G ora i n S lovenia , B ulletin 3 2 o f t he A merican S choo l o f P rehistoric R esearch, P eabody M useum , H arvard U niversity , 1 978 . P . W ells, " The W or ld o f M agda lenska G ora ," H arvard M agazine 8 0 ( July-Aug . 1 978 ) 3 6-41.

1 9

P . W ells, " A B ronze F igurine f rom S ti & la i n S lovenia ," A rchNews 5 ( 1978 ) 2 15-226. G . v on M erhart, " Venetoillyrische R elieffigürchen a us T iro l," M annus Z eitschrift 2 4 ( 1932) 5 6-63 . T orbrügge, P rehistoric E uropean A rt 1 44-145. 2 0

2 1 F ogo lari, P op. e C iv. 4 , p l. 8 1. G iuliano , E truschi e I ta lici 5 3, t ay . 5 7.

B ianchi B andinelli-

2 2

C hapter 1 , n.

1 7-25, a nd r elated t ext .

2 3

C hapter 1 , n. 2 6-27, a nd r e lated t ext .

2 4 C hapter 1 , n . 2 7 . F or l oca l b oots s ee M onte lius, C iv ilisat ion P r im it ive 1 , p l. 5 2; F ogo lar i, P op . eC iv . 4 , 2 19, n . 7 ; D .G . L o llin i, " La c iv iltä p icena," P opo li e C iv il . e ' a 5 ( 1976) 1 07-195, e sp . 1 73174, f ig . 2 3 ( "boots" f rom N ovilara, s eventh c entury B .C .); M . d e M in, " I l v aso i n f orma d i s t ivale n ella c u ltura a test ina," L 'arte p reistor ica n e ll'Ita lia s ettentr iona le ( Verona 1 978) 6 1-65 . 2 5 L ucke-Frey 1 3 . B occi, " Motivi e truschi"; K astelic, A rte d elle S itule 3 7-38 ; R . B ronson, " Chariot R ac ing" 1 06 .

2 6

C hapter 1 , n n.

1 5-16 .

2 7

C hapter 1 , n . 1 6 .

2 8 C f . t he w inged, b e lted c entaur p ushing a h orse ( f ig. 7 2) o n t he b ronze h e lmet f rom O ppeano, n ear V erona, F lorence, M us. A rch . F ogo lar i, P op . eC iv . p l. 6 3 . G . C amporeale, " Be llerofonte o u n c acciatore?" P rospett iva 9 ( 1977) 5 6 . F or t he E astern a nd E truscan m otif o f t he h unter w ith s pear, s ee M . B onam ici, I b uccheri c on f igurazioni g raff ite ( F lorence 1 974 ) 17 , w ith b ibliography .

2 9

C hapter 1 , n . 1 5 .

3 0 A . C aquot a nd R . d u M esnil d u B uisson, " La s econde t ab lette o u ' petite a mulette ' d 'Arslan T ash," S yria 4 8 ( 1971) 3 91-406. S ee a lso a nother t ablet w ith P hoenician i nscr iptions a nd r epresentation o f al ion w ith ( probab ly) a s em i-devoured a nimal h ang ing f rom i ts j aws: S . H orn, " A S eal f rom A mman,"

7 4

B ASOR 2 05 ( 1972) 4 3-45. T he d ate o f t his t ablet f rom A mman ( on p a laeographica l e vidence ) i s t he e ighth c entury B .C.; t he d ate o f t hose f rom A rslan T ash, t he s eventh ( or s ixth ) c entury B .C. Ia m g rateful t o T heodore G aster f or t hese r eferences. S ee a lso a n E gypt ian p rotome, a l ion w ith h ead o f aN ubian, p robably o f t he X VIII D ynasty : J .D. C ooney , i n A ncient A rt, T he N orbert S chimmel C o llection, O . M uscare lla, e d. ( Mainz 1 974 ) N o. 2 02. 3 1

G .Q. G iglioli, S tEtr 4 ( 1930 ) p ls.

1 2-13.

3 2 C hapter 1 , n . 1 5 . S ee a lso F . H iller, " Beiträge z ur f igürlich g eritzten B uccherokeram ik," M arburger W inckelmannp rogramm ( 1965) 1 6-29, p ls. 4 -11: d ouble-bodied a nima l, 2, n . 2 2; d eer w ith p lants i n t heir m ouths, f ig. 1 ; h orizontal r egisters l ike t hose o f P hoenician b ow ls, 2 6 ; s ymmetrica l " Tree o f l ife" m otifs, 2 8 , n . 2.

3 " Masks" o r h eads : K . H adaczek, " Zur G eschichte d es e truskischen E inf lusses i n M itteleuropa ," R ömMitt 2 1 ( 1906) 3 833 93. L ambrechts, L 'exa ltation d e l a t gte ( supra C hapter 1 , n . 1 3). J .V.S. M egaw , " Two L a T& le F inger R ings i n t he V ictoria a nd A lbert M useum , L ondon : A n E ssay o n t he H uman F ace a nd E arly C eltic A rt," P raehistorische Z e itschr ift 4 3/44 ( 1965-1966) 9 6-166, e specia lly 1 02-110. F .-4. v on H ase, " Unbekannte f rühetruskische E delmeta llfunde m it M askenköpfen : m ögliche V orbilder k eltischer M askendarstellungen," H amburger B eiträge 3 .1 ( 1973) 5 1-64 . B earded f ace : M egaw , " Finger R ings" 1 02. A . C harles P icard, " L 'homme ä l a f raise : H istoire d 'un t heme d g coratif e t r u sq ue , " M g langes H eurgon ( Paris 1 976 ) 8 11-8 15 . R . G hirshman, A rts o f A ncient I ran ( New Y ork 1 964 ) 3 64 , p l. 4 73. F rom t he L ands o f t he S cythians ( New Y ork, L os A ngeles 1 976 ) 1 21, f ig. 1 33. B earded h ead, t ogether w ith a nimal ( or m onster) w ith h ead i n i ts j aws: G h irshman 3 65, p l. 4 74 .

S phinxes w ith a rms : L . D onati, " Sfingi c on b raccia n e ll'arte e trusca o rienta lizzante e d a rca ica ," S tudi p er E nrico F ium i ( 1979 ) 4 7-60, p ls. 1 3-16. F or G reek s phinxes w ith a rms, s ee J .D. B eazley , " A M arble L amp," 3 1 IS 6 0 ( 1940) 4 2, p l. 7 . F or E truscan i nfluences o f t he f ourth t o s econd c enturies B .C. i n t he P rovence, s ee M . R enard, " Risonanze e trusche n ell'arte C e lto-Romana ," T yrrhenica, S aggi d i S tudi E truschi, I stituto L ombardo, A ccademia d i S cienze e L ettere ( M ilan 1 957) 3 0. F . B enö it, L 'art p rim itif m gditerrang en d e l a V allee d u R hone ( Paris 1 955) p l. X IV, f ig . p . 3 4 . S . B oucher, G allia 2 8(1970) 2 06 . 3 4

S upra, I ntroduction.

3 5 K astelic , A rte d elle S itule 3 7-38 . O n t he t ransm ission o f t he o rienta l c ontribution b y w ay o f E ste , i n E arly L a T ene C elt ic a rt , a nd t he " extreme r ar ity o f t rue o rienta l o bjects i n C eltic c ontexts," s ee M egaw , A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge 2 5.

3 6

B rende l, E truscan A rt 8 6, 5 1.

7 5

J acobsthal, E ar ly C e lt ic A rt 3, 3 5ff . S andars, " Or ient a nd O r ienta lizing: R ecent T houghts R eviewed" ( 1976) 4 1-55 . D eer w ith t endr il i n m outh : S itu la C apodag lio, L ucke-Frey N o . 3 1. C f . t he s inuous l ion w ith p lant-like e lement g row ing f rom i ts m outh, o n ad etail f rom t he e ighth-century B ook o f K e lts, t ext , page, F 6 R : T reasures o f E ar ly I r ish A rt ( 1977). 3 7

O n t he a r istocrat ic c haracter o f C e lt ic a rt, s ee S . P iggott, " Summ ing u p o f t he C o lloquy," i n C e lt ic A rt i n A nc ient E urope ( 1976) 2 83-289 : " ar istocrat ic a rt c an b e d iscont inuous, p easant c rafts m ore o ften c ont inuous." O n C e lts a nd E truscans, R . B loch, L e r ayonnement, 8 2-84: " Les u ns e t l es a utres a vaient, c omme i l e st f requent c hez l es p eup les e ncore u n p eu b arbares, u n g oüt t res v if p our l e l uxe e t l 'eclat d es b ijous, p our l 'exCes d ans l e d e cor e t l es d imensions d es o euvres d 'art ...l'aspect n on c lassique d e c ertaines f ormes d e l 'art e trusque d evait l e r endre p lus a ccessib le ä u ne c ivilisat ion p lus p r im it ive q ue l 'art g rec l ui-me 'me ..." T he a uthor s ees " certaines c onform ite s e ntre l a v ie r e ligieuse d es d eux p eup les...Ce ltes e t E trusques, s e lon u n r ite p rofonde ment a ncre c hez e ux, p rat iquaient u n s acr if ice q ue l es R omains r eprouvaient, l e s acr if ice h umain..." A s hared t aste f or t he m acabre m ay e xp lain s uch s urpr ising s im ilarit ies a s t he i mage o f M inerva s tr iking t he g iant A kratos w ith h is o wn p rofuse ly b leedi ng s evered a rm , o n a n E truscan m irror ( E . G erhard, E truskische S piege l [ Ber lin 1 843-97] p l. L XVIII), a nd t he m ed ieva l i mage o f a m an e at ing h is o wn s evered l eg ( L . R andall, I mages i n t he M argins o f G oth ic M anuscr ipts [ Berke ley, L os A nge les 1 966] p l. 9 3, N o . 4 49). 3 8 M any e xamp les c an b e f ound i n V . S lomann, B icorporates. S tud ies i n R ev iva ls a nd M igrat ions o f A rt M otifs ( Copenhagen 1 967). O n t his s ubject I a m g ratefu l f or h e lp g iven m e b y L ucy S and ler, C ar la L ord, M ichae l E vans, a nd N ancy d e G rummond. F or O r ienta l a nd O r ienta lizing e xamp les, s ee O . M uscare lla, " The A rchaeo logica l E v idence f or R e lat ions B etween G reece a nd I ran i n t he F irst M illenn ium B .C .," J ANES 9 ( 1977) n. 5 3-55 . F ig . 8 0 : G o ld p laques i n t he f orm o f t wo l ions w ith a s ing le h igh-re lief h ead, i n 7 000 Y ears o f I ranian A rt ( 1964-65) 1 48, N o . 4 56 ( Tehran, A rchaeo log ica l M useum ).

3 9 D oub le-bod ied s phinx f rom E ar ly C or inthian v ase f rom S yracuse, R . G h irshman, A rts o f A ncient I ran ( New Y ork 1 964) p l. 5 82; H . P ayne, N ecrocor inthia ( Oxford 1 93 1) 5 2, f ig. 1 2 . C f . a v ase f rom A rkades ( Crete), R .D . B arnett, " Anc ient O r ienta l I nf luences o n A rchaic G reece," T he A egean a nd t he N ear E ast, S tud ies P resented t o H etty G o ldman ( New Y ork 1 956) p l. 2 1, f ig. 3 ; G hirshman, A ncient I ran p l. 5 8 1. D oub le-bod ied s phinx o n P ratoc or inthian C h igi v ase, R ome, V illa G iulia M useum; B arnett p l. 2 1, 1 . O n t he m ot if , J acobstha l, E ar ly C e ltic A rt 4 8; F rey, E ntstehung 6 4, n . 3 15; I . S cheib ler, D ie s ymmetr ische B ildform i n d er f röhgr iechischen F lächenkunst ( Kallmunz, L assleben 1 960) 2 7 .

B ronze h e lmet f rom A frat i o n C rete, l ate s eventh c entury B .C ., M etropo litan M useum 1 979.49.2. H . H offmann, 4 0

7 6

A .E . R aub itschek, E ar ly C retan A rmorers ( Mainz 1 972) H 1, p ls. 1 -5, 7 ; G reek A rt o f t he A egean I s lands ( New Y ork 1 979) C at . N o . 8 9 . 4 1 F or E truscan e xamp les, S che ib ler 9 9, n . 1 20; H iller, M arburger W incke lmannprogramm ( 1965) 2 8, n . 2 2. P ont ic a mphoras: E truscan D ress f ig . 1 47; T . D ohrn, i n H e lb ig, F öhrer 4 1 ( 1963) 6 47, N o . 8 88 . P ayne, N ecrocor inthia p l. 5 1.

4 2 A rte d e lle S itu le N o . 2 5, p l. 2 0; B occi, e truschi" 7 0 . K aste lic, A rte d e lle S itu le 3 7-38 .

" E lement i

4 3 L . S and ler, " Ref lect ions o n t he C onstruct ion o f H ybr ids i n E ng lish G othic M arg ina l I l lustrat ion," S tud ies i n H onor o f H .W . J anson ( forthcom ing) 6 , f igs. 1, 1 3 . G .L. M iche li, L 'en lem inure d u H aut M oyen A ge e t l es i nf luences i r landaises ( Brusse ls 1 939) f ig. 2 75. S aint B ernard, i n t he t we lfth c entury, c ondemns t he r epresentation o f s uch m onsters: E . H o lt, A D ocum entary H istory o f A rt I ( Garden C ity 1 957) 2 1.

4 4 M . S chap iro, " On G eometr ical S chemat ism i n R omanesque A rt," R omanesque A rt, S e lected P apers I ( New Y ork 1 977; o r ig . i n G erman, 1 932) 2 84, n . 1 0; G .T . R ivoira, L e o r ig ini d e ll'archit ettura l ombarda ( Roma 1 90 1) 3 3 1-2, a nd p assim .

4 5 C hapter 1 , n . 1 3 . " The P hrygians s eem t o h ave h ung w ho le a nima ls, n ot l imbs, f rom t he m ouths o f t he ir p redators. I t w as t he E truscans w ho h ad a p ecu liar p redilect ion f or s evered l imbs" ( Sandars, " Or ient a nd O r ienta lizing: R ecent T houghts R eviewed" [ 1976] 5 1).

4 6

S upra n. 3 1-32.

4 7 A rte d e lle S itu le C at . N o. 4 1, p l. E ; c f . b e lt h ook f rom E ste, A rte d e lle S itu le C at . N o . 3 2, p l. 2 5.

4 8 J acobsthal, E ar ly C e lt ic A rt p ls. 26-224. D . B erc iu, A rto t raco-get ica ( Bucarest 1 969) 3 3-76; " Das t hrako-get ische F ürstengrab v on A g ighio l i n R umänien," D eutsch. a rch. I nst . B er ichte r öm .-germ . K omm ission 5 0 ( 1969) 2 09-225, e sp . p l. 19 . S andars, " Or ient a nd O r ientalizing: R ecent T houghts R eviewed" ( 1976) 5 1, f ig . 7 ; M egaw, A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge, N o. 2 19; B . G o ldman, " Late S cythian A rt i n t he W est : T he D etro it H e lmet," I PEK 2 2 ( 1966-69) 6 8, t ay. 4 7, f ig . 4 c . Ia m g ratefu l t o B ernard G o ldman f or r eferences a nd p hotograph.

J ewe lry, A nc ient t o M odern ( Ba lt imore 1 979) 1 02, N o . 2 93: T he p rovenance i s u nknown. " Dress o rnaments, G reek o r P ont ic, f irst c entury B .C ....repousse r e lief s how ing f acing b irds o f p rey, o ne d evour ing a f ish" ( Andrew O liver ). T he l ong o bject p rotruding f rom t he b ird 's m outh l ooks t o m e l ess l ike a f ish t han a n a rm w ith a h and a t t he e nd . F or g o ld a pp liques i n t he f orm o f a n ima ls, 4 9

7

" found i n c ontexts i mp ly ing t hat t hey o nce a dorned i nter a lia m en 's t rouser l egs, w omen's h oods o r ...women 's d resses," s ee M . V ickers, S cythian T reasures i n O xford ( Ashmo lean M useum , O xford 1 979) 3 6, 4 2, p ls. 4 , 1 2. E xact ly t his m ot if i s i l lustrated b y am an-eat ing m onster f rom p re-Roman G au l, t he T arasque d e N oyes ( near A vignon), f rom w hose j aws d ang les a h uman a rm o rnamented b y ab race let : P .A . v an D orp, R .A . v on R oyen, " The T arasque d e N oyes," T a lanta 8 -9 ( 1977) 3 3ff ., w ith f u ll b ib liography . T he s tatue 's d ate i s s omewhere b etween t he m id-sixth c entury B .C . a nd t he b eginning o f o ur e ra; C e lt ic a nd M editerranean i nf luences h ave b een s uggested . 5 0 F rom P erugia . M unich, A nt ikensamm lung ( W itte lsbach). S econd h a lf o f s ixth c entury B .C .: J acobstha l, E ar ly C e lt ic A rt, p l. 23; L . G o ldsche ider, E truscan S cu lpture ( London 1 94 1) p l. 9 1; K . P f ister, D ie E trusker ( Munich 1 940) 1 20; M . P allottino, A rt o f t he E truscans ( London 1 955) p l. 7 1; W .L. B rown, T he E truscan L ion T Oxford) 1 960) p l. 4 2 . A rte e C iv iltä E trusca 5 5, N o . 2 34 : " I l m ot ivo d e lla b e lva a ntropofaga d er iva d al r epertor io o r ientalizz ante ...e t roverä l arghi s vilupp i n e l s imbo lismo r e ligioso e f uner ar io d e ll ' arte d e ll ' E uropa o ccidentale ." C f . ab ronze r evetment f rom t he T omba B ernardini o f P raeneste o f t he s eventh c entury B .C . A rte e C iviltä E trusca 1, N o . 2 9; D . C urt is, M AAR 3 ( 19 19) 8 2ff . Ia m g ratefu l t o S tuart P iggott, U rsu la H öckmann, a nd B r ian S hefton f or t heir a ssistance .

5 1 M etropo litan M useum o f A rt, R ogers F und 1 947, I nv. 4 7. 1 0 1.5 1. G erman, t we lfth o r t hirteenth c entury, A rt T reasures o f t he M etropo litan M useum ( New Y ork 1 952) 4 5, 2 2 1, N o . 4 4; K . H offmann, T he Y ear 1 200 ( New Y ork 1 970) N o . 1 21.

7 8

C hapter S ITULA A RT T HE

C ORSINI

4

I N

R OME:

T HRONE

T he r ounded m arble c hair k nown a s t he C orsini T hrone ( figs. 1 02-103), w hich h as l ong p uzzled s cholars, c an n ow b egin t o r eceive t he a ttention i t d eserves a s a n i mportant a rchaizing m onument o f R oman a rt.' S ince i ts d iscovery u nder t he L ateran i n R ome i n 1 732, 2 i t h as b een i n t he P alazzo C orsini, i n t he G alleria N azionale ( formerly t he G alleria C orsini), s trangely o ut o f p lace i n t he m idst o f e ighteenth- a nd n ineteenth-century p aintings, i n s urroundings w hich h ave h elped t o p rolong i ts i solation a nd n eglect. I t u sed t o b e a ssigned a d ate s omewhere a round t he f ourth c entury B .C., a nd a n E truscan o rigin; 3 G iglioli e ven p lanned t o m ove i t t o t he E truscan m useum o f V illa G iulia. 4 T hough o ften m entioned, i t h ad n ot b een s tudied f or i ts o wn s ake s ince D ucati's a rticle s ixty y ears a go. 5 N ow a t l ast, i n t he r ecent c atalogue o f t he c ollection o f a ntiquities o f P alazzo C orsini, i t i s r ecognized a s a m onument o f R oman a rt o f t he l ate R epublic.6 T he u se o f m arble s trengthens a f irst-century B .C. d ate. 7 T he d ecoration a llows u s t o f ix m ore p recisely t he p lace o f t he C orsini T hrone w ithin t he a rt o f t his c onsciously a rchaizing p eriod o f R oman c ulture, f or t he n on-figurative m otifs o f t he m arble r elief d ecoration a re c lose t o t hose o f c ertain N eo-Attic r eliefs o f t his p eriod. 8 I nstead o f c opying G reek m odels o f e arlier t imes, h owever, l ike t he a rtists o f m ost o f t hese N eo-Attic r eliefs, t he s culptor o f t he t hrone f ound t he i nspiration f or i ts f igured f riezes i n a d ifferent a nd s urprising c ontext. I t h as l ong b een r ecognized t hat t he f igured f riezes d ecorating t he b ack a nd b ase o f t his c hair d erive f rom t hose o f t he s itulae o f n orthern I taly a nd t he A lpine r egions ( figs. 4 -14),9 f ormerly d ated n o e arlier t han t he s ixth a nd f ifth c enturies B .C. R ecent s tudies h ave p ushed t he o rigin o f t his " situla a rt" b ack t o t he s eventh c entury B .C., i n t he E arly I ron A ge o f E urope. H ow c an w e a ccount f or a n i nspiration s o f ar r emoved i n t ime a nd s pace f rom R ome o f t he f irst c entury B .C.? I n t he a rea i n w hich s itula a rt i s f ound, a s i n t he n orth g enerally, c raft t raditions o f t he I ron A ge p ersisted i nto t he f irst c entury B .C. A t E ste i n

7 9

p articular c raftsmen c ontinued t o i mitate t he t echnique a nd d ecoration o f t he e arly s itulae; 10 a f unerary s tele o f R oman t imes, f or e xample, s hows t he d eceased b ronzes mith b usily h ammering o ut a s itula l ike t hose m ade s ix h undred y ears b efore ( fig. 9 3).11 E arlier t ypes o f a rt, d ress a nd f urniture a lso c ontinued i n u se p ractically u nchanged. 1 2 W hen C aesar o pened u p t he n orth, R ome f or t he f irst t ime c ame f ace t o f ace w ith t his w orld, 1 3 a nd n orthern s tyles a nd a rtifacts b ecame f ashionable: I ron A ge s hapes a nd p atterns w ere i mitated i n t he p ottery o f C osa, f or e xample. 1 4 T his f ashion f or n orthern s tyles w as a n e phemeral f ad, s oon s upplanted b y t he r age f or E gyptian a ntiquities w hich i nspired C aius C estius t o b uild h is o wn p rivate p yramid.15 B oth t hese l uxurious f ashions r eflected R ome's c loser e xperience o f G aul a nd E gypt o nce t hey h ad c ome u nder R oman s way. I n c ontrast t o t he E gyptian f ashion, h owever, t he c rafts o f E ste a nd I ron A ge G aul d id n ot a ppear e ntirely e xotic t o t he R omans, w ho h ad p reserved e lements o f t heir o wn I ron A ge p ast. A n umber o f p owerful R oman s ymbols l ike t he l ituus o f t he p riest o r t he c ommander's a xe s till r esembled t hose o f n orthern E truria a nd t he s itula a rt ( fig. 3-) . 1 6 M ost i mportant, n o d oubt, w as t he p reference o f b oth R oman a rt a nd t he a rt o f t he s itulae f or h istorical r el iefs s howing r eal p eople i nvolved i n r itual a cts, 1 7 p rocessions, a nd g ames a nd b anquets. I n c ontrast, E truscan a rt a ccepted G reek m ythology a nd g ave m uch a ttention t o t he g ods a nd c anonical h eroes o f G reek l egend. T here w as t herefore s omething f amiliar a bout t he d ecoration t hat m ust h ave a ppealed t o t he R oman w ho c ommissioned t his c hair. Y et i ts f orm a nd o rnament w ere a lso e xotic - l ike t he G allic a nd E truscan l anguages, w hich s eemed s trange, e ven r idiculous i n t he R ome o f t he l ate R epublic a nd e arly E mpire. A ulus G ellius(N.A. 1 1, 7 , 3 f.) t ells o f a l awyer w ho u sed w ords s o a rcT ITT E t hat t hey m ade h is h earers l augh, a s i f h e h ad b een s peaking E truscan o r G allic. I n t he l ate R epublic, t he a rtist w ho c arved t he C orsini T hrone u sed, a s w e s hall s ee, E truscan m odels f or i ts s hape, a nd ' Gallic" m odels f or s o t he s itula a rt b rought b ack f rom t he G allic c ampaign m ust h ave s eemed t o t he R omans - f or i ts d ecoration, t o p roduce a p leasingly a rchaizing m onument f or h is R oman p atron. N ow l et u s t ake a c loser l ook a t t he c hair a nd i ts d ecoration. T he t hree s hort l egs u nder t he b ase a re t he o nly c ontemporary, o r " modern" t ouch t hat t he R oman c raftsman h as a dded t o t he t raditional E truscan f orm o f t he c hair. O therwise t he s hape o f t he c hair i s t hat o f A rchaic E truscan " thrones" o f t he s eventh c entury a nd l ater, f ound b oth i n S outh E truscan t ombs, a t C erveteri ( fig. 9 6) 1 8 a nd P raeneste, a nd i n N orth E truria a s w ell. T he r elief d ecoration o f t he C orsini T hrone i s e spec ially r eminiscent o f t he e mbossed b ronze m odel o f t he

8 0

" Barberini T hrone" ( fig. 9 4). 1 9 E lsewhere, i n N orth I taly t oo, t his t ype o f c hair w as f ound a nd r emained i n u se m uch l onger t han i n t he s outh ( figs. 9 8, 1 01). A t C hiusi i t s erved a s t he t ypical s upport f or " canopic" v ases; a nd s imilar c hairs f urnished a t omb o f R oman d ate, m uch f arther n orth, a t W eiden n ear C ologne ( fig. 9 5).20 B ut i t w as n owhere e xclusively, o r e ven p rimarily u sed f or f unerary p urposes, a s w e s ee f rom i ts r epresentation o n a f rieze f rom M urlo ( fig. 3 1),21 a nd i ts r egular a ppearance i n t he b anquet s cenes o f s itula a rt ( figs. 9 91 00).22 T he o riginal m odels w ere p robably o ften w icker c hairs; t he g rander o nes s eem r ather t o h ave b een w ooden c hairs d ecorated w ith b ronze p lates l ike t he B arberini T hrone: t he b osses, o n r epresentations o f s uch c hairs, f or e xample a t M urlo, s uggest t he r elief d ecoration o f t he b ronze o riginals. T he t hrone w hich P ausanias s aw i n t he t emple o f Z eus a t O lympia, w hich, h e t ells u s, w as d edicated b y t he E truscan k ing A rimnestos, t he f irst b arbarian w ho p resented a n o ffering t o Z eus a t O lympia, w as a pparently t his k ind o f c hair.2 3 T he C orsini T hrone, t oo, i s d ecorated ( fig. 1 02) w ith d esigns e xecuted i n r elief. T he v ine l eaf a nd b erry d esign a round t he b ase i s a t ypical N eo-Attic m otif, a c ontemporary a ccent w hich b elongs t o t he p eriod w hen t he c hair w as a ctually m ade. T he w ave p attern, o n t he o ther h and, a s tandard E tru can d esign, a ppears a round 5 00 B .C. a nd l ater, i n t omb a nd v ase p aintings, o n f abrics a nd m irrors ( figs. 5 5-56). P articularly c lose t o t he r elief b orders o f t he C orsini C hair a re t hose o n t he s tone r elief s telai f rom B ologna ( fig. 7 3). 24 T he f igurative d esigns, w hich c onstitute t he m ost i nteresting a spect o f t he m onument, a re i nspired b y b ronze r eliefs--not, h owe ver, t hose o f s outhern m odels l ike t he B arberini T hrone, b ut t hose o f t he n orthern s itulae. T he d ecoration r uns i n a c ontinuous f rieze a round t he c ylindrical b ase, a nd i n t wo r egisters o n t he i nner s ide o f t he c hair b ack. T he c hair w as e vidently m eant t o b e s een f rom t he f ront, f or c entered o n t he b ase, b elow, i s t he p rincipal s cene. T his r epresents a s acrifice ( fig. 1 06). T he a nimal l ed t o s acrifice a nd t he a ltar a nd t ree m ake u p a t ypically H ellenistic a nd R oman s cene.25 Y et t he t wo s ide f igures o f t he m en, t he r ider a nd t he m an l eading t he a nimal t o t he s acrifice ( fig. 1 06 ) c an a lso b e p arall eled o n t he s itulae ( figs. 9 -11),25 a s c an t he a xe, h ere c arried a s a n i nstrument t o b e u sed f or t he s acrifice, r ather t han, a s o n t he s itulae, a w eapon a nd s ymbol o f m ilitary a uthority. 2 7 T he r emaining s cenes r epresent m ilitary p arades, h unts, g ames, p rocessions a nd p reparations f or b anquets, a ll s imilar t o t hose w hich, o n t he s itulae, c haracterize t he a ristocratic a ctivities o f t he p atres o f t he n orthern r egions.

8 1

O n t he b ase o f t he t hrone, t o t he s ide, f ollowing t he m an w ith t he a xe a nd t he b ull f or t he s acrifice, i s a p rocession: a n a ttendant w ith a g oad, t wo o thers, b ringing a l arge s itula h anging o n a p ole b y i ts h andle -one o f t hem a lso c arries a l adle o r s impulum, a w oman b alancing a t ray o n h er h ead a nd c arrying a l arge t woh andled c up o r k antharos, a nd t wo y ouths w rapped t n c loaks w hose h oods f all i n f olds b elow t he c hin ( figs. 1 04-105).28 A ll o f t he f igures a nd m any o f t heir a ttrib utes c an b e m atched o n t he s itulae. T he C ertosa s itula s hows a s imilar p rocession, w ith s itula c arriers a nd w omen b alancing c ontainers o n t heir h eads ( figs. 9 -11), a s w ell a s m en m uffled i n w ide m antles. T he s hape o f s itula a nd s impulum i s t ypical o f s itula a rt, a s i s t he c ostume o f t he w omen, w ith i ts s hort m antle c overing t he h ead.2 9 T he d ress o f t he m en o n t he C orsini T hrone h as b een m odernized, h owever. T he w ide m antles o f t he g entlemen h ave b een t ransformed i nto t he c ontemporary p aenula;30 a nd t he a ttendants w ear s hort c hitons, i nstead o f l onger g arments, a s o n t he s itulae. 3 1 O n t he b ase i n b ack a re r epresented t wo s eated y ouths, w earing p aenulae, w atching a b oxing m atch ( figs. 1 07, 10). S pectators o r j udges o ften a ppear o n t he s itulae, a s d o s eated f igures o f m en a ttending b anquets ( fig. 8 ). E specially f requent o n s itulae a re s cenes o f j udges s tanding b y, r eady t o a ward t he p rizes, f lanking t wo b oxers w ho a re s hown, a s h ere, f ighting w ith p eculiar d umbbell-shaped o bjects. T hey m ust h ave b een m ade o f s ome l ight m aterial l ike l eather o r c loth ( fig. 9 7). S uch s cenes o f b oxing m atches u sing t hese " dumbbells," w ith h elmets a s p rizes, a re a s pecialty o f t he a rt o f t he s itulae, a nd o ccur n owhere e lse. T hey t herefore p rovide u s w ith p roof o f t he d irect d escent o f t he d ecoration o f t he R oman C orsini c hair f rom t hese n orthern m odels ( figs. 4 , 7 -8, 1 2, 1 4). 32 B etween t he b oxers ( fig. 10) i s a l arge h elmet--Roman s tyle, r ather t han G reek a s o n t he s itulae--which i s t o b e a warded a s a p rize. T he h elmet o n t he C orsini T hrone h as b een " modernized," a nd t he a thletes w ear s hort c hitons, r ather t han a ppearing n ude, G reek s tyle. B ut o therwise t his s cene i s c lose t o t he o ne w hich s o o ften a ppears o n t he s itulae. O n t he o ther s ide o f t he b ase a ppears a s trange s cene, n ot y et s atisfactorily e xplained ( fig. 11). 3 3 A n aked m an, a lmost t wice t he s ize o f t he o ther f igures, b ends o ver a s quare b ase o r w ell-head. W hile h is m uscul ar l egs a nd b elly a re c learly v isible, t he t op o f h is t orso, a wkwardly r endered i n a c ontorted p ose, c an b e i nterpreted i n v arious w ays. T here c ould b e a s econd f igure, a n a nimal o r a m an, o ver w hich h e i s b ending. O r t his m ight b e a s ingle f igure o f a m an a bout t o s tand o n h is h ead, s upporting h imself o n h is a rms b efore l ifting h is l egs i nto t he a ir ( entertainers e ngaged i n s uch p erformances a ppear i n p aintings a nd r eliefs f rom C hiusi) . P erhaps h e i s a s upernatural f igure, d istinguished b y h is 8 2

e normous s ize. I f h e w as i ndeed m eant t o r epresent a s upernatural b eing, t he s trong m an H ercules i s a l ikely c andidate, 34 b ecause o f h is s ize a s w ell a s b ecause o f t he p resence o f a l arge s kyphos--carried b y a w oman i n a p rocession n earby--of a t ype c ommonly u sed f or s acrifices i n h onor o f H ercules i n R ome. T his s upernaturally h uge, h eroically n ude f igure m ight t hen r epresent t he E truscan a nd R oman H ercules i n a l egend s o f ar u nknown t o u s, p erhaps p lunging i nto a l iquid o f i mmortaility o r d ivini zation. T he f igure s tanding n earby, s pear i n h and, ' could b e h olding o ut h is o ther h and i n a mazement a t a p rodigium; a nd t he t hrone i tself c ould w ell b e c onnected w ith a r itual o r s acrifice i n h onor o f H ercules, a d ivinity v ery i mportant i n I taly. Y et t here a re s erious d ifficulties i nvolved i n a ccepting a d ivine, m ythological i mage o f H ercules a mong a ll t hese r eal p eople. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he o riginal f rom w hich t he r elief w as c opied, p erhaps a p ainting, r epresented i nstead a n a thletic s cene t ypical o f s itula a rt, w hich w as m isunderstood b y t he R oman c raftsman w ho c opied i t a s b est h e c ould, p erhaps h aving i n m ind a c ompletely d ifferent i nterpretation. O n t he b ack a nd " wings" o f t he c hair a re t wo r egisters ( figs. 1 02, 12). T he u pper o ne s hows a p arade o f n ine s oldiers, f oot s oldiers a nd r iders a lternating. ( This s cene i s r oughly e xecuted, w ith m ore f igures c rowded i n a t t he r ight t han o n t he l eft.) M ilitary p arades a re f ound o n m any s itulae ( e.g. f igs. 8 -11), a nd s o i s t he s hape o f t he o val s hields t he s oldiers c arry o n t he C orsini c hair.35 A lso p aralleled o n t he s itulae i s t he c ap h elmet w ith p oint o r b utton, a k ind o f p illeus a lso s hown o n t he h unters o f t he s cene o n t he l ower r egister. T he t heme o f t he h unt, a t ypically a ristoc ratic o ccupation, i s w ell a ttested o n t he s itulae: i t a ppears o n t he C ertosa s itula a nd e lsewhere ( figs. 9 1).36 M any f eatures o f t he r epresentations o n t he s itulae a re o riginally o f E truscan i nspiration. T he N orth I talians, l ike t he R omans, b orrowed g ames a nd a thletic c ontests f rom t he E truscans, a nd s ometimes a lso a dopted t he E truscan m anner o f r epresenting t hem. A rtistic m otifs, a s w ell a s s tyles o f o bjects, s uch a s t he r ounded c hairs a nd f ashions i n c lothes, w ere a lso b orrowed f rom N orth E truria, e specially, i t s eems, f rom C hiusi.37 T his i nfluence i n t he n orth p arallels t o a g reat e xtent t he k ind o f E truscan i nfluence a t w ork i n R ome a t t he s ame t ime. P erhaps, t hen, t his s urprising l ink w ith t he w orld o f n orthern s itulae o f t he I ron A ge s hows t hat s ome p eople i n R ome k new t his e arlier t radition i n t he n orth, a nd a ccepted i t a s a kin t o t heir o wn " native" R oman t raditions.

8 3

T he R oman a rtist, o r r ather t he R oman f amily w ho c ommissioned t he c hair a pparently i nterpreted t he c ontent o f t he s cenes a s R oman, g oing b ack t o a ristocratic c onc epts o f a n e arlier p eriod. F igures i n r ealistic a ction i llustrating t he a ristocratic m ores m aiorum a re c ombined w ith t he s pecifically r eligious m otif o f t he s acrifice. I ndeed i n s ize a nd s ubject m atter t he f igured f rieze i s s omewhat r eminiscent o f t he s mall r eliefs o f t he A ra P ad s w ith t he p rocession o f V estal V irgins a nd s acrif icial a nimals a nd a ttendants; b ut t hese A ugustan f igures a re c onsiderably m ore s lender a nd a ristocratic. 38 T he s cenes o f t he C orsini c hair, w ith t heir p udgy c reatures, l ike t heir m odels, t he s tocky, l ively l ittle f igures o f t he s itulae, v ividly p ortrayed i n t he m idst o f t heir b usy l ives a nd r itual a ctions, r esemble m ore c losely t he r elief f rieze o f a nother m onument o f t he t ime o f A ugustus, t he a rch o f S usa i n t he P iedmont ( fig. 13). 39 O n t his m onument t he h uge p ig b eing l ed t o t he s acrifice, w hich l ooks r emarkably l ike t he b oar i n t he h unting s cene o n t he C orsini T hrone ( fig. 12), w as s ingled o ut b y B ianchi B andinelli a s a n e xample o f a r epresentation w hose g oal i s n ot n aturalistic, b ut s ymbolic. 4 0 J ust a s t he s ignificance o f t he s acrifice i s e mphasized i n t he r elief a t S usa, t he f igures o f t he s itulae a nd o f t he C orsini c hair b ring t o m ind t he t radit ions a nd s ocial s tatus o f t heir o wners: a ncient a ristoc ratic t raditions, d epicted i n a n ative, R oman m anner, c onsciously d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he G reek H ellenistic s tyle u sed f or c ontemporary p ublic m onuments. T he c losest R oman c omparisons t o t he f igures o f t he C orsini T hrone a re w ith p rovincial r eliefs s howing p eople a t w ork, m aking s itulae ( fig. 9 3),41 f or e xample, o r, o n a s hop s ign f rom O stia, d oing t heir s hopping.42 O n t he l atter m onument t he c ostume o f t he m en, a h ooded p aenula, 4 3 i s s imilar t o t hat o f s everal f igures o n t he C orsini c hair. S uch r eliefs a re g iven b y B ianchi B andinelli a s e xamples o f p lebeian a rt. Y et t his c hair m ust h ave b een m ade f or a n oble f amily: t he r epresentation o f t he a ristocratic l ife d epicted o n t he c hair m ust h ave h ad t he s ame p urpose i t h ad o n t he s itulae, t o g lorify t he n oble t raditions o f t he o wner. T he s tyle w hich r esults o n t he C orsini c hair a nd " plebeian" r eliefs i s s imilar t o t he e xtent t hat i t r epresents a l ack o f s tyle;44 t he i ntent--to s how r eality, t o t ell t he s tory a s c learly a s p ossible--is s imilar. T his i s, t herefore, o ne o f t hose c ases w hen, a s B ianchi B andinelli r emarks, p atrician a nd p lebeian t raditions o verlap. I n t he C orsini c hair s uch a " provincial" s tyle i s, I b elieve, d ue t o a n i ntent ional a rchaism w hich i mitates t he " rude" a rt o f a n e arlier I talic s tyle j ust a s, o n N eo-Attic m onuments, a rchaizing a rtists w ere i mitating G reek f igures o f t he A rchaic o r C lassical s tyle. T he p arallel b etween t he h istorical r eliefs a nd o f s itula

8 4

s ubjects o f R oman a rt i s d ue t o t he

Italic preference for the representation of ritual acts. These northern situlae in fact illustrate the "grammar and syntax-structure" of later Roman historical re­ liefs. 45 Both these northern peoples and the Romans went on representing native scenes in contrast to the more advanced, sophisticated Etruscans who borrowed Greek mythology; Etruscan influence, prestigious and· far-reaching though it was, had definite limits. In Rome it left language and religion untouched. O n the northern fringes of the Etruscan world, it left the domestic Italic tradition, as reflected in the situla art, quite untouched by Greek mythology. In a period when Rome was consciously looking for its non-Greek past, the native Italic tradition of earlier times, which had remained available in the northern regions, was re­ cognized as Rome's own and was transferred to the Corsini Throne, this strange, but not quite so isolated, honorary monument. It remains to discuss the use of this marble throne. It was made, I believe, for a noble Roman family, perhaps in connection with a cult which was in their charge, as in the case of the Potiti, and Pinarii mentioned by Livy. 4 6_ The family may have had connec­ tions with northern Italy, indeed with some of those Gauls 11 Caesar was accused of bringing into the Roman Senate. The chair may also have been used for one of those funerals described by Polybius, 4 7 in which ancestors were impersonated in the procession, with the insignia of office they had held during their lifetime. In this case there would be no real difference between the chair's honorary significance 4 8 and its funerary use. The symbolism of the throne as representing an invisible presence is also ·one which made headway in the Hellenistic and Roman world. 4 9 Perhaps the fact that the decoration of the back would be hidden by someone sitting in the throne is in favor of such an interpretation. 11

Another marble throne, meant to be used outdoors in a sacred ceremony, is the Elgin chair, now in the J. Paul Getty Museum. SO It is instructive to compare the two monuments, both decorated with motifs which, in a "classical" period, are reminiscent of the heroic past: Harmodius and Aristogeiton in one case, the aristo­ cratic tradition of the Italic situlae in the other. And just as the Elgin Throne may have been used in the Agora of Athens by a priest, so the Corsini chair may well have been used in a ceremony in Rome, at the time of Caesar, by a member of an �portant family officiating as priest or magistrate?

85

N OTES T his a rticle f irst a ppeared i n E ssays i n H onor o f D orothy K ent H ill, J ournal o f t he W alters A rt G a llery 3 6 ( 1977) 10-122. Ia m g rateful f or h elp a nd a dvice t o G abriella B attaglia, R ussell S cott, a nd J eanny V oorhys C anby . 1 H . 0.825 m . D iam . o f s eat 0 .495 m . R estoration : p art o f b ack o n t he l eft s ide, a nd s ma ll p iece o n f ront o f s eat. W . H elbig, A nnali d e ll'Instituto d i C orrispondenza A rcheologica 5 1 ( Rome 1 879) 3 12-17; i def i , M önumenti I nediti d ell'Instituto d i C orrispondenza A rcheologica 1 ( Rome 1 879-1883) p l. 9 . A . G renier, B ologne v illan ovienne e t e trusque ( Paris 1 912) 3 99 . P . D ucati, " Sedia C orsini," M onAnt 2 4 ( 1971) c ols. 4 01-458 , p ls. 1 -8 ; i dem , S toria d ell'arte e trusca ( F lorence 1 927) 4 85, f ig. 5 67. S . R einach, R 4pertoire d e r eliefs g recs e t r omains ( Paris 1 909-1912) 3 , 24 . G .Q . G iglioli, S tEtr 3 ( 1920) 1 44-48 ; i dem , L 'arte e trusca ( Milan 1 935) p l. 3 15, 1 . I .S. R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R eligion i n R oman A rt, M AAR 2 2 ( 1955) 9 -10, p l. 3 , f ig. 5 . G .M .A . R ichter, T he F urniture o f t he G reeks, E truscans a nd R omans ( London 1 966) 8 6, f igs. 4 28-429. S ee b ibliography i n G . d e L uca, I M onumenti A ntichi d i P a lazzo C orsini i n R oma ( Rome 1 976) N o. 5 4, 9 3-100, p ls. 8 1-85. F elletti T radizione i talica ( 1977) 1 74 , 1 92-194; S teingräber, E truskis che M öbel 1 98, N o. 2 7. G a lleria C orsini, i nv. n o . 6 66. 2A ccording t o o ne a ccount, 9 3, n . 1 ) .

1 734 ( de L uca , P alazzo C orsini

3" The S edia C orsini . . s upplies a n i mportant l ink b etween E truscan a nd R oman r itua l," R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R eligion 1 0. R ichter, F urniture 8 6, s till l ists i t a s a n E truscan m onument.

4G iglioli, S tEtr 3 ( 1929) 1 44, n . 2 . R yberg ( Rites o f t he S tate R eligion x iii) r epeats t his i nformation, b ut t here a re n o p lans t o m ove t he C orsini T hrone f rom i ts p resent h ome.

5S upra

n . 1 . T he C orsini T hrone i s m entioned, f or e xample, i n A rte d elle s itule ( 1961) 1 7 . 6D e L uca , P a lazzo C orsini 9 3-100. T he a uthor s till e choes, h owever, t he p uzzlement s cholars h ave l ong f elt a bout t he m onument 's d ecoration, r emarking t hat o ne m ight e asily t hink i t af orgery , i f w e d id n ot h ave s uch r eliable a nd c onsistent e vidence o f i ts d isc overy u nderneath t he C appella C orsini a t S .Giovanni i n L aterano ( 95).

8 6

7J ohn W ard-Perk ins r eports ( quot ing A manda C lar idge a nd D em itr i M ichae lides), t hat t he m arb le t hroughout ( repairs i nc luded) i s f ine P ente lic, w hich w ou ld b e " h igh ly l ike ly f or a l ate R epub lican o r e ar ly i mper ial a rcha izing p iece ...Pente lic w as...the s tandard m ater ia l f or e c lect ic s cu lpture m ade f or t he I talian m arket, w hether i n A tt ica o r i n w orkshops e stab lished i n I ta ly ( as p resumab ly o ne w ould h ave t o i magine i n t his c ase) f rom t he m id-second c entury o nwards ." ( Letter o f M arch 8 , 1 977). 8F or s im ilar N eo-Att ic d ecorat ions s ee W . F uchs, D ie V orb ilder d er n euatt ischen R e liefs ( Ber lin 1 959 ) p ls. 6 a, 6 b, 9 b, 2 0a-b, e tc . F or t he e lement o f n ostalg ia a nd t he v ar iety o f s ources ( including e xot ic E gypt ian m ot ifs) u sed b y N eo-Att ic a rt ists, s ee B ianchi B and ine lli, R ome, T he C enter o f P ower 2 03 . 90 n

t he c ompar ison b etween s itula a rt a nd t he C orsin i T hrone s ee b ib liography i n G ig lio li, S tEtr 3 ( 1929) 1 45, a nd d e L uca, P a lazzo C orsini 9 3-100 . 1° For

c ont inuity o f t he s itula a rt, s ee H . K r iss, i n A rte d e lle s itule 6 3-68 . T here a re e ven o bjects m ade f rom r eused f ragments o f s itulae ( Kr iss 6 7). 1 C hapter 2 , n . 1. A rte d e lle s itu le p l. 5 2; B ianch i B and ine lli, R ome, C enter o f P ower p l. 6 5 . C f . F e llett i M aj, T radiz ione i ta lica 2 39-253; 3 50 .

1 2

C hapter 2 , n . 1.

1 3 F or t he R oman i m itat ion i n c lay o f b ronze s itulae f rom E ste a nd t he P o V a lley i n t he l ate R epub lican p er iod, s ee M aria T eresa M arab ini M oevs, T he R oman T h in-Wa lled P ottery f rom C osa ( 1948-1954 ), M AAR 3 2 ( Rome 1 973 ) 3 5-45, n os. 1 -24, p ls. 1 -3, 5 5, a nd 5 6 . " The c onquest o f G au l c an e asily b e i dent if ied a s t he h istor ica l e lement c hief ly r esponsib le f or t h is l ate r evival..." ( 45). 1 4

M oevs, M AAR 3 2 ( 1973).

1 5 E . N ash, A P ictor ial D ict ionary o f A ncient R ome ( New Y ork 1 96 1, 2 nd e d . r ev ised) 2 , 3 2 1-323, f igs . 1 0871 089 . 1 6 P a llott ino, E truscans 1 82-83 . F or t he l ituus, s ee T . G antz, S tEtr 3 9 ( 197 1) 8 -9; C r istofan i, P rospett iva 1 ( 1975) 1 3 .

B rende l, r ev. o f R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R e ligion i n R oman A rt, M AAR 2 ( 1955), i n A mer ican J ourna l o f P hilo logy 7 8 ( 1958) 3 02 . 1 7

8 7

1 8 F . P rayon, F rühetrusk ische G rab- u nd H ausarchitektur p l. 5 9 .1. J . M acIntos .h , " Representat ions o f F urniture o n t he F r ieze P laques f rom P oggio C iv itate ( Mur lo)," R ömM itt 8 1 ( 1974) 2 1-2 0 . 1 9

f ig . 4 27 .

H e lb ig, F ührer 4 , v o l. 3 , 2 857; R ichter, F urniture 8 6 C f . s upra n . 1 8 .

2 0 M . Z uffa, i n S tud i B ant i ( Rome 1 965) 3 5 1-55 . L . V lad B öre lli, S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 2 11-12 . F or t he s te le s ee S te ingräber, E truskische M öbe l 2 57, C at . 3 15 . F . F remersdorf, D as R ömergrab i n W e iden b e i K ö ln ( Co logne 1 957) 2 8ff .; P . L a B aume, C o lonia A gr ipp inensis ( Co logne 1 967) 5 3, p l. 5 7 . G ravestones s how t he m an r ec lining o n t he c ouch, w hile h is w ife s its i n t he c hair . S uch w oven w icker c hairs a re a lso u sed i n t he s choo l s cene r epresented i n r e lief o n am onument f rom N eumagen ( Landesmuseum, T r ier ). F or e xamp les s ee S teingräber 9 5 . 2 1 T . G antz, S tEtr 3 9 ( 197 1) 5 -24, f ig . 1 ; B onfante, E truscan D ress f ig . 7 2 . S upra n . 1 8 .

2 2

L ucke-Frey 2 1-22 .

2 3 P ausan ias 5 .12 .5 . G . K aro, " Etrusk isches i n G r iechenland," A rchaio logike E phemer is 1 0 1 ( 1937) 3 16 . 2 4 F or N eo-Att ic d ecorations, s ee s upra n . 8 . F or B o logna s te lae, L e c ittä e trusche ( 1973) 3 00 ; D ucat i, M onAnt 2 0 ( 1920) 3 57-727; M onAnt 3 9 ( 1943Y-3 73-446; M onte lius, C ivilisat ion p r im it ive 1 , p l. 1 00 ; B ianch i B and ine lli-Tore lli, E trur ia p l. 14 . B ronze m irror : V illa G iu lia, I nv . 1 2997 .

2 5 " The l aureate w orsh ippers, t he p a il a nd d ipper, t he v ict imar ious w ith a n a xe o ver h is s houlder, t he v ict im a dorned w ith t he d orsua le, a nd t he l arge a ltar o ccupy ing t he c enter o f t he r e lief , m ight a ll a ppear i n aR oman s acr if icia l p rocession" ( Ryberg, R ites o f t he S tate R e ligion 1 0 ). 2 6 C ertosa s itu la, L ucke-Frey p l. 6 4 . T he h orseman h as b een i nterpreted w ithin e ither c ontext, a s a n " abbreviated" r epresentat ion o f t he h orse r aces w hich a ppear o n t he s itu lae, o r a s t he f igure w hich a ppears, o ften i n as im ilar s cene w ith a ltar a nd t ree, o n t he m any r e lief s te lae w ith h ero ized r iders, w hich a re m ost f requent i n t he H e llen ist ic p er iod, b ut c ont inue w e ll i nto t he R oman e mpire ( G . d e L uca, P a lazzo C orsini 9 7). T he a nima l b eing l ed t o s laughter o n t he s itulae i s i nterpreted a s p art o f t he p rocession a nd p reparat ion f or t he b anquet--a b anquet w h ich i s, o f c ourse, n ot w ithout r itua l a nd r e ligious i mp licat ions. T he w oman c arry ing a k antharos a nd t he s impu lum m ake i t c lear t hat t he s itula c ontains w ine f or ab anquet, a s o n t he s itulae ( Ryberg, R ites o f t he S tate R e ligion 1 0 ), t hough o f c ourse a R oman w ou ld s ee a r eference t o as acr if ice .

8 8

2 7

C hapter 1 , n . 3 8; c hapter 2 , n otes 2 6-29 ; 3 1-33 .

2 8 1d o n ot t h ink t hat t hey a re w ear ing l aure l c rowns, a s R yberg s ays ( R ites o f t he S tate R eligion 1 0; s upra n . 2 5). 29 Gabrovec, i n A rte d e lle s itu le 7 . B onfante, A rchNews 5 ( 1976) 9 5, 9 7 . A .Lang, G ermania 5 6 ( 1979) 9 3-94 .

3 00n t he p aenula, s ee B onfante W arren, " Roman C ostumes" 5 95, . 6 10 . 3 1 T h is s hort t unic a ppears, a s G ioia d e L uca p oints o ut ( Pa lazzo C orsini 9 6), o n f igures i nvo lved i n av ar iety o f a ct ivit ies: " Questa v ar iante a pportata n e lla i conograf ia p r im it iva n on e p era ltro c osa s uperf icia le, m a s erve q uasi a s otto lineare l e t rasformazioni p i üp rofonde i ntercorse ." O n t he t hree-quarterl ength c h iton o f t he a ttendants o n t he s itu lae, a nd t he n udity o f t he c ontestants ( both o f w h ich c ostumes a re h ere s ubst ituted b y t h is s hort c h itop), s ee B onfante, E truscan D ress 3 4-35, n . 1 7 o n p . 18 . 3 2 F or t he s eated s pectators, c f . t he P rovidence s itu la; " on e ither s ide o f t he b oxers s tand t wo m en w atch ing t he a ct ion, f or w h ich t hey f orm v isua l p arentheses. T he ir k nee-length c loaks m uff le t he ir b odies; t he ir a rms a re n ot r epresented": D . M itten, C lassica l B ronzes ( Providerce 1 975) n o . 2 8 , p . 9 1, f ig. c . S eated f igures o f m en a t b anquets a ppear f requent ly, e .g. M itten, f igs. a b , d -h . F or c ompar isons w ith t he b oxers, s ee G abrovec, i n A rte d e lle s itu le 7 ; G ig lio li, S tEtr 3 ( 1929) 1 46 . S ee a lso L ucke-Frey 2 6-27; M itten, C lassica l B ronzes f ig . i . 3 D e L uca, P a lazzo C orsini 9 4, p l. 8 5 . F or t he i nterpretat ion o f t he g roup a s w rest lers, s ee P . D ucat i, M onAnt 2 4 ( 19 16) 4 434 44 . T h is i nterpretat ion i s a ccepted b y R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R e ligion 9 : " One g roup a pparent ly r epresents a n o ff ic ia l, w ith a s harp s taff l ike a c onmetacu lum, w ho i s a bout t o i nterfere b etween a p air o f w rest lers, o ne o f w hom h as h is o pponent p inned d own o n ab ench w ith h is h ead a way f rom t he s pectator a nd h is f eet k icking o ut i n b oth d irections." ( In f act t he f igure a pproach ing h olds a s pear r ather t han a s taff .) W . H e lb ig, A nnInst 1 879, 3 12ff ., s ees a m an a bout t o e xecute a h andstand . 3 4 F or m ytho logical a nd i conograph ic p aralle ls a nd a p ossib le i dent if icat ion w ith H ercules ( suggested b y E r ika S imon), s ee L . B onfante, " The C orsin i T hrone a nd t he M an i n t he P ot," E ssays i n H onor o f B luma L . T re ll ( forthcom ing). H ercu les i s a ssociated w ith f ounta ins i n I ta lian a nd W est G reek a rt; i n E trur ia, h e " often b ehaves i n am anner n ot r ead ily m atched i n G reek a rt": J . B oardman, I ntag lios a nd R ings ( London 1 975) 4 2 . F or t he s kyphos, u sed f or s acr if ices i n h onor o gH ercules ( Serv ius, a d A en . 8 , 2 78) s ee E . S imon, i n H e lb ig, F ührer ( 1966) 2 3 1-232, N o . 1 425; c f . B . C and ida, A ltar i ec ipp i n e l M useo N aziona le R omano ( Rome 1 979) 16-118 , N o . 4 9, e specia lly 17, n otes 5 -9; R yberg 8 -9 .

8 9

3 5 0 n t he u se o f s im ilar o val s hie lds o n t he R oman a ltar o f D om it ius A henobarbus ( a m onument w hich s hows o ther s im ilar it ies t o t he d ecorat ion o f t his m arb le t hrone), s ee G . d e L uca, P a lazzo C orsini 9 8, w ith r efs . C ertain d etails o f a rmament c an a lso b e c ompared t o t hose o f t he m onument o f A em ilius P aullus . S im ilar it ies h ave b een n oted b etween t he o rgan ization o f t he s o ldiers i n R ome a nd o n n orthern m onuments: o n t he C ertosa s itu la i n p art icu lar t he t hree d ifferent g roups o f i nfantry h ave b een c ompared t o t he t hree R oman o rders o f v e lites, p r incipes a nd t r iar ii ( Pa llott ino, E truscans 1 83). S upra c hapter 2 , n otes 1 7-22 . 3 6 F or t he h unt, s ee t he C ertosa s itu la, f ig . 1; a nd c hapter 2 , n otes 8 3-84 . F or b ows a nd a rrows s ee F rey, " Bemerkungen" 6 33, n . 4 9 . P o ints o n h ats o ccurred o n t he s itu lae : B rende l, E truscan A rt 1 82, f ig. 19 ( worn b y ah unter). T his s hape w ith b utton i s E truscan, h owever : s ee t he f ourth-century E truscan m irror i n P ar is, J .D . B eaz ley, J HS 6 9 ( 1949) 8 , p l. 4 b; a nd M .-F . B r iguet i n A spects d e l 'art d es e f trusques d ans l es c o llect ions d u L ouvre ( Par is [ n .d . 1 9761 )30-3 1, n o . 6 4 . 3 7

C hapter 1 , n . 1 2; c hapter 3 , n . 3 6 .

3 8 B ianch i B andine lli, R ome, C enter o f P ower 9 2; E . S imon, A ra P acis A ugustae ( 1967) p l. 9 . F or t he d ifference b etWeen t he s ty le o f t his s ma ll r e lief a nd t he l arge p rocession o f t he a ltar, s ee R . B ianchi B andine lli, i n B ianchi B andine lli-Tore lli, R oma n o . 7 5. H . v on H e intze ., R oman A rt ( London a nd N ew Y ork 1 97 ) -7 0 . R e levant i n t his c ontext i s h er o bservat ion: " It w as n ot l aws o f a rt ist ic c omposit ion, b ut t he d emands o f s ubject m atter t hat w ere d eterm inat ive" ( von H e intze 7 ). 3 9 B ianch i B andine lli, R ome, C enter o f P ower f ig . R yberg 1 04-106, p l. 3 4, f ig . 5 2 .

5 6;

4 0 B ianchi B and ine lli, R ome, C enter o f P ower 5 7 . B onfante, P aro la d e l P assato 9 9 ( 1964 ) 4 0 1-27 .

C f . L .

4 1

S upra n . 1.

4 2

B ianchi B and ine lli, R ome , C enter o f P ower f ig. 6 9 .

4 3

B onfante W arren, " Roman C ostumes" 5 95, 6 10 .

4 4

B ianchi B and ine lli, R ome, C enter o f P ower 5 7-60 .

4 5 B rendel, r ev . o f R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R eligion, i n A mer ican J ournal o f P hilo logy 7 8 ( 1958) 3 02 .

4 6

1 -5, 6 0-6 1. 4 7

L ivy 1 .7 .12, a nd O gilvie, A C ommentary o n L ivy B ooks

P o lyb ius 6 .53 .

9 0

0 n t he m ot ifs o f w ar a nd t he h unt, t o b e i nterpreted a s a llud ing t o t he v irtus o f t he p erson b e ing h onored, s ee d e L uca, P a lazzo C orsin i 9 7 . 4 8

4 9

S ee d e L uca, P a lazzo C orsini

9, w ith r eferences.

5 0 I nv . n o . 7 4 A A 1 2; J . F re l, " Some N otes o n t he E lgin T hrone," A thM itt 9 1 ( 1976) 1 85-89 . H . T hompson, " The E lgin T hrone : I ts D ate a nd P urpose," S ummar ies o f t he P apers P resented, S eventy'E ighth G eneral M eet ing o f t he A rchaeo log ica l I nst itute o f A mer ica, N ew Y ork, D ec . 2 8-39 , 1 976, 4 7-48 . 5 1 D ume z il, A rchaic R oman R eligion ( 1974) 6 00-6 10, " Notes s ur l es c u ltes p r ive s ."

9 1

P ART L ANG ' JAGE

A ND

I A LPHABET

C hapter E TRUSCAN T HE

I NFLUENCE L ATIN

W ORD

5 I N

E ARLY

R OME:

T RIUMPHUS

T he t riumph w as a p articular a nd u nique R oman c eremony. Y et t he R omans t hemselves k new t hat i ts f orm w as E truscan.' I t i s n ow p ossible, I b elieve, t o i dentify t he m oment w hen t he w ord t riumphus e ntered t he L atin l anguage, a nd t o a ttempt t o v isualize t he c ontext w ithin w hich b oth w ord a nd r itual b ecame a p art o f R oman c ivilization •2 B riefly, m y c onclusions a re t he f ollowing: T he w ord t riumphus c ame i nto L atin f rom t he E truscan l anguage a t t he m oment o f c losest c ontact b etween R omans a nd E truscans, u nder t he E truscan m onarchy o f t he l ate s ixth c entury. I t w as o riginally a m usical t erm, c onnected w ith t he m artial m usic w hich a ccompanied E truscan m ilitary o rganization a nd r eligious r itual. T he R omans a dopted i t f or t he n ewly t ransformed v ersion o f a n a ncient r ite, w hich w as n ow c alled t he t riumph. T he o lder, E truscan f orm o f t he w ord, t riump(h)e, w as s till p reserved, h owever, i n t he s hout u sed b oth i n t he v ictory p rocession a nd t he a ncient h ymn o f t he A rval B rotherhood. F or t he w ord t riumphus w as a s hout l ong b efore i t b ecame a w ord. T he c ry, t riumpe, t riumpe...was r epeated s ix t imes a s t he c limax o f t he C armen A ruale. 3 I t w as r epeated a gain a nd a gain a s t he s oldiers' c heer a ccompanying t he v ictorious g eneral a s h e a scended t he C apitol t o s acrifice b efore t he t emple o f J upiter O ptimus M aximus. P oets e choed t his c heer, s till r inging i n t heir e ars: " miles i o m agna u oce t riumphe c anet" ( Tibullus 1.5.118); " io t riumphe, n on s emel d icemus i o t riumphe" ( Horace O des 1 V.2.49). 4 T riump(h)e i s t he e arliest f orm f ound i n R oman h istory. T his s hout t hen g ave i ts n ame t o r itual a nd p rocession, c alled t riump(h)us ( recorded i n E nnius a nd P lautus); f rom t he n oun w as f ormed t he v erb, t riump(h)a re. 5 V arro t ells u s t he v erb d eveloped f rom t he s hout o f t he s oldiers i n t he t riumph: " sic t riumphare a ppellatum, q uod c um i mperatore m ilites r edeuntes c lamitant p er u rbem i n C apitolium e unti ' 10 t riumphe!'" 6

9 3

T he a rchaic f orm p reserved i n t he t ext o f t he A rval B rothers' h ymn, i n a n i nscription o f 2 18 A .D., a s w ell a s C icero's r emark t hat h e c ould s till r emember t he t ime w hen t riumphus w as p ronounced t riumpus, s how t hat , t he a spirate d id n ot c ome i nto L atin b efore c a. 1 00 B .C .' T he e tymology o f F rench t romper " to t riumph b y c heating , " p reserves t his e arly f orm w ithout a spirate i n t he p opular l anguage, w hich a ctually n ever a dopted t he c ultured p ronunciation .8 A s I h ope t o s how i n a m oment, t he w ords t riumpus ( triumpe) a nd t ripudium a re b oth e arly f orms, c ontemporary, a nd, i n f act, c losely r elated. I n t he t ext o f t he C armen A ruale, t ripudium a ppears a s t ripodatio, a nd i n t he v erb f orm t ripodare, j ust b efore a nd a fter t he t ranscription o f t he h ymn, a nd r efers t o t he d ance e xecuted b y t he A rval B rothers a s t hey s ang t his s acred, a rchaic s ong: " Ibi s acerdotes c lusi s uccincti l ibellis a cceptis c armen d escindentes t ripodauerunt i n v erba h aec: E nos L ases i uuate... ( etc.). P ost t ripodationem d einde s igno d ato p ublici i ntroier(e) e t l ibellos r eceperunt." T he e arly f orm o f t he w ord, w ith p od- ( alternating f orm o f p ed-) w hich h ad n ot y et d eveloped, b y t he a ction o f t he i ntensive a ccent, i nto t he l ater p ud- o r t ripudium, s eems t o c onfirm t he e xtreme a ntiquity--before 5 00 B .C.--of t he C armen A ruale. 9 I t i s s urely n o c oincidence t hat t ripudium i s t he w ord u sed t o d escribe t he r itual d ance o f a nother a ncient p riesthood, t he w ar-like S alii: S alii " per u rbem i re c anentes c armina c um t ripudiis s olemnique s altatu" ( Livy 1 .20.4). T ripudium i s t ranslated i n t his c ontext a s " war d ance."10 A ccording t o V arro t he L atin w ord t riumphus w as p robably d erived f rom t he G reek w ord t hriambos: " id a t hriamböi a c G raeco L iberi c ognomento p otest d ictum." V arro's s omewhat d ubious t one--"potest d ictum"--seems d ue t o t he f act t hat t here w as n o o bvious c onnection b etween t he o riginal m eaning o f t he G reek t hriambos, a h ymn i n h onor o f D ionysos, l ater a n e pithet o f t he g od, a nd t he R oman t riumphus, w hich h ad n othing t o d o w ith D ionysos. I t w as o nly i n R oman t imes t hat G reek h istorians u sed t he w ord t hriambos t o t ranslate t he L atin t riumphus; t hen t he t riumph i tself w as c alled, i f n ecessary, m egas t hriambos, t o d istinguish i t f rom t he e latton t hriambos o r o uatio. 1 T he t raditional d erivation o f t riumphus s ugg ested b y V arro a nd a ccepted b y m any m odern l inguists d oes n ot a ccount f or t he p honetic c hanges f rom t hriambos t o t riump(h)us, w hich c ould n ot h ave t aken p lace i n t he p assage f rom G reek t o L atin. S ince G reek / 3 d oes n ot c hange t o L atin p , w hile G reek A d oes c hange t o p i n E truscan, E truscan m ediation i s p roved, a bove a ll, b y t his c hange f rom /4 9 t o p .12 I f t he w ord

t hriambos h ad e ntered L atin d irectly f rom t he G reek, i t w ould h ave b een * triambos i n a rchaic t imes, * thriambus f rom C icero o n, w hen c ultured s peakers p ronounced t he G reek a spirate. 1 3 T he v owel c hange, f rom a t o u , c an b e a ccounted f or i n e ither o ne o f t wo w ays. I t c ould h ave b een c aused b y t he L atin v owel w eakening, d ue t o t he e ffects o f t he i nitial s tress. T his w ould g ive u s a l oose k ind o f d ate f or t he w ord, b etween t he s ixth c entury a nd c a. 3 00 B .C.14 ( If t he w ord t hriambos h ad e ntered i nto L atin a fter 3 00 B .C., i t w ould h ave g iven u s * triampus. 1 5 ) A n a lternative e xplanation, e ven m ore a ttractive f or o ur t heory, i s t hat s ince t his p assage f rom G reek a t o _ u a lready o ccurs i n E truscan 1 6 t he w ord w as t aken — o ver w ithout c hange i nto L atin. A t hird c lue w hich c ould a lso p oint i n t his d irection i s t he e nding o f t he w ord t riumpe. l he e h as b een e xplained e ither a s a n i mperative,17 o r a s t he s ign o f a v ocative. A ccording t o N orden, h umenaie a nd i akche a re e xamples o f e xclamat ions w hich p recede i n t ime t he d eclined n ames d erived f rom t his f orm.18 A s imple a nd m ore l ogical e xplanation i s t o c onsider t he f orm a n E truscan m asculine n ominat ive. 1 9 T he c limax o f t he C armen A ruale a nd t he t riumph w ould t hen o riginally h ave b een n ot a n a cclamation ( vocative) o r a n e xho-tation ( imperative), b ut a n e xclam ation i n E truscan; s omething l ike o ur " Hurray!" O f c ourse, t riump(h)e m ay h ave b een m isunderstood b y t he R omans t hemselves, a nd q uite e arly, a s a v ocative o r a n i mperative. Y et, t hough t he n oun t riumphus a nd t he v erb t riumphare d eveloped s oon a fter t his, t he w ord t riumpe i n L atin l ong r emained a n e xclamation, w ithout s yntact ical c onnections. P lautus u ses i t t his w ay i n P seudolus 1 051: " Ite h ac, t riumphe! a d c antharum r ecta u ia!" I t i s h ard t o t ranslate t riump(h)e a s o ther t han a n e xclamation, a p arody o f t he s hout a ll R omans h eard i n t he t riumph. T he c ontext, o ne o f t hose f arcical b attle s cenes s o f requent i n G reek N ew C omedy, i s t aken o ver b y P lautus a nd g iven a t ypically R oman t ouch o f " local c olor." W e h ave a lready s een t he f requent u se o f t riumphe b y t he p oets, w ho w ere i nterested i n r ec reating t he s ound o f t he c heers o f t he t riumph. 2 0 W here d id t he E truscans g et t he w ord? T here a re t wo p ossibilities. T riumpe w as e ither a dopted d irectly f rom t he G reek t hriambos--with t he p honologica l c hanges w e h ave s een--or i t c ame, n ot f rom G reek, b ut f rom a t hird l anguage 2 t he s ame l anguage f rom w hich t he w ord c ame i nto G reek. 2 1 T he w ord t hriambos i s, i ndeed, n ot n ative G reek, t hough i t a pparently c ame f rom a n I E l anguage. T hriambos b elongs t o a s eries o f w ords--iambos, t hriambos, d ithyrambos--the f irst e lement o f w hich c onsists l n a n umber w hich i s I E i n f orm: i -= F i(=Latin 9 5

u TgintT ) =2 , t hri = t ri = 3 , d ithyra- = t ettara = 4.2 2 T he l ast e lements, w hich t hey a ll h ave i n c ommon, ambos , m ay p erhaps b e r elated t o S anskrit a nga, " limb," a ngana , " step," " act o f w alking." 2 3 T he w ords s eem t o b e m usic al, o r d ance " measures," s omething l ike a t wo-step, t hree-step, a f our-step r hythm. F rom t his I E, n on-Greek, l anguage, t he w ord c ame i nto G reek, w here i t o riginally m eant s imply a r eligious p rocession w ith s ong a nd d ance, t hough t hriambos i s a lready c onnected w ith D ionysos i n t he e arliest a ppeara nces o f t he w ord, i n t he s ixth o r t he f ifth c entury ( e.g. P ratinas, 1 , 1 5, t hriambodithyrambe). 24 T he w ord * triump(h)e c ame i nto E truscan f rom t his l anguage e ither d irectly, a s i t c ame i nto G reek, o r i t c ame b y w ay o f G reek; w hile t riump(h)e a lmost c ertainly c ame i nto L atin b y w ay o f E truscan. S o m uch, t hen, f or a b rief g enealogy o f t he w ord. E truscan k ings a nd t yrants w ere n o d oubt a ccustomed a s t he G reeks w ere t o h earing a cclamations a t t heir a thletic c ompetitions, a nd a t r elated p roc essions a nd v ictory c elebrations.25 U nfortunately w e h ave n o r ecord o f t hese s houts, c alls a nd c heers, t hough t omb p aintings a nd r eliefs g ive u s a g ood i dea o f w hat t heir f estivals, g ames a nd d ances l ooked l ike i n t he l ate s ixth a nd f ifth c enturies, a nd w e c an i magine t he i mpact t hey m ust h ave h ad o n t he R omans o f t hat t ime. F or t he G reeks, o f c ourse, w e h ave t he e vidence o f P indar c oncerning t he s hout o r o mphe w hich g reeted t he v ictors o f t he g ames a t t he r eligious c ompetitions: d is A thanaiön n m n o mphai k ömasan ( Nem. X .34); a nd a t O lympia t he t raditional a cclamation, t enella k allinike, w as r epeated t hree t imes, a s t he k allinikos h o t riploos o f 0 1.IX.2. 2 6 W hen R ome b ecame a c ity--became, l iterally, " civilized"--at t he t ime o f t he E truscan m onarchy, t he w ord t riumphus e ntered t he l anguage a s j ust s uch a n a cclamation, i n t he c ontext o f b oth m usic a nd t he o rganization o f t he a rmy, e lements o f c ivilization w hich t he E truscan b rought t o t he R ome o f t he T arquins. W e h ave s een t hat t he s eries o f w ords t o w hich t hriambos--and a lso t riump(h)us--belong, e tymologically s peaking, a re a ll m usical. T hey e ach r efer t o p oetry, s ong, a nd d ance, s omething l ike " two-step," " threes tep," " four-step," t he s eries b eing m usically c omplete: t here i s n o " five-step." I ambos, t hriambos, d ithyramb os i ndicate, r espectively, a n i ambic m eter, a h ymn t o D ionysos, a n e pithet o f D ionysos. A ll t hese a re l ater m eanings o f t he w ords, b ut s till r elated t o p oetry, s inging a nd d ancing--three p hases o f m usic w hich w ere n ot s eparate i n a ntiquity, a s t hey a re f or u s t oday. M eter, s tep, a nd r hythm w ere a ll i nterrelated. 9 6

T he R omans l earned a bout m usic f rom t he E truscans: n ot o nly w ere m usical i nstruments a dopted f rom E truscan m odels--trumpets, a s w ell a s o ther i nstruments--but E truscan m usicians a nd d ancers w ere b rought i nto R ome a t a ll t imes. 2 7 T he m usicians i n t he t riumphal p rocession w ere E truscans, a s t hey w ere i n t he p ompae i n g eneral. W ho e lse w ould h ave t aught t he R omans t o c heer, t riumpe? A t t he h igh p oint o f I talian m usic i n E urope, t oo, t he m usicians i n a ny o rchestra w ere I talian; t oday, m usical t erminology i s s till a ll I talian . A t c oncerts a nd t he o pera t he c onductor g ives d irections i n I talian. A t t he e nd o f t he p erformance, t he a udience m ay s hout " Bravo!" i n I talian, e ven i f t hey d o n ot k now w hat i t m eans. W hat i s m ore n atural t han t hat t he R omans s hould h ave c ontinued t o c ry o ut i n E truscan t riumpe! a t t he v ictory p rocessions o f t heir g enerals, a nd t hat t he w ord s hould h ave b een u sed, i n a m ore t echnical s ense, b y t he A rval B rothers i n t heir a ncient r itual h ymn? I n f act, t he t ext o f t he A rval B rothers' r itual s eems t o c ontain a t ranslation o f t he f oreign t echnical w ord t riumpe: i t i s i ts L atin e quivalent, t ripudium. T he w ord i s u sed i n t he v erbal f orm t ripodare: " tripodauerunt i n u erba h aec..." ( then f ollows t he t ext o f t he h ymn, e nding w ith t he r epetition o f t he c limactic t riumpe). R ecently t he t ripudium h as b een t entatively -and t emptingly —identified w ith a t risyllabic f oot w ith i nitial s tress i n t he o lder I talic t radition. A ccordingly R .G. T anner, w ho a ttempts t o r econstruct t he m eter o f t his s ong a s i t w as s ung a nd d anced i n t he A rval H ymn, s ays, " if s uch a t risyllabic f oot e xisted, t ripudium w ould b e i ts o bvious a nd n atural n ame."28 P roceeding o n t his a ssumption, h e w orks o ut s ome n eat c horeography f or t he h ymn, w ith a lternating j umping a nd t urning m ovements. " Limen s ah , s ta b erber," f or e xample, i s a lternately a u ersus a nd a t ripudium, t he s ense o f t he u ersus b eing a n i njunction t o l eap; w hile t he i njunction t o s tand i s " naturally f ulfilled o n t he t hird s tep o f t he t ripudium o ccurring a t t he e nd o f t he m ovement. T he d ancers a re c alling o n t he g od t o s hare i n t heir d ance, i nvoking h im t o j oin i n e ach a ction a s t hey d o i t." I f t riumpe m eant t ripudium, t hen i n t he f inal v erse, t riumpe w as, i t s eems, r epeated s ix t imes, i n w hich t he d ancers w ere i ndeed c alling o ut t he s teps t o b e d anced. S ilvio F erri r ightly p ointed o ut t he r elations hip b etween t ripudium ( tripodare) a nd t riumpe i n t his t ext. T hough h is e tymology, t ripudium> t riumpe, i s i mpossible, a d efinite c onnection c an n evertheless b e f ound w ith t he h elp o f t he m iddle t erm t hriambos. T ripudium a nd t hriambos a re e xact e quivalents i n t heir f ormation: c f. t he e lements t ri-pudium, " three-foot" ( Latin p es, p edis; G reek p ous, p odos o r " step," a nd

9 7

t hri--ambos ( Sanskrit a nga-) " three-limb" ( -"step"). T riumpe, f rom t hriambos, w ould c ontain t he s ame e lements a nd w ould t herefore a lso b e t he e quivalent o f t ripudium, b oth m eaning a t hree-step d ance; o r, i n t he c ontext o f t he A rval h ymn, m artial d ance. W e w ould t herefore h ave, p ractically, a b ilingual r endering o f t he t erm: t riumpe = t ripudium. 2 9 I a lso b elieve t hat t he w ord t riumpe w as c onn ected w ith m artial m usic, w ithin t he c ontext o f t he s weeping c hange i n m ilitary o rganization w hich t he E truscans i ntroduced i nto R ome.30 I n f avor o f t his t heory i s t he w ar-like c onnotation o f b oth t he t riumph a nd o f t he C armen A ruale. T he t ext o f t he C armen A rua le, t hough u nfortunately o nly p artially u nderstandable, a pparently c onsists o f a p rayer a ddressed t o f ere M ars, " wild M ars," t he w ar-god.31 T he c limactic t riumpe, s ix t imes r epeated, a grees w ith i ts i nterpretation a s a t ripudium, o r w ar-dance, l ike t he t ripudium w hich t he S alii d anced w ith t he s hields o r a ncilia o f M ars. 32 T he n ame o f t he F ratres A ruales, t he b rotherhood w ho s ang a nd d anced t his h ymn a t t heir a nnual r ites, c omes f rom a ruom, s howing t hat t his v ery a ncient p riesthood, a nted ating t he E truscan r ule, h ad o riginally b een c onnected w ith a gricultural r ites. T he A mbarualia, a m agic p roc ession a round t he t erritory o f R ome, w as a lso i ntended t o p rotect t he f ields o f t he e arly, p re-Etruscan c ity. F or t his r eason t his r ite a lso p ropitiated M ars, t he w ar g od.3 3 S cholars t oday a gree t hat t here w as n o s trict s eparation b etween a n a gricultural a nd a w arlike f unction o f t hese p riesthoods a nd r ites; w e d o n ot, t herefore, h ave t o s uppose a c hange f rom a p eaceful a gricultural t o a w arlike f ocus, o r v ice v ersa. 34 A t t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury, u nder E truscan i nfluence, i t w as t he o uter t rappings, r ather t han t he f unction o f t he p riesthood w hich c hanged. T he r ites o f t he A rval B rothers w ere a pparently r eformed, m ore " modern" m usic a dded, a nd a m artial h ymn t o M ars a dopted, e nding w ith t he E truscan w ord t riumpe. T he t riumph, t oo, w as c hanged a t t he s ame t ime, u nder E truscan i nfluence. O riginally i t w as a p rocess ion l ike t he A mbarualia, o r a mburbium, o r l ustrum c onditum, w hen t he s acrificial a nimals a re l ed a round t he b orders t o b e p rotected. T he p rocession m arched f rom t he C ampus M artius, t hrough t he a rea o f t he C ircus M aximus a nd, c ircling t he P alatine, e ntered t he F orum a nd w ent t hrough t he V ia S acra. T he p rocession h ad a s i ts g oal n ot o nly t he l ustratio o f t he a rmy a nd o f t he c ity a t w ar, b ut a lso t he d edication o f t he s polia b y t he c ommander a s t he f ulfillment o f h is v ow. T he E truscan k ings a t t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury c hanged t he f orm o f t his r ite, t hough t hey n ever c hanged i ts b asic e lements: t he t emple o f J upiter C apitoline, b uilt a t t his t ime, b ecame t he g oal o f t he p rocession; t he d ress o f t he v ictorious c ommander w as t he k ing's o wn 9 8

r obe a nd i nsignia; a nd t he w hole p rocession w as o rgan -i zed a s a m ilitary p arade.35 B oth t he C armen A ruale a nd t he t riumph p reserve t he m emory o f t heir r eorganizat ion i n t he o riginal E truscan f orm o f t he w ord t riumpe. T he R omans, w ho a lways s eem t o h ave b een w arriors, h ad t o l earn t o b e s oldiers, a nd t hat m ilit ary o rganization w hich w as t he c ause o f t heir s uccess t hey o wed t o E truscan o rder a nd m ethod. 36 R oman t radit ion n ever a dmitted t his d ebt o utright, b ut i t g ives s trong p roofs o f i t. O ne o f t he s trongest i s t he S ervian c onstitution: P linio F raccaro s hows t hat t his h as a m ilitary b asis, a nd d ates f rom t he t ime o f t he m onarchy, b efore t he c onsuls. 37 A ccording t o R oman t radition ( Livy 1 .43), S ervius T ullius o rganized R ome i nto c enturies,38 o riginally f ighting u nits, l ater u sed t o a ssemble t he c itizens f or v oting. N ow e very a rmy m arches t o m usic. S ee P lautus, A mphitryon 1 27, a nd A ppian, P un. 8 ,66, o n t he u se o f E truscan m usicians i n t he t riumphal p rocession. V arious w ords a nd n ames c onfirm t he a ctuality o f t he E truscan m ilitary c ontribution. T he M amurrus w ho m ade t he a ncilia f or t he S alii h as a n E truscan n ame. A n E truscan " Lucumo," u nder a H ellenized n ame, L ygmon, i s s aid t o h ave b rought m ilitary o rganization t o R ome ( Propertius I V.1.29).39 L inguistic e vidence s hows t hat s everal E truscan w ords d ealing w ith m ilitary m atters w ere t aken o ver i nto L atin. I ndeed, t he o nly t wo w ords V arro g ives a s s pecifically o f E truscan o rigin a re m usical a nd m ilitary: s ubulo, a f lute p layer ( "subulo T usce t ibicen d icitur"--Festus 3 09M) a nd b alteus, a s word-belt. O ther m ilitary, t echnical t erms s eem t o b e p lentiful--Ernout l ists c lupeus ( clipeus), p luteus, b alteus, c ulleus. m alleus, c aduceus ( Etruscan m ediat ion, f rom t he G reek k arykeion), a ntemna ( nautical). T he n ames o f t he t hree t ypes o f R oman k nights l isted b y V arro, c eleres, f lexuntes, t rossuli, s eem t o b e o f E truscan d erivation. T he R omans a pparently l earned t he u se o f a m etal h elmet a nd i ts n ame f rom t he E truscans: " cassidam a utem, a T uscis n ominatam ( dicunt): i lli e nim g aleam c assim n ominant" ( Isid. O rig. 1 8.14). 4 0 T he w ords s eruos, u erna, a s w ell a s t he i nstitution o f s lavery h ave a lso b een s hown t o h ave b een t aken i nto R ome f rom E truria a s a m ark o f c ivilization, s elling p risoners o f w ar b eing a m ore c ivilized c ustom t han k illing t hem. A rchaeological e vidence b rings f urther c onfirm a tion. A b rief l ook, i n t his c ontext, i s d ue a n a ttrac t ive t heory c oncerning t he m ilitary o rigin o f t he R oman t oga. A s E meline R ichardson h as s hown, t he g arment d erives d irectly f rom t he E truscan r ounded m antle, t he t ebenna ( Polybios, 1 0.4.8), w hich f irst a ppears o n E truscan m onuments s oon a fter 5 50 B .C., a nd b ecomes t he m ost c ommon E truscan g arment b y t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury B .C.41 T he E truscans m ay h ave d eveloped t he 9 9

r ounded t ebenna f or c onvenience: a s a m ilitary g arment, i t w as t he e quivalent o f t he s hort, p inned r ectangular G reek c hlamys, w hich i s n ot f ound i n I taly. 42 I n R ome, t he t oga w as a dopted f rom t he E truscans a t t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury, a t f irst a s a m ilitary g arment; l ater a s e vidence o f c itizenship a nd r ank, s ince o nly s oldiers c ould h ave c itizens' r ights ( cf. p opulus). 4 3 L et u s t ry t o v isualize t he m oment i n h istory w hen t he w ord t riumphus, o r r ather t riumpe, c ame i nto L atin. T he a rchaeological e vidence I d eal w ith e lsew here, 44 b ut I c an b riefly s ummarize m y c onclusions h ere. T he f orm i n w hich t he t riumphal r itual w as p reserved, i n n early a ll i ts d etails a nd t opography, s hows t hat i t w as c rystallized a t t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury B .C. T he s cene i s t herefore R ome u nder t he T arquins; t he t riumph i s t hat o f t he E truscan k ing, o r t yrant, 45 o f R ome. S urrounded b y h is c heering s oldiers, t he v ictorious k ing r ides i n a c hariot a round t he P alatine a nd u p t he S acred W ay--the a ncient b oundaries o f t he c ity--and a scends t he C apitol t o t he t emple o f J upiter O ptimus M aximus, w hose d edication d ate o f 5 09 B .C. c ons titutes t he k eystone f or a ny c hronological r econstruct ion o f e arly R ome: " ...cum i mperatore m ilites r edeuntes c lamitant p er u rbem i n C apitolium e unti ' Io t riumphe!'" T he c onnection b etween t he E truscan t emple w hich w as t he g oal o f t he p rocession, a nd t he E truscan m arching o r d ancing c heer, w hich h enceforth g ave i ts n ame t o t he c elebration, i s t hus c learly s tated. T he m ore o bvious, o uter f orms o f t he t riumph f rom t hen o n w ere E truscan; b ut t he r eligious b ases o f t he t riumph, t he m eaning o f t he r itual, t he i tinerary o f t he p roc ession, a nd t he p urificatory s acrifice a t t he e nd w ere a ll m uch o lder. 46 L ike t he r itual o f t he A rval B rothers, t he t riumph w as g iven a n ew f orm b y t he E truscans a t t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury. T he h istory o f t he w ord t riump(h)us p oints t o t he s ame m oment i n t ime. T he R oman p riests w ho p erf ormed a nd e xplained t he r itual o f t he C armen A ruale i n t he s ixth c entury u nderstood t he E truscan w ord t riumpe, a pparently r eferring t o a m usical b eat, a nd t ranslated i t a s t ripudium i n t he i ntroduction t o t he h ymn. T he t erm w as p robably a lso u nderstood b y a w ell-educated m inority a s l ong a s E truscan r emained i n u se i n c ertain c ircles, d own i nto t he f ourth c entury B .C. 47 I d oubt t hat i ts o riginal m eaning h ad e ver b een u nderstood b y a ll t he c heering R oman t hrongs w ho s houted o ut T riumpe! i n t he v ictory c elebration. T hen, w hen G reek b ecame t he l anguage o f c ulture, t he E truscan w ord f ell i nto d isuse a s a t echnical t erm f or a d ance, a nd w as u sed o nly a s t he n ame o f a s pecific f estival, t he m ost s pectacular o f R oman r ituals, t he t riumph.

1 00

N OTES F rom S tud ies i n H onor o f J . A lexander K erns, e dited b y ,R .C . L ugton, M .G . S a ltzer, J anua L inguarum 4 4 ( The H ague-Par is 1 970) 1 08-120 . S ee n ow , f or a ll t he a ncient r eferences, H .S. V ersne l, T r iumphus ( Le iden 1 970 ) ( cf . t he r ev iew b y L . B onfante W arren, G nomon 4 6 [ 1974] 5 74 -583); a nd S . W einstock, D ivus I u lius ( Oxford 1 97 1). 1W . E h lers, s .v . t r iumphus, R E, s er . 2 , V II, 1 , c o ls. 5 045 05 . E . N orden, A us a ltröm ischen P r iesterbüchern ( Lund 1 939-1940) 28 . I .S . R yberg, R ites o f t he S tate R e ligion i n R oman A rt, M AAR 2 ( 1955) 2 0f . C ontra, E . W a llisch, " Name u nd H erkunft d es r öm ischen T r iumphes," P hilo logus 9 9 ( 1955) 2 45-258, w ho a rgues t hat t he t r iumph a s aw ho le--name, r itua l, a nd i nsign ia--entered R ome o n ly i n t he H e llen ist ic p er iod, t h is b e ing t he e ar liest p ossib le d ate f or t he c oncept o f d ivin izat ion. T hat t here i s n o p roof f or t he a lleged " d ivinizat ion" o f t he t r iumphator i n t he e ar ly t r iumphs i s q uite t rue; b ut b ecause s ome o f t he e lements o f t he t r iumph c an b e s hown t o b e long t o t he H e llenist ic p er iod d oes n ot m ean t hat a ll t he t r iumph m ust b e d ated t hat l ate . O n t h is s ee R .M . O gilvie, AC ommentary t o L ivy, B ooks 1 -5 ( Oxford 1 965) 2 73, 6 79 . It ry t o s ort o ut p re-Etruscan, E truscan, a nd H e llenist ic e lements i n t he R oman t r iumph i n m y a rt ic le i n J RS 6 0 ( 1970 ) 4 9-66 . O n t he c ontroversy o ver t he a lleged d iv in izat ion o f t he t r iumphator t here i s ac op ious b ib liography : s ee e specia lly W . W arde F ow ler, " Jup iter a nd t he T r iumphator ," C lassica l R ev iew 3 0 ( 19 16) 1 53f .; J .S. R eid, J RS 6 ( 1916) 17f .; L . D eubner , H ermes 6 9 ( 1934 ) 3 163 24 , a ll o f w hom r ightly , i n m y o pinion, d eny t he t emporary d eific ation o f t he t riumphator. S . M azzarino, D a lla m onarchia a lbo s tato r epubb licano ( Catania 1 945) 2 9, a nd G . D umdzil, L a r eligion r omaine a rchaique ( Paris 1 966 ) 2 86 , a ccept t his t heory . S ee a lso D ume zil, A rchaic R oman R e lig ion ( Chicago 1 970 ) 2 88 ; L a r e ligion r omaine a rchalque ( second e d . 1 974) 2 96 . 2A . E rnout, B u llet in d e l a S oc i6t6 d e L inguist ique 3 0 ( 1930) 8 2ff ., h as s et t he e xamp le a nd l aid t he b ases f or s uch s tudies i n h is w ork o n E truscan e lements i n L at in; f or a ssistance w ith l inguist ic r eferences, I t hank m y f ather , G iu liano B onfante . R oman a dopt ion o f E truscan l anguage a nd d ress t e lls u s a g ood d ea l a bout t he r elationship b etween t he t wo c ultures. W hile t he R omans t ook o ver t he d ress o f t he E truscans, t hey d id n ot a dopt t heir l anguage , b ut o nly c erta in c ultured w ords ( including l itterae, t he v ery w ord f or l iteracy ). R oman l iteracy b egins w ith t he E truscans. V arious s cho lars--see L eumann-Hofmann, L ate inische G rammat ik ( Munich 1 928) 4 4 , w ith r efs.; H ammarström , S ommer--be lieve t he L at ins a dopted t he G reek a lphabet b y w ay o f E truscan. C ontra , M . G uarducci, E pigrafia G reca ( Rome 1 967 ) 2 19: a ccording t o t he a uthor t he L atin a lphabet c omes d irectly f rom

1 0 1

C umae, b ut s hows E truscan i nfluence. T he u se o f t he t hird l etter-L atin C f or G reek r -as a v oiceless s top , w hen t he G reek i s v oice d, i s c ert ainly E truscan. Y et e ven E rnout, w ho b elieves t he a lphabet c ame b y w ay o f E truscan a nd i n g enera l h o lds E truscan i nfluence o n t he v ocabulary t o h ave b een c onsiderable , p oints o ut t he a bsence o f a ny i nfluence o f E truscan l iterature , w ith t he e xception o f af ew w ords l ike c amenae , h istrio , p ersona , a nd w ords c onnected w ith p opular f arce. E vidently t he R omans w ere j ust b eginning t o l earn h ow t o r ead u nder t he E truscans ; b y t he t ime t hey l earned, i t w as a ll G reek. 3R .E .A . P almer, R oman R e lig ion a nd R oman E mpire ( Ph ilade lph ia 1 974). E . N orden, A us A ltröm ischen P riesterbCchern 1 07f ., e sp . 2 36ff ., t ext . M . N ac inov ich, C armen A rva le ( Rome 1 933). T he t ext i s p reserved i n a n i nscr ipt ion o f 2 18 A .D . ( C IL, 12 , 2 , 2 ) f ound i n R ome; i nc luded, e .g., i n V . P isan i, T esti l at in i a rcaici e v o lgar i ( Tur in 1 960 2 ) 2 . F or t he t hree-fo ld r epetit ion i n r e lat ion t o t he t hree-step t r ipudium , s ee A . R ostagni, S tor ia d e lla l etteratura l at ina ( Tur in 1 964) I , 3 0 .

4C f . H orace, E podes 9 .2 1,23 . F or t he m ag ica l r epet it ion o f t he w ord, i n t he t riumph a s w ell a s i n t he C armen F ratrum A rualium , s ee t he d iscussion b y L . B ernardini, S tudi c lassici e d o rienta li, P isa 5 ( 1955-1956 ) 8 4, w ho q uotes A ppel, D e R omanorum p recationibus ( G iessen 1 909) 2 12 . C f . V arro, R R, i nstructions p receding a m agic s ong : " Haec t er n ouiens c antare i ubet"; O vid, F ast i, 4 .778 : " Haec t u c onuersus a d o rtus/dic q uater," e tc . N orden, A us A ltröm ischen P r iesterbüchern 2 33, o n t he h out r epeated t w ice, " uerba g em inata"; c f . A r istophanes, A charnians 2 7 1: P hales, P hales e tc . 5T riumphare, V arro, C icero , V ergil, e tc. T riumphator ( post-class.), A puleius, i nscriptions, M inucius F elix. T riumpha lis ( also w ith t he m eaning o f t he l ater t r iumphator, o ne w ho h as h ad t he h onors o f at r iumph ), S uetonius, C icero, H orace, L ivy . A . E rnout, A . M e illet, D ict ionna ire e tymo logique d e l a l angue l at ine ( fourth e d . P ar is 1 967) s .v . t r iumpe . AW a lde, J .B . H ofmann, L ate inisches e tymologisches W örterbuch ( He idelberg 1 9385 9 ) s .v. t riumphus, w ith b ibliography . 6V arro,

L 6 .68.

7T he a spirate c ame p erhaps f rom t he G reek b y " hyperh ellenization." M . N iedermann, H istorische L autlehre d es L ateinischen ( He idelberg 1 953 3 ) 9 4-95 . O n t he c ontrary , P . K retschmer, S prache, i n G ercke-Norden, E inle itung i n d ie A ltertumsw issenschaft ( Le ipzig 1 927 3 ) 12, g ives b oth t he c hange f rom A t o pa nd t he a spirate a s p roofs o f t he E truscan d erivation o f t riUMphus ; t hough t he a spirate c ould b e as ign o f E truscan i nf luence, i t p robably b e longs t o al ater p eriod, a nd c oncerns a d ifferent p hase o f E truscan i nfluence f rom t he o ne w e a re d ea l kg w ith i n t his p aper.

8C f. Q uintilian, I nst. 1 .5.20. W a lde Hofmann, s .v. t r iumpe : " rom . * trumpare." E rnout-Me illet. T romper c omes f rom t he p opular p ronunciation, w hich n ever a dopted t he G reek a spirate : c f. G r . k ö laphos, I t . c olpo , F r. c oup, S p. g olpe . F . S ommer, G riechische

1 02

L autstudien ( Strassburg 1 905) 1 54 , n . 2 . G . B onfante, " La l ingua d elle a tellane e d ei m im i," M aia , N .S., f asc. 1 , 1 9 ( Jan.-Mar. 1 967) 1 6 ( page o f t he o ffprint ). S ee V . V ä nanen, L e L atin v ulga ire d es i nscriptions p ompg iennes, A bhandlungen d er d eutschen A kademie d er W issenschaften z u B erlin ( 19663) 5: " Le l atin n 'avait p as d 'occlus . ives a spir es d u t ype 8,56 , ) ( [ th, p h, c h] d u g rec; l es a spirees g recques g taient r endues s ommairement p ar t , p , cd ans l e l atin a rchaique e t p opulaire ." C f. W . M eyer Lübke , R omanische G rammatik I , 6 1.289; a nd 1 .32. 9I f

t he i ntensive a ccent o perated, a s n ow s eems c erta in, f rom c a . 5 00-300 B .C., t he C armen A ruale i s t o b e d ated e arlier t han 5 00 B .C . G . B onfante, M .L. P orzio G ernia, C enni d i f onetica d i f onematica ( Torino 1 964 ) 3 8 . T he n ew i nscription o f L avinium ( sixth-fifth c entury B .C.), w hich h as P odlouquei f rom G reek P o ludeukei w ith s yncope, s eems t o s how t hat t he i ntensive L at in a ccent i s o lder ( end o f t he s ixth c entury?) t han w as u sually b elieved ( "frühestens g egen E nde d es 5 . J ahrh." A ltheim, G eschichte d er l ateinischen S prache 1 951, 3 02); c f. G . B onfante, A rch.glott.it. 5 0 ( 1965) 1 85 ; 5 1 ( 1966) 2 4, n . 4 4 . P isani, T esti... 1, A 6 t er. T he l apis n iger o f t he R oman F orum s till h as i ouestod, i ouesat w ithout s yncope ( sixth c entury B .C.). 1° Livy, 1 .20. A . d e S e lincourt, i n h is t ranslation ( Books 1 -5, T he E arly H istory o f R ome, P enguin C lassics, 1 960) r enders t he w ord a s " the t riple b eat o f t heir r itua l d ance," t hus p res erving t he t echnica l m usica l s ignificance. C f. C atullus, 6 3.26; C icero, D e d iv. 2 .72. E rnout-Meillet, W alde Hofmann, s .v.tripudium . T ext f or t he C armen S aliare, a nd b ibliography , P isani, T esti... 3 6. T he s ame a ction o f t ripodare i s f requently m entioned i n t he I guvinian T ables ( the w ord i s a htrepuratu, a trepuratu, a hatripursat u , a tripursatu, a tropusatu). T his p roves b oth t he a ntiquity a nd t he g reat e xtension o f t his c ustom i n a ncient I taly . S ee e .g. C .D.Buck, E lementarbuch d er o skisch-umbrischen D ialekte ( Germ .tr., H eidelberg 1 905), i ndex s .v. a hatripursatu, 2 08. G . D evoto, L e T avole d i G ubbio ( Italian t ranslation o f t he T ables, F lorence 1 948 ) x , 3 6, 4 0, 5 0, 6 2, 8 4 , e tc., a nd h is g reat e dition o f t he T abulae I guvinae ( Rome 1 962 3 ) i ndex s .v. a hatripursatu. 1 L iddell-Scott, A G reek-English L exicon, s .v. t hriambos. C f . i nfra, n ote 2 4 , a nd t ext. S . F erri, " Metodo a rcheologico e C armen F ratrum A rva lium ," S tudi C lassici e O rientali ( P isa ) 5 ( 1955-6) 8 7f., 1 02; a nd " Il C armen F ratrum A rvalium e i l m etodo a rcheologico," L atomus 1 3 ( 1954 ) 3 90f., r ejects t he d erivation o f t riumphus f rom t hriambos. Q uo , o uare ( Eng. o vation) f rom G reek e uoi, e xc lamat ion u sed i n t he c ult o f D ionysos ( e .g. A r istophanes, A ch. 1 294). H ere, t oo, t he w ord d er ived f rom t he s hout e ither b y w ay o f E truscan--like t riumphus--or d irectly f rom t he G reek; i n a ny c ase a t av ery e arly p eriod, i n t he s ixth c entury B .C., b efore e u b ecame o u i n L atin ( cf. P odlouquei, s upra, n ote 9 ). L eumannH offmann, L at.Gr. 3 8 ; W alde Hofmann a nd E rnout-Meillet, s .v. o uo . F estus 2 13.7 : " ouantes, l aetantes a b e o c lamore q uem f aciunt r edeuntes e x p ugna u ictores m ilites, g em inata 0 l ittera." C f. t he i mportant d iscussion i n P lutarch, M arcellus 2 2.

1 03

1 2 E truscan m ediation, K retschmer ,Sprache 12 . N orden, A us A ltröm ischen P riesterböchern 28 ( Campanian E truscans). G . D evoto, S toria d ella l ingua d i R oma ( Bo logna 1 944) 9 0, 9 1. P . D e F rancisci, " Intorno a ll'origine e trusca d el c oncetto d i i mperium ," S t E tr 2 4 ( 1955-6) 3 4f.

1 3

S upra , n otes 7 , 8.

1 4 T he t erm inus p ost q uer n , n on w ould b e c a .300 B .C., a fter w hich t he i nitial s tress w as n o l onger i n e ffect. S upra , n ote 9 .

1 5 T his f act, a mong o thers, s peaks a ga inst t he t heory o f E . W a llisch ( supra , n . 1 ).

1 6 E va F iese l, N amen d es g riechischen ethos i m E truskischen ( Göttingen 1 928) 6 3f .; 8 5 , q uoted i n W a lde Hofmann, s .v. t riumphus. S he g ives a s e xamples P riumne f rom G reek P riamos, A rtumes f rom G reek A rtam is. M . P a llottino , T estimonia L inguae E truscae ( Florence 1 954) n o. 7 83, P riumne . O f c ourse i t i s t heoretica lly p ossible t o a ttribute t he c hange o f at o ut o t he L atin r ather t han t o t he E truscan s tress a ccent ( cf . L i t. t aberna ; c ontubernium : s ee P isani, G ramm .Lat. 3 ( Turin 1 962) 2 7f. N o . 4 2; a nd c f . e x-imo , a d-imo , f rom emo ); b ut t he c hange S > p , t he e nding e o f t riumpe a nd t he s emantic a nd h istorica l a rguments p resented i n t he t ext d efinite ly p oint t o E truscan f or t he c hange a> u . T his c hange a ppears i n t he " long" E truscan i nscription f rom T yr4T , w here w e r ead v eliiunas ( velianas i n t he " short" i nscription); t he d ate o f b oth i s a bout t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury B .C., s o t hat t hriambos s hould h ave e ntered i nto E truscan b efore t hat d ate . S ee M . P a llottino, S cavi n el s antuario e trusco d i P yrgi ( Rome 1 964 ) 8 1.

1 7 F err i, S tudi c lassici e d o rienta li 1 03 ( of t he A rva l h ymn): " con u n i mperativo, n on u n v ocativo c ome i n O razio C armen 4 .2 .49" ( supra, t ext ).

1 8 N orden, P riesterbücher 2 28 . K . M aröt, K ultus u nd M ythos ( Budapest 1 937) 2 50f ., g ives a p sychological e xplanation o f s uch a d evelopment. L . D eubner, A ttische F este ( Berlin 1 932 ) 7 3, a ctua lly s ays t hat t he g ods I akchos a nd H ymena ios d eveloped f rom t he s houts " Iakche" a nd " Hymenaie ." T he g od I akchos, w hose i mage w as t aken d uring t he E leusinian p rocession f rom t he t emple i n A thens, w as n othing b ut a p ersonif ication o f t he I akche-shout. I n t he c ase o f t r iumphus, w e h ave a n e xample o f as hout d eveloping i nto a w ord; w ith I akchos a nd H ymenaios, t he s houts d evelop i nto g ods ! 1 9 A s ag lance a t i nscr ipt ions s hows, e i s an ormal e nd ing f or E truscan o f p roper n ames i n t he m ascu line -s ingular n om inat ive . O n E truscan m irrors, f or e xamp le, w e s ee m any a H ercu le f rom G reek H erak les a nd P atruc le f rom G reek P atrok los; e lsewhere, M arce f rom M arcus a nd m any o ther n ames . C . d e S imone, D ie G r iech ische E nt lehnungen i m E truskischen 1 ( W iesbaden 1 968) s .v. P isani, S tor ia d e lla l ingua l at ina ( Tur in 1 962) 1 55f . C f . P isani, L e l ingue d e ll ' Ita lia a nt ica o ltre i l l at ino ( Tur in 1 953 ) 2 95 .

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S ee M . P a llottino, E lementi d i l ingua e trusca ( Florence 1 936) 3 4f ., f or n om inative e ndings; i ndex f or p roper n ames. F or t his e nding i n e s ee E va F iesel, 9 4ff .; A lessio ( unpublished l etter) t hinks t hese- f orms a re f ossil L atin ( perhaps, r ather U mbrian) v ocatives; c f. F r. u n m onsieur. 2 0 T he f orm o f t he w ord h as t he a ppearance o f a n i mperative , " march !" a nd w as p erhaps i nterpreted a s s uch ; b ut t here i s n o w ord * triumphere, t o g ive s uch a n i mperative f orm . N o w onder t he l ectio . f acilior, t riumphi, f ound i n t wo m anuscripts, w as a dopted b y L eo : o ne c an t hen t ranslate c antharum t riumphi q uite e asily " the t ankard o f v ictory ." M ss. C , Do m it t he l ine e ntirely . L eo a ccepts t he r eading o f B T a nd t akes i t t o m odify u ia " quasi t riumphali." E rnout ( Belles L ettres 1 962 3 ) : " triumphi e x v oce c antharum p endere r ectius c enseas"; b ut h e a ccepts t he r eading t riumphe o f t he A mbrosidnus, t he b est m s., a nd t ranslates " Triomphe ! E n a vant, p ar i ci, d roit a ux c ruches." P . N ixon ( Loeb e d., L ondon 1 951) a ccepts t riumphi: " Forward m arch! S traight f or t he t ankard o f v ictory ." N orden i nstead ( Priesterbbcher 2 28) r ecognizes, w ith G oetz a nd L indsay , t he c orrectness o f t riumphe, w hich e choes t he s hout o f t he t riumpha l p rocession, n ot y et f itted i nto L atin g rammar w ith a n orma l d eclension. T he t echnica l, m ilitary c ontext i s e choed f rom 1 . 1049, " quin h inc m etimur g radibus m ilitaris?" t ranslated b y N ixon, " Why d on 't w e s tep i t o ut o f h ere, d ouble t ime?"

2 1 A .J. V an W indekens, " Grec t hriambos e t L atin t riumphus," O rbis 1 953, 4 89f., c a lls t his n on-Greek l anguage " Pelasgian."

C f. D oric W ikati, w ith W i; b ut v arious o ther l anguages, e .g. S anskrit, v imsati-h w ith i l ike i ambos. W . B randenstein, " iambos, t hriambos, d ithyrambos," I ndogermanische F orschungen 5 3 ( 1936) 3 4-38 . B ib liography i n W alde Hofmann, s .v . 2

2 3 F or d ithyra t ettara c f. S anskrit a tur-, G r. T yrtaios. S ommer, G riechische L autstudien 5 9f. H . P eterson, " Die a ltind ischen W örter a uf a mba," I ndogermanische F orschungen 3 4 ( 1914-1915) 2 36-37 . T he c onnection o f t he e lement ambos i n i -ambos; t hri-ambos e tc. w ith S anskrit a nga- " limb," " member," w hich i s s emantically a ttractive, c ould b e a ccepted w ithout a ny d ifficulty e arlier i n t his c entury , w hen t he w ords w ere c onsidered t o b e G reek ( the t h o f t hriambos i s, h owever, i mpossible t o e xplain f rom G reek, a nd d ithor- f rom t essar- e ven w orse). I f w e a dm it t hese w ords t o b e I E, b ut n ot G reek, w e h ave t o a dm it f or t his I E p re-Greek l anguage t he s ame c hange * gw t o / 9 ( anga- a mbos) a s i n G reek, w hich i s n ot q uite o bvious, a nd c ertainly n ot p roven.

2 4 J .B. H ofmann, E tymologisches W örterbuch d es G riechischen ( Munich 1 966 ; o rig. e d. 1 950) s .v. t hriambos; c f. H . F risk, G riechisches E tymologisches W örterbuch ( Heidelberg 1 960); f or r eferences, S tephanus-Hase-Dindorf ( 1895 ). D . P age, P oetae M elici G raeci ( Oxford 1 962) 3 67, r eads P ratinas 1 5 a s t hriambe d ithyrambe. S ee n ow J . P uhvel, G lotta 3 4 ( 1955) 3 7-42; D . A . H ester, L ingua 1 3 ( 1965) 3 35-384 . S upra, n . 2 1.

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2 5 T he E truscans w ere i n c ontact w ith D elphi a nd O lympia. C aeretan t reasury a t D elphi, H .H. S cullard, T he E truscan C ities a nd R ome ( Cornell U niversity P ress 1 967) 1 84f . P ausanias 5 .12.5 n ames t he E truscan k ing A rimnestus, w ho d edicated a t hrone a t O lympia , a s t he f irst n on-Greek t o b ring a g ift t o O lympian Z eus.

2 6 A . S onny , " Zu T riumphus," A rchiv f ür L ateinische L exicog raphie u nd G rammatik 8 ( 1893) 1 32, s upposed t he e xistence o f a h ypothetica l s hout, * triomphos, c orresponding t o o ur o wn " Three c heers!" T his, h e s uggests, w as t aken o ver b y t he R omans f rom S icily , w hose n obles c ompeted a t O lympia a nd o ther s anctuaries, a nd w hose v ictors w ere c elebrated b y S imonides, P indar, a nd B acchy lides. T he a uthor o ffers t his a s a n e xplanation f or t he e tymology t riumphus- * triomphos ( sc. p ompe o r k 5mos) s uggested b y J .M. S towasser, D unkle W örter ( V ienna 1 890) I .xii. Aw eakness o f t he t heory i s t hat i t t akes o nly t he p rocessional, v ictory t riumph i nto a ccount. O f c ourse, t he t riumpe o f t he C armen A ruale c ould d erive f rom t he " Io t riumpe" o f t he t riumph ; b ut t he d ates s eem t o b e c ontemporary . Af urther l inguistic a rgument a gainst S onny 's e tymology i s t hat n o * tri-omphos i s a ttested i n a ny G reek t ext. F or t he c heer, c f . t he v ictory c ry , t enella k allinike, i nvented b y A rchilochus ( fr. 19; t he f irst w ord i mitates t he s ound o f a n i nstrument, a nd h as n o m eaning, a s " Hurrah" h as n o m eaning f or u s t oday , o r a s t riumpe h ad n o m eaning i n R ome ) a nd a dopted f or a thletic v ictors, g reeted w ith t his c heer e ver a fter, e .g., A ristophanes, A ch. 1 227.

2 7 S trabo, 5 .200. R efs. i n K .O. M uller, W . D eecke, D ie E trusker I, 1 96f .; R .A.L. F ell, E truria a nd R ome ( Cambridge 1 924 ) 7 6 ; P allottino, E truscologia 2 75f.; G . F leischhauer, E trurien u nd R om . M usikgeschichte i n B ildern, V ol. 5 , f asc. 5 ( Leipzig 1 964 ). I t i s p erhaps u seful t o r eca ll t hat t he L atin w ord h ister ( from w hich d erives h istrio ) c ame f rom E truscan, a s a ttested b y L ivy , V alerius M aximus, P lutarch ( Wa lde Hofmann, s .v. h istrio ). T his w as p robably t rue o f p ersona , t oo, a s w ell a s o ther w ords h aving t o d o w ith m usic a nd t he s tage ( Ernout, B SL 3 0 ( 1930) 8 2ff . ). C f. s upra, n ote 2 . 2 8

C lassical Q uarter ly 5 5 ( 1961) 2 14f .

2 9 F erri, S tudi c lassici e d o rientali 5 ( 1955-56) 1 03; h e a ssumes, h owever, t hat t he t ripudium w as t he o riginal t erm , e ven t hough n o t race o f t his w ord c an b e f ound a t s uch a n e arly d ate : " evidentemente i n o rigine i l t rionfo s i c hiamava t ripudium, m a i l t erm ine e ra g iä i n d isuso , o , p er l o m eno, n on c ompare g ia p iü n ei F asti T rionfali." F or t ripudium-thriambos, s ee s upra , n n. 1, 2 2, 2 3; S ommer , G riechische L autstudien 5 8-59 ; B randenstein, I ndog ermanische F orschungen 5 3 ( 1936) 3 4 .

D e F rancisci, S tEtr 2 4 ( 1955-56) 2 7, n . 3 7 : " che s otto g li E truschi s ono s tati p erfezionati g li o rdinamenti m ilitari... e u n p unto c he m i s embra s icuro, a nche s e s i p ub d iscutere s u t a luni p articolari. G li o rdinamenti e trusco-romani s tanno i nfatti i n r elazione c on l a t attica o plitica e q uesta , a ttinta a m ode lli 3 0

1 06

g reci, e s tata c ertamenta i ntrodotta i n R oma d agli E truschi a i f ini d e ll'espansione n e ] L azio e n e lla C ampania ." 3 1 F or t he i nterpretation o f t he C armen A rua le a s aw ar-song t o a ccompany a w ar-dance o r t ripudium , R . M eringer, " Enos L ases I uvate," W örter u nd S achen 7 ( 1921) 3-49 . C ontra , r eview b y A . N ehring, G lotta 1 3 ( 1924 ) 3 02-304 . M uch o f t he w eight o f s uch a n i nterpretation r ests o n t he m eaning o f f ere M ars. I n s pite o f t he g enera lly a ccepted w ar like c haracter o f M ars ( emphasized b y G . D ume zil, J upiter M ars Q uirinus I V [ Paris 1 948] 1 69), t here h ave b een a ttempts t o e xpla in M ars a s a n a gr icultura l d ivinity ; e .g ., N ehr ing , " ferus=fruchtbar"! F . M entz, " Zum C armen A rvale," Z eits chrift f ür v ergleichende S prachforschung 7 0 ( 1952) 2 21f . N acinovich, C armen A rva le , s ummarizes t he d iscussion d own t o h is t ime, s how ing i n c onclusion ( 29) h ow t he o rigina l p rotective s pirit, f ormerly c a lled u pon t o h elp i n t he f ields, w as l ater c a lled u pon b y t he R oman c itizens t o p rotect t heir a rmy . S ee n ow R .E.A. P a lmer, R oman R e ligion a nd R oman E mpire ( Philade lph ia 1 974 ) 9 2-93, 15, 1 83-184 ; a nd p ersona l l etter, F eb. 1 980. T he a uthor b e lieves t hat t he t hreefo ld r epetitions s igna l t he l oss o f as ixth t riumpe : c f. N orden ,Priesterbücher 2 28 , 2 32-233.

3 2 S .v . S a lii, R E, s er . 2 , I , 2c o ls. 1 874-1899 . O gilvie, C ommentary t o L ivy 1 .20 .3 : " We m ay i nfer t hat t he o r igina l S alian r itua l w as a potropa ic a nd o f v ery g reat a nt iquity, b ut t hat i t w as c onverted t o am ilitary p urpose, p resumab ly u nder E truscan s ystemat izat ion." C f . s upra, n . 1 0 . 3 3 E rnout-Me illet, W a lde Hofmann, s .v. A rvales, A mbarva lia . J . M arouzeau, " Le l atin, l angue d es p aysans," M e langes V endryes ( Paris 1 925) 2 51-264 ; a nd n otes b y G . B onfante, R EL 1 2 ( 1934 ) 1 57f; 1 3 ( 1935) 4 4f . F or t he A mbarua lia , r ecent d iscug ibn a nd p revious b ib liography i n A lfö ldi, E ar ly R ome a nd t he L atins 2 96f.; G . W issowa , R eligion u nd K ultus d er R ömer ( Munich 1 912 2 ) 1 42f., 5 6 1f.; K . L atte, R öm ische R eligionsgeschichte ( Munich 1 960) 4 1f. C f. A mburbium .

3 4 0 f . s upra, n n. 3 0 , 3 1. B ib liography f or t he R oman a rmy, D e F rancisci, S tEtr 2 4 ( 1955-56) 3 0 , 5 7 . Ac hange o f f unct ions i s s uggested b y M er inger, W örter u nd S achen 7 ( 192 1) 3 3-49, w ho t hinks t he w ar like c haracter o f t he p r iesthood p receded i ts l ater p eacefu l f unctions, w hen R ome n o l onger n eeded t o m ake w ar o n i ts n eighbors e very s pring. H is t heory , i t s eems t o m e, r everses t he s ituation. T he n ame, A rua les, i s v ery a ncient a nd c learly f its t he e arliest h abits o f t he R oman p eop le, s o w ell a ttested b y t heir l anguage.

3 5 I n e ffect, t he c hurch a nd t he a rmy . D umg zil, R eligion r omaine a rchaique ( Par is 1 966) 2 29f . ( a w ar-like M ars a s p rotector o f t he f ields : A mbarua lia ),241 ( "unitefondamenta le d e l a f onction d u M ars r oma in e st 6 tablie"), 2 85 ( route o f t he t riumph). G . C harles-Picard, L es t rophies r oma ins ( Paris 1 957) 17, 1 25 ( Mars r eceives s polia o pima a nd t rophies), 4 27 ( relationship o f r ite o f c arry ing t rophies o n f ercula a nd d edication o f s po lia o pima ).

1 07

3 6 A s V egetius s ays a t t he b eginning o f h is M ilitary I nstitut ions, " ... N ulla e nim a lia r e u idemus p opulum R omanum o rbem s ubegisse t errarum n isi a rmorum e xercitio, d isciplina c astrorum , u suque m ilitiae." W hat h e c alls t he i us a rmorum , o rganization o f t roops, t hey l earned f rom t he E truscans; t he f irst r ea l a rmy o f R ome w as t he c reation o f l ater k ings. F lavius V egetius, D e r e m ilitari I .1. F ell, E truria a nd R ome 7 3f. E . M cCartney , " The m ilitary i ndebtedness o f e ar ly R ome t o E truria ," M AAR 1 ( 197 1) 1 2 1f.

F raccaro, O puscu la ( Pav ia 1 956) 6 6; i nfra, n ote 4 6 . A . M om igliano, " Interim R eport o n t he O rigins o f R ome," J RS 5 3 ( 1963) 9 5f. 3 7

3 8 S ervius T ullius w as E truscan : f or h is n ame s ee E . B enveniste, " Le n om d e l 'esclave e n l atin," R EL 1 0 ( 1932) 4 29f., a nd e sp. 4 36 ; a lso W a lde Hofmann, s .v. T he E truscans, t hen a m ore a dvanced c ivilization, a pparently b rought i n t he w ord a nd t he c onc ept o f s lavery . T he I ndo-Europeans ( and t herefore p robably t he e arly . Latins) d id n ot h ave s laves, a s i t s eems, b eing i n w hat c an b e c a lled a b arbaric a nd p erhaps h a lf-nomadic s tage o f c ulture : c erta inly n o I E w ord f or s lave c an b e r econstructed; e very I E l anguage h as a d ifferent w ord ( Lat. s eruos ; G r. d oulos; O ld C hurch S lavic, r abu; S anskrit , d äsä-, e tc .). F or t he E mperor C laudius ' i ndentification o f S ervius T ullius w ith t he E truscan M astarna , s ee J . H eurgon, " L 'etat e trusque," H istoria 2 ( 1957) 6 8f. M . P a llottino, r eview o f S . M azzarino , D a lla m onarchia a lb os tato r epublicano ( Catania 1 945), S tEtr 2 0 ( 1947) 3 22 ; A . M om ig liano , L 'opera d e ll'imperatore C lau7 iT ET(Florence 1 932; t ransl. n ew e d . N Y 1 961) 3 2f . 3 9 M amurrius ( Mamurra ) i s a n E truscan n ame. N ehring , G lotta 1 3 ( 1924 ) 3 04 . L ivy 1 .20.3 a nd 4 , a nd c ommentary i n O gilvie , C ommentary t o L ivy , s .v. P rop. 4 .2 .6 1, e t a l., W . S chulze, Z ur G eschichte d er l ateinischen E igennamen ( Abh . d 7 G es. d . W iss., G öttingen, N .F. v . 2 , 1 904 ) 2 28, 3 60 . P ropertius 4 .2.49f .: " ... e t t u, R oma , m eis t ribuisti p raem ia T uscis, ( unc le h odie V icus n om ina T uscus h abet ) t empore q uo s ociis u enit L ycomedius a rm is a tque S ab ina f eri c ontudit a rma T ati."

C f. F estus, 1 07L, " Lucomedi a d uce s uo L ucomo d icti q ui p ostea L ucereses s unt a ppellati." C f . P rop. 4 .1.29, L ycmon ( Lygmon). D umelil, J upiter M ars Q uirinus I V, 16 : L ucumo = L ygmon L ycomedius, w ith e arlier r efs.; a nd c f . F e ll, E truria a nd R ome 4 3f . C f . i nfra, n ote 4 5 . °M ilitary t erms, E rnout, B SL 3 0 ( 1930) 8 2f ., e sp. 1 04f ., 13, 17 ; h e l ists a lso g a lea , g a lerus ( leather h elmet ), n ot a ccepted b y W a lde Hofmann. F or t he m eta l h e lmet, F e ll, E truria a nd R ome 2 4 . T ebenna: P o lybios i s t he f irst t o u se t he w ord, w hich h e p robab ly l earned d uring h is l ong s tay i n I taly . P olybios a nd D ionysios o f H a licarnassus, 2 .70 ; 3 .61, e tc., u se t he w ord a s at ranslation o f t oga .

1 08

4 1 E .H. R ichardson, " The E truscan O rigin o f E arly R oman S culpture ," M AAR 2 1 ( 1953) 10f . H eurgon, V ie q uotidienne 2 19.

4 2 E ric B aade , l etter o f J une 2 1, 1 967 : " The A thenians s o lved t he p roblem b y c utting o ff a ll t his e xtra c loth ; b ut s ince w ithout t he w eight o f c loth c rossing o n t he s houlder t he g arment w ouldn 't s tay o n, a b rooch h ad t o b e u sed. T his g ives u s t he c hlamys [ ...], t he t oga a ppears a mong t he E truscans i n t he s ame s ort o f c ontext a s t he c hlamys a mong t he A thenians; s o w e c an p erhaps a ssume t hat i t ' represents t he E truscan s o lution o f t he s ame p roblem . T hey p res erve t he l ength o f t he h imation, s o t hat i t w ill s tay o n, b ut n arrow t he w idth t o ap o int a t e ach e nd t o r elieve t he l eft a rm o f a ll t hose h amper ing f o lds." B onfante W arren, " Roman C ostumes," 5 90-59 1; E truscan D ress 4 8-50, 5. S ee i ntroduct ion n . 1 5 .

4 3 A . A lfö ld i, D er f röhröm ische R eiteradel u nd s eine E hrena bzeichen ( Baden-Baden 1 952 ; s econd e d. 1 979) 3 6f. A lföldi c ompares t he g arment t o t he l ater g enera l's p a ludamentum , w hich h e s ays i s al onger v ersion ( 37). B ut t he p a ludamentum i s n ot r ounded l ike t he t rabea o r t oga ; a nd i t i s s horter t han t he t oga . T he ( short ) p a ludam9ntum w as p erhaps a dopted w hen t he t oga g rew t oo l ong t o b e p ractica l. for t he a rmy . T he k nights w ent i nto b attle w earing n othing b ut t he s hort r ounded t oga c a lled t he t rabea, a nd t he p erizoma ( Polybios 6 .25.3.-11). P opulus, o bviously c onnected w ith p opulor, m eant o rig ina lly " the p eop le u nder a rms," " the a rmy " ( "Kriegsvo lk," W a lde Hofmann, s .v. p opulor ); i t i s a lso a n E truscan w ord a ccording t o v arious s cho lars ( Kretschmer, D evoto , K rahe, A ltheim , T erracini, E rnout, W a lde Hofmann s .v.); c f. E tr . p uplu = P opulonia ; p ublicus c omes f rom p op licus ( attested i n a rcha ic i nscriptions) b y c rossing w ith L atin p ubes.

4 4

J RS 6 0 ( 1970) 4 9-66 .

4 5 R ecent s tudies h ave e mphasized t he d ifficulty o f c lassif y ing E truscan t it les. H eurgon, " L 'gtat g trusque," H istoria 2 ( 1957 ) 6 8f ., 7 4f . B ibliography i n P a llottino , E truscans 1 33-134 . L ucumo , a n E truscan t itle ( Serv ius a d A en. 2 .178 : " lucumones q ui s unt r eges l ingua T uscorum "; c f . P a llottino 4 23) i s p reserved i n R oman t radit ion a s ap roper n ame f or T arquin. L atin r ex : E . B enveniste, L e v ocabula ire d es i nstitutions I ndo-europe ennes ( Paris 1 969) I, P ouvo ir, d ro it, r eligion 9 -15.

P re-Etruscan b asis f or t he t riumph, c f . s upra, n otes 3 1, 3 3. D e F rancisci, S tEtr 2 4 ( 1955-56 ) 3 1f . E xpiation o f b lood g uilt, H . W agenvoort, R oman D ynam ism ( Oxford 1 947) 1 63f., a nd E . K ornemann, " Heilige S t Mte," D ie A ntike 7 ( 1932 ) 1 90f. O gilvie, C ommentary t o L ivy s .v. f or t he u otum . A lfö ldi, E arly R ome a nd t he L at ins, d ea ls w ith o ther e arly , p re-Etruscan r ites i n h is c hapter, " Topographica l a nd A rchaeo logica l R ealities," 2 96f. T emple o f J upiter C apitoline : M om igliano, J RS ( 1963) 9 5f ; a nd r eview o f H . M öller-Karpe, Z ur S tadtwerdung R oms ( Heidelberg 1 963) 4 6

1 09

a nd o ther b ooks o n e ar ly R ome, i n R iv ista S tor ica I taliana 7 5 ( 1963) 8 82f . P . F raccaro, " Arcana I mper ii," s peech r ead a t t he C irco lo F ilo logico, M ilan, 1 93 1, p ub lished i n O puscula ( Pav ia 1 956) 6 5; a nd " La s tor ia r omana a rcaica," R end . I st . L ombardo d i S c ienze eL ettere 8 5 ( 1952) 9 8 , a lso i n g puscu la, 9 . 4 7 L ivy 9 .36 . T he l anguage w as s till s tudied b y t he r u ling a ristocracy i n R ome i n t he f ourth c entury ( 308 B .C!). J . B ayet, " Etrusques e t I taliques; p osition d e q uelques p rob lemes," S tEtr 2 4 ( 1955-6 ) 1 4. A . M om igliano, " L 'ascesa d ella p lebe n ella s toria a rcaica d i R oma," R iv ista S tor ica I ta liana 7 9 ( 1967) 2 97-3 12 . G . B onfante, " Le o r ig in i d e lla R epubb lica a R oma," S tud ii i n o nore d i G . G rosso 4 ( Tur in 1 97 1) 4 67-484 .

10

C hapter T HE

L ANGUAGES

O F

T HE

6 S ITULA

P EOPLE

T he a rea o f s o-called " situla a rt" i s o ne i n w hich a v ariety o f l anguages w ere s poken i n a ntiquity. T hese l anguages d isappeared w hen L atin b ecame t he u niversal l anguage; f ollowing i s a b rief s urvey o f w hat i s k nown a bout t hem t oday. R haetic T his w as t he l anguage s poken i n t he I talian A lps, i n a w edge-shaped a rea b etween t he V enetics peaking a rea ( to t he e ast a nd s outh) a nd L epontic ( to t he s outh a nd w est, i ncluding t he V al C amonica). I nscriptions h ave b een f ound f rom t he n orthern T yrol t o t he v alleys o f t he D olomite M ountains, i n V erona, e ven i n P adua. T he e vidence i s c onsistent w ith P liny 's o bservation t hat t he R haeti h ad c ome a s f ar a s V erona: V erona ( oppidum) R aetorum e t E uganeorum ( N.H. 1 30). S ome t hirty i nscriptions, a ll q uite d ifficult t o i nterp ret, h ave c ome d own t o u s. N oticeable a re t he a bsence o f t he v owel o a nd t he r elatively f requent a ppearance o f a , w hich s uggests a r elation w ith G ermanic.1 Y et, a s t he a lphabet s hows c learly, t he R haetic l anguage b elongs t o t he E truscan c ultural a rea. T his i s w hat a ncient r eferences 2 c onnecting t he t wo m ust m ean; f or t he R haetians w ere c ertainly n ot E truscans, a s w e s ee f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord.

E truscan i nfluence i s s hown b y v erb f orms s uch a s t inache, t rinache, rinake, a nd e specially m uluainice, " dedicated," f rom E truscan m uluanice, 3 a ll o f w hich h ave e ndings s imilar t o t hose o f E truscan p reterites i n ce ( as w ell a s, p erhaps, G reek l eluke, e tc.). T here a re a lso g enitives i n ale, s uch a s r itale, e stuale, l as ' anuale, p erhaps a d ouble g enitive ( genitiuus g enitiui) i n l auiseS ' eli; a nd c a s a c onjunction ( though t he l ast i s a lso f ound i n L atin: n ec, e tc.). O ther f eatures i nstead r emind u s o f I ndoe uropean. V arious w ords a re s urely ( or a t l east v ery p robably) o f I ndoeuropean o rigin : * branca, * lanca, * karmo, * gaba, * karua, a nuiza, m alga ( Greek a molge), b ar a ( German b ergen, c f. B ergalei, B ergamo), P lauis P iave R iver),b * karmo, * mandium ( Italian m anzo), p alta, * paita, t alpa, w here w e f ind ä f or ö , a s i n G ermanic a nd I llyrian. W e c an p erhaps a dd * caranto-, 11

a nd

* splengia,

a n

I ndoeuropean

w ord.

7

I n c onclusion, t hen, R haetic i s a n I ndoeuropean l anguage, r elated t o t he G ermanic a nd I llyrian l anguage s, a nd s trongly i nfluenced b y E truscan. T he I ndoeuropean n ature o f R haetic, a s w ell a s i ts c lose c ontact i n t he G ermanic, i s c onfirmed b y t he n ame o f S ilvretta H orn, o n t he b order b etween t he G risons a nd A ustria: c ompare t he E nglish w ord, s ilver, G erman S ilber. T wo s itulae h ave p articularly i nteresting i nscriptions i n t he R haetic l anguage. T he s itula i n P rovidence, R hode I sland ( fig. 17), 8 h as t wo--the s horter o ne a pparently a n i ndication o f w eight o r c apacity,9 t he l onger o ne, a s o ften, a d edication: i rchie i ati k aiianin m uluainice. T his m ay b e t ranslated e ither a s " Irchie S iati g ave t his s itula"; o r, " Irchie S iati g ave ( this o bject) t o K aiianin." M uluainice i s a n E truscan w ord. S ome s cholars h ave t herefore c ons idered t he w hole , i nscription t o b e E truscan. B ut i t i s R haetic: I rchie S iati a nd k aiianin a re c ertainly n ot E truscan w ords. I rchie § iati i s t he s ubject, t hat i s t he p erson ( perhaps a w oman, b ecause o f t he e nding i n i ), w ho d edicated t he s itula. : ( aiianin m ay r efer t o t he o bject d edicated.10 O r i t m ay b e--as i s t he w ord i n t his p osition i n m any o ther i nscriptions--the n ame o f t he p erson t o w hom t he s itula w as g iven, p robably a s a f unerary g ift.11 T he d ate o f t his s itula i s p robably 5 30-525 B .C. T he s econd s itula, t he s itula G iovanelli ( fig. 18), w as f ound i n 1 828 i n t he I talian A lps, C olle C aslyr, i n t he V al d i C embra, a bout f ifteen k ilometers n ortheast o f T rento. T here a re s ome s ixty l etters e ngraved o n t he l ip a nd h andle o f t his u ndecor ated b ronze b ucket. O n

t he

h andle:

l auisegeli

O n

t he

b order:

u elchanu t rinache

/ l up.nu / p helna

p itiaue / k usenkus u inutalina

T he i nscription o n t he h andle s eems t o b e s eparate f rom t he.rest; i t m ay h ave b een a dded b y a l ater o wner, w ho w rote " (property) o f L avis," o r " of t he s on ( or d aughter) o f L avis." T he r est o f t he i nscription m ay b e t ranslated a s f ollows: " Velchanu, t he d eceased, g ave ( him) a s itula f or

12

w as b uried. K usenkus ( serving) w ine."12

V enetic O ur i deas o n t he V enetic l anguage, s poken i n t he n orth-east o f I taly, h ave c hanged i n r ecent t imes, t hanks p articularly t o t he w orks o f S ommer, B eeler, P rosdocimi, P ellegrini a nd L ejeune.13 V enetic, f ormerly c onsidered t o b e a b ranch o f I llyrian, t he l anguage o f t heir n eighbors t o t he e ast, h as n ow r e-acquired a c omplete l inguistic i ndependence. I t k eeps t he l etter o , w hereas I llyrian, R haetic a nd E truscan d o n ot h ave E ither t he l etter o r t he s ound. A lthough t hey a dopted t he E truscan a lphabet, t he V eneti r estored t he l etter o f rom t he E truscan m odel a lphabet ( fig. 19). L inguist ically, V enetic s hows s ome a ffinity w ith T eutonic ( which h owever h as n o o ), a nd c lose t ies w ith L atin ( as w ell a s w ith C eltic), s o m uch s o t hat w e m ust t hink o f a n a ncient ( 2000 B .C.?) p rehistoric c onnection b etween V enetic a nd L atin. T his c onnection w as i nterrupted a round t he t welfth c entury B .C. b y t he " Italic" ( OscoU mbrian) i nvasion, w hich, a ccording t o P isani's b rilliant t heory, c ame b y s ea f rom t he B alkans.14 W e h ave a bout 2 55 V enetic i nscriptions; t hough m ost o f t hem a re v ery s hort, t hey p rovide o n t he w hole a r ather g ood k nowle dge o f t he l anguage. T he l ater d evelopment o f s itula a rt i s r estricted t o t he V eneto. T hough n one o f t he s itulae o r o ther m onuments o f s itula a rt o f t he e arly p eriod b ear i nscriptions, m any o f t he b ronze v otive p laques o f t he f ourth t o t he f irst c enturies B .C. a re a s i ntere sting f or t heir i nscriptions i n t his V enetic l anguage a s f or t heir f igured d ecoration.1 5 T he e arly w riting i s d eveloped f rom t he N orth E truscan a lphabet ( map 1 0, a nd f igs. 14, 16); i n t he s ixth c entury B .C. t he V eneti a lso a dopted, f rom t he S outh E truscan a lphabet, a v ery s trange s ystem o f d ots, u sed t o s eparate c ertain s yllables ( including a ll i nitial v owels: s ee, f or e xample,.e.kupetari.s..e.go). M any o f t he l ater i nscriptions a re i n t he L atin a lphabet. F rom L atin, t oo, c ame m any o f t he w ords u sed i n t hese l ater i nscriptions: p ater, f ilia, m iles, l ibertos. 1 5 W ith t he R omanization o f t he a rea c ame c hanges i n p roper n ames. A n i nteresting n ote c oncerns t he sower a daptation o f w omen's n ames, w hich p reserved t he V enetic f orms l onger t han t he m en's. W as t his b ecause w omen w ere m ore c onservative, a nd t herefore r eluctant t o g ive u p t heir i ndividual n ames, i n o rder t o t ake o n a s ystem w hich w as s omewhat h umiliating f or t hem, s ince i t d eprived t hem o f t heir o wn s pecial n ames? O r d id t he p ublic r ole o f m en m ake i t m ore u rgent f or t hem t o a dapt t o t he o fficial n ame s ystem t han f or w omen, w ho c ould c ontinue t o b e p rivate a nd " ethnic" f or a l onger t ime?17

13

T he f ollowing i nscriptions: 1 8

a re

e xamples

o f

V enetic

1 .

E noni O ntei A ppioi s selboisselboi a ndeticobos e cupetaris ( in L atin w riting), " Grave o f E nonius f or O nts ( and) A ppius ( and) h imself ( that i s) f or t he s ons o f A ndetios" ( all t hree a re s ons o f A ndetios).

2 .

m ego L emetorei m e f or L emetor

3 .

v hremaistna d oto R eitiai, g oddess] R eitia."

4 .

m ego d oto V erkondarna N erkai, t o N erka."

" Verkondarna

5 .

e go M oltonei ( the s on) o f

p illar)

v hraterei d onasto B olos, ( his) b rother."

S upiioi, S upis."

" I

" Fremaistna

( the

" Bolos

g ave

t o

g ave

[ the

g ave m e

a m f or M olton

I llyrian T he I llyrians o ccupied a pproximately t he a rea o f m odern Y ugoslavia ( including D almatia), w ith t he a ddition o f A lbania, E pirus a nd M acedonia t o t he s outh, N oricum ( = m odern A ustria) a nd P annonia ( modern H ungary ) t o t he n orth. T hey n ever a chieved c omplete u nity, a lthough i n t he t hird c entury B .C. a g reat k ingdom w as f ormed i n t he s outh b etween t he a rea i nhabited b y t he A tintanes a nd t he r iver N arenta, w ith S kodra ( Italian S cutari) a s i ts c apital. W ith t his k ingdom t he R omans f ought i n 2 29-228 B .C., t hen a gain i n 2 19 B .C., u ntil t hey d estroyed i t i n 1 68 B .C. T he D almatians i nitiated a w ar w ith R ome i n 1 56 B .C., t hen a gain i n 19 a nd 17 B .C.; t hey r evolted o nce m ore i n 7 8-77 B .C. I n 5 5 B .C. t he L iburnians d estroyed a R oman a rmy, a nd i n 4 8-47 B .C. t hey d efeated t he c onsul G abinius. O ctavian c onquered t hem i n t he I llyrian w ar o f 3 5-33 B .C., b ut e ven a fter t hat d efeat t hey r evolted i n 1 6 B .C., a nd a gain i n 1 2-10 B .C. O nly a fter t he l ast i nsurrection o f 6 -9 A .D. w ere t hey r educed t o s ubmission a t l ast. I llyrian i s a n I ndoeuropean l anguage, k nown t o u s m ostly--but n ot o nly--through p ersonal a nd g eog raphical n ames. T here a re n o I llyrian i nscriptions. A pparently I llyrian w as n ever a w ritten l anguage. T he n ame o f t heir v aliant q ueen T eutana, u sua lly s hortened t o T euta, i s o bviously I ndoeuropean.19 A p reposition e pi-, a lso o bviously I ndoeuropean, i s f ound i n E pi-damnos, E pi-dotio, E pi-karia, E pi-lentio, E pil icus, p robably a lso i n E pi-dauros i n G reece ( see b elow).20 I t c orresponds t o G reek e p i, V edic g pi-. 14

I n T er e ste ( today T rieste) w e f ind t he S lavic w ord t rg, " market" T rieste w as, a nd s till i s, a n i mportant h arbor ) . T he m ost i mportant I llyrian s uffixes a re st- ( Bigesta, L adesta) a nd ön o r öna f or c ities: S alöna, N aröna, A enöna, A luöna, B landöna; a nd s everal o thers. 2 1 T hey s how t hat a s trong I llyrian e xpansion o nce t ook p lace i n I taly, s ince w e h ave, f or e xample, V eröna, C remöna, m odern A scona, A teste i n n orthern I taly ( Venetia), P raeneste i n L atium. A ll t hese n ames a re o f I llyrian o rigin. M oreover, s ince K rahe, i n s everal o f h is w orks , 2 2 h as s hown t hat t he t oponymy a nd i n p art t he a nthroponymy o f M acedonia a s w ell a s o f E pirus i s I llyrian, w e c an s afely u se M acedonian m aterial f or t he s tudy o f I llyrian. T here m ay h ave b een a f ew d ialectal d iffere nces; b ut t hey w ere c ertainly n ot m any, n or i mportant. W e a re s o f ortunate a s t o p ossess, f or M acedonian, f ragments o f a w ork o n t he M acedonian l anguage ( Glossal), b y a n ative M acedonian, t he l exicographer A merias, w ho l ived b efore A ristarchos ( approx. 2 16-144 B .C.) .23 W hile t he p ersonal n ames a re f or t he m ost p art G reek o r a t l east H ellenized, t here i s s ome p recious m aterial a mong t he g losses c oncerning o bjects. 24 W e m ay m ention, f or e xample, A de f rom G reek a ither, " the s ky," a dapted t o t he M acedonian l anguage. H ere w e f ind v arious M aced onian c haracteristics: n ot o nly t he l oss o f t he i , b ut a lso t he d isappearance o f t he f inal r ( Greek .erT , w ith c ompensatory l engthening o f t he e ( two m orae) t oe ( three m orae).25 W e a lso o bserve, i n t his w ord a s i n t he o thers, t he v oiced s top i nstead o f t he c orrespondi ng G reek a spirate ( eh, a h , t h), w hich a ppears i n a ll I llyrian w ords, e ven s ometimes i n p ersonal n ames; t hus B erenike: G reek P herenikos; K ebalivos: G reek K ephalinos ( also K ebale: G reek k ephale);Balakros: G reek P halakros; h yperberetaios: G reek h yperpheretes. A ll t hese f eatures, a s w ell a s t he w ell-known c hange o f o t o a ( e.g., a broutes: G reek o phryes) l ead u s t o t he — n orth, a nd s how a c lose c onnection o f I llyrian w ith B altic a nd S lavic ( as w ell a s w ith G ermanic): * ghz > *. e> * bh) _ b , o> _ a , t he e nding är b ecoming e. 6 T he I llyrians i nvaded G reece i n M ycenean o r p re-Mycenean t imes, a s c an b e s een b y t he n ames o f G reek m ythological h eroes.27 T hese w ere t he p eople k nown i n t he t radition a s t he P elasgians. T he D orian i nvasion ( around 1 200 B .C.) b rought n ew I llyrian e lements. O f t he n ames o f t he t hree D orian t ribes ( Doriees T richaikes, s ays H omer), t wo w ere c ertainly I llyrian ( Dumänes, H ylleis, c f. L atin H ill-urii); t he t hird i ndicates a m ixture o f d ifferent t ribes ( Pam-phyloi, f rom p an a nd p hyle). T he n ame o f t he D orians t hemselves i s I llyTTi rT 7 f or i t c omes f rom * döru ( ved. d lru), w hereas G reek h as d oru w ith a s hort ö . T he h istorical n ame o f t he G reeks - (T i eIlenes) i s a lso I llyrian, d ue t o t he D oric i nvasion, a nd n ever a ppears i n H omer e xcept i n t he s econd b ook o f t he I liad,

15

a v ery l ate b ook. ( The n ame o f t he G reeks i n H omeric t imes i s A chaioi.) A ccording t o K retschmer t he r ecessive a ccent o f H el Unes i s d ue t o P and l Unes ( also i n t he s econd b ook o f t he I liad); i t w as o rigina lly * Hellänes. N ow änes i s c ertainly a n on-Greek, I llyrian s uffix, a s c an b e s een c learly f rom t he n ames o f t he A griänes, A thamänes, A karnänes, A tintänes, A rktä.n es, E nchelänes ( or b etter, E ngelanes),28 n one o f w hich i s r eally G reek. T he s uffix i s l imited t o s outhern I llyria. 29 T he T rojans a lso s poke a k ind o f I llyrian d ialect, a nd t hrough t hem s everal I llyrian w ords c ame i nto G reek. 3 0 T he M acedonian a ristocracy w as, b y t he f ourth c entury B .C., v ery s trongly H ellenized. J ust a s i n T zarist R ussia t he a ristocracy s poke a lmost e xclusively F rench, P olybius ( 28, 8 , 9 ) t ells u s t hat d istinguished M acedonians d id n ot k now I llyrian. S ome n ames o f M acedonian k ings a re p urely G reek. 3 1 B ut t he i dea t hat M acedonian i s a G reek d ialect 3 2 m ust b e d efinitely a bandoned. T hus, i n t he c ourse o f t wo s uccessive i nvasions, t he I llyrians p layed a l arge p art i n t he s haping o f G reek c ivilization.33 I n L atin, t oo, t here a re m any I llyrian w ords ( e.g. g entiäna, l iburna). T races o f t he I llyrian l anguage h ave a lso b een p reserved i n t he S emitic N ear E astern w orld. T he P hilistines o f t he O ld T estament w ere, i n f act, a n I llyrian p eople. A g roup o f I llyrians, t he P alaistinoi, a pparently p ushed s outhward a nd r eached t he c ountry w hich t ook f rom t hem t he n ame o f P alestine. 3 4 K eltic A l arge g roup o f s itula p eople s poke C eltic, o r_ K eltic, s ometimes c alled G aulish o n t he c ontinent. S ince t hey h ave l eft n o i nscriptions b ehind o n a ny o f t he o bjects o f s itula a rt, f or a r econstruction o f t heir l anguage w e m ust r ely o n i nscriptions o f l ater d ate, o r, a s i n t he c ase o f t he I llyrian l anguage, o n a s tudy o f p lace-names a nd o f t he v ocabulary p reserved i n t he r egion. T he o riginal K elts a re t oday u sually i dentified w ith t he E arly I ron A ge H allstatt c ulture o f E urope ( ca. 1 000-600 B .C.), n amed a fter H allstatt, a s mall v illage i n A ustria, a nd w ith t he l ater c ulture o f L a T ene ( 475-50 B .C.). 3 5 T heir p rimitive h ome w as s outhern G ermany ( including A ustria, B avaria, a nd B aden-Württemberg) a nd S witzerland. S outhern G ermany i s s till f ull o f K eltic n ames l ike B ohemia, " home o f t he B oii," a K eltic t ribe.

16

A ll t hese p eople w ere c alled G alli, t hat i s G auls, b y t he R omans, b ut a ccording t o C aesar t hey c alled t hemselves C eltae. 36 T he G reeks c alled t hem G alatians ( Gglatai). T he m odern u sage, a p urely c onv entional o ne, i s t o u se t he t erm G aulish o r G allic ( from L atin G alli) f or t he c ontinental K elts, a nd C eltic o r b etter K eltic f or t he w hole f amily o f l anguages, i ncluding t he B ritish i slands a nd I reland. F rom t heir p rimitive h ome i n s outhern G ermany t he K elts s pread i nto G aul ( Latin G allia), w hich h owe ver d id n ot b ecome e ntirely K eltic: B asque, a nd p erh aps s ome o ther l anguage ( Iberian?), w ere s poken i n A quitania ( now k nown a s G ascogne, t hat i s a G ermanized f orm o f V asconia, l and o f t he V ascones, t he m odern B asques), L igurian i n s outhern F rance a nd p arts o f I taly ( Liguria a nd P iedmont). L ong b efore C aesar's t ime, t he K elts h ad c ome i nto G reat B ritain, t hough e xactly w hen t heir a rrival t ook p lace i s s till n ot c lear. F rom G aul t hey s oon e ntered S pain. A nacreon, w ho l ived i n t he s ixth c entury B .C., s peaks o f a k ing A rganthonios w ho h ad o nce r eigned i n s outhern S pain. T he n ame A rganthonios c omes f rom K eltic a rganton, " silver" ( Latin a rgentum), a nd i ndicates t he k ing's g reat w ealth. I n S pain t hey m ixed w ith t he I berians a nd g ave r ise t o t he C eltiberians. A round 4 00 B .C. t he c ontinental K elts ( Gauls, o r G alli) w ere i nvolved i n a t remendous m ovement: t hey i nvaded I taly, s acking R ome i n 3 87 B .C.; b ut a fter t his r aid t hey r etreated a nd s ettled i n n orthern I taly, i n t he P iedmont, L ombardy, E milia, s ome p ushing e ast i nto t he r egion o f t he V eneto. O thers i nvaded N oricum a nd P annonia ( where t hey m ixed w ith t he I llyrians), a nd t he r egions t hat a re n ow c alled Y ugoslavia a nd R omania. I n t he t hird c entury t hey t ried t o i nvade G reece, b ut w ere d efeated a t D elphi i n 2 79 B .C., b ecause o f t he i ntervention o f A pollo, a ccording t o t he G reeks. T urning t o A natolia, a l arge g roup o f t hem w ere s ubdued b y A ttalus, t he k ing o f P ergamum i n 2 30 B .C., a nd w ere f inally s ettled i n c entral A natolia. T he f amous g roup o f t he d ying G aul, a m asterpiece o f t he s chool o f P ergamum, r ecorded t heir d efeat. 37 H aving m ade t heir h ome i n t he A natolian l and, w hich w as c alled a fter t hem G alatia, t hey s oon l earned G reek, t he l anguage i n w hich S t. P aul a ddressed t hem w hen h e w rote t he f amous E pistle t o t he G alatians. B ut t hey a lso p reserved t heir n ative l anguage: S t. J erome ( 347-420) s ays t hey s poke t he s ame l anguage a s t he i nhabitants o f T rier ( ancient T reuen ) i n t he R hineland: t hat i s, G aulish. T he v arious K eltic l anguages a re d ivided i nto t wo d ifferent g roups: t he s o-called q uis-languages ( which p reserve I ndoeuropean * kw, f requently a s k ) a nd t he p is languages ( which c hange I ndoeuropean * kw — t o p ).

17

T he c ontinental K elts o r G auls, o r a t l east t he g reat m ajority o f t hem, b elong t o t he p is-Kelts ( e.g. E por edia, i n P iedmont, n ow I vrea f rom e pos = L atin e quos). T o t he s ame g roup b elong t he B ritons, w hich i nclude t he s peakers o f W elsh, o r C ornish ( now e xtinct), a nd o f B reton i n F rance ( where m any m igrated i n t he f ifth c entury f rom G reat B ritain, f leeing t he E nglish i nvasion ) . T o t he q uis-group b elong t he I rish ( Gaelic) a nd S cotch ( Erse) l anguages, a nd t he ( now d ead) l anguage o f t he i sland o f M an. W e h ave v ery l ittle w ritten m aterial o f c ont inental K eltic ( perhaps b ecause o f t he D ruids' p rohibit ion a gainst w riting). H owever, a t L a G raufesenque ( Department o f A veyron, i n s outhern c entral F rance), i n 1 922, t he a ccounts o f a n e xtensive v ase i ndustry o f t he f irst c entury A .D. w ere f ound, w ritten l argely i n G aulish. 38 W e n ow h ave t he o rdinal n umerals, f rom f irst t o t enth, a nd c an s ee t hat t hey l argely c oincide w ith t he f orms p reviously r econstructed f rom t he " insular" K eltic l anguages ( including B reton): e .g., s extametos, o xtumetos, n aumetos. T his i s a s plendid c onfirmation t hat o ur m ethod o f l inguistic r econstruction i s s ound. T here a re o nly t hree s hort G aulish i nscriptions f rom n orthern I taly: 39 o ne f rom N ovara ( 150-100 B .C.), o ne f rom n ear V ercelli ( first c entury B .C.), d iscovered i n 1 977, a nd o ne f rom T odi ( 150-100 B .C.) T hey a re w ritten i n a N orth E truscan a lphabet.40 T his s hows t hat w hen t he G auls i nvaded I taly t hey d id n ot u se w riting, p erhaps b ecause o f t he p rohibition o f t he D ruids.4 1 ( As a c omparison, l et u s r emember t hat w e h ave a bout 1,000 E truscan i nscriptions.) M any p lace-names i n n orthern I taly, h owever, a re o f G aulish o rigin. B esides I vrea, a lready m entioned, t here i s t he n ame o f t he c ity o f M ilan ( Medio-länum, " the c ity i n t he m iddle o f t he p lain"),42 B önönia ( now B ologna; b öna, " town"), S eni-gallia ( from t he G aulish t ribe o f t he S enones), T aruisium ( now T reviso, " the c ity o f t he b ull," f rom G aulish t aruos). G enerally s peaking, a ll n ames i n ago ( from K eltic icon), a s i n A siago, a re o f K eltic o rigin. S everal K eltic w ords s till r emain i n t he d ialects o f n orthern I taly. T here a lso r emained ( as i n I beria a nd G aul), t he c hange o f ct a nd pt t o xt ( as i n o xtumetos, s extametos) w hich l ater b ecame it -( French f ait f rom L atin f actus) a nd l ater o n, t hrough p alatalization, a lso 2 C ( Piedmontese l ait, L ombard l ac, c f. F rench l ait [ now p ronounced l e], S panish l eche [ pronounced — TiZe]).

c arts L atin

T he G auls w ere p articularly s killful m akers o f a nd c hariots, o r c arpenters ( carpenter, r elatedto c arpentum, i s a w ord o f K eltic o rigin). M any

18

w ords f or c hariot i n L atin c ame f rom K eltic: c arrus ( cf. L atin c urrus), c arpentum, r aeda, e sseda ( from r oot sed-: a c hariot o n w hich y ou c ould s it, L atin s ed-et). I n f act t he w ord c arpenter i n F rench d id n ot c ome n ecessari ly f rom t he K eltic s ubstratum i n F rance a nd n orthern I taly: i t m ay h ave c ome b y w ay o f L atin, w hich h ad a lready a bsorbed i t e arlier. 43 F rom F rench, o f c ourse, i t c ame i nto E nglish, t o g ive u s t he f amiliar w ord .c arpenter, " someone w ho w orks o n c arts," o r o n w ooden f urnishings i n g eneral.

19

N OTES ' See R haetic u a lt i- = u alto-. I n c ontrast t o R haet ic, b oth V enetic a nd O scan h ave i ntroduced t he l etter o , e ven t hough t hey a dopted t he E truscan a lphabet, w hich h ad n o s uch l etter . T he m ost r ecent a nd c omp lete w ork o n t he s ubject i s M .G . T ib iletti B runo, " Camuno r etico e p araretico," P opo li e C iv iltä 6 ( 1978) 2 112 14, 2 20-255 . F or t his, a s f or t he o ther l anguages s tudied i n t h is s ect ion, s ee G . B onfante, " Il r etico, i l l eponzio, i l l igure, i l g allico, i l s ardo, i l c orso," L e i scr izion i p re-Lat ine i n I ta lia, C o lloquio, A tti d ei c onvegni L incei 3 9 ( Rome 1 979); f or R haetic, s ee p ages 2 05, 2 19 f f . 2L ivy

5 .33: " A lpin is q uoque e a g ent ibus h aud d ub ie o rigo e st, m ax ime R aet is, q uos l oca i psa e fferarunt n e q uid e x a nt iquo p raeter s onum l inguae n ec e um i ncorruptum r et inerent ." P liny 3 .24 ( 133): " Raetos T uscorum p ro lem a rbitrantur a G allis p ulsos d uce R aeto ." C f . J ust in 2 0, 5 -8 . R .M . O gilvie, A C ommentary o n L ivy B ooks 1 -5 ( Oxford 1 965) 7 06: " . ..general a ff inities w ith I llyr ian...suggest t heir l anguage w as I ndoeuropean b ut w as c ont am inated b y l ocal c ontact w ith m ore a dvanced n eighbor ing c ivilizat ions, a nd t hat t he E truscan v eneer m isled a ntiquar ians i nto d etect ing i n i t ad ecadent f orm o f E truscan ." 3V . P isani, L ingue d ell'Italia 1 964) 3 16 .

a nt ica ( second e d. T ur in

4G . B onfante, " Quelques a spects d u p robleme d e l a l angue r etique," B ulletin d e l a S ociete L inguistique 3 6 ( 1935 ) 1 4 1-154.

5P lauis c omes f rom * plouis, G reek l ' ei, V edic p lävate, e tc ., L ithuanian P lav9s ( Jokl, p ersonal l etter

6B onfante,

B ulletin d e l a S ociete L inguistique 3 6 ( 1935)

1 41-154. 7C f .

G reek s p Un, L atin l ien, V ed ic p lihan, e tc .

8 4 . L ucke a nd 0 .H. F rey, D ie S itula i n P rovidence ( Rhode I sland) ( Ber lin 1 962). C omp lete b ib liography i n D . M itten, C lassical B ronzes ( Providence 1 975) 9 0-10 1, N o . 2 8 . I nscr iption : 9 8-99, n. 4 2-45 . T ib ilett i B runo, P opo li e C iv iltä 6 ( 1978 ) 2 4 1, n . 2 8 . 9J . B ulletin o f K . O lzscha , n . 4 3. C f.

W hatmough, T he I nscription o n t he B olognese S itula," t he R hode I sland M useum o f A rt 2 8 ( 1940) 3 2-33; i n L ucke-Frey , 8 5. M itten, C lassical B ronzes 9 9, T ibiletti B runo, P opoli e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 2 27, f or

1 20

" signs" o r n umbers ( "cifre") o n t he h andle o f as itula ( PID 1 95) f rom S t. M oritzing . 1° With

t he I ndoeuropean a ccusative e nding i n n, f rom

e arlier m . 1 W ith t he E truscan g enitive e nding i n in : T hesan, T hesanin. A . P f iff ig, D ie E truskische S prache ( Graz 1 969) 1 97, N o. 2 08 . W e d o n ot k now , i n o ther w ords, w hether k a iianin i s a p roper o r ac ommon n oun.

1 2 * lup.nu m ay b e r e lated t o t he E truscan l upu, " died" o r " dead" ( Pf iff ig, E trusk ische S prache 2 93). T his t ranslat ion s eems m ore p laus ib le t han t hat o f P isani ( L ingue d e ll'Ita lia a nt ica 3 23, n o . 1 37), w ho t akes t he w ord a s t he s econd n ame o f V e lchanu; i n ap r im it ive c u lture, s uch a s t hat o f t he R haet ic p eop le, o ne w ould e xpect o n ly o ne n ame . T ib ilett i B runo, P opo li e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 2 33 r eads l up inu, a nd s ees t he n ames o f t wo p ersons, a m an, l up inu p it iaue, a nd a w oman, p he lna u inuta lina, w ho h ave a dded t he ir n ames t o t he s itu la.

1 3 F or b ibliography , s ee L ejeune, M anue l d e l a l angue v enete ( 1974 ), t he l atest - a nd b est - w ork o n V enetic. S ee r eviews, b y G . B onfante, A rchivio G lottologico I ta liano 5 2 ( 1977) 1 62-166; A . M ancini a nd A .L. P rosdocim i, A rch iv io V eneto 1 05 ( 1975) 5 -68 . 1 4

V . P isani, S aggi d i l inguistica s torica ( 1959)

1 37-159.

1 5 R .S. C onway, S .E . J ohnson, T he P rae-Italic D ia lects o f I ta ly ( Cambr idge, M ass. 1 933) I , p ls. V -VII.

1 6

B onfante , A rch, G lott. I ta l. 5 2 ( 1977 )

1 63.

1 7 M . L ejeune, A teste ä l 'heure d e l a r omanisation ( etude a nthroponym igue ) ( F lorence 1 978 ) 1 07-119. T he f am ily n ame ( gentilicium ) c omes w ith R ome : 8 5106; 1 23-142.

1 8 L ejeune , M anue l 2 94 , 2 02, 2 04, 2 21. T he e arliest V enetic i nscriptions, o f t he f ifth c entury B .C., o ccur o n s tone s telai, d ecorated i n r elief, f rom P adua: R .S. C onway, S .E . J ohnson, T he P rae-Italic D ia lects o f I ta ly ( Oxford 1 933) I , p 1.13. A .L. P rosdocim i, " Il v enetico," P opo li e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 2 59-380 .

1 9 F lorus I , 2 1. C f . G othic t hiudans, " king." C f. t he n ame o f t he C eltic g od, T eutat s.

2 0 D amnos a nd h ippos a re w rongly a ttributed t o t he T yrrhenians b y H esychius, s .v .

1 21

2 1 H . K rahe, D ie a lten b a lkanillyr ischen g eographischen N amen ( Heide lberg 1 925) I Xff.

2 2

K rahe, B alkanillyrische N amen 13ff.

2 3 T hese f ragments h ave c ome d own t o u s t hrough A thenaeus a nd H esychius, a s w ell a s o ther w riters.

2 4 P auly W issowa, R E, s .v . " Makedonia (Vo lkstum u nd S prache)," 1 4 ( 1928) 6 93ff . A ll t he m ater ial c an b e f ound i n 0 . H offmann, D ie M akedonen, i hre S prache u nd i hr V o lkstum ( 1906).

2 5 L ithuanian Akte, S lavic d igti: G . B onfante, M emor ie d ell'Accadem ia d ei L incei 3 ( 1930) 2 09ff .

2 6

I 1 1yr ian i s ac entum l anguage ( *gh>g).

2 7 G . B onfante, " Gli e lementi i llirici n ella m itologia g reca ," A rchivio G lottologico I taliano 5 3 ( 1968 ) 7 2-103.

-N rahe, B alkanillyrische N amen 9 4 . S tephanos, s .v.

2 9

C f

F or E ngel" änes, s ee

a lso t he D umänes m entioned a bove.

3° Koiranos,

h ippos, w astu.

3 1 A s c an b e s een f rom t he G reek v o ice less s tops c h, t h, p h i nstead o f M acedonian g , d , b .

3 2 T his i dea i s s till d efended i n R E, ( 1928) c o ls. 6 8 1ff .

s .v .

" Makedonia" 1 4

3 3 S ome i nformation a nd r eferences a bout t he I llyrian l anguage c an b e g athered f rom A . S tip ‘ CeviC " , T he I llyrians ( Park R idge, N .J. 1 977).

3 4

G . B onfante, " Who W ere t he P hilistines?" A JA 5 0 ( 1946)

2 51-262. 3 5 T here i s al arge b ibliography o n t he K elts. D eChelette, M anuel d 'arch Alogie p rehistorique c eltique e t g allo-romaine I-IV ( 1914-1927) i s s till b asic. M ansuelli, C ivilisations d e l 'Europe a ncienne, a nd M egaw, A rt o f t he E uropean I ron A ge ( 1970) p rovide g ood s ummaries a nd b ibliography . R ecent e xhibits a nd t heir r espective c atalogs a re I G alli e l 'Italia ( Rome 1 978), D ie H alls tattkultur ( 1980), a nd D ie K e lten i n M itte leuropa ( 1980). L . P auli ( D ie K e lten, p . 2 3) p oints o ut t hat o ne s hould n ot s peak o f K e lts b efore t he s ixth c entury B .C .

1 22

3 6

D e b ello g a llico 1 .1.

3 7

F or r ecent r econstruction s ee F . C oarelli, I G a lli e l ' Ita lia ( 1978 ) 2 31-258 . 3 8 J . W hatmough, D ia lects o f A ncient G aul ( Cambridge , 1 970) 2 77. T he t aste f or a t ype o f p ottery w ith d ecoration i nspired f rom m eta llic m ode ls ,"Arretine w are," m ade i n A rezzo, h ad s wept n orthward f rom E trur ia i n t he t ime o f A ugustus, t o b e a dopted i n l oca l w orkshops i n G au l, w hich p roduced q uant it ies o f t his t erra s igillata. S ee c hapter 7 .

M ass.

3 9 G . B onfante , A tt i c onvegno L incei 3 9 ( 1978 ) 2 11 w ith b ibliography . C . d e S imone, " I G a lli i n I ta lia : T estimonianze l inguistiche," I G a lli i n I ta lia ( 1978 ) 2 6 1-269, N o . 6 06 ( Novara ), N o . 6 07 ( Todi). D e S imone ( 269) i dentifies t he f am ily n ame, K atacina , o n a n E truscan i nscription f rom O rvieto, o f t he s ixth c entury B .C., a s aG a llic g entilicium , a nd t akes i t a s e vidence t hat s ome G auls h ad a lready s ettled i n E truria b y t he s ixth c entury B .C.

4 0

M . L ejeune , C RA I

1 977, 5 82 .

4 1 D ruids ' p rohibition a ga inst w riting : C aesar , g a llico 6 , 1 4 .

D e b e llo

4 2 L än um ( länon ) i s f or p 13 .nom , L atin p länum " the p lain"; pi s l ost i n a ll K e lt ic l anguages. I n t he p is-languages t he " vacant c ase" w as f illed i n b y * kw t hat b ecame p ; i n t he q uisl anguages i t w as n ot f illed, e xcept b y f oreign w ords.

4 3 C . d e S imone, i n IG alli e l 'Italia ( 1978 ) 2 63-264 . C f . G . B onfante, L at ini e G ermani i n I talia ( fourth e d . B o logna 1 977).

1 23

C hapter T HE

S PREAD

O F

A REZZO,

T HE

7

A LPHABET

E RZ,

A ND

I N

E UROPE:

R UNES

T he i nvention o f w riting i ntroduces h istory. I n p articular t he i nvention o f t he a lphabet, o ne o f t he g reatest d ebts w e o we t he P hoenicians a nd t he G reeks, i ntroduces t he h istory o f W estern c ivilization. E ven t oday, w e r ecite t he a lphabet i n t he o rder i n w hich t he G reeks f irst r eceived i t, f or n o r eason o ther t han h istorical c onservatism. O ne c ould i llustrate t he v arious p hases o f t he a lphabet, f rom t he a lphabetic C anaanite s cript o f t he P hoenicians, w ithout a ny v owels, t o t he G reek a lphabet, w hose i nnovation i t_was t o a dopt c ertain s igns t o s ignify v owels ( A, E , H [ E], I , 0 , Y ; [ 0] [ omega] w as a dded l ater). W ithin l ess t han f ifty y ears o f i ts i ntroduction b y t he G reeks t he a lphabet w as u sed t hroughout t he M editerranean. F rom t he W estern G reeks w ho h ad c ome t o I taly f rom E uboea t he E truscans t ook o ver t his i nvention ( fig. 1 4). 1 A t f irst t hey c opied t he a lphabet j ust a s t hey h ad l earned i t, t o d ecorate t heir b ucchero v ases a nd o ther o bjects. V ery s oon, h owever, t hey a dapted i t t o t heir o wn n eeds. L etters t hat d id n ot c orrespond t o s ounds i n t he E truscan l anguage w ere d ropped, o r c onv erted t o d ifferent u ses. F or e xample, E truscan h ad n one o f t he s ounds r epresented b y t he l etters B , D , a nd 0 ; t hese, t herefore, w ere n ot u sed. O n t he o ther h and t he t hird l etter o f t he G reek a lphabet, f ( gamma), w as u sed; b ut i nstead o f b eing p ronounced " G" a s i n G reek, i t w as g iven t he v oiceless s ound " K." A rchaic E truscan ( and L atin) t hus h ad t hree s igns f or t his h ard " K" s ound: F , w hich t hey w rote " C," a nd u sed b efore E o r I ; " K," u sua lly u sed b efore A , f or e xample i n t he L atin w ord K alend ae, f rom w hich w e g et t he w ord " calendar"; a nd " Q," u sually, a s t oday, u sed b efore U , b ut a lso b efore O . T hey a lso h ad a t l east t hree s igns f or S : o ne l ooking l ike a n " M" ( sade), o ne l ike a n " X" ( sin), a nd t he G reek s igma M . T he l etter H w as n ot u sed f or a l ong E , a s i n G reek, b ut w ith i ts e arlier v alue o f t he a spirate H , a s i n E nglish. F , a s i n t he G reek d ialects, r epres ented t he d igamma, p ronounced l ike t he E nglish l etter " W." F or t he " F" s ound, w hich t he G reeks d id n ot h ave, t he E truscans f irst u sed F H, a nd l ater i ntroduced a n ew l etter, " 8" ( as i n F ufluns, B acchus). T he R omans l earned t he a rt o f w riting ( map 1 0) f rom 1 24

t heir n eighbors t he E truscans, r ather t han d irectly f rom t he G reeks. T his e xplains w hy i n L atin t he l etter C w as n ot p ronounced l ike t he G reek r (gamma), b ut w ith a v oicel ess K s ound, a s i n E truscan. L atin, u nlike E truscan, h owever, h ad a s ound " g," a nd n eeded a l etter t o e xpress i t; a nd s o e ventually--around 2 50 B .C.--the l etter G ( obviously a m odification o f t he C ) w as p ut b ack i nto t he a lphabet a nd o ccupied t he p lace o f Z , w hich w as n ot n eeded i n L atin. W hen t he l etter Z w as l ater p ut b ack, i t w as p laced a t t he e nd o f t he a lphabet. ( In t he s ame w ay t he l etter " 0," w hich w as m issing f rom t he E truscan a lphabet, w as r eintroduced a t t he e nd o f t he V enetic a lphabet.) T hus t he o riginal o rder w as p reserved. T he E truscans b rought c ivilization, i ncluding l iteracy, t o I taly. A ll t he I ndoeuropean l anguages o f a ncient I taly ( with t he o bvious e xception o f G reek, a nd M essapic) w ere w ritten i n a lphabets d erived f rom t he E truscan a lphabet; L atin, F aliscan, V enetic, L epontic, O scan, U mbrian, S abellian, P icenian a nd e ven t he l ang uage o f C isalpine G au1, 2 b rought i nto I taly d uring t he i nvasions o f t he f ifth a nd f ourth c enturies B .C. T hrough V enetic t he E truscan a lphabet c rossed t he A lps a nd g ave b irth t o t he G ermanic r unes, w hich w ere l ong u sed b y a ll t he G ermanic p eoples ( Anglo-Saxon, G erman, S candinaivan, G othic). T he w ord r unes, m eaning o riginally " mystery," o r " magic," i s t he n ame o f a n a ncient t ype o f w riting o nce w idely u sed t hroughout m ost o f t he a rea o f t he T eutonic p eople. I nscriptions w ritten i n r unic c haracters h ave b een f ound i n G ermany, i n E ngland, i n t he S candinavian c ountries, i n t he B alkans, i n V enice. I n S weden t hey w ere u sed u ntil t he l ast c entury. M ost s cholars n ow a gree t hat t he r unic c haracters o r l etters d erive f rom t he N orth E truscan a lphabet, b y w ay o f t he V enetic s cript.(Maps 1 0, 8 . C f. f ig. 16.) R unes, o riginally u sed a s m agic s igns, w ere e ventually t ransformed i nto a f ormal s cript. B ut t hey n ever r eally l ost t heir m agic c haracter, e specially i n t he c ountry. W omen w ere p articularly s killed i n t he u se o f s uch m agic, a s pecialty c onfirmed b y t he f requency o f n orthern w omen's n ames e nding i n r e in: G udrun, o r S iegrun, f or e xample. K riemhild c arved r unes i nto t he d rinking h orn f rom w hich s he s erved S iegfried t he m agic p otion. T he l ast p erson w ho c ould w rite r unes w as a w oman, w ho d ied i n S weden a round 1 895. C ertain r unes c ould b e c arved i n o rder t o m ake p eople s ick, o thers t o m ake t hem w ell. I f y ou w anted t o s peak w ith t he d ead, y ou c arved s ome r unes. R unes c arved o n a rms m ade t hem e specially p owerful, a nd s o m any o f t he r unes t hat h ave c ome d own t o u s a re c arved i nto s pearh eads ( fig. 1 21). O thers a ppear o n c oin-shaped a mulets, a nd a s d edications o n f igurines o r b rooches.i

1 25

T he o rder o f t he r unes, f uthark, 4 i s m ysterious ( fig. 1 21). I t d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he o rder o f l etters i n t he E truscan, L atin a nd G reek a lphabets; s ome k ind o f m agic u nknown t o u s m ay b e t he r eason. T he r unic s cript i ncluded o riginally t wenty-four s igns, d ivided i nto t hree g roups o f e ight ( the n ame f uthark i s d erived f rom t he f irst s ix l etters). L ater t he ‚ O ld E nglish s ystem h ad, i n s uccession, t wenty-eight, t hirtyo ne a nd t hirty-three s igns. T he S candinavian s ystem i n i ts m ore r ecent d evelopment ( ninth t o e leventh c enturies) r educed, f or r easons u nknown t o u s, t hese s igns t o s ixt een. S ince t he r estricted n umber w as n ot s ufficient t he s igns w ere m ultiplied b y a dding a mbiguous r unes, i n t he f orm o f p oints o r d ashes, t he s o-called p ointed o r p unctuated r unes. I t i s t rue t hat t he f irst r unes w e p ossess, c arved o n s tone, a re p erhaps o f t he f irst o r s econd c entury A .D. T here w ere a lso m any i nscriptions o n b ronze a rmor, a nd o n s ilver j ewelry ( fig. 1 21). T he u se o f r unes a mong t he T eutons m ust b e m uch o lder, a s w e s hall s ee. O riginally r unes w ere c arved o n w ood, f or m agical p urposes. I t w as o bviously i n i mitation o f t he R omans, i n t he y ears a fter C hrist, t hat t he T eutons b egan t o c arve r unes o n s tone, a nd t o u se t he r unes n ot f or m agic p urposes, b ut f or t ombs, o r e ven f or h istoric al r ecords ( for e xample i n m emory o f t he c onversion o f t he D anes t o C hristianity i n 9 40). A n e arly d ate f or t he E truscan o rigin o f t he r unes i s s uggested b y t he G ermanic i nscription o f t he " Negau B h elmet," f ound i n 1 811 w ith a g roup o f t wenty-six h elmets, p robably w ar b ooty, a t N egau, i n A ustria. T his i nscript ion, r ecently d ated b y s ome s cholars a s e arly a s t he f ifth o r f ourth c entury B .C., w as w ritten i n a N orth I talic s cript i dentified a s V enetic. T his V enetic s cript, f rom w hich t he r unic a lphabet d eveloped, i tself d erived f rom E truscan. T he v otive i nscription, H arigasti t eiva h il(ms), w as p resumably a d edication: " to t he g od H arigasti, ( this) h elmet."b

B ut s eparately.

t he

o rigin

o f

t he

1 26

r unes

i s

a s tory

b est

t old

A rezzo,

E rz,

a nd

t he

R unes

A rezzo, f amous i n t he t ime o f A ugustus a s t he h omeland o f M aecenas--atauis e dite r egibus, " born o f a ncestral k ings," i n t he w ords o f h is f riend H orace 6 -, w as, e ven b efore t he f lourishing o f i ts i ndustry i n t he f ifth a nd f ourth c enturies B .C., a n i mportant E truscan m etal-working c enter. 7 T he s plendid C himaera o f A rezzo -once p art o f a s tatuary g roup--would b e e nough b y i tself t o p rove A rezzo's m astery o f t he a rt o f b ronzec asting. T his s pecialty i s f urther i llustrated b y t he d iscovery o f r ich v otive d eposits w ith b ronze o bjects ( most o f w hich w ere p resumably m ade i n A rezzo), a s w ell a s b y t he w ell-known s tatue o f t he A rringatore, w hich 8 m ay h ave c ome f rom L ake T rasimeno, n ot f ar f rom A rezzo. F urthermore, L ivy r ecords, 9 u nder t he y ear 2 05 B .C., t he c ontributions m ade b y t he E truscan c ities f or S cipio A fricanus' A frican c ampaign d uring t he S econd P unic W ar, t hus p roviding u s w ith a l ist o f e ach c ity's n atural r esources. A rezzo--and o nly A rezzo!--furnished m etal a rms a nd t ools; V olterra p rovided g rain a nd p itch, T arquinia c loth f or t he s hips' s ails, R oselle g rain a nd l umber, a nd s o o n. A t t his p oint w e m ust b ring u p a n i mportant l inguistic q uestion: t he o rigin o f t he G erman w ord E rz, " metal" ( the w ord a lso m eans " bronze"). A ccording t o t he e minent G erman s cholar 0 . S chrader 1 0 E rz d erives f rom t he L atin n ame o f A rezzo, A rretium, b y w ay o f a ncient G erman, w here i t w as p ronounced * erizzi. F or i n a ncient--as i n m odern--German a v ery s trong i ntensive i nitial a ccent c aused t he f irst s yllable t o b e s tressed, w hile a ll t he o thers w ere w eakened, o r d isappeared a ltogether. I n E nglish, f or e xample, t he G reco-Latin w ord e le mosynds, " charity," b ecame a lms. T he G recoG allo-Latin w ord p arau d rk . lus ( pronounced w ith a G allic a ccent) b ecame P ferd, " horse," i n G erman. B enedictus i n S wedish b ecame B engt. ( These w ords a ll c ame i nto t he G ermanic l anguages f rom L atin i n t he h i torical p eriod.) S o, w ith t he w eakening o f g i nto i ( as i n L atin o bsideo f rom * ob-sedeo) a nd t he m eta j lony o f a i nto e d ue t 9 t he f ollowing i , w e g et * Arrütium - — * Arre t -j i - * Arritji - * drizi e rizi d rz ( t c hanges i nto v oiceless z i n S outhern G erman a round 5 0-0 A .D.). W e a lso f ind a n a lternate f orm a ruzi. E very o ther e tymological e xplanation f or t he d erivation o f t he w ord E rz h as b een a ttacked, f or o ne r eason o r a nother.11 T his o ne s eems t o m e t o b e f oolp roof. a mong

B ut h ow d id A rezzo c ome t o b e s o w ell-known t he G ermans, s ince t he R omans n ever u sed t he

1 27

w ord A rr tium t o m ean " metal"? H ow a re w e t o e xplain a d irect c ontact b etween E truscans a nd G ermanics peaking p eoples? T his i s a d ifficult p roblem, f or w hich I s hall a ttempt a n e xplanation. I t i s n ow g enerally a greed t hat t he G ermanic r unes ( f igs. 1 2 1-122) a re o f E truscan o rigin.12 T hese r unes, a k ind o f w riting w idely u sed b efore t he L atin a lphabet w as a dopted, a nd a fterwards, t oo, i n G ermany, E ngland, S candinavia, a nd I celand, w ere b rought b y t he G oths a s f ar a s t he U kraine, R omania, a nd B osnia. P articularly i nteresting a re t he h elmet f rom N egau, A ustria, t he " Franks C asket," a n i vory b ox n ow i n t he B ritish M useum ( fig. 1 22), a nd i nscribed o bjects, i ncluding s tatuettes, f rom G ermany a nd S witzerland (f ig. 1 21 ) . 1 3 T he r unic s igns d erive, a s w e w ould e xpect, f rom a N orth E truscan a lphabet w ith e longated a rchaic s igns o f t he s ame k ind u sed a lso b y t he V eneti a nd t he R haeti. 1 4 H ow a nd w hen d id t hese r unes r each G ermany, f rom w here t heir u se t hen s pread s o w idely? T hey c ould n ot h ave c ome a fter t he R oman c onquest o f n orthern I taly a round 2 00 B .C., f or b y t his d ate t he G ermans w ould h ave l ost a ny d irect c ontact w ith t he E truscans. T hey w ould have b orrowed t he L atin a lphabet, n ot t he E truscan; a nd i n f act t hey d id a dopt t he L atin a lphabet, s everal c enturies a fter C hrist. B ut i n t he s ixth, f ifth, a nd f ourth c enturies B .C. E truscan p oliti cal, c ommercial, a nd c ultural e xpansion i nto n orthern I taly, e specially a fter t he l oss o f E truscan s upremacy a t s ea i n 4 74 B .C., w as v ery a ctive. A s P allottino s ays," F rom t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury B .C., a nd e specially d uring t he f ifth a nd f ourth c enturies, E truscan i nfluence b ecame v ery m arked i n n orthern I tal , yr, b oth i n t he i nscriptions a nd i n i ts m aterial c ulture."ID T here a re q uite a f ew E truscan i nscriptions i n n orthern I taly d ating f rom t his p eriod. 1 6 M any E truscan c ities w ere s ettled i n t he a rea: F elsina ( later B ologna), S pina, R imini, M odena, M antova ( Mantua), p robably M elpum ( Milan?), a nd o thers w hose n ames a re u nknown, t hough t heir a rchaeological r emains h ave b een f ound ( for e xample, M arzabotto). A n E truscan i nscript ion h as b een f ound a s f ar n orth a s B usca, i n P iedm ont.17 B ut i t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat t he E truscans t ransmitted t heir a iphabet t ö t he G ermanic p eoples a fter t he t hird c entury B .C. a t t he l atest e t hat i s, a fter t he R omans h ad c onquered n orthern I taly. 1 8 E ven t hough t he e arliest p reserved G ermanic r unes, w hich w ere w ritten o n s tone, d ate f rom t he s econd, o r, a t t he e arliest, t he f irst c entury a fter C hrist, w e k now t hat r unes w ere u sed i n t he a rea o f G ermany l ong b efore t his. F or t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D. w e h ave T acitus a s a t rustworthy w itness: " They c ut u p i nto s mall p ieces ( surculos) a b ranch ( vir a m w hich h as b een c ut d own f rom a f ruitbearing t ree." • W e a lso h ave t he e vidence o f t he G erman B uch,

1 28

English book, clearly related to the Ger�an Buche, English beech, etc. , beech tree" ; as well as German Buchstabe, "letter," a word compounded with Stab, "stick" TThe Latin uirga or branch described by TacifusT. All this suggests that the Germans originally inscribed their runes by incising them on little pieces of beech­ wood in order to draw sortes (as Tacitus says), 20 as people used to do in the Middle Ages with the text of the Aeneid, or later with the Bible. 11

Here we begin to see a possible answer to a difficult question: if Etruscan writing was adopted by the Germanic people--even by way of the Rhaetians J or the Veneti, who used the Etruscan alphabet, as we know from their inscriptions; or the Illyrians or the Gauls-­ by the third century B.C. at the latest, probably earlier, how do we explain the fact that we have no such inscrip­ tions from the Germanic people until the first century A.O. at the earliest? There are at least three hundred years between these dates which have to be accounted for. In fact I believe they can be accounted for quite easily. The pieces of beech-wood we spoke of earlier would rot away and disappear in the damp and rainy northern climate. It is not at all surprising that they have not left a trace, those surculi of Tacitus, for which we have such reliable literary evidence. The earliest runes which have come down to us were, as we saw, carved on stone, in the second or (perhaps) the first century A.O. It is not hard to imagine where the Germans got the idea both of in­ scribing their runic inscriptions on stone, and of using them for funerary or historical, rather than magic purposes as they did earlier. They learned to do so when they came in contact with the Romans, who used to carve inscriptions on stone--many have been found in the Rhine region of Germany--bearing the names, relationships, offices and titles of the dead. There is no doubt, therefore, in my opinion, that the Germanic people were already writing by the third century B.C. at least, and that they had learned the use of the alphabet from the Etruscans. It was thus the Etruscans who spread throughout northern Europe their writing and their bronze objects, as well ,as other goods . The archaeological record confirms these contacts. Long before the Roman traders or caupones, Etruscan merchants crossed the Alps, bringing wares from the Mediterranean, reaching all the way to the north and the Baltic Seas. 2 1 Arezzo was at that time well known as the chief metal-working and exporting center for Etruscan bronzes, which is why its name, Erz, came to be used to mean "metal" in the north. ZZ1 29

Even greater was the result of Etruscan civili­ zation in Italy. This is shown by the spread of the Etruscan alphabet--itself of very ancient origin, dating from the eighth century B.C. This alphabet was adopted by the Umbrians, the Oscans, the Veneti, the Rhaeti, the Lepontians, and the Gauls; not to mention the Romans. Over eleven thousand Etruscan inscriptions have come down to us, and more are being discovered daily. In contrast, we have only three inscriptions in the Gallic language, two hundred fifty-five Venetic, thirty or so Rhaetic, a hundred Lepontic, about two hundred O scan, eleven Umbrian, a few dozen Sabe11 ian, three hundred Messapic, fifty altogether of Sicel, Sicanian, and Elymian, one hundred and ten Faliscan. (Falerii, from where the Faliscan inscriptions come, however, belongs in the cultural area of Etruscan; so does Praeneste, which yielded only a few dozen inscrip­ tions in the local Praenestine dialect.) There are no Ligurian, Sardinian , or Corsican inscriptions. 2 3 There are only four inscriptions from Rome and Latium dating from before the third century B.C.--the Forum inscrip­ tio�, the Duenas vase, the Castor and Pollux dedication, the new inscription from Satricum. 2 4 In Etruria by the third century we already have several thousand Etruscan inscriptions. Clearly in Italy, aside from the Greek colonies, Etruria is the great source of light from which civilization beams forth. 11

11

11

11

We have abundant archaeological and epigraphical evidence that Rome in the sixth century B.C. was politically and culturally an Etruscan city (even though like Falerii she kept, by and large, her own Latin language). Aristocratic Romans in the Archaic period used to send their sons to study in Caere, according to Livy: 2 5 Etruscan was evidently, for the Roman elite, the technical language of culture. From the Etruscans the Romans adopted a new way of organ­ izing their army, and that urban culture which we call civilization, with its temples, trade, crafts, stone buildings, walls, canals, and monumental tombs. The temple of Jupiter Capitoline was built by the two Tarquins shortly before 509 B .C., and adorned by an Etruscan artist, whose name--Vulca--has come down to us . 2 6 The Etruscans were the first to transmit to the Romans the splendors of the Oriental and Greek cultures. Nor was this a merely passive transmission, for the Etruscans gave to Greek art and Greek culture--much of which, though not all, they absorbed--a peculiar flavor of their own, adding to it their own special preferences. 11

11

When we ignore or underestimate Etruscan mediation, as has been done until recently, we are not only committing an injustice, out we run the risk of not understanding completely, and at times even of misunde�standing Roman civilization, and therefore our own. 130

N OTES ' For a ll t hese q uestions, s ee M . C ristofani, " L 'a lfabeto e trusco," P opo li e C ivilta 6 ( 1978 ) 4 03-428 ; f or t he t ransmission o f t he E truscan a lphabet f rom t he E uboean c o lonies, 4 04-406, a nd f ig. 3 . S ee a lso M . C ristofani, " Sull' o rigine e d iffusione d ell' a lfabeto e trusco," A NRW I 2 (Ber lin 1 972) 4 66-489; a nd " Recent A dvances i n E truscan E pigraphy a nd L anguage," i n I ta ly B efore T he R omans 3 73-412. 2J . H eurgon, R ome e t l a M e diterrange o ccidenta le ( Paris 1 969 ) 19. G . G iacomelli, " Il F a lisco," P opoli e C ivilta 6 ( 1978 ) 5 11; c f. 5 23-524. M . L ejeune, " Sur l 'enseignement d e l ' Ariture e t d e l 'orthographe v er n etes ä E ste," B ulletin d e l a S ocie ' tede L inguistique 6 ( 1971) 2 67-298. G . B onfante, " Le i scrizioni p re-latine i n I ta lia," A tt i c onvegni L incei 3 9 ( 1979) 2 06-208, w ith b ibliography .

3F or w omen, m agic a nd r unes, s ee A rntz, R unenschrift 3 4 , 11; T odd, T he N orthern B arbar ians 2 05, n . 6 4; a nd H olmqvist, i n E ggers, W ill, J offroy, H olmqvist, C e ltes e t G ermains 7. J . W erner, A ufkommen v on B ild u nd S chrift i n N ordeuropa, B ayr. A kad. d er W iss. S itzungsber. 1 956, H eft 4 , 1 -47, i s s urely r ight i n s eeing a c onn ection b etween t he b eginning o f w riting a nd o f f igured d ecoration. B ut t he t wo w ere n ot a dopted i n t he r egion i n t he R oman p eriod, a s h e s upposed: t he c hange o ccurred m uch e arlier, w hen E truscan c ulture w as s till a t i ts h eight. W erner 's r emark, t hat t he E urope i n w hich t hese c hanges t ook p lace i s aw orld r emarkably s imilar t o t he o ne e xisting s even h undred y ears b efore T acitus c omes v ery c lose t o t he m ark. F or o bjects w ith r unes, A rntz p ls. 1 -31; H o lmqvist 7 0-80; S .B .F. J ansson, T he R unes o f S weden ( N .Y. 1 962).

4S ee B ib liography, p t. C , f or t he r unes. R . G endre, " Il f uthark e l 'a lfabeto g otico," S critti i n o nore d i G iuliano B onfante ( Brescia 1 979) I 3 09-324.

5F or t he i nscription o n t he N egau h e lmet, c f. L atin d eiuos, V enet ic d eiuos, V ed ic d evdb, E nglish T ues(day). A . P rosdocim i, " L'iscrizione ' germanica ' s ull'elmo d i N egau B ," P opo li e C ivilta 6 ( 1978) 3 8 1-392; A .L. P rosdocimi, P . S cardigli, " Negau," I talia l inguistica n uova e d a ntica, S tudi L inguistici i n o nore d i O . P ar lange li I ( Ga latina 1 976) 1 79-229. S tary, " Foreign E lements," 1 96, n otes 1 7, 1 43.

6H orace, O des 1 .1,1-2. C f . S atires 1 , 6 , 3 , w here s ome h ave t hought t hat t he v erse, n ec q uod a uus t ibi m aternus a tque p aternus, i n w hich t he m other 's s ide o f t he f amily i s m entioned

1 3 1

b efore t he f ather 's, r eferred t o t he E truscans' s o-ca lled m atriarchy , w hich t he a ncients b elieved h ad o nce r ea lly e xisted. F or M aecenas' E truscan a ncestry, s ee H eurgon, D aily L ife o f t he E truscans, 2 59-268 . 7F or A rezzo a nd i ts a rt, s ee B anti, E truscan C ities 1 73; P a llottino, E truscans 1 8 1-182; B rendel, E truscan A rt 3 27, f ig. 2 48.

8T . D ohrn, D er A rringatore ( Ber lin 1 968 ). A ccording t o s ome a ccounts, t he p rovenance w as P erugia r ather t han L ake T rasimeno.

9L ivy

2 8 .45 .

P allott ino, E truscans 1 80-18 1.

1 0 0 . S chrader, S prachverg leichung u nd U rgeschichte 1 3 ( Jena 1 906) 7 1. T he f act t hat u nstressed v owels ( as i n E nglish) a re v ery u ncertain i n t heir q ua lity a ccounts f or t he a lternate G erman f orm a ruzi. B ut E rz c annot d erive f rom a ruzi.

1

S prache e d. 1 967 s ee G .B. a ntica,"

S ee e .g. F . K luge, E tymologisches W örterbuch d er d eutschen ( Berlin a nd L eipzig 1 924 ) s .v."Erz" (not i n t he t wentieth [ Kluge-Mitzka] s .v."Erz"). F or a d ifferent e tymology , P ellegrini, " Toponimi e d e tnici n e lle l ingue d ell'Ita lia P opoli e C ivilta 6 ( 1978) 15.

1 2 S ee e specially C .J. M arstrander, O m r unene o g r unenavnenes o pr inde lse, i n N orssk t idskr ift f or s progvidenskap 1 ( 1928) 8 5-188; c f . a lso H . H ammarström i n S tudier n ordisk f ilo logi 2 0 ( 1930) 1 -67 . S ee B ib liography, p t . C , i nfra.

1 3 N egau h e lmet, s upra n . 5 . F ranks c asket, A rntz, R unens chrift ( 1938 ) p l. 2 4. T he s tatuettes h ave b een d ated a ccording t o t he ( presumed) d ate o f t he r unes, t hat i s i n t he t hird o r f ourth c entury A .D. ( they m ay w e ll b e e ar lier): H olmqvist, i n E ggers, W ill, J offroy , H olmqvist, L es C eltes e t l es G ermains 7-80. 1 4 C ristofani, i n A NRW I2 (1972) 4 82; I ta ly B efore t he R omans 3 74-412; 3 85, f ig. 2 . L ejeune, M anue l 2 1. G . B uti, G . D evoto, P reistoria e s toria d elle r egioni d 'Ita lia ( Florence 1 974 ) 4 3. 1 5 P a llottino, E truscans 9 7. B uti-Devoto, P reistoria 4 3, s ee t hree f orms o f E truscan i nf luence i n t he V eneto f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f l anguage a nd w riting. O ne i s t he s urviva l o f l ocal n ames, s uch a s F e ltre, a dopted f rom V o lterra, E truscan V e lathr i; " co lle d e lle C apre," t hat i s " of t he T ombs"; M fesna; a nd R osna, f rom R asenna, " Etrur ia," n ames o f h ills. T he o ther t wo e xamp les o f E truscan i nf luence a re t he V enetic a nd R haetic a lphab ets u sed i n t he r egion i n a nt iquity .

1 6

T LE 9 1-94, N os. 6 98-723.

1 32

T LE N o. 7 21, f rom B usca , p rovince o f C uneo . M useo A rcheologico . 1 7

1 8

I n T urin,

P a llottino, E truscans 9 810 1.

1 9 T ac itus, G ermania 1 0 .2. F or t he f ull t ext, s ee n . 2 0, i nfra. C f . F . K luge, E tymo logisches W örterbuch d er d eutschen S prache ( tenth e d . B er lin 1 924 ) s .v . B uch, w here t he q uotat ion f rom T ac itus i s, h owever, i naccurate . 2° Tacitus, G erman ia 1 0 .1-2 : s ort ium c onsuetudo s imp lex : u irgam f rug iferae a rbor i d ec isam i n s urcu los a mputant e os u e n ot is q uibusdam d iscretos s uper c andidam u estem t emere a c f ortuito s pargunt . T he n otae w ere t he l etters o f t he r unic a lphabet, w hich m ust h ave l ooked s trange t o T acitus. T he u se o f s uch p erishable w riting m ateria l a s w ooden c hips e xp lains w hy s o f ew r unes w ere f ound i n s outhern G ermany , t he a rea c losest t o I ta ly ( as n oted b y M . T odd, N orthern B arbarians [ London 1 975] 2 03-205). S ee P .V . G lob, T he B og P eop le ( Ithaca, N Y, 1 969 ) 1 52, f or " four i nch l ong w hite s livers, c omp letely s tr ipped o f b ark, w hich l ay u nder t he [ corpse o f a ] w oman f ound i n B orre F en ." F or t he u se o f o rac les i nscr ibed o n w ooden c h ips, c f . t he s tory o f t he e ar ly s ortes a t t he s anctuary o f F ortuna a t P raeneste : i n r obore i nsculptas p r iscarum l itterarum n ot is ( C icero, D e d iv. 2 .4 1).

2 1 G . B onfante, " Il p rob lema d ei T aurisci e d ei C arni e l 'entrata d ei G a lli i n I ta lia ," R evue d es E tudes I ndoeuropeennes 2( 1939 ) 1 6-23. P fiffig, E inführung i n d ie E truskologie 8 5ff. w ith b ib l.

2 C f . G reek b yb los, " book," f rom B yblos, w here p apyrus c ame f rom ; t he E nglish w ord " Bib le" c omes f rom t he G reek. I n E ng lish t he t urkey g ets i ts n ame f rom T urkey , t he c ountry i t w as t hought t o c ome f rom . T he p each -Pfirsich i n G erman, F rench p eche, P iedmontese p ersica , P rovenca l p e rsega-is t he f ruit t hat c omes f rom P ersia . " Copper ," G erman K upfer, c ame f rom C yprus. A nd s o o n. S ee B . M ig lior ini, D al n ome p ropr io a l n ome c omune ( F lorence 1 927). 2 3 B onfante, " Il r etico, i l eponzio, i g a llico, i s ardo, i c orso," A tti c onvegni L incei 3 9 ( 1979 ) 2 05-212; C onwayJ ohnson-Whatmough, P rae-Ita lic D ia lects; R . V on P lanta , G rammatik d er o skisch-umbr ischen D ia lekte, 2 v o ls., I ( 1892, r eprinted 1 973 ); I ( 1897, r eprinted 1 973); M . L ejeune, M anuel d e l a l an ipe v enete ( He ide lberg 1 974); V . P isani, L e l ingue d e ll'Ita lia a nt -I ca o ltre 1 l atino ( second e d., T urin 1 964 ); G . G iacomelli, L a l ing ua f alisca ( F lorence 1 962); A . B ottig lioni, M anua le d ei d ia letti i ta lic i ( Bologna 1 954 ).

2 4 P isani, T est i 1 , 6 , 1. F or t he n ew i nscr ipt ion f rom S atr icum, d ated c a . 5 09 B .C ., s ee G . B onfante, R end icont i d e i L ince i 1 978, p p . 2 69ff . E . P eruzz i, P dP 1 82 ( 1978) 3 46-350 . T he i nscr ipt ion w as d iscovered b y C .M . S t ibbe, w ho ( w ith o thers) h as p ub lished i t i n L ap is S atr icanum , T he H ague, 1 980 .

1 33

2 5

A s l ate a s 3 08 B .C.:

L ivy 1 .9 .36.

2 6p liny N .H . 3 3 .159; P lutarch, P ub lico la 1 3 . A ccording t o s ome s cho lars t he w ho le t emp le w as b u ilt b y E truscan a rt ists: G jerstad, E ar ly R ome I V, w ith r efs. S upra, c hapter 5 .

1 34

B IBLIOGRAPHY T he f o llow ing b ibliography i s d ivided i nto t hree p arts : A . E truscan I nf luence i n t he N orth B . E ar ly R ome C . L anguages, A lphabet a nd R unes F urther b ib liography c an b e f ound i n P opoli e C iviltä d e ll'Ita lia A ntica , A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R öm ischen W e lt, a nd I ta ly B efore t he R omans ( full r eferences i n l ist o f a bbreviations b e low ).

L ist o f A bbreviations T he f ollow ing a bbreviations a nd s hort t it les h ave b een u sed i n t he f ootnotes t o t he t ext a nd i n t he b ibliography . A ll a bbreviations a re b ased o n t hose l isted i n A merican J ourna l o f A rchaeology 8 2 ( 1978 ) 5 -10 a nd 8 4 ( 1980) 3 -4 . A NRW

A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R öm ischen W elt. E d. b y H . T emporini a nd W . H aase. B erlin, N ew Y ork 1 972-

A quileia

A quileia e l 'arco a lpino o rienta le. A tti d ella 6 a s ettimana d i s tudi a quiliesi. A ntichitä a ltoadr iat iche 9 , A quileia 1 975 . U dine 1 976 .

A rheo lo ` gki V estnik

A rheo lo ki V estnik. A cta a rchaeol ogica . S lovenska A kadem ija Z nanosti i n U metnosti. S ekcija z a a rheol ogijo . L jubljana , Y ugoslavia.

A rte e C iviltä E trusca

M ostra d e ll'Arte e d ella C iviltä E trusca . M ilan 1 955.

A rte d elle S itule

A rte d elle S itule d a l P o a l D anubio . F lorence 1 961.

B ASOR

B ulletin o f t he A merican S choo ls o f O r ienta l R esearch

C eltic A rt i n A ncient E urope

C eltic A rt i n A ncient E urope. F ive P rotohistoric C enturies. P roceedings •o f t he C olloquy h e ld i n 1 972 a t t he O xford M a ison F rança ise. E d. b y P .-M . D uva l a nd C .F.C. H awkes. L ondon, N ew Y ork, S an F rancisco 1 976.

1 35

C RA I

C omptes r endus d e l 'Academ ie d es I nscriptions e t B e lles-Lettres

D dA

D ia loghi d i A rcheologia

E AA

E nciclopedia d e ll'arte a ntica : c lassica e o rienta le . R ome 1 958-

F ogolari, P op. e C iv.

G . F ogo lari, " La p rotostoria d elle V enezie ." P opoli e C iviltä d e ll'Ita l ia A ntica 4 . R ome 1 975, 6 3-222.

I PEK

J ahrbuch f ör p rähistorische u nd e thnographische K unst

I ta ly B efore t he R omans

I ta ly B efore t he R omans. T he I ron A ge, O rienta lizing a nd E truscan P eriods. E d. b y D . a nd F .R. R idgway . L ondon, N ew Y ork, S an F rancisco 1 979.

J ANES

T he J ourna l o f t he A ncient N ear E astern S ociety o f C olumbia U niversity

J dI

D eutsches A rchäologisches I nstitut, J ahrbuch

J HS

J ourna l o f H e llenic S tudies

J RS

J ourna l o f R oman S tudies

L ucke-Frey

W . L ucke a nd O .H. F rey . D ie S itula i n P rovidence. R öm isch-Germanische F orschungen 2 6. B erlin 1 962. S ee C olonna , G ., i n b ibliography , f or r eview .

M AAR

M emoirs o f t he A merican A cademy i n R ome

M EFR(A )

M 6 langes d e l 'Eco le F rançaise d e R ome. A ntiquite .

M onAnt

M onumenti A ntichi d e ll'Accadem ia N aziona le d e i L incei

N Sc

N otizie d eg li S cavi d i A ntichitä

P dP

L a P aro la d e l P assato

P ID

P rae-Ita lic D ia lects o f I ta ly . E d . b y R .S. C onway , J . W hatmough, a nd S .E. J ohnson. L ondon 1 933.

P opo li e C iviltä

P opo li e C iv iltä d ell'Ita lia A ntica . B ib lioteca d i S toria P atria, v o ls. 1 -7 . R ome 1 974-1978 . 1 36

L e r ayonnement

L e r ayonnement d es c ivilisat ions g recque e t r omaine s ur l es c u ltures p e r iph6r iques. 8 . C ongrbs i ntern at ional d 'arch A logie c lassique 1 963 . P ar is 1 965 .

R E

R eal-Encyclopädie d er c lassischen A ltertumswissenschaft

R EL

R evue d es E tudes L atines

R endLinc

R endiconti d ell'Accadem ia N aziona le d ei L incei

R ömMitt

M itteilungen d es D eutschen A rchäol ogischen I nstituts, R ömische A bteilung

S tEtr

S tudi E truschi

T LE

M . P a llottino. T estimonia L inguae E truscae. F lorence 1 954. S econd e d. 1 968 .

T yrrhenica

T yrrhenica . S aggi d i s tudi e truschi. I stituto L ombardo . M ilan 1 957.

1 37

A . E TRUSCAN I NFLUENCE I N T HE N ORTH A ctes d u V III c ongres i nternationa l d es s ciences p re historiques e t p rotostoriques 3 . B elgrade 1 973. d 'Agostino, B . T ombe " principesche" d ell'orientalizzante a ntico d a P ontecagnano . M onAnt 4 9 ( 1977) 3 1-36. A mbrosi, A .C. C orpus d elle s tatue-stele l unigianesi. B ordighera 1 972. A nati, E . C amonica V a lley . N ew Y ork 1 961. A nge li, W . " Die H allstattkultur. E ine E inführung ." u nd S a lzherren. M ainz 1 970, 3 -13. A rslan, E .A. " Celti e R omani ( 1978 ) 4 4 1-48 1.

K rieger

i n T ranspadana." E tudes C eltiques 1 5

L 'Arte P reistorica n ell'Ita lia S ettentriona le d a lle O rigini a lla C iviltä P aleoveneta. E xhibition c atalog. M useo C ivico. V erona 1 978 . B anti, L . T he E truscan C ities a nd T heir C ulture. B erkeley , N ew Y ork 1 973. B enoit, F . A rt p rimitif mAiterrangen. P aris 1 955. ." La s tatuaire d 'Entremont. R echerches s ur l es s ources d e l a m ythologie c e lto-ligure." R ivista d i S tudi L iguri 1 4 ( 1948 ) 6 4-84. B enveniste , E . " Civilization: A C ontribution t o t he H istory o f t he W ord." P roblems i n G enera l L inguistics. M iami L inguistics S eries N o. 8 . C ora l G ables 1 971. T ranslation o f P rob lk ies d e l inguistique g enera le. P aris 1 966, 2 89-296. B ianchi B andine lli, R . C lusium I . L e p itture d e lle t ombe a rcaiche , i n M onumenti d e lla p ittura a ntica s coperti i n I ta lia . I . L a p ittura e trusca . R ome 1 939 . ." Clusium: ' M onAnt 3 0 ( 1925) 2 10ff . ." Osservazioni s ulle s tatue a croteria li d i P oggio C ivitate ( Murlo)." D dA 6 ( 1972) 2 42-246. .R ome . T he C enter o f P ower . N ew Y ork 1 970.

1 38

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p rima

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K rahe, H . D as V enet ische. S eine S tellung i m K reise d er v erwandten S prache . S itzungsber ichte d er H eide lberger A kadem ie d er W issenschaften ( 1950). .D ie S prache d er I l lyrer 1 . W iesbaden 1 955 . .S prache u nd V orzeit . E uropäische V orgeschichte n ach d em Z eugnis d er S prache . H eidelberg 1 954 . K retschmer, P . " D ie v orgr iechischen S prach- u nd V o lksschichten." G lotta 2 9 ( 1942) 1 70-174 . 1 58

L ejeune, M . A teste ä l 'heure d e l a r omanisat ion . p onym ique . F lorence 1 973 .

E tude a nthro-

L ejeune, M . L epontica . P aris 1 971. P ublished a s a n a rticle i n E tudes c eltiques 1 2 ( 1970) 3 37-500. , .M anuel d e l a l angue v enete. H eidelberg 1 974 . S ee M ancini, A . a nd A .L. P rosdocimi; G . B onfante; a nd P . M onteil, f or r eviews. ." Sur l 'enseignement d e l 'ec .r i ture e t d e l 'orthographe v e netes ä E ste." B ulletin d e l a S ocie te L inguistique 6 6 ( 1971) 2 67-298 . ,a nd P . G uida . ( 1965) 3 47-374 .

" Les s itules v e netes i nscrites." P dP

1 04

M ayer, A . D ie S prache d er a lten I llyrier. 2 v o ls. V ienna 1 957, 1 959. M ancini, A . a nd A .L. P rosdocim i. " Lingua e c ultura n ella P adova p a leoveneta ." P adova P reromana . P adua 1 976, 4 5-59. .R eview o f M . L ejeune, M anuel d e l a l angue v g nete, A rchivio V eneto 1 05 ( 1975) 5 -68 .

i n

,A . M aggiani a nd A . P rosdocim i. B ibliography o n R haetic, i n S tEtr 4 1 ( 1973) 3 64ff; 4 3 ( 1975) 2 49ff; 4 4(1976) 2 58ff. M onteil, P . R eview o f M . L ejeune, M anuel d e l a l angue vnete, R evue d es E tudes A nciennes 7 8-79 ( 1976-77) 2 31-32.

i n

P a llottino, M . " La l ingua d egli e truschi." P opoli e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 4 29-468 . P ublished i n F rench t ranslation, w ith p reface b y J . H eurgon, a s L a l angue e t r usque , P aris 1 978 . P edersen, H . V ergleichende G rammatik d er k eltischen S prache. 2v ols. G öttingen 1 909. P ellegrini, G .B. " Iscrizioni n ord-etrusche." T yrrhenica . M ilan, 1 957, 1 45-157 ( Spina a nd A dria ). ,a nd A .L. P rosdocim i. L a l ingua v enetica 1 -2. P adua , F lorence 1 967. S ee B eeler, M ., f or r eview . ." Origine e d iffusione d egli a lfabeti p reromani n ell'Ita lia s uperiore ."Spina e l 'Etruria P adana . A tti d el I0 c onvegno d i s tudi e truschi. F lorence 1 959, 1 81-196. ." Toponim i e d e tnici d elle l ingue d ell'Ita lia a ntica ." P opoli e C iviltä 6 ( 1978) 7 9-127. ,a nd G . F ogolari. " Iscrizioni e trusche e v enetiche d i A dria ." S tEtr 2 6 ( 1958 ) 1 03-154 .

1 59

P eruzzi, E . " I G rec i el e l ingue d e l L az io p r im it ivo ." P opo li eC iv iltä 6 ( 1978 ) 4 87-503 . P isani, V . L e l ingue d e ll'Ita lia a ntica o ltre i l l atino . S econd e d. T ur in 1 964 . P olome , E . " The P osition o f I llyrian a nd V enetic ." A ncient I ndoE uropean D ia lects. E d. b y H . B irnbaum a nd J . P uhvel. B erke ley 1 966 . P rosdocim i, A .L.

" Iscrizioni R etiche ." S tEtr 4 3 ( 1975) 2 66-270 .

,e d. L ingue e d ia letti. P opoli e C iviltl 6 . R ome,

1 978 .

." Nota s u ' Reti' e ' Ret ico '." T rem ila A nni f a aV erona. V erona 1 976 , 14-118 . ." Il v enetico ." P opoli e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 2 57-380. ,a nd P . S cardigli. " Negau." I ta lia l inguistica n uova e t a ntica . S tudi l inguistici i n m emoria d i O . P arlange li 1 . E d. b y V . P isani a nd C . S antoro. G a latina 1 976, 1 8 1-229. R ix, H . D as e truskische C ognomen. W iesbaden 1 963. R unes, M . " Die I nschrift a uf d em B ronzeeimer v on C aslyr ." G lotta 2 3 ( 1935 ) 273 -274. R ussu, I on I . I llirii i storia , l imba s i o nomastica-romanizarea . B ucarest 1 969, C hapter 3 , 6 3-83. S taccioli, R . L a l ingua d egli e truschi. R ome 1 97 1. T ibiletti B runo , M .G. " Camuno r etico e p araretico ." P opo li e C iviltä 6 ( 1978 ) 2 09-256 . T odd, M . T he N orthern B arbarians 1 00 B C -A D 3 00 . L ondon 1 975, 1 40 , 1 87, 2 03-205 . U ntermann, J . D ie v enetischen P ersonennamen. W iesbaden 1 961. W erner, J . D as A ufkommen v on B ild u nd S chr ift i n N ordeuropa . B ayerische A kadem ie d er W issenschaften, M unich. S itzungsberichte 1 966, p art 4 . W hatmough, J . T he D ia lects o f A ncient G au l. P rolegomena a nd R ecords o f t he D ia lects. H arvard 1 972. ." Tusca O rigo R aetis." H arvard S tudies i n C lassica l P hilo logy 4 8 ( 1937) 1 8 1-202.

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I llustrations 1 .-2. E xcavations b y t he D uchess o f M ecklenburg a t M agda lenska G ora , 1 913. 1 . T umulus V I, G rave 3 . D uchess o f M ecklenburg b y ac ist g rave. 2 . T umulus V . E xcavation t eam . ( Courtesy o f t he P eabody M useum , H arvard U niversity .)

3 . C ontents o f t he B envenuti t omb ( Tomb 1 26) f rom E ste . C a. 6 00 B .C . E ste, M useo A rcheo logico . ( Randa ll-MacIver, I ron A ge i n I ta ly p l. 7 .)

4 . B envenuti s itula . H . 3 1 c m . C a. 6 00 B .C. E ste, M useo A rcheologico. ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 5.) 5 . B ronze " t int innabulum" f rom B o logna, T omba d eg li O n. H . 1.5 c m . C a . 6 00 B .C . B o logna, M use° C ivico. ( C . M or igi G ov i, A rchC lass 2 3, 1 97 1, p ls. 5 2, 5 4 .)

6 . B ronze " t int innabulum" f rom B o logna .

( Cf . f ig. 5 .)

7 . S itula f rom V aCe . H . 2 3.8 c m . C a . 5 00 B .C. L jubljana , N arodni M uzej. ( Lucke-Frey p l. 7 3.)

8 . S itula i n P rovidence, H . 2 6.6 c m . C a . 5 50 B .C. P rovidence, R .I. M useum o f t he R hode I sland S chool o f D esign. ( Lucke-Frey , B eilage 1 .)

9 . S itula f rom t he C ertosa n ecropo lis, B ologna . H . 3 2.7 C a . 5 00 B .C. B ologna , M useo C ivico. S ide 1 . ( Bo logna M us. p hoto .)

1 0. C ertosa s itula . S ide 2 . ( Bo logna M us. p hoto.)

1. C ertosa s itula .

( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 4.)

1 2. S itula f rom K uffarn. H . 2 5 c m . C a . 4 00 B .C. V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum . ( Hoernes, Uueschichte p l. 3 3.)

1 63

c m .

1 3. S itula f rom M agdalenska G ora. H . 1 9.5 c m . C a . 5 00 B .C. V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum . ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 8 .)

1 4 . A rnoa ldi s itula. C a . 4 00 B .C. H . 2 3 c m . B ologna, M useo C ivico . ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 3.)

1 5. B oldu-Do lfin s itula f rom E ste, d etails. F ourth c entury B .C. E ste, M useo A rcheologico. ( Randa ll-MacIver, I ron A ge i n I taly 5 3, p l. 9 , f ig. 3 .)

1 6. B ronze b elt p late f rom K rajina ( S lovenia ). H unting s cene. H . 3 .6 c m . L ate H allstatt, 4 50-350 B .C. E ast B erlin, S taatliche M useen. ( F. G empel, S taatl. M us. B erlin, F orschungen u nd B erichte 1 4, A rch. B eitr 4e 1 972, A kad. V erlag, E ast B erlin, f ig. 1 .)

1 7. B envenuti s itula , d etail, c entaur.

( Cf. f ig. 4 .)

1 8. I ncised b ucchero v ase f rom O rvieto. S eventh c entury B .C. H unter a nd C himaera. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico. ( Sopr. A nt. E tr. C ourtesy G . C amporea le.)

1 9. I ncised b ucchero a mphora, d etail o f d ressed c entaur. S eventh c entury B .C. B arcelona M useum . ( Photo H elle S a lskov R oberts.)

2 0. B oeotian p ithos, d etail. P erseus a nd M edusa. S eventh c entury B .C. P aris, M usge d u L ouvre. ( Photo F ranceschi, L ouvre.)

2 1. B ronze s tatuette o f ad ressed c entaur, E truscan. 6 00-550 B .C. H anover, K estner M useum . ( Museum p hoto.)

2. I vory s itula f rom s econd t umulus o f P ania, C hiusi. H . o f f rieze c a. 3 c m . C a. 5 75 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico. ( Sopr. A nt. E tr.)

2 3. I vory s itula f rom f irst t umulus o f P ania, C hiusi. H . o f f rieze c a . 3c m . C a. 5 75 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico ( Sopr. A nt. E tr.)

2 4. T erracotta s tatuette, m ale c rowning f igure f rom " ziron f unerary u rn f rom C hiusi. H . 3 1 c m. C a. 6 50 B .C. B erlin, S taatliches M useum . ( Museum p hoto.)

1 64

2 5. I vory r elief p lagues w ith f emale f igures. H . 7c m. C a . 5 75 B .C. B o logna, M useo C ivico, P alagi C ollection. ( P. D ucati, S tEtr 2 , 1 928 , p l. 3 .)

2 6. B ronze s tatuette o f E truscan f ema le f igure w earing m antle a nd p ointed s hoes. H . 2 4 c m . C a . 5 40 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico. ( Drawing b y K . M ills L iotta.)

2 7. B envenuti s itula, d etail, s eated g entleman.

( Cf. f ig. 4 .)

2 8 . T erracotta a croterion f rom M urlo, l ife-size f igure o f s eated g entleman w ith l arge h at a nd p ointed s hoes. 5 75-550 B .C. S iena, P alazzo C omuna le. ( Sopr. A nt. E tr.)

2 9. T erracotta m odel, l aced s hoes f rom C ircolo d ella S agrona . E truscan. H . 1 c m , L ate I ron A ge. F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. ( Drawing b y A nna F arkas a fter M ontelius, C ivilisation P rim itive, " Ital ' ie C entrale," p l. 1 78 .)

3 0. D etail o f i ncised d ecoration o n s word s cabbard s how ing d ead h ero w ith p ointed s hoes. H . 6 8 c m . H allstatt c emetery , G rave 9 54. V ienna, N aturhistorisches M useum . ( J .V.S. M egaw, A lba R eg ia 1 4 , 1 975, f ig. 1 .)

3 1.-32. T erracotta f rieze d ecorations f rom M urlo. H . 2 4 c m . 5 75-550 B .C. S iena, P alazzo C omunale.

3 1. S eated f igures.

( T. G antz, S tEtr 3 9,

3 2. C arriage p rocession.

1 971, f ig.

( T. G antz, R ömMitt 8 1,

1 .)

1 974, f ig.

3 3.-34. T erracotta f rieze d ecorations f rom M urlo. H . 2 4 c m . 5 75-550 B .C. S iena, P alazzo C omunale.

3 3. B anquet.

( J .P. S mall, S tEtr 3 9,

3 4. H orse R ace.

( M.C. R oot, A JA 7 7,

1 971, f ig.

1 .)

1 973, f ig.

1 .)

3 5. G round p lan o f a rchitectural c omplex a t M urlo. 6 00-525 B .C. ( Cristofani, A rte d egli E truschi, f ig. 8 .)

1 65

1 .)

3 6. T ypes o f f ans, V illanovan a nd E truscan. S eventh t o s econd c enturies B .C. a . B ronze f an f rom T omba d ei F labelli, P opulonia . b . T omba C ardarelli, T arquinia, d etail. c .-d. P rovidence s itula, d etails. e . F unerary u rn, V olterra, d etail. f . B ronze f an f rom T omba d ei F labelli, P opulonia . g . F unerary u rn f rom M ontescudaio, d etail. h . T omb o f t he S hields, T arquinia, d etail. i . F unerary u rn, P erugia, d etail. j . S arcophagus f rom V ulci, d etail. k . T omb o f R eliefs, C erveteri, d etail. ( F. M agi, A tti I S imposio P rotostoria d 'Italia, 1 967, f ig. 2 a.)

3 7.-38 . C arriages i n s itula a rt. 3 7. Vje s itula .

( Cf. f ig. 7 .)

3 8. S itula f rom M oritzing ( San M aurizio).

3 9. B ronze s tatuette o f a crobat, E truscan. H . 2 .7 c m . C a. 6 00 B .C. S iena, M useo A rcbeo logico . ( Drawing b y K . M ills L iotta .)

4 0. B ronze s tatuette o f w arrior, E truscan. H . 7 .7 c m. C a. 6 00 B .C. S iena, M useo A rcheologico. ( Drawing b y K . M ills L iotta.)

4 1. B ronze s tatuette o f f ema le f igure f rom S ti ha ( Yugoslavia ). H . 9 .4 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. ( P. W ells, A rchNews 7 , 1 978, 7 3-82, f ig. 2 .)

4 2. B ronze b elts, I talic a nd H allstatt. a . J ägerndorf, S chlesien ( Poland). H a llstatt p eriod. ( Hoernes, U rgeschichte 5 82, f ig. 1 75.) b . " Cinturone N azari" f rom E ste. C a . 4 50 B .C. ( Randall-MacIver, I ron A ge i n I ta ly 4 5, f ig. 1 3.) c . V illanovan " willow-leaf" b elt. C a . 7 50 B .C. P rovidence . , R .I., M useum o f t he R hode I sland S chool o f D esign. ( M itten, C lassica l B ronzes 8 0, N o . 2 2.)

4 3. V illanovan b elt p laque m ade f rom d eer h orn. F rom B ologna, S an V ita le c emetery . E ighth c entury B .C. B o logna , M useo C ivico. ( Museum p hoto.)

4 4. V illanovan b ronze b elt p laque. P rovenance u nknown. E ighth c entury B .C. B altimore, W alters A rt G allery. ( Museum p hoto.)

1 66

4 5. B anqueter w ith f ema le a ttendant. L id o f t erracotta f unerary u rn f rom M ontescudiao ( Volterra ). S eventh c entury B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico . ( Draw ing b y A nna F arkas, f rom M agi, A tti I S imposio P rotostoria d 'Ita lia , f ig. 1 .)

4 6. B anqueter w ith f ema le a ttendant . B ronze b elt p laque f rom E ste. L . 7 .5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. E ste, M useo N aziona le A testino . ( Frey , E ntstehung p l. 6 7.)

4 7. B ronze d rinking s et f rom E ste. 1 .-2. B uckets o r c istae. 3 .-6 . C ups. 7 .-8 . S trainers. 9 . D ipper. 1 0.-11. F ooted c up, b asin o r s tand. ( Peroni a nd o thers, E ste e G olasecca 7 0, f ig. 1 3.)

4 8 . W arrior 's g rave w ith e quipment, i ncluding s itula . H a llstatt c emetery , G rave 9 12. S eventh-sixth c entury B .C. ( Kromer, H a llstatt 1 74 , f ig. 1 30.)

4 9. C onjectura l r estoration o f z iro b uria l, C hiusi. S eventh c entury B .C. ( Dohan, A JA 4 1, 1 935, 2 02, f ig. 1 0.)

5 0 . a .-b. G ilded s ilver " Phoenician-Cypriot" s itula f rom C hiusi, i nscribed " Plicasnas." H . 1 4 c m . C a . 6 50 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico . c . G ilded s ilver p hia le o r p atera f rom C h iusi. C a. 6 50 B .C . L ost . ( M . C r istofan i M arte lli, S tEtr 4 1, 1 973, p l . 3 1, a fter I ngh iram i.) 5 1. B ronze s tatuette o f h orseman f rom C ontarino ( Rov igo). H . 1 4.6 c m . F ifth c entury B .C.(?) A dria M useum . ( Museum p hoto .)

5 2. E truscan r epresentations o f c hariot r aces, s ixth a nd f ifth c entur ies B .C. a . B lack-figure a mphora, M unich. b . T omb o f t he O lympiads, T arquinia . c . T omba d e l C olle, C hiusi. d . T erracotta p laques f rom V e1letri. e . S tone r elief f rom C h iusi. ( Bronson, i n S tudi B anti p l. 2 5.)

5 3. C hariot w ith c harioteer . T omba G o lini I, O rvieto. F ourth c entury B .C. C opy i n F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. ( P. D ucati, P ittura e trusca i ta lo-greca e r omana , N ovara , 1 942, 2 0.)

5 4. B ucchero c up w ith s tamped d ecoration. S ixth c entury B .C. N ew Y ork, M etropo litan M useum o f A rt . ( Museum p hoto.)

1 67

5 5 . E truscan b ronze m irror f rom P raeneste w ith e ngraved d ecoration. C a . 5 00 B .C . L ondon, B r it ish M useum . ( Courtesy o f t he T rustees o f t he B ritish M useum .)

5 6. B ronze m irror f rom C astelvetro . D a ily l ife a nd e rotic s cene . D iam . 1 7 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. M odena , G aller ia N aziona le E st6 ise . ( Montelius, C ivilisation P rim itive, 1 895, c ols. 4 49-450, a .)

5 7.

" Arnoaldi m irror" f rom B ologna . W arrior w ith h orn, f lanked b y d ecorative m onsters. D iam , 1 5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. B o logna , M useo C ivico . ( Grenier, B o logne f ig. 18 .)

5 8 . " Arnoa ldi M irror ." C f. f ig. 5 7.

( Museum p hoto .)

5 9. B ronze d isc f rom M ontebe lluna . G oddess R e itia w ith k ey , f lanked b y a nima ls. ( ) lam . 2 7.6 c m . F ourth o r t hird c entury B .C. T reviso, M useo C ivico A rcheologico . ( Museum p hoto .)

6 0. B ronze v otive p laque f rom C a ldevigo ( Este ). F ema le f igure w ith m antle , b oots a nd r ounded b elt. F ourth o r t hird c entury B .C. E ste , M useo N aziona le A testino. ( Roth, G ermania 5 6 , 1 978 , f ig . 7 :2.)

6 1. B ronze v ot ive p laque f rom E ste ( Fondo B arate la) w ith f ema le f igure w ear ing a m ant le o ver h er h ead . H . 8 .8 . c m . F ourth o r t hird c entury B .C. ( G. G hirardini, N otSc 1 888 , 1 33, p l. 9 , f ig. 4 .)

6 2 . B ronze v otive p laque f rom V icenza. G roup o f t hree w orsh ippers, t wo w omen w ith s hou lder-mant les a nd a m an w ith p ointed h e lmet o r h at . F ourth c entury B .C . ( Roth, G ermania 5 6, 1 978 , B eilage 3 .)

6 3. B ronze b elt f rom B rezje, d eta il, e rotic s cene. L . 7 .5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. V ienna , N aturhistor isches M useum . ( Lucke-Frey , p l. 3 2, C at . 1 7.)

6 4 . S itu la f rom S anzeno, d etail: e rot ic s cene a nd m an p loughing. H . o f f r ieze c a. 7 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. I nnsbruck, M useum F erdinandeum . ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 7 .)

6 5. V ase f rom O edenburg ( Ha llstatt). W omen s pinning a nd w eaving, a ccompanied b y am a le m usician. H . c a . 5 0 c m . S eventh c entury B .C. V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum . ( Hoernes, U rgeschichte p l. 2 9.)

1 68

6 6. T erracotta j ug f rom T ragliatella ( near C erveteri), w ith e rotic, m ilitary , a nd o ther s cenes, p robab ly m ytho logica l ( Theseus a nd A riadne?). H . 2 4 c m . C a . 6 00 B .C. R ome, C apito line M useum , P a lazzo d ei C onservatori. ( G .Q. G iglioli, S tEtr 3 , 1 929, p l. 2 6.)

6 7 . B ronze s tatuette f rom C a ldev igo, E ste . F emale f igure w ith p o inted h at, n eck lace, b e lt, a nd b oots. F ifth c entury B .C . E ste. M useo N aziona le A testino . ( Draw ing b y K . M ills L iotta .)

6 8 . S tone f unerary s tele, L igurian, f rom F iletto ( near M assa C arrara ) w ith l ife-size f igure o f w arrior. H . 1 .28 m . S eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C. P ontremoli, P rivate C ollection. ( Drawing b y A nna F arkas f rom O rlandini, P opo li e C iv iltä 7 , 1 979, p l. 3 2.)

6 9 . S tone s tatue , " Hirschlanden W arrior." L ife-size. S ixth c entury B .C. S tuttgart, W ürttembergisches L andesmuseum . ( Museum p hoto .)

7 0. S tone s tatue, " Capestrano W arrior ." H . 2 .09 m . S ixth c entury B .C. C hieti M useum . ( Museum p hoto .)

7 1. T omb o f t he M onkey , C hiusi, w a ll p a intings. a . W oman a ttending f uneral g ames. b . B ox ing m atch. c . W rest ling a nd h orse r iding . F ifth c entury B .C. ( Copies i n F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico.)

7 2 . B ronze h e lmet f rom O ppeano ( Verona), e ngraved w ith a nimal f r ieze, i nc lud ing w inged c entaur w ith b elt . C a . 5 00 B .C . F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico . 3 000 A nni F a aV erona , V erona , 1 976, f ig. 2 2.)

7 3. F unerary , h orseshoe-shaped s tone r elief s tele f rom B ologna ( Felsina ), w ith n aked a rmed w arrior c onfronting a s nake-legged m onster . 5 10-480 B .C. B ologna, M useo C ivico. ( Draw ing b y A nna F arkas f rom M useum p hoto.)

7 4. B ronze a mphora f rom O rvieto, d eta il, l ion w ith l eg i n m outh. S eventh c entury B .C. O rvieto , M useo A rcheo logico. ( Gig lioli, S tEtr 4 , 1 930, p ls. 1 2-13.)

7 5 .

Vje s itula, d eta il, l ion w ith l eg i n m outh . ( Draw ing b y E lizabeth W oodsma ll.)

1 69

C f . f ig . 7 .

7 6. S tone a mulet f rom A rslan T ash w ith w olf d evouring a m an. H . 8 .2 c m . S eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C. ( A. C aquot a nd R . d u M esnil d u B uisson, S yria 4 8 , 1 971, 3 93, f ig. 2 .)

7. S tone a mu let f rom A rslan l ash w ith m onster d evouring a m an. H . 4 .5 c m . S eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C. ( A . C aquot a nd R . d u M esnil d u B uisson, S yria 4 8 , 1 971, 3 92, f ig . 1 . )

7 8 .

I ncised b ucchero p itcher, d eta il, l ion w ith l eg i n m outh. S eventh c entury B .C. B russe ls, M usee d u C inquantenaire. ( Museum p hoto.)

7 9 . B e lt b uckle f rom E ste w ith d eer a nd l ion w ith l eg i n m outh. L . 1 9 .5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. E ste, M useo N aziona le A testino . ( Frey , E ntstehung, p l. 7 1, f ig . 2 7.)

8 0. G o ld a pplique i n t he f orm o f ad ouble-bodied l ion. A chaemenid. T ehran, A rchaeo logica l M useum . ( 7,000 Y ears o f I ranian A rt 1 964-1965, N o . 4 56.)

8 1. E ar ly C orinthian d ouble-bodied s phinx, o n av ase f rom S yracuse. S eventh c entu ry . ( R . G hirshman, A rts o f A ncient I ran, N ew Y ork 1 964 , 5 82 .)

8 2 . P ontic a mphora b y t he P aris P ainter, d etail, d oub le-headed p anther. C a. 5 40 B .C. N ew Y ork, M etropolitan M useum o f A rt . ( Museum p hoto.)

8 3. A ttic b lack f igure k y lix w ith d ouble-bodied G orgon. S ixth c entury B .C. C openhagen, N y C arlsberg G lyptotek, I .N. 3 383. ( Museum p hoto .)

8 4.-86. L uttre ll P sa lter, d etails, d ouble-bodied c reatures. F ourteenth c entury A .D. ( F . M illar, T he L uttre ll P salter, L ondon 1 932, p l. 1 03 , f . 1 75v , f . 1 94v.)

8 7. B ible, d eta il, d ouble-bodied m onsters d evouring h umans. E leventh c entury . P aris, B ibliotheque N ationa le. C odex P aris, L atin 8 .1, f . 1 70v. ( G .L. M iche li, L 'enleminure d u H aut M oyen-A9e e t l es i nf luences i r landaises, B russels, 1 939, f ig . 7 5 .)

8 8 . B ase o f s ilver S cythian b eaker f rom t he D anube r egion. A nima l w ith h aunch i n m outh. F ourth c entury B .C. N ew Y ork, M etropo litan M useum o f A rt, R ogers F und 1 947. ( Museum p hoto .)

1 70

8 9 .

G o ld d ecorative p laques, b irds i n p airs; i n e ach, o ne h olds a h uman a rm i n i ts b eak. F rom O lbia. F ourth t o f irst c entury B .C. B a ltimore, W a lters A rt G allery . ( Museum p hoto .)

9 0. C eltic s culpture, T arasque d e N oyes. M onster w ith h uman a rm i n i ts j aws, h o lding i ts p aws o ver s evered h uman h eads. F ourth c entury B .C. t o s econd c entury A .D. ( P.A. v an D orp, R .A. v an R oyen, T alanta 8 -9, 1 977, 3ff.)

9-L B ronze o inochoe f rom P erugia : h andle i n t he f orm o f a p anther w ith h uman h ead i n i ts m outh. 50-500 B .C. M unich, A ntikensamm lung ( Wittelsbach). ( Museum P hoto, C .H. K rbger-Moessner.)

9 2. B rass a quamanile. G erman, t welfth o r t hirteenth c entury . N ew Y ork, M etropo litan M useum o f A rt, T he C loisters C ollection, 1 947. ( Museum p hoto .)

9 3. G rave r e lief o f L . M inucius O ptatus. R oman. E ste, M useo N aziona le A testino. ( Photo S opr. A rch. P adova.) 9 4. B ronze-covered t hrone f rom t he B arberini t omb, P raeneste, d ecorated w ith r eliefs. S eventh c entury B .C. R ome, V illa G iulia M useum . ( Museum p hoto.)

9 5 . L imestone c hair r epresenting o r iginal w icker m odel, i n R oman g rave c hamber a t W eiden, n ear C o logne. ( Museum p hoto.)

9 6. C hair a nd s tool i n t he T omba d egli S cudi e d elle S edie, C erveteri. S eventh c entury B .C. ( Deutsches A rch. I nst. R ome N eg. 7 3.1490.)

9 7.

B oxers o n ab elt b uck le f rom M agda lenska G ora. G ermania, 5 6, 1 978, f ig. 5 .)

( Roth,

9 8 . M iniature V illanovan t erracotta t hrone f rom V erucchio, w ith r elief d ecoration. H . 6 .3 c m . S eventh c entury B .C. V erucchio, C ollezione G iuseppe P ecci. ( M. Z uffa, S tudi B anti, R ome, 1 965, 3 52, f ig. 1 , d rawing b y P .G. P asini.) 9 9. S eated b anqueter w ith a ttendant, d etail f rom V aCe s itula. ( Cf. f ig. 7 .)

1 00 . S eated b anqueter w ith a ttendant, d etail f rom P rovidence s itula. C f. f ig. 8 . ( Drawing b y E . W oodsma ll.)

1 7 1

1 0 1. R e lief s tele f rom B ologna ( Certosa ). E arly f ourth c entury B .C. ( Drawing b y A nna F arkas, f rom M useum p hoto .)

1 02 . C orsin i C hair, m arb le w ith r e lief d ecoration . H . 0 .825 m . R oman, f irst c entury B .C . R ome, G aller ia C orsini. ( Gab . F ot . N az .)

1 03. C orsini C hair. B ack.

( Gab. F ot . N az.)

1 04 . C orsini C ha ir, d etail, p rocession w ith e qu ipment . ( Gab . F ot . N az .)

1 05 . C orsini C hair, d etail, p rocession w ith e qu ipment . ( Gab . F ot . N az .)

1 06 . C orsini C ha ir, d eta il, s acrifice.

( Gab. F ot. N az.)

1 07. C orsini C ha ir, d eta il, s eated y ouths w atching g ames. ( Gab. F ot. N az.)

1 08 . C orsini C ha ir, d etail, w restlers.

( Gab. F ot . N az.)

1 09. T omba d egli A uguri, T arquinia , d etail, w restler w ith j udge . C a . 5 30 B .C.

10. C orsini C ha ir, d eta il, b oxers.

( Gab. F ot . N az.)

11. C orsini C hair, d eta il, m an b ending o ver a w e ll ( ?). ( Gab. F ot. N az.)

12. C orsini C hair, d etail, s o ldiers a nd b oar h unt. ( Gab. F ot. N az.)

13. A rch o f A ugustus a t S usa ( Piedmont), d etail, p ig f or s acrifice . ( Photo C homon-Perino, T urin.)

14 . E truscan a lphabets, 6 50-600 B .C. 1 . M arsiliana d 'A lbegna . 2 . C erveteri. 3 . V iterbo. 4 . F orme llo. ( A . S taccio li, L a l ingua d egli e truschi, 1 971, 5 3 .)

1 72

15 . S tone s te le o f L arth N inie, f rom F ieso le . H . 1 .38 m . C a . 5 25 B .C . F lorence, C asa B uonarroti, S a la d e lle A nt ichitä. ( Draw ing b y E . W oodsma ll, a fter M onte lius, C ivilisat ion P r im it ive, 1 895, p l. 1 68, f ig. 2 .)

16. S tele o f L arth N inie, d etail, ( Sopr . A nt . E tr . F lorence .)

17 .

i nscription. C f. f ig. 15

I nscription o n s itula i n P rovidence .Rhaet ic. F ifth c entury B .C. ( K . O lzscha i n L ucke-Frey, p l. 4 .)

18 . S itu la f rom C o lle C aslyr, V a l d i C embra . " S itula G iovane lli." R haetic. T rento, M useo C ivico. ( Ghirardini, M onAnt 3 , 2 50, f ig. 3 1.)

19. B ronze e x-voto f rom E ste ( Fondo B arate la ) i n t he s hape o f aw riting t ablet, d edicated t o t he g oddess R eitia b y V oltiiomnos. C a . t hird c entury B .C. C ontains t he V enetic a lphabet, t he s igns A LCEO r epeated t he l ength o f t he t ablet ( A a nd 0 a re t he f irst a nd l ast l etters o f t he V enet ic a lphabet), a nd s y llab le p ract ice . ( G . G h irardini, N otSc 1 888 , p l. 2 .) 1 20 . R unic i nscript ion o n c lasp o f b rooch f rom V aer löse, S eeland. R oman i mperia l p eriod ( continues L a Tne t ype): A lugod, am agic w ord. ( Ho lmqvist, i n E ggers, e tc. C e ltes e t G ermains, 1 964, 3 6, f ig. 8 .)

1 21. R unes. a . R unic a lphabet, f uthark. b . G old " bracteate" ( meda l) f rom V adstena, S weden. c . S pear, i nlaid w ith s ilver, w ith r unic i nscription, f rom M öncheberg ( Brandenburg) , G ermany . d . S pear w ith r unes f rom K owel, s outhern R ussia . e . J avelin w ith r unes f rom R ozwadow , P oland. f . B ronze s tatuette f rom F röjhof , N orway . ( Holmqvist , i n E ggers, e tc. C eltes e t G ermains, 1 964, 7 0, f ig. 1 4.)

1 22. " Franks C asket ," i vory c asket w ith r unic i nscription. S eventh c entury A .D. L ondon, B ritish M useum . ( B Y. p hoto A S.8 .29.)

1 73

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9 . T he l anguages o f a ncient I ta ly . F ifth c entury B .C . ( G . B onfante , P . F errero, G rammatica L atina , M ilan 1 976, m ap 2 ).

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1 .-2. E xcavations b y t he D uchess o f M ecklenburg a t M agda lenska G ora, 1 913. 1 . T umulus V I, G rave 3 . D uchess o f M ecklenburg b y ac ist g rave. 2 . T umulus V . E xcavation t eam . ( Courtesy o f t he P eabody M useum , H arvard U niversity .)

3 . C ontents o f t he B envenut i t omb ( Tomb 1 26) f rom E ste . C a. 6 00 B .C . E ste, M useo A rcheo logico . ( Randa ll-MacIver , I ron A ge i n I taly p l. 7 .)

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5 . B ronze " t int innabulum" f rom B o logna, T omba d eg li O n. H . 1.5 c m . C a . 6 00 B .C . B o logna, M useo C iv ico . ( C . M origi G ov i, A rchC lass 2 3, 1 97 1, p ls . 5 2, 5 4 .)

6 . B ronze " t int innabulum" f rom B o logna .

( Cf . f ig. 5 .)

7 . S itula f rom V ace. H . 2 3.8 c m . C a. 5 00 B .C. L jubljana , N arodni M uzej. ( Lucke-Frey p l. 7 3.)

8 . S itula i n P rovidence, H . 2 6.6 c m. C a . 5 50 B .C. P rovidence, R .I. M useum o f t he R hode I sland S chool o f D esign. ( Lucke-Frey , B eilage 1 .)

9 . S itula f rom t he C ertosa n ecropo lis, B ologna. H . 3 2.7 C a . 5 00 B .C. B ologna , M useo C ivico. S ide 1 . ( Bologna M us. p hoto .)

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( Lucke-Frey p l.

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1 2. S itula f rom K uffarn. H . 2 5 c m . C a. 4 00 B .C. V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum . ( Hoernes, U rgeschichte p l. 3 3.)

1 3. S itula f rom M agda lenska G ora. H . 1 9.5 c m . C a . 5 00 B .C. V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum . ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 8 .)

1 4 . A rnoa ldi s itula . C a. 4 00 B .C. H . 2 3 c m . B ologna, M useo C ivico. ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 3.)

1 5. B oldS-Dolfin s itula f rom E ste, d etails. F ourth c entury B .C. E ste, M useo A rcheo logico . ( Randa ll-Mac Iver, I ron A ge i n I taly 5 3, p l. 9 , f ig . 3 .)

1 6. B ronze b e lt p late f rom K rajina ( S lovenia ). H unting s cene . H . 3 .6 c m . L ate H allstatt, 4 50-350 B .C. E ast B erlin, S taatliche M useen. ( F . G empel, S taatl. M us. B erlin, F orschungen u nd B erichte 1 4 , A rch. B eiträge 1 972, A kad. V er lag, E ast B erlin, f ig . 1 .)

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1 9.

I ncised b ucchero a mphora, d etail o f d ressed c entaur. S eventh c entury B .C. B arce lona M useum . ( Photo H elle S a lskov R oberts.)

2 0. B oeotian p ithos, d eta il. P erseus a nd M edusa . S eventh c entury B .C. P aris, M usge d u L ouvre. ( Photo F ranceschi, L ouvre .)

2 1. B ronze s tatuette o f ad ressed c entaur, E truscan. 6 00-550 B .C. H anover, K estner M useum . ( Museum p hoto.)

2. I vory s itula f rom s econd t umulus o f P ania, C hiusi. H . o f f rieze c a. 3 c m . C a. 5 75 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico. ( Sopr. A nt. E tr.)

2 3.

I vory s itula f rom f irst t umulus o f P ania, C hiusi. H . o f f rieze c a . 3c m . C a . 5 75 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico ( Sopr. A nt. E tr,)

2 4. T erracotta s tatuette, m ale c rowning f igure f rom " ziro" f unerary u rn f rom C hiusi. H . 3 1 c m . C a. 6 50 B .C. B erlin, S taatliches M useum . ( Museum p hoto .)

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2 5. I vory r elief p laques w ith f ema le f igures. H . 7c m . C a . 5 75 B .C. B o logna , M useo C ivico, P a lagi C o llection. ( P. D ucati, S tEtr 2 , 1 928 , p l. 3 .)

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2 6 .

2 7 .

2 6. B ronze s tatuette o f E truscan f ema le f igure w earing m antle a nd p ointed s hoes. H . 2 4 c m . C a . 5 40 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. ( Draw ing b y K . M ills L iotta .)

2 7. B envenuti s itula , d eta il, s eated g entleman.

( Cf. f ig. 4 .)

2 8 . T erracotta a croterion f rom M urlo, l ife-size f igure o f s eated g entleman w ith l arge h at a nd p ointed s hoes. 5 75-550 B .C. S iena , P a lazzo C omuna le. ( Sopr. A nt. E tr.)

2 9. T erracotta m odel, l aced s hoes f rom C ircolo d ella S agrona. E truscan. H . 1 c m . L ate I ron A ge . F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. ( Drawing b y A nna F arkas a fter M ontelius, C ivilisation P rim itive, " Ita lie C entrale," p l. 1 78 .)

A. D etail o f i ncised d ecoration o n s word s cabbard s how ing d ead h ero w ith p ointed s hoes. H . 6 8 c m . H allstatt c emetery , G rave 9 54 . V ienna, N aturhistorisches M useum . ( J .V.S. M egaw , A lba R egia 1 4, 1 975, f ig. 1 .)

3 1.

3 2 .

3 1.-32. T erracotta f rieze d ecorations f rom M ur lo. H . 2 4 c m . 5 75-550 B .C. S iena , P a lazzo C omuna le.

3 1. S eated f igures. ( T. G antz, S tEtr 3 9,

3 2. C arriage p rocession.

1 971, f ig. 1 . )

( T. G antz, R ömMitt 8 1,

1 974, f ig. 1 . )

3 3 .

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3 4 .

3 3.-34 . T erracotta f rieze d ecorations f rom M urlo. H . 2 4 c m . 5 75-550 B .C. S iena, P alazzo C omuna le.

3 3. B anquet.

( J .P. S mall, S tEtr 3 9,

3 4. H orse R ace.

( M.C. R oot, A JA 7 7,

1 971, f ig.

1 .)

1 973, f ig.

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3 5. G round p lan o f a rchitectural c omplex a t M urlo. 6 00-525 B .C. ( Cristofani, A rte d egli E truschi, f ig. 8 .)

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3

3 6. T ypes o f f ans, V illanovan a nd E truscan. S eventh t o s econd c enturies B .C. a . B ronze f an f rom T omba d ei F labelli, P opulonia . b . T omba C ardarelli, T arquinia, d etail. c .-d. P rovidence s itula, d etails. e . F unerary u rn, V olterra, d etail. f . B ronze f an f rom T omba d ei F labelli, P opulonia . g . F unerary u rn f rom M ontescudaio, d etail. h . T omb o f t he S hields, T arquinia, d etail. i . F unerary u rn, P erugia, d etail. j . S arcophagus f rom V ulci, d etail. k . T omb o f R eliefs, C erveteri, d etail. ( F . M agi, A tti I S imposio P rotostoria d 'Italia, 1 967, f ig. 2 a.)

3 7.

3 8 .

3 7.-38 . C arriages i n s itula a rt. 3 7. V ae s itula .

( Cf . f ig. 7 .)

3 8 . S itula f rom M oritzing ( San M aurizio ).

3 9. B ronze s tatuette o f a crobat, E truscan. H . 2 .7 c m . C a. 6 00 B .C. S iena, M useo A rcheo logico . ( Draw ing b y K . M ills L iotta .)

4 0. B ronze s tatuette o f w arrior, E truscan. H . 7 .7 c m. C a . 6 00 B .C. S iena, M useo A rcheo logico. ( Draw ing b y K . M ills L iotta .)

4 1. B ronze s tatuette o f f ema le f igure f rom S tiC "na ( Yugoslavia ). H . 9 .4 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. ( P. W e lls, A rchNews 7 , 1 978 , 7 3-82, f ig. 2 .)

a .

b .

4 2. B ronze b elts, I ta lic a nd H allstatt. a . J ägerndorf, S chlesien ( Po land ). H a llstatt p eriod. ( Hoernes, U rgeschichte 5 82, f ig. 1 75.) b . " Cinturone N azari" f rom E ste. C a . 4 50 B .C. ( Randa ll-Mac Iver, I ron A ge i n I ta ly 4 5, f ig. 1 3.) c . V illanovan " w illow-leaf" b elt. C a . 7 50 B .C. P rovidence, R .I., M useum o f t he R hode I sland S choo l o f D esign . ( M itten, C lass ica l B ronzes 8 0 , N o . 2.)

4 3. V illanovan b elt p laque m ade f rom d eer h orn. F rom B ologna, S an V ita le c emetery . E ighth c entury B .C. B ologna, M useo C ivico. ( Museum p hoto.)

4 4. V illanovan b ronze b elt p laque. P rovenance u nknown. E ighth c entury B .C. B altimore, W alters A rt G allery . ( Museum p hoto.)

' 1 5 . B anqueter w ith f ema le a ttendant. L id o f t erracotta f unerary u rn f rom Montescudiao ( Volterra ). S eventh c entury B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. ( Drawing b y A nna F arkas, f rom M agi, A tti I S imposio P rotostoria d 'Ita lia, f ig. 1 .)

4 6. B anqueter w ith f ema le a ttendant. B ronze b elt p laque f rom E ste. L . 7 .5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. E ste, M useo N aziona le A testino . ( Frey , E ntstehung p l. 6 7.)

2

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5

3

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7

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4 7. B ronze d rinking s et f rom E ste. 1 .-2. B uckets o r c istae. 3 . -6 . C ups. 7 .-8 . S trainers. 9 . D ipper . 1 0.-11. F ooted c up, b asin o r s tand. ( Peroni a nd o thers, E ste e G olasecca 7 0, f ig. 1 3.)

4 8 . W arrior 's g rave w ith e quipment, i ncluding s itula . H a llstatt c emetery , G rave 9 12 . S eventh-sixth c entury B .C. ( Kromer, H a llstatt 1 74, f ig. 1 30 .)

4 9. C onjectura l r estoration o f z iro b uria l, C hiusi. S eventh c entury B .C. ( Dohan, A JA 4 1, 1 935, 2 02, f ig. 1 0 .)

if

a .

M Alr ld ij] or \f l >1 A

b .

C .

5 0. a .-b. G ilded s ilver " Phoenician-Cypriot" s itula f rom C hiusi, i nscribed " Plicasnas." H . 1 4 c m . C a. 6 50 B .C. F lorence, M useo A rcheologico. c . G ilded s ilver p hia le o r p atera f rom C hiusi. C a. 6 50 B .C . L ost . ( M . C r istofani M arte lli, S tEtr 4 1, 1 973, p l . 3 1, a fter I nghiram i.)

5 1. B ronze s tatuette o f h orseman f rom C ontarino ( Rovigo). H . 1 4.6 c m . F ifth c entury B .C.(?) A dria M useum . ( Museum p hoto .)

a .

b .

C .

d .

e .

5 2. E truscan r epresentations o f c hariot r aces, s ixth a nd f ifth c enturies B .C. a . B lack-figure a mphora, M unich. •b . T omb o f t he O lympiads, T arquinia . c . T omba d el C o lle, C hiusi. d . T erracotta p laques f rom V elletri. e . S tone r elief f rom C hiusi. ( Bronson, i n S tudi B anti p l. 2 5.)

5 3. C hariot w ith c harioteer . T omba G olini I, O rvieto . F ourth c entury B .C. C opy i n F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. ( P. D ucati, P ittura e trusca i ta lo-greca e r omana , N ovara , 1 942, 2 0.)

5 4. B ucchero c up w ith s tamped d ecoration. S ixth c entury B .C. N ew Y ork, M etropo litan M useum o f A rt . ( Museum p hoto.)

5 5 .

E truscan b ronze m irror f rom P raeneste w ith e ngraved d ecoration. C a. 5 00 B .C . L ondon, B r itish M useum . ( Courtesy o f t he T rustees o f t he B ritish M useum .)

5 6 . B ronze m irror f rom C astelvetro . D a ily l ife a nd e rotic s cene. D iam . 1 7 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. M odena , G a lleria N aziona le E stense . ( Montelius, C ivilisation P rim itive, 1 895, c o ls. ' 4 49-450, a .)

5 7.

" Arnoa ldi m irror" f rom B ologna . W arrior w ith h orn, f lanked b y d ecorative m onsters. D iam . 1 5 c m. F ifth c entury B .C. B o logna , M useo C ivico. ( Grenier, B o logne f ig. 18 .)

5 8.

" Arnoaldi M irror." C f. f ig. 5 7.

( Museum p hoto .)

5 9. B ronze d isc f rom M ontebelluna . G oddess R eitia w ith k ey , f lanked b y a nima ls. D iam . 2 7.6 c m . F ourth o r t hird c entury B .C. T reviso, M useo C ivico A rcheologico. ( Museum p hoto.)

6 0 .

6 1.

6 0. B ronze v ot ive p laque f rom C a ldevigo ( Este ). F ema le f igure w ith m antle , b oots a nd r ounded b elt. F ourth o r t hird c entury B .C. E ste , M useo N aziona le A testino. ( Roth, G ermania 5 6 , 1 978 , f ig. 7 :2.)

6 1. B ronze v ot ive p laque f rom E ste ( Fondo B arate la) w ith f emale f igure w ear ing a m ant le o ver h er h ead . H . 8 .8 . c m . F ourth o r t hird c entury B .C. ( G . G hirardini, N otSc 1 888, 1 33, p l. 9 , f ig . 4 .)

6 2 .

6 3 .

6 2 . B ronze v ot ive p laque f rom V icenza. G roup o f t hree w orsh ippers, t wo w omen w ith s hou lder-mant les a nd a m an w ith p ointed h e lmet o r h at . F ourth c entury B .C . ( Roth, G ermania 5 6, 1 978 , B eilage 3 .)

6 3. B ronze b elt f rom B rezje, d eta il, e rotic s cene. L . 7 .5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. V ienna, N aturhistor isches M useum . ( Lucke-Frey , p l. 3 2, C at . 1 7.)

6 4 . S itu la f rom S anzeno, d etail: e rot ic s cene a nd m an p loughing. H . o f f r ieze c a . 7c m . F ifth c entury B .C. I nnsbruck, M useum F erdinandeum . ( Lucke-Frey p l. 6 7.)

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6 5. V ase f rom O edenburg ( Ha llstatt ). W omen s pinning a nd w eaving, a ccompanied b y am a le m usician. H . c a . 5 0 c m . S eventh c entury B .C. V ienna , N aturhistorisches M useum . ( Hoernes, U rgeschichte p l. 2 9.)

6 6. T erracotta j ug f rom T ragliatella ( near C erveteri), w ith e rotic, m ilitary , a nd o ther s cenes, p robab ly m ytho logica l ( Theseus a nd A riadne?). H . 2 4 c m . C a . 6 00 B .C. R ome, C apito line M useum , P a lazzo d ei C onservatori. ( G.Q. G iglioli, S tEtr 3 , 1 929, p l. 2 6.)

6 8 .

6 7 . B ronze s tatuette f rom C a ldev igo, E ste. F ema le f igure w ith p o inted h at, n eck lace, b e lt, a nd b oots. F ifth c entury B .C. E ste. M useo N aziona le A testino. ( Draw ing b y K . M ills L iotta.)

6 8 . S tone f unerary s tele, L igurian, f rom F iletto ( near M assa C arrara ) w ith l ife-size f igure o f w arrior. H . 1 .28 m . S eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C. P ontremoli, P rivate C ollection. ( Drawing b y A nna F arkas f rom O rlandini, P opo li e C iv iltä 7 , 1 979, p l. 3 2.)

6 9. S tone s tatue , " Hirschlanden W arrior." L ife-size. S ixth c entury B .C. S tuttgart, W örttembergisches L andesmuseum . ( Museum p hoto .)

7 0 . S tone s tatue , " Capestrano W arrior ." H . 2 .09 m . S ixth c entury B .C. C hieti M useum . ( Museum p hoto .)

7 1. T omb o f t he M onkey , C hiusi, w all p aintings. a . W oman a ttending f unera l g ames. b . B oxing m atch. c . W restling a nd h orse r iding. F ifth c entury B .C. ( Copies i n F lorence , M useo A rcheologico.)

7 2 .

B ronze h e lmet f rom O ppeano ( Verona), e ngraved w ith a nimal f r ieze, i nc luding w inged c entaur w ith b elt . C a. 5 00 B .C . F lorence, M useo A rcheo logico. 3 000 A nni F a aV erona, V erona , 1 976, f ig. 2 2.)

7 3. F unerary , h orseshoe-shaped s tone r elief s tele f rom B ologna ( Felsina ), w ith n aked a rmed w arrior c onfronting a s nakelegged m onster . 5 10-480 B .C. B o logna, M useo C ivico . ( Draw ing b y A nna F arkas f rom M useum p hoto .)

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7 4. B ronze a mphora f rom O rvieto, d etail, l ion w ith l eg i n m outh. S eventh c entury B .C. O rvieto , M useo A rcheo logico. S tEtr 4 , 1 930, p ls. 1 2-13.)

9

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7 5 .

7 5 .

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7 6 .

V aC/e s itula, d eta il, l ion w ith l eg i n m outh . ( Draw ing b y E lizabeth W oodsma ll.)

C f . f ig .

7 .

7 6. S tone a mulet f rom A rslan T ash w ith w o lf d evouring a m an. H . 8 .2 c m . S eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C. ( A. C aquot a nd R . d u M esnil d u B uisson, S yria 4 8 , 1 971, 3 93, f ig. 2 .)

7. S to re a mulet f rom A rslan T ash w ith m onster d evouring a m an. H . L .5 c m . S eventh o r s ixth c entury B .C. ( A. C aquot a nd R . c u M esnil d u B uisson, S yria 4 8 , 1 971, 3 92, f ig. 1 . )

7 8 . I ncised b ucchero p itcher, d etail, l ion w ith l eg i n m outh. S eventh c entury B .C. B russels, M use e d u C inquantenaire. ( Museum p hoto.)

7 9. B elt b uckle f rom E ste w ith d eer a nd l ion w ith l eg i n m outh. L . 1 9.5 c m . F ifth c entury B .C. E ste, M useo N aziona le A testino. ( Frey , E ntstehung, p l. 7 1, f ig. 2 7.)

8 0. G o ld a pplique i n t he f orm o f ad ouble-bodied l ion. A chaemenid. T ehran, A rchaeologica l M useum . ( 7,000 Y ears o f I ranian A rt 1 964-1965, N o . 4 56.)

8 1. E ar ly C orinthian d ouble-bodied s phinx , o n av ase f rom S yracuse. S eventh c entury . ( R. G hirshman, A rts o f A ncient I ran, N ew Y ork 1 964, 5 82.)

8 2. P ontic a mphora b y t he P aris P ainter, d etail, d ouble-headed p anther. C a. 5 40 B .C. N ew Y ork, M etropolitan M useum o f A rt. ( Museum p hoto.)

8 3. A ttic b lack f igure k y lix w ith d ouble-bodied G orgon. S ixth c entury B .C. C openhagen, N y C arlsberg G lyptotek, I .N. 3 383. ( Museum p hoto .)

i n t i nn u t t a t tm o m i ta m i n e

i t e p t t r o 6o rt i l dt i n g t u r a n 6 r o n u tr . p i o pe r i t i t u l I t n a en um f t l a ßb u t t u l in f u n t

8 4.-86. L uttrell P sa lter, d etails, d ouble-bodied c reatures. F ourteenth c entury A .D. ( F . M illar, T he L uttrell P sa lter, L ondon 1 932, p l. 1 03, f . 1 75v, f . 1 94v.)

8 7. B ible, d etail, d ouble-bodied m onsters d evouring h umans. E leventh c entury . P aris, B ibliotheque N ationa le. C odex P aris, L atin 8 .1, f . 1 70v. ( G .L. M iche li, L 'enlem inure d u H aut M oyen-Age e t l es i nfluences i rlanda ises, B russels, 1 939, f ig. 2 75.)

8 8 . B ase o f s ilver S cythian b eaker f rom t he D anube r egion. A nima l w ith h aunch i n m outh. F ourth c entury B .C. N ew Y ork, M etropo litan M useum o f A rt, R ogers F und 1 947. ( Museum p hoto.)

8 9 .

G o ld d ecorat ive p laques, b irds i n p airs; i n e ach, o ne h olds a h uman a rm i n i ts b eak. F rom O lbia . F ourth t o f irst c entury B .C. B a ltimore, W a lters A rt G allery . ( Museum p hoto.)

9 0. C eltic s culpture, T arasque d e N oyes. M onster w ith h uman a rm i n i ts j aws, h olding i ts p aws o ver s evered h uman h eads. F ourth c entury B .C. t o s econd c entury A .D. ( P.A. v an D orp, R .A. v an R oyen, T alanta 8 -9, 1 977, 3 3ff.)

9 1. B ronze o inochoe f rom P erugia : h andle i n t he f orm o f a p anther w ith h uman h ead i n i ts m outh. 50-500 B .C. M unich, A ntikensamm lung ( Wittelsbach). ( Museum P hoto, C .H. K röger-Moessner .)

9 2. B rass a quamanile. G erman, t welfth o r t hirteenth c entury . N ew Y ork, M etropo litan M useum o f A rt, T he C loisters C o llection, 1 947. ( Museum p hoto.)

9 3. G rave r elief o f L . M inucius O ptatus. R oman. E ste, M useo N aziona le A testino. ( Photo S opr. A rch. P adova.)

9 4. B ronze-covered t hrone f rom t he B arberini t omb, P raeneste, d ecorated w ith r eliefs. S eventh c entury B .C. R ome, V illa G iulia M useum . ( Museum p hoto.)

9 5 . L imestone c hair r epresent ing o r iginal w icker m ode l, i n R oman g rave c hamber a t W eiden, n ear C o logne . ( Museum p hoto .)

9 6. C hair a nd s too l i n t he T omba d egli S cudi e d e lle S edie, C erveteri. S eventh c entury B .C. ( Deutsches A rch. I nst . R ome N eg. 7 3.1490.)

9 7.

B oxers o n ab e lt b uck le f rom M agda lenska G ora. G ermania, 5 6, 1 978, f ig . 5 .)

( Roth,

9 8 . M iniature V illanovan t erracotta t hrone f rom V erucchio , w ith r e lief d ecoration. H . 6 .3 c m . S eventh c entury B .C. V erucchio, C ollezione G iuseppe P ecci. ( M . Z uffa, S tudi B anti, R ome, 1 965, 3 52, f ig . 1 , d raw ing b y P .G. P asini.)

9 9 .

1 00 .

9 9. S eated b anqueter w ith a ttendant , d eta il f rom V aCe s itula . ( Cf . f ig. 7 .) 1 00 . S eated b anqueter w ith a ttendant, d eta il f rom P rovidence s itula . C f. f ig. 8 . ( Draw ing b y E . W oodsma ll.)

1 8 1 111 i num 1 1F M W-M te t - 01W

1 0 1. R e lief s te le f rom B ologna ( Certosa ). E ar ly f ourth c entury B .C. ( Draw ing b y A nna F arkas, f rom M useum p hoto.)

1 02 . C orsini C hair, m arb le w ith r e lief d ecoration . H . 0 .825 m . R oman, f irst c entury B .C . R ome, G aller ia C orsini. ( Gab . F ot . N az .)

1 03. C orsini C ha ir . B ack.

( Gab. F ot. N az.)

1 04. C orsini C hair, d etail, p rocession w ith e quipment . ( Gab . F ot . N az.)

1 05 . C orsini C hair, d etail, p rocession w ith e quipment . ( Gab . F ot . N az .)

1 06 . C orsini C ha ir, d etail, s acrifice .

( Gab. F ot . N az.)

1 07. C orsini C ha ir, d eta il, s eated y ouths w atching g ames. ( Gab. F ot. N az.)

1 08 . C orsini C ha ir, d etail, w restlers. ( Gab. F ot . N az.)

1 09 . T omba d egli A uguri, T arquinia , d eta il, w restler w ith j udge . C a . 5 30 B .C.

10. C orsini C hair, d eta il, b oxers.

( Gab. F ot. N az.)

11. C orsini C hair, d etail, m an b ending o ver a w e ll ( Gab. F at. N az.)

( ?).

12. C orsini C hair, d etail, s oldiers a nd b oar h unt. ( Gab. F ot. N az.)

t 1 ( 31 "On Mee leme i Wer on owy m tee vme

13. A rch o f A ugustus a t S usa ( Piedmont), d etail, p ig f or s acrifice . ( Photo C homon-Perino, T urin.)

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14. E truscan a lphabets, 6 50-600 B .C. 1 . M arsiliana d 'A lbegna . 2 . C erveteri. 3 . V iterbo. 4 . F orme llo . ( A . S taccioli, L a l ingua d egli e truschi, 1 971, 5 3.)

15 . S tone s te le o f L arth N inie, f rom F ieso le . H . 1 .38 m . C a. 5 25 B .C . F lorence, C asa B uonarrot i, S ala d e lle A nt ichiiä. ( Draw ing b y E . W oodsmall, a fter M onte lius, C ivilisat ion P r im it ive, 1 895, p l. 1 68, f ig. 2 .)

16. S tele o f L arth N inie, d etail, ( Sopr . A nt. E tr . F lorence .)

i nscription. C f . f ig. 15

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17. I nscription o n s itula i n P rovidence .Rhaet ic . ( K . O lzscha i n L ucke-Frey, p l. 4 .)

_ ?ntmry

18 . S itu la f rom C o lle C aslyr, V al d i C embra . " S itula G iovane lli." R haetic. T rento, M useo C ivico. ( Ghirardini, M onAnt 3 , 2 50,

19. B ronze e x-voto f rom E ste ( Fondo B arate la ) i n t he s hape o f aw riting t ablet, d edicated t o t he g oddess R eitia b y V oltiiomnos. C a. t hird c entury B .C. C ontains t he V enetic a lphabet, t he s igns A LCEO r epeated t he l ength o f t he t ablet ( A a nd 0 a re t he f irst a nd l ast l etters o f t he V enet ic a lphabet), a nd s y llab le p ract ice . ( G . G h irardini, N otSc 1 888, p l. 2 .)

1 20 . R unic i nscription o n c lasp o f b rooch f rom V aerlöse, S eeland. R oman i mperial p eriod ( continues L a T ene t ype): A lugod, am agic w ord. ( Ho lmqvist, i n E ggers, e tc. C eltes e t G ermains, 1 964, 3 6, f ig. 8 .)

r n >p fw c p :H i lmr r k :tu v e i ro s z t A Fu karkgw :h n iji p z ( R ) 5 :tbe m tn god a

1 21. R unes. a . R unic a lphabet, f uthark. b . G old " bracteaten ( meda l) f rom V adstena, S weden. c . S pear, i n laid w ith s ilver, w ith r unic i nscription, f rom M üncheberg ( Brandenburg) , G ermany . d . S pear w ith r unes f rom K owel, s outhern R ussia . e . J avelin w ith r unes f rom R ozwadow , P oland. f . B ronze s tatuette f rom F röjhof, N orway . ( Holmqvist, i n E ggers, e tc . C e ltes e t G erma ins, 1 964, 7 0, f ig. 1 4.)

1 22. " Franks C asket," i vory c asket w ith r unic i nscription. S eventh c entury A .D. L ondon, B ritish M useum . ( B Y. p hoto A S.8 .29.)