OCR Anthology for Classical Greek GCSE 2025-2026 1350161810, 9781350161818

Table of contents :
Cover
Halftitle page
Series page
Title page
Copyright page
CONTENTS
Endorsement statement
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Age of heroes
Colonization, Homer and the Greek alphabet
The rise of Persia
Athens and Sparta
The power of myth
Democratic Athens
The Hellenistic world
Texts
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
TIPS FOR TRANSLATION
TIMELINE
MAP OF THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN
DISCUSSING LITERARY STYLE
1. Choice of words
2. Word order
3. Sound
4. Other literary terms
Herodotus
2025–2026 Prescription
The story so far . . .
The capture of Babylon
Darius disturbs the tomb of Nitocris
Babylonian wife auction
Megacles’ marriage
Final questions
Xenophon
2025–2026 Prescription
The story so far
What happens next?
Final questions
Homer
Some features of Homeric Greek
Note on the book divisions in Homer
2025–2026 Prescription
The story so far
What happens next?
Final questions
Euripides
Drama in ancient Greece
2025–2026 Prescription
The backstory
The play so far
What happens next?
Final questions
OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABULARY LIST

Citation preview

OCR Anthology for Classical Greek GCSE 2025–2026

1

The following titles are available from Bloomsbury for the OCR specifications in Latin and Greek for examinations from June 2024 to June 2026 Cicero Pro Caelio: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Georgina Longley Juvenal Satires: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by John Godwin Ovid Fasti: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Robert Cromarty Letters of Pliny: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Carl Hope Tacitus Annals XII: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Simon Allcock Tacitus Annals XIV: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by John Storey Virgil Aeneid II: A Selection, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Dominic Jones OCR Anthology for Classical Greek GCSE, covering the prescribed texts by Euripides, Herodotus, Homer and Xenophon, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Judith Affleck and Clive Letchford OCR Anthology for Classical Greek AS and A Level, covering the prescribed texts by Aristophanes, Euripides, Herodotus, Homer, Plato and Plutarch, with introduction, commentary notes and vocabulary by Sam Baddeley, Benedict Gravell, Charlie Paterson, Stuart R. Thomson, Neil Treble and Chris Tudor Online resources to accompany this book are available at bloomsbury.pub/OCR-editions-2024-2026. If you experience any problems, please contact Bloomsbury at [email protected]

2

OCR Anthology for Classical Greek GCSE 2025–2026 Edited by

Judith Affleck and Clive Letchford

3

BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA 29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2023 Copyright © Judith Affleck and Clive Letchford, 2023 Judith Affleck and Clive Letchford have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work. Cover image: Greek warrior in tunic equips horses © Migfoto/Adobe Stock. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN:

PB: ePDF: eBook:

978-1-3501-6181-8 978-1-3501-6183-2 978-1-3501-6182-5

Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters.

4

CONTENTS Preface 7 Introduction 8 How to use this book 12 Tips for translation 14 Timeline 17 Map of the ancient Mediterranean 18 Discussing literary style 20

Herodotus

22

Xenophon

38

Homer

59

Euripides

81

OCR Greek GCSE Defined Vocabulary List 100

5

Endorsement statement The teaching content of this resource is endorsed by OCR for use with specification GCSE Classical Greek (9-1) (J292). All references to assessment, including assessment preparation and practice questions of any format/style are the publisher’s interpretation of the specification and are not endorsed by OCR. This resource was designed for use with the version of the specification available at the time of publication. However, as specifications are updated over time, there may be contradictions between the resource and the specification, therefore please use the information on the latest specification and Sample Assessment Materials at all times when ensuring students are fully prepared for their assessments. Endorsement indicates that a resource is suitable to support delivery of an OCR specification, but it does not mean that the endorsed resource is the only suitable resource to support delivery, or that it is required or necessary to achieve the qualification. OCR recommends that teachers consider using a range of teaching and learning resources based on their own professional judgement for their students’ needs. OCR has not paid for the production of this resource, nor does OCR receive any royalties from its sale. For more information about the endorsement process, please visit the OCR website.

6

PREFACE

We are delighted that Bloomsbury has published this book to support GCSE Classical Greek. We hope that it will prove useful not only as a GCSE textbook but also as a flexible post-GCSE reader. We recognize the challenges of reading a continuous Greek text for the first time, especially in unadapted prose or verse. We are also aware of pressures on time, especially if Greek does not occupy a full place in the school curriculum. We hope that this book will give pupils enough help to be able to work independently on the text. We have tried to reinforce the vocabulary students are learning as they prepare for the GCSE language papers. As well as setting the texts briefly in context and encouraging students to think about the content, we have two key aims. First, we have indicated nominatives (light blue) and verbs (dark blue) in the text in order to encourage the consolidation of GCSE grammar and to help the reader start off each sentence in a confident direction. Secondly, as we wanted to encourage active engagement with unfamiliar vocabulary, the notes include some derivations and connections to words on the prescribed GCSE list; this is to reinforce word-recognition, a skill fundamental at any stage of learning to read Greek. This volume is dedicated with love and gratitude to our parents. Judith Affleck Clive Letchford

7

INTRODUCTION

Greek literature spans a vast period of time, from the dawn of Greek writing through the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods of Greek history and on into the Byzantine Empire and the eventual fall of Byzantium in ad 1453. The texts in this volume come from a relatively short historical period of about 350 years, from the epic poetry of Homer in the late eighth century to the late fifth and early fourth centuries bc . The following historical outline is to help set your GCSE texts in their broad context. All dates referred to in this volume are BC rather than AD, unless specified.

Age of heroes The Mediterranean landscape has plentiful traces of an ancient past typified by huge ‘Cyclopean’ walls, and palaces with great hearths, colourful wall-paintings, and rooms full of storage jars, some with lists of their contents. The beginning of Greek culture goes back even earlier, as the figure of a minstrel from one of the islands around Greece carved in smooth white stone in the third millennium testifies, but it was to the Mycenaean period in particular (c. 1600–1200) that the Greek poets looked back. What they saw was an age of warriors in chariots, armed with bronze, valuing material possessions and honour in almost equal measure, living in palaces with great halls, where bards performed their songs and where, after death, men were buried or cremated with precious or highly crafted objects.

Colonization, Homer and the Greek alphabet This Mycenaean palace culture collapsed at about the time that the legendary sack of Troy was believed to have taken place, traditionally in 1184. A technological shift from using bronze to iron followed, one of many discoveries of the ‘Dark Age’ (c. 1150–800), so called because relatively little is known of it. This was the beginning of a period of exploration and colonization beginning with the settlement by Greeks of the eastern Aegean in the eleventh century, but extending all over the Mediterranean and Black Sea from the eighth century. Individual city-states became competitive, displaying their wealth through building projects, such as an early temple of Artemis at Ephesus, or sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, traditionally inaugurated in 776. Establishing trade links and settlements led to contact with other cultures and new ideas: for example, law codes were created and Phoenician letters were adapted to create a versatile new Greek alphabet. The Homeric poems emerged during this period from the now well-established Greek settlements on the Aegean coast of Turkey. Contact with more sophisticated cultures in Egypt and the Middle East continued to produce new artistic discoveries, a wealth of stories about the 8

INTRODUCTION

9

gods and ideas about religion, astronomy and mathematics – ideas which permeated and shaped Greek art, literature and thought.

The rise of Persia This contact also brought a threat to Greek independence, particularly along the western coast of Asia Minor. Cities like the highly cultured Miletus came under repeated attack and eventually became subject to Cyrus the Great, the king of Persia. The so-called ‘Archaic Period’ (c. 800–480) ends with the Persian Wars, when the huge forces of Persia and her subject allies crossed into Greece and destroyed Athens – but were then repelled. Our main source for this conflict was a Greek from Halicarnassus (25 miles due south of Miletus) called Herodotus, later known as ‘the Father of history’. He explores the conflict between the Greek-speaking and ‘barbarian’ (non-Greek-speaking) worlds, which began with the ‘Ionian revolt’ in 499 against Persian rule and ended, unexpectedly, with Persian defeat twenty years later. In investigating this clash of cultures and power, he traces the rise of Persia in the sixth century under Cyrus the Great and his successors, Cambyses, Darius and Xerxes. His researches not only take him back in time, but all over the known world from the fabulous wealth of Croesus, King of Lydia, to the ancient records of Egypt, the unique customs of India and, of course, to Greece. It is from Herodotus, writing in the mid-fifth century, that we get a vivid picture of the emerging characters of Greek city states and their different forms of government, from the prosperous tyrannies of wealthy states like Samos, Corinth and Sicyon, the oligarchy of Sparta with its military discipline, and Athens, whose discovery of silver in Attica enabled her to establish democracy and develop a navy strong enough to defeat the Persians.

Athens and Sparta The Athenian historian Thucydides writes of these two city states that there was nothing lasting in the physical remains of Sparta that would lead future generations to suspect her power, whereas the impression Athens produced was of a city twice as powerful as it really was. Athens had grown in power since the Persian Wars: a successful defensive alliance against further threat from Persia to the Greeks in the Aegean, with its treasury on Delos, was transformed into an Athenian Empire. Under the leadership of the great Athenian statesman Pericles, a decision to preserve the ‘ground-zero effect’ of the Persian occupation of 479 was reversed, and Athens used her wealth (or, as some pointed out, that of her subject-allies) to beautify the Acropolis with the marble temples that still stand today. Relations between Athens, Sparta and other states like Corinth deteriorated and an uneasy cold war turned into a major conflict that lasted from 431 to 404. Even so, during the late fifth century Athens attracted and nurtured not only great artists and architects, partly through the vision of men like Pericles, but also great thinkers and writers, many native to Athens, like the philosopher Socrates, the comic playwright Aristophanes or the three great tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Although these authors cover a range of genres, their works have common ground, centred on human nature and man’s relationship with the world around him.

10

INTRODUCTION

The power of myth Herodotus is typical of these radical thinkers in trying to rationalize some of the myths of the remote past. Regardless of their veracity or chronology, Greek myths continued to provide fertile ground for exploring contemporary themes. Euripides, for example, turns his Jason and Medea into a timeless example of a couple whose marriage has gone cold; he explores themes of love, revenge and fear of the unknown in sophisticated plays where gods and heroes rub shoulders with ordinary people. One function of the playwrights of ancient Athens, both tragic and comic, was seen to be as teachers of the citizens, stirring them out of complacency, and developing their powers of understanding and critical thinking.

Democratic Athens Athenian theatrical performances reached audiences on an unprecedented scale; there was an appetite for debate and civic education. Athens was a city where engagement and argument were central to the political and legal processes. The Athenians would gather in huge numbers, the size of a football crowd, to make crucial decisions, like the fatal vote to help the Ionians in 499, where Herodotus comments drily on how it was easier to persuade 30,000 Athenians than one Spartan, or the foolish optimism with which they sent a full military expedition 900 miles to Sicily while still at war with Sparta. For Athens, this decision contributed to her fall: the war ended in submission on Spartan terms. Thucydides was the historian who documented the war between Athens and Sparta and the catastrophic Sicilian expedition, but his account breaks off in 411. It was completed by another Athenian, Xenophon, who also wrote an account of his experiences fighting as a mercenary in the Persian Empire.

The Hellenistic world Sixty-six years after their defeat at the hands of Sparta in 404, the Athenians once again lost their independence at the Battle of Chaeronea, this time to Macedon, a military kingdom in the north of Greece. Two years later, after Philip II of Macedon was assassinated, his son Alexander the Great pursued a greater ambition: the conquest of the Persian Empire. Alexander’s extraordinary victories took him and his army near the edges of the known world, deep into the deserts of Egypt, through the vast kingdom that the Persian kings had united and further east, through the Hindu Kush, to India. These conquests had a lasting impact despite Alexander’s brief life (356–323): Greek was adopted as the language of Alexander’s new Hellenistic world; texts were gathered together, catalogued and annotated by scholars in the great new library at Alexandria; and Greek was spoken, written and read throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods – until the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

INTRODUCTION

11

Texts The survival of these texts over the turbulent centuries is nothing short of miraculous. For a long period in European history some manuscripts were preserved in mediaeval monasteries, but almost no one understood Greek: Petrarch, a fourteenth-century Italian poet, owned and treasured a Greek text of Homer but was unable to read it. In the early fifteenth century, Greek-speaking scholars, fleeing the spread of the Ottoman Empire, arrived in Italy along with their learning and libraries of manuscripts. The invention of printing in the mid-fifteenth century and of a Greek typeface created by the Aldine Press in Venice meant that access to Herodotus, Euripides, Homer and Xenophon, as well as the Greek New Testament, became more widespread by the start of the sixteenth century among the wealthy elite. In England, for example, Edward VI learned enough Greek to enjoy writing it. Those who taught him and his sister Elizabeth helped introduce Greek into schools, some of which have taught it continuously since then. Today you can access almost any ancient Greek text at the touch of a key and there are more opportunities than ever to develop your knowledge of Greek, in summer schools, at university, through books or online.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Starting to read a literary text is always a challenging step. This book tries to guide you into doing this confidently in a number of ways: 1. There are three levels of introduction: i) Introduction (p. 8). An overview of how your texts fit in to the wider picture of the history and culture of ancient Greece. ii) A more specific introduction to your author or genre. In the case of Homer, this includes an introduction to his language. iii) ‘The story so far . . .’ to help you set the extract you are reading in context, so that you know what’s going on. At the end of your text there may also be a ‘What happens next’ section, if the story continues. Other reference pages you may find useful include tips for translation and how to discuss literary style, a timeline, a map and the GCSE word list at the back. 2. Text pages (on the left-hand side). i) A brief heading in italics at the top of each page gives an overview. ii) On each double page of text and notes there is a list of words from the set GCSE vocabulary relevant to the page of text you are about to read. For reasons of space, this is a selection, not a comprehensive list. 



If you have already learned the GCSE vocabulary, use this to revise from before you translate. If you are still working on the GCSE vocabulary list, look these words up before you begin.

iii) Colour coding in the text: you will notice two colours are used in the text itself. This is to help you get started and to reinforce your grammatical understanding (see also Tips for Translation, p. 14). 



Words or phrases in light blue are in the nominative case. They should be a good starting point when translating. Words in dark blue are verbs (infinitives and participles not included). These are good anchor points in the sentence.

iv) Names and Places, Topics and Questions: these are to help you understand and enjoy the text. Some of the questions on the text page are genuinely open; don’t panic if you can’t answer them all. 12

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

13

3. Notes pages (on the right-hand side). Vocabulary and translation help is arranged line by line. Try not to use this support until you have attempted to work out for yourself what’s going on. i) Help with GCSE words may be given, especially if they have a slightly different meaning from the one you are used to or are in a less familiar form. ii) New words that have appeared already may not be translated, but you may be directed back by a line reference to an earlier usage. iii) Greek words taken directly from the text are in bold. iv) The following symbols are used: > This means the Greek word is derived from or related to a more familiar or simple Greek word. This is to help you understand its root meaning and perhaps remember it more easily. < This means that an English word is derived from the Greek. We have included some rather obscure examples, but hope to invite discussion or investigation; again, some may prove memorable. = This is used where a less familiar word has the same meaning as (i.e. is synonymous with) one you may already know or recognize. vi) Some standard abbreviations are used, like gen. = genitive, i.e. = ‘that is to say’.

Useful books Montanari, F. (2015) The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek, Brill. Morwood, J. (ed.) (2001) Oxford Grammar of Classical Greek, Oxford University Press. Morwood, J. and Taylor, J. (eds) (2002) Pocket Oxford Classical Greek Dictionary, Oxford University Press. Scott, R. and Liddell, H. G. (eds) (2010) Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon, Oxford University Press. Taylor, J. (2016) Greek to GCSE Parts 1 and 2, 2nd edition, Bloomsbury. Taylor, J. (2017) Greek Beyond GCSE, 2nd edition, Bloomsbury.

TIPS FOR TRANSL ATION

1. Translating set texts (prose and verse texts) 

Use the colour-coding to help find your way into a sentence: identifying the subject and verb will help accurate translation.



Read the sentence or passage through several times, letting the word order and particles (words like δέ, γάρ, οὖν, etc.) guide you through until the sentence or phrase takes shape. After you have translated, continue this process of re-reading and be ready to develop or vary your translation to get closer to the Greek.



Think about the case and number of nouns, pronouns and adjectives. Let the definite article guide you when thinking about nouns and look out for agreement.



Check you understand the tense and form of verbs and look them up if you need to so that your grammatical understanding keeps developing. Start using a dictionary and grammar reference book. These are useful skills for A-level and beyond.

Intelligent deduction is an important skill to start developing. Unlike the GCSE unseen and comprehension passages, there will be lots of words you have never met before or are not familiar with. In particular, word order or missing words may make things more confusing, especially in verse texts. Keep trying to work things out for yourself.

14



Work from the known to the unknown. Keep re-reading until you can narrow down the problem(s). Use grammatical clues, in particular verb forms, case endings and agreement.



Try to work out the meaning of a word before seeking help on the opposite page. Break it down and think of derivations. Look out for synonyms – classical authors quite often pair words with similar meanings.



Use the sense of the passage. Read back over what has gone before and try to anticipate what might follow. If you are surprised, think about whether this might be part of a deliberate effect.

TIPS FOR TRANSL ATION

15

2. Translating from Greek to English (GCSE unseens and comprehensions) Learning the set GCSE vocabulary thoroughly is best done as early as possible. Electronic flashcards such as Memrise or Quizlet can help you to get started and refresh your memory. Make sure you don’t learn only the meaning of a word, but also the stem(s) and how endings change. Sometimes this is a major challenge in Greek (especially with verbs), but it gets easier. Seeing different forms in context helps, so re-read old passages as well as tackling new ones. 

Identify the case of each noun and question why it is in that case. The definite article is very helpful in Greek – use it. Finding the nominative, if there is one, and the verb is a good way into the sentence.



Word order and phrasing in Greek are very important, so keep re-reading a phrase until the various elements fall into place. In particular, be sensitive to the ‘sandwich construction’, which keeps units together; to participles, which often act as ‘staging posts’ along the way; and to the unit a preposition forms with the case that follows it.



Be on the lookout for genitive absolutes, particularly near the start of a sentence.



Pay special attention to words like δέ, γάρ, οὖν, μέν . . . δέ . . . etc., since they are there to help direct your understanding; for example, showing a change of subject (δέ), offering an explanation (γάρ, often after a semicolon), a causal connection (οὖν) or setting up a contrast (μέν . . . δέ . . .). You may not always translate them, but you should never ignore them. Think of them as if they are attached to the word in front.



Take special care over τε, remembering that it often comes after the word it is connecting (like -que in Latin).



Learn to check details: which case follows a preposition? Is this singular or plural? Have I thought about the tense, voice (active/middle/passive) and mood (subjunctive/optative, etc.) carefully enough?

16

TIPS FOR TRANSL ATION

3. Translating from English to Greek (GCSE short sentences) 

Identify your subject and make sure it is in the nominative case. Change it into the plural if you need to. Have you included the definite article and does it agree?



Identify your verb and take special care, if there is a stem change, to check your principal parts carefully before translating. Looking things up until you are completely confident is part of the learning process.



No noun in your sentence other than the subject (or complement after the verb ‘to be’) should be nominative, so make sure you change the case of any other nouns in the sentence to fit the sense and rules, for example when dealing with prepositions.



Adjectives must agree with the noun they describe in number, gender and case.



Practise – and don’t worry if you make lots of mistakes at first.

Hellenistic world c. 340–331

Classical Greece c. 460–340

Archaic Greece c. 600–460

Iron Age

Bronze Age

TIMELINE 2500

Great pyramids built at Giza in Egypt. Development of Greek island culture and Cycladic art.

2000–1200

1700 Minoan palace civilization flourished on Crete. 1450 Mycenaean palace civilization in Greece; Linear B.

1184

Traditional date of the fall of Troy, calculated by Eratosthenes.

1150–700

Migrations into Greece and across the Aegean. Period of colonization; growing contact with neighbouring powers.

700s

776 1st Olympic Games. Alphabet adopted to write Greek. Iliad and Odyssey composed.

c. 594

Archonship of Solon. 1st Sacred War.

546

Defeat of Croesus, King of Lydia, by Cyrus the Great.

525

Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, son of Cyrus the Great.

546–527

Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. Texts of Iliad and Odyssey standardized.

510

Hippias, son of Pisistratus, driven from Athens.

499–494

The Ionian Revolt. Sack of Sardis by Ionians and Athenians.

490

Darius invades Attica; Athenian victory at Marathon. c. 484 birth of Herodotus; 480s birth of Euripides.

480

Xerxes’ invasion of Greece; Persian victory at Thermopylae; sack of Athens; Greek naval victory at Salamis; Xerxes’ retreat.

479

Final defeat of Persians at Plataea and Mycale.

478

Formation of the Delian League; growing tensions between Athens, Sparta and their allies.

447

Pericles’ building programme on the Acropolis begins.

431–404

The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. 431 Medea produced. c. 430 birth of Xenophon.

415–413

Athens’ unsuccessful expedition to Sicily. c. 406 death of Euripides.

404

Defeat of Athens by Sparta.

354

Death of Xenophon.

338

Victory of Philip II of Macedon at Chaeronea.

336–323

Conquests of Alexander the Great.

146

Roman Provinces of Achaea and Macedonia established.

17

MAP OF THE ANCIENT

18

MEDITERRANEAN

19

DISCUSSING LITERARY STYLE

You have probably been used to commenting on the style of English writers, especially poets. Greek authors use similar techniques and you should be ready to consider the style as well as the content of your set texts. If you can translate and understand the significance of the text, this should not present too much of a problem. A key difference between English and Greek is word order, which is much more flexible in Greek. Greek and Latin, unlike English, are inflected languages. This means that classical authors can arrange words in a variety of ways to alter the emphasis, while keeping the same basic meaning. The following paragraphs set out some ways of analysing style. The technical terms are useful tools to help explain the effects achieved by a writer, but are not substitutes for properly understanding the content. Your first step when preparing for this type of discussion or exam question is to make sure you consider why the author is writing, what he has to say and how he expresses himself (almost all authors surviving from the ancient world are male writers). The questions set out on the lefthand pages and at the end of each section are designed to get you started on this. There is often no right or wrong answer, and effects may be subtle, so be prepared to sharpen your wits and get into discussion with your fellow students and teacher.

1. Choice of words An author makes many choices: for example, selecting from a number of words with the same basic meaning (synonyms), or including words, especially adjectives and adverbs, which may not be strictly necessary. This selection is sometimes termed diction (from the Latin dico – I say) or lexis (from λέγω).

2. Word order When you start learning Greek, you get used to a fairly predictable word order, often involving a nominative at the start and a verb at the end of the clause. Unusual word order is likely to be significant. For example, has an action been emphasized by promoting the verb (moving it forward) or placing it first? Has the subject been delayed, exciting suspense in the reader? Try to read or re-read the Greek words as they come – how is the picture being built up, word by word? Since the lines in verse set-texts (unlike prose texts) are fixed, you might also consider emphasis through position – for example, a word being delayed to the next line (‘enjambment’) or coming first in a line. Writers on literature have developed technical vocabulary to help describe some literary effects. Before setting out a few of these terms, it is worth emphasizing that 20

DISCUSSING LITERARY STYLE

21

as well as identifying an effect, it is important that you explain how it enhances the meaning.

3. Sound alliteration – repeated consonantal sounds (e.g. ‘π’, ‘κ’, etc.) may draw a group of words together more tightly. In Greek this includes repeated sounds in any position in the word, not just at the start of a word. Listen out for the two different sounds in the double letters ζ, ξ and ψ and remember that the aspirates θ, φ and χ are stronger versions of τ, π and κ. assonance – similar to alliteration but refers to repeated vowel sounds rather than consonants. onomatopoeia – where the sound of the word mirrors the meaning. rhythm – verse authors (Homer and Euripides in this selection) wrote following a metrical framework; rhythm may be used to underline sense.

4. Other literary terms anaphora – a word is repeated at the start of successive clauses to give emphasis to an idea. asyndeton – omission of conjunctions, often to speed up the narrative. antithesis – contrasting ideas are often signposted in Greek by μέν and δέ. chiasmus – an elegant effect achieved through word order in an A-B-B-A formation, for example, noun-adjective-adjective-noun. enjambment – a term used only in verse, where the sense runs over from one line to the next, giving special emphasis to the word starting on the new line. epithet – used particularly in Homer of adjectives or phrases attached to a particular character or noun. juxtaposition – placing of two words next to each other to bring out clearly the contrast between them. metaphor – a situation is described using language which is not literally the case, e.g., ‘on fire with love’. repetition – words are repeated to give additional emphasis to an important idea. simile – where a situation or event is described as being like something else. A good starting point for further consideration is Morwood’s Oxford Grammar of Classical Greek, which gives examples.

Herodotus

Herodotus was acclaimed as ‘Father of history’ by the Roman politician and writer Cicero, but recent work has emphasized that Herodotus owed much to Homer and to oral stories. It has been suggested that he often delivered his work as a reading or performance to an audience. Herodotus wrote a work in nine books about a great conflict between East and West, the Persian Wars of 490–479, famous for events like the battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. In this conflict the Persian attempt to gain a foothold in Europe ended in a spectacular and unexpected victory for the Greeks. Herodotus’ work is not simply the patriotic celebration such a Greek victory might justify: he is interested in the ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, ‘great and amazing deeds’, of both Greeks and non-Greeks (barbarians). Herodotus’ stories have a strong moral aspect to them. It is a world where gods operate as well as men, but the spirit of enquiry which drives his work forward is marked by human curiosity typical of fifth-century Greek thought. Herodotus travelled widely and recorded traditions from a range of countries; Book 2, for example, is devoted to an account of Egypt and we hear how Herodotus questioned Egyptian priests during his travels and recorded what he learned. His research, ‘ἱστορίη’ in Greek, gives us both our word ‘history’ and the title of his work, The Histories. Herodotus makes great use of digressions and stories in his Histories to amplify his over-arching themes of Greeks versus non-Greeks, liberty and slavery, and the reversal of fortune of both individuals and empires. He arranges his account artfully, sometimes putting stories with contrasting messages next to each other, but he leaves it to the reader or listener to make their own connections. The Histories climax in Books 8 and 9 with the Persian invasion of Greece in 480– 479 and its ultimate failure, but he begins his tale by considering the origins and rapid growth of the Persian Empire, beginning with the military genius of Cyrus the Great, who reigned from 559 to 530. The extracts you will read are taken from Books 1 and 6.

2025–2026 Prescription This selection corresponds to Tales from Herodotus, ed. Farnell and Goff. Section XIa: First capture of Babylon (Herodotus I 190, 191) Section XII: Darius disturbs the tomb of Nitocris (Herodotus I 187) Section XIII: The Babylonian Wife Market (Herodotus I 196) Section XIVb: Megacles’ marriage (Herodotus VI 126–130)

22

HERODOTUS

23

The story so far . . . The selection has four short stories, and together they give a flavour of the wide range of topics which interested Herodotus: military history, extraordinary works, social customs and the folly of an individual. The first passage, The capture of Babylon, describes a significant moment in the rise of Cyrus, King of Persia from 559–530. He is often known as Cyrus the Great since he conquered many peoples of Asia (the Medes, the Lydians and the Babylonians). He successfully melded them together into the Persian Empire that was to prove such a powerful enemy to Greece in the fifth century. The extract deals with his capture of the city of Babylon in 539. After defeating the Babylonian forces near the city of Opis, Cyrus laid siege to Babylon, arguably the greatest city in the world at the time. A major river, the Euphrates, ran through the centre of the city. The passage describes how, using his intelligence as well as military expertise, Cyrus’ army was able to wade into the heart of the city after diverting the river to reduce its flow and depth. Nitocris, Queen of Babylon, had, according to Herodotus, demonstrated similar engineering genius a generation earlier by diverting the Euphrates and creating an artificial lake, in order to construct brick embankments through the centre of the city. The second story, Darius disturbs the tomb of Nitocris, gives another example of her intelligence. The third extract, The Babylonian Wife Auction, describes a social custom of the Babylonians. After a description of Babylon’s wealth, produce and climate, Herodotus describes several customs which distinguish the Babylonians from other peoples. The arrangements they had for choosing brides may seem to us bizarre, indeed unacceptable, but should be considered in the context of the ancient world (and some modern societies, too) where the bride’s dowry, a sum of money difficult for many families to raise, is of central importance to the marriage contract. The final extract, Megacles’ marriage, also looks at marriage. In this story, we see the wealthy sixth-century tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, trying to find a suitable husband for his daughter. The young Athenian marked out to win squanders his chance through his own lack of self-control.

24

HERODOTUS

The capture of Babylon Cyrus forces the inhabitants of Babylon to take refuge in their city. He diverts the river Euphrates in order to capture the city. Nominative words or phrases are in light blue, verbs in dark blue. ὁ Κῦρος ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τὴν Βαβυλῶνα. οἱ δὲ Βαβυλώνιοι ἐκστρατευσάμενοι ἔμενον αὐτόν. ἐπεὶ δὲ ἐγένετο ἐλαύνων ἀγχοῦ τῆς πόλεως, συνέβαλόν τε οἱ Βαβυλώνιοι καὶ ἡττηθέντες τῇ μάχῃ κατειλήθησαν ἐς τὸ ἄστυ, ᾗ εἶχον σιτία ἐτῶν κάρτα πολλῶν. ἐνταῦθα οὗτοι μὲν λόγον εἶχον τῆς πολιορκίας οὐδένα, Κῦρος δὲ ἀπορίαις ἐνείχετο. τέλος δὲ ἐποίει δὴ τοιόνδε. τάξας τὴν στρατιὰν ᾗ ὁ ποταμὸς εἰς τὴν πόλιν εἰσβάλλει, καὶ αὖθις ὄπισθε τῆς πόλεως τάξας ἑτέρους, ᾗ ἐξίησιν ἐκ τῆς πόλεως ὁ ποταμός, προεῖπε τῷ στρατῷ, ὅταν διαβατὸν τὸ ῥεῖθρον ἴδωσι γενόμενον, εἰσιέναι ταύτῃ εἰς τὴν πόλιν. οὕτω τε δὴ τάξας καὶ παραινέσας ἀπήλαυνεν αὐτὸς σὺν τῷ ἀχρείῳ τοῦ στρατοῦ. ἀφικόμενος δὲ ἐπὶ τὴν λίμνην, οὖσαν ἕλος, τὸν ποταμὸν διώρυχι εἰσαγαγών, τὸ ἀρχαῖον ῥεῖθρον διαβατὸν εἶναι ἐποίησεν, ὑπονοστήσαντος τοῦ ποταμοῦ.

5

10

Names and places Βαβυλών -ῶνος ἡ: Babylon Babylon was a great city in what is now modern Iraq, about 50 miles from Baghdad. It was strongly fortified, but the river Euphrates ran through the middle of it. In antiquity it was famed for its Hanging Gardens.

Βαβυλώνιοι οἱ: the Babylonians Κῦρος ὁ: Cyrus, also known as Cyrus the Great, King of Persia 559–530 Cyrus rose from ruling the small kingdom of Anshan, part of the Median Empire, to become the first Great King of Persia. He defeated the Medes in 550, Croesus of Lydia in 546 and finally the Babylonians in 539.

Q.

Why did the Babylonians believe they could hold out? (lines 4–5)

Q.

How did Cyrus divide his army up? (lines 7–13)

Q.

Explain, using a diagram, the stratagem planned by Cyrus.

Q.

What impression do we get of Cyrus from lines 1–14?

GCSE vocabulary: ἄγω, αὖθις, αὐτόν, ἀφικόμην (ἀφικνέομαι), ἐγενόμην (γίγνομαι), εἶχον (ἔχω), ἐπεί, ἐπί, μένω, ὁράω, οὗτος, οὗτω(ς), τέλος, ὤν οὖσα ὄν,

HERODOTUS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

25

ἐλαύνω – march, ride. ἐκστρατεύω (> στρατιά) – march out to battle; μένω – wait for; ἐγένετο . . . ἀγχοῦ – ‘came near’. ἀγχοῦ + gen. – near; συμβάλλω – join battle; ἡττάομαι – be defeated. κατειλέω – force into; ἄστυ -εως τό – city; ᾗ – where; σιτία τά (> σῖτος) – food, provisions; κάρτα – very. ἐνταῦθα – then; λόγον οὐδένα ἔχω + gen. – pay no account to, consider of no importance; πολιορκία ἡ – siege. ἀπορίᾳ ἀνέχομαι – be at a loss, be in difficulty; τοιόνδε – ‘as follows’. τάξας aorist participle of τάσσω – draw up; ᾗ – where; εἰσβάλλω – flow into. ὄπισθε + gen. – behind; ἕτερος -α -ον – other, pl. the rest; ἐξίησιν – ‘[it] goes

out’. 9

10

προεῖπον + dat. – ordered; στρατός ὁ = στρατιά; ὅταν + subjunctive – when; διαβατός -ή -όν (> διαβαίνω) – crossable, passable; ῥεῖθρον τό – river; ἴδωσι aorist subjunctive of ὁράω with acc. + participle – ‘they saw that . . .’. εἰσιέναι infinitive from εἰσέρχομαι – go into; ταύτῃ – ‘by this way’; τάξας – see

l.7. 11 12

13 14

παραινέω – advise, give instructions; ἀπελαύνω – ride off, march away; σύν + dat. – with; ἀχρεῖον τό – ‘non-combat part’. λίμνη ἡ – lake; ἔλος -ους τό – marsh (the original lake, excavated by Queen

Nitocris (see p.23), was now a marsh; Cyrus uses this to hold the water his men drain from the river Euphrates); διώρυξ -υχος ἡ – channel. εἰσάγω – lead in, ‘divert’; ἀρχαῖος -α -ον (< archaic) – old, original; ῥεῖθρον τό – see l.9; διαβατός -ή –όν – see l.9. ὑπονοστέω genitive absolute – go down, drop down.

Figure 1 The Ishtar Gate, Babylon, built c. 575 by Nebuchadnezzar II, section now restored and housed in the Pergamon museum, Berlin. Photo: Wolfgang Kaehler/LightRocket via Getty Images.

26

HERODOTUS

The Babylonians do not realize what Cyrus is doing until too late. γενομένου δὲ τούτου τοιούτου, οἱ Πέρσαι οἵπερ τεταγμένοι ἦσαν ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ τούτῳ, ὑπονενοστηκότος τοῦ Εὐφράτου ποταμοῦ, ἀνδρὶ ὡς εἰς μέσον μηρὸν μάλιστα, κατὰ τὸ ῥεῖθρον εἰσῇσαν εἰς τὴν Βαβυλῶνα. εἰ μέν νυν προεπύθοντο ἢ ἔμαθον οἱ Βαβυλώνιοι τὸ ἐκ τοῦ Κύρου ποιούμενον, περιιδόντες τοὺς Πέρσας εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν πόλιν διέφθειραν ἂν κάκιστα· κατακλείσαντες γὰρ πάσας τὰς πυλίδας τὰς εἰς τὸν ποταμὸν ἀγούσας, καὶ αὐτοὶ ἐπὶ τὰς αἱμασιὰς ἀναβάντες τὰς παρὰ τὰ τοῦ ποταμοῦ χείλη ἐληλαμένας, ἔλαβον ἂν αὐτοὺς ὡς ἐν κύρτῃ. νῦν δὲ ἐξ ἀπροσδοκήτου αὐτοῖς παρέστησαν οἱ Πέρσαι. ὑπὸ δὲ μεγέθους τῆς πόλεως, τῶν περὶ τὰ ἔσχατα τῆς πόλεως ἑαλωκότων, οἱ τὸ μέσον οἰκοῦντες τῆς Βαβυλῶνος οὐκ ἐμάνθανον ταῦτα, ἀλλά (ἔτυχε γὰρ οὖσα ἑορτή) ἐχόρευόν τε τοῦτον τὸν χρόνον καὶ ἐν εὐπαθείαις ἦσαν, εἰς ὃ δὴ καὶ τὸ ἀληθὲς ἐπύθοντο.

15

20

25

Names and places Πέρσαι οἱ: the Persians Εὐφράτης -ου ὁ: the Euphrates, one of the two great rivers in Mesopotamia.

Q.

What could the Babylonians have done to Cyrus’ forces had they known what was going on?

Q.

What is the effect of the metaphor implied by κύρτη in line 23?

Q.

Why does Herodotus delay the subject οἱ Πέρσαι in line 24?

Q.

Do you detect any hint from Herodotus that the Babylonians were guilty of complacency?

Q.

Do you think Cyrus’ use of trickery adds to or detracts from his achievement? Is trickery something we generally admire or celebrate?

GCSE vocabulary: ἄν, ἀνήρ, αὐτός, δή, διαφθείρω, ἔβην (βαίνω), ἐλθεῖν (ἔρχομαι), ἔμαθον (μανθάνω), ἐπυθόμην (πυνθάνομαι), ἤ, μάλιστα, οἰκέω, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, τοιοῦτος, τοῦτον (οὗτος), χρόνος, ὡς.

HERODOTUS

15 16 17

27

τοιούτου – something of the sort; οἵπερ = οἵ (ὅς ἥ ὅ) – who; τεταγμένοι from τάσσω – ‘drawn up’; the main verb is εἰσῇσαν (l.18). ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ τοῦτῳ – ‘for this very purpose’; ὑπονενοστηκότος – genitive perfect participle from ὑπονοστέω (see l.14), ‘having dropped’. ὡς εἰς + acc. – as far as, up to; μέσος -η -ον – middle (of); μηρός ὁ – thigh; μάλιστα – ‘roughly’, ‘approximately’; κατά = acc. – down, along; ῥεῖθρον τό –

river. 18

19 20

εἰσῇσαν – 3rd person plural imperfect from εἰσέρχομαι; νυν – ‘at this point’; προπυνθάνομαι – find out in advance. The εἰ is picked up by the main verb διέφθειραν ἄν in line 20, making the whole sentence a past closed condition. τὸ . . . ποιούμενον article + passive participle – the thing being done, ‘what was being done’; ἐκ = ὑπό; περιοράω + accusative + infinitive – watch out for. διέφθειραν aorist + ἄν – ‘they would have . . .’; κάκιστα superlative adverb –

‘utterly’. 21

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

κατακλείω – shut, close (the participles κατακλείσαντες and ἀναβάντες (l.22) substitute for an εἰ clause ‘if they had . . .’, answered by ἔλαβον ἄν (l.23) – ‘. . . they would have’); πυλίς -ίδος ἡ (> πύλη) – gate, gateway; τὰς πυλίδας . . . τὰς ἀγούσας . . . – ‘the gateways leading . . .’. αἱμασιά ἡ – rock-wall; παρά + acc. – by, beside. χεῖλος -ους τό – bank, edge; ἐληλαμένος -η -ον (from ἐλαύνω) – ‘built’; κύρτη ἡ – fish-trap. νῦν δέ – ‘but as it was’; ἐξ ἀπροσδοκήτου – ‘unexpectedly’; παρέστησαν +

dat. – ‘[they] stood in front of’. ὑπό + gen. – because of; μέγεθος -ους τό (> μέγας) – great size; περί + acc. – near; ἔσχατον τό – edge, outskirt. ἑαλωκότων from ἁλίσκομαι – ‘were caught’ (τῶν . . . ἑαλωκότων is a genitive absolute); μέσον τό – the middle part, ‘the centre’ (τῆς Βαβυλῶνος). ἔτυχε + participle (οὖσα) – ‘there chanced to be . . .’; ἑορτή ἡ – festival; χορεύω (< chorus) – dance. τοῦτον τὸν χρόνον – ‘during this time’; ἐν εὐπαθείαις εἰμί – enjoy oneself; εἰς ὅ – up to the point when, until. ἀληθές τό (> ἀληθής) – truth. Figure 2 Imaginative reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, which were one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Photo: Bettman via Getty Images.

28

HERODOTUS

Darius disturbs the tomb of Nitocris The message on the tomb of a clever Babylonian queen is not what it seems. Νίτωκρις ἡ τῆς Βαβυλῶνος βασίλεια ἀπάτην τοιάνδε τινὰ ἐμηχανήσατο. ὑπὲρ τῶν μάλιστα λεωφόρων πυλῶν τοῦ ἄστεως τάφον ἑαυτῇ κατεσκευάσατο μετέωρον, ἐπιπολῆς αὐτῶν τῶν πυλῶν· ἐνεκόλαψε δὲ εἰς τὸν τάφον γράμματα λέγοντα τάδε· ‘ἤν τις τῶν ἐμοῦ ὕστερον γιγνομένων Βαβυλῶνος βασιλέων σπανίσῃ χρημάτων, ἀνοίξας τὸν τάφον λαβέτω ὁπόσα βούλεται χρήματα· μὴ μέντοι γε, μὴ σπανίσας γε, ἄλλως ἀνοίξῃ· οὐ γὰρ ἄμεινον.’ οὗτος ὁ τάφος ἦν ἀκίνητος μέχρι οὗ εἰς Δαρεῖον περιῆλθεν ἡ βασιλεία. Δαρείῳ δὲ καὶ δεινὸν ἐδόκει εἶναι ταῖς πύλαις ταύταις μηδὲν χρῆσθαι καί, χρημάτων κειμένων καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν χρημάτων ἐπικαλουμένων, μὴ οὐ λαβεῖν αὐτά. (ταῖς δὲ πύλαις ταύταις οὐδὲν ἐχρῆτο τοῦδε ἕνεκα, ὅτι ὑπὲρ κεφαλῆς αὐτῷ ἐγίγνετο ἂν ὁ νεκρὸς διεξελαύνοντι.) ἀνοίξας δὲ τὸν τάφον ηὗρε χρήματα μὲν οὔ, τὸν δὲ νεκρόν, καὶ γράμματα λέγοντα τάδε, ‘εἰ μὴ ἄπληστός τε ἦσθα χρημάτων καὶ αἰσχροκερδής, οὐκ ἂν νεκρῶν θήκας ἀνέῳγες.’

30

35

40

45

Names and places Νίτοκρις ἡ: Nitocris, legendary Queen of Babylon, the generation before Cyrus. Δαρεῖος ὁ: Darius, King of Persia from 522 to 486. He eventually succeeded Cyrus’ son Cambyses under circumstances described by Herodotus in Book 3. After initial unrest, Darius pacified the empire and sought to expand westwards into Europe. Darius’ forces were defeated by the Athenians at the famous Battle of Marathon in 490.

Wealth Babylon was fabulously wealthy, as you can see from the images on pp.25 and 27. Herodotus shows his readers that prosperity is not something states or individuals can rely upon. King Croesus, for example, who was famed for his riches, falls victim to his own success in Book 1 of Herodotus’ Histories, where greed, pride and excess often lead to trouble. The Delphic Oracle, saying μηδὲν ἄγαν (‘nothing in excess’), offers similar advice on how to live a successful life.

Q.

Why does Nitocris decide on an unusual position for her tomb?

Q.

What was Nitocris’ intention, do you think, in leaving this message?

Q.

What two reasons are given for Darius’ decision to open the tomb?

Q.

How does this tale affect our impressions of a) Darius and b) Nitocris?

Q.

Is there a moral to this tale?

HERODOTUS

29

GCSE vocabulary: βασιλεύς, γε, δεινός, ἐάν, ἑαυτόν, εἶναι (εἰμί), ἦλθον (ἔρχομαι), κεφαλή, μέντοι, νεκρός, οὐδέν, πύλη, τάδε (ὅδε), ταύταις (οὗτος), χράομαι, χρήματα

30 31 32

33 34 35 36 37

38 39 40 41 42

43 44 45 46

βασίλεια ἡ – queen; ἀπάτη ἡ – trick; τοιόσδε -ήδε -όδε – like this, as follows. μηχανάομαι (< mechanism) – devise; ὑπέρ + gen. – above; λεωφόρος -ον – busy; ἄστυ -εως τό – city. τάφος ὁ (< cenotaph) – tomb; κατασκευάζομαι (> παρασκευάζω) – get built, commission; μετέωρος -ον (< meteorite) – on high, high up; ἐπιπολῆς + gen. – on top of; αὐτῶν τῶν πυλῶν – ‘the very gates’. ἐγκολάπτω – cut in stone; γράμμα -ατος τό (< grammar) – letter; τάδε – ‘as

follows’. ἤν = ἐάν; τις – ‘any’; τῶν . . . βασιλέων; ὕστερον – later, after (ἐμοῦ is a genitive of comparison); γιγνόμενος -η -ον – ‘born’, ‘who come’. σπανίζω + gen. – be short of, need; ἀνοίξας aorist participle of ἀνοιγνύμι – open; τάφος ὁ – tomb. λαβέτω – ‘let him take’; ὁπόσος -η -ον – as much . . . as; μὴ . . . ἀνοίξῃ (l.37) – ‘do not open’ (μή with aorist subjunctive for a negative command). μὴ σπανίσας (see l.35) has a conditional sense – ‘unless in need’; ἄλλως – ‘for any other reason’; ἄμεινων -ον (comparative of ἀγαθός -ή -όν) – better, ‘a good idea’ (the verb ἐστί is understood). τάφος ὁ – tomb; ἀκίνητος -ον – undisturbed; μέχρι οὕ – until; περιέρχομαι – come round, pass to. βασιλεία ἡ – royal power; καί . . . καί (l.40) – both . . . and . . . (with the two infinitives, χρῆσθαι l.40 and λαβεῖν l.41); δεινόν – ‘a terrible thing’. μηδέν χρῆσθαι (infinitive of χράομαι + dat.) – ‘to make no use of’; κεῖμαι – lie, be left. ἐπικαλέομαι (> καλέω) – invite; μὴ οὐ λαβεῖν – ‘not to take’ (the two negatives reinforce rather than cancel each other out); αὐτά = τὰ χρήματα. οὐδέν ἐχρῆτο (imperfect of χράομαι) + dat. – ‘he [Darius] made no use of’; τοῦδε ἕνεκα + gen. – ‘for the following reason’; ὑπέρ + gen. – above; αὐτῷ – ‘his’, dative of possession. ἐγίγνετο ἄν – ‘would have been’; διεξελαύνω – go out through (the participle διεξελαύνοντι agrees with αὐτῷ); ἀνοίξας – see l.35. γράμμα -ατος τό – letter, writing. ἄπληστος -ον + gen. – insatiable for, greedy; αἰσχροκερδής -ές – avaricious. θήκη ἡ – coffin, tomb; ἀνέῳγες – ‘you would not be opening’ (imperfect indicative with ἄν in present closed conditional clause).

30

HERODOTUS

Babylonian wife auction How the Babylonians buy their wives. κατὰ κώμας ἑκάστας ἅπαξ τοῦ ἔτους ἐποιεῖτο τάδε. ὡς αἱ παρθένοι γίγνοιντο γάμων ὡραῖαι, ταύτας ὅπως συναγάγοιεν πάσας εἰς ἓν χωρίον εἰσῆγον ἀθρόας· πέριξ δὲ αὐτὰς ἵστατο ὅμιλος ἀνδρῶν, κῆρυξ δὲ ἀνιστὰς κατὰ μίαν ἑκάστην ἐπώλει πρῶτον μὲν τὴν εὐειδεστάτην ἐκ πασῶν· ἔπειτα δέ, ὅπως αὕτη εὑροῦσα πολὺ χρυσίον πραθείη, ἄλλην ἀνεκήρυττεν ἣ μετ᾽ ἐκείνην ἦν εὐειδεστάτη· ἐπωλοῦντο δὲ ἐπὶ συνοικήσει. ὅσοι μὲν δὴ εὐδαίμονες τῶν Βαβυλωνίων ἦσαν ἐπίγαμοι, οὗτοι ὑπερβάλλοντες ἀλλήλους ἐξωνοῦντο τὰς καλλιστευούσας· ὅσοι δὲ τοῦ δήμου ἐπίγαμοι ἦσαν, εἴδους χρηστοῦ οὐ δεόμενοι, χρήματά τε καὶ αἰσχίονας παρθένους ἐλάμβανον. ὡς γὰρ δὴ διεξέλθοι ὁ κῆρυξ πωλῶν τὰς εὐειδεστάτας τῶν παρθένων, ἀνίστη ἂν τὴν ἀμορφεστάτην ἢ ἔμπηρόν τινα, καὶ ἀνεκήρυττεν· ὅστις δὲ ἐθέλοι ἐλάχιστον χρυσίον λαβὼν συνοικεῖν αὐτῇ, τούτῳ προσέκειτο ἡ παρθένος. καὶ οὕτως αἱ εὔμορφοι τὰς ἀμόρφους καὶ ἐμπήρους ἐξεδίδοσαν. ἐκδοῦναι δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ θυγατέρα ᾧτινι βούλοιτο ἕκαστος οὐκ ἐξῆν.

50

55

60

Differing cultural values This story may seem offensive to most people today. Indeed, Herodotus may have included the account because it was also alien to the world of his fellow Greeks. Herodotus took a particular interest in the ways other cultures and values differed from Greek customs and it is important for us, too, to reflect on why some traditions, unacceptable today, were sometimes adopted in the ancient world, like the practice of leaving a weak baby to die in the wild. One issue surrounding marriage was resolved by the Babylonian custom – that of raising the traditional dowry for a daughter. Herodotus himself looks back on this Babylonian custom as a ‘νόμος σοφώτατος’ and ‘κάλλιστος’ (1.196), regretting that it fell into disuse when times became harder for the Babylonians, after they were conquered.

Q.

How does the auctioneer ensure he gets the best price for each bride?

Q.

Consider the advantages and disadvantages of economic subsidies.

Q.

Do you think it is fair that fathers and daughters could not opt out of this system (see lines 62–3)?

Q.

What replaced this custom was worse, involving poorer girls in prostitution. Does that alter your view of the Babylonian wife auction?

HERODOTUS

31

GCSE vocabulary: ἀνήρ, γίγνομαι, δή, ἐθέλω, εἷς μία ἕν, ἔπειτα, ηὕρον (εὑρίσκω), θυγάτηρ, πρῶτον, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, ὅδε ἥδε τόδε, χρήματα, οὕτως, ὡς.

47

48

49 50 51 52

53

54 55 56

57 58 59 60 61 62

63

κώμη ἡ – village; κατὰ κώμας ἑκάστας – ‘in each village’; ἅπαξ – once; ἐποιεῖτο– ‘was done’, the imperfect indicates that this used to be done; τάδε – ‘the following’; ὡς + optative – whenever, when. παρθένος -ου ἡ (> Parthenon) – young woman, unmarried girl; γάμος ὁ – marriage; ὡραῖος -α -ον + gen. – ready for; ὅπως = ἵνα; συνάγω (< synagogue) –

bring together, gather. χωρίον τό (> χώρα) – place; ἀθρόος -α -ον – together, in a group; πέριξ + acc. = περί + acc.; ἵστατο imperfect of ἵστημι – ‘stood’. ὅμιλος ὁ – crowd; κῆρυξ -υκος ὁ – herald; ἀνιστὰς . . . ἑκάστην ‘standing each up’; κατὰ μίαν – ‘one by one’; πωλέω (> monopoly) – sell. εὐειδέστατος -η -ον – best-looking; ὅπως + optative – whenever, when. εὑρίσκω – find, gain (a price); χρυσίον = χρυσός; πραθείη aorist passive optative of πιπράσκω – ‘had been sold’; ἀνακηρύττω – announce, offer for auction. εὐειδέστατος -η -ον – best-looking; πωλέω – sell; ἐπί + dat. – for; συνοίκησις -εως ἡ (> οἰκέω) – cohabitation, marriage; ὅσοι μέν – ‘all those men who . . .’ (answered by ὅσοι δέ in l.56). εὐδαίμων -ον – rich, prosperous; ἐπίγαμος -ον – ready to marry. ὑπερβάλλω – outbid; ἀλλήλους -ας -α – each other; ἐξωνέομαι – buy; καλλιστεύω (> κάλλιστος) – be very/most beautiful. ὅσοι -αι -α – see l.53; δῆμος ὁ (< democracy) – common people; ἐπίγαμος -ον – see l.54; εἶδος -ους τό – looks, appearance; χρηστός -ή -όν – good; δέομαι + gen. – require, be in need of. αἰσχίων -ον– ‘less attractive’ (comparative of αἰσχρός); παρθένος -ου ἡ – see l.48; ὡς + optative – whenever, when. διεξέρχομαι – get through, finish; πωλέω – see l.50; ἀνίστη ἄν – ‘he would stand up’ + acc. (imperfect + ἄν indicating a repeated action). ἄμορφος -η -ον (< morph) – unattractive, unshapely; ἔμπηρος -ον – damaged, disabled; ἀνακηρύττω – offer for auction; ὅστις ἥτις ὅ τι – whoever. ἐθέλω – be willing; ἐλάχιστος -η -ον – least, smallest amount of; χρυσίον τό = χρυσός; λαμβάνω – receive; συνοικέω – live with. πρόσκειμαι – be assigned; εὔμορφος -ον – good-looking; ἄμορφος -η -ον – see l.59. ἔμπηρος -ον – see l.59; ἐξεδίδοσαν + acc. from ἐκδίδωμι – pay a dowry, ‘would pay for’; ἐκδοῦναι infinitive from ἐκδίδωμι – ‘to give away’ (with ἐξῆν l.63); ᾧτινι– to whom, to whoever. ἔξεστι – it is possible.

32

HERODOTUS

Megacles’ marriage The tyrant Cleisthenes sets up a contest to find a husband for his daughter. Κλεισθένει τῷ Σικυωνίῳ τυράννῳ γίγνεται θυγάτηρ ᾗ ὄνομα ἦν Ἀγαρίστη. ταύτην ἠθέλησεν, Ἑλλήνων ἁπάντων ἐξευρὼν τὸν ἄριστον, τούτῳ γυναῖκα προσθεῖναι. Ὀλυμπίων οὖν ὄντων ὁ Κλεισθένης, νικῶν ἐν αὐτοῖς τεθρίππῳ, κήρυγμα τοῦτο ἐποιήσατο, ‘ὅστις Ἑλλήνων ἑαυτὸν ἀξιοῖ Κλεισθένους γαμβρὸς γενέσθαι, ἡκέτω εἰς Σικυῶνα, ὡς κυρώσοντος Κλεισθένους τὸν γάμον ἐν ἐνιαυτῷ.’ ἐνταῦθα ὅσοι τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἦσαν ἑαυτοῖς τε καὶ πάτρᾳ ἐξωγκωμένοι ἐφοίτων μνηστῆρες· ἐκ δὲ Ἀθηνῶν ἀφίκοντο Μεγακλῆς τε ὁ Ἀλκμαίωνος, τοῦ παρὰ Κροῖσον ἀφικομένου, καὶ Ἱπποκλείδης Τισάνδρου πλούτῳ καὶ εἴδει τῶν ἄλλων Ἀθηναίων προφέρων. ἀφικομένων δὲ τούτων ὁ Κλεισθένης πρῶτον μὲν τὰς πάτρας τε αὐτῶν ἀνεπύθετο καὶ γένος ἑκάστου· μετὰ δὲ κατέχων ἐνιαυτὸν διεπειρᾶτο αὐτῶν τῆς τε ἀνδραγαθίας καὶ τῆς ὀργῆς καὶ παιδεύσεώς τε καὶ τρόπου· καὶ ἅμα ἐξένιζεν αὐτοὺς μεγαλοπρεπῶς.

65

70

75

80

Names and places Κλεισθένης -ους ὁ: Cleisthenes, who ruled Sicyon as tyrant c. 600–570. Σικυών -ῶνος ὁ/ἡ: Sicyon, a city about 10 miles west of Corinth. Ἀγαρίστη ἡ: Agariste, Cleisthenes’ daughter. Μεγακλῆς ὁ Ἀλκμαίωνος: Megacles, the (son) of Alcmaeon. The story of Alcmaeon’s

visit to the court of Croesus and how he became so rich is told by Herodotus in Book 6.125. Κροῖσος ὁ: Croesus, wealthy King of Lydia, until his defeat by Cyrus in 546. Ἱπποκλείδης ὁ Τισάνδρου: Hippocleides, the (son) of Tisander Ὀλύμπια -ων τά: the Olympic Games

Competition The Greeks loved to compete and the Olympic Games, held every four years at Olympia, were the greatest sporting event in the Greek world, attracting noble athletes from far and wide. The prestige event was the four-horse chariot race and, as keeping and training a team of horses was very expensive, competitors would be among the super-rich. Cleisthenes probably acquired his wealth through successful wars, whereas Alcmaeon became rich through the generosity of King Croesus, whose city of Sardis was famous for its gold.

HERODOTUS

33

GCSE vocabulary: ἄλλος, ἄριστος, ἀφικόμην (ἀφικνέομαι), γυνή, ἕκαστος, ἠθέλησα (ἐθέλω), θυγάτηρ, νικάω, ὄνομα.

64

Κλεισθένει . . . γίγνεται – dative of possession: ‘Cleisthenes . . . had’ (γίγνεται is a ‘historic’ present); τύραννος ὁ – tyrant, ruler; ᾗ from ὅς ἥ ὅ – to whom, ‘whose’ (another dative of possession). ταύτην – direct object of προσθεῖναι in l.66; ἁπάντων = πάντων; ἐξευρίσκω – find out, discover. προσθεῖναι (infinitive) – give, join; γυναῖκα – ‘as a wife’ (in apposition to ταύτην l.65); Ὀλυμπίων ὄντων genitive absolute – ‘during the Olympic Games’. αὐτοῖς – refers to the games; τεθρίππον τό – four-horse chariot; κήρυγμα -ατος τό – announcement. ποιέομαι middle – make, have made. ὅστις – whoever, whichever; ἀξιόω + infinitive – think worthy; γαμβρός ὁ – son-in-law. ἡκέτω – ‘let him come’, third person imperative; ὡς + participle – since, as; κυρόω – decide on, future participle as part of a genitive absolute. γάμος ὁ – marriage; ἐν ἐνιαυτῷ – within a year. ἐνταῦθα – then; ὅσοι -αι -α – all those who; πάτρα ἡ (< patriotic) – fatherland. ἐξογκόομαι + dat. pride oneself on, take pride; φοιτάω – visit, come; μνηστήρ -ῆρος ὁ – suitor, μνηστῆρες is in apposition to the subject ‘as suitors’. Ἀλκμαίωνος – in the genitive = ‘son of’; τοῦ . . . ἀφικομένου – ‘the one who had paid a visit’ (see note on Megacles); παρὰ Κροῖσον – ‘to Croesus’. Τίσανδρος ὁ – Tisander, genitive for same reason as Ἀλκμαίωνος in the previous line; πλούτος ὁ – wealth; εἴδος -ους τό – appearance, looks. προφέρω + gen. – excel, surpass. πάτρα ἡ – fatherland; ἀναπυνθάνομαι – ask about, inquire into; γένος -ους τό (> genesis) – descent, family. μετά adverb – afterwards; κατέχω – keep, detain; ἐνιαυτόν – ‘for a year’; διαπειράομαι + gen. (> πειράομαι) – test out, make a trial of; ἀνδραγαθία ἡ – bravery, courage. ὀργή ἡ (> ὀργίζομαι) – temper, nature, disposition; παίδευσις -εως ἡ (> παῖς) – education; τρόπος ὁ – character; ἅμα – at the same time; ξενίζω (> ξένος) – entertain. μεγαλοπρεπῶς – splendidly, magnificently.

65 66

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78

79

80

Q.

Why do you think Cleisthenes chose the Olympic Games to find suitors for his daughter’s hand in marriage?

Q.

Compare this marriage contest with the Babylonian wife auction.

Q.

What qualities was Cleisthenes looking for in a son-in-law (lines 78–9)?

34

HERODOTUS

Hippocleides is a front-runner until he disgraces himself at the feast after Cleisthenes announces his final decision. καὶ δή που μάλιστα τῶν μνηστήρων ἠρέσκοντο οἱ ἀπ᾽ Ἀθηνῶν ἀφιγμένοι· καὶ τούτων μᾶλλον Ἱπποκλείδης ὁ Τισάνδρου. ὡς δὲ ἡ κυρία ἡμέρα ἐγίγνετο τῆς κατακλίσεως τοῦ γάμου, θύσας βοῦς ἑκατὸν ὁ Κλεισθένης εὐώχει αὐτούς τε τοὺς μνηστῆρας καὶ Σικυωνίους πάντας.

85

ὡς δὲ ἐδείπνησαν, οἱ μνηστῆρες ἔριν εἶχον ἀμφὶ μουσικῇ· προιούσης δὲ τῆς πόσεως ὁ Ἱπποκλείδης, πολὺ κατέχων τοὺς ἄλλους, ἐκέλευσε τὸν αὐλητὴν αὐλῆσαι αὐτῷ ἐμμέλειαν, πειθομένου δὲ τοῦ αὐλητοῦ ὠρχήσατο. καί πως ἑαυτῷ μὲν ἀρεστῶς ὠρχεῖτο· ὁ δὲ Κλεισθένης ὁρῶν ὅλον τὸ πρᾶγμα ὑπώπτευε. μετὰ δὲ ὁ Ἱπποκλείδης ἐκέλευσέ τινα τράπεζαν εἰσενεγκεῖν, εἰσελθούσης δὲ τῆς τραπέζης πρῶτον μὲν ἐπ᾽ αὐτῆς ὠρχήσατο Λακωνικὰ καὶ Ἀττικὰ σχημάτια, ἔπειτα δὲ τὴν κεφαλὴν ἐρείσας ἐπὶ τὴν τράπεζαν τοῖς σκέλεσιν ἐχειρονόμησε.

90

95

The suitors There is a long-standing tradition in the Greek world of suitors behaving badly, going back to the 108 suitors who besieged Odysseus’ wife Penelope in Homer’s Odyssey. Herodotus names thirteen noble suitors who came from all over the Greek world to Sicyon, including the two from Athens. The contests involved wrestling and running, as well as table manners. The sacrifice of a hundred oxen (or ‘hecatomb’) shows off the tyrant’s great wealth as he prepares to announce the result of this contest. Even in the context of a feast where the wine was flowing, the high-spirited behaviour of Hippocleides caused Cleisthenes concern; we should perhaps bear in mind that the Greeks did not wear underwear.

μουσική This term refers not only to music but to any of the arts under the protection of the nine Muses, like Terpsichore, the muse of dance. Music and dancing formed a key element in the education of any young Greek noble and were important in religious festivals like Athens’ City Dionysia.

Q.

Do you think that Cleisthenes had come to a decision before this feast and why is it called a wedding feast (κατάκλισις τοῦ γάμου)?

Q.

What impressions have you formed of the tyrant Cleisthenes so far?

Q.

How does Herodotus cast doubt on the wisdom of Hippocleides’ actions in lines 87–95?

HERODOTUS

35

GCSE vocabulary: εἶχον (ἔχω), εἰσῆλθον, ἔπειτα, ἡμέρα, κελεύω, κεφαλή, ὁράω, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, πείθομαι, πρῶτον, ὥς.

81 82 83 84 85 86 87

88 89 90 91

92 93 94 95

καί δή που – ‘and I suppose’; μάλιστα – most (take this adverb with ἠρέσκοντο); μνηστήρ -ῆρος ὁ – suitor; ἀρέσκομαι – give satisfaction, be pleasing. οἱ (l.81) . . . ἀφιγμένοι perfect participle – ‘those who had arrived’; μᾶλλον –

more (out of the two candidates from Athens). κύριος -α -ον + gen. – appointed, chosen; κατάκλισις -εως ἡ – celebrationfeast; γάμος ὁ – wedding; βοῦς βοός ὁ/ἡ – ox, cow. ἑκατόν – one hundred; εὐωχέω – entertain lavishly; μνηστήρ -ῆρος ὁ – see l.81. Σικυωνίοι οἱ – the people of Sicyon. δειπνέω (> δεῖπνον) – dine; ἔρις -ιδος ἡ – quarrel, argument; ἀμφί + dat. (< amphitheatre) – around, about; μουσική ἡ (< music) – poetry, music. προίων -ουσα -ον used as participle from προέρχομαι – go on, continue; πόσις -εως ἡ (< symposium) – drinking; πολύ – very much, by far; κατέχω – outdo, dominate. αὐλητής ὁ – flute-player, piper (the αὐλός was a double pipe with reeds); αὐλέω – play; ἐμμέλεια ἡ – dance-tune. αὐλητής ὁ – see l.88; ὀρχέομαι (< orchestra) – dance. πως – ‘I suppose’; ἀρεστῶς – in a pleasing way. ὅλος -η -ον (< holistic) – whole, entire; πρᾶγμα -ατος τό (> πράσσω) – matter, event, affair; ὑποπτεύω – view with suspicion; μετά adverb – afterwards, then, next; τινα – direct object of ἐκέλευσε. τράπεζα ἡ – table; εἰσενεγκεῖν – aorist infinitive of εἰσφέρω. ἐπί + gen. – on; ὀρχέομαι – see l.89; Λακωνικός -ή -όν – Spartan; Ἀττικός -ή -όν – Attic, Athenian; σχημάτιον τό (< scheme) – dance-move, dance. ἐρείδω – lean, rest; τράπεζα ἡ – table; σκέλος -ους τό (< isosceles) – leg. χειρονομέω (> χείρ) – make gestures, wave about. Figure 3 A pupil being taught to play the αὐλός – two pipes, played at the same time. His cheeks are puffed out, suggesting the pipes needed a lot of wind pressure. Photo: Bildagentur-online/ Universal Images Group via Getty Images.

36

HERODOTUS

Hippocleides dances away his marriage. Κλεισθένης δέ, τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ὀρχουμένου αὐτοῦ, ἀποστυγῶν γαμβρὸν ἂν γενέσθαι ἑαυτῷ Ἱπποκλείδη διὰ τήν τε ὄρχησιν καὶ τὴν ἀναίδειαν, κατεῖχεν ἑαυτόν, οὐ βουλόμενος ἐκραγῆναι εἰς αὐτόν· ὡς δὲ εἶδε τοῖς σκέλεσι χειρονομήσαντα, οὐκέτι κατέχειν δυνάμενος εἶπεν, ‘ὦ παῖ Τισάνδρου, ἀπωρχήσω γε μὴν τὸν γάμον.’ ὁ δὲ Ἱπποκλείδης ὑπολαβὼν εἶπεν ‘οὐ φροντὶς Ἱπποκλείδῃ.’ ὁ δὲ Κλεισθένης σιγὴν ποιησάμενος ἔλεξεν εἰς μέσον τάδε, ‘ἄνδρες παιδὸς τῆς ἐμῆς μνηστῆρες, ἐγὼ καὶ πάντας ὑμᾶς ἐπαινῶ, καὶ πᾶσιν ὑμῖν, εἰ οἷόν τε εἴη, χαριζοίμην ἄν, μήτε ἕνα ὑμῶν ἐξαίρετον ἀποκρίνων, μήτε τοὺς λοιποὺς ἀποδοκιμάζων. ἀλλ᾽, οὐ γὰρ οἷός τ᾽ εἰμὶ μιᾶς περὶ παρθένου βουλεύων πᾶσι κατὰ νοῦν ποιεῖν, τοῖς μὲν ὑμῶν ἀπελαυνομένοις τοῦδε τοῦ γάμου τάλαντον ἀργυρίου ἑκάστῳ δωρεὰν δίδωμι, τῷ δὲ Μεγακλεῖ τῷ Ἀλκμαίωνος ἐγγυῶ παῖδα τὴν ἐμὴν Ἀγαρίστην.’

100

105

110

The Alcmaeonids The Alcmaeonids were a leading Athenian family who were involved in politics over a long period. Megacles enhanced his family’s prospects with this marriage to Agariste. Their son Cleisthenes went on to spearhead the reforms which laid the foundations of Athenian democracy at the end of the sixth century. Their granddaughter, also called Agariste, was the mother of Pericles, who was Athens’ most influential political leader in the 440s and 430s.

Hippocleides’ legacy Hippocleides’ response to Cleisthenes has been much quoted both by ancient Greeks and modern readers of Herodotus. T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), for example, had the words ‘οὐ φροντίς’ inscribed over the doorway of his cottage, Clouds Hill, in Dorset.

Q.

How does Cleisthenes’ reaction in lines 96–102 affect our view of Hippocleides’ behaviour?

Q.

‘οὐ φροντὶς Ἱπποκλείδῃ.’ (lines 101–2). Why do you think Hippocleides gave this reply? Do you imagine him regretting it the next morning?

Q.

Whom do you admire more in this story, Hippocleides or Cleisthenes?

Q.

Try telling this story from Agariste’s perspective.

HERODOTUS

37

GCSE vocabulary: βούλομαι, γε, διά, δίδωμι, ἑαυτόν, ἐγενόμην (γίγνομαι), εἶδον (ὁράω), εἶπον (λέγω), εἷς μία ἕν, οἷός τ᾽ εἰμί, παῖς, σιγή, ὑμεῖς.

96

τὸ μὲν πρῶτον – ‘at first’ (contrasting with ὡς δέ, l.99); ὀρχέομαι – see l.89; αὐτοῦ – refers to Hippocleides; ἀποστυγέω + acc. + infinitive – hate the

97 98 99

100 101 103 104 105

106 107 108

109 110

thought (that). γαμβρός ὁ – son-in-law; ἄν – ‘would’; ὄρχησις -εως ἡ – dancing. ἀναίδεια ἡ – shamelessness; κατέχω – restrain, control; ἐκραγῆναι infinitive of ἐκρηγνύμι – burst out at, lose one’s temper with. σκέλος -ους τό – leg; χειρονομέω – wave about, make gestures (εἶδε introduces an indirect statement using a participle; supply αὐτόν as the accusative); οὐκέτι – no longer. κατέχω – restrain, control (supply ἑαυτόν); δυνάμενος -η -ον (< dynamic) – able; ἀπορχέομαι here aorist, 2nd person singular – dance away. μήν – certainly, really; ὑπολαμβάνω – answer, reply; φροντίς -ίδος ἡ – care, worry (supply the verb ἐστί). σιγὴν ποιησάμενος – the middle voice of ποιέω suggests ‘having got silence’; μέσος -η -ον (< Mesopotamia) – middle, ‘for all to hear’. μνηστῆρες in apposition to ἄνδρες – ‘gentlemen, suitors . . .’; καί. . .καί . . . – both . . . and. ἐπαινέω – praise, ‘congratulate’; εἰ οἷόν τε εἴη – ‘if it were possible’; χαρίζω + dat. (< charity) – please, ‘like to please’ (optative + ἄν in a remote future condition). ἐξαίρετος -ον – outstanding; ἀποκρίνω – judge, select, pick; λοιπός -ή -όν – (the) rest, remaining; ἀποδοκιμάζω – reject. παρθένος -ου ἡ – young woman, unmarried girl (μιᾶς περὶ παρθένου = περὶ μιᾶς παρθένου); βουλεύω – make a decision; κατά + acc. – in accordance with. κατὰ νοῦν – ‘in accordance with my wishes’; ποιεῖν – ‘to act’ (take with οἷον τ᾽ εἰμί in the previous line); τοῖς μὲν ὑμῶν – ‘to those of you . . .’; ἀπελαύνω + gen. – drive off from, ‘unsuccessful in’. τάλαντον τό – talent (a weight of around 30kg); ἀργύριον τό – silver; δωρεά ἡ = δῶρον, in apposition to τάλαντον ‘as a gift’. ἐγγυάω – pledge, betroth.

Final questions 

Which scenes stand out most vividly from this selection?



What are Herodotus’ strengths as a writer?



Is there a place for anecdotes in serious ‘history’?

Xenophon

Xenophon was an Athenian, born into a wealthy family around 430, at about the same time as the Peloponnesian War began. As the conflict lasted until 404, he would have been familiar with war all the time he was growing up. He was in his midtwenties when he experienced the defeat and humiliation of Athens at the hands of the Spartans, including the pulling down of her defensive walls. In the political turmoil that ensued, he aligned himself with the aristocratic forces against the radical democrats in 403–402 after the puppet government which had been installed by the Spartans in 404 was overthrown. It is hardly surprising that he decided to leave Athens and try his luck with the mercenary force that was being recruited in 401 by Cyrus, the pretender to the Persian throne. After the failure of this expedition, Xenophon ended up fighting as a Spartan mercenary, at times against his fellow Athenians. He did well for the Spartans, who granted him an estate just outside Olympia. They appointed him their proxenos (representative) and he had his sons educated there in the tough Spartan agoge education. After the Spartan defeat at Leuctra in 371, Xenophon settled in Corinth, midway between Sparta and Athens. It seems he became reconciled to his native city and his sons fought for Athens ten years later. Xenophon was a prolific writer, active in an unusually wide number of genres. He wrote a description of the constitution of Sparta, a life of the Persian King Cyrus the Great, and an account of his recollections of Socrates; he also wrote on aristocratic education in Athens and on how to eliminate poverty; other surviving works are his manuals on household organization, horsemanship and use of the cavalry in the army. Xenophon is best known, however, for two historical works: the Hellenica picks up where Thucydides’ History breaks off in 411 and continues on to the middle of the following century; the Anabasis is an account of his early days fighting as a mercenary for the younger Cyrus. This is the work from which your GCSE text is taken. For many years, Xenophon was considered a second-rank Greek author. His style is relatively straightforward and he tells his stories simply with little apparent artifice. To some critics, who characterize him as a military commander ill at ease with literary style, he lacks sophistication. Others, however, find humour and irony in his voice and appreciate his scholarship and range of expertise. Classicists reappraising his writings see reflections of our own multifaceted modern world in his diverse works.

38

XENOPHON

39

2025–2026 Prescription This selection corresponds to Xenophon: The Persian Expedition, ed. Antrich and Usher, Book 1, Chapter 8: The Battle of Cunaxa (with omissions). At the end of the Peloponnesian War, when Sparta had finally defeated Athens in 404, there were many trained Greek soldiers seeking work. Thousands of them signed up to accompany Cyrus, a member of the Persian royal family, on a military expedition into the heart of the Persian Empire. Artaxerxes II had recently become King of the Persians but Cyrus, his younger brother, wanted the throne for himself. He had the wealth to hire a large force of Greek soldiers – the best mercenaries available – to achieve this aim. One of these men was the Athenian, Xenophon, who wrote an eyewitness account of this campaign and the long journey home known as the Anabasis (‘March up-country’). In fact, the outcome was a disaster. At Cunaxa in 401 (see map on p.18) Cyrus and his army were greatly outnumbered by the forces of Artaxerxes and defeated. Cyrus himself was killed and the pay of the mercenaries ended at a stroke. Then the Greek generals were lured to a meeting with the Persians to discuss terms, but were treacherously seized and killed. The Greek mercenary forces were cut off, deep in the Persian Empire, with no resources and few experienced leaders. They decided that their best course of action was to head north through the inhospitable regions of Mesopotamia, Armenia and northern Anatolia. If they could get to the south shore of the Black Sea, where there were Greek colonies and ships regularly carrying wheat to mainland Greece, they could get safe passage home. Xenophon was to play an important role in leading them on this dangerous journey through unknown, inhospitable and dangerous territory with suspicious and hostile forces harrying them for much of the way.

The story so far The extract you will read is from Book 1 of the seven books of Xenophon’s Anabasis. After gathering at Sardis (about 50 miles inland from the west coast of modern Turkey), Cyrus’ forces made their way east for about 1,000 miles, following the river Euphrates through the desert, deep into the heart of the Persian Empire, to join battle with the Persian great King, Artaxerxes. They had almost reached Babylon where Artaxerxes’ forces had gathered in huge numbers. Xenophon reports that Cyrus had hired 10,400 Greek hoplites and 2,500 peltasts (lightly-armed troops) to add to his 100,000 native forces, twenty scythed chariots and 6,000 cavalry. Opposing them, Artaxerxes is reported to have had 900,000 troops and fifty scythed chariots. Although this number is almost certainly exaggerated, it shows the disparity in numbers between the two sides. Cyrus’ forces had noted signs of the enemy and so were marching in battle formation. They had met with a huge defensive trench, about 25 miles long, 5 metres wide and 3 metres deep, with a narrow passage about 6 metres wide between the trench and the bank of the river Euphrates. Despite expecting Artaxerxes to attack them here, they saw only signs of retreat. Thinking therefore that Artaxerxes had given up the idea of an attack, they continued their march for the next two days in a more relaxed fashion. Many soldiers put their weapons on the wagons, or let the pack-animals carry them. Then news was suddenly brought that the forces of the King had been sighted . . .

40

XENOPHON

News arrives that the forces of King Artaxerxes are close at hand, causing confusion amongst the men. Cyrus takes control. Nominative words or phrases are in light blue, verbs in dark blue. Καὶ ἤδη τε ἦν ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν καὶ πλησίον ἦν ὁ σταθμὸς ἔνθα ἔμελλε καταλύσειν, ἡνίκα Πατηγύας ἀνὴρ Πέρσης τῶν ἀμφὶ Κῦρον πιστῶν, προφαίνεται ἐλαύνων ἀνὰ κράτος ἱδρῶντι τῷ ἵππῳ, καὶ εὐθὺς πᾶσιν οἷς ἐνετύγχανεν ἐβόα καὶ βαρβαρικῶς καὶ Ἑλληνικῶς ὅτι βασιλεὺς σὺν στρατεύματι πολλῷ προσέρχεται ὡς εἰς μάχην παρεσκευασμένος. ἔνθα δὴ πολὺς τάραχος ἐγένετο· αὐτίκα γὰρ ἐδόκουν οἱ Ἕλληνες καὶ πάντες δὲ ἀτάκτοις σφίσιν ἐπιπεσεῖσθαι· Κῦρός τε καταπηδήσας ἀπὸ τοῦ ἅρματος τὸν θώρακα ἐνέδυ καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐπὶ τὸν ἵππον τὰ παλτὰ εἰς τὰς χεῖρας ἔλαβε, τοῖς τε ἄλλοις πᾶσι παρήγγελλεν ἐξοπλίζεσθαι καὶ καθίστασθαι εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ τάξιν ἕκαστον.

5

10

Names and places Πατηγύας ὁ: Pategyas, a trusted officer in Cyrus’ Persian bodyguard. Κῦρος ὁ: Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes II (King of Persia, 404–358).

Cyrus’ journey Distances on the Royal Road in Persia were measured in σταθμοί – stopping points – roughly 20 miles apart. Cyrus was travelling south into modern Iraq down the east bank of the river Euphrates. The two armies met about 45 miles north of Babylon at a place called Cunaxa (see map, p.18).

Hoplites Greek mercenaries were generally highly trained hoplites, equipped with heavy bronze armour and drilled to fight in a disciplined, close formation called the ‘phalanx’. Each warrior would protect the man to his left with his great circular shield. At the beginning of the fifth century, the Persians had found it difficult to defeat a hoplite phalanx and this was still the case in 401, when the Battle of Cunaxa was fought between Cyrus and his brother Artaxerxes.

Q.

Give two details in line 4 that suggest that Pategyas had urgent news.

Q.

Why do you think Pategyas shouted his news in two languages (l.5)?

Q.

How effectively does Xenophon communicate the atmosphere among the troops in this account?

Q.

What was Cyrus’ response to Pategyas’ news (lines 9–12)?

GCSE vocabulary: ἀγορά, ἀνήρ, ἀπό, βασιλεύς, βοάω, εὐθύς, ἑαυτόν, ἕκαστος, ἤδη, ἵππος, μάχη, ὅτι, παρεσκευάζω, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, πιστός, πολύς πολλή πολύ, χείρ.

XENOPHON

1

41

τε . . . καί . . . – τε is best left untranslated here; ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν – ‘about mid-morning’ (literally ‘when the agora fills up’); πλησίον adverb –

nearby. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

σταθμός ὁ – stopping place, ‘the next stop’; ἔνθα – where; ἔμελλε – the subject is Cyrus; καταλύω – take a break; ἡνίκα – when. οἱ ἀμφί Κῦρον – ‘the attendants of Cyrus’; προφαίνομαι – appear ahead (the

‘historic present’ may be translated as a past tense). ἐλαύνω – drive, ride; ἀνὰ κράτος – ‘at full speed’ (κράτος = force); ἱδρόω – sweat. ἐντυγχάνω + dat. – meet; βαρβαρικῶς – in a foreign language, ‘in Persian’; Ἑλληνικῶς – ‘in Greek’. σύν + dat. (< synergy) – with; στρατεύμα -ατος τό = στρατιά; πολλῷ – ‘a great’; ὡς = as if; εἰς – ‘for’. παρεσκευασμένος – perfect passive participle, ‘prepared’; ἔνθα δή – then indeed (indicating a turning point); τάραχος ὁ – confusion. αὐτίκα – straightaway; δοκέω + accusative and infinitive – think that (the accusative (Artaxerxes) is implied); ἄτακτος -ον – in disarray, out of position. σφίσιν – them (dative, referring to the Greeks); ἐπιπεσεῖσθαι – future infinitive of ἐπιπίπτω + dat. – fall upon, attack; καταπηδάω – leap down. ἅρμα -ατος τό – chariot; θώραξ -ακος ὁ (< thoracic) – breastplate; ἐνδύω – put on; ἀναβάς aorist participle from ἀναβαίνω – ‘having mounted’. παλτόν τό – javelin; παραγγέλλω (> ἀγγέλλω) – issue an order, order; ἐξοπλίζομαι (> ὅπλα) – equip oneself, put on armour; καθίστασθαι infinitive of καθίστημι – fall in, get into line; τάξις -εως ἡ – position.

Figure 4 Greek hoplite with spear and shield, crested helmet, corselet and greaves. Photo: duncan1890 via Getty Images.

42

XENOPHON

The Greeks take up position; by the afternoon, a cloud of dust can be seen on the horizon . . . ἔνθα δὴ σὺν πολλῇ σπουδῇ καθίσταντο, Κλέαρχος μὲν τὰ δεξιὰ τοῦ κέρατος ἔχων πρὸς τῷ Εὐφράτῃ ποταμῷ, Πρόξενος δὲ ἐχόμενος, οἱ δ’ ἄλλοι μετὰ τοῦτον, Μένων δὲ τὸ εὐώνυμον κέρας ἔσχε τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ. τοῦ δὲ βαρβαρικοῦ ἱππεῖς μὲν Παφλαγόνες εἰς χιλίους παρὰ Κλέαρχον ἔστησαν ἐν τῷ δεξιῷ καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν πελταστικόν, ἐν δὲ τῷ εὐωνύμῳ Ἀριαῖός τε ὁ Κύρου ἵππαρχος καὶ τὸ ἄλλο βαρβαρικόν. Κῦρος δὲ καὶ ἱππεῖς τούτου ὅσον ἑξακόσιοι ὡπλισμένοι θώραξι μὲν αὐτοὶ καὶ παραμηριδίοις καὶ κράνεσι πάντες πλὴν Κύρου (Κῦρος δὲ ψιλὴν ἔχων τὴν κεφαλὴν εἰς τὴν μάχην καθίστατο). οἱ δ’ ἵπποι πάντες οἱ μετὰ Κύρου εἶχον καὶ προμετωπίδια καὶ προστερνίδια· εἶχον δὲ καὶ μαχαίρας οἱ ἱππεῖς Ἑλληνικάς. καὶ ἤδη τε ἦν μέσον ἡμέρας καὶ οὔπω καταφανεῖς ἦσαν οἱ πολέμιοι· ἡνίκα δὲ δείλη ἐγίγνετο, ἐφάνη κονιορτὸς ὥσπερ νεφέλη λευκή, χρόνῳ δὲ συχνῷ ὕστερον ὥσπερ μελανία τις ἐν τῷ πεδίῳ ἐπὶ πολύ.

15

20

25

Names Κλέαρχος ὁ: Clearchus, commander in overall charge of the Greeks. Πρόξενος ὁ: Proxenus, the Greek commander responsible for persuading Xenophon

to join Cyrus’ forces. Μένων -ωνος ὁ: Menon, a Greek commander. Εὐφράτης ὁ: Euphrates, one of the two great rivers of Mesopotamia. Παφλαγών -ονος: Paphlagonian, from the south coast of the Black Sea. Ἀριαῖος ὁ: Ariaeus, a Persian general.

Disposition of the forces The commanders of the Greek mercenary forces each took charge of their own section under the overall command of Cyrus, who took the traditional place for a Persian King in the centre. Cyrus placed the Greeks, as his best troops, on his right, with their flank protected by the river Euphrates. Clearchus commanded the outer section supported by the light-armed troops (peltasts) and 1,000 cavalry; Proxenos was in the middle of the Greek forces; and Menon commanded the section nearest Cyrus. Cyrus was closely protected by 600 cavalry and massed Persian forces in the centre, with more Persian troops on the left wing.

XENOPHON

43

GCSE vocabulary: ἄλλός, εἶχον (ἔχω), ἤδη, ἱππεύς, κεφαλή, μετά + gen., πολέμιοι, οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο, πλήν, ποταμός, ὕστερον.

13

ἔνθα – then; σύν + dat. – with; σπουδή ἡ – haste, enthusiasm; καθίσταμαι –

14 15

δεξιά τά – the right side; κέρας -ατος τό – wing; ἔχω – control; πρός + dat. – near. ἐχόμενος – ‘coming next’; τοῦτον – i.e., Proxenus; εὐώνυμος -ον (> εὖ + ὄνομα)

16

κέρας -ατος τό – wing; ἔσχε aorist of ἔχω – see l.14; Ἑλληνικός ὁ – the Greek (army) – supply ‘στρατός’; βαρβαρικός ὁ – the Persian (army). εἰς χιλίους (< kilometre) – ‘up to a thousand’; παρά + acc. – beside; ἔστησαν – ‘[they] stood’; ἐν + dat. – on; δεξιός -ά -όν – right, ‘right side’. πελταστικός ὁ – light armed troops; εὐώνυμος -ον – see l.15. ἵππαρχος ὁ (> ἄρχων) – cavalry commander; τὸ ἄλλο βαρβαρικόν – ‘the rest of

fall in, get into line.

– left.

17 18 19

the Persian forces’. 20

τούτου = Cyrus; ὅσον ἑξακόσιοι – ‘about six hundred’; ὡπλισμένοι (> ὅπλα) – ‘armed’ (supply ἦσαν); θώραξ -ακος ὁ – breastplate. αὐτοί contrasts the riders

21 22 23

παραμηριδία -ων τά – thigh-guard; κράνος -ους τό – helmet. ψιλός -ή -όν – bare, unprotected; ἔχων – ‘with’; καθίστατο – [he] fell in, ‘went’. καί . . . καί – both . . . and; προμετωπίδιον τό – frontlet (armour protecting the brow of a horse); προστερνίδιον τό – breastplate (of a horse). μάχαιρα ἡ – sabre (a short sword with a straight back and a curved edge); Ἑλληνικός -ή -όν – Greek. τε – see l.1. μέσον τό (< Mesopotamia) – middle; οὔπω – not yet; καταφανής -ές

with their horses (l.22).

24 25

– visible. 26

ἡνίκα – when; δείλη ἡ – afternoon; ἐφάνη aorist of φαίνομαι – appear; κονιορτός ὁ – cloud of dust; ὥσπερ – like. νεφέλη ἡ – cloud; λευκός -ή -όν (< leukemia) – white; συχνός -ή -όν – long; μελανία ἡ (< melanoma) – darkness, black stain. πεδίον τό – plain; ἐπὶ πολύ – ‘stretching far’.

27 28

Q.

Draw a diagram of the disposition of the forces based on Xenophon’s description, with the leaders’ names.

Q.

How was Cyrus’ cavalry equipped (lines 19–24)? Draw and label in Greek.

Q.

Why did Cyrus not wear a helmet? Was this rash or brave of him?

Q.

How does Xenophon make the arrival of the enemy (lines 25–8) dramatic?

44

XENOPHON

The Persians advance silently. Cyrus orders Clearchus to move opposite King Artaxerxes in the centre of the Persian front line. ὃ μέντοι Κῦρος εἶπεν ὅτε καλέσας παρεκελεύετο τοῖς Ἕλλησι τὴν κραυγὴν τῶν βαρβάρων ἀνέχεσθαι, ἐψεύσθη τοῦτο· οὐ γὰρ κραυγῇ, ἀλλὰ σιγῇ ὡς ἁνυστὸν καὶ ἡσυχῇ ἐν ἴσῳ καὶ βραδέως προσῇσαν. καὶ ἐν τούτῳ Κῦρος παρελαύνων αὐτὸς σὺν Πίγρητι τῷ ἑρμηνεῖ καὶ ἄλλοις τρισὶν ἢ τέτταρσι τῷ Κλεάρχῳ ἐβόα ἄγειν τὸ στράτευμα κατὰ μέσον τὸ τῶν πολεμίων, ὅτι ἐκεῖ βασιλεὺς εἴη· ‘κἂν τοῦτ’,’ ἔφη, ‘νικῶμεν, πάνθ’ ἡμῖν πεποίηται.’ ὁρῶν δὲ ὁ Κλέαρχος τὸ μέσον στῖφος καὶ ἀκούων Κύρου ἔξω ὄντα τοῦ εὐωνύμου βασιλέα (τοσοῦτον γὰρ πλήθει περιῆν βασιλεὺς ὥστε μέσον τῶν ἑαυτοῦ ἔχων τοῦ Κύρου εὐωνύμου ἔξω ἦν) ἀλλ’ ὅμως ὁ Κλέαρχος οὐκ ἤθελεν ἀποσπάσαι ἀπὸ τοῦ ποταμοῦ τὸ δεξιὸν κέρας, φοβούμενος μὴ κυκλωθείη ἑκατέρωθεν, τῷ δὲ Κύρῳ ἀπεκρίνατο ὅτι αὐτῷ μέλει ὅπως καλῶς ἔχοι.

30

35

40

Names Πίγρης -ητος ὁ: Pigres, one of Cyrus’ interpreters.

The Persian King’s forces Cyrus’ advice that the enemy forces would be noisy and indisciplined is quickly shown to be mistaken. Artaxerxes’ forces also have such numerical superiority that although the king occupied the centre of the front line, he did not directly face any of Cyrus’ forces, which were all to his left.

Q.

What impression does Xenophon’s account of the advance of Artaxerxes’ forces in lines 30–2 give the reader?

Q.

Explain Cyrus’ strategy for defeating the enemy.

Q.

What dilemma did Clearchus face (lines 36–41), and how did he respond to Cyrus’ command (lines 41–2)?

XENOPHON

45

GCSE vocabulary: ἄγω, ἀλλά, ἀποκρίνομαι, βάρβαροι, βασιλεύς, βοάω, βραδέως (βραδύς), γάρ, ἑαυτόν, ἐθέλω, εἶπον (λέγω), Ἕλλην, καλέω, νικάω, ὁράω, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, τέσσαρες, τρεῖς, φοβέομαι.

29 30 31 32 33 34 35

36

37

38

ὅ – (ὅς ἥ ὅ) looks forward to τοῦτο in l.30 ‘as to what’; ὅτε – when; παρακελεύομαι + dat. (> κελεύω) – encourage. κραυγή ἡ – shouting, noise; ἀνέχομαι – put up with; ψεύδομαι, aorist ἐψεύσθην – be deceived, be mistaken; τοῦτο – (accusative of respect) ‘in this’. σιγῇ adverb – in silence, silently; ὡς ἁνυστόν – ‘as much as possible’; ἡσυχῇ – calmly; ἐν ἴσῳ – ‘evenly’, ‘in step’ (ἴσος -η -ον – equal). προσῇσαν imperfect from προσέρχομαι – advance; ἐν τούτῳ (χρόνῳ) – meanwhile; παρελαύνω – ride along. ἑρμηνεύς -έως ὁ – interpreter; τρισίν – dative of τρεῖς; τέτταρσι dative of τέτταρες/τέσσαρες – four. βοάω + dat. + infinitive – shout (an order); στράτευμα -ατος τό = στρατιά; κατά + acc. – against; μέσον τό – the centre. ὅτι – because, on the grounds that; βασιλεύς ὁ – without the article means ‘king of Persia’; εἴη – 3rd person singular optative of εἰμί, used because of indirect speech; κἂν = καὶ ἐάν (crasis); τοῦτ’ = τοῦτο (elision). πάνθ’ = πάντα (elision); πεποίηται perfect passive of ποιέω – ‘we have achieved all’ (the agent ἡμῖν for this tense is dative, and πάντα is the neuter plural subject); ὁρῶν . . . ἀκούων (l.37) – ‘although he saw . . . and heard . . .’ (both participles have a concessive force, answered by ἀλλ’ ὅμως in l.39); μέσος -η -ον – ‘in the centre’; στῖφος -ους τό – dense mass. ἀκούω – hear that, introduces an indirect statement with accusative and participle; Κύρου – ‘from Cyrus’; ἔξω + gen. – ‘beyond’; εὐώνυμον τό – the left wing (here, of the Greeks); τοσοῦτον adverb – to such an extent, so. πλῆθος -ους τό – number; περίειμι – be superior; μέσον τό – see l.34; τῶν ἑαυτοῦ – ‘of his own [forces]’; ἔχω – occupy, ‘despite occupying’ (the participle

here has a concessive force). 39

ἔξω + gen. – beyond, outside, past; εὐώνυμον τό – the left wing; ὅμως –

40

ἀποσπάζω – draw away, detach; δεξιός -ά -όν – right; κέρας -ατος τό – wing, flank; φοβούμενος μή + optative – ‘fearing that he would be . . .’. κυκλωθείη aorist passive optative from κυκλόω – surround, encircle; ἑκατέρωθεν – on both sides. μέλει + dat. – it concerns, it matters; ὅπως – that; καλῶς ἔχω – be well

nevertheless, even so.

41 42

(Clearchus’ answer is evasive – ‘it was his concern that all should go well’).

46

XENOPHON

As the armies prepare themselves, Cyrus reviews his troops and learns that the watchword for the battle has already been given. καὶ ἐν τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ τὸ μὲν βαρβαρικὸν στράτευμα ὁμαλῶς προῄει, τὸ δὲ Ἑλληνικὸν ἔτι ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ μένον συνετάττετο ἐκ τῶν ἔτι προσιόντων. καὶ ὁ Κῦρος παρελαύνων οὐ πάνυ πρὸς αὐτῷ τῷ στρατεύματι κατεθεᾶτο ἑκατέρωσε ἀποβλέπων εἴς τε τοὺς πολεμίους καὶ τοὺς φιλίους. ἰδὼν δὲ αὐτὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ Ξενοφῶν Ἀθηναῖος, ὑπελάσας ὡς συναντῆσαι ἤρετο εἴ τι παραγγέλλοι· ὁ δ’ ἐπιστήσας εἶπε καὶ λέγειν ἐκέλευε πᾶσιν ὅτι καὶ τὰ ἱερὰ καλὰ καὶ τὰ σφάγια καλά. ταῦτα δὲ λέγων θορύβου ἤκουσε διὰ τῶν τάξεων ἰόντος, καὶ ἤρετο τίς ὁ θόρυβος εἴη. ὁ δὲ Κλέαρχος εἶπεν ὅτι σύνθημα παρέρχεται δεύτερον ἤδη. καὶ ὃς ἐθαύμασε τίς παραγγέλλει καὶ ἤρετο ὅ τι εἴη τὸ σύνθημα.

45

50

55

Ξενοφῶν Ἀθηναῖος: Xenophon of Athens The Anabasis is an eyewitness account, based on what Xenophon (Ξενοφῶν -ῶνος) saw for himself or heard first-hand. Xenophon plays only a minor role in the first part of his account, but emerges as a leader when the Greek generals were treacherously murdered after the battle. Like Thucydides, he writes about himself in the third person, distancing himself from his account.

Sacrifices and omens From at least the time of Homer, the Greeks sought the gods’ support before going into battle. Offerings or animal sacrifices made to the appropriate god were considered to be of a contractual nature – the gift of an offering in return for a god’s support; going into battle without good omens would undermine the confidence of the troops and spell disaster. Omens could to be read from the flights of birds, from natural phenomena, like thunder and lightning, or from inspecting the entrails of animals.

Setting the password A watchword (σύνθημα) was set by those in command to enable fighters to recognize who was on their side in the confusion of battle. The watchword would be passed down the ranks and back again to the command.

Q.

What is the effect of the repetition of ἔτι in lines 44–5?

Q.

How would you assess Cyrus’ leadership in this passage?

Q.

Why do you think Xenophon includes this reference to himself?

Q.

Is there anything to suggest that Cyrus’ forces will be successful in the forthcoming battle?

Q.

Why do you think Cyrus is surprised that the watchword has been set (lines 54–5)?

XENOPHON

47

GCSE vocabulary: ἐκ + gen., διά + gen., εἶδον (ὁράω), ἐρωτάω, ἔτι, θαυμάζω, καλός, κελεύω, μένω, ὅτι, οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο, πολέμιοι.

43 44 45 46

καιρός ὁ – ‘critical moment’; στράτευμα -ατος τό = στρατιά. ὁμαλῶς – evenly, in unison; προῄει imperfect from προέρχομαι – advance; ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ – ‘in the same place’; μένων -ουσα -ον – present participle. συνετάττετο imperfect passive of συντάσσω – draw up; οἱ προσιόντες participle from προσέρχομαι – ‘those moving forward’. παρελαύνω – ride along; πάνυ – very; οὐ πάνυ πρός + dat. – ‘not too near’,

‘some distance away from’. 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

55

καταθεάομαι – look at, review, survey; ἑκατέρωσε – in both directions; ἀποβλέπω εἰς + acc. – look at, consider. φίλιος -α -ον – friendly, one’s own; ἰδών – aorist participle from ὁράω; τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ (supply στράτευματος, see l.43). ὑπελάσας aorist participle of ὑπελαύνω – ride up; ὡς = ὥστε – ‘to’; συναντάω – meet; ἤρετο – aorist of ἐρωτάω. παραγγέλλω (> ἀγγέλλω) – issue an order; ἐπιστήσας aorist participle from ἐφίστημι – halt, pull up (a horse). καί . . . καί – both . . . and; ἱερά τά (> ἱερός) – omens, auspices; σφάγιον τό –

sacrificial victim, sacrifice. θόρυβος ὁ – noise (here, genitive after ἀκούω); τάξις -εως ἡ – rank; ἰών ἰοῦσα ἰόν – participle from εἶμι ‘go’; ἤρετο – see l.49. σύνθημα -ατος τό – password, watchword. παρέρχομαι – go along; δεύτερον – ‘for a second time’ (the watchword has been passed down and is now coming back up the lines to double-check); ὅς – he (i.e., Cyrus); παραγγέλλω – see l.50. ἤρετο – see l.49; σύνθημα -ατος τό – see l.53.

48

XENOPHON

The Greeks advance, striking fear into the Persians. ὁ δ’ ἀπεκρίνατο· ‘Ζεὺς σωτὴρ καὶ νίκη’. ὁ δὲ Κῦρος ἀκούσας,‘ἀλλὰ δέχομαί τε,’ ἔφη, ‘καὶ τοῦτο ἔστω.’ ταῦτα δ’ εἰπὼν εἰς τὴν αὑτοῦ χώραν ἀπήλαυνε. καὶ οὐκέτι τρία ἢ τέτταρα στάδια διειχέτην τὼ φάλαγγε ἀπ’ ἀλλήλων ἡνίκα ἐπαιάνιζόν τε οἱ Ἕλληνες καὶ ἤρχοντο ἀντίοι ἰέναι τοῖς πολεμίοις. ὡς δὲ πορευομένων ἐξεκύμαινέ τι τῆς φάλαγγος, τὸ ὑπολειπόμενον ἤρξατο δρόμῳ θεῖν· καὶ ἅμα ἐφθέγξαντο πάντες οἷόνπερ τῷ Ἐνυαλίῳ ἐλελίζουσι, καὶ πάντες δὲ ἔθεον· λέγουσι δέ τινες ὡς καὶ ταῖς ἀσπίσι πρὸς τὰ δόρατα ἐδούπησαν φόβον ποιοῦντες τοῖς ἵπποις. πρὶν δὲ τόξευμα ἐξικνεῖσθαι ἐγκλίνουσιν οἱ βάρβαροι καὶ φεύγουσι. καὶ ἐνταῦθα δὴ ἐδίωκον μὲν κατὰ κράτος οἱ Ἕλληνες, ἐβόων δὲ ἀλλήλοις μὴ θεῖν δρόμῳ, ἀλλ’ ἐν τάξει ἕπεσθαι.

60

65

Names Ἐνυάλιος ὁ: Enyalios, another name for Ares, god of war.

Discipline in battle The success in warfare of the Greek hoplite phalanx was due to their discipline of working as a unit. Music helped them keep this tight order, led by pipers, chanting or the pounding of weapons on shields. The moment when the phalanx broke the front line of the enemy and routed them was, however, a dangerous one: if they lost order by pursuing the fleeing army and exposed themselves to danger, the opposing side could snatch victory from the jaws of defeat, particularly when facing superior numbers, as here at Cunaxa.

Q.

Why do you think the watchword is in Greek?

Q.

Explain the impact of the Greeks’ war cry on the Persians, referring lines 59–66 and to the picture on p.51.

Q.

How disciplined do the Greeks seem in lines 59–68?

GCSE vocabulary: ἀποκρίνομαι, ἄρχομαι, ἀσπίς, βοάω, δέχομαι, διώκω, εἶμι, εἶπον (λέγω), εἰς + acc., ἕπομαι, ἵππος, νίκη, ποιέω, πορεύομαι, φεύγω, φόβος, ὡς.

XENOPHON

56 57 58

59

60 61

62 63 64 65 66 67 68

49

ὁ δέ – i.e., Clearchus; σωτήρ -ῆρος ὁ (> σῷζω) – saviour. ἀλλά – ‘very well’; δέχομαι – accept; ἔστω – ‘let it be’ (imperative of εἰμί). αὑτοῦ = ἑαυτοῦ; χώρα – place, position; ἀπελαύνω – ride off; οὐκέτι – no longer, ‘now not’; στάδιον τό (< stadium) – stade (one stade = 180m, so the

distance now separating the two armies was less than half a mile). διειχέτην imperfect 3rd person dual from διέχω + gen.– keep apart, be distant; τὼ φάλαγγε – ‘the two phalanxes’ (nominative dual form of φάλαγξ -αγγος ἡ); ἀλλήλους -ας -α (> ἄλλος) – each other; ἡνίκα – when; παιανίζω – sing the paean (a paean was a hymn or chant to a god). ἀντίος -α -ον (< anti-matter) – opposite, ‘to meet’; ἰέναι – infinitive of εἶμι (go). πορευομένων – genitive absolute, supply αὐτῶν; τι – ‘part’; ἐκκυμαίνω (> κῦμα = wave) – ‘surge forward’; τὸ ὑπολειπόμενον, from ὑπολείπω – ‘[the part] left behind’. δρόμῳ – at a run; θέω – charge; ἅμα – at the same time; φθέγγομαι – utter; οἷόνπερ – ‘the sort of [cry] which’. ἐλελίζω – whoop, shriek (ἐλελελεῦ is the cry of a Greek phalanx about to attack); ἔθεον – imperfect ‘began to charge’ (see also l.66 ἐδίωκον); ὡς = ὅτι. δόρυ -ατος τό – spear; δουπέω – pound, beat; ποιοῦντες – ‘causing’. πρίν + infinitive – before; τόξευμα -ατος τό – arrow, ‘bow-shot’; ἐξικνέομαι (> ἀφικνέομαι) – reach; ἐγκλίνω – fall back, turn, flee (‘historic’ present). ἐνταῦθα – then; κατά + acc. – ‘at’. κατὰ κράτος – ‘at full speed’; ἐβόων – imperfect – ‘kept shouting’; ἀλλήλους -ας -α – each other; θεῖν δρόμῳ – see l.62. ἐν τάξει – in rank, ‘in good order’; ἕπομαι – follow, ‘keep’.

Figure 5 This is a gold model of a Persian chariot dating from around the fifth century. Known as the ‘Oxus chariot’, the model is 7.5 cm high and 19.5 cm long. Photo: DEA Picture Library/De Agostini via Getty Images.

50

XENOPHON

The enemy chariots run amok, but the Greeks are unaffected. Cyrus keeps an eye on the next move of the King. τὰ δ’ ἅρματα ἐφέροντο τὰ μὲν δι’ αὐτῶν τῶν πολεμίων, τὰ δὲ καὶ διὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων κενὰ ἡνιόχων. οἱ δ’ ἐπεὶ προΐδοιεν, διίσταντο· ἔστι δ’ ὅστις καὶ κατελήφθη ὥσπερ ἐν ἱπποδρόμῳ ἐκπλαγείς· καὶ οὐδὲν μέντοι οὐδὲ τοῦτον παθεῖν ἔφασαν, οὐδ’ ἄλλος δὲ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ μάχῃ ἔπαθεν οὐδεὶς οὐδέν, πλὴν ἐπὶ τῷ εὐωνύμῳ τοξευθῆναί τις ἐλέγετο. Κῦρος δ’ ὁρῶν τοὺς Ἕλληνας νικῶντας τὸ καθ’ αὑτοὺς καὶ διώκοντας, ἡδόμενος καὶ προσκυνούμενος ἤδη ὡς βασιλεὺς ὑπὸ τῶν ἀμφ’ αὐτόν, οὐδ’ ὣς ἐξήχθη διώκειν, ἀλλὰ συνεσπειραμένην ἔχων τὴν τῶν σὺν ἑαυτῷ ἑξακοσίων ἱππέων τάξιν ἐπεμελεῖτο ὅ τι ποιήσει βασιλεύς· καὶ γὰρ ᾔδει αὐτὸν ὅτι μέσον ἔχοι τοῦ Περσικοῦ στρατεύματος.

70

75

80

Persian warfare As well as archers and cavalry, the Persians used chariots in warfare. In the British Museum there is a small gold model of a Persian chariot from this period, known as the Oxus chariot (see p.51).

How to greet the King of Persia The Persian King was held in high regard by his subjects. It was the custom for all those who came into his presence to honour him according to their rank, whether with a kiss, a bow, kneeling down or full prostration on the floor (προσκύνησις); this could be a security measure as well as an act of reverence. Proskynesis was anathema to the Greeks, who saw prostration as servile and appropriate only in dealings with gods. Alexander the Great came under great criticism when he tried to introduce it at his court in Persia in 327.

Q.

How does Xenophon emphasize the Greeks’ success in lines 69–74?

Q.

What does Cyrus’ reaction to the Greek success suggest about his character and leadership qualities?

Q.

Do you think Xenophon reveals his own perspective on events in his account so far? Does he admire Cyrus, do you think?

XENOPHON

51

Greek vocabulary: βασιλεύς, διά + gen., διώκω, ἑαυτόν, ἔπαθον (πάσχω), ἔφην (φημί), ἤδη, ᾔδη (οἶδα) ἱππεύς, μάχη, μέντοι, ὅτι, νικάω, ὁ μέν. . . ὁ δέ, οὐδέν, ὑπό + gen.

69 70

71

72

73 74 75 76 77

78

79 80

ἅρμα -ατος τό – chariot, ‘as for the chariots . . .’ [of the Persians]; φέρομαι – move, run, fly; τὰ μέν . . . τὰ δέ – some . . . others. κενός -ή -όν + gen. (> cenotaph) – empty of, ‘without’; ἡνίοχος ὁ – driver, charioteer; οἱ δέ – indicates a change of subject ‘the Greeks’; ἐπεί + optative – whenever; προΐδοιεν, aorist optative of προοράω – see ahead (supply ‘the Persian chariots’ as the object). διίστημι – stand apart, step aside; ὅστις = ‘one man who’; καί – ‘actually’; κατελήφθη aorist passive of καταλαμβάνω – catch; ὥσπερ + participle – as if; ἱππόδρομος ὁ (> ἔδραμον) – race-track, chariot-racing stadium. ἐκπλήσσω aorist passive participle ἐκπλαγείς – stun (a simile of a driver flung from his chariot and too terrified or frozen to move off the track); καί . . . μέντοι – and yet; οὐδέν . . . οὐδέ . . . οὐδέ . . . the negatives reinforce each other; ἔφασαν imperfect of φημί + acc. and infinitive (παθεῖν) – ‘they said that neither [οὐδέ] did this man [τοῦτον] suffer anything [οὐδέν] . . .’. οὐδεὶς οὐδέν – as in line 72, the negatives reinforce each other. ἐπί + dat. – on; εὐώνυμον τό – the left wing; τοξεύω – hit with an arrow. τὸ καθ’ αὑτούς – ‘the section opposite them’ (direct object of νικῶντας and διώκοντας, participles in an indirect statement introduced by ὁρῶν). ἥδομαι (< hedonist) – be pleased, delighted; προσκυνέω – greet, worship; οἱ ἀμφί + acc. – those around, ‘attendants’ (see l.3). οὐδ’ ὥς – not even so; ἐξήχθη aorist passive of ἐξάγω (> ἄγω) – induce, lead; συνεσπειράμενος -η -ον – ‘in close formation’ agreeing with τάξιν in line 78; ἔχων – holding, ‘keeping’. ἑξακόσιοι – six hundred; τάξις -εως ἡ – line; ἐπιμελέομαι – pay attention to, be concerned about; ὅ τί – the thing which, ‘what’ (introducing an indirect question). ᾔδει (imperfect of οἶδα) αὐτὸν ὅτι – ‘he knew that he’; μέσον τό – the centre; ἔχω – hold, control. Περσικός -ή -όν – Persian; στρατεύμα -ατος τό = στρατιά.

52

XENOPHON

Xenophon explains why Persian commanders take up position in the centre. Despite fears of being encircled by the Persians, Cyrus continues his success. καὶ πάντες δ’ οἱ τῶν βαρβάρων ἄρχοντες μέσον ἔχοντες τὸ αὑτῶν ἡγοῦνται, νομίζοντες οὕτω καὶ ἐν ἀσφαλεστάτῳ εἶναι, ἢν ᾖ ἡ ἰσχὺς αὐτῶν ἑκατέρωθεν, καὶ εἴ τι παραγγεῖλαι χρῄζοιεν, ἡμίσει ἂν χρόνῳ αἰσθάνεσθαι τὸ στράτευμα. καὶ βασιλεὺς δὴ τότε μέσον ἔχων τῆς αὑτοῦ στρατιᾶς ὅμως ἔξω ἐγένετο τοῦ Κύρου εὐωνύμου κέρατος. ἐπεὶ δὲ οὐδεὶς αὐτῷ ἐμάχετο ἐκ τοῦ ἀντίου οὐδὲ τοῖς αὐτοῦ τεταγμένοις ἔμπροσθεν, ἐπέκαμπτεν ὡς εἰς κύκλωσιν. ἔνθα δὴ Κῦρος δείσας μὴ ὄπισθεν γενόμενος κατακόψῃ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν ἐλαύνει ἀντίος· καὶ ἐμβαλὼν σὺν τοῖς ἑξακοσίοις νικᾷ τοὺς πρὸ βασιλέως τεταγμένους καὶ εἰς φυγὴν ἔτρεψε τοὺς ἑξακισχιλίους, καὶ ἀποκτεῖναι λέγεται αὐτὸς τῇ ἑαυτοῦ χειρὶ Ἀρταγέρσην τὸν ἄρχοντα αὐτῶν.

85

90

Names Ἀρταγέρσης -ους ὁ: Artagerses. Many Persian names begin with ‘Arta‘, which means ‘truth’ in ancient Persian.

A rout Cyrus shows fear that the great disparity in numbers could enable Artaxerxes’ forces to encircle his own from behind in a pincer movement. Since the sides and rear of an army were unprotected, it was relatively easy to annihilate an enemy once routed (εἰς φυγὴν τρέπειν = turn in flight, rout).

Royal protection Persian kings were positioned in the centre of their fighting forces for the two reasons given in the text above. Cyrus and Artaxerxes each had his own personal cavalry squadron for protection, but the numbers show who was the King: Artaxerxes, elder son and heir of Darius II, had a personal bodyguard of 6,000 cavalry and Cyrus the pretender had just 600.

Q.

What two reasons are given for the tradition of keeping the commander in the centre? Are there disadvantages to this Persian custom?

Q.

Use a diagram to explain how the Persians could take advantage of their superior numbers to encircle the Greek troops.

Q.

In lines 88–93 what picture of Cyrus does Xenophon present for his readers?

XENOPHON

53

GCSE vocabulary: ἀνήρ, ἀπέκτεινα (ἀποκτείνω), αὐτός, ἑαυτόν, γίγνομαι, εἰ, εἶναι (εἰμί), εἶπον (λέγω), ἐπεί, νομίζω, οὐδείς, οὕτω(ς), πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, χείρ, χρόνος.

81 82

83 84

85 86 87

88

89 90 91 92

93

καί – ‘indeed’; ἄρχων -οντος ὁ (> ἄρχω) – commander; ἔχοντες – ‘occupying’; τὸ αὑτῶν (= ἑαυτῶν) – ‘their own section’ (literally, ‘the thing of themselves’). ἡγέομαι – lead; νομίζοντες – introducing parallel indirect statements with the infinitives εἶναι and αἰσθάνεσθαι (l.84); καί . . . καί – both . . . and; ἐν ἀσφαλεστάτῳ – ‘in the safest [position]’. ἤν + subjunctive = ἐάν; ᾖ present subjunctive of εἰμί; ἰσχύς ἡ – force, strength; ἑκατέρωθεν – on both sides; παραγγέλλω – issue an order. χρῄζω – want (the subject is still ἀρχοντες l.81); ἥμισυς -εια -υ – half; ἄν – would; αἰσθάνεσθαι – ‘hear’ (see l.82); στράτευμα τό (= στρατιά) is the subject

of the accusative and infinitive. δή – ‘as well’; τότε – on that occasion; μέσον τό – the centre; ἔχων – (concessive) ‘although occupying’; αὑτοῦ = ἑαυτοῦ; ὅμως – nevertheless. ἔξω + gen. – outside, beyond; ἐγένετο = ἦν; εὐώνυμος -ον – left; κέρα -ατος τό – wing, flank. μάχομαι + dat. – fight with; ἀντίος -η -ον – opposite, ἐκ τοῦ ἀντίου = ‘directly opposite’; αὐτοῦ – with ἔμπροσθεν (l.88); τεταγμένος -η -ον (perfect passive participle of τάσσω) – ‘drawn up’ (referring to Artaxerxes’ own bodyguard). ἔμπροσθεν + gen. – in front; ἐπικάμπτω – wheel around (imperfect tense here); ὡς εἰς + acc. – for, with a view to; κύκλωσις -εως ἡ – encirclement; ἔνθα δή – then (see l.7). δείδω μή + subjunctive – fear that; ὄπισθεν – behind; γενόμενος – the implied subject is Artaxerxes; κατακόπτω – slaughter, massacre, cut down. ἐλαύνω – ride, drive; ἀντίος – ‘directly at him’; ἐμβάλλω – attack; ἑξακόσιοι – six hundred (Cyrus’ personal bodyguard – see l.78 and p.54). τοὺς . . . τεταγμένους – ‘those drawn up’ (see l.87); πρό + gen. – in front of; φυγή ἡ (> φεύγω) – flight, rout; τρέπω – turn, rout. ἑξακισχίλιοι οἱ – the six thousand (the elite bodyguard of the King); ἀποκτεῖναι – aorist infinitive of ἀποκτείνω; λέγεται – ‘he is said’; αὐτός – ‘he himself’, i.e., Cyrus. ἄρχων -οντος ὁ – see l.81.

54

XENOPHON

Cyrus wounds the King but is himself dealt a fatal wound. ὡς δ’ ἡ τροπὴ ἐγένετο, διασπείρονται καὶ οἱ Κύρου ἑξακόσιοι εἰς τὸ διώκειν ὁρμήσαντες, πλὴν πάνυ ὀλίγοι ἀμφ’ αὐτὸν κατελείφθησαν, σχεδὸν οἱ ὁμοτράπεζοι καλούμενοι. σὺν τούτοις δὲ ὢν καθορᾷ βασιλέα καὶ τὸ ἀμφ’ ἐκεῖνον στῖφος· καὶ εὐθὺς οὐκ ἠνέσχετο, ἀλλ’ εἰπών· ‘τὸν ἄνδρα ὁρῶ’, ἵετο ἐπ’ αὐτὸν καὶ παίει κατὰ τὸ στέρνον καὶ τιτρώσκει διὰ τοῦ θώρακος, ὥς φησι Κτησίας ὁ ἰατρός, καὶ ἰάσασθαι αὐτὸς τὸ τραῦμά φησι. παίοντα δ’ αὐτὸν ἀκοντίζει τις παλτῷ ὑπὸ τὸν ὀφθαλμὸν βιαίως· καὶ ἐνταῦθα μαχόμενοι καὶ βασιλεὺς καὶ Κῦρος καὶ οἱ ἀμφ’ αὐτοὺς ὑπὲρ ἑκατέρου, ὁπόσοι μὲν τῶν ἀμφὶ βασιλέα ἀπέθανον Κτησίας λέγει· παρ’ ἐκείνῳ γὰρ ἦν· Κῦρος δὲ αὐτός τε ἀπέθανε καὶ ὀκτὼ οἱ ἄριστοι τῶν περὶ αὐτὸν ἔκειντο ἐπ’ αὐτῷ.

95

100

105

Κτησίας ὁ: Ctesias Ctesias was a Greek from Cnidus on the south-west coast of Asia Minor and was skilled in the art of medicine. According to the writer Diodorus Siculus, after being taken prisoner Ctesias served as a doctor in the Persian court for seventeen years. His popular and anecdotal History of Persia in twenty-three books began with a history of the Assyrians and ended with the reign of Artaxerxes II. Only fragments of this work survive as quotations by later writers.

Duel In this exciting passage we have an almost Homeric picture of single combat, as the two leaders – in this case, brothers – clash. Xenophon dramatizes this climax through his use of the historic present tense, keeping his narrative tense and fast-moving.

Q.

Who inflicts the first wound?

Q.

Analyse how Xenophon builds up the suspense in lines 94–106.

Q.

Why do you think Ctesias is referenced twice in this account?

Q.

Would you describe Cyrus’ end as heroic?

XENOPHON

55

GCSE vocabulary: ἀπέθανον (ἀποθνῄσκω), ἄριστος, διώκω, ἐκεῖνος, εὐθύς, ἰατρός, καλέω, ὀκτώ, πόσοι, ὀλίγος, οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο, πλήν, φημί.

94

τροπή ἡ – rout, defeat; διασπείρω – scatter, separate (here, a ‘historic’ present tense); ἑξακόσιοι οἱ – six hundred. εἰς τὸ διώκειν – ‘in pursuit’ (infinitive used as a noun); ὁρμάω – rush off, charge; πλὴν πάνυ ὀλίγοι – ‘only a very few’; ἀμφί + acc. – around, ‘with’. καταλείπω aorist passive κατελείφθην – leave behind; σχεδόν – ‘mainly’; ὁμοτράπεζος ὁ – mess-mate, table-companion; σύν + dat. – with. καθοράω (> κατά + ὁράω) – catch sight of (‘historic’ present tense); ἀμφί + acc. – see l.95; στῖφος -ους τό – crowd, mass of men. ἀνέχομαι (> ἔχω) – hold back, contain oneself; ἵετο imperfect of ἵεμαι – hurl .

95 96 97 98

oneself, charge. 99

αὐτόν – refers to Artaxerxes; παίω – hit, strike; κατά + acc. – ‘in’; στέρνον τό (< sternum) – chest; τιτρώσκω – wound, injure. 100 θώραξ -ακος ὁ – breastplate; ἰάομαι (> ἰατρός) – treat, heal. 101 τραῦμα -ατος τό – wound; φησί introducing the nominative (αὐτός) and infinitive (ἰάσασθαι) – ‘he claims that he himself’; παίω – the participle agrees with αὐτόν (= Cyrus) ‘as Cyrus was striking [Artaxerxes]’; ἀκοντίζω – hit; παλτόν τό – javelin; ὑπό + acc. – under, beneath. 102 ὀφθαλμός ὁ - eye; βιαίως (> βία) – hard; ἐνταῦθα – there; μαχόμενοι – ‘as they

fought’. 103 ἀμφί + acc. – around, ‘their attendants’; ὑπὲρ ἑκατέρου – ‘on either side’; ὁπόσοι – how many (introducing an indirect question after Κτησίας λέγει (l.104); Xenophon keeps the sense vivid rather than being strictly grammatical in the sentence beginning καὶ ἐνταῦθα μαχόμενοι). 104 ἀμφί – see l.103; λέγει – ‘tells us’; παρά + dat. – with. 105 οἱ ἄριστοι – ‘the bravest’; οἱ περὶ αὐτόν (l.106) – ‘his companions’. 106 κεῖμαι – lie, lie fallen; ἐπί + dat. – on, over.

56

XENOPHON

The death of Cyrus’ most loyal companion. Ἀρταπάτης δ’ ὁ πιστότατος αὐτῷ τῶν σκηπτούχων λέγεται, ἐπειδὴ πεπτωκότα εἶδε Κῦρον, καταπηδήσας ἀπὸ τοῦ ἵππου περιπεσεῖν αὐτῷ. καὶ οἱ μέν φασι βασιλέα κελεῦσαί τινα ἐπισφάξαι αὐτὸν Κύρῳ, οἱ δὲ αὑτὸν ἐπισφάξασθαι σπασάμενον τὸν ἀκινάκην· εἶχε γὰρ χρυσοῦν. καὶ στρεπτὸν δ’ ἐφόρει καὶ ψέλια καὶ τἆλλα ὥσπερ οἱ ἄριστοι Περσῶν· ἐτετίμητο γὰρ ὑπὸ Κύρου δι’ εὔνοιάν τε καὶ πιστότητα.

110

Names Ἀρταπάτης -ους ὁ: Artapates, one of Cyrus’ courtiers.

Sceptre-bearers The sceptre, a short rod carried by the King’s attendants, was a sign of his authority. Cyrus, who aspired to kingship rather than actually holding it, presented an outer appearance of royal power by appointing sceptre-bearers.

Jewellery The Persian kings cultivated their image to distinguish themselves from subjects and client nations. Displaying and distributing their great wealth played an important part in this; Artapates was singled out and his loyalty rewarded by his gold sword and his jewellery, marks of favour from a powerful ruler.

Q.

What was Artapates’ reason for throwing himself onto Cyrus’ body?

Q.

Why does Xenophon include this anecdote about Artapates?

XENOPHON

57

GCSE vocabulary: εἶχον (ἔχω), ἔπεσον (πίπτω), κελεύω, πιστός, τιμάω, ὑπό + gen.

107 σκηπτοῦχος ὁ – sceptre-bearer; αὐτῷ – i.e., Cyrus. 108 ἐπειδή = ἐπεί; πεπτωκότα (> πίπτω) – fallen (perfect participle in an indirect statement ‘that Cyrus had fallen’); καταπηδάω – leap down. 109 περιπίπτω aorist περιπεσεῖν + dat. – throw oneself upon. 110 ἐπισφάζω – sacrifice, slaughter; αὐτόν – i.e., Artapates; Κύρῳ – ‘over Cyrus’; αὑτὸν = ἑαυτόν; ἐπισφάζομαι – slaughter (oneself), commit suicide. 111 σπάομαι – draw (a sword); ἀκινάκης ὁ – Persian sword; χρυσοῦς -ῆ -οῦν – (made of) gold (supply ἀκινάκην); στρεπτός ὁ – necklace. 112 φορέω – wear; ψέλιον τό – bracelet; τἆλλα = τὰ ἄλλα – other things, ‘other jewellery’; ὥσπερ – just as, like. 113 ἐτετίμητο pluperfect passive of τιμάω – ‘he had been honoured’; εὔνοια ἡ – good-nature, kindness; πιστότης –ητος ἡ (> πιστεύω) – loyalty.

Figure 6 Persian display: the figure on the right wears an akinakes (Persian sword). The picture is part of a frieze on the Apadana staircase in Persepolis, showing delegations from all corners of the empire bearing gifts for the King of Persia, Darius. Photo: Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images.

58

XENOPHON

What happens next? At this point, readers will want to know what happened to Cyrus’ forces after the death of their leader. Xenophon, however, breaks off at this point to give a detailed character sketch of Cyrus which is very favourable to him. He starts off with this statement: Of all the Persians who lived after Cyrus the Great [who had died in 530], this Cyrus was the most kingly and the most worthy of ruling, as is agreed by all those who knew him personally. Xenophon then follows Cyrus from childhood through to his positions of command, giving anecdotes about his good judgement, his sense of just dealings with people, his reliability and the way he made people like him through his consideration for them. As a child, brought up at the royal court, Cyrus showed great promise in behaviour, in learning military skills and in the royal pursuit of hunting. Later, as satrap (governor) of a province he proved himself totally reliable in his promises. He was always generous to those who did him favours, but merciless to wrongdoers. He was brave in wars, and a good delegator with sound judgement in administration. Above all, he was loyal and thoughtful to his friends. In this description, Xenophon helps us to understand why Greek mercenaries like himself were prepared to take such a risk in going deep into Persian territory to depose the mighty Persian King or, in modern terms, for regime-change. It is only after this that Xenophon starts his account of the epic march to the Black Sea.

Final questions 

To what extent are we made aware that Cyrus is trying to seize power for himself?



What characteristics does Cyrus display which would win the loyalty and respect of Greek mercenaries?



Would Xenophon’s narrative work better as an eyewitness account, rather than a third-person narrative?



What are Xenophon’s strengths and weaknesses as an author?

Homer

The Iliad and Odyssey emerged in their current form probably towards the end of the eighth century. Whether there was a person called Homer, and whether both works were by the same author or authors, has been disputed for well over 2,000 years. In many ways, it does not matter. The poems have been read and appreciated over the centuries for their deep understanding of human nature expressed in what the characters say and how they act. However, we can develop a fuller appreciation of the texts if we understand some of their background. The earliest evidence we have of written Greek is Linear B, a syllabic system found in the Mycenaean palaces several hundred years before Homer. The texts we have show that Linear B was used by scribes to record inventories. With the disappearance of the Mycenaean palaces in around 1200, writing vanished from the Greek world. In an age that could not keep written records, memory was the repository of knowledge and consequently became highly developed. Anthropologists have documented this in studies of pre-literate societies. Stories were performed from memory or through improvisation before audiences by expert storytellers and handed down across the generations. The Iliad and the Odyssey were created toward the end of this long oral tradition. We have evidence for this in the surviving texts of the Iliad and Odyssey. Within the poems, bards perform and can extemporize tales of gods and heroes, accompanying themselves on the lyre. There is evidence within the language itself of a long tradition. Standard elements are used repeatedly, as the poet is drawing on a stock of expressions suited to the rhythm of the poem. For example, the sea is often ‘wine-dark’, the Achaeans ‘long-haired’. We see standard phrases within common scenes – the dawn rising, the performance of a sacrifice, the launching a ship or a warrior arming. We also see alternative linguistic forms coexisting alongside each other, some of which suggest older forms have been retained from previous centuries. Tales could be told, retold and developed as they were handed down through the generations. Writing was reintroduced into Greece in about 750, this time based on an alphabetical system used by one of their trading partners, the Phoenicians. It is probably no coincidence that these two poems date from the earliest period of writing. They come from the Ionian coast and, although they are closely related to the Greek of fifth-century Athens that you have been learning, you will see significant differences when starting to read Homeric Greek. While we know of other poems based on episodes from the Trojan War from the same period, none of them is anywhere near the length of the Iliad or Odyssey, nor do they show the same sophistication of overall structure or control of pace and shape. It seems likely that the introduction of an accessible system of writing enabled tales to develop on a grander scale, although we are unlikely to know definitively whether they were taken down from an oral storyteller or conceived and ‘written’ by their creators. 59

60

HOMER

Some features of Homeric Greek The language of the Homeric poems differs from the Greek you have been studying for three reasons: it is verse, not prose; the Homeric poems are in an Ionic dialect, slightly different from the Attic Greek of the Athenians; the language evolved over the centuries. Look out for some of the key features below.

1. Elision You may see an apostrophe that indicates a missing vowel in the same way as in English: e.g., don’t = do not. This generally occurs where a word ending in a short vowel (mainly ε or α) runs into the next word, dropping the vowel. If the initial vowel of the second word is aspirated (has a rough breathing), the ‘h’ sound is reflected in the final consonant (e.g., τ becomes θ΄, π becomes φ΄, κ becomes χ΄). e.g.,

δ᾽ = δέ 1

ἔπειθ’ = ἔπειτα 1

ἐπ’ = ἐπί 6

2. Missing augments In Attic Greek an augment shows an indicative verb is in a past tense. This was not yet a fixed convention when the Homeric poems were written down. e.g.,

εὗρ’ = ηὗρε 2

κίεν = ἔκιεν 30

μάθον = ἔμαθον 60

3. Uncontracted forms and other surprising vowels i) Standard contractions are often left uncontracted. e.g.,

ἀληθέα = ἀληθῆ 13

αἰδέομαι = αἰδοῦμαι 58

ii) Additional short vowels are common. e.g.,

ἔειπεν = εἶπεν 6

αἰεί = ἀεί 61

ἐοῦσα = οὖσα 72

iii) η is often found where we would expect α, and vice versa. e.g.,

δμῳῇσιν = δμῳαίς 6

ταμίη = ταμία 12

4. Tmesis (> τέμνω – cut) In later Greek the preposition becomes attached as a prefix to the verb. This is often not the case in Homeric Greek, where you may find a prepositional prefix floating a word or two before the verb. e.g.,

μετά . . . ἔειπεν = μετεῖπεν 6 ἐπί . . . ἔβη = ἐπέβη 17

HOMER

61

5. Epithets The epithet (an adjective or phrase often used of a particular person or place) is a signature of Epic poetry. Not infrequently it is a compound adjective, often with no separate feminine form as indicated by -ος -ον. e.g.,

λευκώλενον 2

ἐϋπέπλῳ 3

χαλκοκορυστῇ 29

6. Alternative forms or words may exist side by side with more familiar ones e.g.,

τόν = αὐτόν 12

ἠδέ = καί 53

μιν = αὐτόν 99

7. Alternative grammatical endings Watch out especially for alternative infinitive forms, and for different genitive singular and dative plural endings. Infinitives (ending –αι -or –εμεν) ἔμμεναι = εἶναι 60 (διεξ) ἴμεναι = (διεξ) ἰέναι 24 Genitive singular (2nd Declension ending – οιο) μεγάροιο = μεγάρου 8 πολέμοιο = πολέμου 59 Dative plurals: (ending –σι(ν)) μεγάροισιν = μεγάροις 2

κονίῃσι = κονίαις 69

8. Diaeresis Sometimes two vowels, normally sounded as one syllable, were pronounced separately in verse for the sake of the rhythmic scheme. This is indicated in the text by two dots over the second vowel. e.g., ἐϋπλόκαμοι 11 ἐϋπέπλων 14

Note on the book divisions in Homer The division of the texts of the Odyssey and Iliad each into twenty-four books was not the work of the original author and was determined in part by the practical mechanics of what could be conveniently contained on a papyrus scroll.

62

HOMER

2025–2026 Prescription This selection corresponds to Homer’s Iliad 6: 370–413 and 429–502.

The story so far Many suppose that the Iliad tells the story of the Trojan War, the ten-year struggle between the Greeks and Trojans following the abduction of Helen from Sparta. In fact, the whole poem, which amounts to over 15,000 lines of Greek verse and which takes around twenty hours to recite, focuses on a period of a few weeks near the end of the war. Of the twenty-four books, Books 2 to 22 cover only four days of fighting and a two-day truce. As the opening line states, the Iliad focuses on the wrath of Achilles. His anger at being denied his due honour – τιμή – by Agamemnon, leader of the Greek forces, leads him to withdraw from the battlefield and the Greeks suffer in his absence. It is only on his return to battle that the tide turns and he kills Hector, the best fighter on the Trojan side (Book 22). From this point, it is clear that Troy is doomed. Although the episode of the Trojan Horse is beyond the scope of the poem, the ultimate destruction of Troy is foreshadowed in the closing books. We are also given a sense of the first nine years of fighting in the opening books. In Book 3, for example, Helen identifies the main Greek heroes for King Priam as if he were seeing them for the first time, and the first clash of armies feels like an initial encounter between Greek and Trojan forces. The Trojans are ruled over by King Priam and Queen Hecuba but their eldest son Hector commands the fighting forces and bears on his shoulders the weight of responsibility for the besieged Trojan women, children and old men. He also has his own wife, Andromache, and baby son to protect. Hector’s fighting forces are made up of the Trojans and their allies, including many of Hector’s brothers who fight alongside him, of whom Paris, the man responsible for bringing war to Troy, is one. In Book 6 the Trojans come under intense pressure from the Greeks (also known as the Achaeans, Argives or Danaans) as they fight for their city. Hector is advised by his brother Helenus, a soothsayer, to rally the Trojans, then leave the battlefield and seek out his mother, Hecuba, inside the city; she should gather the women of Troy and make offerings to Athena. Hector runs back to Troy where the Trojan women crowd around him with questions about their loved ones. Hector refuses refreshment and tells his mother to go to the temple with gifts for Athena. Hecuba selects an exquisite robe. In a brief but chilling moment, Homer shows his audience, but not the women of Troy, Athena refusing their prayers. Hector then visits Paris and Helen. He rebukes Paris, whom he finds fussing over his armour in the bedroom, for his cowardly behaviour. Paris tells Hector to go on – he will catch him up. Hector heads towards to his own house to see his wife and his son.

HOMER

63

Figure 7 The walls of Troy in modern Turkey. The archaeological site shows evidence of a succession of cities. The walls in this picture date from Troy VII around 1300–1050 and are likely to be contemporary with the Troy of Hector. Photo: Frans Sellies via Getty Images.

Figure 8 Hector meets Andromache, while the nurse holds their son, Astyanax: a nineteenth-century imagining of the scene to accompany a ground-breaking English translation of the Iliad by Alexander Pope, first published in 1720. Photo: whitemay via Getty Images.

64

HOMER

Hector goes to his house but finds that Andromache is not there. Nominative words or phrases are in light blue, verbs in dark blue.

αἶψα δ’ ἔπειθ’ ἵκανε δόμους εὖ ναιετάοντας, οὐδ’ εὗρ’ Ἀνδρομάχην λευκώλενον ἐν μεγάροισιν, ἀλλ’ ἥ γε ξὺν παιδὶ καὶ ἀμφιπόλῳ ἐϋπέπλῳ πύργῳ ἐφεστήκει γοόωσά τε μυρομένη τε. Ἕκτωρ δ’ ὡς οὐκ ἔνδον ἀμύμονα τέτμεν ἄκοιτιν ἔστη ἐπ’ οὐδὸν ἰών, μετὰ δὲ δμῳῇσιν ἔειπεν· ‘εἰ δ’ ἄγε μοι, δμῳαί, νημερτέα μυθήσασθε· πῇ ἔβη Ἀνδρομάχη λευκώλενος ἐκ μεγάροιο; ἠέ πῃ ἐς γαλόων ἢ εἰνατέρων ἐϋπέπλων ἢ ἐς Ἀθηναίης ἐξοίχεται, ἔνθα περ ἄλλαι Τρῳαὶ ἐϋπλόκαμοι δεινὴν θεὸν ἱλάσκονται;’

5

10

Names and place Ἀνδρομάχη ἡ: Andromache, wife of Hector. Ἕκτωρ -ορος ὁ: Hector, oldest son of Priam, King of Troy. Ἀθηναία -ης ἡ: Athena, a goddess worshipped by both Trojans and Greeks, but who supports the Greeks in the Trojan war. Τρῳαί αἱ: women of Troy.

Homeric epithets One feature we see in the works of Homer is the use of stock epithets (adjectives). This usage arises from the oral origins of the works: where a poet is telling a story from memory, he often repeats an adjective assigned to a particular character which fits the rhythm of the line, creating a unit that is easy for poet and audience to remember, for example ‘swift-footed Achilles’. In these lines we see a number of epithets commonly used of women, for example Andromache is twice referred to as ‘white-armed’ (λευκώλενος in lines 2 and 8) and other women are called ‘fair-robed’ (εὔπεπλος) or ‘lovely-haired’ (εὐπλόκαμος). Even the house of Hector has the comforting domestic epithet εὖ ναιετάοντας, meaning ‘comfortable’ or ‘well-situated’.

Role of women Women in Homer, even noble women, are strongly associated with domestic work in the home, such as weaving cloth, and their social circle is other women and members of their own family.

Q.

What is our first impression of Andromache? (lines 3–4).

Q.

How does Hector react when he finds his wife not at home? (lines 5–11)

Q.

What do the epithets in this passage (lines 1–11) suggest about the lives of Homeric women?

HOMER

65

GCSE vocabulary: ἄλλος, δεινός, ἐν + dat., εἶμι, ἔβην (βαίνω), ἐκ + gen., ἔπειτα, εὖ, ἤ, ηὕρον (εὑρίσκω), παῖς, τε.

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11

αἶψα – swiftly; ἔπειθ΄ = ἔπειτα – then (see Elision, p.62); ἱκάνω – come to, reach; δόμος ὁ (> domestic) – house (‘poetic’ plural, translate as if singular); εὖ ναιετάοντας – ‘comfortable’. οὐδέ – but . . . not; εὗρ’ = εὗρε from εὑρίσκω (see Missing augments, p.62); λευκώλενος -ον – white-armed; μέγαρον τό (> μέγας) – hall, central room. ἥ – she; γε – in fact; ξύν + dat. (= σύν) – with; ἀμφίπολος ἡ – servant, handmaid; εὔπεπλος -ον – with a lovely robe, fair-robed. πύργος ὁ – tower; ἐφεστήκει – ‘she stood on’; γοάω – weep; μύρομαι – wail. ἔνδον (< endoscopy) – inside; ἀμύμων -ονος – excellent; τέτμεν aorist – ‘he found’; ἄκοιτις -ιος ἡ – wife. ἔστη – ‘he stood’; οὐδός ὁ – threshold; ἰών participle of εἶμι (go); δμωή ἡ – servant, maid; μετεῖπον + dat. – spoke to (= μετά + εἶπον, see Tmesis, p.62). εἰ δ’ ἄγε – ‘come now’; νημερτής -ές – true, ‘the truth’ (uncontracted acc. neuter plural, see Uncontracted forms, p.62); μυθέομαι (> μῦθος) – speak, tell. πῇ – which way?, where (to)?; λευκώλενος -ον – see l.2; μέγαρον τό – see l.2. ἠέ . . . ἤ – double question ‘perhaps . . . or’; πῃ = somewhere; ἐς (= εἰς) + gen. – ‘to (the house) of . . .’; γαλόως -ω ἡ – husband’s sister; εἰνάτερες -ων αἱ – brother’s wife (both words are covered by our term ‘sister-in-law’); εὔπεπλος -ον – see l.3. ἐς Ἀθηναίης – ‘to [the temple] of Athena’; ἐξοίχεται – ‘has she gone out?’; ἔνθα περ – where (περ reinforces ἔνθα). εὐπλόκαμος -ον – lovely-haired; θεός -ου ἡ = θεά; ἱλάσκομαι – propitiate, appease.

66

HOMER

The housekeeper tells him that Andromache has gone out to watch the opposing forces from the walls. Hector rushes through the city to find her. τὸν δ’ αὖτ’ ὀτρηρὴ ταμίη πρὸς μῦθον ἔειπεν· ‘ Ἕκτορ, ἐπεὶ μάλ’ ἄνωγας ἀληθέα μυθήσασθαι, οὔτέ πῃ ἐς γαλόων οὔτ’ εἰνατέρων ἐϋπέπλων οὔτ’ ἐς Ἀθηναίης ἐξοίχεται, ἔνθά περ ἄλλαι Τρῳαὶ ἐϋπλόκαμοι δεινὴν θεὸν ἱλάσκονται, ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ πύργον ἔβη μέγαν Ἰλίου, οὕνεκ’ ἄκουσε τείρεσθαι Τρῶας, μέγα δὲ κράτος εἶναι Ἀχαιῶν. ἣ μὲν δὴ πρὸς τεῖχος ἐπειγομένη ἀφικάνει μαινομένῃ ἐϊκυῖα· φέρει δ’ ἅμα παῖδα τιθήνη.’ ἦ ῥα γυνὴ ταμίη, ὃ δ’ ἀπέσσυτο δώματος Ἕκτωρ τὴν αὐτὴν ὁδὸν αὖτις ἐϋκτιμένας κατ’ ἀγυιάς. εὖτε πύλας ἵκανε διερχόμενος μέγα ἄστυ Σκαιάς, τῇ ἄρ’ ἔμελλε διεξίμεναι πεδίονδε, ἔνθ’ ἄλοχος πολύδωρος ἐναντίη ἦλθε θέουσα Ἀνδρομάχη, θυγάτηρ μεγαλήτορος Ἠετίωνος, Ἠετίων, ὃς ἔναιεν ὑπὸ Πλάκῳ ὑληέσσῃ, Θήβῃ Ὑποπλακίῃ, Κιλίκεσσ’ ἄνδρεσσιν ἀνάσσων· τοῦ περ δὴ θυγάτηρ ἔχεθ’ Ἕκτορι χαλκοκορυστῇ.

15

20

25

Names and places Ἀχαιοί οἱ: the Greeks. Ἠετίων -ωνος ὁ: Eetion, father of Andromache. Θήβη Ὑποπλακίη ἡ: Thebe-under-Placus, a town south of Troy. Ἴλιος, Ἰλίου ἡ: Ilium, another name for Troy. Κίλικες -ων οἱ: Cilicians, a neighbouring people. Πλάκος ὁ: Placus, a mountain near Troy. Σκαιαί πύλαι: Scaean Gates, the main gates leading into and out of Troy. Τρῶες -ων (dative plural: Τρώεσσι) οἱ: Trojans.

Repetition The use of repeated or almost identical lines is a feature of Homeric poetry that may feel strange to a modern reader. It reflects the oral origins of the poem, where the storyteller might improvise by drawing on familiar phrases or lines. This repetition, like the use of stock epithets, could help both the storyteller and those following the story.

HOMER

67

GCSE vocabulary: ἀληθής, αὐτός, γυνή, δή, εἶναι (εἰμί), ἐπεί, ἦλθον (ἔρχομαι), θυγάτηρ, μέγας μεγάλη μέγα, μέλλω, ὁδός, παῖς, πύλη, τεῖχος, φέρω.

12

τόν = αὐτόν; αὖτε – in turn; ὀτρηρός -η -όν – busy; ταμίη ἡ – housekeeper; πρός . . . ἔειπεν – speak to, address (tmesis); μῦθος ὁ – word. Ἕκτορ – vocative case; μάλα – very much, particularly; ἄνωγα – order (supply με); ἀληθέα = ἀληθῆ, uncontracted acc. neuter plural; μυθέομαι (> μῦθος) –

13

speak, tell. 14–16 See lines 9–11. The housekeeper replies using almost exactly the same words as Hector, a common practice in Homeric speech. 17 ἐπί . . . ἔβη by tmesis from ἐπιβαίνω; πύργος ὁ – tower; οὕνεκα – because; ἄκουσε aorist, with no augment (see Missing augments, p.62). 18 τείρω – press hard; κράτος -ους τό – strength. 19 ἥ (= αὐτή) – she; ἐπείγομαι – hurry; ἀφικάνω πρός + acc. – arrive at. 20 μαίνομαι – be wild, be mad; εἰκώς -υῖα -ός + dat. – resembling; ἅμα – at the same time; παῖς παιδός ὁ – child, son; τιθήνη ἡ – nurse, nanny. 21 ἦ ῥα – ‘so [she] spoke’; ταμίη ἡ – housekeeper; ὃ δέ – ‘and he . . .’ indicating the change of subject; ἀπέσσυτο – ‘[he] rushed off’; δώμα -ατος τό – house (genitive for ‘motion from’). 22 αὖτις = αὖθις; εὐκτίμενος -ον – well built; ἄγυια ἡ – road, street. 23 εὖτε – when; ἱκάνω – reach, arrive at (imperfect tense); διέρχομαι – go through; ἄστυ -ους τό – city (centre). 24 τῇ – where; ἄρ’ = ἄρα – this word has many subtle meanings in Greek (then, so then, etc.) and is sometimes best left untranslated, as here (ῥα in l.21 is a shortened form of the same word); διεξίμεναι = διεξιέναι, infinitive from διέρχομαι – go out through; πεδίονδε – ‘to the plain’, the suffix -δε added to a word indicates direction towards. 25 ἔνθα – there; ἄλοχος ἡ – wife; πολύδωρος -ον (> πολύς + δῶρον) – with a rich dowry, richly-dowered; ἐναντίος -η -ον – opposite, ‘to meet’; θέω – run. 26 μεγαλήτωρ -ορος – great-hearted. 27 ναίω – live, dwell; ὑπό + dat. – under; ὑλήεις -εσσα -εν – wooded. 28 ἄνδρεσσιν = ἀνδράσιν (dative plural of ἀνήρ); ἀνάσσω + dat. – rule over. 29 τοῦ (= αὐτοῦ) περ δή (emphatic) – ‘His daughter . . .’; ἔχομαι – ‘be married’; χαλκοκορυστής -οῦ – bronze-helmeted, a stock epithet of Hector.

Q.

Pick out two Greek words in lines 21–5 which suggest the eagerness of Hector and Andromache to meet each other.

Q.

What is the significance of Hector and Andromache meeting at the Scaean Gates?

68

HOMER

Hector meets Andromache and the maid, who is carrying their son, Astyanax. ἥ οἱ ἔπειτ’ ἤντησ’, ἅμα δ’ ἀμφίπολος κίεν αὐτῇ παῖδ’ ἐπὶ κόλπῳ ἔχουσ’ ἀταλάφρονα, νήπιον αὔτως, Ἑκτορίδην ἀγαπητόν, ἀλίγκιον ἀστέρι καλῷ, τόν ῥ’ Ἕκτωρ καλέεσκε Σκαμάνδριον, αὐτὰρ οἱ ἄλλοι Ἀστυάνακτ’· οἶος γὰρ ἐρύετο Ἴλιον Ἕκτωρ. ἤτοι ὃ μὲν μείδησεν ἰδὼν ἐς παῖδα σιωπῇ· Ἀνδρομάχη δέ οἱ ἄγχι παρίστατο δάκρυ χέουσα, ἔν τ’ ἄρα οἱ φῦ χειρὶ ἔπος τ’ ἔφατ’ ἔκ τ’ ὀνόμαζε· ‘δαιμόνιε, φθίσει σε τὸ σὸν μένος, οὐδ’ ἐλεαίρεις παῖδά τε νηπίαχον καὶ ἔμ’ ἄμμορον, ἣ τάχα χήρη σεῦ ἔσομαι· τάχα γάρ σε κατακτανέουσιν Ἀχαιοὶ πάντες ἐφορμηθέντες· ἐμοὶ δέ κε κέρδιον εἴη σεῦ ἀφαμαρτούσῃ χθόνα δύμεναι· οὐ γὰρ ἔτ’ ἄλλη ἔσται θαλπωρή, ἐπεὶ ἂν σύ γε πότμον ἐπίσπῃς, ἀλλ’ ἄχε’· οὐδέ μοι ἔστι πατὴρ καὶ πότνια μήτηρ.

30

35

40

Names Ἀστυάναξ -κτος ὁ: Astyanax, baby son of Hector and Andromache. Ἑκτορίδης ὁ: son of Hector (-ίδης added to the end of a name means ‘son of’). Σκαμάνδριος ὁ: Scamandrios (Hector calls his son after Scamander, a local river).

Hector’s son The name Astyanax means ‘lord of the city’, referring to his father’s role as the main defender of Troy. Hector’s father Priam reputedly had fifty sons, ensuring the succession, it would seem. Astyanax is Priam’s first and only grandchild.

Q.

How do we see Hector’s affection for his son in lines 31–5?

Q.

What worries does Andromache have for her husband?

Q.

Is Andromache more concerned for Astyanax or Hector?

In the next few lines (which are omitted) Andromache goes on to tell how Achilles killed her father and seven brothers; her mother escaped this fate and was enslaved, only to fall victim to Artemis.

HOMER

69

GCSE vocabulary: ἄν, γάρ, ἐπεί, ἔπειτα, ἔσομαι (εἰμί), καλέω, καλός, μήτηρ, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, πατήρ, σός, χείρ.

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

38 39 40 41 42 43

44

ἥ – she, see l.19; οἱ – him (dative); ἀντιάω + dat. – meet; ἅμα + dat. – together with; ἀμφίπολος ἡ – servant; κίω (imperfect κίον) – go. ἐπί + dat. – on; κόλπος ὁ – bosom, breast; ἀταλάφρων -ον – innocent; νήπιος -α -ον – baby, infant; αὔτως – still, just, only. ἀγαπητός -ή -όν – beloved; ἀλίγκιος -ον + dat. – like (introducing a simile); ἀστήρ -έρος ὁ (< asteroid) – star. τόν (= ὅν) – whom; ῥ’ (= ῥα see l.24) – indeed; καλέεσκε imperfect of καλέω – ‘used to call’; αὐτάρ – but. οἶος -η -ον – alone, only; ῥύομαι – protect, defend. ἤτοι – indeed; ὃ μέν – i.e., Hector; μειδάω here aorist without an augment – smile; ἰδών aorist participle of ὁράω – ‘looking at’; σιωπῇ – in silence. οἱ – him (dative); ἄγχι – nearby; παρίστατο + dat. – ‘[she] stood beside’; δάκρυ -υος τό (> δακρύω) – tear; χέω – shed. ἐν . . . φῦ (by temesis) from ἐμφύομαι, aorist ἐνέφυν – cling; ἄρα – then; ἔπος -ους τό (> εἶπον) – word; ἔφατο imperfect of φημί; ἐξονομάζω (> ὄνομα) – address, call by name. (The formulaic phrase ‘ἔπος τ’ ἔφατ’ ἔκ τ’ ὀνόμαζε’ is

commonly found at the end of a line to introduce a speech.) δαιμόνιε – form of address, ‘noble sir’; φθίω – destroy; μένος -ους τό – courage, strength; οὐδέ – and . . . not; ἐλεαίρω – pity, have sympathy for. νηπίαχος -ον – young, infant; ἄμμορος -ον – unfortunate, unlucky; τάχα – quickly, soon; χήρη ἡ – widow. σεῦ (= σοῦ) – of you, your; κατακτείνω (> ἀποκτείνω) – kill (future tense). ἐφορμάομαι aorist participle ἐφορμηθείς – rush against, attack; κε = ἄν with optative εἴη – ‘it would be’; κερδίων -ον – better. σεῦ (= σοῦ); ἀφαμαρτάνω + gen. – lose; χθών -ονός ἡ – earth; δύμεναι infinitive of δύω – go under, sink beneath. θαλπωρή ἡ – comfort, consolation; ἐπεὶ ἄν + subjunctive – ‘when once’; γε – emphasizes the previous word; πότμος ὁ – death, destiny of death; ἐπίσπῃς (subjunctive) – ‘you meet’. ἄχεα nominative plural of ἄχος -ους τό (< ache) – pain, sorrow, grief; μοι ἔστι – there is to me, ‘I have’ (possessive dative); πότνια ἡ – lady, noble.

70

HOMER

Andromache begs Hector to remain in Troy where he is safe and to position the Trojans by the weak point in the city walls. Shame prevents him from doing so. Ἕκτορ, ἀτὰρ σύ μοί ἐσσι πατὴρ καὶ πότνια μήτηρ ἠδὲ κασίγνητος, σὺ δέ μοι θαλερὸς παρακοίτης· ἀλλ’ ἄγε νῦν ἐλέαιρε καὶ αὐτοῦ μίμν’ ἐπὶ πύργῳ, μὴ παῖδ’ ὀρφανικὸν θήῃς χήρην τε γυναῖκα· λαὸν δὲ στῆσον παρ’ ἐρινεόν, ἔνθα μάλιστα ἀμβατός ἐστι πόλις καὶ ἐπίδρομον ἔπλετο τεῖχος. τρὶς γὰρ τῇ γ’ ἐλθόντες ἐπειρήσανθ’ οἱ ἄριστοι ἀμφ’ Αἴαντε δύω καὶ ἀγακλυτὸν Ἰδομενῆα ἠδ’ ἀμφ’ Ἀτρεΐδας καὶ Τυδέος ἄλκιμον υἱόν· ἤ πού τίς σφιν ἔνισπε θεοπροπίων ἐῢ εἰδώς, ἤ νυ καὶ αὐτῶν θυμὸς ἐποτρύνει καὶ ἀνώγει.’

45

50

55

τὴν δ’ αὖτε προσέειπε μέγας κορυθαίολος Ἕκτωρ· ‘ἦ καὶ ἐμοὶ τάδε πάντα μέλει, γύναι· ἀλλὰ μάλ’ αἰνῶς αἰδέομαι Τρῶας καὶ Τρῳάδας ἑλκεσιπέπλους, αἴ κε κακὸς ὣς νόσφιν ἀλυσκάζω πολέμοιο·

Names Αἴας -αντος ὁ: Ajax, there were two Ajaxes on the Greek side, known as the Greater and the Lesser Ajax. Ἰδομενεύς -έως ὁ: Idomeneus, King of Crete. Ἀτρείδης -ου ὁ: son of Atreus, a patronymic, referring to Agamemnon or Menelaus

or in the plural, as here, to both. Τυδεύς -έος ὁ: Tydeus, father of one of the leading Greek warriors, Diomedes. Τρῶες οἱ: Trojan men; Τρῳάδες αἱ – Trojan women.

Q.

How does Andromache seek to persuade Hector to stay safely in Troy?

Q.

What military advice does she give him?

Q.

Why do you think Andromache mentions several of the Greek leaders by name?

Q.

What prevents Hector from following his wife’s advice?

HOMER

71

GCSE vocabulary: ἄριστος, γυνή, δύο, εἰδώς (οἶδα), εὖ, ἦλθον (ἔρχομαι), κακός, μάλιστα, μέγας μεγάλη μέγα, πόλεμος, πόλις, σύ, τε, τεῖχος, υἱός.

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

55 56 57 58 59

Ἕκτορ – vocative case; ἀτάρ – but; ἐσσί = εἶ from εἰμί; πότνια ἡ – lady, noble. ἠδέ = καί; κασίγνητος ὁ – brother; θαλερός -ή -όν – flourishing; παρακοίτης -ου ὁ – husband. ἀλλ’ ἄγε νῦν – ‘so come then’; ἐλεαίρω – have pity; αὐτοῦ – here; μίμνω – I stay, remain; ἐπί + dat. – on; πύργος ὁ – tower. μή + subjunctive – ‘don’t’; ὀρφανικός -ή -όν – orphaned; θήῃς aorist subjunctive – ‘make’; χήρη ἡ – widow. λαός ὁ – people, troops; στῆσον – position (aorist imperative singular); παρά + acc. – by, next to; ἐρινεός ὁ – fig-tree; ἔνθα – where. ἀμβατός -όν – accessible, approachable; ἐπίδρομος -ον – scalable, climbable; ἔπλετο – ‘is’. τρίς (< triskaidekaphobia) – three times; τῇ γε – there, at that very point; ἐπειρήσαντο from πειράομαι; οἱ ἄριστοι – ‘the bravest’. ἀμφί + acc. – around; Αἴαντε accusative dual – ‘the two Ajaxes’ (see Names); ἀγακλυτός -όν – famous. ἠδέ = καί; ἄλκιμος -ον – strong, courageous. ἤ . . . ἤ – either . . . or; πού τις – ‘no doubt someone’; σφιν (dative) – to them; ἔνισπε aorist of ἐνέπω – tell; θεοπροπία ἡ – prophecy, oracle; εἰδώς present participle of οἶδα + gen. – ‘who knows’. νυ – then; θυμός ὁ – heart, spirit; ἐποτρύνω – urge; ἀνώγω – order. τήν = αὐτήν; αὖτε – in turn, in reply; κορυθαίολος -ον – of the glinting helmet. ἦ – indeed, truly; μέλει + dat. – it concerns (subject is the neuter plural τάδε πάντα); γύναι vocative singular of γυνή; μάλα – very; αἰνῶς – terribly. αἰδέομαι – feel shame in front of; ἑλκεσίπεπλος -ον – with trailing dresses. αἰ = εἰ; κε = ἄν; κακὸς ὥς – ‘like a coward’; νόσφιν + gen. – far from; ἀλυσκάζω – shirk, escape; πολέμοιο – genitive singular (see Alternative grammatical

endings, p.63).

72

HOMER

Hector foresees the day when Troy will fall and Andromache will be taken to Greece as a prisoner. οὐδέ με θυμὸς ἄνωγεν, ἐπεὶ μάθον ἔμμεναι ἐσθλὸς 60 αἰεὶ καὶ πρώτοισι μετὰ Τρώεσσι μάχεσθαι, ἀρνύμενος πατρός τε μέγα κλέος ἠδ’ ἐμὸν αὐτοῦ. εὖ γὰρ ἐγὼ τόδε οἶδα κατὰ φρένα καὶ κατὰ θυμόν· ἔσσεται ἦμαρ, ὅτ’ ἄν ποτ’ ὀλώλῃ Ἴλιος ἱρὴ καὶ Πρίαμος καὶ λαὸς ἐϋμμελίω Πριάμοιο. 65 ἀλλ’ οὔ μοι Τρώων τόσσον μέλει ἄλγος ὀπίσσω, οὔτ’ αὐτῆς Ἑκάβης οὔτε Πριάμοιο ἄνακτος οὔτε κασιγνήτων, οἵ κεν πολέες τε καὶ ἐσθλοὶ ἐν κονίῃσι πέσοιεν ὑπ’ ἀνδράσι δυσμενέεσσιν, ὅσσον σεῦ, ὅτε κέν τις Ἀχαιῶν χαλκοχιτώνων 70 δακρυόεσσαν ἄγηται, ἐλεύθερον ἦμαρ ἀπούρας· καί κεν ἐν Ἄργει ἐοῦσα πρὸς ἄλλης ἱστὸν ὑφαίνοις, καί κεν ὕδωρ φορέοις Μεσσηΐδος ἢ Ὑπερείης πόλλ’ ἀεκαζομένη, κρατερὴ δ’ ἐπικείσετ’ ἀνάγκη·

Names Πρίαμος -ου (or -οιο) ὁ: Priam, King of Troy and father of Hector. Ἑκάβη -ης ἡ: Hecuba, queen of Troy and mother of Hector. Ἄργος -ους τό: Argos, a city in Greece, home of the Greek King Agamemnon. Μεσσηίς -ίδος ἡ: Messeis, a spring near Sparta, home of Menelaus and Helen. Ὑπερείη -ης ἡ: Hyperia, a spring in Thessaly.

Homeric values The Greek and Trojan fighters share common values: prowess in battle and bravery which win them prestige (τιμή), glory (κῦδος) and fame (κλέος). This competitive desire to be celebrated presents the hero with the choice between a short life with glory or a long life without. Heroes sometimes refer to their θυμός (heart, spirit) as if it is a separate entity (‘my θυμός orders me’). It is the core of their being, an emotional response, the seat of courage and strong emotions like pride and anger.

Q.

What motivates Hector to be a leading warrior for the Trojans?

Q.

What vision does Hector picture when he thinks of the day when Troy is finally captured? Pick out four details from lines 64–74.

Q.

How does Hector express his special concern for Andromache in lines 66–74?

HOMER

73

GCSE vocabulary: ἄγω, ἀεί, ἀνήρ, ἐλεύθερος, ἔμαθον (μανθάνω), ἐπεί, ἔπεσον (πίπτω), μάχομαι, πατήρ, ὅδε ἥδε τὄδε, οἶδα, ὕδωρ.

60

61 62 63 64

65 66

67 68 69

70 71

72

73 74

οὐδέ – and . . . not; θυμός ὁ – heart, spirit; ἀνώγω – command, urge; μάθον aorist without an augment = ἔμαθον; ἔμμεναι = εἶναι; ἐσθλός -ή -όν – brave, noble. αἰεί = ἀεί; μετά + dat. – with, amongst; πρῶτος -η -ον – first, ‘leading’. ἄρνυμαι – earn, win; πατρός – ‘for my father’; τε . . . ἠδέ = τε . . . καί; κλέος –ους τό – fame, glory; ἐμὸν αὐτοῦ – ‘for myself’. κατὰ φρένα – ‘in my mind’; κατὰ θυμόν – ‘in my heart’. ἔσσεται = ἔσται future of εἰμί; ἦμαρ -ατος τό – day; ὅτε ἄν + subjunctive – when, whenever; ποτε – at some time; ὀλώλῃ subjunctive – ‘will be destroyed’; ἱρός -ή -όν (> ἱερός) – holy. λαός ὁ – people, army; εὐμμελίης -ω – of the fine ash spear (epithet of Priam). οὐ τόσσον – ‘not so much’ and taken up by ὅσσον in l.70 ‘as’; μέλει + dat. – it concerns (subject is ἄλγος); ἄλγος -ους τό – pain, suffering; ὀπίσσω – in the future. Πριάμοιο – genitive; ἄναξ -ακτος ὁ – lord. κασίγνητος ὁ – brother; πολέες = πολλοί; ἐσθλός -ή -όν – brave, noble. κονίη ἡ – dust; οἵ κεν . . . πέσοιεν – ‘who will fall’; ὑπό + dat. – at the hands of; δυσμενής -ές – hostile. Hector’s vivid imagining of the future is expressed with a sequence of optative verbs after κεν, best translated as futures (πέσοιεν, ὑφαίνοις l.72, φορέοις l.73). ὅσσον – ‘as’ see l.66; σεῦ = σοῦ – ‘for you’; ὅτε κεν + subjunctive – when; χαλκοχίτων -ωνος – bronze-clad (a chiton is a tunic). δακρυόεις -εσσα -εν (> δακρύω) – tearful, in tears (accusative, understand σε); ἄγομαι – lead off; ἐλεύθερον ἦμαρ τό (= ἡμέρα) – ‘day of freedom’; ἀπούρας – aorist participle agreeing with τις l.70 from ἀπαυράω – rob. ἐοῦσα = οὖσα agreeing with Andromache – ‘when you are’; πρός + gen. – at the command of; ἄλλης – ‘another woman’ because Andromache will be a slave; ἱστόν τό – loom; ὑφαίνω – weave at (see l.69 for κεν + optative). φορέω – carry. πόλλα – adverbial much, very; ἀεκαζόμενος -η -ον – reluctant, unwilling; κρατερός -ή -όν – strong, powerful; ἐπίκειμαι future ἐπικείσομαι – lie on, press on; ἀνάγκη ἡ – necessity.

74

HOMER

Hector imagines what people will say of Andromache when she is widowed. He reaches out to his son, who recoils in fear of his father’s helmet crest. καί ποτέ τις εἴπῃσιν ἰδὼν κατὰ δάκρυ χέουσαν· ‘Ἕκτορος ἧδε γυνή, ὃς ἀριστεύεσκε μάχεσθαι Τρώων ἱπποδάμων, ὅτε Ἴλιον ἀμφιμάχοντο.’ ὥς ποτέ τις ἐρέει· σοὶ δ’ αὖ νέον ἔσσεται ἄλγος χήτεϊ τοιοῦδ’ ἀνδρὸς ἀμύνειν δούλιον ἦμαρ. ἀλλά με τεθνηῶτα χυτὴ κατὰ γαῖα καλύπτοι πρίν γέ τι σῆς τε βοῆς σοῦ θ’ ἑλκηθμοῖο πυθέσθαι.’ ὥς εἰπὼν οὗ παιδὸς ὀρέξατο φαίδιμος Ἕκτωρ· ἂψ δ’ ὁ πάϊς πρὸς κόλπον ἐϋζώνοιο τιθήνης ἐκλίνθη ἰάχων, πατρὸς φίλου ὄψιν ἀτυχθείς, ταρβήσας χαλκόν τε ἰδὲ λόφον ἱππιοχαίτην, δεινὸν ἀπ’ ἀκροτάτης κόρυθος νεύοντα νοήσας. ἐκ δ’ ἐγέλασσε πατήρ τε φίλος καὶ πότνια μήτηρ· αὐτίκ’ ἀπὸ κρατὸς κόρυθ’ εἵλετο φαίδιμος Ἕκτωρ, καὶ τὴν μὲν κατέθηκεν ἐπὶ χθονὶ παμφανόωσαν·

75

80

85

Children In this tender scene we see the baby unite two parents whose duties and responsibilities are very different. Although Hector has imagined in detail a possible future for Andromache, he says nothing here of his son, yet his actions demonstrate his love.

Hector Hector, as you have seen, has a number of epithets in Homer’s Iliad, such as ‘glorious’ (φαίδιμος), ‘of the glinting helmet’ (κορυθαίολος), ‘godlike’, ‘man-slaying’ and ‘horse-taming’. Although the Trojans and Greeks have much in common, the Trojans do not fight out of choice but to defend their families. Hector is not represented as the best fighter at Troy: in Book 7, nine ‘better men’ are ready to face him in single combat. Hector, however, as the best fighter on the Trojan side, is recognized as ‘the defence of Troy’.

Q.

What impressions of Hector do you form from reading lines 75–89?

Q.

Did the reaction of the parents at line 87 surprise you?

Q.

Do you find it easy to visualize this scene? Try sketching it.

Q.

Why do you think Homer includes this excerpt in his war narrative?

Q.

What are your own emotions when you read this passage (lines 80–9)?

HOMER

75

GCSE vocabulary: εἷλον (αἱρέω), βοή, γυνή, γελάω, δεινός, εἶδον (ὁράω), εἶπον (λέγω), ἔσομαι (εἰμί), ὅς ἥ ὅ, νέος, παῖς, πυνθάνομαι.

75

76 77 78 79 80

81

82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89

ποτε – one day, at some time; εἴπῃσιν subjunctive (= εἴπῃ) – ‘may say’; κατὰ . . . χέουσαν (tmesis) – καταχέω – shed, pour down (accusative singular feminine participle, supply σε); δάκρυ τό – tear. Ἕκτορος – genitive; ἀριστεύεσκε imperfect of ἀριστεύω + gen. + infinitive – ‘be

the best of . . . at . . .’, ‘excel . . . in . . .’. ἱππόδαμος -ον – horse-taming (stock epithet for the Trojans); ὅτε – when; ἀμφιμάχομαι – fight around. ὥς – so, thus; ποτε – see l.75; ἐρέω – future of λέγω; αὖ (= αὔθις) – again; ἔσσεται = ἔσται; ἄλγος -ους τό (< nostalgia) – pain, grief, sorrow. χήτος τό – lack; τοιόσδε – such, of this sort; ἀμύνω – avert, keep at bay; δούλιον ἦμαρ τό – ‘day of slavery’ (see l.71 for its opposite: ἐλεύθερον ἦμαρ). τεθνηῶτα accusative participle agreeing with με – ‘when I am dead’; χυτός -ή -όν – heaped up; γαῖα ἡ = γῆ; κατακαλύπτω (tmesis) – cover (the optative indicates a wish). πρίν γε + infinitive – before (γε reinforces πρίν); τι – anything, at all; θ’ = τε; ἑλκηθμός ὁ – dragging off; πυθέσθαι aorist infinitive of πυνθάνομαι + gen., supply the subject ‘I’. ὥς – so, thus; οὗ – ‘his’; ὀρέγομαι + gen. – reach out to; φαίδιμος -ον – glorious, noble (another epithet of Hector). ἂψ – back; κόλπος ὁ – bosom, breast; εὔζωνος -ον – fine-belted, well-girdled; τιθήνη ἡ – nurse, nanny. κλίνομαι (< recline) – lean back; ἰάχω – shriek, cry; φίλος -η -ον – dear, one’s own; ὄψις -ιος ἡ – sight; ἀτύζομαι aorist participle ἀτυχθείς – be terrified. ταρβέω – fear; χαλκός ὁ – bronze; ἰδέ – and; λόφος ὁ – plume, crest; ἱππιοχαίτης -ου – made of horse hair. δεινόν adverb – ‘dreadfully’; ἄκρος -α -ον – peak, top of; κόρυς -υθος ἡ – helmet; νεύω – nod, wave agreeing with λόφον; νοέω – notice, see. ἐκγελάω (tmesis) – laugh out loud (the singular verb has two subjects); πότνια ἡ – lady, noble. αὐτίκα – straightaway, at once; κάρη κρατός τό – head; κόρυθ’ = κόρυθα (see l.86); εἵλετο from αἱρέομαι – ‘removed’; φαίδιμος -ον – see l.82. τήν = αὐτήν, i.e., the helmet; κατέθηκεν aorist of κατατίθημι – put down; ἐπί + dat. – see l.31; χθών -ονός ἡ – ground; παμφανάω – shine all over, gleam.

76

HOMER

Hector prays to Zeus for his son to be a successful warrior and then reassures his wife that his life is in the hands of fate. αὐτὰρ ὅ γ’ ὃν φίλον υἱὸν ἐπεὶ κύσε πῆλέ τε χερσίν, εἶπε δ’ ἐπευξάμενος Διί τ’ ἄλλοισίν τε θεοῖσι· ‘Ζεῦ ἄλλοι τε θεοί, δότε δὴ καὶ τόνδε γενέσθαι παῖδ’ ἐμόν, ὡς καὶ ἐγώ περ, ἀριπρεπέα Τρώεσσιν, ὧδε βίην τ’ ἀγαθόν, καὶ Ἰλίου ἶφι ἀνάσσειν· καὶ ποτέ τις εἴποι ‘πατρός γ’ ὅδε πολλὸν ἀμείνων’ ἐκ πολέμου ἀνιόντα· φέροι δ’ ἔναρα βροτόεντα κτείνας δήϊον ἄνδρα, χαρείη δὲ φρένα μήτηρ.’ ὣς εἰπὼν ἀλόχοιο φίλης ἐν χερσὶν ἔθηκε παῖδ’ ἑόν· ἣ δ’ ἄρα μιν κηώδεϊ δέξατο κόλπῳ δακρυόεν γελάσασα· πόσις δ’ ἐλέησε νοήσας, χειρί τέ μιν κατέρεξεν, ἔπος τ’ ἔφατ’ ἔκ τ’ ὀνόμαζε· ‘δαιμονίη, μή μοί τι λίην ἀκαχίζεο θυμῷ· οὐ γάρ τίς μ’ ὑπὲρ αἶσαν ἀνὴρ Ἄϊδι προϊάψει· μοῖραν δ’ οὔ τινά φημι πεφυγμένον ἔμμεναι ἀνδρῶν, οὐ κακόν, οὐδὲ μὲν ἐσθλόν, ἐπὴν τὰ πρῶτα γένηται.

90

95

100

105

Names Ἅιδης -ου ὁ: Hades, lord of the dead and ruler of the underworld.

Fate Both words for fate or destiny used here, αἶσα and μοῖρα, mean the share that has been decided or allotted to a person at birth, usually referring to the time and manner of death. The listener learns before Hector does (Iliad 15.613–14) that he is fated to die at the hands of Achilles; just before that moment, Zeus considers whether to save Hector as he is pursued by Achilles around the walls of Troy (Iliad 22.175), but Athena reminds Zeus that Hector’s fate was decided long ago. Zeus holds up the scales of destiny, weighing the fate of Achilles against the fate of Hector and Hector’s ‘fated day’ (αἴσιμον ἦμαρ) sinks down.

Q.

What prayers does Hector make for his son Astyanax?

Q.

Does it seem strange that Hector envisages his son as a warrior rather than imagining a different future for him?

Q.

How reassuring do you find Hector’s words to his wife?

HOMER

77

GCSE vocabulary: ἀγαθός, ἄλλος, ἀμείνων, ἀνήρ, γελάω, γενέσθαι (γίγνομαι), δακρύω, δέχομαι, ἐπεί, θεός, κακός, μήτηρ, πόλεμος, φέρω, φημί, χείρ.

90 91 92 93

94 95

96

97

98 99 100 101 102

103 104

105

αὐτάρ – but, moreover; ὅ – he; ὃν – ‘his’; κύσε = ἔκυσε aorist of κυνέω – kiss; πῆλε = ἔπηλε aorist of πάλλω – swing, ‘dandle’. ἐπεύχομαι – pray; ἄλλοισιν . . . θεοῖσι = ἄλλοις θεοῖς (see Alternative

grammatical endings, p.63). δότε – imperative ‘grant that’ + accusative + infinitive; δή – gives emphasis to the imperative; τόνδε – agrees with παῖδ’ ἐμόν l.93. ὡς καὶ ἐγώ περ – ‘as I myself am too’ (περ emphasizes ἐγώ); ἀριπρεπής + dat. – preeminent over, supreme amongst (ἀριπρεπέα and ἀγαθόν (l.94) agree with παῖδ’ ἐμόν). ὧδε – thus, i.e., ‘like me’; βίην ἀγαθόν = βίαν (accusative of respect ‘good in respect of force’), i.e., ‘powerful’; ἶφι – with strength; ἀνάσσω + gen. – rule. ποτε – some day; τις εἴποι – ‘may someone say [of him]’ optative showing a wish; ὅδε – this man (ὅτι . . . ἐστί are implied); πολλόν adverb – far, much; ἀμείνων -ον – comparative of ἀγαθός -ή -όν (πατρός is a genitive of comparison). ἀνιόντα accusative participle from ἀνέρχομαι – ‘as he returns’; φέροι – optative for wish ‘may he . . .’; ἔναρα τά – spoils, plunder; βροτόεις -εσσα -εν – bloodstained. κτείνας = ἀποκτείνας aorist participle; δήιος -α -ον – hostile, enemy; χαρείη – optative of χαίρω – rejoice, expressing a wish; φρήν φρενός ἡ – mind, heart, here accusative of respect ‘in her heart’. ὥς – so, thus; ἄλοχος -οιο ἡ – wife; φίλος -η -ον – dear, one’s own; ἔθηκε aorist of τίθημι – put, place. ἑός -ά -όν– his; ἥ – she; ἄρα – then; μιν = αὐτόν – him; κηώδης -ες – fragrant, sweet-smelling; κόλπος ὁ – bosom. δακρυόεν – ‘through her tears’; γελάω – laugh, smile; πόσις -ιος ὁ – husband; ἐλεέω – pity, feel compassion; νοέω – notice, see. μιν – her; καταρέζω – stroke, caress; ἔπος -ους τό – word; ἔφατο from φημί; ἐξονομάζω (> ὄνομα) – address (see l.37). δαιμονίη – noble lady (vocative, see l.38); μοι – for me, on my account; τι – at all, in any way; λίην – too much, too; ἀκαχίζεο imperative of ἀκακίζομαι – worry, be troubled; θυμός ὁ – heart, spirit. ὑπέρ + acc. – above, beyond; αἶσα -ης ἡ – fate, destiny; ὑπὲρ αἶσαν – ‘before my time’; προιάπτω + dat. – dispatch early (to). μοῖρα ἡ – fate (object of πεφυγμένον); οὔ φημι + accusative and infinitive – deny; τινὰ with ἀνδρῶν – ‘any man’; πεφυγμένον – ‘who has escaped’ from φεύγω; ἔμμεναι = εἶναι. ἐσθλός -ή -όν – good, noble agreeing with τινά in the previous line; ἐπὴν τὰ πρῶτα + subjunctive – ‘from the first moment when’; γίγνομαι – be born.

78

HOMER

Andromache follows Hector’s advice to return home, where she weeps for him. ἀλλ’ εἰς οἶκον ἰοῦσα τὰ σ’ αὐτῆς ἔργα κόμιζε, ἱστόν τ’ ἠλακάτην τε, καὶ ἀμφιπόλοισι κέλευε ἔργον ἐποίχεσθαι· πόλεμος δ’ ἄνδρεσσι μελήσει πᾶσι, μάλιστα δ’ ἐμοί, τοὶ Ἰλίῳ ἐγγεγάασιν.’ ὣς ἄρα φωνήσας κόρυθ’ εἵλετο φαίδιμος Ἕκτωρ ἵππουριν· ἄλοχος δὲ φίλη οἶκόνδε βεβήκει ἐντροπαλιζομένη, θαλερὸν κατὰ δάκρυ χέουσα. αἶψα δ’ ἔπειθ’ ἵκανε δόμους εὖ ναιετάοντας Ἕκτορος ἀνδροφόνοιο, κιχήσατο δ’ ἔνδοθι πολλὰς ἀμφιπόλους, τῇσιν δὲ γόον πάσῃσιν ἐνῶρσεν. αἳ μὲν ἔτι ζωὸν γόον Ἕκτορα ᾧ ἐνὶ οἴκῳ· οὐ γάρ μιν ἔτ’ ἔφαντο ὑπότροπον ἐκ πολέμοιο ἵξεσθαι προφυγόντα μένος καὶ χεῖρας Ἀχαιῶν.

110

115

Dramatic irony In lines 115–16 Andromache and her maids weep for Hector, not knowing whether he has been killed on his return to battle. The listener, however, hears clearly from the poet that Hector is still very much alive (ζωόν).

Q.

Is there a change of tone in the final lines of Hector’s speech? If so, can you account for this?

Q.

As husband and wife go their separate ways, which of them would you prefer to be and why?

Q.

Why do Andromache and her attendants weep for Hector?

HOMER

79

GCSE vocabulary: εἷλον (αἱρέω), ἔπειτα, ἔργον, εὖ, κελεύω, μάλιστα.

106 οἶκος ὁ = οἰκία; ἰοῦσα participle from εἶμι – ‘go in and . . .’; σὰ αὐτῆς – ‘your own’; κομίζω – attend to. 107 τε . . . τε = τε . . . καί . . .; ἱστός ὁ – loom (used for weaving wool); ἠλακάτη ἡ – distaff (used for spinning wool); ἀμφίπολος ἡ – servant, handmaid. 108 ἐποίχομαι – busy oneself with, get on with; μέλει + dat. – be a concern; πᾶσι – dative plural of πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν. 109 τοί = οἵ – who; ἐγγεγάασιν participle from ἐγγίγνομαι – ‘born in’, ‘who live in’. 110 ὥς – so, in this way; ἄρα – then (see l.24); ϕωνέω (> ϕωνή) – speak; κόρυς -υθος ἡ – helmet; εἵλετο (= εἶλε from αἱρέω) – take; φαίδιμος -ον – glorious, noble. 111 ἵππουρις -ιδος ἡ (> ἵππος) – with horse-hair plume; ἄλοχος ἡ – wife; οἶκόνδε – (to) home; βεβήκει (from βαίνω) – ‘[she] went’. 112 ἐντροπαλίζομαι – keep turning round; θαλερός -ά -όν – abundant, ‘many a [tear]’; δάκρυ τό – tear; καταχέω (tmesis) – shed. 113 see l.1. 114 ἀνδρόφονος -ον (> ϕονεύω) – man-slaying (another stock epithet for Hector); κιχάνομαι – meet, find; ἔνδοθι – inside. 115 τῇσιν . . . πάσῃσιν = ταῖς πάσαις – ‘in them all’; γόος ὁ – lamentation, grief; ἐνόρνυμι – rouse, stir. 116 αἵ μεν – ‘and they’; ζωός -ή -όν (< zoo) – alive, living; γόον = ἐγόων imperfect of γοάω – weep for; ᾧ dative – his; ἐνί = ἐν. 117 οὐ . . . ἔφαντο aorist middle of ϕημί – say, reckon, think + acc. + infinitive ‘they did not think that’; μιν = αὐτόν; ἔτι – anymore; ὑπότροπος -ον – returning, coming back. 118 ἵξεσθαι future infinitive of ἱκνέομαι – come, return; προϕεύγω – escape; μένος -ους τό – strength, might; χείρ, χειρός ἡ – hand, pl. ‘strength’.

80

HOMER

What happens next? Hector rejoins the fighting together with Paris, whom he had earlier criticized for enjoying the comforts of his room. While Andromache and her maids grieve as if Hector were dead (line 116), Hector enjoys his greatest success on the battlefield, driving the Greeks back to their camp with the support of Zeus and even setting fire to the Greek ships. Hector’s success is also helped by Achilles’ absence from the fighting: insulted by Agamemnon, Achilles had rejected the glory that men win on the battlefield and refused to fight. The tide turns when Achilles’ beloved friend Patroclus asks Achilles to let him help drive Hector from the ships, their only means of returning safely to Greece. Achilles allows Patroclus to wear his armour and lead out his troops, the Myrmidons. Patroclus routs the Trojans and pursues them to Troy, where Apollo taunts him and drives him back to be killed by Hector. The theme of the Iliad, Achilles’ wrath, has two phases: Achilles’ first anger at Agamemnon (see p.64) is eclipsed by the second fury he feels at Patroclus’ death. Achilles returns to the fighting, in divinely-made armour, intent on avenging the death of Patroclus, seeking out Hector and challenging him to single combat. After Achilles kills Hector in front of Troy, beneath the eyes of Priam and Hecuba, he disgraces the corpse by piercing his ankles, sliding a strap through them and dragging the body behind his chariot. Andromache, unaware of what has happened, is preparing a hot bath for Hector, anticipating his return from the fighting. She hears cries, sees her husband’s body being dragged around the walls, and faints. When she revives, she laments her future and in particular that of Astyanax – ‘the day a child loses his father he loses all his friends’ (22.490). Andromache delivers one more lament at the end of the poem when Hector’s body is finally recovered for burial, thanks to the great courage of King Priam; she again dwells on the future that now faces her son: ‘Some Greek will take you by the arm and fling you to a wretched death from the walls in anger’ (24.735–6). She also rebukes Hector because she could not hold him as he died. Homer does not tell us of the sack of Troy or the fate of the baby, Astyanax, but in Euripides’ play, Trojan Women, we learn that he was thrown from the battlements of Troy to prevent him growing up to avenge his father. Andromache is made a slave to Achilles’ son, Neoptolemus, as told in Euripides’ play Andromache.

Final questions 

What does the scene between Hector and his wife contribute to a long work that is otherwise mainly focused on fighting?



What are the characteristics of a Homeric hero?



This poem was composed over 2,500 years ago and was intended to be performed orally. Do you think it still works well for a modern reader?

Euripides

Euripides was one of the three most celebrated writers of tragedy in fifth-century Athens. We have eighteen complete plays out of the ninety or so that he wrote, as well as a range of fragments from some of his other plays. This is more than the combined total of Aeschylus and Sophocles, two other great playwrights of the period, from whose works seven plays each survive. Very little hard evidence exists about Euripides’ life. There are plenty of stories from ancient authors but they seem to have been invented either from material in his own plays or from the portrayal of him in contemporary comedies like The Frogs by Aristophanes. He was born around 480 and died in 407/6. We have rather better records about the dates of his plays. Since these were written for a competition, records were kept of the title, author and position each year. Medea is an early play of Euripides. It was first performed in 431 and came third (out of three). This is not to say that it is not a good play. Several Roman authors reworked the story, and in the past 100 years it is the most frequent Greek tragedy to have been staged. The central figure of Medea, an independent woman who directs her own destiny, has found particular resonance with modern audiences.

Drama in ancient Greece Drama is one of the great innovations to have come out of ancient Greece. Classical drama continues to have a significant influence on modern theatre and many plays from ancient Greece have been subject to revival over the past 100 years. When we talk about Greek drama, we are really speaking of Athenian drama, for it was in Athens that the plays that we have were first written and performed. The rise of drama was closely tied up with the development of democracy, another great Athenian innovation. Although the content of the plays was based on mythology, the issues explored were frequently relevant to their time, and indeed continue to be so today. The fact that they were expressed as myth meant that issues could be explored in a safe environment without the passions that discussion in the Assembly, the democratic decision-making body of Athens, might provoke. The presentation of drama was very different from our current practice. Plays are now put on typically for a run for several weeks or more; they are performed indoors with artificial lighting, generally in the evening. Members of the audience come alone, in pairs or perhaps as a group, with the aim of being entertained or perhaps to learn something. A large theatre today may seat an audience of about 1,000 people. Greek drama took place in the context of a religious festival. The principal dramatic festival in Athens, the City Dionysia, took place in the spring once seatravel had restarted after the winter, and lasted for the best part of a week, but 81

82

EURIPIDES

preparations began long before. At the start of the festival there was a procession where tribute from the subject allies of Athens was paraded through the agora and into the theatre for citizens and visitors to see and admire. Bulls were sacrificed to Dionysus and wine (plenty of it) was drunk to honour him. On this opening day, group choral songs called dithyrambs were performed. These involved 1,000 ordinary Athenians – 500 men and 500 boys – arranged into groups of fifty by tribes (a division of the citizen body into smaller units, like the ‘house’ system some schools have). The next days were filled with theatrical performances: a whole day was devoted to comedy with up to five plays being put on. On three other days, four plays by the same author were presented each day: three tragedies and a less-serious satyr play. At the end, judges, selected from the ten tribes by lot, awarded the prize for the best playwright. The Greeks were competitive in many areas. The plays were written in verse, using a combination of long speeches, line-forline dialogue (stichomythia) and choral odes in a variety of lyric metres sung by the chorus. There were three professional actors only, always men, who took on all the speaking roles. In addition to their costumes, they wore masks which helped to make their character clear at a distance. Apart from non-speaking extras, there were fifteen other key participants – the chorus. They were financed by a wealthy citizen in a form of taxation known as a liturgy. The chorus was recruited from ordinary Athenian male citizens who spent several months learning the words, music and dance that comprised the performance. The complexity of the choral rhythms meant that this would have been an intense period of hard work. Since many Athenians would have performed choral songs in the dithyrambs, the audience would have been knowledgeable and appreciative of this art. The space for performances was an open-air site on the south side of the Acropolis which held around 15,000 spectators. The theatre was part of a larger complex of the sanctuary of the god Dionysus after whom the festival was named (Dionysia). The spectators sat on the natural slope of the hill and had an open view of city and countryside beyond. A circular area of beaten earth called the orchestra (or ‘area for dancing’) formed the main performance area for the actors and chorus. At the back of the orchestra, facing the audience, was a wooden stage building (σκηνή < scene) sitting on a raised wooden platform. This had a double door in the middle representing an interior space – typically the palace of the King, although it could indicate other settings such as a peasant cottage or a cave. There were also entrances (parodoi) from either side of the orchestra. Since the orchestra was about 24 metres in diameter, entrances and exits from the side to the centre would have taken the actors an appreciable amount of time. If you have seen pictures of Greek theatres or have been lucky enough to visit one, it is worth bearing in mind that they may be of a later date. Over time, theatres became grander, with stone seating and a permanent skene. Remains of the Theatre of Dionysus survive in Athens but what we see was modified by the Romans 500 years after plays like Medea were originally performed.

2025–2026 Prescription This selection corresponds to Euripides’ Medea lines 230–91 and 358–409.

EURIPIDES

83

The backstory For the Greeks, the story of Medea begins when Jason arrives in far-away Colchis on the far shore of the Black Sea to steal the Golden Fleece, a seemingly impossible task set by Pelias, the King of Iolcus, who had usurped the throne. Medea, the daughter of the King of Colchis, helps Jason, despite the opposition of her father, because she has fallen in love with the young hero. In gratitude, Jason promises to marry Medea and they flee for a new life back in Greece. On the journey Medea delays their pursuers by cutting up the body of her younger brother. Her whole future must now be with Jason – there is no way in which she could return to her family in Colchis. The couple make for Iolcus where Medea uses her magic arts to kill Pelias by pretending to administer a potion to rejuvenate him. Jason and Medea flee a second time, making for Corinth where they find refuge. They are welcomed by Creon, King of Corinth, settle down and have two sons. However, Medea remains an outsider: she is a non-Greek (barbaros) with a reputation for cleverness. Jason sees a way of improving both his own position and his children’s long-term future by marrying the King’s daughter, Glauce.

The play so far The play starts at the point where Medea has learned that Jason has married Glauce. She feels totally betrayed by her husband. We hear from other characters how distraught she is and her laments off-stage are audible. In the first extract, however, she has just come calmly out of her house and is addressing the chorus of women from Corinth. She appeals to their common experience as women and asks for their support. Figure 9 Medea helps Jason to get the golden fleece in Colchis before escaping to Greece. Photo: clu via Getty Images.

84

EURIPIDES

Medea complains to the chorus about the difficulties women face in marriage because of their lesser status. Nominative words or phrases are in light blue, verbs in dark blue.

Medea πάντων δ᾽ ὅσ᾽ ἔστ᾽ ἔμψυχα καὶ γνώμην ἔχει γυναῖκές ἐσμεν ἀθλιώτατον φυτόν· ἃς πρῶτα μὲν δεῖ χρημάτων ὑπερβολῇ πόσιν πρίασθαι, δεσπότην τε σώματος λαβεῖν· κακοῦ γὰρ τοῦτ’ ἔτ᾽ ἄλγιον κακόν. κἀν τῷδ᾽ ἀγὼν μέγιστος, ἢ κακὸν λαβεῖν ἢ χρηστόν· οὐ γὰρ εὐκλεεῖς ἀπαλλαγαὶ γυναιξὶν οὐδ᾽ οἷόν τ᾽ ἀνήνασθαι πόσιν. ἐς καινὰ δ᾽ ἤθη καὶ νόμους ἀφιγμένην δεῖ μάντιν εἶναι, μὴ μαθοῦσαν οἴκοθεν, οἵῳ μάλιστα χρήσεται ξυνευνέτῃ. κἂν μὲν τάδ᾽ ἡμῖν ἐκπονουμέναισιν εὖ πόσις ξυνοικῇ μὴ βίᾳ φέρων ζυγόν, ζηλωτὸς αἰών· εἰ δὲ μή, θανεῖν χρεών.

5

10

Marriage In this speech, Medea argues that women have a wretched life because of the nature of marriage. In fifthcentury Greece, marriage would usually be arranged between the two families. A woman would bring, as a dowry, money and/or property from her family to her new husband. If a marriage proved unhappy, there were limited ways for it to end. Technically a wife could sue for divorce, but a return to her family in such circumstances would be a cause of shame both to her and to them. If the wife was caught having an adulterous affair with another man, she could be sent back to her own family and the marriage cancelled; the same did not apply to the man.

Q.

What argument does Medea present to the chorus in lines 1-8?

Q.

What additional point does Medea make in lines 9-11 that makes her own position particularly difficult?

Q.

How effective are the metaphors Medea uses in lines 10 and 13?

EURIPIDES

85

GCSE vocabulary: ἀπέθανον (ἀποθνῇσκω), βία, γύνη, δεῖ, δεσπότης, εἰ, ἔλαβον (λαμβάνω), ἔμαθον (μανθάνω), εὖ, κακός, μέγιστος, νόμος, πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν, σῶμα, φέρω, χράομαι, χρήματα.

Greek tragedy is written in verse which follows certain rhythmic patterns. The lines you will read are mainly iambic trimeters, which usually have twelve syllables. If a word ends in a vowel, it may drop its final vowel (elision see p.62) or it may join with the next word (crasis). e.g., 1 πάντων δ᾽ ὅσ᾽ ἔστ᾽ ἔμψυχα = πάντων δὲ ὅσα ἔστι ἔμψυχα (elision). 6 κἀν = καὶ ἐν (crasis). 12 κἂν = καὶ ἐάν (crasis).

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

πάντων – gen. plural neuter ‘of all things’; ὅσος -η -ον – as many as, ‘which’ (neuter plural subject of ἔστι); ἔμψυχος -ον – alive; γνώμη ἡ – intelligence, reason. ἄθλιος -η -ον – wretched; φυτόν τό – creature. ἅς – for whom; πρῶτα – first of all; ὑπερβολή ἡ – excess, excessive amount. πόσις -ιος ὁ – husband; πρίαμαι – buy. κακοῦ – genitive of comparison (refers to evil of a dowry); τοῦτ’ = τοῦτο – this (the evil of being mastered); ἔτι – even; ἀλγίων -ον – more painful. κἀν = καὶ ἐν; (crasis) ἀγών -ώνος ὁ – contest, challenge (supply the verb ἐστί); κακόν – supply ἄνδρα. χρηστός -ή -όν – good, decent; εὐκλεής -ες – having a good reputation; ἀπαλλαγή ἡ – divorce. οἷόν τ᾽ supply ἐστί – it is possible; ἀναίνομαι – refuse; πόσις -ιος ὁ – husband. ἐς = εἰς; καινός -ή -όν – new; ἦθος -ους τό – custom, way; ἀφιγμένην – ‘a woman who has come’ (accusative participle, following δεῖ + acc.). μάντις -εως ὁ/ἡ – seer, prophet; μαθοῦσαν aorist participle of μανθάνω – ‘not having learned . . .’; οἴκοθεν – from home, at home. οἷῳ – ‘in what kind of way’, ‘how’; μάλιστα – ‘best’; χρήσεται future of χράομαι + dat. – deal with, treat; ξυνευνέτης -ου ὁ – bedfellow, husband. κἂν = καὶ ἐάν; ἐκπονέω – work out, deal (feminine dative plural participle, agreeing with ἡμῖν ‘when we deal with this well’). πόσις -ιος ὁ – see l.8; ξυνοικέω + dat. – live with; βίᾳ – ‘with force’; ζυγόν τό – yoke (used for harnessing oxen to a plough). ζηλωτός -ή -όν – enviable; αἰών -ῶνος ὁ (< aeon) – life; θανεῖν = ἀποθανεῖν; χρεών (supply ἐστί) = χρή ‘one should’.

86

EURIPIDES

Medea complains of the double standards that apply to men and women, but distinguishes herself from the other women of Corinth who have family and friends to fall back on. ἀνὴρ δ᾽, ὅταν τοῖς ἔνδον ἄχθηται ξυνών, ἔξω μολὼν ἔπαυσε καρδίαν ἄσης ἢ πρὸς φίλον τιν᾽ ἢ πρὸς ἥλικα τραπείς· ἡμῖν δ᾽ ἀνάγκη πρὸς μίαν ψυχὴν βλέπειν. λέγουσι δ᾽ ἡμᾶς ὡς ἀκίνδυνον βίον ζῶμεν κατ᾽ οἴκους, οἱ δὲ μάρνανται δορί, κακῶς φρονοῦντες· ὡς τρὶς ἂν παρ᾽ ἀσπίδα στῆναι θέλοιμ᾽ ἂν μᾶλλον ἢ τεκεῖν ἅπαξ. ἀλλ᾽ οὐ γὰρ αὑτὸς πρὸς σὲ κἄμ᾽ ἥκει λόγος· σοὶ μὲν πόλις θ᾽ ἥδ᾽ ἐστὶ καὶ πατρὸς δόμοι βίου τ᾽ ὄνησις καὶ φίλων συνουσία, ἐγὼ δ᾽ ἔρημος ἄπολις οὖσ᾽ ὑβρίζομαι πρὸς ἀνδρός, ἐκ γῆς βαρβάρου λελῃσμένη, οὐ μητέρ᾽, οὐκ ἀδελφόν, οὐχὶ συγγενῆ μεθορμίσασθαι τῆσδ᾽ ἔχουσα συμφορᾶς.

15

20

25

Sexual equality Inequality between the sexes went unchallenged in ancient Greece. Both had their own domain and responsibilities, but society was predicated on the superiority of men. A woman’s life revolved around bearing children and running the household; men worked and socialized outside the home and were expected to play a part in city life, including, when necessary, fighting as a hoplite or in the navy. In 431, the year Medea was produced, Athens was just entering into a long war with Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies.

Childbirth in the ancient world Despite an interest in medicine, the workings of the body and the process of childbirth were not well understood by the ancient Greeks. Childbirth was potentially dangerous, particularly if marriage took place when a girl was still in her early or mid-teens.

Q.

Do you accept Medea’s comparison of childbirth to fighting in a hoplite phalanx? How do you think the contemporary audience, consisting largely or exclusively of males, might have reacted?

Q.

How much sympathy do you feel for Medea’s argument in lines 24–9 about her isolation as a foreigner in Corinth?

Q.

How apt is the seafaring metaphor in line 29?

EURIPIDES

87

GCSE vocabulary: ἀνήρ, ἀσπίς, βίος, γῆ, ἐθέλω, εἷς μία ἕν, ἔχω, κακός, λέγω, λόγος, μήτηρ, πατήρ, πόλις, συμφορά, φίλος.

15 16

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29

ὅταν + subjunctive – whenever; τοῖς ἔνδον – ‘those inside’; ἄχθομαι + dat. – be irritated by, be fed up with; ξύνειμι (= σύνειμι) – be with. ἔξω – outside; μολών – aorist participle of βλώσκω = go – ‘having gone’; παύω – release x (acc.) from y (gen.), ‘put an end to’ (the aorist ἔπαυσε indicates a generalization: translate as if present tense); καρδία ἡ (< cardiac) – heart; ἄση ἡ – vexation, annoyance. ἧλιξ -ικος ὁ/ἡ – contemporary, peer; τραπείς nominative singular aorist participle of τρέπομαι – turn, ‘by turning’. ἀνάγκη ἡ (> ἀναγκάζω) – necessity (supply ἐστί); ψυχή ἡ (< psychology) – soul, person; βλέπω – look. ἡμᾶς ὡς (= ὅτι) – ‘[they say] that we’; ἀκίνδυνος -ον – without danger. ζάω – live; κατ᾽ οἴκους – ‘at home’; μάρναμαι – fight, do battle; δόρυ -ατος τό

– spear. κακῶς – badly, wrongly; φρονέω – think, reason; ὡς + optative + ἄν expresses a wish – how!; τρίς – three times; παρά + acc. – by, next to. στῆναι – ‘to stand’; θέλοιμι – ‘I would choose’, from θέλω (= ἐθέλω); μᾶλλον – ‘rather’; τεκεῖν aorist from τίκτω – ‘to give birth’; ἅπαξ – once. ἀλλὰ γάρ – ‘for in fact’; αὑτός = ὁ αὐτός with λόγος – ‘the same argument’; κἄμ᾽ = καὶ ἐμέ (crasis); ἥκω – has come, ‘applies’. σοὶ μὲν ἐστί – ‘you have’ (dative of possession, contrasting with l.26 ‘ἐγὼ δ’); πόλις θ᾽ ἥδ᾽ = πόλις τε ἥδε . . . καί – ‘both this city . . . and . . .’; δόμοι οἱ – house, home. ὄνησις -εως ἡ – benefit, enjoyment; συνουσία ἡ – company. ἔρημος -ον – abandoned, deserted; ἄπολις – without a city; οὖσ᾽ = οὖσα; ὑβρίζω – treat badly, insult. πρός + gen. – by, at the hands of; βάρβαρος -ον – foreign, alien; ληΐζομαι – plunder, rob (λελῃσμένη is a perfect passive participle, agreeing with ἐγώ). ἀδελφός ὁ – brother; οὐχί – emphatic form of οὐ; συγγενής -ές – relative, kin (adjective, used as a noun). μεθορμίζομαι + gen. – change anchorage from, find different shelter from, a seafaring metaphor (the aorist infinitive is used to express purpose).

88

EURIPIDES

Medea asks the Chorus to help her as she works out how to take vengeance. The Chorus accept that Jason has acted unjustly and swear to keep silent. They see Creon arriving to enforce his proclamation banishing Medea. τοσοῦτον οὖν σου τυγχάνειν βουλήσομαι, ἤν μοι πόρος τις μηχανή τ᾽ ἐξευρεθῇ πόσιν δίκην τῶνδ᾽ ἀντιτείσασθαι κακῶν τὸν δόντα τ᾽ αὐτῷ θυγατέρ᾽ ἥ τ᾽ ἐγήματο, σιγᾶν. γυνὴ γὰρ τἄλλα μὲν φόβου πλέα κακή τ᾽ ἐς ἀλκὴν καὶ σίδηρον εἰσορᾶν· ὅταν δ᾽ ἐς εὐνὴν ἠδικημένη κυρῇ, οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλη φρὴν μιαιφονωτέρα. Chorus δράσω τάδ᾽· ἐνδίκως γὰρ ἐκτείσῃ πόσιν, Μήδεια. πενθεῖν δ᾽ οὔ σε θαυμάζω τύχας.

30

ὁρῶ δὲ καὶ Κρέοντα, τῆσδ᾽ ἄνακτα γῆς, στείχοντα, καινῶν ἄγγελον βουλευμάτων. Creon σὲ τὴν σκυθρωπὸν καὶ πόσει θυμουμένην, Μήδει᾽, ἀνεῖπον τῆσδε γῆς ἔξω περᾶν φυγάδα, λαβοῦσαν δισσὰ σὺν σαυτῇ τέκνα, καὶ μή τι μέλλειν· ὡς ἐγὼ βραβεὺς λόγου τοῦδ᾽ εἰμί, κοὐκ ἄπειμι πρὸς δόμους πάλιν πρὶν ἄν σε γαίας τερμόνων ἔξω βάλω.

40

35

45

Citizenship A Greek of Euripides’ time would see his primary identity as being a citizen of his πόλις. As a foreigner and a woman, Medea has no rights to citizenship of Corinth on her own account; her rights come through Jason and the will of the King, Creon.

The silence of the Chorus In Greek tragedies the Chorus remain present on stage throughout the play. Euripides makes Medea involve the Chorus to prevent her plans being revealed, but this will also implicate them in her acts of revenge – they are no longer innocent bystanders but complicit.

Q.

What help does Medea request of the Chorus in lines 30–34?

Q.

What do you think of the stereotypical picture of women in lines 34–7? Do you think Medea is manipulating the chorus or speaking frankly?

Q.

How is Creon characterized in lines 40–7? What costume might he wear in a modern production – a suit, a uniform or something less formal?

EURIPIDES

89

GCSE vocabulary: ἄγγελος, ἄλλος, βάλλω, ἐάν, ἔλαβον (λαμβάνω), θαυμάζω, μέλλω, ὁράω, οὖν, τοσοῦτος, τύχη, φόβος.

30

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

τοσοῦτον – ‘this much’ (we don’t discover what Medea is asking of the Chorus until we get to line 34); τυγχάνω – obtain, get x (acc.) from y (gen.); βουλήσομαι – ‘I would like’ (the future tense is tentative). ἤν + subjunctive = ἐάν; πόρος ὁ (> πορεύομαι) – way; μηχανή ἡ (< mechanics) – means; ἐξευρίσκω – find out (here aorist passive subjunctive). πόσις – see l.4; δίκην ἀντιτίνομαι – exact justice from someone (acc.) for something (gen.). τὸν δόντα – ‘the one who gave’, i.e., Creon (aorist participle from δίδωμι); αὐτῷ – ‘to him’, i.e., Jason; γαμέομαι – get married (used of the woman). σιγᾶν – ‘keep quiet’, explaining τοσοῦτον (l.30); τἄλλα = τὰ ἄλλα – ‘in other respects’; πλέως -α -ων + gen. – full of. κακός -ή -όν – cowardly; ἐς + acc. – ‘with regard to’, ‘when it comes to’; ἀλκή ἡ – strength, combat; σίδηρος ὁ – iron, sword; εἰσορᾶν – look on. ὅταν + subjunctive – when, whenever; ἐς + acc. – see l.35; εὐνή ἡ – bed, marriage-bed; ἠδικημένη – ‘wronged’; κυρέω + participle – happen to be. φρήν φρενός ἡ – mind, heart; μιαιφόνος -ον – murderous. δράω future δράσω – do (the Chorus leader speaks in the first-person singular, on behalf of the Chorus); ἐνδίκως (> δίκαιος) – rightly, with justice; ἐκτίνομαι future ἐκτείσομαι – take vengeance on; πόσις -ιος ὁ – husband. πενθέω – lament. καί – does not need to be translated, but marks a new point – the arrival of Creon; ἄναξ -ακτος ὁ – leader, ruler. στείχω – come, go, walk, march; καινός -ή -όν – new; ἄγγελος ὁ – ‘bearing news’ (a noun in apposition to Κρέοντα); βούλευμα -ατος τό – decision. σκυθρωπός -όν – frowning, scowling; θυμόομαι + dat. – be furious with. ἀνεῖπον – ‘I publicly tell’ indirect command + acc. (σέ in the previous line) + infinitive (περᾶν); ἔξω + gen. – outside (< exoskeleton); περάω – pass, go. φυγάς -άδος ὁ/ἡ (> φεύγω) – fugitive, exile (accusative, in apposition to σέ); δισσός -ή -όν – two; σύν + dat. – with; σαυτῇ = σοί; τέκνον τό – child. μέλλω – delay; τι – ‘at all’, ‘in any way’; βραβεύς -έως ὁ – judge, authority, arbiter; λόγος ὁ – word, ‘decree’. κοὐκ = καὶ οὐκ; ἄπειμι – future of ἀπέρχομαι; δόμοι οἱ – house, home; πάλιν (< palindrome) – back. πρίν + subjunctive + ἄν – until; γαῖα -ας ἡ = γῆ; ἔξω + gen. – outside; τέρμων -ονος ὁ – boundary.

90

EURIPIDES

Medea asks the reason for her exile. Creon explains that he fears her reaction to Jason’s new marriage, has heard her threats and has decided to take preventative action. Medea αἰαῖ· πανώλης ἡ τάλαιν᾽ ἀπόλλυμαι· ἐχθροὶ γὰρ ἐξιᾶσι πάντα δὴ κάλων, κοὐκ ἔστιν ἄτης εὐπρόσοιστος ἔκβασις. ἐρήσομαι δὲ καὶ κακῶς πάσχουσ᾽ ὅμως· τίνος μ᾽ ἕκατι γῆς ἀποστέλλεις, Κρέον; Creon δέδοικά σ᾽ (οὐδὲν δεῖ παραμπίσχειν λόγους) μή μοί τι δράσῃς παῖδ᾽ ἀνήκεστον κακόν. συμβάλλεται δὲ πολλὰ τοῦδε δείγματα· σοφὴ πέφυκας καὶ κακῶν πολλῶν ἴδρις, λυπῇ δὲ λέκτρων ἀνδρὸς ἐστερημένη. κλύω δ᾽ ἀπειλεῖν σ᾽, ὡς ἀπαγγέλλουσί μοι, τὸν δόντα καὶ γήμαντα καὶ γαμουμένην δράσειν τι. ταῦτ᾽ οὖν πρὶν παθεῖν φυλάξομαι. κρεῖσσον δέ μοι νῦν πρός σ᾽ ἀπεχθέσθαι, γύναι, ἢ μαλθακισθένθ᾽ ὕστερον μεταστένειν.

50

55

60

Nautical imagery Athens was a great naval power in the fifth century and many, if not most, citizens and visiting allies would have experienced rowing on triremes (battle ships) or working on fishing or trading vessels. Medea herself had travelled on the Argo from the distant coast of the Black Sea. Seafaring imagery is common in Greek tragedy. Euripides has Medea use the imagery of the crew unfurling the sails for maximum power (ἐξιᾶσι πάντα δὴ κάλων l.49) and of finding a safe place to disembark (εὐπρόσοιστος ἔκβασις l.50).

Medea’s reputation Medea has many qualities that distinguish her from other women and pose a threat. She is a barbarian (non-Greek), she has identified enemies (ἐχθροί), she is clever (σοφή) and is reputed to be a sorceress. (κακῶν πολλῶν ἴδρις). These qualities, demonstrated by her escape from Colchis and murder of Pelias, make her frightening. The fact that her husband has left her makes this unusual woman dangerous in the eyes of the Athenian audience.

Q.

What impression do lines 48–52 give of Medea’s character and stage presence? What is the effect of her use of nautical imagery in lines 49–50? Does Medea’s tone change in line 52?

Q.

Does Creon give good reasons for fearing Medea? Is his information about Medea accurate? Is he right to banish her?

EURIPIDES

91

GCSE vocabulary: ἀνήρ, γῆ, δεῖ, ἔπαθον (πάσχω), ἐχθρός, ἤ, λόγος, νῦν, οὐδέν, παῖς, πολύς πολλή πολύ, σοφός.

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

60

61 62

αἰαῖ – oh! ah! (cry of grief or astonishment); πανώλης -ες – utterly ruined; τάλαινα feminine form of τάλας – wretched, sad; ἀπόλλυμαι – be destroyed. ἐξιᾶσι – ‘they are letting out’; κάλως ὁ acc. κάλων – rope, a seafaring metaphor. ἄτη ἡ – ruin; εὐπρόσοιστος -ον – accessible, easy; ἔκβασις -εως ἡ – way out

from, landing-place. ἔρομαι future ἐρήσομαι – ask; καί + participle = καίπερ; ὅμως – nevertheless. τίνος ἕκατι – ‘for what reason’; μ᾽ = με accusative; ἀποστέλλω + gen. – send away (from). δέδοικα σέ . . . μή (l.54) + subjunctive – ‘I am afraid that you . . .’; οὐδὲν δεῖ – ‘there is no need’; παραμπίσχω – hide, cloak, conceal. μοί – ‘my’ [child]; δράω – do X (acc.) to Y (acc.); ἀνήκεστος -ον – fatal, irreparable. συμβάλλομαι + gen. – contribute to, come together with; τοῦδε – refers to Creon’s fear; δείγμα -ατος τό (< paradigm) – evidence, indication. πέφυκας – ‘you are’; ἴδρις -ριος + gen. – skilled in. λυπέομαι – feel pain, be hurt; λέκτρα τά – bed; ἐστερημένη + gen. – ‘deprived of’ (perfect passive participle of στερέω). κλύω – hear (followed by the accusative σ᾽ = σέ and infinitive); ἀπειλέω – threaten to + future infinitive (δράσειν τι in l.60); ἀπαγγέλλω – report. τὸν δόντα – ‘the one who gave her’ referring to Creon (as at line 33); γαμέω/ γαμέομαι – marry; τὸν γήμαντα aorist active participle – ‘the man who married’ (Jason); τὴν γαμουμένην – ‘the woman/girl he married’ (Glauce). δράω – do something (acc.) to someone (acc.), i.e., the three people listed in the previous line; πρίν + infinitive – before; φυλάσσομαι – be on one’s guard against, take precautions against. κρεῖσσον understand ἐστί – ‘it is better’; πρός σε – ‘by you’; ἀπεχθάνομαι – be hated, incur enmity; γύναι – vocative singular of γυνή. μαλθακισθέντ’ – ‘having softened’, acc. singular participle referring to Creon; ὕστερον – later, after contrasting with νῦν in l.61; μεταστένω – lament, regret.

92

EURIPIDES

In lines 292–357 of the play, Medea pleads with Creon to let her stay in Corinth as she has nowhere else to go. Creon does not trust her and insists she leave immediately. Medea then asks for one more day so she can make arrangements for her children. Despite reservations (‘I see I am making a mistake’ line 350), Creon grants her request and allows her one day. After the Chorus sympathizes with Medea, she explains how she has used her cleverness to deceive Creon and that a single day will be enough time for her to wreak her revenge. Chorus φεῦ φεῦ, μελέα τῶν σῶν ἀχέων, δύστηνε γύναι, ποῖ ποτε τρέψῃ; τίνα πρὸς ξενίαν ἢ δόμον ἢ χθόνα σωτῆρα κακῶν ἐξευρήσεις; ὡς εἰς ἄπορόν σε κλύδωνα θεός, Μήδεια, κακῶν ἐπόρευσεν. Medea κακῶς πέπρακται πανταχῇ· τίς ἀντερεῖ; ἀλλ᾽ οὔτι ταύτῃ ταῦτα, μὴ δοκεῖτέ πω. ἔτ᾽ εἴσ᾽ ἀγῶνες τοῖς νεωστὶ νυμφίοις καὶ τοῖσι κηδεύσασιν οὐ σμικροὶ πόνοι. δοκεῖς γὰρ ἄν με τόνδε θωπεῦσαί ποτε εἰ μή τι κερδαίνουσαν ἢ τεχνωμένην; οὐδ᾽ ἂν προσεῖπον οὐδ᾽ ἂν ἡψάμην χεροῖν. ὁ δ᾽ ἐς τοσοῦτον μωρίας ἀφίκετο ὥστ᾽, ἐξὸν αὐτῷ τἄμ᾽ ἑλεῖν βουλεύματα γῆς ἐκβαλόντι, τήνδ᾽ ἐφῆκεν ἡμέραν μεῖναί μ᾽, ἐν ᾗ τρεῖς τῶν ἐμῶν ἐχθρῶν νεκροὺς θήσω, πατέρα τε καὶ κόρην πόσιν τ᾽ ἐμόν.

65

70

75

Chorus Lines 63–7 are in a different metre (anapaests) and would have been sung by the whole Chorus together, not spoken as at 38–41. By sympathizing with characters and offering sensible advice, the Chorus can influence audience response.

Supplication Greek plays don’t have stage directions, but sometimes we can infer movement from the actors’ lines. Medea reflects on how she grovelled and touched Creon ‘with both hands’ (lines 72–4). In the ancient Greek world this represented a ritual act of supplication. Requesting help from a more powerful person by grasping the knees or beard imposed an obligation on the one supplicated to grant the request, under the protection of Zeus in his role as god of suppliants.

Q.

What view of Medea and her situation do the Chorus express in lines 63–7? Are they naïve, or reasonable?

Q.

How does Medea show her contempt for Creon in lines 70–9?

EURIPIDES

93

GCSE vocabulary: ἀγών, ἀφικόμην (ἀφικνέομαι),γῆ, γύνη, ἔμεινα (μένω), ἔξεστι, ἐχθρός, ἡμέρα, θεός, νεκρός, τοσοῦτος, χείρ, ὥστε.

63 64 65 66

φεῦ – ah!, alas!; μέλεος -α -ον + genitive – wretched in; ἄχος -ους τό – pain; δύστηνος -ον – unfortunate, poor. ποῖ ποτε; – ‘where on earth’; τρέψῃ future of τρέπομαι – turn; πρός + acc. – to, ‘in’; ξενία ἡ (> ξένος) – hospitality, friendship. δόμος ὁ – house, home; χθών -ονός ἡ – land; σωτήρ -ῆρος ὁ – saviour, ‘salvation from’ + genitive; ἐξευρήσω future of ἐξευρίσκω – find. ὡς – how! exclamation; ἄπορός -όν – impossible; κλύδων -ωνος ὁ – wave,

storm. 67 68 69

70 71

72 73 74 75 76

77

78 79

πορεύω – carry, convey (σε is the object of the verb). πέπρακται – it has been done, ‘things have turned out’; πανταχῇ – in every way; ἀντερεῖ future of ἀντιλέγω – deny. οὔτι – not at all; ταύτῃ – ‘in this way’; ταῦτα referring to the bad situation, is the subject of an implied verb – ‘things will turn out’; δοκέω – think, expect imperative plural; πω – yet, indeed. ἔτ’= ἔτι; εἴσ᾽ = εἴσι from εἰμί, ‘there are’; νεωστί (> νέος) – recently, newly; νυμφίοι οἱ – wedded pair, bridal pair. κηδεύω – arrange a marriage, τοῖς κηδεύσασιν – ‘for those who made the marriage’ (meaning Creon); σμικρός -ά -όν = μικρός; πόνος ὁ – task, trouble

(Medea uses understatement (litotes): ‘not small’ = ‘great’). δοκεῖς ἄν με + aorist infinitive – ‘do you think I would have . . .’; τόνδε – ‘this man’, i.e., Creon; θωπεύω – flatter; ποτε – ever. εἰ μή – unless, ‘if I were not . . .’; κερδαίνω – profit, gain an advantage; τεχνάομαι – scheme, plot (the two participles agree with με l.72). οὐδ’ ἄν – ‘nor would . . .’; προσεῖπον – speak to; ἅπτομαι – touch; χεροῖν dative dual – ‘with my two hands’ (as an act of supplication). ὁ δέ – refers to Creon; ἐς = εἰς; τοσοῦτον – ‘such a level’; μωρία ἡ (< moronic) – foolishness, stupidity. ὥστε + indicative – ‘that he actually . . .’; ἐξόν – accusative absolute of ἔξεστι, ‘when it was possible’; αὐτῷ – refers to Creon; τἄμ᾽ = τὰ ἐμά; αἱρέω – take away, defeat; βουλεύμα -ατος τό (> βουλή) – plan. ἐκβάλλω + gen. – throw someone (acc.) out from (gen.), banish (the aorist participle agrees with αὐτῷ, i.e., Creon; supply accusative με); ἐφῆκεν – ‘he allowed’, ‘he let’. ἐν ᾗ – from ὅς ἥ ὅ referring back to ἡμέραν l.77. θήσω – ‘I will make’ someone (acc.) something (acc.); κόρη ἡ – girl, i.e., Glauce.

94

EURIPIDES

Medea debates the best method of murder, but then begins to wonder what will happen to her after she has exacted her revenge. πολλὰς δ᾽ ἔχουσα θανασίμους αὐτοῖς ὁδούς, οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ὁποίᾳ πρῶτον ἐγχειρῶ, φίλαι· πότερον ὑφάψω δῶμα νυμφικὸν πυρί, ἢ θηκτὸν ὤσω φάσγανον δι᾽ ἥπατος, σιγῇ δόμους ἐσβᾶσ᾽, ἵν᾽ ἔστρωται λέχος. ἀλλ᾽ ἕν τί μοι πρόσαντες· εἰ ληφθήσομαι δόμους ὑπερβαίνουσα καὶ τεχνωμένη, θανοῦσα θήσω τοῖς ἐμοῖς ἐχθροῖς γέλων. κράτιστα τὴν εὐθεῖαν, ᾗ πεφύκαμεν σοφοὶ μάλιστα, φαρμάκοις αὐτοὺς ἑλεῖν. εἶἑν· καὶ δὴ τεθνᾶσι· τίς με δέξεται πόλις; τίς γῆν ἄσυλον καὶ δόμους ἐχεγγύους ξένος παρασχὼν ῥύσεται τοὐμὸν δέμας; οὐκ ἔστι. μείνασ᾽ οὖν ἔτι σμικρὸν χρόνον, ἢν μέν τις ἡμῖν πύργος ἀσφαλὴς φανῇ, δόλῳ μέτειμι τόνδε καὶ σιγῇ φόνον·

80

85

90

95

Soliloquy Medea’s long speech (lines 68–113) gives the audience, as well as the Chorus, an insight into the central character’s thoughts. Far from being impulsive, Medea lays her plans rationally and with care, considering her options and showing a capacity for deceit and a degree of patience. We also see her reveal the supreme importance of not being laughed at by her enemies, should she die unavenged. In this, and in her use of violence, she is more akin to a male Homeric hero, valuing esteem (τιμή) and reputation (κλέος) above all.

Q.

What are the many paths to death Medea considers for her enemies in lines 80–9? What details in the Greek suggest she relishes the prospect of revenge? What stops her pursuing these paths (lines 85–7 and 90–2)?

Q.

What does Medea hope she might gain by waiting a short time?

EURIPIDES

95

GCSE vocabulary: ἀσφαλής, δέχομαι, ἐχθρός, ὁδός, οἶδα, πόλις, πολύς πολλή πολύ, πρῶτον, πῦρ, φαίνομαι, φίλη, χρόνος.

80 81

82

83

84

85 86 87 88

89

90 91 92 93 94 95

θανάσιμος -ον (> θάνατος) – deadly, fatal; ὁδός ἡ – path, way, ‘method’; αὐτοῖς refers back to those mentioned in line 79. οἶδ᾽ = οἶδα; ὁποῖος -α -ον (> ποῖος) – what sort of, which kind of (supply ὁδῷ); ἐγχειρέω + dat. – turn one’s hand to, attempt (a deliberative subjunctive rather than an indicative). πότερον . . . ἤ . . . – whether . . . or (indirect question after οὐκ οἶδα l.81); ὑφάπτω – ‘I should set alight’ (deliberative subjunctive); δῶμα -ατος τό – house; νυμφικός -ή -όν – bridal. θηκτός -ή -όν – sharpened; ὠθέω – push, thrust (another deliberative subjunctive); φάσγανον τό – sword, dagger; δι’ = δια + gen.; ἥπαρ -ατος τό – liver. σιγῇ – in silence, silently; δόμος ὁ – house; ἐσβᾶσα – aorist participle of εἰσβαίνω; ἵνα – where; ἔστρωται – ‘is spread’, ‘has been made’; λέχος -ους τό – marriage-bed. ἕν τί – ‘one thing’ (supply the verb ἐστί); προσάντης -ες + dat. – against; ληφθήσομαι – future passive of λαμβάνω, translate ‘if I am caught’. ὑπερβαίνω – enter; τεχνάομαι – plot, scheme. θανοῦσα feminine aorist participle of θνῄσκω = ἀποθνῄσκω; θήσω + acc. + dat. – I will cause X in Y; γέλως ὁ acc. γέλων – laughter. κράτιστα (adv) – best, supply ἐστί + infinitive (ἑλεῖν l.89); τὴν εὐθεῖαν (supply ὁδόν) – ‘by direct means’; ᾗ – dative singular of ὅς ἥ ὅ ‘in which’; πεφύκαμεν – ‘I am’ literally ‘we are by nature’ (this verb can take masculine forms of adjectives even if the subject is feminine). φάρμακον ὁ (< pharmaceutical) – potion, drug, poison; ἑλεῖν aorist infinitive of αἱρέω – take, ‘defeat’ (see l.76). εἶἑν – so then, very well. As this is outside the regular line rhythm, it has dramatic impact. καὶ δή – ‘now suppose’; τεθνᾶσι – ‘they are dead’. ἄσυλος -ον (< asylum) – safe; δόμος ὁ – house; ἐχέγγυος -ον – secure; γῆν and δόμους are the object of παρασχών in l.92. παρασχών – aorist participle of παρέχω; ῥύομαι – protect, keep safe; τοὐμόν = τὸ ἐμόν; δέμας τό – body, ‘person’. οὐκ ἔστι – ‘there is no one’; μείνασα – feminine aorist participle of μένω; ἔτι – ‘even’; σμικρός = μικρός. ἤν (= ἐάν) τις + subjunctive – ‘if some . . .’; πύργος ὁ – tower, fortress; φανῇ aorist subjunctive of φαίνομαι. δόλος ὁ – trick, deceit; μέτειμι future of μετέρχομαι + acc. – pursue, carry out, proceed with; σιγῇ – see l.84; φόνος ὁ (> φονεύω) – murder.

96

EURIPIDES

Medea steels herself to kill her enemies, reminding herself of her skills in magic. ἢν δ᾽ ἐξελαύνῃ ξυμφορά μ᾽ ἀμήχανος, αὐτὴ ξίφος λαβοῦσα, κεἰ μέλλω θανεῖν, κτενῶ σφε, τόλμης δ᾽ εἶμι πρὸς τὸ καρτερόν. οὐ γὰρ μὰ τὴν δέσποιναν ἣν ἐγὼ σέβω μάλιστα πάντων καὶ ξυνεργὸν εἱλόμην, Ἑκάτην, μυχοῖς ναίουσαν ἑστίας ἐμῆς, χαίρων τις αὐτῶν τοὐμὸν ἀλγυνεῖ κέαρ. πικροὺς δ᾽ ἐγώ σφιν καὶ λυγροὺς θήσω γάμους, πικρὸν δὲ κῆδος καὶ φυγὰς ἐμὰς χθονός. ἀλλ᾽ εἶα φείδου μηδὲν ὧν ἐπίστασαι, Μήδεια, βουλεύουσα καὶ τεχνωμένη· ἕρπ᾽ ἐς τὸ δεινόν· νῦν ἀγὼν εὐψυχίας. ὁρᾷς ἃ πάσχεις; οὐ γέλωτα δεῖ σ᾽ ὀφλεῖν τοῖς Σισυφείοις τοῖσδ᾽ Ἰάσονος γάμοις, γεγῶσαν ἐσθλοῦ πατρὸς Ἡλίου τ᾽ ἄπο. ἐπίστασαι δέ· πρὸς δὲ καὶ πεφύκαμεν γυναῖκες, ἐς μὲν ἔσθλ᾽ ἀμηχανώταται, κακῶν δὲ πάντων τέκτονες σοφώταται.

100

105

110

Names and places Ἥλιος ὁ: Helios Helios, the Sun, was Medea’s paternal grandfather. By reminding us that she too comes from a distinguished family, Medea paves the way for the dramatic final scene of the play.

Ἑκάτη ἡ: Hecate Hecate was a goddess of the Underworld who presided over magic and witchcraft. She is more often associated with crossroads than with the hearth in the centre of the home.

Σισύφειος -α -ον: of Sisyphus, Sisyphean, Corinthian Sisyphus is best known for his punishment in the Underworld: he had to push a stone to the top of a hill which immediately rolled back down to the bottom. He was a notorious trickster who tried to cheat death. He was also the mythical founder of Corinth, so ‘Sisyphean’ refers disparagingly to Corinth, with deception at the heart of the reference.

Q.

How powerful and in control does Medea seem in lines 96–113? Do you agree that ‘Medea is magnificent’?

EURIPIDES

97

GCSE vocabulary: ἀπέθανον (ἀποθνῇσκω), ἀποκτείνω, ἔλαβον (λαμβάνω), ἐμός, μέλλω, ξίφος.

96

97 98 99

100 101 102

103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113

ἢν δ’ + subjunctive (= ἐάν δέ) balances ἢν μέν in l.94; ἐξελαύνω – drive out; ξυμφορά ἡ = συμφορά – misfortune, ill-luck; ἀμήχανος -ον – unavoidable,

impossible. κεἰ = καὶ εἰ – even if; θανεῖν = ἀποθανεῖν, aorist infinitive of ἀποθνῄσκω. κτενῶ future of κτείνω = ἀποκτείνω; σφε (acc.) – them; τόλμη ἡ – daring; εἶμι (future of ἔρχομαι) – ‘proceed’; καρτερόν -οῦ τό – ‘violent act’, ‘ultimate act’. οὐ γάρ this negative goes with χαίρων in l.102; μά + acc. – ‘by’, Medea swears an oath but delays naming the goddess (Ἑκάτην) until l.101; δέσποινα ἡ – mistress; ἥν – whom (from ὅς, ἥ, ὅ); σέβω – honour, worship, revere. ξυνεργός -ον – accomplice, partner; εἱλόμην aorist of αἱρέομαι – chose. μυχός ὁ – innermost part (μυχοῖς = ἐν μυχοῖς); ναίω – live, dwell; ἑστία ἡ – hearth, home. (οὐ γάρ see l.99) χαίρων – literally, ‘feeling joy’, an idiom meaning ‘with impunity’, ‘get away with it’; τις αὐτῶν – ‘[not] one of them’; ἀλγυνῶ future of ἀλγύνω – hurt; τοὐμόν = τὸ ἐμόν; κέαρ τό – heart. πικρός -ή -όν – bitter; σφιν (dat.) – for them; λυγρός -ά -όν – painful; θήσω – ‘I will make’; γάμοι οἱ – wedding. κῆδος -ους τό – marriage; φυγή ἡ – banishment, exile (poetic plural); χθών χθoνός ἡ – earth, land (genitive case used to denote separation from). ἀλλ᾽ εἶα – come then! (Medea is addressing herself, l.106); φείδομαι – spare; ὧν = (of the things) which; ἐπίστασαι – ‘you [sg.] know’. βουλεύω – make plans; τεχνάομαι – plot, scheme. ἕρπω – go, proceed; τὸ δεινόν – ‘the terrible act’; ἀγών –ῶνος – test (supply ἐστί); εὐψυχία ἡ – courage, mettle. γέλως, -ωτος ὁ (> γελάω) – laughter; σ’= σε (accusative, after δεῖ); ὀφλεῖν aorist infinitive of ὀφλισκάνω – incur. Σισυφείοι οἱ – ‘Corinthian’ (dative here means ‘from’). γεγῶσαν (perfect participle from γίγνομαι, referring to Medea) – ‘you who are born [from]’; ἐσθλός -ή -όν – noble; Ἡλίου ἄπο = ἀπὸ Ἡλίου. ἐπίστασαι – ‘you [sg.] know’; πρός δὲ καί – in addition; πεφύκαμεν – ‘we are by nature’. ἐς ἔσθλα – ‘when it comes to noble deeds’; ἀμήχανος -ον – powerless, without resources. τέκτων -ονος ὁ/ἡ – worker, craftsman; σοφός -ή -όν – clever, skilful.

98

EURIPIDES

What happens next? We see Jason and Medea arguing. Jason maintains that his marriage to the princess was reasonable and offers to help Medea in exile, using his money and contacts. Medea is unconvinced by his argument and refuses his help. The Chorus sing about the power of love. When Aegeus, King of Athens, happens to pass through Corinth seeking help from the oracle about why he is still childless, Medea manipulates him into offering her a home in Athens; she makes him swear an oath that he will not give her up to anyone. She then reveals her plans to the Chorus: first, she will poison Glauce, then she will kill her children to cause the greatest possible hurt to Jason. On meeting Jason again, Medea disguises her true intentions, saying she was being unreasonable and agreeing to leave Corinth herself, but asking that their sons be allowed to stay. When Jason agrees to talk to Creon about this, Medea insists on sending them with gifts for Jason’s bride – a magnificent dress and a crown for her hair. When the boys return from the palace, Medea considers her terrible plan, her resolution weakening as she looks at them. Finally, she concludes that she cannot allow her enemies to laugh at her or remain unpunished. A messenger arrives to report that, when the princess put on the dress, she died in agony from poison, as did Creon when he tried to save her. The Chorus express horror, but Medea is jubilant and embarks on the next stage of her terrible plan, although it is still unclear whether she can go through with it. After she enters the house, the screams of her children are heard offstage. In the final scene of the play, Jason appears for a third time, to be told of his sons’ murder. Medea appears like a god (deus ex machina), suspended in the air in a winged chariot sent by her grandfather Helios, the Sun god. In her final exchange with Jason, she declares that she will escape to King Aegeus in Athens for the protection he has sworn to give her, refusing Jason’s request to bury his sons.

Final questions 

How consistent a character is Medea in her words and actions? Can we understand her motivation in this play?



How does Medea manipulate Creon in the lines you have read? Does she manipulate other characters in the play?



What is the role of the chorus in this tragedy?



Is this a play where it is easy to say who is right and who is wrong?



Do you think a modern audience or reader responds to Medea in the same way as an ancient audience?



What makes Medea so dramatic and powerful a play?

EURIPIDES

99

Figure 10 Medea escapes from Corinth in the chariot of the sun. In the bottom right corner are the bodies of her two sons with their old tutor in mourning for them. Detail from a mixing vessel from southern Italy, c. 400. Photo: The Cleveland Museum of Art, CC0.

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

A ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν

good

ἀγγέλλω, ἀγγελῶ, ἤγγειλα, ἠγγέλθην

I announce

ἄγγελος, ἀγγέλου, ὁ

messenger

ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς, ἡ

market-place

ἀγρός, ἀγροῦ, ὁ

field, countryside

ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, ἤχθην

I lead, bring

ἀγών, ἀγῶνος, ὁ

contest, trial

ἀδικέω

I do wrong, injure

ἄδικος, ἄδικος, ἄδικον

unjust, wrong

ἀεί

always

Ἀθῆναι, Ἀθηνῶν, αἱ

Athens

Ἀθηναῖοι, Ἀθηναίων, οἱ

the Athenians

Ἀθηναῖος, Ἀθηναῖα, Ἀθηναῖον

Athenian

ἆθλον, ἄθλου, τό

prize, reward

αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον, ᾑρέθην

I take

αἰσθάνομαι, αἰσθήσομαι, ᾐσθόμην

I notice, perceive

αἰσχρός, αἰσχρά, αἰσχρόν

shameful, ugly, disgraceful

αἰτέω

I ask, ask for

αἴτιος, αἰτία, αἴτιον + gen.

responsible for, guilty of

αἰχμάλωτος, αἰχμαλώτου, ὁ

prisoner (of war)

ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα, ἠκούσθην

I hear, listen

ἀληθής, ἀληθής, ἀληθές

true

ἀλλά

but

ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο

other, another

ἄν

[in conditional sentence, makes aorist verb

ἀνά + acc.

up

ἀναγκάζω, ἀναγκάσω, ἠνάγκασα,

I force, compel

mean ‘would have . . .’]

ἠναγκάσθην ἀναχωρέω

I retreat, withdraw

ἀνδρεῖος, ἀνδρεία, ἀνδρεῖον

brave, manly

100

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

ἄνεμος, ἀνέμου, ὁ

wind

ἄνευ + gen.

without

ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ

man, husband

ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου, ὁ

man, person

ἄξιος, ἀξία, ἄξιον + gen.

worthy of, deserving

ἀπό + gen.

from, away from

ἀποθνῄσκω, ἀποθανοῦμαι, ἀπέθανον

I die, am killed

ἀποκρίνομαι, ἀποκρινοῦμαι, ἀπεκρινάμην

I reply, answer

ἀποκτείνω, ἀποκτενῶ, ἀπέκτεινα

I kill

ἆρα;

[introduces a question]

ἄρχή, ἀρχῆς, ἡ

beginning, rule, power, empire

ἄρχω + gen.

I rule

ἄρχομαι + gen.

I begin

ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος, ὁ

ruler, magistrate

ἀσθενής, ἀσθενής, ἀσθενές

weak

ἀσπίς, ἀσπίδος, ἡ

shield

ἀσϕαλής, ἀσϕαλής, ἀσϕαλές

safe

αὖθις

again, in turn

αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό

self, himself, herself, itself (emphatic)

ὁ αὐτός, ἡ αὐτή, τὸ αὐτό

the same

αὐτόν, αὐτήν, αὐτό (acc./gen./dat. only –

him, her, it, them

also plural) ἀϕικνέομαι, ἀϕίξομαι, ἀϕικόμην

I arrive

Β βαίνω, βήσομαι, ἔβην

I go

βάλλω, βαλῶ, ἔβαλον, ἐβλήθην

I throw, fire at, hit (with missile)

βάρβαροι, βαρβάρων, οἱ

foreigners, barbarians, non-Greek

βασιλεύς, βασιλέως, ὁ

king

βία, βίας, ἡ

force, strength

βίβλος, βίβλου, ἡ

book

βίος, βίου, ὁ

life

βλάπτω

I harm, damage

βοάω

I shout

βοή, βοῆς, ἡ

shout

βοηθέω + dat.

I help, come to help

βουλή, βουλῆς, ἡ

plan, a council

βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι, ἐβουλήθην

I wish

βραδύς, βραδεῖα, βραδύ

slow

101

102

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

Γ γάρ

for

γε

at any rate, even, at least

γελάω, γελάσομαι, ἐγέλασα

I laugh

γέρων, γέροντος, ὁ

old man

γῆ, γῆς, ἡ

land, earth

γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην

I become, happen, occur

γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων, ἐγνώσθην

I know, realise, understand

γλῶσσα, γλώσσης, ἡ

tongue, language

γράϕω

I write, draw

γυνή, γυναικός, ἡ

woman, wife

Δ δακρύω

I cry, weep

δέ

but, and

δεῖ, δεήσει, ἐδέησε (with acc.+ infin.)

it is necessary

δεινός, δεινή, δεινόν

terrible, strange, clever

δεῖπνον, δείπνου, τό

dinner, meal

δέκα

ten

δένδρον, δένδρου, τό

tree

δεσπότης, δεσπότου, ὁ

master

δεύτερος, δευτέρα, δεύτερον

second

δέχομαι, δέξομαι, ἐδεξάμην

I receive, welcome

δή

indeed

δῆμος, δήμου, ὁ

people, community

διά + acc.

because of, on account of

διὰ τί; διά + gen. δι’ ὀλίγου

why? through soon

διαϕθείρω, διαϕθερῶ, διέϕθειρα, διεϕθάρην

I destroy, corrupt

(δίδωμι), δώσω, ἔδωκα

I give (future and aorist indicative active and infinitives only)

δίκαιος, δικαία, δίκαιον

just, fair, upright

διδάσκω, διδάξω, ἐδίδαξα, ἐδιδάχθην

I teach, tell

διότι

because

διώκω

I chase, pursue, prosecute

δοκεῖ (μοι), δόξει, ἔδοξε

(I) decide (= it seems good (to me))

δοῦλος, δούλου, ὁ

slave

δοῦναι (cf. δίδωμι)

to give, to have given (aor infin)

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

δύο, δύο, δύο

two

δυστυχής, δυστυχής, δυστυχές

unlucky

δῶρον, δώρου, τό

present, gift

103

Ε ἐάν

if

ἑαυτόν, ἑαυτήν, ἑαυτό

himself, herself, itself, plural themselves

ἐγώ, ἐμοῦ

I, (acc.etc) me

(reflexive) ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα

my I wish, am willing

εἰ

if

εἰδέναι (cf. οἶδα)

to know

εἰδώς, εἰδυῖα, εἰδός (cf. οἶδα)

knowing

εἰμί, ἔσομαι, ἦν (imperfect)

I am

εἶμι (cf. ἔρχομαι)

I shall go

εἰρήνη, εἰρήνης, ἡ

peace

εἰς + acc. εἰς τοσοῦτον

to, into to such an extent

εἷς, μία, ἕν

one

εἰσβάλλω

I throw into, invade

ἐκ or ἐξ + gen.

out of, from

ἕκαστος, ἑκάστη, ἕκαστον

each

ἐκεῖ

there

ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο

that, plural those

ἐκκλησία, ἐκκλησίας, ἡ

assembly, meeting

ἐκϕεύγω

I escape

ἐλεύθερος, ἐλευθέρα, ἐλεύθερον

free

῾Ελλάς, ῾ Ελλάδος, ἡ

Greece

῞Ελλην, ῞Ελληνος, ὁ

a Greek, Greek man

ἐλπίζω, ἐλπιῶ, ἤλπισα

I hope, expect

ἐν + dat.

in, among

ἐνθάδε

here, there

ἐννέα

nine

ἔνοικος, ἐνοίκου, ὁ

inhabitant

ἕξ

six

ἔξεστι(ν) (μοι)

I am allowed, I can (= it is permitted to me/ possible for me)

ἐπεί

when, since

ἔπειτα

then, afterwards

ἔπί + acc.

against, onto, on, at

104

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

ἐπιστολή, ἐπιστολῆς, ἡ

letter

ἕπομαι, ἕψομαι, ἑσπόμην + dat.

I follow

ἑπτά

seven

ἔργον, ἔργου, τό

work, task, deed, action

ἔρχομαι, εἶμι, ἦλθον

I go, come

ἐρωτάω, ἐρωτήσω, ἠρόμην (or ἠρώτησα)

I ask (a question)

ἐσθίω, (ἔδομαι), ἔϕαγον

I eat

ἐσπέρα, ἑσπέρας, ἡ

evening

ἔτι

still, yet

ἑτοῖμος, ἑτοίμη, ἑτοῖμον

ready

ἔτος, ἔτους, τό

year

εὖ

well

εὐθύς

immediately, at once

εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὑρέθην

I find

εὐρύς, εὐρεῖα, εὐρύ

wide, broad

εὐτυχής, εὐτυχής, εὐτυχές

lucky, fortunate

ἔϕη (cf. ϕήμι)

he/she said (with direct speech)

ἐχθρός, ἐχθρά, ἐχθρόν

hostile

ἐχθρός, ἐχθροῦ, ὁ

(personal) enemy

ἔχω (imperfect εἶχον), ἕξω, ἔσχον

I have

ἕως

while, until

Ζ Ζεύς, Διός, ὁ

Zeus

ζητέω

I seek

Η

or, than

ἤ ἤ . . . ἤ ἡγεμών, ἡγεμόνος, ὁ

either . . . or . . . guide, leader

ἤδη

already, by now

ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ

pleasant, sweet

ἡμεῖς, ἡμῶν ἡμέτερος, ἡμετέρα, ἡμέτερον ἡμέρα, ἡμέρας, ἡ

we, (acc.etc) us our day

Θ θάλασσα, θαλάσσης, ἡ

sea

θάνατος, θανάτου, ὁ

death

θάπτω, θάψω, ἔθαψα

I bury

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

θαυμάζω

I am amazed at, admire

θεά, θεᾶς, ἡ

goddess

θεός, θεοῦ, ὁ

god

θυγάτηρ, θυγατρός, ἡ

daughter

θύρα, θύρας, ἡ

door

θύω

I sacrifice

Ι ἰατρός, ἰατροῦ, ὁ

doctor

ἰέναι (cf. εἶμι)

to go

ἱερόν, ἱεροῦ, τό

temple

ἱερός, ἱερά, ἱερόν

sacred, holy

ἵνα + subj or opt

in order that, in order to

ἱππεύς, ἱππέως, ὁ

cavalryman, in plural (the) cavalry

ἵππος, ἵππου, ὁ

horse

ἰσχυρός, ἰσχυρά, ἰσχυρόν

strong

ἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν (cf. εἶμι)

going

Κ καθεύδω

I sleep

καθίζω, καθιῶ, ἐκάθισα

I (make to) sit down

καί

and, also, even, too

καίπερ + participle

although

καίω, καύσω, ἔκαυσα, ἐκαύθην

I burn, set on fire

κακός, κακή, κακόν

bad, wicked, cowardly

καλέω, καλῶ, ἐκάλεσα, ἐκλήθην

I call, summon

καλός, καλή, καλόν

beautiful, handsome, fine

κατά + acc.

according to, by, down, along

κατὰ γῆν

by land

κατὰ θάλασσαν

by sea

κατά + gen.

down, down from

κελεύω

I order

κεϕαλή, κεϕαλῆς, ἡ

head

κίνδυνος, κινδύνου, ὁ

danger

κλέπτω, κλέψω, ἔκλεψα, ἐκλάπην

I steal

κολάζω

I punish

κόπτω, κόψω, ἔκοψα

I cut (down)

κρύπτω

I hide (something)

κρύπτομαι

I hide (myself)

105

106

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

κτάομαι, κτήσομαι, ἐκτησάμην

I obtain, get

κωλύω + infin.

I hinder, prevent (someone from doing)

Λ λάθρᾳ

in secret, secretly

Λακεδαιμόνιοι, Λακεδαιμονίων, οἱ

the Spartans

λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον, ἐλήϕθην

I take, capture

λέγω, ἐρῶ, εἶπον, ἐρρήθην

I say, speak, tell

λείπω, λείψω, ἔλιπον, ἐλείϕθην

I leave (behind)

λίθος, λίθου, ὁ

stone

λιμήν, λιμένος, ὁ

harbour

λόγος, λόγου, ὁ

word, speech, argument, story, account,

λύω

I loose, untie, set free

reason

Μ μάλιστα

most, very much, especially

μᾶλλον

more

μανθάνω, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον

I learn, understand

μάχη, μάχης, ἡ

battle, fight

μάχομαι, μαχοῦμαι, ἐμαχεσάμην

I fight

μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα

big, great

μέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα + fut infin

I intend, am going to, hesitate

. . . μέν . . . δέ

[marks a contrast]

μέντοι

however

μένω, μενῶ, ἔμεινα

I wait, remain

μετά + acc.

after

μετά + gen.

with

μή

not

μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν

no-one, nothing, no

μηδέποτε

never

μήτε . . . μήτε . . .

neither . . . nor . . .

μήτηρ, μητρός, ἡ

mother

μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν

little, small

μισέω

I hate

μόνος, μόνη, μόνον

alone, only

μόνον

only

μῦθος, μύθου, ὁ

story

μῶρος, μώρα, μῶρον

foolish, stupid

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

Ν ναῦς, νεώς, ἡ

ship, warship

ναύτης, ναύτου, ὁ

sailor

ναυτικόν, ναυτικοῦ, τό

fleet

νεανίας, νεανίου, ὁ

young man

νεκρός, νεκροῦ, ὁ

corpse

νέος, νέα, νέον

new, young, recent

νῆσος, νήσου, ἡ

island

νικάω

I win, conquer

νίκη, νίκης, ἡ

victory

νομίζω, νομιῶ, ἐνόμισα

I think, consider, believe

νόμος, νόμου, ὁ

law, custom

νόσος, νόσου, ἡ

disease, illness

νῦν

now

νύξ, νυκτός, ἡ

night

Ξ ξένος, ξένου, ὁ

stranger, foreigner, host, guest, friend

ξίϕος, ξίϕους, τό

sword

Ο ὁ, ἡ, τό

the

ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε

this

ὁδός, ὁδοῦ, ἡ

road, path, way, journey

οἶδα

I know (present, participle and infinitive

οἰκέω

I live (in), inhabit, dwell

only) οἰκία, οἰκίας, ἡ

house, home

οἶνος, οἴνου, ὁ

wine

οἷος τ’ εἰμί

I am able, can

ὀκτώ

eight

ὀλίγος, ὀλίγη, ὀλίγον

little

ὀλίγοι, ὀλίγαι ὀλίγα

few

ὄνομα, ὀνόματος, τό

name

ὅπλα, ὅπλων, τά

weapons, arms, armour

ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον, ὤϕθην

I see

ὀργίζομαι, ὀργιοῦμαι, ὠργίσθην + dat.

I grow angry (with)

ὄρος, ὄρους, τό

mountain, hill

107

108

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

ὅς, ἥ, ὅ

who, which

ὅτι

that

οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ

not

οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν

no-one, nothing, no

οὐδέποτε

never

οὔτε . . . οὔτε

neither . . . nor . . .

οὖν

therefore, and so

οὐρανός, οὐρανοῦ, ὁ

sky, heaven

οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο

this

οὕτω(ς)

so, in this way

Π παῖς, παιδός, ὁ and ἡ

child, son, daughter, boy, girl

πάλαι

long ago, in the past, formerly

παρά + acc.

contrary to, along, to

παρά + gen.

from (a person)

παρασκευάζω

I prepare

παρέχω

I provide, cause, produce

πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν

all, every

πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον

I suffer, experience

πατήρ, πατρός, ὁ

father

παύω

I stop

παύομαι (middle) πείθω πείθομαι, πείσομαι, ἐπιθόμην + dat. πειράομαι, πειράσομαι

I stop, cease from (doing something) I persuade I obey I try

πέμπτος, πέμπτη, πέμπτον

fifth

πέμπω

I send, escort

πέντε

five

περί + acc.

round

περί + gen.

about, concerning

πίνω, πιοῦμαι, ἔπιον

I drink

πίπτω, πεσοῦμαι, ἔπεσον

I fall

πιστεύω + dat.

I trust, believe

πιστός, πιστή, πιστόν

faithful, reliable

πλέω, πλεύσομαι, ἔπλευσα

I sail

πλήν

except

πλοῖον, πλοίου, τό

boat, cargo ship

πλούσιος, πλουσία, πλούσιον

rich

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

ποιέω

I do, make

ποῖος, ποία, ποῖον;

what sort of?

πόλεμος, πολέμου, ὁ

war

πολέμιοι, πολεμίων, οἱ

the enemy

πόλις, πόλεως, ἡ

city, state

πολίτης, πολίτου, ὁ

citizen

πολλάκις

often

πολύς, πολλή, πολύ πολλοί, πολλαί, πολλά

much many

πορεύομαι, πορεύσομαι, ἐπορεύθην

I travel, march

πόσος, πόση, πόσον;

how big? how much?

πόσοι, πόσαι, πόσα; ποταμός, ποταμοῦ, ὁ

how many? river

πότε;

when?

ποῦ;

where?

ποῖ;

to where?

πόθεν;

from where?

πούς, ποδός, ὁ

foot

πράσσω, πράξω, ἔπραξα, ἐπράχθην

I do, fare, manage

πρό + gen.

before, in front of

πρός + acc.

to, towards, against

προσβάλλω + dat.

I attack

πρότερον

before, formerly

πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον

first

πρῶτον πύλη, πύλης, ἡ

at first, first gate

πυνθάνομαι, πεύσομαι, ἐπυθόμην

I learn, ascertain, ask

πῦρ, πυρός, τό

fire

πῶς;

how?

Ρ ῥᾴδιος, ῥᾳδία, ῤᾴδιον

easy

Σ σιγή, σιγῆς, ἡ

silence

σῖτος, σίτου, ὁ

food, corn, bread

σοϕός, σοϕή, σοϕόν

wise, clever

στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ, ὁ

general, commander

στρατιά, στρατιᾶς, ἡ

army

109

110

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου, ὁ σύ σός, σή, σόν

soldier you your

συλλέγω, συλλέξω, συνέλεξα

I collect, assemble

σύμμαχοι, συμμάχων, οἱ

allies

συμϕορά, συμϕορᾶς, ἡ

misfortune, disaster, event

σῴζω, σώσω, ἔσωσα, ἐσώθην

I save, keep, get away safely (passive)

σῶμα, σώματος, τό

body

Τ ταχύς, ταχεῖα, ταχύ

fast, quick

. . . τε . . . καί

both . . . and

τεῖχος, τείχους, τό

wall

τέλος

end (adv. in the end), at last, finally,

τέσσαρες, τέσσαρες, τεσσαρα

four

τέταρτος, τετάρτη, τέταρτον

fourth

τιμάω

I honour, respect

τίμη, τιμῆς, ἡ

honour

τις, τι

(a) certain, someone, something

τίς; τί;

who? what? which?

τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο

such

τόπος, τόπου, ὁ

place

τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο

so great

τοσοῦτοι, τοσαῦται, τοσαῦτα

so many

τότε

then, at that time

τρεῖς, τρεῖς, τρία

three

τρέχω, δραμοῦμαι, ἔδραμον

I run

τρίτος, τρίτη, τρίτον

third

τύχη, τύχης, ἡ

chance, luck, fortune (good or bad)

Υ ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, τό

water

υἱός, υἱοῦ, ὁ

son

ὕλη, ὕλης, ἡ

wood, forest

ὑμεῖς, ὑμῶν ὑμέτερος, ὑμετέρα, ὑμέτερον

you (plural) your

ὑπέρ + gen.

on behalf of

ὑπισχνέομαι, ὑποσχήσομαι, ὑπεσχόμην

I promise

ὕπνος, ὕπνου, ὁ

sleep

OCR GREEK GCSE DEFINED VOCABUL ARY LIST

ὑπό + gen.

by (with the agent of passive verbs)

ὕστερον

later

ὑψηλός, ὑψηλή, ὑψηλόν

high

Φ ϕαίνομαι, ϕανοῦμαι, ἐϕάνην

I seem, appear

ϕέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα, ἠνέχθην

I carry, bear, endure

ϕεύγω, ϕεύξομαι, ἔϕυγον

I run away, flee, am accused, am banished

ϕημί, ϕήσω, ἔϕην

I say

ϕιλέω

I love, like, am accustomed

ϕίλη, ϕίλης, ἡ

(female) friend

ϕίλος, ϕίλου, ὁ

(male) friend

ϕοβέομαι, ϕοβήσομαι, ἐϕοβήθην

I am afraid, fear

ϕόβος, ϕόβου, ὁ

fear

ϕονεύω

I murder, kill

ϕύλαξ, ϕύλακος, ὁ

guard

ϕυλάσσω

I guard

ϕωνή, ϕωνῆς, ἡ

voice

Χ χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν

difficult, dangerous, harsh

χειμών, χειμῶνος, ὁ

storm, winter

χείρ, χειρός, ἡ

hand

χράομαι, χρήσομαι, ἐχρησάμην + dat.

I use, treat

χρή (with acc.+ infin.)

it is necessary

χρήματα, χρημάτων, τά

money, goods, property

χρήσιμος, χρησίμη, χρήσιμον

useful

χρόνος, χρόνου, ὁ

time

χρυσός, χρυσοῦ, ὁ

gold

χώρα, χώρας, ἡ

country, land

Ω ὦ

o . . . (addressing someone)

ὡς

when, as, because

ὡς τάχιστα ὥστε

as quickly (etc.) as possible that, so that, with the result that

111

112