My Revision Notes: OCR GCSE (9-1) Psychology [Paperback ed.] 1510423222, 9781510423220

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The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material. Acknowledgements Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Park Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SE. Telephone: (44) 01235 827827. Fax: (44) 01235 400401. Email [email protected] Lines are open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. You can also order through our website: www.hoddereducation.co.uk ISBN: 978 1 5104 2322 0 eISBN: 978 1 5104 2309 1 © Mark Billingham 2018 First published in 2018 by Hodder Education, An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House 50 Victoria Embankment London EC4Y 0DZ www.hoddereducation.co.uk Impression number 10 Year 2022

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All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, www.cla.co.uk Cover photo © iStock/Getty images/Thinkstock Illustrations by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India Printed in Spain A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

Get the most from this book Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your understanding. These Revision Notes will help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it – personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking off each section as you revise.

Track your progress Use the revision planner on page 4 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Make a note when you have: • revised and understood a topic • tested yourself • practised the exam questions and gone online to check your answers and complete the quick quizzes. You can also keep track of your revision by noting each topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic.

Features to help you succeed Exam tips Expert tips are given throughout the book to help you polish your exam technique in order to maximise your chances in the exam.

Typical mistakes

The author identifies the typical mistakes candidates make and explains how you can avoid them.

Now test yourself These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first step in testing your learning. Answers are at the back of the book.

Definitions and key words Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided where they first appear. Key words from the specification are highlighted in bold throughout the book.

Revision activities These activities will help you to understand each topic in an interactive way.

Debates Debates are highlighted to help you assess arguments and use evidence appropriately.

Exam practice Practice exam questions are provided for each topic. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills. Answers are at the back of the book.

Summaries The summaries provide a quick-check bullet list for each topic.

Online Go online to try out the extra quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

My revision planner 1 Criminal psychology Key concepts Explanations of why criminal and anti-social behaviour occurs Application – the changing nature of punishment 2 Development Key concepts Explanations of children’s development Application – the changing role of education 3 Psychological problems Key concepts Explanations of psychological problems Application – the development of treatments 4 Social influence Key concepts Explanations of social influence Application – changing attitudes 5 Memory Key concepts Explanations of memory Application – techniques used for recall 6 Sleep and dreaming Key concepts Explanations of the nature of dreaming Application – development of treatments for insomnia

7 Research methods Planning research Doing research Analysing research Now test yourself answers Exam practice answers Glossary

Countdown to my exams 6–8 weeks to go • Start by looking at the specification — make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on page 4 to familiarise yourself with the topics. • Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the specification. The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics. • Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation. Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable. • Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes, divided by breaks. These Revision Notes organise the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier.

2–6 weeks to go • Read through the relevant sections of this book and refer to the exam tips, exam summaries, typical mistakes and key terms. Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them. Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at them again in detail. • Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the book. Look up the answers at the back of the book. • Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and ask your teacher to go over these in class. • Look at past papers. They are one of the best ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write or prepare planned answers to the exam practice questions provided in this book. Check your answers

at the back of the book and try out the extra quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads • Use the revision activities to try out different revision methods. For example, you can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards. • Track your progress using the revision planner and give yourself a reward when you have achieved your target.

One week to go • Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an entire past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the mark scheme. • Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any areas of difficulty by talking them over with a friend or getting help from your teacher. • Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at preparing people for examinations.

The day before the examination • Flick through these Revision Notes for useful reminders, for example the exam tips, exam summaries, typical mistakes and key terms. • Check the time and place of your examination. • Make sure you have everything you need — extra pens and pencils, tissues, bottled water. • Allow some time to relax and have an early night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the examinations.

My exams GCSE Psychology Paper 1 Date: ………………………………………………………………. Time: ………………………………………………………………

Location: ………………………………………………………… GCSE Psychology Paper 2 Date: ………………………………………………………………. Time: ……………………………………………………………… Location: …………………………………………………………

1 Criminal psychology 1.1 Key concepts Different types of crime Not all crimes are the same, and different crimes involve different kinds of behaviour. From a psychologist’s point of view, there may be different reasons for committing different types of crime. Table 1.1 Different types of crime Type of crime Definition Acquisitive Taking money or belongings without the consent/knowledge of the owners

Examples Theft Fraud Anti-social Causing harassment or distress to people Drunk and who are not part of your family disorderly Graffiti DrugTrading or using illegal substances Supplying related drugs Buying drugs Sexual Making someone else submit to a sexual Rape act against their consent Use of child pornography Violent Causing physical harm or even death to Physical someone else assault Murder

Criminal behaviour as a social construct Crimes are any acts against the law. Although this definition is straightforward, you need to remember that laws differ depending on the society. This is why crime is seen as a social construct.

Exam tip You might be able to think of other types of crimes than those that are listed but these are the only ones you need to know about for the exam because they are the only ones on the specification. For example, in some societies it is acceptable to be married to more than one person at a time, so this is not against the law. In British society, however, this is a crime known as bigamy. Similarly, laws change over time as society changes. Nowadays there are no laws against homosexuality in the UK. However, about 50 years ago, it was illegal to engage in gay sex. How does a society decide on what is legal and illegal? It is often based on what is normal and acceptable. When behaviours deviate from norms they can be defined as crime. For example, most people do not think it is right to steal from someone else so this is a well established crime. As fewer and fewer British people smoke, there are more laws in the UK to prevent or limit smoking. To conclude, culture has a role in defining criminal and anti-social behaviour. Criminal and anti-social behaviour are not absolute behaviours – they are determined by what is acceptable at any point in time by the people who make up the culture. This is why communities have the power to change laws – for example, through protests, campaigns or by voting different people into power.

How crime is measured If we accept that a crime is any act against whatever is law at the time then this is something we can try to measure.

Official statistics One way of measuring crime is to use official statistics. These are the statistics produced by the Government’s Home Office which are based on crimes recorded by the police force. Of course, the police can only record those crimes that are either detected or reported. Even though this means some crimes are missed, it can still show us which crimes are increasing or decreasing in number and what the most common crimes are.

Self-report Another way of measuring crime is through self-report surveys. This allows researchers to find out about crimes that are not reported or detected. One type of survey is a victim survey. These are questionnaires (usually anonymous) given to the general public to find out what crimes have been committed against them, whether the crimes have been officially recorded or not. Another type of survey is an offender survey. These are questionnaires (again anonymous) given to the general public or to a more specific group of known offenders. Again, this is to find out about crimes that may or may not be on record.

Typical mistake Students often mix up defining crime and measuring crime. Remember, defining crime is about deciding what crime is, whereas measuring crime is about how much crime is happening.

Now test yourself 1 2 3 4

What are the different types of crime listed on the specification? How is criminal behaviour a social construct? What is meant by ‘deviation from norms’ in relation to crime? What are some of the ways that crime can be measured?

1.2 Explanations of why criminal and anti-social behaviour occurs The Social Learning Theory of criminality This theory states that criminal and anti-social behaviours are learned behaviours. People are not born criminals but become criminals depending on their experiences. So, how does this learning happen? According to Social Learning Theory, we go through a process of identification with role models. These are people whom we look up to and admire. By identifying with them, we have decided that we want to be like them. Role models are often people like parents, peers and media figures. We pay particular attention to what our role models do. Not only do we observe their behaviour, but we also try to imitate it. In other words, we learn new behaviours through copying them. We are more likely to want to imitate behaviours that we see have positive outcomes. When we observe a behaviour being rewarded, we go through a process of vicarious reinforcement. We are not rewarded directly, but want to imitate the role model’s behaviour because we think it will reward us too. If a behaviour is copied and then followed by a reward, this is an example of direct reinforcement. It is likely we will want to keep repeating the behaviour to be rewarded again and again. This is how a behaviour becomes established. There is a point at which the behaviour is so well learned that it becomes a part of us and is fully ingrained – this is known as internalisation. At this point the behaviour happens regardless of the consequences, whether they are good or bad. If we apply Social Learning Theory to criminal behaviour and anti-social behaviour, we can see that these behaviours are learned from role models who are already criminals. People may be motivated to copy criminal

behaviour because they see it being rewarded by money or power, for example. This is vicarious reinforcement. If people receive similar rewards when they commit crimes or anti-social acts, then they are being directly reinforced and have a reason for continuing with their crimes. Eventually, the imitated criminal behaviour may become internalised so that a person is an established criminal.

Now test yourself 1 Who are typical role models for criminal behaviour? 2 Can you explain the difference between vicarious reinforcement and direct reinforcement? 3 How does criminal behaviour become internalised?

Key criticism • The theory focuses too much on nurture and ignores the role of nature. In other words, it believes criminal behaviour can be learned and therefore unlearned. It might, however, be something that is more innate.

Debate The nature vs nurture debate is all about whether people are born with a certain trait or behaviour (nature) or whether it is a result of their experiences (nurture).

Other criticisms • If criminal behaviour is imitated from others, from where did it originate in the first place? • Attempts to control criminal behaviour – such as age restrictions on films and video games – have not been that successful in stopping the rise of crime.

Social learning research study – Cooper & Mackie (1986): study into

video games and aggression in children How the study was carried out • The researchers aimed to see whether video games had more effect on violent behaviour than TV did, on the basis that video games are more active. They therefore compared the effects on people who played the game and those who just watched others playing. They also wanted to see if there were any gender differences in the effects on violent behaviour. • Their hypothesis was that playing aggressive video games would have more effect on violent behaviour compared to playing other games. • The sample was 84 nine- to eleven-year-olds from New Jersey in the USA. • The researchers carried out a laboratory experiment. • The independent variable was the type of game played: a violent video game, a non-violent video game or a paper-and-pen maze game. Pairs of children were allocated to one of these games – so it was an independent measures design. In each pair, one child played while the other child watched. They swapped around in a second trial so all children ended up playing the game. • The dependent variable was aggression levels displayed by the children after playing the game. This was measured in two ways. One was by covertly observing how long children played with certain types of toys from a choice of an aggressive toy, an active toy, a skill toy and a quiet toy. The other was through a test activity, where children showed how much they would punish an imaginary child who had been naughty – measured by how long they pressed a buzzer for. This was a measure of interpersonal aggression. • At the end of the procedure, children completed a questionnaire on their experience of playing the game they had been allocated.

Revision activity As you read through this study, highlight all of the key words that you already know from doing research methods. Where they are features that have strengths and weaknesses (for example, the method used) think about how the strengths/weaknesses apply to this particular study.

What the study found • Participants in the aggressive game condition spent more time playing with the aggressive toy than participants who played one of the other two games. This was truer of girls than boys. • The type of game played had no effect on interpersonal aggression (how much the participants wanted to punish the naughty child). However, children showed higher levels of aggression here when they had actually played a game rather than watched it being played. • The questionnaire showed that boys performed better on the violent game compared to girls and also enjoyed playing it more. • The researchers concluded that children (mainly girls) had played more with the violent toy after playing the violent game because of some level of imitation. The game did not affect interpersonal aggression because the game itself did not involve any human characters. In other words, what the children had observed happening in the game had some impact on learned behaviour.

Evaluating the study • The study lacked ecological validity because it was carried out in artificial conditions. Video games would normally be played at home or in arcades rather than in a laboratory under strict conditions. • The study used independent measures so it is possible that the violent video game condition showed higher levels of aggression because of the individuals who happened to be allocated to that group – they may simply have been more violent on average by their nature or for other reasons outside of the experiment. • The sample was not representative of other cultures and other age groups as it was only carried out on American children (who may have been more or less affected by video games as they were very common in their country) and only a narrow age group (for example, younger children may be more easily influenced by what they observe). • Only the immediate effect of violent games was tested whereas, in reality, playing games like this may have a greater effect over time. • The findings are out of date as computer games are very different nowadays. With better graphics and more realism, today’s computer games may have even more influence on aggressive behaviour.

Exam tip Note how each of the evaluation points has been related to the study. It is important to do this to earn higher marks. For example, you will get credit for knowing that a laboratory experiment lacks ecological validity but you will get more credit for knowing how this point applies specifically to the way the Cooper & Mackie study was set up.

Revision activity Outline the following key features of the Cooper & Mackie study using a suitable diagram: the hypothesis, the sample, the method, the independent variable, the dependent variables and a key finding.

Eysenck’s criminal personality theory This theory states that criminal behaviour is more a product of nature than nurture. It says that some people are born with a personality that makes them more prone to committing crimes. According to Eysenck there are two key personality traits on which people can be measured: • One trait is extraversion. Extroverts are very active and sociable; at the other end of the scale there are introverts who are passive and shyer. • The other trait is neuroticism. Neurotics are worriers and are easily agitated; at the other end of the scale there are stable people who are more in control of their emotions. People who score high on extraversion and also high on neuroticism can be called neurotic extroverts. This is the personality type that is most likely to end up committing a serious offence. This is because the characteristics include thrill seeking, risk taking and aggression. They also tend to be optimistic which means they believe they will get away with their crimes. Eysenck also identified a third trait in criminals known as psychoticism. If a neurotic extrovert also scores high on psychoticism then they are very likely to become a criminal. The important point about all of these traits is that they are apparently fixed

because the theory says they are part of our genetic make-up and cannot be changed. Our genes affect our biology, and our biology can be used to explain traits like extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. People with a criminal personality score high on extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. This is linked to the fact that these people are easily aroused when things happen in their lives and in their environment and this itself is linked to how their central nervous system operates.

Revision activity Go to www.youtube.com/watch?v=6J73tzP2zFg for a recap of dopamine activity in the brain. Psychoticism is specifically linked to an overactive dopamine system in the brain. Messages are sent through the brain by passing synapses, which are gaps between nerve cells. In people who are psychotic there are too many dopaminergic neurons which means there is an excess of dopamine. Too much dopamine is related to high levels of violence.

Exam tip Although ‘introversion’ and ‘stability’ are not on the specification, it still makes sense to know these terms – even though stable introverts do not make very good criminals, according to the theory! Extraversion is linked to a number of parts of the brain. The reticular activating system (RAS) is a part of the brain and sits at the top of the brain stem. It is like a portal through which most information comes to enter the brain itself. In introverts, the RAS is highly active – even when it is not being stimulated – so it only needs a small stimulus to produce a large response. However, extroverts need a much larger stimulus to generate a response. This stimulus could be the thrill associated with committing crimes. This stimulus is sent to, and processed by, the cerebral cortex at the top of the brain. The cerebral cortex is the conscious part of the brain and wants to be stimulated. Extraversion is also linked to the dopamine reward system which starts in the core of the brain. Dopamine is released in response to pleasurable experiences. Extroverts need more exciting stimuli to produce pleasure

compared to introverts. This is why they may be driven to rape or attack someone, or steal goods – because it is a way of meeting their desire for pleasure but has to be quite extreme. Neuroticism is linked to the autonomic nervous system (ANS) as this part of our biology regulates how we respond to stressful situations. Neurotics’ ANS is more easily aroused because they are anxious individuals. This has an effect on an area of the brain known as the limbic system. The limbic system is also at the core of the brain and is in control of sexual and aggressive urges. If this part of the brain is over-active, it can lead to physical and sexual offences. According to Eysenck’s theory, neurotic extroverts are the most difficult personality type to condition. As children, they don’t learn easily. In this case, they don’t easily learn the association between committing a crime and the negative outcomes for themselves. This can be linked to early socialisation, when parents and other people may find it difficult to teach these children right from wrong.

Now test yourself 1 What is meant by psychoticism? 2 What are the traits of a neurotic extrovert? 3 How does the reticular activating system work differently in extroverts and introverts? 4 What is the role of dopamine in criminal behaviour? 5 What is the role of conditioning in criminal behaviour?

Key criticism • Eysenck’s theory underplays individual differences. He sees criminals as being broadly the same as they share the same personality type. Other psychologists argue that this is an over-generalisation.

Other criticisms • The theory is too deterministic as it says that criminal behaviour is largely genetic but this suggests that there is little that can be done to control it. However, evidence suggests that criminals can be rehabilitated.

• The neurotic extrovert personality links with some crimes better than others. For example, its traits fit well with crimes like murder, rape and theft but less so with more introverted crimes such as fraud.

Exam tip Some of the criticisms of the theories are generic, such as ‘underplays individual differences’ or ‘too deterministic’. To make them better criticisms, make sure you relate them to the topic being studied – in this case, you would want to refer to crime.

Revision activity Draw or download an image of the brain. Colour code different parts to show the areas associated with crime. Annotate the image using the different colours to explain how the different parts are associated with different personality traits.

Criminal personality theory research study – Heaven (1996): study into delinquency, extroversion, psychoticism and self-esteem How the study was carried out • Heaven recognised there was an association between the traits identified by Eysenck and criminal behaviour, and he wanted to explore this further. • He predicted that measures of psychoticism, extraversion and self-esteem (which is associated with neuroticism) would be significant predictors for self-report (rather than recorded) delinquency. • He carried out a longitudinal study over two years where he started by measuring the three traits and then correlated these with self-reported delinquency at the end of the study. • The sample was made up of 282 thirteen- to fifteen-year-olds taken from two Catholic independent schools in Australia.

• Questionnaires with closed questions were used to measure the three traits. • Self-reported delinquency was also measured using closed question questionnaires. • Eighty per cent of the original participants were surveyed again after the two years using the same anonymous questionnaires.

Typical mistake When candidates are asked to describe a study in the exam they sometimes get so carried away with describing how it was done that they forget to include any of the findings. This will limit the mark that can be awarded. Remember, what a study found out is crucial for the success of the study so it must be included.

What the study found • There was a positive correlation between psychoticism and delinquency at both the beginning and end of the study. • Extraversion showed a weak positive correlation with delinquency at the end of the study. • There was no significant correlation between self-esteem and delinquency. • Psychoticism was the best predictor of delinquency. • Males, who made up approximately half of the sample, had higher delinquency scores than females – at both the beginning and the end of the study.

Evaluating the study • The sample was culturally biased in two main ways. The children were all from one religion and from one particular country. Other religions and other countries may have a different influence on delinquent behaviour. • The participants may have given socially desirable responses, especially when being asked about their delinquency. Even though the questionnaires were anonymous, some children may not have wanted to admit to all the delinquent things they had done. • The use of closed questions may have led to low construct validity as personality and delinquency are too complex to be reduced to scores. • The 20 per cent of children who dropped out of the study may not have

been representative of the ones who were left in. For example, children with low levels of delinquency may not have been interested in carrying on with the study. • It is not possible to establish cause and effect with correlational studies. It may be that delinquency affects children’s personality (if we assume it’s not that fixed) rather than the other way around.

Revision activity Imagine you were a participant in Heaven’s study. Write an account of how you were studied and what you found out about yourself from the results. Personalising the study in this way may help you to remember at least some aspects of it.

1.3 Application – the changing nature of punishment The role of rehabilitation in reducing criminal/anti-social behaviour and increasing pro-social behaviour Crime is not always dealt with through punishment. Psychologists have had a lot to do with the other side of punishment – rehabilitation.

Restorative justice Restorative justice is one example of rehabilitation and tries to get offenders to behave more pro-socially rather than anti-socially. Restorative justice normally involves the victim meeting with the person who has offended against them. This is so the criminal can literally ‘face up’ to the consequences of their actions. Justice is often restored by the criminal paying for their crime – either in money or through community service, or sometimes through something as simple as an apology or an explanation.

Use of positive role models This example of rehabilitation is based on the principles of social learning. If criminals have learned their anti-social behaviour from bad role models then the idea is that they can learn pro-social behaviour from good role models. These role models may be people like mentors who are assigned to offenders, or professional trainers who lead social skills training sessions.

The effects of punishment and deterrents in reducing criminal/antisocial behaviour The theory behind punishments is that people are less likely to repeat a behaviour if the consequences have been negative. However, for some people it’s enough to see others being punished to stop them committing a crime. This is what is meant by a deterrent.

Prisons Prisons punish by taking freedom, as well as other privileges, away from offenders by confining them to an institution.

Community sentences Community sentences punish offenders by making them give up their time to do unpaid work for the community, such as litter picking, gardening, painting or using job skills they have already.

Fines Fines punish offenders by making them pay money for their offence. The negative consequence of their behaviour is losing earnings or savings.

Now test yourself 1 What is meant by rehabilitation in relation to crime? 2 How does restorative justice try to reduce criminal behaviour?

3 How does the use of role models try to reduce criminal behaviour? 4 What are the different ways of punishing criminal behaviour? 5 How can punishment also act as a deterrent for crime?

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: the five different types of crime how crime is a social construct determined by deviation from norms and culture how crime is measured through official statistics and self-report the Social Learning Theory of criminality including the concept of role models, and the processes of observation, imitation, reinforcement and internalisation criticisms of Social Learning Theory including the nature/nurture debate Cooper & Mackie’s experiment into computer game violence criticisms of Cooper & Mackie’s study Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality including the concepts of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism, and the role of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, the reticular activating system, the limbic system, the cerebral cortex and dopamine Heaven’s longitudinal study into personality traits and delinquency criticisms of Heaven’s study the role of rehabilitation including restorative justice and use of positive role models the role of punishments and deterrents including prisons, community sentences and fines

Exam practice 1 Using an example, explain what is meant by the idea that crime is a social construct. [3]

2 Outline one criticism of the Social Learning Theory of criminality. [2] 3 Describe and evaluate the procedure used in Cooper & Mackie’s study into the transmission of aggression through imitation and aggressive role models. [8] 4 (a) Give two features of the sample used in Heaven’s study into delinquency. [2] (b) Name two variables that were measured using questionnaires in the study. [2] (c) State two criticisms of the study. [2] 5 Harry has been cautioned on a number of occasions for anti-social behaviour. This has not stopped him from continuing to break the law even though his crimes are minor – such as disturbing the peace, and being drunk and disorderly. Using the source: (a) Explain how punishment could be used to reduce Harry’s antisocial behaviour. [3] (b) Explain how rehabilitation could be used to reduce Harry’s anti-social behaviour. [3]

2 Development 2.1 Key concepts Stages of development Development describes the changes that all humans go through as they get older. This applies to psychological development as well as physical development. Rather than relating development to specific ages, we tend to talk about stages of development which cover a range of ages. Four broad categories of development are: • pre-natal: the period of time spent in the womb before an individual is born • childhood: the time between birth and the start of puberty • adolescence: the transitional period between childhood and adulthood that includes going through puberty • adulthood: the final stage of development when the individual has reached full maturity which comes with certain responsibilities and expectations.

Exam tip Sometimes stages like childhood and adulthood are broken down into shorter stages but these are the only four stages on the specification so all you need to know for the exam.

The development of brain structures and functions As an individual develops psychologically, changes take place in the way the human brain is structured and functions. As we get older, our nervous systems go through natural changes. The

brain and spinal cord lose nerve cells and weight. Nerve cells may begin to pass messages more slowly than in the past. Waste products can collect in the brain tissue as nerve cells break down. This can lead to plaques and tangles in the brain. A newborn baby’s brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons but these begin to die immediately after birth and continue to do so throughout our lifetime. Each individual neuron can form thousands of links with other neurons, giving a typical brain well over 100 trillion synapses. Synaptic pruning, which is the process of eliminating synapses, happens throughout our lives but largely during childhood and adolescence. In general, synapses can strengthen or weaken over time depending on how they are used as part of everyday life.

Revision tip Look at the way the brain develops and changes over time and see if you can relate these developments to the behaviours we associate with children, adolescents and adults. Thinking about the brain in this way will give you a deeper understanding and improve your memory for the facts.

IQ tests as a measure of intelligence Although it is now very easy to observe the brain through various scanning techniques, it is still difficult to accurately observe cognitive ability. One way in which psychologists try to measure intelligence is through the use of IQ tests. IQ stands for ‘intelligence quotient’, which is a score that tells us how intelligent someone is. The score comes from answering a series of questions which normally have one right answer. The average IQ score is 100 and approximately two-thirds of people score between 85 and 115. If you score 140 or more you are considered a genius.

Now test yourself 1 What is the name of the stage of development between childhood and adulthood? 2 What happens to neurons and synapses over the lifespan? 3 How does brain structure change over the lifespan? 4 How does an IQ test measure intelligence?

2.2 Explanations of children’s development Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Piaget believed that children’s cognitive development followed invariant stages as these are the same for children all over the world and happen at approximately the same age. This tells us that the stages are to do with nature rather than nurture and are unaffected by the environment. Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development as shown in Figure 2.2.

Typical mistake Students can often remember the names of the stages but not the order. Use your common sense where you can, for example pre-

operational must come before the operational stages. Or use memory tricks, such as formal operational begins with ‘for’ and is the ‘fourth’ stage. As children move through the stages, they continually go through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. • Assimilation happens when children come across new information and make it fit with what they already know by integrating it into existing schemas. For example, they may change their thinking to recognise that not all men are daddies and include people that are not fathers in the category of men. • Accommodation happens when children come across new information that does not fit easily with existing schemas so that a new schema needs to be created in the mind. For example, a child realises that not all people speak English, and so creates a schema for foreign languages as the new words he or she is hearing do not fit into the schema for English language.

Features of the pre-operational stage Object permanence: Children should have this skill before they enter Stage 2. It is when they understand that someone or something exists even when it is not present. This is because they are now able to hold a mental image of things or people they have encountered. Animism: Children in Stage 2 still make the mistake of believing that inanimate objects (like toys or furniture) have feelings. For this reason, children might tell a chair off if it falls on them, or spend a lot of time talking with dolls or teddy bears. Egocentrism: Children in Stage 2 remain egocentric. This means that they are only able to perceive situations from their own points of view. Not only do they literally find it difficult to picture something from another angle but it also means they lack empathy with others.

Features of the concrete operational stage Decentration: This skill develops in Stage 3. This is when children are able to deal with two bits of information at the same time, so can sort toys by colour and shape at the same time, for example. It also means they begin to see

others’ points of view alongside their own so become less egocentric. Reversibility: Children can also reverse their thinking by the end of Stage 3. They understand that objects or numbers can be changed and then taken back to their original form. Children also have the logic to understand reverse facts; for example, if they have a brother, then they must be a brother or sister to that child. Conservation: This also develops by the end of Stage 3. This is when children understand that the properties of certain objects (such as their mass, size, length) do not change even if the object’s appearance does.

Exam tip It is easy to get Piaget’s ideas mixed up in the pressure of an exam. Take the time to stop and think what different key terms mean. Most have sensible names; for example, egocentrism is about centring on yourself (your ego), conservation is about understanding that objects conserve (do not change) their properties and animism is about assuming objects are animated (have life).

Now test yourself 1 How do Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development differ from each other? 2 What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation according to Piaget? 3 What cognitive skills do children show by the end of the concrete operational stage?

Key criticism • Piaget’s theory is criticised for being too reductionist. This is because it takes something as complex as cognitive development and reduces it down to stages driven by age. Some other psychologists argue that we should take a more holistic approach and look at all the different factors that work together to affect a child’s development, such as their genetic inheritance, emotional state, family upbringing and standard of education.

Other criticisms • For some critics, the stages are too rigid and don’t allow for individual differences. There is evidence that children develop at different rates and this may have something to do with their upbringing. • Critics say that Piaget’s theory focuses too much on logical thought and ignores other types of thinking, such as creativity.

Debate The reductionism vs holism debate is all about whether a behaviour can be simplified down to one cause (reductionism) or whether it is explained better by looking at a number of factors that interact with each other (holism).

Cognitive development research study: Piaget (1952) – study into the conservation of number How the study was carried out • Piaget predicted that children in the concrete operational stage would demonstrate conservation but that children in the pre-operational stage would not. • The study used the experimental method where the independent variable was the age of the children used, and the dependent variable was whether they could conserve number or not. • The study used independent measures – there were two separate groups of children representing different age groups. • The sample was a small group of Swiss school children, including Piaget’s own children. • Each child was tested individually. They were shown two identical parallel rows of counters and asked if there were the same number of counters in each row.

• One of the rows of counters was then spread out in front of the child. The child was then asked the same question again.

What the study found • Three- to four-year-olds (in the pre-operational stage) tended to say that the spread out row had more counters when asked the question a second time. • Five- to six-year-olds (at the end of the pre-operational stage) tended to recognise the number of counters had stayed the same in the spread out row but could not really justify the logic of it. • Seven-year-olds and older (in the concrete operational stage) were able to recognise that both rows still had the same number of counters and could also explain the logic behind it – they showed they were able to conserve.

Evaluating the study • Piaget was criticised for asking the same question twice. Younger children especially may have thought this meant that their first answer was wrong so changed it even though they could see the rows had the same number of

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counters. The sample was culturally biased as only Swiss children were used. More recent evidence shows that cognitive development can vary depending on environmental experiences. The sample of children was also small so it is difficult to generalise – especially as the findings are supposed to apply to all children. The experiment used an artificial task which had little bearing on real life. Children may have been able to conserve if the task made more sense to them. The experiment lacked construct validity as a narrow measure of conservation had been taken. There are other ways in which children may be able to show conservation of number that do not involve rows of counters.

Revision activity This is an interesting experiment to try to replicate if you happen to know some younger children. You can use things like coins or buttons if you do not have counters handy. Actually performing the experiment will bring it to life and make it more memorable.

Learning theories of development Learning theories focus on the idea that development happens as a consequence of learning rather than being something that happens more naturally. Children’s experiences with the environment are important in terms of how well they develop.

Dweck’s mindset theory According to Dweck’s theory, people tend to have one of two beliefs about their abilities: a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. Table 2.1 Fixed and growth mindsets Fixed mindset Growth mindset People see their own intelligence as People believe that intelligence fixed. is something that can be

developed. People tend to avoid challenging People will take on challenges. tasks because they don’t want to Failure can still be painful for fail due to what they see as their these people but they see this as lack of intelligence. Remember, this part of the learning experience is something they don’t think they and as something that will help can change about themselves. them to grow and improve. For these people, being wrong or For these people, it is okay to getting feedback on how to improve get things wrong, especially if is seen as a negative as it focuses this leads to useful feedback. on their limitations. Both are seen as positives. Dweck believes that we don’t just have one mindset or the other, rather that it can differ for different abilities. For example, a child may have a fixed mindset when it comes to their mathematical ability so they don’t try hard enough in the subject on the basis they think they will fail and there is nothing they can do about it. However, they may have a growth mindset for their sporting ability where they are prepared to be challenged and embrace feedback and the chance to improve. The important point is that Dweck believes that a particular mindset is not necessarily permanent. Mindsets can be changed, which is why this is identified as a learning theory. However, her research shows that mindsets can change in either direction. Dweck does suggest that just by knowing about the two mindsets, people can start thinking and reacting in new growthorientated ways. Dweck has also studied the impact of praise, specifically the type of praise that children receive. Her research has shown that praise linked to reassuring students about their intelligence or talent has a negative effect on their view about their abilities. This is because it reinforces a fixed mindset by making them think that their achievements are a consequence of innate intelligence. Instead, Dweck argues that praise should recognise effort. So praise that recognises processes such as practice, persistence and resilience has been shown to support and develop a growth mindset in students.

Exam tip

This is the only part of the specification where there are two theories (Dweck’s and Willingham’s) under one broader heading. This means you need to be prepared to answer questions on either theory, or both together.

Willingham’s theory Willingham’s theory starts by criticising the once well-established theory of different learning styles. Early this century, there was a lot of work done on learning styles and it was not unusual for schools to test children for their learning styles (for example, visual learners, auditory learners) and then to differentiate activities for different types of learners. Willingham disputes learning styles and argues that children may express a preference but it does not mean they cannot learn in a variety of ways. In fact, he argues that children often want to know what they are studying before they commit themselves to an activity based on a particular learning style. Willingham argues that what really helps children to develop is to make things meaningful to them. He talks about the importance of meaning in learning. In other words, children need understanding alongside knowledge. He does not say that learning needs to be personalised for each child (so that it is personally meaningful) but that the child must understand the point to it.

Now test yourself 1 Why are both Dweck’s theory and Willingham’s theory identified as learning theories? 2 What is the difference between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset? 3 Why is it important to praise effort, according to Dweck? 4 Why does Willingham disagree with the idea of learning styles?

Key criticism • Since Dweck‘s and Willingham’s theories are both learning theories it is easy to criticise them for focusing on nurture over nature. Both are optimistic in the sense that they believe that learning experiences can have a positive influence on children’s development. However, if a child’s

development is more a product of nature, then learning experiences will have very little influence.

Other criticisms • There is a danger that both theories are over-generalising by dismissing certain approaches to development while promoting others. It might be that certain approaches suit certain children and that both theories should consider the individual more. • Both theories have mixed evidence to support them. For example, a largescale study of British schools showed no difference in progress between children adopting a growth mindset and those adopting a fixed one. Willingham’s ideas are also questioned by research that shows that rote learning may be useful for learning some content even though the technique is not very meaningful.

Revision activity You may find it useful to relate Dweck’s and Willingham’s theories to your own experiences of school. Personalising the content in this way should increase your chances of remembering it. It is not the kind of ‘meaning’ that Willingham is talking about necessarily but other research has shown this technique to be successful!

Learning research study: Blackwell et al. (2007) – study into fixed and growth mindsets Study 1 How the study was carried out • The researchers predicted that students’ beliefs about intelligence – fixed versus growth mindset – would correlate with their achievement grades on a maths test. • It was a longitudinal correlation study which took place over five years.

• The sample was made up of 373 students from four successive seventh grade classes who attended a public secondary school in New York. They varied in terms of ethnicity, social economic status and achievement. • Both the students and their parents gave their informed consent to take part, and were aware they could withdraw at any point. • At the start of seventh grade, the students completed a motivational questionnaire during lesson time. The questionnaire used a rating scale to measure each student’s theory of intelligence, their learning goals, their effort beliefs and their helpless responses to failure. • Scores from maths tests taken in the seventh and eighth grade were compared with scores from a test done in the sixth grade as a way of measuring progress. What the study found • There was no significant correlation between theory of intelligence (fixed versus growth mindset) and maths test scores at the start of the seventh grade. • When students were tested in the autumn term of seventh grade and the spring term of eighth grade, their mindset became a significant predictor of maths achievement. • The researchers concluded that those students who had a growth mindset and believed they had the capacity to change their intelligence made a greater improvement on their maths test scores than those with a fixed mindset.

Exam tip Because this study has two separate studies within it, you may be asked about Study 1 or Study 2. Make sure you do not miss this if it happens. You also need to be clear on the differences between the two studies.

Study 2 How the study was carried out • The researchers predicted that students who were taught to think that

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intelligence is malleable would show more positive motivation in the classroom and achieve better than those students who were not taught about the growth mindset. It was a correlation study with an experimental section. In terms of the experiment, the independent variable was whether the student was in the intervention group (taught about growth mindset) or the control group. The dependent variables were levels of motivation and achievement on a maths test. The study used independent measures, with students in one condition or the other. In terms of the correlation, researchers analysed the relationship between students’ theories of intelligence and achievement-related beliefs at the end of the seventh grade and their scores in maths tests over the course of the study. The sample was made up of 99 students from a seventh grade class from a different public secondary school in New York. Again, the students came from varied ethnic and socio-economic groups. The students completed the motivational questionnaire at the start of seventh grade. Students were told they had the opportunity to take part in an eight-week workshop looking at the brain to help them with their revision skills. Students were then randomly assigned to the intervention group or the control group. The intervention group were taught that learning changes the brain. The control group were taught about memory. Undergraduates took the role of the teachers but were also mentors to the two groups so that what had been taught could be reinforced. At the end of the eight weeks, students completed the motivational questionnaire again, and also did a multiple-choice test on what they recalled from the course. Teachers were blind to which group their students had been placed into and, on that basis, were asked to comment on changes in motivational behaviour. These comments were coded by researchers to identify the number of positive changes.

What the study found • The multiple-choice test showed there was no difference between the two groups in terms of their recall of general content from the workshops but

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the intervention group scored significantly higher on recall of the content from the theory that they had been taught about. The questionnaire showed that the intervention group had more positive mindsets than the control group by the end of the study. The teachers’ reports showed that more of the intervention group displayed more positive motivation compared to the control group. The intervention group got significantly higher scores in their maths tests after doing the workshop. This was not true of the control group. Indeed, some the control group had a decline in scores. The researchers concluded that teaching students that intelligence is flexible has a positive effect on their motivation and achievement in maths.

Evaluating the studies • The sample was culturally biased as it only took place in one part of the USA. Different states and indeed different countries may have different education systems which could influence the impact of growth mindsets. • The sample was age biased and therefore the findings may not apply to other age groups. Growth mindsets may have more or less impact on younger or older children. • The researchers only measured achievement in maths. We cannot generalise and say that growth mindsets influence the learning of other subjects in the same way. • It is difficult to control variables in naturalistic studies like these. For example, teachers may respond more favourably to students with a ‘can do’ attitude and this may be why they make better progress rather than due to their own mindset. • Because Study 2 used independent groups, the difference between the effort and achievement of the students could be down to individual differences.

Revision activity Imagine you are presenting this study to an audience of teachers to convince them of the importance of having a growth mindset. You may want to do this as a PowerPoint presentation or similar. You will have to know and understand the study in order to use it as evidence for your presentation, which is a good process to go through in terms

of revision.

2.3 Application – the changing role of education How Piaget’s ideas have been applied to education The use of key stages in education ties in with Piaget’s ideas that cognitive development follows set stages. This is why many education systems around the world group children by age when teaching them and getting them ready for assessments. In broad terms, the key stages used in UK schools follow Piaget’s ideas. For example, Key Stage 2 corresponds with the concrete operational stage so that a lot of junior school lessons rely on using objects and images for learning as well as lots of practical activities. Key stages link to the idea of readiness. In primary school we do not try to teach students algebra or get them to consider complex debates because we would argue that they are not mentally ready for these ideas. This is why there is a set curriculum for each key stage which spells out what children should be able to learn and how far they are expected to go. Active learning is an important of part of cognitive development according to Piaget. Although children develop naturally they still need the opportunity to explore and investigate, acting like ‘little scientists’ to use Piaget’s words. This is how many classrooms work nowadays rather than children doing set tasks or rote learning. Piaget believed that intelligence is innate and therefore fixed. We can see this in the way that many schools use pathways where they expect different children to reach different targets depending on their natural ability.

How learning theories apply to the development of education and intelligence Many British schools now explicitly teach students about the importance of

having a growth mindset and how this can aid their learning and outcomes. This philosophy can then be adopted across all lessons by all teachers. The idea that different children have different learning styles is not something that is supported by many schools. Instead, teachers are seeing the importance of lessons having meaning for children, and to some extent this means that learning is quite personalised.

Exam tip You may get a broad question in the exam about application to education in which case you can write about a number of ideas. Or the question may be specifically about applying Piaget’s ideas or the ideas of learning theories. Or it might focus on a specific technique or concept, such as active learning. In other words, be prepared for different levels of questions.

Now test yourself 1 How do key stages in education relate to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development? 2 What did Piaget mean by active learning? 3 What evidence is there of learning theories being used in education?

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: the four stages of development how brain structure and function develop over time, including the nervous system, neurons and synapses IQ tests as a measure of intelligence Piaget’s theory including the four invariant stages of development; the processes of assimilation and accommodation; the concepts of object permanence, animism and egocentrism; the processes of decentration, reversibility and conservation

criticisms of Piaget’s theory including the reductionism/holism debate Piaget’s experiment into the conservation of number criticisms of Piaget’s study Dweck’s learning theory including fixed and growth mindsets and praise for effort Willingham’s learning theory including the myth of learning styles and the importance of meaning in learning criticisms of learning theories including the nature/nurture debate Blackwell et al.’s longitudinal study into the effects of different mindsets criticisms of Blackwell et al.’s study how Piaget’s ideas have been applied to education through key stages, readiness, active learning and the concept of intelligence how learning theories have been applied to education through growth mindsets and meaning rather than learning styles

Exam practice 1 Outline one stage of development. [2] 2 Describe the function of a synapse. [3] 3 Explain the difference between assimilation and accommodation in cognitive development. [3] 4 Give one example of a weakness of the sample used in Piaget’s (1952) study into the conservation of number. [1] 5 Evaluate Blackwell et al.’s (2007) study into fixed and growth mindsets. [6]

3 Psychological problems 3.1 Key concepts An introduction to mental health Ways of defining mental health Mental health is not easy to define with different professionals having different ideas of what it means to be psychologically healthy. The mental health continuum is one way of defining health. It sees mental health on a spectrum starting with mental healthiness moving to mental health problems and finishing with mental disorder, as shown in Table 3.1.

Other definitions may draw a clearer line between mental health and mental disorder, or may try to be more positive by just focusing on what mental health is rather than what it is not. In short, mental health is a subjective idea so is always open to interpretation.

The current prevalence of mental health problems • One in four British adults report having been diagnosed with a mental health disorder. • The number of mental health problems tends to decline with age. • Women tend to be diagnosed with mental health problems more than men.

• People who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender are particularly at risk of experiencing mental health problems.

The incidence of significant mental health problems over time The two main classification systems for diagnosing mental health disorder – the ICD (International Classification of Diseases) and DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders) – have both gone through a number of revisions; the ICD, for example, is on its 11th edition. This shows that professionals, and society in general, have changed their view on what counts and does not count as a mental health problem. There are differences in the incidence of some mental health problems over time, with many increasing. However, rates of some disorders (such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder) have stayed relatively stable. Since the 1959 Mental Health Act, there have been some steady changes in society’s attitudes towards mental health problems. The Act itself removed some of the stigma around people seen as ‘lunatics’ or ‘insane’ by using the term ‘mental disorder’. It also aimed to make sure that patients were treated with the same respect and rights as patients with physical illnesses as well as initiating the idea of community care. Recent surveys have shown that the public have a better understanding of mental health problems, and are more tolerant of and less judgemental about people who experience them. This is partly the result of many high-profile campaigns, by charitable organisations, to raise awareness of mental health problems and what can be done to support people with them.

Exam tip You won’t be expected to define mental health in the exam but should be able to explain why it is difficult to have one definition of mental health.

Revision activity Obviously, statistics change year on year so try to go into the exam

with some up-to-date figures on the prevalence of mental health problems – but also remember that this is not the most important thing to know. Knowing about general patterns or trends is key.

The effects of significant mental health problems The effects of stigma on individuals before and after diagnosis Even before individuals are diagnosed with an actual mental disorder, they are likely to display behaviours which are bizarre (such as talking to themselves out loud) or socially unacceptable (such as taking long periods off work). For these kinds of reasons, individuals can be stigmatised because they are not conforming to what society expects. If they are later given a diagnosis of, for example, schizophrenia or depression – then this is a ‘label’ that people will judge them by. Despite changing attitudes, there are still some negative ideas associated with these labels, which could mean individuals are stigmatised further.

The effects of discrimination on individuals before and after diagnosis Stigmatisation is to do with what people think about mental disorders whereas discrimination is more to do with how people act on their thoughts. When individuals are perceived as different or abnormal because they have a disorder, this can lead to others discriminating against them – for example, by not giving people the same rights (such as to make their own choices) or the same opportunities (for example, at work). Individuals can be discriminated against before diagnosis on the basis that their behaviour may cause concern (for example, if they withdraw from society, people may not include them in the same way as others). Individuals can be discriminated against after diagnosis because people may be concerned about their disorder. For example, individuals may miss out on promotions at work.

The effects of significant mental health problems

on the wider society, including care in the community If mental health problems are on the increase then this clearly has an effect on society because we need to find the time and resources to support and treat individuals. Treatments can be expensive and keeping people on wards is very expensive so there has been a movement towards care in the community. Many professionals also believe in the philosophy behind care in the community – the idea that individuals with mental health problems will recover better if they are with their families and continue to feel part of society while undergoing treatment. Currently there is concern about the absence from work associated with mental health problems, and its cost to the economy. Of course, the rise in mental health problems may have something to do with the fact that people are better educated about them and more likely to seek help for themselves and others. This also suggests that society is becoming more tolerant and understanding of mental health problems over time.

Exam tip This part of the specification is very broad and so, if you want to, you can bring in your own examples of stigma and discrimination as well as how society has been affected by mental health problems.

Now test yourself 1 Why is there more than one way of defining mental health? 2 What is the difference between the prevalence and the incidence of mental disorders? 3 How did the Mental Health Act 1959 begin to change attitudes towards mental health? 4 Why might an individual be discriminated against after being diagnosed with a mental disorder? 5 What is meant by care in the community in relation to mental disorders?

3.2 Explanations of psychological problems Schizophrenia The clinical characteristics of schizophrenia The ICD is a manual used by psychiatrists and other professionals to help diagnose disorders. It identifies the following clinical characteristics as being necessary to diagnose schizophrenia. At least one of these symptoms: • Thought disturbances • Delusions of control • Hallucinatory voices • Persistent delusions Or at least two of these symptoms: • Persistent hallucinations • Disorganised speech • Catatonic behaviour • Negative symptoms

Key statistics of schizophrenia Schizophrenia: • is prevalent in approximately 1 per cent of the population • is only diagnosed in adults; with men it is normally in their 20s and with women it is normally in their 30s • is diagnosed equally in females and males • is diagnosed more in people of Caribbean or African origin compared to people who are white • leads to hospitalisation in about 15 per cent of cases, while 25 per cent of patients fully recover from the disorder.

Typical mistake

Students often confuse schizophrenia with what used to be known as multiple personality disorder. Or they use terms which are vague and not useful – such as ‘insane’ or ‘mad’. Make sure you use the technical terms and symptoms used by the ICD as this is what the specification requires.

Biological explanation of schizophrenia A key part of the biological explanation of schizophrenia is the dopamine hypothesis. This theory says that people with schizophrenia have an overactive dopamine system which causes high dopamine levels. Because dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with mood, perception and movement, it makes sense that this may be high in people with schizophrenia since their moods can fluctuate a lot, they perceive things which are not true or not there, and display unusual movements (catatonic behaviour). Brain scans have shown that people with schizophrenia have dopaminergic neurons that fire too easily or too frequently which means there is an excess of dopamine travelling across synapses. They also have an excess of dopamine receptors which results in more dopamine binding.

As the human brain plays a large part in our cognitions and behaviour, when its structure or functions are different from normal then our thoughts and actions will be abnormal. This is the biological explanation for schizophrenia. It blames schizophrenia on brain dysfunction. The theory is that neurological damage happens as a result of either defective genes or problems during pregnancy when the foetus’s brain is developing. As the individual matures, this damage causes the symptoms of schizophrenia to develop. Neurological research on people with schizophrenia includes the following

findings: • The volume of the brain is around 5 per cent lower than the average brain. • The frontal lobes are less active due to decreased blood flow. • The temporal lobes lack grey matter. • The hippocampus is smaller than average.

Now test yourself 1 What is meant by the dopamine hypothesis? 2 What is meant by brain dysfunction? 3 Which parts of the brain are associated with the symptoms of schizophrenia and how are they different in the people with the disorder?

Revision tip Look at how these different parts of the brain normally function and then think about how their dysfunction may relate to symptoms of schizophrenia. Thinking about the brain in this way will give you a deeper understanding and improve your memory for the facts.

Key criticism • The explanation focuses too much on nature and ignores the role of nurture. Even if biology is responsible for the symptoms, how society responds to these symptoms also has an effect. For example, in the UK we use the label ‘schizophrenia’ to categorise these symptoms but this particular disorder is not recognised everywhere. In some cultures, delusions and hallucinations are seen as positive experiences, even a sign of magical powers.

Other criticisms • There are problems establishing cause and effect. Is brain dysfunction the cause of schizophrenia or just another symptom of it? • The theory is too reductionist. Schizophrenia refers to a set of highly complex behaviours and it seems too simple to explain this in terms of parts of the brain just not working properly.

A psychological explanation of schizophrenia – the social drift theory Social drift theory starts with the fact that individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to be in the lower classes in society. It then tries to explain why this is the case. Social drift theory suggests that once people have schizophrenia they begin to drift or move down the social scale so that they end up at the bottom of society. In extreme cases they may end up living on the streets and not really be part of society at all. One of the reasons for social drift is that individuals disengage with society once they have schizophrenia. This is because the things that are important to most people – having a job, having a home, having a family – become less important to someone who is experiencing lots of terrible symptoms that completely occupy them. Indeed, one of the early signs of schizophrenia is when sufferers withdraw from social activities. Another reason for social drift is that individuals are rejected by society. This is linked to stigmatisation and discrimination. This means they may lose jobs or not find it easy to get a job because of their diagnosis. Society may also reject them because their behaviour is not normal and so they are socially excluded in a wider sense. Disengagement and rejection form part of a cycle that sends an individual with schizophrenia spiralling downwards in terms of their place in society.

Now test yourself 1 What is meant by ‘social drift’? 2 What is meant by the ‘disengagement of individuals’? 3 What is meant by ‘rejection by society’?

Key criticism • There are problems with establishing cause and effect even though schizophrenia and social class seem to be linked. Rather than the disorder affecting social class (as social drift theory says), it may be the other way

around. Being in the lower social classes may cause the disorder because people suffer the stress of poverty.

Other criticisms • People of lower social class may be more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia than more affluent people. This is because of a bias in diagnosis among middle class psychiatrists. • The theory focuses too much on wider society and ignores the role that the family environment may have in the development of schizophrenia.

Exam tip Note how the two explanations of schizophrenia on the specification sit on opposite sides of the nature versus nurture debate. This means you can use each explanation to evaluate the other one if this is something you are asked to do in the exam.

Schizophrenia research study – Daniel et al. (1991): the effect of amphetamine on regional cerebral blood flow during cognitive activation in schizophrenia How the study was carried out • The aim was to investigate the activity in the prefrontal cortices of people with schizophrenia. • This was done as an experiment using a SPECT (single-photon emission computer tomography) scan of the brain. • The sample was made up of ten in-patients from mental health research wards in the USA. • The independent variable was whether participants had been given amphetamine or not. The dependent variable was how they performed on a cognitive task. • Controls included making sure all participants’ symptoms were stabilised through the use of drugs, that they were not physically ill and not using

alcohol or drugs. • Participants also did a control task (a sensori-motor task) with the cognitive task. • A repeated measures design was used – so participants were tested with and without amphetamine on two different days. Half were tested first with amphetamine, and the other half were tested first without. When tested without they were given a placebo drug – so they did not know whether they had been given real amphetamine or not.

What the study found • There were significant differences between the two conditions (with amphetamine and without) when participants were doing the cognitive task but not when they were doing the sensori-motor task. • Amphetamine significantly increased prefrontal cortex activity during performance of the cognitive task (scores were higher) despite it reducing blood flow in the brain. • This supported the idea that dopamine plays a part in modulating and enhancing cortical activity – as amphetamines stimulate dopamine activity.

Evaluating the study • The sample size was too small to be representative. • The task that the participants did was too artificial to relate to real life. • The drug used to stabilise symptoms may have been an extraneous variable. • The findings can be seen as outdated as schizophrenia is being diagnosed differently nowadays. • There are ethical concerns about using scanning equipment for research purposes alone as it is potentially dangerous.

Revision activity Create your own multiple-choice questions for the Daniel et al. study. Doing this is good revision in itself but you can also give it to someone at a later date and get them to test you.

Clinical depression

The clinical characteristics of clinical depression The ICD identifies the following clinical characteristics as being necessary to diagnose clinical depression: • depressed mood • disturbed sleep • diminished appetite • reduced energy • reduced concentration/attention • reduced self-esteem • loss of interest and enjoyment • bleak and pessimistic views of the future • ideas of guilt and unworthiness • ideas or acts of self-harm

Key statistics of clinical depression • Clinical depression is prevalent in approximately 25 per cent of the population each year. • Clinical depression is most common among 18–30-year-olds, and least common in under 18s. Depression is more common between the ages of 30 and 65, than in over 65s. • Approximately twice as many females are diagnosed with depression compared to males. • People of Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi origin report experiencing depression more than people of Caribbean and African origin. • Although the vast majority of people recover from depression, about 50 per cent of people who have an incident of severe depression will go on to have a second episode, and about 80 per cent of those will have a third.

Exam tip Statistics can vary depending on the source of the information and they also change over time. This is why it is important to go into the exam with knowledge of the patterns of data rather than specific figures.

A biological explanation of clinical depression – the social rank theory Evolutionary theory states that all adaptive behaviours have a survival value – allowing us to live long enough to reproduce and pass on our genes. Social rank theory relates to this idea by stating that depression has an evolutionary function – in other words, it helps us to survive. If we experience loss (such as losing a loved one) then a natural reaction is to feel depressed. When we feel depressed we are less motivated to do things and become more self-contained. But how does this help with survival? Imagine an individual experiences a loss like losing a boyfriend or girlfriend to somebody else, missing out on a promotion at work, or something as simple as losing a game of tennis. They could try to fight back (for example, by trying to win back the boyfriend or girlfriend, trying for another promotion, having a rematch) but there is a risk of experiencing more failure. Another alternative is to accept the loss but this will make the person feel depressed. However, in feeling depressed, they keep themselves safe from harm by not fighting back. This may have been particularly important in our ancestral past when conflicts would have been more physical and could therefore have resulted in death or physical harm. By not fighting back, an individual is accepting they are of a lower rank than the person who stole their boyfriend or girlfriend, or who got the promotion or who won the tennis match. Although this is an unpleasant feeling for many, it stills allows them to keep their place in a social group, community or society. Being part of a group and having people around us is important for survival, even if we are not as high up in the group as we would like to be.

Now test yourself 1 According to social rank theory, how does depression have an evolutionary function? 2 According to social rank theory, how does the role of lower social rank reduce conflict?

Key criticism

• The theory is seen as too reductionist as it takes something as complex as clinical depression and tries to simplify it down to an instinctive reaction to losing something. Other psychologists take a more holistic approach and argue that depression happens because of a number of different factors working together against an individual, not just one factor alone.

Exam tip Sometimes you have to apply a theory to a source in the exam. If you have to apply social rank theory, then first of all look for the loss that has been experienced. Also look for the type of conflict that is being avoided by accepting a lower rank.

Other criticisms • Depression is not limited to people of lower social ranks. There are many successful people, such as celebrities, professional sports people and leaders, who have experienced clinical depression. • Severe depression can lead to suicide attempts and suicide itself which clearly goes against the idea that depression is a mechanism for survival.

A psychological explanation of clinical depression – the ABC model The ABC model is a cognitive theory of clinical depression as it focuses on what is going on in people’s minds when they are suffering from the disorder. According to the model, depression begins with irrational beliefs. The model says that we cannot stop bad things happening to us, but we can choose to think about things in a rational or irrational way. Rational thinking leads to good mental health whereas irrational thinking leads to problems like clinical depression. Beliefs are therefore central to the model. The ABC model takes its name from the three features that it uses to explain depression.

Typical mistake

It is a mistake to think that the ABC model is deterministic because it talks about an activating event being the initial trigger for depression. It is how people respond to the event that is key and this is actually down to free will. Do they choose to think rationally or irrationally?

• The activating event is the situation which can trigger an individual to have an irrational thought, for example not being invited out by a group of friends or not getting a good grade in a test. • The belief (about the event) can be rational or irrational. For example, someone thinking rationally will think that the group of friends left a message that they missed, or will put a poor grade down to poor effort. However, someone thinking irrationally may decide the group of friends is plotting against them, or that they will never do well in a test again because they are stupid. • The type of belief obviously has an impact on what happens next (the consequences). If beliefs are irrational then the person is more likely to feel hopeless and down, leading to symptoms of depression. This tells us that two people can experience the same event (such as losing a loved one) but one may get depressed about it while the other does not and that this comes down to the way they decide to think about their circumstances.

Debate The determinism vs free will debate is all about whether people’s behaviour is determined by factors outside of their control (determinism) or if it is under their conscious control and they therefore choose what to do.

Key criticism • The model assumes that people have some control over their beliefs

because it believes in the idea of free will. Other psychologists suggest that this makes the theory over-optimistic. For them, depression is determined by other factors that are out of our control and therefore depression is not that easy to get rid of (just by changing thought patterns).

Now test yourself 1 What is the difference between rational and irrational beliefs? 2 According to the ABC model, why does an activating event sometimes lead to depression but at other times does not?

Other criticisms • The model does not really explain the type of depression that seems to ‘come out of nowhere’ without any obvious activating event. This kind of depression may be more biologically driven. • There are problems with cause and effect. Do irrational beliefs actually cause depression or are they symptoms of it instead?

Clinical depression research study – Tandoc et al. (2015): study into Facebook use, envy and depression among college students How the study was carried out • The aims were to see whether depression was linked to Facebook usage, and whether using Facebook led to feelings of envy (which can lead on to depression). • There were a number of hypotheses: • that Facebook users would report higher levels of envy • the higher the network of friends, the greater the feelings of envy • higher levels of envy would be associated with more symptoms of depression. • The method was a questionnaire conducted online. Responses were coded

into quantitative data. • The questionnaire measured Facebook usage, levels of envy using a rating scale and symptoms of depression. • The sample was a self-selecting sample made up of 736 students from an American university with an average age of 19.

What the study found Heavy Facebook users did report higher levels of envy than light users. However, the size of the network was not related to levels of envy. Facebook envy was a significant positive predictor of depression. However, there was no relationship between how frequently Facebook was used and how depressed people felt. • Facebook surveillance did not predict depression either. • The overall conclusion was that Facebook usage does directly relate to depression but is indirectly linked by causing envy. • • • •

Evaluating the study • The study was culturally biased in a number of ways. The participants were all well educated, all from the USA and all journalism students. These factors may influence how Facebook is used, and also how the participants deal with feelings. • The fact that the survey was online may bias the findings as this is likely to represent people who use technology regularly and with ease which is important when the study is about use of social media. • There may have been a social desirability bias where participants underplayed their use of social media, the level of envy and their experience of depression, giving invalid results. • Findings may lack construct validity as complex behaviours were reduced to numbers by the rating scale and this may not give a true representation of people’s experiences. • There are difficulties establishing cause and effect with this study. Where there were relationships between variables, we cannot be sure of the cause. For example, does using Facebook increase feelings of envy, or does envy draw people to Facebook?

Revision activity

Your challenge is to summarise this study in 100 words or fewer. Even if you do not manage it, you will have thought about what the study is about and what the most significant details are – which is a useful revision activity in itself. However, if you do manage to summarise Tandoc et al.’s study in so few words then do reward yourself!

3.3 Application – the development of treatments The use of anti-psychotics to treat schizophrenia Anti-psychotics are a type of drug treatment. Since schizophrenia has been linked to problems with the functioning of the brain, it makes sense to try to correct the way that the brain works and this is what these drugs do.

Typical mistake Because anti-psychotics and anti-depressants are both examples of drug treatments it is easy to mix up how they work. Make sure you are clear on the distinction between them in terms of the neuropsychology behind them. Anti-psychotics improve mental health mainly by reducing symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. The chemicals in anti-psychotic drugs block some of the receptors in the brain. When a neuron sends too much dopamine across a synapse, the blocking means that not all of it is received by the next neuron. This reduces the number of messages being sent through the brain.

The use of anti-depressants to treat clinical depression Anti-depressants are a type of drug treatment. Since clinical depression has

been linked to problems with the functioning of the brain, it makes sense to try to correct the way that the brain works and this is what these drugs do. Anti-depressants improve mental health by raising people’s mood. The chemicals in anti-depressants increase the amount of serotonin and noradrenaline in the brain. For example, one type of anti-depressant prevents serotonin being reabsorbed by blocking the neurons that released it. This means more serotonin remains in the synapses and this lifts the mood.

The use of psychotherapy Psychotherapy focuses on the psychological explanations for mental health rather than looking at biological factors. All types of psychotherapy involve talking to the individual with a mental health problem, and aim to improve mental health by changing the way that people think and behave.

Psychotherapy for schizophrenia One example of psychotherapy is psychoanalysis. This involves uncovering the childhood traumas that may have led to schizophrenia developing in adulthood. These traumas are often based on conflicts with parents that have not been resolved and so end up buried in the unconscious part of the mind. Psychoanalysis aims to improve mental health by discovering these conflicts and resolving them in therapy – sometimes with the therapist playing the role of the parent. Past conflicts can be discovered through techniques such as analysing dreams and hypnosis.

Psychotherapy for clinical depression One example of psychotherapy is counselling. This involves clients recognising their own problems and deciding how to address them themselves. A counsellor’s role is to listen, to be empathetic and to be nonjudgemental. Counsellors do not direct their clients’ thinking and do not give advice. The idea is that those who are suffering from depression know themselves best, and they will come up with their own solutions for improving their mental health. This often involves clients improving their self-esteem by having a better view of themselves and being realistic about their expectations.

Exam tip The specification does not specify the type of psychotherapy that you need to know about. For example, counselling and psychoanalysis can be used on either schizophrenia or clinical depression. Cognitive therapy is another example of psychotherapy that you could write about in the exam.

The development of neuropsychology for studying schizophrenia and clinical depression Neuropsychological tests These are standardised tests that give scores that show how well a brain is functioning. The scores of people with mental health problems can be compared to the scores of people without, whose brain is functioning normally. For example, the Wisconsin Card Sorting test is a cognitive ability test that checks the function of the frontal lobe in people with schizophrenia. Another example is the Beck Depression Inventory, which measures the severity of depressive symptoms through multiple-choice questions.

Brain imaging techniques Brain scans allow neuropsychologists to produce images of the brain so that brain structure and function can be seen. The brains of people with mental health problems can then be compared with those without. For example, PET scans have been used to show that the brains of people with schizophrenia have larger ventricles than normal. fMRI scans have been used to measure the strength of connections between neural circuits in the brain to show there are different types of depression.

Now test yourself 1 How do anti-psychotics treat schizophrenia? 2 How do anti-depressants treat clinical depression?

3 How does psychotherapy work as a treatment? 4 How has neuropsychology contributed to the treatment of mental disorders?

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: ways of defining mental health, including the mental health continuum the current prevalence of mental health problems, including differences based on age, gender and sexual orientation the incidence of significant mental health problems over time, including changing classification; similarities and differences; and changes in attitudes towards mental health since the 1959 Mental Health Act the effects of significant mental health problems, including the effects of stigma on individuals before and after diagnosis; the effects of discrimination on individuals before and after diagnosis; the effects on the wider society, including care in the community the clinical characteristics of schizophrenia as outlined in the ICD key statistics of schizophrenia including prevalence, age, sex, ethnicity, recovery rates the biological theory of schizophrenia including the dopamine hypothesis; brain dysfunction in relation to brain volume, the roles of the frontal lobes, the hippocampus and temporal lobes criticisms of the biological theory including the nature/nurture debate the social drift theory of schizophrenia including rejection by society and the disengagement of individuals criticisms of social drift theory including problems establishing cause and effect Daniel et al.’s experiment into the effects of amphetamine on the brain activity of people with schizophrenia criticisms of Daniel et al.’s study the clinical characteristics of clinical depression as outlined in the ICD

key statistics of clinical depression including prevalence, age, sex, ethnicity, recovery rates the social rank theory of clinical depression including the evolutionary function of depression and the role of a lower rank in reducing conflict criticisms of social rank theory including the reductionism/holism debate the ABC model of clinical depression including rational versus irrational beliefs; the roles of activating events, beliefs and consequences criticisms of the ABC model including the free will/determinism debate Tandoc et al.’s study of Facebook use and experiences of envy and depression criticisms of Tandoc et al.’s study the use of anti-psychotics to treat schizophrenia the use of anti-depressants to treat clinical depression the use of psychotherapy to treat schizophrenia the use of psychotherapy to treat clinical depression the development of neuropsychology for studying schizophrenia and clinical depression, including neuropsychological tests and brain imaging techniques

Exam practice 1 Outline how the mental health continuum defines mental health. 2

3 4

5

[4] Outline one effect of discrimination on individuals after they have been diagnosed with a mental health problem. [3] Describe the social drift theory of schizophrenia. [8] Outline two criticisms of the findings of Tandoc et al.’s (2015) study into Facebook envy. [4] Use your knowledge and understanding from across the

psychology course to explain how far you agree with the following viewpoint: ‘Depression is more to do with how people think about an event rather than what actually happens to them.’ In your answer you should refer to the ABC model of clinical depression and at least one other area where you have studied cognitive psychology. [13]

4 Social influence 4.1 Key concepts Conformity Conformity is an example of social influence as it describes the tendency to behave as others do. This is often driven by a desire to fit in and not wanting to stand out from those around us. Conformity tends to happen when a majority of people behave or think in a certain way so that other individuals begin to see themselves as ‘different’ or ‘abnormal’. They end up following the norms of their group, even if they may do or say things that they don’t really want to do or do not believe in. The pressure to do this is known as majority influence.

Collective and crowd behaviour Social influence can be seen in groups when people gather together and each member of the group has the potential to influence everyone else. Collective behaviour describes the actions of a group of people who have come together for a particular reason. Crowd behaviour is a more specific example of collective behaviour and often involves unplanned activity.

Pro-social and anti-social behaviour When people come together collectively they may engage in pro-social behaviour, for example working together to raise money for charity or to raise awareness of a social issue. Crowds may also engage in pro-social behaviour, but in a more spontaneous way, for example in a group effort to save someone in danger.

When people come together collectively they may engage in anti-social behaviour, for example a gang may plan an arson attack or a group of friends may keep neighbours awake with their party antics. The anti-social behaviour of a crowd may be something less planned, for example a mob rioting at a football match.

Obedience Obedience is a type of social influence that involves following the orders of an authority figure. The individual behaves in a certain way because they feel there will be severe consequences if they do not do so.

Now test yourself 1 How do obedience and conformity differ from each other? 2 How might collective behaviour lead to pro-social behaviour? 3 Why might crowd behaviour lead to anti-social behaviour?

4.2 Explanations of social influence The effect of situational factors on behaviours Situational factors are those factors outside of the individual and in their environment which influence how they act, such as people and social situations in general.

The effect of majority influence on conformity We are more likely to conform when we are in the minority as most of us have a desire to belong and it feels uncomfortable to be the ‘odd one out’. Research has shown that the tendency to conform increases with the size of the majority. In other words, four people will put us under more pressure to do as they do (for example, smoke, vote a certain way, dress in a particular

way, adopt a viewpoint) than just two people. However, research has also shown that there is a point at which the size of the majority makes little difference. For example, six people have about the same effect on rates of conformity as seven people, eight people and so on. To conclude, if we are in a situation where many people are putting pressure on us to conform then this will have more effect than if we are in a situation with fewer people.

The effect of collective and crowd behaviour One of the major effects of being in a crowd or collective group is that individuals experience deindividuation. Deindividuation is the loss of a sense of individual identity that occurs when we are surrounded by a sizeable group of people. This means that we become less conscious of what we are doing or saying as we do not monitor ourselves in the same way as when we are alone or in a much smaller group. This can be quite liberating for people, for example they may find themselves ‘letting go’ and dancing crazily at a concert. It can also be quite dangerous as people may not feel personally responsible for their behaviour anymore which can lead to problems such as mob violence. In close proximity to a large group of people we may be influenced to behave with less guilt or shame than if we were alone or with fewer people.

The effect of culture on pro-social and anti-social behaviour Certain cultures – such as those of China and Japan – are more collectivist in their approach, which means their members are more community minded and often consider others (such as family, friends, neighbours) in their decision-making. It is normal for them to do things that may not suit them but benefit society as a whole. For this reason, these cultures tend to be associated with more pro-social acts (such as helping others) and fewer antisocial acts (such as being aggressive towards members of their community).

Exam tip If asked to describe situational factors in an exam, you will need to choose at least two from majority influence, crowds, culture and authority. However, for a high-mark question, you should consider

covering all of them. Together, they give a detailed account of the theory of situational factors. Opposing cultures – such as the USA and the UK – are more individualistic. This means that it is normal for their members to make decisions that suit their own interest but perhaps not the interest of others. These cultures tend to be associated with more anti-social acts (such as competing rather than cooperating with others) and fewer pro-social acts (such as giving money to charity). If we find ourselves in a situation where people tend to be individualistic we are more likely to adopt this behaviour too and be more anti-social than pro-social.

The effect of authority figures on obedience In simple terms, the more authority a person has, the more obedience they can command. For example, a headteacher has more authority than a classroom teacher and so students are more likely to follow his or her orders. What is authority therefore? It relates to having the power to punish people. When someone is superior to us, we fear the consequences of not doing as they say. However, if someone has little or no control over what happens to us then it is easier to disobey them. The theory is that under the control of someone with authority, individuals move from an autonomous state, where they feel responsible for their own actions, to an agentic state, where they feel that the person in authority takes responsibility. If we find ourselves in a situation where we are being told to do something we don’t want to, then we are more likely to obey if the person giving the orders has authority over us.

Key criticism • Only looking at situational factors to explain social behaviours is seen as too deterministic. It suggests that people are at the mercy of their situation and have no or little control over what they do. However, critics say that this ignores the fact that people have free will. For example, people can choose not to follow an order or not to follow the crowd if they really want to.

Other criticisms

• Explanations focusing on situational factors tend to make overgeneralisations. There is an assumption that people will behave in similar ways when put in a certain situation (for example, individuals always conform more as the size of the majority increases) but this ignores individual differences. • It is difficult to test situational factors as this can involve actually setting up situations to influence people’s behaviour which can be seen as both artificial and unethical.

Typical mistake Sometimes students think they need to provide a criticism for each situational factor listed. This is not true. Instead, you need to treat situational factors as one explanation or theory and be able to evaluate it on that basis.

Now test yourself 1 2 3 4

What is the effect of the size of the majority on conformity? Why does deindividuation tend to happen in crowds? Why are collectivist cultures associated with pro-social behaviour? What is the relationship between authority and obedience?

Situational factors research study – Bickman (1974): study into obedience and the social power of a uniform How the study was carried out • The aim was to investigate the degree of social power associated with different types of uniform. • The hypothesis was that members of the public would obey orders more or less depending on the uniform being worn by the figure giving the orders. Experiment 1

• The method was a field experiment which was carried out on the streets of New York. • The independent variable was the type of uniform being tested and the dependent variable was whether people obeyed an order or not. • An independent measures design was used where people were either given an order by a confederate in a guard’s uniform or in a milkman’s uniform or in no uniform (civilian dress). • The sample was an opportunity sample made up of 153 adult pedestrians who were judged to be between the ages of 18 and 61. • The confederate giving the orders was always a white male aged between 18 and 20. All four confederates were used for all three conditions (they trialled all three outfits). All confederates were briefed to behave in the same way. • The experiment was conducted on weekdays and mainly in the afternoon. • Pedestrians were approached and asked to do one of three things: pick up a paper bag from the ground, give a dime to a stranger for parking or stand on the other side of a bus stop pole that they were already standing at.

Exam tip Most exam questions are likely to focus on Experiment 1 as this is the most significant part of Bickman’s study. However, do be prepared for questions on the other experiments too. Experiment 2 • This was another field experiment also carried out on the streets of New York. • There were two independent variables: guard versus civilian uniform and surveillance versus non-surveillance. • The sample was another opportunity sample of 48 adult pedestrians with an estimated average age of 46. • The confederate gave orders to give a dime to a stranger for parking. • In half of the situations the confederate stood by the participant at the meter after giving the order and in the other half he walked away after giving the order.

Typical mistake A lot of students make the mistake of thinking that different confederates wore different uniforms. However, this would have been a significant extraneous variable. This is why it was controlled – by making sure all confederates tested out all the outfits. Experiment 3A • This experiment used a questionnaire with 29 different scenarios to do with obedience. • The sample was made up of 141 college students who were asked if each request was legitimate depending on whether it was made by a young man, a milkman or a guard. Experiment 3B • Questionnaires were used again, but this time to ask participants what they thought people would do in one of the scenarios from Experiment 1. • The sample was made up of 189 students.

What the study found Experiment 1

• As the graph shows, regardless of the scenario, there was no significant difference in obedience rates between the milkman uniform and the civilian dress. However, when the confederate dressed as a guard, the rates of obedience were significantly higher than when he dressed as a civilian. • This demonstrated the social power of certain uniforms (those that signify authority). Experiment 2 • When the guard’s uniform was used, the obedience rates were much higher than when the civilian outfit was used.

• However, surveillance had no significant effect on whether participants obeyed or not. Experiment 3 • In the three original scenarios that participants were questioned about, the guard’s uniform was not seen as any more legitimate than the other two outfits. • In the second questionnaire, participants did not think the guard’s uniform would make them obey any more than the other two outfits. • These findings showed that there is a mismatch between how people think they will behave when faced with apparent authority figures and how they actually behave when put in a situation.

Revision activity Draw up a storyboard for Experiment 1 as a way of remembering the different uniforms and tasks used in the procedure.

Evaluating the study • The study lacked control of extraneous variables as Experiments 1 and 2 were carried out in a natural environment. For example, factors such as the weather, how busy the street was and people’s reasons for being on the street could all have affected whether they followed the orders or not. • The findings are culturally biased as people living in an American city may obey less than people in more rural settings where there is more of a sense of community. The findings also do not represent other countries. • The study raises ethical concerns, as the participants in Experiments 1 and 2 did not consent to being experimented on, were not debriefed afterwards and so could not withdraw their data, and may have been caused distress by the situation they were put in. • The use of opportunity sampling can give a biased sample. For example, confederates may not have approached pedestrians who they thought were going to be aggressive, or pedestrians who looked like they were too important to stop. This would make the findings unrepresentative. • The use of the scenarios in the questionnaire were not ‘real’ enough, which is why more people said they would not obey. Questionnaires rely too

much on people’s honesty and insight.

The effect of dispositional factors on behaviours Explanations that focus on situational factors suggest that any one of us could be conformist or non-conformist, obedient or disobedient, anti-social or prosocial depending on the situation in which we find ourselves. However, alternative explanations suggest that behaviour is more about an individual and their disposition (their personality).

The effect of self-esteem on conformity If an individual has low self-esteem they do not think very highly of themselves and therefore rely on others for approval. On this basis, individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to conform, regardless of the situation. In an effort to fit in, they may even do or say things they do not really believe. They hope that this will raise their self-esteem but, of course, there is a danger that this will make them feel worse about themselves – especially if they have gone against their principles. Self-esteem has been linked to neuropsychology, which would suggest that it is a part of personality which cannot be easily changed. Research shows that people with lower levels of hippocampal volume tend to have lower selfesteem.

The effect of locus of control in crowds Individuals with a more internal locus of control are more likely to believe they have control over their lives and behaviours and are more confident about going against the crowd if that is what is right for them. However, individuals with a more external locus of control are more influenced by being in a crowd, regardless of the situation. So, whether the crowd behaviour is positive or negative, individuals with a more external locus of control believe they are controlled by others and are therefore more likely to go along passively with the crowd.

The effect of morality on pro-social and anti-social

behaviour Individuals with higher levels of morality are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviour and less likely to engage in anti-social behaviour, regardless of the situation. This is because their beliefs make them think of others and not just themselves so they want to help others and not harm them, even if this does not bring personal benefits. Psychodynamic theory suggests that individuals with low morality have a weak superego which allows their id to dominate. If the id is in control, individuals can behave very aggressively and very selfishly to get what they want. There is evidence that there is a neuropsychological basis to morality. Damage to the prefrontal cortex seems to have a negative effect on morality.

The effect of the authoritarian personality on obedience Individuals with an authoritarian personality are more prone to obeying than other individuals, regardless of the situation. This is because their personality makes them more conformist, more strict when it comes to rules and respectful of those they see as being above them. This type of personality is usually a result of an individual’s upbringing. Individuals with this type of personality normally come from families with strict parents. The theory is that these individuals unconsciously resent their parents but displace their anger not on to authority figures but those whom they see as being beneath them. This means that people with an authoritarian personality tend to be very intolerant.

Now test yourself 1 Why is someone with low self-esteem likely to conform? 2 Why is someone with an external locus of control more likely to be affected by being in a crowd compared to someone with an internal locus of control? 3 How does someone’s morality affect their pro-social behaviour? 4 What is meant by an authoritarian personality?

Key criticism • Since dispositional factors focus on the individual it makes it more difficult to make predictions about when people will obey. It is important for psychology to be able to make generalisations about why people obey or conform so that situations can be manipulated to increase or reduce these types of social influence.

Other criticisms • Dispositional factors are more difficult to test than situational factors as they are subjective and rely on studying the mind. Situational factors have an observable effect on behaviours. • There is some dispute over how innate dispositional factors are which makes it difficult to decide how much we can change personality and therefore the negative effects of social influence.

Typical mistake Students sometimes get situational factors and dispositional factors mixed up. Situational factors are the situations we are in that affect how we behave. Dispositional factors are individual characteristics that influence how we behave.

Revision activity Use a mnemonic to help you to remember lists, such as the list of dispositional factors. For example, Stroppy Edward Lost Cheeky Martina At Playtime is easier to recall than Self-Esteem, Locus of Control, Morality and Authoritarian Personality.

Dispositional factors research study – NatCen (2011): study into the August riots in England with reference to antisocial collective behaviour and

dispositional factors How the study was carried out • The aim was to find out what had triggered the English riots of August 2011, with a focus on the involvement of young people. • The interview method was used. Participants were interviewed individually or in groups of two or four, depending on what they felt most comfortable with. The interviews took place five weeks after the riots. • The sample was made up of 36 participants evenly split between those below and above the age of 18. Both genders were represented and there was a range of ethnic groups. Most participants were still in education. • The researchers gained full informed consent from the participants and reassured them that their answers would be kept confidential. • Other members of the community and participants from areas unaffected by the riots were also interviewed using focus groups.

Exam tip When you learn about the NatCen study you only need to know about the findings from the Tottenham riots, not the riots that took place in other places in England.

What the study found • Rioting first started during a peaceful protest about the fatal shooting of a London man by police. • The Tottenham riots were triggered more specifically by an alleged incident between a local girl and the police. • The riots involved a wide range of different people including a mixture of ethnic groups and age groups and people who were employed, unemployed or still in education and training. • The researchers categorised those involved in the riots into four types: • Watchers – those who were present at the riots but just observed what was happening. Some were bystanders passing by and others were curious and had come along to watch on purpose. • Rioters – those who were actually involved in the violence and

vandalism. Some were protestors who were acting out because they were upset about the initial shooting. Others were retaliators who wanted to get their own back on the system or the police. The rest were thrillseekers who got a buzz out of being directly involved. • Looters – those involved in breaking into shops or stealing from shops that had been broken into or stealing goods left on the street. Some were opportunists who seized the chance to get goods for themselves and their families or to sell on. Others were sellers who got involved to maximise their own profits. • Non-involved – those who did not take part. Some were stay-aways who chose not to get involved and others were wannabes who would have liked to have been there but were not. • The researchers identified ‘nudge’ factors which were things that encouraged certain young people to get involved in the riots and ‘tug’ factors which were things that discouraged them from getting involved. • The researchers then divided these ‘nudge’ and ‘tug’ factors into dispositional (individual) factors and situational (social) factors.

Exam tip In preparation for the exam, make sure you can distinguish between nudge and tug factors. Also, make sure you can distinguish between dispositional and situational factors. Table 4.1 Dispositional factors affecting decision-making in young people Nudge • Easy to get involved; ‘this is what they do around here’

Factors Previous criminal activity

• Cynicism towards politicians and authority figures • Negative experience with police

Attitudes towards authority

Tug • Been caught once; know the risks • No negative experience with police

• Poor job prospects • Low income • Limited hope for the future

Prospects

• In work or having expectations of future work • A lot to lose

Table 4.2 Situational factors affecting decision-making in young people Nudge Factors Tug • Feeling disinhibited Group • Actively thinking and swept along by the processes toward future goals power of the group • Not focusing on the • Seeing others ‘get ‘here and now’ away with it’ • Feeling anonymous • Friends involved • Seeing it on the TV • Getting texts/Facebook/Instant messages

Peer pressure Information

• No adult telling them Presence not to of authority • Everybody was doing figure it and nobody seemed to be getting caught

• Friends not involved • Not watching TV • Didn’t get any messages • Parents, relations or youth workers telling them not to get involved

Table 4.3 Other factors affecting decision-making in young people Nudge • Relatives not disapproving

Factors Family attitudes

• Attachment to a community with a

Community

Tug • Disapproving • ‘Not brought up like that’ • Attachment to a community with pro-social

culture of low-level criminality

values (including religious communities)

• Little sense of Belonging ownership or stake in society

• Sense of ownership or stake in society

• Desire for material goods but no means to pay for them

• Adequate resources to purchase desired goods

Poverty and materialism

• The researchers concluded that decisions about whether to get involved in the riots or not were influenced by what young people thought was right or wrong and whether they thought the benefits of joining in outweighed the risks. • The researchers concluded that anti-social behaviour is mainly determined by dispositional factors and collective behaviour.

Revision activity Have a go at summarising the findings of the NatCen study by using imagery. Either draw or find pictures that represent the different categories of people involved in the riot, as well as the various nudge and tug factors.

Evaluating the study • The sample may not have been representative as it was quite a small proportion of the people involved in the riots. It may not be reliable to make generalisations on this basis. • The sample was biased by the fact that researchers struggled to find participants. They ended up relying largely on people who had been imprisoned for their involvement in the riots who may be particularly deviant. • The findings may have lacked validity due to socially desirable responses. The participants may have underplayed their involvement or may have exaggerated it to look harder (especially as many were interviewed in groups).

• The findings relied on people’s memory of events. Even five weeks later these may have been unreliable. • The findings may have been influenced by the fact that the researchers had to interpret the results to fit in with their categories. This may have introduced some bias into the results.

4.3 Application – changing attitudes How minority influence affects social change Social change often relies on an individual or small minority going against the norm. Nothing would ever change if everyone just stuck with what the majority do. Minorities can influence social change but this often relies on certain factors: • Consistency is important as having an unchanging view shows confidence and suggests the message is unbiased. • Commitment is important as it shows perseverance which means that you are taken more seriously. • Flexibility is important as the minority lack power initially so need to come across as reasonable and co-operative.

Minority influence in relation to changing attitudes and behaviour towards, increasing awareness of, and reducing mental health stigma and discrimination Up until about 200 years ago, society believed that people with mental health problems were possessed by evil spirits. This was a commonly held view and it took a small group of medics and other professionals to convince others that this was not true. In more recent times, small groups and organisations have campaigned for a more positive view of mental health problems, in

preference to labelling them as an illness. As more people accept this view of mental health, it begins to reduce stigma and discrimination.

How majority influence affects social change As we have seen, it is easier to influence individuals with a majority because those individuals have a desire to fit in with others and follow norms. This can also happen when individuals lack information about a situation – it is easier to do and say as the majority do, as they seem better informed. As more and more people join the majority, it becomes easier, through democratic systems, to affect social change.

Now test yourself 1 What is the difference between minority and majority influence in relation to social change? 2 How is research into social influence relevant to reducing mental health stigma and discrimination?

Majority influence in relation to changing attitudes and behaviour towards, increasing awareness of, and reducing mental health stigma and discrimination As minority groups began to change society’s views of mental health then, bit by bit, the minority becomes the majority. When a significant number of people share a view of mental health then it becomes easier to instigate change. For example, you could argue that the Mental Health Act of 1959 followed pressure from society to view mental health differently. As both famous and everyday people speak out about their own experiences of mental health problems, we begin to see that these problems affect large numbers of people. In time, this should make us see that it is quite normal to have these problems. We tend not to stigmatise or discriminate against those things we see as the norm.

Exam tip Although the specification relates minority and majority influence to changing views of mental health, do be prepared for questions that may ask you to apply the same ideas in a different context where views are or could be changed.

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: conformity including majority influence collective and crowd behaviour including pro-social and anti-social behaviour obedience including obeying the orders of authority figures the theory of situational factors including the effect of majority influence on conformity, collective and crowd behaviour and how it can lead to deindividuation, the effect of culture on pro-social and anti-social behaviour, and the influence of authority figures on obedience criticisms of the theory of situational factors, including the free will/determinism debate Bickman’s experiment into the social power of uniform criticisms of Bickman’s study the theory of dispositional factors including the effect of selfesteem on conformity, locus of control in relation to crowds, the effect of morality on pro-social and anti-social behaviour, the relationship between the authoritarian personality on obedience, the influence of the brain in dispositional factors (hippocampal volume in self-esteem and regions of the prefrontal cortex in morality) criticisms of the theory of dispositional factors including issues of generalisability the NatCen study into the August 2011 riots in England criticisms of the NatCen study how minority influence affects social change in relation to

changing attitudes and behaviour towards, increasing awareness of, and reducing stigma and discrimination related to mental health how majority influence affects social change in relation to the changing attitudes and behaviour towards, increasing awareness of, and reducing stigma and discrimination related to mental health

Exam practice 1 Outline what is meant by deindividuation in relation to crowd behaviour. [3] 2 Complete the passage below, on Bickman’s (1974) study into obedience, by filling in the gaps. You must choose a different term for each gap from the list below. [3] dependent

design

guard

independent

milkman

sample

Bickman used an opportunity ………………………… to test obedience. The ………………………… variable was the type of uniform a confederate wore when approaching people on the street. He found that people were most likely to obey someone in a ………………………… uniform. 3 Outline one way in which the procedure of Bickman’s study could have been improved. [2] 4 Name two dispositional factors that affect social influence. [2] 5 Explain how research into social influence can be useful for changing attitudes. [6]

5 Memory 5.1 Key concepts The stages of information processing Many psychologists compare the human memory to a computer memory. They say that, like a computer, we process information through a number of stages.

Typical mistake When asked to define the stages of information processing, students sometimes use the language of the stages themselves which will not get any credit. For example, you should not define storage as ‘storing information’ or retrieval as ‘retrieving data’. Make sure you use another word that means the same thing. For example, encoding is about ‘reformatting data’ rather than ‘putting data into a different code’.

Types of forgetting When we forget something, this can happen for different reasons. These include: • decay – when information has not been rehearsed or used enough in

memory so it just fades away over time. • displacement – when older information is pushed out by newer information because there is not space for it all in storage. • retrieval failure – when information that is still in memory cannot be easily accessed due to a lack of cues.

Now test yourself 1 Which stages of information processing come between input and output? 2 Which type of forgetting happens when we run out of space in short-term memory? 3 What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia? 4 What is meant by procedural memory?

How the brain works in the formation of memories Psychologists know which parts of the brain are associated with different types of memory because when certain parts of the brain are damaged (neurological damage), the change in structure affects memory function. • Anterograde amnesia is severe memory loss for experiences and information received after the neurological damage. This is linked to an area of the brain known as the hippocampus – the area where new memories are formed. • Retrograde amnesia is severe memory loss for experiences and information learned before the neurological damage. This is linked to an area of the brain known as the frontal lobe – the area that holds memories to allow for planning and making judgements. • The cerebellum is a part of the brain that is associated with procedural memory. Because it is deep in the brain it is rarely damaged. This means that people with severe memory loss rarely forget how to do things (such as walk, talk, read or feed themselves). Procedural memory is the part of memory that holds motor skills. People with anterograde amnesia are very poor at learning new facts or remembering recent events but they can still

be taught new skills if their procedural memory is still intact.

Revision activity It can be quite hard to remember the different parts of the brain but try to make connections between their names and their function. For example, cerebellum has the word ‘bell’ in it which you could link to bell ringing – a motor skill which would be held in the procedural memory.

5.2 Explanations of memory The multi-store model of memory This model focuses on the structures of human memory with specific reference to time and space. It can be summarised as shown in Figure 5.2.

Exam tip It is acceptable to reproduce the diagram of the multi-store model in an exam but it will earn limited marks. If asked to describe the multistore model, you will need to provide some commentary too. However, the diagram may act as a useful cue to help you do this.

• This shows that an input comes from the environment and through the senses into sensory store. This data is held for a very brief period of time but soon decays. If we pay attention to it before it decays then it is passed to short-term memory. • Data is only held in short-term memory for a short period of time and then it will decay. The short-term memory also has a very limited capacity so older information can be displaced by newer information. If data is rehearsed in the short-term memory (for example, by repeating a word) then it will stay for longer and, with continual rehearsal, will eventually transfer to long-term memory. • Once data is in long-term memory it has the potential to stay there forever. This store has an infinite capacity. This data needs to be retrieved back into short-term memory in order to use it but this can sometimes be difficult to do. This is known as retrieval failure.

Revision activity When revising the different types of forgetting that you have to know about, note how they link in with the multi-store model. For example, decay relates to time and displacement relates to space. The three stores that make up the multi-store model differ in terms of duration (how long information lasts before it decays), capacity (how much space there is in the store) and the way in which they code data. These differences are summarised in Table 5.1.

Now test yourself

1 What are the three stores that make up the multi-store model of memory? 2 In what ways do the stores in the multi-store model differ from each other? 3 According to the multi-store model, what processes does data go through as it moves between stores?

Key criticism • The model overemphasises the role of rehearsal in memory. There are many things we rehearse that do not seem to be in long-term memory and, similarly, there is information we recall well even though it has not been rehearsed. Critics would say that this is because the meaning of data is more important than how much we rehearse it. In other words, meaningful information and events are recalled easily because they are significant to us. However, if we rehearse something that is not that meaningful to us, we will struggle to remember it in the long term.

Other criticisms • The model over-generalises by seeing us as mass-produced machines whose memories are built in the same way and function in the same way. However, evidence suggests that our memories work much more individually than that. This could be because what is meaningful is not the same for everyone. • The model can be criticised for not recognising there is more than one long-term store. Evidence shows that when people suffer from brain damage, they lose certain types of long-term memory but not all, suggesting there are separate long-term stores for procedures, for personal experiences, and for general knowledge and facts.

The multi-store model of memory research study – Wilson, Kopelman and Kapur (2008): prominent and persistent loss of past awareness in

amnesia: delusion, impaired consciousness or coping strategy (the Clive Wearing study) How the study was carried out • The aim was to record the neuropsychological assessments and experiences of an individual who suffered from a severe and rare case of both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. • The method was a longitudinal, case study. • The participant was Clive Wearing – a British man who was born in 1938. • Clive had been an outstanding musician and a gifted musical scholar but, in 1985, he developed an influenza-type illness, and was later diagnosed with herpes simplex viral encephalitis – a virus which destroyed large sections of his brain. • Clive was first referred to Wilson in 1985 and was studied on many occasions over the following 21 years. • The research involved detailed observations and in-depth interviews as well as taking brain scans at intervals.

Exam tip Do note that the Wilson et al. study is also listed as an example of the impact of neurological damage on behaviour and so may be used to assess your knowledge of neuropsychology.

What the study found • Clive’s verbal and performance IQ scores, although in the average range, had declined compared to his ability before the illness. • His short-term memory was normal but his long-term memory was severely affected. • Scans showed Clive’s brain was very different from normal in the following areas: hippocampal formations, amygdala, mammillary bodies and temporal poles. • Clive always scored zero on tests of delayed recall (long-term memory).

• His episodic memory was severely affected, and there were also some problems with his semantic memory. • He could not lay down new memories nor recall previous ones, showing that he suffered from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. • However, Clive still had the ability to talk, read, write, conduct and sightread music. • For many years, Clive did not appear to accept that he had a memory disorder. He explained his memory problems in terms of the fact that he had not been conscious since he became ill. For example, if shown his diaries, he accepted that the entries were in his handwriting but said, ‘But I wasn’t conscious when I wrote that. I’m now conscious for the first time.’ • In 1995, Wilson et al. suggested Clive’s preoccupation of having just regained consciousness could perhaps be interpreted as a delusion. However, they later decided that he may have just been trying to make sense of why he couldn’t remember things as he did not show any other psychiatric features associated with delusions. • The researchers concluded that Clive’s temporal lobe damage was so severe that this explained why he did not recognise the existence of his past consciousness. • The fact that Clive’s short-term memory functioned when his long-term memory did not supports the multi-store model’s ideas that memory stores are separate and distinct. • The study also lends some support to the idea that there are different types of long-term memory – procedural (this was intact for Clive), episodic and semantic.

Evaluating the study • It is difficult to make generalisations about the effect of brain damage from studying just one person. It may be that other people would be affected differently under the same circumstances. • The case has been used to draw conclusions about normal human memory and how it works. However, because Clive Wearing is an unusual case it may not be reliable to do this. • Some of the commentary on the case relied on the researchers’ interpretation of Clive Wearing’s behaviour, especially as he was not able to easily explain his own experiences. This means some of the findings may be open to researcher bias.

• The study raises a number of ethical concerns including the lack of confidentiality (the participant was named), the way he was tested when it did not benefit him directly (not considering his welfare) and the fact that he seemed to be distressed by the investigation (especially when he could not explain certain aspects of his experiences when questioned). • Because the researchers did not know Clive before he suffered amnesia they had to rely on his family members’ accounts of his life before his illness. This relied on some level of interpretation, making some findings subjective.

Revision activity To help you remember the details of the Wilson et al. study it might be useful to rewrite it in a different format. This is the kind of case that may appear in a magazine so why not try to write it up as an article as part of the revision process. The idea is that you must understand the study well to be able to present it back in a different format.

The theory of reconstructive memory While the multi-store model focuses on the structure of memory, the theory of reconstructive memory is more about the processes involved in remembering and forgetting. It makes the point that our recall is rarely accurate – we do not remember things exactly as they happened as our memories do not operate like video recorders. The term ‘reconstructive’ refers to the theory that we build a version of events and ideas to store them in memory. According to the theory, schemas are an important part of our memory. A schema is a mental framework for an object or a situation that we have experienced. We use schemas to build a ‘picture of the world’ and to make sense of new incoming information. It may seem obvious to say that experiences play a significant role in memory (we need to experience something to remember) but it also means that we can sometimes misremember things as we have made them fit in with our previous experiences. For example, if we see something unusual (such as a car with three wheels) we may modify our schema for cars to account for this or we

may instead recall seeing a car with four wheels because that fits our existing schema. Schemas also drive our expectations so that we may go into a situation knowing what is going to happen (from memory) rather than relying on our direct experiences. For example, we may have a schema for what happens in an exam hall which means that we don’t need to pay close attention to instructions and routines as they are well established. However, this also means that we may not notice a change to proceedings. For example, we may forget to hand in a watch because we didn’t always have to do this. We also use schemas as part of a process known as confabulation. This is when we rely on past memories to ‘fill in gaps’ to give a more detailed account of an event or situation. This is not a conscious process (people are not lying when they use confabulation). It is another example of us trying to make sense of something that has happened but where the memory is not complete. This can happen when people have witnessed a crime and remember key points but not everything. Sometimes, we don’t change our memory of events ourselves but are influenced by others. Memories can become distorted because of things we have heard or seen elsewhere. For example, a witness to a crime may unconsciously add in details of the event based on what they have picked up from a news report. People are also vulnerable to leading questions. The way that a question is phrased can influence people’s memory of events. For example, if a police officer asks which hand a suspect was holding a weapon in, this implies the suspect had a weapon – something the witness may not have recalled. However, at a later date, because memory is reconstructive, the witness may incorporate this information into their own memory and could recall a weapon (whether one was being held or not).

Now test yourself 1 2 3 4

What is meant by schema? How do experiences and expectations play a part in memory? What is the purpose of confabulation in memory? How do leading questions affect memory?

Key criticism • The theory is not as reductionist as the multi-store model as it fails to give a simple and predictable explanation of how memory works. It takes a more holistic approach to explaining memory, seeing it as a product of many different processes working together.

Other criticisms • The theory is too abstract. For example, the concept of a schema is difficult to test as it is not something that can be observed through scanning the brain. • The theory does not really explain how or why processes such as confabulation and distortion happen – just that they do.

Exam tip Remember that every theory has key terms that you can be assessed on specifically. For the theory of reconstructive memory these are schemas, the role of experience, the role of expectation, the process of confabulation, distortion and the effect of leading questions.

Reconstructive memory research study – Braun, Ellis and Loftus (2002): study into how advertising can change our memories of the past How the study was carried out Experiment 1 • The aim was to see whether autobiographically focused advertising could affect how people remember a childhood experience. • The hypothesis was that people would reconstruct their childhood memories to incorporate information used in an advert.

• The method used was a laboratory experiment. • The experimental design was an independent measures design. • The independent variable was whether participants were shown a Disney advert or a control advert. • The dependent variable was measured using a questionnaire, and was the difference in the score (when measured two weeks apart) for a question that asked how likely it was that the participant had ‘met and shook hands with a favourite TV character at a theme resort’. The score came from a rating ranging from 0 to 100 where 100 meant it definitely did happen and 0 that it definitely did not. The question was always the fourth out of 20 questions about childhood events. • The sample was made up of 107 undergraduates from an American university. • Participants were randomly assigned to either the group who received the Disney advert or the group who received the control advert. • During week one of the experiment the participants were given the questionnaire about childhood events along with two other distractor tasks. The distractor tasks were used to help disguise the aim of the experiment and reduce the effect of demand characteristics. • In week two, participants were shown the advert that they had been assigned. They were also asked to visualise the advert and imagine themselves experiencing the situation described in the advert. They were then given five minutes to write down their feelings about the advert. After that, they also rated the advert using a questionnaire. • After a short distractor task, an experimenter from week one entered the room and acted out the same scene each time. The experimenter pretended to be in a panic and said there had been a problem with scoring the questionnaire on childhood events from the week before. This was the excuse for getting the participants to do the questionnaire again. • After a 15-minute distractor task, a different experimenter gave the participants a questionnaire which asked if they had ever been to Disney World and, if so, to describe their memory of it. They also rated the reliability of their memory for the event. • Two independent judges rated these questionnaires. • Finally, the participants were asked what they thought the aim of the experiment had been (to test for demand characteristics) and also whether they believed their memories of Disney had been affected by the advert

they had seen.

Revision activity There are lots of stages in this experiment. It might be useful to write each stage on to a separate cue card. You can then test yourself by trying to put the cue cards in the right order to describe the procedure. Experiment 2 • This experiment was another version of Experiment 1 where the aim was to see whether false information in an advert could make participants think that those events had happened to them as a child. • Again, a laboratory experiment was conducted with an independent measures design. • The sample was 167 undergraduates from an American university. • There were three conditions in this experiment – advert one suggested they had shaken hands with Bugs Bunny (who is not a Disney character), advert two suggested they had shaken hands with Ariel (who was a new Disney character at the time and not around when the participants were children), and advert three was factual and acted as a control. • The questionnaire on childhood memories was the same as before but Question 4 was reworded to ask about shaking hands with a cartoon character in a theme park. This was then measured on a 10-point rating scale. • The procedure was the same as Experiment 1, apart from the fact that all participants were given a Disney advert to see whether just mentioning the Disney name was enough to trigger autobiographical memories.

What the study found Experiment 1 • The two judges showed a high level of inter-rater reliability when rating the questionnaires. • Of the participants who saw the Disney advert, 65 per cent mentioned memories of Disney World, 74 per cent mentioned that the advert caused

them to imagine the experience, and even those who had not visited the park before said they were able to imagine the experience. This showed the potential effects of autobiographical advertising. • Significantly more participants in the Disney condition compared to the control condition increased their scores from week one to week two in relation to their confidence that they had personally shaken hands with a famous TV character at a theme resort. The percentages were 90 per cent versus 47 per cent. This was evidence for imagination inflation, which was more common in those who had seen the Disney advert. • There were significantly more positive thoughts in the Disney condition than the control condition, and significantly more of the advert’s elements (such as the words used) occurred in the Disney group. • Nobody had been able to guess the aim of the experiment – there was no evidence for the effect of demand characteristics.

Exam tip This study refers to lots of key terms you should know from research methods. This means the study may be used to assess your knowledge of research methods in the exam by asking specific questions about concepts such as laboratory experiments, experimental designs, variables, inter-rater reliability and demand characteristics, for example. Experiment 2 • The two autobiographical adverts were more involving for participants than the informational advert. • All three groups increased their confidence that they had shaken hands with a cartoon character after seeing the advert but the increases were more marked in the two autobiographical conditions: 78 per cent in the Bugs Bunny condition and 76 per cent in the Ariel condition compared to 62 per cent in the non-autobiographical condition. Overall, the experiments led to the following conclusions: • Autobiographical advertising can make people more confident that they experienced an event as a child that was suggested by the advert. • Autobiographical advertising can affect how people remember the past.

• Introducing false events in autobiographical advertising can cause people to believe they have experienced those events. • Autobiographical advertising can lead to the construction of false or distorted memories.

Evaluating the study • The study lacked ecological validity. People are not normally exposed to adverts under such controlled conditions. For example, it is artificial to expect people to analyse an advert as much as they had to in this study. • The study lacked construct validity. This is because the measure for imagination inflation was a very narrow one. It focused on one event and this was also measured using a crude scoring system. • The sample was age biased. As undergraduates, the participants represented a very narrow age range. It might be that children and older adults are influenced differently by autobiographical advertising, especially when it relies on triggering past memories. • The sample was culturally biased. America is a very commercial country and so its citizens are exposed to a lot of advertisements. This may impact on how they respond to autobiographical advertising. It may, for example, make them more resistant than other cultures because they are used to it. • There are ethical issues in relation to this study. Participants were obviously deceived and therefore had their memories manipulated without their consent.

Exam tip Note that this study is made up of two experiments and you may be asked about one experiment or the other in the exam so watch out for this. However, also note that the evaluation points work for either experiment.

5.3 Application – techniques used for recall

How research into memory has been applied to advertising One of the aims of advertisements is to get the audience to remember the product. Research into memory gives ideas of how this can be done.

Cues We know that cues trigger information that is hard to retrieve from long-term memory. For this reason, advertisements often make an association between a product and something else (the cue). The cue may be a celebrity (someone who is well known already) so that when an individual thinks about the celebrity they are reminded of details of the product. Situations can also be cues so that when someone is in a setting similar to one that they have seen in an advertisement (for example, in a supermarket) it will trigger a memory for the product. Adverts can also make an association with feelings. For example, food products are often advertised before meal times so that they become associated with hunger. This means that when an individual feels hungry this acts as a cue and they may recall the product and want to buy it.

Avoiding overload We know that the short-term memory has a limited capacity so gets overloaded very easily. Information recently processed into short-term memory can be quickly displaced by newer information. For this reason, TV advertisements often present information about products in small chunks so that there is time to process it. For example, slogans for products are often short and snappy so that audience are not overloaded and can understand what the product is about without having to remember lots of details.

Repetition We know that repeating things is a form of rehearsal and this process allows information to be stored in long-term memory. In simple terms, the more often we see an advertisement, the more likely we are to remember the details of its product. Within a TV advertisement, repetition is also used. For example, the image of a product may be shown a number of times, or the

voiceover may repeat key information (such as a phone number or the date that a sale ends) a number of times.

Typical mistake You may be asked to outline how memory techniques can be used to advertise a particular product. A common error is for students to ignore the product and either give a generic description of advertising techniques or to write about a different product they have used as an example before. To have a chance of earning full marks, it is important you make the effort to apply the ideas to the product referred to in the question (for example, the information that would be repeated about this product or the type of cues that would work with it).

Autobiographical advertising Autobiographical advertising is about using images and themes from the past that the audience can associate with their own life experiences. The advert aims to trigger positive memories so that the audience associate the product with pleasurable feelings, and are therefore more likely to want to buy it.

The development of neuropsychology for measuring different memory functions Neuropsychological research has made links between different parts of the brain and different types of memory functions. This also means tests have been developed that can assess these different functions. A well known test is the Wechsler Memory Scale which scores people in five areas: auditory memory, visual memory, visual working memory, immediate memory and delayed memory. The Wechsler Memory Scale is successful at differentiating people with amnesia and other neuropsychological disorders from people with normal memory functioning.

Now test yourself

1 What kind of memory techniques are used as part of advertising? 2 What is meant by autobiographical advertising? 3 What is the Wechsler Memory Scale?

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: stages of information processing – input, encoding, storage, retrieval and output types of forgetting – decay, displacement and retrieval failure (lack of cues) the role of the hippocampus on anterograde amnesia the role of the frontal lobe on retrograde amnesia the role of the cerebellum on procedural memory the multi-store model of memory, including sensory store, shortterm memory, long-term memory; the differences between stores in terms of duration, capacity and types of encoding criticisms of the multi-store model including rehearsal versus meaning in memory Wilson et al.’s case study of Clive Wearing criticisms of Wilson et al.’s study the theory of reconstructive memory including the concept of schemas, the role of experience and expectation on memory, the process of confabulation, distortion and the effect of leading questions criticisms of the theory of reconstructive memory including the reductionism/holism debate Braun et al.’s experiment into the effects of advertising on memory criticisms of Braun et al.’s study the use of cues, repetition and avoiding overload in advertisements the use of autobiographical advertising the development of neuropsychology for measuring different memory functions, including the Wechsler Memory Scale

Exam practice 1 Outline two stages of information processing. [4] 2 Psychologists tested 20 participants on their short-term memory with a list of 20 words. Half recalled the list of words immediately and the other half after a delay in recall. The results are shown below.

(a) Calculate the mean of both groups from the raw data provided. Show your workings for each mean. [4] (b) State what the means for each group show about the effect of delay on memory. Justify your answer. [2] 3 (a) Identify how many years Clive Wearing was studied for in Wilson, Kopelman and Kapur’s (2008) case study. A 1 year B 11 years C 21 years D 31 years [1] (b) Identify the type of brain imaging technique reported on in the Wilson, Kopelman and Kapur study. A CT B EEG C MRI D PET[1] (c) Identify the cognitive process tested during the Wilson, Kopelman and Kapur study.

A B C D

delusions disorganised speech hallucinations thought disturbances [1]

4 Outline what is meant by a schema in relation to the theory of reconstructive memory. [2] 5 An advertising company wants to promote a new cereal bar. Using your knowledge of techniques for recall, explain how they could do this. [6]

6 Sleep and dreaming 6.1 Key concepts The functions, features and benefits of sleep Sleep is something that every single human being does. This shows that it is a natural function and something that benefits our survival. It helps us survive in a number of ways.

Healthy brain The gaps between brain cells get larger during sleep and this is important for getting rid of toxins that would otherwise damage the brain. Sleep also helps to protect information stored in the brain as well as being a time when new memories are consolidated.

Physical repair Sleep is a time when damaged cells are repaired, when hormones are rebalanced and when the immune system is more active so that it kills more bacteria and viruses.

Exam tip REM sleep is the most important stage to know about for the exam as it is the stage in which most dreaming occurs and a large part of this topic focuses on dreaming.

Emotional stability A lack of sleep can lead to various emotional problems such as feeling

irritable, agitated and lethargic.

Stages of sleep Sleep happens in cycles that last around 90 minutes each and are made up of five stages as shown in Figure 6.1.

The role of the pineal gland and melatonin The pineal gland is an endocrine gland at the centre of the brain. It produces a hormone called melatonin, which is responsible for sending us to sleep. During the day, the pineal gland is not active but is ‘switched on’ as night falls. This is when melatonin is released into the blood stream. The effect of this is that we feel drowsy and eventually fall asleep. Melatonin levels remain high for about 12 hours after first being released.

The causes of sleep disorders When people do not follow normal sleep patterns, we say they have a sleep disorder, or insomnia. This can happen for a number of reasons.

Sleep onset insomnia

When people have this disorder, they struggle to get to sleep, often lying awake for hours. Causes include: • anxiety problems • having too much caffeine, too much nicotine or a heavy meal too close to bedtime • playing computer games too close to bedtime.

Sleep maintenance insomnia When people have this disorder, they struggle to stay asleep and end up waking regularly through the night. Causes include: • feelings of depression • drinking too much alcohol • being with someone who snores.

Endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers Both of these sets of cues have a role to play in controlling the 24-hour sleep and wake cycle.

Endogenous pacemakers These are biological clocks inside of the body (endogenous). A part of the brain known as the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) is an endogenous pacemaker. It responds to light and dark, and sends messages to other parts of the brain that control things like body temperature and hormone production – things that affect whether we feel tired or awake.

Exogenous zeitgebers These are cues external to the body (exogenous – in the environment) which help to regulate sleep and waking. They can be physical factors such as exposure to daylight, or more social factors such as eating times.

Now test yourself

1 2 3 4

What are the benefits of sleep? What happens in the REM stage of sleep? What is the pineal gland’s role in sleep? How are the causes of sleep onset insomnia and sleep maintenance insomnia different? 5 What is the difference between endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers?

6.2 Explanations of the nature of dreaming The Freudian theory of dreaming A key idea in Freudian theory is that most of the mind is made up of our unconscious mind. This is the part of our mind of which we have no awareness even though it controls many of our behaviours. One of the things that the theory says it controls is our dreams. According to the Freudian theory we have many instinctive urges that we need to repress – often because they are aggressive or overly sexual. When we repress them, we basically push them into the unconscious mind so that we are no longer aware of them. However, using repression as a defence mechanism only deals with these urges temporarily. The theory argues that eventually these urges are released through our dreams.

Typical mistake Students often use the term ‘subconscious’ instead of ‘unconscious’ but these are not the same thing. The unconscious is something that the conscious mind cannot easily access whereas information in the subconscious is just below conscious awareness and can be accessed with a shift in attention. The Freudian theory states that dreams are a form of wish fulfilment. In other words, we dream about the things that we secretly desire and privately want

to do. Dreams perform an important role, according to the theory – they allow us to release some of the anxiety we have around our hidden desires. The Freudian theory states that dreams don’t often reflect our urges in an obvious way. Instead, they have a manifest content which means we dream about images and events that represent our urges but do not relate to them directly. For example, a person may dream about being sat on a toilet in the middle of a street – this isn’t because they have an urge to do this in real life but it may mean they have a hidden fear about being exposed in some way. The real meaning of dreams is known as the latent content in this theory.

Now test yourself 1 What is the difference between the conscious and unconscious mind? 2 How does repression work as a defence mechanism? 3 How are dreams examples of wish fulfilment? 4 How does the latent content of a dream differ from the manifest content?’

Key criticism • The theory is too subjective. This is because dream analysis is open to interpretation. The content of a dream can be viewed in many different ways depending on your viewpoint.

Other criticisms • The evidence for the theory is weak as many of the ideas are difficult to test and even then it relies on case studies which can also be very unreliable. • The theory is potentially historically and culturally biased as dreams are interpreted in terms of what was acceptable and unacceptable at the beginning of the twentieth century when Freud was writing. For example, society used to be much more uptight about sexual relationships.

The Freudian theory of dreaming research study – Freud (1918): dream

analysis study of ‘The Wolfman’ How the study was carried out • The aim was to show that dream analysis would help treat psychological problems by releasing repressed memories. • The method used was a longitudinal case study with interviews that took place over four years. • The sample was a man in his twenties from a wealthy Russian family, who was investigated under the name of ‘The Wolfman’. • The Wolfman came to Freud suffering from depression after his sister and father had both committed suicide. One of the Wolfman’s problems was that he could not empty his bowels unless he had taken an enema. • Freud’s treatment centred on a dream that the Wolfman had experienced in which he woke to find his bedroom window opening by itself and outside a number of white wolves sitting staring from a tree.

What the study found • The wolves watching the Wolfman as a boy was interpreted as a real event when, as a young child, the Wolfman had seen his parents having sex. • The wolf symbolised the father, and their whiteness represented the bed clothes and sheets of his parents. • The tree represented a Christmas tree as the original dream had occurred at Christmas time and so the wolves had replaced presents. • Freud concluded that the Wolfman had had an unconscious desire to be seduced by his father and this was related to the pleasure of receiving Christmas gifts. • However, the Wolfman also feared his father, like he feared the wolves, as he was scared of being castrated by his father (as he thought his mother had been). • Freud suggested that the Wolfman had repressed his fear of his father (the latent content of the dream) but displaced it on to the wolves (the manifest content of the dream). • The study found that dreams can represent repressed thoughts which hide in the unconscious.

Exam tip Because this study is a case study it does not have as many research methods concepts and terms in its description. However, make sure you are aware of where it overlaps with the research methods topics as you could be asked questions specifically about this.

Evaluating the study • It is difficult to make any reliable generalisations from the study of one person. Other people’s dreams may be more literal than the Wolfman’s, for example. • The Wolfman is also unrepresentative in the sense that he was suffering from mental health problems so may have had different types of dreams compared to other people. • The study focuses on something that cannot be objectively tested – the unconscious. • The study relied on the Wolfman accurately recalling his dream but there is no guarantee that this is the case. Dreams are notoriously difficult to remember. • The case study used the interview method but this can be unreliable. The Wolfman may have lied, or lacked insight or may not have been able to adequately explain what he had experienced.

Revision activity You may find it useful to rewrite the description of the Freud case study but leave some gaps by missing out key facts and ideas. At a later date, go back to the description and test yourself by seeing if you can fill in the gaps.

The activation synthesis theory of dreaming This theory is particularly focused on the REM (rapid eye movement) stage

of sleep. In this stage, there is a lot of brain activity compared to other stages. At points, powerful electrical signals pass through the brain. The signals come from a part of the brain called the pons. The pons sits in the brainstem and operates like a message station. Signals also come from neurons that control eye movement (hence REM) and also activate the limbic system. The limbic system is the part of the brain responsible for a number of functions including memory, behaviour and emotions. The theory is that these random surges of brain activity stimulate the higher parts of the brain (the cerebral cortex). This part of the brain then tries to make sense of the activation – this is what the theory means by synthesis. The effort to give the brain activity some meaning is what leads us to dream. Of course, the brain activity is random so it is hard to attach real meaning to it which is why our dreams end up being quite strange a lot of the time.

Now test yourself 1 2 3 4

What is REM sleep? What is the pons? How does brain activity link to the limbic system? What is the role of the cerebral cortex according to the activation synthesis theory? 5 How does the theory explain the randomness of dreams?

Revision activity You may find it helpful to annotate an image of the human brain – not only to show the parts of the brain involved in dreaming but also to describe the processes involved.

Key criticism • The theory is highly reductionist. Critics say it is too simplistic to try to reduce something as complex as dreams to random electrical activity. Consider how this contrasts with Freudian theory and its much deeper analysis of why dreams occur.

Other criticisms • Dreams often follow patterns (for example, they can be recurring) or can be quite coherent sometimes. This does not fit in with the idea that they are generated by different types of random activity throughout the night or across nights. • People whose brainstems are damaged still dream even though the pons is not necessarily producing any signals. This suggests that dreams are a product of something else.

The activation synthesis theory of dreaming research study – Williams et al. (1992): study into bizarreness in dreams and fantasies How the study was carried out • The aim was to show that dreams are a product of different brain activity which occurs during sleep. • The hypothesis was that the bizarre content of dreams would be different from the bizarre content of daytime fantasies as they are products of different types of brain activity. • The method was a natural experiment which also used self-report. • The independent variable was whether people were reporting on dreams or fantasies. • The dependent variable measured how bizarre dreams and fantasies were. • The sample was made up of twelve biopsychology students from an American university whose ages ranged from 23 to 45. • For one term, students were asked to keep a written journal to record any dreams they could recall as well as any fantasies they experienced during their waking hours. • Using these journals, the researchers selected 60 dreams and 60 fantasies to be analysed. They selected reports that were more detailed and had visual content. • The dreams and fantasies were scored on two scales – one for the locus and

one for the type of bizarreness per sentence (or unit). • A bizarreness density score was calculated by dividing the number of bizarre items in a report by the number of sentence units. • The scoring was done by three separate judges and this was checked for inter-rater reliability. • The judges did not know whether they were scoring a dream or fantasy although, each time, they were asked what they thought they had read after analysing the report.

What the study found • The three judges showed good levels of inter-rater reliability. • There was a significant difference between the mean density scores for dreams and fantasies, with the mean for dreams being approximately three times higher than the mean for fantasies – showing dreams were more bizarre on average. • The most significant difference between dreams and fantasies was on plot discontinuity. • Seven out of twelve participants had dreams with significantly higher bizarreness scores than their scores for fantasies. • The judges were 88.7 per cent accurate on judging whether a report described a dream or fantasy, suggesting the two processes involve different types of cognitive activity. • The researchers concluded that the bizarreness of dreams correlates with brain activity during REM sleep, which is why dreams contain more bizarreness, including remoteness of time and place compared to fantasies. • There was some overlap between the content of dreams and fantasies during inattentive waking but this was explained in terms of the similarities in brain activity during REM sleep and during the wake–sleep boundary.

Evaluating the study • The sample was too small to generalise from and also ten of the twelve participants were female so the findings may also have been gender biased. • The use of the self-report method can be unreliable as it relies on people’s memories, insight and ability to explain their experiences (in writing in this case). The researchers could not be sure they were getting an accurate account of participants’ dreams and fantasies.

• The results lack construct validity as qualitative data was turned into quantitative data and so the complexity of dreams and fantasies was lost when the content was analysed in terms of numbers. • The independent variable was difficult to control as there was no guarantee that dreams being described happened in REM sleep (as opposed to other stages of sleep). Also, what were described as fantasies could actually have been more like dreams if they happened when participants were feeling drowsy. • The differences between scores for dreams and fantasies may have more to do with how they were recorded by participants. For example, it is more likely that fantasies were recorded not long after they happened whereas dreams were recorded longer after the event. This means the details of dreams are more likely to be forgotten and that participants tried to make sense of them, making them appear more coherent than they really were.

Exam tip For any study, make sure you have at least one criticism that you can explain well in case you are asked for one that is going to earn you three marks. It is also important to have a range of criticisms as this helps with higher scoring questions where you are asked to evaluate a study.

Revision activity Write a description of the study using your own words. Keep rewriting this description but each time try to reduce it down so that what you end up with is a skeleton description which contains the key features of the study. This is much easier to revise from but also the whole process is an effective revision activity in itself.

6.3 Application – development of treatments for insomnia

Features of insomnia Remember that insomnia is a sleep disorder as it describes an inability to sleep. This can either be sleep onset insomnia or sleep maintenance insomnia.

The role of the nervous system and its management through relaxation techniques The nervous system plays an important role in sleep because it affects how relaxed or stressed we feel. When we are anxious this is a result of the sympathetic nervous system being activated. To balance this, the parasympathetic nervous system is activated to calm us down again. Therefore, the parasympathetic system has a role in helping us get ready for sleep. Sometimes, the parasympathetic system struggles to do its job – for example, when people are suffering from prolonged stress. This is when people may try relaxation techniques in an effort to take conscious control of their stress. Relaxation techniques include: • clearing the mind by writing down worries or imagining them floating away • deep breathing • relaxing different sets of muscles across the body.

The role of the physical environment in insomnia and its treatment through improved sleep hygiene The physical environment refers to the place where we sleep – for most of us, this is our bedroom. Sleep hygiene refers to the idea that we can ‘clean up’ our physical environment to make it easier to get to sleep or stay asleep. Ways of improving sleep hygiene include making sure bedrooms are: • dark – using blinds, turning off equipment that gives off light

• neither too hot nor too cold – turning down radiators, using different bedclothes and linen for different seasons • quiet – not listening to music, removing ticking clocks.

The impact of neurological damage to the hypothalamus on sleep Neurological damage to the hypothalamus may happen for a number of reasons, such as disease, neurosurgery, injury or ageing. Because the SCN is part of the hypothalamus, damage can lead to problems with sleeping. This could be due to the brain not reacting to daylight in the usual way which means that melatonin is not produced as normal. For this reason, people with damaged hypothalamuses are sometimes given a drug, to use at night, which is a substitute for melatonin.

Now test yourself 1 How do relaxation techniques help with insomnia? 2 What is meant by sleep hygiene? 3 Why does neurological damage to the hypothalamus have an effect on sleep?

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: the functions, features and benefits of sleep including healthy brain, physical repair and emotional stability stages of the sleep cycle and when dreaming occurs the role of the pineal gland and melatonin the causes of sleep disorders (sleep onset insomnia and sleep maintenance insomnia) endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers, and their role in sleep the Freudian theory of dreaming, including the idea of the unconscious mind, the role of repression, the concept of wish

fulfilment, the manifest and latent content of dreams criticisms of the theory including the issue of subjectivity Freud’s case study of ‘The Wolfman’ criticisms of Freud’s study the activation synthesis theory of dreaming, including the role of REM sleep, the function and actions of the brain during sleep (the limbic system and activity of neurons in the pons), the process of synthesis as a function of the cerebral cortex criticisms of the theory, including the reductionism/holism debate Williams et al.’s experiment into the bizarreness of dreams and fantasies criticisms of Williams et al.’s study features of insomnia the role of the nervous system and its management through relaxation techniques the role of the physical environment in insomnia and its treatment through improved sleep hygiene the impact of neurological damage to the hypothalamus on sleep

Exam practice 1 Outline one benefit of sleep. [2] 2 Outline one stage of the sleep cycle. [3] 3 Evaluate the Freudian theory of dreaming. [4] 4 Describe the procedure of Williams et al.’s (1992) study into bizarreness in dreams and fantasies. [6] 5 A questionnaire survey was carried out to investigate people’s experience of sleep. One question asked about the use of relaxation techniques among different age groups. The results of the question are shown below. Table 6.1 Survey results

Age group 13–18 19–25 26–40 41–60 60+

Percentage using relaxation techniques 6% 10% 18% 19% 11%

(a) Calculate the fraction of 26–40–year–olds who used relaxation techniques in its lowest possible form. Show your workings. [2] (b) Calculate the number of 13–18–year–olds who used relaxation techniques if 150 people from this age group were surveyed. Show your workings. [3] (c) Outline one strength of using closed questions in this survey of sleep. [2] (d) The survey used a self-selected sample. Explain one weakness of using this sampling method in the study. [3]

7 Research methods 7.1 Planning research Hypotheses Hypotheses are statements made by researchers to show what they predict their findings will be before carrying out a study.

Null hypotheses If a prediction suggests there will no pattern in the results then this is known as a null hypothesis. A null hypothesis can predict no difference in a dependent variable even when the independent variable changes. For example: ‘There will be no significant difference in the number of people that pick up litter for someone in a milkman uniform and someone not in a uniform.’

Exam tip The specification expects you to know the difference between null and alternative hypotheses, and that both differences and correlations can be predicted (as well as no patterns). Remember, if a study has an IV and DV it will be predicting a difference but if it has co-variables and is looking for a relationship between them, it will be predicting a correlation. A null hypothesis can also predict no correlation between two co-variables. For example: ‘There will be no significant correlation between people’s neuroticism scores and how many crimes they have committed in the past year.’

Alternative hypotheses An alternative hypothesis is an alternative to the null hypothesis and therefore does predict some kind of pattern in results. For example: ‘There will be a significant difference in the number of children that show the ability to conserve depending on whether they are four years old or seven years old.’ or ‘There will be a significant correlation between people’s psychoticism scores and how many crimes they have committed in the past year.’

Variables Variables describe things that can change in studies.

Independent variables and dependent variables Sometimes, variables are changed by (or are in the control of) the researcher. We say these variables are manipulated. This is what happens to the independent variable (IV). The IV represents the conditions in an experiment, such as wearing a milkman’s uniform or not, or being four years old or seven years old.

Typical mistake Students often write alternative hypotheses which predict a difference between the IV and DV but this makes no sense as they are different variables anyway! Note that you should be predicting a difference in the DV depending on the IV. When the IV is manipulated it is because it is normally predicted to have an effect on the dependent variable (DV). In other words, this variable depends on the IV (hence its name). To see if the DV is affected, it needs to be measured; for example, the number of people who pick up litter, whether a child conserves or not.

Exam tip Under the pressure of the exam, it’s easy to get IVs and DVs muddled with each other so use a simple diagram like the one in

Figure 7.1 to make sure you have them the right way round.

Co-variables Only experiments where differences are predicted have an IV and a DV. When correlations are investigated, we call the variables co-variables because one does not necessarily affect the other – they are just related to each other. For example, criminal activity may affect psychoticism or vice versa, so they are both co-variables. Co-variables always need to be measured on some kind of scale; for example, the number of crimes committed in the past year, a score for neuroticism.

Extraneous variables Other factors that can affect the outcome of a study if not controlled are known as extraneous variables. In the case of experiments, these are variables that affect the DV, apart from the IV. For example, in an obedience experiment, if different people were used to wear different uniforms this would be an extraneous variable, as participants may be responding to the appearance of the actual person and not the uniform itself.

Extraneous variables need to be controlled so that they cannot affect results. The most straightforward way to do this is to keep them the same so they do not vary. This process of ‘keeping things the same’ is known as standardisation. For example, if the same person is used to test all types of uniform then this extraneous variable has been controlled.

Exam tip Note that the only method of control listed on the specification is standardisation. However, you may know about others such as counterbalancing and randomisation. It is also acceptable to write about these in an exam where appropriate.

Experimental designs Once researchers have decided to carry out an experiment, they then need to decide on their experimental design. Experimental designs describe how participants are allocated to the different conditions of the IV.

Repeated measures design With this type of experimental design, participants take part in both (or all) conditions. For example, a participant’s aggression levels may be tested after playing both a violent computer game and a neutral computer game. Strengths of repeated measures designs • There are no participant variables so any differences between conditions cannot be put down to using different participants. If participants end up being more aggressive after playing the violent computer game they have not changed within themselves so it is likely to be due to the game. • It is more cost effective as the same participants can be used for both conditions rather than having to recruit additional participants. Weaknesses of repeated measures designs • There is a risk of order effects as performance may be affected by things like the practice effect (where participants perform better on the second

condition) or the boredom/fatigue effect (where they perform worse on the second condition). For example, if participants play a neutral game after a violent game, their aggression levels may drop because they are getting mentally and physically tired of playing games, not because the second game itself is affecting them. • Often, the test (or measure) needs to be changed when participants do both conditions, otherwise doing the same test may lead to fatigue or practice. However, varying the task gives an extraneous variable.

Typical mistake When asked about experimental designs, students often make the mistake of writing or talking about experimental methods – as in laboratory, field and natural experiments. In an exam, this error could lose you a lot of marks. Make sure you are clear on the distinction.

Independent measures design With this type of experimental design, participants take part in only one condition. They are normally randomly allocated to one condition or the other. For example, with 20 participants, 10 would play a violent computer and 10 would play a neutral game. Then all would have their aggression tested in the same way afterwards. Strengths of independent measures designs • There are no order effects. Since participants take part in one condition or the other, they cannot get better through practice or worse through boredom/fatigue. • The task can remain the same between conditions as the participants are not the same. This removes a potential extraneous variable. Weaknesses of independent measures designs • Any differences between conditions may be due to individual differences between participants rather than the independent variable. So, if an experiment shows the aggression levels of participants who’ve played a violent computer game are higher than another group of participants

who’ve played a neutral game, this may be down to the fact that the first group are naturally more aggressive or have more experience of being violent, for example. • More participants are needed. For example, rather than recruiting 20 participants and using them twice, 40 participants would be needed with an independent measures design. Or the 20 participants are split between two conditions, only giving a small number (10) in each.

Revision tip Do pay attention to the names used for different research methods and concepts. The name ‘repeated measures’ makes sense if we recognise that participants are repeatedly measured as they go through each condition. Similarly, ‘independent measures’ tells us that the participants on one condition are independent of the participants in the other condition (because they are different sets of people).

Populations and sampling Target populations The target population is the group of people that psychologists are

investigating. In some cases, this may be the entire human population if it is something that applies to everybody – for example, investigating forgetting or conformity. However, the target population may be more specific than this – for example, criminals, children or people with schizophrenia.

Sampling Even when the target population is quite small – for example, people suffering from amnesia – it still might be too big for the psychologist to investigate everyone in that population. Instead, most psychologists sample from the population. This means that they select a smaller group to study but, hopefully, one that represents the rest of the population by being a good cross-section. The more representative a sample it is, the easier it is to make generalisations about the rest of population. When psychologists generalise, they draw conclusions about the whole population based on the sample they have studied.

Exam tip The specification also refers to ‘principles of sampling as applied to scientific data’. This means you may have to apply your knowledge of sampling and populations to numerical data in the exam. For example, you may have to calculate the percentage or fraction of a population being sampled or you may have to explain why a larger sample is more representative than a smaller one. Sample size The larger the sample, the greater the proportion of the target population that is being studied. In general, a sample that makes up 10 per cent of the target population is going to tell you more about the rest of the population than one that just makes up 1 per cent. In other words, larger samples tend to be more representative. If a sample is too small, then key types of people may be under-represented or not represented at all (for example, a certain age group, a certain ethnic group) and therefore it is more difficult to make generalisations.

Sampling methods There are different ways of selecting a sample (the participants) for a study. The key methods and their advantages and disadvantages are shown in Figure 7.3.

Exam tip If you want to argue that a sample is not representative of the population in the exam, remember there are many ways of making this point. You can say it is unrepresentative or difficult to generalise from. You can also say that it has low population validity. Or you can write about the sample being biased – you may also be able to refer

to how it is biased (for example, gender biased).

Ethical guidelines Ethical guidelines refer to a set of recommendations that psychologists should try to follow when carrying out research. Because our subject matter is people, we need to make sure we are protecting them when we are investigating them and this is what ethical guidelines are about.

Ethical issues Lack of informed consent Ideally, participants should agree to being studied (consent) and should also know why they are being studied (informed). This is not always possible for practical reasons but does raise the ethical concern of a lack of informed consent.

Protection of participants from psychological harm Psychologists should protect participants as far as possible and avoid causing them psychological harm. However, because of the nature of some investigations participants may be caused distress, which causes ethical concerns. The question is whether the benefit of the research outweighs the cost to the participants.

Deception Sometimes psychologists believe they need to research people without them knowing or mislead them about the aim of a study. Although this type of deception causes ethical concerns, it may be necessary to make sure participants do not behave differently from normal.

Ways of dealing with ethical issues Use of debriefing

If participants have been deceived then they can be told in a debriefing, apologised to and given the right to withdraw their data. Debriefings are also useful for making sure any psychological harm is addressed so that participants leave in the same state as when they entered the study.

Right to withdraw It should be made clear to participants at the start of a study that they have the right to withdraw at any point. This means that if they feel distressed or uncomfortable during the study they do not have to continue, thus protecting them from psychological harm.

Confidentiality Psychological research can deal with sensitive and personal matters so participants may be reluctant to take part (because, for example, they think they will embarrass themselves). Guaranteeing their confidentiality (for example, making their data anonymous) is a good way of reassuring them and also is highly ethical.

The British Psychological Society’s code of ethics and conduct In the UK, ethical guidelines for research have been drawn up by the British Psychological Society and are known as the code of ethics and conduct. Failure to follow these guidelines may mean that psychologists can no longer be part of the society, which will make it difficult for them to carry out research in the future. The guidelines appear under four main headings. Respect This is about valuing the dignity and worth of all individuals and includes getting consent, giving the right to withdraw and ensuring confidentiality. Competence This means that psychologists should work within the limits of their knowledge, skill, training, education and experience, and not try to carry out

research that is too challenging for them, as this may result in damage to the participants. Responsibility This is about a psychologist’s obligation to protect their participants – for example, by not putting them at risk, making sure any negative effects of doing the study are dealt with, and that concerns are raised if a participant reveals anything potentially harmful to them during the study. This is also why debriefings are important. Integrity This is about valuing honesty, accuracy, clarity and fairness. For this reason, deception should be avoided wherever possible.

Now test yourself 1 What different types of things can hypotheses predict? 2 What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable? 3 Why do extraneous variables need to be controlled? 4 Why would a psychologist choose a repeated measures design rather than an independent measures design? 5 Why would a psychologist choose an independent measures design rather than a repeated measures design? 6 What is meant by a sample? 7 What are the strengths and weaknesses of different types of sampling methods? 8 How can psychologists make sure their research is ethical?

Exam tip There are two main questions that come up around ethical issues. One is to identify an issue in a piece of research, and the other is to do with resolving the issue. Make sure you understand the difference between these questions, and that you can spot them in the exam.

7.2 Doing research There are many different methods for psychologist to choose from when doing research, each with their own strengths and weaknesses.

Experiments Experiments always have an independent variable and dependent variable, and then other extraneous variables which are controlled. In a laboratory experiment the environment is also controlled whereas in a field experiment a natural environment is used instead. In a natural experiment the IV is not directly manipulated by the experiment but instead is something that would change naturally (or in real life) anyway. Table 7.1 Strengths and weaknesses of experiments Strengths Weaknesses • Because the IV is • Experiments tend to have low manipulated while other construct validity as the DV often variables are controlled it is has to be measured in a narrow possible to establish cause way. and effect with some degree • Experiments often suffer from of reliability. demand characteristics • The method is very especially if the participants are objective because it is so aware they are being highly controlled. investigated. • Laboratory experiments • Laboratory experiments often are the most reliable form of use artificial environments that experiment as there are so do not relate to real life (have few extraneous variables. low ecological validity). • Field experiments have • Field experiments have more high ecological validity as extraneous variables than participants are laboratory experiments, meaning experimented on in their they are not as reliable at normal setting. establishing cause and effect. • Natural experiments allow • Natural experiments may have

experimenters to investigate IVs that it would be impossible or difficult to set up.

other variables that cannot be controlled and change with the IV, which makes it more difficult to establish cause and effect.

Typical mistake It is easy to get natural experiments mixed up with field experiments since field experiments take place in a natural environment. Just remember that the ‘natural’ refers to the IV. In fact, natural experiments can be laboratory based or field based.

Interviews Interviews involve asking participants questions, usually face to face or alternatively over the phone or via the internet. Structured interviews use preset questions whereas unstructured interviews are more like conversations where questions are based on the answers given. Table 7.2 Strengths and weaknesses of interviews Strengths Weaknesses • Interviews allow • Interviews rely in psychologists to access what participants having insight into cannot be observed (thoughts their thinking and then being and feelings). able to articulate it. If they are • Because the interviewer is not able to do this, the findings present during questioning may be unreliable. they can clarify questions and • Because interviews are face answers. to face, there may be a • Structured interviews are problem with social desirability useful because it is easy to with participants wanting to make comparisons between look good and saying what participants’ answers as they they think they ought to rather have all been asked the same than telling the truth. questions. This makes it easy • Structured interviews do not

to identify patterns. • Unstructured interviews tend to give more valid data as they are more conversational and can explore issues more deeply.

allow the interviewer to follow new lines of enquiry that may be of interest or importance. • Interviewers can influence answers more easily in an unstructured interview, which can make findings less objective.

Typical mistake Students sometimes make the mistake of thinking structured interviews only use closed questions and unstructured interviews only used open questions. Both types of interviews can use both types of questions. The difference is down to whether questions are pre-set or not.

Questionnaires Questionnaires consist of a set of predetermined questions that are given out to participants, often to complete by themselves. Questions can be open, allowing participants to answer freely and usually in some depth, or closed, which involves participants choosing from a set of possible answers. Closed questions can also use rating scales where participants score their response to a question or statement. Table 7.3 Strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires Strengths Weaknesses • Questionnaires allow • Questionnaires rely on psychologists to access participants having insight into what cannot be observed their thinking and then being able (thoughts and feelings). to articulate it. If they are not able • Because questionnaires to do this, the findings may be can be anonymous this unreliable. should encourage • Questions may be

participants to give truthful responses, leading to valid findings. • Open questions allow psychologists to gain richer, more meaningful data. • Closed questions allow psychologists to draw easy comparisons between participants and to look for patterns. • Rating scales allow psychologists to analyse responses statistically, again looking for patterns.

misunderstood or missed out as there is often no one there to clarify them. • Answers to open questions can be open to interpretation when analysed. • Closed questions may restrict responses so that participants cannot express their true thoughts. • Rating scales generate quantitative data, which may lack construct validity.

Observations Observations involve watching people’s behaviour and recording what is seen and heard. Naturalistic observations can take place in real-life environments whereas controlled observations take place in laboratory settings. Observations can also be overt or covert. During overt observations the participants are aware that they are being observed; during covert observations the psychologist observes in secret. Finally, observations can be participant or non-participant. For participant observations the psychologist joins the group or situation that is being observed to experience it first hand, whereas in a non-participant observation the psychologists observes behaviour from outside of the situation.

Exam tip Interviews and questionnaires are both self-report methods and therefore have some common strengths and weaknesses. Identify what they have in common as this can reduce the number of different evaluation points that you need to learn for the exam.

Table 7.4 Strengths and weaknesses of observations Strengths Weaknesses • Observations allow • Observations are generally psychologists to see a open to observer bias and the situation for themselves rather psychologist only seeing what than relying on participants he or she wants to see. telling them about it – this • Naturalistic observations potentially gives more reliable make it difficult to control findings. extraneous variables. • Naturalistic observations • Controlled observations may have high ecological validity as create artificial situations. people showing their natural • Overt observations suffer behaviour. from the observer effect as • Controlled observations people behave differently make it easier to establish because they know they are cause and effect. being watched. • Overt observations are more • Covert observations can be ethical as people can consent seen as deceptive because to being observed. they are done in secret. • Covert observations give • Participant observations more valid results as people make it difficult to record data behave as they normally do. as psychologists are also • Participant observations give taking part in whatever is going psychologists better insight on – so important details may into a situation as they be missed or forgotten. become part of it. • Psychologists cannot • Non-participant observations normally ask questions in nonare more objective as the participant observations so are psychologist is literally just relying on what they can ‘standing back’ from what is see – which may not give the being studied. whole picture.

Exam tip Note how the strengths and weaknesses of the different pairs of

observations are opposites of each other. This is true of lots of types of research methods, such as experimental methods, experimental designs, sampling methods and different types of data. Make sure you are aware of these ‘opposites’ as it makes it much easier to learn and revise the various strengths and weaknesses.

Case studies Case studies focus on one individual or one group of people (for example, a family, a school, a village, a culture). Since only a small sample is used, the investigation goes into a lot of detail using methods such as naturalistic observations and unstructured interviews. This means that case studies

produce qualitative data. Table 7.5 Strengths and weaknesses of case studies Strengths Weaknesses • The data is rich and in-depth, • Small samples mean making it highly valid. it is difficult to make • Case studies tend to investigate generalisations. unusual situations that could not easily • Psychologists can be set up for practical and/or ethical get too involved in their reasons. cases and lose their objectivity.

Correlations Correlations investigate the relationship between two co-variables. Both variables need to be measured in some way and therefore quantitative data is analysed. The data is analysed to see if there is a positive or negative correlation, or no correlation at all (zero correlation). Positive correlations are when the co-variables change in the same direction (for example, as one increases so does the other). Negative correlations are when the co-variables change but in opposite directions (for example, as one variable increases the other decreases). Table 7.6 Strengths and weaknesses of correlations Strengths Weaknesses • Correlations can • Unlike experiments, investigate situations that correlations cannot establish could not be set up for cause and effect. practical/ethical reasons. • Because co-variables have to • Since co-variables occur be scored in some way this can naturally, findings have high cause problems with construct ecological validity. validity.

Typical mistake

Students often confuse experiments and correlations but they are different methods. Experiments are set up which is why it is possible to establish cause and effect. Something is manipulated (the IV) to see if it has an effect on something else (the DV). In correlations nothing is set up as such. The co-variables are naturally occurring anyway – the researcher just needs to investigate whether they are related. However, because any relationship is found after the event, it is not possible to establish cause and effect.

Now test yourself 1 What do different types of experiments have in common, and how are they distinct from each other? 2 What are the benefits of doing a structured interview rather than an unstructured interview? 3 What is the difference between using a questionnaire and carrying out an interview? 4 What are the benefits of using open questions rather than closed questions? 5 What are different ways of doing an observation? 6 Why is it difficult to generalise when using a case study? 7 What is the difference between a zero correlation and a negative correlation? 8 Why is an experiment better than a correlation when carrying out research?

7.3 Analysing research Types of data When research is carried out, different types of data can be collected.

Quantitative data and qualitative data Quantitative data is numerical (for example, measures of central

tendency, percentages, ratings) whereas qualitative data is descriptive (for example, written in words, images, voice recordings). • A strength of quantitative data is that it easy to analyse numbers to make comparisons and look for patterns. • A strength of qualitative data is that it is more valid as it is rich and detailed. • A weakness of quantitative data is that it lacks construct validity as it narrows behaviours and thinking down to just numbers. • A weakness of qualitative data is that it is more open to interpretation than quantitative data so is not as objective.

Primary data and secondary data Primary data is collected directly by the psychologist whereas secondary data has been collected or produced by someone else and is used by the psychologist – it is second-hand data. • A strength of primary data is that it should be well focused on the aims of the study as the psychologist is in control of the data that they collect. • A strength of secondary data is that it can give the psychologist access to people who they would not be able to investigate directly (for example, studying a dead person by analysing the diaries they have left behind or analysing the drawings of vulnerable children). • A weakness of primary data is that it can be influenced by the psychologist who is collecting it (for example, they may ask questions in a certain way). • A weakness of secondary data is that it tends to be less reliable than primary data as the psychologist is not there to verify how true or accurate it is.

Exam tip The chances are that you are more likely to be asked a question about primary data than secondary data in the exam as most of the methods you learn about collect this type of data. However, make sure you are prepared for a question on secondary data including how it might be better or worse than primary data.

Typical mistake Not surprisingly, students can get quantitative data and qualitative data mixed up as they have very similar spellings. In the exam, make sure you read these words carefully so you are sure what type of data you are being asked about. Similarly, if you are writing about these types of data, make sure your handwriting is clear enough for the examiner to see which one you are writing about.

Descriptive statistics When quantitative data is collected it can be analysed and summarised using a set of statistics known as descriptive statistics. The ones you need to know for the exam are detailed in Table 7.7. Table 7.7 Descriptive statistics Type of statistic Definition Mode/modal A measure of central tendency class – the most common score in a set of data Median

A measure of central tendency – the middle score when a data set is put in numerical order

Mean

A measure of central tendency – the outcome of adding all the scores together and then dividing this sum by the total number of scores in the data set

Range

A measure of how spread out

Example The mode of {10, 5, 2, 10, 5, 5, 7, 1} =5 The median of {3, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 20} = 10.5 as it’s between 9 and 12, the two middle numbers The mean of {5, 11, 15, 9, 7} = (5 + 11 + 15 + 9 + 7)/5 =

9.4 The range of

Ratios

data is – calculated by working out the difference between the highest and lowest score in a data set, and then adding 1 to ensure the lowest score is included back in the measure A measure that shows the relative sizes of two or more numbers

{5, 15, 4, 4, 11, 8, 17, 19, 3} = (19 − 3) + 1 = 16 + 1 = 17

If the ratio of males to females is 75:5 it means there are 75 males and 5 females. This ratio can be simplified to 15:1 – for every 1 female there are 15 males. Percentages A proportion of something If 5 out of 50 people shown as a number out of 100 agreed with a statement this could also be expressed as 10% (as 5/50 = 0.1). Fractions A proportion of something If 5 out of 50 people shown as one number over agreed with a another statement this could also be expressed as (which is

in its

lowest possible form). Expressions A number that is a series of If participants in decimal digits with some to the right of a form point that represent numbers completed a test this less than 1 would be 0.64 of them (to 2 decimal places). Expressions A method for expressing very 0.0035 = 3.5 × 10–3 as in standard large or small numbers using –3 tells us to move the form the digits 0 to 9 decimal point 3 places to the left.

2.7 × 104 = 27 000 as 4 tells us to move the decimal point 4 places to the right. Decimal The position of digits to the 23.745689 can be places right of a decimal point rounded to 3 decimal places and would be 23.746 as 5 is rounded up rather than down. Significant The number of digits from the 2.56 has 3 significant figures first non-zero digit which are figures. used to show how accurate a 0.003 has 1 significant number is figure. 17.05 has 4 significant figures. 12 000 has 2 significant figures. 9.333 becomes 9.3 when rounded to 2 significant figures. Normal Where a set of data follows a IQ scores are normally distributions bell shape when plotted on a distributed as most graph to show the middle score people score 100 which is the most common and the is in the middle of the extremes are the least common range. Estimations Estimations involve making a A psychologist may from data rough judgement of a value or estimate how many collected pattern children are playing in groups in a playground observation.

Exam tip On each exam paper, 10 per cent is made up of mathematics-based

questions, which also includes questions about graphs. On this basis, it is important to go into the exam being aware of the kind of maths you can (and cannot!) be asked about.

Tables, charts and graphs It is often useful to summarise and analyse quantitative data visually by using tables, charts and graphs. Table 7.8 Tables, charts and graphs

Frequency tables (tally charts) are useful for both collecting and presenting data.

Bar charts are used to present data in categories with the height of each bar showing the frequency for that category.

Histograms are used to present continuous data where the height and width of a bar show the

frequency of the score or scores that each bar represents.

Pie charts are used to present data – usually as percentages – where each segment represents a proportion of the whole data set.

Scatter diagrams are used to show whether two covariables correlate or not.

Line graphs are used to present continuous data where each line shows the change in frequency for a range of scores.

Reliability and validity

When analysing the data from a piece of research, it is also important to evaluate it too. This means deciding how reliable and valid any findings are. Reliability refers to consistency – so if something is reliable it keeps happening. The logic here is that if a psychologist finds out the same thing again and again then it is likely to be true (valid).

Revision activity It is likely that you will need to do more than just know and understand these evaluative terms for the exam. As you are likely to have to apply them to a study (whether it’s one you know or one that you have never seen before), it is useful to look back over the studies you have done as part of the course to see where these issues arise and how they relate to that particular piece of research. Validity refers to accuracy – when something measures what it is supposed to measure and is a true reflection of whatever is being studied.

There are other specific issues that often come up in psychological research and are associated with validity.

Sources of bias When evaluating research, it is also important for psychologists to see if there are any potential sources of bias as this affects the validity of results. In general, bias in research suggests that findings may be skewed to favour one perspective over others. An obvious way this happens is with a sample of participants that represent certain types of people and not others. Another example is when research is set up in a way that means some results are more likely than others (for example, because of the materials used or the way instructions are given out). Bias basically means that findings are not as

objective as they could be. There are a number of different types of bias that can occur in psychological research: • Gender bias – where research favours one sex or gender so that the other is not represented fairly • Cultural bias – where research favours one culture (for example, nationality, religion) so that others are not represented fairly • Age bias – where research favours certain age groups (for example, adults, adolescents) so that others are not represented fairly • Experimenter bias – where experimenters or researchers let their own theories or viewpoints affect how they carry out or interpret a study • Observer bias – where psychologists see what they want to see, based on existing beliefs and then record a version of events rather than what actually happened • Bias in questioning – where psychologists phrase or ask questions in a certain way (for example, using leading questions) so that participants’ responses are no longer a true response.

Revision activity Sometimes silly memory aids can help with revision. In this case, think about the sources of bias as sauces of bias instead. So, for example, Gender becomes Gravy, Cultural becomes Chilli sauce, Age becomes Apple sauce, Experimenter becomes Egusi sauce (look it up!), Observer becomes Oyster sauce and Q … well, good luck with Q … perhaps you can invent your own sauce!

Now test yourself 1 2 3 4 5 6

What advantages do quantitative data have over qualitative data? When might secondary data be used in psychological research? What are the three measures of central tendency? What is meant by a normal distribution in data? How are bar graphs and histograms different from each other? Which graph is used to show a correlation?

7 What is the difference between internal and external reliability? 8 What does it mean if research findings have low construct validity? 9 How might a study be culturally biased? 10 How does observer bias affect the validity of a study?

Summary Tick the following when you think you know and understand them well enough: null and alternative hypotheses and how to predict differences, correlations or no patterns independent variables and how they can be manipulated, dependent variables and how they can be measured, and covariables and how they can be measured extraneous variables and how they can be controlled, including the use of standardisation experimental designs including repeated measures design and independent measures design, and their relative strengths and weaknesses target populations, sampling and sample size with reference to representativeness and generalisability sampling methods including random, opportunity and selfselected, and their relative strengths and weaknesses ethical issues including lack of informed consent, protection of participants from psychological harm, and deception ways of dealing with ethical issues including the use of debriefing, right to withdraw and confidentiality the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of experiments including laboratory, field and natural experiments the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of interviews including structured and unstructured interviews the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of questionnaires the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of open questions, closed questions and rating scales the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of observations

including naturalistic and controlled observations, overt and covert observations, and participant and non-participant observations the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of case studies with reference to the use of qualitative data and the use of small samples the features, the strengths and the weaknesses of correlations with reference to the use of quantitative data and to positive, negative and zero correlations quantitative data and qualitative data, and their associated strengths primary data and secondary data, and their associated strengths using and interpreting measures of central tendency (mode – including modal class, median, mean and range) use of ratios, percentages and fractions use of expressions in decimal and standard form, decimal places and significant figures estimations from data collected frequency tables (tally charts), bar charts, pie charts, histograms, line graphs and scatter diagrams including their use and interpretation of them reliability including internal reliability, external reliability and interrater reliability validity including ecological validity, population validity and construct validity demand characteristics, observer effect and social desirability sources of bias, including gender bias, cultural bias, age bias, experimenter bias, observer bias and bias in questioning

Exam practice A psychologist carried out a study to investigate whether women were more superstitious than men. They used a field experiment where a ladder was positioned against a building so that it took up the whole width of the pavement. This meant that to pass the building, pedestrians either had to walk under the ladder, or go into the road and around the ladder. The psychologist carried out a covert observation to record the proportion of male pedestrians and the

proportion of female pedestrians who did not walk under the ladder. When pedestrians did not pass under the ladder, he judged this as a sign of their superstition. Findings were collected using all of the lone pedestrians that passed the building in a period of two hours. 1 Write a null hypothesis for this study. [2] 2 Explain why this study is an example of a field experiment. [2] 3 Outline one strength and one weakness of using a covert observation in this study. [4] 4 Name the sampling method used in this study. [1] 5 Findings showed that of the 52 female pedestrians observed, 33 walked around the ladder. Express this proportion as a percentage to three significant figures. Show your workings. [3]

Now test yourself answers Chapter 1 Criminal psychology Page 7 1 Acquisitive, anti-social, drug related, sexual, violent 2 Criminal behaviour is a social construct because it is determined by the norms and values of society rather than be a ‘real’ thing. 3 This is the idea that crime is not normal because it breaks the expected standards of society – normally because it is committed by a minority. 4 Official statistics collected from police records, offender surveys, victim surveys

Page 8 1 Parents, peers, media figures 2 Vicarious reinforcement is when somebody wants to repeat a behaviour because they have seen someone else rewarded for it whereas direct reinforcement is when somebody repeats a behaviour because they have received a reward as a consequence themselves. 3 Criminal behaviour is internalised when it happens regardless of the outcomes and this happens as the behaviour becomes reinforced over time so that it becomes ‘part’ of the person.

Page 12 1 It is a trait that makes someone aggressive and inconsiderate of others. 2 A neurotic extrovert would be thrill seeking, risk taking and overoptimistic. 3 In extroverts the reticular activating system tends to be underactive so it needs a lot of stimulus from the environment to be aroused whereas it is

overactive in introverts so it does not need much to stimulate it. 4 Too much dopamine has been associated with higher levels of aggression. The dopamine reward system is also weaker in extroverts so they need more thrilling experiences to trigger feelings of pleasure. 5 Criminal personality types are harder to condition so this means they do not easily form an association between committing a crime and its negative outcomes.

Page 14 1 Rehabilitation is when we try to turn people away from crime by educating them to be better citizens. 2 Restorative justice attempts to make an offender feel guilty or ashamed of their crime by getting them to make direct contact with their victim(s). 3 Positive role models can be used to demonstrate appropriate behaviours for offenders to observe and hopefully imitate – especially if the offender can see that it is rewarding to be law abiding. 4 Prisons, community sentencing, fines 5 Punishment can be a deterrent because if people in general can see the negative consequences of another person committing a crime (for example, being sent to prison) then they will be less motivated to imitate the criminal acts themselves. This is essentially the opposite of vicarious reinforcement.

Chapter 2 Development Page 17 1 Adolescence 2 Neurons are formed in the womb but begin to die immediately after a child is born and keep on doing so throughout our lifetime. Over time, each neuron can form thousands of links with other neurons, giving the average brain in excess of 100 trillion synapses. Synaptic pruning also happens as we develop, although mainly during childhood and adolescence. 3 A foetus’s brain develops quickly throughout pregnancy, and in childhood

it goes through a big growth spurt so it ends up 90 per cent the size of the adult brain. The frontal lobes develop a lot in childhood and the amount of grey matter also peaks at this time. A lot of grey matter is pruned away in adolescence as part of significant brain remodelling which finishes with further development of the prefrontal cortex. In adulthood, brain volume decreases as ventricles get bigger. 4 An IQ test gives people a score for their intelligence after they have answered a series of questions with a particular right answer.

Page 19 1 In the first stage (the sensori-motor stage) children understand the physical world and rely very much on what they can sense. In the next stage (the pre-operational stage) children can think about things that are not necessarily present as they have developed language and symbolic thought. In the third stage (the concrete operational stage) children’s developing understanding allows them to solve problems but they tend to need to do this using concrete objects or by writing things down. In the final stage (the formal operational stage) children’s problem-solving ability develops further and they can do this in a more abstract way without having to rely on objects. 2 According to Piaget, assimilation is when children come across a new object or situation and make it fit in with what they already know and understand. At other times, the experience is so new that they create a new schema for it, which is what Piaget meant by accommodation. 3 By the end of the concrete operational stage children’s skills include being able to think about two different pieces of information at the same time (decentration), being able to use logic to think backwards (reversibility) and being able to understand that the properties of an object do not change just because its appearance has (conservation).

Page 22 1 Both theories are learning theories as they state that development is influenced by environmental experiences and is not simply a natural process. For example, both theories suggest that schools can have an effect on the way children think. Therefore, Dweck believes that children can

learn to change their mindset, and Willingham believes that children learn better when something is meaningful to them. 2 People with a fixed mindset believe their intellectual ability is fixed whereas people with a growth mindset believe it can grow. In this sense, such people do not mind making mistakes and think they can learn from them. Because people with a fixed mindset do not cope as well with failure they tend to avoid challenges. 3 Dweck argues that praise should recognise effort rather than intelligence or ability. This means reinforcing processes such as practice, persistence and resilience, which have been shown to support and develop a growth mindset in people. 4 Willingham disagrees with the idea of learning styles and argues that children may express a preference but it does not mean they cannot learn in a variety of ways. His argument is that children tend to want to know what they are studying before they commit themselves to a particular learning style.

Page 25 1 Key stages in education specify what children should be able to achieve at different stages of education based on their age category. This fits in with Piaget’s idea that cognitive development is age related and that you should not expect children to be able to do things that go beyond their years. 2 According to Piaget, active learning happens when children get to play at being ‘little scientists’ and are given the opportunity to investigate and explore their environment freely rather than being sat down to learn. 3 The whole idea of education is to teach children and so there is an assumption that they can learn concepts and skills that will allow them to make progress. For example, Dweck’s idea of growth mindsets is popular in education because it encourages children to learn from their mistakes and work beyond what they think their potential is. As schools move away from the idea of children having different learning styles we can see the influence of researchers like Willingham. Instead, schools are moving towards children understanding the meaning of what they are doing regardless of their own particular talents.

Chapter 3 Psychological problems Page 29 1 This is because mental health is quite a subjective concept so researchers have different ideas of what it looks like. For example, it can be dictated by what a society thinks is normal or not. 2 The prevalence of mental disorders refers to how common different disorders are at any one point in time whereas incidence refers to the occurrence of new cases of different disorders over a given period of time. 3 One change was to do with the fact that it introduced the term ‘mental disorder’ which meant people started to see mental health problems as an illness like any other. Indeed, one of the aims of the act was to ensure that mental disorders were treated as seriously as physical illnesses so that people saw them both as genuine problems. Another aim was to make local councils responsible for people with mental health problems, which started the idea of ‘care in the community’ which people widely accept nowadays. 4 This is because there is still some stigma attached to having a mental disorder. For example, individuals may be viewed as less capable or more vulnerable because of their mental health problem and so may be treated differently from others on this basis. 5 Care in the community relates to the idea that some people with mental health problems are better off being treated in their community so that they are still able to engage with society as normal rather being taking away from it which could be more damaging. For example, they can remain with their family or possibly still go to work as usual.

Page 32 1 The dopamine hypothesis is a theory which suggests that individuals with schizophrenia have an overactive dopamine system which causes high dopamine levels in the brain. The theory is that these individuals have dopaminergic neurons that fire too easily or too frequently, which means

there is an excess of dopamine travelling across synapses. They also have more dopamine receptors than is normal which results in more dopamine binding. 2 Brain dysfunction refers to a situation where a person’s brain, or parts of their brain, do not work in the same way that typical brains do. 3 The prefrontal lobe is associated with schizophrenia and is activated less frequently in people with the disorder, which means they can lose control over their psychological functioning. The temporal lobes are also associated with schizophrenia and have a lower volume in people with the disorder, which means they may have issues with sensing information accurately, or with understanding or generating speech. The hippocampus is associated with schizophrenia too and has a smaller volume in people with the disorder, which means they may have problems with forming accurate or reliable memories.

Page 33 1 Social drift is the idea that people (with schizophrenia) move down the social scale over time. 2 Disengagement of individuals describes a situation where people (with schizophrenia) withdraw from society because they no longer feel part of it or are not interested in being part of it. 3 Rejection by society is a term that refers to the idea of people (with schizophrenia) being ignored or shunned by their communities, often as a result of stigmatisation.

Page 36 1 Depression follows loss, so it is a way of making us stop competing and accept our loss. If we carry on competing when we are not up to it, then our survival is under threat. Instead, we take time out and withdraw ourselves until we are fit to ‘fight’ again. 2 Accepting we have a lower social rank – although making us feel depressed at the time – means we know our place in the social order and do not try to fight for something we cannot win which in turn could

have been a threat to our survival.

Page 37 1 Rational beliefs are ways of thinking that are logical and fit in with reality. Irrational beliefs are ways of thinking that are not supported by evidence and don’t make sense to others. 2 The same activating event can lead to depression or not, depending on what happens next. If people think about the event in a rational way then the chances are that they will avoid depression. However, if they try to explain the event using irrational thoughts then the consequence may be depression. In summary, the consequence of an event is determined by what we attribute it to, which is a cognitive process.

Page 40 1 Anti-psychotics treat schizophrenia by blocking some of the dopamine receptors in the brain, which stops some of the chemical messages (that cause the symptoms of schizophrenia) being sent around the brain. 2 Anti-depressants treat clinical depression by increasing the amount of serotonin and noradrenaline in the brain. They can work by stopping the neurochemicals being reabsorbed by blocking the neurons that released them. 3 Psychotherapy works by talking to the individual with a mental health problem with the aim of improving mental health by changing the way that the individual thinks and behaves. 4 Neuropsychology has contributed to the treatment of mental disorders through the development of brain scans. Brain scans allow the images of dysfunctional brains to be compared with typical brains to identify the biological causes of disorders. Neuropsychological tests have also been developed which allow people to be scored for brain function to help identify underlying problems.

Chapter 4 Social influence Page 42

1 Obedience is when people change their behaviour to follow an order whereas conformity is when people change their behaviour to follow others. 2 Collective behaviour happens when a large group of people gather together for a purpose. This purpose can be pro-social because they may be looking to support each other (as in a mass funeral) or to support a cause (as in a charity event). 3 Crowd behaviour happens when a large group of people gather and then this leads to an unplanned activity. Sometimes this spontaneous activity can be anti-social, such as when a crowd turns violent.

Page 44 1 The larger the majority, the more likely it is that an individual will conform and follow the group. However, there is a point (around about six in the group) where the size of the majority stops having an effect and conformity just remains high. 2 Deindividuation tends to happen in crowds because the crowd acts as a kind of mask for individuals that are part of it. This means they lose their sense of awareness and end up doing things they would not normally do as they are not monitoring their behaviour as usual. 3 Collectivist cultures are made up of people who have been socialised to think of the wider community before themselves. This means they often behave pro-socially and do things for the good of society even if it does not necessarily benefit them directly. The idea is that they will get the same back in return at another point in time. 4 People are more likely to obey someone who has authority compared to someone who has not. This is because authority is related to someone’s ability to punish another so individuals fear the consequences of not obeying.

Page 48 1 Someone with low self-esteem is more likely to conform than someone without because they do not really value themselves and hope to raise their esteem by following what others do. Because people with low self-esteem also lack self-confidence, they may find it more difficult to stand up

against a group. 2 Having an external locus of control means that someone believes their life is under the control of factors outside of them and this could include a crowd that they are part of. This means they simply follow the crowd because they believe it is their destiny. Someone with an internal locus of control believes their destiny is more under their own control and so may use their free will to go against the crowd. 3 The more moral a person is, the stronger their sense of right and wrong. Because being pro-social is essentially good (for society) then a moral person will be more interested in this type of behaviour rather than being anti-social. 4 An authoritarian personality is a set of traits associated the type of person who tends to be very obedient. The traits include being more conformist, being strict when it comes to rules, and being intolerant of people who are ‘different’.

Page 51 1 It is easier for a majority to influence social change because of the desire of individuals to fit in and follow the norms. Most people do not want to go against a majority and therefore will change their behaviour and conform. Minority influence is more difficult to achieve but without it, majority opinion would never change. If a small number of people are trying to change the behaviour of a larger group then it helps if they are consistent and committed in their views yet flexible with this. 2 Research into social influence tells us about how to get others to change their thoughts and behaviours. Because stigma is linked to thinking, and discrimination is a behaviour, these are both potentially open to change. Research shows it is possible to establish new norms and values, either through majority or minority influence, and so these norms and values could relate to having a more positive attitude towards mental health problems and how they can be treated.

Chapter 5 Memory

Page 53 1 Encoding, storage and retrieval 2 Displacement 3 Anterograde amnesia is severe memory loss for experiences and information received after neurological damage whereas retrograde amnesia is severe memory loss for experiences and information learned before neurological damage. 4 Procedural memory is a part of long-term memory that holds motor skills.

Page 54 1 The sensory store, short-term memory and long-term memory 2 The stores differ in terms of capacity, duration and how they encode information. For example, the capacity of the sensory store is large but limited, the capacity of short-term memory is very limited (7+/–2 chunks) and the capacity of long-term memory is unlimited. 3 Data is encoded before entering the sensory store, then it is paid attention to before entering short-term memory, and finally it is rehearsed before entering long-term memory.

Page 57 1 A schema is a mental framework for an object or an event. Schemas help to build a ‘picture of the world’ and to make sense of new incoming information. 2 Sometimes, people recall events not because they happened but because they expected them to happen based on past experiences. This can sometimes lead to false memories. 3 Confabulation helps us to fill in the gaps when we come across incomplete information or partial events. 4 Leading questions can distort memories. This is because they imply something has happened when it may not have. People may unconsciously incorporate this information into their memories and then believe it has really happened.

Page 62 1 Advertisers try not to overload the audience with information in case some is displaced. They also repeat key information about a product so that it is rehearsed and more likely to make it to long-term memory. They use cues too by including features that people may come across in real life that then trigger memory of the product. 2 Autobiographical advertising uses imagery and themes from the past so that the audience can associate them with their own personal experiences. The aim is to trigger positive memories so that the audience associate the product with good feelings, and are therefore more likely to want to buy it. 3 The Wechsler Memory Scale scores people in five areas: auditory memory, visual memory, visual working memory, immediate memory and delayed memory. It’s used to identify people with amnesia and other neuropsychological disorders from people with normal memory functioning.

Chapter 6 Sleep and dreaming Page 65 1 The benefits of sleep include helping the brain to stay healthy, giving the body a chance to physically repair itself and supporting our emotional stability during waking hours. 2 Its name comes from the fact that we experience rapid eye movement (REM) while the rest of our muscles are paralysed. Brain waves are fast like when we are awake, and most of our dreams happen in REM sleep. 3 The pineal gland produces a hormone called melatonin, which is responsible for sending us to sleep. 4 Sleep onset insomnia is caused by anxiety problems or consuming things that stimulate us (such as caffeine or nicotine). Sleep maintenance insomnia is caused by depression or consuming too much alcohol. 5 Endogenous pacemakers are internal cues that help regulate sleep patterns (like biological clocks). The exogenous zeitgebers are external cues (in the environment) that do the same job.

Page 66 1 The conscious mind is that part of our mind that we are aware of whereas the unconscious mind contains thoughts that we are not consciously aware of. 2 Repression involves pushing unwanted urges and traumatic events into the unconscious mind. It works as a defence mechanism because it means we are then no longer aware of those things that may cause us anxiety or stress. 3 Dreams are examples of wish fulfilment as we dream about the things that we secretly desire and privately want to do. 4 The manifest content of dreams describes the actual images and other features of dreams whereas the latent content describes the underlying meaning represented by the images and other features.

Page 68 1 REM sleep is rapid eye movement sleep, which happens in the fifth stage of the sleep cycle where most dreaming occurs. 2 The pons is a part of the brain that acts like a message station sending electrical signals through the brain. 3 When the limbic system is activated it affects memories, emotions and other behaviours. 4 The cerebral cortex tries to make sense of electrical signals, which is what produces dreams. 5 Because the electrical signals are random, when the cerebral cortex tries to make sense of them it produces dreams that are also random.

Page 71 1 Relaxation techniques are designed to do the job of the parasympathetic nervous system by addressing anxiety and arousal through exercises, including clearing the mind, deep breathing and relaxing particular muscles. 2 Sleep hygiene relates to the physical environment and how well it is set up for sleep. For example, good sleep hygiene includes an environment that is

dark and well ventilated with minimum noise. 3 Neurological damage to the hypothalamus affects sleep because it contains the SCN, which is involved in sleep regulation. This means the brain doesn’t react to daylight in the usual way so that melatonin is not produced as normal.

Chapter 7 Research methods Page 79 1 Hypotheses can predict a difference or a correlation, or no pattern at all. 2 An independent variable is manipulated by the researcher whereas the dependent variable is measured. 3 If extraneous variables are not controlled they can have an effect on the dependent variable. 4 If a psychologist chooses a repeated measures design it is because they want to compare the same participants in both conditions and eliminate individual differences. 5 If a psychologist chooses an independent measures design it is because they want to use different participants in each condition, perhaps to reduce order effects. 6 A sample is the participants that have been selected for a study. 7 The strength of a random sample is that it tends to be representative; a weakness is that it may produce a freak sample. The strength of an opportunity sample is that it is quick and convenient to use; a weakness is that it tends to produce a biased sample based on who is available. The strength of a self-selecting sample is that it is an ethical way of selecting participants; a weakness is that it may produce a biased sample because of the kind of people who volunteer. 8 Psychologists can follow ethical guidelines to make sure research is ethical. This includes getting informed consent from participants, ensuring their confidentiality, giving them the right to withdraw, avoiding causing them psychological harm, and debriefing them where appropriate.

Page 83 1 All experiments have an IV and a DV, and establish cause and effect. However, laboratory experiments take place in controlled environments whereas field experiments take place in natural environments. Natural experiments can take place in either type of environment, but unlike the other two, they have IVs that are naturally occurring. 2 The benefits of a structured interview are that the set questions give the interview a focus and allow comparisons to be made more easily been interviewees’ answers. 3 Interviews involve direct contact with the people being questioned and this is normally face to face. However, questionnaires can be sent out or published, so that people can complete them in their own time and space. 4 Open questions normally encourage deeper responses compared to closed questions. This means answers are likely to be more valid. 5 Observations can be controlled or naturalistic, covert or overt, and participant or non-participant. 6 It is difficult to generalise with a case study as the investigation is based on one individual or one group, which may not necessarily represent others. 7 A zero correlation means there is no relationship between the two covariables being measured whereas a negative correlation suggests there is a relationship (as one of the co-variables increases, the other one decreases). 8 An experiment is better than correlation because an experiment can tell us whether one variable directly affects another whereas a correlation can only tell us about the relationship between two variables, which means either could affect the other or that they may only be related indirectly.

Page 89 1 Quantitative data is easier to analyse than qualitative data, which means patterns can be more reliably identified. It is also seen as more objective than qualitative data. 2 Secondary data is data generated by somebody else besides the researcher. This can be useful when the researcher does not have easy access to someone they want to study, or are concerned that they may not

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get valid data if a person feels under pressure from being investigated. Mean, median and mode A normal distribution occurs across a data set where the most frequent score is the one that occurs in the middle, while frequency goes down the more extreme scores get – whether higher or lower than the middle score. Bar graphs are used to measure the frequency of data in categories, which is why their bars are separate from each other. Histograms are used to measure the frequency of data that comes from a continuous, numerical scale, which is why the bars touch each other. A scatter diagram Internal reliability measures how consistent a test or tool is within itself whereas external reliability measures how consistent a test or tool is across different points in time (whether it gives the same score for the same thing on two different occasions). If research findings have low construct validity it means that the behaviour being investigated (the construct) has been measured in a very narrow way so that the findings do not represent the whole construct very well. A study may be culturally biased if a sample only contains people from certain cultures and not others, or if it is run in a way that makes assumptions based on the cultural background of the researcher. Observer bias occurs where a researcher sees what they want to see, based on their own views or opinions, which means that the findings are potentially subjective rather than fact.

Exam practice answers Chapter 1 Criminal psychology 1 A social construct is something that does not physically exist and instead is a product of society. Crime is a social construct because it comes from people interacting and creating an idea that then exists in an abstract way. For example, it is acceptable to drink alcohol in the UK as long as you are over a certain age – we have only made underage drinking a crime. In other societies – like Saudi Arabia – drinking alcohol is illegal for all. This means that the same activity (drinking alcohol) can be perceived differently depending on society’s norms and expectations. 2 According to Social Learning Theory crimes are learned, and this would imply that they can be unlearned. However, evidence suggests that attempts to curb crime (for example, through restricting exposure to violent media and by punishing offenders) are not as effective as they should be, with many people offending or re-offending. 3 Cooper & Mackie tested the effects of violent computer games by randomly exposing 84 nine-to eleven-year-olds to one of three conditions: they played an aggressive computer game (Missile Command) or a nonaggressive one (Pacman) or were in a control condition where they played a paper and pen maze game. After playing these games, their aggression levels were tested in two ways. One measure was based on observation, where children were given a choice of four toys to play with, including one aggressive one. A researcher covertly measured which toys were selected first and how long each toy was played with. The other measure focused on interpersonal aggression by recording how long children pressed a buzzer in response to scenarios where fictional children either behaved well or behaved badly. The length of time the buzzer was pressed for was an indication of how much the fictional child should be punished or rewarded. One limitation of this study is that the sample only represented a narrow

age range. Because the sample was age biased, the researchers would not know whether younger or older children would react in the same way to playing the games. The measures of aggression also lack construct validity as aggressive behaviour is more complex than just toy play and how long a buzzer is pressed for. In fact, the measure using the buzzer is too artificial. When children show interpersonal aggression in real life it is normally aimed at a real person through verbal or physical aggression. One strength of the study is that, as an experiment, it has a high level of control. This makes it easier to establish the cause and effect between playing violent computer games and subsequent aggressive behaviour. 4 (a) They were all adolescents and all attended Catholic schools. (b) Self-esteem and extraversion. (c) The sample was culturally biased. There may have issues with social desirability. 5 (a) Harry could be fined for his behaviour. The punishment is that Harry loses some of his income or savings and the negative consequence of this should make him think about the outcome of his anti-social behaviour in the future. It is obvious that getting a caution is not negative enough. (b) Rehabilitation is about trying to reform people. Restorative justice could be used on Harry where he makes contact with the people who have complained about him – such as his neighbours. If Harry had to talk to his neighbours face to face then he might empathise with them and realise the impact of his behaviour on them.

Chapter 2 Development 1 One stage of development is the pre-natal stage. This stage focuses on what how the embryo develops in the womb up until birth. 2 The synapse is the gap between two neurons which is found at the end of the axon. When the electrical impulse travels along the axon it triggers the release of neurotransmitters which leave the axon and diffuse across the synapse taking the chemical message to the receptors of the next neuron so that the message can pass on. 3 Assimilation is where new information is merged into an existing schema in the child’s mind whereas accommodation is where a new schema is

formed or an existing one is modified to take into account new information. This means that in the first process, information can become distorted so that it is misunderstood or misremembered. 4 The sample was culturally biased. 5 The sample was culturally biased so might not be generalisable in the sense that it does not tell us whether growth mindsets would have the same effect on children in different types of education system. In addition, the study used an independent measures design which means there could be problems with participant variables. In other words, the children who were taught about growth mindsets may just have been better motivated or more intelligent in the first place. On a good note, the study was a field study which meant that it had high levels of ecological validity showing how Dweck’s theory has the potential to be used in real-life situations.

Chapter 3 Psychological problems 1 The mental health continuum sees mental health as being a matter of degrees. At one end of the continuum people are generally happy, and have high self-esteem and productive lives and relationships. At the other end, people experience severe and long-lasting symptoms. In the middle of the continuum people cannot cope with everyday stresses and may show moderate symptoms such as poor appetite and sleep problems. 2 One effect is that people with a mental health problem can feel excluded as they are not given the same opportunities as others. Society can discriminate by assuming that an individual with mental health problems is not well enough to take part in certain activities, especially those that require them to use their thinking skills or to work with other people. 3 The theory of social drift says that people with schizophrenia get caught in a trap where they don’t feel part of life and end up in poverty. The theory tries to explain the relationship between social class and schizophrenia because people who are part of the working class are five times more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia than people from higher classes. The theory sees that it can be difficult for people with schizophrenia to be part of the community because they lose touch with reality and might not be motivated to do things like hold down a job or stay in school or even just go out and socialise with their friends. Even if they do try to hold

down a job it might be hard as they might need to take time off work quite often with their illness or they might not be able to cope with their job. For all of these kinds of reasons, a people with schizophrenia may begin to disengage with society. Once people with schizophrenia are not engaged with society it is really hard for them to become part of their community again and this can make it hard for them to recover from their illness. This is partly because society begins to reject these people because they are not following the norms – not just because of their strange behaviour but because they’re not doing the things that most people are expected to do, such as go to work. This means that people with schizophrenia withdraw from normal activities even more so that they end up spiralling down into the lowest social classes if they are not there already. 4 One criticism is that the findings were culturally biased because it only used students from the USA. They may not represent how older people or people from other countries experience the symptoms of depression. Another criticism is that questionnaires can give socially desirable responses so the findings may not be a valid picture of how much people use Facebook or how envious people are as they won’t want to admit to being addicted to social media or being jealous of others. 5 The reconstructive theory says that memory is not like a video camera – we don’t remember things exactly as they happened. Instead, we create schemas based on past experiences and these have an effect on new experiences. Therefore, if someone has depression then the things that happened to make them feel depressed may not have happened as the person remembers them. They could have just focused on the negative things that happened and not remembered the positive. Or maybe if something positive did happen they are remembering it in a negative way because that’s what fits with how they’re feeling. Bartlett states that people use confabulation when reconstructing a memory to fill in the missing pieces. People do not deliberately make things up but a person who is suffering from depression might be more likely to fill the gaps with negative things than positive so that their memory of an event may end up much more negative than it actually was. The ABC model of clinical depression states that how we perceive things can make a difference to us being happy or depressed. It says that

depressed people usually have one or more core irrational belief which might be about themselves or circumstances, for example having to have good surroundings in order to be happy. If they interpret an event in an irrational way this can become a habit and can lead to the person becoming depressed. The model has three stages. The first is the activating event where something happens, like seeing your friend in town and them ignoring you. The second stage is beliefs – this is where the person interprets what has happened. If someone is thinking irrationally then they might think their friend deliberately ignored them because they don’t like them anymore. The third stage is consequences. If the event has been interpreted in a negative way then the person might feel sad or lonely and this could result in depression. Both of these theories suggest that it is not the actual event that causes a person to become depressed but how the person perceives the event. The problem with both of these theories is that they both imply that people have control over their thoughts and therefore depression. This ignores biological explanations which state our way of thinking may be predetermined by factors such as genetics. It can also be seen as reductionist to simplify depression down to thought processes when other interacting factors may play a part. For some critics, cognitive psychology is too mechanical and treats people like machines. This may not be the right approach when we are dealing with something as complex as depression.

Chapter 4 Social influence 1 Deindividuation refers to when you feel anonymous and you lose your sense of self when you are in a crowd of people. If people are part of a protest march and they become deindividuated, then they may become violent as people lose their sense of personal responsibility and stop monitoring themselves or don’t feel that they can be monitored as closely. 2 Bickman used an opportunity sample to test obedience. The independent variable was the type of uniform a confederate wore when approaching people on the street. He found that people were most likely to obey someone in a guard uniform. 3 Bickman could have used a more representative sample. He could have

done this by carrying out his study in other cities as well as New York. 4 Morality Self-esteem 5 Society now has a very different attitude towards smoking compared to what it had twenty or so years ago. Today, many people are anti-smoking and view it as a disgusting habit. But how did society change people’s attitudes to smoking when once upon time it was seen as a ‘cool’ thing to do, which is why so many people did it? One way was through minority influence. Even when the anti-smoking lobby was a minority, they were consistent in their message (they kept saying smoking is bad for your health and that of other people). The minority also had to show they were committed to a cause, for example through constant campaigning to get anti-smoking laws in place and secure smoke-free places. Finally, the minority had to be flexible – recognising that they may not secure as many smoke-free places as they wanted in the first place but being content with what they had achieved. Once more people were behind the anti-smoking lobby, this eventually gave a majority. It became much easier to change attitudes when there was majority. This is because people like to conform where they can – they don’t want to stand out or be rejected for being the only smoker in a group. However, people need to do more than just comply – particularly in the case of smoking, as it has not really worked if people don’t smoke in public but then go home and smoke a pack of cigarettes! The aim is to make people conform to the point where they internalise group norms and actually believe that smoking is wrong and bad for them. The more they are exposed to the message by people who are genuinely anti-smoking, the more likely it is that attitudes will change.

Chapter 5 Memory 1 Input is the first stage of information processing. The information is input into the brain through the body’s senses, such as sight and sound. These are registered by the eyes and the ears which send the information through to the brain. Encoding is the second stage. Encoding means that the information from

the senses is changed from one format, like sound waves such as music or words that enter the ear, to nerve impulses which travel up to the auditory cortex in the brain. Here, they are decoded and changed into what we perceive as sounds. 2 (a) No delay 20 + 17 + 9 + 12 + 16 + 19 + 17 + 18 + 19 + 16 = 163 163/10 = 16.3 Delay 9 + 6 + 7 + 12 +16 + 8 + 10 + 9 + 12 + 11 = 100 100/10 = 10 (b) There is a difference between the two groups with the no delay group recalling 6.3 more words on average compared to the delay group. This demonstrates that having a delay before recalling the words resulting in participants recalling less. 3 (a) C (b) C (c) A 4 A scheme is a mental framework for an object or a situation. Schemas are built through experience and are used to help us to make sense of new incoming information. 5 The advert could use cues to promote the new cereal bar. One theory of memory says that if the advert creates a certain context or feeling when advertising the bar then when people in the audience are in the same situation, it will act as a trigger and they will recall the cereal bar and want to purchase it. For example, the advert could show various situations in which a person may want a cereal bar – on the way to work, after a workout, for a school snack – so that when a person is in a similar situation their memory is triggered and they recall the bar and may decide to buy one. The advert could also use repetition so that the audience becomes more familiar with the cereal bar. One theory is that repetition strengthens the memory for something. So, if the cereal bar is clearly shown in its wrapping in every scene as well as at the beginning and end of the advert, the audience should have good memory of what it looks like when they’re searching for it on a shop shelf. The advert would also need to avoid overloading the audience. This means that the information that they include about the bar itself should be kept to a minimum so that consumers can recall the key information. For example,

the advert could use a short slogan that sums up the product, such as ‘Healthy, Hearty and Totally Delicious’.

Chapter 6 Sleep and dreaming 1 One benefit of sleep is that it allows the brain to consolidate and organise the memories from the day as well as clear out toxins that are associated with brain degeneration. 2 One stage is the REM stage. This gets its name from the fact that rapid eye movement happens at this stage. This is because there is a lot of brain activity with brain wave patterns very similar to those when people are awake. It is also the stage when dreaming is most likely to happen. 3 This is a difficult theory to test as it relies on things that happen in the unconscious and in the past – and neither can be observed. The theory therefore relies on case studies which are open to interpretation and are not easy to generalise from. This adds up to the theory being more unscientific than the activation synthesis theory which is more objective and focuses on brain activity which can be observed. The theory is also accused of being historically and culturally biased as it relates lots of dreams to repressed urges relating to sex and aggression. However, society is more liberal nowadays yet it does not stop people having the same types of dreams as in the past. 4 Twelve participants were asked to keep a written journal during one term. They recorded all of the dreams they recalled either when they woke up in the morning or if they woke during the night. They also recorded if they had had any fantasies during the day – something that had popped into their heads without being related to what they were doing at the time. Of the reports, 60 dream reports and 60 fantasy reports were chosen for analysis based on the amount of detail (more than five lines) and because they had a visual experience. The reports were divided into individual sentences and were scored separately for bizarreness using a scale which judged the locus of the bizarre item and the type of bizarreness. The judges scored all 120 reports. They did not know if they were rating a dream or a fantasy but were asked afterwards which they thought they were. The judges were then checked for inter-rater reliability. 5 (a) 18% = 18/100

Divide both top and bottom by 2 to give 9/50 Answer: 9/50 (b) 6% = 6/100 = 0.06 0.06 × 150 = 9 Answer: 9 people (c) An advantage is that everyone has the same set of answers to choose from so direct comparisons can be made. This means the researchers can more reliably identify patterns in people’s sleeping habits. (d) A weakness is that all participants have actively volunteered which may give a biased sample so that people’s experiences of sleep is not represented properly. For example, people who have issues sleeping may be more likely to volunteer for this survey because they have more interesting experiences to share. These people might be more likely to use relaxation techniques which means percentages are exaggerated.

Chapter 7 Research methods 1 There will be no significant difference in the proportion of male and female pedestrians who walk around the ladder. 2 It is an experiment because a situation has been staged – the ladder has been put up on purpose. It is a field experiment because it was done in a natural environment (a real-life street). 3 A strength is that the pedestrians are not aware of being watched so will behave as they normally would when faced with a ladder rather than going under or going around it according to what they think is expected. A weakness of covert observations is that they are unethical as people are being studied without having given their consent. Although the pedestrians were out in public, they did not know the ladder had been set up to test their superstitions and they may object to this if they had known. 4 Opportunity

5 33/52 = 0.63461538461 × 100 for percentage = 63.461538461% = 63.5% to 3 sig fig

Glossary Agentic state: where an individual feels they are the ‘agent’ of another person and that this other person is responsible for the individual’s actions Amphetamine: a chemical stimulant Anti-social behaviour: actions that work against society Auditory coding: where data is formatted acoustically (as a sound) Authority figure: someone who has the right or power to give orders Autonomous state: where an individual feels responsible for their own actions Catatonic behaviour: behaviour ranging from repetitive, frenzied actions to statue-like stupor Chunk: an item, or a set of items, related by meaning Cognitive development: development of the mind and mental processes Confederate: someone who is part of the experiment and is playing a role as part of it Confidentiality: the act of keeping something secret or private Consciousness: being aware of yourself and your experiences Correlational studies: research that looks at the relationship between two or more variables Cue: something inside of us or in our environment which triggers a memory Culture: the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people Debriefing: a conversation between researchers and participants that happens at the end of a study Deception: the result of deliberately causing someone to believe something

that is not true Defence mechanism: an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from potentially harmful events or thoughts Delusions: false beliefs Deviation from norms: something that differs from what is considered socially acceptable Direct reinforcement: a behaviour is repeated because it has been rewarded Discrimination: treating an individual or group differently from others Disposition: a set of personality traits Dopamine: a neurotransmitter associated with mood, perception and movement Endocrine gland: a group of cells that secrete hormones directly into the blood Episodic memory: long-term memory for storing personal experiences External locus of control: a belief that one’s life is controlled by external factors Extraversion: being out-going and confident fMRI scan: functional magnetic resonance imaging scan – magnetic resonance is used to detect changes in blood flow in the brain Frontal lobes: parts of the brain immediately behind the forehead; concerned with behaviour, learning, personality and voluntary movement Grey matter: the darker tissue of the brain; contains ‘thinking’ cells Hallucinations: experiences in which you see, hear, feel, taste or smell something that does not exist Hippocampal volume: the volume of a part of the brain called the hippocampus Hippocampus: part of the brain mainly associated with the formation of memories and the emotions that go with them

Hypothalamus: a part of the brain that regulates important bodily functions including hunger, thirst, temperature, sex drive and sleep Id: an unconscious and instinctive part of personality that represents our sexual and aggressive urges Incidence: a measure of the number of new cases of a particular disorder over a given time period Insomnia: inability to sleep Internal locus of control: a belief that one’s life can be controlled by one’s own actions Internalisation: when a behaviour is well learned and will happen whether it is rewarded or punished Invariant: unchanging; fixed Irrational belief: something that is thought to be true but is in fact not logical or reasonable Limbic system: located near the centre of the brain; controls basic drives and emotions Low construct validity: when the behaviour being investigated (the construct) has been measured in a narrow way so that the findings do not represent the whole construct very well Measure of central tendency: an average value that represents a data set Mindset: a relatively stable set of ideas about a situation or event Modality specific coding: where data is coded in the same format as it enters memory Morality: a sense of what is right and wrong Negative symptoms: symptoms that include loss of normal function, such as social withdrawal, apathy or lack of emotion Nervous system: the network of nerve cells and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body Neurological: relating to the brain Neuron: a cell that carries messages within the brain and from the brain to

other parts of the body Neuroticism: being anxious and easily stressed Noradrenaline: a neurotransmitter associated with feelings of stress Norms: standard ways of behaving Parasympathetic nervous system: a branch of the central nervous system which counterbalances the activity of the sympathetic nervous system through actions such as slowing breathing and relaxing muscles PET scan: position emission tomography scan – radioactive glucose is injected into the bloodstream and then traced by scanning the brain to show where neurons are firing Placebo: a fake drug Prefrontal cortex: at the front of the frontal lobes, this part of the brain deals with complex behaviours such as planning and decision-making Prevalence: a measure of the proportion of the population that experience a particular disorder at any one point in time Pro-social behaviour: actions that work in favour of society Psychoticism: being aggressive and not considerate of others Punishment: a way of trying to stop reoffending through the use of negative outcomes for criminal behaviour Rehabilitation: training and teaching offenders new behaviours and skills with the aim of stopping them reoffending Role model: a person who is admired and therefore imitated Schema: mental ‘pockets’ of organised information Self-esteem: a measure of how much a person values their self Semantic coding: where data is stored in an abstract way based on its meaning Semantic memory: long-term memory for storing facts Serotonin: a neurotransmitter associated with mood balance Social construct: something that is not real but exists because people in

society have created it through social interaction Stigma: a strong feeling of disapproval about something Superego: a subconscious part of personality that represents the rules and expectations of our society Sympathetic nervous system: a branch of the central nervous system which prepares the body for ‘fight or flight’ when under threat Synapse: a tiny gap at which a nerve impulse passes from one neuron to another Temporal lobes: parts of the brain located by the temples; concerned with vision, hearing and speech comprehension Unconscious: part of the mind that contains feelings and thoughts that we are not aware of Vicarious reinforcement: a behaviour is imitated because it is seen to be rewarded