Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health [1 ed.] 9783954896684, 9783954891689

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Verena Schmidt

Nutrition security in Tanzania

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Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Schmidt, Verena: Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health. Hamburg, Anchor Academic Publishing 2014 Buch-ISBN: 978-3-95489-168-9 PDF-eBook-ISBN: 978-3-95489-668-4 Druck/Herstellung: Anchor Academic Publishing, Hamburg, 2014 Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek: Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. Bibliographical Information of the German National Library: The German National Library lists this publication in the German National Bibliography. Detailed bibliographic data can be found at: http://dnb.d-nb.de

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Table of contents List of Figures .................................................................................................. ................. IX List of Tables ................................................................................................... ................. X Abstract ............................................................................................................................ XI 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... ................. 1 2 The United Republic of Tanzania ................................................................................. 4 2.1 Geographic data.................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Demographic data ................................................................................................. 6 2.3 Economy and government .................................................................................... 7 3 The Tanzania Home Economics Association ............................................................ 9 3.1 Work of the organization ....................................................................................... 9 3.2 Overview of Projects ........................................................................................... 10 4 Influences of the nutritional situation in Tanzania ................................................. 14 4.1 Traditional diet..................................................................................................... 14 4.2 Food and Nutrition security ................................................................................. 15 4.3 Malnutrition  effects and causes........................................................................ 18 5 Vitamin A  an example of nutrition disorder .......................................................... 23 5.1 Absorption and storage ....................................................................................... 24 5.2 Function .............................................................................................................. 25 5.3 Aspects of dosage............................................................................................... 26 5.3.1 Deficiency effects and symptoms ................................................................. 26 5.3.2 Toxicity ......................................................................................................... 27 6 Sweet potato  a solving approach for nutrition disorder ..................................... 29 6.1 Agricultural facts.................................................................................................. 29 6.2 Cultivation and storage problems........................................................................ 31 6.3 Physiological function.......................................................................................... 32 6.4 Processing methods and effects ......................................................................... 34 7 Empirical Research ...................................................................................... ................ 37 7.1 Empirical question and hypothesis ...................................................................... 37

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7.2 Research design ................................................................................................. 39 7.2.1 Survey methodology ........................................................................................ 40 7.2.1.1 24-hours recall .............................................................................................. 41 7.2.1.2 Supporting observations ............................................................................... 45 7.2.2 Evaluation methodology ................................................................................... 46 7.3 Results of the survey........................................................................................... 48 7.3.1 Results of self-conducted 24-hours recall .................................................... 48

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

7.3.2 Results of 24-hours recall of foreign study ................................................... 52 7.3.3 Results of supporting observations .............................................................. 54 7.4 Discussion and conclusion .................................................................................. 57 8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 64

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References ....................................................................................................................... 66

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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List of Abbreviations AIDS

Auto immune deficiency syndrome

CIA

Central Intelligence Agency

CMMF

Community Managed Microfinance

DNA

Desoxyribonucleinacid

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FEWS NET

Famine Early Warning Systems Network

GDN

Global Development Network

GDP

Gross domestic product

GPN

Global Peace Network

HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus

IDD

Iodine deficiency disorders

IU

International Unit

MOH

Ministry of Health

NBS

National Bureau of Statistics

NGO

Non-governmental organization

OFSP

Orange-fleshed sweet potato

PEM

Protein energy malnutrition

PFD

Partners of Development

RAE

Retinol activity equivalent

RBP

Retinol-binding protein

SMFEA

Stromme Microfinance East Africa

SSA

Sub-Saharan Africa

TAHEA

Tanzania Home Economics Association

TFNC

Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre

TPSF

Tanzanian Private Sector Foundation

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF

Unit for Children

USDA

United States Department of Agriculture

VAD

Vitamin A-deficiency

VITAA

Vitamin A for Africa

WFSP

White-fleshed sweet potato

WFS

World Food Summit

WHO

World Health Organization

VIII

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

List of Figures  Fig. 1: Undernourishment by world-region (in millions)....................................................2 Fig. 2: Map of Tanzania......................................................................................................4 Fig. 3: Map of Mwanza regio..............................................................................................5 Fig. 4: The pillars of food and nutrition security..............................................................17 Fig. 5: Prevalence of malnutrition per type among preschool children..........................20 Fig. 6: Vitamin A metabolism...........................................................................................25 Fig. 7: Varieties of OFSP..................................................................................................29 Fig. 8: Major sweet potato producing areas in Tanzania................................................30 Fig. 9: Sweet potato production per capita in ten selected countries............................31 Fig. 10: Phases of empirical surveys...............................................................................38 Fig. 11: Schedule of a participant observation................................................................46 Fig. 12: Age of respondents.............................................................................................49 Fig. 13: Consummated varieties......................................................................................49 Fig. 14: Cultivated varieties at household level...............................................................51

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Fig. 15: Consumption and sales of sweet potatoes per bag (25kg)...............................51

IX

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

List of Tables Tab. 1: Short-form of recipe for Eat Orange-cookery training........................................13 Tab. 2: Prudent upper levels of habitual vitamin A intake..............................................28 Tab. 3: Natural variability in beta-carotene content of raw medium-sized OFSP, variety Resisto, from same harvest batch..............................................33 Tab. 4: Nutrient Composition of OFSP, Cassava and Maize.........................................34 Tab. 5: Laboratory results of nutrient-content of different types of flour........................36 Tab. 6: Overview of hypotheses, variables, and expressions of the survey..................39 Tab. 7: Estimated size of portions in grams....................................................................47 Tab. 8: Recommendation for human daily nutrient intake..............................................48 Tab. 9: Average nutrient intake per person per meal  Mwasonge...............................50 Tab. 10: Average nutrient intake per person during whole day  Mwasonge...............50 Tab. 11: Average nutrient intake per person per meal  Tunyenye...............................53 Tab. 12: Average nutrient intake per person during whole day  Tunyenye.................54 Tab. 13: Comparison of the coverage of nutritional recommendations.........................60 

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X

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Abstract Particularly in developing countries nearly one billion people are effected by nutrition insecurity in form of under- or malnutrition (FAO 2010, p. 1). Merely by the expression of vitamin A-deficiency an estimate of up to 500,000 children go blind worldwide every year (WHO 2011). This survey deals with a solution approach in form of the contribution made by the orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) and its afford towards nutrition security in rural areas of Mwanza, Tanzania. With help of the partner organization TAHEA, a retrospective population-based study of the nutritional status of rural population of Mwanza was conducted and impressions on food security were reinforced through participant observation. The positive influence of OFSP towards vitamin A status has been confirmed and among others an income-generating function by cultivation and sale of the tuber has been observed. The risk of a possible overdose must also be considered. Thus, the tuber is recommended as a nutritious snack or side dish, but should not be advertised as a considered staple food. Aktuell sind besonders in Entwicklungsländern nahezu eine Milliarde Menschen von Ernährungsunsicherheit in Form von Unter- oder Mangelernährung betroffen (FAO 2010, p. 1). Allein durch die Ausprägung eines Vitamin A-Mangels, erblinden Schätzungen zufolge weltweit jährlich bis zu 500.000 Kinder (WHO 2011). Diese Studie beschäftigt sich mit einem Lösungsansatz in Form des Beitrags, den die orange-fleischige Süßkartoffel (OFSP) zur Ernährungssicherheit in ländlichen Gebieten von Mwanza, Tansania, leistet und leisten kann. Mit Hilfe der Partnerorganisation TAHEA wurde durch eine retrospektive Stichproben-Studie der Ernährungszustand der ländlichen Bevölkerung Mwanzas erfasst und Eindrücke zum Thema Ernährungssicherheit durch teilnehmende Beobachtungen untermauert. Der positive Einfluss der OFSP auf die Vitamin ACopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Versorgung wurde bestätigt und unter anderem eine einkommensbildende Funktion durch Kultivierung und Verkauf der Knolle beobachtet. Doch auch die Gefahr einer möglichen Überdosierung muss beachtet werden. Somit empfiehlt sich die Knolle als nährstoffreiche Zwischenmahlzeit oder Beilage, sollte aber nicht als täglich zu verzehrendes Grundnahrungsmittel beworben werden.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

XI

1 Introduction "Food and nutrition security exists when all people, at all time, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active, productive and healthy life" (WFS 1996, p. 3). This survey is the result of a project in the United Republic of Tanzania carried out with the support and help of the local organization Tanzania Home Economics Association (TAHEA). It deals with the contribution of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) towards nutrition security in rural areas in Mwanza, Tanzania. TAHEA wants to make an assessment about the success of their conducted sweet potato projects especially for the rural living part of their project participants and develop on the basis of the outcome possible improvements to food security and education. The survey was planned on behalf of the organization and performed with their help. The beginning of modern interest in food security is coincident with the Second World War, which demonstrated that localized hunger, resulting undernourishment and instability could escalate into problems of global significance (MCDONALD 2010, p. 12). In 1996 the WORLD FOOD SUMMIT requires in its Rome Declaration on World Food Security that each nation must adopt a strategy consistent with its resources and capacities to achieve its individual goals and cooperate regionally and internationally in order to organize cooperative solutions to global issues of food security and health (WFS 1996, p. 3). Worldwide, actually nearly one billion people are classified as undernourished, most of whom live in the developing countries (see Fig. 1). There, they account for 16 percent of the population (FAO 2010, p. 1). Malnutrition is also highly prevalent in Tanzania. More than a third of children below five years are affectCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ed by chronic malnutrition, also called stunting, and in the southern zone prevalence surpasses about 50 percent (FAO 2008, p. 3). A special form of malnutrition is vitamin A deficiency (VAD), which is a serious wide spread nutritional and health problem affecting a lot of people especially children in the developing countries including Tanzania. Most countries in the sub-Saharan region are categorized as having a public health problem concerning clinical and nonclinical VAD. Of the global total of 140 million children affected by VAD, 1

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Saharan Africa A (SSA A) (Mason et al. nearrly 100 million live in South Asia or sub-S 2001 1, p. 34). Fig. 1: Undernouris U shment by world-region w n (in millions)

Total = 925 m million 19 37 7

Devveloped counttries 53

239

Neaar East and No orth Africa Latin America an nd the Carribbean

578

Sub b-Saharan Afriica Asiaa and the Pacific

(modified from f FAO 2010, p. 2) The poor popu ulation of d developing g countriess has only limited acccess to ex xpansive foods tha at contain high valu ues of vita amin A, likke liver, milk m and butter. Sign nificant effo orts has therefore t been mad de to supp port impro oved vitam min A intakke through h increased d dietary in ntake and improved storage and a preparration of a variety off appropria ate plant sources s tha at contain this vitam min (LOW et e al. 2001 plant sourrces is the 1, p. 4). One O of that special promoted p e sweet po otato. New w varieties rich in be eta-caroten ne were in ntroduced tthrough a research institute, adding he ealth value e to the exxisting varie eties (TAH HEA 2009, p. 2) to se ecure food d and nutrittion securitty. This survey sh hall now illuminate the t daily cconsumptio on of rura al populatio on to repre esent the proportion p of the swe eet potato roots to nu utritional in ntake partic cularly in view to vittamin A to o prevent deficiency. d In this wayy it is to ob bserve whether Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

the cultivation c of OFSP has changed or evven improvved the evveryday live es of in health and cultivvars and consumer c a economic manner. To set these pos ssible aspe ects of the contribution of OFS SP towardss nutrition security in nto contextt with existting scienttific finding gs, the issu ue shall be e considerred theorettically, butt also be represente r d by a se elf-conducte ed empiriccal survey.. The theo oretical fou undationss shall be represent a basis off which the e own survvey can be evaluated d and asse essed in itss results. 2

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

In conclusion, these considerations lead to the following objectives of this work: •

Survey of eating habits of Tanzanian people (especially rural living) to control the supply of nutrients.

•

Determining the extent of OFSP-cultivation and -consumption and potential positive impact on health of the population.

•

Survey of the processing methods at household level including the hygienic conditions.

•

Determining the contribution of OFSP and products made of it to the income generation of farmers and their families.

To achieve these goals also for the self-conducted survey, the methods of a nutrition survey in the form of a 24-hours recall and additional participant observations were chosen and performed in a rural village located in a district of Mwanza that is supported by TAHEA and its projects. As a comparison, the data of a 24-hours recall carried out in the same period by DWOJACZNY (2011) in a village without special support are used. This village is also part of a rural district of Mwanza. It is to find out if these people also consume OFSP or know about beneficial effects of this variety without special teaching. This shall also show whether the promotion and support of the sweet potatoes offers desired

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impact and benefits for the population.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

3

2 Th he United d Repub blic of Ta anzania 2.1 Geograph hic data With h an area of o about 94 45,000 squ uare kilometers (km²²), Tanzania is the largest of th he East Affrican coun ntries (UNESCO 200 07, p. 3). A About 62,0 000 km2 of o the main n land is covered c witth water (G GOVERNM MENT OF TANZANIA A 2011). Since S 1964 4, the country is the e union of two counttries – Tan nzania ma ainland (na amely Tang ganyika) and a Zanzib bar (UNESCO 2007, p. 3) – an nd is now divided intto 26 regio ons. Tanza ania is loccated soutth of the e equator be etween 1° and 12° south s latitu ude and 29 9° and 40°° east longitude. Tan nzania bord ders with Burundi, B Democratic Republicc of the Co ongo, Ken nya, Malaw wi, Mozambique, Rw wanda, Uga anda, and Zambia (G GOVERNM MENT OF TANZANIA T A 2011) (se ee Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Map of Tanzania T

Mwan nza is loca ated in the e northern part of Ta anzania, directly at th he coast of o the Lake Victoria (T THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF T TANZANIA 1997, p. 1) (see Fig g. 3). The rregion is divided d into o seven ad dministratiive districtts, namelyy Gaita, KwimK ba, M Magu, Missungwi, Mwanza M T Town, Seng gerema,

and

Ukkerewe

( (THE

UNIT TED REPUBLIC OF O TANZA ANIA 1997, p. 3f.). Th he region has h a total area of ab bout 35,00 00 km2, off which 20 0,000 (CIA 2011)

km2 a are dry la and and 15,000 km2 are

cove ered with water. w Land wise, Mw wanza is tthe fourth smallest re egion after Dar Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

es Salaam, S Kilimanjaro a and Mtwara a (MSEKE ELA 2008, p. p 2).

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Fig. 3: Map of Mwanza rregio Tanz zania clima ate

is

exposed d

hazarrds

such

to as

droug ghts and floods, an nd to naturral

disasters

resu ulting

from earthquakes, making it vulne erable to the ens suing clima ate change e brought about a by gllobal warm ming (UNE ESCO 2007 7, p. 3). The T Temp peratures s and rainfa alls of Mw wanza regio on

are

influenced

by

proximity to Lake Victoria a and (TPS SF 2010)

Equa ator.

The

maximum

temp perature is s about 26 °C during June to A August (MS SEKELA 20 008, p. 3) while w the standard annual a rainfall of Mwanza reg gion is ab bout 930 millimeter m ( (mm) unre eliable from m 1,800 mm m in the we estern partts of Ukere ewe island to 750 mm m per squa are meters s in the so outhern an nd south e eastern pa arts of the region. Under U usua al condition ns the rain nfall is distrributed ma ainly during g two perio ods, namely the shorrt rains in October to t Decemb ber and th he long ra ains from March to May. Therre is a dry y spell from m January to March and regula arly these rains are of o an errattic pattern.. The rain tends t to fa all limited to o a small a area storms rather than in a widespread downpourr and so may m be unequally dis stributed in n quite a ssmall area a. Water errosion tend ds to increa ase with th he length of o the dry season s and the weaker vegeta ation cove er (THE UNITED RE EPUBLIC OF TANZ ZANIA 199 97, p. 23). A large part of o the coun ntry is cov vered with grasslands (40 perc cent) and scat-

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tered d forest arreas (47 percent), p b the infe but estation by y tsetse flie es, making g the coun ntry over wide w areas unsuitable e for livesto ock and hu uman settlement. Ag griculturall available are five p percent off the country, seven n percent are a other landform ms (CIA 20 011). The ssoils of Mw wanza reg gion are classified in nto sandy soils, s red loams l and d black clay ys. Most of o the popu ulation live in areas w with sandy soils that have only y moderate e natural fertility f and d steadily deteriorate under condic tions s of contin nuous cultivvation. The loam an nd clay soils are of higher h pote ential

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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but tend to be found in areas of low rainfall (THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 1997, p. 23).

2.2 Demographic data Actually Tanzania has a population of about 42 million people with a population growth rate of two percent per year. The median age of all inhabitants is 18.5 years (CIA 2011). The age structure of the country is defined as follows: •

zero to 14 years: 42 percent

•

15 to 64 years: 55.1 percent

•

65 years and over: 2.9 percent (CIA 2011)

The population of the Mwanza region is estimated to be 3.5 million people with a population density of 150 people per km2. With about 18.6 percent, Mwanza has the third highest level of urbanization of its population after Dar es Salaam (89.6 percent) and Morogoro (21.1 percent) (MSEKELA 2008, p. 2f.). There are close to 120 tribal groups in Tanzania, including with relatively small but economically significant numbers of Asians and Arabs, and a small European community. The population of the mainland consists of 95 percent from Bantu peoples, including the Sukuma (13 percent of overall population that live around Mwanza and southern Lake Victoria), the Nyamwezi (around Tabora), the Makonde (southeastern Tanzania), the Haya (around Bukoba) and the Chagga (around Mount Kilimanjaro). The religious groups are divided into two large groups: The Muslims, who account for about 40 percent of the population, and about 45 percent of Christians. The remaining group of population follows traditional religious centre on ancestor worship, the land and different ritual objects. There are also some small communities of Hindus, Sikhs and Ismailis (NIEHAUSMEIER 2011). The majority of the population lives in rural areas although urbanization has

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increased in the last three decades. Life expectancy, actually 46 years on average, has decreased in the past 20 years, possibly due to the increasing auto immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence, which affects around seven percent of the adult population. 80 percent of the population has physical access to health services, but user fees and poor quality of services, mainly due to lack of expert health personnel, reduce the effectiveness of the health system. Poor sanitation settings are

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

common both in the rural and urban areas, while access to safe water is a problem mainly for rural populations (FAO 2008, p. 3).

2.3 Economy and government In 1961 the mainland of Tanganyika became independent while Zanzibar gained it in 1963 from the United Kingdom-administered trusteeship. In 1964 both united to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Since that date, the ruling party is the Chama Cha Mapinduzi or CCM, also called revolutionary party, under the current president of Jakaya Kikwete. The official capital is Dodoma (CIA 2011). Tanzania is one of the world's poorest economies in terms of per capita income, although, the gross domestic product (GDP) growth about seven percent per year between 2000 and 2008 due to strong gold production and tourism. The country is endowed with important land and water resources that have a high agricultural potential. That is why agriculture is a key sector of Tanzania’s economy, accounting for 45 percent of GDP and is the source of livelihood for more than three-quarters of the population (FAO 2008, p. 3). It provides 85 percent of exports, and employs about 80 percent of the work force. Actually the GDP income per capita is 1,400 United States-Dollars (CIA 2011). In rural areas approximately 40 percent of the population are below the basic needs poverty line, while in the urban areas roughly a quarter of the population is poor (FAO 2008, p. 3). The access to financial services by these poor people has been limited due to number of reasons, like the poor infrastructure in the very rural and marginalized areas, where traditional microfinance institutions are unable to extend services to the inhabitants (SMFEA 2010, p. 4). The main exports include coffee, gold, cashew nuts, cotton and handicraft (GOVERNMENT OF TANZANIA 2011). The main industry of the country is the

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agricultural processing of sugar, beer, cigarettes, and sisal twine. Other industries produce shoes, apparel, wood products, and fertilizer and there are some oil refineries. There are also big resources in salt, soda ash, and cement (CIA 2011). The economy in Mwanza is dominated by smallholder agriculture. It is employing about 85 percent of the region’s population and next to the expanding fisheries sector. Mining and livestock sectors also command a recognizable share in the economy of the region. Mwanza is the primary producer region of

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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the major cash crop cotton. In most cases the region is unable to feed itself due to constant droughts (MSEKELA 2008, p. 3f.). The people living in the Lake region suffer from the environmental problems affecting the Lake Victoria. Between 1998 and 2004 the water level of the 68. 800 km2 Lake has fallen by 2.3 meters. Reasons are at once the high power of turbine in water works, which Uganda operates, and on the other hand, rising temperatures and associated evaporation. Another problem is the rapidly multiplying water hyacinth, which makes it difficult for ships to move in the water, and is an excellent breeding ground of bilharzia-causing snails and malaria-causing mosquito. Decaying plant parts of hyacinth can decrease the oxygen content of the lake, threatening and cause fish kills. Here, the former fish wealth has been decimated anyway, since it has been exposed in the 1950s the Nile perch in

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Lake Victoria (KUERSCHNER-PELKMANN 2007).

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

3 The Tanzania Home Economics Association 3.1 Work of the organization TAHEA was founded in March 1980 as a national non-governmental organization (NGO) in Mwanza, Tanzania, (TAHEA w. y.). In 1992 it was decentralized into Tanzanian regions (GDN 2009). Asia Kapande was the founder and is currently the president of the organization. She manages the office in Mwanza, has implemented numerous projects in Tanzania and also holds positions in the government (GPN 2010). The mission and primary goal of the organization is to promote the improvement of quality of life of families, particularly of women (GDN 2009). Originally founded by 17 members, the membership had expanded to over 1,000 members by the year 2000. There are several categories of membership; individual members of home economist and specialists in related fields like nutrition, agriculture, environment, and also teachers with agriculture home economics specialization. Other categories, for example, are an industrial or group membership (TAHEA w. y.). So with this wide range of associations, the number of members is rising constantly. The Vision of TAHEA is written as "TAHEA wishes to see a society which is democratic and just, with improved living conditions, sufficient in food and a strong economic base" (CHALE 2011). The organization strives to empower individuals, families and the entire community in Tanzania, socially, economically and also with gender perspective through education, training, information and consultancy. They are going to realize their plan with the expertise of their professional members, by networking and also collaborating with other organizations that have similar visions and mission (TAHEA w. y.). The current activities of TAHEA are to organize seminars and workshops for its

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members and also to run projects like to prevent acquired AIDS and infections with the HIV and control and counseling education. A major topic, TAHEA is working on, is food and nutrition in combination with health and disease topics. Some of the areas of action are the household food security and technology transfer, family life education, resource management and consumer protection. TAHEA is also active in fields like water quality, rural health and environment, family poverty alleviation, economic empowerment and fund raising (TAHEA w. y.).

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

9

3.2 Overview of Projects There is a variety of projects that are supported and carried out by TAHEA (TAHEA w. y.), so here is taken a selection of thematically related projects. Community Managed Microfinance The basis for all projects of TAHEA is to build a Community Managed Microfinance-project (CMMF). This is a concept of microfinance within poor and hardto-reach communities that involve mobilizing people, in particular women, to form self help groups, train this groups in group dynamics, record writing, access to community savings and credit so as to eventually link them to the better services for their social and economic advancement (SMFEA 2010, p. 2). CMMF is based on the concept of the self help groups where members in a given community with a common cause are mobilized into self-selected groups of 15 to 30 individuals. Members are encouraged to save periodically and lend to themselves in order to engage in income generating activities. Members of these groups are also able to identify challenges within their communities and find appropriate solutions to address them. The money is paid back with interest, causing the fund to grow. The regular savings contributions to the group are deposited with an end date in mind for distribution of all or part of the total funds (including interest earnings) to the individual members, usually on the basis of a formula that links payout to the amount saved (SMFEA 2010, p. 5). The loans allow the members to meet their small, short-term financial needs for income generating activities, social obligations and emergencies without having to borrow from a money lender, take an expensive supplier advance, or relying on their relatives. The household capacities are enhanced to access, control and manage their assets and to strengthen their coping and resilience mechanisms to achieve sustainable livelihoods (SMFEA 2010, p. 5). TAHEA is estab-

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lishing this project in communities in Mwanza and its districts to prepare them for all future activities. Jatropha Agriculture and Nutrition Initiative The Jatropha Agriculture and Nutrition Initiative (JANI) was founded in 2006 as a multi-sectoral initiative by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (PFD 2009). With local government support, TAHEA established the JANI-

10

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

project as an implementing partner in the Lake Victoria Zone where they extended the activities to communities in the Misungwi district (PFD w. y.). They provide small-holder farmers the technical support and training in order to increase household incomes and employment through sustainable cultivation of Jatropha and the sale of its products. They also improve food security and nutrition through sustainable vegetable and livestock production and strengthened capacity of local organizations to meet member´s needs (PFD 2009). The JANI-project targets rural households in areas with good potential for economic Jatropha production. The objectives of the project are to establish and husband the Jatropha and also to establish market linkages with buyers of the products. The local processing includes village level oil extraction and soap making and also domestic energy utilization for lighting and cooking. It is also possible to incorporate Jatropha seed cake as fertilizer for sustainable production of nutritious foods, especially vegetables and local poultry (PFD 2009). The advantages of Jatropha are their drought resistance and ability to grow under a variety of climatic and management conditions. The high oil content of the plant is able to replace imported fuel for diesel engines and domestic lighting. The surplus materials of the plants can be used as fire material for household cooking and protect the tree stock in this way. The oil of the Jatropha plant is also used in creams and soaps to treat skin diseases and represent also a good option for financial income generation (PFD w. y.) Orange Fleshed Sweet Potatoes TAHEA has been promoting sweet potato production for income generation and household food security since the year 2001. Since 2006, the organization has been implementing the projects "Scaling Up Sweet Potato Production" and "Eat Orange" including OFSP-varieties (TAHEA 2009, p. 2) as a response to the international project "Vitamin A for Africa" (VITAA). Consumption of OFSP with Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

high levels of

beta-carotene has been found to improve vitamin A status

of school children and thus considered to be viable long term strategy for controlling VAD in areas where this deficiency is a problem (MULOKOZI et al. 2007, p. 28f.). The overall VITAA-initiative was launched in 2001 as the first food-based initiative to attack the problems of VAD throughout in SSA, since in the entire area about 640,000 children die each year from causes associated with this

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

11

deficiency. The partnership is dedicated to alleviating the suffering caused by VAD using OFSP that meet African standards for taste and texture. The VITAA initiative is aimed at making OFSP available on a large scale, demonstrating the potential of crop-based approaches in alleviating micronutrient deficiencies. VITAA member countries include Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Mozambique, South Africa, and Ghana (ANDERSON et al. 2007, p. 711). The concern of the Scaling up project is to form producer marketing groups who will receive new OFSP planting materials for rapid multiplication and to train the farmers on sweet potato crop husbandry practices. It is also planned to train the farmers and their families on sweet potato processing and marketing skills and also to link these people to local, district and regional markets where they can sell their own sweet potato products (TAHEA 2010, p. 8f.). Micro finance activities are introduced as a synergy to the project with the aim of improving the farmers access to financial support within their communities, at the same time building their capacity to accumulate their own capital. These activities also facilitate spending of their income from sweet potatoes as they always plan to spend the income they get from shares in sweet potato activities, school payment and livelihood household expenses. That shall bring more success to the implementing farmer groups in all districts (TAHEA 2010, p. 2). The Eat Orange-project aimed directly at consumers at the household level. During multi-day cooking courses, project participants learn to cook different meals using sweet potato recipes. These recipes are divided into main courses, snacks and beverages (see Tab. 1). Especially the snacks can be sold and thus serve the security of income. The sweet potatoes grown in the village itself and other readily available ingredients are used. People are encouraged to increase their sweet potato consumption so that they can vary their diet. Also, hygienic aspects, such as body and kitchen hygiene are discussed in this training to

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reach total nutrition security. The project attempts to bring to the people a knowledge of preparation methods with little nutrient loss.

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Tab. 1: Short-form of recipe for Eat Orange-cookery training Main course

Snacks Maandazi/

Beverages Chips

Juice

Dough-

Recipes

nuts/Chapatti/Bajia Smashed or boiled OFSP + • kidney beans • varieties of vegetables • meat • small fish Leafs of OSPF as vegetable

• • •

•

•

peel, cut and wash OFSP-roots produce roots to flour add maize flour, baking powder, yeast, water and lemon skin if available for bajia add vegetables like tomato, onion and green pepper for filling fry in hot oil

•

• •

peel, cut and wash OFSProots in salted water slice roots fry in hot oil with garlic and onion

• • •

smash and boil OFSP-roots press through sieve cook for preservation

A photographic documentation of the CMMF and Eat Orange-projects is pre-

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sented in Appendix I.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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4 Influences of the nutritional situation in Tanzania 4.1 Traditional diet The diet of the Tanzanian population is based on cereals, starchy roots with high fiber content and pulses in rural as well as in urban areas (FAO 2008, p. 17). Starchy foods provide almost three quarters of the total energy supply, despite the wide variety of food produced in Tanzania. Consumption of micronutrient dense foods such as animal products is low and subsequently micronutrient deficiencies are widespread (FAO 2008, p. 3). Especially among rural communities the frequency of vegetable consumption is high. There they are included in every meal, but generally quantities are small. Therefore, vegetables do not contribute significantly to nutrient intake. Fruits are not commonly consumed, as they are not considered as important by many adults. Maize is consumed as a staple in all regions of the country, but especially in urban regions. Other cereals, roots and tubers such as yams, millet and sweet potatoes are known but contribute less to the diet as they are less preferred than maize (FAO 2008, p. 17). The country is separated into seven agro-ecological zones, each one having a main staple. Widespread staples are: plantain in north western tip and northern Tanzania; maize and some sorghum in the central and southern highlands zones; rice in the river basins of Kilombero, Rufiji and eastern zones; cassava in western and south eastern areas. In rural areas and among the low-income part of the urban inhabitants, the quantity of food consumed can be limited and meal regularity varies with the season. During the wet season food consumed may be limited to one meal per day, while two to three meals may be consumed during the dry or harvest season. Frequency of meat and milk consumption is extremely low, on average once a week, a month or even less (FAO 2008, p.

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17). The most common main dish is stiff porridge, called in the national language Kiswahili as ugali, made from maize flour, sorghum or cassava with water. It is eaten with a relish either made of vegetables, sardines, pulses or meat. Rice and various fish cooked in coconut oil are also preferred staples for people living in coastal communities. The introduction of various spices by the Arabs is highly evident in a popular coastal dish, namely pilau. It consists of rice spiced with curry, cinnamon, cloves, cumin, and hot peppers. Eggplant, tomatoes, 14

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

beans, spinach and other greens, as well as maize are frequently eaten, many of these are grown in backyard gardens. Fried bananas, also called plantains, is a very popular local dish, while in the cities, Indian food is plentiful. All of this meals are usually eaten out of a large bowl that is shared by everyone at the table (FOOD BY COUNTRY 2011). Tea is the most widely consumed beverage. It is classically taken throughout the day, often while socializing and visiting friends and family. Sweet fried rice cakes called vitumbua are commonly eaten with the tea in the mornings, or between meals as a snack. Chapatti, a fried flat bread, also served with tea, is a popular snack among all groups of age (FOOD BY COUNTRY 2011). In the urban areas, food behaviors and dietary patterns have radically changed in the last decades, especially among the high-income group, partly due to trade liberalization and globalization. Energy dense foods and western-type fast foods have become eagerly obtainable on the market and their consumption has increased considerably. The dietary pattern has changed from a traditional diet high in carbohydrates and fiber to consumption of non-traditional processed foods, meat and alcohol (FAO 2008, p. 17).

4.2 Food and Nutrition security In 2009, there were about 280,000 people in Tanzania in the food insecure category. Some reasons are the decline in food supplies and high prices, due to increasing transport costs across the country, intensified plant diseases in the Lake Victoria Zone and a new imposed policy for using acceptable fishing equipment in lakes, rivers, and on the coast at a time when stocks from previous harvest are running low. These factors have caused moderate food insecurity in Mwanza and some other regions (FEWS NET 2009, p. 1). Tanzanian national efforts to enhance the quality of food and nutrition by

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considering important aspects such as availability of food, proper food preparation and preservation began immediately after independence in 1961 and were reinforced after the Arusha Declaration of 1967 (MOH 1992, p. i). The formation of the Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC) in 1973 was one of the major steps taken by the Government to improve nutrition status in the country (MOH 1992, p. 10). In 1996, the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the WORLD FOOD SUMMIT (1996) Plan of Action defined food security as existing when all people around the world at all times have access to adequate, safe,

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nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life (see p. 1). Health is one of the basic human rights that does not only imply a person´s state of being free from disease but also the state of being well physically, mentally and spiritually hence the ability to participate fully in the community developmental process (WHO w. y. quoted from MOH 1992, p. i). Linked through malnutrition, health is an undeniably aspect of food and nutrition security, like sustainable economic development, environment, and trade to. That makes food and nutrition security to a complex sustainable development issue (WHO 2011). Food security includes physical and economic access to food that meets people´s dietary needs as well as their food preferences (WFS 1996, p. 3). These dietary needs are defined as the nutritional status which is the balance between the intake of nutrients by an organism and the expenditure of these in the

processes

of

growth,

reproduction,

and

health

maintenance

(UMWELTLEXIKON-ONLINE 2010). The requirements varies with the level of physical activity, age and gender and also with the weight, body size of a person and the climatic conditions of the living place (NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 1989, p. 30ff.) Nutrition security is achieved when a household has secure access to food connected with a sanitary environment, adequate health services, and knowledgeable care to ensure a healthy life for all household members. The results of more productive and profitable agriculture or from enhanced growth in the broader economy are an improved food security at the household or individual levels and thus an input to a better quality of life. An individual’s ability to reach the full personal and economic potential depends to a large degree on the level of nutrition security (BENSON 2004, p. 9). As food security, nutrition security is defined at the household and the individual levels, but the determinants extend far beyond the control of the household itself. It is the concern of many more

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institutions, sectors, and other actors (BENSON 2004, p. 11). Food and nutrition security is built on three pillars, namely food availability, food access, and food use including hygiene aspects (see Fig. 4). It is a complex sustainable development issue that is linked to health through malnutrition, but also to sustainable economic development, environment, and trade (WHO 2011).

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Fig. 4: The pilla ars of food and a nutrition n security

Hou usehold fo ood and nutrition se ecurity

Food Availability

Food Access

F Food use and a utilization

•

Land, wate er

•

Production

•

Sanitary environmen nt

•

Agricultura al inputs

•

Employment

•

Health and sanitation n

(seeds, too ols, fertilizer,

•

M Markets

•

Access to t potable wa ater

pesticides,, animals,

•

R Relief food/ fo ood aid

veterinary services, etcc.) •

Markets

•

Import and food aids

and fuel •

Knowled dge of produc ction, storage, processing, etc.

(mod dified from FAO 2011 1) Food availabiility The availability y of food depends d on factors like self foo od production or nattional prod duction, stock securrity, trade,, donation ns and foo od aids. The T acces ss to prod ductive resources, su uch as soil and agricu ultural inpu uts, as welll as the av vailability y of food production knowledge k e and techn nologies also decide e the availa ability of fo ood. Food availability y can be afffected as a result byy variations s in the macroecon nomic and political ssituation an nd also byy the regio onal climattic phenom mena. Crise es, like na atural disas sters and civil c strife a and war, ccan serioussly disturb food prod duction and d the consttancy of fo ood supply (HU-BERL LIN 2002, p. 9). Avaiilability of food includes also the availability of pu ure, clean d drinking wa ater. According to UNICEF (20 010), abou ut 80 perce ent of the urban pop pulation in Tanzania used

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imprroved drink king-water sources in n the year 2008. In rural r areas s only about 45 perc cent have access a to cclean wate er sources (UNICEF 2010). 2 Food access Food d productio on does no ot automatically equa al food seccurity. If foo od is in fields or in th he markets s, but peop ple cannot afford to acquire it, then they y are food insecure e (BENSON N 2004, p. 8). People e must havve sufficien nt access to t the avaiilable food dstuffs and water, wh hether they y grow the eir own foo od or buy it. Hungerr and

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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malnutrition are not always a consequence of the available quantity of food at the national or household level. Reasons for inadequate access to food could be, for example, low purchase power, undependable sources of income or high prices. Access to food requires also the physical access to infrastructures such as markets, marketing systems and transport potentials (HU-BERLIN 2010, p. 9f.). At present the food access conditions have remained satisfactory at the national level. All markets across the country are supplied adequately with staple food commodities. But market-dependent households suffer from high food prices (FEWS NET 2011, p. 1), as the food price index rose by 15 percent between October 2010 and January 2011 – that is 29 percent above its level a year earlier (THE WORLD BANK 2011). Food use and utilization The knowledge of and attitudes towards production, storage, processing, domestic preparation and consumption is closely linked to the nutritionally adequate use of food. There is an interface between food insecurity, infections and illness as adequate physical conversion of food depends on the health status. This links the measurement of use and utilization with the access to basic health care and reproductive health. The capability of households to provide appropriate caring practices, for themselves and for the most susceptible in their family and community, can improve use and utilization. The usage of food is also influenced by consumption habits and socio-cultural background, like intra household distribution of food and mother-child feeding practices. Another aspect of food use and consumption is a safe environment, including sanitation and waste disposal, guaranteeing the supply and utilization of safe and uncontaminated food and drinking water (HU-BERLIN 2010, p. 10).

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4.3 Malnutrition  effects and causes The types, magnitude and causes of food and nutrition problems are environment specific. Actually there is no single country in the world without problems of malnutrition. In Tanzania, as is the case with other developing countries especially in SSA, the major food and nutrition problem is that of under- and malnourishment (MOH 1992, p. 3).

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

The common words malnutrition and undernourishment are indeed often used in the same context but must be distinguished from each other. Malnutrition arises from deficiencies of specific nutrients or from diets based on unsuitable combinations or magnitude of foods, and it can also result from excess nutrient losses or utilization (SHATTY 2003). So it is not just understood in the result of inadequate food intake, it is also caused by the quality of the food being consumed, poor access to health services, poor sanitation, and in the case of young children, inappropriate feeding and care practices (LOW et al. 2008, p.10). Undernourishment on the other hand is caused primarily by an inadequate intake of dietary energy, regardless of whether any other specific nutrient is a limiting factor (SHATTY 2003). Malnutrition among young children is on the rise in SSA. Overall, in Africa, prevalence is predictable to increase from 24 percent in 1990 to 27 percent in 2015. High rates of HIV/AIDS prevalence aggravate malnutrition. Hence in East Africa, where the HIV/AIDS effect is strong, the incidence of underweight individuals is predicted to be 25 percent higher in 2015 than in 1990 (The World Bank 2006, p. 246). The causes can be analyzed at three main depths as immediate, underlying and basic causes. Immediate causes can be the inadequate food intake resulting from low feeding frequency with insufficient energy and other important nutrients. This problem mainly affects children´s nutrition. It is also possible that there are frequent diseases which increase the utilization of nutrients in the body especially energy and at the same time causing loss of appetite and thus intensifying the problem of inadequate feeding (MOH 1992, p. 8f.). Underlying causes occur when there is food insecurity at any level, for example at household, village or national level, caused by problems related to production, harvesting, preservation, processing, distribution, preparation and various uses of

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food. Also inadequate care for special groups, for example small children, pregnant and lactating women, the elderly and the sick and inadequate essential services such as health education, water, environmental sanitation, housing and clothing can has malnutrition as a result (MOH 1992, p. 9). The basic causes are a poor economic situation, for example at household, village and national level and also an inequitable distribution and utilization of services and other resources. Traditions and customs which affect negatively the state of nutrition particularly women and children can also have an effect of the health

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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s of the people e. Accordiing to the analysis of the va arious and nutrition status ses of food d and nutrrition problems, it ha as been shown that their solu utions caus with requ uire cooperation and d coordina ation amon ng various sectors concerned c socio o-economiic developm ment in the e country ((MOH 1992 2, p. 9f.). The manifest malnutritio m n occurs mainly m as ffour types: Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), nutritional an nemia, iodine deficien ncy disorde ers (IDD) and a VAD (M MOH 1992 2, p. 3f.) (s see Fig. 5).. Prottein Energ gy Malnutrrition PEM M is the major m manifestation and rankss high in importance e in Tanz zania. Child dren betwe een the ag ge of six months m and d three yea ars and prregnant as s well as la actating women w are the group ps which a are highly affected by b this pro oblem (MO OH 1992, p. p 4). PEM M is a co ondition arrising from m insufficie ent energy y and prote ein intake,, which is usually provoked p b by episode es of diarrrhea and other o infec ctions (TFN NC 2005, p p. 4). Fig. 5: Prevalen nce of malnutrition per type among g preschool children

in sub-S Saharan A Africa % 40 Underweigh ht/PEM 35

VAD IDD

30

Anemia

25 su ub-Saharan Affrica

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dified from UNICEF 1 1998, p. 22 2) (mod In children PE EM manife ests in the e form of low weigh ht for age and heig ght. If defic or a ciency is severe, s the e child will suffer fro om kwashiiorkor or marasmus m combination of o both, ca alled maras smic kwasshiorkor. The T symptoms of a child suffe ering from kwashiorkkor are for example p physical an nd mental retardation n and theyy display a low bodyw weight usua ally betwee en 60 and 80 percen nt of the no ormal weig ght for the age of a child (MO OH 1992, p p. 4f.). So ome sympttoms of a child suffe ering from marasmu us are thin nness and physical retardation, old age e ap20

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

pearance with sharp eyes, loose skin which can easily be pulled out, as well as low bodyweight, below six percent of the normal weight in relation to the age of the child. Frequent crying and an extraordinary appetite are also typical. A child suffering from both  kwashiorkor and marasmus  shows some of the features and particularly acute low bodyweight below 60 percent of the normal weight, as well as swollen arms and legs (MOH 1992, p. 5). The distribution of PEM in Tanzania varies from one area to another and within the same region. At national level it is predictable that 44 percent of children below the age of five years are stunted, with 17 percent of them being severely stunted (TFNC 2005, p. 5). Nutritional anemia Nutritional anemia results from insufficient iron intake and food as well as prevalence of diseases especially malaria, worms and bilharzias. This problem is very common among pregnant women, children below five years of age and school children (MOH 1992, p. 6). For Tanzanian children below five years there was a national prevalence of anemia of about 72 percent reported in 2005. For pregnant women it was reported to be about 49 percent (TFNC 2006a). Iodine deficiency disorders The problem of IDD results from lack of iodine in the soil, and hence deficiency in plants and animals living in such areas. As a result, people who feed on food grown in such areas also suffer from iodine deficiency. Areas highly affected by iodine deficiency are those situated in the highlands and far from the ocean (MOH 1992, p.7). IDD is globally estimated to affect more than 1.6 billion people with about 150 million affected in Africa (TFNC 2006b). Vitamin A deficiency Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

VAD is a public health problem in more of half of all countries, especially in Africa and South East Asia, and the most preventable cause of blindness. Worldwide, there is an estimated 250 million preschool children with a VAD and it is likely that in deficient areas a substantial proportion of pregnant women are vitamin A deficient. An estimated 250,000 to 500,000 children become blind every year due to VAD, half of them dying within twelve months (WHO 2011). In developing countries the main reasons are a diet that is chronically insufficient

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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in vitamin A or parasitic intestinal diseases. If there is a deficiency for people that live in industrialized countries, VAD often causes in fat digestion and absorption disorders, or storage and transportation difficulties (HESEKER et al. 2010, p. 486). Combating VAD is a major role for the subject of this essay (see p. 1f.) and the projects of TAHEA, therefore this point is discussed in focus in the following

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chapter.

22

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

5 Vitamin A  an example of nutrition disorder In Tanzania VAD is one of the major nutritional problems of public health significance, affecting mainly children and women of child-bearing age (TFNC 2006c, p. 1). Poor households typically cannot afford to consume the highly bioavailable animal foods on a regular basis. High rates of deficiency in the major micronutrients are common among poor populations that consume plantbased diets (LOEBENSTEIN et al. 2009, p. 368). The low intake of animal products, along with insufficient intake of fruit and vegetables are the main cause for VAD in Tanzania. The widespread poverty and the high financial cost of animal products limits the consumption. Plant sources of vitamin A are more affordable, but the availability from animal sources would be higher (FAO 2008, p. 35). Vitamin A-supplementation as interventions have been implemented by the government to alleviate VAD. The first national program for prevention and control of VAD started in the year 1985. The program focused on two main interventions: Supplementation as a short-term measure, and support of production and consumption of vitamin A-rich foods as a long-term strategy. Control of infectious diseases and nutrition education were also adopted as compassionate measures (TFNC 2006c, p.1f.). In 2004, de-worming was integrated into vitamin A-supplementation in all districts of mainland Tanzania. Twice-yearly vitamin A supplementation coverage in the country has been over 90 percent on average since 2001 (TFNC 2006c, p. 3f.). The preservation and consumption of Vitamin A rich foods is carried out by conducting training to extension workers at district level, then they disseminate the knowledge to the community. They are also demonstrate preservation of vitamin A rich foods which include construction and use of solar driers. Identifi-

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cation and advocacy in use of vitamin A rich foods like red palm oil, and OFSP is also a common strategy. Efforts in fortification food with vitamin A are being done to some foods such as sugar that have already been identified as potential vehicle for fortification of vitamin A (TFNC 2006c, p. 5).

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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5.1 Absorption and storage Vitamin A is a fat-soluble nutrient that is used by human body in three active forms that are collectively known as the retinoids. The compounds are retinol, retinal and retinoic acid, also known as preformed vitamin A (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 391). A variety of carotenes and related compounds, known as carotenoids, can be cleaved oxidative to yield retinaldehyde, and hence retinol and retinoid acid. That is the reason why they are also known as pro-vitamin A carotenoids (GIBNEY et al. 2009, p. 134). Only the compounds that have all biological effects of the vitamin can be called vitamin A. These are retinol and several retinyl esters that can be converted into retinal and retinoic acid. The provitamin A carotenoids are also included, mainly beta-carotene, alpha-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin (HESEKER et al. 2010, p. 481). The human body is able to convert retinol to retinal. Retinal can also re-form retinol or it can irreversible form retinoid acid. The interconvertible nature of retinol and retinal allows them to support all the activities of the vitamin A compounds (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 391). Preformed vitamin A is concentrated only in a certain tissues of animal products in which the animal has metabolized the carotene contained in its food into vitamin A. Carotenes are found in green, yellow, and red fruits and vegetables, as well as in milk and milk products. The richest source by far is liver. In addition to their role as precursors of vitamin A, carotenoids have potentially antioxidant action, which is associated with a lower incidence of cancer and cardiovascular diseases (GIBNEY et al. 2009, p. 134f.). The yellow-orange pigment beta-carotene can be cleaved into two molecules of retinal, which has the highest potential vitamin A activity of the pro-vitamin A family (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 391). Vitamin A is absorbed either in the form of its pro-vitamin (usually betaCopyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

carotene) from plant or in the form of retinyl esters from animal products (BIESALSKI et al. 2007, p. 136). Retinol is the form of transport as well as an intermediate in the metabolism of vitamin A and retinyl esters represent the storage forms (HESEKER et al. 2010, p. 481) (see Fig. 6). The liver stores more than 90 percent of the body´s vitamin A in the form of retinyl esters. The remainder is deposited in adipose tissue, lungs and kidneys. The liver releases retinol - carried by retinol-binding protein (RBP) - in just the right amounts to maintain normal retinol blood levels (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 392). 24

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Fig. 6: Vitamin A metabolism Pro-vitamin A carotenoids

Retinyl esters

Retinol

Retinal

Retinoic acid

Polar metabolites

(=storage form)

Retinyl-ßglucuronide

Retinoyl-ßglucuronide

oxidized metabolites

(HESEKER et al. 2010, p. 482)

5.2 Function The first function of vitamin A to be defined was in vision. Retinol is carried by the blood to the retina, the paper-thin tissues that line the back of the eye, where it is converted to retinal. In combination with the protein opsin, retinal forms the pigment called rhodopsin, which is abundant in rod cells and makes it possible to see in dim light (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 392). Vitamin A is also involved in color vision, as part of the pigment iodopsin in cone cells (INSEL et al. 201, p. 394). Retinoic acid has shown to have a major function in regulation of gene expression and cell differentiation. In this process stem cells are developed into highly specific types of cells with unique functions (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 396). Retinoic acid interacts with nuclear receptors that bind to response elements of Desoxyribonucleinacid acid (DNA), and regulate the transcription of specific genes. They control the expression of genes that encode enzymes and structural proteins, growth factors, interleukins and cytokines. These are involved in the proliferation and differentiation of cells and tissues, for example the respiratory epithelium, intestinal mucosa, skin, tumor and embryonic cells (HESEKER et al. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

2010, p. 483). Vitamin A also influences the immune system in important ways, like in its support of thymic lymphocytes, which maintain the body´s ability to mount an immune response against infectious invaders (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 396). Spermatogenesis, oogenesis, placental development and embryogenesis are in all animals also retinol-dependent. Thus, vitamin A affects both male and female reproductive processes. Retinol supports sperm duct epithelium and

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

25

sperm production, while it also, oxidized to retinoic acid, is needed for testosterone production. As part of embryogenesis retinoic acid is involved in the morphogenesis of various organs, such as eyes, ears and the central nervous system. The exact gene expression is still unclear (HESEKER et al. 2010, p. 483). Also, retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid are all essential for bone health and growth. As the reproductive processes, the exact mechanism is still unknown (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 396).

5.3 Aspects of dosage The standard unit for quantifying the biologic activity of the various forms of vitamin A and its precursors is the retinol activity equivalent (RAE) (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 391). One milligram (mg) RAE is one mg retinol, six mg beta-carotene, or twelve mg of other pro-vitamin A-carotenoids. Approximately one mg retinol equivalent is 3,000 international Unit (IU) of vitamin A. For the analytical differentiation of vitamin A precursors and their assessment of the biological activity, the IU is the antiquated form of expression. These figures are strictly standardized for animal testing under standardized feeding conditions. For example is 0.3 microgram (g) retinol is one IU vitamin A – an indication which is common for the conversion of isolated compounds with vitamin A character. With a mixed diet many of these substances are absorbed simultaneously, so that the demand and use is indicated in RAE (GIBNEY et al. 2009, p. 134). By the NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1989) a daily supply of 375 μg RAE is recommended for infants, for children from 400 to 1,000 μg RAE and for adults 800 (women) or 1,000 μg RAE (men). Lactating women are advised to intake an additional 400 to 500 μg RAE (NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1989, p. 285).

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5.3.1 Deficiency effects and symptoms

The earliest signs of clinical deficiency manifests at the eyes with a loss of sensitivity to green light, followed by an impairment of ability to see in dim light. The result is night blindness. Deficiency of sufficient duration or severity can lead to xerophthalmia (GIBNEY et al. 2009, p. 139) - a disease in which the eyeball loses luster, it becomes dry and inflamed, and visual acuity is reduced (LOW et al. 2008, p. 10). The keratinization of the cornea, followed by ulceration, is an irreversible damage to the eye that causes blindness (GIBNEY et 26

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

al. 2009, p. 139). The skin is also changing, with excessive formation of keratinized tissue. In addition, VAD is manifested especially in rapidly developing and differentiating tissues, such as oral mucosa, digestive and respiratory tract, urinary tract, skin and endocrine outputs. Dehydration occurs, keratinization and atrophy. Smell and taste are impaired, and malabsorption can occur. Due to the damage of the ciliated epithelium, serious infections such as pneumonia may occur. Thus especially in the children VAD is the leading cause of death. Other symptoms of deficiency are also observed in non-epithelial cells and tissues, such as in embryonic tissue, bone marrow, bones and teeth. The deficiency is the cause of reproductive disorders, such as atrophy of the testes and ovaries, congenital malformations and fetal absorption. It is also causing defective formation of the organic matrix, growth retardation and bone deformities (HESEKER et al. 2009, p. 486f.). 5.3.2 Toxicity

The body has only a limited capacity to metabolize vitamin A (see Tab. 2). Excessively high intakes lead into a collection of vitamin A and its derivates in the liver and other tissues, beyond the capacity of normal binding proteins, so that free, unbound vitamin A is present. The chronic toxicity of vitamin A is more general cause for concern; prolonged and regular intake of more than 7,500 to 9,000 μg RAE per day by adults causes signs and symptoms of toxicity. The toxicity affects the central nervous system, causes liver damage and also skin diseases. The symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dry skin, hair loss, headaches and flaky, itchy skin. Also bone fragility, thickening of long bones, and spleen, blurred vision are symptoms of prolonged excessive intake (GIBNEY et al. 2009, p. 140). If preformed vitamin A is taken in excess, it is a known teratogen. Birth defects,

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including cell palate, heart abnormalities, and brain malfunction are associated with vitamin A-toxicity. Pregnant women should avoid prenatal supplements that contain retinol. Far better to use supplements that have beta-carotene as vitamin A-source (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 400). For people that have a severe VAD, supplements are included in their daily diet by charities and government programs. But this vitamin programs can also be dangerous. For example, in the year 2001 30 children in India's Assam died from osteoporosis

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

27

caused by an excessively high dose of vitamin A. The risk of overdose should therefore always be considered (GRIMM 2010, p. 471f.). Tab. 2: Prudent upper levels of habitual vitamin A intake Upper limit of intake Age group Infants

Reference intakes1

(μg/day) 900

(μg/day) 350 – 375

1 – 3 years

1,800

400

4 – 6 years

3,000

400 – 500

7 – 12 years

4,500

500 – 700

13 – 20 years

6,000

600 – 700

Adult men

9,000

600 – 1,000

Adult women

7,500

600 – 800

Lactating women

8,000

1,200 – 1,300

1

Reference intakes show range for various national and international authorities

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(modified from GIBNEY et al. 2009, p. 140)

28

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

6 Sw weet pottato  a s solving approach a h for nutrition dis sorder 6.1 Agricultu A ural facts Swe eet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a tropiccal Americ can vine, w which is in n the bota anical family Convula aceae along g with com mmon plantts, such as s bindweed d and morn ning glory. They sho ould not be e confused d with pota ato (Solanu um tubero osum) whicch belongs s to Solana aceae and are entire ely unrelate ed. But it is i possible e that theirr use is sim milar (LOEB BENSTEIN N et al. 200 09, p. 3). Swe eet potatoe es are gro own from undergroun u nd tuberou us roots. The T leaves s are varia able in sha ape, size, and colorr. They havve single flowers wh hich are fu unnel shap ped and white w or rose violet colored. c W Where stem m nodes co ontact with h the grou und, the ed dible storag ge roots de evelop hab bitually four to ten sto orage roots per plant. They are e used mo ostly for hu uman conssumption but b are som metimes grown g as animal a feed. Sweet potatoes yield y starcch, flour, g glucose an nd alcohol,, and some varieties s are especcially very rich in vita amin A (LO OEBENSTE EIN et al. 2009, 2 p. 3)). Fig. 7: Varietiess of OFSP

The ere are also enormou usly varietiies in taste, size, alth hough

shape,

alll

sweet

and texttures, potatoes

are

smooth-skinn ned with roots. S Sweet pottato flesh can be white, ye ellow, ora ange (see Fig. 7), pu urple, red, pink and d violet, while skin n color varies v am mong yellow w,

orrange, red and

bro own. The white w and yellow fle eshed (Photography: Schmidt 2 2011)

varrieties are less swe eet and moist m

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than the oth her varieties. They also have e little or no n beta-ca arotene an nd higher levels of dry d matter, which means m theirr texture is drier and mealier an nd they sta ay firmer w when cooke ed. The orrange and red fleshe ed forms o of sweet potato p are e particularrly high in n beta-caro otene (LOE EBENSTEIN et al. 20 009, p. 4). Swe eet potatoe es are mainly grown n in develo oping coun ntries, whiich accoun nt for overr 97 percen nt of world d productio on. This illu ustrates that sweet potatoes p arre an

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

29

ortant crop p in third world w counttries while they are ju ust a seco ondary food dstuff impo in developed countries (LOEBEN NSTEIN ett al. 2009,, p. 4). In n Africa, sweet s pota atoes are called c "poor man´s crrop", becau use most of o the prod duction don ne on a sm mall or sub bsistence level. The crop of sw weet potato has a lo ong and un nique histo ory of savin ng lives in relief famine and fo or providing g food sec curity. It is often the first f crop planted p afte er natural disasters, because it matures fast, is ric ch on nutriients, and so providiing abunda ant food fo or otherwis se starving g populatio on. In easttern Africa the crop is also kno own as "th he children n protectorr" because e it is often n the only y food tha at stands between a child´s survival and starvvation (ANS SWERS 2011). 2 Also o in Tanza ania there are many y importan nt sweet potato prod duction are eas (see Fig g. 8). Swe eet potatoe es are well suited to survive in fertile trop pical soils and a to pro oduce tube ers withoutt fertilizers s and irrig gation. Apa art from occasional o weeding, they need d little carre when th hey are on nce establlished. They are fas st growing g and rapid dly produc ce ground cover to prevent ssoil erosio on. They are tolerant to seve ere weathe er and can n be used as relay ccrops in va arious crop pping systtems, but they do not n tolerate e frost. Th hey can allso been g grown in the t summ mer in temp perate regiions as lon ng as they have at least five fro ost-free mo onths comb bined with fairly warm m days and d nights (L LOEBENST TEIN et al. 2009, p. 4). 4

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Fig. 8: Major sw weet potato producing areas a in Ta anzania

(MSA ABAHA 19 990 adapte ed from KA APINGA et al. 1995, p. p 2) 30

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

In east Africa many villages are dependent on sweet potatoes for food security (see Fig. 9) while the Japanese use it for example when typhoons demolished their rice fields. There is a great difference of yields in different areas or even fields in the same location (ANDRADE et al. 2009, p. vi). Differences in yields are mainly due to variation in quality of the propagation material. Sweet potatoes are vegetative-propagated from vines, sprouts or tubers. Farmers in Tanzania and also other countries often take vines for propagation from their own field year after year. If there are virus diseases present in the field, they will inevitably be transmitted with the propagation material to the newly planted fields, resulting in a decreased yield (LOEBENSTEIN et al. 2009, p. 4f.). Fig. 9 : Sweet potato production per capita in ten selected countries

(in tones per million) Rwanda

Burundi

Uganda

Madagascar

Kenya

Malawi

Tanzania

Cameroon

Ethiopia

South Africa 115 103

98 42 23 19 17 16 4 3

(modified from Kapinga 2008)

6.2 Cultivation and storage problems Farmer that cultivates sweet potato and also people that store the tubers in their households have to fight against some pests and pathogens that can reduce the potential yield by up to 23 percent. A widespread pest is the sweet potato

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weevil (Cylas formicarius), that is a type of beetle. The sources of weevil infestations are infested roots and residues from the previous crop, planting material infested with eggs or larvae, and alternate host plants. If roots with egg punctures are stored, they will serve as a source of infestation for the clean roots stored beside them (FRANKE 1994, p.375). Sweet potato roots react to the damage by producing a poisonous substance that has a distinctive smell. This poison can cause damage to the lungs and heart of human beings and

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

31

livestock. For this reason, damaged roots should not be used as food or feeding (FLIERT et al. 2000, p. III-54f.). Another common pest is the sweet potato stem borer (Omphisia anastomasalis). The undersides of the leaves near the veins are the preferred location for egg laying. Sometimes eggs are laid on the vines and leaf stems (FLIERT et al. 2000, p. III-57). Except for nematodes, which have limited mobility, diseasecausing organisms cannot actively search for host plants. Diseases are spread by water, wind, and insects or infected plant material (FLIERT et al. 2000, p. III77). Common sweet potato diseases are for example Scab, which is also called scabies. The early symptoms of scab are small brown lesions on the leaf veins and stems. As the scab fungus spreads, the lesions spread and curling and deformation of the foliage occurs. Scab can cause yield losses as high as 50 percent. Several fungi and bacteria cause root rot. Once a rotting occurs it cannot be reversed. Infected plants must be destroyed to prevent further spread of the disease. Since the fungi and bacteria that cause root rot can survive in the soil for a long time, sweet potato should be planted in rotation with other crops in order to avoid a build-up of disease (FLIERT et al. 2000, p. III-75). Another problem is the root cracking. Nematodes are only one of the causes of this disease. Cracks often occur after alternate rainy and dry spells. Roots developing in dry soil tend to have thin skins that crack easily as the root enlarges. Fungi and bacteria easily infect cracked roots. The Feathery Mottle virus is the most widespread viral disease of sweet potato. The disease may reduce yields without causing any visible symptoms. When symptoms do appear, they are difficult to detect or easily confused with other problems such as nutritional disorders. Faint, irregular yellowish spots, yellowing along the central vein of the leaf or the appearance of purplish pigment may be related to infection with Feathery Mottle virus. Many different aphids can transmit the

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disease (FLIERT et al. 2000, p. III-76).

6.3 Physiological function Most African varieties have white, cream or yellow flesh while few have orange flesh. As white- to yellow-fleshed sweet potatoes have been reported to contain little or no pro-vitamin A, orange-fleshed types contain much of beta-carotene. There is a high correlation between color and hue values of orange-fleshed varieties, as measured using color difference meters, and their beta-carotene 32

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

content (CAREY et al. 1998, p. 157). Also the content of beta-carotene in raw OFSP roots vary significantly between varieties (see Tab. 3). In addition, the content of beta-carotene is also exaggerated by factors such as root age, climate, cultivation practice and storage after harvest (K´osambo et al. 1998, p. 305). The white-fleshed sweet potatoes (WFSP) are the most consumed in Africa. Replacing these in the diet of the rural and urban population with beta-carotene rich OFSP varieties has the potential to reduce VAD (HAWKES et al. 2011, p. 27). Dominating varieties of maize and cassava, in comparison, have no vitamin A content, even though bio-fortification efforts are underway to advance beta-carotene content in these crops (LOW et al. 2008, p. 5). Tab. 3: Natural variability in beta-carotene content of raw medium-sized OFSP, variety Resisto, from same harvest batch

1

Individually

Intact raw OFSP ß-carotene

Vitamin

A

value

analyzed OFSP

weight (g)

content (μg/g)

(μg RAE/100g)

OFSP 1

352,0

132,0

1100,0

OFSP 2

372,0

146,0

1220,0

OFSP 3

364,0

161,0

1350,0

OFSP 4

329,0

179,0

1500,0

OFSP 5

352,0

194,0

1620,0

OFSP Ø (n=5)

353,8 ±1 16,3

162,4 ± 24,8

1358,0 ± 208,9

±= standard deviation

(modified from JAARSVELD 2007, p. 65) Sweet potato leaves are also consumed in Tanzania, but they are principally considered to be animal feed. The leaves also contain significant amounts of beta-carotene, but bioavailability is certain to be much lower than for the OFSP roots. Protein levels in sweet potato and cassava leaves are higher than in their Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

respective roots, but the amount of leaves consumed by humans´ limits their total contribution (LOW et al. 2008, p. 4f.). OFSP-roots are a good source of vitamin C, which enhance non-heme iron absorption (NESTEL et al. 2003) and have moderate amounts of several B vitamins and vitamin E (LOW et al. 2008, p. 5.) (see Tab. 4). Sweet potatoes contain, as other plant sources, phytate, which inhibit the absorption of iron and zinc. The phytate level in sweet potato roots is rather low compared to that found in maize. On the other hand, the effect of phytate comes from the quantity 33

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

in the entire meal. Hence, if sweet potato is consumed with maize, the inhibitory effect on absorption would still be there. As sweet potato is consumed in some areas as a stand-alone food, in this instance phytate inhibition would be minimum (LOW et al. 2008, p. 7). Tab. 4: Nutrient Composition of OFSP, Cassava and Maize Nutrient

Units/

OFSP

Cassava

Maize

100 g

Raw Roots

Leaves

Raw roots

Leaves

White flour

Vitamin A

μg

300,0-1300,0

51,0-230,0

1,0

115,0

0,0

Iron

mg

0,32-0,88

1,01

0,27

7,6

2,4

Zinc

mg

0,18-0,57

0,29

0,34

0,40

1,70

Thiamin (B1)

mg

0,08

0,16

0,09

na

0,25

Riboflavin

mg

0,06

0,34

0,05

na

0,08

Niacin (B3)

mg

0,56

1,13

0,85

2,40

1,9

Vitamin B6

mg

0,21

0,19

0,09

na

0,37

Vitamin E

mg

0,26

na1

0,19

na

0,42

Vitamin C

mg

22,7

11,0

20,6

310,0

0,0

Protein

g

1,6

4,0

1,4

7,0

6,9

Fiber

mg

3,0

2,0

1,8

4,0

9,6

Phytate

mg

10,0

42,0

54,0

42,0

792,0

(B2)

1

na = not available

(modified from LOW et al. 2009, p. 77)

6.4 Processing methods and effects Traditional Tanzanian methods of processing sweet potato are often limited to washing, peeling and boiling. Boiled sweet potatoes are also mixed with cooked beans and maize, mashed and consumed as a complete meal. Some households just wash and boil, then peel as they consume, or they roast them after washing. Sweet potato can also be processed by grating, drying and then

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milling. The product can be added to other flours to make composites. The grated sweet potato can also be added to other food in fresh form during cooking. Enriched weaning flour can be made from mixing sweet potatoes, soya beans and sorghum or millet flour into a porridge. Fried products like maandazi, chapatti, doughnuts can be made using a mixture of sweet potato and wheat flour thereby reducing the making costs (see p. 11f.). Snack foods are usually based on wheat, maize or other flours, not sweet potato. The inclusion of sweet potato thus represents a departure from the norm. The demand for these 34

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

existing products with no sweet potato included and

the acceptability plus

potential demand for similar products formulated to include sweet potato in some degree (WHEATLEY et al. 2008, p. 8). Wheat flour can also be mixed with sweet potato flour, gratings or mash for bake products like cakes, bread, scones, or buns. All the above products can be made with OFSP to enhance the beta-carotene content of diets, particularly of children. Also the sweet potato leaves can be processed as a vegetable relish by cleaning, shredding, washing in warm water and cooking (STATHERS et al. 2006, p. 91). Boiling reduces the beta-carotene content between 14 and 59 percent after 30 minutes (HAGENIMANA et al. 1999, p. 24). If the boiled sweet potato is a dark orange variety, for example Resisto, the beta-carotene content is reduced by between twelve (open pot) and 24 percent (closed pot) after 30 minutes, depending on whether same sized pieces or different sized pieces were used (VAN JAARSFELD et al. 2006 quoted from WHEATLEY et al. 2008, p. 15). If the tubers are fried, however, the loss of beta-carotene would be 20 to 24 percent (WHEATLEY et al. 2008, p. 18). Sometimes the sweet potatoes are processed into dried chips to preserve the roots for household food security and to a lesser extent for sale in rural markets. Besides permitting better conservation, storage and transport, the drying and processing of sweet potato into dried chips and flours offers opportunities such as the reducing of bulkiness and losses due to the high perish ability of fresh roots. Due to this kind of processing, the products have greater nutritive value because of the fact that that a great part of the water content is removed. Therefore the carbohydrates, pectin, proteins, oils and mineral salts are concentrated in the tissues of dried food products (STATHERS et al. 2006, p. 89) (see

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Tab. 5).

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

35

Tab. 5: Laboratory results of nutrient-content of different types of flour Sample name

Results in g/100g Crude protein

Fat content

ß-carotene

Moisture content

32,8

14,8

Undetectable

7,0

Maize Flour

7,4

5,6

Undetectable

9,9

OFSP Flour

12,0

1,0

20,1

10,4

Soybean Flour

(modified from TFNC 2009) Because of the tropical climate, the amount of sugar is higher in the sweet potato roots than in colder areas of cultivation. That becomes clear after cooking. Amylases split further starch into glucose after cooking process. The roots of yellow color mostly assume a dry and floury taste, while the white, orange and red ones have a sweet, soft, and starchy flesh (FRANKE 1994, p. 371) with a flavor that resembles roasted chestnuts and baked squash. Fresh sweet potato roots are not as unpreserved as cassava, which can undergo physiological deterioration as early as 24 to 28 hours after harvest. As for other root crops, various storage techniques that take benefit of root "curing" at high temperature and humidity have been developed and are also used traditionally. Fresh roots respire during storage and this produces incremental changes in consumption quality. For cured sweet potatoes it is a lower rate. Sweetness also changes, as starch is metabolized to sugars during the respira-

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tion process (WHEATLEY et al. 2008, p. 5).

36

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

7 Empirical Research 7.1 Empirical question and hypothesis This research was conducted as an empirical study. Empirical research is the systematic collection and interpretation of social phenomena that follows certain rules. Empirical means that theoretically formulated assumptions are reviewed against specific realities. Theoretical assumptions, the nature of social reality of investigation, and the resources available, are condition the research process (ATTESLANDER 2008, p. 4f.). In empirical research there are generally five distinct phase terms to structure the survey (ATTESLANDER 2008, p. 17) (see Fig. 10). In the following, these phases of the research work are explained in more detail. The main research problem (see p. 1) is to be applied in practice and is therefore formulated for the empirical research as follows: What is the contribution of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes to nutrition security in rural areas in Mwanza, Tanzania, using Misungwi and Sengerema district as an example. For this purpose, TAHEA made the necessary conditions available like financial and transportation resources. A conference interpreter accompanied the survey to translate into the national language Kiswahili and Bantu-dialect. The self-conducted survey was implemented in the Misungwi district which is a rural part of Mwanza in the Lake Zone of Tanzania. The village that is representing the district is Mwasonge. Since 2007 TAHEA is supporting the village with Scaling up Sweet potato and Eat Orange-projects (MCHELE 2011). Now, four years after the beginning of the project, TAHEA wants to find out if the people in Mwasonge apply what they have learned about nutrition and especial-

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ly OFSP in their everyday life.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

37

Fig. 10: Phases of empirical surveys

1. Formulation and refinement of the research problem 2. Planning and preparation of survey 3. Data collection 4. Data analyses 5. Reporting of results (modified from ATTESLANDER 2008, p. 17) Mwasonge has about 3.600 inhabitants (STAMPSX 2011a) who live mainly from fishing, small business, and agriculture (NGUSSA et al. 2000, p. 157). The village is located about five kilometers from the Nyashishi River, which marks the border between Mwanza Rural and Misungwi districts. To reach the village, there are two main roads, one of which is useable throughout the year, while one is seasonal (NGUSSA et al. 2000, p. 147). The data collected by DWOJACZNY in the not with sweet potato-projects supported village Tunyenye are used to clarify if there are obviously differences in terms of nutrient supply and income levels to the supported village Mwasonge. Tunyenye has about 3,800 inhabitants (STAMPSX 2011b) that also live mainly by fishing, agriculture, livestock keeping and sometimes mining. The village is part of the Sengerema district which is located along the southern shore of Lake Victoria (SOUTER et al. 2005, p. 277). After the research subject has been appointed, hypotheses are formed for refinement and a systematic process of the task. Hypotheses are the basis for further research in terms of explanations for unexplained circumstances

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(ATTESLANDER 2003, p. 22). The hypotheses shall not remain as abstract ideas, thus the contained terms must be operationalized. This means that the theoretical terms of specific hypotheses are made measurable by variables (ATTESLANDER 2003, p. 325). A variable is a characteristic or property of individuals, groups, organizations and the like. Variables are for example the education or sex. In addition, a distinction is made in expressions. For example, man and woman are the expressions for sex (DIEKMANN 2009, p. 116f.).

38

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Because of these requirements, several hypotheses have been formed including variables and expressions (see Tab. 6). Tab. 6: Overview of hypotheses, variables, and expressions of the survey Hypothesis I. The household members that live in the TAHEA supported village Mwasonge (Eat orange & Scaling up sweet potato projects) and the household members that live in the unsupported village Tunyenye, consume sweet potato varieties II. The household members of Mwasonge consume more OFSP than the household members of Tunyenye. III. People that consume WFSP are better supplied with nutrients as people that eat no sweet p., but people that eat OFSP are therefore better supplied with nutrients than these that eat WFSP. IV. People that eat OFSP realize beneficial effects for their health since eating the variety. V. People of Mwasonge that joined a Eat Orange- cookery training apply this knowledge when they cook at home. VI. Farmers that cultivate and sell OFSP earn more money than farmers that cultivate and sell WFSP.

-

Expression consume sweet potatoes do not consume sweet potatoes

-

WFSP OFSP

Household members of Mwasonge Household members of Tunyenye Inhabitants that eat no sweet p. Inhabitants that eat WFSP Inhabitants that eat OFSP

-

Consumed amount of OFSP

-

nutrient supply of person

Inhabitants that eat OFSP Status of health of people that eat OFSP Participants of Eat Orange-cookery training

-

realize effects do not realize effects Times of illness (January - June 2011) apply knowledge do not apply knowledge

-

Farmers

-

Cultivate and sell OFSP Cultivate and sell WFSP Consume all at household level, do not sell

-

Earned Money per sold bag (25kg) of sweet potatoes

-

Earned money per sold bag (25kg) OFSP Earned money per bag (25kg) WFSP

-

-

-

Variable Household members of Mwasonge Household members of Tunyenye Consumed variety of sweet potatoes

-

-

The results of the study will be made available to TAHEA after the date of

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completion.

7.2 Research design The research design is an essential part of empirical research, since it is the basis for the further research process. It should be appropriately designed accordingly to the object of investigation and the research question, while it describes how the empirical question to be studied and determine which indicators when, how often, where and how to be included in what objects. The

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

39

established design is crucial for the validity of the findings (FLICK et al. 2007, p. 14). The object to be examined is the reference point for the selection of measures and methods and not vice versa (FLICK 2010, p. 27). The selected research design is the field study in which the methodologies are conducted in the natural environment of the research object – the inhabitants of Mwasonge or in the case of the foreign survey the inhabitants of Tunyenye. Thus, the natural behavior of the people is persecuted and the collected data comes closer to the reality of those affected persons (HUG et al. 2010, p. 77f.). Similarly, it is an evaluation study, as indeed should be noted that the OFSPprojects, carried out by TAHEA to ensure food security, were successful. Therefore, the design of this empirical study relates to the knowledge gained about the aspects of nutrition security, possible nutrition disorders of Tanzanian inhabitants and the solution approach through the promotion of beta-carotene rich sweet potato varieties. Consequently, the focus of the methodological orientation of the research design is to determinate the cultivated and consumed sweet potatoes as well as the related income ratio and the supply of nutrients requirement.

7.2.1 Survey methodology A dietary survey was conducted to identify the actual condition of the respondents. There are two overarching groups of dietary survey methods: the direct and indirect methods. Direct methods determine the consumption of inventory, accounting, food analysis or interview. They are directly performed with individuals, families or people in the community board, which can be set together either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Indirect methods collecting data about the economic rise and the consumption of food under the consideration of domestic and exports. They calculate the per capita food consumption of a

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population and thus provide no information on individual consumption and eating habits of a person or group of persons (SICHERT et al. 1984, p. 10). Because this investigation is aimed to a specific group of people to demonstrate their individual consumption, a direct survey method is used. The study comes as a cross-sectional study, also called ad-hoc study, that is performed once. This type of study creates a snapshot of society, in contrast to long-term studies (REINECKE 2005, p. 19).

40

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Basically there are two different methods for measuring food intake: the last food intake (retrospective method) and the registration of the current consumption (protocol method). Regardless of the type of coverage are especially kind and quantity of food as well as their chemical composition of interest (SICHERT et al. 1984, p. 15). Since it is carried out as a unique cross-sectional study, the retrospective method is applied. 7.2.1.1 24-hours recall The survey method was chosen as a 24-hours recall for the self-conducted survey and also for the research that was conducted by DWOJACZNY. This method obtains the food consumption of a person, a family or other groups of the type and quantity for the period of the previous 24 hours. The survey is carried out without prior notice. The 24-hours recall has the advantage that the respondent interviewed is just slightly affected, since the amount of work is very low for him. Since it is a interviewing method, the interviewee does not need to be able to read. In addition, the time frame is defined relatively accurately. Unlike written surveys, the interviewer can ask directly if there is a understanding problem. In the method, however, negative aspects are also to consider. It is difficult to estimate the consumed portion sizes exactly, while the recording of healthy food is often overestimated, sometimes to correspond to the supposed expectations of the interviewer, known as social desirability. Also a good memory of the interviewed person is prerequisite, this creates the danger of forgetting snacks. Seasonal fluctuations are not taken into account in this method. But for reasons of overriding positive properties, the 24-hours recall is the most widely used internationally representative consumption survey method (PHILLIPP 2005, p. 293f.).

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There are basically four stages in the process of a 24-hours recall: •

Interview

•

Identification of consumed food by type and quantity

•

Conversion of the estimated amounts to units of weight

•

Calculation of the ingredients using food composition tables (SICHER et al. 1984, p. 16)

A interview is defined as communication between two or more persons. By verbal stimuli (questions) are verbal responses generated. This happens in special interview situations and is characterized by mutual expectations. The

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

41

answers are based on experienced and remembered events, opinions and reviews. With the method of interviewing social behavior is not captured in total, but merely verbal behavior (ATTESLANDER 2003, p. 120). Each interview is thus a social situation between the people involved, including their environment (ATTESLANDER 2003, p. 123). There are different types of interviews, depending on the level of structure and form of communication whether it is performed orally or in writing. Interviews are hold with different intensities: little structured (informal discussion), semi-structured (discussion guide), or highly structured (individual interview, oral plus written survey) (ATTESLANDER 2008, p. 4). Since this 24-hours recall is done in individual interviews, used a prefabricated data sheet as a guide, it is to be classified as semi-structured to structured. In an interview, the interviewer is in the position to accept control and monitoring functions. This is both advantage and disadvantage, because the interviewer is thus always representing a distortion factor. To reduce this effect personal opinions and different issues should be avoided. Thus, a higher comparability of results is guaranteed (MAYER 2008, p. 101). The effect would also disappear in a written survey (ATTESLANDER 2003, p. 149). Adult literacy rates have increased to reach 70 percent in Tanzania. But especially in rural areas there are still many people, in particular women, who cannot read or write (UNESCO 2007, p. 6). This is a reason why a written survey was dispensed with. During the planning of the interview, it must be decided whether questions should be asked open or closed. Open questions allow the respondents to answer themselves as they wish (BROSIUS et al. 2009, p. 94), for example "What did you eat last night?". Questions that have only a limited space to answer options are called closed questions (BROSIUS et al. 2009, p. 94). A example is "Did you eat sweet potatoes last night?" In open questions will be set so as opposed to closed questions, no response categories. The decision if

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closed or open questions are asked also depends on whether a quantitative or qualitative analysis should be performed. Open questions have the advantage of producing answers rather qualitative type. However, closed questions generate more quantitative statements, which are easier to evaluate and offer the interviewer the possibility of substantive guidance (BROSIUS et al. 2009, p. 94f.). Since, in a 24-hours recall both kind and quantity of consumed food will be requested (SICHERT et al. 1984, p. 15), it provides a mixture of both types of questions. For example, with an open question might be asked which kind of 42

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

food was consumed, further support is asked with a closed question whether the food had been boiled. Description of the data collection sheet A data sheet was prepared for entering responses. This sheet also served as a guide to the interviewer. A strictly structured questionnaire is not used for this survey method because it does not provide the necessary flexibility (SICHERT et al. 1984, p. 16). For reasons of privacy policy, the household names have not been obtained. Only the number of household members is collected for statistical purposes. It is important that all foods and beverages consumed are listed. For this reason the people are asked about their breakfast, dinner, lunch and additional snacks. In order to be able to calculate the nutrient intake, the respondents are asked to reproduce the composition of a meal as accurately as possible. In line with the objectives it is important to know whether the respondents consume sweet potatoes and if they do so, which varieties. In regard to vitamin A supply and potential losses arising from the preparation, the preparation method is to be asked. Also, it is statistic relevant, which family member is usually in charge of cooking. In addition, using a second data sheet, the household members were asked if they grow sweet potato varieties, how much they have sold and to which prices, whether their financial income has improved by the OFSP-project and whether they realize supplementary health benefits through the OFSP in relation to times of illness. The answers were recorded written. For better comparability, the data that was collected by DWOJACZNY, was registered in the prefabricated sheet of the author. Here, however, no data was changed or falsified. Pretest

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For the data collection in the field were two days provided by TAHEA. Due to this limited time and financial resources and the difficult accessibility of the implementation site, no pretest was conducted. This holds the disadvantage that during implementation could not be controlled, whether the planned issues are understood by the respondent and whether potentially relevant responses are not levied during planning procedure. Therefore it could also not exactly be estimated how long the survey will take per household.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

43

Sample The number of units of which a statement is to be taken is called the statistical population (DIEKMANN 2009, p. 376). In this case the statistical population is the number of inhabitants in the rural areas in Mwanza, more precisely, the rural area of Mwasonge in Misungwi district and of Tunyenye in Sengerema district. Because not all of these people can be interviewed, a random sample is selected. This sample is the selection of elements from the statistical population that will actually be included in the study (DIEKMANN 2009, p. 376). In a random sample a random process decides on the inclusion of an element in the sample (SCHNELL et al. 2008, p. 273). A total of about 100 households exists in Mwasonge (NGUSSA et al. 2000, p. 162). Due to the limitations in time which has been set in advance, 20 households are selected for sample. The village and the people living in it are unknown to the interviewer, that is why the sample was randomly selected. The sample in Tunyenye was not selected by the author, and is therefore not discussed further here. But it is to say, that there were more households were surveyed by DWOJACZNY, in total about 120 households. For reasons of comparability, here was a random sample of also 20 households selected. Data collection The recall was conducted at the first and second of June 2011. It was accompanied by Mary Mchele, who lives in Mwasonge and leads in the support of TAHEA the local OFSP-projects, and by Leticia Masalu, who assisted as conference interpreter. Due to the high reputation of Misses Mchele in the village, the recall came across with a high degree of acceptance among respondents and answers were readily given. Interviewed was the member of the family that is responsible for cooking, as this can provide the most accurate quantity and quality information. In the survey, usually other family members Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

were present, who have helped in answering the questions. For better and mutual understanding as well as to minimize possible errors due to this, the conference interpreter also had the data sheet available. First, the breakfast meal was obtained. It was followed by the question for lunch and then for dinner. The family member should therefore theoretically easier reconstruct as accurately as possible the last day to give details. Then was asked about possible other meals and snacks. Respondents were not told at the outset that 44

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

this survey is focused particularly on the consumption of OFSP, as to maintain the social desirability as low as possible. The collected data of the 24-hours recall conducted by DWOJACZNY were made available to the author as unevaluated raw material. 7.2.1.2 Supporting observations In addition to the recall a data sheet has been created, collected by the data based on observations and interviews. This data collection covered the period from March to June 2011. The issues raised serve to support the final evaluation of the actual contribution of OFSP and are based on the pillars of food and nutrition security (see 4.2). The main topics of these issues were fixed as: •

Extend of cultivation

•

Processing in the household

•

Consumption

•

Food hygiene

While attending cookery courses of the Eat Orange-project (see 1.2.2) in the Misungwi and Ukerewe districts, these observations were recorded on the data sheet to win a higher data capacity. In participant observation, the observer is in direct personal relationship with the observed and is collecting data. This observation is a process of several steps (see Fig. 11). It is not a standardized technique and therefore a qualitative method. Since a maximum internal perspective of the everyday situation should be obtained (MAYRING 2002, p. 80f.), participants and directors (TAHEA staff members) of the course are interviewed for this purpose in an open conversation. The data was collected in addition to the observations in three interviews performed with Mary MAKINDA (2011) (TAHEA-Coordinator Eat Orange and Jatropha-projects), Bundala RAMADHANI (2011) (TAHEA-Head of OFSP-

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

projects), and Simon MTAYOMBA (2011) (doctor in the village Mwasonge). The questionnaire was also used here as a guide.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

45

Fig. 11: Schedule of a participant observation

Observation dimension, -guidance

Contact with the investigation field

Action in the field participant observation

Field notes, observation protocols

Final evaluation

(modified from MAYRING 2002, p. 83)

7.2.2 Evaluation methodology Used Programs for spreadsheets and graphic images are Microsoft Word® and Excel®. The chemical composition of the diet is calculated using "Tanzanian food composition tables" published by LUKMANJI et al. (2008). Nutrition tables contain information about different foods for their nutrient content. These have to be considered as averaged values, because nutrient levels vary from region to region, season, cultivation and preparation method (SICHER et al. 1984, p. 50). The consumed components of meals are coded with numbers for operationalisation (see Annex II). Such a food code is needed for each survey, were the food intake should also be evaluated quantitatively (SICHERT et al. 1984, p. 48). Since there was no pretest, it was not predictable what answers were to

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expect. Therefore the coding was created after the survey was conducted. The consumed foods were classified into four groups: main components, extra ingredients, snacks, and beverages excluding water. Using the nutrition tables, the nutrient composition per 100 grams is specified for each of these components. For reasons of clarity, here limited to six groups of nutrients: energy (kilocalories), protein (g), fat (g) carbohydrates (g), fiber (g) and vitamin A (g RE). For each meal per household results a number of complex allows, based on the nutrient composition of all components. Since 46

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

there are no exact data about the individual portion size, the data based on estimates. It is assumed that during the day, an approximate amount of 1,550 grams is consumed by an adult (15 years and older). For children (14 years and below) the amount is estimated at 1,000 grams without further gradations (see Tab. 7). The approximate portion sizes, based on observations, were simulated in hindsight and weighed. The meals were calculated per person to enter the average daily consumption. These data serve to illustrate the actual food situation and therefore tried to make realistic but make no claim to accuracy. Tab. 7: Estimated size of portions in grams Meal

Adult (14)

Children (13)

Breakfast

250 g

200 g

Lunch

450 g

300 g

Dinner

450 g

300 g

Snacks + Beverages

400 g

200 g

1,550 g

1,000 g

(water excluded) Total per day

The amount of nutrient intake per person was then calculated as follows: 1 x Nutrient intake = component + ... + component grams of added components

x estimated size of meal

An example of the calculation of energy supply of an adults breakfast: 100 g Porridge = 94.0 kcal 100 g boiled OFSP = 103.0 kcal

kcal total = 94.0 kcal + 103.0 kcal x 250 g 200 g

To assess the determined nutrient intake, existing data of the average recommended dietary intake (RDI) are used (see. Tab. 8). For Tanzania, there are no Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

special recommendations available, therefore, an internationally recognized recommendation is uses. These RDIs represent the averages of all data entered at ones for adult men and women in the age of 15 to 51 and older and at second for children in the age of zero to 14 years. Since this is a large age range in each case the standard deviation is given per nutrient indication, if available, by which the RDI varies. The RDI of younger children and women is usually lower than the RDI of older children and men, so there is sometimes a

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

47

high vary round the average. The recommendations relate to the entire ethnic group and not to an individual person. Individual nutrient requirements may differ greatly (SCHLIEPER 2007, p. 21). For calculation, the used mathematical formula are the arithmetic average, standard deviation and percentage calculation. Tab. 8: Recommendation for human daily nutrient intake Age

Energy

Protein

Fat

Carbo-

Fiber

Vitamin A

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

hydrates

(g)

(μg RAE)

(g) Adult (15)

2,450 ±1 417

55 ± 7

80 ± na2

250 ± na

30 ± na

900 ± 318

1,600 ± 646

26 ±14

50 ± na

170 ± na

25 ± na

600 ± 245

Children (14) 1

± = standard deviation

2

na = not available

(modified from SCHLIEPER 2007, p. 20f., 343, 368, 374)

7.3 Results of the survey 7.3.1 Results of self-conducted 24-hours recall

In Mwasonge 20 households were surveyed (see Annex III). In this households are living 136 persons, of which 78 are children in the age of zero to 14 years. According to this, the average household size of these households is calculated to be 6.8 persons with 42.7 percent of adults and 57.4 percent of children. 18 of the respondent persons who are in charge of cooking are women, two are men. In percentage terms, these are 90 percent women and 10 percent men, of whom 14 people participated an Eat Orange-cookery training. The average age on these people is 29 years (see Fig. 12). The most frequently cited breakfast was the porridge, which was consumed the

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previous day by 70 percent of the respondents. 50 percent of all households had boiled OFSP-roots for breakfast, 25 percent had tee as a beverage and 20

percent had WFSP-roots. For lunch the most frequented meal was a

combination of ugali and small fishes like sardines with several added compounds like Amaranth leaves, kidney beans and some cotton seed oil. Similar meals were distinguished at dinner. About 50 percent of respondents already cooked for lunch sufficient quantities so that the family could eat the meal again in the 48

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

even ning, with minor am mendments s. Favorite e snacks w were bana anas, oran nges, guavva, pumpkin, and tee e as a beve erage. Fig. 12: Age of respondentts younger than 18 years

18 to 25 yeears

Swe eet potatoes were con-

26 to 35 years y

36 to 45 yeears

sum med at the e previous day by 17 (85 percent) off the

46 years and a older 10 4 1

hous seholds. Of O these, tw welve state ed that con nsumed va ariety

4 1

were e OFSP, fiive househ holds conssumed the e white-fle eshed varie ety (see Fig. 13). swe eet

If th hey eat sw weet potatto, 15 households consume them boiled, while two proc cessed the e boiled tub ber into flo our to makke porridge e from it. The T calculated averrage of nuttrient intak ke per mea al is show wn in Table e 9. It show ws that a large l amo ount of ene ergy and fat is taken in with luncch and sna acks. Fig. 13: Consum mmated varrieties

The n nutrient su upply of prrotein is largely WFSP

15 % 25 5% 60 %

coverred over lunch and d dinner, while w the h highest am mount of ca arbohydrate es at

OFSP No sweet potato

breakkfast is co onsumed. Values for the fiber at lunch, dinner an nd snacks s are highe er than at breakfast. In the vittamin A su upply all four mealls are pla aying

nearrly the sam me importan nt roll (see e Annex IV). The calculated d approxim mate nutrient intake th hrough the e consume ed foods fo or the whole day, forr example the vitam min A intakke, shows that the adults a hav ve an averrage intake e of 1,845.9 μg RAE and the cchildren about 1,299.4 μg RAE. The Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

averrage intake e of energ gy is abou ut 1,510.6 kcal for a adults and 997.0 kca al for child dren (see Annex A V). A summarry of the avverage nuttrient intak ke per pers son is show wn in Table e 10 includ ding the hig ghest and lowest valu ue.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

49

Tab. 9: Average nutrient intake per person per meal  Mwasonge Mwasonge

Meal

Average nutrient intake per person per meal + standard deviation Energy

Protein

Fat

Carbohy-

Fiber

Vitamin A

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

drates

(g)

(g RAE)

(g) A B.

5

C

1

A

C

A

C

A

C

A

C

A

C

2,9 ± 7,6 30,0 ± 48,5 17,4 ± 23,2 24,1 ± 61,1

2,3 ± 6,1 15,2 ± 25,4 11,6 ± 15,4 12,1 ± 30,6

87,6 ± 8,5 61,1 ± 18,3 66,6 ± 23,9 64,1 ± 45,0

43,2 ± 6,8 40,7 ± 12,2 45,0 ± 15,7 34,6 ± 21,5

3,7 ± 2,2

2,9 ± 1,8

772,4 ± 734,1

12,1 ± 4,4

8,1 ± 3,0

965,6 ± 917,6 558,1 ± 1473,2

10,6 ± 5,1

7,0 ± 3,4

195,1 ± 299,9

130,1 ± 199,9

11,5 ± 9,4

5,8 ± 4,7

300,8 ± 631,3

150,4 ± 315,6

249,0 ± 83,7

199,2 ± 66,9

3,8 ± 3,9

3,0 ± 3,2

627,5 ± 601,1

337,3 ± 237,0

23,2 ± 8,0

15,5 ± 5,3

495,5 ± 214,5

330,3 ± 143,0

766,9 ± 951,3

260,7 ± 331,2

23,0 ± 6,5 13,2 ± 18,1

15,4 ± 4,3 9,1 ± 16,0

7

L.

6

2

D.3 S.4 1

B = Breakfast 2 L = Lunch 3 D = Dinner 4 S = Snacks 5 A = Adult (15) ± = standard deviation

7

6

320,6 ± 966,3

C = Child (14)

Tab. 10: Average nutrient intake per person during whole day  Mwasonge Mwasonge In-

Nutrient intake per person during whole day

take

Energy

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrates

Fiber

Vitamin A

level

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g RAE)

A5

C6

A

C

A

C

A

C

A

C

A

C

867,4

601,3

22,0

12,7

5,3

3,7

133,0

96,4

1,8

12,6

9,4

6,4

H. i. 2

3693,1

2152,8

113,8

102,1

249,5

138,0

274,7

168,2

59,2

34,9

8588,1

5969,8

3

1510,6

997,0

56,9

34,9

54,8

34,8

218,9

145,5

31,8

21,1

1791,9

1275,8

726,8

432,0

19,2

9,7

71,2

43,7

49,9

28,8

10,1

6,5

1845,9

1299,4

L. i.

A. i. S4 ± 1

1

L. i. = Lowest intake (data of different households)

households) Adult (15)

6

3

2

H. i. = Highest intake (data of different

A. i. = Average intake (data of all households)

4

S = standard deviation

5

A=

C = Child (14)

Additional questions

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The additional questions were asked after the 24-hours recall (see Annex VI). At first it was asked whether the household members grow sweet potatoes, and if so, what variety. 17 of the surveyed households grow both white-fleshed as well as orange-fleshed varieties (see Fig. 14). Two households cultivate only WFSP and a respondent answered, that they have grown past years, but for reasons of drought this year, do not grow sweet potatoes. Tubers were purchased ready to eat of any household. None of the respondents purchased additional sweet potatoes for consumption purposes. 50

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Fig. 14: Cultivatted varietiess at househ hold level

Secondly,, the parrticipants were 20

asked which quantitties (meas sured

117 Only WFSP W

in 25kg bags) b of sweet s pota atoes

15

they

Both WFSP W and OFSP

10 5

approximately

since beg ginning of the t year to o the

Do nott cultuvaate

2

consumed

current time (January to June 2011). Th his questio on was asked a

1

again bassed on th he sale off the

0

tubers (se ee. Fig. 15 5). On averrage, the responden r nts consum med about 1.5 bags p per househ hold, and sold s an ave erage of tw wo bags. Twelve T households sell the sw weet potattoes of the ese seven sold WFS SP and fiv ve OFSP--varieties. The farme ers got an n average e of 2.76 Euro (6,50 00 Tanzan nian Shilling) for a so old bag of W WFSP, and d for a bag g of OFSP P they have e earned about a 21.37 7 Euro (50 0,600 Tanzzanian Shilling) (Calc culated according to t the exc change ratte of June e 10th, 20 011: 1 Eurro = 2,293 3.86 Tanza anian Shilling). If the e responde ents sell orange-flesh hy varietie es, they b believe tha at their fina ancial situa ation throu ugh the cultivation and sale off OFSP ha as been im mproving. They nam med things they cann not afford without this income, such as spices, sc chool g. bookks, soap, and a clothing Fig. 15: Consum mption and sales of sw weet potatoe es per bag (25kg) (

11

12

0 + 0,25 bags

10 0

8

7

8 5

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6 4

2

2

2

4 1

0 Consumeed bags (25kgg)

Sold bags b (25kg)

0,5 + 1 bags 2 bags

3 bags

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

51

The next question that the respondents who consume OFSP were asked was, if they realize some beneficial effects for their health since they eat the OFSP and if so, what health problems they had in their family before eating this variety. Twelve of the seventeen respondent household members answered, that they feel healthier since they eat the root. Before consuming OFSP they had colds including fever and they think that the symptoms of malaria disappear faster now. The other five respondent people realize no special effects but also feel not worse than before. The last question asked was about the times of illness. On average, the respondents and their household members have been ill (assessed subjectively and not medically) twice in the last six months, regardless of the consumed sweet potato variety. 7.3.2 Results of 24-hours recall of foreign study

In random sample 20 households of the surveyed households in Tunyenye was selected (see Annex VII). In this households are living 155 persons, of whom 84 are children in the age of zero to 14 years. According to this, the average household size of these households is calculated to be 7.8 persons with a percentage of children of 54.2 percent and adults of 45.8 percent. 19 of the respondent persons that are in charge of cooking are women, of which one is a child at the age of under 14 years and one of the respondents is a man. In percentage terms, these are 95 percent women and five percent men. The age of the person that is in charge of cooking is not responded. The most frequently cited breakfast was porridge, which was consumed on the previous day by twelve households, which are 60 percent of the respondents. Two of this ate the porridge without sugar. The second most common breakfast was ugali, eaten by 25 percent of the respondents. Of whom, the most ate it without sugar. Four households had tee as a beverage and two had a drink out Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of five spoons boiled and smashed rice dissolved in water. For lunch 60 percent of the households had boiled sweet potatoes, all of them ate the white-fleshed variety. Ugali was eaten by four households, three of them had it without sugar. For dinner, most of the households had a combination of ugali and sardine soup. Three households refined the soup with cream. The most frequently taken beverage was tee. The favorite snacks were bananas, papaya, tangerines, pumpkins, and tee as a beverage. 52

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

The calculated average of nutrient intake per meal is shown in Table 11. It shows that energy-rich food for all meals were consumed at approximately similar amount. The nutrient supply of protein and fat is largely covered over dinner. Also the snacks had an important role in the supply with fat. Carbohydrates were consumed nearly similar at all meals while the lowest amount of fibers at breakfast is consumed. In the vitamin A supply the lunch, dinner and snacks are the largest supplier (see Annex VIII). Tab. 11: Average nutrient intake per person per meal  Tunyenye Tunyenye

Meal

Average nutrient intake per person per meal + standard deviation Energy

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrates

Fiber

Vitamin A

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g RAE)

A5 B.

1

320,1 ±7 333,1

L.2 D.

3

S.4 1

C6 257,5 ± 269,0

A 3,8 ± 3,7

C 3,1

A 5,1

± 2,9 269,0 ± 9,8

C

A

C

4,0

66,3

53,3

± 7,8 3,7

±57,5

±2,9 46,4

A 2,8

C

A

C

2,2

0,4

± 2,4 9,8 ± 1,9

± 7,8 1,3

0,3 ± 1,0 57,5

325,1

195,6

13,1

8,8

2,9

1,9

83,3

49,2

9,9

6,6

260,4

173,6

± 106,7

±101,9

± 7,9

± 5,3

± 4,3

± 2,9

± 30,7

± 25,0

± 6,4

± 4,2

± 468,4

± 312,2

518,3

345,6

31,0

20,7

14,9

10,0

51,8

34,6

9,2

6,1

205,4

137,0

± 233,8

± 155,8

± 14,1

± 9,4

± 7,9

± 5,2

± 16,3

± 10,9

± 3,3

± 2,2

± 260,3

± 173,5

353,8

176,9

8,3

4,2

12,7

6,4

70,6

35,3

8,6

4,3

106,8

53,4

± 592,4

± 296,2

± 22,8

± 11,4

± 44,4

± 22,2

± 81,7

± 40,9

± 9,4

± 4,7

± 249,0

± 124,5

B = Breakfast 2 L = Lunch 3 D = Dinner 4 S = Snacks 5 A = Adult (15) ± = standard deviation

7

6

C = Child (14)

The calculated approximate nutrient intake through the consumed foods for the whole day is shown in Table 12 including the highest and lowest value. For example, the average vitamin A intake of adults is 573.1 μg RAE and for children 364.3 μg RAE. The average intake of energy is about 1,517.3 kcal for

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adults and 975.6 kcal for children (see Annex IX).

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

53

Tab. 12: Average nutrient intake per person during whole day  Tunyenye Tunyenye In-

Nutrient intake per person during whole day

take

Energy

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrates

Fiber

Vitamin A

level

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g RAE)

A

5

C

6

A

C

A

C

A

C

A

C

A

C

L. i. 1

824,9

405,4

33,3

21,7

6,2

4,1

146,4

105,8

11,7

8,0

4,7

3,2

H. i. 2

3886,6

2244,4

167,5

94,7

215,0

110,6

446,8

256,3

51,9

31,8

1719,8

1006,0

1517,3

975,6

56,3

36,7

35,6

22,3

272,1

172,5

30,5

24,4

573,1

364,3

740,2

458,3

27,9

15,2

45,5

23,7

92,6

51,1

11,3

24,0

524,4

331,1

A. i. S4 ± 1

3

L. i. = Lowest intake (data of different households) 3

2

H. i. = Highest intake (data of different

households) A. i. = Average intake (data of all households) 5

A = Adult (15)

6

4

S = standard deviation

C = Child (14)

7.3.3 Results of supporting observations

The questions of the prepared data sheet  answered through observations and interviews (see page 42)  provide a brief description of the cultivation aspects (see Annex X): Extend of cultivation TAHEA buys the vines from farmers that already cultivating OFSP and then they distribute it to the other farmers under the condition, that the farm is in a water-rich area. That is how the communities get the planting material of OFSP. The farmers reproduce the planting material for the next season by cutting the tendrils, or bring out whole roots. For the questions about the number of acres that are used for OFSP planting material were only data for the Ukerewe district available. These data show that in the two villages Murutilima and Mibungo 20 percent of total sweet potato-acres is used for orange-fleshed varieties. The harvest of this is estimated at 26.5 tons. The cultivation methods are mostly Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

pure organic. But when the farmers realize some pests in the field they use available natural pesticides and even chemical ones. When they use chemical pesticides, they protect their skin and eyes during making treatment by rubber boots, gloves, nose-mask, glasses, and long clothes if these items are available. But it is also observed that many of the farmers do not protect themselves. Planting season is three times a year: March and April, June and July, as well as October to December. That makes it possible to harvest nearly the whole 54

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

year from January to October. Usually the farmers use their hands or a stick with metal ending for harvesting. Cassava and Sweet potatoes are often cultivated next to each other, but there are no useful side plants. Processing in the household and consumption of OFSP Mostly the OFSP is boiled as whole tuber. Many people do not know how to fry and produce or sell no special meals like chips and juices. The place of cooking is often a open fireplaces outside the house or in a separate kitchen in house. The most common cooking ware is a pot of sheet metal. Sometimes they also use pans out of clay. Wood, coal, or Jatropha seeds are used for making fire. The sweet potato varieties are mainly consumed as a main dish nearly every day. The leafs are often used as animal feed instead for human nutrition. The orange-fleshed variety is liked most by younger children under the age of five years because of the sweet flavor. Even if the people have taken part in a cookery training, they apply the learned recipes at home to little. Food hygiene Most villages that have been visited have access to a spring, a well, or to the Lake Victoria. The water of Lake is used for taking bath, and washing clothes. The most people know about the dangers for health due to bilharzia (see p. 7), so they do not use it for drinking or cooking. For drinking they use mostly rainwater. Some of the people boil it before drinking. It depends on the season, if the people prepare their meals fresh or if they first dry and store the food. For storage they sometimes cut the foods into pieces before drying. There are no special rooms for storing food, most time it is just placed inside or outside the house under open air. Sometimes the roots are put in bags or covered for protection against climatic influences and pests. In the

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case of sweet potato and other starch crops such as cassava, they are harvested only when they are to be consumed. Thus the tubers remain often a long time in the ground. For preservation, the people know about the longer shelf life of cooked juice, and adding of salt or sugar. The farmers know well that there are pests and pathogens, but do not differ in kind from each other. Even if the farmers treated the roots with chemical pesticides, there is no special or different way of prepare them at household level.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

55

Sanitations are located outside of the house. Usually each household has an one own close to the house, but there are also shared ones. For washing hands most time there is a bucket with water, but no soap. Before the member of household that is in charge of cooking starts the food preparation, most times the hair is covered and the hands are washed. The dishes and pans are cleaned after every use with water and soap, if available. Also the cooking place

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is swept after cooking.

56

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

7.4 Discussion and conclusion While evaluating the results it is important to note that the surveyed sample of 20 households is just a small selection of over 100 households that exists in Mwasonge. These respondents are now representing a social snapshot of food intake, that depict the day before the survey. As the questions were provided by a conference interpreter during the 24-hours recall and the additional data collection, there are several sources of error. The conference interpreter must understand the prepared data-sheet and the related issues to ask the concerned persons in this regard. By the language barrier the possibility of correction and response is eliminated. The supplied answers must be accepted without further checking. For communication between conference interpreter and the person who holds the answers in writing may also occur communication problems because questions and answers can be interpreted wrong by each other. Thus, through communication, a number of errors in data collection are possible. It is a disadvantage that a pretest could not be carried out in advance, which checks the clarity of questions and reveals possible flaws in the survey. Thus, the possibility of variation during the actual survey was partly limited by the risk of falsifying collected data by a change in strategy. Therefore partly improvisation was required. For example, it was difficult to estimate the consumed portion size per person or even per household, because sometimes the person in charge of cooking was not able to remember the prepared amount of food of the previous day. An attempt was made to instruct the people to use their palms for displaying the consumed portion sizes. But also this proved to be complicated, since all household members are eating from one pot and therefore it was difficult for them to estimate the consumed amount. Another attempt was to ask the person that is responsible for cooking to show the used pots to record the Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

capacity of these and divide by the number of household members. The average pot sizes are ranging from five to 15 liters, but many of the respondents could not say, which meal was prepared in which pot. Also SICHER et al. (1984) sais that the main sources of error in specifying the amounts consumed can be: •

Description of the food type error

•

Measurement error, including the food-analysis

•

Errors due to lack of memory (SICHERT et al. 1984, p. 15).

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

57

Thus, the methods mentioned were discarded and the computational method outlined above was developed (see p. 44). This method has also disadvantages and potential sources of error. It assumes a fixed number of grams, that a person consume during a day. That does not correspond to individual consumption patterns of a person. Therefore, very high discrepancies in the here reported results of nutrient supply are possible. If a meal has several components, this calculation expect that all components are consumed in equal parts. If, for example, the person had lunch with sardines soup and ugali, for an adult the ugali goes to 225 grams and also the soup to 225 grams into the calculation. This information is highly standardized and thus not likely to correspond to reality. Also possible errors in the used nutrient database and the RDI must be considered in the evaluation. But in view of the above mentioned alternatives this computation promised to provide the most accurate results and especially to increase the comparability of the results. It is pleasing that in spite of strict gender roles in Tanzania, three male members of the households said to be responsible for cooking. Traditional, not many women have a say in decision making in household financial matters, but are responsible for the food and health care (NBS et al. 2005, p. 46). These respondent men said, that their wives or daughters are working in the city, while they care for the younger children and the elderly. With regard to the nutrient supply of inhabitants of Mwasonge is to be noted that the particular supply of proteins, carbohydrates and fiber meets to a large extent the recommendations. Also, households whose estimated nutrient intake from these nutrients do not meet the RDI are still in an area that poses no risk (see p. 45). Therefore, the values for the supply of fatty acids are below the recommendations, which is may caused by the minimal consumption of animal foods and to the sparingly use of vegetable fats, which are also often too expensive or

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too difficult to produce. The supply of energy in the form of kilocalories is also at 80 percent of households below the recommendations. Many of the respondents complained about very poor harvests within this year because the expected rain stayed away, and the seeds could not grow enough. Also the fact that the household members all eat from the same pot, can affect negatively nutrient intake of members of the household who do not eat fast enough, like the children. In certain communities food sharing is governed by gender norms: males and females eat separately and often the women get later some food 58

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

when the men are finished. Similarly, children are fed first or last depending on the people´s norms (FAO 2008, p. 3). This may be some reason for the inadequate energy supply to these households, but also calculation errors may not be excluded as mentioned. Well above the recommendations are 65 percent of Mwasonges households in the supply of vitamin A RAE. However, only one household is close with the raised levels of the dangerous frontier of overdose (see p. 25f.). Since this household had two meals of OFSP  one of these without any other ingredient  it is initially assumed that that is an exception. However, it was not asked what variety of OFSP was consumed, here are variations in the beta-carotene content of tubers possible. Also must be considered in this context the possible use of supplements. For this case, the vitamin A intake once again increase extensively. If in doubt, consumers should once more be made aware to the dangers of noted overdose. The sweet potato tubers are consumed boiled or processed into flour. Therefore, it is assumed that those respondents, who have participated in an Eat Orange-project, do not apply the learned recipes  where the tubers for vitamin A preservation is usually fried  in their households. Reasons may be that household members prefer to maintain their usual diets, but also the cost factor is important, like for the fat that is needed for frying. The duration of the cooking time was not included in the calculation in anticipation of further nutrient losses. However, a long cooking time can have a very high impact on the nutrient composition of meals (see 6.4). For example it can lead to significant destruction and loss of nutrients such as heat sensitive vitamins, like vitamin C and A and also water soluble vitamins especially B group vitamins (FAO 2008, p. 17). Appropriately, the calculated nutrient consumption of the surveyed households in Tunyenye shows that they are also prorated better supplied with proteins, carbohydrates and fiber than with the other nutrients. The values for carbohy-

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drates are for even 40 percent of respondents mathematically higher than the recommendations. Again, the supply of fatty acids is of concern. 95 percent of respondents are below the RDI and also the supply of energy in form of carbohydrates is only slightly higher than in Mwasonge. A clear difference between the surveyed villages can be seen in the supply of vitamin A RAE. While in Mwasonge 65 percent of respondents had above-average amounts of vitamin A, in Tunyenye only 40 percent of respondents reach recommended values. This comparison becomes more clearly in considering the average vitamin A

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

59

intake. In Tunyenye this is for adults with 573.1 μg RAE and 364.3 μg RAE for children about 1,000 μg RAE below the average consumption of Mwasonge (see Tab. 13). Tab. 13: Comparison of the coverage of nutritional recommendations Nutrient

Mwasonge

Tunyenye

Energy (kcal)

5%

15%

80%

5%

20%

75%

Protein (g)

15%

65%

30%

15%

40%

45%

Fat (g)

10%

0%

90%

5%

0%

95%

Carbohydrates

5%

40%

55%

40%

20%

40%

Fiber (g)

15%

60%

25%

20%

40%

40%

Vitamin A (g

65%

0%

35%

20%

20%

60%

(g)

RAE)

= Above the recommendations

= approximately equal to the recommendations

= Under recommendations

In both villages, the sweet potatoes are often consumed beside of meals that contain maize, like for breakfast with porridge. Therefore, it cannot be excluded, the absorption of iron and zinc is inhibited due to the effect of phytate. It is therefore recommended to consume the roots without meals of maize to prevent this effect (LOW et al. 2008, p. 7). Without additional support and publicity of OFSP, like it is exercised by TAHEA, the orange-fleshed variety is apparently not consumed. DWOJACZNY (2011) indicates that respondent inhabitants of Tunyenye have never heard about this variety of sweet potato. They know only the white-fleshed varieties and could not imagine on the basis of color difference any additional effects of OFSP Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

(DWOJACZNY 2011). So apparently it requires targeted application of the tuber and their positive nutritional qualities. Also, farmers need to be supported in cultivation, as the acquisition of the seed is difficult and expensive. So it is to evaluate very positively, that organizations like TAHEA buy seeds from farmers that already successfully cultivate OFSP and provide the seeds for a lower price than what they would cost in the normal trading, to the needy farmers. This leads to another important advantage for the farmers who grow OFSP: The 60

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

aspect of income generation. The additional questions in Mwasonge showed, that respondents who sold OFSP earned about ten times more money than the ones who sold WFSP. These details were often occupied by small household books, were the household members listing their income. This exact information has been provided mainly by people who claimed to have also participated an Eat Orange-project and therefore suspected to be also a member of a CMMFgroup. Income generation is an important point of nutrition security but also the long harvesting period and the drought-resistance of sweet potatoes (LOEBENSTEIN et al. 2009, p. 4) makes the tuber well suited for ensuring food availability and access. The data from Tunyenye attracts attention because there were many meals prepared without salt or sugar, perhaps to save costs. Sardines soup is partially refined with nutrient rich cream, in contrast Mwasonge respondents consume milk as a beverage. These consumption habits may also be explained by the different income situations of the villages. However, no further data is available of income levels of Tunyenye, so this is speculation. The self-assessment of respondents by the times of illness is to be regarded very critically. The question is very general and has due to this a very low significance. It is to be expected with dishonest answers, since this question is very personal. There are only cases of illness such as colds or fever requested, diseases like AIDS and HIV remain completely outside of this survey but have an enormous meaning for the supply of nutrients (The World Bank 2006, p. 246). As to address such a sensible topic, this should have occurred explicitly in the planning phase. Even only the subjective assessment is requested. Thus, this opinion may differ greatly from a clinically defined disease. It was also not considered whether there are parasitic diseases. However, this can be a reason of VAD, since some parasites cause malabsorption (HESEKER et al. 2010, p.

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486). The use and utilization of sweet potato in the households still needs some improvements. This refers not only to the preparation method but also on the storage and storage conditions. As described in chapter 6.2, the tubers are susceptible to some pathogens and pests. The respondents described the storage conditions as not optimal. For reasons of lack of space and fear of small animals and the like, the tubers are kept in ground until the actual use. But even there they are susceptible to beetles, snails, stem borers, and nematodes.

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61

Large crop losses are possible. During the questioning  and also in other villages  a lot of empty, partly unfinished houses were noticed. It would be an opportunity to remodel these houses as storage space, shared by several households. But storage of dried roots should be for less than four months to avoid carotenoid losses (LOW et al. 2008, p. 9). For this purpose targeted information and assistance would be needed by the organizations and possibly a training of stakeholders on the optimal storage conditions. In retrospect to the hypotheses developed at the beginning of the research, it is to say that the first and second hypotheses are clearly occupied. Since sweet potatoes represent a staple food in Tanzania (see p. 27), it was assumed that they are consumed in both villages. But only the supported village Mwasonge knows about OFSP and consume it. The third hypothesis cannot be assessed as obvious. Although the consumption of OFSP shows a clear advantage for the supply of vitamin A especially pro-vitamin A, but the sole consumption of the tuber is not covering the complete nutritional needs. Thus cannot be generalized, that people who consume OFSP, are automatically supplied better with all nutrients than those who consume WFSP or no sweet potato. The other consumed meals must also be considered here, such as pumpkin that is also a good source of pro-vitamin A (see Annex II). The fourth hypothesis, as already mentioned, has to be treated with caution. The provided answers have only subjective validity, and no medical value. Meaningful values for the additional health benefits of OFSP can be delivered only by medical examinations. The answers obtained in this survey, may also depend strongly on the current condition and moods of respondents. The fifth hypothesis is disproved. The respondents that have participated in an Eat Orange-project, stated, that they enjoyed the cookery training and learned new recipes and cooking methods, but the recipes are to difficult to cook for daily use. They have just a limited choice

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of ingredient, and sometimes not available household appliances, which were used during the training, such as a grater to make potato chips. The sixth hypothesis could be clearly confirmed and indicates for a high substantial income effect of the cultivation and sale of OFSP. In conclusion, it should be noted that the OFSP can have a high contribution towards food and nutrition security in many rural areas that have a large potential of further research. Because the contained beta-carotene has the highest potential vitamin A activity of the pro-vitamin A family (INSEL et al. 2011, p. 62

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

391), OFSP is a very effective vitamin A-supplier. So it is possible to increase the intake of pro-vitamin A by this plant source, also rich in other nutrients, especially in supported villages that are being trained in use and utilization of sweet potatoes. For other rural areas of Mwanzas, where the special advertising has not reached the inhabitants, campaigns are needed to bring the advantages of the tuber also to these people. However, also the danger of overdosing with vitamin A should be considered. It applies to find a healthy average. The WFSP is an excellent source of energy in the form of carbohydrates and should therefore continue to be advertised as a staple food (see Annex II). Only 100 grams of OFSP are often sufficient to meet the needs of a healthy adult or children in vitamin A RAE (see p. 32 and 45). Therefore, it is advisable to classify OFSP as a healthy snack or side dish and

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may two to three days a week as the main meal.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

63

8 Summary It was the purpose of this survey to examine the contribution of orange-fleshed varieties of sweet potato towards nutrition security in rural areas in Mwanza, Tanzania. This research mission results from of a project in Tanzania, that was made possible by the organization TAHEA due to their help and support. The organization asked for a representative field- and evaluation-study about their running sweet potato projects especially in rural areas of their impact area. These projects mainly treated a particular problem of malnutrition that often in Tanzania and other developing countries occurs: the vitamin A deficiency. On the globe there is an estimated number of 250 million preschool children affected by VAD, while an estimated number of 250,000 to 500,000 children become blind every year due to VAD; half of them dying within twelve months (WHO 2011). This issue of a solving approach for VAD is addressed to OFSP, which is rich in beta-carotene. To clarify the contribution of OFP towards nutrition security, the eating habits of especially rural living Tanzanian people were examined. This should determine the extent of OFSP-cultivation and consumption and potential positive impact on health through the consumption of this root. Also processing methods, hygienic aspects and benefits for income generation of farmers and their families were checked. To set all of these aspects of OFSP in context with nutrition security and existing scientific findings, the issue was considered at one hand theoretically, and on the other hand by a self-conducted empirical survey. For this study, the methods of a nutrition survey in the form of a 24-hours recall and additional participant observations were chosen and performed. This retrospective survey took place in the rural village Mwasonge, located in a district of Mwanza, and supported by TAHEA and its projects. As a comparison, the data of a 24-hours recall carried out in the same time period by Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

DWOJACZNY are used. This survey was conducted in Tunyenye, a village without special support. The comparison serves to find out if the inhabitants of Tunyenye also consume OFSP or know about beneficial effects of this variety without special teaching. This shall also show whether the promotion and support of the sweet potatoes offers desired impact and benefits for the population, like a particularly good supply of nutrients, and if this special advertising is still needed. 64

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

The results of the inhabitants in both villages show a clearly difference in their vitamin A intake on the previous day. The respondents living in Mwasonge consume OFSP and have an average vitamin A intake of 1,791.9 μg RAE for adults with a standard deviation of ± 1,845.9 μg RAE. For children the average intake was 1,275.8 μg RAE ± 1,299.4 μg RAE. In contrast, the respondents from Tunyenye consume no OFSP, but only the white fleshed variety and have an average vitamin A intake of 573.1 μg RAE for adults with a standard deviation of ± 524.4 μg RAE. For children it was 364.3 μg RAE ± 331.3 μg RAE. The adults of Tunyenye are thus mathematically about 300 μg RAE among the recommendations of 900 μg RAE ± 318 μg RAE, while the children are about 200 μg RAE among the recommendations of 600 μg RAE ± 245 μg RAE. Due to some difficulties in determining the amount of consumption, this was calculated by using estimates. This computation provides some sources of error. Also by the conference interpreter, who accompanied the survey, errors due to the language barrier and possible misunderstanding cannot be excluded. It seems, that without additional support and publicity of OFSP, this variety is not known in the rural population and therefore not consumed. Consequently it requires targeted application of the OFSP and their positive nutritional qualities towards potential consumer as well as farmers. The survey conducted that the respondents that sold OFSP earned about ten times more money than the ones who sold WFSP. This suggests a significant positive effect of OFSP in form of income generation towards nutrition security. A long harvest season and drought-resistance of the root are additional advantages to the food access and availability, since people may become independent of markets in times of food shortage and local drought. However, all results must be viewed critically, since the received responses always are subjective assessments. Good memory and honesty is expected, so that some obtained statements may cause survey

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errors and results were falsified as possible. Finally, the OFSP is to classify as an important plant food that has high potential to improve and protect food security for rural populations in Mwanza, Tanzania. People need indeed support and help from charity and government to gain access to the tuber, but subsequently the OFSP represents a nutritious side dish, that meets the daily vitamin A-requirement and is easily integrate into daily nutrition-rhythm to prevent deficiencies.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

65

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potato. Lima, Peru 2009. ANSWERS (Ed.): Sweet potato. http://www.answers.com/topic/sweet-potato. Accessed July 18th, 2011. ATTESLANDER, P.: Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung. Berlin, Germany 2003. BENSON, T.: Africa´s food and nutrition situation. Washington D.C., United States of America 2004. BROSIUS, H.-B.; KOSCHEL, F.; HAAS, A.: Methoden der empirischen Kommunikationsforschung. Wiesbaden, Germany 2009. CAREY, E.; HAGENIMANA, V.; OYUNGA, M. et al.: Using orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties to combat vitamin A deficiency and enhance market opportunities for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. In: CAREY, E.; HAGENIMANA, V.; OYUNGA, M. et al. (Ed.): Food security and crop diversification in SADC countries: The role of cassava and sweetpotato. Lusaka, Zambia 1998, p. 157 - 168.

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CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) (Ed.): The World Factbook Tanzania. 2011. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html. Accessed July 20th, 2011. CHALE, F.: Tanzania Home Economics Association. http://swahili.policyforumtz.org/node/5257. Accessed July 15th, 2011.

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DIEKMANN, A.: Empirische Sozialforschung. Reinbek, Germany 2009. DWOJACZNY, A.: Data of a survey in village households of Tunyenye, Sengerema district, Tanzania. Data material which was kindly handed over for comparison purpose. Soon published in a master thesis. London, United Kingdom/ Mwanza, Tanzania 2011. FAMINE EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS NETWORK (FEWS NET) (Ed): Tanzania Food Security Outlook. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2009. FAMINE EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS NETWORK (FEWS NET) (Ed): Tanzania Food Security Outlook update. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2011. FLICK, U.; KARDORFF, E. von; STEINKE, I.: Qualitative Forschung - Ein Handbuch. Reinbek, Germany 2007. FLICK, U.: Qualitative Sozialforschung. Reinbek, Germany 2010. FLIERT, E. van de; BRAUN, A. R.: Farmer Field School for Integrated Crop Management of Sweetpotato. Yogyakarta, Indonesia 2000. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO) (Ed.): Tanzania Nutrition Profile. Rome, Italy 2008. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO) (Ed.): Global hunger declining, but still unacceptably high. Rome, Italy 2010. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO) (Ed.): Household food and

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Accessed 06th August 2011. FOOD BY COUNTRY (Ed.): Food in Tanzania. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

http://www.foodbycountry.com/Spain-to-Zimbabwe-CumulativeIndex/Tanzania.html. Accessed August 12th, 2011. FRANKE, G.: Nutzpflanzen der Tropen und Subtropen Bd.3: Spezieller Pflanzenbau. Stuttgart, Germany 1994. GIBNEY, M.; LANHAM-NEW, S.; CASSIDY, A. et al.: Introduction to Human Nutrition. Singapore, Singapore 2009.

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67

GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT NETWORK (GDN) (Ed.): Tanzania Home Economics Association. 2009. http://cloud2.gdnet.org/cms.php?id=organization_details&organization_id=4440. Accessed August 16th, 2011. GLOBAL PEACE NETWORK (GPN) (Ed.): Asia Kapande. 2010. http://www.globalpeacenetwork.ca/about-us/overview.php. Accessed July 27th, 2011. GOVERNMENT OF TANZANIA (Ed.): Country profile. http://www.tanzania.go.tz/profile1f.html. Accessed August 24th, 2011. GRIMM, H.-U.: Die Ernährungsfalle. Munich, Germany 2010. HAGENIMANA, V.; OYUNGA, M.; LOW, J. et al.: The Effects of Women Farmers' Adoption of Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potatoes: Raising Vitamin A Intake in Kenya. Washington D.C., United States of America 1999. HAWKES, C.; RUEL, M.: Value Chains for Nutrition. New Delhi, India 2011. HESEKER, H.; STAHL, A.: Vitamin A: Physiologie, Funktion, Vorkommen, Referenzwerte und Versorgung in Deutschland. Ernährungsumschau 57: p. 481 - 489, 2010. HUMBOLD-UNIVERSITAET ZU BERLIN (HU-BERLIN) (Ed.): Integration of Food and Nutrition Security in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers. Berlin, Germany 2002. INSEL, P.; ROSS, D.; MCMAHON, K. et al.: Nutrition. Kendallville 2011. JAARSVELD,P. van: Retention of ß-carotene in boiled orange-fleshed sweet-

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potato and during storage: Importance of nutrient content for nutritional impact. In: Orange-fleshed sweetpotato symposiums. Cape Town, South Africa 2007, p. 63-68. KAPINGA, R.; EWELL, P.; JEREMIAH, S. et al.: Sweetpotato in Tanzania Farming and Food System. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 1995. KAPINGA, R.: Promotion of orange-fleshed sweetpotatos to combat vitamin A deficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa region: VITAA experiences. In: FABER, M.; 68

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LAURIE, S.; JAARSVELD, P. van (Ed.): Orange-fleshed Sweetpotato Symposi.

um. Tygerberg, South Africa 2008, p. 14 - 18. K´OSAMBO, L.; CAREY, E.; MISRA, A. et al.: Influence of age, farming site, boiling on pro-vitamin A content in sweetpotato storage roots. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 11: p. 305321, 1998. KUERSCHNER-PELKMANN, P.: Die Verhinderung des ökologischen Kollaps am Viktoriasee. 2007. http://www.wasser-und-mehr.de/meldungen-archiv/aktuelles/103-viktoria.html. Accessed August 24th, 2011. LOEBENSTEIN,H.; THOTTAPPILLY, G.: The Sweet potato. Kerala, India 2009. LOW, J.; WALKER, T.; HIJMANS, R.: The potential impact of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes on vitamin A intake in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nairobi, Kenya 2001. LOW, J.; KAPINGA, R.; COLE, D. et al.: Orange-Fleshed Sweetpotato (OFSP). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 2008. LOW, J.; KAPINGA, R.; COLE, D. et al.: Nutritional Impact with orange-fleshed Sweetpotato. In: INTERNATINAL POTATO CENTER (Ed): Unleashing the potential of sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lima, Peru 2009, p. 73 - 105. LUKMANJI, Z.; HERTZMARK, E.: Tanzania Food Composition Tables. Dar es Salaam 2008. MAKINDA, M.: Interview about the contribution of OFSP to nutrition security, TAHEA Mwanza Office. Mwanza, Tanzania May 5th, 2011. MAYER, H. O.: Interview und schriftliche Befragung. Munich, Germany 2008.

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MAYRING, P.: Einführung in die qualitative Sozialforschung. Basel, Germany 2002. MCDONALD, B.: Food Security. Cambridge, United Kingdom 2010. MCHELE, M.: Interview about the nutritional status of inhabitants of Mwasonge. Mwasonge, Tanzania June 1st, 2011.

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MINISTRY OF HEALTH (MOH) (Ed.): The food and nutrition policy for Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 1992. MTAYOMBA, S.: Interview about the nutritional status of inhabitants of Mwasonge. Mwasonge, Tanzania June 1st, 2011. MULOKOZI, G.; JUMA, A.; KAPINGA, R. et al.: Provitamin A carotenoid content in sweet potato varieties. In: INTERNATINAL POTATO CENTER (Ed): National Nutrition Conference. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2007, p. 28 - 29. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STATISTICS (NBS); ORC MARCO (Ed.): Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2005. NESTEL, P.; NALUBOLA, R.: The bioavailability of iron from dark green leafy vegetables is low. 2003. http://www.foodsecurity.gov.kh/docs/ENG/FS06Dark%20Green%20Leafy%20Vegetables%20-%20Iron-ENG.pdf. Accessed August 15th, 2011. NGUSSA, D.; KABATI, M.; KOMBA, D. et al.: Report of the PRA carried out at Mwasonge Beach, Tanzania, October 23rd - November 3rd, 2000. In: SEDAWOG (Ed.): The Co-management Survey: PRA Reports from Five Beaches on Lake Victoria. Jinja, Uganda 2000, p. 147 - 1985. NIEHAUSMEIER (Ed.): Tansania. http://www.niehausmeier.de/html/tansania.html. Accessed July 15th 2011. PARTNERS FOR DEVELOPMENT (PFD) (Ed.): JANI. Information brochure about the project. Mwanza, Tanzania without year. PARTNERS FOR DEVELOPMENT (PFD) (Ed.): JANI. 2009. Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

http://www.pfd.org/where-we-work/tanzania/62. Accessed July 13th, 2011.

PHILLIPP, K.: Ernährungserhebungsmethoden. In: WILDHALM, K. (Ed.): Ernährungsmedizin. Vienna, Austria 2005, p. 288 - 304. RAMADHANI, B.: Interview about the contribution of OFSP to nutrition security. Ukerewe, Tanzania May 16th, 2011. 70

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REINECKE, J.: Strukturgleichungsmodelle in den Sozialwissenschaften. Munich, Gemrany 2005. SCHLIEPER, C.: Grundfragen der Ernährung. Hamburg, Germany 2007. SCHMIDT, V.-C.: Own photography of OFSP-varieties. Mwanza, Tanzania 2011. SCHNELL, R.; Hill, P. B.; ESSER, E.: Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung. Munich, Germany 2008. SHATTY, P.: Malnutrition and Undernutrition. 2003. http://www.medicinejournal.co.uk/article/S1357-3039%2806%29004786/abstract. Accessed July 16th, 2011. SICHERT, W.;

OLTERSDORF,

U.; WINZEN, U.

et

al.:

Ernährungs-

Erhebungsmethoden. Supplement of Ernährungs-Umschau 31: Volume 4, 1984. SOUTER, D.; SCOTT, N.; GARFORTH, C. et al.: The Economic Impact of Telecommunications on Rural Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction: A study of rural communities in India (Gujarat), Mozambique and Tanzania. London, United Kingdom 2005. STAMPSXa (Ed.): Ortsdatenbank. http://www.stampsx.com/ratgeber/ortsverzeichnis.php?max=250&buchstabe=M wanalugali&bis=M%FCgeln. Accessed 29th August 2011. STAMPSXb (Ed.): Ortsdatenbank. http://www.stampsx.com/ratgeber/ortsverzeichnis.php?max=250&buchstabe=T ungwali&bis=Turjak. Accessed 29th August 2011.

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STATHERS, T.; NAMANDA, S.; MWANGA, P. et al.: Manual for Sweetpotato Integrated Production and Pest Management. Kampala, Uganda 2005. STROMME MICROFINANCE EAST AFRICA (SMFEA) (Ed.): Community managed microfinance training guide. Without place 2010. TANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTRE (TFNC) (Ed.): Guidelines for community based nutrition rehabilitation. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2005.

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TANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTREa (TFNC) (Ed.): Prevention and control of Anaemia in Tanzania. 2006. http://www.tfnc.or.tz/eng/focus/anaemia.html. Accessed August 1st, 2011.

TANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTREb (TFNC) (Ed.): Iodine Deficiency Disorders. 2006. http://www.tfnc.or.tz/eng/focus/idd.htm. Accessed August 4th 2011. TANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTREc (TFNC) (Ed.): Vitamin A deficiency. 2006. http://www.tfnc.or.tz/eng/focus/vad.htm. Accessed August 4th, 2011. TANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTRE (TFNC) (Ed.): Laboratory Report: OFSP Results. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2009. TANZANIA HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION (TAHEA) (Ed.): TAHEA Mwanza Branch. Information brochure of the organization. Mwanza, Tanzania without year. TANZANIA HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION (TAHEA) (Ed.): Sweet potato promotion. Annual report September 2004 to August 2005. Mwanza, Tanzania 2005. TANZANIA HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION (TAHEA) (Ed.): Scaling up sweet potato production project. Annual report 2008/2009. Mwanza, Tanzania 2009. TANZANIA HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION (TAHEA) (Ed.): Scaling up sweet potato production project. Annual report 2009/2010. Mwanza, Tanzania

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2010. TANZANIAN PRIVATE SECTOR FOUNDATION (TPSF) (Ed.): Region information: Mwanza. 2010. http://www.tpsftz.org/mapinfo.php?region=16. Accessed August 24th, 2011. THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA (Ed.): Mwanza Region SocioEconomic Profile. Mwanza, Tanzania 1997.

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THE WORLD BANK (Ed.): Repositioning nutrition as central to development: A strategy for large-scale actions. Washington D.C., United States of America 2006. THE WORLD BANK (Ed.): Food price watch. 2011. http://www.worldbank.org/foodcrisis/food_price_watch_report_feb2011.html. Accessed August, 24th 2011. UMWELTLEXIKON-ONLINE (Ed.): Ernährungsstatus. 2010. http://www.umweltlexikononline.de/RUBernaehrunglebensmittel/Ernaehrungsstatus.php. Accessed August 12th, 2011. UNITE FOR CHILDREN (UNICEF) (Ed.): State of the world´s children 1998. New York, United States of America 1998. UNITE FOR CHILDREN (UNICEF) (Ed.): United Republic of Tanzania – Statistics.

2010.

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/tanzania_statistics.html#74.

Accessed August 2nd, 2011. UNITED

NATIONS

EDUCATIONAL,

SCIENTIFIC

AND

CULTURAL

ORGANIZATION (UNESCO) (Ed.): UNESCO country programming document for the United Republic of Tanzania 2008-2010. Without place, 2007. WHEATLY, C.; LOECHL, C.: A critical review of sweetpotato processing research conducted by CIP and partners in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lima, Peru 2008. WORLD FOOD SUMMIT (WFS) (Ed.): Rome Declaration on World Food Security. Rome, Italy 1996.

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WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) (Ed.): Food security. 2011. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/. Accessed July 31st, 2011.

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

73

Annexes Table of contents ANNEX I: Photographic documentation of the TAHEA-projects ................................ .................. 1 ANNEX II: Coding of consummated food  24-hours recall ....................................... .................. 3 ANNEX III: 24-hours recall  Mwasonge .................................................................... .................. 5 ANNEX IV: Evaluation of 24-hours recall: Nutrient intake per person per meal  Mwasonge .... 7 ANNEX V: Evaluation of 24-hours recall: Total nutrient intake per person per day  Mwasonge ................................................................................................ ................ 11 ANNEX VI: Additional questions  Mwasonge ........................................................... ................ 12 ANNEX VII: 24-hours recall  Tunyenye ..................................................................... ................ 15 ANNEX VIII: Evaluation of 24-hours recall: Nutrient intake per person per meal  Tunyenye .. 17 ANNEX IX: Evaluation of 24-hours recall: Total nutrient intake per person per day  .................. Tunyenye .................................................................................................. ................ 21

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ANNEX X: Questionnaire of supporting observations ............................................... ................ 22

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

1

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

CMMF-trainin ng in Isanzu

Community--Managed-Mic crofinance

Source of all following phottography's: SCHMIDT 2011

Group-members of CMM MF-program

CMMF-me embers learn handling with the working mate erials

ANNEX I: Š‘ ‘–‘‰”ƒ’Š‹…†‘…— —‡–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ––Š‡Ǧ’”‘ŒŒ‡…–•

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Prepara ation of chapattti

Prepara ation of ingredie ents e peeling the OFSP Women while

Sweet potatto  Eat Orang ge-project

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2

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

ANNEX II: ‘†‹‰‘ˆ…‘•—ƒ–‡†ˆ‘‘†ӍʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽ Mwasonge Calculated nutrient content1 Code

Type of food

Energy (kcal)

Protein (g)

Fat (g)

Carbohydrates (g)

Fiber (g)

Vitamin A ( g RAE)

23.0 127.0 323.0 103.0 97.0 14.0 35.0 316.6

8.5 8.7 24.9 1.7 2.1 0.6 4.8 5.2

0.5 0.5 24.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 10.5

8.5 22.8 0.0 24.3 22.9 2.8 6.4 50.6

4.2 6.4 0.0 3.0 1.2 1.8 2.0 1.4

146.0 0.0 0.0 1467.0 0.0 8.0 303.0 0.0

94.0

0.8

0.4

22.7

0.7

0.0

19.0 159.1 100.1

7.0 2.6 7.7

0.7 0.6 6.9

9.0 34.8 2.2

4.4 1.0 0.5

550.0 0.0 34.4

110.3

3.0

0.9

24.7

4.3

2.1

448.5 103.0 19.0 574.0

0.0 1.7 0.0 20.9

49.9 0.1 0.0 50.0

0.0 24.3 0.3 11.2

0.0 3.0 0.0 11.2

0.0 1467.0 78.0 0.0

89.0 416.2 567.0 68.0 47.0 20.0

1.1 4.7 25.8 2.6 0.9 0.5

0.3 11.1 49.2 1.0 0.1 0.3

22.8 73.7 16.1 14.3 11.8 4.4

2.6 1.9 8.5 5.4 2.4 1.4

3.0 0.0 0.0 31.0 8.0 201.0

60.0 35.4

3.2 0.0

3.3 0.0

4.5 9.1

0.0 0.0

28.0 0.0

Main components Amaranth leaves (raw) Beans, kidney (boiled) Beef (cooked) Boiled OFSP Boiled WFSP Chinese cabbage (cooked) Leaves of OFSP Maandazi (maize flour, water, sugar, eggs) 9 Porridge (maize flour, water, sugar) 10 Pumpkin Leaves (raw) 11 Rice (boiled) 12 Sardine (with Tomato, Onion, salt, cottonseed oil, and water cooked as soup) 13 Ugali (maize and sorghum flour, water, sugar) Extra ingredients 14 Cottonseed oil 15 Flour of OFSP 16 Green Pepper 17 Sesame seeds Snacks 18 Banana 19 Bun (rice) 20 Groundnuts 21 Guava 22 Oranges 23 Pumpkin (cooked) Beverages 24 Fresh milk 25 Tea with sugar 1 Specified per 100 grams

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

3

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Tunyenye - all other codes identical with that of Mwasonge Calculated nutrient content1 Code

Type of food

Energy

Protein

Fat

Carbo-

Fiber

Vitamin

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

hydrates

(g)

A

(g)

( g RAE)

Main components 26

Boiled Tilapia

98,0

18,1

2,4

0,0

0,0

0,0

27

Ugali/Porridge (maize flour, water)

36,2

0,8

0,4

7,7

0,7

0,0

496,0

26,3

3,3

4,5

0,0

407,0

Extra ingredients 28

Cream Snacks

29

Papaya

39,0

0,6

0,1

22,8

2,6

9,8

30

Tangerines

53,0

0,8

0,3

13,3

1,8

34,0

15,9

0,3

0,0

3,5

0,1

0,0

Beverages 31 1

Rice (dissolved in water)

Specified per 100 grams

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(own representation by using data of LUKMANJI 2008)

4

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

5

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

3 (1)

13 (11)

9 (3)

5 (2)

13 (9)

11 (4)

7 (5)

6 (4)

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

3 (-)

6 (3)

2

1

Number of people in the households1 6 (4)

NO .

Tee + Sweet p. roots

Guava + Sweet p. roots Tee + Sweet p. roots

Porridge3

Porridge (OFSP flour, ground nut and milk) Porridge3 + Sweet p. roots

Tee + Sweet p. roots

Porridge (with extra OFSP flour) Porridge3 + Sweet p. roots

3

Porridge3

Porridge

3

Breakfast

5

4

Ugali + Chinese cabbage +

Sweet p. roots Ugali4 + Sardine5

Sweet P p. roots + Sardine5

Ugali4 + Sardine5 (with extra green pepper)

Ugali4 + Leaves of Sweet p.

Ugali + Sardine + Amaranth leaves

4

Ugali4 + Sardine5

Sweet p. roots + sesame seeds + cottonseed oil Sweet p. roots + Amaranth leaves 4 Ugali + Chinese cabbage

Lunch

Meals

Ugali4 + Sardine5 (with extra green pepper) Ugali4 + Pumpkin leaves 4 Ugali + 5 Sardine Rice + Sweet p. leaves 4 Ugali + 5 Sardine

Ugali4 + Sardine5 Rice + Chinese cabbage Ugali4 + Sardine5 + Milk Rice + Kidney beans Rice + 5 Sardine

4

Ugali + 5 Sardine

Dinner

-

Tee + Oranges

Oranges

Pumpkin

-

Ground nuts

-

Rice bun + Tee

Oranges

-

-

Snacks

OFSP

OFSP

OFSP

WFSP

WFSP

OFSP

OFSP

OFSP

OFSP

WFSP

WFSP

Consumed varieties of Sweet p.

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

Flour for porridge

Boiled

Boiled

Flour for porridge

Boiled

Boiled

Type of Sweet p. preperation

Daily food intake per household (24-hours recall)

District: Misungwi Village: Mwasonge Date: 01. + 02.06.2011

ANNEX III: ʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽӍ™ƒ•‘‰‡

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F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

Person that is usually in charge of cooking2

18

24

33

32

29

30

26

37

31

23

32

Age in years

X

x

x

-

x

x

x

x

x

x

Attended cookery training

6

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

6 (4)

6 (1)

3 (2)

4 (2)

7 (3)

6 (3)

8 (6)

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

5

4

3

2

Porridge + Sweet p. roots

3

Tee + Sweet p. roots Porridge3 + Sweet p. roots

5

4

Ugali + Sardine

5

Ugali4 + Sardine5

Ugali + Sardine

4

Ugali4 + Kidney beans

Porridge3

4

5

Ugali + Beef + cottonseed oil

4

Porridge + Sweet p. roots

3

Porridge + Sweet p. roots Porridge3

Ugali + Sardine + Amaranth leaves Ugali4 + Sardine5

Ugali4 + Sardine5 + Amaranth leaves

Porridge3

3

Ugali4 + Sardine5 (with extra green pepper)

Tee + Maandazi (maize flour, water, sugar and three eggs)

Amaranth leaves Ugali4 + Sardine5 (with extra green pepper) Ugali4 + Sardine5 + Amaranth leaves 4 Ugali + 5 Sardine 4 Ugali + Sardine5 4 Ugali + Beef + cottonseed oil Ugali4 + Kidney beans Rice + 5 Sardine 4 Ugali + Sardine5 + Sweet p. leaves 4 Ugali + Sardine5 Guava

Bananas

-

-

WFSP

OFSP

OFSP

-

OFSP

-

-

OFSP

-

OFSP

Oranges

-

Tee + Sweet p. roots + Maandazi

Sardine with Tomato, Onion, salt, cottonseed oil and water cooked as soup

Ugali that is made out of maize and sorghum flour, water and sugar

Porridge that is made out of maize flour, water and sugar

F= Female M= Male Ch = Children

(x)= x of this people are children in the age 0 – 14 years

7 (3)

13

1

7 (5)

12

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Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

-

Boiled

-

Boiled

-

Boiled

F

F

F

F

F (Ch)

F

M

F

M

29

31

36

19

11

27

42

31

47

-

X

X

-

X

X

-

X

7

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

2

1

9 9 9 4+9 4 9 5+9 9 4 4 4 8 9 4+9 9 4+9 9 4 4+9 5+9

Main components

15

15

Extra ingredients

21

20

Snacks

Code of consumed food

25

25 25 25

25 24

Beverages

235,0 235,0 246,3 246,3 173,0 515,0 238,8 235,0 213,8 173,0 173,0 440,0 235,0 246,3 235,0 246,3 235,0 173,0 246,3 238,8

A1 188,0 188,0 197,0 197,0 138,4 412,0 191,0 188,0 171,0 138,4 138,4 352,0 188,0 197,0 188,0 197,0 188,0 138,4 197,0 191,0

C2

Energy (kcal)

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 200 grams

A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 250 grams

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

NO.

Breakfast

A 2,0 2,0 3,1 3,1 2,2 19,7 3,6 2,0 5,4 2,2 2,2 6,5 2,0 3,1 2,0 3,1 2,0 2,2 3,1 3,6

C

A 1,0 1,0 0,6 0,6 0,1 33,1 0,6 1,0 1,4 0,1 0,1 13,1 1,0 0,6 1,0 0,6 1,0 0,1 0,6 0,6

C 0,8 0,8 0,5 0,5 0,1 26,5 0,5 0,8 1,1 0,1 0,1 10,5 0,8 0,5 0,8 0,5 0,8 0,1 0,5 0,5

Fat (g)

56,8 56,8 58,8 58,8 41,8 42,3 57,0 56,8 48,3 41,8 41,8 74,6 56,8 58,8 56,8 58,8 56,8 41,8 58,8 57,0

A 45,4 45,4 47,0 47,0 33,4 33,8 45,6 45,4 38,6 33,4 33,4 59,7 45,4 47,0 45,4 47,0 45,4 33,4 47,0 45,6

C

Carbohydrates (g)

A 1,8 1,8 4,6 4,6 3,8 7,6 2,4 1,8 10,5 3,8 3,8 1,8 1,8 4,6 1,8 4,6 1,8 3,8 4,6 2,4

C 1,4 1,4 3,7 3,7 3,0 6,1 1,9 1,4 8,4 3,0 3,0 1,4 1,4 3,7 1,4 3,7 1,4 3,0 3,7 1,9

Fiber (g)

Nutrient intake per person per meal

1,6 1,6 2,5 2,5 1,7 15,8 2,9 1,6 4,3 1,7 1,7 5,2 1,6 2,5 1,6 2,5 1,6 1,7 2,5 2,9

Protein (g)

ANNEX IV: ˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽǣ—–”‹‡–‹–ƒ‡’‡”’‡”•‘’‡”‡ƒŽӍ™ƒ•‘‰‡

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0,0 0,0 1833,8 1833,8 1833,8 934,4 0,0 0,0 1872,5 1833,8 1833,8 0,0 0,0 1833,8 0,0 1833,8 0,0 1833,8 1833,8 0,0

A

C 0,0 0,0 1467,0 1467,0 1467,0 747,5 0,0 0,0 1498,0 1467,0 1467,0 0,0 0,0 1467,0 0,0 1467,0 0,0 1467,0 1467,0 0,0

Vitamin A (g RAE)

8

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

2

1

5 1+5 6+13 12+13 1+12+13 7+13 12+13 5+12 4 12+13 1+6+13 12+13 1+12+13 1+12+13 12+13 3+13 2+13 12+13 12+13 12+13

Main components

14

16

16

14+17

Extra ingredients

Snacks

Code of consumed food Beverages

1

1679,3 2700 279,7 473,4 350,1 326,9 344,1 443,5 463,5 473,4 221,0 344,1 350,1 350,1 473,4 1322,7 534,0 473,4 473,4 473,4

A

2

C 1119,5 180,0 186,5 315,6 233,4 218,0 229,4 295,7 309,0 315,6 147,3 229,4 233,4 233,4 315,6 881,8 356,0 315,6 315,6 315,6

Energy (kcal)

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 300 grams

A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 450 grams

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

NO.

Lunch

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34,5 23,9 8,1 24,1 28,8 17,6 16,1 22,1 7,7 24,1 18,2 16,1 28,8 28,8 24,1 41,9 26,3 24,1 24,1 24,1

A 23,0 15,9 5,4 16,1 19,2 11,7 10,7 14,7 5,1 16,1 12,1 10,7 19,2 19,2 16,1 27,9 17,6 16,1 16,1 16,1

C 149,9 1,4 2,3 17,6 12,5 2,7 11,7 158 0,5 17,6 2,6 11,7 12,5 12,5 17,6 112,2 3,2 17,6 17,6 17,6

A

Fat (g)

100, 0,9 1,6 11,7 8,3 1,8 7,8 10,5 0,3 11,7 1,7 7,8 8,3 8,3 11,7 74,8 2,1 11,7 11,7 11,7

C 51,2 70,7 61,9 60,5 53,1 70,0 40,8 56,5 109,4 60,5 54,0 40,8 53,1 53,1 60,5 37,1 106,9 60,5 60,5 60,5

A 34,1 47,1 41,3 40,4 35,4 46,7 27,2 37,7 72,9 40,4 36,0 27,2 35,4 35,4 40,4 24,7 71,3 40,4 40,4 40,4

C

Carbohydrates (g)

C 12,4 8,1 9,2 7,2 9,0 9,5 4,8 2,5 9,0 7,2 10,3 4,8 9,0 9,0 7,2 4,3 16,1 7,2 7,2 7,2

Fiber (g)

18,6 12,2 13,7 10,8 13,5 14,2 7,2 3,8 13,5 10,8 15,5 7,2 13,5 13,5 10,8 6,5 24,1 10,8 10,8 10,8

A

Nutrient intake per person per meal Protein (g)

0,0 328,5 22,7 82,1 273,8 686,5 1718 77,4 6601,5 82,1 234,2 171,8 273,8 273,8 82,1 3,2 4,7 82,1 82,1 82,1

A

0,0 219,0 15,2 54,8 182,5 457,7 114,5 51,6 4401,0 54,8 156,1 114,5 182,5 182,5 54,8 2,1 3,2 54,8 54,8 54,8

C

Vitamin A (g RAE)

9

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

2

1

12+13 12+13 6+11 12+13 2+11 11+12 12+13 10+13 12+13 7+11 12+13 12+13 1+12+13 12+13 12+13 3+13 2+13 11+12 7+12+13 12+13

Main components

14

16

16

Extra ingredients

Snacks

Code of consumed food

24

Beverages

1

473,4 473,4 389,5 405,6 643,7 583,2 344,1 290,9 473,4 436,7 473,4 344,1 350,1 473,4 473,4 1322,7 534,0 583,2 368,1 473,4

A

2

C 315,6 315,6 259,7 270,4 429,2 388,8 229,4 194,0 315,6 291,2 315,6 229,4 233,4 315,6 315,6 881,8 356,0 388,8 245,4 315,6

Energy (kcal)

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 300 grams

A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 450 grams

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

NO.

Dinner

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24,1 24,1 7,2 20,9 25,4 23,2 16,1 22,5 24,1 16,7 24,1 16,1 28,8 24,1 24,1 41,9 26,3 23,2 23,3 24,1

A 16,1 16,1 4,8 13,9 17,0 15,5 10,7 15,0 16,1 11,1 16,1 10,7 19,2 16,1 16,1 27,9 17,6 15,5 15,5 16,1

C 17,6 17,6 2,0 16,7 2,5 16,9 11,7 3,6 17,6 2,0 17,6 11,7 12,5 17,6 17,6 112,2 3,2 16,9 12,2 17,6

A

Fat (g)

11,7 11,7 1,4 11,1 1,7 11,3 7,8 2,4 11,7 1,4 11,7 7,8 8,3 11,7 11,7 74,8 2,1 11,3 8,1 11,7

C 60,5 60,5 84,6 47,1 129,6 83.3 40,8 75,8 60,5 92,7 60,5 40,8 53,1 60,5 60,5 37,1 106,9 83,3 50,0 60,5

A 40,4 40,4 56,4 31,4 86,4 55,5 27,2 50,6 40,4 61,8 40,4 27,2 35,4 40,4 40,4 24,7 71,3 55,5 33,3 40,4

C

Carbohydrates (g)

C 7,2 7,2 4,2 7,2 11,1 2,3 4,8 13,1 7,2 4,5 7,2 4,8 9,0 7,2 7,2 4,3 16,1 2,3 6,8 7,2

Fiber (g)

10,8 10,8 6,3 10,8 16,7 3,4 7,2 19,6 10,8 6,8 10,8 7,2 13,5 10,8 10,8 6,5 24,1 3,4 10,2 10,8

A

Nutrient intake per person per meal Protein (g)

82,1 82,1 18,0 96,8 0,0 77,4 171,8 1242,2 82,1 681,8 82,1 171,8 273,8 82,1 82,1 3,2 4,7 77,4 509,3 82,1

A

54,8 54,8 12,0 64,5 0,0 51,6 114,5 828,2 54,8 454,5 54,8 114,5 182,5 54,8 54,8 2,1 3,2 51,6 339,5 54,8

C

Vitamin A (g RAE)

10

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

2

1

4+8

Main components

Extra ingredients

18 21

22

25

20 23 22 22 25

25

Beverages

22 19

Snacks

Code of consumed food

1

0,0 0,0 188,0 903,2 0,0 2268,0 0,0 80,0 188,0 164,8 0,0 606,6 0,0 188,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 356,0 2726,0

A

2

C 0,0 0,0 94,0 451,6 0,0 1134,0 0,0 40,0 94,0 82,4 0,0 303,4 0,0 94,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 178,0 136,0

Energy (kcal)

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 200 grams

A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 400 grams

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

NO.

Snacks

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0,0 0,0 3,6 9,4 0,0 53,2 0,0 2,0 3,6 1,8 0,0 40,2 0,0 3,6 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 4,4 10,4

A 0,0 0,0 1,8 4,7 0,0 51,6 0,0 1,0 1,8 1,0 0,0 20,0 0,0 1,8 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 2,2 5,2

C 0,0 0,0 0,4 22,2 0,0 196,8 0,0 1,2 0,4 0,2 0,0 14,2 0,0 0,4 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 1,2 4,0

A

Fat (g)

0,0 0,0 0,2 11,2 0,0 98,4 0,0 0,6 0,2 0,2 0,0 7,0 0,0 0,2 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,6 2,0

C 0,0 0,0 27,2 165,6 0,0 64,4 0,0 17,6 47,2 41,8 0,0 102,0 0,0 27,2 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 91,2 57,2

A 0,0 0,0 23,6 82,8 0,0 32,2 0,0 8,8 23,6 21,0 0,0 56,0 0,0 23,6 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 45,6 28,6

C

Carbohydrates (g)

C 0,0 0,0 4,8 2,0 0,0 17,0 0,0 2,8 4,8 2,4 0,0 3,0 0,0 4,8 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 5,2 10,8

Fiber (g)

0,0 0,0 9,6 3,8 0,0 34,0 0,0 5,6 9,6 4,8 0,0 5,8 0,0 9,6 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 10,4 21,6

A

Nutrient intake per person per meal Protein (g)

0,0 0,0 32,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 804,0 32,0 16,0 0,0 1956,0 0,0 32,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 12,0 124,0

A

0,0 0,0 16,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 402,0 16,0 8,0 0,0 978,0 0,0 16,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 6,0 62,0

C

Vitamin A (g RAE)

11

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

2

1

2387,7 978,4 1103,5 2028,5 1166,8 3693,1 927,0 1049,4 1338,7 1247,9 867,4 1734,8 923,2 1257,8 1181,8 2891,7 1303,0 1229,6 1443,8 1457,6

A1

C = Child (14)

C2

1623,1 683,6 737,2 1234,6 883,2 2152,8 649,8 717,7 892,6 821,0 601,3 1114,2 654,8 757,8 819,2 1960,6 900,0 842,8 936,0 958,2

Energy (kcal)

A = Adult (15)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

NO.

60,6 50,0 22,0 57,4 56,4 113,8 35,8 48,6 40,8 44,8 50,4 78,9 59,6 59,6 50,2 86,9 54,6 49,5 54,9 62,2

A

C 40,7 33,6 12,7 51.2 37.9 102.1 24,3 32.3 27,3 29,9 29,9 41,4 40,0 39,6 33,8 58,3 36,8 33,3 36,3 40,2

Protein (g)

168,5 20,0 5,3 57,1 15,1 249,5 23,4 21,6 20,9 19,9 14,4 50,2 26,0 31,1 35,3 225 7,4 34,6 31,6 39,8

A

Fat (g)

112,5 13,4 3,7 34,5 10,1 138 16,1 11,3 13,3 13,4 13,5 33,1 17,4 20,7 24,2 150,1 5,0 23,1 20,9 20,9

C 168,5 188,0 232,5 332,0 224,5 274,7 138,6 198,2 265,4 236,8 156,3 250,4 163,0 199,6 177,8 133.0 270,6 185,6 260,5 235,2

A

C 119,9 132,9 168,3 201,6 155,2 168,2 100,0 142,5 175,5 156,6 109,8 155,8 116,2 146,2 126,2 96,4 188,0 129,3 166,2 155,0

Carbohydrates (g)

31,2 24,8 34,2 30,0 34,0 59,2 16,8 30,8 44,4 30,2 30,1 22,0 26,1 38,5 19,1 35,2 29,3 18,0 36,0 45,6

A

Nutrient intake per person during whole day Fiber (g)

21,0 16,7 21,9 20,1 23,1 34,9 11,5 19,8 29,4 17,1 20,5 18,2 19,4 24,7 15,8 12,3 33,6 12,6 22,9 27,1

C

ANNEX V: ˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽǣ‘–ƒŽ—–”‹‡–‹–ƒ‡’‡”’‡”•‘’‡”†ƒ›Ӎ™ƒ•‘‰‡

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82,1 410,6 1906,5 2012,7 2107,6 1698,3 343,6 2123,6 8588,1 2613,7 2150,1 2299,6 547,6 2221,7 164,2 1840,2 9,4 1993,3 2437,2 288,2

A

C 54,8 273,8 1510,2 1586,3 1649,5 1256,8 229,0 1281,8 5969,8 1984,3 1677,9 1207 365 1270,3 109,6 1471,2 6,4 1573,4 1867,3 171,6

Vitamin A (g RAE)

ANNEX VI: ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ“—‡•–‹‘•Ӎ™ƒ•‘‰‡ District: Misungwi Village: Mwasonge Date: 01. + 02.06.2011

Questionnaire (Supplementation of 24 hours-recall) •

Do you cultivate the sweet potatoes on your own or do you have to buy them?

NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Answers Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate usually on their own, but not started this year cause of drought. Do not buy. Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP & OFSP) Cultivate on their own (WFSP)

•

If you cultivate on your own, how much of your harvest do you consume on your own and how much do you sell (January – June 2011) (1 Bag = 25kg)? In what form do you sell them (whole tuber, as chips, juice...)?

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NO.

Consumed bags

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

3 2 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 3 1 0,5 0,5 0,25 1 0,5 0,5 0,5 1 1

Sold bags

Sold varieties

3 2 3,5 3 3 0,5 2 2 4 5 2 8 -

WFSP WFSP WFSP OFSP WFSP WFSP OFSP OFSP OFSP OFSP WFSP WFSP -

Price per bag 1 Tsh € 5.000 2.12 4.000 1.70 7.000 2.97 48.000 20.39 5.000 2.12 300 0.13 30.000 12.44 30.000 12.44 65.000 27.61 80.000 33.98 8.000 3.40 10.000 4.25 -

Exchange rate: 1 Euro = 2.293,86 Tsh (10th June 2011)

•

Has your financial situation been improved because of the sweet potato Projects? If yes, why? What did you buy with this money that you couldn´t pay before? If not, why?

12

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

NO. 1 2 3

Answers Yes, bought soap, clothes, sugar, exercise books Yes, could use a machine to produce flour, bought salt, clothes Yes, put money into saving account (CMMF)

4 5

Yes, the years when they sold they bought new clothes, exercise books Yes, they build a house of stone

6 7

Yes, bought sugar, salt, clothes Yes, bought school uniforms, new mattress

8 9

Yes, the years when they sold they bought clothes, salt, soap Yes, the last years they sold, now they miss the money

10 11 12 13

Yes, they bought new fields, school uniforms Yes, bought a mobile phone, salt, sugar Due to the drought they cannot sell this year Due to the drought they cannot sell this year

14 15

Due to the drought they cannot sell this year Don´t cultivate OFSP

16

Yes, were able to go to the hospital as they were ill

17 18

Yes, participate other people to eat OFSP to improve their income Yes, bought kerosene, soap, salt, sugar, exercise books

19 20

Yes, bought a goat, school uniforms Don´t cultivate OFSP

•

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Do you realize some beneficial effects for your health since you eat the OFSP? If yes, what health problems had your family before eating OFSP? Answers Feel healthier, before eating OFSP they had often a cold. Children like OFSP most Children are very less times ill since eating OFSP Mother realize better eyesight Feel healthier, before eating OFSP they had often a cold If they have malaria or just fever they get healthy much more faster In past the children had to get vitamin A supplements, now it´s no longer necessary Feel healthier, before eating OFSP they had often a cold. Put on weight No changes No changes Feel healthier, before eating they had to go many times to the doctor Put on weight No changes Don´t cultivate and eat OFSP Feel healthier, before eating OFSP they had often a cold Don´t cultivate and eat OFSP Skin became more beautiful, no diseases No changes No changes Children under five years have less health problems than before Don´t cultivate and eat OFSP

13

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

•

How often have these household members (especially children) been ill (like cold, fever) in recent months? NO.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Consumed variety Both Both Both Both Both Both Both Both Both Both Both Both Both WFSP Both Both Both Both WFSP

0-1 X X

Times of illness 2-3

4 and more

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

14

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

15

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Number of people in the households1

6 (4)

9 (3)

9 (2)

5 (3)

11 (1)

11 (2)

5 (2)

8 (5)

4 (2)

8 (5)

7 (4)

19 (7)

3 (2)

9 (7)

5 (4)

NO.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

3

Porridge3

Ugali5

Bun + Tee

Porridge3

Porridge

3

Bun + Tee

Porridge

Porridge (no sugar) +Tee Porridge3 (no sugar) Porridge3

3

Rice7 + Ugali5

Bun + Tee

Porridge3 + 4 Ugali Rice7 + Ugali5

Porridge3

Morning

Ugali5 + Amaranth leaves Ugali4

Sweet p. roots + Kidney beans Sweet p. roots + Tee Sweet p. roots

Sweet p. roots

Sweet p. roots + Tee Sweet p. roots + Oranges 4 Ugali

Sweet p. roots

Sweet p. roots + Ugali5+ Amaranth leaves + Tee Sweet p. roots + Pumpkin leaves Sweet p. roots+ Pumpkin leaves Sweet p. roots + Tee Ugali5+ Papaya

Lunch

Meals

6

Boiled fish (Tilapia) +

Ugali4 + Sardine5 (with cream) Ugali4 + fried fish (Tilapia) in cottonseed oil Sardine6

5

6

Ugali + Sardine

4

Ugali + Sardine

4

4

Ugali + Sardine

Ugali + boiled fish (Tilapia) Ugali5 + Sardine6 (with cream) Ugali4 + Sardine6

4

Ugali5 + Sardine6

+

Tangerines

+

-

-

WFSP

Tangerines

-

WFSP

WFSP

WFSP

-

WFSP

WFSP

WFSP

-

WFSP

WFSP

WFSP

WFSP

Consumed varieties of Sweet p.

-

-

Pumpkin

Papaya

Papaya + Banana Groundnuts

-

-

Papaya

Ugali4 + Sardine6

Ugali5 + Sardine6

Papaya Banana Banana

-

Ugali4 + Sardine6

Ugali4 + Sardine6

Dinner

Snacks

Daily food intake per household (24-hours recall)

District: Sengerema Village: Tunyenye Date: 24. + 25.05.2011

ANNEX VII: ʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽӍ—›‡›‡

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-

-

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

-

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

-

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

Boiled

Type of Sweet p. preparation

F (Ch)

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

Person that is usually in charge of cooking2 F

16

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

7 (4)

5 (3)

4 (2)

18

19

20

7

6

5

4

3

2

Ugali

5

Ugali

5

Porridge

3

Porridge3

Porridge

3

Sweet p . roots + Pumpkin leaves Bun + Beans + Tee

Ugali

5

Ugali + Pumpkin 6 leaves + Sardine Ugali5

5

Rice-drink out of five spoons boiled rice in one liter of water

Sardine with tomato, onion, salt, cottonseed oil and water cooked as soup

Ugali that is made out of maize flour and water

6

Ugali + dried (Tilapia) 5 6 Ugali + Sardine

5

Ugali + Sardine

4

Ugali5 + Sardine6

Ugali

5

Fish

4

Pumpkin leaves + Ugali

Ugali that is made out of maize and sorghum flour, water and sugar

Porridge that is made out of maize flour, water and sugar

F= Female M= Male Ch= Children

(x)= x of this people are children in the age 0 – 14 years

6 (4)

17

1

7 (6)

16

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-

-

Banana

Bun

Papaya

Orange

-

WFSP

-

-

-

-

Boiled

-

-

-

M

F

F

F

F

17

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Main components

Code of consumed food Extra Snacks Beverages ingredients

A

1

Energy (kcal)

2

C

2

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 200 grams

1 9 235,0 188,0 2 9+13 255,4 204,3 3 27+31 65,1 52,1 4 19 25 1075,9 867,8 5 27+31 65,1 52,1 6 27 25 125,9 107,8 7 27 90,5 72,4 8 9 235,0 188,0 9 9 235,0 188,0 10 19 25 1075,9 867,8 11 9 235,0 188,0 12 9 235,0 188,0 13 19 25 1075,9 867,8 14 13 275,8 220,6 15 9 235,0 188,0 16 9 235,0 188,0 17 9 235,0 188,0 18 9 235,0 188,0 19 27 90,5 72,4 20 27 90,5 72,4 1 A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 250 grams

NO.

Breakfast

2,0 4,8 1,4 11,75 1,4 2,0 2,0 2,0 2,0 11,8 2,0 2,0 11,8 7,5 2,0 2,0 2,0 2,0 2,0 2,0

A

C 1,0 1,6 0,5 27,8 0,5 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 27,8 1,0 1,0 27,8 2,3 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0

A 0,8 1,3 0,4 22,2 0,4 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8 22,2 0,8 0,8 22,2 1,8 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8

C 56,8 59,3 14,0 193,4 14,0 28,4 19,3 56,8 56,8 193,4 56,8 56,8 193,4 61,8 56,8 56,8 56,8 56,8 19,3 19,3

A 45,4 47,4 11,2 154,7 11,2 24,5 15,4 45,4 45,4 156,5 45,4 45,4 156,5 49,4 45,4 45,4 45,4 45,4 15,4 15,4

C

Nutrient intake per person per meal Fat Carbo(g) hydrates (g)

1,6 3,8 1,1 9,4 1,1 1,6 1,6 1,6 1,6 9,4 1,6 1,6 9,4 6,0 1,6 1,6 1,6 1,6 1,6 1,6

Protein (g)

ANNEX VIII: ˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽǣ—–”‹‡–‹–ƒ‡’‡”’‡”•‘’‡”‡ƒŽӍ—›‡›‡

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1,8 6,3 1,0 4,8 1,0 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 4,8 1,8 1,8 4,8 10,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8

A

Fiber (g)

1,4 5,0 0,8 3,8 0,8 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 3,8 1,4 1,4 3,8 8,6 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4

C

0,0 2,6 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 5,3 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0

A

0,0 2,1 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 4,2 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0

C

Vitamin A (g RAE)

18

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Extra ingredients

Snacks

Code of consumed food

Main components

Beverages

A1

Energy (kcal)

C2

2

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 300 grams

1 1+5+13 25 299,0 199,3 2 5+10 261,0 17,4 3 5+10 261,0 17,4 4 5 25 297,9 198,6 5 13 29 335,9 223,9 6 5 436,5 291,0 7 5 25 297,9 198,6 8 5 22 324,0 216,0 9 13 496,4 330,9 10 5 436,5 291,0 11 2+5 504,0 336,0 12 5 25 297,9 198,6 13 5 436,5 291,0 14 1+13 229,9 200,0 15 13 496,4 330,9 16 10+12+27 232,9 155,3 17 27 162,9 108,6 18 27 162,9 108,6 19 5+10 261,0 17,4 20 2 19 25 272,1 181,4 1 A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 450 grams

NO.

Lunch

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20,4 20,5 20,5 4,7 4,4 9,5 4,7 6,8 13,5 9,5 24,3 4,7 9,5 25,3 13,5 23,3 3,6 3,6 20,5 20,1

A

C 2,3 1,6 1,6 0,2 2,3 0,5 0,2 0,5 4,1 0,5 1,4 0,2 0,5 3,2 4,1 12,0 1,8 1,8 1,6 17,4

A

Fat (g)

1,5 1,1 1,1 0,1 1,5 0,3 0,1 0,3 2,7 0,3 0,9 0,1 0,3 2,1 2,7 8,0 1,2 1,2 1,1 11,6

C 84,2 71,8 71,8 72,0 106,9 103,1 72,0 78,1 111,2 103,1 102,8 72,0 103,1 74,7 111,2 28,4 34,7 34,7 71,8 158,4

A 56,1 47,9 47,9 48,0 71,3 68,7 48,0 52,1 74,1 5,4 68,6 48,0 5,4 49,8 74,1 18,9 23,1 23,1 47,9 105,6

C

Carbohydrates (g)

Nutrient intake per person per meal

13,6 13,7 13,7 3,1 2,9 6,3 3,1 4,5 9,0 6,3 16,2 3,1 6,3 17,3 9,0 15,5 2,4 2,4 13,7 13,4

Protein (g)

14,5 12,6 12,6 2,7 15,5 3,6 2,7 8,1 19,4 3,6 17,1 2,7 3,6 19,1 19,4 8,4 3,2 3,2 12,6 12,5

A

C 9,7 8,4 8,4 1,8 10,3 2,4 1,8 5,4 12,9 2,4 11,4 1,8 2,4 12,8 12,9 5,6 2,1 2,1 8,4 8,3

Fiber (g)

222,3 1237,5 1237,5 0,0 26,8 0,0 0,0 18,0 9,5 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 333,2 9,5 876,6 0,0 0,0 1237,5 0,0

A

148,1 825,0 825,0 0,0 17,9 0,0 0,0 12,0 6,3 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 222,2 6,3 584,4 0,0 0,0 825,0 0,0

C

Vitamin A (g RAE)

19

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Extra ingredients

Snacks

Code of consumed food

Main components

Beverages

A1

Energy (kcal)

C2

2

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 300 grams

1 12+13 473,4 315,6 2 12+13 473,4 315,6 3 12+27 329,6 219,7 4 12+13 473,4 315,6 5 12+27 28 963,8 642,5 6 13+26 468,7 312,5 7 13+26 468,7 312,5 8 12+13 28 1059,6 706,4 9 12+13 473,4 315,6 10 12+13 473,4 315,6 11 12+13 473,4 315,6 12 12+13 28 1059,6 706,4 13 12 450,5 300,8 14 12 450,5 300,8 15 10+13+26 341,0 227,3 16 27 162,9 108,6 17 12+13 473,4 315,6 18 1+12+13 350,1 233,4 19 12+13 473,4 315,6 20 12+13 473,4 315,6 1 A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 450 grams

NO.

Dinner

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24,1 24,1 8,6 24,1 45,2 47,5 47,5 55,5 24,1 24,1 24,1 55,5 34,7 34,7 42,2 3,6 24,1 28,8 24,1 24,1

A

C 17,6 17,6 2,9 17,6 6,9 7,4 7,4 16,7 17,6 17,6 17,6 16,7 31,1 31,1 6,0 1,8 17,6 12,3 17,6 17,6

A

Fat (g)

11,7 11,7 2,0 11,7 4,6 5,0 5,0 11,1 11,7 11,7 11,7 11,1 20,7 20,7 4,0 1,2 11,7 8,3 11,7 11,7

C 60,5 60,5 72,9 60,5 55,4 55,6 55,6 47,1 60,5 60,5 60,5 47,1 9,9 9,9 50,6 34,7 60,5 53,1 60,5 60,5

A 40,4 40,4 48,6 40,4 36,9 37,1 37,1 31,4 40,4 40,4 40,4 31,4 6,6 6,6 33,7 23,1 40,4 35,4 40,4 40,4

C

Carbohydrates (g)

Nutrient intake per person per meal

16,1 16,1 5,7 16,1 30,1 31,7 31,7 37,0 16,1 16,1 16,1 37,0 23,1 23,1 28,1 2,4 16,1 19,2 16,1 16,1

Protein (g)

10,8 10,8 11,3 10,8 7,5 9,7 9,7 7,2 10,8 10,8 10,8 7,2 2,3 2,3 13,1 3,2 10,8 13,5 10,8 10,8

A

Fiber (g)

7,2 7,2 7,5 7,2 5,0 6,5 6,5 4,8 7,2 7,2 7,2 4,8 1,5 1,5 8,7 2,1 7,2 9,0 7,2 7,2

C

82,1 82,1 4,7 82,1 613,7 4,7 4,7 665,3 82,1 82,1 82,1 665,3 154,8 154,8 828,2 0,0 82,1 273,8 82,1 82,1

A

54,8 54,8 3,2 54,8 409,1 3,2 3,2 443,5 54,8 54,8 54,8 443,5 103,2 103,2 552,1 0,0 54,8 182,5 54,8 54,8

C

Vitamin A (g RAE)

20

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Extra

ingredients

Main

components

Snacks

Code of consumed food es

Beverag-

A1

(kcal)

Energy

C2

2

C = Child (14): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 200 grams

1 0,0 0,0 2 18+29 512,0 256,0 3 18 356,0 178,0 4 29 156,0 78,0 5 0,0 0,0 6 0,0 0,0 7 18+29 512,0 256,0 8 20 2268,0 1134,0 9 29 156,0 78,0 10 23 80,0 40,0 11 0,0 0,0 12 0,0 0,0 13 30 212,0 106,0 14 0,0 0,0 15 18+30 568,0 284,0 16 23+29 236,0 118,0 17 19 1664,8 832,4 18 18 356,0 178,0 19 0,0 0,0 20 0,0 0,0 1 A = Adult (15): Estimated amount of consumption per person is 400 grams

NO.

Snacks

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0,0 6,8 4,4 2,4 0,0 0,0 6,8 103,2 2,4 2,0 0,0 0,0 3,2 0,0 7,6 4,4 18,8 4,4 0,0 0,0

A

(g)

C 0,0 3,4 2,2 1,2 0,0 0,0 3,4 51,6 1,2 1,0 0,0 0,0 1,6 0,0 3,8 2,2 9,4 2,2 0,0 0,0

Protein

0,0 1,6 1,2 0,4 0,0 0,0 1,6 196,8 0,4 1,2 0,0 0,0 1,2 0,0 2,4 1,6 44,4 1,2 0,0 0,0

A

(g)

Fat

0,0 0,8 0,6 0,2 0,0 0,0 0,8 98,4 0,2 0,6 0,0 0,0 0,6 0,0 1,2 0,8 22,2 0,6 0,0 0,0

C 0,0 182,4 91,2 91,2 0,0 0,0 182,4 64,4 91,2 17,6 0,0 0,0 53,2 0,0 144,4 108,8 294,8 91,2 0,0 0,0

A

(g)

0,0 91,2 45,6 45,6 0,0 0,0 91,2 32,2 45,6 8,8 0,0 0,0 26,6 0,0 72,2 54,4 147,4 45,6 0,0 0,0

C

hydrates

Carbo-

Nutrient intake per person per meal

0,0 20,8 10,4 10,4 0,0 0,0 20,8 34,0 10,4 5,6 0,0 0,0 7,2 0,0 17,6 16,0 7,6 10,4 0,0 0,0

A

(g)

C 0,0 10,4 5,2 5,2 0,0 0,0 10,4 17,0 5,2 2,8 0,0 0,0 3,6 0,0 8,8 8,0 3,8 5,2 0,0 0,0

Fiber

0,0 51,2 12,0 39,2 0,0 0,0 51,2 0,0 39,2 804,0 0,0 0,0 136,0 0,0 148,0 843,2 0,0 12,0 0,0 0,0

A

0,0 25,6 6,0 19,6 0,0 00,0 25,6 0,0 19,6 402,0 0,0 0,0 68,0 0,0 74,0 421,6 0,0 6,0 0,0 0,0

C

(g RAE)

Vitamin A

21

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

2

1

1

1007,4 1501,8 1011,7 2003,2 1364,8 1031,1 1369,1 3886,6 1360,8 2065,8 1212,4 1592,5 2174,9 956,2 1640,4 866,8 2536,1 1104,0 824,9 836,0

A

C = Child (14)

C

2

702,9 793,3 467,2 1460,0 918,5 711,3 839,5 2244,4 912,5 1514,4 839,6 1093,0 1565,6 721,4 1030,2 569,9 1444,6 708,0 405,4 569,4

Energy (kcal)

A = Adult (15)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

NO.

46,5 56,2 34,9 43,0 51,0 59,0 61,0 167,5 42,0 47,4 50,4 62,2 59,2 67,5 65,3 33,3 48,5 38,8 46,6 46,2

A

C 31,3 37,0 22,7 29,8 34,1 39,6 39,8 94,7 27,9 32,8 33,9 41,7 40,4 46,4 42,5 21,7 29,5 25,4 31,4 31,1

Protein (g)

20,9 22,4 6,2 46,0 9,7 8,9 10,2 215,0 23,1 47,1 20,0 17,9 60,6 36,6 13,5 16,4 64,8 16,3 20,2 36,0

A 14,0 14,9 4,1 34,2 6,5 6,1 6,7 110,6 15,4 34,8 13,4 12,0 43,8 24,6 8,7 10,8 35,9 10,9 13,6 24,1

C 201,5 374,0 249,9 417,1 176,3 187,1 329,3 246,4 319,7 374,6 220,1 175,9 359,6 146,4 363,0 228,7 446,8 235,8 151,6 238,2

A 141,9 226,9 153,3 290,5 119,4 130,3 191,7 161,1 205,5 211,1 154,4 124,8 195,1 105,8 225,4 141,8 256,3 149,5 103,7 161,4

C 27,1 50,5 35,3 28,7 24,0 15,1 35,0 51,1 42,4 24,8 29,7 11,7 17,9 32,2 51,9 29,4 23,4 28,9 25,2 25,1

A

Nutrient intake per person during whole day Fat Carbo(g) hydrates (g) Fiber (g)

18,3 31,0 21,9 18,0 16,1 10,3 20,1 28,6 26,7 16,2 122,6 8,0 11,3 22,9 31,8 17,1 14,5 17,7 17,0 16,9

C

ANNEX IX: ˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆʹͶǦŠ‘—”•”‡…ƒŽŽǣ‘–ƒŽ—–”‹‡–‹–ƒ‡’‡”’‡”•‘’‡”†ƒ›Ӎ—›‡›‡

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304,4 1373,4 1254,2 121,3 640,5 4,7 55,9 683,3 130,8 886,1 82,1 665,3 290,8 493,3 985,7 1719,8 82,1 285,8 1319,6 82,1

A

C 202,9 907,5 834,2 74,4 427,0 3,2 28,8 455,5 80,7 456,8 54,8 443,5 171,2 329,6 632,4 1006,0 54,8 188,5 879,8 54,8

Vitamin A (g RAE)

ANNEX X: —‡•–‹‘ƒ‹”‡‘ˆ•—’’‘”–‹‰‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘• Extent of cultivation 1.How do the communities get the planting material? TAHEA buys the vines from farmers that already growing OFSP and then they distribute it to the other farmers under the condition, that the farm is in a water rich area. 2. How do they multiply /reproduce the planting material for the next season? Cutting the tendrils or bring out whole roots 3. How many acres are used for OFSP planting materials? 4. How much do they harvest in tones? District

Village

Total Acres used for all Sweet p. varieties

Acres used for planting material of OFSP

Harvest of OFSP in tones (t)

Ukerewe

Murutilima

69

14

13,2

Mibungo

71 140 100%

14 28 20%

13,3 26,5

Total Total %

(own representation according to KASWAHILI 2011) 5. What kind of cultivation methods do they use (chemical pesticides, organic farming...)? Mostly pure organic. But when they see some pests in the field they use available natural pesticides and even chemical ones 6. When they use chem. pesticides, how do they protect their skin and eyes during making treatment? If available: Rubber boots, gloves, nose-mask, glasses, long clothes. A lot of people do not protect themselves. 7. How often do they planting and harvest the OFSP? Variety

Planting season

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J F

OFSP

M A

M J

x x

x

Harvest season J A

x

S O

N D

J

F

M A

M J J

A

S

O

x

x x

x x

x x

x x x x

x

x

(own representation according to KASWAHILI 2011) 8. What are the methods for harvesting? Normally use hands or a stick with metal ending.

22

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

N

D

9. Are there useful side-plants? Cassava and Sweet potatoes are cultivated next to each other, but there are no useful side plants. Processing in the household and consumption 10. How do they process the OFSP? Mostly boiled as whole tuber. 11. In what kinds of products do they prepare the OFSP? 12. What is the most produced product? Normally they boil it and eat it as whole tuber. Do not know how to fry or don´t want to put beans, meat etc. because it is to expansive. 13. Where and how do they prepare them? Open fireplaces, use stones and wood/coal/Jatropha seeds for making fire. Fireplaces outside the house or separate kitchen in house. Women need to be t rained in using cooking tools like wooden spoon, grater etc. And also do not know how to fry. 14. How often do they consume the OFSP per week/month? Æ see 24h recall 15. In what quantity do they eat per portion? Difficult to say, cause they eat all of one pot 16. Do they consume it as a main dish or as a side dish? As a main dish. 17.Do they consume just the roots or also the leafs? Most of them use the leafs as animal feeding. 18. Which group of age eat OFSP as most? Younger children under 5, because sweet flavor. 19. In what form/preparation do they like the OFSP most? Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

Usually they know no other processing type than boiling, but if they know, they prepare sometimes juice, donuts, maandazi and so on made of OFSP flour. 20. What do they use as a cooking ware? Pots out of sheet metal, sometimes clay-pans

23

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

Food hygiene 20. Do they have water to clean the cooking ware, dinnerware etc.? Fountain water has often a white color (lime?). Water of Lake is for taking bath, washing clothes etc. The most people know, that they shouldn´t drink it. For drinking they use rainwater. Some of them boil it before drinking. 21. Do they prepare the food fresh or do they store it before? Depends on season. Often store before preparation. In good seasons they leave the roots as long in the ground till they need it. 22. What possibilities do they have to store food and how do they implement it (wash and dry before storage etc.)? Dry before storage, sometimes cut it into pieces. In bags, under open air, with or without covering. 23. Do they store just unprocessed roots or also the prepared food? Both. Cut it very little and dry it. 24. Do they know about pathogens and pests? Yes, but not about the different ones. 25. Do they know methods for food preservation? Cooking the juice, dry slices of tuber, add salt or sugar. 26. When they use chem. pesticides, do they prepare the roots in a special way to protect their health? No. Boiling like all the time. 27. Do they have sanitations in their houses or do they have to share it (possibility to wash hands because they eat with the hands)? Mostly outside of the house. Usually each household has an one own close to the house, but there are also shared ones. For washing hands most time there is a bucket with water, but no soap.

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28. What health practices do they acknowledge at household level?

Cover hair, wash hands. Sweeping the cooking place. Clean dishes and pans after every use with water and soap.

24

Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

References

KASWAHILI, P.: Interview about the extent of sweetpotato-cultivation. Ukerewe, Tanzania May 16th, 2011. LUKMANJI, Z.; HERTZMARK, E.: Tanzania Food Composition Tables. Dar es Salaam 2008. SCHMIDT, V.-C.: Own photographs of TAHEA-projects. Mwanza, Tanzania

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2011.

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,

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Schmidt, Verena. Nutrition security in Tanzania: Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health : Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and their contribution to health,