Nālandā Mahāviharā: A study of an Indian Pāla Period Buddhist site and British historical archaeology, 1861 - 1938 9781407348223, 9780860546740

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Table of Contents
Illustrations
Chapter I: Introduction
Chapter II: The Religious Context
Chapter III: Art History Context
Chapter IV: The Literary Context
Chapter V: The Early Investigators: Buchanan, Kittoe, Cunningham, 1812-1861
Chapter VI: The First Archeological Survey of India 1861-1899:
Chapter VII: Second ASI under Marshall First Phase: 1916-28
Chapter VIII: Second Phase ASI 1929-38
Chapter IX: Historical Archeology at N land : Analysis of the Chinese Accounts
Chapter X: The Archaeology at Nalanda: Evaluating the ASI Accounts
Abbreviations
Bibliography

Citation preview

Nālandā Mahāviharā A s tudy of an Indian Pāla Period- Buddhis t site. and British his torical archaeology, 18 61 - 19 3 8

Mary L. Stewart

BAR International Series 5 29 1989

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 3529,1989 :Nalanda Mahavihara

© M,�uy

L. Stewart, 1989

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546740 paperback ISBN 9781407348223 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546740 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Foreword

This in

s tudy

1 988

to

University

of

Mahävihära, B ihär,

based

School

London.

a

order

within

to

proceeded

I t

i ts

they

my

doctoral

Oriental

concerns I t

an

intellectual how

d id.

and

The

in

Nälandä

state

to

historical

is

of

place

archeologists

exercise

Studies,

of

the

attempt

and

why

submitted

African

archeology

s ite

i s

thesis,

and

the

monastic

India.

understand

as

on of

Buddhist

northeastern

archeology in

i s

the

the

context

at

Nälandä

important

in

that

s ince the end of World War I I Indian archeology officially shifted i ts attention from historical to prehistorical s ites

and

adapted

assumptions provisions methods of The that

to the

earlier

work

present,

By

providing

Buddhist show

in

is a

how

the

Buddhist

but

one

context

the

The early

where

the

many

sources

in

7th

main

century

section

surveys

and

which

conclusions:

of

of

the

Chinese

evolved.

This

is

l iterary

i s

l arger

the

study

two an

is

of

contextual applied to that

conserved

of

is

chapters

analysis. Nälandä' s

of i n

the the

a

i t

the

study

is

an

period

of

offer

of

the

critique

the

an

evaluation chapters

archeological s tep

enormous

historical

and

translations

summary

f irst

the

religious, out their

the

second

of

Nälandä,

in

a

much

corpus

of

archeology

to

If this process can be satisfactorily documentation, i t can a lso be applied

vast s ame

to

s tudy

mentioned,

account

of

of

the

submitting

t he

The

translations travelled in

archeology

evaluation

sources,

only

Nälandä,

process

material

to

not

at

Indian

tried

investigations presents the

Nälandä

of the actual archeology. The l ast of the contains suggestions for further research.

procedure

artistic

I have

being the European Buddhist monks who

official

l ast

f irst

these

A . D.

the

The The

the to

This i s of which

which

indicating how archeologists applied the artistic and l iterary assumptions in carrying explorations.

of

religious,

has

in

conduct

example.

based,

wisdom

to

f ield. s ites,

upon

was

grounds

conclusions of on uncritically

outstanding

archeology

the

and

"evidence"

impossible

in the Buddhist

for

on

the

1 9th century with the nascent religion and art. I t then

l iterary

in

of

assumptions

the most relevant of these of the accounts of Chinese India

was

instances

conventional

begins in the into Buddhist

i t

verified regard to

l iterary

historical

much

i ts

conclusions

re-examined so

in

concomitant

the

result, the been passed

the

not with

Mahävihära

not

that

As a have

even

ancient

was

removed

orientation

making

and update archeology.

e fforts

conclusions were particularly true

and

had

surveys. archeology

Nälandä

without

to assess historical

conserving

further earlier

"scientific"

methods

archeologists

their

the

a modern,

and

number period.

of

Indeed,

other the

Buddhist

potential

s ites sources

of material Buddhist and

for even

analysis go geographically Indian s ites.

well

A word about orthography: The spelling of Chinese names varies according to d ifferent authors.

I have

Sanskrit

d iacritics.

names,

I have

used

made

Edgerton As

certain

and

to

Lamotte

the

as

spelling

choices

Sanskrit systems my

of

f rom many

beyond

and and

guides the

for

Chinese

possibilities.

The names of the Chinese pilgri ms i n my text appear as: Fa-hien, H iuen Tsiang, Hwui Li, I-tsing and Ki Ye. In some places in spellings, Chinese

the text I have nor have I changed

names

when

Photographs, in

brackets

Some

of

such at

the

in

end

l ater to

of

chapters Many

sketches,

people of

Srivastava,

curator

Superintendent

this of

am

indebted

Delhi,

for

for

to

Very Cleveland,

to

the

me

the

London,

of

and

visual

in

the

Musuem,

Nälandä,

are

appendices

chapter

to

IV them

and

in

notes.

background

thank

and

in

material

the

l ike

Archeological

special Ohio,

thanks

for

giving

Survey

prints

and ASI

Office

reproduce

Mr.

Dr.

B .

Capt.

Ajay Nath,

Arvind

their

India, Bihär

for their permission Annual Reports. And Library

&

the

Buchanan

go

to

me

of

f rom

the

Records,

and use am

London,

drawings.

George initial

to I

New

P .

Bickford,

encouragement

to

research; to Dr. John Marr of SOAS, and of the Sackler Gallery, Washington, D . C.

for their assistance thank my family,

L .

at

I II

l isted

chapter.

d istributed p laced

me

Nälandä

available

India to

undertake doctoral Dr. George Michell

Mary

a lso

I would

Archeology

making

encouragement,

I I,

I have

are by

Bareilly, for their help and kindnesses to Nälandä Mahävihära in December 1 984. I

the

a llowing

Chapters

assisted

Orissa photographic a lbums, other photographs from the grateful

numbered

pertainafter

study. of

d iagrams

and

I have

they

have

preparation

and

the French Indian and

passages.

concentration

book.

which

K . Agarwal of during my visit

in a

quoted

text

chapters.

avoid

the

to

in

anglicised variants in

maps

the

photographs

to

a manner

the

appear

throughout

the

referred

they

not the

and advice. colleagues

patience

and

Finally, I would l ike to and friends for their

support.

Stewart 1 989

4

Table

of

Contents

Foreward L ist

of

3 I llustrations,

Maps,

Diagrams

7

Chapter Introduction

1 1

Background I I

The

Religious

I II

The

Art

Context

IV

The

Historical

History

25

Context Literary

43 Context

67

Archeology V

Early

VI

The

Archeological

Investigators

VII

The

ASI

1 916-1 928

1 27

VIII

The

ASI

1 929-1939

1 77

Critique

and

IX

The

Chinese

X

The

Archeological

1 812-1 848

Survey

of

India

8 1 1 861-1871

1 03

Conclusions

Accounts Accounts

1 97 247

Abbreviations

252

Bibliography

253

I llustrations Page Chapter 1 0

1 .1.

Stupa

1 5

1 . 2.

Sketch

No. Map

3 ,

1 9

1 . 3.

Sketch

of

ASIAR ,

of

I

1 928-29,

Northern

Nälandä

and

2 .1.

Image

Museum. 30

2 . 2.

of

ASI

Nälandä

Photographic 35

2 . 3. 2 . 4. B .

A .

Stupa

Stone

north

No.

Plate

3 ,

in

No.

s ites.

II,

Photo

plaque.

& 0 ),

Bihär

1 927-28, of

5th

232/58.

and

Photo

the

Nälandä

No.

Ori ssa

No.

496/85.

level,

ASIAR

b .

3 ,

s tucco

of

Chaitya

Buddhist

bhümi gparamudrä,

Al bum

Stair

VII.

image

of

(B

b . Nälandä.

II

terracotta Al bum

Stupa

1 926-27, 36

Buddha

Photographi c

X ,

Showing

other

Chapter 24

Plate

India

bust

in

caitya window.

Avalokite vara,

No.

1 2,

ASIAR ,

f rom

small

1930-34,

shrine

Plate

LXVIII,

a .

42

3 .1.

Stone

3 . 2.

Bronze

Al bum , 50 55

58

3 . 3.

with

image

I II,

Al bum

I II,

image

of

crowned

Duplicated

terracotta

1 923-24

3 .4

Monastery

ASI

Tärä,

4 ' / 2",

ASI

Photo

Stone

image

1 961-66-68,

of

9 :

B

Buddha

Bronze

&

0 ,

1 923-24,

or

3 .5

No.

plaques,

A .

with

images

l ife

scenes,

18".

Stone Al bum ,

70

4 . 2.

Stone

image

Stupa

No.

"Nägäraja",

of

crowned

5 .1.

PrajMäpäramitä,

3

with

stone

B & 0 Al bum,

Stone

5 . 2. No.

image

ASI Al bum ,

Map

of

1 50,

of

1 5",

ASI

ASI Al bum ,

Eur.

image

1 919-20,

D .

of

"Nägärjuna"

or

489/85.

V

"Nagarjuna

I I,

Kundulpur,

MSS

Buddha,

520/68.

Chapter

Museum,

before

IV

image of seated I II, 504/68. I II,

4 . 3.

ASI,

451/68.

3 . 6. Monastery No. 9 : A group of bronze images cleaning. [ 1 3 & 0 Album], 1 8, 1 932-33, 481/85.

4 .1.

83

7Ä",

of

66

80

Buddha,

Trailokavijaya t rampling Siva; B . Vajrapär , li MaMju ri ", ASIAR 1930-34, Plate CXXV, a and b .

Chapter

73

of

5 14/68.

526/68.

494/85.

I I, 6 1

III

shrine

Photographic 47

Chapter

or

Nagaraja",

Nälandä

452/68. Buchanan-Hamilton 95B,

India

Drawings,

II,

Li brary

and

Office

Records. 86

5 . 3.

Buchanan' s

Hamilton, Eur.

D .

"Behar

87,

Sketch &

of

Patna

Journal",

5 . 4. Sketches of Buchanan' s India, I , 1 838, P late XIV, 1 ,

9 1

5 . 5.

Sketches I ,

1 812,

Buchanan1 27,

MSS.

IOLR.

90

India,

Kundul pur,

1 838,

of

f inds, 3 , 4 .

Martin,

Eastern

f inds,

Martin,

Eastern

Buchanan' s

P late

XV,

1 ,

-

2 ,

-

4 .

95

5 6 .

Kittoe' s

. . 97

5 . 7.

sketch

Behar", Stupa

1 917-1 8,

map

of

JASB ,

XVI,

3 ,

s tone

No.

P late

XIV,

Bihar,

1 847,

6 .1.

Chaitya

1 931-32,

No.

image

of

1 2,

during

6 . 3. Sketch Ruins, 1 872,

based on Broadley' s opposite 4 .

1 12

6 . 4.

based

Sketch

"Remains",

sketch

on

JASB ,

Broadley' s

"Remains", 1 17

6 . 6.

7 .1.

1 29

7 . 2.

Survey

7 . 3. 20,

1 37

1872,

1 39

Plan

7 . 5.

Plan

of

7 . 6.

VIII,

of

7 . 7.

No.

Stupa

7 . 8.

Plan

7 . 9. 5th

1 57 1 60

7 .11. 7 .12.

Stupa

level

stair,

8 . 2. Plate

1 82

8 . 3. Plate

1 85 1 89

No.

1 ,

Monasteries

1 57

at

3 ,

and

ASIAR

ASIAR

1 919-

from

Stupa

grant,

b .

5 th

Nos.

1 and

1A,

1 58. B

&

0

Al bum ,

reverse.

level,

showing

small

ASIAR ,

ASIAR ,

1 925-26,

3 ,

Plate 4th

l evel

1 926-27,

section

locations

o f

earlier

XLI. tower

Plate

through

in

VIII,

east

f ront

of

c .

façade,

ASIAR

XLIII. Stupa

No. No.

3 ,

No.

east

3 ,

3 ,

ASIAR ,

elevation,

stucco

ASIAR ,

Smelting

1 925-26,

ASIAR ,

P lan

of

Avalokite vara

1 926-27,

furnace

1 936-37,

1 927-28,

VIII,

P late

VIII,

image,

5th

d .

VIII

bet ween

Chaityas

Nos.

1 3

and

1 4,

e .

Chaitya

No.

1 2,

ASIAR ,

1 930-34,

LXIX. Monastery IX,

8 . 4.

Plan LXXII.

of

Monastery

1930 - 34,

No.

6 ,

looking

north,

ASIAR ,

1 929-30,

c .

Plate 8 . 5.

6 ' x3',

b .

obverse;

No.

of

Stupa

ASIAR , 1 79

1 B,

XLII.

7 .13.

8 .1.

and

I I.

(Hariti)

XX,

at

Chapter 1 76

I .

XLVIII.

Plate 1 69

P late

I .

1 927-28, 3 ,

No.

P late Plan

Plate 1.63

No.

tower,

Stupa

1 927-28,

IV,

222.

1A

f rom

I and

copper-plate

Stupa

ASIAR ,

Stupa

7 .10.

reduced

"Kotesri"

tower

No.

c .

of

level

3 ,

No.

1 .

1 878,

Nos.

Monastery

Drawings

No.

XLVIII,

Tope

f ig.

a .

Sheets

Plate

a .

Nalanda,

opposite

Monasteries

excavations

493/85,

buildings, 1 56

of

1 91 9-20,

of

1 871,

VII

XLVIII,

P late

I ,

Tope

ASIR ,

excavations, image

of

Bihar,

Nälandä

Circle,

X ,

IX,

Circle,

Baläputradeva

Plate 1 53

of

1 920-21,

Photo. 1 50

of

ASIAR

ASIAR , 1 45

map

Stone 3 ,

ASIAR ,

0 Al bum ,

of

diagram

P late

P late

Plate

Eastern

Eastern

7 . 4. No.

&

ASIR ,

1 872,

clearing

1 925-26,

1918-19, 1 34

B

diagram

Broadley' s XLI,

XLI,

map

Workman

ASIAR ,

Nälandä,

reconstruction

JASB ,

Beglar' s

of

Chapter 1 26

Aparäjita,

excavation,

1 09

6 . 5.

in

480/85.

6 . 2. Cunningham' s opposite 28.

1 15

P laces

VI

1 05

IV,

on

b . Chapter

1 02

"Notes

954.

Plate

Monastery No.

1 0:

No.

Find

LXXV. 8

of

1 0,

ASIAR ,

billon

coins,

1 930-34, ASIAR ,

191

196 199 200 203 207 208

210 211 214 215 217 218 220 222 223 225

236 239 243 247

8.6. Monastery No. 12, looking northeast, ASIAR, 1930.34, Plate X,c. Chapter IX

9.1. St. Martin's map of Hiuen Tsiang's itinerary, in Julien, Memoires, I, 1857. 9.2. Cunningham's map of Fa-hien's and Hiuen Tsiang's routes, ASIR. I, 1871, Plate III. 9.3. Broadley's map of the routes of the Chinese Pilgrims, "Remains", JASB, 1872, Plate VIII. 9.4. Cunningham's second map of the routes of the Chinese pilgrims, ASIR, III, 1871-2, Plate XL. 9.5. Fa-hien: Sketch of relative distances between major towns and sacred sites. (Cunningham's interpretation). 9.6. Hiuen Tsiang: Sketch of the relative distances between major towns and sacred sites. 9.7. Hiuen Tsiang: Diagram showing relationship of the sarpgharamas. 9.8. Hwui Li: Diagram showing the disposition of the sarpgharamas. 9.9. Hiuen Tsiang: Diagram showing the disposition of dedicatory buildings. 9.10. Hwui Li: Diagram showing the disposition of the dedicatory buildings. 9. 11. Hiuen Tsiang and Hwui Li: Diagram comparing their dispositions of dedicatory buildings. 9.12. Fr. Heras' sketch intrepreting Hiuen Tsiang's description of Na landa, "The Royal Patrons of the University of Nalanda", JBORS, XIV, 1928, opposite 22. 9.13. Sketch of Nalanda and environs showing numerous tanks and villages. 9.14. I-tsing: Diagram of the dedicatory buildings. 9.15. I-tsing, Hiuen Tsiang and Hwui Li: Diagram comparing their dispositions of dedicatory buildings 9.16. Ki Ye: Diagram of Nalanda and surrounding sarpgharamas. Chapter X

10.1. Stupa No. 3: North stairs, levels 5 and 6, after construction, ASIAR, 1926-27, Plate VI. 10.2 Nalanda: Survey plan of excavated remains, ASIAR, 1930-34, Plate LXXI. 10.3 Nalanda: Survey plan of excavated remains, A. Ghosh, Nalanda, 1971. 10.4 Stupa No. 3: Stucco Avalokitesvara image, side wall of 5th level, ASIAR, 1926-27, VII, d.

- 9 -

Chapter

I

Introduction

Location

of

The

Nälanda

Mahävihära

remains

Mahävihära,

are

the

of

village

of

in

the

the

Buddhist

Baragaon,

Bihär

Pätaliputra)

is

90

km.

( ancient

Uddarp ; Japura)

i s

1 1

km.

Gay

( ancient

äi s 5th

teach

to

in

the at

existence in

I t

an to

s ite

of

1 2th

as

f rom

l arge I t

Baragaon the

say

In

the

1 . 2]

with

the

A . D.

the

to who

record

the

structures

Buddha' s

to

6th

monks

Chinese

the

the

stopped

temple-like

sojourns.

Hindu

sun

god,

Indrabhüti. any

most

precision

probably

intervening

bricks

and

for

in

ääkyamuni

or

--

ruins

have

by

been

spots

the

may

monastery

entirely

resevoirs)

s ite

[ 1.1,

occasions

Gotäma

removed

the

is

very

judging ( or

had

southeast.

sacred

ruins

and

when

the

the

end

at

centuries

s tonework

their

own

the

as

well

building

and

uses.

How

on

to

into

Bihär-Sarif

northeast

Bodh -

commemorating saint,

Patna

south.

century

--

near

of

the

many

7th

Nälandä

Bihär,

city

the

Nälandä.

temples

century.

artefacts

question. of

the

Jain

fell

villagers

personal

--

were

the

at

The

to

Buddha

v ih i fras

d ifficult

present the

image

area

is

in

several

the

the

the

grove

to km.

on

of

northwest,

1 1

texts,

B . C.,

Nälandä

and

local

to

km.

mango

of

enshrining Surya,

1 15

Buddhist

centuries,

resided

Also

is

some

According and

Räjag t ;ha)

state

D istrict.

( ancient Räjgir

monastery,

northeastern

was

possible

erected

where

f rom

topography

in

surrounding

the have

been

a lso

parts

Nälandä

monastic

uneven

well

is

that

an

of

bricks

buildings

and

the

one

number

of

village

and

stone

stood.

countryside,

only

answered

the

And

of

the

tanks

present

many

monastic

complexes. The

British-administered

(ASI)

purchased

after

Dr.

whilst

Francis

carrying

Nälandä But

might

the He

monastic extent Reports I t

was

and

Survey over

written That

of

India

1 00

years

about

i t

ruins

of

the

mooted

in

the

identified

as

a

Major-General

Cunningham' s

Chinese

purpose.

to

the on

3 ,

to

In

innumerable was

5th

and

the

22

1 840' s. Buddhist

visit

7th

in

century

years

of

credit

annual

f inancing an

ASTAR ,

artefacts.

published

in

the

The ASI

full Annual

1 937-1938.

l asti ng the

restored

S tupa N o.

and

work

1 915-16

restrictions

< 1 .1

and

Bengal.

actually

this

their

of

crews

l ittle

seen

of

important

inscriptions

l i mitations and

had

survey

a

and conservation, which took place from 1 916 archeologists uncovered the remains of 1 5

for i s

Archeological 1 916,

not

buildings

of

a

until for

exploration until 1 938,

in

been

were

used

manuscripts

s ite

Buchanan

out

have

ruins

establishment 1 861.

the

and

of

ASI

P late X ,

that

seasons,

personnel,

outstanding 1 928-29,

the

cold

i ts

monument. b .

within

the

given

the

archeologists The

amount

of

work

required

before

any

conservation

was

in i tself prodigious. Vast qualities collected f rom the s ite. Many of these the

nearby

Nälandä

( storehouses)

museum.

repl ete

Behind

with

i t

carried

out

was

of artefacts were are d isplayed in are

artefacts.

several

Important

godowns

s tone

and

bronze images from Nälandä are also to be found in the National Museum, New Delhi, the Patna Museum and the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Si nce routine only

1 938,

basis

new

1 973 to between

archeologists to

carry

research

at

out

the

have

s ite

took

Baragaon.

They

Nglandj

see

excavated

Mural s.

Chapter

Clai ms

place

made

for

a

It

(New

during

the

a

The

years

v ihära

Delhi,

containing

the

remains

paintings around in 1 983 by Bihendra

1 983)

For

a

full

i ts Nath

account,

Nälandä

current

following

1 .

on

repairs.

X .

The the

Nälandä

and

1 983. Archeologists conducted a small exploration the east s ide of the s ite and the main road to

of a l arge stucco image with pedestal. The work was published as

visited

maintenance

was

edition

c lai ms

the

for

of

the

offical

guidebook

makes

Nälandä:

birthplace

of

ääriputra,

a

disciple

of

Buddha; 2 .

The

Mauryan

founded 3 .

Monasteries emperors

4 .

Early

5 . 6 .

Chinese

monk,

7th

the

9th

the

of

the

5th

edition,

The

c lai ms

f ield

with

the he

was

separated must

on

for

century.

by

Gupta

and

Harsha,

at

Nälandä

in

also

resided

at

Nälandä

the

at

Nälandä

in

(A.

the

a monastery

Ghosh,

sources.

Ghosh have

say,

Tsang

Devapäla,

to

historicity

ruins

to

of

support

of

built

by

the

Khalji

at

the

Nglandj New

Delhi,

2-14)

many

of

Nälandä

As

for

admits that met

" .

and

with as

the new

that:

Hiuen

f inal

based

on

evidence

of

"Modern Tsiang

scanty

the

are

the

s ix

success

.

centuries

desertion

buildings

attempts

describes]

and

of

that

the

s ite

modified

the

( 7)

statoment

officiating his

reign

buildings

produced

the

1 954,

resided

Bälaputradeva; by Mubammad Bakhtiyär

1 971,

[ the

ones".

Ghosh' s

Tsiang,

granted

epigraphical

Hiuen

have

existing

1 2th

existing

goes

established POri , lavarman

I-tsing,

archeology,

identify

and

buildings;

Hiuen

century

end

and

temple

century;

rulers, and

monk,

villages

l iterary

were 5th

a

B . C.

century;

ruler of Sumatra, It was destroyed

8 .

erected

century

century;

Chinese

In

early

century

the

that

3rd

Nälandä

The

in

Aäoka,

the

the

images

f i ve

but

at

from

6th

in

contri buted

The

7 .

to

emperor,

Nälandä

i s

remarkable,

Superintendent 1 938

" reason"

acti vity

at

the

evidence

of

earlier

and

the

belies

s ite.

during

for the

not

only

f inal

was

he

ASI

season

the

ASI

Director - General

of

the

archeological

While

building,

22

there how

- 1 2 -

years was, much

of in

a

earlier

few was

in

areas, never

f irmly

established

excavati on

or

at

has

Nälandä

The

British

at

e ither

a l ater

quite

and

which

--

archa qol ogy in

India

t hat

there

"scientific" is

in

a lthough

other

for

Survey.

the

conservation means

Europeans I ts

s ite

India into

relief

archeology carried

history In

to

of

of

ancient

ancient

numismatics

and

at

of

War

is

s ites

opposed

s tudy

sense

the

which

out as

this

World

and

to

historical

the

archeology

I I.

l iterature,

paleography

archeological

i nformation

art

and

history

Historical Company

surveyors

which

were

monks

to

began

read

the

able

to In

the

less

be

the

he

As

half

to

of

f inds. use

the

constructing

profile

of

i ts

of

Mughal

well

Although

the

did

methods The

in

noted.

i ts

mound

for done

number as

in

i nscriptions

of

many

Buddhist Buddhist

learned

to

were

where

the

they

1 848,

an

army

for was

a

his task

ancient

more

engineer,

coordinated

of

India.

In

established

directo2. and

and

operated

Survey

rule

pioneer

geographic

The

in

ASI,

under

successor

James

of

s ites

locating

--

Hindu,

and Jain

Buddhist. ASI to

surveys

establish

with

historical

were

some

scientific background

and

and

very

basic

draughtsmen

details The

of

very

a trench

each

of

produced

t ranslation

- 1 3 -

and

visi ble

l ittle

relics.

of

his

s ite

was

plans

drawings

and dug

s i mple, s tandards

techniques of

occasionally

ruin.

consi sted for

f irst

of

f irst

search

century,

monumental

surveyors

each

of

Chinese

own

as

Cunningham

inscripti ons, architectonic have

of

campaigning

British

the

e levations,

artefacts

1 9th

early

accordance

His

course ruins

antiquarians

Archeological

attempt

l iteary

as

interest

As

of

as

the

the India

surveyor/archeologists

the

began

appointed

vast

in

of

East

ancient

translations

accounts and

out

British

who,

their

after

performed

grows

of

numerous

the

of

funded

years

a

India

western

developed

was

Cunningham

may

material

s ites.

spheres

three

documenting

duly

by

i conography,

attempted

group

published,

d irectorships

t i me.

the

and

identified

a s tylistic

in

travel

Cunningham,

Burgess,

and

were

purpose

engineers

scripts,

f irst

officiall y

and

and

discovered

independently.

Alexander

India,

the

small

and

identify

intellectual

the

a

the

ancient

archeologists

1 861,

as

worked

excavation

epigraphy,

well

for

India

Buddhist.

and

and

of

expeditions,

manuscripts

and

of

as

American

the

which

Indologists

archeology

efforts

or

other

was

architecture.

pioneer their

occasional

a im

monuments

and

a dynastic

the

pri mary

Archeologists

a

in

sets

specific

prior

the

archeology

tell.

archeology

the

of f ield

Indian historical archeology was mainly the province the British and British-trained Indians of the ASI --

of

of

remark

written

period

to

Nälandä' s

"prehistoric".

used

the

a

t i me the

Archmology

is,

i s

and

of

of

the

Indeed,

story

Ghosh' s

character

"historical" for

another

Historical

Nevertheless, essential

at

date.

of

surface

excavation

into

the

Surveyors

collected

they

middle

of

copied

coins

and

artefacts

for

documented

scholary

in

Articles interest random

of

of

fashion.

in

the

Many

Society

of

the

were Bengal

in

the

newly-appointed In

1 902

General. models

Journal

the

Journal

inscriptions.

(CII)

was

in

with

in

a

of

t he

of

t he

The

instituted

documented. the the

the

by

Corpus

Cunningham

of

the

Again,

the

of

s ites

of

Gangs

of

debris.

rubble,

render

labourers

task

of

f inds

uni versity

scholars.

have

an

t i me

material

as

in

ASI,

K . N.

the

future

regarded scholar quality

at

the

of

the

" .

.

layman

Survey

their

with

interests Morti mer

ASI

l atest Under

in

to

attention

Archeologists

art

to

"modern" Wheeler' s

and

now

was

to

that

would

the

to

not

historical

a

b lack

to

His

remains

remarks

"Fifty was as

well

the the a lso

of

India,

made

and

for

were

Years

were

on

about

s ites

Anci ent

the

Woolley

futile

of

name

of

advise

Ghosh,

and

selection

appointed Indian and the

to said

the

I ,

42)

appear to

have

restricted

be

a s ite as each s ite

Director-General archeologists

analytical

ASI

historic to

contention he

of

on

in

architecture.

scientific

economic history of scientific s tudy of

the

studies

excavated

documents

t rain

f rom

remains. away

passed

asked

archeologists

direction,

were

. .

India",

written

Wheeler

1 944

.

(Ghosh,

the

be

given

was

of

archeology

and

for

c lear

artefacts,

Director-General

wasteful

the

of

historical

obsessed

.

and

critical".

unprofessional,

as

a like

excavations

thoroughly

been

museums

to

take

of

According

. conservation

s ite

to

was

the

Woolley

ASI.

to

and,

work.

of

Leonard

the

and

point

were

academic

archeology

request

the

of

and of

f ield

noted,

detailed

analysis

would

already

structural

was an

had

was

Marshall' s

be

or

European

s tarting

c lean

more

was

may

his

Dikshit,

Archeological Indian

as

historical

1 937

maintenance

I t

s ite

employed

remains

research

well

Indian when

were

and

archeologist for

and

on

ASI

the

waterproof

providing

archeological

each

i ts

( excavation)

the

as

to

Director-

archeology

Archeologists

remove

and

nati ve

although

of

served

exploration.

repair

The

which

history

Nälandä,

archeological

based

Indian

exploration

s ites

came

appointed

plan,

East,

the ASI fell on altogether when

Curzon,

was

Marshall' s

Near

systematic

case

stabilise,

Lord

Marshall

to

the

a

conservation in

viceroy, John

According used

begin

i ts

or

numismatic

journals

the

Towards the end of the 1 9th century t i mes and was about to be eli minated

rescue.

the

were

1 877.

hard

as

and

learned

for

(JASB)

surveys

Great Britian and Ireland (JRAS ). the Indian Antiquary (IA) and the the l atter intended specifically of

Indicarum

the

reports.

epigraphical

written

publication

Inscri pti onum

1 871, ASI

appropriate

Royal Asiatic Society of In 1872, Burgess founded Epi graphia Indica (EI), for

From

official

archeological,

appeared

Asiati c

s tudy.

a series

shifted

to

concerned

of the

techniques. the

focus

prehistoric with

in

the

of

s ites.

social

and

determined by a systematic, level and a ll material f inds

- 1 4 -

-

1 5-

down

to

the

Although the

smallest

the

reports

of

historical to

be

levels and

importance epigraphy

at

an

amount that did

of

the

the

discipline

that

and

impressive

may

not

other

parts

1 9,

1 962-63,

and

and the

new

a

was

i t

This

evaluation,

Indian

an

Archmologists

unassessed, the

fails

The

for

much

being

i t in

corpus

"at

his

Anci ent

d id

not

within the

the

peril".

India „

in

and

criteria

own

18-

orientation

historical I t

of

of

contemporary the

archeology

f it

into

the

procedures;

nor

i ts

own

context.

documentation

largest.

In

historical

the

for

absence

archeology

has

status. on

Nälandä about

the from

Nälandä c lai ms great

epigraphic their

which

directly

Nälandä

difficulty that

and

modern

points for

admitting

standards

of

before

Nälandä

H . D.

can

under

be

Indian World

degree the

seen

l iterary

prevailed

writing

f ieldwork

c lai ms.

in

to

remain

in

the

scientific

I I

c learly

was

( 1908-89).

1 934), in

more

archeologists.

War

Sankalia

(Madras,

a master' s

Bombay,

of

without

problem

h i3torian, of

because

They

orientation the

earlier

unscientific.

publications Nälandä

The

extensi ve

archeology

the

standards

have

the

of

shift

of

evaulated

only

out

both

ignores

the

ignored.

archeologists

bear

f ind

period

with

the

Nälandä

important.

Today",

do

s ite

to

approach and

Not

i t

archeological

d ismissed

judgment

India

equivocation

anomaly.

about

the

anomalous

Ghosh' s the

and

archeological

Nälandä

the

wonder

importance

of

was

that

material

true

and

1 937.

However,

critically

creati ng

l iterature. small

the

had

directed

for

is

standards

notes

in

the

easily

archeologist

extent,

s ites,

assumed

so

They

responsible

and

thought

the

in

Ray

especially

Buddhist of

of

ever

is

by

involvement

1 947.

i t

archeologists to

criticism

l arge

paradigm

of

held

subcontinent

done,

other

be

up

"Archeology

to

The

were

assumed

world

224).

They

e lements

the

cannot

prioriti es,

was,

a lso

position

archeological

be

Woolley

Niharranjan

Ray,

the

view.

part,

oblivion

Indian

to

in

conservation

measured

historical

the

historical

of

(N.

in

at

were

of

formerly

of

scientifically-oriented of

these

most

India. f rom

Buddhist of

and

the

in

needed

which of

have

or

administrative

for

of

exclusion

contribution

--

the

independence

s ites

s ize

work

exploration to

seed.

repeated

point

research

of

and,

volume

Considering

--

assumed

from

t i me

Buddhist

enormous

was

s ites

s ites

sciences

acti viti es

rescuing

fossilised

socio-economic

retired the

scene

archeological for

historic

prehistoric the

and

background

i conography.

ASI

the

at

archeol ogical

British

the

set

of

social

and

The with

done

from

i n

sherd

historical

work

approached

physical

pottery

ancient

was

supervision

of

-16 -

examining onl y

written The

based

archeology

by

The

from

Father

by

book,

on

his

the

the

book The

Uni versity 1 932

thesis

University

Heras,

on

pre-

S . J.1

of

However, available at Nälandä A

in

formal t raini ng in archeology was not reall y the t i me, as Sankalia reveals, writi ng about

a l ater

topic

f rom

publication:

l i ke

the

E Nälandä]

history

of

reconstruct

t he

comparati ve

ease,

Sanskrit, to

subjects

I did

these

do

l iterature of

thanks new

and

l earned

multidi mensional.

history

totally

architecture,

i s

ancient to

my

i conography

not

to

study

d isciplines

such

had

as

to

and

of art,

be

newly

subject.

formally by

with

knowledge

the

directly

could

Nälandä

subjects

justice

While

I

These

I picked

acquainting

up

myself

with the objects of art and architecture and reading about them. Of course, this is how my guru

Fr.

What

he

Heras did

had i n

with

t rip

Sankalia never

education

Nälandä' s

On

there

data

to

since

to

by

which,"

of

readings

his were

Sastri that

i t

different

as

i t

into

D ikshit brought

was

of

his

N . P.

out". way

possible

K . N.

Dikshit

year

in

the the

notes

results annual

complete

account

succeeded

Sastri

the

Survey

l i ved,

an

in

in

to

as

1 932".

assessment

s ite

art

the

preface i t

prepared

seasons in

was " .

1 934.

that

he

edited

and

. . in

the

differences

(Had have

- 1 7-

research

was

been

of

into very

inscriptions cue

to

in

futuer

But

the

to

Sastri' s

are

noticed

year

by

unfortunate

that

no

before any

The

4

taken up, not even of Nälandä i tself,

Superintendent].

might

the from

Government

seems

historians

excavations

( n. p.)

the

materia1.

interpret

reports, was

i t

further

been

the

of

in

"considerable

challenge does not appear to have been by Sankalia. As to the broader subject "Although

1 942)

from

material

Chakravarti,

for

and

to the

Nglandä

remains

I t

ad

( i dem.)3

have

archeologists

his new

Delhi,

retirement

but

epigraphical

should

his

New

named

publication. notes,

the

wealth

in

66,

then

book,

that

2

epigraphic

until

But and,

reflexively

written

on

at

anything

reports.

No.

was

his

An

Nälandä,

book

superintendent

held on

at

his

Sastri

eval uate

He

splendid

archeologist

in

annual

(MASI,

s ite

he

an

repeats

Hirananda

successor,

ways

Buddhist

ASI

working

prepared

the . Nälandä' s

the

work

seeing

course

s i mply

and

i ts

contribute

He

1 920-21.

a post

continued

as

to

the

and to Bihar,

9 )

evidence

Material

acting

published

as

me

Archeol ogy,

archeologist

hi m

been

and

before

no

hand,

had

Epigraphist,

fact

is

c lassify

1 919-20

worked an

and

for

[ 1978],

as

of

other

Sastri

Nälandä

in

never

worked

Epi graphic

attempts site.

Delhi,

research.

the

Calcutta Born

enabled

archeological

Its

to

( Sankalia,

unfortunately,

died

things.

gi ve

a

But

He

these

to

ending

Sankalia

of

was

to accompany hi m to Nälandä ancient s ites in U . P. and

Autobiography,

and

learnt

case

opportunity many other museum.

hoc

hi mself

my

Mr.

Memoir:

Page

. . retired

these

[who f rom

archeologists

forthcoming.)

Indian

Historians

After who

1 938,

seem

to

critical Professor

of

in

( " The a

Nälandä have in

University

known

about

modern

sense

scholars

hailing

He taken

the

without Mookerji,

presented

puts

was

only

edition

on

the

be the to

foreign

the

selection

of

in

( 126)

paragraph

random

His

to

confined

attracted

countries".

one a

fact

a University

i t

to

century

syntax.

f irst

University

such

1 944,

amount

7th

modern

not a

Patna,

the

"The

was

. As

d istant

1936

of:

their

attention".

"facts"

f rom

a

B ihar known

out

XXX,

for

into

i t I t

.

draw

adequate

JBORS ,

l ines

containing

f rom

and

received

that .

introduces

archeology

he

term.

from

historians

R . K.

Uni versity,

material

the

is

the

several

archeology

implications

of

which

study.

by

1 944,

relations

along

of

Lucknow

new

Nälandä

post-graduate

up the

In

not

repitition

follow

taken

Nalanda",

the

accounts

comments

1 938

Annual General Meeting of the purported " to present some

had of

However,

Chinese

at

new

which

reflexive

was mind.

History

their

after

approached

Nälandä at the Society which

implications 1 26-59)

Nälandä

analysis

paper on Research facts

on

of

f ield " facts"

guidebook,

Ngl andä.

( 139) Sukumar 1 962), his

was

Dutt' s

preface

Buddhi st required

this

he

The

the

any

sections changed

40

edition This is

conducted

and

on

Pali, his

at

not

into

the

new

in

1 972

archeological nothing

statement,

learning.

history This

l ike

In

the

had

Ghosh' s,

Everything

be

60

l ines,

in

preface

Nälandä,

archeological.

then

some

they

aspect

sanghärämas.

work

would the

l ife

of

t his

have

l ayout thi s

is

- 1 8-

not

as

whenever

years

and only

But

of

history,

l argely

least

the

own

any

republished

in

changed.

some

modern

to for

of Nglendä

anomal y:

had

a

would

careful

visualise

from

add

Sankalia,

His

the

world

v ihäras

planned,

Sanskrit, notes

not

was

to

years.

not

reveal

the

intended

researching

in and

Uni versity

changes

excavations,

insight

of

expected.

attempted,

hel ped of

i s

then

In

Earl y

writes:

book

critic the

he

work,

book

years

does

Nälandä

underlines

archeological

1 924

new

half

reports

according

those

(London,

ambitious.

archeology.5

sustantive

emphatically Indian

of

his

he

Edition

because, in

more

h is

sources

ASI

Nälandä' s

Second

to

and

But

Uni versity

without

which two

l iterary

expeditions.

Sankalia' s

and Monasteries

wherein he s tated that the subject dynamic view and more extended

Chinese, to

Monks

considerably

attention

spent

using

and

understanding

this

calls

Dutt

book,

f ield

be

perspecti ve"

( 9)

Tibetan

to

Monachism , .a longer

historical supply.

Buddhist

intended

been

would

have

daily

l ife

In

fact,

enabled but of

Had

ago,

of

c ity

a i t

us

gi ven

a to an

knowledge

possi ble,

because

the to

1 .2 W älandU . i n r elation t o o ther B uddhist s ites i n t he s tate o f B ihär .

- I

-

except

for

buildi ngs

the

dail y

l ife

though

even

an

l ittl e

have now

account

vari ous

careful

ver y

been

i t

of

the

be

--

and

such

as

Most the

notably,

same

as

archeol ogical questi on,

has But

this

iron

to

areas

the

and

of

the

history

icongraphy,

of

f irst

respect,

But

i t to

there

The

Object

do

the of

the

Cl earl y, of

the

thinking

the

is

a to

Buddhism, were.

and of

Then

i t

It

is

is

A

the

the

historical

It

bnoader

perspecti ve.

Nälandä

Mahä vi hära

of

Buddhist

images

within

the

ritual

practices

of

the

Chi nese

be

very

contextual thr ?

wealth

archeol ogy or

study

more The

European 20th

of which

an

si mply

criticism.

be

hi storic is,

in

and

of

intellectual regardi ng

and

monuments and

why

concl uded

different

critical

One

placement

how

di d, and

and

terms

period.

the

assumpti ons

offer

the

val ue

one to

of

yet

material has

has

Nälandä

understand

allows

as

the they

archeol ogical

anal ysis

be

be

and

of

be

of

the

the

gap

the

A

Buddhist

seen

and

means

period

virtuall y

In of

of

untouched

of

other

studi es

translations

generall y.

a of

comparison

exami nati on

Comparati ve

a

in

extent

meditati ve

new

as

of

full

an

done.

regarded of

to

the

deter mi ned.

studi es

remai ned

bridgi ng

Nälandä

Buddhist

to

of

archeol ogy

thi ng,

possi bl y

Buddhist can

this

for

eval uati ng

of of

sources

present

yet

context

to

deal

way

hi storic

architecture

have

Nälandä In

reports.

For

has

of

or

i ts

i ts

a

the

accounts,

useful

to

also

monastic

and than

comment

that

they

has

and

great

Sankalia

a

of

to

on

study

s ites.

be

basic

as

f i eld

earli er

a

But

l iterary

possi ble

contextual

between

the

based

and

be

--

in

possi bl e

also

Mahäyäna

rather

subject

archeol ogy

st udy

proceeded

interpretations l iterature

to

procedures

artefacts,

archeol ogists di d.

needs

what

it the

architecture --

of

Study

Nälandä

see

i ts

Hinayäna,

the

without

historical

contextual

archeol ogy

context

clai ms

out that

archeol ogicall y.

to

the

f iel d

especiall y of

an the

of

as

thought

art,

that

of

the

regarded

have

epi graphy

Nälandä.

Present

the

and

eval uated

with

out of

is

terms

st udy

as

have

may

India,

seem

"history"

be

well

art,

modern

may

Indian

seems

there

interpreting method

Päla

be

ol der

as

He

of

and

of

in

Indol ogy

of

the

locks

systematic

well

of

would

to

republished

may

numi smatics

have

archeol ogist

he

Buddhism,

archeol ogy. would

Nälandä

f i el d

Vajrayäna

site

any

prepare

from

course,

Whil e

the

province.

to

defi niti on

1934.

of

for

archeol ogical

belonged

in

overlooked

c lai ms

archeol ogy. his

was

history

he

historical

Sankalia' s

i t

of

preserved,

culture

keys, pots and pans, besides, of architecture and i conography. (x)

not

several

aspects

worthwhil e

material

objects

of

other

recorded

would

the

small

clearance

of

would

short,

a

accessing historical for

f ifty

years. intell ectual rather

century

than

western

context Indian. studi es

for I t in

- 20 -

is

Nälandä' s based

Buddhism

on and

archeol ogy 19th

and

Buddhist

is

earl y art,

and

western

s tudi es

translations

are

oriented

understood

by

architecture

readi ng

arises

r itual,

and

can

esthetic

s tandards.

This and

analysis

of

archeology. accounts of

Nälandä

with the

the

2 .

the

for

Buddhist

and

to

they

say

In

1 .

i tself,

and and

the

the

and

western

sources

in

be and

the

religious,

chapter,

used

accounts.

evaluated

doctrine

--

archeology

can

art

sections:

l iterary

what

i ts

according

penulti mate

examined

that

three

These

Buddhism

archeology

archeologists

i s

of

in the

contemporary

archeology

3 . the

Chinese

identificati on

and

the

are

compared

f inal

suggestions

chapter,

are

made

for

s tudies.

The

pri mary

documentation

sources works

for

pertinent

the

are

other

f urther

ASI

In

scriptures;

evolves

the

manuscripts. that

comprehended

l iterary;

that

Buddhist notions

independently

context

artistic

of the

i ts

be

s tudy

background

in

are to

the which

source of

review

the

the

museum,

l ibraries

of

the

Office

India

Society,

the

London,

this

art

archeologists

and

and

in

archeology

religious,

b iographical s ite

used

the

articles.

School L i brary and

at

and the

is

the

Nälandä. and

referred,

as

In

addition

was

Oriental Records Indian

to

carried and

and

official Secondary

historical

research of

s tudy at

l iterary well

visits

out

African the

Institute,

Royal

in

aS

to the

Studies, Asiatic

Oxford.

Chapter

I

Notes

1 .

Fr.

India at

Heras

f rom

St.

2 .

in

Xavier' s

University

of

K .

de.

Morti mer

1 922

College,

went

B .

of

a Jesuit

be

priest

professor

Bombay.

on

to

study

Codrington

Wheeler.

Professor

was

to

He

of

who

came

Indian

then

to

history

taught

at

the

Bombay.

Sankalia

and

( 1 890-1 955)

Spain

He

in

and

returned

Proto-Indian

and

London

to

with

work

to

in

t ake

Ancient

F . J.

the up

Indian

Richards

f ield

the

with

post

History

of

at

the

Deccan College Postgraduate Research Institute, Poona in 1 939 where he remained until 1 970. In that t i me he a lso conducted

a

number

excavations. l iterature 3 .

The

only

His

has

Nälandä,

Nälandä

with

Protected

Act New

book

The

section

i s

Spooner, year

he

at

A

sun

god,

the

b irthbplace

Surya

while of

at

Nälandä,

the

in

t he

Province

LI,

Gui de

to

Ghosh the

the

official main

No.

66,

of

4 )

Jains

chief

call

interpretation Nälandä

by

universit , 200

a

of

"state"

neighbouring

or

tax-free

He

a lso

containing

the

to

v i dyastana,

and to

of

sacred area

the

Nälandä that

to

sacred

Mahävira,

seals

found the

and

the as

Götama

grants

in

assigned

governed

a

number

text

of

t aken

Nälandä

consisted

attached

But to

of

the

( 75)

from

Remains

thg ,c

to

i t

leads

i t by

was

royal

pandits and s iskyas s tate". ( 34) The

i tself

and

was

served

villages.

script.

been

by

same

indicated

as

university

villages

DevanaEari have

s ite

the

charter. According to Sastri. Näl andä' s "were properly l ook d after by the by

done the

1 936.

a lso

t ank

d isciple

reports.

In

Baragaon

consider

Bihar 1 931).

Buddhist in

the

He

of

work

( 67-94)

f rom

1 928-29

Calcutta,

t he

name

changed

( 7).

Monuments

the

revised

bronzes

art".

Anci ent

of

S t irag-kup c ; 1

the

some

at

"while

( 5).

Sastri' s supported

the

to

to Art

thesis,

that

t he

Series,

the

found

Supervisor

1 916-1 928.

was

(MASI

regarded

concludes

reiterates

Sastri,

images

Päla

1904

Page,

doctoral

to

summaries

Short

suggestion.

to

of

his

bronze

of

i s

relating

Hindu- Javanese

resemblance

List

of

Kempers,

book

belong

Imperial

station

Hindus

hi m

A

VII

on

He

bronzes]

Nglandj which

the

Indrabhüti.

Java.

a

and

based

a s ite

and

to

arche eological

Bernet

compare

d istant

Nälandä

wrote

railroad

h is

a

series

on

According

local at

a

Sastri

Excavated

to

published (ASI

The

book,

Nälandä

under

Ori ssa

protohistorical

written

Nj1andj

f rom

Kuraishi,

and

and

modern

A . J.

have

of

this

images

1 931 -32,

4 .

In

[ the

M . H. to

to

attempts

exhibiting

Java,

preto

historian,

Bronzes

1 933).

partially from

art

Kempers

Indian

prodigious.

scholar

The

( Leiden, Bernet

been

Dutch

western

of

contributi on

brick

or

stone

the

bulk

of

of

c lay

seals,

official

- 22

inscriptions

Pratityasamutpada epi graphic which

documents

in

Gupta

material appear

copper

to

plate

grants, tablets

i nscriptions " in

mementos".

all ( 75)

speculation 5 .

Articles

Historical C . S.

about

research.

and

vast

But

unable

he

these

Nälandä

editor

1 977.

images

gi ven

Geography

Upasek,

Varanasi,

on

on

probability

of

is

Buddhist appear Ancient of

Neither

to to

of

c lay

visitors

offer

more

as than

artefacts.

in

the

India,

Mglandä of

quantities pious

these

works

of

(Paris, Past add

B . C. 1954)

Law, and

and

Present,

any

analytic

Chapter The

General

began

Religious

The s tudy of Buddhism in Europe in the with translations of Sanskrit, Päli, manuscripts

translators Buddhist

were

into

philosophical

they

did

not

The when

see

their

did

biases.

Christians, in unsympathetic. a Buddhist informed

an

Either

they

book.

to

learn

of

the

the

They

which

complexities

quite

another

corrupt moral

created

texts

in

meanings of

the

to

no

or to

texts I t

publishing

to

and

manipulate

meaning

basis

in

were

t ranslators archeologists

do do

and

provided

which

the

not

seem

not

and

in

to

appear

unquestioningly

S tone i mage o f B uddha,

have

to

the

have

creating cases, Vagueness

resulted

in

interpretion used.

Just

consulted done

so

t ranslations

AST Photographic A lbum ,

- 25 -

meanings. hypotheses

many

meanings.

the

themselves

thereby

too

archeologists

Sanskrit, Christian,

r itual

the terminology subject.

translators

Buddhism

usage

of

the

al ways

inform

or

a

make

grounds.

not

a variety

teaching and

interpretations in the

not

doctrinal

s tructuring

in

to

translating

instances

did

the

misinterpreting could

some

They

Buddhist

written

were

i ts

of

seemed

philological

and

been

Western

produced

often

Buddhist

in

have

manuscripts

they

they and

words.

which

the

on

order

and,

to

texts.

translators

text

arbitrary,

Western

context copies,

Hindu

were

appear

of

the

Buddhist

and imprecision mystification of

< 2 .1.

in

Buddhist

exceptions,

Hindu

they

oversi mplified

accepted

own

because

certain

completely

Indian

the

few

between

specific

had

devout

religion.

ability

not

many

systematic

gave

Consequently that

or

Buddhist

the

Context

of

late

of a

no

often

of

of

interested

do

language,

Thirdly,

d istinguish they

as

were

impure

with

meaning.

--

early translators ever Buddhism was a religion

their

language.

their

First,

judgments

Secondly,

on

revealed

atheists

language

more

Buddhists

texts and

the

offered

Buddhism--

nature

of the extent

translations

problems.

Buddhist

the

translators

devout

the

displayed

of

on

philologists own

were

entered attention

bound to be inaccurate that a translator who went

true

any what

they

their

on

with

technicalities.

matter.

Practicing consulted

early

were

either case, I t was rare

country

hindrance,

opinion

Early

unacquai nted

concentrated

comments

is not apparent that askGd their tutors to t he

a

1 9th century Ti betan and

l anguages.

and

terminological

as

and

express

hi mself

t ranslations

and

this

interpretive

they

European

philologists

unfamiliar territory grammar and syntax.

of

Context

Background

Nepalese

As

I I

as

I I,

of the

Buddhists,

either. of

a

They

Buddhist

2 32/58.

texts.

unquestioningly.

s i mply

a

repitition

translation In

of

process

doctrinal

texts

to

Buddhism

died

invasions, the

Pali

in

Eastern

at

and

Buddhist School,

a

schools

were

chronologically.

These

When

the

Tantric

divide

t i me

sects

of

the

survived

Mughal

in

Tibet

countries. schools

of

Amman

and

other

a

a Sanskrit-Nepalese -

School.

each

manuscripts

Hinayänya

and

was in

summary.

to

Southern

India

Mahäyäna

came

opinion

appeared

a western

School,

( Vajrayana)

Hinayana

Cambodia,

a

succeeded

countries

or

a lready

discovering

Mahayana

out

the

Far

The Asian

have

text

of

into

"Tantric"

supposed

had

translators

Northern

Tibetan

and

them,

archeological

what

a Buddhist

the

translati ng Sanskrit

Often

of

predominated

Ceylon

(Sri

( Vietnam),

in

Lanka),

Laos

and

the

Southeast

Burma,

Malaysia.

Thailand,

According

to

the western mode of thinking, the Hinayäna teaching was the purest form of Buddhism as i t was the closest in t i me to the

historical

Buddha;

path.

They

were

such

a model

of

Tum our

and

The

Spence

in

translations

of

the

Hon.

George

and

the

Rev.

Tum our these

he

Spence express their

competition. Monachism

(London, work to

of

as

1 853).

In

and

and

But these

1 837,

to

1850)

Alexander

Christian

of

Some the

5 10-27;

for

missionaries he

Manual used

the with

published

of

Buddhism

Spence

articles

of

Pali

7 13-36)

Buddhism

England

and

manuscripts

Hardy' s

for

references

there

was

was no

schools

--

philologists

Mahayana

or

how began

and

scholarly

scheme

tantric they

Körös:

Sanskrit,

the

to

by

Brian

-26 -

of

canon. to

the

Nalanda' s

Left

for to

understand

they

l ater

related

the

their any

to

of

each

Hinayana.

translations

manuscripts

attention

how

the

the what

organisation

unable

systems,

to

period

coherent

were

Buddhism

belong

app.. ent

no

related

their

tantric

de

of

schools

devices, and

Csoma

Manuscripts

the

to

i i,

Tum our' s

own

They

IV,

return

determined

texts

Mahäyäna

Päli

Examination

archeologists

tantra

history.

other,

with

in

Burnouf

MahgvaAsa.

fellow

chronological

and

archeologists of

early the

acquainting

Tibetan

the

Mahayana

of

Theravada

and

Missionary

Eugene

Päli

1 820' s

service,

s ites.

Hodgson

Nepalese

on

the

1

"An

his

in

were

earliest

c ivil

l inguist,

chronicle,

early

background,

Buddhist

Brian

The

made

Sinhalese

On

The

Ceylon

essay

(London,

the

accepted

schools

a Methodist

1 826).

(JASB ,

studied

purpose

Eastern

Hardy,

in

Annals".

Hardy

were

the

a number

Sinhalese

from

Translations

theHinayäna

texts of

an

Text

Sanskrit.

French

(Paris,

published

Buddhistical

of

Buddhist Spence

deviated

Archeologists

question.

than

Tum our,

translated

the

two

Buddhist

many

contributed

( 1800-1876)

including

of

distinguished

( 1 801-1852), Lassen

Päli

Robert

The

Päli

rather

by

Ceylon.

without

Hardy:

books

Päli

other

corrupt.

Buddhism

sacred

written

the

impure,

using which

a

had

Houghton

collection been Hodgson

of

brought ( 1800-

1 894). He was

Hodgson joined the the secretary to the

1 820-29,

and

During about

his

Nepal

ranged

zoology

He

t he

a

( Serampore,

1 841), Nepal

on

Indian

Hodgson", In Asiatic Lama of

gave

Tanjur

--

his

these

to

India

Company.

the

basis

of

a

his

complete

had

to

the

of

and

settled

scientific JASB

and

the

I ll ustrations t he

Language,

of

Buddhists

Literature,

Miscellaneous

Cust,

Asiatic

and

and

Essays

"Brian

Houghton

Paris. of

known

printed

Society

( 845)

The

considerable

400

Nepalese

Buddhist

expense

copies

--

been

some own

London

manuscripts

which

continue

(R. N.

had

at of

two

Buddhism.

and

843-49)

Hodgson

hi m

and

1 844

include

t he

much

philology in

( 1 874)

( 1 880).

copied

Buddhist

on

as

interests

Reli gion

T i bet

learn His

contributor

Essays and

Societies

to

t he

1 894,

1 824,

manuscripts

to

to

could.

Service

publications

Subjects JRAS ,

attempted

Civil

1 858

and

Reli gion

1 843.

possibly

botany

regular

Literature

to

he

he

the

Buddhist

of

duty

until

was

His

1 833

as

and

from

Darjeeling

JRAS .

of

Tibet

retired

studies.

f rom

tour

and

from

Hodgson in

Resident

Indian Civil Service in 1 818. Resident in Kathmandu, Nepal,

the

of

and

the

Dalai

collection

Kanjur

Hodgson

and

the

presented

to

Collection

early

to

the

Tibetan

the

Bengal

of

sent

1835,

1 731.

Hodgson

part

In

as

in

and

the

East

formed

northern

the

Buddhist

scholarship. A

contemporary

Alexander of

Csoma

Tibetan

out

to

and

de

India

servants.

He

in

and

then

with

a

monastery He

arri ved

1 824 the

learned

20 to

manuscripts,

with

l etter

of

1823,

have

the

Tibetan

Tibetan

the

Hungarian

( 1784-1842),

from

remained

grammar.

Körös

Tanjur

of

the

and

a

worked

a native

at

to

Leh,

the

there made

number his

British

Yanglaia

introduction

and

the

having

to

l inguist,

translated

assistance

journeyed

June

learning t i me

Hodgson' s ,

Sanskrit

Northern

1 822

of

Körös

way

civil

Ladakh, Zanshar

head

until

l ama.

22

Oct.

arrangements

the

Kanjur

at

copied.

Thereafter he went to Calcutta to pursue his s tudies with support from H . H. Wilson and James Prinsep, secretary and editor Körös

respecti vely died

on

of

the

way

the

Royal

to

Lhasa

Asiatic 1 1

Society

April

of

1842.

Bengal.

(T.

Duka,

"Some Remarks on the Life and Labours of Alexander Csoma Körös", JRAS second series, I , XVI, 1 884, n . s., 486-94) Körös' i llustrates western

t ranslator

peculiar

57)

The

of

" a

source Padma

tantric India

certain is

system

Ädi-Buddha

Käla-Chakra

Central

encountered.

religious

associates the

treatment of the concept a characteristic interpretive

a

the

pandit

known

end

of

called

century

Tsilu

Nälandä.

Ädi-Buddha

system

at

1 6th

Karpo,

and

with

In

entitled

1 0th

Tsilu

or

at

guardians

he

world),

[ and]

- 27 -

the

JASB ,

Chilu".

on

" the

Origin II,

appeared with

( i dem.)

in

Körös'

( "or

Nalendra,

Central India") Bihar Evihärel the below

of

arrival

According

wrote

he

1 833,

Karpo.

Nälandä in the

the

on

century,

Padma

large religious establishment designed " . . . over the door of ( of

article

Käla-Chakra",

"Käla-Chakra"

the

Tibetan,

arrived

( " Note

Systems",

as

of Ädi-Buddha problem the

his the

de

them

to a and ten

thus:

"He,

that

does

not

know

the

chief

f irst

Buddha

Buddha), knows not the c ircl e of t i me". engendered a debate with Närotapa, and pandits" teach

of

the

Nälandä

Körös Buddha

which

"Kälachakra" creates

analogdus

at

Christian

original

source

which

authority.

Körös'

article

to

publish,

sketch

Buddhism".

of

According piece i st

to

than The

a

of

de

Ädi-Buddha

in

panegyric,

all

of

the and

the

Buddhas: are

translation

being

the

most

mystic

c ircle,

used.

Nor

Buddhist

as the

( the

on

noti on

( the

from

Burnouf, yf lkya quand les

scholars of

later

les

on

Buddhas

ne

part

demurs.

le

a

in

a

how

appendix or

and/or

images

customary

offer

these

mar ,K iala,

the

is

homage

w isdom)

d ' un ne

was

in

were

for

a

to

the

and

t he

"God",

creator

t urn

created

subsequentl y

either

Körös

and

or

picked

Hodgson.

Ädi-Dharma,

Ädi-Buddha,

le

He

states

Buddha,

encore, detruit

soit

ideales

ä

separate

who

represente

cakyamuni

1 844,

an

:

de

n ' est

t itre

qu'il

mal gre pas

creant

comme sa

et

son

Dieu;

d ' Adi buddha.

l 'histoire

1 1 9)

- 28 -

du

son

images

personne

nomme

sa

doit mort

eternite;

de

up But

whi ch

d isappears

un caractere mythologique, qu'il y a longtemps qu'il

que

recoit

Introduction Paris,

as

t o

longtemps

reproductions i i

However,

Ädi-Prajf iä

accounts.

l aquelle

quoiqu' enfin

null e

to

initiations

to

Ädi -Prajf iä

devoirs

remplir

des

Bodhisat was

Worshi p",

prajf iä means

from

context

however,

prochaine,

t he

the

creator

of monks).

revete déjà i l declare

remplit

subject a ll

the

provides

i t

(Buddhas),

proper

a ltogether

--

the

i s

hymns

say

worship

Ädi-Buddha

mention

t he

of

l aw

not

Buddhas-to-be,

Buddhist

Hodgson' s

of

of

that

better

Ädi-Buddha

of

or

does

act

"Gods"

Bodhi satt vas,

gi ves

f irst

community

other

by many

he

explain

his

far

i s

"He

Bauddha

variety

II,

that

. . . " ( 85)

also of

same

(JWAS ,

"hi mself"

dispositions

a

But he

Dharma

Comments The

of

( 94) his

Sangha

image

and

7 1-96) the

says

for

s i milar He

of

( 29)

hi m.

objects

Hodgson' s

28-38;

h igher

chi ef

88-91)

for

does

Buddha,

Later

( 85-8,

[sic. ]

Mr.

translation

by

some

Sanscrit

account

eternity.

contains

probably

meditations.

and t he

"principle

a

having

cherished

also

Ädi -Samgha.

l isting

Hodgson' s

a an

Hodgson

1 836,

. . . "

f igure

found

t ranslated

publication.

in

Körös.

this

to

prompted of

Hodgson

and

omnipotence

[ Bodhisattvas]

V ,

288-323.)

original

those

attributes of

"are

have

inaccurate another

has

had

Original

(JASB ,

1 835,

came

intepretation

to

i llustration

in

he

He

his

from

an

earlier

series,

sense

gave

and

Hodgson,

appeared

authorities

of

proof

Tsilu

that

God.

appears

"Quotations in

Thus

impression

the

Authorities

won.

-

Nälandä.

the

to

he

(Adi

( i dem.) Tsilu " fi ve hundred

et

corps l es

mortelle, nulle

part

( Burnouf,

bouddhisme

Indi en,

Ädi

-

But T . W. Rhys-Davids refers to Buddha' s appearance to the 1 0th He

is

f ive

held

t o

Dhyani

while

each

by out

material

H .

1894,

Kern

I t

i s

does

I

h i mself

the

but

that

Lotus,

identical

accommodation

very

that

being

respect

the but

t itl e

Ädi buddha inti mated

is

Ädibuddha

maturity,

fully

He sums up by course; what god The

no

Buddha; great

a

religious

that

is

First

1 884,

e ither

taken

Cause

to

of

all

he from

(H.

is

Kern,

anthropomorphic

directly

into

defines

dedicated

the

for by

xxv)

Cunningham

edifice

developed

Ädibuddha,

beginning.

was

the have

existing

saying, " the Buddha is not?" ( xxvi)2

vocabulary.

in

eva)

to be f it is only

called i . e.,

Oxford,

Ädi-Buddha

.

i s

who

Buc ldhi st

d ied

Just notion eyes

as

of

funeral

on

" as

Central and

Adi

or

one

general

the

as

any

a mound term."

stapes

Cunningham

equivalent monument

or

The

London,

of

( i dem.)

But

Topes;

related

the on

gives

the

all-seeing that

a

Ädi-Buddha

the

s ite

. . therefore, he

his

7-8)

suggests

raised

pillar.

Bhil sa

with

of

the

whom the i s Säkya

1 854,

further

Nepalese

s ides,

is

as

India,

as to

Buddha,

to

( Cunningham,

Burnouf

to

the

well

pile,

a

543".

of

Hodgson

( shrine)

edifice,

B . C.

Ädi-Buddha

painted

caitya

only

in

Monuments

the

stüpa

emphatically

celestial

things,

a

emanations, the Mänüshi or "Mortal" Buddhas, of most celebrated, and the only historical one, Muni,

the

i t

( ädita

he

to

adds:

with

anädi,

having

arch ological

them

kosmos,

Buddhi sm ,

beginning

to

(Suddhanapur Aarika,

of

of the

of

Davids,

with

Sutra),

the

brought

eternity,

f ive

out

a

the

the

the

each

essence

them ( the innumerable Bodhisattvas) their Bodhisattva position'. I t properly

of

evolved

and

Burnouf

in

i s

roused,

dates

contemplation

Rhys

undeniable

occur

' From

these

immaterial

( Lotus

Säkya

words:

of and

(T. W.

of

he

206.)

further not

that

his

quotes

Suddhanapur Aarika

out

exercise

Bodhisattvas,

of

world.

London,

the

wisdom

corresponding evol ved

evol ved by

meditations; hi mself

have

Buddhas

Körös when century:

no

of

a

perhaps,

reason

for

this. T.

W.

Rhys-Davids Thomas

Päli

Davids Civil

Service to but

t he

l ate

( 1843-1 922)

a t

in

and

1 866 in

practiced

of

professor

of

he

held

1 882

Päli to

1 877

law at

Buddhism

1 9th,

Sanskrit

England

f rom

Mahäyäna

Rhys-Davids

of

s tudied

return 1877,

W.

scholar

on

early

Breslau. began , he

only He

to

briefly.

University

1 912.

He

was

the

study called He the

foremost

century.

entered

the

Päli. to

Text

his

bar

the

London,

Pali

RhysCeylon On

the

assumed

College,

founded

- 29 -

was

20th

in

post

a post Society

2 . 2.

Nälandä

terracotta

Photographic

Al bum

p laque. 1 927-28,

Bihär Photo

and Ori ssa No.

496/85.

in

1 882

Pali

in

order

texts.

scholar

in

Professor

to

In her

of

begin

1 894

the

he

own

systematic

marri ed

r ight.

Comparative

t ranslation

Carolyn

In

1 904

Religions

Foley,

he

at

was

the

a

of

Pali

appointed

University

of

Manchester. Chal mers

wrote

What

he

such

hi m:

abhorred

as

what

of

what

he

was

had

too

sought

presentment sequence

in

i ts

JRAS , In

against

own.

1 923,

1 877,

Christian

relation

and

was

the

i ts

due

in

to

succeeded

what

i t

. .

on

V incent

the

to

Buddhism

be

of

a ll

i ts

is

to

appears

in

i ts

earliest

l ines

a long

and

provide

the

was

schools

the

in

of

with

in

edition standard

same

way

that

(Oxford, work

of

1 904)

on

s tates

Indian

that

Buddhism

a rapid

summary

after-ti mes

essential

Non -

Society

the

the

India

Rhys-Davids

record;

the by

second as

consideration

which

most

for

definitive

t i me. "a

A

accepted

Hi story

as

in

purpose

changes,

a sphere

published

Knowledge.

Earl y

regarded

history

princi pal

in

Rhys-Davids",

Buddhism

series,

Buddhi sm

Smith' s

political

"T. W.

wrote

Systems

Christian

1 894.

A .

supremacy

Chal mers,

Rhys-Davids

Reli gious in

Sanskrit

( R.

328)

Promoti ng

appeared

came

f act

ordered preceded

jumble

Buddhism.

achieve

h istorical

and

i nterests;

work

to

as

never shrank f rom combatting, in the interests what he deemed t ruth, established and powerful

not

for

unscientific passed

a l ways

of

s tratigraphically he of

an long

the

developments

as of

most

took

his i t the

vital

place".

( 8) Rhys-Davids opinion oldest,

that thus

Sanskritic

the

to

The

i s

one

the

earlier

worlds

of

Brahma

f i ve

or

bei ng

thi rd

in

g roups

Mahayana] Buddha; l ast

future i s,

are

of

these

who

on new

The

by

idea

mortal Buddha counterpart i n

to was

fourth

those

earth,

of

the

and

decline.

bet ween

Hinayana

the

Great

the

other

Dhyana

enter

remai ning to

will

each

these [ i. e.,

called

f i ve

Dhyani to

and

Buddhas,

Kalpa,

the

reach

of

Vehicle

Gautama,

present

l ast

seems

the

of

the

corresponding

including --

To

the

worlds

attain who

Buddha,

Buddhas

above

the

who

and

existence.

Maitreya

Kosmos

above

the

a special

f i ve

bel ong

t he

Mahayana

that

Brahma-lokas;

worlds

Buddhas,

Buddha

the

s ixteen

one

attain

e leventh

assi gns

four

s ince

the

this

is

decay

d ifferences

teaches

here

in

the

the the that age

destroyed.

to

be

has his the mystic

- 3 1 -

that

pure world,

of

texts

that:

occupied

path

Nirvana f ive

the

concensus

Pali

while

gods who

the

Buddhism

(Brahma-l okas),

tenth

of

Buddhism

the

. . Those the

of

f act

contemporary

Buddhism,

represents

h i m,

Mahayana

the

Buddhism

purest,

texts

According and

expresses Hinayana

every and f ree

earthly glorious f rom the

debasi ng rather is

conditions

that

only

an

emanation, the

type

material

a

the

those

Buddha

worlds

holl ow

fourth,

Gautama,

occupies,

important

rank".

Hodgson

Rhys-Davids

i s

t antras.

without

of

course, His

and

notions

of

" the

takes

the

were

same

respect

Rhys-Davids

Buddhism mixture

moral

died

away

magic

incorporated

to

to

whose

and

is

most

sources

are

the

teaching in

the

and

into

should

(Intro.,

558)

"debasing

of

As

4

Burnouf

doctrines are

belief

in

and

rites

enters

Gautama.

so

north,

t he

Tentre

and

corrupted

as

odious

incantations"

witchcraft

the

be.

they

and

towards

a colourful,

sexual language which with their Christian

as

meaning".

charms,

tone in

transcribe

form,

that

and

" the of

highest

written

language

of

says

ceremonies,

obscures

reality,

emanation

deprecatory

often

refused

respect

in

or

Light',

authoritati ve

texts

religious

pen

in

degrading

l ife

"Among s ickly

Burnouf.3

These

what

miserable

and

says: of a

whose

the

metaphorical and at t i mes frankly Europeans regarded as incompatable wrote,

i n

idea

Tantres

Rhys-Davids

and

of

' I mmeasurable

Avalokiteävara,

( i dem.)

and

on

abstractions

Amitabha,

[sic. ]

Körös,

or

l i ving

As for the "Dhyana Buddhas", Rhys-Davids hypothetical beings, -the creations

the

or

conditions

reflection,

Dhyana

of

l ife;

material

( 204)

Bodhsatwa

the

this under

of

mansi ons

t rance.

scholasticism, --

of

Buddha

appearance,

or

ethereal

mystic

these

the

as

and pure

system,

iva-worship,

Buddhism".

(op.

a was

c it.,

207-08) By

the

Buddhism doctrine: reconcile Saivite

same

with "He the

two

gods

inferior

token

equates

opposing

or

devils,

heavens

representing

he

the

supposed

decline

of

the Dharma master, Asanga, and the Yogäcära [Asaf iga] managed with great dexterity to

of

them

the

as

systems both

then

by

placing

male

and

prevalent

worshi ppers

and

a

number

female,

in

Buddhism;

and

supporters

of the

of

by the

Buddha, and Rhys Davids,

of Avalokiteävara". ( 208) Thus, according to Buddhists at the t i me were concerned "al most

wholly

obtaining

magic

with

phrases

( i dem.)

Rhys-Davids corrupt

had that

the

against provides uses

to

tantri c

powers

and

(Si ddhi),

magic

by

c ircles

means

of

(Mandala)".

5

Buddhism lost

magic

(Dharani),

in

i , t no

favour

the no

continues: the

eighth

longer

of

the

opposition proof

obscure teaching.

for

his

of

seems

ninth

attracted kings, the

these

l ack

"It and

of

i t

the had

[Hindu] and

many

also

certain

centuries people, no

and

power

comprehension

of

when

to

priests".(246) other

that

become

so i t

s tand But

s tatements Mahäyäna

he he and

Max

Müll er F .

at

taking

Müller he

h is

interests Oxford

f rom

a

attended

Wilson,

the

in

Sanskrit and

revoluti on

Boden

the

a

foreigner,

eyes

of

the

l arge numbers "Friedri ch Max Having attention a chair to

l ast

founding Sacred

of

30

years that

lectures Us?

for

many

( London,

1 883), in

invasions with

Oxoni ensia, Müller

However, Buddhism.

In

which

he

of

non-

( i dem.)

Müller

What

a

was

A . D.

It

of

Teach

theory

place

Sanskrit

the

series

Can

the

took

century a

important

gave

propounded

6th

the

pupils,

series,

series

contributed

India,

i n h is

on

devoted

character".

he

--

religions,

"a

he

in

then

"based

Press

of

in

his

and

and

of

be

1 882

as,

--

volumes.

l iterature

considered

placed wanted

5 1

Indian

Sanskrit

that

Buddhist to

his

in

that

following

( 370)

He

series,

with d id

one

point

relation

between

Buddhism

i s

to

the

me

also

Anecdota

what

he

felt

the

not

great

any were

his

the

and

the

puzzle

as

and

ethic.

Thus

he

terms

Brahmanic

equivalents.

understanding

confesses:

a

Vedic

Buddhist

Christian,

advance

he

in

rational

context.

comparing

Hinayäna

as

found

Brahmanic

by

occasionally,

method

At

had

a profoundly

the

texts

define

and,

he

l iterature

Buddhism

interpreted Sanskrit,

to

chair. of his

turned

1 875

s tudy

scholars,

of

compil ed

in

the

However,

more.

1 860,

1 881 -85.6

Brahmanic

he

three.

in

philology

method in

a religious

consisted

Cambridge

i nitiated,

of

death

MacDonell,

1 865

Uni versity

was

leading

works

renaissance

f oreign

He

I t

for

at

to

East.

series

introductions

l ife

t he

by

a

retired

Oxford

oriental

The

h is

in

in

the

Oxford

Müller

hi m

using

the

of

responsible

a

of

to

comparati ve

for

year

main

especially

up

(A. A.

Wilson, of

He

His

Williams for the well as the fact came

( 368)

1 841,

Sanskrit,

Müll er,

especially

t ranslations

Christian

of

Born

in

settled

After

who

mythol ogy,

in

He

Max

f ield

view.

1 843.

1 848.

Professor

succeed

equations".

Books

English

to

created

comparati ve

the

in

c lergy

untried

of

Leipzig

to record their votes" Müller", JRAS , 1 901, 366)

the

was

of

against

country

f ailed

to

l inguistic

t ol d

philologist,

poi nt

philosophy.

Müller v i ed with Monier Monier "His broad theological views, as being

German

Uni versity

philology the

a

rationali st

the

doctorate were

followi ng

H . H.

Buddhi sm

( 1 823-1 900),

Buddhism

Dessau,

of

Mahäyäna

Max

l ooked i n

on

"The

of

historical

Mahäyäna

schools

ever".

of

(Saddharma-

Pup(jarIka, SBE , XXI, 1 884, vii) Again, he questions the validity and the appeal of the repetiti ve styl e of another text,

the This

V ajrakkhedikäsütra: philosophy,

doctri ne, Western

is

not

philosophy.

the

reality

of

how

f irmly

a

established have

or,

seemed

eradicated

the

I t

the

t hat

except

least, to

is

us

in

such

the the

world.

phenomenal

ordinary

by

i ts

in

s i mply

phenomenal

beli ef

i n

at

unknown

a

mind, beli ef

determined

- 33 -

i t

underlying history

of

denial

of

Considering objects might

could

not

repetition.

is

well be

( xiv)

He by

then

what

he

renders

assumes

his

subsequent

of

this

Hei ndrik

on

publi shed the

at

Indian

Utrecht,

Sanskrit at

was

the

was

not

in

India

appoi nted

to

Ph.

"J. K. H.

Vogel, Kern

wrote

Buddhism.

Kern

. to not

In

usi ng

"whether

the

is

says,

.

capabl e

. " but "an

interpretati on", terms. of

he

( xxxii)

the

but

be

remarkabl e But

i t

remarkable quotes

works

useful

system". is

states

that

not

that the

that

latter

are

of

was

to

are

"wise

men

are

of

He

be

seems

to

and

he

"The

be by

asks with

Hinayäna] And

while

Lotus,

an

what

to

sütra

agree

(xxvii) the

.

does

He

[ i. e., of

the

he

the

sai d

about of

But

of

i t

is

esoterical

means

Lotus the

by

these

bei ng

study

appreciation

one

of

of

spiritual

dead

not

et

i t

that

for

the

bet ween

and

sai nts", .

saints",

Bodhisattvas the

( xxv-xxxvii)

- 34 -

Arhats

to

these

such

latter

.

He

"superhuman" for

Arhat

present.

acknowledged

acti vity,

Samgha;

opposed

from

"canonized

that

the

as

explanation

the

did.

disti nguishes

"human"

" that

al.

with

Bodhi satt vas,

as

effect

understands

Burnouf

preach;

any

of

Kern

Bodhisattva

disti ncti on

the

ideal

than

of

rol e

former

to

(J.

"Dhar mas

texts.

answer.

that

better

qualification

sancti moni ous,

can

states:

c l ear

equating

Rhys-Davids

( i x)

Päli

ri ght

without the

post

luci dl y ni ne

age

the

Bodhisatt vas

is

the

for

preachi ng

assumes

of

Mahäyäna,

any

the

or

one

the

monks"

distincti on

a

1903.

translation

of

"mendicant

Bodhisattvas,

is

explain

he

in he

( xxxiii)

system"

Hodgson' s

not

was 1865

Leiden,

a l ways

arrangement

on

he In

1 73-83)

exoterical does

He

manusri pt

until

' genui ne' no

his t i me

disci pline.

statement.

Lotus

the

Further

standard

cannot

to

at

the

that

1863

held

to

be

provides

regard

of

this

the

to

In

in

took

at

(Varanasi).

offered".

comparisons of

then

as

of was

Uni versity

a a Sanskrit

his

establishi ng

system

with

is

of

and

1855,

not

text

Kern

the

191 8,

to

Lotus

officer

he

but

this

meani ng

supposed

Buddhism.

JRA S ,

the

1 884)

an

Sanskrit

which

worshi p

with

l i nguistic

what he

the

onl y

of

at

London.

introduction

di vi ne

explain

concerned

in

Netherlands,

was

Leiden

of

hi m

that

is

gist

Buddhist

f irst

Benares

extensi vely

states

Nor

the

( 1 833-1 91 7),

a fully-fledged

at

chair

for

Sutra

researchi ng

Kern",

his

which

at

as

Kern

father

Li brary,

the

created

be

contradicti on.

(Oxford,

studi ed

Studi es

Sanskrit

especiall y

(The

His

He

regarded

Office

to

Uni versity,

seri es.

Java.

while

foll owed

word.

appropriate

and

Hei ndri k

Sanskrit

1862

"form"

Greek

Buddhism

SBE

Iranian

teachi ng

Lotus,

the

Leiden

army.

read in

Müll er

India,

in

at

the

Poer woredjo,

doctorate met

for

as

considers

paradox

Mahäyäna

Sanskrit

La w)

Netherlands of

of

he

Sa ddharma-pup darrka

True

born

what

coll eague,

of

dharma,

equi val ent

explai ned

Müll er' s professor

the

of

framework

Kern

term,

be

recital

sütra

metaphysical

the

to

Bodhisattva whereas

who, and

the

however quotes

"represent

of

a

category;

the

inacti vity".

- 35 -

2 . 4. 3 ,

A .

Stupa

stucco

No.

bust

in

caitya window. B .

Stone

image

of

Avalokiteävara, f rom

small

shrine

north

of

Chaitya No. 1 2, ASIAR , 1 930-34, Plate

- 36 -

LXVIII,

a .

In

short,

Kern

i nterpretations. There art

are

of

He in

the

and

to

supplant

snows

of

be

acti vity

much

of

supposed has

r ival,

spiritual

S i beria

to

Archipelago".

Kern' s

widely-used

Tibetan

Buddhism departs

as

a

that

enabled

the

f rom

a greater

the

with

Mahäyäna

HInayäna,

and

once

luxuriant

Canon.

( 123)

appear

to

h istorian,

of

Kern' s

extend

Mahayanism great many in

others

India

the

of

Buddhi sm

( Strassburg,

sympathy

numerous

that old As

i t

for

rejects

i s

barring he

Täranätha' s

Aryadeva Nälandä

was

h ien' s

visit,

Nab .

Kern

Täranätha' s

of

gives

more

to

but

no

the that

the in

in

in

one

spirit

Kern

Samuel

acaryas

century, 5th

the

( 124)

in

of

f avor

Fa-hien, after

a Mahävihära

as

to

why

instance

and

not

He

Nägärjuna

century

mention

does

Beal.

A . D.

t ranslation

the

not

much

a ll

Nälandä,

Rev. the

2nd

his

does

absorb

about

explanati on

version

to

the has

[Hinayäna]

Buddhists.

say

founded

enlisted

progressive

to

in

Fa-hien

active

mankind

forth

Nab ,

as

of

of

f inally

of

fervent

and

i ts

there

put

of

orthodox

in

feeling

people

history

not

lays

importance

preaching

Päli

does

as

of

statement

taught

theory,

current

feeling

than

has

respect

growing

which

clai ms:

mc .nuscript]

this

S [ outhern]

Täranätha

he

millions

the

by

experience

the

the

Mahäyäna

Hinayäna

has

succeeded

what

to

Beal' s

that

I t has

the

creed

importance

sects,

turn

the that

the in

one in

regard to the 1 6th

"canon",

although

with

with

that

a f actor

the

treats a

from

textual

this

to

by

combined

Buddhism.

and

led

i s

of

is,

devotion,

compassion become

of

than

He

having

Lotus,

harmonising

I t

greater

not

the

on

which

devotion,

that

personal

[ rather

stress

bhakti.

--

beyond

to

f rom

i slands

Täranätha.

"school",

orthodoxy

the

( xxxvii) Manual

uniform

his

highly

1 896) was written a long the same l ines. With Mahäyäna teachings, Kern' s pri mary source is century

for

that

and

combined

conquests

the

Indian

context

indications

made

hermeneutics

i ts

i ts

Buddhist Lotus:

many

may

i n

mental

extend

the

was

i t

proficiency superior

no

of

book

preaching

developed,

has

says

he

Faat

accepts

in

another.

( i dem.) Kern

on

the

Tantras

However, t antras:

Kern' s

Buddhist

Tantras

supernatural e ither

source

of

longevity,

a

way

is

purpose to

material

Täranätha

to

teach

acquire nature,

invulnerability,

when

adepts

how

desired as

the

he

discusses

by

a

objects, e lixir

i nvisibility,

of

alchymy

[sic.]: or of a more spiritual character, as the power of evoking a Buddha or Bodhisattva to solve a

doubt,

the

union

or

the

w ith

power

some

of

achieving

d i vinity.

- 37 -

in

this

. . . Tantrism

l ife i s,

so

to

say,

a

of

Yoga,

commonly

of

a

coarser

partly

revolting".

Such

were

various

the

forms

I f

interpret

questioned judgment

one

century,

so

the

offered

by

ability

When

only

write a

of

the

communicate e ither

( Sri

Lanka),

Tibet,

China

Buddhist

of

a

Canon

in

was

organisations interpret

archeological converts

India.8

Burma.

Japan.

had

to

were

By

the

west.

l iterature any

text,

But

the

he

i t

monk, the

by to

did of

the

if

able

to

Buddhism with

where

the

such

as

Ceylon

go

to

Nepal,

Europe. is

and

intent

contact

westerners

on

Germans

countries

there

as

critic' s

of

turn

influence

was

were

some

But

method seems

they

But

that

a

the

nature

countries

in

make of

with

the to

be

have

remarks.

personal to

must

to

Asian

his

of

1 9th

to

turn

especially

of

the

seem

the

countries

founded

Buddhism

of

western

ignored

mai nly

used,

end

not

7

at

Buddhist or

understandi ngs

By

the

Buddhist

went

Thailand,

Buddhists

of

understanding They

do

scholars.

and

publications

prominent western

t he more

qualifications

Europeans,

robe

to

the

of to

and

had

marvelled

go

attempted in

are

and

the

ancient

subject.

English

adirect

Päli

he a

an

at

peers

Buddhist

in

scholars.

Theravada

not

to

through

Buddhist

t i me,

partly

and

Buddhism

criticism

number

began

childish,

H i,

s i mply

English, taking

or

Japanese

to

same

objects

character,

t ranslate

i t.

foreign

Europeans

the the

attitudes

Indian

could

whether

on

more

western

of

century. to

at

because

( 1 33)

able

the

and,

form

practices

the

popularized

degraded

the

century,

They and no

in to

turn bring

indication

publications archeologists

of

the

working

Chapter

I I

Notes

1 .

Burnouf

Burnouf,

was

a

Chartres. writing

He

with

1 826).

Remusat

at

theücole

to

the

Müller

Normal, of

of

by

with

in ä

published

1 844.

Legion

hi m

was

B .

histoire

The

Indian

of

3 .

But

no

function Nor

have

the

two

the

nirväpa

--

supermundane

4 . S . B.

more

was

pour

of

the

he

les

was

Lettres.

manuscripts of

which de

Paris,

in

Burnouf

M .

Eugene

Introduction

carried

ä

1 844;

into

further

N . N.

20th

of

Buddhi st Art

( 1st

or

Iconography and

Seckel' s

The

century

explanations

Buddhist

( 1932);

Jain,

explained for

and

Brahmanic t he

Art

of

Architecture

edition,

sense

to

and vow

Bodhisattvas those

objective "The

the

culture

religious,

and

well From

1 953,

were

3rd

can

definition

the of

Tantra

was

denote

a body

of

of

a

certain

r itual,

epoch

domestic

- 39 -

no

sutra

has

a

the

mundane of

attain the

stri ve

f ires

term

no

--

( 2)

following

on

is

texts

point

of

idealised

are

there

or

distinction

the

schools the

who

as

essential

and

( 1)

sütra,

l aymen

HInayäna

extinguish

to

as

the

monks

for

--

Buddhism.

in

that

Mahäyäna

Bodhisattva

sense

as

Hindu

of

monks

Dasgupta: whole

year

traveaux

few

metaphysical

exclusive such

same

Etudes

Rowland,

explained

protectors A

in

Hinayäna

the

the

while

That

les

Museum

has

schools,

taking

was

1 967).

streams

Mahäyäna

and

and

one

they

the

he

translated

were

Iconography

Dacca

"system"

on

was

Bhattacharya' s

Buddhist

" canon". in

path,

t he

edition,

established

by

in

( 1964),

India:

revised

study,

awarded

Indi en,

with

Bhattasali' s

Buddhi sm

named

year

viii-xxviii.

Ädi-Buddha

history,

in

was

Bibliotheque

"Beginnings of Buddhist Research 1 826-1881", Varendra Research Museum , V , 1 976-77, 2 1 -29)

notion

Scul ptures

was

1 852.

Indi en

Asiatique

sur

and in

Buddhist

he

des

Societe

bouddhisme

e laborations,

of

the

( "Notice

du

art

( 1928);

Superieur

Päli

Remusat

bouddhi sme

1 852).

Saint-Hilaire,

Bhattacharyya, Journal of t he 2 .

( Paris,

translations

to

secretary.

Burnouf",

following

He

the

pioneer du

Societe of

France,

Levi.

ou

( Paris,

Foucaux,

at

Subsequently

Buddhist gift

His

The

Inspecteur

His

Sylvai n

L . at

päli

chair

de

scholar,

d id

l 'histoire

Saddharma-pup s7 Jarika

Hodgson' s

as

le

succeeded

College

-

scholar

the

the

he

J .

Gange

and

held

manuscripts

d ' Honneur.

appointed

the

Tibetan

1 838.

Introducti on in

at

the

sur

du

research 1 832

of

Sanskrit

oriental

delä

Burnouf In

son

Essai

au

his

Sanskrit

an

s tudy,

1 829-33.

Oriental

Nationale

Päli

only

studied

as

presqu'il e

sponsored

studied

Keeper

a

la

succeeded

the He

career

publication.

chair

hi mself

de

his

Paris,

his

Lassen

sacrg,e

in

grammarian.

began

langue

Asiatique

born

Greek

a

level. between

view

of

Buddhahood Bodhisattva

only

to

attain

desire.

spiritual

Thus guides

path. Tantra

is

generally writings in

in

by an

comprehending

di verse

r ites,

given used

law,

directions medicine,

magic

and

so

Philosophy", I II,

forth".

Sir

Orientalia,

"The

pri mary

establish

( " General

Asutosh Pt.

1 ,

concern

a definite

Calcutta,

of

the

system

1 922,

253)

Buddhist

of

He

says:

not

thought.

5 .

The

d ifficulty of

with

Buddhism

have

begun

i t

reference,

fourth

the

Rhys-Davids to

the

gives

commentaries and

sealed

mention

a

i s

found

( I i Mmoires,

in

after

would

that

he

(E . H .,

289,

308;

of

their

7 .

There

consulted

i s

no

of

order

correct of

"The

who and

Ki mura the

were

longer

of

than

practical

and

of

( London,

nature.

whom

get

books

1 2th

of

rests the

in

not --

in

in

explain s tates

meaning

appear

of

in

the

of

t he

According activity

places as that of

be

including

(Journal

taught

to

a Buddhist

Calcutta

1 920).

Most

were

to

articles,

fact

wrote

English

was

centres

others. systems

in

syntax.

Buddhist

the

capacity.

actually

of

century,

and

compatriots

the

India"

Calcutta,

Nanjio

terms,

and

beyond

and

to

Chinese;

( 1870-1966),

does

in

in

his

1 907)

University of

Oxford

account.

and

sources

political

theoretical

i t

contributions

Suzuki

there

centres

the

But

does

Vasubandhu.

to

understand

never

I ,

and

Nor

l inguistic

Suzuki

Buddhism

eight

Nälandä any

their

the

of

until

commerical

importance

at

Hwui

appear

subject.

technical

Nanjio

English

Letters,

parini rväpa

a l ways

for in

and

not

about

travel

that

not

number

Centre

of

there

a

the

no

account

scholarship:

than

real they

taught

did

misinterpretations

because --

Tsiang

on

make

only

manuscripts

Indian

D . T.

do

data

Körös

the

came

Buddhist

Buddhism

western

wrote

Shifting

Department

other

scholar,

Ki mura

who

Buddhist

of

scholars

terms

Ryukan

1 920' s

any

Mahäyäna' s

b iographical

scholar

l ist

and

outstanding

Buddhist

I-tsing' s

Mahäyäna

western

made

indication

in

Outlines

any

a

Japanese

Buddhist

of

plates

328-334)

scholars

western

t ranslated

were

N ,

three

copper

Julien.

remarks

According

on

which

to

1 0.

up

Hiuen

written

access

Smith' s

to

own

of

95-6)

had

had

read

catalogue

something

a l.

Müller

produced

that

et

with

Kasawara

to

Histoire

the

capital.

drew

because

t ranslations

Appendix

Takakasu

Another

Burnouf

possibly

Japanese

Sanskrit

compliled

Hodgson,

A . D.

convened

A . D.

engraved

the

Vasubandhu,

Kani ka' s

ca.

for

century

that

monks

2 )

Rhys-Davids'

Asahga,

as

the

to

third

says

had

have

has

Several

s tudy

date

ka

plates,

1 73-78;

appear

6 .

stüpa.

Hodgson

the

of

1 974,

responsi ble

Peshawar,

ka' s

Kani

Julien' s

Rhys-Davids

at

accounts,

these

Li

until

Kani

which

in

of

brother

Council

Chinese

in

principles,

London,

according

Rhys-Davids

younger

Buddhist

and

Asahga that,

In

reputedly

would

r ia

i s

chronology, another

Berkeley

Mahäyäna

to

.

Tantras,

debasement

the

i s

practical methods for the realisation of the goal". (An Introducti on to Tantric Buddhi sm , reprinted,

of

Tantra V ol ume,

a lso

Tantras

metaphysical

basis

to

Jubil ee

d ictate supreme

1 950;

the

Sil ver

Buddhist

Calcutta,

on

Introduction

Mookerjee

that

were

well.

The

i t

the at

to

f rom

endured Buddhist

Nälandä.

Theodor 5 ,

Stcherbatsky' s

1 930-32,

857-396)

"The

Doctrine

contains

an

of

Buddha",

install ment

(BSOS

of

the

ongoing d ispute between hi mself and A . Berriedale Keith, Regius Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Oxford. Keith

devoted

l iterature

in

A

only

1 928).

Stcherbatsky

Buddhism "Doctrine

in of

challenges of

hi m

early schools Buddha", BSOS ( London,

any

Buddhist

gets

a good

( 868) the

i t

He

gästra

not

sutra

is

two

--

--

Abhi dharma

of

has

the

precision educated

was

Buddhism

has

Stcherbatsky of

Keith' s

to

the

must,

i t

is

as

been

his

the

the word

two

and is

never

for

says

t i me is

that

that

i t

gästra).

categories: and

1 .

2 .

the

interpretive.

For

a

the

gästra

for

on

are

to

hi m,

followers.

refined,

idea

must

be

or

Europe

neglected

and

to

found.

the

be

opponent a

ägstres.

we

Buddhist in

been

his

view

of

progress

considered

s tudies

"The

has

according

Everything

f rom

He

knowledge

of opinion in the adherence

unattractive

i tself.

s low

accord with the t rend calculated to secure every

Buddhi st

argues that the the early form of

doctrinal,

precise

"The

well

always

methods:

Buddha

Concepti on

of

Canon.

where

as

Central

into

and/or

l iterature

sought

based

only

comparati vely

gästra

Buddhist

source

l iterature

s tates:

made

short-changing

Concept

Abhi dharmakoga

Päli

Stcherbatsky philosophy

The

The

Sanskrit,

scientific,

the

(Oxford,

for

Stcherbatsky establishing

popular,

Vasubandhu' s

Sanskrit

task

books,

early ( in

Buddhist

Literature

his (Keith' s) article, 1 930-32, 393-404) which

and

" reliable

Buddhist

c lass

c lass

because

an

to

in 6 ,

1 923)

commentary"

places

sütra

example,

i s

to

Sankrit

takes

Nirvana ( Leni ngrad, 1 927). Pali Canon i s a " source for Buddhism";

pages

of

Stcherbatsky' s

Buddhism

s ix

History

in

India,

gästra."

( 369)

He

justified be

( 1)

For

is in

critical ascribing

s i mple,

( 2)

in

his day, and ( 3) more of a l arge c ircle of

above

the

rejected".

pri mitive,

( 370)

and

.

Art

General

the

west,

a separate

the

20th

was

this

respect

accepted

esthetic the

of

in

in

centuries However,

the

of

the

a work

was

of

or

the

to

i ts

and The were

nature,

process

date

of

and

the

Ram

of

the

by

which

of

or

1 )

measure

(JRAS ,

they

in

manuscript,

not

and

and

values

a l ways

their

superficial

the

or

well

of

began

to in

could that

f ind the

for

gave nor

to

existed

judge

Indian

Buddhist

the

art

religious

Buddhist

l ate

1 9th

because

this

texts

century,

they

did

interpretation,

Buddhist

artistic

consistently

Indian

into

Apart

Architecture

criteria

with

translation,

c learly

esthetic

architectural

the

no

not

examined

art.

context

they

t reat ment level

familiar

image-making

edition

on

acknowledged

not

could

sought.

Indian

"Essay

counterpart.

Buddhist

1 45-6),

Indian Indian

was

even

archeologists

they

Buddhist

or

not

Buddhist

defined.

art

the terms As

remained

i mage,

- 43 -

at

a a

century.

Thirdly, as antiquarians and archeologists did understand the Indian system of visual representation s tone s hrine w ith Buddha

in

approach, of

art

i t

the

Art

that

European

south

the

and

view

Buddhist

Indian

1 834,

archeologist

architecture

meanings

in

were

i ts

were

late

interpreting

Secondly,

to

on

I ,

While

1

on

to

the

the

with

statement

western devotee

wrote: of

Buddhist

Initially,

These

research

in

Indian

not

summarised

a

up

differently. and

the

20th

context.

Grünwedel' s

with

and

early

connected

ed.,

enthusiastic

acquiesced

canons.

religious,

have

and

a western

s lightly

Although

most

antiquarians

for

1 9th

in

( Burgess,

Europeans,

Hindus"

context

only

d iscomfort

by

art.

art

ancient

art".

1 900,

Paz' s

of

Indian

the

are

any

manuscripts,

in

archeology,

period,

western,

standards,

India

from

no the

Antiquarians

specially

quite

according

evolved

standards.

India,

art

fared

in

or and

of

the

not

history

l ittle

efforts

some

Viewed

art

is

archeologist

Grünwedel,

tacitly

did

there

Albert

antiquities

< Small

of art

art

to

Indologist,

London,

result

history

s tatus part

scientist.

ideals

according

western

German

history

s ignalled

were

the

early

antiquarian,

a

judging

antiquarian/

treating

the

nevertheless,

not

and

and

century,

the

working

were as

general

was

for

the

centuries,

Gr eco-Roman art

1 9th

of

Buddhist

works

accorded

collector

d 'art

Ancient

artistic

from

a

esthetician

s tandards

between

archeologists

have

previous

c lassical

terms

India,

the

objet

historian.

early

not

until

manufacture.

Thus

"The

was

discipline

In an

to

an

distinction art

history

science

c lassifying

and

Context

pri marily

c loseness

whereas

art

century.

in

style

History

academic

historian

i ts

I II

Comments

In of

Chapter

AS7 A lbum ,

I II,

5 14/68.

not and

i ts

Buddhist

often

adaptations,

appear

were

awkward,

unable

to

produce

Unconsciously, creating

and

Buddhist one

art of

reasonable in

the

many for

of

antiquarians the

an

in

a lien

and

had

ever

employ

formation

Buddhist

an

the

and

s topped

architectural

to

and

about

terms

and

were

namely

of

why

i t

religious

art

In

of

terms

was

values

history.

t ranslation

i conographic

the

Indian

reference.

explain

Buddhist in

images Indians

archeologists wrote

esthetic

Indian

that

purpose,

They

substitution

Buddhist

art.

self-enclosed

western

of

instances,

of

impression

i rrational

culture.

them to

d rawings the

a sophisticated

sustaining

impoverishment Not

their

leaving

too

western

mystified

rather than c larified the subject. The reader i s expected to suspend critical judgment and unquestioningly accept the writers' i dea did

assumptions

that not

si mply

l anguage

f it

the

examples

history

familiar how

the

by

which

denial

of

in

a

the

because

writings

the

Chinese

the

t i me

accounts

Nälandä

l i mited

James

mould

to

and

in

of

immersed

entirely reality.

the What

terminology

so

in

was

to

as

to

i t

in

outside

reports.

suffered

But

from

by the

1 876,

returned

bringing

draw

History

work

in

Royal

he

Over

under

the

the

Asiatic

hi m

to

the

employment

various

of

the

Immediately

India

and/or

authorise] and

to

architecture.

commissioned

measure

to He

man

toured

[ and

European

architecture.

India.

Indian

Company

f irst

and

young in

History

the

art

of

( Fergusson,

London,

he

a

he

India

institutions

there".

Architecture,

was

i ts

s tudy

1 842

person

to

c learly

l argely

about

ASI

too,

were

context

a

f igure

known

Architectural

went

presidencies,

When

Indian

indicate

and

in

not

Cunningham' s i t,

will

l anguage than

was

plantation the

East

These

competent

l ittle

century

influenced

does

( 1808-1886)

and

the

Society.

remaining

Nälandä

document

1 835

of

"different

were

excavated,

indigo

hi mself

years

20th

archeologists

rather

Indian

to

Ayr,

an

auspices

hi mself

and

India

born

early

appropriate

and

was

Fergusson

in

office

a

abandon

process.

Fergusson

travel

and

confused

these

the

to

connected

Nälandä' s

they

purpose.

was

be

1 9th

which

differentiated

James

brief,

to

preconceived

of

with

and

resulted

same

in

suppressed.

Some art

into

--

ought

go

to

the of

antiquities

Indian

and Eastern

1848,

he

5 )

to

England

Indian

art

and

in

devoted

architecture

to

the

public' s attention. He was responsible for organising an exhibition of Indian art for the 1 867 Paris Exposition International e. of

t he

Picturesque Hindustan 1868)

and

Burgess

he

Fergusson books

His

published

Rock-cut

and

I ll ustrations

( London,

1 848),

Arch f lol ogy wrote

The

continued l ectures

works

Templ es

on

in Cave until

of of

Tree

his

Indian

of

death

and

With

i ts

in

(London,

(London,

prepare

architecture

- 44 -

Worshi p

1884).

India to

184 5),

Architecture

Serpent

(London,

Templ es

I ll ustrati ons

( London,

Anci ent and

India

include:

India

James 1 880).

articles, place

in

the

greater

"James

s cheme

Fergusson",

Fergusson in

h is

training Later

had

t i me,

he

making

wrote

workmanship "During

my

to

that years'

who

believed

to

[ in]

the

his

were mode

Think can

only

best

European that good

But

i t

In

c l ear

no

other

many

country

old

i ts

of

as

the

and

no

how

in

the

they

In

the

essential

i ts

to

details, else,

i ts

than

purpose;

( 5-6)

building

e lucidation

of

he

country

is

to

talking

the

important

intelligible.

without

study

recognising are.

art

what

can

.

seeing

the

No

i ts

as

the

the

and

There

is

outlines

of

be

so

application

various

there

retaining

feelings, art.

art

are

each

where

their

c lear

subject

extent

old

i ts

eminently and

same

i ts

on

applied in

easily

to

the

problems

so

pre-

In

[ art]

India

one

can

look

importance,

practiced

principles

and

there

of

is

at

the

no

one

without

science

really

( 6)

Fergusson

also

archeology long

acti vities

and

article

book

or

His Book

I :

was

revised

did

the

kept not

from

the and

for of

as

hi mself

i ts

All

hesitate to

the

as

And

write

on

history

of

Indian

Architecture

Countri es of

he

on

left

survey

archeological

a highly

I ll ustrated Handbook Jaina

authority

archeological

informed to

an

a lthough

critical

t i me.

publication

History

art.

Indian

hi mself

t i me

opus,

as

Buddhi st

Architecture

well

Cunningham' s

he

magnum

appeared

regarded

as

before

established,

of

in

result.

type

of

these

percei ved,

can

part

more

nationalities,

faith

ethnology

f irst

in

and

art"

romantic

craftsmen

something

appropriate

what

distinct

consequently

Indian

of

of

continues:

i ts

India

or

difference

impressing

was

copy

I

them

. . . . " (RIBA he decided to

desire.

considered

into

I saw

somewhat

doing,

India basis.

that

l iterature

they

especially

correct

i tself

not

He

so

a

the

is

about.

is

building, be

in

hence

i t

are

effect

in

brought

Ages.

" true"

to

buildings.

vital

I was

the

but

objected

buildings

" the are

White,

respectable

Greek

Middle

offers

they

the

a

d iscovered

India

the

H .

architect,

different,

i n

on

he

what

system

a

should

of

and

erecting

architects

produce

an not

as t rue architects 1 46) Therefore,

History

opinion that Indian sense that they:

be was

had

a

of

(W.

xxiv - xxxix)

strenuously

he

f rom

attentions

his

he

felt

working in t rue styles, Proceedings, 32, 1 871, In

to

I talian

residence

men

( i dem.)

of

he

with

concentrate

n . s.,

i t

that,

proceded

contact

be

3 ,

wanted

copies

which ten

architecture.

1 886,

d iscovered,

Further

by

world

a l ways

he

profession.

of J AS ,

in

- 45 -

and

(London,

the

(London,

Indian

architecture,

of Architecture

History

1 862), Eastern

and

1855).

It

of

the

then

as

Architecture

( London,

1 876).

edition.

( London,

In have to

the

apply

to

to

My

Fergusson

do

Indian the

( xii)

Of

and

actual

s tates

the

Culture .

revised

the

l ast

of

own

were

of

purpose: years

the

same

principles

the

based

on

I

been of

' Attempt

in

England,

says: the

examination

throughout and

has

Rickman' s]

Architecture

he

India

"What

forty

work

buildings

Presidencies

h is

last

. . [ following

style

his

conclusions

the

during

science

d iscri minate

( 1 817)'".

edited

1 91 0)

preface

attempted

archeological to

Burgess,

in

the

China

of

three

during

ten

years' residence in the East . . . . My endeavour f rom the f irst has been to present a d istinct view of the general principles which have governed

the

historical

architecture. The

development

" archeological

science"

application of art historical style. He insists that while in

the

course

of

c lassification pointed

out

outlines stand his of 535

been

A . D.,

and

and

Hiuen

s tyle

relevant

1 .

Stembhas Stapes

of

early

of

to

in

thesis,

their

system

ofthe

The

Nälandä and

trust,

dating

translated are:

"The

to f rom

accounts

and

dates

Gupta: Sixth

I

essential

I

of

dynasties

" the

sequences

continue,

his

was

date and appeared

he

320-ca.

Century

and

Indian

or

Läts, to

Rail s,

Chaityas

or

nature

a religious

V ihäras

railings,

or

as

With

about;

temples,

monastic

which

Assembl y

to

dwelling,

whether

the a

apartments

for

or monastery". Tsiang:

h igh

Buddhist

a community

as

last

h istory]

or

at

The

building

where

the

halls

became

of

monks came

the

the met

to

be

centres

of

c lassification, an

monks

( 1 70)

towers

vihäras.

a "Tope";

these

speaking

of

Tower

or

spot;

( 54-5)

monk

Sanghäräma that Hiuen

Great

hall

someti mes

properly

f t.

"a

establishments".

s i milar

surround and

vihära,

the

into

"relic-shrines"

a sacred

afterwards and

for

as

monument"

regard

descri bes

according

"pillars";

"any

"A

Calls

was,

architecture

Hall s,

Monasteri es,

walked

used

the

commemorate

3 .

and

as

defined

4 .

of

architecture

d i vides

defined

Topes,

built

or

He

groups":

or

edifices

says:

and

600-700,

Buddhist.

following

2 .

5 .

will

Tsiang.

his

historical

have

developed

Valabhi:

Fergusson,

"five

He

speaks

of

the

s ince,

inscriptions

are

he

( 24)

The to

of

which

and

confirmed,

and

Indian

c lassifications of new information has

development

years

(viii.)

reading Fa-hien

After".

the

adopted,

thirty

good".

gives

I

of

(vii)

i s

image; is,

The

a

' Mahäwansa'

also

- 46 -

and

a

s trictly

Nälanda applies

Fergusson

residence

appended

Bodh-Gaya at

a

speaking

note

vihära

200 [ a

group

and

a

states

and 300

Sinhalese the

or of

term

3 . 2.

B ronze I II,

image

of

crowned

526/68.

- 47 -

Tärä,

41 / 2" ,

ASI

Al bum ,

indiscri mi natel y and

to

to

residences.

monasteri es to

avoi d

in

thi s

templ es

.

ought

to

be

as

a

call ed

multi plication work

of

certai n

. Strictl y of

the

class,

speaking,

the

Sanghärämäs,

terms,

vihära

synonym

of

but,

is

used

monastery".

( i dem.) But

Fergusson

shoul d the

never

prevail

vari ous

Buddhist Buddhi st

Monte

explai ns

over

Hi uen

Buddhist

why

his

Tsi ang' s.

structures

context nor gi ve terms he uses.

defi niti on Neither

he

v i hära

he

place

i llustrates

in

the

As for Nälandä, Fergusson clai ms that i t "was Cassino of India for the f irst f i ve centuries of

the our

era

" He

combi nes

translati on,

Cunningham' s Nälandä

1861

Hiuen

and

interpretati ons

a

to

Beal' s

Buddhist

of

does

Tsiang' s

his

descri ption,

own

arch eological

usi ng

interpretation

report.

According

of

to

hi m

was:

[The]

seat

India

[ from

After

his

vi häras the

of t i me

on

400

and

he

a

when

hi gh

i st

vi häras. to

of

them

north

ei ght

encl osure

Central A . D.].

built

which

ft.

for

century,

ki ngs

one

wall,

1 600

this

appears

school

the

enclosi ng

to

tower-li ke

Here

spot,

with

f t.,

in

successi ve

measuri ng

Externall y or

Mahäyäna]

six

thi s

whol e

traced,

[ the

Nägärjuna

as

can and

still

be

south,

by

separate

were

many

surrounded

courts.

numerous

stOpas

. . . ( 1 71)

be

usi ng

vi hära

in

Hi uen

Tsiang' s

sense. Fergusson Indian the

destruction

Cunningham Al bert

Grünwedel

and

and

born

in was

Art,

1904

appointed

Bet ween

1 902

Lenggri es (Berli n, and

works 1893;

that

the

Nevertheless,

Indian

at

He

read

the he

of

the

and

named

Indian

he

accompanied

He

retired

were

revi sed des

in

Bavaria,

the and

to He

of

Buddhi smus

by

von 1 921

in

the

and

of in

Museums.

leCoq

on

and

two

di ed Among

Kunst

T i bet

In

Museum

of

1 935.

Burgess,

in

philology, Munich.

Professor,

Buddhi sti sche edited

of

Di visi on

1921

Töl z,

attenti on

classical

director

was

architecture,

ethnography.

Uni versity

assi stant 1891

his

in

Indi en

London, un d

in his

1 900)

Mongol ei

1 900).

GrUnwedel about

on

devoted

Turfan. Bad

Mythol ogi e

(London,

In

and to

and

masqueradi ng

classificati ons.

scul pture

1856.

Director

bei

published

in

Indol ogy

Berlin.

expediti ons

restoration.

concentrated

appointed

Fol k

as

for

Scul pture

Buddhist

Munich and

Cunni ngham

Mitra,

historical

( 1 856-1 935)

T i betan

archeol ogy he

art

Fergusson

Grünwedel

Indi an

criticised

Rajendralal

monuments

his

Whil e

1883,

of

used

Al bert was

often

archeol ogist,

summari ses

Buddhi st

art

Fergusson

"sci entificall y" approaches

in was

with

Indi an

art

the

prevailing

Buddhi st the Indian from

Art

f ir st art

and

a western

- 48 -

in

European India.

European architecture. perspecti ve.

thinki ng

He

clai ms

to He,

deal too,

First

of

a ll,

he

Greek, a rt of

sees and

was t he

in

earl y

Roman

essentially monuments

antiquarian religion and

(op. and

for

anci ent

go

1 )

on,

c lai ms so

that

" continuous

--

which

the

on

account of

critical

Fourthly,

Buddhist

the

works

Grünwedel

defines

forms

of

trying the

the

there must

from be

Lastly,

Bodhisattvas"; been

The

as

that

the

prescri be which,

for

the

accordi ng

northern

opini on The sects

the

task

history

hierarchy,

the

d ifferent

earliest

forms

extent

by

( i dem.)

is

essential

types

has

to and

ancient

certain

i t

as

the

of

"unfortunately not

.

yet,

texts of

not

deter

d id

to

outline

Buddhas

and

.

raw

to

.

the

any

extent,

s tatements

to

this

He

one

are

concerned

with

as

"manuals

inasmuch and of

their

led

to

a

characteristics

philosophy

highly of

the

of

developed Buddha.

- 49 -

the

The

by

degenerate

abound.

( 4) He

Buddhist

detail

on

they

attributes the

r ites]".

effect

as

that:

hair-splitting

was

dismisses

dress

[ conduct

and

number

he

r itual

conceptions

school

Grünwedel.

important the

f lsthetics

sufficient

However,

and

exorci st

a

which

are

the

on

dearth

existed.

images

[Mahäyäna]

Grünwedel' s the

that

the

they to

art

the

the

the

a

Sgdhana-mäll gs of

so

into

of

and

Indian

as

;

as

( i dem.)

images

.

for

approach:

types,

with of

d ifferent this

texts

manufacture

sorcery

says

of

of

all,

to

again,

for

them

developments".

the

well

He

( 3)

with

Japan,

separation for

l ater

such

category, the

another,

absence

variety

aware

a

accessible".

i conography

to

( 2)

--

Indian

begin

artistic

above

be

but,

exist.

ancient

of

tradition

information

researches

one

requi red

made

and

and,

of

art.

represented

and

identify with

Grünwedel

history

material

to

looked

eli mi nati ng

" the

China

Combined must

[ i. e.,

lot

possible

methodological

different

sects,

phases

his

a

of the Buddhism

val uable

hardly

that [were]

however,

not

Indian

of

the

the modern pantheon, especially schools, i . e., of the religious

Ti bet,

[sic. ]

Indian. of

their

therefore

investigation of of the northern

was

really

of

source

thereon

must

recognise

not

subjects

arch ology

history]

i t

is

nowhere Thirdly,

there

is

i t

history of prominent".

insists

and

( i dem.)

Indian

examination

the most

Grünwedel

that

of

Persian,

that

therefore,

the development modern schools of

. . . a valuable

anal ysis

yet

critical

development"

As concerns further artistic canon of the afford

a

"never

purposes".

he

of

assumes

India,

c it.),

secular

to

present a conti nues:

influence he

" In

scul pture

Fergusson

evidence

the

reli gious:

of

( Grünwedel, employed

art

Secondly,

i nterest, connected with c ivilization, that is the

architecture unlike

Indian

s tyl es.

of

person

the of

is

of

— 50 —

Gautama

t akes

commented Buddha the

the

upon

i s

the

image

of

form

in

a ll

chief

of

belief,

d irections.

matter.

Buddha

makes

The

the

which

The

i s

i dea

of

introduction

of

ancient

philosophy

more of a religion. . . . I f we return to the sculptures, we see before us, among the Gändhära remains, under

the

attention

to

movement and

Acquiring Some

Grünwedel by

.

E .

with

coast.

photographed. found

in

type

of

to

the as

The

majority

the

Gandhära

He

shared

view

that

l ate,

or

( 3)

been

of

sent

by or

Cunningham' s 1 855

off

the

by

Sir

made

for i t

1 1

to the

Grünwedel,

exhibition could

be

are

be

l ithos

classification of

them

period." his

to

to

the

i llustrations had

"most

(Mahäyäna) in

of

India,

"Apollo-

Buddhas

images.

important .

Müller

Buddhism

category.

up

of

superstition.

Rhys-Davids,

"degenerate",

images

Greek

Gandhäran

the

by

of

northeast

( 164).

century

images

crop

had

Palace

f inest

"Sanskritic"

. . . "

before and

way

Museum,

Jamälgarhi

Gandhära,

Burnouf,

degeneracies"

i t

proper

acquired

their

November,

1866

easy

606-621.)

established

with

in

in

i st

their

fate.

shipment

from

an

museums,

been

found

found

of

are

of

t i me

which

Crystal

s tylistic

Alexandrine

characteristics

a

in

1 852,

the

to

sad

Indus to

al ways Indian

Uni versity.

a

regarding

were

relates

the

Bodhisattvas that

note

XXI,

such

Grünwedel

sent f ire

(A

JASB ,

As Buddha,

and

not

Ethnographical

that

steamer

changed

( 163)

in

have

gi ve

retrograde

detri ment

A collection

by

was

artefacts

reports

the

Bayley

of

a

may

become

l ands.

some

produced

we

of

has

t i me

Berlin

suffered

( 83)

destroyed

the f rom

Edinburgh

collections

Burgess,

Clive

was

t he

type

study

and

the

and

here

deposited

to

have

Europe

down

Ceylon

for

were

"much

Vienna,

perhaps, went

material

Museum,

to

the

d ifferent

individuals,

Other ship

in

artefacts

British

Louvre,

how

. Numbers

Buddha,

and

introduction

see

says,

.

pri vate

the

the

and

ideal

i nfluence,

deteriorated

matter. s tudy.

complete

Hellenic

And

Gandhära,

and

. "

( 163)

Kern into

while i ts

says

physical

.

fell

and

He

the the

" Indian

art

being

prototypical: In

the

main

northern idealistic were,

[ later

forms,

effeminate He

Java,

Nälandä i s Grünwedel, " a informati on

that

and

h is

are are

in

with

a

t han

with

an

a

old as

of

i t all

picture

which

has

of an

Buddha

image

Indian

Buddha

f rom image.

en passant. According to gives us the important

image

- 5 1 -

the

( 167)

point

Buddha

so-called

deprived

i tself,

effect.

mentioned only Chinese source t he

the

preserved,

independence:

unmanly

rather

of

preserves

they

absorbed

and

i llustrates

Borobudur,

but

and

beauty

art

school]

artificially,

indi viduality still

Indian

Mahäyäna

depicted

at

Nälandä

was

represented is

F .

with

Hirth,

Kunst

(Munich,

Grünwedel

bared

Ueber

is

1 896).

shape from the

that of

the

which

have

a l so

there

in

in

school".

school" ( 199)

( 201) the

He

refers

--

this

s tatement

the

Ädi-Buddha,

monotheism

the

pri meval

dates

explains

of

pose

the

"he

this

the

the

is at

is

the

as

the

notion i t

to

might

Bodhisattva

mystification

have

the

be

personification states

terminology,

that

of

the

Bodhisattva

he

is

1 3th

on

to to

a

meditation".

known

as

jhanas

assumes

jhane.

Padmapäni,

a

goes

of

does

Mahäyänya

regarded,

and

fourth

conclusion

the

MaMjuärI may

doctrine. "northern

representative

of

Grünwedel

seen,

meditati ve

this

the

a im

for

However,

we

as

the

i llustration

to

i n

Buddha,

role

various

relect

appears

which

school"

arrives

Of

to

of

He

never

image. as

"southern he

kind

pantheon

where

His

extent,

MaMju ri' s how

reference

Chinesischen

sculpture.

wisdom

"MaMjuäri,

certain

of

reference

. a

descriptions

Javanese

explain:

a

emanated".

Buddhist

transcendental

century

His

di e

from his unfamiliarity with Buddhist places the Bodhisattva MaMju ri, in the

[Mahäyäna] of

( 175)

auf

relevance

Adibuddha

but

Buddhist

the

resulting Grünwedel

the

.

of

others

Grünwedel' s images

" .

centuries,

played

to

makes

is

doctrine

all

1 2-13th

As

shoulder". Einfl Usse

s ilent.

Grünwedel saying

r ight

fremde

( 200-01)

not

in

that But

explain.

(Avalokiteävara),

he

says: The

f igures

dwelt

Buddhist purely that

the

art

the the

f igure

is

Finally,

Grünwedel

Mahäyäna to

of

much

no

sets

out

art.

of

the

a

I t

i s

i t

arms,

is

texts

to

he

as

in

for

judging

contends

to

the with

great

are

i tself

[ as,

Avalokiteävara]. end: the f i gure decking

i t

the given

the

out

with

of

some

name

( 204)

with

mystic i ts

the

gives

all

heads in

of

forms:

the

l ike

magical

repetitions

importance

in

phenomenon

power --

- 52 -

in

--

in

the

al ways

India

d isintegration

of

the

ritual

regarded led

later

that

degeneration.

bear

several

hieroglyph,

repetition

parallel

general

criteria

reduplicated

attributes

idea.

the

texts; of

mere

many

religious for

kind

knowledge style,

leads

suffice

several

f igure:

becomes

As

form

this

( 204)

his

for example, in the 1 1-headed Therewith real art comes to an or

mere

of

Pri marily,

forms

longer

attributes;

few

a

in

account.

The

predominates

hi m:

Li mbs to

become

transcendental

Buddhist

multiplication

According

has

which,

worship,

been

northern

personification. entirely

personification

of

have

nearly

so

Päramitä not

Padmapäni

how

mere

element

oldest

goddess

and

showing

approached

human

. The

PrajMä

l ater

MaMjuärr .

as

spiritual

. is

of

upon

to

as the

Buddhist

l iterature. about

the

The

repetitions

d i ssolution

secondl y,

he

a lso

maintains

of of

the

motifs

Buddhist

that

there

brought

art. i s

( 209)

no

relation

between the l ater images and the "philosphical doctrine of the Ratnatraya. . . . " ( i dem.) he suggests, however, that they the

" are ' past,

akyamuni Maitreya.

c losely connected with the popular worship present and f uture Buddhas' represented

with . . . "

Lastly, f rom the

real

he

Bodhisattva]

s tates

l ife

Buddha

[ the ( i dem.)

--

the

reaches

that

the

Gandhäran

i ts

Avalokite§vara

extreme

representations

motif.

The

i n

"gi gantic"

the

idealisation

China and Japan. This Grünwedel monotonous. Hardly a s ingle f igure

real

l ife".

In

( 205)

their in

portraits

an

of

otherwise

"application caricatures". He

lamas

to

be

Buddhism

that

i f

the

doctrine

Korea

called

he

and

That Indian, which

Indian

aspect

form

of

order

the A . K.

critique

not

Buddha the

of

to

f igure

had

Buddhist

arche eological

have

been

occured

of

doctrinal art

totally in

doctrinal

or

Grünwedel.

the

Indians

and

be

systems to

created

which

as

such

contortion

important

have

artists

could that

practical

an

--

Tibet,

standards.

might

had

appear

foreign

classical

sacrificed

symbols,

historical

in

stayed mind

far

century.

Coomaraswamy of

Hindustan the

in

20th

art

variety

forms

incorporate

stubbornly into

does

that the

to

of

a

the

period

reached

f lourish a

to

of

and

awareness

western

of

types

degenerate

conclusions

Buddhist of

to

an

element

scul pture as

to for

avoidance

category

Buddhism

continued

his

the

that

without

Ti betans

sacred

same

f inds shows

adherence

the

c ivilised

old

which

idealised

multiplicity

notion

and

--

his

the and

characterised

render

f it

---

of

the

through

expressive

ritual The

has

Japan

inconsistencies to

culture

to

admires

praises

suggesting

"degenerate"

Buddhism

he

He

(masters)

belongs

of

China,

vein

( 206)

barbaric

pantheon" very

same

and conversion ( 207)

seems

"modern

the

e lement".

of

pantheon

in Ti bet, . infinitely

" individual

and

depart

found

the

of by

the

commented

English

Revi ew ,

1 91 0.

to

edition His

this

of

effect

Buddhist

biographer,

Art

Lipsey,

in

his

for

The

provides

essence: In

Grünwedel ' s

book,

a corresponding too

much

un-Indian

attention art

more

interest

of

decadent

Coomaraswamy

every

fact

misconception,' of

for

gi ven

an

the

than

artist

L i fe

that

any

by far and

has

other

(Roger

Work,

was

insincere

art

art'. and

' balanced there

' the

Gandhära,

c lassic His

to

was and

no

phase

Lipsey,

Princeton,

1 977,

371) Ai rred

Foucher:

Alfred the

Greek

supremacy.

Iconography

Foucher

( 1 865-1952)

infl uence He

began

and

Architecture was

the

pri mary

in

Buddhist

art

his

academic

career

- 53 -

and

the

advocate

of

Gandhäran

teaching

French

l iterature. In 1 891, f ields occupied hi m

entered for the

Indian and Sanskrit s tudies, next 60 years. According to

Filliozat: C ' est

a lors

que

aujourd' hui Pythagore

etait

des

les

langues

From India

1 907

studies.

as

d'apr s

E tude les

at

director 1914.

f irst

inscribed copies

part

of

1 1th

of

the

The

2

of

appearance

Nepalese

of

copies

l ' etude en

qui

and

are

the

I ,

to

was

joint

director until

in his

stone

verisi militude Grünwedel.

such

establish

that

are

their

de

de

found

on

the

images.

doubte

faire

des

pouvons

examen de

nous

critique

leur

valuer

of

the

study --

is

to

de

f idelite

documentaire.

found

in

identity

by

the

Foucher

more

do/do

not

in

to

and

known

( 40)

description

of

the

various

Avalokiteävaras,

manuscri pts.

translating

do

share,

appearance

manuscripts

f igure.

Täräs,

to

has

c loseness

the

same a

important here

f igures

the

in

Buddhas,

as

style

certain

refers

images

f igures as

he

material

hors

nous

are

But

i llustrations

Foucher' s of

which

and

century

33)

attributes the

mise

un

leur

1 2th

ritualistic

venons ä

containing

Cambridge of

of

Sanskrit

us:

etä

nous

de

at

a set

certain

artistique, et

examination

Indian

contains

assures

sürete

an

found

renferment,

toute

verisi militude

bet ween

of

ayant

que

merite

Style they

groups

He

work

Sädhana-mAle 5 ,

which

he

authenticite

Indian

From

l iterature

PrejAewäri mitä

he

the

is of

concerns

application

par

(Etude,

--

part

Paris,

traditionelle

and

These

Leur

leur

.. ' tude

copies

A . 54as i Nhagrikä

and

and

l i vrer

with

two

l ' Inde

1905).

i ts

to and

in

de

and

Lettres.

becoming

Foucher' s

second

manuscrits

as

1 900,

l anguage

des

des

trip

thesis

bouddhique

archmological

century

manuscripts

Cambridge the

his

Pratique f irst

archmological

(Paris,

Faculte

389)

his

on

et

"Alfred

tcole

doctoral

Indian

pratique,

miniatures.

Calcutta.

Of

tcole

continued

Nepalese

manuscripts

in

the made

his

nouveaux

Sorbonne,

the

at

l 'iconogrephi e the

attention

sanskrit

1 952,

He

nom

( 389-92)

The two

the

of

CCXL,

report

published

sur

directed

Foucher

death.

He

a

le

oü

le

Filliozat,

Levi.

prepare

documents

Foucher

courses

to

son

entre

s tudied

Sylvain

l ivre et

dont

attire

(J.

d ' un

oubli,

Indien

Asiati que,

Foucher

under

1895-97

religious parts

sage

c lassiques.

1 891-94

in

un

juste

possibles

Journal

Etudes

fortuite

un

reconstitue,

relations

Foucher",

Hautes

lecture dans

devenait

sanskrit sur

i s

tombe

the

He

is

etc.

able

inscribed

to

names

given beneath the i llustrations in the manuscript rather than by analysis of the i conography based on a Buddhist text:

3 .5

Stone image of Al bum , I I,

Buddha with 1 961-66 - 68,

l ife scenes, 451/68.

1 8".

ASI

Gräce

a

difficult nous

nous

par

seri ons

que et

que

nomm e.

Be

that

he

se

75)

i t

may,

as

va

they

prenne

he

do.

is

or

Buddhist

d ' un

environn4s trois

N . 7

de

none

the

they

comme

les

l ire son

localis e

wiser

as

represent system,

corpulents

t us

et

coiff s

aussitöt

ritualistic

terri bl e

d ' une

f la mmes,

yeux

parfois

de

to in

why

terms

especially

as:

caract re

ordinairement

aplanies

imm diatement

what

personnages

ambigu,

les

auxquell es

suffire

trouvera

descri bes

Quelque

sont

nous

idol e

( I,

particular images

ä

heurt4 .s,

d ' une

as

appear

any

those

pl us

inscri pti ons],

insur montables,

I i

chaque

nom

images

[ the

autr ement

enchantement.

pour

of

elles s,

une

peau

souvent enor me

d ' une

t te

et et

de

sexe

di r ioniaque,

de

t i gre

ayant

trois

et

faces

chevel ure

hennissante

de

cheval.

( 74) However,

Foucher

Dans

does

cette

say

pei ne

de

la

commenc e

de

classification

des

indi ennes,

pourra

notre

fournir

pr ci euse:

d ' applicati on

"Concl usions":

a

et

bouddhiques

mi niatures indicati on

his

oeuvre

l ' identificati on images

in

c ' est

pratique

que

recueil

ai nsi avant

nous

plus tout

le

r vons

de

d ' une genre

pour

lui.

( 1 74-75) Foucher . as

. un

in

further

tabl eau

other

diff rentes". "mythologie",

texts

" l es But

" le

suggests

functi on

of

the

la

he

he

use

such

etc.,

et

the

as

Dhyäni-

throughout

understand

vocabulary

toute

words

"Dhyäni-Buddhas

not

provided

Bouddhi sme",

seraient

of

bouddhique", His

not

du

i ll ustrations the

does

images.

has

mythol ogi e

" akti",

culte

that

that

de

( 1 75) " c l esse",

Bodhisattvas", s tudy

admits

compl et

the

Buddhist

militates

against

comprehension. The of

second

sädhanas

formul es r di g es

.

of

the

. au

dans

le

had

Mythol ogi e

du

m me

faire

l ' op rateur, ou

soit

2 ) by

un

d ' obtenir me,

p ril, un

bien

en

l ' or. secti on

(si ddhi),

de

t i b tai ne, consiste,

la

jusqu' aux pratique,

l itt4rature

connue comme

sous

on

le

sait,

a

- 56 -

se

de

de un

projette

la

sci ence facult s

femmes de

bouddhique nom

magique

conjurer

les

.

(Paris

voeux

qu' il

depuis

par

et

taute sanskrite

tantra

rendre

in

as:

res

plutöt

that

Mongoli e

de

et

au

de

exactement

says

op ration

quelconque

Essenti ell ement

coll ection

rites

Grünwedel

en

souhaite

soit

He

sädhana

une

passant

surnat ur ell es

et a

r ussir

qu' il

de

descri ptions

( II,

T i bet

the

fatras

laid

entendez a

de

defi nes

Foucher,

destin e

supr

au

Bouddhi sme

Une

mal

style". been

concerns

d ' un

quantite

already

1900).

É tude

milieu

conjuratoires,

groundwork Lei pzi g,

part

" .

une et

rgyud ,

favorables,

the his and

dans

des

i ntentions

desinteressees, d mcniaques. ou,

s i

Les

l i on

r ien

quantite

de

sädhana

veut,

de

mom s

d ivinites

sont

autant

I charmes'

de

pour

i ci

l ' expose,

suffit-il

de

chapitre

de

documente

que

La

for

encore

his

renvoyer Burnouf l ui

Paris,

definitions.

Mais de

nous cc

s ' assurer

typique point

va

et

speci men

au

le

soit

call

( 8)

The

i s

up

d ' une avec

e".

pour

sont

meme

moule

t rouver ." .

He example

the

the

Une

But

he

cc

i t:

the

avoir

b izarre

genre

the de

est

cadre

oblige

plus

encore

un

d ' une

to

l ' evocateur

le

magie,

ability

l ' evocation

comment,

l a

.ri -

t rouve

"C' est

"Tel

lecture

images cette

and

speaking

archeologue

collection

des

grave not

Continuing appertaining

to

the

an

French.

attached

f irst

second

texts

as

. 'tude

well

description

the that

Etude,

au

oü

culte plus

is

of

texts " le . "

to the

des

c hair

art

in

of:

faveur l a

des

veneration

Bodhisattvas dans

grossiäres

historique.

plus

Buddhist

l a de

says

gi ving

( 103)

construction

f inalement

les

Foucher

as

. .

history the

successivement

mäprise

with

each,

into

invocation

of

i conographique

patauger

for

missing.

their

äteint

pour

some

Bouddhisme

passerait

"divinites"

given

translated

this

of

superstitions

does

i s

suggests du

and

in

the

sädhanas

case

to

e tude

theorie

une

review

has

the

context

Bouddha

to]

l a

of

these in

Foucher

vivants des

cc un

[ i. e. se

lors

de

to

i llustrated

of de

r ideles du

dans

conclusion

However, general,

of

Buddhist

names

des

sädhana ä

l ' identification

Sanskrit

as

images

benefice

sources

decrire

developing

with

ou

number

in

each

However,

In

d ' un

qu' ä

de

comments:

r ituel

the

given

Obviously,

that

de

proceeds

to

specific

for

comprend

ä glaner

western

d ' ailleurs

on

schema

identify

vue

du

et

( i dem.)

then

reference

le

Foucher

on

etudiant

s charmes

i t.

en

de

l 'intelligence

develloppe,

provided

and

( 1 0)

sädhana:

qu' un peut

image

divinite eh

d ' un

formula an

on

l ' analyse

tous

peu

veritablement

l itteraire.

M . L.

Etudes

relies

Khasarpana-Lokegvara-sädhanal, t race

s i

consacre

7-8)

lecteur,

sui vre,

dans

tant

au

travail

adds:

complet:

coules

l a

b i en

question

au

[Bouddhisme,

Foucher

He

de

aussi

cette

( II,

l a plus ä faire

theorie

surtout

1 898].

devons

qui

sur

et

l a

t antrisme:

a specialement

contemporari es,

his

mom s

du

Vallee-Poussin

mat riaux , Like

e t

t haumaturgique

ou

recettes

leur concours et fonder meme avec c u es inti me des a lliances. Nous n ' avons pas methode

que

benigne

la

fange

[ amounts

( 1 04-05)

e laborate. i n

a

broader

persons,

vein,

places

- 57 -

and

he

says

events

that that

notions can

be

58 -

No.

Vajrapä t ; ii

Monastery

Trailokavijaya

described

as

Buddhistic

"supernatural"

t i mes.

Elle

pulse

de

cc

et

ainsi

cc

fond

est

et

par

C ' est

pourtant

nous

on

ouvrent

s inon

ä

d mons

et

nous

As

in

these ( East terms

the

In 1 905) v ihära

and

Foucher means Rhys l a

nous

int resser

le

nous

du

amorcer ä

a

plus

to

word

defines a monk,

work

do/do

more

fall he

Ainsi

fully

or

to

"une

on

in

cc

s tatues

Kern,

as

E tude .

Hiuen

be

vastly

( 96)

ou

( I,

But of

he

un

temple".

meaning

toujours

particulier

use

( l dem.)

someti mes

poursuivant

notre

Hiuen of

et

autant

v ihära, dent

en

f orm

de

n '

l a de

constituent dernier

que

c ' est

la

vivants.

ä l '

d ire

pas

( 100)

-

et

cellules

saAghäräma

ou

mains

tat

l ' unit

1 -4 )e %tition de

l a

Ctudier

possi ble a

cours

tait

de

a llons

au

l a de

monast re: peuplC

the

Foucher

a dwelling

analyse

nous

to

"Dans

that

"modern"

3

account

defers

c i signe

suggests the

terms,

45-63).

v ihjra:

l ' appartement

he

( Paris,

Tsiang' s

subject

represents

v ihära

l e

que

to

in

textual

a temple:

architecturale

car

images

Gandhära

. . . v ihära

pagode

particuli rement,

chapelles

a ll

architectural

the

in

the

bouddhique,

d isposition

du

the

"monast re".

l itt rature

donc,

i sol .

Vajrayäna

these

appears

to

Samatata

or

within

of

s ituation.

samghäräma

v ihära

fondation

only

and

categorising

mentioned

Oldenberg

term

Vahga

Mahäyäna

Gr co-Bouddhique

that

someti mes

of

contents

applied

Architecture

d iscusses

of

have

on not

complex

means

the

nos

pronouncements,

a ll

process,

reference

which

avons

de

the

of

the

anci enne

use

nous

take

may

k ingdoms

a very

and

to

which

the

they

" couvent"

With

de

avons

bout

Grünwedel' s easy

ou presque toujours l ' habitation, d ' un seul moine". ( i dem.)

Tsiang' s

tude,

jusqu' au

with very

samghäräma,

Davids

S i

i d i l '

a ller

indicative

L'art

says

pourquoi,

aussi

Buddhist

his

cette

de

in

In

Foucher

revenir, que

r I riter

manuals,

whether

on

l ' homme?

mythologie

seem

as

oversi mplifying Foucher

qu' elles

toujours

cette

i conography,

l i mitations.

e thnographiques

et

case

i t

systems

of

déjà

fantasmagorie.

( 107)

Bengal),

Buddhist

de

quoi

de

que,

l ' esprit

l ' Europ en,

e t

aper9us

ä

les sur

sorciers

ä en

particular

Buddhist

de

que eux

vergogne

aux

tenu

makes

de

d router

' anthropologiques'

c ' est

s

absence

entre

d it, car

sources

naturelle

de

pre -

f rom

l ' hindouisme;

gräce

de

documents.

Foucher

une

s cience

borner mom

fa9on

d 'i mpudeur

peuvent

p lus;

vieilles

fraternisent

ach ve

--

l a

l itt rature

plus

rationaliste

t ant

comme

du

avec

come

s tates:

d ' appeler

de

abard,

s i mpliste

aux

secte

commun

"magical" Faucher

convenu

toute

premier

ou,

or

mot,"

s ' explique

de

choqué

un

d irectement

qu' on

t antra au

"En

de

of

As

for

the

in

his

description

Ou

other

definition

tumulus,

monument

of

servant

part,

fonction

de

le

de

un

But

tombe,

pour

an

Foucher

takes

i t

up

de

de

such

an

reliquaire,

s i mple

ou

chambre,

s tatues, pour

de

de

ex-voto,

e t

faisant

cellules

provisions,

pour

etc.

Une

ces chambres, rassambl es selon un rest ä c i terminer, constitue ä son

saAghäräma

how

ou

celliers

collection de plan qui nous

v ihära,

v ihära

cella

moines,

tour

de

comm &noratif

d ' autre les

of

a stüpa:

ou

monast re.

archeologist

( 146)

might

be

helped

by

ambiguous definition he does not say. Nor does he consider the possi bility that samghäräma might have the general meaning

of

community of

a

Nälandä

the

point

functioned, main

(More

that be

on

Vincent was

the

f irst

all

i ts

(F. E.

Dr.

Aquilla

1 871,

retired

and two

been

and

had

ancient

India,

John' s

College,

Curator

of

• His t he

History the

doctorate Smith art

was

more

varying

position, they

not

in

1 904.

of

in

t i me. " 3 ,

392) his

archeology

and

c ivil

his

service

of

Indian and

His he

He

writing.

He

coins

prolific

Earl y

political 1 910

be

art

Commissioner.

on

JRAS .

History

history

retired

subsequently

to

of St.

appointed

In

and

Dublin.

Fergusson' s

notion

or

Hindu.

considered to

art,

regards art,

as the

a

to

their the

an

made

a

honorary

( 391 -95) that

s tyle he

and

age

in

" is

of

and

t i me

locality and

for

Indian

asserts,

architecture,

creed

in

Oxford

was

Smith

function

date

Coins

the

awarded

"Style,"

including to

and

1 91 8,

India

of

Catal ogue

( 1906),

College,

of

in

and

to

with

Indian

include:

of

designed".

i ts

1 920,

regular

In

f ine

shared

subject

was

India.

regard

he

JRAS ,

a

Calcutta

according

were

present

post

the

India

the

f irst

and

according

with

Buddhism "cheerful"

to

the

in

Buddhist

. . . Works

c lassified which

opposes

e ither

the

in

Institute.

of

Trinity

which

X .)4

to

the

was

and

Government

conveniently

place, work.

by

and

Arts

who

articles

publications

Student's

to

placed.

of

concentrate

He

be

Museum,

C . I. E.

IX

in

were

survey

interest to

to

Oxford

Indian

other

by

to

case

samghäräma

acknowledged

Smith",

an

to

JASB

a

s ite

Fine "was

Irishman

by

appeared

the

Indian

Arthur

1875.

of

beginning

scholarly

the

the

buildings) the

Chapters

I t

appointed

reputed

( or to

monastic

in

specifically

which

masterly

an

l ater

s ince to

India,

i ts

r isen

writing

history

1 911.

Smith,

was

years

contributor of

He

in

as

Sculpture

and

was

refer

sacred

Hi story

"Vincent

( 1 848-1 920),

numismatics.

had

from

to

the

t itle,

around

this

in

comprehensi ve

branches

father, in

about

where

a

building

Smith' s

Partiger,

Smith

the

images)

published

as

appears

Medi f lval

A .

buildings used

points)

is, ( or

said

Smith

Ceyl on,

( or

image

will

Vincent

of

V ihära

Mahävihära,

focal

the

complex

resides.

the

of

the

should

be

geographical service

of

( 9) as

which

a

departure is

- 60 -

"mainly

from

Hinduism,

concerned

with

( r )

the

expression

his

Law,

the

philosophy

f rom

the

those

as

devotion

to

Church

[ the

his --

a

religion

But

" cold

"For

works the

of

art

[ sacred]

Smith

the

.

person

. and

with

"personal

he

declines

to

full

are

authorities

d i vides

as

art

He

their l ine

t ribes

Harsha

and

320-650

5th

pieces

in

is

art,

as

India. "

6th

praise

and

to

as

one

i t

was

( 181) the

scorns

to

the

of

admire

of His the

in

not the

al most

which

"dividing reigns

he

dates

of as

at

at

Särnäth

monsteries

Hunas.

He

then

" [It

is]

the

that

quotes endowed

designs

execution

of

are

the

best

Gupta

things we

of

f ind

in

so

into

. may

medi eval

and

medi eval

orderly: few

spirit

and

d istinguished to

the

a world

daily

the

service

of

l ife

be

and

sculpture

human

devoted

the

ancient not

which

.

ancient

were

kindly,

pass

period

between

art

of

of

which

men

and

says, or

an

here, an

results other

"much

passion,

as

. . . "

( 182)

admiring

image

that

Hindu

Mahäyänist from

that

of

period.

.

.

of

technical

Buddhism legs

the

.

and

. the

of

the

l ittle

to

feeling

of

that

he

he

f rankly

complains

"Hindu"

narrative

.

a mixture

skill

Grünwedel,

and

with

by

a

I t

superhuman

had,

arouses

images,

(idem.)

displays

colleagues of

of

. "

. . violent

Smith

Like

arms

monotony

represented

"often

a form

c learly

" .

the

his

( i dem.)

proliferation A okan

in of

as

l ie

later

the

personages.

expression

representing

sympathies

the

of

indistinguishable

f inding,

understand.

of

that

( i dem.)

Märichi.

but

earlier

the

while

imaginings

demoniac

of

repulsion", d id

His

include

excavations

polities

including

Buddha

or

in

"The

represent

Smith

of

emotions

sculptor

8th

( 176)

century

we

Brahmans".

s tri vings

and

"hinduised",

castes.

technical

mainly

weird

results

emotion

7th

of and

concerning i tself al most exclusively with asceticism of the self-contained yogi type

Buddhists,

also

the

sculpture:

treatment

and

mythology,

This,

the

the

schools,

women, either

Gupta

that,

seventh

Buddhism;

whether

periods:

sculpture Gupta,

become

levels

the

transition

naturalistic

the

dynastic

Period",

from

of

bet ween

of

ancient

art

Smith:

of

After

traces

or

Gupta

to

vitality;

exquisite'".

From

fully,

Buddhism essential

by

had

as

century

of

and

refined

According regarded

the

vandalism

' freshness

s ingularly

that into

so

Gupta

and

the

Marshall

more

( 158)

identifies

survived

c lai ms

650,

in

by

devotion".

and

to the Gupta),

invaders

developed

A . D.

Pulakesi

other

with

at

A . D.

He and

having

[ falls]

fervour"

Indian

important

into

Medi eval/ Modern.

( 2)

doctrine"

any

of

to

separates

( i dem.)

Indian

foreign

ethical

e laborate

( referring ( other than

the

Buddha,

He

passionate

understanding

A okan, Hellenistic Gandhära), Kushan centuries

the

( 10)

enthusiastic

the

writings".

of

SamghaJ".

.

"cherished

while

states:

the

of

to

experiencing

( i dem.) he

and

i deas.

reliefs

of

However, Hindu so

and

" .

.

for

the

Buddhist

. will

l ater

period

images,

be

he

describes

expressing

adequate

to

enable

the

only

a few

that

to

hope

every

reader

to

do

form

his own judgement [sic. ] concerning the merits of the compositions as works of art. Their merits as aids to Hindu or

Buddhist I t

to

appears

too

many

shaky. sway but

devotion

He

in

that

to

know he

Devout

clai ms

Buddhists to

territories

long

extinct the

or

were

decoration

of

has

not

statements. by

the

which,

formalism

of

he he with

those

opportunities exertion". vicinity

of

century,

as

Buddhism"

to

an

"a

he

the

further

Green on

Mahäyäna

and

these

systems,

contemporaries,

Thus

by

1 916,

archeologists identified by century

was

the

of

and

the

and

considered

to

the

be

"Medi eval".

In

encouragement

or

i llustrate period

the

Of

a

the

are

medi eval by

the

questionable of

the

influence

the

Buddha

of

Tantric

on

( 190)

Smith' s that

earliest

--

that

of

and

the

so

the 1 2th

Mahäyänist s ide

" two

does

acti ve

from

not

of

the

forms

of

elaborate

unfamiliarity

of as

to

either

He

of

image

symbolism

excavations

many

with

of

his

a d isadvantage.

at

Nälandä

is,

to

began,

the

that had been to the 6th or the

period

of

Vajrayäna, Buddhism which was They were a lso confronted with

Buddhist

degenerate, short,

"The

delineation

a

regarded

when

says.

inscription

White".

l ike

Vajrayäna

the

dominated

Vajrapäni"

the late, or Mahäyäna and considered to be degenerate. Mahäyäna

of

were confronted with a s ite l iterary sources as belonging

at

to

Päla

norm

( 1 84)

standing

images. not

art

the

never

by

f inds

"Avalokiteävara

who

for

extravagance

he

in

dated

he

the

Bargäon),

( 1 84)

proves

regards

compendium

that

the

and

of dawn, a weird form with three Smith avers, "offers greater

artist

And

RäjgIr,

in

are

goddess arms",

( 1 86)

India;

( 185)

"notions"

of MärichT, and s ix

for

"The

their either

monks,

al ways

arms

in

required

Nälandä' s

uses

" is

s ix . "

of

arts

surpass

says:

notions

What

Buddha

They

of

(modern

prescription".

representation

image heads

of

Buddhism

especially

buildings.

he

says,

r itual

Avalokiteävara Tantric

any

images

inscription.

style,

sacred

used

The

parts

the

mysterious admiration.

become

Bihär,

thousands

success

centuries,

no

religion

Nälandä

held

c lai ms

were:

had

of

he

last,

i t most

at

with

with

dated

in

foundation

crowded

Pälas the

after

for

whom

shows

dominant

monasteries

culti vated

Smith

the

commit hi mself hi m are so

which to

he

the

to

( 183)

2th the 1 as the them

8th

to

be

moribund

Buddhist

wealthy

7th

that

[ continuing]

about

about

which

matter".

rulers,

the

l ittle

for

not

grounds

Päla

f rom

as

another

is

on

the

India

Buddhism

Nevertheless

Tärä,

Smith

acknowledges

seems

quite

conclusions

Eastern

Mahäyäna

his

are

artefacts or,

they

information

with

- 63 -

to were

which

which

use not to

were

Smith' s given

proceed.

a lso term, much

Chapter

I II

Notes

1 . at

Ram

Raz

( 1790-1 833?),

Bangal ore,

Hindus"

for

Engli sh

on

south

wrote the

JRAS

Indian

Indian

ästras,

an

an

in

in

the

connected

toleration

the

He

the

their

temples,

and

images

sects".

(Essay

Delhi,

reprint,

He to he

may

as

does

and

not

appears

techni ques

would

modifications

Hindu were

any

i s

-

their

Baud' dhas;

the

rules

adoration t he

texts,

by

Hindus,

have

which

towards

in

more

basic

t aking

g il pa

interesting

prescribed of

of

toleration

Hindus

the

of

for

these

repri nt,

9 ) the

into

that

Architecture

show

when go

in

number

pointed out distinct s ites towns for the erecting of

l ikewise

that

well

and

the

work

treatises,

objects

t he

judge of

as

most

Jainas

having

1 972,

suggests

date,

groups

on

a

known

"The

of

the

f irst

examines

these

of

authors of them having carefully to be set apart in villages and constructing

the

manuscripts,

with

and

Architecture

was

process:

worshi p

magistrate

the

I t

architecture.

c ircumstance of

on

1 834.

architectural

noting

Indian

"Essay

the

applied as

to

is

on

the

a ll

Although

subject,

i t

principles

types

required

unable

religious

ascendency.

detail

architectural

place

he

other

by

of

the

and

buildings,

commissioning

agent. 2 . an

Haraprasad 1 1th

which

Sastri

century

was

copy

written

architectural

a lso

of at

and

the

are

on

temple

chapters

1900)

Report

on

( Calcutta,

These

l ast

t he do

the

the

and

and

Search

two

1 2th

monastery of

appear

in

the

which

there

Manuscri pts

BEFEO ,

to

in

( or

architecture.

Sanscrit have

of

century

Prati sthätatt va

mentioned

not

discovery

Prajgäpäramitä

Kri yäsa i ii grahapagji kä

1 901,

two

to

i l tasahasri kä

Nälandä,

t reatises,

Mayasaggraha) Sastri,

refers

the

1 ,

1 901,

been

(H.

( 1 895259-60)

edited

or

translated. Another 1 934), the

work

a German

United

States

Field

Museum,

dem

t i betischen

( Leipzig,

was

translated

ethnologist in

Chicago

1 91 3),

1898. in

was

Dahmen-Dallapiccola

3 .

(New

in

say

on

that

chaitya, synonymous

the

of

Delhi,

Foucher' s

depicted

the the

source

Berthold

became His

Das

a

of

of

Art:

i t

who

curator und

the

painting.

translated

Indian

Laufer

( 1 874went at

Citralackshana

heransgegeben

art

into

The

nach

übersetat

Ri-moiB . N.

to the

mts'an-

Goswamy

English

and

as

An

"Citral aksana

of

1 976). for

i dentification

miniatures

is

miniatures

interchangable with

1 907.

by

anthropologist

t ranslation

A . L.

Nagnajit,

on

a

a

Document

He

Tanjur

gi d , Earl y

t reatise

and

Fergusson.

themsel ves

with

samghäräma.

( I,

st apa .; 5 1)

of But

the

architecture he

terms

vihAra

goes used

on

to

are:

apparently

4 .

Foucher' s

arch ol ogists s culptures

Ét ude at

might had

s ite

found

a t

manuscripts

he

uses.

buildings

well

I ,

5 &

P late

6 ;

V ,

as

Plate 1 & 2 ;

have

Nälandä the

as I I,

These

P late

P late

VI,

5 ;

with show

buildings 2 ;

been

they

of

compared

some

use

to

some

of

the

i llustrations

in

the

images

themselves. I II,

4 &

Plate

VII,

6 ; 1 ,

placed (Etude,

Plate 2 ,

3 ,

within I ,

IV, 4 )

Plate 2 &

6 ;

4 .1.

Stone

image

I II,

of

seated

504/68.

crowned

Buddha,

1 5",

ASI

Al bum,

Chapter The

(N. B. monks

quotation,

the

spellings

Hwui

General

Background

The

Li,

Context

were

older

the

for The

the

ancient

India s ite

inscriptions reference. The

in was

and

and

interpretative Buddhist

They

would

material.

they

contributed

material word

is

not

was

the

continent

and

the

f ield,

power

as

the

disagree own

prose

works

they

each

interpretive

archeological in

Päli

School

to

the

in

s tatements B . C.,

to

Nälandä

teach. Päli

c ited

were here.

was

true the

same

S i ltras

the is

not

to

occur

in

the to

to

Buddha

printed

the

written

the

Nälandä

in

authoritative the

reference

did

their to

any

in is

the

at

without

only the

Nikäya:

archeology

Kassapa

They the

further

in

of

they

the

contain

6th to

and

5th

rest

and

e laboration. by

Nälandä' s

the will

following

s ite.

As

only

be

suttas:

Mahäparini bbäpasutta

Saf f iyutte,

SaMyutta,

Salayantana Seti patthana

SaMyutta; S tone i mage o f s eated c rowned Buddha,

suttas

(Hinayäna)

Nälandä

antiquity

mentioned

Gamani

in

mentioned

SaMyutta SaMyutta,

A . D.

Buddhist in

Theraväda

that

s topped

earliest

century,

century

2 .

5 04/68.

Indian

"experts"

within

the

the

effect

mentioned are

in

DIgha Nikäya: Brahmajälasutta, and Kevaddhasutta;

I II,

western

archeologists

with

1 9th

of

i st

the

indicate

used

the

1 .

< 4 .1.

any

source

of

within

When

Jain

reliable written

and

the

al ways

than

Canon

references

archeologists they

the

rather

Nälandä

Päli

centuries The

a

t i me,

were

upon.

i t

and

t ranslated

compiled

f requent

relied

other,

suttas

References of

they

acquired

semantic

the

as

appropriate

for

communication As

material

plethora

at

way.

and

factual

for

l iterary

this

substantially

for

who Once

evidence.

manuscripts, (sütras)

of

Europe.

their

with

Nälandä

means

with

in

provide

The

A . D.

the

the

offered

India.

surprising,

only

as

Buddhist monks

searched

source

from

pioneer

of

verify

their

power:

The

centuries

identified

regarded

ancient

Hiuen

historical

great

Chinese

artefacts

themselves

on

7th

exempt

they

Thus

had

archeologists

c larifications l iterature

the

would

the

also

Buddhist

authority.

and

which

for

Chinese direct

Fa-hien,

translations

regarded

mechanisms

of the in a

be:

word

of

was

somehow

context

information.

5th

Mahävihära

true,

on

which

archeologists

f actual

i ts

found,

relics

Nälandä

Indian

accounts

the

will

written

heavily

the

names found

Ye.)

greater

depended

in

Ki

sources

especially

t ravelled

and

l iterary.

text,

archeologists writers,

throughout

I-tsing

pri mary

archeology

an

Literary

The systems for spelling the vary considerably; unless

Tsiang,

the

IV

1 5",

ASI Album ,

V inaya 4 .

Nikäya:

P lajjhi ma

Chullavagga,

Nikäya:

Ancient

Upälisutta.

Literature",

Proceedings,

I ,

Lahore,

1 930,

The Jain Sütrakritär iga, Mahävira, the 24th Jina, and spent 1 4 chäturamäyas ( rainy described [ suburb] The

as of

"a

The

of

l iterary

heavily

the

Indian

the

pri mary

t ravel means

of

Foe

ki,

was

the

1 836)

traveller,

result

the

to

planned

to

monastic was

as

take

need a to

Fa-hien

the

and

Räjag4-ha. disciple,

järiputra,

--

De dans

unit

he

l ä,

en

The

( 6)

confused M .

i s

He

Relation

memoirs.

3

journey

--

in

the

felt

spent

and

that

three

write

Buddha' s

f rom

4 14.

He

rules

of

Buddhism years

Sanskrit

endroit

deserted. called

an en

que

--

de

of to

Buddha' s was,

on

southeast

9 of

l ' espace

d ' un

( 6)

Che

C ' est

l i

foe

Che l i foe, etant retourne ä ce entra aussi dans be Nihouan. On y a

tour in

qui

existe

which

Remusat

characteres

by

some

plateau:

Nab .

naquit

his

route

the

encore. the

names

d isciples

Klaproth' s:

Abel

at and

way

I t

Moving

rocky

sud-ouest

hameaux

the

Nab .

measurement

isolated

in

by

En

of

Indra ilaguhä.

Indian

aux

footsteps

Bodh-Gayä

birthplace

village of

at

to

towns the

allent

cet

note

of

vient

[ äriputra] village, y une

a

arrived

on

bäti

at

southeast

the

youyan,

he

( 1783-

The

stayed.

the

both

s topped

reckoning,

y .ojanas

as

French

Klaproth

China

v ineya

Pätaliputra

found

he

had

in

f rom

He

Pätaliputra

to

the

( 1 788-1832)

hazardous

the

read

Buddha

Bodh-Gaya his

of

2

travel

returned

reformation.

followed

to

the

the ( Paris

number of Hinayäna texts. He also made many of the places, known as "sacred

where

journeys

Julius

China

to

India,

Abel-Remusat

of

to

learning

collecting pilgri mages t races",

back

of

Pätaliputra

efforts

the f irst

Bouddhiques)

Landresse.

and

of

The

in

as

Nälandä.

account

travels

of

served

of

Fa-hien.

combined

made

copies

--

the

Hiuen-Tsiang' s

399

They

i dentity

monk

Remusat),

of

in

order

in

the

( 374-462)

India

the

relied

t ranslations

monks.

Royaumes

publisher,

a f ragment

Fa-hien China

of

42)

archeologists

English

used

P ierre

known

and

des

bähirikä

1 929 - 30,

Fa-hien

Chinese

the

sacred

XX,

which and

Fa-hien' s

Jean

( hereinafter includes

of

(Relation

s inologists, 1 835),

upon

French of

and

EI ,

establishing

t ranslation

koue-

393-98)1

Monk,

archeologists

century

western

the

accounts

Initially, 4-5th

Chinese

sources

were

in

Congress

I I, 7 th lecture, relates that a contemporary of the Buddha, seasons) at Nälandä, which is

( Sastri,

the

"Nälandä

Ori ental

prosperous

Räjag t ;iha".

Translations

most

very

( Sastri,

Fi fth

[ in

the

avait

cru

original

que

les

Chinese]

un seul nom propre, mais i ls s ignifient reunis des Na lo. Hivan thsang appelle

- 68 -

quatre

formaient hameaux ce l ieu

are

Kia lo pi naissance

na

k ia, du

car

[Maudgalyäyana]. Nirvana, et est place Relati on, However,

and

The

y eleva corps.

XXVII,

of

the

Hwui

other

accounts

qu' on son

qu' il

place

l a

une tour (J. -P.

sous laquelle Abel-Remusat,

262) decided

Accounts

of

that

the

Nab

owas

Chinese

Nälandä.

Monks,

Hiuen

Li pri mary

of

lä

venerable Chi i i tsu ajoute qu'il y entre dans le

archeologists

Translations Tsiang

I l

c ' est

the

l iterary

Chinese

sources

monks,

for

Hiuen

Nälandä

Tsiang

and

are

the

Hwui

Li.

Hiuen India

Tsiang ( 596-664) wrote an account of his for the Emperor T ' ai Tsung in 646, known

travels in as the Ta-

T 'ang

hsi-yu-chi.

l i

t sung,

wrote

Two

his

of

his

biography,

disciples

the

Hwui

Ta-tz' u-en-ssu.

and

Yen

Stanislas

Julien ( 1799-1 873) published the f irst full translations of Hwui Li, Hi stoire de la v i e de Hiouen Thsang et ses voyages c lans les

l 'Inde

(Paris,

contrees

Julien' s

custom

of

Tsiang' s

Hiuen

Hiuen 635-41,

basis

traces for use

resided

not

v ihäras. Nälandä' s

identify

i dentifies

the

the

of

and

as

f ive

traces

of

in

years, his

They

and

Tsiang

ääriputra

as

to

Some

3-4

place 2 .

l i

from

where

Southeast ( the

the

of

that

Chinese

the

is

3rd

A at

of

About

Nab .

He

Nälandä

as

to

a distance of

the have B . C.

4-5

l i

place l i

Kulika

is

of

Mauryan erected to

a

from

the l i is

emporer,

a

st apa

commemorate

stOpa

Nälandä

where

Maudgalyäyana,

in the

of

Nälandä,

dedicated

A oka the

another

disciples

and

of a

is

a

erected

to

village a

stOpa

birthplace

of

the

close

Buddha' s friend

ääriputra. 5 .

20

distance),

southeast

is

commemorate

devoted

east

Bi mbisära.

ni r v3pa.

8-9

called

the

Indra ilaguhä

is

some

30

l i

east.

the

Tsiang

ääriputra.

of

unnamed

ääriputra' s 4 .

to

century,

distance an

spot,

where said

birthplace 3 .

to

met

measurement

Kalapinaka, A oka,

Nälandä

Buddha

the made

to

follows: 1 .

Hwui

provides

Hiuen

relation

ca.

as

also

Mahävihära

Maudgalyäyana.

birthplace

5

appearance

Hiuen

Nälandä

4

author

neighbouring

used

s ite.

sur

1858).

the

here.

to

and

the

information

sacred

for

tradition

ääriputra

Li

Mahävihära

of

II,

followed

Archeologists

relationship

of

Hwui

be

Mg smoires

1857;

Nälandä

exploration the

Tsiang, I ,

to

will

the

on

of

b irthplaces

only

at

from

and

the

Hiuen

(Paris,

biography

their

regarding

and

referring

Tsiang

passages

ample

does

of

travelling

sacred Li' s

1853)

occi dental es

( 1 80)

to

4 . 2.

Stone

image I II,

of

PrajMäpäramitä,

520/68.

41 / 2" ,

ASI Al bum ,

However, to

Nälandä I l

Hwui

f rom

a rrive

fut

au

dans

Records,

Buddha.

or

community, order

the

at

Both

texts

to

an

the

to

of

that

the

of

ruler

of

of

of of

Hiuen

k ing

of

India

Tsiang

building, k ing

monarch

who

f irst

place

a

f igure

forty

priests

After

of

[ Vajra]

a

this

in

connected

s tructures.

" in

the

began

the

the

Hwui

k ing

Li

of

a

brick

f rom

college,

he

skill

the

of

to

of

the

I

will

I will

feed

every

(Records,

day

Mid-India

built

Thus

added

whole

without.

the

kings

to

these

establishment

which One

which

by

s ix

are

encloses

gate

opens

separated

The

most

Li,

and

The

famous,

not,

r ichly

turrets,

tower From the

above the

c louds

so

often

observatories the morning),

the

c louds. one

(produce

may new

Nälandä

and

hill-tops,

(of

windows

of

suggested,

towers,

poi nted

The

vapours

descri ption

is

adorned

l ike

together. the

as

into eight

seem

to

and

the

see

how

forms),

gi ven Tsiang:

f airy-like congregated be

lost

upper

the and

t he

is

Hiuen

the are

is the

other halls, s tanding in the middle (of Samghäräma) [ his i talics]. ( Beal, Li fe, 1 11)

Hwui

to

1 70)

says:

wall,

f rom

the one the

hall

Sar r ighäräma. the

to

marvelous

congregation founder.

samghäräma

wall with continued

and

succession

by

built

saf f ighäräma

Buddha,

another

convent

great

said,

Moreover,

surrounded entire

the truly

the

a

Moreover,

is

hand,

of

India

a ll

whole

the

to

s ide

the

of

built

sa i T ighäräma.

using

the

The

other

Central

great

behold.

the

jakräditya,

s tates:

around these edifices a high A long succession of kings

On

parinirvape

Budhagupta' s;

built gate.

gratitude

a

monastic

Tathägathagupta' s,

this

show

the

the of

Bäläditya' s. Central

Vajra' s.

t ill

the

following

of

of

for

äakräditya.

north

sculptor,

tradition

construction for

After

work

considerable the

jakräditya' s;

east

northeast

a

1 43.)

Nälandä

after

as

that

south

north

this

qe

by:

to

the

a

at

buildings

was

Ce

grama)

relate

grove

t radition of

couvent.

Nälandä Li

shortly

the

the

unnamed

north

a

state

Bäläditya, to

Then,

give Hwui

le

Histoire

known

built

Budhagupta,

to

travelled

(Maudgalyäyana).

who

Tathägatagupta, Vajra,

Tsiang

Nalanda

Nälandä

a ruler

samghärämas were

s itué

Julien,

and

complex

began

of

Hiuen

Mo lien

bought

relate

samghäräme, by

Tsiang

merchants

Both

est

accounts

Hiuen

500

that

( appelé

1 72-80.

Chinese

antiquity. that

oü

village

l ' honorable

( Beal, The

related

village

ce

naquit

Li

Bodh-Gaya:

in

rooms

winds

and

above

the

by

soaring

eaves

moon

(may

And

then

ponds,

be we

may

bear

red

spread All

the

with

of

and

all

are

[ Italics

four

which

the

are

s tages.

and

Nälandä

in

and and

relics

on

A

the

century

Hiuen

four

( 1 72)

He

v ihära

of

sides

of

"at

no

1 11-12) Tsiang

A small

3 .

South

holding 4 .

South nail

5 .

6 .

is

to

this

is

a

the

the

of

this

cuttings the

is

Buddha Inside

Hwui

Li

south,

enclosure,

a

that

number

" the

are

of

sacred

hundreds

notable

distance"

s tanding

an

and

convent

of

great

the

and

in

ones:

to

the

west

of

s ite of the Buddha' s Records, 1 72)

at

1 00

image

paces.

of

Avalokiteävara

a bottle.

Outside tank

stOpa,

of

of

monks,

the samghArAma, commemorating the teaching for three months. ( Beal, 2 .

the

in a thousand beauty of the

reported

some

have

buildings in the environs Tsiang presumably stayed.

the

Tsiang

priests'

s tages eaves,

consisted

of

mentions

stands

of

groves

ornamented, the the roof covered

Hiuen

sacred Hiuen

residence

monuments.

number". 1 .

7th

the

the

The

(Li fe),

accounts

the

presumably other

the

lotus,

f lower

Amra

coloured

Beal' s]

a disposition of samghäräma where

blue

(Kenaka)

with t iles that reflect the l ight shades, these things add to the

Finally

and

shade.

pearl-red pillars, carved richly adorned balustrades,

provide of the

sun

translucent

the

intervals

courts,

of

dragon-projections

scene.

the

deep,

Kie- ni

at

their

the

surface

the

outside

chambers,

how

their

colour,

over

conjunctions

add

on

intermingled deep

the

observed).

is of

another

the

wall

( of

another

sti ipa

Buddha. the

stupa

containing

whole

complex)

commemorating

was questioned by a heretic. the wall, 50 paces to the

samghäräma

is

a

tree

hair

and

beside

the

( 173)

which

the

spot

southeast

sprang

from

where

( of

the

the

Buddha' s

tooth-stick. 7 .

East

8 . *

taught for four North of this,

of

this

9 .

statue of Avalokiteävara. North again is "a great feet,

is

a v ihäre

200

months. 1 00 paces

which

placed built

in

i t,

under

v ihära in

With

resembles

Bodhi

tree".

where

the

Buddha

containing

height

by

di mensions

i t

the

a

vihära,

(Po-lo-' o-tie - to - wang). i ts

is

high

built

was

magnificence,

f t.

about

a

300

"Baläditya-räja

respect and

to

statue

.

the

of

great

i ts Buddha v ihära

( 173-74)

1 0.

A st g lia s tands to the northeast, commemorating the place where the Buddha taught for seven days. ( 1 74)

1 1.

Northwest

1 2. 1 3.

of

i läditya' s of

this,

To

the

this

" [to

east,

is

"brass" the 200

the

seat

v ihäre

height paces

of

is

of]

the

being 1 00

outside

four built

Buddhas. to

the

south

feet".

the

walls,

a standing

1 919-20,

copper

Buddha,

six-storey

80

feet

in

"pavili on"

height,

,

stands,

built

by

covered

Ki ng

by

a

Pürpavarman.

( i dem.) 1 4.

North

of

this,

dedicated 1 5.

Inside Hwui

It

is

be

3 .

down

he

to

monuments

the

as

The

seat

brick

vihäre

a well.(1 75)

a

that

of

Hi uen

different

Tsiang.

source

The

translators.

of

northeast

three

a

or

has

discrepancy

Hwui

Li

can

describes

foll ows:

vi hgra

st üpa,

is

incorrectly.

convent".

the

l i

from

had

the

Nälanda

is

differs

i f

Bäläditya' s A

2-3

wall

informati on

put

Nälandä' s

2 .

account

c l ear

his

about

Tärä.

southern

Li' s

recorded

1 .

the

not

hardl y

to

200

of

the

Budhhas

taught

of

four

the

ft.

is

" to

vi hgra,

for

north-west

co mmemorates

seven

past

the

of

where

days.

Buddhas

is

northwest

of

this. 4 .

To

the

south

destined 5 .

About

200

Buddha 6 .

by

"a

the

7 .

f t.

east,

ft.

hi gh,

to

the

east

in

put

six

where

of

there,

of

the

manuscri pts

the

resided

into

European

Accounts

of

decade

the

at

Nälandä

in

The Sanskrit the

The

the as

East

of

and

the

covered

st apa

commemorating

Buddha.

is

IndraSilaguhä.

( Beal

I-tsing the

19th

I-tsi ng

7th

century,

was

into

ä

was

in

were

French

translated

as

A

the

by

de

Edouard

la

grande

par

into

for

Record

and

translated

(Ta- T'ang-si -

emi nents

Takakusu,

Indi a

I-tsi ng

two who

l ' epog e

reli gi eux

Junjiro

century, ( 635-71 3),

I-tsi ng' s

compos

seri es

by

W)moire and

is

Korean

texts, in

number,

for

I-tsi ng

English

Müll er' s of

the

Mal ay

by

Sacred

Buddhi st

Archi pel ago

(Nan-hae-ki -k wei -ni u-fa-chs uen]

But

others

(Pal embang, for

coll ecting descri ption

was India

of

400

in

stopped

the

to

than 1 3

India

in

in

second

have

where

who

there

they at

their

60 for

half

been

resided in

of

search

of

more

went.

Of

Nälandä. travels.

1 . A]

671. in

period

some

part,

were

bi ographi es

to

appears

moti vated in

of

went

menti ons

have

Sumatra) a

who most

they

Appendix

I-tsing to

the

onl y

may

IX,

collecti on

I-tsi ng

who he

a

monks

century.

interested

Nälandä

l i

translated

second

Practi ced

that

travel

image

1 876).

7th

[Chapter

the

des

scholar,

671 -695)

Chinese

Vi hära"

finished.

copper

the

monk,

One

W moi re sur

1 984).6 of

( A. D.

the

T'ang

Japanese

(Oxford,

a

is

Pürpavarma

the

of

Chi nese

languages.

as

dynasti e

Books

is

met 30

yu-ku-fa-kou-sän-chuen), Chavannes

Reli gi on

li,

some

last of

also

(Paris,

by

it

1 1 8-1 9).

Translations

the

is

up

Bi mbasära by

"brass-covered when

stages".

several

spot

Li fe,

jiläditya' s

100 hi gh,

pavili on

East

In

is

be

paces

80

To the

to

by

He

693.

of

10

Hi uen returned

By

his

in

hi s

way

He

the

resided a

to

jri bhoga

Sanskrit

provi des of

account of

he

learni ng

bi ography

- 74 -

by

account

years,

manuscri pts.

Nälandä

Tsi ang' s

at and

detail ed

Korean

monk,

Hwui

Lun

China to

(Hoei-luen

and

was

accompany

Thus

he

in

He

Hinayäna a t

Dharma

was

Tsiang.

to

the

for

monks'

archeological The

Another an

century.

I t

pélerin

was

Ye 1 5.

Although

In

was

964

e ither

Ki

at

the

before i t. the sacred

the

976.

the

300

and

pal m

He

was

beginning

( 256). sites at

Nälandä A

3 ,

last

of

in

had

the

set

for

of

Mahipäla

India

964.

He

Magadha I or

just

S riputra 1 s birthplace. Ye only notes the Seat

mentions that in the area.

to

this

Of of

there were a [Chapter IX,

1 . D] in

Ti betan

third

histories

Histories

group

of

written

f lourish in India. Vidyabhusana:

of

l iterary

l ong

after

According

to

Buddhism

in

sources

India

were

Buddhism the

before

the

of

Christian

the

Ärya

scholars

Deva, to

institution Suvisnu,

r ise

a

of

about

take at

the

era.

Indian

an that

Mahäyäna

at

Nägärjuna, 320

A . D.,

interest village.

contemporary

of

in A

the Pali importance

the

beginning 300

the

the

A . D.

earliest

educational

Brahmana

Nägärjuna,

Ti betan

ceased

historian,

about

were

the

had

Though occasionally mentioned in l iterature, Nälandä was not of great

and

of

in

kingdom of

ten

unknown.

pilgri ms

out

i t his

only

use

manuscripts

reign

He visited Nälandä, Ki

As

no

who

du the

but

taken

virtually

Chinese

the

in

spelling),

made

monks leaf

1 0th

Jul. -Sept.,

manuscript

who

remained

the

"L'itin raire

1902, the

any

i t.

spelling),

in

Y anan-kien-l ei -han.

of

joined

as

French

archeologists

Ye

French

Schlegel

work

the Four Buddhas. He a lso number of "monasteries" Appendix

( the

use

Ye

India

Huber

and

aspects

contain not

Ki

( the

8.9

671 -695)

scholars

not

in

(BEFEO ,

M . G.

one

relics

until

Ye

E .

Reli gi on ( A. D.

d id

Monk

d iscovered

encyclopedia

Ye

for

s tayed

by

had

published,

Ki

look

Ki

the

to

1 . B]

practical

does

travels

l ' Inde",

India and Nälandä, translation.

to

of

Wou-khs ouan-l ou

the

were

the

Li,

reference

Buddhist of

Nälandä

Hwui

no

a

arri ved

of

Buddhist

to

As

Record

by

make

Hiuen

School,

and

archeologists

published

dans

t he

known

his

translated

from

copies

of

monk,

of

Julien

century f irst

text

was

Ki

256-259), 1 2th

Chinese

account

635.

as

I-tsing

Appendix

descriptions

the

account

when

to

Emperor c a.

t i me

Tsiang

IX,

studies.

of

India

Malay Archi pel ago

information,

Translation

left

been i ts

to

same

archeologists

t he

went

Chinese

Mülasarvästivada

Hiuen

Record

and

have

archeologists

the

l iving

[ Chapter

A

India

Lun

the

I -tsing' s

Chavannes.

appears

the

of

Nälandä' s

in

at

s till

Whil e those

Takakusu' s

of

to

was

Hwui

by

Hiuen-chao,

country

and

inexplicably,

Practiced

French). ordered

Master,

the

Nälandä.

corrobrates or

the

belonged

sect,

I-tsing

in

subsequently

is

named said

to

to S . C.

have

established

the

Abhidhar ma

(A

History

Appendix His

of

( St.

century, was

into

but

acharyas, enlarger

.

I t

was the

of

Aäöka

Mahäyäna

Arhats.

and

of

the

but the

the

the

in as

of

the

expander

was

Sources,

placed

556.

Vidyabhusana jon-zang

also

(Hi story India

by

only which

a great

and

the

500

came

to

Mahäyäna

they

took

be

of

the the

i t

spread

very

to

S . C.

a

Both

erected

of

the

whole

and

N .

Dutt,

66,

Das'

IHQ ,

X ,

6

edition

Progress

Khan-po

be

well.

Buddhism", MASI

Rise,

to

powerful;

teachers works

Sastri,

t he

i t

very

Ghoshal

Indian

refers

took

be

prosper

there

Sumpa

to

f irst

would

they

( U. N.

of

Brähmana

built

the

together

would and

in

the

further learnt that the of Maudgalyäyana [ another

not

teaching. Quoted

of

According which

the

l ibrary,

was

It

called

Ratnarahjaka, was

scripts works

Yeshe

temples

and

was

Pal,

as

the

with

called

consisted

there

Samäjaguhya,

etc.

incursions

Caityas were

there

- 76 -

grand

three

the were

Prajf iäpäramitä-sütra,

made

quarter

i ts

grand

Ratnödadhi

In

After in

and

Ratnödadhi, the

sacred

the

Täntrik

the

Turuska

Nälandä,

repaired

by

of

(Calcutta,

Dharmagahja

of

Ratnasägara,

nine-storeyed,

had

accounts,

Uni versity,

respectively.

called

such

raiders

Tibetan

located,

Mart).

buildings

to

Nälandä

Pag-

and Downfall

1 908):

which

6 )

existence

the

ääriputra

disciples],

3 1934,

(Piety

500

brother,

remained

and

on

teachings

teaching

History

in

was

were

also

from

deli vered

the

"Täranätha' s

in

to

birthplace

was

ääriputra

later

place

did

the

i t

there

offerings

brothers

and

Mahäyäna

Buddhi sm

his

meanwhile

and

had

teaching

Brähmana

and

counselled

that

Buddha' s

that

formerly

the

when

the

s ign

8 Vihäras

sam

i t

Nälandä V ihära

Epi graphic

vanished

widely; but when they same was also the place s ign

of

greatest

Its

venerable

l arge

they

at

a

In

the

made

that

was

deserted

bhikshus

teaching

of

the

Cunningham

learning

and

been

mid-19th

refers

Nälandä

of

Mugaragomin

ääriputra

temple;

be

of

place

and

1 930' s.

and

Indi en

had

the

history

founder

f inally

became

Chaitya

know

the

in

the

Tibetan

in

history

German

until

the

which

he

80, 000

Buddha

and

of

century

Buddismus

version,

Nälandä

venerable

village King

1 921,

say:

where

with

f irst

Brahmins]

Nälandä

place

that

decline.

translation

17th

des

Täranätha' s

Rähulabhadra

to

of

Latin

German

up

(Sastri,

on

to

sums

the

Täranätha' s

7

English

the

. The

[ the

order not

Calcutta,

German

by

Geschichte

into

with

was

the

India

developers

Nägärjuna". goes

in

1 869).

not

" . the

in

might

Logic,

Schiefner' s

Russian,

Sastri

follows: Aäöka,

Indian

Täranätha,

familiar

passing.

He

is

Petersburg,

translated

there

Mahäyäna

5 14)

Buddhism

historian,

temples

the

of

C ,

source

history

1 08

of

the

a sage

na med

Mudita

Badhra.

Kukutasi ddha

[Kakuta

of

erected

Magadha,

whil e

a

there,

two

disdai n them 1 2

very Some

threw

very threw

sacrificial This

ser mon indi gent

After

pit

produced

a

Ratnödadhi.

many

the

of

water

which

leaked

The

generall y

appears

to

chronicle, in

the

have is

1 2th

Muha mmad inci dent.

ibn

that

and

the

sun

for

from

the

temples,

however,

the

in made

etc.

conflagration is,

and

Thi s

ashes

scri ptures

were

sacred

Tantra.

which

said

that

saved

by

vol umes

of

(Quoted

in

5 1 6)

accepted been by

Bakhti yar.

theory,

Räja

Nälandä

century

mendicants

f ire-sacrifice,

Buddhi st

through

PrajMäpäramitä-sütra

and,

deli vered

them.

a yejf ia,

I t

Buddhist

S . B. Vidyabhusana,

on

great

consumed

king

novice-monks

propitiati ng

the

the

Nälandä,

Tirthika

embers

into

this,

of

bei ng

young

perfor med

l i vi ng

at

was

washing-water

they

after

mi nister

templ e

naughty

angry.

years,

and

a

reli gi ous

appeared.

Soon

Sidha],

Mahävi hära soldi ers

But

for

which

Tarahgi ni' s of

was the

arche eol ogi sts

the

Kashmiri

f i nall y Ghazni onl y

source royal

destroyed general,

refer

to

the

Chapter

IV

Notes

1 .

All

from

different

in

all,

commenting century

on

states

the at

J . P.

discovered the

f irst

the

Coll

a

ge

he

was

the of

the

settled

the

3 .

Subsequent were

an d

At

Persian,

Chi nese Li

he to

colleague

of

studies.

In

Depart ment the

for

Société

Fa-hien

was

Asiati que. in

at

181 5.

Berli n.

St. In

In

1804

Petersburg.

additi on

a number

through at

the

of

to

He his

Chinese

and

of

these were

in

an

He of

the

in

by

of

he

of

usuall y

to

his

Thom,

sources

copy

for mer

at

Uni versity

not

of

texts

St.

Only

found

Seniavi ne of

the

British

Nanking.

Those and

chair

of

Catholic

vol umes

l i brari es

under

the

were

332

Europe.

gifted Sanskrit,

Chi nese

I R musat

obtai ned

Daschkow

the

(Record

mastered

readi ng

l i sted

Chinese

found

Legge

of

(Travel s

exceptionall y

Robert

Thom' s and

Giles

Arche eol ogists

succeeded

offices

Fa-

(Tra vel s

translati ons.

before

1832

H. A.

James

France

He

Beal

Fa-

of

of

in the

Petersburg.

i ii-i v)

the

English

Beal' s

Western

Hi uen- Tsaing

translations,

Hiuen

Worl d , by

Watters'

publi shed

Hebrew

suppli ed

Depart ment

(Hi st oi re, Of

were

and

of

Pil gri mage

Samuel 1869);

Beal

de

translati ons

(The

1886).

was ge

located in

Rev.

1877),

Nanki ng. who

English

London,

and

Coll

studi es

six

Asiatic

the

R musat.

commentari es

Thomas

Paris

at

of

used

born

Laidlay

Oxford,

and

of

and

France

J . W.

Julien

Arabic

tutelage

consul

t he

in

century by

Yung,

the

mi ssionari es

5 .

translated

Laidlay

Stanislas

Samuel

was

Sci ences

a

after Europe

Manuscri pt

he

texts

el ected

in

a

I t

( 33)

at

Buddhist

Société

he

Ca mbri dge,

the

l i nguist.

Hwui

the

new

was

President

Paris

Ki ngdoms,

consulted

of

in

1 1)

Chinese

beca me

the

and

of

1848);

Sung

Fa-hsi en,

the

of

in

19th

published

Buddhi sti c

4 .

surgeon He

Its

established

purposes".

established

He

Klaproth

Academy

Calcutta,

Fah- Hi an of

be

manuscri pt to

1942,

sect

learn

by

and

manuscri pts.

hl en hi en,

to

interest

Keeper

gift

R& T iusat,

chief

181 3.

Royal e,

Hei nrich

their

manuscri pt. to

his

permanently

with

Manchu

in

Chi nese

Hodgson

attended

work

France

The

the

Chi nese

shared

Del hi,

text

written

" i nterpolati ng

suit

determi ned

appoi nted

Julius he

was

New

on

to

herbal

Bi blioth que

Asiati que. part

de

and

of

66,

Nälandä

fourteenth

Nälan dä

Mahäsanghi ka

intent

He

Chi nese

chair

Burnouf' s

the

a

Ni käyasamgraha,

No.

of

to

Buddhist

Nälandä,

(Sastri,

commentaries

hospital.

references another

of

the

MA SI,

monks

Abel-R musat

military

1824

work,

Nälandä

inventi ng

86

mentions

importance

Materi al,

that

themsel ves

2 .

l ists

He

(Dhar makirti).

Epi graphic

at

the

Si nghal ese

Devaksita

and

Sastri

sources.

Tsiang

London

the

1884)

Shaman

translation

post humousl y

by

the

(Si -yu-ki and

Hwui

Hwui -Li, of

Hiuen

Rhys-Davids,

- 78 -

arche eol ogists Buddhi st Li

(The

London Tsiang, (On

used

Records Li fe

of of

1888),

and

edited

and

YUan

Ch wang' s

Travel s and I I, 6 .

in India 629-645) 1 904-05).

tdouard

Chinese to

Peking

1 893.

Asiatique From

as

for

1 902

to

Pelliot.

He

Orient.

He

et Belles 1 915.

was

In

founder in

addition

Y un of

de

1 903).

influenza.

( "E.

of

in

to

to

Bodh-Gaya"

( Paris,

French

of

the ( Paris,

Chavannes",

7 . Vidyabhushana also know with certainty

de

named

1895); 1 896),

died H . La

in

the

some

t i me we

an

intercourse

may

approxi mately

assume

until

850

that

between the

A . D.".

and

d ' Extröme

des

Inscriptions

i ts

president

he

translated

Voyages 1 91 8, JA,

in

Inscriptions

and

de

XIe.

Poussin,

Son-

possibly särie,

BSOS ,

I ,

l atest l i mit which we when Kamalasila was

that

latter

( i dem.)

1895.

Stein

professor of Tantras at Nälandä". ( 516) He goes on: we read in the accounts of Vikramasila that there Nälandä,

de

Societe in

with

"Les

Cordier,

He

College

March

Vallee

declares: "The is 750 A . D.,

the

went

1 889.

Française

Memoire,

( Paris,

in

I

studied

then

secretary

Académie was

He

He

of

Asia

tcole

the

at

member i ts

Society,

1 865.

Legation

Chinese

the

and

L .

in

Central

Chavannes

XI, 2 , 1 91 8, 2 12-215; 1 920, 1 47-51.)

Asiatic

Lyon

e lected

1 903,

d ' Ou-k'ong Chinoise

in

acti ve

worked

elected

Lettres

an

years,

he

a

the

was

many

was

to

Royal

translations.

Professor

He

1 913

born

Legge' s

attache

Julien

in

was

reading

as

succeeded France

Chavannes

after

London,

"But as was for

uni versity

continued

to

and exist

Chapter The Buchanan,

( N. B.

For

are

spellings

Dr.

for

not

Francis The

be

physician,

Dr.

was He

from

degree his

Prain,

Calcutta, He

and

of

survey 1 807

to

Si mla,

( once

t he

other

iv)

following

year

his

l ast

he

to

inheritance

following

1 829.

Jackson,

(V. H.

Buchanan",

Buchanan the

local

manufactures

East

India

Society In visited

the

they

"Bärägäng"

8

nati ve

l ocal

< 5 .1.

Linnean Asia

his

1 783.

He

Society.

in

1 785

as

some

Botanic

t i me

Garden

he

and

a

was

for

journey

Calcutta to

to

death.

Bihar-Patna

ASIR ,

Botanical

order

the

statistical

his

returned

in

of

by

(Cunningham, in

the

survey

asked

complete began

brother' s

with

out

was

as

Garden.

Scotland.

recei ve He

Journal

in I ,

of

died

an in

Francis

1 46)

meticulous

fauna,

care

the

population, as

well

details

of

topography,

as

of

ancient

and

the

other

to

the

Royal

Asiatic

languished.

ruins

details

of

took

in

services

Company' s

agriculture

official

the

and

he

in 1812. Buchanan

copies of his reports in an unusually clear in Calcutta and sent to London, one to the

offices

where

a He

1815.

India

1 922,

and

and

monuments. Two hand were made

1800,

Hamilton

"The

recorded f lora

discovered village

Hamilton

appoint ment

his

(JBORS VIII,

to

East Indiaman. He was Company in 1 794. (Sir

carried

in

the

left

name

the

came

Scottish

He the

Company' s

conduct

of

a

Edinburgh

medical

in

report

His

later

was

Southeast

Presidency.

his

that

Bihär state Stirling,

Buchanan)

than

to

Bengal

(Nälandä)

near

of

towns

passi m)1

Wellesley

f inished

changed

and

Honourabl e 1 905,

Indian

Glasgow

of

member

satisfactorily

Lord

the

of

and

variant

quotations.)

( 1762-1 829).

Kundulpur

India

Superintendent

The He

of

Calcutta,

1 871,

the

site

surgeon on an the East India

Directors

of

and

of

early

Francis

Having for

Court

the

The

and

in

Mahävihära

University

an

performed

Company. Mysore

monks

Kundul pur

University

travels

Superintendent at

of

of

i llustrations

appear

Buchanan

the

a surgeon' s mate and given a commission by David

Survey

ruins

the at

a collector began

Chinese they

Nälandä

the

in

as "Bärägäng" ( Baragaon), in the Branziet, Bardowie,

graduated medical

brackets.

of

Francis

about

refers to Born at

X ,

and

investigator as

1812-1 861

through

when

Buchanan' s

f irst

wrote

names

a ltered

identified

and

V

Cunningham,

numbered

the

been

Investigators:

Kittoe,

Chapters

appendices have

Early

V

report, of

January, lore

Buchanan

Kundul pur 1812. for

He the

indicates

near

the

provides ruins.

that

he

village

of

a

great

According

to

tradition:

S tone i mage o f " Nagarjuna/Nagaraja".

- 81 -

ASI Album ,

I I,

4 52/68

many the

At

one

t i me

(before

[Patna], according who

resides

that

sect;

[Maha?]

here,

but

who

astonishing erected, probably

The

who

intervened

of

Chandragupta;

Patna

drawings where

MSS

In

locally

"K"

was i s

to

east

Andhra east

very

the

"N"

were

been

for the

an d

a

"N"

is

found

"Käpatüswäri ."

and

Buchanan

in

found

the

a

is

--

no

the

a

large

only --

he

had

copied

indication

indicates that appear

at

of

image

that " the on

Mound cavity

the of

the

and

to

the

"G"

Kapeteswari,

l ine

with

marked

plan

"Palace

"F"

south

west

between

Buddha

ruins

in

the

space

adding

building

tank

plan

in

mounds

"Yögäswäri". the

not

inscriptions

He

"H"

and

to

He

and

d iscoveries

so-called

two

mound

south

at

"Figures

[ 5. 23

There

and

Other

also

of and

buildings

I I,

his

and

Bhairäv".

are

the

to

found

of

Bihär

translated.

" I"

( 225)

(Jackson,

48)

1 50.

1 . A]

any

Districts

sculptural

f inds

as

learn

Patna,

No.

ever

south

There

I ,

materials,

small".

t he

refering

mound

to

of

his

were

descendents

Drawings,

95,

and

"palace";

"M"

have

names. of

plan

Buchanan

directly

images

" I"

"E".

of

and

to Many

more

Kundulpur

The

many

images

the

village

of

a

"M". in that

Baragang

Brahmanic. Buchanan

s i milar notes

D .

"Bätük

and

Bet ween

were

a

major

of

as

kings".

of

mound

in an

abhorred

able

[ n. d.],

[Appendix

"K",

opened

within

very

afterwards

the

are

their

of

the

area and

known

the

of

and

1811 -1 2 ,

Eur.

inscriptions

" I"

be

Account

Society,

occurred.

the

mounds

in

numbers

made

the

An

account

them

they

a

Baragang, are of

they

been

I

supplied

full

assigning

of

a Maga

buildings,

will

they

( Buchanan-Hamilton

Architecture, a

Jain

chief by

been of

whom

them

concerning

Buchanan

gave

have

Research

Kundulpur.

by

but

Buchanan,

and

Orissa

have

Maga, at [ Bihär],

as

between

nor

traditions Franci s Bihar

to this Behar

persons,

petty

ruins

c ity

the

have evidently been Buddhists, and were either the Andhra kings, or the princes

infidels,

that

all of

a

of

fortified

to

the

magnitude,

described.

to

seems and

the

priest

afterwards

prince,

attributed by the vicinity

Christ)

a learned

belonged

was

Raja,

powerful

to

ones

that

removed At

often he

in

Gay ,

images Gaya

had from

there

compares

discovered a town

sacred

nearby

ruins

i s

building

of

generally

admitted

modern

work

materials from the

of

the

as to

great

no

The as

number

of

except the

images number

ornaments such

for

and

Hindus,

is

any

still that

- 82 -

the

use:

and

greater

in

images at

evidently

i t the

part

been

immense, remain

locals

considerable

those

[ have] of

images

with

Bodh-Gay .

personal

antiquity,

that,

even

Kundulpur

Räjgir to

trace

least

Vishnupad,

Buddha-Gaya. walls

s i milarity and

the

and

the at

i s very

of

the

brought

built and

into their

Buddha-Gaya represent

He had

. ... .. _.

— . . . .. .

n

—

.

J . "

L I

e0

(

I 0

QED

f l C

±

9 _ 4

f . 3

r-

v f r7 5 . 2.

Map

of

Kundul pur,

No.

1 50,

MSS

and

Records.

Buchanan

Eur.

D .

- Hamilton

95B,

India

Dra wi ngs,

Office

II,

Li brary

)

Buddhas,

not

clusters,

would

many

who

only

some

worshipped the . they

the

any

least

that

deity

they

the

name

f irst

that

regard

they

such

of

not

only

of

dwellings,

the

have

agree

f ind

image,

and

give

without

the

to

the

pillars,

cornices, and into the walls, but

been

so

represent an

Numerous

religious,

evidently

seldom

even

parts of doors and windows, inscri ptions are everywhere built

are in

purpose,

sex.

as

to

or

the

differ

want

can

attributes

manifestdistinction

by

although

images

to

intended

their

and

the

residents]

that

to

avowed

persons

are

suits

rows

not

[Hindus],

two

[ the

in

of

of

orthodox

. Whenever

take

most

it

bringing

resemblance

particulars,

about

i t

by

but

were

the

Indeed,

have

many

this,

remember

greatnumber. they

s ingle,

prove

of

taken

private

from

ruins.

( 101-02) Buchanan' s

Journal

Buchanan additional

kept

across

the

edited

version

of in

Francis book

journal

as

Patna

and Gaya

to

1 781),

Consequently

he

in

and

reputedly to

devise

his

description.

and

then

Superintendant

1 925).

only

map

at

own

His

( afterwards

Rennell' s

not

came

Journal

1 45-366),

(Patna,

the was

recorded

Library.

Buchanan

Orissa,

the

he

Jackson

Bihar-Patna

1 922,

1811 -1 2,

Buchanan

had

a detailed

"The

Francis

Bihär

Jackson,

to

(Calcutta, provided

of

which

1 911

Office

(JBORS VIII,

Journal

available

as

in

In

India

appeared

Printing,

According

journal

sketches.

the

Buchanan",

Government

India

and

at

f irst

form

Hamilton) of

a personal

information

all

route

(jBORS ,

of

Eastern

Bengal

Atlas

accurate.

for

VIII,

which

1 50)

he

Jackson

remarks: In

[ the

care

journal]

with

statements occurred

made

modern

and

works

antiquities Chinese l ater

very doubt

reference The

.

be

to

rejected

Buchanan work

as

Bihar,

which

as

have

and

i t

information

the much

Buddhist one

from

practically

hi m

such

which

in

without

distinguished

assist

the

principles

. . [e. g.]

had

any

general, the

though by

the

of

in the

Travels

revealed is

not

which

no

identifying so

of

much

surprising

now

appears

( 153-4)

would

not

have

regarded

lack

of

a

a handicap.

manuscript of

notice

truth

opportunities

in

adopted

Buchanan

P ilgri ms

s ignificant.

sketch

he

archeologists,

he

as,

a criterion

. of

wherever

made,

could

to

the

research.

he

reference

the that

small

of

.

tested

well

which

obtain

the to

No

with

images

other.

interesting

hi m,

as

which

to

Jain

the

to

scientific

endeavours success,

is

Buchanan

l ater;

thoroughness of

i t

which

the

copy

of

greater

the

area

- 85 -

journal of

also

"Baragang",

contains under

the

a

I r f -

I 1 0 % 4

7

I . ‘ i i 4 4

414

0

0

;t ' ' , 3/

Vi At 01 1

, 4 rr ' 711 2. t

' P m

' I L( f i (

;41 Im ,

. ,

D

e

2

4 ; £4111 7

£

" 7 7a , ,i i ,t, e , A

0

e

t . » c . L, e r4> 0 17 4 , ,, e r . _-3 • e : . # . v e

C ' :

r

4

-

y

G 1444 . G 2

h a -4 -r se -i i

irait

5

y

-

t

i y „ . 9 1

‘1 ,

)

/ :

l 'u t

%

D i , 7 , 4 , 1 7 . - . 4 ,

.

/ ti t e -

g21

/1 t e `j

i ; e g e '

r- eZe >c )

G ` r7 t -C . b i . c

s

d A mz x .

1 4, -/ zi

de

,

' cu -k r -i

i e r k ih 4 4Z1 .7

A-

5 . 3.

X a 'z 'f,

;Y • ,

d i te,

i 1 e -1 , i i , 2 46 *< '

Buchanan' s Sketch of Kundulpur, "Behar & Patna Journal", 1 812, IOLR.

G417 L

dc , -23 Le

1 -2 sa c eG -7 c e ( )

Buchanan - l iGmilton, 1 27, MSS. Eur. D .

87,

entry, "8 Jan. I II, "Behar & reference the

to

another

village

Begumpur. found row

of

Two

south

of

1 812". ( Buchanan-Hamilton MSS Eur. D . 87, Patna Journal", 1 27) [ 5. 3] Here he makes ruin

at

Begumpur.

images,

of

"Buddh"

Baragang.

mounds,

west

"Bairabh"

Baragang

of

The

the

and

of

to

is

the

fort

south/southeast

"Devi",

town

tank,

south

is

are

the

a lso

to

southwest

called

at of be

of

the

"Jaggespur".

Although

archeologists l ater had access to the manuscripts, and later to the Jackson editions in

Buchanan which

neither

the

indication

that

Montgomery

and

maps

they

nor

ever

Eastern

drawings

appear,

consulted

there

is

no

them.

India

In 1 838 in London, there appeared a three volume work, History, Anti quiti es, Topography and Statistics of

The

Eastern

India,

Martin

Buchanan,

he

a lterations Kittoe

aware

that At

i t

Reports

or

any

i s

where

left

of

found

the " 167

chapter

on

this

and

pubLishing

the

Bihär-Patna

s ite

He to

of

Journal Hamilton]

Shahabe d", The

IX,

wholly

retirement East

Francis

JBORS ,

assumption India

the

his

1925,

largely of f rom

the

due

to

name to

Hamilton

and have

- 87 -

two the the

which

editing examined and

Martin' s

think

that

Hamilton' s

the

these name

(Oldham,

the

for

"The

Buchanan

26th

the

February

District to

into

passed

the does

permitted

According

oblivion

research

India,

Company

of

he the

1 903

[ afterwards to

of

the

also

page".

1812

i ii-iv)

unmerited

valuable

to

have

Survey

this

that

some

by

Buchanan

November

out

äthan

Yet

5 . 5]

in

Buchanan

Gay

Martin

Office

t itle

not from

Report

presumably

should

without

on ist

India

did

including But

Jackson

astonishing

House

and

manuscripts,

the

is

printed

the

with

the

1 49-50)

M . S.

[ 5. 4,

3

he

reckons

the

of

consistent

(Quoted

drawings,

1 .

original

surveyed.

( 150)

through"

" It

carrying

was

at

India

Dr.

Buchanan' s years

in

no

Patna

he

Jackson

shared

well

received

the

c it.

antiquities",

Buchanan

survey

the

from

when

op.

[pages]

who

the

anywhere of

Jackson, in

was

which

hi m'".

Buchanan' s

"scored

be

appearing

parts

' the

India,

widely

and

portion

interest

districts

East

what

out

and

was i t

seen

followed

abridged.

of

in

wrote: of

had

antiquities

370

Oldham,

sections

officials

1 81 3,

the

Buchanan

who

Kundulpur/Baragaon.

from

C . E. A. W.

of

deciding

in

Bengal

a selection

reproduce

volumes

more

heavily

of

are

pencil.

1894,

of

drastic

work.

[Martin]

not

topography

on

infor mation

found

did

other

Martin

out

" In

. . . left

Review ,

Buchanan in

edition

work

and

with

While

2

the

India

familiar

Beveridge,

omitted,

which

Eastern

were

Martin. was

arbitrary

Buchanan' s

observed:

merely

Cal cutta

was

report

of

manuscri pts.

H .

be

Montgomery

survey

number

Martin' s

report,

but

a

really

should

understand

Robert the

Cunningham

criticism.

Buchanan

the

the

and

f irst,

w i thout

by

that

made

to

read.

plan,

edited

acknowledged

Oldham: which

so

many

causes,

the

after

his

neglect

of

the

result

of

his

of

labours maps, under

his

l i ved Capt.

published

plans

The who

Nalanda

Indian

Pri nsep Bengal became

editor and

I ll ustrati ons (Cunningham,

( i dem.)

to

of

his

1847,

Vi haras i ,

He

the

of

Bihar

I

the

Parent

a

that

of .

1838).

ar my

for

but

his

l ittl e

disposition".

difficulties

JA SB .

in

by

1838 - 39

(Kittoe,

[Bihar]",

"Notes

JASB,

of

17

is

Ch -li -foe on

XVI,

who

have in

the

made

by

century,

A . D. ".

Kittoe

suppli ed

a map

for

1 2

the

to area

- 88 -

the

the

i i, he

Vi hara

at

but

the this

of

the

&c.

to

( 275)

distance here

Behar

1 2-14

" .

[Baragaon],

which

India,

cait yas Buddha' s

l ies

miles".

and

of

XVI,

and

as

havi ng

chaityas,

"hamlet

Chy-Fa-Hian,

(JA SB, of

or

well

the the

Koondil poor,

tower

Provi nce

of

there

Burgaon

the

as

Koorki har

monastery, 1 0

meeti ng

Directors

reports

of

[Kuli ka]

been

of

he

mentor,

partl y

One

of

whil e

late

Royal

Kittoe,

born, a

a pil gri mage

fourth

the

vi haras

that

Court

of

5 1 0-27;

great

Kittoe

travelled

was

built

1837,

t i me

( 274)

to

distant

to

Exami nati on

his

birthplace

and

Bi har

descri bed

of

( 273)

also

[ äri putra]

by

after

neighbouring

i i,

inti mates

village

havi ng

from

P laces

and

have

city

hills,

"An

VI,

same

' Kiri ka' to

the

"eighteen He

the

the

of

for

Honourabl e

the

c lai med

reported

They

those

at

Accordi ng

large

the

(JA SB ,

vi h e§ras.

was

investigati ons

1847

journey

the

. . sai d

another of

am

Rajgir,

southwest

Priest,

he an

against

Orissa

Tum our' s

this

I

corruption

Kittoe

be

the

in

( 273)

5

of

l ist

[si c. ]

( " Notes

his

Behar

mentioned

Sari putra.

north

on

Soci ety".

na me

to

of

publish

the

was

of

Buddhist

Company],

anci ent

nirvana.

was

to

from

there

state

of

India

perhaps

yojan

He

oppression

for

Asiatic

south

of

1936,

(Calcutta,

duri ng

the

Annals"

make

remai ns

disci pl e,

site

in

preparing

as

James

Soci ety

4

hi m

based

are to

East the

honor

with

met

over-sensiti ve

in

Raja-gri ha".

Tum our' s

miles

the

was

hope

[of

traced

he

arche eol ogy.

which

his

[ aspirations]

the on

whom

rui ns

Regi ment,

Asiatic

removed

iti nerary

Buddhistical

inspired .

6th

own

Chaityas

His

wherein

those

the

the

of

experiences

death.

surroundi ng was

for his

conti nued

Pali

5 1 7),

of

272)

Pri ncep' s state

"archeologist"

Kundil pur

Architecture,

charges

travel and

t itl e

xxv)

helped

hi m

write the

In di an

in

he

Nälandä

association

of

draughtsman

Officer,

Prinsep

enabli ng

his

temporaril y

save

his

and

the

Kittoe,

journal,

cit.),

"was

foundati on

and

of

of

the

Buddhist

indiscreet

Commandi ng

on

i ts

in

(op.

Kittoe bri ngi ng

bear

secretary

a

all

reproduced,

possi ble:

identified

Through

of

interested

architect

to

Markham

( 1 799-1 840), and

if

Identification

and

Ar my.

with

( iii)

offici al

Capt.

for m,

correctl y

supervisi on

1829.

Bargaon

was

compl ete

sketches

Kittoe' s

f irst

visited

North

own

until

Markham

in

and

of

Na - lo, he

still

one

where

entered exists".

[Bi har]

supposed

Chi nese

Buddhist

the

1847,

cl ose

of

953-970,

investi gated.

the 954)

[ 5. 6]

Although "Na -l o", and

or

he

how

Kundulpur

than

he

had

in

a

also

the

Rajagri ha that of

which

a

editor( s), One

the

texts

distance

from

the

no

Nälanda

syllabl e confir med

the

by

This

the

in

disci ple

Sari putra

place

on

call ed

Kia

lo

nagera The

pi

lo

of

na

note.

He

of

Sakya

at

Muni

with he

journey. subsequent

hi s

may

his

a

a

further

be

nati ve

Na

lo

is

Chinese

[Kalapi naka].

The

l ast

transcri ption

of

( 956)

Kittoe

Baragaon/ Nälandä,

Laiday' s

is

whom

the

en

author

lopped

of

with

doubt

year

when

this

kia

no

uneqi vocately

possi bl y

al so

on

provi des

the

an

identifi es strength

Behar

have

been

the

' Na

tanks are

lo'

some

they

are

mile

of

of

the

Pawa

that

Naga

there

appears

towers

or

templ es,

shoul d

be

excavated. vaulted manner,

in

Gussurawa

the

to

to

or

which

a is

there

idols

also,

are

half

same

the

south

been

very

is

state

as

of

f i ve

of

the to

"Vans"

and

there

masses

cl ever

ter med

Jai n,

l i nga

the

more

[Goswara]

are

Mohesh;

appear

be

spl endid

length;

greatest

have

They

in

pri miti ve

is

must to

Surrowuc

There in

it

some

are

s layi ng

the

one

in

t i mes;

i t

are

this

some

broken

some

type.

Puri,

there

are

more

and

village

ruins;

chambers

or

Durga

the

Bargaon; I consider

there

later

of

in

to and

Hian;

a

f i gures

at

went

Buddhist,

temple

tanks

Fa

a ll

some

those

I

place,

innumerabl e

half

several a Jai n

of half

mounds

Vishnite and

[ Bihär] a famous

of

archf f lol ogical

descri pti on: From

in the

transcription

bei ng

fo )

in

Sanskrit].

foll owing

with

(Che

to

the

Patali ga mo

discourse

Thsang,

are

[ i. e.,

a

--

stopped:

Chi nese

the

circumstance

occasi on

syllables

our

word

fall en

Hi van

to

by

Laidlay

Buddha

identificati on

place

have

the

by

visitor, two

this

written

Rajagri ha, of

notice

Accordi ng

the

have

ori gi nal

two.

to

we

the

J . M.

place

Na -lo

that

holdi ng supposed

Na -lo

In

the

or

from

of

thi nk

(955)

a note

that

latter

doubt

hardl y

Nälandä.

clai m

and

north

escaped

probability, as

the

Bhagvat,

again

by

hi gh

Kündil pur

due

Fa-hi en.

foll owed all

the

ot her

tanks

extensi ve; was

in

have

as

identified

(Patali putra). of

is in

Päli

is

would

each

visited:

several

nearl y

I can

to

to

"Burgaon"

numerous

most

is

relation

put

also

were

town

menti oned

person

--

yojana' s

there

are

it

in

to

havi ng

there

7 mil es.

article is

route

is

was

scul ptures,

this

place

"editors"

Na -l o

where

books,

observant

Kittoe' s Journal

and

i t

relati onshi p

reports

rui ns

about

such

so

he

of

Jain

infor mati on

f i ne

the

name

[Kundul pur],

where

the

different

many

wells,

ancient

say

by

[Baragaon]

tumuli,

in

not

came

previousl y,

Burgaon and

does he

the of

l arge mounds

have

had

though c i4 4 -

inscri pti on,

1 the

XV,

1 .

A

large

Baitak

image

Barrabh,

from XV,

( 168).

2 .

Goddess

Kapateswari,

XV,

5 . 5.

4 .

Sketches ( his I ,

Image

of

Kapateswari,

Buchanan' s

numbers

1 838,

in

P late

in

f inds,

parentheses),

XV,

1 ,

2 ,

4 .

Baragang,

Buchanan' s Martin,

i n

( 153).

( 157).

descriptions, Eastern

India,

/ i

/

-›

A'

i • ; \ . > •) ) \ -t' I •

. 9 2

, e ,

J 1 2 -Y

1

Buddha Conical of

XIV,

1 .

near

the

XIV,

3 .

Buddha

Mounds

near

Baragang,

from

mounds

Baragang

( 1 61).

( 1 60).

XIV,

5 . 4.

4 . Goddess

Sketches

of

near

2 Buddhas

Buchanan' s

in

f i nds,

(his numbers in parentheses), I , 1 838, Plate XIV, 1 , 3 , 4 .

Kapateswara,

Buchanan' s Martin,

( 1 56).

descri pti ons,

Eastern

In di a,

bricks t ill

are

they I

overlapped

meet

the

from

c leared place

a

had

Letter

1848, His

main

(Calcutta,

been

the

am

Fa-hi en' s

of

which

the

are of

XVII,

was

of

the

suppose

were

birthplace,

with

sources I ,

79;

VIII,

Hamilton,

for

the

and

" in

353", the

on

place

he

an

Srawacs

Asi ati c

further

this

p .

"On

Royal

However,

Fa-hi en

scholars

In di a,

Society,

English

of

and

two

Eastern

Buchanan

to

Laidlay' s

Pil gri mage

"Nälandä" articl e.

menti oned

of

-( 1

Soci et y

writes:

[Giryek]

not

of

the

to

in

found

" I

to

be

appear

Buddhas,

translation

in

and

English Kittoe' s

his

remarks

[Nälandä]

Jain

sentences,

.

. . is

meani ng

contemplation

be

Inscri pti on

Ballantyne

the

However,

term

not

at dates

contains

foll ows

absorpti ve

coul d

Sanskrit

Dr.

It

Ballantyne' s

says of

article,

Viradeva.

which

"the

of

word

to

Dr.

Kittoe

positi on

( "A

by

in

Vocabulary

the

dictionary".6

8 1 0-50)

inscri pti on

the

di scovered

earli er

refers

translati on,

cross-legged

the

( ca.

, and

Nonethel ess, the

Kitt oe

in

Devapäla

"1 -C I

does

accompanying be

inscri pti on

he

rei gn

translati on

found

from

in

Behar,

remarks",

JA SB,

of any

with

XVII,

a i ,

497-98) Kittoe

[which]

reports

an

( 498)

Martin,

England

Plate

XV,

1 .

to

l i ke in

1861

as

the in

by

named

in

and

earl y

her

head

is

the

i llustrated

5 . 7]

the

Enquirer"

Honourable

Company

c ircumscri bed

the

.

Ganesha

this

"Ache£ological

Cunningham

his

over

that

5 . 3;

were

build

figure

prostrate

Buchanan

of

duti es and

a

possibl e

Plate

Sanskrit remained

40' s,

he

by

his

College in

at

contact

returned

to

i ll. Arti cl es

Cunni ngham

l iterature Born

royal

noted

and

fatall y

Cunni ngham' s

Al exander

Indi a.

He

Prinsep, 1853

umbrella

was

desi gn

(Varanasi).

a

provi nces his

"one

on

[See

7

Kittoe

thereafter,

Baragaon

danci ng

entirel y

been

northwestern

Alexander

Nälandä

is

had

appoint ment until,

holdi ng

It

at

fury

that

Although the

Benares

a

attendant

f i gure

shortl y

fi nding

represents

I I

in

JA SB ,

indicates

( 540)

Sanskrit

Nälandä,

for

weapons ( " Extract

e i -ri putra' s

Asiatic

incli ned

from

in

source

Na -lo,

Franci s

531".

word

same

bones showi ng

( i dem.)

The

with

f ire;

archeeol ogists

Transacti ons

i ,

Gussurawa,

1848,

lately

and

again,

Kittoe",

Marti n,

the

"Dr.

scarcel y

the

staircase

been

ashes.

The

Kittoe

Giryek:

Jains",

the

by

the

Capt.

Others

by

Na -l o".

among

1848).

of

[Lon don],

quantities

identificati on

(Giriak).

articl e

had

charcoal

destroyed

Fa-hi en,

Journal

or

from

that

ashes,

large

of

identifying locati on

cha mber

found

inverted

539-40).

translation

Giryek

a

an

centre.

which

in

occasionall y

l ike

the

observed

excavated, were

in

long

Nälandä

( 1 81 4-1 893)

before

director London

on

of

and

he

the

f irst

Arch ol ogical

trai ned

- 92 -

contri but ed visited

for

the

the

to s ite

Survey

ar my,

he

of was

commissioned 1 831.

In

General,

he,

hi m

Benares

Bhilsa

in

1 851.

the

the

rank

ASI, to

K . C. I. E.

in

In a

survey

the

to

not

for of

his

should

While

so

the

f irst

stapes

Army

the

in

at 1861

directorship That

He

was

1 8

an

Hwan

year made

he a

investigator,

was

to

do

one

of

for

has the

to

objects

religious the

Indian a

worthy

of

of

the

to

guide

preservation

years

.

. As

of

of

archeology, Chinese

( "Proposed

XVII,

i ,

he

535)

approved

" .

xxvii)

.

.

and

when

is

the

to

be

had

he

ancient

and

the the

by

history

of

present

Prinsep

Numismatology;

the the

India.

selection labour

of of

forms

day,

and

of

should

sculptured

and

others without objects

the

an

most

in

been

but

gives

selection confided

of

as

faulty

Kittoe

envisioned;

mind

in

route

the

that

had

the

P liny

the

JASB ,

in

coins

on

investigator:

made

Pal eolgraphy

easily".

public and the rubbish

scholarship

I ,

of

an

might

existing

l ight

talents,

with

practices

of

in

Fi ve

with

hian".

judgment

conversant

the

Indian

Fa

hi mself

discoveries

head

.

into

in

pri mary

more 1 34).

both all

Cunningham

whose

be

more

footsteps

ASIR ,

study

aid

Christianity

all

follows

preservation

a knowledge

should

of

indicates

what

to

1854,

throw

wanting

India

archeological

scul pture,

and

East

insists:

exploring

attempting

Cunningham

that

Investigation",

(Cunningham,

qualifications

he

and

Thsang

and

he

so

Puranas.

the

( 1 790-1872),

the

subcontinent

enquirer

Cunningham

Sykes

but

of India, printing of

judgment".

in

in

Särnäth,

"systematic

London,

would

in

drawing

such

engaged

1885.

of

sake,

Geography

Archeological

with

in

Buddha' s

permanent a

publication

the

tread

pilgri ms

and

interests

the

up

W. H.

a

campaign, and

in

Alexander,

He

take

Col.

own

architecture

Eastern

have

from

until

for

the

inscriptions,

The

the

Directors

that

Topes,

ancient history domestic, than

doubt

of

writing.

religion

into

of

contained

of

Indian

discovery

remains

Kittoe' s

to

wrote

i ts

Bhilsa

pursuing

his

in

c ircle.

ruins

stOpa,

opening

hold

important

introduced

and

his

were

retired

to

effect

be

( Cunningham,

The

ancient

Dhamek

s ite

continue

Court

the

understanding

l ater,

to

Cunningham

would

Buddhism, be

was

residence

1887.8

of

Company,

he

the

Maisey

Major-General

England

1843

member

Kittoe

Cunningham

of

of

in

Governer

Prinsep' s

pursue

of

the

Capt.

a post

returned

and

(Varanasi),

assisted

of

to

the

epigraphy.

explorations

He

with

and

Engineers, to

his

into

explorations

Cunningham

sermon.

During

drawn

opportunity

numismatics

" archeological" near

was

and

Bengal

aide-de-camp

Bentinck.

Kittoe,

sorties

1 835

Lieutenant,

appointed

William

ample

archeology, In

Second

was

l ike

surveying

gave

a

he

Lord

Calcutta His

as

1 834

no the

perfect

draftsman

investigating But

neither

Asiatic

the

Society

proposal.

The

[ i. e.

party]

the

would

East

made

been

to

the

as

gi ve to

with

Cunningham' s

" rubbish". any

a

official

gi ve

However, relevance

founded

of

the

by

Major

in

Anderson.

hypothesis 476-488)

of

the

India, of

But

i ts how

In

came

the

found

accusations

categorically R4musat' s

co-

i tinerary

from

the

of

Hiuen

Hwan to

compilation",

his

second

concerns

article hi mself

to

Tsiang' s

Thsang

Major

JASB ,

his

the

I tinerary

Afghanistan century

of

the

sources was

of

and

through

Anderson' s

XVII,

i ,

conclusions

location

of

direction

so

during

Christian

1848,

he

Rennell' s

and

does

Pätaliputra that

the

route,

geography:

XVII,

the

through

of

seventh

i i,

And

he

the 1848,

1 3-60)

indicates

with

respect

Ganges

had

distances

had

to

to

[About]

9

rock', or by

is

to is

c lose of

to

actual the

than

the

miles

certain northerly

' small

by

be

map

from

recorded the

course

of

than of

town

of

Pa-ti-an-fu the

isolated

and

Patna. the

I t

about

is

This

recorded

the

two or

to

placed only

distance

here

one;

whilst

different to

formerly miles;

the

say

Vaisali

seems 20

is

Kiu-li-kia,

. . . which

Ganges by

of

Thsiang,

Bussar

ones.

from

hill

me

points

are

more

therefore

held

a

and

that

the

a ltered

Yu-tho-lo-shi-lo-kiu-ho,

Hwan

distances

that

miles)

small

S . E.

less

Ganges

the

63

the

the

Rennell' s

miles 20

to

( or

called

Indrasilaguha

the in

which

hi m

Girik 43

Yojans

Pataliputra

that

changed

well:

or

of of

Thsang

half

notes

that

present

Hwan

f irst

JASB , He

of

the distance in miles yojana. ( "Verification

R& f lusat.

map.

Tsiang' s

matters

Pilgri m the

era",

Laidlay

Hiuen two

and the

Chinese

India

were

using

the

on

with

direction of the Ganges Indian measure known as

as

i tinerary

that

the

argues

influenced Persian and other way around.

reference

the the

he

an

say.

Cunningham

His

evolved

i tinerary

modern

d id

d isregard

against

that

states

Cunningham

Cunningham establishing

Cunningham

probably not the

with

to

selected

of

Tsiang' s

allegation

Cunningham

be

Cunningham

Fa-hien,

had

refused

mi ght

entirely

Hiuen

of

l iterature

i t

India.

not

of

with

But

dream

of

d id

of his travels geographers, and

journey.

1 784

Sanskritic have been

Puranic that

who

translations.

Klaproth,

( "Verification

Indian his

survey

fragment

sources.

Ariana

not

pursuing

Anderson' s

translator, l ater

nati ve

translation

a

dismisses

to

s ignificant

exploratory

up

l iterary

R &f lusat' s

account Arabian

any

Cunningham

of

referring

also

archeological

importance

made

to

s i milar

easily

in

is

support

make

not

It

Royal

Cunningham' s

the ai m of editing, translating and publishing Hindu texts. The Society' s council cannot pleased

the

( 536)

nor

respond

had

of

away.

Company

to

Society

member

thrown

India

haste

Asiatic

other

be

more the

2

,7

&I

/2 .4

7 1

3,. ,

e .

,

•

. 2 . 23 E27Z -ek R.

S .,

5J .

K

N .d ‚e

, •

s ,'

f a y r i .i ,

.

/

. • ,

.

I

f ; " / h.

P. 0 , J i b . a > ' I • b . J . . ' . " V

/ 4. , '

1 t , 4 .

. -, i .p e w g P

7 :.

r . .•n i t a t i i,)

A l 9 r

c ç

u.T. Y s :72 '

...•

• •, ..

• bc. f ar . . 17 Z iv vo .3 "; j 4 r s 3 . . J3 Aw. : ; •.,,

i

,

, ,, , .

-

5 . 6.

Kittoe' s Behar",

. .4•. % , A

:

sketch JASB ,

map

XVI,

of

Bihär,

1847,

954.

I:

7

7 r

.e

"Notes

e •

C

3 7 ,

on

/

4 •

Places

in

anci ent

Patali putra

distance

to

the

must

have

west

of

stood

the

at

the

present

same

Patna.

( 34-35) But

he

provides

Pätali putra, bet ween visit

which,

399-415,

to

India,

overflowi ng not

i ts

no

grounds

accordi ng

was

in

to

rui ns

by

629-645.

Whether

banks

some

or

Cunni ngha m that

coul d good

the

remarks

that

very

Hi uen

onl y map

be

on

the

verifi ed

a

large

identificati on

this

assertions.

was

t i me

of

was

f lourishi ng

Hi uen

due

reasons

by

to

Tsiang' s

the

Ganges

Cunni ngham

does

. . . Indrasilaguha".

Ganges,

roughl y

"7

Fa-hi en' s Magadha

Cunni ngha m English be

Accordi ng

to

works India;

the

mean

3

kinds

great of

level and

of

60

and

to

countri es

preci pitous

and

we

apply

of

seek

to

spots

in

where

invariable

is

mil es.

He

then

these

were

s il ent

ki ngs ( 36)

a

to

every rather

value,

where

well

identifi ed

of

for

1

chronology

them

yojana

previ ous

to

Lo - kia-l o-a-yi -to Fo-tho-ki u-to Pho - lo-a-yi-to

Vajra

Fa - che-l o

He and

locates di vides

equates

says

that

was

rei gning

Budhagupta the

remaining

rei gns

101

7

that [Hi uen

Tha - ka-la-kun-to

Bäläditya

Cunni ngham

in

as:

Budha

gupta

own =

saying

Lagräditya Takata

his

distance

Nab :

reigned

gupta

are that

but

documentati on

Gupta

l ists

shows

( 62)

for

who

He

the

adapted

mountai ns

measure

Tsiang' s,

presents

"fi ve

about

li

standard

of

and

for

This

local

Fa-hi en' s

Hi uen

visit".

i ts

distance

easy;

ri vers

40

routes;

nei ghborhood".

uses

to

the deep.

pil gri m' s

the

of

for

absence

road

where

in

in

used the

the

yojana

ri vers

an

these

each

preference

Tsiang' s]

the

by

used

yojana a note:

Buddhist

difficulti es

small

determi ne

Cunni ngham distincti ons

l i,

to to

employed

l i,

to

yojana

The

of

by

close

accordi ng add

where

renders

some

the

80

countries,

travell er;

not

half.

yojana

of

ri vers

oppose

must

by

"editors"

of

yojana

mountai ns

porti on

much

translati ons

Chi nese

yojana

those

too

a

t i es

reoriented

the

Magadha,

the

practicabl e,

480).

is

by

Girek

Kittoe;

refi nes

For

or

further

havi ng

The

mountains

the

But,

4-4 1 / 2 m il es.

are

measurement of

this

there

Capt.

( 36)

( 61)

He

and

details,

inspection

(Nal o)to

of

inexplicably

mil es".

account,

should

Giryek

Patna

mi nute

( i dem.)

9

Kali pinaka

"the

bet ween

many

personal

scale".

of

was

distances "gi ves

which

was

is

of

Tsiang

that

his

the

other

asserti ng

585

his

say.

Bodh-Gayä

the

for

Fa-hi en

"Lagräditya"

j 'iläditya when

ca. of

years.

484,

the

(Har a), Hi uen and

other

( 36-38)

Tsiang then

three

Agai n

information.

- 96 -

with ca me

he

Devagupta to

the

ca me

equall y ki nds gi ves

into no

( 452-

throne to

in

India,

arbitrarily the source

for

5 . 7.

Stupa

No. 3 , stone image Plate XIV, b .

of

Aparäjita,

ASIAR ,

1 917-1 8,

Chapter

V

Notes

1 .

Prain' s

read

18

published of

his

in

Dr.

( 1 834) and of

f irst

In

and

of

The

worked The

i t.

Buchanan

probabl y

done

reproduced as

follows:

1 53

3-headed

1 56

Goddess

1 57

Femal e

an

Ceyl on, of

found

on

in

Femal e

East ern

1 61

Inscri bed

1 63

Great

1 64

Image

1 66

Multi-ar med

1 68

Femal e

169

Yaggnespur

The

XV,

4 7

XIV,

6

XV,

3

goddess

Plate

XIV,

2

umbrella

Plate

XV,

1

Plate

XIII,

Buddha a ci vil for

stone

found

many

of

he

ASIR ,

Tum our' s

of

reputedl y

of

took

pari ni rv i gpa

were

ei ghteen

Räiagaha rubbish them, the

two

(duri ng

hi m

notabl y

and

Allahabad.

in

from

journal

the

the

f ield

Asiatic

forced

at

the

He

1830' s,

articles

malady

later

the

pursuing

of

contri buted

years

provided

deci phered

most

Del hi

fatal

with [ the

on

hi m

age

at

last

of

to 40.

they

fall en absence

( approachi ng

of

days

of

predicted)

- 98 -

2 1

500

of

the

f irst

after

the

monks: Buddha]

Evi hAras3 all

and

the

days

the

were

into,

Atthakatä

councils,

Rajgir,

wi häros

and

has

Buddhaghoga' s

Buddhist

a company

great

the

of

the place

[Räjgir] which

He

undertaken

the

A

office,

92

vii-xvii)

details

period

in

al so

di ed I ,

assay

faci ng

Calcutta.

prevented

edited

translation

the

that

projects

and

He

the in

inscri ptions,

numismatics.

1838.

in

pillars

duties

Bengal

and

on

the

1832-37

of

servant

antiquari es

and

provi des

of

95

Plate

Plate

(Cunni ngham,

At

96

faci ng

Plate

Brahma

professi onal

Buddha' s

facing

4 ,

of

Agoka

whi ch

2 ,

Muni

coi n

5 .

is

XIV

1

in

and

Plate

3

edicts

England

images,

copi ed

XV,

XIV,

with

epi graphy

of

Plate

Plate

Buddha

poi nt

Soci et y

image

XIV,

From

in

opus

relati onshi p

XIV,

numerous

his

was

Di cti onary

were

Plate

Pri nsep,

work.

magnum

drawi ngs

empl oy,

Plate

insti gated

he

Col oni es

Searching

Martin",

India.

3 Buddhas

of

1828-30

papers.

an

Tyrone,

Briti sh

Buchanan' s

his

l i on

One

focal

Co.

from

Montgomery

& 2 Buddhas

1 59

4 .

Royal

Marti n (pig)

1 60

a

in

the

Buchanan

of

the

293)

arti st

Marti n' s

of

and

sketch

( 1 803?-1 868),

born

Baragang/ Kundul pur

by

in

36,

account,

Prai n' s

Annal s

Well esl ey' s

( " Robert

ff.

Marti n

he

own

Edi nburgh,

1 905).

was

in

House

Bi ography

the

Hi story

Lord

India

published

3 .

he

wrote

published

Nati onal

in

171

(Calcutta,

Montgomery

1 820

Buchanan' s Soci ety,

X ,

statistician,

He

records

on

Royal

appeared

Cal cutta,

and

India.

based

the

Transacti ons

Robert

Ireland.

the

at

the

Gar den

historian

was

1821

l ife

Botani c

in

account

June

there

environi ng f illed

with

accumulated

bhikkus).

pari ni bäna

On (of

in

account Buddho),

As

a ll

the

and

robe,

Pf l

had

a

and

bhikkhus, and

departed.

consequence then

each

hold

carrying

abandoning

(Tum our,

the

the

monks

his

their op.

c it.,

decided

council.

The

own

refection

wihäros

to

and

dish

pari vänos

5 15)

repair

repairs

the

v ihäras

--"reparation

of

delapidations" -- are represented as something the Buddha approved of. The act also provided patrons with merit for their 6 .

continuing Laidlay

regard

to

Pandits

of

support.

remarks

( 516)

about

Nälandä,

the

which

Rajendralal never

met

got

copy

a

hand on:

to

Mitra

with of

"Nälandä of

Kittoe 7 .

be

a

of

a

of

( i. e.

" Image

at

as

near

Buddha

Gupta?

provenence".

8 . of

Bharut

I ,

of

other

monuments ( " General 9 .

and Sir

the

also

Rennell' s

Ganges changes

at in

map.

Patna the

Geol ogical

has

delta

in

24

articles of

Ganges map

shifted

the

north.

of

Soci ety ,

the Aug.

to

Ganges", 1863,

- 99 -

Stupa

1892),

a

rulers.

1 66-77)

in

1835

shows

using

that

( " On

(Quarterl y

321 -254)

of

and

Buddhist

Indian

own

36 --

Geography

1894,

Fergusson' s

f .

nymphs

numismatics, early

the

S";

and

1870);

JRAS ,

are

Buddha";

Anci ent

(London,

Cunningham",

with

umbrella)",

900/1000

on

Kittoe

Records,

collection

aureole

include:

surveyed

Capt.

Gane a

the

the

(London,

chronology

lan

could

the and

"Degenerate

with

Mahabodhi

and

Alexander

Fergusson

Major

books

in

trampling holding

circa

Period ,

the

Na

where

Library

Also

publications

at

goes

and

the

however,

f igure

attendant

(?)

day, is

not

terms

Laidlay

i ts I t

I have

have

( 499-500)

this

f .

as

Bauddha

in

this

scholar

and

Gussarawa,

Office

Behar

1879),

of

which,

of

of

Abhaya

Buddhist

( London,

number

t he

in

Cunningham' s India,

that

Nälandä:

Burgeon

of

"Goddess

an

"Standing No

s ite

Aparäjita.

at

place

in

"But

[sic. ],

positive".

inscription".

Prints):

drawn

very

name

occurs

name:

Dictionary

( India

the

Sanskrit

disputations.

drawing

identified

the

a place

famous

with

24

be

Nälandä

Sanskrita be

the

the

folio

holder

sketches

very

Chinese,

is

Depart ment

is

in

jakya' s

identical

There

i t

word

I cannot

was

Collection,

l ater

to,

of

to

Laidlay,

thinks

discovered

umbrella

to

Hemachandra' s

scene the

hardly

mention

this

refer

frequent t ho

no

According

me

the the

fact,

to

"With

puzzled

the In

of

appears

have

famous monastery near Räjagriha frequently mentioned in Dul-va [Körös' t ranslation, JASB Jan. 1 8327". ( 499) article.

i t

inscription:

to

of

point

Benares,

Goswara

appears

the

recent

Journal

of

Chapter

V

Appendix 1 :

Buchanan' s

Reference: Bihar I I,

List

Jackson,

and

Patna

of

Sculptures

ed.

in

5 .1

An

Found

Account

1811 -1 81 2,

I I.

of

at

Baragaon

t he

Patna,

Districts

[ n. d],

of

Appendix

779-787.

Numbers sketch

and map

letters

are A

referring

gi ven

in

the

"Bhairav"

to

locations

order

1 .

1 48:

2 .

riding on Garuda]". 1 49: A female " sitting

they

"Narayan

r iding

and

on

appear on

shaded

Buchanan' s

in

the

text.

Garur

by

a

[ Vishnu

wreath

of

serpents". ( 220) 3 .

1 50: B ,

A

plan

and

C

of

--

the

ruins

east

of

showing

a

three

small

temples

tank,

Surya

--

A ,

Pokhar.

[Missing] 4 .

1 41:

Vahara,

5 .

1 51:

A

Baragang 6 .

1 64:

7 .

In

8 .

A

1 65:

"A

form

under

the

t iara"

1 2.

her

1 55:

"A

female of

at

Baragang;

monster

different

mentioned

destructive who

Kapateswari

Baragang,

four

arms,

female

in

i s

power

in [ in

acting

seated

temple

" the

represent

the

form

of

dedication

the

Buddhas". "A

who

in

( H),

in

of

the

p lace

" represents

and

the

to

female under

"A

with two

female

supported throne

of

dedication.

"Kalabhairav".

already

a Buddha,

intended

1 59:

armed

others

( 221) centre

her

ruined Andra

one

leg

a fat

[which]

male hangs

throne".

standing 1 3.

street

A .

the

Buddhist

Buddha,

Kapateswari,

[with]

over

1 56:

in

( 222)

the

of

the

temple C

( 223)

A Goddess

[sic. ] 1 1.

the

the

at

temple

hideous

authority

south

kings". 1 54:

the

at

in

a l arge

from of

found

complex 1 0.

of

form

in

repeated"

descriptions]". "A

worship"

Brahma,

a lso

respects

1 53:

of

l inga

a " t wice

s treet

other 9 .

with

standing

the

some

"object

four-faced

by

usual

two

position

spouse

of

among

arms

and

and

the

the two

probably

former,

has

worshippers

of

attendants.

Buddhas".

with

two

l ions",

[which]

same

the

arms

bearing

proclai ms

s itting

an

the

on

a

inscription power

of

throne "on

the

Sarbaggna

[Buddha]". 1 4.

1 57:

"A

tearing an

female the

inscription

king,

and

with

4

tongues

the

giving date

arms

f rom the

" the

s itting

two

male

name i st

on

a

l ion,

captives",

Bangsiswarbhadra

or

7th

year

of

and

bearing as

the

Samvat".

( 224) 1 5.

1 60:

A

Buddha

inexplicable 1 6.

1 61:

1 7.

1 62:

A Buddha A

image

found

at

mound

I ,

bearing

an

translation.

Buddha

image. image,

with

dedications

at

the

head

(Jalayana, son of Acharyeswari) and shoulders; "at the knees is mentioned the mild spoken Ujjarayan f riend of the

great

. . . beneath

the

1 00-

feet

is

mentioned

that

the

images

has

been

dedicated

by

"Batuk

Bhairav",

a

a

Sajjika

( a

female)".

( 225) 1 8.

1 63:

The

removed the

from mound

neighbourhood

. . " and 1 66:

A

seated

20.

1 67:

A

s tanding

seated

on

a person have

2 1.

1 68:

"A

female

of

with

l ike

umbrella, 1 69:

A

f igure,

Goddess who

action

a

tree

brick

in

wall

f igure.

female

Bhojak,

the

by

( i dem.)

female

the

presumably

a great

has

would

Buddha

is

. . . dedicated

by

no

be

"a

t itle,

of

and

service

seems to

his

( i dem.)

prostrated 22.

Sri

of

Buddha

under

surrounded

armed

Tiara

named

[sic.]

and

worshipped.

many

thought

l arge

"placed

multi-armed

the

parents".

(0)

s till

1 9.

to

K and

a

two

warrior. the

An

emblem

Buddha

arms,

who

thunderbolt,

attendant

of

image,

brandished

and

holds

royalty".

at

somewhat

tramples over

on

a

her

an

( 225-26)

Yaggnespur,

a mile

southwest

Kundulpur:

Sitting

in

a

proceeding

c loud

the

in

a bier,

is

surrounded

Buddhas, dancers, merely is

an

are

and

the

a very and

usual of

priests,

Jagadamba,

his

and

by

of

worship, in

total

mother

of

23. 24.

1 70: 171:

25.

172:

"Seshnag"

entwined

body

serpents'

tails,

a

female

mourners.

promiscuous The

and

two

despite

by

of

princes, This

sex,

uni verse.

is

image

Brahmans, of

who

call

i t

( 226)

A many-armed male with a Buddha in A male, "sitting with one leg over

. dedicated

image

inscription

dedication.

the

The

by

l aid

assemblage

demons,

monsters.

form

supporting,

head,

Goddesses,

beasts

object

posture,

from

surrounded

by

Gods,

the

the

usual

his his

crown; throne

Hritibhatta". male

forming

and

female

a pillar.

torsos, ( i dem.)

lower

Chapter The

First

1 861-1 899:

Cunningham

h is

and

Archeological

Cunningham,

the

First

Survey

Beglar,

of

India

Broadley

and

Cole

ASI

With the forgoing thoughts in mind, Cunningham further investigations in Bihär which took hi m,

other

places,

to

Nälandä

Cunningham 22nd

of

India,

January

archeological d irector.

survey

He

identifying avers,

.

his

ambition

Lord

Canning, the

of

appointing

India

approved

.

. as

in

and

of

establishment

monuments.

enlightened

when of

an

Cunningham

i ts

scheme

for

The

ruling

the

a memorandum

Cunningham' s

ancient

an

1861

wrote

authorising

India' s

began among

Mahävihära.

realised

Governor - General the

VI

English,

power"

were

he

doing

India a service thereby. ( Cunningham, Archwol ogical Survey of India Report, 1 861-65, I , Si mla, 1 871, i i) Canning wrote: I t

will

will

certainly

commit

unforeseen the

the

spending

any

upon

a

case

ai med

of

which by

such

remains

and

a

of

record

regarding For

his

services

f ield

to

450

Medical take

or

be

consideration

of

i t.

What

is

description, -drawings

notice,

i t

may

traditions

was

a month, the

and

of

more

services

and

should

or

be

that

with

the

traceable,

are

retained

( iii)

defray

something

the

the

as

or

inscriptions, --of

deserve

far

Cunningham

measurements, I f

most

future

repairs

c lai m

of

and

contemplate

measurements,

copies

so

of

them.

R[ upee]s.

by

as

to

i tself

all,

accurate

plans,

them

no not

at

full

seem

in

on

done

and

an

and

to

does

money

when

may

is

i llustrated

l ittle

i t

any

separate

photographs, history

For

This,

at

very

Government

expense.

preservation. done

cost

with

cost other

should

of

a

Public

be

paid:

Rs.

of

250

when

making

mechanical be

the and

assistance. to

subordinate

Department,

views,

in

surveys

necessary

nati ve

Works

photographic

to

i t

obtain of

the

competent

should

be

to

given.

( i dem.)) The

official

Buchanan, conducting. ordinating

survey

Kittoe

and

Cunningham role

for

taken for Indian d id not anticipate and 65.

followed

on

Cunningham saw

f ield

from and

hi mself archeology

the

in

the

that

C haitya N o.

1 2,

had same Prinsep

that been cohad

epigraphy and numismatics. But Canning a long l ife for • the Survey. Cunningham

his colleges were in the f ield for four After that he stumbled on in straitened

< 6 .1.

surveys

others

d uring e xcavation,

4 80/85

103-

B & 0 Album ,

seasons, 1 862circumstances. 1 931-32,

His

f irst

the in

four

JASB , the

and

f irst

Reports In in

volume

his

f ield

the

introduction

for

and

published by

as

the

supplements

Government

Arch xol ogi cal

in

Survey

Cunningham

indebtedness

Buchanan

Scholastic

He

and

India.

taking

explorations

of

India

in

--

His

"actual

the

who

as

between --

method

combined

surveyors

Fergusson' s hien, Li.

his and

the

t ranslation

Using Baragaon 1 .

The

the

Fa-hien

First

his

with

his

tours

Visit

research

to

village

in

of

Hiuen

was

upon

of

in

laborious 1 861 -2 India,

which

R musat' s

Tsiang

and

published,

he Fa-

Hwui

Beal' s

appeared. Nälandä,

"scholastic" Nälandä

of

Report

had

( 1835-42)

but

consist

and patient

translation

translations

t i me

of

Cunningham' s

of

Laidlay' s

Julian' s

By

1

accounts books,

or

texts

would

with

his

pioneer

"Closet

translated

measurements

f ield,

a

and studious investigation in the c loset". (XIX) In he toured the B ihär District using Martin' s Eastern based

to

1 871

expresses

Buchanan

Sanskritists

(XVIII)

of

to

distinguishes

the

Archeologists"

visited

the

of

archeology.

as

never

were

collectively

(ASIR).

admiration such

reports

then

1861

sources,

the

Cunningham

following

Baragaon

is

identifies

manner:

seven

miles

north

of

Räjgir. 2 .

This

is

the

same

place

Buchanan

identified

as

a

palace. 3 .

Fa-hien' s Giryek

4 .

Nälandä

5 .

Na -lo

and

Bargaon

i s

gi ven

in

translation]

miles,

Räjgir.

from

Tsiang

from

by

d id,

locates

He still

south

the

famous He

according v ihgra.

He

yojan, or

the

name

object

of

masses

of

is

are

village

from

Ceylon"

49

same

Nälandä

or

7

miles,

place were

a row the

as

found

brick of

Hiuen

ruins of

s ix

of

Nälandä.

of

which

mounds

is the

the

most north

attached

to

( i dem.)

the he

s ite, has

the

"Sketch

named

description.[ 6. 2]

"monasteries"

1 04-

i t

that

running

temples

that

that

suggests

amongst

gigantic

image

reports

He

conical

which

Tsiang' s

designates

who near

Maudgalyäna' s

southwest

and

( 29)

Nälanda".

a diagram

Kittoe

Tsiang

Kalapinaka

parinirvana

1 812,

lofty

in

at

as

Hiuen

Yaggnespur.

in

remains

Nälandä",

read

identifies

worship.

of

Nälandä,

have

Buddha

seen

monastery

to

with

must

Jagdispur,

same

having

provides of

of

one

yojan,

in

birthplace

with

the

had

conspicuous

Ruins

he

Cunningham

Kulika,

found

and

7

the

Na -lo

though

this

"numerous

annals

being

roughly

bearing

equates

even

called

an

distance

others.

Indraäilaguhä. birthplace,

Buchanan

"Pali

as

Nälandä

or

E F i riputra' s

Buchanan

same

( i dem.)

Cunningham f inally

--

inscriptions

here.

the

( 28)

locates

Bodh-gayä

indicated Two

are

the

[Tu mour' s Hiuen

6 .

and

Räjgir.

to

the

Some

the

of

the

mounds he

east

calls of

the

-

,5.-

, . q t4 , ere ,

2 -' 1 1f ( 2. 3 (

' , • . , i carg °ea "P . —

M 7 _ 1 -

' 42 f: , a .4 , s; : t u . V 3 3 •r t IA '

/ , , ! ,r-7 , : . : 4 • \ , g 2 ,, , , g e . ,ewe it . , , ,: ' ; , ' P ;' . •_ _ -,z , .) _ _ _ > _ 3 ' “ . 1 I ndrov P okhur

1 05-

S .

C olo . r . sal S eozue o f :As c etic I Su caeha

V .

. 1-i x, ; r io r t r t41 : 2. 5-,a t .e .d . f iu dahad .

mounds, "situated within one enclosure forming a ltogether e ight courts". ( 30) Cunningham clai ms that these are the samghärämas Tsiang.

built

d igging

into

concludes hien' s

in

far

Tsiang' s

v ihära

at

of

f ifth

built

at

no

he

and

Cunningham had

the

explained

marked

"F"

"monasteries" original I t

is

true 200

that

statements

Temple place

300

tree,

and,

Cunningham

Buddha" might

an

Cunningham found

have

aggregate terrace

that

to

send

one

the

image

in

Calcutta.

This

As

he the

to

i ts

a

surrounds these

that

in

Great in

one

another

to

Julien,

1 60]

In

said

i t

to

both

be

the

of

Bodhi

temple seems

confusion

Marshall

"F" in

in

the

also highly

between

mound in

south-east massive

st Opas

intact

106-

and ( 34)

corner

ruin". to

the

order

of

but

only

shrine

room.

s tatue

"H"

"F".

"by

1 863

central

a "colossal

of

this

under

the

under

Capt.

mound

the

[ i. e.,

temples.(32)2

belonged

" in

i s

at h is

propose

Thsang

l arge

some

in

now

and

Buddha,

was

base

to

of

l iMmoires,

pedestal

the

Hwen

high,

other

two

height

temple me

that

statue

that

suggests

stOpas of

he

Buddha

opposite

the

[ reference

of

there

originally of

( i dem.)

speaking

appeared

the

of

of

to

he

reports

at

dates

mound

Tsiang]

Bäläditya.

leads

feet

as

excavated

discovered

He

only

he

second

al most

another

In

high.

s tatue

that

Government"

he

v ihära.

a d iscrepancy

Bäläditya,

200

as

accounts

of

enshrined

hi mself,

probable

a

states

is

which

compared

a

This

These

Hiuen

and

Thsang

feet.

feet

Buddha

contained

to to

months".

Vajra

there

by

i t

the

end

monastery

vihära,

marks".

is

height

300

50,

accounts

the

Bäläditya' s

the

the

been

Mahäbodhi

( 30)

from of

next

had

to

that

t i me.

"H"

I t

height

the to

erected

Histoire,

( 32)

the

makes

place

the

Hwen

vihära],

correcting

the

few

Hiuen

( i dem.)

four

to

to

a

His

said

Bäläditya' s

"mason' s

for

i s

using

Mahäbodhi

ruins

mound

but

of

discussion

Fa -

Hiuen

says:

feet,

Bäläditya' s

the

d istance

sketch.

he

of

vein.

concludes

[ according

attributed

height,

only

wer

law

the

He

after

that

Tsiang

same

the

centuries.

the

on

this

sketch.

some

"where

built

mounds

l ikened

the

in

compares

v ihe Tra

of

relics.

Nälandä

the

in

dated

his

says

7th

Hiuen

6 .1]

of

of

Hiuen

he

around "4",

of

before

Appendix

Cunningham on

was

"evidence"

which

"H"

search

and

in

consisted

Temple

Having

mound

which

6th

in

continues

inscriptions

incisions

--

vihära which

century,

mound

places

calls

a

Bodh-Gay .

was

the

He

is

i n

designations

Bäläditya,

designates

to

his

account.

by

4 15

l isted

mentioned

arch ology

Mahävihära

after

Bäläditya' s

and

rulers

stüpas

Cunningham' s

built

v ihära

small

[Finds

identification

the

s ix f ield

i . e.,

and

inscriptions

found

the

Nälandä

--

625.

Cunningham So

some

that

visit

Tsiang,

he

by

Cunningham' s

of

ascetic

marked He of

notes

"S", the

the

square

He

wished

Indian

Museum

( 33)

Although templ e

as

correct that

Cunningham

300',

i t

must

Hiuen

"size"

he have

Tsiang,

meant

height. arrived

gave

the

height

says

that

to

now

been

when

the

200'

overall

He

reports

f inding

Buddha

Martin,

P late

a

XIV,

6 ]

at

second

of

Cunningham

notes

Re - organisation I t

visited

i s

not

excavate

through s tudy plan

the

of

of

not

everything

that

From

s ize

their

and

is of

.

.

by

was

1871.

he

Cunningham

The

sent

to

Cunningham' s was

a new

suveyors

recommend

an

Cunningham

whatever and

to

to

lease

were

to

additional

sets

out

his

the

includes

world' s

history.

architectural

study of

of

the

will

help

former

of

architectural most

to to

remains

branch

important

archeology.

extended

of

sculptures, but

prominent

one

that

manners

ruins,

to

The

be

broken

of

Indian

should

customs

But

all

our

ancient

i llustrate

t i mes.

(ASIR,

the III,

iv-v)

indicated

that

his

information various

The

names

origin date

and

of

kilns,

by

the

or

form

of

in

place

shown

well the

ruins,

brick and

as

as

materials

sandstone,

to

supply

the

reported

upon,

and

e ither

historical

or

as

by

existing

by

l ines

gates

of

old

or

by

brick-

tradition.

description

s tanding

the

were

records:

both.

gates,

or

Survey

foundation,

extent,

of

of

i ts

I ts

former

the

derivation.

or

s ites

surveyors

for

traditional

the

.

most

remains

of

i t

and

most

therefore

A

in

number,

the

remains

their

4 .

But

was

given

l i mited

.

following

3 .

whether Marshall

conceived

belonged

form

researches

2 .

are

mounds.

originally

mounds

archeology

The

Capt.

Accordingly,

and

objects

1 .

ruins

But

1 862-65

i s

naturally

He

by

presumably

as

efforts

buildings

1873,

in

arch epol ogy :

Archeology old

1 863,

1 865.

for

account

1 862.

Survey

exploration.

definition

in

the

surrounded

his

or

in

Cunningham' s reports

which,

enshrined

ASI

f rom in

f i nished

the

the

1 861

"F"

The

been

of

i n

mound

d irection. have

too, are these.

c lear

Nälandä

the

l arge tanks, or resevoirs, two to the the south. ( i dem.) On his sketch he

indicates that they, makes no comments on The

of

he

Bhairav',

mound,

that

by the

how

s tatue

s tatue

f inally

to

' Baithak this

grounds

than

as

"colossal

foot

the

Mahäbodhi,

rather

Buchanan' s

the

on

the

explanation

a ll probability, was the original Bäläditya' s Vihär". 3 ( i dem.)

surrounded by several northeast and one to

to

proportion no

[ possibly

i t

Bäläditya' s

proportionately

height

comparing

( 34) But he gives at this conclusion.

ascetic

in

of

be

principal including

employed, &c..

s ize

of

The

buildings,

the

whether

nature

granite,

descriptions

each

107-

building,

and

should

with

any

whether colour marble, include special

5 .

peculiarities, e ither of style and also the cost i f this can be The history, either written or

6 .

A

principal

I t

plan

of

style.

at

would

the

appear

each

principal

one

that

influence

conduct

indicates

of least

building,

building

typical

of

that

--

at

Cunningham least

on

archeological

styl e

is

the

had

paper

( i dem.)

Very

scheme,

Broadley' s

research

most

with in

important

l ittle

the

actual

Excavations

at

Cunningham

able

to

Assistant

Magistrate of

1872.

the

Patna

at

identification (IA,

1 872,

funds

own in

investigator than

criticised ignored,

to

to was

Fa-hien' s for to as

the

of

he

Nälanda

Bihar,

Zillah

remains

and

"On

in the

kingdom

(A. D.

is

ready

He

of

400-415)"

through

was as

his

Broadley' s in

Magadha

rather he

was

of

order

does

archeological

the

His

attempts

and,

But

contribution

use

in

geography

the

observant

interpretations

Bihär. He

any

to

aiding

Nälandä' s

in

to

and

an

archeology.

and

s ites

access

force

efforts

t ranslation.

ancient

t he

the

work

conventional

Buddhist

journey

s ites

the

of

in

had

official But

the

the

Bihär

1 06-110).

degree

Beal' s

hi mself

to

among

Chinese

source to

to

for

retrace

establish

other

things,

challenge Cunningham' s location of Nälandä at Girek, i t appeared in Anci ent Geography of India ( London,

1871, as

makes

in

from

209-312),

projects.

loss.

the out

in

"Buddhist

places

of

others

Chi-Fah-Hian

surveyors

any

locate

1872,

Beglar,

a museum

Sub-di visi on

a s izeable

the

ASI

their

Broadley Fa-hien

the

carried

Ruins

wrote

Broadley

to

thought with

by

to

69-76;

various

who

not f igure history.

accounts

in

( 1 847-1916),

charge

among

removed

various

account,

interfering

3 ,

P ilgri m

Bihär,

his

had

also

1 ,

the the

1 8-21;

his

s ite

pamphlet,

He

pt.

by

s ites for

he

in

created

[Bargaon],

1 872). of

visited

By

had

XLI,

Magadha

the

this

a

J . D.

Broadley

District,

of

Burgäon

(JASB ,

1 ,

He He

gradual • • . ,

envisioned

Collector

Broadley

published

(Calcutta,

Bihär",

of

4

antiquities

He

Monastery

the

surveyor,

A . M.

Patna

explorations

house

and

Bihär,

independent in

his

Nälandä,

district to

was

India.

criteria.

Nälandä and/or

revisit

subdivision

visited.

digging

under respect

however.

Before were

a

each

come

--

a lso states that some buildings may "show progress of the art of architecture in India new

and

of

(v)

Fergusson' s to

building.

detailed

section

or of ornamentation; obtained. traditional, of each

469.

Cunningham

appeared

avers

that

"Girak"

the

the "Hill

(Girek)

distances

and

IA,

1 9)

1 872,

in

is

the St.

had

used

ASI of

the

d irections and

same

Bihär are

account

Survey

Isolated

actually

Martin

the

First

for

Report.)

Rock"

Nälandä Broadley

Cunningham

( Bihär-Sharif),

commensurate.

Fergusson

had

a lso

calls

as

the

( Broadley, come

to

D igee P okar

BEGAMPUR

155 1 R uined f ort 0

0

S mall t opes

R uined p agodas t ope

2 sA 4n . S uraj P okar

I nda S

< Tope N o.

I

7 90 ' < Tope I I 3 00

0

< III 2 25' a ha t ope

8

6 7 ,

I V Kundua t ank

J ain t emple B uddhist i dols

3 00 ' 1 0 . S t7 ipa w here B uddha t aught

9 .

>1 . V ihara /7\ w here B uddha t aught 3m onths.

B J .1 ä ditya 's 3 00 ', w ith B uddha i mage.

N alanda e nclosed

>3 . I mage o f ( I)

[

T ank

7d ays.

A