Management of toxic materials in an international setting : a case study of cadmium in the North Sea 9789061917953, 9061917956

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MANAGEMENT OF TOXIC MATERIALS IN AN INTERNATIONAL SETTING A CASE STUDY OF CADMIUM IN THE NORTH SEA

COASTAL WATER SERIES: 1. Water Quality Management Plan North Sea:

Framework for Analysis, Rob Koudstaal, 1987.

2. Management of Toxic Materials in an International Setting, A Case Study of Cadmium in the North Sea, Lies Dekker, Blair T.Bower & Rob Koudstaal, 1987.

Wii DELFT HYDRAULICS PO.Box 177, 2600 MH Delft, Netherlands

Management of Toxic Materials =< in an International Setting ae A Case Study of Cadmium in the North Sea By LIES DEKKER, BLAIR TBOWER

& ROB KOUDSTAAL

8. A.A.BALKEMA / ROTTERDAM / BROOKFIELD / 1987

Cover design: Bureau Paul Mijksenaar (Sandra Neerincx)

Published by A.A.Balkema, P.O.Box 1675, 3000 BR Rotterdam, Netherlands A.A.Balkema Publishers, Old Post Road, Brookfield, VT 05036, USA

ISBN 90 6191 795 6 © 1987 A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam Printed in the Netherlands

Preface

This report is one of the products of the Analyzing Biospheric Change (ABC) Program sponsored by the International Federation of Institutes for Advanced Study (IFIAS). The ABC Program was established in 1981 with the objective of adding to knowledge of how to manage natural resources such that exploitation of those resources can be done while simultaneously maintaining or improving ambient environmental quality and living standards. The ABC Program is oriented to decision making at the regional level and to empirical analysis. The Program consists

of three "problem areas": utilization of coastal waters; urbanization; This report is a product of the and agriculture in semi-arid areas. first problem area. Management of coastal waters in many areas involves international settings. In developing a set of case studies for the coastal waters problem area, a necessity was to include case studies involving such settings.

An opportunity consistent with this objective was presented when the Dutch government, in May of 1982, presented an official note to the Dutch Parliament entitled, "Harmonization of North Sea Policies" (Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, 1982). The note initiated a study to formulate a Water Quality Management Plan for the Dutch portion of the North Sea. In the note the following terms were used with respect to the plan: Building on international conventions and actual national policies, the plan will represent the vision of the Dutch government on a coherent and strategic approach to preventing and combatting pollution of the North Sea. The plan will provide directives for international negotiations and in addition will indicate management strategies as far as they can be taken in the Netherlands. The involvement of Delft Hydraulics in both the ABC coastal waters problem area and in the Dutch government study enabled testing the framework for analysis developed in the problem area in a real analysis situation. The existence of the technical study by the Dutch government provided a background for exploration of the institutional problems of managing the North Sea.

Technical details such as discharges of materials and their effects were taken from the Dutch North Sea study. Many of the figures used herein are reproduced from that study. Permission to use this material is much appreciated. Information on and outputs from the Dutch study were provided by Paul Baan, Peter de Bruyn, Peter Glas, Hans van Pagee, and Henk Visee; each is associated with Delft Hydraulics.

Dr.L.D. Guruswamy, of the Faculty of Law, University of Durham, United Kingdom, participated in the early discussions of the institutional problems. Typing, drawing and final editing was taken care of by Nel Woldhuis and Engelbert Vennix.

VI

Table of contents

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and objectives 1.2 Management of the North Sea 1.3 Natural system of the North Sea 1.4 Use of North Sea for disposal of wastes 1.5 Legal and institutional context for management of the North Sea

2 FOCUS OF THE ABC STUDY 2.1 Why cadmium 2.2 The ABC study: Questions to be answered 2.3 Organization of the report

3 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR THE DUTCH PORTION IN OF THE NORTH SEA 3.1 Background and objectives of the WQMP-North Sea study 3.2 Characteristics of the analyses 3.3 Evaluation of ambient water quality 3.4 Conclusions in the WQMP-North Sea with respect to cadmium 4 ESTIMATING DISCHARGES UNDER 1980 CONDITIONS 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methodologies for estimating discharges 4.3 Results of estimates 4.4 Dutch controlled cadmium sources

5. ESTIMATING EFFECTS OF DISCHARGES ON AMBIENT WATER QUALITY 5.1 Estimating effects on water quality 5.2 Estimating effects on cadmium concentrations in sediments 6 ANALYZING INSTITUTIONAL ACTIONS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 International mechanisms for water quality management 6.3 National mechanisms 6.4 Implementation of international regulations 6.5 Dutch actions and their effects on cadmium inputs

7 FORMULATING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 7.1 An operational and comprehensive procedure 7.2 Illustration of the procedure 7.3 Implementation incentives 7.4 Practical considerations

8 CONCLUDING COMMENTS 8.1 International regulations, their triggers and effects 8.2 Relating costs to benefits, internationally 8.3 Implementation and control on national levels 8.4 Specifying the objective 8.5 Analyzing the aquatic system 8.6 Nature of the analysis 8.7 Remaining and further questions REFERENCES APPENDIX A: ABC FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS APPENDIX B: EC CADMIUM DIRECTIVE

VIII

1 Introduction

1.1

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Two primary considerations spawned the ABC North Sea study. One was the international context of marine resources management of the North Sea, a situation characteristic of many coastal waters and marine resources management regions in the world. The international context of the North Sea provided a setting for exploring how nations individually, and through an international mechanism --- in this case the Euro-

pean source

Community

(hereinafter

utilization

problem

referred relating

to to

as

EC)

a common

---

cope

property

with

a

re-

resource.

The other was the initiation by the Dutch government in 1983 of a study to develop a Water Quality Management Plan for the Dutch portion of the North Sea (hereinafter referred to as WQMP-North Sea). The Dutch study to development a plan was carried out in 1983 and 1984. The study concentrated on the waste disposal use of the North Sea and was mainly set up to support existing governmental policies, both on the national and international level, and to formulate --- if required --- additional directives for future governmental actions with respect to toxic materials entering and accumulating in the North Sea. The concern for waste disposal and water quality management on the part of the Dutch government was reflected particularly by a concern for heavy metals. The framework for analysis developed in the ABC problem area, succinctly described in the Appendix A, has a much wider scope than the Dutch study. In the first place the ABC framework includes all human activities using marine resources. A second, more important, difference is involved in the concept of a plan. The Dutch plan results in so-called policy directives. No specific management actions were considered. The concept of a plan in the ABC approach includes specific physical measures installed at specific times in specific locations and considers specific incentives to induce users of such physical measures to adopt desired behavior in order to produce a specified time pattern of outputs. In such a concept of a plan, and of planning, for example for production should be considered, different targets Sea, in the North levels or concentrations of polluting substances and the information to be provided on aspects such as costs, benefits, should enable the selection of tarand administrative consequences, decision making entities. by measures corresponding gets and

(Ml) military

area

incineration dumping sites for wastes CC (industrial, municipal) dumping

sites

dredging

spoil

WME sand and gravel wining

— * navigation

lanes

~~

—

pipes . cables

\

Ow

7

|

deep

water

4

gas

field

@

oil

field

routes

54°

ig oe

EMELA

STERSCHELLIN

Ha AV

(

a

DELFZIUL LiEL AMO

nl XEL

53

Ws N HELOER

3

]

| GREAT | VARMOUTH

i

UUMUIDEN

=

i

AMSTERQAM

;

TTS

c ae

yy

>

J

a

pe

= A / /yoex van Horas

=

Ba

ROTTERDAM

of,

ay

«=FHE

NETHERLANDS

am ins

Wie

\ i ts 2*

:

ees

PY VLISSINGEN

a

ai

Gatek ty

nN

é

4

ANTWERPEN

Figure 1-1. North Sea

Overview

of some

activities’ on the Dutch

portion

of the

The ABC study presented herein post" evaluation concentrating dealt with in the Dutch study, overall ABC objectives, the ABC

has to be considered as a modest "ex on only one of the toxic substances namely cadmium. North Sea study

Consistent with the is oriented towards

the following two kinds of audiences and related general objectives. To analysts involved in planning for management of marine resources, lessons will be drawn on the confrontation of the ABC coastal waters framework for analysis with a study carried out in a real world situathe study wants to show what kind tion. To decision making agencies, of information an integrated analysis can generate in addition to the results of the. Dutch WQMP-North Sea study. In this dualistic approach, the ABC study should be considered as one further step aiming at proand more relevant through a proper information which, better viding of the possibilities and by decision making understanding entities limitations of such information, finally would lead to better planning and management of marine resources. More

detailed

motivation

information

for

the

on

selection

the of

focus

cadmium

of is

the

given

ABC in

study

and

Chapter

2,

the which

includes as well the description of the organization of this report. In order to make the report self containing, some information is included on the natural system of the North Sea and on the context of North Sea management. This is done in the remainder of this chapter, which concentrates on general North Sea management aspects and gives a short description of the main features of the natural system.

1.2

MANAGEMENT

OF THE NORTH

SEA

The North Sea is a body of water and associated shoreline, a marine resources region, which can provide --- and is used to provide --multiple outputs of products and services. These outputs include: marine transport; sand and gravel; exploration for, and production of, oil

and

nal

boating

gas;

commercial

and

fishing

fishing;

marine

animals;

marine

mitted;

waste

disposal,

fense activities. cen -t:

Some

for

habitat

sanctuaries,

both

of the

shellfish

and

finfish;

resident

and

migratory

for

i.e.,

direct

uses

of

and

where

no

indirect;

the North

Sea

recreatio-

birds

other

uses

and

areas

for

shown

in

are

are

and per-

de-

Fig-

Some outputs produced in a marine resources region have adverse impacts on, and in some cases preclude, the production of other outputs. Thus, marine resources management involves making decisions with respect to resource utilization questions such as: allocation of special e.g., marine sanc~ zones for exclusive use by one or more activities, lolanes, military zones, offshore mining zones; navigation cation of dumping sites for industrial wastes, sludge, dredging spoil and the amounts and timing of dumping; amounts of sand and gravel to be extracted where at what times of the year: and amounts of finfish and shellfish to be caught where at what times of the year. This decision milieu defines a basic problem in the management of a marine resources region, namely, determination --- and then the implementation tuaries,

of the production --- of the “optimal mix of outputs of products and time. For a detailed description of marine resources services over management, see Bower, et al. (1982).

The the

determination of the optimal mix context of several basic facts.

must

be

made

and

implemented

in

the among partitioned long been Sea has the North although One, oil and gas for national to areas with respect countries bordering for other uses the North Sea represents a common propexploitation, the Because nations. bordering the by all "owned'' resource erty common property resources, i.e., traditional approach to exploiting “open access", has often lead to excessive exploitation and consequent domination or elimination of certain outputs, some institutional mechanism is required for management to prevent such a result. Waste disposal is one use which can easily result in excessive exploitation. Two, some of the resources and uses of a marine resources region are mobile, such as migratory fish species, marine transport, and dispersion of wastes discharged into the water body. Thus, cross boundary flows into and out of the region occur and must be considered explicitly in management. Three, closely related to two is the fact that a significant portion of the demands for products and services of the North Sea stem from beyond the boundaries of the countries bordering the North Sea. Marine transport is a prime example. Liquid wastes entering the North Sea from the south via the English Channel represent another example. Therefore, analysis for management decisions must explicitly consider factors affecting demands external to the region. Four, demands for products and services vary over time, within a given year, from year to year, and over longer periods of time. For example, demands for recreational uses occur primarily during the summer season; demands for disposal of liquid wastes occur all year, but at varying levels. The demand for drilling for, and production of, oil and gas offshore varies from year to year in relation to economic conditions. The mix of outputs desired from a marine resources management region will change over time as a result of: e

e

e e e

e

changing interests of society, as interpreted by governmental authorities, and as reflected in legislation, policy statements, rules and regulations, guidelines, plans, and programs; increasing knowledge of the basic physical/chemical/biological processes in marine ecosystems and of the interrelationships between and among the activities producing the various products and services in a region; changing technology of producing products and services; changing prices of factor inputs to production; changing values of products and services in relation to other sources of the same or substitute products and services (changing demands); increasing knowledge of the quantity and quality of resources available;

e

Five,

effects quality

4

and

changing export and international conventions. there

of of

are

uncertainties

import

in

disposal of wastes on sediments, and in turn

policies,

terms

of

the

implementation

short-run

and

of

long-run

ambient water quality, including uncertainties with respect to the

effects of the changes in water quality on various components of the marine ecosystem, e.g., subaqueous vegetation, fish. The effects of waste disposal, e.g., on a particular species of fish, are a function not only of the quantity, quality, time pattern, and spatial pattern of disposal of wastes, but are related to and interact with: meteorological and hydraulic conditions; reduction in habitat as a result of dredging, dumping, and land reclamation; and fishing pressure as reflected in effort and catch over time.

1.3.

NATURAL

SYSTEM

OF THE

NORTH

SEA

The North Sea is a rather shallow shelf sea with an average depth of less than 100 meters. The boundaries and tributary areas of the North Sea are indicated in Figure 1-2. A distinction can be made between a southern part and a northern part, the boundary being the 56 degree north parallel. The southern part of the North Sea has an average depth of only 37 meters. Depths of more than 200 meters are only found in the northern part in front of the Norwegian coast. Winds and tides introduce a more or less regular water circulation. Water movement in the southern part is mainly directed towards the northeast. In the central part an anti-clockwise circular movement occurs, as shown in Figure 1-3. Streamlines indicated in this figure show residual, i.e., average over the tidal period, water flows of 25,000 cubic meters per second (m/s). Areas with thermal or salinity stratification are limited and are found mainly in the deeper parts in front of the Norwegian coast. Retention times are long. Water entering the southern North Sea through the English Channel leaves the northern boundary in front of the Norwegian coast after 150-250 days. The shorter retention times are in winter, because of stronger, prevailing southwesterly winds. Substances entering the North Sea are transported according to the stream pattern shown in Figure 1-3, either in solution or adsorbed on suspended material. The suspended material accumulates mainly in estuaries in the southwestern part of the Netherlands and along the English coast, and in an extensive intertidal sedimentation area beginning north of the Netherlands with the famous Wadden Sea area and continuing eastward through the German Bight to the Danish west coast. Another sedimentation area is found in the deep northern part of the North Sea.

1.4

USE

OF NORTH

SEA

FOR

DISPOSAL

OF WASTES

The North Sea provides a sink for disposal of wastes from sea-based activities, such as marine transport, and for wastes produced by a diversity of land-based activities. The wastes from the latter enter the North Sea via river inflows, direct discharges or dumping of liquids --- both deposition. Disposal of wastes and atmospheric and solids, directly and indirectly --- is an important use of the North Sea. This bordering the Sea. Direct has long been the case for all countries discharge of a waste directly into a water body, involves disposal e.g., sewage treatment plant outfall and material contained in dredging spoil dumped in the sea. Indirect disposal refers to

STAVANGER

NORTH SEA

OCEAN

ATLANTIC ORAINAGE

DUTCH

AREA

PART.

INFLOW IN m3/s: CHANNEL: 196000 ATLANTIC: 195400 RIVER: 5784 RESIDUAL

Figure

FLOW

1-3.

LINES

Water

SEPARATE

UNITS

OF 25.000

movement

in the North

m3/s

Sea

WINTER

materials which are discharged into a medium other than water, such as the atmosphere, which subsequently reach the North Sea via dry or wet deposition from the atmosphere. Combustion of coal in power plants and incineration carried out out on ships offshore are examples of indirect disposal. As populations and economies in the countries tributary to the North Sea continue to grow, more wastes will be generated and pressures will increase for additional disposal into the North Sea, particularly as sociopolitical resistance to, and costs of, land disposal increase.

Concern

for

effects

of waste

disposal

The North Sea constitutes an highly productive ecosystem, providing habitat for both resident and migratory species. Various substances discharged, such as heavy metals, are taken up by algae and benthic organisms and are transferred to and accumulated in higher levels of the food chain. The following effects have been noted at the top of the aquatic food chain, and have been attributed to --but not yet proven to be caused by --- the presence of toxic substances in water and sediments of the North Sea. e e e

Skin diseases have been found on flat fish in the German Bight and in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Locally, some massive fish kills have occurred. Between 1940 and 1965, very large reductions occurred in the populations of two bird species, the sandwich stern (Sterna

Sandvicensis) e

and the elder

Significant reductions occurred in the period

(Somateria

in the resident since World War

Mollissima). seal II.

and

dolphin

populations

In addition to these effects, substantial loads of phosphorus and nitrogen have increased the rate of algal growth in some areas, resulting in oxygen depletion in bottom layers and subsequently in changes in the abundance and diversity of species throughout the food chain in those areas. Changes in magnitude and composition of species in an aquatic ecosystem occur not only as a result of waste discharges, but also by loss of habitat and direct disturbance by human activities. The former, for example, occurs as a result of land reclamation and disposal of material, such as dredging spoil, on the sea bottom. Direct disturbance is exemplified by fishing activities. Even if there were to be no increase in the discharge of substances to in the buildup Sea, there would likely be a continuing the North in the sediments of the North of certain substances concentrations Sea,

as

a result

of

continuation

of

the

present,

or

even

reduced,

dis-

is charges. Depending on the extent to which the adsorption process the quality in the water column will be affected to a reversible, This fact greater or lesser degree by accumulation in the sediments. study of Dutch the of initiation the to leading factors the was one of water quality in the North Sea.

Water

quality

management

context

effective the on publication a In described (1979) Fotheringham and Birnie North Sea marine pollution as follows.

resources, of context

of management the management

in its origins and both Pollution in the North Sea is multinational consequently States in its consequences. and national transnational of reduction the for other each to address to demands have frontier-crossing pollutants which particularly affect them. In addition, international agreement on pollution control is seen as essento a fair involved.

tial

Economic

or

lack

apportionment

conditions

of

it,

to

are

the

“combat

among

commercial

primary

pollution".

competitors

determinants

The

the

of

of political

economic

problems

costs

action,

of

pollu-

tion reduction derive from the fact that the market has not operated to include the costs of protecting or cleaning up the “common property resources'' of the North Sea. Including the costs of disposing of the “inevitable residual mass" generated in any activity may mean increasing the costs of production and therefore increasing selling prices. But governments typically are reluctant to impose constraints which might --- but do not necessarily --- increase costs and hence might reduce the competitiveness of their national economic units. Particular pollution questions get on national agendas when public concern is sufficiently aroused as a result of pollution incidents. Normally, governments are subject to competing pressures from those potentially at risk from pollution and those whose businesses or jobs might be adversely affected by required preventive measures. The politics of pollution are dominated in most cases by the allocation of the costs of pollution reduction, rather than by the distribution of the profits of resource exploitation, such as with offshore oil production and harvesting of fish. Because of the multiplicity of sources of discharges of pollutants, many governmental departments and agencies within nations and from various international organizations are involved in pollution politiles:

1.5

LEGAL

AND

INSTITUTIONAL

CONTEXT

FOR MANAGEMENT

OF THE

NORTH

SEA

Marine resources management in the North Sea must distinguish between two legal and institutional contexts, the territorial zones and the full North Sea. In territorial waters the coastal states execute full sovereign power, with the exception that free passage is to be given

to "innocent" ships. In the full or open sea, the utilization of marine resources is --- or can be --- regulated through international conventions. Many conventions exist within different contexts, e.g., global, regional, European Community, and are related to different uses of the marine resources. Countries are free to join or not to join such conventions.

The conventions often lead to more regular cooperation countries. Frequent meetings provide operational means

among for

communication at a non- political level to implement the corresponding conventions. Activities within such cooperation include, for example: of international developing implementation regulations; monitoring agreements on national levels; and monitoring the effectiveness of the corresponding regulations. In

addition

to

the

conventions

and

related

or

associated

agreements,

the European Community --- which does not include Norway --- plays an important role in the management of the North Sea, in particular regarding fisheries management and the integration of national environmental actions. The main instrument of the EC in the latter connection consists of directives, which generally result from previous coordination

between

cooperation

and

among

is developed

the

countries

via

involved.

negotiation

In

between

the

the

case

EC

and

of

Norway,

Norway.

All of the above mentioned conventions and EC directives have no operational authority in the sense of control and sanctions. However, the EC directives do have legal authority in the sense that EC countries are “obliged'' to implement these directives in their national legislation and procedures. Little knowledge exists of how the directives are actually implemented in the individual countries, given that no formal sanctions exist for failure to carry out the obligation. This was one of the major questions to be addressed in the ABC study, as is discussed in the next chapter. In addition to the fragmentation because of the international nature of the North Sea, responsibilities for marine resources management within each nation are divided among several or many governmental entities. None of the North Sea countries gives responsibility to a single agency for integrated management of marine resources; different ministries representing different interests are involved. For example, in the Netherlands the principal agencies involved at the national level are the ministries of: Transport and Public Works; Housing, Physical Planning, and Environment; Economic Affairs; and Agriculture and Fisheries. In 1977 an MInterdepartmental Commission for coordination of North Sea Affairs (ICONA) was established, with the secretariat provided by the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. ICONA has no operational authority, but is considered an important institution to harmonize actions of the different ministries.

In addition nation

is

to problems critical,

but

of

coordination

often

difficult,

at the among

national

level,

national,

coordi-

provincial,

and local levels of government. There is no formal coordinating levels among these coordination to achieve ala ICONA, nism, Netherlands.

mechain the

2 Focus of the ABC study

In Chapter 1 the two stimuli for the ABC North Sea study, the international context of marine resources management of the North Sea and the Analyses supporting Dutch WQMP-North Sea, have been introduced. the WQMP-North Sea focussed on waste disposal use of the North Sea. Therefore, it was decided that the ABC North Sea study would also concentrate on waste disposal. With the WQMP-North Sea study as a base, ABC funds were used to focus on two issues stimulated by the Dutch study and fitting into the objectives of the ABC coastal waters problem area: (1) the kind of analysis to support planning which can be useful for decision making in an international setting; and (2) the triggers, effects, and implementation of regulatory measures in such a setting.

The ABC study had to decide on. what waste disposal problem to focus. For example, the EC has listed 129 substances of concern with respect to their polluting effects, such as heavy metals and synthetic organic compounds. After explaining below why cadmium was chosen as the focus of the ABC study, the specific questions to be answered in the study are set forth. In the last section of Chapter 2, the organization of the study and of the report are indicated.

2.1

WHY CADMIUM

Cadmium was potentially (2)

the

chosen for analysis because of: (1) increasing adverse, long-run effects of heavy metals such

existence

of

an

EC

directive

on

cadmium,

one

of

concern for as cadmium; the

six

sub-

stances --- the others being mercury, lindane, DDT, pentachlorophenol, and carbontetrachloride --- for which directives on pollution of the aquatic environment have been adopted by the EC; and (3) the recommendation in the Dutch WQMP North Sea to pay additional effort to the elimination of been planned.

cadmium

The heavy metal cadmium lowing characteristics: e e @

10

discharges,

represents

on

top

a class

of

actions

which

of substances

already

with

the

had

fol-

it is toxic to many organisms exposed to relatively small concentrations, i.e., parts per billion; it is persistent in the environment after being discharged, i.e., it is not biodegradable; and it accumulates in organisms.

Adsorbed to suspended material cadmium accumulates in coastal and riverine sediments. Physical processes may cause a resuspension of sediments. Chemical processes may result in dissolution of adsorbed

cadmium.

Biological

processes

may also

play a part

in the "fate"

after

discharge.

Cadmium occurs in water in both dissolved and adsorbed forms. In fresh water 70% to 90% of cadmium is in the adsorbed form. In salt water the adsorbed fraction ranges from 0% to about 40% (Salomons, 1983). The major part of adsorbed cadmium in sea water is irreversibly bound. The distinction between adsorbed and dissolved cadmium is made because cadmium irreversibly bound to suspended particles is not biologically available,

so that it is relatively non-toxic. Only the dissolved fraction of cadmium and its compounds can be considered toxic to aquatic organisms. The adsorbed fraction of cadmium and the speciation of dissolved cadmium, which influences the toxicity, depend on such factors as salinity, pH, and temperature. For example, when dredging spoils including sludge with cadmium bound to it are dumped into the North Sea, part of the cadmium dissolves as a result of the changed aquatic environmental conditions, e.g., higher dissolved oxygen content.

Aquatic pended

organisms material,

are in

exposed

sediments,

to and

cadmium in

in

the

food.

water

Cadmium

can

phase,

in

enter

an

susor-

ganism by passing through the gills, by oral intake, or after contact with outer membranes. Cadmium also leaves the organism by the same processes. Metals such as cadmium are primarily taken up by aquatic organisms from the water phase, resulting in a form of bioconcentration called bioaccumulation. The resulting concentration in organisms depends on the chemical equilibrium of the toxic compound between the water phase and the organism. With respect to cadmium, bioaccumulation

factors,

i.e.,

the

quotient

of

isms and concentrations in water, have been shrimps and 10,000 to 40,000 for mussels. The the concentration inside the organism.

concentration

found toxic

in

organ-

of 125 for grass effect depends on

Information on the toxicity of cadmium for organisms is based on laboresearch. It has been found that cadmium in water influences management in organisms, resulting in less productivity, i.e., and reproduction, and an increased sensitivity to stress from natural factors. The growth of mussels decreases at cadmium concentraratory energy growth

tions

in water

of 10 milligrams

per cubic meter

(mg/m ). Sublethal ef-

fects were found at cadmium concentrations as low as 1 mg/m. Lethal effects were observed in one experiment in which an hatch of Amphipod Pontgrporeia Affinis died at a cadmium concentration in water of 6.3

mg/m

(Sundelin,

1983).

The results of laboratory experiments cannot be directly translated into behavior of organisms in coastal or marine waters. Field conditions cannot be replicated in the laboratory. In marine waters, a number of factors affect the health of the organism. In the real world of some to a mix of compounds, are exposed organisms environment, which may reduce, some may exacerbate, the effects of cadmium. For example, calcium appears to protect marine animals against the toxic effects of cadmium to some degree. Both the toxicity and the accumulation of cadmium are significantly affected by the ambient salinity,

11

i.e., a decrease in salinity leads to an increase in toxicity, or the Higher temperatures result in an increase in net uptake, of cadmium. toxicity and/or accumulation of cadmium in marine biota. Cadmium can also have toxic effects on humans. About one-third of the cadmium intake in humans goes to the kidneys. Sufficient research has been done to substantiate the fact that metals, and some synthetic orhave an affinity for particular parts or a part of ganic compounds, the kidneys reprethe human body. In terms of quantity and effects, sent the critical organ in humans with respect to cadmium. A cadmium concentration in the range of 200 to 300 mg cadmium per kilogram (kg) of kidney weight has been determined to be the critical level for the average human. The mean intake of cadmium by which the critical concentration in the kidneys can be reached in 50 years is estimated to be on the order of 0.2 to 0.4 mg per person per day. Daily intake is a function of food consumption, smoking habits, exposure in the work place, ambient air quality. For example, smoking 20 cigarettes a day substantially increases the cadmium intake by the body (Stichting Natuur en Milieu, 1984). The World Health Organization has established a Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake of 0.4 to 0.5 mg per person. In the Netherlands the mean intake of cadmium has been estimated to be 0.020 to 0.025 mg per day, or 0.140 to 0.175 mg per week, of which from 0.001 to about 0.120 mg per week are estimated to be via consumption of finfish and shellfish (Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening

en

2.2

ABC

THE

Milieubeheer,

STUDY:

1984).

QUESTIONS

TO BE ANSWERED

As mentioned previously, the ABC study attempted to answer two kinds of questions. The first set of questions related to analysis in planning for water quality management, in particular to the kinds of information to be generated. The ABC study was particularly interested in costs of achieving different ambient water quality levels, with different geographic coverage, and the distribution of those costs. Such

information

is

basic

to

understanding

tradeoffs

between

(1)

costs

and (2) what is gained by use of such resources. That in turn leads to the investigation of the worth of the improved ambient water quality. The ABC study was not able to develop complete coverage on costs, and

did not have time and resources to investigate the "“worth'' issue. However, the explication of the approach is useful in demonstrating the difference between the Dutch study and what is considered a study which would be more adequately related to decision making. In addition, the Dutch study gave no attention to implementation in relation to individual dischargers, a critical element in management, as discussed in Chapter 7. The second set of questions explored the relations between, and interactions on, international and national levels. For example, does the stimulus to assess, and then to decide whether or not to do something about, a perceived ambient water quality problem originate from above, i.e., the international level, or from below, i.e., from one or more

of

the

nations

ternational

12

and

involved?

What

national

levels

kind(s)

and how

of

actions

effective

are are

involved they?

at

in-

These two sets of questions are reflected in Figure 2-1. This figure shows the steps contemplated in the evaluation of the framework for analysis and the empirical investigation of the effects of: the EC directive on cadmium; national laws of the Netherlands with respect to cadmium; and the interrelationships between the two levels.

Questions

related

to

analysis

What is the scope of the Dutch WQMP-North Sea, what kind of decisions had to be taken and would be the subject(s) of the plan, and how specific have these aspects been delineated? What steps of analysis were included, how were they executed, and how do they compare with the ABC framework? Is there a need for revising the framework? Was the information generated useful for the formulation of the plan? Is there any relation between the first question about the scope of the plan and the other questions about the steps of the analysis and the usefulness of the information generated? How have uncertain developments and lack of knowledge of the behavior

of

the

North

Sea

ecosystem(s)

been

dealt

with

in

the

analysis?

For example, given that atmospheric deposition was found to be a Significant source of cadmium discharged into the North Sea, was any attempt made to determine how cadmium got into the atmosphere in the first place, i.e., before being deposited in the North Sea by dry deposition and wet deposition?

Questions

related

to

institutional

structure

Triggers

What

"triggered"

regulation,

the

i.e.,

development

the

EC

and adoption

cadmium

directive?

of the Was

the

international international

action begun prior to national actions, or did national actions/ concerns stimulate the process at the international level? Is it likely that’ actions by a few --- 1, 2, 3 -=- nations involved in an international body of water stimulate actions at the international level? To what extent did the concern for cadmium discharges into internal waters stimulate action in terms of the EC directive? Do countries, or some countries, use international decisions as a means to stimu-

late action a country?

Effects

To

of

international

what

i.e.,

internally

the

extent EC

has

in a direction

desired

by some

groups

within

regulations

the

directive,

of

existence affected

the

an

international

presence

of

regulation,

cadmium

in

the

in-

ternational body of water, North Sea, and affected discharges into the North Sea from various sources? e.g., the EC cadmium directive, How do international regulations,

get "translated"

into

national

regulations

How are international regulations, implemented and enforced?

e.g.,

and procedures?

the

EC

cadmium

directive,

13

14

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e

Is the EC cadmium directive sufficiently specific so that it can be implemented through national legislation/regulations/actions? Given that regional and local governmental authorities usually actually write and enforce permits, how is the EC directive "passed through" to the regional and local entities?

e

How

are discharge permits for individual activities, e.g., industrial plant, municipal sewage treatment plant, written in the various North Sea countries in relation to the EC cadmium directive? Is there any relation?

Implementation

e

What levels

e

@

2.3

are to

the

scope

and

dischargers,

nature e.g.,

of

incentives

subsidies,

provided

permits,

fines,

at

national technical

advice, self-monitoring requirements, and random inspections? Has there been any attempt to define what behavior would be considered to be in noncompliance with the EC cadmium directive? Are there any sanctions which might be used to induce a noncomplying country, or dischargers within a country, to come into compliance? Or, do the levels set in the EC cadmium directive simply represent levels which all countries considered they could meet or. were already meeting at the time the directive was negotiated? How does the uncertainty in terms of the long-run effects of cadmium --- or any other heavy metal or synthetic organic compound --on the marine ecosystem affect the actions of the "parties at interest"? Are there different approaches to decision making under this type of uncertainty among the various North Sea countries? Are some countries more conservative, i.e., use larger factors of safety, than other countries? Are some countries more “risk adverting" than other countries? Are ambient water quality targets, and emission standards, adopted without analysis of their cost implications?

ORGANIZATION

OF THE

REPORT

To provide a basis for discussion of of the Dutch WQMP-North Sea study and 5.

Chapter 3 contains the approach.

the

background

In Chapter 4, the methods from the various sources also shown.

for are

analysis procedure, a description is presented in Chapters 3, 4,

of and

estimating described.

objectives

for

the

study,

and

discharges of cadmium in 1980 are The estimated quantities

The methods for estimating the effects of the 1980 discharges on ambiof in terms e.g., and on quality of sediments, quality ent water cadmium concentrations by season, are described in Chapter 5. Results under different assumptions are shown. posed in to the set of questions in relation actions Institutional Chapter 2 are analyzed in Chapter 6, in relation to both national and Primary attention is given to the actions international institutions. of the Dutch government and the effects of those actions.

15

Because the approach quate in terms of international

presented Concluding

Chapter

8.

in the Dutch study was considered generation of information for

decisions,

in Chapter

a

more

adequate

framework

for

to be inadenational and analysis

is

presented

in

7.

observations

and

continuing

questions

are

3 Water quality management plan for the Dutch portion of the North Sea

The

ABC

study

draws

heavily

on

analyses

executed

by

Rijkswaterstaat

(one of the Directorates of the Dutch Ministry of Transport and Public Works) and the Delft Hydraulics, in preparation of the WQMP-North Sea.

This chapter explains the background and limitations of that study in order to enable a better understanding of the ABC study and its results.

3.1

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

OF THE WQMP-NORTH

SEA

STUDY

In April 1984, a decision of the Dutch government was published with respect to the note, Harmonization of North Sea Policy. This note had been formulated by ICONA in 1982 and was subsequently subjected to a procedure of public participation and advice. The note comprised an action programme, including the formulation of a Water Quality Management Plan for the North Sea. This action was formulated in the following

terms

(Ministerie

"Building

on

van

Verkeer

international

en

Waterstaat,

conventions

1982):

and

actual

national policies, the plan will represent the vision of the Dutch Government on a coherent and strategic approach to preventing and combatting pollution of the North Sea. The plan will provide directives for international negotiations and in addition will indicate management strategies as

far

as

Cpe

33)

they

can

be

taken

in

the

Netherlands."

The leading ministry for drafting the WQMP-North Sea was the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. The study itself was carried out under responsibility of the Directorate North Sea of Rijkswaterstaat. Supporting analyses were performed by specialists of the Directorate North Sea and the Delta Department of Rijkswaterstaat, and the Delft Hydraulics, in an eighteen month period in 1983/1984. The study resulted in a draft WQMP-North Sea, which was presented to the public at the end of 1985.

The focus of the analysis to develop the WQMP-North quality management, in terms of analyzing the effects

Sea is on water on water quality

1

--- in the water column and in sediments --- of the production of a given mix of products and services (levels of activities), for present conditions and for some set of modified conditions resulting from the disundertaken to reduce cadmium implementation of steps actually charges in the Netherlands.

for Before providing a short description of the analysis conditions the state to illustrative is it studies, supporting Sea the WQMP-North general goal of Dutch North Sea water quality management, as expressed of North Sea Policy of the note, Harmonization in the final version (Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, 1984), i.e.: "To maintain or to obtain a water quality in the North Sea which enables preservation of the ecological values, thereby taking into account societal demands for the production of goods and ser-

vices

from the North

The "preservation comprised of:

of

Sea."

ecological''

(p. 10) values

is

specified

as _ being

"Maintaining or recuperation of a diversity of organisms and of aquatic ecosystems as close as pos-

sible

to

an

undisturbed

situation"

(Ibid,

p.

10);

and

"Preventing that, due to human activities, changes of the North Sea ecosystem will occur, which are irreversible and have adverse effects on the functions of the North Sea" (Ibid, p. 10).

3.2

CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE ANALYSES

The relatively short period for the study, the difficulties involved in obtaining the proper information, and the non-specific objectives for the WQMP-North Sea cited above, implied some major constraints for the possibilities to perform an analysis such as described in Chapter 7 and Appendix A. The constraint of total duration of 18 months was dominant and resulted in an elimination of parts of the projected analysis, e.g., a spatially differentiated analysis of ecologic characteristics to provide some basis for a comparison of relative worth among geographic areas and concentrations of toxic substances. The following segments of analysis were included: setting up the analysis; estimating discharges from various sources; and analyzing natural systems, including the effects or potential effects on species. Those steps can be compared with those described in Appendix A. In addition, an investigation was made of international agreements, national regulations, and policy guidelines reflecting the legal and institutional structure for water quality management in the Dutch portion

of

the

North

Sea.

This

information

was

used

in

two

ways.

One,

constraints were looked for, in the sense that the legal and institutional structures could not provide the proper instruments to stop deterioration or to obtain an improvement of the actual water

18

quality. North

Second, Sea

formal

marine

policy

guidelines

resources,

were

consistency, in particular the activities involved.

in relation

The

output

characteristics

to be: of

of

(1) estimates

concentrations

the

of discharges

of various

of

related

to

the

the

with

water

study

in water;

of

defined

(2) estimates

estimates

(3)

to

effects

implicitly

sources;

using

respect

quality

were

from various

substances

to activities

evaluated

of

ef-

fects of those concentrations on species; (4) description of the ecology of the North Sea; and (5) delineation of the legal and institufor the Dutch portion of of water quality management tional context the

North

Sea.

In summary, the following general observations merit spect to a characterization of the Dutch study. e

e

e

e

e

emphasis

with

re-

The study concentrated on water quality management and considered mainly those human activities which influence ambient water and sediment quality of the North Sea: shipping; gas and oil mining; and disposal of wastes. Alternative mixes of products and services were not analyzed. Rather, estimates were made of inputs of wastes into the North Sea in a kind of present situation, characterized by the year 1980. Developments subsequent to 1980 were assessed only with respect to: (1) the cadmium concentrations in the Rhine in 1985; and (2) the decrease of cadmium discharges by Dutch controlled sources, as a result of concrete actions taken between 1980 and 1985. No specific measures to reduce discharges were formulated and, as a consequence, no economic analysis was carried out. For the same reason no use has been made of the collected legal and institutional information to carry out an analysis of how concrete measures might be implemented. No analysis was made of the benefits of improved water quality, e.g., in relation to specific ecologic characteristics and specific uses of Dutch coastal waters. This would require a spatial differentiation of such characteristics and uses and of the concentrations of different substances. Part of this information was made available, but time and budget constraints impeded a proper approach in this direction. No time was available to carry out sensitivity analyses with respect to the major assumptions, including, e.g.: estimates of atmospheric deposition; the North Atlantic Ocean concentrations applied to

the

inflow

through

the

English

Channel;

constant

river

inflows

throughout the year; utilization of tidal averaged flows; and effect of stratification due to temperature and salinity differences in the water column. More specific analysis conditions relate to the area, substances, and the coincided with area or planning study The considered. sources Dutch portion of the North Sea as shown in Figure 1-2. For the purpose the horizontal modelling, quality water and circulation of water bounded

on

north by the parallel of 56 degrees latitude and in the south line across the English Channel, both as shown in Figure 1-2.

by

boundaries

the the

Substances

coincided

considered

with

the

were:

so-called

cadmium

southern

(Cd);

North

mercury

Sea,

(Hg);

lead

(Pb);

ug

copper (Cu); chromium (Cr); zine (Zn); phosphorus (P); and nitrogen (N). Although these substances occur in both dissolved and particulate

forms, only total concentrations were considered. As part of the deSea, the toxic effects of scription of the ecology of the North organochlorides were investigated. An estimate was made of discharges

of

petroleum

analysis, Sources oceanic spoils; eration tions.

3.3

hydrocarbons

oil was

not

(oil)

considered

into

North

the

to be a major

Sea.

problem,

on

Based as

of

this

1984.

considered were: atmospheric deposition; riverine inputs; cross boundary flows; coastal outfalls; dumping of dredging dumping of industrial wastes; dumping of sewage sludge; incinon ships; marine transport; and offshore oil and gas opera-

EVALUATION

OF AMBIENT

WATER

QUALITY

The Dutch study in preparation of the WQMP-North Sea developed a methodology to establish critical and target concentrations in the North Sea, in order to decide on measures, if any, to be taken. An attempt was

made

fects

to

relate

of those

target

substances

concentrations

in the

marine

for

various

substances

to

ef-

environment.

Referring to the effects of actual concentrations was not possible, because there were no clear indications that some of the symptoms of the effects of toxic substances in the North Sea on organisms were caused by certain ambient concentrations --- in water and in sediments --- of considered substances. Therefore, target concentrations were based on the results of toxicologic laboratory tests. Effects can be divided into lethal effects, causing an organism's death, and sublethal effects, comprising all noticeable effects not leading to death. Laboratory tests can be carried out to estimate lethal and sublethal concentrations, i.e., ‘concentrations in water causing lethal and sublethal effects, respectively, and the no-effect level, representing the highest concentration which does not cause noticeable effects.

Lethal concentrations (LC), sublethal concentrations (SLC) and no-effect levels (NEL) were developed for particular substances in relation to: specific organisms; a specified time span, 96 hours unless indicated differently; and a certain percentage of organisms on which the effects were observed, 50% unless indicated differently. For example, for a specific organism a LC of cadmium of 5 mg/m means that,

an

in

laboratory

aquarium

with

tests

water

50%

of

containing

this

organism

5 mg/m

of

died

within

Using such results for the analysis of measured concentrations in the North Sea includes at least uncertainties.

e

-@

20

96

hours

in

cadmium.

or the

estimated following

As already observed in Chapter 2, in the real world organisms react to a combination of different substances, referred to as synergetic and antagonistic effects. Toxic effects of heavy metals may appear only after a long period, due to their bioaccumulation characteristics.

e

e

Organisms are exposed to toxic substances not only through water but through the food they consume. Toxicological experiments often deal with dissolved concentrations in water, in which form substances are biologically available. In the WQMP-North Sea study only total concentrations were used. However, not all substances in the North Sea are totally dissolved. For example, a substantial part of heavy metals is adsorbed to suspended material and sediments.

Lethal concentrations were used in the WQMP-North Sea to develop target concentrations associated with factors of safety to compare with the estimated concentrations in the North Sea. They were also used with a second indicator, the anthropogenic fraction, to establish priorities among different toxic substances with respect to the allocation of available budget and administrative operational Capacities. The anthropogenic fraction is the fraction of the concentration at any location which was estimated to result from human activities.

Lethal

and

target

concentrations

for

cadmium

Based on a review of available literature on toxicologic experiments, the following lowest concentrations were found for exposure to cadmium of

ytoplankton,

,zooplankton,

benthic

organisms,

and

fish:

NEL

0.50 Figure

5-7.

the cadmium conditions,

Estimated

distribution

concentration sedimentation

of

the

in the southern not considered

anthropogenic North

Sea

fraction

under

1980

of

winter

tion to be answered is how the concentration of cadmium in the active surface layer of sediments develops over time as a function of the time dependent development of concentration of cadmium in suspended material from riverine and marine origins. The active layer is defined as the benthic layer which has an active interaction with the aquatic ecosystem. This interaction includes: physical activities, i.e., diffusion, perturbation by human activities, morphological processes; chemical

processes,

i.e.,

adsorption,

desorption;

and

biological

tivities, e.g., by benthic organisms. Based on the morphological ation and the types of benthic organisms present, the active varies in thickness between 5 and 50 centimeters. Assuming complete mixing active bottom layer, the

between settled sediments and accumulation of cadmium in the

be estimated

1984)

(Anonymous,

€ebire; and dissolved

coastal

waters

other

than

cadmium concentration in estuaries, concentrations seas in, territorial

estuaries,

< 5 and

< 2.5 mg/m.

According to Article 6 of the directive, the member states have to bring into force measures necessary to comply with the directive within two years following the notification, i.e., by September 1985.

6.3

The

NATIONAL

MECHANISMS

Netherlands

With respect to black-list substances such as cadmium, the approach of limiting discharges is adopted in the Netherlands. In the most recent Water Action Program 1985-1989 (Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer and Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat,1985), it is stated that, for black-list substances, surface water pollution, in principle, has to be terminated. The target is to reduce the discharges of these substances to as near nil as possible, by applying the best technical means available (BTM). If such BIM are not adequate in abating discharges, it has to be seen whether remaining discharges lead to unacceptable concentrations of cadmium in the aguatic

are

environment.

required,

which

If

may

this

is

include

the

case,

a total

ban

more

on

far

the

reaching

measures

discharges.

The above implies that BIM should be applied regardless of actual ambient environmental quality. In the Dutch approach, ambient water quality standards play a role only in assessing the situation which would result if BIM were applied. The Dutch ambient water quality standard for the total cadmium concentration in inland surface waters is 2.5 mg/m in comparison to the EC standard of 5.0 mg/m. The Dutch government, to standard

however, indicate

considers neither the EC standard nor concentration. safe, the acceptable,

the The

Dutch Dutch

standard is used to determine areas where measures to reduce cadmium where the cadmium are i.e., have a high priority, concentrations The Dutch governof 2.5 mg/m. the standard exceeds concentration in surment's view is that, in the long run, cadmium concentrations concentrations. natural so-called the near be should waters face

Implementation of international regulations occurs in the Netherlands the Surface substances: through two acts which deal with black-list Water Pollution Act (WVO) of 1970 and the Sea Pollution Act (WVZ) of 1977. Short descriptions of their fields of application and the instruments they provide follow.

57

The WVO is applicable to direct discharges to inland surface waters, territorial seas, and high seas through discharge pipes, and to discharges and dumping through other means to inland waters and territorial seas. The basic principle of this legislation is that discharging Permits will include is prohibited. or dumping without authorization conditions

and

instructions,

which,

in

relation

to

cadmium

as

one

of

the black-list substances, imply the required application of BIM. Permits for discharges into state- managed waters, i.e., the major rivers and waterways, estuaries, and territorial seas, are granted by the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. Discharges into other waters are under the juridiction of the provincial executives, who are empowered to assign certain tasks and rights to the executives of other public bodies, e.g., the water boards. Through a ministerial decree in November 1974, a list of substances exists for which all discharges may be prohibited. No use has been made of this possibility. Indirect dischargers, e.g., activities discharging into sewer systems, also must have permits. In general, such permits are granted by municipalities. In those permits, a discharge standard of 0.1 mg/1, not to be exceeded, is usually applied. This standard was specified in a directive of the Union of Water Boards. The Surface Water Pollution Act includes a list of types of activities which have to obtain permits from water boards or provincial agencies in order to discharge into sewer systems. By virtue of the WVO, water boards responsible for ambient water quality apply a cadmium levy, which --in 1980 --- was about 50 Dutch guilders per 100 g of cadmium discharged to waste water treatment plants. A cadmium levy can be imposed when extra treatment costs result from the presence of cadmium in the discharge to a treatment plant. A levy is meant to be a contribution to these costs, not an instrument to reduce discharges per se, although levies may have that effect.

With respect to discharges into surface waters from diffuse sources, such as agricultural drainage waters, other legislation has been proposed. The Soil Protection Bill and the Fertilizers Bill will be applicable to agricultural discharges. Standards will be laid down with respect to cadmium concentrations in fertilizers and sewage sludge applied on agricultural land. The Union of Water Boards has already established some standards regarding sewage sludge. Application of sludge on agricultural land is limited to 2 tons per hectare per year on cropland and to 1 ton per hectare per year on grassland. The cadmium content of the sludge must be less than 5 ppm. No standards have yet been established for cadmium in fertilizers.

The Sea

Pollution

Act

(WVZ)

concerns

the dumping

of wastes

from

ships

and aircraft. The WVZ applies to Dutch ships and aircraft in all seas and to foreign ships and aircraft in Dutch territorial waters, including offshore installations in the Dutch portion of the Continental Shelf. Discharge or dumping of oil and radioactive materials was excluded, because other legislation already applies to these substances. According to the WVZ, it is absolutely forbidden to discharge into the sea any of the materials which are specified in an implementing regu_lation, such as cadmium, except where present as trace contaminants. The prohibition includes taking on board or delivering such materials

58

with the intention not been defined.

to discharge them. The term "trace contaminant" has An exemption permit is needed for discharges of

harmful, polluting, or waste materials which are not specified in the black list, and for discharges of black-list substances present as trace contaminants. The Minister of Transport and Public Works, in concordance with the Minister of Housing, Physical Planning, and Environment, has the authority to grant exemptions from the prohibitions.

The United

Kingdom

The water quality management approach of the United Kingdom seeks to strike a balance between the dual aims of protecting the environment capacity of the environment the natural and utilizing to accept and In general the principle followed degrade many potential pollutants. has been that primary responsibility for dealing with pollution problems should rest as far as is practicable with local authorities and because it is they who are best able to determine water authorities, and to identify any what discharges in their areas are permissible pollution that might occur. Thus, while national standards do exist in a

few

cases,

in

the

main

the

central

government's

role

is

confined

to

for regulation. is framework Implementation laying down a statutory delegated to the local level, generally to the regional water authorities. In some cases advisory guidelines have been developed, but these is in general no equivalent do not have the force of law. There in and uniform discharge the detailed United to Kingdom legislation and/or ambient environmental quality standards in the legislation of many other countries. Authorities are expected to operate on the principle that standards should be reasonably practicable. Discharge standards can be established and are to be based on an assessment of local state and circumstances, conditions knowlof technical the current edge, the potential harm from the discharges, and the financial implications (Department of the Environment, 1982). The United Kingdom approach to dumping at sea is essentially a pragmatic one of resource management, based on the premise that the sea has an important role to play in waste management. Decisions with respect to licensing of discharges are designed to achieve the best reasonably practicable environmental option (Department of the Environment, 1982). The main acts related to pollution control in the United Kingdom are: the Water Act of 1973; the Control of Pollution Act of 1974; and the Dumping at Sea Act of 1974. Discharges of cadmium into rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters are governed primarily by the Control of Pollution Act. This act prohibits the discharge of poisonous, noxious, or polluting matter, unless it is licensed by the relevant water authorithe Water Act, established under authorities were ty. The ten water covering England and Wales. Dumping of wastes from ships and aircraft into the North Sea is regulated in the United Kingdom by the Dumping to dump materials system; a licensing The act creates at Sea Act. without

a

license

is

an

offence.

The

Minister

of

Agriculture,

Fisher-

ies and Food is obliged in granting licenses to consider the need to protect the marine environment and its living resources. The minister must impose such conditions on the dumping as are necessary or expedient for such protection.

bo

6.4 In

IMPLEMENTATION the

OF INTERNATIONAL the

Netherlands,

REGULATIONS

Convention,

Paris

the

International

Rhine

Con-

vention, and the EC frame directive have been implemented in the Surface Water Pollution Act. In particular, the International Rhine Convention and the EC directive have had major implications for this act. In amendments to the act, which went into effect 1 January 1982, the following were introduced: regulations concerning indirect discharges; the possibility of establishing limits; and the obligation to make an inventory of discharges. The EC cadmium directive was also implemented in the Surface Water Pollution Act. The Dutch approach to abating pollution by discharges of black-list substances such as cadmium is directed to discharges. Therefore, in the implementation of the EC cadmium directive, the ministerial decree of September 1985, based on Article la.3 of the Surface Water Pollution Act which provided for establishing limits for discharge standards, adopted only the limits on discharges in Annex I of the EC directive. It was assumed that the cadmium concentration in waste waters never would be decisive. Therefore, only the limit values expressed in g/kg cadmium handled are incorporated in the Surface Water Pollution Act. Although the discharge standards at present applied in Dutch licenses are more stringent than the limits in the EC cadmium directive, the latter values were included in the ministerial decree. The

Sea

the

Oslo

Pollution

Act

Convention.

constitutes All

the

provisions

Dutch

laid

national

down

in

implementation

this

Convention,

as the prohibition on dumping of certain substances, permits, and the black list, have been incorporated in tion Act.

of such

the exemption the Sea Pollu-

To comply with the EC cadmium directive, the United Kingdom has relied upon administrative means. The Department of the Environment sent an advice note on the implementation of the directive to the water authorities. This note was drawn up in consultation with water authorities and industries. The advice note draws attention to the various provisions in the frame directive and in the cadmium directive and sets a time table for implementation. The note states that government policy is to consider ways of reducing exposure while taking into account the technical advantages of cadmium. The provisions of the Oslo Convention and the goals set out in the Convention were embodied in United Kingdom law in the Dumping at Sea Act. It has to be noted, however, that the black list was not enacted as aspartaof thatwact.

6.5

DUTCH

ACTIONS

AND THEIR

EFFECTS

Because information on English discharges are being regulated mium discharges into the Dutch

60

ON CADMIUM

INPUTS

cadmium discharges and on the way those is scarce, this section focuses on cadportion of the North Sea.

Effects

achieved

through

1985

According to the Dutch Water Action Program 1985-1989 (Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer and Ministerie van

Verkeer

en

Waterstaat,

1985),

cadmium

discharges

from

industrial

activities into Dutch internal waters decreased from 30 tons in 1975 to 19 tons in 1980 and to 18 tons in 1985. The major decrease is a result of reductions in discharges by fertilizer plants from 25 tons in 1975 to about 17 tons in 1980 and about 16 tons in 1985. Fertilizer plants discharge waste gypsum under licenses granted by Dutch authorities. Discharge standards in these licenses are based on the cadmium Use of cleaner phosphatic rock content of the raw material processed. was the measure adopted by the plants to reduce the cadmium content of the waste gypsum, in response to the discharge standards imposed. Reductions of cadmium discharges also occurred in the electroplating industry, from 2.7 tons in 1975 to 0.4 ton in 1985. This was accomplished by improving wastewater treatment. Financial aid was available

from the Dutch government. Individual electroplaters could claim a grant of 25% of the capital costs of a treatment plant and a grant of 40% of any consulting fees. After the reduction, the cadmium concentrations in discharged waste waters presumably comply with the standard of the Union of Water Boards, i.e., . The second area which the factor of safety assigned is 50. A factor of safety of 25 is assigned to the third area. Each of the grid cells shown in Figure 5-2 COULD thus have a factor of safety assigned.

Figure 7-3 also shows two specific areas, Cl and C2. These areas, in front of the Eastern Scheldt and the Wadden Sea respectively, can be considered to represent critical areas with respect to a major function of the North Sea, namely preserving estuaries by seawater inflow.

71

x a < = z W a

C2

THE

UNITED

KINGDOM

NETHERLANDS

BELGIUM

Ue

Area

1

Safety

factor

is

100

Area

2

Safety

factor

is

50

Area’

3)

@Satety

Gactoraiss

20

“J

SS

Figure 7-3. Example of delineation the Dutch portion of the North Sea used in the analysis

Dutch In

cadmium

of relative importance of areas in and corresponding factors of safety

measures

for

reducing

discharges

determining

the

cost-effectiveness

of

possible

measures,

the

step is developing a set of physical measures for reducing discharges by the various Dutch activities, and the associated

first

cadmium costs.

In Chapter 4, the main Dutch sources of cadmium discharges in 1980 were indicated. To reduce cadmium discharges by Dutch activities, various measures can be undertaken, related to various steps in production processes and to use of products and services. Measures which reduce the total amount of cadmium discharged to the environment include: banning utilization of products containing cadmium; reducing the use of cadmium containing raw materials; and changing to other production processes which do not, or more efficiently, use cadmium. Measures which do not reduce the total amount of cadmium discharged to the environment but simply shift the discharge from one environmental

72

medium to another include wastewater treatment and storage of dredging spoils on land, both assuming that containment is achieved. The following discussion illustrates how the discharge reduction-cost data relating to specific physical measures is developed. Disposal of dredging spoil The main Dutch dumping site for disposal of dredging spoil is Loswal Noord. At this dumping site, Site Xin Figure 7-4, dredging spoils from the Rijnmond area are dumped. According to information presented in Chapter 4, the major part is classified as Class 1 (slightly con-

taminated), but some parts of Class 2 (moderately contaminated) and Class 3 (contaminated) dredging spoils are also dumped at this site.

Of the dredging spoils being dumped, about one-fourth --- the Class 2 3 part --- is to be diverted to Site Y, where adjacent to and Class the coast a special facility for disposal is being built. No leaching from the spoil is assumed to take place in this of toxic materials facility. 1 The difference in costs of dumping dredging spoil will be the difference between the cost of disposal of the entire amount at Site X, and the cost of disposal of 3/4 at Site X and 1/4 at Site Y. The mix of facilities and equipment will be different for the two systems. Because the discharge into the North Sea of undesired materials other than cadmium will also be reduced by this option, only a portion of

the

costs

should

be

assessed

“against"

cadmium.

One

basis

for

allo-

cating costs among the materials of concern would be on the basis of relative toxicity. However the allocation is done, it is important to emphasize that only a portion of the costs can be considered to be for the purpose of reducing cadmium discharges. Also under consideration is moving the ocean dumping operation from site X to site Z, with the same proportions allocated to the two sites. The total amount of cadmium discharged would be the same as for the previous alternative, but the measure could have an extra positive effect

on

cadmium

concentrations

in

the

coastal

zone,

because

of

the

current pattern along the coast. The extra costs would be substantial, because of the increased transport distance. As for site X, the cost to be attributed to cadmium would be some allocated portion of the net change in costs, other portions to be allocated to the reductions in discharges of other materials of concern.

Fertilizer plants Fertilizer plants represent a major source of cadmium discharges. Conceptually, one alternative would be the addition of end-of-pipe facilities, analogous to waste water treatment plants. However, the volume of material involved would probably require facilities of such size as to make this option physically infeasible because of land constraints, and economically infeasible in any case. Another alternative would be to cease fertilizer production and subThe stitute imported fertilizer, or to use other types of fertilizer. costs of both of these alternatives can be be estimated. Import subConsideration must stitution involves both direct and indirect costs. be given to whether or not the plants can produce any other products facilities. or with modified investment, capital with the existing on the depends used be can fertilizers of types other not or Whether

73

ta

|Saha fn ABBE AREA amie

ATO RBI CTE APE ita Peek SEE Parr

BES

a

PORTION x= WJ

SEA

74

7-4.

Existing

and

Ri

gt F2.. ~

S Figure spoils

Lie Fo

;

4

0410

proposed

sites

for

20

30

40

disposal

50 mile

of

dredging

nature and volved.

flexibility

of

the

agricultural

production

functions

in-

A potential measure would be to use an alternative technology for producing fertilizer. One process has been developed through the laboratory stage. The new technology involves modifying the phosphate rock raw material, the direct input to the present fertilizer production process, to remove impurities, including cadmium. IF the new technology is technically and economically feasible, the costs to be attributed to reduction in cadmium discharge would be the difference in NET costs between the costs with the existing process, and the costs with the new process, including annualized capital costs for the new facila different involves The new process ities. combination of inputs, e.g.,

water,

energy,

labor,

than

the

process,

existing

and

a

has

lower

yield. It is also likely product to generate of a different set liquid, gaseous, and solid residuals in production, so that there will be a difference in residuals modification and handling costs. There will be an increase in some types of residuals generated, e.g., energy i.e., intensive, is more energy the new process because residuals, requires more energy per unit of output. The costs for each production system must include the costs of handling and disposing of all primaThere may be more generated. residuals and tertiary ry, secondary, potential for use, in byproduct production, of the waste slurry. Agricultural operations At least two alternatives could be considered. One would be more efficient application of the type of fertilizer currently in use. There is considerable evidence from a number of studies that farmers tend to use more fertilizer than is necessary to provide the required nutrient inputs for crops. This is done as an 'insurance'' measure. More efficient use of fertilizer possibly could be achieved by soil testing, monitoring content in relation to plant uptake, and more careful application. The net annual cost of this measure would be the cost of technical advice and monitoring minus the savings in fertilizer applied plus or minus the savings in costs of application. Unit costs will probably increase because of increased labor and equipment inputs to achieve the more efficient application. Total costs might decrease if savings in fertilizer costs are greater than the increase in application and other costs. The extent to which more efficient application of fertilizer would reduce discharges depends on the relation between application and runoff. The other alternative would be a shift to a new type of fertilizer containing less cadmium, such as that which is presumed to be possible to produce by a new fertilizer production technology. Assume that the new

fertilizer

is

available,

but

that

it

costs

30%

more

than

the

fer-

There is likely to tilizer currently used in agricultural operations. of demand exelasticity i.e., price, in change to response some be ists. Assume that the elasticity is such that the demand decreases by 15%. Therefore the new level of fertilizer application would be somewhat less than at present. This in turn would result in a decrease in even if the relationship between fertilizer applicadmium discharge, cation may or

and runoff may not be

(discharge) the case.

remained

the

same

as

at

present,

which

75

The reduction in fertilizer use might result in a reduction in yield. If so, then the net cost of reducing cadmium discharges from agricultural operations would equal [reduction in yield X unit revenue ] - net change in fertilizer application costs. The latter includes both the effect of the increasein price plus the change in application costs that the lower remembering as a result of applying less fertilizer, in unit in an increase application might result intensive but more application costs. Analyzing costs in relation to some agricultural operations is complicated by the existence of crop support prices, and --- in some countries --- subsidized fertilizer and energy costs. Although estimating the resources costs associated with reducing cadmium discharges from agricultural operations is straightforward, estimating the incidence of those costs is often quite difficult. Sewage treatment plant near the Hague A decision has been made by the Dutch government to install secondary sewage treatment at the Hague. This decision was made for reasons other than reducing the discharge of cadmium. Even if cadmium in the North Sea were not an issue, the government would have gone ahead with the plant for other reasons. Therefore, unless there are particular, separable costs which would be incurred at the plant and in the subsequent disposal of sludge from the plant, which result from the presence of cadmium in the inflow to the plant, there are no costs associated with reducing cadmium discharges by the plant. Chemical plant At least two alternatives might be relevant for a chemical plant. One would be to add several steps of wastewater treatment, with no recovery of cadmium. The net cost of reducing cadmium discharge would be the total annual cost of the wastewater treatment plus disposal of wastewater treatment sludge, again assuming that the sludge was contained so that no cadmium would be discharged from sludge disposal. Another alternative wouldbe a shift in production process. Assume that this involves primarily addition and modification of unit processes in order to recover some portion of the used cadmium, thereby reducing discharge with the same level of product production (output). As with the fertilizer plant and new technology, many of the existing unit processes would still be utilized. The net cost then is the difference in the annual costs of production with the old technology and the annual costs of production with the new technology. The substitution of the new technology results in a different combination of factor

inputs,

the.

comparison

e.g.,

must

energy,

be made

water,

other

raw

with

respect

to

materials,

total

labor,

production

so

that

costs.

Summary of discharge reduction measures The relevant data on the various physical measures would be summarized in a table such as Table “7-1. Table 7-1 also includes some measures with respect to minor cadmium discharges: discharges by the electroplating industry; discharges by the metallurgical industry; and dumping of industrial waste.

Tabulated plus, for

76

for each activity would be one or more each measure: capital (investment) cost,

physical measures, annualized capital

cost, O&M costs, total annual costs, base discharge of cadmium (without the measure), discharge of cadmium with the measure, and reduction

in discharge operating.

Cost

of

cadmium

effectiveness

as

a result

of physical

of

the

measure

being

in place

and

measures

For any activity-physical measure combination in Table 7-1, the effect on cadmium concentrations by the reduction in cadmium discharge which would be achieved is estimated by use of the water quality model or models. These effects depend not only on the reduction in cadmium discharge, but on the discharge location as well. With

respect

between:

to

discharge

(a) discharges

location,

into

a

the Rhine

relevant

distinction

or the New Waterway,

to make

e.g.,

charges by fertilizer plants and electroplating plants; and (b) charges or dumping operations in front of the Dutch coast north of Rhine outlet, e.g. the dumping of dredging spoils. Because of the rent pattern along the coast, reductions in the latter type of charges will only affect cadmium concentrations in areas north of discharge

tions reduce

location,

in the the

i.e.,

cadmium

cadmium

cause Rhine water tide conditions.

load

in

critical

entering

concentration

may

be

flowing

area

C2

the North in

both

in

Sea

critical

southwards

under

Figure

through areas

7-4.

certain

and

disthe curdisthe

Reduc-

the Rhine Cl

is

dis-

may

C2,

be-

weather

and

Combining the change in concentration with the total annual cost yields the cost per unit of reduction in concentration, the "costeffectiveness" of the measure. Compilationof such data for the various measures would be done as indicated in outline form in Table 7-2. This cost-effectiveness table can be used to find the combination of physical measures which would achieve sufficient reduction in concentration in the designated subarea to achieve the specified target concentration.

As noted previously, reduction in concentration in a specified subarea, i.e., grid cell, by a given measure is likely to reduce concentrations in other grid cells as well. Such information could be included

in

the

cost-effectiveness

table,

as

shown

in Table

7-2.

To achieve the target levels in one or more cells in which the target levels are exceeded will usually require a set of physical measures. These combinations can be selected by searching the cost-effectiveness table or by random sampling, as indicated previously. Tabulation of the estimated results for the various combinations could be as shown in Table 7-3, in which the total annual cost for each combination is shown. The table also shows the grid cells of concern in each of which is less than or equal to the concentration the resulting estimated it concentration, the resulting In estimating target concentration. should be taken into account that not all reductions are physically are directly additive. not all costs and effects i.e., independent, into inland waters may affect the in cadmium discharges Reductions the may affect therefore, and, spoils of dredging cadmium content cost-effectiveness of contained disposal of dredging spoils.

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The for

distribution of costs of a management strategy is often one of the criteria used in sociopolitical decisions. Thus it is important the analysts to estimate and tabulate not only total costs, but

how

those

major

costs

are

distributed.

The

costs

in

tables

7-1,

7-2,

and

7-3

However, at least some of the represent costs to society. resource activities are not likely to pay all of the resource costs, because of various subsidies. in the case of the wastewater treatFor example, the national plants, ment plant for electroplating government might provide a grant to cover 40% of the capital costs. For the new techthe national government might pronology for fertilizer production, vide 50% of the development costs and 50% of the capital investment. The data on the distribution of costs for the least cost system can be displayed as shown in Table 7-4.

7.3

IMPLEMENTATION

INCENTIVES

An integral part of formulating strategies is the analysis of implementation incentive systems. The purpose of an implementation incentive system is to induce desired behavior by resident and transient activities in a given marine resources region, such as the North Sea,

or

the

Dutch

portion

An implementation are: (1)

(2)

of the North

incentive

Sea.

system

consists

of

four

components.

These

a set of rules or procedures an activity must follow, standards an activity must meet, production and/or waste modification equipment an activity must use, level of discharges which must not be exceeded, any or all of which are usually specified in an operating permit, license, franchise, lease;

a basis

and

the rules, ty,

a procedure

for

procedures,

e.g., procedure over time;

measuring

standards

for

performance

specified

monitoring

the

in

or

adherence

(1) for

quality

of

a

the

to

activi-

liquid

dis-

charge

(3)

or procedure for inspecting the activity to determine a schedule compliance with the rules, procedures, standards, equipment speciof resubmission visits, of unannounced frequency e.g., fied, quired reports in proper formats; and

(4) a set ating the

of sanctions, e.g., fines, imprisonment, revocation of operfor failure to comply with permit, shutdown of production,

rules,

procedures,

standards,

et

al.,

specified

for

the

activ-

iby in the real world, the least cost set of that, be assumed It cannot automatically be adopted and inidentified will physical measures based on data from various countries Nor, stalled by the activities.

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can

it

be

continuously,

conditions.

assumed adhere

that to

Implementation

individual

their

discharge

incentive

sys-

Thus, for each activity-residual-physical measure combination such as shown in Table 7-1, the analyst must identify the set of incentives, such as subsidy for part of capital costs, permit, self-monitoring requirements, reporting requirements and inspections, which together will induce to perform, the activity and the governmental entities for imposing the incentives. which will be responsible For example, the subsidy, provide government the national might the provincial issue the permit, and the provincial and/or local governgovernment ments do the inspections. The problem of implementation is particularly difficult in international contexts, as the discussion in the previous chapter shows. Differences in legal and governmental structures may mean that, for the same activity-residual-physical measure combination, different implementation incentive systems will be relevant in different countries. The problem of implementation is typically ignored in analysis for formulating management strategies. Yet, without implementation the ambient water quality targets will not be achieved. In addition, there are some administrative costs associated with implementation, such as those relating to permitting and inspecting. Although these costs are usually not large in relation to investment and operating costs of facilities, the costs must be borne and hence need to be identified. For some activities in a marine resources region, such as discharging from vessels at sea, permitting and monitoring activities do not represent large costs to governmental entities. Monitoring of waste discharges from individual point sources, including inspecting, is likely to be substantially more expensive. In any case, the dischargers should bear the costs, as a part of the costs of doing business. What the cost-reduction table in the previous section should then include, are the costs associated with implementation incentive systems, both the costs to the activity for monitoring and reporting, and the costs to the relevant agency for its tasks, e.g., permitting and inspecting.

7.4

PRACTICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

Some remarks can be made with respect dures set forth in the above sections. e

In

the

selection

of

measures

to

be

to

(components

taken,

criteria

of)

the

other

proce-

than

the

in specific grids costs and the effects on cadmium concentrations in the North Sea can be applied. Table 7-5 lists examples of criteTwo comments with respect to criteria for evaluating strategies. ria merit emphasis. One, it is difficult to quantify, rigorously, all of the criteria listed in Table 7-5. With respect to some, only qualitative scales such as low, medium, high, will be possible. For others, only descriptive commentary will be possible. Nevertheless, exto identify is considered useful and essential to attempt it

83

PHYSICAL, a.

ECONOMIC

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OVER TIME quality environmental ambient in Changes subregions and subsection of the region Effects of changes in AEQ on receptors, users Extra-regional ecosytem effects Net energy used or produced

EFFECTS

AND THEIR DISTRIBUTIONS

in

various

the

of the

region

OVER TIME

a. b. c.

Direct benefits, e.g., values of products and services Direct costs of products and services produces Administrative costs

d. e.

Indirect Indirect

produced

benefits associated with products and services produced costs associated with proucts and services produced

ADMINISTRATIVE CONSIDERATIONS Simplicity Effects on staffs of existing agencies Retention of effectiveness under changing conditions Ease of modification under changing conditions, i.e., flexibility TIMING

CONSIDERATIONS Years before

production

Years

before

Time

required

arrangement

adverse

of produces

impacts

to establish

on

AEQ

and

services

begin

implementation

to

be

begins measured

incentive/institutional

systems

CONSIDERATIONS Priority in relation resources regions

to execution

of strategies

in other

marine

Degree to which strategy can be executed by a single agency rather than by multiple agencies Impacts on intergovernmental relations, i.e., relations between and among various governmental levels Acceptability to public Legal problems

ACCURACY

OF ESTIMATES

a. b. Cc.

Table

Physical, Benefits, Costs,

7-5.

chemical, biological direct and indirect

direct

Examples

plicitly,

in

and

indirect

of criteria

any

given

effects

for

context,

evaluating

the

strategies

criteria

of

relevance

for

marine resources management decisions. Two, not only do the criteria affect the

decision with respect to SELECTION of a strategy, they also affect the selection of analytical approaches and computational procedures used in the analysis. In order to APPLY the criteria to the proposed strategies, informa-

tion on those criteria must be generated in the analysis, e.g., on the distribution of costs. Thus, the analytical approaches and the computational procedure and methods must enable the generation of the. data needed to apply the criteria to proposed strategies. Some additional criteria may be relevant. Examples include: the reduction

of

cadmium

concentrations

in

other

(internal)

waters

or

in

other "compartments" (soil, atmosphere, food); and the reduction of concentrations of other polluting substances (such as organic pol-

lution).

84

It appears very difficult to obtain, in the Netherlands, accurate information on costs and effects of measures to reduce cadmium discharges. One reason is that some measures are still in development, such as a new production technique in the fertilizer industry. Howalready applied --- so costs ever, also in the case of measures must be known --- official reports do not include cost figures for sector activities. private The only information given individual investments" in a consists of aggregated data on “environmental certain industrial branch. The water quality model, as described in Chapter 5, is not sufficiently detailed for the kind of analysis outlined in this chapter, particularly with respect to estuarine areas. Grid cell size and structure of the model preclude analysis at that level of geographic detail. For example, as a result of the steady state conditions

assumed

in

the

model,

and

the

existence

of

a

wind

and

tide

induced sea current from south to north, Rhine river water entering the North Sea always flows northwards. In reality, due to phasedifferences between horizontal and vertical tidal movements, Rhine

water may be flowing southwards during short periods of the tidal cycle, resulting effectively in stationary water masses with relatively little exchange with the open sea. In such areas sedimentation processes can cause accumulation of cadmium in bottom sediments.

The fractional contributions of individual cadmium discharges in inland waters and the atmosphere can not be calculated, and --even more important --- no distinction has been made between dissolved and adsorbed cadmium. This is an important question in relation to the assumed linear relation between the reduction of cadmium inputs into the North Sea from dumping dredging spoils and the reduction of cadmium concentrations in North Sea waters (Salomons, 1985). In a previous section a tool has been presented, by which spatial differentiation can be included in the analyses. However, although detailed

information

on

biological

characteristics

is

available,

it

is very hard to define the relative importance of subareas. Knowledge about the marine ecosystem still is limited, and particularly direct and indirect, short-term and long-term effects of substances, e.g., cadmium, on individual organisms and on the whole ecosystem are not very well known. Marine biologists therefore are very careful about making statements on the relative importance of subareas.

However,

by

failing

to

do

so,

it

remains

for

far

less

knowledgeable individuals to make such judgments, for the resources available to society are limited. Not all things can be done simultaneously, so that some allocation is necessary. Logically, primary allocation should be to those subareas which are more important to society.

85

8 Concluding comments

The concluding comments herein do not necessarily relate to substances other than cadmium and to aquatic systems other than the North Sea. at in the Dutch context, Although they stem from analyses initiated least some of them appear relevant to other situations. Seven categories of comments are discussed: international relating

implementation specifying the analyzing the nature of the remaining and

8.1

regulations,

costs

to

benefits,

their

triggers

and

effects;

internationally;

and control on national levels; water quality objective; aquatic system; analysis; and further questions.

INTERNATIONAL

REGULATIONS,

THEIR

TRIGGERS

AND

EFFECTS

International mechanisms for water quality management have at least the following two functions. One, they result in general statements on agreed-upon goals for reducing contamination of the environment. Two,

they

provide

a "framework" for international

deliberations

on

opera-

tional steps to be taken to reach such goals. The international mechanisms may contain concise and quantified standards, but situations to which they apply are not always defined explicitly. However, quality objectives and discharge standards established in international agreements do conceptually put a lid on concentrations and discharges, which may be important when, as a result of better economic conditions, production levels increase and pressures to increase discharges follow.

It is not known what information on the cadmium situation in the North Sea was used in drafting the international agreements, such as those discussed in Chapter 6. For example, no information could be found on the costs to specific activities in specific locations to reduce cadmium discharges; and only general information seems to have been used on the environmental effects of cadmium, not related to specific ecosystems in the North Sea or even to other aquatic ecosystems. ' It is unclear on was based to put

86

what quantitative information the decision of the EC cadmium high on the list of priority substances for

reduction in discharges. Also, it is unclear on what information limits for ambient quality objectives and discharge standards in the EC cadmium directive, reproduced in Appendix B, were based. No definitions of "economically feasible" and "acceptable level", phrases used in the directive, are given. Was the acceptable level determined using the No Effect Level, or the Lethal Concentration divided by a factor of safety, or did it result from negotiations? Whether, and how,

limits lated,

for ambient quality is not clear.

objectives

and

discharge

standards

are

re-

Answers to some of the questions raised above might well have been forthcoming if resources had been sufficient to enable digging into the EC files. The report of the contractor, minutes of deliberations of the Commission and of the Council, and any supporting information to the directive transmitted to member countries, might well contain information on the bases for various decisions reflected in the directive, and on the meanings of some of the terms used. The Oslo Convention, the International cadmium directive seem to be the most ments

in

existence,

with

respect

to

Rhine Convention, and explicit international

cadmium

in

the

North

Sea.

the EC agreeHowever,

it could not be shown that these international regulations contributed to the steps the Dutch government has taken, or intends to take. For example, with respect to the International Rhine Convention and the EC cadmium directive, measures to reduce cadmium discharges in the Netherlands were applied before these mechanisms went into force. Preventive influence seems unlikely because the Dutch government supported and supports a more stringent approach than the final compromises included in the EC directive. No discharge standards for fertilizer plants, one of the principal Dutch sources of cadmium discharges, are included

charges

in

the

into

EC

the

cadmium

directive;

nor

are

there

standards

for

dis-

atmosphere.

The Oslo Convention excludes the dumping of dredging spoils from Prior Consultation Procedure, permitting the Dutch to continue to a major part of the Rotterdam harbour sludge into the North Sea, when cadmium concentrations in the sludge are above 4.5 g/m, limit specified in the Oslo Convention. According to Table 4-2, mium concenfration in dredging spoils from Rotterdam harbour in

the dump even the cad1980

wasieS:J2ug/nit. Some of the reductions of One additional observation merits emphasis. in the North Sea result from measures taken to cadmium concentrations in the in particular waters, surface in inland situations improve bottom to relation in system, waterway Dutch the of part downstream of cadmium discharges the reduction cases In some other sediments.

into the North Sea is a byproduct of the reduction of discharges of For example, the construction and operation of the other substances. waste water treatment plant near the Hague to comply with EC standards with respect to organic matter concentrations in swimming waters will also result in a reduction of cadmium discharges.

8.2

RELATING

A typical

COSTS

problem

TO BENEFITS, in

water

INTERNATIONALLY

quality

management,

in

both

intranational

87

and ultimately the activities is that contexts, and international or rarely, receive individuals who bear the costs do not necessarily, The following are in proportion to the costs borne. direct benefits for who pay more in households individuals Not all some examples. costs of sewage treatment "use" the coastal waters for recreation. An expenses such as a fertilizer plant, must incur industrial activity, into internal waters, which reductions to reduce cadmium discharges will benefit downstream users but not the plant. Farmers who incur additional costs to reduce their discharges rarely receive benefits because their operations are upstream from the improved water quality. Typical direct benefits from improved water quality are reduced costs and of various finfish of intake water treatment, improved yields shellfish, expanded opportunities recreation, for and water-based e.g., enabling water-contact sports which previously were prohibited. As pointed out in the previous chapter, the distribution of costs and the distribution of benefits represent important criteria for decisions in selecting strategies for water quality management. Two fundamental points merit emphasis. On the cost side, a basic principle is that all activities generate unwanted material and energy streams which require disposal. Disposal is generally to the environment, so that some amount of “environmental resource" for waste disposal is essential to any human activity. Steel, coal, electric energy cannot be produced without use of the environment. Therefore, the environmental media --- air, water, land as repositories --- represent necessary factor inputs into production and use, e.g., factories, farms, households. Therefore, the activity should pay for the use of the environment just as it pays for all other factor inputs, e.g., chemicals, energy, labor, capital. This is part of the underlying philosophy of the Polluter Pays Principle, espoused by the EC. Another part is that activities which result in damages to users of the environment should have to pay the costs of reducing or eliminating the damages. Another important fact on the cost side is that, in a region of any size with multiple dischargers and different relevant subareas, the least cost system to achieve desired ambient water quality may well be one in which a large portion of the costs is borne by one or a few activities in a single country. Such a situation is often perceived as an inequitable distribution of costs, making agreement on action difPremiere On

the

benefit

side,

in

addition

to

direct

benefits

ous types of indirect benefits. One type relates pressed societal objective, e.g., to maintain a

"preserve

the

environment".

Underlying

that

there

to a given

objective

can

be vari-

sometimes ecosystem,

may be

the

exto

phi-

losophy that there are some intrinsic values to the environment, recognized by the bulk of the population of a country. Individuals and groups in the society may express themselves as being willing to pay something, i.e., to forego other goods and services, in order to provide funds/resources to pay the costs of improving ambient environ-

mental

quality.

Such

behavior

reflects

what

economists

term

“option

demand", the willingness of individuals in society to pay something to ensure that certain options relating to the environment will be available in the future, to succeeding generations, even if they themselves are not current, and will not be future, users of the environment.

88

The above discussion of costs and benefits is particularly relevant to a multinational context, such as that of the North Sea, where at least some of the benefits from improving ambient water quality are difficult to estimate in monetary terms, costs to achieve the imputed benefits may seem excessive, and the distribution of costs May seem inequitable. Various schemes for cost sharing might be proposed to reduce the "friction" among countries in arriving at a strategy for water quality management. For example, an "European Environmental Fund" might be established. Monetary sources for the Fund could be: (1) effluent charges on relevant polluting material being discharged, such as heavy metals; and (2) contributions from general revenues of the countries. The former reflects the principle that the polluter should pay; the latter reflects the principle that there are widespread benefits to society from improving environmental quality such that society in general should contribute to the costs. The international effluent charges would be analogous to a national government, such as the Fedimposing an effluent charge on an activity eral Republic of Germany, which already pays an effluent charge to a regional or state government.

;

Grants and loans could be made from the Fund to countries or individual activities to help pay for the costs of reducing discharges and improving ambient environmental quality, just as national governments make grants and provide below market rate loans to activities.

8.3

IMPLEMENTATION

Different wards the in

the

AND

CONTROL

ON NATIONAL

LEVELS

nations have evolved different attitudes and approaches topresence of, and required measures against, toxic substances

environment.

Some

countries,

e.g.,

the

United

Kingdom,

accept

a

level of ambient cadmium concentration which is higher than would occur without any discharges of cadmium in the environment, that is, higher than the natural concentration. Concentrations higher than the natural concentration are considered acceptable unless scientific proof can be given that such concentrations have adverse effects on the productivity of ecosystems and the health of human beings. Other countries, such sidering the lack of

as the Netherlands, take the position that, in the long knowledge of ecologic effects

and considering the persistence zation from sediments, it is not justified ambient water quality to bring down the concentration is considered to be a "natural'' following decision of the Paris

conterm

of cadmium and its potential remobiliyet possible to define scientifically standards. For this reason they want of cadmium in the environment to what level. This view is in accord with the Commission (Paris Commission, 1984):

a is insufficient, of knowledge the state "Tf strict limitation of emissions of pollutants must be imposed for safety reasons." However, eliminating all cadmium inputs will not automatically result in natural concentrations in various water bodies. It may be expected that cadmium from human origin still may enter the water phase of the environment as a result of its prior accumulation in sediments and organisms.

89

The the

the general goal: reduction of cadmium in agree on the means to reach such a goal,

two approaches agree on They even environment.

the different However, of cadmium discharges. to impede seem concentrations ambient acceptable about philosophies action. would Such action. international efficient and effective require at least: i.e.,

reduction

through

on

in

goals

the

concrete

and

e.g.,

terms,

quantified

on

e@

agreement

@

specific cadmium concentrations in various aquatic environments and on specific cadmium loads discharged to those environments; agreement on the data which represent an actual situation of discharges, ambient water quality, and effects on organisms; agreement on the methodologies used to estimate: (a) alternative future developments; (b) the effects of those developments on dis-

e@

charges

of cadmium;

cadmium

concentrations;

living ment;

e

No

marine

(c)

the effects (d)

resources

the

and

on

of those

effects

other

of

uses

discharges

those

of

on

ambient

concentrations

the

marine

on

environ-

and

agreement the costs

on the costs and benefits,

of mutual

agreements.

in-depth

analysis

was

and benefits, and on the distributions of of measures resulting from implementation

made

of national

mechanisms,

in

the

different

countries involved, for enforcement of international agreements. The Dutch situation has been studied and, to some degree, mechanisms in the United Kingdom. It seems no more likely than in these countries, that detailed analysis in other countries would reveal that national mechanisms are insufficient to enforce any agreement laid down in international conventions. This implies that limitations to arrive at coordinated action to reduce the presence of cadmium in the environment are mainly of a political and not of an institutional nature.

8.4

SPECIFYING

THE

OBJECTIVE

A critical but essential step in setting up an analysis for water quality’ management, i.e., to develop a water quality management plan, is the specification of the. water quality target or the water quality targets. Often the legislative intent is expressed in such terms as,

"all streams and other surface water bodies should be fishable swimmable by 19 _"; "maintain the marine ecosystem"; "protect environment'"'. These are nonoperational, i.e., are not amenable

and the to

quantitative analysis. They must be translated into specific objectives/targets, expressed in quantitative terms. Failure to eliminate ambiguity results in difficulties for both the analysts and the decision makers. As pointed out in the previous chapter, a relevant and an operational way of expressing a water quality target/objective is in terms of a combination of lethal concentration and factor of safety for each relevant spatial area, for steady-state conditions. Where time is also a

dimension,

concentration

the

target

In the study and the _tention was given to

90

then

includes

is to be achieved

in each

the

percent

relevant

analyses for the WQMP-North this specification problem,

of

time

spatial

the

target

area.

Sea, inadequate atresulting in a lack

of consistency. For example, as pointed out previously, the Dutch government has taken the position that what should be achieved in terms of ambient water quality is the "natural concentration". In the study to

develop

the

WQMP-North

Sea,

effort

was

made

to

estimate

the

natural

concentration of cadmium, both in the open ocean and in rivers. The results of the effort were total .cadmium concentrations, i.e., dissolved plus adsorbed, of 0.03 mg/m? and 0.07 mg/™"3 for open oceans and rivers, respectively, as given in tables 5.2 and 5.3. of Rijkswater-

staat

Laboratorium

and Waterloopkundig

Having made these the government's quality, it would the have adopted tions. The former

(1985d).

estimates of the natural concentrations, and given statements with respect to desired ambient water seem that the logical procedure would have been to two concentrations above as the target concentrawould have been applied to the open ocean area of

Sea, the latter of the North Dutch portion area, e.g., grid cells reflecting depths to 20 literature was to search the stated procedure lethal concentration" for any marine species, to factor of safety of 100 was applied to calculate

the

tion.

used For

The

for

result

all

of

areas,

estimated

procedure

this

i.e.,

conditions

all in

grid

1980,

was

a

cells the

to the near coastal the meters. Instead, to find the "lowest which concentration a the target concentra-

concentration

in the

target

study

of

0.05

mg/m,

area. —

concentration

used

in the

study of 0.05 mg/m’ is exceeded in about one-quarter of the grid cells in the Dutch portion of the North Sea. No differentiation was made between grid cells in the open ocean and grid cells "near shore". In the period 1980-85, it was estimated that cadmium discharges to the Dutch portion of the North Sea were reduced by about one-third, as described in Chapter 6. As a result, the number of grid cells in which the target is exceeded would be expected to be reduced, although not likely in direct proportion to the reduction in discharges. What the results would be if the two different natural concentrations were used as targets is not known.

8.5

ANALYZING

THE AQUATIC

SYSTEM

The discussion in the previous section suggested the relevance of spatially differentiated targets. Spatial differentiation makes. both ecologic and economic sense; the former because not all areas are of the same value ecologically, the latter because having spatially differentiated goals --- such that not all areas have to be at the same high level --- means lower overall costs to achieve the targets in all subareas. Moreover, natural concentrations may differ. Spatial differincreases the complexity of analyzing the aquatic however, entiation, system, especially for a region as large as the North Sea.

Spatial differentiation is very likely to lead to scale problems. That is, near shore areas typically are more complex hydraulically --- and often ecologically --- than open ocean areas. Differences occur within much shorter distances. Therefore, analyzing the aquatic system of the area would require at least two scales, i.e., two different grid cell 1/5-1/10 of the larger. The perhaps sizes, with the smaller being, which analysis at the largin one, iterative an analysis then becomes er

scale

sets

tentative

boundary

conditions

for

the

smaller

scale,

and

91

scale --- which involves more detailed the analysis at the smaller consideration of the physical, chemical, and biological processes -~-~ coefficients used at the larger provides the values for the various Iteration occurs until convergence scale, e.g., transfer coefficients.

to some

specified

"closeness"

is achieved.

(1) the complexity of the analysis is substantially The above means: (2) the cost of the analysis is increased, probably at an increased; is increased, of the results and (3) the accuracy exponential rate; assuming that the model of the aquatic system at the small scale has been calibrated and validated. Whether or not the increased costs are justified depends on the value of the data generated.

8.6

NATURE

OF THE

ANALYSIS

The framework for analysis, and the characteristics of the analyses carried out in developing the WQMP-North Sea, were discussed in Chapter 3. The following are some major limitations of the analyses. e

e

e

Alternative

mixes of products and services were not analyzed; only the one output, waste disposal, was considered. Only the levels and spatial pattern of activities existing in 1980 were analyzed, i.e., no analyses were made of projected levels of economic activities and of population. No specific water quality objective was defined in the beginning of the study. As the study progressed, two different routes were taken to determine an objective, resulting in the inconsistency described in the previous section. No specific measures to reduce discharges were formulated. As a consequence,

e

e

e

no

economic

analysis

was

done

of

the

costs

of

reducing

concentrations in the North Sea. Similarly, no analysis was made of the incentives and institutional arrangements which would be necessary to achieve the specified ambient water quality. No analysis was made of the benefits of improved water quality. Even though it is difficult to express all benefits in monetary terms, at least they can be expressed in physical terms. This enables comparing, at a minimum, different mixes of physical outputs with costs. In the calculations with the water quality model, neither seasonal differences nor year-to-year differences were applied for river flows and discharges. Only total concentrations of substances analyzed were taken into account,

directly

rather

than

(immediately)

differentiating

biologically

between

available

and

those

which

those

were

which

were

not.

@ e

Substances were considered to be conservative rine ecosystems. No sensitivity analyses were carried out with assumptions, of which there were many.

The last fects of 5. Given estimate terms of

92

materials respect

in to

the

the

ma-

major

point is well illustrated by the analyses to estimate the efdischarges on ambient water quality, as described in Chapter the assumptions made in developing and applying the models to concentrations, and given the importance of the results in decisions with respect to allocating society's resources,

considerable analytical resources could justifiably be spent on analyzing the sensitivity of the results to the various assumptions. Such analysis would provide the decisions makers with some understanding of what the situation might be under, for example, the most conservative (adverse) set of assumptions. This would be useful in making decisions with respect to investment of public and private funds in measures to reduce cadmium --- and other --- discharges further. Sensitivity analysis would also provide an insight into which variables were more important, i.e., had the largest impacts on the results. Such information in turn would help in decisions with respect to research and data collection. In

Chapter

7

management

a

more

strategy

adequate, for

water

operational quality

procedure

management

was presented. more complete Appendix A.

The following are the main steps description of the steps in the

(1) Select

objective

the

or

alternative

to

(waste

formulate disposal

of this analysis

objectives,

a

use)

procedure. A is given in

in terms

of:

fac-

tor of safety-target concentration-spatial location combinations; and the percentage of time each of combination is to be met. It should be emphasized that specifying different factors of safety for different locations is a first step in identifying and estimating benefits. These factors of safety are based on uses, and the relative magnitudes and importance of the uses, which are the basis for benefits.

(2) Identify

(3)

sources

e.g.,

present,

ture,

and

of ten

estimate

discharges years the

in

types,

discharges from each sources, line sources.

of

Estimate the time and from those discharges.

spatial

(4) Determine

whether

for

the

the

the

time

future, magnitudes,

sources,

pattern

point

of

or not the objective(s)

years

and

time

has

selected, in

the

fu-

patterns

of

sources,

nonpoint

quality

resulting

water

(5) If the objective(s) has (have) not been met, cost set of measures to meet each objective. (6)

horizons

twenty

(have)

been met.

determine

the

least

Present the results of the analysis in an understandable manner to levels of ambient quality; proportion show the trade-offs among: of area in which target is reached; percentage of time target is on other Information costs. and total in each subarea; reached such as criteria for selecting strategies must also be presented, of costs, the distribution of benefits, and the the distribution reductions in discharges of other substances.

Implementation incentive systems form an integral part of management strategies. Hence, formulating such systems must be included in formulating strategies. Components of implementation incentive systems are: e

procedures, a set of rules, terms of its performance;

standards

applied

to

an

activity,

in

93

e

a basis the

and

rules,

a

for

procedure

procedures,

measuring

performance

in

relation

to

standards;

e

a schedule and procedure for monitoring and inspecting activities to determine compliance with the specified rules, procedures, standards; and a set of sanctions which can be applied for noncompliance.

In

determining

@

of

costs

the

measures

to

reduce

discharges,

the

costs

incentive systems should be included. associated with implementation for example, costs of permitting and inspecting waste These include, imposing quality, water ambient monitoring activities, discharging sanctions.

8.7

REMAINING

AND

FURTHER

QUESTIONS

At least two important categories of questions still remain. One, are international regulations affecting behavior of countries with less stringent national regulations than the Netherlands, or do the international regulations represent the lowest (least stringent) possible common denominator of national standards? This is related to the preventive effect, i.e., inducing countries to take steps during the negotiations. Thus, is there any preventive effect on other countries? To examine this effect, standards applied in all EC member states or other contracting parties before, during, and after the establishing of the international agreement should be studied. Two, the more adequate type of study described in Chapter 7 has been carried out in various contexts. The problem is how to convince politicians and agency bureaucrats that the type of study described is what is necessary in order to generate relevant information for decision-making. Both politicians and agency bureaucrats may have good reasons for not wanting more relevant information generated. In the last section of Chapter 7, some of the problems in trying to do the type of study described in the Netherlands were indicated. The following are considered to be the main problems in the Dutch context.

@

In the selection of measures to be taken to reduce discharges, criteria other than the costs of measures and the effects of measures on

e

e

_@

94

concentrations

in

the

North

Sea,

e.g.,

distribution

of

costs,

can play a role. However, these criteria must be specified in the beginning, so that the analysts can develop methods to generate information on the criteria. lit seems to be difficult to obtain, in the Netherlands, accurate costs on measures to reduce discharges by private activities. There apparently is no tradition of having private consulting firms experienced in various industrial sectors develop cost data for the government, as is true --- for example --- in the United States. The water quality model, described in Chapter 5, is not sufficiently detailed to enable accurate estimates of effects of various measures for reducing discharges on concentrations in the subareas of concern. Because knowledge about the North Sea ecosystem is limited, it is not easy to define the relative importance of subareas of the ecosystem. Yet, failing to do so implies that all subareas are of equal importance. This in turn will result in a much larger

expenditure of resources to achieve desired quality levels, than a differentiation in importance is made. Only under a situation no

the the

resource

constraints,

i.e.,

where

there

resources which would produce more uniform approach be reasonable.

are

no

benefits

other

to

ways

society,

to

if of use

might

95

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Aalst,

R.M.

van,

et

al.,

1983a,

Vervuiling

van

de Noordzee

vanuit

de

TNO, Organisatie voor Toegepast atmosfeer, TNO Report CL 82/152a, Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek, The Hague Aalst, R.M. van, et al., 1983b, Atmospheric deposition of lead and cadmium in the southern part of the North Sea 1, TNO Report R83/222, TNO, Organisatie voor Toegepast-Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek, The Hague Anonymous,

1984,

Quality

Status

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Contributions

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Member Countries to the International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, 1984, Hamburg Anonymous, 1985, Fabrieken Mogen van Rechter Gips Blijven Lozen op Waterweg, Volkskrant 85.11.23, Amsterdam Baan,

P.J.,

1984,

vesting,

Baten

Ruimtelijke

milieubeleid

Ordening

water,

Ministerie

en Milieubeheer,

van

Volkshuis-

The Hague

Bower,

B.T., Ehler, C.N., and Basta, D.J., 1982, Coastal and Ocean Resources Management: a Framework for Analysis, International Federation of Institutes for Advanced Study, Solna Coordinatiecommissie Uitvoering Wet Verontreiniging Oppervlaktewateren, 1981, Aanbevelingen met betrekking tot de beperking van lozingen van niet- zuurstofbindende en toxische stoffen, die vrijkomen bij veel voorkomende processen in de metaalindustrie, The Hague Dekker, R.H., 1983, Zwarte-lijststoffen, H20 (16), no. 12, pp. 274-279 Dekker, R.H., 1986, Rijksinstituut voor Zuivering van Afvalwater, Lelystad, Personal communication Department of the Environment, 1982, Policies towards Waste Disposal United Kingdom, Oslo Commission and Paris Commission, 13-14 June 1983, Berlin Dijkzeul, A., 1981, De Waterkwaliteit van de Maas in Nederland in de Periode 1953-1980, Note 81.048, Rijksinstituut voor Zuivering van Afvalwater, Lelystad Dijkzeul, A., 1982, De Waterkwaliteit van de Rijn in Nederland in de Periode 1970-1981, Note 82.061, Rijksinstituut voor Zuivering van Afvalwater, Lelystad Directoraat-Generaal voor de Milieuhygiene, 1983, Verslag van het col-

loquium Bunnik,

Duinker,

"Bestrijding waterverontreiniging 20 October 1983, Leidschendam

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et

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al.,

1982,

of the

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door

copper,

Marine

zinc

zware and

Pollution

metalen" cadmium

Bulletin

in

in the

13(3),

Eck, B. van, tiewaarden

van

Turksma, E., Nederlandse

and Sant, H. van 't, 1983, zoute wateren, Discussion

Volkshuisvesting,

Ruimtelijke

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en

Voorstel referenNote, Ministerie

Milieubeheer,

The

,

Hague

European Community, 1976, Directive European Communities No. L129/23, European

Community,

European

1983,

Communities

Directive

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L291/1,

76/464/EC, Brussels

Official

Journal

83/513/EC,

Official

Journal

Brussels

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stan

Fotheringham, P., and Birnie, P.W., 1979, Regulation of North Sea Marine Pollution, in: Mason, C.M., ed., The Effective Management of Resources, Frances Pinter Publishers Ltd., London al Gerritsen, H., 1983, Residual currents, a comparison of two methods

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the

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southern

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North Sea, WL Report R1469-III, Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, Delft Hufschmidt, M.M., 1962, Analysis by Simulation: Examination of Response Surface, in: Maass, A., Hufschmidt, M.M., Dorfman, R., Thomas, H.A. Jr., Marglin, S.A., and Fair, G.M, Design of Water-

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for the Exploration of the Sea, 1979, Atlas of British Isles, Fisheries Research Technical Re-

Copenhagen

International Water bunal 3-8 October sterdam Kooy, L.A. van de,

Tribunal, 1983, Casebook 1983, International Water 1982,

De Waterkwaliteit

Periode 1964-1981, Note Afvalwater, Lelystad Kooy,

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82.063,

Stokman,

Noordzee 1975-1982, Note Afvalwater, Lelystad Koudstaal, R., 1987, Water

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van

de Westerschelde

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1983,

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Waterkwaliteit

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work for analysis, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1987, IFIAS research series vol. 2, coastal waters No. l Luin, A.B. van, 1985, Rijksinstituut voor Zuivering van Afvalwater,

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2, The

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1984, Harmonization of North Sea Register 1983-1984, 17408, Num-

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Agency, Washington D.C. Postma, L., 1984, A two dimensional water quality model application for Hong Kong coastal waters, Water Science and Technology, 16 Prandle, D., 1978, Residual Flows and Elevations in the Southern North Sea, Proceedings Royal Society London, Series A, 359, pp. 189-228 Rijksinstituut voor Zuivering van Afvalwater, 1983, De waterkwaliteit van de Rijn in 1982, note 83.080, Lelystad Rijkswaterstaat, 1983, Waterkwaliteitsplannen voor Rijkswateren: Kustwateren (concept), The Hague Rijkswaterstaat, 1985, Waterkwaliteitsplan Noordzee, The Hague Rijkswaterstaat and Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, 1985a, Waterkwaliteitsplan Noordzee Achtergronddocument 1, Een Verkenning van Bestuurlijk- juridische Aspecten, The Hague Rijkswaterstaat and Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, 1985b, Waterkwaliteitsplan Noordzee Achtergronddocument 2, Inventarisatie en Analyse, The Hague Rijkswaterstaat and Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, 1985c, Waterkwaliteitsplan Noordzee Achtergronddocument 3, Activiteiten en Bronnen van Verontreiniging, The Hague Rijkswaterstaat and Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, 1985d, Waterkwaliteitsplan Noordzee Achtergronddocument 4, Framework for Analysis, The Hague Salomons, W., 1983, Zware Metalen in Aquatische Systemen: 1. Geochemische Inventarisatie; 2. Geochemische Processen; 5. Correlatie van de Gehalten in Water/sediment en in Organismen; 6. Bindingsvormen en Opname door Organismen, Rijkswaterstaat, The Hague Salomons, W., 1985, Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, Delft, Personal communication Salomons, W., and Groot, R.J. de, 1978, Pollution History of Trace Metals in Sediments, as Affected by the Rhine River, in: Krumbein, W.E., Environmental Biogeochemistry, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan Salomons, W., and Kerdijk, H., 1983, Metalen in Boorkernen en Oppervlaktesedimenten van de Noordzee, WL Report M1676, Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, Delft Salomons, W., Mook, W.G., and Eysink, W.D., 1981, Biogeochemical and Hydrodynamic Processes Affecting Heavy Metals in Rivers, Lakes and Estuaries, WL Publication No. 253, Waterloopkundig Laboratorium, Delft

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lijke

Noordzee

(Oostzijde),

Report

0781

FA,

Rijkswaterstaat,

The

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Cd,

R.,

and

Instituut

Olsthoorn,

voor

A.,

1984,

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Milieuvraagstukken,

Vrije

door

Universiteit,

Pb en

Amsterdam

Train, R.E., 1979, Quality Criteria for Water, Environmental Protection Agency, Castle House Publications, Ltd., New York Vliet, H.P.M. van, and Feenstra, J.F., 1982, Gebruik van Cadmium in Nederland, een Stofbalans voor 1980, Instituut voor Milieuvraagstuk-

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J.A.W.

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1971-1981,

Bekkers,

L.E.J.,

Rijksinstituut

1982,

voor

De Waterkwa-

Zuivering

van

Lelystad

99

Appendix A: ABC framework for analysis

Analysis is one of the basic functions of marine resources management and is an essential task in planning, i.e., the process of selecting a management strategy for any given marine resources management region. Because

marine resources management is a continuous activity, the decision regarding the mix of products and services to produce on and from the region must be made from time to time (this is referred to as the planning decision). Hence, analysis for management must be virtually continuous, with specific outputs of information required at specific points in time. Analysis is that activity which produces information for the planning decision. Thus, analysis is a part of planning. The actual planning decision is normally part of the political process, undertaken after relevant information is generated in the analysis.

Analysis for planning should be clearly distinguished from research and data collection the objective of which is to increase basic knowledge, e.g., of physical, chemical and biological processes. Such research and data collection are essential for further developing the capacity to predict consequences of management actions, and therefore should be tuned to this prediction need. The delineation of both short-run and long-run data collection and research efforts should be an integral part of the planning process. The outputs should be programmed to become available to the planning process at specified points in time in the future. Figure

A-1

shows

the

seven

segments

comprising

analysis

for marine

re-

sources management. These segments are: (1) setting up the analysis; (2) estimating demands for products and services which could be produced in the region; (3) analyzing the potential activities and the so-called

"combined"

sources

of discharges

(rivers,

groundwater,

atmo-

sphere); (4) analyzing natural systems including cross-boundary flows; (5) formulating and analyzing management strategies; (6) evaluating strategies; and (7) presenting results. Discussion of each of these follows.

Segment

1: Setting

*) Excerpted

100

up the analysis

from Koudstaal

(1987)

(SUTA)

SEGMENT SETTING

1

SEGMENT

UP

2

ESTIMATING

ee eNnavele )

SEGMENT DEMANDS

3

SEGMENT

ANALYZING

FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

ACTIVITIES

4

ANALYZING

AND CROSS BOUNDARY hens NATURAL FLOWS OF WASTES SYSTEMS SEGMENT

5

FORMULATING AND ANALYZING STRATEGIES

INTERACTION

peels m,

WITH

an

impacts of

DECISION

specified

MAKERS

strategies

SEGMENT

6

EVALUATING

SEGMENT

STRATEGIES

7

~|PRESENTING

RESULTS

decision making

process

Figure

SUTA

A-1.

refers

ations,

Segments

to the

of

analysis

sequence

and assumptions

@

e e e

of steps

- which must

ysis for marine resources delineation or preliminary e e

for

marine

-

and

resources

related

be performed

management. Included selection of:

management

criteria,

consider-

to "set up" an analare,

for

example,

the

the boundaries of the region and subregions to be analyzed; the time horizons or the time period to be analyzed; environmental conditions to be used, e.g., streamflow conditions, precipitation and temperature inputs, tidal fluctions; the specific objectives for the analysis and the priority of questions to be answered; the number of scenarios to be analyzed, i.e., combinations of values of exogenous variables; and the criteria for evaluating strategies and the relative weights of those

criteria.

Whatever the context, SUTA is a necessary and critical part of analysis for marine resources management. It is the process which determines what types of analyses to undertake, in what order, to produce the

desired information in relation to the questions to be answered, in the time available, for any given context in which the analysis is being made. The output of SUTA includes the detailing of the specific characteristics of the analysis and of the work schedule for complet-

101

ing the analysis in the needed for the decision Segment

2: Estimating

time prescribed, process.

demands

for

products

i.e.,

and

when

the

information

is

services

The demands for products and services which can be produced from a given marine resources region are related to the levels of economic activities onshore and to international trade. Estimating the demands for products and services from a given region begins with demographic and economic projections over time at the national level, final demand associated therewith by various sectors, and "eventually" the qualities of various raw materials, e.g., manganese ore, sand and gravel, crude petroleum, needed to meet the input requirements of the activities producing the products and services. Demands at the national levinto demands must then be translated el plus relevant international projections of demands on the given marine resources region. Segment

3: Analyzing

activities

and

extra

regional

sources

of wastes

Segment 3 is comprised of two parts. One involves the analysis of the activities producing the goods and services in the region in terms of the factors which influence both the choice of technology and the quantities of wastes generated and discharged. The other involves the analysis of extra regional "combined" sources of inputs of wastes to the region, namely, atmosphere, ocean currents, and rivers. To the extent possible, the types of activities and/or the specific geographic region associated with these combined sources should be identified.

Segment

4: Analyzing

natural

systems

Analyzing natural systems involves the estimation of the time and spatial pattern of ambient water quality and of effects on ecosystem components, e.g., various trophic levels, of the time and spatial pattern of discharges of wastes estimated in segment 3. The natural systems models used may be simple or complex. Segment

5: Formulating

and

analyzing

strategies

In chapter 7 the components of management strategies were defined. Typically many strategies can be formulated to reach any given objective formulated in the SUTA segment. To select among the possible strategies, consequences should be estimated in relation to the multiple criteria selected by the decision makers, examples of which were shown in table 7-5. Segment

6: Evaluating

strategies

Decision-makers use multiple criteria in making decisions. These criteria are specified in SUTA and the consequences of management strategies in terms of these criteria are estimated in segment 5. In addition, relative weights are attached to the criteria in the decisionmaking process. Assigning such relative weights to the individual criteria comprises an activity which is the responsibility of the decision makers, not of the analysts. The analyst, however, plays an important role in providing the motivation and the framework for making explicit and using these weights.

102

The explicit application of relative weights yields a rating of proposed strategies. This process is called evaluation. Analytical methods exist to contribute to the evaluation of strategies, such as cost benefit analysis and multi-criteria evaluation methods.

Segment

7:

Presenting

results

The types and amounts of data and the formats used to present the data will vary in relation to the questions being asked, the level of detail of the analysis, the structure of decision making in the region, and the characteristics of the region.

Not

only

the

results

of

the

analysis

must

be presented,

but

also

formation on: (1) selection and definition of the characteristics the system considered; (2) selection and definition of goals and

inof ob-

jectives; (3) selection and definition of mixes of activities; (4) selection and description of analytical methods and computational procedures, paying special attention to the underlying assumptions and the accuracy

of

the

results;

(5)

selection

and

description

of

criteria

used for evaluation; and (6) discussion of the data presented. Such information is helpful to the decision makers in making their decisions. In general it can be said that it should be considered a major task

of

the

framework

for

analysis

outlined

in

this

document,

that

the

selection procedure which leads to the finally presented promising strategies should be made explicit in a clear and understandable way.

103

Appendix B: EC cadmium directive

THE

COUNCIL

regard

Having nity,

OF THE

and

Having

EUROPEAN

to the

Treaty

in particular

regard

to

caused by certain vironment of the

COMMUNITIES establishing

Articles

Directive

100

and

76/464/EEC

European

the 235

thereof,

of

4

May

Economic

1976

on

Commu-

pollution

dangerous;substances discharged into the aquatic enCommunity *, and in particular Articles 6 and 12

thereof,

the

Commission

2) ’,

Having

regard

to

the

proposal

from

Having

regard

to

the

opinion

of the

European

Parliaments

Having

regard

to the

opinion

of the

Economic

and

Social

Committee

4)

’,

Whereas, in order to protect the aquatic environment of the Community against pollution by certain dangerous substances, Article 3 of Directive 76/464/EEC introduces a system of prior authorization laying down emission standards for discharges of the substances in List I in the Annex thereto; whereas Article 6 of the said Directive provides that limit values shall be laid down for such emission standards and also quality objectives for the aquatic environment affected by discharges of these substances;

Whereas

cadmium

Whereas the cept in the Whereas,

and

its

compounds

are

included

Member States are required cases where they may employ

since

pollution

due

to

the

in List

I;

to apply the limit quality objectives;

discharge

of

cadmium

values

into

water

ex-

is

caused by a large number of industries, it is necessary to lay down specific limit values according to the type of industry concerned and

1) 2) 3) 4)

104

OJ OJ OJ OJ

No. No. No. No.

L C C C

129, 118, 334, 230,

18-5-1976, p. 23 21-5-1981, p. 3 20-12-1982, p. 138 10-9-1981, p. 22

to lay down quality objectives for the aquatic cadmium is discharged by such industries;

environment

into

which

Whereas at the present time it is not, however, possible to establish limit values for discharges arising from the manufacture of ghaephgr tc acid and phosphatic fertilizer from phosphatic rock; Whereas the purpose of the quality objectives must be to eliminate environment parts of the aquatic cadmium pollution of the various which might be affected by cadmium discharges; Whereas such quality objectives must be laid down expressly for this purpose and not with the intention of establishing rules pertaining to consumer protection or to the marketing of products from the aquatic environment ; Whereas a specific monitoring Member States to demonstrate complied with;

procedure that the

should be laid down to enable quality ores are being

Whereas provision should be made for the monitoring by Member States of the aquatic environment affected by the aforesaid cadmium discharges with a view to effective implementation of this Directive; whereas Article 6 of Directive 76/464/EEC does not provide for the powers to introduce such monitoring; whereas, since the specific powers have not been provided for in the Treaty, Article 235 thereof should be invoked;

Whereas it is important that the Commission forward to the Council, every five years, a comparative assessment of the implementation of this Directive by Member States; Whereas, since groundwater is excluded from the scope

4 : is the subject of Directive of this Directive;

80/68/EEC

1

)s 4

Whereas the level of industrialization is very low in Greenland because of the overall situation of the island, and in particular the fact that it is sparsely populated, its considerable size and its special geographical position; whereas, therefore, this Directive should not apply to Greenland,

HAD ADOPTED

THIS

DIRECTIVE:

Article

1

1. This

Directive:

e e

in pursuance

of Article

in pursuance

of Article

6 (1) of Directive

76/464/EEC,

lays down

limit values for emission standards for cadmium in discharges from industrial plants as defined in Article 2 (e) hereof, quality

1) OJ No.

objectives

L 20,

2671-1980,

for

p.

6 (2) of Directive

cadmium

in the

76/464/EEC,

aquatic

lays down

environment,

43

105

e

in pursuance the the ber

of Article

of Article

in pursuance

e

6 (4) of Directive

76/464/EEC,

lays down

time limits for compliance with the conditions specified in authorizations granted by the competent authorities of MemStates in respect of existing discharges,

12 (1) of Directive

lays down

76/464/EEC

cadmium conto be deter-

the reference methods of measurement enabling the tent in discharges and in the aquatic environment mined,

e

in pursuance of Article 6 (3) of Directive 76/464/EEC, establishes a monitoring procedure, requires Member States to cooperate with one another in the case of discharges affecting the waters of more than one Member State.

e

2. This

Directive

Directive

Article

the the

the

waters

referred

‘limit

c)

'quality

values'

means

objectives'

the

values

means

d) "handling of cadmium! use or production of

the

its

f) ‘existing date

plant' of

g) ‘new plant' e @

an of an has of

Article

in

Article

1

of

in Annex

II;

compounds;

specified

in Annex

requirements

I;

specified

means any industrial process involving cadmium, or any other process in which

presence of cadmium is inherent; ‘industrial plant' means any plant at stance containing cadmium is handled; the

to

of groundwater.

means:

chemical element cadmium. cadmium contained in any of

b)

e)

to

with the exception

2

a) 'cadmium' e e

applies

76/464/EEC

means

notification

an

industrial of

this

which

cadmium

plant which

or

any

the the sub-

is operational

on

Directive;

means:

industrial plant which has become operational after the date notification of this Directive, existing industrial plant whose cadmium-processing capacity been substantially increased after the date of notification this Directive.

3

1. The limit values, the time limits with and the monitoring procedure Annex I.

by which they for discharges

2. The limit values shall normally apply at the point ters containing cadmium leave the industrial plant.

must be complied are laid down in

where

waste

wa-

When waste waters containing cadmium are treated outside the industrial plant at a treatment plant intended for the removal of cadmium, the Member State may permit the limit values to be applied at the point where the waste waters leave the treatment plant.

3. The authorizations must

106

contain

referred

provisions

at

to in Article least

as

3 of Directive

stringent

as

those

76/464/EEC in

Annex

I

to

this

Article and

Directive,

6 (3)

IV to

this

Authorizations

except

where

of Directive

a

Member

76/464/EEC

State

on

the

is

complying

basis

with

of Annexes

II

Directive. shall

be reviewed

at

least

every

four

years.

Without prejudice to their obligations arising from paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 and to the provisions of Directive 76/464/EEC, Member States may grant authorizations for new plants only if those plants apply available the standards corresponding to the best technical means when that is necessary for the elimination of pollution in accordance with Article 2 of the said Directive or for the prevention of distortion of competition. Whatever

method it adopts, the Member State shall, where for technical reasons the intended measures do not correspond to the best technical means available, provide the Commission, before any authorization, with evidence in support of these reasons.

The Commission shall forward this evidence to the other Member States immediately and shall send all Member States a report as soon as possible giving its opinion on the derogation referred to in the second subparagraph. If necessary, it shall at the same time submit appropriate proposals to the Council. The reference method of analysis to be used in determining the presence of cadmium is given in Annex III (1). Other methods may be used provided that the limits of detection, precision and accuracy of such methods are at least as good as those laid down in Annex III (1). The accuracy required in the measurement of effluent flow is given in Annex III (2).

Article

4

The Member States concerned aquatic environment affected In the

case

State,

the

monizing

Article

of discharges Member

States

monitoring

shall be responsible for by industrial discharges.

affecting concerned

the waters shall

of more

cooperate

monitoring

than

with

one

a view

the

Member to har-

procedures.

5

shall make a comparative assessment of the implementation of this Directive by Member States on the basis of informa13 of Directive tion supplied to it by them pursuant to Article

te The Commission

76/464/EEC information

e e

at

its

request,

concerned

shall,

which

it must

in particular,

down laying of authorizations details discharges of cadmium, the results of the inventory of cadmium ters referred to in Article 1 (2),

submit

case

by case.

The

standards

for

comprise:

emission discharged

into

the

wa-

107

e

the results of measurements to determine concentrations

made by the national of cadmium.

network

set

up

2. The Commission shall forward the comparative assessment referred to in paragraph 1 to the Council every five years, and for the first time four years after notification of this Directive. 3.

In the event of a change in scientific knowledge principally to the toxicity, persistence and accumulation um

in

living

organisms

and

sediments,

or

in

the

event

relating of cadmiof

an

im-

provement in the best technical means available, the Commission shall submit appropriate proposals to the Council with the aim of reinforcing, if necessary, the limit values and the quality objectives or of establishing new limit values and new quality objectives.

Article

6

1. Member States shall bring into force the measures necessary to comply with this Directive within two years following its notification. They shall forthwith inform the Commission thereof.

2. Member States shall communicate to the Commission the text of the provisions of national law which they adopt in the filed governed by this Directive.

Article

This

7

Directive

Article

shall

not

apply

to Greenland.

8

This

Directive

is Acdmencedene

Done

at Brussels,

26 September

the Member

States.

1983.

For

the Council

The

President

C.

108

Simitis

ANNEX

I

Limit values, time limits fixed for compliance with monitoring procedures to be applied to discharges

ks Limit

values

and

time

values

and

limits Limit values which must be complied with as from

) Industrial

these

sector

Unit

of measurement

1-1-1986 - Zine mining, lead refining, cadmium non-ferrous metal

- Manufacture compounds

and zinc metal and industry

of cadmium

Milligrams of cadmium litre of discharge

per

0,32)

Milligrams of cadmium litre of discharge

per

0,5»)

Grams of cadmium discharged kilogram of cadmium handled . Manufacture

of pigments

Milligrams of cadmium litre of discharge

per

Grams of cadmium discharged kilogram of cadmium handled . Manufacture

of stabilizers

Milligrams of cadmium litre of discharge

and

Milligrams of cadmium litre of discharge

per

per

Grams of cadmium discharged kilogram of cadmium handled . Manufacture of primary secondary batteries

per

per

per

Grams of cadmium discharged kilogram of cadmium handled

. Electroplating®

)

Milligrams of cadmium litre of discharge

per

Grams of cadmium discharged kilogram of cadmium handled Manufacture

and/or from

of phosphoric

phosphatic

phosphatic

acid

fertilizer

rock

1) Limit

6)

7)

values for industrial sectors not mentioned in this table will, if necessary, be fixed by the Council at a later stage. In the meantime the Member States will fix emission standards for cadmium discharges autonomously in accordance with Directive 76/464/EEC. Such standards must take into account the best technical means available and must not be less stringent than the most nearly comparable limit value in this Annex. On the basis of experience gained in implementing this Directive, the Commission will, pursuant to Article 5 (3), submit in due course to the Council proposals for fixing more restrictive limit values with a view to their coming into force by 1992. Monthly flow-weighted average concentration of total cadmium. Monthly average. It is impossible for the moment to fix limit values expressedas load. If need be, these values will be fixed by the Council in accordance with Article 5 (3) of this Directive. If the Council does not fix any limit values, the values expressed as load given in column '1-1-1986' will be kept. Member States may suspend application of the limit values until 1 January 1989 in the case of plants which discharge less than 10 kg of cadmium a year and in which the total volume of the electroplating tanks is less than 1,5 m, if technical or administrative considerations make such a step absolutely necessary. At present there are no economically feasible technical methods for systematically extracting cadmium from discharges arising from the production of phosphoric acid and/or phosphatic fertilizers from phosphatic rock. No limit values have therefore been fixed for such discharges. The absence of such limit values does not release the Member States from their obligation under Directive 76/464/EEC to fix emission standards for these discharges.

109

Limit values expressed as concentrations which in principle must not be exceeded are given in the above table for the industrial sectors in sections 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. In no instance may limit values expressed as maximum concentrations be greater than those expressed as maximum quantities divided by water requirements per kilogram of cadmium handled. However, because the concentration of cadmium in effluents depends on the volume of water involved, which differs for different processes and plants, the limit values, expressed in terms of the quantity of cadmium discharged in relation to the quantity of cadmium handled, given in the above table must be complied with in all cases. The daily average limit values are twice the corresponding average limit values given in the above table.

monthly

A monitoring procedure must be instituted to check whether charges comply with the emission standards which have been accordance with the limit values laid down in this Annex.

the disfixed in

This procedure must and for measurement of cadmium handled.

provide for the taking and analysis of samples of the flow of the discharge and the quantity

Should the quantity of cadmium handled be impossible to determine, the monitoring procedure may be based on the quantity of cadmium that may be used in the light of the production capacity on which the authorization was based.

A sample representative of the discharge over a period of 24 hours will be taken. The quantity of cadmium discharged over a month must be calculated on the basis of the daily quantities of cadmium discharged. However, a simplified monitoring procedure may be instituted in the case of industrial plants which do not discharge more than 10 kg of cadmium per annum. In the case of industrial electroplating plants, a simplified monitoring procedure may only be instituted if the total volume of the electroplating tanks is less than 1,5 m.

110

ANNEX

IT

Quality For

objectives

those

Member

States

which

cle 6 (3) of Directive

apply

76/464/EEC,

the

exception

the emission

referred

standards

to

in Arti-

which Member

States must establish and ensure are applied, pursuant to Article 5 of that Directive, will be fixed so that the appropriate quality objective or objectives from among those listed below is or are complied with in the area affected by discharges of cadmium. The competent authority shall determine the area affected in each case and shall select from among the quality objectives listed in paragraph 1 the objective or objectives that it deems appropriate having regard to the intended use of the area affected, while taking account of the fact that the purpose of this Directive is to eliminate all pollution. i

The following quality ehjectives which will be measured sufficiently close to the point of discharge, are fixed, with the objectof eliminating pollution within the meaning of ,Directive 76/464/EEC and pursuant to Article 2 of that Directive’:

1.1.

The

total

cadmium

ed by discharges

concentration

must

not

in

exceed

inland

surface

1.2.

The concentration of dissolved cadmium in estuary ed by discharges must not exceed 5 ug/litre.

1.3.

The

must

not

exceed

2,5

waters

affect-

ug/litre.

In the case of waters used for ter, the cadmium popren must

Directive Pr

affect-

concentration of dissolved cadmium in territorial waters and in internal coastal waters other than estuary waters affected by

discharges

1.4.

waters

5 pg/litre.

75/440/EEC

the abstraction conform to the

of drinking warequirements of

’.

In addition to the above requirements, cadmium concentration must be determined by the national network referred to in Article — the results compared with the following concentrations

2.1.

In

the

case

of

inland

surface

waters,

a total

cadmium

concentra-

tion of 1 ypg/litre. 2.2.

case

In the

of

estuary

waters,

cadmium

a dissolved

concentration

of 1 yug/litre.

in 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 are the 1) The cadmium concentrations indicated minimum requirements necessary to protect aquatic life. 2) With the exception of quality objective 1.4, all concentrations relate to the arithmetic mean of the results obtained over one year.

75/440/EEC

3) Directive intended

(OJ No. mium

for

the

L 194,

value

concerns

abstraction

25-7-1975,

of 5 pg/litre

p. on

the quality

of drinking

26).

required

water

It provides

the basis

of 95%

of surface water States

in the Member

for of the

a mandatory samples

cad-

taken.

111

Jo0 ake

In the case than estuary

ug/litre.

of territorial and internal coastal waters, other waters, a dissolved cadmium concentration of 0,5

/

If these concentrations are not points on the national network, the Commission. The

complied with at any one of the the reasons must be reported to

concentration of cadmium in sediments and/or possible of the species Mytilus edulis, must not nificantly with time.

shellfish, if increase sig-

Where several quality objective are supplied to waters in an area, the quality of the waters must be sufficient to comply with each of those objectives.

Lily”

ANNEX

ITT

Reference

1. The

methods

of measurement

reference

content

of

method

waters,

spectrophotometry sample. The

limits

tion

can

of

be

of

analysis

sediments

after

must

to

an

be

for

determining

shellfish

preservation

deteepa one

measured

used

and

and

such

is

suitable

that

the

of

+ 30%

accuracy

the

atomic

cadmium

absorption

treatment

cadmium

at

of

the

concentra-

the

following

maximum

permitted

concentrations:

e

in

the

case

of

concentration e

in

the

discharges,

of cadmium

case

of

surface

cadmium concentration ever is the greater,

2.

one-tenth

specified water,

0,1

specified

the

authorization,

ug/litre

in the

one-tenth

objective,

of

the

which-

in the case

e

in the case of sediments, one-tenth of the cadmium concentration in the sample or 0,1 mg/kg, dry weight, with drying being carried out between 105 and 110°C at constant weight, whichever value is the greater.

1) The

measurement

must

definitions

of

79/869/EEC

of

0,1 mg/kg,

or

quality

e

Flow

of shellfish,

of

in the

be carried

these

9 October

1979

terms

out

wet weight,

to an

are

accuracy

given

concerning

and frequencies of sampling and analysis for the abstraction of drinking water in L 271, 29-10-1979, p. 44)

in

of + 202%.

Council

Directive

the methods

of measurement

of surface the Member

water intended States (OJ No.

113

ANNEX

IV

Monitoring

procedure

for quality

objectives

1. For each authorization granted in pursuance of this Directive, the competent authority will specify the restrictions, monitoring procedure and time limits for ensuring compliance with the quality ob-

jective(s) 2.

concerned.

In accordance

with Article

6 (3)

ber State will, for each quality port to the Commission, on: the the the

114

76/464/EEC,

chosen

and

the

applied,

Memre-

points of discharge and the means of dispersal, area in which the quality objective is applied, location of sampling points,

the frequency of sampling, the methods of sampling and the results obtained. 3.

of Directive objective

measurement,

Samples must be sufficiently representative of the quality of the aquatic environment in the area affected by the discharges, and the frequency of sampling must be sufficient to show any changed in the aquatic environment, taking into account, in particular, natural variations in the hydrological regime.

[FLAS The International Federation of Institutes for Advanced Study is an association of 35 leading research institutes which collaborate to address major global problems of long-term importance in environment, economy and science and technology. IFIAS research programmes are interdisciplinary, seeking to advance understanding of complex systems for the improved management in a rapidly changing world with an uncertain future. IFIAS stands for the more effective and consistent use of scientific understanding in world councils, and for the adoption of long-term strategic thinking.

Chairman: Sir Hermann

Master

IFIAS Director: Ian Burton Haultain Building

Bondi

of Churchill

College

Masters Lodge Churchill College Cambridge CB3 ODS England

MEMBER

INSTITUTES

Athens

Center

of Ekistics,

Athens,

170 College St. TORONTO, Ontario

IFIAS-Maastricht Project Development Office Director: Frank Rijsberman Onze Lieve Vrouweplein 21 6211 HE MAASTRICHT

Canada

The

Netherlands

Centre,

Dokki-Cairo,

Greece

National

Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, CINVESTAV, Mexico D.F., Mexico El Colegio de Mexico A.C., Mexico D.F., Mexico Delft Hydraulics, Delft, The Netherlands Food Research Institute, Stanford, USA Global Studies Center, Arlington, USA The Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva,

Switzerland Institut National

de la Recherche

Scientifique,

Sainte-

Foy, Canada Institute for Environmental Studies, Toronto, Canada Institute for Futures Studies, Copenhagen, Denmark

Institute

for Studies

Documentation,

on Research

Rome,

and Scientific

de Biofisica, Brasileiro de

Research

Bohr

Institute,

Copenhagen,

Egypt

Denmark

Research Institute, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Research Policy Institute, Lund, Sweden Royal Scientific Society, Amman, Jordan Science Policy Research Unit, Brighton, England Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay, India University City Science Center, Philadelphia, USA University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, UCAR, Boulder, USA The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Morrilton, USA Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, WHOI, Woods Hole,

USA

Italy

Institute for World Economics of the of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary Instituto Instituto

Niels

Hungarian

Academy

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Economia, Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre, I.C.H., Madrid, Spain Instituts Internationaux de Physique et de Chimie, Brussels, Belgium

International Centre of Insect Physiology and ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste,

The

Jacob Israel The Japan Marga

Ecology, ICTP,

Italy

Blaustein

Institute

for

Desert

Economic Research Center, Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

JERC,

Research, Tokyo,

Japan

National Institute for Research Advancement, NIRA, Tokyo, Japan National Research Center for Science and Technology for Development, NRCSTD, Beijing, People's Republic of China

Secretariate Coastal Waters Management 2600 MH Delft, The Netherlands

CORPORATE

AFFILIATES

AKZO NV, Arnhem, The Netherlands Atlas Copco AB, Stockholm, Sweden DSM, Heerlen, The Netherlands ENEA, Rome, Italy Gist Brocades NV, Delft, The Netherlands Oce-van der Grinten, Venlo, The Netherlands Philips International, Ejndhoven, The Netherlands Royal Dutch Shell, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken, Stockholm, Sweden Svenska Handelsbanken, Stockholm, Sweden Unilever, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands VBB AB, Stockholm, Sweden Volker-Stevin Wegen en Asfalt, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Programme,

Delft

Hydraulics,

P.O.

Box

177,

11.5

IFIAS RESEARCH SERIES:

Vol. 1. G.Hallsworth, The Anatomy, Physiology and Psychology of Erosion, Chichester, 1987.

John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

‘

Vol. 2. Rob Koudstaal, Water Quality Management Plan, North Sea: Rotterdam, 1987, Coastal Waters No.1.

Framework for Analysis, A.A.Balkema,

Vol. 3. Lies Dekker, Blair T.Bower & Rob Koudstaal, Management of Toxic Materials in an International Setting, A Case Study of Cadmium in the North Sea, A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam, 1987, Coastal Waters No. 2.

116

international federation of institutes for advanced study

delft hydraulics

ifias research series coastal waters nr. 2

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