Laboratory course on "Biodiversity of plants": educational textbook 9786010402270

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KAZAKH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY AFTER AL-FARABI

S. G. NESTEROVA, S. S. AIDOSOVA, I. G. PANKIV

LABORATORY COURSE ON "BIODIVERSITY OF PLANTS" Educational textbook

Almaty "Kazakh University" 2014 

UDC 582 (07) BBK 28.597 N 561 Recommended for the publication of Academic Council of the Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology and editorial-publishing Council of the Kazakh National University after al-Farabi

Reviewers: Dr. of biology science, academician of NAS RK I.O. Baitulin Dr. of biology science, professor G.N. Parshina Dr. of biology science, professor Z.G. Aytasheva

Nesterova S.G. et al. Laboratory course on "Biodiversity of plants": educational textbook/Nesterova S.G., N 561 Aidosova S.S., Pankiv I.G. – Almaty: Kazakh University, 2014. – 142 pages. ISBN 978-601-04-0227-0 In the educational textbook outlines the practical material, methodic recommendations and assignment for performing laboratory works on biodiversity of plants, questions for selfcontrol. This edition contains the bibliography, glossary and a sufficient number of pictures. Laboratory workshop is designed for students of the speciality biotechnology, ecology, biology of faculty of natural Sciences of the universities and other institutions of higher education.   -     

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UDC 582(07) BBK 28.597

ISBN 978-601-04-0227-0

© Nesterova S.G., Aidosova S.S., Pankiv I.G., 2014 © KazNU after al-Farabi, 2014

PREFACE The edition of this educational textbook is dictated by requirement of educational process. The laboratory practical course is necessary for transition to credit system of tutoring, for strengthening of self-contained work of students. In the textbook the developed plan of a practical training at the rate "Biodiversity of Plants" is submitted. Division of a material into separate occupations is finalized by faculty and teachers, depends on time which is taken away on a course by the curriculum. In the textbook the list of the objects which are subject to studying with the indication of those details to which it is necessary to pay attention is submitted. The purpose of laboratory research – to acquaint students with a variety of flora, features of a structure and reproduction of various systematic groups of the lower and higher plants. The main objectives are: • acquaintance of students with variety of flora; • mastery of a comparative and morphological method of a systematics for selfcontained definition of systematic position of objects; • acquisition of practical skills on carrying out scientific researches on flora, a systematics; • studying of ecological features of plants. Laboratory research represent the unified system of practical works which promote formation of various abilities and knowledge of a structure of plants, of vegetative and generative features of types, successful use of the data obtained about plants, for the solution of practical tasks. One of difficult problems of the higher school is creation of the educational literature providing the greatest independence of the student in study of laboratory works. The textbook was formed to promote development of students’ skills of selfcontained work: questions for self-control, tasks for preparation for laboratory research and the main and additional references were given for the help of students are given. During the laboratory research, students gain skills of self-contained work in definition of systematic origin of plants using a comparative and morphological method. The students prepare for passing of educational and field practice on "Biodiversity of plants" – a part of complex botanical practice. Material for studying serves herbarium exemplars, biotic objects, the constant preparations, the alcoholized materials and temporary preparations which are prepared by students. Selection of species for studying is generally focused on flora of Kazakhstan, such as the Northern Tien Shan (including the Trans-Ili Alatau and 

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Kungey Alatau), Semey region and other regions of Kazakhstan. In the work students use microscopes, dissecting needles, magnifying glasses, binoculars. Studying of a material should be carried out as follows. Before occupation to students the necessary material according to the textbook should be read, the most important features of department, a class, an order and family. Details of a structure of bodies of plants are explained. The special attention is paid on a cycle of development of this or that plant. In the laboratory is acquaintance with specific objects and the details of the structure of plant bodies. On each object considered in the educational textbook tasks for the morphological analysis and a sketch of details of a structure of object are offered. In the tasks of other type had given only names of genus of plants that for studying materials can be used any kind of this genus or another species systematically close to it.Students deliver the report on realization of practical work in the form of an album with drawings, schemes. Drawings have to be executed by a simple pencil on the dense paper, are annotated with designations, names of families and species. At the end of text authors offered questions for selfcontrol. Separation and volume of classes, subclasses, orders, families and other classification units of Magnoliophyta corresponds to A.L.Takhtadzhyan's phylogenetic system (1987).

LESSON 1

Theme: Magnifiers Purpose: To form an idea of the structure and principles of magnification, as well as the significance of their invention for the development of the biological sciences. To practice working with magnifying instruments and trying prepare micropreparations. Objects: manual and tripod magnifier, light microscope, electron microscope, binoculars, microscope slides and cover glass, a pillow mosses and / or lichens, pollen (any plant). Slide – a special glass, which are intended for light and fluorescence microscopy. It is used in clinical diagnostic, histological, cytological and pathologomorphological laboratories. Glass adapted for automated systems wiring and painting. The slides have a thickness of 1.1 mm, characterized by a perfectly flat surface and high transparency. Cover glasses – made of transparent glass of the first hydrolytic class that does not allow the formation of bubbles and cracks. Another property of these cover glasses – uniformity – prevents distortion in the study sample. Loupe is the simplest magnifying device. Main part of it – a magnifying glass, domed on both sides, and inserted into the frame. With a magnifying glass, we see an image of the object, magnified in 2-25 times. Loupe takes the handle and closer to the subject at a distance which the image of the object becomes clearer at. Magnifying glasses are hand (Fig. 1) and tripod (Fig. 2). Tripod Magnifier enlarges objects in 1025 times. In its frame inserted two magnifying loupe, reinforced stand.

Figure 1. (900igr.net) Hand loupe 

Figure 2. (900igr.net) Tripod Magnifier 5

Light microscope consists of a tube or a tube (from lat. Tubus – tube). At the top of the tube is an eyepiece (from Lat. Oculus – the eye), it consists of two frames and magnifying glass. At the lower end of the tube lens is composed of several frames and magnifying glass. The tube is attached to a tripod and raised or lowered by means of screws. The tripod is attached specimen stage, the center of which there is an opening below the mirror. Viewed on a slide object is placed on the stage and secured it with clamps (Fig. 3). The main principle of a light microscope is that the light rays pass through the transparent (or translucent) object of the study, which is on the stage, and get a system of objective and eyepiece lenses, magnifying the image. Modern light microscopes can magnify the image up in 3 600 times. To learn how to increase the use of the microscope image, multiply the number shown in the eyepiece at the number indicated on the lens. For example, if the figure is an eyepiece 10, and the lens – 20, the image is magnified by 200 times (10 × 20 = 200). Binocular microscope (stereo microscope, "binocular") – view of the microscope to observe the volume enlarged image of very small objects (Fig. 4). Stereoscopic vision allows a person to investigate in detail the structure of complex three-dimensional structures.        

Figure 3. (www.mikroskope.ru/electro_micro.html) Light microscope

Figure 4. (http://www.laborant.net) Binocular

Rules for working with a microscope: 1. Working with a microscope should be sedentary; 2. Microscope view should be clear, wipe away the dust with a soft cloth lens, an eyepiece, a mirror or electro-lighters; 3. Microscope set in front of him, a little to the left of 2-3 cm from the edge of the table. During operation, it does not move; 4. Fully open the aperture to raise the condenser to its highest position; 6 

5. Work with the microscope always starts with small increase; 6. Lower the lens 8 – to the working position, i.e. at a distance of 1 cm from the slide; 7. Install lighting under the microscope, using electro-lighter or mirror. Looking through the eyepiece with one eye and using a mirror to the concave side, to direct light from the lens to the window, and then the maximum and evenly illuminate the field of view. If the microscope is equipped with a lighter, then connect the microscope to a power source, turn on the lamp and set the desired brightness of the burning; 8. Put the slides on the stage so that the object under study was under the lens. Looking side lower lens using macro-screw as long as the distance between the lower objective lens and the slides will not become 4-5 mm; 9. Look with one eye to the eyepiece and screw rough pickup itself, gradually rising to the position of the lens, which the well will see an image of the object in. You can not look through the eyepiece and the lower lens. The front lens can crush the cover glass, and it will scratch; 10. Move the arm of the microscope; find the right place to take it in the center of the field of view of the microscope; 11. If the image does not appear, it is necessary to repeat the operation of paragraphs 6, 7, 8, 9; 12. For the study of the object at high magnification, you first need to put the selected area in the center of the field of view of the microscope at low magnification. Then change the lens on the 40's, turning the gun so that he took the position. Using the micrometer screw, achieve a good image of the object. The box micrometer mechanism, there are two risks, and on the drive screw – a point which must always be between the risks. If it goes beyond them, it must be returned to its normal position. Failure to comply with this rule may stop screw to act; 13. When you finish with high magnification, install a small increase, raise the lens, remove the slide from the working table, wipe with a clean cloth all of the microscope, cover it with a plastic bag and put in the closet. Electron microscope (Fig. 5) allows us to consider the structure of very small structures that are invisible in the light microscope, for example, in the chloroplast thylakoids. Its resolution is 400 times greater than that of a light microscope (Fig. 6). This is achieved by the flow of electrons, rather than visible light. There are two types of electron microscopes: transmission (translucent) and scanning (which gives three-dimensional image micropreparations). For the study on plant facilities use a light microscope to prepare the slides. Slides are not intended for long-term storage, are called temporary. Studied object is placed on a glass slide in a drop of water, glycerol, and solution of the reagent or dye and covered with a cover glass. Such formulations may be stored for several days by placing in a humid atmosphere. If the objects are placed in balsam, glycerin and gelatin or celloidin, preparations are stored for years and are called permanent.



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Figure 5. (http://elementy.ru) Electron microscope microscope

Figure 6. (Dartmouth Electron Microscope Facility, Dartmouth College) An example of increasing the capacity of electron microscope micrograph pollen

In the manufacture of temporary micropreparations must comply with the following sequence: 1. Wash and wipe slides and cover glass. In order not to break the cover glass is very fragile, it is necessary to place it in the fold napkins between the thumb and forefinger of his right hand and gently wipe it with circular movements of the fingers; 2. Put on slide glass pipette a drop of liquid (water, glycerol, solution of the reagent or dye); 3. Move the object under study (a small portion of pollen, or the thinnest slice of skin stem, etc.) with a dissecting needle or a thin brush in the center of the slide in a drop of the liquid; 4. Close to the cover glass, so that it did not get under air. To do this, take the cover slip two fingers under the edge and draw an angle lower bound to the edge of a drop of liquid and slowly lower it; 5. If the mount is much fluid, and it flows out of the cover glass, remove it by using filter paper. If under the coverslip were spaces filled with air, then add the liquid by placing it near the edge drop of the coverslip and the opposite side of the filter paper. Task: 1. Examine the principle of magnifying devices. 2. Learn how to work with a microscope. 3. Descry using magnifying devices (magnifiers and binoculars) cushion of moss and lichen. 4. Learn how to prepare the slides. 4. Prepare a temporary preparation of pollen and examine its structure by means of light and electron microscopes. Questions for self-control: 1. List the magnifying devices. 2. How to determine just how to magnify the image is viewed under a microscope? 3. What are the working parts of the microscope and their functions? 4. What is the procedure for using the microscope? 5. What types of micropreparations you know and what are their differences? 8 

LESSON 2 Theme: Key features of the organization of the plant cell Purpose: Introduction to the basic features of the structure of plant cells, differences between animal and plant cells and the skills of manufacturing micropreparations. Objects: Elodie fresh leaves, scales of onions, fresh fruit (tomato, rose, and mountain ash), tubers of potato, pumpkin stem, and fixed slide with an animal cell. Cell – the basic unit of structure and functioning of all organisms (except for viruses), with its own metabolism, capable of independent existence, selfreproduction and development. Plant organisms are at different levels of the organization. There are plants, consisting of a single cell or cells connected in groups, forming the so-called "colonies." Finally, the most sophisticated – multicellular plants are composed of a large number of cells reaching astronomical figures, for example, only one leaf of the tree has more than 100 million cells. The shape and size of plant cells are very diverse and depend on their position in the body of the plant and the functions they perform. Tightly clasped cells most often take the form of polyhedra, as determined by their mutual pressure on cuts they usually look like a 4 – to 6-angled. Cell diameter in all directions is the same, called parenchyma. Prosenchyma called highly elongated cells in length, the length exceeds the width of 5-6 or more. In contrast to animal cells, plant cells grown always have a constant shape, is explained by the presence of a rigid cell wall. In plant cell possible to distinguish three main parts: 1) the cell wall carbohydrate, outside environmental cell, 2) the protoplast – Horizontal living cells – pressed as a fairly thin layer to the cell wall, and 3) the vacuole – space in the central part of the cell, filled with watery contents – cell sap. The cell wall and vacuole are waste products of the protoplast. In plant and animal cells, organelles are similar in structure, chemical composition and functions are performed (Fig. 7). The originality of plant cells is the presence of their strong cellulose casings, permeated plasmodesmata, plastids, and in most cases, a large central vacuole. Cell powered, breathes, responds to the impact of the external environment, it identifies useless substances multiplies, that is living. One of the most important manifestations of the life of cells is the movement or cyclosis cytoplasm (Fig. 8). Due to the movement of the cytoplasm to all parts of the cell are delivered to her the necessary material and disposed of in the vacuole substances generated by the cell (it does not like), and the replacement of matter into storage. The first person who saw and described the movement of the cytoplasm in the cells of Charales was Italian Giovanni Lmichi (1786-1863).



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Figure 7. (..  ,

..   . 2009) Comparative diagram of the structure of the animal (A) and plant (B) cells Comparative diagram of the structure of the animal (A) and plant (B) cells: 1 – nucleus with chromatin and the nucleolus, 2 – plasma membrane, 3 – cell membrane, 4 – plasmodesmata, 5 – granular (with ribosomes attached to it), the endoplasmic reticulum, 6 – smooth (agranular) endoplasmic reticulum, 7 – formed pinocytic vacuoles, 8 – complex (apparatus) Golgi, 9 – lysosome, 10 – fat inclusions, 11 – centriole and microtubules, 12 – mitochondria, 13 – polyribosomes, 14 – vacuole, 15 – chloroplasts

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Figure 8. (http://e-lib.gasu.ru/eposobia/papina/bolprak/R_2_5.html) Types of motion of the cytoplasm: A – circular movement in the sheet Elodie (A1 – escape, A2 – sheet A3 – leaf cells), B – flowing movement in balance pumpkin (B1 – pumpkin stem, B2 – hairs, B3 – hair cells). C- The movement of the cytoplasm is indicated by arrows. 1 – cellular membrane, 2 – cytoplasm, 3 – chloroplasts 4 – vacuole 5 – nucleus

Plastids – organelles protoplast is unique to plant cells. They perform various functions related mainly to the synthesis of organic substances. Depending on the color caused by the presence of pigments, there are three main types of plastids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Chloroplasts – the green plastids that contain the green pigment chlorophyll, and a small amount of carotene and xanthophyll. The mainest function of chloroplasts – photosynthesis, which results in the formation of energy-rich organic matter. Chlorophyll synthesis generally occurs only in the light, so the plants grown in the dark or low-light, become pale yellow and called etiolated. Instead of typical chloroplasts ethioplast is formed. In the cells of lower plants (algae) threre are a few large chloroplasts (one or more). They have different shapes (leaf, star, tape, etc.). These chloroplasts are called chromatophores. Plastids are chromoplasts containing the carotenoids pigments are yellow, orange or red. Carotenoids belong to the widespread carotene (orange) and 

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xanthophylls (yellow). Chromoplasts have different shapes (Fig. 9). They are formed in the autumn leaves, roots (carrots), ripe fruit, etc. Unlike chloroplasts, chromoplasts form is very variable, but species-specific, because of their origin and the state in which the pigments.

Figure 9. (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001bd5fb.htm) Ripe fruit pulp cells and differences in the forms of their chromoplasts. A- tomato is a fruit, B-fruit mountain ash, C – fruit of wild rose, 1,2,3 – cells with prominent nucleus and chromoplasts

Leucoplasts colorless plastids are small spherical, ovoid or spindle-shaped. They are commonly found in the cells of organs, hidden from sunlight: in the rhizomes, tubers, roots, seeds, stems and core is very rare – in cells illuminated parts of the plant (in the cells of the epidermis). Leucoplasts often gather around the nucleus, surrounding it on all sides. The activities leucoplast specialized and related to the formation of reserve substances. Some of them accumulate predominantly starch (amyloplasts), others – proteins (proteoplasty or aleyronoplasts), and others – oil (oleoplasts). Task: 1. Observe the circular motion of the cytoplasm on the movement of chloroplasts in Elodea leaf. Make a drawing. 2. Observe the movement of moving granular cytoplasmic inclusions in the cells of the epidermis of the stem hairs pumpkin. Make a drawing. 3. Prepare the slides temporal scales of onion (Allium) and potato in a drop of water. Determine the type of crystals (Fig. 10). Draw the cells with crystals. 4. Review and sketch chromoplasts of ripe fruit.

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Figure 10. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2005) Calcium oxalate crystals in the cells: A – Single and cross-shaped crystals, B – singlecrystal intergrowth crystals, C – beam Rafid, D – styloiditis, E – crystalline sand

Additional explanations and instructions: 1. Elodea sheet consists of two layers of cells, and each layer is easily visible under a microscope. Tear off a sheet Elodea by the shoot apex and put it in a drop of water taken from the vessel to the effects of the detergent. The object covered with a cover glass and examine first with the small, and then at high magnification. Interrupting the sheet causes movement of the cells in its cytoplasm, which is easily observed by the movement of chloroplasts in one direction along the cell wall (a circular motion). 2. Prepare temporary microscopic hairs with epidermal stem pumpkin. At low magnification to find a hair basal cell and then transfer to a large increase. Pay attention to the location of the cytoplasm from which radiates her thin strands crossing the vacuole, connecting to the center of the cell to the nuclear pocket. It is seen flowing movement of the cytoplasm, which is notably due to the movement of granular inclusions. 3. Using tweezers remove the skin from the convex surface of the onion scales, put it in a drop of water on a glass slide the outer side up, and add a drop of iodine, cover with a cover slip. Put under the microscope and find a site with very apparent nuclei and cytoplasm. 4. Cut a small piece of potato; make it a smear on a glass slide in a drop of water. Drop back drop of iodine – starch grains will be painted. Cover the top of the cover slip and examine under the microscope. 5. Chromoplasts prepared for consideration by the next mount. The tip of a dissecting needle gets some flesh of ripe fruit (tomato, hips or rowan), place it in a drop of water and gently loosen the microscope, trying to see chromoplasts. 

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Questions for self-control: 1. What distinguishes a plant cell from an animal? 2. What is a plastid? 3. What pigments does chromoplast contain? 4. What is cyclosis and what is its role in the life of a cell?

LESSON 3 Theme: Department of Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) – Cyanophyta Purpose: Meet the most common representatives of cyanobacteria, to study the peculiarities of their structure. Objects: Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Anabaena. Cyanobacteria are widely distributed throughout the world, and their number is about 2500 species. This is a very ancient organism appeared more than 3 billion years ago. It is assumed that changes in atmospheric composition and concentration of its Archean oxygen associated with photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Sea and fresh-water, soil types, participants of symbioses (for example, in a lichen). They have a considerable share of an oceanic phytoplankton, are the main participants of flowering of water which causes mass death of fish and poisoning of animals and people. The forms of Cyanobacteria cells are circular, elliptical, cylindrical, barrel-shaped or otherwise, may be single, united in colonies or form multicellular filaments. Often, they secrete mucus to form a thick cover, surrounded by some form of a dense shell. Some forms' filaments are branching and form thallus. Some forms with approach of adverse conditions of the environment, as well as a bacterium, form spores. Filamentous forms of cyanobacteria, in addition to normal cells, have larger cells with thickened walls – heterocysts (Fig.11). Heterocysts are able to fix nitrogen and provide nitrogenous substances other cells thread. Cyanobacteria in contrast to these bacteria never have any flagella; usually multiply by dividing into two cells. Life cycle at unicellular forms under optimum conditions of body height — 6-12 hours. No sexual reproduction. Cyanobacteria cells are characterized by rather thick walls. Cell wall contains some amount of cellulose, but the main components are other polysaccharides and pectin. Like many prokaryotes, the cell wall contains a number of murein. Cyanobacteria have rare vacuoles with cell sap but there often can be found special gas "vacuoles" filled with nitrogen. Widely known representatives of cyanobacteria are the Oscillatoria (Fig. 12) and a Nostoc (Fig. 13) – inhabitants of fresh reservoirs. Spores are not formed there. Nostoc – the colonial form, representing mucous congestions of sinuous threads, consisting of spherical cells; yellow heterotcysts are well noticeable. 14 

  

    

Figure 11. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) The blue-green algae. Heterotcyst is noted by arrow

Figure 12. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Oscillatoria

Anabaena — a sort of filamentous cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), is a part of a plankton (Fig. 14). It is known for its nitrogen-fixing ability, forms a symbiotic relationship with certain plants, such as some ferns.

Figure 13. (    .., 1988) Nostoc

Figure 14. (   .., 1988; http:// ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%) Anabaena

Tasks: 1. To consider and sketch the external appearance of Nostoc colonies. To determine the structural features of the thallus, to sketch and note the vegetative cells, heterocysts, colonial mucus. 2. To find Oscillatoria algae in preparations, to consider the structure of filaments of cells, the formation hormogonia. Identify signs of filamentous structures of the thallus, to sketch algae. Mark filaments, vagina, hormogonia. 3. To identify the features of the kind of Anabena, sketch and identify vegetative cells, heterocysts, spores. Questions for self-control: 1. What pigments and food supply is characterized by cells of cyanobacteria? 2. What are the similarities and differences of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) from other photosynthetic algae? 3. What forms of organization of thallus and reproduction are known in cyanobacteria? 4. What is the practical significance of cyanobacteria?



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LESSON 4 Theme: Division of Green Algae – Chlorophyta Purpose: To get to know with diversity of morphological organization levels of green algae and representatives of different classes. Objects: biotic algae herbarium samples, invariable preparations. Algae – lower photoautotroph plants, usually live in water (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ponds). Some of them can be found in soil, on land and even in the atmosphere. The body of algae is usually lack of tissues and is not divided into organs, i. e. is thallome. Green algae are diverse by external appearance (Fig. 15, 16): unicellular, siphon, multicellular filamentous and lamellar.

Figure 15. ( ..   , 2003) Algas:  – Chlamydomonas; b – Chlorella; c – Pleurococcus; d – Spirogyra; e – Ulotrix; 1 – envelope; 2 – nucleus; 3 – chromatophore; 4 – vacuoles; 5 – a photosensitive eye; 6 – spores; 7 – gametes; 8 – a zygote; 9 – a copulation; 10 – a conjugation.

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 Figure 16. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Green algae. % – Spirogyra. 1 – cells with chromatophore, 2 – a ladder conjugation. B – Chara. 1 – general view, 2 – part of thallome:  – tubercles,  – antheridium,  – oogonium.

Distinguishing sign – purely green color of thallome, similar to coloring of the highest plants, caused by a dominance of chlorophyll over other pigments. There are found chlorophyll a and b, a-and - carotenes from assimilatory pigments. Cells are uninuclear and multinuclear, mostly are covered by a cellulose and pectinaceous envelope, seldom naked. Iso- and heteromorphic alternations of generations are observed. Store product – starch, which is postponing in chloroplasts, oil is rare. Reproduction is vegetative, asexual and sexual. Sexual process – an isogamy (merge of two motile gametes which are identical in a form and the size), a heterogamy (merge of two motile gametes which are identical in a form, but different in size), an oogamy (merge of a large sessile ootid with a shallow motile sperm cell), a hologamy (merge of protoplasts of two motile unicellular algae), a conjugation (merge of protoplasts of two sessile haploid vegetative cells with formation of a zygote). Class Properly green (Equalflagellates) – Chlorophyaceae (Isocontae) Order – Volvocales Chlamydomonas Volvox Order – Chlorococcales Chlorella Order – Ulotrichales Ulotrix Order – Ulvales Ulva 

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Order – Siphonocladales Cladophora Class – Conjugatophyceae Order – Zygnematales Spirogyra Class – Charphyceae Chara Chlamydomonas lives in shallow reservoirs, pools, ditches, on the soil and on snow. Its body has an oval, pear shaped or spherical form. The cell is covered by the dense envelope which is quite often lagging behind a protoplast. Chlamydomonas bears two equal flagellas On the forward end of a body by help of which it actively moves in water. The protoplast contains one nucleus, usually cup-shaped chromatophore, a red eye spot (stigma) and the pulsing vacuoles in the forefront of a nucleus.

 Figure 17. ( James Schooley, 1996) Ulva, showing alternation of isomorphic generations: (a) A 2~ sporophyte that produces quadriflagellated zoospores by meiosis; (b) sporophytes in cross section. Sporophytes are of two sorts, producing male gametophytes, (c) an (d), or female gametophytes, (e) and (f). The gametes, (g), unite (h), and produce the next sporophyte generation, (i). 18 

Chlamydomonas have two ways of reproduction – asexual and sexual. In case of the former the cell stops, loses flagellas and the protoplast sequentially shares on 2, 4 or 8 parts, each of which covers by individual envelope, develops flagellas and leaves a mother cell in the form of zoospore. After reaching the sizes of a maternal individual, Chlamydomonas again start to reproduce. Sexual process is isogamous or even oogamous. Chlorella looks like a microscopic sessile ball. The cell is covered by a smooth envelope, contains integral, cut or paddle-like a chromatophore with a pyrenoid body and a nucleus. Chlorella reproduces by asexual way, forming a set (to 64) of sessile spores. Sexual reproduction is not noted. Nonramified filaments of Ulotrix, consisting of cylindrical cells of the same kind with thick cellulose envelopes, are attached to a substratum by the colourless conic basal cell which is carrying out functions of rhizoids. The characteristic is the structure of a chromatophore which looks like plate, not self-contained belt or a ring (cylinder) and located near the cell wall. All cells, except basal, are able to share, causing the continuous increase of thallus. Asexual and sexual reproduction is isogamous. Tasks: 1. To look and sketch a chlorella, chlamydomonas, volvox, ulotrix, ulva. To select the level of organization of thallome. 2. To sketch scheme of alternation of generations of Ulva (Fig. 17). 3. To look and sketch the area of thallome of cladophora. To note the branching of thallome, cell wall, structure of chromatophore. 4. To look and sketch the spirogyra, cell with chromatophores and scalariform (ladderlike) conjugation. 5. To look and sketch the external appearance of chara. To note the segmented structure of thallome, the “differentiation” of cells, the method of growth of thallome. To study ready preparations of reproductive organs of chara. To sketch the structure of oogonium, antheridium, shield with spermatogenetic cells. Questions for self-control: 1. What kinds of features make closer chlorococcales and volvocales? 2. What forms of chlorococcales are characterized by absence of movable stages in cycle of development? 3. How chlorococcales are distributed and their mode of life? 4. What are the features of cell structure of cladophora? 5. What is the difference of chara from other green algae? 6. Which main characters are typical for conjugatophyceae?



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LESSON 5 Theme: Euglenophytes – Euglenophyta and Diatoms algae – Bacillariophyta Purpose: Learn the structural features and breeding Euglena and Diatoms. Objects: biotic algae and constant preparations: Euglena, Phacus; diatomic algae, including colonial forms Gomphonema and Phragilaria. Euglenophyta characterized pure green color chromatophores containing chlorophyll a and b, carotene and xanthophyll (Fig. 18). This is microscopic algae. The cellulose envelope is not present. The starch is not present, spare product – carbohydrate is paramilon. Existence of one flagella is characteristic. They usually live in the basic with fresh water, where they can eat mixotrophicaly.

Figure 18. (   .., 1987) Euglenophyta: 1 – Trachelomonas bituricensis; 2 – Strombomonas ensifera; 3 – Euglena sanguinea, filled on a chematochrome; 4 – Phacus longicauda; 5 – Euglena ehrenbergii

Figure 19. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Diatoms algae: % – Pinnularia, view from belt side; B – The same, but view from stitch; C- The same, the opened cell; D – The same, transversal cut through a cell; E – Cyclotella: 1 – epitheca, 2 – hypotheca, 3 – stitch, 4 – a small knot, 5 – chromoplast, 6 – pyrenoids, 7 – cytoplasm, 8 – nucleus, 9 – vacuole

Diatoms are a very special group of single-celled organisms, dramatically different from the other algae (Fig. 19). Cells of Diatoms algae are outside surrounded by the solid silica shell called by 20 

armor. The cellulose casing is not present. Chloroplasts are painted in various shades of yellow-brown color depending on a set of pigments among which prevail Carotinum, xanthophyll and a special pigment a diatomin from group of xanthophylls. They have chlorophylls a and c. Main spare product it is fat oil. Diatoms occupy quite exceptional in its importance in the overall cycle of matter in nature. They serve as the main food and the initial link in the food chain for many organisms. Genus – Gomphonema Representatives of this sort in a habitat choose clear reservoirs. In the thickness of water they are not able to live, for maintaining of activity they need "owner" (it can be various subjects at the bottom of a reservoir to which they are attached for example: more developed algae or the plants standing some steps above in a scale of development). Sea algae – Gomfonema can create colonies, but individual copies not seldom meet too (Fig. 20). Genus – Phragilaria Representatives of this sort can be in plankton of fresh and saltish reservoirs, on the wet stones and on various underwater subjects. Eat phototrophicaly. Reproduction is cell fission. The alga matters for biological water analysis as an indicator of purity of water in reservoirs. The colony of Phragilaria has a zigzag form. Its cells are rectangular, are connected among themselves by corners and keep back by mucilage (fig. 21).

1

2 3 Figure 20. (http://www.d256h.com/aqua_illness. html) Gomphonema: 1- armor with shutters; 2- armor with belt; 3- general view of a colony.



Figure 21. (http://plantlife.ru/books) Phragilaria – general view of a colony 

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Tasks: 1. Study and feature monadic structure of cells Euglena and Phacus. 2. Consider diatomaceous cells in different positions: top view, with wings and a side view, with belts. Study the structural formation of the shell. Cancel epitheca and hypotheca. 3. Find and sketch colonial forms Gomphonema and Phragilaria. Questions for self-control: 1. What classes do diatomic algae include? What is the difference in a structure and a way of life? What is the difference in distribution in the nature? 2. What main features of the organization do the Euglena algae have? 3. How does a sexual process at diatomic algae happen? 4. What signification do the Euglena and Diatoms algae are have?

LESSON 6 Theme: Department of Red algae – Rhodophyta and Brown algae – Phaeophyta Purpose: Establish the structural features and highly organized forms of reproduction of algae in comparison with other parts of algae. Objects: alive algae and constant exemplars of a Laminaria, Fucus, thallus of Porphyra, Rhodymeniu, Batrachospermum; constant preparations: Fucus scaphidia. Additional materials: tables and schemes. A few exceptions purpura are sea inhabitants. Thallus of purpura usually has the form of branched multicellular filaments attached to the substratum (the stones, shells) with rhizoids (Fig. 22). They are with the brown algae plants, the largest group of marine benthos. Their identity, above all, is to set the pigments. In the chloroplasts of red algae, in addition to chlorophyll a and d and carotenoids, found a number of water-soluble pigments, phycobillin: red phycoerythrin and blue phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. The ratio of these pigments and coloring depends on thallus. Product of assimilation is the socalled "purpura’s starch." Cells are single- or multi-core. Sexual process is oogamy (Fig. 23). Mobile phase in the Figure 22. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., development cycle is completely absent, 2006) Red algae. % – Porphyra, and the spores and gametes always B – Rodimenia, C – Batrachospermum denied undulipodia.

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Figure 23. ( James Schooley, 1996) Life cycle of Porphyra (a) spermatia; (b) an oogonium, or carpogonium, with spermatium at the end of the trichogyne; (c) fertilization. (d) Meiosis occurs and carpospores are produced. The carpospores grow into new gametophytes,( e), (f), and (g). At (h) an asexual pathway generates monospores, which can grow into new plants.

All brown algae are multicellular organisms. Ancient representatives of the department – single-core or multi-branched filaments: highly organized have large dissected thallus. For algae of this department are typical chloroplasts, painted in brown color, due to the fact that in addition to chlorophyll "a" and "c", and Bcarotene, there is an excess of brown pigments – xanthophylls and especially fucoxanthin. Reserve polysaccharide is laminarin. Except for laminarin, spare products are hexatomic alcohol mannitol and fats. Zoospores and gametes have undulipodium and peephole. Sexual reproduction can be isogamous, heterogamic and oogamic. Department -Brown algae – Phaeophyta Class- Heterogeneratae Order – Laminariales Genus – Laminaria Class – Cyclosporeae Order – Fucales Genus – Fucus Department – Red algae – Rhodophyta 

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Class – Bangiophyceae Genus – Porphyrae Class – Florideophyceae Genus – Batrachospermum Laminaria – brown alga thallus which in the form of a plate, smooth or wrinkled, whole or cut, without holes, from several tens centimeters long to 20 m. Stalk nonramified, is attached rhizoids or a disciform sole (Fig.24). Laminaria forming heavy-bodied thickets grow in places with a constant current, forming "a belt of laminarias" at a depth of 4-10 m along the coastline.  Life cycle of a laminaria is heteromorphic (Fig. 25). Meiotic sporangium one-nest, is located on plate edge. After an exit of zoospores from a plate sporangium the thallus is reduced, the next year from remained stalks new plates developing. Zoospores give rise microscopicaly sized filamentous gametophytes. The algae have two types of gametophytes – male or female.

Figure 24. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Brown alga – Laminaria

Figure 25. (Life of plants, 1974) Life cycle of Laminaria. 1 – thallus with spores: - spot of sporangium; 2- floating zoospores; 3 – zoospore attached by a forward flagella to a soil; 4 – embriospor; 5- embriospor with a prosprout tube; 6 – formation of the first cells of gametophytes (at the left – female, on the right – male); 7 – male gametophyte: b– anteridiya, c – antherozoid; 8- multicellular female gametophyte; 9-monocelled female gametophyte after an ootide exit from an oogonium: d – an envelope embriospore; 10, 11 beginning of development thallus of sporophyte: e -primary rhizoid 24 

Fucus – is widespread in the North Sea where lives in a coastal zone, being attached to stones and forming enormous thickets. Thallus of Fucus is flat, belt-like, repeatedly dichotomizing the branching. In the basis there is a pillow-like expansion by which the Fucus is attached to stones. On the centerline there is slightly blown up vein. On each side from it the pair of swellings filled with air are located in most cases, are air chambers. They support a fucus in vertical situation. On the ends of some branches there are swellings the bearing spherical cavities the same size as a pin head, called scaphidia. All scaphidia has a hole opens on a surface (Fig. 26).

Figure 26. (http://plantlife.ru/books) Fucus: 1 – appearance; 2 – section at saphidia, containing oogoniya and paraphysis; 3 – the same with anteridiya; 4 – The oogonium, sitting on a leg, surrounded paraphysis; 5 – group antheridia and paraphysical; 6 – escaping antheridia of spermatozoons Tasks: 1. Sketch the Laminaria. Pay attention to the dismemberment of the thallus, the plate, the leg, claw rhizoids. Sketch diagrams of heteromorphic alternation of generations of Laminaria. 2. Sketch the appearance of Fucus and preparations scaphidia of fucus. 3. Examine and sketch thallus of Porphyra, Rhodymenia, Batrachospermum. Pay attention to the variety of colors of the thallus. Questions for self-control: 1. How do Brown algae reproduce? And which of them are considered more primitive? 2. What are the main features of the organization of red algae? 3. What is the difference between red algae and brown ones? 4. What is the practical significance of red and brown algae? 

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LESSON 7 Theme: Fungi – Mycota Class: the Zygomycota – Zygomycetes, the Ascomycota – Ascomycetes, the Basidiomycota – Basidiomycetes Purpose: examine the characteristics of Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Objects: biotic fungi (fruiting bodies of Basidiomycetes), the fixed preparations. Additional materials: tables and schemes, microscope, binocular. Heterotrophic organisms don’t have chlorophyll. Occupy an intermediate position between the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom. As animals fungi bring together the following features: 1. Chitin in the cell walls 2. Lack of photosynthetic pigments 3. Decomposition of organic matter goes to urea 4. Product of assimilation, most – glycogen There are brings with plants 1. The existence of a developed cell wall 2. Still in a vegetative state, and unlimited growth 3. The property to absorb nutrients and water osmotrophicaly (powered by dissolved organic matter.) At the same time, a number of signs and fungi are very different from the animals and the plants: 1. Fungi decomposers, whereas plants are producers and animals – consumer 2. In most plants and animals in the life cycle is dominant diploid stage, gametes only haploid. in fungi dominated the haploid stage, only diploid zygote 3. Most fungi cannot allocate individual physically limited individual 4. The lack of clear generational change Vegetative body of most fungi presented mycelium composed of hyphae – thin branching filaments with apical growth and lateral branching, a few fungi – unicellular. The higher fungi have different modification of mycelium: rhizomorphs, sclerotium (or sclerotia), stroma (or stromata). The fungi have vegetative and asexual reproduction, and the sexual process. There is a large variety of sexual processes of fungi: 1. All gametogamy (iso-, hetero-and oogamy) 2. Hologamy 3. Gametangiogamy 4. Somatogamy Class – Zygomycota – Zygomycetes The best known sort is Mucor. Representatives of a sort have individual colorless sporangiophores, ordinary or 26 

branched at which top develops on one sporangium. Mycelium represents one multinuclear branched cell which has not been divided by partitions. Colonies, as a rule, beige or gray color, quickly grow. Aged colonies are darker because of formation of a numerous sporangia with spores. (Fig. 27).

Figure 27. (http://plantlife.ru/books) Mucor: 1 – mycelium and sporangiophores with sporangia, 2 – sporangium, 3 – mature zygote and its germination

Figure 28. ( James Schooley, 1996) Sexual reproduction in Rhizopus nigricans. (a) Plus and minus spores are planted on a nutrient medium. (b) The mycelium expands, and plus and minus filaments become closely associated. (c) Fusion produces a zygospore, which can germinate to produce a new hypha. (d) The first divisions of the zygote nucleus are meiotic

Tasks: 1. To sketch mycelium and sporangiophores of a mucor. 2. To sketch sexual reproduction in Rhizopus nigricans (Fig. 28)

Class – Marsupials mushrooms – Ascomycetes Ascomycota – the extensive class including 30 thousand types, widespread in all natural zones. On a way of a nourishment can be saprophytes and parasites. The most widespread and almost important group of a class – yeast (sorts: Saccharomyces, Candida, etc.). They have no typical mycelium, and there are only simple cells, breeding budding or division (Fig. 29). Bakery yeasts – Saccharomyces cerevisiae – are not emitted from natural substrata and exist only in culture. They are presented by hundred races: wine, baking, beer and spirit. The barmy biomass or yeast extracts are used as feed or food additives; yeast applies as a pharmacological product to the medical purposes. Receive also from yeast group B vitamins: biotin, thiaminum, pyridoxine, pantothenic and nicotinic acids. 

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Among pathogens of cultural plants to Ascomycetes belong farinose dew, an apple-tree and pear scab belong, ergot (Fig. 30).



Figure 29. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Budding barmy cells

Figure 30. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Ergot purple (Claviceps purpurca) (on the right an ear with sclerotium, at the left – sprouted sclerotium)

Many ascomycetes and the close to deuteromycetes – spergillus and a penicillium (Fig. 31) form antibiotics, enzymes, organic acids and are used for their production receiving.

 Figure 31. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Eurotiales fungi. % – penicillium, B – spergillus: 1 – conidiophores with conidia, 2 – cleistocarp with bags in which there are ascospores

Class – Marsupials mushrooms – Ascomycetes Subclass – Hemiascomycetidae Order – Endomycetales Genus – Saccharomyces Subclass – Euascomycetidae 28 

Order – Eurotiales Genus – Aspergillus Genus- Penicillium Order – Clavicipitales Species – Claviceps purpurea

Figure 32. ( James Schooley, 1996) The process of formatting of ascus. At left, the trichogyne from the ascogonium makes contact with the antheridium. Ascogenous hyphae arise from the ascogonium and develop a crozier. The paired nuclei divide and cross walls form between daughter nuclei. Two nuclei in the apical cell fuse followed by meiosis and a single mitotic division to produce eight ascospores Tasks: 1. Consider and sketch yeast cells. 2. To study and sketch the structure and form of the mycelium from penicillin sporophores and Aspergillus. 3. On infected leaves of trees and sketch cleistocarpium find their form. 4. Consider ergot infected buds cereals. Draw the sprouting of sclerotia and cut through the stroma. 5. The process of formatting of ascus (Fig. 32).



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Padding explanations and instructions: Ascogenous hyphae with asci can be formed not only randomly (in any place of mycelium) as it occurs at the lowest forms, but also on the fruit bodies consisting of densely bound hyphas. Marsupials of fungi have four types of fruit bodies. Cleistothecia – represent completely selfcontained fruit body with being inside asci, being released after destruction of its walls (Fig. 33). Perithecia — are almost closed ("are half-closed"), that is bags are surrounded the peridiy. Perithecia usually have a jug-like form with a lead-out opening in an upper. Apothecia — open receptacles of asci. Form bowls (saucer). On the top party of a fruit body the layer of ascus and paraphysis is located; paraphyses while ascus unripe, can be closed over them the tops and carry out protective function. Also form the wrinkled surface of morels. Ascomyceta with apothecia reckon the most highorganized and unite in group of orders discomycetes. Pseudothecia – their formation begins with formation of mycelium of stroma in which cavities gametangia are formed, there is a sexual process and formation of ascus.

Figure 33. (James Schooley, 1996) Several ascocarps: (a) a cleistothecium; (b) a perithecium; (c) an apothecium; and (d) an ascostroma

Class – Basidiomycetes Bazidals mushrooms marsupials differ from fungi in that body of sexual spores they have is not the case and the basidium, which forms the outer controversy. They are called bazidospors. They are unicellular, haploid. 30 

Hallmark basidiomycetes – the fact that the special genital they are formed (somatogamia). Asexual reproduction occur conidia, vegetative propagation is oidies. In development cycle Basidiomycetes dominated dikaryotic stage. Diploid is a young basidium only. Basidiospores and primary mycelium are haploidic. One form fruiting bodies, others do not constitute, in which cases basidia are formed directly on hyphae. Fruiting body, which is formed hymenial layer consist of densely interwoven dicaryotic hyphae and has a variety of forms: a hat with a leg of mushrooms, hooves outgrowth have tinder fungus (Fig. 34); films of the houses of the fungus, etc. Class- Basidimycetes Subclass – Holobasidiomecetidae Group of orders – Hymenomycetidae Order – Aphillophorales Species – Fomes fomentarius Order – Agaricales Genus – Agaricus Subclass – Teliobasidiomycetidae Order – Ustilaginales Species – Ustilago sp. Order – Uredinales Species – Puccinia sp.



Figure 34. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Fruiting body of basidiomycetes: % – tinder fungus, B – field mushroom Tasks: 1. Look and sketch the fruiting body of Polypore. 2. Look and sketch the appearance of the fruiting body of mushrooms champignon. Note in picture: stalk, cap, apron and Hymenophore veil. 3. Draw the tube and plate and mark Hymenophorebasidia and basidiospores, pseudoparaphysis, cystids, subgimenial formula and stroma. 4. Consider the affected plants charred wheat and barley. Describe the appearance of the affected plants and changes the affected organs. 5. To consider and sketch the scheme of a cycle of development of a mushroom smut of solid wheat (Fig. 35) 6. Make and draw a diagram of the life cycle of rust. 

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Figure 35. (http://molbiol.ru/wiki/()_&  _  _(Ustilaginales) Cycle of development of a mushroom activator smut of solid wheat Questions for self-control: 1. Kingdom of fungi. Tick the plant and animal organization of fungi. The principles of division of fungi on classes. 2. Features of a structure Zygomycetes and their value. 3. What sign underlies classification Ascomycetes? 4. What types of fruit bodies are formed at Ascomycetes and how bags are formed? 5. Call distinctive patrimonial diagnostic signs farinose- sundew fungi. 6. What features of a structure and reproduction of Basidiomycetes? 7. What features of a structure of fruit bodies Gasteromycetes? 8. Characterize cycles of development of activators dusty smut of barley, smut of solid wheat, an ergot. 9. Describe a cycle of development of the activator of the linear rust of cereals. 10. Distribution and value of fungi.

LESSON 8 Theme: Department – Lichens Purpose: To study the features of the structure and reproduction of lichens. Objects: Herbarium specimens of lichens: Xanthoria, Parmelia, Cladonia, Usnea and constant preparations of Parmelia and Collema. Lichens are differ peculiar structure. Thallus of Lichen composed two organisms, fungi and algae, which are in a mutually beneficial coexistencesymbiotic. Outside lichen usually covered with dense cortical layer of tightly woven and modified by fungal hyphae. The inner part consists of numerous hyphae, entangling individual cells and groups of algae. (Fig. 36) 32 

 Figure 36. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Anatomic structure of the lichen: 1 – soredia, 2 – the upper crust, 3 – algal layer, 4 – the core 5 – the lower crust, 6 – rizins

Fungi involved in symbiosis, in the highest, that is, to the class of marsupials, less-basidial. And algae – the type of green, at least – the blue-green (cyanobacteria), yellow-green or brown. Lichen thallus may look brown, leaf-plate or a bush. Due to the variety of their forms are three main morphological types: crustose, foliose, or fruticous and bushy lichens (Fig. 37).

 Figure 37. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Morphological of lichen: % – crustose, B – foliose, C – bushy lichens

For lichens is characteristic both vegetative (slices of thallus) and sexual reproduction. At sexual reproduction on thallus of lichens sexual produces spores in the form of fruiting bodies are formed. At lichens distinguish some types of fruiting bodies: of apothecia, a perithecia and a gasterothecia (Fig. 38, 39). The majority of the lichens, over 250 genera, form open fruiting bodies in a look like at apothecia – disc forms. So, for example, at a Cladonia from primary horizontal of thallus the secondary – vertical, in the form of the keroid, flask shaped or bushy educations called by podetium grows. On the ends of branches or tops podetia are formed apothecia – spherical or semi-spherical, red, brown are formed, the yellow are more rare. Gasterothecia usually call narrow fruiting bodies an oblong form. 

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In apothecia, perithecia and gasterothecia spores is developing inside asci – special bag-like formations.

Figure 38. (http://www.ecosystema.ru) Structure of apothecium: 1 appearance of apothecia of a gelatinous lichen (A – a disk, B – edge); 2-cross section through apothecium (A – a gimenial layer, B – edge of thallus, C – paraphysis, D – bags with spores, E-of epithecium, F – hypothecium G- alga, Q – thallus); 3-apothecium on the lengthiest leg

Figure 39. (..    , 2007) Structure of perithecium: 1 – appearance of perithecium; 2 – cross section through thallus with shipped in it perithecium ( – ekstsipul, b – hymenium layer formed by bags with spores and paraphysis, c – hypothecium, d – periphyses). 34 

Soredia – represent the smallest educations in the form of the motes consisting of one or several cages of an alga, surrounded with mushroom hyphae. Congestions of sorediya call soralia. Soredia, carried by a wind and rain water, having got to the favorable conditions, gradually form new the thallus. Renewing new thallus comes from soredia very slowly. So, at kinds from a sort a Cladonia normal flakes primary thallus develop from soredia only through term from 9 to 24 months. And for development secondary thallus with apothecia it is required from one to eight years depending on a type of lichen and external conditions. If conditions for development new thallus are not absolutely favorable, but nevertheless body height of mushroom hyphae and reproduction of algae is possible, from soredia new soredia develop and there is the leprose form described above which is looking like a powder-like spot. Isidia – meeting at smaller number of types of lichens, than soredia and soralia. They represent prime or coral-like the branched outgrowths usually densely covering the top party of thallus. Unlike soralia isidia are outside covered with bark, often more dark, than thallus. Inside, under bark, they contain algae and mushroom hyphae. Isidia are easily broken off from thallus surface. Breaking off and extending by means of a rain and a wind, they as well as soredia, can form new thallus of lichens under the favorable conditions (Fig. 40).

Figure 40. (www.ecosystema.ru) Structure of soralia and isidia. Structure of: soralia – 1 ( –soralium, b, c – individual soredia), 5 – isidia ( – cross section). Tasks: 1. Study on herbarium exemplars and to sketch appearance of crustose, foliose, or gelatinous and bushy lichens. 2. Consider at small and big increase a constant preparation thallus of Parmelia and Collema. Sketch cuts of thallus, to make designations. 3. To consider on herbarium exemplars of an apothecium of a Cladonia, to define apothecia type, to sketch and designate building blocks. 4. To consider and sketch a structure of isidia, and also perithecia. 5. To consider under binokulyar or by means of a magnifying glass thawed Cladonia with soredia (soralia) and to sketch. Questions for self-control: 1. What are the basic principles of Lichen’s classification? 2. What algae do represent fikobiont in the composition of Lichen? 3. What is the microbiont? What fungi can be the part of Lichens? 4. What kind of morphological types of lichens’ thallus structure are known? 5. Describe the anatomy of the lichen thallus and reproduction of lichens. 6. Environmental groups lichens. Significance of lichens. 

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HIGHER PLANTS

LESSON 9 Theme: Tissues Purpose: To familiarize with the different types of tissues, their structure and functions. Objects: fresh leaves of sunflower (or permanent drug sunflower leaf epidermis), aloe leaf, potato tuber, leaf radish permanent preparations of plant tissues: the meristem of the growing point of the stem Elodie, a cross-section of the stem and petiole begonia geranium, a cross-section of the stem pondweed. Groups of cells that are similar in structure, origin, and functions are called tissues. The concept of tissue typed Malpighi and Grew. Under the fabrics that make up the bulk of the various organs of the plant, called the principal. Different tissues differ in structure and function. Today, the most common is the following classification of the tissue, see Table 1. Table 1

Classification of tissues I

II III IV V

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Meristem 1 Apical 2 Lateral: ) primary (procambium, pericycle) ) secondary (cambium, phellogene) 3 Intercalary 4 Wound (traumatic) The assimilation tissue Storage tissues Aerenchyma Bound tissue 1 With the predominant function of the external regulation of gas exchange and transformation, as well as mechanical protection function (epithelial tissue) a) primary (epidermis) b) secondary (periderm) c) tertiary (crust or retidom) 2 External to the prevailing suction function: a) rhizoderm b) Velam 3 With the predominant function of the internal regulation of the passage of substances: a) endoderm b) exoderm c) the parietal cells of the vascular bundles in the leaves

VI

VII

VIII

Secretory tissue 1 Internal: ) trichomes and emergens ) nectar glands ) hydators 2 External: ) secretory cells ) multicellular stores of secretion ) laticifers Mechanical tissues 1 Collenchyma 2 Sclerenchyma: ) fibers ) sclereids Vascular tissues 1 Xylem 2 Phloem

Meristem (educational tissue) are composed of undifferentiated (i.e., not specialized) cells capable of multiple share. These cells have the form isodiametrical polyhedra are not separated between cellular (thick cloth) thin shell, cellulose is low, can be stretched. The cavity is filled with dense cytoplasm of cells with a relatively large nucleus occupying a central position. Under a light microscope the cytoplasm of meristematic cells appears as a homogeneous mass with a transparent fine-grained, sometimes vacuoles are present in the cells, although very small, the inclusion of reserve nutrients are not observed. The adult plant meristems are stored at the tips of shoots and buds in all, as well as near the tips of the roots. These groups represent a point of meristem growth or growth cone (Fig. 41). The side (lateral) meristems in the axial organs (stems, roots) form cylindrical layers in cross sections of the form of rings. Some of the lateral meristems occur close to the apex, and is closely related to the apical meristems. They are referred to as primary (procambium and pericycle). Other lateral meristem (cambium, fellogen) arise later, and on this basis they are called secondary. Intercalary (intercalary) meristems are actively growing meristematic areas located mostly at the base of culm internodes. Figure 41. (Parshina G. N., Wound (traumatic) meristem, as the name Nesterova S.G., 2006) implies, occur during healing of damaged tissues and Meristem of the growing point organs. As with the formation of secondary meristems of the stem elodea wound meristems appear in the differentiation of living (Elodea canadensis) on a longitudinal section stained cells around the affected sheet. 

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Tissue, which is essentially the process of photosynthesis, is combined into a system of assimilation tissue (chlorenchyma). They consist of more or less homogenous thin parenchymal cells containing chloroplasts into a thin-walled layer of cytoplasm. Among the assimilation of tissues secrete a) of palisade chlorenchyma b) spongy hlorenhimu. Palisade chlorenchyma consists of elongated cylindrical cells, intercellular spaces are usually narrow. Spongy chlorenchyma consists of cells rounded, lobed and contains a complex system of between-cellular. (Fig. 42).

Figure 42. (http://www.ebio.ru/org12.html) Diagram of the leaf blade

Storage tissues are a function of accumulation and storage of stocks of water and organic matter (Fig. 43). Storage tissues are common in many plants and in various organs (in the branches, roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs). Storage tissues often consist of live parenchyma cells, they can accumulate a variety of substances in the solid or dissolved form. In the form of solid grains starch and storage Figure 43. (http://eproteins are deposited. Sugar also can lib.gasu.ru/eposobia/papina/bolprak/R_3_7.html) be stored (beet roots and carrots in the Aquifer fabric – cross-sectional diagram of a leaf of aloe (Aloe vera): 1 – vascular bundles, 2 – bulbs of onions). Plants, occasionally chlorenchyma, 3 – epidermis, 4 – water-bearing lacking water, have occasional special tissue stocking up on water-bearing tissues. Fabric with a lot of intercellular spaces with a dominant function of gas exchange is called aerenchyma. The cells in it may have very different shapes (round, star-itd) (Fig. 44). 38 

Border fabric as the name implies, are located either at the interface between the plant itself and the external environment, or internal tissues differentiate. An important feature is the border tissue that they do not hermetically isolate from the plant body or the environment fabric apart. Border tissues are physiological barriers regulating the speed and selectivity of penetration of Figure 44. (http://e-lib. substances through them. gasu.ru/eposobia/papina/bolprak/R_3_7.html) Group outer border of tissues with Aerenchyma stem pondweed (Potamogeton natans): 1 – intercellular spaces a predominant function of the regulation  of gas exchange and transpiration, as well as mechanical protection function corresponds to tissues, called overlay. The epidermis (skin) protects the inner tissues of plants from too great transpiration (evaporation of natural living cells) (Fig. 42, 45). Cells form outer epidermal structures that combine called trichomes. Their structure is specific for each type of plant. Divided by the glandular trichomes and opaque (Fig. 46).

Figure 45. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Sunflower leaf epidermis: 1 – core 2 – stoma

Periderm – a complex multilayer fabric border, the secondary in origin and is replaced by primary tissue. It consists of a complex of cells that differ in structure and function: 

Figure 46. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Coverts, glandular hairs on the epidermis: A – simple multicellular the potato, B – simple single-celled in apple C – branching off mullein, D – stellate in Loja (view from the surface), E – glandular with multicellular head and leg in tobacco , F – successive stages of development (1-3) at emergentsa burning nettle 39

1) Fellema (cork) that performs the main safety functions; 2) Fellogen (cork cambium) provides long-term increase in the thickness of the periderm; 3) Phelloderm, performing the function of supply Fellegi. Rhisoderma – it occurs after absorption of water and minerals from the soil, it interacts with the soil microflora, produces compounds help soil nutrition. In connection with the functions performed rhisoderm cells covering the root end of the young, gain a characteristic structure: the surface rhisoderm strongly increased due to the formation of root hairs (10 or more). Velam cells die and are therefore not absorb water by osmosis and capillary. Most often Velam formed on the aerial roots of tropical orchids. Water intracellularly Velam penetrates through the large pores and openings. Mechanical fabric: Collenchyma consists of an elongated length in living cells with blunt or more beveled ends of the shell uniformly thickened (Fig. 47). Collenchyma providing young strength is capable to stretch as tension of the surrounding tissues. One of the features Collenchyma is that it can perform its function only able turgor. If the leaves and young stems are losing water, the thin areas of shells and folded like an accordion bodies withered. Sclerenchyma consists of cells with and uniformly thickened shells and the cell content after final forming dies shells, i.e. sclerenchyma performs a supporting function after the death of the protoplasts (Fig. 48).

Figure 47. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Part of the cross-section of the petiole of Begonia: 1 – epidermis, 2 – Collenchyma, 3 – thinwalled parenchyma, 4 – core 

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Figure 48. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) A – cross-section of the stem sclerenchyma geraniums, B – longitudinal section of the stem sclerenchyma Geranium: 1 – primary cortex, 2 – sclerenchyma, 3 – the main fabric. 

The conductive fabric: Conductive tissue function as movement through the body plants over long distances of water with dissolved substances. Plants are moved to the two main types of material: 1) an aqueous solution of mineral substances sucked from the soil by the roots, and 2) an aqueous solution of organic substances produced in the body of the plant. Current substance of the first kind (rising current) moves mainly from the roots to the stems and leaves and served xylem or wood. Current materials of the second type (down current) are sent from the leaves to stems and roots in phloem. Task: Review and sketch: 1. Sunflower leaf epidermis. 2. A cross section of an aloe leaf (Aloe vera), and become familiar with the structure waterstored tissue. 2. Slice the potato tuber (Solanum tuberosum) (first in a drop of water, and then with the addition of iodine in potassium iodide) and become familiar with common features storage parenchyma. 3. Cross-cut leaf radish (Raphanus) and consider the structural features of the assimilation tissue. 4. Aerenchyma at a constant cross-section preparation of stem pondweed (Potamogeton natans) or on the cross-sectional preparation time petiole water lily (Nymphaea). 5. Permanent drug meristem of the growing point of the stem Elodie. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the tissue? 2. What types of tissue you know and what are their functions? 3. On what foundation is the present system of classification of tissues? 4. What is the underlying tissue?

LESSON 10 Theme: The shoot Purpose: to study the structure of shoot Objects: herbarium specimens and vivid shoots of plants (lilac, apple, birch, linden, pine, club-moss, mint, elodea, strawberry, buttercup, horsetail). Shoot is the main vegetative organ of higher plants. Its main function is air nutrition. Vegetative shoot consists of axis (stem) and leaves – the lateral bodies of the shoot, sitting on the axis. Required attribute of shoot are buds – the beginnings of new shoots arising, as leaves, in a certain order on the axis and ensure lasting growth of the shoot and its branching, i.e. formation of shoot systems. The main function of the shoot – photosynthesis – is carried out by leaves. 

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The shoot is characterized by the presence of nodes and internodes. Node is the area of the stem at the level of origin of the leaf or whorls of leaves. Sections of the stem between neighboring nodes are called internodes. Shoot has a metameric structure, i.e. consists of repeating internodes (Fig. 49). The main shoot or shoot of the first order is derived from germinal shoot. There is an apical bud on the shoot; also lateral buds are formed, which are located in the axils of the leaves. Lateral shoots are formed from the lateral axillary buds, i.e. branching occurs. A bud is a germinal shoot. It consists of meristematic germinal axis, ending by growth cone and germinal leaves of different ages in a vegetative bud. There are generative shoots or flower buds, except vegetative buds, that carry the germ of inflorescence without green assimilating leaves or vegetative-generative, which contained a number of vegetative metamers; growth cone turned into a germinal flower or inflorescence (Fig. 50).

Figure 49. Shoots of sycamore. A – lengthened, B – shortened: 1 – internodes, 2 – annual growth. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006)

Figure 50. (  .., 1999) Buds of lilacs. A – internal structure of the buds (1 – vegetative, 2 – generative), B – position of buds on the stem

Phyllotaxy – the order of placing of leaves on the axis of shoot. There are several types of leaf arrangement (Fig. 51): 1. Spiral or diffused (regular) phyllotaxy is observed when there is one leaf on each node, and the foundations of sequential leaves can be joined by conventional spiral line. 2. Whorled phyllotaxy occurs, if there are several leafy primordia at the same level forming a common node. 3. Oppositely arranged phyllotaxy – a special case of whorled, when two leaves forms against each other on one node. The growth of shoot (its branching) can be of two main types (Fig. 52). 1) Dichotomous (of claw) is observed when the old point of growth is divided into two new giving equally developed branches. 2) Monopodial branching formed when 42 

the main axis does not stop the growth in length and forms the lateral branches at the lower point of its height, typically in ascending order. In typical monopodia lateral branches are developed less than main axis.

Figure 51. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Types of leaf arrangement. A – spiral (regular), B – opposite, C – whorled.

Figure 52. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Types of branching of stems. A – dichotomous (club moss), B – monopodial (juniper), C – sympodial (cherry), D – pseudodichotomous (maple): 1,2,3,4 – axis of the first and subsequent orders

Dichotomous branching occurs in lower organized groups of plants (algae, liverworts, moss). Monopodial branching – the algae, leafy mosses, horsetails. Typical monopodium: most conifers, a number of deciduous trees (oak, ash, aspen and maple), many of herbaceous (clover, lily), etc. Sympodial branching is very common. Retopping happens, branching becomes sympodial. In this type of branching one of the branches gets stronger development and moves toward the lateral ones and adopts the main axis's direction. If the same thing repeats later and movable branches are not branch or branching is weak – it will be as a main axis, like a monopod, but in fact composed of succession of axes of different orders (willow, birch, hazel nightshade, etc.) Tasks: 1. Consider and sketch herbaceous and woody shoots; lengthened (lime) and shortened (strawberries) shoots, shoots with different positions of the stems in the space (bindweed, buttercup, couch), note the metameric of shoot. 2. To consider and sketch obviously expressed nodes and internodes of horsetail. 3. To consider and sketch the external appearance and structure of lilacs buds. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the shoot? 2. What is the node and internode? 3. What is a bud? Which types of buds do you know? 4. Which types of branching of stem do you know? 5. Name the types of leaf arrangement. 

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LESSON 11 Theme: The stem Purpose: Learn stem structure Object: herbarium specimens and live plant stems: sedges, nettle, cactus, prickly pear, sweet pea, muzzle woody plant with annual growth rings (a few slices of different ages of trees). The stem is the axis of the escape, composing from nodes and internodes and growing at the expense of both the apical and the gusset growth. Depending on the pulling stem internodes can be shortened and lengthened. The main functions of the stem – supporting and conducting. The stem is in communication between the roots and leaves, sometimes it postponed reserve nutrients. Young stems, having under the epidermis chlorenhyma actively involved in photosynthesis. The stems of woody plants are called the barrel, shrubs – trunks. The stem usually has a more or less cylindrical shape and a radial symmetry in the arrangement of tissue. If the stem is cut crosswise, then we will see that a cross section of the stem in the outline it is most often rounded, with smooth or ribbed edge. But it could be another: a three-sided (in sedges), tetrahedral (from nettle), a multi-faceted (many cacti), tapered or flat (with prickly pear), winged (with sweet peas) (Fig. 53).

Figure 53. (http://biouroki.ru/material/plants/stebel.html) Schematic representation of shapes stems in cross section

Wide flat stems, strongly furrowed, often represent an abnormal growth of tissue. In cereal stem (aerial part) is called culms. It is usually in the middle hollow (except nodes). The hollow stems are common in the family umbrella, pumpkin, etc. In the stem of a developed system of conductive tissue that binds together all the organs of the plant, c by mechanical tissue stem supports all above-ground organs and makes the leaves in favorable lighting conditions. The growth of the stem and the formation of new organs it happens continuously, which is provided by a system of meristems – apical, lateral and intercalary. 44 

The internal structure of the stem (Fig. 54) Young (annual) coated stems the outside skin, which is then replaced by a stopper consisting of the dead cells filled with air. Peel and cork – epithelial tissue.

Figure 54. (http://biouroki.ru/material/plants/stebel.html) Schematic cross-sectional and longitudinal stem

Cork – layered investing tissue. She appears in the first year of life escape. With age, the cork layer thickness increases. Tube dead cells filled with air tight to each other. Protect the internal tissues of the stem from adverse conditions. Peel and cork protects the deeper stem cells from excessive evaporation, various injuries, from the penetration of atmospheric dust with the microorganisms that cause diseases in plants (Fig. 55). In the skin of the stem are the stomata, through which gas exchange occurs. In traffic jam developed lenticels – small bumps with holes. Lenticels are formed by large cells of the fabric with large intercellular spaces.

Figure 55. (http://biouroki.ru/material/plants/stebel.html) Schematic representation of the epithelial tissue of the stem



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Bark – is situated under the cover cloth, the inside of which is called bast. The structure of bast, except sieve tubes and cells companions include cells which are deposited reserve substances. Bast fibers, elongated cells with the destroyed contents and woody walls are mechanically stem tissue. Give the stalk strength and increase the resistance to fracture. Sieve tubes – a number of elongated vertical live cells, in which the transverse wall pierced holes in the nucleus of these cells, are destroyed, and adjacent to the cytoplasmic membrane. It is conducting phloem tissue, in which the moving solutions of organic substances. Cambium – long, narrow cells of the conforming tissue with thin shells. In the spring and summer of actively dividing cells of the cambium – the growth of the stem is thick. Tight, the widest layer – wood – the main part of the stem. Phloem consists of different cells of different shapes and sizes: the vessels of conductive fabric, wood fiber mechanical tissue cells and the underlying tissue. All the layers of wood cells formed in the spring, summer and autumn, are tree ring growth. Core – the cells are large, thin-walled, tight adjacent to each other and perform the reserving function. From the core in a radial direction through the wood and the medullary rays bast tested. Stem growth in thickness Between the phloem and wood in the stem is a layer of cambium cells. Cambium – it's educational fabric. Cambium cells divide to form new cells, which are part of the wood and bast. In the timber side lays cambium cells than towards the cortex. Therefore the growth of wood is faster than the inner bark as a result of increased thickness of the cambium of the stem. The width of the growth rings you can find out under what conditions the tree grew in the years of life. The narrow tree rings indicate a lack of moisture, to shade tree and a poor diet (Fig. 56).

Figure 56. (http://biouroki.ru/material/plants/stebel.html) The influence of living Conditions on tree growth in thickness 46 

Annual ring – is an increasing of wood per year. In the inner zone of the ring closer to the heart, blood vessels of larger and larger. It's early wood. In the outer ring area, towards the cortex cells smaller and thicker. It's – late wood. In winter, the cambium cells do not divide, they are at rest. In spring with bud blossoming cambium activity resumes. There are new wood cells and thus formed a new annual ring. Large-wood (early) is next to the small cell (latest) last year. Through this door is clearly visible boundary of the annual increment of wood. Task: Review and sketch: 1. A cross section of the stem at the sedges, nettle, cactus, prickly pear, sweet pea. Mark the shape of the stem. 2. The structure of the epithelial tissue of the stem nettle and sweet peas. Compare make a schematic drawing. 3. A cross section of a tree trunk. Mark the fabric and tree rings. 4. Consider some cross sections of tree trunks, to determine their age, compare the weather conditions of different years of life of the tree. Questions for self-control: 1. What is a stem? 2. Which tissues are called overlay? 3. How does occur the growth of the stem in thickness? 4. What can you say about the tree by considering cross-section of its trunk?

LESSON 12 Theme: Leaf Purpose: To study the structure and function of leaf Objects: herbarium specimens and live plant leaves: lilac, apple, maple, dandelion, clover, rose, raspberry, strawberry, lupine, limes, sedges, willow, lily of the valley, hop, bluegrass, tulip, lily, sycamore, aspen, birch, pine needles, pine. Constant preparation of cross section of pine needles. The leaf has limited growth and a generally flat shape. This form of leaf contributes to a better absorption of solar energy and carbon dioxide by plant. The main functions of leaf are photosynthesis and transpiration. Leaf is always located on the axis of shoot. As the shoot has a well defined morphological top and basis, then talk about the top and bottom in relation to the top of the sides of the leaf. The main part of a typical adult green leaf – its blade; that part of the leaf, which is jointed with the stem, is called the base of leaf. Long or short petioles often are formed between the stem and the leaf blade. In these cases the leaves are called petiolate. In those cases where no petiole, leaves are called sedentary, for example, leaves of cereals. Petiole performs a supporting and conducting role and also controls the position of the blade, bending toward the light. 

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The leaf base often gives paired lateral emergences – stipules. Stipules are free or "adherent" to the petiole, may move to the inside of the leaf and then they are called axillary. Leaf blade is its main assimilating part. If there is a one leaf blade – a leaf is called simple (Fig. 57).

Figure 57. (. !.  , 2006) Types of simple leaves: 1 – needle, 2 – linear, 3 – lanceolate, 4 – oblong, 5 – heart-shaped, 6 – obovate, 7 – bud-shaped, 8 – elliptical, 9 – palmately bladed, 10 – spatulate, 11 – arrow-shaped, 12 – spear-shaped, 13 – palmately dissected, 14 – palmately-lobed, 15 – lyre-shaped, 16 – ternate-bladed.

If there are two, three or more separate blades on one petiole with a common base, sometimes with their own petioles, leaves are called compound. Common axis of a compound leaf, bearing leaflets, is called rachis. Depending on the location of leaflets on the rachis distinguish – ternate, palmate and pinnate leaves (Fig. 58).

Figure 58. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Types of compound leaves: 1 – imparipinnately compound, 2 – paripinnately compound, 3 – ternate, 4 – palmately compound, 5 – twice-paripinnately, 6 – twice-imparipinnately 48 

Anatomical structure of the leaf. Features of the structure of leaf is determined by its main function – photosynthesis, therefore the most important tissue of leaf is one in which the chloroplasts are focused – the mesophyll. Most often, the mesophyll is differentiated into two tissues – palisade (columnar) located on the top side of the leaf and spongy, located on the underside of the leaf (Fig. 59). In conifers and some cereals may occur folded mesophyll (Fig. 60).

Figure 59. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Camellia Leaf: 1 – upper epidermis, 2 – columnar parenchyma, 3 – spongy parenchyma, 4 – cell with druzy, 5 – sclereid, 6 – xylem, 7 – lower epidermis, 8 – stomatal apparatus

A



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B

Figure 60. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Leaf of (needle) pines on the cross-section: A – detailed illustration, B – schematic: 1 – epidermis, 2 – stomatal valve, 3 – hypodermis, 4 – folded parenchyma, 5 – resinous channel, 6 – endoderm, 7 – xylem, 8 – phloem (7-8 – conductive bundle), 9 – sclerenchyma, 10 – parenchyma.

The epidermis covers the leaf with a continuous layer. It regulates gas exchange and transpiration. Xylem and phloem in the leaves united in vascular bundles, which form a continuous leaf system connected with the conductive system of the stem. The character the venation, i.e. passage of fibers in the leaf is very various and at the same time is very resistant for each species. (Fig. 61)

Figure 61. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Types of leaf venation: 1 – parallel, 2, 5 – pinnate, 3 -, palmate, 4 – arc, 6 – net. Task: To consider and sketch: 1. The leaves of lilac, apple, maple, dandelion, clover, rose, raspberry, strawberry and lupine. Identify simple and compound leaves and their types. 2. The leaves of lime, sedges, willow, lily of the valley, hop, bluegrass, tulip, maple, lilies, sycamore, aspen and birch. Determine the types of leaf venation. 3. Leaf of (needles) the pine in cross section. Make suitable explanations. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the list? Name the structural components of the leaf and their functions. 2. What is a simple leaf? What types of simple leaves do you know? Name the plants with simple leaves. 3. What is a compound leaf? What types of compound leaves do you know? Name the plants with compound leaves. 4. What types of leaf venation do you know? Name the examples of plants. 5. Talk about anatomical structure of the leaf of leafy plants and pine needles. 50 

LESSON 13 Theme: Root Purpose: To study the structure of the root of his functions, and types of root systems. Objects: herbarium specimens and live plant roots (dandelion, meadow grass, strawberries, tomatoes, beans), regular medications: the tip of the root with the root cap, the site root with root hairs, a cross section of iris root, pumpkin. The main functions of the root are: 1) The absorption of water and minerals from the soil; 2) Binding of plants in the soil; 3) Synthesized in roots, many substances (amino acids, hormones, alkaloids, etc.), which are then moved to other organs of the plant; 4) The deposition of food reserves; 5) Reacting with the soil microflora. In some cases, the root can have the other functions. The main feature of a typical root that meristem at the tip of the root is always covered by a root cap. Cap consists of thinwalled living cells and is continuously updated. Peel off the outer cell surface shaped case still being alive. They produce copious mucus, which reduces the friction of the root of the soil particles and makes it easier to progress. Under-shaped case situate a zone of dividing cells, which have the character of the meristem, its size | 1 mm. Zone division can often be distinguished on the living spine on a yellowish color. After this the root zone remains smooth, but becomes lighter, as if transparent. This is a growth area. Its size does not exceed a few millimeters. In this zone, the cells are greatly enhanced in the longitudinal direction (along the axis of the root) and the root volume is increased by the total cell hydration and the occurrence of large vacuoles (growth stretching). Next on rizoderme there are numerous root hairs, Figure 62. densely covering the soil particles. Root zone (http://uchebilka.ru/biolog/2607/index.html? of root hairs called the zone of absorption or page=12) Longitudinal section of the root absorption zone (Fig. 62). In this zone, length (scheme): R – Root cap; I – area of growth and expansion; II – zone of root hairs is a few centimeters are absorbed water and (suction); III – start of a zone of lateral roots mineral salts from the soil. 

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The set of all roots of one individual forms a single in the morphological and physiological sense system – the root system of the plant. The structure of the root system consists of roots of different morphological nature – the main root, lateral and adventitious roots. The main root branches of the embryonic root. Lateral roots emerge as the branching of the main root. Adventitious roots do not develop from the roots, and from other members of the body of the plant – stems or leaves. There are two main types of root systems: a core and fibrous (Fig. 63). Under the rod system understand the system in which the main root is highly developed and wellallocated among the remaining roots. In the fibrous main root is absent or negligible among numerous adventitious roots. Between these two types of root systems there are intermediate forms. Distinguish between primary and secondary structure of the root. Primary – is the root structure formed as a result of the activity of primary apical meristem. Observed in the younger parts of the roots, the roots of monocots persist throughout their lives. In the primary structure of the root consists of rizoderm, primary cortex and the stele (Fig. 64).

Figure 63. (http://900igr.net/fotografii/biologija/Korenrastenija/007-Tipy-kornevykh-sistem.html) Types of root systems: A-rod, B-fibrous 

Figure 64. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) The primary structure of the root of the iris (the central part of the axis cylinder and the primary cortex): 1 – remains of epiblema 2 – exoderm, 3 – main parenchyma, 4 – endoderm, 5 – pericycle, 6 – phloem, 7 – xylem

The secondary structure of the root – this is the root structure that arises as a result of secondary meristems (cambium and fellogena), accompanied by an increase in the thickness of the root. The secondary structure of the root consists of primary and secondary xylem, radial ray parenchyma, cambium, secondary and primary phloem and periderm. (Fig. 65). 52 

Figure 65. (http://www.litmir.net) The secondary structure of the root: 1 – primary xylem, 2 – secondary xylem, 3 – radial ray parenchyma, 4 – cambium, 5 – secondary phloem, 6 – primary phloem, 7 – periderm. Task: 1. Review and to sketch the main root of the plant, noting the functional areas of the root. 2. To study the structure of the specimen at a constant root tip, find Root cap and the dividing zone – sketch the cells of these zones. 3. At a constant cross-section preparation iris root examine the primary structure of the root, to sketch what he saw and make the appropriate notation. 4. To study the secondary structure of the root at a constant cross-section preparation of the root pumpkin, draw, and to put notation. 5. Consider the different types of root systems: a core (dandelion), fibrous (bluegrass), mixed (strawberry, tomato, beans). Make a picture with explanations.

Additional explanations and instructions: 1. A cross section of the root of the iris can be seen that the square outside is covered with a layer of fabric with root hairs (or epiblemarizoderma), underneath is a layer of tightly closed, in consequence cork cells of the outer layer of the primary cortex – exoderm behind it is the body parenchyma constituting the bulk of primary cortex. Tube – endoderm consists of one row of cells, and the inner groove walls are thickened. Among them are crossing the cell. The outer layer of the central cylinder – pericycle consists of a number of parenchymal cells, the central part is occupied by radiating rays of the xylem and phloem cells between them. 2. At the root of constant preparation pumpkins are in the middle of the root four rays primary xylem. From its start radial rays (heart-rays) thin-walled sections live parenchyma. With radial rays alternate sections of secondary xylem, cambium is clearly visible – thin-walled cells arranged in regular rows. Outward from the cambium against each section of the secondary xylem is a secondary phloem. Outside the root is covered by a relatively thin layer of cork. Tissue along the outside of the cambium (inner bark, the main parenchyma phelloderm, cork cambium, cork) is called the secondary cortex. 

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Questions for self-control: 1. What is the root? 2. What types of root systems, you know? Describe them. 3. What is the primary structure of the root? 4. What is the secondary structure of the root?

LESSON 14 Theme: Metamorphoses of plant organs Purpose: Familiarization with the various metamorphoses of plant organs. Objects: herbarium specimens and living parts of plants: plants with metamorphosed leaves: prickly pear or echinocactus, thistles, peas; plants with metamorphosed shoots: bulb of onion, corm of gladiolus or colchicum, mustache of (whip) strawberry or cinquefoil, rhizomes of couch grass or lily of the valley, and stolon tuber of potato; plant with metamorphosed roots: the root cones of dahlia, dodder with haustoria with the slinging. The main vegetative organs are root, stem, leaf (shoot) – adapting to new functions or new specific environmental conditions, may metamorphize (mutate, transform) beyond recognition. Such phenomenon is quite common in nature. The metamorphosed organs include, for example: thorns, tendrils, rhizomes (Fig. 66), stolons, tubers (Fig. 67), bulbs (Fig. 68). The rhizome has no root cap and root hairs. It has leaves in the form of scaly film; buds are placed in the axil. Aerial shoot is formed from one part of these buds, and from another – the underground. Stolon – elongated thin shoot with immature leaves, the main function of which is vegetative reproduction. It may participate in the accumulation of substances. Tubers are placed on the top of the stolons that are formed at the base of the underground stems of the plant. Organic substances therein accumulate in the form of starch. This part of the stem thickens and turns into a tuber. There are many grooves on the surface of the potato tuber, called eyelets. Each eyelet has 2-3 buds. Bulb – shortened underground shoot. The bulbs can be pear-shaped, oval or spherical shape. Disk – shortened stem. Modified leaves – scales – are located on the bottom. Internal scales are rich in sugary substances. Fibrous root system is formed at the lower part of disk. There are buds in the axils of fleshy scales, attached to the disk, that develop to new bulbs – sprouts.

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Figure 66. (http://www.botanik-learn.ru/osobie-tipi-i-metamorfozi-pobegov) Rhizomes: 1 – Solomon's Seal 2 – iris (iris), 3, and 4 – cicuta, whole (3), and in longitudinal section (4)  – scars on the place where ground shoots fallen away,  – scars on the place where scaly leaves fallen away,  – roots ,  – bud, which will give aerial shoots next year.

Figure 67. (http://www.botanik-learn.ru/osobie-tipi-i-metamorfozi-pobegov) Stem tubers: 1 – aboveground in kohlrabi, 2 – overground in epiphytic orchids, 3 – underground in potatoes. 

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Figure 68. (http://www.botanik-learn.ru/osobie-tipi-i-metamorfozi-pobegov) Bulbs: 1 – scarious bulb of hyacinth, 2 – longitudinal section of it, 3 – scaly bulb of lilies, 4 – longitudinal section of it, 5 – bulblets in the inflorescence of onions (wild), 6 – bulbs, "kids" in the bulb of garlic, 7 – saffron corm; 8 – longitudinal section of it.

Metamorphosed organs are also subdivided into two groups: homologous and analogous. Homologous are organs which have the same origin, i.e. derived from the same organ – root, stem, leaf or shoot. Homologous organs may be different in functions, form and structure. For example, thorn of barberry, pea tendril, trapping apparatus of insectivorous plants, bud scales, scales bulbs, petal, stamen and pistil of flower – original modification of the leaves. Homologous organs are juicy rhizome of lily of the valley, couch grass rhizome, mustache (whip) of strawberries, bulb of onion, gladiolus corm, tuber and stolon of potatoes – all modified shoots. Root crop, for example, does not belong to this group as it is the root stem origin. Organs, that perform a common function and therefore similar morphologically, can also be called homologous. For example, thorn of Echinocactus is prickly, thorn of tragacanth Astragalus, thorn of thistle – homologous organs of leaf origin. Bulb of onion, gladiolus corm – storage organs of shoot origin are also homologous. Modifications of shoot origin prove the following features: the presence of leaves and leaf scars, nodes and internodes, buds in the leaf axils or near the leaf scar. Analogous are bodies that have generally similar forms arisen on the basis of performance of similar functions or adapt to the homogeneous conditions, but not a 56 

common origin. The following are examples of similar organs in plants: a leaf of rose hips, phylloclades of butcher and aerial roots of orchids – tenoffilum – they all perform the function of leaf, with leaf form, although the origin of all is different. Potato tuber (shoot origin), root crop of sugar beet (root-stem origin) and dahlia tubers (root origin) – analogous organs performing reserving function. Metamorphosis of stem origin is very interesting (Cladonia, phylloclades). Reduction of leaves on shoots in some plants is accompanied by a metamorphosis of all or part of the stems, receiving a flat, leaf-shaped form; such stems are called phylloclades or cladodes (Fig. 69). They are found in representatives of the different families living mainly in dry areas. The leaves are converted into small scales, from the axils come phylloclades; flowers are arranged on the phylloclades, also coming from the axils of small scaly leaves. Such phylloclades are a perfect example of analogous organs: being quite similar in form and function with leaves, they have a completely different origin and morphological significance. In some phyllanthus they are located on both sides of the cylindrical branches, and then make the overall impression of leaflets of pinnate leaf. Stem nature of phylloclades is easily proved by their position in the axils of leaves, scales, as well as finding on them flowers that are never formed on the leaves.

Figure 69. (http://www.botanik-learn.ru/osobie-tipi-i-metamorfozi-pobegov) Phylloclades: 1 – Ruscus; 2 and 3 – Phyllantus speciosus, which has branches with phylloclades like pinnate leaves. 

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Task: 1. Analyze of the in vivo and herborized material metamorphosed organs of shoot, leaf and root origin. Sketch them and make the appropriate notation. 2. Divide all the above plants into groups with analogous and homologous organs and make up their lists of the origin of metamorphosed body. Questions for self-control: 1. What organs are called analogous? 2. What organs are called homologous? 3. Name examples of modification of the stem, root and leaf (with specific examples of plants). 4. What is the role of metamorphosed organs in plant life?

LESSON 15 Theme: Departments of Mosses (Bryophyta) Purpose: Acquaintance to features of a structure, development and distribution of the mokhovidny. Object: herbarium exemplars: Marchantia polymorpha, Polytrichum, Sphagnum; constant preparations: antheridium and archegonium of Marchantia. Additional materials: tables and schemes, binocular, magnifying glass, microscope. The modern mosses are presented by over 27 000 of types. On the territory of the CIS threr are about 1500 species, in Kazakhstan more than 400. The most simply arranged relate to mosses, evergreen autotrophic, mainly land, fresh-water plants are rarer. In vast majority they are long-term and only rather seldom annual plants. The body at some of the mosses represents thallus or (at others) is partitioned on a stalk and leaves. The hallmark of all mosses is absence of roots. The absorption of water and attachment to a substratum is carried out at them rhizoids, representing outgrowths of epidermis. In their body is possible to find chlorenchyma, and also poorly expressed, conductive, mechanical, reserving and cover tissues. Mosses are in the most cases small size plants, with a sporophyte routinely no more than 3 cm high, gametophyte is usually less, though upright forms can reach 20 cm, and creeping forms, water or hanging forms can reach 1 meter of length. Mosses have heteromorphic alternation of generations. Sexual process at mosses is an oogamy. The sexes can be separated or together. In a cycle of development haploid gametophyte is dominates. In it specific feature mosses in comparison with other highest plants consists. The asexual generation of the mosses is presented socalled the sporogony – a small box with spores and a leg which bottom is turned in 58 

foot (sucker), immersing into a body of gametophyte. The sporophyte is thus deprived of independence and in whole or in part depends from gametophyte. The sporophyte does not branch and forms the single terminating sporangium; spores are, as a rule, are scattered by air. The gametophyte is usually long-term formation, it usually consist of filamentous phase (protonema) and more composite phase – of gametophyte. Leading role protonema is a mass education of gametophytes, conducting to creation of a moss mat. The gametophyte forms sex organs. Male's gametes (sperm cells) reach an ootid by water. They are formed in an antheridium – in a leg-like bag. This bag consists of the sterile single-layer envelope surrounding a set of cells, each of which forms a sperm cell. Female genital (archegonium) of a flask-like form; neck of this flask is formed a single-layer of cells, while bottom expanded part (paunch) the multilayer; everyone archegonium surrounds the single ootid. The mosses include 3 classes: anthoceros (Anthocerotae), liverworts (Hepaticae) and mosses (Musci). Class – Liverworts – Hepaticopsida (Hepaticae) Order – Marchantiales Family- Marchantiaceae Typical representative of this family is Marchantia polymorpha L. Thllus of plants is branched dichotomizing out and, as a rule, about two centimeters wide and four – six centimeters long (Fig. 70). Sporophytes have very small sizes (Fig. 71). Marshantia grows in the wet places, creeping on the soil (or to other substratum) being attached with the help of rhizoids, being on the bottom part of thallus. The sexes are separate. Development in the presence of the drip-liquid water (Fig. 72).

Figure 70. ( James Schooley, 1996) Structure of Marshantia: a – female gametophyte, b– male gametophyte, c – archegonium, d – antheridium, k – gemmae cups



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Figure 71. (http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki) Marchantia polymorpha: gemmae cups bearing gemmae (on the left) and archegoniophore at the tip of which are archegonia under the lobes (on the right)

Figure 72. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Life cycle of a Marchantia polymorpha. M – meiosis. 1 – spores (n); 2 – protonema; 3 – male gametophyte (n); 4 – female gametophyte (n); 5 – antheridium head; 6 – antheridium; 7 – archegonium head; 8 – archegonium; 9 – ootid (n); 10 – sperm cell; 11 – zygote (2 n); 12 – spore-forming tissue (2 n); 13 – mature sporophyte (2 n); 14 – archegonium head with mature spores

The asexual reproduction of a Marchantia is slices of thallus or formation the gemmae developing in gemmae cups which arise on the top party of thallus (Fig. 71). The mature gemmae look like an oval plate with dredging on each side where the body height point is located. From gemmae depart rhizoids. On a section cut 60 

through gemmae cups it is possible to see always a large number of the gemmae being at different stages of development. The gemmae, during the heavy rain, (located on a monocelled stalk from which they can easily broken off) are washed away from a gemma cup with water, once on the earth, grow by means of points of body height and are gradually formed in new thallus of Marchantia. Task: To consider and sketch: 1. General view of thallus. To pay attention to dichotymic branched of thallus, a surface and underside structure, an arrangement of male and female supports on different thallus, a form and an arrangement of gemmae cups, rhizoids and amphigastria. 2. Vertical section through a thallus. 3. Vertical section through a male support. Note antheridium cavities with antheridium, the hambers between antheridia cavities. Structure of antheridium: wall from one layer of spermcreation tissue, a seta of antheridia. 4. Vertical section of a female support. 5. Unripe sporogonium: capsule, seta, foot, spore-forming tissue. 6. Mature sporogonium: the opened capsule, seta, foot. Spores and elaters. 7. Scheme of life cycle. Supply drawing with the corresponding designations. Questions for self-control: 1. How is the thallus and sporangia arranged in Marchantia? 2. How is the antheridia and archegonia arranged in Marchantia? 3. What is the protonema? 4. Describe development cycle of Marchantia and specify place of reducing division. 5. What is the vegetative reproduction Marchantia?

Class – Leafy mosses – Bryopsida (Musci) Subclass – Sphagnum- Sphagnidae There is one order Sphagnales in subclass, one family Sphagnaceae and one species Sphagnum. Genus – Sphagnum Hedw.

Figure 73. Cross section Sphagnum stalk: 1 – cortex or hyalodermis; 2 – hadrome; 3 – medulla (http://bio.1september.ru/article) 

Figure 74. Sphagnum cells: 1 – water bearing cell; 2 – chlorophyllose cell; 3 – pore; 4 – spiral fibers (http://bio.1september.ru/article) 61

Task: Examine and sketch: 1. Appearance of the plant. The stem and the branches: apical, erect. Sporangium. Leaves. 2. A cross section of the stem. Cortex, hadrome, medulla (Fig. 73). 3. Leaf. Network of chlorophyllose cells, hyaline cells with pores and spiral thickenings shells (Fig. 74). 4. Sporangium in longitudinal section: foot (haustoria), wall of capsule, column, sporangium, pseudopodium, operculum, calyptra.

Subclass – Bryidae These are long-term, annual plants are more rare, have various in size (from 1 mm to 60 cm and more), usually green, more rare red-brown, brown, sometimes the almost black. They live on various substrata: on the soil, rotten wood, bark of trunks and branches of trees, on sour and on rocks containing a lime, it is rare on the roting corpses of shallow animals, in places of various irradiating. Leaves of a various form, with a vein and without a vein. Order – Polytrichales Family – Polytricha Polytrichum commune Hedw. Quite large moss, is widespread in crude places and on bogs. Is the typical representative of family (Fig. 75, 76, 77, 78).

Figure 75. ( James Schooley, 1996) Polytrichum commune. % – male gametophyte, B – female gametophyte with sporophyte,  C- Moss sporophyte generation.

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 Figure 76. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Life cycle of Polytrichum commune. *- meiosis. 1 – female gametophyte (n); 2 – sporophyte (2 n); 3 – seta; 4 – capsule; 5 – calyptra; 6 – sporophyte tissue; 7 – peristome; 8 – spores (n); 9 – protonema; 10 – young gametophytes (n); 11 – «gemma»; 12 – male gametophyte (n); 13 – antheridia; 14 – female gametophyte (n); 15 – archegonia; 16 – sperm cell; 17 – zygote (2 n); 18 – young sporophyte (2 n)



Figure 77. ((http://bio.1september.ru/article) Cross section through stalk of Polytrichum: 1– leaf; 2 – central bunch; 3 – epidermis



Figure 78. ( ..  ., 1978) Structure of capsule of Polytrichum on longitudinal cut (1) and cross section (2)  – seta, b- neck, c- spore capsule, d – column, e – epiphragma, f – wall, g – operculum, q – sporophyte

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Selection of species for study focuses on the flora of Kazakhstan (in particular investigated in regions: Kungei Alatau and Ileysky Alatau, Toraigyr, Irtysh region, Kazakh Hummocks, Pine forest). Tasks: Examine and sketch: 1. General view of the plant: female specimens with sporophyte and male specimen. 2. A cross section of the stem. 3. Appearance of sporophyte: seta, apophysis, capsule, operculum, calyptra. 4. Longitudinal section of sporophyte: operculum, seta, apophysis, column, epiphragma, threads from chlorophyllose cells, sporophyte, peristome. 5. Uncomplicated (uniserial) peristome. Questions for self-control: 1. What is structure of Polytrichum commune? 2. What difference of a structure of sporophyte of Polytrichu and Marshantia? 3. What is structure of Sphagnum? 4. Describe cycle of development of Polytrichum commune. 5. Compare a structure of Mosses and Liverworts mosses, having noted similarity and distinction.

LESSON 16 Theme: Department of – Club mosses – Lycopodiophyta Department of – Horsetails – Equisetophyta Department of – Ferns – Polypodiophyta Purpose: To study features of a structure and development club mosses, horsetails, ferns. Object: herbarium exemplars (with sporophytes): Lycopodium clavatum, Equisetum arvense, Ferns – Dryopteris filix-mas; constant preparation of mature gametophyte. Additional materials: tables and schemes, binocular, magnifying glass, microscope. Department of – Club mosses – Lycopodiophyta Ancient group of plants had the greatest development in the Upper Paleolithic. In the life cycle dominated sporophyte. The modern representatives of the department are perennial herbaceous leafy plants with roots. The stalk is well developed and has a spiral forms, opposite or multicilate phyllotaxy. Idiosyncrasy of club mosses is the microphylla – rather shallow sizes of leaves and their anatomo-morphological simplicity. The club mosses have no main root; all roots hold lateral position on the stalk. For them dichotomizing branching of 64 

a stalk and additional roots is characteristic. Sporophyte is collected in cones. Among club mosses there are plants homosporous (or isosporous) and heterosporous. The homosporous plants relate to a class club mosses, and heterosporous – to Isoetopsoda. In antheridia develop two-or polyflagella sperm cells, and in archegonium – on one ootid are rarer. Fertilization is in the presence of drip-fluid water then from a zygote which is not falling into quiescency, developing the new sexless generation – a sporophyte grows. The vegetative reproduction in the most cases of club mosses occurs by the way of dying. Thus younger sites of plants is supplied with roots, continue to exist as selfcontained plants. Roots and leaves of epiphytes plants are able to easily form of nidifugous tubers. Class – Club mosses – LYCOPODIOSIDA Order – Lycopodiles Family – Lycopodi Lycopodium clavatum L. is the most widespread species in the genus Lycopodium of the club moss family Lycopodiaceae. (Fig. 79, 80)

Figure 79. (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001bd5fb.htm) Lycopodium clavatum: % – appearance; B – sporophyll; C – cross section of the stalk: 1 – epidermis; 2 – parenchyma of cork; 3 – leaf print; 4 – mechanial tissue of cork; 5 – phloem; 6 – xylem



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Figure 80. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Life cycle of Lycopodium clavatum. 1 – mature sporophyte (2 n); 2 – sporophyll; 3 – sporangium; 4 – spore; 5 – young gametophyte; 6 – gametophyte; 7 – unripe archegonium; 8 – unripe antheridium; 9 – mature antheridium; 10 – sperm cells; 11 – mature archegonium; 12 – ootid; 13 – zygote (2 n) Task: Examine and sketch: 1. Appearance. Note dichotomous branching stems, form and arrangement of leaves, sporebearing cones, roots. 2. Cross section of the stalk: epidermis, cork and leaf print on the cork, cells in the middle of the stalk (phloem, xylem). 3. Longitudinal cut of the cone: cone axis, sporophylls, sporangia, spores. 4. Scheme of the life cycle. Supply drawing with the corresponding designations.

Class – Isoetopsida This class includes the heterosporous plants which leaves have a uvula or ligula. By now this class is presented two orders: Selaginellales and Iso tales. Order – Selaginellales Family – Selaginella Genus – Selaginella Selaginella – these are low (5-15 cm of length) grassy plants, mostly perennial, many of which superficially resemble mosses (Fig. 81). Seldom can be met as climbing and curling forms to 20 cm long; rarer it is epiphytes. Lying and semilying stalks Selaginella are supplied with special root supports (rizoforus). They have only adnexal roots. Selaginella develope by means of micro and the macrospores developing in micro and a megasporangium (arise on sporophylloids, collected in ''cones", on the ends of branches); gametophytes being formed from spores, especially male, (Fig. 81, 83) are strongly reduced. 66 

Figure 81. (http://enc-dic.com/enc_biology/Rod-selaginella-selaginella-1218/) Selaginella kraussiana: % – appearance: 1- roots; 2 – upper leaves; 3 – rizophora; 4 – lower leaves; B – anatomy structure of stalk: 5 – cork cells, 6 – trabecular tissue; 7 – phloem; 8 – xylem

Figure 82. (http://enc-dic.com/enc_biology/Rod-selaginella-selaginella-1218/)Scheme of structure of cones and sporangium of Selaginella: %- cone: 1- microsporophyll, 2- megasporophyll, 3- lateral leaf; B- longitudinal section of the cone; C- microsporangium of Selaginella kraussiana: 4- ligula. D- megasporangium of Selaginella kraussiana.



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Figure 83. (http://bse.sci-lib.com/article100913.html) Cycle of development of Selaginella: 1 – cone; 2 – microspore; 3 – male gametophyte; 4 – sperm cell; 5 – ootid; 6 – zygote; 7 – start of development of sporophyte; 8 – adult sporophyte; 9 – cone; 10 – megaspore; 11 – female gametophyte. Task: Examine and sketch: 1. Appearance of plant: dichotomical type of branching, surface and underside structure of stalks, dimorphism of leaves and their location on the stalk, rizophora. 2. Longitudinal and radial sections of cone. 3. To note the axis of cone, sporophylls, they are located in its axils micro- and megasporangium with micro- and megaspores, ligulas; they are located above places of attachment of sporangium. 4. Scheme of life cycle. To sign with corresponding designations. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the structure of sporophyte and gametophyte of Lycopodium has? 2. How the cone is organized? 3. What is the difference of the structure of Lycopodium cone from the cone of Selaginella? 4. Compare the structure of Lycopodium and Selaginella. 5. Describe the life cycle of Lycopodium and Selaginella.

Order of Horsetails – Equisetophyta Class – Equisetopsida Horsetails are ancient group of plants. They had its flourishing in late Paleozoic. In the geological past of Horsetails were very various. The modern Horsetails – grassy perennial roof plants and fossil plants, for example Calamites, along with 68 

ancient Lycopodiophyta and tree ferns formed the woods of the Carboniferous Period. In modern flora they are represented by one genus of equisetum – Equisetum L. with 20 polymorphic species. In life cycle the sporophyte prevails, which is dismembered on a stalk, a leaf and adnexal roots (Fig. 84). Stalks consist of legiblly expressed articulated – interstices and clusters with verticil-like located leaves. Leaves of a thallus origin, shallow, filmy. Photosynthesizing stalks with hollow interstices. Cones with spores are located on a top of the stalks. Sporophylls are attached to a cone axis by a leg. Sporangium is located on the bottom party of a shield. Gametophyte is reduced to the microscopic size. Sperm cells are multiflagellic. The most widespread species is Equisetum arvense. This perennial grassy plant can be seen on fields and on deposits in the conditions of excess humidification. 

 Figure 84. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Life cycle of Equisetum arvense. 1 – mature sporophyte (2 n); 2 – vegetative stalk; 3 – stalk with sporophyte; 4 – core; 5 – spore-forming tissue; 6 – sporangiophore; 7 – mature sporangium; 8 – spore; 9 – elaters; 10 – gametophyte; 11 – rhizoids; 12 – archegonium; 13 – ootid; 14 – antheridium; 15 – sporeforming tissue; 16 – sperm cell; 17 – zygote Sporophytes of the modern Horsetails represent homosporous plants, but at some types the physiological heterosporous is expressed. Elaters have spores. Gametophytes in the form of the green plates.

Order – Equisetales Family – Equisetaceae Species – Equisetum arvense L. Task Examine and sketch: 

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1. Appearance. 2. Cross section of the stem in the zone of merithallus. To note epidermis and stoma in it, bands of sclerenchyma in the edges, chlorenchyma under the epidermis of stria, air cells, collateral bundles that forming artrostela. 3. Longitudinal and radial section of cone: the axis of cone, sporangiophores, sporangium. 4. Spores in wet (elaters are coiled spirally) and dry (elaters are flared-out) situation. 5. Scheme of life cycle. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the structure of Equisetum arvense L.? 2. How are the sporiferous cone and spores of Equisetum arvense L. located? 3. Compare the structures of equisetum and lycopodium, marking characteristic features of each sp. 4. What is the essence of heterospory?

Department of – Ferns – Polypodiophyta One of the most ancient groups of higher plants, counting more than 10000 species in modern flora.The sporophyte predominates in life cycle (Fig. 85).

 Figure 85. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Life cycle of Dryopteris filix-mas. * – meiosis. 1 – adult sporophyte (2 n); 2 – soruses; 3 – sporangium; 4 – spore; 5 – young gametophyte (n); 6 – mature gametophyte (n); 7 – unripe antheridium; 8 – spore-forming tissue; 9 – mature antheridium; 10 – sperm cells; 11 – unripe archegonium; 12 – ootid; 13 – mature archegonium; 14 – sperm cell (2 n); 15 – gametophyte with rhizoids (n); 16 – young sporophyte

Plants are macrophyllic. Large leaves of ferns are occurred in result of flattening and intergrowth of thallus, they are often divided, for a long time can save terminal 70 

growth, so forming unfolded “snail”. The majority of ferns of countries with mild climate – perennial terrestrial herbaceous plants often with creeping or ramble stem (rhizome). The majority of ferns is homosporous, but also heterosporous plants. Sporangium more often forms in lower surface of leaf; in most cases are gathered to knots (soruses) and often protected by spathella (indusium). There are different methods of opening of sporangia (Fig. 86). Gametophytes are in the form of prothallus, majority of homosporic ferns’ gametophytes are terrestrial green. Heterosporous ferns’ prothallus is reduced, especially male.

 Figure 86. (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001c1b98.htm) Construction of soruses and sporangia of ferns: % – cross section of sorus of Dryopteris filix-mas; B – variety of sporangia; C – opening of sporangia; 1 – leaf; 2 – placenta; 3- sporangium; 4 – ring; 5 – mouth; 6 – indusium.

Class – Polypodiopsida Order – Polypodiales Family – Polypodiaceae Genus – Polypodium L. Polypodium is total about 9000 species. They are most widespread in tropics, especially in the wet. Order – Cyatheales Family – Aspleniaceae Species – Dryopteris filix mas (L.) Schott. Task: Examine and sketch: 1. External appearance: rhizome, additional roots; leaf (frond) on the main footstalk (rachis), soruses of sporangiums on the lower side of leaf segment, covered by indusium. 71



2. Transverse section of sorus. 3. Opening of mature sporangium. To locate sporangium (from alcoholized material) into the drop of glycerin, to watch opening of sporangium. 4. Scheme of life cycle. To sign the picture.

Subclass – Salviniidae Order – Salviniales Family – Salviniaceae Small aquatic heterosporous plants. In the family threr is one genus with 10 species occupying fresh-water reservoirs of the tropical and subtropical countries. Salvinia natans (L.) All. –clusters of a thin stalk three leaves are located: two oval, green, on a water surface, and the third – underwater, strongly cut, replacing roots (the real roots are absent) (Fig. 87). The top part of a leaf has special nipples which promote elimination of water from a leaf surface. At the basis of underwater leaves, on short lateral branches, sporocarpium – spherical soruses are formed. Sporocarpium has induzia – a double envelope between which layers there is a pneumatic cavity. Salvinia are formed two types of porocarpia. In one a microsporangium containing usually 64 microspores, and develops in others – a megasporangia, in each of which in a mature status there is only one large macrospora. Envelopes of a sporangium – have a single-layer. In a megasporangium, round a macrospora, the heavy film of foamy substance is formed of the blurred cells of tapetum – the perisporium, promoting megasporangium deduction on a water surface. In the autumn the sporangium falls down and spends the winter at the bottom of a reservoir, and in the spring, after rot of their envelopes, emerges. The plates which have developed from spores are strongly reduced and only partially come to light from an envelope of a sporangium. The male's plate consists of a rhizoid-like cell, vegetative cells and the 2nd antheridia in which multiflagellic sperm cells Figure 87. are formed. At female plate the bottom (basal) (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001c1 cell expanding and accumulates nutrients, and b98.htm) Salvinia natans: %- general view, B- verticil of leaves, C- a longitudinal the top cell forms a multicellular thalus. The section through micro and mega last lacerates an envelope of a sporangium and soruses: 1- microsporangia, 2leans out outside in the form of a rounded megasporangia; D- a microsporangium, triangular plate in which tissue are shipped 3-5 E- female gametophyte: 3- archegonium. archegonia. 72 

Task: Examine and sketch: 1. External appearance. Stem with horizontally located verticils of leaves by 3 in each verticil. Two leaves, elliptic, swimming on the surface of water, and third leaf is dipped into water, divided into filamentary part, covered by fuzz. Soruses of sporangium are on parts of dipped leaf. 2. Sections of micro- and megasoruses. Diploblastic indusium with air cells between the layers. To mark numerous microsporangium with a lot of microspores in microsoruses, in megasoruses – by several megasporangium, each of them containing one megaspore. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the structure of male fern and Salvinianatans? 2. What is the sinangy? 3. Cycles of development of male fern and aquatic ferns and place of reducing division. 4. What is the structure of sporophyte and gametophyte of terrestrial and aquatic ferns? 5. What is the significance of ferns?

LESSON 17 Theme: Division of Gymnosperms – Pinophyta (Gymnospermae) Purpose: Introduction to the main features of the organization and the systematic features of the main representatives of the Division of Gymnosperms. Object: herbarium material: pine needles, pine, spruce, juniper, arborvitae, ephedra (Ephedra dvuhkoloskovaya) shoots of pine, spruce, fir, larch, juniper, arborvitae, male and female pine cones. Gymnosperms – an ancient group of plants that originated from ferns. The division currently has about 750 species. Gymnosperms – evergreen, rarely deciduous, trees, shrubs or vines. The division observes microphyllic and macrophyllic lines of evolution. Gymnosperms are heterosporous plants. But unlike the rest of archegoniate they do not reproduce by spores, but by seeds instead, and sexual reproduction is regardless from water. In the life cycle dominates the sporophyte (Fig. 88). For the vast majority of gymnosperms characterized by the presence of so-called cones, or strobili bearing the sporophylls with the bodies of asexual reproduction – sporangia. Distinguish male and female cones. Men cones consist of an axis on which spirally arranged numerous microsporophylls (Fig. 89). They have the look of various forms of scales or plates with two or many microsporangiums, or anthers, in which many developing microspores. Microspores are enclosed in two shells, sprout even in the anther, where several cells are formed.



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Figure 88. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) The life cycle of pine. M-meiosis. 1 – adult sporophyte, 2 – female cones, 3 – seed scales with ovules; 4 – megaspores 5 – female gametophyte, 6 – archegonia 7 – male cones, 8 – microsporophylls with microsporangium 9 – pollen, 10 – seed: 11 – embryo, 12 – young seedling.

This is so-called prothallial cells. There is always an antheridial cell forming spermagenous cell, subsequently giving two male sex cells – spermatozoa in the lower gymnosperms or sperm (unflagellated male sex cells) have the highest representatives, and vegetative cell through which further comes pollen tube growth. Germinated microspores are called pollen. Female cones also have a central axis around which developed in the axils of the covering scales grow short shoots with underdeveloped megasporophylls (seed scales) (Fig. 89). Thus, in contrast to the male cones, which are simple modification shoots, female cones are a group of shoots. On the female cone seed scales develop among one – two Figure 89. megasporangy called ovules or seed (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001c1b98.htm rudiments. Ovule consists of nucellus is l) The structure of the male and female pine cones: surrounded by a cover – integument, at 1 – Female cones (a-general view, b-structure one end of the ovule it is not fused with diagram) 2 – male cones (c-appearance, d-scheme structure), 3 – upper (dorsal) surface of the seed the nucellus and forms an opening, scale in cone (female) of the third year. micropyle, and at the other end fused with stalk. 74 

Inside the nucellus of many of the cells is given one under micropyle. Sharing by reduction, it turns into haploid megaspores, of which one replaces the other three. Then, sharing mitotically, this forms the primary endosperm megaspores carrying two reduced archegonium with an egg inside each one. Female prothallus of gymnosperms exists on the sporophyte, feeding through it. Further there is pollination. Now the division of gymnosperms is divided into 6 classes, 2 classes of extinct plants – seed ferns, or liginopteridopsidy (Lyginopteridopsida, or Pteridospermae) and bennettitaleans (Bennettitopsida) and 4 classes living – Cycadopsida, Gnetopsida, Ginkgoopsida and Pinopsida. There are 23 of wild species from 3 families in Kazakhstan: Pinaceae, Cupressaceae and Ephedraceae. Class – Conifers – Pinopsida Order – Pine – Pinales The family of pine – Pinaceae 1. Ordinary Pine – Pinus sylvestris L. 2. Siberian pine (Siberian cedar) – Pinus sibirica (Rupr.) Mayr. 3. Weymouth pine – Pinus strobus L. 4. Ordinary Spruce – Picea abies (L.) Karst. 5. Siberian spruce – Picea oborata Ledeb. 6. Schrenk Spruce (Tien Shan) – Picea schrenkiana Fisch. et Mey. 7. Siberian Fir – Abies sibirica Ledeb. 8. Siberian Larch – Larix sibirica Ledeb. The order Cypress – Cupressales The family of Cypress – Cupressaceae 1. Common juniper – Juniperus communis L. 2. Pseudosa juniper – Juniperus pseudosa – bina Fisch. et Mey. 3. Western Thuya – Thuja occidentales L. Task: 1. To repeat the structure of needles see Fig. 60 To consider and sketch: 2. Two types of shoots of Pinus: short and long. 3. Longitudinal radial section of the male cones Pinus. Mark axis and the microsporophylls with microsporangiums. 4. The structure of the pollen grain of Pinus. Show the body and air sacs. Note remains of prothallial cells antheridial cell and vegetative (siphonogennic cell, pollen tube). 5. Longitudinal radial section of the female cones (macrostrobila) of Pinus. In the diagram mark the axis coverts and seed scales, ovule. 6. Seed of Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica). Note the diagram of the longitudinal section of the seed coat, endosperm, germ and pendants. To show cotyledons, growth cone, caulicle, the embryonic root in the embryo. 7. Scheme lifecycle. Note appropriate symbols. 8. The appearance of shoot of juniper and leaves needle in a whorl of three. 9. Megastrobil of juniper in a mature state. The spherical shape, the trace of the fusion of the three juicy seed scales. 

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10. The shoots of pine, spruce, fir, larch, juniper, arborvitae. 11. To put on the results of independent work Table 2.

Table 2

Class of conifers Types

Leaves

Cones

Geographic Distribution

Class gnetalians – Gnetopsida Class includes three orders: ephedrous (Ephedrales), Welwitschia (Welwitschiales) and gnetalians (Gnetales). They are distributed from the tropics to the temperate zone and including all the continents, mainly – xerophyllous. The principal features of the class – blanket like the perianth around strobili; presence of megasporophylls rudimentary remnants in microstrobiles, the reduction of male and especially female gametophyte; dichasious branching unusual for other modern gymnosperms, assembly of unisexual strobili, long micropylar tubes formed by the elongated integument, the presence of vessels in the secondary xylem; oppositely arranged phyllotaxy; dicotyledonous embryos, the absence of resin ducts. Order – Ephedrous – Ephedrales Family – Ephedrous – Ephedraceae Dvuhkoloskovaya Ephedra – Ephedra distachya L. – scrubby dioecious shrub, found on stony slopes, rock outcrops in the steppe zone. The leaves are opposite, reduced, 1.5-2 mm in length, fused to a third or a half. Free parts are incised into triangular lobes; blunt or rounded end. Vegetative reproduction by root suckers can form extensive thickets from plants of the same sex. The sexual process: a dioecious plant. Male cones on a structure remind angiosperm flowers, gathered in groups of three on the endings of short branches or peduncles, composed of an axis with four pairs of bracts; filaments in the axils of the bracts about 2 mm in length, with seven or eight anthers. Female cones are oval with short branches or apical, single or assembled in bundles, with 3-4 bracts, of which the lower one third of the joined, broadly, blunted, margin is narrowly membranous; inner up to half spliced. Mature female cones are spherical, 1-1.5 cm in diameter, berry-like, red (galberry). Seeds are usually two, oval or oblong-ovate, 4-5 mm in length, 3.2 mm in width, smooth, convex, dark brown (Fig. 90). Wind-pollinated plant. Task: To consider and sketch: 1. The appearance of ephedra. To pay attention to the branching of the stem, its articulation and ribbing, reduced leaves. "Female" and "male" cones on different plants. 2. "Male" cone (assembly of microstrobiles). 3. Separate microstrobil. Mark cover, anterofor with 2-8 microsynangis on top. 4. An assembly of megastrobils. To note sterile scale-like leaves, ovule. Internal ovule integument is stretched into a long micropylar tube. 76 

Figure 90. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Strobilae of ephedra. Ephedra the highest: 1 – Assembly of microstrobiles 2 – separate microstrobil (n-cover microstrobila) 3 – assembly of megastrobils, reduced to a single megastrobil (a – sterile scale-like leaves), 4 – longitudinal section of the upper part of the previous figure (a – sterile scale-like leaves, n – nucellus, b – pollen chamber, c – integument, which stretches to the top of micropylar tube, d – cover megastrobila) 5 – mature seeds. 6 – Ephedra campylobranching: mature seeds, 7 – Ephedra alata: mature seeds, 8 – Ephedra fragilis, separate microstrobil



Questions for self-control: 1. What kind of evolutionary changes in sexual reproduction occurred in gymnosperms? The cycle of development of generational change in gymnosperms (for example, pine trees). 2. What is the male and female gametophytes of pine? 3. From what "female" and "male" cones of gymnosperms were formed and how they are arranged. 4. What is a seed? The structure of the seed and its role in the evolution of plants 5. What are the features of the location and morphology of leaves of various conifers? 6. What is the structure of the "flowers" (gate) of ephedra? 7. Signs of gnetalians class. 8. From what the gymnosperms were occurred and what role they play in the modern vegetation of the earth? 9. How many species of gymnosperms found in Kazakhstan? 10. What is the phylogenetic significance of gymnosperms?



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LESSON 18 Theme: Flower Purpose: To study the structure of flowers of angiosperms and their morphological classification. Objects: tulip flowers, buttercup, wild cabbage or radish, bean, nettle, permanent preparations anther, and ovary in the section. The flower is a modified, shortened and limited the growth of the spore-bearing shoot, adapted for the formation of spores, gametes, as well as for sexual process that culminates in the formation of the fruit of the seeds. The fruit comes from the ovary carpel, but often in his education involved and other parts of the flower. The flower is attached to the stem by a peduncle (Fig. 91). If peduncle strongly shortened or absent, the flower is called sedentary (plantain, verbena, clover). The upper part of the flower stalk is called an extended receptacle, which are all flower organs. Receptacle may have a different size and shape – flat (peony), convex (strawberry, raspberry), concave (almonds), elongated (magnolia). On the receptacle placed circles or spirals, sepals, petals, stamens (androecium) and pistil (gynoecium). Sepals and petals form a flower perianth. Thus perianth – is a sterile part of the flower, which protects the more delicate stamens and pistils. Perianth may be single or double, or absent, for example in the willow. A simple perianth leaves are all the same. Double perianth is differentiated leaves: green leaves (sepals) that form a calyx and colored leaves (leaves) – form a halo. Loosely arranged in flower form freepetals a corolla lobes free, such as Rosaceae, Cruciferae, Fabaceae, etc. If the petals are partially or completely fused together edges forme sympetalous whisk, for example, bells in Labiatae, Convolvulaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. The main function of the petals – the flower attracts pollinators and contributes to the successful pollination. Sepals can coalesce (Gamophyllous calyx) or to remain free (Free sepal calyx) (Fig. 92).

Figure 91. (http://www.muldyr.ru/a/a/tsvetok_stroenie_tsvetka) The structure of the flower 78 

Figure 92. (http://trifoly.ru/2012/04/cvetok-stroenie-i-funkcii-formy-cvetkov/) Types of corolla and calyx

Double perianth is typical for the vast majority of plants, such as cherries, cloves, and bell. Simple perianth may be calyx formed (sorrel, beetroot) or (more commonly) a corolla (goose onions). Depending on the presence of male (stamens) and female (pistil) of the flowers are unisexual (androecium and gynoecium) or bisexual (androecium and gynoecium). Male and female flowers are unisexual may grow on the same plant, and then the plant is called monoecious, or bisexual, such as oak, birch, spurge, corn. If the male and female flowers grow on different plants, we have to deal with dioecious plant. Dioecious plants with staminate flowers are called male and female plants, such as poplar, willow, hemp, and nettle. Depending on the symmetry of the flowers can be subdivided on the right, not right and asymmetric. Correct, or actinomorphic, called the flower, which can be divided into two axes of symmetry passing through the center of the flower into symmetrical (equal) parts (for example, vertical and horizontal) (Fig. 93). Correct flowers are typical, for example, the family Rosaceae (apple, pear, rose), Liliaceae (goose onions, bluebell, lily of the valley), Papaveraceae, Ranunculaceae (buttercups, backache, anemone), bluebells, cruciferous and many others. Wrong or zygomorphic flower, you can divide symmetrically through the center only on one plane, such as flowers: Labiatae, legumes, figwort, balsam, orchids and other (Fig. 93). The flowers, which can’t be divided into symmetrical halves, called asymmetrical. Stamen stamen consists of a filament and anther (Fig. 91). Bellow – this is the main part of the stamen, consisting of two symmetrical halves connected by a courier, a continuation of stamen filaments (Fig. 94). The majority of flowering plants, each of the halves anther pollen is 2 sockets – microsporangiums. Microsporangiums wall consists of several layers of cells. The outer layer of cells endothecium – lies directly beneath the epidermis and reaches its maximum development at the time of sowing of the microspores. The inner layer of cells – the tapetum-lined cavity nests and feeds 

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the microspore mother cells (microsporangiums). Between them there are 1-2 middle layers of cells, usually disappearing during meiosis.

Figure 93. (http://trifoly.ru/2012/04/cvetok-stroenie-i-funkcii-formy-cvetkov/) Right and wrong flowers

Haploid pollen grain has two shells and become airborne. It develops of male gametophyte, which is much reduced and consists of two cells: the vegetative and generative. Generative cell gives rise to two sperm – male gametes devoid of flagella. Vegetative cells subsequently formed pollen tube. In some species of plants (Erodium, Linum), part of the stamens and anthers has presented a stamen filaments. Such sterile stamens called Figure 94. ( *. +. <  , 1986) staminodes. Cross section of anther Cabbage (Brassica The existence and structure of oleracea): 1 – conductive beam, 2 – courier, the stamens is an important taxonomic 3 – tetrads of microspores, 4 – socket anther feature. Therefore, when considering 5 – tapetum, 6 – endotetsy 7 – epidermis. the androecium is important to pay attention to the length of stamens, for example, figwort has only 4 stamens, 2 of them longer than the others. This is called a two androecium stylish. We cabbage total number of stamens – 6, 4 of them are long and 2 short. This is called androecium four stylish. 80 

The stamens are fused together or free (Fig. 95). Gynoecium – a set of carpels in the flower, forming one or more pistils. Gynoecium may consist of free carpels, each of which forms a pestle. This type of gynoecium typical of primitive flowering plants (Ranunculaceae, Fabaceae). During the evolution, carpels fused together to form a more complex type of gynoecium. The number of carpels that formed a Figure 95. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) gynoecium can be determined by Types of androecium. A – four strong, B – two-forced, C – two brathers, D – one brathers number of columns on one ovary, the number of blades of the stigma, the number of nests of the ovary. Typically, the pistil is differentiated by the ovary, stigma and column (Fig. 91). Inside the ovary are ovules, the number of which may vary from one to several million. Ovule (megasporangium) – multicellular formation of seed plants, from which later developed seed. Ovule is surrounded on the outside covers, which are not closed at the top, forming a narrow channel – micropyle. Through the pollen Figure 96. (  .., 1999) Fertilization in flowering plants tube penetrates the micropyle to the embryo sac (Fig. 96). From one ovule in a diploid cell formed by meiosis 4 haploid megaspores. Three of them die, and one continues to develop. It divides mitotically three, resulting in the formation of haploid nuclei 8. Two of them merge in the center, forming a diploid nucleus. So there is a female gametophyte, called the embryo sac. In the mature female gametophyte are the egg, the diploid central cell and the number of additional cells. The pistil consists of a single carpel-called apocarpous. Complex gynoecium always apocarpous as each pistil, included in its composition, is formed from one carpel. Simple gynoecium can be formed either by one carpel or multiple fused carpels – cenokarpous gynoecium (Fig. 97). Depending on how the fusion of carpels, as well as the number of nests of the ovary cenokarpous gynoecium is divided into the following types: 

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¾ Syncarpous – ovary is divided into the slot (tulip) ¾ Paracarpous – unilocular ovary is formed as a result of fusion of carpel their edges (cabbage). ¾ Lysicarpous – a unilocular ovary, the center axis of the ovary preserved remains of the edges of the carpel – column (pink). Depending on the position of the ovary relative to the attachment of other floral parts are distinguished: the upper and lower semi-inferior (Fig. 98). For ease of use the abbreviated description of the conditional formula in the form of a flower. Formula flower written in Latin letters, Figure 97. (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001caeda.h symbols and numbers. Typically, use tm)Types of gynoecium (cross-section), and the following notation: the likely direction of its specialization. > — simple perianth 1 – monokarpous 2 – apocarpous 3-5 – + (or @) —calyx cenokarpous types (3 – syncarpous + (or +) — corolla 4 – parakarpous, 5 – lizikarpous). % — androeceum  G — gynoeceum * — actinomorphic flower — zygomorphic flower [ — male flower \— female flower – hermaphrodite flower + — hermaphrodite flower of the presence of two or more circles (mainly in androecium or perianth) ( ) — accretion in parentheses Figure 98. (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001caeda.htm) indicates the number of fused carpels, the streak under figure Types of ovary: 1 – superior ovary, 2 – Halfmeans – upper ovary score above inferior, 3 – inferior ovary, 4 – the superior ovary, surrounded by the walls of the hypanthium figure is the lower ovary, about midsemi-inferior ovary. ^ – The number of flower parts greater than 12. Example 1: Writing and reading formula of flower: * >3 + 3%3 + 3G(3) means that the flower is actinomorphic, perianth has two circles of petals (3 each), androecium of two circles of stamens (3 each) and gynoecium of 3 fused carpels forming the upper ovary. Example 2: Writing and reading formula of flower: Ca0 C (5) A(5) G(2) means that the flower is zygomorphic , does not have a cup (Ca 0), corolla consists of five 82 

fused petals, androecium – 5 of fused stamens and gynoecium – of 2 fused carpels forming the lower ovary. More complete picture of the structure of the flower gives the diagram. The diagram is a projection of a flower on a plane, perpendicular to its axis. Diagram shows not only the number but also the location of flower parts and members in relation to each other. For the convenience, there was accepted a single method of orientation of diagram: inflorescence axis is represented at the top and coverleaf is at the bottom. Similarly, parts of the flower always represent by well-defined icons: inflorescence axis – a small circle, coverleaf, bracts and sepals – crescent arcs with keel, petals – crescent arcs without keel, stamens – reniform figures, more or less reflecting the shape of the cross section of the anther; gynoecium – circle or oval (Fig. 99, 100, 101). In the case of fusion between the parts of a flower, the icons that represent them in the diagram connect by lines.

Figure 99. Flower diagram Impatiens glandulifera: 1 – flower coverleaf, 2 – calyx 3 – corolla. The upper sepal carries spur (http://medbiol.ru/medbiol/botanica/001ca eda.htm)

Figure 100. The diagram of flower: 1 – coverleaf, 2 – calyx, 3 – corolla, 4 – stamens, 5 – pistil, 6 – stem, 7 – ovary

Flower differentiated from buds of gymnosperms that it has as a result of pollination, pollen falls on the stigma, and not directly on the ovule, and the subsequent sexual process in flowering ovules develop into seeds inside the ovary. Task: To consider and sketch: 1. The flowers of wild cabbage or radish, tulip, buttercup, nettle. Pay attention to structure of the perianth. Make up the formula and diagram of flowers – sketch. 2. The structure of the flowers of legumes. 3. The structure of the pistil and stamens on constant preparation. 4. Types of gynoecium. 5. Types of ovary.



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Figure 101. (ttp://www.megabook.ru/DescriptionImage) The structure of the bean flower (left) 1 – Sail (flag), 2 – paddles, 3 – keel, 4 – androecium (stamens), 5 – gynoecium (pistil), (right): the formula and the diagram Questions for self-control: 1. What is a flower? Describe the main parts of the flower. 2. Describe the structure of the stamen, pistil. 3. How does fertilization in angiosperms go? 4. What types of gynoecium do you know? 5. What types of ovaries do you know? 6. What is the difference of flower from the buds of gymnosperms?

LESSON 19 Theme: Inflorescence Purpose: To study the main types of inflorescences of angiosperms. Objects: different types of inflorescences (clover, daisies, sunflowers, wheat ears, ear of corn, brush of cherry, birches of catkins, gingham of bow, compound umbel carrots, whisk lilac or oats). The plant very often produces only one flower, as we see, for example, tulips and many other herbaceous plants. However, the flowers are more often do not sit solitary, and form a group with some of their arrangement, called inflorescences. Moreover, a single flower arrangement appears in all cases of secondary origin, i.e., appeared in the result of reduction of the inflorescence. The biological meaning of occurrence of inflorescences – in increasing likelihood of pollination of flowers as anemophilous (that is wind-pollinated) and entomophilous (i.e. pollinated by insects) plants. By type of growth and the direction of uncovering of flowers inflorescences are divided into racemose and cymose. 84 

Racemous or botryoid inflorescences are characterized by monopodial type of growth of axes and directed from the base of the axis to the top by uncovering its flowers. Example: willow-herb, shepherd's purse, etc. Cymose – are inflorescences that are characterized by sympodial type of growth of axis and directed from the top of the axis to the bottom of uncovering its flowers. Example: Pulmonaria. According to the method of branching, distinguish two types of inflorescences: monopodial and sympodial. Monopodial inflorescences (botryoid, racemous, indeterminate) are characterized by blooming of flowers in the direction from the bottom to top or from the edge to the center, if the flowers are arranged in one plane. Distinguish simple and compound monopodial inflorescences. Simple are inflorescences, in which the single flowers are arranged on the main axis and thus branching is less than two orders. Simply monopodial inflorescences are, for example, inflorescences of type: raceme, spike, catkin (ament), spadix, corymb, flower head (capitulum), anthodium (basket), and umbel (Fig. 102).

Figure 102. (http://www.metaphor.ru/er/misc/fractal_gallery:img:fractalt16.xml) Types of inflorescences. Simple botrical inflorescences: 1 – raceme, 2 – corymb, 3 – Spike 4 – catkin, 5 – spadix, 6 – umbel, 7 – flower head, 8 – anthodium, a simple cymous inflorescences: 9 – simple pleiochasium, 10 – simple dichasium; 11 – simple monochasium. Compound inflorescences homogeneous botrical: 12 – compound raceme, 13 – compound umbel, 14 – compound spike; homogeneous cymose: 15 – compound pleiochasium, 16 – compound dichasium, 17 – compound monochasium; botrical heterogeneous inflorescences 18 – panicle from spikes, 19 – head from the anthodia; heterogeneous cymous inflorescences: 20 – pleiochasium from dichasia, 21 – dichasium of monochasia, mixed inflorescences 22 – pleiochasium from anthodia, 23 – dichasium from raceme 24 – umbel from monochasia. 

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Characteristics of simple inflorescences: Raceme – is characterized by an elongated main axis along which uniformly grows flowers on stalks of approximately the same length. The flowers begin to grow from the base of inflorescences to its top. Raceme are upright (vertical growing up), drooping (bowed at an angle to the ground). Characteristically for: cherry, most species of pea, veronica pigweed, bell nettle-leaved etc. Spike – is like the structure of the raceme, but the flowers in this inflorescence are sessile (no peduncles). Spike is characteristic for many species of plantain, cereals, sedges and other plants. Catkin are usually drooping (nodding) inflorescences with more or less long main axis and densely growing flowers on it. Especially characteristic of the trees: birch, poplar, willow, and others. Spadix – similar to the structure of the spike, but its main axis is thick, fleshy, with closely spaced seating flowers on it. One or a few large leaves often grow under spadix covering an inflorescence. Examples: corn, sweet flag marsh. Corymb – all pedicels so long that all the flowers grow almost on the same plane, forming a kind of saucer. The flowers are beginning to bloom from the edges to the middle of inflorescences. Examples: wild geranium, wild strawberry, sandy immortelle. Flower head is easily recognizable inflorescence. It has a short, thick main axis of the oval or nearly spherical shape, where flowers develop from the bottom to up on short stalks. Example: clover, bell packed, letter pharmacy. Anthodium – appearance often looks like a single flower with many petals, however – it is an inflorescence. The inflorescence has strongly changed main axis – a thick, fleshy or hollow inside, flattened saucer-shaped, conical or almost spherical. A distinctive feature: the lower part of the main axis is covered with leaflets – a wrapper, flowers of one or several types grow out on top: semifloret, tube (funnel) pseudosemifloret. The inflorescence is most typically to the aster family (Asteraceae), for example, sunflower, daisy, asters, dahlias, marigolds. Umbel has very shortened main axis, from the top of which the flower stalks of the same length come out, i.e., inflorescence is like a fan. Example: Onion angular, Coronilla motley, primrose, cherry, apple, cherry. Compound inflorescences – inflorescences, where private (partial) inflorescence is located on the main axis, branching goes up to three, four or more orders. The compound monopodial inflorescences include: compound spike, compound umbel, panicle (Fig. 102). Characterization of compound inflorescences: Compound spike – consists of long main axis. It grows inflorescences of second order – spikelets, similar to the structure of simple spike. Example: wheat, rye, and barley. Compound umbel structurally similar to a simple umbel, but the short flower stalks are not released from the main axis and sprigs (axis) of the second order called rays are released instead. On the rays grow small flowers on stalks of the same 86 



length, forming umbellets. Example: carrots, parsley, parsnip, Seseli annual, cloves Turkish. Panicle – is highly branched inflorescences with long main axis and inflorescences of the second order, the lower of which is more branched and more developed than the upper, which gives the pyramidal shape to whole inflorescence. Example: lilac, oats, water plantain, northern bedstraw, mullein paniculata. In sympodial inflorescences (cymose, apical, determinate) number of branches is definitely and constantly within species, and sometimes genus. The main axis is not expressed, and formed a false axis, consisting of the axes of various orders. Blooming of flowers takes place from the top of inflorescences to the lateral branches or from the center towards the edges if the flowers are arranged in one plane. The most common are the Figure 103. Cyme: A) dichasium; monochasium:  followingsympodial inflorescen  B) curl, C) double curl, D) bend, E) pleiochasium ces:monochasium (curl,bend),  dichasium, pleiochasium (Fig. 103). Task: To consider and sketch: 1. Different types of inflorescences. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the inflorescence and what is its role? 2. What types of inflorescences do you know? Describe them, give examples. 3. Which inflorescences are compound and which are simple? 4. What types of inflorescences are distinguished by the method of branching? 5. What types of inflorescences are distinguished by the nature of the growth and direction of uncovering of flowers? Describe them.

LESSON 20 Theme: The fruit Purpose: to study the main types of fruits of angiospermous plants. Objects: various types of fruits (apple, cherry, raspberries, walnut, almonds, ashkeys of a birch and others). Fruit — it is altered in the course of double fertilization of gynaecium. Fruits are 

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bodies of reproduction of the angiospermous plants, necessary for formation, protection and distribution of the seeds is enclosed to them. Wall of a fruit call a pericarp. Pericarp is formed of a ovary wall, and sometimes from other parts of a flower and consists of three layers: Esocarp (skin), mesocarp (interlayer), endocarp (inner layer) (Fig. 104). Fruit is called simple if only one pestle (peas) shares in its formation. Simple fruits can sometimes break up on nests (caraway seeds, a hollyhock), such fruits is called a fractional. Fruit formed by several pestles of one flower is called aggregate fruit (raspberry, a buttercup). The fruits which are formec of several flowers, grown together among themselves (beet), or from the whole inflorescence (pineapple, a mulberry, a fig), are called multiple fruits. In formation of a compound fruit, except flowers, inflorescence axes can take part. According to type of gynoecium and placentations fruits classify on: apocarpous, syncarpous, paracarpous and lysicarpous. Apocarpous fruit – it is a fruit is formed the free carpels which have not grown together among themselves or one carpel. The most primitive type of an apocarpous fruit — is a follicle. Coenocarpous fruits – consists of 2 or several accrete carpels. In oenocarpous gynoecium is discriminate by 3 subtypes: the syncarpous — two-or multiple-cavity with a central angular placenta, paracarpous — one-nesting with a immediately inside the cell wall placenta and lysicarpous — also one-nesting, but with the central column-like placenta (Fig. 105). The following signs can be put in a basis of morphological classification: consistence of an pericarp (dry or juicy (Fig. 106, 107)), number of seeds (one or is a lot of), a opening of pericarp (not revealing or revealing, a way of a dehiscence), number of carpels forming a fruit. Allocate the following types of fruits: follicle, bean, pod, silique (or siliqua), box, nut, nutlet, acorn, achene, ashkey, caryopsis, berry, apple, pepo, hesperidium, drupe, multidrupe fruit, and dry drupe. Berry – a polyspermous fruit with a juicy pericarp. The fruit is formed of several carpels. Typical berries are fruits of bilberry, cowberry, a cranberry, potatoes, grapes, a gooseberry, currant, a tomato. The fruit of Fragaria is called fraga – the pulpy part represents the expanded receptacle and contains shallow nutlets. The fruit of rose is called – rose hip – it represents the goblet pulpy brightly painted receptacle to which walls nutlets from within are attached. Figure 104. (Drupe_fruit_diagram-en.svg) Scheme of a structure of a fruit of a peach

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Figure 105 (". . #, 1986) Fruits. Apocarpous fruits: 1 – multifollicle (Trollius europaeus); 2 – one-follicle (Consolida regalis); 3 – multinutlet (Ficaria verna); 4 – legume (Caragana arborescens); Syncarpous fruits: 5 – upper syncarpous box (Hypericum perforatum); 6 – double samara (Acer tataricum); 7 – coenobium (Buglossoides arvensis); 8 – lower syncarpous box (Iris sibirica); 9 – acorn (Quercus robur); 10 – nut (Corylus avellana): 11 – cremocarp (Heracleum sibiricum), Paracarpous: 12 – upper paracarpous box (Viola arvensis); 13 – silique (Thlaspi arvense); 14 – lower paracarpous box (Orchis); 15 – achene (sunflower); 16 – lysicarpous fruit of Anagallis arvensis – it is a round 5 ridged capsule.

Pepo – in the dense pericarp conductive bunches are strongly developed, a exocarpium is solid, is frequent lignification. Pepo is characteristic for a cucumber, pumpkin, and a water-melon. Pome – a pulp is formed of the basis of stamens, a perianth and a receptacle, and the core – of walls of ovary. Apple is peculiar to some plants of family – Rosacea (an apple-tree, a pear, a quince). Hesperidium – is a polyspermous fruit with the dense leathery painted exocarpium which richly supplied with essential oils, and with dry spongy white mesocarps. Endocarp is at filmy, with numerous juicy hairs. The juicy pulp represents 

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the expanded pocket-like excrescences of an endocarp. The hesperidium is characteristic for a citrus (orange, a lemon and tangerine). Drupe – a fruit with clearly expressed parts of a pericarp: on a leathery thin exocarpium, a pulpy mesocarp and the ligneous endocarp forming a pit. Example: cherry, plum, apricot, a peach, almonds and a fruit of a coconut palm tree (two last have a fruit – a dry drupe fruit).

Figure 106. (do.gendocs.ru)Dry types of fruits: 1 – achene (Helianthus); 2 – samara (Fraxinus excelsior); 3 – aggregate nutlet (Ranunculus); 4 – follicle (Consolida regalis); 5 – double samara (Acer platanoides); 6 – nut (Corylus avellana); 7 – grain (Triticum); 8 – pod (Brassica); 9 – achene with a cop (Taraxacum); 10 – self-burying caryopsis (Stipa); 11 – legume. (Pisum sativum); 12 – silique (Thlaspi arvense); 13, 14 – boxes (Hyoscyamus niger and papaver); 15 – aggregate follicle (Aquilegia vulgaris); 16 – achene with hooks (Bidens tripartita); 17 – branched pod (Raphanus raphanistrum) 90 

Figure 107. (do.gendocs.ru) Fleshy fruit types: 1 – berry (Grossularia reclinata); 2 – drupe (+erasus); 3 – berry (tomato); 4 – rose hip – aggregate nutlet (rose); 5 – pome (Malus domestica); 6 – fraga – aggregate nutlet (Fragaria vesca); 7 – aggregate drupe (Rubus); 8 – pepo (Cucumis sativus); 9 – hesperidium (lemon); 10, 11 – multiple fruits (pineapple, fig, mulberry) 

The nut and nutlet – is the fruits having the dense ligneous pericarp into which the single seed is put, it is easy from it separating. The nut and nutlet differ with the sizes. Such fruits are formed at crowfoot family, buckwheats, a hemp nettle, a sage. Achene – a fruit with the leathery pericarp which is easily separating from a seed and different from a nutlet only by a degree of compaction of a pericarp. Typical Achenes are fruits of plants from family thistle family (Asteráceae) (sunflower, a cornflower, a dandelion and etc.). Samara – is a achene or a nutlet supplied with a leathery or webbed pterygoid appendage. It is characteristic mainly for wood and shrubby plants (an elm, an ashtree, a birch and etc.). Caryopsis (grain) – a fruit with the thin pericarp which densely is growing together with a seed peel or skintight to it. It is characteristic for plants of family of cereals. Follicle – is formed of one carpel, the one-nesting, opened in a place of accretion of edges of a carpel (on a belly seam) – as though is deploying. Fruit a follicle, for example, at a delphinium field (Consolida regalis). Legume – the one-nesting fruit formed by one carpel. It is opening with two shutters in a place of accretion of edges of a carpel (a belly seam) and on an average vein (a back seam). Seeds are attached along a belly seam. Beans are characteristic for the fabaceae. Pod and silique (or siliqua) are similar to a bean, but they are formed of two carpels and the difference in existence between shutters of a chance partition. Pod and silique open with help of two longitudinal falling-down shutters. Seeds in them are attached to a partition wall. Pod and silique differ from each outher with a ratio of length and width. The first (pod) length exceeds width in 3 and more times (at mustard, cabbage). The second (silique) length not much more than width or is equal to it (selia bursa pastoris, a Thlaspi arvense, a Berteroa incana etc.). Capsule — dry, polyspermous, one – or a multiple-cavity fruit. It is opening with teeth (at a carnation, a corn cockle, a primrose), holes (at poppy), a lid (at a plantain, a henbane) or longitudinal cracks — shutters. The last can disperse in a place of accretion of carpels (at a violet), on their average vein (at a tulip, an iris, a lily), looking up from the wall (partitions remain connected in the center, and shutters depart from them; at a Datura). Task: 1. To consider and sketch various types of fruits. Questions for self-control: 1. What is the fruit and what its role? 2. By what signs classify fruits? 3. Call dry fruits of angiospermous plants. 4. Call fleshy fruits of angiospermous plants. 5. How Fragaria and dogrose fruits are called? Why they are allocated in separate groups? 6. On what types classify fruits according to type them gynaecium and placentations?



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LESSON 21 Theme: Department of Angiosperms (Flowering) –Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae). Class Magnoliopsida. The orders of the Ranunculales, Papaverales and Caryophyllales Purpose: Acquaintance to the features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of a class of Magnoliopsida, orders: crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae), family the papaverous (Papaveraceae), (Caryophylleae). Objects: herbarium exemplars of plants (with flowers and fruits): globe flower, buttercup, aconite, poppy, celandine, corydalis, carnation, and goosefoot. Department of Angiosperms (Flowering) Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae) The department of Angiosperms includes about 250 thousand species of trees, bushes, curly plants and herbs with varied in form and features the next arrangement, opposite arrangement or verticil-like of leaves. Idiosyncrasies of the angiospermous plants, distinguishing them from other departments of the highest plants as marked A.L.Takhtadzhyan (1987) "the following is: 1) ovule (seedbud) are put into more or less selfcontained cavity (ovary), formed by one or several grown together carpels; 2) pollen grains are catching not by a micropyle of ovule, and a stigma; 3) gametophytes are deprived gametangia and develop as a result of minimum number of mitotic segmentations; 4) so-called "double fertilization", being characterized that it is a result of threefold merge (merge of one of two spermia with two polar cores) is formed a triploid primary core of endosperm – the express nutritious tissue of a developing nucleus which is available only at Magnoliophyta." The angiospermous – heterosporous plants. They have a flower – reproductive stalk. The department of the angiospermous shares on two classes: dicotyledonous – Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledones), includr 200 thousand of species, and monocotyledonous – Liliopsida (Monocotyledones), connect about 63 thousand of species. These classes differ from each other on the following signs: 1. Blastemal of monocotyledonous plant have only one cotyledon (a germinal leaf), whereas blastemal of dicotyledonous have two. Cotyledons provide with nutrients a blastemal and a sprout until the last does not become capable to a selfcontained delivery at the nutrition of photosynthesis. 2. Leaves of the monocotyledonous are characterized by a parallel venation and smooth edges; at leaves of dicotyledonous is bichromatic veins branch, and edges usually dissected or toothed. 3. The number of parts of flower including petals, sepals, stamens and pistils – at monocotyledonous is equal or multiple 3, and at the dicotyledonous – is equal or multiple 4 or 5 and is very rarely 3.

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4. At monocotyledonous bunches of vessels of a xylem and phloem are scattered on all stalk; at dicotyledonous a xylem and phloem are located or one large massif in the center of the stalk, or in the form of a ring between bark and a core. 5. At monocotyledonous the primary root is early dies off. Root system is fibrous root system. At the dicotyledonous – the primary (germinal) root usually develops in the main root. The dicotyledonous plants have a taproot system. In the life cycle of angiospermous plants the sporophyte is prevails (Fig. 108). From a flower the fruit in which there are seeds develops. A variety of fruits is bound to ways of distribution of fruits and seeds. Angiospermous plants are widespread all over the globe.

Figure 108. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G., 2006) Life cycle of angiospermous; * – meiosis. 1 – adult sporophyte (2 n); 2 – flower; 3 – seedbud; 4 – megaspores; 5 – two-nuclear germinal bag; 6 – four-nuclear germinal bag; 7 – eight-nuclear germinal bag; 8 – mature female gametophyte (n); 9 – anther; 10 – blossom dust; 11 – spermium; 12 – mature male gametophyte; 13 – zygote (2 n); 14 – blastemal(2 n); 15 – fruits; 16 – cotyledons; 17 – sporophyte (2 n)

Class of Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledonous) – (Dicotyledones) Subclass – Ranunculidae Order – Ranunculales Crowfoot family – Ranuncula Routinely it is long-term herbs though they can be annual plants too. It is bushes and liana-like plants are known also. Leaves of representatives of this family prime, sometimes the compound, without stipules, usually next-like arranged. Flowers in inflorescences more rare is single, bisexual, actinomorphous or zygomorphic, generally five-member (a flower formula: * , +5 + 5 %f Gf ) . At the basis of petals often there are nectaries. Androecium it is presented by the numerous stamens located on spirals (Fig. 109). Gynaecium is apocarpous, ovary is the top. Multifollicle fruits, multinutlets, occasionally – berry-like follicles. Species of a genus of Trollius; species of a genus of buttercup – Ranunculus; the Aconitum songoricum Stapf. (Fig. 110), genus of a delphinium – Delphinium L. etc.



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Figure 109. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman, 2006) Structure of flower and achen of Ranuncula$  . The flower (f) has reflexed sepals (g) that are longer than the petals (h). Numerous stamens (i) surround the base of a central aggregate of numerous pistils (j). The carpel of each pistil has one ovule (k). At maturity, the fruit consists of an aggregate of achenes (m).

Order – Papaverales Poppy family – Papaveraceae The papaverous are mainly herbaceous plants containing latex (natural latex). Leaves at them are simple, next-like arranged, without stipules. Flowers are actinomorphous, bisexual, as a rule, with two falling down sepals and four petals. Stamens are numerous. Gynaecium is paracarpous. Fruit – a capsule of a various form. Generally the papaverous – entomophilous plants. Papaverous contain alkaloids. Papaver rhoeas L. (*, , +2 + 2+2 %^ G(12)); Chelidonium majus L. (Fig. 111) and others.

Figure 110. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) S.G., 2006) Aconitum songoricum. Crowfoot family – Ranunculaceae 94 

Figure 111. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova Chelidonium majus. Poppy family – Papaveraceae

Fumitory family – Fumariaceae Differ from papaverous absence in stalks and leaves of lacteal tubes and lacteal bags, shallow sepals. Flowers at fumitory are mainly zygomorphic, with 4 petals and 4-6 stamens. Genus – Corydalis Vent, fumitory (Fig. 113) and others.

Figure 112. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of flower Caryophylla$  The bisexual flower has 5 joined sepals (d) and overlapping bracts (e) that prevent nectarrobbing bees from biting into the flower. The illustration of the capsule shows the sturdy construction. The 5 petals (f) are notched or “pinked” at the edges as if cut by pinking shears and consist of claw (g), corona (h) and limb (i). Ten stamens (j) have 5 joined filaments at the base. The pistil has a superior ovary (k) with carpels united into one locule in which many ovules (l) are attached in free-central placentation. Two styles (m) elongate into feathery (plumose) stigmas (n). The capsule is enclosed by sepals and bracts and splits into valves (o) adapted to release the seeds.

Subclass – Kariofillida – Caryophyllidae Order – Caryophyllales Pink family – Caryophylla Pink family – mainly herbaceous plants with next-like arranged leaves. Inflorescences – the composite dichasium and pleyochasium, are more rare monochasium or flowers are single. Flowers are usually with a double perianth, 5members (Fig. 112). Androecium is usually from 10 stamens located in two circles on 5. Gynaecium syncarpous consists of 2-5 carpels. Fruit – a capsule, seldom nutlet. Seeds are with the perisperm. Genus – Pink – Dianthus L. Genus – Star gear – Stellaria L. Saponaria officinalis L. Saponaria pumila L. (Fig. 114) and others.



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Figure 113. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Fumaria officinalis Family – Fumariaceae

Figure 114. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006 )Saponaria pumila Pink family – Caryophyllaceae

Goosefoot family – Chenopodiaceae Goosefoot family – mainly herbaceous plants. Leaves are simple, next-like arranged, without stipules; it is frequent with the whitish thin coating formed by hairs, or salt glands. Flowers in different inflorescences, shallow, ordinary-looking, bisexual, seldom unisexual, actinomorphous, in the basis with a simple perianth, mostly 4-5-members. Fruit is nutlet. Genus – Goosefoot – Chenopodium L. Genus – Grasswort – Salicornia L. Genus – Orache – Atriplex L. (Fig. 115) and others. Tasks: Examine and sketch: 1. General view of plants of a globe flower, buttercup, aconite, poppy, celandine, corydalis, carnations, goosefoot and their flowers. 2. Generative organs of the considered plants. 3. To make formulas of flowers (of a globe flower, a buttercup, an aconite, a poppy, a celandine, corydalis, a carnations, a goosefoot). 4. Fruits of the considered plants. Questions for self-control: 1. The origin and morph-anatomical characteristics of angiosperms. The evolution of vegetative and generative organs. Double fertilization and its significance. 2. Comparison of the classes of angiosperms. 3. What are the directions of the morphological evolution of the flower and fruit in the redistribution of the order: buttercups, poppy and carnation? 4. Differences in the structure of the flower and fruit fumitory and poppy. 5. Features of ecology and morphology representatives family 6. The main representatives of buttercups, poppies, fumitories, carnations and goosefoots and their practical significance. 96 

LESSON 22 Theme: Subclasses Dilleniida and Gamamelidida Purpose: Acquaintance to the main features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of subclasses of Dilleniida and Gamamelidida. Objects: Inflorescences of a Salix, Betula, Syringa, yellow cress, Urtica, Malva; fruits: pod without a nose (yellow cress – Erysinum), pod with a nose (liliac – Syrenia), branched silique (Raphanus), silique (Thlaspi arvense). Nettle plant and hair preparation. Subclass of Gamamelidida – Hamamelididae Order of Birch – Betulales Birch family – Betula It is trees and bushes. Leaves are simple, next-like arranged, usually are with falling-down stipules. Flowers shallow, ordinary-looking, without a perianth or with a simple perianth, unisexual. Plants are monoecious. Fruit is a nut, without a cupule. Seeds are without endosperm. Genus of birch – Betula L. (Fig. 116).

Figure 115. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Orach. Goosefoot family – Chenopodiaceae

Figure 116. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Birch. Birch family – Betulaceae

Subclass of Dilleniida – Dilleniidae Order of Willow – Salicales Willow family – Salica It is trees and bushes. Leaves are simple, next-like arranged, with stipules. Flowers are without a perianth in unisexual aments (cones or a catkin) (Fig. 117). 

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Diclinous plants. Gynoecium is a paracarpous. Ovary is superior. Fruit is a capsule. Seeds are usually without endosperm. Genus of Willow – Salix L. (Fig. 118) Genus of Poplar – Populus Populus tremula L.

Figure 117. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of flowers and fruit of Salica$  Flowers (c) of this male catkin have 3 stamens (d) with a hairy bract (e) and a nectar gland (f) below. The flowers (g) of the female catkin each have a single pistil with numerous ovules (h) in the ovary (i), a single style (j) and 2 stigmas (k). At the base of the flower pedicel (l) is a bract (m) and a nectar gland (n). With the evolutionary reduction of parts, these specialized flowers consist of only stamens or a pistil and are without sepals and petals. During spring, the female catkin becomes a fuzzy mass of hairy (comose) seeds (o) released from 2-valved (p) capsules to be dispersed by wind. 98 

Order – Capparales. Mustard Family – Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Mainly herbaceous plants, sometimes semi-bushes. Leaves are simple. Inflorescence most often is a catkin. Flowers are actinomorphous, seldom zygomorphic, with a double perianth, 2-nomial. Calyx consists of 4 free sepals, located in two circles. +orolla from 4 petals located in one circle. Androecium consists of 6 stamens. Gynaecium paracarpous consists of 2 carpels. Ovary is superior. Fruits are pods or siliques. Seed is with the bent blastemal. Capsella bursa pastoris (L.) Medic (Fig. 119), (Fig. 120, 125) and others.           118. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova Figure Figure 119. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Willow. S.G.,2006) Capsella bursa-pastoris.  Mustard Family – Cruciferae  Willow family – Salicaceae 

Figure 120. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of flower and fruit of Brassicaceae The pedicel (e) supports a flower with 4 hairy sepals (f) that alternate with the 4, diagonally opposed petals (g). The 6 stamens are tetradynamous, which means there are 4 long stamens (h) and 2 outer short stamens (i). At the base of the filament are nectaries (j), seen when the sepals and petals are removed. The single pistil has a superior ovary (k) and a capitate stigma (l). When the silicle fruit develops, the ovary’s false partition (replum, m) can be seen separating the seeds (n). Two outer valves (o) are shed to release the seeds.



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Order of – Malvales Family of – Malva Herbaceous plants, bushes, seldom trees. Leaves are generally simple. Flowers are mainly actinomorphous, bisexual and usually 5-nomial. Perianth is a double. Calyx from five valvate sepals, it is frequent with the subcalyx. Five stamens of an external circle are reduced, internal numerous (owing to splitting) stamens grow together in a tube, at the basis growing to petals. Gynaecium is coenocarpous (from 5 or many carpels). Ovatry is a superior (Fig.121). Fruits are capsule or nutlets. Genus – Malva L. Genus – Althaea L. (Fig. 122) Genus – Gossypium L. Order of – Nettle – Urticales Nettle family – Urticaceae Generally herbs and bushes, but in tropics meet small trees without natural latex. In a false skin of many Nettles meet cystoliths. Leaves are simple, are often covered, as well as stalks, stinging hairs. Flowers actinomorphous, usually diclinous, are more rare bisexual, mainly in cymose inflorescences; pestle from two carpels, ovary is a superior. Perianthum is simple, 4-5-nomial. Nettle is an anemophilous plant. Fruit – a achene or a drupe. Urtica dioica L. (Fig. 123) and others.

Figure 121. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of flower of Malvaceae Flowers have 5 joined sepals (d), which separate into valves and 5 petals (e). Anthers (f) extend from the center of the flower. In the vertical section of the flower, the column (g) of fused staminal filaments (monadelphous condition) is shown. Anthers (h) are separate at the top of the column. Within the column is the pistil’s style (i) and, emerging above the anthers, there are 5 stigmas (j). The superior ovary (k) is composed of 5 fused carpels, and has numerous ovules (l). Mericarps (m) attached to a central axis and enclosed by persistent sepals (n). 

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Figure 122. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Althaea officinalis L. Family of – Malvaceae

Figure 123. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Urtica dioica L.. Nettle family – Urticaceae

Hemp family – Cannabaceae The family unites two genera: hemp (Cannabis; Fig. 124) and hop plant (Humulus).

Figure 124. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Cannabis ruderalis Janischewsky. Hemp family – Cannabaceae

Figure 125. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Fruits of Brassicaceae: 1- of a Raphanus raphanistrum, 2- of a Thlaspi arvense, 3- of a Capsella bursapastoris

Hemp family — hese are the long-term or annual herbs wintering with the help of underground rhizomes and roots, trees and bushes. 

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The genus of Hop stalk is a curling, at the genus of Hemp the stalk is upright. Leaves are with foot-vanes or compound, opposite or at the top of a stalk the located. Flowers are unisexual, plants are diclinous. Male flowers are collected in the compound shoot, female – in an ament or the cone. Fruit is a nut. Tasks: Examine and sketch: 1. General appearance of Salix, Betula, liliac (Syringa), yellow cress, Urtica, Malva and its flowers. 2. Inflorescence. 3. Fruits of Brassicaceae: a) pod without a nose (yellow cress – Erysinum and others); b) pod with a nose (liliac – Syrenia and others); c) branched silique (Raphanus and others); d) silique (Thlaspi arvense and others). 4. To compose the formulas of flowers: Salix, Betula, liliac (Syringa), yellow cress, Urtica, Malva 5. The stinging hair of Nettle. Questions for self-control: 1. General characteristics of Betulaceae, Salicaceae, Brassicaceae, Malvaceae and Urticaceae. Composition of families. Using in the national economy. Ecology. 2. Geographical distribution, vital forms and role in the nature of Betulaceae, Salicaceae, Brassicaceae, Malvaceae and Urticaceae. 3. Structure of male and female flowers and inflorescence of Betulaceae, Salicaceae and Urticaceae. 4. Main features of structure of flower, fruit and seed of Brassicaceae. 5. What kind of representatives from families Urticaceae and Malvaceae are met in Kazakhstan?

LESSON 23 Theme: Subclass – Rosidae Purpose: Acquaintance to the main features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of a subclass of Rozida (orders Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Umbelliferae). Objects: herbarium exemplars (with generative bodies and fruits): Rosaceae (spiraea, rose, apple, cherry), Fabaceae (peavine, hedysarum, milk vetch, clover, lucerne, licorice), Apiaceae (cow-parsnip). Fruits of the Umbelliferae: prangos, caraway seeds, milestones poisonous, hemlock spotty, thorough-wax. Order – Rose – Rosales Rose Family – Rosaceae It is a defoliating trees and evergreen trees and bushes, perennial and annual herbaceous plants. Leaves are simple or the compound. Flowers are usually 5members. The family is characteristic by hypanthium. Androecium is generally the 102 

numerous. Gynaecium consist of a large number of carpels, or carpels 3-5 or 1, apocarpous, is more rare – syncarpous. Ovary is a superior, rarer – is an inferior. Fruits – a multifollicle, a multinutlet, a nutlet, a multidrupe fruit, a drupe, pome. On the basis of distinctions in the main chromosomal numbers, structure of a calyx, a hypanthium, gynaecium, a fruit and depending on existence of stipules – family subdivide into 4 subfamilies: 1. Spiraeoideae. The subfamily possesses genera: meadowsweet (Spirae), Sibiraea, Spiraeanthus etc. 2. Rosoideae. The subfamily includes the greatest number of genera of this family: raspberry (Rubus), Fragaria (Fragaria), silverweed (Potentilla), (Alchimilla), dogrose (Rosa, Fig. 126) and many others. 3. Maloideae (Pyroideae). The subfamily possesses genera: apple-tree (Malus), pear (Pyrus), mountain ash (Sorbus), hawthorn (Crataegus), etc. 4. Prunoideae. The subfamily possesses genera: almonds (Amygdalus), bird cherry (Padus), cherry (Cerasus), drainage (Prunus), apricot (Armeniaca), etc. Order – Pea – Fabales Pea family – Fabaceae (Leguminosae) In the family is several of biotic forms of plants are presented. Leaves are usually the compound, with stipules. Flowers bisexual, seldom unisexual, it is usually in a catkin, whisks, ears or heads. More primitive representatives of the family bean have an actinomorphous flower (Mimosoidae). Most often flowers zygomorphic, five-membered; it is routi usually with a double perianth. Sepals generally – 5, usually accrete. Petals are free or 2 lobbies grown together at the basis. The nimbus of papilionaceous (Papilionoideae) is arranged is characteristic: the top, external largest petal received the flag or sailing vessel name, lateral petals are called as wings, inter petals grow together, forming a floating trough. Stamens are mostly 10. Gynaecium is apocarpous (Fig. 127). Ovary is the superior. Fruit is a bean. Seeds are without endosperm. The majority of representatives is characteristic the symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The family of Fabaceae includes 3 subfamilies: Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, Faboideae (Papilionoideae). Vicia cracca L., Robinia pseudoacacia L., Ononis arvensis L. (Fig. 128), etc. Order – Araliales (Apiales) Carrot Family – Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Perennial, biannual or annual herbaceous plants, semi-bushes, seldom bushes and, sometimes, tropics small trees. Stalks are often with hollow interstices. Roots often reinforced. The bases of leaves are often expanded and form a vagina. Flowers generally shallow, actinomorphous or (regional in an umbrella) zygomorphic, bisexual, collected in the composite umbrellas, it is rare in heads, entomophillous. Gynaecium oenocarpous from two carpels; ovary is the inferior. Fruit is the two achenes (cremocarp) hanging on the doubled fruit stem – a carpophore. Fruits have longitudinal ribs. The structure and placement of edges and depressions in the ground a miscellaneous also has great systematic value. Seed are with endosperms. 

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Figure 127. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of flower of Fabaceae Long peduncle (f) that supports many flowers on short pedicels (g). In addition to a sepal tube (h) with 5 lobes, the flower has a corolla divided into a banner petal (i), 2 wing petals (j), and a keel (k) composed of 2 fused petals. Petal color varies from white to pink to dark pink-red. With the petals removed from a flower bud, 10 2-chambered stamens (l) enclose the pistil in 2 bundles of one above plus nine basally fused ones. A flower, with sepals (h) also removed, and ovary (m), cut open, shows the ovules (n) attached to the inner carpel wall. Extending from the ovary are the style (o) and stigma (p).

Carrots – Daucus, parsley – Petroselinum, a celery – Apium, giant-fennel – Ferula (Fig. 129) waterhemlock – Cicuta, hemlock – Conium, the Cow-parsnip dissect – Heracleum dissectum Ledeb., eryngo – Eryngium, etc.

Figure 126. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Rosa cinnamomea L. Rosaceae 104 

Figure 128. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Ononis arvensis L. Fabaceae

Task: To consider and sketch: 1.Appearanceandgenerativebodiesof representati ves of Rosaceae family (spiraea, rose, appletree, cherry), Fabaceae (peavine), Apiaceae (cow-parsnip). 2. Fruits of the Pea family: a) of peavine (Orobus); b)ofhedysarum (Hedysarum); c) of milk vetch (Astragalus); d) Clover (Trifolium); e) lucerne (Medicago lupulina); e) licorice (Glycyrrhiza). 3. Fruits of the Apiaceae: a) Prangos sp. – prangos- edges of fruits thickened, edged by wavy edges; b) Carum carvi L. – Caraway seeds – with 5 equal primary edges on everyone a merikarpium; c) Cicuta virosa L. – Milestones poisonous – almost spherical fruits, with flat-rounded edges; Figure 129. (Parshina G. N., d) Conium maculatum L. – hemlock – with 5 Nesterova S.G.,2006) Ferula assacartilage-like sinuous edges; foetida. Carrot Family – Apiaceae e) Bupleurum sp. – thorough-wax – edges poorly expressed, not acting. 4. To make formulas of flowers: spiraea, roses, apple-trees, cherries, peavine, cow-parsnip. Questions for self-control: 1. List the signs on which representatives of different subfamilies of the Rose family differ from each other (fill in table 3). 2. Total characteristic Pea family and Umbelliferae. Structure of families, significance, distribution. Representatives of the local flora. Ecology. Value in the nature and a national economy. 3. Rare, relict and endemic species from families pink, bean and umbrella in Kazakhstan.

Table 3

Distinctive signs of subfamilies of Rose family Features Spiraeoideae

Subfamilies Rosoideae Maloideae

Prunoideae

Vital forms Leaves Stipule Formula of flower Gynoecium Ovary Character of hypanthium Chromosomal number Fruit



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LESSON 24 Theme: Subclass – Lamiidae Purpose: Acquaintance to the main features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of a subclass of Lamiidae. Objects: herbarium exemplars (with generative bodies and fruits): nightshade family (potato, Hyoscyami), Nightshade family (mullein, toadflax), Mint family (deadnettle, sage, motherwort), Borage family (vipes's bugloss, cucumber grass). Order – Solanales Nightshade family – Solanaceae Mainly it is herbaceous plants. Leaves are simple (Fig. 130). Flower 5-member, ovary is the superior; fruit is a berry or a capsule, it is rare – a drupe. Potato – Solanum tuberosum, tomato – Lycopersicon esculentum, papper – Capsicum, eggplant – Solanum melngena, belladonna – Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyami – Hyoscyamus niger (Fig. 131), Scopolia, species of datura – Datura, tobacco – Nicotiana and others.

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Figure 130. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of leaf, flower and fruit of Solanaceae Leaves on this wild, perennial vine are alternate and divided into 3 lobes (a). Flowers in the cymose cluster have jointed pedicels (c, d). (A cyme is a flat-topped cluster with the central flower opening first.) There are 5 joined sepals (e) and 5 reflexed, purple petals (f) with green spots (g) at the base. The 5 stamens with short purple filaments (h) join anthers (i) around the pistil’s style (j). With the flower cut open, the stamens (h, i, k) surround the pistil’s superior ovary (l) and style (j, m), with the stigma (n) emerging at the top. Pollen is released from the stamens through pores (o) at the ends of the anthers. Nightshade fruits are small, red, poisonous berries (p). Tomato flowers consist of joined sepals (q) with 6 lobes, joined petals (r) with 6 lobes, 6 stamens, and a single pistil. The stamens have short filaments and elongate, narrow-tipped anthers (s) that converge around the pistil’s style (t). A fruit that looks like a Chinese lantern is composed of an enlarged sepal tube (v), which encloses an orangered berry. Pepper’s fruit type is a berry whose rind (w) changes from green to red at maturity. Seeds (x) develop on a central placenta (y).

Figure 131. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Hyoscyamus niger L. Nightshade family–Solanaceae



Figure 132. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Borago officinalis. Borage family – Boraginaceae

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Order – Boraginales Borage family – Boraginaceae Herbaceous, shrubby plants are rare. Often there is an omission. Inflorescences are cymose, at the base of which composite monodichasium. Flowers actinomorphous integral-petals, stamens number – 5, alternate with blades of a corolla, gynaecium the top consists of two carpels, ovary is the superior. Seeds are without endosperm. The fruit is fractional, breaks up to four nut-like bodies. Symphytum officinale, cucumber grass – Borago officinalis (Fig. 132), Heliotropium, Myosotis, hound's-tongue – Cynoglossum, vipes's bugloss – Echium vulgare, species of stickseed – Lapulla and others. Order – Scrophulariales Figwort Family – Scrophulariaceae Structure of a flower variously: one genus kept more primitive form of a nimbus of almost actinomorphous type and all 5 stamens (Verbascum), for others the zygomorphic flower, sometimes a two-lips nimbus and the reduced number of stamens – to 4, for example, at Linaria or to the 2nd at Veronica is characteristic. Gynaecium is binomial with two-locule ovary. Fruit is a capsule. Existence of glycosides is Figure 133. (Parshina G. N., characteristic for it. Nesterova S.G.,2006) Antirrhinum, calceolaria – Calceolaria, mullein – Linaria vulgaris. Verbascum, foxglove – Digitalis, toadflax – Linaria Figwort FamilyScrophulariaceae (Fig. 133) and others. Order – Lamiales Mint family – Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Mint family is mainly herbaceous plants. Flower one always zygomorphic with a two-lips corolla and other various adaptations to cross-pollination; the calyx also not seldom happens zygomorphic and two-lips (Fig. 134). Stalk usually 4- nomial. Leaves are the simple, the opposite. Vegetative bodies of plants are usually with gland-like pubescence. Existence of essential oils is characteristic for it. Arrangement of leaves is generally the opposite. The fruit usually breaks up to 4 one-seed parts (coenobium from 4 erems) often call nutlets. Mint – Mentha, sage – Salvia, motherwort – Leonurus (Fig. 135), lavender – Lavamdula vera, rosemary – Rosmarinus, deadnettle – Lamium album and others.

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Figure 134. (Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. 2006) Structure of flower of Lamiaceae Conspicuous ribs join the flower’s 5-lobed sepal tube (c). The 5 fused petals (d) separate into an upper lip composed of 2 petal lobes and a lower lip consisting of 3 petal lobes. Cut open, the flower reveals several interesting features. Two stamens arise from the lower petal lip. For clarity, one stamen is shaded in the drawing. The filament (e) attaches to an enlarged connective (f) that allows for rotation of the anther sac (g), hence facilitating pollen dispersal by insects. As a visiting bee alights on the lower petal lip, pollen from the rotating anther sacs brushes the insect. After depletion of pollen, the stigmas (h) are lowered by the elongated style (i). Thus, pollen from other flowers is brushed on the stigmas by visiting bees, effecting cross-pollination. Nectar, the source of attraction to insects, is pooled below a ring of hairs (j) in the petal tube, secreted by a disc (k) at the base. The pistil’s gynobasic style (I) arises between the 4 lobes of the ovary (l). At fruiting time, when the persistent sepal tube is cut open, 4 nutlets (n) are revealed.

Task: To consider and sketch: 1. Appearance and generative bodies of representatives of families Solanaceae (potatoes, henbane), Scrophulariacea (feltwort, toadflax), Lamiaceae (yasnotka, sage, Leonurus), Boraginaceae (bruise, cucumber grass). 2. To make formulas of flowers for each family.

Figure 135. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib. Mint family – Lamiaceae, or Labiatae



Questions for self-control: 1. Solanaceae and Boraginaceae's total characteristic. Structure, value, distribution. Representatives. Ecology. 2. Scrophulariacea's total characteristic. Structure, value, distribution. Representatives. Ecology. 3. Total characteristic Lamiaceae. Features of a structure. Structure, value, distribution. Representatives of domestic flora.

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LESSON 25 Theme: Subclass – Asteridae Purpose: Acquaintance to the main features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of an order of Asteraceae. Objects: herbarium exemplars (with generative bodies and fruits): of sunflower, of inula, of cornflower, of dandelion. Order – Asterales Thistle family – Asteraceae These are mainly grassy plants, sometimes semi-bushes, bushes, small trees, there are even succulents. Leaves are simple. There are latex vessels, or the lacteal cells containing latex, or secretory channels. Availability of spare carbohydrates of an inulin is characterized. Flowers are collected in basket inflorescences. The basket is usually surrounded with a wrapper. In baskets with the homogeneous flowers all flowers usually bisexuals, and in baskets with heterogeneous flowers the most edge flowers are female flowers or neutral, and central flowers are – bisexuals or male flowers. Flowers of five-measuring type: tubular florets, the false ray flowers, dis flower and ray flowers. The calyx is reduced. The structure of androecium is characteristic: stamens stick together with anthers. Gynaecium from two carpels, ovary is the lower. Fruits – achene, seldom drupe. On the basis of structure of a flower and anatomic signs the Asteraceae divide into two subfamilies: 1. Subfamily – Tubuliflorous – Tubuliflorae (Asteroidae). Representatives: sunflower (Chelianthus), cornflowe (Centaurea), (Helianthus tuberosus), aster (Aster), inula (Inula, Fig. 136) and others. 2. Subfamily Liguliflorae (Lactucoidae). Representatives: dandelion (Taraxacum), chicory (Cichorium intybus) and others.

Figure 136. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Inula helenium L. Thistle family– Asteraceae, or Compositae 110 

Figure 137. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Iris sanguinea Hornem. Iris Family – Iridaceae

Task: To consider and sketch: 1. Appearance of sunflower, Inula, cornflower, dandelion. 2. Inflorescences -the baskets. 3. Four types of flowers: tubular florets, the false ray flowers, dis flower and ray flowers. 4. Androecium in expanded form with the free stamen's threads and the soldered anthers. 5. Fruit is an achene with pappus (cop). 6. To make formulas of flowers. Questions for self-control: 1. Total characteristic of the Thistle family. Division into subfamilies. Structure, distribution. Ecology. Evolution of a flower, inflorescences, fruit. Representatives of domestic flora. 2. Value in the nature and a national economy.

LESSON 26 Theme: Subclass – Liliidae Purpose: Acquaintance to the main features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of a subclass of Liliidae. Objects: herbarium exemplars (with generative bodies and fruits): Iridaceae (iris), Liliaceae (tulip), Aliaceae (onion), Ixioliriaceae (Ixiolirion tataricum), Amaryllidaceae (narcissus). Class – Liliopsida (Monocotyledonous) – Liliopsida (Monocotyledones) Order – Liliales Iris Family – Iridaceae These are long-term herbs, semi-bushes are rare. For representatives rhizomes, seldom bulbs or bulbous tubers are characteristic. Leaves are usually two-row, narrow. Flowers are actinomorphous, seldom slightly zygomorphic, bisexual. Perianth is the simple. Androecium consists of three stamens. Gynaecium consist of three carpels, syncarpous, the paracarpous is rare. It is characteristic the petal-like a stigma. Ovary is the inferior. Fruit is a multiseeds box. Crocus – saffron, Iris – Iris (Fig. 137).

Lily Family – Liliaceae Lily Family includes long-term herbs. Underground reserving bodies always bulbs. Leaves are lancete-like or linear. Flowers are bisexual, 

Figure 138. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Veratrum lobelianum. Liliaceae 111

actinomorphous. Seldom flowers a single, usually they are collected in catkins. Perianth is a simple, corolla-like, with free petals, is more rare is connected petals, 2circular. Androecium from 6 stamens located in two circles. Gynaecium is a syncarpous from 3 carpels. Ovary is usually superior. Fruit is- a capsule. Among Liliaceae many ornamental plants. (Tulip – Tulipa, Lily – Lilium, false hellebore (Fig. 138) and others). Order – Amaryllidales Onion Family – Alliaceae In Kazakhstan naturally grow 120 species onions. Alliacea are close to Liliaceae, but difference that often presence strongly odorous allidisulphides and similar connections (C. Williams, 1975), the umbrella inflorescence which is propped up by couple foliaceous bracls (Takhtadzhyan, 1987). Genus of onion – Allium L., garlic. Family – Amaryllidaceae On a structure of vegetative bodies, flowers and fruits are very close to onions, but differ from them chemically, and also lower ovary. Leaflets of a perianth at Amaryllidaceae often grow together in a tube. At many the subcorolla (crown) formed by outgrowths of petals meets. In family there are a lot of ornamental plants (narcissuses – Narcissus, Galanthus, Clivia, Amaryllis (Fig. 139) and others). Family – Ixioliriaceae Ixioliriaceae are close with Amaryllidaceae. However representatives of family differ in stalk with leaves, the underground body representing a tuni-like shell, lack of alkaloids, a panicled inflorescence (Takhtadzhyan, 1987). In Kazakhstan naturally grows only Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb. Plants are decorative.

Figure 139. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Amaryllis Family – Amaryllidaceae

Task: To consider and sketch: 1. Appearance and generative bodies of representatives of the families of the: Iridaceae (iris), Liliaceae (tulip), Alliaceae (onion), Ixioliriaceae (Ixiolirion tataricum), Amaryllidaceae (narcissus). 2. To make formulas of flowers for each family.

Questions for self-control: 1.List the main distinctive signs of monocotyledonous from dicotyledonous. 2. Subclass is Liliidae. General characteristic. Division into the orders. Families: Liliaceae, Alliacea, Iridaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Ixioliriaceae. Total characteristic. Evolution of vegetative bodies, flower, fruit. Morphological, anatomic and ecological features. Distribution. Value in the nature and economic activity of the person. 3. Needing protection and included in the Red book of Kazakhstan representatives of orders of Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae. 112 

LESSON 27 Theme: Cyperales and Poales Purpose: Acquaintance to the main features of the organization and systematic signs of the main representatives of families of Cyperaceae and Poaceae. Objects: herbarium exemplars (with generative bodies and fruits): Sedge family (sedge) and Grass Family (Bromus inermis; wheat-grass – Agropyron; wheat – Triticum; Oryza sativa). Sedge family – Cyperaceae The family unites long-term, often rhizomatous, seldom annual herbs. Stalks at are the majority leafless, trihedral, and elongated. Leaves are alternative, 3-line, mainly with selfcontained vaginas and narrow-lines plates. Many types of sedge are rich with silicon dioxide. Flowers shallow, ordinary-looking, anemophilous, collected in an ear or a cone-like crinkle. The composite inflorescences consist of these inflorescences. Flowers can be with a simple perianth or without a perianth, bisexual or unisexual. Androecium usually froms 3 stamens. Anthers the fixed are attached to a stamen thread by the free basis. Pestle one of 2-3 carpels, with superior ovary. Fruits nut-like, seldom drupe-like, usually 3-edges. Cyperus papyrus, Sedge – Carex (Fig. 140).

Figure 140. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Carex flava L. Sedge family– Cyperaceae

Figure 141. (Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G.,2006) Elytrigia repens L. Grass Family – Gramineae or %$ 

Grass Family – Poaceae (Gramineae)  The majority of cereals are herbaceous perennials. Ligneous cereals treat only a bamboo. Stalk at the majority of cereals hollow in interstices (culm). Stalks usually 

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simple, they branch only in the field of an inflorescence or underground where there is a zone of tillering. Distinguish rhizomatous, the loosely-bush and the tightly-bush cereals. Leaves are double-row, with a vagina. Sheet plates usually the linear or the linear- lancete. In a place of transition of a vagina in a sheet plate usually there is a uvula – a filmy outgrowth. Flowers are collected in the partial inflorescence – a cone. Cones make the composite inflorescence – the composite ear, a whisk of sultans, a chance ear. Flowers shallow, bisexual, are more rare unisexual (corn – Zea mays). Androecium usually froms 3 stamens. Connective being in the central part of an anther, very short, and a anther looks the shaking. Gynaecium from 2 or 3 carpels, ovary is the superior. Fruit is usually caryopsis. Task: To consider and sketch: 1. Appearance and generative bodies of representatives of the families of the: Sedge family (sedge) and Grass Family (Bromus inermis; wheat-grass – Elytrigia repens (Fig. 142); wheat – Triticum; Oryza sativa). 2.To make formulas of flowers for each family. Questions for self-control: 1. Sedge family and Grass Family. Total characteristic of each family; anatomomorphological and biological features; flower origin. The major representatives. Significance in the nature and economic activity of the person. Ecology. 2. To make the table of distinctive signs of cereals from the sedge.

Methodical instructions for self-contained work of students (SCWS) 1. Theme: Prokariota. Monera kingdom. Task for (SCWS) No. 1: Structure and classification of bacteria. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algas). Purpose and maintenance of tasks: To reveal distinctiveness of various bacteria and cyanobacteria. To mark value of bacteria and cyanobacteria in the nature and human life. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 22-32, 36-40. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 49-58. 2. Theme: Green algas, Charophyceae, Euglenophytes, Diatoms algae, Brown and Red algas. Task for (SCWS) No. 2: Isocontae, Chlorococcales, Ulothrichaceae, Siphonophyceae, Conjugatae, Pennatophyceae, Centrophyceae. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Features of a structure, ways of reproduction, distribution in the nature of algae. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 33-35, 41-43, 69-100. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 77-94. 3. Theme: Kingdom of Fungi. Task for (SCWS) No. 3: Oomycota, Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes. Department of Lichens. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Features of a structure, ways of reproduction, distribution in the nature of fungus and lichens. To make the table of distinctiveness of classes of fungi. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 140-169. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 59-76. 4. Theme: Departments: Bryophyta, Rhyniophyta, Lycopodiophyta. Task for (SCWS) No. 4: Liverwort, hornworts, mosses; Rhyniophyta; Lycophyta, Isoetopsida. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Common characteristic of departments, 

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division into classes and orders. Life cycles and main representatives of Bryophyta, Rhyniophyta, Lycophyta. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 178-241. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 193-208. 5. Theme: Psilotopsida, Sphenophyta, Pterophyta. Task for (SCWS) No. 5: Equisetinae, Ophioglossaceae, Marattiopsida, Polypodiopsida. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Common characteristic of classes, division into orders, life cycles and main representatives of Equisetinae, Ophioglossaceae, Marattiopsida, Pterophyta. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 241-279. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 209-220. 6. Theme: Division of Pinophyta. Task for (SCWS) No. 6: Lyginopteridopsida, Cycadaceae, Bennettitales, Ginkgoopsida. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Common anatomo-morphological characteristic of classes, orders, structure of strobiles. The main representatives gymnospermous and their value in the nature and human life. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 280-298. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 220-226. 7. Theme: Department of Angiosperms. Class Magnoliopsida. Subclass Magnoliidae. Task for (SCWS) No. 7: Principles of creation of phylogenetic systems. Orders and families Lauraceae and Nelumbonaceae. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: A.Engler and A.L.Takhtadzhyan's phylogenetic systems. Difference of systems. Common characteristic Lauraceae and Nelumbonaceae. Features of a structure of vegetative bodies, flower, fruit. Distribution. Value in the nature and economic activity of the person Lauraceae and Nelumbonaceae. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 353-354, 358-359, 573-583. 116 

2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 241-249. 8. Theme: Subclasses: Ranunculidae, Caryophyllidae, Hamamelididae, Dilleniidae. Task for (SCWS) No. 8: Orders and families Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Salicaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae, Urticaceae. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Common characteristic of orders and families. Features of a structure of vegetative bodies, flowers, inflorescences, fruits. Distribution. The major representatives. Value in the nature and economic activity of the person representatives of families of Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Salicaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae, Urticaceae. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 365-381, 399-405, 416-419. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 255-262. 9. Theme: Subclasses: Rosidae, Lamiidae, %strid. Task for (SCWS) No. 9: Araliales, Boraginales, Lamiales. Families: Araliaceae, Umbelliferae, Boraginaceae, Labiatae. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Common characteristic of orders and families: Araliales, Boraginales, Lamiales. Families: Araliaceae, Umbelliferae, Boraginaceae, Labiatae. Anatomo-morfological, biological, biochemical features; flower and fruit evolution. Geographical distribution. The major representatives. Value in the nature and economic activity of the person. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 462-469, 481-500. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 268-270, 273-276. 10. Theme: Class Liliopsida (or Monocotyledones). Task for (SCWS) No. 10: Orders: Amaryllidales, Cyperales. Purpose and maintenance of tasks: Common characteristic of orders. Families Amaryllidaceae, Ixioliriaceae, Cyperaceae. Structure, distribution, significance of the main representatives. Recommended literature: 1. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V., Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – Page 529-534, 536-539. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – Page 279-281, 284. 

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REFERENCES The main: 1. Elenevsky A.G. Solovyeva M.P., Tikhomirov V. T. Botany. Systematics of the highest, or land plants. – M, 2006. -464 p. 2. Parshina G. N., Nesterova S.G. Biodiversity of plants. – Almaty, 2006. – 316 pages. 3. Komarnitsky N.A., Kudryashov L.V. Uranov A.A. Botany: Systematics of plants: textbook. – M, 1975. – 608 p. 4. Course of the lowest plants / under the editorship of M. V. Gorlenko. – M, 1981. – 520 p. 5. Reyvn P., Evert R., Aykhorn S. The modern botany. In 2 t. The T.1/lane with English – M, 1990. – 344 p. 6. Shostakovsky S.A.Sistematika of the highest plants. – M, 1971. – 352 p. 7. Gordeev T.N., Kruberg Yu.K. Pisyaukova V. V. Practical course of a systematics of plants. – M, 1971. – 319 p. 8. Nesterova S.G. Practical course on a systematics of the highest plants: educational .   . – Almaty, 2001. – 126p. 9. Janice Glimn-Lacy and Peter B. Kaufman. Botany illustrated. Introduction to Plants, Major Groups, Flowering Plant Families. Second edition. USA 2006.- 146 p. 10. James Schooley. Introduction to botany. Delmar Publishers – 1996. – 414 p. The additional: 1. Sergiyevskaya E.V.Sistematika of the highest plants: practical course. – 2nd prod. – SPb. 2002 . – 448 p. 2. Green N., Staut U. Taylor D. Biology: in 3 books. B.1 – 368 p., B.2. – 325 p., B.3. – 376 p. – M, 1990. 3. Kursanov L.I. etc. Botany. In 2 b. – M, 1966. 4. Antipina G. S. Algas: manual. – Petrozavodsk: PSU, 1992. – 111p. 5. Life of plants. 1-6 b.b. – 1973, 1978-1982. 6. Nazarbekova S. T. Short course of lectures on a systematics of the lowest plants: manual. – Almaty, 1999. – 129 p. 7. Milovidova L.S. Algas: manual. – Tomsk, 1982. – 167 p. 8. Zhukovsky P.M.Botanika. – M, 1982. – 623p. 9. Red List of Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. Part 2. Plants. – Alma-Ata, 1981. – 262 p. 10. Nesterova S.G., Ametov A.A. Myrzakulov P. M. 500 tests at the rate of "Systematics of Plants". – Almaty, 2007. – 114 p. 11. Flora of Kazakhstan. In 9 books. – Alma-Ata, 1956-1966. 12. The illustrated continuant of plants of Kazakhstan. In 2 books. – 1969, 1972. 13. {   . +      #   .»  #, 2006. 14. . 118 

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