Iron Age Promontory Forts in the Northern Isles 9780860540878, 9781407323510

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF PLATES
PREFACE
I. BROCHS AND CLIFF-CASTLES
II. THE SHETLAND BLOCKHOUSES AND THEIR RELATIONS
III. THE MULTIVALLATE FORTS AND THE WESTERN SEAWAYS
IV. THE MEANING OF FORTS AND BROCHS
APPENDIX 1. GAZETTEER
APPENDIX 2. Nesnäm
APPENDIX 3. THE CAITHNESS GROUP OF EARLY PROMONTORY-SITED CASTLES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
PLATES

Citation preview

Iron Age Promontory Forts in the Northern Isles

R.G.Lamb

BAR British Series 79 1980

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, �I.A.

B. A. R. 79, 1980: "Iron Age Promontory Forts in the Northern Isles". ©R. G. Lamb, 1980. The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540878 paperback ISBN 9781407323510 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540878 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page I

Brochs and Cliff- Castles

1

The Shetland Blockhouses and their Relations

11

III

The Multivallate Forts and the Western Seaways

IV

The Meaning of Forts and Brochs

43

II

·65

Appendices 1

Gazetteer

2

Nesnam

3

Promontory-sited Castles

Bibliography

Index Plates

71 88 90 97 100 103

L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS F igure

Page

1

Br i t ish I s les , p ro mon tory-for t c oas ts

2

Orkney , p laces men t ioned i n t he t ex t

5 8

3

S he t land , p laces men t ioned i n t he t ex t

9

4

Loch o f Hux ter a nd N ess o f Burg i b lockhouse f or ts

1 0

5

C l ickh i min s i te p la in

1 4

6

Broch o f N ybs ter , RCA MS p lan

2 1

7

Brough o f B igg ing , Orkney

2 2

8

S garbach , C a i thness

2 3

9

Dun Mha ir tein , S u ther land

2 4

Burg i G eos , S het land

2 8

1 1

Burg i G eos , 1 853 s ketch

3 0

1 2

S ca tness N or th For t , S het land

3 2

1 3

Ta ing o f Brough , Uns t , S het land

3 6

1 4

The Landberg , Fa ir I s le

4 4

1 5

Hog I s land S ound , S he t land

4 5

1 0

1 6

Prof i les o f B rough N ess o f Gar th , The Landberg a nd Hog I s land S ound

4 6

1 7

Brough o f S toa t , S he t land

4 8

1 8

Brough o f Q indwick , Orkney

4 9

1 9

Brough o f Borgas toon , S het land

5 1

2 0

Bur land , S he t land ;

Ons tan , Orkney ;

Burwick , Orkney ;

RCA MS p lans

5 2

2 1

Doon Eask , C o Kerry

5 5

2 2

Cahercarbery more , C o Kerry

5 6

2 3

C orn ish c l i f f-cas t les , K en id jack Cas t le a nd G ian ts Cas t le

5 7

2 4

Houbie a nd S nabroch , S het land , RCA MS p lans

6 3

2 5

Cas t le o f S and G eo , Orkney

6 7

2 6

Cas t le o f O ld Wick , Ca i thness

9 1

2 7

L i l leborg , B ornho lm

9 3

2 8

La mbhoga H ead , Dunrossness , S he t land

9 5

L IST OF PLATES Page

P la te 1

N ess o f Burg i

1 03

2

C l ickh i min b lockhouse

3

L och o f Hux ter

1 03 1 03

4

Dun Mha ir te in

1 04

5

Dun Mha ir te in , r a mpar t

1 04

6

Burg i G eos

1 05

7

Burg i G eos , t he a pproach

1 05

8

Burg i G eos , c hevaux-de-fr ise

1 06

9

Burg i G eos , t he c l i f f

1 06

1 0

Burg i G eos , b lockhouse

1 07

1 1

Burg i G eos , r ingwa l l

1 07

1 2

S ca tness N or th For t

1 08

1 3

S ca tness N or th For t , wa l l-face

1 08

1 4

The Landberg

1 09

1 5

The Landberg , h orseshoe b ank

1 09

1 6

The Landberg , o u ter b anks

1 10

1 7

H og I s land S ound

1 10

1 8

Brough o f S toa t

i ll

1 9

Brough o f S toa t , r a mpar t

1 11

2 0

Cas tle o f S and G eo

1 11

2 1

Brough N ess o f Gar th

1 12

2 2

Brough N ess o f Gar th , wa l l

1 12

2 3

Cas tle o f O ld Wick

1 13

2 4

Cas t le o f O ld Wick , g rea t t ower

1 13

2 5

Borve Cas t le

1 14

2 6

C as t le o f Brough

1 14

PREFACE

Th is s tudy i s b ased o n f i e ld s urveys made b e tween 1 970 a nd 1 973 .

The

f i rs t t wo o f t hose y ears i n p art icu lar were me morab le s u m mers — the s un s hone , a nd S he t land w as s t i l l t he o ld S he t land , when t here were s tea mers n ot r o-ro f erries , a nd f i sh ing b oa ts i n L erw ick h arbour , a nd motoris ts who d rove c raz i ly b ut n ever , e ver h i t t he s heep , a nd S u l lo m V oe h ad n ot b een h eard o f o u ts ide t he i s lands .

A . 0 . C ur le , who s ing le-handed ly d id t he e arly R oya l

C o mm ission s urveys i n S u ther land a nd C a i thness , i n t he h igh s u m mer o f t he E dwardian e ra , w ou ld h ave f ound i t an ot u nfa mi liar w or ld; a nd Ic annot c la im t ha t my me thods w ere a ny a dvance o n h is .

B y 1 973 i ta l l was c hang ing

v ery f ast , a nd wh i le t he S he t land l andscape c ont inues t o o f fer u nique o pport un i t ies f or o rig ina l a rchaeo log ica l r esearch b ased o n s urface f i e ldwork , I f ear t ha t f uture s tuden ts t here w i l l h ave t o s earch much h arder f or t he S he t land t ha t Iwas p r iv i leged t o e xperience . T he work was d one f or my P hD t hes is a t B ir m ingham U n ivers i ty where i tw as p resented i n 1 973 .

The c os t was me t b y a Ma jor S ta te S tuden tsh ip f ro m

t he D epart men t o f E duca t ion a nd S c ience , a nd a ddi t iona l g rants f or t he p urchase o f e qu ip men t were r ece ived f ro m t he Mar ion R uth C ourtau ld F und , B ra intree . The s ub jec t o rig ina l ly w as s ugges ted b y Mr . P . S . Ge l ling a nd t he w ork was s usta ined b y h is h e lp , e ncouragement a nd amused t o lerance .

A s i tt urned o u t

h owever t he t hes is w as l arge ly d evo ted t o e re m i t ic monasteries , wh ich I c ame a cross b y a cc iden t wh i le l ook ing f or p ro montory f orts , a nd t h is s ub jec t Is ubsequen t ly was a b le t o p ursue o n ar esearch f e l lowsh ip a t t he U n ivers i ty o f N ewcas t le-upon-Tyne .

The monast ic p art o f my t hes is h as b eco me v ery

o ut-of-da te a nd n o-one n ow o ugh t t o r ead i t , b ut my i deas o n t he f orts h ave n ot g rea t ly c hanged .

L i t t le more , It h ink , c an b e d one w i th t he m b y s urface

f ie ldwork , a nd t he n ex t s tage w i l l h ave t o b e e xcava t ion .

Iam n ot a n e n thusi-

a s t ic e xcava tor ( a l though t o d ig B urg i Geos w ou ld b e f un ) a nd h ope t ha t t h is w i l l b e d one b y o thers .

I n t he mean t i me Ih ave t r ied t o a vo id p roduc ing t he

s ort o fp ub lica t ion wh ich i s t oo o bv ious ly a n u nd igested P hD t hes is ( PSG 's words ) a nd h ave r e-w r i t ten t he t ex t . Imus t e spec ia l ly t hank t he R oya l C o mm iss ion o n A nc ien t Monu ments ( Sco t land) f or t he ir r ead i ly-g iven p er m iss ion t o u se t he ir own s i te p lans , wh ich a ppear a s F igs , 4 , 6 , 2 0 a nd 2 4 ;

a nd t he G enera l E d i tors o f B . A. R .

f or t he ir p a t ience w i th my d elays .

R . G . L a mb K irkwa l l , March 1 980

BROCHS AND CL IFF-CASTLES

The b rochs , s urely t he g rea tes t e ng ineer ing a ch ieve men t o f p reh istor ic B r i ta in , d om ina te t he I ron A ge a rchaeology o f t he N orthern I sles. T he b roch o f Mousa s t il l s tands o ver 1 3m h igh ; Cu lsw ick , u n t il i t was p lundered f or i t s s tone l a te i n t he e ighteen th c en tury , n ear ly ma tched i t . T o c onstruct s table wa l ls o f s uch h e igh t , i n u n mortared masonry o f =dressed s tones s haped o n ly b y s p l it t ing , c a l led f or a n e ng ineer 's u nderstand ing o f f orce a nd s tress; h ow t ha t u nderstand ing was d eveloped r e ma ins o ne o f t he more c on trovers ia l q uest ions o f E uropean p reh istory.

Mousa , a s E . W. MacK ie h as p o in ted o u t ,

must b e t he a pogee o f al ong d evelopmen t , a nd w e r easonably c an e xpec t t here t o h ave b een a s uccess ion o f i ncreas ingly e labora te s truc tures r epresen t ing t he r ef ine men t o f t he p r inc ip les o fb roch a rch i tec ture. The k ey p r inc ip le i s t he h ol low o r d ouble wal l . T o b u i ld h igh i n t h is k ind o fd rystone , o ne h as t ob u i ld b road ; b u t ab road wa l l o fg rea t h e igh t i s i nh eren t ly u nstable b ecause t he sma l l i nd iv idua l s tones t end t o b ehave a s af l u id when u nder g rea t p ressure.

S uch a wal l i s l i able t o b e p ushed a part a t t he

b ase , b y t he i n terna l s tresses s e t u pb y i t s own g rea t w eigh t. The s olu t ion i st o b u i ld t wo p ara l lel o r c oncen tr ic wa l ls, a bou t a metre a par t , e ach o f t hese wa l ls b e ing much n arrower t han wou ld b e n ecessary f or i tt o s tand a lone ; t he t wo wa l ls a re s ecured t oge ther a t i n tervals b y s tone-slab t i es , a nd i n e f fec t p rop e ach o ther u p .

An u nderstand ing o f s tresses i s s hown t oo b y t he

s er ies o fv o ids , e ach s panned b y al i n tel a nd d im in ish ing i n w id th w ith t he h e ight o f t he wa l l , w h ich r el ieve t he d ead w e igh t o f s tone wh ich o therw ise m igh t c rack t he g rea t l i n tels s pann ing t he d oorway a nd i n terna l o pen ings. The b rochs a re p ar t o f wha t MacK ie ( 1965, 1 00 ) h as c a l led t he " s mal l s tone f or t c o mp lex" o f t he S cot t ish I ron Age i n t he H igh lands a nd I slands. T here i s a mu l t ip l ic i ty o ft hese sma l l f or ts, v ar ian ts o n t he t he me o f a n e nclosure d efended b y as tou t d rystone wa l l .

On t he Ordnance S urvey 's

p er iod map o f S ou thern Br i ta in i n t he I ron Age , h i l l for ts a re c lassed b y s ize , a nd t he sma l lest c a tegory i s t hree a cres ( 1 .2ha .) o r u nder. By c o mpar ison , t he sma l l s tone f orts o f t he H ighland r eg ion , o f ten o n ly a f ew h undred s quare me tres i n a rea , s ee m v ery smal l i ndeed. T h is r ef lec ts t he d if f icu l ty o f c o m mun ica t ions a nd t he sma l l a nd l oca l ised q ua l ity o f c o mmun i t ies; n o f ort i n t he H igh lands o r I s lands p resu mably c ou ld c o m mand s o g rea t ap opul a t ion a s o ne o ft he g rea t Wessex h i l l forts. I n t er ms o f a rea e nclosed , t he b rochs a re t he sma l lest o f a l l t hese f orts ( a l though i n S het land i n p art icu lar, t hey o f ten l i e a t t he h ear t o f l arger c o mp lexes o f d efens ive o u tworks ), b u t t he mos t s pec tacu lar a nd ambi t ious i n e xecu t ion . The h ol low-wa l l t echn ique i s p ecu l iar t o t he b rochs a nd t o s o me o f t he ir n ear r e la t ives, t he g a l ler ied d uns a nd t he b lockhouses. T he b asic a r t o f 1

d rystone-bu ild ing i t self i s c o m mon t o a l l t he f orts a nd i s i m measurably a nc ien t. S o me o ft he a rch i tectura l d eta ils o fb rochs a lso a re s hared w i th t he sma l l d rystone f orts. I n p ar t icu lar , t he c harac ter ist ic b roch e n trance p assage, i n t wo s ec t ions —a n arrower o u ter f o l lowed b y aw ider i nner , w ith t he d oorp os i t ion b e tween t he t wo marked b y s lab-checks a nd mura lb arholes— is f ound t hroughou t t he sma l l s tone f or t c o mp lex . Brochs f i rst s er iously c a me t o t he a t ten t ion o f t he s cholarly w orld w hen i n 1 777 J ohn Wil l iams p ubl ished h is a ccoun t o f " remarkab le a nc ien t r u ins l a tely d iscovered i n t he H igh lands a nd n or thern p arts o f S co t land" , c h ief ly f ea tur ing Dun Dorna ig ( Dun D ornad il la ) i n S tra th more. Mousa was r emarked u pon a nd s ketched b y s o me o f t he e ar ly t our ists , b u t t he f i rst t horough a ccoun t was t ha t o f Dryden i n 1 857 .

T he c lear ing-ou t o fb rochs t hen b ecame a g en t le-

man ly p ursu i t , many o f t hose n ow o pen t o v iew h av ing b een f reed o f t he ir d ebr is i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he n ine teen th c en tury.

T h is p er iod s aw a l eng thy

c on troversy o n t he d a te o f t he monumen ts, f or e xcava tors were p art icularly s truck b y t he e x tre me s carc ity o r a bsence o f meta l o b jec ts among t he f i nds. T he r espec ted n orthern s cholar a nd t ransla tor o f t he " He i mskr ingla" , S a muel L a ing , was t he l ead ing p roponen t o f aS tone Age d a te , wh i le Fergusson , d isc over ing t ha tb roch d istr ibu t ion c o inc ided w i th a reas o f N orse s et t le men t , a rgued f or a S cand inav ian o r ig in .

T he c arefu l w ork o f J oseph Anderson e ven-

t ual ly e stabl ished t he ir I ron Age c on tex t. N one o f t hese e arly e xcava t ions e ven a pprox i ma ted t o modern s tra t igraph ic methods , a l though t he q uan t i t ies o f f inds —pot tery a nd s tone a r tefac ts —were impress ive.

S er ious d if f icu l t ies a r ise f ro m t h is s i tua t ion—al though w e o f ten

s ee r eferences t o " broch p ot tery" n o N orthern b roch y et h as p roduced p ot tery d ef in i tely a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c onstruc t ion a nd i m med ia te u se o f t he b roch , r a ther t han w ith t he i nev i table s econdary o ccupa t ion w i th wheelhouses o r s labs tructures.

T he d angers o f t h is s i tua t ion w ere c ogen tly p resen ted i n a n i m-

p or tan t p aper b y R . B . K . S tevenson i n 1 955.

Bu t e ven t wo ma jor e xcava t ions

d one o n Orkney b rochs i n t he 1 930s , a t Midhowe ( Ca l lander a nd Gran t 19 34 ) a nd Gurness, wh ich i s s t i l l u npubl ished , d id v ery l i t tle t o p u t t he b rochs i nto a nh istor ica l c on tex t , a nd t hrew n o l i gh t o n t he ir o r ig ins a nd d evelopmen t. There were t wo a pparen t l i nes o f r ela t ionsh ip f ro m t he b rochs. One was t o t he r est o f t he sma l l s tone f ort c o mp lex , p art icu larly t o t he g a l ler ied d uns o f t he w estern s eaboard ; t he o ther was t o t he c ircu lar , mass ively-bu i l t h ouses w ith r ad ia l p iers t o s uppor t t he r oof , k nown a s wheelhouses. Wheelh ouses w ere f ound c losely a ssoc ia ted w ith b rochs , a s wel l a s i ndependen t ly ; s o me b rochs , i nc lud ing Mousa , h ad wheelhouses e rec ted i ns ide t hem a s af or m o f s econdary o ccupa t ion . T hese c ircu lar b u ild ings s ee med t ob e p ar t o f a g enera l I ron Age r oundhouse t rad it ion o f wh ich L i t t le Woodbury was e s tabl ished a s t he t ype-s ite i n t he t imber-bu ild ing r egions , a nd wh ich w as f ound i nt he s tone-us ing s ou th-west o f Br ita in a t s uch s i tes a s C hysauster a nd C hun C ast le. S ince b rochs t oo c ou ld b e c ons idered a f or m o f r oundhouse , i t was p oss ible t o s ee t he m a s d o mest ic r a ther t han m il i tary , whereas t he a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he " s ma l l s tone f or t c o mp lex" wou ld f avour a n o r ig in w i th in a f ort-bu i ld ing t rad i t ion . The r ea l g roundwork o f modern b roch s tud ies was d one b y S ir L indsay S cot t .

He w orked p r i mar i ly i n t he Hebr ides a nd p ubl ished h is r esu l ts i n t wo

2

i mportan t p apers, " The Proble m o f t he Brochs" ( 19 47 ) a nd " Ga l lo-Br i t ish C olon ies" ( 19 48 ) .

S cot t 's me thod was e xe mp lary , a n e x tens ive p rogra m me

o f s urface f i eldwork f ol lowed b y i n tens ive s tudy o f s elec ted s i tes b y e xcava t ion . H is e ven tua l c onc lus ion was t ha t t he b rochs w ere p r i mar i ly h ouses , a nd t ha t f ew o f t he m h ad b een o f g rea t h e ight ( Mousa b e ing e xcep t iona l ); l i ke t he wheelh ouses, t hey d er ived f ro m a h ouse-bu i ld ing t rad it ion wh ich S cot t t raced t o s ou th-west E ng land .

T he o b jec t ions a ga inst t h is v iew were s u m mar ised b y

Angus Graha m i n a n a ppend ix t o t he " Proble m" p aper ;

b u t t he a l terna t ive

v iew , t ha t t he b rochs w ere b u il t a s f or ts a nd were d er ived f ro m a f ort-bu ild ing t rad it ion , e ncoun tered t he d if f icu l ty t ha t t he p u ta t ive p ro totype f or t if ica t ions w ere n ot im med ia te ly o bv ious. The wes tern g a l ler ied d uns d id r ese mble b rochs, b u t i t was n ot a greed whe ther t hese were a n e ar ly t ype o fb roch-l ike f or t if ica t ion , o r d egenera te b rochs d evolved i n t he West f ro m t he p erfec t f or ms o f t he N or th. The a rgu men t h ad n ot b een s et t led w hen J . R . C . Hamil ton t ook i n h and t he e xcava t ion o f t he e nor mous J arlshof s i te , o n t he s ou thern e x tre m i ty o f S he t land Ma in land .

T h is h ad b een u nder e xcava t ion , o n a nd o f f , s ince s tor m-

w aves h ad r evea led i ta t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c en tury ;

i th eld t he p ro m ise o f

a n u n in terrup ted s equence o f s et t le men ts f ro m e arl iest t imes t o t he l a te Midd le A ges.

Ha m i l ton 's u nravel l ing o f t he c o mp l ica ted p hases o f t he N orse h ouses

a nd middens, was a masterp iece o f t echn ique ;

b u t f or t he Early I ron Age —

i n s p ite o f t he p resence o f a wel l-preserved b roch a nd s everal wheelhouses — t he s i te was a d isappo in t men t.

A s ter ile l ayer o f c lean s and s uggested t ha t ,

b e tween t he e nd o f al a te Bronze Age s et t le men t a nd t he b u i ld ing o f t he b roch t ower , t he p lace h ad l a in a bandoned ;

a nd t he c r i t ica l c en tur ies d ur ing wh ich

b roch a rch itec ture h ad d eveloped , were n o t r epresen ted i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r ecord. The J ar lshof e xcava t ion r epor t a ppeared v ery p ro mp t ly i n 19 56, a s H am il ton was b eg inn ing w ork o n a nother S he t land b roch.

He h ad c hosen

C l ickh im in , ac o mp lex o fb roch a nd o u tworks i n al och o n t he e dge o f L erw ick . The s i te h ad o ne p ar t icu lar f ea ture , t he c ur ious f ree-stand ing " blockhouse" , w h ich made i ta n a t trac t ive c ho ice.

I n ap aper r ead b efore t he L erw ick

V ik ing Congress, W. D . S i mpson ( 19 54 ) h ad s uggested t ha t , c on trary t o t he g eneral ly h eld i dea , t he C l ickh im in b lockhouse a nd r ingwa l l were e ar l ier t han t he b roch.

A p ara l lel f or t he C l ickh im in b lockhouse i s ap ro mon tory f ort

c a l led N ess o f Burg i , j us t a cross t he b ay f ro m J ar lshof ;

p erhaps t he a bandon-

men t o f J ar lshof w as c onnec ted w ith t he b u i ld ing o f t h is f or t , i n w h ich c ase t he s a me o ccupa t ion-con tex t s hou ld b e r epresen ted a t C l ickh im in . t he e xcava t ion was a d isappo in t men t ;

I n t he e ven t ,

u n l ike t he s and-blown J ar lshof ,

C l ickhi m in h ad s ha l low d epos i ts a nd u ncerta in s tra t igraphy.

Def in it ive e v idence

w as l ack ing a nd t he i n terpreta t ion h as a roused c on troversy. I t c en tres o n t he s oc ia l i mp l ica t ions c la i med b y Ha m il ton ( 19 68 ) f or t he C l ickh im in s truct ures;

h e c ons idered t ha t t he f ort if ica t ions a nd t he b u ild ings w i th in a nd

a longside t he m , r ef lec ted a n h ero ic s oc ie ty , a nd t ha t me mor ies o f C l ickh im int ype s tructures w ere p erpetua ted i n t he o ld I rish p rose e p ics.

The i dea t ha t

t h is e p ic ma ter ia l m igh t p rov ide a " w indow o n t he I ron Age" was b eing p rop osed b y P rofessor K . H . J ackson ( 19 64 ). Ha m i l ton s uggested t ha t t h is s or t o f s oc iety was e stabl ished i n S he t land b y C el t ic i nvaders , who b u i l t t he b lockh ouse f or ts , b y t he f our th c en tury B .C. 3

T he r ela t ionsh ip b etween b rochs a nd g al ler ied d uns meanwh i le was r ece iv ing t he a t ten t ion o fo ther r esearchers.

T here was a s trong c ase f or

r egard ing g a l ler ied d uns a s l a te a nd d egenera te b rochs ( Young 1 9 62 ) b u t E . W. MacK ie made a d eta iled s tudy o f d uns , b rochs a nd wheelhouses , a nd r eached t he o ppos ite c onclus ion ( 19 65 ). A t J ar lshof , whee lhouses h ad s ucceeded t he b roch , a nd MacK ie e stabl ished t ha t t h is was t he n ormal c hronologica l r ela t ionsh ip .

O f t he H ebr idean g a l ler ied d ims, h e s elec ted a c lass wh ich

v ar ied b e tween a p ro mon tory-fort d es ign a nd a c l if f-edge-posi t ioned D-shaped f or m , t o wh ich h e a pp l ied t he t er m " se m ibrochs" ( aw ord c o ined s ix ty y ears e arl ier b y E rsk ine B ever idge , b u t u sed b y h im l ess s elec t ively ). T hese MacK ie p roposed w ere t he p rototypes f or t he b rochs. Brochs h e s aw b eg inn ing i n t h is way i n t he Hebr ides, a t f i rst b e ing r ela t ively b road a nd l ow i n s hape ; a s t he t ype s pread n or thward , i t was r ef ined t o p roduce a t a ller a nd s tronger b u ild ing , r each ing i t s c u lm inat ion i n S he tland . MacK ie s ubsequen t ly was a ble t o s how b y r ad iocarbon t ha t t he s em ibrochs c ou ld a n teda te t he b rochs b y p erh aps a h undred y ears. MacK ie 's s che me t hus h as emphasized t he Hebr ides a s t he o r ig in c en tre o fb roch a rch i tec ture —a l though b rochs i n S het land , Orkney a nd C a ithness a re much more n u merous a nd b et ter b u il t. H is 19 65 p aper m in im ised t he import ance o f t he S het land b lockhouses a s h av ing much i n f luence o n t he b rochs. Ham i l ton 's C l ickh im in r eport , a l though i ta ppeared i n p r in t t hree y ears l a ter , h ad b een wr it ten i ndependen t ly o f MacK ie 's w ork , a nd i ncorpora ted t he s ame b as ic a ssump t ion o f t he c hronolog ica l p r ior i ty o fg a l ler ied d ims o ver b rochs; t he S het land b lockhouse Ha m i l ton s aw a s an orthern r ela t ive o f t he g al ler ied d un. A t e very s tage, t hese a rgumen ts h ave b een e nmeshed i n t he w ider i ssue , w hether a n e xp lana t ion o f t he b roch a nd a l l ied c u l tures o f t he N or th A tlan t ic I ron Age , i s t o b e f ound i n d if fus ion ist t heory. Professor V . G . C h ilde ( 19 35 a nd 19 40 ) d rew a t ten t ion t o t he p ara l lels i n ma ter ia l c u l ture b etween A t lan t ic S cot land a nd S ou th-Western E ngland , a nd was p repared t o s tate c a tegor ica l ly t ha t t he s ou th-western o r ig in o f t he b roch c u l ture was a f ac t o f B r it ish a rchaeo logy .

S co t t ( 19 48 ) a rgued i n much more d eta i l f or a n i mm igra t ion f ro m t he

S ou th-West i n to t he Hebr ides i n t he l ast c en tury B . C ., a nd more r ecen tly MacK ie ( 196 9 b ) h as p roposed a n i mm igra t ion f rom Wessex i n s im i lar c ircums tances.

I n t he p resen t d ecade, t he v a l id ity o f a l l t hese i nvasion h ypotheses

h as b een c hal lenged b y C larke ( 1970 a nd 1 971). A l l were b ased o n t he s tone r oundhouse p lans a nd o n c er ta in sma l l i t e ms o f ma ter ial c u l ture , s uch a s b one d ice.

The mu l t iva l la te p ro mon tory f or ts w h ich a re d iscussed i n t he

t h ird c hap ter o f t he p resen t s tudy , h ave n o t f i gured i n t hese a rgumen ts , a l though t hey p rov ide t he most i m med ia te b u t p uzzl ing o f p ara l lels b etween t he n or thern a nd s ou thern e x tre m i t ies o f B r i ta in 's A t lan t ic s eaboard .

C oasta l p ro mon tory f orts —"c l if f-cast les"—are among t he l eas t u nders tood a rchaeolog ica l f i eld monu men ts i n Br i ta in . The ir d istribu t ion i s a l most e n t ire ly western , t he f or ts b e ing g rouped i n C ornwa l l , I re land , t he Welsh 4

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5

c oasts , t he I sle o f Man , a nd Gol loway , a nd a lso t o t he s ou th i n B r it tany ( f ig. 1 ) .

On t he e ast c oast o f Grea t Br i ta in t here a re t wo sma l l g roups, o ne

i n B erw icksh ire a nd t he o ther a round Arbroa th ;

t he f or ts a re e n t irely a bsen t

f ro m t he Eng l ish c oas t b e tween Dorset a nd Berw icksh ire a nd f ro m most o f t he e astern c oasts o f S co t land . f ar h as e scaped a t ten t ion .

T he ir a ppearance i n t he e x tre me N or th s o

—This r estr ic ted d istr ibu t ion s ugges ts t ha t t he

p ro mon tory f orts r epresen t at rad it ion i n t he mselves a nd a re n o t j ust a n a dap ta t ion o f t he l oca lb rand o f h il l fort t o ac oasta l s i te;

f or t he a reas d ef i-

c ien t i n c oasta l p ro mon tory f orts a re n o t w i thou t i n land h i l lfor ts.

I n Orkney

a nd S he t land t here a re o n ly b rochs , b roch-rela ted s truc tures, a nd p ro mon tory f orts , a l though t he i s lands h ave many h i l ls wh ich w ou ld h ave b een p erfec t ly s u i table f or h i l l forts. I n t he s ou thern p ro mon tory f or t a reas , where t he e x istence o f t he s i tes a lways h as b een k nown , t he s ta te o f a rchaeolog ica l k now ledge i s l i t t le b et ter t han i n t he N or thern I sles where t he s i tes a s ac lass h ave g one u nrecogn ized . T here i s ad ear th o f e xcava ted e v idence;

v ery f ew f or ts h ave b een e xa m ined —

t wo o r t hree e ach i n Br i t tany , C ornwa l l , I reland a nd t he I sle o f Man , n one s o f ar i n Ga l loway.

E ven t he e xcava ted e xa mp les , u sua l ly t hrough n o f au l t

o f t he e xcava tors ', s eldo m h ave p roduced e v idence o f d a te o r o f t he t YPe o f o ccupa t ion w i th in t he f ort.

Archaeolog ists s tarved o f f acts h ave made u n jus t i-

f i able a ssu mp t ions, s uch a s t he l i nk b e tween t he c l if f-castles o f B r ittany a nd C ornwa l l a nd t he mar i t i me Cel t ic t r ibe , t he Vene t i o f Caesar 's G a l l ic War c o m men tar ies.

Th is s itua t ion o f fers l i t t le h ope o f f i x ing t he c on tex t o f t he

n or thern f orts b y d irec t c o mpar ison w ith t he s ou thern o nes.

Wi th in Orkney

a nd S het land h owever , w e a t l east c an s tudy t he r ela t ionsh ip b e tween p ro mont ory f or ts a nd b rochs. The p roble ma t ica l s tructures c a l led b lockhouses, w h ich n ow a re r ecogn ized t o b e a man ifesta t ion o f p re-broch mi l i tary a rch itecture , s ee m t o h ave t he ir o r ig ins i n p ro mon tory f or ts ;

a nd many brochs i n S he t land

p ar t icu larly , a re s i ted o n p ro mon tories w i th in o u tworks t he l ayou t o f wh ich r ef lec ts a p ro mon tory-for t t rad i t ion .

I n t he N orthern I sles t herefore, t he

s tudy o f p ro mon tory f or ts s hou ld c on tr ibu te t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he b ackg round t o t he b roch-bu ild ing p heno menon , a nd a lso p ose q uest ions a bou t t he o ccurrence o f f or ts , e spec ia l ly mu l t iva lLa te o nes , a tb o th n orthern a nd s ou thern e x tre m i t ies o f Br i ta in 's A t lan t ic s eaboard , w ith p oss ible imp l ica t ions o f c u l ture t rans m iss ion a long t he western s eaways.

The a rchaeolog ica l u sage o f t he words " broch" a nd " dun" i s t he c ause o f e nd less c on fus ion , b u t i s t oo we l l e stabl ished t o b e a l terable.

O ld N orse

b org i n t he d ia lec t o f S he t land , Orkney a nd Ca i thness b eco mes a w ord wh ich r hy mes w i th l och a nd i s v ar iously s pel led b roch , b rough •or b urgh.

I t means

s i mp ly a f or t if ied p lace o r ap lace s trong b y a r t if ice o r b y n ature , a nd a s a p lace-na me e le men t c an r efer t o a ny s trong p lace wh ich may b e ab u il t f or tress , an a tura lb ast ion o f t he c l if fs, o r ar ock-stack i n t he s ea ;

many o f t hese

p laces a re n ot f orts a t a l l , b u t e re m i t ic monast ic s e t tle men ts o f e arly med ia eva l d a te.

The u se o f t he p ar t icu lar s pel l ing b roch a s ac lass-name f or t he

6

t ower-l ike s truc tures o f wh ich Mousa i s t he a rche type , i s a modern u sage a dop ted b y a rchaeolog is ts , a nd i s w ithou t l oca l a u thor i ty. T he c onven t ion h as d eveloped , o fu s ing t he s pel l ing b rough when t he s i te i s n ot ab roch i n t he a rchaeolog ists ' s ense. Thus t he Broch o f Mousa i s ab roch , wh ile t he Brough o fD eerness i s ap en insu lar r ock w i th a monastery o n i t . Th is h as n ot a lways b een t oo r ead ily a pprec ia ted , a nd c on fus ion h as a r isen when a rchaeolog ists h ave t ried t o f i nd b rochs o n e very s i te c a l led t he Brough o f s ome th ing-or . o ther. T here i s as i te i n t he i s land o f Yel l wh ich t he Roya l C o mm iss ion c a l ls t he Broch o f S toa l , a nd i s d etermined must b e t he s i te o f ab roch wh ich h as f a l len i n to t he s ea — in f ac t , t he Brough o f S toa l i s av ery f i ne e xamp le o f a mu l t iva l la te p ro mon tory f or t wh ich p robably n ever h ad ab roch i n i t . There i s n o d is t inc t ion i n p ronunc ia t ion b e tween b roch a nd b rough , b ecause t hey a re t he s ame w ord .

Th is c auses p roble ms i n l ectur ing a nd c onversa t ion ;

i ti s n ot e asy t o e xp la in t ha t t he Brough o f S toa l i s n ot a b roch , a nd t ha t t he B roch o f C l ickh im in s tr ic t ly s hou ld b e t he Brough o f C l ick .h im in s ince t he n ame r efers t o t he w hole c o mp lex o f d efences a nd n o t j ust t o t he b roch a t t he h ear t o f i t .

T here i s n o h elp f or t h is.

I n t he N orth , Brough i s n ever , o n

a ny a ccoun t , p ronounced Bru f f—a p ronunc ia t ion w h ich b elongs t o s ou thern p laces, s uch a s Yorksh ire. I n t he Gael ic-speak ing a reas t he word i s d un wh ich i s t he b road e qu iva len t o ft he N orse b org.

T hus a ny th ing c a l led Brough o r B roch i n S het land i s a

D un i n t he Hebr ides.

Dun i s u sed i n as pec ia l ist a pp l ica t ion b y a rchaeolog ists ,

t o mean a sma l l s tone f ort , n orma l ly a r ing-for t. Dun i n a Gael ic p lace-na me c an o f c ourse r efer t o wha t a rchaeolog is ts c al l ab roch , s uch a s Dun Car loway , D un Telve , a nd Dun D orna ig. And Dun Mha ir te in i s ap ro mon tory f or t wh ich a rchaeolog is ts w ou ld n o t c al l ad un , a ccord ing t o t heir own u se o ft he word .

7

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9

F ig . 4

S he t land b lockhouse f orts :

( above ) L och o f Hux ter ( be low ) N ess o f

B urg i

1 0

I THE S HETLAND BLOC KHOUSES AND THEIR RELAT IONS

Three s truc tures o n w idely s epara ted s i tes i n S het land h ave f or l ong b een a cknow ledged a s f or m ing a p ecu l iar c lass k nown a s B lockhouse f orts —Ness o f Burg i , L och o f Hux ter , a nd C l ickh im in .

Arch i tec tura l ly t hey h ave s o me

b roch-l ike c haracter is t ics , b u t t heir d a te a nd f unc t ion l ong r e ma ined d oubtfu l . T he C l ickh im in o ne was e xhaust ively s tud ied b y J . R . C . Ham il ton d ur ing h is e xcava t ion c a mpa ign i n t he 1 950s , wh ich e xa m ined t he whole o f t h is b roch , b lockhouse a nd r ing-for t c o mp lex ; b u t t he e xcava t ions w ere i nconc lus ive , t he r ela t ionsh ips among t he e le men ts s t il l r e ma in ing a ma t ter f or c on jec ture. Ham il ton h owever f o l low ing s o me e arl ier s cholars , r e marked o n t he r ese mb lance o f t he b lockhouses t o t he mass ive f orework c onstruc t ions o n -the b roch s i tes o f M idhowe a nd N ybster , t hus o pen ing u p t he p oss ibi l ity t ha t t he o r ig ins o fb lockhouses a re i n s o me way i nvolved w ith p ro mon tory f orts. T he l argest o f t he S het land b lockhouses i s o n t he l ow a nd r ocky p ro mont ory o f S ca tness , w h ich w i th t he much h igher h ead land o f S umburgh t o t he e ast , f or ms t he b road b ay k nown a s West Voe o f S umburgh. T h is s ou thernmost e x tre m i ty o f S hel tand o nce was i t s most v a luable f ar m ing a rea , b u t c a tastroph ic s and-blow d ur ing t he l a te s even teen th a nd e ar ly e igh teen th c en tur ies —an e nv iron men ta l d isaster wh ich i s n o t f u l ly u nderstood —reduced most o f i tt o a was te o f s h if t ing d unes.

T h is f or mer ly r ich a rea h as many

p reh istor ic s e t t le men t t races , t he most f a mous o f wh ich i s t he e x tens ive a nd c o mp lex s et tle men t a t J arlshof , o n t he n orth-eas tern s hore o f t he West Voe. Immed ia tely o ppos i te J ar lshof , o n t he e ast-fac ing s ide o f t he S ca tness p en ins u la , i s t he b lockhouse f or t o f N ess o f Burg i ( f ig. 4 ). S ca tness a l though l ow-ly ing i s h edged w i th d angerous r eefs , a nd t he n or ma l a ccess t o N ess o f Burg i a lways must h ave b een o ver land . A s o ne wa lks s ou thwards , t he p ro mon tory n arrows a nd a t o ne p o in t d rops n early t o s ea l evel , where t he g rassed s urface g ives way t o as tor m-beach o fb ou lders. A f ter p ick ing o ne 's way a cross t hese i ti s n ecessary t o s cramble u p ar ugged s ta ircase « r ock t o t he s ou thward c on t inua t ion o f t he p en insu la . S hor t ly b eyond h ere , t he p ro mon tory i sb arred b y al ow b ank . T hen S ca tness b roadens a ga in t o a n e xpanse o ft urf a nd s ea-p ink , a nd f ro m i t s e astern s ide p ro jec ts t he s ubs id iary p ro mon tory c a l led N ess o f Burg i. T he N ess i s p ro tec ted b y t wo r ock-cu t d i tches b e tween wh ich i s as tone-reve t ted r ampar t , w ith e n trance g ap c en tra l ly p laced . Fro m t he b ot to m o f t he i nner d i tch t o t he s u mm i t o f t he p ro mon tory i s as harp s lope , a t t he t op o f wh ich , b eh ind a n arrow b er m , s tands t he b lockhouse ( p l . 1 ) . N ess o f Burg i b lockhouse , b efore r estora t ion i n 1 971, was o ver 2 2.5 m .long a nd v ar ied b e tween 5 .6 m a nd 6 .4 i n i n w id th. Through i ti s a n e n trance p assage i n l i ne w ith t he g ap i n t he o u ter r ampart. The p assage i s o f t he f orm c o m mon t o t he o ther b lockhouses wh ich h ave t he m , a s wel l a s t o b rochs;

an arrower o u ter s ec t ion , i n t h is c ase b eg inn ing a t 1 1

0 .9 m a nd n arrow ing t o 0 .7 m a t t he i nner e nd o ft he s ec t ion , where t here a re t wo s lab d oorchecks a nd a p a ir o f h oles i n t he wa l ls , f or d rawbars. T he i nner s ec t ion o f p assage i s 1 .2 m w ide i m med ia tely b ehind t he d oor a nd n arrows t o 1 .1 m where i t emerges o n t he r ear o f t he b u i ld ing.

T he b lock-

h ouse c on ta ined a c el l o n e i ther s ide o f t he p assage , o ne c e l l b e ing e n tered f ro m t he p assage , t he o ther f ro m t he r ear. A t t he s ou th-western e nd o f t he b lockhouse i s at h ird , sma l ler c el l , l ead ing o u t s ou th-wes twards , w here t he e nd o f t he b u i ld ing was b roken away a t t he c l if f e dge.

T here i s n o e v idence

t ha t t he p assage l ed o u t t hrough a n e nd wa l l-face a s r estored i n 1 971 b y t he D epar t men t o f t he E nv iron men t ;

t he o r ig inal p os i t ion o f t h is w a l l-face , a nd

t he o vera l l l eng th o f t he b lockhouse , c anno t b e k nown .

I ti su nfortuna te t ha t

t he r estored masonry was n ot made d ist inc t ive f rom t he o r ig ina l . The most s urpr is ing f ea ture o f N ess o f Burg i i s t he w ide u ndefended g ap b e tween t he n or th-eastern e nd o f t he b lockhouse a nd t he c l if f-edge o n t ha t s ide.

When t he s i te was e xcava ted ( Mowbray 19 36 ) p ar t icu lar a t ten t ion was

p a id t o d iscover ing t races o f a ny b arr ier wa l l w h ich h ad c losed t h is g ap ; t here were n one. Adm i t ted ly , t he p ro mon tory i sn ot b eyond r each o f w aves cour d ur ing v ery e xcep t iona l s tor ms , a nd a rchaeolog ica l d epos its t o t he r ear o ft he b lockhouse a re v irtua l ly n on-ex isten t ;

a l though t he g ood s ta te o f p re-

s erva t ion o f t he b lockhouse i t sel f i mp l ies t ha t a ny f ur ther b arr ier wa l l must h ave b een d el ibera tely d is man t led . S ince t he f or t c learly i s ad efens ive n onsense w i thou t s uch a wa l l , i t wou ld b e r easonable t o a ssume t ha t t he b arr ier o nce h ad b een c o mp le te a nd t ha t t he p resen t s ta te o f t he s tructure i s aq u irk o f s urv iva l— the a ssump t ion w ou ld b e r easonable , t ha t i s , w ere N ess o f Burg i au n ique c ase. I tw i l lb e s hown h owever t ha t t h is c ur ious c oncep t o f t he b lockh ouse a s a n i so la ted b u i ld ing wh ich c ou ld b e o u tf lanked , i s p ara l leled a t o ther s i tes , a nd t ha t w e h ave t o r eckon w ith t h is b e ing t he o r ig ina l d es ign . J arlshof , f ac ing N ess o f Burg i o n t he o ppos i te s ide o f t he b ay , i s t he mos t c o mprehens ively e xcava ted a rchaeolog ica l s i te i n S he tland. I ti s av as t c o mp lex o f s et t le men ts, o f most p er iods f rom e arly p reh is tor ic t o p os t-med iaeva l , w i th h ouses c on t inua l ly r ebu i l t a nd m iddens a ccumu la t ing , s ea led a nd s epar a ted b y e p isodes o f s and-blow .

T he s i te was f i rs t e xp lored a t t he t urn o f t he

c en tury , when A t lan t ic g a les e roded t he s eaward f ace o f t he mound u nder ly ing t he r u ined h ouse t o wh ich S ir Wa l ter S cot t i n " The P ira te" h ad g iven t he f i c t i t ious n a me " Jarlshof".

Most p ro m inen t among t he s truc tures w i th in t he

mound was ab roch. T he whole c o mp lex was a cqu ired a s ag uard iansh ip monu men tb y t he O f f ice o f Works i n 19 25, a nd a s yste ma t ic r esearch p rog ra mme was b egun.

S uccess ive d irec tors i nc luded A . 0 . Cur le , V . G .

C h ilde a nd J . S . R ichardson , t he f i nal p hase , w h ich t i ed a l l t he s truc tures t ogether w ith in a c hronolog ica l f ra mework , b e ing t he work o f J . R . C . Ham il ton b e tween 19 4 9a nd 19 52; h is monograph p ubl ica t ion a ppeared i n 19 56. T he J ar lshof b roch was s urrounded b y a n o u ter r ing-wa l l a nd was p rec eded a nd s ucceeded b y d o mest ic s truc tures. Un fortuna te ly h owever , t he c ruc ial p er iod d ur ing wh ich b roch a rch i tec ture p resu mably was d evelop ing , was n ot r epresen ted i n t he s tra t igraphy. An e ar ly i ron a ge h o mestead was f o l lowed b y at h ick l ayer o f c lean w ind-blown s and , a nd Ham il ton s uggested t ha t t h is r epresen ted a n a bandon men t o f t he s e t t le men t l ast ing s evera l c en tur ies.

The s i te was r e-occup ied b y p eop le i n p ossess ion o f t he f u l ly 1 2

d eveloped b roch-bu i ld ing t echnology . Ham i l ton 's s ugges t ion was t ha t t he a bandonmen t h ad b een c aused b y p ol it ica l t roubles a ssoc ia ted w ith t he a rr iva l o fn ew a nd a ggress ive b ands o f s e t tlers.

N ess o f Burg i h e s aw a s ab each-

h ead a nd mil i tary b ase e stabl ished b y t hese s e t t lers d ur ing t he ir s ub juga t ion o ft he s ou thern ma in land o f S he tland ( Ham i l ton 1 968 , 7 4).

Here , t hen , i s a

s uggested h istor ica l c on tex t f or t he l arges t o f t he b lockhouse f or ts , ac on tex t w i th in t he most c o mprehens ive a rchaeologica l s equence s o f ar o bta ined f ro m as ingle s i te i n S het land . The J ar lshof e xcava t ions d id n ot , t herefore , t hrow l i gh t o n t he ma jor p roble m o f t he o r ig in a nd d evelopmen t o fb rochs. Th is b ecame t he o b jec t ive o fa nother ma jor e xcava t ion , u nder taken b y Ham i l ton i n 1 953-7 a t t he b roch s i te i n Min istry o f Works g uard iansh ip a t C l ickh im in . p lex f ort if ica t ion ;

C l ickh im in i s ac o m-

t he s i te , o n a sma l l p romon tory i n al och , i s e nclosed b y

ar ing-wa l l w i th in w h ich a re t he b roch a nd t he s econd o f t he t hree wel l-known b lockhouses ( f ig. 5 ) .

I ft h is s truc ture was c onte mporary w i th N ess o f Burg i ,

i ti mp l ied t ha t C l ickh im in h ad a n a rchaeolog ica l s equence o f o ccupa t ion wh ich w ou ld b r idge t he J ar lshof h ia tus. Be ing a n otably u pstand ing s truc ture c lose t ot he ma in t own o f S het land , C l ickh im in a t trac ted t he a t ten t ion o f t he e arly a n t iquar ies a nd i t was o ne o ft he f i rs t s i tes t o b e g iven p rotect ion u nder t he A nc ien t Monu men ts A c t o f 1 882.

A d if f icu l ty a r is ing f rom t h is e arly i n terest

i st o k now h ow much o f t he p resen t a ppearance o f t he s truc tures , i s d ue t o r estora t ions wh ich a re i nadequa tely d ocu men ted a nd , l i ke t he r ecen t o ne a t N ess o f Burg i , i n d rystone v ery d if f icu l t t o d etec t . The C l ic k h im in b roch r ises f or much o f i t s c ircumference f rom a g rea t a pron o f masonry , a nd i s n otably i rregu lar i n p lan . I ts tands i n t he m idd le o fa n e l l ip t ica l r ingwork , t he e n trance t o wh ich i s o n t he s ou th s ide , wh i le t he b roch i t sel fh as a w est-fac ing e n trance.

West o f t he b roch , b etween i t

a nd t he r ing-wa l l , a re r e ma ins o f s ubs id iary b u i ld ings, a nd t o t he s ou th s tands t he b lockhouse.

T he b lockhouse t herefore i s f ree-stand ing b etween

t he b roch a nd t he e nclosure wa l l , w ith i t s own e n trance p assage a l igned w i th t he g a teway o f t he r ingwork . This i s t he most n ea t ly a nd r egu larly s haped o f t he b lockhouses , a nd t he o n ly o ne s urv iv ing more t han o ne s torey h igh ( p l . 2 ) . I t i s c urved i n p lan , 1 3.1 m l ong a nd 4 .1 m w ide ; t he wa l l-faces h ave a v ery p ronounced b a t ter. T he c en tra l g a teway h as t he n or ma l t wo-sec t ion p lan , t he o u ter s ec t ion b e ing 1 .3 m w ide a nd t he i nner 1 .5 m; b e tween t he s ec t ions was a d oor d es igned a s u sual t o o pen i nwards , a nd t o b e s ecured b y ab ar r unn ing i n h oles i n t he s ide wal ls.

T o e i ther s ide o ft he p assage t he b lockhouse c on ta ined a c el l ,

b u t t here was n o a ccess t o t hese a t g round l evel .

The b u i ld ing i s p reserved

t o ah eigh t o f 3 .3 m , a nd o n i t s r ear wa l l-face , 2 .4 m a bove t he g round , i s as carce men t l edge f or med b y p ro ject ing s labs.

I th as t he f ur ther u nusua l

f ea ture , a lmost c er ta in ly s econdary , o f a n i n terna l s ta ircase r is ing f ro m t he w estern e nd. T he c onven t iona l i n terpre ta t ion f or l ong was t o r egard t he b roch a s p r imary , w i th t he r ingwa l l a nd b lockhouse a s l a ter a dd it ions. D oubts a bou t t h is s equence were b eing e xpressed i n t he y ears p reced ing t he e xcava t ions , a nd were c arefu l ly s et o u t i n a n i mpor tan t p aper d el ivered b y W. D ouglas S impson t o t he 1 950 L erw ick V ik ing C ongress ( S i mpson 1 954 ). 1 3

He s uggested

F ig . 5

C lickh imin , p lan s how ing e ssent ia l e lements , w i th l ine o f o rig ina l e nc losure a s s ugges ted b y S i mpson ( 1 954 ) . F or c lari ty , t he s ubs idiary b ui ldings , wh ich f i l l mos t o f t he s pace b e tween b roch a nd e nc losure wa l l , a re om i t ted

1 4

t ha t t he b lockhouse o nce h ad f or med t he g a tehouse t o a n e arly r ing-fort w h ich s ubsequen tly was e n larged , when t he b lockhouse was r eta ined b u t t he c onnec t ing wa l ls o n e i ther s ide r e moved.

T he k inks i n t he r ing-wa l l , a t p rec ise ly t he

p o in ts where t he wa l l wou ld b e e xpec ted t o c urve a round t o j o in t he b lockhouse , l eave n o d oubt t ha t s o me s uch i n terpre ta t ion i s t he t rue o ne.

S i mpson d e mon-

s tra ted t ha t t h is wou ld g ive C l ickh im in a p hase c losely c o mparable w i th t he s urv iv ing l ayou t a t L och o f Hux ter. Hux ter , t he t h ird o f t he c onven t iona l ly r ecogn ized b lockhouses , i s i n a f reshwa ter l och i n t he i s land o f Wha lsay ; t he s i te i s a sma l l i s let c lose t o t he s hore , w ith wh ich i ti s c onnec ted b y ac auseway ( f ig. 4 , p l . 3 ).

T he

b u ild ing r e ma ined e xcel len tly p reserved u n t il t he l a te n ineteen th c en tury , when t he s tones w ere t aken t o b u i ld a s chool ; t he b lockhouse h ad b een a t l east a s h igh a s t he C l ickh im in o ne.

I t was r ecorded b y A . Mi tchel l i n 1 881;

t oday , t he s truc ture i s i n ap oor s ta te, b ad ly o bscured b y t u mbled s tones , a nd e v iden t ly h av ing s u f fered f ur ther r obbing s ince Ca lder made h is p lan f or t he Roya l Co mmiss ion v olu me. The b lockhouse f aces t he c auseway ; i ti s 1 2.5 m l ong a nd 3 .35 m w ide , w i th c en tra l e n trance p assage 0 .75 m w ide i n t he o u ter s ec t ion a nd 1 .1 m i nt he i nner s ec t ion , w i th t he u sua l d oorchecks a nd b arhole. The c el ls o n e i ther s ide o ft he p assage a re e n tered a t g round l evel f ro m t he r ear .

A l though t he b lockhouse i sb u il t i n to t he e nc losure wa l l— the r ing-wa l l

r unn ing f ro m d iagona l ly o ppos i te c orners —stra igh t j o in ts s how t ha t t he b lockh ouse a nd r ingwork w ere c once ived a nd b u i l t a s s epara te e le men ts , e ven i f c on te mporaneously. Archaeolog ica l c ond i t ions a t C l ickh im in p roved t o b e much w orse t han a t J ar lshof w i th i t s d eep d epos its a nd s andblow h or izons; C l ickh im in h ad b een d isturbed b y e arly efor ts a t c lear ing , e xcava t ion a nd r estora t ion , a nd o nt he r ocky i s le t d epos i ts i n a ny c ase w ere t h in .

E xcava t ion c ond i t ions t here-

f ore were u nfavourable t o p rov id ing c l inch ing e v idence o f t he r ela t ionsh ips o f t he v ar ious s truc tures , s t il l l ess a n a bsolute d a t ing. T he p ubl ished e xcavat i on r eport ( Ha m il ton 1 968 ) i s as t i mu la t ing a nd i mportan t c on tr ibu t ion t o b roch s tud ies , b u t c on troversia l o n many p o in ts. Ham il ton s ugges ts t ha t t he s equence a t C l ickh im in b eg ins , a s a t J ar lshof , w i th a n a t ive t rad it ion u l t i ma tely o f N eol ith ic o r ig in :

t he h ouses o f p eacefu l L a te Bronze Age f armers.

T here

t hen was a p robab ly p eacefu l imm igra t ion o f I ron A ge f ar mers w ho b rough t ap ot tery s ty le r ela ted t o A l l Cann ings Cross. These n ew p eop le l i ved i n r oundhouses, l arger t han t he n a t ive L a te Bronze Age o nes , wh ich a t J ar lshof t hey o ver l ie ; t he l arge h ouse o n Cal f o f E day , Orkney , e xcava ted b y Ca lder a nd p ubl ished b y h im i n 1 939 , i s i den t if ied w ith t h is s ame t rad it ion . A t C l ickh im in , v ery l i t tle o ft h is o ccupa t ion s urv ived.

T he r oundhouse l ay b enea th

t he b roch , a nd a l l t ha t c ou ld b e r ecovered was a s eg men t o f c lay f l oor b elow t he n orth-east q uadran t o ft he b roch c our t , a nd a p or t ion o f wa l l wh ich was b u il t i n to t he much l a ter b roch wa l l , b ut p ar tly p ro jec ted o u tside i t .

Th is

s urv iv ing masonry f rag men t was v isible a s a n a rc , 2 .1 m l ong a nd u p t o 1 .2 m h igh ; i t s p ro jec t ion b eyond t he b roch c ircu m ference i nd ica tes a wa l l t h ickn ess o f a t l east 1 .2 i n , wh ich i n forma t ion c o mb ined w ith t he v is ible a rc o f t he wal l f rag men t , a nd " a t h in l ayer o f r ubble r ound t he l im i t o f t he f l oor d eposit" i ns ide t he b roch , s uggested a c ircu lar h u t s pace 7 .6 m i n d ia meter ( Ha m il ton 1 968 , 3 4-9 ).

1 5

Wi th t he n ex t p er iod w e a re i n to t he J arlshof h ia tus;

Ha m il ton e nv isages

t he a rr iva l o f a ggress ive b ands o f C el t ic , p robably Ga l lo-Br it ton ic—speak ing i nvaders , who b u i l t s trongholds —pro mon tory f or ts a nd r ingworks — fro m wh ich t hey e stabl ished p ol i t ica l s upre macy o ver t he i s lands.

T hey were r espons ible ,

b etween t he f i f th a nd f i rst c en tur ies B .C., f or t he N ess o f Burg i f or t a nd t he r ingwa l l a nd b lockhouse a t C l ickh im in , wh ich i n h is c hronolog ica l t able Ham il ton h as b eg inn ing b e tween 4 00 a nd 3 00 B .C . He a ccep ts t he c onnec t ion w i th " the i n tensive c olon isa t ion o f s ou th-western B r i ta in a t t h is t ime b y C el t ic t r ibes men f ro m Gau l who i n troduced r ing f orts o f t he C hun Cast le t ype i n to C ornwa l l" , a nd s uggests t ha t t he S het land f ort if ica t ions c on form t o at rad it ion o f d ry-stone f or t.bu ild ing wh ich was b e ing i n troduced i nto t he western p rov inces a t t h is p er iod ; t he d ist inc t ive p ot tery a t C l ickh im in h as a f l u ted r im w i th Gau l ish a n teceden ts. The o r ig ina l f or t if ica t ion was i n tended t ob e a c ircu lar r ingwork i ncorpora t ing t he b lockhouse a s i t s g a teway; t he t wo e le men ts were b egun s epara tely , a nd f or s o me r eason t he p lans w ere mod if ied d ur ing t he c onstruc t ion a nd t he r ingwork e x tended t o t ake i n ab igger a rea. T h is r esu l ted i n t he k inks where t he wa l l d ev ia ted f ro m i t s p lanned l i ne , a nd o f c ourse i n l eav ing t he b lockhouse i sola ted w i th in t he e nc losure. A ccord ing t o Ham il ton 's t hesis t herefore , C l ickh im in h ad a n o r ig ina l d es ign v ery l i ke L och o f Hux ter , b u t t h is d es ign was n ever p erfec t ly c arr ied o u t . Ham il ton 's s ugges t ions a s t o t he r ole o f t he f or t if ica t ions w i th in t he I ron Age s oc iety h e e nv isages , a nd h is r econstruc t ions o f t he a ssoc ia ted b u i ld ings i n a ccordance w ith h is own i deas a bou t I ron A ge s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , a re importan t f or t he s tudy o f a l l p re-broch d efens ive s truc tures.

The s uggested

s oc iety i s a Ce l t ic warr ior a r istocracy c on trol l ing a s ub jec t p opu la t ion ; t ha t a ristocracy w ou ld h ave c her ished h eroic i dea ls s uch a s a re l auded i n t he med iaeva lI r ish e p ics a bou t C e t , C u C hu la inn a nd t he r es t.

I n al ec ture

d el ivered a t Cambr idge i n 1 964, P rofessor K . H . J ackson p roposed t ha t s o me o ft he ma ter ial d eta ils i n t hese e p ics , p ar t icu larly r ela t ing t o t he " duns" o r s trongholds o f t he h eroes, were g enu ine me mor ies o f t he p re-l itera te I ron Age r a ther t han l a ter a ccre t ions. T here i s a n o bv ious t e mp ta t ion t o f or m ap ara l lel w i th t he Ho mer ic e p ics a nd t he ir e stabl ished r elevance t o t he Aegean wor ld o f t he L a te Bronze A ge. Ham i l ton s uggested t ha t h a lft imbered t wo-storeyed r anges b u i l t a ga inst t he i nside o f t he f or t wal l , a re o ne o f t hese a u then t ic d e ta ils i n t he e p ics, a nd t ha t t hese w ere p resen t a t C l ickh im in .

The

l i tera ture s ugges ts t ha t t he g a te o f t he f or t h ad a s pec ial s ign if icance a nd t ha t t he c h ief ta in h ad h is own q uar ters b es ide i t—a c i rcumstance wh ich e xpla ins t he e labora t ion o f t he b lockhouse. E xcava t ion i ns ide t he western p ar t o f t he e nclosure r evea led p i l lar-stones a nd p ostholes t ravers ing a n a rc c oncen tric w ith t he r ingwa l l , a ssoc ia ted w i th a h ard e ar th f l oor a nd s o me p av ing ;

t hese

b u i ld ings , i ti s s uggested , wou ld h ave p rov ided a ccom moda t ion f or t he c h ief ta in 's r e ta iners, a s w el l a s b yres a nd o ther a gr icul tura l f unc t ions. The c h ief ta in h i msel fh ad t he b lockhouse , ag rand s ta tus-sy mbol o f ag a teway , b u i l t o n t o t he r ear o f wh ich was h is p ersona l a cco m moda t ion . A rchaeolog ica l e v idence f or t h is was a c obbled f l oor b eh ind t he b lockhouse , a nd t he s carcemen t l edge o n i t s r ear wa l l-face.

T he s carce men t wou ld h ave h e lped t o

s upport t he u pper-f loor j o ists o f at wo-s toreyed l ean-to t imber b u i ld ing. I r ish l aws d ef ine t he e n t i tle men t o f ac h ief ta in o f ag iven s tatus , t o ah ouse o f ac erta in l eng th.

P oss ibly t herefore , t he s oc ia l s tand ing o f ac h ief ta in

1 6

migh t d ic ta te t he max imu m l eng th o f t he h ouse h e was a l lowed t o b u ild , a nd i f a ma jor f unc t ion o f t he b lockhouse was t o p rov ide a s howp iece f acade f or t he h ouse , t h is w ou ld l im i t t he l eng th o f t he b lockhouse. N ess o f Burgi , wh ich i s e xcep t iona l ly l ong ( bu t s t i l l d oes n ot b arr icade t he whole w id th o f t he i s th mus o n w h ich i ti sb u i l t ) may h ave a cco mmoda ted a more i mportan t c h ief w i th a l arger r et inue , o r t he h ouseholds o f t wo r ela ted c o m manders. T h is s oc ia l r a ther t han t ac t ica l f unct ion o f t he b lockhouse , w ou ld e xp la in why t he C l ickh im in o ne was r eta ined when t he o r ig ina l f or t d es ign was mod if ied. I n p ract ica l t er ms , o ther t han l ook ing i mpress ive , t h is mass ive s tructure s tand ing i mmed ia te ly i nwards o f t he n ew g a teway must h ave b een r a ther a n u isance.

S o , a t t h is s tage i n C l ickh im in is e volu t ion w e h ave t o imag ine a n

o va l r ing-fort w ith a g a teway f ac ing t he i s th mus , w i th in w h ich t he r e ta iners o f aC el t ic warr ior-ar istocra t o ccup ied l eanto b u i ld ings a ga inst t he p er i me ter wa l l . The c h ief ta in h i msel f l i ved i n as im ilar h ouse b u i l t b eh ind t he f rees tand ing b lock-house , o r ig ina l ly c once ived a s af unc t ion ing g a tehouse b u il t g rand t o impress v isi tors , b u t w h ich h ad e nded u p a s p ure s ta tus-symbol . Ham il ton d raws a t ten t ion t o al arge f l a t s tone w ith a p ecked i mpress ion o f t wo f u l l-sca le h u man f eet , w h ich i s b u il t i n to t he l a ter c auseway.

T h is , h e

s uggests o n t he a na logy o f I r ish c lan p rac t ices i n l a ter t imes, was a c orona t ion s tone; p oss ibly C l ickh im in was t he s ea t o f aC el t ic d ynasty o r a t l east o f a n oble f am ily wh ich h ad t he d u ty o f i naugura t ing t he k ing o r c h ief ta in o f t he c en tra l i s land p ower. I n t he l a t ter c ase , t he n oble man h old ing t he h onour wou ld a ccord ing t o t he I r ish l aws b e e n t i t led t o ah ouse o f t wen ty-seven f ee t ( 8 .23 m ); " though t h is may b e c o inc idence , s uch i s t he l ength o f t he dwel l ing a t tached t o t he s tone b lockhouse a t C l ickh im in" ( Ham il ton 19 68 , 7 5 ). T owards t he f i rs t c en tury B .C ., a ma jor c hange o vertook t he s i te. P oss ibly a s ou th-easterly g a le b low ing u p t he Bay o f S ound c rea ted a s p i t a cross t he mou th o f t he s ea l och , d amm ing t he wa ters a nd c aus ing a r ise i n t he ir l evel . r educed ;

T he l ow p ro mon tory b eca me a n i s let a nd i t s a rea was s everely

f l oodwa ter h ad e n tered t he r ingwork t hrough t he e n trance , t he

t hreshold l evel o f w h ich t herefore was r a ised. A l and ing-s tage was c rea ted o u ts ide t he g a teway , a nd r epa irs a nd b u t tress ing h ad t o b e c arr ied o u t o n l eng ths o f r ingwa l l w here t he f ounda t ions h ad b een w eakened . T he p er iphera l r anges o fb u i ld ings h ad b een made u n inhabitable a nd w ere d emol ished , b u t t he b lockhouse a nd i t s a ssoc ia ted b u i ld ing , t oge ther w i th t he a nc ien t r oundh ouse wh ich s t il l s urv ived o n t he c rown o f t he i s let , r e ma ined i n u se. T he d ec ision t hen was t aken t o b u i ld a n ew r ingwork o f much r educed a rea a round t he c rest o f t he i s land . Work was b egun o n t he w est s ide o ft h is , w here a p assage e n trance was p rov ided. On t he n or th s ide , p ar t o f t he wa l l o f t he s t i l l s tand ing r oundhouse was i ncorpora ted i n t he n ew r ingwork , e v iden t ly w i th t he i n ten t ion t ha t t he r oundhouse w ou ld b e d e mol ished w hen t he r ingwork n eared c o mp let ion.

Bu t t he p ro ject was a bandoned i n t he e arly s tages a nd

t he d ec ision t aken t o b u ild i ns tead ab roch. T h is, i ti s s uggested , r esu l ted f rom t he a rr iva l o f n ewco mers a lready v ersed i n b roch-bu i ld ing , who w ere c losely r ela ted t o t he e ar l ier f or t-bu ilders. I nb u ild ing t he b roch , a s much u se a s p oss ible was made o f t he masonry o f t he i nco mp lete i nner r ingwork , i nc lud ing t he p ar t wh ich h ad i ncorpora ted t he e arly r oundhouse—wh ich s t i l l h ad n ot b een d e mol ished , a nd w ou ld h ave p rov ided a cco m moda t ion d ur ing t he e arly s tages o fb roch-bu ild ing.

When w ork p rogressed f ur ther i th ad t o

1 7

go, but left part of its wall projecting as the ''hornwork" from the outer cir­ cumference of the tower. Hamilton suggests that serious defensive considera­ tions were now paramount. The original ringwork was refurbished and the blockhouse reconditioned, the staircase being inserted into its western end. The idea was to provide a fighting platform controlling the outer gate and landing stage (Hamilton 1968, 78, 97-8) . Hamilton's proposal in summary therefore, is that the originally undefended farmstead at Clickhimin, after£.· 400 B.C. became a fortified stronghold. For the first three centuries or so, this although having the design and layout of a fortress, and being capable of serious defence, was really built out of considerations of status, associated with the social aspirations of some Celtic warrior-aristocrat. In this function the blockhouse played a major role. Late in the first century B.C. a broch was built and the older defences refurbished, the site being made ready for serious defence as the overwhelm­ ingly important considerations. Doubts about the Clickhimin structural sequence have been expressed most cogently in a review article by R.. B. K. Stevenson (1970). The strati­ graphic relationships among the structures are nowhere satisfactory,. and Stevenson most notably modifies the sequence by re-interpreting the apron around the broch and the projecting "hornwork" on its north side, which Hamilton has as his inner ringwork and relic of an early roundhouse. Stevenson relates both features to a collapse and rebuilding of the broch itself. He points out how irregular is the plan of the Clickhimin broch, particularly on its north-eastern face, and proposes that it had been rebuilt inwards of its original arc, the ''hornwork" being a surviving fragment of the original wall­ face. The "inner ringwork" apron he proposes is a massive buttress added to support the broch when it had largely to be rebuilt after early collapse. (That the tall northern brochs were not invariably structurally successful. is attested at Midhowe, where the originally ground-galleried broch subsided badly, and had to have its basal gallery packed solid on rebuilding). The "early roundhouse" therefore is removed from the sequence, and so is the "inner ringwork", a structural phase which in Hamilton's interpretation intervenes between the primary fort and blockhouse, and the broch. Stevenson's interpretation removes this obstacle against drawing blockhouse and broch chronologically closer together. The priority of several centuries of the blockhouse over the broch, is a major difficulty of Hamilton's sequence. In its technical details-particularly the design of the doorway and the scarcement ledge-the blockhouse so fore­ shadows broch architecture that it is hard to imagine that these details deve­ loped very early, and then remained current for some four hundred years before brochs proper were built. Such conservatism, suggests Stevenson, is denied by "the ingenuity and vigour shown by the invention and proliferation of broch towers". A similar comment applies to the fluted-rim pottery which is supposed to characterise the early fort- and blockhouse-building immigrants; the stratigraphy being so uncertain, all of this may belong to post-broch periods. A query is raised also about the relationship between the blockhouse and the ring-fort; Stevenson agrees that the. kinks in the latter indicate that 18

t he o r ig ina l p lan h ad t he r ing-wa l l l i nk u p w ith t he b lockhouse, a nd p o in ts o u t ac hange i n t he masonry a t t he k ink o n t he e astern s ide, wh ich c on f ir ms t he t heory. I ti s more l i kely t ha t t h is o r ig ina l p lan a ctua l ly was e xecu ted , a nd t ha t t he i sola t ion o ft he b lockhouse i s d ue t o as econdary c learance a nd e xpans ion o f t he f ort .

Th is i s t he l i kely c on tex t f or t he i nser ted s ta ir i n t he

west e nd o f t he b lockhouse.

T he n ea t f i n ish h ere , where t he n ew masonry

b lends w ith t he o ld , s uggests t ha t t he e astern e nd a lso c ou ld h ave b een r ebu il t : " drystone l ends i t sel f t o p a tch ing a nd r efac ing" . I n f act i f , a s S tevenson i s i mp ly ing , t here a c tua l ly e x isted a t C l ickh im in a p hase when t he s i te r ese mbled L och o f Hux ter , t ha t p ara l lel d e monstra tes t ha t t he r ingwa l l a d jo in ing t he e as tern e nd o ft he b lockhouse c ou ld h ave b een d e mol ished w i thou t n ecess i ta t ing a ny r efacing; f or a t Hux ter t he b lockhouse i s n ot b onded i n to t he r ing-wa l l . We s ha l l o bserve t h is s ame q u irk i n t he b lockhouse f ort o f Burg i Geos. T he s tra t igraph ic r ela t ionsh ips a t C l ickh im in b eing s o u ncer ta in , a nd w ith n o a bsolu te d a t ing, many q uest ions a r ising f ro m t h is e xcava t ion a nd i t s i n terpreta t ion , r e ma in o pen .

I n t he a bsence o f c l inch ing a rchaeolog ica l

e v idence, S tevenson 's s uggest ions c o mmend t he mselves b y o f fer ing a much s i mp ler s equence t han t he e xcava tor 's — tha t t here was a f or t r ese mbl ing L och o fH ux ter; t ha t t h is was s ubsequen t ly e n larged s o a s t o l eave t he b lockhouse i so la ted w ith in i t ; t ha t ab roch was b u i l t i ns ide t he f ort ; a nd t ha t t he b roch h ad s truc tura l p roble ms wh ich l ed t o r ebu ild ing a nd b u t tress ing. S uch a d eve lop men t c ould h ave t aken p lace o ver a r ela t ively s hort p er iod s o t here i s n o n eed t o d a te t he b lockhouse s evera l c en tur ies b efore t he b roch. T he t wo-storeyed t imber r anges a nd t he i mp l ica t ions o f a Ce l t ic a r istocra t ic s oc ie ty , l i kew ise c anno tb e p roved f rom t he a rchaeolog ica l e v idence a t C l ickh im in i t sel f , b u t t h is i s a n i n terpreta t ion o fb lockhouse f or ts wh ich i s w or th c ons idera t ion a t o ther s i tes.

N ess o f Burg i , L och o f Hux ter a nd C l ickh im in s o f ar h ave b een t he o n ly s i tes t o wh ich t he t er m " Shet land B lockhouse F ort" b y g enera l c onsensus was a pp l ied . I ti s r ecogn ized h owever t ha t t hese c ur ious s tructures d o v aguely r esemble t he mass ive " f oreworks" a ssoc ia ted w i th t wo p ro mon tory-s i ted b rochs i n C a i thness a nd O rkney . S impson ( 1 954 , 2 3 ) d rew a t ten t ion t o t he N ybs ter f orework i n h is c ons idera t ion o ft he C l ickh im in b lockhouse, a nd b oth N ybster a nd Midhowe were d iscussed i n Ham i l ton 's e xcava t ion r epor t ( 1968 , 6 0 ). The b roch o f Midhowe s tands o n ap ro mon tory f or med b etween t wo n arrow g eos ; i ti s t he c en tra l o ne o f ag roup o f t hree b rochs o n aq uarter- m ile s tre tch o f t he c oast o f Rousay .

T he mass ive f orework , v ary ing b etween 5 .8 m

a nd 7 .9 m t h ick , s tands o n ly 4 m i n f ron t o f t he b roch ;

i tr uns a cross t he

p ro mon tory f ro m Geo o f Brough o n t he n or th-west , t o S tenchna G eo o n t he s ou th-east . A bove G eo o f Brough e ros ion h as l e f t ar agged e nd t o t he f orew ork , s o i ti s n o t p oss ible t o k now whe ther t he f orework e nded w ith a n ea t wa l l-face s hor t o f t he o r ig ina l c l if f-edge , a s a t N ess o f Burg i , o r c on t inued r igh t t o t he e dge a s at rue b arr ier. A t t he e nd a bove S tenchna Geo h owever , t he o r ig ina l e nd wa l l-face s urv ives. Here , t he f orework i s much i ncreased

1 9

i nt h ickness , t o a cco m moda te a w ide a nd much-a l tered e n trance p assage , wh ich p ierces t he f orework o n ly 2 .75 m f ro m i t s e nd . A t t he i nner e nd o f t he p assage , an arrow s ta ir , w ith s teps c u t i n t he r ock , d escends t hrough t he e nd wa l l-face t owards S tenchna Geo. T h is e nd o f t he f orework s tands f l ush w i th t he e dge o f ac l if f , wh ich h owever i s n ot t he c l iff o f t he g eo i t sel f , b u t d rops o n ly t hree me tres t o ab road s helf o f r ock , 6m w ide , w h ich t hen f a l ls v er t ical ly t o t he g eo. s ta ir.

On t o t he s urface o ft h is s hel f l eads t h e r ock-cu t

T he Midhowe f orework , l i ke t he C l ickh im in b lockhouse b u t u nl ike N ess

o f Burg i a nd L och o f Hux ter , h as a p ronounced b a t ter o nb oth s ides.

I t i s

a ssumed b y t he e xcava tors ( Ca l lander a nd Gran t 19 34 ) t o b e c on te mporary w i th t he b roch , b u t a ccord ing t o Hami l ton , " i t i so bv ious f ro m a c loser e xami na t ion o f t he e v idence t ha t t he t ower i s s econdary t o i t ". Ha m i l ton r igh t ly p o in ts o u t t ha t t he Midhowe f orework w i th a d i tch o n e i ther s ide , r ecal ls t he o u ter d efence s yste m a t N ess o f Burg i w i th i t s s ingle , s tone-reve t ted r ampar t b etween t wo d i tches.

A t Midhowe , t he e xcava t ion d id n o t t est t he s tra t igraph ic

r ela t ionsh ip b etween f orework a nd b roch , n e ither d id i ts a t isfac tor i ly i nves t ig a te t he s truc ture o f t he f orework i t self . We c annot b e s ure t herefore t ha t t he g rea t t h ickness d oes n ot c on ta in c el ls o r e ven a g a l lery ; c er ta inly , p resen t g round i nd ica t ions s ugges t t ha t t here i s a n u nc leared c el l w i th in t he a dd it iona l t h ickness o f t he s truc ture , i m med ia te ly n orth-west o f t he e n trance p assage. A t N ybster , o ne o ft he Ca i thness b rochs e xcava ted b y S ir Franc is Tress Barry a t t he t urn o ft he c en tury , t he b roch s tands o n ah igh c l if f-pro mon tory p rotec ted b y a wa l l 3m t h ick a t i t s e nds , w i th a s harp i ncrease t o4 .6 m i n t he m idd le , where i s t he e n trance p assage ( f ig. 6 ) . T h is i s j us t o ver 1 m w ide a t i t s o u ter e nd , w ith t he u sua l a rrange men t o f a n i ncrease o f w id th a t t he d oor p os i t ions;

e xcep t iona l ly , t he N ybster p assage was f i t ted f or t wo

d oors. On t he i nside o f t he f orework , as ta ircase a scends a ga ins t t he r ear wa l l-face t o e i ther s ide o ft he e n trance , a nd t here a re t races o f ag a l lery a t g round l evel w i th in t he t h ickness o f t he s tructure. Fur ther e xamp les o ft he " forework" i dea a re r ead ily f ound . A t Borw ick , Yesnaby , Orkney , ab roch s tands o n at r iangu lar p ro mon tory w h ich i s b arred i m med ia tely b efore t he b roch b y a mass ively b road mound .

T h is w as s tone-

r eve t ted o nb o th s ides , a nd a t o ne p o in t , p robably i n ap er iod s econdary b o th t o t h is f orework a nd t o t he b roch , a n i rregu lar h u t h as b een c u t r igh t t hrough i t . T h is must h ave h appened when d efens ive c ons idera t ions h ad c eased t o a pp ly . T he B orw ick f orework i s v ery d i lap ida ted a nd f ades away i n to g rassg rown p i les o f d ebr is a t e i ther e nd , s o i ti s n ot c lear whe ther i tb arred t he p ro mon tory c o mp le tely , o r s topped s hor t o f t he e dges a f ter t he manner o f a S he t land b lockhouse. The p os i t ion o f t he e n trance i s u ncer ta in --possibly t he s econdary h u t i s a n e n large men t o f i t . A s tone-reve t ted r ampar t s truc ture s ee ms a lso t o h ave f or med t he ma in d efence o f t he n earby p ro mon tory f or t o f Brough o f B igg ing ( f ig. 7 ) , where h owever t he d i lap ida t ion i s s uch t ha t t he p rec ise a rrange men ts c annot b e r econstruc ted . O f t he Ca i thness b rochs e xcava ted b y T ress Barry , S k irza H ead a nd B roch o f N ess a lso h ave b road d i tches a cross t he p romon tor ies o n which t he b rochs a re s i ted , w i th a mass ively s tone-reve t ted r ampart i mmed ia tely i nward o f t he d i tch. On t h is n or thern c oas t o f S cot land t here a lso a re t wo

2 0

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2 4

p ro mon tory f orts o f " forework" t ype, w i thou t b rochs. These a re S garbach i n Ca ithness a nd D un Mha irtein i n S u ther land , i mportan t b ecause o f t he s trong c hance t ha t t he ir s urv iv ing i n terna l a rrange men ts r ela te t o t he ir o ccupa t ion a s p ro mon tory f or ts a nd n ot t o ab roch o r p ost-broch o ccupa t ion . N early e very n or thern b roch i s s urrounded b y c o mp l ica ted warrens o f c hambers a nd p assages, o f ten i nc lud ing whee lhouses , b u t a s o f ten a s n ot c ons ist ing o f smal l i rregu lar r oo ms w h ich i n Orkney a nd Ca i thness a re b u il t l argely o f e rec t s tone s l abs. These d o mest ic s truc tures s o s wamp ab roch a s t o d estroy i t s d efens i bil ity , a nd t hey mus t r e la te t o ap ost-for t if ica t ion p er iod ; i n most c ases t hey w i l l h ave b een b u i l t o f ma ter ia ls o bta ined b y d is man t l ing t he u pper p ar t o f t he b roch , f or w h ich t here i s e v idence a t J arlshof . A t Midhowe a nd N ybster t hese s econdary s tructures a re c ram med b e tween t he b roch a nd t he f orework , s o i ti su n l ikely t ha t a ny s tructures b eh ind t he f orework a re t ob e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he f orework i t sel f . A t S garbach a nd Dun Mha irte in t here i s much l ess l i kel ihood o f t h is , b ecause t he b roch a t a ny r a te i s a bsen t. S garbach was e xcava ted b u t s o f ar a s i s k nown , n o p lan was made a t t he t ime. The d efens ive w ork i s s et a cross t he i s th mus o f al arge , L -shaped c l if f p ro mon tory ; t he wr i ter 's p lan o f t he s truc ture a s i ta ppeared i n 1 971 s hows i to bscured b y mounds o f o vergrown e xcava t ion d ebr is ( f ig. E S ) . F ort una tely , t he e ssen t ia l d e ta i ls w ere r ecorded i n h is u sua l me t iculous way b y A . 0 . Cur le , who v is i ted t he s i te f or t he Roya l C o mm iss ion n ot l ong af ter t he e xcava t ion .

He g ives t he wa l l-rampart a t h ickness o f t welve f eet s ix

i nches ( 3 .81 m ), a l eng th o f s ix tytwo f ee t ( 1 8.9 m ) a nd a h e igh t o f f i ve f ee t ( 1 .22 m ).

The med ia l ly-p laced e n trance p assage was wel l-preserved a t t he

t ime , b u t h av ing b een l ef t o pen f or s ix ty y ears , n ow i s a l most e n t irely b roken d own . N o b et ter d escr ip t ion t herefore c an b e o f fered t han t ha t o f C ur ie : " a p assage .. 3 '2" ( 0 .97 m ) i n w id th a t t he o u ter e nd. A t 6 '8" ( 2 .03 m ) i nwards o n t he r igh t ( t he l e f t s ide i sb roken d own ) i s ar eba te f or a d oor f aced w i th a s lab 6 " ( 0 .15 m ) t h ick , s et e dgew ise i n t he wal l , t he p assage i n r ear o f i tw iden ing t o 4,9 " ( 1 .47 m ).

Across t he p assage , i n f ron t o f t he d oor

c heck , p ro jec ts a s i l l 8 " ( 0 .2 m ) i nh e igh t .

Beh ind t he r eba te ab ar h o le 8 "

( 0 .2 m ) s quare p asses f or a d istance o f a t l east 3 '6" ( 1 .07 m ) i n to t he wa l l . A t t he i nner e nd o f t he p assage, a nd t o t he l e f t , s o me 4 ' ( 1 .22 m ) b ack f ro m i t , i s a n o va l c ha mber measuring s o me 1 0 ' b y 7 ' ( 3 .05 m b y 2 .13 m ). I n r ear o f t he e n trance was f ound a h ear th d ef ined w i th f l ags s e t o n e nd , i n wh ich t here were a shes , f ood r efuse , a nd f ragmen ts o f p ot tery. A d ra in p asses f ro m t he i n ter ior o u twards b elow t he f l oor o f t he e n trance p assage" ( RCAMS 1 911, 1 8 , n o. 4 5 ). There i s i n f act a s tonef lagged s urface t o t h is a rea i mmed iately i nwards f ro m t he e n trance p assage , s o i ta ppears t ha t t he ma in d o mest ic a c t iv i ty o n t h is s i te ( t here a re n o s igns o f s truc tures e lsewhere o n t he p ro mon tory ) was i mmed ia tely b eh ind t he r a mpar t ;

t he g a teway i n f ac t

s ee ms t o h ave l ed d irec t ly i n to t he l i v ing a rea. Dun Mha ir te in i s ap rec ip i tous c l if f p ro mon tory a bou t 2 7 m h igh , s o me 2 00 m n orth-nor th-eas t f ro m t he c rof t ing t ownsh ip o f Ba l ig il l ( f ig. 9 , p l . 4 -5 ). I t c urves p ara l lel w i th t he ma in land , f ro m wh ich i ti s s epara ted b y a p rec ip itous g eo. T he f or t if ica t ion c u ts o f f t he t a il o f t he p ro mon tory , e nc losing a n a rea s o me 2 2 m x2 4 m , wh ich i s o verlooked b y t he h igher c l if f o nt he ma in land s ide o f t he g eo.

T he ma in f ea ture i s as tone-reve t ted r a mpar t

2 5

v ary ing b e tween 4 .9 m a nd 5 .8 m i n t h ickness , p ierced s l ight ly e as t o f c en tre b y a n e n trance p assage 1 .02 m w ide a t t he o u ter e nd a nd w iden ing i nwards. An u pr ight s lab s et a t r igh t a ngles t o t he e ast w a l l o f t he p assage , f or ms a d oorcheck . T he e nds o f t he r ampar t f ade a way t owards t he c l if f-edge. I n f ron t o ft h is d efence t he g round h as b een s cooped b ack f ro m e i ther e dge, l eav ing a c auseway 2 .5 m w ide i n l i ne w i th t he e n trance. On t he w est s ide o n ly ab ank , a pparen t ly o f l oose ma ter ia l a nd u nrevet ted , i n tervenes b etween t he r ampart a nd t he s cooped d i tch ; i ti s a bou t 3 .6 m t h ick a nd i s s epara ted b y ag ap o f 3m f ro m t he r ampar t. T he s cooped d i tch o n t h is s ide d escends t o t he b r ink i n t hree b road s teps. With in t he f or t i s ac o mp lex o f s truc tures f orm ing a mound , s o me 8 .3 m b ack f ro m t he r ampart.

I n t h is mound p ar t

o f ah u t i n ter ior h as b een e xposed q u i te r ecen t ly , p resumably b y a n ama teur e xcava tor ; t he h u t i s r ec t il inear , t he v is ible p or t ions b e ing t he w hole l eng th o f o ne i ns ide wa l l , 2 .74 m , a nd p ort ions o f t he a d jo in ing walls. o f t he i n ter ior i s c hoked w ith d ebr is;

T he r est

t he c onstruc t ion i s g ood , t he l ower

p art o f t he wa l lb eing o f o r thos ta ts , w i th f i ne d ry masonry a bove.

To t he

n or th-wes t o fh ere, 3 m a way , i s ad eep d epress ion g iv ing a ccess t o as out erra in wh ich r uns n or th-eastwards a nd d ownwards ( f ol low ing t he g round s lope ) f or 1 0.7 m , emerg ing o n t he c l if f f ace. I ta ppears t hen t ha t i n Orkney a nd o n t he n or th c oas t o f S co t land we h ave s evera l f or t if ica t ions wh ich , i n t ha t t hey a re mass ive ly b road s truc tures w ith v ert ica l o r b a t tered masonry f aces f ron t a nd r ear , r ese mble t he S het land b lockhouses. A l l o f t he m a re w ide e nough t o c on ta in c el ls o r g a l ler ies b u t whe ther a ny a ctua l ly d o s o , i s k nown o n ly a t N ybster , where t here i s ag a l lery , a nd Mihowe , w h ich a ppears t o h ave a c el l n ear t he e n trance. Whe ther a ny , l i ke N ess o f Burg i , s topped s hor t o f c o mp letely b arr ing t he p romon tory , a lso i s i n d oubt ;

o n ly a t Midhowe i s a n e nd wa l l-face p reserved.

Bu t t he g enera l

i mpress ion t hey g ive , i s o f s er iously d efens ible p ro mon tory f or ts d esigned a s c o mp lete b arr iers.

B ecause o fb roch-per iod a nd p ost-bro t h d isturbance ,

o r ig ina l i n ter ior a rrange ments o ft he f or ts a re n ot d iscernable e xcep t i n t he b roch-less e xamp les o f Dun Mha ir te in a nd S garbach ; a nd a t S garbach , t he c oncen tra t ion o f d o mest ic a c t iv i ty i mmed ia tely b eh ind t he r a mpar t a nd i nward o f t he g a teway , i s i n terest ing i n v iew o f Ham il ton 's i n terpre ta t ion o f t he b lockhouses.

The t rue " Shet land B lockhouse" t ype may b e d ef ined a part f rom t hese " f orework" s truc tures , b y i t s e nd wa l l-faces g iv ing i t as el f-su f f ic ien t a ppeara nce.

A t N ess o f Burg i , i tp robably was b u i l t f ree-stand ing ;

a t L och o f

Hux ter , i tf orms p ar t o f ac on t inuous d efens ive c ircu i t b u t i s b u i l t s epara te ly f ro m t he c on t iguous wa l ls. A t C l ickh im in t he b lockhouse b egan l i ke t he Hux ter o ne , b u t when a l tera t ions made i tr edundan t a s ag ateway , i t was c arefu l ly r e ta ined a s af ree-s tand ing s truc ture.

T h is q u irk o f d es ign c an b e

e labora ted b y i n troduc ing t wo f ur ther S he t land e xamp les o fb lockhouse f or ts — Burg i G eos a nd t he N orth F ort o f S ca tness —and a p oss ible o ne , R iggan o f K am i , o n t he e ast c oast o f Deerness i n Orkney.

2 6

Burg i G eos mus tb e d iscussed a t s o me l eng th , f or i ti s a most e x trao rd inary s i te ; a nd a l though i th as b een k nown s ince t he m iddle o f l as t c en tury , t he p rac t ica l d if f icu l t ies a nd p hysica l l abour o f r each ing t h is r e mo te s po t o n t he d eserted West N eaps o f Yel l , h ave p reserved i tf ro m d eta i led p ubl ica t ion . N or th a nd s ou th a long t he c l if f-coast t here i s n o a ccess t o a ny s a fe l and ing b y b oa t ;

a nd t he e n t ire h in terland o f t he f or t i s ad ark p ea t moor.

Th is i s t he

n o tor ious Y el l p ea t , t he t h ickest p ea t c over i n S he t land , w h ich o n h i l ls ides a nd h il l tops h as b een e roded b y wa ter a nd w ind i n to a s er ies o f g u l l ies a nd mesas;

t he v er t ica l s ides o f t hese a re o f ten a me tre o r t wo h igh , mak ing

t h is a mos t d if f icu l t c oun try t o c ross.

Much o f t he S het land h i l l c oun try i s

c overed w i th t he f i eld s yste ms a nd f armsteads o f e arly p reh is tor ic s et t le men t ; o n s uch a reas p ea t f or ma t ion h as t aken p lace w ith in t he l as t t hree t housand y ears. Whether t he Y el l p ea t u p t o 1 0 m t h ick , c oncea ls s uch a n a nc ien t f ar m ing s yste m , i s n ot k nown ; b u t i ti s i mprobable u n less t he p ea t g row th i s p heno mena l ly r ap id .

I ti s d if f icu l t t ob e l ieve t ha t t he l and a round Burg i

G eos was a ny b e t ter t han n ow , a t t he t ime t he f or t was o ccup ied . T he n earest modern s e t t le men t t o Burg i Geos h as b een t he v ery marg ina l c rof t o f V igon , o ne k ilo me tre t o t he n or th , wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een s et t led a nd a bandoned d ur ing t he n ineteen th c en tury. V igon mus t h ave d epended l argely o n t he n arrow b el t o f g rass s ward a long t he c l if f tops , wh ich a l though s tun ted b y s a l t s pray , p rov ides b e t ter p asture t han t he p ea t moor. A t Burg i Geos , t he j agged c l if fs o fq uar tzi te-ve ined muscov i te-gne iss a re s o me 6 0 m h igh ;

t he s i te i s t he

n arrow s inuous p ro mon tory b e tween t he N or th a nd S ou th Burg i Geos.

The

a pproach r uns a long t he n arrow ing i s th mus , w here t he o u ter d efences a re p laced ;

t hen c rosses a l ower a nd n arrower s add le o f r ock b efore c l imb ing

t o t he f or t p roper. Th is i s t he r o man t ic a nd i mprobable s et t ing o f o ne o f t he s trangest f or t if i ed s et t le ments t ha t t he m ind o f man h as c once ived . The o u ter d efences , o n t he i s th mus l andward o f t he s add le , c o mpr ise t wo d ist inc t f ea tures o n e ach s ide o f t he p a th , w h ich t herefore t akes t he f or m o f a n a venue ( f ig. 1 0 , p l . 6 -7 ). On t he n orth s ide , t here i s ac on t inuous l i ne o fb ou lders p resen t ing a n e ven f ace t o t he p a th. On t he s ou th s ide , f i rst t here i s af ree-s tand ing mound , t rapezoida l i n p lan ;

t hen c o mes a g ap , t hen ab ank r unn ing a longs ide

t he p a th f or t he r est o ft he way u n t il t he d escen t t o t he s add le b eg ins. T his b ank h as n o r evetmen tb u t i s s e t w i th many j agged s tones wh ich f or m a s ol i tary f ar-northern e xamp le o f c hevaux-de-fr ise ( p l . 8 ) . T he s tones a re s et i n t he s u mm it a nd o nb o th s lopes o ft he mound ; o n i t s s ou th s ide , t he mound s lope merges i n to t he e ver-s teepen ing g round s lope N k h ich p resen t ly b ecomes a , c l if f .

T he c on t inuous l i ne o f t he b ou lders n or th o f t he p a th i sb es t e xp la ined

a s t he r eve t men t o f ab ank o f l oose ma ter ia l wh ich h as s l ipped o ver t he v er t ica l c l if fb eh ind . T he a rrange men t o n t he s ou th s ide h as n o o bv ious l og ic. Across t he s add le , t he p a th c l i mbs s teep ly t o t he f l a t s urface o f t he p romon tory , where i tp asses a longs ide t he ma in s truc ture.

A t f i rs t g lance ,

t h is a ppears t o b e aw a l l o f masonry r unn ing a long t he b r ink o f t he v ert ica l c l i f f f ac ing e ast , a nd o n t he s ou th s ide t urn ing a t r igh t a ngles t o f l ank t he p a th. To t he n or th , i tc urves a round t o f o l low t he c l if f top . On c loser i nspect i on i ti s s een t ha t t here i s aj o in t i n t he masonry a bou t 4 .25 m f ro m t he n or th-east a ngle o f t he c l if f , a nd t ha t t h is c orresponds w i th a marked b reak 2 7

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o f s lope i n t he mound b eh ind i t . T h is i s s hown most c learly i nI rv ine 's s ke tch o f 1 853, f i g. 1. T he mound i s 1 .5 m h igh a nd h as many p ro jec t ing s tones; a nd t races o f a no ther wa l l-face c an b e s een a t i t s r ear. T he s truc ture t hus r esolves i t sel f i n to ab lock o f masonry 4 .25 m w ide a nd 6 .7 m l ong , w i th a w a l l r unn ing f l ush w i th i t s f ron t f ace f rom i t s n or th-east c orner , b u t n ot b onded i n to i t ;

a nd c urv ing a round a nd b ack a s a sma l l r ing-wa l l , t o meet

t he s ou th-west c orner o ft he b lock , w here t he r ing-wa l l i s f l ush w ith t he b lock 's s ou th wa l l-face ( p ls. 9 -10-11). T h is i s p rec isely t he a rrange men t o f L och o f Hux ter , w here t he r ingwa l l r uns f ro m d iagona l ly o ppos ite c orners o f t he b lockhouse , t o wh ich i ti s n ot b onded .

The Burg i Geos b lockhouse i s

w ider t han t he Hux ter o ne , a nd c orresponds c losely i n w id th t o C l ickhi m in . B ear ing i n m ind t ha t e ven t he n arrow L och o f Hux ter b lockhouse c onta ins c el ls, a nd t ha t t he a ppearance o ft he Burg i Geos mound s uggests t u mbled d ebr is, i ti s l i kely e nough t ha t h ere we h ave a nother e xamp le o f ah ol low b lockhouse. s age;

Bu t s ign i f ican t ly , Burg i G eos d oes n o t c on ta in a n e n trance p as-

a nd i td oes n ot o bstruc t t he p a th o n t o t he p ro mon tory , t he p a th wh ich

s imp ly p asses b eside i t . h ere; c hecks.

There i s n o s ign o f t here e ver h av ing b een a b arr ier

n o s ign o f masonry s ou th o f t he p a th , n o t race o f t he d ist inct ive d oorT he s i te i s s o r e mote , a nd s uch w ou ld b e t he d if f icul ty o f r e mov ing

s tones , t ha t we c annot c on jure u p q u irk ishly s elec t ive s tone-robb ing t o e xp la in t he r e mova l o f a n i mag ined f or mer b arr ier. I n a ny c ase , t he p ara l lel w i th t he Hux ter l ayou t s hou ld l eave u s i n n o d oubt t ha t t he Burg i G eos b lockhouse a nd r ing-wa l l a re a c o mp lete u n i ty. The a rea e nc losed b y t he Burg i Geos r ing-wa l l i s much smal ler t han a t L och o f Hux ter. i so n ly 4 m.

F ro m t he r ear o f t he b lockhouse t o t he r ing-wal l b eh ind i t ,

On t he o ccas ions o f v is i ts b y t he wr i ter d ur ing t he d ry s u mmers

o f 1 970 a nd 1 971, t he s hort t urf o f t he p ro mon tory s umm it w as e n t irely p arched , e xcep t i n t wo sma l l a reas wh ich r e ma ined l ush a nd g reen. One o f t hese was ar ec tangu lar p a tch immed ia tely b eh ind t he b lockhouse , o ccupy ing t he s pace b etween i ta nd t he r ing-wa l lb eh ind , s ugges t ing t he p resence o f o ccupa t ion d epos its h ere. T he o ther g reen a rea was a s em ic ircu lar d epress ion o n t he c l i f f e dge f ur ther a long t he p ro mon tory.

I n t he s ect ion h ere i s 0 .23 m o f

s ter ile p ea t o verly ing a n o ccupa t ion d eposi t c on ta in ing s o me p ieces o f ac oarse b lack s tea t ite-and m icate mpered p ot tery ( s o me s herds o f wh ich a re n ow i n L erw ick museu m ).

The d epress ion a ppears t ob e h al f o f ac ircular h u t .

—

O n t h is p ro mon tory t herefore we h ave a sma l lb lockhouse-and-r ingwork s tructure c o mparab le w i th o ne wh ich p robably e x isted a t C l ickh im in a nd s t i l l s urv ives a t L och o f Hux ter . Bu t whereas a t C l ickh im in a nd Hux ter t h is l ayo u t f i ts t he s i te--an a pprox ima tely c ircu lar i s let—a t Burg i G eos i ti s s trangely p laced a t o ne s ide o f t he a pproach t o ap ro mon tory .

L ike t he N ess o f Burg i

b lockhouse , i td oes n ot b arr icade t h is a pproach ; i td oes n o t f or m a n o bstacle a ga inst a ccess t o t he p ro mon tory , where t here was a t l east o ne h u t i n o ccup a t ion . The d isposi t ion o ft he o u ter d efences i s e qua l ly c ur ious. S uperf ic ia l ly , t he f unc t ion o f t he a venue m ight s ee m t o b e t o c on f ine a r ush a t tack i n a n arrower s pace.

A ga inst a m iss i le a t tack t h is wou ld n o t b e much h e lp ,

s ince t he d efenders wou ld h ave b een a s v u lnerable a s t he a t tackers; c ou ld b e s o me u se i n h andto-hand f i gh t ing.

b u t i t

Bu t t he c onstruc t ion o f t he e la-

b ora te a venue s ee ms s uperf luous o n t he a lready n arrow a nd d angerous i s th mus, 2 9

F ig . 1 1

B urg i Geos :

f ro m a n e ngrav ing b y J . T . I rv ine , 1 853

3 0

w here a more e f fec t ive d efence c ou ld h ave b een c on tr ived b y a rrang ing t he p a th t o r un a long t he b r ink o f t he c l if f .

I ts ee ms r a ther t ha t t he a venue was

i n tended t o g u ide p eop le a long t he s a fest p a th , w i th t he s tone-row t o t he n or th , a nd t he c hevaux-de-fr ise b ank t o t he s ou th , f or m ing p arape ts. And i ti s a n o bv ious n onsense t o h ave c hevaux-defr ise a rranged b es ide a n a pproach r ou te a nd n ot a cross i t . The n or ma l d ispos it ion o f s tone c hevaux-de-fr ise , n otably i n t he I r ish a nd I ber ian e xa mp les, i s i n f ron t o f ar ampar t where t hey w ou ld b reak u p a ny a t te mp ted r ush a t tack .

I tc ou ld p erhaps b e s uggested , t ha t Burg i G eos

i n i t s o r ig ina l d es ign h ad a r ampart—of wh ich t he n orthern s tone-row i s t he r evet men t— to wh ich t he c hevaux-de-fr ise f or med a n o u ter d efence.

T h is

t heory n ecess i ta tes i mag in ing t ha t t he o r ig ina l s hape o f t he i s th mus h as b een d rast ica l ly a l tered b y c l if f-fa l ls , s o t ha t t he a pproach wh ich f or mer ly was a t r igh t a ngles t o t he t wo l i nes o f d efence , n ow r uns b etween t he m . I t i s ad iff i cul t h ypothes is t o u phold. T he amoun t o f e ros ion i ti s n ecessary t o a ssu me , s ee ms much t oo g rea t f or t h is v ery h ard r ock .

T he c hevaux-de-fr ise b ank

s hows n o s ign o f e ver h av ing c urved a round t o b lock t he p resen t a pproach. A nd a ny a t te mp t t o p roduce a m il i tar ily mean ingfu l l ayou t r esu l ts i n av ery c on tr ived p lan . S ince t he i nner s truc tures o fb lockhouse a nd r ing-wa l l make n o m il itary s ense , i ts hou ld b e n o s urpr ise t ha t t he o u ter d efences d o n ot d o s o e i ther.

The a venue h as f ea tures wh ich s uggest t ha t i ti s t he i n tended l i ne

o fa pproach.

T he n or thern s tone-row t er m ina tes a t i t s e astern e nd i n ap ar-

t i cu larly mass ive b ou lder , a nd i mmed ia tely o ppos ite t h is i s a nother b ou lder s e t i n to t he s ide o f t he t rapezoida l mound. Fur ther west a long t he a venue , t here i s a n e rec t s lab s e t a t r igh t a ngles t o t he p a th , i n t he s ide o f t he c hevauxd e-fr ise mound .

A tb oth t hese p o in ts t here may h ave b een g a tes o r l i ght

b arr iers a cross t he a venue. Burg i Geos h as t he o n ly c er ta in e xamp le o f c hevaux-de-fr ise f or s o me 5 00 km i n a ny d irec t ion . I ti s e x traord inary t ha t t h is e xo t ic f ea ture a ppears o n s o w ild a nd r e mote a s tretch o f c oast. E xamp les o f s tone c hevaux-de-fr ise o ccur i n s ou thern S cot land , I reland , Wa les a nd I ber ia ; b u t Harb ison ( 1971 ) h as r e jec ted t he o ld i dea t ha t t he Br i t ish a nd I ber ian o nes a re d irec t ly l i nked . H e p roposed t ha t a l l a re ofshoots o f a n i dea o r ig ina l ly c once ived i n t imber s omewhere i n C en tra l E urope , p oss ibly d ur ing t he e igh th o r s even th c en tury B .C. a s ar eponse a ga inst t he i ncreasing u se o f t he h orse i n warfare.

S uch

w ooden c hevaux-de-fr ise a re r epresen ted i n Br ita in a t S ou th Barru le o n t he I s le o f Man .

Harbison 's t hes is d epends o n t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t f ar more o f

t hese t imber e xamp les e x isted o n t he C on t inen t , t han h ave b een f oun d.

T here

a re n o s tone c hevaux-de-fr ise o n t he C on t inen t o u ts ide I ber ia , a nd t he n earest t o Burg i Geos w i th in Br ita in a re i n Mid loth ian a nd Wig townsh ire. Whether o r n ot we a ccep t Harb ison 's t heory o f t he o r ig in o f c hevaux-def r ise , i ti s c lear e nough t ha t t he i nsp ira t ion f or Burg i Geos was w ith in Br i ta in. T he s heer muddled t h ink ing i mp l ic i t i n t he Burg i Geos l ayou t s hows t ha t i t mus t h ave b een c op ied f ro m a s tone e xamp le — i t was n ot t he work o f s o me e n terpr is ing p ioneer who f i rst t ransla ted s harpened s takes i n to j agged s tones. C hevaux-de-fr ise h ave a marked ly w estern d istr ibu t ion , s o i t must b e a ssu med t ha t Burg i Geos was i nsp ired b y e xamp les i n s ou th-east S co t land o r t he I r ish s ea a rea. T he s i te t herefore i s ac lear i l lustra t ion o f t he d istances o ver

3 1

F ig . 1 2

S ca tness N orth F ort , D unrossness , S he t land

3 2

w h ich i deas c ou ld b e t rans m i t ted v ia t he w estern s eaways.

Bu t t he b u i lder

o f Burg i G eos k new o n ly wha t ac hevaux-de-fr ise d efence s hou ld l ook l i ke , a nd t ha t i t was c orrec t t o h ave i to u ts ide y our f ort ; h e d id n o t u nderstand o r c are a bou t t he t ac t ica l a pp l ica t ion o f t he t h ing. Hav ing d ec ided o n c hevaux-def r ise, h e h ad t o p rov ide t he e ar th b ank t o p u t t he s tones i n ; f or w ith t he i mp ossibly h ard r ock j us tb enea th t he t urf , t h is was t he o n ly way o f h old ing t he s t ones e rec t. The whole impress ion o f Burg i Geos i s t ha t i s was b u i l t f or p rest ige. I t s o u ter a pproach i s n o t ad efence, b u t af or ma l a venue b es ide w h ich t he w i ld ly e xot ic f ea ture o f c hevaux-de-fr ise--doub tless t he u l t ima te s tatus-symbol o f i t s d ay — is s et o u t l i ke a f l ower b ed. T he b lockhouse i s j ust a r ec tangu lar b lock o f masonry n o t e ven p re tend ing t ob e ag a teway. T he r ingwork wh ile p ara l lel ing t he d es ign o f t hose a t Hux ter a nd C l ickh im in , e nc loses s o sma l l a n a rea , a nd i s s o w eak i n c onstruc t ion , a s t o b e n o more t han a t oy .

T he

p uzz le i s , why t h is e x traord inar ily w i ld s pot was c hosen b y t he p rest igec onsc ious b u i lder.

Why , i fs er ious d efence d id n ot ma t ter , t h is h orr ify ingly

d angerous e yr ie b etween t wo f earsome g u l fs? Was t he e xh i lara t ion o f t he c l if f top p osi t ion a n e ssen t ia l i ngred ien t i n t he d es ired e f fec t? T he N orth F ort o f S ca tness l i es o n t he e ast s ide o f t he S ca tness p en insu la , o n ly 4 00 m n orth f ro m N ess o f Burg i ( f ig. 1 2, p l . 1 2-13 ). I to ccup ies ab lun t p ro mon tory i mmed ia tely o n t he ma in land s ide o f t he b ou lder-beach ;

a nyone

wa lk ing t o v is it N ess o f Burg i mus t wa lk w i th in s igh t o f t he f or t , s o i ti s v ery s urpr ising t ha t i tw en t s o l ong u nrecorded .

T he d r if t c ap o f t he l owly ing

p ro mon tory h as b een r educed b y e ros ion e ven more t han a t N ess o f Burg i , a nd i t s c on t inua t ion s eawards a s a n e x tens ive wave-cu t p lat for m s uggests t ha t t he f or t i n ter ior o r ig ina l ly was more e x tens ive t han n ow . An o u ter b ank 1 .5 m h igh a nd 3 m b road a tb ase , c urves i n land f ro m t he e dge o f t he l ow c l if f i n ab road a rc t o e nc lose t he p ro mon tory .

I ti s made o f l oose ma ter ia l

d er ived f ro m a s ha l low i n terna l q uarry-scoop .

T o t he p ro mon tory i t self

t here i s as harp r ise o f a bou t a metre, a nd a t t he t op o f t he r ise i s s e t ar ect angular b lock . T he b lock i s g rassed o ver b u t t he f acing s tones a re v is ible a t t he f ron t. T o t he r ear , i tg rades i n to t he n a tural s lope o f t he g round , s o i ti sp oss ible o n ly t o e st i ma te t ha t t he w id th o f t he b lock was b e tween 3 m a nd 6m . A t t he e ast e nd t he b lock e nds o n t he c l if f-edge , b u t o n t he west s ide i ti sq u i te c lear t ha t t he b lock s tops wel l s hort o f t he e dge, l eav ing a n u ndefended g ap .

The e ast e nd o f t he b lock v isible i n t he c l if f-sec t ion , i s a wa l l made o f

l arge o r thosta ts w ith masonry a bove. A s t here i s n o s ign o f d oorchecks , t h is mus tb e t he e nd o ft he b lockhouse a nd n ot t he s ide wa l l o f a n e n trance p assage ( p l . 1 3).

E rosion h ere i s s uch t ha t i ti s l i kely t ha t b o th e nds o ft he b lockhouse

o r ig inal ly s tood w el lb ack f ro m t he e dge. I n i t s s et t ing t herefore i tr ese mbles i t s n eighbour , N ess o f Burg i ; a nd i t was l i ke Burg i G eos i n l ack ing a g a teway . R iggan o f Kam i i s ap ro mon tory o n t he e ast c oas t o f Deerness i n Orkney . T he p ro mon tory n arrows v ery r ap id ly t o a mere k n ife-edge. Curv ing a cross t he l andward e nd i s amass ive s tructure wh ich i s a nother p oss ible b lockhouse. Th is i s o ne o f t he r ich f ar m ing a reas o f Orkney a nd t he l and b eh ind t he f ort i s e nclosed p asture wh ich s uppor ts b eef c a t t le. The p ro mon tory i s f enced o f f , a nd c onsequen tly i sb ad ly o bscured u nder n et t les , c ow-parsn ip a nd l ong g rass.

I ta ppears a s ab road mound 1 .5 m •h igh , e x tend ing i n aw ide a rc t o 3 3

c lose t he a pproach t o t he p ro mon tory . Depress ions , a nd l eng ths o f wal l-face wh ich c an b e f ound b y k ick ing t hrough t he v ege ta t ion , s ee m t o i nd ica te c el ls a nd p ossibly a med ia l ly-p laced e n trance p assage ;

more c er ta in i s a wal l-

f ace d el im i t ing t he f ea ture a t i t s n orthern e nd , w el l s hor t o f t he c l if f-edge. Beh ind t he mound a re t races o f t wo c ircu lar h u ts , b isec ted b y e ros ion o f t he c l if f .

T he Roya l C o mm iss ion ( RCAMS 1 946, i , 2 43, n o. 6 28 ) b e l ieved

R iggan o f Kam i t ob e ab roch , b u t i ti s q u ite t he w rong s hape. T he a ccoun t men t ions t ha t m idden ma teria l h ad b een p loughed u p i n t he n e ighbour ing f i eld , a nd t ha t ar u ined s ta ir h ad b een v is ible i n t he mound . We may r eca l l t he s ta irs i n t he C l ickh im in b lockhouse a nd t o r ear o f t he Midhowe a nd N ybster f oreworks. The s ca le a nd s hape o f t he mound s uggests s o meth ing n ot u n l ike N ess o f Burg i wh ich , i fi th ad d ebr is p i led a bou t i ta nd a c over ing o f d ense v ege ta t ion , i ndeed wou ld l ook v ery much a s R iggan o f Kam i d oes t oday. Bu t f ina l j udge men t must wa i t u n t il t he s i te c an b e p roper ly c leared a nd e xa m ined. T here i s af ur ther p oss ible Orkney s i te o f t h is t ype , a t t he B rough o f Braeb is ter o n t he n orth c oast o f Hoy . I th as a n e longa ted mound s o me 3 m h igh r unn ing o n ab road a rc a cross t he a pproach t o ap ro mon tory .

T he Roya l

C o mm iss ion s uggested t ha t t he mound was modern— tha t t here h ad b een a b roch a t t he s eaward e nd o f t he p ro mon tory , a nd t ha t w hen t h is w as r obbed f or i t s s tone , t he u nwan ted s tones h ad b een d umped t o f or m t he mound ( RCAMS 1 946, i , 1 09 , n o. 3 80 ). Th is i s o ne o f s evera l e xamp les o f c on fus ion c aused t o modern a rchaeolog ists b y t heir own u sage o f t he word " brough" o r " broch" ; i ti s u nnecessary t o a ssu me t ha t t here was ab roch a t Braebister , a nd t here i s n o t race o fo ne o n t he s eaward e nd o f t he p ro mon tory. S eaward o f t he mound , t here a re t races o f s lab-structures.

T he s i te i s ap romon tory f or t ;

p or t ions o f wa l l-face c an b e s een h ere a nd t here i n t he mound , a nd a l though i n i t s d ebr is-covered c ond it ion c er ta in i den t if ica t ion i s i mposs ible , t h is may b e a no ther s truc ture o fb lockhouse t ype.

A t ten t ion mus h ere b e d rawn t o ac ur ious e le men t i nt he o u ter d efences o f o ne o f S he t land 's n otable b rochs. Th is i s Bur land , ab roch s pec tacu lar ly s i ted o n ac l if f-head land , s o a rranged t ha t t he d oorway o pens o n t o an arrow p a th d irec t ly a bove t he b r ink ( f ig. 2 0 ).

The a pproach t o t he p romon tory i s

g uarded b y at r ip le r ampart a rrange men t w h ich w i l lb e d escr ibed i n t he c hap ter o n mu l t iva l la te f orts. The o uter r a mpar t i s s tone-reve t ted b oth s ides, t he m idd le o ne i s as i mp le d ump b ank , a nd t he i nner o ne i s ad iferen t c ons truct ion o n e i ther s ide o ft he med ia l ly-p laced e n trance g ap. E as t o f t he g ap , t h is i nner l i ne i s a nother d u mp b ank , b u t o n t he w estern s ide i ti s a v ery n ea tly-construc ted wal l , j ust u nder 3 m w ide. T he e nd o ft h is a ga ins t t he e n trance i sb roken d own a nd g rassed o ver , b u t o n t he western e dge o f t he p ro mon tory t he wa l l f i n ishes s o me 2 m b ack f ro m t he p resen t-day c l if fe dge.

I th as a n ea t ly masoned e nd wa l l-face.

T h is a rrange men t s urely must

r ef lec t t he b lockhouse i dea , f or t h is must h ave b een s o me s pec ia l r eason f or b u ild ing t h is s hor t l eng th o f s tou t wa l l . Another p oss ible e xamp le o f s uch a" blockhouse-p lan wa l l" i s a t t he Broch o f Burraland i n Dunrossness — the

3 4

b roch o n t he ma in land s ide o f Mousa S ound—where a s im i lar wa l l , a lso w ith n ea t ly masoned e ndface a bove t he c l if f-edge , f orms p art o f t he d efences a cross t he n arrow i s th mus.

A l lb u t t wo o f t he b lockhouse a nd r ela ted s tructures s o f ar men t ioned a re s i ted o n p ro mon tor ies;

i n t he t wo e xcep t ions , C l ickh im in ( i n i t s o r ig ina l l ay-

o u t ) a nd L och o f Hux ter , t he b lockhouse was t he g a teway t o a n i s let r ing-for t. T hese a re t he o n ly t wo c ases where ab lockhouse i s i n tegra ted i n to a d es ign w h ich i s i mmed ia tely o bv ious a s mak ing m il itary s ense. And o n ly a t Hux ter d id t his l ayou t s urv ive u n mod if ied — la ter a l tera t ions a t C l ickh im in made t he b lockhouse t ac t ica l ly r edundan tb u t c arefu l ly p reserved i tw i th s o me o ther f unct ion i n m ind .

A t N ess o f Burg i , t he b lockhouse s tands i so la ted ;

i td oes

n o tb arr icade t he p ro mon tory ; i tc ou ld b e o u tf lanked . Any m il itary s treng th w h ich N ess o f Burg i p ossessed , l ay n ot i n i t s b lockhouse b u t i n t he t wo o u ter d i tches w i th t he mass ive s tone-revet ted r ampar t b e tween t he m . Thp n e ighb our ing N orth F or t o f S ca tness , where t he b lockhouse d oes n ot c on ta in a g a teway , i s e qua l ly u nsu i ted t o s er ious d efence. A t Burg i Geos , i ts ee ms t ha t s o meone a sse mbled a l l t he m i l i tary p arapherna l ia f ash ionable a t t he t ime o f i t s b u i ld ing , a nd c on tr ived w ith t he m a p os it ion o f min i ma l s er ious s treng th. A t Bur land , t he b lockhouse-p lan wa l l s urely w ou ld h ave c on t inued r igh t a cross t he i s th mus i fi th ad b een i n tended a s s er iously d efens ive. I n Orkney i ta ppears t ha tR iggan o f Kam i d oes n ot c o mp le tely c lose i t s i s thu mus a pproach , a nd t here i s a n i nd ica t ion o f as im i lar q u irk a t t he g a teway e nd o f t he Midhowe f orework . Bu t a s w e move s ou th f ro m S he t land , t he b lockhousel ike s tructures d o a ssu me t he a ppearance o f s er ious p ro mon tory f orts. The Midhowe f orework c omes v ery c lose t ob e ing o ne , w h ile N ybs ter , S garbach a nd Dun Mha irte in a l l a ppear t o h ave c o mp lete b arr iers.

We may i mag ine t herefore t ha t t he

S het land b lockhouses u l t i ma tely d er ive f ro m t hese p ro mon tory-si ted mass ive w a l l-l ike c onstruc t ions , b u t t ha t i n t he c ourse o f t he d evelopmen t , m il i tary c ons idera t ions w ere d isp laced b y t hough ts o f s oc ia l s ta tus a nd d isp lay . I n t erms o f c onstruc t ion , t he Ca i thness a nd Orkney s tructures h ave many f ea tures o f t he t rue b lockhouses —grea t w id th; t he p resen ta t ion o f av er t ica l o r n earv er t ica l wa l l-face t o r ear a s w el l a s t owards t he f i eld ; t he d esign o f t he e n trance p assage.

a nd p ar t icu larly ,

T he t hree t rad it iona l lyiden t if ied S het-

l and b lockhouses c on ta in c el ls a nd i ti s n ot k nown t ha t t he Orkney a nd C a i thn ess s tructures d o n ot d o s o t oo : Midhowe f orework a ppears t o c on ta in a c el l n ear t he e n trance; N ybs ter h as a g round g a l lery ; S garbach a nd Dun Mha ir te in b oth a re mass ive e nough t o h ave d one s o. We c an i mag ine t heref ore t ha t a l l t he s tructures a re n o t w idely s epara ted i n t ime , a nd t ha t t he S he t land b lockhouses a re a s pec ia l d evelopmen t f ro m t he m , ad evelopmen t r e la ted t o t he e labora t ion o f s o me n on- m i l i tary f unct ion . The most r easonable e xp lana t ion s o f ar p roposed , i s Ham il ton 's , t ha t t h is d evelopmen t h as t o d o w i th s pec ia lb u ild ings e rec ted i m med ia tely b eh ind t he b lockhouses.

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Poss ibly t he p osi t ion ing o f ma jor b u ild ings i m med ia tely b eh ind t he r amp art , was a c o m mon p rac t ice i n p ro mon tory f or ts.

A most s tr ik ing e xa mp le

i s Dun Uraga ig i n C olonsay , where r ound h u ts a re c lustered c lose b eh ind t he wa l l ( Piggo t t 1 946 ).

Two r ound h u ts were i n t h is p os it ion a t R iggan o f K am i.

A t S garbach , t he e n trance p assage o pens d irec t ly o n t o a ma in o ccupa t ion a rea , t he ma in a cco mmoda t ions o f t he f ort a ppear ing t o b e c oncen tra ted h ere. A t Ta ing o f Brough , F lubersgerd ie , Unst , S het land ( f ig. 1 3 ), a p ro mon tory f or t o f i ndeter m ina te t ype , b u t p oss ibly b lockhouse-rela ted , h as i t s ma in o ccupa t ion im med ia tely b eh ind t he d efens ive wal l .

We h ave a t t he mo men t

h owever n o e v idence o f t he p rocess b y w h ich t hese b u ild ings a ssu med s uch ar ole , t ha t t hey i n f luenced t he d es ign o fb lockhouses.

A t p resen t , t he o n ly

c er ta in f act i s t ha t t here was a l ean-to b u i ld ing o f s o me s ort a ga inst t he r ear o ft he C l ickh im in b lockhouse — th is much i s c lear f ro m t he s carce men t l edge. T he f ur ther d e ta ils o f Ha m i l ton 's i n terpre ta t ion a re d ispu table .

The o n ly

g round e v idence f or t he b u i ld ing was a c obbled s urface , t he l im its o f wh ich w ere n ot d ef ined.

T he r econstruc t ion o f a n e labora te t wo-storeyed t imber

b u ild ing a s s hown i n S orrel l 's d raw ing ( Ha m il ton 1 968 , p l . I X ), d epends n ot o n a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f ro m t he s i te i t sel f , b ut o n t he a pp l ica t ion t o i t o f t he I r ish e p ic ma ter ia l . s tood t he S he tland w inds.

I t i s u n l ike ly t ha t s uch ab u ild ing c ou ld h ave w ithThe s carce men t c ou ld h ave s upported r oof t imbers

r a ther t han a n u pper f l oor , a nd t he whole d es ign h ave b een much l ess e labora te. T he e v idence f or a b u i ld ing b eh ind Burg i G eos i s i fa nyth ing c learer ;

t he

s urv iva l o f d epos i ts h ere i s l i kely t o b e much b et ter t han a t C l ickh im in , a nd i ti s a t Burg i Geos t ha t e xcava t ion most l i kely wou ld r eveal whether t hese r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings were a r ea l i ty. I t i s e qua l ly d if f icu l t t o d eter m ine p rec isely when t he b lockhouses a cqu ired t he ir d is t inc t ive c el ls.

T hese a ppear t o h ave n o s er ious f unc t ion o ther t han

t o s ave we igh t a nd ma ter ia ls.

I n t h is t hey f oreshadow t he b as ic e ssen t ia l o f

b roch a rch itec ture , t he h ol low-wa l l t echn ique ;

f or t he d ouble wa l l o f ab roch

i s much more s table t han wou ld b e as ing le wa l l o f t he s a me o vera l l t h ickness. T ha t t he b lockhouse c el ls h ave n o p urpose o ther t han t h is e ng ineer ing o ne , i s f urther s ugges ted b y t he v ary ing a rrange men ts f or a ccess t o t he m.

A t

L och o f Hux ter , b oth c el ls h ave d oorways o pen ing t o t he r ear w al l-face ; a t N ess o f Burg i o ne o pened o n t o t he e n trance p assage a nd t he o ther t o t he r ear f ace ; a bove.

a t C l ickh im in t he c el ls were a ccess ible , i fa t a l l , o n ly f ro m

The c el l o pen ing t o t he p assage a t N ess o f Burg i h as b een c a l led a

g uard-chamber , a nd t he s a me f unc t ion h as b een a scr ibed t o c el ls i n s im ilar p os it ions i n t he d oorways o fb rochs.

T hese " guard-cha mbers" a re o ne o f

t he t ra its o f t he " broch c u l ture" s upposed t o b etray i n f luence f ro m s ou thw estern E ng land ( MacK ie 1 969b , 5 9 ).

T he c on trovers ia l q uest ion o f i mm igra-

t i ons f ro m Wessex w il lb e d iscussed a t l eng th i n al a ter s ec t ion ;

b u t o n

" guard-chambers" , we s urely s hou ld n ot a t te mp t t o r ela te t hese t iny c el ls t o t he g uard-roo ms o f Engl ish h i l lforts, f or t here r ea l ly i s n o c o mpar ison . Wi th in t he sma l l s oc ia l u n it o f ab roch , i ts urely wou ld h ave b een u nnecessary t o h ave a man a lways a t t he g a te wa tch ing c om ings a nd g o ings.

And t he

E ngl ish e xa mp les o fg uard-roo ms w ith in h i l l fort g a teways, a re g eneral ly much t oo e arly t o h ave i n f luenced b rochs.

The c ra mped , d ark c el l o pen ing

i n to t he p assage wou ld h ave b een a p oor v an tage-po in t f ro m wh ich t o g uard t he d oor — i ts o ccupan t wou ld b e i n av ery p oor p osi t ion t o t ake d efens ive a ct ion , a nd i ndeed wou ld b e i n ac er ta in d ea thtrap i fa n e ne my d id g e t p ast t he d oor. 3 7

MacK ie ( i b id.) s ugges ts t ha t t he a ppearance o f t hese " guard-chambers" i n t he n or thern b rochs a nd t he S he t land b lockhouses , b u t n ot i n t he s em ibrochs o f t he Hebr ides , i nd ica tes t he p rec ise p o in t a t w h ich t he s ou thern i n f luences i n tervened.

Bu t t he d if ference b etween t he s epara te c el ls o f t he b lockhouses

a nd t he l i near g a l ler ies o f t he s em ibrochs , i s n ot f unda men tal ; i ti sj us t a d if ference i n t he a pp l ica t ion o f ac o mmon t echn ique o f c onstruc t ion . The " se m ibrochs" a re a d ist inc t ive t ype o f Hebr idean g a l ler ied d un ; t hey a re e i ther b u il t a ga inst a s tra igh t c l if f-edge , a ssum ing a D-shaped p lan ; o r t hey a re p ro mon tory f or ts. I n t he l a t ter c ase t hey r ese mble t he n or thern " forework" s truc tures s uch a s N ybster a nd Midhowe. T he most f amous o ne i s Dun S ron a n Du in o n i t s 2 00 metre h ead land a t Berneray , Barra H ead.

T h is

i s a massive wa l l c on ta in ing ab asa l g al lery , s weep ing i n aw ide a rc a cross t he i s th mus; a t o ne e nd i s a n e n trance p assage w ith a b ar-hole ( Anderson 1 893; Ham il ton 1 968 , 6 1 ). The g a l lery was r oofed w ith s labs , a nd t here was a nother g a l lery a bove i t .

Beh ind t he wa l l i s ad eep r ock-cu t h o l low

wh ich Ha m il ton b el ieves t ob e t he s i te o f ab u i ld ing s im i lar t o t ha t b ehind t he b lockhouses.

MacK ie h as d e monstra ted t ha t s uch f or ts , more p art icu lar ly

i n t he c o mmoner D -shaped f or m , a re t he d irec t p recursors o f t he g roundg al ler ied Hebr idean b rochs. T he Western p ro mon tory-s ited s em ibrochs t herefore d if fer i nt wo r espec ts f rom t he S het land b lockhouses ; t hey h ave i n tra-mura l p assages w here t he b lockhouses h ave c el ls , a nd t hey a re efec t ive p ro mon tory f or ts f orm ing c o mp le te b arr iers , ap o in t wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een o f n o c oncern t o t he S het land b u ilders.

Both p ro mon tory-se m ibrochs a nd b lockhouses h owever

may b e s een a s p ara l lel d evelopmen ts f rom a mass ively t h ick s tone-wa l l p ro mon tory f ort if ica t ion , r epresen ted i n t he N orth b y S garbach a nd D un Mha ir te in b u t f ound t hroughou t t he p romon tory f or t a reas o f Br i ta in 's A t lan t ic s eaboard.

T he p rocess o ft he d evelopmen t h owever awa i ts e luc ida t ion ;

t he

d er iva t ion o f t he i nsp ira t ion f or t he h ol low-wa l l t echn ique , f ro m "murus d up lex" a nd s tepped-rampar t f or ts w i th t he ir wa l ls b u i l t c o mpos i te-fash ion w i th i n terna l f ac ings , a ppears p laus ible ( Ham il ton 1 968 , 5 0-1) , b u t w e l ack e xcava ted e xamp les o f e ach s tage o f t ha t d evelopmen t. The d ist inc t ion b etween t he Hebr idean s em ibrochs a nd o ther g al ler ied d uns a nd Western b rochs w ith t he ir g round-ga l ler ies , a nd t he N or thern b rochs a nd b lockhouses w ith c el ls , i s n ot a r ig id o ne.

N one o f t he mass ive s tone-wa l l

p ro mon tory f ort if ica t ions , s uch a s S garbach o r Midhowe , h as b een e xcava ted t o d e ter m ine whether i tr ea l ly i s s ol id . A t Midhowe , t he b roch i t sel fb egan l i fe a s ag round-ga l ler ied o ne , t he g round g a l lery b e ing p acked s o l id o n r eb u i ld ing a f ter c ol lapse ;

t h is i l lus tra tes l UacK ie 's t hes is t ha t a n e ar ly g round-

g a l ler ied f or m w ou ld h ave g iven way t o t he s ol id-based d es ign a s t he b rochs were b u il th igher.

Bu t t he c la im t ha t , b ecause o n ly g round-ga l ler ied b rochs

a re f ound i n t he West , a nd t he s ol id-based f orm i s d ist inct ively N or thern , t he West o f S cot land i s t he o r ig in c en tre o fb roch a rch i tec ture — is a n o vers i mp l if ica t ion . N o t o n ly t he b roch o f Midhowe , b u t a lso t he " forework" a t Nybster , were b u i l t g round-ga l ler ied .

And t he f ac t t ha t a l l N or thern s truc tures

o f t h is t ype a re c a l led " brochs" w h i le t he Hebr idean o nes a re " duns" , i s a p t t o m islead u s i n to t h ink ing t ha t t here i s a wa ter t ight r eg ional d iv is ion .

Mousa

i s t he most t ower-l ike o f a l lb rochs , a nd MacK ie r igh t ly p u ts i ta t t he a pogee o f t he d evelopmen t; b u t o n t he ma in land s ide .o f Mousa S ound s tands Burra land , 3 8

w h ich h as a n e xcep t iona l ly l arge d ia me ter.

L ike many u nexcava ted b rochs ,

Burra land 's b ase i s c oncea led w i th in a g rea t c one o f d ebr is , a nd t he s tructure i t sel f—w ith a n a ccess ible mural g al lery a t s econd-stage l evel—on ly a ppears h igher u p . I t may wel lb e g round-ga l ler ied ; a t a ny r a te , i f Burra land h ad h appened t o b e i n t he Hebr ides r a ther t han S het land , i tu nhes i ta t ingly w ou ld h ave b een c al led ag a l ler ied d un. A l though i ti s o ne o f t he most s pectacu lar b rochs i n S he t land , Burra land d oes n ot f i gure i n MacK ie 's c hart o fb roch d imensions ( 1965, 1 06 ); h ad i tb een i ncluded , i t s p os it ion o n t he c hart wou ld h ave b een w el l w ith in t he p art o f t he d evelopmen t wh ich i s s upposed t o h ave t aken p lace i n t he West . I n emphas iz ing t he d is t inc t ion b etween N or thern a nd Western f orms , MacK ie ( 1965, 1 40 ) h as s uggested t ha t s o me f eatures o f t he C l ickh imin b lockhouse b etray a s pec if ic p er iod o f Hebr idean i n f luence.

Wh ile t he s epara te

b u ild ing o ft he " en trance s ec t ion" ( b lockhouse ), t he l arge c el ls i n i t , a nd t he s ol id c onstruc t ion o f t he r es t o f t he wa l l , a re a l l n at ive t o S he t land , o ther f eatures — the i n tra- mura l s ta ir , t he b roch-l ike h ol low wa l l o f t he u pper s torey , t he s carce men t , t he r egular c urved p lan , a nd t he b a t tered wal l-faces — a re Hebr idean . N one o f t hese c an b e a ccep ted w i thou t q uery . N o o ther b lockh ouse s urv ives a s h igh a s C l ickh im in , s o we c annot k now a bou t h ol low u pper w a lls a nd s carcemen ts. The s ta ir i s a n i nser t ion ; b u t i n a ny e ven t , t here i s as ta ir i n t he b lockhouse-l ike g a teway a t Wag o f F orse , Ca ithness ( Curle 1 946, 1 3 ).

The p oss ible b lockhouse a t R iggan o f Kam i a ppears t o h ave b een

b u i l t o n ar egu lar c urve , wh i le t he b a t tered wal l-face a ppears i n t he Midhowe f orework . —I t s ee ms , t hen , t ha t t here i s ac o mmon p ool o f f eatures o n w h ich a l lb lockhouses d raw , a nd i ti s u nnecessary t o d er ive a ny o f t he m f ro m o u tside t he N orthern a rea. I fp ro mon tory-si ted s em ibrochs a re a p ara l lel d evelopmen t w i th p ro mont ory-s i ted b lockhouses, t here i s ap ara l lel s itua t ion a lso i n t he a pp l ica t ion o ft he i dea t o ac omp lete-c ircu it f or t if ica t ion. T he s i mp le p ro mon tory f ort r epresen ted b y Dun S ron a n Du in , i s r ela ted t o t he D -shaped s em ibrochs D un Ard treck , Dun R ing i l l a nd Dun Gruga ig , w h ich a re f u l l c ircu i ts;

a nd

t he S het land b lockhouse was u sed i n c on junc t ion w ith a r ing-wa l l a t L och o f Hux ter a nd C l ickh im in , a t Burg i Geos w ith a mere t oken o ne. T he a dop t ion o ft he c o mp lete c ircu it i n p lace o f t he i s th mus b arr ier , i s an ecessary s tep i ft he b rochs a re t ob e g iven a d er iva t ion f ro m s uch s truc tures. The smal l s tone r ing-for t i s ac o mmon f eature i n H igh land Br ita in a nd i ti s p ossible t ha t t he b lockhouse o r p ro mon tory-se m ibroch s o mehow was g raf ted o n t o i t . A t Wag o f F orse , t here i s ac ircu lar r ing-fort i ncorpora t ing a n e n trance b lock t hrough wh ich t he p assage r uns, w i th a s ta ir o pen ing o n t o t he p assage. T h is d if fers f rom t he b lockhouses i n t ha t t he s truc ture d oes n o t p ro jec t f orw ards b eyond t he c urve o f t he wal l , wh ich e x terna l ly i td oes n ot i n terrup t , a nd i ti s o f o ne b u i ld w i th t he wa l l . A t J ar lshof , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a n e arly r ing-wa l l wh ich b roadened o u t , p robably t o f or m a s imi lar e n trance s ec t ion , i n wh ich t here was a c el l ;

b ut a t t h is p o in t t he s tructure i s c u t b y

t he c oast , a nd t he r es t o f i th as b een washed away . The a bsolu te c hronology o fb rochs a nd t he ir a n teceden ts r e ma ins v ery d i f f icu l t .

T he s i mp le , mass ive s tone wa l l a s af or t if ica t ion i s o f v ery g rea t

a n t iqu ity i ndeed ;

Hawkes ( 1971) h as t raced t he i dea b ack a cross Europe t o

3 9

t he v ery wa l ls o f T roy .

I n t he H ighlands t he b u ild ing o f massive d rystone

f or ts c on t inued i n to t he Midd le Ages.

T here i s n o d a t ing f or t he e xa mp les

i n t he N or th , n or i s i tk nown when t he s tone-wa l l d efence f i rst w as a pp l ied t o p ro mon tory f or ts.

Bu t i n v iew o f t he ir many b roch-l ike f ea tures, t he d e-

v elopmen t o f s em ibrochs a nd b lockhouses c annot h ave h ad a v ery l ong p r ior i ty o ver b rochs t he mselves , a nd s tructures s uch a s Dun Mha ir tein , S garbach a nd N ybster p robably a re t o b e d a ted n o t much b efore t he f i rst c en tury B .C ., i fn ot w i th in i t .

The e arly d a te f or C l ickh im in a nd N ess o f Burg i b lockhouses

i n Ha m il ton 's s che me , i s n ot s uppor ted b y a rchaeolog ica l e v idence , b u t i s i nsp ired b y t he d es ire t o a ssoc ia te N ess o f Burg i w i th t he b eginn ing o f t he J ar lshof h iatus. I n t he West , MacK ie 's r ad iocarbon d a te o f 1 15 + 1 05 b .c . f or t he s em ibroch o f Dun Ard treck , a ccords v ery w el l w ith wha t w e s hou ld e xpec t ( MacK ie 1 96 9 a ). A s was o u t l ined i n t he i n troduc tory c hap ter , MacK ie 's s che me o fb roch d evelopmen t p laces t he o r ig ins f i rm ly i n t he Wes t , t he s equence b e ing f ro m g round-ga l ler ied s em ibrochs t o g round-ga l ler ied b rochs i n S kye a nd t he Hebr ides , t hen t o t he s ol id-based f or m a s b rochs b eca me more t ower-l ike i n t he N orth .

MacK ie i s s urely r igh t i n s ugges t ing t ha t t he u l t ima te p erfec t ion

o fb rochs was i n t he N orthern I s les , c u lm inat ing i n Mousa .

Bu t t he

r ec ed in g

p a t tern o f d evelopmen t must h ave b een a g ood d ea l more c o mp lex t han MacK ie 's s che me a l lows , a nd we s hou ld t h ink r a ther o f ap er iod o f e xper imen t a nd i nnova t ion l ast ing a h undred y ears o r al i t t le more , b oth i n t he West a nd i n t he N or th.

Dur ing t h is p er iod t he Hebr ides a nd t he N or thern I s les w ou ld h ave

s usta ined , b y i nev i table mar it i me c on tac ts , a mu tua l awareness , w h ich h owe ver w ou ld n ot p rec lude t he a ssert ion o f l oca l p references ( se m ibrochs o r b lockhouses ). The c hevaux-de-fr ise a t Burg i G eos a re a s tr ik ing i nd ica t ion o f t he l eng th o f s uch c on tac ts , a nd h in t a t ad el igh t i n i nnova t ion f or i t s own s ake.

I n s uch a n a t mosphere b roch a rch i tec ture was d ev ised , r ef ined a nd

d eveloped ;

t he s uggest ion t ha t t he ma in d evelopmen t h appened i no ne a rea ,

a nd l a ter was t ransferred t o a nother , i s a n o ver-s i mp l if ica t ion .

The h istor ica l mean ing o f t he b lockhouses , l i ke t hat o f t he b rochs t hems elves , r e ma ins a n o pen q uest ion. Wha t d oes a ppear c er ta in i s t ha t t he ir c ons truc t ion h as more t o d o w ith s oc ia l d isp lay a nd s tatus t han w i th s er ious d efens ive c ons idera t ions;

b u t t h is d oes n ot a l toge ther r eveal t he f ra me o f

m ind o f t he b u i lders o f Burg i Geos. T he s i te c hosen h ere was ah orr ify ingly d angerous o ne , where a c areless s tep c ou ld mean a p lunge o ver a s ix ty- me tre p rec ip ice ;

d oes t h is mean t ha t t here was s t il l s o me c oncern f or s ecur i ty

f ro m a t tack?

I ti s ap uzz le t ha t t h is f ort , b u il t t o ap a t tern t ha t c ou ld o nly

b e p rest ig ious a nd i n tended t o impress , s f iou ld a lso b e s o r e mote—en t irely i naccess ible f ro m t he s ea , a nd c losed i nb y p ea t moor o n i t s l andward s ide. When w e l ook a t t he o ther b lockhouse f or ts , w e s ee h owever t ha t Burg i Geos i s o n ly t he most e x tre me c ase o f ac o m mon t endency.

N o b lockhouse

i s s tra teg ical ly s i ted . C l ickh im in a nd Hux ter a re i slets i n l ochs —at Hux ter , wel l i n land a nd w i th n o o bv ious r eco mmenda t ion f or t he s pot , a t C l ickh im in

4 0

a dm i t tedly n ear a b each , b u t w i th n o o bv ious r eason f or p referr ing t h is b each t o a ny o ther .

I ti s am istake t o b el ieve t ha t N ess o f Burg i , a nd i ndeed J arlshof ,

a re s tra teg ic p osi t ions b ecause t hey a re a t t he s ou thern e x tre m ity o f S he tland. D oubt less t he i nhab i tan ts o f J arlshof u sed b oa ts f ro m t he b eaches o f West Voe o f S umburgh —s ince t hey l i ved h ere , t hey w ou ld h ave k nown t he t i des w el l e nough t o e nsure t he ir s afety ; b u t t he l ong p ro mon tory o f S ca tness, a n o u to fthe-way p lace t o g et t o o verland , i s h edged w i th murderous r eefs a nd c er ta in ly i s n o p lace f or r egu lar l and ings. I n a ny c ase , t he a pproach i n to t he Wes t Voe i t self i s p er ilous ; i tl i es a cross t he l i ne o f t he n otor ious S umburgh 1 9 ist , ar ace wh ich r uns a t s even k nots d ur ing s pr ing t i des, a nd t he whole s ea a rea a round S umburgh Head i sb eset w ith t i da l s trea ms o f g rea t c o mp lex i ty a nd v iolence wh ich o f ten r un i n o ppos i te d irec t ions a t p laces n ot f ar a par t. T he "Nor th S ea P i lot" r eco mmends t ha t a l l v essels w i thou t l ocal k now ledge k eep wel l c lear o f t h is a rea , a nd s uggests t ha t t he r Ost i s d angerous f or a ny v essel smal ler t han a t raw ler ( Ad m ira l ty 1 949 , 1 31-3 ).

As afer p ort

t han West Voe u sed t ob e t he P ool o fV irk ie , u n t il i tf i l led w ith s and l a te i n t he s even teen th c en tury ; t h is l i es 1 .7 km n orth o f J ar lshof a nd n early 3 km f rom N ess o f Burg i. — It a ppears t hen , t ha t t he p ar t icu lar p os i t ions o f N ess o f Burg i , L och o f Hux ter , Burg i Geos a nd C l ickh im in , a re o n ly o f l oca l i nt erest a nd l ack a ny w ider s tra teg ic i mp l ica t ions , u n less t here was s o me e xcep t iona l c ircums tance o f p ol i t ics s uch a s n ever w il lb e r evealed b y a rchaeol ogy . Th is d oes n ot e ncourage u s t o a ccep t Ha m il ton 's s uggest ion t ha t N ess o f B urg i a nd C l ickh im in were s tra teg ic b ases e s tabl ished b y C el t ic i nvaders i n e s tabl ish ing t heir r u le o ver t he i s lands. We h ave s een i n a ny c ase t ha t t he b lockhouses most l i kely d eveloped w ith in t he N or thern a rea , d uring a p er iod o f e xchange o f i deas w i th t he West o f S cot land— they a re n ot a r eady-des igned f or t if ica t ion b rough t i n f ro m o u ts ide , l i ke t he mot te and-ba iley c astle i n N or man E ng land . Wi th N ess o f Burg i i ts urely i s n o c o inc idence t ha t t here i s a nother b lockhouse f ort , o f s i mp ler d es ign , a t N or th F or t o f S ca tness , a nd i t may b e t ha t t he l a t ter f ort i s s l ight ly e arl ier a nd t ha t N ess o f Burg i r ep laced i t . Ha m i l ton 's c la im t ha t C l ickh im in d e monstra tes a s oc iety c onsc ious o f s oc ial s tatus i s ar easonable o ne; q u irk ish d es ign o ft he b lockhouses.

i ti s s o f ar t he b est e xp lana t ion o f t he H is c la im t ha t t h is s oc iety was d is t inc-

t i vely Cel t ic i s much more d ubious. T he a rchaeolog ical e v idence f or t he b u i ld ing b eh ind t he C l ickh im in b lockhouse , i s j us t a bou t a dequa te t o s uggest t ha t ar a ther s pec ia lb u ild ing was p resen t t here , b u t n ot t o d e monstra te t ha t i t was o f t he e labora te , t wo-storeyed a nd i n S he tland w inds p robably u nsafe d es ign wh ich Ha m il ton p ostu la tes. The c on t inu ing a rgu men t o ver b lockhouseb u i ld ings d e mands f resh e v idence wh ich b est w ou ld b e o b ta ined b y c arefu l e xcava t ion o f Burg i G eos , where s urv ival o f d epos its a ppears t o b e g ood . We h ave t o a dm i t t ha t Ham ilton 's e xp lana t ion o f t he l im ited l eng th o fb lockh ouses, p rec lud ing t he ir f orm ing c o mp lete i s th mus-barr iers —tha t t h is l eng th w as r egu la ted b y t he b u ild ings b eh ind t he m , g overned b y t rad i t iona l l aws — i s s o f ar t he o n ly o ne , wh ich i s n ot t o s ay t ha t i ti s n ecessar ily r igh t o r t ha t t h e l ink w i th t he I r ish l aws i s v a l id e xcep t a s a n u nrela ted e thnograph ic p arallel .

Bu t i n g enera l , t he i n terpre ta t ion o f C l ickh im in i n t er ms o f t h is

v ery s pec ia l , a r istocra t ic C el t ic s oc ie ty , i sb ased more u pon t he u nda table 4 1

d eta ils i n t he I r ish e p ics , t han o n d irec t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f ro m C l ickh im in i t sel f . The b est t ha t c an b e s a id o f t he a rchaeolog ical e v idence , i s t ha t i td oes n ot c on trad ic t t he I r ish e p ic ma ter ia l . T ha t t hese I r ish e p ics h ave a d irec t b ear ing o n S het land i s a s d ubious a s t ha t a ny C el t ic-speak ing p eop le e ver was p resen t t here. Cer ta in ly i ti s r e markable , i fS he t land h ad b een d om inated b y C el ts f or s o me h undreds o f y ears , t ha t t here i s n o t race i n t he p lace-na me r ecord.

Most S he t land p lace-

n a mes a re , o f c ourse, v ery r ead ily e xp l icable a s N orse. Bu t t he e xa mp le o f England , where s tra ta a nd s ubstra ta o f C el t ic , Anglo-Saxon , N orse a nd N or man-French —al l o f t hese l anguages k nown t o u s t oday— make u p t he t o ta l r ecord , s hou ld warn u s t ha t i ti s h igh ly u n l ikely t ha t o ne i n troduced l anguage c ou ld h ave r ep laced e x ist ing p lace-na mes t o t he e x ten t o f o ne h undred p er c en t .

Tha t we h ave d if f icu l ty f i nd ing p re-Norse n a mes i n S het land a nd Orkney

means o n ly t ha t we d o n o t k now wha t t o l ook f or — the p re-Norse l anguage , p resu mably , was s o me f or m o f n onIndo-European P ic t ish. E f for ts b y s cho lars h ave f a i led t o p roduce c onv inc ing e xamp les o f C e l t ic e lemen ts i n N orthern I s les p lace-names. The o ne modern e xcava t ion o f ab lockhouse a ssoc iated w ith o ther s truc tures , t herefore h as l e f t o pen most o f t he o bv ious q uest ions. T he ma t ter c an b e t aken f ur ther o n ly b y e xcava t ion o f o ther b lockhouse s i tes. N ess o f Burg i w as e xcava ted i n t he 1 930s , a nd t he wave-scoured c ond i t ion o f t he e nc losed a rea makes i tu n l ikely t ha t a ny g ood o ccupa t ion e v idence s urv ives t here. i s t rue o f t he e qua l ly l ow-ly ing N or th F or t.

The s ame

T h is h owever wou ld b e worth a

t r ia l t rench t o d iscover t he n a ture o f t he b lockhouse , a s a lso wou ld R iggan o f Ka m i.

T he i n ter ior o ft he Hux ter f or t i s f u l l o f d ebris , a nd i tc annot b e

k nown whe ther , u nder t h is , d epos its a re a ny b e t ter t han a t C l ickh im in . T he ma in p r ior i ty t herefore s hou ld b e Burg i Geos w here d epos its a re g ood a nd t he s i te u nd isturbed . The v ery i nsecure p os it ion o f t he b lockhouse o n ab ad ly f au l ted p rec ip ice —the b lockhouse h as l ost s evera l c ourses o f s tonework s ince I rv ine s ke tched i ti n 1 853 —g ives a v ery r eal r escue r eason f or s uch a n e xcav a t ion t o b e d one a s a ma t ter o fu rgency.

4 2

I I THE MULT IVALLATE FORTS AND THE WESTERN S EA WAYS

I t i s w el l k nown t ha t mu l t iva l la te o u tworks t o b rochs a re a f ea ture o f S het land a nd Orkney b u t n ot o f t he Hebr ides. Mu l t iva l la te p ro mon tory f or ts s o f ar h ave n ot b een r ecogn ized a s ag roup i n t he ir own r igh t i n t he N or thern I s les. T h is i s b ecause t he f orts a re f ew a nd w idely s ca t tered , a nd b ecause t he f inest e xa mp les r e ma ined f or l ong u nd iscovered , o r p ubl ished o n ly a s s ke tchy o u t l ine n o tes. O f t he f our e xamp les most r eward ing o f s tudy o ne , t he L andberg , i s i n Fa ir I s le — it i sb r ief ly d escr ibed i n t he Royal C o mm ission I nven tory , b u t i ti s n ot s urpr is ing t ha t i n v iew o f t he d if f icu l ty a nd efort o f g et t ing t o Fa ir I s le ( and t he r isk o f n ot g et t ing of i ta ga in ) , a rchaeolog ists d id n ot f l ock t here t o s ee i tf or t he mse lves. Another i mportan t mu l t iva l la te f or t , t he B rough o f S toa l i n Yel l , was mis in terpreted a s ab roch o u twork . T he f or t a t Hog I sland S ound , N est ing , S het land , was f i rst d iscovered b y a n Ordnance S urvey f i eld i nvest iga tor i n 1 968 , wh i le t he Brough o f Windw ick i n S ou th Rona ldsay , Orkney , i n s p ite o f t he o bv ious c lue p rov ided b y i t s n a me , was o n ly f ound b y t he wri ter i n 1 971. O f n one o f t hese impor tan t s i tes i s t here a p rev iously p ubl ished p lan . Cons ider ing t he g rea t d istance b etween t he m , t he f orts o f Hog I sland S ound a nd t he L andberg a re r e markably s im i lar. The L andberg o ccup ies a c o m mand ing p os i t ion o vPrlook ing t he t w in Havens a t t he n or thern e nd o f Fa ir I s le;

t he s i te i s an arrow , p rec ip itous h ead land t he s urface o f w h ich s lopes

g en t ly u p f ro m t he l and t owards t he s ea ( f ig. 1 4, p l . 1 4 ).

Across t he i s th mus

i s an arrow r if t c aused b y f au l t ing , t he g round t o s eaward o f t h is b e ing h igher t han t he l and s ide.

T he s lope u p f ro m t he b ot to m o f t he r if t t o t he s umm i t

l evel o f t he p ro mon tory i s v ery s teep , g iv ing a g ood n a tura lb as is o f d efence. A t t he t op o f t he s lope b eh ind a n arrow b erm , i s ab road r a mpar t r evet ted a t t he f ron t w ith l arge s tone b locks.

L andward o f t he r i f t i s as er ies o f l ow

d u mp b anks made o ft he ma ter ia l f ro m s ha l low i n ter med ia te s coops, t he b anks n owhere s tand ing more t han 1 .2 m a bove t he b ot to ms o f t he s coops. The b ot to m o f t he n a tural r if t h as b een d eepened b y av ert ical-sided c u t t ing . T hus t he d efens ive s che me p resen ted t o a n a t tacker c ons isted o f as er ies o f l ow b anks f ol lowed b y ad eep d i tch , t hen a v ery s teep c l i mb u p t o t he ma in r ampar t ( p l . 1 5-16 ).

The e n trance r uns s tra igh t t hrough t he b anks , b u t t hese

a re n ot c on t inuous i n t heir l i ne a cross t he p a th ; t hose o n t he e ast s ide f or m as et o f t hree, wh ile o n t he west s ide t here i s as ingle h orseshoe-shaped b ank c urv ing o u t f ro m t he c l if f e dge t o f l ank t he p a th. A t t he western e nd o f t he i nner b ank o f t he t hree o n t he e ast s ide , t here a re t wo l arge b ou lders s e t b es ide t he p a th.

T he p ath c rosses t he r if t o n ar eserved c auseway ( represen-

t i ng t he b o t to m b efore t he e x tra c u t t ing was made ) , c l i mbs s tra igh t u p t he s lope, a nd p asses o n t he s a me l i ne t hrough a s tone-l ined e n trance g ap i n t he ma in r a mpart .

B eh ind t he e n trance t here i s t he f ounda t ion o f as ubstan t ia l 4 3

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( above ) P rof i le o fd efences o f B rough N ess o f Garth , S andness , S he t land , c f . p la tes 2 1-22 ( be low ) s ke tch-prof i les o f d efens ive s che mes a t The L andberg a nd H og I s land S ound

4 6

r ec tangu lar b u ild ing o f s tone , p robably r epresen t ing a s econdary o ccupa t ion. I ti s 6 .7 x 4 .3 m i n terna l ly w i th wa l ls 1 .2 m t h ick . T here i s ad oorway i n t he s ou th s ide n ear t he s ou th-eastern c orner. S o meone q u i te r ecen tly t o t he t ime o f v is i t , h ad d ug a n L -shaped h o le i n to t he n or th-eas tern c orner , r ev eal ing t ha t t he wa l l h ad f ac ings o f l arge b locks a bou t ac ore o f l oose s tones; t here i s n o t race o f mortar. The d oorway l eads i n to a s tr ing o f s ha l low d ep ressions wh ich e x tend s ou thwards t owards t he t ip o f t he p ro mon tory. N or the ast o f t he b u i ld ing t he g round i s v ery h u mmocky a nd t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a s tone p arape t a long t he c l if f-edge o n t he e ast s ide ; i n t h is a rea i s a n e x tensive m idden d epos it . The f ort a t Hog I s land S ound h as b een c u t i n t wo b y t he s ea ( f ig. 1 5 ).

A t

t he e astern e x tre m ity o f N est ing t he b road h ead land o n t he f arms tead o f N eap , i s c on t inued s eawards a s Hog I s land , f rom wh ich i ti s s epara ted b y ag u l f 1 3 m w ide.

T he c l if fs a re a bou t 1 2 m h igh o n t he l and s ide a nd 1 5 m o n t he i s land

s ide. The d efences n ow r un a long t he b r ink o n e ach s ide , Hog I s land b e ing t he d efended a rea ; o r ig inal ly t here must h ave b een a r ock-br idge. A long t he e dge o f t he i s land i s ac onsiderable r ampar t , i n wh ich l arge s tones a re v is ible;

e v iden t ly i t was r evet ted l i ke t he ma in r ampar t o f t he T andberg.

O n t he ma in land s ide a re t hree l ow b anks , t he i nner o f wh ich i s c u t "in h al f l ongi tud ina l ly b y t he c l if f e dge.

E ach b ank i s 3m b road a nd b e tween 0 .5 a nd

1m h igh , b e ing made o f l oose ma ter ial d er ived f ro m s ha l low i n ter med ia te s coops ( p l . 1 7 ). These a re f l a t-bot to med a nd s ee m t o r epresen t t he r emoval o n ly o f t he f ew c en t imetres o f t opso il a nd t he u pper mos t , f r iable l ayer o f b edrock .

A t t he m id p o in t t he b anks a re p ierced b y a n e n trance g ap r unn ing

i n as tra igh t l i ne t hrough a l l t hree.

There a re l arge b ou lders s et i n t he e nds

o ft he m idd le o ne b es ide t he e n trance , a nd t he p a th p asses b e tween t wo e ven b igger o nes i n t he i nner b ank ;

a t t h is p o in t t he p a th n ow e nds a brup t ly a t

• t he b r ink . Hog I sland i s i naccess ible , b oa t a ccess b e ing p oss ible o n ly i n e xcep t iona l ly c a lm w ea ther , s o t he p ort ion o n t he i s land c anno t b e e xa m ined i nd eta i l ; i ta ppears h owever t ha t t he e n trance p assage i n t he ma in r ampart w as d irec t ly i n l i ne w ith t he p a th o n t he l and s ide. Both f orts h ave t he s a me c oncep t o f as trong r a mpar t a t ah igh l evel o verlook ing a nd c o mmand ing o u ter d efences c o mposed i n e ach c ase o f t hree l ow d u mp b anks ( a l though mod if ied b y t he h orseshoe b ank o n o ne s ide o f t he T andberg )

( f i g. 1 6 ). I nb oth c ases o n ly t he ma in r a mpart h as a s tone r eve t-

ment . Both s itua t ions a re c hosen w i th ab reak o f s lope g iv ing a n a tura l ly s t eep c l imb t o t he s um m i t . The e n trance p a th r uns i n as tra igh t l i ne t hrough a l l t he d efences a nd t he f or ts s hare t he f ea ture o f l arge b ou lders s et i n t he e nds o f s o me o f t he b anks , b es ide t he p a th . And i nb oth c ases t he ma ter ial f or t he b anks h as b een o bta ined w ith g rea t d if f icu l ty , f ro m s ha l low i n ter med ia te s coops. The u se o f t h is d efens ive s che me r a ises t wo i mpor tan t p o in ts , c oncern ing t he t ype o f warfare t he b u ilders h ad i n mind , a nd t he u se o f d ump b anks a nd d i tches where t he h ard r ock makes t hese v ery d if f icu l t t o c onstruc t.

The

f unct ion o f t he o u ter b anks c lear ly i s n o t a s manned r ampar ts — they a re n ot b ig e nough ; a nd a s t here i s v ery l i tt le e roded ma ter ial i n t he i n terven ing s coops, t hey a re u n l ikely o r ig ina l ly t o h ave b een h igher. i nt he s er ies s tand a t t he s ame h e igh t.

4 7

And a l l t he b anks

S een i n r ela t ion t o t he ma in r ampar t

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4 9

o ver look ing t he m , t hey a ssume a more s er ious m i l itary f unct ion— they wou ld o bstruc t a t tackers , b reak u p t he ir c harge , a nd a bove a l l e xpose t hem t o t he f i re o f t he d efenders a bove. Th is s uggests a s itua t ion o f warfare r e ly ing h eav ily o n m iss i les , a nd i nev itably r a ises t he q uest ion o f t he u se o f t he s l ing . A tb oth f orts , s ec t ions t hrough t he o u ter b anks c an b e s een a t t he cl if f e dge , a nd t here i s n o d oubt t ha t t hey a re d u mps. T here h as b een g reat d if f icu l ty i n o bta in ing t he n ecessary ma ter ial , w i th a v ery t h in s o i l o verly ing i n tractable b edrock . I t was n ecessary t o s cour l oose ma ter ia l f rom a w ide a rea t ob u ild e ven a sma l lb ank , s o ad u mp r ampar t more t han a me tre o r s o h igh , a nd i n i t sel f d efens ible , was o u t o f t he q ues t ion . The " three-and-one" a rrange men t o fb anks a nd r a mpar t , u t il is ing a s teep n a tura l s lope b etween t he t wo e le men ts , was a c lever way o f u s ing s uch l ow a nd weak b anks t o make a n e f fec t ive f ort if ica t ion .

I t was a n i ngen ious d ev ice;

b u t i tr e ma ins t rue ,

t ha t h ad t he b u ilders u sed t he s tone o r t urf c onstruc t ion t rad it iona l i nt he N orthern I s les , t hey c ou ld h ave e rec ted l arger a nd more e f fect ive b arr iers. Where t he u nder ly ing r ock was a r ela t ively s of t s andstone , o r t here was at h ick c over o fg lac ia l d r if t , i t was p oss ible t o d ig d eeper d itches a nd make l arger r ampar ts; i n s uch a reas w e f i nd a d if feren t t ype o f mu l t iva l la te f or t. Two i mpor tan t o nes a re t he Brough o f Windw ick i n S ou th Ronaldsay , Orkney , a nd t he Brough o f S toa l a t Ayw ick , Yel l , S het land .

S toa l o ccup ies a h igh ,

n arrow p ro mon tory s lop ing g radua l ly u p f ro m t he l and , s o t ha t a l though a l l t hree o f i t s d u mp r a mpar ts a re o f much t he s ame s ize , t here i s efec t ively a n i ncrease i n h e igh t t owards t he i n ter ior o f t he f ort ( f ig. 1 7 , p l. 1 8-19 ). They a re n ever l ess t han 2 .1 m h igh , t he m idd le o ne s tand ing more t han 3 .7 m a bove t he b ot to m o f t he d i tch , wh ich i s h eav i ly s i l ted . T here was a f ourth , o u ter r a mpar t o n t he e ast s ide o n ly , o f wh ich o n ly a f rag men t s urv ives; t h is may h ave c overed t he e n trance wh ich , s ince t here i s n ow n o t race o fi t , mus t h ave b een a ga inst t he c l if f-edge o n o ne s ide. Wi th in t he d efended a rea t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a c o mp lex o fh u ts made o f s labs a nd s o me masonry ; b u t n o th ing t o s uggest t he b roch wh ich t he Roya l C o mm ission p ostu la tes ( RCAMS 1 946, i i , 1 61, n o. 1 717 ) ;

i ti s u nnecessary t o a ssu me t he f or mer

e x istence o f ab roch t o e xp la in t h is v ery f ine p romon tory f or t. The Brough o f Windw ick i s an arrow h ead land p ro jec t ing f ro m t he p rec ipi t ous c l if fs , w h ich h ere a s a t S toa l a re s o me 5 0 m h igh , o n t he n or th s ide o f Wind Wick , i n t he L ink la ter d istric t o f S ou th Rona ldsay .

I th as a c ur ious

d efens ive s yste m i nvolv ing t wo b anks c ross ing t he i s th mus a t t he i nner e nd , w ith a s eries o fb anks a nd d i tches o u ts ide ( f ig. 1 8 ). T he e n trance p a th i s c en tral ; o n t he s ou th s ide o f i tt he o u ter s yste m c o mpr ises f our s cooped-ou t , U-sec t ioned d i tches w i th t hree i n terven ing b anks, a nd o n t he n orth , t wo s uch d i tches w i th o ne r ampar tb etween . Th is a sym me try r eca l ls t he L andberg l ayou t , a nd t here i s n o o bv ious m i l i tary r eason f or i t . T he r a mpar ts a ppear t o h ave b een b u i l t p ar t ly o f t urf , a nd r eta in a n i mpress ive n ear-ver t ica l p rof ile , s tand ing u p t o 2 .5 m a bove t he d i tch b ot to ms; f rom t he b ot to m o f t he i nner d i tch t o t he t op o f t he b ank i s4 .5 m.

T he p ro mon tory i s a pproached o n t he

l evel a nd t he d i tches a ppear t ob e whol ly a r t if ic ia l , b e ing c u t i n to t he t h ick d r if t c over ; t he r ock .

b u t t he i nner n or thern d i tch a t a ny r a te , i s c u t t hrough t h is i n to

T he a rea i s v ery o vergrown a nd n o s truc tures c ou ld b e s een w ith in

t he f or t .

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An a sym me tr ica l a rrange men t o n e i ther s ide o f t he e n trance p a th i s t aken e ven f ur ther a t t he B rough o fB orgastoon i n L ambhoga , F et lar , S het land ( f ig. 1 9 ). La mbhoga i s al ong h ogback c overed b y p ea t a nd u sed a s as heep-run ; i tc on trasts w i th t he r ich a nd f er t ile c ond i t ion o f much o f Fet lar. Borgastoon i s a n i sola ted l ong-abandoned f armstead o ccupy ing a f ew h ec tares o f i mproved l and a t t he s ou thern e x tre m i ty o f L a mbhoga ; o n t he c l if f-coast n earby i s t he n arrow p ro mon tory c a l led t he Brough , t he d efences o f w h ich c onsist o f t wo e ar th b anks e ach f ron ted b y ad i tch , e x tend ing n early a cross t he i s th mus , b u t j o ined a cross t he ir w estern e nds b y ac ross-bank f l ank ing t he p a th. a re i ndeter m ina te t races o f s tructures o n t he p ro mon tory i t sel f .

T here

T he o r iginal

s che me a t Borgastoon may h ave b een more c o mp lex , a s al o t o f i ts ee ms t o h ave g one i n to t he s ea. The Ta ing o f Onstan , af l a t l ow-ly ing p ro mon tory o n t he s hore o f t he L och o f S tenness i n Orkney , i s a sma l lb iva l la te f ort ( f ig. 2 0 ). I ti s d efended b y t wo b anks e ach 0 .6 - 0 .9 m h igh , o f l oose ma ter ia l d er ived f ro m s ha l low i n ternal d i tches.

T here i s n o o ther f eature v is ible o n t he p ro mon tory , wh ich

i s a bou t 0 .6 h a i n a rea a nd i s g ood-qua l i ty p as ture.

A s ec t ion a cross t he

d efences was c u t d ur ing t he e ar ly 1 960s b y t he l a te Dr. F . T . Wa inwr igh t ; t h is s ec t ion s hows a s imp le d u mp-ra mpart s tructure w ith t races o f -poss ible s tone r eve t men ts ( Ordnance S urvey C ard I ndex , r ef . HY 2 1 S E 2 2 ). Wa inwr igh t b el ieved t ha t t he d efences w ere a r el ic o f aN orse " nesnä m" , b u t n o d a t ing e v idence i s r ecorded , a nd i ti s more l i kely t ha t t h is i s a nI ron A ge f or t . ( The mean ing o f " nesnä . m" i s d iscussed i n Append ix 2 ) . There i s ad ist inc t ion b etween t he " three-and-one" t ype o f f ort , b u il t w here t he h ardness o ft he r ock p rec ludes t he d igg ing o f d eep d i tches , a nd t he t ype where a l l t he r amparts a re o f e qua l magn i tude a nd s tand a t t he s a me l evel .

The l a t ter c ou ld b e b u i l t o n af l a t p ro mon tory l i ke Windw ick , o r o n

o ne w ith o n ly a s l igh t s lope-advan tage , a s a t S toa l ;

b u t t he " three-and-one"

t ype d e manded a h ead land w i th a s teep n a tural s tep i n i t .

The c ho ice b etween

t he t wo d es igns may h ave d epended more o n t he n a ture o f t he a va ilable s i te , t han o n a ny d if ference o f t rad i t ion . Mu l t iva l late p romon tory f or ts , a s o pposed t o mu l t iva l la te b roch-ourworks , a re n ot c o m mon i n Orkney a nd S he t land ; b u t t hey a re j ust a s t h in ly d is tr ibu ted a long Br ita in 's o ther p ro mon tory f or t c oasts.

T he o n ly o ther N or thern e xamp le

o f a" three-and-one" f or t i s t he Cast le o f Burw ick , i n S ou th Rona ldsay , Orkney w h ich h as t hree l ow b anks c urv ing a cross a n arrow i s th mus. There i s t hen as harp r ise t o t he s um m i t l evel o f t he p romon tory , t he s lope b e ing c rowned b y r e ma ins o fa n i nner r a mpar t ( n ot s hown o n t he Roya l C o mm iss ion p lan , f i g . 2 0 ).

Th is f ort h ad i n terna l s truc tures s o me o f wh ich a re p robably

s econdary t o t he d efences, b u t i ti sb ad ly d isturbed b y s l ip-fau l t ing , a nd o verg rown . A t A i thbank i n F e t lar ' -a s i te n o t p rev iously r ecorded ' -a sma l l p romontory i s d efended b y t hree d ump b anks o f e qua l h e igh t , much r educed b y c u l t ivat ion .

Another f ort wh ich was a t l east b ival la te .if n ot mu l t ival la te ,

s tood a t t he h ead o f t he Bay o fG irs ton i n Ca i thness , b u t n ear ly a l l o f t h is h as f al len i n to t he s ea .

Mu l t iva l la te d efences a round b rochs h owever a re

c o m moner , a nd t hese a re a f ea ture o f N or thern b rochs wh ich i s n ot s hared b y t he Hebr idean o nes.

T here s ee m i ndeed t ob e n o c onv inc ing e xa mp les

o f mu l t ival la te d ump-bank f or ts i n t he Western I s les;

ac ur ious c ircu mstance ,

i nv iew o f t he ir o ccurrence i n t he p ro mon tory f ort a reas b oth t o n or th a nd t o s ou th. 5 3

T here h as b een v ery l i t t le modern r esearch o n c oastal p ro mon tory f orts i n t he s ou thern p art o f t he A t lan t ic a rea.

T hose o f G a l loway a re k nown f ro m

t he Roya l C o mm iss ion s urveys d a t ing f ro m b efore t he f i rst w orld war ;

t he

I r ish o nes , f ro m t he e xhaus t ive f i eldwork o f Tho mas Westropp a t t he t urn o f t he c en tury. ( 1959 );

A p ar t ial l i st o f C orn ish c l if f-cast les w as c o mp iled b y C o tton

t hose o f t he I s le o f Man , Wa les , t he C hanne l I slands a nd Br i t tany a re

r epresen ted i n af ew s pec if ic p ubl ica t ions.

There i s t herefore n o c omp lete

c orpus o f p ro mon tory f or ts a va i lable f or t he who le A t lan t ic s eaboard . T he a va i lable i n for ma t ion h owever i s s u f f ic ien t t o i nd ica te t ha t mu l t ival la te p romon tory f or ts c o mparable w ith t he I r ish a nd S he t land e xamp les , a re r are , a nd a re more c haracter is t ic o f Br i t tany a nd C ornwa l l t han o f a reas f ur ther n orth. Windw ick , t he L andberg , S toa l a nd Hog I sland S ound , t oge ther w i th t he o ther s pec i mens men t ioned i n t he p reced ing s ec t ion , a re wha t C ot ton ( 1 959 ) d escr ibes a s " s i mp le" , a s o pposed t o " comp lex" , mu l t ival la te f orts. I n t he " s imp le" mu l t iva l la te t ype , t he d es ign o f t he f ort i s au n i ty , t he r a mpar ts a ppear ing t o b e o f c on te mporary b u ild ; t he " co mp lex" mu l t iva l la te f or t h as d efences wh ich a ppear t o b e o f more t han o ne p er iod , u sual ly b e ing w ide ly s paced , a nd t he r esu l t i s as er ies o f s epara te b arr iers. I t i s t he " simp le" t ype , i n wh ich mu l t iva l la t ion a ppears a s ad el ibera te c oncep t , r a ther t han t he " co mp lex" f or m wh ich i s mu l t iva l la te b y c hance r a ther t han d esign , w h ich c oncerns u s h ere. T he Br i t ish e xped i t ion o f 1 939 ( Murray T hre ip land 1 9 43 ) r e ma ins t he ma in s ource o f i n for ma t ion o n as elec t ion o f Bre ton f or ts. Most i nteres t ing among t hese i s t he Ca mp d u Cesar a t K ervedan i n t he I l e d e Grb ix , af or t o f r a ther l ess t han o ne h ectare.

I th ad t wo o r p erhaps t hree p er iods , b u t t he

ma in s hap ing o f t he d efences b elonged t o t he e arl ies t—a l arge i nner r ampart a nd d i tch , w i th s ix sma l l l ow b anks r anged i n f ron t o f i t . Murray Thre ip land b el ieved t ha t t he f or t a t Po in te d u V ieux C hä teau , B el leI le-en-Mer , o r ig inal ly h ad a s im i lar l ayou t , a l though t he I ron A ge d efences w ere o bscured b y med ia eva l works.

S he c ons idered t ha t t he s che me h ad b een a dop ted b ecause o f

t he h ard r ock o f t he s i tes , " s ix sma l lb anks b e ing a s e f fec t ive a p rotec t ion a ga inst s l ingshot a s t hree l arger o nes , a nd l ess t rouble t o c ons truc t" . T he ma in r ampar t a t C a mp d u Cesar c er ta in ly , a nd a t B e l leI le p robably , w as made o f " a l ayer o f t urves h old ing i n p lace a mass o f r ock d ebr is, a nd r e ta ined o nb oth s ides b y s tone wa l ls" ; i ti s s ta ted t ha t t here was n ei ther "murusg al l icus" c ons truc t ion n or t he s tepped t ype o f r ampart f ound a t Gurnards Head i n C ornwa l l a nd K ercaradec i n Br i t tany. T he sma l l o u ter b anks were s imp le d umps . D oon E ask i n Coun ty K erry ( Westropp 1 910 , 2 81; f i g. 2 1) h ad a s im i lar s che me ; i ti s as pec tacu lar ly h igh h ead land g uarded b y " three r ockc u t f osses s epara ted b yb anks" w i th a n i nner d efence o f as tone-faced r ampar t. C ahercarberymore ( i bid ., 1 25; wa l ls;

f i g. 2 2 ) i s au n ique v ar ian t w i th t wo i nner

i ti sb u il t o n ap ro mon tory w i th a n a tura l s tep i n i t , t he t wo wa l ls

b e ing a bove t he s tep , b elow i t as er ies o f l ow b anks a nd d i tches. 5 4

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( above ) S t . J ust i n P enw i th , Kenid jack C as t le

( be low ) S c i l ly , G iants C ast le . H istory o f C ornwa l l )

( 1 9 0 7

B ased o n p lans i n V ic toria C oun ty

5 7

I r ish a nd Breton s i tes , t he p roble m o fb u ild ing a mu l t iva l la te f or t o n i n tract able r ock i s s olved i n t he s a me way a s a t t he L andberg a nd Hog I s land S ound ; t here a re o u ter d efences o f i ncons iderable d u mp b anks o verlooked b y as ubs tan t ia l wa l l r ampart. Mu l t iva l la te f orts w ith t hree o r more l arge u nrevet ted b anks o f more o r l ess e qua l s ize , t he s ty le o f Windw ick o r S toa l , ,a lso a re r are. T he b iggest g roups , e ach n umber ing f our , a re i n C ornwal l—Cast le K en id jack , P enw ith ; G ian ts ' Cast le , S c i l ly ( f ig. 2 3 ); Ru mps P o in t , S t Minver ; a nd G urnards Head ; a nd i n Ga l loway. K irk laughlane i n Wigtownsh ire ( RCAMS 1 9 12, 1 61, n o. 4 31 ) i s ac lass ic e xamp le o f t hree r amparts w i th e x ternal d itches , t he r a mpar ts i ncreas ing i n h e ight i nwards. T he i nner most r ampar t s tand a bou t 2 .6 m a bove t he b o t to m o f i t s d i tch. K enmu ir G raves ( RCA MS 19 12, 1 50 , n o. 4 30 ) h as t he u nusua l a rrange men t o f t hree r amparts a nd d itches o n t he i nner s ides, a nd a f our th i nner most d i tch.

Borness Ba t ter ies ( RCAMS 19 14,

4 4, n o. 6 0 ) h as t hree c rescen t ic r a mpar ts w i th e x terna l d i tches, a nd a n e nt rance g ap r unn ing s tra igh t t hrough a t t he m id p o in t . K e mps Walk ( RCA MS 19 12, 6 8 , n o. 1 74 ) h as t hree r ampar ts o f e qua l h e igh t , w i th e x terna l d i tches. I reland a ppears t o b e w ithou t c o mparable e xa mp les h av ing t hree o r more r ampar ts —none a ppear i n t he c o mprehens ive p ubl ica t ions o f Westropp—al though t here a re a f ew b iva l la te f orts s im ilar i n c ons truc t ion , s uch a s D oon Poin t a nd D oonabinn ia i n C o. K erry ( Westropp 1 910 , 2 08-11). The p ic ture , t hen i s t ha t mu l t iva l la te c oasta l p ro mon tory f or ts a re v ery w idely a nd t h in ly s ca t tered t hroughou t t he A t lan t ic p ro mon tory f or t a reas. The sma l l n umber a nd w ide s pac ing o f t hese f or ts i n Orkney a nd S het land i s c o mpa t ible w i th t h is s can ty o veral l d istr ibu t ion. The q uest ion i s , d oes t h is mean t ha t ac u l tural l i nk e x isted a cross t h is w ide a rea? The l ong-es tabl ished i dea , was t ha t mu l t iva l la te f or t if ica t ions were d eveloped i n r esponse t o s l ing warfare , a nd t ha t t heir d istr ibu t ion r ef lects a s pread o f t he u se o ft he s l ing. T he N orthern mu l t ival la te f orts o f t he " three-and-one" p a t tern d o a ppear t o b e d es igned f or d efence w ith m iss ile weapons . T heir l ow o u ter b anks a re mere e ncumberances, c apable o f i mped ing a n e ne my 's a pproach b u t n ot o f s hu t t ing h im o u t c o mp letely ;

t hey make s ense o n ly i n r ela t ion t o t he more

s ubstan t ia l r a mpar t wh ich o ver looked t he m. Miss iles l aunched f rom t he t op o ft h is r a mpart s hou ld b e p ar t icu lar ly e f fec t ive a ga inst a n e ne my s cra mbl ing o ver t he o u ter b anks , p ar t icu lar ly a s t he d efenders s ta t ioned a t ag reater h e igh t , s hou ld e n joy a n a dvan tage o f m iss ile r ange .

I ti s u nl ikely h owever

t ha t t he s l ing was t he m iss ile weapon b eh ind t he d es ign o f t he L andberg , Hog I sland S ound a nd Cast le o f Burw ick . A t a l l t hese f orts t he o vera l l w idth o f t he d efended z one i s l ess t han 3 0 m , wh i le Whee ler ( 1943, 5 0-1) p ostulated ar ange o fa t l eas t 1 00 y ards ( 90 m ) f or e f fec t ive s l ingshot. T he a pproach ing s l ingers t herefore wou ld h ave b een a ble t o r e ta l ia te a ga inst t he d efenders f ro m a p oin t n ot f ar s hor t o f 9 0 m f ro m t he ma in r a mpar t ( t he h e igh t-advant age e n joyed b y t he d efenders b e ing o n ly o f t he o rder o f .7-10 m) u p t o t he 3 0 m-po in t where t he o bstacle b anks b eg in . On a p ro mon tory wh ich n arrows a s t he d efences a re a pproached , an u mer ica l ly s trong e ne my wou ld b e a ble t o c oncen tra te h is s l ingsho t a ga inst t he d efenders o n t he s hor ter l eng th o f t he ma in r a mpar t , whose own o u tward f i re wou ld b e d ispersed a nd l ess e f fec t ive.

We c annot t herefore a ccep t t ha t s l ing warfare was t he d es ign

5 8

f ac tor b eh ind t he " three-and-one" f orts ;

i ti s more l i kely t ha t t he 3 0 m

d efended z one r epresen ts t he e x tre me r ange o f s tones h ur led b y h and f ro m t he r a mpar t .

A t t he f or ts l i ke S toa l a nd Windw ick where a l l t he r ampar ts

s t and a t t he s a me h e igh t , i ti s h ard t o c on te mp la te a ny f or m o f miss ile d efence. I n I reland , D oon E ask h as a w id th o f d efended z one o f 3 0 m , wh i le a t C ahercarberymore i ti s c ons iderably l ess. A t Borness Ba t ter ies i n Ga l loway i ti s2 0 m , a t K en mu ir Graves w i th in 3 0 m. I n C ornwa l l , t he d efences o f S t . J ust i n Penw i th a re 3 0 m w ide , b u t t hose o f t he G ian ts ' Cast le i n S c i l ly a re e xcep t iona l i n c over ing 6 5 m.

D efences c overing a z one s ubstan t ial ly n arrower

t han t he p u ta t ive s l ing-range o f 9 0 m a re n ot t herefore c onf ined t o t he N orth ; a nd we c anno t c la im ac onnec t ion b etween mu l t ival la t ion a nd s l ing ing , a s f ar a s p ro mon tory f or ts a re c oncerned. The a ssoc ia t ion b etween mu l t ip le-bank s yste ms a nd t he i n troduc t ion o f s l ing warfare , i n a ny e ven t h as b een weakened a long w i th t he o ld wa ter t igh t d iv is ion b e tween f orts w ith u n iva l la te wal l d efences a nd t hose w ith mu l t iva l la te d umps.

The i mpor tan t e xcava t ion r epor t ( Avery S u t ton a nd Banks 1 967 ) o n

Ra insborough i n N or tha mp tonsh ire , wh ich p roved t o b e ab ival la te f or t w ith t wo wal l-defences , f ocussed a t ten t ion o n wha t h ad b een a n o ver-s i mp l if ica t ion . R a insborough 's r a mparts a lso p roved t o b e c onstruc ted i n s teps o r ' t erraces ; t he o ccurrence o f t h is f ea ture i n af i f th-cen tury B .C . c on tex t d eep i n t he M id land S h ires, was a c orrec t ive t o t he l ong-held b el ief t ha t t erraced r amparts w ere a c harac ter ist ic o ft he A t lan t ic s eaboard a nd e v idence o f s eaborne c on tacts. They h ad b een f ound a t Gurnards Head i n C ornwa l l ( Gordon 1 9 41 ), P or tadoona a nd Carr ig il l ihy i n C o. C ork ( O 'Kel ly 1 952 ), a nd K ercaradec i nB r it tany ( Wheeler 1 957 ). These t erraced r ampar ts, l i ke c oasta l p ro mont ory f orts i ng enera l , h ad b een l i nked w i th t he mar i t i me Gau l ish t r ibe n a med b y C aesar a s t he Vene t i . T he c l if f-cast les o f C ornwa l l a nd Br i t tany s o o f ten h ave b een c a l led Vene t ic ( Cot ton 1 961, 1 07 ) t ha t t he r ea l i mp l ica t ions o f t he l i terary ma ter ial o nw h ich t he a ssoc ia t ion i sb ased , h ave b een o verlooked .

T he Venet i a re

k nown f ro m Caesar a s av igorous s eafar ing a nd t rad ing p eop le , a nd i th as b een c onven ien t t o s ee t he m a s t he a gen t o f d if fusion o f c u l tura l t ra i ts f ro m Br it tany t o C ornwa l l a nd u p t he I r ish S ea.

Caesar ( De Bel lo Gal l ico I I ,1 2-

1 4 ) d oes make c lear t ha t t he ma in o pp ida o f t he Vene t i were c oasta l , b u t e qua l ly t ha t t hey were n ot c l if f-cast les. These s trongholds h ad t o b e a pproached a cross t ida l r eefs w h ich made a ccess o n f oot d if f icu l t , a nd a lso h indered s h ipp ing :

" (opp ida ) p os ita i n e x tre m is l i ngu l is p ro mun tur i isque n eque p ed ibus

a d i tum h aberen t , c um e x a l to s e a estus i nc i tav isset ,

n eque n av ibus , q uod

r ursus s e minuen te a es tu n aves i n v ad is af l ic taren tur".

A t tack ing s uch a

p os i t ion d e manded ma jor works o f e ng ineer ing , b u ild ing a c auseway a cross t he t i dal z one , t hen b ank ing i tu p a s ar amp a ga inst t he wa l ls : " ex truso man ia ggere a c mol ibus a tque h is o pp id i moen ibus a daequa t is". S ince Caesar was t oo p rac t ica l ag enera l t o h ave a t te mp ted t o b u ild h is way " aggere a c mo l ibus" u p af i f ty- me tre c l if f , w e may a ssume t ha t t he Venet ic o pp idu m was n o c l if f-cas tle b u t al ow-ly ing t i da l i s land f or tress s uch a s t he I l e I st i lec , S auzon ( Bern ier 1 963 ) w h ich a t o ver 3 h a c o mes c loser t o " opp idu m" s ize. C aesar o pera t ing w i thou t n ava l s upport was a nnoyed t o f i nd t he Venet i , h ard p ressed i n t he ir s trongholds , i nvar iably e scap ing b y s ea :

5 9

wh ich i mp l ies

t ha t t hese o pp ida h ad s o me a ccess b yb oa t. F ina l ly , " duck-sta mped" p ot tery , l ong t hough t t o b e aVenet ic e xport f rom Br i t tany , h as b een s hown b y P eacock ( 1968 ) t o o r ig ina te i n t he Ma lvern H i l ls. Hav ing e l im ina ted t he Venet i —a t a ny r a te u n t i l t here i s p osit ive e v idence o f t he ir i nvolve men t —how f ar a re w e j ust if ied i nt rea t ing t he Br it tany-Cornwa l lI r ish S ea a rea a s o ne o f c u ltura l i n terchange i n t he Early I ron Age? The d uck-s ta mped ware i s av ery t ang ible e v idence o f t rade , a l though i ti st ak ing p lace i n t he r everse d irec t ion f ro m t ha t o r ig ina l ly e nv isaged b y a rchaeolog is ts. The p ro mon tory f orts o ft he c l if f-coasts i ndeed a re r e markably s im i lar.

T he

s ea i s a n o pen h ighway u n less i ti s d el ibera tely c losed b y s o me s trong n ava l p ower, s o i ti s more r ea l ist ic t o a ssume t ha t t rad ing c on tac ts t ook p lace, t han t ha t t hey d id n ot . Bu t i t ma t ters more , whether s uch c on tac ts w ere s ign if ican t i nb road h istor ical t er ms. And i f we d o a dm it t ha t Br i t tany , C ornwa l l a nd t he I r ish S ea c oasts a s f ar n or th a s Ga l loway , a re a r eg ion w i th in wh ich s ign if ican t c u l tura l i n terchange t ook p lace, must we a ccep t a lso t ha t t h is r eg ion e x tends a l l t he way t o S het land w here we f i nd c l if f-cast les more C orn ish-look ing t han many i n Br i t tany , Ga l loway o r I re land?

A t lan t ic c on tac ts b etween n orthern a nd w estern S cot land , a nd s outhwestern E ngland , h ave o f c ourse b een p roposed w i thou t a ny r eference t o p ro mon tory f orts.

Ch ilde , b y n o means a h yper-d if fus ion is t , was c onv inced

t ha t i t was a s tra igh tforward c ase o f c u l turetrans m ission f ro m t he S ou thWest o f E ngland t o t he A t lan t ic p rov inces o f S co t land ;

h eb ased h is a rgu men ts

o n sma l l-artefac t a sse mblages, r ely ing h eav ily o n t hose f ro m G lastonbury , a nd o nt he s tone r ound-house p lans ( Ch i lde 1 935 a nd 1 940 ).

He was p repared

t o s ta te c a tegor ical ly t ha t " the s ou th-western o r ig in o f t he b roch c u l ture r e ma ins a n a rchaeolog ica l f act" , a nd u sed t h is a s ap aral lel f or t he s pread o f t he mega l i th ic r el ig ion t o t he n or th t wo m i l lenn ia e arl ier .

Chi lde 's

s ta te men ts were e labora ted b y S ir L indsay S cot t i n 1 947 a nd 1 948 ;

S cot t

a ssoc ia ted t he em igra t ion f ro m s ou thern E ngland i n to n orthern S co t land , w i th t he p ol i t ica l s i tua t ion d ur ing t he d ecades p reced ing t he C laud ian i nvasion o f Br i ta in . He wen t c ons iderably f ur ther t han C h i lde i n t he a nalys is o f mater ia l c ul ture , i n p art icu lar d er iving t he d ecora t ive mot ifs o n Hebr idean p o t tery f ro m t he s ou th-west ;

b u t f ound d if icu l ty i n s usta in ing t he p aral le l , a nd was

t hrown b ack o n a dm i t t ing t ha t " the p ot tery s tyle wh ich t he c olon is ts d er ived f ro m t he s ou th-western c u l tures s u f fered a r ap id d egenera t ion" . H e s aw h is i mm igra t ion i n t er ms o f " the c ond i t ions o f u nrest wh ich d eveloped i n t he m id f i rs t c en tury B .C . a nd c on t inued i n to t he f i rst c en tury A . D. ,a s ar esu l t o f C aesar 's c onquest o f Gau l , t he em igra t ion o fA r mor ican t r ibes t o Br i ta in" ( t he Venet i

) , " the western a dvance o f t he Belgae i n England , a nd f i na lly

t he C laud ian c onquest o f Br ita in ." The p ostu la ted s et tle men t was n or th t o t he Hebr ides w ith c olon isa t ion t here, t hen a round C ape Wra th , b y-pass ing t he i nhosp i table c oasts o f Wester Ross a nd S u ther land , e ven tual ly t o t he i s lands a round S capa F low. I tt hen d iv ided i n to t wo , o ne b ranch g o ing n orth t hrough t he N orth I s les o f Orkney a nd o n t o S he t land , t he o ther p e ter ing o u t

6 0

i n as ou thward move men t a long t he l ow land c oast o f Ca i thness. S cot t o f c ourse h e ld t he v iew t ha t v ery f ew o f t he b rochs h ad b een t ower-l ike , a nd t hough t t ha t i n o r ig in t hey w ere n ot f orts , b u t ad evelopmen t o f t he r ound-house t rad it ion u l t i mately o f s ou th-western o r ig in . H is d a t ing o f t he migra t ion f ro m t he s ou th r esu l ted i n al a te d a te f or t he b rochs , wh ich h e d id n o t c ons ider t o b e e arl ier t han t he e ar ly s econd c en tury A .D . The most n o table r ecen t a dvoca te o f t he d if fus ion ist v iew h as b een Dr. E . W. MacK ie , w hose i mportan t p aper o f 1 965 s e t o u t i n c lear t er ms t he c hronolog ica l r ela t ionsh ip b e tween b rochs a nd wheelhouses , a nd l ef t n o d oubt t ha t t he b rochs d er ive f ro m a f or t t rad it ion q u i te s epara te f ro m t ha t o f r oundh ouse b u i ld ing. Bu t i n l ook ing f or p aral lels i n a r tefact a sse mblages b etween S cot land a nd s ou th-western E ngland— in t h is c ase Wessex—h is me thods a nd S cot t 's a re e ssen t ia l ly s im ilar. MacK ie 's t hes is i sb ased o n c erta in c lasses o f o b jec ts s upposed ly c o mmon t o t he t wo a reas —bead-r im med p ot tery , s p ira l f i nger-r ings , p ara l lelop iped b one d ice , a nd r o tary q uerns.

He u sed t he n ega-

t i ve e v idence o f t he a bsence f ro m t he Hebr ides o f r ing-headed p ins o f t ypes c o m mon i n Wessex , t o t i e d own t he p er iod o f i mm igra t ion t o t he f i rst c entury B .C.

He c la i med t ha t t he " guard-chambers" o fb rochs w ere d er ived f ro m

t hose o f S outh Br it ish h il l for ts. U s ing t h is e v idence h e h as p roposed a n i mm ig ra t ion f ro m Wessex a t at ime o f Be lg ic e xpans ion i n to t hat a rea , c . 8 0-70 B .C., o f" Iron A ge B f am i l ies t here w ho c ou ld n ot b ear t he d ec l ine i n s tatus w h ich must h ave a cco mpan ied t he a rr iva l o f p owerfu l n ew t r ibes" ( MacK ie 1 969b, 5 6-9 ). Deta i led o b jec t ions a ga ins t MacK ie 's t hes is h ave b een l a id b y D . V . C larke o f t he N a t iona l Museu m o f An t iqu i t ies , E d inburgh , i n p apers p ubl ished i n 1 970 a nd 1 971. He h as s uggested t ha t t he b one d ice i n t he N or th a l lb elong t o t he e arly c en tur ies A .D . ,t ha t i s a t l eas t ah undred y ears a f ter t hey h ad g one o u t o fu se i n s ou thern Br i ta in . S p ira l r ings s ee m t o h ave h ad a v ery w ide t ime s pan a nd t o h ave " en joyed s everal p er iods o f p opu larity , w i thou t a ny o ne p er iod p rov id ing a ma jor i mpu lse t o a nother". The e v idence o f t he b ead-r i m med p ot tery d epends t oo h eav ily o n o ne i sola ted f i nd f ro m Dun Mor Vau l. C larke p o in ts o u t t ha t t he e xa mp les o fg uard-cha mbers i n E ngl ish h il l for ts s ee m a l l t ob e much e ar l ier t han t he b roch p er iod . I n t he v iew o f t he p resen t wr i ter , a s n oted i n t he p rev ious c hap ter , t he mura l c el ls o fb rochs h ave n o d efens ive f unct ion a nd a re n o t c o mparable w i th t he g uardroo ms b eh ind t he g a teways o f E ngl ish h i l l forts. O f a l l t he ma ter ial l i nks s ugges ted b y MacK ie , we a re l e f t o n ly w i th t he r o tary q uerns , wh ich s o mehow must h ave b een i n troduced f ro m o u tside. T hey a re v ery c o mmon f i nds i nb rochs , a l though i n n early a l l c ases t hey p robably b elong t o whee lhouse r a ther t han t o b roch l evels; i nvar iably t hey a re o f t he f l a t d isc f orm w i th u pr igh t h and le wh ich i n Curwen 's c lass ic s tudy ( 1937 ) i s d er ived f ro m t he b un-shaped o nes i nu se i n s ou thern S cot land i n t he e arly c en tur ies A .D .

Accord ing t o Curwen t he ir e ven tua l

a ppearance i n whee lhouses w ould b e d ue t o ag radua l d rif t n or thwards.

A t

Dun Mor Vau l h owever ( MacK ie 1 974, 1 38 ) f l a t d isc q uerns were f ound i n p re-broch a nd b roch c onstruc t ion l evels , w el l w ith in t he f i rst c en tury B .C.; t hese s howed n o s igns o f r ecen t d er iva t ion f ro m t he b un-shaped f or ms. T he q uerns t herefore may b e a n i nstance o f d irec t i n troduct ion f ro m s ou thern E ngland i n to S cot land.

6 1

Bu t o n t he o vera l l ma t ter o f t he d if fusion is t e xp lana t ion o f t he o r ig in o f t he b roch c u l ture, t he s ta te o fo ur k now ledge o f I ron Age s truc tures i n t he H ighlands a nd I s lands s t i l l d e mands t he c au t ious a pproach o f C larke , who s ens ibly q uest ions t he v al id i ty o f c onc lusions d rawn f ro m t he d istr ibu t ion o f smal l o b jec ts v ery t h in ly s ca t tered o ver w ide a reas.

He r eco m mends ( 1970 )

t ha t t he whole ma t ter o fA t lan t ic S cot land—Wessex c on tac ts b e p u t a s ide u n t i l more c o mprehens ive e v idence i s a va ilable.

" The l ack o f s uf f ic ien t s trat i-

g raph ica l ly e xcava ted s i tes h as h indered , a nd w il l c on t inue t o h inder , t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he c o mp lex c u l tura l s equence i n t he A t lan t ic p rov ince. I n t he a bsence o f s uch a s equence , w ith w el l d ef ined t ypes, i ti s p erhaps t oo e arly t o s earch f or o r ig ins" . Rotary q uerns a nd mu l t ival la te p romon tory f or ts a re n ot , a s y et , a n a dequa te f ounda t ion o n wh ich t o e rect a s tructure o f t heory a bou t t he o rig ins o fb rochs.

A s we s ha l l s ee f ro m a b r ief e xa m ina-

t i on o f t he N or thern mu l t iva l la te b roch-ou tworks , t he mu l t ival la te t rad it ion s ee ms t o e x ist , p robably s l igh tly p re-da t ing , a nd c erta in ly c on t inu ing a longs ide , t he d eveloped b roch t rad it ion ;

a nd t here i s n o e v idence t ha t a ny i n trus ive

t rad i t ion wh ich t he mu l t iva l la te f or ts r epresen t , c on tr ibu ted s ign i f ican t ly t o t he a t ta in men t o f a rch i tec tura l p erfec t ion o f t he b roch t owers. Tha t mu l t ival la te f ort-bu ild ing i s n ot n a t ive t o t he N orth i s h owever h igh ly p robable. T he mu l t ip le d ump-ra mpart c onstruc t ion i s g rossly u nsu i ted t o t he g eology o ft he a rea. A t Hog I sland S ound e spec ia l ly , t he s o il i s s o t h in , t he b edrock s o c lose t o t he s urface , t ha t t he b u ilders h ave h ad t o s cra tch ma ter ial f ro m w ide a reas t o c rea te a n e x traord inar ily f eeble s et o f d u mp b anks.

T he

u se o f t rad i t iona l s tone o r t urf t echn iques wou ld h ave e nabled a n e f fect ive f or t if ica t ion t o b e b u i l t w i th much l ess t rouble.

Bu t s o l i t t le i s k nown a bou t

mu l t iva l la te c l if f-cast les i n t he I rish S ea a rea , C ornwa l l a nd Br i t tany , t ha t e ven a f ter t he c o mprehens ive e xcava t ion o f an orthern f ort— the L andberg a ppears t o o f fer t he b es t i n tac t d epos its. -we s hou ld b e n o n earer u nderstand ing t he r ea l ity o f a ny n orth-sou th l i nks.

I fw e p ostu la te mar i t i me c on tac t o pera t ing a long Br itain 's A t lan t ic s eab oard , t he d istr ibu t ion o f p ro mon tory f orts f rom C ornwa l l t o Ga l loway f i ts t he a ssu mp t ion n icely .

The d iscovery o f ma tch ing f or ts , most r ead ily

e xp l icable a s p roduc ts o fo u ts ide i n f luence , i n Orkney a nd S hetland , wou ld e x tend t ha t s eaway t o t he max i mu m l eng th p oss ible b efore t he d iscovery a nd c olon isa t ion o f F aeroe a nd I ce land i n E ar ly C hr is t ian a nd V ik ing t imes g ave Br ita in i n g enera l , a nd t he N orthern I s les i n p art icu lar , ap lace w ith in a much w ider N or th A t lan t ic n e twork . Bu t t he a bsence o f mu l t iva l la te f orts f ro m t he Hebr ides i s p uzzl ing. I n ab oa t o f c ourse i ti s p ossible t o p ass i n af ew d ays o r weeks t he l eng th o f t he west c oast o f S co tland , w ithou t e ver s topp ing f or l ong e nough t o l eave o ne 's mark o n t he a rchaeologica l r ecord ; a nd t here may h ave b een s o me p ol it ica l r eason why t ravel lers mov ing, s ay , b etween t he Orkneys a nd t he I r ish S ea , h ad more e f fect ive c on tac ts w it h t he c o mmun i t ies a t t he e x tre m i t ies o f t he v oyage t han w i th t hose t hey met i n t he midd le . A t t he p resen t s ta te o f k now ledge , w e c an b arely g uess a t wha t may h ave h appened . I ti s af act t ha t mu l t iva l la te f or ts h ave n ot b een f ound 6 2

S NABROCH

s ect ion A —B

7 1

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a 1 / i l b

F e t lar , S he t land , b rochs w i th mu lt ip le o utworks ( above ) H oub ie ( be low ) S nabroch .

RCAMS p lans b y C . S . T . C a lder

6 3

i n t he Hebr ides a nd t ha t c o mp l ica ted s ys te ms o fb roch-ou tworks , w h ich a re an o table f ea ture o f Orkney a nd S he t land , d o n o t o ccur t here e i ther. Whe ther t he mu l t iva l la te f or t if icat ions n or ma l ly p re-da te t he b rochs w i th in t he m , a s d oes t he r ing-wa l l a t C l ickh im in , i s aq uest ion w e c annot y e t a nswer.

T ha t mu l t iva l late p ro mon tory f or ts d o e x ist s epara te f rom b rochs

m igh t b e t aken t o s uggest t ha t t hey a re e ar l ier t han b rochs; c onc lus ive.

b u t t h is i s n ot

Mu l t ip le b ank-and-d itch d efences c omp le men t ab roch i n a way

t ha t a mass ive s truc ture l i ke t he Midhowe f orework d oes n ot .

T he Midhowe

f orework , b e ing a n ear-ver t ica l s tructure c lose u p a ga inst t he b roch , i s t ac t ic al ly u nsa t isfactory—once t aken , i t wou ld g ive c over t o a n a ttacker—and makes more s ense i f we e nv isage i ts tand ing b y i t sel fb efore t he b roch w as a dded . The mu l t iva lla te s yste ms p ro tec t ing t he b rochs o f Bur land o r Houb ie a re much more l og ica l ly r ela ted t o t he t owers , wh ich o f c ourse i s n ot p roof o f c on temp orane i ty. A t S nabroch a nd Houbie ( f ig. 2 4 ), b oth i n F et lar , S he tland , t he f ort if icat i ons a re b u il t a ga inst t he e dge o f as tra igh t s ec t ion o f c oast. H oub ie h as a b roch o n t he s u mm it o f ar ocky k nol l , p rotec ted b y s teep s lopes a nd t wo b anks. S nabroch i s ap uzz l ing s i te where t he c en tra l f or t i f ica t ion s urv ives o n ly a s a f rag men t o n t he v ery e dge o f t he s hore ; i ti s u sual ly c a l led a b roch , b u t t he s urv iv ing masonry i s n o t as eg men t o f ar egu lar c ircle. P rotec t ing i ta re t wo b anks s epara ted b y ab road a nd d eep d i tch .

A t Bur land ( f ig. 2 0 ) , ap re-

c ip i tous p ro montory 7km s ou th o f L erw ick , aw e l l-preserved b roch i s s o a rranged t ha t i t s d oorway o pens o n t o an arrow p a th a bove t he b r ink . To l andward i ti s p rotec ted b y t hree l i nes o f d efence w i th a c en tra l e n trance g ap r unn ing s tra igh t t hrough a t t he m idd le p o in t . T he o uter l i ne i s ar a mpart o f l oose ma ter ia l w i th a r evet men t o f s tonework o n b oth s ides; i tr ese mbles t he o u ter d efence t o t he N ess o f Burg i b lockhouse.

The midd le l i ne i s ad ump

b ank a nd i s l ess s ubstan t ia l , wh i le t he i nner o ne t o t he e ast o f t he p a th a lso i s ad u mp . On t he w est s ide h owever i t s p lace i s t aken b y av ery n ea tlyb u il t wa l l , w i th a wel l-f in ished e nd-face s e t s l igh t ly b ack f ro m t he c l if f-edge , wh ich r ef lec ts t he b lockhouse c oncep t a nd p resumably i s mean t t o s erve t he s a me p urpose a s t he b lockhouses.

A t Bur land t hen , we a ppear t oh ave t he

mu l t iva l la te t rad it ion c o mbin ing w i th t he b lockhouse i dea.

6 4

I V THE MEAN ING OF FORTS AND BROCHS

That b rochs w ere s er ious f ort if icat ions i s n o l onger i n d oubt ;

who b u i l t

t he m , a nd why , w e s t i l l d o n ot k now. There must h ave b een s o me s pec ial p ol i t ica l s i tua t ion w h ich c aused l arge n umbers o f t hese c leverly e ng ineered a nd h ighly e xpens ive f ortresses t o b e b u i l t w i th in , i ta ppears , q u i te a l im i ted p er iod. Whatever t h is p ol i t ica l s itua t ion was , i tq u ick ly p assed a way , f or wherever t here i s a rchaeolog ica l e v idence, we f i nd t ha t a lthough t he s i tes r e ma ined i n o ccupa t ion , t he m i l i tary c apabi l ity was d one away w ith . Th is l ast p o in t i s t he l east d oubtfu l f act i n t he b roch s tory .

A t s o me t ime

n o t l ong a f ter r each ing t he ir f u l lest d evelopmen t , t he b rochs were s uperseded b y u ndefended s et t le men ts.

Wheelhouses a nd ( i n Orkney e spec ia l ly ) s lab-

s tructures were b u il t i n a nd a round t he t owers , wh ich w ere p ar t ly d e mol ished e i ther t o p rov ide ma ter ia l o r t o r e move t he d anger f ro m f a l l ing masonry. A t J arlshof , t he u pper p ar t o f t he t ower e i ther f e l l o r was t aken d own d ur ing t he wheelhouse p er iod ( Ham i l ton 1 956, 6 8 ). The b roch o f Ox tro b y Ear ly C hr ist ian t imes h ad b een r educed t o a mound , a nd t h is was u sed a s ab ur ia l t umu lus f or i nser ted s hort c ists ( Petr ie 1 890 , 7 6-80 ).

A t Gurness a nd Midhowe ,

t he s lab-structures w h ich e ngul fed b roch a nd o u tworks , d estroyed t he d efens ib i l ity o f t he s i tes , a nd t he s ame c an b e s een t o h ave h appened a t B orw ick w here a h u t i s c u t r igh t t hrough t he massive f orework .

MacK ie ( 1971) h as

c leverly d e monstra ted t ha t t he d e mol it ion o f t he K e iss S ou th b roch , i n Ca ithn ess , c a me v ery e ar ly i n t he a rchaeolog ica l s equence. l e f t t o s urv ive t o a ny thing l i ke t he ir o r ig ina l h e igh t.

Very f ew b rochs w ere

Tha t t h is s i tua t ion h ad

d eveloped i n a n t iqu i ty , a nd n ot d ur ing r ecen t c en tur ies o f s tone-robb ing , i s s trongly s uggested b y t he a ppearance o f Mousa i n c h. 3 3 o f E g ils S aga a nd c h . 9 3 o f Orkney inga S aga . Mousa i s t he o n ly b roch r ecogn izable a s s uch , t o a ppear i n t he s agas , a nd t ha t i td oes s o i n t wo o f t he m , c onf ir ms t ha t e ven b y N orse t imes i t s s urv iva l was e xcep t iona l . What s i tua t ion h ad e ngendered t he f l urry o fb roch-bu ild ing i s s t il l a ma t ter o f a rgu men t .

I ti s n ot e ven a greed whether b rochs a re t he s trongholds

o f a na ggress ive c onquer ing a r istocracy o r t he b ol t-holes o f af r igh tened a nd p eace-lov ing p easan t p opu la t ion . On t he f ace o f i t , n o f or t if ica t ion wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een more p ass ive i n d efence t han ab roch t ower.

I th ad n o

o pen ing e xcep t o ne l ow a nd n arrow d oorway , t he d oor b e ing s e t s o f ar b ack i n t he p assage t ha t t he r am c ou ld n ot b e u sed a ga inst i t . The wal l was t oo h igh t o b e c l imbed w i thou t d if f icu l ty a nd i t s we igh t g ave t he s tones s uch c ohes ion t ha t t hey c ou ld n ot b e p r ised o u t o r b a t tered d own .

The i nhabi tan ts c ou ld h ave

d one l i t tle more t han b arr icade t he mselves i ns ide a nd wa it u n t i l t he a t tacker r ecogn ized t he s ta le ma te a nd wen t away . T he o n ly a c t ive d efens ive measure n ecessary , would h ave b een t o c rouch b eh ind t he t op p arape t a nd d rop s tones o n a nyone who d id t ry t o c lamber u p .

The o n ly s er ious d anger t o ab roch was 6 5

f i re ;

e ven a f i f teen- metre wa l l wou ld n ot k eep o u t a l l i ncend iary m iss i les ,

a nd t he i n terna l t imber ing a nd t he k i ln-l ike s hape made t he b roch a f irs t-ra te f urnace .

S igns o f v io len t h ea t a re c lear ly t o b e s een o n t he i ns ide wa lls o f

B orwick a nd C rossk irk . T h is p ic ture may b e e n t ire ly mis lead ing . T he N or man c onquer ing a r is toc racy i n Eng land b u i l t t ower-keeps s uch a s R oches ter a nd Hedingham , wh ich a re a s s o l id ly p ass ive a s a ny b roch .

The mos t a ggress ive o f war lords may

b e g lad o f a n i nvu lnerable r edoubt s a fe f ro m s urpr ise a t tack , wh ich c an b e h e ld b y ah and fu l o f men wh i le t he ma in warband i s a way.

T he d irec t c o m-

p ar ison b etween med iaeva l c as t le a nd b roch was e xpressed v ery f orcibly b y S i mpson ( 1 954 ) ;

" the b rochs were n o t e rected t o d efend t he c oun trys ide

a ga ins t i nvaders , b u t were t he s trongho lds o f ac onquer ing a r is tocracy s ec ur ing t he mse lves a ga ins t t he n a t ive p opu la t ion who m t hey h ad e ns laved , a nd d oubt less a lso a ga ins t t he ir n eighbours i n t he i n ternecine c on f l ic ts a ga ins t e ach o ther , l i ke t he f euda l b arons o f l a ter t imes" .

S o f ar f ro m b e ing a n a rch-

i t ec ture o f f ear , s ugges ts S i mpson , t he b rochs w ere b u i l t t o d om ina te ;

h is

p aper r e ma ins o ne o f t he mos t c ogen t c on tr ibu t ions t o t he b roch d iscuss ion . Whe ther i t was h augh ty a r is tocra ts o r f r igh tened p easan ts who b u il t t he t owers , t he c oncen tra ted i nves t men t o f manpower mus t h ave b een e nor mous . T he s ocie ty wh ich p roduced b rochs t herefore was h igh ly o rgan ised a nd t he a r is tocra t ic s tructure i s p erhaps t he e as ier t o e nv isage .

The s uperv is ion

o f b u i ld ing o pera t ions d oub t less was e n trus ted t o s pec ia l is ts who t ook t he ir c onsu l tancy s erv ices f ro m s i te t o s i te —an i t ineran t t echn ician c lass o f h igh ly p ro fess iona l e ng ineers .

A l though many o f t he e ssen t ia l e le men ts o f b roch

a rch i tec ture h ad b een c urren t i n t he N or thern b lockhouses a nd t he Western .s em ibrochs , t he d i fference b etween t hese c o mpar i t ive ly modes t s tructures a nd t he b rochs i s a ma jor o ne , a nd t here i s a s y e t n o o bv ious l ine o f e vo lu t ion . S i mpson 's ( 1 954 , 3 5 ) v iew i s t ha t " the b roch d es ign r e ma ins s o s tandard ised a s t o p ro mp t t he s ugges t ion , p u t f orward b y more t han o ne i nves t iga tor , t ha t t he c oncep t ion was a s ing le o ne , e vo lved i n t he mind o f s o me h igh ly g i f ted mas ter o f c ons truct ion .

S uch a n i dea i s p erhaps s o mewha t h ard o f a ccep tance

i n t hese modern d ays , when t he d ogmas o f e vo lu t ion a nd t ypo log ica l d eve lopmen t h ave b een p ushed t o ap o in t where t here i s l i t t le r oo m l e f t f or t he i nd iv idua l g en ius t h ink ing o u t s o me th ing n ew o n h is o wn .

Ye t t he h is tory o f mi l i-

t ary i nven t ion d ur ing t wo wor ld wars may we l l i nsp ire u s w i th a d i f feren t v iew" .

T he p up i ls o f s uch a n i nven tor wou ld h ave f or med a n e l i te s choo l

o f a rch i tec ture , c o m mand ing h igh p r ices f or t he a pp l ica t ion o f t he ir t echno logy. I fS i mpson i s r igh t i n c o mpar ing t he b roch a nd i t s o u tworks w i th t he med iaeva l k eep a nd b a i ley , s hou ld we a ssume a c o mparable l eve l o f mann ing f or d e fence? d ozen men ;

T he b roch i tse l f , l i ke t he k eep , c ou ld h ave b een h e ld b y a b u t t he d e fence o f o u tworks wou ld h ave n eeded f ar l arger n um-

b ers a nd more a ggress ive measures o f d e fence .

T h is a lso a ppl ies t o p ro-

mon tory f or ts , mos t n o tably t o t he mu l t iva l la te f or ts o f t he " three-and-one" d es ign ;

t he b anks b arr ing t he a pproach t o t he L andberg o r Hog I s land S ound

a re s l igh t o bs tacles , e f fec t ive o n ly i n c on junc t ion w i th a h a i l o f s tones f ro m t he t op o f t he r a mpar t . The Landberg , i n t er ms o f a rea , i s av ery sma l l f or t wh ich c anno t h ave s he l tered many f am i l ies ;

t he manpower a va i lable t o

d efend i t wou ld h ave b een sma l l , b u t a s t he p ro mon tory i s n arrow , t he l eng th o f d efencel ine i s manageab le .

A t H og I s land . S ound t he d e fences r un a cross

a much w ider a pproach , b u t h ow w ide was t he f or mer r ock-br idge c anno t b e k nown . 6 6

7

I ldt \

W 1 1 1Us e

iI U ) 1 1 1 1 1 1e \M ‘ 1 1 11111t1t Il te 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ‘ 1 1 1 1 10,

/ M ea svreä

s ktt ck

F ig . 2 5

p i on

RA L l 970

C as t le o f S and G eo , C op insay , O rkney , s ketch p lan . The w idth o f t he i s thmus , measured a long l i ne o f wa l l b etween a rrows , i s 9m

6 7

I f ap os i t ion i s s er ious ly mean t t o b e d e fens ible , t he i nheren t s treng th o f t he f or t i f ica t ion i t sel f mus t b e made g rea ter a s t he manpower a va i lab le t o d e fend i ti s d ecreased .

Thus t he b roch o f Mousa c ou ld b e d e fended b y

v ery f ew , wh i le a mu l t iva l la te p ro mon tory f or t n eeded f ar more a c t ive d ef ence b u t a t a ny r a te h ad r oo m f or more men .

T here i s h owever a c lass

o f p ro mon tory f or ts wh ich we may c a l l " s ma l l s treng ths" where a n a pparen t ly weak f or t i f ica t ion i s u sed t o p ro tec t av ery r es tr ic ted a rea .

T he n arrow

p ro mon tory p ierced b y an a tura l a rch a t G o te o 'Tram , n ear Wick i n Ca i thness , i s c u t o f f b y aU -sec t ioned r ock-cu t d i tch w i th r e ma ins o f ab ank o n i ts i nner l i p .

T he v ery c ons iderable e f for t wh ich wen t i n to t he r ock-cu t t ing , imp l ies

t ha t t he s i te i s a t l eas t i n tended t o b e af or t .

A no ther sma l l weak ly-defended

s i te o ccurs o n t he c l i f f-coas t n or th-wes t f ro m Burgh H ead o n S tronsay, Orkney , a nd a n e xa mp le v ery s im i lar t o t h is i s i l lus tra ted i n f ig . 2 5 , p l . 2 0 , a t C as t le o f S and G eo , C opinsay , Orkney.

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o imag ine t ha t s uch

i ns ign i f ican t s i tes c ou ld h ave c on ta ined t he manpower n ecessary t o d efend t he m . R e me mber ing t he u t ter mi l i tary n onsense o f t he b lockhouse f or ts , p ar t icu lar ly Burg i G eos ; Windw ick

t he q u irk ish a sy m me tr ica l l ayou t o fb anks a t

a nd t he L andberg ;

t he d e ter m ina t ion t o h ave d u mp b anks ä t t he

L andberg a nd H og I s land S ound where h ard r ock made i tn ear ly i mposs ible t o d ig t he d i tches a nd g e t t he d ump ma ter ia l ; t he t ac t ica l a bsurd i ty o f h av ing s uccess ive l i nes o f d e fence s tand ing a t t he s a me l eve l , a s d o t he r a mpar ts o f S toa l a nd Windwick ; s treng ths :

a nd n ow t he mere ly t oken f or t i fying o f t he sma l l

we a re d r iven t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t he b u i lders o f a l l t hese f or ts

were more c oncerned a bou t s ta tus t han w i th s er ious d e fence.

A l though t he

b rochs t oo mus t h ave b een s ta tus-sy mbo ls , t he more e f fec t ive a s s uch t he h igher t hey were b u i l t , b rochs were a v ery e f fect ive d e fence , wh ich Burg i G eos , f or a l l i t s e yr iel ike s i t ing , was n o t s er ious ly d es igned t o b e . T here a re o ther p ro mon tory f or ts o f i nd iv idua l is t ic d es ign , w h ich d o n o t f a l l i n to r ecogn izable c a tegor ies a nd t he d a te a nd f unc t ion o f wh ich c ou ld o n ly b e d eter m ined b y e xcava t ions .

Af ew , s uch a s t he Brough o f B igg ing ( f ig .

7 ) h ave b een h eav i ly d a maged b y e ros ion a nd s tone-robbing s o t ha t t he ir o r ig ina l f orm i s d i ff icu l t t o d iscover .

B igg ing h as a s ing le l ow b ank o n t he

i nner l i p o f an a tura l r i f t wh ich c u ts a cross ab road p ro mon tory ;

3 0 m f ur-

t her s eaward , where t he i s th mus b eco mes h igher a nd n arrower , a re c on fused r e ma ins o f o ther d efences c ons is t ing o f i nde term ina te s tone-reve t ted e ar thworks .

A t t he Brough o f D eerness o n t he f ar s ide o f Orkney Ma in land , t he

mass ive " va l lu m monas ter i i" o f a med iaeva l monas tery , may we l l b e i n o r ig in a n I ron Age f or t ;

a s i ndeed was s ugges ted b y t he p ersp icacious G eorge L ow

i n 1 774 ( Low 1 879 , 5 5 ). v a t ion .

Bu t l i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t hese s i tes w i thou t e xca-

The r e markab le f or t a t Brough N ess o f G ar th , S andness , S het land ,

i s s o p ecu l iar t ha t o ne wonders i fi td oes n o t b e long t o s o me o ther p er iodc on tex t t han t he Ear ly I ron Age . l and b y as torm-beach ;

I ti s ap en insu la s epara ted f rom t he ma in-

t he s lope f ro m t hebeach t o t he p ro mon tory i s d e-

f ended b y t wo t errace-wa l ls b u i l t a ga ins t t he s lope , w i th t he t umb led r e ma ins o f at h ird wa l l o n t he c res t ( F ig . 1 6 p 1 .21-22 ) . b u i l t o f r ounded b each-bou lders .

A l l t hese wa l ls a re c rude ly

Wi th in t he d e fences a re t hree c ircu lar

h ouses , a bou t 3m i n d iame ter , a nd t wo o b long o nes , w i th r e markab ly s tra igh t s ides a nd r ounded c orners , 6m l ong i n terna l ly , o ne c o mp le te a nd t he o thers

6 8

p ar t ly g one o ver t he c l i f f .

These b u i ld ings a re c lus tered b eh ind t he i nner

wa l l , a nd a l l a re s o l id ly b u i l t o f s tone .

T he g enera l i mpress ion g iven b y

B rough N ess o f G ar th i s t ha t i ti s u n l ike a ny th ing e lse , a nd i t wou ld b e i d le t o s pecu la te who b u i l t i t . The b lockhouse f or ts were a scr ibed b y Ha m i l ton t o c onquer ing i nvaders . H eavy im m igra t ions f ro m s ou th-wes tern Eng land i n to A t lan t ic S co t land were s een b y C h i lde , S cot t a nd MacK ie a s t he o r ig in o f t he b roch c u l ture i tsel f ; t he mu l t iva l la te f or ts , h ad t hese b een k nown t o t he e ar l ier wr i ters , migh t w e l l h ave b een c la i med a s s uppor t ing e v idence .

I n f act , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t

a ny p ro mon tory f or ts i n t he N or thern I s les h ave a d irec t l ink w i th i nvas ions , e i ther a s t he i nvaders ' b ases o f a ggress ion o r a s t he r esponse o f ad efend ing p opu la t ion ; f or w i th t he o ne e xcep t ion o f t he Landberg , t here i s n o c onv inc ing e xamp le o f as tra teg ica l ly p os i t ioned f or t . S ca tness w i th i ts t wo b lockhouses i s h edged w i th r ee fs a nd g uarded b y t he f ear fu l t ide-race wh ich g ave t he n a me D unrossness t o t h is e x tre m i ty o f S he t land-Dynrös tarnes , t he N ess o f t he R oar ing T ide-Race . Hux ter , i so la ted i n i t s l and locked l och , j us t w i l l n o t d o a s as tra teg ic s i te , a nd n e i ther w i l l C l ickh im in . h ave e s tabl ished h is b ase c a mp a t B urg i G eos?

And wha t i nvader wou ld Who wou ld h ave s e lected

s uch a n e x traord inary s i te a s t he r a l lying-po in t o f r es is tance?

Wha t s tra teg ic

v a lue l i es i n t he n ondescr ip t p os i t ions o ccup ied b y Windwick , S toa l , o r H og I s land S ound?

T he L andberg a dm i t ted ly d om ina tes t he t wo l eas t r ock-

e ncumbered l and ing-p laces o n Fa ir I s le , a nd c o m mands t he o ver land r ou te l ead ing f ro m t hese t o t he h abi table p ar t o f t he i s land ;

a nd Fa ir I s le i t sel f

may h ave h ad a s tra teg ic v a lue when b oa ts were r owed a nd s tages o f v oyages k ep t a s s hor t a s p oss ible ( t h is wou ld n o t a pp ly t o s a i l ing v esse ls , f or wh ich F a ir I s le i s ad ea thtrap ). many , may b e f or tu i tous ;

Bu t t h is o ne a pparen t ly s tra teg ic f or t among s o i t may j us t h ave h appened t o b e t he r igh t s or t o f

p ro mon tory t o b u i ld a f or t o n .

T he c onclus ion mus t b e , t ha t a ny p o l i t ica l

s ign i f icance t hese s i tes p ossessed , l ay w i th in t e mporary p o l i t ica l c on tex ts w i th in t he i s land-groups t he mse lves ; t o r ecover d e ta i ls o f s uch p ass ing h is tor ica l s i tua t ions i s b eyond t he r each o f a rchaeology. T he c on troversy o ver t he o r ig in a nd d eve lop men t o f b rochs l ooks l i ke c on t inu ing f or a l ong t ime t o c o me .

T he d i f fus ion is t e xp lana t ions o f t he

s pread o f ma ter ia l c u l ture d irec t f ro m s ou th-wes tern Eng land t o t he H ebr ides , a nd o f t he s pread o f b roch a rch i tec ture f ro m t here t o C a i thness , Orkney a nd S he t land , a re s i mp l is tic a nd u nsa t is factory.

C larke 's warn ings a ga ins t t he

u se o f sma l l-ob jec t d is tr ibu t ions , where t he o b jects a re t h in ly s ca t tered o ver s o w ide a n a rea , i n o ur p resen t s ta te o f k now ledge mus t p rec lude a ccept ance o f t he Wessex o r ig in o f t he b roch c u l ture .

And t he c leanness o f t he

p lace-na me r ecord s hou ld c onv ince u s t ha t n o i mm igran t C e l t ic-speak ing p eop le e ver d om ina ted O rkney a nd S he t land .

T he u l t i ma tely H ebr idean o r ig in

o fb rochs mus t a lways b e s uspect , i n t ha t i ti s c ur ious t ha t t he r oots o f s o met h ing s o r e markab le a nd v igorous , s hou ld l i e o u ts ide t he ma in a rea o f p erf ec t ion where b rochs a re mos t n umerous .

T here i s n o n eed t o d oubt MacK ie 's

b e l ie f i n t he s em ibrochs a s Hebr idean p rogen i tors o f b roch a rch i tec ture . Bu t t he s tra igh t l i near p rogress ion , f ro m s em ibrochs t hrough H ebr idean g round-ga l ler ied f i ca t ion .

b rochs t o Northern s o l id-based b rochs , i s a n o ver-s i mp l i-

I n t he o pen l andscape o f t he i s lands l i nked b y t he f ree s ea , i ti s

u n l ikely t o h ave h appened t ha t way.

The Wes tern I s les , Orkney a nd S he t land 6 9

wou ld h ave b een s ub ject t o c om ings a nd g o ings i nb oth d irect ions ;

i n a n

a t mosphere o f mu tua l a wareness , s us ta ined b y mar i t i me c on tact , b rochs were d eve loped a nd r e f ined . T he S he t land b lockhouses a nd t he H ebr idean s em ibrochs h ave t heir d is t inc t ive t ra i ts —ce l ls i n o ne , g a l ler ies i n t he o ther—bu t e ssen t ia l ly t hey a re s im i lar s truc tures . t he o vera l l a wareness .

They a re e xpress ions o f l oca l i nd iv idua l is m w i th in T he p rocesses b y wh ich t hese s truc tures w ere t rans-

f ormed i n to t ower ing b rochs , a re s t i l l u nc lear t o u s ; o f g en ius i s p robab ly t he b es t e xp lana t ion .

S i mpson 's s ing le mind

T he p rogress ion f rom g round-

g a l ler ied t o s o l id-based b rochs i s l i ke ly t o b e v a l id ;

b u t wh i le t he s olid-

b ased f or m i s d is t inc t ive ly N or thern , t he g round-ga l lere ied p ro to type i s n o t e xc lus ive ly H ebr idean .

There i s ag a l lery i n t he N ybs ter f orework .

The

b roch o f Midhowe , a f ter a f a i lure , was c onver ted f ro m a g round-ga l leried t o as o l id-based o ne .

And wha t o f Burra land —sure ly a n o bv ious "g a ller ied

d un" i fo n ly i t were n ot i n S he t land a nd t here fore a u to ma t ica l ly c a l led a b roch? Very f ew S he t land a nd Orkney b rochs a re s u f f ic ien t ly c lear o f d ebr is f or u s t o b e s ure t ha t t hey d o n ot c on ta in b asa l g a l ler ies . As eaway i s o pen t o a l l c orners u n less a s trong n ava l p ower d e l ibera te ly c loses i t .

T ha t i s ad i f f icu l t a nd e xpens ive t h ing t o d o a nd s us ta in .

I t i s

u n l ike ly t ha t a ny s uch n ava l p ower was e f fec t ive a ga ins t t he wes tern s eaways i n p reh is tor ic t imes .

T he N or thern I s les a re n a tura l ly o pen :

G enera l Wade

d id n o t n eed t o o pen t he m u p a s h e h ad t o d o t o t he H igh lands a f ter t he 1 745 r ebe l l ion .

We n eed f ind n o d i f f icu l ty i n imag in ing c on tact b etween t he Hebr ides

a nd t he N or thern I s les d ur ing t he d eve lop men t

p er iod o f b roch a rch i tecture .

I ti s c er ta in t ha t t hroughou t h is tory t here h ave b een a dven turers , a t l eas t , who h ave made l ong v oyages .

S uch a d is tan t c on tac t i s r evea led b y t he

c hevaux-de-fr ise a t Burg i G eos .

C on tacts a s f ar s ou th a s t he I r ish S ea a nd

p oss ib ly b eyond , a re s trong ly s ugges ted b y t he mu l t iva l la te f or ts . G eos i s u n ique a nd mu l t iva l la te p ro mon tory f or ts a re f ew .

Bu t Burg i

They p rove wha t

we may r easonably e xpect , t ha t t here was t he o ccas iona l l ong v oyage o r c hance c ha in o f c on tacts .

T hey a re n o t e nough t o p rove t ha t s uch o ccas iona l v oyages

o r c on tac ts f ar way t o t he S ou th , h ad a ma jor e f fec t o n c u l tura l d eve lop men t i n t he N or th .

They may e xp la in t he mu l t iva l la te f or ts b u t t hey d o n o t mean

t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f b rochs was o wed t o mass ive im m igra t ions o f Celt ic o r o ther p eoples .

T he p ro mon tory f or ts d o s ugges t f ar-f lung c on tac ts bu t i t

i s n o t i nd ica ted t ha t t hese c on tacts h ad a l as t ing e f fec t o n t he h is tor ical d eve lopmen t o f O rkney a nd S he t land .

7 0

APPEND IX 1 GAZ ETTEER

Th is Gaze t teer i ncludes al s i tes i n S het land a nd Orkney a nd o n t he n orthern c oast o f S cotland , wh ich i n t he w r iter 's o p in ion a re c erta in ly o r p robably I ron Age p ro mon tory f orts. N ot a l l o f t hese a re men t ioned i n t he t ex t ; o n ly t hose w h ich a re d iscussed t here , a re marked o n t he maps ( f igs. 2a nd 3 ).

References a re g iven t o p ubl ished works where t hese e x is t.

I n

s o me c ases t he o n ly s ource i s t he Ordnance S urvey 's a rchaeolog ical c ard i ndex , wh ich i s a va i lable f or c onsu l ta t ion b y a rrangemen t. A t t ime o f wr it ing , t he ma in c opy o f t h is i s h oused i n t he Ordnance S urvey 's p re m ises a t 4 3, Rose S tree t , E d inburgh .

S UTH ER LAND E ilean n an Caorach , Durness. N a t iona l Gr id r eference NC 3 50716. A l arge r ocky p la teau p ro ject ing f ro m a n e n t irely d eser ted c oast , i s s urrounded o n t hree s ides b y s ea c l if fs , a nd t o l andward s lopes d own v ery s teep ly t o ab road i s thmus.

Aw ide t rack c l i mbs d iagonal ly u p t he s lope f ro m

t he E , b eing s uppor ted n ear t he b ot to m o n b u i l t t errac ing o f l arge b ou lders. A long t he t op o f t he s lope i s a wan , i t s f ounda t ion c ourse b e ing a l i ne o f mass ive b ou lders , many o f wh ich measure more t han a me tre e ach way. A t t he h ead o f t he t rack t he wal l i s p ierced b y a n e n trance g ap 2 .5 m w ide , l i ned w ith s im ilar b ou lders. Beh ind t he wa l l a t i t s Ee nd i s as tone h u t c ircle o f 3 .7 m o vera l l d iameter. There a re n u merous c ircu lar d epress ions o n t he s um m i t , b u t a s t he s i te l i es w i th in a n aval f i r ing r ange mos t i fn ot a l l o f t he m may b e s he l l-holes.

The more p or table s tones h ave b een r e moved f ro m

t he wal l t ob u i ld s hel ters f or s heep.

S eanacha istea l , Durness. N a t iona l Gr id r eference NC 4 06679 The s i te i s ap ro mon tory w i th s heer c l if fs o n t he W s ide b u t o n ly a modera tely s teep s lope d own t o r ocks a nd t he s ea o n t he E . I tr ises t o a l imestone k nol l wh ich t o t he r ear i s p ro tec ted b y c rags a bou t 6m h igh wh ich f a l l t o at errace a f ew me tres w ide a bove t he s ea c l if fs. T here a re t races o f ap arapet a long t he l and-fac ing e dge o f t he k nol l , a nd o n t he s umm it a ga inst t he c rag i s ah orseshoe-shaped d epression wh ich may b e ah u t f ounda t ion . I n f ron t o ft he k nol l i s av ery b road a nd s tony r ampar t. A s a l l t he g round i s h u m mocky , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o i den t ify t he l im i ts o f t he r ampar t materia l b u t t he w id th s ee ms t ob e a round 1 0 m. T here i s ac on s iderable h ol low i n

7 1

t he s um m i t j us t No f t he c en tra l ly-placed e n trance g ap , wh ich h as n o d ist inct i ve f ea tures a l though i t s p osi t ion i s c lear e nough . B elow t he r ampar t i s a w ide , f l a t-bot to med d i tch. RCAMS 1 911b , 5 4, n o. 1 58.

Dun Mha ir te in , Ba l igi l l , Farr N a t iona l G r id Reference NC 8 54664 Ap ro mon tory a bou t 2 7 m h igh p ro jec ts f rom t he c l if fs 2 00 m NNE o f t he c rof t ing t ownsh ip o f Ba l ig i l l . I t c urves w estwards s o a s t o r un a l most p aral el w ith t he ma in land , f ro m wh ich i ti s s epara ted b y ad eep g eo; t he f ort if i ca t ion c uts a cross t he t a il o f t he p ro mon tory , e nc los ing a n a rea a bou t 2 2m x2 4 m. T he f ort i s o verlooked b y t he h igher c l if fs o n t he ma inland s ide o f t he g eo. T he ma in f ea ture i s as tone-revet ted r ampart v ary ing b e tween 4 .9 a nd 5 .8 m i nt h ickness a nd u p t o 1 .8 m h igh , p ierced s l igh t ly E o f c en tre b y a n e n trance g ap 1 .02 m w ide a t t he o u ter e nd a nd w iden ing i nwards. There i s ad oorcheck f or med b y a nu pr igh t s lab a t r igh t a ngles t o t he E wa l l o f t he p assage.

B efore t he r a mpar t t he g round h as b een s cooped b ack f ro m e i ther

c l if f-edge , l eav ing a 2 .5 m—w ide c auseway i n l i ne w i th t he e n trance .

On t he

W s ide o n ly ab ank , s o me 3 .6 m t h ick a nd 3 m f rom t he r a mpart , i n tervenes b e tween t he r ampar t a nd t he s cooped d itch , wh ich o n t h is s ide d escends t o t he b r ink i nt hree b road s teps. The f or t i n terior c on ta ins a c o mp lex o f s tructures f or m ing a s hapeless mound , w i th in wh ich t he i n ter ior o f as tone-bu i l t h u t h as r ecen t ly b een e xposed , p resumably b y a n ama teur e xcava tor ; t h is i s n ot men t ioned i n t he R oyal C omm iss ion I nven tory , n or d oes i ta ppear o n t he s ke tch-p lan i n t he Ordnance S urvey i ndex .

T he h u t i s r ec t il inear , t he e xcavator h av ing c leared t he whole

2 .74 m l eng th o f o ne wa l l a nd p ort ions o f t he a d join ing wa l ls; t he r est o f t he i n ter ior i s c hoked w i th d ebr is. T he b u i ld ing i s v ery c arefu l ly c onstruc ted , t he l ower 0 .9 m o f t he wa l lb e ing o fo r thos ta ts a bove wh ich i s p reserved 0 .3 m o fg ood d ry masonry , b u i l t o f sma l l f l a t p ieces o f q uarr ied s tone.

A t t he SW

c orner where t he masonry i s p reserved t o t he g rea test h e igh t , t he t opmost c ourses o versa i l s l igh tly , b u t t h is may j ust b e d ue t o b u lg ing. I n t he d ebr is o ne l arge s tone i s n o table ; i ti s 0 .25 m s quare i n c ross-sect ion a nd a t l eas t 1 .2 m l ong , a nd s ee ms d el ibera tely s haped , p erhaps a s ap i l lar o r l i n tel . S o me 3 m NW o ft he h u t i s ad eep d epress ion g iv ing a ccess t o as ou terra inl i ke t unnel wh ich r uns NE a nd d ownwards ( f ol low ing t he g round s lope ) f or 1 0.7 m , emerg ing o n t he c l if f f ace. A lthough i ti s c hoked w ith d ebr is t o w i th in 0 .5 m o f t he r oof , i ti s p oss ible t o s ee a long t he whole l eng th o f i t . The r oof i s o fh eavy l i n tels o n o rthosta ts a nd d ry wal l ing , b e ing b roken i n a t ap o in t 3m f rom t he e n trance; i n t h is a rea a re many e rec t e arthfas t s labs. RCA MS 1 911b , 6 3 , n o. 1 91. Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . NC 8 6 NE 1 .

7 2

CAITHNESS N eck o f Brough , T hurso N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 0 60710 An L -shaped p ro mon tory c urves a round t o l i e p ara l lel w ith t he ma in land , f ro m wh ich i ti s s epara ted b y ad eep g eo. A long t he l andward e dge i s ab ank c on ta in ing t races o fd rystone wa l l ing. T he i s th mus , wh ich i s l ower , h as b een wave-scoured t o t he b are r ock a nd n o d efens ive f ea tures s urv ive. s truc tures a re v is ible o n t he p ro mon tory.

N o o ther

RCA MS 1 911a , 1 25, n o. 4 54 Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . ND 0 7 S E 1

Ho lborn Head , T hurso N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 1 08715 The b road c l if f-head land wh ich e ncloses Thurso Bay o n t he NW h as b een c u t i n to b y t he s ea a long f au l ts , c rea t ing t wo l ong , p ara l lel c has ms wh ich r educe t he w id th o f t he i s th mus t o s o me 5 5 m. Immed ia tely s eaward o f t he i nner o ft he t wo c has ms t here i s ab ank 0 .75 m h igh , o f l oose mater ia l d er ived f ro m a q uarry-scoop b eh ind i t .

T here i s t hen a s t if f c l i mp t o t he h ead-

l and , c rowned b y aw al l 0 .5 m t o 0 .9 m h igh a nd 2 .4 m b road , o f sma l l f l a t s labs w ith a f ac ing o f l arger o nes.

T he e n trance g ap , n ow f ea tureless , was

i n t he m idd le , o ppos i te t he a pproach b etween t he h eads o f t he c has ms.

N oth ing

e lse i s v is ible o n t he p ro mon tory e xcep t f or s o me e rec t e ar thfast s labs o n t he c l if f top o n t he W s ide , im med iately b eh ind t he r ampart. RCAMS 1 911a , 1 20 , n o. 4 38

West Mur lde , Thurso N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 1 58699 A t t he h ead o f t he b ay o f Haven , i mmed iately o pposi te t he e nd o f t he c artt rack p ast t he f ar m o f West Murk le , i s ag rassy h il lock f orm ing ab lun t h eadl and s o me 6 m a bove h igh-wa ter l evel . Around i tr uns a c ons iderable b ank a nd d itch wh ich s tar t i n as tra igh t l i ne f ro m t he c l if fo n t he E s ide , b u t a bou t h a l f-way a cross c urve s harp ly W a nd s eawards. T he t op o f t he b ank s tands s o me 3 m a bove t he b o t to m o f t he U -sec t ioned d i tch ; t he b ank h as a c ore o f l arge s tones a nd p robably a masonry r evetmen t. A s l igh t d epress ion a bou t midway a long t he b ank i s p robably n ot t he o r ig ina l e n trance , wh ich p ossibly was a t o ne o f t he e nds l ost b y e ros ion. Wi th in t he f or t , n o th ing i s v is ible o n t he g round e xcep t f or a f ew e rec t s labs b eh ind t he r ampart a t t he Ee nd .

I n t he c l if f-sec t ions h owever p ort ions o f wa l ls c an b e s een , s uggest ing

t ha t t he d efended a rea , wh ich i s t h ick ly o vergrown , was q u ite d ensly b u i l tu p . RCAMS 1 911a , 1 25, n o. 4 51

7 3

S t . J ohns P o in t , C an isbay N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 3 10751 T he b road c l if f-pro mon tory i s c u t o f fb y a mass ive r a mpar t a bou t 3m h igh , f ron ted b y aU -sect ioned d itch s o me 1 5 m w ide.

T he e n trance may b e

r epresen ted b y ag ap t owards t he W e nd , b u t t his i s n ot c er ta in . d rys tone d yke r uns a long t he t op o f t he r a mpart.

A modern

N o s tructures a re v is ible

o n t he 4 -hec tare a rea o f r ough g raz ing wh ich t he r ampar t e ncloses , b u t a ga inst i t s r ear i s ar ec tangu lar b u ild ing , t he e x ter ior o f wh ich i s b ur ied , t he i n ter ior c lear t o ad ep th o f 0 .6 m b u t f u l l o f n et t les. i s 7 m x 3 m.

I t i s c onstruc ted o f g ood d ry masonry .

The i n ter ior measure men t Cur ie ( RCAMS ) who

g ives i t al eng th o f 3 2 f eet ( 9 .75 m ), wh ich p resu mably i s t he e x ter ior l ength , s ays t ha t " in t he i n ter ior t wo s labs p ro trude , wh ich may h ave f or med t he e nds o f al ong c is t" .

The b u i ld ing i s s a id l oca l ly t o b e ac hapel .

RCA MS 19 11a , p p . 1 7 a nd 2 0 , n os. 4 0 a nd 5 6

S k irza Head b roch , C an isbay N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 39 56 8 4 T h is was o ne o ft he many b rochs e xcava ted a t t he t urn o f t he c en tury b y S ir Franc is T ress Barry.

I ts tands o n ac l if f-pro montory d efended b y ab road

a r t if ic ial d i tch w ith a l ow r a mpart i nside o f i t . o u ts ide t he d i tch i s as et t ing o f e rec t s labs.

On t he S s ide im med iately

Cur ie ( RCAMS ) r epor ted t hese

a s c over ing a n a rea 2 5 f ee t x 6f ee t ( 7 .62 m x 1 .83 m ), a ppear ing t o b e " the r e ma ins o f f our r ows r ough ly s e t i n a l ign men t s o me 3 f eet t o 4f ee t ( 0 .91 m t o 1 .22 m ) a part".

T he s tones t he mselves were 1 f oot t o 2f ee t ( 0 .31 m t o

0 .61 m ) h igh a nd s e t 2f ee t 5i nches ( 0 .74 m ) t o 4f ee t ( 1 .22 m ) a par t.

Today

t he s tones s urv ive b u t a re u t ter ly o bscured b y h um mocky t ussocks , a nd i t i s u ncer ta in whether t hey c an b e c la i med a s c hevaux-de-fr ise. Anderson 19 01, 1 44 RCA MS 1 011a , 1 5, n o. 3 5

Broch o f N ess, C an isbay N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 3 82666 Another o f T ress Barry 's. s trong s tone wa l lb eh ind i t ;

The i s th mus i s b locked b y ad itch w i th a

i n t he d i tch t here i s aw el l a nd t races o f wha t

s ee m t o b e s econdary s tructures.

On t he p ro mon tory s eaward o f t he b roch

a re v ar ious p ara l le l r idges a nd d epress ions, w i th o ther r unn ing a t r igh t a ngles f ro m t he m .

I t i s v ery d if f icu l t t o make a ny th ing o f t hese f eatures ,

wh ich a re c oncea led b y l ong g rass , b u t t hey may r epresen t r ec tangular b u i ld ings. Anderson 19 01, 1 43 RCAMS 1 911a , 1 3 , n o. 3 3

7 4

S garbach , Can isbay N at iona l Gr id r eference ND 3 73658 On t he c oast n ear Auk ing il l i s a n L -shaped c l if f-pro mon tory .

I tc urves

a round s o t ha t i t s f ar e nd l i es p ara l lel w i th t he ma in land , wh ich i s s l igh t ly h igher ;

t he d efens ive wa l l i s s itua ted wel l t owards t he l andward e nd where

t here i s n o d isadvan tage o f s lope.

I tn ow a ppears a s ab road mound a cross

t he i s th mus ( f ig. 8 ) , b u t when s een b y Cur ie , d o ing t he f i eldwork f or t he RCA MS I nven tory , i t was n ot l ong e xcava ted b y S ir Franc is Tress Barry , a nd t he f eatures w ere we l l-preserved a nd c lear.

C ur ie g ives t he wal l-ra mpart

at h ickness o f 1 2 f ee t 6i nches ( 3 .81 m ) , al eng th o f 6 2 f ee t ( 18.9 m ) a nd a h eigh t o f 5f ee t ( 1 .22 m ).

A t t he c en tre i ti s p ierced b y a n e n trance p assage ,

n ow v ery d ilap ida ted , d escr ibed i n 1 911 a s 3f eet 2 i nches ( 0 .97 m ) w ide a t t he o u ter e nd , 4f ee t 9i nches ( 1 .45 m ) a t t he i nner , w i th d oorcheck a nd s i l l h al f-way t hrough .

T here was a d eep b arhole i n t he wa l l b es ide t he c heck .

B eh ind t he p assage was a n o va l c ha mber i n wh ich were f ound a h ear th a nd o ccupa t ion d ebr is , a nd a nu nderf loor d ra in l ed o u t f ro m t h is a rea t hrough t he e n trance p assage t o t he e x ter ior o f t he f or t.

As i tn ow a ppears, t he

masonry o ft he e n trance p assage c ons ists o f v ery t h ick , l ong s labs a t t he b ase , w ith smal ler s labs h igher u p .

Var ious mounds o n e i ther s ide -o f t he

r a mpar t a re p robably e xcava t ion s po il .

I t i s u nfor tuna te t ha t t he s i te was l e f t

o pen a f ter e xcava t ion , t o wh ich c ause i s a t tr ibu table i t s p resen t p oor c ond it ion . RCAMS 1 911a , 1 8 , n o. 4 5 O rdnance S urvey i ndex r ef . ND 3 6 S E 5

Broch o f N ybster , Wick N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 3 70631 The most r e markable f ea ture o f t he s i te t oday i s af an tast ic f a iry-cast le monu men t o rna men ted w i th g rotesque s cu lp tures, e rec ted b y S ir Franc is Tress Barry a f ter h is e xcava t ion , a nd n ow a n h istor ica l monu men t i n i t sel f . T he s ol id-based b roch i s b u il t i m med ia tely s eaward o f a mass ive s tone wa l l w h ich s weeps a cross t he c l if f-pro mon tory i n ab road c urve ;

i th as a n e n trance

p assage w ith t wo s e ts o f d oorchecks. Anderson 1 901, 1 39 RCA MS 1 911a , 1 59 , n o. 5 18 Ha m il ton 1 968 , 6 0

G ote ( 0 Tra m , Wick N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 3 67480 The p ro mon tory , b etween l ong n arrow g eos , h as a s l igh t d ownslope t o s eaward.

Across t he n arrowest p o in t i s ad eep r ock-cu t d i tch w i th a r eserved

c auseway o n t he S s ide .

On t he i nner l ip o f t he d i tch i s at urf b ank , r is ing

2 .4 m a bove t he d itch b ot to m a nd 0 .9 m a bove t he l evel g round b eh ind .

The

a pproach t o t he p ro mon tory l andward o f t he d i tch r uns t hrough a s l igh t h ol low b etween t urf b anked u p o n e i ther s ide, b u t t h is d isturbance may b e r ecen t.

7 5

Bay o f G irston , Wick N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 3 644 7 4 A t t he h ead o f t he Bay o f G irston , a nd t owards t he S , ap iece o f l and r ises s harp ly t o s eaward b u t i s c u t o f f a brup tly a t t he c l if f e dge ; 4 5 m h igh a nd o verhangs d angerously .

t he c l if f i s o ver

To l andward t here i s as teep s lope

2 .4 m h igh t o ab road l evel t errace, i n f ron t o f w h ich i s a V-sect ioned d itch 1 .8 m d eep , r unn ing f or s o me 3 5 m f ro m e dge t o e dge o f t he c l if f . i t may f o l low a f au l t-l ine , t he d i tch a ppears t o b e a rt if ic ial .

A l though

I t i s l i kely t ha t

t he o verhang ing c l if f i s a l l t hat r e ma ins o f wha t o nce was a p ro mon tory .

ORKNEY Brough o f Braeb ister , Hoy N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 2 13052 A sma l l h ead land 1 5 m h igh e x tends NW f ro m t he c oast n ear t he mou th o f t he Braeb ister b urn. 3 .5 m h igh.

Across i t s l andward e nd i n ab road a rc r uns a mound

T h is i s d escr ibed i n t he RCAMS I nven tory a s "modern , a nd

c ons ists a pparen t ly o f t he smal ler s tones wh ich i t was n ot wor th c arrytng away f ro m t he s truc ture" ( i .e. f ro m t he b roch wh ich i s a ssu med t o h ave s tood a t t he s eaward e nd o f t he p ro mon tory ).

T h is i s most u n l ikely ;

i n t he mound ,

p ar t icu lar ly n ear i t s Se nd , p or t ions o f wa l l ing a nd o ccas iona l e rec t s labs a re v is ible , a nd i n f ron t o f i to n t he N s ide a l ow b ank e x tends f ro m t he c l if f e dge a nd c urves a round t o t he NW t o merge i n to t he ma in mound .

L andward

o f t h is b ank t here i s as ha l low d i tch. A t t he s eaward e nd o f t he p ro mon tory t here i s n o th ing t o s ugges t ab roch. The p ro montory h owever i s c overed w i th s et t ings o f e rec t s labs , n ow mere s tumps i n t he g rass, wh ich a re s et a t r igh t a ngles t o o ne a nother , f or m ing r ec tangu lar p a t terns.

J us t b eh ind t he ma in mound a bove t he c l if fo n t he S

s ide , i s al impet-shel l midden . RCA MS 1 946, i , 1 09 , n o. 3 80

Cast le o f Burw ick , S ou th Rona ldsay N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 4 35843 T he Cast le i s ap en insu lar r ock l y ing p ara l le l t o t he s hore a t t he S e nd o f S ou th Rona ldsay , a ccess ible b y ar ock-br idge a t t he N e nd .

L ow i n 1 774

r epor ted i ta s t he s i te o f af or t if ica t ion , b u t i tw as t oo t h ick ly g rassed o ver f or h im t o b e a ble t o s ay e xac t ly wha t was t here ; b ad t oday.

t he v ege ta t ion i s j ust a s

T he r ock-br idge i s d efended b y t hree d u mp b anks w ith t wo

i n ter med ia te d itches wh ich n ow a re a bou t 0 .9 m b elow t he t ops o f t he b anks. A t t he s um m i t o f t he s teep s lope o n t o t he p ro mon tory t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a n i nner r a mpar t ( no t s hown o n t he RCAMS p lan , f ig . 2 0 ).

The s um m it

a rea i m med ia tely b eh ind , i s o ccup ied b y i l l-def ined s truc tures , w ith s tone s truc tures e x tend ing d own t o t he c l if f-edge b eh ind ;

t hese h ave b een d is torted

b y s l ip-fau l t ing b u t c an b e s een t o b e b u il t o f e rec t s labs w ith d ry wa l l ing a bove. c ists.

T hey a re q u i te c ons iderable , a nd s ugges t h ouses r a ther t han b ur ia l E x tend ing S a long t he p ro mon tory i s av ague r ow o f o blong f ounda t ions

7 6

p robably r ela t ing t o a n e arly med iaeva l monast ic o ccupa t ion .

A r im s herd

o f c oarse p ot tery , p icked u p d ur ing t he RCAMS v is i t i n 1 929 , i s i n Tankerness H ouse, K irkwa l l . L ow 1 879 , 2 8 RCA MS 1 946, i , 2 85 , n o. 8 17

B rough o f Windw ick , S ou th Rona ldsay N a t iona l Gr id r eference ND 4 58873 The Brough i s an arrow h ead land p ro jec t ing f ro m t he p rec ip itous c l if fs , 4 5 m h igh , o n t he N s ide o f Wind Wick ( f ig. 1 8 ). b e tween h i l l p asture a nd i n f ield .

I t l i es n ear t he b oundary

T he i s th mus i s d efended o n t he S s ide b y

f our s cooped-ou t , U -sec t ioned d i tches w ith t hree i n terven ing r a mpar ts , a nd o n t he N , b y t wo s uch d itches w i th o ne r a mpart b e tween t he m. e n trance p a th r uns b etween t he t wo s ets o f d i tches.

The c en tra l

T he r a mpar ts a re o f

t urf , a nd r e ta in a n ear-ver t ica l p rof i le , s tand ing u p t o 2 .5 m a bove t he d i tch b o t to ms.

Im med ia te ly i nward o f t he l ast d i tches i s al ow b ank g o ing r igh t

a cross , a nd t here i s a nother b ank 9 m f urther s eaward .

Fro m t he b ot to m

o f t he i nner d i tch o n t he N s ide t o t he t op o f t he b ank i s ah e ight o f n early 5 m.

T he p ro mon tory i s a pproached o n t he l evel a nd t he d i tches a ppear t o

b e whol ly a rt if ic ia l , b eing c u t i n to t he t h ick d r if t c ap ; a t a ny r a te , i s c u t t hrough i n to t he r ock .

b u t t he i nner N d itch

T he s i te i s o vergrown a nd n o

s tructures a re v is ible w i th in t he f ort .

B rough o fB igg ing , Yesnaby , S andw ick N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 2 18158 Ab road c l if f-pro mon tory wh ich r ises f ro m a l ow i s th mus t o ah e igh t o f 3 0 m a t t he s eaward e nd , i s s epara ted f ro m t he l and b y ab road r if t t he b o t to m o f w h ich i s o n ly a metre o r s o a bove h igh-wa ter mark .

Im med ia tely

s eaward o f t he r i f t i s ab road b ank , a bou t 4 .3 m w ide a nd 0 .5 m h igh , w i th t races o f as tone r evet men t o n t he i nner s ide.

S o me 3 0 m s eaward , a t t he

n arrowest p o in t o f t he p ro mon tory , i s as econd b ank , r a ther l arger t han t he f i rst , w i th a wel l- marked e n trance g ap . I n f ron t o f a nd a round t he e n trance a re n u merous s tone s labs s e t o n e dge , i n a manner wh ich c annot n ow b e i nt e rpreted a s a ny c oheren t s truc ture ( f ig. 7 ) .

H igh u p o n t he e x tre m i ty o f

t he p ro mon tory , n ear t he modern n av iga t ion c a irn , a re s tructures r epresen ted o n ly b y w idely s ca t tered e ar thfast e rec t s labs o f wh ich o n ly t he s tu mps r emai n . RCA MS 1 946 i , 2 67 , n o. 7 30

B roch o fB orw ick , Y esnaby , S andw ick N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 2 24167 Before e xcava t ion i n t he 1 880s t he s i te , o n at r iangu lar c l if f-head land , a ppeared a s al arge g reen mound ;

t he e xcava t ions b y Mr. W. G . T . Wa t t ,

o f S ka il l , i nvolved t he p art ia l c learance o f t he b roch t ower a nd o u tbu i ld ings. I n f ron t o ft he b roch ab road d epress ion c u ts a cross t he p ro mon tory , w i th , b e tween i ta nd t he b roch , a mass ively b road mound . 7 7

Th is a t o ne p o in t c an

b e s een t o h ave a s tone f ac ing , a nd a n i rregu lar h u t s ee ms t o h ave b een i ns erted i n to i t . Wa tt , 1 882 RCAMS 1 946, i , 2 52, n o. 6 79

Ta ing o f Onstan , S tenness N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 2 83117 T he f la t , l ow-ly ing p ro mon tory e x tend ing i n to t he L och o f S tenness N o f t he w el l-known Ons tan c ha mbered t o mb , i s c u t o f fb y t wo b anks e ach 0 .6 0 .9 m h igh , o f l oose ma teria l d er ived f ro m s ha l low d itches i nwards f ro m t he m .

N oth ing e lse i s v isible o n t he 0 .6-ha p ro mon tory , wh ich i s g ood p asture.

A s ec t ion a cross t he b anks was c u t b y t he l a te D r. F . T . Wa inwrigh t d uring t he e arly 19 60s.

The e xcava t ion n otes a re l ost , b u t were s een by t he c o mp iler

o f t he Ordnance S urvey i ndex e n try who h as r eta iled Wainwr ight 's c onclusion t ha t t he p ro mon tory h ad b een t he s i te o f a" nesn ä m".

The d rawn s ec t ion i s

r eproduced o n t he i ndex c ard , a nd i ts hows merely s i mp le d u mp b anks w ith t races o f s tone r evet men ts. RCA MS 1 946, i , 2 73, n o. 8 73

•

Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HY 2 1 S E 2 2

N ether B igg ing , S tenness N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 3 0111 9 Th is i s i n as i tua t ion s im ilar t o t ha t o f Ons tan , a bove.

I t i s a no ther

l ow p ro mon tory o n t he s a me s hore o f t he l och , a bou t 1 .5 km E .

E xcava t ions

i n 1 924-5 r evea led a wa l l w ith e x ternal d i tch a cross t he i s th mus, a nd s tone s truc tures a t t he l och e nd o f t he p ro mon tory .

C louston i den t if ied t hese a s

r e ma ins o f a med iaeva l c ast le , b u t h is p lan s hows a n i nde ter m ina te c onfus ion o f s truc tures a nd n o d a table f i nds were made d ur ing t he d ig.

But a ccord ing

t o RCAMS a s herd o f s o-ca l led " broch" p ot tery w as p icked u p o n t he s i te. The s i te i s n ow s ub jec t t o c onstan t f l ood ing. C louston 1 936 RCA MS 1 946, i , 2 98 , n o. 8 74 Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . BY 3 1 SW 3 6

Cast le o f S and Geo , C op insay N a t iona l Gr id r eference BY 6 1201 7 On t he N s hore o f t he sma l l i s land o f C op insay , wh ich n ow i s i nhab ited o n ly b y t he l i gh thouse-keepers, t here i s ab road s andy g eo e nclosed o n t he W s ide b y ac urved p ro mon tory ( f ig. 2 5 ).

Fro m t he b each , o n wh ich a sma l l

b oa t c an l and , i s a n e asy s lope u p t o t he n eck o ft he p ro mon tory , w h ich i t sel f r ises t o ah eigh t o f r a ther o ver 6 m.

A bou t h al f-way u p t he a pproach s lope

i s a wa l l , u p t o 0 .9 m h igh , i t s s tones e roded a nd moss-covered a nd h av ing a n a nc ien t a ppearance. al evel t errace.

T he wa l l i s b u i l t a ga ins t t he s lope a nd i t s t op f or ms

A t t he E e nd , t here i s ac on fus ion o f t u mble i n wh ich i ti s

n ot c lear whether t he wa l l c on t inues t o t he c l if f , o r c urves i nwards t o f lank

7 8

t he e n trance.

A bove t he wa l l , t he c rest o f t he s lope i s c rowned b y ab road

r ampar t wh ich n ow s tands 0 .6 m a bove t he l evel o f t he g round i nside.

T he

c l if f-sec t ion r evea ls t ha t t he r a mpar t h as a c ore o f c arefu l lyla id s tones w i th ar evet men t o n e i ther f ace.

Immed ia tely b eh ind t he r a mpart i s as em ic ircu lar

d epress ion a ga inst t he c l if f , a pparen t ly a t runca ted h u t-c ircle.

No f h ere i s

ar ecen t-look ing h ole , s uggested b y t he Ordnance S urvey a s t he f ind-spot o f as tone a xe n ow i n T ankerness House museu m , K irkwa l l .

T he h ole was s ta ted

b y Mr. J . R . F oub is ter, f ar mer , o f S ka i l l , Deerness , t o b e t he t e mporary g rave o f ab ody , s ince e xhu med , wh ich was washed u p i n S and Geo d ur ing t he l ast war.

A t t he e nd o f t he p ro mon tory t here a re many e ar thfast e rec t s labs

a nd a s hor t l eng th o f wa l l c u t t ing o f f t he e x tre me t ip . Mooney 1 926 Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HY 5 0 SW 5

R iggan o f Ka m i , D eerness N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 5 93074 I n t he c en tre o f a sma l l c l if tbound b ay i s ad e tached s tack , t he Moustag , t owards wh ich t here r uns a l ong, n arrow p ro mon tory c al led R iggan o f Ka m i. C los ing t he a pproach t o t he p ro mon tory i s ac ons iderable s truc ture , wh ich h owever i s o bscured b y l ush v egeta t ion.

I ta ppears a s av ery b road mound ,

s o me 1 .5 m h igh , e x tend ing i n aw ide a rc a cross t he p ro mon tory.

By k ick ing

t hrough t he v ege ta t ion i ti s p ossible t o l oca te d isconnec ted l eng ths o f wa l l ing , i nc lud ing wha t s ee ms t o b e a n e nd wa l l-face d el im it ing t he N e x tre m ity o f t he mound.

S o me o f t he p ort ions o f wa l l s ee m t o b elong t o sma l l o va l c ha mbers

w i th in t he mound .

RCAMS r eports t ha t ar u ined s ta ir o nce was v is ible;

f ro m t he s hape o f t he mound i ti s c lear t ha t t h is i s n o t ab roch.

b u t

Im med ia tely

s eaward o f t he mound a re s o me p oss ible h u ts a nd i n t he s u mm it o f t he p romon tory , wh ich r ap id ly n arrows t o ak n ife-edge , t here a re o ccas iona l e ar thf as t e rec t s labs.

I ti s n ot c lear whe ther t he p ro mon tory c onnec ted w ith t he

s tack a t t he t ime o f o ccupa t ion ;

t he s tack s umm i t i s o ccup ied b y al arge

c ircu lar s truc ture , a nd w h ile t h is c ou ld b e c onnec ted w i th t he f ort , i ti s a t l eas t e qual ly p oss ible t ha t i ti s monas t ic . RCA MS 1 946, i , 2 43, n o. 6 28.

Brough o f D eerness N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 5 96087 Th is i s a wel l-known e re m i t ic monast ic s et t le men t c onsist ing o f a n e xt ens ive c o mp lex o f l onghouses s urround ing a smal l o ra tory ; t hese s truc tures a s w e n ow s ee t he m p robably r epresen t a monastery , most l i kely Bened ic t ine , o f t he t wel f th o r t h ir teen th c en tury.

There i s h owever t he p oss ib il i ty o f e arl ier

C hr ist ian o ccupa t ion a nd t he s i te , o n ac l if f-pro mon tory , may i n o r ig in h ave b een a p reh istor ic f or t o f wh ich t he mass ive " val lu m monaster i i" , wh ich r uns a long t he l and-fac ing e dge o f t he h ead land , may b e ar el ic. T he i dea o f p remonast ic o ccupa t ion a s a" rock-for t" was s uggested b y George L ow i n 1 774. L ow 1 879 , 5 5 RCAMS 1 9 46, i , 2 40 , n o. 6 21

7 9

Broch o f Midhowe , Rousay N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 3 70308 Midhowe, t he c en tra l o ne o f as et o f t hree c lose-spaced b rochs, i s s i ted o n a sma l l p ro mon tory b e tween n arrow g eos. T he b roch i s b u il t c lose b eh ind a massive s tone f orework , wh ich a t i s t b ase i s 4 .3 m t o 5 .8 m t h ick , t he w a l lf aces b e ing b a t tered , a nd a t t he S e nd i ncreases i n w id th t o 9m w here i s t he e n trance p assage.

I t s ee ms t ha t n o a t te mp t h as b een made t o a scer ta in whe ther

t h is s truc ture i s s ol id o r h ol low . Ca l lander a nd G ran t 1 934 RCAMS 1 946, i , 1 93 , n o. 5 53 Ha m il ton 1 968 , 6 0

( unna med f ort ) S tronsay N a t iona l Gr id r eference HY 6 90235 Th is n arrow p ro mon tory s lopes g en tly d own f ro m t he l and t owards t he s ea.

Across i ti s as ing le s tone-revet ted r a mpar t b eh ind w hich a re o ut l ines

o f sma l l i rregu lar h u ts a nd e rec t s labs h aphazard ly p laced.

I t s ee ms t ha t a t

s o me t ime t h is s i te h as b een c la i med a s t ha t o f ac hapel , b u t a s t he Ordnance S urvey i ndex c ard h as b een m iss ing f or s o me t ime t he s ource o f t h is s ugges t ion h as n ot b een t raced. Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HY 6 2 S E 1 8

S HETLAND The L andberg , F a ir I sle N a t iona l Gr id r eference HZ 2 23723 T he L andberg i s an arrow p ro mon tory w i th s heer c l if fs r is ing a bou t 2 5m f ro m S ou th Haven , wh ich w i th t he n eighbour ing N or th Haven p rov ides j ust a bou t t he b est h arbourage o n t he i s land .

T he p ro mon tory s lopes g radual ly

u p f ro m t he l and , a nd i s c u t a cross b y an a tura l r i f t b eyond wh ich i s av ery s teep s lope u p t o t he l evel p la teau wh ich f or ms t he d efended a rea.

L andward

o f t he r if t , t he a pproach i s g uarded b y as er ies o fb anks made o f l oose s tony ma ter ia l d er ived f ro m s ha l low i n ter med ia te d i tches.

Eo f t he e n trance p a th

t here a re t hree o f t hese b anks w i th t wo d i tches , t here b e ing n o d i tch i n f ron t o f t he o u ter most r ampart.

A t t he W e nd o f t he i nner o ne , t here a re t wo l arge

b ou lders s et a ga inst t he p a th.

A l l t hree b anks a re o f u n ifor m h eigh t , s tand ing

a bou t 1 .2 m a t t he ir h ighest a bove t he d i tch b o t to ms.

W o f t he e n trance p a th

t here i s as ingle h orseshoe-p lan b ank e x tend ing o u t f ro m t he c l if f e dge t o f l ank t he p a th ( f ig. 1 4 ). The r i f t , a lready a c ons iderable o bstac le , h as b een d eepened w i th a v ert ica l -sided a r t if ic ial c u t t ing , wh ich h as a t l eas t 0 .3 m o f s i l t i n t he b ot to m . There i s ar eserved c auseway i n l i ne w i th t he e n trance p a th , which t hen c l i mbs s tra igh t u p t he s teep s lope t o t he s u mm i t , where t he e n trance t hrough t he ma in r a mpar t i s o n t he s a me a l ign men t.

T h is r a mpar t i sb roader a nd s tone-revet-

t ed , a nd b etween i ta nd t he c rest o f t he s lope i s ad is t inc t b er m .

T he e n trance

p assage i s s tonel ined , a nd b eh ind i ti s as ubs tan t ia l r ec tangu lar f ounda t ion , 6 .7 m x 4 .3 m i n terna l ly w i th wa l ls 1 .2 m t h ick . 8 0

T h is p robably r epresen ts

as econdary o ccupa t ion .

Beyond t he b u i ld ing , o ccupy ing most o f t he r e ma inder

o f t he d efended a rea , i s as tr ing o f s hal low d epress ions p oss ibly r epresen t ing h u ts , a nd o n t he E s ide i s a n e x tens ive m idden d eposi t .

S o me s herds o f c oarse

p ot tery f ound i n t h is a rea a re i n t he N a t iona l Museu m o f An t iqu it ies , Ed inburgh. RCAMS 1 946, i i , 4 6, n o. 1 9 4

N ess o f Burg i , S ca tness , Dunrossness N a t ional Gr id r eference HU 3 88084 S ca tness i s al ong , l owly ing a nd r ocky p ro mon tory f or m ing t he W s ide o ft he West Voe o f S umburgh .

T he c l if fs , v ary ing f ro m o ne metre t o s o me

f i f teen metres i n h eigh t , a re j agged a nd r eef-bese t.

N ess o f Burg i i s a

s ubs id iary p ro mon tory e x tend ing E f ro m t he ma in o ne n ear i t s Se nd ;

s o me

1 50 m b efore t he f or t i s r eached , t he ma in p ro mon tory i s b arred b y al ow s tone-reve t ted b ank .

T he f or t i t sel f was e xcava ted i n t he 19 30s a nd t he b lock-

h ouse r estored i n 1 971 b y t he Depar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t;

t he r es tora t ion

was i n s o me r espec ts u n fortuna te a nd t he n ew masonry c annot n ow b e d ist ing u ished f ro m t he o ld .

B efore t he r estora t ion t he b lockhouse was o ver 2 2. 5 m

l ong , i t s SW e nd b e ing d estroyed b y s ea e ros ion. wa l l-face i s w el l b ack f ro m t he c l if f e dge.

On t he NE s ide i t s e nd

There i s al i n tel led e n trance

p assage a t t he c en tre , a nd t hree c e l ls a re p reserved i n t he t h ickness o f t he s truc ture.

T he b lockhouse s tands a t t he c rest o f as hort s harp s lope a t t he

f oo t o f wh ich a re t wo r ock-cu t d i tches w i th a h eavy , r evet ted r a mpar t b etween t hem , t he e n trance p a th p assing t hrough t hese o bstac les b y ag ap i n l ine w i th t he p assage i n t he b lockhouse.

Beh ind t he b lockhouse n o d epos i ts s urv ived

o n t he p ro mon tory , wh ich h ad b een wave-scoured t o t he b are r ock . ( Fig. 4 ). Mowbray 1 936 RCAMS 19 46, i i , 3 4, n o. 154 Ham i l ton 19 68 , 5 8-9

N or th Fort , S ca tness , Dunrossness N a t ional Gr id r eference HU 3 89088 Th is s i te l i es o n t he E s ide o f S ca tness s o me 4 00 m N o f N ess o f Burg i. T he f or t i s s i ted o n ab lun t h ead land wh ich i s c losed o f fb y ac urv ing b ank , 1 .5 m h igh a nd 3 m b road a t b ase , made o f l oose ma ter ia l d er ived f ro m a b road s hal low i n terna l q uarry-scoop ( f ig. 1 2 ).

The ma in f ea ture i s ab road

s truc ture c rown ing a l ow r ise o n t he e x tre m i ty o f t he h ead land ;

i ti s c u t b y

t he c l if f o n t he E s ide b u t d oes n o t e x tend a l l t he way t o t he c l if f e dge o n t he W.

The s ec t ion o n t he E c l if f-edge c o inc ides w ith a n e nd wa ll-face o f g ood

masonry w i th a f ounda t ion c ourse o f o rthostats.

O therw ise t he s tructure

a ppears o n ly a s a mound , b u t t he f ron t o f i tc an b e s een t o h ave a s tone f ac ing.

The l owly ing a rea b eh ind i th as b een s ub jec t t o wave-scour.

S umburgh Head , Dunrossness N a t ional Gr id r eference HU 4 08080 George L ow s aw t he s i te i n 1 774 a nd s ta tes t ha t i th ad b een f ort if ied. " Here t he n eck o f l and i s c u t o f fb y ad i tch a nd s trong wa ll , wh ich must i n 8 1

o ld t imes h ave f or med a c ons iderable f ort if ica t ion . h i l l ( t he Head );

I t e nc loses a p la in a nd

a t t he e n trance, s t il l o bservable t he f ounda t ion o f al arge

h ouse , wh ich p robably s erved a s ag uardroo m , a long t he wal l , a nd a t ad ist ance , t he marks o f n u merous sma l l b u ild ings , e xac t ly l i ke t hose d escribed i n Unst".

By t he b u i ld ings i n Unst h e means a s e t o f o blong f ounda t ions o n

t he h igh h ead land o f B lue Mu l l , as i te wh ich f a l ls i n to t he p a t tern o f e arly monas t ic s et t le men ts t yp if ied b y s uch s i tes a s B irr ier o f West S andw ick a nd Ka me o f I sb is ter ( La mb 1 973 ).

I td oes s ee m h owever t ha t a t S umburgh L ow

s aw s o meth ing wh ich r epresen ted a p ro mon tory-fort o ccupa t ion.

T he o blong

b u i ld ings mus t h ave b een o n t he s i te o f t he l i gh thouse a nd i t s a ssoc ia ted b u i ld ings, b u t s o me d efences s urv ived o n t he a pproach t o t he h ead land u n t i l 1 968 when a n ew r oad was made.

S hort ly b efore t h is, t hey were d escr ibed

b y t he Ordnance S urvey a s " traces o f t wo s tony r a mparts , w i th e x ternal d itches , o n n arrowest p art o f n eck" . L ow 1 879 , 1 85 RCAMS 1 946, i i, 4 5, n o. 189 Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HU 4 0 NW 1

'

Broch o f Burra land , Dunrossness Na t iona l Gr id r eference HU 47 7233

The b roch , r ea l ly a g al ler ied d un , i s b u il t o n t he s umm it o f ap ro mon tory wh ich i s a pproached o ver a v ery n arrow i s th mus.

Across t h is i s a modern

s heep fold , t o e i ther s ide o f wh ich i s t he r e ma ins o f ad efens ive b arr ier.

The

o u ter r a mpar t i s r educed t o ah e ight o f 0 .5 m , w i th a r evet men t o fo r thosta ts , wh i le t ha t immed ia tely i nwards f ro m t he s heep fo ld , a nd b u i l t o n as harp r ise i n t he g round , i s as tone wa l l , t he e nd-face o f w h ich i s v isible a bove t he c l if f o n t he W

s ide.

RCAMS 19 46, i i , 2 4, n o. 143

Broch o f A i thset ter , Dunrossness N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 47 73 0 4 The b roch , s ited o n ac l iff-pro mon tory , i s r educed t o ag reen mound , a nd b arr ing t he i s th mus a pproach a re v est iges o f d efens ive b anks. T hese a re c learly v is ible o n ly o n t he S s ide , where t here a re t wo much-spread b anks s tand ing a bou t 1 .2 m a bove t he b ot to m o f t h e i n terven ing V-sec t ioned d i tch. RCA MS 1 946, i i , 2 3, n o. 1 141

Broch o f Burland , L erwick N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 4 45360 T he b roch o n ap rec ip itous 3 0 m h ead land h as t hree r ampar ts , e ach f ron ted b y ad i tch , o n t he i sth mus b efore i t .

The e n trance p ath i s c en tral ly

p laced a nd r uns i n as tra igh t l ine t hrough a l l t hree b anks.

T he o u ter b ank

i s s tone-reve t ted a nd s tands 1 .8 m a bove t he b o t to m o f t he f la t-bot to med d itch o u twards f ro m i t s.

The m idd le o ne i s ad ump a nd i s r a ther s l igh ter ,

wh ile t he i nner r a mpar t i s a more s ubs tan t ia l d ump b ank t o t he E o f t he p a th ,

8 2

b u t o n t he W s ide i s aw el l-bu il t b lock o f masonry wh ich h as a n e nd-face a bove t he c l if f .

( Fig. 2 0 ).

RCAMS 1 9 46, i i , 7 0 , n o. 1 247

Burner Head , Waas N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 1 69514 B urn er Head i s al ong l evel p ro mon tory w ith s heer c l if fs. i s n arrow a nd im med iately b eyond i ti s a wa l l ;

T he i sth mus

t h is may n ot b e a nc ien t , b u t

i ti ncorpora tes t wo e nor mous b ou lders , a nd t he g round i m med ia tely b eh ind i s h um mocky , w ith p ro jec t ing e rec t s labs.

I n t he c l if f-sec t ion o n t he S s ide ,

s tone s truc tures a nd o ccupa t ion d ebr is a re v is ible.

Wel l s eaward o f t h is

c o mp lex , t here i s as ingle e rect s lab, a nd f ur ther s t il l , t he v ery v est ig ial r e ma ins o f as quar ish b u i ld ing.

The t urf o n t he s i te i s t h ick , a nd o ther

s truc tures may b e c oncea led.

Brough N ess o f Gar th , S andness N a t ional Gr id r eference HU 2 16582 T he p ro mon tory p ro jec ts f ro m a r ugged c oast b acked b y p oor q ual i ty p asture.

I t i s s epara ted f ro m t he ma inland b y ab ou lder-beach a cross wh ich

e xcep t iona l ly h igh s eas r un.

The d efences a re s et a ga inst t he l and-fac ing

s lope u p t o t he h ead land ( f ig. 1 6 ).

T h is s lope h as b een t erraced , w i th t wo

t erraces s upported b y mass ive r e ta in ing w al ls.

A t t he s u mm i t o ft he s lope ,

a nd r unn ing t he f u l l l ength o f t he l andward s ide o f t he p ro mon tory , i s ab road s tone wal l-founda t ion .

A l l t he w a l ls a re r a ther c rudely b u il t o f r ounded b each-

b ou lders, t hose o f t he b asa l c ourses b e ing l arger a nd t rea ted a s o r thosta ts. The p os it ion o f t he e n trance i s n ot c lear ;

i t may h ave b een t o t he E o f t he

t errace-wa l ls. B eh ind t he d efences o n t he W s ide i s ag roup o fb u ild ings.

Im med iate ly

w i th in t he u pper most w a l l a re t hree c ircu lar h ouses e ach a bou t 3m d ia me ter , a nd a n o blong o ne , j us t o ver 6 m l ong i n ternal ly .

Another o blong o ne h as

a lmost g one o ver t he c l if f , t he l eng th o f i t s s urv iv ing c o mp lete s ide b e ing 2 .4 m b etween r ounded c orners. c onstructed o f g ood s tone.

A l l t hese b u ild ings a re q u ite s ubstant ia l ly

The p ro mon tory d iv ides i n to t wo s purs a t t he

s eaward e nd ; a cross t he W s pur i s al ow t urf b ank a nd a v es t ig ia l s tructure , s o me 3 m s quare , a lso o f t urf . RCAMS 1 946, i i , 1 52, n o. 1 663 ( nega t ive r eport ) Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HU 2 5 NW 2

Hog I sland S ound , N eap , N est ing N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 5 08582 T he b road h ead land e x tend ing E f ro m t he f ar mlands o f N eap i s c on t inued e as twards a s Hog I s land , f ro m wh ich i ti s s epara ted b y ag u l f 1 3 m w ide. The c l if fs a re a bou t 1 2 m h igh o n t he ma in land s ide a nd 1 5 m o n t he i sland s ide.

The i s land i s c l if fbound a nd c an b e v is i ted b y b oa t o n ly d ur ing e xcep t ion-

a l ly c a l m wea ther .

T he f ort if ica t ions, wh ich were d iscovered i n 1 968 b y Mr.

8 3

W. B . J ohnston o f t he Ordnance S urvey , l i e p ar t ly o n t he ma in land a nd p ar t ly o n t he i s land ( f ig. 1 5 ). On t he ma in land t he d efences a re t hree u nreve t ted d u mp b anks , e ach u p t o 3m b road a nd 0 .5 t o 1m h igh , t he o u ter mos t b ank b e ing o n a verage s l igh t ly l arger t han t he o ther t wo , a l though t he i nner most o ne h as b een c u t i n h al f l ong i tud ina l ly b y e ros ion a t t he c l if f e dge. The b anks , s tand ing a bou t 4 .5 m a par t , a re b u il t o f ma ter ial d er ived f ro m s ha l low i n terven ing s coops w h ich a re f l a t-bot to med a nd s ee m t o r epresen t t he r e mova l o n ly o f t he f ew i nches o f s o il a nd t he t opmost , f r iable l ayer o fb edrock .

A t t he m id p o in t

t he b anks a re p ierced b y a n e n trance p a th r unn ing i n as tra igh t l i ne t hrough a l l t hree. T here a re l arge b ou lders s e t i n t he m idd le r ampar t b es ide t he e n trance, a nd t he p a th p asses b e tween t wo e ven l arger o nes i n t he i nner b ank , where n ow i te nds a brup t ly a t t he c l if f e dge. T he i s land i s i naccess ible , b u t a long t he l and-fac ing e dge , a nd c urv ing a round t he N s ide , i s v is ible a nother b ank , t h is o ne r eve t ted w i th l arge s tones. The e n trance g ap s ee ms t o h ave b een d irec t ly o ppos ite t he p ath. N othing e lse i s v is ible o n t he i s land . Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HU 5 5 NW 2

Brough o f S toa l , Ayw ick , Y el l N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 5 46873 T he s i te i s an arrow p ro mon tory w i th c l if fs 4 5 m h igh b e tween d eep g eos. The f rag men tary r e ma ins n oted b y RCAMS o n i t s e x tre m ity d o n o t s uggest ab roch , b u t ac o mp lex o f s tructures b u il t p art ly o f s labs a nd p ar t ly o f masonry . T he d efences a re s imp le a nd i mpress ive , c o mpr ising t hree d ump r ampar ts s epara ted b y d i tches w h ich n ow a ppear f l a t-bo t to med b u t w h ich c on ta in s i l t ( f ig.17 ).

The b anks s tand n owhere l ess t he m 2 .1 m h igh , t he

m idd le o ne r is ing t o o ver 3 .7 m a bove i t s d i tch.

There i s n o t race o f a n

e n trance , wh ich must h ave b een o n o ne o f t he s ides l ost t hrough e ros ion . A f our th r a mpar t o n t he E s ide may h ave b een a ssoc ia ted w i th i t , b u t o f t h is o u ter most r ampar t o n ly a sma l l f ragmen t i s l e f t . T he b anks a re o f l oose ma teria l a nd d a mage b y r abbi ts i s s er ious. RCAMS 1 946, i i , 1 61, n o. 1 717 .

Burg i G eos , West N eaps , Y el l N a t iona l Gr id r eference HP 4 77034 T h is f ort , w h ich mus t b e j ust a bou t t he most r emotely-si ted f or t i n S het land , o ccup ies a l ong s inuous p ro mon tory b etween d eep a nd p rec ip i tous g eos, w ith c l if fs 6 0 m h igh. T he r ock , ag ne iss h eav ily l aden w ith muscov i te a nd v e ined w i th q uar tz ite , i s e x tre mely h ard a nd b r i t t le a nd when e roded g ives a j agged o u t l ine. The p a th r uns a long t he n arrow i s th mus, w here t he o uter d efences a re p laced , t hen d escends t o c ross a l ower a nd n arrower s add le b efore c l i mb ing t o t he ma in s truc ture , wh ich i s ab lockhouse ( f ig. 1 0 ). The o u ter d efences f or m a n a venue o n e i ther s ide o f t he p a th.

On t he N

t here i s ac on t inuous l i ne o f s tones p resen t ing a n e ven f ace t o t he p a th , o n t he

8 4

Si s ab ank s e t w ith a c oarse c hevaux-de-fr ise o f j agged s tones;

Eo f t h is

b ank , a lso b es ide t he p a th , i s ac ur ious f ree-stand ing t rapezo ida l-p lan mound . T he b lockhouse c on ta ins n o g a teway a nd i s4 .25 m w ide b y 6 .7 m l ong ; i ti s n o t c erta in w hether i ti s s ol id o r h ol low b u t p robably h ol low.

Fro m i t s NE

c orner a s l igh t r ingwa l l , o n ly a f ew c ourses h igh , r uns f l ush w ith t he f ron t f a ce o f t he b lockhouse ; t h is c urves a round , f o l lowing t he e dge o f t he c l if f a nd r eturns t o j o in t he SW c orner o f t he b lockhouse where i ti s f l ush w ith t he Se nd-face ; t he a bu tmen ts a re s tra igh t j o in ts , n ot b onded. W i th in t he n arrow e nc losure t hus f or med b eh ind t he b lockhouse , ar ich g rowth o f g rass s uggests o ccupat ion . To s eaward a re i nd ica t ions o f r ound h u ts. The most marked o f t hese i s b isec ted b y t he c l if f e dge a nd t he e ros ion s ec t ion s hows o ccupa t ion d ebr is o verla in b y 0 .23 m o f s ter ile p ea t .

S o me s herds o f c oarse p ot tery f ro m t h is

s ec t ion a re i n t he S he t land Museu m , L erw ick . The b ad ly f au l ted c ond i t ion o f t he p rec ip ice o n t he v ery b r ink o f w h ich t he b lockhouse n ow s tands, i s a ma tter o f v ery s er ious c oncern ; t he s i te i s a n i mpor tan t o ne a nd d eserves a r escue e xcava t ion wh ile t he c hance s t i l l r ema ins. S o me r eaders may c on te mp la te a v is i t t o Burg i G eos a nd i n t he i n terests o f s afety , i ti s a s w e l l h ere t o i nc lude a w ord a bou t a ccess t o t he s i te. The p lace h as a ppeared i n t wo d if feren t " archaeolog ica l g u ides" , o ne S co t t ish o ne a nd t he o ther c oncerned o n ly w ith Orkney a nd S he t land , a nd i nb o th b ooks d irec t ions a re g iven t ha t t he s i te i s t o b e a pproached a cross moor land NW f ro m Da lset ter.

I t mus t b e a ssu med t ha t t he a u thors h ad n ever b een t o Yel l ,

f or t h is c ourse w ou ld l ead t he v is i tor i n to s er ious d i f f icu l t ies am id t he n otor ious C u i lag Mires. The w r iter h as t r ied s evera l r ou tes a nd t he b est i s a s f o l lows : F ro m Br idge o f D a lset ter f o l low t he b urn o f t he G ossa Wa ter u pstream , a nd s k ir t t he N s hore o f t he G ossa Wa ter l och , t hen s tr ike d ue W t o t he c oas t w h ich i s t ob e f o l lowed N t o t he f ort. N eed less t o s ay , a map a nd c o mpass s hou ld b e c arr ied a nd n or ma l h i l lwa lk ing p recau t ions t aken . The c oast l ine i sp rec ip itous a nd d esp ite a s uggest ion i n o ne o f t he g u idebooks , t here i s n o l and ing b yb oa t. RCAMS 1 946, i i , 1 63, n o. 1 724 H arb ison 1 971

B rough o fB orgastoon , Fe t lar N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 6 16873 A l ong n arrow p ro mon tory w i th c l if fs 4 5 m h igh i s d efended o n t he l and s ide o f i t s n arrow i s th mus ( wh ich i s p ierced b y an atural a rch ) b y t wo e arth b anks e ach f ron ted b y ad i tch. T hey d o n ot e x tend c o mp le tely a cross t he a pproach b u t o n t he W s ide t he ir e nds a re j o ined b y ac ross-bank wh ich f l anks t he a pproach p a th ( f ig. 1 9 ). T he b anks s tand a bou t 1 .2 m -1.5 m a bove t he d i tch b ot to ms.

On t he p ro mon tory t here a re h um mocks a nd e ar thfas t e rec t

s labs, i nc lud ing a p ossible p arapet a long t he E s ide , b u t n oth ing t o s uggest ab roch. O rdnance S urvey i ndex r ef .

Hu 6 8 NW 2

8 5

A i thbank , Fe t lar N a t iona l Gr id r eference HU 6 42897 T he sma l l p ro montory S o f A i thbank f ar ms tead , b e tween t he Wick o f A i th a nd A iths L ee , h as b een e nc losed b y t hree b anks o f l oose ma ter ial . They a re e ach 1 .5 m h igh o n t he E s ide a nd p e ter o u t w estwards. T hey a re h ard t o e xp la in a s a gr icu l tura l a nd p robably c onst itu te t he r e ma ins o f a sma l l f or t w h ich h as b een g rea t ly r educed b y o ld c u l t iva t ion.

Ta ing o f Brough , F lubersgerd ie , Unst N a t iona l Gr id r eference HP 5 71125 T he p ro mon tory ( f ig. 1 3 ) i s h igh a nd n arrow b etween t he p rec ip i tous Geos o f Brough.

T he p a th a pproaches a cross a n arrow s add le.

A bou t t wo-

t h irds o f t he way u p t he s teep s lope t o t he s u mm i t t here a re r e ma ins o f as tone wa l l , n ow a t most f our c ourses h igh , r unn ing a cross. i s av ery h u m mocky a rea w ith p ro jec t ing s tones.

Beh ind i to n t he s u mm i t

T owards t he s eaward e nd

o f t he p ro mon tory a re t wo o blong f oot ings , o ne 4 .6 m x 7 .6 m o f t urf a nd s tone , t he o ther 3m x 8 .5 m o f t urf o n ly .

A t t he SW e nd o f t he f i rst o blong

i s a nother , r ough ly s quare , d epression . The l arge h ead land o f wh ich t he T a ing i s a n e x tens ion , t he F lubersgerd ie , i s i sola ted b y ab road marshy d epress ion , o n t he s eaward e dge o f w h ich i s ar u ined wa l lb u i l t o f q u i te e xcep t iona l ly massive b ou lders. RCA MS 1 946, i i , 1 43 , n o. 1 593 Ordnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HP 5 1 S E 1

K run o ' d e Ora , Unst N a t iona l Gr id r eference HP 6 34179 N or th o f S axa Vord , al ong n arrow p ro mon tory e x tends s eawards f or 0 .7 km , c u lmina t ing i n s pec tacu lar c rags o ver 1 40 m h igh. There h ave b een r eports o f a" brough" a t t he l andward e nd o f t he p ro mon tory , b ut t he a rea h as s uf fered f ro m l andsl ides a nd wha t r e ma ins i s r a ther i nde ter m ina te. J akobsen wrote t ha t " nor th o f t he h i l l S aksavord t he l and n arrows , a nd j u ts o u t l i ke a t ongue e nd ing i n ap ro mon tory , " de N up".

B e tween S aksavord

a nd " de N up" t here i s ah il l c a l led " de Ora" , s teep o n t he E s ide, b u t s lop ing g en t ly t owards t he W. The t op o f t he h i l l i s r ound a nd f l a t , a nd i s c a l led " de Krun o ' d e Ora" , where t he r u ins o f aP ic t ish t ower a re f ound .

O n t he

western s ide o f t he h il l ab uria l c ha mber ( "Pic ts ' House" ) was f ound s o me t ime a go.

A t t he f oot o f t he wes tern s ide o f t he h il l t here a re t races o f t hree

o ld s tone-fences , r unn ing i n as em ic ircle , o ne i nside t he o ther;

a nd o ne o f

t hese f ences , wh ich i s al i t t le b e t ter p reserved t han t he t wo o thers , c an b e t raced a l l t he way t o t he c oas t o n t he s ou th-east s ide o f " de Ora" .

I n s evera l

p laces i n S het land t races o f s uch c oncen tr ic f ences , s urround ing a P ic t ish t ower , c an b e s een .

J us t u ndernea th t he p lace w here t he f ence e nds t here

i s ac ave c a l led " de h el jer 0 ' F iv lagord" wh ich i s f eared b y t he c o mmon p eop le a s at rol ls ' c ave.

F ivlagord f ro m a n o ld * f if lagardr :

( ON f i f l , t rol l ) i s t hus t he o ld n a me o f t he f ence .."

8 6

t rol l-fence

RCAMS q uotes a r epor t f ro m a Dr. Hun t , who d escr ibed " a s or t o f n a tural b roch , p rotec ted b y a wa l l r unn ing d own t o t he s ea o n t he l and s ide". N o s uch w a l l i s v is ible t oday a nd t he Ordnance S urvey r epor ts n o a nc ien t s tructures o f a ny k ind . The p ro montory t akes t he f or m o f as er ies o f l evel p la t for ms c onnec ted b y l ower a nd n arrower s add les.

The f i rst p la tfor m f ro m t he l and , t hat

r ecorded b y J akobsen a s " de K run o ' d e Ora" , d oes s how i ndeter m ina te s igns o fo ccupa t ion.

There i s as tou t b ank a cross t he l and-fac ing e nd , a nd t races

o f ap arape t a long t he N s ide , w i th s o me p oss ible h u ts w i th in t he e nc losure. T he r est o f t he p ro montory i sb ad ly b roken-up b y s l ip f au l t ing , b u t t he a ssoc ia t ion w i th " da t rows" i s ag ood i nd ica t ion o f s o me k ind o f a nc ien t o ccupa t ion . J akobsen 1 936, 1 70 RCA MS 1 946, i i , 1 39 , n o. 1 572 O rdnance S urvey i ndex r ef . HP 6 1 NW 4

-

8 7

APPENDIX 2

N esnäm T he i dea t ha t V ik ing s ea-ra iders e s tabl ished p ro mon tory f or ts f ro m w h ich t o r a id a long t he c oas t o r i n land , h as e n joyed a s urpr is ing ly l ong c urrency. V ery l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he a c tua l p rocess b y w h ich t he N orse s e t t le men t o f O rkney a nd S he t land t ook p lace , a nd t here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t ha t a ny p ro mon tory f or t b e longs t o t h is e ar ly V ik ing p er iod . a ny r ea l h is tor ica l e v idence f or p ro mon tory-for t b u i ld ing ;

N e i ther i s t here

t he i dea o r ig ina tes

i n a n i n terpre ta t ion o f t he w ord n esnäm , " nesstak ing" wh ich o ccurs i n t he s agas . J . S torer C lous ton , i n h is " H is tory o f O rkney" ( 1932 , 1 9 ) wro te :

"One

o f t he mos t c harac ter is t ic f ea tures o f t he p rofess iona l V ik ing 's me thoas was wha t i s t er med i n t he s agas " nes-nä m" , l i t tera l ly " ness-tak ing" .

T hey s e ized

u pon a n ess w i th a n arrow n eck t ha t c ou ld b e r ead i ly d efended o n t he l andward s ide , c onver t ing i ti n to a p ira tes ' l a ir , a nd made i tt he ir h eadquar ters f or o pera t ions , e i ther a ga ins t t he ir n eighbours o r f ur ther a f ie ld" .

I n t he e ar ly

1 960s , t he l a te D r . F . T . Wa inwr igh t i nves t iga ted b y l owlying f or t i f ied p romon tory a t Ons tan ( f ig . 2 0 ) i n t he L och o f S tenness .

T he e xcava t ion n otes

a re l os t , b u t were u sed a s t he b as is f or t he O rdnance S urvey c ard i ndex e n try , wh ich h as p reserved b o th t he e xcava t ion d eta i ls a nd Wa inwr ight 's i n terpreta t ion o f Ta ing o f Ons tan a s t he s i te o f an esnäm .

T he s ec tion wh ich Wa inwr igh t c u t

a cross t he d efences , s howed a s tone r eve t men t t o t he b ank , s ugges t ing t ha t t h is i s s o me th ing more t han a t e mporary e ar thwork t hrown u p i n ah urry; n o d a t ing ma ter ia l emerged , b u t t he r ese mb lance t o t he c oas ta l mu l t iva lla te f or ts makes a n E ar ly I ron Age d a te much more l i ke ly.

T he Ta ing o f Ons tan

i s n o t we l l p laced a s a n e nca mp men t f or s eaborne r a iders , f ro m w h ich t hey migh t p resumab ly e scape i ft h ings g o t t oo h o t ;

f or t he o n ly e n trance t o t he

L och o f S tenness i s t he n arrow s tra i t a t Br ig ' o ' Wa i th , a nd i ti s d oub t fu l t ha t e ven a t h igh t i de a s eago ing v esse l c ou ld make t he p assage .

Even i f aV ik ing

s h ip d id manage t o g e t i n to t he L och o f S tenness , s he wou ld b e s er ious ly a t r isk o f b e ing t rapped t here . T he p rec ise mean ing o f n esnäm i s u ncer ta in—the t hree r eferences g iven b y C leasby a nd V ig fusson 's I ce land ic d is t ionary d o n o t s ugges t t ha t i th as a p rec ise mean ing : H a fd i P örö l fr I á 1 3 r jü s k ip , e r h ann s ig ld i a us tan um F o ld ina ; t ä i o jöd le i c t t ulL idand isnes ; s em

p e ir

s ig ldu

f öru ' D a s em s kynd i l igas t , e n n ä rnu n esnäm ,

k ö mu v id , o k h juggu s trandh9gg .

p ar

( Eg i ls S aga 1 9 ).

T hen T hor° l f h ad t hree s h ips a s h e s a i led f ro m t he e as t r ound F o ld ina ; t hey s a i led b y t he ma in s eaway t o L i thand isness ;

t hey c ame t here w i th g rea t

s peed , a nd wherever t hey l anded t hey c omm i t ted n esnä m a nd s trandhogg .

8 8

En i' D ann t ima v ar m j9k h erskä t t , 1 D vf a t N ore rmenn o k Dan ir h er judu m j9k iv es trvik ing o k k ö mu o p t l iga v id e y jarnar , e r be ir f öru v es tr e c ra v es tan , o k n ämu 1 , ,a r n esnäm .

( Orkneyinga S aga 1 9 ).

A t t ha t t ime t here was a l o t o f war fare , b ecause t he N orweg ians a nd D anes were d o ing much h arrying a s t hey wen t a bou t t he ir wes t-v ik ing , a nd o f ten c a me among t he i s lands a s t hey were s a i l ing wes t o r e as t , a nd c o mm i t ted n esnä m t here . En bwd i äh aus t o k um v e tr o k um v är f öru v fk ingar um e y jar , n ä mu n esnä m o k h joggu s trandh9gg . ( He i mskr ing la , Hara ld F a irha ir 2 7). And b o th i n a u tumn a nd i n w in ter a nd i n s pr ing t he v ik ings s a i led a round t he i s les , c omm i t t ing n esnäm a nd s trandhogg . I n t wo o f t he t hree i ns tances , n esnä m a ppears i n c on junc t ion w i th s trandh ogg i n wha t l ooks l i ke a s aga-wr i ters ' c l iché —ne ma n esnä m o k h oggva s trandh ogg , l i tera l ly t o " take n esstak ing a nd h ew s trand-hew ing" .

I ti s ap oe t ic

p hrase f or g enera l p lunder ing , p oss ib ly , a s C leasby a nd V ig fuss ion s ugges t , u nder taken o n o u t lying h ead lands where t he i nhabi tan ts h ad l ess c hance o f h e lp f ro m n eighbours . f or t i f ica t ions ;

C er ta in ly , t here i s n o s ugges t ion t ha t i ti nvo lved .bu i ld ing

i n a ny e ven t , o rgan ised h eavy s hove l-work a f ter t he manner

o f a n e ncamp ing R o man l eg ion , s ee ms h ard ly i n c harac ter w i th t he s aga p ict ure o f ah usky c rew o f V ik ings .

V ik ing-Age n esnäm t here fore d oes n o t p ro-

v ide a c on tex t f or p romon toryfor t c ons truct ion i n t he N or thern I s les .

8 9

APPEND IX 3 THE CA ITHNESS GROUP OF EARLY PROMONTORY-S ITED CASTLES

O n t he c oas ts o f C a i thness a nd t he n eighbour ing p ar t o f S u ther land t here i s ac oncen tra t ion o f med iaeva l c as t les o f a mos t r o man t ic t ype , b u i l t o n p rec ip i tous c l i f f-pro mon tor ies .

T he ir c o m mon c haracter is t ic i s t ha t e ach h as a

g rea t t ower b u i l t a t t he l andward e nd o f ap ro mon tory g uard ing t he i s th mus a pproach , a nd p ro tec t ing t he r anges o f d o mes t ic b u i ld ings o n t he p ro mon tory b eh ind i t .

I ti s p oss ible t ha t t hree o f t hese s tructures , B orve C as t le i n

S u ther land a nd t he C as t les o f Brough a nd O ld W ick i n C a i thness , a re e ar l ier t han i s g enera l ly s upposed , wh i le a f our th , B ucho l ie C as t le , may o ver l ie t he s i te o f a n e ar ly c as t le . T he C as t le o f O ld Wick o r " O ld Man o f Wick" ( Na t iona l G r id r e ference ND 3 70489 ; f ig . 2 6 , p la tes 2 3-4 ) was d escr ibed b y MacG ibbon a nd R oss ( 1889 , 1 34-6 ) a s " very s imp le a nd r ude , a nd p robably t he o ldes t o f a l l t he e x is ting c as t les o f C a i thness" .

I t s ma in f ea ture i s ap la in s quare t ower b u i l t o n t he

l andward e nd o f a3 0 m-h igh , n arrow p ro mon tory b e tween t wo p rec ip i tous g eos .

T he t ower i s b u i l t o n t he b r ink o f as teep-s ided , f la t-bot to med d i tch

s o me 8 .5 m w ide a nd 3 m d eep , c u t i n to t he r ock r igh t a cross t he p ro mon tory. L andward o f t h is d i tch t here i s d is turbance , b u t i ti s n o t c lear h ow much i s a ncien t a nd h ow much i s d ue t o r ecen t d ump ing o f r ubbish .

T he a pproach p a th

c rosses t he d i tch o n ar eserved s add le a nd t hen p asses b es ide t he g rea t t ower , where t here i s n ow n o i nd ica t ion o f wha tever f orm o f g a teway h as e x is ted . B eh ind t he t ower i s al ong r ange o f b u i ld ings e x tend ing d own e ach s ide o f t he p ro mon tory , l eav ing a b road c en tra l p a thway wh ich i s f ina l ly t er m ina ted , we l l s hor t o f t he e x tre m i ty o f t he p ro mon tory , b y al ow wa l l .

T he o n ly p urpose o f

t h is wa l l w i l l p resu mab ly h ave b een t o k eep t he c as t le c h i ldren f ro m s traying n ear t he c l i f f e dge .

The b u i ld ings a re e n t ire ly g rassed o ver a nd i ti s n o t c lear

t o wha t e x ten t t he r a ther s che ma t ised-look ing p lan b y A . M i l ler , i ncorpora ted i n Mac G ibbon a nd R oss 's a ccoun t , i s a n a ccura te r epresen ta t ion o f t he m ; t he wr i ter 's p lan s hows t he s i te a s i ta ppeared i n 1 971. B orve C as t le , o n t he d eser ted N c oas t o f S u ther land n ear Farr ( p l . 2 5 ; RCA MS 1 911b , 8 9 , n o . 2 64 ; N a t iona l G r id r eference NC 7 25642 ) s tands o n a p en insu la wh ich i s j o ined t o t he ma in land b y ac ons iderably l ower s add le .

A t

t he b eg inn ing o f t he s lope u p t o t he p ro mon tory i s ab ank a cross t he a pproach ; t h is b ank i s a l mos t e n t ire ly a n a tura l o u tcrop a l though i t may h ave b een a r t if ic ia l ly s carped a nd t o s o me e x ten t b u i l t u p .

A t t he h ead o f t he s lope i s t he

r e mnan t o f a sma l l p la in s quare t ower o ccupying mos t o f t he w id th o f t he i s thmus , l eav ing s pace f or t he p a th wh ich p asses b y o n i t s E s ide . The k eep i s b u i l t o f d ressed b locks e ach a bou t 0 .5 m s quare , b onded w i th l ime mor tar , a nd b eh ind a nd a d jo in ing t he t ower i s as hor t r ange o f b u i ld ings i n t he s ame s tyle o f masonry.

T he s eaward e nd o f t he p en insu la s lopes s teep ly d own t o

9 0

F ig . 2 6.

C as t le o f O ld W ick , C a i thness .

9 1

s he lv ing r ocks a nd t o p rec lude a ny p oss ibi l i ty o f a t tack f ro m t he s ea , ad i tch h as b een d ug a cross , w i th a s l igh t b ank t o e i ther s ide o f i t ; t he h e igh t o f t he i nner b ank a bove t he d i tch b o t to m i s a bou t 1 .8 m . The C as t le o f B rough , i m med ia te ly E o f D unnet H ead ( p l . 2 6 ; RCA MS 1 911a , 2 7 , n o . 8 2 ; N a t iona l G r id r e ference ND 2 28740 ) , i s l ess w e l l-preserved , p robably b ecause i t s c lose p rox im i ty t o t he c ro f t ing t ownsh ip o f B rough h as l ed t o t he r obb ing o f a l l c u t s tones .

T he s i te i s al ong n arrow p romon tory

v ery l i ke O ld Wick b u t n ot s o h igh , a cross t he n eck o f wh ich i s ab road n a tura l d epress ion wh ich h as b een f ur ther e xcava ted t o f or m a c ons iderab le f l a t-bo tt o med d i tch .

A t t he h ead o f t he s lope o n t o t he p ro mon tory , i n t he p os i t ion

c orrespond ing t o t ha t o f t he k eep a t O ld W ick a nd B orve , i s al arge mound o f d ebr is , a nd s eawards f ro m h ere t wo r anges o f b u i ld ings , i n s ize a nd a rrangemen t e xac t ly l i ke t hose a t O ld Wick , e x tend a long t he s ides o f t he p ro mon tory l eav ing a c en tra l p a thway.

A t t he e nd , where t he s ur face s lopes d own t o r ocks

a bove t he s ea , t he s lope h as b een s teep ly s carped , ab ank b e ing made a t t he s um m i t o f t he s carp a nd a d i tch e xcava ted a t i t s f oo t , v ery much a s a t Borve . T he a rrange men t o f ag rea t t ower g uard ing t he a pproach t o ac l i f f-pro mo n tory , w ith r anges o f b u i ld ings e x tend ing a long t he c l i f f tops b eh ind i t—an a rrange men t l arge ly d ic ta ted b y t he l im i ta t ions o f t he s i tes— is f ound a lso i n t he much b e t ter-preserved C a i thness c as t les o f B ucho l ie ( RCA MS 1 911a , 1 1 , n o . 3 2 ; N a t iona l G r id r e ference ND 3 82658 ) a nd t he d ouble c as t le o f G irn igoe a nd S incla ir ( RCA MS 1 911a , 1 39 , n o . 4 79 ; N a t iona l G r id r e ference ND 3 79549 ) . H ere h owever t he k eeps a re t yp ica l ly S co t t ish t ower-houses o f t he f i f teen th o r s ix teen th c en tur ies , e ach e n t ire ly c los ing t he i s th mus a pproach a nd s erving a s ag a tehouse w i th a w ide e n trance-passage , e qu ipped w i th t he u sua l p arap herna l ia o f d rawbr idges a nd p or tcu l l ises a nd s o o n , r unn ing t hrough t he g round f l oor .

T he d is t inc t ive f ea ture o f B orve a nd O ld Wick , a nd a pparen t ly

o f Brough , i s t ha t t he k eep , ap la in s quare t ower , s tood b es ide t he a pproach , a c t ing a s af ocus o f d efence a nd p ro tec t ing t he b u i ld ings b eh ind i t , b u t n ot a c tua l ly b eing a g a tehouse .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t h ere t h is n o t ion i s S cand inav ian n o t

S co t t ish , t h is g roup o f c as t les t here fore b e ing e ar l ier t han h as g enera l ly b een t hough t . MacG ibbon a nd R oss p u t O ld Wick i n to t he ir " second p er iod" o f S co t t ish c as t le-bu i ld ing , t he f our teen th c en tury . There i s n o t much t o g o o n ; t he k eep l acks r ead i ly d a table f ea tures a nd i t s b u i ld ing i s n o t d ocu men ted . o n ly t ha t t he f irs t r ecorded owner o f t he p roper ty d ied c . 1 350.

We k now The c as t les

o f B orve a nd Brough a re e n t ire ly u ndocu men ted a nd e xcava t ion wou ld b e n ecessary t o p roduce a ny d a t ing e v idence a t a l l .

S i mp le s quare t owers u sed

i n av ery s imi lar way a re h owever f ound i n S cand inav ia much e ar l ier t han t he f our teen th c en tury .

T he b es t-s tud ied e xa mp le i s S verresborg i n Trondhei m

wh ich was t horough ly e xcava ted i m med ia te ly b efore t he l as t war ( Fischer 1 951 , 6 8-85 a nd 2 92-314 ).

I ti s b u i l t o n as heer-s ided p la teau , a nd c ons is ts

o f ar ange o f b u i ld ings ( t he o u ter wa l l o f t h is b eing t he c ur ta in wa l l ) w i th a s quare t ower o ccupy ing t he c en tra l p os i t ion i n t he r ange . S verresborg were l a id i n 1 182-3 .

T he f ounda t ions o f

A t L i l leborg i n t he f ores t o f A lm ind ingen

i n B ornho lm ( f ig . 2 7 ) ac raggy p la teau i s e nc ircled b y ar ingwa l l a ga ins t t he i nner s ide o f wh ich a re d o mes t ic b u i ld ings , w i th t he s i mp le s quare t ower p roj ec t ing f ro m t he l i ne o f t he r ing-wa l l c lose b y t he g a te . L i l leborg , ar oya l c as t le , was d es troyed a nd a bandoned i n 1 259 . . 9 2

F ig . 2 7.

L i l leborg , A l mind ingen , B ornho lm , s ke tch-p lan b ased o n Dan ish Na t iona l Museum d isp lay o n t he s i te. 3 , r ing-wa l l .

1 , g rea t t ower .

4 , r e ma ins o f o lder r ing-wa l l .

6 , o ther b u i ldings .

7 , f lank ing wa l ls .

9 3

2 , g a teways .

5 , ma in b u i ld ings .

T here a re s o me sma l l p la in k eeps i n O rkney wh ich p oss ibly d a te f ro m t he l a te t we l f th c en tury o nwards .

T he b es t-known o f t hese i s C ubb ie Roo 's

c as t le i n Wyre , t he s trongho ld o f t he g rea t c h ie f ta in K o lbe in Hruga i n t he midd le o f t he t wel f th c en tury , wh ich c ons is ts o f o ne o f t hese t owers , s urrounded b y b u i ld ings , n es t l ing w i th in a sma l l e nc losure o n ah i l l top ( RCAMS 1 946, i , 2 35-9 , n o . 6 19 ) . T h is s tructure d oes h ave d irec t s aga d ocu men ta t ion , a nd t here a re t wo o ther k nown t owers i n O rkney wh ich r ese mb le i t .

O ne o f t hese

i s C as t le H owe i n H olm , where t he r e ma ins o f as trong t ower s tand o n t he s um mi t o f ap ro m inen t mound f or med b y s o me p reh is tor ic s truc ture , p oss ib ly ab roch .

T he t ower was e xcava ted i n 1 929-31 a nd i den t i f ied b y C lous ton ( 1 931 ,

3 3-5 ) a s aN orse c as t le , a n i den ti f ica t ion a ccep ted b y Taylor ( 1938 , 3 84 ) , b u t t he R oya l C omm iss ion ( RCA MS 1 946 , i , 1 03-4 , n o . 3 61 ) r e ma ins u nco m m i t ted , r e ferr ing t o t he s tructure a s o f u ncer ta in a ge a nd a vo id ing a ny u se o f t he w ord " cas t le" .

Th is i s o ver-cau t ious , a s t he f orm o f t he s quare t ower i s e ven t oday

o bv ious e nough a nd t he n ame , a pp l ied t o as i te s uch a s t h is , c an o n ly b e t aken l i tera l ly —kas ta la-haugr , c as t le-howe , k as ta l i b e ing t he s tandard t er m i n s aga I ce land ic f or a med iaeva l c as t le . I n a l l p robabi l i ty i tb e longed t o t he impor tan t e ar ldo m s ea t o f P apu l i , wh ich i s men t ioned s evera l t imes i n t he O rkneyinga S aga a nd mos t l i ke ly s tood a t t he h ead o f t he s ame b ay , H owes Wick .

. The

o ther O rkney t ower i s ar a ther e n igma t ic s tructure c a l led The Wirk—fro m v irk i , as trongho ld —near t he r u ined c hurch a t Wes ts ide i n Rousay ( RCA MS 1 946 , i , 1 91-2 , n o . 5 50 ).

T h is a lso was s tud ied b y C lous ton ( 1931 , 2 7-33 )

a nd e v iden t ly a d jo ined s o me l arger b u i ld ing wh ich was i mperfec t ly e xa mined a nd n ow i s c overed u p .

I ti s o bv ious ly a d e fens ive s tructure a nd p oss ibly was

a ssoc ia ted w i th a N orse e s tabl ish men t o f s o me s ta tus a t n earby Wes tness , b u t t he s ugges t ion t ha t i t s erved a s ab e l ltower t o t he c hurch ( D ie tr ichson a nd Meyer 1 906 , 1 08-9 ) d eserves more s er ious c ons idera t ion t han i th as r ece ived . R e-excava t ion wou ld b e n ecessary t o s o lve t he p rob le m . T he Roya l C omm iss ion d raws a t ten t ion t o t he d i f ference i n q ua l i ty b e tween t he masonry o f t he t ower o f C ubb ie R oo 's C as t le a nd t ha t o f t he e nc losure wa l l , a nd p roposes t ha t t he e nclosure i s t he o r ig ina l t wel f th-cen tury c as t le a nd t he k eep s ubs tan t ia l ly l a ter .

The C omm iss ion a dmi ts t he p oss ibi l i ty o f s uch

t owers b e ing b u i l t i n Orkney i n K o lbe in H ruga 's t ime b u t , a f ter a v ery s cho lar ly d iscuss ion i nvo lv ing t he Ca i thness k eeps a nd s ome C on t inen ta l p ara l lels , f ee ls i ti s u nsa fe t o p lace t h is t ower s o e ar ly .

A t ten t ion i s d rawn t o t he l ack o f

o bv ious ly Ro manesque f ea tures , b u t t he t ower i s s o p la in t ha t i th as n o f ea tures d a table t o a ny p er iod . I n ac o m mun i ty wh ich a t t h is t ime was bu i ld ing i n K irkwa l l o ne o f t he f ines t R o manesque c hurches i n E urope , we n eed n o t b e s urp r ised t o f ind o ne o f i t s mos t p ower fu l magna tes b u i ld ing a t ower-keep .

The

s aga a ccoun t o f t he b u i ld ing ( Orkneyinga S aga c hap ter 8 4 ) t e l ls o f K o lbein 's e rect ing a g ood s tone c as t le a nd a s ecure s trongho ld : s te inkas ta la g ödan ; v ar b a t o rugg t v ig i" .

" Hann l et b ar g era

I n 1 231 t h is c as t le was , a ccord ing

t o H akonar S aga ( chap ter 1 41 i n F la tey v ers ion ) i nvo lved i n as iege ; t he g arr is on l a id i n p rov is ions , i nc lud ing c a t t le , w i th in t he o u ter works ( t he o u ter c as t le , ü tkas ta l i ) :

" ...I k as ta lann , e r K o lbe inn h ruga h a fd i g era l ä t i t .

d rögu a t s er f 9ng o k f j 9 1da n au ta o k v ardve i t tu fü tkas ta lanum" .

Pe ir

T h is d oes

s ugges t t ha t K o lbe in 's " s tone-cas t le" h ad s o me " ü tkas ta l i" d is t inc t f ro m t he " kas ta l i" p roper ; i n o ther words , t he t ower a nd e nc losure wa l l b o th d a te f rom t he t we l f th c en tury.

9 4

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s t eep r o cky s l ope t o g eo f k QL .3 u r te

F ig . 2 8 .

La mbhoga H ead , Dunrossness , S he t land , s ke tch-p lan w ith measure men ts .

( The p lan was o r ig ina l ly made u s ing Imper ia l

measure men ts wh ich h ere h ave b een c onver ted t o me tr ic t o t he n eares t 0 .1 m.)

9 5

T here i s n o men t ion i n t he s agas o f a ny o f t he C a i thness p romon tory c as t les , e xcep t f or t he i nc iden t o f C . 1 143 when t he a dven turer S weyn A s lei fsson , who was p i l lag ing i n Ca i thness , s tood s iege i n t he f or tress o f " Lambaborg" ( Orkneyinga S aga , c hs . 8 2-3 ) .

T he p lace i s n ot d escr ibed a s a

" kas ta l i" b u t a s a" vig i" o r a" borg" , a nd i t was a s ea-g ir t c li f f-pro mon tory w i th a s trong s tone wa l l b lock ing t he a pproach .

L ambaborg ( " the f or tress o f

Lambi" , ap ersona l n a me ) h as g enera l ly b een i den t i f ied w i th Bucho l ie Cas t le b y e veryone e xcep t Tay lor ( 1 938 , 3 90 ) who p refers t he Broch o f N ess , o n t he o ther s ide o f F reswick b ay .

I f Tay lor i s r igh t , t h is imp l ies t he r e-use o f t he

I ron A ge f or t i f ica t ions , t he " s tone wa l l" ( s te inveggr ) p resumably b eing t he f orework wh ich , j us t a s a t N ybs ter , s tands i n f ron t o f t he b roch .

I f Bucho l ie

i s t he c orrec t i den ti f ica t ion , t here i s t he s ugges t ion t ha t at wel f th-cen tury c as t le h ad p receded t he e x is t ing o ne .

T he c ircums tances r e la ted i n t he s aga

a re n o t s uch a s t o e nable t he ma t ter t o b e s e t t led ; t he a rgu men t f or Bucho l ie h as b een mos t c lear ly s ta ted b y Mowa t ( 1 940 ) .

I ti s h owever o f i n teres t t ha t

t he o lder n a me o f Bucho l ie C as t le was Fresw ick C as t le , s ugges t ing a l ink w i th wha t e v iden t ly was a h igh-s ta tus e s tabl ish men t a t Freswick i n N orse t imes ; S weyn A s lei fsson h ad a s trong f am i ly c onnec t ion w i th Fresw ick . L eav ing a s ide t he p rob le m o f Lambaborg , t he t hree s i tes o f O ld Wick , Brough a nd B orve d o f orm a g roup c harac ter ised b y t he p lac ing o f t he g rea t t ower , i n t he t wo e x tan t e xamp les a p la in s quare k eep , t o o ne s ide o f t he a pp roach p a th .

T h is c on tras ts w i th t he l a te t ower-houses o f G irn igoe a nd

Bucho l ie where t he t ower i s ag a tehouse .

T he mos t r easonable e xp lana t ion

o f t he g roup i s t ha t t hese c as t les a re r e la ted t o t he N orse c on tro l o f Ca i thness a nd S u ther land . T here i s s u f f ic ien t r eason t o s uppose t ha t p la in t owers o f t he s ame t ype were b e ing b u i l t i n O rkney i n t he t wel f th c en tury a nd t ha t s o me S cand inav ian e xa mp les d a te f ro m t h is p er iod .

T he L a mbaborg s tory s ugges ts

t ha t t he u se o f t he C a i thness p ro mon tor ies a s s i tes f or f or ti f ica t ions was n o t u n fa m i l iar a t t he t ime .

B orve Cas t le i s o f c ourse n amed f ro m O ld N orse b org

a nd t h is n ame 's o ccurr ing i n av ery h eav i ly G ae l icised r eg ion may i nd ica te t he a ge o f t he s tructure . C lear ly , t he c as t les f or m a n h is tor ica l ly i n teres t ing g roup wh ich d eserves much c loser s tudy . F ina l ly , men t ion may b e made o f a n e n igma t ic s tructure o n t he i s th mus o f L ambhoga H ead i n Dunrossness , S he t land ( f ig . 2 8 ; Na t iona l G r id r eference HU 4 08140 ) .

T here i s an a tura l r i f t a cross t he a pproach , a nd o n t he s eaward

s ide o f t h is i s ac o mp lex o f s tructures b u i l t c lose u p b eh ind abank o r r a mpar t . The mos t n o tab le f ea ture i s ar ec tangu lar b u i ld ing o f v ery f ine-qua l i ty d ry s tone masonry measur ing i n terna l ly 1 2.2 m x 6 .7 m ; t he w id th e specia l ly i s g rea ter t han t ha t o f at rad i t iona l S he t land c rof t h ouse o f t he l onghouse t ype .

A t t he

c en tre o f t he c o mp lex i s a n e n trance g ap f lanked b y mass ive b ou lders a t e ach e nd o f t he p assage .

Ex tend ing b ack a long t he N e dge o f t he p ro mon tory a t

r igh t a ng les t o t he ma in b u i ld ing , i s as ubs id iary r ange wh ich p oss ib ly c o mp r ised l i ves tock p ens .

L a mbhoga H ead l i es i n ad epopu la ted a rea w h ich n ow i s

r ough p as ture a nd t here i s n o l oca l e xp lana t ion n or a ny d ocumen ta t ion .

The

s tructure c ou ld b e med iaeva l a nd i s o bv ious ly d e fens ive . The d ispos i t ion o f t he ma in r ange o f b u i ld ings a cross t he a pproach i s r em in iscen t o f S verresborg , b u t t here a re n o d a t ing i nd ica t ions ; i ti s p erhaps more l i ke ly t o d a te f ro m t he l a te med iaeva l o r i m med ia te ly p os t- med iaeva l p er iod . Wi thou t e xcava tion i t i s imposs ib le t o r e la te i tt o t he c as t le-bu i ld ing p rac t ices o f e i ther S co t land o r S cand inav ia . 9 6

B IBLIOGRAPHY A dm ira l ty , 1 949 , Nor th S ea P i lo t Par t 1 , 9 th e dn , L ondon . Anderson , J ., 1 893 , "Not ice o f Dun S tron Du in , B ernera , Barra H ead" , Proc . S oc . An t iqs . S co t . 2 7, 1 892-3 , 3 41-6. Anderson , J ., 1 901 , "No t ices o f n ine Brochs a long t he Ca i thness c oas t...exc ava ted b y S ir F rancis Tress Barry" , Proc. S oc . An t iqs . S co t . 3 5 , 1 900-01 , 1 12-48 . A very , M ., S u t ton , J . E . G ., & Banks , J . W., 1 967 , " Ra insborough , Nor than ts ., Eng land , Excava t ions 1 961-5" , Proc . Preh is t . S oc. 3 3 , 2 07-306. B ern ier , G ., 1 964 , " Les Pro mon to ires b arr s d es I l es Vanneta ises d u Mor Bras" , Anna les d e Bretagne 4 2 , 6 7-74. C a lder , C . S . T ., 1 939 , " Excava t ions o f I ron Age Dwel l ings o n t he Ca lf o f Eday , Orkney" , Proc. S oc. An t iqs . S co t . 6 8 , 1 938-9 , 1 67-85 . C a l lander , J . G ., & G ran t , W. G ., 1 934 , " The Broch o f Midhowe , Rousay , Orkney" , Proc. S oc . An t iqs . S cot . 6 8 , 1 933-4 , 4 44-516. C h i lde , V . G ., 1 935 , The Preh is tory o f S co t land , L ondon . C h i lde , V . G ., 1 940 , Preh is tor ic C o m mun i t ies o f t he Br i t ish I s les , London a nd E d inburgh . C larke , D . V ., 1 970 , " Bone D ice a nd t he S cot t ish I ron Age" , Proc . Preh is t . S oc. 3 6 , 2 14-32 . C larke , D . V ., 1 971 , " Sma l l F inds i n t he A t lan t ic Prov ince -Proble ms o f Approach" , S cot . Arch . Foru m 3 , 2 2-54. C leasby , R ., & V ig fusson , G ., 1 874 , I celand ic-Eng l ish D ic t ionary , Ox ford . C lous ton , J . S ., 1 931 , Ear ly Norse Cas t les , K irkwa l l . C lous ton , J . S ., 1 932 , H is tory o f Orkney , K irkwa l l . C lous ton , J . S ., 1 936 , " Three N orse S trongho lds i n Orkney" , Proc. Orkney An tiq . S oc. 7 , 1 935-6 , 5 7-74. C o t ton , M. A ., 1 959 , " Corn ish C li f f-Cas t les" , Proc . Wes t C ornwa l l F ie ld C lub 2 , 1 958-9 , 1 13-21. C o t ton , M. A ., 1 961 , " Re la t ionsh ips b etween I ron Age. Ear thworks i n France a nd B r i ta in" , Oga m 1 3 , 1 03-13. C ur ie , A . 0 ., 1 946, " The Excava t ion o f a W ag '... a t Forse , Ca i thness" , Proc . S oc. An tiqs . S cot . 8 0 , 1 945-6 , 1 1-25 . C urwen , E . C ., 1 937 , " Querns" , An t iqu i ty 1 1 , 1 33-51.

9 7

D ie tr ichson , L ., & Meyer , J ., 1 906 , Monumen ta Orcad ica , Chr is t ian ia . Dryden , H ., 1 857 , " No t ice o f t he Burg o f Mousa i n S het land" , Proc . S oc. An t iqs . S co t . 3 , 1 857-60 , 1 23-4 . F ischer , G ., 1 951 , N orske K ongeborger I , Os lo . G ordon , A . S . R ., 1 941 , " Excava t ions o f G urnards Head ... Cornwa l l" , Arch . J n l . 9 7 , 1 940-1 , 9 6-111. Ha m i l ton , J . R . C ., 1 956, Excava t ions a t J ar lsho f S he t land , Ed inburgh. Ha m i l ton , J . R . C ., 1 968 , Excava t ions a t C l ickh im in S het land , E d inburgh . Harbison , P ., 1 971 , "Wooden a nd S tone C hevaux-de-fr ise i n Cen tra l a nd Wes tern Europe" , Proc. Preh is t . S oc . 3 7, 1 95-225. Hawkes , C . F . C ., 1 971 , " Fence :

Wa l l :

Dump :

Fro m Troy t o H od" , i n

J esson & H i l l ( ed .) The I ron Age a nd i t s H i l l for ts :

Papers p resen ted t o

S ir Mor t i mer Whee ler , S ou tha mp ton . J ackson , K . H ., 1 964 , The O ldes t I r ish Trad i t ion : Ca mbr idge .

A Window o n t he I ron Age ,

J akobsen , J ., 1 936, P lace Na mes o f S he t land , L ondon a nd Copenhagen . La mb , R . G ., 1 973 , " Coas ta l S e t t le men ts o f t he N or th" , S cot . Arch . Forum 5 , 7 6-98 . Low , G ., 1 879 , Tour t hrough Orkney a nd S che t land i n 1 774 , K irkwa l l . Mac G ibbon , D ., & R oss , T ., 1 889 , C as tel la ted a nd Do mes t ic Arch i tecture o f S cot land , v o l . I I , E dinburgh . MacK ie , E . W., 1 965 , " ... Broch a nd Whee lhouse Bu ilding Cu l tures o f t he S cot t ish I ron Age" , Proc. Preh is t . S oc. 3 1 , 9 3-146. MacK ie , E . W., 1 969a , " Rad iocarbon Da tes a nd t he S cot t ish I ron Age" , An t iqu i ty , 4 3 , 1 5-26. MacK ie , E . W., 1 969b , " The H is tor ica l C on tex t o f t he Or ig in o f t he Broch .s" , S cot . Arch . F oru m 1 , 5 3-60 . MacK ie , E . W., 1 971 , " Con t inu i ty i n I ron Age F or t Bu i ld ing Trad i t ions i n Ca i thness" , i n Meldrum ( ed .) The Dark Ages i n t he H igh lands , 5 -24 , I nverness . MacK ie , E . W., 1 974 , Dun Mor Vau l :

An I ron A ge Broch o n T iree , G lasgow .

Mi tche l l , A ., 1 881 , " No t ice o f ... H ogse t ter i n Wha lsay , S he t land" , P roc. S oc . An t iqs . S co t . 1 5 , 1 880-1 , 3 03-15 . Mooney , J ., 1 926, " Deerness :

i t s I s lands" , Proc. Orkney An tiq. S oc. 4 ,

1 925-6, 2 5-30 . Mowa t , J ., 1 940 , " Bucho l ie Cas t le" , O ld-Lore M iscel lany o f Orkney S hetland a nd Ca i thness , 1 0 , 1 43-7. Mowbray , C . L ., 1 936, " Excava t ion a t t he N ess o f Burg i , S he t land" , Proc. S oc. An t i s . S co t . 7 0 , 1 935-6, 3 81-6.

9 8

Murray Threipland, L., 1943, "Excavations in Brittany 1939", Arch. Jnl. 100, 128-49. O'Kelly, M. J., 1952, "Three Promontory Forts in Co. Cork", Proc. Royal Irish Academy 55, section C, 25-59. Orkneyinga Saga, ed. Finnbogi Gudmundsson, Islenzk Fornrit vol. 34, Reykjavik, 1965. Peacock, D. P. S., 1968, "A Petrological Study of Certain Iron Age Pottery from Western England", Proc. Prehist. Soc. 34, 414-26. Petrie, G., 1890, "Notice of the Brochs or Large Round Towers of Orkney", Archaeologia Scotica 5 part 1, 71-94. RCAMS, Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, Edinburgh. RCAMS 1911a Caithness (3rd Report, part 2). RCAMS 1911b Sutherland (3rd Report, part 1). RCAMS 1912 Wigtownshire (4th-5th Reports, vol. 1). RCAMS 1914 Kirkcucfuright (4th-5th Reports, vol. 2). RCAMS 1946 Orkney and Shetland (12th Report: 3 vols.). Scott, L., 1947, "The Problem of the Brochs", Proc. Prehist. Soc. 13, 1-36. Scott, L., 1948, "Gallo-British Colonies: the Aisled Round-House Culture in the North", Proc. Prehist. Soc. 14, 46-125. Simpson, W. D., "The Broch of Clickhimin", in Simpson (ed.) (First) Viking Congress, 19-45, Edinburgh. Stevenson, R. B. K., 1955. "Pins and the Chronology of the Brochs", Proc. Prehist. Soc. 21, 282-94. Stevenson, R. B. K., 1970. Review of Hamilton (1968). Antiq. Jnl. 50, 123-5. Taylor, A. B., 1938, The Orkneyinga Saga, Edinburgh. Watt, W. G. T., 1882, "Notice of the Broch known as Burwick or Borwick••• ", Proc. Soc. Antigs. Scot. 16, 1881-2, 442-50. Westropp, T. J., 1910, "Promontory Forts.••in Co. Kerry", Jnl. Royal Soc. Antiqs. Ireland 40, 6-31, 99-131, 179-213, 265-96. Wheeler, R. E. M., 1943, Maiden Castle Dorset London. Wheeler, R. E. M., 1957, Hill Forts of Northern France London. Williams, J., 1777, An Account of some remarkable Ancient Ruins lately dis­ covered in the Highlands and Northern Parts of Scotland, Edinburgh. Young, A., 1962, "Brochs and Duns", Proc. Soc. Antigs. Scot. 95, 1961-2, 171-98.

99

I NDEX

A i thbank

C lickh i min

5 3 , 8 6

3 9-42 ,6 4 , 6 9

A i thse t ter , b roch 8 2 Anderson , J . Arbroa th

1

1

Ard treck , D un Ayw ick

3 ,7 , 1 1-19 , 2 6 ,2 9 , 3 3-5 ,3 7 ,

C o lonsay

3 7

C ornwa l l

4 , 1 6 , 5 4 , 5 8 , 5 9 ,6 2

C o t ton , M. A .

3 9 , 4 0

5 4

C rossk irk ( Ca i thness ) , b roch

( see S toa l )

C obb ie R oo 's C as t le Barra Head ( Sron a n Duin )

3 8-9

C u lsw ick , b roch

Barry , S ir F ranc is Tress

2 0 , 7 4 , 7 5

C ur ie , A . 0 .

Be lgae

1

1 2 ,2 5

6 0-1

Be l le-I le-en- Mer 5 4

Deerness , B rough o f 6 ,6 8 , 7 9

Berw icksh ire 6

d ice 6 1

Bever idge , E .

Doonabinn ia

4

5 8

Doon E ask

5 4 , 5 9

Borgas toon , B rough o f 5 2 ,8 4

Doon P oin t

5 8

B orness Ba t ter ies

Dorna ig ( Dornadi l la ) , Dun

D igg ing , B rough o f 2 0 ,6 8 , 7 7

Borve C as t le

5 8 , 5 9

Dryden , S ir H enry

9 0-2 , 9 5

B orw ick , b roch

2 0 ,6 6 , 7 7

B raeb ister , B rough o f B r it tany

6 6

9 4

2

d uck-sta mped ware Dun Mor Vau l

3 4 , 7 6

2 ,7

6 0

6 1

6 , 5 4 , 5 9-62

B rough , C as t le o f 9 0 , 9 1, 9 6

E ask , D oon

B ucho lie C as t le

E g i ls S aga

B urg i G eos

9 0 , 9 2 , 9 5

5 4 , 5 9 6 5 , 8 8

E i lean n an C aorach

2 6-33 ,3 7, 3 9 ,4 0 ,4 1 ,68 ,

7 1

6 9-70 , 8 4 B ur land , b roch

3 4 ,6 4 , 8 2-3

B urra land , b roch B urn er H ead

F aeroe

3 4-5 , 3 8-9 , 7 0 , 8 2

6 2

F lubersgerdie

3 7 , 8 6

8 3

f oo t- marked s tone

B urw ick , C ast le o f 5 3 , 5 8 , 7 6-7

F orse , Wag o f 3 9 F resw ick

1 7

9 6

C aesar , CI u lius 6 , 5 9-60 C ahercarbery more C a lder , C . S . T . C a lf o f E day

5 4 , 5 9

g a l leried d uns

1 5

Ga l loway

1 5

C a mp d u C esar

Gar th , B rough N ess o f , 5 4

G ian ts ' C as t le

C ar loway ( Cär lobhagh ) , Dun

7

Channe l I s les

Chun C as t le Chysaus ter

G las tonbury

5 4

6 0 •

Go te o 'Tra m 2 7 ,3 1-2 ,4 0 , 7 4

G raha m , A .

4 , 1 2 ,6 0 ,69

6 8 , 7 5 3

G ruga ig , D un

2 ,1 6

3 9

g uard-cha mbers

2

C larke . D . V .

9 2 , 9 6

G irs ton D ay 5 3 , 7 6 3 ,6, 1 6-18 ,4 1-2 ,6 9

c hevaux-de-fr ise Ch i lde , V . G .

6 8-9 , 8 3

5 8-9

G irn igoe , C as t le

C arrig i l lihy 5 9 C e l t ic p eop les

1 ,2 ,3 ,3 8 ,3 9 , 7 0 , 8 2

6 , 5 4 , 5 8-62

G urnards H ead 4 ,6 1-2 ,6 9

G urness , b roch 1 00

3 7-8 , 6 1 5 4 , 5 8-9 2 ,65

H am i lton , J . R .

C .

3 ,4 ,11-15 ,19-20 ,

H arbison , P . H ebrides

5 4

N eck o f B rough 7 3 N ess , B roch o f 2 0 ,74 ,96

6 4 ,69-70

N ess o f B urg i

1 ,6 ,37 ,61

H og I s land S ound

4 3-9 ,54 ,58 ,62 ,66 ,

1 1-13 ,16-17,19-20 ,26,

3 3-7 ,40-2 , 6 4 ,81 N ess o f Garth , B rough 6 8-9 ,83

6 8-9 ,83 H o lborn Head

N e ther D igging

7 3

H oub ie , b roch 6 4 H ux ter ,

3 8

3 1

2 ,4 ,38-40 ,43 ,53 ,60-1,

h i l lfor ts

murus d up lex murus g a l licus

1 9-20 ,35 ,40-1,69

L och o f

7 8

N orth F ort o f S ca tness 1 1 ,15-16 ,26,29 ,

2 6,33 ,35 ,42 ,

8 1 N ybs ter , b roch

3 3 ,35 ,37 ,39 ,40-2 ,69

1 1 ,19 ,26,34-5 ,38-9 ,

7 0 ,75 I beria

3 1

I ce land

6 2

O ld Wick , C as t le o f 5 9

O nstan

5 3 ,78

3 ,13 ,16,16 ,41 ,66 ,69

o ppida

5 9-60

I l e I ste lec , S auzon i nvasions I re land

4 ,31 ,53-4 ,58-60

J ackson , K . H .

3 ,16

9 0 ,92 ,95

O rdnance S urvey

4 3 , 7 1,84

O rkney inga S aga

6 5 ,89

Ox tro , b roch

6 5

J ar lshof 3 ,4 ,11-13 ,39-41 , 6 5 p ea t K e iss , b roch

6 5

K e mps Wa lk

5 8

p ins

K en id jack C as t le ( S t J us t i n Penw i th )

K en muir Graves K ervedan

P or tadoona

5 8

p o t tery

4 2 , 6 9 5 9

1 6,29 ,60-1,77,8 1,85

5 4 ,59

5 4

q uerns 6 1-2

K irk laugh lane

5 8

K o lbein H ruga

9 4

K r i in o ' d e ( j ra

Ra insborough

8 6-7

5 9

R ichardson , J . S . R iggan o f Ka m i

L a ing , S .

2

L a mbaborg

4 2

6 1

p lace-na mes

5 8-9

K ercaradec

2 7

P ic t ish l anguage

1 2

2 6,33-4 ,37,39 ,42 ,

7 9

9 6

R ing i l l , Dun

L a mbhoga H ead L andberg , The

9 6

3 9

r ings 6 1

4 3-9 ,54 ,58 ,66 ,

R u mps Point

5 8

6 8-9 ,81-0 L i l leborg 9 2

s agas 6 5 ,88-9 ,94 ,96

L i t t le Woodbury L ow , G .

2

S t J ohns P oin t

7 6 ,8 1-2

7 4

S t J ust i n P enw i th , Kenid jack C as t le S and Geo , C as t le o f

MacK ie , E . W.

1 ,4 ,37-40 ,61,69

6 8 ,78

S auzon , I le I s t i lec

5 9

Man , I s le o f 6 ,31 ,54

S catness N or th F ort

Mha irtein , D un

7 ,25-6,35 ,38 ,72

S cot t , S ir L indsay

Midhowe , b roch

2 ,11 ,18-20 ,26,

S cot t , S ir Wa lter

3 4-5 ,38 , 6 4-5 ,69 ,80 M i tche ll , A . Mousa , b roch

S eanachais tea l

1 5

S em ibrochs

1 ,2 ,3 ,7 ,38 ,40 ,65 ,

S garbach

6 8

2 ,3 ,4 , 6 0-1,68 1 2

7 1

4 ,38 ,40

2 5-6,35 ,37,38 ,75

S i mpson , W . D .

1 01

2 6,33 ,35 ,42 ,81

3 ,13 ,19 , 6 6 ,70

3

S k irza Head , b roch s l ing

2 0 , 7 4

5 0 , 5 9-60

S nabroch

6 4

S outh B arru le

3 1

S ron a n Duin

3 8-9

s tepped r a mpar ts

3 8, 5 9

S tevenson , R . B . K . S toa l , B rough o f

2 ,1 8-19

7 ,4 3 , 5 0 , 5 3 , 5 4 ,

5 8-9 ,68-9 , 8 4 S tronsay

6 8 , 8 0

S u mburgh Head

1 1 , 4 1 ,80-1

S u mburgh R p Sst

4 1

S verresborg

9 2 , 9 6

Sweyn As le ifsson Ta ing o f B rough Te lve , D un

7

Trondhe im

9 2

Uraga ig , Dun

9 6 3 7 , 8 6

3 7

Vau l , Dun Mor

6 ]

Vene t i 6 , 5 9-60 V irkie

4 1

Wa inwrigh t , F . T . Wa les Wessex

7 8 , 8 8

4 -5 ,31 , 5 4 1 ,3 7,61-2 ,69

Wes tropp , T . J .

5 4 , 5 8

Whee ler , S ir Mort i mer whee lhouses

5 8

2 ,3 , 6 ] ,6 5

Wig townsh ire

5 8

Wi l l ia ms , J .

2

Wind w ick , B rough o f 4 3 , 5 0 , 5 3-4 5 8-9 ,68-9 , 7 7 Wirk , The

9 4

Young , A .

4

1 02

e i b b ,s 'Ng

• e r

P l . 1

P l . 2

N ess o f B urg i a f ter r es tora t ion i n 1 971

C l ickh im in , NE e nd a nd r ear o fb lockhouse

P l . 3

L och o f H ux ter

P l . 4

P l . 5

D un Mha irte in , v iew d own o n f ort f ro m t he h igher c l if fo n t he ma in land s ide

D un Mha irte in , l ook ing a long i s thmus t owards d i tch a nd r ampar t

P l . 6

P l . 7

B urg i G eos f ro m E

B urg i G eos , v iew f ro m t he b lockhouse b ack t owards t he l and

P l . 8

B urg i G eos , c hevaux-de-f rise a nd a venue , l ook ing l andwards

P l . 9

B urg i Geos , t he v ert ica l c l if f o n wh ich t he b lockhouse s tands

P l . 1 0 B urg i G eos , f ron t f ace o fb lockhouse a nd e nc losure wa l l

P l . 1 1 B urg i Geos , r ingwa l l t o r ear o fb lockhouse

P l . 1 2 S ca tness N orth F ort , l ook ing So ver o uter b ank

P l . 1 3 S ca tness N orth F ort , Ee nd wa l l-face o fb lockhouse e xposed a t c l if f e dge

P l . 1 4 The L andberg , f ro m NN W

P l . 1 5 The L andberg , l ook ing a cross h orseshoe-p lan b ank t owards ma in r a mpart a t c res t o f s lope

P l . 1 6 The L andberg , o uter b anks v iewed f ro m ma in r ampart

P l . 1 7 H og I s land S ound , o uter b anks f ro m N

P l . 1 8 B rough o f S toa l , l ook ing a cross g eo f ro m NW

P l . 1 9 B rough o f S toa l , o uter s lope o f midd le r ampart

P l . 2 0 C ast le o f S and G eo

P l . 2 1 B rough N ess o f Garth , v iew f rom h i l lside l ook ing NW

P l . 2 2 B rough N ess o f G arth , t he m idd le t errace-wa l l

P l . 2 3 .

P l . 2 4 .

C as t le o f O ld Wick f ro m W.

C as t le o f O ld Wick , g rea t t ower a nd d i tch f ro m S E .

P l . 2 5 .

B orve C as t le f ro m SW .

P l . 2 6.

C as t le o f B rough f ro m S E.