Studies in the Iron Age of Hungary 9780860541752, 9781407328942

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
List of Contents
List of Text Figures
Preface
Introduction
RECENT EXCAVATIONS AT THE HALLSTATT AND LA TÈNEHILL.-FORT OF SOPRON-VÁRHELY (BURGSTALL) AND THE PREDECESSORS OF THE HALLSTATT CULTURE IN HUNGARY
I. SOPRON-VARHELY (BURGSTALL)
II. THE SECOND HALF OF THE HB PERIOD (HB 2-3) IN EASTERN HUNGARY AND TRANSDANUBIA
ASPECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT LATE IRON AGE SETTLEMENTS IN TRANSDANUBIA INTO THE ROMAN PERIOD (EVIDENCE BASED UPON THE EXCAVATIONS AT SZAKÁLY IN SOUTHERN HUNGARY)
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM THE LATE LA TÉNE AND ROMAN SETTLEMENT OF SZAKÁLY-RÉTI FÖLDEK

Citation preview

Studies in the Iron Age of Hungary

D. Gabler, E. Patek and I. Voros

Published for the Archaeological Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest

BAR International Series I 44 1982

B.A.R.,

B�A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 78P, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B. Sc., M.A., D .Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S144, 1982: 'Studie s in the

Iron Age of Hungary'

© D.Gable r, E.Pate k and I VtlrHs, 1982

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541752 paperback ISBN 9781407328942 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541752 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS

P age L ist o f f igurP P re :face I ntroduction

v i

E . P ATEK R ecent e xcavations a t t he H allstatt a nd L a T ene h ill-fort o f S opron-Vdrhely ( Burgstall) a nd t he p redecessors o f t he H allstatt c ulture i n H ungary I I

1

S opron-Vdrhely ( Burgstall) T he s econd h alf o f t he H B p eriod ( HB 2 -3) i n E astern H ungary a nd T ransdanubia

D . G ABLER A spects o f t he d evelopment o f L ate I ron A ge s ettlements i n T ransdanubia I nto t he R oman p eriod ( evidence b ased u pon t he e xcavations a t S zakdly i n S outhern H ungary)

5 7

I . V ÖRÖS T he a nimal b ones f rom t he L ate L a T ene a nd R oman s ettlement o f S zakdly-Reti F 81dek

1 29

LIST OF TEXT FIGURES Page

PATEK Fig. l

Geological map of the neighbourhood of Sopron, showing Hallstatt sites

2

Fig. 2

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall)

4

Fig. 3

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from rampart section HI

6

Fig. 4

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from rampart section HI

7

Fig. 5

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from ramparts

8

Fig. 6

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from ramparts and settlement

9

Fig. 7

The settlement periods·of Hallstatt hill-forts of Transdanubio

11

Fig. 8

S.opron-Várhely (Burgstall), finds from cemetery and settlement

18

Fig. 9

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from grave 81/1978

19

Fig. 10

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), selection of pottery from grave 83/1971

20

Fig. 11

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from grave 170/1973

21

Fig. 12

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from grave 170/1973

22

Fig. 13

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from the settlement

23

Fig. 14

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall), pottery from house 9

24

Fig. 15

Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall). house 9

25

i

Brooch from

Page Fig. 16

Grave goods of the Mezó'csát group

Fig. 17

31

Grave

the Mezó'csót group

32

Fig. 18

Comparative finds

35

Fig. 19

Comparative finds

36

Characteristic pottery types of the second half of the HB period

40

Fig. 21

Cemeteries of the Mezocsát group

42

Fig. 22

The sites of the second half of the HB 2-3 in Transdanubia

43

Fig. 23

HC settlements

44

• . .J: 1q

?.C'

goods of

in

Transdanubia

GABLER Fig. 1

The native population of Pannonia at the time of the Reman Conquest

58

Fig. 2

Late Iron Age settlements in the territory of the Hercuniates

60

Fig. 3

Site of the late Iron Age-Roman settlement at Szakály-Réti f8ldek

62

Fig. 4

General plan of the excavations (1973-1979) at Szakály-Réti f8ldek

63

Fig. 5

Late Iron Age settlement at Szakály-Réti f8ldek. Section through storage pit no. xvii

66

Late Iron Age-Roman settlement at Szakály­ Réti f8ldek. Deer-burial in a storage pit no. xvii

67

Late Iron Age wheel-turned bowls with burnished decoration found in the settlement Szakály-Réti f8ldek

69

Fig. 8

Late Iron Age wheel-turned pottery found in the settlement Szakály-Réti f8ldek

71

Fig. 9

Late Iron Age knife and scabbard found in the settlement of Szakály-Réti f8ldek

72

Fig. 10

Roman imported goods transported into the Kapos valley in the pre-Roman Iron Age and in the first century A.O.

77

Fig. 6 Fig. 7

ii

P age F ig. 1 1

A ntonine s unken f loor h ut , n o. x xix , i n t he p easant s ettlement o f S zakdly-Reti f 81dek

7 8

F ig. 1 2

S zakdly-Reti f 81dek. ( 1977)

8 1

F ig. 1 3

R oman t imber b uildings a nd s unken-floor h ut r evealed i n t he p easant s ettlement o f S zokäly-Reti f t Ildek

8 2

F ig. 1 4

R oman s torage p its f ound i n t he p easant s ettlement o f S zakdly-R6ti f 8ldek

8 3

F ig. 1 5

H earth a nd o ven r evealed i n t he s ettlement o f S zaköly-Reti f t ildek

8 3

F ig. 1 6

S amian p ottery f ound i n t he r ural s ettlement o f S zakdly-Reti f lUdek

8 5

F ig. 1 7

S amian a nd f ine w are f ound i n t he s ettlement o f S zakdly-Reti f 81dek

8 6

F ig. 1 8

B racelet , b rooches a nd k ey f ound i n t he s ettlement o f S zak c ily-Reti f 8ldek

8 8

F ailed c ast o f a n A ntonine w ing-brooch f ound a t S zakc ily-Reti f t ildek

8 9

L ate I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman s unken f loor h ut r evealed i n t he n ative s ettlement a t S zakdly-Reti f 81dek

9 1

F ig. 2 1

S unken f loor h ut o f t he R oman s ettlement a t S zakdly-Reti f t ildek

9 3

F ig. 2 2

R oman s ettlement d istribution i n t he t erritory o f t he c ivitas H ercuniatium i n P annonia I nferior

9 5

L ate R oman c oarse p ottery f rom t he r ural s ettlement o f S zake ily-Reti f öldek

1 01

F ig. 1 9 F ig. 2 0

F ig. 2 3

E xcavation a rea C

V ÖRÖS F ig. 1 .a. L eft f rontal f ragment w ith h orn-core o f c attle b . L eft m axilla o f c attle

1 73 1 73

F ig. 2 .a. R ight h orn-core o f as heep b . R ight h orn-core o f ag oat

1 74 1 74

F ig. 3

T he s kull o f ad og: a . l eft s ide v iew; b . d orsal v iew; c . b asal v iew

111

1 75

P age F ig. 4 .a. T wo m andibles o f t he d og s keleton b . T he l eft m andible

1 76 1 76

F ig. 5 .a. T wo f emurs o f t he d og s keleton b . L eft m axilla o f ah orse

1 77 1 77

F ig. 6

1 78

S kull o f ah orse i n s itu

F ig. 7 .a. L eft m andible o f t he s acrificial r ed d eer b . r 2l ostron o f nt ortoise

i v

1 79 1 79

PREFACE This volume of popers, prepared by members of the Institute of Archoeology ot Budopest, offers o foretoste of the new ond importont work which is ot present in progress on the Hungorion Iron Age. English reoders will be much indebted to our Hungorion colleogues for presenting these accounts of their current work. We hope thot this will be the first volume of o long ond distinguished series devoted to the work of the Hungorion Institute. The popers were submitted in English tronslotion ond the texts hove been prepored for publicotion by the writer. Dr. Groce Simpson kindly tronsloted the Romon pottery descriptions in Dr� Gobler's poper from the Germon, ond Mrs. Annie Grant helped with the presentotion of the animal bone text. Every effort wos mode to odhere os rigorously os possible to the original texts ond the edited versions, which oppeor here, hove been opproved by their outhors. The difficult tosk of preporing the typescript wos in the competent honds of Mrs. Lynda Smithson. We look forward with enthusiosm to further fruits of this Hungarian-British cooperotion.

Barry Cunliffe Institute of Archaeology Oxford

V

I NTRODUCTION

P apers p resented h ere o ffer a n a ccount o f s ome o f t he r esults o f r ecent s ettlement-pattern a rchaeology i n T ransd anubia ( Western H ungary) f rom t he L ate B ronze A ge u ntil L ate R oman t imes. T hey w ere s pecially s elected f or t his v olume a nd m ark a s ignificant d evelopment f or , u ntil r ecently , l ittle a ttention h as b een p aid t o t his a spect o f I ron A ge s tudies i n H ungary. T he c ommon c haracteristic o f t hese p apers i s a n e mphasis o n t ransitional p eriods, h itherto n eglected, a nd a n a ttempt t o b reak a way f rom t he s ingle p eriod-dominated a pproach. T he p apers u tilize n ew d ata d erived f rom i ntensive f ield w ork a nd f rom r ecent s ystematic e xcavations a t I ron A ge d efended a nd o pen s ettlements a nd t heir r elated c emeteries. T he w ork w as c arried o ut b y t he A rchaeological I nstitute o f t he H ungarian A cademy o f S ciences. T hese e xplorations a re a n i ntegrated p art o f o ther p rojects o f t he I nstitute a imed a t d iscovering t he t otal s ettlement-pattern o f s elected a reas. T he w ork i ncludes a s eries o f m icro-regional s tudies, e mploying n ew s urveying m ethods, w hich h ave b een c arried o ut i n t he f ramework o f e xcellently f unctioning H ungarian-English c ooperation.

v i

..

RECENT EX CA VA TIONS A T THE HALLSTATT AN) LA TENE HILL.-FORT OF SOPRON-VÁRHELY (BURGSTALL) ANO fHE PREOECESSORS OF THE HALLSTA TT CULTURE IN HUNGARY by E. Patek I.

,

SOPRON-VARHELY (BURGSTALL) Introduction

A number of high plateau settlements of the Hallstatt culture ore found in the Sopron mountains, spaced at between 2 to 6 kilometres from each other. These include: Sopron­ Várhely (Burg�tall), Sopron-Vórishegy (Warischberg), Sopron­ H�uslerberg, Egiszék (Himmelsthron}, and in Austria, near the north-westrrn shore of Lake Fertó' {Neusiedlersee), Purbach­ Burgstall. In addition it can also oe presumed that there was a Hallstatt period plateau settlement on Kecskehegy {Gaisberg) because of the proximity of a Hallstatt cemetery: excavations, however, hove not yet been carried out. Of these settlements occupation in the La Tene period is recorded at Sopron-Burijstall, Himmelsthron{ Hijuslerberg, and Purbach­ Burgstall lPatek 1976: 24, 26). All these settlements lie on the edge of the eastern Alps, close to the plain in Northwestern Hungary, on the meta­ morphosed shale of which the mountains are composed (Fig. 1). The geological, geographical and climatic charocter of the orea will be discussed below. Extensive settlement in the Sopron mountains is not known in the proximity of the Hallstatt earthworks prior to the HB period. According to the known finds the more signifi­ cant occupation and development of the Sopron mountain began during the Hallstatt period (Patek 1980: 59). Sopron­ Burgstall is the best known of the earthworks listed. Both this and Warischberg, 2 kilometres away, are mentioned in the literature primarily because of their funerary pottery decora­ ted with figured ornamentotion (Gallus 1934: 16). It was in 1887 that Lajos Bella discovered Burgstoll for archaeology. Excava­ tions were carried out by him from 1887 to 1932: others had also excavated there for shorter periods; Hoernes, Márton, l

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L evant Ine t e r race g rave l P lms tocene

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F ig. 1 G eologica l m ap o f t he n eighbourhood o f S opron, H allstatt s ites

s howing

L auringer a nd G allus ( Novdki 1 955 : 1 31-135). A lthough L ajos B ella c arried o ut m inor e xcavations i n t he a rea o f t he s ettlem ent , h is m ajor f ield w ork c oncentrated o n t he t umulus c emetery , y ielding m any v aluable f inds. F rom 1 932 t o 1 971 t here w as n o e xcavation a t a ll a t t he s ite b ut f rom 1 971 t o 1 978 I u ndertook ap rogramme o f l imited e xcavation ( Patek 1 973: 2 06-213; 1 976 : 3 -28). T he e xcavation o f al arger a rea w as n ot p ossible b ecause t he f orest w as a n ature c onservation a rea. A ccordingly w e w ere l imited t o t he c utting o f t rial t renches i n t he a rea o f t he s ettlement a nd t hrough t he f ortifications. I n a ddition t en t umuli w ere b rought t o l ight. A m ap o f t he s ite w as p repared a nd t he s ites o f t he o ld e xcavations w ere i dentified. A c orrelation t able w as d rawn u p t o r elate g raves e xcavated a t t he e nd o f t he l ast 2 c entury w ith t he g rave n umbering o f t he m ap c ompleted i n 1 980 . T he s cheme, c onstruction a nd d ate o f t he f ortification o f t he s ettlement w ere r esearched d uring t he 1 970s , a nd a t t he s ame t ime t he c hronology o f t he s ite w as c larified a nd g iven g reater p recision. I n t he f ollowing p ages t he c hronology a nd t he c omparison o f t he f inds w ith o ther c ultures w ill b e d iscussed i n t he l ight o f t he e xcavations c arried o ut d uring t he 1 970s. T he s econd p art o f t he p aper w ill i ntroduce e ighth c entury B .C . f inds f rom W estern H ungary ( Transdanubia) a nd f rom E astern H ungary ( The G reat H ungarian 2

Plain) using as evidence selected but characteristic assemblages. In other words, we will outline phenomena that can be observed in other ports of Hungory ot the time of the development of the Sopron-Burgstall Hollstott culture. Description of the_sit� The Scpron-Vórhely prehístoric settlement and cemetery lies in the Sopron �ountoins on o crest colled Vórhely (Burgstoll) ot on oltitude of 487 m (Fig. 2). The orea is surrounded by steep slopes on the west, north ond east, but the slope is more gentle in the south-southwesterly direction, where the tumulus cemetery, belonging to the settlement, is located and the prehistoric rood into the fortification mvst also hove been sited: there is o forest path here now. The entrence position is demonstroted by the zangentor of the outmost fortification. Presumably the entrence approach was here during Hallstott times, but no troces of it were dis­ covered in the recent work. The ditches of the fortifications con still be cleorly seen. The innermost rompart surrounds the whole settlement except for o 150 m length ot the west side. The romparts adapt to the relief of the hill. Thus they are strongest in the southwest, sometimes reoching a height of 10-20 m. The ramports are, however, much lower where the mountain slopes steeply away; for this reoson, as we hove said, the western rampart is portly missing. The main earth­ work (hauptschanz) has several outworks (vorschanz) to the southwest, the side which could be defended withthe most difficulty. Based on finds from the rampart sections and the relationships of the ramparts, a more recent date can be suggested for the outworks, than for the main earthwork and the two inner earthworks dividing the settlement (zwischenschanz). They can be doted to the La Tene period. The surrounding inner main earthwork was sectioned at five places (sections HI, HII, HIII, HIV, HV). The outwork was investigated ot three places (Vl, V2, V'J), whereas the two earthworks within the settlement were investigated by a 60 m long trench (Zl-2). The chronology of the ramparts

3

Cutting throu h the main earthwork produced large quantities of finds. Section HI, across the SW part of the main earthwork, yielded the remains of a stone wall belonging probably to the previous HB period: the same trench produced finds dated to the end of the Urnfield period from the earth of the rampart (Fig 3; 4; 5, 1-10), mixed in with sherds of the HC period (Patek 1976: fig. 4, 1-7). One of these _sherds bearing ritztechnik ornamentation ond one with hotched tri­ angles (schraffI'erte dreieck) are of interest (Fig. 5, 5). This technique and motif often found on vessels from the

ore

3

F i g. 2

Sopron-Várh� 1 y (Bl1rg stall) 4

F ig. 4

S opron-Vdrhely ( Burgstall), p ottery f rom r ampart s ection H I 7

1

1

F ig. 5 S opron-Vdrhely ( Burgstall), p ottery f rom r amparts. 1 -10 : s ection H I; 1 1-14 : s ection V 1 8

F ig. 6 S opron-Vörhely ( Burgstall), p ottery f rom r amparts a nd s ettlement. 1 .4 : s ection H I; 2 .3: s ection H II; 5 -10 : s ection H III; 1 1: s ection V 3; 1 2-14 : h ouse 9 ; 1 5 : s ettlement 9

Some parallels for the hill-fort of Sopron-Várhely (Burgstall) in the Eastern Alpine region The form of the Sopron-Vórhely hill-fort, the fortificotion, and the ramparts, as well as the topographical relationship of the hill-fort and the tumulus cemetery, are similar to the neorby Austrian hill-fort of Purbach Burgstall neor the NW shore of Lake Fertó (Neusiedlersee). (Bello 1898: 3; Ulbrich 1962 : 138; 0hrenberger 1962: 202). Very little field work has been done at the Purboch site, but of the few recorded finds sorne are Hallstott some La Tene. The earthworks in the region of Sopron show significont similarities to the earthworks of Unterkrain in the region of Sticna. Like Sopron, there are severa! earthworks near Sticna, including Vace, Magdalenska Gora, Dobrnic, Brezje, Novo-Mesto (Rudolfswerth) and Smarjeta (Gobrovec, Frey and Foltiny 1970: fig. 1). A further similarity between the earthworks of the Sopron and Sticna lies in the proximity of trade routes of primory importance: the one near the foot of the Sopron hills is the route linking the Adriatic with the Baltic Sea, whereas in the case of Sticna it is the Siscia-Emona route. The generalizations of Gabrovec concerning the Slovenian earthworks are valid for the Sopron earthworks as well: he thinks that the orea became settled with the development of earthwork enclosures in the Hallstatt period. It should be noted that the general situation in western Hungary is different, except for the fortifications in the Sopron area. Most of the Hallstatt period earthworks in other parts of Transdanubia were already flourishing in the Urnfield period (Urnenfelderzeit) (Fig. 7). Evidence for this is provided by the rich Ürnfield culture material from the fortified settlements of Velem (Miske 1908); Sághegy (Patek 1968: 36-37); Somlyóhegy (Ádám 1880: 318-321; Darnay 1893: 408); Tihany (Kuzsinszky 1920: 164-167); Gellérthegy (Bónis 1969: 256-261); Re98ly (Wosinszky 1896: 270-272); Lengyel {Wosinszky 1896: 256-261); Nagyberki­ Szalacska (Patek 1968: 60); Pécs-Jakabhegy (T8r8k 1950: 4; Maróz 1979: 78). Some evidence for the chronology of the settlement Data relating to the chronology of the construction of the fortification has been mentioned above. In course of the field work carried out in the western orea of the inner earthworks (trenches HIV, HV) we produced evidence of an HB period settlement. The chronology of the later fortified settlement will be briefly outlined here. Surface finds found during casual survey work hove shown that the entire orea surrounded by earthworks was inhabited: the majority of the finds being of the Hallstatt and the La Tene periods. Lajos Bella excavoted inside the settlement at the end of the lost century (Bella and MUller 1891: 171). He found ditches also of Hallstatt and La Tene periods, but some 10

Neolithic Budapest Gellérthegy Lengyel

-

-

Eneolithic

-

Magyarfalva Fillérerdó

Bronze Age

-

- - - - - - +

-

NagyberkiSzalacska Pécs-Jakabhegy Aególy

-

Sághegy Somlóhegy

-

+

Hallstatt Age

Urntield Age

Sopron - Hauslerberg

-

Sopron- Himmelsthron

�

+

-

+

+

/ Burg stall / Sopron-Váris /Warischb./ Süttó

+

+

-

Száz halombatta Tihany-Óvár

Velem

- 1

-

1 1 1

1

+1 1

1

+

?

Sopron-Várhely

La Tene

A B

-

1

1

t 1

1 1 1

1

1

1

1

1 1 1 1

1

1-

1

1 1 1

!I 1

1

1

1

1-

1

111 11-

1

1

1

1 1

-

1

1

1

1

! 1

1-

1

1

1

1-

1

+

1 1

1

11

1 11 1 1 +11++ 1

1

I

3.

Fig. 7 The settlement periods·of Hallstatt hillforts of Transdanubia. 1 = few finds; 2 = many finds; 3 = some chance finds 11

!1

Roman Period

1

1

,.

o

1

?

+

1.

l

e

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R oman f ;nds w ere a lso m entioned. B etween 1 974 a nd 1 977 t here w ere o nly m inor e xcavations i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s ettlement. B esides p its o f t he H allstatt a nd L a T ene p eriod, a h ouse ( measuring 8 x 8 m ) w ith t imber s tructure s et i nto t he e arth w as r evealed ( structure n o. 9 ). T he i nside w as d ivided b y aw all b uilt o f d ry s tonework a nd h orizontal t imber b eams. P ost-holes i ndicated a r oof o ver t he s tepped e ntrance. T here w as n o t race o f af ire i n t he h ouse. T he b uilding, w hich c ould b e d ated t o t he H allstatt p eriod b y a ssociated f inds , w as p artially d isturbed b y ah ouse o f t he L a T ene p eriod. S tructure n o. 9 p rovided i mportant e vidence f or t he H allstatt c hronology o f B urgstall f or w hereas m ost o f t he g raves o f t he c emetery b elonged t o t he H C p eriod, t he h ouse p roduced f inds o f t he f irst h alf o f t he H D p eriod p roving t hat o ccupation w as s till c ontinuing i n t he s ettlement d uring t he f irst h alf o f H D. N o d efinite e vidence o f t his k ind w as k nown b efore. S everal s herds o f s mall, w ell-polished f ine-ware c ups c ame t o l ight h ere. S everal f ragments o f c ups o f s imilar p rofile b ear t he s ame m otif ( radchenverzierung) ( Fig. 1 3, 1 -3; 1 4). A v ery f inely w orked a nimal-shaped b rooch a lso c ame t o l ight i n t his b uilding ( Fig. 1 5). G rave 2 15/a o f t he t umulus c emetery y ielded v ery c lose p arallels t o t he p ottery ( Fig. 1 3, 4 -6). T his g rave c ontains a l ater b urial ( nachbestattung) w ith m uch p oorer f inds t han g rave n o. 2 15 i n t he s ame t umulus. W hereas g rave n o. 2 15 h as y ielded a t raditional g rave a ssemblage o f B urgstall t ype , t he s herds i n g rave n o. 2 15/a s how t hat c hanges h ad t aken p lace i n t he p ottery o f B urgstall a nd n ewer i nfluences w ere b ecoming e ffective. B oth t he v essels f ound i n h ouse n o. 9 a nd g rave g oods i n g rave n o. 2 15/a c an b e d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he H D. W hereas s trong l ocal t raditions a re s een d uring t he f ull s pan o f t he u se o f t he c emetery i n t he o ther f unerary v essels, t he p ottery c f t he l ater b urial n o. 2 1 5/a d oes n ot f ollow t he B urgstall p ottery t raditions o f e arlier t imes. T he p arallels o f p ottery s herds f rom h ouse n o. 9 a nd g rave n o. 2 1 5/a a re w ith t he H ordkov c ulture ( Podborsky 1 974: 3 11). S ome s herds f rom t he e xcavation o f h ouse n o. 9 b elonged t o t he L T D h ouse a bove t he H allstatt p eriod s tructure ( Fig. 6 , 1 2-4).

T he c emetery a nd i ts c hronology F ollowing t he s urvey o f t he e arthwork s ystem a nd t he s ettlem ent, l et u s e xamine t he c emetery w hich i s c losely l inked t o t he s ettlement. V ery o ften t umuli ( though l ess f requently t umulus c emeteries) a re f ound w ith f ortified H allstatt s ettlements i n c ontrast t o s maller u nfortified s ettlements w hich u sually h ave f lat g rave c emeteries. T his c an b e c learly o bserved i n t he S opron r egion ( Fig. 1 ). U sually t here i s o nly o ne b urial b eneath t he t umuli a t S opron Burgstall. H owever , t here a re o ccasional d ual b urials, a nd s poradically a l ater b urial h as b een c ut i nto a n e arlier m ound. A ll g raves e xcavated u p t o n ow h ave y ielded c remation b urials ( brandbestattung) a t radition o riginating i n t he r ituals 1 2

o f t he U rnfield c ulture o f T ransdanubia. U rn b urial ( urnen Aber), s cattered a sh b urial ( brandschöttun s r öber), a nd t he b urial o c ollected b urnt b ones i n as mall p it r an g rubengröber) a re a ll f ound i n t he B urgstall c emetery. I t i s n ormal i n t his c emetery f or t he c alcinated b ones t o b e p laced i n av essel, u sually a l arge v essel w ith a h andle, a nd f or s ome o f t hem t o b e s cattered o n t he g round w ithin t he s ame g rave. M etal o bjects a re v ery r are i n t he g raves w hereas t he q uantity o f f unerary p ottery v aries. I t i s n ot p ossible t o d iscuss t he f inds i n d etail h ere, b ut e vidence f rom t he c emetery i s s ummarized i n t he t able ( Table 1 ). T his t able r epresents a s election o f t he g raves e xcavated i n t he 1 970s. T he c hronological l isting r eflects t he c hronology o f t he S opron Burgstall c emetery. T he R oman n umerals o n t he l eft o f t he t able m ark t he c hronological p hases o f t he c emetery. T he f irst n umber i n t he n ext c olumn o n t he l eft r ecords t he g rave n umber a ccording t o t he 1 980 m ap: t he s econd n umber g ives t he d ate o f i ts e xcavation. 5 T he t able s hows a ll t he g rave g oods r epresented. T he m ain p ottery t ypes: l arge v essels ( grossgef t iss), r ed p ainted v essels ( rotbemalte g eföss) a nd T onsitula , a re a ll r epresented i n t he s ame o rder w ithin e ach g rave: t hus s tarting f rom t he t op w ithin e ach c olumn t he r elative c hanges i n t he c hronological p hases c an b e r ead f or e ach t ype. T he r ight s ide o f t he t able s hows t he m etal a nd o ther g rave g oods. E ven a c ursory l ook a t t he t able s hows t hat t he t raditions a re s trictly r espected i n t he f irst p hase a nd s uch c hanges a s t here a re a re o nly i n d etail w ithin e ach t ype. T he s ame s tandard s hapes f ind t heir w ay t o t he g raves, l ike t he l arge c onical v essels , t he r ed c oated , o r r ed p ainted v essels. I t s eems t hat t he l arge p ot w ith o r w ithout h andle c eases t o e xist i n t he m ore r ecent g raves o f t he c emetery. E ach g rave y ielded t onsitulas e xcept g rave n o. 1 70 , w here t he c ustom o f b reaking s herds w as a dopted. T hroughout o ne c an f ind t he b owls w ith c ylindrical f ootrings t ogether w ith s imple a nd s mall-sized b owls. M easuring c ups w ith h andles s eem t o f ind t heir w ay i nto t he g raves a long w ith t he t ypical c onical-necked l arge v essels o f t he H allstatt c ulture. T he v essels o f t he g raves d ated t o t he e ighth c entury B .C. d o n ot y et s how t he t ypical ' Kalenderberg' d ecoration. T here a re o nly a v ery f ew m etal o bjects. T umulus N o. 8 1, o f p hase I , y ielded a b urnt , d eformed k nife ( urnenfeldermesser) l ying a way f rom t he p ottery, a t t he e dge o f t he g rave. G rave n o. 2 24 , o f p hase I II, c ontained a n e arly v ersion o f t he d ouble l ooped c urved b rooch ( zweischleifige) w ith a f ine e ngraved o rnamentation o n i ts c atch p late. T here w as f ragment o f af igured o rnamented u rn i n g rave n o. 1 70 ( Fig. 1 1, 1 2) o f p hase I V . G rave n o. 2 7 , e xcavated b y B ella, c ontained s imilar f igured u rns a nd a c losed i ron b racelet, q nd a n i ron h arp b rooch ( harfenfibel) ( Gallus 1 934 : 1 0; P atek 1 974/a : 5 5; 1 976 : 1 4-22 , 2 7-28; F rey 1 976). G rave n o. 1 31 y ielded a f ragment o f a n i ron h arp b rooch, a n i ron t orque, a nd a n i ron k nife. T he m etal f inds o f g rave n o. 7 3 b elonging t o t he n ext p eriod, i ncluded m ulti-knobbed p ins ( mehrknopfnadel) a nd i ron r ings o f p resumably h orse t rappings. A ll t he s herds f rom t his g rave c ould n ot b e s aved b ecause t hey w ere v ery p orous.

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T able 1 S opron-V6rhely ( Burgstall). G rave g oods o f t he e xcavation 1 971-1978 , p resented i n c hronological o rder 1 4

T he t aller k e rlhalsgef8ss, a p ottery s itula, a nd a g raphite v essel w ith r ich v ine a nd g eometric d ecoration w ere i ncluded a mong t he v essel f inds. T he m etal f inds o f t umulus n o. 2 15 , a ssigned t o p hase V I, w ere r epresented b y a n i ron k nife. T he l arger v essels o f t his g rave w ere t he m ore r ecent v ariations o f t he t all n ecked V örhely k egelhalsgef8ss w ith n o d ecoration. T en a lmost i dentical s uch v esser s w ere p laced i n t his g rave. T he g raphite p ainted r ed v essel o f t he s ame g rave s hows m eander d ecoration. T wo c eramic s itula, t hree s temmed p lates ( fuss schale), am ug w ith a h andle a nd t wo d ishes w ith p ulled-in r ims b elonged t o t his g rave a ssemblage. W hile , a s w e h ave s een, t he s ame s tandard t ypes w ere f ound t hroughout p hases I -VI o f t he c emetery, t he V IIth, a nd t he l ast p hase s hows n o t race o f ap revious p ottery c raft: m oreover n ew t ypes f ind t heir w ay i nto t he g raves. T he l ater g rave, n o. 2 15/a, l ying u nder t umulus n o. 2 15 c ontains t his n ew t ype o f p ottery. T he s mall v essels f ound h ere d iffer f rom t he v essel t ypes o f t he e arlier p hases i n t hat t hey d isplay n ew s hapes ( Fig. 1 3, 4 -6). T he v essels o f g rave 2 15/a a re i n av ery p oor c ondition. A s w e h ave s een a bove, s everal s imilarly s haped a nd d ecorated v essels c ome t o l ight i n h ouse n o. 9 : t hese a re b etter f ired a nd o f f iner w orkmanship ( Fig. 1 4 , 1 -7). T he s mall v essels f ound b oth i n t he m aterial o f t he s ettlement a nd t he c emetery s how t hat t here w as a s ignificant b reak i n t he p ottery c raft o f V drhely. S mall v essels w ith s harp s houlder a ngle a nd s traight o ut-turned r ims a re a lien t o t he i ndigenous p ottery t radition. T heir s urface i s d ecorated w ith Adchenverzierung. A s m entioned a bove , t hey r eflect t he p ottery o f t he H orakov c ulture. T he e arliest g raves t hrow l ight o n t he d evelopment o f t he H allstatt c ulture a t V drhely. I n g rave n o. 8 1, l ying u nder a l ow t umulus t he s tone a nd m etal f urnishings w ere a l ittle w ay a way f rom t he p ottery o n t he n orthern s ide i n g rave ( Fig. 9 ). T hey i ncluded a s tone a xe ( Fig. 9 , 6 ), t he f ragment o f a n u rnenfeldermesser ( Fig. 8 , 2 ; 9 , 1 1) a nd t wo b ronze o bjects o f u nknown f unction o f w hich o ne ( Fig. 8 , 1 ; 9 , 1 5) m ight h ave r epresented a h ilt f ragment o f as word. S tone t ools c ame t o l ight a t V drhely b oth i n g raves a nd f rom t he s ettlement m aterial f ound i n e arlier w ork ( BellaW iller 1 891: 1 74). T he f inely d ecorated k nife f ragment m ost c ertainly b elongs t o t he U rnfield c ulture a nd c an b e d ated t o t he H B 2 -3 p eriods. N evertheless a s ingle k nife f ragment d oes n ot p rovide s ufficient d ating e vidence f or t he g rave. L et u s l ook a t t he p ottery f inds a l ittle c loser. T he l arge v essel f rom t he g rave i s a n e arly v ersion o f t he d ouble c onical v essels ( kegelhalsurne) s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he y ounger g raves o f t he M aria R ast c emetery, a nd t here d ated t o t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod (M illerK arpe 1 959 : 1 21). T he u rn f rom g rave n o. 8 1 d oes n ot s how t hat s harp l ine a t t he j unction o f t he n eck a nd t he s houlder w hich c haracterizes t he e arly v ariations ( Fig. 9 , 1 3). T he s mall g lobular s haped v essel h as a c ollared n eck ( kragenhals) w ith r ed c oating o n t he s urface w ith o ccasional t races o f g raphite ( Fig. 9 , 2 ). N either t his s hape n or t he r ed c oating c an b e f ound i n t he m aterial c ulture o f t he U rnfield p eriod i n T ransdanubia. R ed c oating a nd g raphite p ainting, h owever , a re k nown i n t he R hine v alley a nd i n S witzerland d uring t he H B 1 5

p eriod. P arallels f or t he c ollared n ecked v essels l ead u s t o t he w est a s w ell. S imilar v essels , i n f orm a nd o rnamentation , a re k nown i n t he H B 2 -3 c ontexts i n t he P odol c ulture ( Podborsky 1 970 : f ig. 1 2 , 2 1). C ollared n ecked v essels c an b e f ound a t V drhely i n t he c emetery, w hile r ed p ainted g raphite o rnamented v essels h ave a lso b een f ound. T hese a re r ecorded o n t he t able i n c olumn 2 . T he h andled m ug s hown i n t he n ext c olumn o f t he t able a lso b elongs t o t he s tandard t ypes o f t he c emetery. O nly o ne o f s uch v essels p reserved a h andle i n g rave n o. 8 1 ( Fig. 9 , 5 ), t he o ther v essel i s v ery f ragmentary, t he t hird h ad n o h andle ( Figs. 9 , 1 ; 8 ). P arallels f or F ig. 9 , 5a re k nown f rom s outh T ransdanubia f rom R eg8ly ( Köszegi 1 960 : T . 8 5 , 4 ), a nd f rom D alj ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 : X XXVII.t.1). P ottery s itulae c opying b ronze s itulae o f t he U rnfield c ulture a re c ommon i n I taly i n t he e ighth c entury B .C . ( Frey 1 969 : 1 .1, 2 4 , E ste , c ontrada M orlungo, g rave X III). T he p ottery s itulae f rom g rave n o. 8 1 o f V örhely i s a n e arly v ersion ( Fig. 9 , 1 2). T he s temmed p lates ( fuss schale) r ecur i n t he f urnishings i n t he V örhely g raves. V ersions w ith s played o ut r ims w ere f ound i n g raves n o. 8 1 a nd 8 3 ( Fig. 9 , 3 ,4 ,7 ; 1 0 , 6 -9 , 1 1). T hese s temmed p lates w ere c ommon i n b oth t he l ower D anube a rea a nd i n I taly i n t he e ighth c entury B .C , ( Hansel 1 976 : t . I X.2; V inski a nd G asparini 1 973: t . 1 17 , 4 ,6). S imilar v essels o f t he U rnfield c ulture i n T ransdanubia d iffer f rom t he S opron s temmed p lates ( Patek 1 968: 1 00). V essels w ith p ulled i n r ims a re a lso p laced i n t he g raves a t S opron. O ne o f t hese, i n g rave n o. 8 1, i s d ecorated w ith s hort v ertical g rooves a t t he r im a nd i s p artly c oated w ith g raphite ( Fig. 9 , 9 ). G rave n o. 8 3 ( Table 1 ) f its c losely c hronologically , t o g rave n o. 8 1. T he l arge v essel f rom t his g rave a lready d emonstrates t he s harp a ngle a t t he j unction o f t he s houlder a nd t he n eck. T he u pper p art o f t he v essel, h owever , i s l ower a nd m ore s turdy, s howing a d ivergence f rom t he t aller s limmer s hapes o f t he e arlier v ersions. T he n eck o f o ne o f t he u rns i s d ecorated w ith a s chematic h uman r epresentation ( Patek 1 976: F ig. 6 , 1 ). T he h andled j ug f rom g rave n o. 8 3 ( Fig. 1 0 , 5 ) d oes n ot b elong t o t he a ssemblage o f H allstatt p ottery b ut i s ac ommon t ype i n t he M aria R ast c emetery o f t he U rnfield c ulture a nd c an b e d ated t o t he e nd o f t he H B ( Müller-Karpe 1 959 : 1 19). O nly t his o ne j ug i s k nown f rom V örhely. S ummarizing t he p ottery f rom t umuli n o. 8 1 a nd 8 3 o f V drhely a nd t he k nife f ragment o f g rave n o. 8 1 ( Fig. 8 , 1 -3; F ig. 9 ) w e m ust a llow a d ating w ithin t he b racket H B t o t he e ighth c entury B .C. A ccordingly t hese g raves c an b e p aralleled a t V illach ( Müller-Karpe 1 953: 1 71); G leinst8tten; K leinklein ( Müller-Karpe 1 955 : 28/1 ) ; P odzemeli ( Gabrovec 1 966 : 2 , F ig. 1 ); G erm , 1 /20 ( Barth 1 969 : 6 6-67 ) e tc. ( Gabrovec 1 966 : 9 ; K aus 1 978 ,779 : 5 4). T he l ater g roups o f t he V drhely c emetery w ill n ot b e 1 6

d iscussed i n d etail h ere: w e s hall o nly d eal w ith t he d evelopm ent o f t he H allstatt c ulture. A s w e h ave s een, t he V drhely c emetery s hows a c ontinuous d evelopment f rom t he H B p eriod t o t he b eginning o f t he H D. A ccording t o o ur p resent u nderstanding t he c ulture e nds d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he H D a nd o ccupation d oes n ot b egin a gain u ntil t he e nd o f t he L a T ene p eriod ( LT D ). T here a re e xtensive s igns o f o ccupation f rom l ate L a T ene t imes a nd s cattered s igns f rom t he e arly R oman p eriod. A lthough t he V e lrhely s ite w ould n ot h ave b een o f i mportance d uring R oman t imes, t he c ore o f S opron, S carabantia, l ocated i n t he l owland r egion b ecame a n i mportant u rban c entre. L ife, h owever , d id n ot c omp letely c ease i n t he m ountains. T his m uch i s s hown b y R oman s herds a nd a R oman o il j ug f rom t he a rea o f t he s ettlement e xcavated b y B ella ( Bella a nd M üller 1 891: 1 71). T here a re n o l ater f inds k nown f rom t he s ettlement. F urther i nvestigations n eed t o e xamine t he q uestion o f t he o ccupation o f t he V drhely s ettlement d uring t he H B p eriod. I t c an b e a ssumed, b ased o nly o n s cattered f inds, t hat s ome o f t he o ther n earby s ettlements b egan s ome l ife i n t he H B p eriod. T he z weischleifige b ogenfibel f rom W arischberg h ill-fort ( Bella a nd M üller 1 891: t . V II .9), a nd t he s urface f inds c ollected f rom t he G arasos F orest ( Pfenningwald) ( Bella 1 909 : 1 81-186; S torno 1 942: 1 44-150) s how t hat w e m ust c onsider t he p ossibility t hat o ther l ocations i n t he S opron m ountains w ere o ccupied d uring t he t ransition b etween t he U rnfield c ulture a nd t he H allstatt p eriod. T here i s n o s atisfactory a nswer y et a s t o w hat e ncouraged t he i nhabitants o f S opron-Vdrhely t o s ettle h ere i n a f ormerly u ninhabited a rea, a nd w hat h istorical f actors i nfluenced t he b eginning o f b urial o n t he s ite o f t he H allstatt c emetery d uring t he H B p eriod o r i n t he e ighth c entury B .C. S o l ong a s t hese q uestions r emain u nanswered a ll w e c an d o i s t o l ist d ata w hich m ight r elate t o t he p roblems p osed.

T he g eographical e nvironment a nd t he n ature o f t he s ites o f t he H allstatt g roup a round S opron I t h as a lready b een s aid t hat t he u pland s ettlements o f t he S opron m ountains a nd t he s maller s ettlements i n t he p lains ( Balf , K rautacker , F ertördkos e tc.) a nd a t t he f oot o f t he m ount ains a re p art o f au nified H allstatt s ettlement p attern ( Patek 1 976 : 2 4-26 , 2 8). W ithin t he a rea a round S opron t he g eological, c limatological, a nd s oil c onditions d iffer c onsiderably f rom t hose o f t he h ighland s ettlements. T he s ettlements i n t he e astern p art o f t he S opron m ountains a re l ocated o n m etamorphosed s hale. T he o riginal n atural v egetation c over w as d ense f orest b ut h igh p recipitation i n t his a rea h as p odsolized t he f orest s oil. I n t he w hole o f H ungary t his i s t he p oorest i n s unshine a nd r ichest i n p recipitation. A nnual p recipit ation i s b etween 8 00 a nd 1 000 m m w hile t he t otal h eat o f t he S opron m ountain b etween A pril a nd S eptember i s u nder 2 .900 ° ( Bulb a1 91). T he S opron m ountain r egion w as l isted a s c ategory 1 7

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S opron—V6rhely ( Burgstall), p ottery f rom g rave 8 3/1971 2 0

s election o f

F ig.

1 1

S opron-Ve irhely ( Burgstall), g rave 1 70/1973

p ottPry f rom

K ÄNv

F ig, 1 3

S opron-V6rhely B urgstall), p ottery f rom t he s ettlement 1 -3: h ouse 9 ) a nd c emetery ( 4-6: g rave 2 15/a/1975)

2 3

9

1 3

2 0

1 6

F ig. 1 4

1 9

S opron-V6rhely ( Burgstall), p ottery f rom h ouse 9

2 4

F ig. 1 5

S opron-Vdrhely ( Burgstall).

B rooch f rom h ouse 9

a nd a eolian s oils d eposited d uring t he s inking o f t he S opron b asin. T he a nnual p recipitation i n t he B alf a nd S opron a rea r anges f rom b etween 6 00 a nd 7 00 m m a nd t he t otal h eat f rom A pril t o S eptember a mounts t o 2 ,900 t o 3 ,000 ° . T his r egion w as p laced i n c ategories I V , Va nd V I b y t he s oil c lassification o f 1 974. A gricultural c onditions m ust, a ccordingly, h ave b een m uch m ore f avourable t han t hose i mmediately a vailable t o t he h ill-fort s ettlements. T he f act t hat t here m ight h ave b een s ettlements h ere p rior t o t he H allstatt p eriod o r e ven p rior t o t he H B p eriod m ay b e r elevant e ven i f t he e arlier p opulation w as n ot d ense. I n e xamining t he r easons f or t he e mergence o f t he h illf ort s ettlements, w e c annot e xclude t he p ossibility t hat i ron o re s ources m ight h ave b een k nown i n t he i mmediate v icinity. T his w orking h ypothesis i s b ased o n:

1 .

G eological e xplorations; b orings d iscovered s mall a mounts o f i ron a nd m anganese n odules o n t he s urface o f t he B alf h illside a rea, f urthermore b og i ron o ccurs n ear L ake F ertö .

2 .

I n m edieval H ungary, d uring t he t enth a nd t welfth c enturies, i ron f oundries c oncentrated i n t he n eighbourhood o f S opron a nd S zombathely: t hree o f t hese w ere s ited i n t he a rea o f p resent d ay S opron ( G8m8ri 1 977).

3 .

R esearch c arried o ut i n n eighbouring c entral a nd s outhern B urgenland h as c onclusively s hown t hat i ron f oundries e xisted d uring t he l ate L a T ene p eriod. I t i s p ossible t hat s ome m ay d ate b ack t o t he H allstatt p eriod ( Ohrenberger a nd B ielenin 1 969; B ielenin 1 977 ; K aus 1 977).

T he H allstatt s ettlements n ear S opron a re f avourably l ocated i n r elation t o c ommunication n etworks. T he u pland f ortified s ettlement o f V örhely o verlooks t he w hole a rea b elow t he m ountain a s f ar a s L ake F ertö w hile t he s o-called ' amber r oute' - t he R oman r oad l eading t hrough S carabantia ( Sopron) h as b een e xcavated a t s everal p oints ( Pöczy 1 971: 9 3-110). A n i mportant t rack m ay h ave p assed t his w ay i n p rehistoric t imes t aking t he s ame r oute a s t he R oman r oad w here i t p assed t hrough t he n arrow s trip o f l and b etween t he h ill-fort a nd L ake F ertö . I t c an a lso b e s upposed t hat t he l ords o f t he h ill-forts m ay h ave o btained r egular f inancial g ain f rom t rade p assing t hrough t heir t erritories a long t hese r outes. P roof o f t his i s n ot f orthcoming a nd f uture s peculations a re p remature.

2 5

A cknowledgements I n t he H ungarian H allstatt p eriod t he f inds f rom s ettlements i n t he n eighbourhood o f S opron c onstitute a d istinct c ultural g roup w hich d iffers s ignificantly i n c haracter f rom W estern H ungarian ( Transdanubian) g roups b ut a re r elated t o t he H allstatt c ulture o f t he E astern A lps. A mong t he H allstatt s ites i n t he r egion o f S opron, t he S opron Burgstall s ettlement a ppears t o b e t he m ost i mportant. N ot o nly w as t he h ill-fort , a nd t he t umulus c emetery b elonging t o i t, o ccupied i n t he H allstatt p hase b ut t he s ettlement c an b e s hown t o h ave b een r eoccupied i n t he L T D p eriod. P rompted b y a s uggestion o f m ine i n 1 971, t he A rchaeological I nstitute o f t he H ungarian A cademy o f S ciences p lanned a t rial e xcavation o n t he s ite a nd e ntrusted m e t o p erform t he w ork. H owever , t he A rchaeological I nstitute c ould s upply o nly p art o f t he f inancial c osts a nd e quipment, a nd t hus o nly a l imited a mount o f t he t echnical w ork c ould b e u ndertaken w ithin t he f acilities p rovided b y t he I nstitute. I n s pite o f t his, i n t he l ast s even y ears ( in 1 972 t here w as n o e xcavation) e xcavations w ere c arried o ut f or f our t o s even w eeks a nnually l argely b ecause o f t he h elp o f o ther i nstitutes a nd o ffices. T he m ost e ffective h elp w as g iven b y v arious o rganizations i n t he S opron r egion, i ncluding t he S opron M ountainary B oard o f W oods a nd F orests, t he d ifferent d epartments o f S opron U niversity f or F orestry a nd t he T imber I ndustry, t he S opron F rontier-Guards, t he T ourist O ffice i n S opron a nd t he S opron T axi F irm. T he g reater p art o f t he f inance w as s upplied b y t he W est T ransdanubian E xecutive C ommittee. T o o verc ome p roblems o ccurring d uring t he e xcavations m any S oproners a lso h elped m e -p rofessors, t eachers, u ndergraduates, t axi d rivers, h ousewives, e tc. T he f act t hat a s urfaced r oad w as b uilt t hrough t he f orest t o t he s ite o f t he e xcavation, t wo s mall t imber h ouses w ere e rected, a nd t he F rontier-Guards c onstructed a w ater s upply t o t he w ork-camp d emonstrates h ow i nterested i n t heir h istorical p ast a re t he p eople o f S opron. T he S tate G eological I nstitute a nd i ts S opron b ranch p ut t he m ost r ecent r esearch r esults a t m y d isposal. Ie xpress m y t hanks t o P rofessor A ttila B enedek ( Sopron, U niversity f or F orestry a nd T imber I ndustry) f or t he w ood d eterminations, a nd t o M r. S ändor B 8k8nyi ( Arch. I nst. o f t he H ungarian A cademy o f S cience) f or t he i dentification o f a nimal b ones. D uring t he e xcavation I w as g iven m uch s upport b y O tto T rogmayer , d irector o f t he F . M c ira M useum , S zeged. H e a nd o ther c olleagues i n t he S zeged M useum a lso m ade e xperimental b orings i n t he r amparts. Ia m i ndebted t o t he w orks hop o f t he S zeged M useum f or t he r estoration o f m aterial f rom t umulus N o. 8 1. Io ffer m y s incere t hanks t o a ll o f t hem. E xcept f or t umulus N o. 8 1 t he f inds o f t he e xcavations w ere r estored b y t he w orkshop o f o ur I nstitute ( Miss L . G lattfelder, M iss K . H orusitzky, M iss g . S omlösi a nd M rs. A . Z amadits). A cknowledgem ents a re d ue t o t hem f or t heir w ork a nd f or t heir s pecial c are a nd e xpertise w hen, e ven i n s eemingly h opeless c ases, t hey f itted t he s mall b roken f ragments t ogether a nd c ompleted t he v essels. Ia lso o we t hanks t o M r. Ä goston D ekäny, M rs. M .D. L acza a nd t he T echnical D epartment o f o ur I nstitute ( Mr. E ndre E gyed, M rs. M .D. W olszky, M rs. G . S zathmdry a nd M r. M . S ajti) f or t he i llustration o f t he f inds. T he G eodesic D epartment o f t he S opron U niversity 2 6

m ade t he g eodesic s urvey o f t he s ite. T he d etailed s urvey a nd t he h achured m apping o f t he p rehistoric f eatures ( ramparts, d itches, t umuli) w as d one b y D r. G yula S z c ideczky-Kardoss ( scientific h ead o f t he G eophysical a nd G eodesic I nstitute o f t he H ungarian A cademy o f S ciences i n S opron) w ith t he a id o f M r. G enes V irc igh ( Arch. I nst. o f t he H ungarian A cademy o f S cience). C artog raphy w as u ndertaken b y M r. Ä goston D eköny, d esigner , a s w ell a s b y M r. E rnö N agy, c artographer a nd M rs. A . M erenyi ( both o f t he l atter a re w orkers i n o ur I nstitute). Io ffer m any t hanks t o t hem. T he m ap, i n i ts f inal f orm i s u nder e laboration n ow. I n d etermining t he t opography a nd e valuating t he r ampart s ections I h ave l earnt m uch f rom P rofessor H .O . F rey ( Mahrburg a n L ahn) w ho, a nnually, s pent d ays o n t he s ite a nd h ad g iven m e v aluable s upport. It ake t his o pportunity t o e xpress m y h eartfelt t hanks t o h im. F or t he s urveying o f t he s ite I w as g iven m uch h elp b y m y c olleagues: f irst o f a ll I h ave t o t hank M r. G yula N ov c iki a nd M r . Arms M akkay, a s w ell a s M r. J uan C abello, M r, I stvdn T orma, M r. P 61 R aczky a nd M r. I stv c in E csedy. M rs. E . J erem, M rs. K . W olldk a nd M rs. E . M arton a lso p articipated i n t he e xcavation f or a s horter t ime. It hank t hem f or t heir e fforts. I n a lmost e very y ear e xperts o f t he n eighbouring E isenstadt M useum, i n A ustria, h eaded b y M r. A . O hrenberger s pent a f ew d ays o n o ur e xcavation. M r. A . O hrenberger h as g iven m e v aluable a dvice , h as u ndertaken t he r adio-carbon d ating o f t he w ood , a nd h as a lso m ade i t p ossible f or m e t o s tudy t he H allstatt m aterial i n t he E isenstadt M useum a s w ell a s t he o ld w ritten r ecords r eferring t o S opron Burgstall. T hanks a re d ue t o h im f or h is e xtensive s upport. Ih ad m any p rofessional c onsultations w ith M r. K . K aus. O n t he i nterpretation o f t he f inds o f t he U rnfield p eriod o f S opron Burgstall m y c onsultations w ith M rs. M . S tiohschneider p roved t o b e m ost u seful ( both o f t hem a re f rom t he L andesmuseum o f E isenstadt). F or v ery h elpful d iscussions o f t he p roblems I h ave t o t hank t hem b oth. M r. H . M elichar ( Wien, N aturhistorisches M useum) v isited t he e xcavation s everal t imes a nd g ave m e h elp f or w hich I t hank h im. Io ffer a p articular g ratitude t o P rofessor G . K ossack ( Munich) f or d iscussions o n t he i nterpretation o f t he f inds, p articularly t heir c hronological s ignificance. H e p rovided t he i mpetus a nd s upport f or m e t o a pproach t he S tate G eological I nstitute, a nd i ts b ranch a t S opron, t o a cquire t he g eological d ata s o i mportant f or s ettlement h istory r esearch. F inally l et m e e xpress m y g ratitude t o P rofessor B . C unliffe ( Oxford U niversity) f or v isiting t he e xcavation a nd m aking i t p ossible f or m e t o p ublish t his s tudy i n t he B .A.R. s eries. T his p aper c an g ive o nly a p reliminary a ccount o f t he r ecent e xcavations a t S opron Burgstall s ince t he f ull s tudy o f t he n ew f inds h as n ot b een c ompleted n or h as t he n ew m ap o f t he s ite b een f inalized. I n t he s ection t o f ollow I w ill a ttempt a b rief s urvey o f f inds f rom o ther p arts o f H ungary f rom t he p eriod d irectly p receding t he e mergence o f t he S opron Burgstall s ettlement. 2 7

I I.

T HE S ECOND R ALF O F T HE H B P ERIOD ( HB 2 -3) I N E ASTERN H UNGARY A ND T RANSDANUBIA

I n o rder t o t hrow l ight o n t he b ackground t o t he H allstatt c ulture w hich d eveloped i n t he S opron m ountains, t he g eneral s ituation i n H ungary i n t he e ighth c entury B .C . m ust b e c larified. T he e ighth c entury B .C. w as a t ime o f g reat c hange i n t he C arpathian B asin, m oreover n ot o nly i s t here a s ignificant d iffere nce b etween t he a rchaeological r ecord o f e astern a nd w estern H ungary b ut e ven i n T ransdanubia t here a re r egional v ariations b oth i n s ettlement p attern a nd i n m aterial c ulture. T he d ifference b etween e astern a nd w estern H ungary ( western H ungary b eing c alled T ransdanubia) c an b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat s everal d ifferent c ultures e xisted i n t he c ountry i n t he p receding p eriods. T he U rnfield c ulture d ominated T ransd anubia w hereas i n e astern H ungary t his U rnfield c ulture, i n t he a rea o f t he G e lva a nd K yjatice c ultures , a ppears o nly s poradically , i ntermixed w ith t he l ocal t raditions a s f or e xample a t C sorva ( Kemenczei 1 970: 1 7 ; 1 971: 3 1; T rogmayer 1 963: 8 5). A s i n e arlier t imes, t he D anube m arked a d istinct b oundary b etween t he e astern a nd w estern p art o f t he c ountry d uring t he e ighth c entury B .C. T he D anube a lso s eparated c ultures i n t he l ater p eriods : t he b order o f t he R oman E mpire , t he l imes o f P annonia, w as a lso t he D a rwi ,e. T he s ettlement p attern a nd e conomy o f t he a reas e ast a nd w est o f t he D anube d iffered s o m uch t hat i t e ven s nowed i n l ater t imes w hen t hese t wo a reas w ere u nited i n t he s ame p olitical f ramework. T he i nitiators o f t he h istoric c hanges o ccurring i n e astern H ungary d uring t he e ighth c entury B .C. w ere e thnic g roups m oving i n f rom t he e ast. T he m aterial c ulture o f s ome o f t hese e astern g roups p enetrated t he H allstatt U rnfield c ultures o ver l arge a reas o f E urope. T he n ame u sually g iven t o t hem i s T hraco-Cimmerians , o r p re-Scythians ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 ; H armatta 1 946-48; K ossack 1 954; F oltiny 1 962; P odborsky 1 970; T erenozkin 1 976; G abrovec 1 980). E astern H ungary I t w as n ot o nly t he m aterial c ulture o f t his g roup w hich r eached t he G reat H ungarian P lain b ut a ctual p eople , f or t here a re d istinct t races o f t he i mmigration o f e thnic g roups o f e astern o rigin. T his c onclusion i s r eached f rom t he s tudy o f t he c . 1 50 g raves e xcavated i n s eventeen d ifferent c emeteries i n t . g e G reat P lain d uring t he p ast t wenty y ears ( Fig. 2 1). T hese a re c alled t he M ezöcsdt-type c emeteries a fter t he f irst 2 8

a nd m ost f ully e xcavated c emetery ( Patek 1 966-67 : 1 01; 1 968 : 1 13, 1 17; 1 974 : 3 57). O ne a spect o f t his f ind-horizon i s r epresented b y t he w ell k nown a nd d istinctive m etal f inds a nd h orse t rappings ( Gallus a nd H orv c ith 1 939; H armatta 1 946-48 : 7 9), s howing e astern p arallels. T hat t he h orse t rappings o f e astern a ntecedents, p ublished b y G allus a nd H orvdth a nd r e-evaluated l ater b y H armatta , a re p art o f t he s ame h orizon a s t he M ezöcsdtt ype c emeteries i s c learly d emonstrated b y t he h orse t rappings f rom F Uzesabony. T hese w ere f ound i n a n i nhumation g rave i n a n a rea e xcavated b y J . S zabö i n 1 960 i n w hich t he g raves c ould b e s hown t o b elong t o t he M ezö csdt-type c emeteries ( Szabö 1 969: 7 2-77 ; 1 24-128). A b rief c haracterization o f t he M ezö csdt c emeteries w ill n ow b e g iven. I ncluding t he g raves d estroyed b efore e xcavation, t here w ere a bout 5 5 g raves i n t he M ezö csdt c emetery. W hile c remation b urials w ere c ommon i n t he p revious e ra i n t he H ungarian P lain, i nhumation b urial d ominates t his c emetery j ust l ike t he o thers o f s imilar t ype. T he f ew e xcavated c remation g raves i n t he a rea o f t he M ezö csdt c emetery m ost l ikely b elonged t o t he H A s ettlement s ome 8 00 m a way. T he f act t hat t he c remation g roves m ust b e d ated t o a n e arlier p eriod i s s uggested b y t he r elative p osition o f g raves 4 4 a nd 4 5: i nhumation g rove n o. 4 4 e vidently c ut i nto c remation g rove n o. 4 5. T he d ead w ere u sually l aid o n t heir b acks i n a n e xtended p osition: h owever s ome c ontracted b urials w ere a lso d emonstrated. T he M ezc i csc it g raves r egularly y ielded l arge q uantities o f a nimal o fferings ( cattle, s heep, g oat , p ig). A w ild g oose e gg w as p laced i n a b owl n ear a n e leven y ear o ld c hild. P ottery g rave g oods g enerally i ncluded a l arge v essel a nd a m ug, b ut i n o ne c ase t wo l arge v essels w ere f ound i n t he g rave a nd s ometimes t here w ere t wo s maller v essels i ncluding a s mall b owl p laced n ear t he m ug. P olished, o ften e ngraved , b one p lates a re c haracteristic f inds i n t he M ezö csdt-type c emeteries. P lates o f t his k ind w ere f ound i n 1 5% o f t he g raves a t M ezö csöt b ut t heir f unction i s u nknown ( Patek 1 974: T . V III. 1 -4). A mong t he m etal f inds t he i ron o bjects a re s ignificant. T hese w ere m ostly i ron b racelets a nd i ron b eads b ut , o ccasionally, t here w ere i ron h orse b reastp lates a nd b its a long w ith i ron c lods. A t D oboz, p ossibly s erving a s a s ymbol o f p restige t here w as a n a xe-adze ( Gazdapusztai 1 964-65: 5 9-64). B ronze h air r ings, r inglets, s piral t ubes, a nd m etal b uttons w ere a lso i ncluded a mong t he g rave g oods a nd a b ronze h orse b it p air c ame t o l ight i n g rave n o. 3 a t F Uzesabony ( Gallus a nd H orv c ith 1 939 : t . I I. 1 -2). H orse t rappings a re a lso k nown f rom M ezöcsdt: f rom g rave 5 2 , a n i ron m undst l ick ( Fig. 1 7 , 2 1), a nd f rom g rave 9 4 , i ron p halerae ( Fig. 1 7 , 4 5 ,46). T here a re s mall g old, a mber , a nd g lass p aste b eads a mong t he j ewellery. P endent-like w hetstones a nd c hipped f lint i mplements a re f requently f ound. S ome o f t he g rave p ottery c an b e p aralleled i n t he G dva a nd K yjatice c ultures, i ndigenous t o t he H ungarian P lain ( Fig. 1 7 , 2 4 ,32 ,33). O n o ther g rave v essels t he i nfluence o f c ultures e ast a nd s outh o f t he C arpathians c an b e d etected.

2 9

T hese p l iffer i n v essel f orm a nd d ecorati v e mo de s s tyles ( Fig. 1 6 , 3 ,4 ,8; 1 7 , 2 ,7 ,14 ,15 ,41,42).

fr om

t h e lo ca l

T he p ottery v essels p rovide e vidence o f t he c onnections o f t he p eoples u sing t he c emeteries. P arallels f or t he f requent h ohlbuckel o rnamentation o f e mbossed k nobs ( Fig. 1 6 , 3 ; 1 7 , 4 2) c an b e r ound i n t he c entral D on r egion d ating t o b efore t he S cythian K urgans ( Liberov 1 960: 1 62), i n M olodova, d ating t o t he e ighth t o t he s ixth c enturies B .C. ( Lapusnyin 1 968/69 : 8 8) a nd i n e astern S lovakia w here t hey c an b e d ated t o t he E ste I I p eriod ( Pleinerova a nd O lmerova 1 958 : 1 09). T he r elief-like v ertical d ecoration ( leistenverzierung) ( Fig. 1 6 , 4 ) i s f ound o n g rave v essels i n t he i nhumation c emetery o f S toicani i n s outhern M olodova ( Petrescu-Dimbovita 1 953: P l. 1 0 , 4 5). T he c haracterist ic v essel s hape o f F ig. 1 7 , 1 4 ,15 i s k nown f rom C arevbrod-Endze ( Cicikova 1 968 : f ig. 1 4), b ut i t c an a lso b e f ound i n S oldanesti ( Meljukova 1 958: 2 0 , f ig. 1 , 2 ), w hile t he v ery c haracteristic m ug t ypes o f t he M ezö csdt c emetery, w hich w ere s ometimes d ecorated w ith s tamped o rnamentation ( Fig. 1 6 , 8a nd 1 7 , 8 ) a re p aralleled, a mong o thers, i n t he e ighth c entury m aterial o f B abadag ( Morintz 1 964 : 1 06 , f ig. 5 , 1 ), a t B oian ( Nestor 1 932: t . 1 5), a t B alta V erde ( Berciu-Comsa 1 956: 5 9 , f igs. 1 , 9 6 , 3 , 1 12, 2 ; 1 54 , 3 ; 1 74 , 5 ) a nd a mong t he n inth t o s eventh c entury B .C . f inds a t T rojanovo o f W olhynia ( Smaglij 1 960: 1 54 , f ig. 1 , 3 ). T he f requently r epeated g arlanded o rnament o f t he M ezö csdt g rave p ottery ( Fig. 1 6 , 8 ) i s i ndigenous i n t he B asarabi c ulture a nd r ecurs f requently i n t he e ighth c entury i n N orthern B ulgaria ( H t insel 1 976: 1 80 , t . 6 1, 1 1, t . 6 6 , 4 ). I t h as b een n oted e arlier t hat t he p arallels o f t he M ezö csdt g rave v essels f rom t he e astern a nd s outh-eastern r egions c an a ll b e d ated t o t he e ighth c entury BC. G rave p ottery o f t his t ype i s a lso f ound i n n orthern I taly, i n t he s outh-eastern A lps, a nd i n t he D rave a rea w here , a ccording t o t he n orth I talian a nd s outh-eastern A lpine c hronologies, i t c an a lso b e d ated t o t he e ighth c entury B .C. V essel p arallels t o F ig. 1 6 , 9a nd F ig. 1 7 , 5 5 c an b e f ound i n p eriod I I/b o f L jubljana ( Gabrovec 1 973: 3 72, T abelle 1 ) a nd i n t he e arly p hase o f E ste I I ( Frey 1 969: t . 1 , 1 3; t . 2 , 7 ). M ugs l ike F ig. 1 6, 5 a nd F ig. 1 7 , 3 0 c an b e f ound a t t he s ites o f B atina, D alj, B asarabi, a nd i n t he e arly p hases o f M arie R ast a nd E ste I I ( Müller-Karpe 1 959: t . 1 08 , P .2; t . 1 15 , C .8; F rey 1 969 : t . 1 , 2 3). M ugs l ike t hose w ith t wo h andles i n t he M ezö csdt g raves ( Fig. 1 7 , 2 5) c an a lso b e d ated t o t he e ighth c entury B .C. T he p ottery t ypes d iscussed i n d etail a bove c annot b e f ound i n t he l arge c emeteries o f t he T ransdanubian U rnfield c ult ure w hich w ere i n u se u p t o t he m iddle o f t he H B p eriod. S ome o f t he t ypes n oted, h owever , c an b e f ound s poradically a t o ther s ites i n T ransdanubia, d ating t o t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod , m ainly i n t he s outh-eastern r egion a nd a t t he c onvenient c rossing p oints o f t he D anube ( Fig. 1 8 , E , 2 ; F ; I , 1 .2; L , 1 .2; F ig. 1 9 , E , 2 ; F , 2 .3). W e h ave a lready n oted t hat i ron o bjects ( bracelets a nd b eads) w ere f ound a long w ith t he M ezö csdt p ottery d iscussed a bove ( Fig. 1 6 , 7 ; 1 7 , 3 ,4 ,10 ,11,19-21,29 ,45 ,46). S imilar i ron o bjects a re c haracteristic o f t he H C p eriod i n C entral E urope. H owever ,

3 0

F ig. 1 6

G rave g oods o f t he M ezö csc it g roup. 1 -4 : Ä roktö-Dongöhalom , g rave 8 ; 5 -7 : Ä roktö D ongöhalom , g rave 4 ; 8 -9 : d roktö-Pejpuszta, g rave 2 6

H B p eriod a ssemblages s poradically y ield t hem a s w ell ( Rieth 1 942: 1 0; K immig 1 965 : 2 44; P odborsky 1 970 : 1 73-184; G abrovec 1 973: 3 71; 1 975: 5 98; 1 980: 4 1-42). T he a ssociated g rave p ottery i ndicates t hat t he M ezöcsöt i ron g rave g oods b elong t o t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod; t hat i s t o t he e ighth c entury B .C. A t p resent e vidence d oes n ot a llow u s t o a ssume t he l ocal m anufacture o f t he i ron o bjects i n t he M ezö csöt g roup. I t c an b e s upposed , h owever , t hat t he p eople o f t hese c emeteries b rought t heir j ewellery a nd i mplements w ith t hem f rom t heir n ative l ands i n t he e ast. T he d ominance o f t he G c lva a nd K yjatice c ultures i n t he H ungarian P lain w as b rought t o a n e nd b y t he p eople o f t he M ezö csc it-type c emeteries: t hus t he e volution o f t he e arly I ron A ge b egins , i n t he H ungarian P lain, w ith t he M ezö csc it-type c emeteries. T he c hronology o f t he M ezö csc it g roup c orresponds t o p eriods M aria R ast I I a nd I II ( according t o M uller-Karpe), t o p eriods L jubljana I I/a d nd I Z/b ( according t o G abrovec) a nd t o e arly E ste I I ( according t o F rey). T he y ounger g raves b elong t o M iddle E uropean H C1 ( according t o K ossack). N ew f orms o f a rtefacts o ccur i n t he M ezö csc it-type g raves w hich s uggest b urial r ites d iffering f rom t he l ocal t raditions. T hese f inds i ndicate e astern-southeastern r elationships. N o e vidence w as f ound t o s upport t he a ssumption t hat t he u sers o f t hese c emeteries w ere e ither T hracians o r C immerians. I n m y o pinion h owever , t hese b urials m ay w ell b e a ssociated w ith a n a nonymous g roup o f p eople w hich c ame f rom a n e astern o r s outhe astern d irection a nd m ingled w ith t he l ocal p opulation.

3 1

G e i 43 0 0

0

0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0

0 000 4 4 0 0

F ig. 1 7

0

G rave g oods o f t he M ezö csät g roup. 1 -47 : M ezöcsät ( 1-9 : g rove 4 4; 1 0-14 : g rave 6 3; 1 5-18 : g rave 5 5; 1 9-23: g rave 5 2; 2 4-28: g rave 3 5; 2 9-31: g rave 3 1; 3 2-33: g rave 2 7 ; 3 4-41: g rave 9 3; 4 2-47 : g rave 9 4) a nd n izesabony 4 8-55: g rave 3 3 2

T ransdanubia

L et u s e xamine t he s ituation i n T ransdanubia i n t he e ighth c entury B .C. P rior t o t his t ime t he m ajority o f t he U rnfield c ulture f inds c ame f rom c emeteries o f m any g raves w hich w ere c ontinuously u sed f rom t he m iddle o f H A t o t he m iddle o f H B. T hese l arge c emeteries i nclude N eszmely, S zentendre , A dony, a nd V öl ( Patek 1 961: 3 3; T ompa 1 942: 1 02; t . X V-XVII; P etres 1 960: 1 7; P atek 1 968: 7 5, t . C XXI-CXXIX; 1 18-121, t . C XXXIC XXXIII). I n t he m iddle o f H B t hey c ease t o e xist a nd d o n ot s urvive i n u se i nto t he e ighth c entury B .C. T he l atest g rave a t N eszmely f or i nstance ( Fig. 1 8 , D , 1 -3) i s ag rave c ontaining a n a ssemblage w ith a v ase h eaded p in ( grossk l ipfige v asenknopfnadel) ( Patek 1 961: t .V , 1 , 7 , 9 , 1 0). H owever , b earing i n m ind t he l ack o f r esearch a nd t he l ack o f m etal f inds - m etal w hich c an b e m uch b etter d ated t han p ottery - w e c annot e xclude t he p ossibility t hat s ome o f t he g raves o f t hese l arge c emeteries m ay h ave e xisted i nto t he b eginning o f t he e ighth c entury B .C. Y et i t i s a f act t hat t he e arlier l arge c emeteries c ease t o e xist a t t he m iddle o f t he H B a nd t he c haracteristic o bjects o f H B 3 a re n ot f ound. T his d oes n ot m ean h owever t hat t he f inds o f t he s econd h alf o f H B ( end o f H B 2a nd H B 3 ) a re m issing i n T ransdanubia. M aterial o f t his p eriod c an b e f ound i n t hree c ontexts: a ) H igh-plateau s ettlem ents c ontinuously i nhabited; b ) h oards a nd i ndividual f inds; c ) s ettlements w hich c ame i nto b eing d uring t he H B 2a nd H B 3 p eriod, w ithout a ntecedents a nd w ere a bandoned b efore t he b eginning o r m iddle o f t he H C p eriod. a ) T he h ill-forts w ith c ontinuous o ccupation M ost o f t he r ich h igh-plateau a ssemblages w ere d iscovered w ithout e xpert o bservation a nd t hus l ittle i s k nown o f t heir a ssociations. T ypes o f t he s econd h alf o f t he H B p eriod a re f ound a mong t his m aterial b ut m any o f t hem , o ccurring o ver a s pan o f s everal a rchaeological p eriods, a re n ot t he r esult o f l ocal d evelopment. A c onsiderable p art o f t his m aterial r eflects c ontacts w ith t he l ower D anube, S lovenia, t he B alkans, a nd w ith t he M ezö csät g roup o f e astern H ungary. F inds s howing s outhern a nd e astern l inks c an b e f ound t hroughout t he o ccupation s pan o f t he h ill s ettlements a nd a t o ther T ransdanubian s ites a s w ell, i n s outh-eastern T ransdanubia i n l arge n umbers a nd e lsewhere i n T ransdanubia i n s maller n umbers. T wo-handled m ugs a nd j ugs a re m issing f rom t he f lat-grave c emeteries o f t he U rnfield c ulture w hich w ere i n u se u ntil t he m iddle o f H B. I n t he H B p eriod, h owever, t hey b ecame p opular i n t hose T ransdanubian s ettlements w hich w ere n ewly f ounded a t t his t ime, e .g. P ecs-Makdr, C sert iT , L engyeltöti, B c ita, K etujfalu, K akasd ( Patek 1 968 : t . L XXIX, 1 1, 1 2; X CII, 1 ; X CVII, 4 , 1 2; X CVIII, 4 -9 , 1 2). A mong t he c ontinu ously i nhabited h ill-forts o nly L engyel y ielded t wo-handled v essels ( Patek 1 968 : t . L XXV , 1 3-16; L XXVI, 9 ). E arly v ersions o f t he t ype w ere f ound a t L engyel i n l arge q uantities ( Fig. 1 8 , M ,2) b ut t he t aller , m ore r ecent v ersions a lso o ccur ( Fig. 1 8 , 3 3

M , 3 ). T he c orrelation a nd c hronology o f t he t wo-handled v essels i s d iscussed i n m ore d etail o n p age 3 9 . T he l arge e gg-shaped v essel w ith l eistenverzierung a t t he l ower a ngle i s o nly s parsely r ecorded i n T ransdanubia b ut n o s imilar e xamples h ave c ome t o l ight f rom e astern H ungary. T he f act t hat i t w as k nown i n t he s outh-eastern T ransdanubian a rea i s r eflected b y ap iece f rom P ecs M akdr ( Fig. 1 8 , E , 1 ). T his t ype w as c ommon i n t he p ottery a ssemblages o f t he H B p eriod i n t he s outh-eastern A lps. I t c haracterizes t he m ore r ecent a ssemblages i n t he M aria R ast c emetery: i t a lso b elongs t o t he L jubljana I T/b p eriod i n o ther p arts o f S lovenia ( Müller-Karpe 1 959 : 1 16; G abrovec 1 966 : f ig. 1 , 3 ; G abrovec 1 976 : 5 88). T he m ugs r epresented o n F ig. 1 9 , Ga ppear i n t he H B p eriod: t hey a re d ecorated b y s traight o r s lanted g rooves. T heir d istrib ution i s w idespread a nd t hey a re c ommon i n t he c ontinuously o ccupied s ettlements l ike V elem , S c ighegy, S omldhegy a nd L engyel. S imilar m ugs w ere f ound i n t he M ezö csdt g raves a s w ell ( Fig. 1 6 , 5 ; F ig. 1 7 , 3 0). T he m ugs s hown o n F ig. 1 8 , M , 4a nd F ig. 1 9 , F , 2a re n ot t he r esults o f l ocal d evelopment s ince t hey a re r are b oth h ere a nd i n T ransdanubia. I n e astern H ungary , h owever , t hey a re v ery f requent a nd t hey c omprise a s tandard t ype i n t he M ezö cs c it c emetery. T he s tamped d ecoration o f t he S dghegy e xample ( Fig. 1 9 , F , 2 ) l inks i t t o e astern H ungary , a nd w ith t he l ower D anube a nd n orthern B alkan a rea. T he p ointed k nob d ecoration s een o n t he L engyel m ug ( Fig. 1 8 , M , 4 ) i s n ot o f l ocal o rigin e ither. T he l arge d ouble c onical-bodied v essels w ith o ut-turned r ims a re a lso f ound ( Patek 1 968 : t . X X, 1 6-19; M iske 1 908 : 1 .63, 3 .6). T he a ssociations o f t hese v essels a t t he c ontinuously o ccupied s ettlements a re n ot k nown b ut t he v essels w hich c ame f rom t he s hort l ived s ettlements c an b e m ore c losely d ated ( Fig. 1 8 , J , 1 ; L , 1 ; F ig. 1 9 , D , 5 ): t heir d ating t o t he H B p eriod s eems l ikely ( Patek 1 968 : 9 2). G abrovec d ates t he v essel t ype i n n eighbouring S lovenia t o t he H B 3p eriod ( after MilerK arpe) o r i nto t he L jubljana I T/a p hase ( after G abrovec) ( Gabrovec 1 976 : 5 88). T he d ouble c onical v essel k nown f rom g rave 1 a t F l izesabony i s o f s imilar d ate ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 : t . 1 , 1 ). T here a re s cattered o ccurrences o f t his t ype o f o rnamentat ion o n v essels w hich d o n ot b elong t o t he l ocal U rnfield c ulture. T he s tamped d ecoration o f aS dghegy m ug ( Fig. 1 9 , F , 2 ) a nd t he p ointed k nob d ecoration ( Fig. 1 8 , M , 4 ) o f aL engyel m ug h as a lready b een m entioned. T hese a re f oreign t o t he a rea o f t he U rnfield c ulture. T he t hree b auchnase ( Müller-Karpe 1 959 : 1 20) s een o n a s mall v essel o f S e ighegy i s a lso a lien t o t he l ocal T ransdanubian d evelopment ( Fig. 1 9 , F , 3 ). B ut t his s tyle o f d ecoration w as k nown i n e astern H ungary f rom t he R A p eriod a nd c an a lso b e s een o n t he g rave p ottery o f M ezö csdt ( Fig. 1 6 , 9 ; 1 7 , 1 7). T he m ore r ecent g raves o f t he M aria R ast c emetery y ielded

3 4

F ig. 1 8

C omparative f inds f rom A : S opron-V c irhely ( Burgstall), r ampart , s ection H I; B : S opronV drhely ( Burgstall), s ettlement s ection H IV; C : B udapest , C l: B ekdsmegyer , 2 : D una; D : N eszmely, g rave 3 3; E : P ecs-Mak c ir; F : B udapest-Csepelsziget; G : B udapest-Zuglö ; H : D unaf t ildvör; I : B dta; K : K akasd; L : V isegröd; M : L engyel

3 5

A

C

F

1

0

E ..

-

J > in t e

F ig. 1 9

C omparative f inds f rom A : P ecs-Makör; B : P ecs-Meszes; C : C serti i ; D : L engyeltöti; E : L engyel; F : S öghegy; G : S omlöhegy

3 6

m ugs s imilar t o t he S dghegy m ugs w ith b auchnase d ecoration ( Meller-Karpe 1 959 : 1 20), w hile t he s ame o rnamentation w as u sed i n t he E ste I I p eriod o n c onical-necked u rns o f t he e ighth t o s eventh c entury B .C . ( Frey 1 969 : t . 1 , 1 3; 2 , 7 ; 5 , 5 , 1 1; 7 , 4 8). T his d ecoration w as c ommon i n t he l ower D anube r egion i n t he B adadag g roup ( Hensel 1 976 : V , 1 2) , i n t he P senicevo g roup ( Hönsel 1 976 : X IV , 8 , 9 ) a nd i n t he T lacine g roup ( Hensel 1 976 : t . 6 6 , 4 ). H allstatt p ottery a lso i ncorporates t his o rnamentat ion i n am odified v ersion ( Dobiat 1 980 : 1 23). ( The m otif h ere i s c alled r ippenbildung b y t he a uthor.) T he r ich m etal o bjects o f t he h ill-top s ettlements c annot b e s eparated s tratigraphically e ither. T he z weischleifige b ogenfibel ( Fig. 1 9 , E , 1 ) f rom t he h ill-fort o f L engyel m ay b e s pecially n oted. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he f emale a ttire o f t he s outh-eastern A lps, r epresented b y t his b rooch, w as n ot k nown a t L engyel. T he s ame c onclusion w as r eached i n t he d isc ussion o f t he t umulus m aterial o f S opron-Vörhely b ased o n t he e arly t ype o f t he z weischleitige b ogenfibel b elonging t o g rave n o. 2 24 ( Table 1 ). T he b rooch t ype w as i n u se f rom H B 3 ( Gabrovec 1 970 : 5 ; i n t he G erman s ummary 4 3, w ith t he l isting o f e arlier b ibliography; G abrovec 1 976 : 5 94). I t i s n ot a n a lien t ype a mong e astern H allstatt m aterial. b ) M etal o bjects i n h oards a nd a s o ccasional f inds B oth i n h oards a nd a s i ndividual f inds t here a re, i n T ransdanub;a, f requent E astern b ronze o bjects s uch a s h orse t rappings , a nd f iligree w ork p endents. T he h orse h ead s haped s ceptre f ound n ear t he S arviz c hannel b elongs t o t he H C p eriod a ccording t o W erner's d ating. B ronze b its o f e arly t ypes a re k nown f rom g rave g roups, t ogether w ith i ron s pears a s, f or e xample, i n t he D unak8mlö d f ind ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 : T . X X, X XI). H B b ronze b its f rom T ransdanubia a re k nown f rom t he f ollowing s ites ( i n a ddition t o t he t umulus a t P ecs-Jakabhegy, t o b e t reated b elow): C sdkbereny ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 : 3 4 , t ext-illustration 1 , 6 .7 ); T olna d istrict ( Gallus a nd H orv c ith 1 939 : 3 2 , t . X L); D innyes ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 : 1 6 , t . I X); a nd S opron ( Gallus a nd H orvdth 1 939 : 1 3, t . V I, 1 .2). T he f iligree p endent o f e astern t ype f rom t he t reasure f ound a t N agysdg ( Hampel 1 890 : T . 2 28) m ost l ikely b elongs t o t his p eriod, b ut t he o bject i tself i s n ot c losely d ated. T hat i t c an b e a ssigned t o H B s eems l ikely , h owever , b ecause t reasure h oards a re v ery r are i n T ransdanubia i n l ater p eriods. c ) S ettlements o n p reviously u noccupied s ites T his g roup o f f inds, d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he H B, i s r epresented o nly b y c ollections o f m aterial f rom s ites i n T ransdanubia w hich l ack a ny i nformation a bout t he s ettlement c ontext. M ost o f t he f inds c ame t o l ight w ithout e xpert

3 7

s upervision s everal d ecades a go. T heir c ontexts a re o ften n ot k nown , a nd i n s ome c ases i t i s n ot e ven c ertain w hether t hey c ame f rom s ettlements o r g raves. I n m ost c ases o nly t he f ind s pot i s r ecorded. M ost o f t he s ites l ie i n t he s outh-eastern p art o f T ransdanubia b ut o ccasional f inds h ave c ome t o l ight i n t he n eighbourhood o f B udapest (R igid , C sepelsziget), a nd f rom t he r ight b ank o f t he D anube s outh o f B udapest ( Tompa 1 942 : t . X IV , 1 0; X XI, 6 -10). O nly o ne o r t wo s ites a re f ound i n a reas n orth o f L ake B alaton o r i n s outh-western T ransdanubia. T he g roup o f s ites f rom S opron h as b een m entioned a bove w hen d iscussi ng S opron-Vdrhely w here , i t w ill b e r ecalled , t he s ettlement, t ogether w ith o thers, w as e stablished i n ap ractically u ninhabited m ountain r egion. I n a ddition t o t he a rea o f t he S opron m ountains i t i s t he s outh-eastern p art o f T ransdanubia w here s everal n ew s ettlements s eem t o h ave d eveloped d uring t he H B p eriod. I t i s r emarkable t hat i n s pite o f t he f act t hat t he n atural a nd c limatic c onditions o f t he s outh-eastern p art o f T ransdanubia d iffer f rom t hose o f o ther p arts o f T ransdanubia, s outh-eastern T ransdanubia f orms a u nit w ith t he G reat H ungarian P lain ( Bulla 1 962: 3 64 f f.). S outh-eastern T ransdanubia i s t he s unniest a rea o f w estern H ungary a nd t he q uality o f s oil i s e xcellent. T he e astern b order o f t his s ettlement a rea i s t he D anube w hich i n t his r each o ffers o nly i ts r ight b ank a s s uitable f or s ettlement: t he a rea e ast o f t he D anube w as f looded m ost o f t he y ear u ntil 1 874-1895 w hen t he r iver w as c ontrolled. T he m aterial f rom s ites o f g roup ( c) c omprises m ostly p ottery. S ome t ypes a re s o c ommon a nd w idespread -containers, m ugs a nd d ishes w ith p ulled-in r ims - t hat t hey c annot b e c ons idered a s r estricted t o l imited r egions o r as pecific a rchaeolog ical g roup. E ven s o i t c an b e s hown t hat i n m ost c ases t he m ajority o f t he v essels c an b e c ompared, i n f orm a nd d ecoration , t o t he p ottery o f S lovenia, t he l ower D anube a nd e astern H ungary. T he v essel, s hown i n F ig. 1 8 , Ff rom t he i sland o f C sepel, i s s imilar i n s hape a nd d ecoration t o t he e astern, H ungarian M ezö csdt g roup. T he l arge h ohlbuckel d ecorating t he b ulge o f t he v essel i s a f avourite m otif i n t he e ast H ungarian g roup ( Fig. 1 6 , 3a nd F ig. 1 7 , 4 2). A n e xact p arallel t o t his C sepel p iece i s k nown f rom g rave n o. 4 a t F özesabony ( Gallus a nd H orvöth 1 939 : t . I II , 2 ). T he v essel i n F ig. 1 8 , L , 2 , w ith i ts d ouble c onical b ody , g rooves a round t he b ulge a nd k nobs p ushed o ut f rom i nside a lso s hows s ome r elation t o t he M ezö csöt g roup. T he p ushed-out k nobs i n e astern H ungary a re p robably i nherited f rom t he G dva c ulture a nd a re f requent i n t he M ezö csdt c emetery ( e.g. F ig. 1 7 , 1 4 ,15; F ig. 1 6 , 4 ). A s w e h ave s een t he d ouble c onical-bodied v essels w ith e verted r ims c an b e f ound i n t he l arge c ontinuously o ccupied s ettlements w hich w ere e stablished i n t he H B p eriod, e .g. a t B dta ( Fig. 1 8 , I , 1 ), P jcs-Makdr ( Fig. 1 8 , E , 2 ), V isegrdd ( Fig. 1 8 , L , 1 ), L engyeltöti ( Fig. 1 9 , D , 5 ), I gal ( Patek 1 968 : T . X C , 7 ) a nd B irjdn ( Patek 1 968 : T , C , 3 , 1 0). T hese v essels w ere v ery p opular i n e astern H ungary i n t he M ezö csdt g roup a nd t ypes a ncestral t o t hem c an b e f ound

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t here ( Patek 1 968 : 9 5-96). T his t ype i s a lso d istributed i n t he l ower D anube a rea a nd i n S lovenia. T hese d ouble-conical v essels w ith e verted r ims c an b e d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he H B p eriod i n a ccordance w ith e ast H ungarian a nd S lovenian p arallels ( Patek 1 968 : 9 5). T he t ypes o f v essel s hown o n F ig. 1 9 , B , 1a nd 3 , a nd o n F ig. 1 9 , C , Ia re f oreign i n T ransdanubia. T he s trongly e verted r im a nd t he g rooved k nobs p oint t o e astern H ungary , b ut t he o rigin a nd l inks o f t hese t ypes c annot b e d etermined , m oreover v essels o f t his k ind a re n ot t o b e f ound i n t he U rnfield c ulture o f T ransdanubia. T he V elem p arallels o f t he v essel i llustrated i n F ig. 1 8 , E , 1h ave a lready b een m entioned ( p. 3 4 a bove). T his t ype c an b e l inked t o t he p ottery o f t he s outh-eastern A lps a nd c an b e d ated t o t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod. T wo-handled j ugs a nd m ugs h ave b een d iscussed i n d etail ( above p . 3 3-4 ). T his t ype i s k nown i n t he g reatest q uantity i n t he s outh-eastern D anube r egion ( Patek 1 968: 9 8). O lder v ariations - t he f lat t wo-handled m ugs - o ccur h ere a s w ell a s t he t aller t wo-handled v essels ( Fig. 1 8 , M , 3 ; F ig. 1 9 , A , 5 ). T he o lder v ersions a re k nown f rom H B 1t imes i n t he s outh-eastern A lps ( after M öller-Karpe) w hile t he m ore r ecent t wo-handled v essels w ere i n u se u ntil t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod ( see p p. 3 3-4) T he d ist , Libution a nd p arallels o f t he m ugs w ith g rooved b ulges ( usually w ith r ibbon h andles) a nd t he s mall h andleless s lanted-grooved v essels a re d iscussed o n p . 3 4. T hey a re c ommon i n t he H B p eriod i n T ransdanubia. T he v essels o f F ig. 1 8 , I , 2t ype w ith t all n ecks a re l ess c ommon i n T ransdanubia b ut t his t ype o f s mall v essel i s f ound m ost f requently i n t he c emet eries o f M ezöcsc it t ype ( see d etails o n p . 2 8). T he f inds s urveyed b riefly a bove h ave c learly d emonstrate ,' t hat t hese t ypes w ere f ound i n a ssemblages o f t he s econd h alf o f t he H B ( HB 2 -3) p eriod, a nd t hat t hey d id n ot e volve o ut o f l oca l s tyles. I n f act m ost o f t hem s how c onnections w ith t he p ottery o f e astern H ungary , t he l ower D anube a rea a nd t he s outh-eastern A lps. T ypical v essel s hapes o f t he s econd h alf o f t he H B p eriod a nd t heir r elated e ast H ungarian a nd T ransdanubian t ypes a re s hown o n F ig. 2 0 . T he s ites o f T ransdanubia, c onsidered i n t his s ection, o ffer n o e vidence a s t o w hether H allstatt m aterial f ollowed t he r ich f inds o f t he e nd o f H B. I t i s p recisely t his a rea o f s outh . e astern T ransdanubia w here s ites o f p eriods H C 1 , H C 2 ( after K ossack) a nd H D Ia re t he p oorest ( Fig. 2 3). T he c hronological a nd c ultural p osition o f t he h ill-fort o f P ecs-Jakabhegy w ith i ts t umulus c emetery p resents a s pecial p roblem. E . M arc iz f ound p ottery o f t he D alj c ulture i n t he J akabhegy t umuli d uring t he 1 970 e xcavations ( Mardz 1 979 : 7 8). M etal f inds o f e astern o rigin a re w ell k nown f rom t hese c emeterie

3 9

F ig. 2 0

C haracteristic p ottery t ypes o f t he s econd h alf o f t he H B p eriod ( HB 2 -3). A : W estern H ungary; B : E astern H ungary

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a s w ell a s ( Fig. 2 2). s ites n ear c hronology d etermined

p ottery w hich c ould b elong t o t he H allstatt c ulture T ogether t his s hows t hat t here w ere s everal i mportant J akabhegy d uring t he s econd h alf o f H B. T he i nternal a nd c ultural c onnections o f J akabhegy c an o nly b e a fter t he f urther i nvestigation o f t he s ite.

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H C s ettlements i n T ransdanubia.

1.A lsöpdhok 2. B adacsonytomaj 3. B ajna 4. B ajöt 5. B alf 6.B arnag 7. B obo 8. B udapest-Gell4rthegy 9. B udapest-Rdkosszentmihdly 1 0 . C sikvdnd 1 1 .C s8nge 1 2 .C surgö 1 3 =D oba 1 4 .D orog 1 5 .E nse 1 6 . r d 1 7 .E sztergom-B adnatv81gy 1 8 .E sztergom-Hideglelöskereszt 1 9 .E sztergom-Szentgy8rgymezö 2 0 . F elsönyek 2 1 . F ertöd 2 2 . F ertö rdkos-K aidai 2 3 . F ertö szentmiklös 2 4 .G ecse 2 5 .G 811e-Hetenypuszta 2 6 .G y8m8re 2 7 .G yulafirdtöt 2 8 .H alimba 2 9 .H arka ( Harkau) 3 0 .H asfalva ( Haschendorf) 3 1 . K emenesmihdlyfa-Sdndormajor 3 2 . K eszthelyiKrpdd u . 3 3 . K eszthely-Vadaskert 3 4 . K eszt8lc 3 5 . K ismez6 ' 3 6 . K Ulsövas 3 7 .L dbatlan-Cementgy c ir 3 8 .L ednyv c ir 3 9 . L engyel 4 0 .M agyarfalva-Fillerer a ( Pfenningwald) 4 1 .M alomsok-Marcalpart 4 2 .M arcaltö-Gemencei d ülö 4 3 .M driahalom

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.M esteri .M ez6lak-Szentpeteri d omb =N agybar c it .N agyberki-Szalacskapuszta .N agycenk .N agydem-Repdspuszta .N agyvdzsony ak .N =N emesszald ' . ‹ .N ydrdd-Retföld . N yergesujfalu . P apa P ecs-Jakabhegy .P ilismaröt-Basaharc . P ilismardt-Homoki s zölö k . P ilismaröt-Szobi r ‘v . P omöz-Köhegy . P ula . R avazd .R eg8ly . R epcevis .S omlöhegy .S omlövösdrhely .S opron-H8uslerberg .S opron-Istenszeke ( Himmelsthron) S opron Krautacker S opron-Vdrhely ( Burgstall) S opron-V c iris ( Warischberg) S ött6. S zözhalombatta S zentkirdlyszabadja T atabdnya T dtikahegy T eth T ihany-övdr T okod-Erzsebet a knc U ny-Bardthegyi d ölö V anyola-Nagyreti aid " V askeresztes-Diöfds d ölö V aszar V elem V iadndpetend Z alaszc intö

S UMMARY

T he d iscussion o ffered a bove c an n ow b e s ummarised. I n a ddition t o t he b rief a ccount o f t he f inds b rought t o l ight b y t he n ew e xcavation o f t he H allstatt a nd l ate L a T ene s ettlement o f S opron Burgstall, w e h ave a lso c onsidered o ther s ettlements o n t he S opron m ountain. W e a re a ble t o s how t hat t he o ccupation o f t he m ountain c oincides w ith t he e mergence o f h igh-level s ettlem ent o f t he H allstatt p eriod. T he m ain c haracteristics o f t hese s ettlements a re w ell r epresented a t B urgstall. T he f inds f rom t he e xcavations o f t he 1 970's s how t hat t he o ccupation o f t he B urgstall s tarted i n t he H B p eriod a nd t hat t he e arliest g raves ( tumuli N o. 8 1 a nd 8 3), o f t he t umulus c emetery b elonging t o t he s ettlement, c an b e d ated t o t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod. S ome o f t he e arliest t umuli o f t he H allstatt c emeteries i n t he s outhe ast A lps c an b e s imilarly d ated , e .g. t he g rave w ith t he a ntennae s word a t P odzemelj, t he s word g rave i n K leinklein , t umuli i n V illach a nd S v L ucija, a s w ell a s g rave 1 /20 a t G erm. T he s tandard f orms o f g rave p ottery a t t he B urgstall, w ith i ts o rigins i n t he U rnfield c ulture, w ere d iscussed i n s ome d etail. T hese t ypes, p resent i n t umuli 8 1 a nd 8 3, c ontinue t hroughout t he u se o f t he c emetery u ntil t he b eginning o f t he H D p eriod. T he f orms a re i nherited f rom t he U rnfield c ulturc b ut r eflect n ot o nly l ocal i nfluences b ut a lso t raits f rom m ore d istant t erritories. T he B urgstall f inds s how t hat t he s imilarities o f t he h ill-fort c ulture t o o ther a reas w as c onsiderable, a bove a ll t o t he c ultures o f t he s outh-east A lps. T his w as m ainly d ue t o t he i deal c ommercial g eographic s ituation o f t he S opron m ountains. A t t he f oot t here l ay t he s o-called ' amber r oad', a r oute o f i mportance n ot o nly a t t he b eginning o f t he H allstatt p eriod b ut a lso i n t he l ate L a T ene a nd i n t he R oman e ra. F inds f rom S opron Burgstall a lso r eflect t his. T here w as a n i mportant h ill-fort h ere i n t he H allstatt a nd l ate L a T ene p eriod a nd s ome f ragments o f R oman p eriod p ottery w ere a lso p resent s howing t hat t he l ife o f t he s ettlement c ontinued t hough t he R oman t own o f S carbantia w as b uilt o n t he p lain, 5 -6 k m f rom B urgstall. I n t he t erritory o f t he R oman t own t he r emains o f t he R oman ' amber r oad' w ere e xcavated a t an umber o f l ocations. I n t he s econd p art o f t his p aper m aterial d ated t o t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod ( HB 2 -3 a ccording t o M öller-Karpe) f rom e astern H ungary a nd T ransdanubia w as a nalysed; i .e. f inds o f a p eriod t o w hich t he e arliest t umuli o f B urgstall a re d ated. I n e astern H ungary t he M ezö csc it g roup - w ith i ts n ew b urial r ite d iffering f rom t he p revious l ocal t radition - r eflects t he a ppearance o f an ew p opulation c oming h ere f rom t he e ast. I

4 6

h ave d iscussed i n m ore d etail t he g rave p ottery w hich i s n ot l ocal b ut c an b e p aralleled a mong t he f inds f rom t erritories l ying e ast o f t he C arpathian M ountains a long t he L ower D anube a nd i n t he l ands n orth o f t he B lack S ea. F rom t he e ighth c entury B .C. o nwards, b esides t his ' alien' p ottery t ype , h orset rappings o f e astern o rigin a re a lso p resent i n s ome g raves o f t he M ezö cs6t g roup. A ccording t o p resent e vidence, t he e nd o f t he M ezöcsdt g roup i s t o b e d ated t o b efore t he e arliest ' Vekerzug t ype' f inds ( Parducz 1 973: 4 0-43). I n t he c oncluding s ection o f t he p aper I d ealt w ith t he f inds k nown f rom T ransdanubia w hich c an b e p laced b etween t he e nd o f t he l arge c emeteries o f t he U rnfield c ulture a nd t he b eginnings o f t he T ransdanubian H allstatt c ulture. T his p eriod i s i dentical w ith H B 2 -3 a nd w ith t he b eginnings o f t he H C. H ere t oo m ost o f t he f inds d iffer f rom t he p revious l ocal d evelopm ent. T his m aterial o f ' alien' c haracter c an b e r elated t o f inds o f t he D rava r egion, o f t he L ower D anube d istrict a nd o f t he M ez6 " P csdt g roup o f e astern H ungary. I n T ransdanubia t he e arly t ypes o f m etal o bjects o f e astern o rigin b elong t o t his p eriod. N ew f inds, u nrelated t o t he p revious c ultural d evelopment o f T ransdanubia, o ccur f irst i n t he s outh-eastern p art o f T ransd anubia a t p reviously u noccupied l ocations. A s f ar a s w e k now a t p resent n o H allstatt f inds w ere p resent i n t hese s ettlements. T he d evelopments o f t he e astern T ransdanubian H allstatt p eriod a nd t hat o f S opron Burgstall a re v ery d ifferent f rom e ach o ther. A s s hown i n t he f irst s ection, t he t raditions o f t he U rnfield c ulture i n S opron Burgstall f ormed a n i ntegral p art o f t he H allstatt c ulture c omplex f rom t he e nd o f t he H B p eriod u ntil t he b eginning o f t he H D p eriod.

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N OTES

1 .

T he G erman g eographical n ames a re i n p arenthesis s ince t hese a re s ometimes u sed i n t he a rchaeological l iterature.

2 .

A p aper i n w hich I w ill d eal w ith t he i nterpretation o f t he f ortifications, g iving d etailed s ections a cross t he d efences a nd p lans o f t he s ites w ill b e p ublished i n a f uture i ssue o f B er.RGK. T his d etail i s t herefore o mitted f rom t he p resent p aper.

3 .

P rofessor 0 -H. F rey ( Marburg, L ahn) w as p resent f or s everal y ears d uring t he f ield w ork. H e g ave m e v aluable a dvice a nd s upport i n t he i nterpretation o f f ield e vidence a nd f ortification s equences. M y s incere g ratitude i s d ue h ere f or h is v aluable a ssistance.

4 .

T he h ouse f ound i n t he S opron Burgstall e xcavation o f 1 974-75 w ill b e p ublished s eparately l ater.

5 .

M y g rave-numbers d iffer f rom t hose o f M r. B ella. O ne r eason i s t hat B ella h imself l ater c hanged t he o riginal g raven umbers, s o t hat h is g raves c annot a lways b e i dentified o n t he s pot. T ogether w ith m y d etailed m ap o f t he s ite a ' Concordance-table' a lso w ill b e p ublished. B ella's g raven umbers c an b e c ross c hecked i n t hose c ases w hen t he g raves s urvive t oday.

6 .

E xcavations a t i t rokt cr -Dongdhalom w ere c arried o ut b y T . K emenczei. T hanks a re d ue t o h im f or a llowing a ccess t o t he m aterial.

4 8

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r

5 6

A SPECTS O F T HE D EVELOPMENT O F L ATE I RON A GE S ETTLEMENTS I N T RANSDANUBIA I NTO T HE R OMAN P ERIOD ( Evidence b ased u pon t he e xcavations a t S zaköly,

i n s outhern H ungary) D . G abler

P revious r esearchers h ave r elated t he e nd o f o ccupation o f l ate I ron A ge s ettlements t o t he R oman C onquest a nd t o t he n ew p olitical a nd e conomic f ormations r esulting f rom i t ( Bönis 1 971: 3 8). N ot o nly d id i nvestigations i n h ill-forts p oint t owards t his d irection b ut s o t oo d id e vidence f rom l ate I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman s ettlements. T he h istory o f m ost o f t he o ppida a nd f ortified s ettlem ents i n T ransdanubia ( that p art o f H ungary l ying t o t he r ight o f t he r iver D anube) i s a lready w ell k nown. R oman r ule e ither t otally e liminated t hem s o t hat t hey c ould n ot f orm c entres o f r esistance ( Petres 1 976: 7 6) o r , a s i n t he c ase o f s ettlements c lose t o t he r iver D anube, s ited a t i mportant s trategic p ositions o n r iverside h ills , f itted t hem i nto t he l imes s ystem , t he c ons truction o f w hich w as b egun i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he f irst c entury ( Töth a nd V ekony 1 970 : 1 3). T hese s ettlements , a fter t heir i nhabitants h ad b een r esettled t o t he l owlands, w ere u sually o ccupied b y a uxiliary t roops , e .g. E sztergom ( Petres 1 976: 5 9; K elemen 1 979 : 7 8), D unaszekcsö ( Fülep 1 976 : 1 13), a nd S tan i S lankamen ( Dimitrijevig 1 971). M ost o f t he l ate C eltic o pen s ettlements p robably s urvived i nto t he p eriod o f t he R oman C onquest , w hich, i n m any c ases , i s i ndicated b y as catter o f R oman f inds, e .g. a t L ebeny-Magasmart ( Pusztai 1 967 : 1 0); t here i s, h owever , n o d efinite e vidence p ointing t o t heir c ontinuation i nto t he I mperial a ge. T he a bandonment o f t he L a T ene s ettlements w as d irectly r elated t o t he R oman C onquest ( Bönis 1 971: 3 8). 1 T he s ame s ituation i s r eflected i n t he l ate L a T ene D c emeteries , w here w e t otally l ack a ny e vidence o f c ontinuity i nto R oman t imes. O ther o bservations a dd c onfirmation. F rom h istorical d ata w e l earn t hat R ome r esettled, a nd s o r endered h armless , t hose h ostile t ribes w hich p articipated i n t he g reat P annonian-Dalmatian r evolt o f 6 -8 A .D. T his m ight h ave h appened i n t he c ase o f t he A zali w ho w ere r emoved f rom t heir o riginal t erritory s outh f rom t he r iver D rava t o t he D gnube b end, t hus s ettling a n I llyrian g roup a mong C eltic t ribes. 4 T he e arliest R oman o rganized g roups a re r ecorded i n t he v alley o f S ava. I n t he c ase o f t hose R oman v illages a lready e xcavated w e c an r ecognize i mportant c hanges o f 5 7

t erritory a s w ell a s e vidence o f R oman i ntervention. T hough t he e vidence s uggests t hat t he i nhabitants w ere , i n m any c ases , g roups o f C elts ( Fig. 1 ) ( e.g. m ost o f t he E raviscan s ettlements s ituated i n N orth-east P annonia) t he n ative v ici h ave n o p redecessors i n t he l ate I ron A ge: t opographically t heir s ites a re n ot l ocated o n t hose o f t he l ate C eltic, p re-Roman, s ettlem ents ( Petres 1 965-1966: 1 97-200; F itz 1 971: 5 2). T hus n o c ontinuity c ould b e d emonstrated, o n p reviously a vailable e vidence , b etween t he e arlier v illages o f t he C elts a nd t he n ative v ici o f t he I mperial a ge. T his h ypothesis - t hough b eing b oth l ogi c-a a nd w ell-founded - h as t he w eakness t hat t he r ange o f s ettlements , o n w hich t hese c onclusions w ere b ased, w as v ery l imited. O ur k now ledge o f l ate I ron A ge o pen s ettlements ( excluding d ata g ained b y f ield s urvey 3 ) w as b ased o n o nly v ery l imited a reas ( sometimes n ot m ore t han o ne o r t wo h ouses) o f t en T ransdanubian s ettlements. 4 W e a re n o m ore f ortunate i n t he l evel o f r esearch o n r ural s ettlements o f t he R oman p eriod o ccupied b y C eltic n ative s ettlers, e specially i f w e o mit t he a uxiliary v ici o f t he f rontier, o n t he g rounds t hat t hey h ave a d ifferent e conomic f unction b ased o n s trategic i nterests. T hey a re o f ad ifferent

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Ce lt ic

I lyr ian ( Pannon ian )

T he n ative p opulation o f P annonia a t t he t ime o f t he R oman C onquest. 5 8

c haracter ( e.g. A lbertfalva , A dony , S zdzhalombatta) t hough t heir e xcavations w ere m ore e xtensive. 5 T he w ell e xcavated ' native s ettlement' o f G orsium ( Kocztur 1 973 a nd 1 974) s hould n ot b e c lassified w ith t he v ici i n t heir s trict s ense ( van B uren 1 958 : 2 090; J ohnson 1 975 :.7 3177) s ince i ts o rigin w as c onnected w ith t he m ilitary f ort o f a n a uxiliary t roop s ituated n earby. I ts f loruit c an b e d ated t o t he f irst h alf c entury o f t he u rban d evelopment o f G orsium , s o h ere s urely w e h ave a n i ndustrialized s uburban s ettlement ( Fitz 1 976 : 8 9) a nd n ot a c haracteristic n ative v icus. T he A rchaeological I nstitute o f t he H ungarian A cademy o f S cience s et o ut t o r edeem t he d ouble i mperfections o f r esearch ( in t he d evelopment o f l ate I ron A ge s ettlements a nd t hose i n e arly R oman v illages) b y i nstituting a s eries o f e xcavations d esigned t o r esearch t he e conomic a nd p olitical c onditions p roduced b y t he R oman C onquest i n ad efined a rea o f P annonia , a nd t o s tudy c hanges i n s ettlement p attern a nd l ife s tyle a s w ell a s t he e arlier p rehistoric s ystems w hich t hey r eplaced. W e c hose t he s ite o f S zakc ily-Reti f 81dek , i n s outhern H ungary, b ecause t he p ractice o f e recting t ombstones w ith L atin i nscriptions h ad n ot b ecome w idespread i n t his a rea , a nd o ther d ata r eflecting a R omanized w ay o f l ife a re a lso v ery r are ( Möcsy 1 974 : 1 51). O nly a rchaeological r esearch c an p rovide i nformation a nd a nswer q uestions a bout t he d evelopment o f t he s ite i n t he R oman a ge. S zakdly i s s ituated i n t he v alley o f t he K apos. T his a rea w as o ne o f t he m ost d ensely p opulated a reas i n t he e arly p rehistoric t imes. N earby i s t he h ill-fort o f S zalacska , l ying o n at errace o verlooking t he K apos, a ssociated w ith 5 0-100 H C t umuli. T he f ort i tself c ould h ave b een o ne o f t he c entres o f t he C eltic t ribe - t he H ercuniates ( Petres 1 976 : 6 2). I ts f oundat ion r eflects t he e conomic i mportance o f t he s ite ( Paulovics 1 953: 1 15). A m int , w here B arbarian c opies o f t he c oins o f P hilippos w ere m anufactured , w as l ocated h ere. T he o ther c entre i n t he K apos v alley, t he h ill-fort o f R eg8ly ,lies a bout 8 k m f rom S zakdly. D uring t he e xcavations c arried o ut o n t he f ortified s ettlement i n 1 970 E . J erem f ound o nly a v ery l ate C eltic m aterial w hich c ontinued t o t he f irst c entury A .D. ( Jerem 1 971: 2 67 ; 1 972 : 2 54). A ccording t o h er o bservations t he d efended s ettlement w as c onstructed i n t he e arly I ron A ge a nd t he l ater , C eltic, p opulation m erely e xtended a nd m odified t he a lready e xisting d efences. R ege sly a lso m ust h ave s erved a s a n i mportant i ndustrial a nd t rading c entre ( Petres 1 976: 6 1-62), b ecause t races o f am int w as f ound h ere a t t he b eginning o f t his c entury . T he f amous h oard o f S zörazd-Reg8ly w as f ound o utside t he f ortification. T he j ewellery w hich i t c ontained w as p robably p roduced i n t he C eltic w orkshops o f S outh T ransdanubia, o r i n t hose o f t he t erritory o f t he S cordisci , a t t he b eginning o f t he f irst c entury B .C. ( Szabö 1 975 : 1 49). A ccording t o t he d istribution m ap o f H unyady t he v alley o f t he K apos a nd i ts s urroundings w ere d ensely p opulated i n t he L a T ene C a nd D p eriods ( Fig. 2 ). U nfortunately m ost o f t he s ites o n o ur m ap r elate t o c hance f inds o r t o o bjects p resented t o m useums: o nly a q uarter o f t hem o riginate f rom c emeteries

5 9

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L a te

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L and o ve r 5 00 m

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L and o ver 3 00 m 0

5 0k m

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F ig. 2 L ate I ron A ge s ettlements i n t he t erritory o f t he H ercuniates ( based o n J erem's p lans). S ettlements o f o ther t ribes a re n ot m arked.

6 0

( Jerem 1 975: 2 70). T he s ettlement f igures i n t he v alleys o f K apos a nd K opp6ny a re b ased o n t he s ystematic f ield s urvey c arried o ut b y I . T orma i n 1 964 . S ince t he s urface f inds c ould n ot b e d ated e xactly , o ur m aps m ay b e d istorted b ecause t hey d o n ot s how p recisely c ontemporary s ites. E ven s o w e c an s carcely d oubt t he e specially d ense p opulation o f t his r egion i n t he C eltic p eriod. F rom t he e astern t erritory o f t he C eltic H ercuniates ( very m uch t he s ame t erritory a s t he p resent c ounty o f T olna) m ore t han 1 10 s ites , m ostly l ate C eltic, a re r ecorded. E xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut a t o nly a f ew o f t hem, t he m ost i mportant b eing a t R egaly-Fazfds f rom w here f ive C eltic h ouses , t en p its a nd a h earth w ere r ecorded ( Torma 1 970). T he n umber o f s ettlements i n t he t erritory o f t he H ercuniates s outh o f L ake B alaton i s m uch m ore l ower : a bout t hree-quarters o f t he f inds a re k nown o nly f rom s urface c ollections. T races o f s ettlem ents a re r ecorded i n o nly s ix c ases a nd e xcavation w as c arried o ut i n o ne o f t hem. F rom o ur s ite o f S zak6ly-Reti f öldek c oins w ere c ollected b efore t he t urn o f t he c entury ( Wosinszky 1 896 : 7 92). O n t he p romontory , d efined o n t wo s ides b y t he r iver , d ifferent s ettlem ent t races , i ncluding d aub f ragments , s herds o f p ottery , r ed b urnt c lay d ebris o f ah earth a nd q uern f ragments , w ere f ound a long t he b anks o f t he K apos. 6 I s tarted t he e xcavations t ogether w ith J .B. H orv6th i n 1 973 i n t hree d ifferent a reas ( Fig. 3 ). A fter t he f irst t rial t renches o ur a im w as, b y a rea e xcavation, t o c larify t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement a s w ell a s t o a ttempt t he t otal e xcavation o f c ertain p arts o f i t. A s ar esult o f o ur w ork t o d ate w e h ave e xcavated a bout 1 500 m2 . T he r ecorded f eatures i nclude 2 2 h ouses ( 14 s unken f loor h uts , f our p ost-built h ouses , t wo t imber s tructures a nd t wo o ther f eatures), t en s torage p its , o ne g ranary r aised o n t he s urface , t wo r efuse p its, 1 2 f urnaces a nd h earths, a w ell a nd n umerous p ost-holes a nd p its , t he f unction o f w hich c ould n ot b e e lucidat ed. A mong t he a bandoned b uildings o f t he s ettlement t here a re b urials o f t he l ate R oman p opulation d ating t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth a nd t o t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury A .D. F inds f rom t he s ettlement i ndicate a n u nbroken o ccupation f rom t he e nd o f t he l ate I ron A ge t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth a nd b eginn ing o f t he f ifth c entury A .D.: n o h iatus i s i ndicated. T he f inds u nambiguously d emonstrate t hat t he R oman v illage h ad a l ate C eltic p redecessor a nd d eveloped c ontinuously , w ithout b reak , d uring t he c enturies o f R oman r ule. I n t he g eneral p lan o f t he 1 973-79 e xcavations ( Fig. 4 ) t he s ettlement f eatures a re d istinguished c hronologically s o t hat t he s tructure o f t he l ong-inhabited s ettlement c an b e a ppreciated i n i ts c ontemporary e lements. T he b asis o f t his a nalysis i s t he m aterial a ssociated w ith t he s ettlement f eatures. T he s unken f loor h uts a nd t he p its u sed f or s torage o r i ndustrial p urposes a re t he o ldest c ontaining e xclusively L a T ene D f inds. T hough s ome o f t hem c ould b e a ssigned t o t he b eginning o f t he R oman r ule ( La T ine D 3 a ccording t o K ramer's c lassification), ad ate o f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge i s p roposed i n t hese c ases. L ater p hases a re r epresented b y f eatures c ontaining c haracteristic R oman p rovincial w are. T he f inal e laboration a nd e valuation o f

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t he r esults w ill i nvolve t he d etermination o f t he f requency o f t hese t wo t ypes. T he i ncreasing r ate o f ' Roman' t ypes o f p ottery , i mplements a nd d ress f ashions i s r eadily d emonstrable b ut c hronological f actors h ave o nly a p artial i nfluence o n t he r ate o f i ncrease: s ocial c onstraints m ust h ave h ad , a t l east , a n e quivalent r ole. F eatures p roducing n o L a T ene D f inds c on b e a ssigned t o t he t hird g roup, b ut c haracteristic f ourth-century t ypes a re a bsent f rom t hese c ontexts. F inally, i n t he f ourth g roup c on b e p ut f eatures a nd g roves d ated b y f inds o f t he f ourth t o f ifth c entury ( coins, g lazed p ottery, l ate R oman c alcite a nd q uartz g ritted p ottery). T he n ucleus o f t he l ater p eriods o f t he s ettlement c annot b e l ocalised b ut o ne c an s uppose t hat t he d ensely p opulated a rea i n t he R oman p eriod w as p ossibly s ome d istance f rom t he c entre o f t he s ettlement o f f irst c entury B .C.-first c entury A .D. T he s ite o f t he l ate R oman b urials i s n ot a s ignificant f actor s ince m ost o f t hem w ere s ituated c lose t o f ourth-century s tructures, s o t hese g raves h elp u s o nly w ith t he m ore p recise d ating w ithin t he l ate R oman p eriod. I n g eneral i t c an b e s aid t hat t he s tructures o f t his l owland s ettlement a re n ot s o d ensely p acked a s t hose o f t he k nown o ppida o r o ppidum-like s ettlements i n P annonia 7 w here t he o ccupation a rea w as c onstricted b y f ortificat ion. I n a lmost a ll c ases o ne c an f ind s torage p its, p its f or i ndustrial p urpose , o pen a ir f urnaces a nd h earths n ear t he s unken f loor h uts: t ogether t hey f orm a s ettlement u nit. G iven t he g eneral p lan a t p resent a vailable w e c an s uggest t hat t he s ize o f t he e arly, L a T ene D s ettlement w as s mall. I n t he t renches e ast a nd n orth t o o ur a rea A n o s ettlement f eature d ated p urely b y L a T ene D f inds w as r ecorded. I n t hese a reas t he o ccurrence r ate o f L a T ene D t ypes w as s carcely h igher t han 1 0-15 p ercent.

T he l ate I ron A ge s ettlement T he e arliest s ettlement f eatures, s unken f loor h uts n os. i i a nd x , w ere o rientated t o t he p revailing w est-east a nd s outh w est-north e ast w ind d irections. T hey w ere r ectangular w ith r ounded c orners; s ome a re n early o val i n s hape. T he c losest p arallels t o s unken f loor h uts w ith t imber s uperstructures a re k nown f rom v arious p rehistoric s ettlements a nd s ome c an b e f ound a s l ate a s t he e arly M iddle A ges ( Patay 1 959 : 4 0-41; P usztai 1 967 : 5 f f.). T he a rchaeological l evel c ontaining m aterial d ated s olely t o t he L a T ene D f irst a ppears a t a bout 7 0 c m b elow t he p resent g round s urface ( after r emoval o f t he p loughed t op s oil a t a bout 4 0 c m). T he m ost c ommon s tructural t ype h as a g abler oof w ith t wo w ooden v erticals s upporting a r idge-beam; t he b ases o f t he b uttressing t imbers a re a lways e asily r ecognizable. 8 S ome o f t hese h uts w ere d ug o nly 3 0-40 c m i nto t he g round b ut h ut n o. x x w as 1 20 c m d eep a t i ts s hallowest. T he f loor o f t he h ut w as o f s tiff c lay w hich, i n m ost o f t he c ases , h ad b een r esurfaced s everal t imes. N ot o nly w ere t he f loors o f s uperimposed l ayers

6 4

b ut t he s take h oles w ere d ug f rom d ifferent l evels a nd f requently i ntersected r eflecting t he f requent r efloorings. S take h oles s ometimes n umbered m ore t han 1 00 i n ah ut. T hey w ere u nusually n umerous i n h ut n o. i i. T heir d iameters w ere b etween 2 -6 c m. T heir u nsystematic a rrangement p recludes t he p ossibility t hat t hey w ere r elated t o t he c onstruction o f t he b uilding. A s pindle w horl o f b aked c lay, f ound i n as take h ole i n h ut n o. x vi, s uggests t hat t he s takes m ay h ave r esulted f rom w eaving a nd s pinning a ctivities. A t S zakc ily t here w ere n o h earths i nside t he e xcavated h uts, b ut t he l arge n umber o f o pen-air h earths a nd f urnaces s hould b e n oted. T hese s tructures u sually c ontain t wo l ayers: t he l ower o ccupation d ebris i s s eparated f rom t he u pper l ayer e ither b y s un-burnt b ricks, b earing t he m arks o f w ooden s tructures, o r b y d aub f ragments. S ometimes t he u pper l oose l ayer c ontains , b esides l ate I ron A ge t ypes, p rovincial R oman f inds w hile i n t he l ower l ayer t here i s o nly L a T ene D p ottery. T ools a nd p ersonal o rnam ents w ere b uried i n h ut n o. x x ( see F ig. 2 0). T he o ther t ype o f t he r ectangular s unken f loor h ut i s r epresented b y h ut n o. x w here t he t hatched r oof , p robably m ade o f r eeds, r ested o n t he e dges o f t he p it. S uch s tructures a re k nown f rom G orsium ( Kocztur 1 974 : 9 4) a nd H ostomice ( Budinsky 1 971: 2 9 f f.). T he l ack o f t he w attle-and-daub w alls i s f urther s upported b y t he v irtual a bsence o f d aub b earing m arks o f w attle. T he u pper l ayer o f t he h ut w as d isturbed b y p its a nd p ost-holes o f ab uilding o f t he R oman a ge. T he t hird g roup o f t hese s unken f loor , huts i s r epresented b y h ut n o. i i ( 5 .3 x 3 .8 m ; d epth f rom t he l evel i t w cs f irst n oted: 5 5 c m). T he s etting o f t he p ost-holes ( 40 c m i n d iameter) r esembles t he s o-called s ix-post h ouse ( Hermann 1 973: 3 71). Q uantities o f d aub i ndicate t hat t he s tructure h ad a w attle-andd aub w all. S imilar c onstructions w ere o bserved b y H . A dler a t B ernhardstal ( Adler 1 976 : 1 7). H ouse n o. i i a t S zakdly w as b uilt o ver c ylindrical s torage p its w ith r ed-burnt c lay f loors o ne o f w hich s eems t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he b uilding i tself. T he h ard c lay f loor o f t he h ut s eals t wo e arlier s torage p its. F rom a mong t he f eatures o f a gricultural f unction t he m ost c ommon a re t he s torage p its. T he b ottom o f o ne o f t he c ylindrical p its u nder h ut n o. i i w as c lay l ined a nd b urnt t o k eep t he c orn d ry. F rom a bove i t f ragments o f d eep b owls w ere f ound i n al ayer o f a sh a nd c harcoal. T he l ower p arts o f t he o ther t wo p its , a lso u sed f or a gricultural p urposes, w ere n ot b urnt : t heir f illing w as o f m ud-like b rown s oil c ontaining o nly af ew f ragments o f g raphite-coated p ottery. T he f unction o f t hese l atter t wo p its i s n ot y et c lear. B esides t he c ylindrical o r ' barrel' s haped p its a nother v ariant , p ear-shaped i n s ection , h as a lso b een f ound. O ne o f t hese , p it n o. x vii ( Fig. 5 ), c ont ained o n t he b ottom , al ayer o f a sh, c harcoal a nd c arbonised g rain. A ccording t o B . H artydni's a nalysis t he g rain i s t radit ional e mmer t riticum d icoccum S chrank t ype. I n t he R oman a ge i n P annonia t riticum a estivum , as pecies w ith a n e ssentially h igher y ield , w as t he m ost w idely d istributed w heat. T he d icoccum

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F ig. 5 L ate I ron A ge s ettlement a t S zak c ily-Reti f 81dek. S ection t hrough s torage p it n o. x vii, T he k ey r elates t o a ll s ubsequent s ections, i s r ather m ore c ommon i n t he s ettlements o f t he B arbarian l ands d uring t he I mperial a ge ( Harty c ini 1 967-1968 : 8 0 , 4 7). U nfort unately, a t p resent , n o g rain f inds a re r ecorded f rom l ate I ron A ge c ontexts i n H ungary, s o a ny k ind o f c omparison i s i mpossible ( Hartydni 1 975). I n t he s ame p it , a bove t he l ayer o f a sh a nd c harcoal c ont aining b urnt g rain a nd L a T ene D p ottery, t he s keleton o f ar ed d eer ( Cervus e la h us) w as f ound , s uggesting t hat t he p it w as l ater u sed f or E he p ur se o f ar itual a nimal b urial a nd s acrifice ( Fig. 6 ). T races o f s imilar a nimal s acrifices w ere o bserved b y E .F. P etres a t P dkozd ( Petres 1 972 : 3 80) a nd b y T . K olnik a t O ndrochov-Lipova ( Kom ik 1 962 : 3 75 , f ig. 1 24). I t w as E .F. P etres w ho p ointed o ut t he r elevance o f t hese a nimal b urials a nd s acrif ices i n C eltic c ults. T he d eer i s r elated n ot o nly t o d eathc ults ( Hatt 1 980 : 6 2) b ut a lso w ith a bundance a nd f ertility : i t t herefore p lays a v ery i mportant r ole i n C eltic m ythology. I n t he c ase o f S zakc ily, b eing a n a gricultural s ettlement , t he m ost p robable i nterpretation i s t hat i t w as c onnected w ith a f ertility c ult: t hat i s w hy t he b ones o f t he s acrificed a nimal w ere p ut i n as torage p it. ( The l evel o f t he p it w as o bserved a t 94 c m b eneath a R oman h ut , n o. x ii.).

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5 0cm 1F t

F ig. 6 L ate I ron A ge-Roman s ettlement a t S zak c ilyR eti f lUdek. D eer-burial i n as torage p it n o. x vii b eneath R oman s unken f loor h ut n o. x ii. 6 7

I f t he p its w ere d ug i nto t he l oess s ubsoil i t w as n ot n ecessary t o c oat t he b ottoms w ith c lay. S torage p its c ontaining p urely L a T ene D p ottery a re m uch m ore f requent i n t he w estern p art o f t he e xcavated a rea A w here f our w ere f ound s ide b y s ide ( Fig. 4 ). I t i s p ossible t hat t hey w ere p art o f a s torage c omplex a ligned o n t he b uildings a nd s ystematically s ituated a mong t hem ( Kr t imer 1 962 : 2 98). P arallels f rom e ighteenth-century H ungary s uggest t hat e very h ouse g enerally h ad t wo p its: t his e mphasizes t he r elatively h igh n umber o f L a T ene s torage p its ( Makkay 1 957 : 7 6). A v ariety o f p it f orms r eflect a w ide r ange o f f unction i n a ddition t o s torage ( Cunliffe 1 974 : 1 70). T he f inds e nable u s t o p hase t he d ifferent p eriods o f t his l ong l ived s ettlement. A bout 6 0% o f t he m aterial i s f rom t he L a T ene D p eriod. T he h igh p ercentage o f t he l ate I ron A ge p ottery , i n i tself , s hows t hat t he o rigin o f t he s ettlement g oes b ack t o t he p re-Roman p eriod. B ut , s ince t he p rocess o f m unicip alization r eaches t his r egion v ery l ate, t he s tatus o f t he s ite i n t he R oman p eriod i s o pen t o d oubt ( Möcsy 1 969 : 3 50). B ecause o f i ts c onsiderable d istance f rom t he m unicipal i ndustrial c entres ( i.e. t hose w here p ottery m anufacture a nd m etallurgy w ere p ractised) R oman g oods w ould n ot q uickly h ave r eplaced t he t raditional L a T ene D p roducts. S ome o f t he m ost c haracteristic a nd c ommon t ypes o f t he f inds a re l isted h ere: N o. 1 .

B owl w ith s teeply-incurved r im i n f ine s mooth l ight g rey w are. R ounded b asal i nterior w ith f ootring. U nder t he r im i s ad eco ration o f f our h orizontal l ines ( eingeglt ittete V erzierung). C ompare B önis ( 1969) A bb. 2 7 , 2 5; P ingel, T af. 7 8 , 184. M iddle d iameter 1 2.5 c m; h eight 5 .1 c m; f oot d iameter 5 .7 c m . F a: Q uad-ant 1 3, G rube . P it C , 8 5-105 c m ( rig. 7 , 1 ).

N o. 2 .

S herd f rom a b owl w ith a s lightly t hickened i nturned r im i n r eddish-coloured w are. S mooth, b lackened s urface. U nder t he r im o n t he i nside a re t wo w avy l ines ( eingeglt ittete V erzier ung). A s eries o f s lanting g rooves a re o n t he o utside. F or t he t ype s ee N o. 1 . M dm. 1 5 c m; H . 7 .5 c m; f dm . 6 .1 c m. F a: Q uadrant 2 0/a, P it X IX, 8 0-180 c m ( Fig. 7 , 4 ).

N o. 3 .

B owl w ith i ncurved r im a nd a s mall f ootring , i n g rey w are. O n t he i nside i s aw avy l ine b etween h orizontal l ines. A lmost c omplete. C ompare B önis ( 1969) A bb. 2 6 , 1 8; P ingel, T af . 7 5 , 1 119 . F a: Q uadrant 1 2, N . S peichergrube o f P it V II, 1 06 c m ( Fig. 7 , 3 ).

N o. 4 .

B owl w ith a b eaded r im , i n g rey w are. O n t he i nside , u nder t he r im , a re t wo r oughly-drawn z ig-zag l ines. O utside a re a s eries o f h orizontal g rooves. C omplete. C ompare B önis ( 1969) A bb. 9 , 1 2; P ingel, T af. 8 0 , 1 221. M dm. 2 2.9 c m; H . 1 0 .2 c m; f dm. 6 .8 c m. F s: f illing o f P it I I, 9 0-110 c m , u pper h alf o f l evels ( Fig. 7 , 5 ).

N o. 5 .

B owl w ith i ncurved r im , i n g rey w are. D ecorated i nside w ith t wo o r t hree w avy l ines. O n t he o utside a re s lanting

6 8

2

4

3

5 cm

5

F ig. 7 L ate I ron A ge w heel-turned b owls w ith b urnished d ecoration, f ound i n t he s ettlement S zakdlyR 4ti f lUdek. S cale: 1 /3.

6 9

n otches. C ompare N o. 4 . C omplete. M dm . 1 8 .9 c m; H . 7 .8 c m; S trdm. 6 .7 c m . F s: Q uadrant 2 0/a-43, P it X IX, 8 0-100 c m ( Fig. 7 , 2 ). N o. 6 .

B eaded r im f ragment f rom a b owl i n g rey w are. D ecorated i nside w ith a rches i nterlocking i n t he s hape o f ag arland ( eingegl i ittete V erzierung). O utside a re d ecorative l ines. M dm . 2 2 .4 c m . f s: P it I I ( Fig. 7 , 6 ).

N o. 7 .

R im f ragment f rom a b owl i n g rey-black w are, w ith o utc urved , s lightly-thickened , r im a nd w ith a c on noted s houlder , t he s o-called S . p rofile. C ompare B önis ( 1969) A bb. 5 6 , 3 ; 6 0 , 9 . M dm. 7 .5 c m . F s: Q uadrant 6 , a bove t he f illing o f P it 1 1 ( Fig. 8 , 1 ).

N o. 8 .

S mall b ag-shaped p ot i n r eddish c lay w ith a s mooth s urface. S mall n eck a nd o utcurved r im . C ompare B önis ( 1969) A bb . 2 6 , 1 1; P ingel, 1 380 . M dm. 9 c m; H . 6 .25 c m; f dm . 4 .8 c m . F s: Q uadrant 2 0/a-43 , P it X IX, 8 3-115 c m ( Fig. 8 , 2 ).

N o, 9 .

F ragment f rom a l arge g raphite-coated v essel w ith h igh , r olled r im a nd a c ordon o n t he n eck. C ompare K apoel, Tm f , 5 , 4 6. R im-profile 5 76-577 . M dm. 2 7 .6 rm. F s: Q uadrant 6 , a bove t he f illing o f P it I I ( Fig. 8 , 3 ).

N o. 1 0 .

R im f ragment f rom a b arrel-shaped p ot w ith s loping n eck a nd r olled r im i n r eddish-coloured w ore. S mooth g reyishy ellow s urface. T wo h orizontal l ines o n t he n eck. D ecorated b elow t he i nner r im. C ompare B önis ( 1969) A bb. 9 2 , 3 . F s: P it I I, l ayer w ith o ccupation s oil, 5 3 c m ( Fig. 8 , 4 ).

N o. 1 1.

S herd f rom t he s houlder o f ap ot i n y ellowish-grey w are w ith a s tamped d ecoration o f c oncentric c ircles a nd d ots i n t he f orm o f ag arland. M ended. C ompare H unyady , T af. l xxviii. F s: Q uadrant 1 4 , l evel o f t he w ooden b uilding , 6 0 c m ( Fig. 8 , 5 ).

N o. 1 2.

I ron k nife w ith r ound h andle a nd r ing f or s uspension. L ength 2 5.5 c m; b readth 3 c m . F s: Q uadrant 2 7 , p it , 5 0-70 c m ( Fig. 9 , 1 ).

N o. 1 3.

L ower p ortion o f as traight s cabbard w ith m idrib a nd a V -shaped c hape. C ompare H unyady, 1 14-115 , T af. x xxi. B ecause o f b ad c orrosion i t i s n ot p ossible t o b e c ertain w hether o r n ot t he s cabba r i t s o, r hagriniert ( imitation l eather). R emaining l ength 1 5.3 c m; b readth 5 c m. F s: Q uadrant 1 1, f rom t he b ase o f t he o ven ( Fig. 9 , 2 ).

N o. 1 4.

B racelet f ragment m ade o f S aprolite, a c lay f ormed f rom d ecomposed i gneous o r m etamorphic r ocks, r ed o r b rown, r elated t o l aterite w hich c an b e c ut a nd u sed l ike b rick. D -shaped i n c ross s ection w ith r ounded u nderside. C ompare R ochna 3 37 , A bb. 3 . D m . 7 .4 c m; H . 0 .6 c m; S t. 0 .8 c m.

7 0

3

4

5

5 ci

F ig. 8 L ate I ron A ge w heel-turned p ottery f ound i n t he s ettlement S zakdly-Reti f 81dek. B urnished g raphite-coated p ot a nd p ot w ith s tamped d ecoration. S cale 1 /3.

7 1

1

F ig. 9

G

E ) 2

L ate I ron A ge k nife a nd s cabbard f ound i n t he s ettlement o f S zokdly-R4ti f eddek. S cale 1 . 7 2

F s: Q uadrant 2 9 , P it X X, 7 0-120 c m ( Fig. 1 8 , 1 ). N o. 1 5.

B ronze b rooch, ' middle L a T ene t ype'. S lightly a rched b ow , f our s pirals a nd o utside c hord, a nd a n u nusual c atch f or p in. L ength 5 .9 c m. F s: P it X , 1 18 c m ( Fig. 1 8 , 2 ).

T he d ifferent v ersions o f t he L a T ene D b ow l , f orm 1 2 ( according t o H unyady's c lassification) a re t he m ost c ommon v essel t ype n ot o nly a t S zakc ily b ut i n a ll l ate I ron A ge c emeteries a nd s ettlem ents o f E urope. I n t he s ettlement o f M anching, f or e xample, t his i s t he s econd m ost f requent t ype ( Pingel 1 971: 7 9). I n a ddition t o s ize v ariations t he o nly d ifferences o ccur i n r imf orm a nd s ometimes i n d ecoration. T hough n ot a ll w ere p roduced o nly i n t he l ate L a T ene p eriod ( Pingel 1 971: 5 4-55) t his i s t he p eriod b est c haracterized b y t hem. S everal f ind s pots a re r ecorded i n t he e astern a rea o f t he o ppidum c ulture. P arallels t o t he t ype a re f ound a t t he G ellerihegy-Tabdn o ppidum ( listed b y E . B önis 1 969 : 1 77); a mong o ther t ypes f rom S zekszd' r d t he D rassburgT aborac s ettlement ( Mossier 1 958 : 5 3) a nd a t t he o ppida i n p resent d ay C zechoslovakia a t D evin, N itro , S tradonitz, H rozany a nd THsov ( Pingel 1 971: 1 18). A t S zakdly a ll t he t ypes w ere s till u sed q uite l ate i n t he R oman p eriod ( in t he s econd c entury A .D.) a s i s s hown b y a ssociations w ith s amian a nd o ther f ine p ottery i n p it n o. v ii. T he o rigin o f l ate L a T ene p ottery w ith b urnished d ecoration w as d iscussed b y E . B önis ( 1969 : 1 76),who p ointed o ut t hat t heir p arallels l ay i n S outh S lovakia o n t he o ne h and a nd i n S yrmia o n t he o ther. B . M ardz, e xamining t he b urnished p ottery o f t he s econd o f t he f irst c entury B .C ., a rrived a t s imilar c onclus ions ( 1974 : 1 19). T he b owls , n os. 4 a nd 5 , a re v ariants o f t he p revious o ne. T he b owls w ith k nopf , c ommon i n t he c ounty o f T olna a nd i n t he s outhern p art o f H ungary ( Bönis 1 969 : 1 78), p robably b elonged t o t his t ype. B owl n o. 7 i s a lso a t raditional C eltic t ype: i t a lso o ccurs a mong t he f inds o f t he L a T ene B p eriod ( Bönis 1 969 : 1 76). I ts l ater v ariants a pproaching t he L a T ene D p eriod w ere i llustrated b y H unyody ( fig. 1 4 , 8 ). I ts l ate p arallels a re k nown f rom S lovakia, B urgenland ( Bönis 1 969 : 1 76), s outh w estern H ungary ( Horvöth 1 978 : 1 7) a nd f rom S yrmia ( Brukner 1 978: p l. 1 1.11). H unyody i solates t wo v ariants o f t ype 8 . O urs , c lose t o h is v ariant i i, i s o f at ype f ound a t N agydem, U zdborjöd , S omogyldd a nd S urEin ( Hunyady 1 944 : 1 31). T hese p ots p reserve e arlier C eltic s tyles. G ood p arallels f or t he s mall s ized e xample w ith s lightly e verted r im a re r ecorded a t t he s ettlement o f G ellerthegy-Tabdn. G raphite-coated p ottery, e .g. n o. 9 , a re o ne o f t he m ost c ommon t ypes i n o ur s ettlement. I . K oppel d ealt i n d etail w ith t he q uestion o f i ts o rigin, i ts p roduction t echnique a nd i ts d istribution ( see B enadik 1 961). T he t ype w ith t he t urned r im l ike o urs w as n ot f ound a t t he t erritory o f t he s oc alled O stgruppe ( Koppel 1 971: f ig. 4 9). I n a ddition t o S zalacska a nd R eg8ly m ore s ites y ielding g raphite-coated w ares a re k nown i n t he v alley o f t he K apos. T he t ype i s a lso r ecorded i n e arly R oman c ontexts s urviving i nto t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury A .D. 9 T hus, t ypologically, t he p ottery f inds o f t he f irst c entury B .C . a nd t he f irst c entury o f R oman r ule c annot b e d istinguished

7 3

t hough t hey o re o f h istorical s ignificance. 1 0 T he b est p arallel f or p ot n o. 1 1 a nd f or i ts s tamped d ecoration i s t o b e f ound i n t he m aterial o f t he L a T ene C s ettlement a t B ekdsmegyer. T his t ype o f d ecoration w as v ery r are a t S zaköly a s w ell a s a t G ellerthegy-Tab c in: w e h ave s o f ar f ound o nly t wo s herds o f t his k ind i n o ur s ettlement. T he m ain p eriod o f t his d ecoration w as t he L a T ene I -II p eriod; o ne o f t he p roduction s ites i s k nown i n e astern T ronsdanubia i n t he L a T ene C 2 p eriod ( Patay 1 963). I ts d istribution r eflects t he e xport a ctivity o f a n I ron A ge p otter's w orkshop. T o i solate t he l ate I ron A ge v ariants, w hich a re f ar m ore s carce, f rom t he e arlier o nes i s n ot a n e asy t ask ( Benadik , V leek a nd A mbros: p l. X II.8-9; B önis 1 969 : 1 79; F rey 1 969 : 1 4; P ingel 1 971: 1 19). T he l atest e xamples o f t his t ype a re k nown i n e arly R oman c ontexts i n o ppida a nd s ettlements w here t he o ccupation c ontinued i nto t he R oman a ge ( Mossier 1 952 : 1 19), e .g. i n t he v illa a t F ertördkos ( Gabler 1 973: 1 68). A t S zakc ily t he t ype c ame t o l ight i n t he l ayers o f a n e arly R oman h ouse b ut i t m ay h ave b een i n as econdary p osition. T his t ype o f o rnamentation r evived i n a reas i nhabited b y t he C eltic p opulat ion i n t he f irst c entury o f t he R oman a ge. A mong t he m etal f inds t he k nives a ttached t o b elts b y a r ing-shaped t erminal s hould b e M i i iirj i Ted: t hey a re f rom l ater c ontexts a nd a re u sually f ound a s c hance f inds ( Jacobi 1 974 : P l. 1 8.302). T his t ype i s a lso k nown f rom S zalacska ( Hunyady 1 944 : f ig. 2 7 , 4 4). T he s cabbard f ragment i s m iddle L a T ene i n s hape , b ut m ost o f t hem c an b e d ated t o a bout 1 00 B .C. ( de N avarro 1 959 : 1 18), t hough J .M. d e N avarro d rew t he a ttention t o t he d ifficulty o f t heir c hronological o rdering a nd e specially t o t heir d ating v alue ( 1972: 3 13). T he f inds f rom a g rave i n P falz ( Ilbesheim) - d ated b y al ate L a T ene v essel - s uggests t he l ater s urvival o f t he t ype. T his w as s uspected f or a l ong t ime f rom a l ate L a T ene S lavonic g rave f rom s outhern T ransdanubia. T he p ossibility o f t he s urvival o f c ertain C eltic w eapon t ypes i nto t he e arly R oman p eriod i s s uggested b y aL a T ene s word f ound i n ag rave o n t he t erritory o f t he S cordisci ( ErcegoviC 1 961: 1 36-137). R ecently I . B öna h as s ummarized t he L a T 4ne s words a nd o ther w eapons i n t he g raves o f t he f irst a nd s econd c entury A .D. ( Kdlöz, I nota a nd Z imony) 1 1 a nd h as a scribed t he g raves c ontaining s words t o ah igher s ocial s tratum o f t he n ative p opulation i n t he R oman p eriod. T he s cabbard f ragment f rom S zak c ily w as f ound i n t he b urnt c lay o f ah earth o f t he e arly R oman p eriod ( south o f p it n o. i ii) t ogether w ith t he s mall f ragment o f aR oman b ronze v essel. I t m ust h ave b een d eposited i n t he f irst c entury A .D. S apropelite a rmrings ( previously c onsidered t o b e l ignite) u sually a ppear i n t he g raves o f f emales ( Rochna 1 961: 3 34; R ochna 1 974 : 1 53 f f.). T hey w ere m ost f ashionable i n a bout t he L a T ene C p eriod ( Rochna 1 961: 3 41) b ut t hey c ontinued t o b e w orn i nto l ate L a T ene t imes. T hey c an b e f ound v ery i nfrequently i n s ettlements o f t he f irst c entury A .D. a s f or e xample a t D ubnany i n s outhern C zechoslovakia ( Sakaf 1 956: 5 2 f f.), o r i n t he v icus o f t he O berstimm f ort. R ochna c onsiders t hem t o b e e rbs ecke ( Rochna 1 961: 3 42). 7 4

I n t he C arpathian B asin m ost o f i ts s ites p roducing a rmr ings l ie i n t he r egion o f L ake F ertö , i n s outhern S lovakia , t he p lain i n n orth w estern H ungary a nd t he D anube B end. ( The s ites a re l isted b y B . M aröz ( 1974 : 1 3» . O ne b racelet c ame t o l ight i n n eighbouring N agyvenyim ( Vdgö 1 960 : 4 6). I n a ddition t o c entres i n B ohemia a nd M oravia , R ochna s uggests t he e xistence o f aw orkshop s omewhere n ear L ake F ertö% T he S zakdly p iece t ogether w ith a nother f rom a g rave a t A pdtipuszta a re t he m ost s outherly f inds ( Rochna 1 961: 3 52) t hough o ne w as f ound a t Z emun ( DimitrijeviC 1 971: 5 72). O ur p iece c ame f rom t he u pper l evel o f p it-filling, f rom p it n o. x x . T his p it i s d ated e ntirely b y L a Tne D t ypes t hough i n t he s ealing l ayer t here w as a P annonian i mitation o f a ' Pompeian r ed b owl' o f t he e arly R oman p eriod. T he d evelopment o f m iddle L a T ane b rooch-types s hows r egional v ariations. I n G ermany a nd i n G aul t his t ype i s r eplaced b y t he N auheim b rooch b ut i n n orthern I taly , s outhern p arts o f S witzerland a nd i n t he n orthern a reas o f t he B alkans t he m iddle L a T ane t ype l asted u ntil t he R oman p eriod ( Rieckhoff 1 975: 4 9). T he N orth I talian r egion m ust b e c onsidered a s t he c entre o f d istribution o f t he t ype i n t he e arly R oman A ge ( Ulbert 1 959 : 6 4; M arid 1 964: p l. X X7 ; V anacci a nd L unazzi 1 977 : 5 6). D uring t he r eign o f T iberius a nd C laudius t he f ashion s pread w idely n orth o f t he A lps p ossibly a s t he r esult o f t roop m ovements. I n t his t erritory t hey a ppear o nly i n m ilitary c ontexts ( Kramer 1 957 : 7 6; E ttlinger 1 973: 3 9 f f.; R ieckhoff a nd P auli 1 977 : 6 ). T his d oes n ot , o f c ourse, m ean t hat i t b elonged t o m ilitary u niforms, i ndeed a long t he m iddle R hine i t w as f ound i n f emale g raves! ( Riha 1 979 : 5 7). R oman t ypes w ere i n u se a fter t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury A .D. ( Riha 1 979 : 5 7). A lthough t he l ocal L a T ane t ypes a nd t he R oman b rooches c an b e e asily c onfused 1 2 t here i s n o l ink b etween t hem , e ither i n t ime o r i n s pace, f or e xample , t hey a re a bsent f rom t he A ugustan f orts w here t hey m ight h ave b een e xpected t o o verlap. 1 3 T he s ituation i s q uite d ifferent i n t he e astern r egion. M any o f t he e arly b rooch t ypes c an b e f ound i n t he l ate L a T ene o ppida a nd s ettlements o f B ohemia a nd S lovakia w here t hey w ere i n u se a s l ate a s t he I mperial a ge ( Filip 1 956 : 5 25-526; E isner 1 933: 3 09). I t w as J . B ien w ho a ttempted t o s ummarize t heir d evelopment b eginning w ith a c onsideration o f ' Manchette' ( Bien 1 964 : N r . 5 ; B ien 1 966 : 7 9-85). A ccording t o h is c onclusion t he ' wire b rooches' o f t he m iddle L a T ene s cheme ' kein v orteilhaftes D atierungsmittel w eil s ie Ahrend d es g anzen l etzten J ahrhunderts v or u .Z. e rscheinen' ( Bren 1 971: 2 98). T he t ype s carcely o ccurs i n T ransdanubia a nd, u nlike G ermania a nd R aetia, a lmost n ever i n m ilitary c ontexts. T hey a re r ecorded f rom V elem-Szentvid ( Miske 1 907 : p l. X LII.41), t he G ellerthegy-Tabdn s ettlement i n B uda - i n t he m aterial f rom E raviscan p its f ound n ear t he R udas b aths ( Pöczy 1 959 : 6 7 ; B önis 1 969 : A bb. 4 9 . 1 7). I n a ddition H unyady a lso m entions e xamples f rom O buda , f rom V inkovci a nd S iscia ( Hunyady 1 944: 8 2). S he d ated t hem t o t he l ate L a T ane - a nd t he b eginning o f t he R oman a ge. I n o ur s ettlement t he b rooch t ype w as f ound i n ap it c ont aining o nly L a T ime D f inds ( pit n o. x ), d oted t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury B .C. o r f irst h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D. O ther l ate L a T ane a ssociations a re f ound a t S tiCna ( Frey

7 5

1 969 : 1 5) a nd J akovo ( DimitrijeviC 1 971: 5 78). I t i s d istributed i n t he S ava v alley a nd S yrmia ( Siscia, S tiCna, V inkovci, J akovo , Z imony-Zemun) w here i t w as u sed c ontinuously f rom t he m iddle L a T ene p eriod u p t o t he R oman p eriod. W e m ust s tress t he r elations b etween t he K apos v alley a nd t he B alkans i n t he f irst c entury B .C . D iscussion T he l ate L a T ene f inds: g raphite c oated p ottery , s apropelite b racelets a nd b rooches o f m iddle L a T ene s tyle c an b e a scribed t o t he L a T ene C 2 -D h orizon. T hey c an b e d ated o nly w ithin a w ide c hronological b racket c overing t he w hole o f t he f irst c entury B .C., s ometimes t he f irst c entury A .D. a nd e ven t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury A .D. M iddle L a T ene t raditions a re v ery s trong i n d ecoration, t ype a nd c onstruction ( the s tyle o f t he s tamped p ottery, t he s apropelite b racelets, t he s cabbard o f m iddle L a T ene t ype, a nd b rooch m anufacture). A lmost a ll o f t hese t ypes s urvived i nto t he R oman p eriod s uggesting c ontinuous d evelopment. T he b eginning o f t he o ccupation o f o ur s ettlement, d efined b y t he L a T ene D p ottery a nd m etal f inds , g oes b ack t o t he p reR oman p eriod. A t p resent w e c annot d ecide w hether t his s ettlem ent , a nd t he o thers i n t he n eighbourhood, s hould b e r elated t o t he s ettling o f t he H ercuniates i n t he c entral p art o f P annonia ( i.e. t he t erritory l ying b etween t he r iver S id a nd t he M ecsek m ountains), a s ar esult o f t he H elvetian m igration m entione d b y C aesar ( 1.15), o r w ith t he c hange o f t ribal t erritory c onsequent u pon t he D acian-Boian c onflict. I n f act - a s s uggested b y J . F itz, A . M öcsy , M . S zabö ( Fitz 1 958 ; M öcsy 1 974: 1 7 , 6 1-63; S zabö 1 971: 1 7) - t he n ame H ercuniates p reserves t he n ame o f H ercynia s ilva e mphasising t heir c onsciousness o f t heir n orthern o rigin. T hey l eft t he H ercynia s ilva a ccording t o M . S zabd a t t he v ery b eginning o f t he f irst c entury B .C . a s ac onsequence o f t he m igration o f t he C imbri ( 1971: 1 7). O n t he o ther h and, A . M öcsy a nd E .F. P etres ( Möcsy 1 974 : 1 7 ; P etres 1 965-66 : 1 97 a nd P . P etru 1 971: 1 60-161) r elated i t t o t he s ituation f ollowi ng t he e vents o f 5 8 B .C . T he e xcavations i n S zakdly ( at t he t ime w e h ave e xcavated o nly 1 .5% o f t he t otal a rea) o ffer l ittle h elp i n s olving t he p roblem , b ut t he a bsence o f e arly L a T ene D f inds a nd t he f act t hat m ost o f o ur t ypes s urvive i nto t he e arly R oman p eriod i ndicate t hat t he e arliest d ate a t w hich t his g roup o f t he H ercuniates r eached t he K apos v alley l ies i n t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury B .C . B efore t he R oman C onquest t he c ommunity h ad i ntensive c ommercial a nd c ultural c ommunications w ith n orthern I taly a s w ell a s w ith t he n orthern r egions o f t he B alkans. A part f rom f irst-century B .C. b ronze v essels p roduced i n I taly ( Radnöti 1 938 : 1 0-12) a s mall h oard o f b ronze r epublican R oman c oins c ame t o l ight i n t he K apos v alley ( Alf 1 51di 1 946 : 5 2) a nd a n a es g rave w as f ound a t K urd n earby. T his s mall g roup o f f inds, t ogether w ith t he r ecently p ublished I talian s igillata f rom I zmeny ( Vdgö 1 977 : 7 8 , 8 0; G abler 1 979 : 2 00-201) s how t hat R oman g oods t hough i n as mall q uantity - w ere f inding t heir w ay t o t he n ative p opulation o f P annonia b efore t he C onquest b ut p robably a fter t he

7 6

I apod e xpedition o f O ctavian. 1 4 T he e arliest R oman c oins a nd g ocds r eached t he K apos v alley ( Fig. 1 0), a nd i ts i mmediate s urroundings a long t he S ava v alley, b y t he t rade r oute l eading e ast a nd n orth f rom t he D rava , w hich p erformed a n i mportant r ole i n t he d evelopment o f r elations w ith t he s outhern I llyrian t errit ories a s e arly a s t he f irst c entury B .C.

S zakä ly

XKurd

X Mucs fa

S zekszard

• Izmeny

oVemend o

B ronze v esse ls (R adnö t i T yp I . )

X

Repub l ican c o in-hoards

•

E ar ly A ugus tan S am ian(terra s ig i l la ta )

o

C laud ian-Ear ly F lav ian t erra s ig i l la ta

F ig. 1 0

R oman i mported g oods t ransported i nto t he K apos v alley i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd i n t he f irst c entury A .D.

7 7

T he e arly R oman s ettlement

A s t he r esult o f f ield s urvey b efore t he e xcavation b egan i t b ecame c lear t hat t he s ettlement n ot o nly s urvived t he R oman C onquest b ut c ontinued w ell i nto t he R oman p eriod. M ost o f t he e xcavated f eatures w ere d ated b y t ypical R oman p rovincial w are. T he s tructures d iffered l ittle i n c haracter , s ize a nd c omfort f rom t hose o f t he L ate I ron A ge: t he c hange i n t he w ay o f l ife o f t he s ettlement i s s hown o nly b y t he g radual a ppearance o f R oman m anufactured g oods, p roducts o f t he p rovincial i ndustry. T he m ost c ommon s tructure f ollowing t he R oman C onquest c ontinues t o b e t he r ectangular s unken f loor h ut. O f t hese h uts n os. v ii, x vi, x xv , x xix a nd x xxii s eem t o b e t he e arliest. T hey w ere g able r oofed s tructures w ith t he r idge b eam s upported b y t wo p osts p acke d w ith s tones o r d aub f ragments f rom e arlier b uildings. T he d eeper h uts s ometimes h ad s tep-like e ntrances ( e.g. n o. x xix) ( Fig. 1 1). T he s hallower h uts ( e.g. n o. x xv) h ad l ow w alls o f s un-dried b rick t he t races o f w hich a re e asily r ecognizable i n s ection. T his s un-dried b rick e xplains t he a bsence o f e vidence f or s take-built w alls a long t he l ong s ides o f t he h uts ( Patay 1 959 : 4 0-41). T he a bsence o f d aub b earing m arks o f b ranches a nd

48

4 7

Y l

0

t r n

0

3 F t

F ig. 1 1

A ntonine s unken f loor h ut , n o. x xix , i n t he p easant s ettlement o f S zakc ily-Reti

7 8

5

twigs excludes the possibility of wa1 1e-and-daub sidewa l ls, similor to those at Lébény-Magasmart {Pusztoi 1967: 5-11). Similar sunken floor huts were published by É. Kocztur from the so-colled 'nativa' settlement gf Gorsium (1973: 53; 1974: 135) and by T. Ko l nik from Pórkány-Sturovo {1962: 396). The floor of the huts has been surfaced with clay on severa! occasions. W. Kr8mer, in publishing a building from Steinebach (1951-52: 191) questioned the dwelling function of these huts ond suggested that they were used for agricultura! purposes, e.g. storage or for industrial purposes, such os weaving ond spinning. H. Geisler (1976: 148), K. Motykovó-Sneiderovó (1960: 100) and H. Adler (1976: 17) also considered them to hove agricultura! functions. A l though our excavations provided evidence in support of the weaving and spinning function, I do not feel that the argument, which excludes them from being dwe l lings, is convincing enough. If we accept the view that these huts served only as supplementory buildings in ossociotion with surface-buil t houses we hove to face a number of problems:

1)

The number of post-built houses, compared with sunken floored huts, is very low. Although it is undoubtedly true that the recognition of surfoce-built structures is much more difficult, and many of them may hove been disturbed by erosion or agricul­ ture, we were able to recognize a post buil ding in orea C lying on the south east slope heavily domaged by erosion. We would hove found more, if there hod been ony, since in orea A we hove been abl e to find traces of a timber structure even under very difficult conditions.

2)

It is very striking that, although post-built houses are uncommon (we hove been able to record four) al l are from the l ate Roman period. The house excovated in orea B can be dated to the second holf of the fourth century A.O. based on the evidence of o coin of Constantius II which was lying under its f l oor, whi l e the house observad in orea C is probably from the end of the second or from the third century A.O. Thus dwelling houses from the late Iron Age to the earl y Roman period (i.e. from the first century B.C. and first to second century A.D.) are absent though the leve! at which they might hove occurred was probably not disturbad so much as the higher l eve! of the buildings of the third to fourth century A.D.

3)

It is ol so significont that most of the sunken floor huts i.e. the 'ancillary' bui l dings, were situated at the supposed nucleus of the settlement, according to the site topography.

In view of these observations we cannot exclude the possibility that some of the sunken floor huts could hove served as dwellings. In publishing the huts from Jakovo D. Dimitrijevié arrived at the same conclusion (1971: 578). In olmost none of the huts could we find heorths but these were olso absent from the oost-built structures l 6 which surely served as dwel l ing houses. At the same time the hearths without roofs and furnaces are numerous (Párducz and Korek 1959: 178 ff.). In addition to severa! refloorings the fact thot the posts supporting the roof were sometimes replaced indicates a long occupation of these structures. This was a lso 79

t rue o f h ut n o. x xv w here t he s unken a rea w as p robably e nlarged l ater ( Fig. 1 2). I n a rea A a t imber-built h ouse w ith a f oundation t rench f or a s ill b eam w as e xcavated 17 ( length: 6 .8 a nd 5 m , p resent w idth o n t he e astern s ide: 5 .5 m ). I t i s n ot i mprobable t hat t he t wo f eatures w ere , i n f act , p art o f ah ouse w ith s everal r ooms b ut n o a djoining p arts w ere f ound a nd t heir o rientations a lso d iverged: o nly p art o f t he t rampled f loor c ould b e f ound. T he g round-plan w as d efined b y af oundation t rench 2 1-25 c m i n w idth , a nd o f r ectangular c ross-section. A c ircular h earth w as f ound i n t he w estern p art o f t he h ouse. T he s ide w alls w ere c oated w ith y ellow c lay , w hich r emained a fter t he w all b eams h ad r otted . O n t he n orthern s ide a s eries o f p ost-holes a ccompanied t he f oundation t rench b ut n o ' Ersatzpfosten' ( Fig. 1 3) c ould b e t raced h ere. O n t he s outhern s ide h ut n o. i ii c ut t hrough t he b uilding c ausing d amage t o t he g round p lan w hich w as a lso e roded b y p loughing. T here w ere n o s tone b uildings a t S zakcay n or w ere a ny t races o f a bode h ouses b uilt o n s tone f oundations r evealed. I n o ur s ettlement t here w ere n o b uildings s imilar t o t he A cumincum ( Stan i S lankamen) r ound h ouses ( Dimitrijeviö 1 971: 3 72). I n T ransdanubia r ound s tructures o ccurred o nly a t H alimba ( T8r8k 1 961: 6 4 f f.) b ut t hese w ere d itches a round c remation u rns a nd n ot b uilding t renches. A mong t he s ettlement f eatures o f a gricultural f unction , s tora9e-pits a re t he m ost c ommon. O ne o f t hese c ylindrical p its , p it n o. x xi , i s s hown o n F ig. 1 4. T he l argest d iameter i s 1 .3 m , t he d epth f rom t he p resent s urface b eing 1 .9 m . T he b ottom a nd s ide-walls w ere c oated w ith c lay a nd t he b ottom w as b aked. S ince t he c ylindrical a nd b arrel s haped p its w ere d ug i nto t he s olid l oess s ubsoil i t w as n ot a lways n ecessary t o c oat t he s ides o r t o p rovide t hem w ith a w icker l ining. T he p it-fillings s ometimes c ontained a t hick , s olid l ayer o f c lay w ithout f inds. I t w as p robably t he r emains o f as eal o f c lay b y w hich t he n arrowed p itm outh c ould b e c losed ( see R eynolds 1 974 f or d etails o f p its). I n o ne o f t he p its, w ith a b urnt b ottom ( no. v i), w as f ound t he s keleton o f ad og. I t w as a ssociated w ith l ate L a T ene a nd s econd-century ' Roman' p ottery f ragments a nd i t m ust h ave b een a r itual a nimal b urial ( Petres 1 972 : 3 80 , 3 69). D ogs , a s w ell a s d eer , a re a ssociated w ith t he d eath-cult w hich p layed a n i mportant r ole i n C eltic m ythology ( Birkhan 1 970: 3 53, 3 56). A mid t he b uildings o f t he s ettlement m any o pen-air f urnaces w ere f ound. O ne c ame t o l ight i n a rea C . I ts s uperstructure w as d amaged b y p loughing b ut t he r ed b urnt f loor o f t he r ectangular c entral c hamber s urvived m easuring 1 .5 x 1 .45 m ( Fig. 1 5). T his f loor h ad a f oundation o f 7 0-80 p ottery f ragments. A ll w ere o f R oman w are i ncluding a j ug w ith c hannelled n eck , g rey w ares , d eep b owls, l ids a nd o ther c oarse p ottery ( Bönis 1 969 : 1 25 f f.). U nder t hese f ragments a l ayer o f s un-dried b rick , s erving a s af oundation , w as r evealed. F ig. 1 5 s hows t he r emains o f a s maller r ound f urnace o f d iameter 1 .2 m , f ound j ust u nder t he s urface. T he b ottom w as h eavily b aked a nd w e c ould t race t he d ebris o f i ts s ide-walls , a nd a lso p art o f i ts v ault ( see B önis 1 969 : 1 28 , A bb. 7 5). I ts 8 0

7

7 7

7

7 7

7

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bccupa t ion ' d eb r is

P os t-p i t 7 P os t-ho le

Hear th 7/77 Z/7///

/777/777 7/ 77/ 7/7777/7/77/7 /7 77/7/7/7/77//7 0

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F ig. 1 2

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S zaköly-Reti f 81dek . E xcavation a rea C ( 1977). P ost-built h ouse a nd r aised f ourp ost g ranary c ut i nto a n A ntonine s unkenf loor h ut , n o. x xv . 8 1

1 7

1 4

1 5

5m 1 5

F ig. 1 3

F t

R oman t imber b uildings a nd s unken-floor h ut r evealed i n t he p easant s ettlement o f S zak c ily-Reti f 81dek.

f loor w as b aked t o a n o chre c olour a nd w as d isturbed o nly a l ittle a t i ts w estern s ide. I n t he l oose g rey f illing p art o f t he v ault a nd s ome u ncharacteristic R oman p ottery w ere f ound. T here w as a n e longated p it w ith l oess f illing i n f ront o f t he f urnace , m easuring i n d epth o nly a bout 3 0-35 c m f rom t he l evel a t w hich i t w as f irst o bserved. I ts f unction a nd r elation t o t he f urnace i s n ot y et c lear. F ragments o f af olded b eaker a nd o f aR heinzabern s igillata v essel w ere f ound i n t he p it-filling. I n a rea A , i n t he n eighbourhood o f t he p it n o. x viii , a nother f urnace , r ectangular i n p lan w ith o val c orners, c ame t o l ight , m easuring 1 .4 b y 1 .2 m ( Gabler 1 977 : 1 32): i t w as d ug m ore t han 5 0 c m i nto t he g round. I ts b ottom w as u neven a nd w as c overed b y c harcoal a nd a sh. E dged e arth s upports w ere l eft i n a ll t he f our c orners w hich, j ust l ike t he s ide-walls, w ere b aked r eddish a nd s ome p laces v itrified a nd g rey. I n t he f illing w ere 8 2

XX I

0 0

F ig. 1 4

i m F t

R oman s torage p its f ound i n t he p easant s ettlement o f S zak c ily-Reti f t ildek .

1 4 )

38

A -B

0

i m 3 F t

F ig. 1 5

H earth a nd o ven f ounded o n s un-dried b ricks r evealed i n t he s ettlement o f S zaköly-Reti eldek. 8 3

l arge f ragments o f c lay , p ossibly f rom t he v ault , q uern-stone f ragments.

t egula a nd

T he s ettlement f eatures m entioned a bove w ere d ated b y t he f ollowing R oman f inds: N o. 1 .

B asal f ragment f rom a p late o f O hlenroth's f orm A bb. 3 , 3 , w ith r ouletted r ing, s ee G abler ( 1978) 3 91-395. N orth I talian w are , C laudian-early F lavian. F s: F indspot C , Q uadrant 3 4 , 3 4-50 c m ( Fig. 1 6 , 1 ).

N o. 2 .

R im f ragment f rom a D r. 3 7 , o volo l ike S tanfield a nd S impson , f ig. 4 6 , 2 , a bove a b ead r ow; a n n strogolus f ig. 4 7 , 4 0; ad ouble f estoon a nd d ouble m edallion a nd , t o r ight , t he r osette , R ogers C 1 66. C entral G aulish w are , p robably f rom t he C innamus g roup o f p otters. A ntonine , c . A .D. 1 40-180 . F s: u pper f illing o f P it X XV , 4 0-46 c m ( Fig. 1 6 , 2 ).

N o. 3 .

D r. 3 7 , f our s herds n ot j oining , w ith t he o volo R icken F ischer E 2 . I n t he f ield i s M ars o n am ask R i-Fi M .75 . 0 .145; t he f ive-lobed l eaflet R i-Fi P .99; a nd H ercules w ith h is c lub R i-Fi M .87 i n ap atterned m edallion R i-Fi K .48 . R heinzabern w are i n t he s tyle o f C omitialis I I. T he p eriod f rom C ommodus t o t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury. F s: P it X II, s ection w ith r ed-coloured r emains o f b urning a t 1 10-130 c m. E xcavated f rom n ear F l t iche B ( Fig. 1 6 , 3 ).

N o. 4 .

D r. 3 7 , f our s mall s herds n ot j oining , w ith t he o volo K iss, T af. 5 , 4 , w ith a s traight l ine u nder t he o volo. I n t he f ield a re a rches , K iss, T af. 6 , 8 0 . W esterndorf w are. S tyle o f H elenius. T he S everan p eriod. F s: Q uadrant 6 0 , p ost-hole 6 5 c m ( Fig. 1 6 , 4 ).

N o. 5 .

D r. 1 8/31 ( catillus) w ith o ffset , s ee G abler , A cta A rch. H ung. 2 8 ( 1976), 3 9 , A bb. 1 5 , 8 . R heinzabern w are S ie cond h alf o f t he s econd c entury. F s: Q uadrant 4 7 , 5 0 c m ( Fig. 1 7 , 2 ).

N o. 6 .

D r. 3 3 r im s herd w ith c oncave w all a nd o uter g roove. C ompare A cta A rch. H ung .28 ( 1976), A bb. 1 6 , 4 . R heinzabern w are. S econdi kalr o f t he s econd c entury. F s: P it X II, f ullers e arth, 8 5-100 c m ( Fig. 1 7 , 1 ).

N o. 7 .

R im a nd w all s herd f rom a t hin-walled b eaker w ith e n b arbotine d ecoration i n r ed c lay. R ed s lip. C ompare E . S zönyi , A rrabona 1 4 ( 1972), 1 1 , A bb. 4 , 1 7 ; B önis ( 1942), T af. X Y, 4 6. E nd o f t he f irst c entury t o t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury ( Fig. 1 7 , 3 ).

N o. 8 .

G rey P annonian ' Glanztonware' w ith s tamped d ecoration , w all a nd r im s herds l ike a D r. 3 7 i n a l ight g rey w are w ith g rey-black s urface. D ecoration o utside w ith f ivel obed l eaves. F or s imilar d ecoration s ee S . B önki , A lba R eqia 1 7 ( 1979), T af. X VII, 2 26; M . P etö, A rch. E rt.

8 4

1

2

3b-d

4b-c

4 /d

4/ a

0

F ig. 1 6

3 cm

S amian p ottery f ound i n t he r ural s ettlement o f S zaköly-Reti f 81dek: 1 , p late i mported f rom N orth I taly; 2 , D r. 3 7 C entral-Gaulish b owl; 3 , a -d D r. 3 7 b owl i mported f rom R heinzabern; 4 , a -d D r. 3 7 b owl i mported f rom W esterndorf.

8 5

0

3 cm

1

2

3

4

0

F ig. 1 7

5 cm

S amion a nd f ine w are f ound i n t he s ettlement o f S zak c ily-Reti f öldek: 1 -2 , p lain s amion; 3 , t hin w alled c up; 4 , b owl w ith s tamped d ecoration. 8 6

1 03 ( 1976), A bb. 9 , 1 , 9 1. H adrianic-Antonine. F s: G rube X III, a sh-coloured l ayer, 5 0-60 c m ( Fig. 1 7 , 4 ). N o. 9 .

N o.

B ronze ' Kröftig p rofilierter' b rooch, l ike C ambodunum T ype G roup I V , w ithout t he s idewings, a nd w ith w eaklya rched b ow , a nd c losed o blong c atchplate. P in m issing. S pring w ith e ight t urns a nd o uter c hord. K ovrig T ype V III; P atek 9 1 f f., 1 12; T ejral 2 7 f f.; J obst ( 1975), 3 7 ; P lanck ( 1975), p l. 6 6 , 1 1; R ieckhoff-Pauli ( 1977), 8 -9 , A bb. 2 , 1 5. L ength 6 .3 c m. E nd o f f irst c entury t o t hird q uarter o f t he s econd c entury. F s: Q uadrant 1 7 , h umus w ith o ccupation s oil ( Fig. 1 8 , 3 ).

1 0. B ronze N orican-Pannonian ' Flögelfibe r, a f ragment f rom t he b ow o f t his b rooch , w hich i s G arbsch T ype A 2 38c. C ompare t he b ow w ith K ovrig I I, 1 5. S ee a lso P e ' ikar ( 1972), p l. 4 , 1 . T he c urved l obes o f t he b ow a re c ast t ogether, s ee C urk ( 1976), P l. X XV , 1 . T he ' Flügel' h as t wo k nobs. W ithout a c hord-hook. A f aulty c asting. P in a nd c atchplate a re b roken a way. L ength 6 .4 c m. H adrianice arly A ntonine. F s: N orth s ide o f P it X XIX, 6 0-74 c m ( Fig. 1 9).

N o. 1 1. B ronze K nee B rooch w ith s trong a ngular b ow a nd d eep c atchp late. T he h eadplate i s m issing. S pring c onstruction w ith s ix s pirals a nd o uter c hord. B roken p in. T his i s K ovrig T ype X ; P atek ( 1942), 6 2; B öhme ( 1972), 1 9-20; J obst ( 1975), 6 8. L ength 4 .2 c m. E nd o f s econd c entury t o f irst h alf o f t hird c entury. F s: Q uadrant 3 3/34 i n s ection: u nstratified ( Fig. 1 8 , 4 ). N o. 1 2.

I ron k ey. L ength 7 .7 c m; b readth 2 .4 c m. F s: Q uadrant 1 4. U nstratified ( Fig. 1 8 , 6 ).

S igillata f rom t he P o v alley i s v ery r are i n t he m aterial f ound o n n ative s ettlements. B esides t he s ingle p iece f rom S zaköly f ragments a re r ecorded f rom K ölesd-Lencsepuszta ( Ve igö 1 977 , 9 4), a nd f rom B uda - f rom t he E raviscan p its f ound n ear t he R udas b aths ( Pöczy 1 959: 6 6). A mong t he s amian ,bowls f rom C entral G aul a nd R heinzabern a re m ost c ommon. I n o ur s ettlement o nly o ne o r t wo s igillata v essels m ade i n W esterndorf w ere f ound , t hough t his w are i s r ecorded i n g reat q uantity i n t he l imes f orts o f t he n eighbourhood, e .g. i n I ntercisa ( Pöczy 1 957 :75T—T f.). T here a re o nly a f ew s herds o f t he m ost c haracteristic P annonian p ottery t ype - t he s tamped p ottery. A lthough p revious r esearch h as e stablished i ts i mportance a nd m uch i s p ublished , n o g eneral s ynthesis h as b een w ritten.lö W e c annot t herefore o ffer m ore t han g eneralizations a bout t he o rigin, d istribution, c hronology a nd d evelopment o f i ts v ariants. T he d ecoration i tself i s n ative-derived a nd g oes b ack t o m iddle a nd l ate L a T ene t radit ions: • t he r oots l ie a lso i n H ellenistic p ottery. T he s hapes i ndicate t he i nfluence o f s igillata ( Drag. 2 7 , D rag. 3 6 , D rag. 3 0 , D rag. 3 7) a s w ell a s s ome o f t he d ecorative m otifs w hich a lso i mitate s amian. T he p roduction p robably s tarted a t t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D. b oth i n w estern a nd i n e astern P annonia. T he d ecoration o f t he e arly t ypes a ppears i n t he i nside o f b owls, 8 7

F ig. 1 8

L ate I ron A ge s apropelite b racelet , b rooch-pseudo L a ' V ane I I ( 1-2) a nd R oman b rooches ( 3-5) , i ron k ey ( 6) f ound i n t he s ettlement o f S zaköly-Reti f öldek. 8 8

. \

0

F ig. 1 9

3 cm

F ailed c ast o f a n A ntonine w ing-brooch f ound a t S zakdly-Riti f öldek. S cale l il.

i n t he c entre , s tamped r adially i n p airs o r i n f ours. O ne o r t wo e xamples o f t his s ort w ere f ound i n o ur s ettlement. I ts m ain p eriod o f u se m ust h ave b een t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury A .D. a t w hich t ime t he d ecoration i s m ost v aried. A t S zakdly s tamped w ares a re s carcer t han s amian e ven t hough s uch l arge q uantities w ere r ecorded i n n earby E raviscan t erritory t hat s ome r esearchers l ooked f or a w orkshop o f s tamped p ottery t here ( Fitz 1 976: 6 1). F rom t he p oint o f v iew o f f orm , t echnique a nd d ecoration , o ur b owls f rom S zakdly c an b e c ompared t o t hose o f G orsium; t he S opianae t ypes a re d ifferent ( Folep 1 974 : p l. 1 5 , 2 4 a nd 4 3). I f o ur b owls h ad , i n f act , b een m ade i n aw orkshop a t G orsium i t w ould b e au seful c ontribution t o t he d efinition o f t he e xport s phere o f o ne o f t he P annonian w orkshops. A s ingle t hin w alled p ottery f ragment c ame t o l ight b ut p ots a nd f lagons w ith p ainted s tripe d ecoration a re v ery c ommon. T he q uantity o f p ottery w ith m arbled-painting i s r elatively h igh. T he N oricum-Pannonian w inged b rooch i s ac haracteristic t ype i n t he D anube p rovinces. A s A lmgren r ecognized , i t d erives f rom a l ate L a T ene b rooch t ype. M orphologically i t i s c lose t o d ouble b uttoned b rooches ( doppelknopffibel) a nd t hose w ith s trong p rofile ( kräftig p rofilierte f ibel)(Jobst 1 975: 4 7-48). B esides N oricum a nd P annonia t hey a ppear i n R aetia ( Ettlinger 1 973: 5 9), D almatia a nd N orthern I taly , b ut i t w as a lso i ntroduced i nto B ritain, p robably b y t he L egio i x H ispana ( Kovrig 1 937 : 9 ). S ome b rooches a re f ound i n B avarian l ands n orth o f N oricum a nd P annonia 8 9

( Peekar 1 972: 2 4; M otykovd-gneiderovd 1 963: 1 18; W ielowiejski 1 970 : 3 8). T he t ype w as d iscussed i n d etail b y J . G arbsch ( 1965). W ithin t ype A 2 38 ( defined b y c onstructional d etails s uch a s t he f orm o f t he c atchplate a nd t he p osition o f t he b uttons o n t he w ings), h e d istinguished 2 1 v ariations. O urs i s t he c losest t o A 2 38 t ype c , i ts c haracteristic f eatures b eing t he t wo b uttons o n t he w ings a nd t he p erforated c atchplate. T his A 2 38 c v ariant w as v ery c ommon i n t he w estern a nd n orth e astern p ort o f P annonia ( Garbsch 1 965: 5 3-54): o ur v ariant f rom S zakdly i s m uch r arer i n N oricum. T ombstones d epicting n atives w earing j ewellery h elp u s t o s uggest b oth t heir d ate a nd t he w ay t hey w ere w orn. W . J obst a rranged t he m any v ariants i n t hree b road g roups ( 1975: 4 8): o urs c an b e a ssigned t o t he s econd g roup, t hough t o d efine s uch a f ragmentary p iece i s n ot e asy b ecause , f or e xample, t he c atchplate h as b roken. T he f ashion f or w inged b rooches l asted a l ong t ime: t he e arliest a re f rom t he A ugustian p eriod ( Garbsch 1 974: 1 69), t he l atest o ccur p reserved i n t radit ional n ative-style d ress i n t he t hird q uarter o r e ven a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D. ( Kovrig 1 937 : 1 1). O ur f ragment, a ccording t o G arbsch, c an b e d ated t o t he p eriod f rom F lavian t imes t o a bout 1 30 A .D. B ut f rom t he e vidence o f a s herd o f D rag. 3 3 i n t he f illing o f t he s ame p it ( no. x xix) i t w as p robably b uried s ometime l ater i n t he s econd t hird o r t hird q uarter o f t he s econd c entury A .D. T he i mportance o f t he S zakdly b rooch i s t hat i t i s a f ailed c asting ( the c asting l ug i s a ttached t o t he h ead a nd t he s tring i s n ot e laborated). S ince t he c asting f ailed t he d etailed f inishing h as n ot b een a ttempted. S emi-produced b rooches o f t his t ype h ave n ot p reviously b een f ound i n P annonia ( Sellye 1 970 : 7 3 f f.) t hough i t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese t ypes w ere p roduced i n P annonia a s w ell a s i n N oricum ( Kovrig 1 937 : 9 ). I t i s s urprising t hat t he f irst w orkshop h as b een l ocated i n t he K apos v alley w here o nly a f ew s ites h ave s o f ar b een r ecorded ( Szalacska, R egBly, Uzdborjdd)(Patek 1 942; s ites, 1 935: 1 68 , 1 90). T he b lank s pots o n t he m ap m ay h owever b e n othing m ore t han a n a ccident o f s urvival. B ecause o f t he d iscovery o f am ould f or c asting a b rooch a t S zalacska ( Paulovics 1 953: 1 16; H unyady p l. L V.15) w e w ere n ot u naware o f t he a ctivity o f b ronzesmiths i n t he K apos v alley. T he a ppearance o f am ore r ecent t ype, a lso r eflecting t he e xistence o f aw orkshop, m akes t he o ld f ind m ore r elevant. T he p articular i nterest o f t he S zakdly f ailed c asting i s t hat i t p rovides e vidence o f t he l ate p roduction o f t he b rooch t ype ( preserving a l ong t radition a nd b elonging t o t he n ative s tyle o f d ress) i nto t he A ntonine p eriod , a s w ell a s r eflecting t he a ctivity o f n ative m etalworkers i n t he m iddle o r t hird q uarter o f t he s econd c entury A .D. T hus o ur k nowledge o f h ow t he b ronze i ndustry o f p re-conquest t imes d eveloped d uring t he R oman p eriod h as b een m uch e nhanced. T he k nee-shaped b rooch w ith e xtremely s mall h ead i s a v ery c ommon t ype i n P annonia. T heir l ocal p roduction i s e videnced b y am ould f or c asting. T he d ating v alue o f t hese f inds i s s upporte d b y t he f act t hat m ost w ere f ound i n b uildings a nd s ettlement f eatures a ssociated w ith g reater o r l esser q uantities o f l ate I ron A ge f inds. T he o ccurrence o f ' Roman' t ype f inds s uch a s s amian a nd p ottery w ith m arbled p aint 19 d ating t o t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D., s how t hat h uts n os. v ii a nd x vi c an b e d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D. ( Fig. 2 0) 9 0

2nd

F irst

h a lf

o f t he f i rs t

c entury

c en tury B .C .- f i rs t c entury

A .D .

A .D .

XX.

1 st

0 0

h a lf o f s econd

c entury

A .D .

1 m 4F t

F ig. 2 0

L ate I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman s unken f loor h ut r evealed i n t he n ative s ettlement a t S zakdly-Reti eldek. 9 1

w hile h uts n os. x xv ,

x xix a nd x xxii a re o f A ntonine d ate ( Fig. 2 1).

L a T ene D p ottery w as a bsent f rom h uts n os. i ii , x ii , x iv , x viii , s o w e m ight s uggest a d ate a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury a nd i n t he t hird c entury A .D., b ut w e h ave t o t reat t his d ating w ith c oution s ince t he o nly f inds w ere t ankards , s imple d omestic p ottery a nd o ther f ragments w hich a re s carcely s uitable f or c lose d ating. W hile l ate I ron A ge s ettlement f eatures o ccur e xclusively i n a rea A , t hose o f t he R oman p eriod a ppear a lso o n t he w estern a nd e astern p art o f t he t errace o verlooking t he r iver K apos. I t i s j ust p ossible t hat t he e xtent o f t he R oman v illage w as g reater t han t he s ettlement i n t he l ate I ron A ge. D iscussion T he e vidence o f t he f inds s hows t hat t he o ccupation o f t he l ate I ron A ge s ettlement c ontinued i nto t he R oman p eriod , i n t he f irst c enturies o f t he I mperial a ge w ithout a ny n oticeable a lterat ion. T he q uestion w hich a rises i s, w ithin t he t erritory o f t he H ercuniates, i s t he s urvival o f t he S zakdly s ettlement u nique o r a re t here o ther k inds o f e vidence p ointing t o s imilar c ontinuity? T he s tudy o f t he l andscape o f t he R oman p eriod i s r elatively n eglected: n o g eneral s ynthesis h as b een m ade , a s w as d one f or t he L a T ene f inds b y I . H unyady ( see T IR A quincum L -34), a nd o n t he b asis o f t he p ublished m aterial w e c an a dd o nly a f ew f ind s pots t o o ur m ap. I t i s c lear t hat i n t he c ases o f m ost o f t he d efended s ites ( Reg8ly , S zabadhidveg , B alatonföldv c ir) t here i s n o e vidence o f t heir o ccupation i n t he R oman p eriod. T his i s c omp arable t o t he e vidence f rom t he ( ) p l aid ( ' o f T ransdanubia a nd t hose l ying n orth t o t he r iver D anube ( Collis 1 975; P etres 1 976 : 7 6). B ecause o f t he m easures t aken b y T iberius a nd C laudius t hey m ust h ave b een a bandoned , b ut o nly f urther r esearch w ill p rovide e vidence o f t he e xact d ate a nd m anner o f a bandonment. T he V drdomb a t D unaszekcsö ' w as , f or e xample , o ccupied b y a uxiliary t roops u nder C laudius , s o t he n ative o ccupation o f t hese f ortified s ettlements w as p robably a t a n e nd b y t he R oman C onquest ( Fülep 1 976 : 1 13). O n t he o ther h and r esearch , a lbeit l imited , s uggests t hat a t S zalacska t he R oman v illage i s t he d irect c ontinuation o f t he l ate L a T ene s ettlement , w hich i t c losely r esembles ( Sdgi 1 954 : 7 6; P etres 1 976 : 7 6). I n t he L a T ene D p eriod t he s ettlement a t S zalacska s erved a s a n a gricultural a nd c ommercial c entre , p ossibly a s am arket f or t he d istribution o f s urplus c orn , a nd e vidently w as a n o rganisational c entre o f at erritory w ithin w hich i mported R oman g oods w ere d istributed. I t t herefore m eets t he r equirements w hich w ere c onsidered b y B . C unliffe a s t he c haracteristics o f t erritorial o ppida ( Cunliffe 1 976 : 3 43-358; C ollis 1 979 : 1 36). I f o ne t akes i nto c onsideration t he f act t hat , i n c ertain p arts o f t he w estern p rovinces t he t erritorial o ppida h ave a ' general t rend t o s urvive t hroughout t he R oman o ccupation' s ince u sually ' the R oman a dministrative s tructure w as p rojected o nto t he e xisti ng o rganization' ( Groenmann-van W aateringe 1 979 : 1 040), t hen i t 9 2

M idd le o f 2nd c entury A .D .

(Anton ine p er iod )

XV I I I .

2n d -3 r d c en tury A .D .

X I I.

X IV.

0 0 o

1m 4Ft w=

F ig. 2 1

S unken f loor h ut o f t he R oman s ettlement a t S zak c ily-Reti f t ildek. 9 3

is quite easy to understand why the Romons preserved - if only for o limited period - the well organized proto-urbon centres where they existed. On the map of the Romon settlement pottern besides the limes along the river Danube - we look in vain for villas (Thomos 1964) and inscriptions reflec�ins the Roman wo} of life ond we rarely meet with troces of houses built of stone (Fig. 22). Though the map may well be modified os the result of a more intensive investigation and more sites will certainly be found, it is important to recall that even os the result of l. Tormo's systematic field-surveying in the region no evidence of ony villa has been recorded on the well-investigated territory cf the Hercuniotes. 20 At the same time in nine settlements simi!ar to our site at Szakály (where we can demonstrate for the first time the continuity of o non-oppidum oper.-settlement into the Romon period) La Tene finds appear associated with Roman pottery and other finds (Tormo 1964). Our suggestion is thot in these nine cases we can suppose there to hove been a La Tene settlement surviving into Romon times. The obsence of villas and inscriptions on the one hond and the presence of peosont settlements of the notive population (suggested by the La Tene finds) on the other, leads to the same conclusion, that the low­ land settlements survived in the first centuries of the Romon period, in their unchanged prehistoric form, in those oreas where their presence did not threaten the militory interests of Rome (Rivet 1958: 119; Frere 1967: 265). But in those oreas where the militory reorganization was necessary, the centres of the Pannonian-Dalmotian revolt, olong the roads connecting Itoly with the river Danube, and on the Danubian frontier, Rome odopted the policy of resettlement. The few known vici of Ponnonia ore communities of this kind: almost all oTthem were created by Rome's deliberate r�settlement policy. It is q�ite evident that here the way of life, the settlement type, the leve! of comfort, the methods of cultivation and even personal belongings changed rapidly so that Romanization wos quickly achieved. Meanwhile in the Szokály-type settlements the development was much slower and they still largely maintained their pre-Romon life-style. The signs of this strong traditional pre-Romon way of life ore: 1)

Sunken floor huts and timber-structured buildings with doubed walls (i.e. native-type dwellings) continued to be built not only into the first century A.D. but to the end of the Roman period.

2)

Up to the end of the first century A.O. Roman influence can scorcely be recognized in the material culture (except for o single sigillata sherd from the Po volley, o thin walled cup with rusticated decoration ond some painted pottery). The range of Lo Tene D types continuing until the middle of the second century A.D. is considerable. During eight excovation­ compoigns we found only five coins, all from the fourth century A.O.: there is a perforated Valentinianus coin omong them. (Roman coins are rorely found in SW Britain, where the standard of living of the late Iron Age continues into the Roman times (Rivet 1958: 116)).

3)

The quantity of imported goods is minimal: the total number of sigillata fragments is only about 80, while from the 94

t s :

• S zaka ly 10

f z e 4 -2 9

•

o A L ISCA

II D

AD S TAT VAS

A.

L VG IO

IW I

• R oman s e t t lemen t w i th l a te I r on A ge p redecesso r

o Roman s e t t lemen t

• T race o f R oman b u i ld ings

•

Roman v i l la

E l Roman A ux i l iary f o r t II nscr ip t ions

F ig. 2 2

R oman s ettlement d istribution i n t he t erritory o f t he c ivitas H ercuniatium i n P annonia I nferior. 9 5

s lightly l arger ' native s ettlement' o f G orsium 1 019 s herds a re k nown. 2 1 T he f igures r eveal h ow t he s igillata s upply o f t he R omanized s ettlements d iffers f rom t he s hare o f i mported g oods a vailable t o t he n ative s ettlements. B esides s igillatae t he o nly o ther i mported ( ?) f ragment i s a n I talian t hin w alled c up w ith r usticated d ecoration. 4 )

I t i s a lso s urprising t hat a t S zakdly , e xcept f or t he f ourth c entury , m ortaria r arely o ccur , t hough t hey a re o ne o f t he m ost c haracteristic p ottery t ypes f ound i n e xcavations a ll o ver t he R oman E mpire. S ince t he m ortarium i s a s pecial p iece o f R oman h ousehold e quipment , s ometimes a p art o f at able-set , D . B aatz ( 1977 : 1 47 f f.) w as r ight t o c onnect t hem w ith R omani zation. T heir l ack o r s carcity c an b e u nderstood i n t he l ight o f t he f act t hat a t S zakdly , a nd o n o ther p easant s ettlem ents , a t l east u ntil t he f ourth c entury A .D., t here w as n o f ashionable R oman d ining t radition n or d id t hey u se a romatics w hich w ere n ot c ultivated l ocally ( Baatz 1 977 : 1 54).

5 )

A mong a nimal b ones t he s carcity o f t hose o f p oultry m ust b e e mphasized. C omparing o ur R oman b one f inds w ith t he o ppidum o f G ellerthegy-Tabdn o r M anching, t he p rofile s hows t he c haracteristics o f t he l ate I ron A ge a nd n ot t hose o f t he R oman m odel i n t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A .D.

T hese p oints t ogether i mply t he c ontinuation o f c ustoms , s ettlementp attern a nd d welling f orms - a ll o f p rehistoric o rigin - r eflecti ng t raditional w orking m ethods a nd l and-division ( Rivet 1 969 : 4 2). T he l ack o f i nscriptions a nd v illas a lso s hows t hat R omanized e states , v eteran h oldings o r m unicipal f arms o f m edium s ize , w hich h elped t o a ccelerate d evelopment e lsewhere , a voided t hese r egions f or a l ong t ime. W e h ave n o e vidence f or t he m unicipalization o f t he t erritory ( Möcsy 1 969 : 3 50). T hus t he p easant c ommunities r emained u naffected a nd t he c onditions o f t he p re-Conquest p eriod w ere p reserved ( cf. F rere 1 967 : 2 65). T he d ensely p opulated C eltic a reas w ere f ar r emoved f rom t he n etwork o f e arly m ilitary r oads. T he m ost i mportant c ross r oad i n t he f irst c entury A .D. w as t hat w hich c onnected P oetovio w ith A quincum a nd i ts m ost s trategic l ocations w ere d efended b y m ilitary s trong-points o r v eteran s ettlements. F rom t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury A .D. t he p rincipal c entre o f d evelopment w as t he D anubian f rontier z one. T he K apos v alley w as a gain f ar r emoved f rom i t , s o t ogether w ith o ther t erritories i t r emained b ackward a nd u ndeveloped. T he m aintenance o f t he c ivitas w as i n t he i nterest o f a uxiliary r ecruiting. J . F itz o bserveg-j-71;ilar , t hough n ot s o r etarded d evelopment i n t he s outhern p art o f t he n eighbouring c ivitas E raviscorum ( 1971: 5 25 3). T here i s o ther e vidence t o s how h ow s lowly c hanges t ook p lace i n o ur s ettlement. N ot o nly a t S zakdly b ut o ver a lmost t he w hole o f t he c entral p art o f t he c ounty o f T olna s amian i mported f rom W esterndorf a nd P faffenhofen a nd R aetian w are o f t he S everan p eriod a re a bsent ( the o nly W esterndorf s amian f ragment w as f ound i n t he 1 980 e xcavation a t S zakdly). T his i s al ittle p uzzling b ecause t his i s t he p eriod o f p rosperity a nd o f t he g reatest e conomic d evelopment i n t he e astern p art o f t he p rovince ( Möcsy 9 6

1 977b: 5 71-579). T he a bsence o f t hese t ypes m ight s uggest t hat t he v alley o f t he K apos d id n ot s hare i n t hat p rosperity. A part f rom t he p attern r epresented b y p easant s ettlements l ike S zakdly , t he n ative p opulation c ould e volve i n a nother w ay. T he d evelopment o f t he a rea o f t he S cordisci, f or e xample , b egan o n t he p re-Roman b asis b ut b ecause o f i ts s trategical a nd c ommercial i mportance , r eflected i n t he c onstruction o f f orts a nd R oman t owns, t he ' Roman' d evelopment f ollowed i ts n ormal p attern ( Todorovid 1 974 : 2 66). T he n ative p opulation i n M oesia S uperior s urvived i n u rban c ommunities l ying f ar f rom t he l imes ( Scupi, N aissus) a nd i n t he u nurbanised a reas c entre a nd s outh w est o f D ardania ( Mirkovid 1 977 : 6 43), w hile t hey w ere e xpelled f rom t he m ilitary t erritories. I n a reas p opulated b y c ertain g roups, e .g. b y t he M oesi, n o t owns w ere c reated , m ost o f t he p opulation ' blieb v on d e7-R WR onisierung u nberü hrt' ( Mirkovid 1 977 : 8 43). I n t he c ase o f t he K apos v alley t he n ative p opulation o f s ome s ocial s trata d o n ot ' lebten a usserhalb r ömischen E influssen', b ut i t i s b eyond d oubt t hat m ost e lements o f t he p re-Roman l and-use , l ife-style a nd d ress w ere p reserved b y t he s urviving g roups r emaining i n t heir t raditional t erritories f or a c onsiderable p eriod. F urther e xamples o f t raditional s ettlem ent d evelopment c ontinuing i n n ative s tyle a re n ot u nknown o n t he R hine ( Petrikovits 1 977 : 1 01, 1 21) b ut h ere t he I ron A ge s ettlements a nd t heir e conomic s ystems h ad a n u nbroken o ccupation o nly i n t he l ess p roductive r egions. O nly h ere , o n t he s o-called r öckzugslands chaft w as t he l ess p roductive c ultivation , p roducing n o s urplus , c arried o n , w hile i n o ther r egions v illa-farming w as i ntroduced ( Rivet 1 969 : 1 85). F urther e xamples o f t he s urvival o f n ative s ettlements i nto t he R oman A ge a re d iscussed b y E . W ightman ( 1975: 5 96). T he S zaköly s ettlement m aintained i ts a gricultural f unction f rom t he I ron A ge i nto t he R oman p eriod. B esides t he l arge n umber o f s torage p its , q uern s tones , a nd c orn d rying f urnaces , t he c arbonised g rain f ound i n p it n o. x vii a lso p rovided e vidence o f t he i mportance o f g rain-production t o t he e conomy. T hat h and m illing w as a t edious a nd s low p rocess i s t he r eason w hy i t w as n ecessary t o s tore g rain. P robably o nly a s mall q uantity - e nough f or h ousehold u se - w as m illed a t at ime , m ost o f t he c orn b eing s tored f or t he w inter a nd s pring. T he s oil w as c ultivated b y t he p easant c ommunity o f t he v illage; i n E . W ightman's f undamental w ork o ne c an s ee s pecific e xamples ( 1975: 5 36 , 6 06). T he s ubd ivision o f l and p robably p ersisted d uring t he R oman p eriod s ince w e h ave n o e vidence t hat t hey a dopted t he m ore p roductive m ethods o f R oman f arming. T he b asic f armyard a nimals w ere c attle a nd s heep; p igs p layed a m ore s ignificant r ole i n R oman t imes. I ndustrial p roduction w as o f s ubordinate s ignificance: i t w as s econdary t o t he a gricultural f unction. A part f rom t he s o-called h omecrafts a m ore s pecialized h andicraft a lso a ppeared i n t he r ural s ettlements. T he p resence o f s lag ( iron?) s uggests t he a ctivity o f c raftsmen w ho n ot o nly p roduced r aw m aterial, e .g. b y s melting b ut a lso f orged i t f or u se. B esides a b lacksmith t here w as p robably a nother c raftsman s killed i n b ronzework ( Cosack 1 979 : 7 6). T hat a g roup o f N orish-Pannonian w inged b rooches w as p roduced h ere s uggests t hat a b ronze-worker p robably s ettled s omewhere i n t he a rea , s upplying l ocal n eeds. 9 7

T he l ate R oman s ettlement A lthough, i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavations o nly l imited s tructural e vidence o f t he l ate R oman p eriod h as b een f ound ( and d ating i s d ifficult b ecause m odern c ultivation h as d isturbed t he f loor l evels), i t i s p ossible t o d efine c ertain n ew c haracteri stics u nknown i n t he l ate I ron A ge-early R oman s ettlement. I t i s n otable t hat, a lthough s unken f loor h uts a re n umerous n one w ere f ound c ontaining m aterial d ated e xclusively t o t he f ourth t o f ifth c entury A .D. I n t he l ate R oman p eriod t his b uilding t ype s eems t o b e a bsent. A t t he s ame t ime e ach o f t he e xcavated s urface-built s tructures c an b e d ated t o t he t hird t o f ourth c entury A .D. T he e arliest o ne, t he g round-plan o f w hich w as v ery e asy t o r ecognise , w as f ound i n a rea C . I t w as e rected o n t he s urface , a nd w as v ery s imilar i n p lan t o h ouse n o. 7 o f t he G orsium ' native' s ettlement ( Kocztur 1 973: 5 6; B önis 1 969 : 2 08) a nd t o t he p ostb uilt h ouse a t A dony e xcavated b y L . B arköczi a nd E . B önis ( 1954 : 1 39-140). I ts o ccupation-level w as d isturbed b y p loughing b ut i ts g round p lan w as d efined b y p ost-holes a nd p its d ug i nto t he g round ( Fig. 1 2). I t w as r ectangular m easuring 5 .5 x 4 m , t he r oof b eing s upported b y w ooden p osts. I n t he c entre w as a p it j ust l ike t hose f ound i n s imilar b uildings o f t he L a T ene D s ettlements i n S lovakia ( Pleiner 1 954 : 7 78; P aulik 1 955: 1 78; K olnik 1 962: 3 96). O n t he b asis o f s torage v essels f ound w ithin ab uilding i n S ered o ne m ight t hink t his f eature t o b e as torage p it ( Paulik 1 955 : 1 54 , 1 67 p l. V III; B fer i 1 971: 2 97). T he p it i n t he m iddle o f t he S zaköly h ouse w as n ot c omparable t o a ny o f t hc . o ther e torage p its s ituated o utside ( and o ccasionally i nside) h ouses , s o i ts i dentification a s as torage p it i s o pen t o d oubt. O ne p ost-pit o f as maller b uilding, c onstructed a t g round l evel w as c ut i nto p it n o. x xv. A s imilar f our-post s tructure w as f ound a t L ebeny-Magasmart b y R . P usztai ( 1967 : f ig. 3 ), w hich h e b elieved t o b e as table w ith o pen s ides. L arge l umps o f b aked c lay w ere f ound i n t he p ost-pits o f t he t imber s tructure , m easuring 4 .4 x 3 m . I n c ontrast w ith t he b uilding a t L ebeny , o urs p robably h ad n o w attle a nd d aub w alls b ut w as b uilt o f w ood. T he m assive w ooden s tructure i s v ery s trong i n c omparison w ith t he s mall s ize o f t he b uilding. S imilar p ost s tructures w ere e xcavated i n M anching , m easuring 4 x 4 m ( Schubert 1 972: 1 21, B ei1.6) a nd , t ogether w ith t he s imilar s ettlement f eatures f rom G ermania a nd G aul, t hey w ere r ecognized a s g ranaries. A s imilar f our-post g ranary , d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D., w as d escribed b y G . S impson ( 1966 : 1 5). T hey w ere c onstructed o f w ood w ith t heir f loors r aised o n p illars t o l et t he a ir f low f reely b elow . T he f our-post g ranaries a re e asily r ecognizable f eatures o f I ron A ge a gricultural s ettlements. P reviously i t w as s upposed t hat g rain f or c onsumption w as b uried i n s torage p its a nd s eed-corn w as p reserved i n r aised g ranaries ( Cunliffe 1 974 : 1 68-170). S eed-corn c an h owever b e s tored i n d ry p its w ithout d amage o r w ithout l osing p owers o f g ermination ( Reynolds 1 974 : 1 18-130). R aised g ranaries w ere u sed a s s afety p recautions a gainst d isaster ( Morris 1 979 : 3 1). S torage p its o f t he f ourth

9 8

c entury A .D. a lso w ere r ecorded ( e.g. p it n o. x xx) b ut t hey w ere d eeper a nd t heir c apacity w as f ar g reater t han e arlier e xamples. ( The d epth o f p it n o. x xx w as 2 .8 m . I t w as b arrel-shaped , g radually n arrowing t owards t he b ottom a nd w as f illed w ith a shy l ayers , c harcoal a nd p otsherds.) T he r aised g ranary i n a rea C w as d ated b y p it n o. x xv w hich w as c ut b y t he p ost-structure. S ince t he p it i s d ated t o t he A ntonine p eriod t he g ranary c an b e a scribed t o t he e nd o f t he s econd o r t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury A .D. A s n o l ate R oman p ottery o r o ther m aterial w as f ound i n i ts n eighbourhood , t he b uilding i s u nlikely t o b e l ater t han t he t hird c entury A .D. W e m ay s uppose t hat t he t imber h ouse a nd g ranary , o rientated i n t he s ame d irection , b elonged t ogether. I t i s p ossible t hat t he t wo b uildings w ere j oined t ogether b y as tructure o pening a t t he c orner o f t he h ouse ( Schubert 1 972: 1 21) ( Fig. 1 2). I n t he e xcavation o f a rea B a 6 x 4 m burnt c lay f loor w as f ound b elonging t o ab uilding e rected a t g round l evel: o nly i ts e dges w ere d isturbed b y p loughing. T he f loor w as r esurfaced a t l east o nce. L arge b rick-shaped c lay l umps w ere f ound w ithout t races o f w attle m arks s uggesting t hat t he w alls m ay h ave b een o f s un-dried b rick . T he a rrangement o f t imbers b uttressing t he r oof b ecame c lear w hen , d uring o ur e xcavation i n 1 980 , w e f ound o ther l ate R oman b uildings o f s imilar s tructure. T he p revious b uilding i s d ated b y ac oin o f C onstantius I I w hich w as f ound b eneath i ts f loor. T he s tructure e xcavated i n 1 980 w as d ated b y W esterndorf s amian w are , c ontained i n o ne o f t he p ost-hole f ills , b y l ate R oman c alcite g ritted p ottery w ith a s trongly i nverted p rofile ( its s hape r eminiscent o f t he M iddle A ges), a nd b y g lazed m ortaria. N o h earth w as f ound i n e ither b uilding , b ut s ome o f t he e xternal o vens, b uilt o f s un-dried c lay , p robably b elonged t o t he l ate R oman s ettlement . T hree l ate t he g rave g oods ,a t hey c an b e d ated t he f ifth c entury

R oman g raves w ere a lso f ound. A ccording t o g lass b ottle , c omb w ith b uckelrücken a nd p ottery, t o t he v ery e nd o f t he f ourth o r b eginning o f A .D.

I n t he w estern p art o f a rea A a c ylindrical p it o f 1m i n d iameter w as e xcavated. I t w as n ot c oated b y c lay o r b urnt a nd i ts f illing w as o f d ark h umus. A t ad epth o f 4 .5 m i ts b ottom w as n ot r eached b ut f urther e xcavation w as p revented b y t he u prush o f g round w ater. O nly a f ew f inds w ere f ound i n t he p it ( presumably aw ell) b ut a f ragment o f ag lazed R eibschOssel p rovided e vidence t hat i t w as u sed i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. F rom s lag t hat w as f ound, t he s ettlement m ust h ave h ad a l ocal s mith ( Jankuhn 1 966 : 3 45). T hey s tarted t o d ig t he w ell a s aw ide p it f rom t he s urface ( pit n o. x i), t he w ell-pit i tself w as d eepened f rom i t ( De B oe 1 977 : 5 4; K ocztur 1 974 : 9 7 f ig. 3 ). T he d ating o f t he l ate R oman s ettlement i s i ndicated b y t he f ollowing f inds: N o. 1 . C entenionalis o f C onstantius I I ( 351-361). O bv . D N C ONSTAN-TIUS P F A UG. R ev . F EL T EMP R EPARATIO. F H3 A 5155 o r B SISS m int-mark L BRC 1 222 , 1 228 . F s: Q uadrant 1 4 ,2 , 3 0 c m. 9 9

N o. 2 .

R im N ot T he T he C f. F s:

s herd o f ag lazed m ortarium i n r ed-brown w are. u niformly f ired; c olour l ayers i n b roken e dge. o live g reen g laze o nly c overs t he i nner s urface. g ritty c oating i s o f v ariable t hickness. G rünewald , 1 979 , f ig. 6 3,5. Q uadrant 6 1, 0 -55 c m ( Fig. 2 3, 1 ).

N o. 3

S hallow p late i n c oarsely g ranular r ed w are. T he w all s lopes o utwards a nd t he e verted r im i s s lightly t hickene d o n t he i nside. D ark g rey s lip. R illed. M dm : 1 6 c m , H : 3 .8 c m , B dm: 8 .7 c m. F s: Q uadrant 4 7 , T rench X XX, 2 40 c m ( Fig. 2 3, 3 ).

N o. 4

B eaker i n c oarsely g ranular y ellowish-grey w are. C alcareous f inish. C onstricted n eck a nd s lightly e verted r im. C f. I . K ovdcs, D olgozatok 3 ( 1912), 2 55 , F ig. 4 , 3 3. M dm: 8 .3 c m , H : 1 0.6 c m , B dm: 5 .5 c m. F s: Q uadrant 8 , 5 0 c m ( Fig. 2 3, 2 ).

N o. 5

B ulbous j ar w ith c onstricted n eck a nd a ngular r im i n b rown-grey w are. C alcareous f inish. R estored. C f. L . B arköczi a nd A . S alomon, A lba R egia 1 1 ( 1970), 6 8 , f ig. X XII, 3 . M dm: 1 9.5 c m , H : 2 4.6 c m , B dm : 8 .5 c m. F s: Q uadrant 8 ,2, t opsoil ( Fig. 2 3, 4 ).

N o. 6

B rooch w ith r ibbon b ow a nd f oot t urned b ack o n i tself t o f orm c atch-plate. T he f oot t erminates i n aw ire w hich i s w ound f our t imes a round t he b ow. C oiled s pring w ith i nferior c hord. C f. K ovrig, 1 937 , p l. X II ' 1 25; P atek , 1 942 , p l. X XVI.2; Jo bst , 1 975 , 1 95; T ejral, 9 3; G udea a nd L ucäcel, 1 979 , p l. X III 1 50. L ength 8 .4 c m. D ate: s econd h alf o f t hird c entury t o b eginning o f f ifth c entury ( Fig. 1 8 , 5 ).

G lazed m ortaria a re o ne o f t he m ost c ommon t ypes o f p ottery f ound o n l ate R oman s ettlements. T hey a re a lso f ound i n g raves i n B arbarian t erritories ( Böna 1 961: 1 96). A lthough, f rom R aetio t o P annonia, t hey a ppear i n l arge q uantity ( Keller 1 971: 1 29; D ole< 1 972: p l. V I.11-12) t heir f abrics a nd v ariation i n s hape e xcludes t he p ossibility o f t heir b eing d istributed b y l ongd istance t ransport f rom a s ingle w orkshop. T here i s s ome e vidence o f w here t hey w ere m anufactured ( Grünewald 1 979: 6 7): k ilns a re r ecorded i n t he f ort o f P ilismaröt ( Findly 1 907 : 5 2-53), a t P rogar - n ear Z imony-Zemun ( Vikid 1 970 : 3 2) a nd a t T okod ( Lönyi 1 980). T he a ppearance o f g lazed p ottery c an b e d ated t o t he f ourth c entury A .D. b ut o f t heir p recise c hronology w e c an s ay l ittle m ore t han E . E ttlinger's s tatement t hat g lazed j ugs a nd r eibschüssel c ould n ot b e d ated e xactly w ithin t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( 1959: 2 94). M ost s herds o f g lazed p ottery, b oth i n t he s ettlements a nd c emeteries o f P annonia, c an b e d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( Pöczy 1 957 : 7 2 , 7 6; B urger 1 966 : 1 40; V dgö a nd B öna 1 976 : 1 90; B urger 1 979 : 1 2; L dnyi 1 972: 1 44). T heir u se a nd p roduction s eems t o h ave c ontinued i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury A .D. ( Alföldi 1 932: 5 2-53; G rünewald 1 979 : 7 0). I t i s p ossible t hat o ne g roup o f g lazed r eibschössel i s c ontemporary w ith b urnished p ottery , b oth, p erhaps, b eing p roduced i n t he s ame w orkshops ( Grunewald 1 977 : 1 65). C hronological

1 00

3

2

4

0

F ig. 2 3

5 cm

L ate R oman c oarse p ottery f rom t he r ural s ettlement o f S zaköly-Reti f öldek. I , g lazed m ortarium; 2 , 4 , c alcite g ritted w are; 3 , d ish w ith a d ark g rey s urface. S cale 1 /3.

1 01

c lassification b ased o n g laze-colour c an b e a pplied o nly f or a l imited r egion ( ParoviC-Peeikan 1 973: 2 4). T he t ype o f r ough b eaker w ith e verted r im ( no. 4 ) i s c ommon b eyond t he f rontier , e specially i n t he c emeteries o f t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury o r t he f ifth c entury A .D. ( Pörducz 1 963: p l. V I.6). T he v ariants o f t he g rey b owl t ype w ith t hickened r im a re o ne o f t he m ost c ommon g rave-goods o f l ate R oman c emeteries i n P annonia, i n m ost c ases b eing f ound t ogether w ith a s mall H enkeltöpfchen ( Pöczy 1 957 : 8 4; G abler 1 971: 6 8). T his t ype w as i n u se i n t he f ifth c entury A .D. a s i ts p arallel b urnished d ecoration i ndicates ( Gronewold 1 979 : 6 4). P arallels i n t echnique r ather t han f orm o f p ot N o. 5 c an b e s een i n t he c emetery o f C sdkvdr a nd a t an umber o f l ate R oman l imes f orts. T he t ype h as a n e astern o rigin ( Barköczi a nd S alomon _ 07 0 : 6 8; S oproni 1 978: p l. 7 0 , 7 ). T he b rooch w ith b ent-back f oot i s o ne o f t he m ost c ommon b rooch t ypes f rom t he m iddle o f t he t hird c entury t o t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury A .D. O pinions a bout i ts o rigin a nd d evelopment v ary ( Kom ik 1 965 : 2 34; J obst 1 975: 7 8). A c lose v ariant o f o ur t ype i s d ated b y a s amian v essel o f C omitialis, f rom W esterndorf, i n t he g rave n o. 2 22 i n O Ckov ( Kolnik 1 965: 2 33). I n t he p rovinces t his v ariant i s v ery c ommon i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( Barköczi a nd S alomon 1 970 : 6 4). A ccording t o t he e vidence o f t he f inds t he o ccupation o f t he s ettlement s eems t o b e u nbroken u ntil t he e nd o f t he f ourth o r t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury A .D. I n t he l ate R oman i nhumation g raves, a ppearing s cattered i n e xcavation a reas A a nd B , c ontemporary o r s lightly l ater t ypes o ccur. T he g raves, i n m any c ases, c ut t he e arlier b uildings.

D iscussion A mongst t he c haracteristics o f t he t hird- t o f ourthc entury s ettlement s o f ar e xposed w e h ave n oted: 1 )

S unken f loor h uts a re n ot r ecorded, a ppeared a t t his t ime.

b ut p ost-built s tructures

2 )

T he f orm a nd s ize o f s torage p its c hanged. N ew t ypes o f f eature a lso a ppeared, e .g. t he c ellar-like s tructure c utting t hrough p it n o. x iv.

3 )

B y t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury A .D., L a T ene D a nd L a T ene D -like p ottery h as a lmost e ntirely d isappeared, a nd n ew s tandard a nd m ore u niform p rovincial t ypes t ake t heir p lace ( see B loemers 1 978). I n p ottery o f t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury A .D. s trong b arbarizing t rends c an b e r ecognized.

4 )

T hat o nly a f ew c oins w ere f ound c an b e a scribed t o g eneral t rends i n c oin c irculation a nd n ot t o t he d egree o f R omanizat ion.

T hough t hese c haracteristics d o n ot s uggest a ny e ssential a lterat ion i n t he w ay o f l ife o f t he s ettlement t hey i mply a c ertain p rogress w hen c ompared w ith t he p revious p hase o f d evelopment. 1 02

A t p resent w e a re n ot a ble t o s uggest w hy t he c hanges o ccurred , b ut w e m ight m ention t hat o n t he f ormer t erritory o f t he c ivitas H ercuniatium t here w as a c hange t owards l atifundia i n t his p eriod. I n t he i nner p art o f t he p rovince t he e volution o f l arge e states b egan i n t he s econd c entury A .D. a nd d eveloped i n t he t hird c entury A .D. I n t he t erritory s outh o f L ake B alaton, a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury o r b eginning o f t he t hird c entury A .D., t omb s tones i ndicating s mall a nd m edium s ize e states a re a bsent w hile t hey a re v ery c ommon i n t he D anube b end o r a long t he f rontier: o n t he o ther h and w e f ind h ere m any p lace-names f ormed f rom f amily n ames, s uch a s T ricciana a nd S o i anae, w hich c an p robably b e c ompleted b y t he w ord v illa o r v illae, s ignifying t he c entre o f i ndividual l atifundia ( Raj r-T öti 1 955: 4 92; M öcsy 1 959: 4 2 , 1 85). I n t his a rea i t w as n ot t he c oncentration o f p arcels o f l and o nce s ubd ivided b etween v eterans, o r o f m unicipal m edium s ize e states, w hich l ed t o t he f ormation o f l atifundia ( as i n t he h ighlands o f L ake B alaton), b ecause t his p reliminary p hase o f d evelopment d id n at o ccur i n o ur t erritory. T he p easant c ommunities o f t he v illages s eem t o h ave d eveloped t owards s mall s cale f arming ( Möcsy 1 962: 6 73). T his p rocess w as a ccelerated b y t he v eterans r eturning t o s ettle i n t heir o wn v illages. T he c oncentration o f e states s tarted o nly a fter t he t ime o f M arcus A urelius. T he m unicipalization o f t he s ingle t own-like s ettlement , S opianae, l ying c lose t o t he K apos v alley, c an b e d ated t o t he m iddle o f t he t hird c entury A .D. M unicipal r ank w as g iven t o i t u nder G allienus a nd t he d evelopment s tarted o nly a fter t his ( Fitz 1 976b: 4 1 f f.). I t i s j ust p ossible t hat c onsequent u pon t hese c hanges a n i mperial l atifundium w as c reated. R ecently m ost o f t he f orts i n t he i nner p art o f t he p rovince h ave b een s uggested t o b e t he c entres o f i mperial e states N th 1 975: 1 87 f f.; M öcsy 1 974: 3 03 f f.; M öcsy 1 977 : 3 91). O n t he b asis o f ad e ree i ssued f rom T ricciana ( Sc igvc ir , s outh t o t he l acus P elso)L 2 t he s uggestion h ad b een p ut f orward t hat t he e mperors v isited t hese f orts f or s horter o r l onger p eriods. D espite t he i ncompleteness o f t he s ources w e c an s how t hat t he i mpact o f c ivilisation i n t he K apos v alley a ccelerated i n t he t hird c entury A .D. T he d evelopment o f t he e state a nd t he e xpansion o f i mperial l atifundia l ed t o t he a bandonment o f e arlier s ystems a nd t o t he a doption o f m ore p roductive c ultivation r egimes. T he s ignificance o f o ur e xcavation a t S zakc ily i s t hat i t p rovides i nformation a bout t he w ay o f l ife, s ettlement-structure a nd m ethods o f c ultivation o f a s ocial s tratum o f t he P annonian n ative p opulation w hich i s n ot r evealed b y t he i nscriptions. I t w as a c ommunity i n w hich t he p re-Roman p attern s urvived l ong i nto t he R oman e ra t o b e r eplaced v ery l ate, a nd t hen o nly s uperficially, b y R oman e conomic a nd c ultural s ystems.

1 03

C onclusion

T he s urvival o f l ate I ron A ge s ettlement p atterns i n T ransdanubia i nto t he R oman p eriod h as n ot , h itherto, b een w ell r esearched. U ntil r ecently t he e nd o f t he p re-Roman s tyle s ettlem ents h as b een l inked w ith t he n ew p olitical a nd e conomic f ormat ions i mposed b y t he R oman C onquest. T his i s t rue i n t he c ases o f m ost o f t he d efended s ites e ven i f s ome o f t heir f unctions ( e.g. a s c ult c entres) s urvived i nto t he R oman p eriod. T he s trategic i mportance o f s ome o f t he f ortified s ettlements o n t he D anube w as r ecognized b y t he R omans w ho i ntegrated t hem i nto t he l imes-system. T his n aturally m eant t hat t he i nhabitants w ere e -7 13 ;iled a nd t he l ate I ron A ge f ortification a bandoned. T he o ccupation o f m ost o f t he l ate L a T ene l ow-land s ettlements l asted u ntil t he R oman C onquest b ut t here w as n o e vidence t o s uggest t heir p ossible s urvival i nto t he I mperial p eriod. O n t he o ther h and t he n ative v ici o f t he R oman p eriod h ad n o p redecessors i n t he l ate I ron A ge, a nd t opographically t heir s ites a re n ot t he s ame a s t hose o f t he p re-Roman l ate L a T ene s ettlements. A part f rom h istorical s ources i mplying f orceful R oman r eorganization a nd t he r esettlement o f e thnic g roups, o bserv ations b ased o n t he k nown s ettlement-pattern w ere n ecessarily l imited b y t he l ack o f a vailable d ata. S ince t he f ield-survey o f t he s ettlements w as n ot i ntensive , o ur k nowledge o f l ate I ron A ge o pen s ites w as b ased ( besides s urface s urvey) o n o nly v ery l imited e xcavation, s ometimes o f n ot m ore t han o ne o r t wo h ouses, i n n o m ore t han t en T ransdanubian s ettlements. W e w ere n o m ore f amiliar w ith t he r ural s ettlements o f t he R oman a ge w ith C eltic p opulations. A n ew t ype n ot y et r ecorded a mong t he l ate I ron A ge, u ndefended, l owland s ettlements o f T ransdanubia w as d efined a s t he r esult o f o ur e xcavations a t S zakdly-Reti f öldek. I n c ontrast t o t he a lready e xcavated s ettlements, t he o ccupation o f t his o pen s ettlement i n t he K apos v alley, i n t he d ensely p opulated t erritory o f t he H ercuniates, l asted n ot o nly u ntil t he R oman C onquest b ut a lso c ontinued t hroughout t he R oman p eriod m aintaining i ts p urely n ative c haracter. A ccording t o ag roup o f f inds b elonging t o t he L a T ene C 2 -D p eriod ( graphite-coated p ottery , s apropelite b racel ets a nd a w ire b rooch o f m iddle L a T ene s hape) t he o ccupation o f t he s ettlement p robably b egan i n t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury B .C. A t p resent i t i s a n u nsolved p roblem w hether t he e mergence o f t he S zakdly s ettlement c an b e r elated t o t he s ettlement o f t he H ercuniates i n T ransdanubia, b ut i t i s o bvious t hat t he m igration f rom t he t erritory o f H ercynia s ilva ( preserved i n t he t ribal n ame) r elates t o t he h istorical e vents o f t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury B .C. ( the H elvetian m igration a nd t he m ilitary e xpeditions o f B urebista). B efore t he R oman C onquest t his e thnic g roup m aintained v igorous c ommercial a nd c ultural c ontacts w ith N orthern I taly a s w ell a s w ith t he n orthern t erritories o f t he B alkans: R oman i mported g oods a nd c oin-hoards p rovide t he e vidence. T hese e xotics w ere i ntroduced i nto t he K apos v alley i n t he p re-Conquest p eriod t hough f rom t he l ess i mportant s ettlement o f S zakdly, t he i mports 1 04

a re n ot y et r ecorded. I n t he e arly R oman p eriod t he s ettlement c learly c ontinued t he p re-Roman p attern w ithout a ny s ignificant a lteration. T he p ersistence o f I ron A ge w ays i s c haracterized b y t he n ative-style d wellings, s torage p its a nd o vens, t ypes w idely d istributed i n t he I ron A ge. T he o nly s ign o f R omanized l ife i s t he g radual i ntrod uction o f t he p rovincial p roducts. ( Primitive s ettlement s tructures a re a lso r ecorded i n t he e arly a uxiliary v i i.) I n o ur s ettlement t he q uantity o f e xpensive i mported g oo-d 1- I ike t erra s igillata, g lass a nd b ronze v essels i s v ery s light a nd n o c oins a re r ecorded f rom t he e arly R oman p eriod. E ven t he n umber o f t he c haracteristic m ortario - a s pecific p iece o f R oman h ousehold e quipment - i s a lso v ery l ow i n t his p eriod. A t t he s ame t ime L a T ene D a nd L a T ene D -type f inds - t he p roducts o f l ate I ron A ge-based i ndustry - a ppear i n l arge q uantity e ven a s l ate a s t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury A .D. T he u nbroken p roduction o f t he n ative i ndustrial w orkshops, a t l east t o t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury , i s s uggested b y t he f ragment o f ad efective c asting o f a w inged b rooch, b eing t he t raditional i tem o f n ative c ostume. T he l ow s tandard o f l iving, t he h abitations a nd t he s ettlement f orm , a ll s imilar t o t hose o f t he p rehistoric p eriod, h ave t heir o rigins i n am ore p rimitive p attern o f a gricultural e xploitation ( and a nimal h usbandry) t han t hat i ntroduced b y t he R omans. T hese c haracteristics o f t hese s urviving a gricultural s ettlements c annot b e c onsidered u nique. F rom t he - s ometimes v ery i ntense - s urface s urveys s o f ar c arried o ut i n t he t erritory o f c ivitas H ercuniatium v illas a nd i nscriptions - i ndicators o f t he R oman w ay o f l ife a re a bsent a nd w e r arely m eet w ith t races o f s tone b uildings. A t t he s ame t ime, a t l east n ine s ites p rovide e vidence o f l ate C eltic s ettlement w ith u nbroken o ccupation l ike t hat a t S zakc ily. M ost o f t he k nown P annonian v ici w ere c reated b y t he d eliberate s ettlement p olicy o f R ome: h ere t he w ay o f l ife , s ettlem ent f orm , l evel o f c omfort , h ouses, f arming m ethods a nd e ven i mplements f or c ultivation a nd t ools f or h ousehold u se, c hanged m uch m ore q uickly. T he p ace o f d evelopment o f t he S zak e ily-type s ettlement o f t he K apos v alley i s m uch s lower. S ince t he p reR oman m odel i s t he o nly a gricultural m anifestation t he p rehistoric w ay o f l ife m ust h ave b een p reserved e ven w ithin t he R oman f ramew ork. T he a bsence o f i nscriptions a nd o f m ore p roductive v illae states s how t hat f or a l ong t ime t he R oman p attern o f t he l andd ivision, v eteran a llotments a nd m unicipal e states o f m edium s ize w hich q uickened t he p ace o f c hange e lsewhere - d id n ot c ome i nto b eing h ere. W e h ave n o e vidence f or t he m unicipalization o f t he t erritory: p rovincial g oods a ppear l ate b ecause o f t he g reat d istance o f R oman i ndustrial c entres a nd m arkets. T he p easant c ommunities o f t hese v illages p robably r emained i ntact e ven a fter t he C onquest, g enerally l ittle d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he p reR oman p eriod. T he t erritory, d ensely p opulated b y C elts, w as s ome d istance f rom t he n etwork o f m ilitary r oads a s w ell a s f rom t he D anube f rontier w hich g radually h ad b ecome t he e conomic c entre o f t he p rovince b y t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury A .D. T he c onseq uence i s t hat t he i mport a nd o ther l uxury g oods o f t he S everan p eriod - t he a ge o f e conomic p rosperity i n t he p rovince - d id n ot 1 05

r each t he K apos v alley. I t w as i n t he i nterest o f a uxiliary r ecruiting t o m aintain t he c ivitas s tructure. A part f rom t he m odel r epresented b y S zak c ily ( also r ecognisable i n o ther p rovinces, b ut u sually i n t he l ess p roductive t erritories) t he s urviving s ettlements o f t he n ative p opulation - p rimarily b ecause o f t heir s trategical a nd c ommercial i mportance - f ollowed a nother p attern w hich w as w ell r epresented i n t he s outhern p art o f t he p rovince. T hough t his d evelopment b egan o n t he o ld b asis, i t d iverged f undamentally f rom i ts l ate I ron A ge p redecessors. T his n ew t ype o f m ore p roductive e conomy - p roducing s urplus - h ad t o b e c reated b ecause o f t he p ressing d emands f rom t he a rmy ( Rivet 1 969: 1 90). O ur s ettlement a t S zak c ily d eveloped c ontinuously t hroughout t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies A .D. E ven t he M arcomannic a nd S armatian w ars d id n ot d isturb i ts l ife. T he l ate I mperial a ge s ettlement d iffered f rom t he c haracter o f t he e arlier s ettlement , e .g. t he s unken-floor h uts d isappeared b ut i n p arallel s urfaceb uilt h ouses, r aised g ranaries, l arger s torage p its, b uildings w ith c ellars a nd o vens b uilt o f s un-dried c lay, e tc. w ere i ntrod uced. T he f inds c an b e c haracterized b y m ore u niform , s tandard t ypes a nd, f rom t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury A .D., b arbarian t raits a lso a ppear. C oins a ppear f irst i n t he f ourth c entury b ut t heir n umber i s n ot g reat. T he c emetery o f t he f ourth c entury p opulation i s i n t he n eighbourhood o f t he s ettlement . T he f ormat ion o f l arge e states ( latifundia) c ould e xplain a ll t hese c hanges, w hich l ed t o t he e limination e arlier v illage c ommunities a nd o f t he s mall e states. U nlike i n t he f rontier z one , i n o ur t errit ory, l ying s outh t o L ake B alaton, t ombstones w ith i nscriptions a nd s mall v illa b uildings i ndicating m unicipal s mall- o r m ediums ize e states a re n ot f ound. P lace-names f ormed f rom f amily n ames p oint t o t he c entres o f v illa e states w hich , i n t he l ate R oman p eriod, b ecame i mperial l atifundia. T he p roduction o f l arge e states, w hich p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he l ate R oman e conomy, p ossibly f orced t he s maller s ettlements t o a dopt a m ore p roductive m ode o f f arming ( Ambros. e p.XVIII.21); t he n ew t ypes o f s tructure c an b e a scribed t o i t. S tandard p roducts o f t he P annonian i ndustry w ere a vailable i n t he p rovincial m arkets; f rom t his p oint o f v iew i t i s w orth n oting t hat t he n eighbouring S opianae w as g iven t he m unicipal s tatus u nder G allienus, a n a dvancement w hich s timulated d evelopment.

o r

O ur e xcavations a t S zak ey p rovided i nformation a bout t he w ay o f l ife, s ettlement p attern a nd e conomy o f a s ocial s tratum o f t he n ative P annonian p opulation. W ithin t he f ramework o f a p easant c ommunity t he n ative p opulation, s urviving f rom t he l ate I ron A ge, p reserved a m ore p rimitive p rehistoric s tyle o f l and c ultivation a nd c omparable s ettlement f orms t hroughout t he f irst c enturies o f t he R oman p eriod. R oman e conomic a nd c ultural s ystems w ere i ntroduced v ery s lowly a nd o nly v ery l ate.

1 06

A cknowledgements

Is hould l ike t o t hank D r. I . T orma, w ho h as b een k ind e nough t o p rovide m e w ith u npublished m aterial a nd t o d iscuss h is s ites w ith m e. Ia m g rateful t o D r. L . B arköczi f or h is h elpful s uggestions. H e h as k indly d iscussed t he w hole p roblem o f t he i nterpretation o f s ettlement-features. I n p articular I w ould l ike t o t hank M rs. E . J erem a nd M rs. A . V aday f or t heir v aluable c omments. Ia m v ery i ndebted t o al arge n umber o f v olunteers, w hose a ssistance a t t he s ite m ade m y e xcavation p ossible: i n p articular t o M rs. J .B. H orvdth, w ho k indly d rew m y a ttention t o t he s ite, t o D r. D . J ankovich, M iss P . Z sidi, M iss J . S olti, M rs. I . B ilkei, M rs. Z s. S zabolcsi, M rs. K . S zigeti, M r. J . S zaniszlai, M iss G . N c idorfi, M iss K . O ttomönyi. T hanks a re d ue t o M rs. B . H artye ini f or h er k indness i n d ealing w ith g rain f ound d uring t he e xcavation a nd D r. I . V örBs f or c ontributions t o t he r eport. Ia m i ndebted t o M rs. I . S zathmöry a nd M iss Z s. K uczogi w ho k indly d rew t he p lans a nd p ottery f or m y i llustrations, a nd M r. D . V ir g f or h is a ssistance i n c ompiling t he g eneral p lan. F inally I m ust r ecord m y t hanks t o M iss J . S olti f or t ranslating m y H ungarian t ext.

1 07

N OTES

1 .

T he c emetery a t M ihovo s hould b e m en tioned a s a n e xception ( see K ahrstedt 1 928 : 1 3; G abrovec 1 966 : 1 76; W ind! 1 976 : 4 2-47); a lso t hat a t N ovo M esto ( Knez 1 974 : 4 2-43), w here a mong t he l ate L a T ene f inds a nd m aterial c ontinuing L a T ene t raditions, e arly s igillatae o r s igillata-imitations w ere f ound.

2 .

O n t he R oman r esettlement p olicy i n g eneral s ee: B arköczi 1 956: 8 3 f f.; F itz 1 958 : 3 95; M öcsy 1 974: 5 5-57 . M öcsy ( 1977 : 3 83) t hrows a n ew l ight o n t he q uestion o f t he A zali's r esettling.

3 .

S everal v olumes o n t he H ungarian A rchaeological T opggraphy h ave b een p ublished ( Bakay , K alicz a nd S dgi 1 966; E n, K elemen, N emeth a nd T orma 1 969; B akay , K alicz a nd S dgi 1 970; D ax , r i ,M ithay , P aldgyi a nd T orma 1 972; H orvöth, K elemen a nd T orma 1 979). T hese g ive t he r esults o f d etailed s urface s urveys i n t he K apos-Kopp c iny v alley. F or a d etailed s ettlem ent-historical a nalysis o f t he s ites s ee M üller 1 971 a nd H orvdth 1 979 : 1 83, 9 5-96 .

4 .

F or a s ummary o f t he l ate I ron A ge h ouse-types i n H ungary s ee H orvdth 1 978 : 1 5 , 1 9 ( with f urther l iterature); P etres 1 971: 1 32-133; B önis 1 971: 3 3-38 .

5 .

F or a uxiliary v ici a nd v illages o f t he f rontier r egion s ee: N agy 1 955 : 1 92-204; M öcsy 1 955: 6 2; S zirmai 1 978: 6 3; B ruk.er 1 976: 4 2; B arköczi a nd B önis 1 954 : 1 68-178; N agy 1 962: 5 19-523. F or v ici o f t he I mperial p eriod s ee: B arköczi 1 956: 6 3-80; B önis 1 960: 2 8; N ovdki 1 961: 8 8; G ümöri 1 973: 7 3; K elemen 1 979 : 3 48 .

6 .

F or a d iscussion o f t he s izes, e xpansion, s tructure a nd t he e valuation o f t he s ettlement f eatures o f p easant c haracter b ased o n s urface t races s ee t he f undamental s ynthesis o f H allam 1 964: 1 9-32.

7 .

F or t he f unction o f f ortified s ettlements s ee C unliffe 1 974: 2 54 f f. T he d ifferentiation a nd d evelopment o f o ppidum a nd f ortified s ettlements i s d iscussed i n C ollis 1 979 : 1 36 a nd W ightman 1 975: 6 06-609.

8 .

E ach s ettlement f eature i s t reated i n d etail i n m y p aper t itled: ' Researches o f t he l ate I ron a nd R oman A ge s ettlement o f S zakdly' a nd i t w ill b e p ublished i n o ne o f t he n ext v olumes o f M itt. A rch. I nst. F or t he r econstruction o f t he b uilding t ypes s ee V argha 1 959: 2 04 .

9 .

I ts s urvival i n t he I mperial p eriod i s d emonstrated b y i ts o ccurrence a t B icserd-Fenyö spuszta ( Barköczi 1 956 : 7 4 , 8 2); i n d buda, i n t he a rea o f n os. 3 1-39 L aktanya S treet ( Kaba 1 955: 2 72); i n t he p alisaded f ort o f A dony ( Barköczi a nd 1 08

B önis 1 954 : 1 92); a nd i n t he v illa o f F ertörakos-Golgota ( Gabler 1 973: 1 68). F urther f inds i n W estern P annonia a re r ecorded b y B önis ( 1942 : 1 0-12). 1 0 .

I t a ppears i n af ind c omplex , d ated b y aP o v alley s igillata , a t t he R udas b aths, i n p it n o. 1 . S ee P öczy 1 956: 6 6 .

1 1.

B öna 1 978 : 2 73. T he p arallels h e l ists c an b e a ugmented b y d ata f rom t he M ihovo c emetery w hich w as i n c ontinuous u se f rom t he s econd c entury B .C . u p t ill t he s econd c entury A .D. H ere a s word , f ound i n ag rave d ated b y s igillata t o t he r eign o f T iberius , b elonged t o t he a rmour o f aC eltic w arrior. S ee W indl 1 976 : 4 2-47 .

1 2.

K römer 1 957 : 7 6 a nd R iha 1 979 : 5 6 f f. c onsider t he l ower s tringed e xecution a s t he m ost c haracteristic s ign o f t he R oman t ypes.

1 3.

R ieckhoff 1 975 : 4 9 . S ome e xamples i n W etterau w hich a ppeared t ogether w ith t he N auheim b rooch c an b e m entioned a s e xcept ions. ( See S chönberger 1 952 : 4 9 .) T he f inal f orm o f t he m iddle L a T ene s hape o f b rooch d evelopment i n C entral G ermany i s t he B eltz J v ariant . Ben 5 , w hich i n S outh G ermany o ccurs o nly a fter t he a bandonment o f M anching ( see K ramer 1 962: 3 06).

1 4 .

M öcsy 1 961-62 : 1 8 . F rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he s outhern r elations P atek 's o bservation ( 1942: 9 9 , 2 87) i s i mportant . A ccording t o h er , c ertain b rooch t ypes a ppeared o nly a long t he r iver S ava, i n t he c ounty o f T olna a nd a round L ake B alaton. T he S zörazd-Regöly j ewels r elate t o a n e arlier c ontact ( see M egaw 1 970 : 1 30).

1 5.

F or i nterpretations b ased o n t he a nalysis o f d aub f ragments s ee S alomon, S koflek a nd Ä rendc is 1 977 : 1 19 f f.; S cherbantin 1 961: 5 3.

1 6.

I n d etermining d welling f unction K römer ( 1951-52 : 1 91) a nd G eisler ( 1976 : 1 48) c onsidered t he e xistence o f h earths a s t he c riteria. I n T f .aov h owever , o nly s unken f loored h uts h ad h earths a nd p ost-built h ouses h ad n ot ( B en 1 971: 2 97).

1 7 .

F or l arge t imber h ouses i n t he e arly I mperial a ge s ee d e B oe 1 977 : 5 4; K ramer 1 958 : 1 83; S chubert 1 972: 1 20 . S ome e xamples o f t imber s tructures i n P annonia a re g iven i n B önis 1 969 : 2 08; L adenbauer Orel 1 970 : 9 83; G abler 1 971: 1 6; V ikiC 1 973: 7 5 f f.; P interoviC a nd B ulat 1 971: 5 0; N agy 1 973: 1 13; F itz 1 976: 4 7 .

1 8.

N agy 1 928 : 9 8-99; N agy 1 931: 5 2 , 9 8; B arköczi a nd B önis 1 954 : 1 69 f f .; M öcsy 1 955 : 6 3 f f.; B arköczi 1 956: 8 3; T homas 1 955: 1 10; P öczy 1 957 : 1 70; P etres 1 965: 9 6-99 ; T homas 1 964 : 4 9; N agy 1 964 : 4 3, 3 0-32; V iki6 1 968: 5 17 ; P interoviC a nd B ulat 1 971: p l. i ii.3; P etö 1 976 : 8 6-95; K ocztur 1 974 : 1 21; S zirmai 1 978: 5 9 . Ih ave n ot m entioned t he p ublications o f s tamped p ottery w hich i s v ery c ommon i n W estern P annonia s ince i n t he c ase o f o ur s ettlement o nly 1 09

N orthern o r S outh e astern P annonian w orkshops a re c onsidered r elevant. 1 9 .

F or p ottery w ith m arbled p aint s ee S choppa 1 961: 2 4 f f.; S imon 1 965 : 7 0; K arnisch 1 972: p l. 4 9 , 5 -6; B önis 1 942 : 2 2 , 2 7 ; B arköczi a nd B önis 1 954 : 1 54 , 1 73; P öczy 1 957 : 4 2; K ocztur 1 974 : 8 9. T hough t his t ype a ppeared a t a bout t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D. i t b ecame f ashionable o nly i n t he s econd c entury A .D.

2 0 .

D uring f ield w ork i n t he K apos-Koppdny v alley n ot a s ingle R oman v illa w as f ound ( Torma 1 964). T he L ararium f rom T amdsi p robably w as a h oard, s ee T homas 1 975: 2 9 f f.; B Bhme 1 975 : 1 76.

2 1.

S ee G abler 1 979 : 2 04 . T he c omparative a bsence o f s amian a lso c haracterizes a f ew t erritories i n G aul ( see W ightman 1 978 : 5 09). T he s ituation i s s imilar i n c ertain r ural a reas o f B ritannia ( see C unliffe 1 977 : 6 6). T he a bsence o f s igillata i s s urprising i n t he c ounty o f Z ola - t he t erritory l ying b etween t he A mber R oad a nd t he A quincum-Poetovio m ain r oad ( see M öcsy 1 973: 3 89).

2 2.

A ccording t o 1 6th ( 1975: 1 88-189), t he p lace o f i ssue o f t he I mperial O rder, n o. C TH x i, 3 2 ,36 . ( TRIE) m ay r efer n ot t o T ricciana b ut p erhaps t o T ricornium.

1 10

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1 964

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' Zu e inigen S chwertscheiden a us L a T ene', B er R GK 4 0 , 1 18.

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1 972

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' Beitrag z ur P roblematik d er k eramischen W erkstötten', A rch. J ug. 1 1, 2 9-44.

V iki c ' . " .-RelenCid , B .

1 973

' Prilog i straZivanju a ntiCkog n aseobinskog k ompleksa u V ard gdinskih T oplicamas, V jesnik A rheol. M uzeja u Z agrebu 6 -7 , 7 5 f f.

W ielowiejski, J .

1 970

K ontakty N oricum i P annonii z l udami p ölnocnymi ( Die B eziehungen N oricums u nd P annoniens z u d en n brdlichen V ölkern) ( Wroclaw-Warszawa-Kraköw).

W ightman, E .

1 975

' The P attern o f R ural S ettlement i n R oman G aul', A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt 1 1.4 , 5 84-657 ( Berlin-New Y ork).

W ightman, E .

1 978

r ec. E tude a rch. d e l a p artie o rientale d e l a c ite d es M orins ( civitas M orinorum) A rras 1 976 , B ritannia 9 , 5 09.

W indl, H .J.

1 976

' Ein v erzierter S chwertscheidenbeschlag a us d em G räberfeld v on M ihovo', M itt. d er A nthrop. G esellschaft 1 06 , 4 2-47 .

W osinszky, M .

1 896

T olna v örmegye a z ö skortöl a h onfoglaldsi a ( Budapest).

1 27

T HE A NIMAL B ONES F ROM T HE L ATE L A T tNE- A ND R OMAN S ETTLEMENT O F S ZAKKLY-R TI F ÖLDEK

b y I . V Br8s

D . G abler h as b een e xcavating a t t he s ettlement o f S zakäly-Reti f 81dek s ince 1 973. T he s ettlement l ies i n t he K apos v alley ( in t he c ounty o f T olna) o n ah igh s outhern t errace o verlooking t he l eft b ank o f t he r iver K apos. T he e xcavations e xposed f eatures o f ar ural s ettlement , d ating f rom l ate p rehistoric t imes t o t he f ourth c entury A .D. 2D uring t he l ast s ix y ears ( 1973-1978), f rom a n a rea o f 1 250 m , e xposing 3 1 s ettlement f eatures ( sunken f loor h uts, t imber-built h ouses a nd s torage p its), 1 442 a nimal b one f ragments a nd t wo c omplete a nimal s keletons ( a d og a nd a r ed d eer) w ere e xcavated ( Table 1 ). T he a nimal b ones w ere c ollected i n s tratified g roups r elated t o t he o ccupation l evels a nd s ettlement f eatures i n w hich t hey w ere f ound. T he b ones, d ated b y a ssociated f inds, c an b e c lassified i nto f our g roups, i dentical t o t he p hases o f t he s ettlemen t: 1 .

F irst c entury B .C . -f irst c entury A .D.

( late L a T ine).

2 .

S econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D. - s econd c entury A .D.

3 .

S econd - t hird c entury A .D.

4 .

F ourth c entury A .D. E ight d omestic s pecies w ere i dentified: c attle ( Bos t aurus L inne) s heep (aii7J7I i ii-L inne) g oat ( Capra h ircus L inn ) ( if w e a re u nable t o b e s pecific w e u se t he c ollective n oun s mall r uminants) p ig ( Sus s crofa d omestica G ray) h orse ( Equus c aballus L inne) a ss A sinus a sinus L inn ) d og C anis f amiliaris L inne) h en G allus d omesticus L inne). S ix s pecies o f w ild a nimal w ere i dentified:

1 29

r ed d eer C ervus e laphus L inne) r oe d eer C a r eolus c o r eolus L inne) E ast E uropean w ild o ar u s s crofa a ttila T homas) o tter ( Lutra l utra L inn ) b rown h are ( Lepus e uroe faeus P allas) b eaver ( Castor f iber L lnne). I solated e xamples o f t he f ollowing w ere a lso r ecorded: E uropean S uslik ( Citellus c itellus L inne) c ommon h amster ( Cricetus c ricetus L inne) H ungarian l esser m ole r at ( Spalax l eucodon h un a ricus N ehring) f ish i sces s p.) f ro g ( R a n a s p.) " t ortolig lEmys o rbicularis L inne) ( Table 1 ) A ll t he b ones e xcept t he d og a nd t he L a T 4ne r ed d eer w ere f ound i n k itchen m idden d eposits. T he p reservation a nd f ragmentation o f t he b ones v aries; t hey m ay b e u nbroken, b roken, c ut , w ith s urface c orrosion , p artially b urnt , e xtensively b urnt a nd c arbonized b ones.

1 . 1 .1

Z oological c haracterization o f t he f auna

C attle

T o e stablish t he b ody s ize o f c attle w e h ave 1 31 b ones s uitable f or m easurements f rom t he s ettlement; 1 6 .73% o f t he t otal n umber o f c attle b ones ( Table 8 ). I n o bserving t he o steom etric d ata i t i s s ignificant t hat t here w as a w ide r ange o f l ength a nd b readth m easurements. W ithin t he b readth d ata t hree m ain g roups c an b e d efined. I n a bsolute s ize t he b ones b elong t o t hree m ain g roups: s mall ( micro v ariants), m edium ( meso v ariants) a nd l arge ( macro v ariants). C omplete m easurable h orn c ores w ere f ound i n c ontexts o f t he L a nne p eriod , s econd c entury A .D. a nd s econd-fourth c entury A .D. ( Roman I mperial p eriod). F rom a ll t he t hree p eriods t he h orn c ores a re o f m edium s ize ( Fig. l a). T he b asic s ize o f t he s econd c entury A .D. h orn c ores i s s maller t han t he o ther t wo. T he c ow h orn c ores o f S zakdly a re l onger a nd t he v entral d iameter i s l arger t han t hose o f t he H ungarian b arbarian s ettlements o f t he s econd-fifth c entury A .D. ( V8r8s: i n m anuscript). S imilar s ized c ow h orn c ores a ppear a mong t he c attle-stock o f t he C eltic o ppidum o f M anching ( Boessneck e t a l. 1 971) a nd i n t he e arly R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f M agdalensberg ( Hildebrandt 1 966). A c omplete u pper t ooth r ow w as r ecovered a mong t he s econdf ifth c entury A .D. m aterial. P2 -4 l ength i s 5 1 m m , M 1-3 l ength i s 7 4 m m. T he m axilla i s p athological , t he r oot a nd t he a lveoli a re d eformed a nd a n e xostosis i s v isible o n t he l ateral w all o f 1 30

t he m axilla ( Fig. l b). T he a verage l ength o f M 3 i s 3 6.4 m m ( n-10), t he s ize r ange i s b etween 3 1-42 m m. T he l ongest M 3's a re k nown f rom t he L a T ene p eriod ( 38-39 m m) / s econd-third c entury A .D. a nd f ourth c entury A .D. ( 37-42 m m). T he c attle a t S zak c ily h ad l onger M 3's t han t hose o f t he s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod ( Szilvösvdrad , G aradna, A rka a nd Z alkod; erös: i n m anuscript) a nd v ery s imilar t o t hose o f t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( Be t anyi 1 976). T he s capulae o f t he c attle i n t he s econd c entury A .D. a re l arger ( Table 8 ) t han t he s capulae o f t he c attle i n t he s ettlem ents o f N orthern H ungary i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod ( VBr8s: i n m anuscript) a nd c orrespond t o t hose o f t he S armatian s ettlem ents o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( 88k8nyi 1 976). T he d istal s izes o f t he c attle h umeri i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D. e arly R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f S zakc ily a re m icro a nd m eso v ariants ( 69-78 m m), s maller t han t hose o f t he s econd-fourth c entury A .D., w hich a re m acro v ariants ( 93-96 r u m). A m icro-meso v ariant a ppeared a t K unszentmiklös i n t he D anubeT isza i nterfluve ( 88k8nyi 1 976) a nd f rom Z alkod i n N orthern H ungary. T he h umeri o f c attle f rom t he C eltic o ppidum a t M anching ( 8oessneck e t a l. 1 971) a nd t he e arly R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f M agdalensberg ( Hildebrandt 1 966) a re m icro a nd m eso v ariants. T he m acro v ariant s ize h umerus i s a bsent f rom M agdalensberg ( Hildebrandt 1 966) a nd o nly t wo c ame t o l ight a t M anching ( Bnessneck e t a l. 1 971). T he m eso a nd m acro v ariants o f c attle r adii a re p resent i n a ll p eriods a t S zakdly. T he m eso v ariant , w ith t he b readth o f t he p roximal e piphysis b eing 7 4 m m c orresponds t o t he m eso v ariant o f t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterf luve ( 85k8nyi 1 976) a nd t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary ( V8r8s: i n m anuscript). T he m acro v ariant ( 80-87 m m) i s l arger t han t he S armatian c attle t ype b ut s maller t han t he r adius s ize ( 91 m m) f ound a t Z alkod ( North H ungary), f rom t he R oman I mperial p eriod. T he d istribution o f s ize a mong t he d istal e piphyses o f t he r adii i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he p roximal. A m icro v ariant k nown f rom t he S armatian s ettlements i s s o f ar a bsent f rom S zakdly. T he p roximal b readth o f t he m etacarpals o f t he s econd-fourth c entury A .D. c attle a re m eso v ariant ( 53-54 m m), n ot l ike t he d istal e piphysis o f t he m etacarpal w hich a re m eso ( 56 m m) a nd m acro ( 61-67 m m) v ariants. T hey c orrespond t o t he m etacarpal s izes o f c attle i n t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( 3 1 3k8nyi 1 976) a nd t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlem ents o f N orthern H ungary. S imilar t o t he r adius, t he m icro v ariant m etacarpi k nown f rom t he S armatian s ettlements, w ere a bsent a t S zaköly. T he b readths o f t he d istal e piphyses o f t he t ibiae o f

1 31

L a T ime c attle a re s maller t han t hose o f t he l ater R oman I mperial p eriod a t S zaköly. T he a verage s ize o f d istal e piphyses o f t he t ibiae o f L a T ine c attle i s 5 3.4 m m ( n-3), a nd t he r ange i s 5 25 4 m m. T he a verage b readth o f t he d istal e piphyses o f t ibiae o f R oman c attle i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. i s 6 4.3 m m ( n-8), a nd t he r ange i s 5 8-73 m m . T he t ibiae o f t he L a T ene c attle a re m icro v ariants ( 52-54 m m) a nd t hose o f t he R oman c attle a re m eso ( 58-65 m m) a nd m acro s ize v ariants ( 71-73 m m). T he d istal e pip hyses s izes o f t he t ibiae o f t he c attle o f t he S armatian s ettlem ents i n t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( 68könyi 1 976) a nd o f t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary a re i dent ical w ith, o r s maller t han, t he m icro a nd m eso v ariants. A t S zak c ily L a T ime c attle h ad m icro ( 56 m m) a nd m eso ( 65-66 m m) s ize a stragali; a nd t he s econd-fourth c entury A .D. c attle h ad m icro ( 55 m m), m eso ( 60-69 m m) a nd m acro ( 72-73 m m) a stragali. T he a stragali o f c attle o f t he S armatian s ettlements i n t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( 1 38k8nyi 1 976) w ere s maller , b ut t hose o f t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary w ere e qual t o t he S zakc ily e xamples. T he l engths o f c attle c alcanea a t S zaköly w ere m eso ( 128 m m) a nd m acro ( 135-138 m i n) v ariants. T he m eso ( prox. b readth: 4 0-48 m m , d ist. b readth: 5 25 8 m m) a nd m acro ( prox. b readth: 5 0-55 m m , d ist. b readth: 6 6-69 m m) s ize v ariants o f t he m etatarsals a re p resent i n e very p eriod o f t he s ettlement b ut t he m icro v ariants ( dist . b readth i s 4 8 m m) a ppear o nly i n t he s econd c entury A .D. T he a verage o f t he m edian-sagittal l ength o f p halange I o f t he c attle e xcavated i n t he s ettlement i s 5 5 m m ( n-27), t he s ize r ange i s 3 9-62 m m . T he a verage m edian-sagittal l engths o f p halange I a re: L a T ime c attle S econd c entury A .D. S econd-third c entury A .D.

5 4 .2 m m r-10), l imit 4 2-62 m m 4 6.4 m m n -3), l imit 3 9-52 m m 5 6.4 m m n -11), l imit 5 1-62 m m .

T he o s p halangis I o f t he c attle i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary a re l ong, t he a verage i s 5 1.2 m m ( n-15), t he r ange i s 4 5-64 m m. S ince b ones o f d ifferent s izes w ere f ound i n c ontemporary c ontexts , o r s uccessive c ontexts, d ifferent s izes o f c attle c ould b e d educed. H owever , b ecause o nly s mall n umbers w ere f ound , t he r ange o f b one m easurements c an a lso b e e xplained b y t he s ize d ifferences i n c ows , o xen a nd b ulls d ue t o s exual d imorphism . D istinctions b etween s exes , b ased o n t he a bsolute s ize o f c attle b ones i s v ery i nteresting: 1

I n t he c ase o f f ore l imbs: t he s capulae a nd h umeri o f c ows b elong t o t he m icro v ariant , w hile t hose o f t he b ull a nd o x b elong t o t he m eso a nd m acro v ariants. T he r adii a nd m etac arpals o f t he c ow a re m eso, t hose o f t he b ull a nd o x a re m acro v ariants. 1 32

2

I n t he c ase o f h ind l imbs: t he t ibiae , a stragali a nd t he m etatarsals o f t he c ow a re m icro a nd m eso, t hose o f t he b ull a nd o x a re m eso a nd m acro v ariants. I n t he m eso r ange o f t he a bove t hree b ones o f h ind l imbs o f c ow , b ull a nd o x o ccur.

T he b one m easurements o f t he S zakdly c attle a re c onsidera bly l arger t han t hose o f t he B arbaricum i n t he s econd-fifth c entury A .D. T he w ithers h eight c alculated f rom t he l ong b ones c an b e u sed t o f urther c haracterize b ody s ize o f c attle , a nd f or t he d etermination o f s exes, o n t he b asis o f t he N obis's i ndex ( 1954). B ody h eight c ategories o f p re- a nd e arly h istoric c attle i n t he C arpathian B asin ( VBr8s: i n m anuscript) i n m m a re: d warf l ow m edium m acro m edium t all g igantic

b elow 1 000 1 001 - 1 099 1 100 - 1 199 1 200 - 1 299 1 300 - 1 399 o ver 1 400

m m m m m m m m m m m m

A t S zakdly f ive u nbroken l ong b ones c ame t o l ight f rom w hich, a ccording t o t he M atolcsi's m ethod ( 1970), t he w ithers h eight c an b e c alculated ( in m m): S ex

B one

L ength

W ithers h eight

B ody h eight c ategory

cA .D.

2

r adius

2 83

1 217

m acro-medium

2 nd

O r

r adius

3 03

1 303

t all

2 nd

0

t ibia

3 32

1 145

m edium

l st-2nd

O r

m etatarsal

2 13

1 135

m edium

2 nd

4 0

m etatarsal

2 54

1 428

g igantic

l st-2nd

.

T he c ows i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D. h ad w ithers h eights o f 1 145 ( tib.) - 1 217 ( rad.) m m , m edium a nd m acro-medium b ody h eight. C ows o f t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary a nd S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( B8 Wyni 1 976) a re o f l ow a nd m edium h eight , s maller t han t he L a T ene a nd R oman c ows a t S zakdly. T he w ithers h eights o f f irst-second c entury A .D. b ulls a re 1 135 ( mt .) - 1 303 ( rad.) - 1 428 ( mt.) m m , h aving m edium , t all a nd g igantic b ody h eight . T he w ithers h eight o f t he g igantic b ull i s a pproximately s imilar t o t hat o f t he S armatian o x a t S zabadsz c illds i n t he D anube-Tiszainterfluve ( W .H.: 1 422 m m , s mallest b readth o f t he d iaphysis: 2 7 m m) ( 88könyi 1 976). T he d istribution o f t he w ithers h eights o f t he c attle f rom t he C eltic o ppidum a t M anching a nd t he e arly R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement a t M agdalensberg, c alculated b y t he M atolcsi's m ethod ( 1970) a lso p roves t hat t he s ize v ariation a nd t he h eterogeneity o f t he S zaköly c attle b one m aterial a re c haracteristic o f t his t ype o f c attle. A t M anching t he w ithers h eights o f c ows

1 33

( Boessneck e t a l. 1 971) a re d warf - l ow - m edium , a nd o f b ulls a re d warf - l ow - m edium - m acro m edium . A t M agdalensberg t he w ithers h eight o f c ows ( Hildebrandt 1 966) a re d warf - l ow m edium - m acro m edium , o f b ulls a re d warf - l ow - m edium - m acro m edium - t all a nd g igantic i n b ody h eight. A t S zakdly i n t he L a T ene p eriod ( first c entury B .C .-first c entury A .D.) c attle o f s maller o steometry a re d ominant: t hey a re p resent u p t ill t he e nd o f t he l ife o f t he s ettlement b ut o nly i n s maller n umbers. F rom t he t ime w hen t he R omanization o f t he s ettlement b egan c attle o f l arger s ize a nd b ody s tructure ( a n ew t ype) a ppear a nd g radually b ecome p redominant. F rom t he f illing o f t he t imber-built h ouse , d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D. a nd f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D., t he b ones o f t he s ingle g igantic s ized b ull c ame t o l ight s howing t hat t he n ew c attle p opulation a ppeared e arly o n t he n ative s ettlem ent. T he p redominant c attle p opulation o f t he s ettlement f rom t he s econd c entury A .D., o f l arge b ody s ize , c an b e i nterpreted a s b ulls a nd/or o xen. B ut , i t i s p robable t hat t hey b elong t o a n ew t ype o f c attle h aving l arge b ody s ize , n ot w ell k nown b ecause o f t he s mall s ize o f t he b one s ample. S exual d imorphism i n t his n ew t ype h as n ot y et b een d emonstrated. 1 .2

S mall r uminants

S mall r uminants a t S zakdly c an b e c haracterized f rom t he s ize d ata o f 4 0 b ones , 1 4 .76% ( Table 9 ). T he h orn c ores, h umeri a nd m etopodia c ould b e i dentified t o s pecies s o i n t he s ize t able , a fter t he b one s izes , t here f ollows t he n ame o f s pecies ( 0 .-Ovis , C .-Capra). T he o ther p ostcranial b one d ata r elates t o a ll s mall r uminants. S heep h orn c ores w ere p resent o nly i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. o ccupation l evel. T he r am h orn c ores a re s trong , s piral w ith at riangular c ross-section c urving o ut- a nd b ackwards, w inding i nside w ith a s harp m edial e dge ( Fig. 2 a). T he g oat h orn c ores w ere f rom t he s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 4 . T hey a re n on-twisted o f s o-called s cimitar s hape ( Fig. 2 b). T he a verage l ength o f M 3's o f t he s econd-third c entury A .D. s mall r uminants a t S zakdly i s 2 3.4 m m ( n-7). T hey a re l onger t han t he M 3 l engths o f s mall r uminants o f t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements i n N orthern H ungary. T he b readth s izes o f t he d istal e piphyses o f h umeri o f t he s heep a nd g oats a t S zakdly a re s maller t han t hose o f N orthern H ungary. T he w idth s izes o f t he d istal e piphyses o f h umeri o f t he s heep a t S zakdly a re s maller t han t hose o f t he s heep i n t he B arbaricum i n t he s econd-fifth c entury A .D. A mong t he b readth s izes o f t he p roximal e piphyses o f t he r adii t he s maller v ariant ( 26 m m) o ccurs i n t he l ate L a T ene p eriod w hile t he l arger v ariant ( 30-34 m m) a ppears i n t he s econd1 34

t hird c entury A .D. T he m etacarpal s izes o f L a T ene s heep ( prox. b readth: 2 1-23 m m) a re l arger t han t hose i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. ( prox . b readth: 1 8-19 m m). S heep w ith t he s imilar m etacarpal s izes t o t hose o f t he l arger v ariants a t S zakdly o ccur i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary a nd t he S armatian s ettlements i n t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( B8k8nyi 1 976). T he s izes o f t he d istal e piphyses o f t he t ibiae o f s mall r uminants o f t he L a T ene p eriod a re s maller ( 21-25 m m) t han t hose o f t he s econd-fourth c entury A .D. ( 26-34 m m). T he t ibia s izes o f t he L a T ene p eriod s mall r uminants a re s maller , t he l arger o nes i n t he s econd-fourth c entury A .D. a re e qual t o t he t ibia s izes o f t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary a nd t he S armatian s ettlements i n t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( 880 5nyi 1 976). S heep m etatarsal s izes a re g enerally l arger t han t hose i n t he B arbaricum. O nly t wo u nbroken s heep l ong b ones w ere f ound i n t he s ettlement f rom w hich t he c alculated w ithers h eights - b y T eichert's m ethod ( 1975) - a re 6 26 ( mt.) - 5 38 ( mt.) m m . T he t aller i s f rom t he L a T ene p eriod. T he w ithers h eights o f s heep i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary a re 5 85-700 m m , w hile i n t he S armatian s ettlements i n t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve t hey a re 6 25-660 m m ( B8k8nyi 1 976). F rom a mong t he s mall r uminant b ones o f t he L a T ene p eriod t he s izes o f t he r adii a nd t ibiae a re s maller. W hile t he m etacarpals a nd m etatarsals a re l arger i n a verage t han t hose o f t he R oman p eriod i n t he s econd-fourth c entury A .D. 1 .3

_ n a

O nly 1 0 m easurable p ig b ones ( 4.72 % ) a re k nown f rom S zakdly ( Table 1 0). T he M3 a nd M 3 s izes, a s w ell a s t he s capula a nd r adius s izes a re e qual t o t hose o f t he p igs i n t he B arbaricum. T he w ithers h eights , c alculated b y T eichert's m ethod ( 1969) f rom t he l ength o f t he a stragali a nd c alcanea, a re 5 37-895 m m ( astragali) a nd 6 35 m m ( calcanea). T he g igantic p ig w ith a w ithers h eight o f 8 95 m m , f rom t he f ourth c entury A .D., i s t he s ame t ype a s t he l arge s ize o ne i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f G aradna i n N orthern H ungary ( V8r8s: i n m anuscript). 1 .4 H orse H orses o f t he S zakdly s ettlement c an b e c haracterized b y 1 6 ( 26.7% ) b one m easurements ( Table 1 1). I n 1 978 , f rom t he f illing o f t he s econd c entury A .D. s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 9 , f rom 1 05 c m i n d epth, a s tallion s kull

1 35

c ame t o l ight w ithout p remolar a nd m olar t eeth ( Fig. 6 ). B ecause o f t he s oÄl's p ressure t he s kull h ad c ollapsed. I n t he p raemaxilla t he I L's w ere r eplaced , f rom w hich t he a ge o f t he a nimal c an b e d etermined a s 3 .5-4 y ears o ld, i .e. s ubadult-adult. T wo m easurements c ould b e c arried o ut o n t he s pot , t he o verall l ength ( 0p-P): 5 60 m m , g reatest f rontal b readth ( Ect-Ect): 2 20 m m . T he s kull w as r emarkably l ong a nd s lender , t he s kull i ndex b eing 3 9 .28 . F rom t he f illing o f t he s econd c entury A .D. s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 6 , a t 1 10 c m i n d epth, a l eft s ide p raemaxilla-maxilla f ragment w as e xcavated ( Fig. 5 h) I n t he p raemaxilla t he m ilk i ncisors h ad b een r epla ed ( d1 1 ") . I n t he m aeilla dpi -44 11-2 a re p resent. B ehind 4 1 t here i s n o s ign o f P. M2 - i n ag erm f orm - c an b e f ound i n t he a lveolus. T he a ge o f t he a nimal a ccording t o t he t eeth w as t hus 2 -2.5 y ears. M easurements o f t eeth ( in m m):

l ength o f t he c rown b readth o f t he c rown l ength o f t he p rotoconus

d p2

d p3

d p4

M1

3 9 2 0 7

2 7 8

2 8 2 6 9

2 7 2 6.5 1 3

A mong t he h orse b one m aterial, m ainly f rom t he s econd c entury A .D., m edium a nd s mall s ize b ones o ccur. W ithers h eight c alculated b y V itt's m ethod ( 1952), o n t he b asis o f t wo e qual l ength s econd-third c entury A .D. m etacarpals , i s 1 393 m m , i .e . t he m edium b ody h eight c ategory. T he s lenderness o f t he t wo m etac arpals i s d ifferent , t he f irst s lenderness i ndex i s 1 3.27 , v ery s lender; t he o ther i s 1 4 .6 h alf-slender ( Brauner 1 916). T he m etatarsals a re a lso s mall a nd s lender. T he w ithers h eights o f h orses i n t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he H ungarian B arbaricum , c alculated b y t he V itt 's m ethod , a re o f t he s mall a nd m edium b ody h eight c ategories ( 88könyi 1 976 , V aday a nd V 8r8s i n p ress). T he w ithers h eights o f t he h orses f rom t he C eltic o ppidum o f M anching a re v ery h eterogeneous ( Boessneck e t a l. 1 971): t hey b elong t o V itt's d warf - v ery s mall - s mall-low- m edium - t all a nd l arge b ody h eight c ategories. T he m etapodiols a re v ery s lender a nd h alf s lender. T he w ithers h eights o f h orses i n t he e arly R oman I mperial p eriod R oman s ettlement o f M agdalensberg a re a lso v ery h eterogeneous ( Ehret 1 964), b elonging t o V itt 's s mall - l ow m edium a nd t all b ody h eight c ategories. T he m etapodials a re v ery s lender a nd h alf s lender. I t i s s urprising t hat b esides t he p redominant l ow a nd m edium b ody h eight c ategories c haracterizing C eltic-Germanic s ettlements, h orses o f t all a nd l arge b ody h eight c ategories , k nown f rom R oman s ettlements , a lso o ccur ( Teichert 1 973). I t i s i nteresting t hat a t all b ody h eight c ategory h orse w ith w ithers h eight o f 1 504 m m i s a lso k nown f rom t he e arly L a

1 36

T ane s ettlement o f S opron-Krautacher i n N orth-west H ungary . T he d iaphysis o f i ts t ibia i s v ery n arrow: 3 9 m m . I t i s h ighly p robable t hat i t b elonged t o ac astrated a nimal. S uch t all h orses o ccurred i n P annonia o nly f rom t he t hird c entury A .D. o nwards. 1 .5

A ss

I n 1 976 f rom t he f illing o f s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 0 , d ated t o t he f irst c entury A .D., a t ad epth o f 1 25 c m , as trikingly s mall e quid m etatarsal c ame t o l ight. A ccording t o t he l ength o f t he m etatarsal a nd t he s lenderness o f t he d iaphysis ( slenderness i ndex : 1 0 .66) a nd t o t heir r elationship t o e ach o ther , i t b elongs t o a n a ss a nd n ot t o ah orse. I t i s s triking t hat t he a ss , t ypical o f t he M editerranean d omestic a nimal p opulation a nd p referring w arm w eather , a nd k nown i n r elatively l arge n umbers i n P annonia o nly i n t he t hird-fifth c entury A .D., w ere a lready p resent i n t he f irst c entury A .D. a mong t he a nimals o f t he n ative p opulation. D omestic a ss i n P annonia i s a n a lien ' colouring f aunal e lement ' i n t he d omestic a nimal p opulation. I ts a ppearance c an b e e xplaine d o nly i n t erms o f e arly I talian a nd S outh I llyrian c ommercial r elations. F inds o f i mported a rchaeological m aterial, d ocumenting e arly f irst c entury B .C . I talian a nd S outh I llyrian c ommercial r elations ( Gabler 1 979 , a nd s ee t he p revious s tudy) s uggest t he a ppearance o f s outhern t radesmen b roadly c ontemporary w ith t he a ss b ones. A sses w ere p ock- a nd d elivery a nimals f or t radesmen. A t S zaköly a rchaeological a nd z oological d ata c orrelate w ell, s ince o ne o f t he r egions s howing e arly s outhern c ommercial r elat ions i s t he K apos v alley w here t he s ettlement i s l ocated ( Gabler 1 979 , a nd s ee t he p revious s tudy). B ut t his m etatarsal f rom S zak ay i s n ot t he o nly L a T ine d omestic a ss b one t o b e f ound i n H ungary . L ooking t hrough t he L a T ane a ge a nimal b one r emains o f H ungary I h ave f ound f urther a ss b ones . A t t he e arly L a T ane s ettlement o f P ilismarötB asaharc , l ying a bove t he D anube B end ( excavation b y N . F ettich i n 1 959) t hree a ss b ones w ere f ound , ar adius , at ibia , a nd a m etatarsal. T he s izes o f t he L a T ine a ss b ones a re g enerally s maller t han t hose i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod. T he m easurements ( in m m):

S zaköly m t. P ilismaröt m t . r ad . t ib.

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

2 25 2 22 2 98 2 95

3 9 3 8 6 8 -

2 4 2 5 3 4 2 8

5 3 5 3

3 5 3 5 3 8 -

2 0 1 8 2 5 2 0

3 9 3 0

( 1. g reatest l ength, 2 . b readth o f p rox . e piph., 3 . s mallest b readth o f d iaph., 4 . b readth o f d ist . e piph., 5 . d iameter o f p rox. e piph. t 6 . s mallest d iameter o f d iaph., 7 . d iameter o f d ist. e piph.).

1 37

T he w ithers h eight o f t he S zakc ily a ss, c alculated b y K oudelka's m ethod ( 1886) i s 1 183 m m. I t i s i nteresting t hat a mong t he E quid b one m aterial f rom t he C eltic o ppidum o f M anching ( Boessneck e t a l. 1 971) A sinus s ize d ental a nd p ostcranial b ones w ere a lso p resent. I Ft h e y a lso b elong t o a sses t hey c ould b e i nterpreted a s e vidence o f m ercantile a ctivity.

1 .6

D og

D ogs a t t he S zak t ily s ettlement c an b e c haracterized b y t hree m andibles a nd f ive p ostcranial b ones a s w ell a s b y ac omplete s keleton. T he s eparate ( chance f ind) m andibles a re o f c onsiderable s ize, t he c orpus m andibulae i s h igh a nd t hick , w hile t he t ooth r ow i s l ong ( Fig. 4 b). D uring t he 1 973 e xcavation o f t he s econd c entury A .D. s torage p it n o. 6 , a t ad epth o f 1 40 c m , aw hole d og s keleton w as r ecovered. T he s keleton w as l ying o n i ts l eft s ide. B ecause o f c areful r ecovery w e w ere s uccessful i n g athering t ogether t he s kull, t wo m andibles , h yoids a nd 1 48 p ostcranial b ones: s kull ( Fig. 3 a,b,c) l eft a nd r ight m andibles ( Fig. 4 a) l eft a nd r ight h yoid b ones c ervical v ertebrae I -VII t horacic v ertebrae I -XII l umbar v ertebrae I -VII s acrum c audal v ertebrae I -V 2 4 r ibs l eft a nd r ight s capulae l eft a nd r ight h umeri l eft a nd r ight r adii c arpal b ones: l eft a nd r ight s caphoids l eft a nd r ight u nciforms l eft a nd r ight c uneiforms r ight p isiform l eft a nd r ight m etacarpals I I-V l eft a nd r ight p elvic b ones l eft a nd r ight f emora ( Fig. 5 a) l eft a nd r ight p atellae l eft a nd r ight t ibiae l eft a nd r ight f ibulae l eft a nd r ight a stragali l eft a nd r ight c alcanea l eft a nd r ight c uboids l eft n avicular l eft l ateral c uneiform l eft a nd r ight m etatarsals I I-V 1 5 I st p halanges 1 2 2 nd p halanges 93 rd p halanges

1 38

T he s kull i s l arge, t he v iscerocranium i s r elatively s hort a nd w ide ( Fig. 3 a,b ,c; T able 1 3). T he o s p arietale i s w ide a nd s trongly a rched. T he t uber p arietale i s d omed. T he o s i nterp arietale i s s hort , w ith t he p arietale h ighly r eclined c audally. T he c rista s agittalis e xterna i s s hort ( 55 m m) a nd w eakly d evelope d. T he l inea f rontalis i s w eakly d eveloped, i ts f usion c audally i s a t t he B regma p oint. T he f orehead i s m edial-sagittally d eeply h ollow a nd l aterally d omed. T he p rocessus n asalis o f t he m axilla i s s hort ( 14 m m). A ccording t o i ts c ranial c haracteristics t he s kull c orresp onds t o t he s o-called s econd g roup f ound i n t he S armatian s ettlem ents o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( 88könyi 1 976). T he a verage w ithers h eight o f t he S zak c ily d og c alculated f rom t he e leven l ong b ones b y K oudelka's m ethod ( 1886) i s 5 34 m m. T he l engths o f t he r ight a nd l eft s ide l ong b ones a re n ot a ll e qual. F rom a mong t he f ore l imb b ones t he l eft s capula i s s horter t han t hat o f t he r ight s ide b ut t he l engths o f t he h umerus a nd r adius a re e qual. I n t he c ase o f t he h ind l imbs t he l eft f emur b roken, d eformed a nd r eossified i n y outh - i s s horter b y 1 1 m m t han t hat o f t he r ight s ide ( Fig. 5 a). T he c alculated d ifference i n t he w ithers h eight i s 3 3 m m . A t t he s ame t ime t he l eft t ibia i s l onger , a nd s o c ompensates t he f emur's s hortness. A ccording t o t he c raniological a nd o steometric c haracteri stics t he d og f rom t he s econd c entury A .D. s torage p it w as a b itch. 1 .7

H en

N o m easurable b ones t urned u p i n t he s ettlement. r emains b elonged t o m edium s ize t ypes. 1 .8

T he

H unted a nimals

O nly a f ew m easurable r ed d eer b ones c ame t o l ight. I n t he L a T ene s torage p it n o. 1 7 , e xcavated i n 1 975 , a3 -4 m onth o ld f awn s keleton w as f ound a t ad epth o f 1 90 c m ( see G abler's p revious s tudy F igs. 5 , 6 ). T he s keleton w as l ying o n i ts r ight s ide, w ith o utstretched l imbs. T he n eck o f t he r ed d eer w as c ons iderably b ent , i ts s hape h as t he s o-called ' swan-neck' c aused b y s uffocation. N o,cyt o r p unctured w ound c ould b e o bserved o n t he b ones. O nly d pL 4 w ere f ound i n t he m axilla a nd m andible. I n t he m andible t he f irst c usp o f M 1 h ad a lready b roken t hrough t he a lveolus ( Fig. 7 a). T he p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses o f t he p ostcranial l ong b ones h ad n ot y et o ssified. O n t he f rontal f ragment t here w as n o p edicle. T he s acrificial f awn w as k illed i n t he a utumn. F rom w hat w e k now o f t he h istory o f r ed d eer i n H ungary w e c an s ay t hat t he I ron-Roman A ge r ed d eer w ere l arger t han t hose o f t he B ronze A ge. T he r ed d eer b one f ragments f rom S zak c ily b elonged t o s tags ( V8rBs 1 975). 1 39

T he s izes o f b one f ragments o f r oe d eer a nd w ild b oars a re i n a ccordance w ith t he s izes o f c ontemporary a nimals k nown f rom P annonia a nd i n t he B arbaricum. A s ingle o tter b one w as f ound , al eft m andible. T he l ength o f P 1_4 i s 1 6 .4 m m , t he l ength o f M 1_2 i s 1 8 m m , M1 l ength i s 1 2 m m. T wo b eaver b one f ragments c ame t o l ight. m edium s ize.

T hey a re o f

F ive b one f ragments o f b rown h are w ere f ound , a lso o f m pdium s ize. T he m ost i nteresting w ild s pecies f rom S zak e ily a re t he s uslik a nd t he c ommon h amster. T hese r odents a re k nown t o i nhabit o nly o pen a gricultural l and w ith s andy-loessy s oil. T heir a ctivit ies l ast f rom s pring t o a utumn. T heir p resence i ndicates t he e xistence o f p loughed l and i n t he n eighbourhood. T heir n atural e nemies a re b irds o f p rey a nd o ther m ammals; t hus t heir o ccurrence i n a rchaeological c ontexts c ould b e a s t he p rey o f p redatory a nimals. S uslik a ppeared i n t he C arpathian B asin i n t he A lf8ld f aunal p hase ( Kordos 1 977a). I n B arbaricum t hese r odents, a s t he s ign o f i ntense a gricultural a ctivity , a re a lso p resent i n t he S armatian s ettlement o f T iszaf81dvör-Teglagyör ( A. V aday's e xcavat ion), a nd i n t he f ourth-fifth c entury A .D. G epid s ettlement o f S ziondai g yep I . n ear B attonya ( Szabo ' a nd V 8r8s 1 979). A v ery r are s pecies , i n t he H ungarian m ammal f auna, i s t he H ungarian l esser m ole r at, a s ingle s capula o f w hich w as f ound a t ad epth o f 2 00 c m i n t he L a T ene s torage p it n o. 2 3. I t i s p red ominant i n t he H olocene d eposits o f T ransdanubia ( Kordos 1 977 0. T he g reatest l ength o f t he s capula i s 2 8 .8 m m; b readth o f c ollum s capulae i s 3 .4 m m; b readth o f t he a ngulus a rticularis i s 4 .5 m m . A long t he f ringes o f t he r ivers a nd s treams f rogs a nd t ortoises l ive. T he p lastron o f at ortoise c ame t o l ight f rom t he L a T ene s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 a t ad epth o f 1 80 c m ( Fig. 7 b). T he l ength o f t he p lastron i s 1 40 m m; i ts b readth i s 9 0 m m . N o c arapax o r l imb b ones w ere f ound. N ot f ar f rom t he s ettlement w as t he r iver K apos w here t hese a nimals m ay h ave b een c aught. O nly a s ingle v ertebra o f af ish w as f ound.

1 40

2 .

T he a nimal h usbandry a t S zakdly

T he m ost i mportant d omestic a nimal t hroughout t he l ife o f t he s ettlement w as c attle ( Table 1 , 2 ). I t i s i nteresting t hat t he n umber o f c attle b one f ragments a nd t he p ercentage d istribut ion o f c onsumed a nimals i n e ach p eriod w ere t he s ame, i .e. t he n umber o f s laughtered c attle ( individuals) a nd t he c onsumed r emains i n t he k itchen m idden ( individual b one n umbers) c orrelate w ith e ach o ther. F rom t he t otal o f 1 39 c attle , 4 0 w ere f rom t he L a T ene p eriod , 5 5 f rom t he f irst-second c entury A .D., 3 0 f rom t he s econdt hird c entury A .D., a nd 1 4 f rom t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( Table 2 ). T his n umber o f i ndividuals r epresents t he q uantity o f c onsumed c attle a nd n ot i ts f requency i n t he l ivestock. T he n umber o f l ivestock m ust h ave b een f ar g reater. T he m ortality o f t he c attle i n t he d ifferent p eriods d iffered: i n t he L a T ene p eriod 8 0% ; i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D. 7 2.8% ; i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. 7 6.7% ; a nd i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. 9 2 .8% , o f t he c attle w ere s laughtered a fter t hey h ad r eached t he a dult a ge. I n t he N orthern H ungarian R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements 6 2-87% o f t he c attle w ere s laughtered a s a dults ( V8rBs : i n m anuscript). A ccording t o t he o steometric d ata a nd s ize i ndices o f t he c attle b ones w e c onclude t hat 5 6% o f t he m easurable b ones b elonged t o c ows a nd 4 4% b elonged t o b ulls a nd o xen. T he s ex r atio o f t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f N orthern H ungary a nd t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve i s a s f ollows ( in % ):

N orthern H ungary D anube-Tisza i nterfluve S zakdly L a T ene p eriod l st-2nd c A .D. 2 nd-4th c A .D.

9 ,

e

8 0 7 5 5 6 7 5 5 0 5 2

2 0 2 5 4 4 2 5 5 0 4 8

F rom t he s econd c entury A .D. o nwards t he a pparently h igh p ercentage o f b ulls a nd o xen r eflect t he p resence o f l arge c attle, s ignificantly d iffering f rom t he p revious t ypes o f t he L a T ene p eriod. I t c an b e d emonstrated t hat i n t he s econd c entury A .D. t here a ppears a t ype o f c attle o f l arge b ody s ize t he s exual d ifferences o f w hich c annot b e p recisely d efined i n m etrical t erms. S imilar l arge-sized a nimals a re p resent i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement a t Z alkod i n N orthern H ungary ( V8r8s: i n m anus cript) a nd a t A pagy i n N orth-eastern H ungary ( 68k8nyi 1 976). T he s econd m ost i mportant d omestic a nimal a t S zakc ily w as s heep ( Table 1 , 2 ). O nly t hree g oat b ones c ould b e d etermined. I n t he L a T ene p eriod t he t otal s mall r uminant b ones a mount t o 4 8.34% , i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D. 3 4 .32% , i n t he s econdt hird c entury A .D. a nd o nly i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. 5 .6% . F rom a mong t he t otal o f 9 0 s mall r uminants 4 0 a re f rom t he L a

1 2 . 1 e %

1 41

T ene p eriod, 3 0 f rom t he f irst-second c entury A .D., 1 4 f rom t he s econd-third c entury A .D. a nd 6 f rom t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( Table 2 ). T hus s mall r uminants p layed a n i mportant p art i n t he a nimal h usbandry o f t he L a T ene p eriod , b ut l ater t heir n umber g radually d ecreased. T he m ortality o f s mall r uminants a lso v aried i n t he d ifferent p eriods: i n t he L a T ene p eriod , 9 5% ; i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D. 7 6 .6% ; i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. 7 1.4% ; i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. 1 00% , o f t he s heep w ere s laughtered w hen m ature. I n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f N orthern H ungary 7 7-100% o f t he s mall r uminants a lso w ere a dult w hen s laughtered ( V8r8s: i n m anuscript). T he a ge o f d eath o f s mall r uminants o bserved i n t he S armat ian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve i s v ery d ifferent . H ere o nly 3 4% o f t he s mall r uminants l ived t o b ecome a dult ( B8k8nyi 1 976). T his d ifference i n m ortality s uggests t he d iffere nt u se t o w hich s heep w ere p ut. T he o ther i mportant s pecies o f t he s ettlement w as p ig , t hough t heir n umber i s o nly a bout h alf t hat o f t he c attle a nd t wo-thirds t hat o f t he s mall r uminants. 2 2% o f t he p ig b ones b elong t o t he L a T ene p eriod , 4 6% t o t he f irst-second c entury A .D., 1 4.35% t o t he s econd-third c entury A .D. a nd 1 7 .65% t o t he f ourth c entury A .D. T he a ge a t d eath o f p igs u nlike t he t wo p revious a nimals w as b iased t owards t he i nfantile-juvenile a ge r ange: i n t he L a T ene p eriod 5 0% ; i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D. 7 2.8% ; i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. 5 0% a nd i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. 6 7% , o f t he p igs w ere s laughtered a nd c onsumed w hile i nfantilej uvenile. S imilar e arly k illing w as f ound b y S . B 8k8nyi ( 1976) a mong t he p igs o f S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve. E arly k illing o f p igs i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary , o n t he o ther h and , w as l ess c ommon, 2 5.4-35 .3% . H en f irst a ppears i n s ettlement f eatures d ated t o t he f irst-second c entury A .D. N o r emains w ere f ound i n t he L a T ene c ontexts a t S zaköly a nd i t i s u nknown f rom t he C eltic o ppidum o f G ellerthegy-Tab c in ( B8k8nyi 1 969 , M atolcsi 1 979). T he n umber o f h en b ones w as e xtremely l ow a t M anching ( Boessneck e t a l. 1 971). B ut t heir n umber i n t he R oman s ettlements i s m ore c onsiderable ( I )r8ger 1 964 , B 8k8nyi 1 974). H orses a nd d ogs p layed a n i mportant p art i n t he l ife o f t he s ettlement . H orses w ere n ot u sed i n a gricultural p ursuits , b ut w ere p robably u sed a s r iding o r m aybe a s p ack a nimals. T he n umber o f h orse b ones w as l ow , a bout 4 .41% o f t he t otal d omestic a nimal b ones. W e m ay a ssume t hat i n t he c ase o f a nimals s upplying t he p opulation w ith m eat a nd p roducing r aw m aterial f or h andicrafts ( cattle, s heep, p ig) t he q uantity c onsumed a nd t he s pecies r ate r oughly c orrespond t o t he r eal c omposition o f a nimal p opulation o f t he s ettlement , b ut t his i s n ot t rue f or h orses. T hey w ere 1 42

e aten o nly i n t he c ase o f e mergency. 1 0% o f t he h orse b ones o riginate i n t he L a T ene p eriod , 5 1.67% i n t he f irst-second c entury A .D., 2 3.33% i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. a nd 1 5% i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. F rom a mong t he 2 1 h orses o nly o ne w as i nfantile , t wo w ere j uveniles , t he o ther 1 8 d ied o r w ere s laughtered a s a dults ( Table 2 ). G uard a nd s heep d ogs w ere k ept t hroughout t he w hole l ife o f t he s ettlement . A ss w as n ever p art o f t he d omestic a nimal p opulation o f t he s ettlement. I t w as a n a lien i mmigrant. T he a ge d istribution o f d omestic a nimals s ignificantly c hanged i n c ertain p eriods o f t he s ettlement. F rom a mong t he f our p eriods t he m ortality o f y oung c attle ( 27 .3%) a nd o f p igs ( 72.8%) w as h ighest i n t he s econd c entury A .D.: t hat o f s mall r uminants i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. ( 28 .6%). T he o rder o f i mportance o f t he d ifferent d omestic a nimals o f t he s ettlement 's a nimal p opulation c hanged d uring t he l ifet ime o f t he s ettlement: 1

L a T ene p eriod: c attle - s mall r uminants - p ig T he n umber o f s laughtered a nd c onsumed c attle a nd s mall r umina nts w ere t he s ame , b ut i t s hould b e s tressed t hat t he m eat y ield o f c attle w as a bout 1 0-15 t imes h igher , t han t hat o f s mall r uminants, i .e. t he m eat f rom 4 0 s mall r uminants i s t he s ame a s t hat o f 3 -4 c attle. T he n umber o f p igs i s l ow , o nly a bout 1 3.6% o f t he a nimal p opulation. T he n umber o f d ogs i s h igher t han t he n umber o f s laughtered h orses.

2

F irst-second c entury A .D.: c attle - s mall r uminants - p ig T he n umber o f c attle i ncreased w hile t he n umber o f s mall r uminants d ecreased i n c omparison w ith t he p revious p eriod. T he n umber o f b ones o f p igs d oubled. A lthough t he n umber o f p ig b ones i s h igher t han t he s mall r uminants t he n umber o f i ndividuals i s s maller. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he q uantity o f c attle c onsumed i n t he s econd c entury A .D. i s e qual t o t hat i n t he L a T ene p eriod. H orses a re k nown o nly f rom t he s econd c entury A .D., t heir n umber i s f ew . M ost d ogs o ccurred i n t his p eriod . H en a ppeared f irst i n t his p eriod.

3

S econd-third c entury A .D.: c attle - s mall r uminants - p ig T he a nimal p opulation d ecreased t o a bout h alf o f t hat o f t he p revious p eriod. T he n umber o f b ones o f s mall r uminants a nd p igs i s a bout o ne t hird o f t he p revious p eriod.

4

F ourth c entury A .D.: c attle - p ig - s mall r uminants T he a nimal p opulation d ecreased f urther. T he m ost s ignificant d ifference c ompared w ith t he p revious p eriod i s t hat t he p igs e xceeded s mall r uminants i n n umber. T he n umber o f p igs i ncreased, t hat o f s mall r uminants d ecreased. H orse a nd d og a re p resent b ut t here a re n o h ens.

1 43

I t i s i nteresting, t hat t he c omposition o f t he d omestic a nimal p opulation a t S zaköly i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( cattle p ig - s mall r uminants) i s t he s ame a s t hat o f t he N orthernN orth e astern H ungarian R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements, o f t he G ellerthegy-Tabön l ate L a T ene s ettlement ( 1 38k8nyi 1 969 , M atolcsi 1 979), t he R oman c astrum o f B udapest-Albertfalva (Mkönyi 1 974) a nd t he f irst w atch-tower o f P ilismaröt ( 68k8nyi 1 974). T he c omposition o f t he a nimal p opulation i n t he L a T ene p eriod a nd f irst-third c entury A .D. ( cattle - s mall r uminants p ig) c orresponds t o t hat o f t he S armatian s ettlements o f K unszentmiklös a nd S zabadszc illös i n t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve ( B8k8nyi 1 976) a nd t o T iszafBldvär-Teglagyc ir ( A t . V aday's e xcavat ion) a s w ell a s t o t he R oman v illa a t T c ic-Gorsium a nd T okodE rzsebet s haft ( 68ke lnyi 1 974). T he a nimals o f t he S zakdly s ettlement w ere p robably p astured i n t he a rea n orth a nd s outh o f t he s ettlement i n t he K apos v alley. C attle a nd s heep w ere f ed o n t he r elatively n arrow v illage p asture a nd m eadow a nd p igs i n t he n earby f orest. F rom t he s econd c entury A .D. o nwards, b ecause o f am ore i ntense a gricu lture ( see G abler 's c omments a bove), t he p asturing o f a nimals c ould b e c arried o ut i n m ore d istant t erritories.

3 .

T he u tilization o f t he a nimals

A nimal b one r emains f rom a rchaeological s ites r epresent , a bove a ll, t he u tilization o f t he a nimals f or m eat s ince t he b ones c ome p redominantly f rom k itchen m iddens. T he a nalysis o f a nimal b ones, i n t erms o f b ody p arts r epresented , p rovides i nform ation a bout b utchery p ractice a nd t he u tilization o f t he c arcass. W e c an d efine w hich j oints o f m eat w ere p referred f or c onsumption. 3 .1

C attle

A t S zakaly 7 83 b ones o f 1 39 i ndividual c attle w ere e xcavat ed ( Table 1 , 2 ). L ooking a t t he d istribution o f t he i ndividual b ones f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f s keletal p art ( Table 3 ) a nd m eat y ield ( Kretzoi 1 968) I c onclude t hat m ost o f t he b ones w ere t hose o f m eaty l imb r egions ( 29 .64%) t hen f ollows a bout t he s ame q uantity o f t he t runk ( 22.98%) a nd h ead r egion ( 22.48%), t hen l imb p arts p oor i n m eat ( 15.96%) a nd t he p halanges ( 8 .94%) ( Table 4 ). T he b ones w hich a re f rom t hose p arts o f t he b ody w here m ost m eat o ccurs ( scapula , h umerus , f emur , p rox . e piph. o f r adius a nd t ibia) a re t he s houlder b lade , t he f ore u pper l egs a nd t he h ind l egs. I n t he L a T ene p eriod f rom t he m eaty l imb r egions , t he m ost c ommon b ones , i n o rder , a re: f emur - t ibia - r adius s capula. I n t he R oman p eriod t he o rder i s h umerus - s capula t ibia - r adius. T he t runk r egion i s r epresented b y v ertebrae , t he r ibs a nd t he p elvis. T he s kulls o f c attle w ere p robably h acked t o p ieces y ielding a l arge n umber o f c ranial b ones a nd t eeth: 1 6 c ut a nd 1 44

b roken s kulls o f c attle w ere e xcavated i n t he s ettlement . B ones o f p arts o f t he b ody h aving n o m eat o n t hem - t he d ry l imb r egion - a re t he c arpal a nd t arsal b ones a nd t he m etap odia. T he l arge n umber o f m eaty l imb a nd t runk b ones p redominantl y r epresenting m eat , a s w ell a s t hose o f s laughter w astage , p rove t hat a nimals w ere s laughtered i n t he n eighbourhood o f t he s ettlement. T he b utchery s ite w as p robably a t t he b anks o f t he K apos a nd o nly t he b oneless m eat f or c onsumption w as t aken t o t he s ettlement. T he m ilk a nd d ung o f l iving c attle w ere a lso u sed a s w ell a s t heir d raught p ower m aking h eavy a griculture p ossible. T he h ide o f s laughtered c attle w as a lso u tilized. 3 .2

S mall r uminants

F rom S zak c ily 2 71 b ones o f 9 0 i ndividual s mall r uminants a re r ecorded ( Table 1 , 2 ). F rom t he p ercentages o f t he d ifferent b ones ( Table 3 ) i n r elation t o t he m eat y ield o f t he d ifferent b ody r egions ( Table 4 ) w e c an c onclude t hat t he m ajority o f b ones b elonged t o t he m eaty l imbs ( 46 .5%), f ollowed b y t he b ones o f t he s kull ( 24% ), t he d ry l imb r egion ( 19 .18%), t he t runk r egion ( 8 .48%) a nd f inally t he p halange b ones ( 1.84%). U pper f ore l imb a nd h ind l eg s upplied m eat f or c onsumption. T he q uantity o f b ones o f m eaty l imb r egion d ecreased i n t he o rder: t ibia - r adius - h umerus - f emur a nd s capula. T he r elative s carcity o f c arpal a nd t arsal b ones, a nd t he m inimal o ccurrence o f p halanges a s w ell a s t he p ercentages o f m etapodia s how t hat s mall r uminants ( sheep) w ere f layed o utside t he s ettlement ( V8r8s 1 980). C arpal a nd t arsal b ones a nd p halanges c ould b e l eft w here t he a nimals w ere f layed o r w here t he p elts w ere p repared. S ince 8 5.5% o f s heep w ere s laughtered a nd c onsumed a s a dults w e c an s uggest t hat t he k ill-off p attern i ndicates p rimary w ool p roduct ion. T he s ame i s t rue o f t he s heep f rom R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary. I n t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve t he k ill-off p attern o f t he s heep , w ith i ts h igh p ercentage o f y oung s heep ( 66%), u nambiguously p oints t o t heir u se a s am eat s ource ( B8k8nyi 1 976). B esides t heir w ool s heep w ere p robably a lso k ept f or t heir m ilk a nd d airy p roducts. 3 .3

P ig

F rom t he s ettlement 2 09 b ones o f 5 8 p igs c ame t o l ight ( Table 1 , 2 ). T he d istribution a ccording t o t heir a natomy ( Table 3 ) a nd b ody z one ( Table 4 ) s hows t hat u nlike t he t wo p revious s pecies m ost o f t he p ig b ones c ame f rom t he h ead r egion ( 53.58%), t hen f ollows t he m eaty l imb r egion ( 24 .4%), d ry l imb r egion ( 9 .1%), t runk r egion ( 8.61%) a nd f inally t he p halanges ( 4.31%).

1 45

T here a re f ew v ertebrae a nd r ibs a nd o nly o ne p elvis f ragment c ame t o l ight. B ones o f t he h ead r egion , s houlder b lade a nd h ind l imbs ( ham) r epresent t he p ork m eat c onsumed i n t he s ettlement ( Table 3. T he s trikingly l arge s ized p ig f rom t he f ourth c entury A .D. ( with a w ithers h eight o f 8 95 m m) s uggests i ntensive p igk eeping. T his t ype w ould p robably h ave y ielded c onsiderable q uantity o f m eat a nd b acon. B esides t he f ew a dult p igs, i nfantile-juvenile p iglets w ere a lso c onsumed ( 62% ). T heir g reat q uantity d emonstrates t he p rimary u tilization o f p igs f or m eat. A s imilar p attern w as n oted b y S . B 8k8nyi ( 1976) i n t he S armatian s ettlements o f t he D anube-Tisza i nterfluve. T he t reatment o f p igs i n t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlements o f N orthern H ungary i s d ifferent. H ere 7 0-80% o f p igs w ere s laughtered a s a dults p resumably t o p rovide b acon a nd f at . 3 .4

H orse

T he u se o f h orse i n a griculture w as n ot s ignificant s ince t hey w ere n ot k ept f or t he ir m eat y ield. I n t he s ettlement 6 0 b ones o f 2 1 i ndividual h orses w ere e xcavated ( Table 1 , 2 ). M ost b ones o riginate f rom t he s econd c entury A .D. T hey a re p redominantly f rom t he f ore l imb r egion ( 36.7%), t hen f ollow b ones o f t he h ind l imb r egion ( 26.7%) a nd t hose o f t he h ead r egion ( 15%). O nly f ive p elvis f ragments c ame t o l ight w hich c an i ndicate t hat t he a nimals w ere s laughtered a nd b utchered i n ap lace n ear t o t hat o f t he c onsumption s ite. O f t he h orses 1 8 i ndividuals w ere a dults, t hree i mmature b easts w ere s laughtered ( Table 2 ). H orses f unctioned a s r iding a nd p ack a nimals. 3 .5

D og

T wenty-eight b ones o f 1 5 i ndividual d ogs a nd a c omplete s keleton a re k nown ( Table 1 , 2 ). T he b ones a re n ot k itchen r efuse , t hough t hey a re s trongly f ragmented. 4 6.5% o f t he i solated d og b ones b elong t o t he h ead r egion. D ogs w ere k ept a s w atch d ogs f or e states a nd a nimals. r emains o f h unting d ogs a re y et k nown f rom t he s ettlement.

N o

T he d og s keleton f ound i n s torage p it n o. 6 , o f t he s econd c entury A .D., s uggests t hat d ogs w ere n urtured. T he l eft f emur h ad b roken i n y outh b ut b ecause o f c are i t h ad h ealed. T hough t he s hortened l eft l eg m eant t hat t he a nimal w as l ame, f or y ears a fter i ts h ealing t he d og w as f aithful t o i ts m aster.

1 46

3 .6

H en

H ens , t o p rovide e ggs a nd m eat , p layed n o p art i n t he e conomy o f t he s ettlement. I n n ative s ettlements h ens w ere p rob ably a s i rrelevant a s p igeons i n t he R oman s ettlement. 3 .7

H unted a nimals

T he h unting o f l arge g ame p rovided e ntertainment f or t he s ocial e lite o f t he n ative s ettlement. I n t he I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriod h unting w as n ot u ndertaken t o s upplement f ood s upply b ut t o p rovide t rophies a nd s port. T he s ame a pplies t o t he p eople o f t he B arbaricum ( BB enyi 1 976 , V aday a nd V oris i n p ress, V 8r t i ls : i n m anuscript). T he m ost i mportant h unted a nimals w ere t he r ed d eer a nd t he w ild b oar. O nly t wo i ndividuals o f r oe d eer w ere b agged. I n t he L a T ene p eriod r ed d eer w ere a s acrificial a nimal ( Birkham 1 970 a nd s ee D . G abler's p revious s tudy). R ed d eer a re a nimals o f t he d ense f orests w hile w ild b oar a nd r oe d eer p refer s crubby w oodland. F rom a mong t he f ur b earing a nimals b rown h ares l ive i n o pen a reas, o tters l ive i n i solated , s teep, u ncut r iver b anks s urrounded b y f orests, w hile b eavers p refer s tagnant , o pen w aters. B ig g ame w as s hot i n t he v alley o f t he K apos w here f ur a nimals w ere p robably a lso t rapped. B ig g ame w as h unted d uring t he w hole l ife o f t he s ettlement: f ur a nimals w ere t rapped i n t he L a T ene p eriod , i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. a nd i n t he f ourth c entury A .D. F rom t he p eriod b etween t he f irst-second c entury A .D. n o w ild a nimal b ones h ave y et c ome t o l ight. N o v ertebrae, r ibs o r p elves o f h unted a nimals ( except o ne w ild b oar a tlas) w ere f ound. F rom t he t ype o f b ones p resent w e c an s how t hat t hey b elong p redominantly t o t he r egions o f m eaty l imbs a nd h ead ( trophy). T he o ther b ones a ccumulated o n t he s pot w here t hey w ere s hot o r b utchered. B esides b eing t rophies, r ed d eer , w ild b oar a nd r oe d eer p roduced m eat a nd s kin f or t he h unter. A mong t he f ur a nimals, b rown h ares' m eat a lso w as u sed a s f ood. A s ingle f ish v ertebra f rom a s econd c entury A .D. s ettlem ent f eature r eflects f ishing. I t i s a stonishing t hat t hough t he r iver K apos i s c lose b y o nly a s ingle f ish b one c ame t o l ight. N o g reat q uantity o f f ish r emains , s ufficient t o r eflect a n i ntense f ishing a ctivity , i s y et k nown f rom t he e xcavated t erritory o f t he s ettlement. I t i s a lso s triking t hat o tters - b eing f ish-eating c arnivores - w ereliving i n t he v alley o f K apos i n t his p eriod. T his i mplies t hat n ot o nly w as t here a v olume o f f ast f lowing a nd s tagnant w ater ( otters a nd b eavers) b ut t here w ere f ish, t oo. M aybe, b ecause o f t he c limatic d eterioration i n t he C arpathian B asin i n t he s econd-third c entury A .D. ( Kordos 1 977b), t he n umber o f e dible f ish d ecreased. A lternatively f ish m ay h ave b een e xcluded f rom n ative e ating h abits b y t radition o r r itual.

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F ew f ish b ones c ame t o l ight a t M anching ( Boessneck e t a l. 1 971), b ut t heir n umber , i f s ometimes v ariable , i s s ignificant i n t he R oman s ettlements ( B8k8nyi 1 974).

4 .

B utchery

T races o f c utting a nd c leaving r esulting f rom b utchery a re v ery f requent. S ince c ertain t ypes o f c utting a nd c leaving r ecur o n t he s ame b ones o f d ifferent a nimals w e c an s uppose t hat s ystematic b utchery w as p ractised. B utchery m arks c an b e f ound o n t he s kull a nd o n i ts a dnexal p arts , o n t he s urface o f t he a tlase pistropheus a nd o n t he b ones o f t he s houlder , e lbow , k nee , a nd h ock-joints. T he j oints w ere c left f rom t he c audal d irection. I t s eems t hat f rom t he p rehistoric t imes t o t he p resent t he a nat omical s tructure o f a nimals h ave e ncouraged s imilar b utchery m ethods; o nly t he c utting a nd c leaving t ools h ave d eveloped. 4 .1

C attle

T he h ead w as g enerally s eparated f rom t he n eck d irectly b ehind t he s kull, t he c ut c leaving t he a tlas-epistropheus o r s licing t he c ondyli f rom t he b asioccipitale. O f t he b ones o f s houlder j oint n o p roximal p art o f t he s capula a nd h umerus c ame t o l ight. T hey w ere r emoved f rom t he m eat. I n s eparating t he s houlder j oint , t he t uber s capulae w ere c ut o ff o r t he s capula w as c left i nto t wo a t t he c ollum. T he e lbow j oint w as c ut f rom t he c audal d irection. C ut m arks o n t he d istal e piphysis o f t he h umerus o r o n t he p roximal e piphysis o f t he r adius s how t his a s w ell a s t he f act t hat t he o lecranon i s, i n e very c ase , c ut f rom t he u lna. F rom a mong t he b ones o f t he h ip j oint , t he a cetabulum a nd p roximal e piphysis o f t he f emur a re a bsent . C uts v isible o n t he i lium a nd o n t he i schium a re t he r esults o f t he c leaving o f t he p elvis. O f t he b ones o f t he k nee j oint o nly o ne d istal e piphysis o f t he f emur a nd t hree p roximal e piphyses o f t he t ibia c ame t o l ight b ut n o p atellae. B ones w ith m ost c uts o n t he s urface a re f rom t he h ock j oint. T he t uber o f t he c alcaneus w as u sually c ut f rom t he r est o f t he b one. T he s urface o f t he a stragalus w as s cored w hen c utting u p t he h ock j oint . T he v entral p art o f t he p roximal e piphysis, a nd m ost o f t he m etatarsals a nd m etacarpals a re s cored i n t he v entrod orsal d irection. T hese m etapodials w ere u sed a s t ools o r p arts o f t ools ( Vaday a nd V 8r8s i n p ress, V 8r8s: i n m anuscript).

1 48

4 .2

S mall r uminants

A f ew s mall r uminant b ones h ave c ut-marks o n t hem. B ut t he g reater p art o f l ong b ones a re b roken, a nd w ithout t he p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses. T he s kulls, a s i n t he c ase o f c attle , w ere b roken a nd h orn c ores w ere c ut o ff. N o d istal e nds o f t he s capula, r adius a nd f emur, p roximal e nds o f t he h umerus a nd t ibia, a nd p atella a re p resent . S tab-wounds o n t he l ateral s ide o f ac alcaneus a nd o n ad istal d iaphysis o f at ibia e ither h appened w hen t he a nimal w as c aught o r b utchered. A s imilar s tab-wound i s k nown o n t he c alcaneus o f as heep a nd o f ap ig f rom t he R oman I mperial p eriod s ettlement o f S zilvösvdrad i n N orthern H ungary ( VBrBs: i n m anuscript). M ost o f t he d iaphyses o f t he m etapodials a re b roken i nto t wo. 4 .3

P ig

T he s kulls o f t he p igs w ere s agittally o r t ransversely c left. T o s eparate t he a nimal, t wo s ides w ere f ormed b y c utting d own t he v ertebrae. T he l engths o f r ib f ragments s uggest t hat t he s ides w ere t hen c ut i nto t wo o r t hree p arts. T he t races o f c uts a re o n t he i nner s ides o f t he r ibs. N o p roximal o r d istal e nds o f t he s capula, h umerus , f emur a nd t ibia c ame t o l ight. O nly o ne p roximal e nd o f ar adius i s k nown , b ut n o d istal e nds. I t i s i nteresting t hat t here a re v ery f ew f ore a nd h ind k nuckles. T hese b ones p robably a ccumulated a t t he b utchery s ite . C ut t races c an b e f ound o n t he s capula , o n t he d istal d iaphysis o f t he h umerus, a nd o n t he p roximal d iaphysis o f t he f emur a nd t ibia. 4 .4

H orse

T races o f c uts c an b e f ound o n t he s capula , o n t he d istal d iaphysis o f t he h umerus a nd o n t he t arsal b ones. N o p roximal o r d istal e piphyses o f t he s capula, h umerus, f emur a nd t ibia , d istal e nds o f t he r adius a nd m etatarsal, o r p roximal e nds o f t he m etacarpal a re p resent i n t he s ettlement. F rom a mong t he b ones o f t he h ock j oint t he c ompact a stragalus a nd c alcaneum o ccur a s w ell a s t he p roximal e piphysis o f t he m etatarsal. 4 .5

A ss

O n t he v entral s ide o f t he d istal e piphysis o f t he s ingle a ss m etatarsal r ough c uts c an b e f ound.

4 .6

D og

T he s poradic d og b ones a re v ery f ragmented. I n t he s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 9 , o f t he s econd c entury A .D., a s capula o f ad og s tabbed o n t he l eft s ide w as f ound. T he s tab-wound p enetrated

1 49

t he s capulae c ausing t he d og's d eath.

5 .

T he t opographical d istribution o f a nimal b ones

T he r ange o f a nimal b ones i n t he S zakdly s ettlement , r elated t o a natomy a nd b ody r egion, i s i rregular , b ut i t i s n either t ypical o f t he b utchery s ite ( predominant o ccurrences o f h ead , c ertain p arts o f t he t runk , d ry l imb r egion, p halangeal b ones; s carce o ccurrence o f t he b ones o f m eaty l imb r egion), n or o f ap ure c onsumption s ite ( predominant o ccurrence o f c ertain h ead t runk a nd m eaty l imb r egion b ones; s carce o ccurrence o f b ones o f d ry l imb r egion a nd o f p halangeal b ones). W e s uppose t hat a nimal b ones o f S zaköly r esulted f rom t wo a ctivities: P hase I :

t he b ones r emaining f rom m eat c onsumption w ere d eposited i n t he o ccupied p ortion o f t he s ettlement. T his a ssemb lage c an b e c alled t he ' accumulation o f p rimary k itchen m idden r efuse'.

P hase I I:

i n t he u ninhabited p ortion o f t he s ite o ld s ettlement f eatures o n t he d eserted p ortion o f t he s ite c ontained t he r emains o f b utchered a nimals. T hese r emains c ons ist c hiefly o f l ess u sable b ody p arts s uch a s t he c ertain t runk a nd d ry l imb r egion a nd t he p halangeal b ones.

T hough t hese t wo p hases w ere m ixed a t S zakdly t he s econd p hase s eems t o h ave p revailed. A nimal b ones w ere f ound i n t he b ottom o f s unken f loor h uts a s w ell a s i n t he f illing. A nimal b ones i n t he f illing o f s torage p its a re s carce , b ut t hey a ccumul ated i n t he u ppermost l ayer a bove t he s torage p its. L a Tne p eriod A t p resent t hree s unken f loor h uts a nd f our s torage p its o f t he L a T ene p eriod h ave b een e xcavated ( Table 5 ). 6 4 .28% o f t he d omestic a nimals a nd 6 1.5% o f t he h unted a nimals o f t he L a T ene p eriod w ere f ound i n t hese t hree h uts. T he d istribution o f c attle b ones i n h uts a nd s torage p its c orresp ond t o e ach o ther. I n t he s unken f loor h uts t here w ere 8 4% o f t he s mall r uminant a nd 7 8% o f t he p ig b ones. T he n umber o f b ones o f h unted a nimals i s g reater i n s unken f loor h uts , b ut i n s torage p its m ore s pecies o ccur. A h igh p ercentage o f b ones f rom h uts i s g nawed. F rom t his i t c an b e c oncluded t hat b ones i n t he s torage p its a nd i n t he o ccupation l evel w ere c overed s ooner t han t hose i n s unken f loor h uts. F rom h ut n o. 2 0 t here w ere t wo , a nd f rom s torage p it n o . 2 3 , t hree, b roken ( cleft) s kulls o f c attle.

1 50

F irst-second c entury A .D. F rom t his p eriod o nly t wo s unken f loor h uts a nd o ne t imberb uilt h ouse w ere e xcavated ( Table 6 ). F rom t he t imber-built h ouse 8 0% o f a nimal b ones c ame t o l ight. A p art o f t hem w as b urnt a nd g nawed. S econd c entury A .D. F rom f ive s unken f loor h uts a nd o ne t imber-built h ouse 9 6.3% o f a nimal b ones c ame t o l ight ( Table 6 ). A p ercentage o f t he c attle, s mall r uminant , p ig a nd h orse b ones w ere b urnt a nd g nawed. O n t he b ottom o f s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 8 t here l ay a r ight h ind l imb ( pelvis, f emur , t ibia , a stragalus) o f c attle. I n s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 6 t here w ere t hree , a nd i n n o. 2 9 o ne ,c left c attle s kulls. O n t he b ottom o f s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 9 , a t a d epth o f 1 05 c m , t here w as a j uvenile-adult h orse s kull. A s kelet on o f d og w as f ound i n h ut n o. 6 . S econd-third c entury A .D. F rom t his p eriod t hree s unken f loor h uts , t wo s torage p its a nd o ne h earth w ere e xcavated ( Table 7 ). F rom t he t hree h uts c ame 9 5% o f t he a nimal b ones. T hey w ere p artly g nawed a nd b urnt. F rom s unken f loor h uts n o. 3 a nd 1 2 c ame t wo e ach , a nd f rom n o. 1 4 , t hree, b roken s kulls o f c attle. I n t he w orking p lace o f t he h earth t here w ere o nly f ew a nimal b ones: a mong t hem w as t he a ntler o f ar ed d eer, b urnt o n o ne s ide. F ourth c entury A .D. F rom t his p eriod o ne s unken f loor h ut , t hree s torage p its , ac ellar a nd a w ell w ere e xcavated ( Table 7 ). M ost b ones c ame f rom t he s unken f loor h ut a nd f rom t he p it o f t he w ell. U nlike i n t he p revious p eriods, i n t he f illing o f h ut n o. 3 0 a nd i n t he o ccupation l ayer a bove i t , t he q uantity o f b one f ragments w as t he s ome. I n t he f illing t here w ere c attle, p ig , a nd s mall r uminant b ones , i n t he o ccupation l ayer a bove i t t here w ere c attle , p ig , h orse , d og, r ed d eer a nd w ild b oar b ones. N one w ere g nawed. A p roportion o f t he a nimal b ones f rom o ther f ourth c entury A .D. s ettlement f eatures w ere b urnt a nd g nawed. I n s unken f loor h ut n o. 3 0 a nd t wo s torage p its t here w ere b roken s kulls o f c attle.

1 51

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s zakmagyarorszdgi c sdszörkori t elepek d llatcsontleletei ( Animal B one R emains f rom t he R oman I mperial P eriod S ettlem ents i n N orth H ungary).

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W ild m ammals

. 1 1- ( ‚ J

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I

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D omestic a nimals

1 st-2nd c A .D.

• • •4

1

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c e — 4 . , P 4

t e N. N O

. t 0 0

. . IN 1 I 1

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11 1 1

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s TowTuo p TTm

1 61

c e

• • • 1

C N 1

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1 I 1 1 • 4 3

11 1 1 1 I

1 1

C N I

5 8

C I N

8 3 1

I

2 71

1 11 11

C e

4 6

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1C V

4

1 I. 8

7

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4 3

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18 1 1 1

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1

M .

M .

M D

N .

M .

M O

1 4 3 7 9 2

3 1 6 4 -

3 2 -

1 -

3 3 1 -

1 1 1

1. 4 I I. 4

C \ 1 1 1 1 1

1 58

0

8 1

-

3 1 5 4 1

i n

r , I

-s torage p it ,

I

1 4 1 1 4 -

8 6

1 8

2

6 7 2 1

T otal

w .

c .

S torage p it

. . 1 e

C • J

C I c e — I

1 1

3 3 3 0 1 4 5 1

1 -

-

1 e l '

5 1 2 9 1 0 6 4 1 4 1 -

3 2

3 0 .

p dw .

4 th c A .D.

. 4

T otal

_

1 72

2 3

3 .

T otal

C N 1

3

1 4 .

h .

" I t

6 0

1 2.

s tp.

I n L C )

4 5

5 9

3 .

P it d welling

2 nd-3rd c A .D.

N t

R ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus) W ild b oar ( Sus s crofa) B rown h are ( Lepus e uropaeus) B eaver ( Castor f iber) H amster ( Cricetus c ricetus)

D omestic a nimals

C attle ( Bos t aurus) S mall r uminants ( Ovis c ries , C apra h ircus) P ig ( Sus s crofa d om.) H orse ( Equus c aballus) D og ( Canis f amiliaris) H en ( Gallus d omesticus)

N o.

F eature

C entury

C O

x •

N . 0

. I . -4 0 U

i

I

U

•

. .0

+

3

. .

0

0

1 4

.0

I

T able 8

M easurements o f c attle b ones

H orn c ore

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

i st c B .C .-lst c A .D. 2 nd c A .D. A .D.

1 85 1 83

5 2 4 9 5 3

4 1 3 9 4 0

1 50 1 38 1 53

1 . L ength m easured o n t he g reatest c urve , 2 . G reatest d iameter , 3 . S mallest d iameter , 4 . C ircumference o f t he b ase. S capula

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

2 nd c A .D.

6 0 _ -

8 3 6 8 -

6 7 _ _

5 5 5 0 6 0

1 . S mallest b readth o f c ollum s capulae, 2 . B readth o f a ngulus a rticularis , 3 . B readth o f f acies a rticularis, 4 . D iameter o f f acies a rticularis. H umerus l st-2nd c A .D. 2 nd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

1 .

2 .

_ -

-

M I W

. ...

-

-

2 83 3 03 -

8 0 7 4 8 7

3 . -

4 . 6 9 7 8 9 3 9 5 9 6 9 6

5 .

6 .

7 .

_ -

-

7 0 7 9

•••

I M ,

-

-

9 5 9 5

4 1 3 6 4 3

2 3 2 4 -

4 7 5 4 4 3 4 5 5 3 5 3 5 3

_ 2 1 -

_ 3 3 3 5 3 3

M M

R adius 1 st c A .D. 2 nd c A .D. 2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

3 0 8 7 -

4 3 4 5 -

6 9 8 8 6 8 7 9 8 4 8 3 8 3

_ _ 3 1 -

6 3 6 7 6 1 _

4 0 43 -

M etacarpus 2 nd c A .D.

2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

-

5 4 _ 5 4 6 7 _ 5 3 5 4

1 62

5 6

3 4 _ _ 3 4 4 0 3 3 3 2

•• •

«1•

•••

-

2 8

F emur

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

2 nd c A .D.

5 .

6 .

7 .

9 0

1 10

T ;bia I st c B .C .-ist c A .D.

l st-2nd c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

2 nd-3rd c A .D.

3 32 -

8 8 8 7 9 8 _ _

3 1 3 5 _ _

5 2 5 4 5 4 5 8 6 0 6 3 6 4 6 5 7 3 5 8 6 0 7 1

8 0 7 8 9 0 -

2 1 2 5 -

4 1 3 9 4 0 4 2 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 7 5 2 4 4 4 7 5 4

M etatarsus i st c B .C .-ist c A .D.

l st-2nd c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

2 54 2 13 -

4 0 4 8 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 1 4 6 4 8 4 6 5 0 -

2 5 -

4 2 4 8 5 0 5 3 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 6 6 0 6 2 5 9 3 9 4 8 5 2

2 5 2 5 2 8 2 9 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 2 3 1 2 6 3 0 2 9

••• •

3 2 3 0 -

-

3 9 4 6 5 2

2 8 -

-

•••

MI.

•• •

I M I I•

6 6 6 9

5 1 5 1

2 9 2 5

3 4 3 3

O M

«le

MI N

•••

2 7 _

4 8 5 8 5 2

_ 4 4 4 6 _

_ 2 0 2 5 -

2 8 3 2 2 8

2 1 2 1 2 4 2 5 2 8 2 8 2 6 2 7 2 4 2 5 2 8 2 1 2 5 2 6

2 4 2 2 2 6 2 8 2 9 3 0 2 8 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 2 2 2 3 0 2 8

2 7 3 0 3 0

1 5 1 6 1 9

1 8 1 7 2 1

3 4 3 7 3 7 3 4 3 6 3 7 3 4 3 0 3 1 3 3

2 0 1 9 2 1 2 0 2 1 1 9 1 4 2 1 1 9 1 8

O s P halangis I i st c B .C.-ist c A .D.

i st 2nd c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

1 63

•••

2 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 7 2 2 2 0

O s P hala 9is I

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

2 nd-3rd : A .D.

5 1 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 6 5 7 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 2

2 8 2 7 2 8 3 1 2 9 2 7 2 8 3 5 3 1 3 2 3 2 2 9 3 4

2 5 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 4 2 4 2 9 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 5 3 0

3 0 2 7 3 0 3 0 2 9 2 8 2 6 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 2 8 3 5

3 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 8 3 7 3 9 3 8 3 7 3 7

2 0 1 8 1 4 1 9 2 0 1 8 1 7 2 2 2 0 2 1 2 0 1 8 2 1

2 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 7 2 7 2 4 2 5 2 1 2 3

3 1 3 1 3 3 4 1 3 3 3 3 3 6 3 8 3 6 3 6 4 1 4 0

2 5 2 5 2 5 3 1 2 5 2 8 2 9 3 4 3 0 2 7 3 4 3 1

2 0 2 0 2 0 2 4 1 9 2 3 2 2 2 8 2 5 2 2 2 8 2 5

2 2 2 2 2 1 2 6 2 0 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

2 8 2 8 2 6 3 5 2 8 3 0 3 4 3 3 3 5 3 2 4 0 3 4

1 9 2 1 1 8 2 3 1 8 2 2 2 4 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 9 2 3

2 5 2 7 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 7 3 1 3 0 3 5 3 2 3 6 3 1

4 th r A .D.

O s P halangis I I i st c B .C .-1st c A .D.

l st-2nd c A .D.

2 nd c A .D. 2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D. 1 . 2 . 4 . 6 .

3 1 2 6

G reatest l ength ( medial-sagitt. l ength o f t he p halangis I -II), B readth o f p roximal e piphysis, 3 . S mallest b readth o f d iaphysis , B readth o f d istal e piphysis , 5 . D iameter o f p roximal e piphysis , S mallest d iameter o f d iaphysis , 7 . D iameter o f d istal e piphysis.

A stragalus

1 .

2 .

3 .

i st c B .C .-lst c A .D.

5 6 6 5 6 6 5 5 6 0 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 8 7 2 7 3 6 0 6 0 6 2 6 9 6 3

3 7 4 8 4 7 3 5 4 1 4 7 4 3 4 5 4 6 4 9 4 5 4 0 4 3 3 9 4 6

3 2 3 9

2 nd c A .D.

2 nd-3rd c A .D.

4 th c A .D.

1 64

3 0 3 4 3 8 3 7 3 6 3 8 4 4 4 1 3 3 3 4 3 5 4 0 3 3

C alcaneus

1 .

2 .

3 .

i st c B .C .—ist c A .D.

1 35

4 7 4 9 5 0 5 1 4 3 4 6

5 7 5 6 6 0 5 9 5 5 6 0

cA .D. 2 nd-3rd c A .D.

1 28 1 38

G reatest l ength, 2 . G reatest b readth, 3 . G reatest h eight.

1 65

T able 9

M easurements o f s mall r uminant b ones

H orn c ore 2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

1 43 -

2 9 5 0

1 9 4 0

8 2 1 50

C . 0 .

1 . t Angth m easured o n t he g reatest c urve , 2 . G reatest d iameter , 3 . S mallest d iameter , 4 . C ircumference o f t he b ase. 4 .

H umerus B .C .-ist c A .D.

D .

-

2 8 3 1 2 9 3 0

2 nd c A .D.

6 «

7 . 2 5 2 6 2 4 2 5

C . 0 . 0 . 0 .

R adius i st c B .C.-lst c A .D. 2 nd c A .D. 2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

-

2 6 3 4 3 0 3 3

1 3 1 6 -

-

1 3 1 8 1 5 1 6

1 28 1 10 -

2 3 2 1 1 9 1 8

1 3 1 1 1 3 -

2 5 2 2 -

1 8 1 7 1 4 1 4

-

4 5

-

8 1 0 7 -

-

M etacarpus i st c B .C.-lst c A .D. 2 nd-3rd c A .D.

9 1 6 8 7 1 4 -

0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .

F emur 2 nd c A .D.

- 2 3

-

. 1 .N

T ibia i st c B .C .-lst c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

«lb

2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

-

-

-

2 1 2 3 2 5

3 2 3 4 2 6 2 6 3 0

-

-

1 8 1 9 1 9 2 3 2 4 2 0 2 1 2 4

M etatarsus l st-2nd c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

-

2 4 2 3 1 2 1 66

2 7 - 2 4 - 2 2 3 0 2 5 -

1 1 - 3 0 -

0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . C .

i nf. i nf.

M etatarsus

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

2 nd-3rd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

-

1 9 1 0 - 1 2

- 2 0 2 4 -

3 7

1 3

1 3

6 .

7 .

8 1 0

1 6

M .

O s P halangis I 2 nd c A .D. M easurements:

1 1

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

A stra9alus

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 th c A .D.

3 2

2 1

2 0

6 4

2 2

2 4

C alcaneus 2 nd-3rd c A .D. M easurements:

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

1 67

1 7 .5

8 .5

1 2.5

0 . O .

T able 1 0

M easurements o f p ig b ones

S canmla

1 .

2 .

i st c B .C.-lst c A .D.

1 9 3 0

3 0 4 5

m . ,. . e urements:

3 . -

4 . 2 2 3 2

w .

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

H umerus

1 .

2 .

i st c B .C .-lst c A .D.

3 . -

4 .

5 .

5 0 5 6

6 .

7 .

-

5 3

w . w .

R adius i st c B .C.-lst c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

-

4 0 4 1 2 6

-

6 7

2 6 -

-

2 9 3 0 1 8

1 7 1 0

-

w . w .

T ibia 2 nd c A .D.

-

w .

O s P halangis I 2 nd-3rd c A .D. M easurements:

3 4

1 5

1 2

1 4

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

A stragalus

1 .

2 .

3 .

2 nd c A .D. 4 th c A .D.

3 0 5 0

1 4 3 1

1 4 3 0

6 8

2 2

2 7

C alcaneus i st c B .C.-ist c A .D. M easurements:

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

1 68

1 7

8

9

T able 1 1

M easurements o f h orse b ones

R adius

1 .

2 nd-3rd c A .D.

2 .

3 .

8 1

4 . -

5 .

6 .

7 .

3 2

2 0

3 1

2 2 2 4

3 5 3 4 3 9 3 5 3 6

4 6

M etacarpus 2 nd c A .D.

2 26

4 9

3 3

4 7

3 0

• ••

2 nd-3rd c A .D.

2 26 •• ••

••••

5 0 4 4 4 9 4 6 5 0

M etatarsus 2 nd c A .D.

-

4 4 4 5

2 6

7 9

5 2

3 3

4 2 4 2 4 1

5 1 5 1 5 4

4 2 4 2 4 4

-

4 4 3 8

2 2

4 4

3 5

1 9

2 5

p ost .

4 5 4 6 4 8

3 1 3 2 3 1

2 3 2 1 2 4

2 5 2 7 2 8

a nt. a nt . a nt.

O s P halangis I 4 th c A .D. O s P halangis I I 2 nd c A .D. 4 th c A .D. M easurements:

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

A stragalus

1 .

2 .

3 .

i st c 8 .C.-lst c A .D. 2 nd c A .D.

5 2 5 4

6 4 6 0

5 5 5 9

-

5 2

5 3

C alcaneus 4 th c A .D. M easurements:

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

1 69

T able 1 2

M easurements o f w ild a nimal b ones

R ed d eer

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

t ibia ( 2nd-3rd c A .D.) m etatarsus ( 2nd c A .D.) p h, I ( 1st c B .C.-lst c A .D.) p h. I I ( 2nd c A .D.) ( 2nd-3rd c A .D.)

6 0 4 1 3 9

2 5 2 4 -

3 3 2 0 1 7 1 5

5 7 4 5 2 3 1 9 1 7

3 1 2 9 2 7

2 9 2 1 1 6 2 2 2 0

4 3 3 0 1 9 2 9 2 8

8 .5

2 7

-

1 0

1 5

6

1 3

-

B eaver h umerus ( 2nd-3rd c A .D.)

-

B rown h are h umerus ( 4th c A .D.) M easurements:

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

R ed d eer

1 .

2 .

3 .

a stragalus ( 2nd-3rd c A .D.) ( 4th c A .D.)

5 9 5 9

3 7 3 7

3 4 3 4

1 38

4 0

c alcaneus ( 2nd-3rd c A .D.) M easurements:

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle.

1 70

-

6

1 0

T able 1 3

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4 . 1 5. 1 6. 1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9. 2 0 . 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 6. 2 7 . 2 8. 2 9 . 3 0 . 3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 3 5. 3 6 .

M easurements o f d og s kull ( in m m)

O verall l ength ( 0p-P) B asal l ength ( B-P) I nterparietal l ength ( 0p-L) P arietal l ength ( L-Br) F rontal l ength ( Br-N) N asal l ength ( N-Rh) N eurocranion l ength ( Op-N) V iscerocranium l ength ( N-P) L ength o f t he p roc. n asal D orsal l ength o f t he m axilla ( Fo-Ni) L ateral l ength o f t he m axilla ( Fo-Mo) D istance b etween t he P a nd I f B asal n eurocranium l ength ( B-ho) B asal v iscerocronium l ength ( ho-P) G reatest p alatal l ength ( P-St) P alatal l ength ( Po-St) G reatest l ength o f t he t ooth r ow P remolar l ength L ength o f t he P4 M olar l ength G reatest m astoid b readth ( ot-ot) G reatest b readth o f t he b rain c ase ( eu-eu) G reatest b readth o f t he p araoccipital p roc. G reatest f rontal b readth ( Ect-Ect) S mallest b readth b etween t he o rbits ( Ent-Ent) D istance b etween t he f oramina i nfroorbitalea D istance b etween t he p orions ( po-po) B readth o f t he r ow o f i ncisora B readth o f t he c anine a lveoli S mallest p alatal b readth G reatest p alatal b readth B readth o f t he f ossa m andibula H eight o f t he o ccipital ( 0-0p) H eight o f t he f oramen m agnum ( B-0) G reatest b readth o f t he o ccipital c ondyles S mallest b readth o f t he f rontal s kull ( fs-fs)

i7 1

1 93 1 65 3 0 2 8 5 3 6 4 1 05 9 4 1 4 2 6 6 6 5 9 6 6 1 02 9 0 2 9 9 2 5 0 1 8 1 4 6 5 6 0 4 7 5 0 3 8 3 8 5 7 2 6 3 7 3 4 6 1 2 6 3 2 1 7 4 0 3 6

T able 1 4

M easurements o f d og b ones

L ength o f t he l ower t eeth ( in m m): P1 -4

i st c B .C.-1st c A .D.

1 -3

1

3 rd c A .D.

4 3 4 5 3 8 3 8 4 1

S capula

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

1 30 1 23

2 5 2 5 2 4

3 0 3 0 3 0

2 7 2 6 2 5

1 8 1 8 1 7

2 nd c A .D.

S k . S k.

2 nd c A .D.

S k. d ext. S k. s in.

3 5 3 6 3 5 3 4.5 3 7

2 2 2 0 1 9 1 9 2 0

1 . G reatest l ength, 2 . S mallest b readth o f c ollum s capulae , 3 . B readth o f o ngulus a rticularis, 4 . B readth o f f acies a rticuloris , 5 . D iameter o f f ad es a rticularis. L ong b ones o f s keleton 1. 2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 . 2 4 .5 2 5

2 nd c A .D. H umerus

d ext. s in.

1 65 1 66

2 9 2 8

1 3 1 3

3 4 3 3

4 0 4 0

1 3.5 1 4

R adius

d ext. s in.

1 65 1 65

1 8 1 8

1 3 1 3

2 5 2 5

1 2 1 2

6 7

1 2 1 3

F emur

d ext. s in.

1 82 1 71

3 9 4 1

1 4 3 1 - 3 1

1 8 1 8

1 3 -

3 4 3 2

d ext. s in.

1 86 1 92

3 4 3 4

1 3 1 2

3 6 3 7

1 1 1 2

1 6 1 6

T ibia M easurements: A strogolus d ext. s in.

S k. - S keleton

2 3 2 3

( pathological)

t he s ame a s t hose o f c attle. 1 .

2 .

3 .

2 6 2 6

2 0 2 0

1 4 1 4

C alcaneus d ext. s in.

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 4 4 4

1 8 1 7

2 0 2 0

a

F ig. 1 . a . L eft f rontal f ragment w ith h orn-core o f c attle. F rontal v iew ( second c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 6). b . L eft m axilla o f c attle ( pathological). L ateral v iew ( second-third c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 3 ). 1 73

b

a

F ig. 2 . a . R ight h orn-core o f as heep. L ateral v iew . ( Fourth c entury A .D.). b . R ight h orn-core o f ag oat . L ateral v iew . ( Second-third c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 4). 1 74

a

b

C

F ig. 3

T he s kull o f ad og ( second c entury A .D., s torage p it n o. 6 ) a . l eft s ide v iew b . d orsal v iew c . b asal v iew . 1 75

a

F ig. 4 . a . T wo m andibles o f t he d og s keleton ( second c entury A .D., s torage p it n o . 6 ) . a bove: r ight s ide , m edial v iew b elow : l eft s ide , l ateral v iew b . T he l eft m andible , l ateral v iew. ( Third c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 2). 1 76

F ig. 5 . a . T wo f emurs o f t he d og s keleton ( second c entury A .D., s torage p it n o. 6 ). P lantar v iew . b . L eft m axilla o f ah orse ( second c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 1 6). B asal v iew . 1 77

F ig. 6 .

S kull o f ah orse i n s itu ( second c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 9). 1 78

a

F ig. 7 . a . L eft m andible o f t he s acrificial r ed d eer ( first c entury A .D., s torage p it n o. 1 7). L ateral v iew. b . P lastron o f at ortoise ( first c entury A .D., s unken f loor h ut n o. 2 ). B asal v iew. 1 79