International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education [1 ed.] 9781563684586, 9781563684111

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Copyright © 2009. Gallaudet University Press. All rights reserved. International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Gallaudet University Press. All rights reserved.

International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education

International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

Interpreter Education Series Cynthia B. Roy, Series Editor

VOLUME 1 Innovative Practices for Teaching Sign Language Interpreters VOLUME 2 Advances in Teaching Sign Language Interpreters VOLUME 3 New Approaches to Interpreter Education

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VOLUME 4 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education

International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

JEMINA NAPIER, Editor

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International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education

GALLAUDET UNIVERSITY PRESS Washington, DC

International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

Interpreter Education A Series edited by Cynthia B. Roy Gallaudet University Press Washington, DC 20002 http://gupress.gallaudet.edu © 2009 by Gallaudet University All rights reserved. Published 2009 Printed in the United States of America

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data International perspectives on sign language interpreter eduction / Jemina Napier, editor. p. cm. — (Interpreter education series ; 4) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-56368-411-1 (casebound : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-56368-411-X (casebound : alk. paper) 1. Interpreters for the deaf. I. Napier, Jemina. HV2402.I58 2009 362.4′283—dc22 2008051438 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

CONTENTS

Preface: The Conference of Interpreter Trainers and Its Influence on the Past, Present, and Future

vii

CAROLYN BALL

Foreword

ix

LIZ SCOTT GIBSON

Part One: Europe Sign Language Interpreter Training in Austria: An Integrated Approach

3

NADJA GRBIĆ

Sign Language Interpreter Training in Finland

15

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MARJUKKA NISULA AND JUHA MANUNEN

Three Leaps of Faith and Four Giant Steps: Developing Interpreter Training in Ireland

35

LORRAINE LEESON AND TERESA LYNCH

Beginnings of the Interpreter Training Program in Kosovo

57

SELMAN HOTI AND SUSAN EMERSON

Linguistic Variation as a Challenge for Sign Language Interpreters and Sign Language Interpreter Education in the Netherlands

77

ONNO CRASBORN AND TONY BLOEM

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CONTENTS

From Small Acorns: The Scottish Experience of Developing Interpreter and Translator Training

96

CHRISTINE W. L. WILSON AND RITA MCDADE

Interpreter Education in Sweden: A Uniform Approach 124 to Spoken and Signed Language Interpreting ANNA HEIN

Part Two: Asia-Pacific Interpreting Down Under: Sign Language Interpreter Education and Training in Australia

149

KAREN BONTEMPO AND PATRICIA LEVITZKE-GRAY

Isa Lei: Interpreter Training in Fiji

171

KATE NELSON, INISE TAWAKETINI, RUTH SPENCER, AND DELLA GOSWELL

Training of Sign Language Interpreters in Japan: Achievements and Challenges

190

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EIICHI TAKADA AND SHIN’ICHI KOIDE

Sign Language Interpreter Education and the Profession in New Zealand

200

RACHEL MCKEE, SHIZUE SAMESHIMA, LYNETTE PIVAC, AND DAVID MCKEE

Part Three: The Americas Brazilian Sign Language Interpreter Education in Brazil: From Voluntary Work to Formal Distance Learning

221

RONICE MÜLLER DE QUADROS AND MARIANNE ROSSI STUMPF

Traveling the Path of Excellence in Interpreter Education: The Canadian Experience KAREN MALCOLM AND NIGEL HOWARD

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CONTENTS

vii

The National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers in the United States of America

267

ELIZABETH A. WINSTON AND DENNIS COKELY

Part Four: Africa Sign Language Interpreter Training in Kenya

295

OKOTH OKOMBO, JEFWA G. MWERI, AND WASHINGTON AKARANGA

301

Index

309

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Contributors

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Editor’s Note: All the chapters in the book contain information that is current as of the end of 2008.

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CAROLYN BALL

PREFACE

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The Conference of Interpreter Trainers and Its Influence on the Past, Present, and Future THE NEED FOR the exchange of information between interpreter trainers is significant. The importance can be seen by learning from the history of interpreter education in the United States. Dating as far back as June 14– 17, 1964, a Workshop on Interpreting for the Deaf was held at Ball State Teachers College in Muncie, Indiana. During this workshop, the participants felt that a workshop for interpreter educators should be held to develop a curriculum for interpreter training programs (ITPs). In response to this need, a second workshop was held in Portland, Maine, on July 7–27, 1965, at the Governor Baxter State School for the Deaf. The need for a curriculum to guide teaching in interpreter training programs continued. Lou Fant, a pioneer in interpreter education, stated that, “knowledge in the form of curriculum materials seems to be the greatest lack in the ITPs” (Fant, 1990, p. 59). Additionally, Fant predicted that interpreter education programs across the nation would increase significantly. Because he felt that interpreter education programs would expand, he felt that a scientific research center in interpreter education needed to be established. This center would help interpreter educators to establish standards regarding curricula, conduct long-term studies regarding interpreter education, and write grants for research funding. Fant’s views that interpreter training programs would increase significantly were accurate. Sadly, his perspective on the need for a research center never became a reality. However, the establishment of the Conference of Interpreter Trainers (CIT) in the United States in 1979 sparked a glimmer of hope for the creation of curriculum and program standards. The mission of CIT as a professional association of interpreter educators is to: (1) Provide opporCarolyn Ball is the Treasurer and former President of the Conference of Interpreter Trainers.

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PREFACE

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tunities for professional development of interpreter educators; (2) Promote high standards in institutions, faculties, programs, and curricula for the education of interpreters; (3) Advocate for research relevant to the practice and instruction of interpreting; and (4) Encourage collegial relationships with professionals in other related disciplines and organizations. Fant would be pleased that through the continued work of CIT and the commitment of Gallaudet University Press to publish current research, his vision for established standards and information sharing among interpreter educators is stronger than it has ever been. Because of these efforts, CIT is a nationally recognized organization that has begun to attract members from other countries, thus bringing together interpreter trainers from all over the world. The contributors to this volume represent fifteen countries, and their work supports the efforts of CIT to share effective teaching practices and promote high professional standards in their respective countries. The early pioneers of CIT would be pleased to see this international overview of the training and education of interpreters.

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LIZ SCOTT GIBSON

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FOREWORD

UBUNTU, A WORD from the Xhosa people of Africa, has been in the headlines recently; it has no real English equivalent, but one definition by Archbishop Desmond Tutu describes a person with ubuntu as being someone open and available to others, someone who is not only willing to share but to be vulnerable and admit their weaknesses. A person with ubuntu has the self-assurance of knowing they belong in a greater whole and are supported by it. So, on reading this latest volume in the Interpreter Education series published by Gallaudet University Press, I could not help but feel the strong sense of ubuntu throughout. As a practicing interpreter, interpreter trainer, and president of the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters (WASLI), which is in touch with interpreters from 171 different countries, I am very aware of the commonality of interests and challenges shared by my colleagues around the globe. From the moment WASLI was established in 2005, it was overwhelmed by requests from all over the world for information and resources in relation to the education and training of signed language interpreters. There is no doubt, therefore, that this publication will fill an enormous void, providing as it does, an international overview. The contributors, many of whom I know personally and all of whom are experienced educators, trainers, or practitioners from both income-rich and income-poor countries from every continent, not only give us an insight into how signed language interpreter training has developed in each nation but share with us honestly the difficulties they have faced. Such honesty is refreshing for it enables us to see that no part of the world has achieved all that is necessary in the field of interpreter education; a common thread is the constant striving to do more, and do it better. We see a move away from ad hoc short courses, often Deaf community led, where trainers have had to fight against the stigmatization of signed languages, into full-time degree courses within tertiary education and with xiii

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xiv

FOREWORD

government funding. We explore how culture, religion, politics, and legislation affect the professionalization of signed language interpreters. We read of the challenges in utilizing today’s new technology to extend the reach of training opportunities across nations. Each chapter deepens our understanding of the issues and helps us to draw comparisons between the perspectives of the authors and our own. I believe that significant progress in the education and training of interpreters can be made through collaborative relationships and dialogues, and the kind of information sharing so ably demonstrated in this book. However, in the move toward the shared internationalization of such knowledge, we must recognize that we are not seeking the homogenization of training structures or the imposition of knowledge from more experienced nations on those that are beginning to establish such training. The comments from contributors on the risks and rewards of foreign outside expertise should serve as a timely reminder to us all. The very breadth of the articles included are indeed a framework for the respectful sharing of ideas and experiences, and the promotion of best practice, but they should also lead us to critical scrutiny, to question, and ultimately to value the diversity of our profession as well as those things that we have in common. The recent United Nations Convention on the Human Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) refers to the rights of deaf people to use professional signed language interpreters—terminology hard fought for by representatives of the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). The following WFD Congress held in Spain in 2007 saw both WASLI and the WFD agree on a formal joint statement, which included the expressed wish to work together to increase learning opportunities for signed language interpreters and provide support to developing countries. WASLI firmly believes that progress in the field of signed language interpreting can only take place by working in partnership with deaf people and their associations. To quote another Xhosa speaker, Nelson Mandela: “The common ground is greater and more enduring than the differences that divide.” I am delighted to see this positive ethos reflected in International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education. I commend it to you.

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International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education

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Europe

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Part One

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NADJA GRBIĆ

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Sign Language Interpreter Training in Austria: An Integrated Approach TRANSLATOR AND interpreter training in Austria started during World War II. As translation and interpreting began to expand as a professional field, a number of training institutions were founded throughout Europe. The University of Vienna started training translators and interpreters in 1943; the Universities of Graz and Innsbruck launched their courses in 1946 (Wilss, 1999). Until 1972, translator and interpreter education in Austria focused solely on practical training. As a consequence, graduates did not receive the regular “Magister” (master’s) degree, which usually requires four years of study and includes a final thesis. Instead, the graduates received an advanced diploma for interpreting (“Diplomdolmetscher”) after seven semesters of study, which did not count as a full academic degree. As a result of the Austrian university reform that took place in 1971, study programs were harmonized, and translator and interpreter training was “upgraded” in academic status with the introduction of a new curriculum beginning in 1972. But it was not until 1987—15 years after the reform— that each of the three universities offered full tenure for one professor of translation studies as well as posts for research assistants, so that research activities could start to develop (Leikauf, 1997). In addition, the Bologna Declaration of June 1999 put in motion a series of reforms to make the European higher education system more compatible and comparable. In the course of the Bologna Process, the current diploma studies are now gradually being replaced by the new BA/MA structure. The process will create a European Higher Education Area by 2010, putting in place procedures intended to standardize academic qualifications across the board. One of the priorities is the introduction of the bachelor/master/doctorate system. The degrees will be defined in terms of qualifications and the European Credit Transfer System. 3 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

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Interpreting research is being carried out at the universities of Graz and Vienna. Research activities in Vienna include conference interpreting (Ingrid Kurz, Franz Pöchhacker), media interpreting (Ingrid Kurz), community interpreting (Franz Pöchhacker), and court interpreting (Mira Kadric). Graz focuses on community interpreting (Sonja Pöllabauer) and sign language interpreting (Nadja Grbić). Until the mid-1990s sign language interpreting (SLI) in Austria was performed on an essentially non- or sub-professional level by interpreters who had received no formal training. As a result, these interpreters were unlikely to have been aware of the complexity of sign language, of interpreting techniques, or of issues pertaining to the role of the interpreter and the ethics involved in professional interpreting. Most of them had little contact with other sign language interpreters, and as a result there was hardly any sense of group identity. As in many other countries, these “natural interpreters” were often children of deaf adults (Coda), friends of deaf people, teachers of the deaf, or social workers. Most of them wanted to stand by their deaf “protégés” in various situations, not only offering translation services but also offering advice and support. In a survey conducted in 1993 among 33 sign language interpreters in Austria, 36% of the participants responded that interpreters should take on an advisory role in addition to interpreting, and 36% were of the opinion that they should be social workers too (Grbić, 1994). As a consequence of the growing discontent among all the agents involved with how the system operated, SLI underwent a process of professionalization in various phases since this first period of “market disorder” in which interpreting was seen as a byproduct of bilingualism (cf. Grbić, 1998). Interpreters started to meet on a regular basis, attended training seminars, founded an interpreters’ association, developed an accreditation system, and started to work systematically to define the parameters of their profession. Much of the work toward these ends has been carried out in cooperation with the Department of Translation Studies at the University of Graz (ITAT), which introduced a full-time sign language interpreter training course in 2002. In the early 1990s, 62% of all SLI sessions took place in community interpreting settings and only 17% in the context of education and further training (Grbić, 1994). The situation has changed over the years as shown by a 2001 survey, based on 889 questionnaires addressing each individual interpreting session that took place in the region of Styria, Austria. According to the survey, 53% of the interpreting sessions took place in

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community interpreting settings and 36% in the context of education and further training (Grbić, 2006). On September 1, 2005, the Austrian Constitution was amended to include a clause in section 8, whereby: “Austrian Sign Language is recognized as an independent language. The laws shall determine the details” [my translation]. Although this passage does not say anything about the provision of an interpreter as a fundamental right of deaf people, the official recognition of ÖGS (Österreichische Gebärdensprache, Austrian Sign Language) nevertheless provided an important step toward the wider inclusion of about 10,000 deaf people in Austria.

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FIRST STEPS In 1990, the ITAT offered the first ÖGS course at the university level. The main objective in implementing ÖGS courses was the development and introduction of a full-time study program for sign language interpreters. From the mid-1990s onward, a number of projects were conducted in order to prepare the ground for the provision of SLI services at the professional qualified level. The projects focused on the training of the deaf, further training of interpreters, and the development of teaching materials for ÖGS as well as the compilation of ÖGS dictionaries (cf. Grbić, Andree, & Grünbichler, 2004). In 1988, the department bestowed the position of a fully tenured professor for the first time and launched a range of new initiatives. These initiatives included the first ÖGS course at university level, which started in March 1990, and the first conference on Deaf Studies, which took place in July 1990.

Further Training Since November 1990, ITAT has offered several training seminars for sign language interpreters upon request. After interpreting for the first Deaf Studies conference in Graz in 1990, the interpreters felt the need to improve and adapt their expertise. In preparation for the World Congress of the World Federation of the Deaf in Vienna in 1995, a deeply committed group of interpreters (who were commissioned for the conference interpreting job) organized several additional training workshops together with their team leader and colleagues from countries where SLI had already been professionalized. Single seminars and workshops were not, however, entirely satisfactory for the participating interpreters. They felt

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the market growing and developing in accordance with the increasing profile and inherent requirements of the Deaf community in Austria, who increasingly called for professional interpreters with the ability to do a competent, professional job in a range of different settings. At that time, though, they had no form of certification or official accreditation that could prove their fitness or aptitude for the job. Professional accreditation also might help convince the hearing public to accept and recognize SLI as a fully fledged profession. With this in mind, the ITAT developed and conducted a two-term part-time course within the framework of an international project funded by the EU and the Austrian Ministry of Social Affairs. The ITAT knew that planning a full-time sign language interpreter training program on an academic level would only succeed if there were enough qualified teachers. The opportunity to cooperate with 13 institutions from 9 European countries brought with it the advantage of being able to draw on other people’s expertise and experiences. The first course, which was conducted from February 1997 to March 1998, was attended by 24 practicing interpreters from all over Austria. The course was organized in the form of 12 modules, each comprising 22.5 contact hours, with deaf and/or hearing trainers from Austria, Germany, Denmark, and the United Kingdom. As a result of high levels of general interest and demand, the course was conducted from September 1999 to May 2000, again with 24 participants (for further details, see Grbić, 2001).

THE FOUNDATION

OF THE

INTERPRETERS’ ASSOCIATION

The idea of a sign language interpreters’ association was born in the first half of the 1990s when a small group of interpreters from various regions in Austria started to meet and exchange their experiences during the ITAT training course. As a result of these meetings, the Austrian Association of Sign Language Interpreters (ÖGSDV)1 was founded in March 1998 by the first 24 graduates (Keckeis, Pauser, & Gerstbach, 1998) from the program. Since November 1998, the ÖGSDV has offered occupational aptitude examinations (accreditation examinations) for sign language interpreters. The exams take place twice a year before a national board comprising two

1. See Österreichischer Gebärdensprach-DolmetscherInnen-Verband (ÖGSDV), http:// www.oegsdv.at/.

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representatives each from the ÖGSDV and regional Deaf associations as well as one representative from the ITAT. As a result of negotiations with the Austrian Ministry of Social Affairs, guidelines were published in January 1999 that mandate that local authorities in charge of interpreter facilitation can only commission sign language interpreters who have passed the accreditation examination. The accreditation procedure has been changed several times in accordance with market requirements and the process of professionalization as a whole. At present, the examination comprises a written and an oral part. The written part consists of an essay on SLI, an analysis of an interpreting event, and a written test on German grammar and stylistics, interpreting studies and professional matters, Deaf Studies, and institutions in Austria. The oral examination comprises four parts: simultaneous interpreting German—ÖGS, simultaneous interpreting ÖGS—German, dialogue interpreting, and a final evaluation by candidates of their own performance as interpreters. One hundred and five people took the exam before the national examining board between November 1998 and November 2007, of whom 62 passed and 43 failed. Twenty-two of them took the exam more than once. There are various reasons as to why so many people failed, all of them related to the fact that the applicants lacked any formal training. The factors included poor sign language competence, poor command of German (mother tongue), a lack of interpreting techniques, and inappropriate behavior in role-plays. Today the interpreters’ association comprises 70 members. Training was not mandatory at first, which meant that many interpreters received accreditation without training. Beginning in January 2008, however, the occupational aptitude examination is only open for people who have at least attended the one-year preparation course offered by the ÖGSDV or for graduates of the University of Graz or the interpreter training program in Linz called GESDO (as discussed in the next section). Apart from the ÖGSDV, there are two other interpreters’ associations in Austria: the Austrian Association of Certified Court Interpreters (founded in 1929)2 and Universitas—the Austrian Translators and Interpreters Association (founded in 1954).3 Some of the members of the ÖGSDV are also members of either the Austrian Association of Certified Court Interpreters or of Universitas.

2. See http://www.gerichtsdolmetscher.at/. 3. See http://www.universitas.org/.

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BECOMING

NADJA GRBIĆ A

SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETER

As mentioned, beginning in 2008 all prospective interpreters must complete a training course before taking the examination. This training, offered through three different routes, leads up to the occupational aptitude examination (accreditation examination). Interpreters can fulfill the requirement by taking the interpreter program at the ITAT, the interpreter training program GESDO in Linz, and the one-year preparation course of the ÖGSDV (see Figure 1). While people who have attended the preparation course of the ÖGSDV will have to pass the written as well as the oral examination, graduates of the training programs in Graz and Linz only have to pass the oral part since they will have had greater exposure to theory and theoretical issues during their studies.

The Interpreter Training Program at the ITAT

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The application for the implementation of a full-time study program for SLI was submitted to the Austrian Ministry for Science in spring 1999.

Figure 1. Routes to the profession

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The ministry was basically in favor of the program, but since no additional funds were made available, the program could not commence until the autumn of 2002. In comparison to other European countries, Austria lagged behind in terms of the academic education of sign language interpreters. The advantages of such a lengthy development process included the opportunity to develop the necessary structures, to build up an exchange of know-how within international projects, to train prospective teaching staff, and to develop teaching material. A particular advantage, however, was the rare fact that the program was established at a department for translation studies and not at the department for (special) education or social sciences, as is usually the case. In Graz, spoken and signed language students share the same curriculum and attend the same general courses (such as German, linguistics, cultural studies, and translation/interpreting studies) irrespective of their wishes to become, for example, a community interpreter for Turkish, a conference interpreter for Spanish, a technical translator for Hungarian, or a sign language interpreter. Such inclusion will, in the long term, broaden the horizon of both students and practicing interpreters and help to reduce asymmetries between all translation/interpreting professions (for a similar program in Australia, refer to Napier, 2005; see also Shaw, Grbić, & Franklin, 2004, for a comparison of students’ perspectives on spoken and sign language interpreting programs). One particularly unique and valuable aspect of the program in Graz is that students have to study two foreign languages, which equips them with better chances in the working world. In order to explore the similarities and differences of studying two languages with different modalities, a longitudinal study using qualitative as well as quantitative methods was conducted from 2004 to 2007. In the first year, the students’ motivations were analyzed (Andree & Grünbichler, 2005); in the second year, the progress of language learning was researched (Grünbichler & Andree, 2006); and in the third year, the problem of the transition phase between language learning and interpreting was studied (Andree & Grünbichler, 2007).4 The program lasts five years, starts from scratch, and is aimed at students who have completed a higher education entrance qualification (Matura certificate), comparable to high school graduates in the U.S. The first two years of the curriculum focus on language and culture of the A,

4. The project was funded by the Anniversary Fund for the Promotion of Scientific Research and Teaching of the National Bank of Austria and the Austrian Ministry of Social Affairs. The results of the forth year are not yet available as the project is still in progress.

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B, and C languages being studied, while the third year focuses on the transition from language learning to translation and interpreting, during which time students are introduced to communication skills, (contrastive) discourse analysis, and the basic principles of translating and interpreting. After the third year, students have to decide whether they want to study translation or interpreting. Sign language students can only opt for the interpreting branch. In the final two years, students first take introductory courses in interpreting or translation techniques and then they are offered different modules on various types of interpreting such as conference, community, or court interpreting or on translation issues such as technical translation or translation for trade and tourism. In addition, students are required to attend classes in linguistics, cultural studies, translation/ interpreting studies, civilization and culture, and professional matters (theoretical training pertaining to the profession as a whole). In the final year they have to write a thesis in translation or interpreting studies. The structure of the program is displayed in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Curriculum at the ITAT (Y-Forked Model)

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In 2008, ITAT introduced a new BA/MA structure in accordance with the EU Bologna Process. The diploma degree for translation or interpreting previously offered by the university has been replaced by a BA in transcultural communication (three years of study) and an MA in translation or interpreting (a further two years). The contents are very similar to the curriculum described previously, which was introduced in 2002.

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Interpreter Education Program in Linz As a result of an acute shortage of interpreters in Upper Austria, the Deaf Association in Linz (capital of Upper Austria) and its president Peter Dimmel started to develop a private interpreter training program several years ago, financed by the regional government. Representatives of both the ÖGSDV and the ITAT were invited to act as advisors in the process of developing the program. The training program, Fachausbildung Gebärdensprachdolmetschen (GESDO),5 is aimed at people who have completed the Matura (qualification for tertiary education). Applicants have to pass an entrance examination. The first course started in October 2003 with 15 participants, most of whom received their certificates in 2006. To support the program, five experienced teachers from Graz commuted between Graz and Linz. The second course started in October 2006 with 14 participants. The full-time program lasts three years. One particular asset of this program is the large proportion of time dedicated to practical internships and work experience. The advantage of such a private initiative is that since the structures are not so rigid, curriculum changes can be made quite easily during the course of the program. However, students do not receive an officially recognized graduation diploma or degree after completion of the program, which may be a disadvantage.

ÖGSDV Preparatory Course The ÖGSDV accreditation procedure was changed in 2006 to combat a lack of training among sign language interpreters, who at the time could be accredited without training. One of the problems the commission frequently faced was that many candidates proved to be highly proficient in both sign language and German but had a poor grasp of interpreting techniques and strategies. They therefore failed the examination. It soon became evident that candidates who had undergone training achieved 5. See http://www.gesdo.at/.

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much better results. A second reason for implementing the preparatory courses stemmed from the fact that during the last few years, several Austrian institutions of higher education without experience in SLI planned to develop and organize SLI programs, which neither the ÖGSDV nor the ITAT wanted, based on these institutions’ lack of SLI experience. For this reason, the ÖGSDV developed a series of seminars intended to serve as preparation for the accreditation examination. The ÖGSDV explicitly states that this series of seminars serves as support in preparation for the examination and not as any kind of formal training. The seminars are aimed at people from all over Austria who are highly proficient in sign language and who have completed a certain amount of practical work experience as trainee interpreters working with experienced interpreters. The Matura (qualification for tertiary education) is not yet mandatory but will be mandatory beginning in 2010. The series consists of 13 seminars that take place over the weekend in different regions; 7 seminars are dedicated to practical interpreting, 2 focus on professional matters (theoretical training pertaining to the profession), 2 are on German (rhetoric and German), 1 on ÖGS grammar, and 1 on interpreting studies. The first series of seminars was conducted between June 2006 and June 2007; the second started in September 2007.

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THE WAY FORWARD Although Austria has been far from the forefront of sign language interpreter education and professional practice, we have come to a point where we have two particular advantages: first, that academic sign language interpreter training is integrated in regular translator and interpreter training programs, and second, that students have to study two foreign languages, and one of these languages can be Austrian Sign Language. This requirement broadens the students’ horizons from the very beginning and contributes to furthering the status of sign language interpreters in the context of other translation and interpreting professions in Austria, as well as increasing the visibility of sign language interpreters to the general public. A direct consequence of the integrated approach to training interpreters in Austria can be found in the Austrian Quality Standard for Interpreting Services (ÖNORM 1202) published in 2002 by the Austrian Standards Institute. The standards defined interpreting as the “spoken or signed transfer of a text from a source lan-

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guage into a target language” [my translation], including communicative situations such as conference interpreting, liaison interpreting, dialogue interpreting, media interpreting, and telephone interpreting. There remain, however, several problems to be solved in the next few years. For instance, the high dropout rate of interpreting students at the ITAT will need to be addressed. This seems to be based on the fact that many beginners are unaware of the extent to which interpreting is a cognitive, social, and emotional task. A number of people motivated by social goodwill may lack the talent needed to perform such a complex task. Furthermore, as Austria applies a policy of free access to university studies (which is limited only for a few university programs), universities are not able to select students for admission. Practical interpreter training presents another problem: Most sign language interpreter trainers have not undergone any interpreter training themselves, and the standards of training and student assessment vary greatly. A potential solution could be the formation of an interpreter trainer association, which could develop training standards and provide training for the trainers. Finally, the lack of trained deaf interpreters and/or translators poses a supply problem. The translation of Web sites into sign language has undergone vigorous growth in the last few years, and many deaf people have seized the opportunity to work in this area. Deaf people, however, are no more immune than the hearing public from the misassumption that linguistic competence is a sufficient prerequisite for work as an interpreter or translator. The ÖGSDV has been discussing the problem of the training and accreditation of deaf interpreters and translators with representatives of the Deaf Association for some time. The first step could be to include sign language translation services in the range of services the ÖGSDV offers and then to gradually improve and expand the limits of the system gradually. This could be done by developing a preparatory course for deaf (and hearing) translators and by adjusting the accreditation procedure to meet new challenges.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the following people for support: my deaf colleague Christian Stalzer, my hearing colleague Simone Greiner-Ogris, and the president of the ÖGSDV (Österreichischer GebärdensprachDolmetscherInnen-Verband, Austrian Association of Sign Language Interpreters), Barbara Gerstbach.

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REFERENCES Andree, B., & Grünbichler, S. (2005). Berufswunsch GebärdensprachdolmetscherIn? Eine Studie zu Vorstellungen, Zielen und Motivationen von StudienanfängerInnen in Österreich. Das Zeichen, 19, 352–359. Andree, B., & Grünbichler, S. (2007). Das Studium Gebärdensprachdolmetschen am ITAT: Vom Spracherwerb zur Translation–Herausforderungen und Probleme aus Sicht der Lehrenden. Das Zeichen, 21, 480–488. Grbić, N. (1994). Gebärdensprachdolmetschen als Gegenstand einer angewandten Sprach- und Translationswissenschaft. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Graz. Grbić, N. (1998). Professionalisierung: Ein soziologisches Modell und ein Beispiel aus der Praxis des Gebärdensprachdolmetschens in Österreich. Das Zeichen, 12, 612–623. Grbić, N. (2001). First steps on firmer ground: A project for the further training of sign language interpreters in Austria. In I. Mason (Ed.), Triadic exchanges: Studies in dialogue interpreting (pp. 149–172). Manchester, United Kingdom: St. Jerome. Grbić, N. (2006). From 10-minute wedding ceremonies to three-week spa treatment programs: Reconstructing the system of sign language interpreting in Styria. In A. Pym, M. Shlesinger, & Z. Jettmarová (Eds.), Sociocultural aspects of translating and interpreting (pp. 201–214). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Grbić, N., Andree, B., & Grünbichler, S. (2004). Zeichen setzen: Gebärdensprache als wissenschaftliche und gesellschaftspolitische Herausforderung. Graz, Austria: ITAT. Grünbichler, S., & Andree, B. (2006). Sprach- und Kulturkompetenz als Basis für das Dolmetschen. Eine Studie zum Spracherwerb und zur Sprachkompetenz von Studierenden im zweiten Studienjahr. Das Zeichen, 20, 464–471. Keckeis, E., Pauser, N., & Gerstbach, B. (1998). Der steinige Weg vom “Gehörlosendolmetscher” zur Gebärdensprachdolmetscherin in Österreich. Das Zeichen, 12, 452–457. Leikauf, G. (1997). Metamorphosen eines Dolmetschinstituts. 50 Jahre Übersetzerund Dolmetscherausbildung an der Universität Graz. In N. Grbić, & M. Wolf (Eds.), Text–Kultur–Kommunikation. Translation als Forschungsaufgabe (pp. 15–29). Tübingen, Germany: Stauffenburg. ÖNORM D 1202. (2002). Dienstleistungen–Übersetzen und Dolmetschen: Dolmetschleistungen–Anforderungen an die Dienstleistung und an die Bereitstellung der Dienstleistung. Wien, Austria: Österreichisches Normungsinstitut. Napier, J. (2005). Training sign language interpreters in Australia: An innovative approach. Babel, 51(3), 207–223. Shaw, S., Grbić, N., & Franklin, K. (2004). Applying language skills to interpretation: Student perspectives from signed and spoken language programs. Interpreting, 6, 69–100. Wilss, W. (1999). Translation and interpreting in the 20th century: Focus on German. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

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Sign Language Interpreter Training in Finland IN FINLAND, sign language interpreter training programs are provided at the university level. The training involves completion of 240 points according to the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) and requires four years of full-time study at a university of applied sciences. Three sign language interpreter training programs exist in Finland: at the Humak University of Applied Sciences (Humanistinen ammattikorkeakoulu) in Helsinki and Kuopio and at the Diaconia University of Applied Sciences (Diakonia-ammattikorkeakoulu) in Turku.1 A prerequisite for the training is a secondary level diploma from a high school or from some other secondary-level education. The sign language interpreter degree produces professional interpreters and translators. In Helsinki the training has also been offered to deaf students, with four deaf students graduating from the program so far. The training, under the direction of the Ministry of Education, meets the standards of higher education. The structure of the curriculum emphasises Finnish Sign Language (FinSL) and Finnish spoken language studies, professional studies in the field of FinSL, research studies, and professional specialization studies. During the training, students also undertake internships under supervision and guidance.

THE FINNISH CONTEXT In order to provide a backdrop to sign language interpreter training in Finland, we begin with an overview of spoken language interpreting and translation, the status of Finnish Sign Language (FinSL), and the regulation

1. For Humak, see http://www.humak.edu and for Diaconia, see http://www.diak.fi.

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and provision of sign language interpreting services throughout the country.

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Interpreters and Translators of Spoken Languages The first language institutions to specialize in translator training were founded in Finland in 1966 in Tampere and Turku, and in 1968 in Savonlinna and in Kouvola. These institutions led to the graduation of qualified translators (Saksa, 2004). As the training for translators and interpreters transferred to the control of universities in Canada and Germany, the same process occurred in Finland. The language institutions vanished from the educational structure in 1981 as they came under the control of the closest universities: The language institutions in Tampere and Turku transferred to the universities of those cities—Kouvola coming under the control of Helsinki University and Savonlinna under the control of Joensuu University. At Vaasa University, training for Swedish language translators began, and in the middle of the 1990s a French translation program was established at Helsinki University. Today most of the translators who have graduated from these institutions are working for the European Union (EU) in Brussels, Strasbourg and Luxembourg (Saksa). When Finland became a member country of the EU in 1995, interpreter training became more effective in Finland. In Turku University a specialized conference interpreter training program was established at postgraduate level (Saksa, 2004). While this training does not give certification for translators and interpreters, the degree does give employers an idea of what kind of academic demands the degree involves and how professionals evaluate translators or interpreters. Sworn translators and qualified translators are not required to have a university degree as long as they pass the examination given by the degree board of translators (Kääntäjien tutkintolautakunta) at the Finnish National Board of Education. The board includes university professors and teachers. There is a professional examination system for community interpreters, which is under the control of the Finnish National Board of Education (Saksa). The degree board of translators has several functions: It initiates degrees for qualified translators; grants the degrees and the right to work as a qualified translator, and supervises the action of qualified translators and maintains the register of qualified translators.2

2. See http://www.oph.fi.

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Founded in 1955, the Association of Finnish Translators and Interpreters (since Finland has two official languages, Finnish and Swedish, the association is known as Suomen kääntäjien ja tulkkien liitto in Finnish (SKTL) and Finlands översättar- och tolkförbund ry in Swedish). The association is divided into sections of literature, translation of documents and audiovisual instruments, interpretation, teaching, and research. To recognize excellence in the field, each year the SKTL bestows the Mikael Agricola award to the most distinguished Finnish translator,3 and the J.A. Hollo award to the most distinguished translator of science literature (Saksa, 2004). Some of the members belong to the Association Internationale des Interprètes de Conférence (AIIC).

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The History and Status of Finnish Sign Language Carl Oscar Malm (1826–1863), said to be “the progeny” of the Finnish Deaf community, became deaf as a result of a disorder when he was two years old. He was sent to Manhem boarding school for the deaf (today known as the Manilla school) in Stockholm, Sweden, when he was eight years old. At that time there were no schools for deaf children in Finland. After returning to Finland, Malm established the education system for Finnish deaf people by establishing a private school in Porvoo in 1846. Malm used and taught sign language and a manual alphabet as an educational language since it was used in the Swedish boarding school for the deaf. However, Malm also emphasized the learning of written language (Jantunen, 2001; Rainò, 2000; Salmi & Laakso, 2005). As sign language spread among Finnish deaf people, it changed and developed into Finnish Sign Language (FinSL). Therefore, while FinSL is closely related to Swedish Sign Language, the languages have evolved into two distinct languages because they are used in different countries with different spoken languages (Savolainen, 2006). Approximately 5,000 deaf people in Finland have sign language as a mother tongue or first language (Jokinen, 2000). In addition, there are also an estimated 9,000 hearing people who are fluent in FinSL because of work contacts with sign language users or through having deaf relatives.4 Finnish-Swedish Sign Language is also used by about 150 deaf people

3. Mikael Agricola (about 1510–1557) was bishop, Finnish reformer, and creator of the standard Finnish. 4. In this article, the term sign language user means a native signer /deaf person.

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living along Finland’s coastal areas. Finnish-Swedish Sign Language, considered its own language, showcases strong bonds to the Finnish-Swedish culture and identity. The language will soon become extinct, since there are no more schools for its users, and it is no longer passed down to younger generations. The school for Finnish-Swedish deaf children in Porvoo closed in 1993 and since that time most school-age children either go to school in Sweden or are integrated in schools in Finland (Hoyer, 2000). A small group of deaf immigrants also exists in the community of FinSL users. These users have moved to Finland to work, to study, or to be with family. Subsequently, they learned FinSL. The Deaf community regards itself as a sociolinguistic minority group, although the view that deafness is a medical condition still exists in the wider hearing community (Jokinen, 2000). Sign language interpreter training adheres to the philosophy of the sociolinguistic view. During the 1960s and 1970s and the disability and other equality movements, there was also a movement of deaf awareness in which deaf people came to realize and promote their rights as equal citizens in society. This level of deaf awareness reached the Nordic countries in the 1980s (Jokinen). Today the general consciousness about sign language and the rights of sign language users has increased, and therefore attitudes toward sign language have become more positive. The change in attitudes can be explained by the legal protection of FinSL, the visibility of FinSL, daily news in FinSL on TV, opportunities to study FinSL at the community college and university level, and the fact that sign language interpreters are seen working in public more often (Jokinen). FinSL can be studied as a foreign language in beginner and advanced courses in community colleges around Finland. Some folk high schools (a type of community education college) also organize intensive courses in FinSL, e.g., the Finnish Folk High School for the Deaf in Helsinki. The vocational qualification in sign language instruction (Viittomakielisen ohjauksen perustutkinto) is provided at the folk high schools of Pohjois-Savon opisto in Kuopio, Turun kristillinen opisto in Turku, and Rovala-Opisto in Rovaniemi. This program requires 120 credits and takes three years. In Jyväskylä University, FinSL can be a major in a MA program and a minor in Turku University (Finnish Association of the Deaf). Since 2002, FinSL has been extended to doctoral dissertations. The cornerstone of FinSL was laid on August 1, 1995, when the section regarding language rights of the renewed provisions of the fundamental law of the Finnish Constitution gave legal protection for those using sign language (Lappi, 2000). According to the Constitution, “rights for

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persons using sign language and of a person’s need for interpretation or translation aid owing to disability shall be guaranteed by the Act” (Constitution of Finland, 1999). In the Constitution, Finnish Sign Language is mentioned in the same terms as Sami and Romani, which are also cultural and language minorities in Finland. There are approximately 9,000 Sami and 10,000 Romani people in Finland.5

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Sign Language Interpreter Regulation and Provision In 1979, a law for the care of the disabled (581/79) passed in Finland. For the first time, any mention of interpreting was enshrined in law. Since that time, interpreter services for individuals have been financed by the state (Services and Assistance for Disabled Act, 1987). There are some 700 sign language interpreters in Finland who have graduated from training. As of January 2007, the register of interpreters lists 450 interpreters working as full-time professionals (Tulkit). In the field of sign language interpretation, a cooperative commission (Tulkkitoiminnan yhteistyöryhmä) works to improve sign language interpreting (SLI) services as its main task. The commission’s functions include leading discussions among the field and sign language interpreters and giving statements and recommendations to maintain the list of registered sign language interpreters. The commission’s members represent the Finnish Association of the Deaf, the Finnish Federation of the Hard of Hearing, the Finnish Deaf-Blind Association, the Finnish Association of Sign Language Interpreters, the Finnish Association of Parents of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children (KLVL), the Service Foundation for the Deaf, and representatives of the sign language interpreter training (Tulkit). All the interpreters who have graduated from the training are qualified as registered interpreters. Both universities of applied sciences, Diak and Humak, report entrees of new graduates to the register. The lists of sign language interpreters are accepted by the commission, which supervises and updates the register. The commission also receives and deals with appeals from SLI services. Sign language interpreters pledge to adhere to the professional rules of the commission when they become admitted to the register (Tulkit). The trade union of Finnish Sign Language interpreters (Suomen Viittomakielen Tulkit—Finlands Teckenspråkstolkar ry) was founded in 1982,

5. See http://www.samediggi.fi and http://www.romani.fi.

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and it became a member of the national union organization in 1986. The union supervises professional benefits, attempts to improve sign language interpreter status, and makes connections with the cooperatives. Since 1993, Suomen Viittomakielen tulkit ry has been a member of the European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters (EFSLI), and a member of the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters (WASLI) since it was founded in 2004 (Tulkit). All SLI services are free of charge to the users, as dictated by Finnish law, and each municipality pays for the services.6 SLI services include interpretation for work, study, running errands, social participation, or other similar reasons (Lappi, 2000). On January 1, 2007, the Finnish Parliament passed an amendment to the Disabled Services laws that altered previous provisions. The minimum number of 120 hours of SLI per year has been raised to 180 hours per year, and the minimum number of 240 hours per year of interpretation for severely aurally and visually impaired people increased to 360 hours per year. SLI services related to academic study are, however, arranged to meet student needs in order that students can manage their studies successfully.7 At the beginning of 2007, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health decided that the control of the free interpretation services arranged by the municipality would be passed from municipalities to the state to ensure equality in service. In Finland today, the status and financial situation of the municipality can result in unequal treatment of disabled citizens.8 In 2010, the Social Insurance Institution of Finland (Kela) will become responsible for SLI services. At present, deaf or hearing sign language interpreters work as sign language specialists in various positions. For example, they work in SLI centers or as educational interpreters in different educational settings from preschools to universities. Interpreters work as freelancers or entrepreneurs, as members of cooperatives, and in associations or other organizations. Sign language interpreters provide services in all the kinds of situations that people encounter in their work, education, or free time. Interpreters are seen as mediators of the language and culture. Through services of interpreters, sign language users can participate in society on equal terms.9

6. 7. 8. 9.

In 2007, there were 416 established towns and cities in Finland (http://www.kunnat.net). See http://www.kl-deaf.fi. See http://www.stm.fi. See http://www.humak.edu.

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SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETER TRAINING

The availability of sign language interpretation has always been an essential issue in terms of citizen rights. Before the beginning of the recognized SLI profession in Finland, the following people functioned as interpreters for deaf people in dealing with authorities: hearing relatives of deaf people, hearing people working at deaf clubs, priests, church social workers, and some officers of the Salvation Army. Also hearing children of deaf parents acted as interpreters in order to help their parents communicate with other people (Salmi & Laakso, 2005). In the 1970s a network of consultants/social counselors for deaf people was established, but by itself this was not enough to ease the problems caused by the shortage of sign language interpreters. However, interpretation required good sign language skills, which created a need for professional and neutral sign language interpreters (Salmi & Laakso, 2005). In January 1962, the Finnish Association for the Deaf (FAD) provided the country’s first interpreter training course. There were 35 participants in the course, which lasted over a weekend. It took 15 years until any formal training was provided again. In 1978 FAD established training, which consisted of 3–4 credits (one credit is equivalent to 40 hours of student work). The course lasted for 170 hours. At that time, participants held varying skills in sign language depending on their background in the Deaf community. They were, for example, hearing children or relatives of deaf adults, as well as professionals who worked with deaf adults (Salmi & Laakso, 2005). FAD continued to provide interpreter training until 1983 when the training was transferred to a folk high school in Turku. For the first two years of offering, a course of full-time study lasted one year and consisted of 25 credits (1,000 hours). In 1986 the Ministry of Education considered interpreter training a form of professional education, and the course was extended to two years (51 credits). The course was also provided in Kuopio. Beginning in 1988, the curriculum included 120 study credits and the duration of full-time study lasted three years (Salmi & Laakso, 2005). Since 1986 there have not been prerequisites for any level of sign language fluency before entry into interpreter training. The education for Finnish-Swedish Sign Language interpreters was arranged in 1979 and in 1986–88 in the form of short courses at Porvoo Folk High School. In 1988 the training took one year, and from 1991–94 the training lasted for three years. After that the Finnish-Swedish Sign Language interpreter education program was closed down (Tulkit).

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Because sign language interpreters needed to be bilingual in order to be able to interpret for both Swedish and Finnish speakers, there were no more schools for the deaf that could guarantee the culture and language of Finnish-Swedish deaf people. The Finnish-Swedish Sign Language users, scattered along the Finnish coastal areas, had to utilize services mostly from FinSL interpreters because there were very few professional Finnish-Swedish Language interpreters remaining (B. Edlund, personal communication, December 10, 2007). In the 1990s the politics of the educational structure changed in Finland. The first polytechnics began to function in 1994. The main difference between study programs in universities and polytechnics/ universities of applied sciences is that in universities of applied sciences the study programs are more vocationally oriented and the total time for studies is limited to 3.5–4.5 years (Lempinen & Tiilikainen, 2001). The degree program in sign language interpretation equates to other university bachelor degree programs. The sign language interpreter study program takes four years. The vocational training experience emphasizes the internship.

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SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETER TRAINING TODAY Today the sign language interpreter training program is regarded at an academic higher level of training in Finland (see Figure 1). The training requires completion of 240 points according to the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) and takes four years of full-time study at a university of applied sciences. Two universities of applied sciences provide sign language interpreter training in Finland: Humak University of Applied Sciences with campuses in Kuopio and in Helsinki (Humak) and Diaconia University of Applied Sciences (Diak) in Turku. Humak offers three undergraduate programs: civic activities and youth work, cultural management, and sign language interpreting, and a humanities master’s degree in youth work in nongovernment organizations. Diak offers undergraduate study programs in education and training, media studies, nursing, sign language interpretation, social services, and youth work. Diak also offers postgraduate studies in health promotion and social services, and research and development work.10

10. See http://www.humak.fi and http://www.diak.fi.

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Figure 1. The education system of Finland. Note. From http://www.edu.fi/english

The sign language interpreter degree programs produce professionals in interpretation and translation. The tasks of a sign language interpreter may include interpreting and translating between two languages (FinSL and Finnish), intralingual translating, and monolingual transcribing of

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information using various communication methods (such as sign supported speech or written versions of spoken language). Interpreters also teach signed communication to families with children with language-acquisition problems. The Helsinki unit of the Humak University of Applied Sciences also welcomes deaf native signers into their training program, and four deaf undergraduate students have received diplomas from the training program since 2001. In the academic year 2007–08, Humak had three registered undergraduate deaf students.

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Entrance Exam and Requirements for the Training Applicants for the interpreter programs are expected to have a good allround education and an interest in languages and multiculturalism. The entrance examination for the sign language interpreter training program includes a test of sign language learning/acquisition, a test of Finnish spoken language, a psychological test, and interviews. Sign language learning/acquisition applicants are tested and observed on their capacity to create spatial characterization, to learn new signs, and to try to communicate with the teacher in a mini-intensive lesson. During the test of Finnish spoken language, the applicants are graded on their gift for verbal eloquence and their voice quality. Through psychological tests, the applicants are analyzed on their competence to study and self-motivation. During the interview, applicants are assessed on their motivations for entering into the training program and their capacity to finish their studies. The applicants entering into sign language training programs are not required to have basic skills in FinSL. Since few of the applicants have previous studies in FinSL or have taken the low- or medium-level exam in FinSL arranged by FAD, the number of the first-year students in the three sign language interpreter training units does not mean that all the students have some kind of skills in FinSL. Despite having no knowledge of sign language and no contact with the Deaf community, the most important goal of the sign language interpreter training program is to provide professional skills and a strong knowledge to students, and to give them the ability to work as translators and interpreters between languages and cultures, and mediators between the minority of FinSL and the majority of Finnish people. The programs encourage students to engage in lifelong learning and to maintain and develop their professional skills independently after graduation.

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HUMAK UNIVERSITY

As mentioned, two universities of applied sciences provide sign language interpreter training in Finland. The following discussion is based on the curriculum of the degree program of sign language interpretation at the Humak University of Applied Sciences. The degree comprises:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Joint basic studies of the University of Applied Sciences (15 credits) Program-specific professional studies (45 credits) Professional specialization (135 credits) Optional studies (15 credits) Bachelor’s thesis and thesis-related studies (25 credits)

The joint basic studies help students orient into the humanities and new teaching methods, and into their own degree program. The studies also encourage students to begin to develop their professional identity. During the program-specific professional studies, students develop professional skills with which to work as interpreters and translators between the Finnish majority and the deaf minority in all situations. The fluent command of both languages, and interpretation and translation skills, form the foundation of these skills. During the first and second year of the sign language interpreter degree program, students acquire basic communicative skills and linguistic knowledge in FinSL in order to be able to pass the medium-skill-level FinSL examination offered by FAD. When the students have passed the exam, they are allowed to commence their interpretation studies. FAD has offered A (basic) and K (medium) skill-level examinations in FinSL since the 1970s to evaluate the skills of hearing language students. The examination is also offered to Deaf Finnish and Deaf immigrants because of their studies or employment. The examination tests knowledge of FinSL and correct usage (FAD). During the first year of study students are also introduced to Deaf culture, the Deaf community, and the history of FinSL, as well as Finnish language and culture. The students also familiarize themselves with different organizations in the field. During the third and fourth years, the students deepen their communicative skills and extend interpreting studies from community interpreting to interpreting in educational settings. In the final year, students choose one specialization from the field of interpreting or pedagogy. The studies are called the professional specialization studies. There are four different options to choose from: interpreting

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and translation, FinSL, interpreting with deaf-blind and deafened people, and the pedagogy of sign-supported speech. The pedagogic studies emphasize sign-supported speech, not FinSL. Sign-supported speech is used with children who have problems in spoken language acquisition and speech production. Adults working with these children, family members, and day care staff support their spoken Finnish with signs. Often the difficulties of the children are the result of dysphasia or another disability. Optional studies consist of themes that support professional specialization. During the optional studies, students can develop their skills in the professional field they have chosen or familiarize themselves with fields unfamiliar to them. During the bachelor’s thesis and thesis-related studies, students demonstrate their command of the principles and methods related to a research-based approach, their knowledge of the research tradition related to the field of sign language, and their ability to produce new knowledge in the field (Humanistinen Ammattikorkeakoulu, 2007–08).

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Practical Experience and the Internship The central assessment philosophy at Humak University of Applied Sciences is based on four different fields of professional competence: reflection and evaluation skills, social skills, practical skills, and planning and organization skills. Humak requires such “professional development assessment” of all undergraduate subjects. The professional development assessment aims to help students acquire skills for self-assessment and reflection (Räsänen, 1996). In the early years, interpreter students were guided to focus mostly on the technical skills involved in interpreting. Today, however, the training aims to produce professionals who regard interpreting services as a part of a more holistic enterprise. According to Vik-Tuovinen (2006), interpreter novices/students’ comments focus on the source text, as compared to professionals who discuss how the interpretation should be performed in a real-life situation. In a real interpreting situation there are several aspects to consider. It is necessary to evaluate the situation as a whole in order to have declarative knowledge of the context, to understand general theoretical views including belief systems and world knowledge, and also to have procedural knowledge as a practical command of real-life situations. Metacognition and reflection together create know-how knowledge, which is a key to appreciating what is relevant and what to do about it (Räsänen, 1996). Interpreting students are required to conduct self-assessment of the four

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professional fields during their internship. Examples of competencies in the four different fields can be seen in Figure 2. The degree program trains community and educational interpreters as well as translators. In addition to the broad skills provided by the degree program, students acquire a distinctive professional competence. In the advanced studies and thesis completed during the last year of studies, students strengthen their competence in their area of specialization. The study programs of universities of applied sciences are more vocationally oriented compared to science universities. Students must complete at least 30 ECTS (out of 240 ECTS) in their degree through an internship in several work placements during the training. The need for work experience underpins the main point of the deep connection between training in the field of FinSL. Students are seen as a resource of the newest knowledge and study in the FinSL field, and professional interpreters and their customers (Finnish/FinSL users) share the pedagogical responsibility for instructing students. Humak provides training for supervision and guidance and pays a small fee for supervision. When a student has entered into work experience, teachers discuss it in the classroom and reflect the experience through theory retrospectively. Several times during the academic year seminars are held with employees from the field. These practitioners are often interpreters from interpreting relay centers, representatives of the Deaf community, or other professionals working with deaf, deaf-blind, or deafened customers. After the completion of every internship, students give a signed or written presentation detailing their observations and achievements. The students also produce a self-assessment using the four different fields of professional competence mentioned previously. The report is also sent to the work placement organization.

Personal Study Program The compulsory personal study program has important connotations for students during the whole study period. The students receive regular counseling at private and group level. The counseling helps students with their learning process and explores their own experiences and the meaningfulness of those experiences. At the beginning of their studies, students consider what kind of professional they think they are, and on which previous work experience and knowledge they base their opinions. As with the goals of all education, students make their personal learning objectives the process of professional growth in order to mature professionally through their experiences.

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Planning and organizing skills

Social skills

Reflection and evaluating skills

Practical skills

AND

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Planning and organizational skills • theoretical awareness • skill and readiness to predict • application of new terminology • gathering and assessing information • linguistic orientation for different situations • adapt interpreting process • preparation techniques

Social skills • interaction skills • micro / macro level, individual / society • cooperation with customers and colleagues • responsibility • stress tolerance, flexibility • verbal and nonverbal communication • situational sensitivity

Reflection and evaluating skills • based on self–knowledge, self confidence • ability to form opinions • ability to give and receive feedback (criticism/evaluation) • ability to explain choices and judge them qualitatively and quantitatively • critical evaluation of the quality of actions and development • awareness of own emotions • cross-cultural understanding • confidentiality, discipline

Practical skills • language skills, interpreting process and skills • knowledge of the subjects • expertise know-how • able to handle the whole task • awareness of own skills in relation to customers’ needs • language variations • public performance • adaptation of new information

Figure 2. Examples of competences of four different fields. Note: According to Räsänen (1996) by Nisula, 2006.

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A group counselor discusses and checks the personal study program annually. Students receive confirmation about their ongoing studies and feedback on how to build their personal study plan. However, students have the responsibility of attending to their studies according to the plan. The student studies, and the counselor offers support. The counselor encourages, supports, and asks students questions about their choice of studies. The counselors exemplify how they received support in their professional and human growth and development (Isokorpi, 2003).

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SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETATION FROM A DEAF PERSPECTIVE Access to sign language interpreters in everyday life is extremely valuable for deaf people. The interpreting services bring together and mediate between the Deaf and hearing communities in all areas of society. By using sign language interpreters, deaf people feel equal with other citizens and have the opportunity to express themselves without hindrance (Jokinen, 2000). Interpreting in educational settings has expanded the possibilities for deaf people to make career choices and to access education in whatever area they choose and at any educational level. In the past, deaf people could only enter some special institutions, in which their career choices were quite restricted (Lappi, 2000; Salmi & Laakso, 2005). Since there are a wide variety of community interpreting clients, sign language interpreters must have a range of skills. Besides the skills of FinSL, there is also the need for proficiency in the sign-supported Finnish used mostly by the hard of hearing and by people who have lost their hearing as adults. Among interpreters’ clients are deaf-blind people who use tactile forms of signed language (Mesch, 2004). Some FinSL dialects have come from the residential schools for the deaf in Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Mikkeli, and Kuopio. Besides these, Tampere and Greater Helsinki also have their own dialects. However, dialectal differences have never caused major difficulties in understanding for people throughout Finland. Some of the dialectal differences are slowly disappearing because of the younger generations moving into big southern cities to study or to work and the standardization effect of daily sign language news on television and the monthly sign language video bulletins produced by the FAD (Savolainen, 2006). Although FinSL is becoming standardized, there are still language differences between generations. There is jargon, especially sign terminologies between professions, loan signs, and different

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registers between situations. Sign language interpreters need to have an understanding of these discourse features. Regional differences shape the availability of SLI services and the limited organization of such services throughout Finland. The main problem seems to be financing. In the evenings, on weekends, and in case of acute illnesses it is especially difficult to get a sign language interpreter (Lappi, 2000). Today the regional availability of SLI services has been improved through distance interpreting services, which is increasing the provision and form of interpreting services. Distance interpreting occurs using a picture telephone or Web camera with computer (also known as videorelay interpreting in the U.S., U.K., and other countries). The benefits include being able to provide access to interpreters in spite of distance and the savings on travel costs and work time. The use of distance interpreting is considered to decrease the risk of deaf isolation and to ease making contact with other people and the authorities (Marjanen & Tainio, 2004). There is also currently a pilot program for mobile phone interpretation (Veitonen, 2006).

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FUTURE DIRECTIONS In Finland both universities of applied sciences, Humak and Diak, have been involved in the Bologna Process in Europe. The Bologna Process aims to create a European Higher Education Area by 2010.11 Within the Bologna Process, academic degree standards and quality assurance standards will become comparable and compatible throughout Europe. (See the chapter in this volume by Nadja Grbić for a discussion of the Bologna Process in relation to sign language interpreter training in Austria.) The sign language interpreting degree is classified as a bachelor’s degree in Finland. In co-ordination with the Humak University of Applied Sciences and the Diaconia University of Applied Sciences, an application for a national master’s degree in sign language interpreting has been submitted to the Ministry of Education in the spring of 2008. The master’s degree will be targeted at professional interpreters with work experience and will require 90 ECTS credits and part-time study for two years. The degree will include methodological and research studies, advanced-level professional studies, and a thesis. On completion of their studies, graduates will have 11. See http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/educ/bologna/bologna_en.html.

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the ability to solve complex management problems in the field of FinSL and use the latest technology. In 2006 Humak was invited to be a partner in the EUMASLI project (European Master in Sign Language Interpreting).12 EUMASLI will be based on a joint curriculum shared by the participating countries. Partners in the project include the University of Applied Sciences MagdeburgStendal (Germany), Heriot-Watt University (Scotland), Edinburgh (U.K.) and Humak University of Applied Sciences, Helsinki and Kuopio (Finland). The EUMASLI program will consist of self-contained modules that are evaluated according to the terms of European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). The EUMASLI project will contribute to the development of the professional field of interpreting between deaf and hearing people in Europe. The professional development of SLI has reached a stage where qualified input into the areas of research, development, and management is needed (preliminary Program Handbook, July 2007).

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Future Challenges The challenges for sign language interpreters and training programs in the future will be the need for constant change. There will be more situations where deaf people are more highly educated and require specialized interpreters, and the number of deaf students entering into institutes of high education will continue to increase. Also employed deaf people are taking additional educational courses, requiring additional interpreters in educational settings. That challenges interpreter training programs to take into account the awareness of academic sign language and interpreting in higher education. As technology improves and brings opportunities, new interpreting techniques should be recognized within the curriculum. On the other hand, there are always deaf clients in the field who have minimal language skills and sign language interpreters need to be able to adjust their interpreting style to meet different client needs (Käsillä kääntäjät, 2004). Customers with cochlear implants also bring variations in interpreting methods. Because of the changes in the work field and the cooperation with the representatives of the work-experience partners, the strengthening of professional skills and active contacts 12. Funded within the EU Socrates Program, Erasmus Selection 2006: Curriculum Development Projects (Project No. 29972-IC-I-2005-1-DE ERASMUS-PROGUC-3).

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within the community of sign language users are emphasized to sign language trainers.

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CONCLUSION The sign language interpreter training program in Finland has changed considerably since 1978. At first there were only short courses, and now the sign language interpreter training program is offered at the university applied sciences level. The sign language interpreter training program offers students fluency in basic abilities in both working languages and interpreting, and motivation toward personal development after graduation. The personal study program has had a remarkable effect on the students’ successes. The sign language interpreter must have several different skills using communication methods to meet the needs of clients with different language backgrounds. Finnish Sign Language has several different features that vary between generations, slang usage, style registers, dialectical differences, and loan signs. An increasing number of deaf students in higher education and deaf people participating in additional education means that there will be a growing need for interpreters in educational settings, with sign language interpreters expected to have a knowledge of academic sign language and to be able to provide interpretation for higher level academic education. The constant changes in the field, the development of new technologies, an increasing need for interpreting in educational settings, and clients with different backgrounds are all topics to be addressed in the sign language interpreter training program. To learn to conduct self-assessment through four different fields of professional competence: reflection and evaluation skills, social skills, practical skills, and planning and organizing skills will produce professionals who are committed to lifelong learning.

REFERENCES Bologna Process. Retrieved on December 18, 2007, from http://ec.europa.eu/ education/policies/educ/bologna/bologna_en.html Constitution of Finland. (1999). (Regulation 731). Retrieved December 18, 2007, from http://www.om.fi/Etusivu/Perussaannoksia/Perustuslaki?lang=en Finnish Association of the Deaf. Available from http://www.kl-deaf.fi Hoyer, K. (2000). Vähemmistö vähemmistössä: suomenruotsalaiset kuurot ja heidän viittomakielensä [A minority in the minority: the Finnish-Swedish deaf

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and their sign language]. In A. Malm (Ed.), Viittomakieliset Suomessa (pp. 205– 215). Helsinki, Finland: Finn Lectura. Humanistinen Ammattikorkeakoulu: Opinto-opas 2007–08 [Curriculum]. Helsinki, Finland: Humanistinen Ammattikorkeakoulu. Isokorpi, T. (2003). Ohjaus vuorovaikutuksena ammattikorkeakouluyhteisössä [Counseling as interaction in community of university applied sciences]. In H. Kotila (Ed.), Ammattikorkeakoulupedagogiikka (pp. 111–128). Helsinki, Finland: Edita. Jantunen, T. (2001). Suomalaisen viittomakielen synnystä, vakiintumisesta ja kuvaamisen periaatteista [On Finnish sign language–its birth, change, and principles of description). Publications of the Finnish Association of the Deaf, L1. Helsinki, Finland: Kuurojen Liitto ry. Jokinen, M. (2000). Kuurojen oma maailma–kuurous kielenä ja kulttuurina [The world of Deaf with language and culture]. In A. Malm (Ed.), Viittomakieliset Suomessa (pp. 79–101). Helsinki, Finland: Finn Lectura. Kuisma, M., & Lankinen U. (2007). Hyvä tulkki uunista ulos [The good interpreter is the interpreter straight from the oven, just baked and still hot]. Kielisilta, 1 [professional journal of the Finnish Association of Sign Language Interpreters]. Helsinki, Finland: Suomen Viittomakielen tulkit ry. Käsillä kääntäjät. (January 2004). [Announcement of the Sign Language Center in the Finnish Association of the Deaf]. Helsinki, Finland: Kuurojen Liitto ry. Lappi, P. (2000). Viittomakielen lainsäädännöllinen asema [Legislative status of the Finnish sign language]. In A. Malm (Ed.), Viittomakieliset Suomessa (pp. 71– 77). Helsinki, Finland: Finn Lectura. Lempinen, P., & Tiilikainen, A. (2001). Opiskelijatutkimus 2000 [Student research]. Opiskelijajärjestöjen tutkimussäätiö 21/2001. Available from http:// www.otus.fi/ (ISBN 952–5282–13–2 and ISSN 1456–9353) Marjanen, K., & Tainio, M. (2004). Esteetön etätulkkaus ETU 2002–04. Loppuraportti. Publications of the Finnish Association of the Deaf, No. 31. Helsinki, Finland: Kuurojen Liitto ry. Mesch, J. (2004). Viitotaan yhdessä. Tietoa taktiilista viittomakielestä [Information about tactile forms of signed language]. Publications of the Finnish DeafBlind Association, A3. Helsinki, Finland: Suomen Kuurosokeat ry. Räsänen, J. (1996). Kehityksen ulottuvuuksia, kehityssuuntautunut oppiminen ja arviointi. Jyväskylä, Finland: Julkisviestintä. Saksa, S. (2004). Baabelin perilliset. Kääntäjien ja kääntämisen historiaa [The history of translators and translation]. Jyväskylä, Finland: Atena Kustannus Oy. Salmi, E., & Laakso, M. (2005). Maahan lämpimään - Suomen viittomakielisten historia [The history of the Finnish sign language users]. Helsinki, Finland: Kuurojen Liitto ry. Savolainen, L. (2006). Interrogatives and negatives in Finnish Sign Language: An overview. In U. Zeshan (Ed.), Interrogative and negative constructions in sign languages (pp. 284–302). Nijmegen, the Netherlands: Ishara Press. Services and Assistance for Disabled Act of 1987. (1987). (Regulation 380). Retrieved December 18, 2007, from http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/1987/19870380 Tulkit. Available from http://www.tulkit.net

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Veitonen, U. (2006). Viittomakielen etätulkkaus ja viestintätekniikka [Distant interpreting in sign language and communication technique]. In N. Hytönen & T. Rissanen (Eds.), Käden käänteessä: Viittomakielen kääntämisen ja tulkkauksen teoriaa sekä käytäntöä (pp. 248–261). Helsinki, Finland: Finn Lectura. Vik-Tuovinen, G.-V. (2006). Tolkning på olika nivåer av professionalitet [Interpreting on different levels of professionality]. Publications of Acta Wasaensia, No. 153. Vaasa University.

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Three Leaps of Faith and Four Giant Steps: Developing Interpreter Training in Ireland IRELAND MAY be unique in a European context insofar as the demand for spoken language conference interpreting has been relatively recent.1 In part this is due to our economic history: Until the 1990s, Ireland’s economy was extremely depressed, and while both Irish (sometimes referred to as Gaelic) and English are official languages of Ireland, in practice, English is the working language of the state. Ireland was predominantly a monolingual country. Emigration was rife. Yet, with the coming of the “Celtic Tiger,” and the expansion of the European Union, Ireland has become home to non-English speakers from across the world. In this context, it is perhaps surprising that Ireland currently lacks programs for training conference interpreters (spoken languages). Since 2001, a one semester community-interpreter training program has run at Dublin City University (DCU), leading to a graduate certificate in community interpreting.2 Beyond certification from this program, no formal national accreditation or registration process for spoken language interpreters exists at this time (M. Phelan, personal communication, December 2007). Spoken language interpreters in Ireland work in a range of settings including conference, legal, medical, liaison and educational settings. The situation of signed language interpreters therefore compares favorably with that of our spoken language peers. The first signed language

1. Ireland, a country separate from the United Kingdom (Scotland, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland), developed its own sign language, and Ireland’s sign language interpreting profession and training is distinct from that in the U.K. See the chapter in this book from Christine Wilson and Rita McDade for an overview of the Scottish system, which differs from that in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. 2. See http://www.dcu.ie/prospective/deginfo.php?classname=GCCI&mode=full.

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interpreters graduated with a Diploma in Irish Sign Language (ISL)/ English Interpreting in 1994, and interpreter training was, in the early days, only made possible with funding from the European Union. State funding commenced with the establishment of the Centre for Deaf Studies (CDS) at Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Ireland’s oldest university, in 2001. Today there are approximately 50 to 60 interpreters in Ireland. The majority of interpreters have completed a Diploma in ISL/English Interpreting and many also hold other degree-level qualifications. The majority of ISL/English interpreters work in the domain of education, in the public sector (including legal settings and state agencies undertaking public consultations) and in the voluntary sector (i.e., for nongovernmental agencies, including Deaf organizations (Comhairle, 2006). Other interpreters work in commercial settings (media, staff training, meetings, legal, etc.), and in health settings (which Comhairle separates out from the public sector). In Ireland it seems that the least organized aspect of interpreting is found in health services, a worrying trend.

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THE IRISH DEAF COMMUNITY Some 5,000 Irish Deaf people use ISL (Matthews, 1996), and, with Irish, it is the second indigenous language of Ireland (after Burns, 1991). Despite this, no public services are available in ISL and the provision of services in an accessible language in all domains of life is relatively ad hoc (Leeson, 2005). Unlike most other European countries, oral education was introduced late in the Catholic schools in Ireland: St. Mary’s School for Deaf Girls introduced oral education in the 1940s, but by the 1950s, a strictly enforced segregation divided children who used a signed language and those who did not. This contrasts with the situation in the Protestant school, the Claremont School for the Deaf, established in 1816 as the first school for the deaf in Ireland. It incorporated oral methods, along with signing and fingerspelling from the outset, while oral instruction was initially only available to private, fee-paying students (Pollard, 2006). The suppression of ISL is well documented: for example, in the Catholic schools, following the introduction of oralism, children were encouraged to give up signed language for Lent, the 40 days of repentance leading up to Easter. Children who were caught signing were told that they would be sent to the “Deaf and Dumb” section of the school, which was associated with lower intelligence and academic mediocrity (McDonnell & Saunders, 1993). Leeson and Grehan (2004) report that this practice continued into

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the mid-1980s, supported by individual Dominican nuns, providing further evidence of the higher status associated with the use of speech in the schools. The segregation of the sexes for education and the segregation of signers from those who could speak within the schools greatly affected contemporary ISL, leading to gender variation and gendered generational variation (Leeson & Grehan, 2004; Leeson, Saeed, Leonard, Macduff, & Byrne-Dunne, 2006; LeMaster, 1990, 1999–2000, 2002; LeMaster & Dwyer, 1991; Leonard, 2005). This sociolinguistic context provides specific challenges to ISL/English interpreters (Leeson, 2005). It is important to note that gender segregation was normative for the time, and even today most “hearing” religious schools are segregated on the basis of sex. St. Mary’s and St. Joseph’s remain single-sex schools for the deaf, though there has been much talk of amalgamating them due to declining numbers. In contrast, the Mid-West School for the Deaf (Limerick) is a mixedsex school.

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TRAINING INTERPRETERS IN IRELAND: THREE LEAPS OF FAITH AND FOUR GIANT STEPS Before turning to the development of interpreter training in Ireland, it is essential that we look at the Deaf community and contextualize the issues that created the zeitgeist for moving toward interpreter training. The most important is the growth of deaf self-advocacy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, leading to the establishment of the Irish Deaf Society in 1982. This led to a number of outcomes, including the establishment of the first ISL extramural classes3 in Trinity College (and, as far as we know, the first ISL classes in Ireland), discussion of ISL as a natural language in the Deaf community, and the establishment of a transnational interpreter and ISL teacher training program. This movement spurred on other developments, leading us to our current situation.

Leap of Faith One: Establishment of the Irish Deaf Society The precursor to the Irish Deaf Society can be traced to the Wednesday Group—a group of deaf and hearing people, which met every Wednesday 3. Extramural classes are typically evening classes that do not lead to university-level certification.

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in the late 1970s, and aimed to respond to the inadequate services available to deaf people at that time. By 1981, the United Nations International Year of the Disabled, this group had morphed into the Deaf Action Group (DAG), which hosted monthly meetings to create awareness of the needs of deaf people, with a focus on rights. In 1981, DAG established a “wishlist” that focused on tackling the discrimination that Irish deaf people experienced in their daily lives. The first objective was to establish an Institute of Interpreters, which would be financed by the state. Without an interpreting service, full participation in Irish society was not possible. For example, while Maynooth College (now NUI)4 offered a scholarship to deaf people to mark the International Year for Disabled People, this could not be implemented because of a lack of interpreters (National University of Ireland). In 1982, DAG changed their name to the Irish Council of the Deaf (ICD) and finally to the Irish Deaf Society (IDS). By the late 1980s, IDS had made contact with the Center for Language and Communication Studies at Trinity College Dublin, the oldest and most prestigious university in Ireland. With the assistance of Professor David Little, IDS established the first program in ISL at the university. The relationship with Trinity became a long-standing one.5

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Interpreter Training in Ireland—Step One: Horizon In 1992, the Irish Deaf Society, Trinity College Dublin and Bristol University advertised a two-year, full-time program of studies that would lead to a Diploma in Deaf Studies (Interpreting) and a one-year, full-time program leading to a Certificate in Deaf Studies (Teaching). The 12 places initially available (10 interpreting students, 2 ISL teachers) were funded in part by the European Union’s Horizon Program. Students were to spend 50% of their time in Dublin and 50% of their time at Bristol University. The successful implementation of this program faced significant challenges: 1. The ISL teachers were training as teachers even as they were expected to deliver the ISL curriculum to the interpreting students. 2. There was no documentation of ISL outside of the groundbreaking work that Barbara LeMaster carried out documenting gender variation

4. The National University of Ireland (NUI) is a federal university, comprising four universities as constituent members. See http://www.nui.ie/ for further details. 5. Information in this section was taken from the Irish Deaf Society’s Web site, and retrieved October 2, 2007, from http://www.deaf.ie/IDSinfo/IDShistory.htm.

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in the Dublin Deaf Community (LeMaster1990, LeMaster & Dwyer, 1991) and a dictionary that attempted to standardize ISL (NAD,1979).6 ISL teachers had to work from what was known about British Sign Language (BSL) or American Sign Language (ASL) and relate that knowledge to what they knew of ISL. Subsequently, two doctoral dissertations on ISL have been completed (McDonnell, 1996; Leeson, 2001). 3. Some issues of language contact emerged: The ISL teachers were training in a British Sign Language (BSL) dominant environment, mixing with their British deaf peers as well as with international deaf students. Thus, they unintentionally may have taught some BSL norms in the ISL classroom, which were picked up on by some Irish deaf people when the students returned for an Irish leg of study, leading to some criticism of the language content of the program. 4. In addition, there were some extremely entrenched responses to an Irish-U.K. collaboration for ISL/English interpreter training: One interpreting student was asked by a leading member of the Deaf community why they had not waited for a solely home-grown program to be developed. When it came to interpreting placement, some students were castigated for using “BSL.” While some BSL influence may have emerged from the language contact situation that these students were trained in, it is also the case that the debate regarding the role and functionality of ISL versus signed English raged.7 For some Irish deaf people, signed English was the preferred public expression of a signed language and any deviation from this was deemed “BSL.” However, the majority of Irish deaf people reacted with pure delight, welcoming the fledgling interpreters, who, for the first time in an Irish context, attempted to bridge the gap between English and their language. 6. The National Association for the Deaf’s 1979 dictionary (“the blue book”) attempted to standardize ISL, mediating the significant gendered variation that existed and creating a systematic vocabulary that was influenced strongly by English. Signs were typically “alphabeticised,” that is, the handshape of a sign was changed to bring it in line with the first letter of the English word that the sign related to (e.g., FATHER has 2 ‘F’ handshapes, BROTHER a ‘B’ handshape, etc.). One of the objectives was to make it easier for hearing people to learn to sign (Foran, 1979, p. 2). 7. In an Irish context, signed English refers to a system that was created to represent English in manual form. It borrowed vocabulary from ISL, and added specific signs to represent the morphological changes associated with English word endings (e.g., –ED, -ING -ION, etc.) See McDonnell, 1997, for further discussion of signed English in an Irish context).

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There were some significant advantages to the program too: When in Bristol, all the students lived together. This created a natural immersion environment for the development of ISL skills, raised consciousness about Deaf culture, and introduced the reality of living with Deaf people. As 9 of the 10 student interpreters did not come from a Deaf family, this was a rare privilege. Being away from the heavily politicized response to the Horizon program gave Deaf and hearing students some respite from the situation in Dublin. It offered an opportunity to create a cohesive group that would, on the return to Ireland, start to change the way ISL was taught (Deaf graduates) and to influence the development of professional interpreting services (Deaf and hearing graduates), though with hindsight, they also probably overstated their own knowledge on their return to Ireland. This too, inevitably, fed into a phase of disharmony that ran from around 1994 to 1997 and became linked to issues of interpreter registration and fitness to practice. In the end, 9 of the 10 candidates completed this first interpreter training program in 2004. In 2003, the first two Deaf people completed their certificate program and an additional two Deaf students commenced their training. The first graduates continued to teach in the second year of the program, and one, Mr. Patrick A. Matthews, went on to coordinate an EU-funded program to document the Irish Deaf community and to describe aspects of the grammar of ISL (Matthews, 1996, O’Baoill & Matthews, 2000). Of the 10 interpreting students, 5 remain active in the Deaf community today, as interpreters, teachers, researchers, community resource workers, or activists. Of the remaining 5, several are working in areas where their Deaf Studies backgrounds are backgrounded, though relevant (e.g., management of disability services, disability policy officers in the civil service, social workers, or nurses, for instance). Several undertook additional studies and have published in the area of Deaf Studies. All four Deaf people who completed the Certificate in Deaf Studies are still active members of the Irish Deaf community today and three have undertaken master’s degrees in applied linguistics. Of the 14 students who engaged in the 1992–94 Horizon program, 2 are now full-time lecturers at the Centre for Deaf Studies at Trinity College Dublin, and a further 4 are regular contributors to the CDS programs. It is clear that the impact of this short-term program has been phenomenal in the context of a small country like Ireland.

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Interpreter Training in Ireland—Step Two: The Slide Program In 1994, the National Association for Deaf People (NAD), in conjunction with the U.K.’s Royal National Institute for the Deaf (RNID), established a six-month, self-directed learning program for people who were already working as interpreters in the field. The program had been run in the U.K., and the NAD opted to adopt the same approach in a bid to increase the number of trained interpreters as quickly as possible. While this program attracted no formal certification from a national accrediting body, it drew on an established pool of candidates who were mostly established within the Deaf community. The program offered a total of 13 places (C. O’Leary & C. Brailey, personal communication, January 2008), and it also included two residential training weeks that focused on introducing core components relevant to the interpreting profession, such as ethics, language processing, professionalism, etc. Opportunities also were created over the course of the sixmonth training period for students to discuss aspects of their interpreting and professional development with a mentor (Leeson, 2003). The success of this program can be evaluated in different ways: For those who had already been actively involved in the Deaf community (six participants were children of deaf adult/s, two were siblings of deaf adult/s, and one was the parent of a deaf child), it introduced them to the theoretical underpinnings of interpreting practice to support their preexisting language skills and interpreting experience. These people typically decided to register on the Irish Sign Link register of ISL/English interpreters (more on this later), and eight are actively interpreting today. However, for those who had no prior experience, there was not sufficient opportunity to develop core competencies to the levels required or expected by the Deaf community. Further, there was no scope for the formal development of language skills during the program, as linguistic know-how was expected to preexist. A common thread appears in both the Horizon and Slide programs: When a preexisting link with the Deaf community is in place prior to training, interpreters in Ireland are likely to remain in the field for the long term.

Leap of Faith Two: IASLI—The Birth of a Profession By 1993, there was a mixed group of people who were involved in interpreting in Ireland. Some came from deaf families, some were teachers of the deaf, and some were involved in deaf education /or the chaplaincy to the Irish Deaf community (priests, nuns, Christian Brothers). Others had

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learned to sign from their Deaf friends and over time had taken on interpreting tasks (Comhairle, 2006). There were also those undertaking the Bristol/Trinity program and those taking the Slide program. Many of the candidates in these programs had been interpreters before, and their status occasionally caused some discord when faced with general assumptions such as the beliefs that people who had Deaf parents automatically make the best interpreters, that training was not really necessary, and that as long as one could sign, one could interpret. Interpreter education went some way toward challenging these beliefs. By 2003, it was clear that Ireland should be engaging in communication with our interpreting colleagues in Europe via membership of the European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters (EFSLI). To do this, an Irish organization had to be established to supersede the preexisting “Interpreters Group,” and a code of ethics acceptable to EFSLI had to be drawn up. In 2004, the Irish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (IASLI) was born, and membership of EFSLI secured. While IASLI sought to serve deaf and hearing interpreters, several barriers to further evolvement hinged on the lack of funding secured by the organization. IASLI was a voluntary organization and had no staff or offices, which limited the potential for lobbying, information sharing, and professional development. A small organization, it had some 40 members and was perceived as lacking in power vis-à-vis self-representation to external bodies. Furthermore, the membership debated for a long period of time as to whether IASLI should serve as a professional association or a support group for interpreters. This debate was never resolved: In December 2007, IASLI formally disbanded. However, an alternative professional organization does exist. The Irish Translators and Interpreters Association (ITIA), initially established to represent the professional interests of translators in Ireland, already counts several signed language interpreters among its members.8

Leap of Faith Three: Establishing the First Interpreting Agency Running parallel with the establishment of interpreter training programs, the Deaf community began to call for an independent referrals agency to ensure a professional interpreter service where client confidentiality would

8. See http://www.translatorsassociation.ie/.

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be maintained. Before 1994 there were no full-time interpreters available, but by 1994 some 20 people offered themselves in this capacity, leading to calls for regulation. In response, a working group comprising organizations of Deaf people, service providers, interpreters, and ISL teachers negotiated the establishment of Irish Sign Link, a national ISL-English interpreting agency. It was agreed that interpreters who wished to work through the agency must first undergo assessment to ensure the quality of interpreting offered. This comprised five tasks: (1) a translation from ISL to written English, (2) a simultaneous interpretation from ISL to English, (3) a simultaneous interpretation from English to ISL, (4) simultaneous interpreting in a simulated setting (i.e., a role-play scenario), and (5) an interview with the assessment panel to ascertain the candidate’s knowledge and experience (Accreditation Board, 1997). Following from the first registration process in 1997, some 15 interpreters were included on Irish Sign Link’s books. A second registration took place in 1999, bringing the number to the mid-20s. In 2006, a third round of assessments took place. Despite the fact that serious questions were raised regarding the integrity of the assessment process, some 29 candidates went forward for assessment, including 5 deaf interpreters. Following this process, a total of 38 interpreters were registered with Irish Sign Link (see Table 1). While there was a great deal of discourse surrounding the assessment’s validity, it has proven positive for Deaf interpreters: This provided the only route to acknowledge their skills in the interpreting domain in an Irish context. It is important to note that the Irish Sign Link register is not recognized as an independent national registry of interpreters nor does it have any standing legally (i.e., as a professional register that gives right to practice). It is clear that these issues remain to be ironed out in an Irish context. Irish Sign Link saw a need for a follow-up system of assessment in the late 1990s since those who had been registered as “registered trainee inTable 1. Registration of Interpreters in Ireland: Irish Sign Link, 2006. R1–Registered Qualified Interpreter (Advanced) [formally RQI] 18 R2–Registered Qualified Interpreter [formally RTI] 14 TI–Registered Trainee Interpreter 6 (Deaf Interpreters: 5–included in figures for R1 and R2) Note: From Sign Language Interpreting Service, personal communication, October 2007.

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terpreters” had no way to seek promotion on the Irish Sign Link scale until this happened. That is, individually, interpreter skill development was unacknowledged in the absence of such an assessment, and this had financial repercussions for these interpreters. Irish Sign Link disbanded in 2007, and a new, state-funded body, Sign Language Interpreting Service (SLIS)9 was established in its place to ensure the effective delivery of high-quality interpretation services and to make public services accessible to the Deaf community. The Citizens Information Board supports and funds SLIS. The organization has not yet formally made any announcements regarding how it will deal with the issue of registration, although recommendations from a review of sign language interpreting services proposed that a process of accreditation be established (Comhairle, 2006). It is also worth noting that, unlike the mid1990s when Irish Sign Link was the only agency providing interpreting services, there are now a number of private agencies that also operate on the market, and they too must be included in any move toward the development of a national system of accreditation or registration. Here, accreditation means the accreditation of a program of study: On completion of an accredited program of studies, a graduate of that program is automatically placed on the register of interpreters at a predetermined level (e.g., as with the U.K.’s CACDP-University training mapping system). Registration is used to refer to a system of assessment for interpreters who have not completed an accredited program to enable registration as an interpreter. It remains to be seen if a truly national system of accreditation and registration of interpreters can be developed. Since Ireland currently experiences an expansion of demand for spoken language interpreters, and no national register of spoken language interpreters exists, it would make sense to explore the potential for establishing a register that includes both spoken and sign language interpreters, similar to the systems that exist in Sweden (Kammarkollegiet, translated as The Legal, Financial, and Administrative Services Agency),10 Australia (NAATI), and the U.K. (CIOL and CACDP hold the tender for assessing, accrediting, and registering public service interpreters). Ireland’s current situation does not compare favorably with our Scandinavian neighbors: Sweden has a deaf population of approximately 10,000

9. Retrieved October 2, 2007, from http://www.irishsignlink.ie/. The organization is now defunct. 10. See http://www.kammarkollegiet.se.

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who are served by a professional interpreting community of over 400 interpreters (a ratio of 1 interpreter to 25 deaf people). But even with this degree of interpreter provision, access to interpretation is not guaranteed as demand continues to outweigh supply (Katarina Karlsson, STTF).11 In the Irish context, approximately 200 interpreters would be needed in order to provide a comparable service to that currently in Sweden (Leeson, 2005). Presently, Ireland has a ratio of approximately 1:100,12 while in the U.K. the figures suggest a ratio of 1:140 (Comhairle, 2006; Leeson, 2007a). This (ongoing) lack of access to professional interpreting services proved to be a pivotal point in the Irish Deaf Society’s campaign to establish a permanent Center for Deaf Studies in Ireland. Following almost a decade of lobbying, the IDS, in partnership with the Trinity College Dublin, secured funding for an initial five-year period for an Irish Center for Deaf Studies in 2001, discussed later.

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Interpreter Training in Ireland—Step Three: Cork: The European Union Goes South! A second EU-funded program of interpreting was established in early 1998. With Cork Deaf Enterprises as lead partner, and Bristol University and NUI Cork as academic partners, the Diploma in Deaf Studies (interpreting) was offered to a cohort of 10 students. Three Deaf people registered on the certificate program (teaching). This program, similar to the original TCD-Bristol collaboration, offered the two-year academic program in interpreter training over 18 months due to time constraints based on funding. All 10 interpreting candidates completed the program. The majority are active in interpreting today, and one has set up the first commercial ISL/English interpreting agency in the Republic (Bridge Interpreting).13 Others have roles within the Deaf community: For example, one graduate is active as a chaplain to the Deaf community. The three Deaf students who completed the certificate program subsequently transferred to a diploma program, and, when Bristol introduced 11. STTF is the association of signed language interpreters in Sweden affiliated with the European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters (EFSLI). 12. These figures are based on preexisting figures for registered interpreters (Comhairle, 2006) plus graduates of the TCD interpreting program in 2006 and 2007, who were not eligible for candidacy in the last round of assessment carried out by Sign Link in 2007 due to insufficient hours of practical interpreting experience postgraduation, or because they were still in training. 13. See http://www.bridgeinterpreting.ie/.

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an undergraduate degree in Deaf Studies, all three applied for and were granted access to this course. Two of the three have continued with postgraduate studies. One has established a school of ISL in Galway. Several of the Cork/Bristol graduates have also worked as lecturers/interpreters at the Center for Deaf Studies in Dublin. Furthermore, the presence of Deaf students on campus at NUI Cork has led to positive outcomes in terms of access and provisions put in place to support Deaf students on campus. This is helping to create the possibility of increased levels of participation at the tertiary level for members of the Deaf community. While problems remain in securing interpretation due to supply/demand issues (Comhairle, 2006, Leeson, 2007a, 2007b), it is clear that the impact of this EU-funded program, like the IDS/TCD/Bristol program before it, has been significant.

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Interpreter Training in Ireland—Step Four: CDS—A Home for Deaf Studies From the time of the Horizon TCD-Bristol-IDS Program (1992–94), the IDS had campaigned for the establishment of a permanent home for Deaf Studies in Ireland. Almost a decade passed before this idea became a reality. In 2001, the Minister for Education and Science, Mr. Michael Woods, announced ring-fenced funding for a five-year period to establish a Center for Deaf Studies at Trinity College Dublin. This occurred when a significant range of stakeholders made clear the consequences of the lack of provision regarding ISL in education, and for enabling the participation of Deaf citizens in society. Given the introduction of cutting-edge equality legislation, coupled with rumblings regarding the outcomes of oralism, and emotional, physical, and sexual abuse in the schools for the Deaf from the 1950s through to the 1980s, some recognition of the need to have a larger pool of professionally trained interpreters and a cohort of professionally trained ISL teachers emerged. The need for the provision of a general program of Deaf Studies was finally recognized. This led to the first intake of students for the Diploma in ISL/English Interpreting and the Diploma in ISL Teaching in 2001.14 The Center is part of the School of Linguistic, Speech, and Communication Sciences at Trinity College Dublin.15 With three full-time academics (two Deaf, one hearing) and some nine Deaf and five hearing occasional/part-time lectur-

14. The first students for the Diploma in Deaf Studies commenced in 2002. 15. See http://www.tcd.ie/slscs/cds/news/index.php.

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ers, the Center delivers academic programs in a bilingual setting where ISL is the primary language of engagement. The Center has two mutually reinforcing functions:

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1. To raise awareness, both in the Deaf and hearing communities, of the distinctive character of ISL and Irish Deaf culture. 2. To offer courses that in various ways improve the communication between the Deaf and hearing communities and lead to better employment prospects for members of the Deaf community, for example, as teachers of ISL. The Center has also developed a research profile in the area of Deaf Studies, particularly in the areas of linguistics and applied linguistics. In addition to three undergraduate programs, the Center aims to promote research into ISL and the culture of the Irish Deaf community by recruiting qualified Deaf and hearing students to undertake PhD research and to seek funding for research projects in ISL, sign linguistics and other areas of Deaf Studies. This mandate has been fully met, and the research strand of our work has significantly affected our approach to teaching. All three undergraduate programs have been running successfully, although it has become clear that two year programs do not offer sufficient time to develop the competencies required to work within the Deaf community to the level now required. Given our focus on interpreting, we understand that today the Deaf community is more sophisticated and engages in activities in domains that they did not have access to when the first cohort of interpreters graduated in 1994. Today, members of the Irish Deaf community are completing postgraduate programs, lecturing in universities, holding down executive and professional positions, and lobbying government and potential corporate sponsors in a sophisticated manner. To engage successfully in these enterprises, their interpreters need to be at least as sophisticated as their Deaf clients, with additional sensitivity to the nature of interaction and the range of discoursive function particular to the domains that they encounter. This is no mean feat. In addition to the specificities of the hearing world(s) that interpreters engage with, they must also be sensitive to the historical consequences of Deaf education and its impact (educationally, linguistically, emotionally, and socially) on Deaf clients (Leeson, 2007a). They must be able to deal with the gendered, generational, and withincohort variation that has emerged (Leeson, 2005). Thus, in a bid to bring Ireland’s Deaf Studies programs in line with international best practice, it is proposed that the diploma programs offered by CDS be extended to

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four-year degree programs, with a significant online/blended learning component in order to offer programs to students nationwide. The move to a four-year program would allow for the necessary competencies in ISL, teaching, and interpreting to be fully developed (an issue raised by stakeholders in a number of forums since 2001) and, at the same time, offer graduates a better foothold in terms of accessing further training (e.g., for those who graduate with a degree in ISL teaching, they would be able to access postgraduate diploma-in-education programs to become recognized teachers, which in turn would feed the need for fluent ISL teachers at the secondary school level). It would also bridge the gap in the Irish national framework of qualifications whereby someone wishing to study in the field of Deaf Studies can work to levels 3 or 4 (Leaving Certificate Applied in ISL or some CACDP qualifications), but there are no recognized qualifications at levels 5 or 6.16 Currently, CDS’ courses are recognized at level 7.17 However, for graduates to qualify for entry to many postgraduate programs, a level 8 qualification is required.18 With a level 8 qualification in place, the potential for students of Deaf Studies—Deaf, hard of hearing, and hearing—to pursue further studies and contribute to the body of knowledge in this field would be exponentially greater. For Deaf Studies to mature as a discipline, this essential development needs to take place in order to pave the way to master’s (level 9) and PhD (level 10) work.

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THE NEXT GENERATION: THE CHALLENGES The inextricable link between the development of skilled ISL teachers and that of ISL/English interpreters has clearly emerged. The balance, however, is far from ideal in Ireland today.

The Sociolinguistic Context: Who Teaches ISL? Currently, there are some 22 professionally trained ISL teachers in Ireland, all of whom are Deaf. Four came from the Horizon Program (1992– 94), 3 from the Cork Horizon Program (1998–99) and the remaining 15 from the CDS (2001–07). However, supply cannot meet demand. If aspi16. Level 5 is commensurate with tertiary education certificate programs. Level 6 is commensurate with tertiary education diploma programs. 17. Level 7 is commensurate with ordinary degree level. 18. Level 8 is commensurate with honors degree programs.

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rations of ISL recognition are met, or even if bilingual education is introduced formally, there is not a sufficient pool of Deaf ISL teachers in Ireland to meet demand (Leeson, 2007a, 2007b). Deaf people don’t undertake training at university level for several reasons, including fear of failure, the low status of ISL, and ambivalence with respect to the language. For example, Leeson and Matthews (2002) report that Deaf students often present with very low self-confidence, resulting from their negative experiences of education at primary and postprimary levels. Work carried out by the Irish Deaf Society on the relative poverty of Irish Deaf people found that educational experience leads to underemployment, and that most Deaf people are reluctant to risk leaving a secure job, albeit a low-paying, low-status post that they dislike (Conama and Grehan, 2002; Conroy, 2006). Ambivalence relating to the status of ISL also feeds into attitudes toward the need to seek a qualification in order to teach ISL. For example, since the Department of Education and Science does not demand any minimum qualification for teaching ISL, it is not surprising that there is no institutional demand for a more qualified group of people. But the prevailing institutional and policy views of ISL don’t stop there: To be a teacher of the Deaf in a school for the Deaf, or a visiting teacher of the Deaf, it is not a mandatory requirement to have any knowledge of ISL. This approach has been raised as problematic, but presently no policy is in place (Leeson, 2004, 2007b) to address the situation. This builds on an additional sociolinguistic aspect: Historically, the use of any signed language was associated with a lack of intelligence, and was seen as the “communication method” (not “language”) of those considered “oral failures” (cf. Department of Education, 1972). As such, the stigmatization of ISL has consequences that are still felt in terms of older Deaf people’s ambivalence regarding the status of the language and its usefulness for academic purposes. The good news is that this attitude has been challenged widely and is changing slowly.

Learning to Sign: Who Teaches ISL? A major challenge in preparing potential candidates for the interpreting profession is the lack of access to formal ISL classes. Given the small number of professionally trained ISL teachers, and the fact that most are localized in the major cities, there is a clear rural-urban divide emerging regarding access to ISL. There is no high school or equivalent level program of studies in ISL, which would allow for the language to be taken to matriculation level. The only undergraduate programs offering ISL are the

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diplomas offered at the Center, so the potential to develop ISL skills is limited. However, some students take the Diploma in Deaf Studies in order to develop ISL competence and then complete an additional year to qualify as interpreters. This demands that students are able to commit to two to three years of full-time study. Given our student profile (the majority are women and are mature students), this is not a viable solution for those with familial or other responsibilities, particularly those who usually reside outside Dublin. The general experience is that students undertaking training have inadequate signed language skill at entry to embark directly on interpreting-related activities. As such, the first year of the program is given over to ISL skill development (40 credit points, where 1 credit point equals 25 hours of student work for a language module) while the remaining 20 credit points allowable in any year of an Irish university program are dedicated to courses on Deaf culture, history, and socio-cultural-medical perspectives; and an introduction to the linguistics and sociolinguistics of signed languages. The objective is to immerse students in ISL so that they have better command of ISL before embarking on an interpreter training proper. The second year of their program focuses specifically on interpreting-related activities. But this approach is far from perfect: Our objective is to put in place a four-year degree program that will offer blended learning in order to facilitate the delivery of training nationally. Funding permitting, this will be done in conjunction with a range of nationally recognized tertiary education institutes, and particularly in partnership with the Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown.19 Some piloting of the technologies required has been taking place since late 2006.20

The Complexity of Developing ISL Competence to an Advanced Level There has been an historical lack of involvement of the Deaf community at the tertiary education level (Conroy 2006; Leeson 2007b). For example, in 2006–07, only 128 Deaf and hard of hearing students were registered across the Irish university sector (Leeson, 2007b). Conroy (2006, pp. 27– 30) reports that 4 out of every 10 former pupils of Deaf schools had no access to postsecondary school training, with only 6.5% of her sample 19. See www.itb.ie. 20. In early 2008, Strategic Innovation Funding Cycle II (SIF II) was granted. The total project value is €2.8 million. However, due to the global economic crisis, all SIF II funds were frozen in October 2008.

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holding a third-level degree or higher, in contrast to 15% of the non-Deaf Irish population. Beyond the issue of social justice and the right to access tertiary education, there are other linguistic consequences of this lack of participation at the tertiary level. If a small minority of Deaf people are participating as students in new domains (new to ISL users), then no pre-established specialist vocabulary exists, leading to significant lexical and conceptual gaps (see Leeson and Foley-Cave for a discussion of this in the linguistics domain). The questions to ask include: Who decides on new vocabulary? What principles are invoked in developing new vocabulary? How is this shared with interpreters or students of ISL? How does standardization of specialist vocabulary occur when the community does not have a critical mass of specialists operating in a specific field (e.g., finance)? Parallel issues associated with the development of any new profession also occur. ISL suffers from a dearth of teaching and learning materials, a serious lack of continual professional development possibilities for ISL teachers, and a lack of literature on signed language teaching generally. Some of these are being tackled as we grow (e.g., the development of ISL teaching and learning resources, for instance refer to Matthews, 2007), while others will evolve from the recently established ISL Academy, which functions under the auspices of the Irish Deaf Society and aims to prepare and implement a strategy for the organization of ISL courses and the promotion and development of ISL as a language (http://www.Deaf.ie/ISLAcademy.htm).

THE FUTURE The following overview of the future path of the Irish Sign Language interpreting profession highlights three key issues for consideration.

Deaf Interpreters While Deaf people have always played a role as interpreters in an informal manner (e.g., they acted as interpreters during their school years, explaining to peers what their teachers were saying), in recent years, they have emerged as key players in more formalized settings. For example, they work with their hearing counterparts in some legal and healthcare settings as well as in conference settings (working between signed languages). As mentioned earlier, in the most recent round of assessments carried out by the now defunct agency, Irish Sign Link, some five Deaf interpreters sought and secured registration on the agency’s list. But there

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are challenges in this domain too: Currently no formal training is available for Deaf people who wish to become interpreters, and this limits professional development and skill enhancement. This situation clearly requires attention. Perhaps more worryingly, a growing number of Deaf people function as de facto interpreters in educational settings. Very often in Ireland, Deaf people have been appointed as special needs assistants (SNAs) in schools for the Deaf or in classes in mainstream schools with Deaf children. While this provides positive Deaf adult role models to students, the Deaf SNAs are frequently expected to interpret what the teacher says (because teachers are not required to have signed language skills), despite the fact that they are not trained to do this, and that they are effectively expected to speechread the teacher in order to translate the class content or class instructions to their Deaf pupil/s (Leeson, 2007b). Since this role falls outside of what we conceive of as interpreting proper, the SNAs do not typically identify themselves as interpreters (even though they recognize the interpreting component to their task) and have not been affiliated to IASLI or ITIA. As such, they do not have any access to interpreter peersupport and ad-hoc training, and they lack the recourses to demand the professional working conditions that members of IASLI (or ITIA) have secured. We suggest that the role of SNA is akin to that of educational interpreter and that this role should be acknowledged formally by the interpreting profession and by the Irish Department of Education and Science. Following from that, the requirements for training, professional support, and working conditions should begin to emerge.

Recruiting ISL Teachers A number of sociolinguistic factors affect attitudes to ISL and its use. These also affect potential candidates for ISL teaching. Ambivalence to language skill, along with a fear of failure (associated with past educational experience) results in very low uptake of full-time tertiary level training (Leeson & Matthews, 2001). As noted previously, the severe shortage of qualified ISL interpreters indicates a great deal of potential in terms of business opportunities for qualified graduates, and this may increase in the coming years if a number of proposed educational policy changes are implemented (Leeson, 2007b). Also, a number of large-scale projects in development will demand the input of qualified personnel, who may prove difficult to identify in the current climate. Deaf people in Ireland are underemployed (Conroy, 2006), and because of negative educational

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experience and the stigmatization of their language, they are reluctant to take up opportunities that may open other doors for them. Historical attitudes to language use have conspired to create a catch-22 scenario for many Irish Deaf people.

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Developments Since the establishment of the CDS in 2001, several developments have emerged as a result of research-oriented work arising from our “home” within the School of Linguistic, Speech, and Communication Sciences. The development a European Language Portfolio (ELP)21 for ISL has involved the critical reevaluation of our ISL curriculum, with a commitment to authentic, student-centered learning. Another major development has been the “Signs of Ireland” corpus, which comprises ISL data from 40 signers aged between 18 and 65 from across the Republic of Ireland. ELAN software annotates this data. Annotations include information about lexical information (e.g., if it is gender specific, if it is borrowed from another SL), non manual features, dominant hand versus non dominant hand usage, and mouthings. Currently the largest annotated corpus of a signed language in Europe, Signs of Ireland is used not only for linguistic analysis of ISL, but also in the teaching of ISL and interpreting and translation (see Leeson, Saeed, Leonard, Macduff & Byrne-Dunne for further discussion). This supplements a non-annotated corpus of ISL and English language data that was created for interpreting students by Fulbright student, Michele Clapp. Another development is CDS’s involvement in the Leonardo da Vinci SIGNALL II project, funded by the European Commission. Working with Irish, Finnish, U.K., Czech, and Polish partners, a digital course on Deaf history and culture will be available in our local languages, with localized content. This is due for completion in November 2009. See www.signallproject.com for further details.

CONCLUSION Interpreter training in Ireland has evolved through the years. Stemming from the days of the Deaf Action Group in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the need for interpreters was highlighted, and this paved the way for the establishment of the Irish Deaf Society, that, with EU funding

21. See www.coe.int/t/dg4/portfolio/Default.asp?L=E&M=/main_pages/welcome.html.

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and transnational partners, made interpreter training a reality. Several “leaps of faith” took place along the way that led to the establishment of the IDS, IASLI, and the first interpreting agency, Irish Sign Link, as well as the “giant steps” that led to the establishment of the Centre for Deaf Studies. The situation today, while better than even a decade ago, is far from perfect. How ISL teaching is delivered nationally affects the quality of candidates coming for interpreter training. The small cohort of professional ISL teachers currently, and the need to persuade and encourage more Deaf people to see ISL teaching as a profession, is our major challenge at present, and the quality of ISL teaching affects the quality of ISL/English interpreters. This is perhaps the last great challenge to establishing the status of ISL–ensuring that Deaf community ambivalence to the status of ISL is redressed in parallel with attitudes in the hearing community. Also, the duration of training is currently insufficient to meet the needs of an increasingly sophisticated Deaf community. Coupled with problems in sourcing ISL pre-entry to CDS, the short duration of programs (two years, full time) fails to adequately develop the full range of linguistic and interpreting skills required postgraduation. Our aim is to bring the CDS program in line with international best practice by offering a four-year degree in ISL/English Interpreting. Both the Deaf community and interpreters are clear that this is an essential step in order to increase access for Deaf people and to raise the bar for practicing as an interpreter in Ireland (Comhairle, 2006; Leeson, 2007b). In addition, the issue of Deaf interpreters and their training needs also must be addressed. Finally, we looked at some of the key developments that have aided the delivery of the current program. The first steps have been taken, and international collaboration has made possible developments only imagined by the Irish Deaf people who met one Wednesday night a month in the 1970s. Hopefully, when Irish Deaf people 30 years from now reflect on how they have progressed, they will judge our “giant leaps” as having brought them further along the road.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To all those who made the development of interpreting services in Ireland possible.

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REFERENCES Accreditation Board recommendations report. (1997, May). Register of ISL/English Interpreters. Unpublished report, Dublin, Ireland. Burns, S. (1991). The sociolinguistic status of ISL: An observational study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Center for Language and Communication Studies (CLCS), University of Dublin, Trinity College. Comhairle. (2006). Review of sign language interpretation services and service requirements in Ireland. Dublin, Ireland: Prospectus. Conama, J. B., & Grehan, C. (2002). Is there poverty in the deaf community? Dublin, Ireland: Irish Deaf Society and Combat Poverty Agency. Conroy, P. (2006). Signing in and signing out: The education and employment experiences of deaf adults in Ireland. Dublin, Ireland: Irish Deaf Society. Irish Department of Education. (1972). The education of children who are handicapped by impaired hearing. Dublin, Ireland: Government Publications. Leeson, L. (2001). Aspects of verbal valency in ISL. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Centre for Language and Communication Studies, Trinity College Dublin. Leeson, L. (2003). Sign language interpreters: Agents of social change in Ireland. In M Cronin & C. O’Cuilleanain (Eds.), The languages of Ireland, (pp. 148– 166). Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts Press. Leeson, L. (2004). Signs of change in Europe: European developments on the status of signed languages. In P. McDonnell (Ed.), Deaf studies in Ireland: An introduction. Coleford, England: Doug McLean. Leeson, L. (2005). Vying with variation: Interpreting language contact, gender variation and generational difference. In T. Janzen (Ed.), Topics in signed language interpreting (pp. 251–292). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Leeson, L. (2007a). Seeing is learning: A review of education for deaf and hard of hearing people in Ireland. Unpublished report submitted to the National Council for Special Education, Trim, Ireland. Leeson, L. (2007b, October 8). Sign language interpreting: Pain, pleasure, privilege . . . & responsibility. Paper presented at Manchester University. Leeson, L., & Foley-Cave, S. (2007). Deep and meaningful conversation: Challenging interpreter impartiality in the semantics and pragmatics classroom. In M. Metzger & E. Fleetwood (Eds.), Translation, sociolinguistic, and consumer issues in interpreting: Vol. 3 Studies in interpretation series, (pp. 45–68). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Leeson, L., & Grehan, C. (2004). To the lexicon and beyond: The effect of gender on variation in ISL. In M. Van Herreweghe, & M. Vermeerbergen (Eds.), To the lexicon and beyond: Sociolinguistics in European deaf communities, (pp. 39– 73). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Leeson, L., & Matthews, P. (2002). CDS submission to the Advisory Committee on Deaf Education. Available from http://www.tcd.ie/slscs/cds/policysubmissions. Leeson, L., Saeed, J., Leonard, C., Alison Macduff, A., & Byrne-Dunne, D. (2006, October). Moving heads and moving hands: developing a digital corpus of Irish Sign Language: The “Signs of Ireland” corpus development project. In Pro-

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ceedings of the Information Technology and Telecommunications Annual Conference 2006, (pp. 33–43). Carlow Institute of Technology, TecNet. Le Master, B. (1990). The maintenance and loss of female and male signs in the Dublin deaf community. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. Le Master, B. (1999–2000). Reappropriation of gendered ISL in one family. Visual Anthropology Review, 15(2), 1–15. Le Master, B. (2002). What difference does difference make?: Negotiating gender and generation in ISL. In S. Benor, M. Rose, D. Sharma, & Q. Shang (Eds.), Gendered Practices in Language. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Languages and Information. Le Master, B., & Dwyer, J. P. (1991). Knowing and using female and male signs in Dublin. Sign Language Studies, 73, 361–396. Leonard, C. (2005). Signs of diversity: Use and recognition of gendered signs among young Irish deaf people. Deaf Worlds, 21 (2), 62–77. Matthews, P. A. (1996). The Irish Deaf community, Vol. 1. Dublin, Ireland: ITE. Matthews, P. A. (2007). Around the house. Dublin, Ireland: Center for Deaf Studies. McDonnell, J. (1997). The lexicon and vocabulary of signed English or manually coded English. Teanga, 17. Dublin, Ireland: IRAAL. McDonnell, P. (1996). Verbs in ISL. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Center for Language and Communication Studies, Trinity College Dublin. McDonnell, P., & Saunders, H. (1993). Sit on your hands: Strategies to prevent signing. In R. Fischer, & H. Lane (Eds.), Looking back: A reader on the history of deaf communities and their sign languages, (pp. 255–260). Hamburg, Germany: Signum Verlag. National Association for the Deaf. (1979). The ISL. Dublin, Ireland: Author. National University of Ireland. http://www.nui.ie/ O’Baoill, D., & Matthews, P. A. (2000). The Irish deaf community, Vol. 2. Dublin, Ireland: ITE. Pollard, R. (2006). The avenue: A history of the Claremont Institution. Dublin, Ireland: Denzille Press.

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Beginnings of the Interpreter Training Program in Kosovo KOSOVO IS situated in Western Europe in the Balkans, and its neighboring countries are Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, and Albania. Yugoslavian soldiers and paramilitaries forced approximately one million Albanians out of Kosovo. In 1999, NATO struck out against the former Yugoslavia and President Slobodan Milosevic to put a stop to the genocide. After years of struggle, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia in February 2008. Kosovo’s independence, while recognized by the United States, has not been endorsed by the many of the world’s countries, and notably not by Serbia or Russia. Kosovo’s population ranges from 1.9 million to 2.4 million. The last two censuses, conducted in 1981 and 1991, estimated Kosovo’s population at 1.6 and 1.9 million. However, it is likely that 1991 census undercounted Albanians. A 2001 estimate by the OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) puts the number at 2.4 million. The population density is close to 200 people per square kilometer, one of the highest rates in Europe. The majority of the population is composed of ethnic Albanians (88%), while the largest minority is Serbian (7%). Other ethnic groups include Bosnians (1.9%), Turks (1%), and the Roma, more commonly known as Gypsies, 1.7% (World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study, 2001). The official languages of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian. However, in cities that have a concentration of at least 5% of the total population who use a particular language, then that language can become an official language within that municipality. For example, Prizren has three official languages: Albanian, Serbian, and Turkish. Kosovo does not have universities or colleges that provide sign language interpreter training programs. However, the Faculty of Philology at the 57 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

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University of Prishtina offers a 4-year course with two majors combined, including Albanian language and literature, English language and literature, German language and literature, Russian language and literature, and Turkology. But in semesters five and six, students must decide if they want to study to become translators and spoken interpreters or to become language teachers (University of Prishtina, Pasqyra, 2005–6). The heavy presence of the United Nation’s mission in Kosovo after the war led to a sharp rise in the need for spoken language interpreters. Many people were employed without interpreter training. It was only in late 2006 that the Kosovar government established an independent national accreditation body, the Kosovar Accreditation Agency. Unfortunately, it has not been able to function appropriately due to the lack of the expertise in different fields.

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A SURVEY

OF THE

DEAF COMMUNITY

In early 2001, the Finnish Association of the Deaf (FAD) conducted a survey of the Deaf community in Kosovo. According to the survey, there were no trained interpreters who worked with the deaf in Kosovo. However, there was one interpreter who had deaf parents who was working at the University of Prishtina and one interpreter working at the Prishtina Deaf Club. During the survey, a seminar was held with representatives from the Deaf community where they identified priorities for the Deaf community. Based on these priorities, a funding application was submitted to FAD with three main objectives: 1. Organizational training to build the capacity of the Deaf community and to encourage their clubs, and to have a functioning and representative organization for the Kosovar Deaf community. 2. Basic-level interpreter training to begin to provide equal opportunities for Deaf citizens and enable them greater independence in Kosovo. 3. Sign language work to increase the status of the Kosovar Sign Language by producing information and training related to sign language. The Kosovar project received funding to implement these three main objectives, and the project team consisted of: Colin Allen, organizational advisor (Australia); Ramadan Gashi, Deaf liaison officer (Kosovo); Sheena Walters, interpreter trainer (Australia); and Selman Hoti, local interpreter trainer. The team carried out another survey of the 12 Deaf clubs in Kosovo (The Organizational Training Project for the Kosovar Deaf Com-

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munity, 2004). This survey collected information about sign language interpreters in Kosovo and investigated the viability of conducting a basiclevel interpreter training program.

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THE EMERGENCE OF SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETER TRAINING This training program was organized and implemented in 2005 by Selman Hoti, with assistance from Colin Allen. In early 2006 Susan Emerson, an interpreter trainer advisor from Australia, joined Selman Hoti to see out the remainder of the program. The project team asked Deaf clubs to invite people with signing skills who were interested in the basic-level interpreter training program. The project team evaluated their signing skills and noted the contact details of the applicants. The team also met prospective interpreting students at 6 of the 12 deaf clubs around Kosovo and interviewed 19 people: 11 females and 8 males. Of these applicants, 14 people fulfilled the criteria to be accepted into the first, basic level of interpreter training. The aim was to have professional interpreters working within the Deaf community after the completion of basic interpreter training. Since the interpreter training program did not provide students with sign language classes, prospective candidates needed to already have signing skills. Having a prerequisite of sign language often meant that these candidates come from deaf families. The majority of applicants learned sign language from deaf family members, and their signing skills varied. A large portion of those applications interviewed were children of deaf parents. After the survey, the 14 successful candidates met to discuss the aim of the training, times of the training, venues, etc. Most had a low income, and the project covered all costs related to transport, accommodation, and meals during the training sessions. Another important point in the selection of students was their willingness and ability to travel to attend training modules. For the second round of the basic-level interpreter training in 2006, the project attempted to attract a wider variety of potential applicants. This included advertising the course on university notice boards. There were over 30 individuals who expressed interest, and from this group, only 10 were successful: 5 male and 5 female applicants. Of this group, only two had deaf parents. Of note, during the 2 years the interpreter training program has been running, we have successfully managed to increase the numbers of males and nonnative sign language users coming into the program.

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A slightly different approach was used in the selection process to screen potential candidates for each course, and a panel composed of local deaf people was established.

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SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETER TRAINING CURRICULUM AND DELIVERY The interpreter training program run by the Kosovar Association of the Deaf under the auspices of Finnish Association of the Deaf and the Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs aims to prepare the students for work as Kosovar Sign Language interpreters for the Deaf and for the wider community and to begin to provide equal opportunities for deaf citizens, which will give them greater independence in society. The project began its training schedule in April 2005, and the training was held 1 weekend per month, with 10 modules for the 1st year. Selman Hoti designed the local interpreter curriculum of the first interpreter training program, and Sheena Walters designed the interpreter trainer curriculum. As this training program was the first of its kind for interpreters in Kosovo, the local and international trainer worked closely to identify the themes and the literature that were used for the 1st year of study. Recognizing that simply bringing in curricula from anywhere in the world and teaching it would not work, the curriculum took into account cultural, economic, and situational environments and issues. Table 1 shows the basic-level interpreter training content delivered in 2005. This 1st year of training provided basic information about interpreting, language, and deaf studies. As each module was taught over 2 days, often the 1st day of the module was focused on theory and the 2nd day of training was more practical in nature and included Deaf community members. Since the majority of the students in the first cohort already were fluent signers, the practical exercises revolved around different interpreting settings. Deaf individuals were invited from different provinces and with varying signing styles.

The 2nd Year of Interpreter Training: Advanced Interpreter Training Program 2006 With 14 students in the program, 11 successfully completed the basic-level interpreter training program and moved into the 2nd year of the training, the advanced interpreter training program. Table 2 provides details of the advanced-level interpreter training content in 2006.

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Table 1. Basic-Level Interpreter Training Content (2005) Module and topics

Date

Hours

30 April & 1 May

12 hours

Module 2 Interpreting settings one

14 & 15 May

12 hours

Module 3 Ethics

28 & 29 May

12 hours

Module 4 Deaf studiesa

11 & 12 June

12 hours

Module 5 Reflection/Evaluation

9 & 10 July

12 hours

Module 6 Language and Culture Albanian Languageb

17 & 18 September

12 hours

Module 7 Albanian Language Register

29 & 30 October

12 hours

Module 8 Albanian Language Interpreting in legal settings

12 & 13 November

12 hours

Module 9 Review of ethics and practicalc

26 & 27 November

12 hours

Module 10 Introduction to sign language linguistics

10 & 11 December

12 hours

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Module 1 Introduction to interpreting one

a. Mr. Colin Allen—international advisor for the Kosovar Deaf Project—provided a weekend workshop for sign language interpreters on Deaf culture. b. Mr. Xhafer Beqiraj—linguist from Prishtina University—provided four sessions on spoken and written Albanian language and grammar. c. Ms. Karin Hoyer—sign linguist, Finnish Association of the Deaf (FAD)—provided 2 days training on sign language.

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Table 2. Training Program (2006) Module and topics

Date

Hours

25 & 26 March

12 hours

Module 2 Simultaneous & Consecutive Interpreting Albanian Language Team Interpretinga

15 & 16 April

12 hours

Module 3 Voice to Sign and Sign to Voiceb Albanian Language

20 & 21 May

12 hours

Module 4 Albanian Language Interpersonal Skillsc

11 & 12 June

12 hours

Module 5 Emotional and Psychological Effectsd Predictione

9 & 10 September

12 hours

Module 6 Role shift Time lag

20 & 21 October

12 hours

17 & 18 December

12 hours

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Module 1 Review of Basic-Level Interpreter Training Introduction to Advanced Interpreter Training Program

Module 7 Professionalismf What is ethical conduct? Distance from the source language–coping strategies Interpreting at conferences International signs–what is it? WASLI What can KASLI do? SASLIg

a. Ms. Ava Hawkins–Canada–presented a weekend workshop on cross-linguistic interpreting. b. Ms. Cynthia Cave–Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ASLIA) Victoria president, Tasdeaf, interpreter coordinator–presented in Kosovo at the Advanced Interpreter Training Program on the topics of voicing (2006) and with the Basic Interpreter Training Program on the topic of language and culture.

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63 Table 3. Intensive Training Program Day

Topic

Day 1

Interpreting context

Day 2

The interpreter

Day 3

The interpreting process

Day 4

Interpreting environment

Day 5

Interpreting evaluation

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Intensive Interpreter Training Program The project organized a 5-day intensive interpreter training program with Dr. Jemina Napier from Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. The 10 students from the advanced interpreting training program were in attendance as well as two interpreters from Serbia and one from Albania. Table 3 shows the contents of the intensive training program. The intensive interpreter training program was developed in consultation between the project staff and the visiting trainer, with reference to previous modules and content already covered by local and international trainers. The program also addressed the students signing skills. For the first time, interpreters in Kosovo were trained by an international interpreter educator and received information about the interpreting profession. The program provided a unique opportunity for the local interpreter trainer to co-teach and to get feedback from a professional educator. It also

c. Ms. Catherine White–Kerry Deaf Adult Learning Program, coordinator, Ireland-–presented a weekend workshop on the topic of “Interpersonal skills needed when interpreting.” She also worked in a volunteer capacity for 2 weeks with the Kosovo Interpreters Working Group. d. Mr. Danny Stubbs–BSL/English interpreter LASLI, MRSLI, chair – International Task Group – Association for Sign Language Interpreters (ASLI), U.K.-–presented a weekend workshop on “Psychological and Emotional Affects.” e. Mr. Robert Skinner–interpreter (MRSLI/LASLI), DCAL (Deafness Cognition & Language) research assistant, ASLI international chair, London, U.K.–presented an overview of ASLI and a workshop on prediction. f. Ms. Liz Scot Gibson–WASLI president, Deaf Action, director, Scotland–presented a weekend workshop. She also attended a meeting with the Kosovo Interpreter Working Group. g. Ms. Helga McGilp–SASLI director Scotland–presented the work of the Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (SASLI).

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presented the opportunity to reinforce for the students’ knowledge taught during previous modules. Support was also given to the local trainer on giving feedback and evaluating students, which supported the local trainer’s teaching strategies.

FINAL YEAR

OF THE

INTERPRETER TRAINING PROGRAM

In the 3rd year of training, the local trainer and trainer advisor developed a student handbook, which provided students with detailed information about the final year of the interpreter training program. The student handbook included a mission statement, beginning program and dates, module descriptions, classes, punctuality and attendance requirements, trainers’ contact details, resource facilities, placement details, general rules and regulations at the project office, general information about assessment procedures, expectations of students, essential skills, sample marking sheet for Kosovar Sign Language, sample interpreting test marking record, and an interpreter feedback form. Appendix A contains details of the modules, and Appendix B contains sample assessment sheets.

PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS

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Student Attendance Attendance is an essential requirement of students in the interpreter training program. Students in the basic-level interpreter training program were expected to attend 75% of classes. Those students who did not attend the classes required were asked to leave the program, and they did not receive a certificate at the end of the program. In the advanced interpreter training program and in the final year, students were required to attend 90% of classes. The attendance requirement was not negotiable, and students were asked to attend classes regularly to attain the objectives associated with each module.

Assessment Procedures After each module, a questionnaire was given to students to gather feedback on such things as venue, facilities, teaching style, etc. The teacher would also fill out an assessment form to evaluate the development of each student’s skills. In the fifth class in each program, students individually were filmed. A feedback document listing a range of comments was sent

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to each student and covered the topics: general knowledge of interpreting, general knowledge about signs, Deaf culture, ethics and recommendations for improvement. The local trainer and international advisor developed these evaluations with involvement and input from deaf people. Questionnaires were developed (approximately 10–12 questions, depending on the topic), and students would fill out this small assessment at the beginning of the next training module as a way to review their learning from the last module. This beneficial exercise assisted the trainers in understanding how much the students could comprehend at a time. If a number of students scored poorly, the trainers would re-group and go over the material again to ensure the students could take in the information and then apply it. In the 3rd year, students were required to perform continuous, formal, and written assessments. a. Continuous assessment: A percentage of the final mark for a course was awarded to class work completed during the program. Coursework gave students a means of evaluating their own progress in relation to the overall demands of the program. Coursework included the completion of assignments, reports or in-class presentations or placements or practical language tasks. Where suitable, this work provided evidence of reading and research at the appropriate level. b. Formal assessment: This area included written tests or language performance tests. Instructions regarding the language/s of the test were given prior to the examination period. Generally language tests were held in sign language. c. Written assessment: This area consisted of student essays.

Resources There is a dearth of interpreting resources in the Albanian language, due to the fact that most interpreting resources are written and published in English. The local trainer translated all the training resources into two languages—Albanian and English (when required). Because few resources were readily available in Albanian, students were unable to use the books at the project office library and resources from the Internet. But for those few students who had English skills, they could visit the office library during working hours from 8:30 a.m. until 5:30 p.m. Also, the project office offered students facilities, for example, use of the Internet and of a camera for their signing assignments.

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Certificates and Accreditation After the completion of the program, student were given a certificate of attendance. The certificate included module topics and the hours/classes attended. At present, however, there is no formal accreditation process. Plans are under way to formalize an accreditation process for the 3rd-year students in the interpreting training program. Since this is the first time accreditation will happen in Kosovo, the accreditation processes from a number of different countries are being researched to assist in the creation of a formal accreditation in Kosovo. The Finnish Association of the Deaf will formalize the process, and an international advisor who will be contracted along with the local trainer will set up the accreditation system. At the same time, the international advisor and the local trainer will work on establishing the accreditation panel and on training the panel members. Also the Kosovar Association of the Deaf (KAD) is negotiating with the Kosovar Accreditation Agency within the Ministry of the Education, Science, and Technology to determine the qualification requirements for professional sign language interpreters. All this work should prepare the profession of sign language interpreters for the future, including having a national association of sign language interpreters. This work is being assisted by the Interpreter Working Group.

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INTERPRETER WORKING GROUP In parallel to developing an accreditation system, the project has established an Interpreter Working Group that has been in close contact with the Kosovar Association of the Deaf. The Interpreter Working Group consists of four interpreter students, a deaf administrator, two project interpreters, and the international interpreter trainer advisor. The Working Group has created a number of policies and guidelines for interpreters and the Deaf community. To date, the Interpreter Working Group has published three pertinent documents: a code of professional conduct, proper working conditions, and a printed brochure for hearing people titled, “How to Work with a Sign Language Interpreter.” The Working Group has developed statutes for the establishment of the Kosovar Association of Sign Language Interpreters (KASLI) with the aim to develop the profession of sign language interpreters. The group also is working to become affiliated with other professional associations (WASLI, EFSLI, etc.).

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UNIVERSITY TRAINING The project has been offering the interpreter training program in Kosovo. However, plans are under way to formalize an agreement with a college or university to undertake and provide this training in a more academic setting. Because FAD will no longer fund the interpreting stream in Kosovo after 2007, this development is essential for the life of the program. It is believed that an academic setting will enhance students’ learning and raise expectations for the students, for the Deaf community, and for others who utilize interpreting services. It is envisaged that the interpreter program will be located within the language department of a university in Prishtina. The result would be that students would graduate alongside other professionals with a university degree and their accreditation to work as professional interpreters.

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CHALLENGES One of the major challenges in delivering the interpreter training program in Kosovo was the lack of awareness among the Deaf community regarding the demands and requirements of modern professional interpreter training, that is, the length of training and the number of elements involved. This can be traced to the fact that the Deaf community relies on the experience of the former Yugoslavia interpreter training system, where after attending a 1-week interpreting “program,” the interpreter trainees were “certified” to work as professional interpreters. Also, some members in the Deaf community do not see the necessity of formal training because some trainee interpreters were already bilingual (e.g., people who had deaf parents). This reflects the lack of understanding of the elements that make up a good interpreter; mastering two languages does not automatically make one a professional interpreter. Further challenges include: • • • • • • • • •

a lack of role models for students a poor attitude or lack of motivation from the first group of students the international advisor/guests not knowing Albanian the existence of only one interpreter trainer throughout all of Kosovo poor working conditions for interpreters a lack of an established future career structure a lack of employment opportunities varying education levels among students the lack of legal recognition for sign language

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Before the Professional Code of Conduct was agreed to in the latter part of 2006 (by the Interpreter Working Group), interpreters made professional decisions using their own personal morals and values to guide them. This led to great inconsistency with professional decision-making for interpreters and for deaf people and wider communities that received such services. For instance, one interpreter student said that after the ethics module she was surprised to learn about “confidentiality” and its role in the profession of interpreting. Previous to the training, this person went home every day and told her mother everything about her interpreting work. However, since the Professional Code of Conduct has been adopted, interpreters now have a reference guide. Armed with new knowledge, they are making more appropriate and professional decisions.

International Trainer Advisor Perspectives

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An international trainer/advisor provides a deeply enriching experience both personally and professionally. However, several factors must be considered in this type of role. Some of these include: being aware of history, being sensitive to religious and cultural issues, making sure not to impose your own values, empowering locals, adapting previous work experience to the country concerned, being flexible and resourceful, and having an ability to call on peers for advice. Consideration of all these factors provides extra challenges to working in this interpreter training context.

HIGHLIGHTS In parallel to these developments and with the lobbying work of the Kosovar Association of the Deaf, the project is proud of its successes, such as seeing a number of interpreting students now employed (eight from the first group and one from the second group). Employment settings include the Kosovar National Broadcast, private TV stations, the deaf school in Prizren, universities, positions within the Deaf community, local ministries, medical offices, and the courts. Interpreting services are now paid for by different institutions and organizations in Kosovo, which is a big shift and can be traced to the active lobbying activities of the KAD. Further plans include having the work of the sign language interpreter service recognized by the Kosovar government. KAD has established contacts and is lobbying the local and national government for the interpreter services.

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CONCLUSION The sign language interpreting profession, a young profession in Kosovo, remains in its infancy. But after reviewing the development of the training program and curricula, it is obvious that things are on the right track. International support and advice provided a key resource in developing the training program in Kosovo. Without international support, especially in developing the training program and curricula based on the Kosovo situation (which involves the cultural and political landscape), the profession of sign language interpreting would not be where it is today. The future looks bright with plans to secure a degree course for sign language interpreters at the university or college level.

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REFERENCES Finnish Association of the Deaf. (2001). The situational analysis of the Deaf community of Kosovo. Report. Kosovar Association of the Deaf. (2007, March). Student handbook. Pristine, Kosovo: Author. The Organizational Training Project for the Kosovar Deaf Community (2004, October/November). Report on the evaluation of the status of 12 deaf clubs and interpreters in Kosovo. Pristine, Kosovo. The Organizational Training and Sign Language Development Project for the 11 Regional Deaf Clubs in Kosovo. (2005, March). Basic level interpreter training program. Pristine, Kosovo: Author. The Organizational Training and Sign Language Development Project for the 11 Regional Deaf Clubs in Kosovo. (2006, March). Advanced basic level interpreter training program. Pristine, Kosovo: Author.

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APPENDIX A Final Year Interpreter Training Module Content

MODULE 1: 12

HOURS

Introduction This module provides students knowledge about the final year of the interpreter training program, preparing them for the final assessment, which leads to accreditation. They will receive the student handbook, and they will have the opportunity to prepare and practice writing assignments, e.g., reflective writing, written assessments in a specialized setting, Kosovar Sign Language (KosSL) assessments, etc.

MODULE 2: 12

HOURS

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Specialized Setting This module provides students with opportunities to be exposed to interpreting in specialized settings and the variables involved. Topics include different environments such as: medical, legal, one-on-one interpreting, educational, and so forth. Each student chooses one area to specialize in and works in that field. Students write about the specific work requirements in the specialized field and the difficulties and challenges faced. It is compulsory that students accumulate a minimum of 30 hours of interpreting work in that one specialized setting.

MODULE 3: 12

HOURS

Language Variation–“Challenges in Mediating” This module provides students with the opportunity to study and practice the variation and change in language structure and its uses, with a focus on sign language variations. This module also provides students with more information on cross-cultural interpreting.

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MODULE 4: 12

71 HOURS

Processing Skills This module provides students with a number of approaches to language processing skills and discourse through text analysis and translation strategies. Students will analyze both Albanian and KosSL communication (text and sign) in order to develop equivalent translations in each language.

MODULE 5: 12

HOURS

Communication Dynamics and Demands This module provides students the opportunity to study different communication dynamics and demands in a variety of settings while also providing examples on how to manage the interpreting situation. The students have the opportunity to learn about the monologic (one-way communication), dialogic (two-way communication), and multidirectional (communication between groups of people).

MODULE 6: 12

HOURS

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KosSL to Albanian and Albanian to KosSL This module provides students with the opportunity to process messages from KosSL to Albanian and from Albanian to KosSL in consecutive or simultaneous modes, and also exposes students to consider different settings and the demands of the interpreting environment.

MODULE 7: 12

HOURS

Ethics and Professional Aspects This module provides students with an opportunity to discuss the ethical issues and professional aspects they faced after their written essays and the “work” experiences they had during the year. Students are faced with various ethical issues while working in the field.

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APPENDIX B Samples of Assessment Sheets

ASSIGNMENT BREAKDOWN GUIDELINES Student Name: Student Number: Structure Introduction (5%) Conclusions (5%) Content (answering basic questions) (35%) Coherence of argument (20%) Use of relevant literature (10%) Independence of thought (10%) Evidence of relating theory to practice (10%)

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Presentation (5%) Total (/100%)

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SAMPLE INTERPRETING TEST MARKING RECORD: LIAISON INTERPRETING Student Number Presentation and behavior (5%) Coping with stress (5%) Managing competing stances of the Deaf and hearing person (10%) Smoothness of negotiations including lack of repetitions, false starts, and confusions (5%) Cohesion of production–Albanian (5%) Cohesion of the production–KosSL (5%) Grammaticality of KosSL (10%) Grammaticality of Albanian (10%) Fingerspelling and accuracy with numbers (5%) Accuracy of the KosSL–Albanian component (15%) Accuracy of the Albanian–KosSL component (15%)

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Affect (5%) Functionality of Task (5%) Overall Mark:

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INTERPRETER FEEDBACK FORM Interpreter: ___________________________________________________ Interpreter Trainer: ____________________________________________ RATING SYSTEM 0 = not demonstrated 1 = inconsistently demonstrated 2 = consistently demonstrated LEGEND II = Inquiry Interaction NI (KosSL) = Narrative Interaction in KosSL NI (ALB) = Narrative Interaction in ALB Understands & Represents Goals:

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Goal clearly represented/changed as needed Cohesion/dynamic maintained Consistently accurate

II

II

NI NI KosSL ALB

—— —— ——

—— —— ——

—— —— ——

—— —— ——

——

——

——

——

• Few errors/no problem patterns • Occasional errors • Consistent errors/little control Scores

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Interprets Meaning: Essential Elements & Supporting Details

Equivalency of meaning to the original SL text Framing for culturally rich ideas Main point/supporting detail Visual sense/conceptual accuracy Register Affect Scores

II

II

NI KosSL

NI ALB

—— —— —— —— —— ——

—— —— —— —— —— ——

—— —— —— —— —— ——

—— —— —— —— —— ——

——

——

——

——

II

II

NI KosSL

NI ALB

Interprets Meaning continued . . . • • • •

Consistently accurate Few errors/no problem patterns Occasional errors Consistent errors/little control

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Interpreting Process

Depth of processing (Lexical, phrasal, sentential, textual) Comfortable to watch/listen to/composure

——

——

——

——

——

——

——

——

Monitor/feedback loop working

——

——

——

——

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Target Language: Albanian

SUSAN EMERSON

II

II

NI KosSL

Adequate variety in lexicon Grammar Albanian discourse/cohesion strategies Complete sentences Emphasis: volume, enunciation Register Boundary marking via pausing and phrasing

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• • • •

Consistently accurate Few errors/no problem patterns Occasional errors Consistent errors/little control Target Language: KosSL

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AND

Adequate variety in lexicon Grammar TL discourse/cohesion strategies Complete sentences Emphasis: volume, enunciation Register Boundary marking via pausing & phrasing Scores • • • •

Consistently accurate Few errors/no problem patterns Occasional errors Consistent errors/little control

TOTAL SCORES

[See above] ——

——

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RESULTS/COMMENTS:

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Linguistic Variation as a Challenge for Sign Language Interpreters and Sign Language Interpreter Education in the Netherlands DUTCH PEOPLe speak many languages, which is commonly linked to the history of the Netherlands as a trading nation. French, German, and English have been taught to high school students for many decades now, occasionally being supplemented by Spanish and, more recently, Chinese. At the same time, the use of a spoken language interpreter is a common phenomenon. In the context of the European Union, interpreting between the various member states’ languages occurs in political and administrative meetings, and the immigration of people speaking many different languages, beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, has promoted the increase of the number of languages offered by interpreting agencies. Although being an “interpreter” is not a restricted or protected profession, spoken language and signed language interpreters both have to receive a special qualification to work in certain legal settings. Both signed and spoken language interpreters work in a wide range of settings, including community services and medical settings, legal situations, and work settings. The prime difference between signed and spoken language interpreters lies in their work in education: A substantial part of the interpreting services of sign language interpreters is in education, which in principle is funded by the national government without restrictions. Since the promotion of mainstreamed education for all handicapped children in the 1990s, deaf children increasingly attend hearing schools with a sign language interpreter, at both the primary and secondary level. In addition, the number of deaf people participating in higher education (whether professional education or at the university level) is slowly increasing, and many students make use of sign language interpreters. 77 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

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THE DUTCH DEAF COMMUNITY There is no published source on the exact size of the deaf community in the Netherlands, or on the number of signers. Most numbers are based on audiometric definitions of deafness. If we take Johnston’s (2004) ratio of one deaf signer in every 3,000 inhabitants, given the Netherlands’s current population of 16.5 million people, there should be about 5,500 signers. This number is in line with the 1997 estimate of 7,500 prelingual deaf people (Commissie Nederlandse Gebarentaal, 1997), yet it remains a rough estimate, as few deaf people who grew up before the 1980s were given much sign language input, and currently many people who became deaf later in life are learning and using sign language. The development of deaf education in the Netherlands follows the patterns seen in many Western countries: After a period of oralism since the Milan Congress of 1880, total communication entered the schools in the 1970s, and bilingual education slowly started in the late 1990s. Currently, more and more children participate in regular education with sign interpreters, and deaf schools have become more focused on children with special needs. Compared to the overall situation in the Netherlands, there have been relatively few international influences on the Dutch deaf community. While immigration in Dutch society has influenced the overall look of the country, as far as we know few deaf immigrants have taken specific deaf aspects of their language and culture into the Dutch deaf community. Deaf schools have seen increasing numbers of immigrant children in their classes, but few of them enter the deaf community later in life. Only a few deaf people have studied abroad, mostly at Gallaudet University in the United States. While there are many personal contacts of deaf people in other countries, there is little documented influence of foreign sign languages on the sign language of the Netherlands (Nederlandse Gebarentaal or NGT). Recent developments in the area of medical technology (cochlear implants, gene therapy) are expected to have a serious negative impact on the size of the deaf community. Now almost all deaf babies are implanted before age one, and government policy encourages integration in mainstream schools. There is no systematic national policy on the combination of implants with sign language acquisition, although implant centers do at least raise the possible utility of sign language acquisition by parents and children. The future use of NGT interpreters in education is expected to decline, with a focus on sign-supported Dutch and closed captions.

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From the book caption: The memorial speeches at the grave. Left at the gravestone the president H. Zegerius during his speech in sign language, on the right secretary D. Rabbi, who at the same time spoke for the hearing. (Source Unknown.)

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SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETING

IN THE

NETHERLANDS

Interpreters have been used since at least the 1920s, as can be seen in Figure 1. The development and use of interpreter training is similar to that found in other Western countries. For a long time, family members of deaf signing adults functioned as interpreters. Currently, there are over 230 sign language interpreters in the national registry of interpreters.1 However, the available interpreters and interpreting students do not match either the demography of the Dutch society or that of the deaf community: A large majority of interpreters are female, and there are few interpreters from different immigrant backgrounds. Two interpreting agencies serve an estimated 2,500 clients;2 in addition, deaf people directly contact and hire interpreters. These agencies mediate between (mostly deaf) clients and interpreters and offer a wide range of communication options, including deaf-blind interpreting of different sorts. The main distinction for deaf signers is between NGT and signed Dutch (Nederlands met Gebaren, NmG). These varieties are not strictly distinct in the sense that there are many variants, especially of NmG. 1. See http://www.stichtingrtg.nl. 2. See http://www.triple-b.nl and http://www.tolknet.org.

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Depending on the nature of the event, the government reimburses interpreting services. Deaf people can apply for 30 hours of interpreting per year for private situations. For work settings, interpreting services may amount to maximally 15% of the work time, and for education, in principle all necessary hours are covered by government funding. Team interpreting is also reimbursed as long as the costs fit within these limits.

INTERPRETER TRAINING

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History As described earlier, it took a long time before interpreters started to have professional training options. The first generation of sign language interpreters to see their work as a profession stood up in the 1970s. Until that time, hearing children and other relatives of deaf adults aided in the communication with hearing people without considering it to be interpreting. Quite a few members of this first group of professional interpreters are still at work, and they were involved in the first interpreter courses in the mid-1980s. The training of sign language interpreters has always been centralized. From 1984 to 1989, there was a 2-year program that took place on the weekends and mostly targeted improving the interpreting skills of the children of deaf adults who had been working as interpreters and who entered the program with signing skills. From 1989 to 1995, a 3-year program was set up, targeting a new group: people who did not necessarily know sign language at all. They were taught both NGT and interpreting skills. These two programs were self-contained initiatives, supported by, but not officially part of or hosted by, an institute for higher education. In 1997, a stable, 4-year program was developed at the Hogeschool Utrecht, targeted at educating not only interpreters but also sign language teachers. The large majority of its students opt for the interpreter program. While initially the teacher cohort included a majority of deaf people, currently the number of hearing sign language teachers and teacher students far outnumber the group of deaf sign language teachers in the Netherlands. Both at the interpreting program and at the program in sign language studies of the University of Amsterdam, there are both hearing and deaf sign language teachers. We will come back to the relevance of this observation when discussing variation in sign language use. In the last decade, the term Doventolk (interpreter for the deaf) has slowly become replaced by Tolk Gebarentaal (sign language interpreter).

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Thus, the emphasis in the interpreting lies on language rather than on helping the deaf. However, the term does not neutrally describe the mediation between two parties or between two languages: The emphasis remains on signed rather than spoken language. Both terms reflect the persisting overall view of deaf people or signers as a minority group in need of help. This is also inherent in the government policy mentioned earlier where only deaf people may apply for a reimbursement of their interpreting needs. About 30 interpreting students have graduated every year since 2002; as of September 1, 2008, the current count of registered interpreters is 259 (Registry of Sign Language Interpreters).

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Current Interpreter Training The current interpreting program is not linked to other interpreting or translation programs in the Netherlands, such as the ITV program for interpreting and translation in Utrecht3 or the bachelor degree program at the Hogeschool Zuyd in Maastricht.4 The sign language interpreting program at the Hogeschool Utrecht started as part of the remedial education section, and by now has become a separate institute within the faculty of education. The undergraduate degree in sign linguistics at the University of Amsterdam does not include interpreting studies as a subject. The notion of “deaf interpreting” and deaf people working as relay interpreters is slowly developing in the Netherlands; van Gils (2007) signals the need for more systematic education to train deaf people to become (relay) interpreters. We focus on the training provided to hearing sign language interpreters.

Bachelor and Master’s Degrees The Hogeschool Utrecht, located in the center of the country, set up the current interpreting program in 1997, combining it with a sign language teacher program. There are undergraduate (bachelor) degrees for both subjects. While originally there was a selection procedure for new students,

3. ITV stands for Instituut voor Tolken en Vertalers (Institute for Interpreters and Translators) and is an independent institution of higher education offering undergraduate degrees and continuing education in interpreting between Dutch and six other spoken languages. See www.itv-hogeschool.nl. 4. See http://www.hszuyd.msti.translation-and-meaning.nedweb.com/.

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testing their motor and communicative skills, currently anyone with a 5year high school degree is welcome. A full-time and a part-time program attracts students of different ages: The daytime students are in their early twenties, while the evening students show a much wider range of ages, roughly from age 20 to 50. Both programs last 4 years and carry a fulltime study load. No previous knowledge of sign language is required. While in the first 2 years, the teacher and interpreter streams are combined, there are very few deaf students following the teacher program; currently, there is no option for deaf students to become relay interpreters, although there is a clear need for this profession in the Netherlands (van Gils, 2007). More than 100 students enter the joint program each year, and about 30 receive their undergraduate interpreting qualification each year. In addition, there are students following programs such as that for primary school teachers who follow a number of courses in the undergraduate program. Students are trained in a wide range of subjects related to communication, interpreting, and culture, and the program has a strong applied focus, aimed at practicing interpreters rather than researchers studying the interpreting process. Courses in spoken Dutch and interaction skills are offered in addition to intensive sign language courses and interpreting theory and skills. Beginning in the 1st year, students are obliged to go out to deaf events and observe interpreters; in practice, the integration of students into the deaf community is sometimes very slow and dependent on personal initiative. Sign language courses were initially developed by the Dutch Sign Center, and now they are adapted and created in-house by the teachers. Of the 10 sign language teachers, 4 are hearing and learned sign language primarily by following the teacher program. Since the bachelor/master degree system was adopted in Dutch higher education at the start of the century, the interpreting program offers more space for students to choose their own specialization (in so-called “minors”). Currently, courses are offered in deaf-blind interpreting, NmG, interpreting for children, and interpreting in mental health settings. Note that before specialist education was offered (see the following on continuing education), interpreters inherently self-selected areas of specialization in the settings where they wanted to work. These included interpreting in conference settings and mental health environments, with regional variants of spoken Dutch, etc. Since 2005, a 2-year combined postgraduate (master’s) program for deaf studies and teaching of NGT has been offered. As opposed to the bach-

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elor program for teachers/interpreters, the master’s program does not offer sign language courses, and focuses on acquiring (quantitative and qualitative) research skills to study the domains of education, pedagogy, and (Deaf) culture. The program is adapted to the needs of individual students. The first two generations of students include deaf and hearing teachers of the bachelor’s program, among whom are teachers of the bachelor’s courses on NGT and deaf culture.

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Continuing Education The Netherlands has a strong and active interpreter society, Nederlandse Beroepsvereniging Tolken Gebarentaal (NBTG), whose predecessor was founded in 1987. NBTG is an active participant in the European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters. Almost all practicing sign language interpreters belong to the NBTG (259 as of September 2008), and the organization allows student memberships (180 as of September 2008). The NBTG also offers a large number of workshops every year, from short 2hour meetings on sign language and deaf culture in a specific country to 2-day interactive workshops on interpreting skills. In addition, there are workshops from an increasing number of small companies, offering courses on creative signing (such as in poetry and song), sign language perception skills, deaf culture, and interpreting skills. The Registry of Sign Language Interpreters (RTG) encourages participation in these continuing education options by requiring a certain number of education points each 3-year period. The RTG was funded in 2001 in connection with the continuation of the national provision for sign language interpreters; as part of the development of the field, the government indicated that only registered interpreters can be paid from the allowance given for interpreting services that deaf people are entitled to for personal, educational, or work reasons. Interpreters can become a member of the RTG if they hold a bachelor degree in sign language interpreting. People who had been working as interpreters before the establishment of the interpreting program were allowed to register until 2003, providing that they participated in continuing education programs. As noncourse activities such as visiting the biannual meetings of the NBTG, going to conferences, and participating in deaf events also yield points, many interpreters do not consider this system to seriously contribute to interpreting quality. Four years after obtaining an interpreting degree, interpreters can list their own specializations in the registry. The only specialization with additional external training concerns legal interpreting. A special basic

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certification in legal interpreting can be obtained by following joint courses with spoken language interpreters. However, this certification is not required to interpret in legal settings, and the basic certificate is targeted largely at people interpreting between Dutch and another spoken language who may have little or no training in interpreting. Thus, the certificate, which is evidence of basic legal knowledge, leads to some proliferation among the many people who present themselves as interpreters to the Dutch courts. An independent foundation, Stichting Instituut voor Gerechtstolken en–Vertalers (Society Institute of Court Interpreters and Translators) or CITV, whose other courses in court interpreting focus specifically on interpreting between Dutch and another spoken language, offers the courses.5 Since under Dutch law, courts are obliged to offer interpreters for suspects who don’t use Dutch, they are partly forced to provide training options like these. The registry of interpreters and translators, Kwaliteitsregister Tolken en Vertalers (Quality Registry Interpreters and Translators) or KTV,6 that courts frequently use does allow sign language interpreters to register, but demands proper qualification through the CITV.

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LANGUAGE VARIATION

IN THE

NETHERLANDS

Sign language interpreters commonly face certain problems when handling language variation. The present section describes the language situation in the Netherlands and the influence of language politics on this situation. We believe that the effort to standardize lexical variation in sign language does not make life easier for sign language interpreters, and we discuss how interpreter teaching can make students better prepared for handling linguistic variation in deaf communication.

Variation in Spoken Dutch The Dutch language area, spanning both the Netherlands and the Flemish part of Belgium, is characterised by large dialectal variation. While this variation has slowly been decreasing over the past century, dialects have received increased recognition since 1990s. With increased local mobility, local dialects are slowly becoming “regiolects” in the younger genera5. See www.sigv.nl. 6. See www.ktv.rvr.org.

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tions. While many people have grown up not speaking the local dialect but rather using a regional form of the standard language, the omnipresence of dialectal variation is clear to any speaker of Dutch. The national government has encouraged the use and vitality of regional variation with the official recognition of the Limburgian and Lower-Saxonian dialects; in addition, Frisian is recognized as a language in the northern province of Frisia. While there have been no explicit attempts to standardize dialects, the act of recognition and labeling a given village dialect as an instance of “Limburgian” may well have an indirect standardizing effect.

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Variation in Signing As in many countries (see, for example, Leeson, 2006, on the situation in Ireland), there is also considerable variation in the use of sign language within the Netherlands. Regional lexical variants have traditionally developed around the locations of the deaf institutes (Schermer, 1990). The amount of grammatical variation between regions in the Netherlands has not been investigated. Similarly, the presence of gender differences and variation among age groups also has not been systematically investigated, but these variations could be one of the factors involved in the problem that interpreters and other second-language learners face in acquiring and understanding NGT. The following section provides an overview of different types of variation in sign language use; the regional lexical variation is the only type so far that has received attention in both the academic literature and in teaching materials.

Variations in Region, Sex, and Age From the first lexicographic studies in the 1980s, aimed at creating a bilingual Dutch-NGT dictionary in book form, it became clear to researchers what deaf people have always been aware of: Every region of the country had a number of local variants of concepts not shared by the rest of the country. A few dictionaries focus on the Groningen or southern variants, for example, and the first national dictionaries included the different variants as much as possible. Although there is no recent reliable number available, an estimated 10% of the signs in the basic lexicon show regional variation. It is this variation that has always been problematic to second-language learners to a certain degree, and that has created problems in making teaching materials for national use in deaf schools.

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Aside from this documented lexical variation, there are also some regional patterns that merit further investigation. We list a few of them, stemming from our own observations unless otherwise noted.

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• There appears to be some regional phonological variation in handshape. The “5r” handshape (all fingers extended except for the curved ring finger) is used only in Groningen for non-fingerspelling-derived signs; also, the Y and I handshape (thumb plus index extended and only pinky finger extended, respectively) are more frequent in the north. In the southern region, the W handshape (thumb, index, and middle finger extended) is more frequently used, and not specifically in fingerspelling-related signs. • Coerts (1994) suggests that there may be differences in the complexity of syntax in the different regions depending on whether or not the local deaf institutes had boarding schools. • In Groningen, fingerspelling (and possibly the use of initialization as a strategy to coin new signs) is used more often than in the rest of the country; this seems to be related to the use of fingerspelling in education. While the sign system used in the south (the “Van Beek system”) was strongly based on speech therapy signs and initialized signs, these initialized signs have not remained in the southern lexicon in recent years. Since the deaf school in Groningen is currently the only one offering deaf secondary education with a boarding school, and parents from the whole country send their children there, it is plausible that northern signs will be increasingly found in other regions in the years to come. There is some age-related variation in signing as well. Some older people in Groningen use a counting system for numbers 1 to 100 that deviates from that of younger signers. The latter group only uses regionspecific counting signs for the numbers 11 to 20 and 30/40/50. Further, there are cases of sign forms that have evolved over time, as discussed in Koenen, Bloem, Janssen, and van der Ven (2005). For example, within the generations currently alive, the sign LEUK (nice) evolved from a fingerspelled Dutch word to a sign with one smooth movement. The same authors also point to gender differences in signing. The Catholic deaf institute in the south of the country long maintained the separation between boys and girls, resulting in different forms of APOTHEEK (pharmacy) and WC (toilet) (Koenen et al., p. 76).

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Sign Morphology and Creative Signing NGT, like many other sign languages, uses a large group of classifier signs (depicting verbs), and there are also size-and-shape specifiers (Zwitserlood, 2003). While on the one hand these can be considered as morphological components that lead to morphologically complex signs with a predictable meaning, there seems to be considerable variation on how and to what extent these are used. We hypothesize that this aspect of the language will, in practice, result in a large amount of variation between signers and in unfamiliar or unexpected sign constructions that interpreters may encounter. Liddell (2003) has argued that in fact much of these constructions should not be considered as morphological, but should be compared to gestures in spoken languages. This may make them even harder to learn. Aside from the rich morphology of NGT, the small lexicon in practice encourages signers to use all kinds of “creative signing”—creating new signs on-the-spot with a free combination of existing signs, new iconic forms, fingerspelling, and mouthing and other facial expressions. These signs will often be clear to native signers who understand the context in which they were invented, but the signs may not be so clear to secondlanguage learners as most interpreters are.

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Code Mixing between NGT and Dutch The largest source of variation appears to be the different forms of code mixing between spoken Dutch and NGT. While a form of “sign supported Dutch” is taught in the Dutch interpreting program, the many forms of code mixing remain a significant problem for interpreters in understanding signing clients. This is especially true when working for new deaf clients in new situations, we assume, because of the fluidity of the integration between Dutch and NGT. There is no restricted number of clearly distinct language variants people can choose from, and for which interpreters can be trained. Instead, every new sentence is a new opportunity for structures and expressions from the two languages to combine. We do not know of research on the amount of code mixing in different groups of signers, although one could hypothesize that native signers are most apt to stick to NGT and show relatively little differentiation between sentences within a conversation. Aside from flexibility in how to combine languages from one sentence to the next, the nature of sign supported Dutch will also vary depending on the language proficiency of the signer in both Dutch and NGT. Late learners of sign, who have often learned to sign through courses, will not actually have learned NGT at all, but rather started from

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a course in sign supported Dutch focusing on the lexicon and including a restricted number of grammatical features of NGT. Aside from the linguistic aspects of code mixing, especially in interpreted situations, language choice is particularly challenging and confusing for signers. While the presence of an interpreter should allow the unrestricted use of sign language and minimize the need for “clarifying” NGT by use of Dutch structures, extra use of mouthing, use of loan words and idioms from Dutch, etc., often only hearing people are present. The tendency of people to adapt to new situations and people will likely lead to influences of spoken Dutch; the fact that the interpreter nowadays is typically a late learner of NGT is not likely to reduce this influence. Although one of the goals of using an interpreter is to be able to use one’s first language, the presence of hearing people may steer even the most stable native NGT signer into letting aspects of spoken Dutch influence his/her signing. This type of variation is of particular importance given the increasing use of cochlear implants in young deaf children, the growing “mainstreaming” of deaf children in regular schools, and the accompanying highly variable sign language input to this group. Indeed, following Johnston (2004) on the situation in Australia, we predict that the number of truly native acquirers of NGT will sharply decline in the coming decades. The increasing use of some form of signing by hard of hearing people, including cochlear implant users, is likely to lead to increasing use of sign supported Dutch, with increasing variation in how Dutch and signs are combined and with decreasing use of the grammatical features of NGT.

Direct and Indirect Standardization The variation that evolved during the 20th century has been standardized both directly (or explicitly) and indirectly (or implicitly). The increasing mobility of people together with modern communication tools ensures that deaf people increasingly come into contact with people from other parts of the country. This has likely had an effect on NGT, although we cannot investigate this easily. We consider this a natural process of language change that cannot be subsumed under the header of standardization. Indirect standardization may have taken place with the various publications on NGT in the past decades. While the first picture and photo dictionaries of NGT in the 1980s included information on regional varia-

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tion, the selection of signs, combined with the absence of detailed information on meaning and use, may have affected the language (Schermer, 2003). The same would hold for the publication of teaching materials and the increasing efforts in second language (L2) education. The choice of signs and the typical one-to-one mapping of NGT signs and Dutch words can only have a one-directional effect, importing aspects of Dutch into the sign language. A reverse effect may also have taken place in the teaching of NGT grammar: The key elements of NGT grammar investigated since the 1980s were explicitly taught in all L2 courses, and deaf people sometimes complain that “new” signers use localization, pronoun copy, and classifiers too often and not always in the proper context (see Zwitserlood & van de Craats, 2007, for a discussion of L2 teaching of NGT). Direct standardization has taken place in the form of the language politics of the national government. A 1997 report advised the government on steps to take to recognize sign language as an official language. One of the prerequisites outlined by the government was the standardization of the regional lexical variation. While the report itself recognized that this is a “sensitive issue” (Méér dan een gebaar, p. 61) and acknowledged that it is not the deaf community but the large number of L2 learners that experience problems in handling variation, the end recommendation was “to make agreements on preference signs in the basic lexicon. These are signs that the deaf child should learn as a basis, so that they can be used in teaching materials and education” (Méér dan een gebaar, p. 63; our translation). While the deaf community and deaf organizations in principle did not favor the standardization project, they went along with it hoping that the momentum created by the publication of the report would lead to the recognition of NGT in some legal form. At that time, there was no strong “deaf power” movement focusing attention on the importance of sign language for deaf identity as we currently see in Great Britain (Elton 2007; Ladd, 2003). By 2008, NGT is still not officially recognized by the government. The government set up the STABOL project, which between 1998 and 2002 ensured the creation of a lexicon DVD without lexical variants. The Dutch Sign Center formed groups of deaf signers to create a selection of standard forms, with the aim to create an even distribution of regional signs and a few additional guidelines such as to minimize the use of fingerspelling in the form of initialized signs and to minimize the use of mouthing as a distinctive feature of sign pairs (Schermer, 2003). While there has been no objective study of the composition of the STABOL lexicon yet, it is our personal observation that in relation to the

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number of signers, there are relatively few southern signs and relatively many northern signs in the lexicon. It would be an interesting subject for future research to examine how the standard lexicon has been composed. For example, the guideline to minimize the role of fingerspelling in the lexicon does not explain the absence of the typical W-hand signs of the southern region, as in VREEMD (strange) or VERBAASD-ZIJN (to be surprised). The current implementation of the STABOL set of signs takes the form of developing course material with these signs for both the general public and parents of deaf children, and its use in the interpretation of the morning news and the children’s news on TV. The sign set seems to be used in the youngest groups in elementary school, but as yet it has had little influence at the secondary school level. No specific attention for standard signs in the years since the STABOL project was finished occurs in the interpreter training courses. Overall, there has been little discussion of standardization among interpreters, which is surprising given the large role they may play in the success of its implementation (Crasborn & de Wit, 2005). Paradoxically, the standardization process effectively leads to an increase in lexical variation, in that existing signs are used in a new combination by some new groups of signers. Since interpreters work a lot in educational settings in the Netherlands, they are expected to face this variation shortly. Finally, an indirect form of language politics is the current rapid expansion of the NGT lexicon by the Dutch Sign Center. One of the tasks of this center is to be a place of lexical expertise. In their activities to supervise TV news interpreting and to create lexicon DVDs for specialized areas such as mental health, many new signs are invented and borrowed from other languages (such as geographical names). These are published online and used by the TV interpreters, and they manipulate the NGT lexicon in a way that presumably goes far beyond the speed of development that NGT has seen in the previous century. While this planned lexicon expansion does not introduce regional variants, it still leads to increased variation: Standard ways of dealing with unknown names and concepts such as fingerspelling and mouthing can now be alternated with the use of new lexical signs.

HOW DO INTERPRETERS LEARN TO DEAL WITH VARIATION, AND HOW CAN THEIR EDUCATION BE IMPROVED? Many fledgling interpreters consider regional variation in signing to be a problem. While experienced interpreters have a range of strategies to handle

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unfamiliar lexical items in the source language (including ones stemming from lexical variants they were not aware of), novice interpreters still have to develop these strategies. The development in the interpreter community has made this problem more acute in the past 10 years: Currently very few interpreters grew up with deaf parents in comparison with the large number of students with bachelor degrees who started the interpreting program without a background in the deaf community or in signing. It is the latter group that experiences difficulty with lexical variation. Problems in understanding NGT have never been systematically investigated and remain a matter of introspection. While it is not the case that interpreters consistently mention lexical variation as the core problem in understanding new signers, it is frequently mentioned among more general unfamiliarity with specific signs. It is not unlikely, in our view, that lexical aspects of language variation are frequently mentioned most of all because they are so easy to identify. Differences in nonmanual prosody or word order would be much more difficult to point to in part because these have not been taught in school. Further, we hypothesize that a significant part of the “problematic variation” that interpreters encounter when interpreting from NGT into spoken Dutch is found in the variety of ways in which Dutch and NGT can be mixed on the spot. There is not a standard variant that can be termed NmG, in which for example only content words in Dutch are accompanied by lexical signs and in which all words in the Dutch sentence receive a full (yet silent) articulation. The content of interpreter education over the years has changed from focusing on practice to including more theory. The linguistic theory that is taught centers around what we do know, however, and not what we do not know. The strong focus on NGT grammar for recent generations of interpreters has overemphasised the few grammatical patterns that have emerged from linguistic research until now, such as nonmanual marking of questions and the use of pronoun copy in some contexts. In the same vein, NGT is presented as a form of signing distinct from NmG, while all other possible varieties are not given specific attention. There are no special courses on southern signing, for example, or on interpreting for older signers who themselves also use their voice while signing. This is something left to practice. More and more, however, special workshops are organized for graduate interpreters focusing on such issues. The Dutch Sign Center organizes lexicon workshops targeted at specific semantic fields such as secondary education, but not workshops

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targeted at regional variation. Implicitly, this endorses the idea of a standardized lexicon as well. While the sign database on the Internet is projected to include information on regional variants in the near future, currently these variants can only be found on the older DVD lexicons. A possible way in which interpreters could become better prepared for handling the variation in communication found in the Dutch deaf community is to reduce the focus on learning grammatical rules and to increase the amount of perception exercises, both with live interaction and by using video recordings of spontaneous signing. We endorse the conclusions drawn in Zwitserlood and van de Craats (2007), who evaluated the design of beginner’s courses in NGT. In recent years, many students have noted the small number of possibilities for such forms of practice. Such problems could be solved by creating more teaching materials and by further stimulating students to find their way in the deaf community. Another option would be to severely reduce the number of students that enter the program, so that more direct interaction with deaf signers can be achieved. The availability of an online video corpus since mid-2008, containing a highly varied set of nearly 100 NGT signers with relatively little influence of spoken Dutch, will hopefully help enhance the training options for students.7 While until now we have only looked at how interpreters deal with variation in language use manifest in their deaf clients, it is also interesting to look at problems from the perspective of the deaf signers. There is little metalinguistic awareness in the Deaf community, and deaf people are typically not ready to form a team with interpreters, trying to adapt their language use to the interpreter or to the situation; however, we already noted that most deaf people have no problem interacting with signers from other regions. “Interpreter use” is not a subject in deaf schools, for example, preparing adolescents for the increasing use they will make of interpreters as adults. What can one expect from an interpreter and what can one not expect? This lack of awareness of such basic questions among new interpreter users makes flexible use of interpreters, as well as the flexibility of the interpreter in adapting to the specific language variant of the client, particularly difficult. Looking more particularly at language use, deaf people in the Netherlands have a limited variation in register choices in comparison to hearing people. Roughly speaking, signers either use sign language within deaf 7. The Corpus NGT is freely accessible for noncommercial purposes and can be found at http://www.let.ru.nl/sign-lang/corpusngt.nl.

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settings for informal use, or sign to a more mixed audience that includes hearing people who have different amounts of signing skills. By contrast, signers rarely sign to an unfamiliar deaf audience, as for example in a university lecture. There is no written culture related to signing that has a range of different writing styles, related to different purposes (newspaper, note taking, letter writing, teaching materials, etc.). By consequence, if signers meet an interpreter, they either assume that this person is “one of them,” so that informal signing can be used, or they use a more formal register, shifting to various mixtures of signing with sign supported Dutch. Irrespective of the register or signing variant that is used, there are many aspects of interacting with the interpreter that require some awareness by the deaf user about the knowledge of the interpreter. For example, not every interpreter will know all the name signs that may be used in the specific context, irrespective of whether it concerns a visit to the doctor or a discussion about the local deaf center. Aside from deaf primary and secondary education, there are also no specific courses for adults on how to work with interpreters. This might be an issue that regional deaf associations could take up in the future. The largest interpreting agency in the Netherlands, Tolknet, offers information on how to use their booking system and on the arrangements for applying for interpreting hours and similar allowances from government institutions; there too, courses on using and interacting with interpreters could be an interesting option to explore.

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In many respects, the Netherlands is a typical Western European country when it comes to sign language interpreting. There are many trained professionals that deaf people can use for interpreting between spoken Dutch and NGT. The high degree of language variation in the communication used by deaf people is the core problem for interpreters in voice interpreting. At least for the coming decades, the lexicon standardization effort of the national government is increasing the variation that interpreters encounter. Combined with the fact that students of NGT interpreting have only 4 years to learn a new language from scratch plus all their interpreting skills, it hardly comes as a surprise that interpreters experience more difficulties in going from signing to speech than the other way around. A key factor in teaching students to handle the large amount of variation in the language use of deaf signers is to explicitly train them for the

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large amount of variation and code mixing that they will encounter in the community. With respect to code mixing, it is important to avoid the impression that there are two variants of signing with their own name or label: NGT and NmG. The frequent use of these labels in the recent past may not have been beneficial in this respect. On the other hand, with respect to regional variation, it is important to explicitly teach the differences in lexicon between the different regions by including all variants from the first day in class, and by clearly labeling them as such. The use of comparable video materials from different regions and age groups as can be found in the newly published Corpus NGT collection of deaf signers may be an excellent tool in learning how to deal with language variation.

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REFERENCES Coerts, J. (1994). Constituent order in sign language of the Netherlands and the functions of orientations. In I. Ahlgren, B. Bergman, & M. Brennan (Eds.), Proceedings of the fifth International Symposium on Sign Language Research (pp.1– 20). Durham, England: ISLA. Commissie Nederlandse Gebarentaal. (1997). Méér dan een gebaar: Rapport van de commissie Nederlandse Gebarentaal. Den Haag, Netherlands: SDU Uitgevers. Crasborn, O., & de Wit, M. (2005). Ethical implications of language standardisation for sign language interpreters. In J. Mole (Ed.), International perspectives on interpreting: Selected proceedings from the Supporting Deaf People online conferences, 2001–05 (pp. 141–150). Brassington: Direct Learn Services. Elton, F. (2007). “Owning” sign language. Presentation at the meeting of the World Federation of the Deaf, Madrid, Spain. Gils, G. van. (2007). Dove tolken: partner of concurrent? Unpublished master’s thesis, Gebaren, Taal en Dovenstudies, Hogeschool Utrecht. Johnston, T. (2004). W(h)ither the deaf community? Population, genetics and the future of Auslan (Australian Sign Language). American Annals of the Deaf, 148, 358–375. Koenen, L., Bloem, T., Janssen, R., & Ven, A. van der. (2005). Gebarentaal: De taal van doven in Nederland. Den Haag, Netherlands: Vi-taal. Ladd, P. (2003). Understanding deaf culture: In search of deafhood. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Leeson, L. (2005). Vying with variation: Interpreting language contact, gender variation and generational difference. In T. J. Janzen (Ed.), Topics in signed language interpreting (pp. 251–291). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Liddell, S. (2003). Grammar, gesture and meaning in American Sign Language. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Schermer, T. (1990). In search of a language: Influences from spoken Dutch on Sign Language of the Netherlands. Delft, Netherlands: Eburon. Schermer, T. (2003). From variant to standard: An overview of the standardization

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process of the lexicon of sign language of the Netherlands over two decades. Sign Language Studies, 3(4), 469–486. Zwitserlood, I. (2003). Classifying hand configurations in Nederlandse Gebarentaal [Sign Language of the Netherlands]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Zwitserlood, I., & Craats, I. van de. (2007). Een taaldidactische beoordeling van de leergang “Nederlandse Gebarentaal voor Algemeen Belangstellenden” met aanbevelingen en suggesties voor verdere ontwikkeling [A linguistic-didactic evaluation of the program “sign language of the Netherlands for the general public” with recommendations and suggestions for further development]. Unpublished manuscript, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands.

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From Small Acorns: The Scottish Experience of Developing Interpreter and Translator Training SCOTLAND IS one of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, together with England, Northern Ireland, and Wales.1 It is a small country with a population of 5,062,011 (2001 Census)—around a tenth of the U.K. as a whole. A sizeable proportion, approximately 3.5 million, of the Scottish population live and work in the central belt of the country; the remainder live in towns and cities mostly near the coasts, but some are also scattered across very remote areas and in the islands to the west and north of Scotland’s mainland. Research published in 2005 found that there are no BSL/English interpreters based in the islands of Lewis (Outer Hebrides) and Shetland, although there are deaf residents (Kyle, 2005). The Scottish Council on Deafness states that there are 1,080,000 people in Scotland with a range of hearing loss—these people may or may not consider themselves to be part of the Deaf community. Estimates suggest that around 5,000 people (1 in every 1,000 people in the population) are born deaf (Hearing Trust, 1995). In 2001, around 2% of the population claimed a minority ethnic background: Long-term residents in the country described themselves as having Indian, Pakistani, other South Asian, or Chinese ethnic backgrounds

1. For an overview of the sign language interpreter qualification system in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, under the auspice of the Council for the Advancement of Communication with Deaf People (CACDP), see http://www.cacdp.org.uk/; the Association of Sign Language Intepreters for England, Wales, and Northern Ireland (ASLI) for a description of their interpreter licensing system; or Napier (2004) for an overview of training and testing in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland as compared to Australia and the United States.

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(Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006, p.17). In the first decade of the twenty-first century, the policy of dispersal of asylum seekers arriving in the U.K. extended the range of countries Scottish residents come from, as did the enlargement of the European Union.2 This has enabled many more people from Eastern Europe to live and work in Scotland. Scotland has had a devolved Scottish Parliament since 1999; this parliament has responsibility and legislative power in all areas except for a few matters reserved to the Westminster Parliament, such as foreign affairs, defense, social security, etc. However, Scotland has always had a separate educational and legal system, as written into the 1707 Treaty of the Union with England. Consequently, although Scotland is a small country, it is vital that resources are adapted to local needs, not only with reference to Scottish legal and educational systems and other professional fields, but also from the perspective of local culture and heritage. Scottish regional variations of British Sign Language need to be taken into account.

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LANGUAGE POLICY The most widely spoken language in Scotland is English, although this does not mean that English is the first or preferred language of everyone resident in the country. Research investigating translation, interpreting, and communication support in the public sector in Scotland concluded that “the full communication spectrum needs to be considered. This covers over 100 languages, dialects, foreign sign language and different ways of working with and presenting material in English” (Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006, p. 3). There are also other languages indigenous to Scotland: Gaelic, with around 60,000 speakers (2001 Census figures); Scots (spoken by an estimated 30% of the population); and British Sign Language (around 6,000 users)—all are protected under the European Charter for Minority Languages (July 2001). Precise figures regarding language use in Scotland are only available for Gaelic. In Scotland, the Scottish government—encouraged by legislation (Disability Discrimination Act of 1995, Human Rights Act of 1998, Race Relations Amendment Act of 2000)—requires the mainstreaming of equality 2. Immigration and Asylum Act (1999), amended by the Nationality, Immigration, and Asylum Act 2002.

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across the public sector at local and national levels: A policy paired with a commitment to “promote bilingualism and multilingualism instead of monolingualism” (Scottish Parliament, 2003). To guide developments, a Translation, Interpreting, and Communication Support (TICS) Group was established in 2000, and the British Sign Language and Linguistics Access Group (BSL & LAG) followed in 2001. These groups commissioned three important pieces of research specific to Scotland to inform developments: a literature review of translating, interpreting, and communication support services across the public sector (Johnson, 2002), an investigation of access to public services in Scotland using British Sign Language (Kyle, 2005), and an overview of the provision of translating, interpreting, and communication support in the public sector in Scotland (Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006). In February 2007, the Scottish government published a draft of a National Language Policy for consultation. Since 1980, legislation has existed to support Gaelic and, in April 2005, the Scottish Parliament passed the Gaelic Language Act, which recognizes Gaelic as an official language of Scotland alongside English. On March 18, 2003, British Sign Language (BSL) was officially recognized as a minority language in the United Kingdom. In September of the same year, the sign languages of Europe, including BSL, were officially designated as “minority languages” within the European Union (EU) when the European Parliament adopted a report on the position of regional and minority languages in the European Union. The European Commission committed itself to come up with a legal and action plan to support minority languages in the EU; sign language will also be covered by the plan (Report on the Recommendations of the Commission, 2003). In Scotland, this commitment was further fuelled by the evidence provided in a report describing how a lack of linguistic access adversely affects the lives of deaf people in Scotland in all areas of life, including access to health services, social services, employment, the justice system, the media, and education. The then Minister for Education and Young People, Cathy Jamieson, accepted the report of the Scottish Training Strategy Working Group in November 2002, which had been developed and published by the Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (SASLI) with support from the Scottish Executive. This report was titled, Linguistic Access for Deaf and Deafblind People: A Strategy for Scotland. In Scotland, deaf children can, since the early 2000s, elect to take their standard grade examinations in BSL.3 3. Standard grades are the first level of national high school examinations in Scotland, usually attempted around 15 years old.

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On March 31, 2003, during question time in the Scottish Parliament, the then First Minister, Jack McConnell, made a significant statement when he said that he believed, “We should double the number of British Sign Language Interpreters in Scotland.”

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BSL/English Interpreters A striking aspect of sign language interpreting (SLI) is the range of skills, including translation, and the types of settings a Scottish interpreter is expected to cover, as well as the communication styles (e.g., sign supported English—a language contact form between English and BSL—and restricted frame for deaf-blind consumers; see the glossary in Perez & Wilson, 2006, pp. 243–249, for more explanation). Interpreters are also required to travel all over the country to work, and there is growing interest in interpreters providing a service by videoconference link. BSL/ English interpreters will work in every type of communication event conceivable: in health and mental health settings, legal settings, educational settings (from the primary classroom to universities), in social welfare and employment settings, at the major rituals in people’s lives (weddings, funerals, etc.) and in meetings and at conferences at national and international levels. This contrasts with the spoken language world: Generally linguists working in major world languages will specialize in conference interpreting work or public service interpreting or translation, and this is reflected in the study programs available. One of the reasons for this lack of specialization on the part of sign language interpreters is the insufficient number of interpreters available to meet the demand for interpreting provision. In April 2008, there were 55 members and 10 associate members on the Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters’ register (and other graduates progressing toward associate membership). This contrasts with Norway, a country with a similar size of population to Scotland, where there are 450 working sign language interpreters (2005 figures, http://www.efsli.org/nasli/norway/). Consequently, there is pressure to increase the number of interpreters being trained in Scotland and for the government to invest resources in developing BSL language and interpreter training provision There are a few deaf relay interpreters who can work in Scotland; however, there is little demand for their services on the part of the public sector, and no training currently exists in Scotland. There is, however, a growing demand for deaf people to provide translation services, but again there is no specially-designed training available.

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The General Interpreter Training Environment The U.K. has developed qualification frameworks onto which all training provision and educational qualifications can be mapped: The Scottish system is the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) administered by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA);4 in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland the equivalent is the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) managed by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).5 A document showing the equivalents between various U.K. systems is available at http://www.scqf.irg.uk/ downloads/QualsCrossBoundaries_Sco.pdf. In conjunction with these frameworks, the U.K. has developed National Occupational Standards—the latest revised version of the National Occupational Standards for Interpreting was launched in December 2007.6 Significantly, these apply equally to spoken and signed language interpreting. Vocational qualifications at level 4 (interpreting) and level 5 (advanced interpreting) can be based on these standards, but to date only English National Vocational Qualifications at level 4 (NVQ 4)7 in BSL/English interpreting have been developed. No equivalent Scottish qualification (SVQ 4) has yet been developed. One university in Scotland, Heriot-Watt University, offers courses in interpreting (see the following) for both spoken and sign language (SCQF levels 10 and 11). Using the SCQF framework, which has levels from 1 to 12, levels 7 through 10 equate to the 4 years of an undergraduate degree. Level 11 is the equivalent of a postgraduate master’s degree. The spoken language degree courses primarily train interpreters to work in international settings (the United Nations, European institutions, multinational business, etc.) and as conference interpreters, with the exception of the taught postgraduate programs. Until 2008, one postgraduate degree (at SCQF level 11) specialized in public service interpreting (in legal settings) and, since 2008, it has been possible to study an optional module that focuses on interpreting in public sector settings as part of all postgraduate interpreting or translation degrees. Another qualification available for spoken language interpreters (but not sign language) who wish to work in the public sector is the Diploma

4. 5. 6. 7.

See http://www.sqa.org.uk. See http://www.qca.org.uk See http://www.cilt.org.uk/standards/index.htm. This maps to the equivalent of SCQF levels 7–10.

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in Public Service Interpreting (DPSI), established by the Institute of Linguists Educational Trust in 1994. The course is accredited by the QCF at level 4: courses generally consist of 150 hours. Students can prepare for this qualification in two Scottish colleges. The DPSI is normally the minimum level of qualification accepted in spoken languages in order to interpret in court in Scotland. (BSL/English interpreters are expected to be full members of SASLI to work in court or for the police.) The consensus is that a DPSI does not provide a satisfactory level of competence, but should ensure a minimum level of skill. However, the reality is that in some language combinations with English, it is not possible to find an interpreter offering even this basic level of qualification and some level of skill in the two languages may be all that can be offered (e.g., a family background in the language other than English, or a fairly rudimentary level of skill in English with another rarer language such as an African language). Holders of the DPSI are eligible to apply to be listed on the National Register of Public Service Interpreting (NRPSI); however, there are few Scottish-based interpreters listed in this register—which does not yet include BSL—and it is not relied on by public sector bodies in Scotland that would, in any case, prefer a Scottish register of spoken language interpreters (Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006, p. 240). Another professional body whose members are active in Scotland is the Institute of Translators and Interpreters, which has a Scottish branch and lists Scottish-based interpreters in its register. However, this organization tends to focus on conference interpreting rather than work in the public sector and has only very recently accepted its first Scottish BSL interpreter member (in 2008). One innovative development in Scotland is the “Happy to Translate” initiative. The administering body assesses organizations that claim to organize translation/interpreting support for clients (e.g., local council, police, banks, etc.). If the organization meets particular standards, it will be allowed to use the Happy to Translate logo. Unfortunately, BSL is not covered by this organization. It is clear from this brief outline that, apart from the National Occupational Standards and work at Heriot-Watt University, “spoken language” and “signed language” interpreting are separate in Scotland. This continues at the Scottish government level with two separate committees taking forward developments in interpreting: the TICS Group, for spoken languages, and the BSL and LAG, for sign language. This runs contrary to public demand, as some public sector bodies advocate a one-door

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solution for all their translation, interpreting, and communication support needs (Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006, p. 238).

TWO PLAYERS IN SCOTTISH SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETING There has been a long tradition of organizations and individuals working in collaboration in Scotland. However, it is interesting to track the evolution of two bodies in particular because of their position in the field of interpreting.

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SASLI The Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (SASLI) has been one of the key players in Scottish developments, sometimes bridging the divide between spoken and sign language interpreting (e.g., as a representative on the TICS Group). A members’ organization, established in 1982, SASLI administers the only recognized register of sign language interpreters in Scotland and “exists to promote quality and standards of good practice in the delivery of British Sign Language/English interpreting throughout Scotland” (SASLI, Web site). The organization was originally set up a few years earlier as the Scottish Association of Interpreters for the Deaf (SAID). Over the years it has focused its aims on increasing the professionalism of the interpreting profession in tandem with improving services offered to members of the Deaf Community—the latter is informed by feedback from its Deaf Users Group. Consequently, the organization has been at the forefront of driving awareness, policy, and other developments in the field. The organization’s full engagement in Deaf issues can be seen in the following examples: its involvement in the organization of the first conference of the European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters (EFSLI), in Glasgow in 1987; the publication of the framework document regarding the provision of communication support services for deaf, deaf-blind, and hard of hearing people (SASLI, 1997); and the publication of a report setting out a strategy for Scotland with regards to creating linguistic access for deaf and deaf-blind people (SASLI, 2002). SASLI has mapped its membership categories onto the National Occupational Standards and has a list of trained and approved assessors and mentors (those with both BSL and English as primary lan-

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guage) who contribute to the system of assessment and supervision that manages the routes leading to the registration of interpreters. Furthermore, it organizes a program of continuous professional development activities and has developed a system for the monitoring of registered members (MERM). Indeed, research commissioned by the Scottish Executive found that SASLI was often cited as a model of good practice as regards to all interpreting in the public sector—by people working with languages other than BSL (Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006).

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Heriot-Watt University The Department of Languages and Intercultural Studies (LINCS) in the School of Management and Languages at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, incorporates the Centre for Translation and Interpreting Studies in Scotland (CTISS). Established in 1968, it is the only university department in Scotland offering specialist courses in translation and interpreting and one of only a few in Europe to offer such a range of translation and interpreting courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.8 The department is a member of CIUTI (Conférénce internationale permanente d’instituts universitaires de traducateurs et interprètes/ International Permanent Conference of University Institutes of Translators and Interpreters). LINCS is one of only four U.K. institutions to be a member of CIUTI, a body recognizing certain approved schools of translation and interpreting as its members. As well as training interpreters to work between spoken languages, Heriot-Watt is also the only Scottish university to train interpreters to work between BSL and English. LINCS is organized as a single unit within which sit a number of informal language “sections.” However, the boundaries between these sections are fuzzy as staff from all sections contribute to core aspects of the teaching, which all students share whatever their languages (e.g., linguistics and translation and interpreting studies, cultural and political studies, introductory classes to interpreting, and so on). Students also participate 8. The Heriot-Watt courses that teach interpreting/translation are: the certificate in interpreting studies and skills (BSL/English) (no new entrants after 2007); MA in applied languages and translating (ALT); MA in languages (interpreting and translating) (LINT); MA in international management and languages (IML); graduate diploma in interpreting studies and skills (BSL/English); MSc in translating and conference interpreting; and MSc in translation and computer-assisted translation tools.

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in multilingual conferences. Therefore, BSL is regarded as “just another language” in LINCS alongside Arabic, Chinese (Mandarin), English, French, German, Greek, Russian, and Spanish.

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COURSE DEVELOPMENT: BACKGROUND True to the pattern common to all languages, the first BSL/English interpreters tended to come from the linguistic community and were often children of deaf parents. For others who would become “sign language interpreters,” the focus of training was just that—acquiring sign language. In addition, SASLI organized a number of ad hoc training sessions two to three times a year and then three training blocks annually (9 to 10 days of training) organized by a part-time training officer. University-level courses had been established in neighboring England (at Bristol and Durham). However, attending a university course in England could be very onerous for Scots; for example, the extra costs and time involved in travel and, indeed, many people’s personal circumstances barred them from this option. Moreover, English-based courses could not take account of Scottish variations in BSL and the differences in systems (educational, legal, local government, etc.) specific to Scotland. SASLI took the position that the training it could offer was not sufficient and believed that a university-level course should be established in Scotland. Therefore, in 1993, it arranged an open meeting to bring together invited representatives from other counties offering university-level courses (in England, Finland) and representatives of Scottish colleges and universities. Heriot-Watt University sent a representative from LINCS (one of the authors of this chapter, Christine Wilson) to attend that meeting. And so the seed was sown.

Program Evolution A number of developments stand out as key moments in the evolution of today’s interpreting program.

First Landmark: Pilot Course SASLI was keen to work with Heriot-Watt University because of its reputation and existing knowledge and skills base and, importantly, because of the opportunity to house developments in BSL in a department

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of languages and applied linguistics, within a school of translation and interpreting. Once made familiar with some of the research conducted into sign language, it was relatively easy to persuade LINCS to become involved. Therefore, although there were some initial logistical brakes, and the central university administration was reluctant to support the initiative, LINCS began to work in collaboration with SASLI to develop a program of study. In 1994 SASLI appointed a training officer as part of this process. A trained deaf relay interpreter, this training officer (Rita McDade, coauthor of this chapter) became the first person with BSL as their primary language in Scotland (and the U.K. as a whole) to hold such a post. Together with the then director of SASLI and the LINCS member of staff, the SASLI training officer completed a solid team—and one prepared to work beyond the duties of their jobs, which was a crucial component in moving the developments forward. This led to the launch, in 1996, of the pilot of the first level of a university certificate course delivered to a small group of students.

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Second Landmark: Launch of the Certificate Course The first cohort of students recruited to the full program of the university-accredited Certificate in Interpreting Studies & Skills (British Sign Language/English) began their studies in 1997. This certificate course was the equivalent of 1 year’s full-time study at undergraduate level (SCQF framework level 7). However, to suit the needs of the target student group, the course was designed to be delivered parttime over 2 years. Following the university pattern for a year of study for degree courses, the program comprised 12 modules—each of which required 100 student effort hours (SEHs) to complete (see Figure 1). Students received an equivalent number of taught hours to full-time students, but these hours were packaged into intensive study blocks. In their 1st calendar year of study (level 1), students studied 6 modules and likewise during the 2nd year (level 2).

Third Landmark: Appreciation of BSL as a Valid Activity by the University Hierarchy In 1999, a project proposal designed by LINCS was selected by the university as the project it would submit to a prestigious competition. The project proposed to develop a digital resource base and study facility

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LEVEL 1

TERM 1

TERM 2

MODULE 0

MODULE 1

MODULE 2

MODULE 3

British Sign LANGUAGE 0 [CPC4/Q100]

British Sign LANGUAGE 1 [CPC4/Q101]

Interpreting Studies & PRACTICE 1 [CPC4/Q102]

Language & LINGUISTICS 1 [CPC4/Q103]

British Sign LANGUAGE 2 [CPC4/Q104]

Interpreting Studies & PRACTICE 2 [CPC4/Q105]

Area Studies 1 [CPC4/Q106]

LEVEL 2

TERM 1

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Interpreting Studies & Practice 3 [CP04/Q108]

Language & Linguistics 2 [CP04/Q109]

British Sign Language 4 [CP04/Q110]

Interpreting Studies & Practice 4 [CP04/Q111]

Area Studies 2 [CP04/Q112]

Figure 1. Certificate in Interpreting Studies and Skills (BSL/English)

for sign language interpreters and would involve research into BSL/English interpreting in specialist contexts and the terminology used in these settings. The project sought to develop a prototype for reference, directed study, and self-access purposes. While intended primarily for professional and student interpreters working with sign language, the resources could also be useful to secondary users, including public sector and community interpreters working between English and other spoken languages. Selected as one of the winners, the project received a British Telecom Higher Education Award with research to begin in 2000. This external

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validation of work involving sign language served to raise the program’s profile among members of the university’s hierarchy and helped establish it as a credible activity within the university.

Fourth Landmark: Graduation for the First Cohort A significant moment for everyone involved arrived when the first cohort of students was awarded their certificates at graduation in July 2000. It should be noted that, although the classroom elements of the course and final practical examinations were completed within 2 years (24 months), students were allowed until March of the following year to complete submissions for certain modules—and indeed the pressure of personal circumstances meant that extensions were often required. As the university’s graduation ceremonies take place in November and July of each year, the first graduation opportunity came in July, which meant a period of 35 months from attendance at the first classes to the official award of the certificate. From a staff perspective, since students were being recruited into the program each academic year, this meant the department was working with students from three separate cohorts at the same time—a somewhat unusual situation for a “one-year” course and one which places demands on staff resources.

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Fifth Landmark: Recognition of Levels by Professional Bodies Inevitably the role of an academic institution and the role of a professional body differ. Therefore, although Heriot-Watt University and SASLI collaborated in many ways, each organization also had to defend its professional position. SASLI’s responsibilities include protecting and maintaining the standards of the interpreting profession and, therefore, controlling the quality of interpreters accepted as members of the professional body. Whereas universities are expected to enable students to achieve their full potential and to deliver courses with a strong theoretical underpinning and research-based teaching—even when delivering applied and professionally focused courses such as those training engineers or translators and interpreters. Consequently, Heriot-Watt University’s responsibility is to award a certificate to every student who completes a program of study to a satisfactory standard from an academic point of view—sometimes, however, this does not mean that a student is ready to practice as a professional in the field. For example, a student may achieve “D” grades in modules focusing on the application of professional skills—

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a level of performance sufficient to gain the required credit points, but one which does not show a level of skill demonstrating professional readiness (as would be shown by an “A” or “B” grade). Nonetheless, the university has no grounds to withhold the certificate. If simply achieving the university certificate meant automatic entry to membership in the professional body, this could lead to several scenarios. First, the professional body would no longer be able to control and guarantee the standards of its members, which would ultimately diminish the quality of professional practice. Second, the academic institution would feel obliged to set much higher performance criteria for the students on this course than is the case for students on other comparable courses and to “fail” more students. It is clear that these scenarios are neither acceptable nor fair. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain some system of control at the interface between achieving the academic certificate and becoming a member of the professional body. In the early days, this system of control was a more significant barrier for all students who had successfully achieved their certificates: requiring them to perform successfully in a number of assessments administered by SASLI. However, it was both a waste of resources and frustrating for students who had achieved a strong level of competence in completing their certificate to be required to prove themselves again. Therefore, once the “value” of university “A” and “B” grades in appropriate modules had been verified/established, SASLI streamlined the process of becoming an associate member9 for students achieving these grades while retaining a series of assessments for students who needed to further consolidate their level of skill. The certificate program had also been mapped by CACDP’s Independent Registration Panel (the body administering the register of interpreters in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland) and certificate holders were eligible to apply to become junior trainee interpreters under the CACDP framework. 9. In 2007 there were two membership categories of SASLI for interpreters: registered member (interpreters who have been assessed and registered by the association as fit to practise in all domains) and associate member (interpreters who have been registered by the association and are undertaking the postregistration associates program leading to full registration). Associate members are restricted from providing interpreting services in legal settings due to guidelines laid down by the Crown Office Procurator Fiscal Service and the Scottish Court Service). SASLI’s membership categories were reviewed in 2008 and new categories were introduced.

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Sixth Landmark: Appointment of BSL Staff In spring 2006, the first Heriot-Watt University staff member with BSL as their primary language was formally appointed in LINCS. Prior to this date, the BSL team comprised hourly paid staff led by SASLI’s training officer, who was subcontracted to the university. By the end of 2006, there were four members of staff in the BSL section specializing in BSL as a language, linguistics, interpreting, and cultural studies. One of these members of staff was appointed as a professor in LINCS, to the chair of Translation and Interpreting Studies, emphasising the integration of BSL within LINCS on a par with its other languages. The appointment of BSL staff has also meant a new wave of research activity related to BLS has become possible.

Seventh Landmark: First Full-time PhD Student Part-time students have studied for a doctorate on a topic in the field of BSL since the 1990s, but it was not until 2006 that the first full-time doctoral student in this field registered at Heriot-Watt University. This student—researching BSL/English translation—also contributed to teaching and other activities within the section.

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Eighth Landmark: International Collaboration The department and the course team had been collaborating internationally since LINCS first began its involvement with BSL: There have been staff exchanges with a Finnish institution and student visits to HeriotWatt; members of the course team attended the European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters (EFSLI) conferences and the EFSLI Trainers’ Workshops (Heriot-Watt hosted this meeting in 2001 and will do so again in 2010); and staff were present at international conferences on topics related to sign language and SLI. However, a concrete example of international cooperation began in 2006 when Heriot-Watt University, together with a German and a Finnish institution, started working on the design and development of a European Master’s in Sign Language Interpreting (EUMASLI)—a project funded by the European Union and one that will enroll students from all three countries.

Ninth Landmark: Launch of the Graduate Diploma Course in Interpreting In the 10 years since the pilot course, students had been recruited into the certificate course every year, but the tenth anniversary year was marked

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Year One MODULE

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British Sign Language 0 [C44BS]

British Sign Language A [C44BT]

Text & Translation

Sign Language: Culture & Community [C44BW]

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[C44TT]

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Interpreting Studies & Practice A [C44IS]

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British Sign Language B [C44BU]

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Communication Translation & Interpeting {C44CT}

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British Sign Language B [C44BU]

Interpreting Studies & Practice A [C44IS]

Sign Language: Culture & Community [C44BW]

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British Sign Language C [C44BV]

Interpreting Studies & Practice B [C44IT]

Figure 2. Graduate Diploma in Interpreting Studies and Skills (BSL/English)

by the phasing out of the certificate. New students are no longer recruited into that program, even though the final students in the program may not receive their certificates until July 2009. The course team had been aware of the need for a revision of the course for some time, and it took the opportunity to design a new BSL/ English interpreting course when the uni-

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versity introduced semesters, rather than terms, for all degrees from October 2008—necessitating a redesign of all courses and all modules. A Graduate Diploma in Interpreting Studies and Skills (BSL/English) was formally approved by the university from the 2006–07 academic session. Still the equivalent of 1 year’s full-time study (1,200 SEHs/around 400 taught hours), the course continues to be delivered part-time over 2 years, but the new study program (now regraded at SCQF framework level 10) comprises 8 modules—each of which requires 150 SEHs. Graduate diplomas were awarded to the first cohort of students in November 2008.

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Tenth Landmark: Mainstreaming of BSL The department offers language electives as optional modules that are open to students from LINCS or from any department in the university. In 2007, a string of BSL ab initio modules were approved by the university and offered for the first time at the start of the academic year to an enthusiastic response from students. The next level of modules became available in 2008. While demonstrating the mainstreaming of BSL alongside other languages in LINCS, it may seem that delivering BSL modules at beginner level is not very relevant to interpreting. However, one route into the LINCS MA undergraduate degree program in languages, interpreting, and translation10 for students who do not have the high school level qualifications in two languages, plus English, required for application to LINCS is to start a second language (e.g., German or Spanish) at the university. Therefore, developing and offering BSL ab initio is another incremental step toward offering BSL as one of the languages that can be studied as part of a full-time, undergraduate degree in translation and interpreting on the same terms as one of the “spoken” languages offered.

CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN THE SCOTTISH EXPERIENCE Course Design and Delivery It cannot be ignored that the current part-time graduate diploma is constrained by various parameters: its target student group, the length and 10. In the Scottish system of higher education, the first undergraduate degree is normally a 4-year degree with a research element in the final year leading to an MA. This may be followed by a 1-year taught postgraduate degree leading to the award of an MSc. This contrasts with the English system where the first, undergraduate degree typically lasts 3 years (leading to a BA) while the English MA is a 1-year postgraduate course.

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style of delivery, and the isolated nature of students scattered across the country. The first point to make is that it is a tall order to contain within a course equivalent to 1 year of full-time study everything required to become an interpreter—particularly if students are also developing their level of language competence. Priorities have to be set, and a course of this length can only be a first-level platform in preparing students for a professional career. Often part-time courses of study mean that students attend classes 1 or 2 days every week during academic terms. However, the graduate diploma course is designed to suit a target group comprising students located all over the country, with work and family commitments, who cannot travel to Edinburgh every week. Therefore, classes must be packaged in intensive blocks—generally 1 weekend a month, except for a few 5-day blocks that include a weekend. To reduce pressure on students, these blocks are spread over 48 weeks of the calendar year, rather then contained within the standard 30-week academic session. Each study day comprises 6 hours of classes, so there must be a balance between standard lecture type classes and more interactive and practical sessions to avoid overloading students. However, there is pressure on the course to use the time when students are present in the university as productively as possible. As is the case for all students in LINCS, approximately one third of the expected student effort hours are spent in class, while the remaining two-thirds relate to work students will carry out alone or in groups (reading, self-study activities, completing submissions, class preparation, etc.). It is important to enable students to work together—even if physically apart—and to provide students with appropriate self-study and practice materials since many cannot access the departmental facilities available from 8 a.m. to 11 p.m., 7 days a week. Therefore, the program experiences demands akin to those that exist when designing a distance learning course. Since students start out as a very disparate group (with very different strengths, experience of formal study, and so on), a further demand made of the course designers and the teaching team is to enable students to bond as a coherent study group. This requires creativity and innovation in overall course design and delivery.

The Gaps The graduate diploma course successfully satisfies its goals; however, there is need for a new or complementary provision in interpreter training. The

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challenge is to provide full-time training, available to young people (aged 17 and 18) on completion of high school who are progressing directly to university as part of mainstream provision, and for people with no BSL skills.

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Time in Deafland LINCS students are encouraged to spend time during vacations in countries where their languages of study are spoken—especially if the language is acquired ab initio at the university or if the student is struggling. Moreover, all undergraduate students studying to become interpreters working between English and French and German, for example, will spend time abroad in the 3rd year of their degree course. They spend 6 months on placement in a French-speaking university (in France, Belgium, or Switzerland) and a second semester in a German-speaking institution (in Austria or Germany) that teaches interpreting. It is difficult to arrange equivalent placements for students studying BSL: An equivalent placement would be of similar length and immersion in the language and culture, with access to BSL media and exposure to a range of varieties of language use. It has not been possible to formally integrate any BSL placement into the graduate diploma due partly to the length and part-time nature of the course, but also to the difficulty in organizing parity of experience for students located all over the country. The course team can only facilitate opportunities to meet with BSL users and members of the Deaf community and try to compensate by integrating certain activities within the study program. Ultimately though, students in certain parts of the country without work or family links to the Deaf community can be disadvantaged. LINCS has designed an approach for a BSL placement system that will be required for a full-time degree, but the associated cost implications need to be resolved.

Resources A refrain often heard is the lack of resources for BSL learning, reference, and teaching (as outlined in Wilson & McDade, 2008), and this is particularly true of advanced levels and Scottish varieties of BSL. For example, dictionaries are a staple tool of all translators and interpreters, but the most comprehensive BSL, research-based dictionary

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available to date remains the Dictionary of British Sign Language (Brien, 1992) based on seminal work conducted by Durham University and comprising over 1,800 sign entries, primarily English-based signs. Indeed, most published and commercially available BSL materials are produced in England, just as the television programs broadcast in BSL are filmed in England (for example, BBC’s See Hear and Channel 4’s VEE-TV). However, it is encouraging that the latest teaching materials produced by the British Deaf Association have taken account of regional variations. It is regrettable that there are not more published materials available in the public domain, but the reality is that many of the advanced and specialized materials required by lecturers teaching spoken language translators and interpreters are not commercially available either. These resources are created in-house by the programs’ staff. However, staff working with BSL cannot as easily obtain the same range of authentic material as a starting point: There are few broadcasts in BSL, few recordings can be found in the public domain, and no accessible corpora of material exist. Therefore, staff must create their own corpora, collate their own illustrative material, and produce their own practice materials, activities that are very resource intensive. A further frustration is the limited nature of research available to inform teaching, particularly with reference to Scottish variations. For example, in the process of collecting material for a corpus with a practical application (Wilson & McDade, 2008) staff found themselves pondering basic questions about BSL, which remained unanswered without further research. These questions related to the use of BSL but also to aspects of description of the language: facial expression, lip/mouth patterns, and handshapes. The standard number of handshapes referred to when discussing BSL is 59. However, the Sign Language Interpreting Project (SLIP) discovered four missing handshapes that are used in Scottish BSL. This underlines the need for research specific to BSL as used in Scotland.

Technology Technology acted as a brake on materials development. It is much easier to record, process, and copy written and audio material than visual material; in part because LINCS had no facilities for the fast or multiple copying of videotapes. Moreover, to ensure quality recordings in BSL with appropriate lighting, filming had to be carried out in the departmental

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media studio or the university TV center by technicians who then completed the editing process. Technology also deprived BSL/English interpreting students of the same degree of access for self-study practice (with ease of recording, dual tracks, etc.) that spoken language interpreting students enjoy. However, since 2008, LINCS has been completing the process of digitization: the upgrading to equipment in digital format in its two language, three interpreting, and two self-study laboratories; the adaptation of the university’s virtual-learning environment to accept the size of files required by 20 minutes and more of spoken or signed material; and graduate diploma students being provided with headsets, microphones, Web cams, and appropriate software to allow them self-study access on their home computer. Digitization also allows staff to be independent in regards to the creation, editing, and copying of visual material—although much of the initial filming will still take place in studio.

Student Interpreters

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While pressure exists to increase the number of interpreters being trained, and Heriot-Watt University could double the number of students it accepts each year, an insufficient number of applicants with the appropriate level of BSL skills apply to start training.

Staff Successful teaching on the BSL/English interpreting course was made possible by the high level of skill of a single individual who was able to identify, further train, and support a growing team of BSL tutors around her. However, the lack of adequately trained people in Scotland with BSL as a preferred language to conduct research into BSL and to develop teaching, learning, and reference resources and materials, as well as to teach BSL at an advanced level (e.g., to interpreters) and to train new tutors of BSL was identified as a fundamental weakness in the process of increasing the number of sign language interpreters. In January 2004, the Scottish Training Strategy Working Group (STSWG) presented a proposal to the Scottish Executive to fully fund the development and delivery of a Graduate Diploma in Training BSL Tutors in collaboration with overseas experts. (Members of STSWG are

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representatives of SASLI, SCOD, Heriot-Watt University, the University of Edinburgh, and the Forum of Social Work Providers to Deaf People.) This study program, described as the key to unlocking a wide range of developments, would feed into an eventual increase in the number of interpreters. Convinced, the Scottish government released significant funding. The first group of students on this course were awarded their graduate diplomas in November 2007. There remains a huge amount of work to be undertaken, but it is believed that this achievement may be like a small pebble thrown in a pool that causes ripples to eddy far out around it.

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UNIQUE FEATURES It is unusual for sign language to be included as one of the languages in the portfolio of an established school of translation and interpreting. However, it would be wrong to assume that only BSL benefits at the interface between spoken and sign languages. In some ways the interleaving of spoken language with sign language advances in the U.K. is mirrored within LINCS. Initially spoken language interpreting informed BSL interpreting, but experience built up through running the BSL interpreting course clearly informed the development of spoken language public service interpreting in LINCS. Spoken language mainstream degree activities informed BSL developments, but the part-time nature of BSL activities informed spoken language developments. At a more minute level too, working with sign language has encouraged staff to think again about their teaching or research, for example, how paralinguistic features (gesture or eye gaze) are used, or can be used, and taught in public service interpreting. This crossfertilization is evident in students’ work as they see each other working and are encouraged to read the literature specific to both spoken and signed language interpreting. Indeed, it is obvious that students working between a signed language and a spoken language (BSL/English) should be familiar with both sets of literature, but students working between several spoken languages are increasingly referring to sign language research. This bridge between spoken and signed languages at the international level is personified in the example of the incoming exchange student from a German partner institution who is training as an interpreter between German and English, but who also has German Sign Language—and therefore wants to learn BSL at Heriot-Watt.

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LINCS holds the position that sign languages are languages on a par with spoken languages. This is exemplified in public activities such as the annual LINCS multilingual debate (the winner of a European Language Prize for innovation in 2006) attended by around 400 high school students, with interpreting provided by final year spoken and sign language students, and at the policy level in research commissioned by the Scottish Executive that treated Scotland’s languages—spoken and signed—equally (Perez, Wilson, & King, 2006). This pattern is routinely echoed in interpreting conferences and academic publications worldwide nowadays. We look forward to new developments such as interpreting between two sign languages (e.g., BSL and Langue de Signes Français) and of interpreters working between one of their “foreign” spoken languages and their working sign language.

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Team-Working The extent of team-working exemplified in the BSL/English interpreting programs perhaps surpasses that of other activities—although this style of working is central to the working ethos within LINCS. Within the department, staff work in teams across languages and across activities (language teaching, interpreting, translation, linguistics, cultural studies). Staff also team-work with members of other professions: These professionals come in to work at Heriot-Watt and take back an understanding of interpreting to their professions, and Heriot-Watt staff go out to work as consultants with other professionals in their field (law enforcement, courts, local government, health, mental health). This two-way collaboration feeds into the quality of course and materials development. Two key aspects of team-working should be highlighted regarding the nature of developments in Scotland. The first is the equality of the role and responsibilities of deaf and hearing staff working on the BSL/English interpreting courses—there has never been any question of hearing staff taking the lead, but rather of equal contribution to the efforts of the team. This may have been facilitated by the nature of the department where at least half of the staff speak a language other than English as their first language and do not come from a Scottish cultural background. Everyone is used to cross-cultural communication and working between languages. This means that any differences are presumed to be because a staff member has BSL as their main language and culture rather than because they are deaf. This focus on the language is an important distinction.

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The second key aspect of team-working is positioned at the national level. When progress stalled, it was thanks to team-working that developments moved forward. Initially, team-work between SASLI and HeriotWatt University gave momentum to developments in interpreter education. In 2003–05, it was the combined efforts of all organizations in Scotland active in the field working as a team (STSWG) that obtained the funding to develop the Graduate Diploma in Teaching BSL Tutors which, it is hoped, will act as a key to unlock a cascade of other initiatives.

Future Plans Heriot-Watt University is determined to continue to develop and integrate BSL alongside the other languages in LINCS. However, progress is dependent on the resources available.

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Full Integration alongside Spoken Languages There are a number of resource-efficient developments that require a minimal increase in staffing levels. For example, the next step at HeriotWatt University is to recruit students into the mainstream undergraduate degree programs who offer English, one foreign language, and BSL, or who wish to start BSL ab initio at the university. These students would, therefore, work between two spoken languages (English and French, German, or Spanish) and between English and BSL. Beginning in 2008, postgraduate translation and interpreting students will be able to learn BSL ab initio as an additional language. The next development would be to introduce BSL to the portfolio of languages available for the study of translation and interpreting in the postgraduate program. Although deaf students have attended some modules on the certificate interpreting course (BSL modules), LINCS has not received any applications from deaf students to study for a degree in translation and interpreting. There is no reason why a deaf student (who offers the appropriate level of English and foreign language competence) could not successfully complete one of the existing undergraduate programs—particularly if specializing in translation. Several blind students have already studied for these degrees.

Dedicated Developments There are number of developments which LINCS would like to take forward, but which have more significant resource implications.

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First, LINCS would like to adapt aspects of existing courses and expand provision to create a dedicated program of study for deaf people who wish to train as translators (especially working into BSL). The industry norm is generally that translators work in their “A” or primary language; therefore, the people who produce translations in BSL of English source material should be people who use BSL as their preferred language on a daily basis, rather than interpreters. This is particularly pressing since the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) requires material to be made accessible in people’s preferred form of communication (e.g., BSL) and is stimulating the demand for translated material. Research conducted in 2005 found that the “provision of BSL video and BSL on the Internet was seen as an important goal for information dissemination” (Kyle, 2005). Organizations often realize translation should be carried out by a deaf person. Unfortunately, due to the lack of training and relevant knowledge and skills, the quality of much of the translated material is disappointing. It is also true that there is an insufficient number of people available who are willing to even attempt to translate the amount of material required. The second development would be the introduction of a 5-year stepped program of study (undergraduate plus postgraduate qualifications, SCQF levels 7–11) in BSL/English interpreting. Students with no BSL would start at the beginning, while for others, accreditation of prior learning would allow them to join the course in the appropriate year of study. By completion of the 5th year of study, students should be wholly competent interpreters. A dedicated course of this kind would make it possible for BSL/English interpreters to fully develop their language skills and to be strongly prepared for a wide range of interpreting tasks (for example, specialized work in the public sector and educational interpreting), whereas current undergraduate degree programs concentrate on conference and business interpreting work.

INTO

THE

FUTURE: AT THE INTERFACE

In conclusion, we will focus on future plans and developments for SLI in Scotland, within various areas.

SASLI and Other Organizations In the early years, SASLI and Heriot-Watt University worked hand-inhand. However, as the years passed the clear blue water flowing between

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the activities of the two organizations widened. This was correct and necessary to avoid a conflict of interest. Nevertheless, Heriot-Watt still has a strong working relationship with SASLI, as is the case with other professional organizations, and they continue to work collaboratively on particular topics and events. The presence of a SASLI observer at the final interpreting examinations for the graduate diploma for interpreting students has been discussed, for example, to help streamline the progression of students from academic study to the professional register. Consultants on the BSL and LAG core and satellite committees represent Heriot-Watt University, SASLI, and all interested parties in Scotland. Other working groups and examples of interaction have sprung from this Scotland-wide “team.” A satellite group member from Heriot-Watt proposed a Scottish Universities Group uniting the universities active in relevant fields, and the group meets to “grow” BSL and linguistic access activities and relevant areas of research and development by working together. A working group is looking at the creation of alternative routes to professional registration. There are other routes into the SASLI register than through completing a course at Heriot-Watt University: by attending a course at a university in another country of the U.K., through completing a vocational qualification, such as an NVQ in interpreting, or by transferring from another register with which SASLI has a reciprocal agreement, for example. However, there is continuing pressure to increase the number of interpreters—often by a means described as a “fast-track route.” Inevitably, because of its position as pivot at the interface between spoken and sign language, conference and public sector interpreting, academia and the professional world, research and application, and so on, it is difficult to quantify the ways in which Heriot-Watt acts as a bridge between different groups. It is important to note, however, that Heriot-Watt University is just one player in the team.

A Roadmap BSL and linguistic access is a vast field encompassing the communication needs of deafened, hard of hearing, and deaf-blind people as well as those of BSL users. Even narrowing the focus to BSL alone leaves a daunting amount of work. It is important that this is addressed in a coherent manner so that a maximum effect can be achieved with a minimum investment of resources.

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If the overall picture of what needs to be done is regarded as a jigsaw puzzle, it is important that effort is put into completing as many of the pieces of the puzzle as possible, rather than 10 parties competing over a single piece while leaving gaps incomplete. On the recommendation of the BSL and LAG Group, a consultant was appointed by the Scottish government to develop a “roadmap” to guide future developments—the completing of the jigsaw puzzle—and this plan was finalized in summer 2008 and its publication planned for the same year. Once the roadmap is approved, it is hoped that resources will also be made available.

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Acorn to Oak Tree The first acorn was perhaps those first sign language interpreters who worked to establish SASLI, rooted in all the efforts of interpreters working for decades before. The first seedling may have emerged from the meeting of SASLI and Heriot-Watt University. The first sapling we see growing was the pilot interpreting course, and the first young tree, the certificate course. We see our mature tree split into several main stems— the graduate diploma course, an undergraduate provision, and programs and projects still to be envisioned. Other seeds shed under the shelter of this tree may lead to new growth in the future. Will the ground be fertile enough for them all? Or will some new plants wither and die? Some plants may entwine and join together taking a new, stronger form. One or two plants may overshadow and choke out others. Some plants may put on rampant growth, but which is not sustained. In our wood, there is a need for different kinds of plants—rather than same ones competing for the same nutrients. Solid, strong growth is required—but it is important to remember that even oak trees can be uprooted due to strong wind, die due to lack of sustenance or overcompetition for limited resources, or be cut down. We hope that collaborating as a team, all of Scotland will ensure that developments are taken forward in a way that continues to promote quality and strength.

REFERENCES Brien, D., & Brennan, M. (1993). Dictionary of British Sign Language. London: Faber & Faber. Brien, D., Brown, R., & Collins, J. (2002). The organization and provision of British Sign Language/English interpreters in England, Scotland, and Wales. London: DWP.

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Disability Discrimination Act. (1995) (c.50). HMSO. Available from http:// www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/ukpga_19950050_en_1. Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act. (2005) (asp 7). HMSO. Available fromhttp:// www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2005/asp_20050007_en_1. Human Rights Act. (1998). HMSO. Available from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/ acts1998/ ukpga_19980042_en_1. HMSO Committee on Culture, Youth, Education, the Media, and Sport. (2003). Report with recommendations to the Commission on European Regional and LesserUsed Languages—the languages of the minorities of the EU—in the context of enlargement and cultural diversity. 2057(INI). European Parliament. Johnson, R., & McPake, J. (2002). Translating, interpreting, and communication support services across the public sector in Scotland: A literature review. Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Executive. Available from www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2006/01/ 25141550/7. Kyle, J. G., Reilly, A. M., Allsop, L., Clark, M., & Dury, A. (2004). Investigation of access to public services in Scotland using British Sign language. Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Executive. Napier, J. (2004). Sign language interpreter training, testing and accreditation: An international comparison. American Annals of the Deaf, 149(4), 350–359. Perez, I. A., Wilson, C. W. L., King, C., & Pagnier, C. (2006). Translating, interpreting, and communication support: A review of provision in public services in Scotland. Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Executive Social Research. Available from www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2006/01/25141644. Race Relations (Amendment) Act. (2000). HMSO. Available from http:// www.opsi.gov.uk/ acts/acts2000/ukpga_20000034_en_1. Report on the recommendations of the commission on regional and lesser-used languages— the minority languages in the European Union in the context of enlargement and cultural diversity. (2003). 2057(INI), doc: A5–0271. European Parliament. Available from http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc637_en.pdf. Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters. (1997). Provision of communication support services for deaf, deafblind and hard of hearing people: A framework. Edinburgh, Scotland: SASLI. Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters. (2002). Creating linguistic access for deaf and deafblind people: A strategy for Scotland. Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters. Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (SASLI). http:// www.sasli.org.uk/. Scottish Executive. (2007, February). A strategy for Scotland’s languages: Draft version for consultation. Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Executive. Retrieved December 20, 2007, from http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/01/24130746/2. Scottish Parliament. (2003, February). Inquiry into the role of educational and cultural policy in supporting and developing Gaelic, Scots, and minority languages in Scotland. Edinburgh, Scotland: Education Culture and Sport Committee. Available from http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/business/committees/ historic/education/reports-03/edr03–02-vol01–01.htm. Scottish Qualifications Authority et al. (2005). Qualifications can cross boundaries—A rough

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guide to comparing qualifications in the U.K. and Ireland. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from http://www.scqf.org.uk/downloads/ QualsCrossBoundaries_Sco.pdf. Wilson, C. W. L., & McDade, R. (2008). SLIP: A Tool of the Trade Married to an Educational Space: Making BSL Dictionaries. In J. Kearns (Ed.), Translator and interpreter training issues: Methods and debates (pp. 127–157). London: Continuum.

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Interpreter Education in Sweden: A Uniform Approach to Spoken and Signed Language Interpreting IN SWEDEN, the Code of Juridical Procedure (rättegångsbalken), the Administrative Court Procedure Act (förvaltningsprocesslagen), and the Administrative Procedure Act (förvaltningslagen) are laws that legalize the right to use an interpreter if a person does not speak Swedish or is impaired in speech and/or hearing. In the Swedish context, the same body is responsible for the training of interpreters regardless of language or category. Both spoken and signed language interpreters can become authorized by the state under the same conditions, and the liberal adult education college system allows for sign language interpreter training in a wider context, influenced by Deaf associations. The recognized minority languages in Sweden are all forms of Sami, Finnish, Meänkieli (Tornedal Finnish), all forms of Romany, and Yiddish. Swedish Sign Language is not recognized as a minority language but the Swedish Parliament in 1981 officially acknowledged it as the first language of deaf people. All deaf people have the right to be fluent in their visual/ gestural language and in the language, Swedish, that surrounds them.

COMMUNITY INTERPRETING

IN

SWEDEN

Töi, the Institute for Interpreting and Translation Studies at Stockholm University, has since its inception in 1986, the overriding responsibility for interpreter training in Sweden, both interpreting for immigrants/minorities and for deaf people, and it also oversees the training programs for conference interpreters, including the European Masters in Conference Interpreting. The number of interpreter services agencies of spoken languages in Sweden is about 60; towns and municipalities run about 40 of these, and 124

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20 are private. There are about 5,000 community interpreters in Sweden, working with over 100 different languages. There are very few spoken language interpreters who have a full-time paid position as an interpreter. The interpreting is primarily provided in medical care and social welfare services. The interpreting costs are mainly financed by public funds and generally by the authorities and institutions where the interpreting takes place (see Niska, 2004, for more information).

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Community Interpreter Training Interpreter training for community interpreters began in 1968 (the same year sign language interpreter training began). Today there are two different kinds of training programs; academic courses at Swedish universities and vocational training coursers at adult education centers and voluntary educational associations. The Töi regularly organizes academic training, but the greater part of the training of community interpreters is in the form of shorter courses in adult education centers or at liberal adult education colleges. These nonacademic-level courses for community interpreters are not organized by the institute, but the institute distributes the governmental grants and supervises the training. The basic instruction covers medical services, social welfare, the labor market, and legal interpreting. The basic training can be supplemented with special courses and further education in areas such as psychology, dental care, women’s diseases, tropical diseases, and interpreting for clients with special needs, for example, children and victims of torture. In a few languages, university training is available, leading to state authorization.

Authorization of Interpreters In Sweden the Swedish National Juridical Board for Public Lands and Funds undertakes the authorization of interpreters. To become authorized, the following criteria must be met: • • • •

Be over 18 years of age Live in a country within the European Economic Space Have an irreproachable background Pass two different examinations—one written and one oral

Only if the candidate passes the first written examination is the oral part administered. The written examination is given on the same day at several

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Written examination: 4 hours, no support 1. Life and institutions in Sweden: questions regarding medicine, social welfare, labor market, legal terms, and praxis for everyday use 2. Terminology test: 200 special terms to be translated into/from Swedish and the other language Oral examination: some months after the written exam, a live interpreting situation in front of a panel, about 3 hours 1. Two to four role-plays 2. Oral questions regarding interpreting ethics and techniques 3. Sometimes extra questions regarding areas from the written content

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Figure 1. Examination content

places in Sweden twice a year. The oral examination is then given in the building in Stockholm (the capital of Sweden) where the board is situated. Figure 1 provides details of the examination content. Part one looks almost the same for all candidates—only the terminology part is tested live with the signed language candidates. The role-plays are recorded, but not video recorded for the spoken language candidates. The placing of candidates and panel members is different, as the panel has to see both the language assistant and the candidate in the sign language setting. But the content and the difficulty level are the same for all categories of languages.

Sign Language Interpreter Working Conditions Most Swedish Sign Language interpreters leaving a training program find a job directly after finishing the program—often a full-time paid job in employment at the interpreter agency in one of the 24 county councils spread throughout Sweden. Evidence of authorization is not usually asked for since the interpreter has passed an examination from a 4-year training program, but in the future it might be desirable if the state authorizes all interpreters. There are approximately 700 Swedish Sign Language interpreters working in different settings categorized as “everyday settings,” from birth to the grave. These everyday settings are financially covered by

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county council interpreting agencies. Additionally, sign language interpreters also work in many educational settings. The school or the university in charge covers the costs with grants from the Swedish National Board of Education or Board of Social Affairs. All kinds of interpreting services in Sweden are free of charge—if they are covered and executed by public authority.

The Environmental Demand for Skilled Sign Language Interpreters According to the Swedish National Association of the Deaf (SDR) there are approximately 10,000 profoundly deaf people in Sweden who use interpreting services. The need for this service varies from person to person; some use interpreters often in their daily lives, others use them only for special occasions such as at conferences, meetings, or in educational settings. Since 1994, the county councils have been responsible for organizing a system of services for procuring sign language interpreters in Sweden.

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Important Milestones There are several important dates in the development of the field of sign language interpreting in Sweden. Before 1968 it was mostly social workers or the Swedish Salvation Army that helped out with sign language interpreting for deaf people. The professional status of sign language interpreting was first recognized with the first organized training course. In the beginning of 1980, the interpreters’ association changed its name from “interpreters of the deaf” to “sign language interpreters” in order to promote awareness of sign language as a true language and to stress that the interpreting profession was service work. Figure 2 provides a breakdown of the various milestones in the sign language interpreting profession in Sweden.

SIGN

LANGUAGE

INTERPRETER TRAINING

The original 2-year training program must be regarded as a successful result of lobbying work from associations of the deaf and interpreters. Both groups wished to have trained and professional interpreters—especially when looking back to the beginning in 1960 when the training program

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Year

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Milestones

1968

The Swedish Parliament decides that sign language interpreter services are free of charge.

1969

The first organized interpreter training course takes place (6 weeks long), held by the SDR and the National Board of Education.

1969

The Swedish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (STTF) is established.

1976

The National Swedish Board of Health and Welfare presents the first set of guidelines for the national interpreting service for full-time paid interpreters.

1981

The Swedish Parliament officially acknowledges that deaf people are bilingual, that they have the right to be fluent in their visual/gestural language and in the language, Swedish, that surrounds them (Swedish Parliament, May 14, 1981). This decision indirectly recognized Swedish Sign Language as deaf people’s first language and that deaf people constitute a language minority.

1996

The first 4-year interpreter training of Swedish Sign Language interpreters and interpreters for persons with deafblindness begins at Väddö folkhögskola. (Today the program is held at Södertörns folkhögskola.)

2004

The first Swedish Sign Language interpreters are authorized by the National Judicial Board for Public Lands and Funds.

Figure 2. Sign language interpreting milestones

only took a few weeks and comparing it to the 1-year program first offered in 1980 and then to the introduction of a 2-year program in 1990. The training has always been offered at a college level with governmental grants. In the beginning, the curriculum was essentially set up within each liberal adult education college that gave the training. It was not really until Töi became responsible that a curriculum standard was set for all colleges. More students with no deaf background joined the program, and they had to pass an admission test in sign language to be admitted to the course. The trainers in these programs were mostly experienced interpreters, but few had any formal education in the field. However, there have always been deaf people involved in the training of interpreters.

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In spite of the 2-year interpreter training program, there was at that time not enough skilled interpreters to cover the demand. The lack of trained interpreters also delayed the buildup of agencies in the county councils. Deaf people neither got the services they needed for their daily lives nor for their work demands. Therefore, the consumer’s organizations, the National Association of People with Deafblindness (FSDB), the National Association of the Hard of Hearing (HRF), the SDR, and the Swedish National Association of Sign Language Interpreters (STTF) took the initiative to cooperate with Töi at Stockholm University to create a new and longer interpreter training program. As a result of this agreement, a 4-year training program was instituted as a project at Väddö folkhögskola (one of the liberal adult education colleges in Sweden) in 1996. The new approach was to accept students without prerequisite skills in Swedish Sign Language into the program, and by the end of the training, they should master interpreting between Swedish and Swedish Sign Language as well as interpreting to and from people with deafblindness. The new interpreters would graduate with skills serving both populations. The details of this 4-year program will be discussed in more depth later. Each year of the project has been evaluated from different perspectives. The outcome from the 4-year training was so satisfactory that the consumer associations, together with Töi, decided quite early after the first program had finished that it would become the permanent training model in Sweden. But it was not until 2006 when the 4-year training program model was implemented at all seven liberal adult education colleges that are the sole providers of interpreter training. The program provides government-sponsored financial support for all students. As already mentioned, a student must master both interpreting between Swedish and Swedish Sign Language as well as in interpreting for people with deafblindness to obtain a course certificate. If the student does not pass, s/he gets a letter confirming that s/he has been enrolled in the program but not graduated. A similar confirmation letter is given to students who leave the program before its completion.

The Responsible Body Töi is commissioned by the Swedish government, through the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare together with consumer associations, to be responsible for the planning of all interpreter training programs. In Sweden, as mentioned, seven liberal adult education colleges

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are committed to offering Swedish Sign Language interpreter training programs. Töi is in charge of the curriculum, including a description of goals and the overall course plan. The college formulates its own syllabus, and each college has its own profile. Each college is autonomous regarding its choice of teaching approach and methods and also regarding choice of examination procedure. However, in the end, all trained interpreters must achieve the same goals and are held to the same standard set by the deaf community and the colleges. The colleges, representatives from the interpreting agencies, and Töi keep in touch through a variety of channels to develop the training. Representatives of the agencies and the trainers also form a working committee to address the main issue of interpreter internships. This collaboration between the liberal adult education colleges and the spokespeople of the interpreter labor market guarantees qualified periods of internships which can be as long as 6 weeks for the interpreter student. Internships take place at any of the agencies in Sweden.

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Description of the Enrollment Proceedings The first 4-year training program began 1996, and the seventh program has recently been completed (in 2007) at Södertörns folkhögskola. The methodology has been revised, and today it is more adapted to the individual student’s abilities and development. Teaching at a liberal adult education college gives the educators freedom to meet the needs of their students and the Deaf community on a personal and grassroots level. The colleges have the freedom to create their own teaching strategies and syllabi according to the profile of the colleges, and each also has nonbureaucratic relations with the financing authority. While each college is independent regarding the enrollment proceedings, there are correspondences of content. Södertörns folkhögskola uses a simple method of enrollment, and the content in the different portions of the assessment have been revised several times utilizing almost the same evaluators since 1996.

Reflections Regarding Testing and Admissions Procedures To be admitted to the interpreter training program, students have to meet certain criteria such as having excellent eyesight and hearing, and they must pass an admission procedure. In this assessment, the ability to acquire

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a new language with a visual and gestural modality and the ability to interpret is tested.

The Evaluators The evaluators involved in the admission procedure must have a solid understanding of the meaning of information possessing, language acquisition (in this case sign language), and the meaning of learning how to interpret before they are selected to evaluate the test results. Often interpreters, regardless of language pairs, claim they intuitively know who can become an interpreter and who cannot. Many sign language teachers claim that they can see immediately who can learn sign language and who cannot. However, nobody can really describe the reasons for their sentiments; they just claim that they “know.” This might be regarded as making an assessment, and if this were enough, then a structured admission procedure would not be necessary. Niska (2002) also stated this phenomenon. He said in a class of methodology (Stockholm University, 2001): “If one could make a judgement without a testing situation, then one should refrain from testing.” However, the reality needs a selection procedure with something more defensible than sentiments.

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The Assessment It is not enough in an admission procedure for interpreters and sign language teachers to claim that they know who will make good interpreters and who will not. When it comes to testing one’s competence in acquiring a new language and an ability to interpret, it is necessary to use reasoning to develop an assessment. We give a sign language class to a group of subjects, and then the evaluator, the teaching educator, makes an assessment, similar to a direct testing method (direct test) based on experience and an intuitive understanding of a person’s learning ability. In this test the educator looks at the subject’s capability to make the manual and nonmanual movements that exist in sign language, as well as examine the subject’s willingness and talent for visual and gestural communication. The test method also includes an assessment (objective test) of the subject’s language skills and knowledge in Swedish. Although the result of this objective test gives information about the subject’s formal language competence, it gives little information about the subject’s communication ability in Swedish. Included in the method is one item of interpreting as well, which shows some of the subject’s capability to learn to interpret, that is, something that

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could be found through an indirect test, which here means that the subject’s skills are measured by looking at underlying skills.

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What Are the Evaluators Looking For? An interpreter must master the languages involved in interpretation and the processes needed to interpret. The admission procedure must therefore give information about the subject’s ability to communicate and to read/understand, in this case, visual input. The procedure also needs to analyze the subject’s ability to produce gestures and his or her social competence. The subject’s talent to communicate is fundamental. Since the subjects do not know sign language, their willingness to communicate visually and their talent with gestures must be analyzed. Dialogues and monologues give subjects the opportunity to show their creativity and how they manage nonverbally (here, nonverbally means gestures and mime, which are not classified as linguistic features in Swedish Sign Language). The admission procedure should be fun and valuable for the applicants regardless of whether they are admitted to the program or not. The assessment only takes 1 day. The number of subjects assessed per day depends on how many evaluators are involved. There are several stages in the assessment. The sign language educators evaluate the first stages. The final results are compiled by all of the testers and sometimes include input from senior students. We do not test separately for the ability to withstand stress. Since the screening procedure itself is stressful, however, any unusual signs are noted.

Sign Language: Stage One and Stage Two In the sign language assessment stages, the subjects are divided into groups and are taught sign language together with two educators in each group, one teaching and one observing. The educators establish contact with the subjects by using simple gestures. Soon afterward they are given signs of several objects and facts to imitate and reproduce. The educators study the coordination of the subjects and observe how their signing looks. The educators also observe how the subject changes the signing after being corrected and how long after a new sign has been introduced before the subject can recall it. In stage two, the teaching deals with more complicated language structures. The educators continue to teach and observe the subjects compre-

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hension of the new language, their production, and the interaction between all the subjects and the educators. Stage two is video recorded in case the educators need to review the interactions and perhaps ask for opinions from other evaluators.

Interpreting Obviously it is not possible to assess interpreting skills since the subjects have neither knowledge of sign language nor knowledge of, or experience with, interpreting. Instead, other components, which also are fundamental in interpreting skills, are assessed. The interpreting portion is divided in two parts. Each task is carried out individually.

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Transformation of Visual Input Into Spoken Swedish For this portion, an interpreter educator evaluates the subject. This task assesses the subject’s capability in transmitting the content of two different video clips. The first clip is a 3-minute sketch with deaf actors communicating with each other in a nonverbal, gestural manner. After viewing the clip, the subjects are asked to make a self-assessment and say if they have understood the content and the point of the story. If the answer is yes, the subject is asked to retell as much as possible in Swedish. If the subject’s answer is no, then the evaluator asks some leading questions to elicit any comprehension of certain gestures or if the subject can recall feelings shown in the sketch. The subject then views the second clip, a 4-minute story, told in Swedish Sign Language. Again, subjects are asked to assess their level of comprehension. Following that, the subjects are asked to retell the story to the best of their abilities keeping in mind three variables: content, style, and the emotional state found in the story. Both tasks give the evaluator a clue about the subject’s level of comprehension of sign language as well as his or her ability to decode and understand nonverbal communication. In addition, some insight is gained regarding the subject’s ability to draw conclusions from limited visual input. There is also a chance to assess the subject’s appropriate level of spoken Swedish and vocal quality during the retelling. These two activities yield a multitude of information on the applicant’s prerequisite skills. The same evaluator assesses both tasks, which together take about 20 minutes. The tasks are tape-recorded so coevaluators have the opportunity to comment on the results.

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Conversation A conversation that one or several interpreter educators have with a single subject makes up another part of the assessment. In this conversation, the applicant is informed about the training program. The evaluators also assess how much the subject is willing to work to become an interpreter. The subject’s knowledge about the Deaf community and the interpreting profession is explored. Additionally, the evaluators discuss aspects of the interpreter’s role, including the ability to cope with stress, interpersonal skills, comfort with physical contact (for interpreting for people with deafblindness) and being in the spotlight, as well as the comfort level of the rigors of being in school.

Swedish

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While spoken Swedish is included in the interpreting portion of the assessment, our focus here is on synonyms, idiomatic constructions, and vocabulary. Spelling proficiency is tested in a dictation exercise. A written essay is required; its theme is related to articles that the subject has read. Furthermore, in an auditory exercise, the subject listens to two different recorded stories: one is descriptive, the other narrative. After listening to the texts, the subject retells both stories in an equivalent language level as the stimulus text.

The Results When all the protocols in the enrollment proceedings are completed, the evaluators compare the results and decide whom to admit into the program. While this kind of proceeding is highly subjective, at least it is a shared subjectivity. This shared subjectivity, in fact, makes it more objective as in the end, the evaluators must agree on the following skills: • the capability to acquire (understand and produce) sign language (shown in the exercises) • the capability to acquire and produce Swedish language at an aboveaverage level, in both spoken and written form • clear articulation and voice • the ability to formulate and describe visual input and distinguish gestures and signs in Swedish

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• ease with physical contact (i.e., tactile sign language, work with persons with deafblindness) • the ability to cope with stress • social competence—has appropriate interpersonal skills.

Comments It is, of course, difficult to state if a person has the capability to become an interpreter, but each item we look at plays an important role in the overall assessment. In this model, the evaluators try to determine if a person not only has the talent to learn Swedish Sign Language, but also if their skill and knowledge of spoken and written Swedish meet the aboveaverage level needed for the interpreter training. The evaluators are also trying to find out if the applicant can reformulate visual nonverbal input into a vocal language—to go from one language modality into another— and if the person has high self-esteem. Modified, this model could be utilized not only for interpreter training programs starting from scratch but also for programs that require various levels of sign language competency.

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THE 4-YEAR MODEL This is an interpreter training model for students who are not bilingual in a spoken language and sign language. Swedish Sign Language, unknown to the students in the beginning, is taught as a beginner’s language at the same time as interpreting. The course description focuses on the content of the subject field of interpreting, and only mentions a few comments that refer to the teaching of sign language. The revised, and relatively simple, résumé of the 4-year training program could ideally be a model for interpreter training in places where there is no established training of sign language interpreters. The program covers 160 weeks corresponding to 4 years of full-time study, although the length could, of course, be adjusted. The interpreter training program is divided into three subject fields: signed language, spoken language, and interpreting, in which several subjects studied in the program are included or integrated. A diverse range of subjects ties in with this division since they are all interconnected in more than one field within the course. The description model outlined in the following section uses Swedish Sign Language and Swedish, but these languages could be replaced by any other signed or spoken language.

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The 4-Year Program: Main Contents The following (by no means exhaustive) list of contents includes the following imperative aspects dealing in turn with a number of subsets. Language fields: • General linguistics, variation in language, grammar, text analyses, vocabulary, oral and written presentation, communication, reading, bilingualism, voice and speech care, oratory skills, current research (primarily in the field of sign language) and language laboratory. Interpreting: • Interpreting processes, interpreting techniques, interpreting ethics, theory of interpreting, communication theory, translation, simultaneous and consecutive skills, telephone interpreting, everyday and specialist interpretation, interpreting for persons with deafblindness, ergonomics/health care and language laboratory, an internship with supervision for the 8 weeks at a minimum. Examples of integrated subjects: • Sign language sociology, social science, medical and health care, law, psychology/social psychology, social services, labor market, Swedish public administration, disabled studies, and studies of hearing, deafness and deafblindness.

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In the program of Södertörns folkhögskola, the English language is included during the 3rd and 4th year.

Interpreting Year One The first theme is “introduction,” meaning that the student gains insight into the overall concept and aims of the training as well as getting acquainted with the wide range of subjects in the curriculum. Introduction also includes studies in and about the profession, languages, deaf studies, and interpreting. The second theme is “communication,” where the major emphasis is put on all the subjects that are permeated with exercises and drills in communication. Theories of human communication and proficiency training in communication using a visual and gestural language as well as Swedish Sign Language are fully integrated with student activities during this period of education. During the 1st year the subject field of interpreting includes three main items: ethics, techniques, and social studies.

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The teaching in ethics is based on reasoning on general ethical issues in order to create a common platform to proceed from in future discussions. The teaching in techniques focuses preparatory interpreting exercises based on the student’s first language, which is in this case, Swedish. A wide range of these exercises might be presented in this way: • Vocal presentation; that is, short statements in front of an audience • Shadowing; that is, following another speaker to practice new phrases and constructions, and to practice voice moderation in ones own voice under pressure • Retelling; that is, retelling, both in vocal and written form, a short or longer story or a statement of someone else • Memorizing drills; to extend and expand the capacity of the memory as a preparation for interpreting processing • Translation; theories and methods, also of languages other than Swedish and Swedish Sign Language • Guiding; through presentations and practicum students learn theories about sight interpretation (in this concept meaning vocal or tactile description of the environment) and how to guide people with blindness • Voice and speech care • Rhetoric and argumentation • Analysis of work; introduction to analyzing skills used for different spoken or signed texts presented by hearing and deaf speakers • Paraphrase work; consecutive and simultaneous exercises in spoken language reformulations • Verbal transliteration; meaning exercises when the student has to describe visual input, still or movable, in words. (Verbal transliteration starts the process of interpreting from a visual language into a vocal one.) The teaching in social studies covers: • The life situation of deaf people and their history in Sweden and elsewhere in the world • Being a hearing person in the deaf community • Social studies regarding the profession of sign language and liaison interpreters. Some exercises and elements frequently recur during the training until the student is ready to interpret between the languages. During the first semester, students should start to keep a personal diary to follow their progress. Although the diary is personal, the interpreter educator regularly

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follows it up with comments and remarks addressing the student’s individual needs.

Year Two Year two starts with the theme interpreting into Swedish, meaning that all language drills and exercises in the different subjects work from Swedish Sign Language into Swedish in written or spoken form. The drills concentrate in Swedish because the strongest language of the students tends to be Swedish and therefore translation work and interpreting into Swedish is the most natural to start with. Interpreting into Swedish is followed by interpreting into Swedish Sign Language at the end of the fourth semester. Ethics focuses on interpreting situations, the interpreter’s code of practice/conduct, and specific dilemmas regarding interpreting between the hearing and the deaf culture, besides interpreting for persons with deafblindness. Multiple interpreting approaches are introduced, and exercises in résumé interpreting and consecutive interpreting play an important role during the 2nd year. Students also perform translation work from sign language into Swedish. Year two is saturated with deeper studies in sight interpreting,1 and events for people with deafblindness. Classes with tactile sign language are added.

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Year Three In the beginning of this year and throughout the rest of the 5th semester, the exercises and drills continue to focus on sign language. During the 3rd year, authentic interpretation exercises are introduced and start with dialogue interpreting (alternately interpreting between Swedish and Swedish Sign Language). This is followed by monologue interpreting (interpreting longer texts into one language simultaneously, which is contrary to dialogue interpreting). Endurance training takes part in both kinds of interpreting modes. The topic “sign language in interpreting” is studied and at the same time the students collect and work with the terminology related to various scientific areas.

Year Four During the last year, the students focus on deeper studies to consolidate acquired knowledge and skills in interpreting. In the subject techniques, 1. Sight interpreting in the field of interpreting for a person with deafblindness means to follow a certain strategy when describing the environment and any other necessary background information that person needs to know.

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central interpreting is taught and practiced. Central interpreting is a special technique used when persons with deafblindness or deaf interpreters take part. During the year, the students also work on a larger composition on a given subject, including a description of an analyzed interpretation. At the end of the year, and as a part of the exam procedure, the students present their work to an audience. Furthermore, much time is devoted to independent work such as analyzation, drills, finishing touches, and sustainability.

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Comments Regarding the Teaching of Swedish Sign Language in the 4-Year Program In the beginning, the classes in sign language are practically oriented. Exercises in communication are the focus; the sign language teachers teach the students to communicate nonverbally with gestures and mime, leading them toward lexical utterances, and at the end of the classes, to a fullyfledged sign language. The elements of theory are taught to keep pace with the students’ sign language abilities and skills, and social studies related to the Deaf community play a crucial role in the training. During year two, the teaching of sign language is directed toward reading and/or understanding exercises, that is, the students are retelling in sign language or Swedish, written or spoken form, the content of given texts in sign language. In the sign language classes during the first part of year three, the exercises are still of practical and theoretical character but oriented toward exercises from Swedish into sign language. In the second part of year three, workshops and seminars given in sign language compose the base to increase the students’ vocabulary. In year four, only a few classes of sign language occur, during which time the teacher aims to increase and enlarge the students’ sign language vocabulary and terminology. In this year almost all the classes in interpreting and sign language are integrated and taught by both a deaf and a hearing educator.

A SELF-INSTRUCTING TOOL At Södertörns folkhögskola not only the students in the interpreter training are asked to keep a personal diary to follow their own progress, but the educators are also asked to do something similarly called a “competence journal.” This enables the individual educators to have a clear overview of the teaching content as well as of their own personal progress

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and development of teaching methods. This competence journal serves as a self-instructing tool. The idea of the competence journal was born during a period of frustration when the educators wanted to get continuous feedback and to have a mentoring system. The competence journal resembles the student’s diary but contains questions that should be answered at the end of the day, or the end of the week. This should not create a burden to the educator—instead the journal should serve as a form of support for improvement and positive selfesteem. We have used this systematic tool for some years, and it serves its aim but is continuously under revision. A translation of the competence journal is presented here in Figure 3.

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INTERPRETER TRAINING PROGRAMS

IN THE

FUTURE

As other countries in Scandinavia began to offer interpreter training at the university level, the interest among the students, the association of the deaf, and the interpreters to do the same in Sweden has intensified. The training in Sweden has traditionally been the responsibility of the liberal adult education college system, which has a free-form teaching method, adapted to adults and a lifelong approach to learning and the acquisition of knowledge. The tradition of having the interpreter training within the liberal adult education will likely remain as the education and training are in need of close connections to the deaf population and their communities. Nevertheless, the interpreter training program holds the status of higher education, as its entrance requirements are equivalent to attending university courses. In the future, the university will probably validate the program and upgrade the courses so the students earn credits. This will be important for students who want to continue their studies at the university to earn a master’s degree and then continue into research. The validation will certainly give higher status to the interpreting profession in the academic and public sphere, both in Sweden and abroad.

Further Training In addition to the programs at the liberal adult education colleges (and not financed by Töi), different institutes such as the Department of Linguistics at Stockholm University, provide single-subject courses in and about Swedish Sign Language and single-subject courses in theory and practice for Swedish Sign Language interpreters. These courses are financed with

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The Competence Journal serves as a self-instruction tool. The CJ is a personal document that gives you a chance to store up acquired knowledge and experiences. The CJ also gives you the chance to reflect regarding your own improvement as an educator. Main aims: • Documentation of all tasks • Reflection over your own learning and progress • Self-assessment and the tools to develop self-awareness • Facilitate/initiate discussions with colleagues/program responsible Date: 1. What have I done today? i. Exercises/materials/methodology 2. How did it work? i. Good/bad/why?/why not? 3. New experiences: i. Yes: what? No: why not? 4. What did I learn about? i. Facts/myself/colleague(s) Copyright © 2009. Gallaudet University Press. All rights reserved.

5. Feedback: i. Given/received 6. How do I improve? i. The teaching/myself 7. Comments: i. From students/colleagues/others Figure 3. Competence Journal (CJ).

other governmental support within the budget of the faculty providing the courses. Students attend the sign language courses out of pure interest or for another more academic purpose. Many employed interpreters have had the possibility to attend the theory and practice courses during work hours for personal development.

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The Demand and Authorization The demand of not only trained interpreters but also qualified and skilled interpreters has gradually increased since deaf people are integrated at all levels of Swedish society. To a considerable extent, deaf people have more higher education than they have had in the past, and they take an even more active part in today’s labor market. This development led to a governmental commission in 2002 that looked into authorizing or certifying Swedish Sign Language interpreters. This report and the work to create equivalent criteria and adequate tests resulted in the authorization of the first Swedish Sign Language interpreters in 2004. Since then, the National Judicial Board for Public Lands and Funds, the same public administration that authorizes all liaison spoken language interpreters in Sweden, is responsible for the authorization of Swedish Sign Language interpreters under the same conditions as those for other language interpreters. In Sweden, there are approximately 500 Swedish Sign Language interpreters and every year in the region of 60 new interpreters graduate with their course certificate. Since 2004 there are around 70 authorized interpreters, and every year about 30 interpreters will hopefully be authorized. The authorization of interpreters is independent from the training programs. This authorization is regarded as a complement for those who have been actively working in the field for many years but have not had formal training, do not have course certificates, or have graduated from interpreter programs. Many interpreting agencies, however, offer all employed interpreters the opportunity to become authorized regardless of whether or not they have just finished their interpreter training.

New Assignments Several interpreters will retire in the near future, and this will have an impact on the interpreter market. In spite of all of the newly trained interpreters graduating every year, the lack of interpreters will continue to be a major factor for several reasons. Deaf adults are pursuing higher education in greater numbers, and labor market demands will require more interpreters. In the future, it is not evident that all deaf children will attend one of the national special schools for the deaf and hard of hearing, the comprehensive or upper secondary school. They might instead be integrated or “mainstreamed” in public schools, which could mean a new market for interpreters in Sweden.

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Video relay services also will be offering interpreters 24 hours per day, 7 days a week. This will require more interpreters and maybe, a different kind of interpreting, as the working conditions in this setting are new. Furthermore, we expect a greater demand for multilingual sign language interpreters as Deaf people are traveling more often and are participating in different levels of our global society. Finally, a new consumer group for young hard of hearing people has become a user of interpreting services because these people have realized the benefit of using interpreters, especially in educational settings.

Deaf Sign Language Interpreters There are few deaf sign language interpreters in Sweden. Most of them interpret for persons using tactile sign language, and then often together with a hearing colleague. Some deaf interpreters work as personal guides and with sight interpreting. There is no formal training for deaf interpreters in Sweden and deaf people cannot apply for the 4-year training program, as one of the admission criteria is to “have excellent eye sight and hearing.” There is, however, interest in admitting deaf people into established programs or into special interpreting programs for deaf interpreters.

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Interpreter Support On two occasions (2004, 2007) a special course called “Interpreter Support” has been given to a small number of deaf persons who are fluent in both Swedish Sign Language and another (second) signed language. The goal of the course was to train these deaf people to function as intermediary interpreters for deaf immigrants or refugees who have not mastered Swedish Sign Language. These deaf intermediaries work together with hearing Swedish Sign Language interpreters. When the deaf interpreter is working, s/he functions mainly as language support for the hearing interpreter. The course focused mostly on ethics, partner work, and interpreting strategies and techniques. Deaf interpreters freelance and get paid by the interpreting service agencies as do other sign language interpreters. Interpreting with two interpreters with different signed languages mostly takes place in the Stockholm region, and it was first recognized there. Töi has financed the Interpreter Support course in collaboration with Södertörns folkhögskola and Stockholm’s tolkcentral, the interpreter agency in Stockholm. Upon demand, the course will be offered again.

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Training of Educators Traditionally, the deaf educators within the interpreter training teach Swedish Sign Language, and the hearing educators teach interpreting, spoken Swedish and/or occasionally, Swedish Sign Language. There is no directed qualifying education or training for any of the educator categories. However, many of the interpreter educators—deaf and hearing—have higher education or have passed academic exams in Swedish Sign Language, Swedish, and/or interpreting. There is a specially designed academic exam, a teacher certification, which teachers working in the liberal adult education college should have. Lately, with financial support from the Töi, all educators within the interpreter training program have been given the opportunity to receive this in-service training. All hearing educators teaching interpreting have a background in the interpreting field or are still working as freelance interpreters when not teaching. Some of these trainers also have attended an academic course for interpreter trainers. This course (given at Töi) consists of half an academic year and focuses on teaching techniques. All interpreting categories are represented—cross-disciplinary—sign language interpreting, community interpreting, and conference interpreting. The interpreter training curriculum includes courses such as Swedish, social studies/civics, and other relevant subjects not related to deafness or interpreting. Hearing teachers who teach these classes seldom have any background in Deaf culture.

FINAL COMMENTS All liberal adult education colleges that provide interpreter training programs collaborate through various channels to keep the same standards in the training programs. Of course, there are varieties depending on each educator’s education and experience. In Sweden today, interpreter training in general is developing toward a more academic level than before, and the examination procedure is of considerable dimensions. Some of the colleges also introduce the English language, as this opens up avenues for both international friendship among interpreters and membership in international associations, and it benefits the deaf community where English-speaking interpreters are needed. Most interpreters are offered interpreting assignments after finishing their training, but they do not, however, get full-time, paid employment right away. Although within a

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year or two, most of them are employed by a county council agency (TÖI, 2007). Nevertheless, new kinds of interpreting settings with new demands of professionalism are providing new challenges for Swedish Sign Language interpreters. They have the privilege of being there when deaf people and people with deafblindness take an active part in the Swedish and global society of the future. We hope for more research to be conducted in the field of Swedish Sign Language interpreting. Only a few investigations and reports have been carried out in connection to, for example, students’ examination work or documents carried out by interpreter trainers, but these cannot be regarded as research work.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Jonas Carlsson for valuable comments regarding the content, and Shelley Lawrence and Larissa Kachintseva for helping me with the English—if there still remain obscurities or faults they are all mine.

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REFERENCES Hein, A. (2002). Tolkutbildningens plats i folkbildning: Omvärldens krav på kompetenta teckenspråkstolkar. Terminsrapport 1. Väddö folkhögskola. Hein, A. (2004). Folkhögskollärarens arbetsuppgifter och yrkesroll: Med särskilt avseende på arbetet i en teckenspråkstolkutbildning. Examensrapport, Linköpings universitet. Hein, A., & Carlsson, J. (2001). Fyraårig tolkutbildning: Erfarenheter från en försöksverksamhet, en modell för framtiden. Stockholm: Tolk- och översättarinstitutet vid Stockholms universitet. Lundström, B. (2001). Teckenspråket är grunden i vår profession. Stockholm: Sveriges teckenspråks tolkars förening. Niska, H. (2004). Community interpreting in Sweden: A short presentation. Stockholm: Tolk- och översättarinstitutet vid Stockholms universitet. Statens offentliga utredningar. SOU 2006:54. Teckenspråk och teckenspråkiga: översyn av teckenspråkets ställning. Stockholm. Tolk- och översättarinstitutet. (2007). Måldokument och Kursplan för tolkutbildning inriktning teckenspråk och tolkning till personer med dövblindhet. Retrieved February 2007 from http://www.tolk.su.se/kursplaner/Kursplan_tkntolkutb.pdf.

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Asia-Pacific

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Part Two

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KAREN BONTEMPO AND PATRICIA LEVITZKE-GRAY

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Interpreting Down Under: Sign Language Interpreter Education and Training in Australia THE SHEER size of Australia and the country’s geographical settlement patterns have presented some challenges for the development of sign language interpreter education and training “Down Under.” The land area of mainland Australia is almost as large as the United States (excluding Alaska), about 50% greater than Europe (excluding the former USSR), and 32 times greater than the United Kingdom (about-australia.com). Yet only 21 million people live in Australia, mostly in urban areas and along the coastline (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007). The most recent estimate of the number of deaf people who use Auslan (Australian Sign Language) in Australia is approximately 6,500 people (Johnston, 2004). Not unlike many other countries in the world, the sign language interpreting (SLI) profession in Australia has its origins in the Deaf Society organizations found around the nation, which initially employed missioners, welfare officers, and then later community workers to perform the role of interpreter, often interchangeably with other duties (Flynn, 1996; Ozolins & Bridge, 1999). The role of interpreter would also often be filled by the hearing children of deaf parents, hearing teachers of deaf people, other family members of deaf people, or wider community members that could sign (Napier, McKee, & Goswell, 2006). Until the 1980s, interpreters typically “evolved” from their connections with the Deaf community and Deaf Societies. However a number of social and political factors in the 1980s and the 1990s, including the introduction of favorable government policies regarding multiculturalism and the ratification of federal discrimination legislation, resulted in increased access and opportunity for Deaf people and had a significant impact on the interpreting profession in Australia (see Napier, McKee, & Goswell, 149 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

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2006; Napier, 2004; and Ozolins & Bridge, 1999, for more details). Pivotal events for the SLI field included the introduction of standardized national testing of sign language interpreters in 1982 and formal interpreter training in Australia in 1986 (Flynn, 1996). By the 1990s, the role of interpreter was clearly delineated from that of other positions, and generic interpreting agencies had started to include Auslan/English interpreters (hereafter referred to as Auslan interpreters) on their interpreter registers. An Auslan interpreters association emerged at state level in 1983. The national body of the Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ASLIA), established in 1991 and incorporated in 1992, has become an increasingly strong force in the interpreting field since that time (Ozolins & Bridge, 1999), with a current national membership of approximately 400 Auslan interpreters.1 Another national professional interpreter association has existed in Australia since 1987, the Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators, or AUSIT. AUSIT members number more than 750 and are predominantly spoken language interpreters and translators.2 Auslan interpreters are eligible to join AUSIT and other state-based spoken language interpreter associations. Research led by Madden (1995, 2005), Ozolins and Bridge (1999), and Napier (1998, 2000, 2002a, 2002b), as well as changing demands from the Deaf community, resulted in a concerted call for further professionalization of the SLI field in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Pleas for higher education opportunities for Auslan interpreters culminated in the first Australian university program for Auslan interpreters commencing at Macquarie University, Sydney, in 2002. The academic endeavor of the sector has been appreciably influenced by this relatively recent initiative, which allows Auslan interpreters to undertake relevant postgraduate, master’s, or doctoral studies and research. A growing body of Australian research and publications on SLI has resulted. The encouraging climate for local research has had a healthy effect on the work of Auslan interpreting practitioners as developments are feeding directly into interpreter education programs, legitimizing or changing practice in the field, and guiding many of the recent professional development initiatives in Australia. 1. Refer to the ASLIA Web site (www.aslia.com.au) for more information. 2. Refer to the AUSIT Web site (www.ausit.org.au) for more information.

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AUSTRALIA

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ACCREDITATION

151 OF

AUSLAN INTERPRETERS

The National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI) is a national company owned by the Australian government and managed by a board of directors appointed by the Commonwealth Minister for Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs. It is the standards authority responsible for accrediting practitioners working in the translating and interpreting profession in Australia, in either a spoken or a signed language. NAATI was established in 1977 and implemented spoken language interpreter and translation examinations shortly thereafter. After considerable lobbying between 1979 and 1981 by John W. Flynn, the then executive director of the Victorian Deaf Society, NAATI first included sign language interpreters in their testing regime in 1982 (Flynn, 1996). This was a remarkable achievement, given that the Australian government did not recognize Auslan as a legitimate language used by the Australian Deaf community until 1984 (Lo Bianco, 1987; cited in Johnston & Schembri, 2007) and the first Auslan dictionary did not appear until 1989 (Johnston, 1989). Auslan is now one of 58 recognized languages assessed and accredited by NAATI (NAATI, 2006). Auslan interpreters can become accredited by either successfully completing a NAATI approved interpreter education program, by recognition of overseas qualifications, or by taking a NAATI interpreting examination without attending any course of study. It appears most Auslan interpreters undertake interpreter education programs, with a recent research study determining that 63.6% of respondents had completed at least entry-level interpreting studies (Bontempo, 2005). A NAATI Auslan panel of examiners serves as an expert group, alongside the Qualification Assessment and Advisory Committee (QAAC) of NAATI, to guide NAATI on examination and assessment issues for Auslan interpreters. Like the spoken language examiner panels, the Auslan panel is comprised of native and nonnative Auslan users, and is appointed annually by NAATI upon formal application from interested parties who must list their credentials and experience suited to service as an interpreter examiner. The Auslan panel develops the annual test material for SLI candidates. NAATI accreditation is the only officially accepted interpreting certification standard for all community languages recognized throughout the nation. Presently, accreditation in Auslan interpreting is only available at

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the paraprofessional or professional interpreter level. NAATI defines the levels of accreditation as follows: Paraprofessional Interpreter This represents a level of competence in interpreting for the purpose of general conversations. Paraprofessional Interpreters generally undertake the interpretation of non-specialist dialogues. Practitioners at this level are encouraged to proceed to the professional levels of accreditation. Professional Interpreter

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This is the first professional level and represents the minimum level of competence for professional interpreting. Interpreters convey the full meaning of the information from the source language into the target language in the appropriate style and register. Interpreters at this level are capable of interpreting across a wide range of subjects involving dialogues at specialist consultations. They are also capable of interpreting presentations by the consecutive mode. Their specializations may include banking, law, health, and social and community services. (NAATI, 2007)

The minimum standard for general practice in interpreting in Australia in both signed and spoken languages is considered NAATI accreditation at the professional level (Ozolins & Bridge, 1999). However, the vast majority of working Auslan interpreters are accredited as paraprofessionals, many of whom practice in settings that could be considered the domain of professional interpreter practitioners (Napier & Barker, 2003). As of September 30, 2008, NAATI had accredited a total of 888 Auslan interpreters since testing commenced in 1982. These include 768 interpreters accredited at the paraprofessional level; and only 120 practitioners accredited at the professional interpreter level (G. Lees, personal communication, September 30, 2008). Australia currently faces a challenge where demand for Auslan interpreters currently outstrips supply (Orima, 2004), so paraprofessionals typically have no difficulty obtaining interpreting work in the current market, sometimes in complex situations, and have little employment-related incentive to upgrade to the higher level of accreditation despite the paraprofessional level of accreditation being an entry level of practice and intended for general conversation interpreting purposes only. By contrast, in most spoken languages tested by NAATI, paraprofessionals do not typically undertake demanding interpreting work, and they are expected to proceed to the professional interpreter level of accreditation. The exception to this is spoken languages of limited diffusion that have emerged recently in Australia (for example, the increasing demand for interpreters to work with refugees arriving in Australia from the Horn

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of Africa, a region which involves a variety of languages that haven’t been in high demand in Australia previously). Interpreter education and training opportunities and NAATI accreditation for languages of limited diffusion remain in their infancy, and paraprofessional practitioners (or even “recognized” practitioners rather than paraprofessionals if no testing is available) commonly practice in these languages. However, these fragile circumstances do not apply to Auslan interpreters, as a relatively robust system of SLI education, training, and accreditation has existed for more than 20 years in Australia. Bontempo and Napier (2007) evaluated the disparity between the levels of NAATI accreditation in SLIs by examining the self-reported skills gaps and perceived degree of competence identified by paraprofessionals and professional level Auslan interpreters in a recent research study. They found a significant difference in the perceived competence and skill gaps identified by practitioners according to level of NAATI accreditation. As might be expected, professional level interpreters reported fewer skills gaps and significantly higher levels of competence overall, in comparison to paraprofessionals. Such evidence illustrates the need to provide paraprofessional practitioners with suitable training opportunities and systems to encourage and support them in achieving the professional interpreter level of practice and accreditation in order to further professionalize the SLI field in Australia. Interpreters can be accredited by NAATI at four different levels in spoken language interpreting—paraprofessional, professional, conference, and senior conference interpreter. The levels pertaining to conference interpreting have never been made available to Auslan interpreters, however, the demand for Auslan interpreters to work at specialized conferences, and in other typically monologic or predominantly didactic settings is increasing. In these settings, interpreters are frequently required to interpret lexically dense, often complex, information from a potentially wide variety of disciplines, at a considerable pace and in simultaneous mode. The level of skill and competence required to work in these environments differs from the expectations of the practitioner working at the professional interpreter level of accreditation in a typically dialogic interpreted setting; therefore, it is argued that the conference interpreter level of accreditation should be made available to Auslan interpreters. The number of spoken language interpreters with conference interpreter and senior conference interpreter NAATI accreditation in Australia is extremely small. To date, these accreditations have only been available either by recognition of overseas university qualifications in interpreting

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at the master’s or doctoral level with an emphasis on simultaneous conference interpreting in the higher degree award, or by undertaking a local NAATI approved master’s level course of conference interpreting studies. There was only one such master’s course in Australia at the time of writing (in Japanese/English conference interpreting). The conference levels of accreditation have never been available to spoken language interpreters by sitting for an examination directly with NAATI. In 2005, NAATI agreed to appoint a voluntary working group from the Auslan panel of examiners to report to the QAAC on the feasibility and viability of the development of a conference interpreter level test for Auslan interpreters. Work is under way on this matter, with an additional level of NAATI testing and accreditation a real possibility for the SLI sector in the near future.

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INTERPRETER EDUCATION PROGRAMS A number of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges, and their vocational education and training equivalents around the nation, provide language acquisition classes for Auslan learners, and also conduct entrylevel Auslan interpreter education programs. TAFE colleges deliver programs at award levels below higher education university degree programs, but at a fraction of the cost of university studies. A national standard for the vocational education and training sector exists in Australia, founded on competency-based training philosophies. Courses are divided into units or modules, which are further segmented into a range of specific learning outcomes, based on standards set by industry. Signed and spoken language interpreting courses at the TAFE college level in Australia therefore are consistent in regards to expected exit competencies. Nonetheless, there is variation “on the ground” in terms of operational factors and logistics, such as student recruitment processes, entrance screening, course delivery, actual content and material, assessment, qualifications of teaching personnel, availability of suitable resources, equipment, and so on. The Auslan courses for language acquisition purposes are delivered at Certificate II, III and IV levels and also at Diploma of Auslan level in some states and territories, taking approximately 2 years full time or 4 years part time to complete. Recognition of prior learning is available, with unit or module exemption and placement testing available where applicable. The national TAFE Auslan interpreter education program is available upon completion of language acquisition studies and successful program admis-

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sion screening for interpreter course entry. The course is a diploma-level award and is conducted part time over 1 year. A further qualification, the Advanced Diploma of Interpreting, has previously been conducted on just a few occasions, at Central TAFE in Perth, Western Australia, and at RMIT University in Melbourne, Victoria. The TAFE qualification resulting from interpreter education programs for both signed and spoken languages is the same. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) provides a national structure for the uniformity

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CROSS-SECTORAL QUALIFICATION LINKAGES

Senior Secondary Certificate of Education

Vocaton E~ tion Train-ng Sector

III aoo

II

Hignor EdlcatiOfl ~tor

Figure 1. Australian qualifications framework structure of awards. Note. Shaded areas show the cross-sectoral linkages between levels of qualifications.

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of all courses of study and qualifications issued in Australia—in schools, vocational education and training institutions, and in higher education institutions. The diploma and advanced diploma available in the SLI field are TAFE level vocational qualifications only, and universities do not offer them. Having a national TAFE training structure that is the same for both signed and spoken language interpreters offers pros and cons. For example, courses have a strong community interpreting focus as this is applicable in spoken language interpreting; however educational interpreting barely rates a mention as it is irrelevant to spoken language interpreters, yet it is the fastest growing area of occupational demand for Auslan interpreters. Government Skills Australia has been commissioned by the federal Department for Education, Employment, and Workplace Relations to develop a new training package for translating and interpreting for national endorsement in 2009. The training package is expected to result in more appropriate and more flexible training for practitioners, taking into account the current variance in work environments and practices among spoken and signed language interpreters, including deaf relay interpreters. Macquarie University in Sydney, New South Wales, is currently the only university in Australia offering a tailored higher education degree to Auslan interpreters. It is offered in a blended, flexible-delivery mode to provide access to potential students throughout Australia. Rather than entry-level training, Macquarie University provides training at the postgraduate level (akin to 4th year university study) for experienced NAATI accredited paraprofessional Auslan interpreters to advance their skills and to gain the professional interpreter level of accreditation upon successful course completion. Napier (2006b) has published detailed accounts of the blended curriculum used.3

Challenges in Interpreter Training No university program at the undergraduate level (bachelor’s degree) currently exists in Australia for Auslan interpreters. There is interest, however, both by educational institutions and by practitioners in a number of states, to establish a suitable undergraduate degree program for Auslan 3. For course information, see http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/postgraduate/coursework/tip/ pca.htm.

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interpreters. There is a significant demand for interpreters and a limited supply of competent Auslan interpreting practitioners in Australia (Orima, 2004), and current interpreter education programs and training options do not appear to meet industry needs (Bontempo & Napier, in press). Anecdotal evidence demonstrates retention rates are not high in Auslan courses over time, and that there is attrition from interpreting programs, and upon entry to the profession. No research has been conducted to identify the reasons for this. An additional concern is there are very few indigenous Australian sign language interpreters entering training programs and working in the profession, and none at all working as interpreter educators. There is only a handful of experienced indigenous deaf relay interpreters working in Far North Queensland, despite the specialized nature of interpreting work with deaf people who are Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (O’Reilly, 2005). Not unlike the international scene, the signed language interpreting profession in Australia is dominated by women, at 83% of the practitioner population (Bontempo & Napier, 2007). This is also reflected in the composition of Auslan classes and interpreter training programs, which typically include few male students. Similarly, there are very few men working as Auslan teachers or as interpreter educators in the SLI field in Australia. Research and strategies to address recruitment, retention, attrition, and the racial and gender diversity issues in the sector have not been undertaken in Australia to date. Interpreter education programs do not run in all states and territories; those that do conduct courses invariably only run one program per year, typically at a metropolitan city TAFE college. The colleges that do run programs do not always have students of sufficient quality at the time of intake to justify course costs, and therefore courses do not run every year, or programs are obliged to accept inadequately skilled students at the time of course entry in order to meet minimum numbers stipulated by the colleges. Despite the existence of a national curriculum both for Auslan courses and for interpreting, student skills and competence at the time of course exit vary, and the “readiness to work” gap is reported to be an issue in Australia, as it is elsewhere (Bontempo & Napier, in press; Bontempo ). & Napier, 2007; Patrie, 1994). A survey of interpreter educators by ASLIA in 2006 determined that a Diploma of Interpreting (Auslan) course ran in only four out of eight capital cities in that year. Estimates regarding graduation rates of students on interpreter education programs indicate approximately 70% of students

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successfully complete Diploma of Interpreting competencies and requirements (ASLIA, 2006). Anecdotal evidence suggests most obtain employment either before, or during, their interpreting studies, meaning successful course completion does not result in increased numbers of available interpreters at the end of the academic year. Unfortunately, due to the lack of NAATI accredited Auslan interpreters available to work, a large number of unaccredited “signers” performing interpreting duties gain employment in Australia, mostly in education settings, and particularly on the east coast and in regional and remote areas. A growing consideration for the field, bearing in mind advances in technology and the size of Australia, is the effective use of distance learning technologies and materials to deliver entry-level interpreter education programs. In 2003, for the first time, a TAFE Diploma of Interpreting course was conducted in flexible delivery mode to students living in northern Queensland, administered by the Brisbane-based Southbank Institute of TAFE. It was not until 2007, however, that a national interpreter education program by distance mode was offered to potential Auslan interpreters living in all regional and remote areas in Australia. The National Auslan Booking and Payment Service (NABS), a medical and allied health interpreting agency funded by the federal government, entered into a partnership with Central TAFE in Perth, Western Australia, to deliver the Diploma of Interpreting in flexible-delivery mode to eligible students living outside metropolitan areas all around the nation. After entrance screening, 15 students from regional Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Australia began the course in July 2007 (M. Spring, personal communication, November 12, 2007). Four students successfully completed the inaugural distance diploma, resulting in four regional towns in Australia gaining NAATI accredited paraprofessional interpreters. Expressions of interest to conduct another distance program in 2009 were distributed in late 2008. A key issue in relation to the progress made in Australia regarding interpreter education courses and programs of Auslan study at TAFE colleges and at universities, including the more recent flexible-delivery mode programs, is Cokely’s (2005, p. 14) reference to the “academic institutionalization” of sign language teaching and interpreter training. While there are many favorable and positive aspects to formalized language acquisition and interpreter education opportunities, such courses, the college personnel, and the students themselves should not lose connectedness with local Deaf communities. Anecdotally at least, the ties between courses and the community have diminished, with social and political changes and the closure of the tradi-

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tional “Deaf clubs” in many states of Australia. Even if they are keen to connect with local deaf people, students do not have easy access to the diversity of the Deaf community any more, which potentially affects their acquisition of linguistic and cultural norms outside the artificial classroom environment. Yet the role of the Deaf community in determining interpreting quality (Stone & Allsop, 2007) and interpreting preferences (Napier, 2007) remains very powerful. Creating networks and rekindling, or nourishing, existing ties between courses and the Deaf community is imperative for Auslan students, interpreter course students, and practicing interpreters in Australia today.

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TRAINING INTERPRETER EDUCATORS Despite the AQF uniformity of requirements and the national curriculum for teaching interpreters, the reality is that TAFE colleges are devolved and independent entities. Interpreter education programs at the TAFE colleges and equivalent institutions in each state operate autonomously, and crossinstitutional collaboration and discussion is not encouraged per se. Exchange of information and knowledge by interpreter educators themselves appears to function on an individual and impromptu basis rather than in any systemic manner. One of the advantages of the relatively small population of Auslan interpreters and interpreter educators in Australia is that informal networks in the field are quite strong. Interpreter educators are all known to one another, and the possibility to communicate across the country does exist, if people are so inclined. Such exchanges are not common, however, and instruments for assessment and materials for students are typically designed by educators, often in isolation, with little networking or peer review, which leads to considerable variability. There is no formal interpreter educators association, however at the time of writing ASLIA had just confirmed several members of a steering group established to define terms of reference for a new association, the “Interpreter Trainers Network,” with the expectation the association will become operational in 2009. In recognition of the lack of formal training and networking opportunities for Auslan interpreter educators, the first national Interpreter Trainers Workshop (ITW) was conceived in Sydney in 2003. The ITW is now a regular event, attached to the annual ASLIA National Interpreters Conference. The event has grown in stature and significance, with a mix of international and local presenters and delegates. However, the issue remains that any training undertaken by educators is typically at the individual’s whim

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and often at personal expense. The impact of this is exacerbated by the size and location of Australia, as the costs associated with both domestic and international travel can be prohibitive. No other training forum specifically for Auslan interpreter educators existed prior to the inception of the ITW in 2003. A predecessor of sorts, the Interpreter Translator Educators Association of Australia (ITEAA), a now disbanded group, held annual conferences for both signed and spoken language interpreter educators, with the 17th (and final) conference of ITEAA held in Melbourne, Victoria, in October 1999. No spoken language interpreter educator training forum has been reestablished since. An encouraging prospect for interpreter educators is that in 2009 Macquarie University will introduce a Master of Translation and Interpreting Pedagogy for educators of translation and interpreting students in all languages.4 Currently there are no specific requirements of interpreter educators and trainers, although if teaching a NAATI-approved course, educators must provide NAATI with details of interpreting (or language) experience, qualifications, academic background, and general employment history. If working for a TAFE college or a university, typically some teaching or training qualifications are required, however this does appear to vary. The lack of input from Deaf people remains a key problem in interpreter education. There is significant representation of deaf leadership and tutelage in Auslan courses throughout the nation, but very few deaf teachers continue to be regularly involved or adopt a high profile in interpreter education. This issue needs urgent attention in Australia.

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ASLIA provides professional development opportunities for Auslan interpreters in most states, as well as on a national scale with an annual conference. Many employers of interpreters also provide professional development, some of it compulsory. In addition, informal mentoring arrangements advance the skills of many practitioners. Formal mentoring structures have traditionally been challenging to establish in Australia (Napier, 2006a), however, ASLIA in Victoria was conducting a formal mentoring project at the time of writing, which may serve as a model for use in other parts of Australia once the project has been evaluated. 4. For course information see http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/postgraduate/coursework/tip/ mtip.htm.

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Prior to 2007, once an interpreter received NAATI accreditation, the interpreter could continue to practice indefinitely. Accreditation was issued for a lifetime, with no requirement to partake in any further skills development or mentoring, or to demonstrate minimum standards for continued practice. An expectation to uphold professional standards and to maintain skills is however reflected in prescribed Codes of Ethics which exist for practitioners in both signed and spoken languages. However, NAATI, ASLIA, and AUSIT cannot currently enforce adherence to the codes and discipline interpreters, or strip practitioners of their accreditation (Leneham & Napier, 2003). Plans to establish a Registration Board for interpreters through an Act of Parliament are currently being discussed in the field, but in the meantime ASLIA and AUSIT have little power other than barring people from membership of practitioner associations for any serious transgressions. However, professional association membership is not mandatory to practice and does not dictate ability to work in Australia; so practitioners cannot be “de-registered” from the profession as such at this time. To this end, in 2007 NAATI introduced a compulsory revalidation of accreditation program that requires all newly accredited practitioners, in all languages, from 2007 onward to present evidence of continuing practice and professional development. It also stipulates that paraprofessional (entry-level) practitioners must upgrade their level of accreditation to the professional interpreter level within a certain period in order to maintain their “license” to work as a practitioner. Accreditation lapses if practitioners do not submit revalidation paperwork by the due period. NAATI was unable to insist on a retrospective requirement for all accredited interpreters to revalidate, therefore practitioners accredited prior to 2007 have the choice of whether to opt in to the revalidation program or not. In the SLI sector, some employers have strongly recommended interpreter employees register for NAATI revalidation and ASLIA has taken a strong stance on the issue, encouraging all members to opt into revalidation, even if it isn’t required of them.

DEAF RELAY INTERPRETERS

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Although the profession of Auslan interpreting and the field of SLI training in Australia faces some ongoing challenges and constraints, on the whole the sector is relatively well organized, with continued improvements forecast for the future and an increasing body of research to scaffold the

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work of Auslan interpreters and interpreter educators. However, less salubrious conditions exist for deaf relay interpreters in Australia The nomenclature for deaf relay interpreters is not agreed upon around the nation, with variants including deaf relay interpreter (DRI), deaf interpreter, and relay interpreter, which are all used in different states and territories. Similarly, the signed lexeme also differs throughout the country. For the purpose of this chapter, the term deaf relay interpreter will be used, hereafter known as DRI, as this appears to be the most widely used term across Australia. Regardless of title, the role of the DRI in Australia is that of a team interpreter, frequently interpreting for:

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• a foreign sign language user • linguistically and/or socially isolated deaf people who have limited sign language proficiency or idiosyncratic signing style (perhaps due to minimal exposure to the Deaf community, mental health issues, a very poor education, or due to the presence of a cognitive disability) • deaf-blind people • situations where trust, or issues of cultural sensitivity/comfort factor are paramount, for example, trauma counseling • International Sign users at conferences/events. Thus far NAATI has declined to award interpreter accreditation to DRIs, stating that the nature of their work is largely intralingual rather than interlingual. As DRIs do not often work between language pairs per se, to date NAATI has not viewed their work as “interpreting.” For this reason, accreditation standards and a national training program for DRIs have not been developed or supported by key stakeholders involved in interpreter accreditation, education, and training. Although clearly not considered DRI work in a modern context, the reality is that many deaf people have performed a pseudo-interpreting role in various settings on an informal and untrained basis over the years. Examples include a deaf child (typically, but not always, from a Deaf family) relaying a teacher’s instructions and information in the classroom to their peers; a deaf person informally conveying information from Auslan into another sign language for a group of foreign visitors attending a presentation at the Deaf club; a deaf person with good oral English skills as well as fluency in Auslan facilitating communication between her deaf friend and a hearing professional at an appointment; and a bilingual deaf

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person translating a written text, such as a letter, for a friend of a family member. This is not to suggest that all deaf people are suited to DRI work or have the raw talent and skill to work in a professional capacity as untrained interpreters by any means, and recognition of this fact has led to the development of various training options for DRIs. Since the late 1990s, courses for DRIs have been conducted in an ad hoc manner in several states, often by state Deaf Society organizations or ASLIA branches. Training has ranged from a weekend workshop, to courses of several weeks duration, to a 1-year Diploma of Interpreting course at Central TAFE in Perth, Western Australia, in 2001. The diploma was directly equivalent and comparable to the Diploma of Interpreting (Paraprofessional) undertaken by Auslan interpreters around the nation, although it was adapted to suit the work context of DRIs. The course emphasized consecutive rather than simultaneous interpreting techniques and was delivered directly in Auslan by hearing and deaf interpreter educators. The course was conducted with a cohort of deaf students only. The courses run in recent years in New South Wales and Victoria have typically followed an up to a semester-long (18-week), part-time study pattern, but no recognized standard curriculum is in use across the nation. No formal teaching resources, such as footage of DRIs working in reallife settings, exist for use in DRI training programs in Australia. Interpreter educators on DRI programs to date have depended on the inclusion of deaf guests who are foreign signers, or deaf-blind, for example; visits by experienced DRIs who are able to demonstrate and model effective interpreting practices and talk about their experiences; and creatively developing or adapting existing Auslan interpreter training material for DRI classroom use and practice. State branches of ASLIA afford DRIs full membership status and entitlements if they have completed some form of training or hold certification as a DRI. DRIs often access professional development activities conducted by ASLIA and others, including workshops run by AUSIT for example. They participate alongside hearing interpreter peers, or on their own as participants in events tailored specifically for DRIs, although these are far less common. Many of these initiatives have occurred only in the last few years. Examples of recent events catering to the specific training needs of DRIs include annual weekend residential retreats conducted in Western

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Australia in 2007 and 2008 where groups of DRIs received one-on-one diagnostic evaluation, skills analysis, and feedback on a filmed interpreted performance, and participated in skills building professional development activities relevant to DRIs. An interesting realization arising from these retreats was that DRIs rarely, if ever, work in tandem, so to see each other interpret in front of one another, to have the opportunity to give detailed analytical feedback, and to learn from one another in such a setting provided invaluable experience. Other recent events include the ASLIA National Conference in Darwin, Northern Territory, in September 2008, where several training sessions and presentations were geared specifically towards the needs and interests of DRIs. A network of DRIs has been formed in Victoria under the auspices of ASLIA, for training and sharing information. Information brochures regarding the work of DRIs have been developed and distributed as an initiative of this DRI network with ASLIA. The rapid growth of the DRI sector in the past few years is very exciting. The impetus for some of this development may well have been the significant DRI project that began in 2006 when the National Auslan Interpreter Booking and Payment System (NABS) medical interpreting service funded ASLIA to develop and administer a national certification process for DRIs. This was in recognition of the variability of training, the lack of standardized testing available to DRIs across the nation, and the requirement for NABS to employ certified interpreters in medical settings under the conditions of their contract with the federal government. Deaf people already holding an AQF qualification from TAFE were exempt from testing, however, all other potential and practicing DRIs were strongly encouraged to undertake the test if they intended to continue to work or to seek future work, with NABS and/or other DRI employers. A test was developed and rolled out in 2007, similar in structure, format, and content to the Auslan paraprofessional-level NAATI video test, with adaptations to suit the work context of DRIs. The test included various cultural and ethical questions for the candidates and also contained two dialogues for interpretation in the consecutive mode. The test dialogues focused on assessing a candidate’s capacity to work with deaf people who were not fluent Auslan users. There were some challenges raised by the testing process. The nature of video testing allowed for standardization of test content and presentation, but meant that the test was highly artificial. DRIs usually work in an organic manner within an interpreting team, and the nature of testing by

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prerecorded video may suppress some of the natural and logical strategies a DRI might use in real life. However, the alternative of national live testing of candidates was not viable in a country the size of Australia, and was carefully considered by ASLIA at the time of product development. A theme raised by some candidates participating in the ASLIA/NABS test, and also expressed by the project personnel, was the need for quality training for DRIs rather than just the introduction of a testing system. Test candidates also indicated the concomitant effect on status and recognition of the DRI certification standard, given that it can be achieved without having completed a course of study in interpreting. It is noted however, that direct NAATI testing without access to a course of study remains an option for Auslan interpreters. The difference is that Auslan interpreters have training and testing options; DRIs do not. ASLIA recently concluded the DRI certification project and was preparing a final report and recommendations for future action at the time of writing. Representations to NAATI are expected in 2009 to demonstrate evidence of the DRI testing process and its close similarity to the standard of performance expected by NAATI at the paraprofessional interpreter level, in the hope that NAATI may accept future responsibility for the formal accreditation of DRIs. In addressing training and certification issues for DRIs, it is important to refer to the potential for employment as a DRI in Australia. Few conferences requiring the use of International Sign are held in Australia, so the majority of the work of DRIs in Australia tends to be with deaf-blind people, deaf people with disabilities, deaf people with special language needs for various reasons, and indigenous deaf people. An issue regarding employment of DRIs is in regard to the reticence of the service user/s to employ the interpreters and to pay for what is sometimes viewed as an unnecessary, supernumerary interpreter. There does not appear to be a great demand for DRIs, but this cannot be quantified as there is no research on DRI use or potential in Australia. To exacerbate the problem, there is little research on deaf interpreting internationally from which to draw (Forestal, 2005). At present the only research undertaken in Australia has been a cursory collection of information for the needs analysis conducted by the ASLIA DRI certification project officer in preparation for defining DRI competencies and developing the DRI certification test. Without more research on this emergent area of interpreting practice, the important work of DRIs is not properly supported—ultimately affecting the outcomes for deaf people most in need of the service.

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A cultural and ideological change might be required by service providers, and by Auslan interpreters as well, to increase DRI use, if applicable. Education of service users may also be required in order to increase the involvement of DRIs in interpreted settings. Anecdotal evidence suggests that even the Deaf community itself widely misunderstands the use and application of DRIs, and indeed some people working in the role of DRI without training or certification may also lack an understanding of their role. In growing the DRI profession, it may be prudent to think laterally about the value and skills of a competent DRI and how they could effectively work in team situations in some circumstances where Auslan interpreters presently work alone. For example, working in inclusive education settings with primary school-aged children may be of enormous benefit to deaf children. In addition, as the demand for written text to signed language translation increases (for example, translations of legislation or translations of open captions on DVD footage), this is another possible area of work for DRIs (Boudreault, 2005). DRIs have only recently started to attend, and have been made welcome at, interpreter professional development events such as national interpreter conferences. At spoken language interpreter professional development events and conferences this situation still causes ripples in regard to the cost of access provisions, which do not seem to be readily understood by all professional development providers. However, there is a growing need for those practicing as DRIs to face the same professional development expectations and standards of practice that many agencies place on Auslan interpreters. In some states, quality assurance mechanisms are already in place for DRIs, and DRIs are treated in the same fashion as paraprofessional interpreters in all aspects of their employment, but this is not commonplace. In terms of interpreter education, the experience of the authors in training DRIs in Australia suggests educators need to have a broad background in the interpreting field; be critical and adept users of interpreters themselves and/or experienced interpreter practitioners (experienced in working as, or alongside DRIs); fluent or knowledgeable in more than one sign language; able to work in different language registers; be highly personable and flexible; value diversity; understand disability issues; and be a competent and widely respected teacher or leader in the Deaf and/or interpreting community. The authors’ experience also suggests that coteaching in a deaf/hearing team can be extremely valuable and can sometimes account for individual gaps in knowledge or experience, as well as the different teaching and learning styles of educators and students.

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Not dissimilar to the composition of the Auslan interpreting profession, there is marked variability of competence amongst DRIs, and the skill sets of some DRIs are more compatible with certain work contexts and individuals. Trained DRIs are typically treated the same as a NAATI paraprofessional Auslan interpreter, and there is no tiered payment system (unlike Auslan interpreters) for DRIs performing at a higher skills standard than that expected at the paraprofessional level. There is no higher test standard and no adjustment in remuneration to accommodate for the additional skills and experience that the more competent DRIs in the nation demonstrate. However, no yardstick exists for accurately measuring the diversity and scope of the wide range of skills and experience in DRIs at present, in order to compensate accordingly.

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CONCLUSION The contemporary Australian context for interpreter accreditation, education, ongoing training, and DRIs has been described and discussed. While conditions overall are reasonably healthy, some challenges remain, in particular for DRIs. Undoubtedly the greatest challenge in regard to signed language interpreter education, and training in general, concerns resources—human, financial, and physical. Australia has a very small group of interpreter educators, few interpreter education programs, limited training resources and materials, only one university-level interpreter education program, and insufficient Auslan interpreters accredited at the professional interpreter level of accreditation. The standard of training for DRIs varies across the nation and remains unfunded and unrecognized: No resources exist for DRI training purposes, and the number of experienced DRI practitioners appears relatively small, although in general little information is known due to the dearth of research on DRIs in Australia. Despite the challenges, the Australian reality is favorable by international standards, and the future looks promising. An anticipated role for Australia may be in developing partnerships with regard to education and training sign language interpreters from other countries in the Australasia/ Oceania region, in conjunction with the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters for example. Australia is well placed to share an increasing pool of knowledge and skills, mindful that collaborations are of value to all involved. A burgeoning culture of research and higher education standards; DRI certification; revalidation of accreditation; conference-level accreditation;

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the potential for a registration board; increased collaboration between deaf and hearing interpreters in Australia and in the region; and the everchanging and improving technologies for teaching and learning all bode well for the future of the profession “Down Under.”

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to express sincere gratitude to the following interpreter educators, practitioners of interpreting, and service users who provided specific feedback and/or information for inclusion in this chapter: Meredith Bartlett, Dawn Harrison, Janine Kirkup, Sandra Leane, Marcel Leneham, Jemina Napier, Leanne Potter, Alexandra Shaw, Merie Spring, Robyn Tsapazi, Linda Warby, and Neil Wood.

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REFERENCES ASLIA. (2006). State reports on interpreter education and training. Second ASLIA National Interpreter Trainers’ Workshop, Perth, Western Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2007). Population clock. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff 1425ca25682000192af2/1647509ef7e25faaca2568a900154b63? OpenDocument. About Australia. Australia geography. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http:// www.about-australia.com/facts/geography/. Bontempo, K. (2005). A survey of Auslan interpreters’ perceptions of performance. Unpublished research report, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Bontempo, K., & Napier, J. (2007). Mind the gap! A skills analysis of sign language interpreters. The Sign Language Translator and Interpreter, 1, 275–299. Bontempo, K., & Napier, J. (in press). Getting it right from the start: Program admission testing of signed language interpreters. In C. Angelelli & H. E. Jacobson (Eds.), Testing and assessment in translation and interpreting. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Boudreault, P. (2005) Deaf interpreters. In T. Janzen (Ed.), Topics in signed language interpreting. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Cokely, D. (2005). Shifting positionality: A critical examination of the turning point in the relationship of interpreters and the Deaf community. In M. Marschark, E. Winston, & R. Peterson (Eds.), Interpreting and interpreter education: From research to practice (pp. 3–28). New York: Oxford University Press. Flynn, J. W. (1996). Reflections on sign language interpreting. In Proceedings of the National Deafness Conference hosted by the Tasmanian Deaf Society, 22–26 May 1996. Hobart, Australia: Australian Federation of Deaf Societies. Forestal, E. (2005). The emerging professionals: Deaf interpreters and their views and experiences on training. In M. Marschark, E. Winston, & R. Peterson

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(Eds.), Interpreting and interpreter education: From research to practice (pp. 235– 258). New York: Oxford University Press. Johnston, T. (1989). Auslan dictionary: A dictionary of the sign language of the Australian Deaf community. Sydney, Australia: Deafness Resources Australia. Johnston, T. (2004). W(h)ither the Deaf community? Population, genetics and the future of Auslan (Australian Sign Language). American Annals of the Deaf, 148, 358–375. Johnston, T., & Schembri, A. (2007). Australian Sign Language (Auslan): An introduction to sign linguistics. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Leneham, M., & Napier, J. (2003). Sign language interpreters’ codes of ethics: Should we maintain the status quo? Deaf Worlds, 19, 78–98. Madden, M. (1995). The prevalence of occupational overuse syndrome among Australian sign language interpreters. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety, 11, 257–263. Madden, M. (2005) The prevalence of occupational overuse syndrome in signed language interpreters in Australia—What a pain! In M. Metzger, & E. Fleetwood (Eds.), Attitudes, innuendo, and regulators: Challenges of interpretation: Vol. 2, (pp. 3–70). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. NAATI. (2007). Accreditation levels. Retrieved October, 10, 2007, from http:// www.naati.com.au/at-accreditation-levels.html. NAATI (2006). Annual report. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http:// www.naati.com.au/pdf/annual-reports/2005–2006_27th_Annual_Report.pdf. Napier, J. (1998). Free your mind—the rest will follow. Deaf Worlds, 14, 15–22. Napier, J. (2000). Free interpretation: What is it and does it translate into training? In A. Schembri, J. Napier, R. Beattie, & G. Leigh (Eds.), Deaf Studies, Sydney 1998: Selected papers from the Australasian Deaf Studies Research Symposium (pp. 21–33). Sydney, Australia: North Rocks Press. Napier, J. (2002a). Sign language interpreting: Linguistic coping strategies. Coleford, England: Douglas Maclean. Napier, J. (2002b). University interpreting: Linguistic issues for consideration. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7, 281–301. Napier, J. (2004). Sign language interpreter training, testing & accreditation: An international comparison. American Annals of the Deaf, 149, 350–359. Napier, J. (2006a). The new kid on the block: Mentoring sign language interpreters in Australia. Journal of Interpretation, 25–46. Napier, J. (2006b). Educating signed language interpreters in Australia: A blended approach. In C. Roy (Ed.), New approaches to interpreter education (pp. 67–103). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Napier, J. (2007). What are our expectations? A discourse analysis of practitioner and consumer attitudes towards signed language interpreting in the community. Unpublished paper presented at Quality in Interpreting: Critical Link 5 Congress. Napier, J., & Barker, R. (2003). A demographic survey of Australian sign language interpreters. Australian Journal of Education of the Deaf, 9,19–32. Napier, J., McKee, R., & Goswell, D. (2006). Sign language interpreting: Theory & practice in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: Federation Press.

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O’Reilly, S. (2005). Indigenous sign language and culture: The interpreting and access needs of Deaf people who are Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander in Far North Queensland [Booklet]. Cairns, Australia: ASLIA National. Orima Research. (2004). A report on the supply and demand for Auslan interpreters across Australia. Commonwealth of Australia. Available at http://www.facs.gov.au/ disability/auslan_report/ Ozolins, U., & Bridge, M. (1999). Sign language interpreting in Australia. Melbourne: Language Australia. Patrie, C. (1994). The readiness to work gap. In E. Winston (Ed.), Mapping our course: A collaborative venture: Proceedings of the 10th national convention of the Conference of Interpreter Trainers.Washington, DC: Conference of Interpreter Trainers. Stone, C., & Allsop, L. (2007). Collective notions of quality of interpreting: Insights from the British Deaf community. Unpublished paper presented at Quality in Interpreting: Critical Link 5 Congress.

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KATE NELSON, INISE TAWAKETINI, RUTH SPENCER, AND DELLA GOSWELL

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Isa Lei: Interpreter Training in Fiji FIJI IS a small island nation consisting of over 300 islands scattered over 850 kilometers (528 miles) in the South Pacific Ocean. It is where Melanesia and Polynesia meet. The capital of Fiji is Suva, on the largest island of Viti Levu (see Figure 1). According to the latest government census (2007), Fiji has a population of 827,900, with 473,983 (57%) of indigenous Fijian descent and 311,591 (37%) of Indo-Fijian descent (Fiji Islands Statistics Bureau, 2007). The number of deaf people living in Fiji is not yet determined but is assumed to be approximately 2,000 (Nelson, 2007). Fiji lies to the north of New Zealand and northeast of Australia, and these two developed countries have played a large part in the story of the Deaf community and its language. The first significant contact Fiji had with Europeans was in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of traders in sandalwood and bêchede-mer (Geraghty, 2007). They were followed by Christian missionaries from the 1830s who were the first to document local languages. European settlers then introduced commercial agriculture to the islands, and the British colonial administration brought 60,000 Indian indentured laborers to work in sugar plantations between 1879 and 1916 (Tarte, 1982). Their descendants are the basis of the current Indo-Fijian population. The most powerful Fijian chief in the late nineteenth century was Ratu Seru Cakobau, on the island of Bau. Bauan is still the dominant Fijian The title of this chapter Isa Lei, is the name of a Fijian song often sung at farewells. It signifies sadness because someone is leaving. “Isa Lei” was sung in heartfelt a cappella harmony by the students to the two Australian kaivalagis (white foreigners) who came to deliver the intensive final stage of the interpreter training program in August 2006. It was a powerful send-off and a symbolic reminder that there is more to be done to establish and consolidate a sustainable interpreting profession in Fiji.

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Figure 1. Map of Fiji. Note. Copyright CIA. The World Fact Book.

dialect today. Cakobau and other high chiefs voluntarily ceded Fiji to Great Britain in 1874. It became a British colony with English as the official language. Fiji emerged as an independent dominion in 1970, and became a republic in 1987. As a consequence of colonization and the indentured Indian migration, Fiji now has three official languages: Fijian (Bauan), Hindustani (Fiji Hindi) and English. Most Fiji Islanders have either Fijian (Bauan or other dialects) or Fiji Hindi as their first language, however English maintains

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a privileged position as the language of administration and education (Mangubhal & Mugler, 2006). Fiji is effectively the hub of the South Pacific, home to the headquarters of many regional organizations. The University of the South Pacific has its largest campus in Suva. Pacific islander people are mobile and need to move to where the work is in order to support their families and communities, so Fiji attracts a mix of Pacific cultures. This diversity is reflected in the demography of the Deaf community, which includes Fijians and Indo-Fijians, as well as people from Tonga, Samoa, Kiribati, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The colonial legacy of kaivalagi dominance, the introduction of Christianity (53% of the population is Christian), the mix of races, the movement of people, and the privileged status of English in society, are all factors which have shaped the Fiji Deaf community and its interpreting needs.

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DEAF EDUCATION In many places around the world, Deaf communities have grown out of the contact and language exposure provided by residential deaf schools (Johnston, 1989). More recently, this pattern has been borne out in Nicaragua, where the first deaf school became the platform for the development of Nicaraguan Sign Language and a local Deaf community (Senghas & Kegl, 1994). From 1968, deaf children in Fiji were sent to “special schools” catering to children with a broad range of disabilities. Deaf children were mainstreamed with other “disabled” children, rather than having a deaf-specific educational program. These conditions were not a catalyst for the creation of a Deaf community or the consolidation of a signed language. In 1966, the Fiji Crippled Children’s Society asked for assistance regarding the education of deaf children. The New Zealand Education Department subsequently conducted a survey of Fiji, visiting educational facilities and meeting people with disabilities. The survey concluded that “the problem of deafness in Fiji, with particular reference to the younger age groups, was severe” (Hilton, 1972, p. 1). Frank Hilton came to Fiji from Australia in 1967, to be head teacher of the Suva Crippled Children’s School. He initiated a pilot scheme to teach the “hearing handicapped children” separately (Hilton, 1972). Oralism was the method of instruction. Hilton noted that the children did

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use signs but the signing was esoteric; that the children themselves “made it.” There was no standardized signing system in those days (Hilton, 2007). Interviews with older deaf people who were ex-pupils of the school reveal that when they were together at playtime or outside of school, they did use signs: a mixture of home signs and mime, combined with mouthing of English, Fijian, or Hindi words (Nelson, 2007). A hostel was set up by the school in 1970 to cater for children who lived outside Suva, however it had only five beds for deaf children, so it did not have the critical mass to function as a language hot-house as with other residential schools. In the early 1980s, teachers of the deaf in Fiji undertook training in Australia, studying at the State College of Victoria (now Melbourne University). They returned with a new signing system: Australasian Signed English (Hilton, 2007). Australasian Signed English (ASE) is not the natural language of the signing Deaf community in Australia; that language is Australian Sign Language (Auslan). ASE follows the grammatical rules of English and is a composite of Auslan signs and contrived signs (Johnston, 1989). The introduction of ASE and its Dictionary of Australasian Signs for Communication with the Deaf (Jeanes & Reynolds, 1982) had a huge impact on the development of Fiji Sign Language. Just as spoken English has been imposed as the language of instruction in mainstream Fiji education, ASE signs have been used to teach English to deaf students, whose mother tongue, if any, is usually Fijian or Fiji-Hindi. Most Fiji islanders’ social lives are heavily immersed in family, church, and sporting activities. At this time, there were no extracurricular activities or organized groups for deaf people beyond school, so deaf people only socialized with close friends in isolated pockets. Ex-students of the school state that there was shame associated with being seen in public as a deaf person, using sign language (Nelson, 2007). After deaf children left school, they tended to go straight back to their family, village, or island. Many of the Indo-Fijian deaf children subsequently emigrated with their families to America or New Zealand (Hilton, 2007).

Sign Language Development Vivienne Harland’s work in Fiji has had a big impact on the consolidation of the Deaf community in Suva and beyond. Harland, who became deaf as a child, came from New Zealand to work as a missionary with the Gospel Church in Fiji in the 1970s. She returned to New Zealand in the early 1980s and, after losing further hearing, decided to learn to sign. At

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the Christchurch Deaf Club she learned ASE. When she returned to Fiji in 1991, she combined her missionary work with her sign communication skills and established the Christian Fellowship for the Deaf (CFD). The CFD provided Bible study classes, and organized sporting groups and annual camps; creating places and events where deaf people could meet. This social infrastructure supported further growth of the Deaf community and, indirectly, Fiji Sign Language (FJSL). It was also a vehicle for the expanded formal usage of ASE in Fiji. Harland offered to teach Bible classes at the Hilton Special School (formerly the Suva Crippled Children’s School). She recalls that she was specifically asked to use only ASE, and not the “deaf way of signing” (Harland, 2007). Harland’s contacts with the American-based Christian Mission for the Deaf located Matthew Adedeji from Nigeria, who came to Fiji from 1997 to 2000. He worked with the CFD, leading Bible classes, preaching, and evangelizing. On his arrival in Fiji, Adedeji was using Nigerian Sign Language (NSI). Due to earlier American missionary influences in Nigeria, NSI derives from a blend of American Signed Exact English (SEE) and American Sign Language (ASL), with local Nigerian and Ghanaian signs. Adedeji then had to learn both ASE and what was then a nascent FJSL. Seeing Fiji delegates at the World Federation of the Deaf Congress in Madrid in 2007, Adedeji noted the more localized form of FJSL that has emerged even in the 7 years since he left Fiji (Adedeji, 2007). As with the evolution of signed languages generally, once the framework of a Deaf community in Fiji started to form, the development of FJSL escalated.

INTERPRETING ROOTS The first attempts at public interpreting began in the 1990s at the Gospel church in Suva. Harland acted as the interpreter in regular services, speechreading the pastor’s English, and passing the message on in ASE. At that time, interpreters sat alongside the deaf members of the congregation, rather than standing adjacent to the speaker, as is now the norm. The practice of deaf people interpreting for other deaf people is common in many Deaf communities, and provided the platform on which the emergent profession of deaf relay interpreting is based (Forestal, 2005). When Adedeji arrived, Harland was working with a local interpreter, Tina Mareko, in a voluntary capacity for the church. Adedeji observed that both Harland and Mareko used ASE when they signed, and that less than half of the message was understood by the deaf audience (Adedeji, 2007).

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Although he did not have the job of training interpreters, he urged the interpreters to use whatever it took to get the message across to deaf people and to go beyond the limits of ASE. In the late 1990s, Adedeji was instrumental in setting up the Gospel School for the Deaf and in 1999 another Nigerian deaf man, Wale Alade, was recruited as head teacher of the school. Alade arrived with his hearing wife, Modupe Alade, who also acted as his interpreter. He had become deaf at fifteen, was university educated, and fluent in NSI, SEE, and written and spoken English. When he first arrived in Fiji, he noted that:

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What I saw then was the imposition of Signed Exact English (SEE) rather than the evolution of NATURAL SIGN language. But a closer look then also revealed a dichotomy within the Deaf community itself in which the more able imposed strict rules to the rest on how they should sign. So we have a sort of “assumed” hierarchy of language competence and language use even among the deaf. My view was, the less educated expressed themselves more fluently in their natural (broke, broke language) deaf language, than the more educated who embodied the SEE rigid structure of expressing themselves. (Alade, 2007)

Despite Alade’s insights, and his encouragement to break away from English syntax in signing, signed English forms were then, and still are, widely considered to be “proper” signing by deaf people, teachers of the deaf, and interpreters in Fiji. FJSL is still called “broke broke English” by many deaf people, and has not been fully accepted as a legitimate public communication form because it is regarded as a manual version of Fiji English, also perceived as inferior in the wider community.1 Ironically, Alade’s own interpreting needs reinforced this view of FJSL inferiority. His bilingual competence allowed him to follow signed transliterations of spoken English, which then became a model for interpreting practice: I preferred simultaneous interpreting in order for me to trail the thought flow of the speaker and in some situations to use similar technical language in my reponse. I felt my position and status in some situations needed to be acknowledged. And for these reasons I needed a literal interpretation. (Alade, 2007)

During Alade’s stay in Fiji, he was the main client for all interpreting work, so deaf people and interpreters assumed that his preferred signing 1. Since the recent publication of The Macquarie Dictionary of English for the Fiji Islands (Mugler, Geraghty, & Tent, 2006), the written form of Fiji English has been legitimized. Recognition of Fiji Hindi as it is spoken and written by the Indians who live in Fiji remains an ongoing process.

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mode was appropriate for all interpreting situations. The practice of interpreting for Alade in the literal, simultaneous manner was inadvertently carried over into all interpreting practice after he left in 2003. Interestingly, Alade’s wife, Modupe, provided a more effective model of interpreting, which was acknowledged at the time. For example, in 2000, students from Gospel School for the Deaf attended the annual National Disability Games, a sporting competition for all the special schools in Fiji. A teacher from Hilton Special School (previously Suva Crippled Children’s School) was appointed as the interpreter for the day, but she was not making herself understood. Modupe Alade spontaneously stood up and began to interpret as well. This was the first time FJSL had been seen in a public place, and every deaf student was watching her instead of the other interpreter. Her efforts were acknowledged by the Ministry of Education on the day. Wale Alade considers it a breakthrough in interpreting practice:

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My sole objective from that moment was for the hearing teachers at the GSD (Gospel School for the Deaf) to know that at such an event, they constituted the EARS of deaf people and they must let the deaf know everything that was said or sounded around even if it did not relate to the main events. I then developed the habit of using different teachers at different events and at the end of each day I often gave on-the-spot anaylsis of their performance. (Alade, 2007)

Alade’s comment about interpreters being the “ears” (but not the mouths) of deaf people, reflects a somewhat patronizing idea of the interpreting role, prevalent in the early days of the profession when religious and other charitable organizations were the main service providers. It denotes a one-way information exchange: from the dominant spoken language to the deaf person, rather than a more balanced and empowering approach. This benevolent advocacy or “helper” model has been noted as a preprofessional stage in many developed countries as well, including the United States (Sanderson & MacIntyre, 1995) and Australia and New Zealand (Napier, McKee, & Goswell, 2006). Despite Modupe Alade’s interpreting competence and role-modeling, in the absence of a teaching or mentoring framework, her skills were not sufficiently understood or emulated by the majority of the Fiji interpreters at the time. However, a few interpreters did take up some of her ideas, and they began to stand in a more prominent position: up the front and next to the speaker. They also adopted the strategy of working in pairs when church interpreting, using prompts to assist their team member. Deaf people began to request the services of the teachers from the Gospel School for the Deaf as interpreters (whose signing was seen as

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closer to FJSL thanks to Wale Alade’s influence) rather than their ASE counterparts at Hilton Special School. As the demand for interpreters grew, Alade was able to start lobbying for interpreters to be paid: “It got to a situation where I asked the service provider to give a stipend to the interpreter. The Human Rights Commission and the Disabled People’s organisation followed the trend and started allocating a budget for interpreters” (Alade, 2007).

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EMERGING DEAF LEADERSHIP AND ITS EFFECT ON INTERPRETING A young deaf leader, Serevi Rokotuibau, began working as a volunteer teacher’s aide at Hilton Special School (HSS) in 1997. He was the chairperson of the Suva Support Group for the Deaf, established under HSS to teach sign language and English classes. In 1999, the Suva Support Group sponsored Rokotuibau’s attendance at the World Federation of the Deaf congress in Brisbane, Australia. In 2000, the Suva Support Group sent him to the Asia Pacific Deaf leadership training program run by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. Both these events opened up the “deaf world” to him (Rokotuibau, 2007). He has since graduated as a teacher, and in 2002, was appointed the first deaf teacher at HSS. In 2002, Rokotuibau worked with Alade to establish the Fiji Association of the Deaf (FAD), with an all-deaf executive. Rokotuibau became President of FAD, the Suva Support Group closed, and FAD took over the work of providing sign language and English classes. From this time onward, local deaf people like Rokotuibau, who were now in more prominent leadership positions, started working with interpreters in an official capacity. In 2005, with help from the Fiji Disabled People’s Association, a team of 16 people participated in the Deaflympics in Melbourne, Australia. Two interpreters were part of that team: Tina Mareko and Inise Tawaketini. This was a significant achievement for FAD and its leadership—the first time that Fiji was represented at the Deaflympics, and the first time any FJSL interpreters were exposed to Signed Language Interpreting (SLI) at an international level.

A New Kaivalagi Arrives In 2004, Ruth Spencer, a qualified New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) interpreter, arrived to work as a volunteer with the Harland Hostel.

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Vivienne Harland had converted her home into a hostel for the children attending the Gospel School for the Deaf and employed both deaf and hearing staff to run the hostel. Children from Kiribati, Vanuatu, and Nauru were coming to Fiji to attend the school, as well as children from other parts of Fiji. When she first arrived, Spencer observed that deaf people would use FJSL when chatting informally among themselves, but revert to ASE in formal situations. She noticed that the sign language interpreters at church were predominantly using ASE and that they looked self-conscious when standing up the front, used a small signing space, and showed no grammatical facial expression. They stood at the side of the room rather than next to the speaker, and in meetings, sat in the same space as the deaf people rather than at the front of the room. As an outsider, Spencer needed to be cautious about initiating change. Over time she modeled different interpreter behaviors, which were actually in-line with strategies that Modupe Alade had introduced beforehand. Spencer started standing at the front of the room next to the speaker and incorporated more FJSL grammar into her signing, using nonmanual features, productive (depicting) signs, and constructed action and dialogue. Her English-to-FJSL interpreting style, although still influenced by NZSL, was consequently more “free” and natural than the “literal” English-based form Wale Alade had unwittingly instigated. In response, many deaf people and other interpreters thought that she was using mime rather than signing, but despite the NZSL interference, found her interpretations easier to understand than the local ASE-based practice. Spencer worked in Fiji until 2007. Despite best intentions to the contrary, a few NZSL signs are now used by the Deaf community, as a legacy of Spencer’s work. It is inevitable that in a small developing Deaf community, kaivalagis (white foreigners) who come to live and work in Fiji will, inadvertedly or otherwise, influence FJSL with the signed languages and systems they have brought with them. Harland and the teachers of the deaf have imported ASE; Adedeji and Alade have introduced aspects of SEE/ASL-based NSI; and now there is a NZSL layer. Most of these influences have originated in Suva, which in turn influences the signing in other Fiji towns and islands.

INTERPRETER TRAINING

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FIJI

In Fiji there is no spoken language interpreting profession. There is no training, association, or register of interpreters for any language. However,

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“interpreters” are used in court, parliament, and for police matters. Those who interpret in court are as designated “court clerks” and paid very little. Paul Geraghty, linguist and associate professor at the University of the South Pacific, states that they are people with minimal education who were given the jobs by relatives who are magistrates, judges, or working in some capacity in the system (Geraghty, 2007). In this context, the provision of a training program for sign language interpreters in Fiji is particularly significant. Prior to the commencement of the training course in 2006, sign language interpreters in Fiji have generally been unaware of, and unaccountable for, the quality of their interpreting output. Interpreters would often make up signs as they worked, and this practice has been acccepted by deaf people. The Deaf community has also never challenged the practice of interpreters answering questions on an individual’s behalf and making decisions for their clients. This is not unsual in a context where interpreting is preprofessional, still “helper” oriented, and where the sign language is still emerging with a lexicon that is not yet standardized or large enough to accommodate a broad range of concepts. A compounding factor is the Fiji cultural norm of not confronting or criticizing others directly. FAD recognized the need to document FJSL and to improve the quality of interpreting generally. In 2004–05, FAD applied for an Australian Volunteer International placement and funds to create a dictionary and provide interpreter training. Kate Nelson, deaf and Fiji-born (although still regarded as a kaivalagi because of her Australian background), was recruited to take up the placement in 2005. When Nelson arrived, there was only one full-time Fijian interpreter, Rita Miller, working solo at the Gospel High School. Miller was interpreting for deaf students in their 1st year of high school, unsupervised, and remunerated from donations. 2006 was a landmark year in terms of the recognition and development of the Deaf community and the FJSL interpreting profession: • FAD received a grant to employ five full-time interpreters at two Suva high schools: Gospel High School and Marist Brothers High School. Nelson and Spencer were enlisted to establish a monitoring and supervision system; the first time there had been any monitoring or supervision of interpreters in Fiji. • Production commenced on the FJSL dictionary. • FAD set up an interpreter committee to help monitor interpreting activities and work toward setting up an interpreting association. • Two FJSL interpreters, Inise Tawaketini and Claudette Wilson, were

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sponsored to attend the Sign Language Interpreters Association of New Zealand (SLIANZ) annual conference. • Nelson and Spencer recruited students and conducted the first interpreter training course.

THE 2006 INTERPRETER TRAINING COURSE— A CASE STUDY The first sign language interpreter training course in Fiji ran for approximately 6 months. Classes were held once a week for 2 hours from March to August 2006. Nelson and Spencer were the principal teachers for the weekly classes, with a guest lecture from Hayley Best, a visiting New Zealand interpreter. Toward the end of the course, Della Goswell and Jemina Napier, interpreter trainers from Australia, taught a 6-day intensive component. The course had two assessments, and the graduation was held in September. Of the 25 students who enrolled, 17 graduated. Most of the funding for the training came from AusAID (the Australian government’s international development agency) and NZAID (New Zealand’s international aid and development agency). This funding enabled the students to attend without cost.

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Needs Analysis As with any first-time course, it was important to determine the needs of the group as a starting point. For a program taught by kaivalagis, it was even more critical to try and frame the content and process of teaching to the local context: linguistically, culturally, and politically. Nelson, living and working in Fiji for a year prior to the start of the course, had time to observe the situation in Fiji with regard to interpreter competencies and practice. She liaised with Goswell and Napier on the needs analysis, to ensure that the intensive stage of the course would also be tailored to meet the needs of the Fiji context. The initiative for the course came from FAD, rather than from interpreters themselves; FAD felt that the interpreters needed more skills development. This externally driven approach to training can produce a defensive response, so Nelson took time to talk with the interpreters and get them onboard, to ensure that the training was something they wanted to do. The majority agreed and expressed interest, however, there was some resistance from the interpreters working at the high school, who were compelled to attend as part of their employment contracts.

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The class demographic profile was as follows:

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• The gender balance was 22 females and 3 males—a typical ratio for sign language interpreters in many countries. • The majority of students had Fijian as their 1st language, with English as a second language, and FJSL as their 3rd language. Some of the students also spoke Hindi and Tuvaluan. • None of the students were native signers (i.e., children of deaf adults), which is unusual for the first cohort of sign language interpreters compared with other more developed countries. This probably reflects the relatively recent emergence of the Deaf community and FJSL, and consequently limited opportunities for signing deaf adults to have partnered and reared children by this time. • Most students had graduated from high school. • Most students were working full time as teachers at either Hilton Special School or Gospel School for the Deaf. • Only 10 students had regular interpreting experience to draw on, although most of the other students had some voluntary interpreting work experience in a school or church context. The first challenge was to find appropriate teaching resources. Nothing specifically Fiji-oriented has been created, so Nelson initially sourced curriculum material from the U.S., drawing on: Sign Language Interpreting: A Basic Resource Book (Solow, 2000), Reading Between the Signs: Intercultural Communication for Sign Language Interpreters (Mindess, 2004), and Reading Between the Signs Workbook: A Cultural Guide for Sign Language Students and Interpreters (Mindess, 2004). Soon after the course started, another, more locally relevant, interpreting text became available: Sign Language Interpreting: Theory and Practice in Australia and New Zealand (Napier, McKee, & Goswell, 2006). This was provided to all students as a textbook.

The Weekly Classes Nelson and Spencer conducted the course predominantly in English with some FJSL instruction. They focused on topics that Nelson had seen as gaps in the current knowledge base, so the course content included: • Deaf culture—a new concept to the students (and the Deaf community)—and the students’ role in mediating between cultures • Basic FJSL linguistics—its legitimacy as a language still being a novel idea

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• The use of FJSL versus ASE in interpreting • Church interpreting and the translation of religious songs (as a key context for the Deaf community and the interpreters in Fiji). From the start, the teachers were presented with a number of pedagogical challenges. The first was linguistic—they had unconsciously assumed a level of English fluency and literacy for the group that many of the students struggled to meet. The classes and handouts were presented in English, and the textbook was in written English, from a non-Fiji perspective, so the information was not optimally accessible. Another challenge was their perceived credibility as teachers and practitioners. Spencer is a qualified and experienced interpreter, but had not trained interpreters before; Nelson has experience teaching Auslan but is not a trained interpreter. In addition, one legacy of colonization in Fiji is that local people can be sensitive to being told what to do or what is right by kaivalagis. Both teachers noticed that the high school interpreters, who had been required to attend the training, seemed particularly resistant to their teaching approach and ideas. Nelson and Spencer initially chose a lecture format as the main delivery style, with the intention of getting as much information across to the students as possible in a short period of time. They planned to present theoretical ideas first, as a foundation for the later, intensive practical stage taught by the more experienced practitioners. In the context of an educational culture that does not encourage students to ask questions of their teachers, the noninteractive teacher-centered format limited class participation and learning, with only the most experienced and assertive students asking questions. In response to what they realized was a restrictive learning environment, Nelson and Spencer subsequently expanded the range of class activities, with more group work and practical tasks, prior to the intensive phase.

The 6-Day Intensive Goswell and Napier were accorded much respect as overseas visitors. FAD had highlighted the importance of the opportunity for the students, and as two of the authors of the textbook, they had immediate cachet. This meant that expectations were high, and so were their responsibilities. It was their task to make the theory of the preceding coursework “real.” In the limited timeframe of 6 days, they needed to engage with the group immediately and to gauge what teaching/learning strategies were working

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best. As Garrison and Archer (2000), Winston (2005), and others suggest, they used an interactive, student-centered collaborative teaching style to draw students into discussion and to create an environment safe enough for the students to take risks. After an updated needs analysis with the group, the topics delivered were a mix of language-focused content and behavior-based concepts. Initially, the teachers aimed to increase the students’ metalinguistic awareness of two of their interpreting languages—FJSL and English—and to introduce feedback techniques. The concepts of consecutive and simultaneous interpreting, the role and ethics of an interpreter, and team interpreting strategies were introduced by using role-plays. The intensive training was aimed at consolidating and building on the earlier class material, by working experientially: from practice back to theory. Many of the teaching strategies were part of any interpreter trainer’s repertoire and included: • Expanding the students’ analytical frameworks so that they were better able to see and describe features of the languages they were working between (FJSL in particular), and the roles they were implicitly taking on. • Frequent analysis of students’ interpretations, modeled by the teachers and then practiced with peers. This was initially done live in small groups and then later on video. The aim was to develop feedback skills that were specific as well as constructive (a technique they needed to develop early so that it could be sustained beyond the course). • A staged approach to contributing to the class discussion, and interpreting in front of peers—the students initially worked in pairs, then in small groups, and finally in large groups in order to develop confidence and mutual trust. • Role-plays using a range of prominent local deaf people, so that students were practicing with the clients they would eventually work with. These deaf guest teachers were also filmed, to create sample monologic texts as resources for later FJSL analysis, and as source texts for interpreter practice. Indirectly this also had the benefit of exposing some of the Deaf community leaders to concepts and strategies that the students were learning. • Overtly modeling interpreting behaviors—often demonstrating inappropriate practice in contrast to best-practice techniques. • Showing video examples of competent signed language interpreters working in other places in the world—to broadly contextualize the Fiji

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interpreters’ work. This revealed linguistic similarities across signed languages and dilemmas that all interpreters face. Goswell and Napier also faced pedagogical challenges, usually involving cultural sensitivities. Conscious of their capacity as kaivalagis to inadvertently introduce more “foreign” signs, they tried as far as possible to use FJSL signs in their teaching and encouraged FJSL corrections from the other teachers and the students. The teachers also needed to be careful in their use of the words “Fiji” and “Fijian”—Fijian refers to the indigenous people of Fiji only and does not include the Indo-Fijians. The sign language has therefore been called Fiji Sign Language, rather than Fijian Sign Language, as an inclusive acknowledgement of its use by the wide range of deaf people living in Fiji. In some of the devised role-plays, Goswell and Napier acted as hearing professionals, but their characterization was based on Australian norms, and the students sometimes became confused. After feedback and modeling from the students, the role-plays were adapted to be more realistic of Fiji discourse patterns, and therefore more effective. For example, in Fiji, doctors do not typically explain a diagnosis of an illness; rather, they ask questions of the patient and then hand over a written prescription. In Australia, as in many other Western countries, patients expect an explanation of what is wrong with them and why any medication is being prescribed. It is also perfectly acceptable to ask questions of the doctor. Further role-play scenarios needed to be devised around school and church settings once it became clear that these were the contexts most familiar to the group, and the most common venues for their interpreting work. The teachers also needed to ensure that their language use in the role-plays and the classroom was moderate; Fiji society is very conservative, and colorful language is not acceptable in public, even in jest. (Australian culture, for instance, is more accepting of the use of certain swear words in public and formal domains.) It was easy to assume that current models of interpreting appropriate to the Deaf communities in developed countries would automatically apply in Fiji. Despite legislative human rights entitlements, deaf people have had little access to education or interpreters, and still look to hearing people for guidance and answers when dealing with the wider community, so the “helper” paradigm often makes more sense than a bilingual-bicultural mediator. Students were encouraged to think about which model could be used and when, given their specific cultural circumstances, and to be aware

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of the limitations of the helper framework rather than dismissing it all together (Solow, 2000). Collaborative problem-solving of cross-cultural issues as they arose was an empowering process for the students, and a learning opportunity for the teachers. The students responded very well to the intensive training, gaining confidence and insights into their interpreting practice day by day. Their acquired knowledge needed to be shared with the Deaf community—a key stakeholder in the provision and outcomes of the training. To this end, a workshop was held during the intensive course, aimed at demonstrating some of the ideas and skills being taught, and gauging community response, with the interpreter/deaf client relationship as the main theme.

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Deaf Community Workshop Approximately 40 deaf people attended the workshop, mostly from Suva, but encouragingly also from outlying areas; some had traveled overnight to get there. Goswell and Napier facilitated the workshop using their basic FJSL with lots of gesture and mime. It was framed as a series of wrongway/right-way vignettes, with local Deaf community leaders (many of whom had been involved in the earlier role-plays), interpreting students, and the teachers—all acting out scenarios. The actors first demonstrated overtly inappropriate interpreter (or deaf client) behaviors, and the audience was asked to comment on what was wrong and what alternatives there might be. The actors then presented the co-created improved version. After the scenarios, a question-and-answer session was opened up. The format of the workshop was accessible and entertaining, and the issues generated lots of discussion among the Deaf community members. They were able to meet and evaluate the interpreter trainers and their ideas. One best-practice concept that did not meet with unanimous approval was the suggestion that interpreters (and deaf presenters) wear plain contrasting clothing to highlight their signing, especially in large public forums. Many of the deaf men wear bula shirts, which have large colorful floral designs, and saw no reason to discontinue that proud cultural tradition; the Deaf community was left to continue that discussion.

Training Outcomes Feedback from the students at the end of the course was overwhelmingly positive; each of them was enthusiastic about the experience, and was able

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to pinpoint skills and knowledge that they had acquired. Some of the interpreters in the group already had innate competencies in-line with the standards of professional interpreters in Australia and New Zealand, and they gained more confidence along with more skills. As trainers, it was rewarding to see such growth and awareness in such a short time, however, therein lies the danger: how to sustain the momentum once the training has ceased and the trainers have gone? As an attempt to address this issue, the final topic in the intensive course was entitled: Where to from here? All of the teachers involved in the training program made concerted efforts to create resources for the group while they were in Fiji and to send further materials once they had returned home. However, it became clear that the main imperative was to support the interpreters as a functional group, with access to further development opportunities in the longer term. This initially requires local leadership with continued outside support. Inise Tawaketini, one of the students from the course (and an author of this chapter), worked with Spencer before she returned to New Zealand in 2007, delivering a 2-week interpreter training course tailored for the interpreters working in the high schools. She has now taken on the role of local trainer for further skills development of the Fiji group. As a result of the continued contact between Fiji and Australian interpreters, Tawaketini was one of two representatives from Fiji sponsored to present at the Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ASLIA) national conference in Sydney in 2007. The Fiji interpreter group has now also been connected with the Australasia/Oceania region of the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters (WASLI). It is hoped that the group’s leadership and contacts will enable continued development of interpreter training and practice in Fiji.

CONCLUSION For better or worse, four decades of kaivalagi influence have made a significant impact on the development of Fiji Sign Language, the formation of the Deaf community, and the work of FJSL interpreters. As a result, deaf people in Fiji, and the interpreters working with them, are dealing with a still-evolving local signed language, in the context of a range of local and imported spoken languages. Only since 2004 have Fiji deaf people had the opportunity to visit other countries, to acquire skills for themselves, and to bring these insights and

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capacity back to their community. The group of FJSL interpreters is also only just starting to develop their skills base from within: the only approach that is sustainable in the longer term. In the meantime, the lessons learned from the recent experience of the Australian and New Zealand interpreter trainers are worth documenting and building upon. There are many developments in sign language interpreter practice internationally, which are worth sharing. As long as cultural differences are respected and accommodated, there is still value in bringing appropriate outside expertise to developing countries like Fiji, if it is requested. “Isa Lei” was sung to the kaivalagis in sad farewell at the end of the 2006 intensive training course, at a significant time in the short history of the Deaf community in Fiji. Alongside that initial disappointment there is also hope that the momentum generated by the course, and the contacts that have been established in its aftermath, can feed into and encourage further growth and empowerment for deaf people in Fiji and the interpreters who work with them.

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REFERENCES Adedeji, M. (2007). Personal communication, September 18, 19, and 20. Alade, W. (2007). Personal communication, September 11. Derrick, R.A. (1965). The Fiji islands: A geographical handbook. Suva: Fiji Government Printing Department. Field, M. (2007, August 25). Fiji-Indians understand future of fifth generation is not in Fiji. Fiji Times. Fiji Government. (2007). Fiji today 2005/2006. Retrieved September 27, 2007, from http://www.fiji.gov.fj/uploads/FijiToday2005–06pdf. Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics. (2008). Fiji national census of population 2007. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj. Forestal, E. (2005). The emerging professionals: Deaf interpreters and their views and experiences on training. In M. Marschark et al. (Eds.), Sign language: Interpreting and interpreter education: directions for research and practice (pp. 235– 258). New York: Oxford University Press. Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2000). A transactional perspective on teaching and learning: A framework for adult and higher education. Amsterdam: Pergamon. Geraghty, P. (2007). Personal communication, September 20 and December 15. Gordon, R. G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world ( 15th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Retrieved November 17, 2008, from http:// www.ethnologue.com/. Harland, V. (2007). Personal communication, August 22. Hilton, F. (1972). Education for the deaf in Fiji. Unpublished manuscript. Hilton, F. (2007). Personal communication, August 25 and September 25.

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Jeanes, R. C., & Reynolds, B. E. (1982). Dictionary of Australasian signs for communication with the deaf. Melbourne: Victorian School for Deaf Children. Johnston, T. (1989). Auslan dictionary: A dictionary of the sign language of the Australian deaf community. Sydney: Deafness Resources Australia. Kegl, J. (1994). The Nicaraguan Sign Language Project: An overview. SignPost 7(1), 24–46. Mangubhai, F., & Mugler, F. (2006). The language situation in Fiji. In R. Baldauf, & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Language: Planning and policy in the Pacific: Vol 1. Fiji, the Philippines, and Vanuatu (pp. 22–80). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Meyer, A. (1995). Oceanic art. Cologne, Germany: Konemann. Mugler, F., Geraghty, P., & Tent, J. (2006). The Macquarie dictionary of English for the Fiji Islands. North Ryde, Australia: Macquarie Library. Napier, J., McKee, R., & Goswell, D. (2006). Sign language interpreting: Theory and practice in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: Federation Press. Nelson, K. (2007). Personal communications with Venasio Tamainai, Tomasi Taberanibou, Laise Ranatawake, Cathy Naserua, and Louisa Williams, August 16, 17, and 18. Rokotuibau, R. (2007). Personal communication, September 25. Solow, S. N. (2000). Sign language interpreting: A basic resource book. Burtonsville, MD: Linstok. Tarte, D., Rives, C., Bonnay, C., & de Kersauzon, O. (1982). Fiji Fiji. Tokyo: Societe Nouvelle des editions du Pacifique. Winston, E. (2005). Designing a curriculum for American Sign Language/English interpreting educators. In M. Marschark et al. (Eds.), Sign language: Interpreting and interpreter education: directions for research and practice (pp. 208–234). New York: Oxford University Press.

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Training of Sign Language Interpreters in Japan: Achievements and Challenges IN ORDER to discuss how sign language interpreter training began in Japan, we will provide a historical context. The training of sign language interpreters by deaf people in Japan did not start with a clear intention. Things started to change in 1963 when a citizens’ volunteer group, which called themselves Mimizuku (long-eared owl), began meeting regularly. Their aim was to learn sign language, to be friends with deaf people and participate in their activities, and to build a better society. They did not, however, begin learning sign language in order to become sign language interpreters. Learning to sign and learning to become a sign language interpreter is a process that requires hard work over a long period of time. In many countries, teachers in schools for the deaf and hearing children of deaf parents ended up becoming interpreters based on their sign language ability. Although they had developed their sign language abilities either naturally or through dedicated effort, they did not see themselves as interpreters in the professional sense. This was partly due to the discriminatory customs and views against people with disabilities in general at that time. As a result, a developed nation like Japan had been without interpreters for a long time. However, Mimizuku’s ideals of equality and full participation in society were a good starting point for sign language interpreter training. Until the 1950s, deaf people and teachers from deaf schools, with the aid of local groups such as the Lions Club, held public classes and basic workshops for bus guides in several parts of Japan. However, these programs were only offered for a short time. Their aim was not to train interpreters; it was to help hearing people learn about sign language. Because the time frame was short, it was seen as a starting point, rather than a 190 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

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chance to master the language. Either way, no sign language interpreters grew out of these programs. But, meeting with deaf people and joining in their activities gave students the opportunity to naturally build communication skills over time. The Japanese Federation of the Deaf (JFD), especially its Youth Department, took the opportunity to give their full support to the newly emerging Mimizuku group. Among others helping the circle develop were Ito Shunsuke (a teacher at the local deaf school and a sign language interpreter) and Kono Yoshikazu (a hearing person with deaf parents). Shunsuke understood the significance of defending deaf people’s rights. Later, an organized group of sign language interpreters appeared for the first time in Japan. They were members of Mimizuku, who had been well trained as interpreters. This experience in Kyoto quickly spread to all parts of Japan with the support of the Youth Department of the JFD. These groups were developing fast and getting a lot of media attention. In time, these volunteer groups (called sign language circles though their particular names varied) emerged all over Japan. Among the active members of the JDF-Youth Department in those days was Ando Toyoki, current president of the JDF; Takada Eiichi, former JDF president; Matsumoto Masayuki, former JDF vice president; Itabashi Masakuni; Kawai Yousuke; and many others who would later become central figures in the history of the Japanese Deaf movement.

GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT INTERPRETER TRAINING

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SIGN LANGUAGE

The JDF is a national body of deaf people reorganized after World War II. It is a democratic organization with the aims of independence and autonomy for deaf people. It has outlived the prewar subordinate status of being controlled by the administrators of deaf schools. After the war, JDF demanded a state-funded official sign language interpreting (SLI) system and the building of centers for deaf people in their local communities. But in a society still full of discriminatory customs and views against people with disabilities in general, the government granted neither of the demands. The national and local governments did not take JDF and its local chapters seriously and responded negatively as follows: “In deaf schools you are taught spoken Japanese and teaching in sign language is not allowed, much less sign language interpreting. You were taught in deaf schools to read lips and you can communicate by exchanging written notes.”

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The appearance of Mimizuku and the spread of other sign language circles changed that trend. By the late 1960s, hearing people who had learned to sign in these groups became volunteer interpreters and developed their activities nationwide. This connected the activities of sign language circles and the development of volunteer SLI. The demands of deaf people and the achievements of the interpreters led to a stronger grassroots movement to lobby the national and local governments for a SLI system. Governments who had found it easy to ignore the demands of deaf people now had to respond to hearing activists and increased media attention as well. As a result, the Ministry of Health researched the situation in Kyoto. In 1970, a training program for sign language volunteers, the Sign Language Volunteers Project, began. They were called volunteers, but in reality this was the first system of government-funded training of sign language interpreters. Regional governments carried out these public sign language classes with 50% funding from the national government. At that time, the classes were not for training interpreters. The goal was to train “hearing volunteers able to communicate with deaf people through sign language.” In Japan at that time, the government had little experience in training professionals in the field of social welfare, such as sign language interpreters. The national government failed to specify important information for the project, such as training levels, curriculum, textbooks, and so forth. It also provided insufficient funding to the regional governments. As a result, the quality and content of the training varied from area to area. The regional governments were responsible for these projects. They worked with regional deaf organizations, which used local deaf members and interpreters to teach the classes. However, the quality of training varied due to the knowledge and skills of the teachers. So, teacher training became a big issue for a national training system. While this project created a lot of publicity about sign language, it was not successful from an interpreter training standpoint.

Employment and Dispatch Projects Begin The government established two more projects to utilize people who had completed the volunteer classes which began in 1970: Project 1: Sign Language Interpreter Placement Project (1973) Project 2: Sign Language Volunteer Dispatch Project (1976)

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The regional government ran both of these projects with 50% funding from the national government. Project 1 placed sign language volunteers in social welfare offices to interpret when deaf people visited. Project 2 was created to register and send sign language volunteers to hospitals, workplaces, and schools when deaf people needed interpreting. In the 1970s, besides these two projects, some cities and towns began to employ interpreters as full-time workers. Local deaf organizations also established systems for dispatching interpreters to meet the local demands. Therefore, more and more interpreting services became available. At present, there are 47 prefectures and 15 designated major cities in Japan. Interpreters are dispatched from offices or specialized centers in about 40 of these areas nationwide. However, there are few full-time interpreters. Most interpreters are housewives or have unrelated full-time employment.

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TRAINING SIGNED AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS IN JAPAN In Japan, spoken language translators and interpreters are trained in colleges, junior colleges, vocational schools, and so forth. These courses are part of foreign language education and function between different languages. Sign language interpreters, however, are trained as part of social welfare programs. They are seen more as social welfare workers than language interpreters. Deaf people are recognized more for their disability than as language users. Therefore there are no schools with spoken language translator and/ or interpreter training courses that regard sign language as a language and provide sign language interpreter training. Sign language interpreters are trained in social welfare vocational schools. Sign language interpreting services are funded from social welfare budgets for people with disabilities, and dispatched by organizations supporting people with disabilities. Up until about 10 years ago, there had been no connection between spoken language interpreter training and sign language interpreter training. Recently, attitudes to legal interpreting have provided an opportunity for the exchange of views between spoken and sign language interpreters.

TRAINING SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

IN

In 1990, The National Rehabilitation School offered the first sign language interpreter training course at a higher education institution in Japan.

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The 2-year (40-student) course is available to high school graduates. Knowledge of sign language is not compulsory at admission, and during the 2-year period students receive interpreting training. At the end of the course, they are expected to be ready to take the National Sign Language Interpreters Certification (to be discussed later). However, they must pass a final examination. Most of the graduates hope to work as sign language interpreters, but they do not have a good chance of putting their training into practice since there are not enough job opportunities. Today, another private college offers a 4-year course, and a private vocational school provides a 2-year (30-student) course. The curriculum and teaching methods in these courses vary. In the future, as the number of training courses increase, unifying the content and method of certification will be essential. As mentioned, there is a lack of job opportunities for graduates as professional interpreters. This is one of the central reasons why the number of courses at higher education institutions is relatively small. For interpreter training to develop, the government must create more job opportunities for graduates.

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TRAINING CURRICULUM

FOR

INTERPRETERS

Despite the beginning of higher education courses in 1990, registered interpreters who studied at earlier public classes still tend to carry out the majority of interpreting work in Japan. In the 1980s, deaf people became more active in society. The conventional training systems struggled to respond to increased demand for more access to interpreting services. In 1998, the Ministry of Welfare and Labor announced the new Sign Language Interpreters Training Project. This was based on a 1-year research project conducted by a ministry-appointed group of deaf people, sign language interpreters, and researchers. The ministry also renewed the Sign Language Volunteers Training Project and specified the time frame of the training, the qualifications of students and teachers, the goals and the curriculum, as follows: 1. Sign Language Volunteers Training Project The trainees are beginners with no prior contact with the Deaf community or sign language. The goal is conversational sign language. The curriculum requires 80 hours of classroom time.

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2. Sign Language Interpreters Training Project The trainees must be able to converse with deaf people in sign language as a prerequisite. The goal of the program is to provide students with basic interpreting skills. The curriculum requires 90 hours of classroom time.

Training Methods The volunteer project continued with the same guidelines. At this point, it was clearly recognized that conversational ability and interpreting ability are different skills. Curriculum and testing systems were developed for each of the courses, which was another step forward. This testing system began in 2001, with an average pass rate of approximately 30% (for the 6 years up to 2006).

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CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS In 1989, the National Sign Language Interpreters Certification was created. It was not a government qualification, but offered by an organization approved by the Minister of Welfare and Labor. Between 1989 and 2006, 1,789 people have passed this examination. Many are members of the Japanese Association of Sign Language Interpreters (JASLI), which is a national member of the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters (WASLI). In 1998, some areas began separate examinations, supported by state governments. In 2001, the National Sign Language Research Center unified these examinations and established a new one. The content, grading methods, and pass/fail level are now the same throughout Japan. As a result, more and more prefectures have stopped their own examinations and started participating in this newly unified examination. It is expected that in the near future all 47 prefectures will join. The examination is in four parts: 1. Written examination • Basic knowledge necessary for SLI activities • Knowledge of spoken Japanese 2. Interpreting skills • Interpreting skills in various settings • Ability to summarize signed speeches in spoken Japanese Since 2001, 1,324 people have passed this examination.

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Using the two figures provided, there are approximately 3,000 certified interpreters currently active in Japan. (It is not known how many passed the state examinations before 2001.)

SIGN LANGUAGE IN JAPAN

INTERPRETERS’ ORGANIZATIONS

There are two key sign language interpreting organizations in Japan: NRASLI and JASLI.

Zentsuuken: The National Research Association of Sign Language Interpretation (NRASLI) The National Research Association of Sign Language Interpretation (NRASLI) was established in 1974 for hearing members. If you share the goals of the organization, sign language ability is irrelevant. As a result, members include students of sign language, interpreters, researchers, and so forth. There is a wide variety of activities from research into SLI principles and interpreting case studies to activities for realization of sign interpreting services in local communities. In 2007, there are approximately 11,000 members, with chapters in all 47 prefectures.

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Japanese Association of Sign Language Interpreters (JASLI) JASLI was founded in 1991. In order to qualify, you have to pass the National Sign Language Interpreters Certification. Membership is not compulsory, although 85% of registered interpreters are members. Many members of JASLI are also NRASLI members. JASLI focuses on hosting workshops to improve interpreting skills as well as upgrading the social status and working environments of sign interpreters. NRASLI and JASLI have a good working partnership. They work together with the JDF toward various goals such as “full participation and equality” for deaf people.

THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS

OF

JAPANESE SIGN

The number of professional sign language interpreters in Japan is estimated to be 1,400 according to the NRASLI nationwide research in 2005.

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Forty-six percent work in local governing bodies, 27% in private organizations such as interpreter dispatching centers, and 12% in local recruitment offices. Only 16% are employed as full-time workers, so it is necessary to improve their working conditions. Medical treatment, the children’s school matters, and workplace discussions are all common requests for interpreters. Recently, more deaf people are going to tertiary institutions, so the demand for class-related interpreting has increased.

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THE NATIONAL SIGN LANGUAGE RESEARCH CENTER (NSLRC) As previously discussed, most interpreters in Japan are trained in government-funded public classes. These classes are conducted by local deaf organizations. Few interpreters have come from higher education courses. Consequently, in 2002, the NSLRC was created in Kyoto to improve teaching material and teacher training. This was possible through the cooperation of national and regional governments, JDF, NRASLI, and JASLI. The center conducts research on sign language and interpreting, and it supports various activities nationwide. It is important for the center to work closely with higher education institutions. Their goal is to develop a comprehensive and unified national interpreter training system. Among the main programs and projects at the center are: • creating new signs and studies in Japanese sign language, including collecting and preserving traditional signs found in local communities • developing a curriculum for training sign language interpreters and their trainers • creating, developing, and editing materials such as textbooks for a range of levels • hosting seminars and workshops for sign language interpreters and their teachers • conducting the Unified Sign Language Interpreting examination • conducting the National Sign Language examinations

WHAT IS CHARACTERISTIC ABOUT JAPAN? Sign language interpreting guarantees deaf people’s communication, but it does not necessarily create equality and allow deaf people full participation

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in society. Sign language interpreting is just one part of this ultimate goal, which deaf people, sign language interpreters and hearing sign learners (in sign language circles) are striving for. As a group, the JDF, NRASLI, and JASLI are working together toward the same goal. Sign language interpreting services are an essential part of achieving our goal, but it is not enough on its own. As well as improving interpreting services, we need to increase the exposure of sign language nationwide. Therefore, developing and enlarging “sign language circles” has been and remains an important challenge for us. Along with training sign language interpreters, we began conducting a National Sign Language Examination in 2006. This is one way to encourage the public to learn about sign language. This is not an evaluation of interpreting ability, but a way to check how well you communicate with deaf people in sign language. This will motivate learners to aim higher and more hearing people to try to learn sign language. More than 3,000 people took part in 2007. The number of sign language learners every year exceeds 200,000. This includes “circle” members who are active in spreading the language; students in sign language seminars run annually in every prefecture for beginners; viewers of TV programs such as the semi-state-owned Japan Broadcasting Corporation’s (NHK) “Signs for Beginners”; and viewers of pay TV programs that are produced by nonprofit organizations such as the Unified Broadcasting System for the Disabled backed by JDF. The “All Japan Sign Language Examination” is aimed at these people. The turnout for the third examination in 2008 is expected to be over 5,000 and to reach 10,000 in the near future. The aim is to ensure enough hearing people can communicate in sign language so that people are not dependent on sign language interpreters alone.

CONCLUSION We have described the history and the current state of training sign language interpreters in Japan. The challenges to consider for the future include: 1. Based on the history of Mimizuku, to pursue two goals: a. spread sign language to the public, and b. establish a system of training, dispatching, and placing of professional sign language interpreters.

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2. Increase sign language interpreter training at institutions of higher education. 3. Establish a comprehensive and unified training system led by the National Sign Language Research Center, which is integrated with higher education institutions.

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To promote points 1 and 2, it is crucial to lobby national and local governments and businesses to improve the working conditions of sign language interpreters and to provide more job opportunities.

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RA C H E L M C K E E , S H I Z U E S A M E S H I M A , LYNETTE PIVAC, AND DAVID MCKEE

Sign Language Interpreter Education and the Profession in New Zealand

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LOCATED IN the South Pacific Ocean, “next door” to Australia, New Zealand (NZ) is a nation of 4 million inhabitants of whom 67% are Caucasian (or European), 15% are indigenous Māori, 9% Asian, and 7% Pacific Islanders (Statistics NZ, 2007). Estimates of the deaf sign language community’s population range between 4,500 and 7,700, with Māori being overrepresented within the deaf population (Dugdale, 2000; Statistics NZ). Recent reexamination of deaf demographic data in other Western countries suggests that these estimates of the signing community may be inflated, and are likely declining with current medical interventions that are reducing infant deafness and promoting the early acquisition of speech by deaf children (Johnston 2004; Mitchell & Karchmer, 2004).

STATUS OF THE INTERPRETING PROFESSION IN NEW ZEALAND The profile of interpreting in NZ has been enhanced by the development of a sign language interpreting profession since 1985, which reinforced the necessity of training and ethical standards across the wider profession, and supported advocacy for minority language access. Although sign language interpreters form a distinct professional group and are often employed through different avenues than spoken language interpreters, the size of NZ has engendered cooperative links between signed and spoken language interpreters in matters of professional development and strategic advocacy for the profession. Spoken language interpreting has professional status in some quarters, but is not yet comprehensively regulated in terms of standards, training, and employment; so while interpreting services are steadily becoming more professionalized, instances of “bring your own” or “call 200

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the cleaner” ad hoc provision still occur for both hearing and deaf interpreting consumers in NZ. Pre-degree-level training courses for spoken language interpreters (covering general liaison, medical, and legal settings) are available in several higher education institutions, and the first bachelor’s degree in translation and interpreting is currently under development. Postgraduate qualifications for spoken language translators and interpreters are offered at the University of Auckland, where translation tends to have a higher uptake than interpreting. In-house training and professional development for interpreters is also provided within some community-based interpreting agencies that have been instrumental in advancing standards of practice in the community sector. It is often the case in community-based training that immigrants with high-level qualifications in unrelated disciplines undertake interpreter training and work to support themselves temporarily while they seek work within their field, or because their bilingual skills are needed in support of other members of their immigrant communities. In a recent class of 24 in an introductory training course at the Wellington Community Interpreting Service, for example, 4 participants held doctoral degrees in various fields from their home countries, and most others had at least a first or second degree. This was a particularly highly educated group, but in general, such trainees have at least a first degree and about one quarter are professionally qualified in fields such as law, medicine, engineering, and teaching (D. Cheng, Wellington Community Interpreting Service, personal communication, November 27, 2007). This profile of spoken language practitioners entering community-level work contrasts with that of sign language interpreters, who mainly practice without a degree-level qualification, but more intensive training in interpreting theory and techniques. It is a slightly perverse situation that spoken language interpreters with advanced (though unrelated) academic qualifications can be found working in everyday community situations, whereas sign language interpreters without undergraduate degrees commonly undertake complex interpreting assignments such as academic conferences and courses. For spoken language interpreters and translators, the NZ Society of Translators and Interpreters (NZSTI) was established in 1985 to provide professional representation and development, and to promote standards and awareness of interpreting in the government and private sector.1 1. See http://www.nzsti.org/.

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There is no national accreditation body, except the Māori Language Commission, which accredits Māori interpreters and translators under regulations of the Māori Language Act 1987 (the act made Māori an official language). Professional-level accreditation through the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI),2 or a university qualification in translation/interpreting is required for full membership in NZSTI, which maintains a directory of 260 qualified members; of these, 13 practice as interpreters (6 are sign language interpreters), 41 combine interpreting and translation, and the reminder do translation only. A further 121 affiliate members are not qualified to the level recognized by NZSTI but work as interpreters and translators (H. Liu, president, NZSTI, personal communication, November 30, 2007). NAATI is currently promoted by NZSTI as an industry standard, although adherence to this by employers in the community sector varies. Language Line, a telephone interpreting service recently introduced for core government service agencies, requires its employees to have NAATI professional interpreter accreditation, and this has motivated more NZ interpreters to obtain that accreditation (Baumer, 2004). A small proportion of professionals make a full-time living in the field, and many combine interpreting and translating work. The majority of interpreters work in community settings related to health, mental health, refugee settlement, justice, welfare, and immigration; a smaller number are engaged in business and conference work both locally and offshore. The Sign Language Interpreters Association of New Zealand (SLIANZ) was incorporated in 1997 as the professional body that represents sign language interpreters at a national level. SLIANZ does not have local branch structure, but local networks of interpreters are active in three main centers. SLIANZ runs annual conferences and some professional development workshops, promotes and informs about the use and training of interpreters, maintains a code of ethics and a complaints procedure, encourages mentoring, and represents interpreters in consultation with government and other relevant bodies. As a small organization with limited infrastructure and resources (current membership is approximately 60), some of these functions are not yet robust: for example, the areas of professional development and mentoring are acknowledged as needing more attention and investment in the near future. SLIANZ maintains links with sign language interpreting (SLI) organizations overseas, and is cur2. See the chapter in this volume by Bontempo & Levitzke-Gray for more detail on the NAATI accreditation system.

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rently the Australasia-Oceania representative to the World Association of Sign Language Interpreters (WASLI). SLIANZ has a formal affiliation with the NZSTI, whose members are mainly spoken language interpreters and translators who share many professional goals with SLIANZ.

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BEGINNINGS OF THE IN NEW ZEALAND

SLI PROFESSION

In many countries, an SLI profession evolved from a tradition of voluntary interpreting, followed by ad hoc training, followed by academically recognized training. The sequence was slightly different in NZ, where organized training initiatives in 1985 and 1992 prompted the sudden birth of a SLI profession into a deaf community that had previously experienced little access even to voluntary interpreting services; deaf people in NZ were generally more accustomed to the practice of getting by with speechreading, speech, and writing, or being assisted and spoken for by hearing relatives and helpers. An oralist education system from 1880–1979, which denied New Zealand Sign Language’s existence, meant that consumer demand for interpreting as a formalized service was not articulated until the late 1970s (Dugdale, 2001). Until this time, deaf people generally had limited expectations for independent access to civic participation at all, let alone through the medium of sign language. Access to higher education, professional employment, and self-advocacy were virtually closed to the deaf community until a shift in attitude began in the early 1980s, growing out of the linguistic acknowledgement of signed languages and the international spread of “deaf pride” politics. A weekly television news program signed by deaf presenters at this time also increased awareness of New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL). Hosting the World Games for the Deaf in 1989 allowed NZ deaf and hearing people to witness the open use of sign language by international participants and the role of interpreters in enabling deaf leaders to negotiate effectively with hearing officials and media. International and local influences such as these helped to legitimize the public use of NZSL in the deaf community’s thinking, which was previously pulled between oralist values about the prestige of speech and their lived reality of being sign language users. The first interpreter training course was run in 1985 at the initiative of the NZ Association of the Deaf, which obtained funding to contract an American interpreter trainer to train eight students over 4 months. Although the teacher was American, the local sign language (not recognized at that time) was sought out and learned by involving groups of deaf

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volunteers as language models in daily classes. Their signs were documented by students and the teacher throughout the course and resulted in the first published dictionary of NZSL containing about 1,500 signs (Levitt, 1985). Although this course had almost no teaching materials to draw upon, there were many benefits from the direct engagement with the community: Deaf people became aware that they had a language that could be used the presence of hearing people, and they became acquainted with the (new) concept of “interpreter” and the goals of interpreter training. The trainees formed personal links with deaf community members by visiting their homes, clubs, and activities as part of the course requirements— experiences that tend to diminish once published sign language learning resources become readily available. An unanticipated bonus was that many of the volunteer language models were senior citizens (who were free to visit during the day) and so the published lexicon resulting from the 1985 course has become a precious record of NZSL signs used by older generations, many of which are being rapidly replaced by new vocabulary. Following the 1985 training course, the Deaf Association employed three of the graduates to serve the main regions of the country. Until 1994, this skeletal service was supplemented at times by interpreters on short contracts from Australia and the U.K., which brought new influences into local language use and gave exposure to overseas professional practices.3 In 1992, a permanent course was established at AUT University (then Auckland Institute of Technology), and the path to interpreter qualification became an undergraduate Diploma in Sign Language Interpreting (DipSLI). The AUT program had deaf-hearing academic co-leadership from the outset in 1992, which helped to establish a strong engagement with the national deaf community. The program was established by one of the three 1985-trained NZSL interpreters, Rachel McKee, and her deaf husband, David McKee, who brought expertise in teaching sign language and Deaf Studies from his home country of the United States. Deaf-hearing collaborative teaching also facilitated the mentoring of more deaf people into NZSL teaching roles, although to date deaf lecturers have had less involvement in the teaching of interpreting subjects. The original diploma curriculum drew on models of interpreting and training developed in the late

3. NZSL, BSL, and Auslan are closely related dialects of the BANZSL language family. Comparisons of NZSL, BSL, and Auslan lexicons have found an overlap of between 62% to 82%, depending upon the criteria used for determining distinctiveness of signs (see McKee & Kennedy, 2005).

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1980s and 1990s by North American pioneers in the field such as Betty Colonomos, Dennis Cokely, Sharon Neuman Solow, Nancy Frishberg, Charlotte Baker-Shenk, and Anna Witter-Merrithew.4 The structure and limitations of the current training course are described in more detail later in this chapter. Establishing an interpreting service was a key goal driving the formation of a national Deaf Association in 1977, and the training and employment of interpreters originated in the New Zealand Association of the Deaf in 1985 (Dugdale, 2001). Training is now independent of the Deaf Association, although they are still the main interpreting service provider agency and are a central source of employment for many interpreters, funded by government contracts and user charges.

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GOVERNMENT PROVISION

FOR

INTERPRETING SERVICES

The sociopolitical environment is important in enabling the growth of an interpreting profession. New Zealand has a centralized, representative government that has the capacity to respond rapidly to new social needs and ideas, often through policy initiatives rather than legislation. The state (in New Zealand, the “state” refers to the central government) is traditionally supportive of social equity values and policies; legal recognition of the indigenous Māori language and efforts toward political partnership with Māori has created a conducive environment for deaf claims to language and cultural recognition, although progress toward securing positive rights to interpretation has been relatively slow. The government’s commitment to improving accessibility and to including people with disabilities in society (expressed in the NZ Disability Strategy: Minister for Disability Issues, 2001) has somewhat strengthened support for provision of SLI. Minority language speakers’ right to interpretation is not mandated comprehensively in NZ; the right to an interpreter (in any language) exists through a variety of regulations pertaining to settings where consumers’ communication rights are explicitly protected, including police interviews, courtrooms, and health and mental health settings (via codes of consumer rights in the last two cases). Policies recommending the use of interpreters are often qualified by the wording, “wherever reasonable and practicable,” with the exception of legal settings. Deaf people have

4. For details of the work of these SLI educators, readers can refer to the published proceedings of the Conference of Interpreter Trainers (see http://www.cit-asl.org/).

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benefited from such generic interpreting provisions, although awareness, funding and supply of sign language interpreters is still problematic outside of the main cities, where deaf clients are rarely encountered and interpreters are difficult to find. In practice, the major source of public funding for SLI in NZ originates in disability-related provisions, in the absence of a comprehensive government language policy or strategy. As mentioned later, the legal recognition of NZSL is predicated mainly on the basis of disability rights, as demonstrated by its development under the direction of the Minister for Disability Issues, and does not create any positive usage rights outside the courts.

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The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 New Zealand is one of very few countries in which the deaf community’s sign language has the legal status of an official language. The NZSL Act (2006) created official language status, alongside the indigenous Māori language—an important symbolic step in acknowledging the NZ deaf community’s oppressed language history and consequent social disadvantage.5 The single right created by the act, however, is for people (not specified as deaf) who use NZSL as their first or preferred language to use NZSL in legal proceedings, in which competent interpreters should be provided. The law also enables the formal regulation of interpreter standards in courts, but as yet, no government resources have been directed to identifying, training, or evaluating competencies for legal interpreting. In effect, the NZSL Act has codified, but not advanced, the existing practice of courts to obtain qualified interpreters as far as possible, when requested (for signers and other non-English speakers). The lobbying and consultation process leading up to the official recognition of NZSL has raised consumer expectations of more wide-ranging government support for SLI training and provision, although these are not implicated by the legislation. While no such resources or strategy have yet materialized, the act has created a climate of heightened awareness and state responsibility toward sign language access that may favor advocacy for interpreting issues by the deaf community and interpreters in the longer term.

5. For further discussion of the NZSL Act, see: McKee, R. (2007). The eyes have it! Our third official language—New Zealand Sign Language. Journal of New Zealand Studies NS 4-5, (pp. 129–148).

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SUPPLY AND EMPLOYMENT INTERPRETERS

207 OF

SIGN LANGUAGE

A survey undertaken by SLIANZ in 2005 identified 87 qualified interpreters who were known to have worked between 2004 and 2005; of these, 36 responded to a survey about their employment and work conditions (Patterson & Hackshaw, 2006). The survey reported that 61% of these live in the largest city, Auckland, which also has the largest deaf population; the ratio of interpreters to deaf people in Auckland is estimated to be 1:23, in Wellington and Waikato (in the North island) 1:50, while southern cities, which are generally less densely populated, suffer from a shortage of interpreters at an average ratio of 1:250 (Fitzgerald, 2004; based on data supplied by the Deaf Association of NZ and SLIANZ). Of the survey sample, 94% were female, and 83% of dominant European ethnicity, reflecting the nearly universal underrepresentation of men and ethnic minorities in the profession. Survey results also indicate that the profession in NZ is dominated by early career practitioners: 64% reported having up to 6 years experience, 19% had 6 to 10 years experience, and 14% had over 10 years experience. This picture probably reflects the recent establishment of a permanent training course in 1992, as well as retention issues related to working conditions and career structure, and the fact that a large proportion of new interpreters tend to be of an age to eventually pursue further study and career changes, or to start families. Of the survey sample, 81% gained their income from freelance and/or casual contract work; others combined part-time salaried positions with freelance work. Salaried interpreting positions are quite scarce in NZ, generally occurring only in the context of a deaf school, a Deaf Association office, a university, or a government agency with a salaried deaf employee. To earn a sustainable income, most interpreters undertake a combination of work in community settings (primarily health, mental health, legal, meetings), higher education, and sometimes an organization that employs deaf people (Patterson & Hackshaw, 2006). The hourly rate earned by interpreters in the 2005 SLIANZ survey ranged from $25 to $50 (NZ dollars), with the majority earning $25 to $30 per hour, and most earning different rates across settings. Remuneration for after-hours work, minimum call-out, travel, cancellation, and preparation time was highly variable, with few interpreters charging consistently for all these claims on their time. An average income for interpreters is difficult to calculate from the available data, since many choose not to, or do not have the opportunity to work full-time

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at this occupation; the available figures suggest modest (in many cases meager) incomes, with only 19% of the 36 survey participants reporting an annual income above $40,000, and 55% below $30,000. Apparently, the nature of the work intrinsically motivates interpreters in NZ to remain in the field; this is perhaps supported by the fact that 53% of respondents also do unpaid interpreting regularly or sometimes, in domains that are not funded for interpreting provision such as social and family functions, church, extracurricular school activities, sports, hobbies, and theatre. The government funds SLI mainly in employment, health-related, and justice settings, but available funding and the current supply of NZSL interpreters does not always meet demand. This generally ensures availability of work for qualified interpreters, but their scarcity and funding constraints also mean that consumers do not always have the ability or opportunity to discriminate between qualified and unqualified, or novice and experienced interpreters suited to different kinds of assignments. The quality of service to consumers is therefore variable, and in some domains consistently low: in mainstream schools, for example, where the majority of deaf children are placed, it is rare for a trained interpreter to be employed to provide communication support. In general, the employment structure and funding of regular schools allows only for teacher aides and sometimes visiting teachers of the deaf (all of whom are untrained in interpreting) to perform this role (McKee & Smith, 2003).

INTERPRETER PREPARATION AND QUALIFICATION: DIPLOMA IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETING The route to qualification for NZSL interpreters has always been by training rather than testing. This contrasts with the situation in Australia and the U.S., for example, where independent testing of interpreters (spoken and signed) was originally established as the mechanism for professional certification, in order to set a minimum benchmark for individuals who were already practicing (Ozolins, 1998). As outlined previously, the NZ profession started by training new recruits, often people without prior knowledge of NZSL, although it is now expected that trainees will enter with a grounding in NZSL. Because NAATI’s sign language accreditation test is specific to Auslan (the language of the Australian Deaf community) it is not transferable to the accreditation of NZSL interpreters in the way that the spoken language NAATI tests are. Without an external interpreter accreditation body, the Diploma of Sign Language Interpreting (DipSLI) effectively functions as the recognized qualification to work in NZ. The

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exit standard for graduates of this program is considered to be approximately at the NAATI (2) paraprofessional level. A long-term goal for SLIANZ is to establish a registration standard beyond the minimum qualification level. The DipSLI at AUT University is a 2-year, full-time, on-campus course with an entry requirement of beginner-level NZSL proficiency. The 1st year focuses on intensive NZSL acquisition and gaining a practical and conceptual understanding of the deaf community and culture. The 2nd year further refines NZSL skills, including comparative analysis of NZSL and English structures, and introduces interpreting models and techniques, contextual knowledge of settings, professional ethics, public speaking in both languages, and interpersonal skills awareness. The year ends with an interpreting practicum. Graduates say that the practicum is a vital component of the course, designed to give them field experience with guided reflection and analysis. The practicum consists of 30 hours observing qualified interpreters and 40 hours of work experience, usually beginning with jobs teamed with qualified interpreters, then progressing to teaming with another student or working solo where appropriate. The lecturer in charge of this course is responsible for coordinating assignments for students, but students are also encouraged to find their own assignments with lecturer approval. For each field experience, students write reflective blogs (online journals), noting features of language and translation, contextual factors, interpreters’ dress and professional behavior, and ethical issues. In addition to fieldwork, students have class sessions to introduce the practicum and to cover various aspects of workplace readiness, including professional appearance, curriculum vitae preparation, terms and conditions (cancellations, minimum charges, etc), invoicing, occupational overuse prevention, teaming and positioning, contracts, and assignment preparation. Practicum is assessed by journals, a lecturer observation of the student’s work, and a student presentation of a strengths-and-weaknesses analysis. A variety of interpreting practitioners contribute to teaching and offer practicum guidance on the course, which exposes students to professional models and networks, beyond the interpreting lecturer.

LOCAL CHALLENGES

IN

SLI EDUCATION

While the SLI profession in NZ has a single system of training and qualification that encourages a uniform standard, most interpreters do not enter the profession as natural bilinguals (i.e., from deaf families). The training

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course is at pre-degree level and each cohort includes a variety of academic backgrounds and range of sign language skills. Over time it has become clear that a professional level of interpreting competence can barely be achieved in 2 years of concentrated study, and at present a 3-year bachelor’s degree option is being developed. Limitations inherent in the present training structure relate mainly to time frame, resources for NZSL acquisition, population (and location), and the availability of teaching staff. In most cases, 2 years is not enough to ensure students demonstrate the level of sign language proficiency as well as interpreting skill required for the range of work that new graduates are typically faced with in NZ (i.e., almost the whole range of interpreting situations, depending on their location). A 2-year structure also constrains the ability to sequence courses in an appropriate developmental sequence; for example, it would be preferable to master comparative analysis and advanced NZSL prior to starting interpreting skills courses, and simultaneous interpreting practice should ideally be started before beginning practicum experience; in fact these combinations of courses are scheduled parallel to each other due to overall program length, which puts pressure on students’ skill development. In each cohort, some students enter the 2nd year with NZSL skills at a level that is marginal to begin interpreting studies, and many students report a big jump in the level of difficulty between 1st and 2nd years. Since the level of intensity in the 2nd year is necessary for preparing interpreters in the time frame, the level of 1st year study probably needs to be raised; this in turn though may bring a higher risk of attrition from the 1st year of the program. An institutional change from a vocational training orientation to a university-style structure has reduced the amount of contact teaching time. When the course was established in 1992, for many years it was an intensive program with approximately 25 class contact hours per week for 32 weeks a year; class contact is now 15 hours per week, for 24 weeks, with the requirement for students to engage in a variety of independent learning activities such as use of the digital lab, and online components. Teachers are challenged in their ability to teach and assess the same set of knowledge and skills as previously, in less time. While the trend toward greater learner autonomy is sound in principle, it is rather difficult to implement in a language that has few readily available, high-quality resources to support independent study and interpreting skill development (i.e., NZSL). The university’s shift away from qualifications that are intensively focused on preparing students for a particular vocation toward broader degree structures has academic merit, but also threatens the capacity of the di-

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ploma program to equip interpreting students with the practical competencies needed on the job following graduation. Moreover, in a small profession where demand outstrips supply, there is little opportunity for a gradual and scaffolded “apprenticeship” period after graduation, although this is improving as the number of interpreters grows and SLIANZ becomes more active in supporting mentoring. Sustaining enough students of suitable calibre to run a viable program in a small population is difficult. Administrative pressure to maintain student numbers can compromise entry standards, which in turn can lower exit standards. Entry standards are already partly dependent on the quality of NZSL classes outside the course. Only one other university offers NZSL and Deaf Studies courses, from which some students transfer into the interpreting program; most others have learned introductory NZSL in community education classes, which vary in quality. There is no assessed national standard for NZSL proficiency levels, as exists in the U.K. for example. A proposed alternative to this pattern is to extend the course to a 3-year degree and accept students without NZSL knowledge. Achieving gender and ethnic balance in recruitment and graduates is also a challenge shared by many countries; women far outnumber men, and more course completions by Māori interpreters is a goal that is being addressed through various initiatives. The government recently released a NZSL curriculum for mainstream schools, which may eventually increase the number of young hearing people who are eligible to study interpreting. Although the NZSL Act does not directly support the teaching of NZSL, official language status may encourage more academic institutions to offer it as a subject, with similar effects. Recruiting and maintaining academically qualified teachers is yet another challenge in a field with a short professional history. There are no higher professional qualifications locally available above the current interpreting diploma and an undergraduate certificate in teaching NZSL, so current teaching staff have pursued study in the allied field of applied linguistics. Since 1997, Victoria University of Wellington has offered a 1-year, modular course for deaf people to train as teachers of NZSL. The course is at pre-degree level, to enable the participation of deaf people whose school education has not provided an adequate foundation for degree study. The DipSLI is hosted within a School of Languages, which also offers courses for spoken language interpreters; this provides a supportive academic context but in reality their courses are delivered separately. A strength of the program is having two experienced deaf teachers who are active members of the NZSL Teachers’ Association and enthusiastic about

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using new technology (e.g., digital video labs and Web cams) to enhance learning resources and experiences for students. Deaf staff who maintain a profile in the local deaf community who are still willing to participate in course-related activities with students provide invaluable exposure to authentic language and cultural experience. An example is the annual “silent camp,” in which students, staff, and deaf community participants spend an intensive, fun-focused weekend in a NZSL-only medium. Auckland hosts the largest deaf community and pool of interpreters in NZ, and the program is thus well situated for extracurricular involvement in deaf events and contact with professional mentors.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS Changes and issues lying ahead for interpreter education are motivated by developments within the discipline of interpreting, and also by institutional, technological, and social changes that influence the delivery of training.

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Research-Led Teaching Ideally, a professional training course is supported and improved by research activity, but to date local research has been produced outside the interpreting program, at Victoria University which has a complementary role in focusing on NZSL research and teaching. Research activity is only possible in university conditions with reduced teaching responsibilities, and the requirement for staff to pursue postgraduate study—changes which are now occurring at AUT. There is a constant need to update curriculum to reflect new directions in the areas of deaf cultural studies, sign language teaching pedagogy, and theoretical models of interpreting and the teaching of interpreting. The AUT curriculum is now being revised toward a discourse-based approach to teaching interpreting that has arisen from a sociolinguistic framework (cf. Cokely, 2005; Roy 2000); this approach focuses on preparation for the dynamics of working in particular contexts, rather than learning in a sequence of discrete techniques (consecutive and simultaneous) that grew out of earlier cognitive models of communication and interpreting processes.

From Vocational to Degree Study An inevitable move to a degree-level training course will raise the status of the interpreting profession, developing a stronger academic base in the

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long term. If more NZSL interpreters gain postgraduate degrees (as some already have in the allied fields of linguistics and applied linguistics) the pool of potential teachers and active researchers will contribute to practice that is informed by both international and local research. Offering a viable course of postgraduate-level study in SLI is difficult in a small country with a relatively young professional base, but ultimately vital to raising the level of professional practice and enquiry. Strategic collaboration is an option to overcome the challenges of population and distance, and planning is now under way to enable NZ interpreters to undertake a modified delivery of the existing postgraduate Diploma in Auslan/English Interpreting offered by Macquarie University in Australia, in conjunction with a NZ university.

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Digital Learning Technologies Advances in video-based communication technology and online interfaces present the opportunity to deliver training in distance mode, and to blend online study with in-class learning (cf. Napier, 2006). DipSLI students now independently access video clips and other learning materials online (uploaded by teachers), and lecturers can direct students to Internet sites relevant to current topics (e.g., the U.S. Registry of Interpreters of the Deaf [RID] and standard practice papers on various topics). As mentioned previously, student journals can be in the form of blogs, which are easy for staff to anage because they can be accessed in one place and linked to past blogs. More extensive use of online learning technology may help to resolve the current problem of having a training program in a single location, creating uneven distribution of interpreters across the country. Although face-to-face learning can only be replaced to a certain degree in basic interpreter training, complementary learning modes are promising in a small population where duplication of interpreting courses is not viable in terms of cost, student numbers, and availability of qualified teachers.

Sign Language Community Demographics and Linguistic Variation The teaching of NZSL and the training and employment of interpreters in the future will be affected by the rapidly changing demographics and language experiences of the deaf community. Most deaf children are now

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mainstreamed and, by and large, have limited access to either a signing community of peers or sign-fluent teachers or interpreters in schools; this generation therefore has greater variation in their exposure to NZSL than the traditional consumer base who mainly attended deaf schools or units until the late1980s, and acquired NZSL within a sizeable signing community. At the same time that deaf adults in NZ are beginning to enter a wider range of occupational and recreational domains, which demands more use of skilled interpreters, the rate of cochlear implantation in children is climbing toward saturation point with the introduction of universal newborn hearing screening, which will probably have the opposite effect on demand for interpreters (refer to Johnston, 2004, on the predicted shrinkage of signing communities and the threat to language survival). More migrants and refugees are also joining the NZ deaf population, who will be late learners of NZSL, with more complex language backgrounds. These combined factors seem to predict a smaller signing community in the future, with more disrupted transmission of NZSL and possibly greater idiosyncratic variation in the NZSL that interpreters will encounter. Findings from ongoing sociolinguistic research about the use of NZSL will be an important resource in interpreter training to prepare interpreters for this situation.6

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Minority (Māori) Language Users: The Need for Trilingual Interpreting Wider social change can place new demands on the SLI profession. When an indigenous (or other linguistic) group asserts the right to use a minority language more widely in society, there are flow-on effects for deaf members of that minority, and thus for interpreters. Regeneration of the Māori language has been ongoing in NZ since the 1970s, gaining momentum from the late 1980s. Since the mid-1990s there has been a growing call for sign language interpreters who can interpret between spoken Māori, NZSL, and English in Māori settings and at public events where Māori is used as one of the languages of ceremonial or official proceedings. Deaf people involved in many of these situations are Māori who are NZSL users, but in public events and teaching situations (such as a Māori language or culture courses) they are also non-Māori NZSL users. The availability of trilingual interpreters is an important goal for Māori deaf people who 6. The Sociolinguistic Variation in NZSL project is described at: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/ lals/research/deafstudies/DSRU site/NZSL variation/variation project.aspx.

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want to participate in Māori-speaking contexts (such as funerals/tangi, or tribal and community meetings) and to access knowledge of their cultural heritage (Smiler & McKee, 2006). The desire for more Māori-speaking interpreters, and the contemporary coinage of signs by Māori deaf people to express Māori concepts within NZSL, is partly about increasing access to hearing Māori domains, but it is also motivated by the expression of ethnic identity and pride within the deaf world (McKee, McKee et al., 2007). The DipSLI program now affirmatively recruits students who are speakers of Māori, which is a challenge because only a small proportion of the Māori population are fluent in Māori, and even fewer of these know NZSL. The DipSLI does not specifically teach translation between Māori and NZSL, but aims to equip Māori interpreters to apply knowledge of interpreting principles and techniques to their use of Māori as a working language. Currently, only one fluent speaker of Māori holds the DipSLI, and she is in high demand; a handful of other sign language interpreters have partial fluency in Māori, or have good Māori and NZSL skills, but they have not completed an interpreter qualification. There is a need for effective strategies of recruitment and mentoring in particular to expand the number and competence of this specialized group of practitioners.

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Responding to Changing Consumer Expectations Consumer expectations of interpreters in NZ are progressively becoming more sophisticated as the experience of interpreted interaction becomes more familiar. To begin with in the 1980s, there was no benchmark by which the deaf community could evaluate the new interpreters (fortunately for the graduates of the original 4-month course!). The model of a professional interpreter role was imported along with the ASL sign INTERPRETER, creating a new, unfamiliar working relationship. Twenty years on, consumer expectations about interpreters’ language skills and professional conduct have become more discerning; a factor in this is a growing number of deaf professionals who have had access to higher education. There is a desire, but as yet no mechanism, among deaf stakeholders to become more involved in setting and monitoring levels of competence for interpreters. Although the professional association SLIANZ maintains a register of qualified interpreters, there is no independent assessment for registration, because the profession developed via the route of qualification by training rather than by testing. The absence of post-training accreditation system is partly due to the limited capacity of SLIANZ (with a membership of approximately 60 and no

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paid staff), or the Deaf Association, to administer a credible testing system. NZ has some way to go in developing such a system, and has much to learn from the experience of countries with comparable demographics and governments, such as Wales or Denmark, for example. Currently, NZ has no structure for the training and employment of deaf interpreters and the need for intralingual facilitation is anecdotally known, but not clearly quantified in NZ. In practice, deaf advocates and skilled bilinguals are called upon to assist in situations that demand native cultural-linguistic mediation skills, for example, for individuals with limited NZSL competence, deaf-blind people, or those clients in acute mental health situations where their communication capacity is impaired. Workshops on deaf relay interpreting in recent years have generated some awareness of this role within the deaf community, and it is likely that NZ will draw on Australia’s current experience of formalizing deaf interpreter training and testing in the near future.

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CONCLUSION The small population of NZ and the history of the NZSL community presents both opportunities and challenges to achieving excellent interpreter education and professionalism. The establishment of formal training for deaf NZSL tutors from 1997 has improved the standard of incoming interpreter trainees, via community education classes. The teaching of NZSL at community and university levels has also raised the profile of the language in the wider community, which indirectly supports the use and status of interpreters. Despite recognition of NZSL as an official language, interpreter education still faces the universal challenge of creating effective learning resources in a language that has only recently been documented, with few people skilled to do this work. The move to degree-level training will increase the status of the profession, and although classroom time will be reduced, this is accompanied by an increased expectation of research. It will be a challenge for teaching staff to support the required level of student autonomy in a less contact-intensive teaching program. Use of a blended learning approach (class contact supported by online learning) may provide part of the solution, but again will require time and resources to develop effectively. A solo training program in a small national community can implement new ideas quickly, and can maintain a strong connection with the deaf community and other stakeholders such as employers, policy makers, and professional associations of NZSL teachers and interpreters. On the other

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hand, geographical isolation highlights the need for cross-fertilization between peers in the same field, and for this reason participating in international professional networks will always be vital to advancing interpreter education and professionalism in NZ. Professional and scholarly exchange between organizations and individuals is the key to expanding horizons and raising standards of SLI practice.

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REFERENCES Baumer, H. (2004). Huge interest in professional interpreting qualifications. Word for Word. Official Journal of the New Zealand Society of Translators and Interpreters, (February), 4–5. Cokely, D. (2005). Curriculum revision in the twenty-first century: Northeastern’s experience. In C. Roy (Ed.), Advances in teaching sign language interpreters (pp. 1–21). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Dugdale, P. (2001). Talking hands, listening eyes: The history of the Deaf Association of New Zealand. Auckland: Deaf Association of New Zealand. Fitzgerald, T. (2004, December). New Zealand sign language interpreter issues: NZSL interpreting in court and systems for funding and supply of interpreter services. Unpublished report to the Office for Disabilities from The Interpreter Issues Working Group. Johnston, T. (2004). W(h)ither the deaf community? Population, genetics, and the future of Australian Sign Language. American Annals of the Deaf, 148, 358–375. Levitt, D. (1985). Introduction to New Zealand Sign Language. Auckland: National Foundation for the Deaf. McKee, R. M. L., & Smith, E. (2003). Report on a survey of teacher aides of “high” and “very high needs” deaf students in mainstream schools (Research Report No. 3). Deaf Studies Research Unit, Victoria University of Wellington. Available at: http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/research/deafstudies/DSRU. McKee, R. M. L., & Kennedy, G. (2005). New Zealand Sign Language. In A. Bell, R. Harlow, & D. Starks (Eds.), Languages of New Zealand (pp. 271–297). Wellington, New Zeland: Victoria University Press. McKee, R., McKee, D., Smiler, K., & Pointon, K. (2007). “Māori signs”: the construction of indigenous Deaf identity in New Zealand Sign Language. In D. Quinto-Pozos (Ed.), Sign languages in contact: Vol. 13. Sociolinguistics in Deaf communities (pp. 31–81). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Minister for Disability Issues. (2001). The New Zealand disability strategy. Retrieved September 1, 2006, from http://www.odi.govt.nz/publications/nzds/index.html. Mitchell, R. E., & Karchmer, M. A. (2004). Chasing the mythical 10 percent: Parental hearing status of deaf and hard of hearing students in the United States. Sign Language Studies, 2 (4), 138–163. Napier, J. (2006). Educating signed language interpreters in Australia: A blended approach. In C. Roy (Ed.), New approaches to interpreter education (pp. 67–104). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.

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New Zealand Sign Language Act. (2006). Retrieved September 17, 2008, from http://gpacts.knowledge-basket.co.nz/gpacts/public/text/2006/an/018.html. Ozolins, U. (1998). Interpreting and translating in Australia: Current issues and international comparisons. Melbourne: Language Australia: The National Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia. Patterson, A., & Hackshaw, L. (2006). A snapshot of the NZSL interpreting profession, 01 April 2004–31 March 2005. Auckland, New Zealand: Sign Language Interpreters Association of NZ. Roy, C. (2000). Training interpreters—past, present, and future. In C. Roy (Ed.), Innovative practices for teaching sign language interpreters (pp. 1–14). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Smiler, K., & McKee, R. (2006). Perceptions of Māori Deaf identity in New Zealand. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 12 (3), 93–111. Statistics New Zealand. (2007). Profile of New Zealander responses: Ethnicity question, 2006 Census. Retrieved November 27, 2007, from http://www.stats.govt.nz/ NR/rdonlyres/EA0F8124–619C-47B3-ADB7-CBB28F44AE85/0/ ProfileofNewZealanderCensus2006.pdf.

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The Americas

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Part Three

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RONICE MÜLLER DE QUADROS AND MARIANNE ROSSI STUMPF

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Brazilian Sign Language Interpreter Education in Brazil: From Voluntary Work to Formal Distance Learning THE FEDERAL University of Santa Catarina offers the only program to educate sign language teachers and sign language translators and interpreters in Brazil. This program adheres to the legislation that requires the introduction of Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) in the curriculum of all education and audiology programs, as well as sign language accessibility in general education for deaf students. The university started with the Sign Language Program to educate sign language teachers in 2006. Five hundred students were selected from 3,172 candidates, with 447 deaf students and 53 hearing, bilingual students. This selection followed the same criteria used for selections of students that apply to Brazilian universities, that is, applicants took a test and were assigned a classification based on the results. For this specific program, the test was in Libras, since the knowledge of the language was also an evaluation criterion. Also, the law gives the priority to deaf people to apply for the Sign Language Program for teaching. First, all the approved deaf students were offered a place in the course in accord with their classification. If vacancies remained, then the hearing people on the list also received offers. These students came from nine states in Brazil, representing all five regions in the country. The program is offered in distance mode through an E-learning system. A system is being created that uses Libras as the basis of the education through different materials, using a virtual environment and DVDs. Also, the students have access to different kinds of readings that are also available in sign language. A new area has evolved in Brazil—translation of Libras. This happened because the original texts for the course were available only in Brazilian 221 International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education, Gallaudet University Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook

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Portuguese, and they had to be translated to Libras in order to be available in this language as well. This translation process became a new research area that gave a new perspective on sign language interpreting (SLI). Also, research related to SLI and translation began to be produced. The Sign Language Program is being planned with deaf instructional designers together with other professionals, such as linguists, sign language interpreters, educators, computational programmers, designers, and even a movie director. In 2008, the Sign Language Translator and Interpreter Undergraduate Program started. It follows the same structure of the Sign Language Program, but it focuses on sign language translator and interpreter training. Both programs are offered in the nine states that are currently receiving the first program, plus six additional states.

THE BRAZILIAN CONTEXT

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The history of the recognition of the sign language profession in Brazil began with volunteer activities, which started to be appreciated as a professional activity as deaf people began to achieve equal status as citizens. Some factors were decisive in the change of status of the sign language interpreter from a volunteer position to a professional one. These factors included: a. b. c. d.

the participation of deaf people in social and political discussions the presence of deaf people in educational spaces the legal recognition of Libras the formation of sign language interpreter training at the postgraduate level (a 2-year course after a graduate course) and at the graduate level e. the development of research in the area of SLI and translation, especially Libras f. the creation of local sign language interpreters associations in the last decade g. the certification of Libras translators and interpreters The establishment of the SLI profession was determined by several historical factors. With the aid of volunteer interpreters, deaf people began to apply for driver’s licenses in the 1970s. The presence of sign language interpreters in religious activities started around the 1980s. In 1988, the first national meeting of sign language interpreters organized by the National Federation of Education and Integration of the Deaf (FENEIS) took place, and it enabled, for the first time, the interchange between in-

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terpreters in Brazil and an evaluation of the ethics of the professional interpreter. In 1992, the second national meeting of sign language interpreters organized by FENEIS occurred, and it promoted the exchange of different interpreters’ experiences in Brazil and facilitated discussion and voting on the internal division of the National Department of Interpreters. In 1993 and 1994, regional meetings were held. Beginning in the 1990s, local associations of sign language interpreters have been created. There has also been the expansion of FENEIS throughout the country with actions related to interpreters. Since 2002, FENEIS has offices in São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Teófilo Otoni, Brasília, and Recife, with headquarters in Rio de Janeiro. Also beginning in the 1990s, sign language interpreters were present in school public examinations. In 1997, the first short course for people already working as sign language interpreters was held at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. The Ministry of Education began to form short-term courses of sign language for “teacher-interpreters” in 2000. That same year a Web site for sign language interpreters was made available, and also a space for interpreter participation was opened through an e-mail discussion list.1 This list is open to all interested interpreters and can be accessed through the homepage. In 2001, a committee of deaf professionals and Libras interpreters participated in the formation of sign language interpreters for South America, organized by the World Federation of the Deaf. This work was developed in Uruguay with participation from 10 South American countries. On April 24, 2002, a federal law recognizing Libras as the official language of the Brazilian Deaf community (Law 10.436/2002) passed. The legislation represented a fundamental step in the process of recognizing and formalizing the profession of Libras interpreter in Brazil, and it also opened various opportunities in the workplace, supported by the legal precedence. In 2006, the Prolibras Exam, a national exam for the certification of Libras interpreters administered by the Ministry of Education in partnership with the Federal University of Santa Catarina, was offered for the first time. The majority of Libras interpreters work in education, at all educational levels. As a result of the legislation, public organizations began to train their employees in sign language and to hire Libras interpreters. Besides that, with the gradual hiring of deaf professors to teach in colleges, there is demand for sign language interpreters in such spaces, as deaf professionals are part of the workforce and need to participate in meetings 1. See http://br.geocities.com/macripiper/ils.htm.

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and interact with hearing Portuguese speakers who have no knowledge of sign language. Considering that interpreters almost exclusively act in educational spaces, Figure 1 shows the need for sign language interpreters in Brazil. This data is alarming for Brazilian educational policies, as the government develops policies for social inclusion. The hiring of Libras interpreters was one of the government actions to include deaf people in education in the different regions of the country. Nowadays, there are sign language translators working to translate schoolbooks from Portuguese to Libras, and there are sign language interpreters who interpret simultaneously from Portuguese to Libras and vice-versa inside classrooms in schools and universities. Also, it is now common to have Libras interpreters available at technical and scientific events. The activity of Libras translators and interpreters, especially interpreters, has increased exponentially in Brazil and is not comparable to the specific activities of spoken language interpreters, since the interpreter can be required in any classroom with deaf students, at all educational levels. On the other hand, activities of sign language translators are more closely related to that of spoken language translators. The Bachelor of Arts course in spoken languages (French, English, German, Italian, Spanish, etc.) takes 4 years, produces professional translators and interpreters, and attributes

Figure 1. Total relationship of Deaf people per region and in schools. Note. From IBGE/2000 e INEP/2005.

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such status to these professionals. As soon as we began to offer the Bachelor of Arts course in Libras in 2008, with an equivalent curriculum to the other training courses for translators and interpreters, sign language translators and interpreters achieved equivalent status to that of other translators and interpreters. Brazilian Sign Language translation has mainly been performed by deaf people, while the Libras interpreting is mostly restricted to hearing people.

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BRAZILIAN SIGN LANGUAGE TESTING, TRAINING, AND RESEARCH: A BRIEF HISTORY Several factors have contributed to the recognition of sign language in Brazil, the first of which is research into Libras. This research has provided a range of evidence regarding the linguistic status of Libras (Ferreira-Brito, 1995; Quadros, 1997; Quadros & Karnopp, 2004). Linguists recognize the signed languages of different countries as natural languages; that is, as languages that present the same properties as all human languages (Bellugi & Klima, 1979; Casterline & Croneberg, 1965; Lillo-Martin, 1991; Stokoe, Casterline, & Croneberg, 1965). Quadros and Karnopp published a series of reports on the phonology, morphology, and syntax of Libras as a result of their research from 1992 to 2002. The research provided the first analyses of the grammatical structure of Libras. In 2006, the first deaf person, Ana Regina e Souza Campello, began to conduct research on Libras, and to analyze the origins of Libras. Campello found an influence from French Sign Language, since a Deaf teacher, Eduard Huet, came from France to establish the first school for the Deaf in Brazil in 1855. In 1875, Flausino José da Gama published the first dictionary of Brazilian Sign Language. Campello (in press) identified that this dictionary is actually a copy of the first French Sign Language Dictionary. Flausino copied the signs and translated the words from French to Portuguese. Campello analyzed the signs of this dictionary and noticed a true influence in the actual signs that are still being used in Brazil, even though phonologic and morphologic changes have clearly been found. In 2007, a second deaf researcher (Shirley Vihalva) began analyzing the signs of native deaf sign language users from Guarani communities in Mato Grosso do Sul, a state with many native Brazilian communities. She is studying how their native signs mix with Libras at school, analyzing the emergent and the established language connections. In 2008, four more deaf students commenced research into Libras: focusing on historical

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change (Deonísio Schmitt), sociolinguistic analyses (Heloise Gripp), and applied linguistic analyses (Nayara Adriano and Letícia Fernandez). Also, Rimar Romano started research focusing on body language communication and sign language, analyzing a correlation between the cinema language and sign language translation performance. All these deaf students are at the Federal University of Santa Catarina, working on their doctoral or master’s degrees. Some bilingual hearing people have also conducted research into Libras in recent years. Correa (2007) concluded her dissertation about the interface between linguistic signs and gestures. She found that there are gestures produced together with the signs in different categories based on McNeill’s (2000) gesture categories. Pizzio (2005) worked on Libras acquisition, specifically word order acquisition. Paterno (2007) explored Libras and policies. All this research is changing the picture of sign language studies in Brazil. Libras recognition has also had consequences for, and an effect on, SLI education and research.

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National Deaf Organization Parallel to these academic advances, deaf people of different countries have organized themselves by means of representative institutions to convince policy makers that the signed languages are in fact true languages used by minority groups. In the case of Brazil, FENEIS played this role. For the last 20 years, FENEIS, representing the Deaf Brazilian Social Movement, established as a goal to lobby for the official recognition of Libras. This process culminated with the Law 10.436, which was regulated by decree number 5626, published in 2005.

Legal Recognition of Libras As mentioned earlier, the Law of Libras recognizes Brazilian Sign Language as the language of the Brazilian Deaf community. In this direction, the law unchains the linguistic rights of Brazilian deaf people, giving them the right to have access to their own signed language in society. Decree 5626 presents concrete actions that determine how Libras should be disseminated. Among its accomplishments are a national Libras proficiency exam (the Prolibras Exam) and the establishment of sign language related programs.

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Law 10.436, known as the Libras Law, was regulated in 2005 by Decree 5626. Concerning the translation and interpretation of Brazilian Sign Language, the decree shows an exclusive chapter, as seen in Appendix A. This law represents a unique achievement in the process of the deaf social movement and has extremely favorable consequences for the recognition of the professional translator and interpreter of sign language in Brazil. Besides this law, the following legislation supports the activities of the sign language interpreters directly or indirectly. • Law 10.098/00 (Accessibility Law) • Law 10.172/01 (Law of the National Plan of Education) • Resolution MEC/CNE: 02/2001 (National Directions for Special Education in Basic Education) • Decree 1679/99 (Accessibility to Higher Education)

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Prolibras Exam In 2006, the 1st year of implementation of the Prolibras Exam, responsibility for this national exam was taken on by the National Institute of Studies and Educational Research (Anísio Teixeira or INEP). In 2006 and 2007, the exam was conducted by means of a partnership between the Ministry of the Education, INEP, and the Federal University of Santa Catarina. The objective of the Prolibras Exam is to make certification available and to recognize proficiency in teaching Libras or proficiency in translation and interpretation between Libras and Portuguese. Therefore, the certification functions as a default register for sign language teachers and translators/interpreters. This exam presents an opportunity to regularize the performance of teachers, translators, and lay interpreters of Libras who have never received any training, while the newly established programs train people to work as professionals once they graduate. This exam was rolled out in 2006 and 2007. Table 1 presents an overview of the results from 2006. Table 1. Results of 2006 Prolibras Exam Brazilian Sign Language Interpreters Certified 2006–2007

Level

Quantity

Secondary

562

Undergraduate

178

TOTAL

740

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Commencement of Sign Language Undergraduate Programs Another action in Decree 5626 was the commencement of undergraduate programs to train sign language researchers, translators, interpreters, and bilingual teachers in Libras and Portuguese. To take advantage of this current law, the Federal University of Santa Catarina created the Program of Letters/Brazilian Sign Language (Libras), a 4-year undergraduate program offered in distance mode (E-learning education). This program incorporates the perspective of deaf people and is organized in such a way as to express information in sign language, as well as to incorporate forms of teaching and learning that address Deaf culture. The participation of deaf people in this process has been fundamental in ensuring a deaf-led direction to this course. The Letters/Libras program has the goal to train deaf teachers of sign language, as dictated in Decree 5626. Also, this undergraduate program has the goal to train sign language translators and/or interpreters that work between Libras and Portuguese in the written, oral, and visual-gestural modalities. The Letters/Libras program splits into two areas: licenciatura to train sign language teachers and bacharelado to train sign language translators and interpreters. The E-learning mode of delivery aims to democratize the teaching process for deaf and hearing students. Different regions of the country have the opportunity to train teachers of sign language from a deaf perspective and can access lecturers with highly specialized skills and knowledge in linguistics, deafness, deaf education, and sign language. The program is being offered in different Brazilian institutions in nine states: the Federal University of Amazon, the Federal University of the Ceará, the Federal University of the Bahia, the University of Brasilia, the Technological Federal Center of the State of Goiás, the University of São Paulo, the National Institute of Education, the Federal University of Saint Maria, and the Federal University of Santa Catarina. In 2008, the program integrated seven more cluster regions, including: the State University of Pará, the Technological Federal Center of the State of Pará, the Federal University of Pernambuco, the Federal University of the Espírito Santo, the Federal University of Minas Gerais, the Federal University of Paraná, and the Federal University of Grande Dourados in Mato Grosso do Sul. Beyond these universities, the state of São Paulo and the state of the Rio Grande do Sul will incorporate two new cluster regions: the University of Campinas and the Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul.

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USING E-LEARNING IN THE EDUCATION OF SIGN LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS The project “Surrounding Hypermedia for the Letters/Libras Program” developed the virtual environment for teaching and learning (AVEA), the digital books in sign language, and the videos for the program, as well as providing the management for the delivery of the program. The virtual environment was created with the coordination of Alice Pereira. The Design Department and the Systems of Information and Computation at the university support the program. Deaf designers were brought in at this stage in order to provide an understanding of the typical visual-learning preferences of deaf people, which are often different to the learning styles of hearing people. The role of the designers was to collaborate on the development of learning strategies, creating a teaching methodology based on visual learning as differentiated from other, more traditional, forms of learning that rely on sound, and therefore rely on providing information through interpreters for deaf people. The process included the preparation of all content materials online, in digital and printed matter. The team worked together with the teachers, authors, and production teams (hypermedia, video, and graphic production) in the planning and execution of the didactic actions of the program and the preparation of the materials (elaboration of hypertext, planning of assessment activities, approval of the scripts of the DVD-video, and elaboration of study guides). The process also involved the production of materials, which are uploaded to the Virtual Environment of Learning, the finalizing of the printed materials, and the production of the DVDs. Additionally, these professionals perceived the necessity to include in the virtual environment a dictionary of Libras, since Libras has many variants in the different states involved in the program. Moreover, many signs were created during the implementation of the program, and the dictionary features all the different meanings and signs used throughout the cluster regions. The contribution of three areas (design, systems of information, and computation) represents the support necessary to adjust the AVEA to meet the needs of the program and its target audience. In this respect, one important aspect of the Letters/Libras program is the bridge it provides between students and the wealth of information, through the use of suitable high-tech tools of learning.

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The “Moodle” is the virtual platform used for the E-learning in the Letters/Libras program. It allows for the creation of subjects, which define elements in terms of sources of information, alignments, colors, and position of images or tables. For the implementation of the graphics project, a specific format for the courses was created. The resulting interface, shown in Figure 2, lets users access shared graphs in SignWriting (a written form of signs representing the visual information about accessible tools), and allows them to send and receive messages, to view the other users who are online, and to see the files available.2 On the left side of the screen links, there are different types of interaction available to the users, as cluster regions—virtual places in which the teacher constructs his/her course together with the designers. Access to the courses occurs by clicking on the buttons on the green menu at the top of the screen. The creation of the education platform in Letters/Libras occurred, then, from modifications in the standard form of the Moodle, in addition to graphic elements and slots for sign language texts. The interface that the user has when accessing one of the courses is presented in Figure 3. The navigation of teachers, tutors, and monitors starts in the educational virtual pages, from where other pages are accessed. Users can access, for instance, course content pages, teaching pages, chats, discussion forums, evaluation, and tasks. The teachers participate in the elaboration of content pages. The technical team has access to the different pages to register the implementation technique and its documentation. It is a space in which the technical team can improve the design of the presentation as well as a place to elaborate the kind of technical support that the teachers want to add to have the content available to the students. It is a space for instructional designers to work, for teachers to add or to organize the content, and for the technical team to work in the presentation of the content. In the virtual environment, a hyperbook was also developed, which allows for the online editing and publishing of hypermedia. In sum, the hyperbook is a Web-based tool that allows for the creation, structure, and publication online of contents for learning. Elaborate material to support learning can be developed, which at the same time can create objects of learning that can be used objectively in other contexts (Scorm, 2005). The interface the user has with the hyperbook can be seen in Figure 4.

2. For more details about SignWriting, see www.signwriting.org.

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