Interdisciplinary Encounters: Dimensions of Interpreting Studies 8322632282, 9788322632284

Table of contents :
Table of contents
Introduction (Andrzej Łyda and Katarzyna Holewik) . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter One
Diachronic research on community interpreting: Between interpreting, linguistics
and social sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marta Estévez Grossi
Chapter Two
Evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting training in the 21st
century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carmen Valero-Garcés
Chapter Three
Stress, interpersonal communication and assertiveness training in public service
interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carmen Toledano Buendía and Laura Aguilera Ávila
Chapter Four
Three perspectives on interpreters and stress: The experts, the novices, and the
trainees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heather Adams and Ligia Rosales-Domínguez
Chapter Five
Self-confidence in simultaneous interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amalia Bosch Benítez
Chapter Six
PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews – working together to
achieve best evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Katarzyna Holewik
Chapter Seven
“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”: A new
initiative for the training of community interpreters in Austria . . . . . . .
Elvira Iannone
Chapter Eight
Elaboration of specialised glossaries as a work placement for interpreting
students: Opportunities and pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heather Adams and Agustín Darias-Marrero
Chapter Nine
Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts . . . . . . . . . .
Maria Bakti
Chapter Ten
Where have the connectors gone? The case of Polish-English simultaneous
interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Andrzej Łyda
Chapter Eleven
Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting: Making live speech visible
Ursula Stachl-Peier and Ulf Norberg

Citation preview

“This volume is an excellent addition to the Interpreting Studies literature. The cutting-edge research presented by a wide range of international experts demonstrates the strength of an interdisciplinary approach to the study of interpretation. The volume will be of great bene t to educators, students of interpreting as well as experienced practitioners.” Robert G. Lee, Senior Lecturer in BSL and Deaf Studies, University of Central Lancashire, UK

Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies

Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies brings together researchers, scholars, practitioners, interpreters and interpreter trainers, who share their research results, perspectives and experiences regarding the interdisciplinarity in the eld of interpreting studies. This interdisciplinarity is well re ected in the range of topics covered and research questions asked. From the interplay of interpreting and linguistics to the interplay of interpreting and psychology, to mark quite arbitrarily only two distinct epistemologies, and hence distinct methodologies.

Interdisciplinary

encounters:

Dimensions of interpreting studies Edited by

Andrzej Łyda, Katarzyna Holewik

Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies

Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies

Edited by

Andrzej Łyda and Katarzyna Holewik

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego • Katowice 2017

Editor of the series: Językoznawstwo Neofilologiczne

Maria Wysocka Referee

Piotr Mamet

The “word cloud” used on the cover by Mark Forshaw and Katarzyna Holewik

Copy editing and proofreading Technical editing Cover design Typesetting

Krystian Wojcieszuk Małgorzata Pleśniar Magdalena Starzyk Damian Walasek

Copyright © 2017 by Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego All rights reserved ISSN 0208-6336 ISBN 978-83-226-3228-4 (print edition)

ISBN 978-83-226-3229-1 (digital edition)

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Table of contents Introduction (Andrzej Łyda and Katarzyna Holewik) . . . . . . . . . .

7

Chapter One

Diachronic research on community interpreting: Between interpreting, linguistics and social sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marta Estévez Grossi

11

Chapter Two

Evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting training in the 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carmen Valero-Garcés

31

Chapter Three

Stress, interpersonal communication and assertiveness training in public service interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carmen Toledano Buendía and Laura Aguilera Ávila

48

Chapter Four

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress: The experts, the novices, and the trainees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heather Adams and Ligia Rosales-Domínguez

60

Chapter Five

Self-confidence in simultaneous interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amalia Bosch Benítez

72

Chapter Six

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews – working together to achieve best evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Katarzyna Holewik

78

Table of contents

6 Chapter Seven

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”: A new initiative for the training of community interpreters in Austria . . . . . . . Elvira Iannone

104

Chapter Eight

Elaboration of specialised glossaries as a work placement for interpreting students: Opportunities and pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heather Adams and Agustín Darias-Marrero

121

Chapter Nine

Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts . . . . . . . . . . Maria Bakti

136

Chapter Ten

Where have the connectors gone? The case of Polish-English simultaneous interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrzej Łyda

149

Chapter Eleven

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting: Making live speech visible Ursula Stachl-Peier and Ulf Norberg

161

Introduction Due to an increase in multiculturalism, multilingualism, immigration and globalisation as well as situations of conflict, we can observe a continuous growth of and demand for interpreting services worldwide. Researchers, trainers and interpreters themselves have long been investigating and drawing from various disciplines in order to examine the processes and complexities of an act of interpreting, show how the discipline has evolved over time, discuss the role of an interpreter and also to meet the demands of such a dynamic profession in the modern world. These are only some reasons why interpreting studies have profited from those interdisciplinary encounters. Other reasons, as we hope, can be found in the present volume. Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies brings together researchers, scholars, practitioners, interpreters and interpreter trainers, who share their research results, perspectives and experiences regarding the interdisciplinarity in the field of interpreting studies. This interdisciplinarity is well reflected in the range of topics covered and research questions asked. From the interplay of interpreting and linguistics to the interplay of interpreting and psychology, to mark quite arbitrarily only two distinct epistemologies, and hence distinct methodologies. The volume opens with an article by Marta Estévez Grossi, who focuses on research on community interpreting among migrant workers from Galicia, Spain in Germany in the 1960s and 70s. In her research she spans three areas, namely, interpreting, migration linguistics and social sciences. The study based on narrative interviews required of the author that a corpus be built. To overcome the perennial problem of corpus-building the author resorted to Oral History, thus incorporating the methodology of social sciences. The range of data obtained and the analysis performed testify to the claim that applying interdisciplinary approaches can be beneficial to interpreting research. The diachronic approach to interpreting or more precisely to research on interpreter training is clearly visible in Carmen Valero-Garcés’s chapter on the evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting (PSI) in the last twenty years. Taking the first Critical Link Conference in Geneva Park, Canada in 1995 as the starting point the author outlines the development of the idea of

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Introduction

interpreter training. She emphasises the growing awareness of the role of interdisciplinarity in the training process. The interplay of psychology and interpreting research is explored in the three subsequent chapters, which deal with the problem of stress and self-confidence. The first of them “Stress, interpersonal communication and assertiveness training in public service interpreting” by Carmen Toledano Buendía and Laura Aguilera Ávila reports on the results of an introductory course for public service interpreters aimed at delivering assertiveness training. Having analysed the major stress factors in PSI, the authors propose that the development of assertiveness as one of interpersonal competencies could alleviate the stress factors and assertiveness training should be included in the PSI training. In “Three perspectives on interpreters and stress: The experts, the novices, and the trainees” Heather Adams and Ligia Rosales-Domínguez explore the relation between the degree of expertise as a conference interpreter and stressinducers. The results of a small-scale questionnaire-based study seem to indicate that primary stress factors are the density of information, fast speech delivery, and the lack of prior documentation, yet the three groups under analysis differ significantly in what they find the major stress-inducer. Amalia Bosch Benítez’s contribution is also directed at the problem of affective factors in interpreting as the author addresses the role of self-confidence in interpreters. She presents a number of case studies in which she discusses and explores the impact of empathy on this aspect of interpreters’ personality. The chapter  “PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews — working together to achieve best evidence”  authored by Katarzyna Holewik  attempts to map the PEACE model and the principles of investigative interviewing into interpreter-mediated interviews. The author examines a number of factors and concepts necessary for effective interpreter-mediated police interviews and points out similarities between both participants of the communicative event, that is, interviewers and interpreters, highlighting the importance of professionalism, awareness and understanding, cooperation and trust (PACT). Elvira Iannone’s “ ‘Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters’: A new initiative for the training of community interpreters in Austria” reports on the development of a new university course in community interpreting in the field of medicine, psychotherapy, social work and community settings. The author concentrates on a wide range of factors deemed instrumental in the practical implementation of her theoretical model and offers a comprehensive assessment of the course results. In “Elaboration of specialised glossaries as a work placement for interpreting students: Opportunities and pitfalls” Heather Adams and Agustín DariasMarrero provide an account of the process of drawing up glossaries for use in a multi-cultural and multi-lingual project. The project meant as a supervised work placement for final-year and recent graduates in interpreting yielded a clear

Introduction

insight into the problem of assessment of relevance of terminology by novice terminologists, their teachers, interpreters and clients. The final three chapters in this volume examine the process of interpreting in terms of discourse structure. The chapter by Maria Bakti “Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts” is a good example of analysis of explicitation shifts. The author argues that the specificity of sight translation can be noticed in the fact that it tends to produce qualitatively different explicitation shifts (e.g., extra information) than the shifts reported in many other studies (e.g., strengthening cohesive ties) as typical of the simultaneous interpreting mode. The other discourse-oriented contribution comes from Andrzej Łyda. In “Where have the connectors gone? The case of Polish-English simultaneous interpreting” the author analyses strategies of rendering (a)syndetically-marked discourse-rhetorical relation of concession from Polish into English. By comparing the results with those obtained in Łyda (2008) he investigates whether the factor of directionality plays any role in the comprehension of this cognitively demanding discourse-rhetorical relation in source languages text and its production in the target language by simultaneous interpreters. The final contribution in the volume takes the reader to one of the least investigated areas of interpreting studies, that is, real time speech-to-text interpreting, in which it is expected that auditory qualities of speech should be represented in written text. In “Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting: Making live speech visible” Ursula Stachl-Peier and Ulf Norberg analyse a number of cases focusing on such prosodic features as loudness, stress, pauses and sentence-initial and sentence-final pitch patterns. Although addressed mainly to scholars studying interpreting, we hope that this collection of articles may prove inspiring also for researchers and practitioners working at the intersection of different disciplines, who will interpret the results of the analyses and discussions included in this volume in terms relevant to their own research interests and in ways which go beyond our brief, introductory outline. Andrzej Łyda and Katarzyna Holewik

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Chapter One

Diachronic research on community interpreting: Between interpreting, linguistics and social sciences Marta Estévez Grossi

This chapter aims to present the interdisciplinary character of (diachronic) research on community interpreting by presenting an ongoing project on the communicative situation of the migrant workers from Galicia (Spain) in Hanover (Germany) in the 1960s and 70s and their need for community interpreting. In order to be able to thoroughly describe the language mediation among this migrant group, it was imperative to provide a detailed linguistic description of the Galician community in Hanover. The theoretical foundations of the project lie therefore on two different and relatively new disciplines: community interpreting within the field of interpreting studies and migration linguistics within the applied linguistics. The diachronic nature of the object of study posed some additional methodological challenges. Being one of the main research problems on interpreting the creation of the corpus, oral history, within social sciences, supplied the guidelines and strategies for conducting narrative interviews, which form the empirical basis of the study. As for the analysis methodology, qualitative content analysis provided a flexible though systematic model to qualitatively analyse a corpus based on linguistic material, such as semi-structured interviews. Keywords: community interpreting, migration linguistics, oral history, qualitative content analysis

Introduction The aim of this chapter is to present the interdisciplinary character of interpreting studies in general and community interpreting (CI) in particular. This will be illustrated with an ongoing project on the communicative situation of the migrant workers from Galicia (Spain) in Hanover (Germany) in the 1960s and 70s and their need for community interpreting.

12

Chapter One

The study intends to establish how communication took place in this trilingual situation (Galician-Spanish-German), that is, by whom and under which circumstances mediation was performed, how the linguistic situation evolved over time and how the migrants adapted linguistically and culturally. This paper, though, does not seek to show the results of the analysis on the CI situation of this community, but to expose how a CI research project can profit from the methodologies and findings from other disciplines. A brief introduction on the research project will be followed by the identification of the initial hypothesis of the study, which is partly responsible for the increased interdisciplinarity of the project. Before carrying out the analysis on CI it was considered necessary to resort to the migration linguistics, an emerging discipline within the applied linguistics, in order to test the premises about the linguistic situation of the migrant group. The project will be then situated within the CI paradigm research, identifying the history of CI as one of its essential fields of study. The diachronic nature of the object of study presents additional methodological challenges, which will be dealt with by applying different methodologies from the field of social sciences. In this regard, the oral history strategies and theoretical underpinnings mainly employed in this project for the corpus creation will be outlined. To a lesser extent, the guiding principles of the qualitative content analysis, used in this project to analyse the corpus, will also be briefly displayed. Finally, the theoretical basis of the migration linguistics analysis will then be discussed and one of the linguistic premises of the study will be exemplarily tested within this framework.

2. Presentation of the project In the wake of the German Wirtschaftswunder, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) signed several bilateral recruitment agreements with different countries in order to gain the workforce that its flourishing economy needed. On 29th March 1960 the FRG signed a bilateral recruitment agreement with the Spanish Government, marking the official start of the first Spanish migration wave in Germany. It is estimated that between 1955 and 1988 around 800,000 Spaniards emigrated to the FRG, although the vast majority of them, around 86%, returned to Spain during the same period (Sanz Díaz 2009: 168–169). According to the official statistics, the migrants from the region of Galicia were the second largest group within the Spanish group, accounting for a 20.03% of the total Spanish migration in the FRG (Leib and Mertins 1980). Following the unquestionable “one state, one language” belief, the migrant workers from the region of Galicia in Spain were perceived as Spaniards and

Diachronic research on community interpreting…

therefore as speakers of Spanish, although the vast majority of them were monolingual Galician speakers, with only limited active competences in Spanish. Moreover, they arrived mostly with no knowledge of the German language and were confronted with a monolingual German society, which was virtually not prepared for them. This collective was therefore inserted in a multilingual context, confronted with three different languages: Spanish, German and Galician. This trilingual context makes this migrant group a particularly interesting object of study, also from the point of view of the community interpreting itself. The objective of the research project is to describe the communicative situation of the migrant workers that arrived from Galicia (Spain) to Hanover (Germany) in the 1960s and 70s and their need for community interpreting. The main reasons for the choice of the city of Hanover as the location of the study was the relatively high number of Spanish migrant workers in the region and its well-established Galician community. According to official data, the Region Lower Saxony-Bremen is in the fourth place amongst the German regions according to the number of Spanish migrant workers after North Rhine-Westphalia, Baden‑Württemberg, and Hesse (Sánchez López 1969). In this respect, the city of Hanover, as an important economic and industrial centre of the State of Lower Saxony, is representative of the situation of the Galician migrant workers in Germany. The fact that this city still counts today with a well-established and very active Galician community was an advantage in order to initiate contact with the community. As can be implied from the above paragraphs, this study is based on three premises, two of them regarding the linguistic situation of the migrants and the third one taking into account the existing literature about the provision of interpreting in the FRG. The first premise is that the vast majority of the Galician migrant workers arrived in Germany having Galician as their first language and low competences in Spanish. The second one is that this collective of migrants arrived with no knowledge of German and had difficulties to acquire the language afterwards. Finally, the third hypothesis is based on some well‑established studies on the models of international response to the need of linguistic services (Ozolins 2000; Ozolins 2010; Sauvêtre 1999) which in the case of the FRG pointed to the tendency of the provision of interpreting services to be based on ad-hoc approaches, with no state support. The analysis of the CI situation will allow (among other things) to assess the validity of the above-mentioned models of the provision of interpreting services in the FGR for this particular migrant group. However, before performing the actual analysis of the CI situation, the veracity of the premises about the linguistic situation of the Galician migrants in Hanover should be put to the test. In order to do so, the methodology of migration linguistics should be applied.

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Chapter One

3. The interdisciplinary character of CI diachronic research When it comes to situating a project within the paradigm of CI research, the literature review and mapping of its research topics performed by Vargas-Urpi (2012) can be considered a good starting point. In her article, Vargas-Urpi identifies eleven different research topics, including: text analysis and interpretation, quality assessment, interpreting in different contexts, community interpreting and technology, community interpreting history, ethics, terminology and glossaries, community interpreters’ specific competences, community interpreters’ working conditions, community interpreters’ training, and finally community interpreting professionalisation. Taking this paradigm into account, it is clear that the research project introduced in this chapter has a multifaceted character, addressing different topics such as the different contexts in which CI took place, the working conditions of the interpreters or the (non‑)professionalisation of the interpreting services provided. However, one of the central areas of research that make up the project had a paramount importance adding up to its interdisciplinarity: the CI history component. Even though the history of interpreting has been gaining scholarly interest in the last years (see Takeda and Baigorri Jalón 2016; Baigorri Jalón 2015), the truth is that the studies on this area rarely focus on the interpreting provision for migrant workers. A worthy example can be found nonetheless in the research of Otero Moreno, who also focuses on the language mediation among the Spanish migrants in the RFG, as sole author (Otero Moreno 2008, 2010) or as co-author (Baigorri Jalón and Otero Moreno 2012). In any case, when studying the history of interpreting of the past century, scholars have rather devoted their attention to interpreting in war settings, military tribunals, high-level politics and international organisations (see Baigorri Jalón 2015: 19–24). Regardless of the specific object of study, however, all studies on the history of interpreting have something in common: the problem of gaining reliable sources of information. As Pöchhacker (2004: 159) states, the difficulty of researching on the history of interpreting is the ‘evanescence’ of the activity, which does not leave any tangible trace, and its often low social esteem. For the most part, interpreting was a ‘common’ activity, in several respects, which did not merit special mention.

The collection of material in order to create a corpus poses therefore one of the main challenges in researching into this area of CI – or interpreting in general for that matter. When dealing with past events, it is normally not possible to access the actual interpreter‑mediated encounters, precisely because of the mentioned evanescence of the spoken (and therefore interpreted) word.

Diachronic research on community interpreting…

Likewise, the fact that the activity of interpreting, especially in social settings, has traditionally been regarded as an everyday activity implies its absence or, at best, paucity in most of the written accounts or archives (Payàs 2012: 31; see Alonso Araguás, Fernández Sánchez, and Baigorri Jalón 2012: 973). In order to solve this riddle it is necessary to resort to some alternative methodological approaches, such as the ones present in the social sciences and more specifically the historiography (Alonso Araguás, Fernández Sánchez, and Baigorri Jalón 2012: 973; Baigorri Jalón 2012: 90). In this regard, Baigorri Jalón (2012: 103; 2006: 103) pleads for the use of not only the most traditional historiographical methods, but also some new approaches such as the use of personal narratives or oral history.

4. Social sciences: Corpus creation, processing and analysis As has been outlined in the above paragraphs, the diachronic nature of the object of study had enormous methodological repercussions. One of the main challenges of community interpreting research, especially in diachronic studies but not solely, is the difficulty to collect material such as interpreter-mediated encounters and thus create a corpus. This also proved to be true for the present research project. Within the project, the first step was to conduct a thorough literature review looking for previous studies that discussed the linguistic situation of the Galician or, in general, the Spanish migrant workers in the FRG. Apart from the noteworthy exceptions of Otero Moreno’s research (see above), the literature review revealed that even if this migrant group had been studied and addressed from a myriad of angles (such as from the statistic, social sciences, psychology or even the historiography itself), the linguistic issue had only been dealt with tangentially. Taking into account the concerns expressed by the different scholars reviewed in the above paragraphs (Pöchhacker 2004: 159; see Alonso Araguás, Fernández Sánchez, and Baigorri Jalón 2012: 973; Payàs 2012: 31; Baigorri Jalón 2012: 90), it was decided to follow Baigorri Jalón’s methodological proposals and to approach the object of study by making use of the historiographical framework. The archival research carried out in several archives in the city of Hanover (Germany) and Galicia (Spain) only delivered scarce pieces of information on the linguistic situation of the Galician or, in general, Spanish migrant workers in Germany or their interpreters. It became obvious that the data collection would have to be eminently empirical. Despite of the diachronic character of the object of study, the fact of it lying in the near past opened up the possibility of interviewing some of the involved participants. The latter however, also posed some methodological challenges.

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Chapter One

In this respect, the oral history methodology was deemed especially appropriate to approach this endeavour since, as the oral historian Valeria Yow (2005: 12) says: “Oral history reveals daily life at home and at work – the very stuff that rarely gets into any kind of public record,” exactly like the interpreter-mediated encounters.

4.1 Corpus creation: Oral history Oral history is a historiographical method which deals with the gathering of memories of historical significance through recorded interviews (Ritchie 2003: 19). With its origins in the 1960s and 70s, oral history can be counted among the new historiographical approaches, challenging the traditional methods of recounting the past (Chamberlain 2006: 387). The philosophy behind this method is to give voice to the voiceless, following an approach of writing history “from the bottom-up” (Ritchie 2003: 23). In her article “A place for Oral History within Translation Studies”, McDonough Dolmaya (2015) advocates for the adoption of oral history methods in historical translation studies research. The author, however, restricts the use of the oral history to studies focusing on the role or figure of the translator, especially the non-literary ones, traditionally more neglected in the scholar literature (McDonough Dolmaya 2015: 196). The scope, however, can be expanded by applying or adapting the oral history methodology to any diachronic research on translation or interpreting studies. In fact, there are some precedents on interpreting research carried out on the basis of oral history (Torikai 2010; Torikai 2009; Takesako 2014; Takesako and Nakamura 2013) or using oral history archives (see Fernández Sánchez 2013; Kurz 2014). Taking into account that the migrant groups in a need of linguistic services can be considered an especially neglected group within society, oral history seemed to be best suited for digging into this reality. Thus, even if not all features of oral history will be applied to this project,1 this framework proved to be of advantage not only for the corpus creation but also, to a lesser extent, for the corpus analysis. As for the corpus creation, oral history supplied some guidelines and practical strategies when it came to plan the field work. One of the considerations that had important repercussions was the status of the interviewer regarding 1  This project does not comply with some of the general principles followed by many oral history scholars, such as making the interviews publicly available (see Ritchie 2003: 24; Shopes 2002: 590; Yow 2005: 72; Samuel 2003: 392) or sending the interviewees the transcripts back for correction (Yow 2005: 143). Although this project might therefore not be strictly considered an oral history project – neither intends to be it – it definitely demonstrates the benefits to be achieved by the use of oral history methodological and theoretical underpinnings.

Diachronic research on community interpreting…

the community in question. When carrying out an oral history project focusing on a community, it is essential to consider the status of the interpreter within the community itself – whether she/he is (considered to be) part of the community or not. There is a great degree of unanimity among the oral history scholars regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the interviewer being a part of the community object of study (Larson 2006: 121–123; Ritchie 2003: 55–56; Thompson 2000: 140–141; Yow 2005: 201–202). Interviewing as an insider usually implies gaining access to the community, building rapport during the interview and obtaining privileged information more easily. Conversely, the interviewee might not be willing to discuss with another community member some obviously shared information or topics considered to be delicate by the community. In that respect, the outsider interviewer might be able to ask naïve questions about controversial topics, without risking so much the established rapport. In this regard, I was able to understand my role as the main interviewer of the project simultaneously as an insider (being Galician myself and currently living in Germany) and as an outsider (not part of the Galician migrant community originated by this first migration wave). These initial considerations were crucial for the planning of the field work and, as will be shown later on, to consciously deal with some potentially sensitive topics, such as the first language of the migrants (see Section 5). Not being strictly part of the Galician migrant community in Hanover, an important point in order to access the migrant group was the hint of starting by contacting individuals working as community gatekeepers (Ritchie 2003: 88). In the context of oral history and other qualitative methodologies, the term gatekeeper refers to an influential, well‑regarded and respected individual within the community. Only through its gatekeepers was it possible to gain access to the community and the trust of the first informants. After interviewing the first individuals, a snowball sampling approach followed, where one interviewee refers to the next. This method of obtaining informants is favoured by some experts in the field of oral history (see Thompson 2000: 235; Yow 2005: 81). As for the interview methodology, the interviews were semi‑structured, guided by a questionnaire or an interview guide – term preferred by some oral historians (for the terminological discussion, see Yow 2005: 71–74) – with open questions that allowed the interviewees to speak freely. An unstructured or less structured interview, usually preferred in oral history research (Jennings 2005: 105), would not be appropriate since the interesting topics for the study may not arise spontaneously. It should be noted that the adoption of an interview guide is also not uncommon in oral history research, its studies ranging from unstructured to semi‑structured interview methods (Thompson 2000: 222). The use of an interview guide should be regarded as

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Chapter One

a memory aid, to avoid losing perspective during the interview and to help when the dialogue seems to have come to a dead end (Dumbrava 2004: 20–21). Furthermore, the adoption of semi-structured allows one to obtain comparability between the interviews. The results of this research, though, should be regarded as tendencies, since the relatively low number of interviewees does not allow to achieve statistical significance. Finally, and within the corpus analysis, the project also profited from some of the theoretical underpinnings of oral history. Memory being the core of this discipline (Abrams 2010: 78; Ritchie 2003: 19), oral history also provided a theoretical framework to deal with the problems that may appear when collecting diachronic data. Some topics on memory addressed by oral history are the tensions between collective and personal memory, the process of construction and reconstruction of those memories or the relation between memory and aging (Abrams 2010: 78 ff.; Green 2004; Hoffman and Hoffman 2006; Ritchie 2003: 33 ff.; Yow 2005: 35 ff.). Considering the advanced age of the majority of the interviewees, understanding the contradictions present in their narrations allowed to better interpret the information. These contradictions also spoke for the necessity to contrast the information provided by the migrants and drove me to carry out expert interviews. Due to space constraints, however, it will not be possible to further discuss those matters. A slightly larger discussion on this matter, providing a practical example from the corpus, can be found in Estévez Grossi (2015: 61–62).

4.2 Corpus processing and analysis: Qualitative content analysis Once the field work was completed, the preliminary corpus was based on 25 interviews with over 30 participants. After discarding three interviews, the final corpus was composed by 22 interviews, 11 of them with the narrative of community members, Galician first generation migrants, and 11 with experts, Spanish or German individuals who were somehow professionally involved in the migration process. The transcription of the interviews was based on the transcription system GAT 2 (Gesprächsanalytisches Transkriptionssystem 2 or, in English ‘conversation-analytical transcription system’) (Selting et al. 2009; for the English translation, see Selting et al. 2011). This project is based on the “minimal transcript,” the simplest one of the three levels covered by GAT 2 (see Selting et al. 2009: 359 ff. or in the English translation see Selting et al. 2011: 7 ff.). Given the narrative character of the interviews and the relatively small number of interviewees, which does not allow to achieve statistical significance, the methodological framework of the qualitative content analysis (in German quali-

Diachronic research on community interpreting…

tative Inhaltsanalyse, also known in English as qualitative text analysis) proved to be the best suited to analyse the data (see Kuckartz 2014a).2 This method, used mainly in the social sciences, allows to qualitatively analyse material based on any type of communication, such as life biographies or interviews. This methodological framework, though, has already been used in different linguistic studies (see Knapp 2005). Qualitative content analysis is based on some principles such as: 1) the centrality of the creation of categories, 2) the adoption of a systematic approach, including clear rules to follow in each step of the analysis, 3) the classification and categorisation of the whole corpus (and not only fragments of interviews), 4) the use of techniques for the creation of categories, 5) the hermeneutic reflection upon the corpus and 6) the recognition of quality standards3 and aiming for intercoder agreement (Kuckartz 2014a: 39). Through the implementation of this analysis methodology it was possible to code the entire corpus and thus structure the information provided by the informants during the interviews. Since the research question plays a central role during the analysis process, it was necessary to perform two analysis rounds on the whole corpus: one for the migration linguistics and one for the community interpreting component. Due to space constraints it will not be possible to explore the analysis procedures at a greater extent. In the next section, however, the analysis on migration linguistics will be sketched and exemplified.

5. Linguistic description of the community: Migration linguistics Similarly to CI within interpreting studies, migration linguistics (in German Migrationslinguistik) is a relatively young discipline within the field of applied linguistics. This new area of study has been established in the German speaking countries (Gugenberger 2004: 79; Zimmermann and Morgenthaler García 2007: 7) and in particular within the Romance linguistic studies. Migration linguistics pursues the study of the linguistic dynamics and processes originated in a migration context (Gugenberger n.d.: 63), analysing the transformation of the migrants’ identity and the results of the linguistic contact (Gugenberger n.d.: 64–65; Stehl 2011: 39–40), such as the sociolinguistic or acculturative strategies employed by the migrant. In this respect, the framework provided by the migration linguistics constitutes a useful tool to linguistically describe a migrant community such as the Galician community in Hanover.  It has also been published an English translation of Kuckartz’s Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse: Methoden, Praxis, Computerunterstützung (see Kuckartz 2014b). 3  A discussion about which quality standards should guide the qualitative content analysis can be found in Mayring (2008: 109–115) and Kuckartz (2014a: 165–169). 2

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Thus, the analysis of CI was preceded by an analysis of migration linguistics. This should allow to verify the above-mentioned premises regarding the linguistic situation of the migrants, that is, whether the majority of the Galician migrants had Galician as their initial language and low active competencies in Spanish at the moment of the migration and whether they arrived with no knowledge of German and had difficulties to acquire the language afterwards. At this point it is important to clarify that this project does not intend to objectively evaluate the language proficiency of the informants in the different languages involved in this multilingual context. That endeavour would imply carrying out specific language tests and would go well beyond the limits of the study. The aim is rather to analyse the conceptions that the informants developed about the individual and collective language competences and proficiency. The analysis on migration linguistics was based on the models proposed by Krefeld (2004) and Gugenberger (2007; in press) for the analysis of migration linguistics. Despite their differences, both models seek to describe the communicative practice of a migrant or community of migrants. Another point in common is the consideration of the linguistic competences and the social-linguistic networks of the migrants as an essential part in both models. Gugenberger, however, also believes the migrants’ conceptions about the societies to be relevant for the analysis on migration linguistics. Due to lack of space, this contribution will not be able to show the whole analysis on migration linguistics performed on this migrant group, which allowed to classify the migrants individually and collectively according to their acculturation strategies and their communicative practices. However, the procedure to test the first premise within the migration linguistics analysis will be exemplarily shown in the next paragraphs. As stated before, the first hypothesis argues that the vast majority of the Galician migrants had Galician as their first language and a low active competence in Spanish, at least as they first arrived to the FRG. If this was to be proven, it would mean that this migrant group would have indeed been inserted not into a bilingual but in a trilingual constellation. Compared to the premise about the competences in German among this migrant group,4 proving the hypothesis on the initial language posed some additional difficulties. The first drawback was the lack of literature on this matter. As opposed to the linguistic situation regarding the German language, discussed in the relevant literature on the subject,5 there is virtually no mention about 4  A section of the migration linguistics analysis on the German competences of the Galician migrant group can be found in Estévez Grossi (2016: 46–48). 5  Although scarce, there are some references about the lack of knowledge of German of the Spanish migrants in general at the point of arriving to the FRG (see Martín Pérez 2012: 56; Sanz Lafuente 2009: 424; Vilar Sánchez 2015: 10), the difficulties encountered when learning the German language afterwards (see Fernández Asperilla 2000: 71; Gualda Caballero 2001b: 98; Sanz

Diachronic research on community interpreting…

the initial language of the Galician migrants in the FRG. In the only reference found around this topic an interpreter anecdotally mentions to have experienced linguistic difficulties when interacting with Galician migrants in Spanish (see Otero Moreno 2010: 122). The second problem involved the sociolinguistic situation of the Galician language and the status of the main interviewer simultaneously as an outsider and insider to the community (see Section 4.1). Since the Galician language has a low social status in relation to Spanish, it was not possible for me as the main interviewer and Galician myself to directly ask about the initial language of the migrants. A direct question about their first language could have been regarded as face-threatening and therefore potentially damaged the rapport created during the interview with the informant. Taking this into account, it was necessary to develop an alternative strategy to gain an insight into this linguistic reality. The information around the linguistic situation of the community was therefore inferred from the four following factors: • spontaneous statements during the interview; • language of choice during the interview; • biographical data (age, age at migration, origin, level of education); • statistic data. The first factor refers to the interviewee’s explicit mention of Galician as his or her first language or difficulties with the Spanish language. The second factor was the consideration of the language in which the interview took place. If the language used by the informants during the interview was at least partly Galician, it was considered safe to state that the initial language of the participant was Galician. This can be established by considering the age of the informants. Taking into account that under the Franco’s regime in Spain the Galician language was banned from the educative and any other public sector, the fact that a person of the age of the participants was able to communicate in Galician can only point to a native acquisition of Galician, probably as a first language. The consideration of these two factors enabled to infer the initial language of 11 out of the 15 Galician informants. Thus, it can be claimed that 10 interviewees had Galician as their initial language while only one single migrant affirms to have Spanish as her first language. In the remaining four cases the initial language could not be unequivocally inferred. The cross-check of the available statistical data with the biographical data of the informants also proved to be a useful source of information. Thus, the inferred data on the first language among the informants is also consistent with Lafuente 2006: 48; Sanz Lafuente 2009: 434), or the level of language achieved, often compared to the Spanish migrants in other countries (Bermejo Bragado 1998: 111; Gualda Caballero 2001a: 108; Gualda Caballero 2001b: 194; Martínez Veiga et al. 2000: 344).

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the official statistics on the initial language in Galicia. According to the data collected in 2003 by the Instituto Galego de Estatística (Galician Statistics Institute), 63.23% of the population between the ages of 50 and 64 and 76.34% of the aged 65 or over had learnt to speak Galician. On the contrary, 22.29% of the aged between 50 and 64 and 13.93% of the aged 65 or over had learnt to speak in Spanish. For the assessment of their active proficiency in Spanish, the information obtained about their initial language was also cross-checked with their biographical information and the statistical data available. In this respect, the key factors were the rural or urban origin in Galicia, the level of formal education and the age at the point of the migration. Due to the sociolinguistic dynamics prevailing in Galicia, the rural or urban origin of the informant can be regarded a significant indicator of his or her Spanish proficiency. This is because the Galician language has traditionally been more present in the rural areas and smaller towns, having Spanish a stronger presence in the cities. Taking into account that the initial language of the majority of the participants was identified as Galician, coming from a more rural area would have meant a lesser contact with the Spanish language. According to the biographical data collected, only one informant was raised in a city, precisely the only one who explicitly declared Spanish to be her first language. On the contrary, the rest of the informants came from rural areas or smaller towns, which would point to a more Galician-speaking environment and to the contact with the Spanish language mainly through the education system. The information available, though, indicates that this contact was relatively limited. During the interviews, the Galician informants claimed to have achieved a low level of formal education, which is consistent with the scarce statistic data on this matter (see Aguirre 1980: 8–9). The young age of most of the informants at the point of the migration should also be taken into account. The latter makes unlikely that the migrants had previously experienced internal migration or made stays away from their immediate surroundings – with the eventual exception of the military service in the case of the male participants. This would also point to a limited contact with the Spanish language before the international migration experience. The question of the limited proficiency in Spanish is also mentioned in the corpus both by community members and experts in relation to the Galician language. In their narratives, the informants usually mention the rural origin and the low level of formal education of the Galician migrants as the reasons for not being able to properly communicate in Spanish, as can be observed in Except 1 and Excerpt 2. The passage in Excerpt 1 has been extracted from an interview with a community member who explains his linguistic situation at the point of his arrival in the FRG.

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23

Interviewer:

entonces en tu caso tampoco (-) había ningún tipo de preparación?// [so in your case (-) there was also no preparation al all?//]

Suso:

//en absoluto yo// [//not at all I//]

Interviewer:

yo que sé pues (--) pues de alemán/ de lengua alemana o algo así (‑) por parte de? [I don’t know well (–) well for the German/ German language or something like that (-) from?] //mira (--) lo que sabía yo era malamente (-) el castellano [//look (--) I could hardly speak (-) Spanish]

Suso: Interviewer: Suso:

mhm por decirlo de alguna manera porque eh allí hablábamos gallego [so to speak because we used to speak Galician in there]

Interviewer:

claro [of course]

Suso:

y (-) lo que aprendimos en el colegio (--) [and (-) what we learnt at the school (--) nothing else] […]

Suso:

//yo salía los catorce años de/ del/ del colegio y ya a trabajar [I left when I was fourteen the/ the/ the school and off I went to work]

Felipe: Suso:

sí sí claro// [yes yes of course] //me entiendes? y luego (-) eso aprendíamos el castellano (-) en el colegio (-) pero (--) en el pueblo se hablaba el gallego [do you understand? and then (-) well we learnt Spanish (-) at the school (‑) but (--) in the village we spoke Galician]

nada

más//

Excerpt 1. Community member reflecting upon his own Spanish competences

Thus, this community member explains the sociolinguistic dynamics present in his village of origin, typical for the situation in rural Galicia at the time. In this rural environment, Galician was the only language used in the community and Spanish was only introduced through the education system. The low level of education achieved, however, does not enable the achievement of proficiency in Spanish. As a result, this migrant arrives to the FRG “hardly” being able to speak Spanish. The extract in Excerpt 2, on the other hand, comes from an interview with an expert, a former social worker from Central America, who used to work with the community. Interviewer:

y el (---) nivel (-) lingüístico en general (-) [and the (---) general (-) language level (-) in German?]

Francisco:

malo! nada! nulo! (--) nulo nulo nulo (--) es/ era muy d/ muy difícil no el le/ las/ la mayoría de los españoles que vinieron aquí (-) venían de Galicia no? [bad! nothing! zero! (--) zero zero zero (--) it’s/ was very d/ very difficult right the th/ the/ the majority of the Spaniards that came here (-) came from Galicia right?] mhm

Interviewer:

de

alemán?

Chapter One

24 Francisco:

y entonces (-) MUchos (-) venían con un idioma bien cerrado (-) gallego no? (--) hay algunos gallegos que se mm comPRENden pero otros que vienen quién sabe de dónde de qué aldea (--) y (-) tenían un idioma muy cerrado (---) ah (-) y hab/ y (--) eh y hab/ y teníamos problemas de comprenderlos no? (--) de com/ los mis/ los mismos ((ríe)) ((incomp.)) tenían problemas de (-) de comprenderlos no? [and then (-) a LOT (-) came with a language hard to understand (-) Galician right? (--) and there are some Galicians who can be mm undersTOOD but others come from a village who knows where (--) and (-) they had a very thick accent (---) ehm (-) and ther/ and (--) ehm and ther/ we had problems to understand them right? (--) to und/ even th/ even the ((laughs)) ((unintell.)) had problems to (-) understand them right?]

Interviewer:

mhm

Excerpt 2. Expert reflecting upon the Spanish competences of the community

It should be noted that in both examples (Excerpt 1 and Excerpt 2) the topic of the Galician language within the community and the deficiencies in Spanish arise spontaneously, when actually asked about the German‑language competences of the migrants. In Excerpt 2, the expert argues that it was indeed hard to understand some of the Galician migrants when speaking in Spanish. He further suggests that the reasons for the latter were that many among them used to speak Galician and had a thick accent in Spanish. The informant also declares that the difficulties he experienced in understanding this migrant group were not due to his own Central American origin, since other colleagues coming from Spain also had similar problems. This view was also shared in other expert interviews. All these factors seem to indicate that at least part of the Galician migrants would have arrived to the FRG with limited (active) Spanish competences. The information gathered also points to the fact that at least in some cases, the first continued contact with the Spanish language would have occurred during the migration experience itself. In this regard, I believe that the premise of the project about the dichotomy between Galician and Spanish among the Galician migrants has been corroborated. It can be therefore stated that this migrant group was indeed inserted into a trilingual environment (Galician-Spanish-German), which should be considered when analysing the CI situation.

6. Conclusions This chapter shows how a project on (diachronic) community interpreting can profit from applying interdisciplinary approaches, both methodologically and theoretically.

Diachronic research on community interpreting…

The gathering of information seems to be an intrinsic problem of research on interpreting. When the object of study is additionally of diachronic nature, or it cannot be directly observed, the only feasible option usually is to access information through indirect recounts of the involved participants, but this approach also poses methodological and procedural challenges. In this respect, the methodologies present in the social sciences have proved to be a useful resource in order to create and analyse a corpus based on linguistic material. For the corpus creation, this project has made use of some of the strategies and theoretical foundations of oral history. This historiographical methodology proved to be useful when it came to plan the field work, reflecting on the role of the interviewer as an insider or outsider to the community and decide on the type of interview most appropriate for the study. The theoretical reflections on memory, a topic fundamental although usually neglected in diachronic research, helped to understand the contradictions found in the narratives and pointed to the necessity to find other sources of information that would corroborate the data. In this particular project, the latter led to the conduction of expert interviews. For the corpus analysis, the qualitative content analysis provided a systematic model to qualitatively analyse linguistic data, while still allowing a certain degree of flexibility during the process. The theoretical foundations of the project, originally based on CI, were complemented by the migration linguistics. This emerging discipline within the applied linguistics provided a great framework in order to thoroughly describe linguistically the community object of study. This enabled me to prove some of the premises of the project, which had great repercussions for the CI situation among the community. One of the said premises suggested that the Galician migrants would have been inserted not into a bilingual but in a trilingual environment, since many of these migrants arrived to the FRG having Galician as their initial language and only limited active competences in Spanish. Due to the fact that the interviewer was partly considered an insider to this community, it was not possible to directly ask the informants about their initial language, since the sociolinguistic status of Galician makes this a delicate matter. An alternative way to elicit this piece of information had to be found. Through the consideration of the content of the corpus, the language spoken during the interviews, the biographical data of the informants and the statistical data available, it was possible to infer the initial language of 11 out of 15 Galician informants. From this group, 10 had Galician and one Spanish as their initial language. The information gathered also indicated that some Galician migrants had indeed low competences of Spanish or even that for some of them their first prolonged contact with the Spanish language

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26

occurred during the migration experience itself. The results of this analysis were also consistent with the statistical data on this matter.

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Kuckartz, Udo. 2014b. Qualitative Text Analysis: A Guide to Methods, Practice and Using Software. SAGE Publications Ltd. Kurz, Ingrid. 2014. “On the (In)fidelity of (Fictional) Interpreters.” In Research into the Realities of Translation Fiction, edited by Klaus Kaindl and Karlheinz Spitzl. Transfiction, 205–220. Larson, Mary A. 2006. “Research Design and Strategies.” In Handbook of Oral History, edited by Thomas E. Charlton, Lois E. Myers, and Rebecca Sharpless, 105–34. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. Leib, Jürgen, and Günter Mertins. 1980. “Die Abwanderung Spanischer Arbeitnehmer in Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Umfang, Ursachen, Herkunfts- Und Zielgebiete.” Erdkunde, 195–206. Martín Pérez, Sonia. 2012. “La Representación Social de La Emigración Española a Europa (1956–1975): El Papel de La Televisión Y Otros Medios de Comunicación.” Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Available online at: http://eprints.ucm.es/16157/1 /T33837.pdf (accessed 1.04.2017). Martínez Veiga, Ubaldo (dir.), Janique Compère, Ana Fernández Asperilla, François Houtart, Albert Kasanda, Heike María Martínez Figueirido, Fernando Miguel Fernández, and Marie Claude Muñoz. 2000. Situaciones de Exclusión de Los Emigrantes Españoles Ancianos En Europa. Edited by Federación de Asociaciones y Centros de Emigrantes Españoles en Francia (coord.), Fundación 1o de Mayo, Federación de Asociaciones de Emigrantes Españoles en Holanda, Coordinadora Federal del Movimiento Asociativo, Movimiento Asociativo de los Emigrantes Españoles en Bélgica, Federación de Asociaciones de Emigrantes Españoles en Luxemburgo, and Asociación Granadina de Emigrantes Retornados. París. Mayring, Philipp. 2008. Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse: Grundlagen Und Techniken. 10., neu a. Weinheim and Basel: Beltz. McDonough Dolmaya, Julie. 2015. “A Place for Oral History within Translation Studies.” Target. International Journal of Translation Studies 27(2). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company: 192–214. Otero Moreno, Concepción. 2008. “La interpretación social en Alemania desde 1950 hasta hoy. Primeros avances de una encuesta realizada a la población inmigrante de Braunschweig.” In Investigación y práctica en traducción e interpretación en los servicios públicos. Desafíos y alianzas. // Investigación y práctica en traducción e interpretación en los servicios públicos: Desafíos y alianzas = Research and practice in public service interpreting, edited by Carmen Valero Garcés, Carmen Pena Díaz, and Raquel Lázaro Gutiérrez, 76–86. Alcalá de Henares: Universidad de Alcalá de Henares. Otero Moreno, Concepción. 2010. “Migración Y Mediación Intercultural En Alemania Y La Realidad Del Inmigrante Español.” In Los Limites de Babel. Ensayos Sobre La Comunicación Entre Lenguas Y Culturas, 101–132. Madrid: Iberoamericana. Ozolins, Uldis. 2000. “Communication Needs and Interpreting in Multilingual Settings: The International Spectrum of Response.” The Critical Link 2: Interpreters in the Community: Selected Papers from the Second International Conference on Interpreting in Legal, Health, and Social Service Settings, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 19–23 May 1998, 21–34.

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Ozolins, Uldis. 2010. “Factors that Determine the Provision of Public Service Interpreting: Comparative Perspectives on Government Motivation and Language Service Implementation.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 14: 194–215. Available online at: http://www.jostrans.org/issue14/art_ozolins.php (accessed 1.04.2017). Payàs, Gertrudis. 2012. “Acercamiento Traductológico a La Mediación Lingüística En La Araucanía Colonial.” In La Mediación Lingüistico-Cultural En Tiempos de Guerra: Cruce de Miradas Desde España Y América, edited by Gertrudis Payàs and José Manuel Zavala. Temulco: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Temulco, 19–35. Pöchhacker, Franz. 2004. Introducing Interpreting Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Ritchie, Donald A. 2003. Doing Oral History. 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Samuel, Raphael. 2003. “Perils of the Transcript.” In The Oral History Reader, edited by Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson, 389–392. London and New York: Routledge. Sánchez López, Francisco. 1969. Emigración Española a Europa. Madrid: Confederación Española de Cajas de Ahorros. Sanz Díaz, Carlos. 2009. “Las Relaciones Del IEE Con Alemania.” In Historia Del Instituto Español de Emigración, 167–188. Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración. Sanz Lafuente, Gloria. 2006. “Mujeres Españolas Emigrantes Y Mercado Laboral En Alemania, 1960–1975.” Migraciones Y Exilios 7: 27–50. Available online at: http://www .aemic.org/assets/articulos/130/original/Gloria_Sanz_Lafuente_-_Migraciones_y _Exilios_7_-_2006.pdf (accessed 1.04.2017). Sanz Lafuente, Gloria. 2009. “Algunos Condicionantes de La Comunicación Intercultural de Los Emigrantes Españoles En Alemania. 1960-1967.” In Razones de Historiador. Magisterio Y Presencia de Juan José Carreras, 423–447. Available online at: http://ifc .dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/28/87/35sanzlafuente.pdf (accessed 1.04.2017). Sauvêtre, Michel. 1999. “De L’interprétariat Au Dialogue À Trois.” Edited by Roda P. Roberts, Silvana E. Carr, Diana Abraham, and Aideen Dufour. The Critical Link 2: Interpreters in the Community: Selected Papers from the Second International Conference on Interpreting in Legal, Health, and Social Service Settings, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 19-23 May 1998. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing, 35–45. Selting, Margret, Peter Auer, Dagmar Barth-Weingarten, Jörg Bergmann, Pia Bergmann, Karin Birkner, Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, et al. 2009. “Gesprächsanalytisches Transkriptionssystem 2 (GAT 2).” Gesprächsforschung – Online-Zeitschrift Zur Verbalen Interaktion 10: 353–402. Available online at: http://www.gespraechsforschung-ozs.de /heft2009/px-gat2.pdf (accessed 1.04.2017). Selting, Margret, Peter Auer, Dagmar Barth-Weingarten, Jörg Bergmann, Pia Bergmann, Karin Birkner, Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, et al. 2011. “A System for Transcribing Talk-in-Interaction: GAT 2. Translated and Adapted for English by Elizabeth CouperKuhlen and Dagmar Barth-Weingarten.” Gesprächsforschung – Online-Zeitschrift Zur Verbalen Interaktion 12(12): 1–51. Shopes, Linda. 2002. “Oral History and the Study of Communities: Problems, Paradoxes, and Possibilities.” The Journal of American History 89 (2, History and September 11: A Special Issue (Sep., 2002)): 588–598. Stehl, Thomas. 2011. “Sprachen Und Diskurse Als Träger Und Mittler Mobiler Kulturen: Kommunikative Aspekte Der Migrationslinguistik.” In Sprachen in Mobilisierten Kul-

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turen: Aspekte Der Migrationslinguistik, edited by Thomas Stehl, 39–56. Potsdam: Universitätsverlag. Takeda, Kayoko, and Jesús Baigorri Jalón, eds. 2016. New Insights in the History of Interpreting. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Takesako, Kazumi. 2014. “Development of Medical Interpreting in the United States: From Oral Histories of Medical Interpreters.” Osaka University, Japan. Available online at: http://ir.library.osaka-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/11094/33997/7/26837_論 文.pdf (accessed 1.04.2017). Takesako, Kazumi, and Yasuhide Nakamura. 2013. “The Professionalization of Medical Interpreting in the United States: The Perspective of Early Pioneers.” Journal of International Health 28 (4): 279–286. Thompson, Paul. 2000. Voice of the Past: Oral History. Oxford University Press. Torikai, Kumiko. 2009. Voices of the Invisible Presence: Diplomatic Interpreters in PostWorld War II Japan. John Benjamins Publishing. Torikai, Kumiko. 2010. “Conference Interpreters and Their Perception of Culture: From the Narratives of Japanese Pioneers.” Edited by Rakefet Sela-Sheffy and Miriam Schlesinger. Translation and Interpreting Studies. Special Issue: Profession, Identity and Status: Translators and Interpreters as an Occupational Group. Part II: Questions of Role and Identity 5(1). John Benjamins Publishing Company: 75–93. Vargas-Urpi, Mireia. 2012. “State of the Art in Community Interpreting Research. Mapping the Main Research Topics.” Babel 58(1): 50–72. Available online at: https:// benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/babel.58.1.04var/fulltext (accessed 1.04.2017). Vilar Sánchez, Karin. 2015. “Ir Y Volver. Y Volver a Ir. La Lengua Como Clave de Éxito En La (R)emigración.” Lengua Y Migración 7(1): 7–27. Available online at: http:// lym.linguas.net/Download.axd?type=ArticleItem&id=149 (accessed 1.04.2017). Yow, Valerie Raleigh. 2005. Recording Oral History: A Guide for the Humanities and Social Sciences. 2nd edn. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Zimmermann, Klaus, and Laura Morgenthaler García. 2007. “¿Lingüística Y Migración O Lingüística de La Migración?: De La Construcción de Un Objeto Científico Hacia Una Nueva Disciplina.” Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana 5 (2 (10), Lengua y migración en el mundo hispanohablante): 7–19.

Chapter Two

Evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting training in the 21st century Carmen Valero-Garcés*6

Since the first Critical Link Conference in Geneva Park, Canada in 1995, Public Service Interpreting (PSI) has experienced a dramatic change in both theory and practice. National and international conferences, seminars, courses, and workshops all around the world, as well as an ever-growing flow of publications have made it possible for practitioners, trainers, and researchers to get together and discuss their views and exchange ideas. During this journey, new tendencies, disciplines, and tools have been applied in research and training. This article will focus on training. Research on training shows a certain evolution in teaching that goes from a prescriptive approach based on the insistence of the “interpreting is interpreting” trope – while usually disregarding translation – to a much more interdisciplinary, realistic, and fuller understanding of the complexities of this matter based on a specific sociocultural moment. It is my intention to demonstrate these evolutions, trends, and gaps in PSI training, followed by some suggestions for the future. Keywords: interpreting, public service interpreting, PSI, interdisciplinary, PSI research, PSI training

1. Introduction The globalization, the diversification, and the fast mobility of people in today’s markets require specialists in communication to serve as many heterogeneous settings and audiences as possible. Interpreters, translators, intercultural mediators and other international professional and non-professional and/or ad-hoc communicators serve as links to facilitate understanding across global and local contexts through diverse communication channels. In Translation and Interpreting Studies, there is an increasing awareness of the need to build bridges in research communication studies (Risku 2010; *

FITISPOs-UAH. University of Alcalá, Madrid, Spain.

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Ehrensberger-Dow and Daniel 2013). Indeed, some research reveals that the fields of translation and interpreting and of professional communication are converging, as practitioners initially trained in one field seek cross-training in the other as a way to capture both ends of the market (Minacori and Veisblat 2010; Genecchi et al. 2011). Another reason mainly in the field of Translation and Interpreting Studies is the lack of recognition of the profession of translators and interpreters not only in the business market, but also at an institutional level (legal, administrative, education, healthcare, and social services). This situation applies more specifically to the area of Public Service Interpreting and Translation (PSIT) (or Community Interpreting and Translation). As Maylat (2013: 48) points out, more research and dialogue is needed to fully grasp the implications and commonalities in all areas of multicultural professional communication, unless they are no longer ascribed peripheral roles in business, technical, and scientific endeavours. If we focus specifically on public service interpreting (PSI), a field that is full of asymmetries (Wadensjö 1998: 33; Mikkelson 2014: 126; Hale 2007: 45), the need to research contact points and explore common ground and points of convergence is even more necessary, as there is a progression toward more multicultural societies in which less frequently spoken languages come into play as well as minority languages that clash and compete with the relentless advance of English as an international language, which leads Tsuda (2010: 68) – among many others – to state that English hegemony is “not a purely linguistic matter, but is directly connected with ‘power,’ namely, ‘who controls the world’ . ” These two seemingly parallel factors are seen differently by its speakers and, as Yajima and Toyosaki (2016: 96) reveal with regard to English, and by making this point relevant to native speakers in other countries as well, there is a revelation of “power differentials that native speakers in particular may take for granted and even exacerbate if they are not made aware of how their decisions about language(s) can be apprehended by non-native speakers – or by those who do not speak the official language(s) at all.” These changes have undoubtedly affected – and continue to affect – the training of translators and interpreters in order to modify the training of these future professionals to fit the needs of the workforce, as Valero-Garcés and Toudic point out (2015: 202): […] translator education and training is the shared responsibility of universities and employers, and in a highly competitive market, graduates need to be equipped during their course of studies with the basic competences listed above (by a combination of academic education and training and internships) before they finally enter the labour market, where they will then acquire the further experience and advanced knowledge and competences they need to become fully-operational translation industry professionals.

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This brings us back to the main focus of this article – public service interpreting (PSI) – in which regulated training is still scarce and very diverse. The need to train suitable professionals who meet the expectations of the work market is even more imperative nowadays.

2. Toward PSI definition and scope Continuous research and publications on aspects related to PSI, such as the Critical Link series or the FITISPos Alcalá Research Group series, demonstrate that defining the scope of PSI is a complex and difficult task. By combining different ideas from authors like Wadensjö (1998: 33), Mikkelson (1996: 126), and Leech (1999: 93), PSI can be defined as the kind of interpreting provided in public services in order to balance power relations among speakers and addressees who do not speak the same language(s), prioritizing the need for good communication to ensure an egalitarian access to these services (Echauri 2014: 465). One of the most significant and stated arguments is that the interpreter does not merely carry out linguistic conveyance but also coordinates, mediates, and negotiates cultural and social meaning. The problem lies in setting the exact boundaries of this intervention. This issue has given rise to different philosophies and practices, ranging from adhering to strict linguistic conveyance all the way to mediation (also called “advocacy”), or actively defending service users belonging to minority groups (Martin and Phelan 2002; Valero-Garcés 2002). Whether we are at one extreme or the other, the consequences can lead to poor results for the speakers, especially for the weaker party (Cambridge 2002: 123; Corsellis 2008: 44), as well as to different training practices. With regard to training, and based on the aforementioned works and on the publications of two of the most emblematic organizations/associations in this field – including Critical Link and FITISPos – Alcalá (due to their ongoing works and efforts in favor of recognizing and professionalizing PSIT) – we note that there has been a growing interest in this area of training and research not only in places such as Australia, the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, but also in countries in which PSIT was practically unheard of or ignored until well into the 21st century. This is the case with Poland (Tryuk 2005; Piotrowska 2005; Malinowski 2005), Japan (Konishi 2005), Argentina (Fernández 2005), and Cuba (Reyes and Bernabé 2005). A decade later, we once again find research focused on countries that are new to literature regarding PSIT, such as Jordan (Alshchab et al. 2014), Taiwan (Ho and Chen 2014), and once again Japan (Marszalenko 2014). Although these papers all looked at PSIT from different perspectives, they all shared a common goal which was to promote communication between linguistically and culturally diverse communities showing similar tendencies,

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including an emerging need for competent PSIT services, the consideration of sign language and less frequently used languages, society’s gradual awareness of PSI, and the ongoing efforts made by institutions, NGOs, ethnic communities, and individuals to join efforts. Proceedings from the last Critical Link conferences (Wadensjö et al. 2009; Schäffner et al. 2013) as well as from the last conferences on PSIT held in Alcalá (Valero-Garcés et al. 2008, 2011, 2014) reaffirm this interest. After more than two decades of debates regarding PSIT through publications, conferences, seminars, and projects, the overall outlook with regard to the profiles of interpreters has not varied much, currently driven by the economic crisis that started in 2008. The table that Hale outlined in 2007 (Hale 2007: 35) continues to hold true in several contexts: […] interpreters work with other professionals in the delivery of their services. There is often a misunderstanding about each other’s tasks, roles, needs and expectations. Untrained interpreters may not understand the reasoning behind procedures, specific questions or modes of delivery in different settings, as well as the significance of the layperson’s responses in allowing the primary service providers to perform their duties adequately. On the other hand, professionals working with interpreters rarely understand the complexity of the task and the interpreters’ needs on producing an acute rendition.

This serves to conclude that few opportunities exist, that pay and working conditions are poor, and that the lack of understanding of the interpreter’s role and others’ lack of appreciation of their role places pressure on interpreters, making it difficult for them to perform at a professional level. What they need at this level is training. In other words, training is a paramount step toward professionalization. PSIT professionals and practitioners agree that there are several stages in the process of achieving real, effective communication in multicultural societies where there are minority populations that are unaware or not sufficiently familiar with the majority language and culture. Nearly two decades ago, Roberts (1997: 27) outlined the process of professionalization regarding public service interpreting. These guidelines included: 1. Clarification of terminology, in other words, settling on a universally recognized name; 2. Clarification of the role(s) of the public service interpreter; 3. Provision of training for interpreters; 4. Provision of training for trainers of interpreters; 5. Provision of training for professionals working with interpreters; 6. Accreditation of public service interpreters.

Evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting training…

Corsellis (2003: 71–89) also discusses three parallel processes of change which are developing over time. Each of these processes is related to one of the links that form part of the chain of communication: a) public service providers; b) public service users who do not master the language in which these services are offered; c) intermediaries that enable communication. Each of these links goes through a process of change that is described below: Process A: Public Services Public services often go through the following stages, but not always at the same rate or in the same manner: 1. Unawareness of the problem. 2. Denying that the problem exists and attempting to give solutions, which are often times irrational. This is what leads to some of the typical comments frequently heard in different parts of Spain. For example, “we don’t usually have problems because they are accompanied by their children or friends who help them,” “we understand each other with signs, drawings…,” and “there are people who can lend a hand if necessary in the center.” 3. Recognition (accepting the problem). 4. Analyzing and implementing solutions. This stage of action is often not so difficult on paper, but poses more problems once it comes to actually being implemented and usually takes longer than expected. Not only are professionals needed to interpret and train, but also to teach their own employees how to work with people from other cultures or with interpreters (see Corsellis 2003: 71–90). There are public services that have been able to utilize important resources with good results in terms of training as well as monitoring the results or providing multilingual services (i.e., healthcare or court interpreting), while there has been less progress in other services (educational or social services, etc.). Furthermore, big differences can be observed between countries and even between areas in the same country. 5. Progress at a local level through individual or private initiatives that overcome great obstacles. Typically, enthusiastic individuals and dedicated volunteers take the first step after recognizing that there is a problem that needs to be solved. 6. Institutionalization at a national level. Social change takes place very differently in different cultures. It can come about without having to challenge the laws of the host country or after legislative changes are passed, depending on the situation. 7. Local consistency within a national framework after completing a series of general measures: codes of conduct, professional interpreting services, etc.

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Process B: Intermediaries (“The Linguists,” as Corsellis calls them in this case) 1. Unawareness of the problem. Knowing the language and even having worked as a translator or interpreter does not always mean that one is familiar with or has been involved in working within public services (hospitals, schools, police stations) on an informal basis, either by helping out friends or working voluntarily. In addition, PSIT is not considered a profession, but rather as occasional or even voluntary work in these contexts. This outlook needs to be changed, even by language specialists themselves, to be able to recognize that when working in public settings, the same standards of excellence should be observed as in other settings (trade, business, and courts). 2. Accepting the problem and answers. Language specialists immediately acknowledge problems. But this is not always enough if they are not qualified or are not fluent in the languages in which their services are needed or if they are not used to working in a team or forming groups. 3. The process of professional regulation. This involves, as in any other profession, people with a particular area of expertise who follow a professional code of ethics for the protection of their clients, colleagues, and body of knowledge. Public Service workers are governed by rules and regulations. However, is this also the case for linguists or language specialists? This phase has already begun in many countries and settings, but it is a slow process which requires – and will continue to require – patience until it is recognized, as have other professions.

Process C: Those who do not speak the language of the country or public service This process applies to individuals more than groups, given that each person’s background is very different. What may be useful for one individual is not necessarily useful for another belonging to the same group, country or culture. Therefore, a process cannot be designed for a group, but it must instead be designed to be adaptable based on a range of variables and factors. These may have been present prior to migration (e.g., education, social conditions, work experience, family ties, etc.), appeared during migration (e.g., planning, development, whether migration is organized, forced, etc.), or come up after migration (degree of post-migration trauma, overcoming cultural barriers, knowledge of the host country’s language, etc.). Corsellis concludes (2003: 89) that the best chance for success occurs only when there is an optimal horizontal relationship between these three vertical processes. This position has not been reached by most of the countries, and from this emerges the lack of professionalization. This has also lead to wide diversity and

Evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting training…

to a great difference between countries when it comes to providing services, training, and accreditation programs for translators and interpreters working in or cooperating with public services. Different countries have developed different programs to train translators and interpreters, some of which are national and others which are locally based. Some organizations provide free multilingual services, while others charge a fee. Some governments fund PSIT services while others only indirectly support or almost completely disregard them. Some countries have already developed strategies to organize and provide such services to the groups or individuals that need language assistance, while others are only now starting to see the problem. In some countries, there is specialized university training while in others education is limited to workshops, seminars, and courses that vary in the number of training hours. This wide array of solutions being offered demonstrates that there is still a lack of coordination and professionalism and that there is a need for training. Progress is being made sector by sector. The lead is currently being taken by the legal system, mainly because there is relevant legislation. Thus the EU is seeking to establish equivalent standards for legal translators and interpreters (LITs) in all 27 member states. Directive 2010/64/EU3 of the European Parliament on the right to interpreting and translation in criminal proceedings is a big step, as well as the gradual emergence of joint projects that seek global solutions. There have been several EU-funded projects focusing on LITs such as: Aequitas. Recommended the equal and adequate standards required (2001). Aequalitas. Sought to disseminate those standards throughout the EU (2003). Aequilibrium. Looked at the necessary liaison working arrangements between the language and legal professions (2005). Status Quaestionis. Survey of developments in LIT in all member states showed an uneven patchwork of provision (2008). EULITA. European Legal Interpreters’ and Translators’ Association aims to promote EU-wide standards and information exchange (2009). Building Mutual Trust 1, 2. Selection of sample teaching and other materials for LITs and legal services, and their trainers (2011, 2013). AVIDICUS 1, 2 and 3. Assessing the implications of video conference interpreting (2011, 2013, 2015). JUSTISIGNS, a ground-breaking initiative focusing on identifying competencies for sign language interpreting in legal settings and providing training for both qualified and qualifying signed language interpreters in this domain (2013–2016). TraiLLD: Training in Languages of Lesser Diffusion focus on the different aspects and methods of training for interpreters in languages of lesser diffusion (2013–2015).

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Understanding Justice, a project orientated towards interpreting in the civil justice domain (2013–2015). Co-Minor-IN/QUEST (2013–2014), a project that focuses on vulnerable victims, suspects and witnesses under the age of 18 and how to provide the necessary information, support and protection to this group (2013–2014).

This outlook, however, is rather different in other fields (healthcare, education, welfare/social services) in which the services of translators and interpreters in a wide range of languages are required. Such a diverse scenario makes it difficult to maintain “unity in diversity,” as indicated by Pöchhacker (2002: 125–140). However, a global overview of the situation allows us to see some trends and developments in PSI.

3. Evolution in PSI training: An example A review of the literature on PSIT shows that PSI has shifted from a largely prescriptive approach to a much more complex, interactive matter. This almost exclusive focus on issues that embody a monolithic view of language has been abandoned. The interpreter is not simply seen as a “windowpane” or a “black box” through which ideas simply pass unchanged (Angelelli 2004, 2008). There is an increasing appreciation among scholars and practitioners based on the fact that language, and thus the interpreter’s performance, forms part of a larger institutional, cultural, social, and political framework that affects both microand macro-linguistic aspects of the interpreter’s performance and the various interlocutors’ utterances. A close look at the development of PSI through the subjects that were picked for international meetings and debates in conferences and seminars in Spain during the 21st century may serve as an example to illustrate the actual situation in some other countries. During the last decade of the 20th century, Spain experienced an influx of immigrants concentrating in limited spaces within a short time span. This has led to the country turning into a laboratory of ideas offering different solutions that give way to the start of the transformation of an otherwise homogeneous and monolingual society, into a more multicultural and multilingual one. This experience, and the manner in which the country has evolved, can be compared with other countries within the European Union. The first experience that the University of Alcalá had with PSIT was during the 3rd International Conference on Translation held in 1997 – just two years after the first Critical Link (1995). The Alcalá conference’s main theme was New Trends in Translation Studies, and I delivered a paper titled “PSIT: What are you talking about? A new specialization in Translation Studies” (Valero-Garcés 1997:

Evolution, trends and gaps in public service interpreting training…

267–277). The 1st FITISPos conference took place in 2002, and was titled New Needs for New Realities (Valero-Garcés 2002). This conference was held at the same time as the arrival of a massive wave of immigrants in Spain with specific needs having to be met. The 2nd FITISPos conference, titled Translation as Mediation or How to Bridge Linguistic and Cultural Gaps (Valero-Garcés 2005), was held in 2005 at a moment of discussion between two forms of understanding communication with the foreign population. The 3rd FITISPos Conference, Challenges and Alliances in PSIT: Research and Practice (Valero-Garcés et al. 2008), was held in 2008 at a moment in time in which more effective and solid cooperation among institutions was needed to facilitate integration and help build the multicultural, multilingual society in which we live today. The 4th FITISPos conference, Future in the Present: PSIT in www (Wild Wired World) (Valero-Garcés et al. 2011), took place in 2011, a time in which the influence of technology could no longer be ignored, and new means of communication were emerging (e.g., remote interpreting, automatic translation, new CAT tools). The 5th FITISPos conference, held in 2014, was titled (Re)visiting Ethics and Ideology in Situations of Conflict (Valero Garcés 2014), and took place during a moment of economic crisis, social tensions, and war conflicts, which are currently being exposed in the media with the arrival of thousands of refugees to EU countries. The 6th FITISPos conference titled Beyond Limits will be held in 2017. Its main aim is to reflect on expanding the limits of translation and interpreting and taking into consideration the need to overcome these limits and assimilate fast advances.

4. Challenges and shifts in PSI training in the 21st century Four aspects of paradigmatic challenges which have influenced the evolution of PSI are: 1. The dynamic nature of language. 2. The ubiquity of culture. 3. The role of culture as a network of systems interacting with each other institutionally and between the institution and the individual (on both vertical and horizontal axes). 4. The role of the practitioner. Using these four aspects as a starting point, Rudvin (2006a: 22–24) points out some paradigm shifts that lead to certain epistemological developments: 1. A gradual abandoning of the classical rationalist’s absolute objectivity within the framework of “grand theories” in exchange for a culturally relativistic approach in which all cultures have equal value. In other words, instead of formulating complex theories, researchers today tend

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to examine local realities. What we see, therefore, is a shift from unitary theories to multi-voiced representations. 2. A crisis of representation deriving from a more nuanced understanding of the role of the researcher/observer/practitioner as no longer being a detached, neutral observer, but rather a participating agent who is constitutive of the very texts they are creating. 3. The tendency to celebrate differences with vibrant and fluid borrowings of ideas across multiple disciplines. 4. Viewing the text as polyphonies of voices and text production as a dynamic, dialogic affair in its broader context. 5. A change from language viewed as a monolithic nature to a set of ideological tools and relationships. Research shows a trend toward valuing social, pragmatic, dynamic and interrelated aspects of language as a cultural and social system in a larger context rather than as a code accountable only to itself and lost in space. 6. A change from ideologically-marked and prescriptive standard-setting attitudes (i.e., the imperative use of British English in language teaching worldwide) to an appreciation of variations in language use (e.g., Euro English). This attitude has led to a more dynamic and critical approach in which the contextual factors of society, culture, ideology, politics, institutional frameworks, technology and the media impact languages and place constraints upon language usage. 7. Finally, the increasing value and emphasis given to the more (diachronically and synchronically) dynamic and interrelated aspects of culture, and recognition of the subjective and relativist nature of the phenomenon of observing and describing culture(s).

These paradigm shifts in PSI have led to a much more realistic and comprehensive understanding of the complexities of communicative events within a specific socio-cultural moment at an intersection of many different professions, academic disciplines, and corporate and ethnic cultures.

5. Some recent trends and gaps in PSI training How are these shifts reflected in training? The evolution in training offers and curricula has given rise to a wide range of solutions: • sessions of discussion, seminars, and workshops organized by NGOs, associations or institutions, and more academic courses, many of which have been conducted in close cooperation between the universities and educational entities with institutions, associations, and NGOs; • incorporation of internships/traineeships, or workplace assignments in the curricula; • in-service training for practicing interpreters;

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• the opportunity for students to customize their studies by choosing electives from a pool of predefined modules according to their languages and professional interest; • development of programs completely (or mostly) devoted to PSIT (e.g., University of Alcalá, Spain; London Metropolitan University, or Heriot Watt, UK); • development of programs for potentially bilingual students with a migration background or programs that intensify translational training only with foreign (minority) languages. All of these efforts represent, firstly, attempts to break the vicious circles of low status, lack of training, low levels of professionalization, and a lack of interpreting quality at an academic level by promoting and offering a wide range of courses to students and (lay) practitioners and, secondly, they also represent the steps needed to be taken toward professionalization. Some significant signs of evolution are also present in some programs as trainers are applying findings and input from anthropology, sociology, law, and medicine to language studies and interactional communication. The MA in Intercultural Communication, Public Service Interpreting and Translation offered at the University of Alcalá in Madrid, Spain is a prime example (Valero-Garcés 2013). The methodology used is part of a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach based on the implementation of a multilingual and multicultural model that combines theory and practice from several angles such as: 1. Combination of traditional classroom teaching with new technologies and online education. 2. Participation of leading practitioners and academics who speak different languages ​​and who are members of different cultures as well as representatives from various institutions in discussions, presentations, and workshops in the chosen language pair. 3. Active participation of students through the exchange of experiences related to the translation and interpretation services in several fields. 4. Practice in the classroom with authentic texts and simulations based on real experiences. 5. Discussions on codes of ethics and standards of good practice guides to increase awareness of the fact that such codes are situated in a wider professional and institutional field which will inevitably impact interpreter ethics and performance. 6. Internships in public and private institutions working with foreigners as an introduction to the working world. 7. Introduction to research with the completion of a Master’s thesis or research project. One issue at stake that deserves some attention is the controversy involving interpreting/mediation. In several European countries (such as Italy and Spain)

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(Rudvin 2006b; Rudvin and Tomassini 2011; Sales 2005), there is an open debate between PSI and “intercultural mediation.” Both approaches are related to “language mediation” and are confusingly similar but very different practices, ranging from a neutral to a more active position. The practice may not be wrong in itself, but it is a different position. What happened (and is still happening) in these countries (Italy and Spain) seems to be the opposite of what has happened in most other Western countries where the interpreting position and trained – or untrained – interpreters have focused first on “interpreting accurately” and only subsequently opened up to the need to include cross-cultural communication modes in interpreting training, running parallel to an increased awareness of the differences in cross-cultural communication models and how these affect the interaction between the foreign language client in institutional discourse situations (Rudvin 2003; Martin and Phelan 2009; Rudvin and Tomassini 2011). Once far removed from technology, PSI now makes extensive use of certain technological advances, both in training and practice. For example, remote interpreting (telephone or videoconferencing) and specific joint ventures, as in the creation of specific software or projects like Universal Doctor or AVIDECUS, attempt to make even greater use of this technology due to the tendency of administrations to save time and money. However, as Viezzi pointed out in the international conference held at the University of Alcalá in October 2015, under the specific theme of Training, Testing and Accreditation in PSI, attention needs to be given to PSI for technology and PSI through technology in the near future. We simply need to figure out how to achieve a balance. A lack of PSI education programs has also been focused on by D’Hayer (2014). D’Hayer claims that a deeper understanding and application of pedagogical principles to PSI education is needed as a way for PSI to engage in an open debate on its professionalization and as a step further from the current training courses which mainly offer a skill-based approach and are summative assessment-led, with little awareness of pedagogical principles. Another trending topic is the need for training the actual trainers. Methodologies for T&I teacher training has yet to be properly developed. Training-the-trainer initiatives still tend to be low-level, short-term, and ad hoc in nature, and they are mostly offered by non-academic providers (Rillof, Van Van Praet and De Wilde 2014: 40). The already mentioned conference on Training, Testing, and Accreditation in PSIT, sponsored by the European Commission, is an example of the need for continued cooperation between the main stakeholders and the representatives of all parties. Representatives of EU Institutions, European Masters in Translation Network, European Language Council, CIUTI, European Network in Public Service Interpreting and Translation, EULITA, and local representatives from the governmental, educational bodies as well as associations defending translators

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and interpreters’ rights (Red Vértice, AFIPTISP), all contribute to discussions and exchanges of ideas and new projects that aim to help integrate a harmonized set of programs, PSIT competency profiles, standards, training, testing, and accreditation in PSIT (Valero-Garcés 2016). In summary, training has gone from courses, seminars, and workshops organized by a handful of enthusiastic volunteers, PSI practitioners, and trainers on a local level, to more solid structures which still provide a few examples of best practice. There is still a need for developing complete PSI education programs.

6. Some conclusions and future trends The 21st century has been marked so far by globalization and technology. These two circumstances affect all aspects and levels of our lives. In the field of Translation and Interpreting Studies and, within it, PSIT, a new “collaborative,” “co-productive” paradigm is required, which aims at a future in which technology plays an increasingly important role and in which the interpreter and translator are increasingly empowered. Currently, we are shifting toward increased professionalization and toward a far more interactive and collaborative role not only as interpreters/translators, but also as participants in communicative events thanks to the opportunities offered by new technologies. PSI training has also shifted from a largely prescriptive approach to a much more complex, interactive matter after accepting the fact that language, and thus the interpreter’s performance, forms part of a larger institutional, cultural, social, and political framework that affects both micro- and macro-linguistic aspects of the interpreter’s performance and the various interlocutors’ utterances. The times in which each participant focused exclusively on one particular task, rather than seeing that task in a more global perspective and taking responsibility only for their own isolated “unit of activity,” are far gone. With globalization, the process of professionalization is also linked to complex ideological and social factors. The tendency is, or should be, a closer, more participatory and collaborative one that links interpreters and institutions, and finds that common ground and interface between interpreters’ services and ethics, and those of the clients and service providers. This could also help bridge the current gap between the various parties and professions in the exchange. Discourse-based methodologies as well as the diversities in disciplinary approaches taken by the researchers and trainers – although fragmentary and insufficient – are extremely rewarding and very promising for the future, in both research and training. This has allowed for progress to be made in PSI training, allowing it to shift toward a more active methodological style. At the same time, this training

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has shifted from being a topic of discussion within an academic environment (Critical Link 1995), to becoming a topic of discussion and action within actual conference halls.

Bibliography Alshehab, Mohamed. H. 2014. “Translating military terms by students majoring in translation at Yarmouk University in Jordan.” In (Re)considerando ética e ideología en situaciones de conflicto/ (Re)visiting ethics and ideology in situations of conflicto, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 240–250. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Angelelli, Claudia. 2004. Revisiting the Interpreter’s Role: A Study of Conference, Court, and Medical Interpreters in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Angelelli, Claudia. 2008. “The Role of the Interpreter in the Healthcare Setting: A Plea for a Dialogue between Research and Practice.” In Building Bridges. The Controversial Role of the CI Interpreter/Translator, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés and A. Martin. 147–165. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Cambridge, Jan. 2002. “Interlocutor roles and the pressures on interpreters.” In Traducción e Interpretación en los Servicios Públicos. Nuevas necesidades para nuevas realidades. Community Interpreting and translating: new needs for new realities, edited by Carmen Valero Garcés and G. Mancho Barés, 119–124. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alcalá. Corsellis, Anne. 2003. “Formación de los proveedores de servicios públicos para trabajar con intérpretes y traductores. Habilidades y competencias interculturales.” In Traducción e interpretación en los servicios públicos. Contextualización, actualidad y futuro, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 71–89. Granada: Comares. D’Hayer, Danielle. 2014. “Public service interpreter education. A multidimensional approach aiming at building a community of learners and professionals.” In Interpreting in a Changing Landscape. Selected papers from Critical Link 6, edited by Christina Schäffner, Krzysztof Kredens, and Yvonne Fowler. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Echauri, Bruno. 2014. “Towards more positive environments. A fieldwork on the importance of pragmalinguistics in mental health interpreting.” Babel 60: 464–486 Ehrensberger-Dow, M., and Daniel Perrin. 2013. “Applying a news writing research approach to translation.” Target 25(1): 77–92. Fernández, Carmen. 2005. “El intérprete de portugués en los Tribunales Argentinos.” In Traducción como mediación entre lenguas y culturas / Translation as mediation or how to bridge linguistic and cultural gap, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 202–211. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alcalá. Gnecchi, Marusca, Bruce Maylath, Federica Scarpa, Birthe Mousten, and Sonia Vandepitte. 2011. “Field convergence: Merging roles of technical writers and technical translators.” IEEE –Transactions on Professional Communication 54: 168–184. Hale, Sandra. 2007. Community Interpreting, Great Britain: Palgrave MacMillan.

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Ho, Chen-En, and Tze-Wei Chen. 2014. “A preliminary study on the professionalization of legal interpreting in Taiwan.” In (Re)considerando ética e ideología en situaciones de conflict / (Re)visiting ethics and ideology in situations of conflict, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 240–250. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Konishi, Sakiko. 2005. “Interpretación de español en la administración de justicia de Japón: presente y futuro.” In Traducción como mediación entre lenguas y culturas / Translation as mediation or how to bridge linguistic and cultural gap, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 168–174. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alcalá. Marszalenko, Jakub. 2014. “English as the language of Interpreting in criminal proceedings in Japan.” In (Re)considerando ética e ideología en situaciones de conflict / (Re)visiting ethics and ideology in situations of conflict, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 312–323. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Martín, Marian, and Mary Phelan 2009. Interpreters and Cultural Mediators. Different but Complementary roles. Available online at: http://www.academia.edu/250428/Interpreters_and_Cultural_Mediators_different_but_complementary_roles (accessed 2.11.2017). Maylath, Brian. 2013. “Current trends in translation.” Communication & Language at Work 2, 41–50. Mikkelson, Holly. 2014. “Evolution of Public Service Interpreter Training in US.” FITISPos International Journal 1(1): 9–22. Minacori, P., and Veisblat, L. 2010. “Translation and technical communication. Chicken or egg?” Meta 55(4): 752–768. Piotrowska, Maja. 2005. “Two perspectives on sworn translation of Bdm certificates – the practitioner’s and the translation teacher’s point of view.” In Traducción como mediación entre lenguas y culturas / Translation as mediation or how to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 307–312. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Pöchhacker, Frank. 2002. “Getting Organized: The Evolution of Community Interpreting.” Interpreting 4(1): 125–40. Reyes, Lino, and Pedro Bernabé. 2005. “La traducción notarial de documentos públicos, una opción en la legislación cubana.” In Traducción como mediación entre lenguas y culturas / Translation as mediation or how to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 280–289. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Rillof, Pascal, Ellen Van Praet, and July De Wilde. 2014. “The Communication Matrix.” In (Re)considerando ética e ideología en situaciones de conflict / (Re)visiting ethics and ideology in situations of conflict, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 263–269. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Risku, Henry. 2010. “A cognitive scientific view on technical communication and translation. Do embodiment and situatedness really make a difference?” Target 22(1): 94–111. Roberts, Roda. 1997. “Community Interpreting today and tomorrow.” In The Critical Link: Interpreters in the Community, edited by S. Carr et al. 7–28. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

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Rudvin, Mette. 2003. “Interpreting for public services: Some institutional, professional and intercultural aspects.” In Domain-Specific English and Language Mediation in Professional Institutional Settings, edited by Giuliana Garzone and Mette Rudvin, 111–178. Milan: Arcipelago Edizioni. Rudvin, Mette. 2006a. “The cultural turn in Community Interpreting. A brief analysis of epistemological developments in Community Interpreting literature in the light of paradigm changes in the humanities.” Linguistica Antverpiensia 5: 21–41. Rudvin, Mette. 2006b. “Negotiating linguistic and cultural identities in interpreter-mediated communication for public health services.” In Sociocultural Aspects of Translating and Interpreting, edited by Anthony Pym, Miriam Shlesinger and Zuzana Jettmarová, 173–190. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Rudvin, Mette, and Elena Tomassini. 2011. Interpreting in the Community and Workplace. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Sales, Dora. 2005. “Panorama de la mediación intercultural y la traducción/interpretación en los servicios públicos en España.” Translation Journal 9(1), January 2005. Available online at: http://accurapid.com/journal/31mediacion.htm (accessed 2.11.2017). Schäffner, Christina, Krzysztof Kredens, and Yvonne Fowler, eds. 2014.  Interpreting in a Changing Landscape. Selected papers from Critical Link 6. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Tryuk, Małgorzata. 2005. “Community Interpreting in Poland.” In Traducción como mediación entre lenguas y culturas / Translation as mediation or how to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 27–34. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Tsuda, Yu. 2010. “Speaking against hegemony of English: Problems, ideologies, and solutions.” In The handbook of critical intercultural communication, edited by T.K. Nakayama, and R.T. Halualani, 248–269. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Valero-Garcés, Carmen, and Daniel Toudic. 2015. “Technological Innovation and Translation. Training Translators in the EU for the 21st century.” Verbeia 2015 (0): 183–202. Valero-Garcés, Carmen. 1997. “¿Traducción e interpretación en servicios públicos? ¿De qué me hablas? ¿Una nueva especialización?” In Nuevas Tendencias y Aplicaciones de la Traducción, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés, 267–277. Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Valero-Garcés, Carmen. 2013. “Formación de traductores e intérpretes en una sociedad multicultural. El programa de la Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid.” Cuadernos de ALDEEU 25: 215–238. Valero-Garcés, Carmen, ed. 2005. Traducción como mediación entre lenguas y culturas/ Translation as mediation or how to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps. Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Available online at: http:// www3.uah.es/master-tisp-uah/publicaciones-tisp-grupo-fitispos (accessed 2.11.2017). Valero-Garcés, Carmen, ed. 2008. Investigación y práctica en Traducción e Interpretación en los Servicios Públicos: desafíos y alianzas / Research and practice in Public Service Interpreting and Translation: challenges and alliances. Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Available online at: http://www3.uah.es/master-tispuah/publicaciones-tisp-grupo-fitispos (accessed 2.11.2017).

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Valero-Garcés, Carmen. ed. 2011. Traducción e Interpretación en los Servicios Públicos en un mundo INTERcoNEcTado. TISP EN INTERNET / Public Service Interpreting and Translation in the Wild Wired World-PSIT in WWW. Universidad de Alcalá: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Available online at: http://www3.uah .es/master-tisp-uah/publicaciones-tisp-grupo-fitispos (accessed 2.11.2017). Valero-Garcés, Carmen, ed. 2014. (Re)considerando ética e ideología en situaciones de conflicto / (Re)visiting ethics and ideology in situations of conflicto. Universidad de Alcalá: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Available online at: http://www3 .uah.es/master-tisp-uah/publicaciones-tisp-grupo-fitispos (accessed 2.11.2017). Viezzi, Maurizio. 2016. “The way forward / TISP: Un camino por recorrer.” In Training, testing and accreditation in PSIT / Formación, evaluación y acreditación en TISP, edited by Carmen Valero-Garcés and Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Wadensjö, Cecilia. 1998. Interpreting as Interaction. New York: Longman. Wadensjö, Cecilia, Birgitta Englund Dimitrova, and Anna-Lena Nilsson, eds. 2009. The Critical Link 5. Quality in interpreting – a shared responsibility. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Yajima, Yima, and Susan Toyosaki. 2015. “Bridging for a critical turn in Translation studies Power, hegemony, and empowerment.” Connexions. International Professional Communication Journal, 3 (2), 91–125.

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Stress, interpersonal communication and assertiveness training in public service interpreting Carmen Toledano Buendía and Laura Aguilera Ávila

The learning/training required to become a professional interpreter must involve raising awareness and understanding of a set of specific competencies that go beyond just cognitive skills, that is, technical skills or knowledge of the subject. The acquisition and development of behavioural competencies are also needed to manage the different factors that induce stress, as and when they arise. In this chapter we focus on interpersonal communication as a fundamental competency within the profession of public service interpreting (PSI). More specifically, we focus on the assertiveness training as a basic tool to improve the interpersonal communication skills of interpreters and to assist them in overcoming the various stress factors that can and do appear in the professional practice of PSI. Firstly, we begin by analysing the factors that may trigger stress for interpreters during interpersonal interactions in PSI. Secondly, we describe an introductory pilot course for public service interpreters aimed at delivering assertiveness training. Keywords: public service interpreters, stress factors, interpersonal competence, assertiveness

1. Introduction In recent years it has been possible to observe a growing interest in research that deals with the issue of work-related stress and its adverse effects on professionals. This has led to studies that discuss self-care and people’s emotional well-being as factors that could be linked to preventing and treating occupational burnout. For this reason, it is apparent that the learning required to become a professional must involve raising awareness and understanding of a set of specific competencies that go beyond just cognitive skills, that is, technical skills or knowledge of the subject. The learning and training processes must

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also include, to a greater or lesser extent, the acquisition and development of the competencies that are needed to manage the different factors that induce stress, as and when they arise. In interpreting particularly, training aimed at creating qualified professional interpreters involves acquiring a series of specific competencies that have been widely accepted as objectives in interpreter training courses. These objectives include an excellent command of the languages used in intercultural and inter-linguistic communication; knowledge of the sociocultural context associated with the working languages; specialist knowledge of the different topic areas; an excellent command of interpreting and translation techniques; and a profound understanding of the code of the professional ethics governing this occupation (Pöchhacker 2004: 179; Sawyer 2004: 53–60). These competencies, however, should be developed hand-in-hand with other competencies that will ensure that any practicing professional can perform his or her duties without jeopardizing their well-being, whilst also assisting them with emotional management and self-care. When referring to behavioural competencies, we are speaking of a body of knowledge, a set of skills, and behaviours and provisions that a person possesses that enable this individual to perform an activity successfully (González Maura 2002: 50). These relate directly to “knowing how to behave” or “knowing how to act” in any given situation. For this reason they are extremely useful competencies in terms of an interpreter’s professional development and performance. Behavioural competencies are manifestations of our emotional health and our ability to interact with others. They help us to carry out the things we have to do more easily with less conflicts and frustrations. Not only do they increase our productivity, but they also bring us greater happiness when it comes to personal and professional activities by producing a more stable psychological state, which results in better professional performance. Some examples of these competencies include: professional responsibility, empathy, self-control, self-awareness, stress management, adaptability and acceptance of diversity, interpersonal communication, etc. In this chapter we focus on interpersonal communication as a fundamental competency within the profession of public service interpreting (PSI). More specifically, we focus on the assertiveness training as a basic tool to improve the interpersonal communication skills of interpreters and to assist them in overcoming the various stress factors that can and do appear in the professional practice of PSI. Firstly, we begin by analysing the factors that may trigger stress for interpreters during interpersonal interactions in PSI. Secondly, we describe a pilot course for public service interpreters aimed at delivering assertiveness training. This is an essential tool within their interpersonal competencies skill set as it can serve to alleviate the stress factor listed above.

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2. Some stress factors in PSI There is a general consensus that the task of interpreting involves high levels of stress. Several studies have confirmed the involvement of different factors that cause stress in an interpreting task (Cooper et al. 2009; Kurz 2003; Valero-Garcés 2006). In conference interpreting, research carried out into the stress experienced by interpreters has focused on analysing the effects of different types of factors (environmental, psychological and physiological factors) on interpreters’ actions, reactions, and professional performance. Examples of these factors include: physical conditions inside the interpreting booth, that is, the dimensions, lighting, and temperature (Kurz 1981; Kurz and Kolmer 1984); the relationship between fatigue and performance; the physiological effects of concentration and stress (Moser-Mercer et al. 1998); the ability to handle stress and observable differences based on levels of expertise (novice vs. expert) (Kurz 2003); the effect of different types of media channels on performance (remote interpreting vs. on-site face-to-face interpreting) (Ricardi et al. 1998), etc. In the field of public service interpreting, research has mainly been dedicated to the study of the emotional and psychological impact of working as a PSI interpreter in specific contexts such as the healthcare setting (Ruiz Mezcua 2010), mental health settings (Anderson 2011), or settings and contexts dealing with torture, sexual abuse, or other violence (Harvey 2001). By way of definition, a person is considered to be in a stressful situation when he or she feels threatened or overwhelmed by his or her own lack of resources. Normally, the elements that trigger stress are connected to unexpected changes or unreasonable demands, and thus it is these changes or demands that lead to overexertion. A distinctive feature of PSI is the interpersonal dimension; there is a significant amount of multidirectional interaction between the participants involved in the communicative act within institutional settings involving “interpreter-mediated communication in spontaneous face-to-face interaction” and […] whereas situational descriptions can account for a number of important factors, it is the interpersonal dimension which, we submit, is the primer determiner of the range of concerns which dialogue interpreters experience in their day-to-day work. (Mason 1999: 147–148)

Interpersonal relationships can be an important source of stress for an interpreter, either because they are unpredictable, threatening, complicated, or because they cause intense emotional reactions. The attitude and self-perception of the interpreter is fundamental to the success of their interactions with users and professionals from other fields involved and their performance

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within the specific institutional framework. It also plays a crucial role for interpreter’s coordinating function, to handle the conversation, organizing turns of talk, for instance. Gil-Monte and Moreno-Jiménez (2007) indicate three groups of variables that will create stress in the workplace: social variables, organizational variables, and personal variables. Within these groups it is possible to identify some factors that specifically can affect interpersonal communication and trigger stress in PSI interpreters.

2.1 Social variables This group of variables refers to the social identity the profession holds in society, how it is perceived and how well recognized it is (both by fellow interpreters and society in general). Unlike conference interpreting, which carries prestige, a well-established professional identity, along with homogenised professional development programmes and training courses virtually worldwide, the social identify of PSI is much more difficult to pin down in such a manner. The social identity of PSI is hazy at best as perceptions about this profession vary greatly, not just between different geographic areas, but also between different areas of occupational practice and the contexts in which interventions take place. In Spain, as in many other countries, awareness of PSI is fairly limited and, unfortunately, there is still a lack of solid and well-founded professional identity (Roberts 2002). Generally speaking, at this point in time we can confirm that it carries little social prestige, contains more female practitioners than male ones, has a markedly lower salary band than CI, and very often there is either little or no formal academic training available (Pöchhacker 2007: 173–174). There also seems to be a general lack of understanding about the complexity of the interpreting process, and the need for specialist training that goes beyond just providing an understanding of languages and specific terminology. Technically speaking, liaison interpreting does not appear to be as complex as other interpreting modes, lacking the more visible and striking skills of listening and speaking at the same time of the simultaneous interpreting, or the mastering of consecutive note-taking techniques; however, it has its own technical complexities that should not be overlooked. Furthermore, in many public-service contexts the task of interpreting has been performed by untrained bilingual individuals and has been associated with people offering their services voluntarily. This positioning of PSI on the margins of productive structure and the economy has made it difficult for the profession to take hold and to gain professional recognition and prestige. In their work on legal interpreting, Hertog et al. identify “the reluctance of governments and

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people in almost every country to address the practical needs of those who do not speak their language” (2007: 153). Lastly, this lack of professional identity is also affected by the fact that PSI standards and practices are institution-led, rather than profession-led (Ozolins 2010). This will create significantly different expectations about the way interpreters are supposed to perform their duties and interact with the other parties as well as their function and role, both of which place PSI interpreters in a subordinate position to the other professionals they have to engage with. However, we need to be able to establish a professional identity that goes beyond its mere functions and is based on a social concept of this profession. This lack of social recognition can exacerbate feelings of low self-esteem and make the PSI interpreter lose faith in either himself/herself or their skills as an interpreter that can affect interpreters’ interpersonal communication.

2.2 Organizational variables Another group of variables that appear as stress factors in PSI that can also influence interpersonal interactions are those that derive from the institution in which the interpreter is providing his or her services. PSI takes place in different public services, such as hospitals, courts, social service offices, schools, etc., that may vary greatly in terms of work organization as well as in their established interpersonal relationships. Many of these contexts are very hierarchical organizations in which the interpersonal relations are very protocolarized, for example, courts; or they are male-dominated environments, such as police stations, whereas other work environments may be much more relaxed or informal, such as social services. Work settings such as the healthcare system, the judicial system or the police can be perceived as a stressful environment by users, leading to unsatisfactory communication as a result of communication that is of poor quality, hurried, and/or impersonal, even in monolingual exchanges. These have an influence on interpersonal communication as well as on the power dynamics that are established in the interactions among professionals and users and among them and with the interpreter. The system through which linguistic services are provided – that are at times regulated or improvised to greater or lesser extents – can also have an impact on the interpersonal relationships that are established between the participants and the interpreter. This will determine, for instance, the interpreter’s working conditions (freelance, on a voluntary basis, a member of staff, a provider of remote telephone assistance), the degree of other professionals familiarization with the work of interpreters and the degree of collaboration and cooperation that is perceived during the encounter, or the interpreter’s need to defend

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his/her professional skills in front of other collectives involved in the encounter and justify norms of professional conduct that are unknown by most users. Finally, interaction with the users of public services can also generate interpersonal communication events that produce stress in interpreters, including: different expectations regarding the role of the interpreter; requests that go against the code of professional ethics; or participation in events that cause emotional strain.

2.3 Personal factors In addition to the two aforementioned groups of external stress factors, Gil Monte and Moreno-Jiménez (2007: 35) point to a third set of variables pertaining to internal stress factors, which are unique to each and every individual and include things such as: an individual’s degree of self-control, age, gender, experience, expectations about the job in question, or the possession of strategies that can be used to overcome difficulties as they arise. This particular group of factors is the one over which the interpreter has the most control as they depend on the individual’s own approach to matters and the decisions that they decide to take. As such, if an interpreter is aware of the particular personal factors that may trigger stress and is alert to these, then they possess the key to being able to minimise or prevent stress. Cognitive factors such as self-awareness, a sense of being competent, or possessing the ability to handle problems are all central to stress management. The greater the confidence they have in their own work, knowing the difficulties they are likely to face, being able to count on the support of those around them, or possessing a solid set of skills all decrease the likelihood that the interpreter feels overwhelmed by the stress that they may experience in work context. These competences are those that enable PSI interpreters to work more efficiently and healthily, thus benefitting both the interpreter and those who are around them. The correct acquisition of the said competences will enable them to put their psychophysiological capacities to full use and reap their full benefits (e.g., attention span, concentration, memory, and the capacity for analysis and reformulation), thus allowing the interpreter to master the technical and cognitive components of the interpreting process.

3. Interpersonal communication and assertiveness training Interpersonal competence is the ability to select a particular type of communication, the one that is the most effective for a given situation. Possessing this competence empowers an individual to achieve the goals of the communication act

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in a manner that is best suited to all parties involved and results in improved communication skills. In general terms, this competency, in the case of PSI, refers to the individual’s ability to work professionally in a team and interact with the different parties involved in the interpreting process as part of their professional activities. The interpersonal dimension acquires special relevance in PSI given that it is carried out in a participatory framework that involves relationships and interactions with others because the interpreter is a very visible element in the communicative acts between different agents. Personal interactions with others can be a source of great stress for the interpreter. Assertiveness training helps interpreters to handle the pressure placed on them and to reduce stress levels by teaching them how to defend their legitimate rights without undermining the rights of others. A classic definition of assertiveness is that it is the self-assured and confident way in which we communicate with others when defending our rights, without undermining the rights of others (Caballo 1983; Castanyer 1996). According to Lazarus (1973) assertiveness training involves developing the following skills and abilities: • Being able to express both positive and negative emotions efficiently without ignoring or denying those of others, and without creating or experiencing feeling of embarrassment. • Being able to distinguish between assertive behaviour, aggression, and passive behaviour. • Being able to recognise when one’s personal behaviour is appropriate and important. • Being able to defend one’s self against any uncooperative or unreasonable behaviour by others without resorting to aggressive or passive behaviour. Within the framework of this chapter, assertiveness is viewed as a necessary tool for the interpreter when it comes to his/her interactions with other participants in the communicative act. It is important for dealings with professionals so that the interpreter can clearly and concisely explain their role and the way that they will work. In the end, it is a way to protect their professionalism, to protect their “face.” On the other hand, it is important in dealings with users in order to mark the boundaries of an interpreter’s responsibilities and to gain enough trust so that the interpreter is seen as a professional figure, thus avoiding any desire on the part of the user to form more personal bonds as a result of shared characteristics. Furthermore, when an assertive style is used, not only is it easier to reach the desired goal and defend our rights without jeopardizing the rights of others, it is also more likely to bring about a greater sense of self-esteem and self-confidence, which improves overall mental health (Peneva and Mavrodiev 2013: 6). Below is a description of a pilot course that was delivered to 5 public service interpreters. The course was split over 6 sessions and the structure was guided

Stress, interpersonal communication and assertiveness training…

by the theoretical works of authors such as Caballo (2002) or Castanyer (1996), who describe the general steps that need to be taken on board during a standard assertiveness training course to ensure that this competence is appropriately developed and available to use when necessary. The first stage of the course involves identifying the communication style that is most often employed. Interpersonal relations on occasion can generate conflicts based on differences of opinion. When conflicts arise, people tend to react differently. Generally speaking, there are three possible ways in which we can react to conflict that form the three categories of interpersonal communication: 1. Aggressive style: The individual adopts an aggressive attitude towards others and does not take into account their points of view or feelings. It is common to hear sentences that are very direct, a heavy use of the imperative, sentences containing demands, and in some cases, offensive comments. Examples of this style are: “I did not tell you to sit there”; “You cannot take notes”; “But are you listening to me?” 2. Passive style: The individual does not defend their own interests, or they supress their own needs and emotions during a conversation. The sentences they use show submission, passivity, vulnerability, etc., giving them the appearance of being a fearful, feeble person. This impression is backed up by their body language, which does not inspire confidence. Examples include: “Excuse me, I’m sorry, but I’m not sure exactly what it is you want me to do…”; “I won’t do it again”; “Ok. Sorry.” 3. Assertive style: The individual defends their own interests, expresses their opinions or needs, etc. whilst not allowing others to take advantage of them. The sentences they use are direct, thus expressing their needs with neither attacks nor demands. The body language is correct and well adjusted to the verbal communication message, it is also relaxed and friendly, but without appearing overconfident. Examples of this style are: “To help the conversation run more smoothly would you mind looking at and talking directly to the detainee.”; “I apologise, but I cannot do what you are asking because it would be a breach of confidentiality.” It is very important to pay attention to the choice of words, volume, intonation, tone, facial expressions, and body language that accompanies each of these styles as far as they become an important part in effective communication. Students are asked to reflect on cultural differences that affect displays of assertiveness. There is a strong underlying cultural component to assertiveness; in fact, in some cultural contexts assertiveness can be confused with aggression (Flores, Díaz-Loving, and Rivera 1987). Socially established gender roles can also influence people’s perspectives of this quality, and assertiveness can be perceived as more appropriate for men than women under some circumstances (Hall and Canterberry 2011).

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The second phase of the course is devoted to identifying the situations in which someone would like to improve their communicative style or increase their assertiveness, which involves a phase of self-observation. It is believed that this style should be used more frequently during contact with clients (users). For example, when the said professional agent interferes with the PSI interpreter’s method of working and they have felt powerless to contradict the said professional; when the victim asks the interpreter not to share all the information they hear and the PSI interpreter wants to say no; when the PSI interpreter needs to request clarification regarding the interpreting contract and the related documentation prior to commencing work but it is not forthcoming; when the PSI interpreter wants to claim any legitimate work-related rights, for example, pay rises, waiting time payments, etc.; when trying to defend confidentiality; when trying to manage the conversation or meeting; when requesting where to sit in order to see and hear proceedings correctly; when the use of a notepad is forbidden; etc. The next stage of the course involves establishing training involving scripts in order to achieve the desired changes in our communication with other people who are involved in the interpreter-mediated encounters, whether they are the users or the professional agents. Students should consider the following elements: 1. Expression and voicing your needs, be they the rights that you want to be respected, whatever they may be; what you need or want in a given situation; and what your feelings are regarding the situation. 2. Identifying the time and place you are prepared to discuss the problem. Depending on the case, this may be prior to a session in order to predict and prevent any undesirable circumstances from arising, or it may be during or after the session. 3. Using assertive responses, like the following (Caballo 2002: 227): • Basic Assertive Response: Plain speaking and simple requests expressing your own interests and rights. These types of sentences can be used during interruptions, when people meddle in our work, or in the face or discrediting remarks, etc. For example, in an interaction with professional agents: “I would like to ask you to speak more slowly so that I can interpret everything and not miss any information”; “It is my obligation to transmit all of the information that you give me. This is the best way to assist this person. If there is something you do not want them to know, please do not share that information with me.” • Positive Assertiveness: This consists of reaffirming value other people hold for you and the help received from them. For example, with regards to collaboration with other people: “Thank you so much for giving me those documents beforehand. They really helped me prepare for the job.” • Adapted Assertive Response (or Scaled-up Assertiveness): This involves a gradual increase in the firmness of our assertive response (although more than being a response it is a pattern of behaviour). For example: “I would appreciate

Stress, interpersonal communication and assertiveness training…

it if you spoke more slowly”; “I beg of you that you go more slowly, please; “Please, more slowly…” • Subjective Assertiveness (or I-messages): Adapting the definition of feelings to messages referred to as “I-messages”; in other words, instead of using accusatory statements or blaming the other party, these types of messages relate the feeling to the behaviour it causes. The steps involve: a) describing, without blame, the behaviour of the other person; b) an objective description of the effects of said behaviour; c) a description of one’s own feelings; d) and finally, verbalising what is needed from the other person. For example: “When I am interrupted, I lose my train of thought which affects the interpretation. Could you let me finish and make any comments you feel necessary once I finish?”; “If I am not given any information on the case I cannot prepare properly. This makes me feel as though I am the only person who knows nothing about the case. As a professional interpreter, I am obliged to keep all information confidential, so any documents you give me will be for my own personal use and kept strictly confidential.” Finally, the last stage of training focuses on body language. In assertive communication, knowing how to correctly use body language is essential and therefore discussed in detail during assertiveness training. Aspects such as posture – leaning slightly forwards, sitting upright, being too stiff or appearing relaxed; gaze – staring, frowning, having a glazed look in your eyes, avoiding eye contact; hand gestures – hand-wringing, using gestures; etc., that need to be in tune with that is being said and how it is being said. The students are shown the effects of different types of eye contact on others, and when it is necessary; how to use gestures to manage the session, for example, using the hand to indicate who should speak/stop speaking; different ways to use our tone of voice, for example, to reaffirm our body language, to be assertive, or to back up what is being said, etc. Following a session in which these techniques are demonstrated, assertiveness training should be introduced into the interpreting classes as a part of the role-play exercises students undertake in their training. By integrating assertiveness training into the classroom in this way it is possible to build the necessary transversal competencies at the same time as other competencies throughout the course, such as reflective practice (Sawyer 2004: 77–79).

4. Final remarks However, we must not forget that assertiveness, in being considered behaviour, is not an easy concept to define. There are even authors who prefer not to speak about assertiveness as a specific type of behaviour, but who prefer to integrate it

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as a part of other social competencies (Caballo 1983: 52). Cultural factors will also affect its definition, as not all conduct is perceived in the same manner by all cultures. In any given context, certain behaviours or conduct may be viewed as more assertive in some cultures, and less in others. In other words, it is a fluid concept affected by cultural norms. For this reason, we must not overlook the pragmatic value of spoken language and body language, nor should we overlook the communication barriers imposed by differences between the languages themselves. Knowing and understanding these different forms of conduct within the framework of personal and professional relationships helps to lay the foundations on which to practice our profession whilst respecting the work of others and whilst ensuring our profession is respected, and ensuring we know what to do in any given moment. The sense of self-affirmation and an improved sense of self-esteem that are induced by practicing assertiveness also bring benefits to the interpreter’s professional activities by presenting the interpreter as a more competent professional to both users and other professionals. Likewise, it is important to remember the positive stress-reducing effects of assertiveness. According to the aforementioned classification system, assertive behaviour proves to be a more effective tool for controlling the personal factors that may cause stress or unease, such as a lack of self-efficacy or negativity. However, it also has an impact on social factors to the extent that the more the profession of the interpreter is recognized and respected, the less the uncertainties will exist between users and other professionals, thus reducing the conflicts and ambiguities that surround this professional role. Ultimately, the use of this social competency improves our work and the perception that others hold regarding our profession whilst being easy to acquire and develop.

References Anderson, Arlyn. 2011. “Peer Support and Consultation Project for Interpreters: A Model for Supporting the Well-Being of Interpreters who Practice in Mental Health Settings.” Journal of Interpretation 12(1): 1–12. Caballo, Vicente. 1983. “Asertividad: definiciones y dimensiones.” Estudios de psicología 13: 52–62. Caballo, Vicente. 2002. Manual de evaluación y entrenamiento de las habilidades sociales. Madrid: Siglo XXI de España. Cooper, Cary, Rachel Davies, and Rosalie Tung. 2009. “Interpreting stress: Sources of job stress among conference interpreters.” Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication 1(2): 97–108. Flores, Galaz, Rolando Díaz-Loving, and Susana Rivera. 1987. “MERA: Una Medida de rasgos asertivos para la cultura mexicana.” Revista Mexicana de Psicología 4(1): 29–35.

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Gil-Monte, Pedro, and Bernardo Moreno-Jiménez. 2007. El síndrome de quemarse por el trabajo (burnout): grupos profesionales de riesgo. Madrid: Pirámide. González Maura, Viviana. 2002. “¿Qué significa ser un profesional competente? Reflexiones desde una perspectiva psicológica.” Revista Cubana de Educación Superior. XXII, 1: 45–53. Hall, Jeffrey A., and Melanie Canterberry. 2011. “Sexism and Assertive Courtship Strategies.” Sex Roles 65: 840–853. Available online: doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-0045-y (accessed 15.04.2016). Harvey, Michael. 2001. “Vicarious emotional trauma of interpreters: A clinical psychologist’s perspective.” Journal of Interpretation, Millennial Edition: 85–98. Hertog, Erik et al.  2007. “From Aequitas to Aequalitas: Establishing standards in legal interpreting and translating in the European Union.” In The Critical Link 4: Professionalisation of interpreting in the community, edited by Cecilia Wadensjö et al., 151–165.  Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins. Kurz, Ingrid. 1981. “Temperatures in Interpreters’ Booths – A Hot Iron?” AIIC Bulletin IX (4): 39–43. Kurz, Ingrid. 2003. “Psychological Stress during Simultaneous Interpreting: A Comparison of Experts and Novices.” The Interpreters’ Newsletter 12: 51–67. Kurz, Ingrid, and Herbert Kolmer. 1984. “Humidity and Temperature Measurements in Booths.” AIIC Bulletin XII (2): 42–43. Lazarus, Arnold A. 1973. “On assertive behavior: A brief note.” Behavior Therapy 4(5): 697–699. Mason, Ian, ed. 1999.  “Dialogue Interpreting.” The Translator 5(2). Moser-Mercer, Bárbara, Alexander Künzli, and Marina Korac. 1998. “Prolonged turns in interpreting: Effects on quality, physiological and psychological stress (Pilot study).” Interpreting 3(1): 47–64. Ozolins, Uldis. 2010. “Factors that determine the provision of Public Service Interpreting: comparative perspectives on government motivation and language service implementation.” JosTrans 14: 194–215. Available online at: http://www.jostrans .org/issue14/art_ozolins.php (accessed 20.04.2016). Peneva, Ivelina, and Stoil Mavrodiev. 2013. “A Historical Approach to Assertiveness.” Psychological Thought 6(1). Pöchhacker, Franz. 2004. Introducing Interpreting Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Riccardi, Alessandra, Guido Marinuzzi, and Stefano Zecchin. 1998. “Interpretation and stress.” The Interpreters’ Newsletter 8: 93–106. Roberts, Roda P. 2002. “Community interpreting: a profession in search of its identity.” In Teaching Translation and Interpreting 4: Building Bridges, edited by Eva Hung, 157–175. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Ruiz Mezcua, Aurora. 2004. “La enseñanza de la interpretación social en el contexto biosanitario: la preparación psicológica del intérprete médico.” TRANS 14: 143–160. Sawyer, David B. 2004. Fundamental Aspects of Interpreter Education. Curriculum and Assessment. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Valero-Garcés, Carmen. 2006. “El impacto psicológico y emocional en los intérpretes y traductores de los servicios públicos. Un factor a tener en cuenta.” Quaderns. Revista de traducció 13: 141–154.

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Three perspectives on interpreters and stress: The experts, the novices, and the trainees Heather Adams and Ligia Rosales-Domínguez

That interpreting causes stress is hardly a new idea. Our intention in the present chapter, in the context of literature that looks at stress in foreign language learners and interpreting students, is to look at factors that induce stress in interpreters at different stages of their professional careers and/or training. Hence, we carried out a small-scale study in which we posed a number of questions in this field to expert conference interpreters (with eight or more years’ professional experience as such), “novice” interpreters (with less experience in simultaneous or consecutive interpreting but with a certain level of experience in liaison interpreting), and final-year students of a translation and interpreting degree, who had successfully completed at least one year of interpreting studies. The results obtained give an idea of the main stress-inducers in each group, and can be particularly useful for curricular design and teaching practice at different stages of competence development. Keywords: interpreting, stress factors, experts, novices, trainees

1. Introduction The very nature of interpreting, which always entails a wide range of communicative variables, and often presents a number of unforeseen elements that the interpreter has to adjust to in situ, means that practitioners will always experience some degree of stress. At the beginning of a conference even the most experienced, efficient and skilled interpreter will feel a certain amount of tension, because he is aware that there may be some unknown elements he will have to cope with: new concepts or technical words, a difficult accent or pronunciation,

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress…

technical defects, somebody not talking into the microphone, an unscheduled paper read at impossible speed. (Riccardi, Marinuzzi, and Zecchin 1998: 97)

According to Kurz (2003: 51), conference interpreters work under conditions generally considered by psychologists to be stressful, such as the constant flow of information, time pressure, the high level of concentration required, fatigue and the insuffcient space inside the booth. In a study carried out at the University of Vienna, she analysed both physiological factors, such as pulse rate and levels of skin conductance response during a simultaneous interpretation, and the different ways in which both experienced and trainee interpreters dealt with stress. The said study concluded that the highest levels of stress are produced when the nature of the work makes demands on interpreters that are over and above their capacity, needs, or means available. At the same time, individual or situation-related factors may increase or alleviate stress: what may be stressful for one interpreter need not necessarily be so, or to the same extent, for a colleague. AIIC has also addressed the reality of stress in the booth. A survey carried out in 1981–1982 among 1,400 of its members worldwide sought to clarify several issues, including work-related stress and how such stress manifested itself and concluded that conference interpreters are under a considerable amount of pressure in their job and there are a number of areas of concern […] work could be organised to take many of them into account, although some are less amenable to change.

(Cooper et al. 1982: 104, qtd. in Riccardi, Marinuzzi, and Zecchin 1998: 98)

Further work on the stress and exhaustion of AIIC interpreters was compiled by Makintosh in a study in 2001, based on four parameters: psychological, physiological, physical, and performance factors, as well as interaction between them. Psychological factors were studied by means of a questionnaire sent out to a representative sample of self-employed and staff AIIC members, while physiological and physical parameters were measured by means of clinical tests, while performance was judged on six two-minute segments of interpreting recorded at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of a day’s work. The study’s findings revealed that three main categories contribute to stress: environmental aspects (such as heat and noise), mental aspects (tasks requiring a high level of attention, decision making, etc.) and stress-inducers derived from interaction with colleagues, bosses, underlings and others. Drawing on the literature on interpreting, the study mentions some stress-inducing factors directly related to interpreters’ work such as characteristics of the original speech (intonation, accent, speed, gesticulation, etc), extent of preparation for the specific speech/event, spontaneous speeches vs. those that are read aloud, how long the

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working turn lasts and whether or not the interpreter can see the speaker and/or the audience, particularly in video conferences. This survey found that low levels of stress aid memory and ensure the interpreter’s concentration does not wander, but that an excessive level of stress can trigger exhaustion and, in extreme cases, emotional anguish or health problems. The exhaustion of a simultaneous interpreter is due to the mental overload that can lead to a lack of attention or having to stop working. Lack of recognition by clients of interpreters’ work may also lead to a loss of motivation. The findings of this questionnaire reveal the factors that caused the interpreters the most stress, the following were mentioned (by the percentage of respondents given in brackets): delivery speed of the original speech (78%), the fact of a speech being read aloud (71%), frequent changes of subject-matter (64%) and lack of appropriate documentation to prepare for a speech/an event (60%). When asked for their perception of stress-inducing factors, the following were given (highest to lowest): delivery speed, a speech read out aloud, poor technical equipment, difficult accents, uncomfortable booth conditions, not having a good view of the speaker, lack of documentation prior to the event, the complexity of the text (speech), short preparation time, lack of discipline on the part of speakers (interruptions) and uncomfortable chairs. In response to an open question on other factors causing stress, 20% mentioned travelling, 16% long periods of extreme levels of concentration and 13% requests to carry out additional work, such as longer hours or related translation work. Self-employed interpreters mentioned poor booth conditions, frequent travelling and having to interpret into their B language more frequently than staffers. Interpreters’ exhaustion levels were also compared with those of other professionals such as teachers, hi-tech workers, and Israeli army officers, taking into account such factors as: the level of mental and physical fatigue, cognitive fatigue and mental stress, with the results showing interpreters scored the highest of the four groups in all three parameters. The questionnaire also included questions relating to the turns covered during a working day. As many as 39% replied that they covered two or three turns, 20%, four turns; 19%, five and 22%, six or more. 69% reported turns lasting 30 minutes, 6%, between 32 and 45 and 23%, over 25 minutes. Another interesting point is that 81% said they received documentation prior to the event in order to prepare, while 42% received material relating to one or some of the speeches to be interpreted. Around half of the respondents stated that they did not receive documentation sufficiently in advance to be able to prepare speeches for interpretation. Factors that affected their willingness to carry out a job included booth partners (a strongly positive factor for 94%), the subject-matter of the speech (63%), doing a good job (63%), and personal interest in the subject-matter (37%).

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress…

One last point of interest here is that around half of the respondents considered stress to be a useful, positive aspect associated with their work, while 30% considered it to be detrimental.

2. Our study In the light of the data presented in this AIIC survey, we decided to undertake a study to determine stress-inducing factors affecting both (local) professional and trainee interpreters in the Canary Islands. Questionnaires were drawn up including questions relating to the original speech (delivery speed, poor enunciation, lack of documentation prior to the event and lack of preparation time). Likewise, three different groups were established in this case: professionals with over eight years’ experience (each) as freelance simultaneous interpreters (Group 1), experienced liaison interpreters with limited experience of simultaneous interpreting, who had signed up for an intensive booster course in simultaneous interpreting offered at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and thus were clearly interested in acquiring further experience in this field (Group 2), and undergraduate interpreting students at the ULPGC (Group 3). Our intention was to compare the data obtained from each group, the results of which we expected to differ, given the considerable differences in interpreting experience. Groups 1 and 2 comprised 5 subjects each, while Group 3 was made up of 15 students of the final (fourth) year from the English-French Translation and Interpreting degree7 who, in addition to the compulsory English-Spanish interpreting courses, had also signed up for the electives Consecutive and Liaison Interpreting C French and Simultaneous Interpreting C French courses, each worth three ECTS credits, thereby demonstrating their interest in furthering their training in and knowledge of these interpreting techniques in their “C language” (L3). All the questionnaires were filled in on an anonymous, voluntary basis, once the subjects had been duly informed as to the purpose of the survey. Although Groups 1 and 2 differ in terms of their amount of experience in simultaneous interpreting, they are all T&I professionals, whereas Group 3 have yet to embark on their careers. We therefore devised two questionnaires, one for Groups 1 and 2 and the other adapted to the trainees’ situation. Both questionnaires were made up of eight questions each; however, the initial questions, covering the characteristics of the subjects participating, varied from model to model, in line with the profiles of the participants. Thus, Groups 1 and 2 were asked not only to give their age and sex, but also number of years 7 In this degree course, Spanish is the mother tongue (L1), English the B language (L2), and French, the C language (L3).

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working as a professional interpreter and the modality of interpreting they practice, while Group 3 (the students) had to respond to the questions regarding age and gender, whether they were a home or exchange student. In the former case (home students), information was sought as to previous interpreting subjects studied and the number of hours per week of classes for both simultaneous and consecutive modalities, while Erasmus students were asked to indicate their mother tongue, the language combination that the above-mentioned elective subjects constituted for them (A→B, A→C) as well as the number of hours of interpreting training they had received previously in both consecutive and simultaneous modes. The subsequent questions included in the two questionnaire models are presented in Table 1: Table 1. Questionnaires used in our study Question number

Questionnaire model (questions 1 and 9 are common for/shared by all three groups)

1

List in order of priority the most important requisites for an interpreter. Specify, where appropriate, differences for simultaneous and consecutive modes: 1. Absolute command of both working languages. 2. Solid academic training as an interpreter. 3. Command of the technical equipment. 4. Good documentation on the subject matter before the event. 5. Good stress control during the interpreted event. 6. Coherent production of the target speech.

2

List in order of priority the factors that cause you the most stress when interpreting. Specify, where appropriate, differences for simultaneous and consecutive modes: 1. Not having access to speeches or documentation before the interpretation. 2. Lack of familiarity with the subject-matter of the speech. 3. Level of specialization of speech. 4. How dense the information is. 5. Speaker’s reputation. 6. Poor speaker enunciation. 7. Fast rate of speech delivery. 8. Bad mood caused either by something related to the event or other reasons. 9. Poor sound quality. 10. Working with a new booth partner for the first time. 11. Previous negative experiences with the client (specify organizational and/ or payment issues).

Groups 1 and 2

Group 3

Which modality of interpreting (simultaneous or consecutive) do you find stressful. Open-ended question requesting a brief justification of their answer.

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress… 3

Indicate how stressful you find not having material/speeches to prepare in advance of an event, on the following scale: • I turn the job down. • I find it very stressful. • It’s stressful but not overly so. • I’m used to it, so I don’t find if very stressful. • It does not worry me.

List in order of priority the factors that cause you the most stress when interpreting. Specify, where appropriate, differences for simultaneous and consecutive modes: 1. Not having access to speeches or documentation before the interpretation. 2. Lack of familiarity with the subject-matter of the speech. 3.  Level of specialization of speech. 4.  How dense the information is. 5.  Speaker’s reputation. 6.  Poor speaker enunciation. 7.  Fast delivery. 8. Bad mood caused either by something related to the class or other reasons. 9.  Poor sound quality. 10.  Working with a new booth partner for the first time.

4

Number in order of priority the factors that motivate you regarding an interpreting assignment in both simultaneous and consecutive modes: • Whether you know the client. • Whether the client is used to working with interpreters or not. • Whether the client provides speeches and documentation. • Whether the client pays on time. • Whether you know your boot partner. • Whether you can choose your booth partner.

How stressful do you find not knowing in advance the subject-matter of the speech(es) to be interpreted in class: • I find it very stressful. • It’s stressful but not overly so. • I’m used to it, so I don’t find if very stressful. • It doesn’t worry me.

5

Preferred time slot: • from 8:00 to 13:00, • from 12:00 to 16:00, • from 15:00 to 18:00, • from 19:00 to 22:00.

Preferred time slot • from 8:00 to 10:00, • from 10:00 to 12:00, • from 12:00 to14:00, • from 15:00 to17:00, • from 17:00 to 19:00.

6

What is the longest period of time that you can interpret alone, both in consecutive and simultaneous modes.

What is the longest period of time you can interpret for (in both consecutive and simultaneous modes).

What do you think the maximum period should be?

What do you think the maximum period should be?

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How stressful do you find interpreting the following subject domains (very stressful, moderately stressful, not stressful) • science (not medicine) • medicine • technical subjects • academia • tourism • human rights, • politics • climate change • development cooperation

8

What level of stress (high, medium, or low) do the following kinds of speech cause you? • protocol, • opening and closing ceremonies, • reading of a final declaration, • speakers’ presentations, • thanks speeches • improvisation

9

Do you prefer interpreting into your mother tongue or in retour?

Although the two questionnaire models differ in some respects, we have attempted to ensure that the differences reflect the experience of the various groups while the information given in the responses corresponded to the same or similar issues.

3. Results Having analysed the answers from each group of participants individually (the first group with more than eight years of experience; the second, less-experienced professionals who have worked mainly in liaison mode; and the third, final-year translation and interpreting undergraduates from the University of Las Palmas from Gran Canaria, we can now present a comparison between the results observed, contrasting similarities and differences between the different groups. In order to make this comparison as orderly as possible, we will present our results concisely question by question. As far as the first question is concerned, relating to the requisites for professional interpreters perceived by the respondents, both experts and students prioritised a perfect command of the two working languages as the most important requisite, while the less experienced interpreters opted for the production of a coherent target speech. Knowledge and command of the technical equipment was deemed the least important requisite by all three groups. A clear distinction can be drawn between the importance of proper documentation on the subject of the speech prior to the interpretation, with students

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress…

deeming it far more important than the experts. This could be due to the considerable experience of the professionals, which enables them to be able to tackle speeches without full documentation while for the group of students, at a much earlier stage of their interpreting learning curve, having prior documentation helps to feel much more confident when interpreting. The second question posed to the students, as to whether they found consecutive or simultaneous interpreting more stressful was not contemplated in the other two groups, so we can only present the results obtained, without any cross-group comparison. Students responded that they found consecutive interpreting more stressful, mainly due to having to learn and deploy in real time specific note-taking techniques and the exposure of the interpreter to the audience (which also appeared as a comment in the following question on stress-inducing factors). We also think it relevant to point out that interpreting training starts three years into the T&I degree (whereas translation is introduced in the second year) and there tends to be a level of expectation/anxiety on the part of the students, who are not entirely sure what to expect. During the third year, they acquire the basic skills for consecutive interpreting, and so the learning curve is particularly steep. Without in any way wishing to belittle the additional competences required for a command of simultaneous interpreting, it is clear that the foundations are laid in consecutive, and this may partially account for the perceived greater difficulty with respect to simultaneous practice. If we look at the question aimed at discovering the factors that cause most stress in interpreting situations, be they professional or in class, the group of experts indicated that a high level of density of information is the factor that causes them most stress, while the less-experienced professionals pointed to the lack of prior documentation and the students underlined the stress caused by fast speech delivery and not knowing enough/much about the subject-matter in question. Once again, the distinction between the stress-inducing factors that affect each of the groups could be attributed to the differing amount of experience in each case. At the same time, it is worth mentioning that the factor that caused least stress in all three groups was the reputation of the speaker. The third question (Groups 1 and 2) was also adapted slightly to the learning situation of Group 3 (for whom it constituted the fourth question). Questionnaire 1 (for the experts and novices) looked at the stress caused by not being given documentation prior to the event, while Questionnaire 2 (students) asked about stress levels caused by not knowing in advance what the subject-matter of a speech would be. Of the five possible answers, the majority of answers in all three groups reflected a different picture. The most common response from the expert group was that they are used to not having documentation to work from and that it therefore is not something that stresses them unduly; there was no clear consensus in the novice group, where the responses were either “I find it very stressful” or “It’s stressful but not overly so.” Finally, the majority of stu-

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dents replied “It’s stressful but not overly so” However, we would posit that this response is conditioned a) by the students’ following a course that it designed to help them develop their skills gradually, rather than having to tackle the complete “interpreting experience” in a situation in which they receive no documentation, and b) by the very fact that their experience comes from classwork and exams, rather than real-life situations. Although some interpreting situations (such as press conferences, interviews, and mini-conferences) are simulated as part of course material, most classes clearly aim to provide a supportive learning environment, and are, of course, subject to a number of conditioning factors, among which we could cite large numbers of students in class, the fact that the audience for whom students are interpreting in consecutive mode are their classmates and, in simultaneous, mainly their teachers. This is an undergraduate, rather than a postgraduate, course, evaluated by continuous assessment. We consider it unlikely that this “acceptable” stress level would remain so were the students to have to interpret for a real audience, dependent on them for the full comprehension of the original message. The fourth question for the first two groups looks at factors that motivate the subjects for when faced with a possible interpreting assignment; there is no equivalent question for the student group. However, the comparison of the responses from Groups 1 and 2 reveal that the experts are most highly motivated by knowing the customer, as well as their booth partner, and being able to pick the said partner. Meanwhile, the novices underscored the importance of knowing that the client pays on time. This would seem to suggest that the more experienced interpreters placed a high value on the human, personal factor, feeling comfortable in their work situation in this regard, whereas the relative newcomers are more motivated by being paid on time, a completely understandable viewpoint, given the current situation of the job market and economic crisis. The fifth question, although adapted, is similar across the groups, as it aims to discover the time of day the subjects prefer to interpret or to have an interpreting class. The time slots given for Groups 1 and 2 break up the day into different chunks, reflecting the range of timings that interpreting jobs tend to fall into, whereas the slots proposed in the students’ questionnaire correspond to class times, as per the faculty’s timetable. The responses reveal that the experts’ and novices’ preferred time of day for an interpreting job is from 8:00 to 13:00, while the students’ opted mainly for the 10:00–12:00 slot. Meanwhile, the least favourite time for the experts is from 19:00 to 22:00, whereas in this case, the students opted for 8:00–10:00, thereby revealing very different preferences from the experts. It is worth noting that, despite the experts’ lack of enthusiasm for evening work, it is not uncommon to be offered interpreting work in that slot, ranging from seminars and presentations, product launches to after-dinner speeches, among others. Question six aims to reveal information as to how long each subject feels they can interpret on their own. A comparison of the responses from the three groups

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress…

shows that students tend to think that they can interpret for shorter periods of time (20–30 minutes) in both simultaneous and consecutive modes; the longest period stipulated by a student was 30 minutes, in simultaneous mode, which matches the absolute maximum length of speech worked on in class. Experts and novices give a longer time span, ranging from 30 minutes to an hour and a half. The second half of this question asked how long subjects felt maximum working time (on their own) should be. Here, replies in the three groups were fairly similar: most of the experts and novices responded between half an hour and an hour, while most of the students opted for 30 minutes. The seventh question is related to the stress caused by interpreting speeches in different subject areas. The results from the expert and novice groups reflect a clear similarity in terms of the subject areas that cause the most stress: medicine. It is also worth noting that the students have not interpreted in all the different fields mentioned, including medicine and science. Hence, they were given the option “I have not yet interpreted a speech on this subject,” although none of them marked it. At the same time the options that caused most stress amongst the students were consecutive interpreting in the field of politics, followed by technical subjects, technology and development cooperation in both modes. Meanwhile, the experts find tourism, human rights and development cooperation the least stressful of the options given, marking a clear distinction with the student group, who specified that the subject-matter that causes them the least stress is climate change. A further detail was elicited from the experts and novices, regarding speech type and stress levels. This section was not included in the students’ questionnaire as the undergraduate courses in interpreting tend not to cover the range of speech types mentioned. In terms of the comparison between experts and novices; while the majority of the first group feel that speeches of thanks and improvisation on the part of the speaker barely cause them any stress and that the most stressful speech type is the reading of a pre-drafted declaration, novice interpreters find improvisation very stressful. Finally, the eighth question was the same for all questionnaires, and asked for the subjects’ preference for interpreting into the mother tongue or the B language. As was to be expected, in line with the recommendations of the major international organizations, the majority of subjects in all three groups opted for interpreting into their mother tongue, justifying their preference alluding to the larger range of linguistic resources in the mother tongue.

4. Conclusions In the first instance, it is clear that the scope and sample size of our study is in no way comparable to those carried out by AIIC; however, it was never our

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intention to try to “update” their data, rather to contrast some of the issues they raised between three groups of interpreters with differing levels of expertise to determine the levels of stress induced during the learning and consolidation processes. Given our small sample sizes, particularly in the expert and novice groups, we would not claim that our findings can be extrapolated in general, rather that they may serve as pointers for both would-be interpreters and novices looking for further consolidation, as well as interpreting trainers. Responses to the AIIC survey (2001) showed the principal stress factors in conference interpreting to be the delivery speed of the original speech, a speech that is read aloud, frequent changes of subject matter and a lack of appropriate documentation for proper preparation. In our study, the expert groups pointed to the density of information in the original speech, novices indicated the lack of prior documentation and students, fast speech delivery and insufficient prior knowledge of the subjectmatter in question. Interestingly, lack of prior documentation was not rated highly as a stress inducer amongst the professionals, who claimed that this was a regular occurrence in their professional lives. Further studies could examine how they deal with this situation. One of the key factors that motivated the interpreters who took part in the AIIC study was their booth partner, which also scored highly among our expert group, while novices did not tend to rate this factor so highly. Lengths of turn were fairly consistent across the survey and the groups in our study. It should be pointed out that no quality control was carried out in our study, so the impressions given are purely based on the interpreters’/students’ impressions of their work. Subject matters and stress levels varied across our groups, which may be of interest, particularly in terms of designing/planning curricula in years to come. It was also interesting to note that more experienced interpreters take speech improvisation in their stride, finding pre-drafted declarations the most stressful speech type, while novice interpreters find improvisation very stressful. We believe that the findings of our small-scale study will be useful in the planning and teaching of conference interpreting, given the insights into the perspectives of interpreters of varying levels of experience that it provides. They can also help to orient future interpreters on the initial stages of their learning curve in terms of what to expect as they progress and gain further experience.

References Cooper, Cary L., Rachel Davies, and Rosalie L. Tung. 1982. “Interpreting stress: Sources of job stress among conference interpreters.” Multilingua 1–2: 97–107. Kurz, Ingrid. 2003. “Physiological Stress during Simultaneous Interpreting: a Comparison of Experts and Novices.” The Interpreter’s Newsletter (University of Trieste) 12.

Three perspectives on interpreters and stress…

Mackintosh, Jennifer. 2001. “The AIIC workload study – executive summary.” Available online at: http://aiic.net/page/888/the-aiic-workload-study-executive-summary /lang/1 (accessed 1.04.2017). Riccardi, Alessandra, Guido Marinuzzi, and Stefano Zecchin. 1998. “Interpretation and Stress.” The Interpreter’s Newsletter (University of Trieste) 8: 93–106.

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Self-confidence in simultaneous interpreting Amalia Bosch Benítez

Even after many years of teaching interpreting, one still experiences unpredictable situations when trying to teach conference interpreting to our students. Both as a teacher and as a student, I have encountered a number of students who, unfortunately, were not successful in acquiring the adequate strategies for interpreting. It is this realisation that drove me to try new teaching methods. One of these has been tied to the selection of speeches that would prove (emotionally) engaging enough for students. I was intent on trying to find out if empathy could help restore self-confidence in students, especially those with difficulties and help them improve their skills in interpreting (see also Furmanek 2006; Kurz 2003; Korpal 2016). In this paper, I will present findings of a survey conducted on my regular students. Keywords: simultaneous interpreting, empathy, self-confidence, tales

1. Introduction In a former study (Bosch Benítez 2013), three students who were not doing well in class happened to overcome their difficulties when they came across a speech that was appealing to them. After that experience their marks in the subject significantly improved. When I asked them, they confirmed that the empathy and connection they had felt with the speech helped them to reformulate and to deal with the raterelated or comprehension difficulties regarding the speech. Surprisingly, it was the topic which had a big emotional impact on them – it dealt with a real case of domestic violence (an authentic testimony of a victim). These three students were moved by the recorded testimony and it prompted strong emotional reactions in them (tears). I was surprised by the unusually high quality of the rendered speech given their less than stellar levels in simultaneous interpreting previous to that speech.

Self-confidence in simultaneous interpreting

They themselves told me that now they understood what interpreting was all about, and that they now could trust their skills and that they knew what to do in the booth. The mentioned event has encouraged me to start an empirical research about methods and strategies that could prepare our students to acquire the expected requirements of simultaneous interpreting.

2. Simultaneous interpreting as a compulsory subject Conference interpreting, including consecutive mode, at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is a compulsory subject. I deal with students who are not voluntarily choosing conference interpreting. They enter the subject after three years (six semesters) of translation studies, learning subjects which focus more on translating skills than on interpreting. Their first encounter with interpreting takes place during the fifth semester when they start with consecutive interpreting. They begin with the basic skills of note-taking and with short speeches up to 3 minutes long during a period of time of not more than 15 weeks. Then, in the sixth semester, they continue with consecutive interpreting for the same period of time and the speeches now last between 5 and 8 minutes. Students start the first level of simultaneous interpreting (15 weeks) in the seventh semester. After they have started acquiring basic techniques, in the second level (also 15 weeks) they begin to deal with more specialized speeches and start to encounter even more difficulties concerning their English. We usually use recorded speeches from TED or the Speech Repository, Speechpool or even Youtube. Students are then faced with a variety of accents and even where English is the official language, such as India, their accent can be a handicap for these students more accustomed to British English. American or Australian English can be also difficult for them. There are some important differences when designing or structuring the classes for these young BA students who also have a limited knowledge of economics, politics, or cultural items – a lack of competence with the English language, preparing speeches and other types of material is also problematic with MA students. However, in my opinion the major difference is motivation and the age gap.

3. Corpus of the study At the starting level, we give students easy speeches, with no specialized vocabulary or topics. These are speeches with no density in information, which

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means that the kind of narrative exhibited by the text is of great importance (Seleskovitch and Lederer 1995; Gillies 2013). After completing Level 1 we start Level 2. Avoiding assigning students to basic, beginner, or intermediate level is sensible given that, in my opinion, students can experience great difficulties during some basic or beginner speeches, and on the other hand find some so-called intermediate speeches easier than the former ones. My experience seems to indicate that the mentioned differences have something to do with the text type and the density of information contained in it. We take the Millennium Development Goals approved by the United Nations in September 2000 as the material source for our speeches in Level 2. Here one can find more specialized speeches dealing with topics concerning extreme poverty, gender equality, access to education, access to fresh water, infectious diseases like dengue or malaria, etc. Bearing all these topics in mind, it is imperative we select the material well. Sometimes we utilize recorded material and at other occasions we deliver the speeches ourselves.

4. Case study I decided to present a series of questions to my students in order to find out some answers to the following points of interest: stress factors linked to the subject itself, such as fear, lack of language knowledge; didactic techniques such as sight translation and the selection of traditional fairy tales; if the way of teaching and selecting material could enhance their self-confidence and help them flourish. The survey was composed of 22 items they had to answer anonymously. I have posted only 21 of them due to the limit of space. But the results are presented herein as well. The number of students who participated in this case study was 42. In addition, my intention was to find out what percentage of the surveyed students would have chosen simultaneous interpreting had they had a chance to have done it. Here are the questions and the obtained results: 1. Do you link any emotions like fear to the subject of simultaneous interpreting? a) A lot (33%) b) A little (59%) c) Not at all (9%) 2. If you answered yes, what were the reasons for this fear? a) I don’t feel I have the adequate skills for this subject. (9%) b) I don’t feel I have the adequate language competence. (17%) c) I don’t think I can control my emotions. (4%) d) I feel that the skill to listen and to talk simultaneously is a very difficult one. (24%) e) I feel that very few students will be successful in the subject. (35%)Other reasons. (11%)

Self-confidence in simultaneous interpreting

3. Would you have chosen interpreting voluntarily as a part of your syllabus? a) Yes (41%) b) No (59%) 4. Do you feel uncomfortable in class because of its compulsory nature? Yes (65%) No (35%) 5. Does the compulsory nature of the subject make you feel insecure in your skills and competences? Yes (70%) No (30%) 6. Do you think that you have an adequate competence in English for this subject? a) Yes (26%) b) No (74%) 7. Do you think that you have an adequate competence in Spanish for this subject? a) Yes (65%) b) No (35%) 8. What character traits do you think could be useful for the learning of simultaneous interpreting? a) High self-esteem (48%) b) Self-confidence (30 %) c) Others (22%) 9. You had no previous experience in simultaneous interpreting when you entered the booth the very first day to interpret Snow White. Did you experience any emotions like fear? a) Yes (72 %) b) No (28 %) 10. As the narrative of the tale moved on did you feel that your interpretation in the booth was improving? a) Yes (15 %) b) No (85%) 11. Did the fact that you knew the tale help you reduce your fear or anxiety in the booth? a) Yes (59%) b) No (41%) 12. Did this previous knowledge help you in reformulating the tale? a) Yes (43%) b) No (57%) 13. Did the previous knowledge help you with the interpreting? a)Yes (83%) b) No (17%)

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14. We read the tale The Princess and the Pea and we did a sight translation of it in class. Afterwards we did the interpreting in the booth. Did this exercise help you in the booth? a) Yes (35%) b) No (65%) 15. Did you experience any of these effects? a)  I anticipated the information not minding/paying attention to the pace of the narrative. (30%) b)  I paid attention to the background information (previous knowledge) and hence disconnected the listening of the tale. (41%) c)  It helped me very much with the interpreting. (28%) 16. We did a reading of The Happy Prince but no sight translation. How did this affect your interpreting? a)  I anticipated the information not minding/paying attention to the pace of the narrative. (43%) b)  I paid attention to the background information (previous knowledge) and hence disconnected the listening of the tale. (57%) c) It helped me very much with the interpreting. (29%) d) Other (36%) 17. What tale did you feel better while interpreting in the booth? a) Snow White (74%) b) The Princess and the Pea (20%) c) The Happy Prince (7%) 18. Did aforementioned classes help you overcome any of the negative emotions linked to the learning of simultaneous interpreting? a) Yes (17%) b) No (83%) 19. Did the use of fairy tales help you get more confidence in your interpreting skills? a) Yes (48%) b) No (52%) 20. Do you feel that the interpreting of tales has helped you overcome the fear you experienced for the subject you had in the beginning? a) Yes (30%) b) No (70%) 21. If your answer to the former question was affirmative, do you feel now that a) You are more confident in your interpreting skills? (26%) b) You are more confident in your language knowledge? (20%) c) You are more confident in controlling your emotions? (9%) d) You now have the ability to listen and talk simultaneously? (24%) e) You are now convinced that you can be successful with the subject? (22%)

Self-confidence in simultaneous interpreting

3. Conclusions The compulsory nature of simultaneous interpreting is considered a negative aspect in the findings. Only 41% of the students would have chosen it if they had been given the chance. Conference interpreting is linked to some negative emotions like anxiety or fear. Only 4% declared no negative emotions. The reason of that fear is linked to the complexity of listening and speaking at the same time (24%); 35% had thought that very few students would be successful in the subject because of its inherent difficulty. As for the character traits, 78% of the students believed that self-esteem and self-confidence are very important. This survey was done after three weeks of regular classroom lessons and interpreting in the booth. So if our students believe that self-esteem and self-confidence make a difference, I think we should try to offer them strategies and methods that can enhance these crucial aspects of their personality. Some of the strategies deployed have not proven to be the solution for the lack of self-confidence. It surely has something to do with the typology of the texts and the information contained in them. But also with the way these texts are read or transmitted. The use of known texts like tales has undoubtedly helped (83% of the aswer “Yes”) but this is not sufficient. All our students have to enhance self-confidence in their skills of listening and reading before we introduce more specialized texts in the second semester. In my opinion more research has to be done in order to find out a more successful approach for interpreting and the selection of the appropriate material.

References Bosch Benítez, Amalia. 2013. “Empathy in simultaneous interpreting.” Paper presented at the Conference Language, Culture and Politics organised by Tischner European University in Kraków. Gillies, Andrew. 2013. Conference Interpreting. A Student’s Practice Book. New York: Routledge. Furmanek, Olgierda. 2006. “The role of emotions in establishing meaning: implications for interpreting.” Journal of Specialised Translation 5: 57–71. Korpal, Paweł. 2016. “Interpreting as a stressful activity: Physiological measures of stress in simultaneous interpreting.” Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics 52(2): 297–316 Kurz, Ingrid. 2003. “Psychological Stress during Simultaneous Interpreting: A Comparison of Experts and Novices.”  The Interpreters’ Newsletter  12: 51–67. Seleskovitch, Danica, and Marianne Lederer. 1995. A Systematic Approach to Teaching Interpretation. Washington DC: RID.

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PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews – working together to achieve best evidence*8 Katarzyna Holewik

It is widely known that investigative interviews are fundamental and most prevalent law-enforcement activities and are considered to be “the major fact-finding method police officers have at their disposal when investigating crime” (Schollum 2005: 3). What is more, it is often stated that quality interviews can ensure quality investigations and that is why many police officers undergo training in investigative interviewing. There is no doubt that the interview needs to be as accurate, reliable and effective as possible and in the case of monolingual interviews this success largely depends on factors such as interviewing techniques and strategies, strength of evidence, access to legal advice or an interviewer’s attitude to name but a few (St-Yves and Deslauriers-Varin 2009). However, in bilingual interviews, there is one more critical factor which may have an impact on the confession process of a suspect or obtaining a credible statement from a witness, namely, the presence of an interpreter. Drawing on the PEACE model for investigative interviewing and the seven principles of investigative interviewing in England and Wales, the chapter aims at mapping the PEACE model into interpreter-mediated interviews and examining factors and concepts necessary for effective interpreter-mediated interviews. The intention of this chapter, which reviews literature on investigative interviewing as well as public service interpreting, is to identify and illustrate shared principles and behaviour between both participants of the communicative event (i.e., interviewers and interpreters) suggesting that both of them work towards the same goal – obtaining best evidence, and also to argue that it is through professionalism, awareness and understanding, cooperation, and trust (PACT) that they can achieve it. Keywords: investigative interviewing, PEACE, interpreter-mediated police interviews, cooperation, principles of investigative interviewing, PACT *

 The chapter’s title is partly derived from the conference The First UK National Joint Training for Police Officers and Police Interpreters Working together to obtain the best evidence (Cambridgeshire Constabulary, Huntingdon, 11 September 2015) which also emphasised the need for collaboration of interpreters and police officers.

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

1. Introduction In the context of literature that looks at investigative interviewing as well as public service interpreting, the chapter aims to highlight the importance of investigative interviewing as a main component of police investigation together with the need for the provision of interpreters. The main objective is to examine the seven principles of investigative interviewing in England and Wales together with the PEACE framework for investigative interviewing and apply them to interpreter-mediated interviews in order to identify and illustrate shared principles and behaviour between interviewers and interpreters. These are: obtaining an accurate and reliable account, refraining from bias, acting fairly and ethically, seeking clarification, careful planning and preparation before an interview and evaluation after an interview. It is also argued that not only do interviewers and interpreters tend to follow similar principles and value similar concepts and practices, but most of all they share the same goal – achieving best evidence. According to the author of the chapter, what is also prerequisite in order to attain this goal is PACT, an acronym standing for factors such as professionalism, awareness and understanding, cooperation, and trust. The author has chosen to focus on the PEACE model on the grounds that she believes it to be a successful framework for investigative interviewing which makes use of psychological theories and has been applied in many countries worldwide as well as due to the availability of extensive literature on the subject. Other deciding factors are the author’s interest in forensic psychology and the investigative interviewing practices in the UK as well as the openness of British police forces towards academic research and willingness to share their experience and professional point of view on investigative interviewing.

2. The importance of investigative interviewing Investigative interviews are thought to be fundamental and most prevalent law-enforcement activities and are considered to be “the major fact-finding method police officers have at their disposal when investigating crime” (Schollum 2005: 3). It seems that interviews maintain this position of the utmost importance due to the fact that they take place during the initial phase of the criminal justice process and that they are later used as evidence during the criminal proceedings. According to the College of Policing (2016), investigative interviews play as a pivotal role in the investigation as forensic evidence: Without the accounts of those who played a central role in the crime, or those who have witnessed an important aspect of the commission of a crime,

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other sources of material such as CCTV images, fingerprints and forensic material, although extremely important, may have little value.

Horvath and Meesig (1996, cited by Heydon and Lai 2013) mention the overemphasis on forensic and physical evidence in criminal cases and likewise claim that physical evidence does not tend to be used in the majority of criminal cases. What tends to be used, however, is the testimonial evidence. Schollum (2005: 15) and Heydon and Lai (2013) maintain that testimonial evidence accounts for 80% of all evidence presented in courts (the remaining 20% accounts for “real and documentary evidence”). Finally, Milne and Bull (1991: 1) point out that it is “the completeness and accuracy of the witness account” that is a key factor determining the solvability of a crime. On the other hand, according to The Open University (2016) even though witness testimony and suspect interviews play such a pivotal role in the investigation, one needs to bear in mind that there are some risks associated with them, for instance wrongful convictions. Psychological research has revealed the dangers of relying on evidence gained from an eyewitness and also how careful the police need to be when questioning witnesses […] Eight factors that have contributed to wrongful convictions (based on data from Scheck, Neufeld and Dwyer, 2000) are as follows: eyewitness misidentification, forensic blood analysis, police misconduct, defective/fraudulent science, false confessions, false witness testimony, informants, DNA inclusions.

Consequently, in order to prevent wrongful convictions (see Innocence Project), there is no doubt that interviews need to be as accurate, reliable and effective as possible. In the case of monolingual suspects’ interviews this success largely depends on contextual factors, such as interviewing techniques and strategies, strength of evidence, access to legal advice or an interviewer’s attitude, etc. (St-Yves and Deslauriers-Varin 2009). Other factors which may contribute to the success of the interview enumerated by Scholum (2005: 5) are: “skill level of the interviewer, the cooperation of the interviewee, the nature of the offence or incident under investigation and the type of approach being taken, for example, a conversation management interview (CM) or an enhanced cognitive interview (ECI).” Finally, interpersonal skills, personality and the attitude of the interviewer seem to be of great importance as well (see Shepherd 1991). However, due to globalisation, constant migration and consequently the development of multilingual and multicultural societies there seems to be one more major factor that can affect and/or contribute to the success of an interview – the presence of an interpreter. If the interpreter-mediated interviews are to remain accurate and effective and the police evidence reliable when subjected to the scrutiny of the court, there needs to be mutual understanding and cooperation

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

between interviewers and interpreters, without whom, it seems, it would be impossible to obtain the accounts of witnesses, victims and suspects who do not share the language with the interviewer. The collaboration is necessary if the aim is to obtain the best evidence and such a view is advocated throughout the chapter.

3. Presence of an interpreter in criminal proceedings when a foreign language is spoken When describing contextual factors and focusing on monolingual interviews St-Yves and Deslauriers (2009) do not mention interpreters at all, however it seems that access to an interpreter could well be considered one of the contextual factors if the discussion concerned bilingual interviews. Various international legal documents emphasise the right to defence, a fair trial and effective access to justice1 which, in multilingual and multicultural societies, can be guaranteed not only by access to (free) legal advice but also to an interpreter if a person does not speak or understand the language of the proceedings. Article 6 of The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) provides that “everyone charged with a criminal offence has a right to have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court.”2 Since 2010 not only does there exist a relevant European legislation entitling defendants in criminal proceedings to translation and interpretation services, namely European Directive 2010/64/EU, but also member states have their own legislations ensuring the right to translation and interpretation services (e.g., Polish Code of Criminal Procedure (1997) articles 72 and 204, Human Rights Act UK (1998) article 6, Police and Criminal Evidence Act (1984)). Despite such recommendations for the use of interpreters, there still seems to be some reluctance on the part of the police force at times. Gallai (2013) enumerates the following reasons for what he calls “resistance to the use of interpreters,” namely the difficulty of obtaining an interpreter, the cost of interpreters, additional thinking time given to the interviewee, interposition of the interpreter between the parties in the interview which may influence the perception of the interviewee’s non-verbal language or finally, the feeling of losing control of the interview and the loss of the effectiveness of the interview. On the other hand, there are many police officers who understand the necessity of providing the interpreter’s assistance and at the same time the difficulties it may entail. When discussing the extended period of time of the interviews due to the need for interpretation, Bryant (2013: 497) points out that the inter1 2

Article 47 and 48(2) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of European Union (2000/C 364/01). See also Human Rights Act UK (1998).

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viewer needs to allow extra time in order not to “hurry the process” and does not perceive this slower pace as a disadvantage. Bryant (2013: 497) claims that thanks to that, the interviewer will be able to devote more time “to observe and consider the suspect’s NVC3 and demeanour.” Also, Laster and Taylor (1994: 135, cited by Hale 2007: 68–70) explain that the provision of interpreters contributes to police efficiency: “The effort expended in obtaining evidence may be wasted if it is subsequently excluded by a court as being unreliable” and consider the right to an interpreter during the interview even more paramount than during the trial. On the whole, it is apparent that interpreters play a pivotal role in investigative interviews and without their presence it would be rather impossible to conduct interviews with interviewees who do not speak or understand the language of the proceedings.

4. Principles of investigative interviewing and their applicability for interpreter-mediated interviews In recent years many countries, for instance, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, adopted the term “interviewing” instead of “interrogation” due to the negative connotation of the latter. It is widely known that the objective of “interrogation” is to obtain a confession or an admission (Yesche 2003, cited by Schollum 2005: 11), quite often with the use of coercion and persuasive techniques (Roberts 2012), while the aim of “interviewing” is to gather information, build and develop rapport as well as take a non-judgemental approach. Nowadays, police forces in many countries advocate ethical interviewing, treating interviewees with respect and dignity and adopting a professional approach if the interviews are to be effective (see New Zealand Police 2012; Shepherd and Griffiths 2013). Interviewing is considered to be a complex activity and, as it was stated before, its success depends on multiple factors and thus “it requires learning and practice to ensure that high standards are achieved and maintained” (College of Policing 2016). Similarly, Schollum (2005) stresses that obtaining accurate, complete and relevant information is a complicated task and thus needs to be performed “with care, subtlety and skill.” Therefore, due to this complex nature of investigative interviewing, police forces in many countries undergo training on how to conduct ethical, reliable and effective interviews, which focuses on skills such as “the ability to plan and prepare for interviews, to establish rapport, effective listening and effective questioning,” among others (Schollum 2005: 16). Such training, however, generally tends to focus on conducting monolingual interviews and thus lacks guidance on how to successfully work with interpreters in order to obtain an accurate and reliable account during bilingual interviews, which due to the language barrier make the interviewing process even more elaborate. 3

Non-verbal communication.

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

Whilst it seems vital that not only police officers but also interpreters understand the complexity of interviewing, many skilled, trained and certified public service interpreters do not undergo any specialist training on how to work with police forces, let alone how to conduct effective interviews. They can however make use of certain resources to familiarise themselves with principles and stages of investigative interviewing (see Bull and Milne 1999; Clarke and Milne 2001; Shepherd 2013). This section contains the seven principles of investigative interviewing introduced and developed by the Home Office (1992) and the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) which, as a foundation of good investigative interviewing techniques, are said to contribute to obtaining a high quality account (College of Policing 2016) and to conducting interviews in an ethical way. The principles which are so vital for interviewers can be a great source of knowledge for police interpreters as well so as to help them better understand the nature and tenets of investigative interviewing and the expectations of police officers conducting the interviews. Thus, each principle presented in this section (apart from Principle 5) contains a commentary on its possible application and relevance to interpreter-mediated interviews and police interpreters, suggested by the author of the chapter.4 Principle 1 The aim of investigative interviewing is to obtain accurate and reliable5 accounts from victims, witnesses or suspects about matters under police investigation. To be accurate, information should be as complete as possible without any omissions or distortion. To be reliable, the information must have been given truthfully and be able to withstand further scrutiny, e.g. in court. Accurate and reliable accounts ensure that the investigation can be taken further by opening up other lines of enquiry and acting as a basis for questioning others. (College of Policing 2016)

Principle 1 is regarded to be of great importance for police officers and should also be for police interpreters so that the police evidence remains reliable when subjected to the scrutiny of the court. In order to assist obtaining accurate and reliable accounts, interpreters need to provide accurate translation. It is essential that interThe version used in the chapter contains the commentary by the College of Policing. It has been chosen due to the fact that it contains additional explanations and is thus considered by the author to be quite comprehensive for it to be applied to interpreter-mediated interviews. 5 Emphasis added – KH. 4

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preters understand the importance of providing accurate translation/interpretation along with the consequences of not doing so. Mulayim et al. (2014: 58) claim that the lexical choices interpreters make during a police interview will be subject, sometimes almost instantaneously, to close scrutiny by the interviewing police officer, and may, at later trials give rise to hours of examination of and debate over the interpretation of target language words rendered by the interpreter.

Therefore, interpreters need to exercise caution when making their lexical choices. Accuracy is most quoted tenet of many international codes of ethics/ codes of conduct for public service interpreters and any professional interpreter is (or should be) aware of its significance. It is generally understood as being faithful to the original message and in police settings it particularly needs to concern providing details, exact words (especially coarse language), general features of spoken language, paralinguistic elements and preserving the tone and register. Since the notion of accuracy appears to be a rather elaborate one both for interviewers and interpreters, let us examine it in detail. Firstly, police interpreters need to strive for rendering the whole message without summarizing, omitting, adding, editing or removing anything, for example, details in a description of a suspect or a stolen vehicle. They should understand that interviewers need to obtain any details which they feel may be relevant to the case and it is up to them, not interpreters, if any information will be disproved later or not and/or how the account will be interpreted. It is also worth pointing out that some police officers6 even prefer to use the term “translate faithfully” over “interpret faithfully” due to the fact that the word “interpret” carries multiple meanings, one of them being “to explain the meaning of, to elucidate.”7 On the other hand, interviewers need to bear in mind that accuracy should not be confused with literal translation (see Hale 2007; Eades 2010; Berk-Seligson 2002). Thus, statements such as “Please translate everything, word-for-word, literally” often made by them should be avoided. Police officers need to be aware of the lack of linguistic equivalence, problems of ambiguity or non-explicitness (Jackobsen 2002, cited in Hale 2007: 113). Secondly, faithfulness and accuracy in police and public service interpreting also concerns conveying derogatory or vulgar remarks as well as non-verbal clues. (AUSIT code of ethics, cited by Hale 2007: 109) 6 7

British Transport Police (2016) – personal communication. See The Free Dictionary.

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

conveying hedges, false starts and repetitions […], retaining English words mixed into other languages and culturally bound terms which have no direct equivalent in English8 or may have more than one meaning, conserving the register, style and tone of the source language. (NAJIT code of ethics) [conveying] insults and any non-verbal clues. (International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Code of Ethics 1999: 14)

Furthermore, interpreters need to convey “any patent mistakes and untruths” (International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Code of Ethics 1999: 14) and any content they themselves may find offensive, immoral or wrong. Translating vulgar remarks, swear words or insults may not come easy to some interpreters. The feelings of embarrassment and uneasiness may often accompany especially trainee interpreters who try to “soften” derogatory language and amend the vocabulary or ignore false starts and/or repetitions.9 Hale (2007: 140) states that swearing may pose problems as well due to the fact that it “may be against the beliefs of some interpreters and so they may refuse to interpret accurately, resorting to omitting the utterance.” However, what interpreters need to realize is that they are not the authors of the utterances and thus should not feel embarrassed about such vocabulary since no one will be offended if they use it. Interpreters are indeed responsible for faithfulness and accuracy but not “for what10 is said by anyone for whom they are interpreting” (Cross-Cultural Health Care Program Code of Conduct in Hale 2007: 119). Those issues, however, need to be addressed not only in codes but first and foremost during interpreter training. Finally, it is widely known that in order to maintain accuracy and fidelity while interpreting in consecutive or semi-consecutive mode, interpreters take notes, akin to police officers. Both interpreters and interviewers however need to make sure that the notes taken during the interview are left behind or destroyed at the end of the interview (see Cambridgeshire Constabulary 2016) to ensure confidentiality. Principle 2 Investigators must act fairly when questioning victims, witnesses or suspects. They must ensure that they comply with all the provisions and duties under the  Equality Act 2010  and the  Human Rights Act 1998. Acting fairly means that the investigator must not approach any interview with prejudice. The interviewer should be prepared to believe the account This should apply to both source and target language. Holewik (2016) pilot study. 10 Emphasis added – KH. 8

9

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that they are being given, but use common sense and judgement rather than personal beliefs to assess the accuracy of what is being said. (College of Policing 2016)

It can be seen that Principle 2 focuses on fairness and lack of prejudice as well as applying common sense and judgement. Treating others as well as providing accurate interpretation (translation) without prejudice or bias also applies to public service interpreters. Such attitude is often prescribed by various codes of conduct for public service interpreters together with the principle of impartiality. Interpreters are expected to remain unbiased and impartial (Austrian Association of Certified Court Interpreters Code of Ethics 2016) and “shall refrain from conduct that may give an appearance of bias […] and must not engage in conduct creating the appearance of bias, prejudice, or partiality” (California Rules of Court 2016). Unlike the interviewers, interpreters are not required to apply common sense and judgement in order to assess the accuracy of what is being said, since it is the task of interviewers to assess the account and then decide whether to believe it or not. As language professionals though, interpreters apply common sense and judgement in any linguistic decisions they make in order to “render the language in an efficient and intelligible manner, while retaining all meaning and style” (Mikkelson 1999, cited by Mulayim et al. 2014: 57). Principle 3 Investigative interviewing should be approached with an investigative mindset. Accounts obtained from the person who is being interviewed should always be tested against what the interviewer already knows or what can  be  reasonably established. (College of Policing 2016)

Principle 4 highlights the importance of having an open mind for interviewers which means being free of pre-judgements. While an interviewer needs to be ready to believe the account provided by a suspect, victim or witness, they also should be wary of deception. An interpreter’s task, on the contrary, is not to test an interviewee’s account or be careful about deception; it is however essential that they also have an open mind, that is, are prepared to believe and accept whatever they hear and then render it accurately regardless of whether the content seems unreasonable, untrue or appalling. Having an open mind means translating even “patent untruths and mistakes” (International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Code of Ethics; 1999: 14 see Principle 1) and not forming any judgements or making any assumptions about the content of the message or an interviewee, which is also advocated by some codes of conduct:

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

Even if the interpreter disagrees with what is said, thinks it is wrong, a lie or even immoral, the interpreter must suspend judgement, make no comment and interpret everything accurately. (Cross-Cultural Health Care Program Code of Conduct in Hale 2007: 119)

Principle 4 Investigators are free to ask a wide range of questions in an interview in order to obtain material which may assist an investigation and provide sufficient evidence or information. Although the interviewer may ask a wide range of questions, the interviewing style must not be unfair or oppressive. (College of Policing 2016)

Due to the fact that Principles 4 and 6 seem closely related, they are discussed together under the Principle 6. Principle 5 Investigators should recognise the positive impact of an early admission in the context of the criminal justice system. (College of Policing 2016)

Principle 5 seems to be the only one which does not appear to be directly applicable to police interpreters due to the fact that they are not law enforcement officials. Principle 6 Investigators are not bound to accept the first answer given. Questioning is not unfair merely because it is persistent. An investigating officer has the duty to obtain accurate and reliable information. A complete and reliable account from witnesses, victims and suspects may not always be easy to obtain. It is acceptable for interviewers to be persistent as long as they are also careful and consistent but not unfair or oppressive. (College of Policing 2016)

As noted before, Principle 6 appears to be connected to the Principle 1, that is, the need to obtain an accurate account, and also to the Principle 4, asking a wide range of questions. The Principle 6 contains a pivotal statement that obtaining a complete and reliable account may not be an easy task. This seems to be a characteristic of both investigative interviewing and interpretation which will be commented upon below. The interviewer may have difficulty in obtaining complete and accurate account on the grounds that the suspect, witness, or a victim may be unwilling to cooperate or may be (generally) unclear in expressing their ideas. Similarly,

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the interpreter may experience difficulty in understanding what the interviewee means if they do not express their ideas clearly, if they speak in a quiet manner or have (or pretend to) have some speech impairment. This could result in the interpreter’s inability to render the message correctly (or even render it at all) due to the fact that it seems impossible to translate the message if it is not understood or heard properly. Thus, strategies such as seeking clarification and asking additional questions can assist in obtaining accurate and complete information in the case of both the interviewer and the interpreter. It is vital though that the need to seek clarification or ask for repetition be welcomed11 by interviewers and not perceived, for example, as a sign of interpreter’s incompetence or an attempt to hold a personal conversation with the interviewee (see Hale 2007). An interpreter naturally needs to inform both parties that they are going to seek clarification in order to maintain the trust of both parties. As previously stated, interpreters share the goal of obtaining and conveying an accurate message with police officers and thanks to seeking clarification or asking for repetition, they are able to achieve that goal. Principle 7 Even when a suspect exercises the right to silence, investigators have a responsibility to put questions to them. (College of Policing 2016)

According to the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (1984) a suspect can exercise their right to silence under police questioning and even in “no comment” interviews the interviewer needs to ask all relevant questions so that the suspect is given “the opportunity to respond to any relevant information” (College of Policing 2016). Whilst such interviews may at times be off-putting for police officers, they should not be for interpreters. Interpreters need to bear in mind that any “no comment” interview may turn into a regular interview at any point if the suspect all of a sudden makes a decision to respond to questioning. To that end, interpreters ought to be aware of the importance of “no comment” interviews, stay focused at all times and render all interviewers’ questions accurately to the suspect regardless of the suspect’s demeanour or attitude which may at times appear inappropriate or discouraging. From the analysis of the principles described above it could be concluded that they are necessary, not only for effective monolingual investigative interviews but also for effective interpreter-mediated interviews (bilingual interviews). Almost all principles, excluding Principle 5, could be applied to police interpreting. Hence, it seems apparent that both police officers and interpreters strive for achieving common goals, that is, accurate, reliable and 11 In fact, according to British Transport Police (personal communication) they are generally welcome.

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

detailed account, refraining from bias, acting fairly and suspending judgement, having an open mind and seeking clarification, and in order to achieve them they tend to follow analogous principles and display similar behaviour. In addition, it could be suggested that knowledge and understanding of the principles could help interpreters better understand the process of investigative interviewing and actions taken by police officers, for example, putting questions to suspects even if they decide to exercise the right to silence or asking for the same information multiple times.

4. PEACE model for investigative interviewing 4.1 Introduction According to Milne and Bull (1999) until the mid-1980s police officers seemed to lack guidance on how to conduct successful and ethical interviews. Therefore, what was needed was the model which would “increase the investigative potential of witness interviewing” and which would not aim at obtaining confessions from suspects (Shepherd and Griffiths 2013: 25) but function as “a conversation with a purpose” instead (Schollum 2005: 10), allowing interviewers to obtain all the information they need “in order to discover facts about the matters under investigation” (New Zealand Police 2012). What was also requisite was a well structured and planned framework. Consequently, the PEACE model for investigative interviewing (see Table 1 and Figure 1), strongly influenced by psychology (see Milne and Bull 1999; Shepherd 2013) was introduced in the UK in 1991. The present section contains a brief explanation of each stage of the PEACE framework, the mnemonic of which stands for: Planning and preparation Engage and explain Account, probing12 (clarification) and challenge Closure Evaluation

The importance of planning cannot be overemphasised both in professional and private life, hence, not without reason is planning and preparation considered one of the most important stages in investigative interviewing. It is by the virtue of planning and preparation that the interviewers can review key issues and objectives in the investigation, consider individual characteristics of the interviewee(s), make some practical arrangements (including the need for 12

Also known as Account, clarification and challenge (College of Policing 2016).

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a solicitor or an interpreter) or prepare a written interview plan (College of Policing 2016).

Figure 1. PEACE model for investigative interviewing (Schollum 2005: 43)

The next stage, that is, engage and explain, is considered “as the most influential factor in ensuring the success of the interview” (Schollum 2005: 45). Bryant (2012) maintains that this stage is about building rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee, “explaining the reasons for the interview, describing the routines, setting out the route map, stating the expectations and explaining the legal rights.” Since the majority of interviewees are unfamiliar with interviewing and police procedures in general, it is a stage when they should obtain clear information on what is going to happen and what the “ground rules” are (Shepherd and Griffiths 2013) as well as be reassured. Account, which is the main part of the interview, is the stage when the interviewee’s full account of events is obtained by the interviewer (Schollum 2005). Milne and Bull (1999) point out that what is needed for the account to be reliable and accurate are appropriate questioning skills and techniques. According to the College of Policing (2016), active listening and well formulated questions also play an important role. After obtaining the account, the interviewer may need to seek clarification from the witness (Schollum 2005) or challenge a suspect’s account in case of any inconsistencies or discrepancies. Since the professional approach to interviewing requires interviewers to act ethically, while challenging, it is vital for an interviewer not to accuse or criticise but to ask for explanation instead (Bryant 2012). As stated before, an interview cannot be successful without prior preparation and planning. Correspondingly, it should not end abruptly either. The aim of the last stage of the interview proper, that is, closure, is to make sure whether the parties (e.g., the interviewee or the second interviewer) have any further questions, have an opportunity to correct or add some information as well as provide an explanation of what will happen next and to end the interview politely and positively (College of Policing 2016; Schollum 2005; Bryant 2012; New Zealand Police 2012).

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After the interview has concluded, in the evaluation stage, the interviewer has an opportunity to evaluate the information obtained, what has been achieved, if the objectives of the interview have been achieved but also to reflect on their own performance, identify strong and weak points along with the areas for improvement (Bryant 2012). Table 1. Models and stages of investigative interviewing PEACE model for investigative interviewing in the UK

P

Planning

E

Engage and Explain

A

Account

C

Closure

E

Evaluate

PEACE in successful interpreter-mediated investigative interviews

P

Planning, preparation and priming (=briefing and rapport)

Pre-interview

Interview E A C

Explanation of role and ethics

Evaluation and reflection (debriefing)

Planning and preparation

Build rapport and explain (preliminary/initial interview) Free narrative account Question phase (Challenge-suspect interviews)

Accuracy, analysis, active listening Clarification

E

Phases of investigative interviewing in Poland*

Closure Post-interview

Evaluate

*See Kuźmiński (2014), Niezgoda (2007), Śrubka (2013).

Shepherd and Griffiths (2013: 27) maintain that the PEACE model for investigative interviewing is still “the foundation of the interview strategy by the senior leadership of the police service in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.” Schollum (2005) also claims that the model is applied in other countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Europe. The stages of investigative interviewing in Poland13 also seem to reflect the structure of PEACE (see Table 1), even though the method used by police forces in Poland is called the “FBI method of interviewing,” and the emphasis is put on, for example, obtaining as much information as possible, building rapport with the interviewee or active listening (Bartuszek 2007). Table 1 illustrates the stages of investigative interviewing in the UK and in Poland, where similarities in the structure could be 13

The author of the chapter also conducts her research in Poland.

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observed, as well as attempts to map the PEACE model into interpreter-mediated interviews, which is commented upon in detail in the following section.

4.2 PEACE model for interpreter-mediated investigative interviewing – factors for effective interpreter-mediated interviews Drawing on the PEACE model for investigative interviewing, the section contains concepts, practices and principles which, according to the author of the chapter, are of paramount importance for interviewers and interpreters alike and are considered to be factors necessary for effective, reliable and accurate interpreter-mediated interviews (see Table 1). The issues to be addressed are: • Planning, preparation and priming (pre-interview stage); • Explanation of role and ethics, accuracy, analysis, active listening and clarification (interview stage); • Evaluation and reflection (post-interview stage). Even though the mnemonic PEACE applied to interpreter-mediated interviews corresponds to the stages of the investigative interviewing framework, it is pivotal that all of the issues in the interview stage (except for the explanation of role) be observed in every stage at all times (i.e., Engage and Explain, Account, Closure) and not just in the separate ones, which is reflected in Table 1.

4.2.1 Pre-interview: Planning, preparation and priming (P) It is widely recognised that planning and preparation are essential for conducting effective police interviews and so are they for successful interpreting assignments. It is for this reason that their importance is highlighted during any interpreter training. First and foremost, planning and preparation prior to an assignment, for every professional interpreter, generally cover the linguistic aspects, such as a review of legal terminology and procedures (e.g., interpreted version of caution (UK), rights and duties of an interviewee (Poland), preparing notes or glossaries). Planning, however, also covers logistics and practical aspects connected with an assignment, for instance, allowing sufficient time to get to the police station in order to arrive at least 15 minutes before the assignment, planning one’s own availability during the day (some interviews may take more time than expected and interpreters should always allow extra time if they are planning other assignments for the day). Perez and Wilson (2007: 84) in their research study conducted with the Scottish Police also raise the notion of “logistics”

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

(in terms of an interpreter’s availability and time) and state that it is considered as an area of concern among police officers. Another fundamental issue which needs to be addressed if an interview is to be effective is priming the interpreter. Since interpreters are generally unaware of the nature of the assignments when they are booked (which seems somehow understandable in police settings), it appears that upon their arrival at the police station they would prefer some information about the assignment, rather than just step into the interview room without any briefing. Brunning (2015), who considers interpreters as “highly skilled people operating at high level” and for whom being properly briefed is equal to being properly prepared, advocates briefing interpreters and claims that that “they should not hear about the events they would be interpreting for the first time as they enter the interview room.” Cambridgeshire Constabulary (2016) also recognises the importance of briefing an interpreter “on the nature of the assignment.” Furthermore, a document prepared by the British Ministry of Justice “Achieving Best Evidence in Criminal Proceedings” (2011) also highlights the importance of including interpreters in a planning process which will allow them to develop an understanding of the structure and the aims of the interview and questioning methods. However, there does not always seem to be a consensus among police officers whether they should brief their interpreters, what they should brief them about or when to brief, that is, in suspect interviews and/or in witness or victim interviews. Some officers claim that an interpreter does not need to be briefed in detail (or briefed at all) in order not to become influenced or contaminated or because they do not wish to reveal the content of the interview prior to it, especially if the same interpreter is to interpret between the defence solicitor and a suspect.14 These are undoubtedly serious dilemmas and therefore Rombouts (2011) suggests that before the interview the interpreter should be provided with a short briefing (without going into much detail) which will enable their successful participation in the interview. In a similar manner, Avon and Somerset Constabulary (2016), which include briefing and preparation into the responsibilities of both an interviewing officer and an interpreter, state that the interpreter should be provided with “brief information on the nature of the case” and also informed about the interviewing technique. Last but not least, it should be noted that pre-interview briefing can be an excellent opportunity to build rapport between the interviewer and the interpreter (like between the interviewer and the interviewee during Engage and Explain stage), discuss practical matters, for example, interpreter’s breaks or safety (especially in the case of suspect interviews), establish and build trust relations as well as give both parties an opportunity to explain their roles and expectations 14

British Transport Police (2016) – personal communication.

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towards each other in order to ensure successful cooperation during the interview. Despite such a great importance of briefing and even though Brunning (2015) claims that interpreters should not be apprehensive about requesting briefing, it seems that the initiative in this matter lies mostly on the part of the interviewing officers. Hence, perhaps police officers ought to take this initiative more often and talk to their interpreters about how they would like to work with them.

4.2.2 Interview Whereas the content of the previous section referred to the pre-interview stage, the issues described in this section (explanation of role and ethics (E), accuracy, active listening and analysis (A), clarification (C)) apply to “the interview proper” and thus refer to the following stages of the PEACE framework for investigative interviewing: Engage and Explain (E), Account (A), and Closure (C). As previously stated, all of the issues (except for the explanation of role) ought to be observed throughout all of the stages of the interview and not only in its separate stages (see Table 1). The explanation of the interpreter’s role to the interviewer(s), as noted before, should take place during a briefing session in the Preparation and planning stage, whereas to the interviewee during Engage and Explain. The interpreter’s behaviour resulting from the explanation of the role needs to be observed throughout the interview though. Explanation of the role and ethics (E) Clarity is considered to be one of the key concepts of investigative interviewing. This clarity (and comprehensibility), which to a large extent is a result of careful planning, needs to be evident throughout the interview stage as well. While the pre-interview briefing between an interviewer and interpreter should ideally aim at explaining the structure of the interview to the interpreter, provide them with some general information about the interview as well as clarify their role, it is during Engage and Explain stage that the interpreter’s role should be explained to the interviewee (since some interviewees may not be familiar with working with an interpreter). As mentioned earlier, interpreter’s behaviour resulting from the explanation of their role needs to be observed throughout the interview. Due to the fact that it is the interviewer who leads an interview, not the interpreter, it is them who should explain to the interviewee what the interpreter-mediated interview will look like. According to “Achieving Best Evidence in Criminal Proceedings” (2011: 58) at the beginning of the interview it is the interviewer’s task to explain “who will lead the interview in terms of maintaining direct communication with the witness” and to maintain eye contact with the interviewee. Interviewers are also advised to clearly identify the interpreter at the outset of the

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

interview and if possible, even make sure they are visible in a video recording (“Achieving…” 2011: 58). Providing the interviewee with a clear explanation how both parties need to work with the interpreter will enhance the flow and success of communication and prevent problems such as, for example, not maintaining eye contact by the interviewee or expecting advocacy from the interpreter (see Eades 2005; Gibbons 2003). The concept of ethical behaviour appears to be of great importance for investigative interviewing and police interpreting alike, which has already been discussed under the Principle 2 and 3 of investigative interviewing and in various codes of conduct for interpreters. Schollum (2005: 3) maintains that ethical investigative interviewing means “treating suspects with respect, being open-minded, tolerant and impartial” and it seems the same behaviour should be observed by professional police interpreters. On the other hand, knowledge and awareness of the principles of interpreters’ professional conduct by police officers working with interpreters could also prove useful. While there are police officers who “believe that the interpreter acts in good faith and attempts to do the best they possibly can,”15 there are still probably some who may be concerned about issues such as impartiality or confidentiality. By virtue of that knowledge police officers could be assured that professional interpreters also strive for maintaining standards and ethics at work. Accuracy, active listening, analysis (A) While the significance of accuracy in both investigative interviewing and interpreting has already been emphasised while discussing Principle 1, this section focuses on elements which seem to be inextricably linked to it and are considered key skills in interpersonal communication and interpreting, namely active listening and analysis. Let us first examine active listening from the perspective of investigative interviewing. According to the College of Policing (2016) interviewers need to “support an account with active listening” which is connected to building rapport, understanding and trust by making use of the appropriate non-verbal behaviour, allowing interviewees to pause in order to recall the information without interruptions and encouraging them to carry on until the account is complete. While it seems vital that interpreters also be aware of and respect the pauses within the interview and avoid taking the floor too early, active listening skills in interpreting, above all, entail listening and at the same time analysing what the speech is about and what the speakers are trying to say which requires splitattention, full concentration and being focused (see Gillies 2013; Jones 1998). Loss of attention, interruptions or background noise often lead to misinterpretation, inaccurate rendition of the message or even omission of the information at times. 15

British Transport Police (2016) – personal communication.

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Many professionally trained interpreters are able to cope with such difficulties, however police officers may also contribute to a successful and accurate interpretation by, for example, ensuring that interview suites are not exposed to excessive noise or arranging breaks in the interview, bearing in mind that interpreting is a challenging mental process and being aware that interviews may last over an extended period of time. Clarification (C) Gerver (1971, cited by Pochhacker 2007: 16) defines interpreting as “a fairly complex form of human information processing involving the reception, storage, transformation and transmission of verbal information” which, as it has been stated above, requires active listening and analysis. It is thus apparent that interpreters need to understand the speaker’s message before rendering it in the target language and if they do not or cannot understand it, they simply cannot provide (accurate) interpretation. However, as noted while discussing Principle 6, interpreters may experience difficulty in understanding what the interviewee means if they do not express their ideas clearly, if they speak in a quiet manner or have (or pretend to have) some speech impairment. For example, respondents (police officers, judges, and public prosecutors) in the survey on the quality of translation and interpreting services in criminal proceedings in Poland (Mendel 2011: 17–20) reported that there were some cases when “the interpreter was not able to interpret accurately and relay the message due to the fact that the interpreter himself/herself did not understand what the witness meant or did not understand what the suspect was saying.”16 What is more, some interpreters, to whom the survey was addressed as well, also pointed out that in some cases the message was too fast, unclear or chaotic (Mendel 2011: 29). In such situations it is indispensable for interpreters to ask for clarification or repetition. Tate and Hann (2010) also consider it significant in order to promote understanding between parties. What is more, due to the fact that public service interpreting is a culturally bound activity and interviewees can have different cultural backgrounds, there may be cases when cultural differences will require the interpreter’s intervention, that is, seeking clarification or providing explanation in order to communicate cultural gaps (Angelelli 2008), avoid misunderstanding or a serious communication problems, alert the parties to a possible missed cultural inference, reflect the speaker’s intention and “produce similar reaction in the listener” (Hale 2007: 142). On this basis, asking for repetition or clarification should not be perceived by police officers as a sign of poor interpreting skills but as an essential strategy applied to ensure obtaining accurate information and rendering the message accurately and faithfully. Certainly, when seeking clarification or asking for 16

Translation from Polish – KH.

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

repetition, interpreters need to make sure that both the interviewee and interviewer are kept informed of such interventions in order to maintain their trust and not to make anyone feel excluded from the communication.

4.2.3 Post-interview Evaluation and reflection (E) Reflective practice, which is related to professional contexts and which according to Ghaye (2005) “is seen as a way of promoting the development of autonomous, qualified and self-directed professionals,” can be a powerful tool to enable the interviewer and interpreter to consider and analyse the interview again. While the reasons for evaluation between both parties differ to some extent, that is, the interviewer does it generally with the intention of “determining how the interviewee’s account fits in with the rest of the investigation or whether any further action is necessary” (College of Policing 2016), there are common bases as well, such as reflecting upon one’s own performance with a view to establishing strong and weak points as well as areas for improvement. Thus, the value of reflection and evaluation cannot be underrated for police forces and interpreters alike. Professionals need to bear in mind that: Reflection is an important human activity in which people recapture their experience, think about it, mull it over and evaluate it. It is this working with experience that is important in learning. (Boud, Keogh and Walker 1985: 19)

The key notion here seems to be “working with experience,” that is, careful and intentional reflection on experience since the experience alone does not automatically need to lead to learning and/or professional development. What also needs to be noted is the fact that reflective practice and (self-)evaluation should not be considered a valuable tool only for trainee interpreters but, above all, for practising interpreters as one of the fundamental elements of continuing professional development (CPD), aside from attending seminars, training sessions, and conferences. What is more, evaluation can serve as a debriefing session for the interviewer and the interpreter during which both parties can express their opinion and voice their concerns regarding the interpretation during the interview and, if necessary, identify any areas for improvement. The debriefing can also be an opportunity for the interviewer to check the interpreter’s welfare, that is, to establish how they feel after the interview. Interpreting is generally considered a stressful task (see Kurz 2003; Valero-Garcés 2006). Toledano Buendía and Aguilera Àvila (Chapter Three of the present volume) maintain that healthcare and legal settings tend to be stressful environments to work in. It could be asserted that the interview is even more stressful for interpreters than for interviewers on the grounds that

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the content can often be emotionally and psychologically straining. Brunning (2015) rightly notices that police officers are able to seek consultation after the interview whereas interpreters “often leave the police station as a ticking bomb.” Finally, if “the interview should not end abruptly” for a suspect, victim or witness (College of Policing 2016), neither should it for the interpreter. It is therefore crucial that both interpreters and interviewers attach value to the debriefing session instead of considering it as overtime or, even worse, a waste of time. If interpreter-mediated interviews are to be successful, both professionals need to work as a team and cooperate not only during the interview, but also and most of all, before and after.

5. Working together to achieve best evidence In the context of literature that looks at investigative interviewing as well as public service interpreting, the chapter aimed to examine the seven principles of investigative interviewing (7Ps) together with the PEACE framework for investigative interviewing and apply them to interpreter-mediated interviews in order to identify and illustrate shared principles and behaviour between interviewers and interpreters, namely obtaining an accurate and reliable account, refraining from bias, acting fairly and ethically, seeking clarification, careful planning and preparation before an interview and evaluation after an interview. It appears that not only do both parties tend to follow similar principles and value similar concepts and practices, but most of all they share the same goal – achieving best evidence. However, according to the author of the chapter, what is also prerequisite in order to achieve best evidence is PACT, which stands for factors such as professionalism, awareness and understanding, cooperation, and trust (see Figure 2). PACT

 P E P Achieving Best A E A C  C E Evidence E & 7 Ps

  

Professionalism Awareness & Understanding

Cooperation

Trust

Figure 2. Achieving best evidence in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews (Holewik)

PEACE in interpreter-mediated investigative interviews…

Professionalism entails skills, integrity and professional conduct, where tenets such as accuracy, impartiality and confidentiality need to be of prime importance for interpreters and interviewers alike. Police officers expect professionalism and for them the fact that the interpreter is on the register should guarantee the quality of interpreting and professionalism (Mendel 2011: 17). In the same way, interpreters perceive police officers as professionals, who work in the public interest by achieving the highest possible standards and whose attitude, effectiveness and professionalism affect people’s perceptions not only of the whole police force but, most of all, of the criminal justice system (see Milne and Bull 1999). Professionals in the interpreter-mediated interviews should also be the individuals who possess knowledge and aim to develop awareness and mutual understanding of how to work effectively with others. Shepherd and Griffiths (2013: 21) claim that “if we receive something from another person, we feel obliged to reciprocate by giving something back. This applies in all human interactions.” Such mutual understanding and reciprocity can facilitate an interaction – an interview as well as foster cooperation which, as it has been reiterated throughout the chapter, is such a critical factor in investigative interviewing. Cooperation is essential throughout the whole interview, during every stage and ought to commence very early on – with briefing. It is also manifested in understanding other participant’s roles and behaviours. Interpreters should not be considered as merely “assistants” with a role and status inferior to police officers, lawyers and judges (Gallai 2013: 58), as an impediment or a necessary evil “only used in the rarest of rare occasions when there exists no other option” (Vadackumchery 1999: 99, cited by Gallai 2013: 59). Pöchhacker and Schlesinger (2005: 158) mention three roles which an interpreter may take (especially in medical settings): “the interpreter may either take over the interview, serve as a mere tool to facilitate communication or work in partnership17 with the interviewing specialist.” It is widely known that the aim of interpreting is indeed to facilitate communication, but since interactions do not take place in a social vacuum and the interpreter is considered an active participant (Wadensjö 1998; Angelelli 2008; Berk-Seligson 2002), it is the cooperation and partnership between the participants that is essential to ensure a successful outcome, namely, achieving best evidence. For this reason, interviewers ought to explain to interpreters how they would like to work with them18 not through them, and the training on how to work with interpreters should be integrated into the investigative interviewing training (see Perez and Wilson 2007). Finally, mutual understanding and cooperation as well as establishing rapport can assist promoting trust between the interviewer and the interpreter and in consequence between the interviewer and the interviewee. It is widely known 17 18

Emphasis added – KH. Emphasis added – KH.

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that both interviewers and interviewees hold certain expectations towards the interpreter. In particular, he/she • is present during the interview to facilitate the communication; • shall not disclose any information (confidentiality); • shall be interpreting faithfully and will not alter anything, for example, for the benefit of the interviewer or the interviewee; • shall not side with or advocate for the other party (impartiality). They trust the interpreter and consequently the interpreter needs to maintain trust with both parties at all times. Last but not least, it is worth mentioning that the interpreter also places trust in the interviewer, especially with regards to their safety hoping, for instance, that their personal details will not be disclosed to a suspect. Given this, it is apparent that not only do all of the above-mentioned factors, namely professionalism, awareness and understanding, cooperation, and trust, have equally important status, but also that they are interrelated. Therefore, if the interpreter-mediated interviews are to remain accurate and effective and the police evidence reliable when subjected to the scrutiny of the court, these factors as well as principles and concepts for interpreter-mediated interviews suggested in the chapter, would need to be observed at all times.

References Austrian Association of Certified Court Interpreters. 2016. “Code of ethics.” Available online at: http://www.gerichtsdolmetscher.at/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=63&lang=en (accessed 19.04.2016) Angelelli, Claudia. 2008. Medical Interpreting and Cross-cultural Communication. Cambridge: CUP. Avon and Somerset Constabulary. 2016. “Operating procedures.” Available online at: https://www.avonandsomerset.police.uk/services/interpreters (accessed 4.05.2016). Bartuszek, Grażyna. 2007. “Tylko Służba – Przesłuchania metodą FBI.” Policja 997. Available online at: http://szkolenia.policja.waw.pl/portal/wdz/1710/27370 /Zasady_przesluchania_metoda_FBI.html (accessed 10.06.2016). Berk-Seligson, Susan. 2002. The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in the Judicial Process. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Boud, David, Keogh Rosemary, and David Walker, eds. 1985. Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning. New York: Nichols. Brunning, Martin. 2015. “Police vs. independent impartial interpreters: building up good working relationship throughout the investigation process.” Paper presented at the conference The First UK National Joint Training for Police Officers and Police Interpreters Working together to obtain the best evidence. Cambridgeshire Constabulary, Huntingdon, September 11. Bryant, Robin, and Sarah Bryant, eds. 2013. Blackstone’s Handbook for Policing Students. Oxford: OUP.

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Cambridgeshire Constabulary. 2016. “Communicating via an interpreter – how to get the best results.” Available online at: http://www.cambs.police.uk/help/professionalInterpreter/docs/Communicating%20via%20an%20interpreter%20aide%20memoire.pdf (accessed 10.06.2016). Clarke, Colin, and Rebecca Milne. 2001. National evaluation of PEACE investigative interviewing course. Police Research Award Scheme. London: Home Office. College of Policing. 2016. Reference material – Investigative interviewing. Available online at: http://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/investigations/investigative-interviewing/ (accessed 8.06.2016). Eades, Diana. 2010. Sociolinguistics and the legal process. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. European Court of Human Rights. European Convention on Human Rights. Available online at: http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf (accessed 4.05.2016). European Parliament. 2000. Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Available online at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf (accessed 4.05.2016). Gallai, Fabrizio. 2013. “I’ll just intervene whenever he finds it a bit difficult to answer. Exploding the myth of literalism in interpreter-mediated police interviews.” Investigative Interviewing: Research and Practice 5 (1): 57–78. Ghaye, Tony. 2005. Developing the reflective healthcare team. Oxford; Malden, MA: Blackwell. Gibbons, John. 2003. Forensic linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. Gillies, Andrew. 2013. Conference Interpreting: A Student’s Practice Book. London and New York: Routledge. Hale, Sandra. 2007. Community interpreting. Basingstoke, Hampshire, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Heydon, Georgina, and Miranda Lai. 2013. “Police interviews mediated by interpreters: An exercise in diminishment?” Investigative Interviewing: Research and Practice 5 (2): 82–98. Home Office. 2016. Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. Available online at: https:// www.gov.uk/guidance/police-and-criminal-evidence-act-1984-pace-codes-of-practice (accessed 4.05.2016). Human Rights Act. 1998. Available online at: http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en /human-rights/human-rights-act (accessed 19.04.2016). Innocence Project. 2016. Available online at: http://www.innocenceproject.org/ (accessed 10.06.2016). International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Former Yugoslavia. 1999. “The Code of ethics for interpreters and translators employed by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.” Available online at: http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Miscellaneous/it144_codeofethicsinterpreters_en.pdf (accessed 21.04.2016). Judicial Council of California. 2016. “California Rules of Court.” Available online at: http://www.courts.ca.gov/cms/rules/index.cfm?title=two&linkid=rule2_890 (accessed 19.04.2016).

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Jones, Roderick. 1998. Conference interpreting explained. Manchester: St Jerome Publishing. Kurz, Ingrid. 2003. “Psychological Stress during Simultaneous Interpreting: A Comparison of Experts and Novices.” The Interpreters’ Newsletter 12: 51–67. Kuźmiński, Marcin. 2014. “Taktyka i metody przesłuchania świadka w postępowaniu przygotowawczym.” Resocjalizacja Polska 8: 119–130. Milne, Rebecca, and Ray Bull. 1999. Investigative Interviewing: psychology and practice. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Ministry of Justice. 2011. “Achieving Best Evidence in Criminal Proceedings.” Available online at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/docs/best_evidence_in_criminal_proceedings.pdf (accessed 4.05.2016). Mendel, Anna. 2011. Raport z badania ankietowego na temat jakości tłumaczenia w postępowaniu karnym. Krajowa Szkoła Sądownictwa i Prokuratury. Available online at: https://www.kssip.gov.pl/node/1305 (accessed 4.05.2016). Mulayim, Sedat, Lai Miranda, and Caroline Norma. 2014. Police Investigative Interviews and Interpreting: Context, Challenges, and Strategies. Melbourne: CRC Press. National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators. 2016. “Code of Ethics and Professional Responsibilities.” Available online at: http://www.najit.org/about /NAJITCodeofEthicsFINAL.pdf (accessed 21.04.2016). New Zealand Police. 2012. “Investigative interviewing doctrine.” Available online at: https://fyi.org.nz/request/244/response/2484/attach/html/4/Investigative%20interviewing%20doctrine.pdf.html (accessed 15.06.2016). Niezgoda, Zbigniew. 2007. “Kryminalistyczne aspekty przesłuchania świadka.” Prokuratura i Prawo (2): 76–86. Perez, Isabelle, and Christine W.L. Wilson. 2007. “Interpreter mediated police interviews-working as a professional team.” In The Critical Link 4: Professionalisation of interpreting in the community, edited by Cecilia Wadensjö, Brigitta Englund Dimitrova, and Anna-Lena Nilsson, 79–93. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Pöchhacker, Franz. 2007. “Critical linking up: Kinship and convergence in interpreting studies.” In The Critical Link 4: Professionalisation of interpreting in the community, edited by Cecilia Wadensjö, Brigitta Englund Dimitrova and Anna-Lena Nilsson, 79–93. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Pöchhacker, Franz, and Miriam Shlesinger. 2005. “Introduction: Discourse-based research on healthcare interpreting.” Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting  7(2): 157–167. Roberts, Karl. 2012. “Police interviewing of criminal suspects: a historical perspective.” Internet Journal of criminology. Available online at: http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/ijcprimaryresearch.html (accessed 10.06.2016). Rombouts, Dirk. 2011. “The police interview using videoconferencing with a legal interpreter: a critical view from the perspective of interview techniques.” In Videoconference and remote interpreting in criminal proceedings, edited by Sabine Braun and Judith L. Taylor, 137–143. Guildford: University of Surrey. Schollum, Mary. 2005. Investigative Interviewing: The Literature. Wellington: Office of the Commissioner New Zealand Police.

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Shepherd, Eric, and Andy Griffiths. 2013. Investigative interviewing. The conversation management approach. Oxford: OUP. St-Yves, Michel, and Nadine Deslauriers-Varin. 2009. “The psychology of suspects’ decision-making during interrogation.” In Handbook of Psychology of Investigative Interviewing, edited by Ray Bull, Tim Valentine, and Tom Williamson, 1–15. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Śrubka, Mirosław. 2013. Przesłuchanie świadka w procesie karnym. Legionowo: Centrum Szkolenia Policji. The Free Dictionary. 2016. “To interpret.” Available online at: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/interpret (accessed 10.06.2016). The Open University. 2016. “Miscarriages of justice.” Available online at: https://www .futurelearn.com/courses/forensic-psychology (accessed 4.05.2016). Tate, Granville, and Paul Hann. 2010. “Interpreting in Police Settings Guidance and Information.” Available online at: www.northeast-bslenglish-interpreters.co.uk (accessed 10.06.2016). Valero-Garcés, Carmen. 2005. “Emotional and Psychological Effects on Interpreters in Public Services.” Translation Journal 9(3). Available online at: http://translationjournal.net/journal/33ips.htm (accessed 10.04.2016). Wadensjö, Cecilia. 1998. Interpreting as Interaction. London and New York: Longman.

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“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”: A new initiative for the training of community interpreters in Austria*19 Elvira Iannone

In 2013, my colleague Katharina Redl and I developed a new course for the professionalisation of community interpreters (“Community Interpreting – Professionalisierung für LaiendolmetscherInnen im sozialen, medizinischen, psychotherapeutischen und kommunalen Bereich”). The course was first held in 2014 at the University of Innsbruck, Tyrol, and was repeated in the same year due to high demand. We were later asked to hold the course with some modifications for a group of interpreters working for the City of Wels Department for Women, Non-Discrimination and Integration in Upper Austria. This training was held from October 2014 to January 2015, and a second group of interpreters is now being trained. All training courses were open to all interested interpreters regardless of their background and language combination. In my chapter, I would like to highlight the factors that influence the success of training initiatives for community interpreters, taking into account problems such as the lack of regulation in many European countries, the different backgrounds of untrained interpreters and the question of what level of expertise to aim for. I will also explain how these considerations influenced the design of our course. In this I will focus on two of our main problems: first, how to plan a training course for a group of interpreters without any information about who might potentially be interested in such a course and what their level of experience might be. Second, how to convey the necessary content in a realistic timeframe but without becoming unaffordable for our target group. The objective of my chapter is to lay out the course design, taking into account the abovementioned questions, and to show how such a training programme might be implemented on a long-term basis in Austria. I will draw some conclusions regarding course content and organisational aspects, providing an outlook on complementary training programmes that Katharina Redl and I are now in the process of realising. Keywords: community interpreting, interpreter training, lay interpreters, professionalisation *19Translated from German by Edward M. Bradburn.

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”…

1. Preliminary remarks: Background to the professionalisation course for lay interpreters In the literature on interpretation studies, community interpreting is a complex subject area. Typical problems commonly highlighted in this context include the knowledge, power and status imbalances between the primary actants (Pöchhacker 2000), as well as role attributions, expectations, and conflicts (Wadensjö 1998 or Lee and Llewellyn-Jones 2014). The literature also addresses the differences between the various settings in contrast to others: studies have been published on court interpreting (Berk-Seligson 1990 or Kadrić 2001), on asylum procedures (Pöllabauer 2005), on police interviews (Perez and Wilson 2007) and on doctor-patient consultations (Carr 1997), to name but a few. The risks posed by unqualified interpreters or poor-quality interpreting and a lack of proper training have also been the subject of many studies, which, starting with Gentile et al. (1996), are accompanied by urgent calls for professionalisation. Pöchhacker’s charwoman interpreter (2000), Bahadır’s communication crutches (2010a) and the interpreter as Good Samaritan discussed by Moazedi (2006) could all be cited as examples here. At an international level, there is now a multitude of training formats whose diversity involves not merely the scope but also course content and the entity offering the training (client-side or provided by independent institutions). In terms of considering how theoretically consistent models are (or could be) actually implemented in practice in Europe, and whether these courses could also be offered over the long-term and thus established as an institution, practical literature and/or literature accessible in languages other than the respective national language is lacking, however.1 To lessen this gap, the following chapter will introduce a university course for the professionalisation of lay interpreters offered by Innsbruck University: “Community interpreting: a professionalisation course for lay interpreters in social work, medicine, psychotherapy and community settings” (UCI).2 After defining the scope of the term “professionalisation,” the paper discusses the initial deliberations during the conceptual phase and the course design, followed by the actual course model used, and concludes with an initial assessment. Note that the chapter does not offer a detailed presentation of the development and situation of community interpreting specifically for Austria and the special status accorded there to court interpreting in particular, nor does it provide a closer analysis of the various German terms and definitions (cf. Pöllabauer 2009) that 1 This could result from differences between the legal frameworks applicable in each country, combined with a varying degree of federalism/centralism (and thus competences) or – as is more likely – it could reflect the conditions set by the bodies that provide funding for such studies for model development and pilot projects. 2 German Universitätskurs „Community Interpreting – Professionalisierung für LaiendolmetscherInnen im sozialen, medizinischen, psychotherapeutischen und kommunalen Bereich“.

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led to the course’s lengthy title. Accordingly, this paper does not so much offer a theoretical analysis (and much less a model) but instead constitutes a field report about the practical implementation of theoretical considerations while accounting for various factors.

2. Professionalisation: Aspirations and reality As a first step, we will briefly consider how the term “professionalisation” – a fairly vague concept when used in non-technical language – is defined in relation to conference interpreting. Without wanting to go into any further detail concerning the definitions of profession, professionalism or professionalisation as used in the social sciences (cf. Pöllabauer 2009: 100–104), our definition will then be used to explore the status of the professionalisation of community interpreters in Austria, with the ideal being contrasted with the actual situation.

2.1 Professionalisation in the training of conference interpreters Even in the field of conference interpreting, professionalisation cannot be taken for granted, although newcomers can generally avail themselves of established structures. Here, we do not merely mean training with a theoretical component and interpreting exercises of increasing difficulty as part of a formal interpreting studies degree (on the development of conference interpreter training, see Kalina 2015: 20–29), but also “mock conferences,” during which other (meta-) skills can be gained to maximise practical relevance for training (Andres 2013). Moreover, Neff (2015) also views targeted professionalisation courses during degree studies as an essential precondition for a professional approach to conference interpreting. Only so, he argues, can good interpreting students become customer-oriented interpreting service providers, since career professionalism requires professional awareness: “When service providers (i.e., interpreters) are denied their status as professionals, interpreting fees decline and working conditions grow desperate” (Neff 2015: 220). Yet professionalisation is not merely a topic for the individual interpreter but for the totality of all interpreters and hence the profession itself. For conference interpreters to be appreciated as practitioners of their trade, Neff offers the following steps toward professionalisation (some mutually dependent) that are necessary for interpreting to even be considered a profession: • “sound foundation of academic training,” • “a professional organisation,” that would organise and ensure the following points:

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”…

• “statutes and codices of ethics and conduct,” • “a quality assurance and litigation system,” • “the setup and regular updating of a membership directory made available to customers,” • “a fee policy reflecting the true value of the service rendered,” • “harmonised working conditions,” • “quality standards and certification of interpreting service providers,” as well as – “close cooperation between the recipients and the service providers or their association, in order to sensitise both parties to reciprocal needs and expectations” (Neff 2015: 220). Neff concludes that the process of professionalisation in this sense is already complete for conference interpreting and partially so for court interpreting, but that [t]his definitely has not yet been the case everywhere for community interpreting, especially not in Europe, where efforts to secure this recognition only began in the late 1990s. (Neff 2015: 220)

On this view, the professionalisation of conference interpreting is complete. The steps towards this goal outlined by Neff are not only described with great precision but also plentifully illustrated with examples from practice. Accordingly, his model can also be applied to other fields within interpreting.

2.2 Professionalisation in community interpreting: Aspirations in Austria (and elsewhere) Taking into consideration the points raised by Neff (2015: 220), we are forced to come to the conclusion that much has yet to be done for professionalisation in the field of community interpreting, at least in the case of Austria. While community interpreting has been the subject of empirical research – starting with Pöchhacker’s (2000) study in the late 1990s at Vienna General Hospital and Pöllabauer’s (2005) investigations of interpreting in asylum procedures – an established system of academic training remains absent. Whether this is in fact realistic, due to the legal requirements that one must satisfy to be able to enrol in a degree course and the further restrictions with which they are associated, is an entirely different question, particularly when one considers the merely formal requirements to be fulfilled by native speakers from Afghanistan, Somalia or other (civil) war zones. Nor is it even worth mentioning the systematic approach articulated in other items raised by Neff (2015: 220), since the relevant stakeholders are not organised into any professional association. Yet the fact that professionalisation is not being tackled by the community interpreters

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themselves but by organised conference interpreters on the former’s behalf is nonetheless an interesting development. In summer 2013, UNIVERSITAS Austria, the Austrian Association of Conference Interpreters and Translators, took the step of forming an internal committee for community interpreting (AfCI 2016). UNIVERSITAS Austria has also set up a Facebook group for networking and sharing information, and one may hope to see further engagement by the Association in this area. As regards training programmes in Austria, the four-semester university course in community interpreting offered by the University of Graz (Universitätslehrgang “Kommunaldolmetschen”, UCG) can – and indeed must – be seen as a pioneering development. This career-integrated course, under the academic direction of Erich Prunč, runs for a total of four semesters, offers a total of 73 ECTS credits including an internship and is offered for specific language pairs.3 The qualification earned is “Academic Interpreting Specialist in Social Work, Medicine and the Community” (UCG 2016). The university course was first held from 2004 to 2006 (ITAT 2016). Since then, it has been offered at regular intervals but actually held rather infrequently and not for all languages. A likely reason why this very wide-ranging and scientifically sound course with immense practical relevance could not be held more often is as trivial as it is decisive: the costs. If we compare these costs with the hourly rates charged by interpreters who work for public organisations and NGOs – always assuming they are actually paid and not working in a voluntary capacity – we immediately notice a serious imbalance between the two figures. This disparity is made worse by the fact that many interpreters in social work are part-time, and use interpreting to supplement their bread-and-butter job. This also adds a time dimension to other limits on basic or further training due to location. Nor have we yet considered the point that a minimum number of participants must enrol per language pair for the course to be financially viable. The question therefore presents itself of how to design an educational training programme so that it will attract the target market while simultaneously managing to keep course relevant in terms of its content. Excepting this University of Graz course, no generally accessible educational programme was offered for lay interpreters in Austria. In the time since the last evidence-based study on the state of training for community interpreters in Austria – published by Daneshmayeh in 2008 – this situation had remained entirely unchanged. In isolated cases, institutions working almost exclusively with interpreters have trained “their” interpreters, but this has generally involved only a few hours of training – or only an onboarding interview. Some interpreters had not received even this perfunctory briefing since they had been working for other institutions or government agencies. Even if we consider the professional For the 2016 summer semester, prospective student lists were available for the “Community Interpreting” course at the University of Graz in the languages Albanian, Arabic, Bosnian/Croatian/ Serbian, Hungarian, Russian and Turkish (UCG 2016). 3

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”…

development courses for conference and court interpreters offered by the various professional associations – mostly offered in Vienna and at typical industry fees for training – there is still no real sense of a systematic approach or general accessibility.

3. UCI – “Community Interpreting: A professionalisation course for lay interpreters in social work, medicine, psychotherapy and community settings” To remedy the deficiencies in training courses for the professionalisation of lay interpreters, Katharina Redl and I developed a university course in 2013 for the University of Innsbruck, whose course model (and conceptual development) will be introduced and critically analysed in this section. Following an initial request made by Ankyra, an institution within the refugee service (Diakonie Flüchtlingsdient), which offers psychotherapy for migrants and refugees with the help of interpreters, and is a pioneer in this field, and the Tyrol State Integration Office, this initial professionalisation course was to be designed and then offered in western Austria in collaboration with the University of Innsbruck. The body to which implementation was ultimately entrusted was the Coordination Unit for Continuing Education, which offers specialised interdisciplinary research-based professional development for academics. Since this programme is not offered to university students, however, the Coordination Unit’s work must at least cover its own costs. A further objective was to make the course publicly accessible with low entrance requirements, so as to offer value to establishments such as NGOs that are often forced to resort to interpreters with no formal training.

3.1 Considerations during the conceptual phase During the conceptual phase, various decisions needed to be made concerning the structure and organisation of the intended university course. For reasons of space, the following section will only briefly outline a number of issues involved in decision-making during the preparatory phase. Of these, only the most significant will then be further elaborated, prioritised by the impact of the individual decision taken in each case. The core issues and questions that were raised time and again, and led on occasion to heated debate, can be summarised as follows: Target market: Completion of an initial needs assessment will be waived in favour of the experience held by initiators and stakeholders. Is the actual target market aware of its own need for professionalisation, however – especially in terms of the observations cited above? How can this target market be reached?

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Language: Should the course be offered for specific language pairs? And if so, which language group(s) should be catered to? Prerequisites: Where should we set the bar as regards German language skills? And where for mastery of the other language? What should be the minimum or maximum level in terms of working experience? And how should the fulfilment of these requirements be documented and verified? Didactics: Will teaching follow the traditional didactical style typical for a conference interpreter degree course – that is, more or less “chalk and talk” for the presentation of theoretical content and interpreting exercises? Or do the equally complex yet differently structured communication settings in community interpreting actually require a pedagogic approach that emphasises advanced role-play, such as that adopted (albeit in a different format) by Mira Kadrić (2011) or Şebnem Bahadır (2010b)? Course structure: Should teaching take place in short, high-intensity “blocks”? Or should evening or weekend classes be offered for participants with a day job over a longer period? Should the course be “all-in-one” or consist of multiple interlocking modules4? Scope: What content will be covered during the course? And in what depth? In the preparatory phase, almost all discussions ultimately returned to this last question of content. Here, the focus was less on addressing the gaps in the participants’ theoretical knowledge and far more concerned with what could actually be offered in terms of the available budget, not least because the length – and cost – of the course is directly related to the content covered. As the cost of the course rises, so does the number of potential trainees excluded from the outset for financial reasons. Moreover, how many prospective participants can or want to pay good money for a continuing education course when they will ultimately be offering interpreting on a voluntary basis or for a token hourly rate? The hardest of the above questions to answer was therefore the cost-vs.-scope dichotomy.

3.2 Course design The present section not only illustrates the actual answers to the above questions but also presents the actual course design used. The various deliberations that led to these decisions being taken are also discussed. A modular approach is taken by “Quality-Focused Interpreting in Asylum Procedures” (QUADA), a UNHCR Austria project directed by Annika Bergunde (UNHCR Austria) and Sonja Pöllabauer (University of Graz). This project first involved the publication of a training handbook (UNHCR 2015), whose 12 chapters have since been successfully converted into course modules (each consisting of an online and classroom component) offered by the Association of Austrian Adult Education Centres in Vienna (VÖV 2016). Note: the UCI and QUADA programmes were parallel but nonetheless independent developments. 4

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”…

Given that the objective was to create a training programme with general accessibility, as few participants as possible should therefore be excluded a priori. No minimum or maximum limit is therefore placed on work experience. As far as knowledge of German is concerned, the bar was set deliberately low: CEFR level B2 is clearly inadequate for interpreting work. This decision nonetheless acknowledges the difficulty that participants have in proving an advanced level of verbal language skills (i.e., listening comprehension and speaking), especially if these skills have not been acquired in a language course but are either a result of the many years they have already spent in a German-speaking region – which may overlap with their interpreting experience – or the fact that they were born there. Here, our appraisal following an interview held during the mandatory pre-course briefing is decisive in assessing language skills. Knowledge of the other language is not verified. The course is not designed to cater to specific language pairs. On the one hand, this circumvents the problem of having to find suitable tutors and examiners for languages such as Pashtu, Somali or Kurdish dialects. On the other hand, the language-neutral approach also increases the chances of the course being held: no course could be offered for only a few Tigrinya-speaking participants, for example, although this is a key language in asylum procedures. The concerns voiced by Neff (2015: 220), as mentioned at the outset, also apply here – namely the decoupling of the process of professionalisation from the actual activity of interpreting. Neff (2015: 220) also postulates this approach for the training of conference interpreters, and this is now put into practice in a variety of forms at many universities. German skills must therefore be developed enough to permit the individual to comprehend complex issues and discuss these with others. Although the overall course was to focus on language-neutral aspects, exercises specific to language pairs were planned from the outset. Regarding methodology and course structure, and also in light of the lack of a needs assessment, a decision was taken to pair a standard didactical approach to interpreting with a career-integrated course held on six Saturdays, each consisting of 8 course units (48 units in total, 2.5 ECTS credits), plus a final exam. The course was scheduled over a time frame of roughly three months. This ensured the course was not too burdensome on participants coping with the demands of a daytime job while also allowing enough time between course units for reflection on the theoretical parts of the course and for applying its practical aspects. The course is offered for a maximum of 20 participants. Higher registration fees would need to be charged if this maximum size were to be lowered with no changes to course content. The course was to be marketed to prospective participants with folder displays in organisations working (frequently) with interpreters, and mailing lists run by the Tyrol State Integration Office and the Diakonie Flüchtlingsdient.

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1. The topics to be covered can be grouped into four content blocks: • Theory • Interpreting – history and profession (conference interpreting, court interpreting – strictly regulated in Austria, community interpreting, fixers5) • Different modes of interpreting with a focus on aspects relevant for community interpreting • Use and care of the voice in interpreting 2. Practical exercises (alone, with a partner, in groups, role plays) • Preliminary language exercises (mother tongue and foreign language) • Sight translation • Basics of note-taking • Chuchotage • Preparation and follow-up of interpreting assignments 3. The role of the interpreter • Role expectations • Role conflicts • How to deal with emotionally stressful situations (defining boundaries, inter-/supervision) • Professional ethics (codes of conduct of the Austrian professional organisations UNIVERSITAS Austria and ÖVGD, and of the German BDÜ) 4. Interpreting in specific settings (presentations by experts) • psychotherapy • medical settings • youth welfare • police • asylum procedures The final exam is a two-part oral examination. The first part consists of an interview that addresses the most important aspects of course content for critical self-reflection by the participant and correlation with his or her own practice. The second part consists of a role-play involving a typical conversation that must first be interpreted and then analysed. Students are examined simultaneously in groups of two or three: this not only makes the role-play itself possible, but is also intended to lessen the stress of the exam situation. If one of the key criteria that define the success of such a programme is that of cost – in the sense of the course actually being held – then one should also address the subject of course costs at this juncture. It was clear from the outset that fees for the community interpreting course should be kept as low as possible for participants and the six-day structure for teaching the material was also chosen for this reason. Yet the final fee (representing 1/20 of expenses Interpreters in war or conflict zones are called fixers, “especially those working for the media, because of the wide range of duties they undertake to ‘fix’ things for the journalist” (Baker 2010: 209). 5

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for course development and implementation, that is, total outlay split between 20 participants) was still many times higher than that presumably acceptable to community interpreters, given their low hourly rates. Ultimately, the implementation of the course has depended on (variously-sized) contributions from the State of Tyrol, the Austrian Integration Fund (ÖIF) and the Diakonie Flüchtlingsdient,6 which have covered a considerable proportion of the costs.7 All in all, the end result has been a relatively compact course aimed at attracting a prospective student body as varied as possible in terms of language diversity and prior experience. A conscious decision was also made to retain theoretical content, since the primary goal is to motivate students to question their own work, limits and opportunities, and to engage in self-reflection of their own behavioural roles. Apart from teaching the fundamentals, the course therefore focuses on the profession’s ethical principles as well as an appreciation of and a nuanced engagement with the interpreter’s role. Given the wealth of course content, the timetable seemed tight yet entirely feasible.

3.3 Critical analysis The design decisions taken in the course’s conceptual phase may naturally seem both theoretically plausible and justifiable by rational argument. After completion of the first course, however, questions were nonetheless raised about the practical success of implementing this design and whether the previously set goals had been achieved. In the year 2016, the following initial assessment has been supplemented by an efficacy analysis based on a survey of the course graduates. The goal is to identify the course content from which participants have derived long-term benefits and which has proven helpful in individual cases before, during and after an interpreting session. The survey also aims to include the institutional staff in their role as interpreting service clients. The analysis that follows is based on the course participants themselves, self-reflection by the two course tutors and statements from students in the feedback section of the final exam and in the anonymous course evaluation survey. For reasons of space, a detailed analysis is not offered in this paper. As a result of the declared objective of creating a non-exclusive course, the group was fairly heterogeneous, both in terms of language diversity and prior work experience. While a detailed breakdown by first language, working language, length of interpreting career, experience by interpreting setting(s), etc. 6 For various reasons, the sponsor situation has changed for subsequent courses: the third course on community interpreting received no further funding from the ÖIF. The City of Innsbruck has now joined Tyrol and the Diakonie Flüchtlingsdient as co-sponsor. 7 Pöllabauer (2009: 105–106) also addresses the dependency of the Graz university course on grant funding.

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cannot be given here, one interesting fact is that the participants included two sworn and court-certified interpreters and members of the Austrian Association of Certified Court Interpreters (ÖVGD, cf. ÖVGD 2016) who wanted to attend a professional development course near their place of work. The heterogeneity of the student body turned out to be beneficial to the participants, since a real exchange of experience took place between them – both “old hands” and “greenhorns,” and in terms of differences in the fields of interpretation and languages represented. The course certainly reached its target market and had therefore attracted the “proper” students. Knowledge of the German language was at least adequate for all participants; the trainers were not able to assess skills held in other languages. In the exercises specific to language pairs, participants provided one another with feedback, and not only on comprehensiveness and other qualities of the interpreting provided but also on specific linguistic aspects. The students on the course were well aware that progress in this area could be made only by offering reciprocal feedback and mutual support. While this situation may be unsatisfactory for teaching staff, the focus of the UCI lay on raising participants’ awareness of the ethical questions in their profession – to make them conscious of expectations for their services and offer practical ways of handling difficult situations in this context. Accordingly, the decision to offer a primarily language-neutral course was in hindsight justifiable. The decisions taken on methodology and course organisation also proved to be appropriate, and the overall course design can be said to have worked well. In terms of scope and course content, it must be clearly conceded that comprehensiveness was never the intended goal: in the case of some course units, there was simply not enough time to cover individual aspects in depth. It was nonetheless possible to address a wide range of topics in brief, and thus highlight the thematic diversity of interpreting while discussing some of the trade’s more interesting aspects. Professionalism in the sense defined above cannot of course be expected after just six days of study. In our final exam interviews with course participants, it was certainly clear to see how they had nonetheless developed an initial awareness of many difficult topics within community interpreting. As the final interviews and comments offered in the written course evaluation show, course participants were able to profit from the entire spectrum of topics offered. Many participants also expressed an interest in additional courses. While the issues raised are too varied to be easily summarised, subjects such as taxation, liability and insurance (explicitly not covered by the course), note-taking, networking and the chance to discuss “difficult cases” were frequently mentioned. The last point in particular leads us to conclude that one goal was achieved that Daneshmayeh (2008: 332) views as applicable to all professionalisation measures: she states that professionalisation is possible only if training programmes create the conditions for community interpreters to act and react in a professional way

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”…

in light of the discrete challenges they are faced with, and if they are able to reflect on their actions.8 The interpreter is only one of the parties involved in interviews utilising interpreting, however: responsibility for communication in the sense of conversation management is borne by the client – that is, the advisor, doctor or social worker. The vague awareness that these parties (as is also true of the clients of conference interpreters) know nothing or very little of the interpreter’s role and working practice – or have derived their own theories of the same from their experience with interpreters of varying quality – was also clarified by the students’ discussions of their experiences. The point was also made explicitly in the lectures given by external speakers, when they provided their own views of how cooperation with interpreters works (or should work) in their own institutions.9 We must therefore ask how successful interpreters, sensitive to and capable of handling their profession’s ethical questions, can be if other interview stakeholders (unwittingly) set different ground rules. Here, too, there is a need for training – although its target market may not necessarily believe this to be the case (cf. Pöllabauer 2009: 109).

4. Subsequent activities and outlook This initial university course resulted in a number of additional steps and programmes. It is therefore possible to state that, even if not originally designed as such, the professionalisation course has increasingly assumed a modular format, as we attempt to accommodate the participants’ requests for continuing education. Only a selection of the wide variety of topics and formats – and organising bodies – will be named here by means of example. A presentation on taxation and commercial law was organised via the Coordination Unit for Continuing Education at the University of Innsbruck, held by a professional tax advisor and management consultant specialising in language service providers (11 May 2015). A weekend workshop10 is also planned for examining and discussing certain course topics in greater depth. Şebnem Bahadır’s staged interpreter approach (2010c) has been explicitly chosen as the methodology here (WW 2016). An email distribution list was also used to inform course graduates of relevant events of potential interest that the trainers or staff at the Coordination Unit for Continuing Education were unable to organise themselves or which were 8 “[…] nämlich dass eine Professionalisierung nur möglich ist, wenn Ausbildungsprogramme die Voraussetzung dafür schaffen, dass DolmetscherInnen im Bereich des CI professionell agieren und reflektiert auf unterschiedliche Anforderungen reagieren können” (Daneshmayeh 2008: 332). 9 On the various expectations placed on interpreting in asylum procedures (for example), cf. Pöllabauer (2015: 58–59). 10 Details of this and all other activities mentioned in this section are accurate as of March 2016.

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organised by other parties. As examples of these other external events, talks or publications, we might cite the presentation given by Brigitta Busch (14 April 2015) on telling and retelling in the asylum procedure or the updates provided about the above-mentioned QUADA project, from the initial online publication (UNHCR 2015) to the repurposing of the training modules as basic/continuing education (VÖV 2016). This approach also ensures that graduates are kept informed of relevant training offered by the Tyrol Chamber of Commerce: one result of our close collaboration with the Chamber was a course on note-taking (25 September and 2 October 2015), for example. A regular meet-up for course graduates to get together and compare notes was also organised after the end of the first course. This meet-up is held once every quarter on alternating weekdays, to ensure that everyone gets the chance to attend the event, regardless of their other regular weekly commitments. Here, interpreters can learn more about their fellow course participants and discuss their profession with colleagues – note that unlike conference interpreters, community interpreters handle their assignments alone. Since the UCI has been held several times, graduates also meet participants from other courses, which helps to form a real-world community interpreters’ network. When the Coordination Unit for Continuing Education organises its activities, one of the underlying considerations on each occasion is whether these events could potentially be of interest to other target groups. While the two events mentioned above were targeted primarily at graduates of the university course, invitations were nonetheless also extended to sworn and court-certified interpreters. There were two reasons for this decision. First, CPD courses have not been offered for these court interpreters in western Austria – only in Vienna, with its associated factors of cost and (in particular) time.11 The aim was therefore to “raise the status” of Innsbruck. Second, the idea was to offer an additional forum for networking – and thus for active communication and knowledge transfer. The last point to address is the demand for this professionalisation course, which refers back to the questions raised above about the accessibility of the target market and finding the balance in terms of course costs.12 The first course was scheduled for the 2014 summer semester at Innsbruck and was booked out shortly after course dates were posted, with demand being roughly double the number of available places. A waiting list was then set up, and resulted – with The distance from Innsbruck to Vienna is roughly 480  km, a rail journey of some 4–4.5  hours. 12 As of the winter semester 2015/2016, the course fee (including the final exam) is €250 per person. As things have turned out, this seems to be the de facto limit, although it is still too high for some participants, especially those who have just completed the asylum procedure. Accordingly, a number of organisations that employ these individuals with “languages of limited diffusion” as interpreters seem to be covering a larger or smaller proportion of the costs. Exact figures are unavailable, however. 11

“Community Interpreting – Professionalisation for Lay Interpreters”…

a certain amount of word-of-mouth advertising – in the second course in the following 2014/2015 winter semester. Since the course is currently being held for the third time at Innsbruck (winter semester 2015/2016), 60 (lay) interpreters have now attended this professionalisation course. Participants in this third course were also contacted and encouraged to book via the waiting list, which is maintained throughout the year. Here too, the number of prospective participants was more than twice that of the places available on the course. In some organisations – such as the State Police Department, for example13 – interpreters are not merely being made aware of this training programme but are even being asked to submit proof that they have successfully completed the course. In other words, the programme is not simply being advertised in the interpreter community but is also being acknowledged by interpreting clients – who now form the next target market for raising awareness of interpreting work. Apart from the courses held at Innsbruck, the course has also been held in the 2014/2015 winter semester and the 2015 summer semester in Wels in Upper Austria. To cover the needs of the city’s administration, the local Department for Women, Non-Discrimination and Integration had established a pool of interpreters that needed basic training before starting work. The original concept was retained, with minimal adjustments to the necessary settings and also restricted to 15 participants. Since the formalities for a third course for the 2016 summer semester have now been agreed, up to 45 interpreters will then have received training in Wels. Other enquiries have also been received from various locations and organisations in Austria. One has also been received from Germany, which again underlines the primary dilemma of course costs vs. scope. The German SprInt network of linguistic and integration mediators has developed a full-time programme for community interpreters: encompassing 2,000 units timetabled over 18 months, and including three separate internships, the course is also officially recognised nationwide (SprInt 2016). The association from which the enquiry originated informed us that some of their interpreters had already completed this course, but also noted that resources were unavailable for funding those of their interpreters that had not been working for the association for as long and had yet to gain SprInt certification. In the interim, the association was therefore looking for an alternative for basic professionalisation until further funds were available.

5. Conclusions The university course “Community Interpreting: A professionalisation course for lay interpreters in social work, medicine, psychotherapy and community 13 Email dated 28 January 2016 from the Tyrol State Police Department to the mailing list for interpreters who work for the police in Tyrol.

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settings” was developed with the aim of offering a specific training programme for the Austrian “community interpreting market” that addressed the need for a generally accessible and affordable course for the professionalisation of lay interpreters while considering the (very) few continuing education programmes available. While the course design necessarily involved compromises into terms of time and content, it has been readily accepted by the target market. The course focuses on raising awareness of interpreting as a profession, professional ethics, the topic of role-playing in all of its aspects and the specific emotional content of the interpreted conversation. Our experience to date has been very positive, although a systematic review is still outstanding. The demand for professional community interpreters is real, as is the need for continuing education and professionalisation on the part of community interpreters themselves, as is clear from the feedback received from subsequent programmes and networking initiatives. In terms of content, our professionalisation course is unlikely to revolutionise the profession, but it currently seems to offer a workable answer to the dilemma of course costs vs. scope. While anything but comprehensive in theory, it is a practical course that is actually being put into practice.

References AfCI. 2016. Universitas Austria – Ausschuss für Community Interpreting. http://www. universitas.org/de/information/der-verband/ausschuss-fuer-community-interpreting (accessed 27.03.2016). Andres, Dörte. 2013. “Das Konzept Freitagskonferenz: Expertiseentwicklung durch berufsorientierte Lehre.” In Projekte und Projektionen in der translatorischen Kompetenzentwicklung, edited by Silvia Hansen-Schirra and Donald Kiraly, 237–255. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Bahadır, Şebnem. 2010a. “Von natürlichen Kommunikationskrücken zu professionellen Kommunikationsbrücken”. In Dolmetschinszenierungen. Kulturen, Identitäten, Akteure, edited by Sebnem Bahadir, 51–66. Berlin: Saxa. Originally published as “Von natürlichen Kommunikationskrücken zu professionellen Kommunikationskrücken (Reflexionen zum Berufsprofil und zur Ausbildung professioneller Dolmetscher im medizinischen, sozialen und juristischen Bereich).” TEXTconTEXT 14 = 4(2), 2000: 211–229. Bahadır, Şebnem. 2010b. “Body-and-Enactment-Centred Interpreting Pedagogy”. In Dolmetschinszenierungen. Kulturen, Identitäten, Akteure, edited by Sebnem Bahadir, 165– 176. Berlin: Saxa. Originally published as “Body-and Enactment-Centred Interpreting Pedagogy: Preliminary thoughts on a Train-the-Trainers Concept for (Medical) Interpreting.” In Spürst Du, wie der Bauch rauf runter? Fachdolmetschen im Gesundheitsbereich. Is everything all topsy-turvy in your tummy? Health Care Interpreting, edited by Dörte Andres and Sonja Pöllabauer, 29–43 (München: Meidenbauer, 2009). Bahadır, Şebnem. 2010c. “Dolmetschinszenierungen: Szenen, Methoden, Materialien.” In Dolmetschinszenierungen. Kulturen, Identitäten, Akteure, edited by Sebnem Bahadir, 177–193. Berlin: Saxa.

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Baker, Mona. 2010. “Interpreters and Translators in the War Zone.” The Translator 16(2): 197–222. Berk-Seligson, Susan. 1990. The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in the Judicial Process. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Busch, Brigitta. 2015. “Unglaubwürdig? Sprachideologisch geprägte Annahmen über das Erzählen und Wiedererzählen im Asylverfahren.” Guest presentation given at Monika Dannerer’s German Studies seminar, organised by the Cultures in Contact Research Centre, Innsbruck, 14 April 2015. Carr, Silvana E. 1997. “A Three-Tiered Health Care Interpreter System.” In The Critical Link: Interpreters in the Community. Papers form the First International Conference on Interpreting in Legal, Health, and Social Service Settings (Geneva Park, June 1-4, 1995), edited by Silvana E. Carr, Aideen Dufour, Roda Roberts, and Dini Steyn, 271–276. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins. Daneshmayeh, Marion. 2008. “Eine kritische Analyse von Ausbildungsprogrammen im Bereich des Community Interpreting.” In Kommunaldolmetschen/Community Interpreting. Probleme – Perspektiven – Potenziale, edited by Nadja Grbić and Sonja Pöllabauer, 331–366. Berlin: Frank & Timme. Gentile, Adolfo, Uldis Ozolins, and Mary Vasilakakos. 1996. Liaison Interpreting. A Handbook. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ITAT. “Zusatzausbildungen am ITAT.” https://translationswissenschaft.uni-graz.at/de /studieren/studienangebot-am-itat/zusatzausbildungen-am-itat (accessed 28.03.2016). Kadrić, Mira. 2001. Dolmetschen bei Gericht. Erwartungen, Anforderungen, Kompetenzen. Wien: WUV. Kadrić, Mira. 2011. Dialog als Prinzip: für eine emanzipatorische Praxis und Didaktik des Dolmetschens. Tübingen: Narr. Kalina, Silvia. 2015. “Interpreter Training and Interpreting Studies – Which is the chicken and which is the Egg?” In To Know How to Suggest… Approaches to Teaching Conference Interpreting, edited by Dörte Andres and Martina Behr, 17–41. Berlin: Frank & Timme. Lee, Robert G. and Peter Llewellyn-Jones. 2014. Redefining the Role of the Community Interpreter: The concept of role-space. Lincoln: SLI Press. Moazedi, Maryam Laura. 2006. “Von Samurai und Samaritern: Status, Image und Persönlichkeiten in unterschiedlichen Dolmetschtypen.” In „Ich habe mich ganz peinlich gefühlt.“ Forschung zum Kommunaldolmetschen in Österreich: Problemstellungen, Perspektiven und Potenziale, edited by Nadja Grbić and Sonja Pöllabauer, 72–98. Graz: ITAT. Neff, Jacquy. 2015. “Professionalisation: A Systematic Didactic Approach”. In To Know How to Suggest… Approaches to Teaching Conference Interpreting, edited by Dörte Andres and Martina Behr, 219–241. Berlin: Frank & Timme. ÖVGD. 2016. “Was tut ein Gerichtsdolmetscher,” edited by Österreichischer Verband der allgemein beeideten und gerichtlich zertifizierten Dolmetscher. http://gerichtsdolmetscher.at/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=53&Itemid=62&lang=de (accessed 28.03.2016). Perez, Isabelle A., and Christine W. L Wilson. 2007. “Interpreter-mediated Police Interviews: Working as a Professional Team.” In The Critical Link 4: Professionalisation of Interpreting in the Community. Selected Papers from the 4th International Conference

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on Interpreting in Legal, Health and Social Service Settings, Stockholm, Sweden 20–23 May 2004, edited by Brigitta Englund Dimitrova, Anna-Lena Nilsson, and Cecilia Wadensjö, 79–93. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins. Pöchhacker, Franz. 2000. Dolmetschen: konzeptuelle Grundlagen und deskriptive Untersuchungen. Tübingen: Stauffenburg. Pöllabauer, Sonja. 2005. „I don’t understand your Englisch, Miss.“ Dolmetschen bei Asylanhörungen. Tübingen: Gunther Narr. Pöllabauer, Sonja. 2009. “Im Wilden Westen des Dolmetschens. Ausbildung als Schritt zur Professionalisierung des Community Interpreting.” In Gesundheit hat Bleiberecht: Migration und Gesundheit, edited by Éva Rásky, 97–116. Wien: Facultas WUV. Pöllabauer, Sonja. 2015. “Lernmodul 4: Die Rolle von DolmetscherInnen im Asylverfahren.” In Trainingshandbuch für DolmetscherInnen im Asylverfahren, edited by UNHCR Austria, 52–71. Linz: Trauner. SprInt. Sprach- und Integrationsmittler. http://www.sprachundintegrationsmittler.org /index.php/sprach-und-integrationsmittler/qualifizierung (accessed 28.03.2016). UCI. Universitätskurs “Community Interpreting – Professionalisierung von LaiendolmetscherInnen im sozialen, medizinischen, psychotherapeutischen und kommunalen Bereich.” Universität Innsbruck. http://www.uibk.ac.at/weiterbildung/universitaetskurse/community-interpreting/ (accessed 28.03.2016). UCG. Universitätslehrgang “Kommunaldolmetschen.” Universität Graz. http://www.uniforlife.at/sprachen/detail/kurs/kommunaldolmetschen-neu (accessed 24.01.2016). UNHCR Austria (ed.). 2015. Trainingshandbuch für DolmetscherInnen im Asylverfahren. Linz: Trauner. VÖV. “QUADA – Qualifizierungsmaßnahme für DolmetscherInnen im Asylverfahren”. Verband Österreichischer Volkshochschulen. http://www.vhs.or.at/594 (accessed 28.3.2016). Wadensjö, Cecilia. 1998. Interpreting as Interaction. London, New York: Longman. WW. Two-day seminar “Dolmetschinszenierungen. Dolmetscherinnen und Dolmetscher als Körper und als Mensch.” Universität Innsbruck. https://www.uibk.ac.at/weiterbildung/weiterbildungsseminare/dolmetschinszenierungen (accessed 28.03.2016).

Chapter Eight

Elaboration of specialised glossaries as a work placement for interpreting students: Opportunities and pitfalls Heather Adams and Agustín Darias-Marrero

This paper describes a supervised work placement for final-year and recent graduates in interpreting comprising the drawing up of glossaries for use in a multi-cultural and multi-lingual project that used professional interpreting services on a regular basis. Thus, the students were given access to a considerable amount of documentation used in the meetings of a UN-led project for gender equality and the empowerment of women in Spain and Africa (the African-Spanish Women’s Network for a Better World), from which to compile glossaries on a number of specific topics, including health, education and sexual and reproductive rights. A brief description of the project will be followed by details of the work placement and examples of the glossary itself. Special attention will be paid to the delimitation of what should be included and excluded, the students’ and supervisors’ perspectives in this regard, and examples of some cases in which cultural differences affected language use in speakers/users of the same language. Keywords: interpreting, specialised glossaries, UN-led project, work placement

1. Introduction We will start by giving a brief overview of the context in which this work placement took place, starting with the creation and nature of the African-Spanish Women’s Network for a Better World itself and the interpreting and translation assignments involved. The passing of the Spanish Law on Gender Equality (Ley Orgánica 3/2007, de 22 de marzo, para la igualdad efectiva de mujeres y hombres) constituted a legislative landmark in the field of women’s human rights not only in Spain, but across Europe, and even further afield. Such turning points do not take place without a vast amount of preparation and groundwork, carried out by a wide range of interested parties. In this case, one such stakeholder was the Spanish

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government, led by the PSOE (Socialist) party, whose deputy prime minister, María Teresa Fernández de la Vega, among many other activities, visited a number of African countries including Kenya and Mozambique with the Secretary of State for International Cooperation, Leire Pajín in 2006. In Maputo, the capital of Mozambique, they celebrated International Working Women’s Day (March 8th) and officially closed the Spain-Africa Women for a Better World forum. As a result of the conversations held and agreements reached at that event, the African-Spanish Women’s Network for a Better World was created in November 2007, with the support of the Spanish Government, the United Nations (UNIFEM) and civil society actors (women’s rights groups, NGOs and others from both Spain and Africa). The initial phase of the Network was dedicated to establishing its modus operandi, how it should be coordinated, its terms of reference, membership rules and rights and many other procedural issues which occupied a high percentage of meeting time, but which were deemed essential in order to create a solid framework within which to operate. As its website explains (2011) this partnership between the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the Government of Spain and civil society, grew over four years to include 1,500 members, including individuals and organizations from 51 countries in Africa and Spain. This enabled women’s groups to share knowledge and experiences from all over the African continent with others in Spain, and vice versa, as well as coordinating capacity-building activities for the empowerment of women and gender equality in five main areas: women’s rights, economic development, health, education, and violence against women. The network’s structure was based on working groups, each one of which dealt with one of these thematic areas. The Network’s Secretariat, which took care of all the logistics, was located on the premises of Casa África in Las Palmas, hence the link with a team of local interpreters hired under contract by UNIFEM for the duration of the project, to ensure consistency and coherence in the interpreting and translation activities generated up until the end of January 2012. During the lifetime of the project, specifically in July 2010, the United Nations restructured a number of previously existing agencies, including UNIFEM, as well as the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI), to form ­UN Women, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. This move was heralded by the UN as constituting a historic step in accelerating the Organization’s goals on gender equality and the empowerment of women, merging and building on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system.

Elaboration of specialised glossaries…

2. Interpreting for UN Women and the Network The UN team of interpreters who worked for the network, by virtue of their contracts as external contractors, and coordinated through the Network’s permanent Secretariat based in Las Palmas, interpreted in a number of different types of communicative situations, as we shall see, many of which corresponded to those of working meetings in international organizations, according to Gile’s classification of interlingual encounters (1989): Les organisations internationales […] accomplissent une partie importante de leur travail à travers l’activité de comités et groupes de travail qui se réunissent régulièrement dans le cadre de l’exécution d’un mandat qui leur est confié. Ces réunions peuvent durer quelques dizaines de minutes ou plusieurs jours, et se déroulent selon un ordre du jour qui précise les points qui devront être abordés. (Gile 1989: 652) A large amount of the work carried out by international organisations takes place through activities by committee and working groups that meet on a regular basis within the framework of executing the mandate they have been assigned. These meetings may last for less than an hour or for several days, and they follow an agenda that sets out the points to be dealt with. (our translation)

In this type of meeting, different points were discussed in a more or less spontaneous fashion, as the basic information has already been laid out in working documents prepared in advance by members of the Secretariat and distributed among the attendees, almost always including the interpreters. Likewise, the team of interpreters also worked at a considerable number of Network seminars and specialised training or capacity building events (Gile 1989: 651), at which one or more teachers or leaders address the attendees, whose working languages and level of previous knowledge on the subject-matter of the training session differ. In most cases, here some kind of written material or visual aid was used as part of the pedagogical approach, facilitating the uptake by the attendees of abundant, dense information taught during sessions that normally ended with time for Questions and Answers. These two communicative situations prevailed in the bulk of cases where interpreting was used. In terms of technique, almost all the interpreting was simultaneous, booth-based interpreting, although on some occasions, where there were few attendees requiring interpretation for a particular language, chuchotage (whispered interpreting) was used. The languages required were Spanish, French and English, and occasionally, Portuguese. On one occasion, in October 2011, telephone interviews were carried out with the help of an interpreter, thereby extending the interpreter-mediated situations to remote, telephone interpreting.

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In addition to the different interpreting techniques used, the team of interpreters (Spanish, English, and French) worked in a number of settings and in different places. Most of the events were held at Casa África14 in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, in both the Nelson Mandela auditorium and in the round table meeting room. On at least one occasion, the setting was the Press Club of the local newspaper La Provincia. As the Network became more consolidated, events, activities and courses were planned further afield, and interpretations took place at meetings in Seville and Madrid and subsequently in various parts of Africa, as the events detailed below clearly show: • On 19 and 20 February, 2010. 6th Steering Committee meeting of the African-Spanish Women for a Better World, organised by UNIFEM in Bamako, Mali. • On 15 and 16 April 2010. Meeting to draw up a map of sexual and reproductive health in Africa and Spain organised by the African-Spanish Women’s Network for a Better World, UNIFEM, on the Madrid Press Association’s premises in Madrid. • On 25, 26 and 27 June 2010 “African and Spanish women entrepreneurs’ encounter: towards economic empowerment,” organized by UNIFEM in the Municipal Conference Centre (Palacio Municipal de Congresos), Madrid. • On 7 July 2010. Steering Committee Meeting and Monitoring Committee meeting of the African-Spanish Women for a Better World, held in the Ministry for Equality, Madrid. • On 7 and 8 October 2010. Launch and first working meeting of the working group on education, organized by UNIFEM, Nairobi, Kenya. • On 6, 7 and 8 July 2011. Meeting of the African-Spanish Women for a Better World’s working group of health, to discuss sexual and reproductive health and rights in Africa and Spain, Hotel Abba Triana, Seville. • On 19 and 20 January 2012. Extraordinary meeting of the African-Spanish Women for a Better World Steering Committee, UN Women, Madrid. These interpreting missions and the numerous meetings held and interpreted in Casa África, gave rise to a considerable amount of written translation between the official languages of the Network (Spanish, French, and English) of the documents generated. Moreover, as a result of the numerous contacts made at the various events, such as that of Red Activas network, the team of interpreters was hired to work in Bamako (Mali) to work, once again in simultaneous mode French-Spanish-French, in the following meetings dealing with sexual and reproductive health and rights. 14 Casa África is the public diplomacy service that works for the Spanish state’s external activities on the African contents and is part of the Network of such Casas belonging to Spanish public diplomacy. Headquartered in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, it was set up in 2006 and organises activities in political, social, education, and cultural spheres, all aimed at promoting relations between Spain and Africa. See http://www.casafrica.es/en/nuestra_mision.jsp (accessed 29.04.2016).

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• On 26, 27 and 28 January 2011. Workshop “Health, gender and aid efficiency” organised by the Activas network and the Spanish International Development Cooperation Agency (AECID), at the Bamako international conference centre, Mali. • On 10 and 11 May 2011. Regional encounter “Health, gender and aid efficiency,” organised by the Activas network, Nuakchot, Mauritania.

3. The placement project The details given of the interpreting and translation work carried out by professional interpreters during the lifetime of the network give an idea of the amount of work and its importance for the network members, to the extent that a team of local interpreters was taken on and accompanied the network’s events even when they were held abroad. This was acknowledged by the network’s secretariat as answering a real need for consistent communication between the different people and bodies belonging to the network, who not only spoke different languages, but also came from a wide range of countries and cultures from all over the huge African continent, as well as from the different regions of Spain. From the initial network meetings, it became clear that the Spanish and African committee members needed not only interlinguistic interpretation, but also to understand each other’s cultural behaviour to avoid potential misunderstandings. The factors that this group of people, all of whom shared the same overarching interest of promoting women’s human rights, had to deal with include the following: • Different countries and cultures, as we have said, network members came from 51 different countries. • Different professional profiles of network members, from politicians and activists to grass-roots associations working in local communities, as well as technical and administrative workers and any and every type of individual or collective network members. • Different communicative situations: meetings, training sessions, and telephone interviews, among others. • Different thematic areas: women’s rights, economic development, health, education and violence against women. • Different text types: meetings agendas, lists with network members’ details, presentations and pedagogical material on a wide range of subjects, always from the perspective of women’s rights. Different terminological usages in a same language, depending on the socio-cultural level of awareness of women’s rights vindications not only of the different network members, but also in the institutional settings and local communities where they live and work, as well as the use of (or attempts to correct) sexist language.

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This set of differentiating characteristics of the speakers participating in the meetings underscored the need to standardise, at least to some extent, the terminology to be used in the network and to coin a specific set of terms of reference. Said terms were not only essential to ensure that the network could operate smoothly across such a wide range of languages, cultures and speakers/receivers, but were also deemed to have a pedagogic function in themselves, acting as a benchmark for members, activists and women in general in those socio-cultural settings where awareness regarding women’s rights was less developed. These needs gave rise to the creation of the project that we will now present.

4. The project On the one hand, given the situation described thus far, a terminological glossary including the terms of reference habitually used in the interlingual meetings of the network was clearly needed, both by the network’s members and by the interpreters themselves. Although interpreters carry out their terminological preparation before the mediated event takes place and subsequently call on a range of resources during their interpretation in order to overcome lexical challenges (Rodríguez and Schnell 2009), they would need to compile a large amount of terminological information in the huge mass of documents and to harmonise the terms used in the different languages, with a view to helping effective communication between the various interlocutors. La préparation terminologique de l’interprète avant la conférence consiste essentiellement en la constitution de lexiques « maison » de quelques dizaines à quelques centaines d’entrées sur la base de l’exploitation des documents de conférence envoyés avant la réunion ainsi que d’autres documents portant sur les sujets devant être traités pendant la conférence. (Gile 1987: 165) The pre-conference preparation of terminology by an interpreter essentially entails the creation of “home-made” glossaries comprising between a few dozen and hundreds of entries taken from conference documents sent to the interpreter before the meeting as well as from documents on the subject-matter to be dealt with during the conference. (our translation)

On the other hand, the academic motivation for the project arose from the introduction of compulsory work experience stipulated in the undergraduate curriculum, in line with the EHEA and according to the stipulations of the Canary Islands’ Regional Government, requiring all final-year undergraduate students to complete a period of meaningful, supervised work experience. The learning objective in this case lay in underscoring the need for determining terminological equivalences in interpreting, given that interpreters change

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subject-matter with each new assignment, frequently working with and transmitting highly-specialised knowledge for an expert audience. This confluence of professional and academic interests underscores the relevance of this project, which consisted of a group of students from the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria drawing up a terminological glossary comprising lexical equivalences in the different languages in question, for the interpreters and network members to use and consult, when faced with a wide range of options used by speakers and network members. Based on a series of documents provided by the network, the students’ assignment was to produce a definitive list of terminology. Thus, the work practice of the students selected to carry it out consisted of producing this terminological material, following the procedure outlined below. Once the work experience was complete, each student received their corresponding certificate for 100 hours of work completed. The steps followed by the students while carrying out this terminological study are those stipulated by Kutz (2000, cf. Rodríguez and Schnell 2009), clearly differentiating the following phases: thematic preparation, linguistic preparation, translation preparation and interpreting preparation, although these phases inevitably overlap in time and practice. Firstly, they started with the thematic preparation, becoming familiar with the thematic area of the documents and, at the same time, developing linguistic preparation, by systematically reviewing the documentation in order to extract the relevant terms, synonym, initials and acronyms, set phrases and expressions, aspects related to the feminist slant of the network in gender-related issues, in order to take the “le « jargon » technique propre à chaque groupe”15 (‘the technical “jargon” used by each group’) into consideration. Translation preparation took the form of adding to the list of terms selected their equivalents in the other working languages, in turn identified in comparable texts in the respective languages. In theory, interpreting preparation is something the interpreters working with the authentic documents and speeches to be interpreted carry out in order to identify the terms and include them in glossaries. The aim here is to facilitate this step for the interpreters, by providing them with the terminological glossaries created by the students, whose work placement thus puts them in a real-life situation, as experienced by professional interpreters confronting any interpreting assignment. In terms of the members of the student team, 10 final-year students at the Translation and Interpreting Faculty took part. They were divided into different teams of two by language pairs and thematic area. So, four students worked in the English-Spanish language combination, two with the documents relating to 15 See http://aiic.net/page/1472/petit-guide-pratique-a-l-usage-des-jeunes-et-moins-jeunes -interpretes-de-conference/lang/2 (accessed 29.04.2016).

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economic aspects affecting women and women’s rights and the remaining two, with those concerning health. This division of labour was replicated for the students charged with producing the terminology glossary in the Spanish-French language pair. Moreover, a coordinator and proofreader was designated for each language pair, charged with standardising and checking the draft version. Human resources Coordinator Thematic area

Language combinations

2 x Health

2 x ES/FR

2 x Economic issues

2 x ES/EN

Figure 1. Human resources: breakdown of the team

The documents that make up the textual corpus corresponding to this project came in almost all shapes and sizes, including power point presentations, training handbooks, national laws, European Directives, African Union documents, the working documents of a number of women’s rights organizations, meeting agendas and minutes, and witness and victims’ testimonials, among others, all resulting from the networks’ activities. Following Corpas Pastor’s (2001) guidelines on the classification of types of corpora, we would therefore surmise that the corpus the students worked with is partially comparable and partially parallel (as some documents used were actually translations of originals); approximately balanced, with roughly the same amount of texts in each original language in each case; trilingual, including texts in three original languages; periodical, as the texts it comprises date from the period of the project’s lifetime, and textual, comprising complete texts rather than fragments. However, it is not generic, as the texts come from many different genres. It is an ad-hoc corpus, in that it was compiled specifically for the purposes of standardising the terminology to be used in the network and by network members, wherever they might be working, emanating from professional practice and specifically adapted for the purposes in question. Its ad-hoc nature also reflected the broad variety of authors of the various texts, given the extremely wide range of authors who had penned them, corresponding to the broad range of professional profiles of the network’s members (activists, politicians, technical experts, etc., from many different countries). In short, the corpus was made up of a wide variety of source text types produced by huge variety of author(esse)s from all sorts of cultural/ linguistic and professional backgrounds. Bearing in mind the complexity of the task facing the students, the glossary’s format was structured as a three-columned table, each of which corresponded to the lexical elements of one of the three languages: EN/ES/FR. Initially, a fourth column was included for Portuguese, designated as one of the network’s official languages, but which, for operational reasons derived from the lack of

Elaboration of specialised glossaries…

any Portuguese members of the coordinating committee; as a result, Portuguese was not included in the glossary. During the elaboration process, however, the fourth column was reinstated and used to reflect comments and uncertainties the different teams had, particularly when they came across different versions of the same concept in each language. Thus, both team members and the coordinators were able to pinpoint and double-check potential inconsistencies not only in each glossary, but also across the themed glossaries. These comments were erased as they were solved, and finally the whole column was deleted, and a “clean” copy was handed in to the client. Before work began, some basic rules for the presentation of the different contents of the glossaries were established. These included the following: • Synonyms • Initials and acronyms • Explanations • Idioms or stock phrases • The agreement of grammatical numbers and genders. We will now include tables to illustrate examples in order to demonstrate how each of these types of contents was dealt with and presented. Thus, in terms of synonyms, some difficulties arose when students were unsure of how to choose the correct equivalent in one of the other working languages, often dependent on context. We show the need to distinguish between the French words méthode, as a compendium of knowledge in a particular discipline with a pedagogical purpose, and guide, providing brief, but also pedagogic, guidelines for the carrying out of a specific task (see Table 1). Table 1. Synonyms Synonyms

Manual: (DRAE) 9. m. Libro en que se compendia lo más sustancial de una materia.

Méthode: (CNRTL) 5. LING. (dans le domaine de l’enseign. des lang.). Somme de démarches raisonnées, fondées sur un ensemble cohérent d’hypothèses ou de principes linguistiques, psychologiques, pédagogiques, et répondant à un objectif déterminé. − P. méton. Manuel ou matériel pédagogique ordonné (pour l’enseignement d’une langue).

Manual: (MM) 6. Tratado breve de alguna materia.

Guide: (CNRTL) B. (Le substantif désigne une chose) a. Ouvrage à caractère didactique. - Manuel qui guide le profane dans la réalisation d’un travail donné.

*

*

The references used indicate that the definitions have been taken from the following dictionaries: (DRAE) Diccionario de la Real Academia Española; (MM) María Moliner’s Diccionario de uso del español; (CNRTL) Centre National de Ressources textuelles et lexicales (http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/); Collins Dictionary (http:// www.collinsdictionary.com/).

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When looking at the second field, initials and acronyms, the objective was to make both the interpreters’ job in the booth easier and to help the meetings’ attendees ensure that they would always use the Network’s accepted terms when referring to specific concepts, thereby eliminating potential misunderstandings in cross-cultural debates and discussions. Thus, in each case, the glossary had one entry starting with the acronym/initials followed by the full term or expression in brackets, and a further entry where the full version was given first followed by the acronym/initials in brackets, with a view to making it as easy as possible to locate both forms as quickly as possible in the glossary. Consequently, acronyms and initials used frequently to refer to concepts and institutions in this context and subject-matters stood out plainly. Table 2. Initials and acronyms Initials and acronyms English

Spanish

German

AECID (Spanish Agency of Cooperation for International Development)

AECID (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo)

AECID (Agence Espagnole de Coopération Internationale au Développement)

Spanish Agency of Cooperation for International Development (AECID)

Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (AECID)

Agence Espagnole de Coopération Internationale au Développement (AECID)

ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)

CEDEAO (Comunidad Económica de Estados de África Occidental)

CEDEAO (Communauté économique des Etats de l’Afrique de l‘Ouest)

FT (Fair Trade)

CJ (Comercio Justo)

CE (Commerce Equitable)

We provide examples (see Table 3) of the usage of explanations included relating to a number of concepts; these explanations were needed by the Network in order to clarify a number of frequently-occurring concepts, so that members from a wide range of professional profiles and with different levels of training and education could immediately identify what was being referred to at any given moment. Explanations corresponding to acronyms and proper names, as we can see at the end of the Table 3, proved to be of maximum relevance, as, for examples, national associations from one country might not be recognisable by members from other countries; hence, the explanations included made it easier not only to identify the reality of other countries, but also facilitated mutually enhanced knowledge and communication between network members.

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Table 3. Explanations Explanations English

Spanish

French

Eclampsia: (Collins) (pathology)  a toxic condition of unknown cause that sometimes develops in the last three months of pregnancy, characterized by high blood pressure, abnormal weight gain and convulsions.

Eclampsia: (DRAE) 1. f. Med. Enfermedad de carácter convulsivo, que suelen padecer los niños y las mujeres embarazadas o recién paridas. Acomete con accesos, y va acompañada o seguida ordinariamente de pérdida o abolición más o menos completa de las facultades sensitivas e intelectuales.

Eclampsie: (CNRTL) MÉD. HUM. Ensemble de manifestations convulsives accompagnant, surtout chez l’enfant et la femme en couches, certains états pathologiques.

ALBOREÁ: (Gypsy Women’s Association)

ALBOREÁ: (Asociación de Mujeres Gitanas)

ALBOREÁ: Association de Femmes Gitanes)

Examples of a category of elements that constituted a major challenge for the work placement students are provided (see Table 4), as they had to identify, within the wealth of varied documentary sources, terms with their corresponding collocations constituting stock phrases or idioms imbued with a specific pragmatic value for the network. This aspect caused a number of problems in that the students included numerous multi-word groups or clusters that were neither stock phrases nor idioms, due partly to their lesser command of English and/or French and also to their sometimes incomplete grasp of the pragmatic parameters pertaining to the communicative situations generated within the Network’s meetings and day-to-day work. In this regard, the supervisors (teachers), in their final review of the work undertaken, had to delete a considerable number of entries. Table 4. Stock phrases Stock phrases English

Spanish

French

Outstanding loan portfolio

Cartera de préstamos sin amortizar

Portefeuille de prêts non amortis

Social and legal inequalities

Desigualdades sociales y legales

Inégalités sociales et légales

Detection and early treatment

Detección y tratamiento precoz

Détection et traitement précoce

And finally, among the numerous aspects of particular relevance for the Network, we include a number of terms that illustrate the feminist vision of the

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associations and individuals belonging to the Network. In these cases, despite the fact that other equivalent terms might exist in the various working languages, those options that underline the gender-equality-based approach were preferred, with a view, once again, to standardising terminological usage across the Network. For example, for the last term given in the Table 5, the French term violence de genre was preferred to that of violence conjugale or violence familiale, which are terms that can still be found in the official website of a Belgian association that fights gender-based violence and discriminiation against women (Collectif contre les Violences Familiales et l’Exclusion [CVFE]).16 Table 5. Number and gender agreements Number and gender agreements English

Spanish

French

Clarification

Human Rights

Derechos humanos

Droits humains

The usual rendering in French is droits de l’homme, but this expression was not used in this context, given the feminist stance of the network.

Empowerment

Empoderamiento

Empowerment

(Larousse): La plus grande autonomie. However, within the network, the Anglicism was preferred, as a means of underscoring the degree of power or lack thereof over their own decisions held by women in different contexts.

Genderbased violence

Violencia de género

Violence de genre

 

5. Conclusions This project consisting of a work placement for an international cooperation network carried out as an integral part of the undergraduate degree training at the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria requiring students to compile a trilingual terminological glossary in Spanish, French, and English on the thematic areas of health and sexual and reproductive rights and the economic capacity-building of women leads us to the following conclusions: For the students who participated in the project, the work placement provided: 1. Practical hands-on training, specifically in one of the profiles for Translation and Interpreting graduates, that of terminologist/lexicographer. 16

See http://www.cvfe.be/ (accessed 30.04.2016).

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While working on the project, the students had to handle a large amount of documentation from different sources in which they had to identify translatability problems and to provide a coherent justification for the solutions opted for regarding the final choice of term(s) and equivalents included in the glossary. To this end, they made use of terminological and documentary tools, as well as basic multimedia tools. 2. Team work practice, as the work carried out had to be coordinated at several levels, both in language pairs and across subject-matter, as well as by language (coordination between the different groups working on the same language pairs but on different subject-matters) and between the different subject matters and, at all times, with the overall coordinator. Not to mention meetings with all group members in order to standardise all the contents and formal aspects. The need to coordinate on various levels forced the students to learn how to handle moments of frustration and to communicate with one another on trickier aspects such as lesser command of one of the working languages or not meeting the interim deadlines that had been agreed upon, where appropriate. Having to voice these types of concerns, and finding suitable ways to do so while maintaining a constructive working environment helped students to adopt more mature interpersonal working skills, which will work to their advantage in any future work environment. In short, the collaborative framework in which this work was carried out, and which played a crucial part in its successful outcome, forced them to acquire or enhance their capacity to create, coordinate and control the processes involved in teamwork, consisting of multiple time-constrained tasks while ensuring ongoing quality control throughout the project, although the reviewer and proofreaders were ultimately responsible for quality assurance. 3. Self-monitoring for quality. The students had to take on responsibility for the final glossary produced, so it was up to them to safeguard the quality of their product and to make sure their colleague were also working to the same quality standards, particularly in those cases where a colleague either failed to maintain the precision criteria required or to keep on schedule, not meeting the various deadlines agreed upon at the outset. This consequently enhanced their capacity for autonomous learning; they learned to demand more of themselves, to better understand the need to choose future workmates with more care in their professional undertakings, relegating personal preferences and friendships to second place, and to abide scrupulously by the deadlines established. 4. Contact with professional reality that enabled them, or even forced them, to reflect on the differences between academic training and professional practice, for example given the heterogeneousness of the texts they had to work with, as well as the inaccuracies found in many of the texts provided that, in some cases, were incomplete or were actually translations the appropriateness of

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which was questionable, but which is often found in situations in which they have to be carried out at sight and without access to the usual translation resources. The situation was further complicated by the enormous number of files provided by the client which, on occasions, gave rise to confusion, as it was not always clear which contained the original document, and which, the translations to other languages. For the supervising teachers, the main conclusions drawn are given below: 1. The student glossary handed in to the supervisors was much too long. As such, it was extremely difficult to handle both during the process of compilation and once completed. This aspect was largely caused by the second conclusion, given by the following conclusion: 2. Students lacked clear criteria to differentiate between thematic terms and general vocabulary, and tended to include absolutely everything. The supervisors observed considerable confusion between, on the one hand, those thematic terms that were relevant and needed to be included in the glossary, either because of their thematic relevance or in order to ensure standardised usage where various options existed in the same language, and, on the other, vocabulary that was unfamiliar to the students and that they included, although it did not fulfil either of the above-mentioned criteria. It is understandable that the students made the most of the access afforded to them to such a large number of original, authentic documentation produced in a professional context, as well as texts that had been translated in real, professional situations to include as much as they possibly could, particularly where such entries helped them to acquire new vocabulary or address any qualms they might have. However, their selection of terms to be included in the glossary lacked rigour, and the supervising teachers have taken on board the need to improve the initial instructions given, including a precise definition of the concept of a lexical term, something they had assumed the final-year students would not need reminding. 3. There was an expectation gap regarding the final product created between the client, the interpreters, the teachers and the students. Differences in expectations were detected between the professional clients, on the one hand, and the academic authors, on the other. Although they had not mentioned it, the Network (i.e., the client), expected a list of their terms of reference, followed by their corresponding definitions in order to standardise the terminology used in the Network’s encounters and working documents. The professional interpreters, who had hoped to be provided with a standardised, trilingual glossary with which to work in the booth, were frustrated to discover that the lesser command of the working languages of the students resulted in a document that they felt was insufficiently rigorous to be depended on and

Elaboration of specialised glossaries…

that was far too long to be manageable in the booth. The main lesson learnt by the supervising teachers centred on how to manage multidisciplinary teams at the crossroads between different professional actors and students. As a final comment, we consider that the students constituted the group that benefitted the most from the various aspects we have indicated in the conclusions. As a corollary to this professionalising experience for final year students in work placements, we can say that, despite the negative points indicated above due mainly to a lack of accurate definition of the specific expectations of each of the user groups, the project as a whole constituted a considerable achievement, particularly from an academic point of view, as the pedagogical objective regarding the training provided to the students, regarding the relevance of terminology in interpreting was clearly attained, and the students were the ultimate beneficiaries of the project.

References Corpas Pastor, Gloria. 2001. “Compilación de un corpus ad hoc para la enseñanza de la traducción inversa especializada.” Trans 5: 155–184. Gile, Daniel. 1989. “Les flux d’information dans les réunions interlinguistiques et l’interprétation de conférence : premières observations.” Meta 34(4): 649–660. Gile, Daniel. 1987. “La terminotique en interprétation de conférence: un potentiel à exploiter.” Meta 32(2): 164–169. http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2011/10/african-spanish-women-s-network-for-a-better-world-celebrates-fourth-anniversary#sthash.KJFNGpRJ.dpuf (accessed 9.09.2015). http://www.unwomen.org/en/about-us/about-un-women#sthash.kz6vtIs0.dpuf (accessed 25.08.2015). Kutz, Wladimir. 2000. “Training für den Ernstfall. Warum und wie sich die Vorbereitung auf den Dolmetscheinsatz lohnt.” MDÜ 46(3): 8–13. “Petit guide pratique à l’usage des jeunes interprètes de conference.” Available online at: http://aiic.net/page/1472/petit-guide-pratique-a-l-usage-des-jeunes-et-moins-jeunes -interpretes-de-conference/lang/2 (accessed 29.04.2016). Rodríguez, Nadia, and Bettina Schnell. 2009. “Regard sur la terminologie adaptée à l’interprétation.” Archivée 6(1). Available online at: http://www.btb.gc.ca/btb.php?lang=fra&cont=1312#tphp (accessed 29.04.2016).

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Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts Maria Bakti Explicitation is the process of making explicit in the target text information that is implicit in the source text (Vinay and Darbelnet 1958, qtd. in Klaudy 2007). It is considered as a translation universal (Klaudy 1998), however, it has received limited research attention in interpreting studies to date. It can be stated that in simultaneous interpreting explicitation is closely linked to cohesion and the use of cohesive devices (Gumul 2015). This paper examines explicitation shifts in sight-translated target language texts and compares the results with those on explicitation shifts in simultaneously interpreted target language texts. In contrast to simultaneously interpreted target language texts, in sight-translated target language texts explicitation shifts were characterized by adding extra information or explanation, rather than creating or strengthening cohesive ties. Keywords: explicitation, sight translation, constraints in interpreting

1. Introduction Explicitation is the process of making explicit in the target text what is implicit in the source text (Vinay and Darbelnet 1958/1995). According to the explicitation hypothesis (Blum-Kulka 1986/2000), during translation, the level of explicitness of the target language (TL) text increases. Explicitation is considered as a translation universal (Klaudy 1998). Klaudy differentiates between four major types of explicitation. Without obligatory explicitation TL sentences would be ungrammatical. Optional explicitation, in turn, is dictated by differences in text building strategies and stylistic preferences between languages. Pragmatic explicitation is dictated by differences between cultures, whereas translation-inherent explicitation can be attributed to the translation process itself (Klaudy 1998, 1999). In her Asymmetry Hypothesis, Klaudy (2001) argues that translators favour explicitation over implicitation.

Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts

Explicitation in interpreting has received limited research attention to date. Many consider that this is because the constraints (Gile 1995; Gumul 2006; Shlesinger 1995) of simultaneous interpreting (SI) limit the appearance of explicitation in simultaneous interpreting. The first constraint is the Time Constraint, that is the work of the simultaneous interpreter is paced by the source language speaker. In addition, the concurrent processes that take place during SI are constrained by the availability of memory or mental energy (Memory/ mental energy Constraint). Third, the Linearity Constraint has to be taken into consideration. Simultaneous interpreters work based on unfinished SL sentences. Thus, interpreters depend on texture for comprehension; they can access structure or context through texture only (Gumul 2006: 173). The fourth constraint is the [Un]shared Knowledge Constraint, in other words interpreters do not have the same level of expertise and background knowledge as the SL speaker does, which might result in an information gap. These constraints might be expected to affect the type and extent of explicitating shifts in SI, but at the same time they are the causes triggering explicitation in this mode (Gumul 2006: 173). It seems that one of the key questions studies on explicitation in simultaneous interpreting try to answer is whether explicitation in SI is a strategy interpreters consciously use, or a by-product of linguistic mediation. No conclusive evidence has been gathered to answer this question. According to Shlesinger (1995), shifts in the use of cohesive devices, in other words increased explicitness in simultaneously interpreted TL texts, are manifestations of the universal tendency towards translationese. Pöchhacker (2004) argues that explicitation might be seen as a strategy to circumvent linguistic and socio-economic differences. Gumul (2006) found evidence that explicitation is not a consciously used strategy, but it is not the by-product of linguistic mediation, either. Based on the results in the field of explicitation in SI, Gumul (2015) argues that explicitation in SI is mainly related to cohesion and the use of cohesive devices (pp. 155–156). Sight translation (ST) is at the boundary of translation and interpreting (Agrifoglio 2004), but some scholars see it as a specific type of written translation or a variant of oral interpretation (Lambert 2004). During ST the input is a written text, so the interpreter has continuous access to the information in the SL text. During the perception stage, the interpreter must divide attention between visual input and oral production. During ST, translation is interpreter-paced. During text production, the interpreter must also monitor their production while reading and translating. Gile differentiates between a Reading Effort, a Production Effort and a Coordination Effort for sight translation (1995: 183). He argues that during ST, there is no Memory Effort similar to SI or consecutive interpreting, as the SL information is available in writing. He adds that the Time Constraint and the Memory/Mental Energy Constraint are not present in ST (Gile 1995: 183). However, it has to be kept in mind that in ST interpreters have to determine translation units while

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interpreting, and this can be rather difficult if the two languages are syntactically different, such as English and Hungarian. In other words, the linearity constraint does apply to sight translation to some extent, as interpreters must produce the TL text and read forward till the end of a section or a sentence concurrently. The [Un]shared Knowledge Constraint also applies to sight translation. In the research presented in this paper I have worked with the following research questions: 1. What types of explicitation shifts occur in sight-translated TTs? 2. In what way does this explicitation pattern differ from that of simultaneously interpreted TL texts? 3. Do interpreters favour explicitation or implicitation? 4. What information, if any, do questionnaires and interviews reveal about explicitation during sight translation? My hypotheses were the following: 1. Due to the nature of sight translation and its constraints, there will be differences between the explicitation patterns of sight translated and simultaneously interpreted TL texts. During sight translation, the explicitation shifts will also include shifts that would add or explain, in addition to cohesive shifts characteristic of SI. 2. I expect that according to the Asymmetry Hypothesis (Klaudy 2001), interpreters will also favour explicitation over implicitation. 3. Based on the results of Gumul (2006), I expect that questionnaires and interviews will not concern explicitation as a consciously used strategy during ST.

2. Procedure Ten students from Translation and Interpreting M.A. programme, all specializing in interpreting, participated in the investigation. The average age of the students is 25.3 years, their A language is Hungarian. English is the B language of three students, and the C language of seven students. The average time students have spent with learning their B language is 19.3 years, and the average time they have spent learning their C language is 12.8 years. In other words, they have spent a considerably longer time learning their B language than their C language. Only three out of the ten students have spent time in an English-speaking country, one between 1–4 weeks for studying, another between 1–4 weeks for working, and one student for a week-long holiday. Out of the ten students four had previous experience in interpreting from English into Hungarian, all three students who had English as their B language, and one of the students who had English as their C language. Table 1 summarizes the data about the participants. The second column shows the age of the students, the third one their

Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts

gender, column four indicates their B language and the time they had spent studying it at the time of making the recordings, and column five indicates their C language and the time they had spent learning it at the time of making the recordings. Column six shows the previous experience in interpreting and the language combination in which they had gained experience prior to the time the recordings were made. Table 1. Data about the student interpreters who participated in the investigation Previous experience in interpreting

Student

Age

M/F

B lg/time

C lg/time

A

23

F

EN/20

ESP/6

B>A, A>B, C>A

B

23

M

EN/20

DE/20

B>A, A>B

C

25

F

FR/7

EN/14

B>A, A>B

D

27

F

FR/13

EN/17

F H

24 23

F F

ESP/10 ESP/9

EN/15 EN/9

B>A, A>B None

K

30

F

EN/18

IT/12

T

25

F

FR/10

EN/3

B>A, A>B

W

25

M

DE/15

EN/17

B>A, A>B C>A

Z

28

F

DE/25

EN/15

B>A, A>B

B>A B>A, C>A

The students had to complete five tasks. First, they were asked to speak about the role of English in the world, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and its consequences for the future of the interpreting profession. They could prepare for this task in advance, but they were asked not to write down and then read out their thoughts. Second, they were invited to do a sight translation task; the topic of the SL text was ELF. This was followed by a consecutive interpretation task; the SL text was part of a video interview on ELF and interpreting. Then recordings were made of the spontaneous speech of the students, in this interview they were asked about the previous tasks, and about their future plans and interests. Finally, they were asked to fill in a questionnaire about their language competence, background, and the interpreting tasks. The TL texts for the sight translation and the consecutive interpreting tasks were recorded, together with the spontaneous speech and the extemporaneous speech of the students. The recordings were made in a language lab one week before the final interpreting exam. The SL text for the sight translation task was 385 words and was about English as a Lingua Franca. This was one of the topics on their final exam as well. The TL texts were recorded, transcribed, and analysed for the occurrence

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of explicitation using the taxonomy from Gumul 2006. This taxonomy excludes obligatory explicitation shifts, and includes the categories summarized in Table 2. Table 2. Taxonomy of explicitation shifts (Gumul 2006) with examples from the sight-translated Hungarian TL texts Explicitation shifts

Examples from the TL texts

Adding connectives

SL: Where is it used? TL[B]: De hol is használják? [But where is it used?]

Categorical shifts of cohesive devices

SL: …and addition of extra vowels TL[B]: míg a magánhangzók, plusz magánhangzókat adnak bele [while they add vowels, extra vowels]

Shifts from referential cohesion to lexical cohesion

SL: How is it used? TL[F]: De mire is használják a lingua francát? [But how is the lingua franca used?]

Shifts from reiteration in the form of paraphrase to reiteration in the form of identical/ partial repetition

SL: …as a form of linguistic imperialism. This term… TL[D]: mint az imperializmus nyelve. Ez a kifejezés tehát, hogy az imperializmus nyelve, [as the language of imperialism. This term, that is the language of imperialism]

Filling out elliptical constructions

SL: Zimbabwe, among many others. TL[T]: Zimbabwe és számos másik ország. [Zimbabwe and several other countries]

Lexical specification

SL: English has long been a tool… TL[Z]: …fejezte ki …. [expressed]

Adding modifiers and qualifiers

SL: differs from Standard English in a number of ways. TL[F]: különbözik a standard angoltól, méghozzá sokféleképpen. [differs from Standard English, in addition, in many ways. ]

Adding a proper name to a generic name

no example

Distributing the meaning of one SL unit over several units in the TL

SL: Below you will find… TL[D]: A most következőkben… [In what now follows….]

Replacing nominalizations with verb phrases

SL: …with the publication of Robert Phillipson’s influential book TL[K]: amikor Robert Phillipson nagy hatással biro könyve megjelent… [when Robert Phillipson’s influential book came out]

Disambiguating metaphors

no example

Additional explanatory remarks

SL: as “Frank” was a common designation for all…… TL[C]: a frank kifejezés a…… [the expression frank was]

Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts

3. The results 3.1 Text analysis First, I looked at the number of words and the cases of explicitation in the TL texts. Student C had the lowest number of words in the TL text (357), and Student H had the highest number of words in the TL text (497). The average length of the TL texts was 437.1 words. The average length of the TL texts of the students whose B language is English was 462 words, and the average length of the TL texts of the students whose C language is English was 426.4. Based on Gumul (2006), I identified explicitation shifts in the TL texts. Student F had the highest number of explicitation shifts in the TL text (43), and Student A had the lowest number of explicitation shifts in the TL text (18). There were 28.5 explicitation shifts on average in the TL texts, the average of the students with English as their B language is 30, and the average of the students with English as their C language is 27.8. Next, in order to get a comparable figure, the explicitation shifts/100 words of the TL text were calculated. This figure is the lowest for Student A, with 4.04 explicitation shifts/100 words of the TL texts, and the highest for Student F, with 9.03 explicitation shifts/100 words of the TL text. Table 3 summarizes the above results. Table 3. Results of the TL text analysis. Explicitation shifts in the TL texts Student

Number of TL text words

A

Explicitation shifts N

shifts/100 words of TL text

445

18

4.04

B

479

42

8.76

C

357

23

6.44

D

470

34

7.23

F

476

43

9.03

H

497

26

5.23

K

462

30

6.49

T

400

25

6.25

W

364

22

6.04

Z

421

22

5.22

Average

437.1

28.5

6.473

Next, the types of explicitation shifts in the TL texts were categorized. It can be seen from Table 4 that the four most frequently occurring explicitation shifts in the sight-translated TL texts were: replacing nominalizations with VPs, adding modifiers

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and qualifiers, additional explanatory remarks, and adding connectives. I also added one category, that of superlatives, as it happened in some cases that students added superlative forms instead of an adjective in the comparative or base form. Table 4. Types of explicitation shifts in the sight-translated TL texts Type of explicitation shift

Per cent

Replacing nominalizations with verb phrases

28.10

Adding modifiers and qualifiers

23.85

Additional explanatory remarks

18.25

Adding connectives

10.2

Lexical specification

9.10

Filling out elliptical structures

3.85

Shift from referential to lexical cohesion

2.80

Distributing the meaning of one ST unit over several units in the TT

1.75

Superlatives

1.40

Categorical shifts of cohesive devices

0.35

Identical/partial repetition

0.35

Total

100

In order to put the results into the wider context of interpreting research, the results are compared with those of Gumul (2006). In her study on explicitation in simultaneous interpreting, Gumul found that the most frequent explicitation shift type was adding connectives (38.8% of all explicitation shifts), followed by replacing nominalizations with Verb Phrases (11.1% of all explicitation shifts), and identical or partial repetition (9.9% of all explicitation shifts). In simultaneously interpreted TL texts, adding modifiers and adding explanatory remarks were less frequent, whereas these were quite often used in sight translation. See Table 5 for more details. Table 5. Comparison of explicitation shifts in simultaneously interpreted and sight-translated TL texts Sight translation

Simultaneous interpreting (Gumul 2006)

Replacing nominalizations with verb phrases

28.10

11.1

Adding modifiers and qualifiers

23.85

4.2

Additional explanatory remarks

18.25

0.8

Adding connectives

10.20

38.8

Lexical specification

9.10

0.4

Filling out elliptical structures

3.85

5.0

Shift from referential to lexical cohesion

2.80

5.2

Distributing the meaning of one ST unit over several units in the TT

1.75

1.5

Type of explicitation shifts

Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts

143 table 5 continued

Superlatives

1.40

–

Categorical shifts of cohesive devices

0.35

1.2

Identical/partial repetition

0.35

9.9

Other

0.00

21.9

Total

100

100

3.2 Case studies In addition to explicitation shifts, I examined three sections of the SL text that I think were particularly interesting from the aspect of explicitation. The first one was the abbreviation ELF, which comes up seven times in the SL text. In addition, two sections from the SL text give examples of how ELF is used, and when sight translating these two examples, interpreters might also have to resort to explicitation. Example (1) novel use of morphemes (such as *importancy or *smoothfully) Example (2) many instances of ELF also incorporate across-the-board third-person singular usage (such as “He go to the store”). First, I looked at the TL renderings of the abbreviation ELF. This abbreviation comes up seven times in the SL text, it is explained the first time it occurs, and then only the abbreviation is used in the SL text. In the TL texts, students resorted to different strategies when rendering the abbreviation ELF. Most frequently students used the full term ‘English as a lingua franca’ in the SL in the TL texts, the second option was the use of the abbreviation ELF without any alteration in the Hungarian TL texts. Sometimes students used the Hungarian equivalent of lingua franca (közvetítőnyelv), or omitted ELF in the TL. It also happened that students used lingua franca instead of ELF or gave an explanation: ELF, azaz English as a lingua franca. Most frequently students used the full term English as a lingua franca instead of the abbreviation. This result clearly shows that students favoured explicitation over other solutions, which supports the Asymmetry hypothesis of Klaudy (2001). Table 6 summarizes the results. Table 6. Ways to render the abbreviation ELF in the TL texts TL equivalent

Per cent

English as a lingua franca ELF Hungarian equivalent (közvetítőnyelv) Omission Lingua franca ELF, that is English as a lingua franca Total

60.0 15.0 13.4 8.4 1.6 1.6 100

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Second, I looked at the TL renderings of Example (1) such as *importancy or *smoothfully in the sentence: “novel use of morphemes (such as importancy or smoothfully).” Three students omitted the example, and three students gave additional explanatory remarks, such as mint például az ‘importancy’ vagy ‘smoothfully’ szavak, amelyek a standard angolban nem léteznek [for example the words ‘importancy’ or ‘smoothfully’, which do not exist in standard English], Student K).

Two students rendered the words without any explanation or translation, one student used a more general term, and one student invented a Hungarian equivalent for these two words [a morfémák újszerű használatában, mint például fontosságosság vagy finomanság kifejezéseknél” (Student A)].

Out of these five ways of rendering the examples, only two (additional explanatory remarks, inventing a Hungarian equivalent) can be considered as explicitation, which is in contrast with the Asymmetry hypothesis (Klaudy 2001). Table 7 summarizes the results. Table 7. Ways to render Example (1) No. of students

Per cent

Omission

Way of rendering

3

30

Additional explanatory remarks

3

30

No change

2

20

More general term

1

10

Inventing a Hungarian equivalent Total

1

10

10

100

Next, I looked at the renderings of Example (2) “He go to the store”, in the sentence: “Many instances of ELF also incorporate across-the-board third-person singular usage (such as “He go to the store”).” The solutions show evidence against the Asymmetry Hypothesis (Klaudy 2001). In sight-translated TL texts, five students gave additional explanatory remarks, four omitted the example, and one student mistranslated the example. Student B rendered Example (2) with additional explanations: TL: Sok esetben az angol mint a lingua franca magába foglalja az egyes szám harmadik személy használatát, nem megfelelő használatát, mint például az angol mondat He go to the store. [In many cases English as a lingua franca involves the use of the third person singular, for instance in the English sentence He go to the store.]

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145

In other words, 50% of the TL solutions had an element of explicitation in it. See Table 8 for results. Table 8. Ways to render Example (2) Way of rendering

No. of students

Per cent

Additional explanatory remarks

5

50

Omission

4

40

Mistranslation

1

10

Total

10

100

3.3 Student questionnaires In order to triangulate the results a questionnaire survey was also carried out. One of the questions in the questionnaire was about the factors that helped students to carry out the sight translation task. The factors listed in the questionnaire were the following: a) presence of SL text; b) understanding the SL text; c) terminology; d) determining unit of interpreting; e) production of a sophisticated TL text; f) monitoring TL text; g) coordinating concurrent task. According to the students, the presence of the SL text and the understanding of the SL text were the factors that facilitated the sight translation task the most. Table 9 summarizes the results. Table 9. Factors facilitating the sight translation task Statement

Per cent

Presence of SL text

33.5

Understanding the SL text

18.5

Production of a sophisticated TL text

14.8

Terminology

11.0

Coordinating concurrent tasks

11.0

Monitoring TL text

7.5

Determining the unit of interpreting

3.7 Total

100

In another question I asked about problem triggers during the sight translation task. The options were the following:

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a) presence of SL text; b) understanding the SL text; c) terminology; d) determining unit of interpreting; e) production of a sophisticated TL text; f) monitoring TL text; g) coordinating concurrent tasks. Students found that monitoring TL text and coordinating concurrent tasks were the most problematic during the sight translation task. Table 10. Problem triggers during the sight translation task Statement

Per cent

Monitoring TL text

26.6

Coordinating concurrent tasks

20.0

Understanding the SL text

13.4

Terminology

13.4

Determining the unit of interpreting

13.4

Production of a sophisticated TL text

6.6

None

6.6 Total

100

3.4 Student interviews It is important to note that these interviews were not retrospective interviews, but were recorded for the purposes of the analysis of the spontaneous speech production of the students. During the interview the students were asked about the problems they faced during the two interpreting tasks. It seems that the consecutive interpreting task proved to be more difficult, so there were more remarks about that. One student, (Z), stated that sight translation was the most difficult task, as they felt they had no practice in sight translation and found it difficult to understand the SL text. In contrast, three out of ten students (H,T,W) said that the sight translation task was the easiest one. According to Student H, although the text was familiar, a lot of restructuring was needed, when realized what the text was about. She also mentioned that sometimes she added modifiers. Student T said the following: “[…] we had the English text in our head, there was not so much interference.”

Explicitation in sight-translating into Hungarian texts

4. Summary This paper examined the occurrence of explicitation shifts in sight-translated target language texts. The most frequently occurring types of explicitating shifts in the sight-translated TL texts were the following: replacing nominalizations with verb phrases, adding modifiers and qualifiers, adding explanatory remarks and adding connectives. This pattern of explicitation shifts is different from the pattern observed in simultaneously interpreted TL texts (Gumul 2006), where adding connectives was the most frequent type of explicitation shift. The case studies have also revealed that, in addition to explicitation, implicitation is also resorted to by interpreters during sight translation.

5. Conclusions My first hypothesis stated that because of the differences of constraints between SI and ST, there would be differences between the explicitation pattern of sighttranslated and simultaneously interpreted TL texts. The explicitation shifts would not exclusively focus on cohesive devices during ST. This hypothesis was also confirmed by the results, as the most frequently occurring explicitation shifts in sight-translated TL texts were replacing nominalizations with verb phrases, adding modifiers and qualifiers, additional explanatory remarks and adding connectives. This might be partly due to the lack of the time constraint and the mental energy constraint during sight translation, but might also be caused by the syntactic differences between the SL (English) and the TL (Hungarian). My second hypothesis was only partially confirmed. According to the hypothesis, I expected that according to the Asymmetry Hypothesis (Klaudy 2001), interpreters will also favour explicitation over implicitation. This was the case only in one out of the case studies I examined. This means that the parallel investigation of explicitation and implicitation shifts in interpreted TL texts would be useful to see the proportion of the two processes during sight translation. The interviews and the student questionnaires provided only scarce reference to the strategies used during the sight translation task.

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References Agrifoglio, Marjorie. 2004. “Sight translation and interpreting. A comparative analysis of constraints and failures.” Interpreting 6(1): 43–67. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana. 1986/2000. “Shifts of Cohesion and Coherence in Translation.” In The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti. London and New York: Routledge. Gumul, Ewa. 2006. “Explicitation in Simultaneous Interpreting: A Strategy or a By-product of Language Mediation?” Across Languages and Cultures 7(2): 171–190. Gumul, Ewa. 2015. “Explicitation.” In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies, edited by Franz Pöchhacker, 155–156. London: Routledge. Gile, Daniel. 1995. Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Klaudy, Kinga. 1998. “Explicitation.” In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, edited by Mona Baker, 80–84. London: Routledge. Klaudy, Kinga. 1999. “Az explicitációs hipotézisről.” [On the explicitation hypothesis] Fordítástudomány 1(2): 5–22. Klaudy Kinga. 2001. “Az aszimmetria hipotézis.” [The Asymmetry hypothesis] In A X. Magyar Alkalmazott Nyelvészeti Konferencia előadásai, edited by Bartha M, 371–378. Székesfehérvár: KJF. Lambert, Sylvie. 2004. “Shared Attention during Sight Translation, Sight Interpretation and Simultaneous Interpretation.” Meta 49(2): 294–306. Pöchhacker, Franz. 2004. Introducing Interpreting Studies. London: Routledge. Shlesinger, Miriam. 1995. “Shifts in Cohesion in Simultaneous Interpreting.” The Translator 1(2): 193–214. Vinay, Jean-Paul, and Jean Darbelnet. 1958/1995. Comparative Stylistics of French and English. A Methodology for Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Chapter Ten

Where have the connectors gone? The case of Polish-English simultaneous interpreting Andrzej Łyda

In the stage of the Source Language (SL) text comprehension interpreters are particularly vulnerable to conditions in which they are working. As is often the case, such factors as a dense speech, fast delivery and background noise can weaken the monitoring capacity and result in the interpreter’s failure to hear and/or comprehend some elements of the original speech including connectives used to strengthen the coherence of the text. The problem of “missing” connectives in the SL was addressed in Łyda (2006, 2008). This article revisits the question of interpreters’ strategies used for recognizing and reconstructing such missing elements and extends the study to Polish-English simultaneous interpreting. Keywords: simultaneous interpreting, connectives, concession, coherence, discourse, text, directionality

1. Introduction The present study concentrates on the problem of the production of target language (TL) texts in English in the simultaneous mode from partly incomprehensible source language (SL) texts in Polish. As such this study adds to the growing research in psycholinguistic aspects of simultaneous interpreting, and more particularly to the question of how interpreters solve the problem of textual cohesion and coherence. Cohesion in simultaneous interpreting has been addressed in numerous studies in recent years. Much attention has been given to the problem of shifts in cohesion (Shlesinger 1995; Blum-Kulka 2000). Shlesinger (1995) has demonstrated that that shifts occur in all types of cohesive devices, particularly in the ones not affecting the propositional content. Another repeatedly reached obser-

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vation was that simultaneous interpretation involved an increase in the number of conjunctive devices in such language pairs as English-Polish, English-German and English-Hebrew (Gumul 2006; Becher 2011; Shlesinger and Ordan (2012). What these studies had in common was that they examined the problem of recognizing cohesive links present in the SL, that is, accessible to the interpreter. By contrast the present study investigates interpreters’ strategies of dealing with a partially incomplete SL text when some individual elements or occasionally portions of SL text escape the interpreter’s attention due to a variety of factors (speed of delivery, noise etc.). In other words, this study concentrates then on the problem of recognizing cohesive elements missing from the SL text and their reconstruction and representation in the TL.  More specifically, the study analyses the effects of omitting connectors of one type, namely concessive connectives. The problem of missing concessive connectives in the process of interpreting has been studied by Łyda (2006, 2008). Łyda (2006) analysed simultaneous interpreters’ strategies in English to Polish interpreting and demonstrated a close link between the ungrammaticality of the SL text and the rate of omission of concessive connectives in the TL output. Similar observations were made in Łyda’s (2008) analysis of concessive connectives in English to Polish consecutive interpreting. The study showed that interpreters often resorted to undertranslation by leaving the concessive relation implicit or using underspecified connectives. The present study revisits the problem of interpreters’ strategies used for recognizing and reconstructing such missing concessive connectives in the case of simultaneous interpreting from Polish into English.

2. The relation of concession In spite of the fact that there have been proposed different theoretical models of the relation of concession and understanding of concession has been undergoing a continuous development paralleling the development of new linguistic theories and the emergence of new fields of linguistic studies, concession is most often understood as a kind of relation of contrast: a contrast of expectations and a contrast to the normal cause-and-effect. From a syntactic point of view, concession is defined as a relation between two clauses: the adverbial concessive clause and the main one combined by a subordinating conjunction of concessive type such as although, though and even though (see, e.g., Molencki 1997: 352). Apart from the syntactic-semantic approach, concession has been also studied within Rhetorical Structure Theory, in which the identification of the concessive markers is based on a definition of concession as a rhetorical relation between two spans of texts (nucleus ad satellite), whatever their size. In this approach the essence of the relation lies in the speaker’s acknowledgement of “apparent incompatible” information in the nucleus and satellite situations, which

Where have the connectors gone?…

although regarded as apparently incompatible are actually compatible. Given the fact that connectives are multifunctional and that they exhibit a high degree of underspecification, it is not then the connectives that define the relation between the two spans uniquely. What is crucial for a concessive interpretation is the semantics of the nucleus and the satellite. The role of connectives in marking both cohesion and coherence cannot be ignored, especially in the case of concession, of which the frequent use of discourse markers to signal the relation is a characteristic feature (Taboada 2004). Nevertheless concession is also marked asyndetically. In Barth-Weingarten (2003) it was demonstrated that asyndetic concessive constructions (i.e., no overt connective) amount to 16% of all connective constructions in her corpus of English interviews. This observation is of particular significance for the present study, since all markers of concessivity were omitted, transforming the clauses into (potentially) truly asyndetic constructions. From a psycholinguistic point of view the complex nature of concession is reflected in is the fact that it is the last conceptual relation to acquire. Wing and Scholnick (1981) claim that the logical implications of concessive connections is fully realised by children at the age of 6–8 and Townsend (1997) has found that even among adult speakers of English the reading time of causal therefore sentences was shorter than for concessive however sentences. Interesting results were obtained also by de Vega (2005) in an experiment partly resembling the present one. According to de Vega the rate of processing/reading of adversative/ concessive sentences was lower than in the case of causal or temporal ones when a connective was replaced with an inadequate one. Considering the specificity of simultaneous interpreting situation and the complexity of the process it could be expected that asyndetic concessive sentences, which reduce the cognitive effort of the speaker while increasing the cognitive effort for the hearer, would pose a serious problem to interpreters.

3. Materials and procedure As in Łyda (2006, 2008) a single text was used for the purposes of the study. The text was interpreted from Polish into English in the simultaneous mode. The text representing the genre of parliamentary speech was not authentic although it consisted of a number of extracts taken from authentic speeches produced in the Polish Sejm. The fragments underwent necessary modifications and were combined into a coherent speech The text was based on speeches delivered during two sessions of the Sejm held in 2014 and recorded in Stenograhic Reports (http://orka2.sejm.gov.pl/StenoInter7.nsf/0/44807A9B5C8C9399C1257C7800623A53/%24 File/60_c_ksiazka .pdf). Some parts were re-written and converted into concessive constructions,

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and the delivery of the text (Text A) took about 15 minutes, that is, at the rate of 140 words per minute. Text A served as a basis for the production of Text B, in which a number of concessive markers were made unavailable to the interpreters having been jammed with a microphone-speaker reflux sound. Jamming was found preferable to a simple removal of concessive markers to avoid artificial pauses in the SL text. The recordings were made with a small group of postdiploma students of one of Polish private universities: four female and two male students in May 2014. The number of concessive markers used in the SL text followed from earlier studies on their frequency. The frequency for a number of languages including Polish and English ranges from 27 to 30 instances per hour (see, e.g., Barth-Weingarten 2003 and Łyda 2007). The decision was taken not to exceed “the natural norm” so that the interpreters should not be suggested the goal of the study. However, they were told that the recording was technically imperfect and on a few occasion they might hear a very short reflux sound. The set of Polish primarily concessive markers included: jednak(że) (however), ale/lecz (but), (po)mimo (despite, in spite of, yet, still), choć/chociaż (though, although) in the spans of text shown in the next section.

4. Results and discussion After collecting the data in the interpreting tests presented in Table 1, a quantitative analysis was performed in terms of several criteria intended to show the interpreters’ choice of strategies in rendering the English sentences. The texts below are arranged according to the strategies chosen by the interpreters. 1. Po pierwsze, przedstawiciele Klubu Poselskiego SLD oraz innych klubów w ramach interpelacji i zapytań w sprawach bieżących również zgłosili tę sprawę. Była o tym mowa na forum Wysokiej Izby. Jednak bardzo ważny jest fakt, że w środę Komisja Polityki Społecznej i Rodziny na wniosek klubu Solidarnej Polski miała zajmować się tą sprawą… First, the representatives of the Parliamentary Club of SLD and of other clubs also raised this issue as a part of interpellations and questions on current issues. This act was mentioned at the forum of this Chamber. However, what is very important is that on Wednesday the Commission on Social Policy and Family at the request of the club of the Solidary Poland was to deal with the matter…

In (1) jednak conveys a clear concessive meaning, which is hardly retrievable when the connective is absent. In the absence of the connective the relation between the portions of text originally linked by means of jednak can be inter-

Where have the connectors gone?…

preted as elaboration or conjunction, to use RST terminology. It is not surprising then that five out of six interpreters did not provide any conjunction. In only one case the interpreter decided to use but marking an apparent incompatibility between the two spans. 2. Funkcjonuje kilka ustaw dotyczących zadośćuczynienia przez państwo osobom pokrzywdzonym i prześladowanym z powodów politycznych. Każda z tych ustaw podejmowana była jednak w określonym czasie i rozwiązywała tylko jeden problem. There are several laws relating to the state compensation to the people persecuted for political reasons. Each of these laws, however, was adopted at a specific time and solved only one problem.

Example (2) presents a similar case. For an interpreter to analyse the relation as concessive would require specialist knowledge on state compensation laws and their weaknesses. Not unsurprisingly, the interpreters adopted a safe solution and refrained from using any connective. 3. Klub Poselski SLD w lipcu ubiegłego roku złożył projekt ustawy w tej sprawie przywracający świadczenia, zgodnie z tym, co orzekł Trybunał Konstytucyjny, jednak niestety mimo monitów ten projekt nadal leżakuje w Komisji Polityki Społecznej i Rodziny. Last year in July the Parliamentary Club of SLD, filed a bill in this case restoring the benefits, according to what was held by the Constitutional Court, but unfortunately, despite reminders the project is still in the Committee on Social Policy and Family.

In (3) the omission of the conjunction jednak does not obliterate the concessive interpretation. This is due to the presence of unfortunately, which signals the speaker’s acknowledgement of “apparent incompatible” information. Unfortunately functions as a disjunct and as claimed by Thompson and Zhou (2000) disjuncts can function as cohesive signals of concession. In (2) four interpreters did not use any connective and two decided to link the two clauses by means of but. 4. Tą ustawą zwiększamy do 50% możliwość ubiegania się samorządów o refinansowanie wydatków poniesionych na fundusz sołecki. Dla wielu gmin jest to jednak zbyt mało, bo wiele gmin ma problemy z bieżącym utrzymaniem oświaty na swoim terenie. By this act we increase up to 50% the possibility of self-governments’ applying for refinancing expenses incurred by sołectwo fund. However for many municipalities this is not enough, because many municipalities have problems with the current support of education in their areas.

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Like in (3) the omission of the conjunction jednak in (4) does not wipe out a concessive interpretation, mainly thanks to the phrase zbyt mało, which forestalls a possible objection, namely, that the refinancing should solve financial problems. Again the decision not to provide a connective was the most common strategy among the interpreters. Only three of them combined the two sentences by means of but. 5. Walczyli właśnie o taką Polskę swoich marzeń. Jednak polska transformacja, plan Balcerowicza przyniosły nową niesprawiedliwość i nowe dramaty. Najwyższy czas, aby po 25 latach Rzeczpospolita Polska przypomniała sobie także o ofiarach polskiej transformacji. They fought for the Poland of their dreams. However, the Polish transformation, Balcerowicz’s plan brought new injustices and new tragedies. It is high time that after 25 years Poland remembered also about victims of the transformation.

This is a particularly interesting fragment of the SL text because it shows the importance of “lagging” behind the speaker’s statement. The deleted jednak in the SL text made the relation between the first two sentences unclear. It is only when the third sentence becomes available to the interpreter that the axiological load of the second sentence is clarified and the concessive interpretation between the first two sentences can be weighed as a preferred option. In (5) three interpreters lagged further behind and thanks to the clue given by the third sentence they used concessive connectors: yet and however. 6. To dobry, lecz niewystarczający krok i choć przewidywane w ustawie świadczenia w niewielkim stopniu zapewnią pomoc zarówno opozycjonistom, jak i ich rodzinom, dają nadzieję na poprawę sytuacji. It is a good but insufficient step, and although benefits assumed in the act provide little help, they will help both opposition members and their families and build up hopes for improvement.

The omission of choć in the SL text leads to ungrammaticality and lack of cohesion. However a relatively strong hint is offered by the structure of the two sentences conjoined by i (and). Both have a contrastive structure: good but insufficient and provide little help but they will help. This juxtaposition was not noticed by four interpreters, who got stuck at this portion of the text and produced an incoherent sequence. Only two of them manage to retain the concessive meaning by combining ‘benefits assumed in the act provide little help’ with ‘they will help…’ by means of but.

Where have the connectors gone?…

7. Choć o ich zasługach na rzecz wolności mówi się dużo i często, to jednak przez prawie 25 lat państwo polskie, które swój byt zawdzięcza ich determinacji, odwadze i sile ducha, nie zapewniło im ani godnych warunków życia i pracy, ani pomocy. Though much is said about their share in the attainment of freedom, for almost 25 years, the Polish State, which owes its existence to their determination, courage and the strength of spirit, provided them neither with decent living and working conditions nor help.

The omission of the sentence-initial choć did not perplex the interpreters due to the presence of to jednak (~however), which proved a clue strong enough for the interpreters to retain the concessive meaning by means of yet, however and clause-final though. In two cases the clauses were combined by and. 8. A ta ustawa wprowadza nową dyskryminację, dyskryminację zwykłych ludzi, żyjących wtedy w PRL-u, ludzi, którzy nie byli działaczami opozycji, nie mogli, nie chcieli, tacy byli, choć często dostali od tego PRL-u po łapach nie mniej niż działacze, ale dzisiaj nie mają na to papieru lub nie chcą swoją przeszłością epatować i brać za nią pieniędzy, tak jak ja. And this law introduces a new discrimination, discrimination against ordinary people living in the then communist Poland, people who were not activists of the opposition, could not, would not. There were such ones although they often got a rap on the knuckles from the PRL no less painful than activists, but today they do not have any proofs or do not want to dazzle anyone with their past and to take her money, just like me.

The fact that choć clause follows a sequence of verb-phrases turns the phrase into another verb phrases when the connective is unavailable to interpreters. This verb phrase forms a logical sequence nie mogli, nie chcieli, tacy byli, choć często dostali od tego PRL-u po łapach. Just because the sequence is coherent, the possibility of a concessive interpretation never even crossed the interpreters’ minds and none of them provided any connective in the TL text. 9. Otóż chociaż wskaźniki makroekonomiczne były całkiem niezłe na tle reszty Europy, zwrócono uwagę na zwiększenie zadłużenia kraju, jak również na wysoki deficyt finansów publicznych, na niską ściągalność podatków. Now, although macroeconomic indicators were quite good against the rest of Europe attention was drawn to the increasing debt of the country, as well as a high public finance deficit, the low tax collection rate.

The above fragment proved difficult for most interpreters. This almost prototypical concessive was treated by the interpeters as a sequence of two sentences,

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of which the second one developed and qualified the proposition made in the first one. Only one interpreter was able to see a contrast between the propositions, which he marked by means of but. 10. Niestety pomimo informacji o wskaźnikach, które w większości są zresztą na niższym poziomie, niż zakładano w strategii, trudno dostrzec w obu dokumentach rekomendacje odnośnie do działań, jakie należałoby podjąć, aby przyjęte cele mogły być skutecznie zrealizowane. Unfortunately, despite the information on the indicators, most of which are at a lower level than envisaged in the strategy, it is difficult to see in both documents recommendations on the measures to be taken so that their targets can be effectively attained.

The missing connective pomimo leads to ungrammaticality of the Polish sentence. Three interpreters resorted to a strategy of chunking the complex sentence into two converting the first sentence into an existential one (There was information…; Information was given….). Three other interpreters failed to interpret the first clause after a false start (Unfortunately, the information on the indicators). 11. Pomimo korzystnych zmian na tle innych krajów sytuacja jest ciągle zła. Despite favourable changes in comparison with other countries, the situation is still bad.

As in the previous extract the Polish sentence is ungrammatical. The strategies employed by the interpreters were also similar and consisted in the conversion of the first clause into an existential sentence (There were…). Again in the case of three interpreters the output was incoherent. 12. Pamięć bohaterskiego oficera szargają dziś ludzie, którzy korzystają z  wywalczonych przez niego swobód obywatelskich i brylują na salonach, mimo że powinni straszyć w  skansenach postkomunizmu, panie pośle Iwiński. The memory of the heroic officer is tarnished today by people who enjoy the civil liberties gained and hold their court, despite the fact that they should haunt in the open-air museums of post-communism, Mr Iwiński.

The final case of jamming involved the mid-sentential connective mimo (że) followed by a full clause. Interestingly, the idea of concession is still retrievable even if the connective is removed. The asyndetic subordination brings about the effect of increasing the hearer’s positive regard for the nucleus element equally effectively thanks to the fact that the two clauses express propositions easy to interpret pragmatically. Five translators decided to use asyndetic coordination and only in one case the two clauses were connected by means of but.

Where have the connectors gone?…

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Finaly, but concession (13–15) showed itself as the easiest case for the interpreters. The principle reason lies in the fact that the omission of but never leads to perplexing ungrammaticality, which does not slow down the comprehension of the propositions. The strategy used by the interpreters consisted in refraining from the use of any connective or combining the nucleus and the satellite by means of and. 13. Niemniej jednak z szacunku do młodych ludzi dziękuję za debatę. Przykro mi, że nie toczyła się ona w sposób merytoryczny, ale mam nadzieję, że ci młodzi ludzie, którzy nas oglądają, będą mogli to ocenić. However, out of respect for young people thank you for the debate. I’m sorry the debate was not up to the point, but I hope that those young people, who are watching us, will be able to judge. 14. Liczę także na państwa wsparcie w tej kwestii. Każdy ma prawo do własnego zdania, ale dobrze byłoby czasami to własne zdanie umieścić w logice wspólnego działania i narodowej solidarności w obliczu zagrożenia, bo te zagrożenia mogą być większe niż do tej pory. I count also on your support in this matter. Everyone is entitled to their own opinion, but sometimes it would be good to put one’s own opinion in the logic of joint action and national solidarity in the face of danger, because this danger can be greater than ever. 15. Dziś historia biegnie jakby w drugą stronę, ale historia ostatnich dziesięcioleci pokazuje, że odwrócenie biegu jest możliwe. Ten bieg niejeden raz – i to też jest nasze własne, polskie doświadczenie – się odwracał. Today, the story goes a sort of the other way, but the history of the last decades shows that reversal is possible. This course more than once – and this is also our own, Polish experience – had turned.

The following table presents the interpreters’ choice of strategies. Table 1. Jammed concessive markers in Polish-English simultaneous interpreting Text no.

1

Marker jammed

jednak

Concessive markers used in the TL text

Clause order

x jednak y

but (1)

2

x jednak y

–

3

x jednak y

but (2)

4

x jednak y

but (2)

5

x jednak y

yet (1) however (2)

6 7 8

choć

x choć y

but (2)

choć xy

yet (2); however (1); though (1)

x choć y

–

Other means

and (2)

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Table 1 continued 9

chociaż xy

but (1)

pomimo xy

–

existential there

11

pomimo xy

–

existential there

12

y mimo, że x

but (1)

10

13

pomimo

ale

x ale y

and (3)

14

x ale y

and (3)

15

x ale y

and (3)

5. Conclusions The results obtained allow for a number of observations: 1. Concessivity is a difficult relation for simultaneous interpreters. The number of unretrieved concessive markers was high. Given fifteen texts times six interpreters, 90 concessive markers could be expected. Instead the interpreters produced only 16 syndeticly marked TL texts if traditional concessive markers are taken into account. Thus explicit concessive marking was present in only 17.7% of all cases. 2. Explicit concessive marking was provided by the interpreters only when the omission of the original marker in the SL text did not lead to ungrammaticality or incoherence. Whenever the comprehension of the SL text was low, the interpreters either failed to interpret the text or resorted to omission of any connective. In the latter case they simply delegated the task of establishing a relation between two clauses/sentences to the hearers rather than attempt to misinterpret the SL text or overinterpret it. 3. The same strategy of avoidance or implicit marking can be observed in the cases in which the general knowledge about the context of the SL text or about the subject matter was necessary for the interpreter to analyse the relation between two spans of the SL text as concessive. The results obtained, that is, nine instances of and indicate that the interpreters have recourse to semantically less complex relations, such as addition or co-occurrence. Again this strategy allows the interpreter to ease the burden of explicitation and decrease the processing load. 4. The presence of “secondary” markers of concession such as disjuncts was not a factor encouraging the interpreters to provide an explicitly concessive TL text. “To be on the safe side” the interpreters decided only to retain the disjuncts. 5. The same strategy of avoidance of overinterpretation can be noticed even in the cases in which the missing SL connective was “reconstructed” in the TL text. Given a number of functions that concession may fulfil in discourse (e.g., marking contrast, forestalling a possible objection, self-correction, hedging, etc.), the interpreters tended to use an all-embracing but rather than more restricted connectives like even though, yet, still, etc.

Where have the connectors gone?…

Comparing the results of the present study with Łyda (2006, 2008) it can be concluded that in the case of the concessive relation the factor of language direction does not play any significant role as the same strategies were used irrespective of the language direction. Generally, the absence of processing instruction provided by a connective is a factor that induces avoidance rather than risk-taking.

References Barth-Weingarten, Dagmar. 2003. Concession in Spoken English. On the Realisation of a Discourse-Pragmatic Relation. Tübingen: Narr. Becher, Viktor. 2011. “When and why do translators add connectives? A corpus-based study.” Target 23(1): 26–47. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana. 2000. “Shifts of cohesion and coherence in translation.” The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, 298–313. London and New York: Routledge. de Vega, Manuel. 2005. “El procesamiento de oraciones con conectores adversativos y causales.” Cognitiva 17: 85–108. Gumul, Ewa. 2006. “Explicitation in simultaneous interpreting: A strategy or a by-product of language mediation?” Across Languages and Cultures 7(2), 171–190. Łyda, Andrzej. 2006. “Asyndetic Subordination in Interpreting: The Case of Concessive Markers.” In Innovations in Psycholinguistics: A Step to Innovations in Brain, Culture, Cognition and Communication ResearchTRANS. (Internet-Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften) 16, edited by Elly Brosig. Available online at: http://www.inst.at/trans/16 Nr/06_4/ lyda16.htm (accessed 1.04.2017). Łyda, Andrzej. 2007. Concessive Relation in Spoken English. A Study into Academic Spoken English. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego: Katowice. Łyda, Andrzej. 2008. “Last to Acquire: On the Relation of Concession in Interpreting.” In Morphosyntactic Issues in Second Language Acquisition Studies, edited by Danuta Gabryś-Barker, 144–159. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Molencki, Rafał. 1997. “Concessive Clauses in Chaucer’s Prose.” In Studies in Middle English Linguistics, edited by Jacek Fisiak. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter Shlesinger, Miriam. 1995. “Shifts in Cohesion in Simultaneous Interpreting.” Translator 1(2): 193–212 Shlesinger, Miriam, and Noam Ordan. 2012. “More spoken or more translated? Exploring a known unknown of simultaneous interpreting.” Target 24(1): 43–60. Taboada, Maite (2004). Building Coherence and Cohesion: Task-Oriented Dialogue in English and Spanish. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Townsend, D.J. 1997. “Processing clauses and their relationship.” In Processing interclausal relationships: Studies in the production and comprehension of text, edited by Jean Costermans and Michel Fayol, 265–282. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wing, C.S., and E.K. Scholnick (1981). “Children’s comprehension of pragmatic concepts expressed in ‘because’, ‘although’, ‘if ’ and ‘unless’.” Journal of Child Language 8: 347–365.

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Thompson, Geoff, and Jianglin Zhou (2000). “Evaluation and organization in text: the structuring role of evaluative disjuncts.” In Evaluation in Text. Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse, edited by Susane Hunston and Geoffrey Thompson, 121–141. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter Eleven

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting: Making live speech visible Ursula Stachl-Peier and Ulf Norberg

In real time speech-to-text interpreting a trained transcriber using a standard or specially designed keyboard translates spoken contributions into written text which is displayed on a (computer or TV) screen to be read by Deaf/deaf and hard-of-hearing people. Since typing rates are slower than speaking rates, transcribers must develop strategies that allow them to include as much of the spoken content as is possible while at the same time attaining maximum synchronicity between speech and the text on the screen. In spoken discourse, prosodic features are used by speakers to demarcate grammatical units, give particular prominence to words or phrases and indicate emotions. Auditory qualities can also be represented in written text through a range of typographical devices; however, their insertion requires additional time and effort. This explorative study looks at transcribers’ use of punctuation to reflect speakers’ employment of the prosodic features of pauses and pitch to demarcate the segmentation of utterances. It also investigates whether stressed words are represented in the written text. The analysis uses extracts from a videorecorded speech-to-text interpreted university seminar and a TV interview with live subtitles. Keywords: speech-to-text interpreting, speech-to-text transcription, live subtitling, discourse prosody, sentence boundaries, pitch, stress, loudness

1. Introduction Prosody and its role in text processing has been the subject of a large number of studies. Cutler, Dahan and van Donselaar (1997) reviewed around 300 studies spanning from the use of prosody in the recognition of spoken words and the computation of syntactic structure to the role of prosody in the processing of discourse structure (see also Dahan 2015 for recent advances). There exists also a considerable body of research that has looked at the role of prosodic phenomena in interpreting. The first studies reflected researchers’ fascination with the ability of simultaneous interpreters to listen to and com-

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prehend spoken (or signed) input in one language, translate the processed input into another language while simultaneously producing a spoken or signed target text. In the 1960s and 70s, simultaneous conference interpreting was therefore often used as a test case for language processing theories. Later studies were less concerned with simultaneous interpreting as a “window” on psycholinguistic processes and the role of prosody in speech comprehension, and shifted the focus on the discoursal1 functions of prosodic features as well as the impact of source text intonational patterns on the interpreters’ output (for details see Section 3). Very few studies have looked at prosodic phenomena in speech-to-text interpreting (STTI) and live subtitling (LS2), that is, real-time captioning of spoken language on TV, which are also modes of communication that involve simultaneous spoken text comprehension and reproduction of the content. Both are intralingual, diamesic translation activities, that is, the spoken input is not translated into another spoken language but into written text3 for Deaf/deaf or hard-of-hearing clients who do not habitually use sign language (cf. Schjoldager, Gottlieb, and Klitgård 2008 (2010): 57). Most of these studies have had a technological focus and investigated the use of prosodic information for the improvement of automatic speech recognition software to be used in respeaking (see, e.g., Romero Fresco 2011, 2015). Prosody and its contribution to text comprehension and reproduction in STTI and LS by a transcriber using a keyboard is largely unexplored. A notable exception is Wiklund’s study of STTI (2014) which examined the correspondence between “paragraph intonation,” that is, the use of intonation “to group sentences in a paragraph-like way” (Wichmann 2000: 24), and paragraph divisions in the transcript (for details see Section 3). In this article we will look at further prosodic features that have been shown to play a role in text comprehension and examine how they are represented in speech-to-text interpreting and live subtitling transcriptions. In an analysis of extracts from a university seminar and of a TV interview we will examine how prosodic features such as loudness, stress, pauses, and sentence-initial and sentence-final pitch patterns are treated by the transcribers.4 1 For a detailed discussion of the multifarious meanings of “discourse” in prosody research, see for example Cutler, Dahan, and van Donselaar (1997: 142) and Wichmann (2014). For the purpose of this paper, discoursal parameters are defined as prosodic resources “that can be used to highlight features of spoken discourse” (Cutler, Dahan, and van Donselaar 1997: 13; see also Section 4). 2 Live subtitles can be produced with the help of automatic speech recognition and respeaking or by a speech-to-text transcriber using a standard keyboard or a specially designed keyboard. 3 In this article we focus on STT interpreting, that is, transcription of the input text by an STT interpreter, and live subtitling with a standard or specially designed keyboard; see also Section 2. For the use of respeaking for live subtitling, see for instance Luyckx et al (2010) and Romero Fresco (2011). 4 Paragraph intonation, which was the focus of Wiklund’s study, will not be investigated since it is not relevant to our data. Live subtitles do not have paragraphing and the seminar consisted mainly of short exchanges, so paragraphing coincided mostly with turn-taking.

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting…

Section 2 briefly describes speech-to-text interpreting and live subtitling. Section 3 gives a short overview of prosodic features and their role in text comprehension and reviews previous research of prosody in STT interpreting research. In Section 4, the methodology and material of this study are presented. The results of the analysis are discussed in Section 5. In Section 6, some conclusions and proposals for further research are presented.

2. Speech-to-text interpreting and live subtitling Speech-to-text interpreting is a mode of communication in which spoken language is transcribed by a (trained) person using a standard or specially adapted keyboard, with the text being instantly displayed on a screen. STTI is used primarily by (late-)deafened or hard-of-hearing adults who never learnt sign language (SL) or did not attain a sufficiently high level of competence in SL to be able to benefit from SL interpreting. STTI is frequently employed in public service settings, where it is used to assist communication between individual clients and officials, healthcare personnel, etc., in educational settings, where again it is often employed to provide translation for individual students, and during (semi-)formal meetings, lectures and cultural events, where the transcription is typically displayed on a larger screen and can be read by several clients (Norberg, Stachl-Peier, and Tiittula 2015). Contributions by the STTI service users are usually in spoken language, so the work of speech-to-text interpreters is for the most part only speech-to-text. The technology used for STTI varies, with different countries showing different preferences (Nofftz 2014). In some countries, such as Finland and Austria, STT interpreters use standard keyboards; others, such as The Netherlands and France employ veyboard (or velotype), a custom-designed keyboard that permits faster typing speeds. In Sweden, both standard keyboards (qwerty) and veyboard are used. In some countries, such as the UK, Ireland and the US, stenotype equipment is used (see Luyckx et al. 2010: 3). Although most STTI providers maintain that their STT interpreters produce verbatim transcriptions of everything that is said, several studies have shown that between 30 and 45% of the words of the original input are in fact omitted (see Tiittula 2009; cf even Tiittula 2006 and Norberg and Stachl-Peier (2017) on the importance of condensation strategies). Live subtitling (LS) is the term used for real-time captioning of spoken language on TV screens. The programmes that are most frequently subtitled live are political debates, sports competitions and entertainment events. When users select LS, the transcribed text is displayed at the bottom of the screen. LS is not only used by hearing impaired people but also viewers that may be unable to hear the spoken text because of a noisy environment, or who have problems following spoken language, such as L2-speakers (see also Luyckx et al. 2010: 2).

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As in STTI, LS technological preferences vary. Some countries have been investing heavily in the development of speech recognition and respeaking technologies (for an overview see Romero Fresco 2011, 2015; Luyckx et al. 2010), in others subtitlers employ standard computer keyboards, veyboard or stenotype equipment.5 In Sweden in 2016, all live subtitling is produced using veyboard. Although STTI and LS are similar in many respects, there are also some important differences. In STTI contexts, the speaker(s), client(s) and the interpreter(s) normally share the same space. Speakers, clients and interpreters can interfere in the communicative event; clients and interpreters can ask for repetition or clarification, the transcribed text can be adapted to the personal needs of the users through adjustment of the typing speed, font size and the complexity of lexical items and syntax.6 Live subtitlers, by contrast, have no or only indirect contact with their audience. They cannot ask for repetition or clarification, and their clients are comprised of a diverse group making adaptation to individual needs impossible (see also Norberg in print).

3. Discourse prosody 3.1 Theoretical introduction As Cutler, Dahan and van Donselaar (1997: 142) note, the term prosody is used in many different ways by researchers: […] from at one extreme those who maintain an abstract definition not necessarily coupled to any statement about realization (“the structure that organizes sound”), to those who use the term to refer to the realization itself, that is, effectively use it as a synonym for suprasegmental features […] at the other extreme.

For the purpose of this study, the latter usage is adopted. Following Wichmann (2000), prosody is seen as the “interface between intonation and discourse analysis” (Wichmann 2000:1), and defined as “the complex set of features which together make up what we commonly perceive as ‘tone of voice’ , ” which include suprasegmental features such as intonation, loudness, timing (including final lengthening, tempo changes and pauses) and voice quality (Wichmann 2000: 8; With the increasing use of remote interpreting in recent years, respeaking is likely to become a viable alternative in public service settings (see Hattinger 2013). 6 In this case, the often quoted requirement of “complete rendition of the source text” is of course impossible. 5

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting…

Barth-Weingarten 2011: 5; Shriberg et al. 2009: 214).7 At the level of discourse, prosodic features represent the cues that indicate the organisation of utterances into larger segments (sentence and paragraph boundaries8), topic units, given vs. new information, turn-taking, as well as features that create or reflect the relationship between speakers (Wichmann 2014: 14; see also Venditti and Hirschberg 2003). Across languages, the relationship of prosody to discourse differs (Cutler, Dahan, and van Donselaar 1997: 171). In English, for instance, read (affirmative) sentences typically start on a high pitch and end on a low pitch, with pitch reset, that is, the noticeable shift from low pitch to high pitch, providing a clear cue to listeners that the speaker has embarked on a new sentence (Wichmann 2000: 249). To mark the beginning and the end of topics or “conceptual” paragraphs, speakers tend to use low boundary tones at topic endings and a particularly high pitch at the beginning of the first sentence introducing the new topic (Wichmann 2000: 24; Cutler, Dahan, and van Donselaar 1997: 180). Swedish shares many features with English yet also possesses some unique characteristics. As Myrberg and Riad (2015: 141) note, in Swedish, stress is separate from lexical accent, which produces a “richness of structure that is lacking in West Germanic” (see also Engstrand (2004: 173), who similarly notes that Swedish has “relatively rich prosody”). Like English, Swedish is a stress-timed language, that is, the temporal duration between two stressed syllables is equal, while the length of unstressed syllables may be compressed to fit into the time interval. A feature not found in English is lexical tone. Most Swedish dialects employ two different word accents in disyllabic words, which are referred to as tone accent 1 and tone accent 2, or traditionally also as “acute” and “grave” accents. Central Swedish has extra high pitch on the stressed syllable, which is 7 Auer (2010: 9), by contrast, found that pauses do not represent reliable cues to sentence boundaries as they can occur inside an intonation phrase, just as two intonation phrases can be connected, or “latched together” without a pause. 8 As Wichmann (2014: 2; 2000: 30) notes, using “sentence” and “paragraph” as analytical constructs in spoken text analysis is problematic; both the “sentence” and the “paragraph” are essentially orthographic units. For the segmentation of spoken language into smaller chunks a large range of terms have been suggested. Brown and Yule refer to these units below the sentence as “tone groups” (Brown and Yule 2000: 155), which are “units rhythmically bound together […] which appear to be intended by the speaker to be taken together” (Brown and Yule 2000: 157). Chafe uses the term “information unit,” which he defines “as spurts of vocalization that typically contain one or more intonation peaks, that end in anyone of a variety of terminal pitch contours, and that usually but not always are separated from each other by pauses” (Chafe 1988: 397). Other linguists have used the term “intonation phrase” (see, e.g., Auer 2010: 8; Barth-Weingarten 2011). In this article we will employ the term “intonation units” for salient intonational units below the sentence. 9 Jansen, Gregory and Brenier (2001) also found that speakers tended to use greater pitch reset and major breaks before direct quotes than before indirect quotes; for the latter, the prosodic contours of narrative speech were employed.

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absent in accent 1 (Riad 2014: 23).10 Variants of Swedish that use this second pitch peak are generally referred to as “double-peaked” dialects (Schötz et al. 2012: 123). The special tonal contour of Swedish plus the isochronic division of the speech flow into portions of equal length generate a very regular rhythm (Engstrand 2004: 205–206) which is often perceived as “sing-song” by non-native speakers and perhaps most typically associated with the Swedish chef ’s language in The Muppet Show (Riad 2008).

3.2 Discourse prosody and simultaneous interpreting As we noted in the introduction, simultaneous conference interpreting was frequently used as a test case for cognitive processing theories. In the 1960s and 70s, psychologists such as David Gerver, Frieda Goldman-Eisler, Henri Barik and Brian Butterworth conducted a series of studies in which they investigated different prosodic parameters and their impact on interpreters’ performance. Gerver (1969), for instance, investigated speech rates and found that faster speech rates resulted in more errors and omissions. Gerver (1974a) showed that background noise that caused difficulty in perceiving source language passages reduced the ability of simultaneous interpreters to monitor their output. In another experiment, Gerver (1974b) tested the effect of simultaneous listening and speaking on comprehension and recall and found that retention scores were lowest for shadowing (verbatim repetition of source text in the same language) and highest when the test subjects had merely listened without interpreting. Goldman-Eisler (1968) and Barik (1973) studied pauses in the interpreters’ output as manifestations of processing procedures and suggested that interpreters tried to take advantage of speakers’ pauses to reduce the extent of time during which they had to listen and speak at the same time.11 Pauses were also studied by Barik (1975) and Butterworth (1980). Butterworth found that pauses in spontaneous speech occur mostly at phrasal or clausal boundaries, which he interpreted as evidence of automatic planning in cognitive planning and processing. Barik concluded that interpreters’ performance was improved when the speakers of the source text paused at grammatical junctions. Another aspect investigated by Barik (1975) was time lag, that is, the span between the source input and interpreting output. Although time lag is not a prosodic feature, the study is included here because of its relevance to our analysis. Barik found that long time lag helped disambiguate input and 10 Myrberg and Riad (2015: 117) describe tone accent 2 as being comprised of “lexical tone + intonation.” 11 Later research is highly critical of their conclusion. Even Gerver (1971: 29) doubts that “simultaneity of input and output” is interpreters’ biggest problem; rather it is “the additional information processing load imposed by the translation task.”

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reduced the number of misinterpretations, yet it also increased the likelihood of content being omitted. Barik’s results were confirmed by Cokely in a study on sign language interpreting (Cokely 1986) which also showed that greater time lag resulted in fewer errors (for an overview of further cognitive research into interpreting, see Christoffels and de Groot 2005). Later prosodic studies in interpreting were more concerned with interpreters’ intonational patterns and their effect on the audience. Shlesinger (1994), for example, found that the intonational system employed by simultaneous interpreters was marked by a unique set of salient features only found in simultaneous conference interpreting. Williams (1995) similarly showed that source text stress patterns tended to impact target language prosodic contours; Ahrens (2004, 2005) likewise concluded that interpreted texts display very typical features, including longer pauses, shorter prosodically defined units and consequently more pitch changes, and frequently rising pitch or rise-level contours at the end of the sentence suggesting that the sentence is not yet finished (Ahrens 2004: 230). Monotonous intonation and its effect on audiences was examined by Collados Aís (2001), who was able to empirically confirm the negative effect of monotonous interpretations on content recall. Nafá Waasaf also investigated monotony in SI output. In contrast with other studies, she concluded that simultaneous interpreters drew on their expertise as professional communicators and tended to use lively intonation in their renditions (Nafá Waasaf 2003) as well as standard intonational patterns with clear high pitch-low pitch boundary markings (Nafá Waasaf 2007).

3.3 Discourse prosody and STTI/LS STTI and LS were long considered to be outside the purview of translation studies, which may also explain the dearth of empirical studies on speech-to-text interpreting and live subtitling by translation scholars. Prosodic features have only been the subject of one study, which was conducted by Wiklund (2014) and focused on paragraph boundaries (for details see below). In written language, prosodic cues are, at least partially, represented and “made overt through punctuation,” as Chafe argues (1988: 423). Full stops and commas are typically said to coincide with intonation boundaries, with full stops normally representing falling pitches, and commas non-falling pitches (Chafe 1988: 424).12 New paragraphs tend to coincide with a shift from low to high pitch, Commas – at least in English – represent different types of intonation, depending on whether they are used in enumeration or denote apposition (cf. Duran Eppler and Ozón 2013). In enumeration, commas often represent slightly rising intonation (Cook 2013: 96; see also Taboada 2004: 43), or a falling-rising pattern (Warren 2016: 25) if a speaker is “a) completing one part of 12

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which is interpreted as a cue that a new topic is about to be addressed (Wichmann 2000). Other typographic markers that can be used to represent prosodic features are question marks indicating rising pitch, exclamation marks, CAPITALS, italics, bold-faced and underlined text to denote stress and loudness, [.] to indicate pauses which do not demarcate grammatical units, and emoticons for rise and fall patterns that express astonishment, incredulity, boredom and other feelings. There is, however, no complete match between intonational boundaries, punctuation marks and paragraphing. Chafe, for instance, found that when test subjects were asked to reinsert punctuation marks in texts from which these had been removed, they did not always reinsert syntactically prescribed commas, leading him to conclude that commas do not necessarily coincide with intonation boundaries (Chafe 1988: 424; see also Kalbertodt, Primus, and Schumacher 2015). Moreover, when test subjects read texts aloud, they introduced more “intonation units” than there were “punctuation units” in the written text. Erekson (2010: 80–81) similarly found that “[i]n published writing syntactic units are separated by punctuation less frequently than one might expect.” Inconsistencies between written and spoken (i.e., read-aloud) text segmentation were also reported by Wichmann. Written paragraph breaks are generally said to occur at boundaries at which coherent spaces, temporal sequences, character configurations, event sequences and words change more or less radically (Wichmann 2000: 33, quoting Chafe 1979: 180). In Wichmann’s experiment, the written text did indeed follow this pattern with paragraphs indicating the chronological sequence of the described action. When the text was read aloud, however, the speakers divided their spoken texts into functional episodes and inserted boundaries to mark the beginning and end of the functional units such as setting, experience, complication, and solution (Wichmann 2000: 32). Drawing on Wichmann’s (2000) concept of “paragraph intonation,” Wiklund (2014) studied the correlation between intonation contours and paragraphs in the STTI output and showed that “topic resets” in the Finnish read-aloud texts (Wichmann 2000: 25) correlated with new paragraphs in STT interpreters’ transcriptions. That is to say, STT interpreters clearly interpreted the shift from low to high pitch as a cue that a new topic was about to be introduced. However, the STT interpreters tended to insert paragraph breaks also where there were no “topic reset” cues in the original; the transcript included twice as many paragraphs as the spoken text. The explanation suggested by Wiklund is the large font size used in STTI to display text on the screen. Standardly, only around 15 lines can the utterance (shown by the fall) and b) connecting this to a following part (shown by the rise).” For Duran Eppler and Ozón (2013: 174), by contrast, commas denote “falling intonation.”

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be shown. To increase readability, STT interpreters appear to break up the text into smaller paragraphs. Although Erekson notes that “as a rule authors do not expect to cue readers this way [through punctuation] for every idea, and readers do not expect this kind of pervasive guidance” (2010: 81; see also Gårding 1974: 12), it could still be argued that the representation of prosodic features would facilitate STTI and LS users’ understanding of the discoursal impact of speech.

4. Materials and method The materials used to investigate transcribers’ representation of prosodic features comprise videorecorded extracts from a university seminar and from Swedish Television’s Agenda programme. The seminar was held at the History Department of a Swedish university in May 2011 and lasted around 90 minutes. The seminar involved a teacher-moderated discussion of a set course book. The desks were arranged in a horseshoe formation, with the lecturer standing at the front of the class. The two STT interpreters sat on either side of the student that needed interpretation; they used standard keyboards and usually worked for ten minutes before handing over to the other interpreter. The transcribed text was displayed on a computer screen. The video shows the screen but not the interpreters. Since no additional microphones were used, contributions by students who were seated a long way from the camera were not always fully audible or were obscured by noise.13 The extract from the news programme is from a c. 5-minute live interview between a journalist and a representative of the UNHCR who was asked to comment on the refugee crisis. The transcriber(s) used veyboard. Unprepared text was displayed word by word, the journalist’s prerecorded questions line by line. White subtitles were used for the interviewee and cyan for the journalist. The extracts were transcribed by the authors using the following conventions: • A slash (/) was used to separate intonation units, that is, units that represent “a spate of talk delivered as one recognisable overall pitch movement” (Szczepek Reed 2010: 351) with a “tendency to decline both in pitch and volume from beginning to end” (Chafe 2014: 206; see also Section 3). • Accents were used to indicate voice pitch changes at the beginning and end of intonation units: (´) before a word or syllable indicates rising pitch, (`) indicates falling pitch, (ˇ) represents fall-rise and (ˆ) rise-fall. Where no fall See Norberg and Stachl-Peier (2017) for a discussion of the transcribers’ use, or rather non-use, of targeted condensation strategies and its implications for the client’s ability to become involved and ultimately, her access to education. 13

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or rise occurred, this is indicated by (_). Pitch level changes are represented in terms of relative pitch contrasts, that is, absolute pitch contrasts were not marked. • CAPITALS were used for prominently stressed words. • A hyphen (-) indicates a noticeable pause, two hyphens a long pause. • In the English translations of the extracts [misspelt] has been added when a word in the transcribed text was misspelt. The acoustic analysis was carried out with the speech analysis program PRAAT (see Boersma 2001 and Boersma and Weenink 2016). In the STT interpreters’ transcription, (…) was used to indicate the omission of one or several words.

5. Analysis The seminar represented a typical classroom exchange, with an initiating move from the teacher, followed by a student’s response and a follow-up move by the teacher evaluating the response (cf. Sinclair and Coulthard 1975). Most of the lecturer’s contributions were relatively short and clearly articulated; questions were typically followed by long pauses as she waited for students to raise their hands and respond to her question. Most of these pauses were used by the STT interpreters to catch up with the speaker; typically, the interpreters had just finished typing when a student began to respond (see also Norberg and Stachl-Peier (2017)). The students’ responses were often uttered at a much faster pace and less clearly articulated and structured than the lecturer’s, with many false starts and repetitions. The interview similarly followed a standard pattern. The journalist asked questions which were answered by the interviewee, who was usually allowed to finish her utterances before follow-up questions were asked. Example 1: Example 1 is from the beginning of the seminar and comprises a short outline of the lesson by the lecturer and a first general question regarding the set textbook. The lecturer and the students spoke slowly and paused frequently, which allowed the STT interpreters to produce an almost verbatim rendition of her utterances.

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Figure 1. Computer screen with displayed text

On the following page the left-hand column presents the transcription of the spoken text by the authors of this paper, while the right-hand column presents the text produced by the STT interpreters which was displayed on the screen. The English translations of both transcriptions are added below.

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0:32–1:59 Lecturer: `ehhh vi `KÖR / ´vi har JÄTTEMYCKet i`dag / ´eller GANska `mycket / ´vi ska PRAta WÄNGˇneRUD / _å `sen så ska vi göra en utvärder´ING / ´och sen så skall ni få ˇSKRIVningen / - `om ´vi HINNer / ska vi prata `om -- ˆULLa ˆlindSTRÖM `också / _litegrann_/ - ´men jag TÄNKTE så ˆHÄRA / -- ´iSTÄLLet för att jag lägger PÅ MAssa OHbilder med jättemycket ´TEXT / - eh / `så har jag kopierat ˆUPP / - `två sidor till `ER / `som ni kan få anTECKna `på / - _det är jätte `beKVÄMare / eftersom vi inte har nån DAtor här och kan köra nån POWERpoint eller ´så / - - `så ´det HÄR E till ˆer / - _ni kan skicka ˆRUNT / - - _ja `vad TYCKte ni om ˆWÄNGnerud / - - ´har ni fått TAG i `den / - ˆJÄTTEbra / - ´hur gick det att ˆLÄsa /

0:33–2:02

Student 1: ´det var lite ˆJOBBigt / _för min var JÄTTEkluddad i min `bok /

- Det var lite jobbigt, mon var jättekluddad i boken jag lånat.

L: ´hon `har ju så många beGREPP ˆänDÅ / `så ´det är ˆoNÖdigt att kludda i den ˆMER /

- Hon har så många begrepp ändå, onödigt att kludda i den mer.

St 1: ´jag kludda ˆingenting / ´den VAR ˆkluddad

- jag kluddade ingenting.

L: ´vad sa ˆdu / ´för du skulle säga `nånting /

- DU skulle säga något?

St 2: _det var väldigt MYCKet långa ˇresoneMANG på nåt ´vis /

- Det var långa resonemang, utan att hon egentligen kom fram till något, tyckte jag.

L: `ahm / St 2: ´utan att hon egentligen kom fram till ˆnånting / ´tyckte jag /

Vi kör. Vi har jättemycket idag. Ganska mycket, vi ska prata Wejnerud och sedan göra en utvärdering opch så skall ni få skrivningen. Om vi hinner skall vi prata om Ulla lindstörm. Jag tänkte så här: i stället för att jag lägger på oh-bilder med mycket text har jag kopierat upp två sidor som ni kan anteckna på. Lite bekvämare då jag inte har någon dator och kan köra powerpoint. Detta är till er, ni kan skicka runt.

Vad tyckte ni om Wegnerud? Har ni fått tag i den? Bra. Gick det att läsa?

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting…

L: ´mm / - ´mm / St 2: ˆhon GILLade STOra `ord /

- Hon gillade stora ord.

L: ˇhon GILLade STOra `ORD / ´vilka ORD `då

- Vilka ord då?

L: ahh we START / we have a GREAT DEAL [to get through] today / or rather a lot / we will TALK about WÄNGNERUD / and then we will do an evaluaTION / and then you will get the WRITING task / if we MANAGEwe will also talk about ULLAA LINDSTRÖM / a little bit / but I was THINKING the FOLLOWING / INSTEAD of putting ON masses of OH-slides with a lot of TEXT / eh / I have copied / two pages for YOU / which you can make NOTES on / this is much more COMFORTABLE / since we don’t have a comPUter here and cannot use POWERpoint or so / so this HERE is for you / you can pass them ROUND / yah what did you THINK of WÄNGNERUD / were you able to get HOLD of it / EXCELLENT / how was it READING it

We start. We have a great deal to get through today, we will talk about Wejnerud [misspelt] and then do an evaluation and [misspelt] then you will get the task. If we manage we will talk about Ulla lindström [misspelt]. I was thinking the following: instead of using OH-slides with a lot of text I have copied two pages for you on which you can make notes. A little more comfortable as I do not have a computer here and cannot use powerpoint. This is for you, you can pass them round.

Student 1: it was a little DIFFICULT / as there were LOTS of annotations in my book /

- It was a little difficult, mine [misspelt] had lots of highlighting, underlining and notes the book I borrowed. - She uses so many terms anyway, unnecessary to add more annotations.

L: she uses so many CONCEPTS anyway / so it is unNECessary to annotate MORE /

What did you think of Wegnerud? Were you able to get hold of it? Good. Was it ok to read?

St 1: I did not add anything / it WAS annotated

- I did not add more annotations.

L: what did you say / you were about to say something

- YOU were about to say something?

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St 2: there were VERY long argumentations somehow / L: mm

- There were long argumentations, without her reaching a conclusion I thought.

St 2: without her reaching a conclusion / I thought / L: mm - mm St 2: she LIKED BIG words /

- She liked big words.

L: she LIKED BIG WORDS \ which WORDS then

- Which words?

Intonation units and punctuation marks In total, Example 1 contains 40 intonational units; the transcription contains 12 full-stops, one colon, seven commas and four question marks. That is to say, not all prosodic segmentation cues are represented in the text by punctuation marks. A possible explanation could be that Swedish punctuation rules do not require the insertion of commas before conjunctions linking coordinate and subordinate clauses. These rules seem to take precedence over the representation of prosodic cues in STTI texts. The full stops (periods) and colon in the STTI transcription coincide with marked pitch level changes, that is, falling pitch at the end of the first unit with subsequent rising pitch at the beginning of the next unit. The commas represent different boundary movement patterns, which seems to confirm the observations reported in fn. 12: • Fall followed by rise in “GANska `mycket / ´vi ska PRAta WÄNGˇneRUD”; • Rise-fall followed by fall in “´hon `har ju så många beGREPP ˆänDÅ / `så ´det är ˆoNÖdigt att kludda i den ˆMER”; • Rise-fall followed by even in “det HÄR E till ˆer / - _ni kan skicka ˆRUNT” and “det var lite ˆJOBBigt / _för min var JÄTTEkluddad i min `bok”; • Rise-fall followed by rise in “… kom fram till ˆnånting / ´tyckte jag,” and • Rise followed by rise in “det var väldigt MYCKet långa ˇresoneMANG på nåt ´vis / [L: `ahm] / ´utan att hon egentligen kom fram till ˆnånting.” Question marks have generally been thought to represent rising contour. In natural speech, however, many questions do not end on a rise. Hirschberg (2000), for instance, found in her speech samples that 30% of questions’ read speech and 43% in spontaneous speech used falling intonation. The STTI transcription in Example 1 includes four question marks, all coinciding with falling pitch contour.

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Prominently stressed words Nearly all prominently stressed words were retained; the only that was not transcribed was in a clause which was completely edited out by the STT interpreter (“den VAR kluddad”). Example 2: Example 2 is an extract from later in the seminar and starts with the lecturer calling on a student who had raised her hand to answer. The student’s response is interspersed with the lecturer’s affirmative “`hms”. The student speaks fast and exploits a very small pitch range in her intonation, with few marked peaks. The passage also contains many false starts and repetitions, when the student struggled to find appropriate wordings, which proved challenging for the STT interpreters. L: Lecturer, S: Student (13:03)

(13:09)

L: ´det var nån som räckte upp `HANDen / ´var det [STUDENT’S NAME] ˆeller /

[STUDENT’S NAME]: detta med att ofta väljs vkinnor in men man hamnar i vissa utskott.. Det kan lätt tolkas så, ,.kvotering är debatt. Vad är mnaligt och vad är kvinnlig? Det (13:30) ska finnas båda könen i alla utskott.. Kön sk ainte spela roll i politiken på det sättet.. Hon tar upp det som en problem.. Intervjuerna tar upp det också.d ett är åsikterna.. Hur vet du det ?

(13:06) S: _hm kom på ˆasså / `jag har tänkt säga det här med att hon be`skriver / ´vad jag uppfattar ganska objek´tivt / `det här med att - ofta så väljs kvinnor ´IN / `men dom HAMNar i vissa _utskott / _alltså dom ´E L: `precis S: `och det kan ju lätt ˇTOLKasså / `det är liksom fort­farande / _det här med KVOTering det är fortfarande ˆdeBATT / ´vad är ˆMANligt / å ´vad är ˆKVINNligt L: `hm

Vissa hade ingen utbildning men kom in (14:00) ädåd. Nadra kvinnor hade utbildning men kominte in.. Det blir problem som hon beskriver objektivt (14:09)

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S: _och det är som personen hävdar ju att det spelar ingen `ROLL / _det FINNS / - det ˆfinns / `det ska finnas båda könen (13:30) i varje ˆUTskott / `för egentligen ska inte kön spela någon `roll - i poliTIken på det `sättet / L: `hm S: `MEN / - det är så det det tar hon ju upp lite som ett proBLEM ˆdetdär / att - ˆdet_specificeras så mycket JA med det här med sociAla [incomprehensible] L: `hm S: `det här `vård / ´allt det där HAMNar ˆKVINNorna (13:45) / ­och ˆfiNANS / ´och det tar hon också upp i de här interˇVJUerna / - _att det är ju verkligen `Åsikten / - _alltså åsikterna om ja men männen är i ˆKOLL / _ja ´men hur hur vet du ´DET / L: `hm S: `vissa hade inte ens nån utˆBILDning / `men kom in där ˆänDÅ / _och så var det andra kvinnor som hade UT´bildning / `men dom kom INte `IN / `så det är ˆliksom / `det blir ett ˆproBLEM / `som hon beSKRIVer rätt obˆjektivt `tyckerjag / S: `hm (14:06)

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting…

L: someone raised their hand / was that [STUDENT’S NAME] was it S: hm was thinking well / I thought I would say that there with what she describes / what I think is quite objective / that there with that women are voted IN / but they END UP in certain committees / that is they are L: exactly S: and they are that can easily be INTERPRETED / this is still / that there with gender QUOTAS this is still subject to DEBATE / what is MALE / what is FEMALE L: hm S: and this is as if the person claims that it plays no ROLE / there is / there are / there ought to be both genders in every COMMITTEE / as gender should not play a role - in POLITICS in this way / L: hm S: BUT / - that is that is mentioned by her as a PROBLEM that there / that is specified so much YEAH with that social thingy there

[STUDENT’S NAME]: that thing with that women [misspelt] are often elected but they end up in certain committees.. That can be easily interpreted as such . gender quota is a debate. What is male [misspelt] och what is female? There should be both genders in all committees.. Gender should not [misspelt] play a role in politics in this way.. She mentions this as a [wrong article] problem.. The interviews also mention this. these [misspelt] are opinions.. How do you know? Some had no education . but still were [misspelt] elected. Some [misspelt] women had education but were not [misspelt] elected.. This becomes a problem which she describes objectively.

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L: hm S: that with care / that is there WOMEN END up / and finANCE / and that is also something she mentions in these INTERVIEWS / - that these are really OPINIONS / - that is opinions about yeah but the men are in control / yeah but how do you know THIS / L: hm S: some did not even have an EDUCATION / but were STILL elected / and then there were other women who had EDUCATION / but were NOT ELECTED / so that is like / that becomes a PROBLEM / which she DESCRIBES rather objectively I think S: hm Of the 220 words in the spoken text, the transcribers managed to reproduce 89. In total, Example 2 contains 35 intonation units; the transcription has seven full-stops, one comma and two question marks. All intonation units that did not contain prominently stressed words were omitted by the STT interpreters. In the intonation units that were retained, the transcription always reproduces the stressed words, while the remainder of the utterance is often summarized and condensed. All full stops and commas in the transcription coincide with intonation unit boundariess and the end of a falling contour or a marked pitch change. Example 3: Live subtitled interview Example 3 is an extract from the beginning of a live subtitled interview. The UNHCR representative exploited a very large pitch range and emphasized many words both audibly through prominent stress and visually through nodding. Both she and the journalist spoke at a moderate pace and enunciated very clearly. Given the spatial and temporal constraints of subtitling, however, including strict rules governing the number of lines and words that can be shown on the

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screen14 and minimum exposure times, coupled with viewers’ expectation of synchronicity, the subtitlers were unable to produce a verbatim reproduction and condensed the original speech. Of the 246 words in the spoken text, 96 were rendered by the subtitlers. Journalist = J, Interviewee = I The transription of the spoken text is on the left; the subtitles are on the right. The subtitles are shown with the original line breaks; | indicates breaks between screens. The text highlighted in light grey indicates prerecorded subtitles. (0:00) J: `när man HÖR manuel valls `här / så talar han om SÄKRade YTTre gränser för EU och `HOT spots / alltså MOTtagnings`läger där dom asylsökande ska - ska SAMlas upp `då / ´vad tycker UNHCR om `det här förslaget (0:12) I: ´alltså i STOra ´DRAG / ˇså - överensstämmer UNhcr:s rekommendaˆTIOner / `som vi är / fört FRAM till EukommiˆSSIOnen / `till EuLÄNderna om hur situationen bör ˆLÖSas / (0:24) J: `vad är det ni ˆGILLar / I: `med dom / ´som HAN förde fram `här / ´framför allt DET att - ALLa Euländer måste ˆbiDRA / `det är ett geMENsamt `ANsvar / `det är inte ett system a la `CART / (0:32) J: _varför är det `viktigt /

(0:00) (Prerecorded) Du är biträdande regionchef för UNHCR i Nordeuropa. | Säkrade yttre gränsen för EU och “hot spots” – mottagningsläger. | Vad tycker UNHCR om det här? | (0:15) I stora drag överensstämmer UNHCR:s rekommendationer | om hur situationen bör lösas. |

Alla länder måste bidra, det är ett gemensamt ansvar. | (0:39)

Guidelines typically recommend not more than two lines per subtitle and between 32 and 34 characters per line. The recommended presentation rate for subtitles is 140 words per minute, the recommended presentation time for one line is 2.12 to 3 seconds, for two lines 5 to 6 seconds (see BBC’s Online Subtitling Editorial Guidelines 2009). 14

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(0:34) I: `DÄRför att ˆANNars / `så får vi den KAotiska situation vi HAR `nu / `där MÄNNiskor på FLYKT SKYFFlas från ETT land till ett `annat / ˆutan att ha möjlighet att utöva sin rätt att söka `asyl (0:45) / ´sen med MOTtagˆningsCENter / `det håller vi OCKså ˇmedom / ˇANNars / `det är ETT sätt att komma till rätta med den situationen som vi har på LESbos (0:53) till `exempel / `som vi såg i INslaget ˇINNan /

Annars får vi den kaotiska situationen som vi har (0:45) nu. | Med mottagningscenter, det håller vi också med. (0:53)| Det är ett sätt att komma till rätta med situationen i Lesbos. (1:00)| Vad gäller gränskontroll så måste asylrätten upprätthållas. | (1:09)

_vad gäller GRÄNS`kon´TROLL / ˇså är det VIKtigt att aSYLrätten ´upprättHÅLLS (1:03) / `som han också NÄMNde i ´inter`VJUN / det FINNS ju REGler i SCHENGenˆavTAlet / (1:05) J: `om jag bara får stoppa dig där ˆlite / ´när det gäller dom här MOTTAGnings - ett sånt här mottagningsˆCENTer / `eh / - `vad är det man ska SE FRAMför sig `då egentligen / ´är det ett kon´TOR / `dit man går och får en ˆSTÄMPel / `eller eller är det mer ett ˆLÄGer / `med MUrar `ochsådär / _ där _ där asYLsökande ska - ska HÅLLas eh på ´plats / ´så att ˆsäga (1:23) / J: if one LISTENS to manuell valls here \ he speaks about SECURED EXTERNAL borders for the EU and HOT spots / that is RECEPTION camps where the asylum seekers

(1:10) (Prerecorded) Hur tänker ni att ett sånt här mottagningscenter ska fungera? | (1:20) Är det ett kontor eller ett läger? |

(Prerecorded) You are the regional deputy head headfor UNHCR in northern Europe | Secured external borders for EU and “hot spots” – reception camp. |What does the UNHCR think about this?|

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting…

will will be gathered / what does the UNHCR think about this proposal / I: well OVERALL / the UNHCR recommendations are the same / which we are / - have PROposed to the EU COMMISSION \ to the EU COUNTRIES about how the situation ought to be RESOLVED /

Overall are UNHCR’s recommendations the same | about how the situation should be resolved. |

J: what do you LIKE / I: with those / that HE proposed here / above all THAT that - all EU countries must CONTRIBUTE / this is a SHARED RESPONSIBILITY / this is not a system A LA CARTE /

All countries must contribute, this is a shared responsibility. |

J: why is this important / I: because OTHERWISE / there we get the CHAOTIC situation we HAVE now / where PEOPLE FLEEING - are SHUFFLED from ONE country to another / without having the opportunity to exercise their right to asylum / then concerning RECEPTION centres / here we ALSO agree with them / OTHERWISE / this is also ONE way of coping with the situation we have on LESBOS for example / as we saw in the CLIP BEFORE / as concerns BORDER CHECKS it is IMPORTANT that the right to ASYLUM is secured / as he also MENTIONED in the INTERVIEW / there are REGULATIONS in the SCHENGEN AGREEMENT

Otherwise we get the chaotic situation which we have now. | Concerning reception centres, we also agree. | This is one way of coping with the situation in Lesbos. | As concerns border checks the right to asylum must be secured. |

(Prepared subtitle) How do you think such a reception centre will work? |

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J: if i can maybe stop you there a little / concerning these RECEPTION such a reception CENTRE / eh / what should we SEE BEFORE our mental eye / is it an OFFICE where people go to get a STAMP / or is it like a CAMP / with WALLS and and so on / where where ASYLUM seekers will will be DETAINED so to say

Is it an office or a camp?

Of 39 intonation units in this extract, 18 were reproduced by the subtitlers. The chunks that were omitted contained information that the subtitlers could reasonably expect the audience to already possess, either because they had been referred to in the news item that was shown immediately prior to the interview and on which the UNHCR representative was asked to comment, or because they represented paraphrases or repetitions, or added details which would normally be part of the mental image evoked by the uttered word. All the omitted units were relative clauses which started on a falling pitch suggesting that the following chunk was non-defining and therefore dispensable; these sequences were, however, not uttered with a lower intensity than the surrounding text. Prominently stressed words Most prominently stressed words are reproduced in the intonation units that were transcribed. Intonation units and punctuation marks Subtitiling guidelines recommend that sentences should not extend over more than one subtitle (see BBC’s Online Subtitle Editorial Guidelines 2009) and instead to break a long utterance into two or more sentences and display them as consecutive subtitles. This recommendation was followed by the subtitlers in our example. The UNHCR representative produced very long utterances with prosodic contouring that signalled that she wished to hold the floor, and ignored the journalist’s attempts to ask a question until he very clearly formulated his request for the floor by injecting “om jag bara får stoppa dig där lite” (‘if I can maybe stop you there a little’). All long utterances were broken into short units by the subtitlers that fitted on two lines. As was noted above, only 18 of the 39 intonation units were reproduced. In the intonation units that were retained, the punctuation used by the subtitlers, that is, full stops and commas, coincide with intonation unit boundaries. However, as in Example 1, not all prosodic segmentation cues were represented in the text by punctuation marks. Also here Swedish punctuation rules seem to take precedence.

Discourse prosody and real-time text interpreting…

6. Concluding discussion As noted in Section 1, this explorative study set out to investigate how prosodic cues were reflected in the STT transcribed texts and to what extent features of the written text can be assumed to have been affected by prosodic phenomena. We also hoped to identify categories for further research into the representation of prosodic features in real-time text production. The results would suggest that prosodic cues do guide STT interpreters’ and subtitlers’ transcriptions. In Example 1, where the slow pace of the speakers and long pauses permitted an almost verbatim STTI reproduction of the spoken text, the full stops and colon coincide with marked pitch level changes that signal intonation unit boundaries. Question marks coincide with falling intonation, which again is in line with previous reports (e.g., Hirschberg 2000). All stressed words were retained. The inserted commas coincide with a range of contour patterns, confirming previous observations in the literature. As was noted above, not all prosodic segmentation cues were represented in the text by punctuation marks, however, since the insertion of commas between clauses is not required by Swedish punctuation rules. It might be worth investigating if the inclusion of optional punctuation marks could facilitate STTI and LS users’ understanding of the discoursal impact of speech. Example 2 is an extract which was heavily edited by the STT interpreters. Prosodic features appear to have guided their decisions on what to omit: All intonational units that did not contain prominently stressed words were edited out, and in the retained units, all stressed words were reproduced, while non-stressed chunks may be summarized or condensed. Full stops and commas coincided with intonation unit boundaries. Example 3 also suggests that prosodic cues affect subtitlers’ segmentation of the speech stream into clauses and sentences. Full stops and commas coincide with intonation unit boundaries and all stressed words in the reproduced segments were retained. However, overall only 18 of the 39 intonation units were retained. The subtitlers edited out all information mentioned in the news item that the UNHCR representative had been asked to comment on as well as world knowledge that viewers could be expected to possess. As noted above, such chunks started on a falling pitch, yet were uttered with the same intensity as the remainder of the text. Prosodic cues alone cannot explain the subtitlers’ decisions; rather, the subtitlers appear to have drawn on higher-level discourse processes and applied their discourse competence. Although heavy editing was employed by the subtitlers, the subtitles were rarely in synchronicity with the speaker. This raises a number of interesting questions that future research would need to address. One concerns ethical questions. Most subtitling guidelines recommend verbatim or near-verbatim subtitles, as is illustrated by the BBC’s guidelines (2009: 4):

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Your aim should be to give the viewer as much access to the soundtrack as you possibly can within the constraints of time, space, shot changes, and on-screen visuals, etc. You should never deprive the viewer of words/ sounds when there is time to include them and where there is no conflict with the visual information. Where it’s necessary to edit, edit everything evenly – do not take the easy way out by simply removing an entire sentence. Sometimes this will be appropriate, but normally you should aim to edit out a bit of every sentence. It is not necessary to simplify or translate for deaf or hard-of-hearing viewers. This is not only condescending, it is also frustrating for lipreaders.

Since verbatim speech reproduction and genuine synchronicity are possible only in those rare cases when a speaker speaks very slowly, it is obvious that subtitlers and STT interpreters need to employ strategies for successfully condensing the text without leaving out essential information. The omission of repetitions and false starts appears to be a strategy on which consensus is perhaps easy to attain.15 The strategy employed by the subtitlers of the SVT news programme is presumably more controversial. We would argue, however, that their strategy successfully translated the main information for Deaf/deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers and ensured that speaker(s) and viewers shared the same information. Such editing requires in-depth cognitive processing which, as Norberg and Stachl-Peier (2015) showed, is difficult to employ in the kind of stressful situation that STTI and live subtitling represent. Further studies of how STT interpreters and subtitlers make use of prosodic features might be able to help redefine what “rendition of the entire content” could mean. Moreover, many of the discussions within STTI and LS bear similarities with earlier debates in spoken language interpreting. Closer cooperation between the two fields, it seems, could produce new insights into similarities and differences between the two, enriching both and ultimately also improve Deaf/deaf and hard-of-hearing people’s access to information. However, see Norberg, Stachl-Peier and Tiittula (2015), Norberg (2014), and Bartoll and Martínez Tejerina (2010) on clients’ fears that something may be “withheld” from them if the spoken text is edited. 15

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“This volume is an excellent addition to the Interpreting Studies literature. The cutting-edge research presented by a wide range of international experts demonstrates the strength of an interdisciplinary approach to the study of interpretation. The volume will be of great bene t to educators, students of interpreting as well as experienced practitioners.” Robert G. Lee, Senior Lecturer in BSL and Deaf Studies, University of Central Lancashire, UK

Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies

Interdisciplinary encounters: Dimensions of interpreting studies brings together researchers, scholars, practitioners, interpreters and interpreter trainers, who share their research results, perspectives and experiences regarding the interdisciplinarity in the eld of interpreting studies. This interdisciplinarity is well re ected in the range of topics covered and research questions asked. From the interplay of interpreting and linguistics to the interplay of interpreting and psychology, to mark quite arbitrarily only two distinct epistemologies, and hence distinct methodologies.

Interdisciplinary

encounters:

Dimensions of interpreting studies Edited by

Andrzej Łyda, Katarzyna Holewik