Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies 9789048533947

Table of contents :
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Part 1. Studying
1. Studying
2. Reading academic literature
Part 2. Doing research
3. Exploring your research topic
4. Interviewing
5. Searching the literature
6. Organizing, analysing and processing your sources
7. Empirical research
Part 3. Sharing your research
8. Arguments
9. Writing
10. Citing sources
11. Presenting
Part 4. A critical attitude
12. Debate, discussion and critical dialogue
13. Reflection
Appendices
Appendix A. Fraud and plagiarism
Appendix B. Citation guidelines for bibliographies
Appendix C. Sample literature review

Citation preview

Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies



Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies Joris J.W. Buis Ger Post Vincent R. Visser

Amsterdam University Press

Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies is Volume 1 of the Series Perspectives on Interdisciplinarity.

Originally published as Academische vaardigheden voor interdisciplinaire studies by Joris J.W. Buis, Ger Post & Vincent R. Visser (2015) © Amsterdam University Press Text translated by Vivien Collingwood Cover and interior design: Matterhorn Amsterdam ISBN e-ISBN NUR

978 94 6298 359 5 978 90 4853 394 7 (pdf) 143

© Joris J.W. Buis, Ger Post & Vincent R. Visser / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2016 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or disclosed in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher. To the extent that making photocopies from this publication is permissible on the grounds of Article 16B of the Copyright Act 1912, in conjunction with the Decision of 20 June 1974, Stb. 351, as amended in the Decision of 23 August 1985, Stb. 471 and Article 17 of the Copyright Act 1912, the statutory fee due should be paid to Stichting Reprorecht (PO Box 3051, 2130 KB, Hoofddorp, The Netherlands). The publisher should be contacted in relation to the inclusion of part(s) of this publication in anthologies, readers and other compilations (Article 16 of the Copyright Act 1912).

Table of Contents

Preface 8 Acknowledgements 9 Introduction 10

Part 1 Studying

12 1 Studying 13 Knowledge 13 Lectures and study groups 15 Self-study and planning 17 Concentration 19 Examinations 20 Staying motivated 22 2 Reading academic literature 24 Types of text 24 Strategies for reading 28 Summarizing 33

Part 2 Doing research

3 Exploring your research topic Choosing a topic Formulating a question 4 Interviewing Preparing an interview During the interview 5 Searching the literature The academic literature Relevance and quality of the literature 6 Organizing, analysing and processing your sources Organizing your sources Analysing information Processing sources using reference management software 7 Empirical research

6

36 37 37 39 44 44 46 48 48 52 56 56 57 58 60

Part 3 Sharing your research

62 8 Arguments 63 Types of argument 63 Structuring an argument 66 From structuring an argument to structuring a literature review 71 9 Writing 73 Steps in the writing process 73 Writing tactics 74 Structuring a literature review 75 Academic writing 81 Grammar and spelling 83 10 Citing sources 86 In-text citations 88 Citations in the bibliography 92 Plagiarism 92 Sources used 93 11 Presenting 94 Preparing a presentation 94 Introducing your presentation 96 During a presentation 105 After a presentation 105

Part 4 A critical attitude

108 12 Debate, discussion and critical dialogue 109 Debate 109 Weak spots in debates 111 Discussion 112 Pitfalls when framing an argument 113 13 Reflection 116 Self-reflection 117 Reflecting on your role in a team 119 Giving and receiving feedback 122

Appendices

Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C

Fraud and plagiarism Citation guidelines for bibliographies Sample literature review

Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies

124 125 127 132

7

Preface

This handbook is the outcome of years of experience with interdisciplinary teaching and academic skills at the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (IIS) at the University of Amsterdam. Earlier versions of the text have been in use – in the form of syllabi – for more than a decade of teaching for the combined Bachelor’s programme in the natural and social sciences. The content thus builds upon the knowledge and experience of the dozens of lecturers and thousands of students who worked or studied at the IIS during this period. In addition, we have made grateful use of the great wealth of existing textbooks on specific academic skills. A wide range of textbooks has been published on every academic field and on every individual skill. To our knowledge, this is the first overarching guide to academic skills for interdisciplinary studies. Taking such a broad perspective means that we are unable to be comprehensive. For more specific or detailed information, this book provides many references to texts that contain more information on specific skills. Besides, a handbook like this one is never ‘finished’. New perspectives, tips, examples, methods and insights are always being developed that contribute to this book’s ultimate aim: to help interdisciplinary students to learn the essential skills needed by every budding scholar. Finally, a word of advice for the reader: use this handbook as a guide, not as the only ‘right’ way to learn, read, write or present. Within the different fields and disciplines, there will be differences in the details or in the emphasis on particular aspects.

8

Acknowledgements

First of all, we are extremely grateful to the many students and lecturers who worked with and on this handbook over the last ten years. They laid the foundations for this book. Unfortunately, we do not have the space here to name everyone. In any case, we should like to express our great appreciation for the exceptional contribution made by the following lecturers and ex-lecturers: Tonja van Gorp, Mieke de Roo, Sanne Kosterman, Njal van Woerden, Ellen Algera and Elmar Jansen. In addition, we would like to thank the following colleagues and students for reading earlier drafts and for their constructive remarks and suggestions: Steph Menken, Linda de Greef, Jasper ter Schegget, Coyan Tromp, Rick Vermin, Noa Visser, Rens Baardman, Sophie Boot and Frankie Pols. Finally, we would like to thank Elke Stokker for her excellent management of the many drafts of this handbook, and we are extremely grateful to Bob van den Berg for his help with designing this book.

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Introduction

This book is intended for Bachelor’s students on interdisciplinary degree programmes. Nowadays, Dutch universities and universities of applied sciences offer countless interdisciplinary courses. A decade ago, this was still quite unusual. During the 19th century, universities were divided into three relatively well-defined clusters of academic disciplines: the sciences, which investigated natural phenomena (in the broadest sense of the word); the social sciences, which focused on knowledge of human behaviour and human societies; and the arts, which studied the knowledge originating from the human mind. These three clusters were further categorized into a wide range of academic disciplines, such as physics (science), sociology (social science) and history (the arts). In past centuries, these disciplines were in turn sub-divided into specializations and sub-specializations, such as quantum mechanics, sociology of education and naval history. At most universities, this classification is reflected in the degree programmes that are offered. The knowledge produced by these academic disciplines and specializations is far-reaching and enriching. This is particularly true if ideas from different fields are combined, which often leads to valuable insights. When scientists were trying to understand the structure and nature of genetic material in the mid-20th century, for example, it ultimately took the combined efforts of a biologist (James Watson), a chemist (Rosalind Franklin) and a physicist (Francis Crick) to identify the composition and structure of DNA. If they hadn’t been interested in – and knowledgeable about – each other’s disciplines, they would never have achieved this feat. They had the ability, however, to integrate three seemingly distant fields and to generate new knowledge that has literally changed our world. Taking an interdisciplinary approach also delivers important insights when it comes to today’s complex problems, such as environmental issues or questions relating to the functioning of society. Interdisciplinary programmes therefore aim to train bridge-builders who, in addition to their speciality, have an overview of a number of fields, and who can integrate knowledge from one branch of learning with knowledge from another.

10

As a student on an interdisciplinary programme, you’re a bit like a parachutist: in the years to come, ‘We are not students of you’ll find yourself landing in many different some subject matter, but academic landscapes. As you do so, you’ll develop students of problems. the ability make a swift survey of the surroundings And problems may (the academic field), analyse what information is cut right across the present and what is useful (research), master the boundaries of any subject local language and way of thinking (jargon), and matter or discipline.’ learn to communicate (sharing knowledge). This Karl Popper handbook on academic skills will enable you to do (Conjectures and all of the above. Academic skills are tools that can be Refutations, 1963) used during and after your course to gather, develop, share and discuss new knowledge. Over the years, you’ll develop your own style in relation to every skill. In the initial years of your programme, you can use this book to find your footing. In the later phases of your studies, though, you’ll find yourself referring back to it when wondering ‘How did that work again?’. We hope that this book proves to be a good and, most importantly, useful starting point for your own academic and interdisciplinary development. In the first part of the book, you’ll find information about how to gather information efficiently. In the second part, you’ll read about how to design and conduct your own literature research. The third part concerns how to communicate the knowledge you’ve acquired to colleagues or a more general audience. The handbook concludes with a section on critical thinking and ways to evaluate and improve your own knowledge and skills

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Part 1 Studying ‘A university is not about results in the next quarter; it is not even about who a student has become by graduation. It is about learning that molds a lifetime, learning that transmits the heritage of millennia; learning that shapes the future.’ (2007) Drew Gilpin Faust (1947) American historian and the first female President of Harvard University In Part One, we look at how you can make the most of the material you need to study. How do you draft a study plan, and how can you get the most out of the lectures? What’s more, we present practical tips that can help you to get as much as possible out of your university education.

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1 Studying

Lecturers often explain in detail what you need to learn for their courses, but it is much less common to be told how you should learn it. In this chapter, we look at how you can study effectively and efficiently. We also offer practical tips to help you prepare as well as possible for lectures, study sessions and exams.

A university is a place where a diverse group of knowledge-driven individuals come together to challenge each other to improve and refine their thinking, and to enrich the world with new insights and inventions. New theories are devised, innovative techniques are developed and new discoveries are made. You’re now part of that world. You’re studying because you’re fascinated by something, because you want to know everything about a particular subject and want to get to the bottom of it. In addition, at university you’ll develop specialized skills and meet many interesting people. It’s where you’ll spend at least three years of your life, perhaps even longer. Many people describe it as the most enthralling and fun time of their lives, not least because studying allows you to contemplate and question the earthly (and perhaps also the heavenly) world for a while from a neutral standpoint. It is a time when you’ll develop a rich understanding of the world and clarify your own position in relation to the things and people around you.

Knowledge

Knowledge lies at the heart of university education. Your task is not only to absorb knowledge, but also to create and transfer it. Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) argued that thinking takes place on different levels. He started at the basic level, ‘remembering’, and built up various steps to the highest level, ‘evaluating’ (see Box 1.1).

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Box 1.1 

Classification of knowledge levels (based on the taxonomy of Bloom, 1956) Knowledge level

You are able to…

Remembering

...reproduce knowledge.

Understanding

...interpret this knowledge and explain it in your own words.

Applying

...use knowledge in new situations.

Analysing/ synthesizing

...organize and formulate knowledge for new ideas.

Evaluating

...evaluate knowledge critically and apply it beyond your own field.

Lying behind this classification is an interesting message: that you go to university not only to learn lots, but also – perhaps even more so – to start using this knowledge actively: to learn a particular way of thinking. Thus you distinguish yourself as a scholar by not only being able to spout facts and understand things, but also because you can take a step further: you Interdisciplinary tip can apply, analyse and evaluate existing knowledge, and ultimately create new Although Bloom’s classifications might imply knowledge and value. This is added that it is most useful to focus on evaluating, value for employers, too: they are not analysing and synthesizing, it is important to looking for highly educated workers realize that every kind of thinking is essential who obediently obey orders, but for for interdisciplinary studies. Howard Gardner employees who are able to evaluate and (2007), for example, identifies ‘five minds improve the functioning of an for the future’, all of which are important: organization. the disciplinary, synthesizing, creating, respectful and ethical attitudes. Without a good disciplinary attitude (you can master a way of thinking, such as mathematical or sociological thinking), neither the synthesizing (bringing together different disciplines) nor the creating (uncovering and building new trans-disciplinary knowledge) attitudes would be possible.

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Chapter 1 Studying

Lectures and study groups

Lectures and study groups form an interesting and important part of taking a course. During lectures, the course material will be explained further, but you’ll also have a chance to get working actively on the material. It’s important for you to think about how you can get the most out of the lectures. You’ll find a number of tips in Box 1.2.

Box 1.2

Checklist for lectures Beforehand

Plan in preparation time for a lecture (depending on the amount of material), when you read through the handouts or the literature (if the handouts are not already online) for the lecture. Check the learning aims of the course or lecture. These are usually available in the course handbook. Ask yourself: why this subject? How does it fit in with the rest of the course? Scan through the literature (headings, keywords, etc.) and ask yourself whether you are familiar with these concepts from other courses or other contexts. Are you able to define them? Now is a good moment to look them up again. Make a list of all keywords. This list can form the basis for a mind map, a summary, or a way of testing yourself. Find out about the speaker’s background, so that you can anticipate what he or she might have to say. Write down a few questions that you hope might be answered during the lecture. If they do not come up during the lecture, ask them at the end.

▼

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During

Ensure that you are on time and arrive well prepared (with a highlighter, pen, pencil, etc.), so that you don’t miss any important information. Choose a good seat, where you have a clear view of the lecturer and presentation, with minimum distraction. Pay attention and take note of which of your questions are answered. Write down the essentials. Most information is usually included in the hand-outs or on the slides. Underline or highlight the concepts that are emphasized by the teacher. Ask questions.

After

Develop your notes and make an inventory of the most important points. What is the bigger picture like for this subject? Could you summarize it in one or two sentences? Look at your list of keywords. Are there terms that you need to add or that you could get rid of? How can you organize the material best in order to remember it? Could you group or class the terms, or is there an order of events over time? Could you find a powerful metaphor or story on which to hang the material? Try to make connections with material from other courses or from other disciplines.

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Chapter 1 Studying

As well as lectures, it is very likely that you will also take part in study groups or exercise sessions. These tend to be smaller groups, meaning there is more intensive contact with the lecturer and your fellow students. Many of the activities in study groups are designed to get you working actively with the material, by discussing the literature or holding presentations. This helps you to remember and clarify the material. It also means that you are responsible for the success of a meeting – more so than with lectures, for example. It is therefore important that before a study group meeting, you have read the relevant literature and have formulated questions and ideas on the material. You can also raise the issue of responsibility with others, if you notice that they have not prepared adequately, for example.

Self-study and planning

Besides the fixed course components, you’ll also have lots of time and responsibility for designing and organizing your own study activities. This is known as self-study. If lectures and study sessions form the backbone of an academic programme, then self-study is the tissue that makes up the rest of the body. For this reason, self-study will probably cover the largest and most important part of your studies. In order to ensure that the time they get for self-study is planned in a well-organized and efficient way, many students find it helpful to draw up a study plan for the various courses that they’re following.

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Box 1.3

Example of a study plan Steps

Example

Main goal

Complete the Academic skills course successfully.

Subdivide goal

n n n

Identify tasks - Paper

n L  ectures:



n

n

Week-by-week plan

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Chapter 1 Studying

Write a high-quality paper. Give a good presentation. Etc.

• P  repare for, attend and later make notes on study groups on writing skills. I dentify all sub-tasks or sub-assignments: • D  eadline for formulating question; • D  eadline for literature study; • D  eadline for writing plan; • D  eadline for first draft of paper; • D  eadline for final version of paper. I dentify tasks for each interim assignment, for example: • X  number of hours searching for literature on the Internet; • S  pend X number of hours reading the articles you have found; • S  pend X number of hours on making a rough draft of the paper; • E  tc.

Based on the study plan you’ve drafted, you can then plan, in as much detail as possible, what you want to do on a particular day (i.e. not just ‘writing’ or ‘reading’, but ‘write first draft of the introduction’ or ‘read chapter 1 of Academic skills’). When making a plan, it is essential to allow space for unforeseen events. Make sure that you don’t plan everything right up to the deadline, either; here, too, you should give yourself enough leeway.

In order to draw up a realistic plan, it is important to identify your strong and weak points (see Box 1.3). The more realistic your plan, the less risk there will be of you finding yourself having to tackle unmanageable chunks of work, and the more you will feel motivated by your plan. Example of a weekly plan 09.00

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Lecture read handouts

Develop lecture notes

Critically re-read literature review

LECTURE

Develop lecture notes

LECTURE

Prepare group presentation for study group

10.00 11.00

Read literature for study group Edit literature review

12.00

Write summary of literature

13.00 14.00 15.00

Write discussion literature review

Practise presentation

Read chapter

Check spelling and references literature review

STUDY GROUP

16.00

Lecture read handouts

17.00

STUDY GROUP

Develop lecture notes Deadline for written assignment

18.00

Literature review

Lecture

Study group

Concentration

Might the grades for my most recent exams already be online? While you’re reading a text for your literature review, a thought occurs to you and you can’t get it out of your head. This problem is a familiar one for many students: whether it’s the distraction of an expected grade or checking your phone for new messages, study is interrupted and results suffer as a consequence. Many people find it helpful to study in blocks of 25 to 45 minutes, taking short breaks in between. During these blocks, you shouldn’t allow yourself to be distracted by outside stimuli or your own thoughts. This method is also known as the ‘pomodoro’ technique (named after its Italian inventor, who used a tomato-shaped kitchen timer to measure out 25-minute blocks). If you’re having trouble concentrating, it’s a great idea to try this technique. See ‘Other useful sources’ at the end of this chapter for a website with a more detailed explanation of the Pomodoro technique.

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Box 1.4

Learning styles Answering the following questions can help you to draw up a realistic study plan: n F  or how long are you able to concentrate? n A  t what time of day are you at your best? For example, are you a morning person or an evening person? n W  hich material do you find tricky (reading texts in a foreign language, for example)? n W  here do you study best, at home or in the library? n W  hat generally takes you more time: reading academic texts or written assignments

In order to improve your concentration, it’s also important to limit distractions as much as possible. Turn off your phone, for instance, ensure that your e-mail programme is off if you’re working at your computer, and don’t allow yourself to visit social media or news sites. It’s also important to avoid being distracted by your phone or laptop during lectures and study groups. Research by Wei, Wang and Klausner (2012), for example, has shown that distraction caused by phones during lectures has a very negative effect on cognitive learning. Moreover, another research study by Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) suggests that making notes on a laptop results in less effective learning than making notes with a pen and paper.

Examinations

As soon as you’re sufficiently familiar with the key ideas, theories and concepts, it will be time to prepare yourself for an exam. Try to work out what is the essence of course: which are the most important parts and learning aims? The learning aims can often tell you more about the level of knowledge that’s expected of you on a particular subject. In addition, you may find it helpful to put yourself in the lecturer’s shoes: if you were him or her, how would you attempt to find out whether the students had learned enough? In this case, you may find the course handbook and old exam papers useful guides. Some students find that they buckle under the fear of failure; although they prepare well, the stress of taking an exam means they don’t do as well as they should. If you find that fear of failure is getting in the way of your studies, it’s a good idea to discuss this with your academic counsellor.

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Chapter 1 Studying

Box 1.5

Potential tips for preparing for an exam n T  ake n

n n n

n

another look at the course handbook: what are the learning aims of the course?  ook at the lecture slides; they often tell you which themes the lecturer L considers important. Read the material, make summaries and study them. Study your notes, summaries and the key concepts and figures.  ook through old exams or mock exams and practise (preferably under L timed conditions, like real exams). Agree to discuss the material with your fellow students.

Many students find making mind maps helpful when preparing for exams. Certainly when you’re looking for links between concepts and subjects, or even fields, it can help to organize and summarize the information you’re working on in a mind map. What’s more, you can add related information to a mind map (from previous courses, for example). The figure below gives an example of a mind map, taking the structure of this book as the subject. Example of a mind map 12 Debate, discussion and critical dialogue

13

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tin

c fle

1 Studying

Ac ritic al a ttit u

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2 ac Re ad ad em ing ic lite

ng dyi Stu

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Book: ACADEMIC SKILLS

8 Arg umen

ts 9 Writing s ource iting s g 10 C n i t sen Pre 11

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ing har

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h arc ese ur r

II D o

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arc

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ur e

ge s led group ow study Kn s and re tu c Le Self-study and planning Conce ntratio n Exa min St a tion ay s ing m ot iva te d

ring topic xplo rch 3 E r resea u yo ing 4 Interview

5 Searchin g the literat ure 6 andOrga pro nizin 7 ces g, a Em sin na g y lys pi ou ing ric r so al urc re es se ar ch

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Staying motivated

You were admitted to university, so you’re able to use your brain. From now on, though, your success at university will be determined to a very great extent by your motivation, regardless of how clever you are. Despite your privileged position, it is a challenge to remain continuously motivated for the whole of your degree. In the 1970s, the psychologists Edwald Deci and Richard Ryan did extensive research on what motivates people. They argued that three basic needs play a crucial role: 1) autonomy, 2) competence and 3) relatedness (Box 1.6). If one of these needs is not satisfied, your level of motivation may drop, and in the most extreme case this may result in a failure to complete your degree programme. You should therefore ask yourself the following three questions on a regular basis: Box 1.6

Self-determination theory (based on Deci & Ryan, 2008) Question

Options if answer is ‘No’

Basic need

Am I making my own choices (or am I actually doing this for my lecturer or my parents)?

Choose topics for papers that really interest you; choose a minor that fascinates you.

Autonomy

Isn’t this too easy for me, or isn’t it actually too difficult for me?

Seek extra help (such as coaching) or, on the contrary, extra challenges (such as honours modules).

Competency

Do I feel a connection with my fellow students and my degree programme?

Join a study association, organize a social activity.

Relatedness

Sources used --

--

--

22

Bloom et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company. Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 182-185. Gardner, H. (2007). Five minds for the future. Boston, Ma: Harvard Business School Publishing.

Chapter 1 Studying

--

--

--

--

--

Moret, M. & Maussen, M.J.M. (2013). Leren studeren [Learning to study]. In M. Moret & M.J.M. Maussen (eds.), Academische vaardigheden voor politicologen [Academic skills for political scientists] (pp. 15-34). Amsterdam: College voor Sociale Wetenschappen. Mueller, P.A. & Oppenheimer, D.M. (2014). The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages of longhand over laptop note taking. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1159-1168. University of Twente (n.d.). Werkwoorden bij beheersingsniveau van Bloom [Verbs in Bloom’s levels of ability]. Available from: https://www.utwente.nl/ cit/organisatie/onderwijsorganisatie/website_examencommissie/toetsing_ toetsbeleids/leerdoel/niveaubepaling_leerdoelen_Bloom.pdf Wei, F.F., Wang, Y.K. & Klausner, M. (2012). Rethinking college students’ self-regulation and sustained attention: Does text messaging during class influence cognitive learning? Communication Edition, 61(3), 185-204. Winston, K. (2013). Remediation theory and practice: Transforming at-risk medical students (thesis, Maastricht University).

Other useful sources --

--

--

--

---

--

Google’s StayFocusd is useful, free software for keeping distractions at bay. You’ll find it in the Chrome Web Store or by doing a Google search on ‘StayFocusd’. At Ted.com, you will find an interesting and practical introduction to the ‘memory palace’ memory technique by the author Joshua Foer (type his name into the site’s search box). For more practical tips on studying successfully, go to uva.nl/en and type ‘study skills’ in the page’s search box, then go to ‘Studying successfully’. The sheets on ‘How do you stay motivated?’, ‘How do you take an exam?’ and ‘How do you prevent procrastination’ are particularly helpful. If you’re having problems with studying, you can always make an appointment with your academic counsellor, for example, to talk about what’s holding you back. The ‘pomodoro’ technique: {{ http://pomodorotechnique.com As well as the pomodoro technique, there are other ways of working more productively. This e-book contains yet more tips: {{ lifehacking.nl/wp-content/uploads/175Lifehackingtips.pdf A website with more information on study skills: {{ skills4study.com

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2  Reading academic literature

Academic texts are different from journalistic or literary texts, due to the greater information density and the use of jargon. Reading academic texts takes a lot of practice, but there are a number of techniques that will make it easier right from the start of your studies. In this chapter, we explain how to identify different types of academic texts, which strategies you can use to read academic texts and get useful information out of them, and how to summarize texts effectively.

Types of text Academic literature

Scholars produce various kinds of texts that differ from other texts on a number of essential points. If you’re reading with the aim of writing a literature review, it’s important to be able to distinguish academic sources from non-academic ones. A newspaper article is not an academic text, a Wikipedia page even less so. So what is an academic text, and how can you identify one? In Box 2.1, you’ll find an overview of the types of text that you’ll often encounter during your time at university. Each type of text has a different structure and each demands a different reading strategy.

24

Chapter 2 Reading academic literature

Box 2.1

Types of academic text Text type

Synonyms

Aim

Research article

Research report, scholarly article, paper.

To publish results that have been obtained through scholarly research (often empirical research).

Review article (literature review)

Literature review, scientific article, paper.

To answer a research question using existing literature. It can also be used to present the current state of research relating to a particular theme or problem. This generally entails integrating many dozens of research reports.

Textbook (academic handbook)

Academic reference book, academic textbook.

To answer a (broad) research question using existing literature. It can also be used to present the current state of research within an entire research field. This generally entails integrating or compiling many research and literature reports.

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Although texts in each academic discipline can vary significantly in terms of their structure, form and length, there are a number of characteristics that are shared by almost all academic articles (research reports and literature reports): ■■ They are published in scholarly journals that are edited by experts. One example of a well-known journal in the natural sciences is Nature; an example of a highly rated scholarly journal in the social sciences is the Journal of Political Economy; and in the arts (particularly in the field of literature), Poetics is a highly regarded journal. ■■ They are peer-reviewed, which means that their substantive quality is evaluated by at least two independent and usually anonymous scholars. ■■ The authors are not permitted to have any direct commercial or political interests in the subject on which they are writing and they always disclose their background (often including contact details). ■■ They are often preceded by an abstract: a concise summary of the most important findings, the context and the implications of the research. ■■ They contain a large number of references to other scholarly publications on the same subject. These references are often included in the body of the text, at the end or in the middle of sentences. Hierarchy of academic literature

Textbooks

Review articles

Research articles

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Chapter 2 Reading academic literature

Grey literature

Besides scholarly literature, you will find ‘grey literature’: these are publications that are produced by researchers or research organizations, but that are not peer-reviewed. For this reason, there is no guarantee that specialists have checked the content of the work. Nevertheless, you will frequently read such texts in the coming years. Grey literature is so named because it lies in the grey area between academic and non-academic literature. This often makes it difficult to assess whether the article is of sufficient quality to function as a reliable source. Examples of grey literature include research reports from the United Nations, data from statistics institutes and government reports. In most cases, you may include grey literature in the bibliography for your research (see also Chapter 5). If you are in doubt, you can ask your lecturer or supervisor whether the source you’ve found satisfies the requirements. Box 2.2 contains examples of different types of grey literature. Box 2.2

Grey literature Text type

Synonyms

Aim

Advisory report

Policy report, consultancy report.

To announce substantiated (policy) recommendations or a solution to a problem on the basis of one’s own or someone else’s research.

Thesis

Dissertation, doctoral research, Master’s research.

To report on research that has been carried out by Master’s or doctoral students.

Non-academic research report

To announce research undertaken by governing bodies, non-academic research institutes or non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

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Non-academic literature

In addition to academic and grey literature, you will also encounter a lot of non-academic literature; this can be particularly useful when exploring a topic for the first time (see also Chapter 3). Do be aware, though, that these texts may not generally be used as sources for written assignments. Examples of non-academic literature are given in Box 2.3. Box 2.3

Non-academic literature Text type

Aim

Internet page

Many Internet pages provide summaries of particular topics or themes. You can use this information as a starting point for your literature search, but never as a source. Always look for the scholarly source underlying the information on the web page.

Wikipedia

Wikipedia contains a huge amount of information and can be edited by anyone. You should therefore treat Wikipedia like any other Internet page, and possibly use it as a starting point for your search, but never as a source. Here, too, you should always search for the primary scholarly source or sources underlying the information on the page.

Popular scientific article

Magazines and websites that inform the general public about the state of research or recent developments in a field, such as National Geographic or Scientific American.

Strategies for reading

Now we’ve surveyed the different types of texts, let us look at how you can extract and incorporate information from academic texts. You may sometimes feel overwhelmed by the number and difficulty of the texts that you have to read for a course. For this reason, it’s good to know that reading academic sources effectively and efficiently is a skill that you can develop. You will notice yourself getting better and better at reading and understanding texts, and you’ll get to the heart of a text increasingly quickly. Below, we set out the different reading strategies that you can use or combine in order to obtain information from a text.

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Chapter 2 Reading academic literature

Level 1: Preparatory reading

You often read a text because you want to learn or know something. In doing so, you focus on finding the information that is contained in the text. You may also be interested in understanding the author’s argument or judging the correctness of his arguments or theories. The goal that you set yourself when reading a text influences how you prepare to read, your speed, and whether you make notes. Before you start reading, it is important to ask yourself the following questions:: ■■ In how much detail do I want to understand the text? ■■ How much prior knowledge do I need on this subject? ■■ How much of the text do I want to remember after reading it? ■■ Do I need to criticize the text? ■■ It is important for me to make connections between this text and the lectures or other sources? Your answer to these questions will determine how you can best approach your text. You will find that it’s not always necessary to read a text from left to right and from beginning to end, as one would do when reading a novel, for example. Another consideration to make here is whether to print out the text or not. You may find that you are distracted easily when you read a text on a screen, or that you remember or understand less when reading a document on a tablet. Incidentally, this last observation is supported by the results of Interdisciplinary tip research into reading on paper versus reading on a screen. When students Research articles in journals can be printed out a text, they were better able to extremely specialized. In order to familiarize answer questions about it than when they yourself easily with the basic ideas and had read it online (Mangen, Walgermo & concepts in a scholarly field, it’s a good idea Brønnick, 2013). to seek out review articles or textbooks.

Level 2: Exploratory reading

The objective of exploratory reading is to scan a text to get an overall impression of the content of a source. In doing so, you try to get a rapid insight into the broad outlines and structure of the text. There are a number of reasons for scanning a text: ■■ Relevance. Scanning a text can tell you whether it would be a relevant text for you to read. Scanning enhances the effectiveness of studying and can help you to select useful sources for your research. ■■ Preparation. Scanning is also a good way to explore a text as preparation for detailed reading. The aim here is to try to discover the broad outlines of the structure, organization and content of an article. This is an important first step in clarifying and understanding a text. It also gives you an idea of how much time you’ll need to read the text, so that you can build this into your study plan. ■■ Focused searching. A third goal of scanning may be that you’re looking for specific information in a text. This can be extremely handy, for example, if you want to use a particular quote or empirical data from a source. Using a search Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies

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function, it is particularly easy to search for keywords in a digital source. Be sure to avoid taking the information out of context, though. If you want to scan an article or book, certain parts of a text lend themselves well to this; the order depends on your own preferences (see Box 2.4). Box 2.4

Text elements for exploratory reading n T  he

title of the chapter or article. abstract (summary). The title of the book or journal where you found the source.  he table of contents of the book and the sub-headings in the chapter or T article. I nformation about the author.  he keywords of a chapter or article. T I mages, tables, diagrams and graphs (often visualizations of the most important information).  he first section (introduction) and the last section (conclusion/discussion). T

n T  he n n

n n n

n

In addition to scanning the most important elements of a text, it is also a good idea to find out about the author (or authors) of the source. What is the scholarly background of the author? Is it also possible to find out which perspective he or she takes on the subject, or which position he or she is likely to take in a debate? What’s more, it can also be enlightening Interdisciplinary tip to find out more about the journal or textbook in which the text was Be aware that texts in each academic cluster published. The theme of a textbook or (the natural sciences, the social sciences and the field of a journal gives valuable the arts) and every discipline within these background information when clusters often have their own language usage, exploring a text. Finally, reading the structure and design. A research report in the introduction and the final section can journal Science will read completely differently give you an impression of the focus and from a case study in the journal Sustainable key concepts in a chapter or article. Development. Despite this, there are similarities between the reports (see Box 2.4). Use an exploratory reading style to find your way around this very wide range of literature.

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Chapter 2 Reading academic literature

Level 3: Reading for comprehension

When you want to understand a text, exploratory reading is not sufficient. You can’t avoid reading the text thoroughly, whereby you understand every part of the text and can reproduce it in your own words. Although this reading strategy takes more time and you may have to leaf backward every now and then, you will find that you become faster at getting to the core of the text. When reading for comprehension, you can master a text on a number of levels. Once you’ve paid enough attention to the preparatory phase (and thus know why you’re reading the text and what it generally contains), you can go into the text in more depth. The first step to mastering a text is to understand the different parts of a text. A well-structured text deals with a sub-topic of the main topic in each paragraph or section, so try to work out the main idea in each chapter, section or paragraph. You could visualize this as a mind map (see Chapter 1 and the section on Summarizing further on in this chapter). In the second step, it is important to clarify the relationship with the other sections or chapters. Try to discover and clarify the structure of the text, by searching for the author’s argument and his or her main findings and ideas. In doing so, you try to map out the most important ideas in the text. The aim of this step is to get insight into the structure, concepts and arguments of the text (see also Chapter 8). Finally, it is important that you try to reproduce the core message(s) and information contained in a text in your own words. Ensure that you understand the key terms, but try not to lose too much time looking up difficult words as you read. When you come across a tricky word, Interdisciplinary tip try to work out its meaning from the context. What’s more, try patiently to As you read in depth, you’ll come across re-read key sentences that are difficult many references to other sources and studies. to understand. If you don’t manage this, Authors use these to substantiate their it’s a good idea to make a note of this arguments and show how the text is rooted in and take it with you to the lecture or a scholarly field. You can use these references study group. to read up further on a field.

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Level 4: Critical reading

When reading critically, it is essential to form your own opinion of a text: you have to evaluate its content (see Bloom’s highest level of knowledge in Chapter 1). As well as being able to reproduce the most important information in the text, you also need to be able to reflect and make critical comments on its message. This can be an important goal, for example, for being able to use the material from the text actively in a discussion or in your own argument or research. While reading a text critically, on the one hand, you gather internal criticism: you look at whether the argument put forward by the author(s) is convincing and whether it is supported by the other information and analyses that are presented. Besides this, you look at the external criticisms that can be made of the text: can you accept everything contained in the text? In other words, you look at whether the information and verification are correct and plausible, or whether you could conceive of any alternative explanations or theories. The more you know about the subject, the easier you will find this. This means that you will often have to look for new, supplementary knowledge. When reading, it can help to make notes. This allows you not only to understand the structure of the text and be able to recall the key elements quickly later, but it is also a way to aid your concentration and boost your memory. Box 2.5

Making notes on a text Which parts of a text should you underline or write down? n T  he aim of the authors, the theoretical framework and the assumptions. n E  ssential elements of the text, such as keywords or sentences that represent the core of the article. n D  etails or data that are of relevance to you. n Y  our questions about a text or things that you still want to find out in relation to the text.

By reading critically, you can form your own critical opinion of the text. This does not automatically mean that you should be negative or dismissive regarding the text. What it does mean, though, is that you should make a thorough judgement on what you have read, in which you clearly state the grounds for your positive, negative or neutral attitude to the text. The power of the critical approach to reading lies in the fact that you accept nothing in advance, or without evidence or interpretation. This can help you to produce an assignment or analysis, but it can also help you to further your understanding of a text.

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Chapter 2 Reading academic literature

The further you progress in your studies, the more you’ll need to draw on this critical ability. In the beginning, it may be sufficient to gather and describe the potential external criticism. Later, you Interdisciplinary tip will increasingly be assessed on your own critical ability and you will need to You should take the scholarly background of show that you are able to put forward a the authors into account, as this can give a well-considered opinion on the value of one-sided perspective. You could also look the sources you have studied. for articles on a particular subject from other academic fields.

Summarizing

In a summary, it is essential to distinguish major issues from minor ones. This means that it is not possible to be comprehensive, mainly because academic texts often contain a lot of information. How do you select information that is essential and information that can be left out? Below, you’ll find some tips for summarizing a research article. When summarizing a research article, it can be helpful to follow its structure (although this is certainly not the case for every type of text). Do ensure that you describe the different parts of the text in a forward-moving and coherent story. It can also help to represent the structure of the research in a diagram. In this way, you automatically ensure that the summary becomes a coherent and comprehensible story, and you avoid including too much information. You can always look up important details in the article later. In Box 2.6, we set out which information is important for your summary for each part of a research article. Box 2.6

Tips for writing a summary Academic context

Explain the academic context of the article or how the article is embedded in the discipline.

Introduction

Describe the problem area and the question. Sometimes the question will be mentioned explicitly in the article, other times you will have to read more or less between the lines.

▼

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Method

Explain how the research was carried out and how the research answers the question. Ensure that the description of the method supports the discussion of the research results. For example, it does not make sense to mention that a questionnaire was held if you do not discuss its results.

Results

Carefully select the results you wish to include. In any case, include the results that relate directly to the answer to the question. In order to give the reader an idea of the size of an effect, it can be useful to include a few figures (such as means, percentages or correlation coefficients). Then check whether you have given results for all the conditions and methods you described in the methods section.

Conclusion

Explain how the research question was answered. Be sure not to dwell too long on interpretations that are not directly related to the question. Conclude the summary with an explanation of the scholarly and/or societal relevance of the outcomes of the research.

Your own opinion (optional)

You should likewise express your own opinion in academic terms, and explain why you do or do not agree with certain parts of the article. In doing so, it is important to state clearly what the authors of the article wrote and what you have added, by making careful use of citations.

Literature list

In any case, this should include the article that you summarized and may also include other literature that you cite (see Chapter 11 for citation rules).

Chapter 2 Reading academic literature

Sources used ---

---

Bolle, L. de (2011). Academische taalvaardigheden 2 [Academic language skills 2]. Brussels: Vubpress. - Mangen, A., Walgermo, B.R. & Brønnick, K. (2013). Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 58, 61-68. - Marshall, L.A. & Rowland, F. (2006). A guide to learning independently. French Forests: Pearson Education Australia. - Moret, M. & Maussen, M.J.M. (2013). Leren studeren [Learning to study]. In M. Moret & M.J.M. Maussen (eds.), Academische vaardigheden voor politicologen [Academic skills for political scientists] (pp. 15-34). Amsterdam: College voor Sociale Wetenschappen.

Other useful sources --

--

The website Mindtools.com uses film clips and articles to give insight into the different speed-reading techniques (type ‘speed reading’ into the site’s search box). For more practical tips on studying successfully, go to uva.nl/en, type ‘study skills’ into the page’s search box, and then go to ‘Studying successfully’. In particular, the sheet on ‘How do you read smartly?’ provides more information on the various reading strategies.

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Part 2 Doing research ‘If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.’ (1676) Isaac Newton (1643-1727) English physicist, mathematician and astronomer In Part Two, we discuss how you can do research using existing academic sources. This could be for a self-standing literature review, but a literature review can also form the starting point for your own research with experiments, observations or data analysis. We cover the following steps: exploring a topic, formulating a question, finding and saving suitable sources, analysing information and conducting an interview.

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3  Exploring your research topic

Researching a topic is an important skill that you will develop during your studies. A large part of your study programme will thus be devoted to developing your research skills. Although there are many forms of scholarly research, in this chapter we will limit ourselves to the literature study. Below, we look at how to find a research topic and how you can formulate a good question.

When you do a literature survey or literature research, you systematically investigate which knowledge exists on a particular academic topic. For this purpose, you search for the various theories, hypotheses and research results that have been published by scholars. Literature research goes further than simply summarizing information, however. The simplest way of making your own contribution is to formulate a question and answer it by means of a literature survey. On the basis of this question, you evaluate existing knowledge and try to draw connections between the studies. This means that you actively incorporate individual studies in order to reach overarching conclusions. For this reason, when you do a literature survey you almost always work with an academic question. Before you are able to formulate this question, though, you will need to find a topic.

Choosing a topic

It is not always easy to find a topic. Some people have a whole stack of ideas on which to get going; others take days, or even weeks, to come up with a topic that satisfies them. Sometimes the possible topics are already set out in the assignment, while other times you will be completely free to pick a topic. In both cases, you can choose for yourself what you are going to research. Scholarly research almost always begins with an observation, something that grabs your attention or fascinates you. These observations can be made anywhere, and there are thus no limits on where you can draw your inspiration. See Box 3.1 for a few suggestions.

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Box 3.1

Starting points for exploring a topic

38

Current affairs

Start your search with something that caught your eye, such as something that you recently saw or read. The advantage for you, as an interdisciplinary student, is that you often have a lot of freedom in your choice of subject, because you’re not limited by disciplinary boundaries. There should be scholarly literature available on the topic, of course, so check at an early stage whether this is the case (see also Chapter 5).

A previously discussed topic

Think about whether there is a topic that sparked your interest during a lecture or a discussion.

Interview with a researcher or lecturer

See Chapter 4 on interviewing.

The end section of scholarly articles

Perhaps you’ve read scholarly articles for other courses that sparked your interest. At the end of almost every academic article, often after the conclusion, there are suggestions for further research.

Follow-up research

If you find an article interesting, look for more (or more recent) sources by the same author or for other sources that refer to this article. You can use a citation search for this (see also Chapter 5).

Popular scientific website/magazine

There are lots of magazines and websites that popularize science. Here you’ll find well-written pieces without too much jargon that discuss new scholarly insights, for example (see the suggestions under ‘other useful sources’). However, you cannot use this information as a source in your literature review.

Wikipedia

Wikipedia is an excellent starting point for exploring a field of interest. However, never use a Wikipedia page as a scholarly source in a literature review.

Google

Use various search terms to search for your field of interest. Use a number of synonyms for this (see also Chapter 5).

Chapter 3 Exploring your research topic

Formulating a question

Once you’ve chosen a fascinating topic, you need to formulate your question. It is important to write down this initial question as soon as possible, so that you can subsequently refine it. The question is the leitmotiv that runs through every literature review. At the end of your research, you formulate a well-founded answer to this question.

Delimiting your topic

By delimiting your topic, you ensure that the research remains manageable. The trick is to say a lot about a small topic, rather than a little about a large one. When formulating an academic question, one hardly ever comes up with the perfect research question straight away. Formulating a good research question is one of the trickiest, but also the most important, parts of scholarly research. It is an iterative process (with ups and downs, and sometimes two steps forward and one step back), in which you will have to produce a number of drafts before you come up with the definitive question. In Box 3.2, you will find an example of how to delimit a question. In doing so, it important to define the terms and concepts that make up the question as clearly and specifically as possible, so that it is clear what you want to research. The degree of delimitation is highly dependent on the size of the assignment. For larger assignments, the questions located higher up in the table may also be appropriate. For other assignments, you will need to delimit the question more (or much more). How specific you can make the question is also determined by the available scholarly literature and whether the question itself is a good one.

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Box 3.2

Example of how to delimit a question Question

Delimiting the question

What impact does the agrarian sector have on the environment?

‘Agrarian sector’ could mean: crop cultivation, horticulture, stockbreeding, etc.

What impact does stockbreeding have on the environment?

‘Stockbreeding’ could mean: poultry, cattle, industrial, small-scale, sustainable, etc.

What impact does large-scale dairy farming have to the environment?

‘Large-scale dairy farming’ could mean: in the US, in Europe, in the Netherlands, etc.

What impact does large-scale dairy farming in the Netherlands have on the environment?

‘Environment’ could mean: water quality, air quality, ground pollution, biodiversity, climate, etc.

What impact does large-scale dairy farming in the Netherlands have on greenhouse gas emissions?

A question such as this is a well-delimited question for the typical literature survey.

Types of questions

There are different types of questions. When formulating a good academic question, it is important to anticipate the answer that is to follow. This might sound strange; after all, you haven’t done the research yet. Nevertheless, the form of the question tells you how the answer will be structured. If you do not think properly beforehand on what your answer is roughly going to look like, you won’t be able to carry out your research effectively (see Box 3.3). It is not the case, though, that your answer to your research question has to be definitive. Often you’ll end a literature review with a conclusion such as: ‘Two studies (Author A, year; Author B, year) make a credible case for […]. And a third study by Author C (year) adds nuance to this by showing how […].’

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Chapter 3 Exploring your research topic

Box 3.3

Types of questions

(partly adapted from Oost & Markenhof, 2012) Type of question

Explanation

Example

Type of answer

Comparative

You compare two or more research elements with one other.

What are the differences between X and Y?

A description of the characteristics of X, a description of the characteristics of Y, and a comparison of the two.

Evaluative

You always evaluate something by comparing the actual situation with a number of criteria. This is only possible if there is a norm.

What are the positive characteristics of … ? How well does … work?

A description of the current or actual state of affairs within the topic. A list of criteria that are tested.

Explanatory

You try to discover the relationship between two or more variables.

What is … ? What is the cause of … ? What is the influence of … ? Why does … happen?

An overview of the literature that sets out what the underlying explanations of a phenomenon are. Here it is important to compare the different sources with each other. (Do they draw the same conclusions? Do they use the same methods? Do they focus on the same variables?)

Designdriven

You make an action plan. Which steps have to be taken in order to achieve a particular goal?

How can … be achieved?

A description of the goal and an account of why that goal should be achieved. A number of steps to reach this goal.

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When formulating your question, you will see that you have to keep going from the literature to the question and vice versa, because your question determines what you find, and what you find determines your question. It is very common to review and revise your question a few times during the research process. Box 3.4 sets out the key criteria that your question should satisfy. Box 3.4

Checklist: question for a literature survey Relevance

Is the scholarly or societal significance of the question clear? Your research question should be clearly linked to the problem area. In addition, it should be clear why your question is worth researching.

Precision

Is the question phrased unambiguously? State as precisely as possible what it is that you want to research. This helps you to avoid your literature survey giving an answer to the wrong question.

Feasibility

Can the question be answered? This means that the question must be formulated in such a way that it leads to a suitable research design. Ideally, you should be able to infer from the question how it can be answered.

Grounding

Is the question of a sufficient scholarly quality? It is important to reflect on whether your question can be answered within a scholarly field. Check whether your topic fits within the area of knowledge you have in mind.

Sub-questions

After drawing up a main question, you should always divide it into sub-questions. You can take a systematic approach to formulating sub-questions. For example, take the main question: ‘What impact does dairy farming have on greenhouse gas emissions?’ Here you could choose to split up the concept of a greenhouse gas and answer each sub-question in turn. For example: ■■ ‘What impact does dairy farming have on emissions of methane?’ ■■ ‘What impact does dairy farming have on emissions of carbon dioxide?’ ■■ ‘What impact does dairy farming have on emissions of nitrous oxide? You subsequently incorporate the answers to the sub-questions into your conclusion. In this way, these sub-answers together provide an answer to the main question. You can find out exactly how to do this in Chapter 9.

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Chapter 3 Exploring your research topic

Not every question lends itself readily to being split into component parts (a greenhouse gas per sub-question). Be that as it may, it is important to divide your main question into sub-questions. The same criteria apply to formulating the sub-questions as apply to formulating the main question, as discussed in Box 3.4. In addition, it is important to pay attention to a number of additional issues: ■■ Ensure that the sub-questions completely cover the substance of the main question. The answers to the sub-questions should then produce an answer to the main question. Should this not be the case, adjust the questions. ■■ Ensure that the sub-questions allow you to answer the main question in logical steps. It is often the case that you answer one sub-question in each section (this is discussed further in Chapter 9, on the structure of a paper).

Sources used --

---

Jong, J. de (2011). Handboek academisch schrijven: In stappen naar een essay, paper of scriptie [Guide to academic writing: a step-by-step approach to writing an essay, paper or thesis]. Bussum: Coutinho. Menken, S.B.J. & Keestra, M. (eds.) (2016). An introduction to interdisciplinary research. Amsterdam University Press. Oost, H. & Markenhof, A. (2012). Een onderzoek voorbereiden [Preparing for research]. Baarn: HB publishers.

Other useful sources Popular scientific sources to use when searching for a topic include: --

Magazines New Scientist: newscientist.nl {{ Scientific American: scientificamerican.com {{ IFLScience: iflscience.com Websites: {{ sciencedaily.com {{ popsci.com {{ howstuffworks.com The science supplements of national newspapers {{

--

--

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4  Interviewing

Interviewing an expert is one way to get a rapid impression of the key theories, research methods and publications in a field, and how relevant they are to a problem area. In this chapter, you’ll find an overview of aspects that are important for a good interview.

In this chapter, we approach interviewing as a practical skill that is used to gather information about a research area. This is not the only way in which interviewing is used in universities, though. In the social sciences, for example, interviewing is a common empirical Interdisciplinary tip research method. Although many of our tips complement (or are based on) Interviewing an expert is a great opportunity the techniques that are used for the to get to know a discipline better. Not only do research method, if you are particularly you learn about how issues are approached interested in this, you should consult within the field, but an expert can also be the handbooks that have been written a helpful guide to the (relevant) literature. specifically on this (see section on One advantage of doing an interview is that ‘other useful sources’). Here, we mainly it allows for lots of interaction. Particularly approach interviewing as a practical when you’re new to a discipline, an interview discussion skill. can be an accessible way of asking follow-up questions, for example, or clarifying jargon.

Preparing an interview

For an interview to go well, the interviewer should work through a number of steps when preparing. A good way of doing this is to draw up an interview plan. Box 4.1 sets out the key parts of an interview plan.

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Chapter 4 Interviewing

Box 4.1

The parts of an interview plan Purpose of the interview

If you have a clear purpose, it will be easier to work out whether you are still on course during the interview.

Interview topic(s)

Ensure that you prepare a clearly phrased and well-delimited description of the main topic (or topics). This forms the starting point for drafting appropriate questions.

Key questions

Interviews often have an open character; after all, you never know beforehand exactly how the discussion will go, and the interview will be more interesting if you ask follow-up questions. Determine beforehand the questions that you want to ask in any case by carefully drafting a number of key questions.

Reserve questions

Also prepare questions that can be asked if the interview goes unexpectedly quickly or you have time left over.

Structure and organization

Before the interview, decide on the order in which you’d like to tackle the topics and questions. Having a clear structure is the key to timing an interview well. Make a thorough estimate of how much time you’ll need so that you can ask your most important questions in any case.

Background information

Having a good overview of interviewee’s background will help you to draft good and appropriate questions. Ensure that you know what the interviewee’s key responsibilities are and that you are familiar with any scholarly publications.

For the interviewer, it is therefore important to reflect on the influence that types of questions have on the interviewee’s answers. Besides types of questions, the course of an interview will also be determined by the division of roles between the interviewer and the interviewee. In the section below, we look at this role division in greater depth.

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Box 4.2

Types of questions for an interview Open vs. closed

Open questions give interviewees space to say what they consider to be important. With a closed question, you can ask your interviewee for more specific information or you can establish whether you’ve understood the other well. Achieving a balance between the two prevents the interview from becoming directionless or the interviewee too passive.

Neutral vs. suggestive

A suggestive question is one that reveals the interviewer’s opinion. Suggestive questions can therefore have a directional character. Do be critical, but also be sparing with your use of suggestive questions.

In- vs. ex-questions

‘In’ questions continue on a topic that has already been raised. ‘Ex’ questions broach a new topic. One common error is to move on to a new topic too quickly.

Singular vs. plural

Plural questions consist of a series of questions that are asked rapidly one after another, or phrased as one question. The major disadvantage of a plural question is that the interviewee can become confused, so try to avoid plural questions as much as possible.

For the interviewer, it is therefore important to reflect on the influence that types of questions have on the interviewee’s answers. Besides types of questions, the course of an interview will also be determined by the division of roles between the interviewer and the interviewee. In the section below, we look at this role division in greater depth.

During the interview

During an interview, it is important to reflect on your role in relation to the interviewee. Try to work out what the relationship is between you and your discussion partner. The smaller the social gap between the two of you, the greater the chance that your interviewee will trust you. Thanks to the prior knowledge that you gained during your preparation, you will qualify as a worthy interviewer. In addition, you can also influence the relationship between the interviewee and yourself through the interviewing style that you adopt. For an effective open interview, it’s essential to build up chemistry between the speakers. Good chemistry arises when differences in social background and status are overcome. It is primarily the interviewer’s task to build up this chemistry and maintain it during the interview. You can do this, for example, by asking a few

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Chapter 4 Interviewing

interested questions right at the start that have nothing to do with the topic at hand. Interviewing style: non-directive

With a non-directive style, the interviewer functions more as a listener than as a discussion leader. He or she asks an opening question and allows the interviewee as free a hand as possible. The only other thing that the interviewer does is to ensure that the interviewee feels encouraged to keep talking. The advantage of the non-directive style is that a great deal of (revealing) information can be unleashed as soon as the interviewee gets a chance to talk. The disadvantage is that much of this information may be irrelevant, given that the interviewer steers the interview as little as possible. A lot of time and patience is needed to unearth all the relevant information. Interviewing style: hard-directive vs. soft-directive

With a directive interviewing style, the interviewer directs the conversation. Thus when using this style, you don’t leave the course of the discussion up to the interviewee, but you focus on obtaining information. The directive interviewing style can be split into a soft variant and a hard variant. In soft-directive interviews, the interviewer guides the interviewee through his or her own story using questions. The tone is neutral and the questions are often open, so that the interviewee does not feel too steered in his responses. If using closed questions, on the other hand, the questions are asked in a neutral way (not suggestively). In hard-directive interviews, the interviewer expressly directs the conversation. In general, however, the soft-directive method is more appropriate for inexperienced interviewers.

Sources used --

University of Groningen (2012, 26 October). Interviewen [Interviewing]. Available from http://www.rug.nl/education/other-study-opportunities/hcv/ mondelinge-vaardigheden/voor-studenten/interviewen/

Other useful sources --

In this chapter, interviewing has been discussed as a method of preparing for and exploring a particular academic field. Within the social sciences, interviewing is also an important research skill. Other handbooks go into this skill in more depth and show how to use it to answer a research question. One good (and reasonably priced) handbook is: {{ Kvale, S. & Brinkmann, S. (2009). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

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5  Searching the literature

In order to formulate and delimit your question, you’ve explored an academic topic. Now you’ve got your delimited question, you can make a start on the actual research (the literature survey). Most probably, you didn’t systematically search for articles during the exploratory phase or read them in detail. This is something you’ll do during the research phase, which we’ll address in more depth in this chapter.

The academic literature

As explained in Chapter 2, when you do a literature survey, you should only use scholarly literature. Thus when you’ve finished the exploratory phase, you should focus on the information on your chosen topic that is available from universities and other research institutes. From now on, in other words, you should ignore all non-academic sources. The aim of your literature survey is to find academic sources that will help you to map out the concepts, theories and empirical studies that are relevant to your topic. A literature survey will help you to answer the following questions on your topic: ■■ What is already known about my topic, and in which field is this topic discussed? ■■ Which theories and concepts are used and discussed within the area of my topic? ■■ How is my topic researched, and which research methods are available? ■■ Which questions remain unanswered, and what has yet to be researched?

An immense amount of academic research is published. To give you an impression, in 2015 there were more than 25,000 different peer-reviewed journals in the natural sciences alone (and that number grows every year by around 3 per cent), and the popular academic database Web of Knowledge contains more than forty million individual academic sources. One of the greatest challenges for interdisciplinary students is being able to find the right needle in this gigantic haystack of scholarly information. How can you do this, and which resources are available to help you?

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Chapter 5 Searching the literature

Availability

A lot of information on academic sources can be found on the Internet, and almost all journals publish their articles online. You need to have a subscription to most scientific journals in order to be able to access them. While you’re at university, you can make use of your institution’s subscriptions. On the whole, universities subscribe to thousands of different journals. There will sometimes be articles, however, that you cannot access from your institution. In that case, always keep searching using normal search engines. You might be lucky, for example, and find that the author has put the article online. Search engines and databases

There are various databases and search engines that you can use to search in scholarly journals. Most of them contain many thousands of journals and sometimes millions of individual academic sources. Students and researchers mainly use these search engines to search for relevant scholarly literature for their research. The best known of these search engines is probably Google Scholar, but through your university you will also have access to other interdisciplinary search engines with extensive search functions for specialized databases, such as the Web of Science and Science Direct. All of these search engines allow you to search for academic sources in various ways. You can do a basic search on the subject, author, year of publication and journal name. When searching for literature, it is essential to use the right search terms (or combination of search terms) that accurately describe your topic. English is the language of communication in academia, so you should use English search terms. What’s more, you will soon discover that you need to use multiple search terms in order to locate the sources you’re seeking. Ensure that you know and use a number of synonyms for your main topic. Some search engines offer a thesaurus function, which suggests concepts linked to the search term. If you want to do research into oil-spill disasters, for example, then search for oil spill, drilling leak, disaster drilling rig or a combination of these. The ideal combination of search terms will be different for each topic: overly general search terms can result in too many search results, whereas overly specific search terms can lead to too few results. You should therefore use operators and commands to refine your search combinations. Box 5.1 explains a few useful operators and commands.

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Box 5.1

Operators and commands for search engines Command

Explanation

Example

AND

Search only for terms that appear together.

desertification AND carbon dioxide

OR

Search for articles that contain one of the two terms.

acidification OR acidified

NOT

Do not include this term.

sustainability NOT pollution

*

Variation on words.

econ* (gives results for economy, economical, economic, etc.)

““

Search for exact phrase.

“social unrest in Ukraine”

~

Search for synonyms.

~cognition (also gives results for apprehension, awareness, intelligence, perception, etc.)

Once you’ve identified good search terms, you can adjust your filters on the basis of the type of article (research article or review article), relationship or publication date, for example. If you’re using a computer that is connected to the university’s intranet, you can see whether the article you’ve found is accessible via the university. If this is the case, you can find a web link to the article. As you’re searching, it is a good idea to keep a note of which search terms and search combinations you use. This allows you to work out whether there’s a blind spot in your search strategy or get feedback for improving your search combinations. After finding a relevant and useful source for your research, you can also use this search result to find more relevant sources. First of all, the summary of an article often provides an overview of the keywords that are relevant for the article. These keywords can help you to refine or improve your search combination. Second, search engines such as Google Scholar often allow you to do a reverse search, showing which more recent articles cite the particular article you’ve already found.

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Chapter 5 Searching the literature

In order to do this, click on the link ‘cited by’ in a search result. In this way, you can find more recent sources that build further on the information in the source you’ve found (see the diagram below). This is also a handy way of getting an overview of the scholarly debate that has emerged on a certain theme. Furthermore, search engines often give you the option of searching for ‘related articles’. These literature suggestions can also help you when searching for other relevant sources. Citations in academic literature

List of literature

Earlier scholarly articles on which the article you’ve found builds

Article you’ve found

More recent articles that build further on the article you’ve found

The library

In addition to digital sources, educational institutes also have their own brick-and-mortar libraries. You’ll often be able to search their collections using a digital search engine on the university library’s website. Textbooks are a particularly useful supplement to (or starting point for) what you can find online. As explained in Chapter 2, textbooks are often an integration of many, sometimes hundreds, of scholarly publications. They are written by experts who have often been working on a specific sub-discipline for years, and therefore give a good overview of a particular scholarly field. As interdisciplinary students need to know about lots of disciplines and sub-disciplines, these books form an excellent starting point for your search – and you’ll run less risk of becoming overwhelmed by specialist texts. These books also contain bibliographies that refer to scholarly sources. By now, most journals have also digitalized their older publications, but this is not always the case. Thus during your Internet search, you’ll frequently be referred to the library. You’ll be able to pick up a hard copy of the source there, or have it sent to you. Most educational institutions have an efficient system whereby you can call up paper journals quickly or have them delivered to your own faculty.

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Relevance and quality of the literature

After finding your sources, it is important to determine whether they are actually relevant and of sufficient quality to include in your research. In order to determine the relevance, as you search, limit yourself to an exploratory reading of the source, as described in Chapter 2. Reading abstracts (summaries) of articles can be particularly helpful. In the abstract, you’ll always find the hypothesis or question that is investigated, the research methods used and the conclusion. You could also read the introduction, which often provides information about the context of the question and the position of the author in relation to other research on the same theme. In research articles, key results are often re-summarized in diagrams, graphs or tables. By studying these and reading the titles or captions, you can quickly see whether the results are relevant to your own research. For every source that you consult, it is important to pay attention to its origin. The fact that something is claimed in a scholarly journal does not mean that it is indisputably correct (see also Chapter 8). First-year students (and also some more senior students) sometimes have the tendency, for instance, to include sentences such as ‘Author A (year) says this and THEREFORE it is true’ in their literature review. This is at odds with the intentions of scholarly research. If you read a scholarly research report carefully, you’ll see that the researchers give nuance to their claims and conclusions and put them in a particular context. Moreover, academic research differs in quality; although much research is carried out meticulously, other studies are badly thought through or incomplete. Therefore, in addition to finding relevant literature, it is important that you are also able to assess and discuss the quality of the research. In Box 5.2, you will find a checklist for determining the quality of a source.

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Chapter 5 Searching the literature

Box 5.2

Checklist: assessing the quality of scholarly literature Indicator

Description

Nuance

Academic debate

Textbooks and review articles often give an overview of the various sources and research projects on a certain subject. These are thus useful sources for seeing how scholars contextualize and criticize the sources in question.

Research design

Use your own critical ability (see also Part 4) to establish whether the research has been well designed and whether the conclusions are in line with the research results.

At the beginning of your studies, this can be difficult, because you have little experience with reading research reports. All the same, try to work out whether you agree with the way in which the research has been designed and conducted, and with the conclusions that follow from it.

Number of citations

If many other researchers cite the publication in their own research, then this is a likely sign that they value this article highly. You may use this as an indication of the quality of the source. All scholarly search engines allow you to see at a glance how many times an article has been cited.

A high citation score can also indicate a controversial or bad piece of research. You should take this into account. If an article has not been cited or hardly cited, this does not automatically mean that it is not a sound piece of research. It may also simply mean that the research has not yet been picked up by the field or that it has just been published.

▼

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Impact factor of the journal

Science and Nature are examples of journals that are held in high regard in academic circles. Articles for these journals go through a stringent selection process on the basis of reliability. Other academic journals sometimes set lower standards, for example because they get fewer submissions or have limited resources to check quality. A journal’s impact factor can be an indication of quality. On the Internet you will find detailed lists of impact factors.

At present there is much debate about journals’ impact factors. Here it is also the case that scholarly journals with lower impact factors are not automatically of a lesser quality. Good research can also be published in these journals. In addition, progressive journals often select trailblazing research in a field, something that also potentially brings negative consequences.

Reputation of the research group or author

The quality of university research groups varies widely. In general, a renowned research institution such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) will employ good researchers. Almost all academic publications tell you where the researchers work.

An author’s reputation is not beyond reproach, of course. It can only serve as an indication of the extent to which this person is held in high regard by his or her colleagues and the scholarly field.

Sources used ---

54

Flick, U. (2011). Introducing research methodology: A beginner’s guide to doing a research project. London: Sage. Sanders, E. (2011). Eerste hulp bij e-onderzoek voor studenten in de geesteswetenschappen: Slimmer zoeken, slimmer documenteren [Internet research skills for students in the humanities: Smarter searching and documentation]. Retrieved from https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/ handle/1887/17774

Chapter 5 Searching the literature

Other useful sources --

The following are commonly used interdisciplinary search engines for academic literature: {{ Web of Science: webofscience.com {{ Science Direct: sciencedirect.com {{ Google Scholar: scholar.google.com {{ PubMed: pubmed.com {{ Picarta: picarta.nl {{ Jstor: jstor.org

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6  Organizing, analysing and processing your sources

For every research project, you’ll have to find and read a number of sources. It is therefore important to save and organize the literature you’ve found in a consistent way. This will enable you to analyse the information better.

Organizing your sources

You will find and read many sources during your literature review. So many, in fact, that after some time you’ll no longer know which sources you’ve already read and which information is relevant. As you’re scanning the search results, ensure that you keep a note of the sources you’ve found and read (or partly read). Add an explanation to this overview, in the form of a few sentences, of why you consider this source to be useful for answering a sub-question. This will allow you not only to gather sources, but also to organize them. When the time comes to study your sources thoroughly and critically, it is important that you make a note of which information is relevant for answering your sub-questions. Go back to your overview of sub-questions and for each sub-question, look at which source can help you to answer it. Then look at where the information is too ‘thin’ or even lacking altogether. You can do this by using a so-called literature matrix. This is an overview in the form of a spreadsheet (for example, in Microsoft Excel), where you include all the relevant information you find for each sub-question. Always add the page number where you found the information. You can also cut and paste sentences from articles that are (or may be) important for your research. This can help you to avoid committing plagiarism at a later stage, because it allows you to distinguish between the original wording and your own phrasing (see also Chapter 10).

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Chapter 6 Organizing, analysing and processing your sources

Box 6.1

Example of a literature matrix (based on De Jong, 2011)

Research question: ‘What impact does large-scale dairy farming in the Netherlands have on greenhouse gas emissions?’ Sub-question 1 ‘What impact does dairy farming have on methane emissions?’

Source 1: Author (year)

Source 2: Author (year)

Etc.

Identify 3 sources on emissions: 1. …. (p. ..) 2. …. (p. ..) 3. …. (p. ..)

Identify 4 sources on emissions: 1. …. (p. ..) 2. …. (p. ..) 3. …. (p. ..) 4. …. (p. ..)

…

Sub-question 2 ‘What impact does dairy farming have on carbon dioxide emissions?’

Source …: Author (year)

…

…

…

Etc.

Analysing information

Once you’ve found all your information and have organized it for each sub-question, you can make a start on the analysis. It is explicitly not the purpose of a literature study that you should summarize the information from the literature you’ve found. The value of your research lies in the fact that you integrate the literature that you’ve found, perhaps in a completely new way. You should therefore ensure that you classify the literature you’ve found for each sub-question and focus on comparing or contrasting the research methods, key results, conclusions and discussions. You should also use your own critical Interdisciplinary tip ability to determine whether you agree with the conclusions in the text. In One of the most important skills that are order to do this, you should do a needed for interdisciplinary research is the thorough analysis of the assumptions ability to look at problems from at least and arguments in every text you read two disciplinary angles. These angles can (see also Chapter 8). Each time, you be very diverse, and sometimes apparently should then assess whether you have contradictory. Ensure that you always know answered each sub-question which discipline particular information comes convincingly. from, so that you can put it in context.

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Processing sources using reference management software

While you’re writing a paper, it’s essential that you state clearly how you have processed the information from your sources. We explain further how to insert citations and make a bibliography in Chapter 10 and Appendix B. In general, incorporating references into a text is a considerable undertaking – certainly later in your studies, when you write literature reviews in which you cite dozens or sometimes even hundreds of articles. For this reason, students often use software that spares them a lot of this work. In general, reference management programmes have the following functions: ■■ They provide a central place where you can save all of the literature you’re using and the accompanying PDF files. This allows you to categorize, search for and comment on articles, and you’ll never mislay an article. ■■ They often allow you to make an automatic bibliography in every possible citation style (see also Chapter 10). This means that you can be sure that you are using the correct citation style. ■■ They allow you to insert direct citations in Word (or another word-processing programme) in your choice of style. You can subsequently insert a bibliography with all of the literature you’ve used.

Switching from making bibliographies by hand to a software package often requires a small investment (you have to find out how the programme works), but it will make your life much easier, certainly later in your studies. One of the most popular – and the most user-friendly – programmes is Mendeley. Mendeley is a relatively new, free package that also saves your library online. It has a number of advantages in comparison to other software packages: (1) it is free, (2) it is user-friendly, (3) you can create references by dragging a PDF file into the programme (it automatically extracts the author, title, year, etc.), (4) you can create references by using a browser plug-in to click on a button on the page where you found an article, (5) you can share articles and reference lists with colleagues, and (6) it has a ‘web importer’ to add sources rapidly to your own list. In addition to Mendeley, there are also other reference management programmes: ■■ ReadCube: This software largely has the same functionality as Mendeley. One advantage of this software is that you can also read articles from the programme. ■■ RefWorks: You manage your ‘library’ of citations online, so you always have it to hand. Many people do not find this the most user-friendly programme, however. What’s more, it requires a paid licence – sometimes access is possible through the university. ■■ EndNote: The most longstanding and probably the best known of all the packages, but quite pricey and no longer the most useful. Can do pretty much the same things as the packages above.

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Chapter 6 Organizing, analysing and processing your sources

■■

■■

BibTeX: This is not actually reference management software, but the language and software that you use in combination with LaTeX – the system that is used by many scientists to write and format their articles. Some of the abovementioned packages (Mendeley, for example) can help you to make BibTeX files. Word: Versions of Word from Word 2007 onwards allow you to enter citations by hand and automatically generate a bibliography in the correct format. You can find this option under the ‘References’ tab.

Sources used --

Jong, J. de (2011). Handboek academisch schrijven: In stappen naar een essay, paper of scriptie [Guide to academic writing: A step-by-step approach to writing an essay, paper or thesis]. Bussum: Coutinho.

Other useful sources --

--

You can find an example of a literature matrix here (see last paragraph, under ‘Research and Documentation’: {{ writingcenter.fiu.edu/resources You will find reference management software for saving and organizing your literature here: {{ mendeley.com {{ readcube.com {{ refworks.com {{ endnote.com {{ bibtex.org

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7  Empirical research

In previous sections, we discussed the literature review as a self-standing piece of research. A literature review can also form the starting point for empirical research, however. Here we briefly touch on the question of the relationship between the literature review and empirical research.

Empirical research is research in which you attempt, by way of observing certain phenomena, to reach general conclusions. One example is research that is done by carrying out scientific experiments. The methodologist Adriaan de Groot (b. 1961, cited in Plooij, 2011) identifies five phases in the empirical cycle: ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■

Observation: gathering data. Induction: formulating a theory on the basis of these data. Deduction: deriving a testable hypothesis. Testing: testing the hypothesis by means of an experiment, for example. Evaluation: verifying or dismissing the hypothesis on the basis of the results of the experiment.

The evaluation of the results of the experiment produces new data, which in turn can lead to a re-evaluation of the theory (or theories) and a repeat of the cycle. Although many scholars in many research fields go through this empirical cycle, they seldom describe the stages of the cycle in the same way. One way of describing the different research phases, for example, is the following: 1 Topic / problem You select a topic or problem for investigation. 2 Literature review Your literature review consists of a selection and description of the most important theories that are needed to find an answer to your research question. 3 Question / hypothesis On the basis of the theoretical background, you can ask a new question about a (sub-)topic that has not yet been investigated, all of which you do in a research proposal. In this proposal, you formulate a testable hypothesis that you want to test using specific methods and techniques (such as an experiment). 4 Methods and techniques You discuss the selected methods and the design of your research.

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Chapter 7 Empirical research

5 Results

After carrying out the research, you gather and analyse the results.

6 Conclusion and discussion

Finally, you evaluate the results. This means that you discuss whether the results support or contradict your hypothesis. In doing so, you consider the implications for the theories on which your hypothesis is based and you consider the findings in a broader framework; what do the results add to the wider scholarly discussion? In the diagram below, you will find a diagrammatical overview of the different steps within empirical research. Steps in empirical research

Exploring a topic

Literature review

Empirical research

Making observations

Searching the literature

Formulating hypotheses

Drawing conclusions on the basis of the information gathered

Deciding on a topic

Evaluating and incorporating sources

Designing a method

Putting research in a broader framework

Formulating a question

Analysing the literature

Data collection

Contributing to scholarly debate

(Chapter 3)

(Chapter 5 and 6)

(not addressed in this book)

Evaluation (Chapter 9)

For more information about doing interdisciplinary empirical research, a good starting point is the IIS handbook, An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research. The contents of this book complement the skills that are addressed in this handbook.

Sources used ---

Menken, S.B.J. & Keestra, M. (eds.) (2016). An introduction to interdisciplinary research. Amsterdam University Press. Plooij, F. (2011). Onderzoek doen: Een praktische inleiding in onderzoeksvaardigheden [Doing research: A practical introduction to research skills]. Pearson Education Benelux.

Other useful sources --

There is a wide range of guides to conducting empirical research. Most guides specialize in a particular academic field or method. Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies

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Part 3 Sharing your research ‘Remember, always, that everything you know, and everything everyone knows, is only a model. Get your model out there where it can be viewed. Invite others to challenge your assumptions and add their own.’ (1997) Donella H. Meadows (1941-2001) American environmental scientist In addition to gathering knowledge and generating new ideas, exchanging knowledge and research results also plays a key role in academia. This exchange can take place in various ways. In this part, we address the written and oral skills that are important for disseminating and sharing new insights.

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8  Arguments

In academic texts, in presentations and during discussions and debates, you need to be able to formulate your own opinion (or answer to your question) and to substantiate it with arguments. In the following, we look at how you can identify and construct an argument.

Types of argument

Whether you’re reading or writing a text, it is helpful to make an argument explicit, for example by representing the structure of the argument in a diagram. What’s more, when writing a literature survey, setting out how the different arguments fit together can ensure that you’re less likely to stray from your central point or question; it forces you to keep the line of your argument in mind. In the following, we go through the different types of arguments that you can encounter in academic texts or that you yourself can use.

Simple argumentation

The most basic way to ground an opinion is the simple argument. With this, you defend a view with just one argument. In the example below, the argument that a vegetarian diet is healthier is used to convince the reader of the view that people should not eat meat: People should not eat meat, because a vegetarian diet is healthier.

We can represent this type of argument diagrammatically as follows: Simple argumentation

View

People should not eat meat.

because Argument A vegetarian diet is healthier.

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Plural argumentation

If you are defending a view, you’ll normally need to provide more than one argument. Putting forward a number of arguments strengthens a view, because even if one argument is disproved, the other arguments will continue to support the view. In a literature review, for example, two arguments are given for the view that people should not eat meat: People should not eat meat because a vegetarian diet is healthier,

and

because not eating meat is better for the environment.

In this case, each individual argument supports the view; the arguments are self-standing. In principle, the author could have sufficed with one argument. You can thus see plural argumentation as a combination of a number of single arguments that support the same view. We can represent this type of reasoning diagrammatically as follows: Plural argumentation

View

People should not eat meat.

because Argument A vegetarian diet is healthier.

because Argument It is better for the environment.

Coordinating argumentation

In other cases, the arguments supplied to support a view are used in such a way that they are inseparable: The government’s environmental policy is erratic. On the one hand, the government is setting up wind energy projects, while on the other hand, it is cutting back on subsidies for solar energy.

It is only possible to claim that the environmental policy is erratic if both of these two opposing arguments hold. When arguments are intertwined in this way, we speak of coordinating argumentation. One disadvantage of this argumentation is that if one argument falls, the grounds for the view are undermined (in contrast to plural argumentation, for example). A coordinating argument can be shown diagrammatically as follows:

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Chapter 8 Arguments

Coordinating argumentation

View

The government’s environmental policy is erratic.

because Argument It is setting up wind energy projects.

because Argument It is cutting back on subsidies for solar energy.

Subordinate argumentation

It is often necessary to substantiate an argument using other arguments; for example, because you think that the argument needs backing up in order to be credible.

People should not eat meat, because this is better for the environment. More water is needed to produce one kilogram of meat than to produce one kilogram of vegetables.

The view being advanced is that people should not eat meat because this is better for the environment. In order to convince the reader that people really do need to start eating less meat, the writer substantiates the argument that it is better for the environment with the argument that more water is needed to produce a kilogram of meat than a kilogram of vegetables. This latter argument is thus not a direct argument for the view, but supports the first argument (strengthening this argument even further, thereby strengthening the grounds for the view). In these kinds of cases, we refer to subordinate argumentation. The structure of a subordinate argument is weaker than that of a plural argument. After all, if a single argument can be refuted, the whole line of argumentation falls. For example, if you managed to show that more water is not needed to produce meat than to produce vegetables, then the grounds for the argument above would be undermined (that not eating meat is better for the environment), and ultimately the view itself (that people should not eat meat). This type of argumentation can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

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Subordinate argumentation

View

People should not eat meat.

because Argument It is better for the environment.

because Argument More water is needed to produce a kilogram of meat than to produce a kilogram of vegetables.

Structuring an argument

When we think of views and arguments, we tend to think of opinion pieces, but other types of text also have an argumentation structure. In the case of scholarly texts, the viewpoint is often more nuanced. For example, one tends to write ‘It is likely that…’ rather than ‘It is the case that…’. But scholarly texts also make claims that need to be substantiated. In such texts, the main conclusion is the writer’s view; he or she uses the rest of the text to put the case for this conclusion. Now that we know which forms of argumentation are available, we can represent the structure of the argument of any text diagrammatically. You do this, first, by establishing what the writer’s viewpoint is. Then you ask ‘why?’ and look for the answer in the text. With these arguments, you can again ask the ‘why’ question, et cetera. Below, you will find an example of argumentation derived from the sample paper further on in this book (Appendix C).

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Chapter 8 Arguments

Structure of argument derived from the sample paper in Appendix C View

It is necessary that people start eating less meat.

because

because

Argument The negative impact on nature reserves is greater with an omnivorous diet than with a vegetarian diet.

because

because

Argument More land is needed for the cattle industry, both to cultivate cattle feed and to provide a habitat for the cattle.

because Example Soya is often used for cattle feed and in order to cultivate soya, many nature reserves in Brazil are being destroyed.

Argument Much more water is needed to produce meat than to produce vegetables.

Argument Water reserves are falling worldwide, and this has been linked to the global food shortage.

because Example Research shows that deforestation in Brazil in the period between 2000 and 2006 was largely due to cattle farming.

Whether you are writing a research proposal, a business plan or an opinion piece for a newspaper, you text will stand or fall on the right argumentation. The structure of your argument forms both the backbone of your text and the path that you, the writer, mark out for the reader. In general, this will not be the path that you took during your research. Non-fiction books, for example, often advance a viewpoint that is substantiated in the rest of the book in a logical path. It is unlikely that the author began with this elaborate argumentation structure, however; he would have formulated it after doing detailed Interdisciplinary tip research. Thus when writing a text, you shouldn’t ask your readers to follow the With interdisciplinary texts in particular, where path that you took, and you should spare you need to draw links between different them the dead-end arguments, the perspectives, it is essential to have a clear misleading steps and unnecessary argumentation structure. This is an excellent detours. Instead, you should mark out way to avoid straying from the central point the shortest, most logical route to your that you want to make. conclusion.

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Objections

When drafting an argumentation structure, you can make use of a powerful rhetorical skill: thinking up potential objections and then using the counterarguments to strengthen and add nuance to your argument and view. There are two kinds of objections. First, there is the denial that the argument itself makes sense. For example: Abortion should be banned, because it entails the murder of a person. An objection to this could be: the foetus is not sufficiently developed in the first 24 weeks of pregnancy to be called a person. This thus entails directly challenging the argument (namely, that a person is murdered). Second, one can deny that the relationship between the argument and the view is correct. For example: Ethiopians have a genetic advantage when running long distances, because there is always an Ethiopian on the medals stand at the Olympic Games. To refute this relationship, one could say: the fact that Ethiopians often win long-distance races does not mean that they have a genetic advantage over the rest of the world. As the author of a text, it is a good idea to reflect on these kinds of potential objections, because refuting them can strengthen your view. One refutation of the argument that the foetus is not sufficiently developed in the first 24 weeks of pregnancy to be called a person could be that a person is more than a body alone. In the sample text (see Appendix C), an objection is used in order to strengthen the author’s own position. The author asserts the view that people need to start eating less meat, and the whole argument is supported by the finding that in Brazil, more land is needed to cultivate crops for the cattle industry than to produce soya. One counterargument is: ‘It is theoretically possible that completely different conclusions could be drawn in other regions and for other products.’ The grounds for this objection follow from the argument: ‘In the research, we chose to analyse particular regions (Brazil) and particular products (soya burgers).’ The objection can be negated, in turn, by rebutting the counterargument. In the example, the rebuttal is as follows: ‘The arguments for eating less meat also apply to other regions and products.’ This is because, as follows from the arguments supporting the refutation: ‘Cattle will always need feed and a habitat’, and: ‘A number of kilograms of plant material will always be needed to produce a single kilogram of meat.’ See the diagram below for an overview.

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Chapter 8 Arguments

Argumentation structure including objections View

It is necessary that people start eating less meat.

because

because

Argument The negative impact on nature reserves is greater with an omnivorous diet than with a vegetarian diet.

because

because

Argument More land is needed for the cattle industry, both to cultivate cattle feed and to provide a habitat for the cattle.

because

Argument Water reserves are falling worldwide, and this has been linked to the global food shortage.

because

Example Soya is often used for cattle feed and in order to cultivate soya, many nature reserves in Brazil are being destroyed.

but

Argument Much more water is needed to produce meat than to produce vegetables.

Example Research shows that deforestation in Brazil in the period between 2000 and 2006 was largely due to cattle farming.

Objection It is theoretically possible that very difficult conclusions can be drawn in relation to other regions and other products.

because

however

Argument In the research, only particular regions (Brazil) and particular products (soya burgers) have been analysed.

Negation The arguments for eating less meat also apply to other regions and products.

because Example Cattle always need feed and a habitat.

omdat Example A number of kilograms of plant material is always needed to produce a single kilogram of meat.

Objections can have a further effect on your argumentation. In scholarly discussions, objections are often used to add nuance to a viewpoint. The philosopher Stephen Toulmin has developed a model in which a rebuttal, anticipated objections and the likelihood that a claim is true play an important role. Drawing on facts, for example, it can be claimed that ‘Machteld was born in Amsterdam’, which ultimately leads to the claim that she therefore has a Dutch passport. This is justified on the grounds that someone who is born in the Netherlands automatically receives a Dutch passport, because this is set out in the Netherlands Nationality Act. One could think of exceptions meaning that Machteld does not in fact have a Dutch passport; because she has since assumed a different nationality, for example. This is called the rebuttal (the ‘unless’), meaning that you cannot claim that Machteld therefore has a Dutch passport, but that it is indeed likely that she has one. This is represented in the Toulmin model as follows:

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The Toulmin model

Warrant

Grounds

Rebuttal Qualifier

Claim

Backing Warrant

Rebuttal

Backing

Example of the Toulmin model (based on Stichting Kritisch Denken, 2008) Machteld was born in Amsterdam.

Machteld was born in Amsterdam.

Makes it likely

Because

Unless

Someone who is born in the Netherlands automatically receives a Dutch passport.

She hasitsince Makes likely assumed a different nationality.

Because

Of the grounds that

Someone who is born in the Netherlands Because this is set out automatically receives in the Netherlands a Dutch passport. Nationality Act.

That she therefore has a Dutch passport.

That she therefore has a Dutch passport.

Unless She has since assumed a different nationality.

Of the grounds that Because this set out (grounds) is implicit. For example, you could In much argumentation, theiswarrant in the Netherlands imagine someoneNationality saying: ‘Machteld was born in Amsterdam and therefore she Act. (probably) has a Dutch passport.’ The warrant (‘someone who is born in the Netherlands receives a Dutch passport’) Interdisciplinary tip and the backing for this (‘as set out in the Netherlands Nationality Act’) are The Toulmin model is also useful for sometimes omitted. It can also happen discovering the implicit assumptions in the that the basis for the qualifier (‘unless argumentation structure of texts that you’re she has since assumed another reading. By making the basis for the warrant nationality’) is not stated explicitly. or the qualifier explicit, you can clarify which When drafting an argument, it is assumptions a researcher has not formulated. important to make the basis of the These implicit assumptions can be fertile argument as explicit as possible. ground for integrating different perspectives, a

key goal in interdisciplinary research.

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Chapter 8 Arguments

From structuring an argument to structuring a literature review

Working out a clear structure before you start writing can make it easier to stick to the line of the argument (and mean that you’re less likely to get lost in the details), and it makes it easier to see which parts can be deleted and where there are still holes in the argument (see further Chapter 9). Below, you will find an example of a model argumentation structure, in which the arguments for the main argument and the arguments that support this have each been given a separate section (1.1, 1.2, etc.).

Example of an argumentation plan 1 People should start eating less meat.

1.1 Meat consumption has a greater impact on land-use than a vegetarian diet.

1.1.1 There is a link between the increasing use of land for cattle farming and deforestation.

1.2 A vegetarian diet puts less pressure on the fresh water supply than a diet including meat.

1.2.1a More water is needed to produce a kilogram of meat than a kilogram of vegetables.

1.2.1b The water footprint of a meat burger is larger than that of a vegetarian substitute.

1.1.1.1 Brazil is a good example of a country where deforestation is taking place for the cattle industry.

Sources used --

--

----

Eemeren, F.H. van, Grootendorst, R. & Snoeck Henkemans, A.F. (1995). Argumentatie: Inleiding in het analyseren, beoordelen en houden van betogen [Argumentation: Introduction to analysing, evaluating and holding arguments]. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Newell, W. H. (2010). Research manual for interdisciplinary senior projects. Retrieved from http://www.oakland.edu/upload/docs/AIS/Interdisciplinary_ Research_Manual.pdf Toulmin, S. (2003). The uses of argument: Updated edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Vancil, D. (1998). Rhetoric and argumentation. New York: McGraw-Hill. Stichting Kritisch Denken (2015, 11 August). Toulmin. Retrieved from http:// www.kritischdenken.nl/Tutorialsproef/Overview/toulmin.gif

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Other useful sources --

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The software Rationale is particularly useful for working out the structure of your argument. Rationale is an online programme where you can fill in your view and arguments, and it uses these to generate a sample text. You can create a structure for free at rationaleonline.com; if you want to save or print out the argumentation structure, you will need to pay.

Chapter 8 Arguments

9  Writing

The written word enables people to communicate with each other over great distances, across both space and time. As an academic, it is therefore essential to be able to express yourself well in writing. In this chapter, we will look in turn at how to structure an academic text and what is meant by good academic writing.

Steps in the writing process

We all know how to write, but in spite of this, we often find written assignments very difficult. What should we write, and how should we write it? Every writer has his or her own way of approaching a written assignment. Most writers use the same method for each assignment and accept the disadvantages that this brings. Common writing problems include having difficulty structuring a text and spending too much time on a particular part of a piece of writing (often the first part). These problems are often related to the writing method that has been chosen. In general, we can identify two approaches: the ‘first think, then write’ method and the ‘thinking while writing’ method.

The ‘first think, then write’ method

With this method, you put off the writing part for as long as you can. First, you decide exactly what you’re going to write and the order in which you’re going to present the information. Sometimes you decide on the structure of every paragraph beforehand. The advantage of using this method is that you can focus your attention on the writing while you write, because you no longer need to think about the topic itself and how you’re going to organize the information. In this case, the actual writing consists of developing a pre-conceived plan. One drawback of this method, though, is that you lack the opportunity to introduce ideas during the writing process, because you’ve already drawn up your plan. Moreover, if you’re working on a complex topic, the preparatory work can take up so much time that it becomes increasingly difficult to start writing. The ‘thinking while writing’ method

It is also possible to think about the information you want to include and how you’re going to organize it while you’re writing. It’s also often easier to wait until later to decide what you will eventually include in the text and to write a provisional, rough draft first, more or less off the cuff. This method can be very useful for coming up with new ideas, but it also has its drawbacks. In practice, you often fail to get around Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies

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to doing a thorough revision, or when re-writing you might stick too closely to an earlier draft. This can result in a badly organized and badly thought-out text. This method can also be extremely inefficient. Writers who simply start writing often lose a lot of time trying to formulate their sentences. As they haven’t – or have hardly – reflected beforehand on precisely what they want to say and the order in which they want to say it, they have to keep on making decisions with every sentence. Given that you also need to pay attention to phrasing, using such a demanding method can sometimes seriously delay the writing process. Combining methods

The most efficient method of writing is probably to combine the ‘first think, then write’ and ‘thinking while writing’ methods. By far the majority of researchers see the writing process as one in which you alternately produce and reflect critically on a text. This process can take place as follows, for example: ■■ First, you decide what you are going to write about and which question you’re going to focus on when addressing this topic. ■■ Next, you gather the information that is relevant to this central question and you plan in outline how you’re going to organize this information. ■■ After this, you produce a draft version of the text or part of the text. You then read through this or have someone else read it (see also Chapter 13). ■■ After one or more revisions, you produce a definitive version of the text. Writing efficiently means planning, being critical and producing in the right phase of the writing process. Before you start writing, it’s a good idea to outline the structure of your argument (see Chapter 8); that’s because you need something to go on in order to be able to start writing. As you’re writing, it is important not to be too critical. This phase is primarily about giving free rein to your thoughts and writing in an unhindered way within the given framework. You should put off revising your work until the first version, or much of it, is finished.

Writing tactics

When is it important to cast a critical eye over your writing style and when is it better to keep on writing?

Keeping on writing

Some writers choose their words with care, slowly but steadily writing whole sections from beginning to end. If you’re unable to do this, it’s important that you do not spend too long reflecting on a particular sentence. Just keep on writing. It’s not a disaster if there are some gaps in the text or if you’re having trouble phrasing certain sentences nicely. The fact that you’re blocked might indicate that this passage doesn’t fit well in this place, or that it would be more logical to put it elsewhere or even cut it altogether. It would therefore be a waste of effort to keep toiling over a sentence, only to leave it out later.

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Chapter 9 Writing

Re-writing

Re-writing is an important part of the writing process. The more progress you make with your written assignment, the better you’ll understand what you want to say, and you’ll sometimes find new and simpler (and thus better) ways to write something. Particularly in the case of interdisciplinary written assignments, when you have to immerse yourself in fields that may be new to you, you can gain a lot from re-writing a text. As part of this, it can be useful to have someone else read through your text. Often a piece of writing becomes so familiar to us that we can no longer see the mistakes. Having someone take a fresh look at your written assignment may not only reveal the spelling mistakes, but it can also reveal where your line of argument is difficult to follow.

Structuring a literature review

The academic texts that you’re going to write have a dual objective. On the one hand, you use your text to describe the current state of the research in a particular field. On the other hand, you want to convince the reader of a particular point of view by critically comparing a number of relevant academic publications with each other. During your degree programme, you will write various texts: short essays, literature reviews, research reports and, eventually, your own Bachelor’s thesis. Below we’ll explain how you should go about writing a literature review. In general, this is a report of limited length in which you map out the current state of the research in a particular field or in relation to a particular theme or problem. In doing so, you make connections between various academic sources and examine them critically. This section is linked to chapters 5 and 6 on literature research. You will find an example of a literature review in Appendix C. A report on a literature search, also known as a review article, generally consists of three main parts: an introduction, a middle section and a conclusion. The content of the introduction and the conclusion is broad, whereas the middle section is more focused. This is sometimes called the ‘hourglass model’. Below, we first outline the basic components of a literature review and then discuss a few of these components in more detail.

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The hourglass model of a literature review

Introduction to the topic Social and academic relevance Main question (and sub-questions) Outline of the structure Answers to sub-questions Development of sub-question 1 Development of sub-question 2 Development of sub-question 3 Development of sub-question n Conclusion: answer to the main question and summary of main arguments Discussion: comments and suggestions for further research Significance of conclusion for theory and practice

Introduction to the literature review ■■

■■

■■

■■

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Introduction to the topic: you should start your introduction with a broad and appealing description of the problem and the research topic. It’s important to grab your reader’s attention and interest immediately. After this, you define and specify the topic, step by step. Social and academic relevance: focus on the social and academic relevance of your research topic. Main question and sub-questions: the introduction should ultimately lead into the defined topic of the literature study, phrased in the form of a question. Outline of the structure: the introduction should conclude with a brief outline of the content of each section, giving the reader an overall impression of the structure and content of the text.

Chapter 9 Writing

The middle section of the literature review

The middle section of the text is the part in which you develop the question and deal with information to answer the question. The middle section is the longest part of the text, and it is here that the reader will find the lion’s share of the reasoning that produces the answer to your main question. In this section, you should describe the experiments, results and conclusions of the various research studies. In doing so, it is essential that you only describe the information from other research studies that is needed to answer your own question. You should do this in different sections, and in every section you should answer one sub-question. A literature review should not be a collection of summaries. If you’re drawing on three articles, for example, it’s not the case that you should address each article in a separate section. On the contrary, it’s important to draw connections between the different articles and integrate them. This means that you need to think beforehand about which sub-topics you’re going to address in the different sections, and then cite information from all of the research studies that say something on these sub-topics. Most importantly, you should only select useful information. For example, you might be using an article that describes three experiments. If only the first experiment is relevant to your question, then you should only describe the first experiment, and you should not mention the other two experiments. The middle section of the literature review consists of different sections. You should begin each section on a broad note (just like the overall introduction) and then focus on the sub-question that will be answered in that section. Furthermore, the following points are important for structuring this section: ■■ You should begin each section with an introductory paragraph, in which you explain why this sub-question is important for your main question, and with which you make the transition from the previous section. By then formulating a sub-question (see also Chapter 3), you give focus to the section, so the reader knows what you are going to investigate here. ■■ Next, you should describe the information and results from other research projects that are relevant to answering this sub-question. When describing this research, you should not describe everything in minute detail, but only the aspects that are relevant to your sub-question. ■■ You should address various research studies in order to answer the sub-question. Once you have finished describing a piece of research, it is a good idea to explain how this research is linked to the next research study that you are going to discuss. In this way, you link the research studies together and make the literature review coherent. This can be done by using linking sentences and signal words (see Box 9.2). For example, you could draw a connection between two research studies in the way that’s shown in Box 9.1 (‘but’ in the first sentence links this paragraph to the previous one).

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Box 9.1

Example of a transition from one research description to another […] but they do not agree that soya plantations are the main cause of this. Barona, Ramankutty, Hyman and Coomes (2010) investigated the role played by the expansion of the number of cattle farms in deforestation in Brazil. They compared the number of cattle farms with the link between deforestation and the expansion of the number of soya plantations between 2000 and 2006.

Box 9.2

Signal words and their function in a literature review

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Structural function

Examples of words

Listing

and, moreover, first, second, furthermore, in addition, not only, but also

Reason, cause, effect

given that, due to, because, as a result of, so that, therefore

Conditional relations

since, if, unless, on proviso that, when, notwithstanding the fact that

Conceding

although, even though, to be sure, yet

Contrasting

however, on the other hand, by contrast, nonetheless, in spite of this, for one thing, yet, while

Comparing

as if, just as, likewise, no less than, just like, in the same way

Summarizing

in short, to summarize, to sum up

Concluding

it follows from this, the above shows that, we can state in conclusion that

Degree of probability

likely, unlikely, under normal circumstances, implausible

Chapter 9 Writing

■■

Criticism of research need not be left until the end of the text (the conclusion/ discussion). A good place for criticism is often immediately after the description of the research in question, especially if it is detailed criticism that is specifically related to this research. You should make a clear distinction between your description of the research study on the one hand and your critique on the other. Make sure that the source of the criticism is clear. If you are adopting someone else’s critique, you should always cite the source. Your own criticism is not generally indicated by using the first person singular (‘I’, which one should generally avoid using), but by the fact that there is no citation for the criticism. Box 9.3 shows how to link the research studies that have been discussed to your own question (in this case, on the influence of soybean production on land-use) and how to add your own critical comment (note that this is not expressed using the first person singular).

Box 9.3

Example of how to add your own criticism From this, Barona et al. (2010) concluded that the deforestation was primarily a result of cattle farming. It is the case, though, that part of the grazing land for cattle has had to make way for soya plantations, and the cattle farms have therefore had to shift to the rain forests.

■■

You should end each section with a short sub-conclusion in which you re-summarize the researchers’ key results and conclusions, outline the explanations for these (potentially conflicting) results, and state the conclusion that can be drawn from the information that you have just discussed. In this part, you can also voice your criticism of the research discussed. In other words, here you give an explicit and detailed answer to the sub-question that you have addressed in this section. After you have done this, you make the transition to the next section. An example of a transitional paragraph can be found in Box 9.4.

Box 9.4

Example of a sub-conclusion The above suggests that a vegetarian diet has a somewhat smaller impact on the fresh water supply than a diet containing meat. Whether one considers agriculture alone or the entire production chain makes little difference: the production of meat has a much larger impact on water-use than the production of vegetables or meat substitutes..

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■■

Ensure that every section has a heading. Having well-chosen sub-headings will make your literature review easier to read and navigate. Pay attention to both the text of the section headings and where they are located in the report. Use substantive texts for your headings. An example of a good substantive heading is, ‘Cattle breeding, soybean production and land-use’. An example of an inappropriate, non-substantive heading is, ‘Research by Barona et al. (2010)’.

The conclusion and discussion of a literature review ■■

You should start the concluding section of your literature review with the answer to the question. You should not introduce any new facts in the conclusion, but you should instead interpret the information that you discussed earlier. On the basis of your findings in the middle section and the sub-conclusions following from these, you draw links back to what was discussed in the introduction. Therefore you shouldn’t cite any new sources in the conclusion, either. Ensure that you don’t simply copy and paste the sub-conclusions from the middle section, but that you make effective substantive and textual links between the different sub-conclusions. This means that you need to use good linking words and sentences here, too (see Box 9.2). An example of how to start a short conclusion can be found in Box 9.5.

Box 9.5

Example of a conclusion The cited sources seem to support the claim that there are differences in the environmental impact of a diet containing meat and a non-meat diet. The consequences for land-use are greater for an omnivorous diet than for a vegetarian diet. This is due to the amount of land that is needed for the cattle farming industry, both for the cultivation of cattle feed and as a habitat for cattle. The consequences for water-use are also greater when a diet containing meat is consumed. Much more water is needed to produce meat than to produce vegetables or meat substitutes.

■■

■■

80

After the conclusion, the discussion examines the possible comments on the research or the topic. This may concern general criticism of the way in which the researchers have approached a common problem. It may also concern aspects of the question that have not been discussed sufficiently. For example, it might be the case that you could also have addressed the question from other disciplinary perspectives, but you did not do so due to the limited size of the assignment. In this section, you can also discuss suggestions for further research. Make sure that these are specific and concrete, and don’t remain overly general (‘more research is needed’). Finally, in this section you should also explain the significance of your research for theory or practice (relevance). This part, for example, can include recommendations for policymakers or the general public.

Chapter 9 Writing

Title and abstract

When you have finished writing, add a catchy title that reflects the content of your literature review. You could clarify your main title with a sub-title. In addition, every report should begin with a short summary (abstract). The abstract is self-standing and does not form part of the main text. The key components of an abstract are: one (or two) introductory sentence(s), a statement of your research question, your major findings, your answer to the research question (the conclusion) and the most important message from your discussion. Thus ensure that the title and the abstract give your reader a good impression of the content of your report.

Academic writing

Academic writing is a genre, and every genre has its own style. In academic texts, for example, one tends not to use the first person singular (‘I’), and statements should always be backed up with research findings or logical arguments. Below, you’ll find some tips for academic writing. Box 9.6

Style checklist for academic writing Avoid colloquial or spoken language

The tone of your text should be relatively serious. Thus avoid phrases such as ‘We all eat meat every day and that’s no good for nature’, and opt for phrases such as: ‘The consumption of animal products such as meat has a negative impact on some ecosystems.’

Avoid using the first person

Words such as ‘I’ and ‘we’ should not be used frequently in academic texts. Try to avoid the first person as much as possible when writing.

Keep descriptions accurate

A sentence such as ‘The Dutch changed energy supplier much more often in 2013’ lacks key information. For example, it is not clear with whom the Dutch are being compared and exactly what ‘much more often’ means. It would be better to write: ‘The Dutch changed energy supplier twice as often in 2013 than in the previous year.’

Be nuanced and modest in your claims

Your text should suggest that your claims are not entirely indisputable and that there is room for other, perhaps better insights, of which you are not yet aware.

Avoid abbreviations

In other words, don’t use ‘e.g.’ and ‘i.e.’, but ‘for example’ and ‘that is to say’. Abbreviations of institutions’ names may be used if written out in full on first use, with the abbreviation given in brackets.

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Avoid ambiguities

Some sentences can be grammatically correct, yet unclear. For example, a sentence such as ‘Mark saw a girl looking out of the window of the room.’ It is unclear here whether Mark or the girl is looking out of the window.

Only use the passive voice when necessary

Over-use of the passive voice can make a text come over as impersonal and passive. For example, a sentence such as ‘People were advised by the police to stay inside’ can be made more active: ‘The police advised people to stay inside.’ One trick is to go over your text after you’ve finished writing and remove any unnecessary constructions in the passive voice.

Opt for verbs instead of nouns

In other words, rather than ‘We are making an effort to achieve an improvement in our position’, opt for: ‘We are endeavouring to improve our position.’

Avoid over-using certain words and sentence structures

If you keep using the same words and sentence structures, your text risks becoming boring. You will keep the reader’s attention more effectively if you make the text varied. Ensure that you don’t go too far, however; too much variety can make a text difficult to understand. Try to achieve a balance between appealing writing and clarity.

Be concise

The art of good writing is the art of omission, as the mantra goes. Take a critical look at your text and cut any unnecessary words, subordinate clauses, sentences and examples. Be economical with words, but not to the detriment of the clarity and accuracy of your text.

Don’t use exclamation marks

Let your arguments speak for themselves.

Chapter 9 Writing

Box 9.7

Style checklist for writing in general Avoid misspellings and stylistic errors

These errors detract from the point that the writer wants to make. What’s more, if the spelling’s wrong, one gets the impression that other things must be wrong, too.

Avoid discontinuous structures

Discontinuous structures are sentence structures with too large a gap between parts of the sentence that belong together. Therefore ‘A man wearing a hat walked by’ is preferable to ‘A man walked by wearing a hat.’

Prioritize important information

Prioritize important information in the sentence, so that you don’t keep your reader waiting to find out what the sentence is about.

Use short sentences

The general rule is that the more subordinate clauses you use, the less clear your writing will be.

Use demonstrative pronouns carefully

When referring back to a previous sentence (for example, when using the demonstrative pronouns ‘this’, ‘that’ and ‘those’), make sure that it is absolutely clear to what you are referring. Don’t make your reader hunt for the meaning, as this will detract from your argument.

Grammar and spelling

Now you’re at university, it’s assumed that you’re able to apply grammatical rules correctly. For this reason, you’ll no longer be taught grammar and spelling. In practice, however, we see that some students, despite having passed their secondary-school exams, still have difficulty with grammar. For example, research by Van Eerden and Van Es (2014) shows that on average, university students make 41 language errors in a 500-word text. That’s clearly too many mistakes. Language errors detract from the content of your text and come over as unprofessional. Therefore make sure that you always check your text before you hand it in (and use a spell checker), so that your reader can focus all of his or her attention on the content, and use the spell checker.

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The box below contains a short list of a number of errors commonly made by first-year students; be sure to check your text for these. Box 9.8

Checklist of common language errors

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Language error

Explanation

Example

Verbosity

The tendency to use more words than necessary.

‘The researcher believed, but could not confirm, that it was a difficult question.’ It is better to write: ‘The researcher assumed that it was a difficult question.’

Plural possessives

Add an apostrophe plus the letter ‘s’ at the end of the word, if the noun is singular. In case of a plural noun, simply add an apostrophe at the end of the word.

Singular: ‘the university’s library.’ Plural: ‘the researchers’ hypothesis.’

Which or that

Use ‘that’ when the added information is crucial to understanding the sentence. Use ‘Which’ when the added information is not crucial to understanding the sentence. If you use ‘which’, make sure you offset the added information with commas.

That: ‘Foods that contain sugar are the worst.’ Which: ‘The pasta in the canteen, which contained several kinds of vegetables, was a healthy option.’

It is / it’s

‘It’s’ is only ever used as a short form of ‘it is’, never to indicate possession.

It’s: ‘It’s raining outside.’ Its: ‘The book looks smart with its new cover.’

Fewer / less

‘Fewer’ should be used for items that can be counted individually (count nouns), whereas ‘less’ should be used for things that cannot be counted individually (mass nouns).

Fewer: ‘Ten books or fewer.’ Less: ‘The presentation should take less time.’

Chapter 9 Writing

Sources used --

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Eerden, A. van & Es, M. van (2014). Meten en maximaliseren van basale schrijfvaardigheid bij eerstejaarstudenten in het hoger beroepsonderwijs [Measuring and optimizing basic writing skills for first-year students in higher professional education]. Retrieved from http://www.beteronderwijsnederland. nl/publicaties Oost, H. & Markenhof, A. (2002). Een onderzoek rapporteren [Writing up research]. Baarn: HB. Renkema, J. (2005), Schrijfwijzer [Style guide]. The Hague: Sdu. Baroni, L., Cenci, L., Tettamanti, M. & Berati, M. (2006). Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61(2), 279-286.

Other useful sources: --

--

- At the University of Toronto website you’ll find even more tips on academic writing: {{ writing.utoronto.ca/advice - Various websites offer advice on technical language issues, such as spelling and word-use. {{ www.oxforddictionaries.com {{ oed.com

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10 Citing sources

Citing sources is something you do in every academic text, partly to indicate the status quo in the research field, but mainly to be able to substantiate the argument with others’ statements and research. It is very important that this is done with great precision: every statement that you are unable to substantiate yourself should be accompanied by a source. In this chapter, you will learn when and how to use citations in your work.

Using effective citations in your interdisciplinary text will increase the chance that your work is taken seriously by people in different academic disciplines. Citation has the following functions: ■■ To acknowledge work by other researchers. Failing to cite others’ work or citing it incorrectly, while the work has been used in the content of the text, constitutes plagiarism. In any case, the reader should know exactly where you are expressing your own thoughts (for example, in the form of criticism, conclusion or appraisal) and when you’re quoting others. ■■ To anchor your own text in the context of different disciplines. If you don’t link your text explicitly to what’s currently happening in the research field, you’ll soon be considered uninformed. ■■ To substantiate your own claims; sources then function like arguments with verification. You thereby give the reader an opportunity to check your claims and to further investigate an idea from your work. While you write, you will mostly use information from texts written by others. You can use this information in your own report in two ways. First, you can quote; that is, literally copy excerpts of text that others have written. Besides text, this could be diagrams, images or tables. Second, you can paraphrase; that is, reproduce others’ ideas and information in your own words. Whether you choose to quote or paraphrase depends on the kind of text that you’re writing and also on the role that the passage to be cited or paraphrased plays in your text. Resist the temptation to overload your text with quotes. You should only quote when strictly necessary, such as when the source text expresses an idea, insight or argument so effectively that paraphrasing would truly fail to do justice to it. Commonly acknowledged sources do not need to be cited. For example, the statement that water boils at a hundred degrees centigrade does not need to be 86

Chapter 10 Citing sources

backed up with a citation. During your studies, you will gradually develop a feeling for the kind of information that can be assumed to be common knowledge within the different disciplines. As you get more experienced at reading scholarly texts, it will become easier to make this choice: you will get better at spotting the ways in which professional scholars in your discipline cite sources. Thus in your literature survey, try to state as accurately as possible where you got the information, by using citations in the text. In academia there are various standards for citing sources, which differ for each discipline or sub-discipline. The most common citation styles are set out in Box 10.1. Box 10.1

Citation styles Citation style

Organization

Website

APA

American Psychological Association

www.apastyle.org

CSE

Council of Science Editors

www.cbe.org

CMS

Chicago Manual of Style

www.chicagomanualofstyle.org

MLA

Modern Language Association

www.mla.org

APA is a very common citation style, and it is the style that we explain further here. When using the APA method, you refer to the source you’ve used in two places in your literature review. First, in the main text, directly after the information you took from the source and put in your own report. Second, at the end of the report, you provide a detailed overview of all the sources you’ve used in the form of a reference list or bibliography. In the following pages, we describe how you should use citations in the main text.

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In-text citations Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you reproduce in your own words part of a text or idea from a source you’ve consulted. This is a good way to incorporate information from a source in your own argument. Ensure, though, that you do not reproduce the text of the source too literally, but that you summarize the essence of the text in your own words and cite the source. When you paraphrase an excerpt of text by an author, you should cite the source. According to APA rules, a source citation in the text of a scholarly article consists of the name or names of the author(s) and the year. In line with the APA style, you can cite scholarly literature in three ways: 1 Only the year in parentheses:

Research by Fearnside (2000) shows that soil degradation is a significant problem in Brazil. 2 Author or authors’ name and year in parentheses:

Research shows that soil degradation is a significant problem in Brazil (Fearnside, 2000). 3 Indirect reference to a source:

Should you refer multiple times to the same source within a section, it is not always necessary to put a citation at the end of every paraphrased sentence, so long as the text shows the source of the information. Research by Fearnside (2000) shows that soil degradation is a significant problem in Brazil. This research also shows that… Below are a number of rules for citation in specific cases. In Box 10.2, you will find details of the exact APA reference notation that you should include in the text.

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Publications by unknown authors (or groups of authors)

If you want to refer to a source written by an unknown author, something that often happens when citing research reports, you should refer to the organization that published the report. You should use the organization’s full name in the first citation, in any case. In later citations, you can use the abbreviation. ■■ First citation in main body of text: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has undertaken research into … (FAO, 2013). ■■ Subsequent citations in main body of text: (FAO, 2013) or FAO (2013) … Should the author or organization not be known, refer to the first words of the reference (often the title of the source) and the year of publication. Publications that you have not read yourself

First of all, you should only cite literature that you yourself have read. If you come across a reference in a publication to another publication that you also want to use, it is best to track down this publication and read it. If this is not possible, refer to the publication via the publication you’ve found. In this way, for example, you avoid the possibility of indiscriminately adopting dubious or incorrect interpretations. Neither should you include the publication that you’ve cited indirectly in the bibliography. For example: ■■ In their book, Denslow and Padoch (1988, cited in Baroni et al., 2006), show that … ■■ According to Strickland (1989), Rotter sees considerable overlap between ‘Locus of Control’ and learned helplessness … In this latter example, you have read Strickland, but you are unable to establish for yourself whether Rotter indeed perceives this overlap.

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Box 10.2

Checklist, in-text citations

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Element of citation

Explanation

Example

Authors’ initials

Authors’ initials or first names are never included in in-text citations. They are included in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

The research by Marcia L. Spetch and Donald M. Wilkie as a citation: (Spetch & Wilkie, 1983)

‘and’ and ‘&’

If the names are not in brackets, the word ‘and’ is used; if the names are in brackets, the sign ‘&’ is used.

According to Christopherson and Bikeland (2013), it seems likely that…

Full stop

The citation is part of the sentence and therefore comes before the full stop at the end of the sentence.

For sufficient … (Christopherson & Birkeland, 2013).

et al. (multiple authors)

For publications by six or more authors, you can generally use the short form of the citation. The short form consists of the name of the first author followed by the addition ‘et al.’ (abbreviation for: ‘et alii’, Latin for ‘and others’) and the year.

Foster et al. (2007) investigated the … Or: … an important source of eutrophication (Foster et al., 2007).

If a publication has three to five authors, all the authors’ names are given in the first citation, and the short form can be used in later citations.

First citation: In the research by Ercin, Aldaya and Hoekstra (2012), … Or: … (Ercin, Aldaya & Hoekstra, 2012). Thereafter: Ercin et al. (2012) researched the …

Chapter 10 Citing sources

(Christopherson & Birkeland, 2013)

Quotes

A number of standard rules apply to literal quotes: ■■ A quote must be copied exactly from the source, including capital letters, punctuation marks and (possibly incorrect) spelling. ■■ Never include a quote in your text without an explanation. Ensure the quote is linked well to the text. ■■ A short quote of less than forty words can simply be included in the running text. In this case, the quote should be put after a colon and between quotation marks. ■■ Put parentheses after the quote: the author, the year of publication and the page number(s). Then finish the sentence with a double stop. If the publication has already been given in the lead-up to the quote, the page number(s) will be sufficient for the quote. For example: In his research, Fearnside (2000) states the following: ‘Soybeans represent a recent and powerful threat to biodiversity in Brazil’ (p. 23). ■■

■■

■■

Should the quote be longer than forty words, leave a blank line before and after the quote and indent the text. In this case, you do not need to put the quote in quotation marks. If you leave out part of the quote, you should use three interspaced dots without brackets. Should you want to add something to the quote for clarification, put your comments in square brackets.

For example: When choosing your research topic, it is also important to consider the context of your topic: Once you’ve chosen a research topic, before making it definitive, it’s best to make an inventory of the context of the topic. … [The best way is to] search for angles onto your topic and [to] look at which ones are described. … You might choose to join existing research and you can further specify your research topic. (Plooij, 2011, p. 53)

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Citations in the bibliography

At the end of every scholarly publication, there is a list of all the literature that is cited in the text. Just as for in-text citations, certain rules apply to drawing up a bibliography, because it is important that all sources are listed consistently and in full. A bibliographical entry for an article in a journal looks like this: Spetch, M.L. & Wilkie, D.M. (1983). Subjective shortening: A model of pigeons’ memory for event duration. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 14-30. doi:10.1037/0097-7403.9.1.14

The examples of sources that have been given above are the ones that come up most often. See Appendix B for a more detailed overview of the APA rules on the layout of the bibliography, including how to cite newspaper articles and Internet sources.

Plagiarism

If you fail to cite the sources you’ve used or cite them incorrectly, you are committing plagiarism. Plagiarism is a form of fraud. When you use another person’s idea, interpretation, line of argument, experimental set-up or even the literal text without citing it, it is no longer clear which parts of the text are based on another’s work and which parts are your own. You can also commit plagiarism by accident, such as when you make notes on articles or Internet pages during your preliminary research, and fail to state clearly at that time on what these notes are based. If these passages eventually end up in your paper without a citation of the source, you have committed plagiarism. Paraphrasing others’ texts without citing the source is also plagiarism, so it doesn’t only apply to passages that have been copied literally. The following actions are classed as plagiarism: ■■ Using or copying another’s texts, data or ideas without a full or correct citation. ■■ Presenting the structure or the main ideas of a third-party source as your own work or ideas, even if you have included a reference to other authors. ■■ Failing to state clearly in the text, for example with quote marks or a clear lay-out, that the text includes literal or near-literal quotes, even if they have been cited correctly. ■■ Paraphrasing the content of someone else’s text without sufficient citations. ■■ Copying others’ visual, sound or test material, software and programme codes without citing them, and thereby passing it off as one’s own work. ■■ Submitting a text that has already been handed in, or a similar text, for assignments for other parts of a degree. ■■ Copying work by fellow students and presenting it as one’s own. ■■ Handing in under one’s own name papers that have been obtained from a commercial agency or written by someone else (whether or not for payment).

All of the above-named forms of plagiarism will be reported to the board of examiners. Plagiarism is impermissible and has no place in the academic world. When work is plagiarized, lecturers are no longer able to assess a student’s level of

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knowledge and skills. Plagiarism also continues to be impermissible in scholarly research after graduation. Finally, students who commit fraud often claim that they didn’t know that what they were doing constituted plagiarism and that it was not deliberate. What’s more, students do not always realize that the requirements at university are different from those at secondary school. However, ignorance is not considered a valid excuse by boards of examiners. In Appendix A, you’ll find more information in the form of the most frequently asked questions about fraud and plagiarism.

Sources used

-- Poelmans, P. & Severijnen, O. (2014). De APA-richtlijnen: Over literatuurverwijzingen en onderzoeksrapportage [The APA guidelines: On citing literature and reporting on research]. Bussum: Coutinho. -- University of Amsterdam (2014, 3 January). Fraude en plagiaat [Fraud and plagiarism]. Available at: http://student.uva.nl/az/content/fraude-plagiaat-enbronvermelding/fraude-en-plagiaatregeling.html

Other useful sources --

--

On the APA website, you’ll find more detailed instructions on citations: {{ apastyle.org {{ APA also gives advice on its Facebook page: facebook.com/APAStyle A blog on citing using the APA style: {{ blog.apastyle.org

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11 Presenting

The development of verbal and expressive skills is an essential part of your academic training. The better you’re able to express and communicate an idea, the better others will understand you and the more effective your message will be. This is true of both academia and most other graduate-level professions. In this chapter, we address the various aspects of preparation and the presentation itself.

Preparing a presentation

To give a good presentation, it is very important to have a clear focus and a logical structure. Often you are given limited presenting time, so you’ll need to make clear decisions beforehand about what you’re going to present. What’s more, preparing well also means you’ll feel more confident during the presentation and allows you to fall back on a planned structure. Below, we explain step by step how to prepare a good presentation.

Step 1: Aim of the presentation

The first step in preparing your presentation is to determine your aim: what do you want to achieve with your presentation? Determine what you want the audience to know, think or do after your presentation. This will help you to work out which topics will be relevant for your presentation. In addition, you can sub-divide the various aims of your presentation, as shown in Box 11.1:

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Box 11.1

Potential aims of a presentation Potential aims of the presenter

Specific aims for the audience

Transfer knowledge

After this presentation, the audience will know more about the causes of X.

Enthuse the audience

After this presentation, I want the audience to be enthusiastic about plan Y.

Convince the audience

After this presentation, the audience will prefer idea 1 to idea 2.

Step 2: Appraising your audience

Find out all about the audience that you’ll be presenting your story to, and look at how you can ensure that your presentation is relevant for them. Ask yourself the following questions: ■■ What kind of audience will you have (relationship with audience)? ■■ What does the audience already know about your topic and how can you connect with this (knowledge of the audience)? ■■ Which tone or style should you adopt vis-à-vis the audience (style of address for audience)? ■■ What do you want the audience to take away from your presentation (what the audience demands of you)?

Interdisciplinary tip Know your audience and put yourself in their place. Try to assess how homogenous or heterogeneous your audience is. A heterogeneous audience has a diverse range of ideas, opinions and backgrounds, which makes it harder for you, the speaker, to connect with everyone. If you get the sense that the audience is not very open to you or to your topic, start by emphasizing similarities or shared goals. This gives the audience a good reason to listen to your presentation.

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Step 3: Determine the structure and content

An important next step in preparing your presentation is to think about what you want to say and how you want to say it. You’ll have limited time for your presentation and you may be penalized for exceeding the time limit. You must therefore make choices about which information to present and the order in which to present it. Moreover, your listeners will have limited capacity to take in information. Neither will they be able to leaf back to check things if the broad outlines of your presentation are not clear. Presentations normally follow a clear structure: an introduction, a middle section and a conclusion. The diagram below gives a schematic overview of a presentation, and we will explain this further in the following paragraphs. Schematic overview of a presentation (based on Van der Laaken & Van der Laaken, 2013)

Introduction

Sub-theme 1

Sub-theme 2

Sub-theme 3

Conclusion

Welcome

Develop point 1a

Develop point 2a

Develop point 3a

Repeat objective

Background / anecdote

Develop point 1b

Develop point 2b

Develop point 3b

Repeat sub-themes

Develop point 2c

Develop point 3c

Conclusion 1 2

Objective / core message

Structure: What can the audience expect in the coming ten minutes?

Introducing your presentation

Finish presentation

The introduction is perhaps the most important part of your presentation: it’s where you grab your listeners’ attention. Below, we’ve set out a number of points on which to focus when preparing the introduction to your presentation.

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Box 11.2

Tips for the introduction to your presentation Introduce yourself

Don’t forget to introduce yourself briefly at the start of every presentation. People like to know who’s talking to them.

Catchy opening

You could opt to start with a catchy opener, so that you immediately grab the audience’s attention. This could be a personal story, a stimulating question, or a reference to something that was recently in the news.

Provide a core message

In an oral presentation, it’s often effective to state the ‘core message’ (the most important conclusion or central hypothesis) right at the start. You needn’t worry about losing the audience’s attention by giving the punch line away at the beginning. You’ll still have their attention, but now it will be focused on your argument instead of the conclusion. During the presentation, you will need to keep referring back to the core message in order to make your argument coherent.

Structure of the presentation

Explain the structure of the presentation to your audience. In this way, your audience will be prepared for the rest of your presentation and they’ll know what to expect in the coming ten minutes. The structure thus functions as a kind of table of contents. You may want to return to the structure during the presentation, to show the audience where you are in your argument or story.

Box 11.3

Examples of a core message Not like this

But like this

‘I would like to talk about research on fossils.’

‘Research on fossils has shown that birds can be considered a direct branch of the dinosaurs in the evolutionary tree.’

‘I would like to talk about interdisciplinary strategies.’

‘Research groups work together more productively when use is made of an interdisciplinary strategy.’

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The middle section

In the middle section, you set out the key points of your presentation; this is the ‘body’ of your presentation. Below, you’ll find some tips for creating an effective middle section for your presentation. Box 11.4

Tips for the middle section of your presentation

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Use sub-themes

It’s advisable to split the argument for your core message or the answer to your question into different key points or sub-themes. Ensure that the structure of your argument comes across clearly (see Chapter 8).

Be selective: limit the amount of information

An important rule of thumb is to limit the number of sub-themes to be addressed to a maximum of three or four. If there are too many sub-themes, the audience may lose the thread of the story or you may run short of time during the presentation.

Create clear transitions

Create clear transitions between the different sub-themes and points that you want to discuss. In addition, as you go from one key point to the next, it’s good to say where you’ve got to. This helps the audience to keep abreast of the structure.

Use examples

It is advisable to use attractive, clear examples to illustrate your sub-themes. This helps you to get the information across to your audience more effectively.

Build in emergency measures

Presentations often taken longer than planned. When preparing your presentation, you should therefore think about which parts of the middle section you could skip if necessary. Then if you run out of time, you can finish your story without losing any essential information. In any case, ensure that you leave enough time for the conclusion. It is important to remember that you may be stopped if your time is up.

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Interdisciplinary tip If you know that there is going to be a round of questions, include some extra slides for after the conclusion. You can fill these extra slides with all kinds of detailed information that you didn’t have time for during the presentation. If you’re on top of your material, you’ll be able to anticipate which questions might come up. It comes over as very professional if you’re able to back up an answer to a question from the audience with an extra graph or table, for example.

The conclusion

After you’ve explained all the key points in your story in the middle section, it’s important to round off your presentation clearly. Below, you’ll find a number of tips for a good conclusion. Box 11.5

Tips for concluding your presentation Repeat the core message

You can supplement the core message with a short recap of the main points.

Conclusions (and discussion)

Next, draw a clear conclusion, which makes it clear to your audience how this links to the aim of your presentation. If you’re presenting scholarly research, you can also raise some points for discussion here.

Rounding off

Ensure that you end on a high point, with a metaphorical exclamation mark that your audience won’t forget. For example, you could go back to the opening of your presentation, which will reinforce most important points and conclusions in the minds of the audience. Avoid ending with a phrase such as, ‘That’s it, then’ or ‘The end.’

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Step 4: Drafting a presentation outline

When giving a presentation, it’s helpful to make a presentation outline. A presentation outline consists mainly of keywords: it ensures that you neither simply read out your presentation, nor have to learn all of it by heart. Your presentation outline should be no longer than a single page of A4. Another option is to write it out on a series of individual cards, which you can keep to hand and check discreetly every now and then. A presentation outline can be structured in the following way: ■■ A (partly) written-out introduction. ■■ A core section with main points and sub-questions, captured in keywords. ■■ Written-out transitions between the main points and sub-questions. Ensure that the transitions clearly reflect the structure and make links between the different themes. ■■ Data that you find tricky to remember (figures, quotes). ■■ Instructions for using sheets or other aids. ■■ Drawings or diagrams that you want to put on the board. ■■ A (partly) written-out conclusion. Step 5: Practising

It is important to practise when preparing your presentation. Paradoxically enough, experienced speakers practise presentations more than inexperienced speakers. Ensure that you make time to practise your story in front of the mirror or record it on video. You can also practise in front of a small audience (your roommate, sibling, or a fellow student). This allows you to practise under a bit of pressure, and ensures that you’re better prepared for when the pressure increases. Practising your presentation out loud will help you to tell your story fluently and get your slides in the right places, and you will also find out how much time you need. As a rule of thumb, an oral presentation of a single page of A4 takes around ten minutes.

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Audio-visual resources

Audio-visual resources can be an important aid for a presentation. They make it more attractive and help you to structure and convey the information more effectively. When preparing your presentation, it is therefore important to think about which points from your presentation you want to support with audio-visual resources.

Interdisciplinary tip At some point, try giving a presentation without slides. This compels you to be especially careful about remembering and conveying your story effectively. Some students say, ‘I have to make a presentation’, by which they mean that they need to make presentation slides. Being fully reliant on slides, though, while paying little attention to preparation or practice, gives one a false sense of security. Among other things, this becomes obvious when these students spend a lot of time looking at the screen for support during a presentation. You can tell a substantive story really well, however, when you don’t have any supporting material and when you have the full attention of the audience directed at you instead of the screen.

Presentation slides

Good slides support the content and structure of your story and give your audience a helping hand. You should bear in mind, though, that the content of your slides will be static during the presentation. If you want to write things down or draw during the presentation, you should use a board or flip-chart.

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Five slides on how to make good slides

Readability n U  se

contrasting colours for the text and background.

n U  se

no more than three or four colours.

n U  se

a clear font and a good type size (at least 24 points).

n A  void

using effects as far as possible; it is distracting.

Clarity n U  se

clear, concise headings.

n E  nsure n L  imit



that your slides can be surveyed at a glance.

the amount of text; use the 7x7 rule:

n M  ax. 7 n M  ax. 7

n T  hus

lines; words per line.

focus on the key concepts.

n D  on’t

use too many slides: allow for around two minutes per slide.

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Layout n U  se

a consistent layout.

n C  reate

n T  his

n M  ake

a hierarchy by using different font sizes.

is possible using bullet points.

your slides expressive and use:

n g  raphs;

n d  iagrams; n images.

Functionality n U  se

slides as an aid, not to read from.

n D  on’t n B  e

automatically pack slides with visuals.

sparing and consistent with your use of effects.

Comprehensiveness n S  tart

the first slide with: the title, your name, the date and the name of the course.

n I n

the slides, refer to the sources you’ve used.

n C  onclude

the presentation with a bibliography.

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PowerPoint is the programme that is most often used to make presentation slides. Naturally, there are also plenty of alternatives to PowerPoint, some of them free: Prezi, Keynote (Mac), Google Docs, PDFs in full-screen mode, Impress (part of OpenOffice), PreZentit, SlideRocket, et cetera. In any case, ensure that your presentation file is compatible with PowerPoint (.ppt) or make sure that you can start the presentation in a browser window. You should also bring your presentation with you on a USB stick. This means you won’t have to rely on an Internet connection or have to log into your Dropbox or e-mail account at the last minute. Audio-visual and visual aids

As mentioned above, in addition to slides with text, you can also support your presentation with other audio-visual or visual elements, such as images, tables, diagrams and audio and video clips. It is therefore a good idea to think about which points from your story you would like to support visually. If your research results contain a lot of data, it can help the listener if you incorporate these in a graph, diagram or table. If you want to discuss the development of a city, for instance, you can make use of ‘before’ and ‘after’ photographs. A diagrammatical drawing can give a good insight into your experimental set-up. And when you want to discuss a historical development, you can clarify this by putting events on a timeline. This does not always have to be the case, though; don’t expect the visual resources to do the work for you, but remember that you’re the one giving the presentation. Also avoid your audience having to do two things at once, by explaining what you’re going to present, presenting it, and explaining what you have just presented. When it comes to audio-visual aids, think about: ■■ Why do I want to use a visual or audio-visual aid? ■■ What is the purpose of my visual or audio-visual aid? ■■ Is this the best way to back up a point from my story? Audio and video clips can thus be a good addition to your presentation and create variety, but there are a number of things that you need to take into account. First, assume that the audience is seeing or hearing a clip for the first time. Make things easier for the audience by explaining what you are going to show and explain which parts you believe to be relevant. Second, be sure to edit the clip carefully: it should not eat up too much of your presentation time. Third, ensure that the link to the clip on your slide works properly. In addition, check whether the file type is supported by the computer that you will use for the presentation.

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During a presentation

During a presentation, you’ll want everyone to focus on your argument. It is therefore important that the listeners can understand you well, that they do not have to process too much or too little information, and that they are not bothered by distracting ‘tics’. The box below sets out the various elements on which presentations can be assessed. Box 11.6

Tips for a good presentation style Verbal: your use of language

Paralingual: how you use your voice

Non-verbal: your body language

Other

Clear

Articulation

Eye contact

Timing

Specific

Volume

Gestures

Succinct

Tempo

Posture

Structure and organization of presentation

Intonation

Facial expression

Pauses Dynamics Not reading out text

Anticipating responses Responding to questions from audience

After a presentation

A presentation is often followed by space for questions and discussion. This space is important, because members of the audience often wait to ask questions because the answer might be given or clarified later in the story. It is only at the end of a presentation that the audience has an overview and is able to ask questions. First, you will often be asked to clarify your presentation. After this, more attention is often focused on a discussion about content. We pay more attention to discussing in Chapter 12.

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A few tips to ensure that the round of questions goes as well as possible: ■■ Rounds of questions often start slowly. Do not expect questions immediately after your presentation. People sometimes need a little time to phrase their question, so give them time. ■■ There are various ways to organize a round of questions. If a number of people want to ask questions, you can answer the questions one by one. It can also be useful to listen to all the questions first, jot them down, and then answer them. This allows you to avoid repetition. You might feel nervous if there are questions about the content of your presentation, but keep the following in mind. First, you’ve probably read up on your topic, meaning that you should be able to answer most questions easily. Second, you simply may not know the answer to every question. If you’re honest about this, then you can make a conjecture about a possible answer. You can also put the question to the audience: does anyone else know the answer to the question? In this way, you can explore the pros and cons of different answers with the audience. ■■ When answering questions, you can work through a number of steps. Ensure that you confirm the question and repeat it in your own words. Then try to answer the question clearly and comprehensively. Finally, involve the whole audience in answering the question. ■■ Bear in mind that you can sometimes be asked multiple questions. Don’t let this panic you, but try to dissect the question together with the questioner. ■■ A round of questions can give you useful feedback on the content of your presentation, but also be open to feedback on your presentation skills and use of audio-visual aids. Interdisciplinary tip During your presentation, try to stimulate students or scholars from other disciplines with your presentation: make it clear what you can add, but also be aware of your limits. In this way, you’ll encourage an open dialogue and you can use the specialist knowledge of the members of your audience.

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Sources used --

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Brinkman, R. & Creusen, B. (2013). Presenteren [Presenting]. In M. Moret & M.J.M. Maussen (eds.), Academische vaardigheden voor politicologen [Academic skills for political scientists] (pp. 153-168). Amsterdam: College voor Sociale Wetenschappen. Laaken, M. van der & Laaken, B. van der (2013). Presentation techniques. Bussum: Coutinho. University of Groningen (2012, 6 November). Presentatie ontwerpen [Designing presentations]. Retrieved from http://www.rug.nl/education/ other-study-opportunities/hcv/mondelinge-vaardigheden/voor-studenten/ presenteren/

Other useful sources --

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Examples of clearly structured presentations with core messages, developed by scholars over a short time period (10-15 minutes): {{ Ted-talks: ted.com You can find PowerPoint course at the Microsoft website: microsoft.com For all your questions about PowerPoint, you can also go to pptfaq.com YouTube video with ‘scientific’ tips for presentation slides: ‘4 Scientific Reasons Why Your PowerPoint Presentation Sucks (and the 2 Tips You Need to Fix It)’. YouTube video with extra design tips for effective presentation slides: ‘How to Design an Effective Presentation’.

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Part 4 A critical attitude ‘If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things.’ (1644) René Descartes (1596-1650) French philosopher and mathematician In Part Four, we address the rules of the game for good discussions and critical dialogue. We also discuss the importance of critical reflection, both on your role as a researcher and on academia in general.

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12 Debate, discussion and critical dialogue

In addition to expressing your opinion (or the answer to your question) in written texts, as a scholar you’ll learn how to share your work and ideas in discussions and debates. In this chapter, we’ll explain how best to do this and how these techniques can refine and enrich your viewpoint.

In a debate, discussion or critical dialogue, it is essential to take a critical approach. Critical thinking is ‘the art of analysing and evaluating thinking with the aim of improving it’ (Paul & Elder, 2009, p.2). Critical thinking helps you to analyse another’s findings and arguments, to evaluate them, and – in some cases – to disprove them. In the latter case, you should be careful not to go too far, because having a sceptical attitude (doubting) can degenerate into undermining or disregarding everything someone says. Your aim should always be to improve the ideas that are out there.

Debate

A debate has a fixed structure and fixed rules, whereby it is not your opponent but an independent third party (jury or audience) that has to be convinced. The debate format is a good exercise in assembling arguments, defending a point of view and engaging with others’ arguments. Within the scientific community, debate has the following objectives:

Objective 1: Refining ideas

First, debate encourages broader and more nuanced thinking. Debate compels you to take a step back and consider various points of view. Moreover, the fact that you need to produce the best possible arguments on the day challenges you to think critically, and this demands that you make your thinking more nuanced. It also leads to a greater degree of empathy. Others are convinced by arguments that show evidence of empathy. If arguments do not catch on with your audience, they lack power. For this reason, in a debate you should constantly draw connections between your arguments and existing ideas on an issue. Finally, you stimulate debate by justifying your emotions rationally. If your opinions are based on instinct, debate compels you to transform your emotions into opinions that are based on rational arguments.

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Objective 2: Improving communication skills.

Debate has an effect like that of a pressure cooker on communication skills. During a debate, you immediately notice the impact of your skills in the following areas: ■■ Forming opinions. ■■ Arguing persuasively. ■■ Listening critically. ■■ Presenting effectively. ■■ Rebutting criticism. ■■ Seeing through and countering fallacies and tricks. The more you practise debating, the more effectively you’ll be able to distinguish between being right and proving your point. This is not only about having good arguments, but also having a deliberate, personal style of persuasion (known as ‘rhetoric’). Objective 3: Substantive outcomes

Debate encourages more than reflection and better communication skills; a good debate also brings a number of advantages. First, debate makes a substantive contribution to the analysis of a problem. Second, debate provides insight into what we do and don’t know. It exposes superficial clichés, inadequacies, inconsistencies, generalizations and blind spots, and you get a sense of what needs to be researched further. Third, if you take a critical attitude, in debate you will be less ready to accept half-baked compromises, false consensus or rhetorical one-liners.

Interdisciplinary tip The sites of (interdisciplinary) battles can be fertile ground for new interdisciplinary perspectives. For example, the conflict between the notion that people are rational (mainly held in economics) and the idea that people are irrational (as many sociologists think) can be resolved by transforming the dichotomous variable on rationality (rational or not) into a continuous variable (a person can be rational to a greater or lesser degree). Instead of an ‘or/or’ antithesis, we can now distinguish different degrees of rationality in people, who may, for example, be influenced by their environment (as the results of sociological experiments suggest). For more ways to overcome antitheses, see the handbook An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Research by Menken and Keestra (2016).

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Weak spots in debates

Debating well is an art, and one that needs to be practised. In any case, try to be wary of the following common weak spots that can undermine an argument – yours or your opponent’s.

Generalizations

When debating, one tends to speak from one’s own experience more often than when one’s writing an academic text, for example. Be sure to ground these experiences and emotions rationally; basing a view solely on a feeling or experience tends to lead to hasty generalizations – and that undermines your argument. For example, the statement ‘The way that my opponent is ignoring my arguments shows that men are bad at listening’ is a hasty generalization. Repetition

Someone may put forward the same argument a number of times in their argumentation. The correctness of an argument, however, is separate from the frequency with which it is used. For example, instead of presenting a new argument, someone repeats the argument that they used earlier (sometimes in a louder tone – see also ‘Emphatic form’, below). Common sense

Appealing to ‘common sense’ can be misleading; after all, scholarly findings may question commonly held assumptions or disprove what has always generally been considered true. For example, backing up your argument by saying, ‘Anyone with a good head on their shoulders knows that milk is good for us all.’ Emphatic form

When someone raises their voice in a discussion, or puts something in bold or italics in a literature review, this makes no difference to the correctness of their view. For example, when someone puts a phrase in bold, italics or capital letters in a literature review, this makes NO difference to the degree of correctness of the view. Evasion

Ignoring others’ critical points and then moving on to other issues is not a good way to defend your opinion. It merely suggests that you probably don’t have a response to possible rebuttals of your view. For example, ‘In my opinion, it is much more relevant to talk about a different statement.’

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Straw men

You should not present a distorted picture of the opposing party’s viewpoint or arguments. For example, after someone has made the case for not including Viagra in the basic package for medical insurance on the grounds that other medicines are needed more urgently, the opponent presents this as: ‘My opponent has said that he doesn’t care at all about the patients who benefit from Viagra.’ Getting personal

It is wrong to reject someone’s arguments on the basis of personal qualities. For example, ‘I doubt your opinion, as you haven’t been working in this sector for long.’

Discussion

A discussion is a conversation between two or more parties on a particular topic. Discussions differ from debates in the sense that you’re not trying to persuade a jury or third party of a particular opinion, but your immediate discussion partner. The ultimate aim is to reach a conclusion with which all of the parties can agree: a consensus. Someone can change their opinion during a discussion or be satisfied with an alternative (intermediate) solution, if it is supported by good arguments. A discussion need not be held face to face, but can also be held in writing or digitally over a longer period. For a discussion to go well, it is necessary for all parties to be open to the other parties’ ideas. In addition, it is important for the parties’ opinions to be substantiated with arguments and for all parties to remain professional. If someone takes a discussion too personally or personal remarks are made, there is the risk that the discussion will get out of hand and degenerate into an exchange of words or quarrel. Two important principles for a scholarly discussion:



1 Differences of opinion can be productive

Thinking in terms of consensus can sometimes make it difficult to get the most out of differences of opinion. We often prefer to gloss over differences and limit ourselves to searching for points of agreement. It can be much more productive, though, not to see differences immediately as sources of conflict, but as ‘tests of ideas’. Indeed, a discussion is meant to expose bad arguments, superficial clichés, inconsistencies and blind spots.

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2 Arguments trump power

In practice, it is tempting to base decisions on the power of one individual (the leader) or the majority. In a discussion, however, what is said is more important than who says it. The emphasis should thus be on having as open and honest an exchange of arguments as possible, and ensuring that everyone is prepared to abandon weak arguments for strong ones. Only then will it be possible to agree on what the best arguments are.

Pitfalls when framing an argument

It is important to frame your argument as clearly and thoroughly as possible. In doing so, keep an eye out for the invalid arguments, known as fallacies, which can easily slip into a text or oral discussion. At first sight, a fallacy may look convincing, but it certainly does not improve an argument. Drawing on the experiences of lecturers at the IIS, we have selected the most common fallacies.

Circular reasoning

When you repeat your position rather than substantiating it with an argument. For example, if you say that a plan is bad, ‘because it is simply no good.’ Appealing to an authority

The fact that an authority takes a particular position on a certain issue is not in itself sufficient guarantee that the argument holds. For example, if you take the same position as a scholar, this does not mean that you are exempted from further argumentation. You will have to explain why the expert takes this position. The majority view

If many people, or the majority of a group of people, hold a particular opinion or take a particular position, this does not mean that it is right. For example, even if the majority of the Dutch population thinks that parliamentary democracy is the best form of government, this is not indisputably true. False links (spurious correlations)

The fact that two things are connected does not automatically mean that one follows from the other. For example, if research shows that rich people are on average happier than poor people, you cannot conclude that money makes people happier. Other factors may be at play, and you could also argue it the other way round: it may be that someone’s level of happiness influences their economic success.

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Logical fallacies

Conclusions or views that do not follow logically from the arguments that have been discussed. For example, if a lot of research shows that disarming the Middle East would lead to peace, you cannot conclude from this that if there is no disarmament, there will certainly be no peace. There are also other ways of achieving peace. Reversing the burden of proof

When you claim something, you should be the one to assume the burden of proof for your claim. Saying that someone else should prove the opposite of your claims is misleading and does not substantiate your own view. For example: ‘Why does God exist? You prove that God doesn’t exist, then.’ False opposition

Two opposing options are advanced, while there are in fact many more. For example: ‘What would you rather see covered by medical insurance: Viagra pills for macho men or at-home care for old grannies?’ The slippery slope

Insinuating that an intervention or measure will make things go from bad to worse, while it is far from sure that it will have this effect. For example: ‘If we include Viagra in the basic package for medical insurance today, then tomorrow we’ll be reimbursing breast enlargements.’

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Sources used --------

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Eemeren, F.H. van, Grootendorst, R. & Snoeck Henkemans, A.F. (2001). Argumentatie [Argumentation]. Groningen: Martinus Nijhoff. Geer, P.M. van der (1998). Werken aan debatvaardigheden [Working on debating skills]. Maarssen: Elsevier/De Tijdstroom. Geer, P.M. van der (2001). De kunst van het debat [The art of debating]. The Hague: Sdu. Menken, S.B.J. & Keestra, M. (eds.) (2016). An Introduction to interdisciplinary research. Amsterdam University Press. Newell, W. H. (2010, 10 March). Research manual for interdisciplinary senior projects. Retrieved from http://miamioh.edu Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2009). Critical thinking: Concepts & tools. Tomales: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. University of Groningen (2012, 29 October). Discussiëren [Discussing]. Retrieved from http://www.rug.nl/education/other-study-opportunities/hcv/ mondelinge-vaardigheden/voor-studenten/discussieren Vancil, D. (1998). Rhetoric and argumentation. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Other useful sources --

At the website debateable.org/debate-strategies you will find more information on debate strategies.

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13 Reflection

As well as studying others’ research critically, it is also important to reflect on your own ideas and behaviour. When you reflect, you try to discover why you take certain positions or why you do certain things. In this chapter, we look in more depth at how you can reflect on your own views and assumptions, your qualities and challenges, and your functioning as a team player.

Reflection is essential for budding interdisciplinary scholars in various ways. First, reflecting can help you as you study. By discovering what your strong and weak points are, you can get a clear picture of where you are already excelling and where you can develop further. Second, reflection can also be important for researchers. As a researcher, you’ll be working at the limits of current knowledge, and you’ll try, for example by carrying out experiments, to gather new knowledge. You’ll write down your expectations and then, once the results are in, look to see whether what you’d predicted has happened. Many students are disappointed when their expectations are not met. This is not necessarily a waste of time and effort, though. On the contrary, making a mistake is a good way of learning something new: if your expectations are met, this only confirms what you already knew. As the American philosopher Daniel Dennett puts it: ‘The chief trick to making good mistakes is not to hide them – especially not from yourself. Instead of turning away in denial when you make a mistake, you should become a connoisseur of your own mistakes, turning them over in your mind as if they were works of art, which in a way they are’ (Dennett, 2013, p.19).

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Interdisciplinary tip Reflection is particularly important for interdisciplinary researchers. One condition for interdisciplinary research is that there needs to be communication between people with diverse (disciplinary) backgrounds. A major hurdle that often has to be cleared is that of the assumptions that academics make without reflecting on them. Implicit assumptions that lead to the exclusion of other disciplines can have a particularly negative effect on interdisciplinary thinking. In order to overcome this hurdle, scholars must not only reflect on the judgements in the models and variables that they choose, but they must also break free from their own disciplinary background. They should be able to hold themselves up to the light, as it were. For this reason, self-reflection plays a key role in pretty much all of the methods that have been developed to advance the conversation between scholars from different disciplines.

Self-reflection

It is not easy to reflect on yourself. To ensure that you profit maximally from this technique, it is advisable to take self-reflection seriously and to make time for it. If you do this effectively, you will be quicker to recognize important moments and you will be able to develop yourself. A reflection report is a good way of focusing your attention on this. A reflection report is all about finding a good balance between describing a situation and the impact of events. Often, you begin by describing a situation. Some questions you could consider are: where did it happen, who was involved, what happened, what was the problem that I encountered like? In the more reflective parts of the report, you focus on the effect that the situation had on you. In doing so, you could consider questions such as: what did the situation make me feel, why did I act in this way, have I been in similar situations in the past and how did I handle them, can I see a pattern in my behaviour, how would I want to approach the situation next time, what specifically do I plan to do?

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Box 13.1

Checklist for reflection n S  tart

n n

n

n

your reflection report shortly after beginning a course. Otherwise, you’ll forget things and miss useful learning experiences (and learning points) as a result. Write openly about your experiences.  on’t forget that reflective writing is personal, so there is space to write D about your feelings and emotions.  nsure a good balance between the reflective and the descriptive. It is easy E to write down what happened, but this is primarily about the ‘why’, the ‘how’ and the ‘what if.’  eep practising; your reflective skills and, with this, your understanding and K learning will improve as a result.

One useful tool for identifying your strengths and weaknesses is a core quadrant (see figure below). Imagine that, for example, ‘decisive’ is a core quality that you ascribe to yourself. By filling in the rest of the core quadrant, you learn that your pitfall (the excess of the good quality) is that you can be ‘pushy’. You can avoid this by being a little more ‘patient’, and this is your challenge. If you’re too patient, though, this leads to the risk of being ‘passive’, which is your allergy. In this way, you can discover for yourself what your strong and weak qualities are, what your challenge is, and what probably annoys you. In a similar way, you can also start by filling in an allergy in order to discover your core quality or pitfall. Overview of a core quadrant

Core quality

Excess of a good quality

Positive opposite

Allergy

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Pitfall

Positive opposite

Excess of a good quality

Challenge

Interdisciplinary tip As an interdisciplinary student and researcher, you are expected to have a good idea of what your view on a problem is. The Socratic method can help you with this. In contrast to many conversations in which people focus on solving a problem, the Socratic method focuses more on the vision or perspective that someone is using to tackle a problem. The conversation is more about assumptions and values, meaning that the solution to the problem is ignored as much as possible. Participants can challenge each other with: ■■ Requests for clarification (‘Could you explain that?’). ■■ Questions that probe assumptions (‘How could you verify or refute this assumption?’). ■■ Questions that probe evidence and argumentation (‘Is there a reason to doubt this evidence?’). ■■ Requests to investigate alternative perspectives (‘Does anyone see this another way?’). ■■ Questions that investigate implications and consequences (‘What would happen if … ?’). ■■ Questions that interrogate the question (‘What is the purpose of this question?’).

Reflecting on your role in a team

In interdisciplinary research, you often work with students from different backgrounds. In order to take the cooperation and exchange of ideas to a higher level, it is important to reflect regularly on how you’re working together. When forming a research group, it can be useful to fill in a team-player matrix (see Box 13.2). By filling in your qualities, what you are less good at, your expectations of others and what you understand by good cooperation, you can discover at the beginning of a project where the strengths of your group lie and what the potential threats are. Have you got someone who is good at time management? Is there someone in the group who loves writing? And so forth.

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Box 13.2

Example of a team-player matrix What are my qualities and what do I have to offer the team? For example: I am good at planning.

What are my pitfalls and what should the team know about me? For example: I can sometimes be too much of a perfectionist.

What are my challenges and what do I need from my team? For example: I need someone who is creative and someone who keeps an eye on the bigger picture.

What are my criteria for success? For example: I want to get a grade of at least 80%.

The matrix also provides an important benchmark for discussing how you’re working together, once you’ve been doing this for a while. You can reflect, for example, by asking yourself and your team members the following questions. Regarding the process of working together ■■

■■

About the whole group: {{ How is the division of work going? {{ To what extent are commitments being met? {{ How have roles been assigned in the group? (Who is taking the lead? Who is the creative spirit? Who is paying attention to the details?) {{ How much effort is the group as a whole making and the individual group members? (Is the group as a whole as ambitious as it should be? Do you see large differences between the group members? And how much time is being invested?) Regarding your role: {{ {{ {{ {{

{{

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What is going well? What could you improve further? Where have you succeeded in sticking to the plan? Which parts of the group assignment still need to be done and what is your role in these? Looking at your own team-player matrix, how does this reflect your own qualities or the things you’re less good at? Which adjustments or additions could you make to your team-player matrix? What have you learned about yourself that you could draw on next time?

Chapter 13 Reflection



Regarding the content ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■

Which parts of the project still need to be developed? What direction has the research (or report) taken? What questions or sticking points still exist? What are you stuck on, content-wise?

One well-known model for finding out how your behaviour affects others is ‘Leary’s Rose’, named after Timothy Leary, who developed the model. This communications model is based on the notion that your behaviour provokes a response from others and vice versa. You can use the model to analyse patterns of behaviour in yourself and others, and you can influence others’ behaviour by becoming aware of the messages that you are ‘sending out’. Leary’s Rose Above

Competing

Leading

Attacking

Helping

Against

Together Rebelling

Cooperating

Withdrawing

Following

Below

The model identifies eight types of behaviour (attacking, competing, leading, helping, cooperating, following, withdrawing and rebelling) that lie along two dimensions: the together-against axis and the above-below axis (also known as the dominant-dependent axis). It is important to realize that the Rose is about interactions, not about character types. The model assumes that everyone displays all eight types of behaviour at some point, depending on the context, although people do naturally have preferred forms of behaviour.

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Giving and receiving feedback

When developing a critical attitude, when reflecting and also in discussions, giving and receiving feedback play a crucial role. You can use feedback to help your fellow students, for instance if you can tell them where their literature review or presentation could be improved. Giving feedback is also a good way to develop a critical attitude. For example, can you work out whether a statement is backed up adequately in a literature review? Don’t you avoid or evade counterarguments? Is the presentation to the point, and isn’t there too much text on the slides? Are you actually answering the question that has been asked? When you’re working together, for example in groups of interdisciplinary students, it can sometimes be useful to give feedback on each other’s behaviour, too. This can be tricky, because there is always the danger that it gets personal. Below, we’ve set out some tips for giving someone feedback on their behaviour. Box 13.3

Checklist for giving feedback n

n

n n

n

 escribe specific behaviour; do not immediately interpret, evaluate or D moralize. Besides describing the behaviour, explain the effect that it has on you (thus not necessarily on everyone). This is your opinion, and someone else may well disagree with it. Give feedback on behaviour that can be changed (it’s irrelevant whether someone has brown, blond or black hair). Keep feedback measured and brief, so that the core message of the feedback is clear.

Receiving feedback – on the content of your work, but also on your behaviour – can be even more difficult. How can you engage constructively with criticism of how you function? You’ll find a number of suggestions in Box 13.4. Box 13.4

Checklist for receiving feedback n

n

n n n

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 isten to the feedback without reacting. Suppress the tendency to defend L yourself or explain.  ake sure that you understand the other. If not, ask for an explanation/clarity M (for example, if someone is being vague or over-general).  sk about the significance/effect of your behaviour on others. A  ccepting feedback doesn’t necessarily mean agreeing with it. A  ecide for yourself whether you want to change your behaviour as a result of D the feedback.

Chapter 13 Reflection

Sources used -----

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Dennett, D.C. (2013). Intuition pumps and other tools for thinking. New York, NY: W. H. Norton & Company Inc. Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of personality: A functional theory and methodology for personality evaluation. New York: The Ronald Press Co. Menken, S.B.J. & Keestra, M. (eds.) (2016). An introduction to interdisciplinary research. Amsterdam University Press. Plymouth University (n.d.). ‘Reflection’ learning Development. Retrieved from https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/uploads/production/document/path/1/1717/ Reflection.pdf Radboud Zorgacademie. (n.d.). Feedback geven en ontvangen [Giving and receiving feedback]. Retrieved from https://www.radboudumc.nl/Onderwijs/ Zorgacademie/Bijscholing/Documents/Feedbackgevenenontvangen.pdf University of Michigan (n.d.). The six types of Socratic questions. Retrieved from http://www.umich.edu/~elements/5e/probsolv/strategy/cthinking.htm

Other useful sources --

--

--

One way to evaluate a team (and to see which roles are being fulfilled and which roles may still be vacant) is to use the Belbin method. On the ‘Thesis’ site, you will find more information about this method (google ‘Thesis’ and ‘Belbin’). On the site www.toolshero.com/communication-management/rose-of-leary/ you will find a detailed article on Leary’s Rose and a detailed description of every section of the Rose. For more information on the Socratic method and how to use it: socraticmethod.net

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Appendices

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Appendix A Fraud and plagiarism In the following, we answer a number of frequently asked questions about fraud and plagiarism. Isn’t it sufficient to list all my sources at the end of the text?

In non-scientific or popular scientific genres (for example, newspaper or magazine articles) you do encounter this citation method, but in a scholarly text you should also cite your sources when you use them (i.e. in the text). If I say something in my own words, do I still have to cite the source?

Yes: in scholarly texts you are expected to cite your source honestly when using someone else’s ideas, including when you’re summarizing or putting something in different words. You should also see citing a source as a mark of respect and a reward for someone else’s efforts and achievements. Should I cite a source for every claim that I make?

The art here is to distinguish between those things for which you should give someone credit and those that are obvious and considered to be common knowledge. In the beginning you will often feel unsure, and in this case, play on the safe side. It is better to cite too many sources than too few. With more experience in reading scientific texts, it will become easier to make the call; you will develop a better eye for the way in which professional scholars in your field cite sources. Sometimes I’m no longer sure what’s my own idea and what I read elsewhere.

Having a careful note-taking system helps with this problem. If you make notes as you read, write down what you’ve quoted literally (using quote marks) and note down the publication and the page number on which you found the quote that you’re copying or paraphrasing. This way, you won’t be in for any nasty surprises when you’ve handed in your paper. A sloppy note-taking system is one of the major causes of plagiarism among students.

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Am I allowed to work with other students?

As a scholar, you never work in a vacuum. It is important to exchange ideas with others on the topics you’re addressing. However, it is also important for your degree programme that you learn to read and incorporate the material by yourself, so that you can then express your ideas in your own words. If work isn’t done individually, lecturers cannot gauge the extent to which a student has these skills and knowledge. For this reason, assignments that are not done individually are also considered to be plagiarism, with the exception of group assignments. There are also penalties for this kind of plagiarism. What is free-riding?

As an academic, you learn to work in a team. Part of this entails taking responsibility for yourself and contributing in a reasonable way to the group work and group process. ‘Free-riding’ means participating in a group assignment but not contributing or contributing very little, such as by not turning up to group meetings, not preparing the work or not meeting prior agreements. In short: a free-rider shirks his responsibilities and attempts to pass a course with the minimum possible effort. Be sure to take part actively and know what is expected of you. Also ensure that others know what is expected of them. Nevertheless, if someone is free-riding and talking to them has no effect, report this to the lecturer. What is falsification of data?

It is fundamentally forbidden to falsify data in order to present better research data than you have actually found. You should be completely honest when presenting your research data. Disappointing research data say nothing about the quality of your research, but are part of scientific research. What is complicity?

Both the perpetrator and the co-perpetrator of fraud and plagiarism can be penalized. If the work of a fellow student is copied with the permission or cooperation of the same student, then they are also complicit in plagiarism. Sending assignments, papers or other forms of work to fellow students can thus lead to a penalty for plagiarism. I am working on a group assignment. How do I avoid plagiarism by my fellow students?

When plagiarism is committed by one of the authors of a group assignment, the other authors are also complicit in the plagiarism if they could have or should have known that their fellow student was committing plagiarism. This means that a group is collectively responsible for the content of a piece of work. You should thus ensure as a group that you are involved in each other’s research. Always read your fellow students’ work carefully and point out where citations are missing, so that these can be looked up and added before the work is handed in.

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Appendix A

Appendix B Citation guidelines for bibliographies At the end of a paper or research report, you should provide an overview of all the sources that you cited in the text. You should put this list of sources in alphabetical order, starting with the surname of the first author. Every reference always contains the following elements: author(s), year of publication, title and location (for example, the name of an academic journal).

See www.apastyle.org for a complete overview. Journals

The following formats are used for articles in scholarly journals: General format – digital version with DOI1: Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Name of journal, volume (issue number), page numbers. doi:xx.xxxxx Digital versions without DOI: Author, A.A., Author, B.B & Author, C.C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Name of journal, volume (issue number), page numbers. Retrieved from http:// url Paper version: Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Name of journal, volume (issue number), page numbers.

Example – 1 author

Mellers, B.A. (2000). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 910-924. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.910

Example – 2 authors

Klimoski, R. & Palmer, S. (1993). The ADA and the hiring process in organizations. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45(2), 10-36. doi:10.1037/1061-4087.45.2.10

1 Digital articles often have a Digital Object Identifier (DOI). This is a unique identification number and permanent link to the location of the digital source. The permanent link is structured as follows: http://dx.doi.org/[doi-identification number]. Academic Skills for Interdisciplinary Studies

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Example – 3 to 5 authors (paper version)

Borman, W.C., Hanson, M.A., Oppler, S.H., Pulakos, E.D. & White, L.A. (1993). Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 443-449.

Example – more than 5 authors (paper version)

Wolchnik, S.A., West, S.G., Sandler, I.N., Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., et al. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843-856.

Example – online article (without DOI)

Kortepeter, M.G. & Parker, G.W. (1999). Potential Biological weapons threats. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 5(4). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/ EID/vol5no4/kortepeter.htm Books

The following format is used for references to books: Paperen version: Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (Year of publication). Title: Sub-title. Place: Publisher. Digital version with DOI: Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (Year of publication). Title: Sub-title. doi:xx.xxxxx Digitale versie zonder doi: Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (Year of publication). Title: Sub-title. Retrieved from http://url

Example – 2 authors2 (paper version)

Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills (3rd ed.). Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press.

Example – 2 authors (digital version)

Dvorak, R. & Ferraz-Mello, S. (2005). A comparison of the dynamical evolution of planetary systems. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4466-6

Example – digital book without DOI and without publication year (n.d.: no date)

Rosenbaur, O. (n.d.). Four realities. Retrieved from http://www.onlineoriginals.com/ showitem.asp?itemID=149

2 Prefixes in names, such as ‘van’, ‘van der’, etc., should be written after the author’s initial or initials.

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Appendix B

Chapters in compilations

The following format is used for a chapter from a book or compilation by various authors: Paper version: Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (year). Title of the chapter: Subtitle of the chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (eds.), Title of the book (page numbers). Place: Publisher. Digital version with DOI: Digital version with DOI: Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (year). Title of the chapter: Subtitle of the chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (eds.), Title of the book (page numbers). doi:xx.xxxxx Digital version without DOI: Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (year). Title of the chapter: Subtitle of the chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (eds.), Title of the book (page numbers). Retrieved from http://url

Example

Kolb, B., & Taylor, L. (2002). Facial expression, emotion, and hemispheric organization. In R.D. Lane & L. Nadel (eds.), Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion (pp. 62-83). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Research reports

The following format is used for reports: Paperen version: Author, A.A. (year). Title and subtitle (report number, if available). Place: Publisher. Digital version: Author, A.A. (year). Title and subtitle (report number, if available). Retrieved on day month year from http://url

Example – organization as author

Australian Bureau of Statistics (1991). Estimated resident population by age and sex in statistical local areas, New South Wales (3209.1). Canberra: Australian Capital Territory.

Example – digital report with organization as author

TransCanada (2006). Annual report. Retrieved on 5 July 2012 from http://www. transcanada.com/investor/annual_reports/2006/media/pdf/TransCanada_2006_ Annual_Report.pdf

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Newspaper articles

The following format is used for references to a text on a website: Author, A.A. (year, day month). Title of article. Name of newspaper, pages.

Example – newspaper article

Liptak, A. (2002, 16 June). Polygamist’s custody fight raises many issues. The New York Times, A20.

Example – digital newspaper article

Gardiner, B. (2015, 1 May). How growth in dairy is affecting the environment. New York Times. Retrieved on 8 May 2015 from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/04/ business/energy-environment/how-growth-in-dairy-is-affecting-the-environment. html Internet sources

The following format is used to refer to a source on the Internet: Author, A.A. (year, day and month if available). Title of the document. Retrieved on day month year from http://url

Example – 2 authors

Portier, C.J., & Leonard, W.L. (2016, 13 June). Do cell phones cause cancer? Probably, but it’s complicated. Retrieved on 16 June 2016 from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/ do-cell-phones-cause-cancer-probably-but-it-s-complicated/

Example – Organisation as author3 and without date (n.d.)

Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (n.d.). Interdisciplinary education. Retrieved on 16 June 2016 from http://iis.uva.nl/en/interdisciplinary-education

3 If the author is unknown, refer to the organization. If the organization is also unknown, refer to the title of the web page

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Appendix B

Sources used --

Poelmans, P. & Severijnen, O. (2014). De APA-richtlijnen: Over literatuurverwijzingen en onderzoeksrapportage [The APA guidelines: On citing literature and reporting on research]. Bussum: Coutinho. {{ apastyle.org {{ theapateam.blogspot.nl/ {{ mtroyal.ca/library/files/citation/apa.pdf

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Appendix C Sample literature review

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Appendix C

Can human beings remain omnivorous? A comparison of the environmental impact of an omnivorous diet versus a vegetarian diet

Name

Student number

X

Course

Academic writing skills (BSc, semester 1, year 1)

Lecturer

Y

Number of words

2,138

Date

Z

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Background to research

Abstract With the growing global population, demand for food is rising. With this, consumption of meat will rise. This literature review investigates the environmental impact of a vegetarian diet in comparison with an omnivorous diet. In doing so, we first look at the impact of the different diets on land use. Subsequently, we consider the impact on water use. Diverse scientific sources show that more land is used and more deforestation occurs to produce food for an omnivorous diet than for a vegetarian diet. The research cited also suggests that the water footprint for an omnivorous diet is larger than that of a vegetarian diet. A change in human consumption behaviour is therefore needed, should we want to minimize the impact on the environment.

Main question Sub-questions Method (literature research) and main conclusions

Important discussion point

= structural elements

= signalling words

= writing style

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Broad, attractively written opening

Introduction For over two million years, human beings have been eating animal and plant products (Gibbons, 2007). With the rise in the world’s population comes the question of whether human beings can allow themselves to remain omnivorous, or whether we should shift to a vegetarian diet in order to save the environment. The global population is currently growing by an average of 81 million people per year. In July 2013 there were 7.2 billion people in the world, 648 million more than in 2005. Even if the fertility rate keeps falling, by 2050 the world population will probably have reached 9.6 billion (United Nations, 2013). With the increase in the world’s population, demand for food is also growing. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in the coming decades the production of basic foodstuffs will have to rise by 60% in order to meet the anticipated demand for food (FAO, 2013). This production will affect the environment. For example, a lot of water is needed to grow tomatoes, processing potatoes requires high amounts of energy, and cattle farming is a major cause of eutrophication (Foster et al., 2006). In 2013, global meat production grew by 1.4% to 308.2 million tons (FAO, 2013). Animal feed is needed in order to produce meat. This feed, such as soya or grain, has to be cultivated, and this has consequences for the environment. The impact is greater than it would be if we were to eat the soya or grain instead of the meat, for not all of the energy from this process goes into producing cattle. A number of kilos of soya or grain is needed in order to produce a kilo of meat. Changing our diet could therefore help to reduce the impact on the environment. That a non-vegetarian diet has a greater impact on the environment than a vegetarian diet is stated by Marlow et al. (2009), for instance, in one of a growing number of articles on this subject. In this literature review, we seek to answer the question: what is the difference in the environmental impact of a vegetarian versus an omnivorous diet? In order to answer this question, we look successively at the consequences for land-use and water-use.

Sub-question 2

Main question

Socially relevant research

Example Summary Short sentences Explanation + background info for important concepts (meat production, animal feed, energy value)

Social relevance

(increasing number of publications on this)

Sub-question 1

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Cattle farming, soya production and land-use Introduction to section

In this section, we seek to answer the following sub-question: what are the consequences for land-use of a vegetarian diet compared with those of an omnivorous diet? We do so by considering the impact of both diets according to a life-cycle analysis (LCA) applied to land-use. Subsequently, to illustrate this impact, we discuss the situation in Brazil. A lot of meat needs to be produced in order to meet the rising demand for food (FAO, 2013). The cattle industry needs land for meat production, whether for grazing cattle or for fields in which to cultivate cattle feed. This, in turn, has consequences for land-use. In their research on the environmental impact of various diets, Baroni, Cenci, Tettamanti and Berati (2006) used the LCA method. The LCA is a method whereby the environmental impact of a particular product (or combination of products) is established by looking at the whole life cycle, from raw material to waste (Agentschap NL, n.d.). They do this by considering various diets, including a diet containing meat and a vegetarian diet. The daily number of calories provided by the diets is almost identical. In addition, a distinction is made with respect to production: for both diets, the authors looked at the difference between the environmental impact of conventional and organic farming.

Jargon is avoided

This research shows that when the same production method is used, a diet containing meat has the greatest impact on land-use (Baroni et al., 2006). Around 1.5 times more land is needed to produce the average omnivorous organic diet than to produce a vegetarian organic diet. According to Baroni et al. (2006), the great impact of an omnivorous diet is largely due to the land that is needed to cultivate cattle feed and for grazing. In their book People of the tropical rain forest, Denslow and Padoch (1988, cited in Baroni et al., 2006) refer to the link between the increasing use of land for cattle farming and deforestation. Forests are cleared to cultivate enough agricultural land, and in dry regions intensive agriculture can even lead to desertification (Christopherson & Birkeland, 2013).

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Brazil is a good example of a country where deforestation is taking place for the cattle industry. In his research into the environmental impact of soya cultivation in Brazil, Fearnside (2001) states that ‘Soybeans represent a recent and powerful threat to the biodiversity in Brazil’ (p.23). This soya is mostly exported to countries in Europe, where the soya is used as cattle feed. Many natural reserves are being lost to soya cultivation, including the Cerrado, grasslands and the rain forests (Fearnside, 2001). In addition, major infrastructural development has taken place in order to transport the soya. The building of infrastructure in combination with the change in land-use for plantations also has consequences for the soil. Soil degradation in the form of erosion is a major problem in Brazil, according to Fearnside (2001). Here we should mention that most, but not all, soya is used as cattle feed. Part of the soya is used for soya products that are consumed directly by humans.

Statement

Own comment

Most researchers agree that deforestation and soil degradation are taking place in Brazil, but they do not agree that soya plantations are the main cause of this. Barona, Ramankutty, Hyman and Coomes (2010) investigated the role played by the expansion of the number of cattle farms in deforestation in Brazil. They compared the number of cattle farms with the link between deforestation and the expansion of the number of soya plantations between 2000 and 2006. From this, they concluded that the deforestation was primarily a result of cattle farming. It is the case, though, that part of the grazing land for cattle has had to make way for soya plantations, and the cattle farms have therefore had to shift to the rain forests. It is clear that consuming a diet containing meat has more impact on land-use than a vegetarian diet. The case of Brazil illustrates the consequences that the cattle farming industry has for land-use. Whether caused by the expansion of agricultural land for soya cultivation or the expansion of grazing land for cattle, both are a consequence of growing meat consumption. In addition to land-use, food production also has an impact on water-use, and this will be discussed in the following section.

Conclusion

Sub-conclusion of section

Link to next section

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Section 2

Sub-question 2

Water use

Sub-questions

Antithesis Consequence Accurate comparison Antithesis

In this section, we seek to answer the following sub-question: what are the consequences for water-use of a vegetarian diet compared with those of an omnivorous diet? We do so by comparing the differences in water-use for the production of meat and vegetables. Subsequently, we cite research into the water footprint of a soya burger and an equivalent product as an example of the impact on water-use. The world’s supply of fresh water is decreasing per head of the population, and this decrease has been linked to the global food shortage, among other things (Pimentel & Pimentel, 1993, cited in Baroni et al., 2006). Although Baroni et al. (2006) do not show how a vegetarian diet impacts water-use in comparison with an omnivorous diet in their results, they do mention this as an important factor. The World Watch Institute (2004, cited in Baroni et al., 2006) investigated fresh water consumption worldwide. This research shows that 70% of all fresh water is used in cattle farming and agriculture, as opposed to just 22% by industry. It is mainly the cultivation of crops used for cattle feed that uses a lot of water. As a result, much more water is needed to produce a kilogram of meat than a kilogram of vegetables. Renault and Wallender (2000) investigated the quantity of water that is used to produce different sorts of feed. Their research shows that 4.3 m3 (4,300 litres) of water is needed to produce a kilogram of chicken or pork, whereas just 0.15 m3 (150 litres) of water is needed to produce a kilogram of vegetables. In the research by Ercin, Aldaya and Hoesktra (2012), the water footprint is considered. In this footprint they include not only the water used in the entire production process, but also water pollution (Hoekstra & Mekonnen, 2012). Ercin et al. (2012) investigated the water footprint of a soya burger compared with that of a beef burger. The research considered every part of the production of the two burgers, each weighing 150 grams. The researchers not only looked at the footprint of the burgers’ ingredients, but also, for example, at packaging material. In addition, the researchers looked at total water consumption for the water footprint: both surface and ground water and rain water, as well as the volume of water needed to bring contaminated water back to an acceptable norm. The research shows that the water footprint of a soya burger is much smaller than that of a beef burger. The water footprint of a beef burger is 14 times larger than that of its vegetarian substitute.

Example

Degree of probability Antithesis

The above suggests that a vegetarian diet has a somewhat smaller impact on the fresh water supply than a diet containing meat. Whether one considers agriculture alone or the entire production chain makes little difference: the production of meat has a much larger impact on water-use than the production of vegetables or meat substitutes.

Sub-conclusion

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Appendix C

Answer to main question

Conclusion and discussion The cited sources seem to support the claim that there are differences in the environmental impact of a diet containing meat and a non-meat diet. The consequences for land-use are greater for an omnivorous diet than for a vegetarian diet. This is due to the amount of land that is needed for the cattle farming industry, both for the cultivation of cattle feed and as a habitat for cattle. The consequences for water-use are also greater when a diet containing meat is consumed. Much more water is needed to produce meat than to produce vegetables or meat substitutes. A vegetarian diet thus appears to have a smaller negative impact on the environment. For this research, we chose to analyse particular regions (Brazil) and particular products (soya burgers). Although it is theoretically possible that completely different conclusions could be drawn for other regions and for other products, this appears unlikely. Cattle will always need feed and a habitat, and a number of kilos of plant material will always be needed to produce a single kilo of meat, because the conversion will never be 100% efficient. The environment consists of more components than land and water, of course. In this research, we chose to look only at land-use and water-use, but food production also has other environmental effects. For example, this includes greenhouse gas emissions, the contamination of soil, air and water, the use of natural resources, substances that are harmful to human health and the use of energy. These could be considered in future research. There is also a third option, besides a diet containing meat and a vegetarian diet: that of a vegan diet. After all, certain animal products are included in a vegetarian diet, such as eggs and milk. Cattle farming is still needed to produce these, though to a lesser degree. Baroni et al. (2006) did consider this diet, and their research does indeed suggest that a vegan diet would be even better for the environment. Instead of adjusting our own consumption behaviour, it would also be possible to make changes to cattle feed. Elferink, Nonhebel and Moll (2008) have researched the possibility of using waste as cattle feed. This would reduce the environmental impact of meat somewhat, and would be another interesting direction to explore in future research.

Answer to sub-questions Cause

Conclusion Concession Degree of probability Reasons Antithesis Limitations of the research. This mainly adds nuance to the main and sub-questions, or at least puts conclusions in context.

Suggestions for further research

It is clear that as the world’s population grows, we will no longer be able to keep consuming in our present fashion. This does not mean that we will have to stop eating meat altogether. If we want to minimize our impact on the environment, though, meat consumption per head will have to fall. Can human beings remain omnivorous? For the time being, we can, but in moderation.

Short, snappy conclusion with an attractive ending and a link back to the beginning

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Bibliography Agentschap NL. (n.d.). Levens Cyclus Analyse (LCA). Retrieved on 17 November 2013 from http://www.agentschapnl.nl/onderwerpen/duurzaam-ondernemen/ starten-met-duurzaam-ondernemen/duurzaam-productontwerp/levens-cyclus-analyse Barona, E., Ramankutty, N., Hyman, G. & Coomes, O.T. (2010). The role of pasture

Citation: research article

and soybean in deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon. Environmental Research Letters, 5(2), 1-9. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/2/024002 Baroni, L., Cenci, L., Tettamanti, M. & Berati, M. (2006). Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61(2), 279-286. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522

Citation: book

Christoperhson, R.W. & Birkeland, G. (2013). Elemental geosystems. Glenview: Pearson Education, Inc. Elferink, E.V., Nonhebel, S. & Moll, H.C. (2008). Feeding livestock residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16(12), 1227-1233. doi:10.1016/j/clepro.2007.06.008 Ercin, A.E., Aldaya, M.M. & Hoekstra, A.Y. (2012). The water footprint of soy milk and soy burger and equivalent animal products. Ecological Indicators, 18, 392-402. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.12.009 Fearnside, P.M. (2001). Soybean cultivation as a threat to the environment in Brazil. Environmental Conservation, 28(1), 23-38. Retrieved from https://faculty.washington. edu/jhannah/geog270auto7/readings/GreenGeneRevolutions/Fearnside%20-%20 SoyabeanCultivationThreatEnvironment.pdf

Citation: report

Food and Agriculture Organization. (2013). The state of food and agriculture 2013. Retrieved from http://fao.org/docrep/018/i33ooe/i33ooe.pdf Foster, C., Green, K., Bleda, M., Dewick, P., Evans, B., Flynn, A. & Myland, J. (2007). Environmental impacts of food production and consumption: A report to the Department for Environmental Food and Rural Affairs. London: Manchester Business School.

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Appendix C

Gibbons, A. (2007). Food for thought. Science, 316 (5831), 1558-1560. Hoekstra, A.Y. & Mekonnen, M.M. (2012). The water footprint of humanity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(9), 3232-3237. doi:10.1073/ pnas.1109936109 Marlow, H.J., Hayes, W.K., Soret, S., Carter, R.L., Schwab, E.R. & Sabaté, J. (2009). Diet and the environment: Does what you eat matter? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1699S-1703S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736Z Renault, D. & Wallender, W.W. (2000). Nutritional water productivity and diets: From ‘Crop per drop’ towards ‘Nutrition per drop.’ Agricultural Water Management, 45, 275-296. United Nations (2013). World population prospects: The 2012 revision, highlights and advance tables. Retrieved on 17 November 2013 from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/ Documentation/pdf/WPP2012_HIGHLIGHTS.pdf

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About the authors

Joris J.W. Buis works at the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies at the University of Amsterdam. He lectures on academic skills for the Bachelor’s programme in Future Planet Studies, among other things. [email protected] Ger Post works at the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies at the University of Amsterdam. He lectures on academic skills for the Master’s programme on Brain and Cognitive Sciences, among other things. [email protected] Vincent R. Visser worked at the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies at the University of Amsterdam until 2016. He lectured on academic skills for the combined interdisciplinary Bachelor’s programme. Currently he is employed at PBLQ consultancy. [email protected] About the University of Amsterdam

The University of Amsterdam (UvA) provides academic training in all areas of science and scholarship, and welcomes students and staff – from all backgrounds, cultures and faiths – who wish to devote their talents to the development and transfer of academic knowledge as a rich cultural resource and foundation for sustainable progress. About the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies

The Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (IIS) is the UvA’s knowledge centre for interdisciplinary learning and teaching. It develops new courses in collaboration with the faculties. The IIS has more than fifteen years’ experience in interdisciplinary education and continuously develops substantive education innovations with an interdisciplinary character. The institute identifies new themes and issues linked to current developments in academia and society. Over 3,000 students study at the IIS. The IIS offers a number of interdisciplinary study programmes along with a wide range of electives (minors, honours modules and various public events) for students from any faculty, staff and members of the public. All its activities are interdisciplinary in nature and are designed in collaboration with one or more faculties.

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About the teaching lab

The IIS also functions as a teaching lab where experiments, publications, workshops, guides and methods for interdisciplinary education are shared. The institute specializes in: - Teaching development and interdisciplinary education. - Curriculum development and accompanying organizational developments. - The development of professional interdisciplinary teaching skills. Contact

Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies Science Park 904 1098 XH Amsterdam Tel. +31 20 525 51 90 www.iis.uva.nl E-mail: [email protected]

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