INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES AND MODELS Volume II A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory 9780805828597

Table of contents :
Cover
Instructional-Design Theories and Models
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Unit 1: About Instructional-Design Theory
1. What Is Instructional-Design Theory and How Is It Changing?
2. Some Thoughts About Theories, Perfection, and Instruction
Unit 2: Fostering Cognitive Development
3. Cognitive Education and the Cognitive Domain
4. Multiple Approaches to Understanding
5. Teaching and Learning for Understanding
6. Open Learning Environments: Foundations, Methods, and Models
7. Designing Instruction for Constructivist Learning
8. Learning by Doing
9. Toward the Development of Flexibly Adaptive Instructional Designs
10. Designing Constructivist Learning Environments
11. Collaborative Problem Solving
12 .Learning Communities in Classrooms: A Reconceptualization of Educational Practice
13. A Design Theory for Classroom Instruction in Self-Regulated Learning?
14. Systematically Using Powerful Learning Environments to Accelerate the Learning of Disadvantaged Students in Grades 4-8
15. Landamatics Instructional-Design Theory for Teaching General Methods of Thinking
16. Integrated Thematic Instruction: From Brain Research to Application
17. Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT): Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects
18. The Elaboration Theory: Guidance for Scope and Sequence Decisions
Unit 3: Fostering Psychomotor Development
19. The Development of Physical Skills: Instruction in the Psychomotor Domain
Unit 4: Fostering Affective Development
20. Affective Education and the Affective Domain: Implications for Instructional-Design Theories and Models
21. Recapturing Education's Full Mission: Educating for Social, Ethical, and Intellectual Development
22. Self-Science: Emotional Intelligence for Children
23. Structured Design for Attitudinal Instruction
24. Character Education: The Cultivation of Virtue
25. Adolescent Spiritual Development: Stages and Strategies
Units 5: Reflections and Future Research
26. Formative Research: A Methodology for Creating and Improving Design Theories
27. Current Progress, Historical Perspective, and Some Tasks for the Future of Instructional Theory
Postscript
Author Index
Subject Index

Citation preview

INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES AND MODELS Volume II A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory

ASLI PDF, MINAT HUB [email protected]

INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES AND MODELS Volume II A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory

Edited by Charles M. Reigeluth Indiana University

O Routledge S^^

Taylor & Francis Group

NEW YORK AND LONDON

Copyright © 1999 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. First published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, NJ 07430 Reprinted 2009 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue New York, NY 10017 2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon Oxl4 4RN Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Main entry under title: Instructional-design theories and models. Bibliography: p. Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-8058-2859-7

/ dedicate this book to my loving wife, Maitena, who has understandingly endured the countless days that this book has stolen from our relationship, I further dedicate this book to our three children, Jennifer, Mikel, and Kevin, with the hope that it will in some small way help to improve learning for them and their children. —C.M.R.

Contents

UNIT 1 ABOUT INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN

1 THEORY

1 . What Is Instructional-Design Theory and How Is It Changing? Charles M. Reigeluth 2 . Some Thoughts About Theories, Perfection, and Instruction Glenn E. Snelbecker

UNIT 2 FOSTERING COGNITIVE

5

31

49 DEVELOPMENT

3 . Cognitive Education and the Cognitive Domain Charles M. Reigeluth & Julie Moore

57

4 . Multiple Approaches to Understanding Howard Gardner

69

5. Teaching and Learning for Understanding David N. Perkins & Chris Unger

91

6 . Open Learning Environments: Foundations, Methods, and Models Michael Hannafin, Susan Land, & Kevin Oliver

115

v

CONTENTS

Designing Instruction for Constructivist Learning Richard H. Mayer

141

Learning by Doing Roger C. Schank, Tamara R. Berman, & KimberliA. Macpherson

161

Toward the Development of Flexibly Adaptive Instructional Designs Daniel Schwartz, Xiaodong Lin, Sean Brophy, & John D. Bransford

183

Designing Constructivist Learning Environments David Jonassen

275

Collaborative Problem Solving Laurie Miller Nelson

241

Learning Communities in Classrooms: A Reconceptualization of Educational Practice Katerine Bielaczyc & Allan Collins

269

A Design Theory for Classroom Instruction in Self-Regulated Learning? Lyn Corno & Judi Randi

293

Systematically Using Powerful Learning Environments to Accelerate the Learning of Disadvantaged Students in Grades 4-8 Stanley Pogrow

379

Landamatics Instructional-Design Theory for Teaching General Methods of Thinking Lev N. Landa

341

Integrated Thematic Instruction: From Brain Research to Application Susan Jafferies Kovalik with Jane Rasp McGeehan

377

CONTENTS

vii

1 7 . Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT): Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects M. David Merrill

397

1 8 . The Elaboration Theory: Guidance for Scope and Sequence Decisions Charles M. Reigeluth

425

UNIT 3 FOSTERING PSYCHOMOTOR

455 DEVELOPMENT

1 9 . The Development of Physical Skills: Instruction in the Psychomotor Domain Alexander Romiszowski

UNIT 4 FOSTERING AFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT

457

483

2 0 . Affective Education and the Affective Domain: Implications for Instructional-Design Theories and Models Barbara L Martin & Charles M. Reigeluth

485

2 1 . Recapturing Education's Full Mission: Educating for Social, Ethical, and Intellectual Development Catherine Lewis, Marilyn Watson, & Eric Schaps

511

2 2 . Self-Science: Emotional Intelligence for Children Karen Stone-McCown & Ann Hathaway McCormick

537

2 3 . Structured Design for Attitudinal Instruction Thomas F. Kamradt & Elizabeth J. Kamradt

563

2 4 . Character Education: The Cultivation of Virtue Thomas Lickona

591

2 5 . Adolescent Spiritual Development: Stages and Strategies Joseph Moore

613

CONTENTS

UNITS REFLECTIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

631

Formative Research: A Methodology for Creating and Improving Design Theories Charles M. Reigeluth & Theodore W. Frick

633

Current Progress, Historical Perspective, and Some Tasks for the Future of Instructional Theory Glenn E. Snelbecker

653

Postscript

675

Author Index

677

Subject Index

687

Preface How to help people learn better. That is what instructional theory is all about. It de­ scribes a variety of methods of instruction (different ways of facilitating human learning and development), and when to use—and not use—each of those methods. Volume I of Instructional-Design Theories and Models provided a "snapshot in time" of the status of instructional theory in the early 1980's. But the nature of in­ structional theory has changed dramatically since then, partly in response to differ­ ent needs in educational and training environments, partly in response to advances in knowledge about the human brain and learning theory, partly due to a change in educational philosophies and beliefs, and partly in response to advances in infor­ mation technologies, which have made new methods of instruction both possible and necessary—necessary to take advantage of the new instructional capabilities offered by the technologies. These changes are so dramatic that many argue they constitute a new paradigm of instruction, which requires a new paradigm of instruc­ tional theory. In short, there is a need for a Volume II of Instructional-Design Theories and Models, to provide a concise summary of a broad sampling of the new methods of instruction currently under development, but also to help show the interrelation­ ships among these diverse theories and to highlight current issues and trends in in­ structional design. To attain this broad sampling of methods and theories, and to make this book more useful for practitioners as well as graduate students interested in education and training, this volume contains twice as many chapters, but each half as long, as the ones in Volume I, and the descriptions are generally less techni­ cal than in Volume I. Because this volume contains a lot of theories to understand and compare, I have tried to make this task easier for the reader by preparing a rather unconventional kind of chapter foreword that summarizes the major elements of each instructional-design theory. Hopefully, these forewords will be as useful for reviewing and comparing the­ ories after you have read them, as they will for previewing a theory to decide whether or not it interests you and developing a general schema that will make it easier to un­ derstand. Furthermore, the editor's notes, which are also rather unconventional for an edited volume, will hopefully help you in this task of understanding and comparing the theories. Finally, Units 2 and 4 both have introductory chapters that are intended to help you analyze and understand the theories in those units.

ix

X

PREFACE

Unit 1 describes what instructional-design theory is like, the ways it is changing, and why. It also discusses current issues and trends in instructional-design theory. I strongly recommend reading the two chapters in this unit before reading any of the theory chapters. Unit 2 provides concise summaries of a broad sampling of new in­ structional-design theories (methods and when to use them), currently under devel­ opment in the cognitive domain; Unit 3 provides the same for one highly integrative theory in the psychomotor domain, and Unit 4 provides the same for five theories in the affective domain. Finally, Unit 5 provides a general discussion of the various the­ ories presented in Units 2 and 4, and a research methodology for further developing this emerging knowledge base about the new paradigm of instruction. I hope you will enjoy exploring these fascinating new approaches to fostering hu­ man learning and development. They have helped me greatly to think "outside the box" about ways to better meet the needs of learners in all kinds of learning contexts. —C.M.R.

Unit FOREWORD

About Instructional-Design The0r

y

This unit has two chapters that are intended to help the reader analyze and under­ stand: • The nature of the theories in this book. • The ways this new paradigm of instructional-design theory differs from the previous paradigm. • Some issues about instructional-design theories that are of interest to re­ searchers and some of interest to practitioners. I strongly recommend reading these two chapters prior to reading any of the the­ ory chapters. In this volume, I use the term "design theory" in place of "prescriptive theory," which was used in Volume I as the alternative to descriptive theory. This change is because the connotations of "prescription" are those of rigidity and inflexibility, which are inaccurate conceptions of most instructional-design theories, especially in the new paradigm. This change also makes the term "instructional-design the­ ory" more obviously a kind of design theory. In addition, many people use the term "instructional theory" with the same meaning as instructional-design theory. Therefore, I have sometimes done the same in this volume for the sake of brevity. This unit introduces you to many of the issues that are addressed throughout this volume. The following questions represent some of the more important of those issues. • What are the key characteristics of the new paradigm of instruction? • What is an instructional theory, and how does it differ from learning theory and instructional systems development (ISD) processes? • What role should values about instruction play in the design of instruction? 1

2

UNIT 1

• To what extent should instructional theory and curriculum theory be inte­ grated? • To what extent should instruction address all three domains—cognitive, psychomotor, and affective (thinking, doing, and feeling)—in an integrated manner? • To what extent should a diversity of methods be offered to practitioners, as opposed to methods from a single theoretical perspective? • How much flexibility should an instructional theory offer to practitioners? • How much detail should an instructional theory offer in its guidance to prac­ titioners? • To what extent should culture or climate of the learning environment be a method in an instructional theory? • What role do methods of motivating students play in the new paradigm of instruction? • What role do student self-regulation and reflection on learning play in the new paradigm of instruction? • What should student assessment be like for the new paradigm of instruction? • What is systemic thinking, and to what extent is it important to designing and implementing a new paradigm of instruction? • How does "either-or" thinking relate to the new paradigm of instructional theory? • What additional kinds of learning are dealt with by the new paradigm of in­ structional theory? • How are the roles of teachers and students different in the new paradigm of instruction? And what are the implications of those new roles for pre-service and in-service professional development of teachers? These questions are addressed to some extent in chapters 1 and 2, but for the most part they remain for you to answer as you read through the theories in Units 2-4. The editor's notes throughout the theory chapters should help you to keep those questions in mind and consider some answers that have occurred to me. Furthermore, a few of these questions were addressed in Unit 1 of Volume 1 (Reigeluth, 1983), so you might find it helpful to look at those three chapters, especially chapter 1. One of the themes in this volume is that cognitive, affective, and behavioral (psychomotor) development are inextricably linked. Nonetheless, ways of foster­ ing development (i.e., instructional methods) are often quite different for the cogni­ tive aspects of development than for the affective aspects. It is important to understand both the differences and the interrelatedness of these domains of human learning and development. Another theme has to do with interrelatedness on a broader scale. Curriculum theory and instructional theory are interrelated. Instructional theory, learning the­ ory, and the ISD process (development theory) are interrelated. The different do-

UNIT 1

3

mains of learning are interrelated, and within each of these domains, the different subject areas are interrelated, thematically and in other ways. Interrelationships be­ tween instruction and such other areas as student motivation and assessment are also powerful. Learning is related to (influenced by) the climate or culture within which it occurs. Furthermore, other aspects (or subsystems) of the educational sys­ tem can have powerful influences on the success of implementation of the new par­ adigm of instruction in a school, such as the administrative system, the professional development system, the record-keeping system, the technological support system, the transportation system, and so forth (and the similar influences exist in corporate training settings). Systems thinking (see, e.g., Boulding, 1985; Checkland, 1981; Hutchins, 1995; Senge, 1990) and chaos theory (Gleick, 1987; Prigogine & Stengers, 1984) provide powerful tools for identifying and understanding the inter­ relationships that are likely to impact practitioners' ability to successfully imple­ ment the new paradigm of instructional theory as well as theorists' ability to successfully build comprehensive instructional theory. Some useful applications of systems thinking to education have been published by Banathy (1991, 1996), Fullan (1993), Jenlink (1995), Reigeluth and Garfinkle (1994), and Schlechty (1990). Given the extent to which interrelationships are important to the new para­ digm of instruction, you may find it useful to explore the tools provided by systems thinking and chaos theory. —C.M.R.

REFERENCES Banathy, B. H. (1991). Systems design of education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Banathy, B. H. (1996). Designing social systems in a changing world. New York: Plenum Press. Boulding, K. E. (1985). The world as a total system. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Checkland, P. (1981). Systems thinking, systems practice. Chichester, NY: Wiley. Fullan, M. (1993). Change forces. London: The Falmer Press. Gleick, J. (1987). Chaos. New York: Vilroy. Hutchins, C. L. (1995). Systems thinking. Jenlink, P. M. (1995). Systemic change: Touchstones for the future school. Palatine, IL: Skylight Training and Publishing, Inc. Prigogine, I., & Stengers, I. (1984). Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature. Boulder, CO: New Science Library. Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.); (1983). Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reigeluth, C. M., & Garfinkle, R. J. (1994). Systemic change in education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Edu­ cational Technology Publications. Schlechty, P. C. (1990). Schools for the 21st century: Leadership imperatives for educational reform. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Senge, P. (1990). Thefifthdiscipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.

1

What Is Instructional-Design Theory and How Is It Changing? Charles M. Reigeluth Indiana University

The purpose of this chapter is to provide some ideas that will help you analyze and understand the instructional-design theories presented in this book. First, we will explore what an instructional-design theory is. This will include a discussion of the role that values play in instructional-design theories and a discussion of what an in­ structional-design theory is not. In the second half of the chapter, we will explore the need for a new paradigm of instructional-design theory. In particular, we will look at the need for a paradigm of training and education in which the learner is at the top of the organizational chart rather than the bottom. Then we will look at the implications that such a paradigm has for instructional-design theory, including the extent to which some of the design decisions should perhaps be made by the learn­ ers while they are learning. WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY? An instructional-design theory is a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop. The kinds of learning and development may include cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual. For example, in Smart Schools, Perkins describes an instructional-design theory, called "Theory One," which offers the following guidance for what the instruction should include to fos­ ter cognitive learning. The instruction should provide: • Clear information. Descriptions and examples of the goals, knowledge needed, and the performances expected. Sections of this chapter are excerpted or adapted from Reigeluth, C. M. (1996). A new paradigm of ISD? Educational Technology, 36(3), 13-20, with permission of the publisher.

5

6

REIGELUTH

• Thoughtful practice. Opportunity for learners to engage actively and reflec­ tively whatever is to be learned—adding numbers, solving word problems, writing essays. • Informative feedback. Clear, thorough counsel to learners about their perfor­ mance, helping them to proceed more effectively. • Strong intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. Activities that are amply rewarded, either because they are very interesting and engaging in themselves or be­ cause they feed into other achievements that concern the learner (Perkins, 1992, p. 45). This is an instructional-design theory. Of course, Perkins elaborates on each of these guidelines in his book, but this overview provides a good example of what an instructional-design theory is like. So what are the major characteristics that all in­ structional-design theories have in common? First, unlike more familiar kinds of theories, instructional-design theory is design-oriented (focusing on means to attain given goals for learning or develop­ ment), rather than description oriented (focusing on the results of given events). In the case of Theory One, the goal is to enhance learning "for any performance we want to teach" (p. 45). Being design oriented makes a theory more directly useful to educators, because it provides direct guidance on how to achieve their goals. Second, instructional-design theory identifies methods of instruction (ways to support and facilitate learning) and the situations in which those methods should and should not be used. In the case of Theory One, the methods (at this general level of description) are: clear information, thoughtful practice, informative feedback, and strong motivators. Perkins goes on to say, "Good teaching demands different methods for different occasions" (p. 53), and he describes how Theory One can un­ derlie each of Adler's (1982) three different ways of teaching: didactic instruction, coaching, and Socratic teaching. Third, in all instructional-design theories, the methods of instruction can be bro­ ken into more detailed component methods, which provide more guidance to edu­ cators. In the case of Theory One, Perkins provides considerable information about components for each of the four basic methods. For example, within the didactic framework, Perkins describes some of the components for clear information, based on Leinhardt's (1989) research: • • • • •

identification of goals for the students; monitoring and signaling processes toward the goals; giving abundant examples of the concepts treated; demonstration; linkage of new concepts to old ones through identification of familiar, ex­ panded, and new elements; • legitimizing a new concept or procedure by means of principles the students already know, cross-checks among representations, and compelling logic (Perkins, 1992, pp. 53-54).

1.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY

7

And fourth, the methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic, which means they increase the chances of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attain­ ment of the goals. In the case of Theory One, "Giving abundant examples of the concepts treated" will not ensure that the goals for the students will be attained. But, it will increase the probability that they will be attained. So, instructional-design theories are design oriented, they describe methods of instruction and the situations in which those methods should be used, the methods can be broken into simpler component methods, and the methods are probabilistic. Each of these characteristics of instructional-design theories is described in more detail next. Design-Oriented Theories An important characteristic of instructional-design theories is that they are design oriented (or goal oriented). This makes them very different from what most people usually think of as theories. Theories can be thought of as dealing with cause-and-effect relationships or with flows of events in natural processes, keeping in mind that those effects or events are almost always probabilistic (i.e., the cause increases the chances of the stated effect occurring) rather than deterministic (i.e., the cause always results in the stated effect). Most people think of theories as de­ scriptive in nature, meaning that the theory describes the effects that occur when a given class of causal events occurs, or meaning that it describes the sequence in which certain events occur. For example, information-processing theory is descrip­ tive. Among other things, it says that new information enters short-term memory before it enters long-term memory. It doesn't tell you how to facilitate learning. De­ scriptive theories can be used for prediction (given a causal event, predict what ef­ fect it will have; or, given one event in a process, predict what event will likely occur next) or for explanation (given an effect that has occurred, explain what must have caused it or preceded it). But design-oriented theories are very different from descriptive theories (see e.g., Cronbach & Suppes, 1969; Simon, 1969; Snelbecker, 1974; Reigeluth, 1983b, which is chapter 1 in Volume 1 of this book). Design theories are prescriptive in na­ ture, in the sense that they offer guidelines as to what method(s) to use to best attain a given goal. (They are not usually prescriptive in the sense of spelling out in great detail exactly what must be done and allowing no variation. Prescription in that sense only applies to deterministic—or positivistic—theories, which are almost nonexistent in the social sciences.) For example, if you want to help long-term re­ tention of some new information to occur (an instructional goal), you should help the learner to relate that information to relevant prior knowledge (an instructional method). Simon (1969) referred to the distinction between descriptive theories and design theories as "the natural sciences" and "the sciences of the artificial," respectively. Cronbach and Suppes (1969) referred to it as "conclusion-oriented inquiry" and

8

REIGELUTH

"decision-oriented inquiry." Whatever you choose to call them, they are very dif­ ferent kinds of theories that have very different purposes and require very different kinds of research. Design theories are intended to provide direct guidance to practi­ tioners about what methods to use to attain different goals, whereas descriptive the­ ories attempt to provide a deeper understanding of effects that result from phenomena. Therefore, descriptive theories are also useful to practitioners, be­ cause they provide an understanding of why a design theory works and because they can help practitioners to generate their own design theories for those many sit­ uations for which no adequate ones exist. The major concern for people developing and testing descriptive theories is validity, whereas for design theories, it is preferability (i.e., does this method attain your goals for your situation better than any other known method?). This is why design theories require different research meth­ odologies from descriptive theories (see chap. 26, this volume, for a description of a methodology for advancing design theories).

Methods and Situations Instructional-design theory requires at least two components: methods for facilitat­ ing human learning and development (which are also called methods of instruc­ tion), and indications as to when and when not to use those methods (which I call situations). Although the term "context," has a similar meaning in lay language and is often used in education, not all aspects of the context influence what methods should be used. Therefore, I use the term "situation" to refer to those aspects of the context that do influence selection of methods. An essential feature of instruc­ tional-design theories is that the methods they offer are situational rather than uni­ versal. In other words, one method may work best in one situation, while another may work best in a different situation. There are two major aspects of any instructional situation (see Fig. 1.1): the con­ ditions under which the instruction will take place and the desired outcomes of the instruction. Instructional conditions, which should not be confused with Gagne's conditions of learning, include: • the nature of what is to be learned (e.g., understandings are learned differ­ ently from the way skills are learned); • the nature of the learner (e.g., prior knowledge, learning strategies, and moti­ vations); • the nature of the learning environment (e.g., independently at home, in a group of 26 students at school, in a small team in a business); and • the nature of the instructional development constraints (e.g., how much time and money you have for planning and developing the instruction). All of these conditions may influence which methods will work best to attain your desired outcomes. Gagne's internal conditions of learning fall within the sec-

1.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY

9

InstructionalDesign Theory

I

Situations ]

Methods

7

Instructional Conditions

Desired Outcomes

1

i

Effect- 1 1 Effic- 1 Appeal [ iveness j [ iency j

FIG. 1.1.

i Learning

i Learner

i

i

i

Learning Devel. | Environ.) | Constr.

The components of instructional-design theories.

ond item above (the nature of the learner), so they are instructional conditions; but his external conditions of learning are actually instructional methods, not instruc­ tional conditions. The second major aspect of any instructional situation is the desired instructional outcomes.l These are different from learning goals. They do not include the specific learnings that are desired. Remember, the first item for conditions (see the previous bulleted list) was "the nature of what is to be learned." Instead, desired in­ structional outcomes include the levels of effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal you want or need from the instruction. • Level of effectiveness is a matter of how well the instruction works, as indi­ cated by how well (to what degree of proficiency) the learning goals are at­ tained. The desired instructional outcomes are not concerned with what the learning goals are, but with how well they are achieved. The term "criterion" is often used to refer to the level of effectiveness. An example is correctly solving 8 out of 10 real-world problems that require the use of a+b1 = c2 in a right triangle. • Level of efficiency is the level of effectiveness of the instruction divided by the time and/or cost of the instruction. An example is how long it takes stu-

'As Landa (1983) indicated in Volume I, descriptive instructional theory (as opposed to instruc­ tional-design theory) is concerned with actual outcomes, rather than with desired outcomes. See also, chapter 1 of Volume I (Reigeluth, 1983b) for a discussion of the difference between desired and ac­ tual outcomes.

10

REIGELUTH

dents to reach the criterion mentioned above: correctly solving 8 out of 10 real-world problems that require the use of a+b2 = c2 in a right triangle. • Level of appeal is the extent to which the learners enjoy the instruction. An example is students asking where they could learn more about a topic. Some trade-offs are often necessary among the three desired outcomes (effec­ tiveness, efficiency, and appeal). The more effective you want the instruction to be, the more time and expense it may require, making it less efficient. And sometimes the more appealing (motivational) you want the instruction to be, the less efficient it will be. In this book, the instructional-design theories (see Units 2 and 3) explicitly state the situations for which their methods are recommended.

Component Methods So, instructional-design theories are design oriented; they have methods, which are situational; and they specify the situations (instructional conditions and desired outcomes) for which the methods are appropriate or inappropriate. Their methods are also componential, meaning that each can be done in different ways and is there­ fore made up of different components (or features). For example, problem-based learning (PBL) can be viewed as a method of instruction. But PBL is made up of many smaller methods, such as presenting the problem and the scenario in which it occurs, forming teams, providing support for the teams' efforts, reflecting on the re­ sults of the individuals' and teams' efforts, and so forth. These are parts of the more general method. In addition, there are usually many different ways in which a method can be per­ formed. The problem can be presented in different ways, the scenario can have dif­ ferent kinds of characteristics, and so forth. These are kinds of their more general method. Sometimes one of those kinds is better than the others (better for a given set of conditions and desired outcomes), but sometimes they are equally efficacious. Often, it depends on the situation. Finally, more detail can be provided for a method by offering criteria that the method should meet. These are neither parts nor kinds of the more general method; rather they indicate specifications that the method should meet. For example, real­ ism might be specified as a criterion for designing the scenario in problem-based learning. It should be apparent all of these components2 (whether they are parts, kinds, or criteria) can usually be broken down into more detailed guidelines; in other words, they usually have subcomponents, which in turn can have subsubcomponents, and so

2 I use the term "components" even though that is often viewed as synonymous with "parts," because the three kinds of "break-downs" (parts, kinds, and criteria) comprise, or are contained in, the more general method.

1.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY

11

forth, down to what have been called "elementary components" (components that for practical purposes have insignificant variation and therefore are not usefully ana­ lyzed into their components; see the Landa and Scandura theories in Volume I: Reigeluth, 1983a). Of course, those components are highly interrelated and usually highly situational in their effects on attaining the desired outcomes. An instruc­ tional-design theory is much simpler and easier to understand if it describes methods on a relatively general level. In other words, in a diagram that breaks the methods down into components and then breaks those components into their components, the general methods are those higher up in the diagram. But such a simple theory is also less useful to educators, because there are so many different ways that those methods can be performed, and educators have no guidance about which way (or ways) is (are) likely to work best for their situations. Therefore, an instructional-design theory is easier to apply if it describes methods on a relatively detailed level. So, instructional-design theories can vary greatly in terms of the level of guid­ ance they provide, ranging from very general theories to highly detailed theories. But just because a theory is detailed does not mean it is not flexible, in the sense of being adaptable to different situations. In the present book, the authors have only enough space to summarize their respective theories, so the level of guidance pro­ vided herein may be much lower than what the same authors have given elsewhere. In such cases, the authors provide references to their more thorough works, so read­ ers can find additional guidance for using their methods.

Probabilistic Methods Another characteristic of methods of instruction is that they are probabilistic. This means that methods do not guarantee the desired instructional and learning out­ comes. They only increase the probability that the desired results will occur. This is because there are so many factors (situation, variables) that influence how well a method of instruction works. It is probably impossible to develop an instructional method that will work better than any other method 100% of the time, in the situa­ tions for which it is intended. But the goal of an instructional-design theory is to at­ tain the highest possible probability of the desired results (which often include cost-effectiveness) occurring. It would be nice if instructional-design theories could specify probabilities for each method component, but those probabilities likely differ for different situations and differ depending on what other method components are being used with them (an "interaction effect"). This makes it difficult to specify probabilities for each method in anything less than an electronic performance support system, though the theorist would still have the formidable problem of empirically determining or vali­ dating all the probabilities for all the qualitatively different situations. So, unfortu­ nately, probabilities are rarely included in instructional-design theories.

12

REIGELUTH

Values A major implication of design theory's goal (or design) orientation and emphasis on preferability of methods for attaining its goals is that values play an important role for design theories, whereas any talk of values for descriptive theories is usually consid­ ered unscientific. Values (or philosophy, if you prefer) are especially important to de­ sign theory in two ways. First, they play an important role in deciding what goals to pursue. Traditionally, instructional-design process models (see the "Instruc­ tional-Design Process" section below) have relied solely on needs-analysis tech­ niques (a data-based approach) to decide what to teach. We need greater recognition of the important role that values play in such decisions, and instructional-design pro­ cess models need to offer guidance on how to help all people who have a stake in the instruction reach consensus on such values. Second, for any given goal, there is al­ most always more than one method that can be used to attain it. Traditionally, instruc­ tional-design process models have relied primarily on research data about which methods work best. But which methods work best depends on what criteria you use to judge the methods. Those criteria reflect your values. In this book, all the instruc­ tional-design theories (see Units 2-4) state explicitly what values guide their selec­ tion of goals and what values guide their selection of methods. So, instructional-design theories are design oriented, and they offer methods which are situational, componential, and probabilistic. They identify the situations for which the methods should be used. They also identify the values that underlie the goals they pursue and the methods they offer to attain those goals. So what kinds of things do not constitute instructional-design theories, but are often confused with such theories? WHAT IS NOT AN INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY? To understand what instructional-design theory is, it is helpful to contrast it with what it is not. It differs in important ways from learning theory, instructional-design process, and curriculum theory. But instructional-design theory is also closely related to each of these, and it is important for teachers and instruc­ tional designers to know about them. Each of them is discussed in what follows. Learning Theory Learning theories are often confused with instructional-design theories. But learn­ ing theories are descriptive. They describe how learning occurs. For example, one kind of learning theory, called schema theory, proposes that new knowledge is ac­ quired by accretion into an existing schema, by tuning that schema when minor in­ consistencies emerge, and by restructuring that schema when major inconsistencies arise (Rummelhart & Norman, 1978). But how does that under­ standing help me to teach, say, English grammar? If I'm creative and have a lot of

1.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY

13

time, I may be able to develop instructional methods that facilitate accretion, tun­ ing, and restructuring of schemata. But it is very difficult, and I may completely miss the mark. If I'm successful in identifying useful methods for particular situa­ tions, I've created an instructional-design theory. It may only apply to a very nar­ row slice of situations, but those methods and situations comprise an instructional-design theory. In contrast to learning theories, instructional-design theories are more directly and easily applied to educational problems, for they describe specific events out­ side of the learner that facilitate learning (i.e., methods of instruction), rather than describing what goes on inside a learner's head when learning occurs. The same kind of analysis applies to theories of human development. They are descriptive and apply only indirectly to teaching (fostering learning and development of all sorts). Nevertheless, that does not mean that theories of learning and human develop­ ment are not useful to educators. As Winn (1997) put it, "any successful practitioner or researcher needs to be thoroughly versed in at least the immediately underlying discipline to his or her own. A good instructional designer knows [theories of learn­ ing and human development]" (p. 37). Indeed, learning and developmental theories are useful for understanding why an instructional-design theory works, and, in ar­ eas where no instructional-design theories exist, they can help an educator to invent new methods or select known instructional methods that might work. So, instructional-design theories and theories of learning and human develop­ ment are both important, and, like a house and its foundation, they are closely re­ lated. In fact, they are often so closely related that several of the theories in Units 2-4 provide some discussion of learning theory as well as instructional-design the­ ory (see, e.g., chap. 7 in which Mayer has a section on the "SOI Model of Learning" as well as on the "Instructional Methods Suggested by the SOI Model"). But these kinds of theories also differ from each other in important ways, and it is difficult to adequately understand how to facilitate learning without understanding the differ­ ences between them.

Instructional-Design Process Another thing that isn't instructional-design theory is the instructional-design pro­ cess. Instructional-design theory concerns what the instruction should be like (i.e., what methods of instruction should be used) not what process a teacher or instruc­ tional designer should use to plan and prepare for the instruction. Other common terms that characterize this distinction are instructional theory, instructional model, and instructional strategies to represent instructional-design theory; and instruc­ tional development (ID) model or instructional systems development (ISD) process to represent instructional-design process. However, instructional-design theories and instructional-design processes are also closely related. Different theories require differences in the process used to ap­ ply those theories to particular situations. Therefore, some of the chapters in Units

14

REIGELUTH

2-4 of this book contain brief summaries of the new aspects of the design process that are necessary to use their theory; for example, in chapter 23 Kamradt and Kamradt talk about "attitudinal needs analysis." Curriculum Theory In Volume I of this book (Reigeluth, 1983a), I discussed the distinction between what to teach and how to teach; and I indicated that decisions about what to teach have been viewed as the province of curriculum theories, whereas decisions about how to teach have been the province of instructional-design theories. However, the interrelationships between these two kinds of decisions are so strong that it often makes sense to combine the two. And, in fact, many curriculum theories have of­ fered guidance for methods of instruction, while many instructional-design theo­ ries have offered guidance for what to teach. Therefore, although it is helpful to recognize the difference between deciding what to teach and how to teach it, some of the theories presented in Units 2 and 3 appropriately address both, for example, chapter 4, in which Gardner talks about "Topics Worth Understanding" as well as about ways of fostering understanding. A fundamental question concerns bases for making decisions about what to teach and how to teach. Regarding what to teach (goals), the ISD process has tradi­ tionally looked only at what works, through the process of needs analysis, as I men­ tioned in the section on "Values" earlier. But many curriculum theories are based on a philosophy (a set of values). In fact, both empirics (data about what is needed) and values (opinions about what is important) are relevant and should be addressed in the ISD process for deciding what to teach, perhaps with different degrees of em­ phasis for different situations. Similarly, regarding decisions about how to teach (what methods to use), instructional-design theories have traditionally relied exclu­ sively on data obtained through research, summative evaluations, and formative evaluations, typically assuming that the criteria used to judge "what works" are uni­ versal (indisputable). But they aren't. Criteria often differ from one situation to an­ other, because people differ in their values about what outcomes are important. Thus, both values and empirics are important for making decisions about how to teach as well as what to teach, so elements of curriculum theory and the ISD process should be combined. In this chapter, we have already explored what an instructional-design theory is. It is design oriented (or goal oriented), offering guidelines about what methods to use in what situations. Its methods are componential, offering varying levels of guidance for educators. The methods are also probabilistic, not always fostering the desired results. And we have seen that values play an important role in an instruc­ tional-design theory in that they underlie both the goals it pursues and the methods it offers to attain those goals. We have also explored what an instructional-design

710

SUBJECT INDEX

low, 617-618 Self-explanations, 146 Self-growth retreats, 620 Self-image, see Self-esteem Self-regulated learners, teachers as, 310-311 Self-regulation, 103n, 166n, 191rc, 201n, 658 collaborative problem solving and, 248, 250 communities of learners and, 215n general methods of thinking and, 365 group members', 252, 256 in Integrated Thematic Instruction environments, 382 open learning environments and, 120 overview of, 269-297 of teachers, 298-299, 309-310, 553 teaching/learning, 301-309 Self-science, 661 learning goals, 544-545, 546/-547/ overview of, 542-544 teaching class structures, 551-553 ground rules, 553-554 preconditions for success, 559-560 questioning techniques, 554-555 teaching techniques, 555-558 varying for age levels, 558-559 trumpet process, 545, 546-551 values of, 545, 551 Self-Science: The Subject is Me, 542 Self-talk, 478 Self-worth, 496 Semantic networks, 227 Seminar, 22/ 23/ Sequence of actions, 419,470-471,472 Sequence strategies, 427-428, 428-429, 660 conditions for using, 430-431 elaboration sequencing conceptual, 437^39 conditions for using, 433-434 defined, 434, 435 domain expertise and, 437 task expertise and, 435-436 theoretical, 439-442 multiple-strand, 437, 444

psychomotor development, 467 scope and, 428-430 simplifying conditions method (SCM), 433, 434, 435, 442-444 design of, 445-451 types of, 431-433 Sex education, 609-610 Shared objectives, in communities of learners, 272 Sharing, see also under Collaboration headings Bible, 623 communities of learners and, 273, 274, 276, 280, 285, 286 self-science and, 545, 552 what is learned, 272 Sharing principle, 289 Signals, 154, 157 Significant knowledge key points, 389 Simplifying conditions method (SCM) sequencing, 433,434,435, 442-444 design of, 445-451 Simulation engines, 413,415-416 Simulations, 22/ 23/ 227, 404, 656, see also Learning by doing computer, 84 "Advise the President," 172-178 construedvist learning environments, 221-222 fidelity in, 476-477 live, 179-180 self-science, 556 Simultanization, of mental operations, 353 Situated cognition, 488 Situations & situationalities, 6, 8-10, 222n, 252n Skill, in problem-solving transfer, 147-148 Skill development, cognitive, 66 Skill key points, 389 Skills affective development component, 493/ 494, 496 psychomotor, see Psychomotor skills relationship between methods and, 346 -347 Skills-mastery model, 468 Skills schema, 462-463

SUBJECT INDEX Skinner, B. F , 663 Small groups, see Groups, small Smart Schools (Perkins), 5 SMART (Scientific and Mathematical Arenas for Refining Thinking), 190-191 Smart Tools, STAR LEGACY, 201-202 Social-constructivism, see Constructivism Social development affective dimension, 493/ 494 in caring communities of learners, 517-518 through reading, 520-521 Social entry point, 82 Social experiments, self-science and, 556 Social interactions, 657 in constructivist learning, 152 Social learning techniques, 274 Social skills, 254 Social studies, student misconceptions in, 75 Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration, 668 Socratic conversations, 22/ HOTS and, 324-325, 332-336 (passim) Socratic teaching, 6 Software Technology for Action and Reflection LEGACY, see STAR LEGACY SOI model, 64, 148-156, 157, 656 Spectrum of Teaching Styles, 668 Spectrum of Teaching Styles: From Command to Discovery (Mosston & Ashworth), 665 Speech, 22/1.3 Spiral curriculum, 437, 440 Spiral sequencing, 432-433, 438, 442, 490 Spiritual development, 661-662 affective dimension, 493/ 494/ 495 overview of, 616-617 strategies illuminative stage, 621-625 for public schools & agencies, 628-629 purgative stage, 617-621 unitive stage, 625-628 Spiritual direction & modeling, 624-625

711

Spiritual guides, 619 Spirituality, affective construct of, 490, 491,492 Staff development, see Teacher development Standardized instruction, 17-18, 19, 27 Stanislavski's school method of acting, 103 STAR LEGACY, 57-58, 188, 657 assessment of, 207-211 components of, 191-203 learning cycles, 189, 190-191 overview of, 189-190 progressing deepening, 201, 203, 205-206 reflection and legacies, 206-207 Statements, adjunct, 152-153 Static modeling tools, 227-228 Static resources, 126-127 ErgoMotion, 135 Stella, 227 "Stones River Mystery, The," 191 Stories, 30In case-based reasoning, 224 constructivist learning environments, 221 goal-based scenarios, 174-175, 177 used in HOTS, 333-334, 337 Strategic scaffolding, 131/, 133-134 ErgoMotion, 137-138 Strategy, instructional, 400, 401-402 Strategy instruction, 297, 298f Strategy skills, 462 Structural-dependence principle, 288 Structure continuum, 66, 67 Student-centered learning, 486 Student interaction, see Interactions for learning Student journals, 558, 624 Student misconceptions, 75, 95 Student motivation, see Motivation Student-teacher relationships alternative, 248-249 communities of learners and, 275, 281 HOTS and, 335 Student Teams-Achievement Divisions, 245

712

SUBJECT INDEX

Students, see also Learners assessment of STAR LEGACY, 210-211 focus on, 313-314 new, in self-science classrooms, 554 Subordinate relationships, 438,442 Substance abuse intervention programs, 502-503 Subsystems, 3 Success, attribution of, 156 Suggestology, 478 Summary, 153 SuperMath, 322, 326, 335, 336-338, 658 Superordinate relationships, 438, 442 Supersystems, changes of, 16-17, 27 Supplanting task performances, 235-236 Support for learning, 55/, 64-65 Support for transfer, 590 Synchronous communication tools, 128f, 130-131 Synthesis Bloom's taxonomy, 55,152f HOTS and, 333, 334 Synthetical conventional stage, 618-619, 621 Systemic change, 16 Systemic thinking, 3, 1 lOn, 274, 315

T Tactic knowledge, 311 Tailored instruction, see Customized instruction Talents, 278 Target attitudes, 584, 585 Task analysis, 222 hierarchical sequencing, 443/ instructional theories, 665 SCM sequencing, 434,443/ Task expertise, 435-436,442 Task representation tools, 226 Task restructuring, 235-236 Tasks adjusting difficulty of, 235 closed/open, 462 complex cognitive, 433, 435 consequential, 278, 279, 285

heuristic compared with procedural, 247, 435,443-444 identifying, in group learning, 262 integrating performers &, 475-478 practicing, see Practice Taxonomies affective, 490-492 hierarchical, 490 need for development of, 667-668 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom), 54-55, 147, 152f, 391, 466, 490, 669 Teacher centered learning, 58-60 Teacher development, 283, see also Teacher professional learning TfU and patterns of, 109-110 traditional, 298, 299, 313 Teacher interests, generative topics and, 101 Teacher professional learning, see also Collaborative innovation; Teacher development components of, 312-314 overview of, 298-300 Teacher roles/characteristics character education and, 601-602 collaborative problem solving and, 249, 250 communities of learners and, 275, 281 DOTT (duties of the teacher), 688 self-science and, 552-553, 559-560 when teaching self-regulation, 306-307 Teacher-student relationships, see Student-teacher relationships Teachers assessment of STAR LEGACY, 207-208 decision making for, 505-507 experiential learning for, 300-301 as innovators, 309, 311, 312-313 as learners, 310-312 motivation of, 300, 313 principles of teacher learning, 312-314 as researchers, 298 self-regulation of, 298-299, 309-311, 553 social/contextual support for, 230 values of, 504

SUBJECT INDEX Teaching, see also Instruction; Teaching models questioning techniques, 554-555 team, 551 what to teach vs. how to teach, 14, lOOn Teaching, Learning, and Technology Roundtable, 672 Teaching for understanding (TfU), 76-77, 94, see also Understanding application of, 99-100 compared with other views, 98-99 flexibility of, 108-109 framework of, 108r generative topics, 60, 98, 100-102 ongoing assessment, 98, 106-107 understanding goals, 98, 102-104 understanding performances, 98, 104-105 impact of students' conception of understanding, 111-112 impact of students' understanding, 110-111 patterns of teacher development, 109-110 purposes and values of, 94-96 Teaching for Understanding (Wiske), 94 Teaching models classification of, 668 historical, 665 Team building activities, 254, 259 Team project, 22/ Team-teaching, 551 Technical fidelity, 476 Technology, 87-88, see also Computer-assisted instruction (CAI); Computers how to use, 335 instructional, 19, 664, 669-672 Teenagers Encounter Christ, 626 Telementors, 275, 283 "Tell, show, and do," 307n Temperament, see Personality & temperament Temperance, 598 Test Your Mettle, STAR LEGACY, 200-203 Testing, formative role of, 20In Tests, categories of, 144, 147

713

Text-based messages, 152-153 Textbooks, 152-153, 157 Thematic instruction, \03n Thematic Investigator, 124f, 125 Theoretical domain expertise, 437 Theoretical elaboration sequences, 439-442 Theoretical knowledge structures, 437 Theories, see also under Individual theory added value of, 44-45 competing, 32, 36-38, 42,44, 45 design and, 338-339 emergence of new, 43-44 expectations of, 40-44, 45-46 as guidelines, 31-32 Theorists, perspective/expectations of instructional-design theory, 33-35 Theory, defined, 33 Theory-building scaffolds, 277 Theory integration, 32-33,45 psychotherapy, 39-40, 668 "Theory One," 5-7 Think-pair-share, 245 Think tank/brainstorm, 22/ Thinking-in-content, 336-338 Thinking-in-context, 324, 326 Thoroughness, of data collection/analysis, 647-648 Thoughtful practice, 6 Threats absence of, 381, 382 to attitudinal transfer, 590 Throughlines, 103 Time, adequate, 381,390 Title I students, 321, 322, 340 control group in HOTS study, 325-326 learning-needs of, 327 uniform approach to teaching, 329 Tolman, Edward, 662 Tools cognitive knowledge-construction, 225-226 conversation & collaboration, 228-230 information gathering, 228 open learning environments, 120, 121, 128-131, 136 performance support, 228 problem/task representation, 226

714

SUBJECT INDEX

static/dynamic modeling, 223, 227-228 Topic oriented, 60 Topical sequencing, 431-432, 438, 442 Topics core concepts and, 83-86 generative, 60, 98, 100-102, 276, 288 "Toward the Delineation of Therapeutic Change Principles" (Goldfried), 39 Traditional instruction failure to teach general methods of thinking, 347-348 shortcomings of, 165-166, 169, 272-273,290,315,574 Training and education, see Education and training Training devices, fidelity in, 476-477 "Training Youth to Reach Youth" (Strommen), 621 Transaction shells, see Instructional transaction shells Transactions, instructional, see Instructional transactions Transfer, 171, 191, see also Problem-solving transfer attitudinal, 590 enabling, 156 general methods of thinking and, 365 psychomotor development and, 467, 469, 474-475 using HOTS, 325 Transfer tests, 144, 147 Transition, attitudinal, 585 Triggers, 411-413 Trouble-shooting, practicing, 405-406, 409^10,416 Trumpet process, 545-551 Trust building, 254, 552-553 Truth, objective, 594-595 Truth in advertising, 40 Tutorials, 22/ 23/ Two-sided encounter, 587-588 Tyler, Ralph, 664 Type of learning, see Learning types

U Underlining, 152-153, 157

Understand relationships, 54, 57, 72 Understanding, 72, 94, 655-656 articulation and, 347 conceptual, 247 depth-of, 276, 280, 283, 390 developing, 324—327, 329, see also Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) formative, 121 goals, 98, 102-103, 102-104 holistic, of domain expertise, 433,437 Integrated Thematic Instruction and, 375, 390 interpretations of, 96-97 lack of, 323-324 learning for, 96-98, 104, 111-112 multiple intelligences and, 77-81, 655 analogies, 82-83 core concepts, 83-85 entry points, 81-82, 86, 199 obstacles and opportunities, 74-77 performance view of, 73-74, 96-98 performances, 98, 104-105 performances of, 86-87, 97-98 preferable to memorization, 156 progressive, 191, 203, 205-206 teaching for, see Teaching for understanding understanding, 332-336 Understanding Up Front (Blythe and associates), 94 Uniform content reinforcement approaches, 329 Uniformity, 21 In Unitive stage, 625-628 Unschooled, 75 U.S. Commission on Instructional Technology, 669 Usability testing, 636 Use a generality, 53, 54 User-designers, 25, 26, 27 User-oriented ID, 25

V Validity, 8, 634 construct, 647 Value of research findings, 35-38

SUBJECT INDEX Value of theories, 35-38 Values, 12, 14,27 affective development component, 496 caring communities of learners and, 518,522 character education, 594-595 collaborative problem solving, 245-246 for democracy, 489 goal-based scenarios, 165-166 Integrated Thematic Instruction, 375 internalization, 490 knowledge construction approach, 156-157 moral/nonmoral, 596 open learning environments, 121-122 self-science, 545, 548/ 553-554 student participation in developing classroom, 526-527 understanding, 94-95 Values-Based Teaching Skills, 504 Values clarification, 596 Values education, 486,489, see also Character education Valuing (affective taxonomy), 490 Variable methods of instruction, 20, 21, 22/-23/ 125/1 Variable proportion, 571, 574 Verbal coding, 471 Verbal information, 53, 54 Verbatim, remember, 53, 54 Video, 221 Violence, affective curriculum for, 503-504 Virtual reality, 221 Virtues, see Character, content of; Character education; Moral development Visible Human database, 126

715

Visual representations, 191 Visual working memory, 148, 149 Visualization, 478 Visualization tools, 226

W Wagon Wheels, 519-520 Wansee Conference, 84 Weather Visualizer, 226 Web, see World Wide Web What is learned, 156-157 sharing, 272 What to teach, 14, lOOrc, 400 White space, 152, 157 Whole task method, 468/ 472 Will, in problem-solving transfer, 147-148 Will Our Children Have Faith (Westerhoff), 619 Worked-out examples, 155, 157, 232, 236 Working memory, 148, 149, 151 Workplace culture, 33-35 World Wide Web, 126, 130, 276, 283 group interaction, 658 information filtering & relevance, 225, 228 Writing, guided, 279, 280 Written discourse, 283-284

Y Yale-New Haven Social Competence Promotion Program, 504 Your God is Too Small (Phillips), 623

z Zone of proximal development, 66, 235, 311,435